F ttlEf*f*- m 
 
 ma 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 OK THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 THE 
 
THE 
 
 IMPERIAL GAZETTEER; 
 
 A GENERAL 
 
 DICTIONARY OP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
THE 
 
 IMPERIAL GAZETTEER; 
 
 A GENERAL 
 
 DICTIONARY OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 PHYSICAL, POLITICAL, STATISTICAL, AND DESCRIPTIVE, 
 
 COMPILED FROM THE LATEST AND BEST AUTHORITIES. 
 
 EDITED BY W. G. BLACKIE, PH.D., 
 
 FELLOW OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIKT1. 
 
 WITH SEVEN HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS, VIEWS, COSTUMES, MAPS, PLANS. &o. 
 
 VOLUME I. 
 
 BLACKIE AND SON: 
 
 FREDERICK STREET, GLASGOW; SOUTH COLLEGE STREET, EDINBURGH; 
 AND WARWICK SQUARE, LONDON. 
 
 MDCCCLVI. 
 

 GLASGOW : 
 V. I. UL&CKIK AND CO., PRIMEKS, 
 
5/02. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 " NEXT to a good Dictionary, the most generally useful book is a good GAZETTEER. At no time, 
 probably, was such a work more urgently wanted than now, when the relations of this country 
 with foreign parts have been so greatly extended, when the progress of British power and enter 
 prise has opened up so many new fields for scientific inquiry and commercial speculation, and 
 when so many large and interesting additions have been made to our geographical knowledge; 
 but which, being mostly confined to special, and often expensive works, and to the transactions 
 of learned societies, have not hitherto been accessible to the public generally." 
 
 Such were some of the reasons adduced in the Prospectus for commencing to publish the 
 IMPERIAL GAZETTEER, the first part of which was issued in July, 1850. Whatever value these 
 reasons may have possessed at that period, it has gone on increasing at a rapid ratio, until now, at 
 the close of the Work, the hostilities in which we are engaged with one of the mightiest 
 empires of the earth, impart an additional and intense stimulus to the acquirement of geographical 
 knowledge. 
 
 In concluding this undertaking, which has occupied the Editor s attention, more or less 
 closely, for the last eight years, little more remains than to indicate the plan upon which the 
 GAZETTEER has been written, and to note some particulars respecting its production. 
 
 A leading aim throughout has been to maintain a proper medium between those works which 
 give lengthy and elaborate articles, and consequently treat of a comparatively small number of places, 
 and those which, by giving very short meagre articles, often little better than registers of positions, 
 are enabled to include an immense number of places. While in the number of articles the 
 IMPERIAL GAZETTEER greatly exceeds works of the former, it does not fall much short of works 
 of the latter class; for, by a rigid exclusion of irrelevant matter, by carefully avoiding the repetition 
 of information in articles relating to the same subjects, though necessarily arranged under different 
 heads, and by adopting a concise style of writing, space has been found, generally speaking, to 
 notice all known towns, having not less than 1000 inhabitants, and many even of a smaller popu 
 lation, besides including the needful articles on countries, seas, lakes, rivers, mountain-ranges, &c. 
 
 To facilitate the labour of consultation, the Editor has endeavoured to construct all the 
 
 articles upon a uniform plan. In those on TOWNS, first the position is given, then a descrip- 
 
 b 
 
 229518 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 tion and enumeration of the principal buildings and institutions, followed by an account of the 
 manufactures and trade, and closed, where needful, with succinct historical notices; the popula 
 tion being always at the end. In the articles on COUNTRIES, first the position, boundaries, and 
 general features are noticed; then, in suitable detail, the mountains and valleys, lakes, rivers, 
 climate, natural products, manufactures, trade, people, manners and customs, language and literature, 
 government, army and navy, &c.; and, at the end, the chief facts in their history. All these 
 subjects, however, are not treated of under separate headings in the articles on every country; but, 
 where they are, they will be found generally to follow in the order above indicated, and where 
 they are not, the subjects at least will usually be found adverted to pretty much in the same sequence. 
 
 In fulfilment of the promise made in the Prospectus to consult, in the compilation, the most 
 recent and authentic works, both home and foreign, reference may with confidence be made to the 
 authorities quoted at the end of the articles. That these authorities have not been more uniformly 
 appended as the Work advanced, was owing wholly to the urgent demands upon the allotted space 
 by the accumulation of materials, and the fear of still further increasing the extent of the book. 
 Besides the use that has been made of several public libraries, a private library, extending to 
 nearly 2500 volumes, has been collected, exclusively for the compilation of the IMPERIAL 
 GAZETTEER, including works in French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese, German, Dutch, Danish, 
 and Swedish. 
 
 In countries whose languages are written in the Roman or Gothic character, the spelling 
 adopted of the names of places, i?, generally speaking, that used by the natives themselves. To 
 this rule, however, there are numerous and notable exceptions: thus, for instance, while there has 
 been no hesitation in writing Niirnberg for Nuremberg, Wiirtemberg for Wirtemberg, Nijmegen 
 for Nymwegen, Leipzig and Danzig for Leipsic and Dantzic, it was deemed inexpedient to write 
 Livorno for Leghorn, Torino for Turin, Firenze for Florence, &c., though in cases like these, where 
 an English name is used as the leading word in the article, the true native name is usually appended 
 in brackets. In countries, the languages of which are not written in the Roman or Gothic character, 
 the attainment of uniformity of spelling is impracticable. Linguists of the same country are not 
 at one as to the orthography of sounds, and those of different countries spell them according to 
 the canon of pronunciation of their native language ; thus the sound of sh in the English word 
 shall would, by a Frenchman, be written ch; by a German, sch; by an Italian, sci; by a Swede, 
 sk or sj, &c.j rendering a strict inquiry into the nationality of the writer necessary when interpreting 
 his orthography. 
 
 The Editor has much pleasure in acknowledging the valuable assistance he has received 
 from William Desborough Cooley, Esq., F.R.G.S., author of Inner Africa Laid Open, &c., &c.; 
 G. S. Brent, Esq., F.R.G.S.; Henry Beveridge, Esq., Advocate; Sir Robert H. Schomburgk, author 
 of Reisen in Guiana und am Orinoko, &c., British Consul in Santo Domingo; and without further 
 particularizing, his best thanks are cordially returned to those gentlemen, both in this country and 
 in foreign countries, who kindly revised the articles on the places of their residence or their 
 
PREFACE. vii 
 
 nativity, including many of the most important towns both at home and abroad; and to those very 
 numerous correspondents, in all parts of Scotland, England, and Ireland, who, by obligingly fur 
 nishing replies to the Schedule of Queries submitted to them respecting the place of their residence, 
 supplied an amount of accurate information that has greatly enhanced the value of the GAZETTEER. 
 
 The PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS, 567 in number, were selected by, and executed under the 
 superintendence of Mr. Robert Blackie, one of the Publishers. They are derived partly from 
 original drawings, but principally from engravings and expensive illustrated works ; the authorities 
 from which they are taken are given under the titles of the subjects. While these authorities 
 serve to authenticate the drawings, they also indicate where further illustrations of the same 
 localities are likely to be found; and by thus showing the great variety of sources from which the 
 views have been derived, give a slight idea of the extensive research undertaken in collecting 
 them, the entire series forming only a small selection from the large mass of materials and 
 authorities which have been accumulated and consulted for the purposes of illustration. Preference 
 having been given to views published in the countries to which they relate, as likely to be 
 the most authentic, works published in France, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Germany, Holland, 
 Belgium, Norway, Russia, Hungary, the United States, India, and the British Colonies, have 
 thus been bid under contribution. The small MAPS and PLANS, 172 in number, were drawn 
 and engraved by William Hughes, E.R.G.S., and reproduced for surface-printing by glypho- 
 graphy, of which art they furnish very successful specimens. 
 
 The Census of the population of the United Kingdom, in 1851, not having been fully issued 
 until the publication of the GAZETTEER was considerably advanced, the population of places in this 
 country, in letters A M, unless specially marked 1851, is given according to the Census of 1841 ; 
 iii letters O Z it is given according to the Census of 1851. But for the purpose of thoroughly 
 correcting the populations of all places in Great Britain and Ireland according to the Census of 
 1851, an APPENDIX has been added, furnishing an abstract of the population returns, not merely 
 of the places mentioned throughout the GAZETTEER, but of all the parishes in the three king 
 doms, and all the towns, townships, villages, and hamlets of 500 inhabitants and upwards, thus 
 giving the population of a multitude of places that could not, with propriety, be included in the 
 body of the Work. 
 
 In conclusion, the Editor indulges the hope that the IMPERIAL GAZETTEER will be deemed 
 no unimportant contribution to the collected geographical knowledge of the present day, and 
 that the efforts made to render it a Standard Work of Reference have not been altogether 
 without success. 
 
 W. G. BLACKIE. 
 GLASGOW, February, 1855. 
 
COMPANION TO THE "IMPERIAL DICTIONARY." 
 
 THE 
 
 IMPERIAL GAZETTEER; 
 
 A. GENERAL 
 
 DICTIONARY OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 f fogsitral, $alttttal, Statistical, airt fflesrnptt be. 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 COMPREHENSIVE ACCOUNTS 
 
 or THE 
 
 COUNTRIES, CITIES, PRINCIPAL TOWNS, VILLAGES, SEAS, LAKES, RIVERS, ISLANDS. 
 MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS, &c., IN THE WORLD. 
 
 COMPILED FROM THE LATEST AND BEST AUTHORITIES, 
 
 AND ILLUSTRATED WITH 
 
 VIEWS AND PLANS OF THE MORE REMARKABLE CITIES, PORTS, AND HARBOURS. 
 
 NEXT to a good Dictionary, the most generally useful book is a good GAZETTEER. At no time, 
 probably, was such a work more urgently wanted than now, when the relations of this country 
 with foreign parts have been so greatly extended, when the progress of British power and 
 enterprise has opened up so many new fields for scientific inquiry and commercial speculation, 
 and when so many large and interesting additions have been made to our geographical knowledge; 
 but which, being mostly confined to special, and often expensive works, and to the transactions of 
 learned societies, have not hitherto been accessible to the public generally. 
 
 It is under a due sense of the importance of these considerations, and with a view to supply 
 other desiderata which the lapse of time and the natural mutability of things have created, that 
 the Publishers have been induced to bring out the IMPERIAL GAZETTEER. 
 
 In compiling this Work, the most recent and authentic sources home and foreign from which 
 any thing new and interesting can be obtained, will be consulted ; and particular attention will 
 be paid to the Trade and Resources of the various places described ; and to the Social Condition, 
 Manners, Customs, &c., of the Inhabitants. Great care will also be bestowed on the Physical 
 Geography of Countries in the various departments of Geology, Hydrography, Climatology, 
 Botany, Zoology, &c., and much pains will be taken to attain accuracy in laying down geographical 
 positions and relative distances, by consulting the best and most recent maps, or by deducing 
 them from good written authorities. It will thus be understood that the IMPERIAL GAZETTEER 
 wiD not be compiled by merely remoulding old materials, but will be an entirely new and carefully 
 drawn up Work, adapted, in every respect, to the wants of the present day, by the information 
 being brought down to the latest possible period. 
 
Hitherto, most works of this kind have been compiled on one or other of two different, and, to 
 a certain extent, opposite plans ; the one being to give the greatest possible number of places, 
 with brief accounts of each ; the other, to give lengthy articles, with a more limited selection of 
 subjects. Both plans appear to be defective the one, from the meagreness of its details ; the 
 other, from the scantiness of its list of places; many localities of interest, and not a few of 
 importance, being in the latter case necessarily omitted. In the IMPERIAL GAZETTEER, an 
 attempt will be made to avoid both these defects, by terse writing, judicious compression, and a 
 rigid exclusion of irrelevant detail, and by dwelling only on the more prominent and interesting 
 features of the localities described. It is, consequently, not intended to present the reader with 
 lengthy wearisome treatises, but with concise readable articles, occupying a position between the 
 scientific and the popular, retaining the precision of the one without its abstruseness, and the interest 
 of the other without its vagueness. But it must be apparent that every place, the position of 
 which is known, cannot be given. This will be the more obvious when it is stated, that the 
 Ordnance map of one English county alone, Cornwall, contains 19,000 names; the Gazetteer of 
 Germany, 200,000; that of the Austrian States, a still larger number; that of Spain, about as 
 many ; and those of other European countries would yield proportionate numbers : so that, even 
 before leaving Europe, the list would be swollen out to far above a million of articles, the majority 
 of them necessarily so meagre, that the Work would be rendered little better than a dry, 
 voluminous, and costly INDEX. While, therefore, such a copious list of places will be given, 
 many of them made known to us for the first time by recent discovery, as it is hoped 
 will satisfy the great majority of readers, the general aim will be to famish interesting and 
 instructive articles, rather than mere registers of positions, containing no more information than 
 every intelligent person can himself obtain simply by inspecting a good map. By strictly 
 following out this plan, it is expected that the IMPERIAL GAZETTEER will be rendered quite an 
 attractive Work, not at all deserving the imputation frequently brought against Gazetteers, in 
 common with Dictionaries, that they are but " dry sort of reading." 
 
 In conclusion, it is hoped, by the adoption of a perspicuous arrangement of matter, and by 
 a clear and methodical treatment of subject, to render the IMPERIAL GAZETTEER a valuable work 
 of ready reference a concise repertory of new and interesting information. It will thus form a 
 most suitable companion to the " Imperial Dictionary," which has obtained so large a share of 
 public patronage, and to which, it is hoped, it will be found in every respect equal. 
 
 As no written description of a locality can give so accurate a conception of its features or position 
 as a plan or pictorial representation, this Work will be profusely illustrated with Engravings on 
 Wood printed in the text. These Illustrations will comprise Views of Cities and Towns; of 
 Remarkable Buildings, Antiquities, Natural Scenery, Costumes, Plans of Ports and Harbours, and 
 small Maps showing River Mouths, Islands, and Island Groups, &c., on an enlarged scale. They 
 will be at least SEVEN HUNDRED in number, and will be derived from the most authentic sources. 
 
 BLACKIE & SOX: GLASGOW, EDINBURGH, AND LONDON. 
 
HINTS 
 
 TO FACILITATE THE CONSULTATION OF THE GAZETTEER. 
 
 ac. . . 
 
 arrond. 
 bail. . 
 bor. . 
 can. . 
 cap. . 
 co. . 
 com. . 
 
 dep. . 
 dist. . 
 E. . 
 Fah. . 
 
 ( arrondisse 
 ( ment. 
 . bailiwick. 
 
 . borough. 
 . canton. 
 
 . capital. 
 . county. 
 
 . commune 
 
 5 depart- 
 ( raent. 
 
 . district. 
 . East. 
 
 ( Fahren- 
 
 1 heit. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 ft. ... feet. 
 
 ( geographi- 
 geo. sq. m. J cal square 
 
 gov. 
 bun. 
 isl. 
 lat. . 
 I. . 
 Ion.. 
 
 N. . 
 
 par. 
 jparl. 
 
 MARKED LETTERS. 
 
 The subjoined marked letters, used in the names of various 
 foreign places, should be sounded as follows : 
 
 a in German, Swedish, and Danish names, as a in fate. 
 o in German, Swedish, and Danish names, as eu in the 
 
 French word pen. 
 
 There is no equivalent for tins sound in English. It is common, how 
 ever, in Scotch, and is the same as oo in smoor, or m in muir, puir. 
 it in German, Swedish, and Danish names, similar to the 
 
 French u. 
 
 The same remark applies to this as to o. The sound is a sort of com 
 pound between that of 8 and e, as in me. 
 
 a in Swedish names, nearly like oa in boat. 
 
 n in Spanish names, as French gn, or resembling n-ny, as 
 
 Banos, pronounce Ean-nyos. 
 
 c in French, Spanish, and Portuguese names, as c soft 
 So in PortuguesCj something resembling oung. 
 
 DISTANCES, MEASURES, HEIGHTS, POSITIONS, &c. 
 
 Distances are given in British statute miles, and are to be 
 understood as direct, unless otherwise expressed ; having all 
 been carefully measured on the best maps. 
 
 The area of countries, islands, &c., is given in square 
 statute miles, unless explicitly stated to be in geographical 
 miles. In smaller tracts, as counties, the area is given in 
 imperial acres. 
 
 All foreign monies, weights, and measures, are reduced to 
 British staniards. 
 
 Degrees of heat are expressed according to Fahrenheit s 
 thermometer. 
 
 Soundings, in the small maps of ports and roadsteads, are 
 in fathoms. 
 
 Longitudes are always E. or W. from Greenwich. 
 
 For latitudes and longitudes, three special authorities have 
 been consulted, besides maps, namely : 
 
 Tables of Maritime Positions, in The Practice of Naviga 
 tion and Nautical Astronomy, by Henry Raper, Lieut. 
 _ R.N. London, 1849. 
 
 Verzeichniss Geographischer Ortsbestimmungen nach den 
 neusten Quellen, mit Angabe derselben, von C.L., v. 
 Littrow. Leipzig, 1844; Wien, 1845. 
 
 priii 
 
 &c., par Ph. J." Coulier. Paris, 1828. 
 Generally speaking, a preference has been given to the 
 tables of Raper and Littrow ; but wherever a position has been 
 taken from any of the three works, it is indicated by the 
 letter (n.), (L.), or (c.), following the longitude. Very many 
 positions, however, have no distinctive letter attached to 
 them. These are either not to be found in any of the Tables 
 above referred to, or, for some special reason, it has been 
 
 deemed better to give them on the authority of the traveller 
 or navigator from whom the information on the locality has 
 been derived ; unless, indeed, which is frequently the case, 
 the only authority for them be the map. 
 
 1 statute mile =: 1760 yds. 
 
 1 geo. mile = 2025J yds. 
 
 1 sq. mile = 640 acres. 
 
 1 <<eo. sq. mile = 1-324 sq. statute miles. 
 
 10 geo. sq. miles = 13 2-tO or 13i nearly. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 The orthography of foreign names, as printed in English, is 
 proverbially irregular. In the case of European countries 
 having languages written in Roman or Gothic characters, this 
 irregularity arises from two causes adopting the name of a 
 locality in one country through the medium of the language 
 of another ; for instance, Mayence, the French form, in place 
 of Mentz, the usual English form, or Mainz, the correct 
 German form, of the well-known town of that name on the 
 Rhine ; and, likewise, from the writer not being acquainted 
 with the language of the country in which the locality indi 
 cated is situated. As regards countries whose languages arc 
 not written in Roman or Gothic characters, the difference of 
 orthography has in a great measure arisen from the arbitrary 
 methods adopted to produce the desiderated sounds a point 
 on which even distinguished linguists are at variance. Here 
 also, as in the former case, still further irregularity is pro 
 duced, by adopting the names of localities in such countries 
 through the medium of some foreign continental language ; 
 for instance, Jidda is frequently written according to the 
 French form, Djidda ; Jebel, in the same way, becomes Djebel ; 
 and the sound represented in English by oo in moon, or u in 
 bull, invariably becomes ou in names adopted from French 
 authorities. 
 
 The result of all this confusion necessarily is, that the 
 Gazetteer is often consulted in vain, in consequence of the 
 name being looked for under a different spelling from that 
 which has been adopted by the compiler. 
 
 To assist the inquirer, as far as possible, in finding his way 
 out of this orthographical labyrinth, a list is subjoined of the 
 interchangeable letters and combinations of letters of most 
 frequent occurrence. It will, therefore, be understood, that 
 when a name in which any one of the following letters, or 
 combinations of letters, occurs, is sought for in the Gazetteer. 
 and not found, that it should be looked for under each, or all, 
 of the other combinations, before it is presumed that it has 
 been omitted : 
 
 x, j, g, In Spanish names, are frequently used for each 
 other; as Xerez for Jerez, Alaguela for Alajuela, 
 Guadalaxara for Guadalajara, and vice versa. 
 
 Letters are sometimes doubled in words ; as Arriege for 
 Ariege, Afghanistan for Afghanistan. 
 
 ou, u, and oo, are frequently used in writing the same name ; 
 as Soudan, Sudan, Soodan; or Moultan, Multan, Mooltan. 
 
 tch, and tsch, is used for ch, sounded as in church; as 
 Tchang for Chang. 
 
 c is very frequently used for , and vice versa; as Callund- 
 borg for Kallundborg. 
 
 Hi, for Ic. 
 
 sch, for sh. f 
 
 y, for i, and vice versa. 
 
 Dj, for./; as Djebel for Jebel. 
 
 "When the name of a place is composed of two words, it 
 will usually be found under the most important and distinc 
 tive of the two. Thus, St. Andrews, will be found under 
 Andrews (St.), and not under St. Andrews. The same rule, 
 with exceptions of course, holds good of names beginning with 
 Cape, Port. San, and Santo, the latter two bring the same as 
 

 
 HINTS TO FACILITATE THE CONSULTATION OF THE GAZETTEER. 
 
 
 the English Saint. In consulting the Gazetteer, it will be well 
 to observe, that if the place be not found registered under the 
 
 Bad . . . German . . . 
 
 bath. 
 
 
 one word of the name, to look for it under the other ; for 
 
 Bahr . . Arabic . . . 
 
 sea, river. 
 
 
 instance. Port Essington, if not found under Essington, look 
 
 Bid, or Bally Celtic .... 
 
 town. 
 
 
 under Port, and rice versa; Cape of Good Hope, if not found 
 
 Bash . . Turkish . . . 
 Ben . . . Celtic 
 
 head, 
 hill. 
 
 
 under Cape, look under Good Hope, and if not there, look 
 
 Berg . . German . . . 
 
 hill. 
 
 
 under Hope. 
 
 Bir . . . Arabic . . . 
 
 welL 
 
 
 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 Bouronn.or) T ,- , 
 
 
 
 Numerous requests have been made, that the pronunciation 
 of the names of places in the Imperial Qaaettcer should be 
 
 Bouruu \ Turhsh 
 Burg . . German . . . 
 Cerro . . Spanish . 
 
 cape, 
 castle. 
 rugged hill. 
 
 
 given. This would, indeed, have been a very useful addition 
 
 Chan . . Chinese . . . 
 
 mountain. 
 
 
 to the work, and, under this impression, it has been carefully 
 
 a chLT A \ Chinese 
 
 middle. 
 
 
 considered. The difficulties, however, which stand in the 
 
 l>iiung ) 
 Cidade . . Portuguese 
 
 city. 
 
 
 way of carrying out a scheme of pronunciation to anything 
 
 Citta . . Italian . . . 
 
 city, town. 
 
 
 like a satisfactory result, have been found insuperable. Some 
 of these are sufficiently obvious. 
 There are two ways of pronouncing foreign names : 
 1. According to the idiom of the English language. 
 
 Ciudad . . Spanish . . . 
 Cruz . . Spanish . . . 
 Dagh . . Persian . . . 
 
 city, 
 cross, 
 a mountain, or mountain range. 
 
 valley. 
 
 
 2. According to the idiom of the language to which they 
 
 V 1 
 
 Dun . . Celtic .... 
 El. al, . . Arabic . . . 
 
 fort, 
 the, or a. 
 
 
 belong. 
 
 Eski Turkish 
 
 old 
 
 
 If the first be adopted, who is to decide in what way a word 
 is to be pronounced ? The sounds of the English vowels are 
 so various and uncertain, that the same name might, with 
 perfect propriety, be sounded several ways, and yet each be 
 
 Feld . . German . . . 
 Fjeld.or Field Danish . . . 
 
 "fid"}*"** " I 
 Gebirge . German . . . 
 
 field, 
 mountain, a ridge of mountains. 
 ia gulf, or narrow land-locked 
 inlet or arm of the sea. 
 mountain range. 
 
 
 in strict accordance with the canon of English pronunciation. 
 For example, take Altenkirchen, the name of several places in 
 
 Ghaut . . Hindoo . . .- 
 
 ia mountain pass, landing place, 
 flight of steps on the side of a 
 
 
 Prussia, Bavaria, Nassau, and Oldenburg. The name means 
 
 f , , , .. . 
 
 
 
 old churches, and might be pronounced with the a as in 
 
 Grande -j "and portiic ue se \ 
 
 great. 
 
 
 fate, the i as in pine, and the ch as in church; or the a might 
 
 Ho ... Chinese . . . 
 
 river, canal. 
 
 
 be as in father, the i as in pin, and the ch as in chord; or the 
 
 Hoch . . German . . . 
 Hinter . . Gentian 
 
 high, 
 back. 
 
 
 a might be as in wall, and the e, in either case, as in me or in 
 
 Hissar . . Turkish . . . 
 
 castle. 
 
 
 met, or one way in alten and another in kirchen. The German 
 pronunciation would be a as in wall, e as in met, i as in pin, 
 
 Iskele . . Turkish . . . 
 Jebel . . Arabic . . . 
 
 landing place, 
 mountain, or range of mountai as. 
 
 
 and ch as in the Scotch word loch, there being no sound 
 
 K n r i Turkish . . . 
 
 castle. 
 
 
 equivalent to it in English. If difficulties so great present 
 
 Kara . . Turkish 
 
 black. 
 
 
 themselves with simple German words, what will be said 
 
 Kiang . . Chinese . . 
 
 river. 
 
 
 of such polysyllabic intricacies as Ootaguesquegamookook, 
 
 Kil . . . Celtic . . . 
 
 a burying place 
 
 little." 
 
 
 Alagasquegamook, &c., names of lakes in Maine, U. States of 
 
 Kizzil ! ! Turkish " . . 
 
 red. 
 
 
 America ? 
 
 Klein . . German . . 
 
 little. 
 
 
 If, on the other hand, the second plan be preferred, as being 
 
 Lago . Italian . . . 
 Mare Itu ian 
 
 lake. 
 
 
 undoubtedly the more correct, two difficulties again occur : 
 
 Meer . . GermanandDuich 
 
 sea, lake. 
 
 
 the first of which is the high improbability, to say the least 
 
 Mittel . . German . . . 
 
 middle. 
 
 
 of it, of meeting with an individual gifted with a knowledge 
 
 Kasv . . Hunnarian . . 
 NT A 
 
 great. 
 
 
 of all the languages in the world, or even a limited number of 
 
 ulir . . Arabic 
 Neu German 
 
 river. 
 
 
 individuals possessing that knowledge amongst them, without 
 which the scheme could not be fully and perfectly carried out. 
 
 N ftL"}*- 
 
 snowy mountain. 
 
 
 The second difficulty is equally insuperable. Supposing a 
 number of individuals to be met with, collectively possessing 
 
 Nieder . . German . . . 
 Kueva . . Spanish . . . 
 Kuova . . Italian . . . 
 
 lower. 
 new. 
 uew. 
 
 
 the requisite qualification, how could they convey to the 
 reader even the remotest idea of many of the sounds, there 
 being no equivalent for them in the English language ? From 
 
 Ober . . German . . . 
 Oud . . Dutch .... 
 Paseo . . Spanish . . . 
 
 Phi 
 
 ar 
 
 a public walk. 
 public square or place. 
 
 
 the simple 6 or ch of the German, the rough guttural gr of 
 
 1 i r.i! ". . / . 
 
 town. 
 
 
 the Dutch, the nasal So of the Portuguese, or the u of the 
 
 Quebrada . Spanish . . . 
 
 ravine, gorge. 
 
 
 Swedish, to the chuck or click of the Bosjesuian, the num 
 ber of sounds, of which it would be utterly impossible to give 
 
 Rajah . . Sanscrit . . . 
 Has . . . Arabic . . . 
 
 Prince, royal, 
 cape, promontory, 
 river. 
 
 
 the most distant conception by means of any collocation of 
 
 Salinas . Spanish . 
 
 salt lakes, or pools. 
 
 
 letters known in our language, is so great, as to render a suc 
 
 San . . . Spanish . . . 
 
 saint. 
 
 
 cessful attempt to indicate the correct pronunciation of many 
 
 Santo, or ^ fortut/uese and ) 
 
 saint. 
 
 
 thousands of foreign names utterly hopeless. 
 
 See ... German . . . 
 
 lake. 
 
 
 
 Serra . . Portuguese . . 
 
 mountain, or mountain range. 
 
 
 FOREIGN WORDS FREQUENTLY OCCURRING IN MAPS, AND, 
 
 Shehr . { Tu p ^ att attd } 
 
 city, house. 
 
 
 THEREFORE, SOMETIMES NECESSARILY USED IN ACCOUNTS 
 OF PLACES. 
 
 Sierra . . Spanish . . . 
 Stadt . . German . . . 
 
 mountain, or mountain range, 
 town. 
 
 
 A .... Swedish . . . river. 
 
 Su, or Soo Turkish . . . 
 Ta . . . Chinese . . . 
 
 lake, river, 
 great. 
 
 
 Abad . | *ffiJ2> a " ) allouse - 
 
 Tag, or Tagh Turkish . . . 
 
 mountain. 
 
 
 Abbas . . Persian . . . father. 
 
 Tehama . Arabic . . . 
 
 plain. 
 
 
 Aber . . Celtic . . . the mouth of a river. 
 
 Tell . . . Arabic . . . 
 
 hill. 
 
 
 Agua . . Spanish . . water. 
 
 Terra . . ( F $T? t "**} 
 
 earth, land. 
 
 
 Am . . . Arabic . . a spring. 
 Ak . . . Turkish . . white. 
 
 ( Italian . . ) 
 Thai . . German . . . 
 
 valley. 
 
 
 Alameda . Spanish . . a public walk, with rows of trees. 
 
 Tierra . . Spanish . . . 
 Unter . . German . . . 
 
 earth, land, 
 under. 
 
 
 Aldea . . j "~ tuauese ) V ^ a 8 e - 
 
 Val . . . Italian . . . 
 
 valley. 
 
 
 Alt ... German . . . old. 
 
 Valle . . -j ^"d portu ues e } 
 
 valley. 
 
 
 Alto . . | Sjianishjlalian, } ^^ 
 
 Ville . . French . . 
 
 town. 
 
 
 Allah . . Arabic" . . . God. 
 
 \Vadv . . Arabic . . . 
 
 valley, a valley with a river in it. 
 
 
 Arroyo . . Spanish . . . rivulet. 
 
 Yeni . . Turkish . . . 
 
 new. 
 
 
 Bark . . German . . . brook, rivulet. 
 
 Zee ... Dutch .... 
 
 sea. 
 
 
 
Ofifl 
 
 s 
 
 <5? 
 
 M 
 
THE 
 
 IMPERIAL GAZETTEER; 
 
 A GENERAL DICTIONARY OF GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 AA 
 
 AALESUND 
 
 AA, a contraction for the old German Ahha, and the 
 same as Ah, Ahe, Alia, Aach, and Ach, and meaning flowing 
 water. As a final syllable, it appears in the name of many 
 places; as, Stockach, Biberach, &c. Aa is the name of numer 
 ous streams in different countries. In PRUSSIA there are 
 
 five, none of them important: 1, An affluent of the old 
 Ijssel, which it joins below Anholt, within the Dutch terri 
 tory. 2, An affluent of the Veche, into which it falls at 
 Neuenhaus, in the Hanoverian province of Bentheim. 3, An 
 affluent of the Eems, into which it falls at Miinstcr. 4, An 
 affluent of the Werre, which it joins at Herford, 15 m. S.W. 
 Miiulen. 5, A small stream near Dennewitz, in the vicinity 
 of Jiiterbock, called also Aha and Agerbach. In SWITZER 
 LAND there are four: 1, An affluent of the Aar, rising in the 
 canton Luzern, in lake Baldegg; flowing through the Hall- 
 wyler lake, the canton Aargau, and falling into the Aar near 
 Wildegg. 2 and 3, Affluents of lake Luzern, and both in 
 the canton Unterwalden. The one rises in lake Lungern, 
 flows through lake Sarner, and falls into lake Luzern at 
 Alpnach. The other rises in mount Surenen, flows past 
 Stanz, and falls into lake Luzern near Buochs. 4, In canton 
 Ziirich, a stream connecting lake Pfiiffikonwith lake Greiffen. 
 After it leaves the latter lake, it is also sometimes called the 
 
 Aa, but more usually the Glatt. In HOLLAND, streams 
 
 with the name Aa are very numerous, having generally, how 
 ever, a distinguishing prefix by which they are best known ; 
 as, the Almelosche Aa, the Fivel Aa, &c. Two streams may, 
 however, be named, that are usually known by the name Aa 
 simply: 1, In N. Brabant, rising near Mierde, and flowing 
 N. till it joins the Ley, below Oosterwyk. 2, In prov. 
 Drenthe, rising near Weestrnp, taking a N. course, and 
 
 falling into the Hunse at Groningen. In BELGIUM, one in 
 
 prov. Antwerp, rising N.E. from Turnhout, flowing S.E., 
 and joining the Little Nethe (Petit or Klein Nethes) below 
 
 Grobbendonck In FRANCE, one in dep. Pas de Calais, 
 
 rising near the village of Bourthes. It takes a N.E. course, 
 and falls into the strait of Dover at Gravelines, through 
 
 the St. Omer Canal. In RUSSIA there are two: 1, The 
 
 Boulder-Aa, prov. Liefland, or Livonia. It flows past Vol- 
 mar and Venden, to which town it is navigable from its 
 mouth, in the gulf of Riga. 2, The Treider-Aa, prov. 
 Courland. It is formed by the junction of the Memel and 
 the Alass, and falls into the gulf of Riga, close by the mouth 
 of the Dwina. (Ritter s Geog. Lex.; Van der Aa s Neder- 
 landen; Die. de la France; Die. de Russie.) 
 
 AACH, two villages:!, In Baden, 8 m. W. from the 
 N. end of lake Constance, on a steep hill, and partly sur 
 rounded by a wall. It has paper, meal, and oilmills, tan 
 neries, and dyeworks. Its inhabitants, who are R. catholics, 
 are much occupied in rearing cattle. Pop. 800. 2, In 
 Rhenish Prussia, near Treves. It has a church, and in the 
 VOL. I. 
 
 vicinity are quarries of gypsum and lime. Pop. 300. 
 
 AACH, river. See AA. 
 
 AACHEN, a city, Prussia. See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 
 
 AAHAUS. See AHAUS. 
 
 AAKIRKEBY, or AAKIRKE, a tn. Denmark, on the isl. 
 of Bornholm, about 4 m. from its S. coast. It is the only 
 town on the island not upon the sea-coast. Its neat church is 
 built of black marble, quarried in the vicinity. The inha 
 bitants are mainly devoted to agriculture. Pop. 600. 
 (Baggesen.) 
 
 AAL, a tn. Norway, prov. Buskerud, on the Ustedal, 
 
 120 m. N.W. Bergen. Pop. 4000. 2, AAL, or EL-AAL, 
 
 is also the name of two small villages in Syria, pashalic of 
 Damascus. 
 
 AALBORG [Eel-castle], an ancient seaport, Denmark, in 
 Jutland, cap. bail. Aalborg, on the S. side of the Liimfiord, and 
 about 15m. \V. the Kattegat ; lat. 57 2 42" N. ; Ion. 9 55 E. 
 It is intersected by two streams, is surrounded with a fosse, 
 and contains a cathedral, a college, naval school, a bishopric 
 library, and various other public buildings and institutions, 
 including a richly-endowed hospital. It has a dockyard, and is 
 a great place of trade; its manufactures of sugar, soap, snuff, 
 chocolate, leather, and hardware are considerable, and its 
 herring fishing is extensive. Herrings, corn, wool, hides, tar, 
 tallow, and malt liquors, are exported ; the first and second 
 to a considerable extent. Vessels drawing more than 10 ft. 
 are obliged, in consequence of the filling up of the harbour, 
 to lighten before entering. About 500 annually visit the 
 port, and 74 belong to it, including two steamers. It hag 
 direct steamboat and sailing-packet communication with 
 Copenhagen. Formerly, Aalborg was the most considerable 
 place for trade in Jutland; now, however, it is rivalled, and 
 in some respects excelled, by Aarhuus and Randers. It is 
 of high antiquity, being mentioned as a famous seaport in 
 1070. It was fortified as early as 1513. Pop. 7500. The 
 bail, of Aalborg is bounded N. by hail. Hioring, E. by the 
 Kattegat, S. by bail. Wiborg and Randers, and W. by the 
 Liimfiord ; area, 888 geo. sq. m. Pop. 63,200. (Baggesen.) 
 
 AALEN, a tn. Wurtemberg, circle Jaxt, formerly a free 
 imperial city, in an agreeable well-cultivated valley on the 
 Kocher, 43 m. E. Stuttgart. It is surrounded with turreted 
 walls, and has two gates, a fine church, and manufactures 
 of woollen and linen goods, and ribbons, spinning mills, 
 tanneries, and breweries. In the neighbourhood are immense 
 forests, and extensive iron mines. Pop. 3000 ; all Lutherans. 
 
 AALESUND, a small seaport, Norway; lat. 62 24 N.; 
 Ion. 6 5 E.; bail. Romsdal, picturesquely situated within 
 view to the S. E. of the peaked Lang Field mountains. It 
 has a well-sheltered harbour, a considerable number of boats 
 engaged in the cod fishery by means of nets, and carries on a 
 good trade, principally in cod-fish, with Italy and Spain. The 
 
AALSMKKK 
 
 AARIIUUS 
 
 Bteainer between Christiansand and Trondhjem calls here. 
 Pop. in 1845, 557. 
 
 AALSMKKK [Eel-sea], a vil. Holland, prov. N.Hol 
 land, on the E. shore of the sea of Haarlem, 9 m. S. Amster 
 dam. It has a townhouse, and a Calvinistic church, close to 
 the sea, in a churchyard which is raised some feet in order 
 to preserve the graves dry; a R. catholic church, an hospital 
 for orphans and aged men and women, and a well-attended 
 school. Fishing, especially of eels, is carried on to some 
 extent, and in the vicinity are nurseries and fruit gardens, 
 in which large quantities of strawberries are raised for the 
 Amsterdam market. Pop. about 2000. (Van der Aa s 
 Nederlaiultn.} 
 
 AALST, two vil. Holland:!, In prov. Gelderland, 6 
 m. S.W. Bommel, on the right bank of the Maas. It has a 
 Calvinistic church, the remains of an old castle, and 400 
 inhabitants. 2, In prov. N. Brabant, 4 m. S. Eindhoven, on 
 the road between Hertogcnbosch (Bois Ic due) and Maastricht, 
 on the streamlet Tongelreep. It is a long narrow village, 
 whose inhabitants are employed in linen weaving and in 
 agriculture. AALST, in IJelgium. See ALOST. 
 
 AALTEN, a vil. Holland, prov. Gelderland, near the 
 Prussian frontier, 18 m. S.E. Doesburg, and 2 m. W. Brede- 
 voert, on the Jeft bank of the Slingerbeek. It is agreeably 
 situated on an incline, and has a comfortable prosperous 
 appearance. It has a Calvinistic and a R. catholic church, 
 a school, a spinning and a weaving factory, and manufactures 
 of bombazine, dimity, and linen goods, a brick and tile 
 factory, oilmills, tanneries, brandy distilleries and breweries. 
 Aalten has monthly well-frequented markets. Pop. 2000. 
 
 AALTERE, a tn. Belgium. See AELTERE. 
 
 AAMADT, or AAMODT, a small tn. Norway, bail. 
 Hcdemarken, on the right bank of the Glominen, about 80m. 
 N. Christiania. Pop. 3000. 
 
 A AR [meaning Eagle, and the root of many German and 
 Swiss names], the name of several rivers: 1, In Switzer 
 land, the principal river after the Rhine and the Rhone. It 
 gives ite name to the canton of Aargau, or Aar country. It 
 rises in the Bernese Alps, and has its source in three glaciers, 
 the Oberaar, Finsteraar, and Lauteraar. The Aar forms the 
 romantic valley of Hasli, between the lake of Constance and 
 the Bernese Alps ; it supplies the lakes of Brienz and Thun, 
 and then becomes navigable. It flows past, or rather round, 
 Bern; at the confluence of the Saane, changes its course 
 from N.W. to N., and at the junction of the Thiele to N.E. ; 
 touches upon Solothurn, Aarburg, Aarau, and Brugg, and 
 falls into the Rhine, opposite Waldshut, at the village of 
 Coblentz, after a course of about 1GO miles. From the right 
 side it receives, as tributaries, the Emmen, the Reuss, and 
 the Limmat, and numerous other streams; from the left, 
 
 the Siminen, the Saane, and the Thiele. 2, A small stream, 
 
 principality of Waldeck, \V. Germany. It rises N. of Cor- 
 bach, and, after a N. course of 20 to 30 miles, falls into the 
 
 Diemel at Warburg, in Westphalia. 3, A small stream in 
 
 the duchy of Nassau, which rises near the village of "\Vehen, 
 flows N. for about 20 miles, and falls into the Lahn at Dietz. 
 4, A river of Holland, an affluent of one of the numer 
 ous branches of the Rhine, which it leaves in N. Holland, 
 below Aarlanderveen, under the name of the Korte Aar, takes 
 a N. course, is called the Kromme Aar, and ultimately, as 
 the Aar proper, falls into the Amstel. 
 
 AAKAU, or AHAU [Aar meadow], a tn. Switzerland, 
 cap. canton Aargau, situated at the height of 1140 ft. above 
 the sea, on the right bank of the Aar. It has various 
 public buildings and useful institutions. Among the for 
 mer are a council house and a church, and among the latter 
 a cantonal school and other seminaries, an orphan asylum, 
 and a public library. Aarau has a thriving trade, and manu 
 factories of silk, cotton, vitriol, leather, cutlery, and ordnance. 
 In the environs are mines of coal and iron. The civil war, 
 ivhich raged for some time in Switzerland in the beginning 
 of the last century, was terminated by the peace of Aarau in 
 1712. Pop., chiefly Protestants, upwards of 4000. 
 
 AARBERG, or AKHEKO, a small tn. Switzerland, canton 
 Bern, cap. of district of same name, about 12 in. N.W. Bern, 
 on the right bank of the Aar, on a rocky eminence, which, 
 during high floods, is surrounded by the river. It consists 
 of one wide street lined by well-built houses, has two bridges, 
 one of which is defended by fortifications. It has little trade, 
 
 the inhabitants being chiefly occupied in agricultural pursuits. 
 Pop. about 1(100. 
 
 AARBURG, or AUBURO, a small tn. Switzerland, canton 
 Aargau, at the confluence of the Aar and the Wigger, about 
 
 i 10 in. S.W. Aarau. It has manufactures of cotton and 
 wool, w-;th a copper foundry. The inhabitants navigate tho 
 
 Aiir, and carry on a small trade in wine and other articles. 
 On a high rock above the town is a fortified castle, built by 
 the Bernese in 16(30, and for some time used as a state prison, 
 but now employed as the arsenal of the canton of Aargau. 
 Pop. 1700. 
 
 AARDENBURG, a small frontier tn. Holland, prov. 
 Zccland, 4 m. S.E. Sluis, and 10 m. N.E. Bruges, in Belgium. 
 It has a townhouse, an old and handsome Calvinistic church, 
 a small R. catholic church, a school, orphan hospital, two 
 cornmills, and some manufactures of tobacco and leather. 
 The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture, and are 
 generally in comfortable circumstances. Pop. 1474. Aar- 
 denburg in olden times had 74 streets, five market places, 
 and two large public squares, and as early as A.D. 1238, it 
 was famed for its commerce. Though now 10 in. from the 
 sea, it formerly had a port and haven in which GOO vessels 
 could lie, and was esteemed one of the finest towns in Flan 
 ders, and the capital of the seaports. War, inundations, and 
 the rise in the level of the land seaward, have reduced it to 
 its present dimensions. (Van der Aa.) 
 
 AARGAU, or AKGOVIA, a northern canton of Switzer 
 land, the IGth in the Confederation, bounded N. by the Rhine, 
 which separates it from the grand duchy of Baden, E. by 
 cantons Zurich and Zug, S. by Luzern, and W. by Bern, 
 Solothurn, and Basel ; greatest length 33 in., greatest breadth 
 28 in., area about 400 geo. sq. m. It is hilly, being composed 
 chiefly of spurs of the Alps and Jura, but has no mountains 
 more than 3000 ft. high ; and it is well wooded, has numerous 
 verdant fertile valleys- abundantly watered by the Aar and its 
 many tributaries from the right. The climate is misty, moist, 
 and variable, and the soil to the left of the Aar clay, compact, 
 and difficult to work; and to the right light, sandy, and fertile. 
 Agriculture is in an advanced state, and more grain is raised 
 than the consumption of the canton demands. Hemp and flax 
 are extensively raised, fruit and vegetables abound, and vine 
 yards are numerous, but the wines are of inferior quality. 
 The grazing is excellent, but cattle rearing is less extensively 
 pursued than agriculture. Aargau is one of the principal seats 
 in Switzerland for the manufacture of cotton and silk, and for 
 the construction of machines. Cotton goods, white and 
 coloured, silks, ribbons, linens, stockings, and other hosiery, 
 are made. A considerable number of people find employment 
 in fishing in the Aar and the Rhine, in the boat traffic on thcso 
 rivers, and in the transit trade, which is carried on actively, botli 
 by land and by water. Education is good aiul plentiful, and 
 the head school in Aarau is quite a model of its kind. Aargau 
 formed part of the canton Bern till the year 1798, when its in 
 dependency, for which it had long struggled, was secured by 
 the French Government. Frickthal, formerly belonging to 
 Austria, was added to it in 1803. Its constitution was first 
 fixed by the congress of Vienna, in lKl. r >. It was then rather 
 aristocratic, but has been more popular since the revolution 
 which took place, Dec. 1830. In 1841, the constitution was 
 again revised, and settled in its present form. The legislative 
 power is vested in the great council, one-half of which is 
 renewed every three years. All citizens who have attained 
 the age of 24 have a vote, and each 180 voters send a repre 
 sentative to the great council. The executive power is vested 
 in the small council of nine members (of whom at least four 
 must be Protestants and four R. catholics), elected by and 
 from the great council. Pop. 183,800; of whom 102,400 are 
 Protestants, 79,300 R. catholics, and 2100 Jews. (Real 
 Encyldopiidie; Ritter s Lex.) 
 
 AAHHUUS, a seaport, Denmark, cap. bail, of same 
 name, E. coast Jutland, of which it is now the most important 
 town ; lat. (cath.) 56 9 30" N. ; Ion. 10 13 E. (it.) ; situated 
 at the mouth of the Aue, which flows through the town. 
 It is surrounded by a single wall with seven gates, and 
 contains a college, an hospital, and a cathedral of Gothiu 
 architecture, one of tlie largest and handsomest in the king 
 dom. Aarhuus carries on a considerable trade, and has 
 manufactures of wool and flax, sugar houses, snuff mills, tan 
 neries, distilleries, and fisheries, also a large establishment foi 
 
AARLANDEUVEEN 
 
 3 
 
 ABABDEH 
 
 carding woollen ra.^s, technically called shoddy. The road 
 stead possesses good anchorage in 3 to 4 fathoms, and is safe, 
 excepting with S.E. winds, when the sea is tremendous. 
 There are two lights in the harbour, one on the pilot-house 
 and one on the mole, visible 4 or 5 in. distance. The chief 
 exports are grain, cattle, spirits, and malt. There are 40 j 
 vessels belonging to the port, whose tonnage altogether ! 
 amounts to 2318. Steamers and packet-boats regularly ply 
 between it and Kallundborg and Copenhagen. The town was 
 twice almost wholly destroyed by fire ; first in 1541, and again j 
 in 1556. In 1578, 2200 of its inhabitants were swept oft by ] 
 
 the plague. Pop. 8000. The bail, of Aarhuus is bounded 
 
 N. by bail. Wiborg and Randers, E. by the Kattegat, S. by 
 bail. Weile, and W. by bail. Kingkioping; area, 236 geo. sq. in. 
 Pop. 40,000. It is the most densely populated of the baili 
 wicks of N. Jutland (Baggesen.) 
 
 AARLANUERVEEN [Aar turf lands], a vil. Holland, 
 prov. S. Holland, 13 m. N.E. Leyden, 5 m. S.E. Woubrugge. 
 It forms a double row of houses round the Calvinistic church, 
 which is an old structure. It has nlso a R. catholic church, a 
 Jewish synagogue, a neat school with teacher s house attached, 
 and a cornmili. In the vicinity are several water mills, and 
 many storehouses for cheese; and the land is rich and well 
 cultivated. Pop. about 1500. 
 
 AARLE, a vil. Holland, prov. N. Brabant, 8 in. N.E. 
 Eindhoven, and 18 in. S.E. Hcrtogenbosch, on the right 
 bank of the Aa. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in 
 bringing in waste lands, and in rearing poultry, sending some 
 hundreds of young chickens, every Thursday, to Hertogen- 
 bosch. There is here, also, a bell foundry. Pop. 450; and 
 of the combined par. of Aarle and Rixtel, 1 200. 
 
 AAROE, a small Danish isl. duchy of Schleswig, N. por 
 tion of the Little Belt, 1 m. from the coast, about lat. 55 15 N.; 
 Ion. 9 45 E. It is about 2 J m. long, by rather more than 
 
 I broad. Some of its few inhabitants are good pilots. This 
 island is sometimes mistaken for the much larger one at the 
 S. end of the Little Belt named Aeroe. 
 
 AARON, a small peninsula on the W. coast of France, 
 dep. Ille et Vilaine, Bretagne, on which the town of St. Malo 
 is built. A narrow causeway connects it with the mainland. 
 See MALO (Sx). 
 
 AARWANGEN, a small tn. Switzerland, cap. circle 
 of same name; on the right bank of the Aar, canton of, and 
 about 30 in. N.E. Bern. It is built partly on a rising ground, 
 and partly on a plain. It has important cattle fairs. In the 
 vicinity is a mine of pit coal. Pop. 2153. 
 
 A AS, a vil. France. See EAUX BONNES. 
 
 AAS-GAARSTRAND, a small port, Norway, bail. Jarls- 
 berg and Laurvig, on the W. shore of Christiania Gulf, 10 m. 
 S.S.E. Holmestrand. Wood is shipped here. Pop. in 1845. 
 434. 
 
 AASZY, A API, or NAHK-EL-ARY [the ancient Axius or 
 Oronten], a river, Syria, rising on the E. side of the Anti- 
 Libanus, near the village of El-Ras, 27 in. N.E. Balbec, in a 
 triangular-formed natural basin in the rock, measuring about 
 50 paces round, and nearly concealed by trees and bushes, 
 of which chestnut, willow, and dwarf oak are most, plentiful. 
 It takes a N. course through the fertile plain of Hamah and 
 the valley of El-Ghab towards the lake of Aritioch or Agh Den- 
 giz, whose waters it receives, and thence flows S.W. to the 
 Mediterranean, into which it falls after a course of about 200m. 
 
 I 1 forms some lakes, receives the waters of various rivers, and 
 by its overflowings greatly fertilizes the land upon its banks, 
 rendering it capable of supporting a much greater extent of 
 population than at present inhabit it. The river abounds in 
 fish, particularly a species of eel much in demand by the 
 Greeks, for whose consumption, during Easter feasts, large 
 quantities are annually salted and exported. The Aaszy is j 
 not navigable, being encumbered at its mouth by a sandbank, 
 on which, in winter, there is only 3 ft. to 9 ft. of water; but ! 
 according to Col. Chesney, this bar might easily be removed, ! 
 and the river rendered navigable, at least for boats, as far up < 
 as Murad Pasha, 27m. above Antioch. The fall of the river ; 
 from the last-named city to the sea, is not above 5^ ft. in the 
 mile. (Jour. Geog. Soc.) 
 
 AATYL, or AXIL, once an important city, now a small 
 vil. Syria, in the great plain called the llauran, or Haouran, 
 54 m. S.S.E. Damascus, and 48 in. E. lake Tabaria. It 
 lies in a wood, and is about 1 in. in circuit, though the inha- 
 
 bitants consist only of from 300 to 400 Druses, who dwell in 
 huts among the ruined edifices. There are here the remains 
 of two handsome temples; that on the N. side, called El-Kaszr, 
 
 i.s in complete ruins. It consisted of a square building, with 
 a high arch across its roof; two niches were on each side of 
 the gate, and in front a portico of columns, the number of 
 which it is now impossible to determine. On the S.E. side 
 of Aatyl stands the other temple, which is of small dimensions, 
 but of elegant construction. It has a portico of two Corinthian 
 columns, and two pilasters, each of which has a projecting base 
 for a statue. The gate is covered with sculpture On both 
 temples arc numerous inscriptions in Greek. The tobacco of 
 Aatyl is preferred to that of any other part of the Haouran. 
 (Burckhardt.) 
 
 ABABDE, or SHEIK ABADEII, a vil. Middle Egypt, 
 on the right bank of the Nile, 8 m. S. Bcni Hassan, lat. 27 
 43 N. ; Ion. 30 57 E. Near it are the ruins of the ancient 
 Antinoe, or Antinoopolis, a city built by the emperor Adrian, 
 and named from his favourite Antinous, who was drowned in 
 the Nile. These remains, which are entirely Roman, are 
 supposed to occupy the site of a still more ancient city, named 
 Besa, famed for its oracle, and mentioned by Abulfeda 
 iinder the name of Ansina, or Ansineh, by which the place is 
 still sometimes designated. In the times of Roman dominion, 
 Antinoe was the capital of a province, named the Antinoite; 
 and under the Christian emperors, the metropolis of an 
 episcopal see. Little of it now remains except its theatre, 
 the substructure of various buildings, and the hippodrome 
 without the walls. The circuit is said to have been 3 or 
 4 m., the present dimensions being 6000 ft. by 3400. The 
 direction of the principal streets, which were broad and spa 
 cious, with a colonnade on each side, may still be traced. 
 Other existing monuments are the remains of various temples, 
 and four monumental columns bearing an inscription to 
 1 Good Fortune, and the date of the 14th year of Marcus 
 Aurelius. All that consisted of limestone has been burnt 
 for mortar by the Turks, or employed by them in the con 
 struction of modern buildings. Without the walls, numerous 
 relics of antiquity are to be met with, the most remarkable of 
 which is a ruinous edifice on the summit of a hill, said to 
 have been used as a convent by the Christians, and named, 
 from the circumstance, Dayr e Deck, or Convent of the 
 Cock." (Wilkinson s Modern Egypt.; Voy. Due dc liaguse.) 
 
 ABABDEH,thename of an extensive desert, Upper Egypt, 
 and of a number of tribes by which it is inhabited. The Abab- 
 dch desert, or desert of the Thebaid, lies between the Red Sea 
 and the valley of the Nile, and extends from the Kossier and 
 Coptos road, lat.26 N., into Nubia, beyond the tropic of Cancer, 
 and bounds with the Begga, or country of the Bisharee tribes. 
 It is traversed in various directions by roads, both ancient 
 and modern, contains numerous towns and villages, is of some 
 note in point of geological and mineral productions, and is 
 remarkable for its architectural remains, and for the number 
 of hieroglyphical inscriptions found upon the rocks. The i 
 principal and most interesting road is that called the Derb e 
 Russafa, about 248 m. long, which runs diagonally across the 
 desert from Coptos to Berenice, and passes through eight Ronutu 
 
ABACAXIS 
 
 stations, each supplied with large wells and cisterns, for the 
 use of the inhabitants and travellers. The most noted geolo 
 gical production of this tract of country is the breccia verde, 
 or green breccia, made by the ancients into many useful and 
 ornamental articles, of which the sarcophagus of Alexander 
 in the British Museum is a specimen. Emeralds and gold have 
 been found in various parts. Basanitc, or Lydian stone, was 
 formerly quarried in the mountain now known by the name 
 Om Kerrebeh. The Ababdehs who inhabit this desert are 
 nomadic tribes, the principal of which are the Gawaleeh, the 
 Fokara, the Aboodeein, and the Ashahab. They are supposed 
 to be the aborigines of the country, to have come from Sbayd, 
 or Esbayd, and to be Arabs only in habit. Though speaking 
 the Arabic language, their peculiar pronunciation, dark com 
 plexion, and the difference of their whole outward appearance, 
 readily distinguish them from the genuine Arabs. They have 
 long hair, like the Nubians, whom, in many other respects, 
 they resemble. Their arms, also, are the same as those used 
 in Nubia, consisting of sword, spear, small knife, and target, 
 which they prefer to firearms, and with which they fight, 
 from the backs of camels, almost in a state of nudity. They 
 live in mat huts, chiefly on the borders of the great valley 
 of the Nile. They are well known for the excellency of their 
 camels and dromedaries, and, though scarcely deemed of a 
 trustworthy character, are employed in escorting the caravans 
 which cross the desert from Sennaar. (Wilkinson s Modern 
 Egypt.) 
 
 ABACAXIS, a river, Brazil, prov. Para, rising about 
 lat. 6 30 S. ; Ion. 58 35 W. ; takes a N. course, passes 
 through lake Guaribas, and falls into the Furo, or Mauhe, an 
 affluent of the Amazon, lat. 4 S. ; Ion. 58 30 W. 
 
 ABACO (GREAT and LITTLE), two of the Bahama Islands ; 
 the larger 86 m. long, and about 15 broad; the smaller 
 28 m. long, and 4 to 5 broad. They lie between Ion. 77 
 and 78 W., and lat. 25 50 and 26 55 N. Area, 225 sq. 
 m., of which 135,076 acres are waste. Three schools have 
 been established here by the Board of Education, appointed 
 under the Act to establish a system of popular education and 
 training in the Bahama Islands. These schools were attended, 
 in 1847, by 226 pupils, composed of an equal number of boys 
 and girls. Pop. 1900. 
 
 ABAD. 1, A vil. Beloochistan, on the right bank of the 
 Naree, or Nari, 22 m. S.E. by E. Gundava; lat. 28 17 N.; 
 
 Ion. 67 49 E. 2, A vil. Sinde, between Shikarpoor and 
 
 Sukkur; lat. 27 45 N. ; Ion. 68 50 E. 3, A tii. Persia, 
 
 prov. Far.-jstan, E.S.E. Shiraz. 
 
 ABADEH, a tn. Persia, prov. Fars, 116m. N. Shiraz, 
 and 115 S.S.E. Ispahan. It is enclosed by dilapidated walls, 
 and defended by a square fortress, containing almost all the 
 population. It suffered much during the wars of the succes 
 sion to the Persian throne in the 18th century, and was the 
 residence of the last prince of the house of Suffee, suffered to 
 exist there by Kureem Khan, who died in 1779. The 
 gardens around Abadeh supply Shiraz with delicious fruit. 
 Pop. about 5000. 
 
 ABAUIOTTES, a tribe in the island of Candia, about 
 4000 in number, and occupying about 20 small villages. 
 They are the descendants of the Saracens, who took posses 
 sion of Candia in 823. They are a suspicious and revengeful 
 race, and much inclined to a predatory life, to which they are 
 also forced by the oppression of the Turks and Greeks. 
 
 ABAE l E, a vil. Brazil, prov. of, and 40 m. S.W. Para, 
 on the right bank of the estuary of the Kio Para, and on the 
 island formed by the mouth of the Kio Tocantins, and the 
 rivers Moju and Iguara. The soil in the vicinity is excellent, 
 but it is badly cultivated. (Die. Geo. Imp. Brazil.) 
 
 ABA I, or ABAY, the Nile of Bruce, principal tributary of 
 the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue Kiver, one of the head streams of 
 the Nile. Its sources are in a swampy meadow, near mount 
 Giesk, in the district of Sdkkata, from whence it takes a cir 
 cular direction round the peninsula of Gojam, passing through 
 lake Dembea, and falling into the Bahr-el-Azrck, in about 
 11 N. lat. See AZUEK (BAUR-EL-), and NILE. 
 
 ABAI, a small seaport near the N.W. point of Borneo, 
 about lat. 6 21 N. ; Ion. 116 30 E. The depth of the har 
 bour will not, at high water, admit vessels drawing more 
 than 12 ft. 
 
 ABAINVILLE, a vil. France, dep. Meuse, beautifully 
 Htuated on the Ornain, and celebrated for its iron works, and 
 
 AT, AM AY 
 
 for the excellence of its manufactures in that metal. There 
 are altogether between 600 and 700 individuals employed in 
 these works, and from 3000 to 4000 tons of iron are manufac 
 tured annually. 
 
 ABAITE, a considerable river, Brazil, prov. Minas 
 Geraes, rising in the Serra da Mata da Corda, and flowing 
 into the San Francisco, after a course of about 135 m. from 
 S.W. to N.E. In this river was accidentally discovered, in 
 1796, the largest diamond ever found in Brazil, weighing 
 of an ounce troy. It was found by three men under sen 
 tence of perpetual banishment, while searching for gold. On 
 presenting this valuable gem to the then viceroy, they were 
 pardoned and rewarded. The river was afterwards worked 
 at different periods by the government, but with indifferent 
 success. The works were ultimately abandoned to private 
 adventurers. 
 
 ABAKANE, a large river, S. Siberia, having its sources 
 in the Altai mountains, gov. Yeniseisk. It is formed by the 
 junction of two streams, called, respectively, the Great and 
 Little Abakane, which, rising from 20 to 30m. apart, unite at 
 lat. 52 23 N.; Ion. 88 45 E.; whence the river flows in a N.E. 
 direction till it falls into the Yenisei at Mardachi, about 7 m. W. 
 by N. Minousinsk, lat. 53 54 N.; Ion. 91 13 E. The length 
 of the stream, from the confluence of the Great and Little Aba 
 kane, until it joins the Yenisei, is about 174 m. For about 
 80 m. of the latter part of this course it has an average breadth 
 of about 1 in., and is throughout dotted with islands, which 
 increase in number towards its junction with the Yenisei. The 
 whole length of the river, from its sources, taking the Great 
 Abakane as the original stream, is, according to Tchihatcheff, 
 who calls it a beautiful river, 217 m. The sources of this 
 branch are two small lakes; its earlier career is described by 
 the writer just named as extremely impetuous, its channel nar 
 row and rocky, and the scenery around wild and picturesque. 
 Tchihatchoff made an attempt to explore the sources of the 
 Little Abakane also, but was compelled to abandon the enter 
 prise, in consequence of the vast and dangerous accumulations 
 of snow, which every moment threatened himself and his party 
 with destruction. 1 laving, however, subsequently attained an 
 eminence, which commanded a view of the sources of the 
 stream, he found that these, as in the case of the Great Aba 
 kane, were a number of small lakes situated in a marshy 
 plateau, in the midst of a labyrinth of mountains. (Tchiha 
 tcheff, Voyage dans V Altai Oriental.) 
 
 ABAKANSK, a Cossack military station, Siberia, gov. 
 Yeniseisk, on the right bank of the Abakane, at a bend 
 of that river, 94 m. S.W. Minousinsk; lat. 52 52 N. ; 
 Ion. 89 46 E. It consists of about 40 houses of wood, 
 inhabited by Cossacks, and a number of yurts, or huts, 
 occupied by a colony of Sagai, a distinct race from the Kal 
 mucks, who, however, are now beginning to construct habita 
 tions after the Russian fashion. It is enlivened by several 
 wooden steeples, and is flanked on the W. by a range of coni 
 cal mountains. The country around is very beautiful, but 
 the soil is unfavourable to agriculture, although the climate 
 is comparatively mild. During three days that Tchihatcheff 
 remained here in the month of July, the temperature rose to 
 110 Fah., and in the shade to 76; the former being 30 
 higher than is usually experienced in England. In the vici 
 nity of this station, as throughout the whole of S. Siberia, 
 there are numerous tumuli, called by the Tartars the tombs 
 of the Cathayans, or Si-Katei, in which ornaments of gold 
 ! and other metals have been found. Gigantic human statues, 
 I from 7 to 9 ft. high, covered with hieroglyphics, are also met 
 with here. There is another station of the same name on a 
 sandy flat on the right bank of the Yenisei, 39 m. N. from 
 Minousinsk, where numerous relics of antiquity are also found, 
 consisting of ancient tombs and Mongolian inscriptions. It is 
 reputed to be the mildest locality in Siberia, the summer 
 being sufficiently warm to ripen water-melons and tobacco. 
 
 ABANCAY, a tn. Peru, cap. dist. or prov. of sime 
 name. It is situated in a spacious valley, on the right bank 
 of the river Abancay, here crossed by one of the largest 
 bridges in the kingdom, about 70 m. W. by S. Cuzco, and 
 300 m. E.S.E. Lima; lat. 13 37 S. : Ion. 73 W. It has 
 a convent of the order of St. Dominic, and several sugar 
 works and refineries. The district is about 60 m. in length 
 from E. to W., and 40 in breadth from N. to S. The tem 
 perature is mild, and the soil fertile, producing wheat, maize, 
 
ABANILLA 
 
 ABBEVILLE 
 
 and other grain in abundance ; but sugar is the staple produc 
 tion, and is here so well refined as to equal in whiteness the 
 finest sugars of Europe. Hemp is also cultivated, and con 
 siderable numbers of horned cattle are reared. The pop. of 
 the town estimated at 5000. 
 
 ABANILLA, a tri. Spain, prov. of, and 16 m. N.N.E. 
 Murcia, on an incline at the foot of some rocky hills. It is 
 divided into an upper and a lower town ; the former chiefly 
 consisting of ruins, and including the old parish church and 
 the ruins of a castle ; the latter comprising a number of good 
 streets, and a square, in which are situated a fountain, granary, 
 spacious courthouses, the school, and the new prison. There 
 are, besides, an old prison, a second church, several chapels, 
 a cemetery, and some flour and oilmills. In the vicinity, 
 barley, maize, olives, vines, figs, almonds, and prunes are 
 cultivated, and a few sheep and goats are reared. The inhabi 
 tants, besides agriculture, are chiefly employed in manufac 
 turing charcoal, esparto mats, and home-made linen. Pop. 
 4G28. (Madoz.) 
 
 ABANO, a tn. Venetian Lombardy, district of, and 5 m. 
 S.W. Padua, famous for its sulphureous waters and mud baths, 
 much resorted to in chronic cutaneous diseases, gout, &c. 
 As sulphureous waters, they are the hottest in Europe, having 
 a temperature of 167 187 Fah., and contain common salt, 
 sulphuric acid, natron, and magnesia. Abano was known to 
 the Romans under the name of Aqua? Aponi or Aquae Patavinae, 
 and some remains of Roman baths were discovered at it the 
 end of last century. It is the birthplace of Titus Livius, and 
 of the celebrated physician, Pietro d Abano, professor iu the 
 university of Padua, who was condemned to death for sorcery, 
 but died before the sentence was put into execution, A.D. 1312. 
 Pop. 3000. 
 
 ABAKAN, or ALBARAN, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 22 m. 
 N.\V. Murcia, at the foot of a mountain on the left bank of 
 the Segura. It has a square, in which are the courthouses, 
 the dingy unhealthy prison, two schools, and the parish church. 
 The inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, and as muleteers ; 
 they manufacture esparto mats and home-made linen, and have 
 some oilmills. Pop. 2455. (Madoz.) 
 
 ABAKAN, a small tn. Russian Armenia, on the S. slope 
 of the Alaghes mountains, about 30 m. N W. Erivan. It lies 
 near the left bank of a considerable stream of the same name, 
 which rises in Alaghes mountains, and flows towards the Aras, 
 but which it, in summer time, never reaches, all its waters 
 being drawn off by the Armenians for the purposes of irri 
 gation. 
 
 ABATZKAYA, or ABATZKOE, a tn. Siberia, gov. To 
 bolsk, on the left bank of the Ishim, and 40 m. E. from the 
 town of that name. Pop. about 2000. 
 
 ABAUJVAR, a co. or district, Upper Hungary, W. the 
 Theiss, cap. Kaschau, on the Hernad ; area, 832 geo. sq. m. 
 It is a fertile grain and grazing district, producing, likewise, 
 excellent fruit and grapes, from the latter of which, the cele 
 brated Tokay wine is made. Abaujvar also yields metals, 
 and precious stones, mineral waters, and salt. Pop. 123,938. 
 (Raffelsperger.) 
 
 ABB, a tn. Arabia, in the Djebel, or mountainous district 
 of Yemen; 77 m. N.E. Mocha, and 104 m. N.W. Aden; lat. 
 13 59 N.; Ion. 44 35 E. It is enclosed by a strong wall, 
 and has several mosques, paved streets, and about 800 houses 
 built of stone. Water is supplied to it, by means of an aque 
 duct, from the high mountain of Baadan in the neighbourhood. 
 The surrounding country is well watered and fertile. Pop. 
 supposed to be between 4000 and 5000. 
 
 ABB S HEAD (ST.), a lofty promontory or headland, 
 having the appearance of an island, on the E. coast of Scot 
 land, co. Berwick, llm. N.W. town of that name, and 15 m. 
 S.E. Dunbar ; lat. 55 55 N. ; Ion. 2 8 W. (n.). There is 
 deep water close by the point, and a little way from it, 30 and 
 40 fathoms. The adjacent shore is rocky. The E. extremity 
 of the height was occupied by a Roman station, and the W., 
 half a mile distant, by a British stronghold. 
 
 ABTJADIA, a small tn. Brazil, prov. Bahia, 50 m. S.W. 
 Seregipe, upon the Ariguitiba, 15 m. from the sea. It has a 
 school, and a harbour accessible to coasters, and exports sugar, 
 cotton, tobacco, and mandioc flour. Pop. of town and neigh 
 bourhood, 1200. 
 
 ABBADIA SAN SALVADORE, a tn. and commune, 
 Italy, in Tuscany, prov. Grossetto, diocese of, and 17. m. 
 
 S.W. Chiusi, on an elevated plain at the side of the 
 trachyte mount, Amiata, which rises to the height of 5300 ft. 
 above the sea level. The town is surrounded by a wall, 
 entered by gates, and comprises a small square, four principal 
 parallel streets, and an Episcopal church. On the N., without 
 the walls, is the abbey of San Salvadore, from which the town 
 derives its name. The vicinity is fertile, being watered by 
 the river Paglia, and the rivulets Pagliuola and Albineta, all 
 of which take their rise in mount Amiata. Pop. in 1845, 
 including the commune, 4295. (Dizio. Univ. Italia.) 
 
 ABBA-SEEN. See ABO SIN. 
 
 ABBAS -ABAD, the name of two villages, Persia: 
 1, A vil. and fort, prov. Khorasan, 385 m. N.E. Ispahan, 
 and 170 m. W. Mushed, lat. 36 23 N.; Ion. 56 22 E.; 
 on the highroad from the latter city to Teheran, situated in a 
 dreary desert. The village and caravanserai were erected by 
 Shah Abbas the Great, for the benefit of caravans crossing 
 the desert. There being only one spring here, no means of 
 irrigation exist, and the inhabitants are often forced to traverse 
 the desert to obtain a supply of provisions for themselves and 
 the caravans. Besides being exempted from taxes, they derive 
 considerable profit from selling provisions to travellers, and 
 are more clean and comfortable, both in their houses and dress, 
 than the generality of the subjects of Persia. 2, A small tn. 
 and fort in the frontier prov. of Azerbijan, situated upon the 
 river Aras. It contains an old Armenian church, now used 
 as a powder magazine. This Abbas-abad was treacherously 
 surrendered to the Russians in the war of 1827. 
 
 ABBAZACCA, a tn. Western Africa, on the left bank 
 of the Quorra, about 48 m. below the junction of the Chadda 
 with that river, and about 276 m. from the sea; lat. 7 10 N.; 
 Ion. 8 15 E. The banks of the Quorra are very low for 
 upwards of 20 m. before reaching Abbazacca, and are destitute 
 of towns and villages ; but both are numerous below it. For 
 the first time, say the Landers, on reaching Abbazacca, since 
 leaving Jenna, in Yarriba (about 345 m. W.), we beheld the 
 graceful cocoa-nut tree, and heard the mellow whistling of 
 gray parrots. At a place called Damuggoo, 17 m. further 
 down the Quorra, the natives have English muskets, and are 
 expert in the use of firearms. 
 
 ABBEOKUTA, or ABBEKUTA, a large tn., W. Africa, 
 cap. of the prov. of Egba, kingdom of Yoruba, or Yarribah, 
 60 m. N.E. Badagray in the bight of Benin. It is built on 
 granite hills of moderate elevation, the highest not exceeding 
 500 ft. Its streets are narrow and irregular. Its population 
 is composed of the inhabitants of a number of towns and vil 
 lages, which were destroyed during a war that took place in 
 1817; and it is since that period that Abbeokuta has become 
 the important place it now is, being about 2 m. long, and 
 nearly as broad, with a pop. of 50,000. The Rev. Henry 
 Townsend states, in his evidence before the Select Committee 
 on the Slave-trade, that the inhabitants of this town have a 
 regular government, with a prince or chief at its head, and 
 that their civilization is better than what is generally believed 
 to exist in Africa. The town is amply supplied with provi 
 sions of every kind, including sheep, goats, cows, fowls, and 
 pigeons. The country around is productive and compara 
 tively well cultivated, yielding abundant crops of yams, 
 Indian corn, and various sorts of beans. Cotton, sugar, 
 ginger, and indigo are also grown for home consumption. 
 The people gladly work for wages, the latter being generally 
 four strings of cowries, or between 4d. and 5d. a day. They 
 are fond of peaceful pursuits, such as cultivating the ground, 
 trading, &c. ; and, under more favourable political conditions, 
 could hardly fail to become prosperous and happy. They 
 manufacture leather of various kinds, and make numerous 
 articles in iron, such as stirrups, clasp knives, hoes, and bill 
 hooks. Their domestic slaves, of whom there are many, are 
 treated with such uniform kindness, that it is impossible to 
 distinguish a slave from a free man. The heat here is very 
 great, averaging, in hot weather, about 85 or 86 ; the highest 
 point is about 92 or 93. (Parl. Paper.) 
 
 ABBERLEY, a par. England, co. Worcester; area, 
 2390 ac.; 6 m. S.W. Bewdley. Pop. in 1841, 559. 
 
 ABBERTON, a par. England, co. Essex ; area, 1030 ac. 
 
 Pop. in 1841, 248. There is another par. of this name, 
 
 co. Worcester; area, 1050 ac. ; on a branch of the Avon. 
 Pop. in 1841, 81. 
 
 ABBEVILLE, a large fortified tn. and river port, 
 
ABBEVILLE 
 
 ABBIATE-GRASSO 
 
 France, dep. Somme, cap. arrond. of same name, 120 m. by several distilleries, tanneries, and flour and sawmills. Pop. in 
 rail, N.N.W. Paris, situated in an agreeable and fertile valley 1840, 29,351 ; composed of whites, 13,880; slaves, 15,148 ; 
 on the river Somme, which divides the town into three por- free coloured, 323. 2, A post vil., cap. of above district, 
 lions, the central and most important one being on an island, j 97 m. W. by N. Columbia, on a branch of Little river. It 
 
 The houses are mostly built of brick, a few are of stone, inter- j has a courthouse, jail, 
 
 il, ;uid magazine. 3, A post vil. 
 
 111 lulled with some picturesque old structures of wood. Some . in Alabama, cap. of Henry co., 211 in. S.E. Tuscaloosa. 
 
 01 the streets are broad, but the most of them are narrow, | ABBEY, the name, with and without affixes, of a number 
 
 of small towns, townships, villages, baronies, parishes, and 
 other places, in England, Scotland, and Ireland. 
 
 Those in ENGLAND are: 1, Abbey Dore, or Dor c Abbey, 
 par. Hereford; 5790 ac. Pop. 542. 2, par. Wilts; 40 ac. 
 Pop. 131. 3, Abbey Holm, township, par. Holm C ul tram, 
 Cumberland, named from an abbey founded there in 1 150, by 
 Henry, prince of Cumberland, son of David 1., king of Scot 
 land. 4, Abbey Milton, or Middleton, tnship., Dorset. 5, Ab 
 bey Part:, hamlet, Bucks. 6, Abbey Routon, vil., Stafford. 
 7, Abbey Street, tnship., Cumberland, St. Mary s par. Carlisle. 
 In SCOTLAND: I, A small vil., co. of, and about 1 m. E. 
 Haddington, and 18 m. E. Edinburgh. It is remarkable only 
 for its historical associations. Here, in 1178, Countess Ada 
 of Northumberland, mother of Malcolm IV. and William the 
 Lion, kings of Scotland, founded and richly endowed a convent 
 or priory of Cistertian nuns; and here, on July 7, 1548, 
 the Parliament of Scotland was convened, and gave consent to 
 the marriage of Queen Mary to the Dauphin of France. 2, 
 A vil., co. Stirling, about \ m. N.E. Stirling. It derives its 
 name from Cambuskenneth Abbey, which is close by. It is 
 prettily situated, and is chiefly inhabited by weavers. 3, Abbey 
 St. Dalhan s, par., co. Berwick, N. part ; area, 5000 ac. ; con 
 tains the ruins of a nunnery dedicated to St. Bathan. Pop. in 
 1841, 146. 
 
 In IRELAND: 1, Abbey, or Corcomroe Abbey, a par. and 
 vil., co. Clare, on the shores of the harbour of Burren, 
 bay of Galway, and directly opposite the town of the latter 
 name, 118 m. S.W. Dublin, and 40 m. N.W. Limerick. 
 The ruins of the abbey are extensive, and form an interesting 
 feature in the landscape. Pop. of par. in 1841, 1442. 2, 
 Abbey, or Innislonnngh, a par. partly in the co. Waterford, and 
 partly in that of Tipperary ; 9378 ac. Pop. in 1841, 4764. 
 3, Abbey Knockmoy, co. Galway; 12,386 ac.; contains ruins 
 of old abbey, in which are curious fresco illustrations of 
 ancient Irish costumes. Pop. in 1841, 3846. 4, Abbeyfeale, 
 crooked, dirtv. and badly paved, rendering the pleasant par. and vil., CO. Limerick; 18,l50ac. Pop. in 1841, 5492. 
 
 VVI.KIiAN. AIllir.VU.I.E. ! 
 
 u-ooded promenades on the ramparts all the more acceptabl 
 The principal buildings are the Tour de Beffroi, the barracks, 
 the foundling hospital, and the church of St. Vulfrari. The 
 magnificent W. front, and part of the nave of this last-named 
 edifice, were built during the reign of Louis XII., under the 
 care of Cardinal George d Amboise, but the original design 
 was never completed ; the facade is in the flamboyant style, 
 covered with the richest tracery, and the niches filled with 
 statues of saints attired in singular costumes. Abbeville is the 
 seat of courts of primary jurisdiction, and of a court of com 
 merce ; and it has a chamber of commerce, a royal society of 
 sciences and belles-lettres, a commercial college, and a public 
 library of 15,000 volumes. The manufactures of the town 
 are considerable, employing 13,000 workers, and amounting 
 annually to 520,000. They consist chiefly of cloth, serges, 
 Utrecht velvets, calicoes, muslins, linen and woollen thread, 
 packthread, which is famed, sailcloth, cordage, soap, lamp- 
 
 nt pa 
 e. 5, 
 
 Abbeygormagan, par., co. Galway; 11,750 ac. Pop. 
 
 1841, 2930. 6, Abbey- Jer point, par., co. Kilkenny; 1008 ac.; 
 contains ruins of an ancient abbey, founded in 1180. Pop. in 
 1841, 375. 7, Abbeylara, par. and vil., co. Longford; 9150 
 ac. Pop. in 1841, 3084. 8, Albeymalwn, par., co. Cork; 
 4482 ac. ; contains ruins of an ancient abbey of same name, 
 founded by Bernardine monks. Pop. in 1841, 3261. 9, 
 Abbeyshrule, par. and vil., co. Longford; 2340 ac. Pop. in 
 1841, 1283. 10, Abbey strowry, par., co. Cork; 9396 ac. ; 
 contains ruins of an ancient abbey, in which are some inter 
 esting monuments. Pop. in 1841, 6225. 11, Abbeydarig, 
 vil., co. Longford. 12, Abbei/dorney, vil., co. Kerry, on the 
 river Brick, 5 m. E. by N. Tralee. Pop. in 1841, 418. 
 13, Abbey-Leix, market tn. and par. Queen s co., near the left 
 bank of the Nore, 9 m. S.S. W. Maryborough, and 53 m. S.W. 
 Dublin. It has a very handsome church, It. catholic chapel, 
 three schools, almshouses, market and session-houses, prison, 
 
 black, &c. Bleaching, dyeing, tanning, paper making, and [ and infirmary, wiih two woollen manufactories, a large worsted 
 
 boat building are carried on. Abbeville, from its advan- 
 
 im ll, and a boulting mill. It has six annual fairs. Pop. of 
 
 tageous position on the Somme, here a wide river, is a place par. in 1841,6719, of which the town comprises 1020. 14, 
 of some commerce, produce, from a considerable distance | Abbeysidc, a vil. and suburb of the burgh of Dungarvon, co. 
 inland, being brought to it for export. At high water, Waterford. It extends along the N.E. side of Dungarvon 
 vessels of 100 to 150 tons can reach the harbour, and the 
 number which annually frequent the port is about 350. The, 
 
 principal articles of traffic, besides the manufactures already 
 alluded to, arc grain, oil seeds, lucerne, wine, brandy, cider, 
 oil, &c. Abbeville, anciently Abbatis Villa, or Alba Villas, 
 
 harbour, and derives its name from the remains of an ancient 
 Augustinian abbey, founded in the 13th century. 
 
 ABBIATE-GKASSO (commonly BIAORASSO), a consid 
 erable tn. and commune, Venetian Lombardy, cap. district 
 of same name, prov. of, and 20 m. N.W. Pavia, on the grand 
 
 canal di Bereguardo, which runs from that city to Sesto, 
 and near the left bank of the Tecino. It is well built and 
 
 was formerly cap. of the old county of Ponthieu, and it wa.< 
 frequently an object of contention during the wars between 
 France and England. Pop. in 1846, 17,035. (Dic.de la \ clean, surrounded by a wall, and comprises three churches, 
 France.) j two chapels, two infirmaries, seven oratories, and municipal 
 
 ABBEVILLE. 1, A well-watered and fertile district of j buildings. The manufacture of baize, cloth, silk, bricks, 
 the U. States, in the W. part of S. Carolina, between the rivers , candles, &c., is carried on, and an annual cattle fair is held in 
 
 Savannah and Saluda; area about 1000 sq. m. Wheat, rye, 
 oats, Indian corn, and tobacco are grown, and sheep, cattle, 
 pigs, and silkworms are reared. The district also possesses 
 
 July. Pop. 0803. The district, situated in a remarkably 
 
 fertile and well-irrigated plain, contains twenty-two communes, 
 and produces grain, grapes, mulberries, and other fruits; 
 
ABBITIBBE 
 
 ABER 
 
 vegetables of every kind, and of the best quality, abound ; 
 and on the rich pasture lands bordering the Tecino, numerous 
 cattle are reared. Excellent butter is made, and much care 
 is bestowed on the cultivation of silkworms. Pop. 35,338. 
 
 ABBITIBBE, a lake of Upper Canada, 45 m. long, great 
 est breadth 18 m. The Hudson s Bay Company have a 
 trading port at its S.E. extremity, for the purchase of furs 
 and peltries; lat. 49 N.; Ion. 78 52 W. It contains a 
 number of small islands, and gives name to a tribe of Indians 
 who chiefly reside near it. Abbitibbe is also the name of a 
 river issuing from the lake, which, after a course of above 
 240 m. S.E. to N.W., unites with the Moose river, and falls 
 into James Bay, in the S. part of Hudson s Bay. In the 
 estuary lies Moose fort. 
 
 ABBO, a name by itself, and, with prefixes, of four small 
 towns in Abyssinia, kingdom Amhara, districts Maitsha and 
 Goutto, S. W. from lake Dembea ; all situated near the sources 
 of the Abai, and within a few miles of each other; the most 
 S. Abbo being about 25 m. from the most N. Borkon Abbo ; 
 and the two intermediate towns, Abbo, and Welled Abbo, 
 being only 7 or 8 m. apart. 
 
 ABBOT S LANGLEY, a vil. and par. England, co. 
 Hertford. The vil. lies about 21 m. N. London, a little to 
 the W. of the mainroad to St. Alban s. It is situated on a 
 high level, and consists of one principal street. The houses 
 are small, and most of them old. The church is an ancient 
 building, in the Elizabethan style of architecture, and contains 
 some curious antique monuments. There are also two small 
 dissenting chapels, and a boys , girls , and infants school. 
 The village is not lighted, but is well supplied with water. 
 The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agricultural pursuits. 
 There has been recently established here an interesting insti 
 tution, called the Booksellers Retreat, consisting of seven 
 commodious cottages belonging to the Booksellers Provident 
 Society, and appropriated to their decayed members. There 
 are some large paper mills in the parish. Near the centre of 
 the parish is the station on the London and North-western 
 Kail way, called the King s Langley station. Area of par. 
 51UO acres. Pop. of vil. and par., including BEDMONT, 2115. 
 
 ABBOTS, the name, with various affixes, of several 
 parishes in England: 1, Abbots-Anne, a par., co. Hants; 
 area, 3100 ac.; 2 m. W. Andovev. Pop. in 1841, 619. 
 2, Abbots- Bickington, or Hickington- Abbots, a par., co. Devon; 
 area, 1510ac. ; quarries of blue building-stone, limestone, and 
 marble. Pop. in 1841, 75. 3, Abbotsbury, a par., co. Dorset; 
 area, 4050 ac. ; ruins of Benedictine Abbey ; large annual 
 sheep fair. Pop. in 1841, 1,005. 4, Abbots- Ker swell, a par., 
 co. Devon ; area, 1670ac. ; l^m. S. Newton Abbots ; monastery 
 of Cluniac monks. Pop. in 1841, 433. 5, Abbotsham, a par., 
 co. Devon; area, 2090 ac.; 2 m. W. Bideford. Pop. in 
 1841, 414. 6, Abbots-Leigh, a, par., co. Somerset; area, 
 2150 ac. Pop. in 1841, 366. 7, Abbotsley, or Abbots-Leigh, 
 a par., co. Huntingdon ; area, 2110 ac. Pop. in 1841, 443. 
 8, Abbots-Morton, a par., co. Worcester; area, 1420ac. ; on 
 the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway. Pop. in 1841, 234. 
 9, Abbotstom, a par., co. Hants ; 2 m. New Alresford. Pop. 
 in 1841, 325. 
 
 ABBOTSHALL, a par. and vil. Scotland, co. Fife, on the 
 coast of the Frith of Forth; area, 4026ac. Pop. in 1841, 4811. 
 
 ABCHERON, a peninsular district of Russia, Trans-Cau 
 casian, prov. Daghestan, on the W. coast of the Caspian Sea. 
 6 ec APCIIEROX. 
 
 ABCOUDE, a vil. Holland, prov. of, and 18 m. N.W. 
 Utrecht, on the left bank of the Vecht. It has a large 
 beautiful Calvinistic church, a R. catholic church, and a school. 
 The horse market, held here the last Thursday of August, 
 is celebrated. Pop. about 1000. (Van dor Aa.) 
 
 ABDA, a prov. Morocco, bounded N. by the prov. 
 of Duquclla, E. by that of Morocco, S. by that of Shedma, 
 and W. by the Atlantic. We have hardly any knowledge 
 of the interior, further than that its N. portion consists of 
 a series of extensive steppes or plains. On the coast, cape 
 Cantin, the N. limit of the province, rises precipitously, 
 211 ft. above the sea. About one half of the coast line 
 S. of cape Cantin consists of white cliffs rising above a sandy 
 beach, the remainder is composed of sand hills 150 to 200 ft. 
 high. Inland from this portion of the coast, extends a ridge 
 of sandy-looking hills covered with brushwood ; the whole 
 coast being sandy, barren, and nearly destitute of good water ; 
 
 but portions of the interior are said to be fertile and well 
 cultivated. (Jour. Geog. Soc., vol. vi.) 
 
 ABD-AL-CURIA, or ABD-DL-KOOHY, properly ABDU-T,- 
 KURI, a small rugged isl., coast of Soumali in E. Africa, 
 between cape Guardafui (Kas Asser) and the isl. of Socotra, 
 in lat. 1 1 55 N. ; Ion. 52 30 E. It is about 18 m. long, E. 
 to W., but very narrow ; and near its centre are two hills, 
 which give it the appearance of two islands when seen from 
 a distance. Wood and water are scarce, and the inhabitants 
 few. 
 
 ABD ASTON, or ADD ASTON, a par. and township, Eng 
 land, co. Stafford; area, 5330 ac.; 2 m. N. from the Birming 
 ham and Liverpool Canal. Pop. in 1841, 610. 
 
 ABDEH, or ANJEH, tht ruins of an ancient city, sup 
 posed to be those of Eboda, in Arabia Petraea, 70 m. S. W. by S. 
 Jerusalem, and 210 m. E.N.E. Cairo; lat. 30 55 N.; Ion. 
 34 35 E. The ruins consist of the remains of numerous 
 houses, the walls of a large Greek church, and an extensive 
 fortress, both situated on a long hill, or ridge, overlooking a 
 wide plain. Connected with the fortress are cisterns, and 
 deep wells, walled up with good masonry. The ruins are 
 surrounded by traces of ancient cultivation. 
 
 ABD-EL-GEDYK, an isl. in the river Nile, in Upper 
 Egypt, to the S.E. of Girgeh, about 6 m. long. 
 
 ABDIE, a par. Scotland, co. Fife; N.W. part of the co. 
 on the Frith of Tay ; area, about 7624 ac. ; contains several 
 lakes ; the largest, Lindores, is surrounded with beautiful 
 scenery. Pop. in 1841, 1508. 
 
 A BOON, a par. England, co. Salop ; area, 710 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 155. 
 
 ABD-UL-KOORY. See ABD-AL-CUKIA. 
 
 ABDU-L-KURI, or PALINURUS SHOAL, is the name of a 
 dangerous reef of rock and coral, lying off the S. coast of 
 Arabia, in lat. 12 12 30" N- i and Ion. 52 11 E. (R.), dis 
 covered by Capt. Haines so lately as 1835. It extends 1850 
 yds. from N.N.E. to S.S.W., with a breadth of 300 to 600 
 yds. ; its highest part, at the time of its discovery, being a 
 pointed rock, which was only 17 ft. below the surface. It is 
 8 m. distant from the nearest land, bearing N. by W. ; the 
 soundings in its neighbourhood vary suddenly, and are not 
 to be relied on. Between the shoal and the shore there is a 
 depth of 120 fathoms, but the safest navigation is to seaward. 
 (Jour. Geog. Soc.} 
 
 ABELA. See ABILA. 
 
 ABENBERG, a small rn. Bavaria, in Middle Franconia, 
 15 m. S. W. Niirnberg. It has two churches and a poorhouse, 
 and its inhabitants are engaged in needle making, and in cul 
 tivating hops. Pop. 1133. 
 
 ABENSBERG, a tn. Lower Bavaria, 18 m. S.W. Ratis- 
 bon, cap. of district of same name, on the right bank of 
 the Abens, here crossed by a bridge. It is the seat of 
 a court of justice (landgericht) , and has two churches and 
 a castle, the former residence of the counts of Abensberg. 
 It has manufactures of cloth and other woollen fabrics, and 
 of earthenware. Hops are cultivated in the vicinity, and 
 there are several breweries in the town. There is a mineral 
 well in the neighbourhood, the waters of which, containing 
 iron, salt, and sulphur, are used both internally and externally 
 for cutaneous diseases, gout, &c. The Austrians, under the 
 Archduke Louis and General Ililler, were defeated here by 
 Napoleon, who took 18,000 prisoners, on April 20, 1809. 
 
 Pop. 1210. The district has an area of 112 geo. sq. m., 
 
 and a pop. of 17,000. (Huhn.) 
 
 ABER, the name, with various affixes, of several parishes 
 and villages in Scotland and Wales, and of a parish and town 
 ship in England. 
 
 Those in SCOTLAND are: 1, Abercliirder, a vil. and par. 
 Marnoch, co. Banff; 5 m. N.E. Turiff. Pop. in 1841, 819. 
 2, Abercorn, a par. and vil., co. Linlithgow, on the shore 
 of the Frith of Forth; area, 4496 ac. There are some 
 remains of Roman forts in this par. The vil. is beautifully 
 situated, 10 m. W.N.W. Edinburgh. Pop. in 1841, of 
 par. and vil., 2146. 3, Abercrombie, a par., co. Fife. (See 
 MOSANCE, ST.) 4, Aberilulyie, a par., co. Perth ; area, 
 2800 ac. ; abounds in freestone; proprietor, Earl of Kinnoul. 
 Battle of Duplin fought in this par., Aug. 12, 1332. Pop. in 
 1841 , 360. 5, Aberlody, a vil., par., and bay, co. Haddington, 
 N.W. coast. The par. contains about 4000 ac. Pop. in 
 1841, 1050. 6, Aberlemno, a par. and vil., co. Forfar; 2 m. 
 
AI5EE 
 
 ABERDEEN 
 
 S.S.W. nrechin; 6m. by 5; contains two antique obelisks. 
 Pop. 1023. 7, Aberloin; par and vil. Banff, S.E. bank Spey, 
 7 ra. by 4J. Pop. 1352. 8, Abernyte, par. Perth; 2513 ac. 
 Pop. 280. (See also ABERUOUR.) 
 
 In WALES: l,Abcredow, par. Radnor, on the Eclco; with 
 the ruins of Llewelyn-ap-Griffith s castle. Pop. 345. 2, 
 Abcrerch, par. Carnarvon, near the mouth of the river Ercli. 
 I op. 1013. 3, Aberhiifisp, par. Montgomery, 3 in. W. by 
 N. Newtown. Pop. 535. 4, Abcrnant, par. and township, 
 Carmarthen, near river Cywyn. Pop. 2511. 5, Aber-Port/i, 
 par. Cardigan, on Cardigan Bay. Herring fishing is carried 
 on to a limited extent. Pop. 496. 6, Abenvheeler, a town 
 ship and vil. Denbigh, par. Bedfary. Pop., par. 534; vil. 
 114. 7, Aberi/scir, par. Brecon. Pop. 117. 
 
 In ENGLAND: Aberford, a par. and township, W. Riding, 
 co. York; area, 3820 ac. Coal, lime, and fine white building- 
 stone, are wrought. Pop. 1071. Sec ABEUFORD. 
 
 ABER, or ABERGWNGREGYN, a vil. and par. Wales, 
 co. Carnarvon, hund. Ucheff, E. side of the Menai Strait, 
 4 m. E. Bangor. The village, pleasantly situated at the 
 mouth of a small river, contains a church, places of worship 
 for Independents and Wesleyan Methodists, and several 
 schools. The ancient Welsh princes had temporary resi 
 dences here. Pop. of par. in 1841, 556. 
 
 ABERAERON, a nourishing little seaport tn. Wales, 
 co. and 20 m. S.E. Cardigan, at the mouth of the Aeron. The 
 houses are all on a uniform plan, and are built of stone and 
 Carnarvon slate. The town is well supplied with water, and 
 is improving. It has an elegant church, chapels for Inde 
 pendents, Calvinistic Methodists, and Wesleyans ; a town- 
 hall, in the Grecian style; union workhouse, and three schools. 
 Ship-building is carried on ; large quantities of corn, butter, 
 and lead ore, are exported; and limestone, culm, and American 
 timber, imported. The inhabitants are chiefly seafaring 
 people and agriculturists, and are comfortable. There are 
 some fine public walks in the vicinity. Pop. in 1841, 534. 
 
 ABERAVON, or ABERAFAN, a bor. and par. Wales, co. 
 Glamorgan, at the mouth of the Avon, and on the E. side of 
 Swansea Bay, 8 m. E. from the town of that name. The 
 borough, which has increased rapidly of late years, and has 
 been also considerably improved, is situated on a plain at the 
 foot of a mountain, and consists chiefly of two irregular 
 streets ; houses mostly of recent erection, and built of stone 
 obtained in the neighbourhood : indifferently supplied with 
 water. It has an established church, six chapels, a townhall, 
 a national and three private unendowed schools; a mechanics 
 institute, and Bible and church missionary societies. The 
 exports consist principally of copper, tinned plate, wrought 
 iron, coals, cinders, patent fuel, chemicals, and yellow metal, 
 chiefly raised or manufactured within the limits of the borough. 
 Of these, about 58,566 tons are exported annually. The in 
 habitants are mostly employed in mining, and the manufacture 
 of metals, and are generally in tolerably comfortable circum 
 stances. Aberavon is one of the boroughs of the Swansea 
 district which, in 1848, had 1300 registered electors. Pop. 
 of par. in 1849, 1947; of bor. 5490. 
 
 ABERBROTIK )( K, ABERBUOTHWICK. Sec ARBROATH. 
 
 ABERCONWAY. See COXWAY. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, a township, Lower Canada, co. Terre- 
 bonne, district of, and 39 m. N.W. Montreal. It has manu 
 factures of potash and maple sugar, with saw-mills. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, a small river, New South Wales, one 
 of the head streams of the river Lachlan, an affluent of the 
 Murrumbidjee, and with the latter falling into the Murray. 
 The Abercrombie rises among the Blue Mountains, and unites 
 with the Narrawa about lat. 34 S ; Ion. 149 E., from which 
 point the stream takes the name of the Lachlan river. 
 
 ABERDARE, or ABEKUAU, a vil. and par. S. Wales, 
 co. Glamorgan, part of the bor. of Merthyr-Tydvil. It is 
 pleasantly situated on the Dar, 4 m. S.W. by W. Merthyr- 
 Tydvil, has an ancient church, with two beautiful new ones 
 now (1852) erecting; places of worship for Baptists, Inde 
 pendents, Unitarians, and different sections of Methodists, 
 a national, and other schools. The parish abounds with coal 
 and iron, and contains three extensive iron works, the pro 
 duce of which is shipped at Cardiff, Neath, and Swansea. In 
 1839, the Messrs. Wayne, of the Gadly s Iron-works, judging 
 from the great supply of steam coal which the valley was 
 capable of producing, sunk the first pit for exportation. Their 
 
 example was speedily followed by several other gentlemen, and 
 the annual export now falls but little short of 1,000,000 tons. 
 The Aberdaro Railway, connected with the Taff Vale Railway, 
 was, in a few years afterwards, opened; and, from a small 
 village, this place has now become one of the most important 
 places of business in South Wales. The Aberdare Canal, 
 7 m. long, passes within 1 m. of the village, communicating 
 with the Glamorganshire Canal. Pop. (1841), about 6000; 
 (1851), rather more than 15,000; and steadily progressing at 
 the rate of about 1200 yearly. 
 
 ABERDEEN, a maritime co. in the N.E. of Scotland, 
 occupying the central portion of an extensive promontory 
 which projects into the North Sea, between the Friths of Tay 
 and Moray. It is about 91 m. in length E.N.E. to W.S.W., 
 and about 36 m. in width at the broadest part in right angles 
 to its length, diminishing S.W. to about 10 m. It is 
 bounded W., N.W., and N., by the counties of Inverness 
 and Banff, S. and S.E. by those of Perth, Forfar, and Kin 
 cardine, and E. and N. by the North Sea. It has 60 in. of a 
 ea-coast, about 14 of which, from the Dee to Ythan, are low 
 and sandy ; the remainder is mostly bold and rocky, and, in 
 me places, deeply penetrated by remarkable fissures and 
 caverns ; but there are no islands upon it deserving of 
 special notice. The county is estimated to contain 1,260,800 
 acres, and is divided into eight districts, and 85 parishes, 
 several of which are united. It is generally hilly, and in 
 the S.W. occur several of the highest mountains in Scotland. 
 These are, Ben Macdhui, 4390 ft. high ; Cairntoul, 4220 ; 
 Cairngorm, 4095; Bcnnabuird, 3940; Lochnagar, 3800; and 
 several others, varying from 3000 to 3700 ft. These moun 
 tains present, in some places, vast perpendicular precipices, 
 a few of them exceeding 1000 ft. in height. Their sum 
 mits are generally bare, rounded, and covered with detached 
 masses of granite. The predominant rocks of the county are 
 gneiss, mica-slate, and granite ; and patches of serpentine 
 occur in many parts. Trap rocks are of continual occur 
 rence in the inland and hilly parts ; and veins or dikes of 
 trap are observed in parishes near the E. coast. But its 
 most valuable mineral is its celebrated building granite, 
 large quantities of which are exported yearly from the 
 quarries near Aberdeen and Peterhead. It is of two colours, 
 gray and red ; is extremely hard, and susceptible of a high 
 polish. The other rocks are limestone, sandstone, and clay- 
 slate, occurring in small quantity. Several descriptions of 
 precious stones, including rock-crystal and topaz, are occa 
 sionally found on the mountains, and small pieces of amber 
 on the Buchan coast. Chalybeate springs occur in several 
 parts of the county, the most celebrated of which are those of 
 Peterhead, Fraserhurgh, and Pananich. 
 
 The principal rivers are the Dee .and the Don (both of wltich 
 sec). The former rises in the S.W. part of the co., in the 
 mountains which there separate the latter from Inverness- 
 shire, at a height of 4000 ft. The latter has its source on 
 the W. border of the co., at an elevation of 1640 ft. above 
 the level of the sea. The salmon fishery of the Dee is worth 
 about 8000 a-year. That of the Don is less valuable. 
 Other streams are the Ythan, Ugie, and Deveron or Doveran. 
 Amongst the lakes in Absrdeenshire, none of which are 
 remarkable for their extent, is that which inspired the early 
 muse of Byron Lochnagar. It is a small sheet of water, 
 situated amongst the mountains in the S.W. part of the co., 
 at a height of 2500 ft. above the level of the sea. The 
 scenery around it is singularly wild and picturesque, a rock 
 of 1315 ft. in perpendicular height rising close by its margin. 
 
 In the S.W. parts of Aberdeenshire there are some exten 
 sive forests, including the celebrated forest of Mar, in which 
 are many magnificent specimens of the Scotch fir, some 
 of them supposed to be from 300 to 400 years old. The 
 largest measure 13 and 14 ft. in girth, 6 ft. from the ground, 
 and are about 60 ft. in height. These forests are plentifully 
 stocked with red and roe deer, and all sorts of game. 
 
 The soil of the county varies greatly. The finest arable 
 land lies chiefly between the Don and the Ythan. In the 
 lower parts round the coast, clay is prevalent ; in the upper 
 arable districts, there is a considerable extent of light, sharp, 
 sandy loam. Sand, moor, and moss prevail on the hills and 
 higher grounds, occupying, with the mountainous tracts and 
 other waste lands, nearly two-thirds of the entire county. The 
 climate is, on the whole, mild ; but the summer short, and 
 
ABERDEEN (NEW) 
 
 ABERDEEN (NEW) 
 
 somewhat cold. An improved system of cultivation is 
 extending over the county, chiefly from the example of experi 
 enced farmers from the southern districts of Scotland, many 
 of whom have settled in it. All the crops usual in other 
 parts of the country, with the exception of wheat, for which 
 neither the soil nor climate are suitable, succeed well here, 
 especially oats, of which about 16,000 acres are grown annu 
 ally ; barley, potatoes, and turnips. But the most important 
 object now with the tenantry is the rearing of cattle, immense 
 numbers of which are exported annually. This trade is of 
 comparatively recent date, but has been of extraordinary rapid 
 growth. It commenced about the year 1830, since which it 
 has risen from 150 head to 18,300 the number exported in 
 1 849. The native breed, which is said to have greatly increased 
 in size since the introduction of turnip feeding, is preferred by 
 the best j udges. Dairy husbandry has also made great progress 
 of late years ; the quantity of butter now annually exported 
 is said to exceed 100,000 in value. Sheep farming has not 
 increased in proportion. 
 
 The old domestic stocking-knitting, for which Aberdeenshire 
 was once famous, is now nearly extinct ; but there are exten 
 sive manufactures of cotton, linen, flax, and of woollen and 
 sail cloth, in the city of Aberdeen, and neighbourhood. 
 
 The scenery in the mountainous parts of the country is of 
 the most magnificent description, and attracts numerous 
 visitors in the summer season. Much pleasing scenery occurs 
 also along nearly the whole course of the Dee. 
 
 There are many noblemen s and gentlemen s seats dispersed 
 over the county, one of which Balmoral is now a summer 
 residence of her majesty Queen Victoria. The royal mansion 
 
 130 m. by rail ; lat. 57 8 54" N. ; Ion. 2. 5 7" W. (K.) It is large 
 and handsome, the streets are in general spacious, and the 
 houses mostly built of fine granite from quarries in the neigh 
 bourhood. The principal street in the city is Union Street, in 
 the line of which a splendid granite bridge, of one arch, 132 
 ft. span, and 56 ft. from the base of the piers to the top of the 
 parapet is thrown over the ravine of the Den burn a small 
 rivulet which intersects the city, and falls into the harbour. 
 A jointstock company have recently opened up a new street 
 from the harbour to the centre of the town, and erected a 
 great central public market on the west side of the new street, 
 at a cost of nearly 40,000. Among the principal public 
 buildings may be mentioned the county rooms, founded in 
 1820; the surgeons hall; advocates hall; Marischal College; 
 the trades hall ; the barracks, erected on the Castle-hill ; a 
 military hospital on the Heading-hill, the ancient place of 
 execution, now connected with the Castle-hill by an elegant 
 cast-iron bridge; the Bridewell, on the west side of the town, 
 and the old cross, in the centre of Castle Street, a fine spe 
 cimen of the ornamental architecture of the 17th century. 
 
 BALMORAL CASTLE. From an Original Drawing. 
 
 is in the parish of Crathie, on the right bank of the Dee, 
 on a natural platform at the foot of a hill called Craig-an- 
 gowan, 52 m., by road, W.S.W. Aberdeen, and 75 N. Edin 
 burgh. Balmoral castle was originally a very old building, 
 but had been latterly much enlarged and improved by various 
 occupants ; it has been further altered and extended since it 
 became the royal residence, and now presents, from the variety 
 of styles in which the different additions have been executed, 
 a very irregular, but certainly very picturesque appearance. 
 The scenery around comprises nearly all the elements of the 
 beautiful and romantic in landscape, the principal and most 
 striking of which are the richly-wooded hills and rocky heights 
 which rise abruptly on either side of the Dee. 
 
 The annual value of real property assessed in Aberdeenshire, 
 in 1843, was 603,968. The receipts for the relief of the poor 
 in the year ending May 14, 1847, was 28,158, 15s. 9|d ; the 
 expenditure for the same period, 28,610, 4s. O^d. A large 
 proportion of the working population is employed in agricul 
 ture and in the fisheries on the coast. The county sends one 
 member to parliament; constituency in 1847, 3836. County 
 town, Aberdeen. Pop. in 1851, 212,032. 
 
 ABERDEEN (NEW), a royal burgh and seaport, 
 
 Scotland, co. Aberdeen, of which it is the cap., situated 
 
 mostly on rising ground at the mouth of the river Dee, on 
 
 its N. bank; 94 in. direct distance N.E. Edinburgh, and 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 IHK MARKET CHOSS, ABEKUiJ ,> . 
 
 It is of a hexagonal form, and is adorned with a series, of 
 well executed quarter-length effigies of Scotch and British 
 sovereigns, from James I. to James VII. It was erected in 
 1 686, on the site of an older cross, which was then demolished 
 In 1839, the present structure was removed to the spot it now 
 occupies, a distance of about 100 yards from its former position. 
 The ecclesiastical establishments of the city, at the time of 
 the Eeformation, consisted of one parish, containing three 
 churches ; but in the course of the last century, the seafaring 
 population had a church erected at Foot-Dee, and subsequently, 
 down till 1834, when presbyteries were empowered by the 
 General Assembly to assign districts to chapels of ease, quoad 
 sacra, the number of churches in connection with the Estab 
 lishment was 14. Since the Disruption, 14 Free churches 
 have been erected, and altogether there are now 45 churches in 
 the city of Aberdeen, viz., 9 Established ; 15 Free churches; 
 5 United Presbyterian ; 4 Congregational; 3 Baptist; 2 Scottish 
 Episcopal; 1 Church of England; 1 Unitarian; 1 Wesleyan; 
 1 R. catholic ; 3 Various. 
 
 The charitable and benevolent institutions aro numerous. 
 The principal establishment of this class is Gordon s Hospital, 
 which is similar to George Heriot s Hospital in Edinburgh, 
 and maintains and educates 150 boys. This hospital was 
 endowed by a citizen who acquired a large fortune in Danzig, 
 and left the property under deed of mortification, dated 
 Dec. 13, 1729, in charge of the magistrates, for the education 
 of the sons of decayed burgesses, and relatives of the name of 
 Gordon and Menzies. In 1816, another benevolent gentleman 
 left considerable property for the education of boys, under 
 similar conditions, and which was conjoined with Gordon s 
 Hospital; and by the economical investment of the whole 
 funds, after defraying the cost of the building, the trustees 
 are enabled to command an annual revenue of 3000. Among 
 the other charitable institutions of the city, we may enumerate 
 a house of refuge, founded and endowed by Mr. James Watt, 
 
ABERDEEN (NEW) 
 
 LO 
 
 ABERDEEN (NEW) 
 
 surgeon; four industrial schools; the deaf and dumb institu 
 tion; an orphan girls school, and an asylum for the blind. 
 
 The most valuable of the benevolent institutions of the 
 city is the royal infirmary, which was established by the 
 magistrates in 17.39; and which, by numerous bequests and 
 liberal subscriptions, has become so extended as to afford ac 
 commodation for the treatment of 300 poor patients, and at the 
 same time constitutes a valuable adjunct to the Aberdeen 
 medical school. Under the same management as the infirmary, 
 the constituency of which are the subscribers above 5, there 
 id a lunatic asylum, which was chiefly built by a legacy of 
 10,000, left by Mr. John Forbes, of Newe. The average 
 number of patients is 200. 
 
 New Aberdeen is the seat of a college, called Marischal 
 College, founded and endowed by George, Earl Marischal, in 
 1593. The original building having been found incommodious, 
 :i new structure was erected some years since at a cost of 
 22,000, when several new chairs were erected and endowed. 
 The aflairs and discipline of this college are managed by the 
 Benatus Academicus, which consists of the chancellor, the 
 rector, the dean of faculty, the principal, and 10 professors. 
 There are 114 bursaries connected with this college and uni 
 versity, of the annual value of 1150, 70 of which are 
 open to competition. The average number of students for 
 the last 20 years has been: in arts, 190; in divinity, 120; 
 in law, 35; in medicine, 84. The session commences in the 
 beginning of November, and close the 1st of April. It was 
 usual at this university, as at most others in Scotland a short 
 time ago, to receive students who were grounded only in 
 Latin; but in 1847, the Senatus Academicus resolved to re 
 ceive no entrants who had not also been previously grounded 
 in Arithmetic and the Elements of Greek. 
 
 Besides the public schools, which are under the charge of 
 the magistrates, and to which the children of pauper poor may 
 be admitted free of charge, there are five endowed schools, 
 36 sessional and voluntary schools, and free schools of 
 industry. From statistical returns recently obtained by an 
 educational society, it appears that there were about 6000 
 children at school within the city when the parliamentary 
 census was taken in 1841, which is equal to nearly one- 
 twelfth part of the population. 
 
 The manufactures of Aberdeen date from a very early 
 period of history. So early as the year 1200, it exported to 
 the Netherlands woolfels ; and in the loth century, there were 
 exports of plaiden, digrams, stuffs, serges, and stockings ; in 
 return for which the burgesses received wine, brandy, sugar, 
 tobacco, soap, and iron, grain, flax, and fruit. Stocking 
 weaving was the staple manufacture of the city for many 
 years. In 1749, a manufactory for preparing linen thread 
 was established, and afterwards two flaxmills were estab 
 lished; then followed the establishment of four cotton manu 
 factories, all of which continue in operation. The flaxmills 
 employ between 2000 and 3000 hands, the cotton works 
 about 1500, and the woollen manufactures 2000 hands; at 
 wages varying from 2s. 6d. to 8s. for females, and from Is. 6d. 
 to 21s. a week for males. 
 
 Besides these, there are three manufactories for combs, one 
 of them the largest of the kind in the kingdom. Granite was 
 first polished in this city; and now there is a very large estab 
 lishment for preparing that stone for all sorts of useful and 
 ornamental work. Paper making is carried on to a consider 
 able extent in the neighbourhood, and there are several 
 manufactories for locomotive engines in the city. There is 
 also a good deal of ship building. 
 
 The harbour of Aberdeen is spacious, and is rendered safe 
 by a pier of granite on the N. side of the Dee, which extends 
 into the German ocean. The harbour and docks, the latter 
 enclosing a surface of 36 acres, are the property of the 
 corporation of Aberdeen, and the business is virtually 
 managed by a committee annually elected by a general com 
 mission. The ordinary revenue is about 20,000, and tin 
 expenditure between 17,000 and 18,000. The foreigi 
 commerce is chiefly with N. America, the E. Indies, W. 
 Indies, the Mediterranean, and the Baltic. The principal 
 imports are wheat, flour, coals, salt, flax, lime, and cotton, 
 Exports linen, cotton, and woollen goods ; oats, barley, am 
 bere ; cattle, sheep, pigs, butter, eggs, pork, salmon, am 
 granite; of which last 40,000 worth is sent annually to 
 London. There were 12 ships formerly employed in th 
 
 hale fishing, but they are now reduced to two or three. 
 The shipping trade of the port has greatly increased of late 
 ears. In 1849, the number of sailing vessels belonging to 
 Aberdeen, under and above 50 tons, was 340 ; tonn 65,559 : 
 while, in 1835, the number was only 173; tonn. 26,063. The 
 ;ross receipt of customs in the year 1845, was 76,259, 
 2s. Wd. The total number and tonnage of vessels inwards, 
 or the same year, was 2219 ; tonn. 277,912. Outwards, 1522 ; 
 onn. 214,756. There is a regular communication by steam 
 jetween Aberdeen and London, Leith, Inverness, Cromarty, 
 Caithness, Orkney, and Shetland. The vessels employed on 
 hese stations arc all of the finest description, and are the 
 iroperty of joint stock companies in the city. On Girdle 
 Ness point, a little S. of the entrance into the harbour, there 
 lighthouse, first used in 1833. It is a double light, 
 exhibiting two fixed lights, one over the other, and may be 
 seen at the distance of 13 to 16 miles; lat. 57 8 N. ; Ion. 
 2 3 W. There are also coloured leading lights for the har- 
 jour. A bar runs across the mouth of the harbour, on which 
 here are 12 ft. neaps, and 16 ft. spring tides. 
 
 The mercantile institutions of Aberdeen comprise a guildry ; 
 wo native banks, viz., the Town and County Banking Com- 
 >any, and the North of Scotland Banking Company; and six 
 )ranch banks, viz., a branch of the Union Bank of Scotland, 
 he National Bank of Scotland, the Bank of Scotland, the 
 Commercial Bank of Scotland, the British Linen Company s 
 Bank, and the City of Glasgow Banking Company. There 
 s also a National Savings Bank, and two native Insurance 
 Companies. The guildry, which was at one time the great 
 ;oinmercial league of the city, being now stripped of its 
 jxclusive privileges, exists only as a charitable or benevolent 
 nstitution. There are seven incorporate trades, possessed 
 )f property to a great extent; and it is worthy of remark that 
 :he trades and the city treasury are the principal feuholders 
 >f Aberdeen. 
 
 The municipal affairs of the town are conducted by a pro 
 vost, four bailies, a dean of guild, and 12 councillors. The 
 ,vatching, cleaning, and lighting are under the control of a 
 joard of commissioners, of which the provost, the dean of 
 juild, the city treasurer, and the convener of the trades, are 
 ix officio members, other 18 commissioners being chosen by 
 rate-payers, paying 5 of yearly rent. 
 
 Aberdeen was originally called Dcvanlia; but during the 
 Scoto-Saxon period it became known by the name of Aberdeen 
 r Aberdon, and in subsequent ages by Alerdene or Aberdeen. 
 The etymology of this designation is generally allowed to be 
 Celtic, and from some manuscripts published by the Spalding 
 Club, it would appear that for the first 12 centuries the Celtic 
 was the only language spoken and written in this city, ami 
 the north of Scotland. 
 
 During the reign of David I., and probably about the 
 year 1130, Aberdeen was constituted a royal burgh, and the 
 
 .habitants btirgcnscs regis, as holding their Burgagium im 
 mediately of the crown. In 1440, the city was ranked under 
 the Laws of Burrows, and provision made that the provost, 
 baillies, and council shall be chosen annually by the com 
 mon suffrages of all the honest men of the burgh. About 
 the year 1179, William the Lion confirmed the privileges and 
 immunities enjoyed in the name of his grandfather, and erected 
 the city into a corporation by royal charter, which appears to 
 have been the first instrument of the kind executed in Scot 
 land. Thus enfranchised, the magistrates became entitled to 
 send representatives to the national parliament, or Scottish 
 Estates. In 1 196, additional privileges were conferred on the 
 city. In 1222-23, Alexander II. permitted the holding of 
 a weekly market, and authorized the institution of a merchant 
 guild, or Mercantile confraternity. In 1342, David II. 
 summoned a general council to meet in the city, at which 
 former charters were enlarged ; local improvements superin 
 duced, the streets paved, and many of the houses, formerly 
 built of wood, rebuilt of stone. From these circumstances, 
 the town thenceforward became distinguished by the name 
 of New Aberdeen. The last charter granted to the city was 
 by Charles I., and is dated Oatlands, Sept. 9, 1638. By 
 the act of Union, Aberdeen became entitled to send a repre 
 sentative to the parliament of the United Kingdom, conjunctly 
 with Arbroath, Montrose, Brechin, and Bervie; but by the 
 Reform Bill of 1832, it was again erected into an independent 
 constituency, which includes both New and Old Aberdeen. 
 
ABERDEEN (OLD) 
 
 ABERGAVENNY 
 
 Among the eminent men connected with Aberdeen were 
 John Barbour, the poet, George Jamieson, the painter, James 
 Gregory inventor of the reflecting telescope, Dr. Beattie, 
 author of The Minstrel, and the late eminent physician, Dr. 
 Abercrombie of Edinburgh; all of whom, with exception 
 of Dr. Beattie, were natives of the town, or of its immediate 
 vicinity. 
 
 According to the census of 1841, the pop. of Aberdeen, in 
 cluding the par. of St. Nicholas and Old Machar, was 66,778; 
 pop within the parliamentary boundary, 63,288. Increase 
 on the whole since 1831, 875U; apparent increase within par 
 liamentary boundary, 5269. Parliamentary constituency for 
 1848-49, 2832. 
 
 ABERDEEN (OLD), a small but ancient city in Scot 
 land, co. Aberdeen, pleasantly situated on the S. bank of the 
 Don, about 1 m. N. New Aberdeen, of which it may now be 
 considered a suburb. It consists of but one principal street, 
 running N. and S., and some diverging lanes or alleys, several 
 of which are very old. It is well supplied with water, is sur 
 rounded with many handsome villas, and is, altogether, an 
 agreeable place of residence. The more remarkable buildings 
 are the college (King s College), the remains of the cathedral, 
 
 KING S COLLEGE, OLD ABERDEEN. From a Local Print. 
 
 the townhouse, and the old bridge of Don. The townhouse is 
 a neat structure, and is provided with a handsome public clock. 
 The bridge, celebrated in Scottish tradition by the name of 
 the Brig o Balgownie, is one of the oldest edifices of the 
 kind in Scotland, having been erected by king Robert Bruce 
 in the 14th century; it consists of one large Gothic arch of 
 67 ft. span. The nave of the cathedral, now used as the parish 
 church of Old Machar, and two fine spires at the west end, are 
 all that remains of the original structure, a magnificent build 
 ing, commenced in the 14th century, and dedicated to St. 
 Machar. It has still an imposing appearance, and is kept in 
 high preservation ; its large western window and oak ceiling, 
 painted with armorial bearings, being much admired. The 
 college buildings occupy the sides of a large quadrangle, and, 
 with their chapel, were renewed some years ago at an expense 
 of about 6000. These buildings are finely set off by a noble 
 tower, surmounted by an imperial crown of open stone work. 
 The college was founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1494, 
 and was subsequently patronized by James IV. There are 
 here 34 bursaries, held by 1 34 students, their aggregate value 
 being about 1800 a year, and giving about one bursary to 
 every fourth student. There are nine professors, and several 
 lectureships ; but the lecturers, unless also professors, are not 
 members of the Senatus Academicus. The students wear red 
 gowns, and are from 200 to 250 in number. There is also a 
 grammar school in the town, and various other schools. Old 
 Aberdeen has neither trade nor manufactures, but is wholly 
 dependent on its university. Top. in 1841, about 1490. 
 
 ABERDOUR, the name of a village and two parishes, 
 Scotland: 1, A vil., par. of same name, co. Fife, beautifully 
 situated within about m. of the sea, and much resorted to 
 in the summer season, as sea-bathing quarters, by the citizens 
 of Edinburgh, being distant from that city only about 8 m., 
 
 and having daily communication with it by steamers. 
 The PARISH lies on the shores of the Frith of Forth ; abounds 
 in coal, lime, and freestone, and is well wooded. There are 
 here the remains of the old castle of Aberdour, built by the 
 Regent Morton ; area about 5000 ac. Pop. in 1841, 983. 
 2, A par., co. Aberdeen, on the N. coast, 8 m. W. Fraserburgh ; 
 from 10 to 11 m. long, and about 7 broad. The whole sea 
 coast of this par. is bold, rocky, and picturesque; and con 
 tains some remarkable caverns, in one of which Lord Pitsligo 
 lay concealed after the battle of Culloden, till his retreat was 
 discovered by the footprints in the snow, of the young girl 
 who carried him his supplies of food and other necessaries. 
 Pop. in 1841, 1645. 
 
 ABERDOVY, a harbour on the W. coast of Wales, co. 
 Merioneth, 10 m. N. Aberystwith ; lat. 52 36 N. ; Ion. 4 7 W. 
 This harbour is safe and convenient for vessels drawing 
 not more than 15 ft.; but as the bar and channel leading into 
 it frequently shift, a pilot is necessary. 
 
 ABERFELDY, a vil. Scotland, co. Perth, 22 m. N.W. 
 the city of Perth, and 53 N.W. Edinburgh. It lies in a pic 
 turesque locality, near the right bank of the Tay, and consists 
 chiefly of one long street, witli another leading off about the 
 centre, and a small square at their junction. It has a parish 
 and a Free church, a bank, and some good schools. In the 
 vicinity are the Birks of Aberfeldy the wooded uplands 
 round the fine falls of the Moncss, which arc celebrated in 
 Scottish song. Pop. in 1841, 823. 
 
 ABERFFRAW, a small tn. seaport, and par. Wales, on 
 the W. coast of the isl. of Anglesea, on a slope rising from 
 the E. and S.E., at the mouth of the river Ffraw, about 7 m. 
 S.E. Ilolyhead, and 15 S. W. Bangor. It consists of two narrow 
 streets. The houses are all of stone, and many of them 
 thatched. It is not lighted, and is but indifferently supplied 
 with water. The church is a very ancient building, and con 
 tains one of the most perfect Anglo-Saxon arches in the prin 
 cipality. There are, besides, two Methodist chapels and a 
 free school. In summer a few large boats carry corn and 
 potatoes to Carnarvon and Isle of Man, which forms nearly 
 the whole trade of the place. Husbandry and fishing form the 
 chief employment of the inhabitants. There are six cattle 
 fairs held during the year. Abcrffraw was one of the three 
 royal residences of Wales, and a seat of the principal courts of 
 justice. In moderate weather, a vessel may stop a tide in the 
 bay, in 4 or 5 fathoms, clean sand, above 2 cables-length from 
 the N. side of the bay. Small vessels go further in and lie 
 aground. Pop. of par. in 1841, 1336 ; of town, in 1850, from 
 650 to 700. 
 
 ABERFOIL, or ABEKFOYLE, a small par. and romantic 
 pass in the Highlands of Scotland, co. Perth, on its S. boundary, 
 23 m. N. Glasgow, and 16 m. W. by N. Stirling. The 
 clachan (Anglice, hamlet) of Aberfoil, is the scene of some 
 amusing incidents in Scott s novel, liob Roy. The scenery 
 around is varied and picturesque. Pop. in 1841, 543. 
 
 ABERFORD, a tn. England, co. York, W. Riding, 9 m. 
 N.E. Leeds, and 14 m. S.S.W. York, in a valley on the river 
 Cock, which is here crossed by a substantial stone bridge of 
 three arches. It consists of one long street, a mile in length; 
 the houses are of stone, and generally well built. The town 
 is not lighted, but is amply supplied with water from springs. 
 The only buildings of any note are the church an ancient 
 structure of mixed architecture, and the Aberford almshouses, 
 built in 1844-5. The latter is a handsome building, and con 
 tains eight inmates, four male and four female. There are 
 here a Methodist chapel, a R. catholic chapel, a national, and 
 other schools. There are no manufactures, the inhabitants 
 being mostly engaged in agricultural labour, and a portion in 
 collieries and lime quarries in the vicinity. Petty sessions 
 are held here every fortnight, and Justice of the Peace courts 
 daily. Aberford is a polling place for the W. Riding of York. 
 Its population has greatly increased within the last 10 years. 
 
 ABERGAVENNY, a tn. and par. England, co. Mon- 
 mouth, the former 14 m. S.W. from the town of Monmouth, 
 and 157 m. by railway from London, pleasantly situated on 
 rising ground, at the confluence of the Usk and Gavenny, over 
 the former of which there is a handsome stone bridge of 15 
 arches. The town is long and straggling, and some of the 
 streets are narrow, but great improvements have taken place 
 of late years. It is now lighted with gas, and amply supplied 
 with water, by pipes from springs in the vicinity. There are 
 
ABERGELE 
 
 ABHA 
 
 es ; 
 
 structure, and contains several ancient monuments. There 
 are, besides, several Dissenters meeting-houses, a R. catholic 
 chapel, a free grammar school, founded by Henry VIII., 
 
 two churches one of which, recently rebuilt, is a handsome that of Inverness, being united with the par. of Kincardine. 
 
 1 Pop. in 1841, 1832. 
 
 ABERSEE, or ST. WOLFGANG, a small lake, Upper 
 Austria, circle Traun, 6 in. W. Ischcl. It is about 6 m. 
 
 , 
 
 national school, and several daily and Sunday schools. The 
 benevolent institutions comprise a dispensary, a lying-in hos 
 pital, and some minor charities. A thriving reading society, 
 or association, was established here in 1848. Abergavenny 
 was at one time famous for the manufacture of flannels and 
 periwigs, but both trades are now extinct ; the former in con 
 sequence of the introduction of machinery, and the latter 
 through the caprices of fashion. The wigs made here were 
 composed of goats hair, and were remarkable for their extreme 
 whiteness, the quality which constituted their chief value. 
 The principal trade now remaining is in wool, but a pretty 
 extensive general retail trade has arisen from the establish 
 ment of several iron works in the vicinity. There is here, 
 also, a large boot and shoe-making concern, a coach manu 
 factory, several tanners, tallow-chandlers, saddlers, cabinet 
 makers, wood-turners, and brewers, &c. &c. The prosperity 
 of the place is further promoted by the Monmouthshire and 
 Brecon Canal, which passes near it. Petty sessions are held 
 here every Wednesday. Market days, Tuesday and Saturday ; 
 the latter principally for grain. There are three fairs annually 
 for cattle, sheep, horses, hogs, and flannel. The scenery in 
 the vicinity is singularly beautiful and picturesque, particu 
 larly when seen from the terrace of the ancient castle of 
 Abergavenny, which is situated on an eminence near the S. 
 extremity of the town, and is open to the public. Area of 
 par. 4290 acres. Pop. of town and par. in 1841, 4953. 
 
 ABERGELE, or ABERGELEV, a small market tn. and 
 par., N. Wales, co. of, and 10 m. N. by W. Denbigh, and 
 6 in. N.W. St. Asaph. The town is about half a mile from 
 the sea, although called a seaport in several gazetteers. Being 
 surrounded with beautiful scenery, and having a salubrious 
 air, it is much frequented by invalids, while its fine beach 
 attracts numerous sea-bathers during the summer season. 
 It is also much resorted to on account of its cattle fairs, of 
 which there are three annually. There arc a church and several 
 dissenting chapels here, and a national and British school. 
 None of the churches have any architectural pretensions. 
 The town consists of three streets, one of which, the main 
 street, is straight. The houses generally are built of lime 
 stone, with which the neighbourhood abounds ; the rest of brick. 
 There is no trade in the town, the inhabitants consisting of 
 shopkeepers, tradesmen, mechanics, and a few farmers. At 
 the distance of about 1 m. there are some remarkable caverns. 
 Pop. of par. and tn. in 1841, 2GG1. 
 
 ABERGWILLY, a small vil. and par., S. Wales, co. 
 Carmarthen, bun. Elvet ; the former on a beautiful plain in 
 the vale of Towy, 2 m. N.E. the town of Carmarthen. It 
 consists of one straight street, generally well kept. The 
 houses have been well built, principally of stone, but are fall 
 ing into decay. The village is well supplied with water, but 
 is not lighted. The church is in the Gothic style. There arc, 
 also, a very handsome Independent chapel, built about five 
 years ago, of undressed limestone, and one national school. 
 Near the village is Abergwilly palace, the residence of the 
 bishop of St. David, a handsome structure, surrounded with 
 finely ornamented grounds. Pop. of par. and vil. in 1841, 2306. 
 ABERNETHY, a village and two parishes, Scotland: 
 I, A vil. and par., co. Perth ; the former 7 m. S.E. town of 
 Perth, and 27 m. N.W. Edinburgh. It is irregularly built, and 
 is composed chiefly of thatched houses. Abernethy is supposed 
 to have been the capital of the Picts. A religious house, 
 dedicated to St. Bridget, was endowed here during the Pictish 
 period, and long flourished under the patronage of the Scottish 
 kings ; and here the Culdcoi continued, till they were sup 
 pressed in the 1 3th century. There is, likewise, at this place, 
 a round tower of great antiquity, 74 ft. in height, and 48 ft. in 
 circumference at the base. Under the floor of this tower, three 
 skeletons were found in 1841, indicating, apparently, that 
 these mysterious structures were used as places of sepulture. 
 Numerous other interesting relics of remote times have been 
 found in this neighbourhood, proving, in connection with its 
 historical associations, that it had been at a former period a 
 place of great note. Area of par., a small portion of which 
 is in co. Fife, about 7030 acres. Pop. in 1841, 1920; of 
 vil. 827. 2, A par. partly in the co. of Elgin, and partly in 
 
 long by 3 m. broad ; has a depth of from 500 to 600 ft., and 
 yields pike, salmon, and large trout, in great quantity. Near 
 the E. end is the vil. of St. Wolfgang, whence the lake derives 
 one of its names. 
 
 ABERTAMM, a small market tn. Bohemia, circle of, 
 and 12 in. N.N.E. Elnbogen. It lies on the Wistritz, at 
 the foot of the Plessberg, and has a church. In the neigh 
 bouring hills are mines of silver, tin, and cobalt, in which tho 
 majority of the inhabitants are occupied. Pop. 1700. 
 
 ABERYSTVVITH, a seaport tn. Wales, co. Cardigan, 
 pleasantly situated on an acclivity on the bay of the latter 
 name, at the confluence of the rivers Ystwith and Rheidiol, 
 33 m. N.E. the town of Cardigan, and 180 W.N.W. London. 
 It was at one time strongly fortified with walls, a portion of 
 which still remains on the shore. Aberystwith has become, 
 of late years, one of the most fashionable watering places on 
 the Welsh coast, and has consequently been much extended 
 and improved. The streets are steep and uneven ; but some 
 of them are spacious, and they are in general regular, well 
 paved, and well lighted with gas. The houses are, for the 
 most part, neat and substantial, and many of them large and 
 handsome, and all amply supplied with excellent water, 
 brought by pipes from the neighbouring hills. The principal 
 public buildings, and other objects of interest, are the two 
 churches, one of which is a handsome new structure in the 
 Gothic style, the custom house, assembly rooms, town hall, 
 and theatre. The Marine Parade, an elegant crescent, is 
 situated on the margin of the sea, and close by is the Marine 
 Terrace, a handsome range of modern buildings, commanding 
 a fine view of the bay. At the north end are the marine 
 baths, in which every requisite accommodation is to be met 
 with. There are also a market place, and a handsome gene 
 ral mart lately erected, an infirmary, and places of worship 
 for Baptists, Independents, and Methodists. There are four 
 dissenting schools and one national, an institution for the 
 deaf and dumb for the principality, and an infirmary. Besides 
 sea-bathing, for which the beach is admirably adapted, having 
 a gentle slope, with water of the utmost purity, there is a 
 chalybeate spring within a few hundred yards of the east end 
 of the town, the waters of which resemble those of Tunbridge. 
 There are four public walks, the principal of which, called 
 the Castle Walks, are much admired for the extensive views 
 they command. Races are held every August, on race ground 
 about 3 m. from the town. Archery and cricket clubs have 
 also been established. A little west of the town, on a bold 
 eminence projecting into the sea, are the picturesque ruins of 
 an ancient castle, founded in 1109. There are no particular 
 manufactures carried on, the people being chiefly employed in 
 seafaring, mining, and agriculture. Their condition appears to 
 be favourable. The harbour, which was formerly in a very bad 
 condition, has been of late considerably improved ; it has now 
 an average depth of 16 ft. water at spring tides. A substantial 
 stone pier has been erected on the S. side of the entrance into 
 the harbour, which protects it from the W. gales. The pier 
 extends 260 yds. in a S.S.E. direction. The principal exports 
 are lead ore from Cardiganshire, pig lead, oak bark, corn, and 
 butter. The imports, coal, culm, lime, American timber, and 
 general merchandise. The number and tonnage of sailing 
 vessels registered at the port on December 31, 1847, was 
 164; tonn. 8934. The number of vessels that entered the 
 harbour during the year ending December 31, 1847, was 
 382; tonn. 14,184: the number that cleared during the same 
 period, 177; tonn. 7496. The government of the town is 
 vested in a mayor, recorder, chamberlain, and common bur 
 gesses. Aberystwith Is one of the contributory boroughs of 
 Cardiganshire that return a member to the House of Com 
 mons. Pop. 4975. 
 
 ABERYSTWITH, or BI.AEXAU, a par. England, co. Mon- 
 month; area, 10,930 ac. Pop. 11,272. It contains several 
 villages, and extensive iron-works, and abounds with valuable 
 iron minus. 
 
 AB1IA, a large vil. Abyssinia, state or kingdom of 
 TigriS, about 50 m. N.E Axum; the residence of a chief who 
 rules over the territory of Massoua, and the seat of a consider 
 able trade in cattle, horses, iron, skins, and cotton. 
 
ABIAD 
 
 13 
 
 ABO 
 
 ABIAD (BAHR-EL-), a large river of Africa, supposed to 
 be the true Nile, that river being formed by the junction of 
 the Bahr-el-Abiad (White Nile), and the Bahr-el-Azrek, or 
 Blue Nile, at Khartum; lat. 15 40 N.; Ion. 33 E. (See 
 AZREK, BAHR-EL-.) It is believed to rise under the name of 
 Tubiri, at a comparatively small distance from the sea, in the 
 ccruntry of Mino Moezi, a continuation of the high plateau of 
 Abyssinia, situated to the N. of the great lake Zambeze, or 
 N yassi. It was ascended by M. Arnaud d Abbadie, in 1842, 
 to 4 42 42" N. lat. (S,:e NILE.) 
 
 ABILA, ABIL, or ABELA [Hebrew, Abel, a grassy 
 spot 1 ]. The name of several ancient places in Syria, of which 
 the most noted was Ahila of Lysanias, cap. of the Roman prov. 
 of Abilene, on the river Barradai 18 m. N.W. Damascus, on 
 the site of the modern village of Suk Wady Barrada. A few 
 broken pillars, and other fragments, are all that now remain 
 to indicate its former rank. 
 
 ABILENE, a small district, or Roman prov. Syria, whose 
 precise extent is now unknown. It lay N.W. Damascus, and 
 was named from its chief town, Abila. 
 
 ABINGDON, a bor. and market tn. England, co. Berks, 
 50 m. N.W. London, r. bank of the Thames, at the junction 
 of the Ock. Its streets are spacious, and well paved and 
 lighted. In the centre of the town is the market place and 
 market house, the latter a large and handsome building of 
 freestone. The other public edifices are the two parish 
 churches, one of which, St. Helen s, is a large Gothic struc 
 ture, with a fine spire; the chapels of the Dissenters, of which 
 there are four or five, including Baptists, Independents, Society 
 of Friends, and Wesleyan Methodists ; the guildhall, and the 
 county jail. The educational institutions comprise a free 
 grammar school, a national, and a British school. There are 
 a number of almshouses in the town, and various minor cha 
 rities. The principal manufactures are canvas, sacking, and 
 sailcloth ; the latter, however, has much fallen off of late years, 
 owing to the competition of establishments in the N. of Eng 
 land and in Scotland. Malting, carpet weaving, and hemp 
 dressing, are also carried on to a considerable extent. The 
 corporation consists of a mayor, four aldermen, and 12 coun 
 cillors. Abingdon returns one member to the House of Com 
 mons ; registered electors, 315. Seven fairs are held annually, 
 chiefly for horses and horned cattle, Races are held in Sep 
 tember. The branch railway of the Great Western line, 
 leading to Oxford, passes by Abingdon, where there is a 
 station. Abingdon is a very old town, its original foundation 
 being ascribed to the Saxons. In former times, it was called 
 Scheovesham, and is spoken of in ancient records as a wealthy 
 and important place. Pop. in 1.841, 5269. 
 
 ABINGEll, a par. England, co Surrey ; area, 9780 ac. ; 
 4 m. S.W. Dorking. Top. in 1841, 920. 
 
 ABINGHALL, a par. England, co. Gloucester; area, 
 860 ac. Pop. in 1841, 239. 
 
 ABINGTON, the name of several parishes, England : 
 1, AUngton, a par., co. Northampton ; area, 1190 ac. It has 
 two small charities. Pop. in 1841, 143. 2, Abinyton (Great), 
 a par., co. Cambridge; area, 1500 ac.; 2 m. N.W. by W. 
 Linton. Pop. in 1841, 358. 3, AUngton (Little], a par., co. 
 Cambridge ; area, 1120 ac. Pop. in 1841, 277. i, AUngton- 
 in-the-Clai/, or I iyotts, a par., co. Cambridge; area, 1260 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 232. Also a par. and vil. Ireland, co. Limerick 
 and Tipperary; area, 30,400 ac. Pop. 8314. 
 
 ABIPONES, or ABIPONIANS, a warlike tribe of aborigines, 
 S. America, republic of La Plata, located in El Gran Chaco, 
 on the right bank of the Vermejo. The men are tall, robust, 
 well featured, and excel in swimming. Their leader in war 
 is their judge in peace. They subsist by fishing and hunting, 
 and hold the flesh of the tiger in the highest estimation. 
 They are much given to war; and their weapons are long 
 lances and arrows, with iron points. Their numbers once 
 exceeded 100,000, but now they scarcely amount to 5000, 
 and are daily decreasing. (Heal Enciildopridie.} 
 
 ABISCUN, or ABOSKUN, a small tn. Persia, prov. of, and 
 42 m. N.E. from Astrabad, upon the river Gurgan ; lat. 37 17 
 N.; Ion. 55 E. It has a small but well-frequented port upon 
 the Caspian Sea. The fishery near Abiscun is leased to the 
 liussians, who send seven or eight vessels here annually. 
 
 AB-IS TAD A [ standing water ], a lake, Afghanistan 
 (which see). 
 
 ABKASIA, ABASIA, or ABCIIASIA, a trans-Caucasian 
 
 prov. Russia, gov. Imeretia, bounded N. and W. by the Cau 
 casus, which separates it from Circassia, E. byMingrelia, and 
 S. by the Black Sea. The country is composed wholly of the 
 S. side of the Caucasus mountains some of whose snow- 
 covered peaks are here 12,000 ft. to 13,000 ft. high and of 
 the low plains intervening between these mountains and the 
 sea. The prevailing geological formations are greenstone, 
 porphyry, black slate, and Jura limestone. Immense forests 
 of the finest trees oak, alder, chestnut, &c., clothe the moun 
 tain sides, stretching down to the plains, whose Italian climate, 
 ripening maize, figs, pomegranates, the fruits of central Europe, 
 grain, and excellent grapes, invites to profitable cultivation ; 
 but the country is a waste, its numerous ruins alone proclaiming 
 its former flourishing condition. Nor do the Abkases excel 
 in cattle rearing or commerce a little of the latter, in felt 
 mantles, fox and polecat skins, honey, wax, and boxwood, 
 being carried on any more than in agriculture. On the con 
 trary, with such indifference are these branches of industry 
 pursued, that by their means they do not obtain a sufficient 
 subsistence ; which, therefore, they eke out in the manner most 
 congenial to their tastes, by plunder and robbery occupations 
 which, in them, have become a second nature. The slave-trade 
 with Turkey formerly constituted one of the chief employ 
 ments, and tended greatly to reduce the population. Notwith 
 standing the watchfulness of the Eussians, slaves are still 
 secretly exported. The Abkases belong to the Circassian race, 
 and distinguish among themselves five tribes Abkases pro 
 per, Bsubbes, Tschebeldies, Aschawes, and Imuozahanes. 
 Abkasia, under the Byzantine emperors, formed an inde 
 pendent state, separate from Georgia. In the 1 1th century, 
 by heirship, it fell to the kings of Georgia, under whom it 
 decayed; and in 1457, it fell under the supremacy of the 
 Turks. In 1771, the Abkases asserted their independence; 
 and, after various fortunes, about 1823, the reigning prince, 
 Michael Bei, called on the Russians to occupy the country, 
 which they did, by stationing troops at Sukum, Tambor, 
 Pitzunda, and Gagra, the chief towns of Abkasia. Area about 
 2638 sq. m. Pop. about 52,000. (Real Encyldopadie.} 
 
 ABKASIA, LITTLE, a district, Circassia (which see). 
 
 AB-KETTLEBY, a par and township, England, co. 
 Leicester; area, 2920 ac. Pop. in 1841, 380. 
 
 ABKHASIA. See ABKASIA. 
 
 AB-KUREN, a river, Persia. See KARUN. 
 
 ABLA, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 34 m. 
 N.W. Almeria, on the highroad between that town and 
 Granada, situated on the S. slope of the Sierra Nevada, close 
 and ill built, with houses raised on causeways 25 ft. above 
 the carriage road. It has three squares, a parish church, 
 chapter house, public storehouse, and prison. Its inhabitants 
 are engaged in distilling brandy, and in making bricks, tiles, 
 and earthenware. Pop. 2120. (Madoz.) 
 
 ABLA1KIT (GREAT and LITTLE), two small rivers, 
 E. Siberia, affluents of the Irtisch, into which they full, after 
 having united a few miles above Ust-Kamenogorsk, in about 
 lat. 49 N. ; Ion. 82 E. On the right bank of the most westerly 
 of these rivers, is the small decayed town of Ablai kit, 50 m. 
 S.S.W. Ust-Kamenogorsk, in which are the remains of a 
 temple, surrounded by a wall 15 ft. high, said to have been 
 built previous to 1671, and to have been dedicated to the 
 native deities, by Ablai , chief of the Kahnucs. 
 
 In the valley of Ablai kit are the ruins of an ancient Tartar 
 castle, which has been dignified by the name of the palace 
 of Ablai kit, although it would seem to have had little other 
 claim than extent to such title. Its materials having been 
 carried away for building purposes, hardly anything more 
 than^the foundations now remain. 
 
 ABO, a seaport tn. and dist. of Russian Finland. The 
 tn. was at one time the cap. of Finland, as it now is of the 
 dist. of its own name : on the river Aurajoki, between the 
 gulfs of Bothnia and Finland ; lat. 60 27 N. ; Ion. 22 17 5" E. 
 It was at one time a flourishing place, but had fallen into 
 decay, when a tremendous conflagration, which occurred in 
 Nov. 1827, completed its ruin. On that occasion, nearly the 
 whole city was destroyed, including the university and its 
 valuable library, and other public buildings, together with 786 
 houses out of 1100. The university, which is now removed 
 to Helsingfors, the Russian cap. of Finland, had, previous to 
 its destruction, 40 professors and several hundred students, a 
 library containing many thousand volumes, a collection of 
 
ABOH 
 
 1 1 
 
 ABROLHOS 
 
 philosophical instruments, a cabinet of natural history, and 
 an observatory. The town has since been in part rebuilt ; 
 but the houses and public edifices being placed at consider 
 able distances from each other, it covers a great deal more 
 ground than, formerly. Notwithstanding the disaster above 
 mentioned, Abo still has some manufactures, and a consider 
 able trade, particularly in planks, the sawing of which employs 
 many of the people. Shipbuilding, also, is carried on to a 
 considerable extent. The cathedral, though a heavy, ungainly 
 building, is remarkable for its antiquity, and interesting from 
 its associations, having been the cradle of Christianity in 
 Finland. It was greatly injured by the fire in 1827, but has 
 since been restored. The harbour is shallow at the town, but 
 there is depth enough for large vessels 3 m. below ; in conse- 
 quence of the rising of the land along the whole of this coast, 
 
 Abo is gradually receding from the sea. The district of 
 
 Abo has an area of 7480 geo. sq. m. Grain, lint, hemp, and 
 tobacco, are cultivated, and cattle are reared. Building tim 
 ber is abundant, as are also limestone, slate, and iron. Pop. 
 of town (1841), 13,050; of district, 200,000. 
 
 ABOH, a tn., W. Africa, cap. of the Ibo or Eboe kingdom, 
 at the upper end of a creek of the Niger ; lat. 5 40 N. ; Ion. 
 G 35 E. Numerous little creeks lead to the dwellings of 
 the principal men, surrounded by the huts of their dependants, 
 and here their canoes are laid up. There is no regularity 
 observed in the position of the huts, except that they are 
 built on either side of these creeklets, and about 20 to 30 
 yards apart, having a few palms or banana trees to afford 
 shelter from the burning sun. Each family has one or more 
 canoes. The huts are of a square form, mostly double, placed 
 at right angles, neatly built of mud, and roofed with a com 
 pact matting of dried palm leaves and reeds; the floor is 
 raised a foot and a half. The entrance is square, and serves 
 for the threefold purpose of door, chimney, and window. 
 The houses of wealthier persons are larger, and have many 
 compartments, with a quadrangular court, in which many of 
 the household and cooking operations are carried on. The 
 king s residence is here, and is the largest in the town. Aboh 
 is very unhealthy, particularly on the subsidence of the peri 
 odical floods, when the muddy deposits are exposed to the 
 sun. The people cultivate rice, Indian corn, cassava, bananas, 
 oranges, cocoas, ground nuts, pappaws, Guinea peppers, &c. 
 Domestic slaves are numerous, but they are invariably well 
 treated, and many of them become free. The natives are 
 tall, well made, and muscular, but the hands and feet are 
 large. (Allen s Niger Expedition.) 
 
 ABOMEY, a tn., W. Africa, cap. of the kingdom of 
 Dahomey, on the coast of Guinea ; lat. 7 40 N. ; Ion. 2 5 E. ; 
 situated in an indifferently watered plain of rich red loam. 
 There being almost no stone to be found nearer thr.n the Kong 
 mountains, distant upwards of 60 m., like other Dahoman 
 towns, it is built of clay. The town is walled, and the houses 
 seldom exceed one floor in height. Mr. Duncan, who visited 
 it in 1845, thus describes one of the king s palaces, which 
 may probably be taken as a favourable type of Dahoman 
 houses in general : After passing through two quadrangles | 
 of about GO yards by 30, we entered the principal square. 
 This square is formed of three sides of houses or long sheds ; 
 and on the opposite side to the principal part, or side, is a high 
 wall of clay, with human skulls placed at short intervals on 
 the top. This palace, for the king has many, is divided into 
 different apartments, all on the ground floor ; for though the 
 ridge of the roof is of sufficient height for two stories, yet the 
 thatch is brought down so low as to reach to within 4 ft. of 
 the ground. Along the front is a low piazza, extending the 
 whole length of the building. The main entrance is in the 
 centre of the side of the square. The human sacrifices at one 
 time common here, and throughout Dahomey, have been in a 
 great measure abolished, being now tolerated only in the case 
 of criminals condemned to death for offences of the gravest 
 description. A court of appeal, in which the king usually 
 presides, has been established, which has greatly contributed to 
 put down the oppression frequently exercised upon the people 
 by the local governors (caboceers). Natives from all parts of 
 central Africa are to be met with in Abomey, which is much 
 resorted to for traffic in slaves, and to a less extent for traffic 
 in palm oil and ivory, all of which are shipped at Whydah, 
 distant about 90 m. S. Pop about 24,000. (Duncan s Tra 
 vels in Western Africa, 
 
 ABONY, ABANY, or SZOT.NOK-ABOXY, a market tn. 
 Hungary, district of, and 50 m. S.E. Pesth, near the Zagyva. 
 It lies in a plain, between Tapjo-Szellc and Toriik Szt. Miklos, 
 on the road from Gyongyos to Debreczin, near Szolnok. It 
 has a K. Catholic and a Protestant church. Pop. 9000. 
 
 ABOUK1R. 1, A bay on the N. coast of Egypt, of a 
 semicircular form, and spacious, stretching from Aboukir 
 Point, on the W., to the Kosetta mouth of the Nile, on the 
 E., a distance of about 23 m. It is chiefly remarkable 
 as the scene of the decisive Battle of the Nile, in which 
 Rear-Admiral Nelson, on August 1, 1798, with 14 ships 
 of the line, destroyed the French fleet under Brueys. 2, 
 A small town and castle, on a point of land stretching 
 into the Mediterranean, and forming the western boundary 
 of the bay, lat. (castle) 31 20 30" N. ; Ion. 30 5 7" E. 
 (K.) It lies near the site of the ancient Canopus, where the 
 god Serapis was worshipped, and to which the inhabitants 
 of Alexandria resorted for the purposes of dissipation and 
 debauchery. The castle was strongly fortified by Mehemet 
 Ali, and used by him as a state prison, substituting confine 
 ment therein for the punishment of death. On March 8, 
 1801, the British army, under Sir Ralph Abcrcromby, effected 
 a landing at Aboukir, in the face of a tremendous fire from 
 the French; and on the 13th, succeeded in driving them 
 from a strong position on the adjacent heights, towards Alex 
 andria. (Wilkinson s Modem Egypt.) 3, An islet in the 
 bay of Aboukir, called also NELSON S ISLAND, 3 m. E. from 
 the town, and connected with the shore by a sunken reef. 
 It contains some remarkable antiquities, part of which are 
 now under water. Among these have been noticed paved 
 floors of buildings, arched chambers lined with stucco, &c. ; 
 and a singular subterranean passage, open towards the N., 
 leading to apartments which have an aperture at top, level 
 with the highest part of the island. The whole surface is 
 described as covered with various plants, especially a superb 
 species of lily; and the sands of the shore contain those beauti 
 ful shells used as earrings by the Maltese sailors. 
 
 ABOYNE, a par. Scotland, co. Aberdeen ; 4 m. long by 
 3 broad. Pop. in 1841, 1138. 
 
 ABKANTES, a tn. Brazil, prov. of, and 28 m. N.E. 
 Bahia, and about 4 from the sea. It has a church and two 
 schools ; and the inhabitants for the most part Indians culti 
 vate mandioca, and occupy themselves in fishing and the chase. 
 The soil in the vicinity is fertile. Pop. 2000. 
 
 ABRANTES [Latin, Alrantium], a fortified tn. Por 
 tugal, prov. Lower Beira, on the right bank of the Tagus ; 
 73 m. N.E. Lisbon. It is situated upon a rising ground, 
 surrounded by gardens, vineyards, and olive plantations. It 
 is the entrepot for part of the productions of the provinces of 
 Alemtejoand Beira, and carries on an active traffic with Lisbon, 
 to which it sends considerable quantities of corn and oil, witli 
 melons, peaches, olives, and other fruits and vegetables; in 
 which trade more than 100 barges are constantly employed. 
 It contains an old castle, four parish churches, and four con 
 vents one of which, that of San Vinccnte, is the largest 
 and finest in Portugal an hospital, and an old almshousc. 
 Abrantes gave the title of duke to Junot, one of Napoleon s 
 generals. At the capitulation of Cintra, it was surrendered 
 to the British. Pop. 4647. 
 
 ABRESCIIEWILLER, a com. and vil. France, dcp. 
 Meurthe, 8 m. from Sarrebourg. Saw, paper, and meal mills, 
 &c. Pop. 2082. 
 
 ABRIOLA, a tn. Naples, prov. Basilicata, 9 m. S. Po- 
 tenza ; on a steep rock, in a healthy and fertile district. Pop. 
 3000. 
 
 ABROBANYA, or ABRUD-BANYA fin German, Gross- 
 scldattcn], a market tn. Transylvania, 23 m. N.W. Karls, 
 burg, with a German (reformed), a Wallachian, a Greek, and 
 a K. catholic church. The most of the inhabitants who are 
 composed of Hungarians, Germans, and Wallachians are 
 employed in the neighbouring gold and silver mines, supposed 
 to have been wrought by the Romans, and to have procured 
 for the place the name of Auraria Magna. In the town, there 
 is a board of directors for the management of the mines. 
 The ore, after being separated from the earth with which it is 
 mixed, is sent to the furnace at Zalathna. Pop. 4000. 
 
 ABROLHOS. 1, A cape on the coast of Brazil, prov. 
 Porto Segura, between the rivers Pcruhipe and Caravellas ; 
 lat. 17 58 S.; Ion. 38 42 W. Off this point, in the 
 
ABEUD-BANYA 
 
 18 
 
 ABUBHIE 
 
 Atlantic, about 50 m. from the sliore, lie the four small but | S. by Yemen, and W. by the Red Sea. It is about four days 
 dangerous rocky islands, or shoals, of Santa Barbara, com- I journey long, by about two broad, and consists chiefly of a 
 nionly called the ABROLHOS. They are projections from a j sandy plain, nearly sterile 
 
 bank of rocks, which exhibits itself occasionally between 17 
 and 25 S. lat., at a distance of from 6 to 30 m. from the 
 mainland. They are described by Capt. Fitzroy as rather 
 low, but covered with grass, with a little scattered brushwood ; 
 the highest rising about 100 ft. above the sea, and the sound 
 ings in their vicinity so very irregular, that little dependence 
 can be placed on the lead. The centre island of this shoal is 
 
 laid down in lat. 17 51 S. ; Ion. 38 41 30" W. 2, There 
 
 is another reef of the same name (Houtinan s ABHOLHOS), off 
 the W. coast of Australia; lat. 28 30 S.; 113 30 E. In 
 some of the islands forming this group, Capt. Stokes found 
 traces of guano. (Jour. Geo. -Sbc., ii. 315.) 
 
 ABRUD-BANYA. See ABROBANYA. 
 
 ABRUZZO, a territory, kingdom of Naples, of which it 
 forms the N. extremity; bounded on the N. and W. by the 
 Papal States, N.E. by the Adriatic, E. and S.E. by the prov. 
 of Sannio, and S. by Savora. It is divided into three districts 
 or provinces Abruzzo Ulteriore I., Abruzzo Ulteriore II., and 
 Abruzzo Citeriore, so called from their respective relative 
 positions to Naples ; and when spoken of in the plural number, 
 called, collectively, the Abruzzi. The first comprises 1143 
 sq. m., (vith upwards of 175,000 inhabitants; the second, 2220 
 sq. m., with about 260,000 inhabitants; and the third, or 
 Abruzzo Citeriore, 1700 sq. m., with about 260,000 inhabi 
 tants also. The entire territory is traversed by the Apennines, 
 i .nd is throughout extremely rugged and mountainous ; Abruzzo 
 Citeriore so much so, as to present the most serious obstacles 
 to internal communication. The sea-coast of the Abruzzi, 
 011 the Adriatic, is about 80 m. in length, and is without a 
 .single harbour. Most of its rivers, which are numerous, fall 
 into the sea just named. The celebrated Lago Celano, the 
 Lacus Fucinus of the ancients, is in Abruzzo Ulteriore II. ; 
 it is about 15 m. in length, with a breadth of 5 or 6, and is 
 chiefly remarkable for rises and falls, the causes of which are 
 unknown ; and for its association with the name of the emperor 
 Claudius, who cut a canal in order to prevent the lake over 
 flowing a work in which 30,000 men were employed for 1 1 
 years. Both the soil and climate of the Abruzzi are various; 
 the latter differing with the elevation of the former, being 
 cold on the mountains, and hot on the low grounds. Though 
 the highlands are sufficiently barren, the plains and valleys 
 are fertile, producing large quantities of corn, wine, oil, 
 liquorice, almonds, saffron, &c. The mountains are covered 
 with numerous flocks of sheep, the rearing and tending 
 of which, and other domestic animals, forms the chief em 
 ployment of the inhabitants ; whose nomadic habits, natural 
 indolence, and want of education, cause them to neglect the 
 cultivation of the soil, and to prefer sloth and poverty to 
 exertion and competence. They are tall and robust in person, 
 fond of pleasure, but sullen and revengeful in disposition, 
 and were formerly much noted for their predatory propen 
 sities. Manufactures are almost unknown in the Abruzzi, 
 nothing being produced but some woollens, silks, and a little 
 earthenware ; their only commerce is in the export of sheep 
 and cattle. 
 
 ABTHORPE, a par. and vil. England, co. Northampton ; 
 area, 1960 ac. Pop. in 1841, 449. 
 
 ABU, or ABOO. 1, A remarkable mountain, N. Hindustan, 
 prov. Ajmeer, or Rajpootana, principality of Marwar, or Lood- 
 poor, G5 in. W. by N. Odeypoor ; lat. 24 45 N. ; Ion. 72 50 E. 
 It is the highest peak in the Aravulli range, and is stated 
 to be 5000 ft. in height, as indicated by the barometer. 
 The temperature on the summit is said to be so mild, that 
 European fruits and shrubs grow on it readily. A Hindu 
 tradition alleges that the hill was brought by the sage 
 Vasishta, from the Himalayas, a distance of somewhere about 
 700 m., that he might continue his devotions on the spot he 
 
 had been accustomed to. 2, A volcano, on the E. side of 
 
 the island of Sangir, in the Indian Archipelago. It is the 
 loftiest mountain on the island, lies near the coast, and is visi 
 ble from a considerable distance. It is continually smoking, 
 and has, on several occasions, caused great destruction by its 
 eruptions. 
 
 ABU ARISH, a petty state, Arabia, cap. same name, on 
 the Red Sea, between lat. 15 50 and 17 40 N.,and forming 
 a part of Yemen. It is bounded, N. by Hejaz, E. by Asyr, 
 
 on the coast and towards the centre, 
 
 but more fruitful in the direction of the mountains, which 
 form its E. boundary. Winter is dry ; but in the warm season, 
 which is almost insupportable to Europeans, there are daily 
 rains, frequently accompanied by storms of wind. The 
 country has no streams, and few wells; yet the rain water 
 is not collected into tanks, but allowed to spread over the 
 land without any attempt at systematic irrigation. Durra, or 
 Indian millet, is here, as elsewhere throughout Arabia, the 
 principal cereal cultivated. The Indian cotton plant is also 
 grown ; the Mecca balsam is plentiful ; and in the gardens, 
 senna, colocynth, bananas, &c., are raised. The country is 
 covered by small groups of trees of from 50 to 150, so over 
 grown with parasitical plants as to present almost impene 
 trable thickets. By beating the twigs of a tree called mossuak, 
 the Bedouins form a pencil, with which they lay on their 
 tongue and rub on their teeth a kind of finely powdered 
 tobacco, named Bortugal, which is enjoyed both by males and 
 females in Abu Arish, with a similar relish to that which, in 
 other parts of the world, attaches to smoking, eating opium, 
 and chewing betel. Gazelles and hares are numerous, wild 
 cats and rats plentiful, and scorpions are not uncommon. 
 Sheep, a beautiful breed of goats, splendid horses, zebras, 
 camels, and dromedaries, constitute the principal native riches. 
 The chief takes the title of Sherif. (Hitter s Erdkunde.) 
 
 ABU ARISH, a tn. Arabia, cap. of state of same name, 
 about 20 m. E. the Ked Sea ; lat. 17 40 N. ; Ion. 40 25 E. ; 
 90 m. N. Loheia. It is walled, and lies in the middle of an 
 extensive plain, covered with the mossuak tree and jasmin 
 bushes. Its castle, Deir-el-Nasr, is high, well built, and strong; 
 but the palace of the Sherif is merely a large hut, internally 
 decorated with mother-of-pearl. The town has some miserable- 
 looking mosques, one minaret, and some deep wells. The 
 inhabitants, who are poorly clad, carry on a little trade; and 
 the bazaar, and the narrow streets leading to it, are dirty. 
 Pop. 7000 to 8000. (Ritter.) 
 
 ABU GIRGEH, or ABOO GIRO, a large Fellah tn. of 
 Middle Egypt, about 2 m. W. the Nile, 50 m. S. Bcni Sooef; 
 lat. 28 30 N. ; Ion. 30 50 E. It is situated in a rich plain, 
 at a spot where several extensive mounds point out the site 
 of an ancient city, the name of which is unknown. 
 
 ABULLIONTE, a tn. Asiatic Turkey, on an isl. in a lake 
 of same name, 15 m. S. the Sea of Marmora; lat. 40 8 N.; 
 Ion. 28 32 E. It is said to consist of 200 Greek, and 100 
 Turkish houses, and entirely covers the island on which it is 
 built. It is defended by a wall, and contains a ruined castle, 
 apparently Byzantine, chiefly constructed with large blocks of 
 marble, derived from more ancient buildings. The island on 
 which the town stands, is connected with the mainland by a 
 wooden bridge, of simple and slight construction. Abullionte 
 occupies, according to Mr. Hamilton, the site of Apollonia ad 
 Rhyndacum. The lake, 16m. long by 1 1 broad, is celebrated 
 for its carp, which are taken in great quantities, and sent as 
 far as Constantinople. Pop. 2000. (Hamilton s Asia Minor.) 
 
 ABU-MANAH, a vil. Upper Egypt, on the declivity 
 of a hill, about 3 m. E. from the Nile, and 30 S.E. Girgeh. 
 
 ABU-MANDUR, a vil. and convent on the left bank 
 of the Bolbitine branch of the Nile, about 2 m. above Rosetta. 
 The convent which is prettily situated close by the river, 
 and adorned with palm trees is supposed, by Denon, to indi 
 cate the site of the ancient city of Bolbitinum. It was from its 
 tower, where he happened accidentally to be, that the French 
 savant saw Nelson s fleet approaching to fight the battle of 
 the Nile. The scenery around this locality is singularly 
 beautiful. 
 
 ABURY, a par, and vil. England. See AVEBURY. 
 
 ABUSAMBUL. See IPSAMBDL. 
 
 ABUSH1K, a vil. Arabia, prov. Oman, 17 m. S-W. 
 Muscat. It lies at the foot of a picturesque range of hills, 
 exhibiting red, gray, yellow, and dark brown peaks, destitute 
 of soil and vegetation. To the N.E. tin ground slopes to a 
 sandy flat, extending to the sea, about 6 m. distant. The 
 village is a miserable place, consisting of mud houses, and date- 
 tree huts, with a few mud towers, looped for defence. The 
 only water here is a warm spring, rising in a cavern in the cal 
 careous rock behind the village, and of a temperature of 1 11 $ 
 Fah. It is used for irrigation, for cooking, and for medicine, 
 
ABU SIN 
 
 16 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 superstition attributing to it many virtues that it Joes not 
 possess. (Fraser.) 
 
 ABU SIN or ABBA-SEEN, an affluent of the Upper Indus, 
 from the right. It rises in the mountains of Hindu Rush, 
 ahout hit. 35 20 N. ; Ion. 72 45 E. ; takes a S. course, 
 between lofty mountains, and falls into the Indus near Mullai ; 
 lat. 34 40 N ; Ion. 7*3 E. It is a considerable stream, 
 bringing down drift-wood, and is not fordable. The hills and 
 valleys around yield gold dust. The Afghans erroneously 
 consider it the head stream of the Indus. (Hitter.) 
 
 ABU-SYR, ABOUSIR, or ABOOSEER, the name of 
 several places in Lower Egypt, of which the most remarkable 
 are a vil. in the Delta, and a fortified tower on the coast 
 of the Mediterranean. The former, 7% m. S. the great 
 pyramid, and about 60 N. Cairo, lies on the left bank of 
 the Damietta branch of the Kile, near the site of the ancient 
 Eusiris, where are various mounds and other relics of anti 
 quity, but none meriting particular notice. The latter, called 
 also the Arab Tower, is situated near the S.W. extremity 
 of the lake Mareotis, probably not far from the ancient 
 Taposiris, and is the first elevated object seen by mariners in 
 approaching Egypt from the W. 
 
 ABUTIGE, ABOOTEEGE, or ABOOTIDJ [the Abutis of 
 Latin writers, and Apotliyke or Tapothyke of the Copts], an 
 inconsiderable tn. Upper Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile ; 
 lat. 27 2 N. ; Ion. 31 25 E. So early as the time of Abulfeda, 
 the poppy was much cultivated in the vicinity, and is still 
 grown there. The place is noted for the quality of the opium 
 it produces. 
 
 ABY, a par. England, co. Lincoln; area, 1560 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 312. 
 
 ABYDOS, or ABYDAS, an ancient city, Anatolia, which 
 once stood on the E. shore of the Dardanelles, at the narrowest 
 part of the strait, opposite Sestos. Originally, it belonged to 
 a Trojan prince, and subsequently was inhabited by the 
 Thracians and Milesians. Xerxes here built his bridge of 
 boats for the invasion of Greece ; and here Alexander and his 
 army crossed from Europe to Asia. Leander, say ancient 
 writers, swam nightly from Abydos to Sestos to see his loved 
 Hero; a feat in swimming once successfully accomplished 
 also by Lord Byron, at the expense of a severe attack of ague. 
 A few fragments of walls are all that now remain of this city, 
 whose site is partly occupied by the Turkish fort Avido 
 the only stronghold on the Dardanelles capable of defence on 
 the land side. 
 
 ABYDUS, or ABYDAS [the modern Arabat el Matfoon 
 and Ebot of the Copts], an ancient city, Upper Egypt, about 
 6 m. W. the Nile; lat. 26 12 N.; Ion. 32 E.; on the great 
 canal called the Bahr Yoosef. Even in the time of Strabo, 
 Abydus was reduced to a mere village, yet its ruins still 
 testify its former grandeur. It was a residence of the Egyp 
 tian monarchs, and the reputed burying-place of the god 
 Osiris ; in consequence of which belief, the bodies of many 
 Egyptians were brought from a great distance, in order to be 
 interred within its sacred precincts. The Memnonium, or 
 palace of Memnon, and the temple of Osiris, constitute the 
 c hief remains of this once magnificent city. In the former of 
 these, in 1818, W. J. Bankes discovered the famous Abydus 
 tablet, now in the British Museum, on which are engraved a 
 genealogical list of the Pharaohs. In a cemetery to the N. 
 of Abydus, are various antique sepulchral monuments ; and 
 on the N.W. are limestone quarries. (Wilkinson s Modern 
 Egypt.} 
 
 ABYLA, or APES HILL, the N. termination on the S. 
 side of the strait of Gibraltar, near Ceuta, of a range of 
 mountains in Morocco, and forming one of the pillars of 
 Hercules. 
 
 ABYSSINIA, or HABESH, an ancient kingdom of E. 
 Africa, but which, being now broken up into several inde 
 pendent states, has no longer any political existence. Its 
 limits have been variously defined by different authorities, 
 hardly any two agreeing as to what these limits precisely are ; 
 but they may be generally stated as extending between lat. 
 7 25 and 16 40 N.; and Ion. 35 and 43 20 E., having 
 Nubia N. and W., the lied Sea and strait of Bab-el-Mandcb 
 E., and to the S. the unknown countries stretching to the 
 Indian Ocean. The entire length of the kingdom from N. to 
 S. is about 670 m., its breadth from E. to W., at the broadest 
 part, about 540- The principal divisions of Abyssinia are 
 
 called, respectively, Dankali, Adel, Tigre, Amhara, and Slioa 
 (att of which see). The last of these, Shoa, is rapidly becom 
 ing a great and important kingdom. Some extensive but 
 little-known tracts on the S. and S.E., inhabited by the Galla 
 tribes, and comprehending the province of Mera, and a great 
 forest on the N., abounding in elephants, complete the occu 
 pation of the whole space embraced by the limits generally 
 assigned to Abyssinia. The more marked physical features 
 of the country may be described, generally, as consisting of 
 a vast series of table lands of various, and often of great eleva 
 tions, and of numerous ranges of high and rugged mountains, 
 some of them of very singular forms, dispersed over the 
 surface in apparently the wildest confusion. Enclosed in 
 these mountains are prodigious and inexhaustible natural 
 repositories of water, which, pouring down by the deep and 
 tremendous ravines that everywhere intersect them, impart 
 an extraordinary fertility to the plains and valleys below. 
 The country thus presents the sterner features of mountain 
 scenery, combined with the luxuriance of tropical vegetation. 
 The chasms or rents that occur in the plateaux are often of 
 appalling depth, and are rendered more hideous by their 
 impenetrable gloom, their summits frequently not being more 
 than 200 or 300 yards asunder. Harris, describing one of 
 these fearful ravines, says, Masses of basalt, of a dark burnt 
 brown colour, are piled perpendicularly on either side like solid 
 walls ; and rising from a very narrow channel, strewed with 
 blocks of stone and huge fallen fragments of rock, tower over 
 head to the height of 500 or 600 ft. One perilous path, afford 
 ing barely sufficient width for a camel s tread, leads twisting 
 away into the gloomy depths below. On emerging from 
 these tremendous chasms, the traveller is surprised to find a 
 level plain spread out on either side, instead of the lofty 
 mountains, or steep ascents that usually overlook the deep 
 ravines of other lands. This singularity forms one of the 
 peculiar physical features of Abyssinia, and imparts to its 
 great water-courses the appearance rather of enormous rents 
 than of natural depressions. It must he observed, however, 
 that these apparent plains are not the low levels usually un 
 derstood by that term, but lofty table lands, many thousand 
 feet above the sea. The mountain scenery of Abyssinia is 
 thus, as might be expected, on the most stupendous scale, 
 including waterfalls of prodigious height. In the dry season, 
 these falls, from their great elevation, descend in mere spray ; 
 but, during the rains, present a magnificent spectacle. Not- 
 Avithstanding, however, the wild and rugged appearance of the 
 country generally, it contains numerous valleys and plains of 
 unequalled beauty and fertility, rich in all the most valued 
 productions of the earth. Many of these favoured districts 
 are spoken of with rapture by travellers, both as regards the 
 luxuriance of their vegetation, and the salubrity of their cli 
 mates. The most extensive is the plain of the Dembea, 
 emphatically called the granary of the country, where there 
 reigns a perpetual spring. 
 
 Geology. The geological structure of Abyssinia presents 
 a granite base, with a superstructure of sandstone, and occa 
 sionally limestone, schist, and breccia. The granite conies 
 to the surface in the lower parts of the country; but sandstone 
 predominates in the upper, and assumes a tabular form, often 
 lying on the tops of the mountains in enormous flat masses. 
 Large tracts are of ancient volcanic rocks. Of this character 
 is a great portion of the country lying between Tajura and 
 Ankober, in the S.E. part of Abyssinia, and extending over 
 a space of about 200 m. in length from N.E. to S.W. 
 Throughout nearly the whole of this tract, volcanic ridges are 
 everywhere present. Small cones, each showing a distinct 
 crater, are numerous, and the surface of the sheets of lava with 
 which the plains below are overspread, still retains a fresh and 
 glossy appearance, although there has been no volcanic action 
 in this part of the world for unnumbered centuries. 
 
 Mountains and Table Lands. The most remarkable anu 
 
 j loftiest summits occur in the centre of the N. part of the king- 
 
 I dom, in the prov. of Samen, immediately to the W. of the 
 
 ] river Tecazze. The highest of these, called Amba Hai, is 
 
 supposed, from the circumstance of its summit being covered 
 
 with perpetual snow, to have an elevation of at least 16,000 ft. 
 
 About 15m. N.E. of this mountain, is mount Beyed, whose 
 
 summit is also covered with perpetual snow, and whose height, 
 
 therefore, though not positively ascertained, cannot be much 
 
 less than that of the former. On the N.E. part of the king- 
 
ABYSSINIA 
 
 L7 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 dom, a long range of barren hills runs parallel with, and at a 
 distance of about 40 m. from the shores of the Red Sea, 
 forming the W. boundary of Dankali. It does not attain 
 any great altitude, the highest peaks not exceeding 1000 ft., 
 while the general elevation is not more than 500. In Shoa, 
 the mountain chains run chiefly N. and S., and reach generally 
 an elevation of from 8000 to 9000 ft.; but many of their single 
 pinnacles greatly exceed that height. They are abrupt, diffi 
 cult of access, and intersected by numerous deep chasms. 
 These mountains exhibit a structure of basalt, wacke, and 
 trachyte; the latter in all its varieties. The table lands 
 of Abyssinia form one of its most remarkable physical char 
 acteristics, and are distinguished from all other elevated table 
 lands by the great depression of their water-channels. They 
 consist of a succession of elevated, undulating plains, many 
 of which are 7000 and 8000 ft. above the level of the sea, and 
 are intersected by narrow valleys, or water-courses, 3000 and 
 4000 ft. deep. This elevated country has lakes, swamps, 
 verdant meadows, and cultivated land, producing various 
 grains, and occasionally coffee; but the higher plains, from 
 their great elevation, yield barley only. The most remark 
 able of these table lands occur in the provinces, Amhara, 
 Tigre, and Shoa. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The principal river of Abyssinia is the 
 Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue River (see AZKEK, BAHR-EL-). It is one 
 of the great branches of the Nile, and rises under the name 
 of the Dedhesa, in the Galla country, S. of Abyssinia, about 
 73 m. W. Sokka, the cap. of Enarea, and joins the Bahr-el- 
 Abiad, or White River (see ABIAD, BAHK-EI,-), the chief branch 
 of the Nile, at Khartoom ; lat. 14 40 N.; Ion. 32 39 E. The 
 next considerable stream is the Tecazze, or Takkazie, which 
 has its rise in the mountains of Lasta, about lat. 11 30 N. ; 
 Ion. 39 20 E. ; it pursues a N.W. course, and finally joins 
 the Nile, under the name of the Atbara, at Adamer, in lat. 
 1740 N. Its bottom is extremely narrow compared with 
 the size of the river. Bruce describes it as being shaded with 
 fine lofty trees, the water remarkably clear, and the banks 
 adorned with the most fragrant flowers. It takes its name, 
 Tecazze The Terrible, from its impetuosity. The Hawash 
 (which sec), the third, or, according to Harris, the second 
 largest river of Abyssinia, rises to the S. of the Chakha 
 mountains, the larger branch proceeding from Lake Zawaja, 
 about lat. 8 40 N. ; Ion. 39 E. ; at an elevation of 8000 ft. 
 above the sea. Skirting the S.E. limits of the kingdom of 
 Shoa, it pursues a N. and E. direction to about Ion. 42 E., 
 where it is lost in the sands, or led oft in canals by the natives, 
 after running a course of about 240 m. in length. The banks 
 are beautifully wooded along the whole length of the stream, 
 which may be traced by the luxuriant vegetation that marks 
 its route through a treeless and barren land. This river is 
 the recipient of the waters which come from the E. declivity 
 of the table land of A byssinia. The Abai or Abay (which see) , 
 is also a large stream, being the the principal tributary of the 
 Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue River. The Anazo, likewise a con 
 siderable river, rises on the confines of Tigre, crosses the 
 country in an E. direction towards the Sea of Bab-el-Mandeb, 
 which, however, it never reaches, sinking, like the Hawash, 
 into the sand when within about 20 m. of the coast; its entire 
 length is about 200 m. In the earlier part of their courses, 
 while flowing over the level surfaces of the table lands, the 
 rivers of Abyssinia are little better than muddy brooks, which 
 in the dry season nearly disappear altogether; but, during the 
 rains, overflow their banks and inundate the plains for mil 
 Where they begin to break from the level, which they do by 
 fissures in the rocky surface, at first only a few yards in width, 
 but gradually opening to the extent of several miles, they at 
 once form cataracts of SO or 100 ft. in height, and in some cases 
 much more, and then continue down a succession of falls and 
 rapids, so as to descend several thousand feet in the course of a 
 
 few miles. The principal lakes of Abyssinia are the Tzana 
 
 Zana, or Dembea (which see), in the territory of Amhara, a 
 large and beautiful sheet of water, at a height of upwards of 
 6000 ft. above the sea. According to Arrowsmith s map, it 
 is about 60 m. in length from N.W. to S.E., and about 40 in 
 breadth. Bruce makes it only 45 m. long and 35 broad 
 During the rains, it overflows its banks, and lays the low coun 
 try around it under water to the distance of 2 m. It contains 
 a number of pretty large islands, most of which are inhabited 
 abounds with fish of various kinds, and is much frequentei 
 VOL. I. 
 
 by hippopotami. The next most important lake is Haik, in 
 the province of Amhara, on the N. confines of Shoa ; it is about 
 45 m. in circumference, has several bays, and contains an 
 island called Debra Nayoodquad, almost square in form, with 
 a monastery on it, called St. Stephen s, and 100 houses, and 
 distant from the mainland about 260 yards. On the E. and S. 
 there are steep mountains, but on the N. and W. the shores 
 are low. The other lakes of considerable extent are, Ashan- 
 gee, in Tigre, about 30 m. long by 15 broad; Zawaja, near 
 the S. boundary of the kingdom; Lugh a Summa, about 100 
 m. N.W. from the former; and the remarkable salt lake, 
 Assal (which see). 
 
 Mineralogy. Abyssinia, so far as known, is not remarkable 
 or its minerals, neither precious metals nor precious stones 
 laving yet been discovered in it ; the gold which is brought 
 ;hrough it being all from the barbarous and unknown coun 
 tries to the S. and W. Among the useful mineral products 
 are iron, sulphur, coal, and salt. The iron is found chiefly in 
 he high plateaux, the sulphur in the hills of Sallala, where 
 he pits are described as being exceedingly copious. Coal 
 beds appear to extend along the whole of the E. frontier of 
 Shoa, but the combustible nature of that fossil is scarcely 
 cnown in the country. Salt is obtained in great abundance 
 from a salt plain on the S.E. border of Tigre, and from lake 
 Assal. The former is said to be four days journey in length. 
 The salt near the surface is pure and hard, but beneath it is 
 coarser, and requires some exposure to the air before it har 
 dens. In some parts, the incrustation is 3 ft. deep ; but, in 
 general, at the depth of 2 ft., it is too much mixed with earth 
 ;o be fit for use in its native state. It is cut into long flat 
 pieces by the Abyssinians, and is used as a medium of 
 exchange. A few hot mineral springs are known and made 
 use of in Efiit and Giddem. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Abyssinia is as various as its sur 
 face. In the valleys, it is delightful; but on the mountains 
 exceedingly cold, hoar frost being met with on many of their 
 summits in the latter end of the year, and the country around 
 presenting the bleak and barren appearance, and scantiness 
 of vegetation, of extreme northern regions. In other places 
 the heat is intense, especially on the borders of the Red Sea, 
 nd in the S. parts of the kingdom, where the feeling of oppres 
 sion, occasioned by the excessive heat, is frequently increased 
 by hot simooms, which raise the thermometer, in the shade, to 
 126, the usual height being about 110. The mean tem 
 perature at AnkcTbar, the capital of Shoa, in June 1842, was, 
 according to Major Harris, 62 1 ; and in January of the 
 same year, 52 In the lower districts, the intensity of the 
 heat gives rise to noxious exhalations, which occasion numer 
 ous fatal diseases. The rains, always accompanied by tre 
 mendous tempests, begin in June, and continue till September, 
 during which period they are so violent as to put a stop to 
 agricultural labour, and all other out-door operations. But 
 after they have ceased, Pastures and meadows are clothed 
 in cheering green ; the hills and dales are adorned with myriads 
 of beautiful and sweet-scented flowers, and the sides of the 
 mountain ranges become one sheet of the most luxuriant vege 
 tation. (Harris, vol. iii. p. 273.) The finest months of the 
 year are those of December and January. 
 
 Vegetable Productions. Although situated within the tro 
 pics, the vegetable productions of Abyssinia are nearly those 
 of the temperate zone. The principal grains are millet, barley, 
 wheat, maize, and ttff. The wheat is of the finest description, 
 and the bread made from it has been praised by all travellers 
 who have visited the country. Teff (Poa Abyssinica), a very 
 small seed, is a favourite with all Abyssinians. The bread 
 made from it is soft and spongy, with a sourish taste, and is 
 said to be unwholesome, though not unpleasant to the taste. 
 There are four varieties of this grain, two brown and two 
 white; the latter is the finest and the most esteemed. Great 
 trouble is taken to improve the cultivated sorts of grain, by 
 changing the seed-corn at every season, and sometimes by 
 sowing promiscuously different sorts to produce new varieties. 
 The result is a prodigious diversity; there being no fewer 
 than 24 varieties of wheat, and 16 of barley. Two crops are 
 obtained yearly, the seed being sown in one field while the 
 crop is being gathered in the next. In some places there are 
 three harvests within the year. Large quantities of a plant 
 called ensete, resembling the banana, are raised and used as 
 bread ; it is said to be extremely agreeable. The leguminous 
 
ABYSSINIA 
 
 Al .YSSINIA 
 
 vegetables most extensively grown are beans, lupines, lentils, | 
 and a kind of vetch. Flax and cotton are cultivated in some | 
 places to a small extent. Vines, also, are raised, and a little 
 wine made. The finest grapes are grown to the E. of Lake 
 Tzana, or Dembea. Coffee and sugar cane are likewise culti 
 vated, but the former is not much esteemed, being of inferior 
 quality ; and the latter is merely chewed, the art of making sugar 
 being unknown. Citrons, oranges, and figs are met with. The 
 woods of Abyssinia, some of which are magnificent, contain 
 sycamores of great size, many measuring upwards of 40 ft. in 
 circumference; they contain, also, beautiful specimens of the 
 acacia. 
 
 Zoology. The domestic animals consist of horses, cattle, ] 
 sheep, goats, mules, and asses. The horses are small, but j 
 strong and active; the cattle and goats are generally small i 
 in stature, of all colours, and have very large horns; the 
 sheep have a white body, black head and neck, are covered 
 with hair, and have thick, short, fat tails; male without horns. 
 The shepherd dogs are small, spotted with yellow and white, , 
 and have long pointed skulls like the fox. Mules, camels, ; 
 and asses are the usual beasts of burden, the horses being 
 generally reserved for war and the chase. Vast herds of oxen, \ 
 often amounting to many thousands, are met with throughout 
 the country. The oxen reared on the low grounds, called the 
 Galla ox, have horns of immense size. The wild animals are j 
 the lion, elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, crocodile, buf- I 
 falo, hyena, leopard, boar, antelope, zebra, quagga, giraffe, i 
 and gazelle. Lions are not numerous, being but rarely met 
 with. Elephants abound in the N. and S. borders of the coun 
 try, particularly in the extensive forests lying N. of Tigre. 
 The hippopotamus, as elsewhere stated, abounds in Lake Tzana, 
 or Dembea, where, as in other places, great numbers are killed 
 annually for their flesh and hides. The rhinoceros, like the 
 elephant, inhabits the low, moist grounds, and is numerous in 
 certain districts. A two-horned rhinoceros is met with but 
 rarely. Crocodiles are found in various rivers in Abyssinia; 
 but the largest, and most dreaded by the natives, are those 
 that inhabit the Tecazze ; these are of a greenish colour, and 
 of formidable size. The buffalo, a comparatively harmless 
 animal in other countries, is here extremely ferocious, and 
 will often attack travellers. Hyenas and leopards are numer 
 ous, especially the former; but, according to the account of 
 Isenberg and Krapfs guide, they never inhabit the same 
 region the leopard dreading the superior strength and fero 
 city of the hyena, although the former will attack man, while 
 the latter flees from him. The antelope is rarely met with 
 in the cultivated districts, but abounds in those that are uncul 
 tivated, especially near rivers. Among the quadrumana are 
 a remarkably long-eared ape, and the species of monkey called 
 tnacac, or macaque, which inhabits the lofty mountains of S. 
 Abyssinia, at a height of 8000 ft. above the level of the sea. 
 The smaller animals comprise porcupines, rock rabbits, ground 
 squirrels, ferrets, polecats, and otters. Serpents are numer 
 ous, and some of them of great size. Amongst the latter is 
 the boa, which often attains a length of 20 ft. The varieties 
 of birds are also great, and include eagles, vultures, Alpine 
 ravens, parrots, herons, Guinea fowls, partridges, quails, snipes, 
 larks, and pigeons. There are, likewise, various kinds of 
 water-fowl to be met with on the lakes and swamps. Bees 
 are numerous, honey being a general article of food ; locusts 
 often lay the land waste, and the saltsalya a fly a little larger 
 than a bee causes whole tribes to change their residence 
 through terror of its sting, of which even the lion, it is said, 
 stands in dread. 
 
 Manufactures. The Abyssinians have made considerable 
 progress in manufactures, and excel in the tanning of skins. 
 Axes, ploughshares, and spearheads are made at several 
 places ; and swordblades, knives, scissors, and razors, at 
 Goudar and at Kiaratza. Large quantities of coarse cotton 
 cloth are manufactured in different parts of the country by 
 women ; and a finer kind, with a red or blue border, for the 
 more wealthy classes. A coarse stuff, for counterpanes, is 
 made from the wool and hair of the black sheep and goats. 
 Coarse black pottery is made in all parts of the country. 
 
 Races, Reliyion, Manners, Customs, &c. The population 
 of Abyssinia is composed of various tribes, all of which have 
 been referred by Kiippell to three races. The first, which 
 comprises a majority of the people, is a well-formed Caucasian 
 lace, with features identical with those of the Bcduin Arabsj 
 
 oval countenance, fine sharp nose, well-proportioned regular 
 mouth; the lips not in the least turned up; lively eyes; hair 
 somewhat curled, at times smooth; and medium size of body. 
 To this race belong the inhabitants of N. Amhara and Tigre , 
 the Falashas or Jews, the Gamant, and the Agows. The 
 second race, which is Ethiopia, has less sharpness of the 
 nose, which, in fact, is slightly curved ; thick lips; lengthened 
 and not very fiery eye; and very much curled, nearly woolly, 
 hair. This race is met with chiefly on the coast, and along 
 the N. frontier of Abyssinia. The third race is the Galla 
 trib es, inhabiting S. Shoa, and dispersed among the soldiery 
 over the whole country. They have the countenance more 
 rounded, the nose straight, and separated from the forehead 
 by a deep indentation; thick, but not negro, lips; nearly 
 woolly hair; small, deeply sunk, but very bright eyes; and 
 a tolerably firmly built, and large body. All the inhabit 
 ants, to whatever race they belong, vary in colour from a 
 dark brown to a yellow brown, compared by Bruce to pale 
 ink. There are no negroes in Abyssinia except the slaves, 
 who are likewise the only blacks in the country. The accom 
 panying cut represents a chief and soldiers. The chief, on 
 
 ABYSSINIAN CHIi:F AND SOLDIERS. From RUppell, Reise in Aliyssinien. 
 
 horseback, has his brow bound with a thin red band, in token 
 of having slain an enemy in battle ; over his shoulders are 
 a sheep s skin, and a large cotton covering; for stirrup he 
 has only a small ring, into which he inserts the great toe; the 
 horse s neck is decorated with an ornament made from the 
 mane of a zebra. The soldier with the musket is known to 
 be a Galla, by his tight trousers, and cast of countenance. 
 His sabre-knife, according to the custom of the country, is 
 bound on the right side; and his girdle is formed of cartridges, 
 made from reed stems. The soldier with the spear is clothed 
 in a cotton covering, and a black sheep s skin; on his left arm 
 is a round leathern shield, to the centre of which, by way of 
 ornament, has been fastened the skin of a species of monkey 
 (Colubus gueraza), formerly much prized for this purpose, but 
 now less used, it having been found to form an excellent 
 mark for the enemy. Both soldiers have the hair dressed 
 in twisted curls, hanging parallel to each other, in a style 
 similar to what is seen in the sculptures lately excavated 
 at Nineveh. As often as possible, the locks are smeared 
 with butter, which is prevented from trickling down when 
 melted, by a narrow stripe of cotton cloth bound round the 
 head. The butter serves the double purpose of protecting 
 the head from the sun s rays, and against the attacks of 
 insects. The Abyssiuians are profligate and sensual, and 
 given to many vices, but they are not without some redeem 
 ing traits, of which charity to the poor, and hospitality to 
 the stranger, are the most conspicuous. The cruelty of which 
 they have been accused, has been denied by Gobat, who 
 discredits Bruce s assertion that they cut pieces of flesh from 
 the living animal, and says that the natives manifested the 
 utmost horror when he mentioned it. The same authority 
 adds, that in war they scarcely ever kill a prisoner; and, when 
 sure of victory, use every means to avoid destroying those 
 who still resist. The benefit of this exculpatory testimony, 
 
ABYSSINIA 
 
 19 
 
 ACAPULCO 
 
 however, cannot certainly be extended eitlicr to the Dankali 
 or Galla tribes, both of which are notorious for ferocity and 
 cruelty. The Abyssinians are irritable, but easily conciliated. 
 The religions of Abyssinia are Christianity which became 
 the national religion in the fourth century Islamism, and 
 Judaism. The Christians are divided into three hostile 
 parties, all deeply sunk in superstition. They baptize their 
 male children after 40 days, and their female after 80. They 
 attach great importance to fasting, and have preserved many 
 Jewish customs. The Mahometans entertain little zeal for 
 the religion they profess, few of them having the least know 
 ledge of the Koran, though fond of quoting its marked 
 expressions. They live on good terms with the Christians, 
 but are greatly inferior to them in morality. The Jews 
 live chiefly in the neighbourhood of Gondar and Shelga, and 
 to the N.W. of Lake Dembea. They are extremely ignorant, 
 but are much more laborious than the other Abyssinians. 
 They never carry arms, either for attack or defence, and 
 maintain their own poor, none of whom they will allow to 
 beg. In nearly all the provinces and districts, marriages are 
 performed with great simplicity, and are as easily dissolved ; 
 but after a third divorce, men can neither contract another 
 regular marriage nor receive the sacrament, unless they 
 become monks, of whom there are two classes. In some 
 places, matrimony is solemnized by the church, the contracting 
 parties swearing to abide by each other for life ; but this is of 
 rare occurrence ; while the fidelity with which the vow is kept 
 may be doubted. The servants of Abyssinia, says M. 
 Gobat, are generally more faithful than in Europe; while 
 children are more severely punished by their parents for 
 theft than for any other offence. 
 
 The barbarous practice of eating raw flesh at their feasts, 
 while it is yet warm and quivering, is one of the most i 
 extraordinary manifestations of their uncivilized condition 
 and brutal propensities. The indecencies, however, which 
 JJruce describes as forming a feature of these feasts, have 
 been denied by both Salt and Gobat. 
 
 The administration of justice, in Abyssinia, is sufficiently 
 simple, and almost always extremely corrupt. There are no 
 lawyers. If any one has a complaint against another, he will 
 rise before daybreak, in order to go and cry before the house 
 of the governor of his district, till he hears him. Then the 
 accused person is summoned, when the accuser and accused 
 put questions to each other alternately, in the presence of the 
 judge. The sub-governors being easily corrupted by bribes, 
 all important cases are presented to the governor-general, or 
 Dejasmat, who usually gives himself much trouble to discover 
 the truth. (Gobat.) No judge has the power to decide the 
 fate of a murderer, this being left to the will of the relations 
 of the deceased, unless the latter have been a stranger, when 
 the Dejasmat acts the part of prosecutor. The price of a 
 man is 250 dollars. 
 
 Language. The Gecz language was, anciently, that of 
 Abyssinia, and remained so till the 14th century of the 
 Christian era, when it was supplanted by the Amharic, which 
 is now the prevailing language of the country, and, though 
 spoken in a great variety of dialects, is the only one which has 
 assumed a written form. Its literature, however, is very 
 scanty, there being only, according to Harris, 110 volumes 
 extant in the whole of Abyssinia, and these are nearly all of 
 a theological nature. The ignorance of the nation generally, 
 is deplorable, those children only receiving the rudiments of 
 education who are designed for the service of the church. 
 Writing is a work of great labour in Abyssinia, even to the 
 practised scribe. The dilatory management of his awkward 
 implement is attended with gestures and attitudes the most 
 ludicrous. Under many convulsive twitches of the elbow, 
 the tiny style is carried first to the mouth, and the end being 
 seized between the teeth, is masticated in a sort of mental 
 frenzy. Throughout the duration of this necessary prelimi 
 nary, the narrow strip of dirty vellum is held at arm s length, 
 and viewed askance on every side with looks of utter horror 
 and dismay ; and when, at last, the stick descends to dig its 
 furrow upon the surface, no terrified schoolboy, with the 
 birch of the pedagogue hanging over him, ever took such 
 pains in painting his pothooks, as does the Abyssinian pro 
 fessor of the art of writing in daubing his strange hieroglyphics 
 upon the scroll. (Harris, vol. iii. pp. 180, 181.) After 
 reading this description, it will not surprise the reader to 
 
 learn tliat 17 years have been employed in transcribing a 
 single MS. The ink used in writing is a mucilage of gum- 
 arabic, mixed with lampblack, which acquires the consistency 
 of printing ink, and retains its intense colour for ages. The 
 pen is the reed used in the East, having no nib, and the inkstand 
 the sharp end of a cow s horn, stuck in the ground, the writer 
 squatting beside it. 
 
 History. The Abyssinians were converted to Christianity 
 in the time of the emperor Constantino, by some missionaries 
 sent from Alexandria. In the sixth century, the power of the 
 sovereigns of their kingdom had attained its height ; but before 
 another had expired, the Arabs had invaded the country, and 
 obtained a footing in Adel, though they were unable to extend 
 their conquests further. For several centuries subsequently, 
 the kingdom continued in a distracted state, being now torn by 
 internal commotions, and now invaded by external enemies. 
 To protect himself from the last, the emperor of Abyssinia 
 applied, about the middle of the 16th centuiy, to the king of 
 Portugal, for assistance, promising, at the same time, implicit 
 submission to the pope. The solicited aid was sent, and the 
 empire saved. The II. catholic priests having now ingratiated 
 themselves with the emperor and his family, endeavoured to 
 induce them to renounce the tenets and rites of the Coptic 
 church, and to adopt those of Rome. This attempt, however, 
 was resisted by the ecclesiastics and the people, and finally 
 ended, after a long struggle, in the expulsion of the E. catholic 
 priests in 1632. The kingdom, however, maintained its 
 integrity and independence till the 16th century, when it was 
 overrun by the Moslems and Gallas, and finally dismembered. 
 It now consists, as elsewhere mentioned, of a number of petty 
 independent states, the principal of which are enumerated and 
 referred to at the beginning of this article. The princes of 
 the blood-royal now wander over the country unheeded and 
 unmolested, attaching themselves to any chief who may be 
 willing to countenance and support them. The form, how 
 ever, is still retained of placing the crown upon the brows of 
 a descendant of the ancient line of Solomon, who is content to 
 be a mere puppet in the. hands of the temporary minister, 
 enjoying a stipend of 300 dollars per annum, with some paltry 
 revenues. (Harris, voL iii. p. 10.) Some account of the 
 commerce of Abyssinia will be found in the notices of the 
 different provinces, particularly Shoa. Pop. estimated at 
 from 4,000,000 to 5,000.000. (Harris 1 Highlands of Ethi 
 opia, Johnston s Travels in S. Abyssinia; D Hericourt, 
 Second Voyage dans le pays des Adels et le Royaume de 
 Clioa; Journals of the Rev. Messrs. Isenberg and Krapf; 
 Riippell, ReiscinAbyssinien; Balbi; Sommerville s Physical 
 Geography.) 
 
 ACAPONETA, or ACOPONETA, a tn. Mexico, prov. 
 Guadalajara, between the rivers St. Pedro and de Canas, about 
 40 m. from where these united streams fall into the Pacific 
 Ocean It is the chief place of the district, and is about 
 450 m. N. bj W. Mexico; lat. 22 32 N.; Ion. 105 40 W. 
 It is partly built of mud, with a spacious rural-like square, 
 shaded by fine trees, a quaint old church, and a convent of the 
 order of St. Francisco From an account given of it by 
 Lieut. Wise, of the U. States navy, it seems to be a gay, and 
 somewhat profligate little place. The country around is fertile, 
 and yields the means of subsistence almost spontaneously 
 a circumstance which goes far to account for the hilarity, and 
 entire exemption from care, which seems to be here so general. 
 Cassava, bananas, guavas, melons, and many kinds of fruit, are 
 produced in the vicinity in great abundance. 
 
 ACAPULCO, or Los REYES, a seaport tn. Mexico, prov. 
 of that name, 180 m. S. by W. from the city of Mexico ; 
 lat. 16 50 48" N. ; Ion. 99 52 W. (11.) The greater part of the 
 town is on the sea-shore. The houses, in consequence of the 
 frequency of earthquakes, are never built above the ground 
 floor ; those of the lower orders are of cane, thatched. Those 
 of the better class are formed of mud and straw, generally 
 from 3 to 4 ft. in thickness in the walls. The latter are 
 generally tiled, to afford ventilation, and avoid insects, which 
 are numerous and troublesome. The market is indifferently 
 supplied ; but fowls, fruit, and vegetables are readily obtained. 
 Human life is held here in little estimation, and a proneness 
 to violence so general, that the inhabitants seldom leave home 
 unarmed. The peasantry also are disarmed before entering 
 the town, and receive their passes and receipts for arms, which 
 are returned on repassing the boundary. At a short distance 
 
ACARA 
 
 ACEBO 
 
 from the town, on a promontory running into the sea, is situated 
 the castle and fort of San Diego, capable of mounting 00 guns, 
 but little more than half this uumber are actually mounted. 
 
 The Port of 
 
 ACAPULCO. 
 
 The garrison is stated at 500. The fort, though constructed 
 by the best engineers of the day, is unfortunately situated, 
 being commanded by every accessible height in its neighbour 
 hood. The trade of Acapulco was formerly considerable, but is 
 now almost wholly removed to San Bias, prov. Guadalajara, 
 520 m. to the N. W. It has still, however, a little coasting 
 trade with Lima, Guayaquil, and Callao. The chief exports 
 are cochineal, indigo, silver, and a few skins. The imports 
 are cotton, jewels, raw and prepared silk, and spices. When 
 under Spanish dominion, Acapulco was famous for its trade 
 with the Philippines, and for being the resort of the celebrated 
 Manilla galleons. It was then a place of great note, and 
 remarkable for the high tone of its society, which consisted 
 principally of wealthy Spaniards, who acted as agents for houses 
 in Mexico. All this, however, together with the general 
 prosperity of the place, was annihilated by the edict of 1827, 
 which required all old Spaniards to quit the territory an edict 
 which was enforced with merciless rigour. The ruin of the 
 town has been further promoted by natural visitations earth 
 quakes and inundations of the sea ; no fewer than nine of the 
 former having occurred within little more than a century, 
 namely, between 1732 and 1837. Several of these were so 
 violent as to destroy the town entirely. The last, which 
 occurred in 1837, demolished all the churches, and did not 
 leave a single house undamaged. Some of these visitations 
 were accompanied by sudden influxes of the sea, which, on 
 more than one occasion, covered the Plaza to the depth of 
 10 ft. The town itself is extremely unhealthy, the air being 
 moist, still, and intolerably hot ; but at a little distance, a 
 refreshing breeze constantly blows. An attempt was made 
 to procure an admission of fresh air into the town, by making 
 ! an artificial opening in the rocks by which it is shut in, but 
 with no perceptible effect. The bay, or harbour, of Acapulco 
 is esteemed one of the finest in the world for its size. It is of 
 easy access, has sufficient depth of water, excellent anchorage, 
 and is perfectly secure, being so completely land-locked that it 
 resembles a mountain lake. On its N. and E. sides, it is shut in 
 by mountains ranging from 2000 to 2700 ft. high ; on the W. 
 by heights varying from 300 to 500 ft. ; and at its entrance, it 
 is protected from the heavy seas of the Pacific, by an island of 
 oblong figure, which forms two mouths, or outlets, the principal 
 of which is on the S. side. This fine harbour is capable of 
 accommodating 100 vessels of the line, with moorings of half 
 a cable range, or one cable asunder. Pop. consisting chiefly 
 of mulattoes and Sambos, 3000. (Belcher s Voyage round the 
 World; Commercial Tariffs of States of Mexico, &c.) 
 
 ACARA, a river, Brazil, prov. Para. It rises in about 
 lat. 350 / S. flows nearly due N., and, after a course of about 
 150 m., falls into the estuary of the Para, about 10 m. above 
 the town of that name ; lat. 1 40 S. 
 
 ACARI, a tn. Peru, on the river St. Juan, 30 m. from the 
 shores of the Pacific, about lat. 15 S. ; Ion. 75 W. It is built 
 on a fine plain. Its port is Point Limns, an open roadstead 
 with good anchorage, but the landing difficult. Pop. COOO. 
 
 ACARNANIA, a district, anc. Greece, and, along with 
 JEtolia, forming a nome, or dep. in the N.W. part of the 
 country, as now divided, having the Gulf of Arta on the N., 
 and the Mediterranean on the W. It contains sulphur 
 and coal, is naturally fertile, but indifferently cultivated. It 
 is well wooded, and has several beautiful lakes, the largest 
 of which are Lakes Ambrakia and Ozero, the one about 7 m. 
 in length, the other about 5, both having an average breadth 
 of between 2 and 3 m. The chief town is Misolonghi. 
 
 ACASTER-MALBIS, a par. England, co. York, E. 
 Riding ; area, 4500 ac. Here is a college founded by R Stil- 
 lington. Pop. in 1841, 322. 
 
 ACATEPEC, a tn. Mexico, prov. Puebla, 12 m. S.W. 
 Tehuaoan. The valley in which the town is situated con 
 tains a considerable number of Indian families, and several 
 cultivated estates. Various other small Indian settlements, 
 in S. America, bear the same or a similar name. 
 
 ACATLAN, a tn. Mexico, prov. of, and GO m. S. from 
 Puebla; 123 m. S.E. Mexico, on the left bank of the Yopcz; 
 lat. 17 59 N. ; Ion. 98 14 W. Its principal trade is in 
 salt, procured from the salt marshes in the neighbourhood. 
 The majority of the inhabitants are Indians, or of Indian 
 
 extraction. ACATLAN is also the name of six different 
 
 Indian settlements in New Mexico. 
 
 ACCADIA, a tn. Naples, prov. Capitanata, district of, 
 and 6 m. S. from Bovino. It has a parish church, and a 
 mont-de-pitte. Agricultural produce of all kinds, fruits, 
 wines, &c., abound here, and the pastures in the neighbour 
 hood are extensive. Pop. 3615. 
 
 ACCETTURA, a tn. Naples, prov. Basilicata, 18 m. 
 S.W. Montepeloso. It has a parish church, and a mont-dc- 
 jncte. The district produces wines, grains, fruits, chestnuts, 
 flax, and hemp, and abounds in good pastures. Pop. 3140. 
 
 ACCIANO, a tn. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Ult. II., district 
 of, and 19 m. S.E. from Aquila, and 14 m. N.W. Solmona; 
 in a valley, between two hills, having an agricultural pop. of 
 773. 
 
 ACCONBURY, or ACORNBUKY, a par. England, co. 
 Hereford; area, 1470 ac. Pop. in 1841, 158. 
 
 ACCRAH, or ACCRA, a tn. and British settlement in W. 
 Africa, on the Gold Coast, territory of Ashantee, 75 m. N.E. 
 Cape Coast Castle; lat. 5 31 8" N.; Ion. 11 5" W. (R.) 
 It is situated on very low ground, and is intersected by deep 
 ater-courses. The native dwellings are miserable enough ; 
 ut some of the English houses are large and commodious, 
 and well adapted for the climate. The principal occupation 
 of the natives is searching for gold, and manufacturing it 
 into trinkets. Their implements are few, and extremely 
 rude ; but they contrive to make very beautiful chains, the 
 lue of which is enhanced by the purity of the metal, scarcely 
 any alloy being admitted. The exports from Accrah are gold 
 dust, ivory, gums, palm oil, coffee, and the ground nut, Arachis 
 hypogca. The imports are chiefly cotton goods, earthenware, 
 muskets, knives, gunpowder, beads, aguardiente, tobacco, &c. 
 Accrah is under the jurisdiction of Cape Coast, and is the 
 most eastern of the British factories on the Gold Coast. The 
 Danes and Dutch have each a factory here; that of the former 
 is called Christiansborg, the latter is unimportant. (Allen s 
 Niger Expedition.} 
 
 ACCRINGTON (NEW), a tn. England, co. Lancaster, 
 him. of, and 4 m. E. from Blackburn. It has a handsome new 
 church, three dissenting chapels, and a national school. The 
 inhabitants are mostly employed in cotton factories, weaving, 
 and calico printing, there being here some large establish 
 ments for these purposes. Near it is Old Accrington, having 
 1811 inhabitants. Pop. in 1841, G900. 
 
 ACCUMOLI, a tn. Italy, Naples, prov. Abruzzo Ult. II., 
 district Civita Ducale, 27 m. N.N.W. Aquila, on the left bank 
 of the Tronto ; having a collegiate church, three convents, 
 and about 3700 inhabitants. 
 
 ACEBO, a vil. Spain, Estremadura, prov. of, and 48 m. 
 N. from Caceres, and 38 m. N.N.E. Alcantara, on the S.E. slope 
 of a steep hill. It is tolerably well built, and has two squares, 
 several steep streets, an ancient parish church, chapel of 
 ease, townhall, hospital, prison, two schools, a cemetery, and 
 several fountains of excellent water. The inhabitants are 
 chiefly employed in weaving, tillage, rearing cattle, and in 
 making oil and wine. In the vicinity is a forest of remark 
 ably fine chestnut trees. Game is plentiful. Pop. 2356. -- 
 
ACERENZA 
 
 21 
 
 ACHMIM 
 
 ACEDO is also the name of several other small villages in | 
 Spain. 
 
 ACERENZA [anc. Ac7icrontia~], an anc. archi-episcopal 
 city, Naples, prov. Basilicata, about 14 m. N.E. Potenza. It 
 was formerly the principal city of the province, but has now 
 fallen into decay. It has a cathedral, a castle, two convents, 
 a grammar school, and an hospital. Pop. 3420. 
 
 ACERNO, a tn. Naples, prov. Prineipato Citra, in a val 
 ley, surrounded with mountains, 17 in. E.N.E. Salerno. It 
 has a cathedral and parish church, and is the see of a bishop, 
 suffragan of Salerno. There are here a mont-de-piete, a 
 paper manufactory, and a forge. Pop. 2500. 
 
 ACERRA, a city, Naples, prov. Terra di Lavoro, 9 m. 
 N.E. Naples; the see of a bishop, suffragan of the archbishop 
 of Naples. It has a cathedral, seminary, and mont-de-piete. 
 Its situation is extremely unhealthy, but the country around 
 is fertile. Pop. 7761. 
 
 ACHAIA, a district, anc. Greece, in the Morea, now- 
 included in the modern name, or district, of Achaia and Elis, 
 which extends along the shores of the Gulfs of Patras and 
 Lepanto, and the Ionian Sea, from the river Alpheus, on the 
 
 W., to the small stream, Sythas, on the E. The cap., Patras ! are warned against placing too much confidence in them, 
 (anc. Patra), of its 12 ancient cities, is the only one now of The country above the town is highly cultivated, and abounds 
 importance ; even the sites of some being doubtful or unknown. | with small villages, groups of houses, and mosques. Pop. 
 
 ACHEEN, ACHEM, or ACHEEM , a small kingdom, N. end ; 36,000. (Van der Aa s Nederlanden; Horsburgh s East India 
 of the isl. of Sumatra, stretching along the E. coast as far as ; Directory.} 
 
 Diamond Cape, and along the W. coast to Baroos; bounded j ACHEN, the name of two small rivers, Bavaria, both 
 southwards by the Batta country, and having an area of I of which rise in the Tyrolese Alps. The one, after forming 
 about 1550 sq. m. The country is sandy, but fertile, and j Lake Achen, falls into the Isar, about 3 m. within the Bava- 
 less covered with morass and wood than other parts of the rian frontier; its total course being about 20 m. The other, 
 island; and it is traversed by a ridge of hills from Acheen j called Gross Achen, flows past Kitzbiihe^, through the Tyrol 
 Head, towards the S.E., till it joins with the Simpong moun- 
 tains. Its three principal streams are the Sinkel, the An- 
 nalaboo, and the Acheen. Among its vegetable products 
 
 tion. There is here a palace belonging to the Sultan, an 
 uncouth structure, surrounded by a moat and strong walls. 
 Near the gate are several large pieces of ordnance, two of 
 which are old English guns, having been presented by James I. 
 to the first reigning monarch of Acheen. The roadstead in 
 which the shipping lies, is oif the mouth of the river, where 
 there is a bar, with not more than 4 ft. water on it at 
 low water spring-tides, and which can be passed by the 
 vessels of the country only. The roadstead, which is gradu 
 ally getting sanded up, was sheltered by several islands ; but 
 is now, during the S. W. monsoon and the rainy season, very 
 much exposed. Acheen was at one period a place of greater 
 note than it is now, its trade having fallen off. It was the 
 port to which the earliest voyages to the East were almost 
 exclusively directed, and was the point first touched by an 
 East India Company s ship. Its trade, however, in the com 
 modities enumerated in the preceding article, is still con 
 siderable, particularly with Singapore, Batavia, and Bengal. 
 Rice, bullocks, poultry, vegetables, and fruit, may generally 
 be obtained here in abundance, and plenty of fresh water. 
 The natives are said to be treacherous, and trading vessels 
 
 ese valley of Kaessan, and falls into the Bavarian lake Chiem, 
 after a course of about 30 m. 
 
 ACHERN, an ancient tn. grand duchy of Baden, Middle 
 
 are cotton, rice, and many kinds of fruits; and some attention | Rhine circle, 13 m. S.S.W. Baden, and 14 m. N.E. Kehl; 
 is paid to the rearing of cattle and horses, which latter, though on the left bank of the Achern, and on the railway from 
 small, are spirited, and much sought after for the Madras Carlsruhe to Freiberg, in a picturesque and fertile district of 
 market. Of other animals, there are goats, birds, abundance 
 of game, and fish, and likewise elephants, which latter fn 
 
 the Black Forest. The inhabitants are principally occupied 
 in agriculture and cattle breeding, piano making, and be 
 
 quently do considerable damage to the rice crops. Acheen brewing; and have some trade, for which there is a considerable 
 has gold and copper mines, and manufactures of gold and weekly market. In the neighbourhood is the vast lunatic 
 silver thread, silk, cotton, firearms, and gunpowder. It has j asylum of Illenau. At Sasbach, not far from Achern, stand? 
 a considerable trade; exports gold, precious stones, betel, j an obelisk of granite, erected by the French in 1829, to mark 
 benzoin, camphor, pepper, sulphur, &c. ; and imports cotton [ the spot where their great marshal, Turenne. was killed by 
 goods, cloth, salt, iron, opium, glass, and European manu- ! a cannon ball, while reconnoitering the Austrian army, July 
 factures. I 27, 1675. Pop. almost all R. catholic, 1938. 
 
 The inhabitants are partly Battas, and partly Malays, and ! ACHILL, an isl. and par. Ireland, co. Mayo. The 
 more laborious, braver, cleverer, possessed of more informa- former sometimes called Eagle Island, from its being the 
 tion regarding foreign countries, and, as a whole, more resort of eagles is separated from the mainland of Connaught 
 honourable in their dealings than the other inhabitants of j by a narrow sound, fordable at low water; and the most 
 Sumatra, who rank sufficiently low in the scale of honesty, | -vesterly point of the island, called Achill Head, 2222 ft. high, 
 though little dependence must be placed on the good faith of i is a well-known headland ; lat. 53 58 N. ; Ion. 10 16 W. (R.) 
 merchants of the capital. In religion, they are idolaters, The island itself, which is the largest off the Irish coast, is 
 excepting the coast people, who are Mahometans, and pos- | 17 m. long, and about 5 broad; comprises 35,283 statute 
 sess many mosques. When a young man wishes to marry, ac. ; and is very mountainous, especially on the N. and W. 
 he pays a certain sum to the father of the bride; but pre- j sides, with large uncultivated intervening bogs. The in- 
 viously to doing so, he must be perfectly satisfied that his j habitants of Achill live chiefly in miserable hovels, clustered 
 intended has no personal defects, otherwise the match is along the sea-shore. Their occupation is fishing, and tilling 
 broken off. The wife and children become the property of , the small patches of reclaimed land around their huts. The 
 the husband, who may pledge or sell them at his pleasure, isle of Achillbeg, which lies about m. from the mainland, 
 Polygamy is permitted, and, by the rich, it is practised, is about 1 m. long, and m. broad. Some fine pink crystals 
 The king, who is called Taankito, or master, receives his I or amethysts, called Achill diamonds, have been found on the 
 revenues in kind. The government is hereditary and des- j slope of a hill, near the village of Keem, on this island ; and 
 potic, and the laws are severe. among the cliffs on the sea-shore there was discovered, about 
 
 Acheen was visited by the Portuguese as early as 1506. ! seven years ago, a fine bed of limestone. At Kildurnet, and 
 
 The Dutch arrived in 1595, and, in course of the next 
 century, overran it more than once. Ultimately, however, 
 it was settled as an independency, in alliance with Holland. 
 Its prosperity has decreased considerably since it was first 
 conquered. The extent of its population is uncertain, but it 
 
 ranore, there are remains of old churches, with burial- 
 grounds attached ; at Kildurnet, a! so, are the ruins of an ancient 
 castle. The par. contains 51,5 22 ac. Pop. of isl. and par. 
 in 1841, 6392. (Eraser s Hand-book for Ireland; Otway s 
 Sketches.} 
 
 ACHMIM, EKIIMIM [anc. Chemnis or Fanopolis], a tn. 
 Upper Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile, in a fertile val- 
 
 is estimated at 200,000. (Van dcr Aa s Nederlanden.} 
 
 ACHEEN, a tn. Sumatra, cap. of the above state, on a 
 
 river of the same name, a branch of which flows through the j ley at the foot of the Mokaltam mountains, 250 m. S. Cairo; 
 town, and about 1J m. from the sea; lat. 5 22 N.; Ion. j lat. 26 32 N. ; Ion. 31 45 E. It is a place of great anti- 
 95 33 E. (c.) It stands on a plain, surrounded by a thick wood i quity, and was formerly one of the most considerable cities of 
 of palms and bamboos that runs along the coast. The houses 1 the ThebaTd, but was reduced to ruins by the Arabs. The streets 
 are built of bamboos and rough timbers, and stand apart from ! are spacious and straight, and are adorned by some mosques, 
 each other. They are mostly raised on piles, some feet above and a bazaar. The inhabitants carry on a considerable manu- 
 tho ground, in order to guard against the effects of inunda- , facture of coarse cotton cloth, rear great numbers of poultry 
 
ACIIMUNEIN 
 
 ACQUI 
 
 mid cultivate the date and sugar cane; but depend chiefly on 
 the culture of wheat, which is produced in abundance, and of 
 excellent quality. The remains of Panopolis, or City of 
 Pan, lie E. of the present town. Pop., consisting of Mahome 
 tans, R. catholics, and Coptic Christians, is variously stated at 
 4000 to 10,000. (Wilkinson s Modern Egypt.) 
 
 ACHMUNEIN, or ESIIMOUNEIN, the name of a modern 
 village, Central Egypt, occupying the site of the ancient 
 llennopolis Magna, between the Nile and the river Yousef ; 
 lat. 27 45 N. ; Ion. 30 53 E. The beautiful portico of the 
 temple of Thoth formed, in 1822, almost the only relic of the 
 ancient architecture of Hermopolis; but being composed of 
 limestone, it has since been removed, and burned by the 
 Turks for mortar. (Wilkinson s Modern Egypt.; Russell s 
 Views, &c.) 
 
 ACHONRY, a par. and hamlet, Ireland, co. Sligo; 60,896 
 nc. ; contains several villages, and some fine ruins. Pop. in 
 1841, 17.986. 
 
 ACHKAY (Locn), a small but picturesque lake, Scot 
 land, co. Perth, celebrated in Scott s Lady of the Lake. It 
 lies between Loch Catrine and Loch Vennachar. 
 
 A CHRIS HEAD, a prominent headland on the W. coast 
 of Ireland, co. Galway, district Connemara ; lat. 53 33 N. ; 
 Ion. 10 10 W. 
 
 ACI REALE, a seaport tn., E. coast of Sicily, 7 m. 
 N.E. Catania. It is built on a large mass of basaltic lava 
 at the foot of Mount Etna, and stands about 800 ft. above 
 the level of the sea; the port being below, at the mouth of 
 the Acis rib. It was formerly defended by a fort, which is now 
 converted into a state prison. The houses are built of lava ; 
 the streets arc wide, regular, and clean, and the town alto 
 gether presents an appearance of prosperity. Corn, wine, I 
 fruit, flax and diaper, form the principal articles of trade, and 
 in these a considerable business is done. The environs are i 
 fertile, and produce large quantities of flax. There is a 
 mineral spring. The port is small, with a mole built with 
 lava. It has several commodious warehouses. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 ACKEN, a tn. Prussia, prov. Saxony, 22 m. S.S.E. 
 Magdeburg, on the left bank of the Elbe, and, on three sides, 
 enclosed by the duchy of Anhalt. It is walled, and has four 
 gates, two Lutheran churches, and an hospital. Some trade 
 is done in cattle, grain, wool, mercery, and wood, and in 
 shipping on the Elbe. The manufacture of cloth, leather, 
 tobacco, and mathematical and optical instruments, is carried 
 on. A good transit trade exists, and there are some breweries 
 in the place. Pop. 4100. 
 
 ACKLAM, the name of two parishes in England, both 
 in the co. York: 1, Acklam East, E. Riding; 2970 ac. 
 Roman remains. Pop. in 1841, 845. 2, AcUam West, N. 
 Riding; 1160 ac. ; on the Stockton and Darlington Railway. 
 Pop. in 1841, 97. 
 
 ACKWORTH, a par. England, co. York, W. Riding ; 
 2270 ac. Friends school. Pop. in 1841, 1828. 
 
 ACLE, a par. and vil. England, co. Norfolk ; 4360 ac. 
 Large fair on Midsummer day. Pop. in 1841, 864. 
 
 AC-METCHET. See SIMFEROPOL. 
 
 ACO-COOMO, a tn., S.W. Africa, on the left bank of 
 Old Calabar river, lat. 6 46 N. The banks of the stream, 
 which is here about 450 yards wide, are well cultivated. 
 Captain Becroft, who explored the river in 1842, says, that 
 the inhabitants seemed alarmed at the appearance of the ves 
 sel, and hastened to arm themselves ; but were easily prevailed 
 upon to believe that their visitation was friendly, not hostile. 
 On being satisfied of this, they immediately became quiet and 
 peaceable. Several women were observed employed in boil 
 ing palm oil, in native earthen pots, in the open air. 
 
 ACOMB, or AKEHAM, a par. England, co York Ainsty; 
 2,120 ac. ; on the Great North of England Railway. Pop. in 
 1841, 880. 
 
 ACONCAGUA, a prov. Chili, S. America, bounded, E. by 
 the central ridge of the Cordillera of the Andes, W. by the 
 prov. of Quillota and the Pacific Ocean, N. by the prov. of 
 Coquimbo, and S. by that of Santiago ; extending from E. to 
 W. about 40 m., and from N. to S. about 110m. It possesses 
 a considerable portion of cultivated ground, and is watered 
 by two principal rivers flowing from the Andes, namely, the 
 Putaendo from the N.E., and the Aconcagua from the S.E. 
 The valley of Aconcagua is a tract of level ground, of an oval 
 form, about 2500 ft. above the level of the sea ; varying in 
 
 width from 1 to 8 m., and extending W. to the ocean, about 
 20 m. It is watered by pure streams, and covered with 
 farmhouses and hamlets, surrounded by orchards and vine 
 yards. In this province occurs the loftiest summit of the 
 Andes, the peak of Aconcagua, rising 23,910 ft. above the sea ; 
 situated in lat. 32 38 30" S. ; Ion. 70 00 30" W. It has been 
 called a volcano, but erroneously ; there being no evidence of 
 volcanic action at any part of the mountain. The height of 
 the peak here given, is from Mrs. Sommerville s Physical 
 Geography; other authorities make it several hundred feet 
 less. In Johnston s Physical Atlas, it is stated to be 23,200 
 ft. only. But, even at the lowest estimate, it would still 
 remain the loftiest summit of the Andes. The province is 
 divided into four districts Putaendo, San Felipe, Santa Rosa, 
 and Curimon. The whole is parcelled out, with few excep 
 tions, into small farms, separated by enclosures of rammed 
 earthen walls, and irrigated by numerous well-directed chan 
 nels. Vegetation proceeds rapidly. The principal produce 
 is grain, maize, beans, pumpkins, grapes, melons, olives, and 
 other fruit and garden produce, with a great quantity of wild 
 marjoram. Orchards and vineyards are numerous ; and 
 inclosures of lucerne, for the fattening of cattle, are abun 
 dant. The climate here is hotter in summer, and more 
 rigorous in winter, than in the same latitude on the coast. 
 The capital is San Felipe. Pop. of prov. 60,000. 
 
 ACONCAGUA [anc. La Villa Vicja], now called SAN 
 FELIPE, a city, and chief place of above prov.; about 60 m. 
 N.N.E. Valparaiso; 15 m. W. from the base of the Andes; 
 and about the same distance from the town of Santa Rosa, 
 or Villa Nueva. It is laid out with great regularity, in the 
 form of a square, surrounded by extensive alamcdas, or 
 public walks, planted with Lombardy poplars. In the centre 
 of the town is a large open square, one side of which is 
 occupied by the townhall and municipal offices ; opposite are 
 the church and barracks ; and the remaining sides consist of 
 shops and private dwellings. The houses are all of one story, 
 and are in a good style of building. Roses and jessamines arc 
 seen in every courtyard, and the gardens are well filled with 
 various fruits. The houses, as in other parts of Chili, have no 
 fireplaces ; instead of which, brazcros, or pans of live coal, are 
 used when heat is required. The streets arc tolerably well 
 lighted and watched at night. Pop. 12,000. (United Mates 
 Exploring Expedition, vol. i. p. 192.) 
 
 ACOONO-COONO, a considerable tn., W. coast of Africa, 
 on the E. bank of Old Calabar river; between lat. 7 and 
 8 N., and Ion. 8 and 9 W. ; or about 70 m. E. from Iddah, on 
 the Niger. It is in the form of a crescent, and about f of a 
 mile in length ; but the houses are of the poorest and meanest 
 description. Captain Becroft, who explored the river in 1842, 
 describes the inhabitants as a fine-looking and intelligent race. 
 Both sexes, he adds, wear around the middle the usual 
 cloth of European or native manufacture, with strings of beads 
 round the neck, wrists, and ankles. None but children go 
 naked ; the females wear bracelets and leglets, made of cow 
 ries. The principal men permit their finger nails to grow with 
 out paring, which is considered here, as in many places on 
 the Niger, a mark of gentility. Pop. about 4000. 
 
 ACQUA, a vil. Tuscany, prov. Pisa, 16 m. E. Leghorn, 
 celebrated for its mineral springs and baths, which are much 
 frequented, and have been resorted to since the 12th century. 
 
 ACQUAPENDENTE [anc. Acquepedena, or Aqna Ta- 
 rince], a small tn. Papal States, delegation of, and 15 m. W. 
 j by N. from Orvieto, and 65 N.N.W. Rome, situated on the 
 summit of a rock, over which several cascades are precipi 
 tated ; whence its name. It is ill built, and derives its only 
 interest from its singular position. Previously to the 17th 
 century, it had few inhabitants; but Pope Innocent X. having 
 removed the episcopal see to it from Castro, in 1647, it be 
 came a place of some importance. It is the birthplace of 
 ! the anatomist Fabricius ab Acquapendentc, under whom Har 
 vey studied at Padua. In the last century, Acquapendcnte 
 was visited by a disastrous earthquake. Pop. 3000. 
 
 ACQUAVI VA, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Bari, district 
 of, and 16 m. S. from Bari, in a healthy situation at the foot 
 of the Apennines. It is surrounded with walls and ditches ; 
 has a handsome parish church, several convents, two hospitals, 
 and a mont-de-pietc. Pop. 5300. 
 
 ACQUI, a tn. Sardinia, cap. prov. of same name, on the 
 left bank of the river Bormida, 18 m. S.S.W. Alexandria. 
 
ACHE 
 
 ACTON 
 
 It is the see of a bishop, suffragan to the archbishop of Turin. 
 It contains a synagogue, a theological seminary, and a royal 
 college. There are here, also, warm sulphurous baths, which 
 draw a great many visitors. The manufacture of silks is 
 carried on to a considerable extent. Some ruins still remain 
 of the AfjutB Statidlce of the Romans. 1 op. 7000, of whom 
 
 479 are Jews. The province of Acqui, forming part of 
 
 the government of Alexandria, comprehends an area of about 
 534 sq. m. It contains large tracts of fertile land, and some 
 inconsiderable mines of iron and other minerals. The prin 
 cipal employment of the inhabitants is winding and throwing 
 silk. Pop. 91,000. 
 
 ACRE, ST. JEAN D AORE, or ACCHO, an ancient fortified 
 tn. and seaport, Syria, on the E. coast of the Mediterranean ; 
 lat. 32 55 N.; Ion. 35 2 30" E (K.) ; on a low point of land 
 stretching into the sea, forming the N.E. side of the Bay of Acre, 
 the promontory of Mount Carmel being on the S.W. Previous 
 to its destruction in 1832, by Ibrahim Pasha, the city, although 
 it had often before been reduced to a state of decay, presented 
 a very beautiful and imposing appearance, from its lofty walls 
 and mosques, overtopped by trees from the inside, and sur 
 rounded on the outside by orange, lemon, and palm trees ; 
 but. like all oriental towns, its streets were narrow and filthy. 
 
 ACRE, ENTRANCE, OF THE STREET OF THE I1AZAAR. 
 From Forbin, Voyage dans le Levant. 
 
 The houses were solidly built with stone, with flat roofs ; the 
 
 bazaars mean, but tolerably well supplied. The principal 
 
 objects were the mosque of Djezzar Pasha, the seraglio, the 
 
 granary, and the arsenal. It had, in former times, a consider- ; 
 
 able trade ; its exports with France, Venice, England, and I 
 
 Holland whence oil, cotton, skins, and other goods were 
 
 j brought latterly have consisted chiefly of grain and cotton ; 
 
 its imports of rice, coffee, and sugar from Damietta. All this 
 
 has been long since changed, and this bulwark of Syria is now 
 
 little better than a heap of ruins. In 1832, it was besieged 
 
 i for nearly six months by Ibrahim Pasha, during which 35,000 | 
 
 | shells were thrown into it, and nearly all its buildings, public 
 
 i and private, destroyed. Before it had recovered from this cala- 
 
 I mity, it was bombarded (November 2, 1840) by an English fleet, 
 
 consisting of seven line-of-battle ships, four war steamers for 
 
 throwing shells, and some smaller vessels, aided by two Aus- 
 
 i trian frigates, the whole being commanded by Admiral Sir 
 
 Robert Stopford. After two hours heavy firing, a magazine 
 
 blew up with a tremendous explosion, destroying two entire 
 
 regiments of Egyptian infantry, and every living creature 
 
 within an area of 60,000 square feet. On the following day, 
 
 the town was taken possession of by the English and Austrians. 
 
 But these more recent calamities by no means comprise the 
 
 entire history of its misfortunes. In 1 104, it was captured by 
 the first crusaders ; in 1110, it was taken by Baldwin, king of 
 Jerusalem; 77 years afterwards, it was recovered by Salahed- 
 din, and, in 1 1 91, was retaken by the Christians under Richard 
 Cocur de Lion and Philip Augustus, and given to the knights 
 of St. John of Jerusalem, from whom it received the name, 
 St. Jean d Acre. The Christians retained possession of il 
 for a century; but, in 1291, it was retaken by the Saracens 
 an event which terminated the Latin domination in the Holy 
 Land. From that period, till the end of the 18th century, 
 the town fell to decay, although partially repaired, and, for 
 short intervals, occupied by various contending parties. It 
 was latterly improved and fortified by Achmed Djezzar, the 
 Turkish Pasha of Sidon, whose residence it then became. In 
 1 799, it was for 61 days besieged by the French under Bona 
 parte, who, by the brave resistance of the Djezzar, aided by 
 Sir Sidney Smith, were at length compelled to abandon the 
 siege. The last event of importance in its history took place 
 in 1840, as recorded above. The site of the present town was 
 at one time occupied by a Phenician city, called Accho, which 
 was subsequently changed by the Greek sovereigns of Egypt 
 to Ptolemais. Pop. about 12,000, of which one-third are 
 Turks. 
 
 ACRI, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Citra, district of, and 
 13 m. N.E. from Cosenza, in a fine salubrious situation, and 
 fertile country. It has six parish churches, and an hospital. 
 Pop. 7861. 
 
 ACRISE, apar. England, co. Kent; 1170ac.; 5m. N.N.W. 
 Folkstone. Pop. in 1841, 297. 
 
 ACRO-CORINTHUS, a precipitous and somewhat coni 
 cal rock, near the city of Corinth, in Greece, on which stood 
 the ancient acropolis, or citadel, of the place, and a temple of 
 Venus. It is about 2000 ft. above the level of the sea, and 
 is the site of a modern fortification, which is considered one 
 of the strongest in Greece. 
 
 ACS, or ATS, a vil. Lower Hungary, co. of, and 5 m. 
 S. S.W. from Komorn, with a castle and park, a R. catholic, and 
 a Calvinistic church, a vineyard, and four mills. Pop. 3400. 
 Acs was the scene of a sanguinary and indecisive battle 
 between the Austro-Russian army and the Hungarians, on 
 July 16, 1849. 
 
 ACSA. See AK HISSAR. 
 
 ACTION ISLAND and REEF, situated at the S. 
 entrance into D Entrecasteaux Channel, Van Diemen s Land ; 
 lat. 43 34 S.; Ion. 146 59 E. (R.) The rocky islets 
 forming this reef, are dispersed over a space 3 m. in length 
 by 1 m. in breadth, and are extremely dangerous, having been 
 the cause of several disastrous shipwrecks, including that of 
 the Actseon, from which they derive their name. Some of 
 these unfortunate occurrences were attended with fearful loss 
 of life, the vessels having been, in several instances, convict 
 and emigrant ships. 
 
 ACTIUM, a promontory and tn., anc. Greece, situated 
 near the entrance to the Gulf of Arta (Anibradus Sinus), 
 on the N. coast of Acarnania. Two capes claim to be identi 
 fied with the former Actium one at the entrance of the gulf; 
 the other, Cape Madonna, a few miles to the eastward. From 
 the descriptions of ancient geographers, the former appears to 
 be the true Actium. The town which received its name from 
 the Greek acte, a promontory contained a temple dedicated to 
 Apollo ; but the place owes its fame entirely to the naval battle 
 fought in its vicinity, between Augustus and Antony, about 
 30 years B c., in which the latter was defeated. Augustus, in 
 commemoration of his victory, enlarged and beautified the 
 temple of Apollo, instituted quinquennial games called Actia, 
 and built the city of Nicopolis, on the opposite coast, near the 
 modern Prevesa. 
 
 ACTON, alone, and with various affixes, is the name of a 
 small tn. and of several parishes and townships in England : 
 1, Acton, a tn., co. Chester, bun. and union Nantwich, from 
 which it lies 2 m. N.W. It has a church, two Dissenters 
 chapels, a free grammar school, and two national schools. 
 Pop. of the par., which includes 16 townships, and comprises 
 19,800 acres, 4134 in 1841. 2, Acton, a township, Cheshire, 
 29 m. by rail from Liverpool. Pop. in 1841, 382. 3, Acton, 
 or AJxton, a par., co. Suffolk; annual fair, July 6. Pop. in 
 1841,555. 4, Actan-Ecaucliamp, a par., co. Worcester; 1600 
 ac. ; great quantity of hops. Pop in 1841, 217. 5, Acton- 
 Granije, a township, Cheshire ; 780 ac. ; on the Birmingham 
 
ACTON 
 
 .24 
 
 ADAMS 
 
 Railway. Pop. in 1841, 175. 6, Acton-Hound, a par., co. 
 Salop; 3040 ac. Pop. in 1841, 180. 7, Acton-Scott, a, par., 
 co. Salop ; 930 ac. ; near a branch of the Teme. Pop. in 
 1841, 204. 
 
 ACTON, a vil. and par. England, co. Middlesex, him. 
 Ossulstone, about 8 ra. W. London, on the road to Oxford, 
 pleasantly situated on a slight inclination. It consists almost 
 entirely of one long street, and has nothing very attrac 
 tive in its appearance, although there are many handsome 
 villas in its vicinity. There are here, besides the parish church, 
 an Independent chapel, and a R. catholic place of worship, 
 several charity schools, and a set of almshouses for 12 poor 
 men, and the like number of poor women. In the vicinity is 
 a mineral spring, formerly held in great repute. The village 
 of East Acton is at the distance of about l.J m. Area of par. 
 2200 ac. Pop. 2665. 
 
 ACTON-BURNELL [anc. detune, or Oak-town}, a 
 vil. and par. England, co. Salop, hun. Condover, 7^ m. S. 
 Shrewsbury, picturesquely situated on a slight acclivity, 
 near the Stratton Hills, and remarkable for containing some 
 buildings illustrative of the ecclesiastical and domestic archi 
 tecture of the 12th and 13th centuries, and for having been 
 the scene of the proceedings of a parliament held here in 
 the 13th year of the reign of Edward I., in which was 
 passed the" Statute Merchant Act, appointing the mode by 
 which a statute merchant is to be made, and the various pro 
 cedures to be observed by creditors in recovering debts, &c., 
 &c. There is here a beautiful cruciform church, built by 
 Bishop Burnell, in the early part of the 14th century, and one 
 school, conducted partially on the national principle. Area of 
 par., 2650 ac. Pop. 394. 
 
 ACTOPAN, a tn. and district, Mexico, the former 
 65 m. N.N.E. the city of Mexico; lat. 20 17 28" N.; Ion. 
 98 48 52" W. (L.) It contains an ancient convent of the 
 order of St. Augustin. Its population consists chiefly of 
 Othomies Indians, of whom there are between 2000 and 3000 
 families, with a small proportion of Spaniards, mulattoes, and 
 mustees. The principal occupation of the inhabitants of the 
 district is rearing goats and sheep, which are prized, particu 
 larly, for their skins and fat. The land is fertile, especially 
 in the vicinity of the town, but is much encumbered with 
 prickly plants, thorns, &c. The climate is mild. Singing 
 birds, including the nightingale, are numerous all over the 
 district. 
 
 ACUL, a small seaport tn., N. coast, Hayti or St. 
 Domingo; lat. 19 47 40" N.; Ion. 72 27 15" W. (L.) ; 
 
 70 m. E. Cape St. Nicholas. ACUL is also the name of a 
 
 small river in the same island, which falls into the sea at the 
 back of Point Abacou. 
 
 ACULCO, or ACULEO, a lake, Chili, prov. of, and 38 m. 
 S S. W. from Santiago ; it is about 9 m. in length, and 3 in 
 breadth, and discharges itself into the river Maypu by a small 
 stream, having a N. course of about 15m. The scenery 
 around it is remarkable for its beauty. It abounds in fish 
 and aquatic fowls, including swans and flamingoes. In a 
 mountainous ridge close by, are the gold mines of Alaue. 
 
 ADAFOOD1A, a large tn. Fellatta country, W. Africa; 
 lat. 13 6 N.; Ion. 1 3 E. It is situated in a dry healthy 
 plain, having a rich red soil, and is enclosed by a thick clay 
 wall, 18 ft. high. There is here an extensive market for slaves, 
 and for other less objectionable wares, such as Bornou armlets, 
 bracelets, and anklets, native razors and beads, cloths of dif 
 ferent kinds, and carved wooden bowls, bows, arrows, earthen 
 ware, provisions, &c. It is said to be as large as Abomey 
 (pop. 24,000), and its trade in native merchandise nearly 
 equal. Adafoodia was the extreme limit of Mr. Duncan s tra 
 vels towards the interior, and there he obtained, from an 
 eye-witness, an interesting and minute account of the death of 
 Mungo Park. (Duncan s Travels in Western Africa.) 
 
 ADAJA, a river, Spain, Old Castile, rising near Piedra- 
 hita, in the Sierra de Avila. It pursues an E. direction for 
 about 20 m., when it turns abruptly to the N., and, passing 
 the city of Avila, falls into the Duero about 15 m. S. Valla- 
 dolid, after a course of between 80 and 90 in. 
 
 ADALIA. SATALIEII, or SATALAYA [anc. Atolbia], a 
 seaport, Anatolia, Asiatic Turkey, at the head of the enlf 
 of the name name; Jat. 3652 12"N.; Ion. 30 45 E. (R.); 
 pleasantly situated on the slope of a hill rising to a height 
 of 70 ft. above the level of the sea. The houses being 
 
 built circularly round the harbour, the streets appear to rise 
 behind each other, like the seats of a theatre. There is a 
 bazaar, or collection of shops, where various articles of Euro 
 pean manufacture are displayed. The neighbourhood abounds 
 
 ~th orange, lemon, fig, and mulberry trees, with vines, sugar 
 canes, &c. ; and the view from the higher houses is said to be 
 very fine, the country being fertile, and the mountains poeti 
 cally beautiful. In the town are fragments of ancient build 
 ings, columns, inscriptions, and statues, which are generally 
 built into the walls of the town with care and some taste. 
 Adalia is begirt with a double wall. Scarcely a ship rides in 
 the ancient harbour, a few boats occupying a port which, in 
 early ages, contained its fleet. A stream in the neighbour 
 hood is supposed to have been the ancient Catarractes. The 
 Gulf of Adalia, at the head of which the town is situated, is a 
 deep and broad indentation, being about 100 m. in width at 
 its entrance, and 50 in length. Cape Khelidonia forms its W., 
 and Cape Anamoor its E. entrance. Pop. of town, 8000. 
 
 ADAM BAY, Australia, N.W. coast; lat. 12 10 S.; 
 Ion. 131 45 E; 70 in. S.W. Victoria, Port Essington. It 
 stretches 6 m. inland, and is 10 in breadth at the entrance, 
 
 ith 9 fathoms water. The river Adelaide falls into this 
 bay. It was named by Stokes, the discoverer, after Sir 
 Charles Adam. 
 
 ADAM S BRIDGE, a remarkable sand-bank between 
 Talk s Strait and the Gulf of Manaar, stretching from the 
 island of the latter name on the N.W. coast of Ceylon, to the 
 island of Ramiserum off the S.E. coast of the Carnatic. The 
 bank is about 30 m. in length, and J m. in breadth, and con 
 sists entirely of sand, partly above and partly below water, 
 collected apparently by the surf and currents, and, so far as is 
 known, unsupported by rock. It is said that throughout the 
 whole extent of the bridge there is not above 3 or 4 ft. water 
 at high tides in any part. There are three principal chan 
 icls through the bank ; one near the island of Manaar, called 
 the Tal Manaar passage, a long, narrow, and very winding 
 channel, having about 6 ft. water in the shallow parts, with 
 the exception of a bar opposite its S. end, on which there is 
 not more than 3 or 4 ft. water. The second passage is about 
 8 m. further to the W., and the third 11 m. from the island of 
 Ramiserum. The last, called the Tanny Coody channel, is 
 narrow in the centre, and 30 ft. deep, with broad curved bars 
 opposite its two ends, on which there is not more than 5 or 6 ft. 
 water. (Major Sim s Report; Horsburgh s India Directory.) 
 ADAM S PEAK, a lofty mountain in the S. part of the 
 isl. of Ceylon, 45m. E.S.E. Colombo; lat. 6 52 N.; Ion. 
 80 29 E. (u.) It is of a conical form, about 7000 ft. high, 
 and can be seen at sea, in ciear weatiier, from a distance of 
 nearly 150 m. It is considered sacred by the followers of 
 Buddha, as well as by the Mussulmans of Hindoostan, and 
 crowds of both Buddhist and Mahometan pilgrims, annually 
 ascend the mountain in the months of January, February, and 
 March, being the dry season on the W. side of the island. 
 The summit is surrounded by a wall about 5 ft. high, in 
 which are two distinct openings to admit pilgrims. By the 
 side of this wall, a level path has been formed encircling the 
 rocks, which rise to a height of about 8 ft. in the centre, and 
 are surmounted by a small wooden temple. On the top is an 
 impression of the foot of Buddha, said to have been imprinted 
 when he stepped from this peak to the kingdom of Siam. 
 The Mahometans, however, assert that the footprint was 
 left by Adam, our first parent, who here lamented his expul 
 sion from Paradise supposed to have been in the island of 
 Ceylon; hence the name of Adam s Peak. The impression 
 itself appears to be a superficial hollow, nearly 5 J ft. long, by 
 about 2^ ft. broad, having a border of gilded copper, studded 
 with a few gems of little value. The offerings of the devotees, 
 consisting of copper money, rice, cocoa nuts, cotton cloth, 
 handkerchiefs, betel leaves, flowers, onions, ornaments for the 
 cover of the footprint, and a lock of the hair of the head, or 
 a portion of the beard, are forwarded at the end of the season 
 to the chief priest at Candy. The average annual amount 
 is about 250 sterling. The view from the summit is singu 
 larly magnificent. (Knigh ton s Lfist. of Ceylon.) 
 
 ADAMS, the name of several towns, counties, and dis 
 tricts, United States : 1, A tn., co. Berkshire, Massachusetts. 
 2, A co. in state Mississippi. 3, A district, New Hampshire. 
 4, A district, New York. 5, A co. Ohio. 6, A co. and tn. 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
ADAMSON S HARBOUR 
 
 25 
 
 ADELAIDE 
 
 ADAMSON S HARBOUR, or POUT ESI-ERANCE, a 
 small arm of the sea, on the S. coast of Van Diemen s Land, 
 d Entrecasteaux Channel, between the estuary of the Huon 
 and S. Port ; it is 2 in. wide at the entrance, and runs about 
 7 in. inland; hit. 43 20 S.; Ion. 147 15 E. 
 
 ADAMSTOVVN, a par. Ireland, co. Wexford; area, 81 34 
 ac. ; contains several interesting ruins, and a lofty mountain 
 called Carrickburn, said to be 3000 ft. high. Pop. in 1841, 
 2037. 
 
 ADAMUZ, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 21 m. 
 N.E. from Cordova, situated on the sierra Morena, about 1 m. 
 N. of the Guadalquivir ; consists of solidly constructed houses, 
 forming about a dozen ill-built streets, and has four churches, 
 an endowed school, prison and barracks, with 2640 inhabit 
 ants, engaged partly in tillage, partly in making white soap 
 and olive oil, and in weaving coarse linens. Considerable quan 
 tities of the oil and soap are sent to Castile. (Madoz.) 
 
 ADANA, an anc. tn. Asiatic Turkey, district of same 
 name, on the Sihun, about 21 m. from its embouchure in 
 the Mediterranean ; lat. 37 N.; Ion. 35 15 E.; situated on 
 a gentle declivity, and surrounded by groves of mulberry, 
 peach, apricot, fig and olive trees, and vineyards. It is large 
 and gloomy, but well built, and contains some good bazaars. 
 It was anciently enclosed by walls, of which parts only 
 now remain, together with a Roman archway and bridge. 
 The inhabitants consist chiefly of Turks and Turcomans. 
 Pop. 10,000. 
 
 ADANAD, or AmNATHA,atn. Hindoostan, prov. Malabar, 
 division Shirnada, 25 m. S.S.E. Calicut; the residence of the 
 Alvangheri Tamburacul, or chief of the Brahmins of Malabar, 
 who are styled Namburies. 
 
 ADARE, a vil. or small tn. and par. Ireland, co. Limerick, 
 prov. Munster ; the former 8 m. S.W. Limerick, and 102 in. 
 S.W. by W. Dublin, on the W. bank of the small river 
 Mague, here crossed by an ancient, but excellent stone bridge 
 of 14 arches. The houses are, for the most part, old and ill 
 built ; but great improvements have been effected of late years 
 by Lord Dunraven, who is proprietor of the village. Adare, 
 however, is remarkable only for some extensive and interest 
 ing ruins in the town and vicinity. These consist of the 
 remains of a monastery, founded by the first Earl of Kildare 
 in 1279, of which the tower, nave, and part of the choir only 
 now exist ; of those of an Augustinian abbey, on the bank of 
 the river ; and of a Franciscan abbey on the S. side. The 
 cloisters of both the latter are nearly in a perfect state. The 
 par. comprises 11,933 ac. Pop. of tn. in 1841, 1095; of 
 par. 4902. 
 
 ADBASTON, or ABDASTOX, a par. England, co. Stafford; 
 area, 5330 ac. ; 4J m. W. by S. Eccleshall, near the Birming 
 ham and Liverpool Junction Canal. Pop. in 1841, 610. 
 
 ADDA, ADDUA, or ABDUA, a river, Venetian Lombardy, 
 formed by several rivulets which descend from the Rhetian 
 Alps, and unite at Bormio, at the N. entrance of the Valtellina 
 valley, which it traverses throughout its whole length, passing 
 Sondrio, and subsequently falling into the Lake of Como, 
 about 4 or 5 m. from its N. extremity. It again issues from 
 the S. end of the Lecco arm of the lake, and flows nearly due 
 S. to Lodi, when it takes a S.E. direction, and ultimately joins 
 the Po, about 5 m. W. Cremona. Its entire course, exclusive 
 of its passage through the Lake of Como, is about 120 m. 
 
 ADDA KUDI5U, an old tn., W. Africa, on the right 
 bank of the Niger, about 250 m. from its embouchure ; lat. 
 7 44 N.; Ion. 6 35 E. It is now deserted and in rums. A 
 aiodel farm was established a few miles above the town in 1841, 
 oy the Niger Expedition, under the command of Capt. Trotter, 
 and at the expense of the African Agricultural Society ; but 
 the death of the superintendent, the insubordination of the 
 settlers, and the pernicious climate, caused it to be abandoned 
 next year. 
 
 ADDERBURY, a par. England, co. Oxford; area, 6380 
 ac.; on the Oxford Canal ; with a church and school. Pop. 
 in 1841, 2526. 
 
 ADDERGEY, a small tn. Abyssinia, kingdom of Tigre , 
 prov. Samen, cap. of its district, on the N.W. slope of the 
 Samen mountains, near the pass of Lamalinon, and on the route 
 followed by Bruce, in his journey from Axum to Gondar; 
 lat. 13 35 N.; Ion. 38 3 E. 
 
 ADDERGOOLE, two pars. Ireland: 1, co. Mayo; area, 
 36,630 ac. Pop. 7379. 2, Galway; 8442 ac. Pop. 3321. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ADDERLEY, a par. England, co. Salop ; area, 2260 ac. ; 
 on the Birmingham and Liverpool Canal. Pop. in 1841, 404, 
 
 ADDINGHAM, two parishes in England:!, Adding- 
 ham, a par., co. Cumberland ; area, 9520 ac.; two small charities; 
 Roman road, called the Maiden way ; and Druidical monu 
 ments on the river Eden. Pop. in 1841,735. 2, Adding- 
 ham, a par., co. York, W. Ridjng; area, 4310 ac-- 6m. E. by 
 S. Ripton; worsted and cotton mills. Pop. in 1841, 1812. 
 
 ADDINGTON, the name of five parishes in England: 
 1, Addington (Great), a par., co. Northampton; 3 in. S.W. 
 Thrapston ; area, 1230 ac. ; on the Northampton Canal. Pop. 
 in 1841, 266. 2, Addington (Little], a par. same co., S. of 
 Thrapston; 1170 ac. Pop. in 1841, 299. 3, Addington, a 
 par. and township, co. Kent ; 920 ac. ; Druidical monument 
 and land spring. Pop. in 1841, 208. 4, Addington, a par., 
 co. Surrey; 3210 ac. ; manor of Addington, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury s seat, held by the singular tenure of making and 
 presenting to the sovereign a mess of pottage at his or her 
 I coronation. It is near the Croydon Railway, and has a number 
 of low tumuli. Pop. in 1841, 580,5,Addinyton, a par., 
 co. Bucks; 1320 ac.; 1 m. W.N.W. Winslow; fund for 
 apprenticing poor boys. Pop. in 1841, 84. 
 
 ADDLE, a par. England, co. York, W. Riding; area, 
 6350 ac.; fine Norman church ; several charities; a flaxmill. 
 Remains of a Roman town, and many antiquities, discovered 
 in 1702 and subsequently. Pop. in 1841, 1219. 
 
 ADDLETHORPE, a par. England, co. Lincoln; area, 
 1770.ac.; 7 m. E.S.E. Alford. Pop. in 1841, 238. 
 
 ADDOO, or ADOU, one of the Maldive Islands; 10 m. in 
 length, E. to W., and 7 in breadth, N. to S. ; of a crescent 
 form, convex towards the S., and concave towards the N. ; 
 lat. 2 7 N. ; Ion. 73 35 E. (K.) 
 
 ADEL, or ADAIEL, formerly a prov. Abyssinia, now a 
 separate kingdom ; but neither its precise position nor its 
 limits would appear to be ascertained, since hardly any two 
 authorities agree as to either, some making Adel and Dan- 
 kali synonymous, and others including Somauli, to the exclu 
 sion of Dankali. As usually understood, however, it would 
 appear to be that district stretching along the E. confines of 
 Abyssinia, between lat. 10 30 and about 12 55 N., having 
 the Sea of Bab-el-Mandeb on the E. for half its length, and 
 the territory of Esa Somauli throughout the other half. Its 
 entire length from N.E. to S.W. is thus about 150 m. It is 
 bounded on the W. by the country of the Galla tribes, but it* 
 precise limits in this direction are utterly unknown, as, indeed, 
 is the kingdom generally, it being nearly an entire blank on 
 our maps. So far as the country has been yet explored 
 still a very limited extent in comparison to the whole it 
 presents a volcanic formation, many extinct craters being 
 visible, but none in a state of activity. Beds of lava, of great 
 thickness, are also met with. The country is in general naked 
 and barren, but presents occasional patches of good soil, in 
 which various grains are produced, including wheat, barley, 
 and millet. Tracts also occur covered with light green grass, 
 on which numerous flocks and herds are reared. The climate 
 is singularly variable, and generally very unhealthy. Both 
 the mineral and vegetable productions of Adel are the same 
 as those common to the other provinces of Abyssinia ; as is 
 also its zoology. The people of this country are of nomadic 
 habits, and would appear, generally, to resemble, in most 
 respects, those of Dankali (which see), and are indeed spoken 
 of as the same race by many travellers; the term Dankali 
 being indiscriminately applied to the inhabitants of both coun 
 tries. The principal towns are Tajoora and Hoosa. (Brant; 
 Isenberg and Krapf.) 
 
 ADELE ISLAND, off the N.W. coast of Australia, and 
 about 55 m. from the mainland. Its centre is in lat. 15 32 S. ; 
 Ion. 1 9 * 15 K. (R.) There are several small islets near it. 
 
 ADELAIDE, a tn., S. Australia, co. Adelaide, of which 
 it is the chief place; on the E. shore of St. Vincent s Gulf, 
 about 6 m. from the coast; lat. 34 55 S. ; Ion. 138 28 E. (K.) 
 It is intersected by the river Torrens, which divides it into S- 
 and N. Adelaide. The former is on flat ground, and twice the 
 size of the northern part of the town. It has also been more 
 extensively built upon, and is the established commercial divi 
 sion of the city. The government house, and all the public 
 buildings and offices, are in S. Adelaide. The former is a 
 handsome building, resembling a country gentleman s house in 
 England, with well-kept gardens around it. Several of the 
 
ADELAIDE ISLAND 
 
 26 
 
 ADELSBERG 
 
 streets would do no discredit to any secondary town in Eng 
 land. They are all spacious, varying from 60 to 130 ft. wide, 
 and run at right angles with each other. The public offices 
 and jail are as yet the only public buildings in the town worth 
 noticing. There are, however, several creditable edifices be 
 sides, including the S. Australian Bank, which stands in a pro 
 minent position on the N. Torrcns. There are two Episcopalian 
 churches in S. Adelaide, each calculated to hold about 1000 
 sitters, and having an average attendance of about 900. Another 
 church has been recently erected in N. Adelaide. There arc, 
 besides, nine dissenting places of worship, all respectable-look 
 ing buildings, the average attendance at which is about 2300. 
 There is also a K. catholic church, with an excellent school 
 attached. Having been planned on too large a scale, the town 
 continues to have a straggling appearance, and will probably 
 continue so for several years to come. At present, it is 
 prettily studded with large gum trees. Nearly every article 
 of European produce can be had here, and often, if not always, 
 at a very little advance on home prices. 
 
 Port Adelaide lat. 34 48 S.; Ion. 138 28 E. (R.) 
 is about 5 or 6 m. from the town, with which it is con 
 nected by an excellent macadamized road, carried, in some 
 places, on a causeway, over a swamp. It is situated on 
 the E. bank of a large creek, penetrating the Mangrove 
 Swamp, by which the shore of the gulf is here fringed. 
 The creek, which is from 10 to 11 m. in length, proceeds 
 first in a N.E. direction; this portion being called the 
 north arm; then suddenly bends round, and runs for about 
 6 m. due S. Measures are now being taken for removing the 
 port to the north arm, where there is broader and deeper 
 water, and from which vessels can put more readily to sea 
 than from the present port, which is 3 or 4 in. further up. 
 Port Adelaide is a bar harbour. When the colony was first 
 established, there were, at no time, even at spring tides, 15 ft. 
 water on the bar; but having been recently deepened, vessels 
 drawing 17 or 18 ft. may now be brought in during the winter 
 springs. It is not considered safe, however, to load deeper 
 than 15 or 1 6 ft. There is now 3 ft. more water on the bar 
 than formerly, and it is expected, if the deepening goes on, 
 chat there will soon be 5 ft. Port Adelaide is a free port ; and 
 since it was declared so, its trade has greatly increased. The 
 imports for 1848 amounted to 346,137, and the exports to 
 465,878. The site on which Adelaide now stands, was 
 selected by Col. Sight, surveyor-general to the colony, and 
 the streets and squares laid out in 1837. Pop. between 8000 
 and 10,000. (Sturt s Expedition into Central Australia, &c.) 
 ADELAIDE ISLAND, an isl. in the Antarctic Ocean; 
 lat. 67 15 S. ; Ion. 68 15 W. (R.) ; discovered by Capt. Biscoe 
 in 1831-2, who describes it as having a singularly attractive 
 appearance, with one lofty peak in the middle, shooting up to a 
 great height, and a lower range of mountains, extending about 
 4 m. from N. to S., having their summits merely sprinkled with 
 snow, but deeply covered towards their base, which slopes down 
 to the water, and terminates in a cliff of 10 or 12 ft. high, riven 
 and splintered in every direction to an extent of 200 or 300 
 yards from its edge. At a distance of 3 m., no bottom could ] 
 be found with 250 fathoms line. Adelaide is the westermost 
 of a chain of islands lying E.N.E. and W.S.W., now called 
 Biscoe s Range, after the discoverer. These islands front a 
 high continuous land, to which the name of Graham s Land 
 has been given. 
 
 ADELAIDE (QUEEN) ISLANDS, a group of islands 
 on the S.W. coast of Patagonia, at the W. entrance to the 
 Strait of Magalhaens. 
 
 ADELAIDE RIVER, N.W. Australia. It falls into 
 Adam Bay (which see], and is navigable 50 m. for vessels 
 drawing 12 ft. water; bamboos and rich alluvial flats on each 
 side, at a distance; plains openly wooded, with gum trees; 
 soil light, not sandy. It swarms with alligators. The mouth 
 of the river is fronted with shoa^ that extend out 5 m. It 
 was discovered by Capt. Wickham, of the Beagle, on August 
 31, 1839. 
 
 ADELEBSEN, or ADELEPSEN, a vil. Hanover, prov. of, 
 and 7 m. N.W. from Gottingen, on the right bank of the 
 Schwiilme. It has a church and a synagogue, and the ruins of 
 two castles, with some trade in cloth, and some linen weaving. 
 The inhabitants cultivate tobacco and flax. Pop. 1400. 
 
 AD-EL-JIVAZ, a walled tn. Asiatic Turkey, pash. Van, 
 14 to 16 m. from Aklat, on the N.W. shore of the Lake Van. 
 
 Though small, and many of the houses in ruins, it is a pretty 
 and pleasant place, the approach to it being skirted by meadows 
 and orchards. The greater part of the inhabitants live in 
 detached houses among the gardens, with which the whole val 
 ley in which it is situated is occupied. The rocks are lime 
 stone, and pure water runs in great abundance through the 
 lanes, serving to irrigate the gardens. There are here great 
 plenty of common fruits; and water melons and grapes also 
 thrive well. Coarse cotton cloths are manufactured, there 
 being about 20 looms in the town employed in the production 
 of these fabrics. Ad-el-jiviiz contains about 250 Mahometan 
 and 30 Armenian families. (Brant, London Oeo. Jour., vol. x. 
 p. 406.) 
 
 ADELNAU, a tn. Prussia, cap. of circle of same name, 
 prov. of, and 68 m. S.E. from Posen, and 40 m. N.E. Breslau, 
 in Silesia. It lies in a flat, swampy country, on the left 
 bank of the Bartsch, and has a Lutheran and two R. catholic 
 churches. Tanning is carried on to a small extent, and some 
 trade is done in cattle and mercery. In the vicinity is much 
 wood; and horse breeding is successfully pursued. Pop. 1680. 
 ADELPHI, or FRATELLI, two small islands in the Grecian 
 Archipelago, about 40 in. W. Scarpanto ; in lat. 39 5 48" N. ; 
 Ion. 23 59 15" E. (R.) 
 
 ADELSBERG, a market tn. Austria, prov. Illyria, 23 m. 
 N.E. Trieste. It lies in an elevated situation, in a dreary, 
 barren country, among limestone hills, on the great road 
 between Vienna and Trieste. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 engaged as carriers. Pop. 1500. Adelsberg is only remark 
 able for the numerous and extensive stalactite caves that exist 
 in the limestone rock in its vicinity, and which are the largest 
 hitherto discovered in Europe. The principal grotto is about 
 half a mile distant from the village ; its entrance is in the face 
 of a cliff, surmounted by a round castle ; it has been explored 
 to a distance of between 2 and 3 m. from its mouth, and is 
 found to terminate in a lake. The river Poik disappears in 
 a vast cavern 50 ft. below the entrance to the grotto, reappears 
 at about 180 yards within the cave, and is then lost under the 
 mountains, issuing to light again at Planina, about 8 m. off, 
 where it is called the Unz, where planks and pieces of wood, 
 it is said, appear ten or twelve hours after being thrown into 
 the stream in the cavern. Having proceeded about 200 
 yards into the grotto, a vast gloomy space is entered, called 
 the Dome, being a hall more than 300 ft. long and 100 ft. high ; 
 the river is heard rushing below. Crossing the latter by a 
 wooden bridge, and scaling the opposite side by a flight of 
 steps cut in the rock, a range of fairy-like halls and chambers, 
 of various sizes, present themselves. It is impossible to 
 describe all the beauties and wonders of the gigantic stalactitic 
 concretions, and lofty halls, supported, as it were, by Gothic 
 columns, and apparently filled with statues of exquisite deli 
 cacy and whiteness. There is, however, one part of the cave 
 which in grandeur and sublimity so far exceeds all the rest, 
 that I must allude to it more specially. It is called Mount 
 Calvary, and is situated near the extremity of the grotto, about 
 1 m. from the entrance. Here we suddenly found ourselves 
 in an open space, of which we could neither see the limits, nor 
 distinguish the height of the roof. In the centre, the ground 
 rises considerably, forming a steep and rugged hill, over which 
 our path led, the roof rising in proportion as we ascended, with 
 a deep and gloomy-looking ravine on either side. This hill, 
 which consists of the blocks and fragments fallen from the 
 lofty roof, was almost everywhere covered with a thick in 
 crustation of white stalagmites, which, having assumed every 
 possible variety of form, appeared in the murky gloom like 
 wandering spectres, or beautiful marble statues. At each step 
 as we advanced, fresh figures were seen, arranged with apparent 
 taste along the terraces of a rising ground. We almost fancied 
 ourselves walking in an enchanted garden, adorned with a rich 
 profusion of statues, columns, and vases, while the darkness 
 made the spacious hall appear still more extensive. In short, 
 our expectations, great as they had been, were not disap 
 pointed. (Hamilton s Asia Miw^r, vol. i.) 
 
 About 3 m. from the village is the cave of Maddelena, or 
 the Mayddenen Grotte, which is not so extensive as the one 
 just described, but, in some respects, is more striking. 
 That of Adelsberg is almost level the whole way, but the 
 Maddelena is one continual descent, at an angle of nearly 40 
 degrees, of great breadth, and supported by a greater number 
 of massive stalactite columns. In this cave is found that 
 
ADEL8HEIM 
 
 27 
 
 ADEN 
 
 remarkable animal, Piotcus anguinus, one of the four true 
 amphibials known to exist, being supplied with both lungs 
 and gills for breathing. This cave is also a favourite resort 
 of robbers, who infest the neighbouring forests. (Hamilton.) 
 
 ADELSHEIM, a small tn. grand duchy of Baden, circle 
 of the Lower Ivhine. It lies in a vale, in the Odenwald, 32 m. 
 E. Heidelberg. The inhabitants are principally occupied in 
 agriculture, vine growing, and raising cattle. Adelsheim 
 came under the sovereignty of the Grand Duke of Baden in 
 1806. Pop. principally Protestants, 1476. 
 
 ADEMUZ, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 64 m. N.W. from 
 Valencia, on the slope of a hill, on the right bank of the Gua- 
 dalaviar. Its houses are of a regular height, but the streets 
 are crooked and badly paved. It has two spacious squares; a 
 church, with a tower 144ft. high; two chapels, three schools, 
 two of which are endowed; a townhall ; and several flour- 
 mills. The inhabitants are employed in weaving cotton and 
 linen for home consumpt, in distilling brandy, and in making 
 wax, hempen shoes, and earthenware. Pop. 3030. (Madoz.) 
 
 ADEN, an ancient, and once celebrated city, and seaport j 
 of Arabia, on its S. coast, about 100 m. E. the Strait of 
 Hab-el-Mandeb, and 120m. E.S.E. Mocha; lat. (Sirah Island, i 
 N. point) 12 46 12" N. ; Ion. 45 5 E. (n.) ; situated on the ! 
 N. side of a lofty promontory, composed chiefly of masses of 
 dark-coloured volcanic rock, wholly destitute of vegetation. 
 The city itself is situated in an amphitheatre of rocky mountains, 
 literally in the crater of a volcano, being closely surrounded 
 with lofty walls and barriers of naked rock. The houses, or 
 rather huts, are in rows, traversing a small valley, very slight 
 in their construction, and limited in their accommodation; 
 many of them are entirely of wicker work, having waggon 
 roofs, with interwoven leaves of the date palm for a covering. 
 In some instances, the roofs are flat. The buildings are 
 generally of undressed stone, compacted with layers and 
 pillars of wood instead of mortar. No glass windows are to 
 be seen ; and the apertures for admitting the light are exceed 
 ingly small. The houses in the Jews quarter are the most 
 respectable; but even of these, little that is favourable can be 
 said. One of the most conspicuous objects in Aden is the 
 tomb of the Mahometan saint, Idris ibn Abdallah. Few 
 towers and minarets are visible. On the N. and W. sides of 
 the town, there is a steep and lofty mountain called Jebel 
 Shamshan, which rises to the height of 1776 ft., on the highest 
 pinnacles of which are some old towers erected by the Turks. 
 Numerous wells, and the remains of basins for the reception 
 of water, of great magnitude, are found in various directions; 
 and, in the valley of Tanks, is a succession of hanging cis 
 terns, formed by excavations in the limestone rock. These 
 are lined with flights of steps, and supported by lofty but 
 tresses of imperishable masonry, forming deep reservoirs of 
 a semi-elliptical form. [Wilson s Lands of tlie Bible.) The 
 
 (auks are now in ruins, and the supply of water wholly ob 
 tained from wells, of which, according to Mr. Malcolmson, 
 Civil and Staff surgeon who resided at Aden for six years 
 there are no fewer than 350, situated mostly, though not 
 invariably, at the foot of the hills, cut through the solid rock 
 to an average depth of 40 ft., not more in many instances 
 than 4 ft. in diameter, and built from the rock with a circular 
 rubble wall. The water in many of the wells is brackish, and 
 in all has a saline taste, unpleasant to strangers, on whom it 
 acts for a time as a slight aperient an effect, however, which 
 ceases after a brief period. The water, notwithstanding this 
 peculiarity, is said to be of very superior quality, though 
 stigmatized as bad by several visitors to the place. The 
 accounts of its supply are equally conflicting as those of its 
 quality. Mr. Malcolmson represents the former as abundant; 
 while Commander Brown, of the AyrsJiire, who visited Aden 
 in 1846, asserts that it is exceedingly scarce, and supports his 
 assertion by the very strong argument, that he paid for very 
 brackish water, three rupees per 100 gallons; and for the lest 
 (being only one well) six rupees for a similar quantity, which, 
 in the latter case, would be nearly equal to l^d. per gallon. 
 The same authority represents the supply of provisions gen 
 erally, including vegetables, as being scanty, and charges 
 high again quoting prices; while Mr. Malcolmson says that 
 both are abundant. With regard to these discrepancies, it 
 can only be remarked, that Commander Brown s precise 
 statement of charges, doubtless has its effect in determining 
 the belief of the reader. 
 
 The climate of Aden may be divided into two seasons the 
 hot and cold, or the N.E. and S. W. monsoons ; the former com 
 mencing at the end of April, and continuing till the beginning 
 of October; the latter prevailing during the remainder of the 
 year. During the continuance of the S. W. monsoon, hot winds 
 prevail, raising the thermometer to 104 in the shade. In the 
 cold months, from October till March, it falls as low as 64 at 
 night, and at mid day rises only to 86. Rain occasionally falls 
 with tropical violence in the months of November, January, 
 and February. The climate, however, does not, on the whole, 
 appear to be positively unhealthy. Mr. Malcolmson says, 
 that for seven months in the year it maybe considered equal, 
 if not superior, to that of most stations in India. 
 
 The harbours of Aden, two in number, are considered 
 the best in Arabia. The eastward or outer harbour is 
 divided into two small bays by the rocky islet of Sirah, 
 which was formerly fortified. Extending from this islet, sea 
 ward, is a short projecting point, which breaks the swell of 
 the sea, and formerly rendered the space between it and the 
 town well adapted for an inner harbour. Of this harbour, 
 all that at present remains is a narrow channel of deep water, 
 close under the reef, only sufficiently capacious for seven or 
 eight native boats. The rest is entirely choked up with sand. 
 
 ADEN, FROM T1IK NORTH. From a Draw-in I. r i. -ist IMhirs li N 
 
 The other, or W. harbour, called Aden Back Bay, affords , Oriental mail steamers. It lies within the small islands seeL 
 a convenient and secure haven, accessible at all seasons; j on the map, and S.W. from the Tank, opposite the coaling 
 and ships may anchor in any part of it. In this harbour, | station. The scenery of this bay is of a very wild and savage 
 Called Bander Tuwayyi by the Arabs, is the anchorage for the I character, as will be seen from the accompanying view looking 
 
ADEN 
 
 ADEKNO 
 
 towards the coaling station, from which a road, through a 
 deep chasm, leads to the town of Aden, about a mile and a 
 half distant. On the E. side of its entrance, a mass of rocks, 
 black and rugged, called Jebel Hasan, rises 1237 ft. above 
 the level of the sea. The high land which forms Cape Aden, 
 when approached from the E., is seen from the sea at a dis 
 tance of between 40 and 60 m. 
 
 In 1839, the town, and the peninsula on which it stands, 
 
 ings, or the wretched huts of the inhabitants. Two of the 
 minarets were then in a dilapidated condition, and the several 
 mosques were in ruins. The fortifications encircling the town 
 were constructed by Sultan Soleiman. A battery formerly 
 extended along the whole length of the shore; and here, 
 mounted on rude carriages, are s.till seen three enormous brass 
 guns, supposed to have been brought there by the Turkish 
 fleet in 1530. In the 1 7th century, Aden contained 30,000 
 
 were purchased by the East India Company from the Sheikh, | inhabitants. When Lieut. Wellsted was there, in 1835, its 
 
 population did not exceed 800 the descendants 
 of Arabs and Somaulis, and the offspring of slaves. 
 Not a Turk remained in the town, and only about 
 20 families were engaged in mercantile pursuits; 
 the remainder gaining a miserable subsistence 
 by supplying the Hagy (pilgrimage) boats with 
 wood and water, or by fishing. A few Banians 
 monopolized the greater part of the trade; and 
 about 250 or 300 Jews, with their wives and 
 families, occupied a separate quarter. (Niebuhr s 
 Arabia; Salt s Abyssinia; Wellsted s Travels in 
 Aralia,vo\. ii.; Wilkinson s Modern E(jypt,v(A. ii. 
 pp. 45, 46 ; Account of Aden, by J. P. Malcolmson, 
 Esq., Civil and Staff Surgeon, in Jour. Hoy. Asiatic 
 Koc., vol. viii., p. 279; Brown s Remarks on Aden, 
 in Nautical Magazine, 1847, p. 246.) 
 
 ADEN (GULP or), the name now generally 
 given to the tract of sea lying between the N. coast 
 of Somauli, terminating E. with Eas Jerdaffoon 
 (Cape Guardafui), and the S. coast of Arabia, be 
 tween Ras Arrah and Eas Agab; the former in 
 lat. 12 40 N.; Ion. 44 E. ; the latter in lat. 
 15 15 N.; Ion. 51 30 E. Its length, from E. 
 to W., is thus about 480 m. ; its breadth, from 
 N. to S., varying from 160 to 200 m. The 
 
 to whom they belonged, to be made a depot for coals, and a principal bays, harbours, and inlets, on the Arabian side, 
 
 calling station for the mail steamers between India and Su 
 
 and the result is, that not less than 24,000 tons of shipping about 20 m. E. Eas Arrah; Aden Bay and Harbour, th 
 sly the depots with coals. The former called Bander Tuwayyi by the natives ; M 
 
 dsit the port annually, to supply the depots 
 
 are Khore Amerra, a basin-like inlet, of 3 or 4 m. in extent, 
 
 ur, the 
 Maculla, or 
 
 son of the Sheikh who had sold the town refusing to deliver Makallah Bay, one of the best harbours on the coast, in about 
 it up, a naval and military force was sent out, in 1 840, to take lat. 1 4 30 40" N. ; Ion. 49 1 2 20" E. ; and Sharma Bay, in 
 possession of it; which was done. The place was afterwards about lat. 14 40 N. ; Ion. 49 E. On the African side 01 the 
 attacked repeatedly by the Arabs, who, being repulsed with I gulf, there are only two bays, or harbours, of any note; these 
 loss on every occasion, finally left the town in quiet possession are Zeyla, in lat. 11 17 N. ; Ion. 43 5 E. ; and Berbera, in 
 
 of the English. Since then, its improvement has been rapid. 
 Capt. Haines, of the Indian navy, the governor, writing from 
 Aden, June 2, 1843. says: The city continues to increase; and 
 supplies of all kinds are plentiful. The pop. is now about 
 22.000, instead of 600, as in former times. It is a busy, 
 lively place. We have as many as four steamers a-month ; 
 and trees and gardens are springing up on all sides. The 
 pop. now (1850) is estimated at about 40,000. Coffee of the 
 best quality, and all the other commodities which enter into 
 the commerce of the Eed Sea, are procured here; including 
 the gums, myrrh, frankincense, and balsams, imported from 
 the N.E. districts of Africa. 
 
 The station is thus important to Britain, both in a commercial 
 and political point of view. The peninsula of Aden resembles 
 the rock of Gibraltar, and could be rendered as formidable. 
 The town is now in a fair way of becoming the entrepot and 
 point of transit for the commerce of Arabia and Abyssinia, to 
 the detriment of Mocha. Aden, says a French geographer, 
 is unique as a military position. As a Eoman commercial 
 colony, in the time of Constantine, it was famous for its 
 
 lat. 10 22 N. ; Ion. 45 10 E. The latter is one of the most 
 considerable bays on this coast ; and, though little known to 
 Europeans, is much frequented by trading vessels from the 
 coast of Arabia and the adjacent parts. During the months 
 of January, February, and March, E. and E.N.E. breezes 
 prevail in the gulf. In April and May, the winds are gene 
 rally light, varying from E.N.E. to S.E. and S., with clear 
 weather. In the former month, the mercury rises to 80 and 
 86; in the latter, from 84 to 95. In June, July, and 
 August, the weather is generally hazy. From September to 
 December, both inclusive, the winds are principally from 
 E. to E.N.E., with pleasant weather, and a temperature 
 ranging between 76 and 84. The Gulf of Aden is known 
 also by the names of Sea of Bab el-mandeb and Gulf of 
 Arabia. (Haine s Memoir ofilie S. and E. Coasts of Arabia; 
 Horsburgh s East India Directory, &c.) 
 
 A DEN AHA, or ADANARA, an isl. and its cap. in the Indian 
 Archipelago, belonging to the Dutch. The island lies E. of 
 Flores, from which it is separated by the strait of the same 
 name; lat, 8 17 S.; Ion. 123 14 E. (R.) ; about 35 m. long. 
 It is mountainous and 
 
 impregnable fortifications, its great trade, and its excellent by about 15 m. broad. It is mountainous and well wooded, 
 ports, which received vessels from all parts of the known with a river on its E. coast. Besides the cap., Adenara, which 
 world. In the hands of England, it is sure to recover its has a haven, there are the villages of Carma, Labetau, Lamau, 
 prosperity and supremacy over all the surrounding countries, Lamabula, and Trony. This island belonged formerly to the 
 more particularly over Yemen; and to be a stumbling-block Portuguese, who have still a possession on it, named Woeri, 
 
 which carries on a little trade with Coopang. 
 
 ADENAU, a tn. Prussia, prov. Lower Ehine, gov. of, 
 nd 30 m. W.N.W. from Cobleiitz, on one of the tributaries of 
 
 in the way of the future commercial relations between France 
 and Abyssinia. (Lacroix, Annuaire des Voyagesetde la Geo- 
 graphie for 1844.) 
 
 In the llth, 12th, and 13th centuries, Aden maintained an the Ahr; 2434 ft. above the sea. It has a church and chapel; 
 
 extensive trade with India and China, and was then the manufactures, on a small scale, of woollen and linen fabrics; 
 
 entrepot of the riches of the East. Its decay dates from the three corn-mills; some tanneries; and six annual markets, 
 
 discovery of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope. In In the vicinity are iron and lead mines. Pop. 1430. 
 1835, according to Wellsted, all that remained of the former ADEKNO [anc. Adranum or Hcidranum], a small tn. 
 
 city were four minarets, about 100 houses, and some disjointed Bicily, prov. of, and 18m. N. W. from Catania, and about 10 m. 
 
 remnants of its walls; the rest being occupied by tombs, W.S.W. Mount Etna. It is surrounded by walls, and has 
 
 mounds, and heaps of rubbish, roofless walls of older dwell- several churches and monastic establishments. The principal 
 
ADERRIG 
 
 A DOUR 
 
 church is in a liandsome square; tlie columns of its facade 
 are of lava. The river Simeto, in the vicinity of the town, 
 forms some remarkable cascades. Pop. 6623. 
 
 ADERRIG, a par. Ireland, co. Dublin ; area, 759 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 127. 
 
 ADIAMAN [Hisn Nansur of Idrisi], a small tn. Asiatic 
 Turkey, pash. Diarbekr ; 75 m. W. by S. from the tn. of that 
 name, and 132 m. N.E. by N. Aleppo ; lat. 37 45 N. ; Ion. 
 38 32 E. It is of a circular form, with a mound in the 
 centre, and is surrounded by gardens and groves. It contains 
 1 100 houses, several mosques, three ruinous khans, and a 
 bath. Of the houses, 800 belong to Mahometans, and 300 
 to Christians. Mr. Ainsworth describes the country around 
 ns consisting of nearly level grassy plains, well watered by 
 rivulets. 
 
 ADIGE [anc. Atissius or Atliesis; German, EtscJi], a large 
 river, N. Italy ; it rises in the Khetian Alps, about lat. 46 30 N., 
 and, after a winding course of about 180 m., chiefly S. anil W., 
 falls into the Adriatic at lat. 45 10 N. ; Ion. 12 20 E. 
 In its course through Italy, it passes Verona and Legnago, 
 and is from 300 to 500 ft. wide below the former, to which 
 point it is navigable. Being confined, like many other Italian 
 rivers, between high artificial embankments, it is deep and 
 rapid, and of difficult navigation, especially in the spring, 
 when it is liable to sudden floods from the melting of the 
 snow. The Adige and Po now enter the sea by one common 
 delta, two branches of the former being connected with arms 
 of the latter. This junction of the two streams at this point, 
 has had the effect of accelerating the encroachment here of 
 the new land upon the Adriatic. The principal affluents of 
 the Adige are the Eisack, the Noce, and the Aviso. 
 
 AD1NJ1K, a small tn. Asiatic Turkey, on the S. shore 
 of the Sea of Marmora, from which it is distant about 1 m. ; 
 lat. 40 20 N. ; Ion. 27 50 E. It is situated on high 
 ground; is composed of from 400 to 500 houses, chiefly 
 Turkish, and contains six mosques. It is a wretched- 
 looking place ; but is surrounded with numerous relics of 
 antiquity. 
 
 ADI8HAM, a par. England, co. Kent; area, 1810 ac. ; 
 handsome church, the Palmer charity. Pop. in 1841, 372. 
 
 ADJYGHUR, a tn. and fortress, Hindoostan, prov. Alla 
 habad, situated between Callinger and Pannali ; lat 24 50 N. ; 
 Ion. 80 3 E. The fortress, enclosing a space of about 
 800 yards in breadth, is placed on a steep hill, and is inacces 
 sible except by well-defended paths leading to the gates. It 
 
 natives are fierce and warlike, and well acquainted with the 
 use of firearms. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLANDS,agroupofisl. in the S. Pacific 
 Ocean, to the N. of New Guinea; between lat. 2 and 3 S. 
 The largest Great Admiralty Island is between 50 and GO 
 m. in length. They were discovered, in 1616, by two Dutch 
 ships fitted out by a company of merchants of Alkmaar, and 
 commanded by an experienced navigator, named Cornelius 
 Schooten, who was accompanied by James le Maire, the son 
 of a merchant of Egmont, as commissioner or supercargo, and 
 to whom the discovery of the islands has been attributed, 
 though on what ground is not evident. They have been called, 
 with apparently more propriety, Schooten s Islands. They 
 were visited, in 1761, by Capt. Carterct; by Morello, the 
 Spanish navigator, in 1781 ; and by d Entrccasteaux, when in 
 search of La Perouse, in 1793. They rise little above the 
 level of the sea, but present a beautiful appearance, being 
 covered with a luxuriant vegetation, and with dense groves 
 of cocoa-nut trees the nut forming the principal food of the 
 natives. The soil and climate are good ; but communication 
 with their shores is rendered difficult by the formidable reefs 
 and breakers with which they are surrounded. The islanders 
 are black, but not of the deepest shade ; of large stature ; \vell- 
 formed, and agreeable countenances, differing but little from 
 Europeans. They go nearly naked, the only covering of the 
 
 men being a shell, and of the 
 
 women a 
 
 girdle of matting. 
 
 was besieged, and, after a resolute defence, taken by the 
 British, in 1809. 
 
 ADLINGFLEET, a par. England, co. York, W. Riding; 
 area. 4580 ac.: m. S E. Howden. Pop. in 1841 , 448. 
 
 ADMIRALTY GULF, Australia, N.W. coast, about 70 
 m. S.W.Cape Londonderry ; lat. 14 28 S.; Ion. 125 58 E. (K.) 
 All this part of the coast, extending from N.W. Cape to Cape 
 Londonderry, is subject to light winds during the E. monsoon, 
 and occasionally to strong winds and gales from the N.W. 
 during the W. monsoon. 
 
 ADMIRALTY INLET, a bay, S. side of Barrow Strait, 
 
 Their hair is black and crisp, and their whole bodies bedaubed 
 with a composition of red ochre and cocoa-nut oil. Both 
 sexes adorn themselves with shells. Accounts differ as to 
 their dispositions; some navigators representing them as 
 docile and friendly ; others, as the reverse. Their war 
 weapons are pointed with flint, and their knives are made of 
 the same material. Their canoes, formed of the trunk of a 
 tree hollowed out, having the sides raised with boards, are 
 skilfully constructed, and many of them of great length, 
 reaching to 50 ft., though only 2 or 3 ft. wide. In these 
 canoes, which carry large sails of matting, they glide along 
 with amazing rapidity The chewing of betel is general 
 amongst them. 
 
 ADMIRALTY SOUND, Terra del Fuego. It extends 
 inland, 43 m. S.E., having a width of 7 m. at the entrance, 
 which gradually diminishes to 3. On its N. side, the shore 
 is straight ; but the S. side has two deep inlets. It termin 
 ates in a bay, affording anchorage in from 10 to 15 fathoms; 
 but is very much exposed to N. winds. 
 
 ADMISTON, or ATHELHAMPSTONE, a par. England, co. 
 Dorset ; area, 290 ac. ; on the river Piddle. Pop. in 1841, 74. 
 ADN1TH, a par. Ireland, co. Tipperary ; area, 855 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 293. 
 
 ADONI, or ADAVANI, a district and tn., S. Ilindoostan, 
 Ealaghaut territories, bounded on the N. by the Toombiulra 
 river. It was ceded, with the country to the S. of the Toom- 
 budra and Krishna, in 1800, to the British Government. Its 
 
 principal towns are Adoni, Chagee, and Goovoor. ADONI, 
 
 cap. of the district, is 55 m. W.S. W. Kurnool ; lat. 15 40 N. ; 
 Ion. 77 20 E. In 1787, it was taken and destroyed by 
 
 N. America; lat. 73 40 N ; Ion. 83 W. The shores , TippooSaib; and added, along with the district, in 1 800, to 
 of the inlet, or bay, and adjoining countiy, present a beau- Great Britain. It is now a place of little importance, 
 tiful appearance from the sea; the latter consisting of | ADONY, a market tn. Hungary, circle of, and 24 m. 
 verdant meadows, adorned with clumps of trees, on which E.S.E. from Stuhl Weissenburg, and 28 m. S. Buda; situated 
 
 deer are seen depasturing in great numbers. The name, in a fertile country, on the right bank of the Danube. It 
 
 Admiralty Inlet, has been given also to a deep indentation in has a Greek church, some Roman antiquities, and carries on 
 the land recently discovered in the Antarctic seas, by ( apt. ! a brisk trade. Pop. 3180. 
 
 Ross about lat. 64 15 S. and Ion. 58 W. This arm of the j ADORF, a tn. extreme S. of Saxony, circle of, and 28 m. 
 sea is terminated, at about 20 m. from its entrance, by a S. from Zwickau, 15m. E.N.E. Hof, in Bavaria, and within 
 placier. The S.W. land of the inlet, for about 10 m. is 4 m. of the Bavarian and of the Bohemian frontier. It 
 formed of deep brown-coloured lava, and the W. coast of , lies in a rugged picturesque valley, on the Elster, near its 
 perpendicular cliffs of basaltic rock. (Ross s Antarctic Expe- source ; has two churches and a public reading room ; and 
 dition, 1839-43.) | carries on an active frontier trade. The inhabitants are. be- 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLAND, a large isl. on the W. coast sides, engaged in weaving, paper making, corn grinding, brew- 
 of N. America, between the continent and George III. s ing, dyeing, vinegar making, tanning, in the manufacture of 
 Archipelago ; 80 to 90 m. long, and 25 broad ; its centre is in \ musical instruments and strings, and in cattle rearing ; which 
 lat 57 30 N. ; Ion. 134 40 W The shores are in some j last is carried on extensively. Pop. 2450. 
 j.arts bold and rocky, in others low. It has some commodious | ADOUR, a river, France ; has its source in the mountain 
 bays, well supplied with fresh water. Although the soil is ridge of the Tourmalet, dep. Ilautes Pyrenees. Its course 
 scanty, being but a thin layer on a bottom of rock, it is is first N., then W. and S.W. and S.S.W., passing St. Lever 
 covered with fine trees, mostly pine, mpasuring, some of them, ! and Dax, to the former of which it is navigable, and falls into 
 23 ft. in girth. The sea has made large encroachments on j the sea a little below Bayonne. Its whole length is estimated 
 the island, as well as on the neighbouring continent. The at about 170m. The current is rapid ; and sometimes serious 
 
ADOWA 
 
 BO 
 
 ADRIANOPLE 
 
 inundations are caused by tlie melting of the snows on the 
 Pyrenees. The Adour conveys down timber from the Pyre 
 nees; pitch and tar, rosin, cork, grain, brandy, &c., from 
 Armagnac ; but a shifting bar at its mouth renders the passing 
 in and out of vessels, which can only be attempted at high 
 water, difficult, and sometimes dangerous. About the year 
 1500, the sands at Bayonne were suddenly thrown across the 
 mouth of the Adour, forcing the river to seek a passage for 
 itself to the N-, along the sandy plain of Cape Breton, till it 
 reached the sea at Boneau, 2 1 m. from the point where it had 
 formerly entered. In 1579, it was restored to its ancient 
 channel by the celebrated architect, Louis de Foix, at the 
 desire of Henry 111. 
 
 ADOWA, or ADOUEII, a tn. Abyssinia, kingdom of 
 Tigre*, on the left bank of the river llassam, a tributary of | 
 the Tecazze, at an elevation of 6000 ft. above the sea, about 
 10 m. E. Axum ; lat. 14 1 N. ; Ion. 39 3 E. It lies partly 
 on the slope, and partly at the foot of a hill ; the houses, of 
 the usual Abyssinian form, being, according to Salt, regularly 
 disposed in streets or alleys, and interspersed with small and 
 well-cultivated gardens, and plantations of the snowy-blos 
 somed wanscy. It is the chief commercial depot on the great 
 caravan route from Massowa to Gondar; h?8 considerable 
 manufactures of fine and coarse cotton cloths, iron, and brass 
 ware ; and enjoys an extensive transit trade in lead, tin, cop 
 per, gold, Persian carpets, raw Chinese silks, velvets, broad 
 cloths, dyed skins, glass ware, ivory, and slaves. The trade 
 is conducted chiefly by Mahometans, and the inhabitants, 
 from their frequent intercourse with strangers, especially Eu 
 ropeans, are said to be the most civilized of all the Abys- 
 sinians. Pop. estimated by Salt at 8000. 
 
 ADPAR, a tn. and bor., co. Cardigan, Wales, on the 
 river Teifi, 10 m. E. by S. Cardigan. It has a little retail 
 t rade, but no other kind of traffic. Its cattle fairs, however, 
 of which there are 11 yearly, are well attended. Adpar, 
 with Emlyn, contributes with Cardigan, Aberystwith, Lam- 
 peter, and Tregaron, to return one member to Parliament. 
 Pop. in 1841, 1619. 
 
 ADRA [anc. Abdera] , an insecure port, Spain, in Andalu 
 sia, prov. of. and 29 m. W.S.W. from Almeria, near the mouth i 
 of the Adra; lat. 36 44" N. ; Ion. 3 11" W. (R.) ; on an emin 
 ence facing the Mediterranean, much exposed to the E. and 
 \V. winds. In form it is triangular, and its houses, generally 
 only of one floor, form irregular, inconvenient, badly-paved, 
 and dirty streets, with the single exception of one, called la 
 Playa, which is broad, and has some elegant buildings. It 
 has two little squares, a townhall, prison, brick parish church, 
 several chapels, two endowed schools, and the remains of a 
 Moorish castle, which formed part of the town s fortifications, 
 now in ruins. The inhabitants are employed in agriculture, 
 fishing, distilling brandy, and manufacturing lead from the 
 ore procured from the extensive mines in the neighbourhood. 
 The lead trade has increased considerably of late years, and 
 both the manufactured produce and the ore are exported, 
 chiefly to Marseilles, to the extent of about 5694 tons annu 
 ally. The total exports of Adra, which, besides lead, include 
 uilver, wine, and fruits, amount to about 130,000 annually. 
 In the vicinity are cultivated grapes, wheat, barley, maize, 
 sweet potatoes, sugar, &c. The cultivation of sugar, for 
 merly extensive, has much fallen off since foreign sugar 
 became cheap. Pop. 7400. (Madoz, Die. Espann.} 
 
 ADRAGOOLE, a par. Ireland, co. Galway; area, 8442 ac. 
 An extensive landslip occurred in this parish in March 1745. 
 Pop. in 1841, 3321. 
 
 ADBAMYTI [anc. Adramyttium], a tn. Turkey in Asia, 
 pash. Anadolia, near the head of the gulf of the same name, 
 80 m. N. Smyrna ; lat. 39 35 30" N. ; Ion. 27 2 30" E. (R.) It 
 is built upon a hill overlooking an extensive valley of olive 
 plantations, and consists of nearly 1 000 houses, mostly Turkish. 
 The streets are narrow and ill paved. It has a small port, from 
 which are exported wool, olives, and gallnuts, chiefly sent to 
 Constantinople; the only article that finds its way to the markets 
 
 of Europe, is a little of the gall of Valonia. Pop. 5000. 
 
 The Gulf of Adramyti has the large island of Mytilcne at its 
 entrance, forming two passages to the gulf, one on the E , the 
 other on the N. of that island. The E. passage is 10 m. wide, 
 the N. about 5 ; there is deep water in both. 
 
 ADRANOS, or EDRENOS, an anc. tn. Turkey in Asia, 
 nn the left bank of a river of the same name, at the foot of a 
 
 limestone hill, 10 m. S.AV. Mount Olympus, and 135 N.N.E. 
 Smyrna; lat. 39 59 N. ; Ion. 28 55 E. It is now in 
 ruins, but these are of a very imposing and interesting char 
 acter. The principal consists of a large square building, 88 
 paces by 65. It is built of large liewn stones, put together 
 without cement ; the wall remaining is about 30 or 40 ft. 
 high. There are also some beautiful specimens of Ionic 
 and Doric sculpture, and numerous columns, and traces of 
 ancient walls. Mr. W. J. Hamilton is of opinion that these 
 arc the ruins of Hadriani. (Hamilton s Asia Minor.} 
 
 ADRA1JA, a vil. and commune, Venetian Lombardy, 
 prov. of, and 16 m. N.E. from Bergamo. It lies in a moun 
 tainous region, and the inhabitants are chiefly employed in 
 agriculture and cattle rearing. The vicinity is noted for the 
 quantity and flavour of its grapes. A large animal cattle 
 fair is held in November. Iron, marble, and alabaster, are 
 found in the neighbourhood. Pop. of vil. and commune, 2107. 
 
 ADRIA [anc. Atria, or flatria], a city, Venetian Loin- 
 hardy, 12 m. E. Kovigo, between the Poand the Adige. The 
 present town is comparatively modern, being built with the 
 materials of the ancient city, which stood a little to the S. of 
 it. The latter was at one time a flourishing seaport, and gave 
 its name to the Adriatic, from which it is now fully 15 m. dis 
 tant ; the alluvial deposits of the Po, the Adige, and other 
 smaller rivers having gradually filled up its harbour, and, in 
 the course of ages, formed the tract of land which now inter 
 venes between it and the sea. Many interesting relics of the 
 ancient city are still to be seen, including baths, aqueducts, 
 mosaic pavements, &c. The modern city is the see of a bishop. 
 It has a considerable trade in cattle, grain, silk, flax, firewood, 
 leather, and earthenware. The country around produces corn 
 and wine. Pop. 10,400. 
 
 ADRIANOPLE [anc. Adrianopolis ; Turkish, Adraneli, 
 and Idreneh], a city of European Turkey, and long its cap. ; 
 now chief place of the pash. of Adrianople, the largest of the 
 empire, by the ancients called Thrace. The city lies on the 
 left bank of the Tondja, near its junction with the MariUa; 
 lat. 41 41 27" N. ; Ion. 26 35 41" E. (L.) It is a large and 
 important city, being about 5 m. in circumference ; but the 
 streets are remarkably narrow and dirty. It is the see of a 
 Greek bishop, dependent on the patriarchate of Constantinople, 
 The chief bazaar is an extensive building, being 300 paces 
 long, and having six gates ; it is appropriated chiefly to the 
 sale of jewellery, shawls, muslins, &c. The chief mosque is 
 a splendid structure, with an immense number of windows. 
 It has four lofty minarets, and the interior is richly decorated. 
 This edifice is believed to be the finest Moslem temple extant. 
 Another interesting building is the palace, once the residence 
 of the Sultan Selim. The aqueduct which supplies the city 
 fountains, is also a noble structure ; there are, likewise, 
 numerous baths. I Jut with these exceptions, there is not 
 much to interest the visitor ; many of the houses look as if 
 deserted : grass grows in some of the streets ; and the whole 
 place has an air of desolation. It is surrounded with old 
 walls ; and further defended by a citadel, in which are an 
 arsenal and a cannon foundry. Adrianople can scarcely be 
 called a port, although the Muritza is navigable to within a 
 short distance of it, during a portion of the year. Several 
 fairs are held yearly in and about Adrianople, at which con 
 siderable quantities of British goods are disposed of. Its 
 importance has lately been increasing, as a central depot for 
 merchandise destined for the consumption of its own pnshalic, 
 and Bulgaria. There is a British consulate here. Silk and 
 flax are the principal products of the district ; and the Adrian 
 ople or Turkey-red dye, produced from the madder raised 
 there, is famous all over the civilized world. The principal 
 articles exported to Britain are hare skins, otto of roses, silk, 
 yellow berries, and valonia. There is a considerable trade 
 in tobacco and bees wax with Germany. The silk produced 
 here is somewhat inferior to that of Broossa, and is chiefly 
 consumed in the silk manufactories of Constantinople. The 
 sheeps wool is the finest in Turkey ; and is mostly bought up 
 ! for the French market. Sugar canes and rice, to a consider 
 able amount, are grown in the territory, but chiefly for home 
 | use. A few British vessels trade to Enos, the port of Adrian 
 ople, and the number is on the increase. Other foreign ves 
 sels there trading, are chiefly French and Austrian. Adrian 
 ople was, in early times, a possession of the Bessi a Thracian 
 tribe under the name Uscudama; and, finally, received that 
 
ADRIATIC SEA 
 
 81 
 
 AEGEAN SEA 
 
 of Adrianopolis from the Roman emperor Adrian, who rebuilt 
 it in the second century, and constituted it capital of the 
 province of Mount Haemus. In August 1829, it was taken 
 and occupied by the Russians, who retained it till the 14th of 
 September, when they there signed a treaty of peace with the 
 Porte. Adrianople is subject to the plague occasionally ; the 
 latest severe visitations were those of 1836 and 1837. The 
 surrounding territory is fertile. The city stands on the N. 
 side of a large plain begirt with hills, on one of which it is 
 partially built. It is approached by several bridges, over 
 which strings of camels are usually seen passing. Pop. of 
 city, nearly 100,000. (Parl. Reports, &c.) 
 
 ADRIATIC SEA, or GULP of VENICE [Mare Adria- 
 ticum, or Superum], a large arm of the Mediterranean, extend 
 ing in a N.W. direction, from lat. 40 to 45 50 N., bounded, 
 N. and N.E. by Austria, E. by Turkey, and W. and S.W. by 
 Italy. It is about 500 m. in length, with an average breadth 
 of about 100, excepting at the Strait of Otranto, where it does 
 not exceed 45 m. in width. Its depth, between Dalmatiaand 
 the mouths of the Po, is 22 fathoms; but a large part of the 
 Gulf of Trieste, and the Adriatic, opposite Venice, is less 
 than 12 fathoms deep. Further to the S., where it is less 
 affected by the influx of great rivers, the gulf deepens con 
 siderably. It has little or no perceptible tide, except at 
 Venice, where there is a rise of a few feet. Notwithstanding 
 the present shallowness of the Adriatic, there can be little 
 doubt that its original depth was much greater than it is now, 
 as was also its extent, the former being affected by the deposits 
 of sand, marl, and tufaceous incrustations strictly analogous 
 to the strata of which the subappenine and other hills of the 
 Italian peninsula are composed which are rapidly accumu 
 lating at the bottom; and the latter, by the low alluvial 
 tracts forming along its borders. The most remarkable 
 instance of these accessions of land occurs on the W. coast, 
 where a series of lagoons, formed by long lines of sand bars, 
 are rapidly filling up, and being converted into meadows by 
 newly deposited mud brought down by the streams. Between 
 the N. point of the Gulf of Trieste, down to the S. of Ravenna, 
 there is an uninterrupted series of recent accessions of land, 
 more than 100 m. in length, which, within the last 2000 
 years, have increased from 2 to 20 m. in breadth. It is cal 
 culated that the mean rate of advance of the delta of the Po 
 on the Adriatic, between the years 1200 and 1600, was about 
 27 yards a year; whereas, the mean annual gain, from 1600 
 to 1804, was 70 yards. (Lyell s Geology.) During summer, 
 the navigation of the Adriatic is safe; but the S.E. gales in 
 winter render it dangerous, vessels failing to make some of 
 the bays on the E. side, running the risk of being stranded 
 on the shoals on the W. The Italian and Venetian shores are 
 low and sandy, without good ports, and bordered by dangerous 
 shoals. The E. coast is high and rocky, and indented by num 
 erous bays and gulfs, affording good anchorage. The princi 
 pal are, the Bay of Avlona and Gulf of Drin, in Turkey; the 
 Gulfs of Cattaro, Fiume, and Trieste, in Austria; and the Gulf 
 of Manfredonia, in Italy. The chief trading ports are Avlona, 
 Fiume, Trieste, Venice, Ancona, and Otranto. 
 
 ADRO, a tn. Venetian Lombardy, cap. of district of same 
 name, prov. of, and 10 m. W.N.W. from Brescia, and 10m. N. 
 Chiana. The inhabitants are chiefly occupied with agricul 
 ture, raising grain, fruits, and vegetables, grapes, and olives, 
 and in rearing silkworms. Pop. of tn. 2214; of district, 
 14,563. (Dizio. Univ. Italia.} 
 
 ADSTOCK, a par. England, co. Buckingham ; area, 1130 
 ac. ; 3 m. N. Winslow. Pop. in 1841, 419. 
 
 ADULIS, ADULE, or ZULLA, the ruins of an ancient tn. 
 Abyssinia, territory of the Dankali, near the head of Annesley 
 Bay, on the W. coast of the Red Sea, 30 m. S.S.E. Arkeeko ; 
 lat. 15 15 N. ; Ion. 39 55 E. The ruins are situated at a 
 distance of 3 m. from the sea, and consist merely of a few 
 square columns and capitals, without either inscriptions or 
 sculptures. Adulis, however, was a place of note at a very 
 early period. In the sixth century, it was the port of Axum, 
 and was the seat of an extensive traffic in ivory and slaves, 
 and the medium of a large general commercial intercourse 
 with Arabia and India. An inscription, on a tablet of white 
 marble, found here in 525, by Cosmas, a merchant of the 
 period, records that Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt, under 
 took an expedition to Adulis, from which point he pushed 
 his conquests along both shores of the Eed Sea; and, on the 
 
 African side, subjugated the seaport states as far as Zanzibar, 
 and the countries inland as far as Shoa. 
 
 ADVENTURE BAY, a large semicircular bay in Brune 
 Island, off the S.E. coast of Van Diemcn s Land ; its entrance, 
 which is 8 in. in width, is formed by Cape Cancle, or Fluted 
 Cape, on the S., and Cape Frederick Henry on the N. It 
 was discovered, in 1773, by Captain Furneaux, who gave it 
 the name of his ship, the Adventure. It was again visited by 
 Captain Cook in 1777, and by Captain Bligh in 1788 and 
 1792. The bay is well sheltered, the anchorage good, and 
 abundance of wood and water is to be found on its shores. 
 
 ADVENTURE ISLAND, a small isl. S. Pacific Ocean; 
 lat. 17 4 S.; Ion. 144 14 W. (K.) 
 
 ADVENTURE SOUND, and HARBOUR, E. Falk 
 land Island. The former is a bay 20 m. in length, and from 3 
 to 4 m. in breadth, containing some good harbours, and several 
 islands, clothed with tussac grass ; its shoals are fringed with 
 kelp. Adventure Harbour is in the S. part of the sound, and 
 is one of the best in it. 
 
 ADWELL, a par. England, co. Oxford ; area, 500 ac. In 
 the vicinity is Adwell- Cop, an ancient Danish entrenchment. 
 Pop. in 1841, 46. 
 
 ADWICK-LE-STREET, a par. England, co. York, 
 W. Riding; area, 2950 ac.; 4m. N.W. Doncastcr; Hedge s 
 charity. Pop. in 1841, 554. 
 
 ADW1CK-UPON-DEARNE, a par. England, co. of 
 York, W. Hiding; area, 1130 ac.; near the spot where tha 
 North Midland Railway crosses the Dearne and Dove Canal. 
 Pop. in 1841, 180. 
 
 ^EGADEAN ISLANDS, a group of islands lying off 
 the W. end of the isl. of Sicily, between lat. 37 55 and 
 38 5 N. ; Ion. 12 and 12 26 E. They are five in number, 
 namely, Maritimo, Favignana, Levanso, and the two For- 
 miches. Maritimo, the most westerly, rises to the height of 
 2376 ft., and is about 7 m. in circumference. It contains 50 or 
 60 inhabitants, who subsist by cultivating the ground, collect 
 ing honey, and exporting faggots. Favignana, the largest 
 of the islands, is 14 m. in circumference. It derives a con 
 siderable revenue from its tunny and anchovy fisheries, its 
 stone quarries, and from the sale of sheep, goats, and poultry. 
 The island abounds in game, and hares and rabbits are plenti 
 ful ; fish also is abundant. Levanso, 3 m. N.E. by E. 
 Favignana, is about 6 m. in circumference; it is high, of 
 rugged appearance, and accessible only at two or three spots. 
 Its chief produce is faggots; but the few residents who are 
 on the island cultivate a little grain and fruit, and rear a 
 small number of sheep and goats. There is excellent fishing 
 all round the island, but particularly on its S. side. The 
 Formiches are two low, barren, rocky islets, lying at the 
 distance of between 2 and 3 m. E.S.E. Levanso; they are 
 separated from each other by a channel ^ m. wide. 
 
 AEGEAN SEA, or GRECIAN ARCHIPELAGO. The former, 
 a name given by the Greeks and Romans to that part of the 
 Mediterranean lying between Asia Minor on the E., Greece 
 and part of Turkey on the W., and the shores of Roomelia, in 
 the latter country, on the N. Its length, from N. to S., is 
 about 400 m. ; its breadth, generally, upwards of 200, ex 
 cepting at Cape Doro, at the S. extremity of the island of 
 Negropont, where it narrows to 90 m., but afterwards expands 
 to nearly its former width. Its depth is very great, there 
 being no bottom with 200 fathom line, at less than a mile 
 from the shore. It contains numerous islands, many of which 
 are of volcanic origin; others are composed entirely of a pure 
 white marble. The more southern were distributed by the 
 ancients into two chief groups, called, respectively, the 
 Cyclades, from their supposed circular arrangement; and the 
 Sporades, or Scattered Islands, the former comprising those 
 lying to the W., and now considered part of Europe ; the 
 latter, those dispersed along the Asiatic coast. Some of the 
 islands have an exceedingly picturesque appearance, and are 
 very fertile, producing wine, oil, gum mastic, wax, raisins, 
 figs, silk, honey, olives, lemons, and oranges. The climate 
 is more equal and temperate than that of the adjoining con 
 tinents. Several of the larger islands contain sulphur, alum, 
 iron, and other minerals. Most of them are high, their moun 
 tain elevations having an average height of 1500 to 1800 ft. 
 All the islands are thinly peopled ; but the men are a fine 
 athletic race, and, from their insular position, make excellent 
 sailors. The religion of the inhabitants is that of the estal)- 
 
JEGINA 
 
 AFFRIQUE 
 
 lishcd Greek church. Professor E. Forbes, in dredging the 
 -<Egean Sea, has ascertained that there are eight well-marked 
 regions of depth, each characterized by its peculiar testaceous 
 fauna. The first of these, called the littoral zone, extends to 
 a depth of 2 fathoms only; but this narrow belt is inhabited 
 by more than 100 species: the second region is almost equally 
 populous ; and in the eighth, no less than 65 species of testaeea 
 have been taken. The majority of the shells in this lowest 
 zone are white, or transparent. Only two species of mol- 
 lusca are common to all the eight regions, namely, Area lactea, 
 and Cerithium lima. 
 
 Among the principal islands of the yEgean Sea, are Santorin, 
 Stampalia, Cos, Kalinmo, Aniorgo, Milo, Paros, Naxia, JSyra, 
 Mikoni, Andro, Nikaria, Sainos, Khio, Skyro, Mitilini, Lein- 
 nos, Imbro, Sainotraki, and Thasos (all of which see, under 
 their respective, names). 
 
 ./EG1NA, ECIINA, or ENGIA, an isl. Greece, with cap. of 
 same name. The isl. lies in the Gulf of ^Egina [anc. $aronicus 
 Sinus], 10 in. S. by \V. Athens; lat. (Mount Elias on the S. 
 part) 37 41 9" N. ; Ion. 23 30 E. (R.) It is 8 m. in length, 
 and about the same breadth ; is in general fertile, particularly 
 in the W. part, where it is level, and enjrys a delightful 
 climate, the atmosphere being so pure, that epidemic fevers, 
 the scourge of the Morea, are unknown in it. The principal 
 agricultural productions are corn, cotton, wine, olives, figs, 
 almonds, &c. yEgina was anciently celebrated for the splen 
 dour of its buildings, but almost the only remains consist 
 of some tombs, vestiges of wells, a mosaic pavement, and 
 a few of the columns of the famous temple of Jupiter, 
 Panhellenius, or the Panhellenium of ^Egina, one of the 
 most ancient in Greece. These ruins stand on an eminence 
 of considerable height, called Mount St Elias. It was of the 
 Doric order, and had a portico of six columns at each end, 
 and ranges of 12 columns along each side, the columns on the 
 angles being counted both in flank and in front; internally, it 
 was divided into what may be termed nave and aisles, by two 
 ranges of columns, the space between which was uncovered. 
 The extreme length of the temple is 90 ft., measured at the 
 base of the columns, by 45 in breadth. The columns, of 
 which there were originally 36, now 23, are nearly 5J dia 
 meters in height. The sculpture of the yEginetans was of a 
 character so peculiar, as to constitute a distinct style of art, 
 frequently alluded to by ancient writers. Specimens of these 
 sculptures were discovered, in 1811, among the ruins of the 
 Panhellenium, by a party of English and German travellers. 
 In recent times, the island of JEgma. has again begun to rise 
 into prosperity and importance. On a ridge, which is separated 
 by a narrow valley from the hill of the Panhellenium, are the 
 ruins of a town, built, and for some time occupied, by Vene 
 tians. To facilitate their commercial enterprises, this situation 
 was abandoned, and the inhabitants removed to the site of the 
 ancient city, on which now stands the modern ^Egina. This 
 comparatively recent town is regularly built, and has some 
 good houses, an orphan asylum, museum, library, and laza 
 retto. For some time it was the residence of the Greek 
 senate and governor, and its various institutions were in a fair 
 way of prospering ; but the removal of the court to Athens, 
 along with the library, and other stores of yEgina, have caused 
 the latter greatly to decline. The pop. of the town is about 
 10,000. 
 
 ^Egina was, at an early period, occupied by colonies 
 from various parts of Greece; and in the sixth century B.C., 
 the yEginetans had attained to great wealth and importance. 
 They sent 30 ships of war to the battle of Salamis, where the 
 valour of those who manned them contributed much to the 
 fortune of the day. After the war with Persia, there arose 
 between Athens and JEgina. disputes, which terminated in 
 the former taking possession of the island, and expelling its 
 inhabitants. Their capital, ^gina, which, in the reign of 
 Tiberius, was destroyed by an earthquake, stood upon the 
 W. coast. Its only remains are the fragments of a temple, 
 the moles of its harbour, and some traces of its walls, on the 
 landward side. Pop. of the island, exclusive of the town, 
 6000. (Gilford s Ionian Inlands; Balbi, Abreye, &c.) 
 
 AELTERE, or AELTEK, a commune and vil. Belgium, 
 prov. E. Flanders, situated near the canal, about 14 m. W. 
 Ghent. It is a station on the railway between that city and 
 Bruges. Here are tanneries, breweries, and distilleries. It 
 has some trade in linen. Pop. of commune, 5964. 
 
 AEXG, a tn. Aracan, on the left bank of a river of same 
 name, 80 m. S.S.E. tn. of Aracan ; lat. 19 50 N.; Ion. 94 10 E. 
 It was formerly an important emporium for goods, but had 
 now much fallen off. The river is not navigable except dur 
 ing floods, and then only for the boats of the country. The 
 situation of Aeng is tolerably dry and healthy ; and, in the 
 environs, are grown tobacco, cotton, ginger, and peppers, of 
 good quality; but agriculture is much restricted on account 
 of the destruction caused by the troops of elephants that infest 
 the country. 
 
 AEROE, or ARROE, an isl. Denmark, in the Little 
 Belt, about 8 m. E. from the isl. of Alsen; lat. 54 50 N.; 
 Ion. 10 20 E. ; about 15 m. long, and 5 m. broad at the 
 broadest part. It is hilly, but fertile, and is now destitute of 
 wood, although at one period covered with it. Its N.E. coast 
 is beset with shallows. Products, the same with those of the 
 island of Funen, to which province it belongs, and from which 
 it is but 7J m. distant. It contains several towns, and ] 6 
 villages, and is, in proportion to its extent, the most populous 
 district in the kingdom. The principal town, Aeroeskjobing, 
 is situated on the S.E. side of the island; has a pop. of about 
 1600; carries on a considerable trade in corn, &c. ; and owns 
 about 50 boats and vessels of different sizes, with a tonnage 
 amounting, altogether, to about 1260 tons. Pop. of the isl. 
 10,200. (Baggesen, Dcr dcinische stoat.) 
 
 AERSCHOT, or AARSCHOT [Latin, Arschotmm], a tn. 
 Belgium, on the Demer, prov. S. Brabant, district of, and 8 in. 
 N.E. from Louvain, and 23 m. N.E. Brussels. It is a place 
 of some antiquity; and, in the 12th century, was the capital 
 of a county of the same name. It was celebrated in the wars 
 of the United Provinces ; and was taken by the French in 1 746 
 and 1793. The ruined tower of Aurelian is all that remains 
 of its ancient fortifications. The parish church is an antique 
 edifice. There are here some gin distilleries ; lace is manu 
 factured; and there is some trade in wood and grain. Pop. 
 3895. 
 
 AERSEELE, a vil. and commune, Belgium, prov. W. 
 Flanders, district of, and 14 m. N.E. from Courtrai. It has 
 some trade in flax, thread, and linen. Pop. of commune, 3558. 
 
 AERTRYCKE, a vil. and commune, Belgium, prov. W. 
 Flanders, district of, and 7 m. S.W. from Bruges. It has a 
 considerable trade in flax, linen, and wood. Pop. of com 
 mune, 3185. 
 
 jETOLIA, a division of ancient Greece, which may be 
 said, generally, to lie between the Gulf of Patras and the Pin- 
 dus mountains. The ancient inhabitants a mixed race from 
 various parts of Greece had a warlike and predatory charac 
 ter. Their cavalry was at one time esteemed superior to any 
 other in Greece; and, for a long period, they successfully 
 resisted the power of Macedonia. Their government was 
 originally a monarchy, which, in a short time, was succeeded 
 by a sort of republic, composed of a number of independent 
 states. On the establishment of Roman dominion in Greece, 
 yEtolia became a part of the great Roman province of Achaia. 
 In later times, the country was alternately subject to the 
 Greeks and Turks, and now constitutes, with Acarnania, ona 
 of the political divisions of modern Greece. 
 
 AEZCOA, a valley, Spain, Navarre, on the S. slope of 
 the Pyrenees; having 3100 inhabitants, partly employed in 
 tillage, but mostly in smuggling contraband goods across the 
 French frontier. 
 
 AFFANE, a par. and vil. Ireland, co. Waterford; area, 
 7773 ac. Noted for its fine cherries, introduced by Sir Walter 
 Raleigh. Pop. 1841, 2115. 
 
 AFFOGADOS, a vil. Brazil, prov. Pernambuco, near 
 the sea, on the left bank of one of the mouths of the Capi- 
 baribe, and 3J m. S. Recife or Pernambuco. It has three 
 churches, and a harbour suitable for large vessels ; and car 
 ries on some trade in cotton and sugar. Pop. 1000 (Die. 
 Gco. Imp. Brazil.) 
 
 AFF-PUDDLE, a par. England, co. Dorset; area, 4940 
 ac. ; on the river Piddle, 8 m. E. by N. Dorchester. Pop. in 
 1841, 507. 
 
 AFFRIQUE (Sr.) [Latin, Sanctum Afncanum], a tn. 
 France, dep. Aveyron, cap. around. 30 m. S.S.E. Rhodez; situ 
 ated in a fine valley, between two mountains, on the Sorgue, 
 surrounded by meadows, orchards, and vineyards. The streets 
 j are, in general, broad; but the houses are, for the most part, 
 i old fashioned and ill built. The principal public edifices are 
 
AFGHANISTAN 
 
 83 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 an hospital, courthouse lately erected, the parish church, 
 and a beautiful fountain placed -in the centre of the principal 
 street. It is the seat of a tribunal of premiere instance, and 
 of commerce; also of a communal college, and a society of 
 agriculture It is now the third town in the department for 
 commerce; and has manufactories of woollen cloths, serges, 
 coverlets, cotton yarn, and hosiery, as well as works for 
 tanning and dressing leather. A good deal of business is 
 done here in Iloquefort cheese ; and here the manufacturers of 
 Castres and Carcassonne obtain their supplies of wool. The 
 town was formerly well fortified. Pop. in 1846, 6760. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, the land of the Afghans, an extensive, 
 but imperfectly known territory of Central Asia. It is by 
 some writers called Cabool, or Caboolistan, though this would 
 seem to have been the name of an empire much more exten 
 sive than what is now recognized as Afghanistan. It is 
 likewise at times called Kandahar; and also, though very 
 ineptly, E. Persia. What is now generally understood by 
 Afghanistan is that territory lying between lat. 26 55 and 
 36 25 N., and Ion. 59 19 and 72 E.; bounded, N. by 
 Khiva, Bokhara, and Biulakshan; S. by Beloochistan, and 
 part of Sinde; E. by Damaun (its limits in this direction, 
 however, being sometimes extended to the Indus) ; and W. by 
 Persia. Its extreme length, from N. to S., is about 615 m., 
 its breadth about 600. The N.E. portion of the territory 
 is crowded with lofty mountains, and is called, on this 
 account, Kohistan, or Land of Mountains. These belong 
 to the central Hindoo Koosh or Indian Caucasus a con 
 tinuation of the Himalaya range, and rise to a stupendous 
 height. The magnificence and variety of their lofty sum 
 mits, says Mr. Elphinstone, and the awful and undisturbed 
 solitude which reigns amid their eternal snows, fill the mind 
 with an admiration and astonishment that no language can 
 express. The ascertained heights of the most elevated 
 summits, vary from 18,000 to considerably upwards of 
 20,000 ft. The loftiest peak is about 42 m. N.N.W. of 
 Cabool. This mountainous region is traversed by numerous 
 passes; the greatest number, and most remarkable of which, 
 are between the 68 and 69 E. Ion.; the highest are those of 
 Ilajeekuk and Kaloo, respectively above 12.000 ft. The 
 other passes, within the limits mentioned, are those of Oonna, j 
 11,000 ft. ; Karakootal and Akrobat, each about 9000 ft. ; and | 
 Shikun, 8040 ft. In the defiles of these mountains, the road | 
 frequently passes the base of a mural precipice, rising per 
 pendicularly to the height of 2000 and 3000 ft., and exhibits 
 monuments of solemn grandeur, which it is difficult to 
 describe. (Lieut. Burnes.) It was in the defiles of the 
 Kurkutcha mountains E. from Cabool, between Tezeen 
 and Jugduluk, that the British army was exterminated in 
 1842. The whole of the passes are free from snow about 
 the end of June, but the most elevated peaks continue 
 covered throughout the year. Notwithstanding the great 
 elevation of these regions, the heat of the sun, at mid-day, in 
 summer, is intense, and vegetation extremely rapid. Lieut. 
 Burnes found the inhabitants ploughing as the snow left the 
 ground, at a height of 10,000 ft. ; the chief crop being a kind 
 of barley, without husk. The loftier parts of the Hindoo 
 Koosh are entirely destitute of wood, and, in many places, 
 of verdure ; but aromatic plants abound, and afford a pasture 
 peculiarily favourable to sheep. The asafetida plant also 
 flourishes here in great luxuriance; and is eaten with avidity 
 by the natives, though having the same offensive odour in the 
 fresh as in the preserved state. The valleys, in this elevated 
 region, present a striking contrast to the sterility of the 
 mountains, being stored with the finest fruit trees, and clothed 
 with a rich verdure; the sides of the lower hills, also, are 
 covered with forests of pine, oak, and wild olive. The other 
 ranges of mountains that traverse Afghanistan are the W. 
 Hindoo Koosh, or Ghoor Mountains (anc. Paropamisus), a 
 continuation of the central Hindoo Koosh, and the Solinian 
 Mountains. The former skirt the N. boundary of the territory, 
 extending for about 350 m. from E. to W. They attain no 
 great height, but are rugged and barren, of difficult access, 
 and little known. The latter traverse the country from 
 N. to S., parallel with, and close to, its E. limit. They are 
 connected with the central Hindoo Koosh by the Khyber and 
 Salt Hills; and their height, though much inferior to the 
 former, is still considerable; Mount Soliman, on which the 
 ark is said to have rested, attaining an elevation of 12,000 ft. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Their whole length is also about 350 m., lying between the 
 29th and 34th parallels of N. lat. There are numerous minor 
 hills scattered over the various parts of the country; but the 
 most extensive system will be found between the 30th and 
 32d parallels of N. lat., and the 6G and 68 E. Ion. ; covering 
 a space of about 150 m. in length, by about 120 in breadth, 
 having the Kurklckee hills on the S., and the Gantee hills on 
 the N. In the extension of the former into the adjoining 
 territory of Beloochistan, is situated the famous Bolan Pass, 
 so important in a military point of view, and through which 
 the Bengal army marched in 1839. 
 
 Although by far the greater portion of Afghanistan be a 
 land of rocks, mountains, and desert, and some of the former 
 of the most inhospitable character, there are yet a number of 
 fertile valleys, well watered, covered with clover, thyme, 
 violets, and many odoriferous plants, and remarkable for their 
 picturesque beauty. In these favoured spots grain is grown 
 in abundance; and, as elsewhere mentioned, fruits of all 
 kinds, including oranges, citrons, grapes, pomegranates, 
 apricots, apples, quinces, peaches, pears, plums, almonds, and 
 walnuts. The most extensive of these valleys or plains are 
 those of Cabool and Peshawur; but there is also an exceed 
 ingly rich level tract in the vicinity of Herat. A great part 
 of Seistan is mere desert, as is likewise a large portion of the 
 S. and S.W. part of the country, extending over a space of 
 about 300 m. in length, by 100 in breadth. 
 
 There are few large rivers in Afghanistan, and none that 
 is not fordable throughout its course for the greater part of 
 the year. The principal are the Cabool, Helmund, Furrah- 
 Rood, Lora, Gomul, Khaush, Shahbund, and Urghesan, 
 besides several minor streams. Most of these rivers are 
 found flowing through the centre of the kingdom, but, with 
 the exception of the Ilelmund, which is said to be 400 m. in 
 length, their courses are comparatively short, many of them 
 being lost in swamps and deserts in the interior. There are 
 no lakes in Afghanistan, if we except two sheets of water, 
 which are rather morasses or lagoons than lakes; one of 
 these is called Ab-Istada, and is situated about 50 m. S. by W. 
 Ghuznee ; the water is salt, and the banks are deeply incrusted 
 with that mineral. Authors differ as to its extent, this 
 depending on the quantity of rain that falls, as in times of 
 inundation its dimensions are doubled, being sometimes about 
 12 m. in diameter, at others less than the half; it is not 
 thought to be more than 3 or 4 ft. deep, horses having been 
 ridden into it, to the distance of 1 m. from the shore, without 
 the water rising higher than their bellies. The other morass, 
 or lake, is called Hamoon, a Persian word signifying a plain, 
 and Zurrah, by which last it is distinguished in some maps; 
 it is called, besides, by various other names both by Persians 
 and natives. It is situated in Seistan, on the W. border of 
 Afghanistan; and is about 50 m. in length from N.E. to S.W., 
 and about 25 m. in breadth. It has rarely a depth of more 
 than from 3 to 4 ft., and is almost entirely covered with reeds 
 and rushes. The water of this lake, or swamp, is salt also, or at | 
 least brackish ; the degree of saltness depending on its depth, 
 and the nature of the bottom. The rivers Ilelmund, Furrah- 
 Kood, and other streams, flow into this lake, from which 
 there is no outlet, the increase of the waters being checked 
 by evaporation merely. 
 
 Minerals. These consist of gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, 
 tin, antimony, zinc, rock salt, &c. Gold, so far as yet known, 
 is chiefly confined to the streams that flow from the Hindoo 
 Koosh, but is believed to exist in some of the other ranges 
 also, although it has not hitherto been obtained in any great 
 quantities. Silver has been found in small quantities in some 
 of the valleys, and it is said that there are several mines of 
 this metal in the Huzareh mountains, not at present worked. 
 Copper abounds in many places, in the Kurkutcha range, in 
 the vicinity of Tezeen, and to the S.E. of the city of Cabool, 
 where it is believed the richest deposits are to be found. 
 Lead and antimony are met with in the Ghorbund valley, 
 and in the lower part of the Hindoo Koosh ; the latter exists 
 also in the Khyber range, and in such quantity as to render 
 the waters deleterious. Iron ore occurs in great abundance 
 throughout the entire range of the Hindoo Koosh. Coal is 
 found in the Kala range ; also at Dobundee, in the N. of the 
 plain of Peshawur, and in the Huzareh country. 
 
 Climafe. The climate of Afghanistan is various, depend 
 ing more on the difference of elevation than on that of latitude, 
 
AFGHANISTAN 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 the cold being very severe in the higher regions, and the heat 
 intense in the lower. These extremes are strikingly illus 
 trated by the circumstance of the summits of the mountains 
 being often covered with snow, while the heat of the plains 
 below is all but intolerable. Sewee, situated in Sewestan, 
 the territory forming the S.E. portion of Afghanistan, and 
 in lat. 29 20 N., and Ion. 67 58 E., is reckoned the hottest 
 place in the territory. It is also extremely hot at Kandahar, 
 the thermometer in summer being frequently above 110 in 
 the shade, while in winter the inhabitants suffer from cold, 
 fuel being extremely scarce. At Cabool, the snow lies for 
 several months together, during which the people remain in 
 their houses, and sleep, like the Russians, close to stoves, the 
 thermometer falling to 5 or 6 below zero. At Glmznee, 
 says Mr. Elphinstone, the cold is spoken of as excessive, even 
 by the inhabitants of the cold countries in the neighbourhood ; 
 and traditions prevail of the city having been twice destroyed 
 by falls of snow, in which all the inhabitants were buried. 
 But when the vernal equinox is past, the snow suddenly dis 
 appears, the country is covered with young grass, the buds 
 burst forth, and are soon followed by a profusion of flowers ; 
 the inhabitants then throw aside their winter raiment for a 
 thin dress of chintz or cotton, and often sleep at night under 
 trees, or in the open air. The prevailing winds are from the 
 west, and are in general cold, while the easterly winds are 
 hot. The climate on the whole, however, is favourable to 
 the human constitution, and in some parts highly salubrious ; 
 diseases are few ; the principal are fevers, agues, smallpox, 
 and ophthalmia. 
 
 Vegetable Productions. Our knowledge of the vegetable 
 productions of Afghanistan is limited. The most common 
 trees in the mountains are pines of various kinds, a species of 
 oak called baloot, and the wild olive ; all these are found at 
 high elevations the first at a height of 1 0,000 ft. Inter 
 mingled with these are the cypress, which attains a great size, 
 walnut, birch, and holly. On the lower offsets of the Hindoo 
 Koosh, the small leguminous plants from whose leaves and 
 twigs the true indigo dye is extracted, grow spontaneously. 
 On the plains are found the mulberry, tamarisk, acacias, date 
 palms, willow, plane, and poplar. Besides these, many of the 
 finest fruits of Europe grow wild, including grapes ; and also 
 several kinds of bushes bearing eatable berries. The rose, 
 jessamine, poppy, narcissus, hyacinth, tuberose, &c., are found 
 in gardens, but some of them grow wild. Esculent vegetables 
 are in general of inferior quality. Those cultivated are cab 
 bages, cauliflowers, spinach, lettuce, onions, garlic, beetroot, 
 &c. But it is in the production of fruits that Afghanistan 
 excels ; few places supplying such a variety and abundance. 
 
 Animals. The wild animals of Afghanistan are neither 
 very numerous nor very formidable, with the exception of the 
 wolves. Lions are few, small in size, and weak, and are 
 chiefly confined to the hilly country about Cabool. But they 
 differ so widely in their characteristics from the true, or African 
 lion, that Mr. Elphinstone doubts whether they are lions. 
 Tigers are found in most of the countries east of the range 
 of Soliman ; but they also are of a weakly and timid nature. 
 Leopards are numerous in Kolintan, but they do not attack 
 man ; wolves, hyenas, jackals, and foxes are common every 
 where. The wolves are particularly formidable during the 
 winter, in the cold countries, when they move about in large 
 bodies, destroying cattle, and frequently assailing persons who 
 come in their way. Bears are numerous in the woody moun 
 tains. Monkeys are found in the N.E. parts of the country, 
 and wild sheep and goats are common in the mountain tracts 
 in the north. In the wilds of the Soliman, and of some other 
 mountains, a quadruped, called the markhur, is found. It is 
 of considerable size, resembles an elk, and has very large 
 horns. The other wild animals are the wild ass or gorkhar, 
 the wild hog, the porcupine, various kinds of deer and 
 goats, the wild dog, the ferret, and the hare. There are 
 no elephants in a wild state, and no rhinoceroses, although 
 these were formerly numerous. Of birds, the number and 
 variety are considerable, including several kinds of eagles, 
 and many kinds of hawks, amongst which are the falcon and 
 goshawk. Herons, cranes, storks, wild ducks, geese, swans, 
 partridges, and quails abound. Cuckoos and magpies, both 
 unknown in India, are numerous in the colder regions of 
 Afghanistan. The only reptiles requiring special notice are 
 snakes and scorpions ; the former, however, are mostly inno 
 
 cuous ; the latter are large and venomous, though their bite is 
 rarely fatal. Turtles and tortoises are common. There are 
 no crocodiles. Visitations of locusts are of rare occurrence, 
 but their devastations have caused several famines. Bees 
 are common. Mosquitoes are less troublesome than in India, 
 except in Seistan, where they are very formidable. The 
 domestic animals are the horse, camel, dromedary, mule, ass, 
 ox, sheep, goat, dog, and cat. The horses of Afghanistan 
 are not much esteemed, excepting those bred about Herat, 
 which are of a superior description ; but a hardy race of ponies, 
 called yaboos, is reared in the Huzareh country. The mules 
 and asses are much employed, the former in carrying the 
 baggage of armies, and the latter in conveying manure to the 
 fields, &c. But the camel and dromedary are the usual 
 beasts of burden, especially the latter. The ox is used for 
 the plough, where horses are not to be had ; they are also 
 used amongst the pastoral tribes for carrying their tents. 
 The sheep, which form the great dependence of these tribes, 
 are, like those of the Cape of Good Hope, remarkable for the 
 size of their tails, which are about a foot broad, and of 10 or 
 12 Ibs. weight, composed entirely of fat ; their fleece is large 
 and fine. Dogs are kept in great numbers, and are generally 
 of good breeds ; the greyhounds are excellent, and are much 
 used by the pastoral tribes in hunting. Amongst the cat 
 kind, is a long-haired species called boorauk, which is much 
 esteemed, and exported in great numbers, under the name of 
 Persian cats, though nearly all from Afghanistan. 
 
 Agriculture. Afghanistan is, on the whole, a poor and 
 barren country ; vast tracts being covered with stones, so that 
 the tillable part of the soil bears no proportion to the untill- 
 able. The cultivators of the soil consist of five classes pro 
 prietors ; tenants ; burgurs or metayers, who labour the land 
 for a certain portion of the returns ; hired labourers ; and 
 villeins, who cultivate their master s land for a mere subsist 
 ence. Land is divided into irrigated and not irrigated, called 
 abee and lulm, and its value is stated to be from 9 to 12 years 
 purchase. The rent varies, according to situation and fertility, 
 from one-tenth to two-thirds ; the latter being the usual rent 
 around the town of Cabool. The common term for a lease 
 is one or two years, the longest five. The ordinary remu 
 neration of labourers is, for the season of nine months, 30 
 rupees, with food and clothing. There are two harvests in 
 the year in most parts of the country ; one, sown in the end of 
 autumn, and reaped in summer, consists of wheat, barley, 
 peas, and beans ; the other, sown in the end of spring, and 
 reaped in autumn, consists of rice, Indian corn, and maush. 
 The first harvest is generally the most important. Besides 
 these crops, there is another, comprehending musk melons, 
 water melons, the scented melon, and various sorts of cucum 
 bers, pumpkins, and gourds, which is looked upon as a distinct 
 harvest. Wheat is the food of the people throughout the 
 greatest part of the kingdom, the barley being given to the 
 horses. Turnips are cultivated in great abundance in some 
 parts of the country, and are used to feed the cattle. Ginger 
 and turmeric are grown in the eastern countries ; sugar cane, 
 to a small extent, on the rich plains ; and a little cotton in 
 the hot climates. Madder is raised in great quantities in 
 the colder regions. To these productions may be added 
 asafetida, the plant of which, as elsewhere mentioned, is 
 found wild on the hills. The prepared drug is exported to 
 India, where it is a favourite ingredient in the cookery, both 
 of Hindoos and Mahometans. Tobacco is also produced 
 in many parts of the country. The most general mode of 
 irrigation is from streams directed into the desired channels, 
 by various contrivances and expedients. The land is always 
 watered, where water can be obtained, before being ploughed. 
 It is ploughed deeper than in India, and with a heavier plough ; 
 all the sowing is broadcast. The place of a harrow is sup 
 plied by a plank, on which the conductor stands to guide the 
 cattle, and increases its effect by his weight. The crop is 
 reaped with the sickle ; the grain is generally trodden out by 
 oxen, and winnowed by being thrown up to the wind with a 
 shovel. The grain is kept in large round hampers, supported 
 by wooden feet, and plastered with mud, or in unburnt 
 earthen vessels, and coarse hair-cloth bags. It is ground by 
 windmills, water mills, and handmills ; the first is in general 
 use in the west only, the handmill being the most common, 
 particularly in the ruder parts of the country, and among the 
 nomadic population. Both the wind and water mills differ 
 
AFGHANISTAN 
 
 85 
 
 AFGHANISTAN 
 
 from those in general use in this country ; the former having 
 the sails within the building, the wind reaching them through 
 an aperture, and the wheels of the latter being horizontal, with 
 the feathers disposed obliquely. The plough is generally 
 drawn by oxen, but in some parts by camels. 
 
 Trade and Manufactures. There being no navigable rivers 
 in Afghanistan, and the country but ill adapted for wheel 
 carriages, commerce is generally carried on by beasts of 
 burden, chiefly camels, formed into caravans. The principal 
 foreign trade is with India, Persia, and Toorkistan. The 
 exports to India consist principally of horses, furs, shawls, 
 chintz, madder, asafetida, tobacco, almonds, pistacia nuts, 
 walnuts, hazel nuts, and fruits. The imports from India are 
 coarse cotton cloths, muslins, silks, indigo, ivory, chalk, 
 bamboos, wax, tin, sandal wood, sugar, and spices. The ex 
 ports to Toorkistan consist chiefly of articles imported from 
 India, such as white cloths, shawls, Indian turbans, chintz, 
 and indigo. The principal imports are horses, gold, and silver. 
 From Bokhara, cochineal, broad cloth, paper, tinsel, cast- 
 iron pots, cutlery, and other hardware are imported, being 
 brought there from Russia. To Persia are exported shawls 
 and shawl goods, indigo, carpets, chintz, Indian brocades, 
 muslins, and other cotton cloths. The imports are raw silk, 
 silken stuffs, and a sort of strong cotton manufacture of various 
 colours, called kudduk. The exports to Chinese Toorkistan 
 are nearly the same as those to Bokhara. The imports are 
 woollens, Chinese silk and satin, tea, porcelain, raw silk, 
 cochineal, crystal, gold dust, golden ingots, &c. The trade 
 with Cauferistan is trifling, consisting of wine, vinegar, 
 cheese, clarified butter, and slaves. Slaves are also imported 
 from Arabia and Abyssinia. The internal trade of the coun 
 try is also considerable. The principal marts are Cabool, 
 Peshawur, Kandahar, and Herat. The commerce and carrying 
 trade of Afghanistan are prosecuted chiefly by the Sohanees, 
 a pastoral tribe of Afghans who occupy the country eastward 
 from Ghuznee to the Indus. Many of these are men of great 
 opulence. They amount to 100,000 persons, and take with 
 them 24,000 camels. The manufactures of the kingdom are 
 very unimportant. At Cabool and Kandahar, woollen goods 
 are manufactured, chiefly shawls ; but they are inferior to those 
 of Cashmere, being stiff and harsh to the touch. The woollen 
 fabrics of the country are rarely exported, as, from the scarcity 
 of artificers, the want of machinery, and the great demand, 
 there are not enough produced to supply the home market. 
 At Peshawur, a coarse kind of cotton loongee is manufactured, 
 which is exported through Tartary. The amount of British 
 cloths sold in Afghanistan, in 1838, was 47,800 value; of 
 Indian goods, 93,300. 
 
 People. The population of Afghanistan is composed of a 
 great number of different races and tribes, the principal of 
 which are the Dooraunees, the Berdooraunees, the Ghiljies, 
 
 DOORAUNEE AND ilERDUOKAUNEK. 
 
 n Elphinstone s Cabuol 
 
 and the Cauker tribe, all of which are again subdivided into 
 numerous smaller families, or clans. Of these four principal 
 races, the Dooraunees, who are divided into two great branches, 
 Zeeruk and Punjpan. and these again into nine lesser tribes, 
 are the most influential, on account of the extent of territory 
 they occupy, and because the royal family and high ministers 
 
 of state belong to them. They inhabit the tract of country 
 occupying the central portion of W. Afghanistan, and are partly 
 pastoral and partly agricultural. They lead a happy and in 
 offensive life, having no feuds amongst themselves, and rarely 
 any with their neighbours. They are fond of social enjoy 
 ments, and delight in entertaining and being entertained. 
 Their appearance is prepossessing ; they are stout, with good 
 complexions, and fine beards, of which they take great care. 
 Their demeanour is at once modest and manly. They never go 
 armed except on journeys, when they frequently carry a match 
 lock, with a long bayonet of peculiar construction fixed to it. 
 The Berdooraunees occupy the N.E. part of Afghanistan, and, 
 like the other races, are composed of various tribes, of which 
 the most remarkable are the Eusofzyes, who are supposed to 
 amount in number to about 700,000. Those of this race who 
 inhabit the upper countries, are remarkably sober and free 
 from vices; but those dwelling on the plains are notorious for 
 every kind of debauchery, and are, in all respects, the worst 
 of the Afghans. They are generally stout men, with fair com 
 plexions, gray eyes, and red beards, and affect a military car 
 riage, with an insolent and haughty demeanour. They are 
 extremely quarrelsome, and of a savage disposition, but are, 
 withal, brave and hospitable, active, acute, and industrious. 
 Their arms are a spear, matchlock, long dagger, and sabre. 
 The Ghiljies are, after the Dooraunees, the most eminent of 
 the tribes. They are divided into two families, Toraun and 
 Boorhaun, of which the first is divided into two, the second 
 into six clans. The Cauker tribe inhabits the S. part of the 
 Khakas country, N.W. from Sewestan, about the Toba and 
 Khojah Amran mountains, and amounts, altogether, to about 
 200,000 in number. The total population is estimated, but 
 from uncertain data, at rather more than 5,000,000. 
 
 Religion. The Afghans are mostly Mahometan Soonnees, 
 but all the Persians in the country are Sheeahs, and between 
 these two sects the bitterest animosity prevails ; more indul 
 gence being shown by the former to Christians than to the 
 latter. The Sheeahs are more bigoted than the Soonnees . 
 Besides these, there are numerous other sects, such as 
 Sopffees, Zukkees, Koushameeas, &c. The first, says Mr. 
 ETphinstone, are rather a class of philosophers than religion 
 ists ; their leading tenet being, that nothing exists but God, all 
 the rest being an illusion. No people can be more regular in 
 performing their devotions than the Afghans. Their prayers 
 begin before day, and are repeated five times ; the last of which 
 falls a little after the close of the evening twilight. The 
 hour of prayer is always announced from the tops of the 
 minarets, and has a solemn and pleasing effect. The moollahs, 
 or priests, are numerous. Their character and name are con 
 ferred, by an assembly of members of the order, on candidates 
 who have undergone a regular course of study and examin 
 ation, the essential ceremony consisting in placing on the new 
 member the turban of a moollah, which is white, very large, 
 and of a peculiar shape. They are an influential body ; and, 
 being composed mostly of active and intelligent men, have 
 acquired an almost unlimited power and authority in the 
 country. The education of youth, the practice of the law, 
 and the administration of justice, are entirely intrusted to 
 them. Their means of subsistence are, in the country, grants 
 of land, and a tax, similar to tithes ; in towns, fees on mar 
 riages, burials, &c., and the gifts of their congregations. 
 
 Government, Public Revenue, Military Force, &c. Afghan 
 istan was formerly a monarchy, the crown being hereditary 
 in a branch of the house of Suddazye ; it is now divided into 
 three chiefships Herat, Cabool, and Kandahar. The revenue 
 of the first is about 200,000 ; the one half in money, the 
 other in produce. Cabool is believed to have yielded, under 
 a system of grinding taxation, about 240,000 ; and Kanda 
 har about 80,000. The whole Afghan force, which is 
 chiefly cavalry, amounts to about 16,000 men; they are 
 but imperfectly disciplined, and are embarrassed by the mul 
 titude of their arms, which consists of a long heavy matchlock, 
 with a bayonet, a sabre, a blunderbuss, and three long pistols, 
 a couteau de chasse, a dagger, and four or five knives, besides 
 a shield. The Kuzzulbaushes are the most numerous and best 
 portion of the Afghan army. The police of the country is 
 very bad. In many parts of the kingdom, travellers can be 
 secured from being attacked and plundered only by engaging 
 an escort of the tribe, or by paying customs to its chief. In 
 cases of robbery, the inhabitants of the district where it was 
 
A F1UM-K AK A-H ISS A II 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 committed are liable for the amount stolen, in the event of 
 the thief not being forthcoming. The police does not interfere 
 in cases of murder perpetrated by way of retaliation, except 
 in towns and their vicinity. Justice is administered, in cities, 
 by a cauzee, or cadi, assisted by inferior officers. 
 
 Towtm. These are few in proportion to the extent of the 
 country. The principal ones are Cabool, Kandahar, Herat, 
 Peshawur, Dera Ghazee Khan, Dera Isniacl Khan, Ghuznce, 
 Istalif, Charikar, Jelalabad, Kala Bagh, Kohat, Giriskh, Fur- 
 rah, Subzawur, and Mittunkote (lohich see). 
 
 History. Of the early history of Afghanistan little is 
 known a circumstance the less to be regretted, that its 
 interest commences only with modern times. In 1713, Nadir 
 Shah conquered the country. Ten years afterwards, lie was 
 murdered by the Persians, and was succeeded by Ahmid Shah, 
 the founder of the Dooranee dynasty, who was crowned at 
 Kandahar in 1747. His reign, which continued 26 years, 
 was occupied with wars, external and internal. On his 
 death, he was succeeded by his son Timur Shah, who was 
 again succeeded by Zeniaun Shah, a younger son of the 
 deceased prince. The latter was, in turn, displaced by his 
 elder brother, Mahmood, by whom he was imprisoned, and 
 deprived of sight. Mahmood was, subsequently, dethroned 
 by another brother, Shoojiih-ool-moolk, who imprisoned him. 
 In the course of the intrigues and convulsions which succeeded, 
 Mahmood obtained his freedom, re-appeared in arms, and 
 recovered the throne Shoojah having fled, and found a retreat, 
 in the British territory. In the year 1837, the British 
 Government, thinking it advisable to establish a friendly 
 alliance with the ruling powers in Afghanistan, restored 
 Shoojah to the throne by means of a large armed force ; but 
 though engaged in maintaining the rights of a legitimate 
 prince, the British troops were ultimately driven (April 1842) 
 from the country, under circumstances of the most atrocious 
 barbarity and treachery ; which, however, were amply avenged 
 in the same year by another British army, under General 
 Pollock, which, advancing through the Khyber Pass, recap 
 tured Cabool, and re-established British supremacy in this 
 quarter of the world. 
 
 AFIUM-KAR A-HISSAR, or AFIYUM, or AFIOUM-KAEA- 
 mssAR [Opium black castle], a large city, Asiatic Turkey, 
 pash. Anatolia, cap. of the sanjuk of Karahissar, 186 m. E. 
 Smyrna, and 170 m. S.E. by E. Constantinople ; lat. 
 38 43 15" N.; Ion. 30 50 E. Its situation, as will be 
 seen from the accompanying woodcut, is sufficiently striking 
 and picturesque. It stands partly on level ground, and 
 partly on the lower acclivities of a series of rocky heights, 
 rising from the former to the latter by a gradual ascent. 
 
 AFIU.M-KARA-1IIS.SAH. Fiom Ltborda, Voja > Orient. 
 
 The remarkable isolated rock which is seen towering loftily 
 above the town, is from 300 to 400 ft. in nearly perpendicular 
 height; and consists of red trachyte, containing large crystals 
 of glassy felspar. It can be ascended only by a steep and j 
 difficult path, winding up a narrow crevice. On the summit, [ 
 
 from which a commanding view is obtained, are the ruins 
 of a Byzantine or Turkish fort, a deep well, and several 
 receptacles for water, partly of stone, and partly hewn 
 out of the living rock. The entire circumference of the 
 town is nearly 3 m. Most of the houses are of stone, and 
 well built; but the streets are extremely narrow, and in 
 some places very steep. It contains 10 mosques, one of which 
 is a noble building, and several lofty minarets, which add 
 much to its picturesque appearance. There are also two or 
 three Armenian chapels, numerous khans and public baths, 
 and an extensive range of substantial barracks, of recent erec 
 tion. The streets and bazaars present a lively and bustling 
 aspect, being always crowded with people a result of the 
 advantageous position of the town, which is on the road from 
 Smyrna to the East, towards Armenia, Georgia, Persia, and 
 the countries bordering on the Euphrates; all the caravans to 
 and from these places passing through it, as well as those 
 proceeding to Constantinople to and from Syria. The shops 
 and markets are thus amply stocked with European manufac 
 tures and Eastern productions. Fabrics of wool and tapestry 
 are amongst the staple articles of industry, but firearms and 
 sabres are also an important branch of manufacture. The 
 town had formerly a considerable trade in red leather, but it 
 has now fallen off, as has also the demand for its saddlery, 
 which was at one time in great request throughout all parts of 
 the Turkish empire. The manufacture of carpets which is 
 named amongst its staple products is chiefly carried on in the 
 country between Afium-Kara-IIissar and Smyrna, and only to a 
 comparatively small extent in the town itself. The principal 
 trade of the place, however, is in opium (Afium), from which 
 the town has derived its name. The quantity of this drug 
 manufactured here annually has been variously stated, and is 
 not perhaps accurately known. Niebuhr, who visited the town 
 in 1837, states, that he ascertained it to be 180 mule loads, 
 or about 20 tons. The poppy, from which it is made, is cul 
 tivated in the neighbourhood; the species is chiefly the white, 
 which is preferred on account of its capsules, and of the use 
 ful bland oil obtained from its seeds. The best description of 
 the opium manufactured here, and in other parts of Turkey, 
 yields nearly three times the quantity of morphia afforded by 
 East Indian opium. Afium is the residence of a pasha, and 
 the seat of a bishop of Armenian Christians. Pop. between 
 50,000 and 60,000. 
 
 AFRAGOLA, a small tn. Naples, 5 m. N.E. city of 
 Naples, district of Casoria ; situated on a plain, with a humid 
 atmosphere. It has several churches, and several straw-hat 
 manufactories. 
 
 AFRICA, one of the great divisions of the globe, and 
 the third in point of extent. In form, it 
 somewhat resembles an imperfect triangle, 
 with its base N. and its apex S. Its entire 
 length from N., to S., or from Cape Bianco 
 on the Mediterranean, to Cape Agulhas, 
 100 m. S.E. from the Cape of Good Hope, 
 is 5000 m. ; and its greatest breadth from 
 E. to W., or from lias Jerdaffoon (Cape 
 Guardafui) on the Indian Ocean, to Cape 
 V r erde on the Atlantic, is about 4800 m. ; 
 but in consequence of its irregular form, 
 its area is only 12,000,000 sq. m. 
 
 It has the Mediterranean on the N., the 
 Atlantic on the W., the Southern Ocean 
 on the S., and the Indian Ocean and lied 
 Sea on the E. and N.E. It is thus wholly 
 surrounded by sea, excepting where the 
 narrow neck of land, called the Isthmus of 
 Suez, connects it with Arabia. Its nearest 
 approaches to the neighbouring continents 
 occur at the Gulf of Suez, head of the lied 
 Sea, at the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, and at 
 the Strait of Gibraltar; a few miles only 
 separating it from the opposite shores at 
 these points. Its coast line, which is con 
 siderably upwards of 15,000 in. in length, 
 is nowhere very deeply indented with bays or gulfs, if we 
 except the Gulf of Guinea, on its W. coast. The other prin 
 cipal indentations are the Gulf of Sidra, on the N. coast; the 
 Bights of Benin and Biafra, on the W. coast; and Delago;i 
 and Sofala Bays, on the E. coast. Its more remarkable pro- 
 
AFRICA 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 jcci ions are Capes Bianco and Spartel, on its N. shores ; Cape 
 Verde, ou the N. W. ; Cape Agulhas, on the S. ; and Ras Jer- 
 daffoon, or Cape Guardafui, ou the E. coast. There are hut 
 few islands of any extent so close to its shores as to warrant 
 their heing considered as specially pertaining to it. Amongst 
 these few are the Bissagos, off the mouth of the Rio. Grande, 
 in Senegambia; Fernando Po, in the Bight of Biafra; Prince s 
 Island, and the islands of St. Thomas and Annobon, all in 
 the Gulf of Guinea. On the E. coast are the Bazaruta and 
 Queriniha Islands, and the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. 
 At greater distances are the Canary and Cape de Verde 
 Islands, off the N. W. coast. Madagascar, the Comoro Islands, 
 and Socotra, off the E. coast; Madagascar being separated 
 from the continent by the Mozambique Channel, which has a 
 width, at its narrowest part, of about 250 m. 
 
 Table Lands, Mountains, and Deserts. From what is known 
 of the physical conformation of Africa, it has been inferred 
 that it is very generally composed of a vast series of table 
 lands, rising in successive terraces from the coasts to the in 
 terior. This is known to be the case in S. Africa, in Abys 
 sinia, where they present the grandest features, and at various 
 other points; and where not positively ascertained, has been 
 presumed from the fall in the beds of rivers. Nothing, how 
 ever, is known of the surface of these table lands in the interior, 
 which yet remains unexplored. The most extensive range 
 of African mountains with which we are acquainted, is that 
 generally known by the name of the Mountains of the Moon, 
 which commences at Kissi Kissi, about 200 m. S.E. Sierra 
 Leone ; lat. 9 N. ; Ion. 9 20 W. ; runs in a S.E. direction, 
 nearly parallel with the coast, and at a distance from it vary 
 ing from 80 to about 150 m. to Ion. 26 E., when it suddenly 
 takes a N.E. course, crosses the entire continent, and termin 
 ates at Kas Jerdaffoon (Cape Guardafui) on the E. coast, a dis 
 tance of upwards of 4000 m. The W. portion of this range, 
 or that which runs parallel to the coast of Guinea, obtains the 
 name of the Kong mountains, and, in some parts, the Snowy 
 mountains. About Ion. 12 E., an offshoot of this vast chain, 
 called the Cameroon mountains, apparently of volcanic forma 
 tion, stretches down, in a S.W. direction, to the Bight of Bia 
 fra, and, near the sea, attains an elevation of 13,000 ft. North 
 of the Kong mountains are various lofty mountain ranges, 
 running in a N. direction. Amongst these, are the mountains 
 of Dombori and Batako. Between the meridians of 7 and 
 11 W., and the parallels of 11 and 14 N., another chain of 
 rocky heights, rising to an elevation of from 2000 to 3000 ft., 
 and cleft by tremendous ravines, skirts the Joliba or Niger. 
 The next more remarkable mountains of Africa are those 
 composing the Mount Atlas range (which set), beginning at 
 Cape Geer or Ghir, 10 W. Ion., and extending E. as far as 
 50 W. Ion., where it approaches 32 N. lat. The distance 
 from one side to the other of this range, has been estimated 
 at from 30 to 40 m. ; and the height of the highest summit, 
 Miltsin, 27 m. S.E. the town of Morocco, at 11,400 ft. above 
 the level of the sea. The higher regions of these moun 
 tains are seldom entirely free from snow. A mountain 
 of great height has lately been discovered in E. Africa, by 
 the Rev. Mr. Rebmann, of the Church Missionary Society. 
 Mr. Rebmann places this mountain, which he calls Kiliman- 
 djaro, or Kilima dja arc, Mountain of Greatness, in lat. 3 
 40 S., and Ion. 36 E. ; and represents it as being covered 
 with perpetual snow, which, being so near the equator, would 
 indicate a height of at least 20,000 ft. The mountain is 
 described as having two summits rising to the limit of snow, 
 of which the eastern is the lower ; it terminates in several 
 peaks, covered, during the rainy season, far down with 
 snow, but which in the dry season sometimes melts entirely 
 away. The western summit is the proper perpetual snow 
 mountain, which, rising considerably above its neighbour, 
 affords also much more room for snow, being formed like 
 an immense dome. The two summits are 10 or 12 m. apart. 
 If the position of Kilimandjaro be correctly laid down 
 by Mr. Rebmann, it will be about 600 m. due W. Mombas, 
 on the coast of Zanzibar, and just so far into a hitherto 
 unexplored country, of which nothing was previously known. 
 In the province of Shoa, the mountains attain a considerable 
 elevation ; that portion of it called Effat being entirely sur 
 rounded by lofty and craggy hills. 
 
 The great deserts of Africa are the Sahara, and those of 
 Nubia and Libya ; the two latter, however, being merely con 
 
 tinuations of the former, which is the largest desert in the 
 world. The Sahara thus extends from the Atlantic Ocean 
 nearly to the Red Sea, a distance of upwards of 3500 m., having 
 an average breadth, until it reaches Nubia, where it is inter 
 sected by the rich valley of the Nile, of from 600 to 900 m. 
 Its entire area has been estimated at 700,000 m., a space equal 
 to the superficies of the Mediterranean. (See SAHARA.) 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The principal rivers in S.W. Africa, 
 beginning at its N. limit and proceeding S., are the Senegal, 
 Gambia, Casamanza, Cacheo, the Jeba or Geba, the Rio 
 Grande, the Nunez, the Sierra Leone River, the Adiri or 
 Volta, the Quorra or Joliba (anc. Niger), the Zaire or Congo, 
 the Coanza, and the Gariep or Orange River. In E. Africa 
 there are few large rivers ; the most considerable are the 
 Zambezi or Quillimane, and the Juba or Fumbo. The former 
 rises in the table lands in the interior, and enters the Mozam 
 bique Channel by several mouths, at lat. 18 S. ; Ion. 37 30 E. 
 It is said to have a course of 900 m., and to be navigable, 
 during the rains, for 200 or 300 m. from the sea. The Juba, 
 which is said to rise in Abyssinia, falls into the Indian Ocean 
 at the town of Juba, on the coast of Zanzibar, in lat. 0; Ion. 
 43 30 E. It is said to be navigable for boats to a great 
 distance from the sea. The other principal rivers of E. and 
 N.E. Africa, are the Hawash, in Abyssinia, the Atabara, the 
 two principal branches of the Nile the Bahr-el-Abiad, or 
 White Nile, and the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue Nile and the 
 Nile itself. With the exception of the latter, there are no 
 rivers of any magnitude, so far as known, in N. or N.W. 
 Africa. The known lakes of Africa are few in number. 
 The largest of which there is any certain account is Lake 
 Tchad. It is situated in the territory of Bornou, and nearly 
 in the centre of the continent; approaching the loth degree 
 of N. lat., and under the 15th degree of E. Ion. It is 
 about 220 m. long, and, at the widest part, about 140 m. 
 broad. The other known lakes of Africa are the Debo, 
 in Soodan, in the same latitude with the Tchad, and, under 
 the 5th degree of W. Ion., traversed by the Niger; the 
 Lake of Dembca, in Abyssinia, traversed by the Bahr-el- 
 Azrek, or E. branch of the Nile; and the Njassi, in S.E. 
 Africa, about which little is known. Neither of these, 
 however, are of nearly such extent as the Tchad. Lakes 
 are also met with within the ranges of Mount Atlas, the 
 largest of which is called Lowdejah. To the lakes above 
 enumerated, has now to be added a large one, recently dis 
 covered (July 1849) in S. Africa, by the Rev. Robert Living 
 stone, who places its N.E. extremity, though douhtingly, in 
 lat. 20 20 S. ; Ion. 24 E. It is reported to be about 70 m. 
 in length, and is at once the source and recipient of several 
 fine streams. The largest of the former is the Zouga, which 
 flows from the lake, first in a N.E., and latterly in a S.S.E. 
 direction. It is described by Mr. Livingstone as a beautiful 
 stream ; the banks are covered with gigantic trees, including 
 a variety of the Baobab, some individuals of which measured 
 from 70 to 76 ft. in circumference. The water of the river 
 is soft, cold, and remarkably clear. It rises and falls peri 
 odically, but the cause of this phenomenon is unknown. The 
 natives, says Mr. Livingstone, paddle along the rivers 
 and lake, in canoes hollowed out of the trunks of single 
 trees ; take fish hi nets made of a weed which abounds on the 
 banks ; and kill hippopotami with harpoons attached to ropes. 
 We greatly admired the frank, manly bearing of these inland 
 sailors : and I greatly enjoyed following the windings of the 
 river in one of their primitive craft, and visiting their little 
 villages among the reeds. The name of the newly discovered 
 lake is Ngami, the Great Water. It is pronounced, Mr. 
 Livingstone adds, as if written with the Spanish N ; the (j 
 being inserted to show that the ringing sound is required. 
 
 Minerals. Gold, gold dust, and iron, are amongst the 
 best known of the mineral riches of Africa, and are the 
 most generally diffused throughout that continent. In the 
 countiy of Bainbouk, S. of the Senegal, where most of the 
 gold that finds its way to the coast is obtained, the mines 
 are open to all, and are worked by the natives of the adjoin 
 ing villages. The richest gold mine known in Africa is that 
 of Natakoo a small round isolated hill situated on a plain 
 about 300 ft. high, and 3000 paces in circumference at the 
 base. This eminence is of alluvial formation, being composed 
 of an unctuous argillaceous earth. The gold here is found 
 in the various forms of lumps, grains, and spangles ; every 
 
AFRICA 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 pubic foot being loaded, it is .said, with the precious metal. 
 In searching for gold, the natives have perforated the hill, 
 in all directions, with pits, or holes, 6 ft. in diameter, and 40 
 ft. deep The auriferous earth is first met with about 4 ft. 
 below the surface, becoming more abundant with increase of 
 depth. At a depth of about 20 ft., lumps of pure gold, 
 weighing from 2 to 10 grains, are found. Forty in. N. of J 
 Jxatakoo, are the gold mines of Semayla. The source whence \ 
 the gold is obtained here, is of a wholly different nature from 
 that of the former. The hill, instead of being of soft argil 
 laceous earth, is composed of rock and sandstone, and has to 
 be pounded in a mortar to get at the gold. Gold is found, 
 also, in the beds of the rivers in this neighbourhood. The 
 next richest gold mine in this part of Africa, is that of 
 Nambia ; situated at the back of the western chain of the 
 Tabaoura mountains. It is found in a hill similar to that of 
 Natakoo, but is of a paler colour ; and is, on this account, 
 preferred, being more ductile and malleable. In a valley E. 
 of the Kio d Oro, is the mine of Kombadyria an isolated 
 mount of argillaceous earth, as in the former two cases. 
 Here, too, the beds of the .adjacent streams contain gold, 
 which, in this part of W. Africa, is found distributed over 
 a surface of 1200 sq. m. Before being employed as an 
 article of commerce, the gold is melted down and formed in 
 to earrings or other trinkets ; never being offered for sale 
 excepting in a manufactured shape. This operation is per 
 formed by the blacksmiths of the country, who, with no other 
 implements than an earthen chaffing dish, a pair of bellows, 
 and a large and small hammer, manufacture trinkets of sur 
 prising neatness. These are ultimately formed with the 
 small hammer, the gold being in a cold state. Large quan 
 tities of gold dust are also found on the banks of the Barra, 
 on the W. coast ; where, it is said, 10,000 slaves are employed, 
 for two months every year, collecting it. The gold dust 
 procured here is higher coloured, cleaner, and better than 
 that found anywhere else. The principal part of it is con 
 veyed into the interior, where it is manufactured into trinkets 
 previously to being brought into market. Iron is found in 
 Morocco, Abyssinia, Algeria, and in various mountainous 
 districts of Central and S. Africa. Salt is also found in 
 great abundance throughout the greater part of Africa, both 
 as a residuum and as a fossil ; the former on the banks of salt 
 lakes, the latter by mining. Though widely diffused, how 
 ever, there are many large and extensive districts without it; 
 and there it is considered a luxury, and brings high prices. 
 Manganese is also common. An important discovery has 
 recently been made, of extensive deposits of nitrates of potash 
 and soda, in the neighbourhood of Angra Pequena, on the W. 
 coast of S. Africa, which are likely to be turned to good 
 account. Copper ore, of the richest description, is to be 
 found at a short distance beyond the Orange river ; and lead, 
 of a superior kind, has long been known to exist near the 
 mouth of the Van Staaden s river, in the district of Uitenhage, 
 Cape Colony. 
 
 Climate. The great space which Africa occupies on the 
 globe, extending to the 35th parallel on either side of the 
 equator, added to other influencing causes, so diversifies its 
 climate, that no general account could give a correct idea of 
 it. Although the greater part of this continent lies within the 
 torrid zone, and might be expected to possess a certain uni 
 formity of climate corresponding to such a position, this is not 
 the case. Extensive arid plains, swamps, marshes, and the 
 exhalations of a rank vegetation, give it a fatal variety. The 
 S. and N. extremities being beyond the tropics, and, of course, 
 within the temperate zones, are sufficiently healthy, and so 
 also is the E. coast generally, although, in some places, it is 
 far otherwise. It is on the W. coast that the climate of 
 Africa is most destructive to Europeans, and where the heat 
 of the sun is most intense; Senegambia, between lat. 10 
 and 11 N. being, perhaps, the hottest place on the globe. 
 The whole of the Gold Coast is also extremely unhealthy, 
 owing, it has been alleged, to the sudden extremes of heat by 
 day and cold by night, and to the thick, sulphureous exhala 
 tions which rise from the valleys every morning, and diffuse 
 themselves far over the surface of the land, spreading death 
 and disease amongst the white population. In the midst of 
 the most beautiful scenery, where trees, and rock?, and still 
 waters, and a delightful verdure, give assurance of an earthly 
 j-aradise, the angel of death lurks unseen, and strikes down 
 
 his victims without warning, and while yet in the pride of 
 their strength. 
 
 The appalling number of deaths that have occurred in the 
 various expeditions that have gone to the coasts and interior 
 of W. Africa, bear fearful evidence of the fatal nature of the 
 climate. Upwards of a third of all the Europeans who have 
 endeavoured to ascend the Senegal river have perished in the 
 attempt ; and nearly a half of those composing the expedition 
 sent out by Government in 1816, to explore the river Zaire, 
 shared a similar fate. On that occasion, the commander, 
 Capt. Tuckey, his lieutenant, the purser, ten of the crew, and 
 four scientific gentlemen, all died within three months ; and 
 in the case of the Niger expedition in 1841, no fewer than 41 
 Europeans, out of 145, including several officers and sur 
 geons, died in less than two months. On this expedition, 
 numerous experiments were made to test both the air and the 
 river water, for the purpose of ascertaining whether they con 
 tained, as had by many been alleged that they must, an extra 
 quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, supposed to be the 
 agent of death in these regions, and to be due to the quantity 
 of decomposing vegetable matter abounding in the rivers ; but, 
 though conducted with the greatest care, from none of the 
 experiments did it appear that the gas in question existed in 
 excess, either in the air or the water. In Sierra Leone, 
 perhaps the most unhealthy spot in these unhealthy re 
 gions, the mortality amongst Europeans is very great; few 
 ships returning without losing some of their crew, and 
 not unfrequently so many, that they are unable to leave 
 the port until others have been obtained. The number of 
 governors that have perished here from the effects of the cli 
 mate, one after the other, is another striking evidence of the 
 singular insalubrity of its atmosphere. The agent of death 
 in nearly all these cases is fever, generally violent, and of the 
 remittent type. Besides the known and alleged causes for 
 this fatality, there are other and mysterious influences in 
 operation ; for in the case of the expedition commanded by 
 Capt. Tuckey, the journal of that lamented officer bore, that 
 no climate could be finer than that they were enjoying; that 
 the thermometer was never below 00 during the night, 
 and seldom exceeding 76 during the day; no rain, and the 
 sun seldom visible. The seasons of Africa consist but of two 
 the dry and rainy; the latter including May, June, July, 
 August, September, and October; the former, the remaining 
 months. The wet season, gloomy and cheerless, is always 
 ushered in and terminated by tornadoes. During its continu 
 ance, the mountains are wrapt in perpetual fogs ; and disease, 
 though not peculiar to any season, becomes more general and 
 more fatak The tornadoes, however, which are always accom 
 panied by tremendous storms of thunder and lightning, have 
 a beneficial effect on the atmosphere, rendering it cool, clear, 
 and invigorating. Sir James Alexander, speaking of the W. 
 coast of N. Africa, says, that the mornings were beautiful from 
 half-past five till eight; that, during that time, the atmosphere 
 was cool, and the foliage and verdure around fresh and smiling ; 
 but at the last hour named, the scene suddenly changed ; the 
 sun burst forth with inconceivable fierceness, all sounds were 
 hushed, and all nature drooped ; men retired into their huts 
 or tents, and the w T ild animals sought the depth of the forest 
 or the jungle. With us, a typification of silence is the still 
 ness of midnight; in these regions, it is the stillness of mid-day. 
 Along the Gold Coast, land and sea breezes prevail; the for 
 mer generally from N.N.W., the latter S.W. and W. S.W. 
 The land breeze continues from nine A.M. till seven P.M.; but 
 in the rainy season is irregular. Though many of the countries 
 of Africa are deluged by rains, there are vast tracts in which 
 hardly any ever falls. These are the deserts; and this is sup 
 posed to be one of the causes of the high temperature of this 
 continent, which is much hotter than either Asia or America, 
 although the heat is not generally so intense as to admit of its 
 being considered the sole cause of disease. The range of the 
 thermometer on the W. coast, in 1819, was at the highest 
 i only 95, mean 76; while the average heat at Sierra Leone is 
 only 82; at Cape Coast Castle, from 85 to 90. At the 
 . Cape, it is never below 50. These places, therefore, are 
 free from those vicissitudes, or extremes of heat and cold, 
 I which are so fatal in other parts of Africa. The greatest 
 ) height the thermometer was ever observed to attain at the 
 Cape was 102; but the general range of the warm season is 
 between 8U and 00. 
 
AFRICA 
 
 89 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 Races of People. Our information on this interesting j 
 branch of knowledge, like that on most other subjects con 
 nected with Africa, is imperfect. Generallyspeaking, however, 
 Africa, N. of the Senegal, and E. to Egypt, maybe said to be 
 inhabited by Arab races, known to us as Moors, Berbers, 
 Kabyles, &c. (See ALGIERS, BAKBARY, MOROCCO.) Egypt 
 (which see), is inhabited by Copts; and Abyssinia and Soinauli 
 by tribes described in the articles on these countries. The 
 original inhabitants of Cape Colony were Hottentots, who are 
 now, however, confined to the territory N. of the colony, 
 washed by the Atlantic, and stretching N. to about lat. 24 S. 
 They are of a yellowish colour, with high cheek bones, wide 
 apart ; lower portion of the face narrow ; nose flat and broad ; 
 eyes small, and distant from each other; hair not diffused over 
 the head, but in separate tufts. General stature of the men, 
 4 ft. 6 inches ; women 4 ft. ; the latter distinguished by a large 
 accumulation of fat over the glutei muscles. Their language 
 is full of guttural sounds, many words being ended by n 
 peculiar dick, disagreeable to the ear, and difficult to imitate. 
 They are a mild and inoffensive race; but have yet made little 
 progress towards civilization. Those living in the immediate 
 vicinity of the Cape, have, of course, become subject to Eu 
 ropean influence : but a few tribes in the interior still retain 
 their independence, wearing the old sheep-skin dress, observ 
 ing old customs, and living in dirty kraals, or huts, composed 
 of mats stretched over a frame of sticks. They migrate from 
 place to place, leading an indolent and wandering life, and 
 living chiefly on the milk of their cattle. To the E. of Cape 
 Colony, as far as lat. 20 S., the coast and how far inland is 
 not known is inhabited by Kaffirs (see KAFFRARIA). Central 
 Africa, from the Senegal S. to the country of the Hottentots 
 and Kaffirs, and E. to the Indian Ocean, is wholly inhabited, 
 in all probability, by negro races ; but too little is known of 
 tliis vast district to enable us to speak with precision. The 
 physical characteristics of the negro are well known skin 
 and eyes black ; hair black and woolly ; forehead low ; cheek 
 bones prominent ; nose broad, thick, and flat ; lips thick ; palms 
 of the hands, and soles of the feet flat. In strength and 
 stature, they are equal to Europeans. Various opinions are 
 entertained of their intellectual capacity some claiming for 
 them an equality in this respect with the whites; others 
 denying them the ordinary intelligence of human beings. 
 Without instituting comparisons, it may be safely asserted, 
 that they possess capabilities of a much higher order than has 
 been generally allowed them, the proof of which it would not 
 be difficult to adduce. Though the natives of the extensive 
 region marked out above are designated by the general term 
 Negro, there are a great variety of nations, distinguished from 
 each other by both moral and physical differences. The 
 peculiarities of the various subdivisions of the Negro race 
 will be noticed in the articles on the countries which they 
 inhabit. 
 
 Animals. With the zoology of Africa, we are yet but im 
 perfectly acquainted ; enough, however, is known to form a 
 very interesting chapter in natural history. Of the 300 
 different species of mammals that inhabit Africa, 242 are 
 peculiar to the country. Of the Quadrumana (apes, monkeys, 
 &c.), it possesses 55 species, of which 48 are peculiar. Of 
 the Cheiroptera (bats), 30, of which 26 are peculiar. Of the 
 Carnivora, 66; peculiar, 52. Kodentia (gnawing mammals), 
 48; peculiar, 38. Edentata (sloths, ant eaters, &c.), 3, all 
 peculiar. Pachydermata (hog, horse, elephant, &c.), 15; 
 peculiar, 12. Kuminantia, 73 ; peculiar, 63. Cetaceae (whales), 
 10; peculiar, 8. The quadrupeds of burden are, the camel 
 (Arabian), and the horses and asses of Barbary. Of horned 
 cattle there are many different varieties ; the oxen of Abys 
 sinia and Bornou, both having horns of immense size the 
 former 4 ft. in length, and the latter measuring upwards of 
 2 ft. in circumference at the base, but so light, that they 
 hardly weigh 2 Ibs. each ; the broad-tailed sheep of Barbary, 
 the Cape of Good Hope, and other parts of Africa; and the 
 long-legged, small-tailed sheep of Egypt, Sennaar, and Nubia. 
 Of goats there are a great abundance and variety, being in 
 many places more numerous than sheep. The domestic cat 
 is rare in Africa, but dogs are numerous. In the large towns 
 of Egypt and Barbary, troops of these animals are maintained 
 by the public, to act as scavengers, the duties of which they 
 perform with entire efficiency. Domestic poultry are abund 
 ant in every part of Africa, though not indigenous to the 
 
 country. Amongst tho wild animals, is that extraordinary 
 species of the ape called the Chimpanzee, or Simla troglodytes 
 of naturalists. It attains the ordinary stature of man, and 
 inhabits the countries from Sierra Leone to the S. confines 
 of Angola. The baboons, among the inferior tribes of the 
 Quadrumana, inhabit the mountains and rocky heights. They 
 sometimes attain a great size, and, from their strength and 
 mischievous disposition, are held in much dread by the natives. 
 The monkeys, properly so called, inhabit the woods, and swarm 
 over the whole continent. 
 
 The carnivorous and ferocious animals of Africa are nu 
 merous and formidable. At the head of these stands the 
 lion, of which there are three varieties the Barbary, Senegal, 
 and Cape lions. The fur of the first is of a deep yellowish 
 brown, and the mane of the male much developed. The fur 
 of the second is of a more yellow tint, mane less thick, and 
 hair nearly wanting 011 breasts and inside of legs. Of the (Jape 
 lion there are two kinds, one yellowish and the other brown ; 
 the latter being considered the more ferocious and formidable. 
 It is a belief amongst the S. African tribes, that the lion 
 prefers human prey to any other. Next to the lion ranks 
 the leopard and panther, there being no tigers in Africa. 
 Though not generally dangerous, nor much dreaded, they are 
 so numerous in some parts, that the natives will not venture 
 to travel through the woods unless well armed, and in large 
 parties. In other places, their increasing numbers have com 
 pelled the inhabitants of many villages and towns to remove 
 to other provinces. There are none of those marked differ 
 ences between the leopards and panthers of Asia and Africa, 
 that distinguish the lions of these two countries. The hyena 
 is found in great numbers in S. Africa, especially in the 
 neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope, and, it has been 
 asserted, as high as Barbary. In the former region there 
 are two species the spotted hyena, or tiger wolf, and the 
 strand, or coast wolf the former being the more ferocious. 
 The civet is found in most parts of Africa, and is kept in 
 great numbers by the natives, on account of the perfume. 
 Ichneumons are also numerous. Of the liodent mammals, our 
 knowledge is very limited. So far as known, there are three 
 varieties of hares ; common rabbits ; eight or ten distinct species 
 of jerboas; squirrels, rats, and mice the two latter being as 
 numerous as in other countries. Of the Edentatous mammals, 
 there are two species found in Africa, the aardvark, or ground 
 hog (Orycteropus Capensis), and the long-tailed pangolin (Plants 
 tetradactijla}. In the first rank of the Pachydermata, or 
 wild, tusked quadrupeds of Africa, stands the elephant, 
 which, it has been said, though the point seems by no means 
 established, attains a greater size here than in Asia. It seems 
 more certain that the tusks of the African elephant are larger 
 and heavier than those of Asia. The differences in physical 
 structure between the Asiatic and African elephant, are the 
 head of the latter more rounded ; front convex instead of con 
 cave ; ears much larger ; and the general number of nails, on 
 the hind foot, three, instead of four. The sagacity of the 
 Asiatic elephant is said to surpass that of the African, but on 
 no good authority. The intelligence of the race, generally, 
 has been a good deal overrated. Cuvier is not disposed to 
 estimate it higher than that of the dog. Elephants are dis 
 persed all over Africa, S. of the Sahara. They live in herds 
 of from 100 to 300, and are so numerous, that their tusks 
 (ivory) form a principal, and one of the most valuable, exports 
 of Africa. These are found in great numbers in the woods, 
 broken off by accident ; but the greater portion is procured 
 by destroying the animal, which is effected by the natives in 
 various ways. The flesh is held in much esteem in various parts 
 of Africa. The foot is said to be a delicacy. The rhinoceros 
 is found in the middle and S. parts of Africa, frequenting 
 the same haunts as the elephant. The natives hunt this 
 animal with great eagerness for the sake of the hide and horns 
 the only parts of which any use can be made, the flesh being 
 unpleasant to the taste, having a resemblance to pork, but 
 being much coarser. Of the hides, shields, harness, &c., are 
 made; the horn derives its value from its real or supposed 
 medicinal virtues. The African rhinoceros is distinguished 
 from the Asiatic by having no front or incisor teeth. Hippo 
 potami are found in great numbers in the large rivers and 
 lakes of Africa ; amongst the former, particularly the Senegal, 
 Gambia, Niger, and Zaire or Congo. It is peculiar to 
 Africa, and is divided into two species the hippopotamus 
 
AFRICA 
 
 Hi 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 of the Cape (77. Caixnsis) T and the hippopotamus of the Senegal 
 (//. Setiegalensia). The distinction between these two species, 
 however, is not very marked, consisting merely of some differ 
 ences in the formation of the skull. The natives take them in 
 traps or pits, but the colonists near the Cape destroy them with 
 the rifle. The flesh is much esteemed as an article of food ; the 
 Sea Cow s Speck, the name given to the fat which lies imme 
 diately under the skin, when salted and dried, is in great de 
 mand with the epicures of Cape Town. The most valuable part 
 of the animal, however, is its great canine teeth, which consist 
 of the finest ivory, and is in much request by dentists, for mak 
 ing artificial teeth, no other ivory keeping its colour so well. 
 
 The engallo, or wild boar, is also found in Africa ; but it 
 differs from that of Europe, its molar teeth resembling, in 
 form and structure, those of the elephant. The zebra and 
 quagga are found all over S. and Central Africa. The sym 
 metry, and brilliant colouring of these animals, added to the 
 extraordinary regularity of the stripes with which they are 
 adorned, rank them amongst the most beautiful of quadrupeds. 
 The quagga is less than the zebra, with the binder parts 
 higher, and the ears shorter. Both the zebra and quagga are 
 found in greatest numbers near the Cape, but the former 
 seems to be more widely dispersed than the latter. A third 
 species, between the S. African quagga and the zebra, is found 
 in large herds N. of the Orange River. 
 
 The antelope is the most numerous of the ruminating 
 animals of Africa, there being no fewer than 50 species proper 
 to Africa, 23 of which are found within the colony of the 
 Cape. 
 
 The giraffe, or camelopard, inhabits the interior parts of 
 Africa, as high as the Senegal, but is not found in Guinea, or 
 any of the W. parts. 
 
 In the interior of Africa, several species of wild buffalo are 
 met with ; but little is known regarding them, further than 
 that they are large aud fierce, particularly those near the Cape 
 of Good Hope. 
 
 Among the cetaceous mammals that inhabit the seas and 
 coasts of Africa, the most remarkable is that species of whale 
 called lamantin (Manatus Senegalensis), an herbivorous ani 
 mal, supposed to be the original of the fabulous mermaid. 
 The rivers and coasts of Africa abound with various kinds of 
 fish, some of the most splendid colours. Shell fish are also 
 abundant. 
 
 Of the ornithology of Africa, little more is known than that 
 it comprehends a great number of birds, of the richest and 
 gaudiest plumage. Amongst the most beautiful of these is 
 the sun bird (Cinnyrlda;}. The ostrich is now almost ex 
 clusively confined to Africa. Its flesh, when young, is good, 
 and the eggs are considered a delicacy both by Europeans and 
 natives. The Hottentots abstract the eggs from the nest with 
 a long stick, that the hen may not be driven from it, but con 
 tinue to lay. The plumes are much in request in Europe for 
 ladies head dresses, and are therefore an important article 
 of commerce. The best, however, are not taken from the 
 wild birds, but from domesticated individuals, reared by 
 the Arabs, who provide them with clean and soft beds, in 
 order to preserve the feathers from injury. Vultures are 
 found amongst the lofty mountains of Central Africa, and in 
 the most inaccessible places towards the Red Sea. They are 
 also found in the N. of Africa, and in the Cape colony. 
 The two principal species of African vultures are the Viil- 
 tur Kolbi (Kolbe s vulture), and the V. auricularis, or soci 
 able vulture, the Oricou of the French. The latter, which 
 is of gigantic size, is extremely useful in consuming the 
 carcasses of dead animals, which might otherwise pollute the 
 air, and engender disease. It prevails most in the Namaqua 
 country, where it was first observed by Le Vaillant. It is 
 gregarious, living together in numerous companies. The 
 Guinea hen is the only gallinaceous fowl adapted to the 
 poultry yard that Africa possesses. 
 
 The crocodile inhabits all the large rivers in the tropical 
 countries of Africa, and abounds in the Nile, below the first 
 cataract, never being seen above it. Lizards, serpents, and 
 various species of voracious reptiles, abound in all parts of 
 
 places, their habitations, seen from a short distance, present 
 
 Africa. Amongst the insect tribes, of which there are merely a few salient point s can be noticed. 
 
 many thousands, the locusts are the most remarkable, having 
 been, from time immemorial, the scourge of the country. 
 Hardly less formidable or destructive are the ants, which 
 awarm in countless myriads in tropical Africa ; in many 
 
 Religion, Mahometanism and Fctichism (the latter from 
 the Portuguese word fctisso something sacred) are the pre 
 vailing religions of Africa, excepting in Abyssinia, where a 
 debased sort of Christianity exists. A fetiche may be any 
 
 the appearance of a native village. They move in vast armies, 
 consuming every animal and vegetable substance that conies ; 
 in their way. 
 
 Vegetable Productions. The greater portion of Africa 
 lying between the tropics, its vegetation is, of course, modi 
 fied by that circumstance. With exception of its S. extremity, 
 it may be said to be wholly a palm region, one species or 
 other of that useful plant being met with throughout nearly 
 its whole extent, as far as yet explored. The N. of Africa, 
 along the Mediterranean, presents a vegetation similar to that 
 of many parts of the S. of Europe, but much more luxuriant. 
 Wheat and maize are here cultivated; the olive, the orange, 
 the castor-oil plant, the fig tree, and the dwarf and the date 
 palms, are plentiful ; and the Zizyphus lotus, or lote bush, is 
 so abundant, that its fruit which is still partially eaten con 
 stituted formerly an important article of food to some ancient 
 tribes, from which they were named, by the Greeks, Loto- 
 pliagi lotus eaters. South of the Atlas mountains lies a 
 tract, called the Land of Dates, from the great profusion in 
 which the Phcmix dactylifera, or date palm, is diffused over 
 its surface. Rice, maize, plantains, yams, manioc, pulse, and 
 earth nuts (A rachis hypoyea) , are cultivated along the whole 
 W. tropical coast. In Senegambia, Adanson first discovered 
 the enormous Baobab tree a plant also common in Nubia, 
 and found as far S. as Lake Ngami whose stem is sometimes 
 30 ft. in diameter, though not more than 10 or 15 ft. high, 
 but having a very large, bushy head ; and whose fruit, under 
 the name of monkey s bread, forms an important article of 
 native food. In the same region flourishes the acacia, from 
 which gum Senegal is obtained. Along the W. coast, like 
 wise, but in greatest abundance on the Guinea coast, are 
 found the Elrcis Guineensis, from which palm oil and wine are 
 obtained ; the cabbage palm, the wax palm, the Shea butter 
 tree, all yielding products important to man. To these may 
 be added the African oak, and that plant characteristic of 
 river mouths, the mangrove. Of fruits, the best are the ban 
 ana, papaw, custard apple, lemon, orange, and tamarind. At 
 the Cape of Good Hope, wheat and other cereals are cultivated ; 
 but the most characteristic vegetation of this district is the 
 heaths, which grow in wonderful profusion, in great variety, 
 and of surpassing beauty. Geraniums, and various bulbous 
 and orchidaceous plants, are also prevalent, rendering this 
 district a complete flower garden. The E. coast may, gener 
 ally speaking, be said to be characterized by the same veget 
 ation as the W. Here, however, the cultivation of rice is 
 more general ; that of maize, less. Tamarinds, figs, and plan 
 tains, grow on this coast; and the cotton plant is found in 
 great abundance. The N.E. part of Africa, in vicinity of Ras 
 Jerdaffoon, is rich in frankincense, myrrh, cinnamon, and 
 numerous other spices. The highlands of Ethiopia are the 
 native place of the coffee plant, which gives its name to the 
 province of Kaffa. In many tropical localities, but more 
 especially along the E. coast, this plant forms thick woods. 
 Towards the end of the 15th century, it was introduced from 
 Africa into Arabia. Abyssinia, though within the tropics, 
 can scarcely be said to possess a tropical vegetation. The 
 country, generally, is so much raised above the level of the sea, 
 that its characteristic plants are more those of the temperate 
 than of the torrid zone ; part of it, however, is included in the 
 spice region. Nubia, though further from the equator than 
 Abyssinia, as it lies on a lower level, possesses a vegetation 
 much more tropical. The Baobab, Elreis Guineensis, or palm- 
 oil tree, and Bombax pentandrum, or Indian cotton, are among 
 its more prominent plants. Egypt has long been celebrated 
 for its wheat, which is there extensively grown ; rice, beans, 
 peas, sesamum, and cotton, are also cultivated. Senna and 
 other cassias are found in Upper Egypt, and form a consider 
 able article of commerce. The dwarf and the date palm arc 
 plentiful; and the doum palm (Cud/era Tkela ica}, is not un 
 common. Further information respecting the vegetation of 
 Africa will be given in the articles on its various countries. 
 What has been said here is merely intended as a rapid sketch 
 very extensive subject, of which, within our limits, 
 
AFRICA 
 
 :L 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 ?ort of substance a stick, a stone, a horn, or any other casual 
 object which, being chosen by an individual, is set apart, 
 invested with a supernatural influence, and worshipped as a 
 divinity. It is from that moment believed to be endowed 
 with a power of doing good or evil, and is feared and courted 
 accordingly. Several of the African nations have a supreme 
 fetiche, some having a serpent, others a cock, others a lizard, 
 and other animals, besides those presiding over the destinies 
 of families and individuals. At Cape Coast, the public/eic/ie 
 is a rock that projects into the sea, close by the castle. Sacri 
 fices are yearly made to this rock by the priests, with extra 
 ordinary gestures and invocations. Others of the negro tribes 
 worship the sun, the moon, the stars; and others, idols of 
 human form. Human sacrifices are common amongst these 
 nations, although, it is said, only on the occasion of the acces 
 sion of a sovereign, or during the prevalence of an epidemic. 
 The victim, on these occasions, must be brought from a dis 
 tance, and his fate carefully concealed from him till the fatal 
 blow is struck, which it is, in the presence of the assembled 
 people and great men of the nation. 
 
 Languages, Social Condition, &c. The languages of Africa 
 are far too numerous to admit of any attempt being made even 
 to enumerate them. The most widely diffused are the Arabic, 
 the Berber, and the Mandingoe languages the last prevailing 
 over nearly the whole W. coast, and the former two over all 
 the N. and N.E. parts of the continent. In S. Africa, the 
 Hottentot and Kaffir languages are those best known. The 
 number of languages spoken throughout Africa has been 
 estimated at upwards of 150 of which 33, it is said, are 
 spoken between the W. Ocean and Red Sea. 
 
 As each of the various countries of Africa presents a peculiar 
 social phasis of its own, and as these, with numerous other 
 details, will fall naturally to be noticed in the respective 
 articles on these several countries, we shall here confine our 
 selves to W. Africa alone; that is, from about lat. 17 S. to 
 lat. 17 N. one of the most interesting portions of that con 
 tinent. The social condition, generally, of this part of Africa, 
 is, as might be expected, extremely low; yet, important 
 facilities for improving this condition, and for the successful 
 introduction of civilization are not wanting. The black 
 population are naturally of a kind, cheerful, and humane dis 
 position ; and where these may not exist, as in the case of 
 a few tribes, there is an intelligence and general aptness, 
 which would readily appreciate and appropriate the advan 
 tages of civilized life. The African black has none of the 
 moody, ferocious temper of the savages of the Pacific and 
 South Sea Islands, nor any of the proud reserve and ruthless 
 nature of the American Indian; while his love of music and 
 song prove him to have feelings and tendencies eminently 
 favourable to social refinement. M Queen describes the char 
 acter of the population about Cape Lachen as excellent ; and 
 adds, that they exhibit traits of feeling and paternal affection 
 that would do honour to a civilized people. Of the popula 
 tion in the neighbourhood of Cape Palmas, he speaks in 
 equally favourable terms, calling them a docile and peaceable 
 race. Lieut. Christopher s account of the native population 
 on the E. coast, is no less pleasing. He found them, he says, 
 a hospitable, cheerful, and happy people, living in the midst 
 of plenty. Amongst the Fellatahs, who are, perhaps, one 
 of the most advanced of the different nations of W. Africa, 
 there exist many of the usages and customs of civilized life. 
 It is matter of regret, that there should be exceptions to 
 this general good character of the African tribes ; but so it is, 
 there being several nations remarkable for their savageness 
 and barbarity. Amongst these, the Ashantees stand con 
 spicuous, proving and it is no solitary instance the singular 
 fact, that the cleverest and most intelligent races of Africa 
 are the most cruel and ferocious. There seems little doubt 
 either, that cannibalism prevailed, and probably still prevails, 
 to a considerable extent, amongst some of the tribes of W. 
 Africa. In the industrial arts, the W. Africans have made 
 little progress, although some of the tribes, particularly the 
 Ashantees, Jalloffs, Dahomans, and Koorankoes, evince con 
 siderable skill in working in metals, in tanning leather, and 
 in the manufacture of cotton cloths; although, in this last, few 
 of them being acquainted with the shuttle, they will take a 
 couple of months to work what a European would despatch 
 in as many hours. In all matters connected with agriculture, 
 they arc also miserably backward. There is, as usual, some 
 VOL. I. 
 
 of the ludicrous, as well as the serious, to be found engendered 
 of the moral darkness and low social condition of Africa. 
 The most curious instance of this is presented in the form 
 of a mysterious personage, called Mumbo Jumbo, whose 
 business it is to punish refractory ladies, on whom the 
 scoldings and castigations of their husbands have failed in 
 having the desired effect. In such cases, Mumbo Jumbo 
 arrays himself in a fantastic coat, which always hangs ready 
 for his use on some convenient tree, in or near the village ; 
 puts a crown of straw on his head; and, after dark, marches 
 into the market place, where he summons the offending fair 
 one into his presence. Mumbo s power being absolute, she 
 dares not disobey, but presently makes her appearance, with 
 a crowd at h er heels. She is now stripped, and Mumbo 
 Jumbo commences a vigorous flagellation, encouraged by the 
 applause of the surrounding mob. He is thus held in great 
 dread by the African ladies, who will yield much rather than 
 expose themselves to a call to appear in his presence. Mumbo 
 Jumbo is no other than the husband of the fair culprit 
 dressed for the occasion, or some friend deputed by him to 
 perform this piece of conjugal duty. 
 
 Commerce and Slave Trade. The commerce of W. Africa 
 bears no proportion to its extent ; the chief reason for which 
 is to be found in the barbarous state of its inhabitants, and, 
 in part, in the unhealthiness of its climate, which prevents 
 Europeans developing its utmost capabilities and resources. 
 Its principal articles of export are palm oil, gold, gold dust, 
 ivory, gums, timber, wax, hides, feathers, &c. The gum 
 Senegal is exported in large quantities by the Moorish tribes, 
 who possess the gum forests of the Sahara. They collect it 
 in December, and pack it into sacks made of tanned ox hides. 
 The annual produce of these forests amount to 1,200,000 Ibs. 
 The Moors take blue Indian calicoes in exchange for their 
 gum. During their absence on their trading expeditions, 
 they live on the gum, consuming about six ounces every 
 24 hours. Those who can afford it, dissolve it in milk ; those 
 who cannot, use it as it is, or dissolve it in water. Gold and 
 gold dust, the former fashioned into trinkets form a con 
 siderable branch of African trade. The native dealers in 
 gold carry a pair of small scales about with them, in which 
 they weigh the precious metal, making no difference in price 
 between the wrought gold and the gold dust. Salt is another 
 important article of internal trade. The demand for this 
 necessary of life is very great, and the price proportionately 
 high. A slab of salt, 2J ft. long, 14 inches in breadth, 
 and 2 inches thick, will often bring a price equal to 2, 10s., 
 while 1, 15s. to 2 is the usual value of a piece of these 
 dimensions. The slave trade forms a conspicuous feature in 
 African commerce, and continues to do so, notwithstanding the 
 efforts that have been made to put it down. It has been calcu 
 lated that about 110,000 slaves are yearly exported from the 
 S. parts of the W. coast, besides those shipped at other places. 
 Cuba and Brazil are great marts for slaves ; the trade being 
 encouraged in the former by the Spanish authorities, who 
 derive a profit from their importation, the captain-general 
 receiving an ounce of gold for every negro landed on the 
 island, and the inferior officers proportionate allowances. 
 Besides the external trade, a very extensive internal trade in 
 slaves is carried on in Africa, and marts are established for 
 their disposal. They are moved from place to place, in 
 caravans of from 100 to 3000, of all ages, but chiefly boys and 
 girls. Slavery in W. Africa, however, exhibits a much 
 milder character than in any other part of the world. The 
 slave is there treated with consideration and kindness, and 
 rarely subjected to corporal punishment. Amongst the Fel 
 latahs, the children of slaves are never sold ; so that no separ 
 ation between parent and child ever takes place. Slaves, 
 on falling into the hands of the trader, are well treated, and, 
 in being marched from place to place, are unfettered, well fed, 
 and carefully tended ; and, though surrounded by guards on 
 horseback, armed with whips, are rarely, if ever, touched with 
 the thong. The cowrie, a small shell imported from the 
 Maldive Islands by British traders, is the principal circulating 
 medium of S. and Interior Africa ; but of so low a value is it, 
 that it requires between 4000 and 5000 to make the equivalent 
 of 1 sterling. Amongst the exports to W. Africa in 1842, 
 there were haberdashery, &c., between 12,000 and 13,000 ; 
 brass and copper manufactures, 13,850; cotton manufactures, 
 220,564 ; books, 362 ; arms and ammunition, 96,0001 
 
AFRICA 
 
 AGADAS 
 
 Progress of Discovery. There seems reason to believe that 
 the circumnavigation of Africa had been accomplished by tho 
 Pheniciaus long prior to the earliest historical records. It 
 is, at any rate, certain that an idea of its peninsular form was 
 familiar in the days of Herodotus an evidence that the fact 
 had been ascertained, notwithstanding it is uncertain by 
 whom; although this merit has been ascribed to Necho, king 
 of Egypt, who, according to the historian just named, fitted 
 out an expedition for that purpose. Sataspes, a Persian noble 
 man, was the next who made the attempt. He sailed from 
 the W., and proceeded S. along tho W. coast for several 
 months, but was obliged finally to abandon the enter 
 prise as impracticable. Sataspes was succeeded in African 
 adventure by Eudoxus, a native of Cyzicus, who made several 
 attempts to explore the unknown regions of that continent ; 
 but the results of his efforts have not been handed down to us, 
 and, it may be suspected, were not very satisfactory. An 
 expedition to the W. shores of Africa Avas fitted out by 
 the Carthaginians, about 570 years B.C., with the view of 
 establishing colonies at such points as might be found suitable 
 for such purpose. Thirty thousand persons, of both sexes, 
 were embarked on this occasion, on board of 60 ships, of 50 
 rowers each, and several colonies established; but the entire 
 history of this expedition is so brief and indistinct, that no 
 clear idea of either its progress or results can be obtained. 
 At a later period, the liomans made some equally unsatisfac 
 tory efforts to explore the unknown coasts of Africa, Poly- 
 bius, the celebrated historian, having been sent thither by 
 Scipio, on a voyage of discovery. It is not, indeed, until his 
 tory brings us to the expeditions of the Portuguese, those 
 once famous and enterprising navigators, that the progress of 
 African discovery becomes interesting, and from this point it 
 will be found indicated in the following table the form, it is 
 believed, best adapted for giving at once a clear and rapid 
 view of the subject. It must be premised, however, that the 
 list contains but a selection from the better known travellers 
 in Africa, there being a host of others; some of them, pro 
 bably, of equal desert, whose names have been omitted, as it 
 has not been intended to attempt more than a mere outline of 
 the progress of discovery in that continent. Influenced by a 
 similar motive, we have refrained from detailing the extensive 
 researches of the French in Algeria an omission, however, 
 which will be found supplied, to some extent, in the article 
 under that name : 
 A.D. 
 
 1412 A Portuguese expedition reached Cape Bojador, but did not land. 
 
 1-433 The Portuguese doubled Cane Bojador. 
 
 1487 The Cape of Good Hope discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, a 
 
 Portuguese navigator. 
 
 1490 Covilham, a Portuguese, visited E. Africa and Abyssinia. 
 
 1497 Vasco de Gaina doubled the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 1520 Alvarez, a Portuguese, visited Amhara, Shoa, aud Efat. 
 
 1588 Queen Elizabeth granted a patent to some merchants of Exeter, 
 
 to carry on the trade of the Senegal and Gambia. 
 
 1618 An African Company formed in London sent out an expedi 
 tion, which ascended the Gambia as far as Tenda. 
 
 1618 Paez, a Portuguese, visited the sources of the Bahr-el-Azrek. 
 
 1620 Capt. Jobson ascended the Gambia to the same height, namely, 
 
 to Tenda. 
 
 1650 The Dutch formed a colony at the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 1G97-8 ...Sieur Brue, a Frenchman, performed several voyages up the 
 Senegal. 
 
 1714 M. Companion traversed the kingdom of Bambouk. 
 
 1722 Shaw travelled through Numidia and N. Egypt, &c. 
 
 1748-53. ..Adanson travelled on the Senegal. 
 
 1761 Cant. Henri Hop, a Dutchman, traversed the country of the 
 
 Namaquas. 
 
 1765-6 ...Bruce travelled through various parts of Barbary. 
 1769-70... Bruce travelled through Abyssinia. 
 
 1775-85. ..Sparman and Vailknt travelled through various parts of 
 S. Africa. 
 
 1795 Park traced the course of the Niger. 
 
 1793-6 ...Browne travelled in Central Africa, visiting Darfoor and Bornpu. 
 
 1797 Barrow penetrated as far as the Snow Mountains in S. Africa. 
 
 In the same, and during several subsequent years, llomeman 
 travelled in various parts of N. Africa, and in Fezzan. 
 
 1801 Trutter and Somerville penetrated to Lattakoo, the capital of 
 
 the Bomuanas, and were followed in the same track some 
 years afterwards by Lichtenstein, Burchell, and Campbell 
 the missionary. 
 
 1802 Salt travelled iti Egypt and Abyssinia 
 
 1805 Park again attempted to trace the Niger, but never returned, 
 
 having been killed, with nearly all liis attendants, by the 
 natives. 
 
 1812-3-4 Burckhardt travelled in Egypt and Nubia, visiting the latter 
 twice. 
 
 lt>15 Bclzoni visited Egypt, and made numerous interesting dis 
 coveries regarding Kgvptimi sirrbitrrlunil antiquities. 
 
 1817 M. Molien made a journey to the Senegal and Gambia. 
 
 1822 Denham, Ouduey, and Clapperton, crossed the Sahara, and 
 
 explored the S. and W. shores of Lake Tchad, and travelled 
 through Bornou and the Fcllatah country. 
 
 1826 Major Laiug penetrated to Timbuctoo. " Murdered on hi* 
 
 return by nis guide. 
 
 1830 Lander explored the Niger, and proved that the numerous 
 
 embouchures in the Gulf of Benin are the delta of the Niger. 
 Gobat penetrated to Condor in Abyssinia. 
 
 1831 lliippell made two journeys in Abyssinia. 
 
 1639 Iseuberg and Krapf travelled in Egypt smd Abyssinia. 
 
 1840-3 ...Dr. Beke travelled through various parts of Abyssinia. 
 
 1841 Trotter and Allen survey the Niger, and other parts of the W. 
 
 coast. 
 
 1842-3 ...Sir W. C. Harris travelled in Abyssinia on his mission to Shoa. 
 1843-4 ...RalFencl travelled up the Senegal, and explored part of the 
 
 1 aleme. 
 1843-4-5...M. Rochet d Hericourt travelled in Adel and Shoa. 
 
 1844 Duncan penetrated into the interior of Africa, from Whydali 
 
 in the Bight of Benin, to lat. 13" 6 N.; Ion. 1 3 E. 
 1845-6 ...Richardson traversed a great part of the desert Sahara. 
 
 The Rev. Mr. Rebbman discovered a lofty mountain covered 
 with perpetual snow, in E. Africa, about 385 m. "VV. from 
 Mombaz. 
 
 1819 The Rev. Robert Livingstone discovers a large lake called 
 
 Ngami, in S. Africa. 
 
 Settlements. The principal settlements of the British in 
 Africa are Sierra Leone, Cape Coast Castle, and the Cape 
 of Good Hope ; with several unimportant establishments on 
 the Gold and Slave Coasts. The possessions of the Dutch 
 are Elmina. and Axim, on the Gold Coast; the former, 9 m. 
 W. of Cape Coast Castle, is a well-built fort, garrisoned by 
 100 men. The Danes have also a few inconsiderable ports 
 on the Gold and Slave Coasts, the chief of which is Chris- 
 tiansborg, the residence of the governor-general. The Portu 
 guese have several possessions on both the W. and E. coasts; 
 and the French on the Senegal, and Gambia. To these has to 
 be added the Native Republic of Liberia, near Cape Mesurado, 
 founded by the American Colonization Society, for the recep 
 tion of free negroes from the United States. 
 
 Population. There being no means of ascertaining the 
 population of Africa with any approach to certainty, we mutt 
 be content to take the guesses of the most creditable authori 
 ties on the point. Balbi estimates it at 60,000,000 ; Malte 
 Brun, at 70,000,000, and the Weimar Almanac, at 101, 000,000. 
 (Harris s Highlands of Ethiopia; Martin s Colonial Library ; 
 M Queen s Geo. Survey of Africa ; Capt. Tuckey s Expedition 
 to the Itiver Zaire ; Capt. Alexander s Colonies of Western 
 Africa; Stedman s Wanderings and Adventures in the Interior 
 of Southern Africa; Lieut. Christopher, On tJie East Coast 
 of Africa; Athenaium; Foreign Quarterly lieview ; Burek 
 hardt, Ledyard, Belzoni, Pearce, Bruce, Harris, Duncan ; 
 Allen s Niger Expedition; Johnston s Physical Atlas.} 
 
 AFKICAN ISLANDS, two islands in the Indian Ocean, 
 between Ainirante and Seychelle Islands, N. Madagascar ; the 
 most northerly is in lat. 4 55 S. ; Ion. 53 30 E. (R.) They 
 are connected by a sand bank, and are so low, that they are 
 almost overflowed at high spring tides. They are destitute 
 of fresh water, but abound with turtle and aquatic birds. 
 They were discovered by a French vessel in 1795. 
 
 AFSHAKS, one of the wandering tribes of Persia, of 
 foreign descent, of which description of people one-fourth of the 
 population of that country consists, forming distinct classes, 
 apart from the original Persians, by their habits and modes of 
 subsisting. The Afshars, who call themselves originally of 
 the Turkoman tribes, are divided into two principal branches, 
 Shauilu and Kirklu. They are a numerous tribe, counting 
 altogether about 20,000 houses. They principally reside in 
 towns, and are to be found in greatest numbers at Abiverd 
 and Kelat. 
 
 AFVESTADT, or AVESTA, a tn. Sweden, district Ves- 
 teras, on the right bank of the Dal, and about 60 m. from its 
 embouchure, in the Gulf of Bothnia, 55 m. W.N.W. Upsala; 
 lat. 60 7 N.; Ion. 16 9 E. There are here extensive iron 
 and copper works, the produce of the mines in the vicinity 
 being manufactured here for exportation. Pop. 800. 
 
 AFZULGHUR, a tn. Hindoostan, prov. Delhi, presidency 
 of Bengal, near the Kumaon mountains; lat. 29 25 N. ; lou. 
 78 40 E. 
 
 AGABLY, a tn., N.W. Africa, oasis of Guat, desert of 
 Sahara; lat. 26 32 N. ; Ion. 52 E. Caravan routes from 
 Morocco and Tripoli meet here, and afterwards diverge to 
 Senegambia and Timbuctoo ; from the latter of which Agably 
 is distant S.S.W. about 700 m. 
 AGADAS. See AODASS. 
 
AGADEZ 
 
 AGGERSIIUUS 
 
 AGADEZ, a tn., N. Africa, Sahara, kingdom of Air or 
 Asben, about 800 m. S.S.W. Mourzouk; lal. 16 30 N; Ion. 
 7 30 E. It is situated on a hamada or table-land, is about 
 3 m. in circuit ; and has almost a ruined appearance, consisting 
 of about 700 houses, built of mud, occasionally white- washed, 
 and flat-roofed. A tower 90 ft. to 95 ft. high is the principal 
 defence. The manufactures, of limited extent, consist of mats 
 and leather work, particularly sandals, and the saddles used 
 in riding the mdheris or swift camels ; the trade is chiefly in 
 millet, which is almost the only food. The inhabitants, now 
 only about 8000, though they formerlynumbered from 50,000 
 to 60,000, speak a peculiar language called Emghedesie, which 
 is also spoken at Timbuctoo, and have five or six schools, 
 in which the boys are taught to read the Koran and to write. 
 (Richardson, Barth, &c., Exped. to Central Africa.} 
 
 AGADIK, AGADEKR, or SANTA CRUZ, u seaport tn. 
 Morocco, prov. Suse, 18 m. S. Cape de Geer or Ghir; lat. 
 30 26 N. ; Ion. 9 32 W. (R.) ; on the summit of a hill 600 ft. 
 in height, and surrounded by dilapidated walls; once an im 
 portant place, but now in a state of decay. Half way down 
 the hill on which the town stands, and between it and the sea, 
 there is a battery, which was intended to command the anchor 
 age, and to protect a spring of water near the beach ; but it is 
 now likewise in ruins. The Bay of Agadir is one of the best 
 roadsteads on the coast of Morocco, having a moderate depth 
 of water, and being completely sheltered from the strong N.E. 
 winds, although exposed to those from the W. It abounds 
 with fish of various kinds, of which great numbers are caught, 
 dried, and sent to Mogador and the interior, and now form ! 
 the sole article of trade in this once flourishing place. Pro- 1 
 visions are good and plentiful, and water easily procured. 
 Pop. about 300. 
 
 AGALEGAS, or GALEGA, a small isl. Indian Ocean, | 
 about 485 m. N W. the N. extremity of Madagascar. The 
 N. end of the island is in lat. 10 21 30" S. ; Ion. 56 38 E. (R.) 
 It is 11 m. in length, and little more than 1 m. in breadth; all 
 low land, with a gap in the middle, where the sea breaks 
 through on high tides, giving it the appearance of two islands 
 when seen from a distance. It produces maize, wheat, &c. 
 
 AGAME, a prov. Tigre, in Abyssinia, in the N.E. part of 
 that territory, and W. from the great salt plain in which the 
 country terminates N.E. The ground is high, but fertile and 
 well cultivated, and the air cool and salubrious. The prin 
 cipal towns of the province are Genater and Seraxo. 
 
 AGANA (SAN IGNACIO DE), a tn. Guahan, or Guaham, 
 the largest, and one of the most southern, of the Ladrone or 
 Marianne Islands, on the W. coast, 12 m. N.E. harbour of 
 Apra; lat. 13 30 N.; Ion. 144 58 E.; situated in a fertile 
 district, at the base of a range of low hills. It is the principal 
 town of the island, and is the residence of the governor of 
 the Archipelago. It is well fortified, and is surrounded with 
 beautiful gardens. The streets are regular ; the houses chiefly 
 of wood, erected on posts, and standing about 3 ft. clear of 
 tho ground, roofed with tile and palm leaves. Agana was 
 built by the Spaniards, when they founded the colony, about 
 the middle of the 17th century. Pop. 3118. 
 
 AGATA DE GOTI (SANTA), a tn. Naples, prov. Terra 
 di Lavoro, district of Caserta, and 15 m. E. Capua. It has 
 a cathedral, seven parish churches, and an abbey, and \3 the 
 chief place of one of the dioceses forming the archbishopric 
 
 of Santa Agata and Acerra. Pop. 5500. There are several 
 
 other towns and villages of the same name in Naples, the 
 principal of which are Agata Santa, prov. Capitanata, district 
 of, and 7 m. S.E. from Bovino. Pop. 4648. Another, in the 
 prov. Terra di Lavoro, district Gaeta, built on the ruins of 
 the ancient Minturncz of the Romans. SANTA AGATA VEC- 
 OHIA, prov. Calabria Ultra I., 3 m. S.E. Reggio. Pop. 
 1200. SANTA AGATA-NUOVA, at a short distance from the 
 latter, has a cotton manufactory, and a pop. of 608. 
 
 AGATHO, or AGATON. See GATO. 
 
 AGATTOO, or AGATTA, a small isl. of the Aleutian 
 group, whose centre is in lat. 52 43 N. ; Ion. 173 37 W. (R.) 
 It is covered with low hills, and is thinly peopled. 
 
 AGDASS, a tn. interior of N.W. Africa, near the S.E. 
 border of the Sahara, and N. confines of Soodan; lat. 16 N.; 
 Ion. 8 22 E. ; on the route from Tripoli and Fezzan to the 
 town of Kashna, in the country of Houssa, from which it is 
 about 210m. distant, nearly due N. Agdass is about 390 m. 
 W.N.W. Lake Tchad 
 
 AGDE [anc. Afjailia}, a maritime city, France, dep. 
 Herault, about 12 m. S.E. Beziers, on the left bank of the 
 Herault, here crossed by a suspension bridge, and 2 m. from 
 its embouchure, in the Gulf of Lyons; lat. (harbour) 43 
 16 42" N. : Ion. 3 26 42" E. (R.) Asrde is sometimes locally 
 called Ville Noire, from the black volcanic basalt of which 
 it is built. It is a military place of the fourth class, and 
 has a tribunal of commerce, an exchange, and a cathedral ; 
 the latter a remarkable structure, of great antiquity, in the 
 Gothic style, built of black basalt, with a strong square tower, 
 11.4 ft. high, which forms a useful landmark to mariners. 
 The town is separated from its suburb by the river, on which 
 there is a small port, capable of accommodating about 450 
 vessels, of from 60 to 200 tons burden. Most of the smaller 
 vessels are engaged in fishing, supplying the whole depart 
 ment, and part of that of Garde, with fresh fish. Being 
 advantageously situated, it carries on an active coasting trade, 
 there being about 120 vessels, of from 1 00 to 300 tons burden, 
 belonging to the port. It has manufactories of verdigris and 
 soap, shipbuilding, and distilleries ; exports large quantities 
 of com and flour, and imports olive oil, dried fruits, woollen 
 goods, leather, and perfumery, and soap from Marseilles, with 
 which port it has a regular communication by steamers. Pop. 
 in 1.846, 8884. 
 
 AGEN [Latin, Aginnum, Agennum], an ancient tn. 
 France, cap. dep. Lot-et-Garonne, 74 m. S.E. Bordeaux, on 
 the right bank of the Garonne; crossed here by a beautiful 
 stone bridge of 1 1 arches, and also by a suspension bridge, 
 between which and the town is the fine promenade called 
 Lea Graviers. The town itself is a place of little interest, 
 being in general ill built, with old, narrow, and dirty streets; 
 and the exhalations from the marshes of Brais render the air 
 somewhat insalubrious. Among the public buildings are, the 
 old church of St. Caprais, the hospital of St. James, and the 
 prefecture, originally the Episcopal palace, which is a hand 
 some edifice. The site of the cathedral of St. Etienne, 
 destroyed at the Revolution, is now a cattle market. Agen 
 forms the entrepot of the commerce between Bordeaux and 
 Toulouse. It is the seat of a bishopric, suffragan to Bordeaux, 
 and of a Cour Royale for the departments of Lot, Lot-et- 
 Garonne, and Gers. It has a college, and several literary 
 and scholastic institutions, and a public library, with more 
 than 15,000 volumes; also, a theatre, and a house of correc 
 tion. An extensive sailcloth factory is carried on here, for 
 the supply of the French navy. There are also manufactures 
 of serge, printed cloths, cottons, camlets, pottery, candles, and 
 soap; and some brandy distilleries, and tanneries. Its scarlet 
 and deep red dyes are much esteemed; and the celebrated 
 prunes d Agen, from the plum orchards in the neighbourhood, 
 form an article of export to the value of 24,000 annually. 
 Large flocks of geese are reared in the vicinity, and fattened 
 on maize. In ancient times, Agen was the capital of the 
 Nitiobriges, a people of Gaul ; afterwards, a pretorian city, 
 under the Roman emperors. Pop. in 1846, 15,517. (Guibert, 
 Die. Geo. et Slat. ; French Official Papers.} 
 
 AGENOIS, an anc. district, France, in Guienne. It 
 constituted part of the old kingdom of Aquitaine, and is now 
 comprised in the department of Lot-et-Garoune. 
 
 AGER, a tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, and 25 in. .N.M.E. 
 from Lerida, in a valley. It is encompassed by walls and 
 fortifications, in a good state of preservation ; but its streets 
 are crooked, dirty, and unpaved. It contains a square, capa 
 cious townhall, an endowed school, and two churches. The 
 inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, olives being the prin 
 cipal article of produce; and in breeding sheep, goats, and 
 pigs, all of which animals, but the last in greatest numbers, 
 are sold at the annual fair held in December. Pop. 2200. 
 
 AGEROLA, a small tn. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, 
 district of, and 11 in. S.W. from Salerno. It stands on a hill, 
 and enjoys a salubrious climate. Pop. 3470. 
 
 AGGEESHUUS, AGGERHUUS, or CHRISTIANIA, the most 
 populous and most important of the five administrative pro 
 vinces into which Norway is divided, and co-extensive with 
 the diocese of the same name. It lies between lat. 58 56 
 and 62 58 N., and is bounded, E. by Sweden, S. by the 
 Skager Rack, S.W. by prov. Christiansand, W. by Bergen, 
 and N. by Drontheim, or Trondhjem; area, 10,911 sq. m. 
 Pop. in 1845, 567,833. It is a mountainous romantic country, 
 and, like other parts of Norway, the uncultivated portion bears 
 
AGGERSOE 
 
 ii 
 
 AQLY 
 
 a large proportion to that under tillage. The soil in the small 
 valleys is tolerably fertile, and yields grain, though not in 
 sufficient quantity for home consutnpt. Cattle and horse 
 rearing are extensively and successfully carried on. The 
 mountains yield an unlimited supply of fine timber ; and iron, 
 copper, and silver, are wrought. The province is watered by 
 the rivers Drammen, Gloinmen, Louven, Lougen, Klara, 
 Nid, &c., and of the numerous lakes that diversify its sur 
 face, the most noted are the Mibsen, Fa mund, and Tyri. 
 It is divided into six bailiwicks, Aggerhuus, Smaalelmen, 
 Buskerud, Jarlsberg and Laurvig, Christian and Hcde- 
 marken. The principal towns are Christiania, the capital 
 of the province and of the country, Drammen, Kongsberg, 
 
 Laurvig, and Tonsberg. The bail, of Aggershuus, in winch 
 
 is the cap. Christiania, has an area of about 717 sq. rn., and a 
 
 pop. of 83,755. AGQEKHUUS is also the name of an ancient 
 
 fortress, forming the citadel of the capital. (Capt. Roosen 
 I M Bulletin tie, la Soc. Geo. ; Forsell, Statistik von Scliweden.} 
 
 AGGERSOE, a small isl. Denmark, S.W. coast of See- 
 land, from which it is distant about 3 m. ; lat. 55 15 N. ; 
 Ion. 11 10 E. It is about 5 m. long, and 1 or 1 broad. 
 At the S. extremity of the island is a lantern, elevated to a 
 height of 24 ft. above the level of the sea, as a substitute for 
 a lighthouse. 
 
 AGHA, or AUGHA, a par. Ireland, co. Carlow; area, 4184 
 ac. ; on the river Barrow. Pop. in 1841, 1197. 
 
 AGHABOE, a par. Ireland, Queen s co.; 18,702 ac.; 
 abounds in excellent limestone. Pop. in 1841, 6310. 
 
 AGHABOG, a par. Ireland, co. Monaghan; 11,543 ac.; 
 contains several small lakes ; people miserably poor. Pop. 
 in 1841. 7530. 
 
 AGHABOLOGUE, a par. Ireland, co. Cork; 18,733 ac. ; 
 a sacred well and stone, in the churchyard, the latter called 
 St. Olan s Cap. Pop. in 1841, 6001. 
 
 AGHACREW, a par. Ireland, co. Tipperary; 1231 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 409. 
 
 AGHACROSS, a par. Ireland, co. Cork; 355 ac.; two 
 annual fairs. Pop. in 1841 , 104. 
 
 AGHADA, a par. Ireland, ro. Cork; 2459 ac.; on the 
 E. shore of Cork harbour. Pop. in 1841, 2835. 
 
 AGHADE, a par. Ireland, co. Carlow; 1698ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 521. 
 
 AGHADERG, a par. Ireland, co. Down; 13,920 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 9240. 
 
 AGHADOE, a par. Ireland, co. Kerry. It was anciently 
 a bishopric ; but, being merged in that of Ardfert, is now an 
 nexed with it to the see of Limerick. The ruins of its cathedral 
 are still extant ; and near them are those of an ancient round 
 tower, called The Pulpit, by the peasantry, and a round castle, 
 called The Bishop s Chair. In 1231, there was an abbey 
 here, in which the son of the O Donoghue, its founder, was 
 buried. The village of Aghadoe is distant about 2 m. from 
 Killarney. The parish includes a portion of that town, and 
 comprehends within its limits the beautiful island of Innis- 
 fallen, and part of the lakes of Killarney. Area of par., 
 19,888 ac. Pop. in 1841, 3734. 
 
 AGHADOWN, a par. Ireland, co. Cork; 8952 ac.; con 
 tains several islands. Pop. in 1841, 5757. 
 
 AGHADOWY, a par. Ireland, co. Londonderry; 16,346 
 ac. Pop. in 1841, 7884. 
 
 AGHAGALLON, a par. Ireland, co. Antrim ; 7885 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 3862. 
 
 AGIIALEE, a par. and vil. Ireland, co. Antrim; 2500 
 ac. Pop. in 1841, 1450. 
 
 AGHALURCHER, a par. Ireland, cos. Tyrone and 
 Fermanagh; 48,017 ac. ; extends along Lough Erne, abounds 
 in limestone and sandstone, and contains several small lakes, 
 and old castles. Pop. in 1841, 16,740. 
 
 AGHAMORE, a par. Ireland, co. Mayo; 22,820 ac. ; con 
 tains several small lakes, and much bog. Pop. in 1841, 7675. 
 
 AGHANCON, a par. Ireland, King s co. ; 5544 ac. ; con 
 tains a mineral spring, and the ruins of Ballybrit Castle. 
 Pop. in 1841, 1310. 
 
 AGH ANLOO, a par. Ireland, co. Londonderry; 8251 ac. ; 
 contains a mountain called Benyevenagh, which rises from the 
 margin of Lough Foyle to a height of 1260 or 1280 ft. Pop. 
 in 1841, 1841. 
 
 AGHARRA. See AHARA. 
 
 AGHARUN, or KHAKZIR (Hoo), a vil. Turkey in Asia, 
 
 pash. Diarbekir; finely situated in a gorge of the mountains of 
 Darkush Dagh, and surrounded by magnificent walnut trees. 
 It commands a splendid view of the plain on which the gorge 
 in which it is situated opens. 
 
 AGHAVALLEN, a par. and vil. Ireland, co. Kerry ; 
 16,743 ac.; lies along the Shannon, and includes the island of 
 Carng-a-foile ; contains an old castle. Pop. in 1841, 6606. 
 
 AGIIER, a par. Ireland, co. Meath; 2063 ac. Pop. in 
 1841, 386. 
 
 AGHERN, a par. Ireland, co. Cork; 3489 ac. Pop. in 
 1841, 1198. 
 
 AGHERTON, or BALLYAGHRON, a par. Ireland, co. Lon 
 donderry; 3897 ac. ; lies along the coast of the N. Channel, 
 contains iron ore, and an old church, and castle. Pop. in 
 1841, 2318. 
 
 AGHIART, or BALLYNAKILL, a par. Ireland, co. Gal way ; 
 5221 ac. ; lies along the shore of Ballynakill Bay. Pop. in 
 1841, 4998. 
 
 AGHM AT, or AGIIMET, a vil. Morocco, on the W. slope 
 of Mount Atlas, in the vicinity of some of its loftiest summits, 
 on the left bank of the Wad Enfis, a tributary of the Tensift, 
 30 m. S. Morocco ; lat. 31 20 N. ; Ion. 7 35 W. It is said 
 to have been at one time the residence of the Moorish emperor, 
 and to have contained 6000 houses ; but it is now an insigni 
 ficant village. 
 
 AGHNAMEADLE, a par. Ireland, co. Tipperary; 
 10,322 ac. Pop. in 1841, 3893. 
 
 AGHOLD, a par. Ireland, co. Wicklow; 8140 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 2764. 
 
 AGHOR, a river, Beloochistan, forming the S.E. boundary 
 of prov. Mekran. It rises in the district of Lus, takes a S. 
 course for about 50 in., and falls into the Indian Ocean about 
 lat. 25 25 N. ; Ion. 65 56 E. 
 
 AGHOURE, or FRESHFORD, a par. Ireland, co. Kilkenny ; 
 2171 ac. Pop. in 1841, 2650. 
 
 AGIIRIM, or AUGHRIM, a decayed vil. Ireland, co. Gal- 
 way, 82 m. W. Dublin, and 28 E. town of Galway ; memorable 
 for the signal and decisive victory obtained in its neighbour 
 hood, July 12, 1691, by the forces of King William, com 
 manded by General de Guikell, afterwards Earl of Athlone, 
 over those of James II., under the French general, St. Kuth, 
 who was killed early in the action. Swords, spear heads, and 
 cannon balls, have frequently been dug up on the site of the 
 battle. In the village are a church, a chapel, and a small 
 Methodist meeting house. Pop. in 1841, 458. There is a 
 village of the same name in co. Wicklow, on the left bank of 
 the Derry, 34 m. S. Dublin. 
 
 AG1NCOURT, now AZINCOURT, a vil. France, dep. 
 Calais, 20m. S.S.W. St. Orner, and 30m. N.N.E. Abbeville; 
 celebrated as the scene of the great victory, gained on St. 
 Crispin s day, Oct. 25, 1415, by the English, over a French 
 army more, than six times their number. The village of 
 Agincourt, a dirty, insignificant place, contains only a pop. 
 of 452. Of the castle mentioned by Shakspeare, as standing 
 hard by, only the foundations remain. A wood still exists, 
 supposed to be that in which Henry posted his archers. 
 (History of England; Murray s Handbook for France.} 
 
 AGIO STRATI [anc. Neat], an isl. of the Grecian Archi 
 pelago, 20 m. S. Lenmos, and 46 m. W.N.W. Mytilini; lat. 
 39 31 N. ; Ion. 25 1 42" E. (R.) There is a small village on 
 the W. side of the island. 
 
 AGLIE, or AGLIA, a tn. Sardinian States, in Piedmont, 
 20 m. N. Turin, and 10 m. S.W. Ivrea. It has a collegiate 
 church, and a superb royal residence, which contains a small 
 but very choice collection of lioman antiquities, and a library. 
 Pop. 3400. 
 
 AGLISII, the name, with and without affixes, of a number 
 of parishes, Ireland: 1, A par., co. Cork; 6771 ac. Pop. in 
 1841, 2579. 2, A par., co. Kerry; 4857 ac. Pop. in 1841, 
 1939. 3, A par., co. Waterford; 6856 ac. Pop. in 1841, 
 3783. 4, Aglish-Martin, a par., co. Kilkenny; 1343 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 440. 5, Aglish-Clogliane, or English, a par., 
 co. Tipperary; 5898 ac. Pop. in 1841, 1938. 6, Aglish- 
 Cormick, or Liscormick, a par., co. Limerick; 1715 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 738. 7, Aglish-Drinayh, or Ballinorane, a par., co. 
 Cork; 3310 ac. Pop. in 1841, 1026. 
 
 AGLY, a small river, France, which has its source in the 
 dep. of Aude, near Quillan, from which it flows S.E., enters 
 the dep. of the Pyrenees Orientales ; turns nearly due E. ; 
 
AGMONDESHAM 
 
 AGKA 
 
 and, finally, falls into the Gulf of Lyons 8 m. N.E. Pcrpig- 
 nan, its whole course being between 50 and GO m. 
 AGMONDESHAM. See AMERSHAM. 
 AGNADELLO, a vil. Venetian Lombardy, prov. of, and 
 10 m. N.E. Lodi, district Pandino. Here, in 1509, Louis 
 XII., King of France, gained a complete victory over the 
 Austrians; and here, in 1705, Prince Eugene was defeated by 
 the Duke of Vendome. Pop. 1600. 
 
 AGNANO, a lake, Italy, about 4 m. S.W. Naples. The 
 circular hollow in which it lies, is supposed to be an ancient 
 crater; but some have ascribed its origin to an excavation 
 made by Lucullus, to serve as a fish pond. It is from 1 to 
 2 m. in circumference, and derives its greatest beauty from 
 the verdure on its margin, and from the fine hills around it. 
 In summer, the air is unhealthy. Near the lake is the cele 
 brated Grotto, del Cane, or Grotto of Dogs, a small aperture 
 in the side of the mountain, remarkable for emitting a deadly 
 vapour, to whose noxious effects it is a common practice to 
 expose dogs, which are thus quickly deprived of all appearance 
 of life, but are as quickly restored on being brought into the 
 fresh air. This grotto is alluded to by the elder Pliny. Close 
 by the lake are also the sulphurous vapour baths of San Ger 
 mane, the Aniance Thermae of the Romans. (Eustace s Clas 
 sical Tour, vol. ii. p. 382.) 
 
 AGNES (ST.), a small market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Cornwall. The former is built on a small rocky harbour near 
 the Bristol Channel, about 8 m. N.W. Truro. It contains a 
 free school, a British school, and several dissenting places of 
 worship. The harbour is accessible at high water only, and, 
 even then, is capable of receiving but a few small vessels. 
 There is, however, some trade in coal, lime, and slate. 
 Market day, Thursday. This market, which is for all sorts 
 of wares and provisions except corn, has been held from time 
 immemorial. The inhabitants are chiefly miners. The 
 coasts of the parish are exceedingly wild, rocky, and preci 
 pitous. About St. Agnes Head the cliffs are tremendous, and 
 have often been the scene of the most disastrous shipwrecks. 
 A pilchard fishery was established here about the year 1802. 
 Opie, the painter, was a native of St. Agnes, having been born 
 there in 1761. Area of par. 8660 ac. ; pop. in 1841, 7757. 
 
 AGNES (ST.), the most southerly of the Scilly Islands, 
 on the coast, and included in the county of Cornwall, lat. 
 49 53 36" N. ; Ion. 6 20 42" W. (K.) It is of an irregular 
 form, with an area of about 300 ac. The soil is fertile, and 
 tolerably cultivated ; but there is a great deficiency of water. 
 On one of the loftiest hills, a lighthouse was erected in 1680. 
 The light, which is revolving, is elevated 138 ft. above high 
 water mark. Pop. in 1841, 243. 
 
 AGNO. 1, A river, Lombardy, an affluent of the Adige 
 from the left. It rises about 21m. N.W. Verona, takes a 
 S.E. and somewhat winding course, passes Lonigo, Cologna, 
 and Este, and falls into the Adige at Kotta Sabadina, 8 m. 
 N.W. Eovigo. Length, exclusive of windings, about 46 m. 
 
 2, Market tn., with stream and valley of the same name, 
 
 Switzerland, in canton Tessin, of which it is one of the most 
 important places. The town is in the district of Lugano, and 
 lies at the N. end of the Lago d Agno, the W. arm of the 
 Lago Lugano. It is beautifully situated, and has two hand 
 some churches. The inhabitants are R. catholics, and speak 
 Italian. Pop. 726. 
 
 AGNONE, a tn. Naples, prov. Sannio, district of, and 
 18 m. N.E. from Isernia; pleasantly situated on a hill, and 
 said to be built on the site of the ancient Aquilonia of the 
 Samnites. It has 18 churches, an hospital, and five monts- 
 de-piete, which advance loans of seed corn to the poor agri 
 culturists in the neighbourhood. It is celebrated for the 
 excellence of its copper manufactories, of which it has several. 
 Pop. 7460. 
 
 AGNUE, or AKNUR, a tn. Punjab, on the right bank of 
 the Chenab, 35 m. above where it is joined by the Tauhi, or 
 Makkati river; 95 m. N.N.W. Lahore; lat. 32 52 N.; Ion 
 74 58 E. It is a place of no importance, situated at the 
 base of the most southern range of the Himalaya, where i 
 first rises above the plain of the Punjab. The river is here 
 protected by a stately fort, probably more picturesque than 
 useful, built early in the present century by Alum Singh, 
 and subsequently plundered by JRanjeet Singh. The old 
 palace is in ruins, and imparts a picturesque appearance to 
 the place. Near Agmir rises the mountain Trikota; and 
 
 about half way up its N. side is a place of pilgrimage, with a 
 temple, much celebrated for its beauty and sanctity. The 
 river Chenab is here a strong, clear stream, with water of icy 
 coldness. It becomes navigable a little way above Agnur, and 
 continues so to the sea. (Hiigel s Travels; Thornton s Gaz.} 
 AGO, a small isl. Sweden, Gulf of Bothnia, Ian or co. 
 Gefleborg, about 6 m. from the mainland; lat. 61 32 N., 
 Ion. 17 22 E. 
 
 AGOA DE PAO, a seaport tn. St. Michaels, one of the 
 Azores, on the S. coast of the island; 12 m. E. Ponta del 
 Gada, the cap. Pop. 3000. 
 
 AGON, a small seaport tn. France, dep. Mancho, about 
 7 m. W. Coutances. Vessels are fitted out here for the New 
 foundland cod fishery. It has also some trade in timber and 
 slates, and was formerly celebrated for its fair. Pop. 1506. 
 
 AGOONA, a small state, W. Africa, Gold Coast, territory 
 of Ashantec; between lat. 5 25" and 5 45 N.; Ion. 10 and 
 40 W. It is thus about 30 m. from E. to W., and about 20 
 from N. to S. There are one Danish, one Dutch, and one 
 British settlement on the coast of this district, named, respect 
 ively, Christiansborg, Crevecceur, and Fort James. Win- 
 nebah was formerly the most important place in Agoona, but 
 it is now abandoned. 
 
 AGOKDO, a small tn. Austrian Italy, on the left bank 
 of the Cordevole, 13 m. N.W. Belluno; lat. 46 16 N.; Ion. 
 12 5 E. It lies in a mountainous district, containing rich 
 mines of sulphuretted copper. Pop. 3500. 
 
 AGOSTA, or AOUSTA, a seaport tn., S.E. coast Sicily, 
 prov. of, and 12 m. N.N.W. from Syracuse; lat. 37 13 N.; 
 on. 15 14 E. It stands on the S. side of a peninsula that 
 ;erminates in Cape Santa Croce, and is fortified. It was a place 
 )f some importance before the earthquake of 1693, which 
 buried more than a third of its inhabitants under the ruins of 
 their houses. To deepen the calamity, the citadel was blown 
 up, the powder magazine having been ignited, as was sup 
 posed, by the sulphurous vapours that issued from the ground. 
 The houses are mean, and the inhabitants have a squalid and 
 poverty-stricken look. The port is spacious, though of rather 
 difficult access, and liable to heavy swells when the wind is 
 from the E. or S. It exports a little wine, oil, and sardines, 
 and has a considerable trade in salt, which is the chief article 
 of export. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 AGOWS, a people of Abyssinia, divided into three dis 
 tinct tribes, one of which inhabits the fertile country lying 
 immediately W. from the sources of the Blue Nile, in the 
 territory of Amhara ; another, called the Gualin Agows, in 
 habits a district on the E. bank of the Tecazze, in Tigre" ; 
 the third occupies a tract on the the N. bank of the same 
 river, also in Tigr^. 
 
 AGRA, a gov., prov., and district, Hindoostan. The 
 
 GOVERNMENT includes the N.W. provinces Delhi, Mcerut, 
 Rohilcund, Agra, Allahabad, and Benares (which see), contain 
 ing an area of 51,861 sq. m., and a pop. of 19,733,742. 
 
 The PROV. of Agra, cap. same name, is situated chiefly between 
 lat. 25 and 28 N.; bounded, E. by Oude and Allahabad, S. 
 by Malwa, W. by Ajmeer, and N. by Delhi. It is about 
 250 m. long, and 180 broad, and is subdivided into five dis 
 tricts, which, with their area, population, &c., are exhibited 
 in the following table : 
 
 Muttra 
 Agra 
 Furruckabail. 
 Mvupoorie... 
 Etawali 
 Total 
 
 Number 
 
 ofT.i-.vn. 
 ships. 
 
 gto.sq.m. 
 
 Ann in 
 Acres. 
 
 J ta 
 
 1845-6. 
 
 Total Pop. 
 
 Number 
 of per 
 sons to 
 ad^geo 
 
 948 
 1287 
 20S4 
 1467 
 1518 
 
 1103 
 1*03 
 15G2 
 1510 
 1265 
 
 934,279 
 1,188,414 
 1,3-23,206 
 1,280,062 
 1,071,637 
 
 
 102,633 
 160,032 
 l:;u>! .) 
 118,fi73 
 130,180 
 
 400,772 
 657,182 
 777,089 
 481,781 
 458,610 
 
 417-7 
 468-5 
 497-5 
 319-0 
 
 3H2-5 
 
 7254 
 
 G843 
 
 5,797,598 
 
 702,068 1^,835,434 
 
 The average rate of the land tax on the total cultivation, 
 according to the table by Mr. Thornton in the Journal of the 
 Statistical Society, from which the preceding is an extract, is 
 4s. &d. per acre. The province is watered by the Ganges, the 
 Jumna, the Chumbul, and various smaller streams. It is gener 
 ally flat, and destitute of wood, but the S. and W. are hilly, and 
 abound in jungles, which swarm with peacocks. In many parts 
 there is a great deficiency of water, the smaller streams being 
 either absorbed by the heat, or turned aside by the cultivators of 
 
AGRA 
 
 AGKAM 
 
 the soil, for purposes of irrigation, before they reach the larger ; 
 wells are, therefore, the only other resource of the inhabit- 
 flnts. The climate, except during the prevalence of the hot 
 winds, is temperate and healthy, and, in winter nights, cool; 
 but, on the whole, unfavourable to European constitutions. 
 The soil is well adapted for the cultivation of indigo, cotton, 
 tobacco, and sugar. Various kinds of grain and pulse, includ 
 ing millet, barley, wheat, &c., are also raised. Wheat and 
 barley, however, form the principal crops ; rye and oats being 
 hardly known. Owing to the scarcity of water, rice is little 
 cultivated except in the vicinity of rivers. Cotton is the 
 staple product. Agra has the common breeds of cattle and 
 sheep, with horses of a good description. There are some 
 marble and sandstone quarries ; and copper has been found, 
 but not in a situation favourable to mining. Silks and mus 
 lins were formerly manufactured, but the principal article of 
 manufacture is coarse cotton cloth, the exportation of which 
 Las latterly much declined. This province, which was marked 
 out by the Emperor Akbar, is now entirely either in posses 
 sion, or under the control, of Great Britain. The natives, who 
 r.re principally Hindoos and Mahometans, are handsome and 
 robust, and much superior to the natives of the more E. pro 
 vinces. The Hindoostanee is the colloquial, and the Persian, 
 
 or English, the official language. The DISTRICT of Agra 
 
 extends in a S.E. direction along both banks of the Jumna, 
 to its junction with the Chumbul. The portion of the district 
 within these two rivers is a table land, about 60 ft. above the 
 beds of these streams, and is composed of a light soil. In the 
 dry season, the tanks and rivulets are without water. The 
 entire area of the district is 1,188,414 ac. The quantity of 
 cultivated land is 813,655 ac., and of culturable land 92,931. 
 The natives of Agra, and of many of the contiguous territo 
 ries, have long been notorious for their predatory habits, 
 which, previously to British ascendency, were connived at, 
 and encouraged by, the Zemindars, or landholders, who 
 shared in the plunder thus obtained. The total population 
 amounts to 657,182 ; of which 586,256 are Hindoos, and 
 70,926 Mahometans and others, not Hindoos. (Hamilton s 
 East India Gazetteer: Historical and Descriptive Account of 
 British India; Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 
 1847.) 
 
 AGRA, or AKBARABAD, a city of Hindoostan, cap. of prov. 
 of same name, on the right bank of the river Jumna ; 115m. 
 S.S.E. Delhi; 740 m. W.N.W. Calcutta; 630 N.N.E. Bom 
 bay; and 1000 m. N. by W. Madras; lat. 27 11 N. ; Ion. 
 78 E. A great part of the city is now in a ruinous state, but 
 it still maintains much of its original splendour. The houses, 
 generally, are lofty, consisting of several stories, and the 
 streets extremely narrow. It contains no modern buildings 
 
 of any note, but some of its more ancient structures are on a 
 scale of great magnificence. Of these the most celebrated is 
 the Tauje, or Taje Mahal, a mausoleum, built in the 17th 
 century, by the Emperor Shah Jehan, in commemoration of 
 
 Noor Jchan, his favourite queen. This superb edifice, ttie 
 finest in India, probably in the world, stands on the banks of 
 the Jumna, is enclosed on three sides by a high red stone 
 wall, and forms a quadrangle of 190 square yards, with a lofty 
 dome of 70 ft. diameter in the centre, and tall minarets rising 
 from the angles of the terrace. It is built of white marble, 
 and the great central hall, in which are the tombs of the 
 Emperor and his queen, is paved with alternate squares of 
 various coloured marbles; while the walls, tombs, and screens, 
 are ornamented with the most exquisite mosaic work, chiefly 
 of cornelian, lapis lazuli, and jasper. The chambers and 
 corridors, which surround the hall, are finished with similar 
 elegance. The whole cost of the building is said to have 
 been 3,174,802 sterling. It is surrounded by a beautiful 
 garden, adorned with fountains of white marble, and contain 
 ing a profusion of fine trees and flowering shrubs. It is now 
 in charge of the British Government, and is kept in the highest 
 order. The imperial palace, built by the Emperor Akbar, the 
 Mootee Musjeed, or pearl mosque, both now used as offices, 
 warehouses, and lodgings ; the mosque named the Jumna 
 Musjeed, and the tonib of Etimaud-ud-Dowlah, are all re 
 markable structures. In the neighbourhood are likewise 
 numerous splendid remains of Indian art. The fort of Agra 
 is large, and strongly built of red sandstone, with a ditch, a 
 double rampart, and bastions. It has been repaired, and much 
 improved, for the accommodation of the British garrison. The 
 trade of Agra, carried on partly by land and partly by water, 
 consists chiefly in the exportation of indigo, silk, and sugar ; 
 and the importation of horses, camels, grain, fresh and dried 
 fruits, and manufactured silk and cotton. Agra was at various 
 periods the seat of the Mogul Government, and is intimately 
 connected with the whole modern history of India. Previously 
 to the 16th century, it was an inconsiderable village; but, 
 early in that century, it seems to have been first made an 
 imperial residence by the Afghan Emperor, Sekunder. It was 
 further enlarged by Akbar about 50 years afterwards, and by 
 him named Akbarabad. It continued to be the occasional seat 
 of Government till the final decay of the Mogul dynasty, about 
 the middle of the 18th century. In 1784, it was taken by the 
 Mahratta chief, Madhajee Sindia, who retained possession of 
 it till 1803, when it was besieged and captured by the 
 British under Lord Lake. Soon after, it was made the head 
 quarters of a civil establishment for the administration of 
 justice, and collection of revenue ; and subsequently became 
 the seat of the British lieutenant-governor of the N.W. pro 
 vinces. This city is the birthplace of the celebrated Abul 
 Fazel, vizier or prime minister to Akbar, whom he assisted in 
 the preparation of a work entitled the Ayeen Akberry, con 
 taining an account of everything connected with the domin 
 ions, government, and occupations of that 
 emperor. Agra is still regarded with 
 great veneration by the Hindoos, as the 
 birthplace of the sixth Avatar, or incar 
 nation of the god Vishnu, named Parasu 
 Rama, whose conquests extended to the 
 island of Ceylon. Pop. in 1837, 96,597. 
 (Historical and Descriptive Account of 
 British India; Heber s Indian Journal; 
 Hamilton s East India Gazetteer; Jac- 
 quemont s Letters from India ; Martin y 
 British Possessions in the East Indies.) 
 
 AGRAM, or ZAGKAB [Latin, Zagra- 
 lia] , a city, Hungary, cap. Croatia, on the 
 left bank of the Save, from which it is 
 about 2 m. distant; 106 m. E. by N. 
 Trieste; lat. 45 48 54" N.; Ion. 15 
 39 8" E. (L.); finely situated on a wooded 
 f-lope, overlooking the fertile plain of the 
 Save. It is the seat of various local 
 courts, and of a bishopric. It is divided 
 into three parts the free, or upper town ; 
 the lower, or chapter town ; and the 
 bishop s town. The first crowns a hill 
 called Mcdred, or The Bear ; and it is 
 the most fashionable of the three, being in 
 habited exclusively by the higher classes. The streets hero 
 are regular and well built ; many of the houses are in tho 
 Italian style, with flat roofs; and the whole is surrounded with 
 | palisaded walks, planted with poplars, forming an agreeable 
 
 
AGRAMUNT 
 
 AGUILAR DE LA FRONTERA 
 
 promenade. In the lower town, the houses are old and mean, 
 and the streets and squares ill paved. The principal buildings 
 are the cathedral, episcopal palace, the Narodne Domo, the 
 national casino, or club-house, and the Government house. The 
 cathedral is a lofty and spacious building, in a mixed style, the 
 front being Byzantine of the llth century, and the body Gothic. 
 The great eastern window, which has been recently renewed 
 with painted glass, is a magnificent specimen of this beautiful 
 art. The episcopal palace still has the castellated round towers 
 of the Middle Age ; but the moat is now replaced by a garden, 
 and the curtain has been pierced with modern windows. The 
 income of the bishop is little short of 30,000 a year. Both 
 these buildings, the cathedral and palace, adjoin the lower town. 
 The Government house, in which the diets are held, is situ 
 ated in the upper town. The Narodne Domo is an elegant 
 new structure, in the Palladian style of architecture, contain 
 ing a museum, and the rooms of the Agricultural Society. 
 There has been lately founded here an institution for sisters 
 of charity, to which the bishop contributed 15,000. The 
 building occupies a prominent position in the lower town, and 
 includes within its walls an hospital for poor women, arid a 
 school for poor female children, as well as the dormitories 
 and church of the sisterhood. There are also a civil and 
 military hospital, an orphan institution, and a German and 
 lllyrian theatre, which, however, are open only in winter. 
 Two journals are published in the town, both conducted with 
 considerable talent; and there are two libraries a public 
 library, and the cathedral library. The educational institu 
 tions comprise a royal academy, a primary and preparatory 
 schools, and a theological seminary. There are manufac 
 tories of silk and porcelain, and a considerable trade in 
 tobacco and honey. Within a few miles of the town is the 
 bishop s English park, a favourite resort of the inhabitants in 
 the summer season ; it is of several miles extent, ornamented 
 with oaks, and intersected by numerous beautiful drives. 
 The Save is not navigable for steamers so far up as Agram ; 
 but from Sissek, at the confluence of the Culpa, a weekly 
 steamer descends to Semlin, opposite Belgrade, except during 
 the winter months. Pop. 14,800. (Paton s Highlands and 
 Islands of the Adriatic, vol. ii. p. 138; Eaffelsperger, Lex. 
 Oesterreich. Staaten.} 
 
 AGRAMUNT, a tn. Spain, in Catalonia, prov. of, and 
 25 m. N.E. from Lerida, at the foot of a hill on the right bank 
 of the Sio. The houses are regularly built, but the streets are 
 tortuous and unpaved. It has a square, in which is an artesian 
 fountain ; and it likewise possesses three churches, a townhall, 
 hospital, Latin and other schools, and a public storehouse. 
 The inhabitants are chiefly employed in raising corn and fruit 
 for the markets of Barcelona ; in weaving dimities, and in 
 manufacturing hempen sandals. Pop. 2G80. (Madoz.) 
 
 AGRAPHA, or AGRAI>HO, a part of the Pindus range 
 
 of mountains in Greece, between Thessaly and Epirus, which 
 
 gives its name to a district of the Turkish pash. of Tricala. 
 
 There is likewise a vil. named AGRAFIIA in the isl. of 
 
 Corfu. 
 
 AGREDA, a tn. Spain, in Old Castile, prov. of, and 28 m. 
 E.N.E. from Soria, on the N. slope of the sierra Moncayo. 
 It stands on the Queyles, which divides the town into two 
 parts, and is carried underground ; having a fountain and the 
 townhall situated over it, on a fine stone bridge of one arch. 
 The streets are irregular, but the houses are well built, and 
 there is a somewhat handsome square, lined with good houses. 
 In this town are likewise three churches, an hospital, two 
 schools, and an abattoir. The manufactures of the place, once 
 much more important than they now are. consist of pottery- 
 ware, soap, wax, sweetmeats, chocolate, and shoes. Agreda is 
 supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Gracchuris, or 
 Grceculis, which was built by the proconsul Sempronius 
 Gracchus, in commemoration of his conquest over the Celti 
 beri, and it contains some Roman remains. Pop. 3847. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 AGREDA, or NEW MALAGA, a small tn. Colombia, 
 S. America, republic Ecuador, district of, and 90 m. S.W. 
 from Popayan ; 108 m. N.N.E. Quito ; founded in 1541. There 
 are several gold mines in the neighbourhood. 
 
 AGREVE (ST.), a small tn. France, dep. Ardeche, 40 m 
 N.N.W. Viviers, on the Rhone. It contains a Calvinistic 
 consistorial church, and has an active trade in grain, wine 
 fruit, butter, cheese, and cattle. For wines, oils, soaps, 
 
 chestnuts, and other articles, it forms the entrepot of the 
 eighbouring cantons. Pop. 2485. 
 
 AGRIB, AGAERIB, or GRARIB (MOUNT), a remarkable 
 mountain of Central Egypt, about 16 m. inland from tho 
 
 st of the Gulf of Suez ; lat. 28 7 N. ; Ion. 32 52 E. (R.) 
 It is of a conical form, and of so great a height that it can be 
 seen from a distance of 100 m. 
 
 AGRI DAGH. See ARARAT. 
 
 AGUA, an active volcano, Guatimala, close by the old 
 tn. of that name ; lat. 14 33 30" N. ; Ion. 91 4 40" W. 
 It rises to the height of 15,000 ft. forming a beautiful and 
 perfect cone, verdant to the summit. It occasionally pours 
 forth torrents of boiling water and stones, and has twice 
 destroyed the old city of Guatimala. Agua is one of three 
 olcanoes lying close together, and presenting a scene of great 
 magnificence ; the others are Pacaya and Fuego. 
 
 AGUACHAPA, a tn. Guatimala, prov. San Salvador, 
 about 2 m. S. from the lake of the same name. It lies about 
 30 m. from the Pacific, on the road between the city of 
 Guatimala and Sonsonate; lat. 14 N. ; Ion. 89 40 W. It 
 is a place of considerable trade, and has extensive manufac 
 tures of sugar. Pop. about 5000. 
 
 AGUADILLA, a small coast tn. and haven, N.W. side 
 of Porto Rico isl., at the N. end of a large sandy bay of the 
 same name ; lat. 18 25 54" N. ; Ion. 67 8 W. (R.) The 
 nhabitants, originally from the Canaries, cultivate tobacco 
 and coffee, and carry on some trade. In the haven is good 
 anchorage in 14 or 15 fathoms, and the only danger when 
 approaching it is a reef running off m. from Point Palmas. 
 Water good, and fresh provisions cheap. Pop. 2500. (West 
 India Directory.} 
 
 AGUAPEHI, a river, Brazil, prov. Matto-Grosso. It 
 rises in the mountains fron which it takes its name, on the 
 confines of Bolivia, about lat. 16 15 S., and, after a course 
 first N. and then E. for about 100 m., falls into the Jauru, an 
 
 uent of the Paraguay. From the same mountains rise the 
 river Alegro, and some other streams, which fall into the 
 Guapore, one of the head streams of the Amazon. These two 
 rivers, the Aguapehi and the Alegro, the waters of both of 
 which ultimately reach the Atlantic the former l>y the 
 La Plata, and the latter by the Amazon approach at 
 Villa Bella so near to each other, that between them there 
 is only a portage of 3 m. 
 
 AGUARY RIVER. See ARAGUARI. 
 
 AGUAS CALIENTES, a tn. Mexico, prov. G uadalaxara, 
 or Jalisco, 270 m. N.W. the city of Mexico, and 70 m. S. 
 Zacatecas. By some it is said to be cap. of a district of the 
 same name, in prov. Zacatecas. It lies in lat. 22 N. ; Ion. 
 101 45 W., on a level plain upwards of 6000 ft. above tho 
 sea level, and is very favourably situated for trade, the great 
 road from Zacatecas to Sonora and Durango, crossing here 
 the highway from San Louis Potosi to Guadalaxara. I* has 
 some handsome houses, numerous churches, three convents, 
 and an hospital ; and is surrounded by rich gardens with 
 olives, vines, figs, pears, &c. Manufactures of cotton fabrics 
 carried on to some extent. An annual market is held for 14 
 days. The climate is mild and delightful ; the N. wind never 
 affecting the town in consequence of its position on the W. 
 slopes of the Cordilleras. In the vicinity are two warm 
 mineral springs, from which the town takes its name, lying 
 about ten yards apart from each other ; and having a tempera 
 ture varying from 80 to 120. The water is impregnated 
 with copper, remarkably clear, and of an agreeable tempera 
 ture. Pop. supposed to be 20,000. (Ward s Mexico; Gregg s 
 Commerce of the Prairies; Ritter s Staats Lex.} 
 
 AGUILAR DE LA FRONTERA, a tn. Spain, Anda 
 lusia, prov. of, and 22 m. S. by E. from Cordova, on the left 
 bank of the Cabra, on the summits and acclivities of four low 
 hills. It is divided into the upper and lower town ; the former 
 is named La villa, from having formerly contained the prin 
 cipal buildings. Many of the houses are of three floors, one 
 of which is always occupied as a granary. Some of tho 
 buildings as the chapter house, the prison, the fish market, 
 and the abattoir are of good modern construction, and the 
 whole town is remarkable for the whiteness of its houses, and 
 the cleanliness of its streets. Frontera has, besides, three 
 elegant public squares ; an old and a new townhall, both well 
 built ; a murky unhealthy subterranean place of security for 
 the accused ; a church, and several chapels ; a dismantled, but 
 
AGUILAS 
 
 AHLEN 
 
 Etrongly-built Moorish castle ; several well-attended schools, 
 both endowed and private ; an hospital for the wandering poor ; 
 ind an infirmary. The inhabitants are employed as agricul 
 turists, carriers, and sheep, cattle, horse, and mule breeders ; 
 in manufacturing soap, cloth for local consumpt, earthenware, 
 tiles, and bricks, and in quarrying lime, gypsum, and freestone. 
 A fair, for the produce of the district, is held in September. 
 Pop. 11,836. (Madoz.) 
 
 AGUILAS (SAN JUAN DE LAS), a small tn. and port, 
 Spain, prov. Murcia, 24 m. S.E. Lorca, 39 m. S.W. Cartagena, 
 on the Mediterranean ; lat. 37 23 N. ; Ion. 1 37 W. (R.) The 
 port, in which resides consuls of England, France, and 
 Portugal, is neither large nor secure at all seasons, and it is 
 defended by a circular fort in rather a dilapidated condition. 
 The town, which consists of well-built houses forming broad 
 streets, has a spacious square, an elegant custom house, a 
 public granary, an abattoir, a church, and a school. In the 
 vicinity, the rich lead and silver mines, in the sierras Almag- 
 rera and Loino de has, occupy a considerable number of the 
 inhabitants, and others are employed in agriculture, and in 
 fishing bonitos, sardines, &c. The exports consist of grain, 
 salsola, barilla, lead, silver, &c., to the average extent 
 annually of 195,000. Pop. 4832. (Madoz.) 
 
 AGUIMES, a tn. Canaries, isl. of Gran Canaria, at the 
 foot of Mount Guayadeque, and about 1100 ft. above the sea 
 level. Its houses, chiefly of one floor, and built with little 
 taste, form three irregular streets, and as many irregularly 
 shaped squares, both of which are, however, well paved. It 
 has a church, a badly-attended school, and, outside the town, 
 a cemetery. The trade of Aguimes consists in sending to the 
 Palmas market the produce of the vicinity, consisting of 
 grain, fruits, honey, poultry, and oil of excellent quality. 
 Pop. 3073. (Madoz.) 
 
 AGULHAS (CAPE and BANK). The former is about 95 
 to 100 m. S.E. the Cape of Good Hope, and is the most S. 
 land of Africa; lat. 34 51 S. ; Ion. 20 2 E. (R.) Its 
 highest part is 455 ft. above the level of the sea, and its 
 true meridional distance from the shore is nearly 1 m. Prom 
 this point the descent E. is rather gradual ; W., the descent 
 is at first steep, then slightly undulating; S., it is steep, then 
 undulates to within 300 yards of the shore, where the ground 
 becomes fl.it. A lighthouse has been recently erected on the 
 Cape, the light of which was exhibited for the first time on 
 March 1, 1849. The structure stands on an elevation of 
 52 ft. above high water, and bears N. 30 (magnetic), 
 distant about 520 yards from the extreme point of the Cape. 
 The tower is about 70 ft. high; and the light being 128 ft. 
 above high water mark, may be seen from the deck of a vessel, 
 in clear weather, at the distance of 18 m. Its lat. is 34 49 46" 
 
 S.; Ion. 20 40" E. The Bank of Agulhas extends from 
 
 the Cape of Good Hope, along the S. coast of Africa, to Great 
 Fish River, a distance of about 560 m. Its breadth, gener 
 ally, is about 100 m. ; but opposite Cape Agulhas, it stretches 
 out in a triangular form to upwards of 200 m. The Cape cur 
 rent apparently the cause of its formation passes clear of 
 it throughout its whole length, defining accurately its seaward 
 edge or limit. Grampuses, or whales, are frequently seen 
 floating with their backs a little above water, more particu 
 larly in moderate weather, with E. winds, when the water is 
 smooth on the bank; at such times a ship may be liable to 
 run against one of them before its crew are aware an accident 
 which has frequently happened, to the great alarm of all on 
 board. Large seals and solan geese also frequent the Bank. 
 Fish likewise abound; Sir E. Belcher relating, in his Voyage 
 of the Samarang, that in two hours he caught on the Bank 
 42 fine fish, varying from 6 to 36 Ibs.; and adding, that im 
 mediately after taking the first fish, he found that the lead 
 ceased to descend, in consequence of the dense shoal that 
 swarmed below. Some of these were caught at the depth 
 of 76 fathoms. Agulhas is Portuguese for needles. It is 
 quite improper to write the name Lagulhas, or Lagullas, as is 
 sometimes done. (Horsburgh s East India Directory; Voyage 
 of the Samarang; Nautical Magazine for 1849 and 1850.) 
 
 AHADKOJ,avil. Turkey in Asia, pash. Anadolia, a few 
 hours journey E. from Ushak, or Hushak, which is situated 
 lat. 38 58 N. ; Ion. 29 50 E. Ahadkoi is itself an insigni 
 ficant village, but is remarkable for the extent and magnificence 
 of the ruins in its vicinity. On the summit of a hill, says 
 Mr. W J. Hamilton, we saw the remains of a theatre, with 
 
 half the scena and proscenium standing, built of very large 
 blocks of stone. All the seats of the cavea are gone, but the 
 hollow clearly remaining. The ruins of another theatre, 
 and of several temples, were also found by Mr. Hamilton, who 
 adds, that architectural ornamented sculpture was lying about 
 i n every direction, and many inscriptions, but chiefly sepulchral . 
 These ruins, Mr. II. believes to be the remains of Trajanopolis. 
 
 A1IAGUAY, a slave port on the coast of Guinea, about 
 lat. 6 15" N. ; Ion. 1 45 E. Besides the numerous slaves 
 shipped at this port, there is some traffic in palm oil and 
 ivory. The natives are of a depraved character, and given 
 to every kind of vice, in which, however, they only follow the 
 example of the numerous Spanish and Portuguese residents. 
 Cotton is cultivated, spun, and woven into cloth, by the 
 natives, who also cultivate indigo, and manufacture it in a 
 rude manner. There are two markets daily, which are well 
 supplied with Brazilian tobacco, yams, manioc root, plantains, 
 bananas, ginger, pepper, cotton, grass bags, and mats of 
 various colours, &c. Fish are caught in great abundance, 
 chiefly in the Lagoon river, which is here about 70 yards wide 
 in the dry season, and 3 ft. deep, and flows immediately 
 behind the town. The vicinity of the town abounds in 
 luxuriant tropical vegetation. (Duncan s Travels in Western 
 Africa.} 
 
 AHAMLISH, a par. Ireland, co. Sligo ; area, 16,414 ac. 
 Lord Palmerston is proprietor of nearly the whole par. Pop. 
 in 1841, 8720. 
 
 AIIANTA, or AHAKTE, a maritime district of Ashantce 
 (which see.) 
 
 AHAR, a small tn. Persia, prov. Azcrbijan, 50 m. N.E. 
 Tabreez ; lat. 38 25 N. ; Ion. 47 10 E. ; upon a river of the 
 same name, and formerly surrounded by a wall, now in ruins. 
 It contains about 700 houses, and the tomb of a saint held in 
 reverence by the Mussulmans. The district around is well 
 
 cultivated, and much wheat and barley are grown. Ahar 
 
 river rises in the mountains N. of Tabreez, and flows at first 
 to the E., then to the N., and, after a course of nearly 120 m., 
 falls into the Aras, about 75 m. from the Caspian Sea. 
 
 AIIAEA, or AGIIARRA, a par. Ireland, co. Longford; 
 area, 2595 ac. Pop. in 1841, 1036. 
 
 AHAKNEY, a par. Ireland, Queen s and Kilkenny cos. ; 
 G940 ac. Pop. in 1841, 2586. 
 
 AHASCKAGH, a par. Ireland, co. Galway; 17,342 ac. 
 There is here a holy well, surrounded with fir trees, believed 
 to possess great virtue. Pop. in 1841, 5380. 
 
 AHAUS, a small tn. Prussia, prov. Westphalia, gov. of, 
 and 27 m. W.N.W. from Miinster, on the right bank of the 
 Aa. It is the cap. of a circle of the same name, and the scat 
 of some local courts of justice, and has manufactures of linens, 
 tiles, and tobacco. Dyeing and lime burning are carried on, 
 and seven annual markets, for mercery and cattle, are held. 
 It has a castle, built by Bishop Ferdinand of Plettenburg, but 
 now the property of the Princes of Salm-Kyrburg, into whose 
 possession the town came in 1802. Pop. 1760. (Ilulm s 
 Lex: Deutschland.) 
 
 AHII, or PEACOCK ISLAND, a small uninhabited isl. in 
 the Low Archipelago, or Panmotu group, S. Pacific Ocean ; 
 lat. 14 35 S. ; Ion. 146 27 W. (R.) It is well wooded, and 
 is surrounded by a coral belt of from 200 to 500 ft. in breadth. 
 Its lagoon, which is on the W. side, and to which there is 
 only a small boat entrance, contains a favourite fish of the 
 natives of the adjoining islands, who repair thither at certain 
 seasons to take them. 
 
 AHINAGH, a par. Ireland, co. Cork; area, 9420 ac. ; 
 contains two ancient castles, and several antique standing 
 stones. Pop. in 1841, 2699. 
 
 AHIOLOU, AGHIOLT, or AKELO, a small tn. European 
 Turkey, prov. Eoomclia, on the W. shore of the Black Sea, 
 on a promontory at the entrance, and on the N. side of, the 
 Bay of Burgas, and about llm. N.E. the tn. of that name; 
 lat. 42 31 N. ; Ion. 27 32 E. In the neighbourhood are 
 salt springs, and marshes, from which the inhabitants manu 
 facture salt of inferior quality, the profits being the property 
 of the Sultan. 
 
 AHLEN, n small in. Prussia, prov. Westphalia, gov. of, 
 and 17 m. S.E. from Munster, on the right bank of the Wersc. 
 It is the scat of a local court, and has two K^Catholic churches ; 
 oil-making and distilling are carried on, and three cattlo 
 markets are held annually. Pop. 2750. 
 
AHMAR 
 
 AIDAB 
 
 AHMAR, EL-KOM, or EL-AHMAR [The red mound], 
 marks the site of Ilieraconpolis, a very ancient city of Upper 
 Egypt, which stood on the W. bank of the Nile, about lat. 25 
 10 N. ; Ion. 32 40 E., nearly opposite El-Kab. The word 
 Ahmar occurs in the names of various other places in Egypt, 
 one of which is a well, or cistern, styled El- Ahmar, about 
 30 m. S.W. Kosseir, where caravans rest on their way 
 through the great desert of the Thebai d. 
 
 AHMEDABAD, an anc. city of Hindoostan, cap. dis 
 trict of same name, prov. Goojerat, on the left bank of the 
 Sooburmuttee, 275 in. N. Bombay; Jat. 23 5 N. ; Ion. 
 72 40 E. It was formerly one of the most opulent and 
 commercial cities in the East, and was celebrated for its 
 buildings and handsome streets, but has now fallen into 
 utter decay, having been ruined by the exactions of the 
 Mahrattas. It was stormed by the British, under General 
 Goddard, in 1780, but continued in the possession of the 
 Mahrattas till 1818, when it was ceded to the British Govern 
 ment by the ruling Peshwa, or chief civil minister of the 
 Rajah. A great part of the city, and some of its most remark 
 able edifices, were destroyed by the great earthquake of 1819; a considerable place, but is decayed; it is still, however, the 
 among these was the great mosque, erected by Sultan ; outer port of Christianstad, and contains a custom house. 
 Ahmed, nearly 450 years before. The excessive municipal j A1IWAZ, or AHWUZ [anc. Aginis], a small tn. Persia, 
 luties levied by the Mahratta chiefs, were abolished by the I prov. Khuzistan, 48 m. S. Sinister, on the left bank of the 
 British Government, and a better system of taxation intro- Karoon (Kdrun), (which see) ; lat. 31 22 N. ; Ion. 49 E.; in a 
 duced. The pop. is supposed to amount to 100,000. Pop. flat uncultivated country. It occupies a portion of the site 
 of district in 1831, 528,073. (Historical and Descriptive j of the old city, and is built with its material* It has a 
 Account of British India ; Hamilton s East India Gazetteer; mean appearance; and the only respectable building it con- 
 Martin s East Indies.} 
 
 AHMEDNUGGUR, a city and fortress, Ilindoostan, cap. 
 district of same name, presidency Bombay, prov. Aurunga- 
 bad, on the Seena, 130 m. E. Bombay, and 70 m. N.E. by E. 
 Poonah; lat. 19 10 N. ; Ion. 74 50 E. It is walled, and 
 contains some well-built streets and a good market place. 
 The fort, which is about J m. from the city, is built entirely 
 of stone ; is of an oval form, with round towers, ditch, and 
 
 AIIRWEILER, a small tn. Prussia, prov. Lower Rhine, 
 gov. of, and 28 m. W.N. W. from Coblentz ; 25 m. S. Cologne, 
 on the left bank of the Ahr ; chief place of circle of same 
 name, and seat of local courts. It is agreeably situated, and 
 surrounded with a fosse and walls, in which are four gates. 
 It has two churches and a chapel. One of the churches, a 
 beautiful Gothic structure, was erected in the 13th century. 
 Ahrweiler is the centre of the wine trade of the Ahr valley, 
 the slopes of which are covered with vineyards. The average 
 annual produce in wine is 688,250 gals. There are here 
 some manufactories of cloth, and some tanneries and dye- 
 works. Pop. 3000. 
 
 AH UN [anc. Aycdunum], a tn. France, dcp. Creuse; on a 
 mountain, at the foot of which runs the river Creuse, llm. 
 S.E. Guercr. It has manufactures of cloth, a good tiade in 
 cattle, and nine fairs in the year. In the neighbourhood are 
 extensive coal pits, and the remains of a celebrated abbey of 
 the .order of Cluny, founded A.D. 997. Pop. 2212. 
 
 A11US, or AHUYS, a vil. Sweden, about 10 m. S. Chris 
 tianstad at the mouth of the Helge-i. It was at one time 
 
 glacis ; and is about 1 m. in circumference. It was taken by 
 the Duke of Wellington (then General Wellesley), in 1803. 
 In the vicinity of Ahmednuggur are the mausoleum of Sala- 
 but Jung, situated on the summit of a mountain ; and the 
 ancient palace of the sultans, a massive pile, surrounded by a 
 broad and deep moat, faced with solid masonry. In 1820, 
 the pop., exclusive of the garrison, was estimated at 20,000. 
 Area of district, 9910 sq. m.; pop. about 670,000. There 
 is another town of the same name in the prov. of Goojerat, on 
 the left bank of the Sooburmuttee; lat. 23 40 N. ; Ion. 73 
 10 E. 
 
 AHMEDPOOR, a tn. Western India, state Buhawalpoor, 
 on the route from the city of that name to Khanpoor, 30 m. 
 
 tains is a mosque, apparently of modern date. The remains 
 of the ancient city are numerous, and cover a great extent of 
 ground ; showing that it had once been a great and flourishing 
 place. Amongst the more remarkable of these ruins are those 
 of a bund, or stone dyke, which was thrown across the river 
 to from a store of water for the purposes of irrigation ; it is 
 upwards of 100 ft. in length ; is, in several places, 10 ft. high ; 
 about the same in breadth, and contains many single blocks 
 measuring from 8 to 10 ft. There are also the remains of a 
 fine bridge and of a spacious palace. On the S. side of the 
 town, there are several singular cavities, and some neglected 
 water mills. Pop. about 1 500, mostly Arabs. 
 
 AI, a river, Russia in Europe, prov. Orenburg. It rises 
 in the W. slopes of the Ural mountains, flows generally 
 N.W., and falls into the river Oufa, about 100 m. N.E. the 
 town of that name, after a course of about 170 m. 
 
 AI, or AY, a tn. France. See AY. 
 
 AIAS, AYAS, or AJASSO [anc. ^Eyce], a seaport of Asiatic 
 Turkey, on the Bay of Iskenderoon, pash. Adana, 37 m. 
 E.S.E. the town of that name, and 27 m. N.W. Iskenderoon; 
 lat. 36 46 N. ; Ion. 35 47 E. (R.) It was once a considerable 
 
 S.S.W. the former, and 45 m. N.E. by N. the latter; j place, and there are still some remains of its ancient pros- 
 lat. 29 20 N. ; Ion. 71 30 E. The houses are, in general, ! perity ; but its trade has been long since transferred to Isken- 
 
 built of mud. It contains a large mosque, with four tall deroon. There is a small village of the same name in the 
 
 minarets ; and has manufactures of matchlocks, gunpowder, province of Anadolia, about 25 m. W. Angora, situated among 
 
 cotton, silks, and loonghies, a fabric of rich coloured silks in 
 terwoven with cotton of the brightest colours, about 4 yards in 
 length and 2 in breadth, worn round the waist. The pop. 
 has been variously estimated from 9000 to 30,000, but may 
 probably be about 20,000. 
 
 AHMOOD, AMOOD, or AMOD, a tn. and pergunnah, Hin 
 doostan, prov. Goojerat, the former 30 m. S.S.W. Baroda, and 
 
 hills, to which it gives its name. 
 
 AIASALUK, or AY; 
 
 11. Asiatic Turkey, 
 38 m. S.E. by S. Smyrna, on a hill of the same name. The 
 latter is a picturesque insulated eminence, crowned with a 
 ruined castle, and covered, lower down, with the remains of 
 the Turkish town which rose into existence when Ephesus 
 was destroyed, and from the materials of which it was built. 
 
 60 m. N. Surat ; lat. 22 3 N. ; Ion. 73 10 E. The per- At the foot of the hill is a beautiful aqueduct, constructed 
 gunnah, or district of villages, comprehends 22 1J sq. m., and chiefly of ancient fragments; and, on the western side, is a 
 lies along the E. shore of the Gulf of Cambay, for a distance of } marble mosque of Saracenic construction. At a short distance 
 30 m. A great part of it is unproductive ; but more than a ! S.W. from the town are the ruins of Ephesus. The village 
 half is under cultivation, and suitable for the production of cot- of Aiasaluk now consists of a few miserable huts only. 
 
 ton, rice, wheat, and various Indian grains. It is the property 
 of the East India Company, to whom it was ceded, in 1817, 
 by Dowlet Row Sindia. The pop., in 1832, amounted to 1 6,347 ; 
 of whom 13,144 were Hindoos, and 3203 Mahometans. 
 
 AHOGIIILL, a par. and vil. Ireland, co. Antrim ; area, 
 32,987 ac. Contains a Moravian settlement called Gracehill. 
 Pop. injl_841, 23,622. 
 
 , Lower Rhine, rising 
 
 (Hamilton s Asia Minor.) 
 
 AIASH, or AYASH, a ruined seaport, Turkey in Asia, 
 with some remains of antiquity. It lies on the coast of the 
 Mediterranean, prov. Itchil (Cilicia) ; lat. 36 30 N.; Ion. 
 34 12 E. 
 
 AICIIACII, a small tn. Bavaria, prov. Upper Bavaria 
 [Obcr Baiern], 13m. N.E. Augsburg, on the right bank of 
 the Paar, here crossed by three bridges. It is the scat of the 
 
 AHR, or AAR, a river, Prussia, prov. 
 
 in the Eiffelberg mountains, S.W. from Hildesheim. It | local court, and has a castle, church, "and three chapels, town- 
 flows N.W., changing to N.E., and, passing through thevalley hall, orphan hospital, and general hospital ; breweries, distil- 
 of the Ahr, falls into the Rhine near Sinzig, and opposite the leries, blcacheries, flourmills, &c., and some trade in flax, 
 town of Linz, after a course of about 30 m. The scenery on Aichach was taken and burnt by the Swedes during the Thirty 
 its banks is considered equal to that of the Rhine. In the Years war ; and, in 1704, by the Spaniards. Pop. 1850. 
 valley of the Ahr some good wine is made. ! AIDAB, or DJIDYD, a seaport tn. Nubia, on the Red 
 
 VOL. I. 7 
 
A1DIN 
 
 AIQUILLON 
 
 Sea, 171 m. N.W. Berenice ; lat. 22 3 N. ; Ion. 37 10 E. 
 During the lltli, 12tli,and 13th centuries, it was the entrepot 
 of commerce between E. Africa and Arabia, and the point 
 of embarkation for the caravans proceeding to Jidda, the port 
 of Mecca. It is nearly surrounded with desert.*, and is now 
 of little importance. 
 
 AIDIN, IDEN, or GUZEL-HISSAE [anc. TraJlcs], a tn. 
 
 [a 
 Me 
 
 Asiatic Turkey, pash. Anadolia, on the Meander, about 60 m. 
 S.E. Smyrna. It is 4 m. in circuit, and is the residence of a 
 pasha, and a place of great trade, being next in commercial 
 rank to Smyrna. Bazaars, shaded by trees, form the streets. 
 It contains many fine mosques, churches, and synagogues. 
 Of the old city, there only remains enough to show that it 
 occupied an elevation overlooking the modern town. On a 
 height stand conspicuously the ruins of an ancient palace, 
 which is visible from a distance of many miles. The bazaars 
 present a very animated sight, from the variety of objects 
 exhibited, and the picturesque costumes of the natives. The 
 heat of the sun, and the dazzling whiteness of the houses, are 
 gratefully relieved by the foliage of the trees and plants 
 growing in and near the streets. The environs are no less 
 beautiful; the town being surrounded with gardens and 
 orchards, commanding a fine view of the plain. Pop., in 
 cluding Turks, Armenians, Greeks, and Jews, about 30,000. 
 
 A1DONA, a small tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 23 m. E.S.E. 
 from Caltanisctta, and 5 m. N.E. Piazza, in the Val-di noto. 
 Pop. 3700. 
 
 AIDOS, a tn. European Turkey, Bulgaria, at the foot 
 of Mount Haemus, about 40 m. S. Shumla, and 85 m. N.E. 
 Adrianople. It is a place of some antiquity, and was besieged 
 and taken by Amurath, in 1391. It is noted for some hot 
 springs in its vicinity, and for a large annual fair. 
 
 Al GASH, or AIGAS, a small but beautiful isl. in Inver 
 ness-shire, Scotland, formed by the river Beauly, which, here 
 parting in two, again unites, and thus insulates the spot to 
 which the above name [Gaelic, Eilans Aiga] has been given. 
 It is a high rounded hill, covered with oak and birch, and is 
 noted for having been the place of retreat selected by Lord 
 Lovat, when letters of fire and sword were issued against him 
 by King William, in 1697. It is 4 m. S.W. Beauly, and 
 
 about 14 m. S.W. I in 
 of Sir Robert Peel. 
 
 jrness. The island is now the property 
 
 AIGEN, the name of numerous localities in Austria, 
 Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg, none of which are of any im 
 portance. 
 
 A1GIITON, a township, England, co. Lancaster ; area, 
 5780 ac. Here are an almshouse, R. catholic college of Stony- 
 hurst, and cotton factories. Pop. in 1841, 1798. 
 
 AIGLE, a small tn. Switzerland, Pays de Vaud, cap. 
 of a district to which it gives its name ; situated on the tor 
 rent called La Grande Eau, in the Val d Ormond, about 1 in. 
 E. from the Rhone, and 21 m. S.E. Lausanne, on the high 
 road to Martigny. The houses, built of black marble quarried 
 in the vicinity, and unpolished, give the town a sombre appear 
 ance. The inhabitants are principally employed in agricul 
 ture, and the cultivation of vines; the produce of which is 
 much esteemed. Pop. 1650. 
 
 AIGLE (L ), a tn. France, dep. Orne, 80 m. W.S.W. 
 Paris, agreeably situated on the sides of two hills on the river 
 Rille, which divides it into three parts. It is well built, but 
 has few architectural objects of any note. There are three 
 churches, one of which, St. Martin s, is very large, but none 
 of them are otherwise remarkable. In the centre of the town 
 is a castle, or chateau, built of brick, and surrounded by lime 
 trees of extraordinary size and beauty. L Aigle is noted for 
 its industry, and has manufactures of linen, cotton, paper, 
 leather, cutlery, and hardware ; and a good trade in corn, 
 wood, and cider. Large quantities of needles and pins are 
 made here, which are held in high repute. In the neighbour 
 hood are the mineral waters of St. Santin. Pop. 5584. 
 
 AIGLE (L ), a small isl. Lower Canada, in the St. 
 Lawrence, formed by the confluence of that river with the 
 riviere dcs prairies, which forms the S. boundary of the Island 
 of Montreal. 
 
 AIGNAN (Sr.), a tn. France, dep. Loir-et-Cher, 50 in. 
 >.W. Orlciius, on the left bank of the Cher. It is a very 
 
 duced is estimated to amount to about 35 or 40 millions. 
 Cloth, earthenware, and saltpetre, are also made here, and 
 there is some trade in wine and wood. Pop. 3146. 
 
 A1GRE, a tn. France, dep. Charente, 20 m. N.N.W. 
 Angouleme, agreeably situated on an isl. formed by Lcmps, 
 an affluent of the Charente. Here are numerous brandy 
 distilleries, and a good trade is carried on in grain, hemp, flax, 
 &c., but particularly in brandy. It has also some trade in 
 hemp, onions, and wine. Pop. 1662. 
 
 A1GREFEUILLE, the name of two villages, France, 
 the one in the dep. Charente Inferieure ; and the other in 
 Loire Inferieure. Pop. of the former, 1688; of the latter, 
 1275. 
 
 AIGUEBELLE, AQUABELLA, or AQUA BELLJE [anc. 
 Carbonaria], a tn. and commune, Sardinian States, Savoy, 
 near the French frontier, 6 m. W. Chambeny, 984 ft. above 
 the level of the sen. It was destroyed by the Btirgundiuns 
 about the fifth century ; rebuilt under the name of Aquabella; 
 sacked by the Saracens in 835 ; and rebuilt by Berold, King 
 of Saxony, in 998. In the neighbouring mountains are mines 
 of copper and iron. Pop. 1286. 
 
 A1GUEPERSE [Latin, Aqua Sparsa], a tn. France, 
 dep. Puy de Dome, 19 m. N.N.E. Clermont, and 190 m. 
 S.S.E. Paris. It consists of a single street ; lined with hand 
 some houses, and has manufactories of cloth, felt hats, and 
 candles. In the neighbourhood is a mineral spring, which 
 exhales carbonic acid so pure that animals are often suflbeated 
 with its waters ; hence c;,lled, by the people of the district. La 
 
 Fontaine empoisonnSe. Pop. 2969. There is another town 
 
 of the same name, or Aiguesperses, as sometimes spelt, with a 
 pop. of 1003, in the district of Villefranchc, dep. of the Rhone. 
 
 AIGUES-MORTES [Latin, Aqua Mortuce], a decayed 
 tn. France, dep. Gard, 20 m. S.S.W. Nismes ; near the 
 mouths of the Rhone, on the Grau du Roi, at the junction of 
 the Canal de Beaucaire with that of Etangs. It is a fortified 
 place, and, from its position, forms an important military post 
 for the defence of that part of the coast. The exhalations 
 from the salt marshes by which it is surrounded, render it very 
 unhealthy. A good deal of potash is made here, and some 
 trade is earned on in fresh and salt fish ; principal articles ot 
 export, salt and wines; of import, grain, soap, colonial produce, 
 and wood. The town was founded in 1248, by St. Louis of 
 France, who embarked here, in that year, for the crusades. 
 The walls and gates are still entire, but the fosse has been 
 filled up. Before entering the town, to the north, is a single 
 round tower, 90 ft. high, called the Tower of Constance, built 
 by St. Louis, and surmounted by an old lighthouse turret of 
 34 ft., which was used as a prison for Protestants, chiefly 
 females, who adhered to their religion after the revocation ot 
 the Edict of Nantes. It was long supposed that, since the 13th 
 century, the sea had retired about 3 m. from the town. It 
 seems now to be ascertained, however, that the sea never 
 came so far up as its walls ; but that close to the town there 
 was a small port, connected with a canal, now filled with sand, 
 extending thence to the harbour of Grau du Roi, on the Medi 
 terranean. Not far from Aigues-Mortes are the celebrated 
 salt lakes of Peccais, protected by the fort of that name, which 
 yield salt of fine quality, to the estimated value of 60,000 
 yearly. Pop. 3968. (Murray s Handbook for France ; Balbi, 
 Abrcye, &c.) 
 
 AIGUILLE (L ), [The needle], a mountain of France, 
 formerly reckoned one of the seven wonders of Dauphine", dep. 
 Isere, canton Vczille, situated between the hamlet of Souchons 
 and the town of Corps, nearly 4 m. from the latter, on the 
 left of the great road from Grenoble to Gap; 6562 ft. above 
 the level of the sea. The lower part resembles a truncated 
 cone, while the upper portion is of a cubical form, as if a 
 second mountain had been placed above the first. It is also 
 called Mons Inaccessits, having been long supposed inaccessible, 
 bat, in 1492, Charles VIII., passing Grenoble on his expedi 
 tion to Naples, sent the captain of his Echcleurs to try to gain 
 the summit, in which he succeeded. 
 
 AIGUILLON, an ancient tn. France, dep. Lot-et-Garonnc, 
 in a fertile vale, on the left bank of the Lot, about 1 m. above 
 its influx into the Garonne, 16 m. N.W. Agen. It is still sur 
 rounded by a ditch, the remains of its ancient fortification. It 
 
 dustrious place, and noted for its manufactory of gun flints, of j has two castles, both situated on an eminence one old and rc- 
 which the only quarries worked in France those of Meusne i markable for its extent, and the great variety of styles of which 
 and Co u fly are in the vicinity. The quantity annually pro- | it is composed ; the other modern, in the Italian style, find a 
 
AIGURANDE 
 
 51 
 
 AfN-MADI 
 
 fine structure. There are here a communal college, ami rnanu 
 factories of serges and druggets. It lias also some trade in 
 corn, hemp, wines, and brandy. A bridge of seven arches here 
 crosses the river Lot. Pop. 3994. 
 
 AIGUEANDE, a small tn. France, dcp. Indre, partly on 
 a hill, and partly on a plain, 26 in. S. (Jhateauroux, surrounded 
 with walls and ditches. An extensive trade is carried on here 
 in cattle, and fairs are frequently held. Pop. 2087. 
 
 AIKTON, a par. England, co. Cumberland ; area, 5270 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 802. 
 
 AILAH, or ELANA, a decayed tu. Arabia, in the Hejaz, 
 at the N. extremity of the Gulf of Akabah; about 2 m. N. 
 the village and fort of that name, and 130 m. E. Suez. A 
 few scanty ruins are all that remain of it ; and even its site 
 is now a subject of dispute, being often confounded with 
 Akabah. Anciently called Ailoth, or Eloth, it gave its name 
 to the E. or Elauitic branch of the lied Sea. It is mentioned 
 by Moses in his account of the journeyings of the Israelites, 
 and Solomon used it as a naval station for his ships. It is 
 also mentioned by several Arab writers. 
 
 AILSA CRAIG, a remarkable rocky conical isl. Frith of 
 Clyde, Scotland, co. Ayr; lat. 55 15 12" N. ; Ion. 5 7 W. (u.); 
 10" m. distant, Vv ., from the coast of Ayrshire at Girvan, and 
 double that distance E., from the coast of Argyleshire, near the 
 Mull of Cantyre. It has au elliptical base of 3300 ft. in the 
 
 AILSA FROM THE SOUTH From Sketch hy R. Til.iek 
 
 major axis, by 2200 in the minor, and rises abruptly from the 
 sea to the height of 1098 ft. It consists of columnar trap, ap 
 proaching in some parts to basalt ; and is precipitous on all 
 sides except the N.E., on which it slopes towards the shore, 
 and where alone it is accessible. At a considerable elevation 
 are the ruins of an old tower or castle. The vegetation on 
 various parts of the surface is described as luxuriant, though 
 there is little pasture on it. It is a breeding place for innumer 
 able sea fowl, gulls, kittiwakes, puffins, solan geese, &c. A 
 few rabbits and goats inhabit the rock. It is chiefly from the 
 feathers of the birds that the rent of the island is derived, and 
 it is only during the season when the birds are sought for that 
 any one resides on the island. It is surrounded with banks 
 well stocked with fish. 
 
 AILU, a small isl. in the N. Pacific Ocean, a little S. from 
 the Kadack chain; lat. 10 27 N. ; Ion. 170 E. (E.) 
 
 AI M ARAEZ, a district, Peru, dep. Lima, at the foot of the 
 Cordillera de Huambo, extending about 130 m. from N. to S., 
 and 26 from E. to W., and comprising 50 villages. The 
 climate is generally cold, except in some of the valleys, which 
 produce sugar and grain, and afford pasturage for cattle. 
 Three rivers pass through the district, but, on account of the 
 height and steepness of their banks, are unavailable for any 
 purpose, till their united streams, in lat. 14 S.; Ion. 73 W., 
 form the Pachachaca, which ultimately falls into the Apu- 
 rimac, being previously crossed by a number of suspension 
 bridges. The numerous veins of gold and silver with which 
 the district abounds, are neglected. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 AIMARGUES, a small tn. and commune, France, dep. 
 Card, 13 m. S.W. Nismes ; in the middle of a marsh, between 
 the rivers Vistre and Vidourle. It has some trade in brandy. 
 It was here that St. Louis and his brother, the Count of 
 Thonlouse, assembled their troops, previous to their departure 
 ft r the crusades. Pop. 261 1. 
 
 A IN, a river, France, which rises among the slopes of the 
 
 Jura, about 3 m. N.E. from Nozeroy, and, after pursuing a 
 
 ! S.S.W. course for more than 90 m., flows into the Khone 
 opposite the village of Anthon, about 20 m. above Lyons. 
 It gives its name to a department in the former province of 
 Burgundy. Large quantities of planks and timber are floated 
 down this stream. 
 
 AIN, a frontier dep. France, in the ancient province of 
 Burgundy, separated into two nearly equal parts by the river 
 from which it takes its name ; bounded, N. by the depart 
 ments of Saone-et-Loire and Jura; E. by Switzerland and 
 Savoy, from which the Khone divides it, as it does also from 
 the department of Isere on the S.; and W. by the Saone, which 
 separates it from the departments of Saune-et-Loirc and Khone. 
 Its length from E. to W. is about 52 m.; its breadth about 48 
 at the broadest parts. The E. portion is very mountainous, 
 containing a prolongation of the Jura chain. Besides afford 
 ing good pasturage, it yields asphalt, gypsum, potters clay, 
 marl, iron, freestone, and limestone; and the best lithographic 
 stones in France are produced near Belley. The W. division, 
 or district on the right bank of the Ain, though in parts 
 somewhat marshy, has extensive tracts of cultivated land. 
 About the middle of the department, in the mountains, is 
 the Lake of Naiitua, about 1300 ft. above the level of the sea. 
 Numerous pools and small lakes are found in the S.W., which 
 are alternately drained for cultivation, and used for breeding 
 fish. The whole number of lakes in the department the 
 largest not above 2 m. long exceeds 1600, and the humidity 
 occasioned by them is stated to be very prejudicial to the 
 health. The tillage is chiefly effected by oxen, and the pro 
 duce of the harvest is sufficient for the consumption of the 
 department. The chief products are rye, maize, corn, wheat, 
 salt, oil, and wine. Great numbers of horses, cattle, and 
 sheep, are also reared. The greater portion of the wines are 
 exported ; those of Seyssel, as good vin ordinaire, being the- 
 most esteemed. The manufactures consist chiefly of cloth 
 at Bourg, the capital of the department, and at Montluel, 
 near the Ehone ; linen, and paper, at Nantua, Chatillon, 
 and other places ; straw hats at Lagnieux, and watches at 
 
 i Bourg, and at Ferney, celebrated as the residence of Voltaire. 
 
 | (See these towns.} A good trade is also carried on in 
 leather, poultry, wood, and cheeses, of which those made at 
 Gex are highly esteemed. The geographical position of this 
 department makes it the passage for the commerce between 
 the N. and the S. of France, from Strasburg to Marseilles. 
 The transit is incessant during the period of the importation 
 of grain from Barbary, received at Marseilles and intended 
 for Switzerland. The department is subdivided into five 
 arrondissements, 35 cantons, and 443 communes, and contains 
 22 cities, 404 market towns and villages ; and 1467 hamlets. 
 It forms the diocese of Belley. Pop. in 1846, 367,362. 
 Except in the arrondissement of Gers, where the greater por 
 tion are Protestants, the inhabitants generally are K. catholics. 
 (French Official Papers; Die. de la France.} 
 
 AINAD, or AINAUD, a tn. and district, Arabia, prov. 
 Hadramaut. The town lies on the right bank of the Wady 
 Hagger, about 207m. N.E. Aden; about lat. 15 12 N.: 
 Ion. 47 10 E. About one day s journey from it is the tomb 
 of Kaktau, a celebrated place of devotion, at which a great 
 fair is also held. (Chesney s Euphrates Expedition.} 
 
 AINAD A, or INADA, a small tn. European Turkey, prov. 
 Koomelia, on the W. coast of the. Black Sea, near a small bay 
 and cape of the same name, about 74 m. E. Adrianople. It is 
 
 surrounded by marshes, and is extremely unhealthy. The 
 
 Cape of Ainada is the T1iynias promontorium of the ancients; 
 lat. 41 52 N. ; Ion. 28 3 E. 
 
 AIN AMER, a vil. Algeria, Sahara desert, 10 m. S.E. 
 Ourgla, and 395 m. S. Algiers; lat. 31 N.; Ion. 3 8 E. It 
 consists of about 100 houses, surrounded by date trees; and 
 by gardens, watered by numerous streamlets. In the vicinity 
 is the salt lake, called Sebka and Malah, which every season 
 yields 400 to 500 camel loads of salt, without any apparent 
 diminution of the quantity. 
 
 A1NUER13Y-STEEPLE, a par. England, co. York, 
 N. Riding; area, 4300 ac. ; near Great North of England Kail- 
 way. Pop. in 1841, 760. 
 
 AIN-MADI, a tn., N. Africa, Algeria, built on a hill 
 about 40 m. W. El-Aront, in an arid plain ; lat. 33 53 N. ; 
 Ion. 2 48 W. It is of a semi-elliptical form, and is sur 
 rounded with defences, and large Availed garden; the latter 
 
A1N-SEFISIFIA 
 
 AIRDR1E 
 
 nro irrigated by n stream rising at the foot of Mount El-Mar- I 
 keb. The houses, of which there arc about 150 to 200, arc 
 only of one story, and have terraced roofs. They arc built of | 
 baked earth, small stones, &c., and are formed into streets so i 
 narrow, as to be impassable by carriages. The town contains j 
 one large mosque, or more. The house of the Tclterif, or 
 governor, is the only one which is whitewashed ; all the others 
 have a mean, dingy appearance. The place was attacked by 
 Abd-el-Kader in 1838, and was besieged by him for eight 
 months without success, lie got possession of it, however, 
 by stratagem; but it was soon retaken. It is now a depend 
 ency of Algeria. Pop. about 1500. (Sahara Algerien.) 
 
 AJN-SEFISIFIA, or simply SKFISIFIA, a vil. Algeria, 
 161 m. S.S.W. Gran; lat. 33 25 N.; Ion. 1 15 W.? on a 
 small stream of the same name, and on the S. slope of the 
 Merad hills. The houses, according to one authority, about 
 250, and according to another, about 350 in number, are 
 built of dry stone, some of them in a state of dilapidation 
 that plainly indicates the circumstances of the people ; and 
 besides, the chalky, sandy nature of the surrounding country 
 contributes to impart to this village a miserable aspect. 
 In the centre of the village is a sort of square, used as a 
 caravansary for strangers; the streets are from 3 to 6 ft. 
 wide; and the tolerably large mosque is supplied with a 
 minaret. In the vicinity are a number of badly-kept gardens, 
 protected by two towers. Wheat, barley, and several kinds of 
 fruit, including grapes, are grown. (Bulletin Geo. Soc., 18-48.) 
 
 AIN-SEFRA, a vil. Algeria, 151 m. S.S.W. Oran; lat. 
 33 3(T N.; Ion. 1 \V.; on the N. side of some extensive 
 sand downs, which stretch about 9 m. N.E. to S.W. Its 
 size is variously stated, from 102 to 250 houses, of tolerably 
 solid construction. It has a mosque and a school, and exten 
 sive and well-cultivated gardens, watered by a stream of the 
 eaine name as the village, and surrounded by a general wall 
 defended by 14 towers. Barley and onions are carefully 
 cultivated, and peaches, almonds, and grapes are plentiful. 
 (Bulletin Geo. Soc.; Sahara Algerien.) 
 
 AINSTABLE, a par. England, co. Cumberland, 11 m. 
 N.E. Penrith; area, 4110ac. Here was formerly a famous 
 Benedictine nunnery, founded by William Rufus. Pop. in 
 1841, 501. 
 
 AINSTY, a large district, England, co. York, W. Riding, 
 W. the city of York, to which it is annexed under the name 
 of the Ainsty of the city of York. It cnitains 49,720 ac., 
 and had, in 1841, a pop. of 9479. 
 
 AIN-TAB, or AEXTAB, an anc. tn. Syiia, cap. district 
 of same name, 55 m. N. Aleppo ; lat. 37 8 N. ; Ion. 37 22 E. 
 It lies on the Sajur, is tolerably well built, and contains 8000 
 Turkish, and 5UO Armenian houses, principally of stone, five 
 fine mosques, several baths, an Armenian church, and good 
 bazaars; its citadel, or castle, on the N. side, is built on a 
 mound, resting upon rock, and has a very striking appear 
 ance. On the opposite, or S. side, is a spacious cemetery, 
 having the appearance of a large suburb. The town is well 
 supplied with water, pure streams of which, it is said, flow 
 constantly through the streets. The inhabitants are a mixed, 
 
 but hardy, independent race. The district produces cotton. 
 
 wool (sheeps and goats ), bees wax, &c. The cotton is 
 coarse, and the sheeps wool mostly used in home manufac 
 tures; but the goats is excellent, and the small quantities 
 produced eagerly bought for exportation. The other articles 
 of produce in the district are oil, grain, and rice. Manufac 
 tures : yellow and morocco leather, and calico. Much pine 
 wood is cut in the mountains and sent to Aleppo, with which, 
 and Orfah, Marash, and the port of Alexandretta, it has com 
 mercial communications, and is, on the whole, a place of con 
 siderable importance. Vineyards arc numerous in the terri- i 
 tory. Pop. of district, about 30,000 ; of the town, 3500 ; 
 about one-fourth of the whole arc Christians or Jews. 
 
 AIN TECAZZE, a small lake in Abyssinia, S. part of 
 the prov. Tigrd, from which flows the river Tecazze, one of j 
 the largest streams in Abyssinia. The lake lies in lat, 1 1 i 
 35 N.; Ion. 39 16 E. 
 
 AINUNAJI. or AINUNE, a haven, Arabia, on the Red | 
 Sea, E. from the entrance to the Gulf of Akabah ; lat. 28 3 N. ; 
 Ion. 35 18 E. It is formed by the Bay of Ainune, which is 
 enclosed by the islands of Ockmur-sur, Raymahn, and several 
 coral reefs and small islets, some of which arc covered with 
 mangroves. The entrance to this haven, is near Ockmur-sur 
 
 Island, and is only practicable for small vessels. The interior 
 of the haven is about 12 m. long, by about 6 broad, with a 
 depth of 12 to 13 fathoms, and is the only secure place ot 
 shelter in the N. end of the Red Sea. The coast is very 
 stony, but not unfruitful, being overgrown with many wikl 
 plants, flowers, and mimosa trees. The bay, or haven, takes 
 its name from the ruins of the town of Ainune, which arc 
 hard by ; and both have obtained their name from a rivulet 
 which here disappears in the sands, the Ain Unne, that is, the 
 streamlet Unne. At this streamlet, the pilgrims from Cairo 
 to Mecca rest on the twelfth or fifteenth day of their journey. 
 (Kilter s Arabien.) 
 
 AIOU, or YOWL ISLAKDS, a circular group of small low 
 isles, Asiatic Archipelago, about 30 in. N. island of Waygiou, 
 and about 100 m N. by W. the N.W, extremity of Papua, 
 or New Guinea. They are about 20 in number, and arc 
 fortified by an extensive reef, which projects around them 
 to a distance of 2 or 3 m. The southernmost islands, extend 
 ing nearly E. and W. about 15 m., are five in number; and 
 the largest, called Aiou Baba, is about 3 m. long, having a 
 considerable number of huts on its W. end, and is the fourth 
 island from the E. It lies in about lat. 21 N.; Ion. 131E. 
 (R.) The south-westernmost island of the group is detached a 
 considerable distance from the others. The central and 
 southernmost islands are uneven, and a little higher than the 
 N.E. ones, which are low and flat. Several of them are 
 inhabited, and they abound with excellent turtle. The 
 N.W. island is in lat. 38 N.; Ion. 131 8 E. 
 
 AIR (PoiKT OF), N. Wales, co. Flint, W. entrance of the 
 river Dee, 19 m. E. Great Orme s Iliad; lat. 53 21 26" N. ; 
 Ion. 3 19 14" W. There is here a round tower, striped red 
 and white horizontally, having two fixed lights. 
 
 AIRAINES, a tn. France, dep. Somme, Picardy, 16 m. 
 W.N.W. Amiens. It is well built, and agreeably situated. 
 The church, Notre Dame, is a somewhat remarkable structure. 
 At one end of the town are the ruins of an ancient castle. 
 Manufactures: sailcloth, sacking, soap, rapeseed oil, for which 
 there are 20 mills ; cloth, thread, flax, leather, &c. Pop. 2080. 
 
 AIRARA, a small river, kingdom of Shoa, Abyssinia. 
 After being joined by the Umptoo, and other streams., it runs 
 into the Casam, which falls into the Ilawash. 
 
 AIRASCA [anc. 7rio], a tn Piedmont, Sardinian States, 
 6 m. E. Pignerol. Pop. 1900. 
 
 AIRDLE, or AKDLE, a small river, Scotland, co. Perth, 
 having a course of about 13 m. ; it passes through a strath or 
 valley of the same name, anciently famous as a resort of the 
 wild boar. 
 
 A1RDRIE, a large and thriving tn. Scotland, co. Lanark, 
 Middle Ward; partly on a gentle acclivity, having a W. ex 
 posure, and partly on the slope and summit of a more abrupt 
 elevation, 11 m. E. Glasgow, and 32 W. Edinburgh, the 
 highroad between these two cities intersecting it from E. to 
 W., and forming its principal street. The other streets, many j 
 of which are spacious, mostly run at right angles, and are all | 
 well paved and lighted. The houses generally, without having 
 much external pretension, have a respectable and comfortable 
 appearance ; and the shops, though not particularly gay or 
 ostentatious, are well stocked, and exhibit many of the more 
 substantial manifestations of prosperity. The town is now 
 amply supplied with water by a recently formed water com 
 pany. The principal public buildings are the townhall, 
 a handsome edifice, surmounted by a fine spire ; the National 
 Bank, and Bank of Scotland. There are a number of churches, 
 including two belonging to the Establishment ; three to the 
 Free church; two United Presbyterian; one Reformed Pres 
 byterian ; one Baptist ; one Methodist ; one Independent ; and 
 one R. catholic, besides one or two others. Many of these 
 churches are very handsome structures. A mechanics insti 
 tute and library have existed in the town for several years; 
 and a commodious academy has recently been built. There 
 are here a large cotton-spinning and weaving factory, several 
 I extensive foundries and machine shops, a distillery, a brewery, 
 I and a tan work, all in active operation ; handloom weaving is 
 j also carried on to a great extent. But Airdrie owes its pros- 
 | perity chiefly to the extensive operations connected with the 
 [ coal and iron trade in its vicinity, being situated in the centre 
 I of the richest mining district in Scotland. Its progress has, 
 in consequence, been unprecedented. In 1831 its population 
 ! amounted only to 5594: in 1841 it had increased to 12,39G; 
 
AIEB 
 
 and, in 1849, it was estimated at upwards of 16,000. The 
 civic affairs of the town are administered by a provost, three 
 bailies, a treasurer, and seven councillors. A regular police 
 force has been established for several years. Courts for 
 criminal business are held by the magistrates every Monday; 
 besides which, there are weekly courts held by the sheriff- 
 substitute on Fridays, and by the justices on Thursdays. 
 Airdrie unites with Hamilton, Falkirk, Lanark, and Linlith- 
 gow, in returning a member to the House of Commons. 
 
 AIRE, a river, England, rises in the moors near Malham, 
 AV. Riding, Yorkshire. It runs about 1 m. underground, 
 pursues a S.E. course to Leeds, from which town it is navi 
 gable. At Castleford it is joined by the Calder, and finally 
 falls into the Ouse, 3 ni. S.AV. Howden, in the E. Hiding. It 
 derives its chief importance, from the number of canals with 
 which it is connected. 
 
 A IRE, or AYKE (POINT OF), Isle of Man, the most 
 northerly point of the island; lat. 54 25 N.; Ion. 4 22 W. 
 There is a handsome lighthouse on this point, v> ith a single 
 revolving light, bright and red alternately, 106 ft. above the 
 level of the sea. 
 
 AIRE-SUR-L ADOUR, an anc. tn. France, dep. Landes; 
 situated in an agreeable and fertile country, on the slope of 
 a hill on the left bank of the Adour, 16 m. S.E. St. Sever. 
 It is well built, and the streets are regular. It contains a 
 college and cathedral, and has tanneries, and a hat manu 
 factory. Pop. 4667. 
 
 A1RE-SUR-LA-LYS, a tn. France, dep. Pas de Calais; 
 on the Lys, at its junction with the Laquette, about 10 m. 
 S.E. St. Omer, with which it communicates. The town is 
 neat, and well paved, adorned with several beautiful fountains, 
 but situated in a low marshy soil. The church of St. Paul 
 is a handsome Gothic edifice. There is here an extensive 
 barracks, capable of containing 6000 men Trade in linens, 
 fustians, hats, thread, starch, osier work, grain, &c. ; Dutch 
 tiles and soap are also made here. Pop. 9591. 
 
 AIRLIE, a par. Scotland, co. Forfar, lying in the great 
 Strathmore valley, and giving the title of Earl to the Ogilvies, 
 whose ancient seat, the Bonnie House of Airlie, was de 
 stroyed by Argyle in 1640. Pop. in 1851, 856. 
 
 AIROLA, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Lavoro, district 
 of, and 9 m. N. from Nola, and 18 m. S.E. Capua; in a fertile 
 plain, surrounded by mountains, and enjoying a salubrious 
 climate. It has six churches, and several convents. Pop. 
 4634. 
 
 AIROLO [German, Eriels], a vil. Switzerland, canton 
 of, and near the left bank of the river Tessin, on the S. slope 
 of Mount St. Gothard, about 3800 ft. above the sea, on the 
 great route into Italy; 24 m. N.N.AV. Locarno, and 28 in. 
 S. Altorf. It has some good slated stone houses, an hospital, 
 and a church. Garnets are found in the neighbouring valleys. 
 The union of various lines of road here, renders it a place of 
 considerable transit trade. The language of the inhabitants, 
 both of town and district, is Italian. Near this village the 
 French were defeated by the Russians, after a sanguinary 
 battle, fought Sept. 13, 1799. Pop. 1880. 
 
 AIRTH, avil.and par. Scotland, co. Stirling; area, 16,400 
 ac.; extends along the Frith of Forth 6 m., breadth about 3 m. 
 P. (1841), 1498, of which the vil. contained 583; (1851), 1319. 
 
 AIRTHREY, or AnmmiE. See BRIDGE OF ALLAN. 
 
 AIRVAULT [Latin, Aurea Vallis], a tn. France, dep. 
 Deux Sevres, 29 m. N. Poitiers, upon the right bank of the 
 Thouet. It is well built, with a fountain in the centre of the 
 principal street, and a beautiful Gothic church. Here are the 
 ruins of an old castle, and of a monastery, destroyed during 
 the religious wars of the 17th century. The inhabitants have 
 a trade in wine, grain, flax, hemp, clocks, brandy, and wool ; 
 manufactures of cloth and serges, tanneries, &c. Pop. 1957. 
 
 AISNE [anc. Axona], a considerable river of France, 
 which gives its name to a department. It rises near the 
 vil. of Beaulieu, in the basin of the Meuse, and, after a course 
 of above 150 m., first to the N. by AV., and then to the AV. 
 by S., falls into the Oise, about 1 m. above Compeigne. It 
 becomes navigable from Chateau-Porcien. 
 
 AISNE, a dep., N.E. France, so called from the river of 
 the same name, cap. Laon. It is formed of portions of the 
 ancient provs. of Picardy and the Isle of France ; bounded, N. 
 by the dep. du Nord, and the Belgian prov. of Hainaut; E. by 
 the deps. of the Ardennes and Marne ; S. by that of the 
 
 53 A1X 
 
 Seine et-Marne ; and AV. by those of Oise and Somme ; area, 
 1,486,124 ac., or 2322 sq.m. 
 
 Acres. 
 Under cultivation . ... 988,000 
 
 Meadow laud 105,142 
 
 Vineyards 22,418 
 
 Heath and Moorland 28,207 
 
 Forests . 235,728 
 
 The surface, in general, consists of undulating plains, inter 
 sected in the N. by low hills and A T ales ; in the central and S. 
 parts, the summits of the hills seldom rise to more than 500 
 ft. above the level of the sea. The soil is for the most part 
 calcareous, except in the N. districts, where it is clayey, and 
 in some parts slatey. In the S., chalk is found, and, in other 
 parts, freestone, slates, turf, &c. The elevated table lands are 
 the most fertile. AVheat, rye, maslin, potatoes, hops, flax, 
 hemp, and beetroot are among the chief agricultural produce. 
 Two-thirds of the harvest are exported, and, compared with 
 its extent, more oxen, horses, and sheep, are reared, than in 
 most of the other departments. The breeding of merinoes is 
 carefully attended to ; and the annual amount of wool is cal 
 culated at more than two millions of pounds. The cheese 
 made in this district is of excellent quality. Beetroot sugars, 
 and leeches, are also exported. These last are got in the 
 lakes, of which there are 80, covering more than 2470 ac. of 
 laud. The oil made from the beechmast yields, in some years, 
 as much as 20,000. The vine is not cultivated to any great 
 extent except in the arrondissements of Laon, Soissons, and 
 Chateau-Thierry. The manufactures of this department are 
 very important. They consist of cotton at Guise, on the Oise ; 
 linens, cottons, laces, lawns, cachmere imitation shawls, soap, 
 and vitriol at St. Quentin ; glass at Nouvion ; champagne 
 bottles ; and mirrors. The department is subdivided into 5 
 civil, and 7 electoral, arrondissements, 37 cantons, and 840 com 
 munes. Besides the cap., the principal towns are Soissons, 
 Chateau-Thierry, Vervins, and La Ferte Milon, the birthplace 
 of Racine. The river Oise in the N., the Aisne in the centre, 
 and the Marne in the S., with their tributaries, water the de 
 partment. Several canals traverse it ; and the great roads from 
 Paris to Lille, and from Paris to Mons, with other public 
 routes, p;.ss through it. Pop. of dep., 557,422. (JVmA 
 Official Tails.) 
 
 AISTHOKPE, or EAST THORPE, a par. England, co. of, 
 and 6J m. N.AV. from Lincoln; 1150 ac. Pop. in 1841, 82. 
 
 AITUTAKI, or WHYTOOTACKIE, an isl. in the S. Pacific 
 Ocean, one of Cook s group; lat. 18 54 S. ; Ion. 159 32 
 AV. (R.) It is about 9 m. in length, and rises to the height 
 of 360 ft. 
 
 AIVALI, or KIDONIA, [anc. Hcracleia], a tn. of Asiatic 
 Turkey, sanjak Karasi, on the promontory forming the W. 
 side of the Gulf of Adramyti, 66 m. N. by AV. Smyrna ; lat. 
 39 18 N.; Ion. 26 42 E. In the beginning of the present 
 century it was a place of considerable note, possessing a col 
 lege and library, two hospitals, and extensive manufactories 
 of soap, numerous oilmills and tanneries. But, in June 1821, 
 during a contest between the Greeks and Turks, it was set 
 on fire by the latter, and reduced to ashes. It is said to be 
 reviving. 
 
 AIX [anc. Aquae Scxtice], an anc. city of France, dep. 
 Bouches-du-Rhone, chief place of arrond., agreeably situated 
 near the river Arc, in a plain surrounded by fertile hills, 
 18 m. N. Marseilles. The town was greatly embellished by 
 Louis XIV. Most of the modern streets are broad and well 
 paved, but those of the old town are narrow and dirty. The 
 houses, in general, are well built, and the public buildings 
 handsome. A principal street, called the Cours, or pro 
 menade of Orbitelle, is bordered with elegant houses, planted 
 with avenues of trees, and adorned with public fountains, 
 one of which has a statue, by David, of le Bon Boi Rene. 
 In the centre of the market place is another public fountain ; 
 and near it a curious clock tower, erected in the Middle 
 Ages, the internal machinery of which puts in motion some 
 antique figures when the clock strikes. In the old town, the 
 feudal walls and gates of which are still standing, is the ancient 
 cathedral of St. Sauveur. Amongst the chief ornaments of Aix 
 are the baptistery, constructed with the remains of a Roman 
 temple, and the carved wooden doors, executed in 1503, which 
 are curious specimens of the state of art at the commencement 
 of the 1 6th century. The townhall, situated in a narrow street, 
 is an elegant edifice, and contains a large collection of anti- 
 
ATX-LA-CHAPELLE 
 
 ..I 
 
 AlX-LA-CHArELLE 
 
 quitics. The Palais, a very old building, which occupies 
 one side of a fine square, called The Place des Precheurs, 1 
 has several large halls, in one of which the parliaments of 
 Provence formerly assembled. Before the first French Revo 
 lution, this city had a university, founded in 1409, by Pope 
 Alexander V., and several richly-endowed ecclesiastical estab 
 lishments. It is the seat of an archbishop ; a royal court of I 
 appeals for the departments of the Basses- Alpes, the Var, and 
 the Bouehes-du-Rhune ; a chamber of commerce ; a school of i 
 theology and jurisprudence ; a royal academy; a library,! 
 having not less than 100,000 volumes ; and a museum. Its j 
 literary and scientific institutions, with its facilities for study, j 
 have acquired for it the title of the Athens of the S. of 
 France. There are two public hospitals, and one lunatic 
 asylum in Aix, also a theatre. There are in the town 
 several manufactories of silk and velvet stuffs; also of hard 
 ware, linen, printed calicoes, and woollen cloth. On the hills 
 around are almond groves, and plantations of olives, which 
 furnish the much-esteemed sweet oil of Aix, the best produced 
 in France ; the trade in which, however, began to decline j 
 after the destruction of a large portion of the olive trees in 
 1788. and has greatly fallen off since 1830, when an unusually 
 severe frost killed many more. Among the articles in which 
 the commerce has much increased within the present century, 
 are grain, almonds, plums, raisins, figs, brandy, wine, vermi 
 celli, and fish. The celebrated tepid mineral springs of Aix 
 were known to the Romans, but they were for a long time 
 disused. In 1704 they were again discovered, and identified 
 by the medals and inscriptions dug up; but they are in 
 less repute than formerly. The water is clear, light, and | 
 moderately warm, without much taste or smell. The bath ; 
 house belongs to the hospitals. Aix is the birthplace of | 
 Tournefort, Vanloo, and Adanson. Pop. in 1846, 27,280. 
 
 AIX, or AIX-LES-BAINS, a tn. Sardinian states, Savoy Pro- J 
 per, 8 m. N. Chamberry, near the Lake Bourget, in a fertile I 
 valley, through which a long avenue of poplars leads to the 
 lake. Aix is celebrated for its hot aluminous and sulphur 
 ous springs, which annually attract a number of strangers. 
 The waters were in repute with the ancients, by whom they 
 were called Aquce Gratiancc, because the proconsul Domitius 
 repaired them in the reign of the Emperor Gratian. There 
 still remain some ruins of a triumphal arch, and of a temple of 
 Diana. Pop. 2882. 
 
 AIX (!LE D ), or ILE D Ez, a small isl. on the coast of 
 France, dep. Charente-Inferieure, in the Bay of Biscay, lying 
 between the isl. of Oleron and Rochefort on the mainland, 
 about 5 m. off the shore, opposite the mouth of the Charente, 
 and separated from Rochelle and Breton by the Basque roads ; 
 lat. 46 36" N. ; Ion. 1 1 30" W. (R.) It has a strong mili 
 tary fort, and batteries, to defend the entrance of the roads ,* 
 and a village containing 256 inhabitants, the greater part 
 fishers. There is a lighthouse on the island. Pop. about 
 
 400 to 500. Aix is also the name of a small river in France, 
 
 dep. Loire Inferieure, which, after joining the Ysable, falls 
 into the Loire. 
 
 AIX D AXGILLON, a tn. France, dep. Cher, 1 2 m. 
 N.E. Bourges, formerly known under the name of the fortress | 
 of Gillon. It has two fairs in the year, at which a great ! 
 number of cattle and horses, asses and swine, are sold. Pop. 
 1426. 
 
 AIXE, a small tn. France, dep. Ilaute-Vicnne, 7 m. S. W. 
 Limoges, on the Vienne river. There are here manufactories 
 of bandboxes, nails, bricks, and tiles. Pop. 2631. 
 
 AIX-EN-OTHE, a small tn. France,*dep. Aube, 15 m. 
 W.S. W. Troyes ; has a cotton factory, a tannery, and hat and 
 tile works, and some trade in grain, wool, and cattle. Pop. 
 1997. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE [The waters of the chapel ; Ger 
 man, AacJicn; Latin, Aytiisgranwri], an anc. and celebrated 
 city of W. Germany, prov. Lower Rhine, cap. district of 
 same name; 38 m. W. by S. Cologne, 80 m. S.E. Brussels, 
 and 185 m. N.E. Paris; lat. 50 46 34" N.; Ion. 6 4 40" 
 E. (L.) It is pleasantly situated about 500 ft. above the sea j 
 level, in a rich valley, watered by the Wurm, and surrounded 
 by the Veen hills. The city, enclosed within ramparts, which 
 serve as promenades, is divided into the inner and the outer 
 towns; the streets are well built, particularly that called 
 New Street. It contains three monasteries, and 18 churches ; 
 a handsome theatre ; a public library, of 1 0,000 volumes ; a 
 
 gymnasium, or higher grammar school ; three hospitals ; and 
 other charitable institutions. In the townhall, in the market 
 place, is the coronation room, adorned with the portraits of 
 the German Emperors, and many precious relics of old German 
 art ; together with half-size portraits of Napoleon and the 
 Empress Josephine, painted by David, and presented by the 
 Emperor to the town. The market place itself is adorned 
 with a beautiful fountain, surmounted by a bronze statue of 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 As the chief station of the Belgo-Rhenish Railway, con 
 necting with Antwerp, Ostend, and Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle 
 affords an extensive mart to the commerce of Prussia, and is, 
 besides, the seat of commercial and factory courts. It was 
 formerly eminent as a manufacturing city, especially of cloth 
 and needles ; and its prosperity in this respect seems of late 
 to be reviving. Its woollen cloths are highly esteemed on the 
 continent of Europe. In 1846, there were 2362 hand, and 
 eight power looms, employed in this manufacture; 62 spinning 
 factories, with 62,699 spindles for carded, and seven mills, 
 with 6570 spindles, for combed wool. It is estimated that 
 about 3000 of the inhabitants are engaged in making the 
 cloth, while more than 12,000 in the town and neighbourhood 
 are occupied in preparing the wool. Carpets, needles, waxcloth, 
 leather, watches, soap, and sal-ammonia, are also manufactured 
 to a considerable extent. There is, likewise, a pretty large 
 wholesale wine trade. Although, however, presenting, in its 
 numerous chimney stalks, an appearance of being an extensive 
 seat of manufactures, and having considerable commercial 
 relations with France and Belgium, Aix-la-Chapelle derives 
 its celebrity chiefly from its historical associations ; and its 
 importance and prosperity, principally from the influx of 
 visitors to its baths, of the former of whom there are annually 
 from 7000 to 8000. There are, in all, eight mineral springs 
 here, six of them warm. The most famous is the imperial 
 spring, or Source de VEmpercur, which has a temperature of 
 143 Fah., and the vapour of which, when confined, deposits 
 sulphur. For the accommodation of strangers, there are eight 
 bathing houses. The rooms for bathing are excellently fitted 
 up, with baths from 4 to 5 .ft. deep, built in massive stone, 
 and in the old Roman style. Outside the walls is Lousberg, 
 rising nearly 300 ft. higher than the city. It is a favourite 
 summer evening resort of the denizens of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 where they can regale their eyes with a magnificent view of 
 the surrounding country, their ears with fine music, and their 
 stomachic cravings with all luxurious delights. 
 
 During the Middle Ages, it was a free imperial city, and its 
 citizens, throughout the empire, were exempt from feudal ser 
 vice, from attachment of their goods and persons, and from all 
 tolls and taxes. Charlemagne raised it to the rank of second 
 city in his empire, and made it the capital of all his dominions 
 N. of the Alps. It became his favourite residence after 768. 
 and he spared no expense in beautifying it. Till the dissolu 
 tion of the Germanic empire, the coronation of the Emperors 
 of Germany, by right, was celebrated here, though, in some } 
 instances, this ceremony was performed at Frankfort. The j 
 imperial insignia were preserved here till 1795, when they 
 were carried to Vienna. In the cathedral, a large flat slab of 
 marble marks the tomb of Charlemagne. In 997, Otho III. 
 ordered it to be opened, when the body of the Emperor was 
 found in good preservation. The church of the Franciscans 
 contains a splendid Descent from the Cross, by Rubens, 
 which was carried to Paris, but brought back on the fall of 
 Napoleon. 
 
 By the treaty of Luncville, concluded Feb. 9, 1801, which 
 separated the left bank of the Rhine from Germany, the city 
 was transferred to France, and remained the chief town of the 
 French department of the Roer, till 1814, when it was restored 
 to Prussia. 
 
 A peculiar historical interest attaches to this city, as the 
 place where several important congresses have been held. 
 Two famous treaties of peace have been concluded here ; the 
 one, May 2, 1668, between France and Spain, putting an end 
 to the war of devolution, carried on by Louis XIV., for the 
 possession of a great portion of the Spanish Netherlands, 
 which he claimed in right of his Queen ; and the other, October 
 2, 1748, between the principal sovereigns of Europe, termin 
 ating the war of the Austrian succession. Here, too, was 
 held the celebrated congress of 1818, its object and result 
 being the withdrawal of the allied troops from France. The 
 
AIZENAI 
 
 AJMEER 
 
 names of several of the streets, such as Alexander Street, after I Principato Ultra, district of, and 2 m. S.E. from Avcllino. 
 the Emperor of Russia ; Francis Street, after the Emperor of canton Solofra pop. 1490; and the third in the prov. of 
 Austria ; and Wellington Street, were given in consequence of | Principato Citra, district of, and 3 m. N.E. from Salerno, 
 this congress. Pop. in 1842, including Burtscheid, which canton of Baronisi. 
 
 may he considered a suburb, 49,698. The DISTRICT, or I AJETA, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Citra, district Paola, 
 
 governmental circle (Eegierungs-bezirk) of Aix-la-Chapelle, i 14m. N. Umhriatico; upon a hill. Pop. 3490. 
 
 or Aachen, as it ought more properly to be styled, lies in the 
 prov. of the Lower Rhine, bounded, N. by the district of Diis- 
 seldorf, E. by Cologne and Coblentz, S. by Treves and the 
 grand duchy of Luxemburg, and W. by Belgium and Hol 
 land. It has an area of 1200 geo. sq. m., and is watered by 
 the Roer and the Wurm, which fall into the Maas; and by the 
 Kill and the Our, which fall into the Moselle. The S. part of 
 the district is hilly and moorish; towards the N., it is rich 
 and fertile. In the S.E., the people are mainly employed in 
 mining ; in the S.W., especially at Malmedy, St. Vith, and 
 
 AJMEER or EAJPOOTANA, a prov. Hindoostan, situated 
 between lat. 24 and 31 N., and bounded, N. by Mooltan, 
 Lahore, and Delhi; E. by Delhi and Agra; S. by Goojcrat 
 and Malwa; and W. by Mooltan and Sinde. Length 350 m., 
 average breadth, 200. A great portion of the surface is 
 desert, and part of it wholly destitute of inhabitants, water, 
 
 and vegetation. In the S., it is watered by 
 
 and is consequently more fertile. The whole of the soil 
 remarkably saline, containing many salt springs and salt lakes, 
 and the water of a large portion of the wells is brackish. In 
 
 Eupen, in leather making ; in the N., in agriculture ; and in j many places, it is covered with the cactus, and other thorny 
 the centre, in cattle rearing, and in various kinds of manufac- j plants ; but, except in the hilly parts, the province is almost 
 
 tures, more especially of iron, hardware, and woollen goods. 
 There are 523 elementary schools in the district, attended by 
 63,237 pupils ; and attending other schools there is a further 
 number of 1391, giving a total of 64,628 children attending 
 all descriptions of schools, being 18 73 per cent, of the children 
 between six and 14 years of age. Pop. 380,000. 
 
 AIZENAI, a tn. France, dep. Vende e, 8 m. N. Bourbon- 
 Vendee, in the commune of Poire. Pop. 3519. 
 
 AJACCIO, or A.TAZZO [Latin, Adjaeium}, a tn. France, 
 cap. of the dep. and of the isl. of Corsica. It lies on the S. W. 
 coast of the isl., on a tongue of land in a bay on the N. side 
 of the Gulf of Ajaccio, surrounded by high mountains, which 
 shelter it from the N. and E. winds : 60 m. S.W. Bastia, the 
 former cap. of the isl. The principal streets are broad and 
 straight, and the houses well built. It is the see of a bishop ; 
 and has a cathedral, a communal college, a royal school of 
 navigation, a public library of about 14,000 volumes, an agri 
 cultural society, and a botanical garden, on property once be 
 longing to the Bonaparte family, with many fine promenades. 
 It is likewise the seat of a tribunal of primary jurisdiction, 
 and one of commerce ; and a military place of the third class. 
 Its harbour, the entrance to which is rendered unsafe by pro 
 
 destitute of trees. On the N. W., some parts arc of hard clay, 
 which sounds under the horses feet like a board, and is quite 
 destitute of vegetation. The highest mountains are the Aravulli 
 range, in which is the peak Abu (which see}. The inhabitants 
 of Ajmeer are usually divided into two great tribes the Elm- 
 tores, and the Chohan Seesodya Eajpoots. The common in 
 habitants of the desert are Jauts ; the higher classes, Ehatores. 
 They are described as handsome in person, hardy, and brave: 
 but indolent, and much addicted to the use of opium. The 
 stock of the country consists of bullocks and camels. The wild 
 animals are the desert rat, whose undermining operations ren 
 der the ground dangerous to horsemen ; the fox ; the antelope ; 
 and the goorkhur, or wild ass, whose speed outstrips that of 
 the fleetest horse. The villages are generally built of a coarse 
 stone, brought from the neighbouring hills, the huts of the 
 desert being composed of straw. The three great divisions of 
 Ajmeer are, S., Oderpoor or Marwur ; W. and N., Joodpoor or 
 Marwar; and E. and N., Jeypoor, Jyengaur, or Ambher, all 
 three names being applied to it. Ajmeer was never thoroughly 
 subdued under any of the great dynasties that prevailed in 
 India. In 1193, it was overrun by Mohammed, the first 
 Gauride sovereign, and continued tributary to Delhi till 1748, 
 
 jectiug rocks, is secure and commodious, though exposed to the when its numerous chiefs and princes, always of a rebellious 
 winds from the \V. The town and bay are defended by a cita- j character, assumed total independence. In the course of the 
 del. The bay, which is one of the finest in Corsica, is bounded present century, it was brought under British sway, with 
 by Cape Sanguinario on the N., and by Cape Muro on the S. manifest advantage to the district and people; large numbers 
 An intermittent light is established on the summit of Sangui- I of whom, leaving their fastnesses, came to resume their aban- 
 nario Island, in lat. 41 52 50" N.; Ion. 8 35 50" E. The doned abodes, as soon as peace and tranquillity were assured 
 
 lighthouse is 52 ft. high, and the light stands 321 ft. above 
 the level of the sea, and may be seen from a distance of 20 m. 
 The principal trade is in olive oil, wine, grain, oranges, citrons, 
 and other fruit ; and in coral, the fishing of which, together 
 with that of anchovies, is prosecuted to a considerable extent 
 on the coasts, and particularly in the Straits of Bonifacio. 
 
 i Ajaccio is famous as the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte, 
 vho was born here on August 15, 1769. The register of 
 
 ! Napoleon s baptism is to be seen in the parish books. The 
 house in which he was born, now inhabited by his mother s 
 relations, of the name of Eamolini, and still one of the best 
 houses in Ajaccio, forms one side of a little square, planted at 
 the four angles with four acacias. The room in which he 
 first drew breath is dark, having only one window. The 
 Melelli olive gardens in the neighbourhood, formerly the pro 
 perty of the Bonapartes, was a favourite resort of Napoleon, 
 
 in his young days. Pop. in 1846, 11,541. 
 A JAN, a coast and country of E. Africa 
 
 to them by British influence. 
 
 AJMEER, or AJMEEE, a city, Hindoostan, formerly 
 cap. of the prov. of the same name, is 540 m. N. by E. Bom 
 bay ; lat. 26 20 N.; Ion. 74 40 E. It is a place of some 
 antiquity, and, during the reign of Jehangeer, was occasionally 
 the residence of the court. In 1616, that Emperor was visited 
 at Ajmeer by the English ambassador, Sir Thomas Eoe, and, 
 about the same period, a factory was established in the city 
 by the East India Company. In 1818, it was ceded to the 
 British by Dowlet Eow Sindia, and, in consequence of a long 
 period of war and anarchy, M r as then in a most ruinous state. 
 In the course, however, of five years of peace and regulai 
 government, it had risen from its ruins, and has gradually 
 become one of the handsomest cities in British India streets, 
 squares, and bazaars, rising in it daily ; while a general uni 
 formity of plan has been maintained throughout. It has now, 
 
 also, become the place of residence of many merchants of tin 
 about lat. 9 N.; first consequence in Marwar. It lies at the foot of a consider- 
 
 lon. 50 E. It is little known ; soil generally flat and sandy ; j able hill, the rocks, trees, and brushwood behind forming a 
 and is said to possess a valuable breed of horses, which are picturesque background. On the summit of the hill stands 
 
 bought up in great numbers by foreign merchants. 
 
 AJEHO, a tn. of the Chinese empire, territory of 
 Manchuria, 120 m. N. Kirin, and 75 m. W. Soongari. It is 
 of recent formation, and is inhabited solely by immigrants from 
 China. It is governed by a mandarin of the second order, 
 who has several Christian families within his jurisdiction. 
 
 a fortress, named Taraghur, nearly 2 m. in circumference, 
 with bastions, bomb-proofs, storehouses, tanks, and cisterns. 
 It is capable of containing 1200 men, but is now fast going to 
 decay. A fane, or temple, within the fortress, is one of the 
 most ancient and entire monuments of Hindoo architecture. 
 The old palace and gardens of Shah Jehan are still in exist- 
 
 The population amounts to 60,000, and is daily increasing. ! ence, the former being partly habitable. The most remark - 
 AJELLO, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Citra, district of able object connected with Ajmeer, is the tomb of Khoja 
 Paola, 10 m. S.W. Cosenza. It is built on a rock, and has Mayen ud Deer, a renowned Mahometan saint, to which 
 
 a fortified castle, said to be ancient Tilcsium. Pop. 3860. I many pilgrimages are made by the devout Mussulmans. In 
 
 There are three other towns of the same name in Naples ; one a valley just above the city, the Emperors of Delhi formed, 
 
 in the prov. of Abruzzo Ultra II., district of. and 21 m. S.E. 
 from Aquila, near the Lake Fucino ; another in the prov. of 
 
 by means of strong embankments, a fine lake, which, during 
 the rainy season, is 6 m. in circumference. The place is 
 
AJOFEIN 
 
 AKASSA 
 
 also celebrated for its gardens and vineyards, tlie grapes 
 produced being the largest and best in India. Pop. about 
 25,000. (Hamilton s East India Gazetteer; Hcber s Journal; 
 Historical and Descriptive Account of British India; Martin s 
 East Indies.) 
 
 AJOFRIN, a tn. Spain, New Castile, prov. of, and 9 m. S. 
 from Toledo. It stands on a plain, and comprises about 30 
 well-built streets, and three squares, with a church, chapter 
 house, courthouse, two hospitals, five schools, and a decayed 
 old prison. The inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, in 
 weaving coarse cloths and serges, and also in roperies, and 
 matting factories. Some sheep and mules arc pastured in the 
 surrounding country. Pop. 2883. 
 
 AJURUOCA, a tn. Brazil, prov. Minns Geraes, on the 
 Ajuruoca river, here crossed by a bridge, 179 m. S.W. Ouro 
 Preto, and 117 N.E. Rio de Janeiro. It lies in a fertile 
 country, at the foot of the Mantiqueira ridge of hills, and has 
 a church, prison, and townhouse. The soil of its environs, 
 once auriferous, has long been exhausted of the precious metals, 
 and the inhabitants have consequently turned their attention 
 to the more profitable pursuits of agriculture, and rearing 
 swine for the Rio de Janeiro market. The district is rich 
 in tobacco, millet, mandioca, sugar cane, and coffee, and, with 
 the town, contains a pop. of 12,000. (Die. Geo. Imp. Brazil.) 
 
 AKABAH (GULF, CASTLE, and VILLAGE of), in Arabia, an 
 arm of the Red Sea, on the E. side of the peninsula of Mount 
 Sinai, which separates it from the Gulf of Suez. It extends 
 nearly 100 m. in a straight direction N.N.E., being in general 
 about 9 or 10 m. wide, and, where broadest, 16 or 17 m. It 
 has the appearance of a deep narrow ravine ; the circumjacent 
 hills rising, in some places, 2000 to 2500 ft. perpendicularly 
 from the shore ; the varied hues of the granite rocks, bathed 
 in sunlight, presenting a spectacle of wild magnificence. The 
 gulf has in some places a depth of 200 fathoms, and, in some 
 parts, is unfathomable ; the flow of its water is gentle and 
 equable, though at times strong, from the violence -of the 
 winds. At its S. extremity it communicates with the Red 
 Sea, by channels on each side of the island of Tiran ; one of 
 which, that between the latter and Ras Furtak, being about 
 1 m. wide at its narrowest part. From Ras Mohammed, 
 further to the S. than the Strait of Tiran, to Akabah, the gulf 
 consists of a succession of bays, bounded by rocky headlands. 
 It is subject to boisterous winds, and dangerous and sudden 
 swells, and is, in many parts, obstructed with hidden shoals 
 and coral reefs, which render the navigation peculiarly unsafe. 
 By the ancients it was styled Sinus Elanaticus, from the port of 
 
 Elana, at its N. extremity. (See AILAH.) On the E. side of 
 
 the gulf, is the CASTLE of AKABAH, from which the former 
 takes its name ; lat. 29 30 58" N ; Ion. 35 53" E. (L.J It 
 is an oblong quadrangle of high thick walls, with a tower or 
 
 AKABAH ENTRANCE TO THE FORTRESS. 
 JP.om Lalwrde. VoyaKC dc I Arabie Putree. 
 
 bastion at each of the four corners. All around the walls, on 
 the inside, is a row of chambers, or magazines, one story 
 high, with a solid flat roof, forming a platform round the 
 interior of the castle. On this platform are erected, in several 
 parts, temporary huts, or chambers, covered with the stalks 
 of palm leaves, and occupied by the garrison apparently as 
 a dwelling. (Robinson.) It is a place of no strength, presided 
 
 over by a Turkish governor, and garrisoned by some 30 or 40 
 Egyptian soldiers. It is said to be infested with scorpions, for 
 the destruction of which a numerous staff of cats is maintained. 
 This fortress, like some others, was built for the protection 
 of the pilgrim caravans on their way from Cairo to Mecca. 
 
 Government .stores are here kept for their supply. The 
 
 VILLAGE of Akabah is situated at the N. extremity of the 
 
 gulf, and is supposed to be the E:don-yeber of the Old Testa- 
 
 | mcnt. It is now remarkable only for its date groves, some 
 
 : of which are 1 in. in length. Water is plentiful and good ; 
 
 fruits and vegetables abound. The name Akabah, signifying 
 
 a mountain pass, or steep declivity, is derived from the long 
 
 and difficult descent of the pilgrim route, from the mountains 
 
 in the neighbourhood of the village, called by Edrisi ATcabal 
 
 Ailah. There is another Akala, a day s distance from the 
 
 above, called Akaba Essliamic, or the Syrian Akaba. It lies 
 in the great pilgrim route from Damascus to Mecca, and, like 
 the Egyptian Akaba, appears to take its name from a steep 
 acclivity. 
 
 AKALZIK, AKIIALZIK, or AKI^KA, a tn. Russian Ar 
 menia, district of same name, 110 m. W. Tiflis, 125 m. 
 N.E. Erzeroom; lat. 41 35 N.; Ion. 42 45 E.; on the left 
 bank of the Dalka, 10 m. N.W. from its junction with the 
 Kur. It is without walls, but defended by a strong citadel, 
 built on a rock, which, when it belonged to Turkey, baffled 
 all the attempts of the Russians to reduce it. Akalzik is 
 the seat of a Greek archbishop, and contains two Christian 
 churches, a Jews synagogue, and several mosques ; one of 
 which, that of Sultan Ahmed, is built on the model of St. 
 Sophia at Constantinople, and has a college and library 
 attached to it. The latter was accounted one of the most 
 curious in the East ; but the Russians have removed about 
 300 of the most valuable works to St. Petersburg!!. The 
 neighbourhood produces silk, honey, and wax, with excellent 
 fruits, raisins, peaches, apricots, and figs. Some manufac 
 tures are carried on, and the inhabitants prosecute an active 
 trade with various places on the Black Sea. Formerly a 
 large slave market was held here ; but it has been suppressed 
 by the Russians, since they acquired possession of the town. 
 In the vicinity are some alkaline springs. Population (1850), 
 12,060, which includes Armenians, Georgians, Turks, Rus 
 sians, and Jews. 
 
 The former Turkish pashalic of Aklialzik or Tchddir, as 
 named by the Turks, forms now a political and administrative 
 subdivision of Russian Armenia. It is a mountainous country, 
 watered by the Kur. From the elevation of the country, the 
 winters are long and rigorous ; while the heat in summer is 
 | equally intense. The climate, however, is healthy, the air 
 j pure, and the soil fertile ; but the sudden changes of the 
 ; seasons are unfavourable to cultivation ; maize, barley, 
 tobacco, flax, and cotton are among the ordinary produce, 
 while excellent fruits grow without much culture. The 
 inhabitants raise cattle and sheep in considerable numbers, 
 particularly the latter, and pay great attention to the breeding 
 of bees and silkworms. Game is abundant. Some woollen, 
 cotton, and silk stuffs are fabricated ; and the exports consist 
 I chiefly of cattle, hides, tallow, honey, and wax. The territory 
 j is one of the last conquests of Russia from Turkey. Pop 
 estimated at 70,000 Georgians, Turks, Armenians, and Jews. 
 AKARAO, a harbour or inlet in the isl. of New Mun- 
 ster, New Zealand, in Bank s Peninsula, having Heroine 
 Head on the N.E., and Iron Head on the S. ; lat. 43 54 S. ; 
 Ion. 173 1 E. (K.) The harbour stretches N. into the land 
 for about 1 m., with an average breadth of about 2m. A 
 settlement was formed here by the French in 1840; and a 
 French frigate was, in 1846, constantly on the station for the 
 protection of the settlers, who are few in number, not amount 
 ing to 100. They live peaceably under British laws, and 
 employ themselves wholly in agriculture, and in cultivating 
 gardens for their own support. The harbour of Akarao is 
 said to be a very fine one. 
 
 AKASSA, a tn. or vil., \V. Africa, on the banks, and near 
 the mouth of the Rio Nun. The huts of which it is composed 
 are of a quadrangular form, and are built of bamboo, and 
 roofed with palm leaves ; they are mostly of two compart 
 ments, communicating with each other. The bcdplaces are 
 flat narrow boards, raised about 18 inches on four stones. 
 The native males are well made and active, and occupy them 
 selves in fishing, and the culture of small plantations of cas- 
 
AKELY 
 
 B7 
 
 AKOWAAY 
 
 sada, Indian corn, and bananas. They barter palm oil for 
 tobacco and spirituous liquors, of which they are excessively 
 
 fond. Pop. about 200. AKASSA is also the name of a 
 
 river of N.W. Africa, which flows along part of the N. border 
 of the Sahara, and S. boundary of Morocco, and falls into the 
 Atlantic about 30 m. S.W. from Cape Non; lat. 28 15 N. 
 (Allen s Niger Expedition.} 
 
 AKELY, or OAKLEY-CUM-STOCKHOLT, a par. England, 
 co. Bucks ; area, 1080 ac. ; 2 m. N.E. Buckingham ; 7 ac. of 
 this par. divided between poor families and widows. Pop. in 
 1841, 362. 
 
 AKENIIAM, a par. England, co. Suffolk, 3 m. N. by \V. 
 Ipswich; area, 1060 ac. Pop. in 1841, 117. 
 
 AKEREIT, a large vil. in Kurdistan, 35 m. N.E. by E. 
 Mosul; lat. 36 40 N.; Ion. 43 40 E. It consists of about 
 500 houses surrounded by gardens, and is protected by a 
 strong castle, situated on the summit of a rock which over 
 looks the village. (Col. Shiel s Journey through Kurdistan, 
 and accompanying Map, London Geo. Joiir., vol. viii.) 
 
 AKERM ANN fane. Tyras] , a seaport tn. Russia in Europe, 
 prov. Bessarabia, near the mouth of the Dniestr in the Black 
 Sea ; lat. 46 11 51" N. ; Ion. 30 21 51" E. (L.) It is ill built 
 and dirty. It contains some mosques and Greek churches. The 
 port is good, and is commanded by an old dilapidated citadel, 
 which, when the town was under Ottoman sway, contained a 
 strong garrison. Some defences still remain. The vicinity pro 
 duces fine grapes, from which excellent wine is made. Large 
 quantities of salt are made from extensive saline lakes in the 
 7ieighbourhood. The site of Akermann is believed to have 
 been included in the Roman colony of Julia Alba, A treaty 
 was signed here, Oct. 6, 1826, between Russia and the Porte, 
 by which Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia, were made depend 
 encies of Russia, and passed from under the protection of 
 Turkey. Pop. (1849), 16,076; chiefly Greeks, Jews, and 
 Armenians. 
 
 AKHALKIIALAK, or ACHALKALAKI, a tn. Armenia, 
 belonging to Russia, on the W. border of Georgia, district 
 of, and 35 m. S.E. by E. from Akalzik, and 80 m. W.S.W. 
 Tiflis ; on an affluent of the Kour (anc. Cyrus) ; lat. 41 20 N. ; 
 Ion. 43 20 E. In the Middle Ages, this was one of the 
 
 most considerable cities of Armenia. There is another 
 
 town of the same name in Georgia, 10 m. S.S.E. Gori, and 
 30 m. N.W. Tiflis ; lat. 41 52 N. ; Ion. 44 22 E. 
 
 AKHALZIKH, a tn. Asiatic Russia. See AKALZIK. 
 
 AK-1IISSAK [White castle], or ACSA, a tn. Asiatic 
 Turkey, pash. Anadolia, 56 m. N.E. Smyrna, on the Kodos, 
 in the valley of the Hyllus ; lat. 38 55 N. ; Ion. 27 55 E. 
 It consists of about 2000 houses, and several hundred huts 
 for the poorer population ; and contains nine mosques and one 
 Greek church. About 300 of the houses are inhabited by 
 Greeks, 30 by Armenians, and the rest by Turks. This town 
 has been long noted for the skill of its dyers, and still main 
 tains its reputation in that art; large quantities of scarlet 
 cloth being sent weekly to Smyrna. Ak-IIissar teems with 
 relics of a former city, although there is no trace of the site 
 of any ruin or early building. These relics comprise frag 
 ments of carved stone so abundant, that, in many places, the 
 streets of the modern town are paved with them ; while, for 
 a distance of 2 m., the wells are formed of Corinthian pillars, 
 the bucket being drawn through holes cut in the centre. 
 Here stood the ancient Thyatira, the seat of one of the seven 
 churches of Asia. Pop. about 5000 ; of which nearly one-sixth 
 are Greeks. 
 
 AKHLAT, a tn. Asiatic Turkey, on the N. shore of 
 Lake Van, at the foot of the Nimrud-Tagh mountains, 30 m. 
 N.E. Bitlis, or Bedlis. The environs abound in grapes and 
 other fruits. It is, however, a poor place, though formerly 
 the residence of the ancient kings of Armenia. The relics 
 of the old city, with numerous other remains of antiquity, 
 are at some distance from the present town, in a ravine. 
 Akhlat is surrounded with a double wall and ditch ; it is 
 further protected by towers and a citadel. The houses are 
 built of square stones cemented by clay, similar to those of 
 Bitlis. Number of households, about 1000. Probable pop. 
 from 3000 to 4000. 
 
 AKHMIN, or EKIIMIM, a tn. Upper Egypt, 15 m. N.W. 
 Girgeh, on the right bank of the Nile, from which it is 
 about j m. distant. It has a bazaar, and a market every 
 Wednesday. Akhinin stands on the site of Chemmis. or 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Panopolis, formerly one of the most celebrated cities of 
 the Thebai d. On the side of the town furthest from the 
 river, beyond the present walls, are the remains of some of 
 its ancient buildings. Fabrics of cotton are manufactured 
 here. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 AKHTIRKA, or AKURKA, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 
 about 60 m. N.W. from Kharkoff, or Kharkov, chief place 
 of a district, and situated on a small river of the same name ; 
 lat. 50 17 58" N.; Ion. 34 57 2" E. (L.) It is surrounded with 
 ditches, and contains eight churches ; one of which is held in 
 great veneration, from its containing an image of the Virgin. 
 There is here a manufacture of light textile stuffs ; and, on 
 the 9th of every May, a great market, or fair, is held. The 
 environs are fertile ; and the orchards produce excellent plums 
 and cherries. Akhtirka was founded by the Poles, in 1641. 
 Pop. 13,500. 
 
 AKI, a principality, Japan, in the W. portion of the 
 isl. of Niphon, opposite that of Sikoko. It is divided into 
 eight provinces ; is mountainous and woody ; the soil is poor, 
 producing only some rice of an inferior quality, and a little 
 grain. There are salt works on the coast ; and sponges are 
 found upon the reefs which border it. 
 
 AKIR, a vil. Syria, on the right bank of, and 3 m. N. from 
 the Wes Surur; lat. 31 50 N.; Ion. 34 50 E. There is a 
 river of the same name in the S. part of Syria ; lat. 28 54 N. ; 
 Ion. 33 40 E. 
 
 AKISKA. See AKALZIK. 
 
 AKKA, a tn. Morocco, prov. Sooza, on the border of the 
 Great Desert, on the caravan route from Morocco to Timbuc- 
 too ; lat. 29 4 N. ; Ion. 8 30 W. It lies in the midst of a 
 well-watered and well-cultivated territory, and forms a con 
 venient halting place for caravans. It contains only about 
 200 houses, of which 50 are inhabited by Jews. 
 
 AKKRUM, a vil. Holland, prov. Friesland, 8 m. N.W. 
 Heerenveen, and 7 m. E. Sneek. It is a beautiful and pros 
 perous place, lying on the left bank of the Boorn, on the 
 highway between Heerenveen and Leeuwarden. It possesses 
 a large Calvinistic and a Baptist church, a school, boat-building 
 yards, anchor smithies, and a tannery. The inhabitants are 
 employed in the rearing of cattle, in river traffic, and in 
 trading, chiefly in butter and cheese. Pop. 1100. (Van 
 der Aa s Nedcrlanden.) 
 
 AKLANSK, a tn. and territory, Siberia, gov. Okhotsk, 
 on the left bank of the Aklan, near the head of the Gulf of 
 Penjinsk; lat. 61 45 N.; Ion. 162 30 E. It was founded 
 in 1679; has some fortifications, constructed of wood, to 
 protect it from the incursions of the Tchuktchi and Koriaks, 
 and is guarded by a post of Cossacks. It is the place of 
 barter with the nomadic tribes. The adjacent country is 
 little cultivated. Pop. 2000. 
 
 AKNUR. See AGNUR. 
 
 AKORA, or AKARA, a tn. in Afghanistan, on the right 
 bank of, and 3 m. from the Cabool river, and 27 m. E. by S. 
 Peshawer ; lat. 34 3 N. ; Ion. 72 10 E. It was formerly 
 a place of considerable importance, with a neat mosque and 
 handsome bazaar, built of stone, but has been nearly laid in 
 ruins by the Sikhs. 
 
 AKOOSCHA, a territory and tn. Russia, prov. Daghes- 
 tan. The former occupies the E. slope of the Caucasus, and 
 is inhabited by a people called Lesghians, who speak a pecu 
 liar dialect. They consist of about 18,000 families, dis 
 tributed through 34 villages ; and are governed by a kind of 
 federative republic, composed of 12 cantons. Each village 
 has a chief of its own, who is always the oldest man in it. 
 The people are employed partly in agriculture, and partly in 
 rearing sheep ; but in the latter much more extensively than 
 the former. The town, capital of the district, is situated on a 
 high mount of the Caucasus, near the source of the Torkali, 
 55 m. W.N.W. Derbent. Pop. (1819), 3000. 
 
 AKOWAAY, a tn. and independent settlement on the 
 Guinea coast, situated on the N. side of a lake-like expanse 
 of a lagoon, which extends, parallel with the sea, along the 
 Bight of Benin, from the E. of Whydah to the river Volta. 
 Akowaay lies on a rising ground, is shaded with fine trees, 
 and is well built for a town in this part of Africa. Large 
 cotton trees grow in the neighbourhood ; and the soil is good, 
 and well suited for growing corn, manioc, gourds, and all 
 sorts of vegetables. Pop. 7000 to 8000. (Duncan s Travels 
 in Western Africa.) 
 
AKRABI 
 
 AKYAB 
 
 AKRAPJ, a small tribe, inhabiting a district of about 
 20 sq. m. on the S. W. coast of Arabia, near Aden. They are 
 described, by Captain llaines, as a fine body of men, but 
 addicted to war and rapine. The women are pretty, of a 
 slight, elastic, healthful form, with great cheerfulness of 
 manner. The chief produce of the tcrritoiy occupied by the 
 Akrabi is millet, of which they export great quantities. 
 They also raise large flocks of sheep and goats. 
 
 AKRON, a small but flourishing tn., U States, Ohio, on 
 the Ohio Canal, 30 m. from its junction with Lake Erie, and ! 
 105 m. E. Columbus. It carries on an active and extensive I 
 trade; and contains a courthouse, a jail built of stone, five j 
 churches belonging to various dissenting bodies, an academy, 
 and six schools. Its manufactures comprise four fulling mills, 
 five woollen factories, four flourmills, a powder mill, a grist 
 and oilmill. There are two printing offices, and three weekly 
 papers. Pop. 1665. 
 
 AKSAI. 1, A river, Circassia, rising in the N.E. slopes 
 of the Caucasus, about lat. 42 20 N. ; Ion. 43 52 E. It 
 flows N.N.E., and falls into the Terek about 48 m. from where 
 the latter joins the Caspian Sea, after a course of about 
 120 m. 2, A vil. on the right bank of the above river, 35 m. 
 S.S.W. Kizliar, said to be frequented by slave-dealing Jews 
 and Armenians. 
 
 AK-SERAI [White palace], a tn. Asiatic Turkey, cap. of 
 a sanjak of same name, prov. Kharidj, about 90 m. N.E. 
 Konia ; lat. 38 35 X. ; Ion. 34 5 E. It lies in an open and 
 well-cultivated valley, on the left bank of the S.W. Kizil 
 Irmak. Ak-serai, under the Arabs, was a considerable and opu 
 lent town, and now derives its chief interest from its numer 
 ous Saracenic remains, some of which are of great beauty. 
 It contains 810 houses, a few of which are occupied by Ar 
 menians, the rest by Mahometans. The sanjak of Ak-serai 
 occupies a large plain, inhabited chiefly by wandering Kurds 
 and Turcomans, the former of predatory habits, the latter 
 leading a quiet and pastoral life. The bead of the valley of 
 the Beyaz-su is composed of level uplands, terminating in 
 abrupt cliffs overhanging deep ravines, with shingly and 
 sandy declivities, strewed with rocky detritus. 
 
 AK-SHEHR [White town], a tn. Asiatic Turkey, pash. 
 Kharidj, sanjak Ak-shehr, 70 m. N. W. Konia ; lat. 38 23 N.; 
 Ion. 31 25 E. ; on an E. slope of the Sultan Dagh mountains, 
 at the entrance into an extensive valley, watered by the river 
 Kazma, which flows into the salt lake of Ain Gliiul, between 
 2 and 3 m. N. from the town. The houses rise in terraces, 
 one above the other, or are dispersed amidst groves and gar 
 dens. There is a carpet manufactory here, and a consider 
 able trade. Antiquaries have hazarded the opinion, though 
 unsupported by evidence, that more than one ancient city 
 had occupied the site of Ak-shehr, or its immediate vicinity. 
 Pop. 6500. 
 
 AKSU, a small tn. Asiatic Turkey, pash. Anadolia, sanjak 
 Khodavenkiar, 18 m. E. by S. Brusa, and about the same 
 distance E. Mount Olympus. The high road from Kutaya 
 to Brusa and Mondania the latter on the gulf of that name 
 passes through it. 
 
 AKSIIllS SK, a fortress, Siberia, gov. Irkutsk, right 
 bank of the Onon, near the Chinese frontier, and 70 m. S.W. 
 Doroninsk. It has some trade in minever and zibelline 
 skins. 
 
 AKSOU, AKSU, or OKSU, a district and large commercial 
 and manufacturing tn. Little Bokhara, a prov. of China, in the 
 N.W. part of that empire. The town is 310 m. N.E. by E 
 Ka.shgar; lat. 41 N.; Ion. 79 7 E. ; and is situated in the 
 valley of the Aksou, at the termination of a road leading 
 across the Tian Shan mountains, to the province or district oi 
 Ilf, with which it carries on an extensive trade. It is a 
 flourishing place, being much resorted to by caravans from 
 all parts, and being a convenient place of exchange for the 
 merchants of Kussia, China, and Tartary. It is celebratet 
 for its manufactures of cotton cloth and saddlery. The 
 former is a peculiar fabric, called lias, and is unglazed; the 
 latter is manufactured from deerskin, and is highly esteemed 
 The saddles and bridles, in particular, are elaborately and 
 beautifully embroidered, and otherwise ornamented, and are 
 exported in great numbers to distant countries. The artizans 
 of the place also work skilfully in precious stones, and execute 
 jasper vases with much taste. On market days, the town is 
 crowded with buyers and sellers, and presents a very lively 
 
 and stirring appearance. There are here a Chinese custom 
 house, and garrison of about 3000 men, the officers of which, 
 however, are accountable to those at Ouchi, a large town 
 about 70 m. W. Aksou. 
 
 Aksou was formerly the residence of the kings of Kashgar 
 and Yarkand. In 1716, it was nearly destroyed by an earth 
 quake, and, in the beginning of the present century, suffered 
 severely from an inundation, by which 3000 persons perished. 
 The district is well watered by several mountain streams, and 
 is very fertile, producing grain, fruits, vegetables, and cotton 
 in abundance, and pasturing great, numbers of cattle and 
 sheep. The inhabitants are industrious, generally in com- 
 brtable circumstances, and are remarkable for their generosity 
 nd hospitality, often ridiculing the niggardliness of the other 
 Mahometans. A Chinese writer thus naively characterizes 
 hem : Their manners are simple; they are neither cowards 
 nor rogues, like the other Mahometans; they are fond of 
 singing, drinking, and dancing, like those of KuclieV They 
 ire said, however, to be, with all their good qualities, ex- 
 remely irascible; and, when excited, apt to have recourse to 
 violence. There is said to be a mine of rubies near Aksou, 
 but not worked. Pop. of town, 20,000 ; of the entire district, 
 considerably upwards of 100,000. 
 
 AKSTAFA, a river and valley, Georgia. The river is 
 an affluent of the Kur from the right, into which it falls, about 
 32 m. S.S.E. Tiflis. It rises about 15 m. N.W. the N. point 
 of Lake Goksha, or Sdvan, and runs a generally N.E. course 
 of about 50 m. The valley through which it flows is volcanic, 
 and the villages in the valley are nearly all Armenian. Several 
 of them have vineyards, and plantations of mulberries, but of 
 no great extent. (Dubois de Montpereux s Voy. Autour du 
 Caucase.} 
 
 AKTEBOLT, a small haven of European Turkey, sanjak 
 Kirklisch, on the S.W. coast of the Black Sea; lat. 42 4 N. ; 
 Ion. 27 59 E. 
 
 AKUN, an isl. and active volcano, of the Aleutian series; 
 lat. 54 17 N.; Ion. 165 32 W. 
 AKURKA. See AKHTIKKA. 
 
 AKUTAN, an isl. and active volcano, of the Aleutian 
 series ; lat. 54 22 N. , Ion. 165 40 W. (R.) The volcano 
 is 3332 ft. in height. 
 
 AKYAB, a seaport, India beyond the Ganges, prov. 
 Arracan, of which it is the cap. as well as of a district of its 
 own name. It lies on an island at the mouth of the Mayu or 
 Arracan river; lat. 20 8 24" N. ; Ion. 92 54 E. (u.) The 
 town, which was commenced in 1826, is composed of houses 
 built chiefly of bamboo. They are, however, spacious and 
 airy, and are elevated a few feet above the ground, to guard 
 against damp. The harbour, though its entrance be rather 
 intricate for strangers, has good and safe anchorage, in 3 to 
 5J fathoms water. This port has been rapidly rising in im 
 portance, more especially as respects its shipments of rice to 
 various ports in the East, to Europe, and even to America. 
 When cleaned in the U. States, it is sometimes re-exported 
 with the Carolina brand upon it, being little, if at all, inferior 
 to the rice of that State. Akyab is a free port, and all 
 commodities, opium exccpted, are exempt from duty. The 
 imports are unimportant, there being no market for any 
 quantity of one article. There is a civil judge here, who 
 tries all suits for sums not exceeding 500 rupees (50) ; the 
 language used in this court is Burmese. Pop. about 5000. 
 The DISTRICT of Akyab is the largest of the three into 
 which the prov. of Arracan is divided. It is much inter 
 sected with rivers and salt-water creeks or natural canals, 
 with water sufficient to admit a vessel of 300 to 400 tons, pro 
 ceeding 20 to 25 m. beyond Akyab. llice is the principal 
 crop, and the only grain exported. The natives are deficient 
 in the method of cleaning it, so that it is often shipped in the 
 husk. Other articles of produce exported are sandoway, 
 tobacco, bees wax, honey, raw cotton, hides, horns, wood 
 oils, shark fins, fish maws, chillies, ginger, cows, bullocks, 
 ponies, and salt, which last is next in importance to grain. 
 At the port, and in the district of Akyab, there are generally, 
 loading at the same time, between 100 and 200 vessels, chiefly 
 small craft from the Coromandel coast, where paddy is cleaned 
 for the Mauritius and Bourbon markets. During 11 years, 
 ending 1848, the grain exports from the port and district 
 amounted to the average of 62,425 tons; and the number of 
 vessels to 525. (Jour. Geo. Soc.; Nautical Magazine, 1849.) 
 
ALA 
 
 ALAOON 
 
 ALA, a tn. Austrian Tyrol, circle of, and 9 m. S. from 
 Roveredo, on the left bank of the Adige. It is the last station 
 in Tyrolese ground when travelling towards Italy, and lies on 
 a picturesque slope, its well-built houses, in scattered groups, 
 forming a kind of crescent, half encircling the mountains 
 which rise above it. Ala has a gymnasium and elementary 
 school; manufactories of velvet and silk, more important 
 formerly than at present; and its inhabitants are also en 
 gaged in raising grapes, grain, fruit, and in meadow cul 
 ture. It occupies the site of the Mansio ad palatium of the 
 llomans; and, during the Middle Ages, it was named Sala. 
 Top. 3800. 
 
 ALABAMA, one of the S. United States, America, 
 bounded, N. by Tcnnesse, E. by Georgia, S. by Florida and 
 the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Mississippi. Greatest length, 
 from N. to S., 317 in. ; greatest breadth, about 185 m. ; super 
 ficial extent, 46.000 sq. m., or 28,160,000 acres ; between lat. 
 30 10 and 35 N. ; and between Ion. 85 and 88 30 W. 
 The S. part of the State, which borders on the Gulf of Mexico 
 and Florida, over a space of 50 or 60 m. in width, is low and 
 level, and wooded with pine, cypress, and loblolly; the middle 
 is hilly, with some tracts of level sand, or prairies; the N. is 
 broken and mountainous. The district is intersected by the 
 rivers Alabama, Tombigbee, Mobile, Black Warrior, Coosa, 
 Tallapoosa, Tennesse, Chatahoochee, Perdido, and Cahawba, 
 some of which are navigable by steamers for several hundred 
 miles. The soil is various, being in some places, particularly 
 in the S., sandy and barren ; in others, fertile. On the margin 
 of the rivers there is some rich land ; beyond, the ground is 
 low, wet, and interspersed with stagnant pools. Next to this 
 river swamp, and elevated 10 or 15 ft. above it, there lies an 
 extensive tract of level land, composed of a black rich mould, 
 and covered with wood. To this succeed the prairies wide- 
 spreading plains, or gently undulating land, without timber, 
 and clothed with grass, herbage, and flowers. The climate 
 in the S. of the bottom land skirting the rivers, and of the 
 country bordering on the mussel shoals of the Tennesse, is 
 unhealthy. In the more elevated parts, it is more salubrious, 
 the winters being mild, and the summers tempered by breezes 
 from the Gulf of Mexico. Its staple production is cotton ; 
 but it also produces wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, potatoes, 
 hay, tobacco, rice, and sugar. Iron ore is found in several 
 places, and coal abounds on the Black Warrior and Cahawba. 
 Marble, also, is found, and gold ore in small quantity. Live 
 stock: Horses, mules, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry. 
 Principal manufactures : Cotton, iron, leather, hardware, 
 bricks, and carriages. 
 
 The legislative power of Alabama is vested in a senate, 
 consisting of 33 members elected for four years, one half 
 going out every two years, and a house of representatives, 
 consisting of 100 members elected for two years, chosen by 
 universal suffrage, and, together, forming the General Assembly 
 of the State. The governor, in whom the executive power is 
 vested, is elected for two years. The State sends five repre 
 sentatives to Congress. It is divided into 49 counties ; its 
 principal towns are Montgomery, now the seat of govern 
 ment; Mobile, the chief port; Cahawba, St. Stephens, Tus- 
 caloosa, Wetumpka, Florence, and Huntsville. In 1848, the 
 exports amounted to about 2, 385,549; the imports to 83,879. 
 In the present year (1850), the national debt is 2,077,187, on 
 which an interest is payable annually of 108,516. Pop. in 
 1845, 624,827, of which 253,532 were slaves in 1840, and 
 2039 free people of colour. (U. Slates Gaz.; Davenport s 
 American Gaz.; Tanner s Canals and Railroads of the U. States; 
 Murray s U. States.) 
 
 ALABASTER, ELEUTIIERA, or ETIIERA, one of the 
 Bahamas. See BAHAMA ISLANDS. 
 
 ALABAT, one of the smaller of the Philippines, on the E. 
 coast of the island of Lucon, prov. Tayabas, near the head of 
 the extensive inlet at the S. end of the island, which termin 
 ates in the Gulf or Bay of Lamon or Lanipon. The N. point 
 of the island is in lat. 14 N. ; Ion. 121 55 E. (u.) It is about 
 10 m. in length, and from 4 to 5 m. in breadth. The inhab 
 itants are described as a savage race. (Mallat s Philippines.) 
 
 ALACRAN, or ALACKANES (THE), a reef, or shoal, Gulf 
 of Mexico, off the N. coast of the peninsula of Yucatan, from 
 which it is distant about 80 m. On the S. side is a harbour 
 called Port Alacrane, in lat. 22 23 36" N. ; Ion. 89 42 W. (K. 
 It is secure, and well sheltered by dry reefs, which protect it as 
 
 effectually as land. On February 12, 1847, the mail steam 
 packet Tweed was lost on this reef, when 72 persons perished. 
 
 ALADAN, ALADA, or ALADINE ISLANDS, a cluster of 
 small islands, Bay of Bengal, off the coast of Siam, forming 
 part of the Mergui Archipelago; lat. 9 35 N.; Ion. 97 58 E. 
 
 ALADJAHLSSAR, or KKUKOVATZ, a tn. European 
 Turkey, cap. sanjak Krukovatz, prov. Servia, on the right 
 bank of the Morava, about 95 m. S. Semendria ; lat. 43 
 19 N.; Ion. 21 23 E. The sanjak is traversed by offsets 
 from the Balkan range, and is watered by the Morava and 
 some smaller streams, all of them discharging their waters 
 into the Danube, to which the district gradually slopes. It 
 contains some mines and vineyards. 
 
 ALAEJOS, a tn. Spain, Leon, prov. of, and 30 m. S.W. 
 from Valladolid, near the left bank of the Trabancos. It is 
 agreeably situated, and its regular, paved, and clean streets are 
 lined with dry, elegant vaults for storing wine, the preparation 
 of which constitutes one of the chief occupations in the town. It 
 has a square, in which are the townhall, the prison, and one 
 of the two churches possessed by the town, both of them 
 spacious Doric buildings. There are, likewise, in Alaejos 
 four schools, an hospital for wayfaring poor, and several other 
 benevolent institutions. The inhabitants are employed chiefly 
 in raising wheat, barley, rye, and peas, of which considerable 
 quantities are exported to Madrid and Portugal ; in growing 
 wine, part of which is also exported; in weaving domestic 
 linens for local consumpt, and in tanning leather. Pop. 
 3255. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALAGIIEZ, a volcanic mountain, and mountain range, 
 bordering the N. side of the basin of Armenia. It lies on 
 the N. side of the great plain of the Araxes, and, on the E., 
 touches on Lake Gokcha, or Sevan, and on the N. it is con 
 nected with offshoot mountain ranges of the Caucasus. On 
 some parts of its slopes large quantities of sulphur are obtained. 
 Its highest peak rises 13,628 ft. above the sea level. 
 
 ALAGOAS, a maritime prov. of Brazil, deriving its 
 name from various intercommunicating lakes for which it is 
 noted. It lies between lat. 9 and 10 30 S. ; and is bounded, 
 N. and W. by the prov. of Pernambuco, S. by the prov. of 
 Sergipe del Key, and E. by the Atlantic; length about 130 
 m. by a breadth of about 90 m. This province has several 
 lakes, none of them of great extent, frequented by a great 
 variety of birds ; and several ridges of hills, none of them of 
 great elevation, but generally well wooded, and inhabited by 
 abundance of game, ounces, macaws, &c., which furnish a 
 grateful sustenance to various tribes of nomadic Indians that 
 frequent these wilds. From the extent of surface covered by 
 lakes and by forests, the climate of Alagoas is on the whole 
 moist. The plains near the sea are generally sandy, and not 
 very fertile ; but inland, the soil is good, producing, besides 
 tobacco, cotton, and sugar, which are exported to Bahia and 
 Pernambuco, mangoes, oranges, jack fruit, and abundance of 
 fine timber used for shipbuilding in the above-named ports, 
 and in Maceyo. Cattle are reared, but not in numbers 
 sufficient to supply the demands of the coast towns. Lime 
 stone, granite, and various kinds of clay abound in the prov. 
 Pop. 120,000. (Die. Geo. Imp. Brazil.) 
 
 ALAGOAS, a city and seaport in the above prov., on 
 the coast of the Atlantic, S. side of an arm of the sea named 
 Mandau, which runs inland about 40 in., and about 20 m. 
 distant from Ma9eyo ; lat. 9 40 S. ; Ion. 35 59 W. It is 
 built on an elevated situation, and, being adorned with lofty 
 mango trees, has an extremely picturesque appearance when 
 viewed from a distance, but does not improve on a nearer in 
 spection. The houses are mostly of stone, and generally 
 more than one story in height ; many of them, however, are 
 falling into decay, while the streets have altogether a deserted 
 appearance a consequence, chiefly, of the expulsion of the 
 Portuguese by the Brazilians. There are eight churches and 
 two convents in the town, all handsome buildings. The 
 market is well supplied with fresh and salt-water fish, and 
 with the fruits of the district. The town has fallen off since 
 the seat of local government was transferred to Maceyo, which 
 is the chief place of trade. The principal productions of the 
 country around are sugar, cotton, mandioca, hides, Brazil 
 wood, and rosewood. Pop. of town and district, 12,000. 
 
 ALAGON, a river, Spain, formed by the union of several 
 small streams which take their rise in the sierra Francia, 
 prov. Salamanca. Flowing in a S. direction, it traverses and 
 
ALAGON 
 
 ALAND 
 
 irrigates a considerable portion of the province of Caccres, 
 changes, at Kiolobos, its course to S. W., and, receiving several 
 affluents, falls into the Tagus, about 2 m. N.E. Alcantara. 
 The Alagon is about 120 in. in length, and noted for the size 
 and flavour of its trout and other fish. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALAGON, a tn. Spain, Aragon, prov. of, and 15 m. 
 N.W. from Saragossa, near the junction of the Jalon, or Xalon, 
 with the Ebro, aiil close upon the Aragon Canal. It is a well- 
 built, well-arranged, little town, with clean and paved streets. 
 It possesses two churches, four schools, and an hospital. The 
 inhabitants are principally occupied with agriculture; produc 
 ing grain, olives, grapes, &c., and in manufacturing a small 
 quantity of saltpetre. Pop. 1932. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALAGUASH, or ALLAOASH, a river in Maine, U. States, 
 America. It is the outlet of the waters of numerous lakes, 
 among which the most considerable are Aphmoogenegamook, 
 Alagas-quegamook, and Potaques-quegamookook, from which 
 it takes a crooked N. course, interspersed with numerous 
 rapids round the Allagash mountains, over a considerable 
 fall, called the Great Fall, to the river St. John, which it 
 enters; lat. 47 4 N. ; Ion. 65 5 W. 
 
 ALAIS, a flourishing manufacturing tn. France, dep. 
 Gard, upon the Gardon d Alais, at the foot of the Cevennes 
 mountains, and formerly cap. of the district of Cevennes ; 
 38 m. N.W. Avignon; 23 m. N.W. Nismes, to which there 
 is a railway. Although pretty well built, there is nothing 
 remarkable about the public buildings. In the town there 
 are a Protestant consistorial church, a tribunal of commerce, 
 and one of primary jurisdiction, a communal college, an 
 agricultural society, a chemical laboratory for the engineers 
 employed at the mines, a theatre, and a public library con 
 taining about 4000 volumes. Alais owes its prosperous 
 condition to the richness of the surrounding country in coal, 
 iron, lead, zinc, and manganese, all of which are wrought, but 
 more especially the first two, with great assiduity. The coal 
 of the district was not wrought until 1809, and from that 
 period may be said to date the rise of Alais. Manufactures : 
 Iron, cast and malleable ; regulus of antimony, litharge, 
 silk gloves, stockings, and thread ; ribbons, serges, leather, 
 glass to a considerable extent, porcelain and pottery ware. 
 Trade : Grain, wine, sulphate of iron, coal, and the various 
 articles manufactured in the town and neighbourhood. In 
 the vicinity are several chalybeate springs, which, during the 
 autumn months, are visited to some extent for their medicinal 
 properties. Pop. in 1819, 8000; in 1846, 17,838. (.Die. de 
 la France.) 
 
 ALAJUELA, a tn. Central America, state Costa Rica, 
 25 m. N.W. Cartago ; lat. 9 45 N. ; Ion. 83 40 W. Some 
 of the better houses have a handsome appearance; they 
 are long and low, with broad piazzas and large windows, 
 having wooden balconies. The plaza is beautifully situated. 
 Mr. Stephens, describing the town as it appeared on a Sunday, 
 says, The inhabitants, who were cleanly dressed, were sitting 
 on the piazzas, or with doors wide open, reclining in ham 
 mocks, or on high-backed wooden settees inside. The women 
 were dressed like ladies, and some were handsome, and all 
 white. As we passed along the street, we were accosted in 
 the most friendly manner by all we met. The road, for two 
 or three miles before entering the town, is lined with houses, 
 300 or 400 yards apart, built of white- washed adobes, and the 
 fronts of some are ornamented with paintings. Rows of trees, 
 bearing beautiful flowers, and which, in some places, com 
 pletely embower the houses, run on either side of the road. In 
 the fields, the growing of sugar canes is the chief culture ; every 
 house has attached a small sugar mill. Pop. about 10,000. 
 
 ALAKANANDA, a river, Hindoostan, rising in the 
 Himalaya mountains, about lat. 31 N.; Ion. 79 35 E.; and 
 flowing S. W. through the prov. of Gurwal. At Devaprayaga, 
 a small town 12 m. W. Serinagur, lat. 30 10 N.; Ion. 
 78 40 E., it unites with the Bhagirathi in forming the river 
 Ganges. It is one of the sacred rivers of the Hindoos, and 
 abounds with a species of fish named roher (Cyprinus denticu- 
 latus), which the .Brahmins daily feed, and some of which be 
 come so tame, as to eat bread from the hand. Another 
 species, named sober, beautifully coloured, and of fine flavour, 
 is found in the river. (Hamilton s East India Gaz.) 
 
 ALAK-DAGH [Beautiful mount], a lofty mountain, j 
 Turkish Armenia, prov. Erzeroom, about 50 in. W. Mount 
 Ararat, with which it is connected by several lofty chains. Its | 
 
 height has not been accurately ascertained, but is stated at 
 9000 or 10,000 ft. above the sea. On the N. faces of the 
 highest peaks, Mr. Brant saw large masses of snow lying in the 
 
 mouth of September. The name ALAK-DAGII is applied 
 
 also to a portion of the Altarian mountains, and to a range of 
 mountains in Auadolia, 35 m. N.W. Angora. 
 
 ALA KOI [Beautiful village], a vil. Asiatic Turkey, 
 pash. Van, on the E. side of the lake of the latter name. It 
 contains a church ; and, on a hill overlooking the village, arc 
 the ruins of another of ancient date, while at the bottom there 
 is a third of smaller dimensions. There are extensive vineyards 
 in the vicinity, and a considerable quantity of wine is made, 
 which is sent to, and disposed of, in the city of Van. The 
 Lake of Van is not visible from the village, being shut out from 
 view by an intervening range of low hills. 
 
 ALAMEDA [A row of trees], the name of several towns 
 and villages, Spain: 1, A vil. Old Castile, prov. Soria, whose 
 inhabitants are employed in agriculture, in rearing sheep and 
 goats, and in weaving domestics. Pop. 372. 2, A tn. Anda 
 lusia, prov. of, and 54 m. N.W. from Malaga, on the road from 
 Sevilla to Granada. It has a church and granary ; soil in the 
 vicinity is of good quality, producing grain, olives, and veget 
 ables. Pop. 3090. 3, A tn. New Castile, prov. of, and 8 m. 
 from Madrid, noted for the Capricliio, the fine palace and plea 
 sure grounds of the Dukes of Osuna. Pop. 102. 4, A vil. 
 Leon, prov. Salamanca, about 16 m. from Ciudad Kodrigo. 
 It has irregular streets, a church, school, and some flourmills. 
 Pop. 714. 5, Sta Maria de la Alameda, a tn. Old Castile, 
 prov. of, and 36 m. W. from Madrid, on the confines of the 
 two Castiles. It has a cold, unhealthy climate, and contains 
 a church and school. Pop. 560. 6, Alameda de la Sagra, a 
 tn. Old Castile, prov. Toledo, and 8 m. from lllescas. It has 
 regular streets, a townhouse, granary, and church. Pop. 
 1027. 7, Alamedadel Valle, a tn. Old Castile, prov. Madrid, 
 1 m. from Biutrago, in a valley of the same name. Pop. 
 242. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALAMOS (Los), a tn. Mexico, prov. Sonora, 140m. N.W. 
 Sinaloa, between the Rio del Fuerte and the Rio Mayo ; situ 
 ated in a barren plain, in a district celebrated for its silver 
 mines, which are a few miles distant from the town. The 
 merchants of Alamos are generally wealthy, and the town 
 itself handsome. It contains some good and well- paved 
 streets. The houses are generally built of stone or brick, 
 laid over with stucco. Those that surround the square are 
 of modern architecture, and belong to the principal miners 
 and merchants. A new church of stone, finished in 1826, is 
 a very elegant building. The Alameda is a pleasant prome 
 nade, formed of avenues of poplars, with stone seats at inter 
 vals. Provisions are dear, being brought from a great dis 
 tance ; the water used in the town is^ drawn from deep wells, 
 and is very bad, and scarce. The inhabitants are described 
 as proud, reserved, and unsociable, even amongst themselves. 
 They have no amusement except gambling, which they carry 
 to excess. Pop. about 6000 ; and from 3000 to 4000 more 
 
 are employed daily in the mines. There are four other 
 
 towns of the same name in S. America. (Ward s Mexico, 
 vol. ii. App.) 
 
 ALAMUT, or ALAMOOT, a district of Persia, a little to 
 the N.W. of Tehran, between Ion. 50 and 51 E., and 
 intersected by the 36th parallel. It is bounded N. by a high 
 range of mountains, which separate it from the provinces of 
 Gilan and Mazanderan, and is about 30 m. in length by 20 in 
 breadth. In this district is situated the ancient stronghold of 
 the chiefs of the Assassins. (See ASSASSINS.) It stood upon 
 a high, naked, and exceedingly steep rock, and was deemed 
 impregnable before gunpowder became a munition of war. A 
 few dilapidated walls and cisterns are all that now remain of 
 the vulture s nest, as this stern retreat was sometimes called. 
 The vicinity of the rock, says Col. Shiel, is a most dreary 
 solitude; excepting eagles and lizards, not a living thing is to 
 be seen, nor even a single tree, but the view from the summit 
 is very fine. 
 
 ALAND, or OLAND, ISLANDS, a large group of 80 in 
 habited, and 200 uninhabited islands, situated between the 
 Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea, and near the mouth of 
 the Gulf of Finland, between lat. 59 50 and 60 40 N. ; 
 Ion. 19 30 and 21 E., and occupying a space of about 352 
 geo. sq. m. They formerly belonged to Sweden, but are now 
 included in the government of Finland, having been ceded 
 
AL-ARAISH 
 
 61 
 
 ALAVA 
 
 to Russia in 1809. The navigation amongst them is rendered 
 difficult by the narrowness^and shallowness of the channels. 
 The principal islands are Aland, which gives name to the 
 group, Lemland, Lumparland, Ekeroe, Fogloe, Kumlinge, 
 Braendoe, Vordoc, and ilannoe. The whole group is com 
 posed mainly of rod granite, with here and there strata of red 
 marl and limestone. This foundation is covered with clay, 
 flint, and humus ; and along the coasts are large masses of 
 feldspathic flint. Aland, distant about 30 m. from the 
 Swedish coast, is the largest of the whole, being 25 m. long, 
 and about 22 broad. It is hilly, deeply indented by numerous 
 bays, and contains forests of pine and birch. It has also some 
 good pasture and arable land, and is watered by several small 
 streams. Wheat, barley, and rye are raised here, as in some 
 of the other islands, in sufficient quantities for the supply of 
 the inhabitants, who rear also a number of horses, cattle, 
 sheep, and goats. In this island there is a harbour capable 
 of containing the whole Russian fleet, and a citadel in which, 
 it is said, 60,000 men might be quartered. Besides other 
 occupations, the inhabitants employ themselves in shooting 
 wild fowl and other game, in quarrying and burning lime 
 stone, but principally in fishing and catching seals, which 
 abound on their coasts. The produce of the country, consist 
 ing of butter, salted meat and fish, cheese, hides, charcoal, 
 timber, lime, and game, is conveyed in small vessels to the 
 neighbouring ports upon the Baltic. The whole archipelago 
 of Aland is divided into eight parishes, of which five are in 
 the principal island. There are various good ports and several 
 villages, or hamlets, of which Castleholm, in Aland, where 
 there is an old castle, is the chief place. The inhabitants are 
 entirely of Swedish extraction. The first victory of the Rus 
 sians over the Swedes was gained in the neighbourhood of 
 these islands, by Peter I., in 1714. The principal ports are 
 now generally occupied by detachments of the Baltic fleet ; 
 and one of the smaller islands, on which a telegraph is estab 
 lished, is inhabited by the pilots who are employed by the 
 Russian Government for conducting the mails and travellers. 
 Pop. 14,000, of which 9000 are in Aland, and 3000 in Kum 
 linge. (Guibert, Die. Gco. et Stat.) 
 
 AL-ARAISH. See EL-AKAISH. 
 
 ALARO, a tn. isl. of Majorca, belonging to Spain, situ 
 ated on the slope of a high mountain in the interior, llm. N.E. 
 Palmas. It is tolerably well built, and has two municipal 
 offices, a church, and two endowed schools ; some water, and 
 several windmills, brandy distilleries, and manufactures of 
 soap and coarse cloth. Pop. 4080. 
 
 ALASEA, or ALASEJ, an important river, N.E. Siberia, 
 between the Indigirka and the Kolyma ; it rises in lat. 67 N., 
 in the Alasio hills, and, flowing nearly parallel with the for 
 mer river, falls into the Arctic Ocean, about 100 m. to the 
 N.E. of the embouchure of that river. 
 
 ALA-SHEHR [anc. Philadelphia], a city, Turkey in 
 Asia, pash. Anadolia, 82 m. E. Smyrna, stands on part of 
 Mount Tenolus, near the river Cogamus, famous as the seat 
 of one of the first Christian churches. It is of great extent, 
 but the houses are mean, and the streets narrow and dirty. A 
 vast number of interesting remains of antiquity are scattered 
 about the town, consisting of fragments of beautiful columns, 
 .sarcophagi, fountains, &c. Ala-Shehr was built by Attains 
 Philadelphia, king of Pergamos, and is still a place of some 
 importance, being much resorted to by caravans going to and 
 from Smyrna. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 ALASKA. See ALIASKA. 
 
 ALASSIO, a seaport tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 
 5 m. S.W. from Albenga; lat. 44 1 N.; Ion. 8 11 E. 
 The port is excellent, and carries on a considerable trade. 
 Pop. 6000. 
 
 ALASSONA, a tn. European Turkey, in Thessaly, on 
 the left bank of the Saranta Poros; pash. of, and 35 m. N.E. 
 from Tricala, or Trikhala, and 25 m. N.W. Larissa. It has 
 a Greek convent, a considerable summer market, and a popu 
 lation of about 3000. 
 
 ALATA, a small river, Abyssinia, a tributary of the 
 Bahr-el-Azrek, near its confluence with which occurs the 
 celebrated cataract of Alata, first described by Bruce. The 
 cataract on the Bahr-el-Azrek is locally known by the name 
 of Tis Esat, or Smoke of fire ; and is situated about 20 m. S. 
 Lake Tzana, about 5000 ft. above the level of the sea ; lat. 
 1 1 30 N ; Ion. 37 40 E. (See AZREK, BAHR-EL-.) There 
 
 is a vil. named ALATA in the isl. of Corsica, about 6 m. N. 
 Ajaccio. 
 
 ALATA CASTRA, a Eoman fortress, Scotland, co. 
 Moray, par. Duffus. See BURGHEAD. 
 
 ALATAMAHA, or ALTAMAHA, a river, Georgia, U. 
 States, America, formed by the union of the Ocmulgee and the 
 Oconee, from the sources of which, in the Alleghany moun 
 tains, its course is about 500 m. It is a large but gentle 
 stream, flowing through forests and plains, and falling, by 
 several outlets, into Altamaha Sound, 60 m. S.W. Savan 
 nah. Its average breadth is 600 yards, its depth 8 ft.; 
 and the bar at its mouth has 14 ft. at low water. On both 
 branches, it is navigable by vessels of small size for 300 m. 
 from the sea. 
 
 ALATRI, a tn. Papal States, delegation of, and 5 m. 
 N. from Frosinone. It has some trade in wine, oil, and 
 common cloth. The bishop holds immediately from the Pope. 
 Pop. 9000. 
 
 ALATYR, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 90 m. W.N.W. 
 from Simbirsk, at the confluence of the Alatyr with the 
 Sura; lat. 54 45 N. ; Ion. 46 15 E. The houses are 
 constructed of wood ; and it has a considerable trade in corn. 
 
 Pop. (1850), 7247. The river Alatyr rises in the gov. of 
 
 Penza, flows E. through part of Novgorod ; and, in Simbirsk, 
 falls into the Sura, at the town from which it derives its 
 name, after a course of upwards of 125 m. 
 
 ALAUSI, a tn. Ecuador, dep. Assuay, cap. of a district 
 of same name, 140 m. S. Quito, on the road from that city to 
 Cuenca; lat. 2 13 22" S. ; Ion. 79 15" W. (L.) It lies at 
 an altitude of 7980 ft. above the sea, in the valley of Alausi, 
 on a small river of its own name, an affluent of the Gulf of 
 Guayaquil. It has a church, a Franciscan convent, and a 
 school; and in the neighbourhood are warm medicinal springs, 
 whose waters are used to some extent. Manufactures : Cloth, 
 both woollen and cotton, in which, also, some trade is done. 
 The valley to which Alausi gives its name, is one of the 
 highest and richest in the Andes of Ecuador, producing sugar 
 cane, grain, and fruits of every kind. (Gutsmuths ; Alcedo ; 
 Guibert, Die. Gco. et Stat.) 
 
 ALAVA, a hilly prov. in the N. of Spain, cap. Vitoria, 
 one of the three Basque provinces, between lat. 42 23 46" 
 and 43 8 5" N.; Ion. 2 11 and 3 6 W.; bounded, N. by 
 Biscay, N.E. by Guipuzcoa, E. by Navarre, S. by Old Castile, 
 and W. by Santandcr; area, 2059 sq. m. The general feat 
 ures of this province are very rugged, branches of the great 
 Pyrenean chain ramifying throughout its length and breadth, 
 and forming a natural boundary between Alava and the other 
 two Basque provinces Biscay and Guipuzcoa. The moun 
 tains yield iron, copper, lead, and antimony; marble, free 
 stone, white limestone and granite; most of which are wrought 
 to some extent ; they are clothed with oak, chestnut, holly, 
 pine, and other hardy timber, and abound in ferruginous, 
 calcareous, and sulphurous springs. The principal streams 
 are the Zadorra and Ayada, both affluents of the Ebro, which 
 forms the boundary between Alava and Old Castile. In the 
 N. part of the province are salines, or salt pools. The 
 valleys are fertile, but the system of agriculture is very defec 
 tive, and the implements used in husbandry of the most homely 
 and primitive description. Grain, especially maize, the staple 
 food of the inhabitants, vegetables, flax, hemp, and abundance 
 of fruits of excellent quality, are produced ; and wine is plen 
 tiful, but inferior. Sheep, goats, pigs, horned cattle, and 
 mules for agricultural labour and carrying, are reared, and 
 deer and game of all kinds abound. The chief occupation 
 of the people is husbandry, but many are also employed in 
 tanning, in grinding corn, expressing oil, and manufacturing 
 cloth, felt hats, linen drills, earthenware, hardware, and glass; 
 and some are engaged as carriers. Alava exports fruits, 
 iron, copper, and manufactured goods ; and imports sugar, 
 chocolate, tobacco, and implements for mechanical purposes. 
 Education is little attended to, partly from the children being 
 too early sent to labour, and partly owing to the peculiar pre 
 judices of the people, who, both in language, costume, and 
 manners, are entirely different from those of the other portions 
 of the peninsula ; and who, priding themselves on nobility of 
 birth, resent, as an insult, any attempt to correct their moral 
 deficiencies. It is worthy of remark, that, though much 
 addicted to smuggling yet theft and murder is much less fre 
 quent among them than in rnos>t other districts of Spain; 
 
ALAYA 
 
 ALBANCIIEZ 
 
 and the hospitality of the peasantry, according to their 
 humble means, is proverbial. For costume, and other parti 
 culars respecting the Biscayans, .we BASQUE PROVINCES. 
 Top. 81,397. (Madoz, Die. de Espana.) 
 
 ALAYA [anc. Corcuxsium], a seaport tn. Turkey in 
 Asia, pash. Itshili, cap. sanjak of the same name ; lat. 36 j 
 31 30" N. ; Ion. 32 1 E (R.) ; situated on the face of a j 
 rocky promontory, from 500 to 000 ft. in height, and sur 
 rounded with old walls, now falling to ruin. The town and \ 
 adjacent dills of compact white limestone, have a picturesque | 
 appearance from the sea. But from its being built on an 
 acclivity, the streets arc so steep, that one only is practicable 
 for horses. The houses are wretched, and the mosques small 
 and mean. There is here neither pier nor harbour. There is, 
 however, good anchorage in the roads, from two to four cables 
 length from the shore. About 9 m. N.E. from the town, is 
 seen the peak of a mountain nearly 5000 ft. high, which forms 
 a good landmark to mariners. Pop. 2000. 
 
 ALA YOU, or ALEYOK, a tn. isl. Minorca, belonging to 
 Spain, situated in the interior about 10 m. W.N.W. Port 
 Mahon. It is a close-built and uneven town, having a town- 
 house, two churches, an hospital, endowed school, some wind 
 mills, brandy distilleries, linen weaving, cheese making, and 
 a small trade in wine and potatoes. Pop. 4722. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALB, or ALP, called also the SWAUIAN ALPS, a chain of 
 mountains appertaining almost exclusively to Wiirtemberg, 
 extending S.W. to N.E. from the source of the Neckar, by 
 which river it is separated from the mountains of the !Sch warz- 
 wald, or Black forest, to that of the Jaxt, a total length of 
 84 m., and having a breadth varying fron 15 to 20 m. It 
 forms the water shed between the Neckar and Danube ; and, in 
 different parts, takes the names of Rauhe Alb, or rough Alps, 
 by which, indeed, the whole chain is designated, though pro 
 perly restricted to the district between Lauchart and Zainin- 
 gen ; Hochstrass, applied to the district round Blaubeuren ; 
 and Aalbuch to the elevated plains between Aalen, Heiden- 
 heim and Weissenstein, on the right bank of the Brenz. It 
 slopes gently towards the Danube, and shows its greatest 
 escarpment towards the valley of the Neckar, seen from 
 which it appears very much like the Jura when viewed from 
 the basin of the Aar, that is to say, it exhibits a line of heights 
 uninterrupted and almost of the same level, above which a 
 few points are elevated. Its geological structure is the same 
 as the Jura, of which, indeed, it seems to be an E. continua 
 tion. Though, like the Jura, it is deficient in water, yet 
 from its slopes rise the Kocher, Vils, Items, Lauter, Erms, 
 Echatz, Lauchart, Bran, Brenz, &c. Its three most import 
 ant summits are the Hohcuberg, 3369 ft. ; the Deiligenberg, 
 3331 ft. ; and the Schafberg, 3324 ft. above the sea level. 
 (Orographie de V Europe.) 
 
 ALBA [the Alba Pompeia of the Romans], an episcopal 
 city, Sardinian states, cap. prov. of same name, 30 m. S.E. 
 Turin, and 15 m. S.W. Asti ; on the right bank of the Tanaro, 
 which is crossed by a bridge of boats. The country round it. 
 is called Albezaiio. The town, which is the see of a bishop, 
 suffragan to Turin, contains a cathedral, several churches, 
 and a college. It has an extensive trade in cattle. Pop. 
 
 7500. The PROV. is watered by the rivers Hanaro, Belbo, 
 
 and Bormida, and produces in abundance grain, maize, wine, 
 and truffles; and the silk is considered to be the best in Pied 
 mont. Amongst the products are marble, rock salt, and 
 sulphate of magnesia. Pop. 105,737. 
 
 ALBACETE, a prov. S.E. of Spain, partly in Murcia 
 and partly in New Castile, between lat. 38 and 39 43 N. ; 
 and Ion. 57 and 3 9 W. It is bounded, N. by the prov. 
 Cuenca, E. by Valencia and Alicante, S by Murcia, and W. 
 by Ciudad Keal and Jaen ; area, 3345 sq. m. The surface of 
 this province is considerably varied, presenting, in some 
 parts, lofty sierras, peaks of which attain a height, above the 
 sea level, of 5000 ft. ; and, in other parts, rich plains and 
 arable land. As a whole, it is hilly ; but its valleys every 
 where are fertile. The hills produce pines, fit for naval pur 
 poses ; abundance of oak ; also junipers, sarsaparilla, and vari 
 ous other interesting plants. The province is well watered by 
 the Jucar, the Gabriel, the Segura, the Mundo,and numerous 
 smaller streams, all of which empty themselves into the Medi 
 terranean ; and it possesses several salt lakes, or salines, and 
 numerous medicinal springs hot and cold, saline, acidulous, 
 ferruginous, sulphurous, and calcareous. Agriculture is in 
 
 an advanced state for Spain; and cereals, hemp, tobacco, 
 grapes, almonds, nuts, oranges, limes, lemons, olives, aloes, 
 saffron, and rich honey, are produced ; the grapes and saffron 
 in large quantities ; the annual produce of the latter amount 
 ing to 12,000 Ibs. The pasture lands are rich; and largo 
 numbers of sheep and goats, and a considerable number of 
 cows, horses, mules, and asses, are reared. The mineral 
 riches of Albaccte consist of building stones, millstones, 
 gypsum, iron, copper, zinc, antimony, sulphur, and coal ; but 
 none of them are wrought to any great extent, some not at 
 all. The main occupation of the people is agriculture and 
 cattle rearing ; some are employed as carriers, and others in 
 various trades and manufactures ; in weaving sundry kinds of 
 coarse cloths, chiefly for local consumpt; making earthen 
 ware, hardware, and soap ; distilling brandy, &c. The trade 
 of the province consists in exporting agricultural produce, 
 and some iron, zinc, and sulphur. The state of education is 
 miserably low, and crimes against the person are numerous. 
 Pop. 195,531. (Madoz, Die. de Espana.) 
 
 ALBACETE, a tn. Spain, in Murcia, cap. prov. of samo 
 name, on the highway between Madrid and Cartagena, and 
 1 10 in. N.N.W. the latter place. It lies in a fertile but tree- 
 le-s? plain ; is badly supplied with water, which is, also, of very 
 indifferent quality. The streets mostly cross each other at 
 right angles; they are commodious, and generally clean. 
 Many of the houses are decorated with green painted bal 
 conies. The town has, likewise, six squares ; in which are 
 to be found the courthouses, barracks, and hospital, civil and 
 military ; and the most noteworthy buildings are the parish 
 church, of the 16th century; the chapter houses ; the palace 
 de Pino-Hermoso ; and the bull ring. Besides these thero 
 arc a chapel, an hospital for wayfaring poor, a normal semi 
 nary, and numerous public and private schools. Albacete, 
 from its position, is a place of considerable business; and 
 carries on trade, both direct and transit, with Murcia, Ali 
 cante, Valencia, and Madrid, exporting grain, saffron, and 
 cattle ; and importing cod fish, sardines, rice, sugar, wine, 
 iron, cloths, &c. The inhabitants are principally engaged in 
 the carrying on trade; in making a sort of clasp-dagger knives, 
 called cudrillo and navaja, in quality said to be second only 
 to those of Toledo, but far inferior to Sheffield goods ; in 
 making shoes, soap, earthenware, and other articles to a 
 smaller extent. A large fair is held in September. Pop. 
 13,143. (Madoz, Die. de Espana.) 
 
 ALBA DE TU11MES, a tn. Spain, in Leon, prov. of, and 
 17 in. S.E. from Salamanca, on a slope on the right bank of 
 the Tonnes. It has two squares, in the larger of wliich are 
 the parish church, and the townhall ; and it likewise possesses 
 a public granary, an endowed hospital, and three superior 
 and well-attended schools. Its inhabitants are chiefly devoted 
 to agriculture. At Alba de Tormes, Oct. 19, 1809, Marshal 
 Kellerman gained a victory over the Spanish Duquo del 
 Parque. Pop. 2176. 
 
 ALBALA, a small tn. Spain, in Estremadura, prov. of, and 
 20 m. S.S.E. from Caceres, at the extreme E. of the sierra 
 de Moutanches. It has a church, townhall, school, and 
 several fountains. The inhabitants are engaged in tillage, 
 feeding cattle, manufacturing gray plush, and expressing oil. 
 The produce of the vicinity in grain, fruits, and vegetables, 
 is abundant; and black sheep, cattle, and pigs, are reared. 
 Pop. 2133. 
 
 ALBALATE DEL AKZOBISPO, a tn. Spain, in 
 Aragon, prov. Teruel, 46 m. S.E. Saragossa, on the left bank 
 of the Martin, an affluent of the Ebro, situated on a slope, 
 and pretty regularly built ; having a church, a Latin and two 
 other schools, an hospital, and cemetery. The inhabitants 
 manufacture linen, coarse cloth, and baize ; cultivate grain, 
 wine, oil, silk, and wool ; and rear sheep and goats. Pop. 
 
 3746. ALBALATE is likewise the name of various other 
 
 villages in different parts of Spain. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALBAN (Sr.), a tn. Prance, dep. Lozere, 18 m. N. 
 Mende. It has manufactures of woollen stuff s, and an hos 
 pital for insane females. Pop. 2155. There are several 
 
 small towns and villages in France of this name ; amongst 
 them is a hamlet, dep. Loire, remarkable for its mineral 
 waters, which are much frequented. 
 
 ALBANCHEZ, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 28 in. N.E. from Almcria, on a hill in the midst of lofty sierras. 
 It contains a large square, a pari&h church, chapter house, 
 
ALBANIA 
 
 63 
 
 ALBANIA 
 
 prison, two endowed schools, and a cemetery. Manufactures: 
 Linen fabrics, quilts, and blankets, oil, and large quantities 
 of tiles and bricks. Grain, grapes, olives, and fruits are 
 cultivated ; and a few sheep and mules, for farming labour, 
 
 reared. Pop. 2190. There is another ALBANCHEZ, also 
 
 in Andalusia, prov. of, and 16 m. E. from Jaen. It has a 
 church and school ; but, as a whole, has a very ruinous aspect, 
 its houses being ill built, and in a state of decay. Pop. 1 1 93. 
 , ALBANIA [called Sclikipcri, by the natives (from Sclikipc, 
 a rock) ; Arnoutlouk, by the Turks; Arnantska-semlia, by the 
 Servians ; and Albania, by the Greeks] , a mountainous country, 
 European Turkey, between lat. 39 and 43 N. ; Ion. 19 5 
 and 21 28 E. It is about 290 m. in extreme length; and, 
 in breadth, varying from about 90 m. in the N. and centre, 
 to about 40 m. in the S.,near the Gulf of Arta; bounded, W. 
 and S.W. by the Adriatic and Ionian Seas ; N. by Montenegro, 
 from which it is separated by the river Moracha, and by Bos 
 nia; E. by Servia, and that part of Eoumelia anciently called 
 Mcosia and Macedonia, and by Thessaly or Trikala ; and S. 
 by Greece. The N. and E. boundary, from Bosnia to the 
 Gulf of Arta, is formed by a ridge of mountains which, gener 
 ally speaking, also constitutes the water shed. It is called 
 Kachka, and Djamus, on the Bosnian frontier; Shar Dagh, 
 Vitzi, Grammes, &c., on the frontier towards Eoumelia and 
 Thessaly. The country is divided into, 1, Upper Albania, as 
 far S. as El-Bassan, on the river Scombi, comprising the pash- 
 .ilics of Ipek, Prirsen, and Scutari, and several ayanships ; 
 
 2, Central Albania, from El-Bassan S. to the mountains of 
 Tomor and Skrapnri, and the mouth of the Vojutza, governed 
 by the Ayans of El-Bassan, Tirana, Cavaja, and Durazzo ; and, 
 
 3, Lower Albania, or Epirus, S. to the Grecian frontier, wholly 
 governed by the pasha of Janina. Some writers include Mon 
 tenegro in the limits of Albania, and exclude Epirus. In the 
 boundaries laid down in this article, we have followed that 
 elaborate and thoroughly scientific work, La Turquie 
 d Europe, par Ami BoueV 
 
 Mountains.- Albania is composed of at least nine ridges 
 of hills, of which six are in Epirus, and three or four in Central 
 and Upper Albania; all having a direction N.W. to S.E., 
 excepting the hills along the N. and S. slope of the Dibres, of 
 Lake Oehrida, and the Shar Dagh, which last has a direction 
 N.E. to S.W. In the S. of Epirus, the hills are low, desti 
 tute of wood near the sea, and composed of a series of calcar 
 eous cliffs; but more to the N., they attain a considerable 
 elevation. In Central Albania they are comparatively low, 
 while those in Upper Albania are the loftiest in the country ; 
 some, in the latter district and Epirus, having snow on them 
 nearly nine months of the year. The following are a few of 
 the principal heights : 
 
 feet. 
 
 Lower Albania, JCaTralirra 18 161 G395 
 
 or Epirus ( Joormevka. .V. . .... ................... ....!!!!!!!6395 
 
 (Mounts of the S.E 2661 
 
 Central Albania....? Heights near Velo^oscht 1279 
 
 (Heights E. of the Plain N. of Herat 1279 to 1385 
 
 ( Peak of Kobilitza 7875 
 
 Upper Albania 1 Peaks E. ot Kobilitza HSloto 8G33 
 
 (PeakofLioubeten 6810 
 
 Besides those specified, there are many other peaks, both in 
 Epirus and in Upper Albania, above 4000 ft. high. 
 
 Rivers. Albania has no great rivers, in consequence of 
 their course being so short, and its inclination so great, causing 
 many of them in summer to have scarcely any water, and 
 some of them even to be completely dry. In Upper and 
 Central Albania, and the N. of Epirus, the general course of 
 the streams is E. to W., though the White and the Black 
 Drin, before their junction, run respectively S. and N., and 
 the Vojutza and its affluents run S.E. to N.W. In S. Epirus, 
 however, the streams generally run from N.E. to S.W., or 
 from N. to S., and only here and there from N.W. to S.E. 
 The Drin, or Drino, is the largest Albanian river. It is 
 formed by the White Drin, rising on the Bosnian frontier ; 
 and the Black Drin, issuing from Lake Oehrida. The former 
 flows S., and the latter N., to their junction, about 15 in. 
 S.W. Prirsen, after which the course of the river is W. It 
 falls into the Adriatic about 14 m. S. Scutari; and its whole 
 length, from either source, is about 150 or 160 m. It is 
 navigable for large vessels as far up as Scela, and for boats of 
 40 to 50 tons above Lesch. The Bojana, which connects 
 
 Lake Scutari with the Adriatic, is navigable for coasters to 
 Oboti, a short distance below the town of Scutari. Excepting 
 the Arta and Lorou, which are navigable near their mouth, 
 none of the other rivers of Albania can be navigated ; being, 
 at most, useful for the purposes of flotation and irrigation. 
 In this class may be named the Scombi, Ergent, Vojutza, 
 Kalamas, Mattia, Mavro-potamos, &c. 
 
 Lakes. Albania, like Greece, being a continuation of the 
 mountains that constitute Herzegovina, and having a similar 
 composition, partakes of the peculiar system of subterranean 
 streams that characterizes the waters of that country. In 
 this respect, Epirus is especially remarkable for its circular 
 basins, its cavities without water, its ponds and water courses 
 that disappear at certain seasons, and also for its gulfs and 
 subterranean rivers. The finest example of this last is found 
 in the Lake of Janina, formed of two basins, united by a chan 
 nel so narrow and filled up by plants and islets, that in process 
 of time, probably, there may be two lakes in place of one. 
 The whole lake is about 10 m. long, by 1 to 3 m. broad. The 
 upper, or N. and smaller lake, pours its waters into a gulf at 
 its S.W. part, whence they re-appear in a hollow to the S. W., 
 and form the Velschistas, an affluent of the Kalamas. The 
 waters of the lower lake escape by subterranean courses, and 
 near Vestavesti form the sources of the St. Georges, an affluent 
 of the Lorou. The Lake of Janina thus sends its waters both 
 to the Gulf of Arta and to the Ionian Sea. The highest and 
 most beautiful lake in Albania, and even in Turkey, is that 
 of Oehrida, which lies 2147 ft. above the sea level. It is 
 about 20 m. long, by about 8 m. broad at its widest part. 
 The Lake of Scutari, in Upper Albania, which would seem to 
 have been at one time even larger than now, is the largest lake 
 in the country, being somewhat longer, though not quite so 
 broad as Oehrida. It has some islands near its W. shore, 
 and abounds with fish. There are several smaller lakes, but 
 none of them important. 
 
 Geology. Geologically, Albania belongs to the cretaceous 
 system of the Alps, and is composed chiefly of nummulitic 
 limestone, with here and there upheaved schist and serpentine. 
 Along the courses of the rivers, but more especially at their 
 mouth, are alluvial deposits and sometimes tertiary clay. It 
 is not certainly known that the country contains any metals, 
 though some authorities contend that argentiferous lead and 
 copper are to be found in Epirus. 
 
 Vegetation. In consequence of its lofty mountains and 
 southern position, Albania possesses an extremely varied vege 
 tation. Alpine and subalpine, tne forms are similar to those 
 found on the Alps of Switzerland, and on the mountains of 
 Scotland ; many being identical, though of course not a few 
 are different. Saxifraga media, well known on the Pyrenees, 
 is here found in abundance, though wanting in the Alps, which, 
 in their turn, possess the rhododendrons, which are wanting in 
 Albania. Though by no means a thickly wooded country, it 
 possesses many species of oak, the poplar, hazel, plane, chest 
 nut, cypress, and laurel. Vines are good, especially in Epirus, 
 and the orange, almond, fig, mulberry, citron; likewise maize, 
 wheat, and barley, either grow naturally, or are cultivated. 
 
 Zoology. Bears, wolves, chamois, and deer, are found on 
 the mountains ; sheep and goats, but more especially the latter, 
 are numerous ; cows are kept to some extent ; the horses are 
 excellent and sure-footed, and mules and asses are plentiful. 
 The lakes abound in water fowl, and a kind of clupea, or 
 herring, ascends the Bojana to Lake Scutari, where it is 
 taken in considerable quantities. Various other kinds of fish, 
 but particularly eels, inhabit the lakes and streams ; and with 
 such rapidity do many of these latter diminish in the summer, 
 that large quantities of eels are frequently left dry in the beds 
 of the rivers, or of the water courses made for the purposes of 
 irrigation. Eagles, various kinds of hawks, and numerous 
 other kinds of birds, are plentiful, and hawking is a frequent 
 amusement of the wealthier classes, the pursuit of birds with 
 guns and dogs not being held in much esteem. Mosquitoes 
 in many parts abound ; in Epirus the cochineal insect thrives : 
 bees are reared everywhere ; and, in the marshes in the basin 
 of the Arta and near Lake Scutari, leeches are found in con 
 siderable numbers. 
 
 Climate. The heat of summer is almost insupportable in 
 the maritime valleys of Albania. There are in the country 
 numerous circular cavities, whose waters being absorbed, 
 the air in summer is stagnant and heavy, giving rise to 
 
ALBANIA 
 
 SI 
 
 ALBANO (SANT- 1 ) 
 
 those dangerous intermittent fevers that regularly visit the 
 country, especially from July to November. The temperature 
 in July and August reaches, in the shade, to 97, and even to 
 101. The winter or cold season lasts from November to 
 April ; snow on the coasts is rare, though on the mountains 
 plentiful. October and December arc the rainy months, in [ 
 which the rivers overflow their banks. 
 
 Trade, Commerce, and Towns. In the import and export 
 trade of this province, vessels under the British and Ionian, 
 the Greek and Ottoman flags, are almost the only ones 
 engaged; a few Austrians forming occasional exceptions; 
 while French and Russians are still more rare. The exports 
 are shipped chiefly at Prevesa, or Previsa, at the entrance to 
 the Gulf of Arta, and consist principally of grain, timber, oil, 
 salt fish, cheese, tobacco, cotton, wool, and capotes a large 
 white woollen outer garment manufactured in the country. 
 The cotton is received through Thessaly, and is exported to 
 the German and Italian ports of the Adriatic. The chief 
 imports, most of which come also by the way of Previsa, 
 are sugar, coffee, gunpowder, firearms, ironmongery, com 
 mon cloths, linen, and velvets. The principal connections 
 of the coast are with Greek houses at Trieste, and Maltese 
 houses, through which they receive the manufactures of Great 
 Britain. In the year ending December 31, 1842, there 
 arrived at Previsa 535 British and Ionian vessels, and 528 
 departed ; and, probably, about 150 more from various other 
 countries. The internal trade of the country is carried on by 
 means of pack horses ; four or five of which are attached to 
 each other by cords, and guided by one man. Other ports 
 besides Previsa, are Parga, Avlona or Valona, Durazzo, 
 Dulcigno, &c. ; and of principal towns, may be named Arta, 
 Janina, Scutari, &c. 
 
 Gmernment. Albania is under the government of the dif 
 ferent Turkish pashas in whose territories it lies ; but the 
 power of the former is much limited by the bold and warlike 
 tendencies of the inhabitants, which will not brook a despotic 
 control. The local authorities are constituted differently in 
 different places; and although all the tribes are nominafly 
 subject to the Turkish Government, a great part of them are 
 virtually independent. 
 
 People, Manners, Customs, &c. The Albanians are of 
 rather short stature, muscular, active, and of a warlike spirit. 
 The women are tall and strong, but not beautiful, having 
 generally an air of wretchedness, the result of the laborious 
 work they are compelled to perform, and of the harsh treatment 
 they meet with from their husbands. The dress of the men con 
 sists of a shirt of white cotton, worn often till it becomes black ; 
 drawers of the same materials ; a mantle of white woollen ; a 
 large great coat or capote, with loose open sleeves ; and a 
 waist girdle, formed of a coarse shawl drawn tight by a belt 
 that contains their pistols. The habits of the Albanians are 
 filthy, many of them wearing their garments till they are 
 falling to shreds, and are covered with vermin. Their food 
 is simple and nourishing, and their cottages neat. The dis 
 tinguishing feature of their character is a strong feeling of 
 nationality. They are all trained to arms, and make brave 
 and hardy soldiers; but their discipline is very imperfect. 
 Their usual arms are two pistols in the sash or girdle; a 
 yatagan or cutlass, slightly bent forward ; a sabre bent back 
 ward, hung to a belt ; and a long musket. They are numerous 
 in the Turkish army, of which they constitute the best soldiers. 
 In agricultural operations, their indolence is remarkable. The 
 females, who are regarded as an inferior sort of beings, are 
 compelled to do the most laborious work. The Albanians 
 are fond of ornament, and much addicted to dancing. Their 
 native language appears to be founded on the ancient Illyrian ; 
 but, hitherto, no good grammar or dictionary of it has been 
 published. Most of the natives acquire also the Greek tongue. 
 They are divided into Greek Christians, R. catholics, and 
 Mahometans. Pop. estimated at 1,600,000. 
 
 History. Though Albania has frequently changed its name, 
 its masters, and its boundaries, a people have been embosomed 
 in its mountains from the earliest records of history, whose 
 language and habits have retained unusual traces of nationality. 
 The earliest geographer who mentions the Albani of this 
 district is Ptolemy, and they appear in his time to have been a 
 small tribe of Illyrians. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Albania 
 was included in the great Bulgarian kingdom established south 
 of the Danube; but it was not till the year 1079 that the 
 
 Albanians began to act an important part in history. From 
 this period, they exercised important influence in the perpetual 
 wars of their neighbours; but, in 1383, they were defeated, 
 for the first time, by the Turks, and again in 1478 their last 
 struggle when Albania became a province of the Turkish 
 dominions, still maintaining, however, a certain degree of 
 stubborn independence, which the Porte has hitherto found it 
 impossible to overcome. (La Turquie d Europe, par Ami 
 Boue*; Count Karaczay, in Jour. Geo. Soc.; Ency. Metrop.} . 
 
 ALBANO [Latin, Albanum], a tn. Papal States, comarca 
 of, and 14m. S.E. from Rome, on a hill about 900 ft. above 
 the sea level, and on the S. side of the lake of the same name 
 [see next article] ; celebrated for its beautiful scenery and pure 
 air. The modern town occupies part of the grounds of the 
 two villas of Pompey and Dornitian. The most remarkable 
 remains at Albano, however, are those of the amphitheatre 
 of Domitian, mentioned by Suetonius and Juvenal as the 
 scene of the most revolting cruelty of that tyrant. Near the 
 gate of the town, on the side of the road, rises an ancient 
 tomb, said, by some, to be that of Ascanius, the son of yEncas ; 
 but, by others, the sepulchre of Clodius, slain by Milo. The 
 wine of Albano, the produce of the vineyards around the lake, 
 still retains the reputation it had in the days of Horace. The 
 neighbourhood of the town was studded with the villas of the 
 Roman patricians, many of which are still traceable. It is 
 yet much resorted to, in summer, by wealthy Roman families, 
 who have their country seats there. Albano has been the 
 
 of a bishop since A.D. 460. Adrian IV. (Nicholas Break- 
 speare), the only Englishman who ever filled the papal chair, 
 was Bishop of Albaro for some years previous to his elevation 
 to the pontificate. Pop. 5600. (Murray s Handbook for 
 Central Italy, pp. 503, 501 ; Eustace s Classical Tour through 
 Italy, vol. ii. p. 256.) 
 
 ALBANO [Latin, Locus Albamis], a lake, Papal States, 
 near the town of Albano, and 13 m. S.E. Rome, of an 
 elliptical shape, upwards of 2 in. in length, and about 6 in 
 circumference ; supposed to occupy the crater of an extinct 
 volcano. Its situation is picturesque, being surrounded with 
 steep crags, mantled with coppice ; while its high banks are 
 covered with tastefully laid out gardens and orchards. But 
 the most remarkable circumstance connected with it, was the 
 formation of the emissary (emissario}, by which the Romans, 
 while engaged in their contest with the Veientes, A.u.c. 359 
 (B.C. 394), succeeded in lowering the waters, which, they 
 feared, might burst their banks, and destroy the adjacent 
 country. This emissario, or tunnel, is cut mostly through 
 solid rock, at a depth of about 430 ft. beneath the summit of 
 the cliff. Its length is fully 1 m. ; its width, everywhere, 
 at least 4 ft. ; and its height from 7^ to 10 ft. It is carefully 
 built round with solid masonry, and altogether discovers an 
 extraordinary degree of skill and perseverance. Its upper 
 end is nearly on a level with the surface of the lake, or 919 ft. 
 above the sea. It runs under the hill and town of Castul 
 Gandolfo. From the statements of Livy, and from indica 
 tions on the banks of the lake itself, it appears that its waters 
 stood, at one time, about 200 ft. higher than their present 
 level, and discharged themselves by a gully, artificially 
 widened, into a broad canal. 
 
 ALBANO, or MONTE CAVO [Latin, Mora Albanus], 
 Papal States, the highest point of the chain of mountains 
 which bound the Campagna di Roma on the E. and S. ; nearly 
 3000 ft. above the level of the sea. On the summit stood 
 the celebrated temple of Jupiter Latialis, built by Tarquin 
 the Proud ; memorable in Roman history as the scene of the 
 FericR Latinw, the solemn assemblies of the 47 cities forming 
 the Latin confederation. The sides of the mountain are 
 covered with fine woods, consisting principally of chestnut 
 trees. The view from the peak is exceedingly beautiful, 
 extending over an immense tract of country. The ascent 
 to it is by the ancient Via Triumphalis ; the road by 
 which the Roman generals, who were allowed the honours of 
 the lesser triumph, or ovation, ascended on foot to the 
 temple of the Latian Jupiter. (Murray s Handbook for 
 Central Italy.) 
 
 ALBANO (SANT- 1 ), a vil. Sardinian States, in Savoy, 2 m. 
 from Chamberry, on the Aisse. Several antiquities have been 
 found near an old Roman way which passed through it. Pop. 
 
 1250. Also the name of a vil., prov. of, and 7 m. W. from 
 
 Yercelli. 
 
ALBAN S (ST.) 05 
 
 ALBAN S (ST.), an anc. bor. and market tn. England, 
 Co. Hertford, hun. Casino; 21 m. N.W. London, and 6 m. 
 N E. Watford station, on the London and Birmingham Kail- 
 way. It is situated on the summit and declivity of a small hill, 
 and consists of ten principal and several smaller streets, many 
 of which arc very steep, but all clean and well kept, except 
 ing in the lower parts of the town, where drainage is much 
 neglected. In the older quarters, the lanes and alleys are nar 
 row, and many of the houses ancient ; but, in the newer portion, 
 the openings are more spacious, and the houses, which are all 
 of brick, are well built. The town is well paved, and lighted 
 with gas, and amply supplied with good water. The chief 
 public buildings are the Abbey church, the churches of St. 
 
 ALBANY 
 
 females only, the number of inmates being generally about 
 40. Albany lies near the head of tide water, the Hudson 
 being navigable as far as the city for vessels of 80 tons; and 
 when the navigation is not obstructed by ice, steamers ply 
 daily between it and the city of New York. In 1853 ^the 
 total tonnage that arrived at the port was 87,908. The Erie 
 and Champlain Canals unite about 9 m. N. of the city, where 
 they are connected with a basin covering 32 acres. By these 
 canals, pine from Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Canada, and 
 oak, cherry, and poplar timber from Ohio is brought, rendering 
 Albany one of the largest lumber markets in the world. In 
 1852 the total imports by canal were 5,487,830, of which 
 the amount for lumber was 1,284,243. Other important 
 
 Michael and St. Peter, the jail, the clock house, an old Roman articles received the same year were flour, 1,651,789 barrels; 
 watch tower, and the townhall, a large substantial building. wool,4,145,9701bs.;oats,2, 981, 938 bushels; wheat, 1,495,714 
 
 There are also several dissenting meeting houses, and a small 
 R. catholic chapel. The charities comprise a free grammar 
 school, founded by Edward VI.; a blue-coat school, in which 
 between 30 and 40 boys are clothed and educated ; a girls 
 school, and several almshouses, the principal of which was 
 established by Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough. There are, 
 besides the schools above enumerated, three daily and Sunday 
 national schools. The principal object of interest in St. 
 Alban s is the Abbey Church, part of a celebrated monastery, 
 founded in 793, by Offa, King of Mercia, one of the Saxon king 
 doms. It stands on an elevated site, and, being a very large 
 and beautiful structure, in the form of a cross, has an imposing 
 appearance. Its architecture is of various styles, comprising 
 that of every age from the time of the Normans to that of 
 Edward IV. ; while the materials of which it is composed are 
 equally heterogeneous. The oldest parts of the building are 
 towards the centre. Its entire length is upwards of 600 ft. 
 from E. to W., including a chapel at the E. end ; its extreme 
 breadth about 200 ft. It contains the ashes of King Offa, and 
 those of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, youngest son of 
 Henry IV. The remains of the celebrated Lord Bacon lie in 
 the church of St. Michael. St. Alban s has little or no trade, 
 and its only manufacture is straw plaiting, and straw bonnet 
 making, both of which, however, are carried on to a consider 
 able extent. There are also silkmills for winding and throw 
 ing silk, which employ a considerable number of hands. The 
 town is governed by a mayor, four aldermen, and 12 council 
 lors, and the usual corporate officers. It returns two members 
 to Parliament, and gives the title of Duke to the family of 
 Beauclcrc. St. Alban s is situated close to the site of the 
 ancient Verulamium (Verulam), parts of the walls of which 
 
 bushels; barley, 1,386,078 bushels. The New York and 
 Albany Railway, and several other railways connecting Al 
 bany with Boston, and many places to the E., terminate on 
 the opposite side of the river. On the W., the Mohawk and 
 Hudson Railway connects it with several other important lines. 
 Though chiefly noted as a place of trade and of thorough 
 fare, the manufactures of Albany are various, and some of 
 them extensive. They include carriages, hats and caps, morocco 
 leather, ropes, soap and candle, musical instruments, copper, 
 tin, and sheet-iron, oilcloth, stoves, and carpets ; a number of 
 breweries, and some mailing-houses. Numerous steamers 
 and tow-boats ply between Albany and New York, besides 
 other vessels navigating the Hudson. Pop. (1850), 50,703. 
 ALBANY, a small maritime division, E. frontier, colony 
 of Cape of Good Hope, about 550 m. E. Cape Town ; bounded, 
 N.W. by the division of Somerset, W. by Uitenhage, E. and 
 N.E. by the division of Victoria, annexed to the colony of 
 the Cape in 1847, and by the river Kunap; and S. by the 
 Indian Ocean. Its coast line, extending from Great Fish 
 River on the N.E., to Bushman s River on the S.W., is about 
 35 m. in length. The whole length of the district, from 
 N.W. to S.E., is about 65 m. ; its breadth from 30 to 40. 
 The N. portion of the division is intersected by Great Fish 
 River. The other streams of any note are the Kareega and 
 the Kowie. The prevailing formation is sandstone and gray- 
 wacke ; quartz and clay slate are common. The surface is agree 
 ably diversified, presenting in some parts the rugged features 
 of African scenery; in others, the softness of the champaign 
 districts of England, or continent of Europe. The climate, also, 
 is extremely healthy. Dividing the district nearly through 
 the middle, the lower part, or that nearest the sea, is best 
 
 are still standing. Registered electors, 541. Pop. of bor. in | suited for agricultural purposes, being free from obstruction 
 
 
 
 1841, 0240. (Correspondent in St. Alban s.) 
 
 ALBAN S HEAD (ST.), a headland, or promontory, 
 English Channel, on the coast of Dorsetshire, 441 ft. above 
 the sea. On the cliff, near the top, are the ruins of a chapel 
 supposed to have been erected in the 12th century; lat. 50 
 35 N. ; Ion. 2 3 W. (R.) 
 
 ALBANY, a city, U. States, America, co. Albany, cap. 
 of the state of New York, and the second in pop., wealth, and 
 commerce; on the right bank of the Hudson, 132 m N. the 
 city of New York, and 312 m. N.E. Washington; lat. 42 39 
 3" N. ; Ion. 73 44 49" W. It was founded by the Dutch 
 early in the 17th century; received its present name from 
 the English, to whom it capitulated in 1004; and, next to 
 Jamestown, in Virginia, is the oldest town in the U. States. 
 The site on which it is built is very uneven, rising from a 
 
 of every kind, and having a soil well adapted for the produc 
 tion of grain of all descriptions. This portion of the country 
 is thickly settled, and is stamped in every part with the dis 
 tinctive marks of an English colony, having a park-like 
 appearance, and being studded with beautiful shrubs and 
 trees, while numerous comfortable-looking farm houses, with 
 neat enclosures, dot the surface of the land. The upper, or 
 N. portion, again, is better suited for sheep rearing, and is 
 considered, on this account, at present as by far the most valu 
 able. In this part of the country there are some mountains 
 of considerable height; the chief of which are N. the Kafir, 
 W. the Fish river, and S.W. the Assegai Mountains. The 
 indigenous trees and bushes of the district are various, 
 and many of them extremely beautiful ; and, as but few of 
 them are deciduous, they retain their beauty during the whole 
 
 flat alluvial tract on the margin of the river, to a height of [ year. At midsummer, which is there the month of January, 
 220 ft. above its level. The city has been greatly improved j the plains and valleys are covered with flowers and shrubs of 
 
 buildings, j the gayest colours, and the most fragrant odour. Useful 
 
 of late years, and now contains many handsom 
 The principal public edifices are the capitol, or state house, 
 the seat of the Senate and House of Assembly; the Albany 
 academy, a spacious and elegant structure of freestone, accom 
 modating 400 students ; the Albany female academy, with 300 
 to 350 pupils ; the city hall ; the state hall, for the public offices ; 
 the state arsenal ; the medical college; and about 40 places 
 
 gayest colours, and the 
 kinds of timber are abundant, and both the soil and climate 
 appear favourable to many of the forest trees of Europe, and 
 also to the fruits both of warm and cold latitudes. The oak 
 and fir are common, and grow rapidly and luxuriantly, attain 
 ing often a large size ; but their timber is more soft and porous 
 than that of colder climates. Orange trees thrive well in 
 
 of worship, belonging to various denominations. Its literary [ moist situations, and produce fruit of fine quality. Peaches, 
 institutions comprise a public library containing 27,000 nectarines, apricots, mulberries, apples, arid pears, are abund- 
 
 The 
 
 volumes; a young men s association for mutual improve 
 ment, consisting of 1500 members, who have a reading-room 
 and library containing 8000 volumes. Amongst the princi 
 
 ant. Plums are in great variety, but less plentiful. 
 
 vine is common and prolific, but no good wine has been yet 
 
 produced here. Melons, and many other plants of a simila 
 
 pal charities are the Albany orphan asylum, which maintains 
 from 80 to 90 children, male and female ; the poorhouse, and 
 St. Joseph s orphan asylum a R. Catholic institution, but for | scanty and rather insipid. The cotton tree, though not culti- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 class, thrive exuberantly, and are very productive. Goose 
 berries and currants are not uncommon, but their fruit is 
 
ALBANY 
 
 ALBEREH MOUNTA I NS 
 
 vated to any extent, succeeds well, and produces cotton of 
 good quality. The most productive of the cereals is maize. 
 Wheat is successfully cultivated, but is subject to rust near | 
 the coast; and is not of such good quality, either in respect to ! 
 colour or weight, as that which is produced more in the 
 interior, or in the W. districts. Barley and oats are abundant ; 
 and kitchen vegetables, of every variety, may be produced 
 in suitable situations. Wine, though of very indifferent qua 
 lity, was formerly the staple produce and export of the district. 
 Wool is now the great object of attention, particularly in the 
 E. district?, where great solicitude is entertained for the im 
 provement of the live stock. The stock of sheep amounts to 
 about 311,000; goats, 84,963; horned cattle, 46,429; horses, 
 3014. 
 
 The trade of the district is considerable, extending itself 
 far into the interior to the N., and also along the E. coast. 
 The exports amount to about 100,000 annually; and the 
 imports, of which a considerable portion consists of hides, 
 skins, and tallow, to upwards of 162,000. The quantity of 
 fine wool produced yearly, is upwards of 853,000 lb.- . Manu 
 factures have made little progress, but there are several 
 tanneries, soap works, ai.d tile kilns. Hats, also, are made 
 to some extent, and are much esteemed for their durability. 
 The cap. is Graham s Tow^n (wh ch see), situated nearly in the 
 centre of the division. There are also the towns of Bathurst, 
 Salem, and Port Frances, at the mouth of the river Kowie, 
 which is much impeded at its entrance by sand. Pop. of 
 division, 14,723, of which 6132 are coloured. (Cope of Good 
 Hope Almanac.) 
 
 ALBANY, a river, Upper Canada, district of same name, 
 which has its source in Lake St. Joseph, about lat. 51 N. ; 
 Ion. 90 W. ; and, after an F.N.E. course of about 380 in., 
 falls into James s Bay (the S. part of Hudson s Bay), by a 
 large estuary, containing many small islands, on one of which 
 is situated Albany fort and factory. Other three trading j 
 houses have been erected on its banks. By affluents from 
 the right, and numerous small lakes, this river gives water j 
 communication with the great Lake Superior; and, likewise, j 
 by streams and lakes to the W. and N., it communicates with 
 Lake Winnipeg. In the estuary is a considerable cataract, j 
 called the Great Fall, there being a smaller one about 40 m. I 
 further up the river. 
 
 ALBANY ISLES, Australia, N.E. coast; they are six 
 in number, but one only is of considerable size. In Port 
 Albany, in the S.W. of the great island, there is a harbour 
 suitable for large vessels, where drinking water may be 
 obtained. The S.E. peak of this island is in lat. 10 45 S.; 
 Ion. 142 39 E. (n.) 
 
 ALBASSIN, or ALBASAYKE, called by the Chinese Yaksa, 
 meaning the embouchure of a river, a locality, still given 011 
 our maps, in the Chinese prov. of Manchooria, on the left 
 bank of the Amoor; lat. 53 N. ; Ion. 122 30 E. It was 
 formerly a Russian fort, occupied during the boundary wars 
 with the Chinese, and appears, subsequently, to have been 
 dignified with the appellation of town. Along with the sur 
 rounding country, Albassin was abandoned by the Russians to 
 the Chinese, at the treaty of Nerchinsk, 1689. Its fort was 
 razed, and we possess no account of it being at present an 
 inhabited localitv. 
 
 ALBATROSS ISLAND, a small isl. Bass s Strait, 
 Australasia ; lat. 40 22 S. ; Ion. 144 39 E. (R.) It is about 
 1 m. long, and 125 ft. high, and has obtained its name from the 
 great numbers of albatross by which it is frequented. It 
 abounds also with seals. 
 
 ALBAY. a prov., tn., and bay, Island of Luzon, one of 
 the Philippines. The PROV. Albay forms the S portion of , 
 the island, and is bounded, W. by prov. Camarincs, and on the 
 other three sides by the sea, its S. coast forming the N. side 
 of Bernardino Pa.-sage, or Strait. This province is fertile 
 and rich, the air is cool, and the roads generally are so good ! 
 as to be suitable for carriages. The mountains which traverse ! 
 Albay are a continuation of the Luzon Cordillera. They are 
 inhabited by two native tribes, Igorrotes and Negritos, and 
 present two remarkable peaks, both volcanoes ; that of 
 Bulusan, in the S., being nearly silent, and, from its isolated i 
 position and conical shape, serving as a landmark to mariners ; 
 and that of Albay, formerly called Mayon, being always 
 active, and subjecting the province to frequent earthquakes. 
 The coasts are irregular, and, in general, bad ; but there are 
 
 two excellent harbours, the Bay of Albay on the E., and that 
 of Sorsogon on the W. The province is divided into 37 
 
 peublos, or parishes, and has a pop. of 123,695. ALBAY, 
 
 the cap., is hard by the volcano, and about 2 in. from the bay 
 of the same name; lat. 13 22 N. ; Ion. 123 52 E. It is "a 
 large regularly built town, having some stone houses, and a 
 casa reale, a church, a convent, and an administration oi 
 tobacco and wine; and it carried on an active commerce. 
 
 Pop. 13,115. ALBAY BAY, or GULP, W. coast of the 
 
 prov., is large and secure, and almost land-locked. North 
 it is protected by the islands of Datu and Rapurapu, between 
 the latter of which and Point Malalabon, on the coast of 
 Luzon, is the entrance to the bay, 4 to 5 m. wide. From 
 Point Malalabon to opposite the town of Albay, is 19 m. ; 
 and the greatest breadth is about 12 in. (Mallat s Philip 
 pines.) 
 
 ALBAYDA. a tn. Spain, prov. Valencia, 9 m. S. by W. San 
 Felipe; pleasantly situated, tolerably well built, and having 
 two squares, two parish churches, a Latin and two primary 
 schools, an hospital, prison, cemetery, and an extensive old 
 palace of the Marquis of Albayda. The inhabitants are engaged 
 in linen weaving, brandy distilling, and soap boiling, and culti 
 vate grain, grapes, oil, and vegetables. An annual fair U 
 held in July. Pop. 3130. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALBEGN A (ABBINIA), a river, Italy, Tuscany. It takes 
 its rise on Mount Amiata, about 5 m. E. Castaglione, 3000 ft. 
 above the sea level; and, pursuing a S.W. course for about 
 38 m., falls into the Mediterranean, after having been aug 
 mented by several tributaries. 
 
 ALBEMAKLE SOUND, a large inlet, E. coast of N. 
 Carolina, U. States, America, from 4 to 15 ni. in width, and 
 penetrating into the land for about 70 m., 20 of which, and 
 the narrowest part, running nearly due N. It receives the 
 Roanoke and some other rivers, and communicates with 
 Pamlico Sound by two narrow channels, and with Chesapeake 
 
 Bay by a canal cut through the Great Dismal Swamp. 
 
 ALBEMARLE is also the name of a co., Virginia, U. States. 
 
 ALBENDORF, a vil. Prussia, prov. Silesia, gov. of, and 
 50 m. S.W. from Breslau, and 7 in. N.W. Glatz, near the 
 Bohemian frontier. It is chiefly remarkable as a R. catholic 
 place of pilgrimage. There are here a fine church, numerous 
 chapels, statues, &c., all contributing to a representation of 
 the city of Jerusalem, and history of our Saviour. All the 
 rising grounds in the neighbourhood of the village are made 
 use of, as Calvary, Golgotha, Sion, &c., in order to complete 
 the picture. In 1822, 83,000 pilgrims visited this place. Pop. 
 1300. (Hulm s Lex. Deutscldand.) 
 
 ALBENGA, a small maritime tn. Sardinian States, cap. 
 prov. of same name, 44 m. S.W. Genoa, at the mouth of the 
 Centa ; residence of a bishop, suffragan to Genoa, and having 
 a theological seminary. The environs produce oil and hemp 
 in abundance, but the place is considered unhealthy. It is the 
 Allium-Ingaitmim of the Romans ; and some ruins of a rotunda, 
 
 and an ancient bridge, are still to be seen. Pop. 5000. The 
 
 PROV. comprises the seven districts of Alassio, Albenga, Caliz- 
 zano, Andora, Loano, and Finale Bergo. Pop. 52,594. 
 
 ALBENQUE (L 1 ). See LALUE.NQUE. 
 
 ALBEXS, a small tn. Sardinian States, in Savoy, prov. 
 Genevois, 6 m. N.N.E. Aix, where numerous Roman antiqui 
 ties have been excavated. Pop. 1300. 
 
 ALBERBURY, or ADBEKBDHV, a par. England, cos. 
 Montgomery and Salop; area, 6040 ac. ; 8 m. W. by N. 
 Shrewsbury. Ruins of New Abbey. Glyn, a hamlet in this 
 par., birthplace of old Parr. Pop. in 1841, 1861. 
 
 ALBERCA, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 4 m. S. from 
 Murcia, having a parish church, two schools, and a bishop s 
 palace. The inhabitants are exclusively devoted to agricul 
 ture and cattle rearing. Pop. 2406. The name ALBEUCA 
 
 is also given to a river in Alicante, a mountain in Avila, a 
 town in New Castile, and a village in Leon. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALBERC1IE, a river, Spain, which, rising in Old Castile, 
 in the sierra de Avila, about 3 m. S. Villafranca, flows E. by 
 S., traversing the province Avila; enters New Castile, and 
 flows S.E. to within 8 m. of Navalcarnero; when, changing to 
 S.W., after a course of about 148 in., and being augmented 
 by numerous tributaries, it falls into the Tagus, about 3 m. 
 E. of Talavera. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALBERE8 MOUNTAINS, the name of the E. portion 
 of the Pyrenees (which see). 
 
ALBERIQUE 
 
 ALBOX 
 
 ALBERIQUE, a tn. Spain, Valencia, 11 in. i\. San 
 
 Felipe, on the high road to Madrid. It is surrounded by a 
 wall and fosse ; has irregular streets ; a principal and four 
 smaller squares ; two parish churches ; an old palace, once the 
 residence of the Dukes del Infantado; a prison; two hospitals ; 
 and several schools. The inhabitants trade in silks, rice, 
 and fruits. A fair is held at midsummer, when large quanti 
 ties of silk are sold. Pop. 3101. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALBERONA, a tn. Naples, prov. Capitanata, district 
 of, and 21 m. W. from Foggia; situated in a valley. Pop. 
 2300. 
 
 ALBERT [formerly Ancre; Latin, Ancora], a small tn. 
 France, dep. Somme, 14 m. N.W. Peronne, and 18 m. N.E. 
 Amiens; on the river Miraumont, an affluent of the Somme. 
 It has cotton and paper mills, printworks, and bleachfields, 
 with a considerable trade in corn and cattle. There is a cave 
 or quarry in the neighbourhood, discovered in 1752, where, 
 within a space of 1100 ft. long, by 6 broad, a great variety 
 of petrifactions (chiefly of marsh plants) are found. Pop. 
 2828. 
 
 ALBERT (LAKE), a bight off Lake Alexandrina, or 
 Victoria, S. Australia, connected with the former by a narrow 
 channel. See AUSTRALIA. 
 
 ALBERT RIVER, N. Australia, falls into the Gulf cf ! 
 Carpentaria; lat. 17 C 30 S. ; Ion. 140 E. See AUSTRALIA 
 Rivers. 
 
 ALBERTON, a tn., N. Australia, cap. Gipp s Land, on 
 the banks of the Albert river. It is a post town, and petty ! 
 sessions are held in it. 
 
 ALBI. See ALBY. 
 
 ALBIANO, a vil. and commune, Italy, in Tuscany, prov. 
 Pisa, 16m. S. by E. Pontremoli, on the slope of a small hill \ 
 which forms the S. projection of Mount Bolano, whose E. 
 base is bathed by the river Magra, which joins the Vara to 
 the S.W. It contains a parish church, and a castle, sur 
 rounded by old turreted walls, once the property of the 
 Marquises of Melaspina, and only approachable by one narrow 
 and steep path. Pop. of vil. and commune, 1213. (Dizio. 
 Univ. Italia.} 
 
 ALBIGEOIS, formerly a district of France, in the anc. 
 prov. Kuteni ; now in Languedoc, dep. Tarn. 
 
 ALB1NEN, a vil. in Switzerland, canton Valais, on the 
 N. side of the llhone, from which it is between 4 and 5 m. I 
 distant ; lat. 46 23 N. ; Ion. 7 38 E. It stands on the j 
 summit of a precipice, and is accessible only fiwm the valley 
 below, by ladders placed perpendicularly against the face of the 
 rock. These are ascended and descended by the inhabitants, 
 including women and children, during night as well as day, 
 and often with heavy burdens, without the slightest hesitation, 
 although the ladders arc frequently awry and unsteady, and 
 many of their rounds loose and broken. 
 
 ALBINO, a tn. Austrian Lombardy, delegation of, and 
 7 in. N.E. from Bergamo, upon the Serio. It is well built, 
 and remarkable for the palace and beautiful gardens of Count 
 Spini. The parish church is old. It has a normal school, 
 with extensive silk spinning mills, lime and tile kilns, and 
 manufactories of agricultural implements. The district con 
 tains quarries of black marble, and whetstones, of great 
 repute. In Mount Poretto, in the neighbourhood, alabaster 
 is found of surpassing beauty. Pop. 2500. 
 
 ALBINO, the name given to a variety of the human 
 species, distinguished by the physical peculiarities, an unna 
 tural whiteness of skin, the more remarkable that it occurs 
 most frequently amongst blacks, and tribes generally of a 
 dark complexion ; white and silky hair ; eyes weak and mostly 
 red, but sometimes also blue ; constitution feeble. They are 
 to be met with in various parts of the world, but are perhaps 
 most numerous in Africa 
 
 ALBION, the anc. name of Great Britain, said to have 
 1 een given to it on account of the lofty white cliffs on the S. 
 shores of the island. 
 
 ALBION, the name of several post townships, town 
 ships, and post villages in the U. States: 1, Post township, 
 co. Kennebec, Maine. Pop. 1624. 2, Post township, co. 
 Orleans, of which it is the cap., state of New York, contains 
 a courthouse, jail, clerk s office, Baptist, Methodist, and Pres 
 byterian churches, an academy and female seminary. Pop. 
 1400. 3, Post vil., co. Calhoun, Michigan. 4, Post vil., 
 co. Edwards, Illinois; it occupies a high and healthy situation, 
 
 and is settled chiefly by English emigrants. 5, Post vil., 8. 
 Carolina. 6, Township, co. Oswego, Albany. Pop. 1503. 
 7, Township, co. Calhoun, Michigan. Pop. 932. 
 
 ALBION (NEW), an extensive tract of land on the N.W. 
 coast of N. America, discovered by Cook, March 7, 1778. 
 This name was originally applied by Sir Francis Drake, in 
 1578, to California, and part of the coast to the N. ; but 
 recent geographers limit the designation to that part of the 
 coast of the Pacific Ocean which extends between 43 and 
 48 N. lat. It is wholly included in the U. States territory 
 of Oregon (which see}. 
 
 ALBIS, a mountain range in Switzerland, canton Zug, 
 running nearly parallel with the S. part of the Lake of Zurich, 
 from which it is distant between 3 and 4 m. The highest 
 summit, called Hiitliberg, attains an elevation of 2792 ft. 
 above the sea level, and commands an extensive view. There 
 are two roads across these mountains, both leading from 
 Zurich to Luzern, one of which, the most northern and the 
 longer, passes under the Hiitliberg; the other, the one now 
 most commonly taken, crosses the high Albis, and is avail 
 able to carriages, unless very heavily laden. The views 
 commanded by this line of route are exceedingly beautiful. 
 
 ALBISSOLA-MARINA, a vil. Sardinian States, prov. 
 of, and 3 m. N.W. from Savona, on the Mediterranean. It 
 is surrounded by a fertile country, covered with a luxuriant 
 vegetation, and producing fruit in great abundance. 
 
 ALBLASSERDAM, a vil. Holland, prov. S. Holland, 
 10 m. S.E. Rotterdam, and 3 m. N. Dordrecht, on the right 
 bank of the Alblas, which is here crossed by a dam; hence the 
 name. It is a well-built village, has a Calvinistic church, a 
 good harbour, and a yearly horse market. Pop. about 1200. 
 (Van der Aa s Ncdciianden.) 
 
 ALBOCACER, a tn. Spain, in Valencia, prov. of, and 
 32 m. N.W. by N. Castellon de la Plana, on the W. declivity 
 of the sierra Engarceran. It is indifferently built, with steep 
 and irregular, though wide streets, and possesses a large and 
 handsome parish church, several chapels, a townhouse, prison, 
 hospital, two schools, a public storehouse, and cemetery. 
 Manufactures: Linen and woollen fabrics, hardware and 
 earthenware. Produce of vicinity: Grain, wine, oil, fruits, 
 vegetables, silk, wax, and honey; sheep, goats, horned 
 cattle, and pigs. Iron is found here, but not wrought ; and 
 several valuable marble quarries exist in the neighbouring 
 mountains, on which, likewise, in many places, oak, beech, 
 pine, and other hardy trees are plentiful. Pop. 1834. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 ALBOLODREY, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 20 m. N.N.W. from Almeria, on the left bank of the river 
 Almeria. It is built on hilly ground, but still regular, having 
 three squares, a church, some schools, a townhall, prison, and 
 the ruins of an old fortress. The inhabitants are engaged 
 principally in tillage, cattle rearing, and as carriers; and occa 
 sionally a portion are employed in the lead mines of the sierra 
 de Gador. Pop. 2067. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALBONA, a small tn. Austria, prov. lllyria, near the 
 Gulf of, and about 22 m. S.W. from the tn. of Fiume. It 
 lies in the midst of a rocky district, unsuited for the cultivation 
 of grain, but abounding in excellent fruit, especially grapes, 
 olives, and chestnuts. Pop. 1550. 
 
 ALBOR, one of the Bahama Islands, between the islands 
 Neque and St. Salvador. 
 
 ALBOR AN, a small isl. Spain, Mediterranean; prov. of, 
 and 66 m. S.S.W. from Almeria ; lat. 35 58 N.; Ion. 3 1 W.(R.) 
 It is about 2 m. long, 1 m. broad, low, flat, uncultivated, 
 and inhabited by a few fishermen only. On its S. side is a 
 roadstead, resorted to by smuggling, piratical, and fishing 
 vessels. 
 
 ALBOURN, a par. England, co. Sussex, 2 m. N.W. 
 Hurst Picrpoint; aroa, 1280 ac. Pop. in 1841, 395. 
 
 ALBOX, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 40 m. 
 N.N.E. from Almeria, agreeably situated on the banks of the 
 rivulet called Rambla de Oria, which divides the tn. into the 
 two quarters of San Francisco, and La Lcma, the latter of 
 which is chiefly inhabited by mechanics. It has several good 
 streets, a fine square (the Plaza de la Constitucion), and a 
 smaller one, with a central fountain. The principal public 
 buildings are two rather handsome churches; some schools; 
 a well-endowed hospital for infirm poor and foundlings, founded 
 in 1764; a fine townhall; and a small prison. It also has 
 
ALBRIGHTON 
 
 ALCALA DE GUADAIRA 
 
 several fountains, ami two cemeteries. The manufactures are 
 blankets, coarse linen and hempen fabrics, earthenware jars, 
 dishes, and plates; and connected with the town there are 
 several corn and oilmills. The exports are considerable 
 quantities of oil and corn; and the imports, wine and brandy. 
 A fair lasts from November 1 to 15; and there are weekly 
 markets. Pop. 7425. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALBRIGHTON, a par. England, co. Salop ; area, 2970 ac. 
 Here are several charities, and two annual cattle fairs. Pop. 
 iu 1841, 1058. 
 
 ALBUERA, a river, Spain, prov. Badajos, rising in the 
 mountains about 5 m. W. la Parra; and, flowing N., empties 
 itself into the Guadiana, 9 m. E. Badajos, after a course of 
 about 50 m. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALBUERA, a vil. Spain, in Estremadura, on a river of 
 its own name, an affluent of the Guadiana, 13 m. S. by E. 
 Badajos. having only 450 inhabitants; but celebrated in 
 military history, as having been the scene of a sanguinary 
 conflict, May 1(5, 1811, between the French under Soult, and 
 the Anglo-Spanish army under Lord Beresford, in which the 
 former was defeated. In this battle the French lost 8000 
 men, and the allies 7000, all within the short space of four 
 hours. 
 
 ALBUFE1RA, or ALBOFEIRA, a small seaport and tn. 
 Portugal, on the S. coast of prov. Algarve, 13 m. E.S.E. 
 Silves, and 29 m. E. Lagos, at the head of a bay of its own 
 name ; built on the edge of a high rock on the shore, enclosed 
 with a turreted wall, and defended by a battery on the beach. 
 It lies between two hills, on very uneven ground; is abomin 
 ably dirty, and has a church, hospital, and about 3000 inhabit 
 ants, chiefly fishermen. (Willkomm s Zwei Jakre in Por 
 tugal.) 
 
 ALBUFERA, a lagoon, Spain, prov. of, and 10 m. S. 
 from Valencia, about 10 m. long, and 25 in circuit, separated 
 from the sea only by a narrow strip of land. It swells in 
 winter, and is then a complete preserve for fish and wild fowl, 
 of which last, no less than 70 varieties frequent it. Its banks 
 are thickly studded with rice plantations, the cultivation of 
 which is very destructive to life. This lake and domain, 
 valued iu 1833 at 300,000, Avas conferred on Marshal Suchet, 
 by Napoleon, together with the dukedom of Albufera, as a 
 reward for his capture of Valencia. The property, however, 
 was soon afterwards restored to the Valencians, by the Duke 
 of Wellington. 
 
 ALBULA, a mountain and river in Switzerland, both 
 in the Grisons, the former occurring in that portion of the 
 Uhaetian Alps, by which the E. part of the canton is intersected; 
 lat. 46 37 N. ; Ion. 9 53 E. It presents two lofty peaks, 
 one of which, Crap Alv, or White Rock, is 7560 ft. in height, 
 the other on the S.E., called Piz Err, is 8770 ft. high. There 
 is a pass over this mountain, the culminating point of which, 
 marked by a cross, is G980 ft. above the sea level. Some 
 parts of this pass are dangerous, fragments of broken rocks 
 often hurling down from the heights above, and in spring 
 avalanches are to be apprehended, while nearly the whole 
 
 pass is one scene of complete desolation. The river ALIHJ- 
 
 L.V proceeds from a small lake near the foot of the mountain, 
 and after flowing for about 25 m. in a N.N. W. direction, falls 
 into the II inter- Ithein, 2 m. N. from Tusis. 
 
 ALBUNOL, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. Granada, 
 35 m. W. by S. Almeria, near the coast of the Mediterranean. 
 It is well built; has clean, paved streets, a good square, church, 
 three schools, a storehouse, two prisons, and several convents. 
 The inhabitants are engaged in preparing wine, raisins, figs, 
 and almonds ; in husbandry, cattle rearing, carrying, and fish 
 ing; and in distilling. They export fruits, wine, and spirit 
 of wine ; and import grain, wood, and colonial produce. Pop. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, a tn. of the Mexican Republic, prov. 
 New Mexico, situated to the W. of the sierra Obscura, on 
 the left bank of the Rio del Norte; 50m. S.W. Santa Fe. 
 It is famed for the beauty of its women. Pop. 6000. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, a tn. Spain, Estremadura, 23 m. 
 N. by W. Badajos, and close on the fromier of Portugal. It 
 is a miserable decayir.g place, with three or four squares, two 
 parish churches, two schools, two hospitals, a prison, and 
 several public fountains. Its manufactures are linen, 
 sombrero hats, potteryware, soap, and chocolate. In the 
 vicinity, grain, wine, oil, honey, fruits, vegetables, and flax, 
 
 are raised in abundance. An annual fair is held in September. 
 Pop. 5470. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALBURG1I, a par. England, co. Norfolk; area, 1430 ac.; 
 4 in. E. by N. Harleston. Pop. in 1841, 589. 
 
 ALBURY, or ALDBURY, a par. England, co. Oxford; 
 area, 1250 ac.; 3 m. N.\V. Tetsworth. Pop. in 1841, 244. 
 
 ALBURY, or ALOEUBURY, a par. England, co. Surrey ; 
 area, 4920 ac. ; 5 m. S.E. Guild ford ; fund for apprenticing 
 poor children. Pop. in 1841, 1079. 
 
 ALBY, a par. England, co. Norfolk; area, 840 ac.; 4 m. 
 N. by E. Aylsham. Pop. in 1841, 299. 
 
 ALBY, or ALBI [Latin, Albiya, Alba Augusta], an anc. 
 city, France, cap. dep. Tarn, on the left bank of the Tarn river, 
 on a hill in the midst of the plain of Languedoc, 338 m. S. 
 Paris, and 42 m. N.E. Toulouse. It is the seat of an arch 
 bishop ; is very ill built, the streets being narrow, irregular, 
 and dirty, and the houses all of brick. Its squares are few, 
 and not remarkable, excepting that in the new quarter of 
 Vignan, which is large and regular, not to say fine. The 
 promenades and avenues which terminate in this square are 
 charming, and are designated the Lists of Albi. They were 
 formerly separated from the ramparts of the city by a broad 
 ditch; and in them used to assemble, during the times of chi 
 valry, the knights of all the surrounding country, to take part 
 | in the tourneys of the times. The ditch is now filled up, and 
 the ramparts thrown down, so that the suburbs now form part 
 . of the town, and tend much to beautify it. In all quarters of 
 j Albi there are numerous fountains of excellent water. The 
 principal building is the cathedral of St. Cceile, a Gothic 
 brick edifice, begun in 1282, and not completed till 1512. 
 Other important edifices are, the church of St. Salvi, the 
 courthouses, and the general hospital, which last is indeed a 
 very fine structure. Besides a tribunal of commerce, and a 
 communal college, there are in the town a museum of natural 
 i history ; a society of rural economy, trade, and statistics ; and 
 | a public library of more than 12,000 volumes ; also a theatre 
 and barracks. The manufactures are of coarse linen cloths, 
 sacking, cottons, table cloths, handkerchiefs, hats, cord, tools, 
 files, scythes, and wax candles. Woad (pastel) has been 
 made here from a very early period. In the neighbourhood 
 are copper, glass, and paper works, and a foundry for casting 
 bullets. The town suffered much in the religious wars of 
 France; and from it the Protestant reformers of the 12th and 
 13th centuries, called the Albigcnses, took their name. Pop. 
 in 1846, 14,211. 
 
 ALCACER-DO-SAL [Salt castle], a tn. Portugal, prov. 
 Estremadura, on the right bank of the Sada; 55 m. E.S.E. 
 j Lisbon, in the midst of an extensive plain ; is enclosed by 
 walls, and defended by a fortress on a steep rock. It has 
 some churches, an hospital, two schools, and a prison ; and, on 
 | the banks of the river, are numerous salt pans. Considerable 
 quantities also of sedgemats and rushbrooms are made here, 
 chiefly for the Lisbon market, and much corn is sent hence 
 down the river for Sctubal and Lisbon. During the war of 
 succession in Portugal, the town and castle were taken alter 
 nately by the contending parties. Pop. 1909. 
 
 ALCALA DE CHIVERT, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. 
 of, and 30 m. N.N.E. from Castcllon do la Plana ; in a 
 pleasant valley on the road from Barcelona to Valencia. The 
 streets are narrow and tortuous; the public buildings com- 
 
 Erise a church of modern architecture, three schools, an 
 ospital, asylum, townhouse, and jail. There are two tobacco 
 I factories, five brandy distilleries, and some oilmills, in the 
 town. The vicinity produces grain, wine, oil, honey, wax, 
 fruits, and vegetables ; and game is plentiful. Pop. 4950. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 \ ALCALA DE GUADAIRA, or DE Los PANEDEUOS 
 | [anc. Ilienipaa, place of many springs], a tn. Spain, in Anda 
 lusia, prov. of, and 6 m. E.S.E. from Seville, on the Guadaira, 
 crossed here by a stone bridge of seven arches. It stands 
 near the river, and is overlooked by the ruins of an ancient 
 fortress, crowning the summit of an adjacent eminence, the 
 site of an old Moorish town, once surrounded by walls, 
 with a dcej) and wide fosse. It comprises four squares, and 
 several tolerably constructed, though steep streets; two 
 parish churches, with cemeteries attached ; municipal offices ; 
 two general hospitals ; a lying-in hospital, and house of refuge ; 
 three primary schools; a prison; abattoir; arid several public 
 storehouses. The manufactures are earthenware, brick. 
 
ALCALA DE HENAEES 
 
 ALCANIZ 
 
 soap, and coarse cloth ; and, connected with the town, are 
 flourmills ; but the place is chiefly noted for its bread, reputed 
 the best in Spain, being remarkably white and fine flavoured, 
 and so much esteemed, that 130 mules are daily employed in 
 conveying it to Seville. There are, at least, 50 bakeries in 
 the town. The vicinity produces grain, wine, oil, fruits, 
 vegetables, honey, and silk. Sheep, horned cattle, and a few 
 goats and pigs, are reared ; and, in the neighbouring hills, are 
 several quarries of granite and freestone ; and numerous 
 tunnels, some two leagues in length, whence flows the purest 
 water, which is conveyed to Seville, first in a brick caiieria, 
 
 and, 
 
 uently, by an 
 
 uct of 400 arches, called the 
 
 I Canos de Carmona, from its contiguity to the highroad to 
 that city. Pop. 6700. (Madoz, Diccio. de Espaiia.} 
 
 ALCALA DE HENAEES, or DE SAN JUSTO (anc. 
 Complutum), a city, Spain, in New Castile, prov. of, and 16 
 in. E N.E. from Madrid, and about 1 m. from the right bank 
 of the llenares. It has an imposing appearance when 
 
 ALCALA DEL JUCAE, a tn. Spain, in Murcia, in a 
 rocky locality on the left bank of the Jucar, 19 m. N. by W. 
 Albacete; a gloomy, dirty, and unhealthy place, with narrow, 
 steep, and tortuous streets ; having a parish church, two 
 endowed schools, and a prison. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 engaged in tillage, and domestic weaving. The vicinity 
 produces grain, oil, vegetables, and some fruits ; mules and 
 asses are numerous. Pop. 2883. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCALA DE LOS GAZULES, a tn. Spain, in Anda 
 lusia, on the slope of the Ronda mountains, prov. of, and 37 m. 
 E. by S. from Cadiz. It is situated at a height of 2530 ft. above 
 the sea, and comprises an old and new town, the former of 
 which is partly enclosed by a ruined wall ; a few wide, well- 
 built streets, with others narrow and tortuous ; three spacious 
 squares, a parish church, chapel of ease, three schools, two 
 hospitals, barracks, storehouse, and several handsome foun 
 tains. Close to the town also are the remains of an old 
 castle. The surrounding country is rugged and bleak, suitable 
 only for pasture. The inhabitants exhibit but 
 little industry or activity. Pop. 6120. (Madoz.) 
 ALCALA DEL EIO, a tn. Spain, in Anda 
 lusia, prov. of, and 8 m. N. from Seville, on 
 the Guadalquivir, having a parish church, and 
 chapel, two endowed schools, a townhall, a pri 
 son, and storehouse. The inhabitants are em 
 ployed in tillage and pasturage ; the produce of 
 the vicinity being grain, fruits, and vegetables; 
 sheep, goats, and horned cattle. Pop. 2820. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCALA-LA-EEAL, a city, Spain, in 
 Andalusia, prov. of, and 30 m. S.W. from Jaen ; 
 in a glen on the N. side of the Granada moun 
 tains, at a height of above 2700 ft. above the sea 
 level. It is irregularly built, with steep and 
 narrow streets ; but has a large square, orna 
 mented with a fountain. The chief public build 
 ings are two parish churches ; a chapel of ease ; 
 a town and courthouse ; a Latin, and six primary 
 schools; a civil hospital, formerly a fine abbey ; 
 storehouse, prison, several convents ; and a tower, 
 containing the first clock made in Spain. The 
 inhabitants are principally engaged in agricul- 
 viewed from a distance ; but, on nearer inspection, is found ture ; and in the city there are three soap factories, and two 
 to be m a state of decay. It is enclosed by crumbling walls, j brandy distilleries. The vicinity produces grain, fruits, and 
 and the houses are mean, and in a ruinous condition. It vegetables, of the finest quality, and in great abundance, 
 ee pretty large squares, one of which, the Plaza Sheep, goats, pigs, and horned cattle, are reared, though in 
 
 too limited numbers for the consumpt of the people. Fruits 
 and grain are exported ; and wearing apparel, cloth, cotton 
 fabrics, iron, hardware, rice, and oil, are imported. Pop. 
 11,521. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCAMO, a tn. Sicily, prov. Trapani, situated in the 
 val di Mazzara, on the high road between Palermo and Trapani, 
 from which latter town it is distant 25 m. E. Its situation 
 on a height is pleasant and commanding, and it is surrounded 
 with entire forests of olive trees. The streets are dirty and 
 ill paved. Near Alcamo are the ruins of the ancient Seyesta, 
 including the remains of a magnificent theatre, and temple. 
 
 The district of Alcamo is divided into four cantons 
 
 Alcamo, Castel a Mare, Palatafimi, and Gibellina. Pop. 
 15,834. 
 
 ALCANADEE, a river, Spain, Aragon, which rises in 
 the sierra de Guara, near Voltana, prov. Huesca ; flows S. and 
 S.E., and, after receiving several affluents, joins the Cinca at 
 Vallovar, 17 m. W. by S. Lerida, after a course of about 60 m. 
 ALCANAE, a tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. Tarragona, 
 19 m. S. T.ortosa. It has a church, endowed school, and 
 cemetery. The inhabitants are employed in domestic weav 
 ing, expressing oil, and cultivating the grain, fruits, and 
 vegetables, which abound in the vicinity ; wheat is exported ; 
 implements of husbandry are imported. Pop. 3022. (Madoz.) 
 ALCANEDE, a tn. Portugal, prov. Estremadura, comarca 
 of, and 13 in. N. from Santarem, with a strong castle on a 
 rock. Pop. 1640. 
 
 ALCANIZ, a city, Spain, Aragon, prov. of, and 66 in. 
 N.E. from Teruel, and about the same distance S.E. Saragossa, 
 
 de Cervantes, is ornamented with trees, and a fountain; 
 another, the Plaza de Toros, comprises a respectable town- 
 hall, and some large storehouses, and two pretty alamedas. i 
 The other public buildings include the magnificent Gothic 
 church, El Magistral, with three others ; a theatre, hospital, 
 barracks, and riding school ; with a handsome palace, belong 
 ing to the Archbishop of Toledo. The largest, however, 
 and in some respects, the finest edifice in the place, is the Col- 
 legio Mayor de San Ildefonso, founded in 1510, and richly en 
 dowed by Cardinal Ximenes. A university was established 
 here once, second only to Salamanca, having 19 colleges, 
 and 10,000 students ; reduced to about 400, previous to its 
 removal to Madrid. The Collegio has three squares, and a 
 magnificent chapel, containing the tomb of the founder, with 
 his effigy the masterpiece of Dominico el Florentine ; the 
 building, however, like many others in "Spain, was never 
 finished. Here was printed, at the expense, and under the 
 direction of the Cardinal, the far-famed Complutensian Poly- 
 glott, 6 vols. folio, 1502-1517. It was not published till 
 1522, the expense exceeded the then enormous sum of 52,000 
 ducats (11,112), and only 600 copies were printed, of which 
 three only were on vellum ; and one of which subsequently 
 sold for 522 ! Alcala has very little industrial activity; it 
 supplies the capital with much of its bread, and has also tan 
 neries, soap works, chocolate mills, and manufactures of coarse 
 
 woollen fabrics, with two well-attended fairs, in 
 
 linen and 
 
 August and November. Alcala numbers among the distin 
 guished individuals to whom it has given birth, Cervantes, 
 the celebrated author of Don Quixote ; the Emperor Ferdinand, 
 
 1 ___ 4.1 ___ ^1? m ___ 1~_ -IT- .1 , Tl. 
 
 1 ,1 cm 1 IT" il I-. i - L "- 1 ^- i*^*" J- Cl UC1, clliu rtUULU M : I < -| O . I, . .^;|I . t ^ < >>>i[ , 
 
 brother of Chares V.; the poet Figuerroa; and Antonio de on a rising ground on the right bank of the Guadaloupe, here 
 
 holis, he historian of the conquest of Mexico. Pop. in 1768, crossed by a substantial stone bridge of seven arches. It 
 
 estimated by Estrada at 22,000, now diminished to 39G8 comprisesnine squares, and numerous well-constructed, paved, 
 
 (Madoz, Dicey, de E.yana.} \ and spacions streetS) lincd with eclifice5] scveral of wllich have 
 
ALCANTARA 
 
 ALCAUDETE 
 
 considerable architectural merit. The public buildings arc a so finely wrought as to sell for 6 or 8 each. There are 
 magnificent collegiate church, with many fine tombs and pic- ] some salt pits within a few miles of the town, which were once 
 tures ; three parish churches, a tov nhouse, a large Gothic , profitably worked by the Jesuits, to whom they belonged, but 
 guildhall, ecclesiastical courthouse, police office, college; are now much neglected. In former times, Alcantara was 
 Latin, and four ether schools; hospital, secure and well- the capital of the capitania of Cuma. 
 
 ventilated prison, cavalry barracks, storehouse; several con- j ALCANTARILLA, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 5 m. S.W. 
 vents, one of which is used as an infantry barracks ; and from Murcia, on a rising ground, about 1 m. from the right 
 theatre. A public promenade, 1 m. in length, ornamented bank of the river Scgura, having a parish church, two endowed 
 with trees and shrubs, and having a fountain of good water, j schools, and an hospital. The people manufacture soap, and 
 
 affords scope to the citizens for recreation. The manufactures 
 are silk, worsted, coarse linen, hats, gypsum, and soap ; there 
 are also flour and oilmills. The exports consist of grain, silk, 
 wool, and oil ; and the imports of wine, hardware, cotton 
 fabrics, and leather. The vicinity produces abundance of 
 grain, fruits, and vegetables, silk, wool, honey, and wax. 
 Sheep and a few goats are reared, but there are few cattle fed. 
 Two annual fairs are held in June and August for grain, 
 cattle, and general merchandise. Pop. 5100. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCANTARA, a river in the E. part of Sicily, having 
 
 cultivate grain, fruits, vegetables, and flax. A few domestic 
 cattle are reared. Pop. 348 1 . (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCARAZ, a city, Spain, in New Castile, prov. of, and 
 43 m. S.W. from Albacete, on the E. slope of an isolated hill, 
 on the left of the river Guadarmena, overlooked by a ruinous 
 castle, which crowns the summit, and commanded on the N., S., 
 and E. by mountains of greater altitude, called the sierra de 
 Alcaraz. The city has seven approaches, leading into four 
 principal streets, which converge in the Plaza mayor, or 
 central square ; and it has a second square, some very steep 
 
 its rise in the Neptunian mountains, and its embouchure 5 m. I streets and lanes, three parish churches, an endowed school, 
 S.S.W. from Taormina, on the S.E. coast of the island. Its ! substantial townhouse, hospital, and numerous convents, with 
 whole course is about 36 m. in length. j churches attached, one of which is used as a jail. The 
 
 ALCANTARA (anc. Norba Ccesarea], a fortified tn. Spain, inhabitants are employed in weaving, iron founding, tillage, 
 Estremadura, prov. of, and 33 m. AV.N.W. from Caceres, and cattle feeding. They export fruit, and the produce of 
 on the summit of a rocky acclivity, on the left bank of the ! their looms ; and import oil, wine, and other requisites, by 
 Tagus, surrounded by old walls mounted with cannon, and j mules. The vicinity produces grain, fruits, vegetables, 
 having five gates. On the E. side is the castle, containing a j hemp, and flax ; and affords good pasturage for sheep, goats, 
 tower of fealty, and having a subterranean communication with j pigs, and horned cattle; in the neighbouring sierra, zinc, 
 the Tagus, whence an abundant supply of water is obtained. 
 The town comprises two principal, and several smaller squares, 
 and numerous narrow, steep, and, for the most part, ill-built 
 streets. It has two parish churches, one of which is a large 
 Gothic pile; a townhall, several schools, a custom house, 
 hospital, prison, some convents ; the hereditary mansions of 
 the Marquis de Torre Orgaz, Count de Canilleros, and the 
 Viscount de la Torre ; and a barrack for veterans. Since the 
 last war with Portugal, the manufacturing industry of this 
 town has been reduced to a little weaving, tanning, and the 
 mechanical productions requisite for the population. Its 
 commerce consists in exporting wheat and barley to Zarza 
 and Ceclavin, of rye and wool to Portugal, and of oil to 
 the interior of the peninsula ; and in importing wearing 
 apparel, linen, and colonial produce. The vicinity abounds 
 in grain, wine, oil, fruits, vegetables, honey, and wax ; and 
 depastures considerable numbers of sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, 
 horses, and mules. 
 
 Alcantara was, in 1214, taken from the Moors by Alonso 
 
 calamine, and copper exist, but they are not wrought. Pop. 
 7325. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCASSAR, or AL-KASK, a tn. Morocco, prov. Fez, on 
 the Wad al Khos, 25 m. S.E. El-Araish ; lat. 35 1 N.: 
 Ion. 5 49 W. It lies so low as to be entirely flooded in 
 winter, and it is described as still a considerable place ; but 
 dirty, straggling, and dilapidated, containing 10 or 15 mosques, 
 of which two only are fit for use. The artizans are Jews, 
 and the merchants Moors. A number of storks, esteemed 
 sacred by the Mussulmans, are allowed the range of the town, 
 perching without molestation on the roofs of the houses and 
 mosques. Alcassar is surrounded by gardens and orchards, 
 and by a flat tract of rich meadow land. About 6 m. N. 
 Alcassar, near the Wad Emhagen, or Elmahassen. was fought, 
 in 1578, a memorable battle between Don Sebastian, King of 
 Portugal, and the Moors, in which the former and the flower 
 of his army were slain. 
 
 ALCASSAR CEGUER, a small fortified vil. Morocco, 
 prov. Fez, on the Strait of Gibraltar, at its narrowest part 
 
 VIII. of Castile, and given to the knights of Calatrava, to I between Ceuta and Tanger. Built in the 12th century by 
 whom were subsequently united the military order of monks j Jacob Almanzor, it was taken, in 1468, by Alphonzo, King of 
 called de San Juan dePereyrf, founded by Suero Rodriguez I Portugal, but abandoned soon after by the Portuguese, and 
 Barrientos, in 1156; their noble convent, San Benito, built of! re-occupied by the Moors. 
 
 granite, still remains, though ruinous, and in its church 
 some pictures by Morales. The Portuguese general, Lapisse, 
 in 1809, occupied the town one night, which was employed in 
 the commission of the most wanton barbarities ; since then, its 
 dilapidated convents, and roofless houses, alone indicate its 
 former grandeur. The bridge in its vicinity, built for Trajan, 
 A.D. 105, is worthy its founder, and has survived the violence 
 of men and elements for 17 centuries ; at its entrance is a 
 chapel dedicated to Trajan, with some verses inscribed, which 
 one couplet record the name of its architect, Caius Julius 
 
 L:tcer : 
 
 Poiifcm pcrpetui, mansnrutn in secula 
 Fecit diuiiii imbilis :irt<: Lacer. 
 
 The bridge was partly blown up, in 1809, by Col. Mayne, 
 but repaired, in 1812, by Col. Sturgeon. Pop. 4273. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCANTARA, a seaport, Brazil, prov. of, and 20 m. 
 N.W. from Maranham, across the Bay of St. Marcos, on a 
 semicircular hill, on the W. side of which the town is situated ; 
 lat. 2 23 33" S.; Ion. 44 22 59" W. (L.) It is defended by a 
 fort, and many of the houses are built of stone, and are two stories 
 high, though for the most part they have only a ground floor. 
 It has five churches, two convents, a townhall, a prison, and a 
 quay; but, as a whole, the town is in a very dilapidated state, 
 and the streets are overgrown with weeds, while its general 
 
 aspect indicates decay. 
 
 more wealthy residents are the 
 
 proprietors of cotton plantations ; the poorer classes gain a live 
 
 ALCATRAZ, or ALCATRAS, a small rocky islet on the 
 W. coast of Africa, about 50 m. W.N.W. the embouchure 
 of the river Nunez; lat. 10 37 N.; Ion. 15 21 W. (R.) It 
 is of volcanic origin, about 40 ft. in height, deeply rent with 
 fissures, and is entirely destitute of vegetation, but is covered 
 with boobies (Pelicanvs snla), who maintain a deafening 
 clamour in the night. Turtle also are numerous, but are not 
 easily caught. The sea around is crowded with sharks, so 
 fierce, says Capt. Belcher, that they attack the oars, and 
 frequently leave the marks of their teeth in them. 
 
 ACLATR AZES, or ALCATRASSES, a group of barren rocks, 
 E. coast, S. America, 20 m. from the mainland ; lat. 24 6 S.; 
 Ion. 45 40 W. (if.) ; 30 m. S.W. the island of St. Sebastian, 
 and 180 S.W. Kio Janeiro. It is recommended that vessels 
 should not approach nearer to these rocks than 4 or 5 m., 
 and that only with a fair wind. 
 
 ALCAUDETE [anc. Unditunum], a tn. Spain, in Anda 
 lusia, prov. of, and 26 m. W.S.W. from Jacn, on a declivity at 
 the junction of three hills, which nearly enclose the space it 
 occupies ; overlooked by the ruins of an ancient castle, and 
 comprising a large polygonal Plaza, and numerous tolerably- 
 built streets, the most of which arc paved ; two churches, 
 town and courthouses, four schools, a prison, two hospitals, 
 an orphan asylum, public storehouse, baths, fountains, and 
 several convents with churches attached, in some of which 
 are preserved fine pictures, and other works of art. The 
 inhabitants are occupied in making oil, working bassmats 
 
 lihood by fishing, and making hammocks ; some of which are and ropes, in domestic weaving, and in agriculture. They 
 
ALCAZAR DE SAN JUAN 
 
 71 
 
 ALCOY 
 
 export grain and oil ; and import silk, cotton, linen, and 
 woollen fabrics, and hardware. In the vicinity, grain, fruit, 
 and vegetables are grown, and silk is produced ; considerable 
 numbers of sheep, goats, pigs, horned cattle, mules, and asses, 
 are reared, for which, and other mercantile purposes, an annual 
 fair is held in August. Pop. 6240. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCAZAR DE SAN J UAN, a tn. Spain, in New Castile, 
 prov. La Mancha, 45 m. N.E. Ciudad Heal ; regularly built, 
 and having two good squares, with three churches, some 
 ruined convents, several schools, an hospital, two prisons, 
 barracks, and a theatre. Manufactures : Soap, saltpetre, and 
 chocolate, of which some is exported. The imports consist 
 of wine, oil, hardware, and wearing apparel. The vicinity 
 produces grain and fruits ; some sheep and mules, are reared, 
 and a fair is held in September. Pop. 7540. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCESTE ISLAND, a small isl. in the Yellow Sea, off 
 
 ALCOENTRE, a small tn. Portugal, prov. Estremadura, 
 comarca of, and 20 m. S.W. from Santarem. It is within 
 the lines of Torres Vedras, and was occupied by the English 
 troops during the peninsular war. 
 
 ALCOLEA, the name of several towns and villages in 
 Spain: I, Alcolea de calatrava, a tn. New Castile, prov. 
 of, and 12 m. W. by N. from Ciudad Real, having a square, 
 parish church, townhall, prison, two schools, a storehouse, 
 and cemetery, with an agricultural pop. of 1200. 2, Alcolea 
 de cinca, a tn. Aragon, prov. of, and 35 m. from Huesta, in 
 a plain on the right bank of the river Cinca; well built and 
 paved, with two squares, a parish church, townhouse, two 
 schools, prison, granary, and cemetery. Weaving, tillage, 
 and carrying, employ the inhabitants ; who import wine, hard 
 ware, and wearing apparel, and export fruits, &c. An annual 
 cattle fair is held in October. Pop. 1200. 3, Alcolea de las 
 
 the N. shore of the promontory of Shan-tung, and near its E. penas, a tn. New Castile, prov. Guadalajara, 10 m. N. by W. 
 extremity; lat. 37 29 N. ; Ion. 122 42 E. (R.) A reef Siguenza; ill built, with a church, school, townhouse, prison, 
 
 stretches round it for about half a mile, some parts of which 
 
 appear above water. There is another isl. of the same name 
 
 in the Korean Archipelago, about 110 m. N.W. from Quel- 
 
 paert; lat. 34 7 N. ; Ion. 125 21 E. (n.) ALCESTE is 
 
 also the name of a rock in Caspar Straits, in which H.M.S. 
 Alceste struck, and was wrecked, Feb. 18, 1817, when re 
 turning from China with Lord Amherst and suite. No lives 
 were lost on the occasion. The rock is in lat. 2 46 S. ; Ion. 
 107 2 E. (R.) 
 
 ALCESTER, or ALNECESTER, a market tn. and par. 
 England, co. Warwick, the former in a fertile vale, at the 
 confluence of the Alne with the Arrow, from the former of 
 which it derives its name, 13 m. W.S.W. Warwick. It con 
 sists of one principal street, and several smaller ; and contains 
 many old houses, a fine church, and a handsome townhouse. 
 The manufacture of needles is carried on to a considerable 
 extent, and it has a good trade in corn and malt. A free 
 grammar school was founded here in 1594. The principal 
 charities are an endowed school for 12 boys and as many girls, 
 
 and an agricultural pop. of 180. 4, Alcolea del no, a tn. 
 Andalusia, prov. of, and 25 m. W.N. W. from Seville ; tolerably 
 built, and having a church, two schools, and a prison, with a 
 farming pop. of 1707 5, Alcolea-del-Tajo, a tn. New Castile, 
 prov. Toledo, 17 m. S.W. by W. Talavera de la Keyna; 
 well built, comprising a church, school, prison, and townhall. 
 
 Pop. 160. There are several other inconsiderable villages 
 
 called ALCOLEA. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCONBURY, or ALKMUNDBURY, a par. England, co. 
 Huntingdon ; area, 3700 ac.; an annual fair for pedlars ware, 
 June 24 ; intersected by Alconbury brook, a branch of the 
 Ouse. Pop. in 1841, 823. 
 
 ALCONBURY-W1TH-WESTON, a par. England, co. 
 Huntingdon ; area, 1540 ac. ; 6 m. N.W. Huntingdon. Pop. 
 in 1841,491. 
 
 ALCONCHEL, a tn. Spain, in Estremadura, prov. of, and 
 25 m. N.N.E. from Badajos, on the slope of a hill. It is meanly 
 built, and is overlooked by an old castle. It contains a church, 
 some schools, a townhall, and small prison. The inhabitants 
 
 and several almshouses. The town is supposed to have been are employed chiefly in tending cattle, raising corn, and 
 
 a Roman station, having been built on the site of the old 
 Roman way called Ickenild Street, now known as Ickle 
 Street. Various coins, urns, and other remains of antiquity, 
 have been found in the neighbourhood. Pop. in 1841, 239 ( J. 
 ALCIRA, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 25 m. S. by W. from 
 Valencia, on an isl. formed by two arms of the river Jucar, 
 
 weaving coarse linen and woollen cloths. The agricultural 
 produce of the neighbourhood is very abundant, and the fruits 
 fine-flavoured ; an annual fair is held in May. Pop. 2020. 
 
 ALCORA, a tn. Spain, in Valencia, prov. of, and 10 m. 
 N.N.W. from Castellon de la Plana. It is, on the whole, 
 well built, and has a church, four chapels, several schools, 
 
 here crossed by two stone bridges, one of two and the other two hospitals, an asylum, and municipal house. The inhabit- 
 of four arches. It is surrounded by old walls flanked by ! ants are much engaged in potteries and brandy distilleries, 
 strong towers, with several gates, and has some squares, and I In the neighbourhood are found considerable quantities o( 
 
 numerous wide, though ill-built streets, a Gothic parish church, 
 conventual churches, townhouse and guildhall, with jail at 
 tached ; a Latin, and four other schools ; an hospital, cemetery, 
 promenade, and many public gardens, adorned with fruit trees, 
 shrubs, and flowers. The occupation of the inhabitants is 
 confined chiefly to the manufacture of earthenware, the pro 
 duction of silk, and the cultivation of their fertile soil, which 
 yields grain, wine, oil, fruits, and vegetables, in great abund 
 ance ; and in the export of which articles, especially silk, their 
 trade consists. Two annual fairs are held in July and 
 December, for cattle and general traffic. Pop. 13,000. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCISTON, a par. England, co. Sussex ; area, 1620 ac.; 
 4| m. N.E. Seaford. Pop. in 1841, 2?5. 
 
 ALCOBA (SERRA DE), a chain of mountains in Portugal, 
 prov. Beira, and extending S. into the comarcas of Coimbra 
 and Viseu, between the Mondego and Vouga rivers. 
 
 ALCOBACA, a small market tn. Portugal, and cap. of 
 comarca, prov. Estremadura; 58 m. N. Lisbon; 15 m. S.W. 
 Leiria; not far from the sea, and near the junction of the small 
 rivers Alcoa and Ba9a, whence its name. It has five churches, 
 and is celebrated for its magnificent Cistercian monastery, the 
 richest in Portugal, founded in 1148 by Don Alphonso 1., and 
 containing the tombs of several kings ; and, among others, of 
 Don Pedro and his ill-fated wife, Inez de Castro, whose praise 
 has been sung by Camoens. The kitchen is nearly 1 00 ft. 
 long, and 63 ft. high ; and its fireplace is 28 ft. long, and 
 1 1 ft. broad. Alcobaca is the seat of several manufactories. 
 Its industry comprises the manufacture of cotton fabrics, 
 muslins, fustians, and wool. The Marquis de Pombal, also, 
 when prime minister, established 250 cotton looms in the 
 monastery. Pop. 1353. 
 
 cinnabar and sulphur; and silk is cultivated. The agricul 
 tural productions are grain, fruits, vegetables, hemp, oil, and 
 grapes, which are exported. An annual cattle fair is hold in 
 October. Pop. 5600. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCOTIM, or ALCOUTIN, a tn. Portugal, prov. Algarve, 
 comarca of, and 23 m. N.E. from Tavira, upon a height 01, 
 the right bank of the Guadiana. It is enclosed within old 
 walls, and prettily situated on the margin of the river, at the 
 foot of a mountain, on which is a castle in ruins. Pop. 1561. 
 
 ALCOVER, a tn. Spain, in Catalonia, prov. of, and 10m. 
 N. from Tarragona, on the Angura, comprising two churches, 
 two schools, an hospital, and several fountains. The inhabit 
 ants are engaged in making earthenware and soap, distilling 
 brandy, and cultivating the grain, wine, oil, fruits, and veget 
 ables of the vicinity ; some cattle are reared, and an annual 
 fair held in October. Pop. 2812. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCOY, a large tn. Spain, in Valencia, prov. of, and 24 m. 
 N. by W. from Alicante, near the source of a river of its own 
 name, crossed here by a Roman bridge. It lies in a hollow, 
 formed by the slopes of the surrounding hills, and is remark 
 able for its antique, picturesque-looking houses, overhanging 
 the terraced gardens and ravines. It is enclosed by clay walls, 
 which were much damaged by shot during the last civil war; 
 and is entered by numerous gates, four stone bridges serv 
 ing as means of communication between the different quarters. 
 It contains many modern buildings a rare case in the towns 
 of Spain ; and the Plaza de la Constitucion may vie with 
 most squares out of the first class of Spanish cities. The 
 streets are regular, well paved, and some of them even pro 
 vided with drains. The public edifices comprise a large parish 
 church, of bastard classic architecture, built in 1740, and three 
 smaller churches, some good and well attended schools, :i 
 
ALCUDIA 
 
 ALDBUJRY 
 
 townhall and consistory, a poor asylum, public granary, and 
 a prison, formed out of a former convent. It is a busy, com 
 mercial place, and contains many coarse woollen and paper 
 manufactories, especially of papcl de hilo, or books of tissue j 
 paper, for making papelitos, or paper cigars. Madoz states j 
 that 200,000 reams of paper are annually made here, of which 
 10,000 are used for writing, 10,000 for packing and other 
 purposes, and 180,000 for making the papelitos! The pcla- \ 
 (lillas of Alcoy, or almond sugar plums, are held in high esti- ! 
 mation. As respects the people, Mr. Ford describes them as j 
 having an air of misery ; wearing shabby round hats, that give 
 them a poverty stricken appearance ; and as unacquainted 
 with the courtesies and salutations of high-bred Spain. The 
 agricultural produce of the neighbourhood is grain, wine, | 
 oil, fruits, including excellent figs and vegetables. Sheep, 
 goats, pigs, horned cattle, mules, and a few horses, are reared. \ 
 Two fairs are held annually, one in April, and the other in j 
 
 October. Pop. 27,000. (Madoz.) ALCOY is also the name 
 
 of a small river of Valencia, rising S.W. of the above town, 
 and flowing N.E about 45 m. into the Mediterranean. 
 
 ALCUDIA, the name of several towns in Spain: 1, A 
 city and port in the isl. of Majorca ; lat. 39 50 45" N. ; Ion. 
 3 9 6" E. (L.) ; at the N.E. extremity of the island, between the 
 large bay of its own name and that of Pollenza. It is sur 
 rounded by old walls, and defended by two strong castles and 
 u deep and wide fosse. It is tolerably built, but, owing to 
 the great number of ruinous and uninhabited houses, has a 
 desolate appearance. It has a parish church, townhouse, two 
 schools, an hospital, and a cemetery. The inhabitants are 
 engaged in weaving, fishing, and agriculture. As a port, its 
 trade is inconsiderable. Pop. 1116. 2, Alcudia de baza, a 
 tn. Andalusia, prov. of, and 34 m. N.E. from Almeria, on the 
 summit of the sierra de Filabres; having a church, cemetery, 
 storehouse, and fountain, with an agricultural pop. of 532. 
 3, Alcudia de carlct, a tn., prov. of, and 20 in. S. by W. from 
 Valencia, on the right bank of the river Magro ; well built, 
 with a church, three schools, townhouse, and prison. Weav 
 ing, distilling brandy, making earthenware, and agriculture, 
 are the chief employments of the people. Pop. 1759. 4, 
 Alcudia de Guadix, a tn. Andalusia, prov. of, and 32 m. W. 
 by N. from Granada, and 4 m. E. Guadix; comprising n 
 square, with a central fountain, church, townhall, prison, and 
 two schools, with an agricultural pop. of 722. 5, Alcudia 
 de Crispins, a vil., prov. of, and 32 in. S. by W. from 
 Valencia ; having a church, a palace of the Counts of Orgaz, \ 
 ami an agricultural pop. of 626. 6, Alcudia is also the name ; 
 of a valley in New Castile, prov. Ciudad Real, and of several , 
 other villages not worthy of notice. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALCUESCAR, a tn. Spain, Estremadura, prov. of, and 
 about 20 m. S.E. from Caceres, on the W. slope of the sierra , 
 Leon, a prolongation of the Toledo range. It is mean, ill built, 
 and confined, but has a parish church, some schools, a court 
 house, granary, and prison. The inhabitants are chiefly em 
 ployed in tillage, rearing hogs, expressing oil, and domestic 
 weaving. The vicinity yields grain and abundance of fruits. 
 Pop. 3560. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALDABRA ISLANDS, three islands situated at the N. 
 entrance into the Mozambique Channel, called, respectively, ; 
 East, Middle, and West Islands, but so connected by islets 
 and rocks, as to appear one island ; lat. (N.W. point) 9 23 S. ; , 
 Ion. 45 50 E. (K.) East Island is of moderate height, and is j 
 here and there interspersed with a few trees ; has a fine white | 
 sandy beach, and is covered with brushwood and verdure ; 
 the whole combining, gives it a very beautiful appearance. ! 
 Middle Island is the highest, and is, in part, covered with 
 lofty trees ; it has also a beautiful beach, and is clothed with ( 
 verdure. West Island is level, and has few trees or bushes, 
 but resembles the two former in other respects. 
 
 ALDAN MOUNTAINS and RIVER, in Russian 
 Siberia. The former are a branch of the Stannovoi mountains, 
 running N.W. to about lat. 67 30 N., from lat. 61 20 N., 
 their total length being upwards of 900 m. Their geological 
 composition is chiefly limestone, clay, slate, and graywacke. 
 Vast forests of larch (I inus larix) clothe their sides; and, in 
 the lat. of 61 N., grow at an elevation of 2240 ft., single 
 trees being found at a height of 2500 ft. The greatest heights 
 of these mountains, so far as ascertained, are from 2000 to 
 upwards of 4000 ft. Mount Kapitan, the most elevated 
 summit of the range, attains an elevation of 4263 ft. 
 
 The Aldan River, a tributary of the Lena, flows parallel 
 with the mountain range till it falls into the Lena, in lat. 
 57 30 N., about 90 in. below Yakutsk. It rises in the 
 Yablonoi range, under the 56th N. parallel, thence running 
 N.N.E. past Maiskaia to lat. 57 30 , where it turns abruptly 
 W., and joins the Lena about 80 m. below Yakutsk, after a 
 course of about 800 in. The great road from Yakutsk to 
 Okotsk crosses it at Aldanska, which lies 760 ft. above the 
 Sea of Okotsk. (Erman s Siberia.) 
 
 ALDAYA, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and about 3 m. W. from 
 Valencia, on the left bank of the river Furia. It is ill built, and 
 has a church, two endowed schools, a townhouse, and public 
 granary. The inhabitants are engaged in tillage and distilling 
 brandy. The vicinity produces grain, wine, oil, vegetables, 
 and fruits, especially melons. Pop. 2000. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALDBOROUGH, or ALDEBUKGH, a small seaport tn. 
 and par. England, co. Suffolk ; lat. 52 9 2" N. ; Ion. 1 36 E. 
 (R.) ; 20 m. E.N.E. Ipswich, and 82 m. N.E. London ; pleasantly 
 situated between the river Aide and the sea, and running 
 nearly parallel with the beach of the latter. It formerly con 
 sisted of three principal streets, but one of these was swept 
 away by the sea, the encroachments of which have long been 
 doing serious damage to the town. These, however, have 
 been temporarily checked, by two sand banks which have been 
 recently thrown up for that purpose. The old borough was 
 situated m. E. of the present shore ; and on the spot where 
 it stood, there are now 24 ft. of water. The older houses of 
 the town are of a mean description ; but a number of handsome 
 new houses and villas have been built of late years, in con 
 sequence of the place having become a favourite resort for sea 
 bathing, for which its beach is well adapted, while its climate 
 is reckoned eminently salubrious. The parish church, a large 
 and ancient structure, is situated conspicuously on the sum 
 mit of a hill, and forms a convenient land mark for mariners. 
 It is of a mixed perpendicular and decorated style, and has 
 been much disfigured by unseemly repairs ; but is now (1850) 
 in course of restoration, a new and magnificent window having 
 been recently put up. There are, besides, places of worship 
 for various denominations of dissenters, and a flourishing 
 national daily school, supported by subscription, several be 
 nevolent associations, and a mechanics institute. The town 
 is well supplied with water. The harbour is safe and com 
 modious. The trade of the port consists principally in the 
 export of corn and wool ; the import of coal and timber, and 
 in fish curing. A great proportion of the inhabitants are 
 employed in fishing and seafaring. Crabbe, the poet, was 
 born here on Christmas eve, 1754; and an elegant bust and 
 plinth have recently been erected in the parish church to his 
 memory. Aldborough formerly returned two members to 
 Parliament, but was disfranchised by the Reform Bill. 
 Market days, Wednesday and Saturday. Two fairs annually. 
 Area of par. 1130 ac. Pop. of tn. and par. in 1841, 1557. 
 (Correspondent in Aldborough.) 
 
 ALDBOROUGH, a market tn. and par. England, co. 
 York, W. Riding, on a plain on the river I re, about 16 
 m. N.W. York. It is small and irregularly built, and 
 remarkable only for its great antiquity, as it is supposed to 
 have been the capital of the Brigantes. Under the Romans 
 it was called Isurium, and was then surrounded by walls said 
 to have been about 1 m. in circuit. Many Roman antiqui 
 ties have been found here, including coins, urns, the remains 
 of aqueducts, and some beautiful tesselated pavements, a 
 rare specimen of which was discovered in September 1848, 
 on the property of Andrew Lawson, Esq. Aldborough for 
 merly sent two members to Parliament, but was disfranchised 
 by the Reform Act. It has one church. It is governed by 
 a bailiff. Petty sessions are held in it. Market day, Wed 
 nesday. An annual fair in September. Area of par. 8750 ac 
 
 Pop. in 1841, 2424. ALDBOKOUGH is also the name ot 
 
 a par. Norfolk, bun. Erpingham ; area, 590 ac. Pop. in 1841 , 
 293. 
 
 ALDBOURNE, or AUISOURKK, n par. England, co. Wilts; 
 area, 8060 ac.; 6 m. N.E. Marlborough ; ancient church and 
 vicarage. Pop. in 1841, 1556. 
 
 ALDBROUGH, a par. England, co. York, E. Riding; 
 area, 5240 ac. Pop. in 1841, 1119. 
 
 ALDBURY, a par. England, co. Hertford ; area, 2020 ac. ; 
 on London and Birmingham Railway ; ancient church. Pop. 
 iu 1841, 790. 
 
ALDEA 
 
 ALDSTONE 
 
 ALDEA [Village], the name, with various affixes, of 
 numerous small places in Spain, Portugal, and Brazil. 
 
 In SPAIN, the chief are: 1, Aldea-da-vila de Duero, in 
 Leon, prov. of, and 28 m. N. by W. from Salamanca, on the 
 Duero ; having 1500 inhabitants. 2, Aldea del Cano, in Estre- 
 madura, prov. of, and 15 in. S. by E. from Caceres ; having 
 1300 inhabitants. 3, Aldea del Rey, in New Castile, prov. of, 
 and 13 m. S. by E. from Ciudad Real ; having 1700 inhabit 
 ants, much employed in lace making. 4, Aldca-nueva de Cen- 
 tenera, in Estremadura, prov. Caceres, 13 m. E.N.E. Truxillo; 
 with 1650 inhabitants. 5, Aldea-nueva deEbro, in Old Castile, 
 prov. Logrofio, and 5 m. N.W. Alfaro; with 1900 inhabit 
 ants. 6, Aid a-nueva de lavera, in Estremadura, prov. Caceres, 
 23 m. S.W. Plasencia , having a large church, townhall, hos 
 pital, prison, and 2400 inhabitants, chiefly agricultural. 
 There are 40 or 50 more, but none worth notice. 
 
 In PORTUGAL, two only deserve notice : 1, Aldea Gallega, 
 prov. Estremadura, on the Bay of Montigo, which forms a part 
 of the left shore in the Tagus estuary, about 10 m. E. by S. Lis 
 bon, and one of the chief ferry stations to that city ; having 
 3960 inhabitants, chiefly boatmen (catraciros) and fishermen. 
 2, Aldea Gallega da Mcrciana, same prov., on the left 
 bank of the Tagus, 9 m. W.N.W. Alemquer. Pop. 1452. 
 There are many other ALDEAS all unimportant. 
 In BRAZIL are the following: 1, Aldca-das-Pedras, prov. 
 Goyaz, on the road from Meico-Ponte to St. Paul, 1 30 m. S. 
 St. Cruz. 2, Aldea do Campo, prov. Espirito-Santo, S. of 
 the river Doce. Its inhabitants make and export linen. 
 3, Aldea Goitacaze, prov. Espirito-Santo, at the head waters 
 of the Eeis-Magos. The naturalist, St. Hilaire, calls this 
 village Pequiri-A9U. 4, Aldea VtlJia, prov. Espirito-Santo, 
 ubout 8 m. N. Almeida. The Indians of the district construct 
 canoes, and the women spin cotton, manufacture a kind of 
 coarse cloth, and thread which is sold in Rio de Janeiro and 
 3ahia for lamp and candle wicks. 5, Aldea Velha, prov. Rio 
 de Janeiro, in the district of Cabo Frio. (Madoz, Dicdo. de 
 Espana; Die. Geo. Imp. Brazil.} 
 
 ALDEBY, or ALDEIIURGH, a par. England, co. Norfolk ; 
 area, 2690 ac.; 2f m. N.E. Beccles. Pop. in 1841, 496. 
 
 ALDENHAM, a par. England, co. Hertford ; area, 5830 
 ac. ; 2J m. from Watford, on the London and Birmingham 
 Railway ; old church. Pop. in 1841, 1662. 
 
 ALDERBUKY, a par. England, co. Wilts ; area, 3950 ac. ; 
 3 m. S. Salisbury, on the South- Western Railway. Pop. in 
 1841, 1440. 
 
 ALDERFORD, a par. England, co. Norfolk ; area, 320 
 ac ; 3 m. S.E. by S. Repham. Pop. in 1841, 44. 
 
 ALDERLEY, a vil. and par. England, co. Gloucester ; 
 area, 730 ac. ; handsome church, with monument to Sir 
 Matthew Hale, who was born here, Nov. 1, 1609. Curious 
 fossils are sometimes found. Pop. in 1841, 174. 
 
 ALDERMASTON, apar. England, co. Berks; area, 2240 
 ac. ; 8 m. E. Newbury, on the navigable river Kennet. Pop. 
 in 1841,662. 
 
 ALDERMEN ISLANDS, a small group of islets off 
 the E. coast of the most N. of the New Zealand Islands, New 
 Ulster, and about 12 m. from the shore; lat. (S. point) 37 S. ; 
 Ion. 17 6 4 E. (E.) 
 
 ALDERMINSTER, a par. England, co. Worcester; 3480 
 ac. ; on the Moreton and Stratford Railway. Pop. in 1841, 
 508. 
 
 ALDERNEY, the most N. of the islands in the English 
 Channel, known by the name of the Channel Islands, 10 m. 
 due W. from Cape La Hogue, in France ; lat. 49 42 54" N. ; 
 Ion. 2 12 2" W. (R.) It is between 3 and 4 m. long, and 
 about 1J broad. The coast is bold and rocky; the cliffs in 
 many places rising from 100 to 200 ft. in height. In the in 
 terior, the soil is fertile, producing excellent crops of corn 
 and potatoes; but round the coast it is sandy and sterile. 
 About a third of the island is occupied by grass lands. The 
 climate is mild and healthy. The Aldcrney cows, a small, 
 straight-backed breed, have long been celebrated for the 
 quality of their milk, which is exceedingly rich, but not 
 great in quantity. The cows are not handsome, and are in no 
 great request anywhere but in the islands; in which, how 
 ever, they are so much esteemed, that the importation of any 
 other description of cattle is prohibited under the severest 
 penalties. The town, as it is simply called, is situated in a 
 beautiful valley near the centre of the island ; it is partly 
 VOL I. 
 
 paved, but presents nothing worthy of particular notice. The 
 civil power is vested in six jurats, who are chosen by the 
 people, and hold their offices for life, unless removed for 
 misbehaviour. These, with 12 douzaniers, representatives 
 of the people, form a sort-of local legislature. Alderney is a 
 dependency of Guernsey. French manners, and the French 
 language, prevail amongst the inhabitants ; but all under 
 stand, and many speak English. They are about equally 
 divided between the Established church and Wesleyan Meth 
 odists. The strait which separates the island from the main 
 land is called the Race of Alderney, from the velocity with 
 which the current runs through it, being at the rate of 8 m. 
 an hour. It is a deep and generally safe channel ; but, when 
 wind and tide meet, is extremely dangerous. There is but 
 one harbour in the island, Crabby, and there small vessels only 
 can be accommodated. At the distance of about 6 m. N.W. 
 from the island is a cluster of rocks, called the Caskets, on 
 the largest of which there are three lighthouses ; an alarm 
 bell has recently been added, to be used in foggy weather 
 when the lights become invisible. Pop. of the isl. in 1841, 
 1030. 
 
 ALDERSHOTT, a par. England, co. Hants ; 4070 ac. ; 
 
 3 m. N.E. by N. Farnham. Pop. in 1841, 685. 
 
 ALDERTON, the name of several parishes, England : 
 1, A par., co. Wilts ; 1700 ac. ; 8 m. S.W. Malmesbury. Pop. 
 in 1841, 183. 2, A par., co. Northampton, 3 m. S.E. Tow- 
 cester. Pop. in 1841, 166. 3, A par., co. Gloucester; 1750 
 ac. ; near Tewkesbury ; Saxon encampment. Pop. in 1841, 
 411. 4, A par., co. Suffolk; 2680 ac. ; 7 m. S.E. Wood- 
 bridge. Pop. in 1841, 620. 
 
 ALDFORD, a par. England, co. Cheshire ; 2820 ac. ; on 
 the river Dee; ancient castle and townhouse. Pop. in 1841, 
 835. 
 
 ALDHAM, apar. England, co. Suffolk; 2170 ac.; on the 
 Ipswich and Bury St. Edmund s Railway. Pop. in 1841 , 293. 
 
 ALDINGBOURN, a par. England, co. Sussex; 3080 ac.j 
 
 4 m. E. Chichester. Pop. in 1841, 772. 
 
 ALDINGHAM (UPPER and LOWER), two united parishes, 
 England, co. Lancaster ; 4680 ac. ; 5 m. S. Ulverstone. 
 Owing to the progressive encroachments of the sea, the 
 church, once in the centre of the parish, is now within reach 
 of the high tide. Pop. in 1841, 907. 
 
 ALDINGTON, a par. England, co. Kent ; 3420 ac. ; near 
 the South-Eastern Railway. The living of Aldington was 
 once held by Erasmus of Rotterdam. Pop. in 1841, 733. 
 
 ALOIS PEAK, a prominent mountain, N.E. Australia; 
 lat. 24 50 S. ; Ion. 149 3 E. It is an excellent land mark, 
 and can be seen at a great distance from the N.E. It was dis 
 covered by Dr. Leichhardt in 1846. 
 
 ALDRIDGE, apar. England, co. Stafford ; area, 7930 ac.; 
 near Walsall. Here is a curious pool, Druidmeer (literally, 
 Druid sea) ; an extensive distillery, and a manufactory of 
 earthenware and tiles. Pop. in 1841, 2094. 
 
 ALDRINGHAM,apar. England, co. Suffolk; area, 610 
 ac. Fair on St. Andrew s day. Pop. in 1841, 401. 
 
 ALDSTONE, or ALSTON, a market tn. and par. England, 
 co. Cumberland, on the declivity of a steep hill, near the con 
 fluence of the rivers Nent and S. Tyne, 17 m. E.N.E. Pen- 
 rith. The town consists of one main street and two smaller, 
 neither of them regular. The new houses are chiefly of stone, 
 roofed with slate, and are generally substantial and well built, 
 being much superior, in all respects, to the older dwellings. 
 There is abundance of excellent water brought from a neigh 
 bouring hill, and collected in tanks. The town contains a 
 church, and meeting houses belonging to various religious 
 denominations; a grammar, infant, and Lancasterian schools. 
 There is also a mechanics institute, having a library of 500 
 volumes, and a museum ; and a savings bank, the deposits 
 in which amounted, in 1849, to considerably upwards of 
 18,000. The only manufactory in the town is a worsted 
 spinning mill, employing about 70 hands. The country 
 around is a dreary waste of naked hills, but rich in minerals. 
 The lead mines in the parish are extensive and very produc 
 tive, giving employment to upwards of 1000 people. Copper 
 ore and zinc have also been found, and beautiful specimens of 
 spar; and, in the lead mines, are numerous large caverns, 
 exhibiting magnificent grotto work, and resplendent with 
 crystals. Most of these mines belonged to the Earl of Der- 
 wentwater, but fell to the Crown on the attainder of that 
 
 10 
 
ALDSWORTII 
 
 71 
 
 ALENCON 
 
 
 unfortunate nobleman in 1715. They were afterwards trans 
 ferred, by Act of Parliament, to Greenwich hospital, to which 
 they still belong. They are let by the governors of that 
 institution on working leases to the London Lead Company 
 and others, on condition of payment of one-seventh of the ore 
 raised. Upwards of 17,000 bings of lead, each bing weighing 
 8 cwt., were obtained from these mines in 1849, worth, on an 
 average, about 4 per bing. The moral character of the 
 people of this district is singularly good; out of a population 
 of upwards of 7000, there have only been 11 committals in 
 15 years, and of these seven only were natives, with a few 
 minor cases determined summarily by the magistrates. Pop. 
 of tn. in 1841, 1650; of par., 6062. (Correspondent in Aid- 
 stone.) 
 
 ALDSWORTH, a par. England, co. Gloucester; area-, 
 3460 ac.; on the Cheltenham, Oxford, and London United 
 Railway. Pop. in 1841, 365. 
 
 AJLDWINKLE (ST. PETER S), a par. England, co. North 
 ampton, 4 m. N.E. Thrapston. Pop. in 1841, 183. 
 
 ALDWIXKLE (ALL SAINTS), a par. adjoining the former; united 
 area, 2450 ac. ; here are several charities. Pop. in 1841, 
 272. 
 
 ALDWORTH, a par. England, co. Berks ; area, 1960 ac. ; 
 4 m. S. East Ilsley. Pop. in 1841, 314. 
 
 ALEGRETE, a fortified tn. Portugal, prov. Alemtejo, 
 comarca of, and 8 m. S.E. from Portalegre, near the Spanish 
 frontier. In the neighbourhood are chestnut forests. Pop. 
 1130. 
 
 ALEI, a river, Siberia, an affluent of the Obi, gov. Tomsk. 
 It rises from two head streams, about lat. 50 42 N. ; Ion. 
 82 35 E. ; in that part of the Altai mountains called Tig- 
 herazki Bjelki, and of granite formation. It takes a N.W. 
 course, very winding and irregular, partly through a plain 
 about 1000 ft. above the sea level, and covered with poplars 
 and willows, and partly through a deep valley composed of 
 clay slate, over granite, till it reaches Novo Aleish, about lat. 
 51 15 N.;. Ion. 81 2 E., where it is 939 ft. above the sea 
 level, and where its S. bank, being composed of porphyry 
 mountains, the river turns to the N.E., which general direc 
 tion it maintains, chiefly through a level country, partly 
 covered with pines, till it reaches the Obi, 20 m. S.S.W. Bar 
 naul ; lat. 33 1 N. On various points of the banks of the , 
 A lei are mines of copper, the ore from which is conveyed down 
 the river, which is navigable, especially in spring, and for 
 country boats, for a great part of its course. The steppo 
 through which the Alei flows in the N. part of its course, is 
 often set fire to, for the purpose of burning up the hard 
 stems that prevent the mowing of the young grass. (Ritter s 
 Asien.) 
 
 ALEKSANDRTA, a tn. Russia. See ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 ALEKSANDRI A, a tn. Caucasus, 10 m. S. Gheorghievsk ; 
 lat. 44 19 N.; Ion. 43 10 E. 
 
 ALEKSANDROV,a tn. and district, gov. Caucasia, Rus 
 sia, the former 43 m. N.W. Gheorghievsk; lat. 44 28 N. ; 
 Ion. 42 42 E. The S. boundary of the district is formed by 
 the Caucasus mountains, the S.W. by the Koulian, and the N. 
 by the river Kalaous. Some forest wood is found in the S., 
 but it is only used for fuel. The soil is generally fertile, and 
 suited to the culture of grain and vines. The Kalmucks 
 establish their winter quarters on the heaths of the N., and 
 numerous bands of Nogays pasture their flocks in the valleys 
 of the S. 
 
 ALEKSANDROV, a small tn. European Russia, gov. of, 
 and 69 m. W.N.W. from Vladimar, and 58m. N.E. Moscow, 
 on the banks of the river Seraia, which falls into the Kliazma. 
 The Czar Ivan Vasilievitch sometimes passed the summer 
 here ; and it was in this little town that he established the 
 first printing press introduced into Russia. It has two 
 churches and a nunnery. The splendid haras, or breeding 
 stud for horses, which is here supported at the expense of the 
 crown, is renowned for the variety of its breeds, and for the 
 extent and character of its buildings. This establishment 
 was commenced by the Empress Elizabeth in 1761, and 20 
 years elapsed before it was completed. Pop. 3000. 
 
 ALEKSANDROVKA, the name of a great number of 
 small towns in Russia, there being no fewer than four in the 
 prov. of Kherson alone, and all within about 50 m. of each 
 other, and in almost every other province there is one or more. 
 The name is sometimes spelled ALEXANDROVKA. 
 
 ALEKSANDROVSK, a tn. European Russia, gov. of, 
 and 48 m. S. from Ekatherinoslav, or lekaterinoslav ; cap. 
 district of same name, on the left bank of the Dnieper, at 
 the mouth of the Moscovka. It is fortified, and has a consid 
 erable transit trade with the interior of the empire ; goods 
 from thence coming here for shipment by the Dnieper for 
 
 the Black Sea. Pop. (1842), 5192. The E. part of the 
 
 district of Aleksandrovsk is watered by the Samara; the S. by 
 the Kouskara, which separates it, throughout a large extent, 
 from the province of the Saurida. The greater part of the 
 surface is barren heath ; there are very few villages, and 
 cultivated land is rare. 
 
 ALEKSIN, or ALESEINA, a tn. European Russia, prov. 
 Tula, on the right bank of the river Oka, about 100 m. S. 
 Moscow, and 32 from Tula. It has some trade in hemp, 
 hides, tallow, honey, and salt meat. Two great fairs are held 
 here annually. Pop. 2500. The district of Aleksin con 
 tains some iron works, and a manufacture of linen, and 240 
 
 villages, with a pop. of 90,000. 
 
 ALEMOUTH. See ALNEMOUTH. 
 
 ALEMQUER or ALENQUEB, a small tn. Portugal, and 
 cap. of comarca, in prov. Estremadura, on a small river of the 
 same name; 24 m. N.N.E. Lisbon, and about 8 m. W. the 
 Tagus. It has five churches, three convents, an hospital, and 
 paper mill, once the largest in Portugal ; the environs pro 
 duce good wheat and grapes. Pop. 2485, 
 
 ALEMTEJO, or ALENTEJO, [from Alem, beyond, and 
 TV/o, the Tagus], the largest, but least populous prov. of 
 Portugal, bounded, N. by Estremadura and Beira Baixa, E. 
 by Spain, S. by prov. Algarve, and W. by Estremadura and 
 the Atlantic ; length, N. to S., 150 m. ; average breadth, E. to 
 W., about 70 m. ; area, about 7728 geo. sq. m. The greater 
 part of the surface of this province is undulating, broken up 
 only by low hills running N.N.E. to S.S.W. To the E. 
 rise, in unconnected groups, the low serras de Mamed, de 
 Portalegre, de Ossa, de Evora, and Mont Muro, rendered 
 picturesque by steep cliffs, and by the numerous ruins and 
 fortifications with which they are bedecked. To the W., the 
 hills sink into broad plains (campos), which, before reaching 
 the sandy coast, are traversed by isolated ridges of rock ; to 
 the S., towards Algarve, they attain the height of 4000 ft. 
 The hills are composed mostly of sandstone and graywacko 
 schist, and give rise to no streams of importance ; the prin 
 cipal rivers of the prov. rising in Spain, as the Guadiania in 
 the S., and the Tagus in the N. Of the streams that are 
 purely Portuguese may be named the Sado or Saldao, and 
 the Zetas, and their affluents. The climate in the S. and W. 
 is hot and dry ; and the country is composed of plains covered 
 with brown heath, without tree or bush, but here and there 
 varied by marshy tracts. Agriculture, in these localities, is 
 little attended to, the heaths serving chiefly to feed sheep 
 and goats. In the E. the valleys are very fruitful, and the 
 hills grow fine wood. The principal cereals cultivated are 
 wheat and barley, and, next to them, rice and maize; of all 
 of which a considerable quantity is exported to Lisbon and 
 elsewhere. For this abundance of grain the inhabitants of 
 Alemtejo are in no way indebted to their own agricultural 
 industry or skill, both of which are in a very low state, but 
 wholly to the richness of the productive part of the province. 
 Grapes, olives, citrons, lemons, figs, and other southern fruits, 
 are plentiful ; and in the woods are found the evergreen oak, 
 the cork oak, chestnuts, pines, &c. The rearing of sheep, 
 goats, and pigs, and the culture of bees, are extensively carried 
 on ; cattle, ass, and mule rearing is less attended to. Good 
 oil, tolerable wine, wool, and honey, tire produced. Game is 
 plentiful. In some localities cloth is woven, and potteryware 
 made ; but the manufactures of the province, as a whole, are 
 of little account. Salt is exported. The principal towns are 
 Evora the capital, Portalegre, Elvas, Estremez, Beja, and 
 Mertola. Pop. in 1835, 384,000. (Real Encylclopadie ; 
 Ilasscl s Portugal; Tciboa Gcoyrafico LvKitana.) 
 
 ALEN^ ON [anc. Alcnconium}, a tn. France, chief place of 
 dep. of the Orne, formerly cap. of the duchy of Alencon ; stand 
 ing on an extensive plain, on the right bank of the Sarthe, 
 near its junction with the Briante, 58 m. S.S.E. Caen, and 
 1 05 m. W. by S. Paris. Of the walls and former fortifications 
 of the town, four gates arc all that remain. The streets are 
 in general broad, well paved, and clean. Among the prin 
 cipal buildings are the cathedral, the prefecture, the corn 
 
ALEOUTES 
 
 75 
 
 ALEPPO 
 
 market, the college, and the townliouse, tlie towers of wliicli 
 last are the remains of the old castle of the Dukes d Alencon. 
 The town contains a communal college, with an observatory; 
 a Society d Emulation; two hospitals, one of them for the 
 insane ; a public library of about 8000 volumes, a museum 
 of natural history, and a theatre. Alencon is the seat of con 
 siderable manufactures, and of an extended commerce. It 
 was long famed for the manufacture of point lace, called pointe 
 d Alencon, but this branch of industry, as well as the making 
 of straw hats, for which it was also known, is now much fallen 
 off. The principal manufactures now are cotton spinning, 
 flax spinning, weaving of cotton, woollen, and linen fabrics, 
 tanning, glass making, distilling, and brewing. A kind of 
 hempen and linen cloths made here, styled toiles d Alemjon, 
 are held in high estimation, and nearly 22,000 pieces are 
 sold annually. There are some bleacheries in the environs ; 
 and the embroidering of muslin occupies a considerable num 
 ber of hands. Perry and cider are manufactured in consider 
 able quantities, the latter being the common drink of the 
 country ; and down and quills form staple articles of trade. 
 The district produces abundance of cattle, poultry, and a good 
 breed of horses. Amongst its minerals are iron, granite, and 
 freestone. The species of fine rock crystal, called diamants 
 d Alencon, formerly found in the neighbouring granite quar 
 ries, is now nearly exhausted. Pop. in 1846, 14,388. 
 
 ALEOUTES. See ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 ALEPE, or ALIPI, a tn. and fortress, Malabar, prov. 
 Travancore, Hindoostan, 30 m. S. Cochin ; lat. 9 30 N ; Ion. 
 76 25 E. It is populous, and is the chief depot from which 
 the Travancore Government exports its pepper, grain, and 
 timber. 
 
 ALEPPO, or HALEB-ES-SHABHA [anc. Clialybon and 
 Berrcea], a city, N. Syria, pash. of the same name, on the 
 small river Koik, 60 m. S.E. Iskenderoon, which is its port, 
 and the nearest point on the Mediterranean shore, 195 m. 
 N.N.E. Damascus; lat. 36 11 25" N. ; Ion. 37 5 23" E. 
 (L.) It is encompassed, at the distance of a few miles, by 
 a circle of low rocky hills, destitute of trees and scantily 
 watered, but affording good pasturage for sheep and goats. 
 It occupies eight small hills, of unequal height, with their 
 intermediate valleys, and is surrounded by walls 30 ft. high 
 and 20 broad, in which there are seven gates. Its circumfer 
 ence within the walls is about 3 m. ; without, and including 
 the suburbs, about 7 m. Its appearance, on approaching 
 it, is striking and picturesque. Numerous mosques, cupolas, 
 and minarets, the last of dazzling whiteness, crowd on the 
 
 ALEPPO. From Lieut.-folonel Chesney s Euphiato Expedition. 
 
 eye ; the flat roofs of the houses on the hills, rise one behind 
 another, in a succession of hanging terraces ; while a profusion 
 of cypress and poplar trees imparts beauty and animation to 
 the whole. But, on entering the gates, much of this pleasing 
 illusion is dispelled. The streets are found to be gloomy and 
 silent ; the shops mean-looking ; and the baths and fountains 
 heavy unadorned structures. The houses, however, are well 
 and substantially built of stone, two or three stories in height ; 
 mostly in the Saracenic style, with spacious apartments, large 
 windows, and richly ornamented walls and ceilings ; the latter 
 being often beautifully painted and gilded. In some quarters 
 
 of the city, particularly in that called called Djedeide, the 
 streets are well paved ; and, in general, better kept than those 
 of any other town in Syria. An ample supply of water is 
 brought into the city by an ancient aqueduct, from two springs 
 8 m. distant. On an oval hill in the N.E. comer of the city, 
 stands the castle of Aleppo, a conspicuous object, surrounded 
 by a broad and deep fosse, in. in circumference ; now filled 
 up with gardens and plantations. A large square tower, beau 
 tifully inlaid witli a dark-coloured stone, forms the entrance ; 
 but the interior is in ruins, two houses only being now habit 
 able. The only other public buildings of any interest are 
 the ancient seraglio, or palace of the pasha, and the mosque 
 of Djami-el-Adelieh. The former, now also in ruins, was of 
 great extent and magnificence ; but the only portion of its 
 splendours now remaining is a gateway of admirable work 
 manship, the arch of which is composed of blocks of polished 
 white and black marble. The seraglio was destroyed, in 
 1819-20, during the siege of the city by Kourchid Ahmed 
 Pasha. The mosque of Djami-el-Adelich is reckoned one 
 of the most graceful structures of the kind in Syria ; it is 
 surmounted by a magnificent dome, and by a tall and elegant 
 minaret. A spiral staircase conducts to the top of the latter, 
 from which a splendid view of the city and surrounding 
 country is obtained. The beautiful portico of the mosque 
 was much injured by the earthquake of 1822. There 
 are two libraries in the city, one attached to the Osmanieh 
 mosque, the other to a college called the Ahmedieh ; the lat 
 ter, though sufficiently meagre, is reckoned the best in Syria. 
 Such institutions, however, meet with little encouragement in 
 Aleppo, the taste for literature being extremely limited ; 
 neither is education in a better condition. 
 
 Previous to the earthquake of 1822, Aleppo carried on a 
 considerable trade with England ; importing thence large 
 quantities of red cloth, &c. ; and re-exporting the Indian 
 manufactures brought overland from Bagdad. Its manu 
 factures were then also very valuable ; consisting of shawls, 
 cottons, silks, gold and silver lace, &c. ; in which, it is said, 
 12,000 artizans were engaged. But, on the occasion of the 
 calamity alluded to, the town was nearly deserted by its sur 
 viving inhabitants, and its trade ruined. Both the latter and 
 former, however, have considerably improved since ; and 
 Aleppo still retains, or has regained, its ancient reputation for 
 the excellence of its silk stuffs, with gold and silver thread, 
 and its flowered and striped cottons ; in the manufacture of 
 which about 4000 looms, and nearly 5000 persons, adults and 
 children, are employed. There are, besides, numerous soap, 
 dyeing, and print works. Its trade with Eng 
 land has also revived, 5000 bales of British 
 manufactures being yearly imported ; while its 
 caravan trade with the interior is likewise 
 rapidly improving ; the merchants finding they 
 can now be supplied in Aleppo with all they 
 want. Considerable quantities of wool and silk 
 are exported to France and Italy; of the former, 
 2568 bales were exported in one year lately, 
 and 179 of the latter. The retail, or shop 
 trade, however, does not seem to be very vigor 
 ous, owing in part, perhaps, to the smallness of 
 capital employed in it; the aggregate amount of 
 which, according to Dr. Bowring, does not ex 
 ceed 20,000 sterling. 
 
 The celebrated gardens of Aleppo, nearly 
 12 m. in length, are situated to the S.E. of 
 the city ; but, though much prized by the na 
 tives, they have few attractions for Europeans; 
 being subdivided and enclosed by low stone 
 walls, and exhibiting little of either taste or 
 skill in management or arrangement. The 
 trees are, for the most part, crowded close together, with 
 little regard to symmetry ; while the kitchen and flower gar 
 dens, of which the whole is a compound, are undistinguished 
 by the intervention of parterres or grass plots. Close to the 
 city are many extensive quarries, from which is obtained a 
 white gritty stone, easily cut at first, but becoming indurated 
 after exposure for some time to the air. Of this stone all the 
 houses are built. The climate of Aleppo is healthful ; but is, 
 in summer, excessively hot, though considerably moderated 
 by the W. winds which then prevail. In winter, there are 
 considerable falls of snow. The earthquake already alluded 
 
ALE11IA 
 
 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS 
 
 to, by which Aleppo was nearly destroyed, occurred on August 
 13, 1822. It lasted only 10 or 12 seconds ; but, in that short 
 space of time, not only Aleppo, but a number of other towns 
 in Syria, were converted into heaps of stones and rubbish, 
 and 20,000 human beings destroyed. Aleppo was a place of 
 considerable importance in very remote times ; having risen 
 on the destruction of Palmyra. From that period, its pros 
 perity continued to increase until the discovery of a passage 
 to India by the Cape of Good Hope, when it began to decline. 
 Its pop. in 1795 was, it is said, 250,000, while it is not now 
 more than 60,000, or 65,000; of which 16,000 to 18,000 are 
 Christians. Col. Chesney gives a somewhat different account 
 of the population. He says that it was formerly 150,000, and 
 that it is now reduced to 100,000 ; of which 66,500 are Turks, 
 3000 Armenians, 19,000 Greeks, 4500 Jews, 5000 Maronites, 
 2000 Syrians and Aleppines. The language usually spoken 
 
 here is Arabic. The PASHALIC of Aleppo occupies the N. 
 
 extremity of Syria, and extends southward from the borders 
 of Asia Minor at the foot of the Taurus, to Damascus, Tripoli 
 (in Syria), and the confines of Arabia Deserta ; the Mediter 
 ranean Sea and the Bays of the Orontes and Iskenderoon 
 being its W. limits, and the Euphrates its E. Its surface 
 contains about 7372 sq. in. The W. side is mountainous; on 
 the E., the hills are lower and more undulating. The soil in 
 general is excellent, and the climate good. (Dr. Bowring s 
 Report on Syria; Paton s Modern Syrians; Jour. Hoy. Geo. 
 Soc.; Survey of tfie Euphrates and Tigris, by Lieut.-Col. 
 Chesney; &c. &c.) 
 
 ALEKIA, a small decayed vil. Corsica; once a consider 
 able city, and the see of a bishop. It is now remarkable only 
 for the ruins of the Roman colony of Aleria. 
 
 ALESEINA. See ALEKSIH. 
 
 ALESSANDRIA BELLA PAGLIA, or ALEXANDRIA, a tn. 
 Sardinian States; chief town of the gov., of the prov., and 
 of the military division 
 of the same name ; sent 
 of a council of justice 
 under the jurisdiction 
 of the senate of Turin, 
 48 m. E.S.E. Turin; 
 on the right bank of 
 the Tanaro, a little 
 above where it is join 
 ed by the Bormida. 
 The town is fortified; 
 has a citadel ; and is 
 the seat of a bishop, 
 suffragan to Vercelli ; 
 and the residence of 
 a chief rabbi. It has 
 a royal college and theological seminary, a cathedral, 12 
 parish churches, three hospitals, an orphan asylum, a gym 
 nasium, very extensive barracks, and a theatre. Manufac 
 tures : Linen, silks, cloths, and wax candles. Alessandria 
 is considered to be one of the strongest towns in Europe, 
 both from its citadel, its outer works, and from the sluices 
 of the Tanaro, by which the surrounding country can be 
 inundated. It is the bulwark of Piedmont ; and was 
 founded in the 12th century, under the auspices of Pope 
 Alexander III., the patron of the Guelfs, for the purpose 
 of defending N. Italy against the Emperor Frederick I. 
 and the Ghibellines. In the year 1707, it was ceded, by 
 the Emperor Joseph I., to the Duke of Savoy ; was taken 
 by the French during the war of the Spanish succession, 
 and retaken by Prince Eugene; in 1796, it capitulated to 
 Bonaparte; on June 25, 1799, it fell into the hands of the 
 allied Russian and Austrian army; and, after the battle of 
 Marengo, was restored to the French, who kept possession of 
 it till 1814, when it was restored to the King of Sardinia. The 
 battle of Marengo was fought a little to the E. of the town, 
 
 on June 14, 1800. Pop. 36,000 ; of whom 550 are Jews. 
 
 The PROV. is rich in pastures, and produces large numbers of 
 cattle. The fields, in general, are surrounded by ditches of 
 water, on whose banks grow mulberry, poplar, and walnut 
 trees. The climate is temperate ; but the sirocco is occasion 
 ally felt. Wheat, maize, wine, silk, fruit of fine quality, 
 madder, wood, and the finest flax of Piedmont, are produced 
 
 in the province. Wood is very scarce. Pop. 99,556. 
 
 The GOV. is composed of the provinces of Alessandria, Asti 
 
 Cassali, Acqui, Vogliera, and Tortona ; whose united pop. is 
 547,662. 
 
 ALESSANO [Alcxanum], a tn. Naples, prov. Otranto, 
 district of, and 21 m. S.E. from Gallipoli ; built on the ruins 
 of the ancient Leuca. Residence of a bishop. It has an 
 hospital, and some manufactories of muslins and cotton stuffs. 
 Pop. 1745. 
 
 ALESSIO [anc. Lissus, of the Romans ; Akrolissus, of 
 the Greeks], a tn. Turkey in Europe, prov. Albania, district 
 or pash. Scutari, on the left bank of the Drin, about 5 m. 
 from its embouchure in the gulf of that name ; situated in a 
 plain, planted with olives. It contains a bazaar and a fortress 
 the latter small, and in bad condition, and containing only 
 the barracks, a few Christian families, and a mosque, in 
 which is buried Scander-beg, or Iskander-beg, a celebrated 
 Albanian prince and warrior, who flourished in the 15th 
 century. Beyond the fortress is an extensive suburb, called 
 Varoshi, a thriving place inhabited by Turks. Alessio is 
 the see of a bishop dependent upon that of Durazzo, from 
 which it is 25 m. 1S T . Some traces of the ancient Lissus are 
 still visible. (Jour. Roy. Geo. Soc., vol. xii. ; Guibert, Die. 
 Geo. et Stat.) 
 
 ALET, or ALKTH [Lalin, Alecta], a small tn. France, 
 dep. Aude, 6 m. S.E. Limoux, and 37 m. N.W. Perpignan; 
 upon the right bank of the Aude, in a beautiful valley abound 
 ing in fruit, at the foot of the Pyrenees. It has four mineral 
 springs, three of them cold ; and its baths are celebrated. In 
 the environs are tile works, and copper and iron mines. 
 Pop. 1320. 
 
 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS [from the Russian word Aleut, 
 a bold rock], an extensive range of small islands belonging 
 to Russia, in the N. Pacific ocean, between Cape Aliaska, 
 in N. America, and the peninsula of Kamchatka, in Asia ; 
 extending from Ion. 163 W. to 166 E., or for about 600 m. 
 
 They were formerly divided into three groups the Aleutian, 
 Andrenovian, and Fox Islands ; but are now all comprehended 
 under the name Aleutian. The first known of these islands 
 was discovered, in 1741, by Behring, whose name it bears, 
 and who died there ; the others were discovered, at different 
 periods afterwards, by various Russian adventurers, who 
 sought these regions in quest of furs, particularly that of 
 the sea otter. They were subsequently visited by Captain 
 Cook in 1788, who determined their exact positions. Those 
 nearest Kamchatka are Behring s and Miednoi, or Copper 
 Islands; the first situate in lat. 55 N. ; Ion. 166 E. South 
 east of the latter are the small islands of Attoo, Semitshi, and 
 Agattoo, between lat. 54 and 55 N. The Andrenovian 
 group, or central part of the chain, lies between lat. 52 and 
 54 N., and comprehends the islands of Kiska, Amchitka, 
 Tanaga, Kanaga, Adagh, Atcha, and Amlia, with a number 
 of smaller islands. Of the group nearest Cape Aliaska, called 
 by the Russians Syssie Ostrova, or Fox Islands, the principal 
 are Oomnak, Oonalashka, and Oonimack. Beyond these, to 
 the N.E., lies the large island of Kodiak, generally considered 
 as belonging to the group called Schumagin s Islands, on which 
 there is a village of about 400 inhabitants. The largest of 
 the whole chain are Behring s island and the island of Oona 
 lashka. 
 
 The Aleutian islands are of volcanic formation ; and, in a 
 number of them, there are volcanoes still in active operation. 
 At present, there are upwards of 24 in this state, varying from 
 3000 to 8000 ft. in height. In 1796, a volcanic island, now 
 called Joanna Bogoslowa, rose in the middle of the line, or 
 
ALEUTIAN ISLANDS 
 
 77 
 
 ALEUTIAN ISLANDS 
 
 chain, of islands. It was first observed after a storm, at a point 
 in the sea from which a column of smoke had been seen to rise. 
 Flames afterwards issued from the new island, accompanied 
 by a frightful earthquake. Eight years after its emergence, 
 it was found, in some places, to be so hot that it could not 
 be walked upon. It is now several thousand feet high, and 
 2 or 3 m. in circumference, and is still increasing in size. 
 Earthquakes, also, of the most terrific description, are of fre 
 quent occurrence in this region ; agitating and altering the 
 bed of the sea and surface of the land throughout the whole 
 tract. The appearance of the islands is singularly dismal 
 and barren ; lofty walls of black lava rise perpendicularly 
 from the sea, and beyond, steep mountains of rock shoot up 
 to the clouds ; while the coasts are so encompassed with reefs 
 and breakers as to render navigation amongst them exceed 
 ingly dangerous. The soil is, in general, very poor ; but, in 
 some particular spots, esculent vegetables thrive well ; and 
 some of the most E. of the islands produce potatoes, and main 
 tain considerable numbers of domestic cattle, although the 
 latter do not generally thrive on these islands. Springs of 
 water are numerous ; and valleys clothed with a rich herbage, 
 and capable of supporting herds of cattle throughout the 
 year, are to be met with in some of the islands, especially 
 Oonalashka. Bears, wolves, beavers, ermines, and river 
 otters, are plentiful ; while the Fox Islands, as their name 
 implies, abound in foxes black, red, gray, and brown. The 
 kinds of fish most usually caught are salmon and halibut ; 
 the latter frequently of immense size. Seals and whales are 
 abundant on the coasts. 
 
 The inhabitants who seem to be a mixed race between the 
 Mongolian Tartars and the North American Indians are 
 below the average stature, but stout, and well proportioned. 
 They have a round face, small eyes, a brownish complexion, 
 a flat nose, and black hair. In the females, the complexion is 
 of a lighter shade, and the hair approaches to brown. The I 
 dress, which is common to both sexes, consists of a frock of j 
 seal skin, fastened round the neck, and descending below the I 
 knees. This simple dress is often ingeniously sewed and 
 adorned with glass beads, white goats hair, and small red 
 feathers. In their native state, they pierced the lower lip, the 
 nose, and the ears, to suspend in them bones or crystal rings. 
 The women wore around the neck, as well as the hands and feet, 
 chaplets of variegated stones ; and more especially, when they 
 could procure it, amber. They also tatooed the body, adorn- i 
 ing it with various figures ; and, when the female belonged to 
 a family of distinction, depicting on her person a symbolical 
 representation of the deeds by which they had acquired 
 renown the number of enemies slain, or beasts of prey 
 destroyed. The most striking feature in the constitutional 
 temper of the Aleutians is a kind of passive quiescence and 
 patient endurance, amounting almost to insensibility. Left 
 to themselves, they will pass whole days in absolute idleness, 
 scarcely opening their lips to give utterance to a single syl 
 lable, or making the least exertion to satisfy the cravings of 
 appetite; and, on the other hand, when placed under a master, 
 they will toil on at any task which may be appointed them, 
 slowly, indeed, but without interruption, until it is accom 
 plished. Instances are even given in which they have carried 
 this implicit obedience so far as to sacrifice their lives in 
 endeavouring to perform impossible tasks, which senseless or 
 tyrannical masters had imposed upon them. In the ordinary 
 relations of life, the Aleutians exhibit much that is amiable. 
 Parents are treated with great respect and deference, and I 
 children are the objects of the fondest affection. The husband 
 is addressed by the wife as father, and he applies to her the 
 name of mother. The whole family appear to cling to each 
 other, and take a deep interest in whatever affects their com 
 mon honour and welfare. To this happy state of domestic 
 life there must, however, be numerous exceptions. The ex 
 istence of polygamy, and the still more monstrous practice of 
 polyandry, seem almost inconsistent with the very idea of what 
 is usually understood by a family. As might be anticipated, 
 from the passive qualities of the Aleutians, they are not 
 remarkable for their courage. Provided the destruction of 
 their enemy can be accomplished, it seems absolutely indiffer 
 ent to them whether it be by force or stratagem. The chief j 
 employments are hunting and fishing, and in both they show 
 great dexterity. They will face the bear simply armed with 
 a gun or a bow ; and have even been known, when these 
 
 weapons had failed, to encounter and overcome him with a 
 knife. But the sea seems to be their proper element. In the 
 pursuit of the whale and the seal, they are equally shilful and 
 intrepid. The boat which they employ is a kind of canoe, 
 called a baidar, consisting of a frame of wood or bone, covered 
 with seal skin. It is long and narrow, in general holding 
 only a single person, whose bust rises out of a circular hole 
 cut in the skin, which stretches from gunwale to gunwale, 
 like a deck; and is so light, that a man can easily carry it. 
 Fleets, consisting perhaps of a 100 of these Gaidars, each 
 managed by double paddles about 8 ft. long, will venture 50 
 or 60 m. to sea, and encounter all the perils of a stormy ocean, 
 in quest of the sea otter. While the men are thus employed, 
 the women occupy themselves in covering canoes, and making 
 mats, baskets, and other articles of straw, which display much 
 neatness and dexterity. The food in common use is of the 
 coarsest description whale s flesh, almost in a putrid state, and 
 fish often of similar quality. Could anything add to the disgust 
 which the very idea of such a meal inspires, it would be the 
 filthy manner in which it is cooked ; both the place and the 
 utensils being allowed to remain in the dirtiest state imagin 
 able. Notwithstanding of the grave and almost demure man 
 ners of the Aleutians, they are not strangers to amusements, and 
 even theatrical representations. They have both songs and 
 dances, and a kind of dramas, in which some striking incident 
 connected with their history is exhibited. The popularity 
 of these is so great, as to have more than once collected 
 crowds, which caused a famine. 
 
 The religion of the Aleutians was a ramification of Sham 
 anism a superstition prevalent throughout the N. of Asia. 
 They acknowledged a higher Deity, or Creator, but paid no 
 worship to him, under the idea that he had left the charge of 
 the world to certain good and evil spirits, called KoityaJJi, and 
 Aylilcaiakh. They worshipped the elements, and the heavenly 
 bodies, particularly the sun and the moon, which were supposed 
 to have great power in human affairs; the sun, when blas 
 phemed, striking the blasphemer blind by its rays ; the moon 
 killing him by the stones which she throws down upon him ; 
 and the stars compelling him to count them a task, the per 
 formance of which cost him his reason. They had neither 
 temples nor idols ; but near every village, on a rock, or other 
 eminence, was a supposed holy place, which the old men 
 alone, and the priests, or shamans, were permitted to visit. 
 On these, with mysterious ceremonies, they deposited offer 
 ings, consisting usually of the skins of wild beasts, or the 
 feathers of aquatic birds. Amulets, or charms, were also in 
 general use, some of them being supposed to secure their 
 fortunate possessor against all accidents, and bring him off 
 scatheless and victorious from every combat. The most 
 effectual of these talismans was a girdle, composed of cords or 
 grass, with a particular arrangement of knots. In regard to 
 the immortality of the soul, and the origin of the human race, 
 the views of the Aleutians must have been originally derived 
 from a Divine source. The strongest proof of their belief of 
 the former, is derived from one of the most horrid of their 
 practices. On the death of a chief, his slaves were sacrificed 
 on his tomb, that they might go and continue their services 
 to him in the other world. The general idea was, that the 
 disembodied spirit returned invisible to its family, whom it 
 accompanied for good or evil in all their excursions. It is 
 even said to have been invoked by them, particularly when 
 engaging in war, to avenge some insult that had been offered 
 to the family. The original form of government was 
 patriarchal. Every village, which, from the frequency of 
 intermarriage, in fact formed only one family, was governed 
 by its toiun, or chief; and a union of villages, under some 
 superior town, on whom valour or wisdom conferred the 
 dignity, formed a kind of state. Under the dominion of 
 llussia, all the primitive institutions and habits of the Aleu 
 tians have been greatly modified, and many of them have 
 rapidly disappeared. Unquestionably, the best virtues of 
 savage life have thus been lost ; and one of the first effects of 
 civilization was the introduction of its worst vices, and one of 
 its most disgusting diseases. But these are partly compen 
 sated by numerous blessings. The Aleutians have already 
 acquired some skill in mechanical arts. Many of them have 
 learned to read, and actually peruse the Scriptures in their 
 own tongue. Their abandonment of Shamanism for the 
 religion of the Greek church, and the deep interest which 
 
ALEXANDER ISLAND 
 
 7S 
 
 ALEXANDRIA 
 
 they seem to take in its ritual, is probably much less the 
 effect of conviction than of deference to the authority of their j 
 masters; but the faet that there are already four churches in I 
 the islands, thronged by native worshippers, that the vindic- j 
 tive spirit which at one time prevailed, and made family 
 feuds implacable, has in a great measure disappeared, gives 
 reason to hope that the Aleutians, instead of being regarded 
 as savages, will, at no distant period, be entitled to claim a 
 place among civilized men. (Erman.) 
 
 ALEXANDER ISLAND, a small isl. in the Antarctic 
 Ocean, in about lat. (N. point) 68 51 S. ; Ion. 73 10 W. ; 
 discovered by Bellinghausen in 1821, but not approached 
 nearer than 25 to 30 m., on account of the surrounding ice. 
 
 ALEXANDERSBAD, mineral springs and baths, Ba 
 varia, prov. Upper Franconia, 17 m. N.E. Bayreuth; on the E. 
 side of the Fichtelgebirge, near the village of Sichersreuth, 
 upwards of 1900 ft. above the sea level. From its mountain 
 ous situation, the climate is somewhat rude. The water 
 springs from granite, limestone, and mica schist ; is clear, has 
 a pleasant chalybeate and somewhat sharp taste, and lias a 
 temperature of about 49 Fah. It is an earthy, saline, 
 chalybeate spring, containing a considerable quantity of car 
 bonic acid gas, and is esteemed a good restorative and tonic. 
 The water is used both externally and internally, and the 
 baths are a good deal frequented. 
 
 ALEXANDRETTA, ISKENDEROON, or SCANDEROON, a 
 small seaport tn. Syria, district Alexandretta, S.E. coast of 
 the Gulf of Scanderoon ; lat. 36 35 18" N. ; Ion. 36 9 E. (u.) 
 The houses are in general extremely mean looking ; but some 
 recent erections have given a rather more respectable appear 
 ance to the town. These include the residence of the English 
 vice-consul, and some granaries built by Ibrahim Pasha. The 
 town is surrounded by marshes, which render it very un 
 healthy; but it is now less so than formerly, in consequence 
 of one of the largest having been thoroughly drained some 
 years ago. The others, being all above the level of the sea, 
 might be very easily drained, to the great advantage of the 
 port. The latter consists of a fine bay, running in S.E. from 
 the gulf, protected from all winds, and capable of containing 
 in security from 30 to 35 sail. Being the natural port of 
 Aleppo, and of all N. Syria, the greater portion of both 
 British and foreign imports and exports pass through it. The 
 direct importations consist principally of grain, rice, and salt. 
 The staple articles of export are galls, silk, cotton, and 
 dips, or beshmet, made from grapes into a consistence resem 
 bling honey, and which forms a great article of food among 
 the natives of the country. The inhabitants of Alexandretta 
 are about half Greeks and half Turks and Fellahs. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, an anc. city and seaport, Egypt, about 
 14 m. W. of the most W. mouth of the Nile, on the ridge of 
 land between the sea and the bed of the old Lake Mareotis; 
 lat. (Point Eunostos) 31 11 30" N.;lon. 29 51 5" E. (R.) 
 The ancient city of Alexandria was founded 332 years B.C., 
 on the site of a small town called Racotis, by Alexander the 
 G reat, who gave it his own name. As the site of a great 
 commercial city, the situation was well chosen, presenting a 
 probability, afterwards fully realized, of uniting the traffic of 
 Europe, Arabia, and India. Of the ancient city, the plan of 
 which was drawn out by Dinocrates, a celebrated architect 
 of antiquity, little else than a wide series of ruins now 
 remains. It stood a little to the S. of the present town, and 
 was of great extent, having a circumference of 15 m., with a 
 pop. of 300,000 free inhabitants, besides, at least, an equal 
 number of slaves. Its magnificence was so remarkable, 
 that the Romans ranked it next to their own capital ; and 
 Amer, general of the caliph Omar, in his letter to the latter 
 after the capture of the city, A.D. 640, thus speaks of it: " I 
 have taken the great city of the West. It is impossible for 
 me to enumerate the variety of its riches and beauty, and I 
 shall content myself with observing, that it contains 4000 
 palaces, 4000 baths, 400 theatres, or places of amusement, 
 12,000 shops for the sale of vegetables, and 40,000 tributary 
 Jews." (Gibbon.) The city was regularly built, and tra 
 versed by two principal streets, each 100 ft. wide, and one 
 of them 4 m. long. One-fourth of the entire area on 
 which it was built, was covered with temples, palaces, and 
 public buildings. Under the Caesars, it attained an extraor 
 dinary degree of prosperity; large fleets of merchant vessels 
 traded with India and Ethiopia, and returned laden with the 
 
 most valuable productions of these countries, to be afterwards 
 distributed through Egypt and other lands. An industrious 
 population improved the general welfare. The inhabitants 
 have been accused of an extraordinary irascibility, which 
 led, on the slightest occasions, to disturbances of the most 
 serious character ; but it is more than probable that this 
 proneness to tumult and riot had its origin with, if it was not 
 confined to, the idle, mercenary troops, of which great num 
 bers were always quartered in the city, and who were ever, 
 says Wilkinson, more ready to govern than obey. 
 
 The weaving of linn.n, and the manufacture of glass and 
 papyrus, were the chief occupations of the industrial popula 
 tion of the ancient city. The most remarkable remains of the 
 Alexandria of former times are the famous obelisks, known 
 by the name of Cleopatra s Needles. These obelisks, of which 
 there are two, are of red granite, and about 70 ft. high, with 
 a diameter at the base of about 7 ft. One only is now 
 standing ; the other lying prostrate at the foot of it.* Pom- 
 pey s, or, more properly, Diocletian s pillar, stands on an 
 eminence about 1800 ft. to the S. of the present walls. Its 
 total height is 98 ft. 9 in. ; circumference, 29 ft. 8 in. ; diameter 
 at the top of the capital, 1 6 ft. G in. In a hollow space to 
 the S.W. of this column, is the site of an ancient circus. 
 About a mile W. of the pillar, and without the walls of the 
 ancient city, are the catacombs, now in a ruinous state, but 
 still sufficiently impressive. They are of great extent, and 
 present some beautiful specimens of architecture. Fragments 
 of columns, and other ruins, scattered over a wide space, with 
 traces of walls, vestiges of public baths, and noble edifices of 
 various descriptions, all bear evidence of the grandeur and mag 
 nificence which had characterized this great city of the East. 
 
 The modern city, though the scene of much bustle and 
 gaiety, has no pretensions to any of the splendours of its 
 predecessor ; if we except, perhaps, that picturesque and dis 
 tinguishing feature of Eastern cities the minaret, some of 
 those of Alexandria being of great elegance and beauty, as 
 will be seen from the accompanying woodcut. The streets 
 
 MINARETS AT ALKXAKUB1A. From Hoieau, Panorama de ! Ej.<ypte. 
 
 in the Turkish quarter are narrow, dirty, and irregular; tho 
 houses are, in general, from three to four stories in height, 
 and are substantially built, but have a dull monotonous ap- 
 
 * This obelisk, which had been entirely buried in the sand during flic 
 erection of the new fortifications round the city, lias been recently brought 
 to light again. It belongs to the British Government, to which it wai 
 presented by Mehemet All 
 
ALEXANDRIA 
 
 79 
 
 ALEXANDRIA 
 
 The City&KMvirons 
 of 
 
 ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 pcarance, from want of windows to the streets. In the Frank 
 quarter, which has greatly increased of late years, the town 
 wears a more lively and agreeable aspect. The houses are 
 clean, and brilliantly whitewashed, and the principal street is 
 the finest and largest in the city. In the Frank quarter is a 
 large and elegant square, called the Pierra Grande, in which 
 are the principal hotels, and most of the consulates. There 
 is a small theatre in the city, but no regular corps dramatique, 
 the actors being all amateurs and Europeans. During the 
 carnival, the city becomes very gay 
 with public and private balls, the 
 former at the Cassino, and with 
 other festivities. 
 
 The streets are at all times 
 crowded with camels, mules, and 
 asses, whose drivers maintain a 
 constant din, calling on passengers 
 to keep out of the way, to which 
 are added the vociferations of jug 
 glers, mountebanks, and hawkers. 
 The mixed character of the po 
 pulation, however, and the great 
 variety of costume that meets the 
 eye, give to the streets a lively 
 and interesting appearance, in de 
 spite of their want of all other 
 attractions. Shops are numerous, 
 and well supplied with all sorts of 
 European goods,tastefully arranged 
 and displayed. There are few 
 bazaars, but they are amply pro 
 vided with cloth, tobacco, sherbet, 
 and vegetables. The only objects 
 of interest in the town are the 
 Pasha s palace and the arsenal ; the former is not remarkable 
 for splendour, either external or internal with the excep 
 tion of a few of the apartments, which are fitted up in good 
 taste, simplicity being their prevailing characteristic. The 
 arsenal, which was begun in 1827, occupies a site of 60 ac., 
 with a good frontage to the sea. It is provided with slips for 
 line-of-battle ships and frigates, but all the anchors, cables, 
 tanks, and ordnance used are brought from England. Several 
 educational and judicial institutions in the city, mark the 
 liberal policy of Mehemet Ali. Amongst these are two 
 schools a preparatory school with 800 pupils, and a primary 
 school with 200. Commercial differences are settled by a 
 national tribunal of commerce, one of which is at Alexandria, 
 and another at Cairo. There is also a board, called the 
 commission of ornament, composed of Egyptians and Europ 
 eans, for the promotion of cleanliness and general order, and 
 propriety in the erection of new buildings, which cannot be 
 begun without the consent of this body. The commission 
 has power to remove all nuisances affecting the public health, 
 and has already done much for the city in the way of ven 
 tilation. The exemption, however, of church lands, or 
 property belonging to mosques, from all liabilities of any 
 kind, even the interference of the sovereign not excepted, 
 has been found a great hinderance to progress of improve 
 ment. There is a naval hospital in the city, intended for the 
 special benefit of that service, but to which other persons are 
 admitted on an order from the governor. There are also a 
 school for the marine, and a board composed of naval officers, 
 for examining into the merits of candidates for appointments 
 in the navy. The most remarkable evidence, however, of 
 Mehemet Ali s liberality of sentiment, is to be found in the 
 circumstance of his having lately granted a plot of ground in 
 Alexandria, for the site of a Protestant chapel (begun to build 
 in 1847), for the use of the British community there. There 
 is a slave market in the town, but it is not always open ; and, 
 in such cases, the slaves are paraded through the streets, and 
 are stopped and examined like beasts of burden, 
 
 Alexandria has two ports, one on the E. side, called the 
 New, or Asiatic harbour; the other on the \V., called the 
 Old port (anc. Eunostos}. The entrance to the latter is 
 difficult, there being many shoals on which there is not suffi 
 cient water to float vessels of large size, and firstrate line-of- 
 battle ships are obliged to take out their guns, to enable them 
 to enter with safety. Once in, however, they have good 
 anchorage, with ample depth of water. The deepest part, 
 
 due W. and due N. of the catacombs, is from 10 to 11 
 fathoms ; within 200 ft. of the shore, it is from 4 to 6 fathoms : 
 and immediately under the town, a cable s length off", 3 and 4 
 fathoms. The Old port might be made one of the finest in the 
 world ; and if the improvements which have been going on 
 for some time be continued, it is probable it will become so. 
 The New harbour is greatly inferior to the latter, being much 
 less, with a foul and rocky bottom, besides being exposed to 
 the N. winds. 
 
 The trade of Alexandria is considerable. The principal 
 
 articles of export are cotton, beans, pease, rice, wheat, barley, 
 
 gums, flax, hides, lentils, linseed, mother-of-pearl, sesamum, 
 
 senna, ostrich feathers, &c. The chief imports from Great 
 
 Britain are manufactured goods, coals, iroi goods, olive oil, 
 
 indigo, earthenware, hardwares, sugar, cloth, drugs, machines, 
 
 liquors, pitch, &c. 
 
 The total exports for the following years, were: 
 
 1812 1,80 1,96(5 
 
 1850 3,153,570 
 
 181-7 2,434,249 
 
 1851 3,258,040 
 
 1848 1 572 565 
 
 1852 31180)6 
 
 1849 2,030,562 
 
 1853 3,472,000 
 
 The imports in 1847, 18.V2, and 1853, amounted to 1847, 
 
 1,393,406; 1852, 1,714,743; 1853, 2,670,000. 
 
 Great Britain, France, and Austria are the largest impor 
 
 ters from Alexandria. In 1853 the value of the goods they 
 
 received from that port were: Great Britain, 1,787,546; 
 
 France, 491,000; Austria, 389,000. The same year 
 
 Alexandria imported from Great Britain goods to the value 
 of 1,153,000; France, 242,000; Austria, 310,000. _ 
 
 The following- are the quantities of the principal articles 
 
 exported to Great Br tain in the years 1850-1853; 
 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 uriCLES. 
 
 I8i0. 1851. 
 
 ]&!. 
 
 W53. 
 
 CiilTee . Lh.i. 
 
 u y cy t 
 
 14,942 
 
 416,044 
 
 9ii,HU 
 
 Wheat .... Q/ .> 
 
 2r?!235 
 
 633,191 
 
 392,746 
 
 357,903 
 
 Barley * 
 
 10810 
 
 82,522 
 
 54,248 
 
 42,316 
 
 Beans 
 
 227,027 
 
 213,928 
 
 257,188 
 
 205 879 
 
 Maise.or Indian Corn 
 
 71,808 
 
 127,692 
 
 71,589 
 
 36,998 
 
 Cotton, Raw Gwts 
 
 167,581 
 
 131,393 
 
 409,139 
 
 250,607 
 
 I lax, Dressed ) 
 Undressed. ) " 
 
 46,505 
 
 48,038 
 
 ( 14,030 
 ( 39,028 
 
 21,241 
 
 63,828 
 
 Oum Arabic 
 
 9,524 
 
 20,312 
 
 16,414 
 
 31,742 
 
 Hair or Goats ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wool, i Manu-5- Value t 
 
 100,701 
 
 141,657 
 
 17-3,926 
 
 203,067 
 
 fact urea of ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Musk Ounce* 
 
 8,061 
 
 9,168 
 
 5,210 
 
 5,369 
 
 Opium Us 
 
 3,5+5 
 
 11,025 
 
 17,481 
 
 8,95 1 
 
 Seeds: Lentils. ..Bushel*. 
 
 68,210 
 
 156,975 
 
 231,224 
 
 94,421 
 
 Linseed & L lax Qrs 
 
 20,109 
 
 36,410 
 
 13,531 
 
 14,729 
 
 Senna ii- 
 
 226,371 
 
 124,860 
 
 40,450 
 
 30,568 
 
 Silk, Haw* , 
 
 203,696 
 
 242,004 
 
 911,408 
 
 1,863,30$ 
 
 ., Thrown 
 
 13,632 
 
 6,087 
 
 13,fi67 
 
 1,914 
 
 Teeth, Klephants* Ctrl* 
 
 1,018 
 
 267 
 
 9S4 
 
 1,651 
 
 Tortoise Shell Lbi 
 
 5,090 
 
 20,390 
 
 7,18 ) 
 
 8,747 
 
 \Vo->l, Slieep ) 
 and Lambs ... f 
 
 1,447,683 
 
 1,6 10,1 4S 
 
 1,917,553 
 
 2,038,125 
 
 * Chiclly transit from Ind a. 
 
ALEXANDRIA 
 
 BO 
 
 ALEXANDRIA 
 
 The following are the quantities of the principal articles 
 imported from Great Britain in the years 1850-1853: 
 TABLE OF PKIKCIPAL IMPOKTS FROM GBKAT BRITAIN. 
 
 PRINCI 
 
 Apothecary Wares Ctcts 
 
 Guns Ifo 
 
 Gunpowder Lbs 
 
 Hooks printed...... Ctcts 
 
 Coals, Cinders, &c. Tom 
 
 Copper, wrought > c . 
 
 andimwruughtf Lwts 
 
 Cottons YarJi 
 
 Valued 
 
 Cotton Yarn Lbs. 
 
 Hardwares, &c Cwt. 
 
 lron,wr t>ht&uu-) 
 wrought, & un- > Tons 
 wrought Steel... ) 
 
 yncns Yards 
 
 Machinery- 
 Stcam-enj:mes... Pal. 
 
 Other kinds , 
 
 Plate, PiatedWare, ) 
 Jewellery, and V 
 
 Watches ) 
 
 Woollens Pieces 
 
 Yards 
 
 136 
 
 838 
 
 164 
 
 1,579 
 
 80,914 
 
 3,558 
 
 24038,104 
 
 0,650 
 
 62C,(ill 
 
 1,460 
 
 774 
 66,633 
 
 30,397 
 
 4.794 
 
 13:vl5(i 
 
 .052. | 
 
 236 
 
 309 
 
 1,472 
 
 2,265 
 
 62,500 
 
 5,520 
 
 15,118,819 
 
 9,350 
 
 1,310,799 
 
 2,040 
 
 1,937 
 
 4,003 
 3,066 
 
 17,822 
 
 6,3(56 
 92,564 
 
 455 
 
 317 
 
 729 
 
 2,142 
 
 32,542 
 
 5,072 
 
 33,470,200 
 
 9,246 
 
 86 J,K95 
 
 1,553 
 
 25,288 
 66,123 
 
 12,538 
 15,965 
 
 51,256 
 
 3,522 
 
 103,722 
 
 368 
 411 
 55,672 
 2,790 
 18,447 
 4,068 
 
 i,S85,757 
 
 7,601 
 
 875 073 
 
 1,008 
 
 7,824 
 64,197 
 
 20,991 
 14,300 
 
 86,263 
 
 2,767 
 107.772 
 
 The number of vessels that left the port of Alexandria with 
 cargoes in 1852, was 1708, of which 382 were British. 
 
 The monopolizing spirit of the late Pasha, Mehemet Ali, 
 operated most ruinously for the country, threatening its gene 
 ral trade with entire annihilation. In 1842, he locked up in 
 his own stores all the cotton in Egypt, and from these stores 
 alone was the demand of foreign countries supplied, amount 
 ing, in that year, to 1 10,290 bales. Not less injurious to the 
 interests of the country than his own immediate monopolies, 
 was a practice, largely adopted by Mehemet Ali, of farming 
 the privilege of selling particular commodities, such as 
 wine, spirits, vinegar, salt, &c., the price of such privilege 
 being 1200 purses, or 6000. In 1838, a treaty was entered 
 into by Great Britain with Mehemet Ali,wherein a great many 
 impositions and exactions, affecting the trade between the 
 two countries, were removed or modified, and the right of 
 selling trading privileges resigned. But, in practice, matters 
 remained much as they were, the Pasha evading or miscon 
 struing every clause except those favourable to himself. Since 
 the death of Mehemet Ali, a more liberal and enlightened 
 policy has been pursued. Alexandria possesses a considerable 
 transit trade, in consequence of being the principal station on 
 the Overland route from Europe to India. Steamers sail to 
 and from England, Marseilles, Trieste, and Constantinople, 
 regularly, and goods, passengers, and mails pass thence to 
 Cairo, then across the desert to Suez, and thence by the lied 
 Sea and Arabian Sea to Bombay, Calcutta, China, &c. 
 
 The climate of Alexandria is, on the whole, salubrious, and 
 was considered eminently so by the ancients; but plague is of 
 frequent occurrence, and singularly destructive. In March, 
 1835, 4250 persons died of plague, besides many whose deaths 
 were not recorded, out of a population not exceeding 30,000. 
 Two and twenty years previous to this, namely, in 1813, 7000 
 persons are said to have died of plague, out of a population 
 then not more than 12,000. The source of these dreadful 
 visitations is to be found, chiefly, in the miserable condition 
 of the lower class of the inhabitants, who live in extreme 
 poverty and wretchedness, filthy in their persons and their 
 abodes. The most strange, the most disgusting sight in 
 Alexandria, says Henniker, is this the eyes and mouths 
 of all the children are literally embanked with flies. Their 
 mouths are beset as if they were the mouths of honey bottles ; 
 their eyes are too filthy for description. 
 
 The population, as elsewhere remarked, is mixed, consisting 
 of native Turks and Arabs, of Armenians, Greeks, Smyrniotes, 
 Syrians, Moghrebins, Maltese, Jews, and Europeans, the fo 
 reigners greatly outnumbering the natives. There is little so 
 cial intercourse between the natives and the Franks, in conse 
 quence of each adhering to their peculiar habits and customs; 
 these, being irreconcilable, have the effect of keeping them al 
 most entirely apart. The women are described, by a modern 
 authoress, as being generally not merely ugly, but hideous. 
 
 The municipal government of the city, at the head of which 
 is a governor, is good in itself, and well conducted, securing 
 
 the most perfect order, and freedom from riot and crime. 
 The city is divided into quarters, each of which is presided 
 over by a sheikh, who is responsible to the governor. There 
 is also a chief police magistrate, called the bashaga, whose 
 duty it is to maintain the quiet of the city. The military act 
 as police, having orders to take all riotous and disorderly- 
 persons into custody, and have them conveyed to one of the 
 numerous guard-houses distributed all over the city. If the 
 offender be a native, he is immediately punished ; if a Frank, 
 he must be sent to his consul, to be dealt with according to 
 the laws of his own country. 
 
 Ancient History. The first inhabitants of Alexandria were 
 a mixture of Egyptians and Greeks, to whom must be added 
 numerous colonies of Jews transplanted thither in 33G, 320, 
 and 312 B.C., to increase the population of the city and 
 country, who, becoming familiar with the Greek language and 
 learning, were called IMlcnists. It was they who, by order 
 of Ptolemy Philadelphus, made the well-known Greek trans 
 lation of the Old Testament under the name of the Septua- 
 ffint. Under the liberal sway of the Ptolemies, Kings of 
 Egypt, Alexandria attained to great eminence as a seat of 
 learning, becoming not more famous for the extent of her com 
 merce and wealth than for her philosophy and literature. 
 The first calamity that befell the city was inflicted by the 
 tyrant Ptolemy Physcon, who, without provocation, let his 
 guards loose on the inhabitants, with permission to them to 
 rob and murder at pleasure ; the consequence was the almost 
 entire depopulation of the city. Physcon had afterwards in 
 fluence sufficient to induce strangers from the neighbouring 
 countries to take up their abode in Alexandria, and it was thus 
 soon again repeopled ; but on the new inhabitants making some 
 complaints of his tyranny, Physcon repeated his former atro 
 city, ordering that all the young men in the city should be 
 put to death, which order was carried into effect. The next 
 event of importance was the capture of the city by Julius Cassar, 
 after an obstinate resistance by the Alexandrians. The city 
 scems after this to have fallen into decay. It was restored 
 by Adrian A.U. 141, but was again depopulated A.D. 215, by 
 Caniealla, who, having been made the subject of some satir 
 ical efl usions, ordered a general massacre of the inhabitants 
 without distinction of age or sex. Caracalla having been 
 murdered shortly after, the city soon recovered its former 
 splendour. Towards the middle of the sixth century, Amron, 
 a general of the Caliph Omar, took Alexandria by storm, 
 after a siege of 14 months, and with a loss of 23,000 men. 
 From this period it fell into decay, till its ruin was completed 
 by the discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good 
 Hope. 
 
 The most remarkable objects in ancient Alexandria were 
 the Pharos one of the seven wonders of the world, and 
 the libraries. The former, which was used as a lighthouse, 
 was a square building of white marble. It was built by 
 order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. The site of the ancient 
 Pharos, which is no longer in existence, is occupied by an 
 old lighthouse. 
 
 The first of the famous libraries of Alexandria was estab 
 lishcd by Ptolemy Soter, as was also the Museum, a sort of 
 academy, in which men of learning and science pursued their 
 inquiries. It was maintained at the public expense. At the 
 time of the second Ptolemy s death, the library contained 
 100,000 volumes, afterwards increased to 700,000; of which 
 number, 400,000 were in the library of the museum, in the 
 quarter of the city called the Bruehion ; the remaining 300,000 
 were in a library attached to the temple of Serapis, a structure 
 of surpassing beauty. The former were accidentally destroyed 
 by fire during the war with Julius Caesar, and the latter by com 
 mand of the Caliph Omar, who, in ordering their destruction, 
 said, that if they agreed with the Koran, they were useless, and 
 need not be preserved ; if they did not, they were pernicious, 
 and ought to be destroyed. And thus was annihilated the most 
 magnificent collection of books in the world a loss which the 
 learned have not yet ceased to deplore. The population of 
 modern Alexandria, says Wilkinson, had till latterly been 
 on the decline, and is reported to have been reduced at one 
 time to GOOO ; but, under the government of Mehemet Ali, it 
 had greatly recovered, and is computed at present to amount 
 to 80,000, including the garrison of 6000 or 8000 men, and 
 the sailors of the fleet, reckoned at 12,000; leaving 60,000 for 
 the population of the place. 
 
ALEXANDRIA 
 
 81 
 
 ALGARVE 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, a tn. and district of Russia in Europe ; 
 the former on the left bank of the Inguetz, gov. Kherson, 175 
 m. N.N.E. from the town of that name. It is the cap. of the 
 district, and contains a pop. of 2500. The district is ex 
 tensive, but heathy and sterile, excepting the banks of the 
 rivers, which are more fertile. Pop. about 21,000. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, the name of various townships and 
 other places, U. States, America, the principal of which is 
 Alexandria, a seaport, and cap. of Alexandria co., a district 
 of Columbia, 7 in. S. Washington. It is finely situated on the 
 right bank of the Potomac ; is regularly laid out, the streets 
 crossing each other at right angles. It has considerable 
 shipping, there being sufficient depth of water to admit vessels 
 of the largest class to its wharfs; the tonnage, in 1840, 
 amounting to 14,470 ; the principal exports being wheat, flour, 
 maize, and tobacco. It enjoys inland communication by a 
 canal, which joins the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal at George 
 town. Pop. in 1840, 8459. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, a pleasantly-situated vil., Scotland, co. 
 Dumbarton, on the \V. bank of the Leven, 4 in. N. Dumbar 
 ton. The inhabitants are nearly all employed in the extensive 
 cotton printing works in the vicinity. There is a spacious 
 church here, and an Independent chapel. Pop. 3039. 
 
 ALEXANDRINA LAKE. See AUSTRALIA. 
 
 ALEXANDROVKA. See ALEKSANDROVKA. 
 
 ALEXANDROVSK, a tn. Eussia in Europe, gov. of, 
 and 6 m. S. Ii. St. Petersburg, on the river Neva. There is 
 a royal villa here, with a magnificent garden; a sugar refinery ; 
 a large tannery ; and, at a short distance from the town, the 
 imperial manufactory of porcelain. 
 
 ALEXISBAD, a resort for mineral waters, in Anhalt 
 Bernburg, 2 m. W. Harzgerode, in the valley, and on the 
 left bank of the Selke. There are here three wells, named, 
 respectively, Selkenbrunu, Alexisbrunn, and Ernabrunn 
 all of which are chalybeate ; the first being by far the 
 strongest, and only used externally ; the other two are used 
 internally. 
 
 ALEYBEH, a vil., W. Africa, near the left bank of the 
 Senegal; lat. 16 50 N. ; Ion. 14 4 W. It is a large and 
 populous place. The people are a spirited race, and often at 
 war with the Moors and neighbouring tribes. (Raffenel s 
 Afrique Occidentale.) 
 
 ALEYOR. See ALAYOH. 
 
 ALFAQUES PUERTO DE LOS, a small port, Spain, 
 prov. Catalonia, on the Mediterranean, and belonging to Tor- 
 losa, with which it is connected by a navigable canal, from 
 15 to 20 ft. in depth ; lat. 40 37 42" N.; Ion. 35 W. (R.) 
 The bay in which it lies affords good and safe anchorage, in 3 
 to 4 fathoms depth, and yields large quantities of salt, which 
 constitutes the principal article of export. There is no good 
 water in Alfaques. The needful supply of this necessary of 
 of life is obtained from the neighbouring town of San Carlos 
 de la Ropita; where, moreover, the custom house is situated. 
 
 ALPARO, a city, Spain, Old Castile, prov. of, and 34 m. 
 E.S.E. from Logroflo, on the right bank of the Ebro; having 
 six capacious squares, and several wide, clean, and well-paved 
 streets ; two handsome churches, and a chapel ; a large hos 
 pital, three endowed schools, townhall, prison, a castle, fine 
 barracks, theatre, and extensive storehouses. Manufactures: 
 Cloth, hats, saltpetre, brandy, and leather; and there are 
 several corn and oil mills at work. The vicinity produces 
 grain, wine, oil, flax, hemp, silk, and abundance of fine fruits. 
 Sheep, goats, mules, horses, and horned cattle, are reared; 
 for the sale of which, and other merchandise, a fair is held in 
 August. Pop. 4084. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALFELD, a tn. Hanover, prov. of, and 12 m. S.W. from 
 Hildersheim, at the confluence of the Warne with the Seine, 
 which is here crossed by three bridges. It is walled, and has 
 four gates, a massive townhouse, a Lutheran Gothic church, 
 a normal school, and two small hospitals. Some trade is done 
 in linen and yarn ; and tile making, lime burning, beer brewing, 
 and tanning, are carried on. In the vicinity, flax and hops 
 are cultivated ; and there are corn, oil, paper, and saw mills. 
 Pop. 2709. (Huhn s Lex. Deutscliland.) 
 
 ALFOLD, or AWFOLD, a par. England, co. Surrey ; area, 
 2610 ac.; on Arun and Wey Junction Canal. Pop. in 1841 
 519. 
 
 ALFORD, a district and par. Scotland, co. Aberdeen, 
 the former comprising 14 parishes, with a pop. altogether 
 VOL. I. 
 
 of 12, 091. It is nearly surrounded by hills and mountains ; 
 is watered by the Don, and has a good climate. The parish 
 contains 8000 Scottish acres, and a pop. of 1037. Jn this 
 parish, a battle was fought on July 2, 1645, between the 
 covenanting army under General Baillie, and the royalists 
 under Montrose, when the former was defeated. About the 
 middle of the last century, the body of a man in complete 
 armour, on horseback, supposed to have perished in the above 
 engagement, was dug out of a moss in this parish. 
 
 ALFORD. 1, A par. and township, England, co. Lin 
 coln ; area, 1410 ac. ; 24 m. N.N.E. Boston. It has a hand 
 some church, several charities, and two annual fairs for cattle 
 and sheep. A rivulet and a canal traverse this parish. Pop. 
 in 1841, 1945. 2, A par., co. Somerset; area, 710 ac. ; 1 m. 
 S.W. Castlecary, on the river Brue. Pop. in 1841, 90. 
 
 ALFORJA, a tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, and 15 m. 
 W. by N. from Tarragona ; built on rising ground, surrounded 
 by old walls, with four gates. It is well and openly built ; 
 has some spacious squares, a parish church, some schools, 
 an hospital, a poor asylum, and an excellent fountain. The 
 inhabitants are employed in distilling brandy, and in cultivat 
 ing corn, wine, oil, fruits, and vegetables. Pop. 2230. 
 
 ALFORT, a hamlet, France, dep. Seine, about 5 m. S.E. 
 Paris, upon the left bank of the Marne, which separates it from 
 Charenton ; celebrated for its royal veterinary school, the 
 largest establishment of the kind in the kingdom, instituted 
 in 1766, having a special library; a cabinet of comparative 
 anatomy, and one of pathology ; with hospitals for the sick 
 horses ; a botanic garden ; chemical laboratory, &c. Pop. 700. 
 
 ALFRETON, a small market tn. England, co. Derby, 
 12 m. N.N.E. Derby ; supposed to have derived its name from 
 Alfred the Great. The inhabitants are chiefly occupied in 
 the manufacture of stockings and brown earthenware, and in 
 the neighbouring collieries and iron works. The town is 
 irregularly built, and many of the houses are very old. A 
 mile and a half to the W. of the town, the North Midland 
 Railway passes. Pop. in 1841, of tn., 1774 ; of par., 7577. 
 
 ALFRISTON, a par. England, co. Sussex; area, 2120 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 668. 
 
 ALGARINEJO, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 26 m. W. from Granada ; extremely well built, with broad 
 streets, and good houses, a handsome square, two churches, 
 several schools, a public granary, numerous fountains, a 
 theatre, and a prison. The inhabitants are employed in 
 weaving, distilling brandy, making soap, expressing oil, and 
 cultivating grain, fruits, and vegetables. Sheep, goats, pigs, 
 mules, and asses, are reared, and game is plentiful in the 
 vicinity. Pop. 4383. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALGARK1RK, a par. England, co. Lincoln; area, 6050 
 ac. ; 8 m. N.N.E. Spalding, statue of Edgar, Earl of Mercia, 
 who obtained a victory over the Danes here in 870, but was 
 slain next day. Pop. in 1841, 754. 
 
 ALGARROBO, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 18 m. E. by N. from Malaga, on rising ground near the coast 
 of the Mediterranean. It is ill built, mean, and irregular ; but 
 has a square, a church with a clock tower, a chapel, and an 
 elementary school. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in 
 farm labour, mule driving, cotton weaving, and manufacturing 
 earthenware. Pop. 2954. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALGARVE, or ALOARVA, a maritime prov., once a king 
 dom, Portugal, the smallest and most S. of the Portuguese 
 provinces, bounded, N. by Alemtejo, E. by Spain, and S. 
 and W. by the Atlantic Ocean ; 90 m. in length, about 20 m. 
 in breadth ; divided into three comarcas or districts, and con 
 taining four cities, 12 towns, 60 villages, and 67 parishes, 
 cap. Faro. Its N. boundary is composed of the Monchique 
 hills, none of whose summits rise higher than 2500 ft. above 
 the sea level ; these, with the Figo, Calderao, and Foia hills (the 
 last the highest in the province, some of the summits being 
 nearly 4000 ft. high), belong to the system of the Morena, 
 the most S. branch of the Pyrenean range. They yield 
 oak, and pasture for goats. On the S. coast are many excel 
 lent bays and harbours, as Lagos, Faro, Tavira, and Castro 
 Marim. The surface of the province is mountainous ; but the 
 soil of the valleys is fertile, though shallow and little culti 
 vated, and not bearing corn sufficient for its own population. 
 Excellent oil, wine, figs, almonds, and olives, are produced 
 and exported. The fisheries, chiefly of tunny and sardines, 
 are very productive, but the coral fishery has long since been 
 
 11 
 
ALGATOCIN 
 
 els 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 abandoned. At the S. W. extremity of the province lies Cape 
 St. Vincent, memorable for the victory won over a Spanish 
 fleet, by Admiral Sir John Jervis, afterwards Lord St. Vincent, 
 Feb. 14, 1797. The coast people are considered the best 
 sailors in Portugal, and most of the Lisbon boatmen are 
 natives of Algarve. Pop. of prov. in 1835, 135,260. 
 
 ALGATOCIN, a tu. Spain, iu Andalusia, prov. of, and 46 
 m. W. by S. from Malaga, on a skirt of the sierra Tajo de la 
 Cima. It has a small square, and several narrow, steep, 
 and unpaved streets ; a parish church, townhall, prison, school, 
 and a fine fountain. The inhabitants are engaged in agricul 
 ture and feeding cattle ; and in manufacturing soap, brandy, 
 and oil. Pop. 2348. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALGA YD A, a tn. Spain, isl. Majorca, 13 m. E. by S. 
 Palmas, on a rising ground, irregularly built and ill paved. 
 It has a parish church, two schools, a consistory, public prison, 
 and abattoir. Manufactures : Brandy, flour, and iron. The 
 neighbourhood is extremely fertile, producing corn, wine, figs, 
 and other fruit, which are sent to the markets of Palmas. 
 Pop. 2860. 
 
 ALGECIRAS, or ALGESIRAS [The island!, a tn. and sea 
 port, Spain, in Andalusia, prov. Cadiz, on the W. side of Bay 
 of Gibraltar, 7 m. N.W. Point Europa, and 54 ni. S.E. Cadiz, 
 in lat. (mole) 36 8 N., and Ion. 5 26 W. (R.) The modern 
 town occupies an acclivity rising pretty rapidly from, the sea, 
 opposite the Isla Verde, on which stood the older town, once 
 so strong as to be considered the key of Spain, but now little 
 better than a mere ruin. Algeciras has no walls, but is 
 defended by a fort on a neighbouring hill ; it is well built, 
 with wide, paved, and clean streets, and has three squares, one 
 of which, at the top of the town, is elevated 220 ft. above the 
 bay, and is very handsome, planted with trees, and, in the 
 centre, it has a large ornamental fountain plentifully supplied 
 with water ; another of the squares is used as a market place, 
 and occasionally also as a bull ring. The public buildings and 
 establishments comprise two churches, one of which is hand 
 some, and of modern construction ; three chapels ; a well- 
 endowed charity school, which boards as well as educates up 
 wards of 1000 children, a townhall and courthouse, a military 
 hospital with 160 beds, a civil hospital and foundling asylum 
 in the same building, cavalry and infantry barracks, a 
 theatre, large prison, and an agreeable alameda, bull ring 
 and campo-santo, or burial ground, outside the town. The 
 public fountains are supplied by means of a fine modern aque 
 duct, which conveys the water from springs on the neighbour 
 ing hills, over a double series of arches, about 6 furlongs in 
 length, rising 45 ft. above the small river Miel. " The town 
 is well supplied with neat cafe s and hotels, and the warehouses 
 are elegant. A recent German traveller says the people 
 are venal and deceitful, their character being much deterio 
 rated by the extensive smuggling transactions carried on from 
 this port. The employment of the inhabitants is divided 
 between navigation and trade. Algeciras has considerable 
 manufactures of coarse linen cloth and cotton fabrics, sombrero 
 hats, gloves, brown and stained paper, and playing cards, 
 copper utensils, earthenware, and tiles, with four tanneries 
 busily employed in preparing morocco leather. Its exports 
 consist of charcoal, leather, rough and prepared cork, tiles, and 
 sweet potatoes, principally to Cadiz and Malaga, and provisions 
 to Ceuta, averaging in yearly value about 60,429 ; while it 
 receives, chiefly for its own consumption, corn, wine, oil, 
 cloth, colonial produce, and other articles, including brandy 
 obtained by barter from the rural inhabitants of the interior, 
 the whole annually valued at 40,255. The average number 
 of vessels, mostly engaged in the coasting trade, that annually 
 leave the port is 504, of an aggregate tonnage of 31,338 tons ; 
 and of those that enter, 572, of an aggregate tonnage of 56,373 
 tons. The port is not approachable by vessels drawing more 
 than 12 ft. water. The mole is situated about J m. N.W. 
 the Isla Verde, and runs out eastward ; the small river Miel 
 debouching southward, and capable of receiving small vessels 
 at high water. Shoals and reefs render the navigation 
 difficult in making Algeciras. There is also a small dock 
 yard. Algeciras, which was built by the Moors, and taken 
 from them by Alonzo X., in 1344, after a 20 months siege, is 
 memorable in British naval history, as the scene of a gallant 
 victory achieved, June 9, 1801, by Admiral Saumarez, over 
 the combined French and Spanish fleet. It is thought by 
 some to have been the Carteia of Koman geography, and the 
 
 Mclcarth of the Phenicians, celebrated for its long-lived king 
 Arganthonius ; but this is a mistake, as an amphitheatre and 
 other ruins of the Carteia, sacked by Scipio Africanus, n.C. 
 171, are still to be seen at El-Kocadillo, between Algeciras 
 and Gibraltar. Pop. 11,080. (Madoz; Ford s Sjxdn Sail 
 ing Directions; Willkomm s Zwei Jahre in fyxatifti.) 
 
 ALGEMESI, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 20 m. S. by "W. 
 from Valencia, on the \V. bank of the Juc.tr, having spacious 
 and regular streets, with four well-built squares, a handsome 
 church and some chapels, three schools, a small townhall, 
 several convents, and an hospital. The people are employed 
 chiefly in grinding oil, wheat, and rice, and in distilling 
 brandy. The surrounding country, which is flat and argilla 
 ceous, though not particularly fertile, yields a considerable 
 quantity of rice, and a good number of mulberry trees, on 
 which the silkworm is fed, the rearing of which insect consti 
 tutes a considerable branch of industry to the inhabitants of 
 Algemesi. Pop. 4500. 
 
 ALGERIA, or ALGERIE, a territory of N. Africa, once the 
 Turkish regency or pash. of Algiers, but, since 1830, a French 
 colonial prov. ; bounded, N. by the Mediterranean Sea, E. by 
 the regency of Tunis, S. by the great Sahara desert, and W. 
 by the empire of Morocco ; being comprised between Ion. 
 2 W. and 8 45 E. ; and between 37 5 N. lat. seaward, and 
 an irregular line stretching S. as far as the 34th N. parallel. 
 Its greatest length from E. to W. is about 600 m., its greatest 
 breadth about 160 or 170 m. ; and its superficial area has been 
 vaguely estimated at 90,000 sq. m., much of which, however, 
 is only nominally under the dominion of the French. The 
 country, under the Turks, was divided into the four provinces 
 of Algiers, Oran, Constautina, and Titterie; but, since 1843, 
 the French have comprised it within the three of these first 
 named. Algiers is subdivided into four departments, Oran 
 into four, and Constantina into three. The zone, or stripe of 
 cultivated land lying between the mountains and the sea, is 
 called the Tell ; it varies in breadth from 50 m. in the provinces 
 of Oran and Titterie, to 120 m. in the province of Constantina. 
 
 Mountains, Plains, &c. The Algerian territory is moun 
 tainous, consisting principally of the ridges or slopes of Mount 
 Atlas, which ramifies throughout Algeria, enclosing several 
 plains and valleys, sloping towards the Mediterranean Sea. 
 The principal of these are the Wanashrees, in the province of 
 Oran, and the Jurjura, S.E. of Algiers ; both of which are 
 capped with snow in winter, the chain of the lesser Atlas, 
 which terminates W. of Bona, being the extreme slope of 
 the last longitudinal terrace of the N. Atlas. A few peaks of 
 the greater Atlas rise between 9000 and 10,000 ft, whereas 
 the highest peak in the lesser Atlas, Mount Gugerat, is only 
 6800 ft. Several low plains lie between the lesser Atlas and 
 the coast, the longest being that of Blida, or Metidjah, S. of 
 Algiers ; it is nearly 44 m. long and 16 broad, and rises towards 
 the Atlas range from a sandy flat covered with grass and brush 
 wood, to the beautiful green slopes of the mountains diversified 
 by meadows, fields, and woods, closely resembling the scenery 
 of Europe. S. W. of Oran is a sandy plain, which becomes a 
 kind of salt marsh in winter. In the S. province are some 
 rich level tracts, watered by the Hainma, or llamsa. The 
 coast line, which is about 600 m. in length, consists nearly 
 of an uninterrupted succession of cliffs. 
 
 Itivers, Lakes, Marshes. None of the rivers of Algeria, 
 most of which flow into the Mediterranean, are navigable for 
 any great distance above their embouchure. The country is 
 everywhere intersected by water courses, which, although dry 
 fora part of the year, bring down, during the rains, a quantity 
 of water, which floods and fertilizes the plains. These streams 
 are divided by the Atlas range into those which flow N. to 
 the Mediterranean, and those that run S., and are lost in 
 the lakes, swamps, or sands of the Sahara. One of the prin 
 cipal rivers is the Shellif, which rises on the S. of the Jebel 
 Wanashrees, from a number of sources, called The 70 foun 
 tains, and, flowing first E. and then N., in the course of which 
 it forms the lake and swamp of Titterie, falls into the Medi 
 terranean 80 m. N.E. Oran. Another considerable stream 
 is the Aduse, which receives during its course various other 
 appellations, passes N.E. along the S. base of the Jebel Jur 
 jura, and, after being joined by a pretty large affluent, called 
 the Ajebby, about 15 m. from the sea, falls into the latter a 
 little to the E. of Cape Carbon. The other streams worth 
 naming, that fall ii.to the Mediterranean, are the Seibus, the 
 
ALGERIA 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 Kibir, the Isser, and the "Wedjer. There are, besides, vari 
 ous small rivers that discharge their waters into the swamp 
 of Al-Shott ; and the large united streams of the Adjedi and 
 the Abiad are lost in the salt marsh of Melgig. 
 
 Geological Features. The primary formations, which are 
 found chiefly on the ranges of Mount Atlas, comprise gneiss, 
 and micaceous schist, with smaller patches of granite. The 
 secondary rocks consist of lias and calcareous beds, containing 
 few organic remains ; and those of the tertiary period are 
 chieflyi>f a yellow gray limestone, or sand, and tertiary clay, 
 enclosing beds of gypsum, iron, and salt. It had long been 
 supposed that Algeria had no volcanic rocks ; but travertine is 
 found at Oran ; and at Calle, as well as elsewhere, are distinct 
 traces of ancient volcanoes. As regards mineral products, 
 iron is most abundant, especially in the province of Oran. 
 Copper is found also in considerable quantities ; and there are 
 rich lead mines in the Jebel Wanashrees, and near Mascara, 
 which are said to yield 80 per cent, of pure metal. Cinna 
 bar, also, is wrought in small quantities ; and there are exten 
 sive quarries of nitre, salt, talc, and potter s clay. Salt and 
 thermal springs are numerous. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Algeria, on the table lands of the 
 lesser Atlas, is salubrious and temperate, being unhealthy only 
 near the marshy plains, or on the coasts at the outlets of flooded 
 valleys. The average annual temperature may be stated at 
 50 or 60 Fah. ; but, during the hot season, it frequently rises 
 to 100 ; and during the cool season, it falls as low as 36. 
 The barometer varies but little amidst all the changes of 
 the weather ; and the annual average fall of rain at Algiers 
 may amount to 28 inches. The prevailing winds are N., 
 varying from due N. to N.E. and N.W., which materially 
 temper the character of the climate. At certain seasons, the 
 khamsin, or hot wind of the Sahara, blows for a few days in 
 succession, considerably increasing the temperature, and even 
 blighting vegetation. It also injures the human constitution, 
 the dust with which it is charged producing ophthalmia. 
 The Tell of Algeria, however, is greatly sheltered by the ele 
 vated ridge of the greater Atlas ; and even the sandy Sahara con 
 tains many verdant spots, refreshed by the winter rains, and 
 well protected from the scorching blast of the desert. The 
 mild season begins in March and ends in June; the heats 
 lasting from July to November, and the rains from December 
 to February. At the base of the Atlas chain, the trees are 
 evergreen, except in December ; and, by February, vegetation 
 is in full vigour, the harvest being ripe in May. 
 
 Vegetable Productions and Cultivation. When duly irri 
 gated, the soil of Algeria is as fertile as in the S. territories 
 of Europe. Many of the hills are clothed with wood to the 
 summit, the forests forming, indeed, a chief portion of the 
 natural wealth of the country. Down to the year 1841, the 
 French authorities were but imperfectly aware of their extent 
 or value ; since which, nearly 200,000 square acres have been 
 appropriated for the benefit of the state, besides what had 
 been previously ascertained and turned to account ; and, in 
 1845, a head inspector, and 67 officers, were employed in the 
 Algerian woods. The custom of firing undergrowth, in order 
 to enrich the pasture grounds, has denuded many hitherto 
 thickly-wooded tracts of their finest timber. The fig tree, of 
 which there are numerous varieties, is a native of the country, 
 and in some districts is cultivated to a great extent. The 
 pomegranates are abundant, and, when covered with its scarlet 
 flowers, is a most beautiful object. From the fruit of the 
 jujube tree, which is very common, an agreeable kind of cider 
 is made. The orange and lemon groves are very extensive, 
 and have a splendid appearance, particularly in April, when 
 they are covered with both flowers and fruit. The tree is 
 generally about 30 ft. in height. The carob, or locust tree, 
 is found wild on the hills ; its wood is considered imperish 
 able, and the fruit is sold in the shops. Cherry trees are 
 also met with in the wild state. The date palm is cultivated 
 in the interior of the country only. The black mulberry, 
 and wild olive trees, are the largest in the country, and tl" e 
 latter is amongst the most common, especially in the vicinity 
 of Algiers. Vines are grown in several places, from tl e 
 produce of which good wines are made ; but the culture of 
 the grape is not extending, the French colonists being un 
 willing to run the risk of planting, as the vine does not yield 
 fruit for three years. The principal cereal crops are barley 
 and red wheat; the former cut in May, and the latter in June. 
 
 A little rye is also cultivated by the French colonists. In 
 reaping the corn, the ear only is cut off, the straw being left 
 for the cattle. There is no preparatory tillage of the ground 
 before sowing ; the grain is thrown on the ground and ploughed 
 in by a very simple plough, drawn by oxen or horses, and 
 sometimes by a horse and a cow yoked together. The furrows 
 run in all directions, and, by their frequently crossing one 
 another, leave sometimes small triangular spaces unploughed. 
 j The sugar cane has been tried, but without success, owing to 
 j the winter frost. With indigo and cochineal the result has 
 been more favourable. Tobacco has been tried, and with 
 such success as to lead to the hope that it may become a 
 staple article of produce. But one of the most useful veget 
 able productions of the country is the dwarf palm, which 
 covers large districts. Its leaves are made into baskets, 
 cords, fans, sacks, sleeping mats, &c., and the tender foot 
 stalks of the leaves, and the young flowers, form a principal 
 article of food for the Arabs. The culinary vegetables com 
 prise pease, beans, potatoes, artichokes, onions, carrots, lettuce, 
 gourds, cucumbers, parsley, basilic, sweet savory, chervil, 
 fennel, mint, marjoram, &c., all of which are in great demand. 
 The flora of Algeria is nearly identical with that of the S. of 
 Spain, and of Andalusia in particular. (Hag. of Nat. Hist., 
 No. 24.) The French Government has done much to improve 
 the agriculture of the country, and early established a model 
 garden, orchard, and nursery, at Algiers, which has now 
 several dependent establishments in other parts. 
 
 Zoology, Besides the animals common to the opposite S. 
 regions of Europe, the lion, leopard, jackal], and hyena, are 
 occasionally seen in the fastnesses of the upper Atlas. There 
 are also antelopes, jerboas, c., and a few monkeys ; and near 
 the Sahara, vultures and ostriches are met with. There are 
 some chameleons, and a few scorpions and serpents, but most 
 of the latter are harmless. Locusts occasionally visit the 
 country, and are sometimes destructive to the harvests. The 
 coasts abound with fish, including fine tunny. 
 
 Native Population. The indigenous population comprises 
 Kabylcs, Moors, Arabs, Turks, Koloughs, and Jews. The 
 Kabylcs (called also Berbers] form nearly a half of the whole ; 
 they inhabit the mountains lying towards the desert of Sahara, 
 where they live in small villages. They are athletic, well 
 formed, and possessed of great powers of endurance; but they 
 are mostly robbers, cruel and faithless, yet practising hospi 
 tality. Although ostensibly shepherds, they occupy themselves 
 much in hunting, in which they exhibit much boldness and 
 dexterity. The mountain shepherds dwell in caves, like the 
 ancient Troglodytes. The Berbers, however, are the most 
 ancient inhabitants of N. Africa. The Moors are a bastard 
 race, formed by the intermixture of various races ; the majority 
 of their ancestors being invaders, or immigrants from Morocco 
 or other regions of the W. Indeed, men even of Arab blood 
 are sometimes called Moors, if dwelling in towns; whilst 
 pure Arabs, on the other hand, who live in tents, are called 
 Bedouins. The latter are tall and muscular, with spirited, 
 handsome countenances, large piercing black eyes, aquiline 
 noses, regular white teeth, full strong beards, and black hair. 
 The complexion of the people northward is light brown ; 
 darkening southward, till at last it is black, though without 
 the negro physiognomy, which first shows itself in Soodan. 
 The Arabs are a more or less nomadic race, dwelling in tents, 
 in bodies of from 10 or 12, to 100 families; every family 
 under a sheikh, who is at once priest, legislator, and judge. 
 They constantly war, and in the most savage manner, either 
 with the Berbers, each other, or the French, that being their 
 regular business, and most of their income plunder. They 
 universally hate Christians, but are not less dissembling than 
 the Moors and Berbers, their hospitality being never avail 
 able to Christians, except within their little encampments. 
 The Arabs are originally Asiatics, and have preserved their 
 distinctive habits for perhaps 30 centuribs; but it is probable 
 that, at one period, they have greatly intermixed with the 
 Berbers. The Turks, during three centuries masters in the 
 land, have dwindled to a handful since the French conquest. 
 The Koloughs, or children of soldiers, are a mixed race, from 
 Turkish men and Moorish women. There are likewise many 
 Jews, especially in Algiers and Oran; and carrying on a con 
 siderable foreign trade. Although treated with contempt by 
 the Moslems previous to the French occupation, without 
 protection for property or even life, and obliged to live in a 
 
ALGERIA. 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 separate quarter, apart from the other inhabitants, they were 
 the organs of nearly all the business of the country. Their 
 treatment by the French, however, has been much ameliorated, 
 And their habits and creed are held in respect. The nature 
 of the religion of the Kabyles is nearly unknown; but 
 Islamism is the creed of all the other native races, except the 
 Jews. The general language of the country is Arabic, 
 adulterated by foreign words, and others from the Berber or 
 Kabyle dialect. 
 
 Population. The total indigenous population of Algeria is 
 estimated by some at about 2,000,000, and by others at double 
 that amount ; but the exact number cannot yet be satisfactorily 
 ascertained. The progress of the increase of the European 
 population, as will be seen from the following figures, has 
 been rapid: 
 
 In 1810 28,736 
 
 1841 35,870 
 
 1843 46,100 
 
 1843 58,985 
 
 In 1814 75,420 
 
 1845 98,190 
 
 1847 103,893 
 
 1849 ii2,r,o; 
 
 
 
 5420 
 440 
 600 
 400 
 
 The native town population, in 1849, amounted to 84,133. 
 
 Religion and Education. In 1845, there were 12,000 
 E. catholics in Algeria, having 24 churches, and 23 chapels; 
 with a bishop, and 55 priests, performing religious duty not 
 only in churches and chapels, but also in the hospitals and 
 prisons. The Protestants, also, have consistories at Algiers 
 and Oran. The Moslem and Jewish town population amount 
 to about 82,000. In 1845, the French Government disbursed 
 for public worship as follows : 
 
 Francs 
 
 Roman Catholics 135,500 
 
 Protestants (five pastors) 11,000 
 
 Moslems (six muftis and seven imuns) ... 15,000 
 
 Jews (six rabbis) 10,000 
 
 Total state stipends for four ministries ) m 500 JT^J 
 
 of worship, ) 
 
 The public education is nnder an inspector, appointed by the 
 French Minister. A college at Algiers has 1 5 professors, who 
 give instruction in Arabic and French, as well as mathemat 
 ical and practical science, to about 150 students. Oran, 
 Bona, Philippeville, and Bougia, have also their respective 
 schools, attended by about 1600 pupils, of whom three-fourths 
 are European, and one-sixth Jews; and in all the leading 
 towns are communal and primary schools. The ignorance of 
 the natives, however, is deplorable; and hitherto, owing 
 partly to indolence, partly to religious prejudice, they have 
 rejected all attempts at their mental improvement. Algiers 
 has likewise a theological seminary, and a college for Arabs of 
 high rank. Nuns, also, of several orders, have formed schools 
 for the natives in various districts. 
 
 Trade, Manufactures, &c. The trade of Algeria continued 
 for many years in a very backward state, the imports being 
 very materially in excess of the exports. Though the 
 balance is still greatly to the side of imports, yet rapid 
 approaches are making towards an equilibrium, as will be 
 seen from the following returns: 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 1840 2,200, 1 :>0 151,570 
 
 1844 8,201,770 321,550 
 
 1853 2,911,520 1,231,30.1 
 
 The exports of 1853 exceeded those of 1852 by 369,122, a 
 sum greater than the amount of the total exports in 1844. 
 
 Tobacco, grown in the country, is an important article of 
 export; and in 1853 there were, in the provinces of Algiers, 
 Constantina, and Oran, 3277 plantations of this vegetable. The 
 produce of this article in 1855 was estimated at 9,086,000 
 Ibs.; in the first half of that same year, 6,464,037 Ibs. were 
 exported to Marseilles alone. The Algerian tobacco excels 
 that of Egypt, Macedonia, and Greece, and approaches in 
 flavour that of Hungary and Maryland. 
 
 The produce of silk has likewise increased greatly. In 
 the province of Algiers, in 1850, there were only 89 cultiva 
 tors of the silk- worm; but, in 1853, they had increased to 
 335, producing a total of 31,000 Ibs. cocoons of excellent 
 quality. Algerian madder, also, is much esteemed, being 
 reckoned equal to that produced in Cyprus. 
 
 The cultivation of cotton, long only attempted in limited 
 experiments, increased tenfold in 1853, and promises impor 
 tant results; and the dwarf palm (Cliamcerops humilis), once 
 almost a scourge to the agriculturists, is now likely to become 
 
 a most important vegetable product, in consequence of recent 
 researches having shown its fibre to be suited for various 
 economical purposes. 
 
 The exports of wool, a staple Algerian product, rose from 
 7,137,750 Ibs. in 1852, to 9,579,878 Ibs. in 1853. In the 
 same year, argentiferous lead, to the value of 82,714, was 
 exported, and the produce of the white marble quarries in 
 creased considerably. The coral fisheries employ 156 vessels, 
 obtaining, on the average, 506 Ibs. coral each value about 
 23s. per Ib. 
 
 The principal imports are cotton, woollen, and silk goods, 
 and refined sugar. A ready sale is always found among the 
 natives for calicoes of all descriptions, ordinary manufactured 
 stuffs, common cloths, muslins, turbans, silken and woollen 
 girdles, cotton thread, coral for chaplets and necklaces, anti 
 mony for dyeing the eyebrows, English dyewoods, spices, 
 spectacles, hardware goods, arms, carbines, tea, mirrors, glass 
 ware (including beads and rings), and Spanish piastres, the 
 latter exchangeable in the Soodan for their weight in gold. 
 The manufactures of Algeria are exceedingly backward, owing 
 alike to the indolence and ignorance of the natives. The Jews 
 take the higher branches of handicraft, as jewellery, watch 
 making, tailoring, &c.; the Arabs are employed principally 
 as carpenters and tanners ; the negroes as masons, bricklayers, 
 &c.; and the Kabyles manufacture gunpowder, and work in 
 the iron, lead, and copper mines. The chief manufactures 
 comprise linen, woollen, and silk fabrics; saddlery, carpets, 
 firearms, hardware goods, coarse pottery, and gunpowder. 
 
 Means of Communication. The roads, previous to the 
 conquest, were exceedingly defective ; indeed, there was not a 
 regularly formed road in the whole territory. It appeared, 
 however, by the documents accompanying the French gen 
 eral budget of 1845, that the Government engineers had com 
 pleted, up to the close of the 15th year of occupation, 4500 m. 
 of substantial roadway; much of which was effected by the 
 enforced labour of soldiers under penalty for infractions of 
 law and discipline. Since the above date, many new lines 
 have been formed, with armed posts, in outlying districts, at 
 medium intervals of 50 miles. 
 
 Government. Algeria, which is divided into the three 
 provinces of Algiers, Oran, and Constantina, was, before 
 1830, under a Turkish dey, or pasha, of absolute authority, 
 elected by, and ruling over the army ; but it is now under tlie 
 supreme power of a go vernor-general, appointed by the French 
 Government; and under him are a secretary and intendant, the 
 latter of whom is termed the director of Arabian affairs. The 
 governor occupies also the post of commander-in-chief. There 
 is likewise a council of management, composed of three mem 
 bers, the director of the interior, the naval commandant, mili 
 tary intendant, attorney-general, and director of finances, nom 
 inated by the Government, who advise upon and confirm the 
 acts of the governor general. There is also a council (conseil 
 des contentieux), formed of a president and four other mem 
 bers, who take cognizance of minor criminal and civil offences. 
 All the civil provinces, besides, have their mayors, justices 
 of peace, and commissaries of police. In Algiers, also, there 
 is a tribunal of commerce. The pecuniary cost to France of 
 Algeria as a dependency has been very diversely estimated. 
 By a reference to the French budgets for recent years we 
 find a total avowed average expenditure, on account of this 
 important possession, of fully 1,200,000 annually. In 
 1853, the sum allocated for public works (civil) alone was 
 242,800, being an augmentation in that item for the pre 
 vious year of about 24,000. On the other hand, while the 
 value of Algerian produce exported to France in 1852 was 
 but 200,000, in 1853 it amounted in value to 640,000 
 an increase of 206 per cent. Much of the money spent in 
 the country is necessarily placed at the disposition of the 
 military authorities, the army of occupation being so numer 
 ous, and is entered, under various heads, in the special budget 
 of the French war department. 
 
 Military Force. Under the Turks the dey maintained a 
 force of 10,000 infantry and 6000 cavalry, which latter con 
 sisted chiefly of Arabs and Kabyles. The military force 
 kept up by the French comprises about 70,000 men, one- 
 tenth of whom are natives; and the principal military posts 
 are at Algiers, Bona, Calla, Guelma, Misserghin, and Mas- 
 agram ; besides which, there are garrisons of French troops, 
 to overawe the natives, in all the larger towns. 
 
ALGERIA 
 
 85 
 
 History. The country now called Algeria, says the Chev 
 alier de Tapies, in his excellent work, Statistique Morale de 
 la France, ctde VAngleterre, after having reached an extraor 
 dinary degree of prosperity and greatness under the Carthagin 
 ians for 700 years, and again under the Romans for 600, fell 
 afterwards into the power of the Vandals, and after these came 
 the Arabs. These last, newly converted to Mahometanisiii, 
 and commanded by skilful leaders, had formed, in 1068, a vast 
 empire, which, in the sequel, was broken up into petty mon 
 archies ; and then the province of Algiers made part of the 
 kingdom of Telesmsan, or Tlemsen. 
 
 In after days, the brothers Moudji and Kain-ed-din, noted 
 corsairs, who were the terror of mariners, aided by a band of 
 Turkish pirates, established themselves as sovereign masters 
 of the city of Algiers; and, from that time (A.D. 1506), it 
 became the seat of Barbary piracy, and so continued for more 
 than three centuries, to the disgrace of all Christian nations. 
 
 The Turkish military at no time exceeded a total of from 
 13,000 to 18,000, in the region of Algiers; at all times they 
 dwelt apart, as an alien caste, disdaining to intermarry among 
 the people of the country. This collective body chose a 
 pasha, who, in his turn, appointed six subordinates, called 
 beys, who administered the affairs of the provinces in his 
 name. All natives were excluded from superior military, 
 political, and administrative functions. Finally, an auxiliary 
 corps of Arabian cavalry, about 6000 strong, completed this 
 system of armed compression, organized by the successors of 
 the pirate brothers. 
 
 In the city of Algiers alone, in the year 1576, it was ascer 
 tained that there were 25,000 Christian slaves held in rigorous 
 bondage. Several powers of Christendom had in vain endea 
 voured to extirpate these pirates ; for no sooner were the 
 hostile squadrons sent to chastise them drawn off, than they 
 recommenced their depredations. Finding it in vain to 
 attempt to subdue them by force of arms, the Christian powers 
 gradually adopted the less troublesome expedient of paying 
 a regular tribute to the pasha (now called dey) of Algiers, 
 to euable their subjects to traverse the European seas in 
 peace. 
 
 Matters remained in this state till 1655, when Admiral 
 Blake, by a well-administered castigation, taught the Algerines, 
 for the first time, to entertain a due respect for the British 
 flag; and he was followed about half a century later, by 
 Admiral Matthews, who compelled them to submit to humil 
 iating terms, and to pay a heavy fine. These people, however, 
 continued to a much later period to be the terror of the Dutch, 
 Danes, Swedes, Italians, and even Russians, hundreds of 
 whose sailors these pirates captured, and sold into slavery. 
 In 1815, the Americans captured an Algerine frigate, and 
 compelled the dey to renounce all exactions, and to pay an 
 indemnity of $60,000. But to Lord Exmouth, arid the British 
 fleet, was reserved the honour of effecting the entire abolition 
 of Christian slavery in the Barbary states. This was accom 
 plished, July 26, 1816, by bombarding the town and port of 
 Algiers, with 1 3 English and six Dutch ships, when the fleet and 
 arsenal of the Algerines was utterly annihilated, and the libera 
 tion of 1008 captives effected, together with the repayment of 
 ransom to Sicily and Sardinia, amounting to $383,500. Besides 
 this, the dey was compelled to sign a treaty, by which the practice 
 of enslaving Christians was abolished. Eleven years after 
 this period, an insult offered by Hussein Pasha, the last dey, 
 to the French consul, whom he struck in a moment of irrita 
 tion, induced the Government of France to send an expedition 
 against Algiers. This armament consisted of 102 vessels of 
 war, great and small, with 500 transports, in which were em 
 barked 34, 184 soldiers. The vessels contained a vast amount 
 of niateriel, and abundance of stores for the troops, and fodder 
 for their horses. General Bourmont was chosen to command 
 the army, Admiral Duperre the fleet, Capt. Hugon the convoy. 
 All set sail from Toulon, May 25, 1830; they shortly after 
 touched at Palma, in Majorca, where they remained a few 
 days, and arrived, June 13, on the coasts of the Algerian terri 
 tory. On the 14th, the troops landed at Sidi-Feruch, 15 m. 
 W. from the city of Algiers. After some fighting, in which 
 the French had always the advantage, Algiers opened its 
 gates, July 13, when the dey gave up his city, government, 
 and treasure ; the latter estimated at 48,000,000 francs, nearly 
 2,000,000 sterling exclusive, it may be added, of what was 
 taken away privately, or hidden from the French. 
 
 The following statement of the spoil taken from the Alger 
 ines at the conquest, is from the Statistiqiie Frangaise Uni- 
 verselle : 
 
 Francs. 
 
 In coined money and precious metals 48,084,527 or 1,947,400 
 
 Other stored public property, including wool 3,000,000 120,1100 
 
 Brass cannon, artillery, &c 4,000,000 160,000 
 
 55,684,527 or 2,227,400 
 
 The war expenses of the invasion, to January 1831, had 
 amounted to 25,000,000 francs (995,000), not including those 
 of the co-operative marine force, which amounted to about 
 23,000,000 francs (919,000), making a total outlay of about 
 48,000,000 francs, or 1,914,000. A few years after the 
 nominal conquest of Algeria for it was little else, in reality, 
 for many years subsequent to that event a formidable enemy 
 to the French arose in the person of Abd-el-Kader, the Bey 
 of Mascara; who, placing himself at the head of all the refrac 
 tory Arabs in the W. parts of the country, kept the French 
 at bay for upwards of 14 years now defeating them, and now 
 himself discomfited but still keeping the field, and appearing 
 after each defeat but the more vigorous for the reverse. In 
 1845, and during this protracted warfare between Abd-el- 
 Kadcr and the French, the latter barbarously destroyed 500 
 or 600 Moors, by suffocating them with smoke in the cavern 
 of Dahra, in which they had taken refuge. In retaliation of 
 this dreadful atrocity, Abd-el-Kader, in the following year, 
 put to death 300 French prisoners. Latterly, the war in 
 Algeria had been carried on by the French against the person 
 of Abd-el-Kader alone, who now resided entirely in the moun 
 tainous tracts of Morocco. Here, hemmed in by the French, 
 and by the forces of the Emperor of Morocco, who was in the 
 French interest, and exhausted by numerous reverses, Abd- 
 el-Kader at length surrendered (Dec. 22, 1847) to the French 
 General, Lamoriciere, and thus terminated the war, leaving 
 the conquerors in quiet possession of their conquest, and at 
 full liberty and leisure to follow out those plans for the civil 
 ization and general improvement of the country, which they 
 seem to have earnestly entertained. One important proceeding 
 in this direction is manifested in the form of geographical in 
 quiry, in which they have been at once extremely zealous and 
 successful. Through the exertions and ability of the French 
 engineers, we are every day becoming better and better 
 acquainted with Algeria a territory of which comparatively 
 little was known before. Since their acquisition of this coun 
 try, the French have published a map of it, remarkable for its 
 accuracy ; they have also surveyed the Bays of Algiers and 
 Bona, and the entire coast line from the former to Cape Spartel, 
 a distance of about 500 m. Other maps are now in progress, 
 based on a triangulation made by French officers, so that there 
 can be little doubt that our geographical knowledge of this 
 portion of Africa will soon be very complete, and greatly sur 
 passing that of any other part of that continent Hitherto, 
 the investigations of the French have been, for the most part, 
 limited to the territory of Algeria, and to the more northern 
 parts of the Sahara ; but it is probable that the latter will 
 ultimately attract a large share of their attention, and lead to 
 disclosures regarding that unknown region of great interest 
 and importance. (Hist. Pittor. de VAfriqiie Franqaise, pp. 
 143-195; Voyages Nouveaux en Afrique, vol. ii. pp. 131-160; 
 Quetin, Guide du Voyageur en Algtrie, passim, &c.) 
 
 ALGEZARES, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 4 m. S. from 
 Murcia, on the side of a ridge 6 m. S.W. Mount Cabeso 
 Gordo; tolerably built, and having a parish church, chapel, 
 and endowed school. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged 
 in agriculture, and raise grain, fruits, and vegetables, which 
 they export to Gibraltar. Pop., including the hamlets of 
 Garres and Sages, added in 1836 to this town, 2117. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 ALGEZIRAH, or EL-JEZIKEH, a district, Asiatic Turkey, 
 comprehending the N.W. and greater portion of the ancient 
 Mesopotamia the country between the rivers, with which 
 the modern appellation nearly corresponds in meaning. This 
 district is slightly elevated above the sea, traversed by chains 
 of hills, well watered and fertile, and possesses mines of pre 
 cious metals. 
 
 ALGEZUR, or ALJEZUR, a small tn. Portugal, W. coast, 
 prov. Algarve, at the mouth of the small river of same name, 
 23 m. N.N.E. Cape St. Vincent. It has a church, and an 
 ancient castle, represented in the arms of Portugal. Pop. 1735. 
 
ALGHA 
 
 ALGIERS 
 
 ALGHA, or ATOHA, one of the Aleutian Islands, nearly 
 in the centre of that chain; lat. 51 U 30 N.; Ion. 174 W. 
 
 ALGHEKO, or ALOHEKI, a tn. and seaport on the W. side 
 of the isl. of Sardinia, gov. of, and 15 in. S.S.W. from Sassari ; 
 lat. (cathedral) 40 33 30 " N. ; lou. 8 J 1 J 15" E. (ic.) It is well 
 fortified, especially towards the sea, but is commanded by 
 two eminences in the vicinity. The port is insignificant, and 
 capable of admitting very small craft only ; but, at the dis 
 tance of 7 m. is Porto Conte, the best, safest, and most com 
 modious harbour in the island. The town is the seat of a 
 bishop, suffragan to the Archbishop of Sassari, and possesses 
 a handsome cathedral, several convents, and a college. The 
 air is salubrious, and the neighbouring lands fertile. In 
 1804, the cultivation of indigo was introduced with tolerable 
 success. Alghero has a considerable trade in grain, wine, 
 oil, grapes, skins, butter, cheese, tobacco, and coral. The 
 town is supposed to have been founded by a colony of Bar- 
 celonians. Pop. 7000. 
 
 ALGIERS [Arabic, Al-Djezair The islands], a seaport 
 and city, N.W. Africa, on the W. side of a bay of the same 
 name, on the Mediterran 
 ean Sea; lat. 30 47 18" 
 N.;lon.34 30"E. (R.) It 
 was once the capital of the 
 regency or pashalic of the 
 same name, long nomin 
 ally dependent on tho 
 Ottoman empire ; but, 
 since 1831, has been the 
 capital of the French 
 colonial pro vinceof Alge 
 ria. It is built on the N. 
 slope of Mount Boujarin, 
 which rises about 500 ft. 
 above the bay ; and tho 
 houses are arranged am 
 phitheatre-wise, termin 
 ating in the esplanade, 
 on which stands the 
 Kasbali, or old citadel. 
 It is wholly enclosed by 
 an embattled wall, 12 ft. 
 thick and 30 ft. high, 
 
 ALGIERS, THE GRAND MOSQUE. From Excursions DajruerrlenuL- 
 
 bids fair to have its character wholly changed, and to bo one 
 of the handsomest cities on the Mediterranean. The houses, 
 whether of stone or brick, are annually whitewashed ; and 
 in consequence of the earthquakes, they are seldom built of 
 more than one story above the basement, each tenement being 
 flat roofed, and provided with a tank at the top, to catch the 
 rain water ; besides which, Algiers has numerous fountains, 
 supplying an abundance of water from the aqueducts and 
 reservoirs above the town. Among the public buildings and 
 establishments, are 10 large mosques, a handsome cathedral, 
 several R. catholic churches, a Protestant chapel, and some 
 Jewish synagogues, six colleges, and some convents used as . 
 girls schools, a Government house, exchange, bank, four courts 
 of justice, a bishop s palace, public library, and museum, 
 observatory, several hospitals, and most extensive barracks 
 for cavalry and infantry ; and Algiers is the residence of the 
 governor-general, and all the leading officers in the Algerian 
 colony. There are likewise several handsome hotels, bazaars, 
 and shops ; and, on the whole, the European portion is highly 
 creditable to its new possessors. Indeed, Sir Grenvillu 
 Temple s description is 
 true, as well as striking : 
 Algiers is daily as 
 suming a more European 
 aspect hats are nearly 
 as often seen as turbans, 
 cigars have replaced the 
 long pipes, and the 
 Moorish bazaars give 
 way to the glazed win 
 dows of French shops. 
 Upwards of fifty mer 
 chants have established 
 counting houses ; and 
 numerous mechanics and 
 tradesmen, including, of 
 course, a full proportion 
 of tailors, modistes, and 
 perruquiers, are thickly 
 scattered about. Eleven 
 grand cafes, with billiard 
 tables ; four [now nine] 
 
 the strength of which 
 
 and casemated batteries; and it is entered by five gates 
 two of which are seaward, two landward, and one leading 
 to the citadel. The external aspect of the city is exceed 
 ingly imposing, owing not only to its form and position, 
 but also to the dazzling whiteness of its houses, which are 
 visible at a great distance. The streets are mostly narrow, 
 
 grand hotels ; several 
 
 astly increased by four castles, | restaurateurs; 100 eating houses; several cabinets litteraires; a 
 circus, cosmorama, &c., have been established ; and omnibuses 
 and cabriolets fly through the town, and run to and from the 
 suburbs. [The Guide en Algerie, 1847, states that there are 
 170 omnibuses and cabriolets, exclusive of the voitures sous 
 remise.] The Kasbah is a little town itself, containing, with 
 several other houses and gardens, the late dey s palace, which, 
 however, has suffered much from the French soldiery, who, 
 011 first occupying it, pulled up the pavement, tore down the 
 glazed tile coating of the rooms, and otherwise committed 
 great injury in their eager search after treasure. The marble 
 flooring ; the arched galleries, supported by graceful marble 
 pillars, which surrounded the open courts ; the elegant fountains, 
 which scattered coolness around ; and the latticed shahne-sheens, 
 still, however, remain to repay the fatigue and trouble of the 
 visitor s ascent. The corps de garde, with the gate and the 
 sycamores, banana trees, and vines surrounding it, together 
 with the mixture of French uniforms and Moorish costumes, 
 formed altogether a beautiful little picture ; as also did a wine 
 shop, shaded by a vine-covered pergola, under which were 
 seated groups of soldiers. Civilization, likewise, is rapidly 
 extending ; wide streets, lined with pretty houses and villas, 
 are gradually stretching into the surrounding country ; good 
 roads have been constructed in various directions, and rail 
 ways are now in operation, or in course of construction. 
 The Moslem, or upper part of the town, however, has still 
 its narrow, dark streets, with square-shaped, heavy -looking 
 houses, betraying few signs of internal animation ; while the 
 lower town near the water, abounds with dark alleys, and cul- 
 de-sacs fit receptacles of filth, disease, profligacy, and crime ; 
 tortuous, and extremely dirty, as in all Moorish towns ; but > nor, perhaps, will they ever be removed, except by a conflag 
 
 A STREET IN ALGIERS. 
 
 there have been recently constructed, to connect the principal 
 
 quarters of the town, three long thoroughfares, which are 
 
 tolerably wide, and comprise the principal bazaars and 
 
 markets. These improvements are constantly progressive ; ! by 140 in width, extending from the mainland to an islet, on 
 
 arid Algiers, which has already three well built, open squares; which aie a strong castle with batteries, and a lighthouse, 
 
 ration even more extensive than that which occurred in 1840. 
 The harbour of Algiers is a work of immense labour, first 
 formed by Barbarossa in 1530, having a mole 580 ft. in length 
 
ALGIERS 
 
 <S7 
 
 ALGONQUINS 
 
 exhibiting a revolving light. The Lay offers no safe anchor 
 age against the severe weather of winter ; for nowhere ca 
 shelter be found from the N. winds ; indeed, at the mouth 
 of the port, and even inside of it, ships have been severely 
 damaged by the heavy surf and rollers, which have there the 
 violence of a tempest. The extensive jetty, or breakwater, 
 however, which is to be 2400 ft. long, and was commenced 
 in 1836, has already produced a sensible alteration for the 
 better; and, when finished, ships may lie in perfect safety 
 inside, or at the end of the mole. There is anchorage, in fii 
 weather, about 1 m. from the shore, in about 20 fathoms ; and 
 also, during E. and N.E. winds, on the N.E. side of the bay- 
 in about 1 1 fathoms. (See Norie and Hobbs s Sailing Direc 
 tions fur the Mediterranean Sea, p. 81 
 
 The commerce of Algiers, which was wholly insignificant 
 in the time of the regency, has risen to great importance ; 
 and it has become the entrepot of four-fifths of the trade with 
 France and other European countries, as well as with Blidah, 
 Milianah, and other towns of the province. For the imports 
 and exports of the port, which are included in those of the 
 government, see ALGERIA. The city comprises, according to 
 the recent account of Quetin, 2065 licensed traders (mardiands 
 patentes), about 300 of whom are bankers and merchants, 
 having well-organized establishments, and doing an extensive 
 business both with the interior and foreign countries. There 
 are also about 50 official brokers, who divide among them the 
 functions of money changers, shipbrokers, and sworn inter 
 preters. A discount banking company, and insurance company 
 also, have recently been established ; and, on the whole, the 
 town and port displays an amount of activity that may soon 
 place it almost on a level with the commercial ports of France 
 and Spain. A chamber and tribunal of commerce, formed of 
 of 11 members, hold audiences likewise thrice every week, to 
 settle commercial disputes, and regulate the proceedings of 
 trade. As respects steam navigation, it is strictly regulated 
 by law ; and certain boats are chartered and provided by the 
 Government, for the free conveyance of French emigrants and 
 soldiers to the colony. These vessels leave Toulon and 
 Marseilles three times each month, and the passage is per 
 formed in 48 or 50 hours. Steamers, also, frequently run 
 between Algiers, Bona, Oran, Buugia, and Philippeville. 
 
 The trade carried on by the natives would be quite insig 
 nificant but for their connection with the French. The 
 Jews, however, are pretty actively concerned in retail trade, 
 and carry on some of the higher branches of handicraft. The 
 native manufactures are inconsiderable, comprising a few 
 silken and woollen stuffs, hai cks, burnouses, fez-caps, saddlery, 
 trinkets, &c. A pretty accurate notion of the condition and 
 character of the native traders, may be gained from the follow 
 ing short account of a visit to the bazaars of Algiers, by 
 Capt. Kennedy : One day was occupied in making the round 
 of the Moorish bazaars and shops, which are generally of the 
 meanest description, both inside and out. A few trifling 
 
 articles of gold and silver embroidery from Morocco, a dozen 
 or two of ornamented pipesticks, with otto of rose and jasmin, 
 red caps and inferior silk scarfs from Tunis, form the sum- 
 total of the ornamental wares of the native shopkeepers. 
 Some of the more wealthy are, however, beginning to imitate 
 their Christian rivals, and have fitted up their shops in a 
 transition style between French and Algerine, with their 
 most tempting articles exposed in the windows ; arid the shop 
 man, instead of apathetically smoking his pipe, seated cross- 
 legged on the counter, stands behind it, and shuffles slip-shod 
 about, recommending his wares to a stranger s notice, with as 
 much pertinacity as the smartest shopmen of London or Paris. 
 In the little back streets and narrow lanes, forming the upper 
 part of the city, the shops frequented by the lower orders are 
 merely square boxes inserted in the wall, with the side towards 
 the street wanting. 
 
 Most conflicting accounts are given of the climate and 
 healthiness of Algiers. The mean annual temperature of 
 Algiers, as of the rest of the littorale, averages about 68 Fall., 
 but rises to 98 during the siroccos. In a report, however, 
 by Dr. Boudin, read before the Acade"mie de Medicine, it 
 would appear that, in the French population of Algiers (all 
 adults in the prime of life), the average mortality amounts 
 annually to 1 in 27 5, whereas, in Paris generally, the deaths 
 amount only to 1 in 42, or 24 to every 1000 persons. Algiers, 
 too, is the healthiest of all the cities in the colony. 
 
 The latest returns (1846) state the population to amount to 
 94,600 persons ; of whom 45,000 are Europeans, and the rest 
 natives and Jews. 
 
 Algiers is thought to occupy the site of the ancient Icosium. 
 To its Roman occupants succeeded the Vandals, and to them 
 the Moslem Arab invaders of the 8th century ; the town itself 
 dating from the 10th century. In 1510, King Ferdinand 
 the catholic, the conqueror of the Moors in Spain, sent an 
 expedition to seize the island in front of Algiers, then held 
 by the Moors, and built a fort upon it. The Moors, thus 
 menaced, called to their aid the pirate Barbarossa ; who drove 
 out the Spaniards, but kept both fort and town, of which he 
 then became the lord and tyrant ; offering, at the same time, 
 for his security in this usurpation, to become tributary, with 
 his fellow-corsairs, to the Porte of Constantinople. The 
 locality thus secured in impunity, became an organized seat 
 of piracy, on such a scale as to be an object of terror to all 
 European nations ; which were either obliged to wage open war 
 with the Algerines, or else consent to become their tributaries. 
 As early as 1541, the Emperor Charles V. failed in the first 
 attempt against Algiers. In 1683-4, it was bombarded by 
 the French admiral Duquesne. In 1775, the Spaniards, under 
 O Reilly, were repulsed in an attack upon it. In 1815, the 
 Americans humbled the Algerines ; as did the British, under 
 Lord Exmouth, the year after. For details of this and more 
 
 ;nt portions of its history, see ALGERIA. 
 
 ALGOA BAY, S. Africa, 410 m. E. by N. Cape of 
 Good Hope, district Uitenhage. It is of great extent, but it 
 "s only in the W. and N.E. parts of the bay that ships may 
 anchor and find shelter. The points forming the entrance 
 to it are Cape Woody on the N.E., and Cape Recife on the 
 S.W.; the distance between them being 33J m. The centre 
 of the bay is in lat. 33 53 S.; Ion. 25 46 E. It is the only 
 jlace of resort where a distressed ship could find shelter from 
 ;he violent N.W. gales which prevail on the Agulhas Bank. 
 The common anchorage off the landing place is in 6 or 7 
 fathoms, sandy bottom, at the mouth of the Baakens river, 
 Port Elizabeth (which see). The usual landing place is on a 
 small beach close to the N. of the river just named, the mouth 
 of which is generally closed with a dry sandy bar. Water is 
 abundant. Bullocks and sheep, good and plentiful, and fish, 
 may be caught in great quantities. Oysters are also to be 
 
 at low water. 
 
 ALGODONALES, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. Cadiz, 
 14 m. N.W. Ronda, on a slope of the Ronda mountains, and 
 prettily built among gardens, having a fine church, two 
 endowed schools, several fine fountains, a consistory, and a 
 small prison. The people are engaged chiefly in tillage, but 
 also in grinding corn ; and the manufacture of linen, soap, oil, 
 and esparto wares ; they export oil and fruits ; and import 
 earing apparel and other requisites. Pop. 3340. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALGONQUINS, a nation of Canadian Indians, who, on 
 ;he first settlement of the Europeans, possessed an extensive 
 
ALGUADA 
 
 88 
 
 ALIA 
 
 domain along the N. bank of the St. Lawrence, about 300 m. 
 above Trois Rivieres. They were once a powerful tribe, and 
 are of mild aspect and gentle manners. They subsisted 
 entirely by hunting, considering the cultivation of the soil 
 beneath the dignity of man. They were attacked by the 
 Iroquois, and would have been eventually exterminated but 
 for the interposition of the French. The principal tribe of 
 the Algonquin nation at present is the Chippewas, who 
 chiefly reside on the Assiniboin, or Rainy Lake, and Prairie 
 de Portage. There is a R. catholic church in their territory, 
 but the exertions of the priests have hitherto had little effect 
 on their morals. They are in the general practice of polygamy, 
 and much given to the use of intoxicating liquors. Small 
 patches of land here and there are cultivated in an inefficient 
 way by their women, the men being occupied in fishing and 
 hunting. Like most of the other Indian tribes, the Algonquins 
 are rapidly disappearing, their number now not exceeding 600. 
 
 ALGUADA, or AGOADA POINT, on the coast of Malabar, 
 farming the N. extremity of Goa Bay; lat. 15 29 N.; 
 Ion. 73 50 E. It is a level headland" of moderate height, 
 with an old lighthouse on it, and a small fort ; but the prin 
 cipal fort is situated close to the sea, on the S.E. side of 
 the headland, where is a well of excellent water. The 
 common anchorage is abreast of the fort, in 4 or 4J 
 fathpms at low water. On a bluff headland, between 2 and 
 3 m. to the S.E. of Alguada, is a large, white monastery, 
 which forms an excellent landmark for vessels making for 
 Goa Bay. 
 
 AL-HADHR, an anc. city, Asiatic Turkey, prov. or 
 pash. Bagdad, 190 m. N.W. by N. the city of Bagdad, and 
 40 m. S.W. by S. Mosul; lat. 35 47 N. ; Ion. 42 35 E. 
 Al-Hadhr was the Hatra of the Romans, and seems to have 
 been deserted after their fall. Latterly, even its site was 
 unknown to any excepting the wandering Arabs who frequent 
 the surrounding deserts. In 1836 and 1837, the remains of 
 this city were visited by Mr. Ross, surgeon to the British 
 residency at Bagdad ; and, subsequently, by Mr. Ainsworth, 
 Mr. Rassam, and others. It seems to have formed nearly a 
 perfect circle, upwards of 3 m. in circumference, and is com 
 pletely surrounded by a strong wall, now in ruins, but still 
 exhibiting the remains of 32 square bastions, with portions 
 of the intervening curtains. It had, apparently, four gates; 
 but of these, the E. alone can be distinctly traced. Exactly 
 in the centre of the town are the remains of the principal 
 building, either a temple r.r a palace, which consisted of a 
 series of vaulted chambers or halls, of different sizes, all 
 opening to the E., and placed in regular succession from N. 
 to S. The whole was enclosed by a wall, with bastions like 
 those of the city wall, and forming a square 1 360 yards in 
 circuit ; the sides facing the city gates, and apparently con 
 nected with them by paved roads. To the E., a canal 
 intersects the city from N. to S. ; and the remainder of the 
 space, on all sides of the central edifice, is occupied by the 
 ruins of tombs and other buildings, now chiefly a heap of 
 long mounds and hillocks. Al-Hadhr is entirely built of a 
 coarse gray granular limestone abounding with marine shells, 
 and said to have been procured from the Sinjar hills. The 
 stones are well hewn and adjusted, but present no appearance j 
 of cement; and each is marked with a character, generally a ! 
 Chaldean letter or numeral. 
 
 ALHAMA, a city, Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 26 m. ! 
 S.W. from Granada; on a promontory of limestone, which i 
 forms an inclined plane from W. to E. The old town is bounded 
 S. and E. by a cleft in the rock, at the bottom of which runs 
 the stream Marchan, or de Alhama; and is inaccessible 
 except from the N. and W., on which side are the ruins of 
 an old wall and castle, entered by two gates called Granada 
 and Malaga. The new town stretches to the W. in continu 
 ation of the old ; and, with it, comprises two squares, and 
 numerous irregular and mostly steep streets, few of which 
 are paved ; a parish church, three conventual churches, town 
 and court houses, a large prison, three schools, a friendly 
 society, an hospital, a theatre, and the ruins of a Roman 
 aqueduct, which supplied the castle with water. The manu 
 facture of soap and earthenware, distilling brandy, manufac 
 turing oil, and weaving, employ the inhabitants ; who also 
 cultivate and export grain, fruits, and vegetables. Sheep, 
 goats, pigs, and a few mules, are reared in the vicinity ; and 
 game abounds. The name Alhama is derived from the 
 
 ancient mineral baths, about 1 m. from the town. The prin 
 cipal bath is a Moorish edifice, and is exactly as the Moslems 
 left it ; the smaller is circular, used by the poorer classes, 
 and probably a Roman erection. The waters, among other 
 chemical constituents, contain a large proportion of nitrogen 
 gas ; the existence of which was first ascertained by Dr. Dau- 
 beny, in 1843. They are esteemed useful incases of rheuma 
 tism, dyspepsy, and cutaneous affections ; and are resorted to 
 in the season by the inhabitants of the circumjacent towns. 
 The town was taken by the French on February 2, 1810; 
 when, in consequence of the resistance offered, a great many 
 of the inhabitants were put to death. Pop. 6284. (Madoz ; 
 Widdrington s Spain, &c.) 
 
 ALHAMBRA, a small river, Spain, Aragon; which, 
 taking its rise in the heights of the sierra de Gudar, prov. 
 Teruel, flows in a N.W. direction for about 20 m., when it 
 runs S.W. by S., and unites with the Guadalavia at Teruel, 
 
 after a course of about 50 m. A small vil. of same name 
 
 is situated on the right bank of the above, 12 m. N. Teruel. 
 Pop. 584. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALHAMBRA, the name of a celebrated palace in the 
 city of Granada, Spain, erected early in the 13th century, by 
 the Moors. See GRANADA. 
 
 ALHAMILLA (SIERRA DE), a chain of bills, Spain, in 
 Andalusia, prov. of, and about 18 m. N.E. from Almeria ; 
 extending from the sierra de Filabres E. to the sierra Segura, 
 and S. about 20 m. to Cape Gata, with an elevation, at the 
 culminating point, of 1800 ft. above the sea level. Parts of 
 the sierra contain marble, limestone, and granite ; and some 
 small veins of copper and oxide of iron. The medicinal baths 
 of Alhamilla are situated on the S. side of the sierra, near the 
 promontory of Cape Gata, facing the sea, within an edifice in 
 the form of a parallelogram, and of solid construction. The 
 water contains carbonic acid, oxygen, and nitrogen, carbonate 
 and hydrochlorate of magnesia, lime, and soda. The baths 
 are esteemed efficacious iii paralysis, epilepsy, asthma, and 
 St. Vitus dance, and are much visited in the season. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 ALHANDRA, a small tn. Portugal, prov. Estremadura ; 
 on the right bank of the Tagus, with a safe anchorage, and a 
 fishery; 18m. N.N.E. Lisbon; lat. 38 57 N. ; Ion. 9 2 AV. 
 It has a manufacture of cloth, with a number of brick and 
 tile works. Pop. 1580. 
 
 ALHAUR1N DE LA TORRE, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, 
 prov. of, and 8 m. W. from Malaga ; in a plain N. of the sierra 
 de Mijas. It comprises two squares, and several clean and 
 mostly paved streets, a townhouse, prison, endowed school, 
 and two chapels. The inhabitants are engaged in tilling the 
 fertile soil of the vicinity, and expressing oil ; but many arc 
 likewise employed in the mines of antimony and lead, and in 
 the quarries of gray and white marble which exist hard by. 
 Pop. 2717. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALH AURIN EL GRAND, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. 
 of, and 20 m. W. from Malaga ; on the N. side of the sierra 
 de Mijas, between the river Faala and the brook Gonzalez. 
 The streets are spacious, well built, and paved. There are four 
 squares, two churches, a townhouse, public store, hospital, 
 prison, two schools, numerous fountains, a cemetery, and some 
 remains of an Arab fortification, and of a Roman aqueduct. 
 The people are chiefly employed in working the marble, free 
 stone, and granite quarries, in the vicinity ; in agriculture 
 and mule driving. Some are also employed in the lead and 
 antimony mines situated in the adjacent hills. In the neigh 
 bourhood, grain, fruits, and vegetables, are grown ; and sheep, 
 goats, pigs, and black cattle reared ; in all of which a little 
 trade is done. Pop. 5514. 
 
 ALHENDIN, or ALGENDIN, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, 
 prov. of, and 6 m. S. from Granada ; on the left bank of the 
 Dilar. It has a church, townhouse, two schools, a prison, a 
 public store, and a cemetery. The inhabitants are employed 
 in tillage and cattle feeding. In the vicinity, grain, veget 
 ables, and a little fruit, are grown ; sheep, goats, and cows, 
 are fed ; and game is plentiful. Pop. 2275. 
 
 ALI, a small tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 15 m. S.S.W. from 
 Messina. It has two mineral springs. Pop. 1300. 
 
 ALIA, a tn. Spain, New Castile, prov. Caceres, 18m. S.W. 
 Logrosan, on a gentle slope. It has a parish church, town- 
 ball, hospital, prison, endowed school, and public granary. 
 The inhabitants manufacture hemp and linen fabrics, and are 
 
ALIASK.V 
 
 ALICUDI 
 
 
 ALICANTE. F 
 
 much engaged in agriculture, and rearing sheep, goats, and 
 cattle. The productions of the vicinity are grain, fruits, 
 vegetables, honey, wine, and oil. The last three articles are 
 largely exported. Pop. 3122. 
 
 ALIASKA, ALASKA, or ALASCHA, a peninsula on the 
 N.W. coast of America, in the Russian territory ; between 
 lat. 54 and 59 N. It stretches in a S.W. direction, and is 
 about 700 m. in length. At the N.E. extremity of this 
 peninsula, m about lat. 60, there is an active volcano of 
 14,000 ft. in height; and at the S.W. end are several cones 
 of great elevation, which have been seen in eruption, and 
 which are covered, for two-thirds of their height downwards, 
 with perpetual snow. The summit of the loftiest peak is 
 truncated, having fallen in during an eruption in 1786. 
 
 ALICANTE [anc. Lucentum], a city and seaport, Spain, 
 Valencia, cap. prov. of same name ; at the head of an exten 
 sive bay, having Cape la Huertas at its N.E. extremity, and 
 Cape S. Pola on the S., 12 m. apart. It lies in lat. 38 20 42" N.; 
 Ion. 26 W. (K.), at the 
 base of a rocky eminence 
 400 ft. high, surmounted 
 by a strong castle which 
 overlooks it, and com 
 mands the bay. It is sur 
 rounded by walls ; en 
 tered by four gates ; is 
 well built ; has clean, 
 well-paved streets, and 
 lofty and substantial 
 stone houses, provided 
 with terraces and veran 
 dahs; it comprises four 
 handsome and spacious 
 squares, with several of 
 smaller extent; a fine 
 promenade, named the 
 Paseo de la Reina, or 
 namented with trees and 
 a central fountain ; and 
 without the gates are 
 two delightful alamedas. 
 
 The public edifices consist of two parish churches, one collegi 
 ate, of Doric architecture ; a chapel of ease ; large townhouse 
 and guildhall, with prison attached ; three general hospitals ; 
 a military hospital ; lying-in hospital ; orphan asylum, and 
 house of mercy ; a college, having a small library ; a museum 
 and gallery of pictures, by the best Spanish masters Alicante 
 likewise possesses schools of navigation, agriculture, and 
 botany; economic, literary, and artistic societies, and numer 
 ous elementary schools ; a theatre; several extensive store 
 houses ; public baths, and eight fountains ; but the water is 
 not good, being impregnated with the salts of magnesia. 
 Manufactures : comparatively insignificant, consisting chiefly 
 of esparto cordage, and matting ; much reduced, however, of 
 late years, owing to the unmanufactured rushes exported, 
 being sent back in a manufactured state. Government has 
 here a cigar manufactory which employs more than 2200 
 women ; and a British company has established, in the neigh 
 bourhood, at the foot of Mount Molinett, works for smelting 
 and refining the ores from the mines of Murcia. Though 
 this city is considered the chief commercial port of Valencia, 
 and has many French and English resident merchants, its 
 trade has greatly declined of late, in consequence of the high 
 import duties, which have given rise to an extensive system 
 of smuggling, connived at even by the authorities. The 
 exports are wine, brandy, oil, soap, salt, wool, silk, linen, 
 esparto, raisins, almonds, figs, and barilla, &c., to the amount 
 of 1,958,333. The imports, linen, cotton, salt fish, corn, 
 timber, and other requisites, to the amount of 3,906,870. 
 The harbour of Alicante, in which there is no perceptible 
 tide, is only a roadstead in a deep bay, small vessels alone 
 being able to approach the quay ; the mole has been greatly 
 extended, and a fixed light was placed on the mole head in 
 1844, visible at 15 m. distance. To the S. of this light, 
 vessels may anchor in six or eight fathoms. Pop. 19,021. 
 (Madoz, Diccio. de Espana.} 
 
 ALICANTE, a prov. Spain, cap. Alicante, in the S. of 
 Valencia, and extending a small distance into the E. side of 
 Murcia; bounded, N. by prov. Valencia, N. and N.W. by 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Murcia and Albacete, and S. and S.E. by Murcia and the 
 Mediterranean. It is about 73 m. long, and 68 m. broad, 
 with an area of 291 1 sq. m. The surface of this province is 
 much varied; to the N. it is rugged and sterile, and chiefly 
 of limestone formation ; in the S. it is nearly level, with rich 
 and fertile valleys, and enjoying a mild and salubrious climate ; 
 the winters being without severity, and the summer heats 
 being tempered by refreshing sea breezes. The mountains 
 are, in some parts, clothed with pine, rock roses, and holly ; 
 though generally barren. Along the coast, southward, there 
 are many salt marshes ; the miasma arising from which is 
 extremely injurious to health. There are also mineral 
 springs, containing sulphurous, ferruginous, and calcareous 
 constituents, in various parts of the province, that are much 
 esteemed for their sanatory qualities. The plains and valleys 
 are abundantly fruitful and are well watered, partly by 
 numerous natural streams, and partly by artificial irrigation ; 
 the inhabitants being extremely industrious, and careful 
 agriculturists. Wheat, 
 maize, barley, lentils, 
 rice, oats, rye, and sugar 
 cane; grapes, olives, 
 liemp, flax, esparto, bar 
 illa, oranges, almonds, 
 dates, and various other 
 tropical fruits and veget 
 ables, are extensively 
 cultivated ; bees and silk 
 worms are reared; and 
 carob trees are abund 
 ant. The quantity of 
 wines made is consider 
 able ; the best are the 
 Tent and Alogue, esteem 
 ed throughout Spain ; the 
 inferior kinds are sent to 
 France to be mixed with 
 thin claret and Mcdoc 
 wines for the British 
 markets. Cattle rearing 
 is not much attended to. 
 
 The mineral wealth of Alicante comprises six mines of lead, 17 
 of copper, three of iron, and 15 of coals ; and several marble 
 quarries on Mount Rollo. The inhabitants are engaged in the 
 manufacture of silk, linen, woollen and cotton fabrics ; esparto 
 cordage and mats; hats, earthenware, soap, &c. ; and in brandy 
 distilleries, tanneries, oil and corn mills ; and many are also 
 employed as carriers. On the coast are productive fisheries 
 of the tunny, anchovy, and other fish. Alicante exports 
 agricultural produce, wine, oil, esparto, barilla, brandy, soap, 
 salt, silk, and wool ; and imports linen, cotton, stuffs, tobacco, 
 salt fish, and timber. The state of education is far from 
 satisfactory; and, owing, in great measure, to the extensive 
 smuggling carried on, theft, and even murder, is frequent. 
 Pop. 363,219 (Madoz, Dictio. de Espana.} 
 
 ALICATA, or LICATA, a seaport tn. Sicily, at the mouth 
 of the Salso, prov. of, and 24 m. S.E. from Girgenti ; lat. 37 
 4 N. ; Ion. 13 56 E. (R.) ; situated on the slope of a rocky hill, 
 and defended by two forts. Its port is shallow, and cannot 
 be entered by large vessels, which generally anchor about 1 
 m. S.W. of the town, where they load. It has, however, a 
 considerable trade in grain, maccaroni, pistacianuts, almonds, 
 sulphur, and soda. On Mount Serrato, in the vicinity, may 
 be seen the ruins of Gela. Pop. 13,480. 
 
 ALICE, a lately erected and rising tn. in the extreme 
 E. of Cape Colony, division or district Victoria, on the left 
 bank of a small affluent of the Chumie, 41 m. N.E. Graham s 
 Town; about lat. 32 48 S.; Ion. 26 52 E. It lies in a 
 fertile district, the population of which is rapidly increasing; 
 and has a Free church, capable of accommodating a congre 
 gation of 200, opened the end of 1849. About 6 m. N. from 
 Alice lies the missionary station of f humie; and 4 m. E., that 
 of Lovedale ; and about 1 in. E., the Lovedale Free Church 
 Educational Seminary. 
 
 ALICUDI, one of the Lipari Islands, off the N. coast of 
 Sicily; lat. 38 32 42" N.; Ion. 14 16 30" E. (R.) It is of a 
 conical form, and rises abruptly from the sea. The snrface is 
 extremely rugged and barren, and presents many marked indi 
 cations of its volcanic origin, the traces of the lava streams 
 
ALIKE 
 
 ALKMAAE 
 
 which, in former ages, descended from its crater, still retaining 
 their sterile and repulsive appearance, although the subterra 
 nean tires of the mountain have been so long extinguished, 
 that there is no record of any eruption. Every spot capable 
 of producing anything is carefully cultivated; and barilla, 
 flax, capers, pulse, and wheat of a peculiarly tine quality, are 
 produced. The coasts are so rugged, that there are only two 
 landing places on the island, and both are difficult of access in 
 rough weather. The climate is remarkably healthy, hardly 
 any disease being known amongst its inhabitants. Alicudi 
 was called Ericusa and Encodes by the Greeks, from the 
 heath which grows on it. Pop. about 260 to 300. 
 
 ALIKE [anc. AllijtJia], a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di La- 
 vora, 16 m. N.N.E. Capua, remarkable for its insalubrity. 
 It is the chief town of a diocese, united to that of Cereto-et- 
 Telese, the bishop of which resides at Piedimonte. It is a 
 place of great antiquity, having been a military colony of the 
 Romans. On the fall of the Koman empire, it was burnt by 
 Count Celano, a general of the Emperor Frederick II. It is 
 still surrounded with walls ; and lias a cathedral, three 
 churches, and a mmit-de-pictt. Pop. 1643. 
 
 ALIGHUK, a district arid tn., N.W. Hindoostan, prov. 
 Meerut, between the Ganges and Jumna. The N. portion of 
 the district is extremely barren, consisting almost wholly of 
 low, dark jungle, with scarcely a single tree; but the S. is fer 
 tile, and in good cultivation. The whole superficies is estim 
 ated at 1,135,580 ac., of which 901,405 ac. are under cultiva 
 tion. The principal towns are Alighur (the capital), Coel, 
 Hatras, Moorsauu, and Anopshcher. Alighur is situated in 
 lat. 27 56 N., and Ion. 77 59 E., about 53 m. N. from the 
 city of Agra, and 770 m. N.W. Calcutta. More correctly, 
 Alighur is a fortress, the town being Coel, distant about 2 in., 
 and connected with Alighur by a beautiful avenue. It was 
 anciently a place of importance, being mentioned as such by 
 Abul Fazel in the Ai/een Akberry, and was more recently one 
 of Dowlet Kow Sindia s principal depots for military stores. 
 The fort is square, with round bastions, a ditch, and glacis, 
 and a single entrance, protected by a strong ravelin. It was 
 taken, in 1803, by the British forces under Lord Lake, when 
 the whole district was added to the British possessions. Since 
 that time the fort has been much improved, and the town made 
 the station of a civil and judicial establishment. POD. of dis 
 trict, 766,161. (Hamilton s East India Gaz. ; Jour. Stut. 
 Soc., 1847.) 
 
 ALIKE ISLANDS, three small islands in the Strait of 
 Macassar; lat. 3 41 S.; Ion. 116 54 E. 
 
 AL1MENA, a small tn. Sicily, prov. Palermo, district 
 of, and 23 m. S. from Cefalu. Pop. 3376. 
 
 ALIMUSJID, a fort, Khyber Pass, Afghanistan, about 
 8 m. from its E. entrance, and so called from a small ruined 
 mosque in its neighbourhood. The width of die pass here is 
 about 150 yards, the elevation above the sea 2433 ft. The 
 fort is built on a rock about 600 ft. high, nearly isolated, and 
 with almost perpendicular sides. It was the scene of some 
 rather remarkable exploits during the Afghan war. It was 
 taken by the British in July 1839, and, in 1841, was unsuc 
 cessfully assailed by the Afghans. In January following, it 
 was evacuated by the British, with a loss of 32 men killed, 
 and 148 wounded; and, in 1842, it was again garrisoned by 
 General Pollock, and, on the final evacuation of the country, 
 in November of the same year, it was entirely destroyed by 
 General Nott. 
 
 ALINE LOCH, a small arm of the sea, Argylcshire, 
 Sound of Mull, district of Morven, Scotland, about 3 in. 
 long, and m. broad. The sides being steep and covered 
 with wood, give a singularly picturesque appearance to this 
 beautiful inlet. The entrance is narrow, and at certain 
 periods of the tide, which runs there with great rapidity, 
 somewhat shallow, but it is a well-sheltered harbour, and 
 the ground good. There is a kind of bar at the entrance, 
 having 12 ft. water, and towards the S. only 6 ft. at low water, 
 spring tides. 
 
 ALINGSAS, or ALINOSOEH, a small tn. Sweden, liin or 
 district of Elfsborg or Wenersborg, prettily situated upon 
 the small rivers Siifvo and Lilian, near their junction with 
 the Lake Mjiirn, about 30 m. S. Wenersborg. Founded in 
 1619, it was for some time a place of considerable manu 
 factures in wool, cotton, &c. Some little is still done in the 
 manufacture of cloth and stockings, ai.d in dyeing. Alstromer, 
 
 the father of Swedish manufactures, was a native of Alingsls. 
 Pop. 1221. (Tuneld s Geogmji ifoer Sneriye.) 
 
 ALIO AMBA, a market tn. Abyssinia, kingdom of Shon, 
 5271 ft. above the level of the sea, 5 m. E. Ankobar, upon 
 the crest of a steep mountain. It is much frequented by the 
 inhabitants of the adjacent villages, who resort to it on stated 
 days to purchase their weekly supplies of necessaries. On 
 these occasions, it is crowded by traders from all quarters, 
 ottering their various commodities for sale, provisions, horses, 
 cattle, cloths of all descriptions, are exposed, with gay assort 
 ments of beads, metals, coloured thread, and glass ware. 
 Every month, during the fair season, caravans arrive here 
 from Hoossa and Tajoora. 
 
 ALll EE, or ALLAFEE, a small seaport tu. Hindoostan, 
 state of Travancore ; lat. 9 30 N. ; Ion. 76 24 E. (Ilorsburrjli) ; 
 30 m. S. by E. Cochin. It carries on a considerable trade 
 in teak timber, betel nut, coir, and pepper. The land has 
 encroached considerably on the sea here during the last 20 
 years. Pop. about 13,000. 
 
 ALISE, or SAJNTE-REIKE [anc. Alesia], a vil. France, 
 dep. Cote d Or, 7 m. N.E. Semur, situated at the foot of 
 Mount Auxois, near the site of the ancient Alesia, which was 
 taken and destroyed by Caesar, as described in his Commen 
 taries (vii. 687). Vestiges of wells, aqueducts, broken tiles, 
 coins, and the like, prove the former existence of the city. 
 At the foot of the ancient citadel (now Mount Auxois), stands 
 the modern village of A Use, which has some trade in grain, 
 wool, chaplets, &c. In the neighbourhood are several iron 
 mines, and two cold acidulated mineral springs, at which an 
 hospital, containing 40 beds for patients, was founded in 1778, 
 by three wealthy citizens of Paris. Pop. 776. 
 
 ALIWAL, or ALLEEWAL, a vil. in the Punjab, on the 
 left bank of the Sutlej, about 20 m. W. by N. Ludheeana. 
 Formerly a place of no note, it has become celebrated by its 
 name having been given to a great battle fought in its vicinity, 
 Jan. 28, 1846, between the Sikhs and a British army, the 
 former commanded by Sirdar liunjeet Sing, and^the latter by 
 Sir Harry Smith. The Sikh force amounted to 24,000 men 
 and a park of artillery of 68 guns, the British to 12,000 men 
 and 32 guns. The battle, which lasted three hours, or from 
 10 A.M. to 1 P.M., ended in the total defeat of the Sikhs, who 
 lost between 5000 and 6000 men, together with their whole 
 park of artillery. 
 
 ALJEZUK. See ALGEZUK. 
 
 ALJUBAKROTA, a tn. Portugal, prov. Estremadura, 
 15 m. S.W. Leiria, on the summit of a mountain. It has 
 manufactures of stoneware. In the neighbourhood, John I. 
 of Portugal, surnamed the Great, obtained a signal victory 
 over John I., King of Castille, August 14, 1385, when 
 12,000 Castillians were slain. Camoens, in the fourth canto 
 of the Lusiad, minutely describes this battle, which, with 
 that of Campo de Ourique, established the independence of 
 Portugal. In memory of this victory, John the Great founded 
 the church and monastery of Batalha, at some distance from 
 the field of battle ; and the anniversary of the day is still cele 
 brated by the Portuguese. Pop. 1684. 
 
 ALJUSTREL, a tn. Portugal, prov. Alemtejo, 54 m. 
 S.W. Evora, and 77 m. S.E. Lisbon. It is neatly built, 
 and in the vicinity there is a mineral spring. Pop. 1304. 
 
 AL-KA1SSEKIA, a tn., N.W. part of Morocco, not far 
 from Al-Ksar. It is a dull and decaying place, but presents 
 appearances of having been formerly more populous and flour 
 ishing than now. It contains a few mean shops, and its only 
 commerce consists in a little trade in salt, procured from the 
 neighbouring hills. Pop. about 8000, of which 500 are Jews. 
 
 ALKEKTON, or AWKEUINGTON, a par. England, co. 
 Oxford ; area, 650 ac. Lydiat, the mathematician, born and 
 buried here. Pop. in 1841, 190. 
 
 ALKHAM, a par. England, co. Kent; area, 3190 ac.; 
 4 m. W. by N. Dover ; ancient church. Pop. in 1841, 595. 
 
 ALKMAAK [Latin, Alcmaria], an old and important tn. 
 Holland, prov. N. Holland, cap. of the arrond. and canton 
 of the same name; 20 m. N.N.W. Amsterdam, arid about 
 the same distance N.N.E. Haarlem ; 5 m. from the sea, on the 
 great Amsterdam Canal, by which it communicates with the 
 capital, with Purmerende, the Jlcldcr, and the N. sf a ; lat. 52 J 
 37 54" N. ; Ion. 4 45 15" E. (u.) Alkmaar is a clean, well and 
 regularly built town, intersected by various graehten, or small 
 canals, the banks of which are planted with trees, in front of 
 
AL-KOSII 
 
 ALLAHABAD 
 
 the straight lines of houses on either side. It is of an oval 
 shape, and was formerly fortified, and still has seven gates, but 
 its ramparts have been converted to the umvarlike but agree 
 able purpose of elegant public walks. It is the seat of a court 
 of first resort, and of a tribunal of commerce ; and possesses a 
 highly decorated Gothic townhouse, founded 1509; a weigh- 
 house, which is an elegant structure; an arsenal, excise 
 office, mont-de-jritte ; a beautiful fish market, abundantly sup 
 plied with sea fish ; a linen and yarn market, and a neat 
 theatre. Its churches are two Calvinistic, one Lutheran, one 
 Remonstrant, one Mennonite, four It. catholic, and one Jewish 
 synagogue ; the only one of which worthy of special notice 
 is the Calvinistic church of St. Lawrence, a large handsome 
 building of the 1 6th century. Alkmaar has an hospital for 
 old men and women, a Calvinistic and a K. Catholic orphan 
 hospital, an infirmary, house of correction, society for relieving 
 necessitous trades-women, and various other institutions of less 
 note. It is also well supplied with educational and scientific 
 institutions, having, besides common schools, a Latin school, 
 a drawing school, a school of clinical medicine, a natural 
 history and literary society, a society of science and art, &c. 
 Alkmaar possesses a roomy haven, suitable for vessels winter 
 ing in, and carries on a considerable export trade in butter and 
 cheese. It is, indeed, for cheese, the greatest mart in Holland, 
 or even in the world, the quantity sold annually in the town 
 being upwards of 4000 tons, nearly equal to the half of the 
 whole quantity made in the kingdom. This cheese is exported 
 to all parts of Europe, to the W. Indies, and S. America. 
 The manufactures of Alkmaar consist of salt, some of which, 
 in the refined state, is exported, soap, vinegar, earthenware, 
 leather, parchment ; and it has four saw and three corn mills. 
 It has a roomy market place, and weekly markets for grain, 
 in which a very considerable amount of business is done ; for 
 fine seeds, such as mustard and canary seed, and for fine 
 flowers and plants, cultivated extensively in the vicinity, it 
 is the principal market. It has also leather markets twice 
 each year ; an extensive cattle and pig market in autumn, and 
 an annual horse fair. 
 
 Alkmaar appears to signify al-meer, that is, all lake, and 
 was so named from the number of lakes in former times in its 
 vicinity, from which much of its strength, as a fortified place, 
 was derived, but which are now, however, converted into 
 arable land. It is often honourably mentioned in Dutch 
 history, and notices of it are to be met with as early as A.D. 
 924. It frequently suffered from the floods to which Holland 
 is subject, and also from the wars which have been waged in 
 the country. Perhaps the most remarkable fact in its history 
 is its successful defence against the Spaniards in 1573, which, 
 as being the first check they received, gave rise to the saying, 
 Victory begins at Alkmaar. Various eminent men were 
 natives of this town, of whom may be named Cornelius 
 Orebbel, the inventor of the thermometer; he died in 1634. 
 In 1595, damask weaving was invented here by Paschicr 
 Lammertyn. Pop. about 9000. (Van der Aa s Nederlanden.} 
 
 AL-KOSH, or EL-KOSII, a walled fortified market tn. 
 Turkey in Asia, pash. Bagdad, on the Tigris, about 30 m. 
 N Mosul. Its vaulted one-story houses are built on the 
 slope of a hill of the Soti range. It has a large church and 
 library, rich in Hebrew MS. ; and is the seat of the Nestorian 
 patriarch, who, however, resides in Mosul. On a rock above 
 the town, to the N.E., in a very imposing position, is the 
 convent of Eahban Hormutz. The inhabitants are firmly 
 built, supposed to be a Kurdish race, but resembling some 
 what Jews or Arabs, and are very independent. Al-Kosh is 
 supposed to be the birthplace of the prophet Nahum, and his 
 grave is likewise pointed out. Pop. about 3000. 
 
 AL-KSAR, a tn. Morocco, about 60 m. S. Tangier, and 
 21 m. S.E. El-Araish; lat. 34 58 N.; Ion. 5 55 W.; on 
 the N. bank of the river L Khos, or El-Kbs, a rapid yellow 
 stream. It is surrounded by orchards, and gardens of orange, 
 pomegranate, and palm ; and is encircled by an old ruinous 
 brick wall, of about 1 m. in length, having battlements, 
 loopholes, and small square towers, 50 paces apart. The 
 streets are narrow, and at intervals arched across. The 
 houses have ridged roofs of tile. It contains a great number 
 of spacious mosques. Al-Ksar was founded about the end of 
 the 12th century, and is connected in history with the wars 
 of Granada. 
 
 ALLAGNA DI SESIA, a small tn. Sardinian States, 
 
 prov. Valsesia, 15 m. W.N.W. Varallo, and 56m. N.N.E. 
 Turin. It has productive copper mines. Pop. 2000. 
 
 ALLAHABAD, one of the N.W. provinces, and also a 
 district, Hindoostan, gov. Agra. The PROV. lies between 
 Agra on the W. and Benares on the E., and is divided into 
 five districts, the names of which, with their area, population, 
 &c., will be seen from the following table: 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Area 
 
 
 Land 
 
 
 No of per- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rr.vnuBin 
 
 Total Pop. 
 
 
 
 snips. 
 
 
 
 
 
 geo. in. 
 
 Cawnpoor 
 1 uttelipoor 
 
 2,279 
 
 1,614 
 
 1756 
 1193 
 
 1,480,101 
 1,010,380 
 
 202.285 
 142,992 
 
 550,505 
 380,080 
 
 313-5 
 318-6 
 
 Humeerpoor ) 
 ;uid Calpec... ) 
 
 1,083 
 
 1701 
 
 1,439,282 
 
 147,121 
 
 316,558 
 
 186-1 
 
 Banda...;. .. 
 
 1,252 
 
 2176 
 
 1,843,451 
 
 164.734 
 
 480428 
 
 220-8 
 
 Allahabad 
 
 4,004 
 
 2113 
 
 1,790,243 
 
 212,515 
 
 710,276 
 
 340-4 
 
 Total 
 
 10,232 
 
 8939 
 
 7,571,457 
 
 809,047 
 
 2,416,853 
 
 2737 
 
 According to another column of the same table from which 
 the above has been extracted, and which was read by Colonel 
 Sykes before the Statistical Society in 1847, it would appear 
 that the land tax on the total cultivation is about 4s. Qd. per 
 acre. The N. part of the province is low, and chiefly com 
 posed of a flat sandy loam. The S. part is an elevated table 
 land, diversified with hills of considerable height. The climate 
 of the flat region is sultry, and subject to hot winds. The 
 elevated portion is more temperate and healthy. The province 
 is watered by the Ganges, Jumna, Goomty, Caramnassa, and 
 their affluents, and other less considerable streams. It is 
 reckoned one of the richest and most productive provinces of 
 Hindoostan. It exports diamonds, sugar, cotton, indigo, 
 cotton cloths, opium, and saltpetre; and imports salt, and 
 various other articles. The diamonds, now become scarce, 
 and remarkable for their smoothness and purity, are found in 
 the mines of Pannah, in the hilly region. In the time of the 
 Emperor Akbar, the mines were wrought to the extent of 
 100,000 sterling, of annual value. In 1775, the Bengal 
 Government acquired a part of this province, by treaty, from 
 a Nabob of Oude; and in 1801, the city of Allahabad and the 
 adjacent districts were ceded to the same power. In 1803, 
 the remainder of the province was exchanged with the British 
 by the Peshwa of the Mahrattas, for an equivalent tract in 
 
 Gujerat and the Carnatic. -The DISTRICT, the area and pop. 
 
 of which will be seen from the foregoing table, is chiefly com 
 posed of the environs of the city of Allahabad. It is intersected 
 by the Ganges and Jumna, is remarkably fertile, much of its 
 soil being composed of a rich sandy loam, and yields good 
 crops of wheat, barley, pease, and oil seeds. Irrigation has 
 to be resorted to during the dry season. A few small sheep, 
 with coarse black wool, or rather hair, are reared ; and in the 
 towns, cotton cloth of various kinds is manufactured to a 
 limited extent. (Hamilton s East India Gaz. ; Jour. Stat. 
 Soc., 1847.) 
 
 ALLAHABAD, an ancient city, Hindoostan, cap. of the 
 above prov., situated near the junction of the Ganges and 
 Jumna ; lat. 25 25 26" N. ; Ion. 81 51 1"E. (L.) ; 450 m. N. 
 by W. Calcutta, and 70 m. W. Benares. In 1765 it was taken 
 by the British under Sir li. Fletcher; was subsequently 
 restored to the Nabob of Oude ; and it again reverted to the 
 East India Company in 1803. The town was originally 
 built of brick, but now consists principally of mud houses 
 raised on the foundations of the old buildings. Its antiquity 
 and former extent are attested by the fact, that for several 
 miles around the fort, the soil consists of mortar, broken 
 pottery, and brick dust. The only remarkable buildings are 
 the fort; the Jumma Musjid, or principal mosque; the serai 
 of the Sultan Khusro ; and the imperial tombs, or mausoleums. 
 The fort, or Chalees Satoon, so named from a dome and 
 cupolas supported by forty pillars, is a triangular, lofty, and 
 extensive structure, situated on the point of laud formed by 
 the junction of the rivers, and washed by the waters of the 
 Jumna. It completely commands the navigation, and, on 
 account of its favourable site, has been selected as the chief 
 military depot for the upper provinces. The Government 
 house and barracks within the fort are spacious and handsome ; 
 and connected with the fort there are military cantonments, 
 amongst the most beautiful and picturesque in India, and a 
 gunpowder manufactory. The Jumma Musjeed, a stately, 
 but not an ornamental building, on the banks of the Jumna, 
 
ALLAII-SHEHR 
 
 ALLEGHANY 
 
 is 5n good repair. The serai, or hotel, of Khusro, though 
 much dilapidated, is still a iioble quadrangle, with four 
 Gothic gateways and an embattled wall. The garden adjoin 
 ing is now remarkable only for three mausoleums which it 
 contains, and which were erected for several of the imperial 
 family. These are large terraced structures, each having 
 vaulted apartments beneath ; in the central one of which is a 
 small tomb, or stone coffin, richly carved. Above, there is a 
 circular apartment, the roof of which is formed by a dome, 
 beautifully sculptured without, and painted within. Apart 
 from the fort and cantonments stand the houses of the civil 
 functionaries. Although from its mean appearance the town 
 is named Fakeerabad, or Beggar abode, yet its site at the 
 junction of the Ganges, the Jumna, and the imagined subter 
 ranean Seres-wati, constitutes it one of the five brahminical 
 prayagas, suuguins, or sacred confluences. Bathing in the 
 united stream at the point of junction, which is considered 
 equal to bathing separately in the three, and having the hair 
 previously shaved, so that each hair may fall into the water, 
 acquire for the devotee, according to the sacred writings, a 
 million of years residence in heaven for every hair. For 
 permission to bathe, a tax of 6s. is exacted by the Govern 
 ment. Allahabad is the seat of a superior court of justice, and 
 has a school, established by some English gentlemen in 1825, 
 in which native pupils are taught Persic, Hindoostanee, and 
 several common branches of education. Pop. in 1832, 64,785 ; 
 of which 20,669 were Mussulmans, and 44,116 Hindoos. 
 (Heber s Journal; Hamilton s Eaxt India Gaz. / Historical 
 Account of British India ; Martin s East Indies.) 
 
 ALLAH-SHEHR. See ALA-SHEHR. 
 
 ALLAN (BRIDGE OF), a flourishing village and watering 
 place hi Scotland, co. Stirling, on the high road from Stirling 
 to Perth, 3 m. N. the former, and about 31 m. N.W. Edin 
 burgh, on the banks of the river Allan, which are here 
 remarkable for their sylvan beauty. The village contains 
 a Free church, and a United Presbyterian church, with an 
 excellent school belonging to the former. There are here a 
 cornmill, a sawmill, a paper mill, and a bleachfield. But the 
 village is indebted for its prosperity chiefly to the Airthrie 
 mineral wells in the vicinity, which are much frequented 
 during the summer months. There are two excellent and 
 well-conducted inns for the accommodation of visitors ; and a 
 place of recreation, called M Farlane s Institution, where a 
 collection of statuary, engravings, paintings, &c., is at all 
 times open to inspection, free of charge. Close by the village 
 is a station of the Scottish Central Railway. Some years 
 since, the skeleton of a whale, 73 ft. long, was found near the 
 village, embedded in clay, 20 ft. higher than the surface of the 
 highest tide of the river Forth at the present day. From the 
 situation of the Roman station and causeways at a small dis 
 tance from the spot, it is concluded that the whale must have 
 been stranded there at a period prior to the Christian era. 
 Pop. in 1841, 561. 
 
 ALLANCHE [anc. Alantia], a small tn. France, dep. 
 Cantal (Auvergne), 10 in. N.N.E. Murat. It is clean, well 
 built, and has a public fountain, which is very copious. The 
 parish church, an old structure, well decorated, and the old 
 castle of Cheyladet, are the only important buildings. It 
 has manufactures of lace, and rears a good many cattle and 
 mules. Its trade is in grain, wine, leather, and cattle. 
 Pop. 1215. 
 
 ALLAPUTTY, a small isl. off Jaffna, N extremity of 
 Ceylon ; Ion. 80 2 E. ; it has a loose and sandy soil, and 
 abounds in palmyra trees. Fish is plentiful on the coast, and, 
 when dried, form an article of export. The inhabitants are 
 Malabars, and profess the Siva religion. Pop. about 1800. 
 (Ceylon Gazetteer.) 
 
 ALLARIZ, a tn. Spain, Galicia, prov. of, and 11 m. S. 
 by E. from Orense, pleasantly situated on the N. slope of the 
 sierra de Penagache, and the left bank of the Arnoya, a tribu 
 tary of the Minho; crossed here by two bridges. It is a 
 cheerful-looking town, surrounded by walls overlooked by a 
 castle, and well built, having two squares, three parish 
 churches, a college, two primary schools, a townhall, hospital, 
 consistory, cemetery, and prison. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 employed in agriculture and cattle rearing. Pop., including 
 two rural suburbs, 2756. 
 
 ALLASSAC, a small tn. France, dep. Correze, on the 
 left bank of the Vezere, 15 m. W. Tulle. In the neighbour 
 
 hood arc numerous vineyards; and good red vin onlinaiiv 
 is made, and some trade in cattle carried on. Pop 1551. 
 
 ALLASS STRAIT, a channel between the Islands of 
 Lombock and Sumbawa, in the Malay Archipelago. The pas 
 sage is safe, and much frequented. The Sunibawau side of 
 the strait consists of high rugged land ; the opposite side is 
 composed of steep cliffs facing the sea. The former is in 
 about lat. 9 2 S.; Ion. 116 42 E. The whole length 
 of the strait is about 50 m. ; and its breadth, at the narrowest 
 part, 9 m. 
 
 ALLAUCH [anc. Allaudium],& tn. France, dep. Bouches- 
 du-Rhone (Provence), about 7 m. E.N.E. Marseilles. A series 
 of acclivities clad with pines, gradually ascend to the hill on 
 which the ancient town was built, and where a double ram 
 part, flanked with towers, one of them still in good preserva 
 tion, points out its position. Overtopping these ruins the 
 church is seen to rise ; while below, on a rock, with a con 
 siderable slope, stands the modern town, in the form of an 
 amphitheatre. In the background are the peaks of a range 
 of ferruginous hills, and higher still the chain of Gardelabau. 
 In the neighbourhood a luscious wine is made, and there are 
 lime kilns and gypsum quarries. Pop. 1666. 
 
 ALLAYAR-KA-TANDA, a tn. Sinde, 20 m. E. Hy 
 derabad; lat. 25 21 N.; Ion. 68 40 E. The manufac 
 ture of cotton and dyeing is carried on here to some extent. 
 Pop. 5000. 
 
 ALLCANNINGS, a par. England, co.Wilts ; area, 7630 
 ac.; 4 m. E. by N. Devizes. Pop. in 1841, 1148. 
 
 ALLE, a river, E. Prussia, having its sources in some 
 small lakes on the S. borders of Polish Prussia, in lat. 53 40 
 N., from which point it flows in a N. and N.N.E. direction, 
 till it falls into the Pregel, near Wehlau, 27 m. above 
 Kb nigsberg. Its whole length, exclusive of minute sinuosi 
 ties, may be about 100 m., but as its course is very tortuous 
 for about 12 m. before it falls into the Pregel, its entire 
 development may reach 110 or 115 m. 
 
 ALLEE BLANCHE, a valley, Sardinia, in Piedmont, 
 which owes its name to the deep snow with which it is 
 always covered, more or less, even in the greatest summer 
 heats. It extends in a S.E. direction, nearly parallel to 
 Chamouni, along the range of which Mount Blanc forms the 
 culminating point, and is bounded in part by that mountain, 
 whose S. base rises abruptly from its bosom to a vertical 
 height, which, as the valley itself is only 4000 ft. above the 
 sea, cannot be less than 11,700 ft. The lake formed in the 
 valley by the magnificent glacier of the Alice Blanche is 
 nearly filled up by alluvial matter, but its former bed is indi 
 cated by an extensive flat, across which an important feeder 
 of the Doire tumbles in a foaming rapid. 
 
 ALLEGHANY, the name of various counties, towns, 
 and townships, in the U. States, America. 
 
 ALLEGHANY, a river, U. States, America, rising in 
 Pennsylvania, near Condersport, about lat. 41 40 N. ; Ion. 
 78 W. It winds N. through part of New York, and again 
 S.W. through Pennsylvania to Pittsburg, where it unites 
 with the Monongahela in forming the Ohio, 1138 ft. above 
 the sea level, after a course of about 300 m. The Alleghany 
 is navigable as far as Hamilton in New York, 260 m. from 
 Pittsburg. Its chief tributaries are the Kiskiniinetas, French 
 Creek, and Toby s Creek. 
 
 ALLEGHANY, or APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS, an exten 
 sive mountain system in the U. States, America. Com 
 mencing in the N. parts of Alabama and Georgia, it traverses 
 the states of Tennessee, N. Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and 
 Pennsylvania, to New York, at a distance from the Atlantic 
 to which it runs nearly parallel of 50 m. to 130 in. It 
 extends through 11 degrees of lat., and is from 50 to 200 m. 
 broad. The various ridges of which the system is composed 
 are known by the names of the Blue Ridge, North Mountain, 
 Jackson s Mountain, Laurel Mountain, Cumberland Mountain, 
 &c. Between these ridges, which are for the most part wooded 
 to the summit, are some fertile valleys, although the country 
 they enclose is generally rocky and barren. Their mean eleva 
 tion is about 2500 ft. ; but in Yancey county, N. Carolina, 
 some of the peaks attain an elevation of 6000 ft. The Alle 
 ghany Mountains divide the waters that flow into the Atlantic 
 from those that fall into the Mississippi. They are composed 
 mainly of granite, gneiss, mica clay-slate, and primary lime 
 stone, and are generally clothed with a luxuriant vegetation ; 
 
ALLEGRANZA 
 
 ALLESTREE 
 
 their W. slope is considered one of the finest countries in the 
 U. States. The chaiacter of the scenery is at once picturesque 
 and peaceful. The vegetation is different on the two sides ; 
 the locust tree, Canadian poplar, Hibiscus, and Hydrangea, are 
 most common on the W. side ; the American chestnut and 
 Kalmias are so numerous on the Atlantic side, as to give a 
 distinctive character to the flora. 
 
 ALLEGRANZA, one of the smallest of the Canary 
 Islands, and the most northerly of the group; lat. 29 31 N. ; 
 Ion. 13 35 \V. ; 20 m. N. the Island of Lancerota. It 
 has the appearance of being an extinct volcano, the edge of 
 the crater, which is two-thirds of a mile in diameter, being 
 well denned. The island rises to a height of 939 ft. above 
 the sea, and is so precipitous as to present only one landing 
 place, which is on the S. side, where a cavern runs for about 
 500 paces, slanting from the sea, and terminates in a little 
 sandy bay, open above. On the W. side, the cliffs rise per 
 pendicularly to a height of 700 ft. The inhabitants a mere 
 handful are chiefly employed in collecting archil, which, 
 like that gathered in the other Canary Islands, is reckoned of 
 the best quality. 
 
 ALLEGRE, a tn. France, dep. Haute Loire (Auvergne), 
 13 m. N.W. Le-Puy; lat. 45 12 N.; Ion. 3 50 E. It 
 stands on the S. slope of a lofty hill, which is overtopped by 
 the far loftier dome of Bar a remarkable volcanic mountain, 
 of a conical shape, standing isolated, and terminating in a 
 magnificent crater 500 yards in diameter, and 40 yards in 
 depth. The inhabitants traffic in grain, wool, and cattle. 
 Pop. 2048. 
 
 ALLEMOND-EN-OYSANS, a vil. France, dep. Isere 
 (Dauphine), in a beautiful valley on the right bank of the 
 Komanche, about 18 m. S.E. Grenoble. In its neighbourhood 
 are found cobalt, nickel, copper, and zinc. Pop. 1546. 
 
 ALLEN, the name of two small rivers, and of several 
 streams, in England: 1, A river in Cornwall, which, joining 
 the Kenwyn at the quay of Truro, forms the creek of that 
 name. 2. A small stream in Dorsetshire, which unites with 
 the Stour 10 m. below Blandford. 3, Two streams, respec 
 tively named E. and W. Allen, which have their source in 
 the S. parts of Northumberland, at a place called Allen Heads, 
 1400 ft. above the level of the sea; they unite near Whitfield, 
 and subsequently fall into the Tyne at Beltingham, 4 m. E. 
 Haltwhistle. 
 
 ALLEN, the name of several counties and townships, 
 U. States, America. 
 
 ALLEN (Boa OF), the general name applied to a numer 
 ous series of bogs in Ireland, and not, as very generally sup 
 posed, to one continuous morass of great extent. They are 
 dispersed, often widely apart, with extensive tracts of dry 
 cultivated soil between, over a broad belt of land stretching 
 across the centre of the country, from Wicklow Head to 
 Galway on the S., and from Howth Head to Sligo on the N., 
 having thus a breadth of about 27 m. at the E. end, and of 
 80 at the W. extremity. The bogs, however, all lie on the 
 E side of the Shannon, and are, for the most part, of that 
 kind called red bog. 
 
 ALLEN (Sx.), a par. England, co. Cornwall; area, 3610 
 ac.; 4J m. N. by W. Truro. Pop. in 1841, 652. 
 
 ALLENDALE, a tn. and par. England, co. Northumber 
 land. The town is 33 m. E. Carlisle, on an acclivity, right 
 bank of the E. Allen. It is irregularly built, but contains some 
 good houses, and a spacious market place. The inhabitants 
 are employed principally in the lead mines in the vicinity; 
 
 market day, Friday. Pop. 1217. The PARISH comprises 
 
 45,810 ac., and contains several chapels of ease, and places 
 of worship for Wesleyans and the Society of Friends, to 
 nearly all of which schools are attached. The parish is hilly 
 and sterile, but rich in minerals. Pop. in 1841, 5729. 
 
 ALLENDORF. 1, A tn. Hesse-Cassel, in a pretty valley 
 on the right bank of the Werra, where it receives the Alte- 
 hainsbach, 24 m. E. Cassel; lat. 51 16 N. ; Ion. 10 5 E. 
 It is encircled with a double wall, with three gates, and has 
 an hospital and a handsome church. The neighbourhood is 
 covered with orchards and woods, and there is good fishing 
 in the \7erra. Some wine and silk are produced, and a good 
 deal of tobacco is raised and manufactured. On a strong salt 
 spring in the vicinity are saltworks. Pop. 3200. 2, A tn. 
 Hesse- Darmstadt, 9 m. N.E. Giessen, has meal and oil mills, 
 linen cloth and carpet weaving. Pop. 1 150. 3, ALLENDOKF 
 
 is likewise the name of four vils. in Hesse-Cassel, of three 
 vils. iii Hesse-Darmstadt, and of 10 others in Prussian 
 Hanover, Nassau, &c. 
 
 ALLEN LOUGH, a lake, Ireland, co. Leitrim, about 
 7 m. long, and varying from 1 to 4 m. in breadth. The river 
 Shannon flows through it. A few small islands are scat 
 tered over its surface, upon one of which the ruins of a small 
 monastic structure are still visible. 
 
 ALLEN S ISLE, a small isl. at the head of the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria, in N. Australia; lat. 17 5 S. Ion. 139 25 E. 
 It is spoken of in Stokes Discoveries in Australia (vol. li. 
 p. 277), as being more fertile than any other part visited in 
 the gulf, being clothed with rich grass, and with small trees 
 and shrubs of a very green appearance. 
 
 ALLENSMOOR, a par. England, co. Hereford; area, 
 1930 ac.; 4 m. S.W. Hereford. Pop. in 1841, 668. 
 
 ALLENSTEIN, a tn. E. Prussia, gov. of, and 65 m. S. 
 from Kb nigsberg, at the junction of the Neu Pisch with the 
 Alle ; lat. 53 46 N.; Ion. 20 27 E. It is the cap. of a circle 
 of same name; and has a castle, three churches, two chapels, 
 and an almshouse; with manufactures of leather, linen, yarn, 
 earthenware, and potash; and 12 markets, 6 of them for cattle. 
 
 Pop. 3350. The CIRCLE has an area of 3800 geo. sq. m. 
 
 It is well wooded and watered, being not only traversed by 
 the Alle and Passarge, but possessed of numerous lakes. The 
 soil is not well adapted for agriculture, but grazes large 
 numbers of sheep and cattle. A good deal of attention is 
 paid to the rearing of bees. Pop. 36,000, of whom only 
 2000 are Protestants. 
 
 ALLENTON, or ALLWINTON, a par. and township, 
 England, co. Northumberland; area, 31,940 ac. ; on the river 
 Coquet. Pop. in 1841, 812. 
 
 ALLER, a vil. and par England, co. Somerset. The 
 vil. lies at the foot of a hill, 6 m. W. by N. Sornerton, and 
 2 m. N.N.W. Langport. It consists but of one irregular, in 
 differently-kept street, though the supply of water is ample. 
 It contains a church, an Independent chapel, and a day school. 
 The par. comprises 4290 ac. Guthrum, the Danish chief, 
 was baptized at this place, under the sponsorship of Alfred 
 the Great, after the battle of Ettandune, in which the Danes 
 were defeated by the latter. Aller Moor was also the scene 
 of a battle between the Royalists and the Parliamentarians in 
 1644. Pop of vil. and par. 559. 
 
 ALLER, a river, Germany, rising about 20 m. W. Magde 
 burg, in Prussian Saxony. Flowing N.W. it enters Hanover, 
 and, after receiving several important tributaries, among 
 which may be named the Oker, the Fuse, and the Lachte, it 
 becomes navigable at Celle, where, still proceeding W., it 
 receives the Leme, not far to the S. of Hudemiihlen, and falls 
 into the Weser near Verden. Total course, exclusive of 
 windings, about 120 m. 
 
 ALLERDALE, the name of two of the five wards into 
 which the co. of Cumberland, England, is divided, and called, 
 respectively, Allerdale-above Derwent, and Allerdale-below- 
 Derwent. Together, they form the W. division of the co., 
 and, as such, return two members to the House of Commons. 
 Allerdale-above-Derwent comprises 275,970 ac., with a pop. 
 in 1841, of 41,621. Allerdale-below-Derwent, 170,400 ac.; 
 pop. 29,896. 
 
 ALLERSTON, a par. England, co. York, N. Riding; 
 area, 9110 ac.; 4 m. E. by S. Pickering. P. in 1841, 414. 
 
 ALLEKTHOKPE, a par. England, co. York, E. Biding; 
 area, 2050 ac.; 1 m. N.E. Wakefield. Pop. 199. 
 
 ALLEETON CHAPEL, a par. England, co. Somerset ; 
 area, 1490 ac.; 4J in. S.W. by S. Axbridge. Pop. in 1841, 
 331. 
 
 ALLERTON MAULEVERER, a par. England, co. 
 York, W. Riding; 5 m. E. by N. Kuaresborough ; 2300 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 277. 
 
 ALLESLEY, a par. England, co. Warwick; area, 3950 
 ac.; 2 m. N. Coventry. Pop. in 1841, 9G3. 
 
 ALLESTAR, or ALLISTAK, a populous tn. peninsula of 
 Malacca, kingdom of Queda or Keddah, four hours pull up 
 the Queda river. It was at one time the residence of the king. 
 The inhabitants consist of Chuleas, Malays, and Chinese, the 
 latter having a temple. In 1823 it contained 2000 houses. 
 
 ALLESTREE, or ALLESTHEY, a par. England, co. of, 
 and 2 m. N.W. from Derby; area, 990 ac. Pop. in 1841, 
 507. 
 
ALLEVARD 
 
 ALORIC 
 
 ALLEVARD, a tn. France, dep. Tsere (Dauphins ), 
 23 m. N.E. Grenoble, upon the Ozeins; in a fertile and well- 
 wooded valley, which, though little more than 3 m. from 
 that of the Isere, is more than 900 ft. above it. In the 
 vicinity are numerous iron mines, which supply several blast 
 furnaces, yielding about 4460 tons of iron yearly. A good 
 deal of it is melted in foundries on the spot; part is used at 
 
 marshes, entertained some years ago by the U. States Govern 
 ment. The lands of this swamp are said to be naturally very 
 fertile. 
 
 ALLTGNY, a market tn. France, dep. Nievre, arrond. 
 of, and 12 m. N.E. from Chateau-Chinon. It has five pretty 
 large cattle fairs. Pop. 234. 
 
 ALL-INGE, a vil. with a small haven, Denmark, on the 
 
 the cannon foundry of St. Gervais, and part is converted into | N.E. coast of the isl. of Bornholm. Its inhabitants are en 
 
 steel, for which it is said to be well adapted. Sulphur is 
 found in the neighbouring mountain of La Tmlle; and in a 
 vale below are two mineral springs, which, though lying near 
 each other, are of a totally different nature. At a short 
 distance from the town are the ruins of the Chateau Bayard, 
 the birthplace of the celebrated chevalier of that name. Top. 
 1666. 
 
 ALLEXTON, or AM/PCTON, a par. England, co. of, and 
 14 m. S.E. from Leicester; area, 1010 ac. Pop. in 1841, 81. 
 
 ALLHALLOWS. 1, A par. England, co. Cumberland; 
 area, 1860 ac.; 2 m. S. Maryport and Carlisle Railway; inter 
 sected by the river Ellen; freestone quarry, lime kilns, and 
 collieries. Pop. in 1841. 235. 2, A par. Fngland, co. Kent; 
 area, 2460 ac.; 7 m. E. Rochester. Pop. in 1841, 268. 
 
 ALLI, a small river, Naples, Calabria Ultra; it rises in 
 Mount Calistro; lat. 39 10 N.; Ion. 16 31 E.; flows S.S.E., 
 passes Simmari, and, after a course of about 18 m., falls into 
 the Gulf of Squillace, 5 m. AV. Petrizzi. 
 
 ALLIER [anc. Elarer], a river, France, which gives its 
 name to a department. It is the most important tributary of 
 
 gaged chiefly in agriculture and fishing. Pop. about 600. 
 
 ALLINGTON, several pars. Eng.: 1, Dorset; 960 ac. 
 Pop. 1545. 2 (East), Devon ; 3646 ac. Pop. 640. 3 ( West}, 
 Devon; 4110ac. Pop. 1008. 4, Kent ; 612 ac. Pop.49. 
 5 (East and West], Lincoln ; 2070 ac. Pop. 396. 6, Wilts ; 
 4 JO ac. Pop. 94. 
 
 ALLTSTAR. See ALLESTAR. 
 
 ALLOA, a river-port tn., burgh of barony, and par. in 
 Scotland, co. Clackmannan. The tn. lies on the N. bank of 
 the Forth, 6 m. E. Stirling, and 25 m. N.W. Edinburgh ; lat. 
 56 7 N. ; Ion. 3 46 W. ; and is irregularly built, particularly 
 the more ancient parts ; but in the principal streets, most of 
 the old houses have been replaced by handsome new buildings. 
 They contain also many elegant shops. The streets are well 
 paved, well lighted with gas, and kept in excellent order. 
 The most spacious is John Street, leading to the harbour ; it 
 is 80 ft. wide, and terminates in a beautiful gravel walk, 
 having a row of fine lime trees on each side. The church is a 
 handsome structure, in the Gothic style, with a spire 207 ft. 
 high. There are, besides three meeting houses of Presby- 
 
 the Loire. It rises in the forest of Mercceur, at. the foot of j terian dissenters, an Independent meeting house, and an Epi- 
 Mount Lozere, belonging to the chain of the Cevennes. After a I scopal chapel ; the two last are neat structures, the latter being 
 course in the main N.N.W., watering the departments Lozere, | in the Gothic style. There are several branch banks in the 
 
 town, an assembly room, large and commodious ; a select sub 
 scription library ; a number of schools, including the Alloa 
 academy- a celebrated seminary ; a grammar school, two public 
 reading rooms, a mechanics institute, and several friendly, 
 
 ]>ar! 
 Ir i- 
 
 Upper Loire, Puy-de-Dome, and Allier, and separating the 
 departments Cher and Nievre, it joins the Loire, on its left 
 bank, about 4 m. W. Nevers. Its whole length is about 
 200 m., for a third of which it is navigabl 
 
 ALLIER, a central dep. France, so called from the river I benefit, and religious societies. The manufactures comprise 
 
 of that name, which traverses it from N. to S. ; comprehend 
 ing the greater portion of the old province of Bourbonnais; 
 bounded, N. by the departments of Nievre and Cher, E. by 
 those of Saone-et-Loireand Loire, S. by that of Puy-de-Dome, 
 and W. by those of Creuse and Cher. Besides the Allier, 
 the department is watered also by the Cher, and other streams, 
 The surface is undulating, and the soil in general fertile, pro 
 ducing more grain than is consumed. Agriculture, however, 
 is in a very backward state, the rural part of the population 
 being unwilling to abandon their old customs for modern im 
 provements. Small proprietors here, as well as throughout 
 France, have much increased since the first Revolution. In 
 1844, the number in this department rated to the Contribution 
 Fonciere, amounted to 66,829; the properties being divided 
 into 2,759,992 parcels. The cultivation of the vine is not 
 much attended to, though some esteemed white wine is made 
 at Saint-Pourcain and one or two other places, the greater 
 part of which is exported. Large numbers of cattle, sheep, 
 and goats are reared ; also, horses of a strong breed. The 
 woods are principally of oak, furnishing a good supply of 
 timber for shipbuilding. The ponds and lakes are numerous, 
 covering nearly 14,826 ac.; and, as well as the different 
 streams and rivers, abound in fish, which, with the leeches 
 found in the former, form a considerable article of trade with 
 Paris. Various mines of coal, iron, and antimony, marble 
 and granite quarries, and porcelain clay pits, are worked in the 
 department. There are mineral springs at Vichi, Bourbon- 
 1 Archambault, and Neris. Cutlery is made at Moulins, the 
 capital ; porcelain and earthenware at Lurcy-Levy, and soda 
 and glass at Commcntry and Souvigny. The department is 
 crossed by one of the great roads from Paris to Lyons, and 
 by two canals; and is within the jurisdiction of the Criminal 
 Court of Riom. Pop. in 1846. 329,540. (St. Fargeau ; Die 
 de la France.; Guibert, Die. Geo. et Stat.) 
 
 ALLIGATOR RIVERS (SOUTH and EAST), two rivers 
 of N. Australia, both of which flow into Van Diemen s Gulf, 
 at a distance from each other of about 20 m. The scenery 
 on the banks of the latter is said by Dr. Leichhardt to be 
 extremely picturesque. 
 
 ALLIGATOR SWAMP, a marsh in N. Carolina, U. 
 States, between Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, or between 
 
 lat. 35 20 and 35 52 
 
 It comprises 75,000 ac., and 
 
 was included in an extensive project for draining .such 
 
 several breweries and distilleries, the produce of the former 
 being much esteemed ; glass works, bricks, tiles, and other 
 earthenware. There are also woollen manufactories, an iron 
 bundry, and some pretty extensive establishments for ship 
 building and rope making. Alloa has a very considerable 
 foreign and coasting trade ; the imports, through the former, 
 consist chiefly of timber, battens, deals, hemp, oak bark, and 
 bones for agricultural purposes ; through the latter, of corn, 
 wool, fuller s earth, and groceries, wines, teas, &c. The ex 
 ports consist of coals, pig iron, woollen manufactures, glass, 
 ale, whisky, leather, fire bricks, tiles, and common brick*. 
 The number of vessels belonging to the port, in 1847, was 
 111 tonn. 15,913. The number that entered inward, in 
 the same year, was 213 tonn. 10,984; outwards, 646 tonn. 
 35,267. The harbour and quays are commodious ; the 
 lepth of water 16 ft. at neap tides, and from 22 to 24 ft. 
 at spring tides. The latter are here attended by a singular 
 phenomenon, called double or leaky tides, chiefly observed 
 at high and low water, which consists in a second ebbing and 
 flowing, to an extent of from 12 to 15 inches, after the tide 
 has apparently reached its utmost height and lowest ebb. 
 There is a dry dock a little above the harbour. Close by the 
 town there is a remarkable antique tower, called Alloa Tower, 
 built towards the end of the 13th century; it is square, 89 ft. 
 high, with walls 11 ft. thick. It was the place of residence 
 of several successive Scottish princes, while receiving their 
 education ; and here a portion of Queen Mary s infancy was 
 passed. David Ramsay, the celebrated painter, was born in 
 Alloa, 1744. Pop. in 1841, 5434. Area of par. 7| sq. m.; 
 pop. exclusive of the town, 1071. 
 
 ALLONBY, a small fishing tn. and chapelry, England, 
 co. Cumberland, on the Solway Frith, 20 m. S.W. Carlisle. 
 There is a Quakers meeting house in the town, a free school, 
 and two other schools. The inhabitants are chiefly occupied 
 in the herring fishery, when herrings are on the coast ; but 
 their visitations are uncertain, sometimes years intervening 
 between the periods of their appearance. Cod are also taken 
 in considerable quantities during the winter. Allonby is 
 much frequented in the summer season for sea bathing. Pop. 
 of chapelry in 1841, 811. 
 
 ALORIC, a large tn., W. Africa, Guinea, territory of 
 Yarriba, E. of the Kong Mountains, 40 m. S.S.W. Katnnga, 
 and 180 m. N.E. Lagos; lat. 8 15 N.; Ion. 5 40 K. 
 
ALLOWAi 
 
 95 
 
 ALMAGRO 
 
 ALLOW AT, a par. Scotland, co. Ayr, now united to 
 Ayr parish. It contains the house in which Robert Burns, the 
 Scottish poet, was born ; and its old roofless church, famed 
 under the name of. Kirk Alloway, the imaginary scene of 
 the incidents described in his poem of Tain o Shanter. In 
 the neighbourhood of Kirk Alloway a monument has been 
 erected to the memory of Burns, somewhat similar to that 
 oil the Calton Hill, Edinburgh; it contains several interesting 
 relics of the poet, and the statues of Tarn o Shanter and 
 Souter Johnny, by Thorn. 
 
 ALL SAINTS. 1, a par. England, Suffolk; 1150 ac. 
 Pop- 224. 2, a par. Ireland, Donegal ; 9634 ac. Pop. 4280. 
 
 ALL SAINTS BAY [.Portuguese, Balda de tudos os 
 Santos], a bay on the coast of Brazil, prov. Bahia; lat. 
 1 3 1 S. ; Ion. 38 50 W. It has two entrances, the principal 
 of which, 8 or 9 in. wide, is formed, on the E., by the pro 
 montory of fct. Antonio, on which is situated the town of Sao 
 Salvador or Bahia ; and on the W. by the island of Itaparica ; 
 The least breadth of the channel here is little less than 4 in. ; 
 but the half of this space only, that nearest to the E. side, is 
 navigable by large ships. The other entrance, called Larva 
 Falsa [false bar], is less than 2 m. in width. The bay, taken 
 in its whole extent, forms a very deep gulf, which bears the 
 name of Reconcavo, and is from 90 to 100 in. in circuit. The 
 largest Meet may ride in it in safety, having excellent holding 
 ground, and security from, the winds. Several considerable 
 rivers fall into the bay. 
 
 ALLSTADT, or ALLSTEDT, an old tn Germany, duchy 
 of Saxe-Weimar, on the Rhone, 42 m. W.N.W. Leipzig ; lat. 
 51 25 N. ; Ion. 11 22 E. It has an ancient church, and a 
 castle occupying a height which commands the town. It 
 has manufactures of cloth and potash, several mills, numerous 
 orchards, and four yearly markets, chiefly for horse and cattle. 
 Pop. 2086. The BAILIWICK area, 40 geo. sq. m. is gen 
 erally fertile, with exception of a moorish district, called the 
 desert. Agriculture is the principal employment. Pop. 7150. 
 
 ALMACHAR, a tn. Spain, in Granada, prov. of, and 
 18m N. by W. from Malaga, on the side of a steep hill 
 between two others, called Carnache and Portichuela. The 
 town is composed of several miserable, crooked, and very 
 steep streets ; and has a parish church, a school, three foun 
 tains, and a cemetery. Manufactures: Linen and woollen 
 fabrics. In the environs, grapes, olives, figs, and pulse, are 
 cultivated. Pop. 2081. 
 
 ALMADA, a tn. Portugal, prov. Estremadura, on the 
 left bank of the estuary of the Tagus, opposite Lisbon. It is 
 built upon a height, in a well-cultivated country, and has long 
 been celebrated for its figs. It has a strong castle on a rock, 
 an hospital for British seamen, a Latin school, several depots 
 of wine, and a mineral spring. Near it is the fort of San 
 Sebastian, which defends the entrance to the Tagus. Pop. 
 4538. 
 
 ALMADAGH [anc. Amanus], a range of mountains in 
 Asiatic Turkey, a branch of the Mount Taurus system, form 
 ing the N. boundary of Syria. The direction of the range, 
 generally, is S.S.W., till its termination a little to the S.E 
 of Cape Khynzyer, on the S. side of the Bay of Iskenderoon. 
 Its whole length is about 160 m. ; width, 30 m. The moun 
 tains composing this range are very precipitous, and can only 
 be traversed by beasts of burden in a few places. The most 
 frequented road runs from Aleppo due N. to Aintab, and 
 thence over the Almadagh to Kaisariyeh and Angora. They 
 are well wooded, being covered in many parts with large 
 cedars, firs, and juniper trees. 
 
 ALMADEN, a mining tn. Spain, in New Castile, prov. 
 of, and 66 m. S.W. from Ciudad Real, on an elevation in the 
 sierra Morena. It is, on the whole, well built, and consists 
 chiefly of one long, regular, paved, and clean street, the houses 
 of which are smaller than are usually to be met with in Spain, 
 occupying the summit of a ridge, with the sides scarped away 
 into rather deep ravines. It lias several squares, in one of 
 which, la plaza de la Constitution, are the townhall and muni 
 cipal offices ; and in another, named la Nueva, the market is 
 held. The finest building in the town is the prison ; after 
 which comes the mining academy, in which is kept a collec 
 tion of minerals and other objects useful to the students. 
 There are likewise in the town five ordinary and two Latin 
 schools, an hospital for miners, one for wandering houseless 
 poor, and one for foundlings and destitute women. In the 
 
 middle of the town is a rising ground, surrounded by the 
 ruins of a Moorish castle; and the only other noteworthy 
 building is the large storehouse connected with the mines. 
 Alinadeu has no parish church, it having been demolished 
 during the war of independence, hut in several hermitages 
 Divine service is performed. The country around is far from 
 being fertile, and little attention is paid to agriculture, the 
 main occupation of the people being in connection with the 
 mines. Pop. 8645. 
 
 The quicksilver mines of Almaden, which are a Government 
 monopoly, are among the most important of the kind in the 
 world, and from them are supplied a large quantity of the metal 
 used in the American and Austrian mines for separating gold 
 and silver from their ores by amalgamation. The mines are in 
 three sections ; the principal one being just outside the town 
 to the S.E. ; the next a little further on, in the same line ; and 
 the third at Aluiadenejos, still further on, and about 5 m. from 
 Almaden. The great mine, the adit of which is hard by the 
 town, consists of three nearly parallel veins, called, respec 
 tively, San Nicolas, San Francisco, and San Diego. They 
 are wrought in a perpendicular direction, and have attained a 
 depth of about 900 ft., the metal increasing in quantity, and 
 improving in quality, the deeper down it is obtained. The 
 supporting arches inside the mine, and other permanent walls, 
 are all of stone, and executed in a truly regal manner. The 
 storehouses and magazines, chiefly cut in the solid rock, are 
 in a corresponding scale of magnificence. The furnaces for 
 sublimation being heated with aromatic herbs, send forth a 
 delicious smell. About 5000 men are employed in and about 
 the mines, and those who work below are only occupied six 
 hours each day. The health of many suffers ; but, perhaps, 
 less than might, in the circumstances, have been expected. 
 No work is done during the summer months from want of 
 ventilation in the mines, and during this season the miners 
 recruit their strength. The great vein is in a bed of fine 
 quarzite, one of those numerous beds which pervade the great 
 slate formation of this part of the country. Associated with 
 the veins are gray conglomerate, chiefly of fragments of slate, 
 of a light blue or gray colour. Though the principal vein 
 apparently rests against, yet it does not seem to run into, the 
 slate, the beds of which are, in general, highly inclined, or 
 nearly vertical. The average amount of quicksilver produced 
 from these mines of late years has been 2,027,168 Ibs. 
 (Madoz, Diccio. de Espana ; Widdrington s Spain.) 
 
 ALMADEN DE LA PLATA, a tn. Spain, in Andalu 
 sia, prov. of, and 26 m. N. by W. from Seville, near the left 
 bank of the river Cala. In the vicinity are three mines of 
 silver, now abandoned; and marble is quarried to some 
 extent. Pop. 485. 
 
 ALMADIA ISLETS, a ledge of black rocks running out 
 from the extreme point of Cape Verde, some of which rise 
 8 or 10 ft. above the sea. The westernmost has the form of a 
 die, and stands in lat. 1 4 44 30" N. ; Ion. 1 7 35 W. (K.) It is 
 said that there are one or two openings through the ledge. 
 
 ALMAGRERA [SIEKRA DE], a dry, barren, clay-slate 
 mountain range of Spain, in the E. of Andalusia, bounding 
 with Murcia, celebrated for its mines of silver and lead. It 
 lies in the prov. of Almeria, 6 m. E. from Vera, runs in a 
 N.E. direction, and on its S. side is washed by the Mediter 
 ranean Sea. The mineral wealth of the locality was first dis 
 covered by a goat herd, so late as 1830, and now the whole 
 mountain range, and its valleys are filled with busy labourers 
 extracting the various minerals, silver, lead, copper, zinc, 
 alum, &c. The hills being very dry, the miners are not in 
 their operations hindered by water ; and as the diggings do 
 not require to be deep, the mining is easily managed. The 
 mines and their proprietors are very numerous. Of the for 
 mer, nearly 200 in number, those of Esperanza, Carmen, 
 and Observacion, are the most productive ; the value of 
 their annual output being, in lead, 32,174; and in silver, 
 354,014. (Willkomm s Zwei Jahre in Spanien ; Madoz, 
 Diccio. de Eftpaiia.) 
 
 ALMAGRO, a city, Spain, in New Castile, prov. of, and 
 12 m. E.S.E. from Ciudad Real. It is situated on a high, 
 arid, and exposed plain; is extremely well built; has spacious, 
 well-paved streets, and a fine square, and public walk, planted 
 with trees, called the Glorieta; two parish churches, and a 
 dismantled church of beautiful architecture, decorated with 
 columns and balustrades of alabaster and jasper, formerly 
 
ALMAGIIEK 
 
 ALMAZARRON 
 
 belonging to the monks of St. Bernard, St. Francis, and St. 
 Dominic. Almagro has also a townhall, two hospitals, a 
 barrack, formerly the palace of the grand masters of Cala 
 trava; Latin, normal, and primary schools, a large storehouse, 
 abattoir, and cemetery. The inhabitants are engaged in dis 
 tilling brandy, manufacturing soap, gypsum, and earthenware, 
 and in making lace for the markets of Madrid and Paris ; this 
 last trade occupying no less than 8000 females in this and the 
 neighbouring towns and villages. The country around is 
 celebrated for its mules, which are reckoned the best in Spain, 
 and are sold in great numbers at the annual fairs in April and 
 August, which last is also a great fair for lace. Pop. 12,600. 
 (Madoz. niccio. de Espafia.} 
 
 ALMAGUER, a tn. New Granada, prov. Los Pastos, 
 40 in. S.S.W. Popayan, on a height in the middle of a beau 
 tiful plain, about 7000 ft. above the sea level ; lat. 1 54 29" N. ; 
 Ion. 76 54 58" W. (L.) It enjoys a mild, pleasant climate; 
 the vicinity yields wheat and barley plentifully, and contains 
 some gold mines. It was founded in 1543 by Alonza de 
 Fuen Mayor. 
 
 ALMAHADIA, MAHADIAH, MEHEDIA, or AFRICA, a tn. 
 Tunis, E. coast, on a cape or peninsula of the same name, 
 about 110 m. S.E. the city of Tunis; lat. 35= 32 N; Ion. 
 11 6 13" E. (i,.) ; said to have been founded so early as the 
 9th century, by one of the Fatimite Khalifs. It seems to 
 have been a place of great importance during the Middle 
 Ages, and, in 1550, sustained a long and rigorous siege from 
 the forces of Charles V. All, however, that now remains to 
 attest its former greatness are a few defaced fragments of 
 ancient masor.ry. Its harbour, formerly good, is now sanded 
 up. Pop. 3000. 
 
 ALMALEE, or ALMALU, a large town, Asiatic Turkey, 
 pash. Anadolia, sanjak Meis, on the right bank of the small 
 river Myra, 25 m. from its junction with the sea, and 57 m. 
 W.S. W. Adalia; lat. 36 47 N.; Ion. 29 50 E. It is beau 
 tifully situated in a little valley, or natural amphitheatre 
 
 
 AT,MAtEE. From SclinrP* Lycia, Cari:i, 
 
 of the Massacytus mountains, at the N.E. end of an extensive 
 plain, elevated 5000 ft. above the sea. The mountain peaks 
 that rise above the town attain great heights; the highest 
 summit of the range to which they belong reaching 10,000 
 feet. The whole appearance of the town is exceedingly 
 pleasing and picturesque, being at once finely set off and 
 relieved by numerous tall poplars and lofty minarets; and 
 further adorned by gardens, with which it is surrounded. 
 The houses are built of unburnt bricks, and roofed with thin 
 deals of cedar wood, obtained from the forests on the neigh 
 bouring mountains, which also supplies the odoriferous fuel 
 used by the inhabitants. The town contains altogether about 
 1500 houses, and has several mosques, a bazaar, and a market 
 on Thursdays. It is well supplied with water, having suffi 
 cient not only for domestic purposes, but for the propulsion of 
 numerous mills, and the accommodation of several tan yards, 
 dye works and factories. Many Frank merchants resort to 
 this city to make purchases, which they generally forward to 
 Makry, 40 miles W., for exportation. A number of the 
 inhabitants of Almalce are employed in cultivating the exten 
 sive and fertile plains which stretcli away from the town, and 
 which are inhabited by an industrious and thriving people, as 
 
 is sufficiently evident from the superior neatness and comfort 
 exhibited in their houses and apparel, and from the excellent 
 condition in which their fences, roads, and bridges are kept. 
 There are no traces of antiquity here. Pop. about 20,000. 
 (Jour. Oeo. Soc.) 
 
 ALMANSA, a city of Spain, in Murcia, prov. of, and 
 37 m. E. from Albacete. It is a flourishing place, situated 
 on a large and exposed plain, and is ill built, unpaved, and 
 without any spacious squares so common all over Spain. It 
 has a parish church and chapel, several schools, a chapter 
 house, an hospital, a capacious prison, and a cemetery outside 
 the town. Manufactures : Linen, cotton, and hempen fabrics, 
 which are supplied to the neighbouring provinces; brandy, 
 leather, and soap. The Vega, or plain, near the town, is 
 irrigated by the Pantano (reservoir) of Alfera, which is an 
 element of incredible fertility, under the almost African sun 
 of this place. Almansa has obtained an historical celebrity 
 from the fact of its having been the scene of an inglorious 
 victory, gained April 25, 1707, by 30,000 French, under the 
 English Duke of Berwick, over a much inferior force of 
 British and Spanish troops, under the command of Henri 
 de Euvigny, Earl of Galway. Pop. 8736. 
 
 ALMANSOR, a river, Portugal, prov. Alemtejo, an 
 affluent of the Tagus, which it joins 24 m. N.E. of Lisbon, on 
 the left bank, after a course of 24 m. 
 
 ALMANZORA, a river, Spain, in the E. of Andalusia, 
 prov. Almeria. It rises in the sierra Baza, near the town of 
 Serron, takes an E.S.E. course for about 50 m., when it falls 
 into the Mediterranean, 5 m. N.E. from Vera. During siunmei 
 it is an insignificant stream. 
 
 ALMARAZ, a small tn. Spain, in Estremadura, prov. 
 Caceres, on the N. bank of the Tagus, crossed here by a fine 
 bridge, 135 ft. in span; 29 m. N.N.E. Truxillo; mean and 
 ill built, having a small parish church, townhall, prison, and 
 500 inhabitants, and only worthy of mention as having been 
 the scene of a successful surprise of the French, on May 1 7, 
 1812, by the British under General Hill. The towers and 
 other works, set up by the former, were destroyed ; their 
 stores, ammunition, provisions, and boats burned ; and more 
 than 250 prisoners captured, including 17 officers. The 
 British lost only about 180 men and two officers. The rapidity 
 with which the whole was done, formed the chief element of 
 Hill s success. (Napier s Peninsular War, vol. v. p. 19.) 
 
 ALMAS. 1, A vil. Brazil, prov. Goyaz, GO m. E. city 
 of Natividade. It is situated in a hollow, and consists of 
 a few irregular streets. The houses are built of large un- 
 burnt bricks, made of clay, mixed with chopped grass, and 
 dried in the sun ; they are low, and have a mean appearance. 
 It has a church in a ruinous condition. The country around 
 is well adapted for plantations, but the extreme indolence of 
 the inhabitants prevents it being turned to any account. The 
 latter are mostly blacks and mulattoes, and amount to about 
 800. (Gardner s Brazil.} 2, A river of the same name in 
 the S. of the same prov., falls into the Maranhao, about lat. 
 14 C 22 S., after a course of about 90 m. (Die. Geo. Imp. 
 Brazil.} 
 
 ALMAS, a large market tn. Hungary, co. Bachs, about 
 22 m. E. of the Danube ; lat. 46 7 N. ; Ion. 19 23 E. 
 
 Pop., chiefly R. catholics, 8500. ALMAS, either singly 
 
 or with various prefixes, is the name of not fewer than 39 
 places in Hungary, and of numerous places in Siebenburgen 
 or Transylvania. 
 
 ALMAZAN, a walled tn. Spain, in Old Castile, prov of, 
 and 20 m. S. from Soria, on the Duero, here crossed by a 
 stone bridge. The streets are generally well built, and paved 
 with pebbles, though uneven. The square contains the 
 townhall, session house, prison, hospital, and.a spacious palace 
 belonging to the Counts of Altamira. Almazan has six 
 parish churches, three chapels, three convents, and a fine 
 cemetery. The walls are of great solidity, and have six 
 gates; subterranean passages, well arched, communicate with 
 the river and with the extramural convent of San Francisco. 
 Manufactures : Earthenware, baize, and woollen and linen 
 fabrics. Pop. 2400. 
 
 ALMAZARRON, or MAZZARON, a tn. and port, Spain, 
 prov. of, and 30 m. S. by W. from Murcia, and 20 m. W. 
 Cartagena. It is well built, with wide though crooked and 
 steep streets, and comprises two parish churches, a convent, 
 school, town and session house, prison, several storn houses. 
 
ALMAZOKA 
 
 ALMERTA 
 
 and a cemetery. The people are employed in mining, fishing, 
 the preparation of carbonate of soda, saltpetre, alum, and 
 ochre; in smelting metals, preserving capers, the manufacture 
 of esparto cordage, in tillage, and as muleteers. Grain, fruits, 
 especially figs and vegetables, are raised in the vicinity; 
 sheep, goats, and mules, are reared; and mines of iron, 
 copper, argentiferous lead and zinc, are wrought. As a 
 port, the trade of Almazarron is small, being chiefly coast 
 ing; the average number of vessels that entered and sailed 
 from it in the years 1844-5, was 556, of which 517 were 
 coasting; aggregate tonnage, 61,299. Pop. 6814. (Madoz, 
 Diccio. de Espana.) 
 
 ALMAZORA, a tn. Spain, in Valencia, prov. of, and 
 4 m. S. from Castellon de la Plana, in a plain on the left bank 
 of the Mijares; in lat. 39 56 N. ; Ion. 5 W. ; 4 in from 
 the sea. The town comprises several spacious and well- 
 paved squares and streets, and contains an ancient parish 
 church, a respectable courthouse, an endowed school, hospital, 
 and prison. Manufactures : Linen and woollen fabrics, bass 
 mats, nnd paper. The country around is fertile, and produces 
 wheat, barley, maize, wine, oil, figs, oranges, with many other 
 fruits and vegetables, especially capsicums, of unusual size 
 and weight ; sheep, goats, and cattle arc reared, and some 
 fishing carried on. Pop. 3636. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALMEBY, or ALMERI.EY, a par. England, co. Hereford; 
 area, 3630 ac. ; 6J m. W. Weobly. Pop. in 1841, 642. 
 
 ALMEIDA, a tn. Brazil, prov. Espirito-Santo, agreeably 
 situated on a height fronting the sea, at the mouth of the 
 Keis-Magos. about 20m. N. of the town of Victoria of Espirito- 
 Santo. It possesses a church, an extensive market place, and 
 a large edifice erected by the Jesuits, who founded the town 
 in 1580, and which is now used as the townhall, the jail, and 
 the curate s dwelling house. The inhabitants, chiefly Indians 
 and half breeds, are on the increase, and employ themselves 
 in fishing, in raising the necessaries of life, in felling building 
 timber for export, and in manufacturing earthenware. The 
 women cultivate and spin cotton. Some export trade is 
 carried on in these products of industry with Victoria and 
 Kio de Janeiro. Pop. 4000. (Die. Geo. Imp. Brazil.} 
 
 ALMEIDA, a fortified tn. Portugal, prov. Beira-alta, 
 53 m. S.E. Lamego, on an elevated plain on the right bank of 
 the Coa, within 8 m. of the Spanish frontier ; lat. 40 43 N. ; 
 Ion. 6 52 W. ; and containing an hospital, monastery, 
 church, and poor s house. It is one of the strongest, and, 
 from its position near the Spanish frontier, one of the most 
 important fortresses in Portugal. After the convention of 
 Cintra, in 1808, Almeida was surrendered by the French, and 
 the garrison marched to Oporto. For a while after, it re 
 mained in possession of the British ; but, on the night of Aug 
 27, 1810, it again fell into the hands of the French, under 
 Massena, being retaken by the English in May 1811, and 
 restored to Portugal. Pop. 1 150. (Napier s Peninsular War, 
 vol. iii. p. 517 ; Taloa Geografico Luzitana.) 
 
 ALMEIRIM, or ALMEYRIM, a tn. Portugal, prov. Estre- 
 madura, 5 m. S.E. Santarem. The town, built by John I., 
 in 1411, has a royal castle, church, hospital, and workhouse. 
 Pop. 1382. 
 
 ALMELO, a tn. Holland, prov. Overijssel, cap. of 
 arrond. arid canton of same name, 25 m. S.E. Zwolle, and 22 
 m. N.E. Deventer, on the Almelosehe Aa, on an affluent of the 
 Regge, by means of which it has water communication for 
 track boats with Zwolle. It is a comfortable trading town, 
 and possesses a handsome townhall, a Calvinistic and a Baptist 
 church, a Jewish synagogue, two ordinary schools, and one 
 for Latin and modern languages. Formerly, a considerable 
 business was done here in weaving and bleaching linen, which 
 has, however, decreased, in consequence of the more general 
 use of cotton. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in pre 
 paring yarn and cotton goods ; and they carry on a good trade 
 in corn. The town has likewise a steam cotton spinncry, a 
 gin distillery, a brewery, snuffmill, three cornmills, smithies, 
 soapboilery, calenders, &c. Pop. 3000. (Van der Aa s 
 Ncderlanden.) 
 
 ALMENDRALEJO, a tn. Spain, in Estremadura, prov. 
 of, and 28 m. S.E. from Badajos, on a gentle slope in the 
 midst of a fertile plain. It comprises one grand square, with 
 numerous, generally well-constructed, paved, and clean streets, 
 ornamented with arcades and water courses. In the square is 
 a handsome promenade lined with acacias, and adorned with 
 
 j a fountain of excellent water. The parish church, townhonse, 
 five schools, a capacious prison, an extensive bull ring, and a 
 theatre, are the chief public edifices of the town. The in 
 habitants are employed in agriculture, weaving, expressing 
 oil, and distilling brandy on an extensive scale. The com 
 merce is confined to the importation of colonial requisites, and 
 the export of considerable quantities of wheat, barley, oats, and 
 a small quantity of beans and pease. A considerable number 
 of sheep, horses, and mules, and a few goats, are reared in the 
 vicinity. Pop. 5810. 
 
 ALMENNO SAN SALVATORE, a tn. Venetian Lorn- 
 hardy, cap. of district of same name, prov. of, and 7 m. N. W. 
 from Bergamo, on an eminence near the foot of Mount St. 
 Bernard, on the right bank of the river Brembo, formerly 
 crossed by a handsome stone bridge with eight arches, of 
 which the piles only now remain. The town is well built, 
 and comprises several churches ; a noble townhouse, adorned 
 with numerous fine paintings ; an hospital, and a castle. The 
 inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the cultivation of grain and 
 fruits, especially grapes, and rearing sheep, cattle, &c. An 
 annual fair is held in February. Pop. of town, 1772 ; of 
 district, 14,302. (Dido. Univ. Italia.} 
 
 ALMER, a par. England, co. Dorset ; area, 1520 ac. ; 
 6 m. S.S.E. Blandford. Pop. in 1841, 189. 
 
 ALMERIA, a maritime prov. Spain, in Andalusia, and 
 forming a part of what once was the kingdom of Granada. It 
 is bounded, N. by Jaen and Murcia ; E. and S. by the Mediter 
 ranean Sea, from San Juan Ferreros to the river Adra ; and W. 
 by the provs. of Granada and Malaga ; area, 3906 sq. m. Its 
 j whole surface is covered with mountains of greater or less ele- 
 I vation ; but it presents also numerous, and sometimes extensive, 
 | valleys, spreading out into open plains, which are as fertile as 
 the mountains are barren. The principal sierras are, in the 
 W., some offsets of the sierra Nevada, among which maybe 
 named the sierra Sador, whose culminating peak, 6575 ft. 
 high, is covered with snow three quarters of the year ; in the 
 N., the limestone chain, under various names, forming the 
 boundary between Almeria and Granada, and its offsets, 
 sierra de Maria, sierra de Oria, and sierra de la Estancias ; S. 
 of the last named sierra lies the gneiss range, the sierra de 
 Filabres, whose culminating point, C abeza de Maria, is 6270 ft. 
 high ; S. from this chain lies the limestone range of sierra 
 Aljamilla, terminating at the sea in the trachytic and basaltic 
 cliffs of Cape Gata. The province is rich in mines of silver, 
 lead, iron, copper, and antimony; nitre, jasper, and marble, 
 are also obtained ; and large quantities of salt are procured 
 from salines, or salt pools. The soil of the valleys, as already 
 alluded to, is good, and produces maize, sugar, grapes, and 
 southern fruits .abundantly ; and depastures cattle, which are 
 somewhat famed. Besides agriculture, the principal occu 
 pation is connected with the extensive mining operations car 
 ried on. (See ALMAGRERA.) Esparto cordage, matting, and 
 baskets, white lead, soap, soda, and earthenware, are manu 
 factured ; the products of the soil, and of the mines, esparto, 
 barilla, and soap, are exported ; and manufactured cloths of 
 various kinds imported. Education in this province is in a 
 low state; and crimes are numerous, though in this respect it 
 contrasts favourably with Alicante and Ciudad Real. Pop. 
 292,334. (Madoz, Diccio. de Espana.} 
 
 ALMERIA [aric. Murgis], a city and port of Spain, in 
 Andalusia, on the Mediterranean, cap. of a prov. of its own 
 name, near the mouth of the river Almeria, and on the gulf 
 of the same name, 104m E. Malaga; lat 36 50 N. ; Ion. 
 2 32 W. (R.) It stands S. of the sierra de Enix, in an ex 
 tensive and fertile plain ; it is in great part enclosed by Moorish 
 bastioned walls, about 2 m. in circuit, and is defended sea 
 ward by the two forts of Trinidad and Tiro. The streets are 
 narrow, tortuous, and ill built, but tolerably well paved and 
 clean, lined chiefly with houses erected round small internal 
 squares, forming court yards. It has five squares, one of which, 
 the Plaza de la Constitution, contains the town and provincial 
 halls, and some Government offices, and likewise serves as a 
 market place. The other public establishments are a Gothic 
 cathedral, founded in 1524, and four parish churches ; a theo 
 logical college, attended by 80 students ; a college for classi 
 cal and other literature (colegio de human/datles), attended by 
 about 50 students ; a ladies college, and seven primary, and 
 five advanced schools, under a provincial junta, or patriotic 
 society of the Amigos del pais ; a charitable hospital, cus- 
 
 13 
 
ALMERIA 
 
 torn honso on tlie quay, theatre, nnd small, incommodious, 
 
 and unhealthy prison. On a hill rising 240 ft. above the sea, 
 
 is an old Moorish fort, called the Alca/.aba, about 1560 ft. in 
 
 length from E. to W., and about 300 ft. in breadth. Leaving 
 
 the town N.E. is 
 
 a prettily-planted 
 
 nlameda,2-10yds. 
 
 long, and in the 
 
 suburb of las Hu- 
 
 crtas is another, 
 
 500 yards long. 
 
 TheportofAlme- 
 
 ria is without a 
 
 mole, though it is 
 
 proposed to erect 
 
 one. In the bay, 
 
 however, there is 
 
 good and safe an 
 
 chorage in 12 and 
 
 14 fathoms. The 
 
 port is one of 
 
 the second class. 
 
 About 130 Span 
 
 ish, and about 355 
 
 foreign vessels, of 
 
 an aggregate tonn. 
 
 of about 130,000 
 tons, enter and 
 
 leave the port annually ; besides which, the port has between 
 700 and 800 coasters. The export trade consists principally in 
 lead, esparto, and barilla, large quantities of which are raised 
 on the plain adjoining the town. The average value of the 
 exports amounts to 248,298. Its imports comprise coal, 
 fire bricks, woollen, cotton, and silk fabrics, &c., to an annual 
 average value of 247,986. The internal industry of the 
 town, which at present is quite inconsiderable, comprises the 
 preparation of soap, with manufactures of coarse linen and 
 woollen fabrics, sombrero hats, earthenware, bricks, saltpetre, 
 and esparto mats and cordage. Pop. 17,800. (Madoz, Diccio. 
 de Espa/iia.} 
 
 ALMERIA (GULF OF), Spain, in Granada, having Cape 
 Gata on the E., and Point Elena on the W., about 25 in. in 
 width at the entrance, and in depth inland about 10 m. ; lat. 
 36 51 N. ; Ion. 2 32 W. 
 
 ALMERODE (Gaoss), a tn. Hesse-Cassel, 23 m. W. 
 Cassel; lat. 51 17 N.; Ion. 9 45 E. ; has considerable 
 manufactures of the well-known Hessian crucibles, pipes, 
 billiard balls, china, and earthenware, with alum and vitrol 
 refineries, and some coalworks. Pop. 2107. 
 
 ALMIRANTE, a bay, Veragua. See BOCA DEL TORO. 
 
 ALMISSA [Sclavonic, Olmisch], a small tn. Austria, prov. 
 Dalmatia, on the coast of the Adriatic, near the mouth of the 
 Cettina, about 14 m. S.E. Spalatro. The vicinity affords 
 good timber for shipbuilding, which is shipped at the port of 
 Almissa for the neighbouring islands of Brazza and Curzola. 
 Pop., which seems to be decreasing, about 730. 
 
 ALMKERK, a vil. Holland, prov. N. Brabant, 8 m. 
 N.W. Heusden, and 7 m. N.E. Geertruidenberg, on the right 
 bank of the Aim, whence it derives its name. It has a Cal- 
 vinistic church, a school, and an annual horse fair, held in 
 June. Pop. 1100. 
 
 ALMODOVAR, a small tn. Portugal, prov. Alemtejo, 
 13 m. S.E. Ourique, on the high road between that place and 
 Faro. Pop. 2428. 
 
 ALMODOVAR DEL CAMPO. 1, A tn. Spain, in New 
 Castile, prov. of, and 18 m. S. by W. from Ciudad Real, on 
 the summit of the ridge of St. Briget, an offset of the sierra 
 Morena. The town comprises a square, and several well- 
 arranged, clean, and commodious, though badly-paved streets, 
 with exception of a few on the hill called del Castillo. The 
 public buildings are a parish church, with a tower containing 
 the town clock; a courthouse, school, prison, two public 
 fountains, the ruins of an ancient castle, and a convent, used 
 as an hospital in the civil war, now appropriated to the 
 incongruous purposes of a theatre nnd oilmill. The inhabit 
 ants are chiefly employed in agriculture, rearing cattle, grind 
 ing corn, and manufacturing oil, for which latter purposes 
 windmills are used. The women manufacture blonde, stuffs, 
 and other materials for wearing apparel. Pop. 5G20. 2, AL- 
 
 ALMERIA flioM THK SEA WALL From Chapuy, L E>pa.> 
 
 ALMONDBURY 
 
 MonovAR-DEi,-Rio. a tn. in Andalusia, prov. of, and 15. m. W. 
 by S. from Cordova. Pop. 1292. 3, ALMODOVAR-DEL-PINAR, 
 a tn. in New Castile, prov. of, and 28 m. S.E. from Cuencn. 
 Pop. 934. (Madoz. Diccio. de EspaKa.} 
 
 ALMOGIA, 
 a tn. Spain, in 
 Granada, prov. 
 of, and 15 m. N. 
 by W. from Ma 
 laga, at the base 
 of a mountain, 
 about 2 m. to the 
 right of the river 
 Campanilles. The 
 town comprises 
 about 443 houses, 
 and contains a pa 
 rish church, town 
 hall, ruinous cas 
 tle, two schools, a 
 storehouse, and a 
 prison. Manu 
 factures : Hard 
 ware, wax, soft 
 soap, woollen fa 
 brics, oil, and 
 brandy. Grain, 
 wine, oil, fruits, 
 
 and vegetables, honey and wool, are produced in the sur 
 rounding country. Pop. 4068. 
 
 ALMOGUERA, or UCEKO, a river, Spain, in Old Castile, 
 rising in the sierra Umbria, near San Leonardo, prov. Soria, 
 and after pursuing a winding S. course of about 40 m., it falls 
 into the Duero. 
 
 ALMOHARIN, a tn. Spain, in Estremadura, prov. of, 
 and 32 m. S.S.E. from Caceres, at the S. base of the rocky 
 ridge of St. Cristobal, by which it is protected from the N. 
 wind. The streets are narrow, tortuous, and most of them 
 unpavecl; in the square are the parish church, townhouse, 
 prison, public granary, and an endowed school. Manufac 
 tures: Wine, oil, flour, and linen and woollen fabrics. 
 Many of the inhabitants are engaged in husbandry. Pop. 2191. 
 ALMONASTER LA REAL, a tn. Spain, in Andalu 
 sia, prov. of, and 32 m. N. from Huelva, on an elevated 
 ridge near the brook Nogales. Its streets are inconveniently 
 steep, but well arranged, paved, and clean. The town con 
 tains a parish church and a chapel, situated in the square; a 
 ruinous castle, endowed school, public fountain, and cemetery. 
 Sheep and goats are reared, and exported to Cadiz and Sevilla ; 
 and grain and wine are imported from Estremadura and 
 Niebla. Pop. 2007. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALMOND, or AMON, the name of two rivers in Scotland, 
 one wholly in Perthshire, and the other having its source in 
 Lanarkshire. The former rises in the hills, about midway 
 between Loch Earn and Loch Tay, flows in a S.E. direction, 
 and falls into the river Tay near Scone, or about 2 \ m. above 
 Perth. It is a bold and rapid stream, abounds with trout and 
 salmon, and presents, at numerous points, scenery of the most 
 picturesque and beautiful description. Its entire course is 
 about 25 to 30 in. in length. The latter rises in the high 
 grounds in Lanarkshire, flows in a N.E. direction, forming, 
 during a part of its course, the boundary between the counties 
 of Edinburgh and Linlithgow, and finally falls into the Forth 
 at Cramond, about 5 m. above Leith. It is crossed at two 
 different points, within a short distance of each other, by the 
 aqueduct of the Glasgow Union Canal, and the viaduct of the 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, both noble structures. The 
 entire length of its course is about 25 m. 
 
 ALMONDBURY, a large vil., township, and par. in 
 England, co. York, W. Riding, wapentake Agbrigg. The 
 village lies on the river Calder, 2 m. S.E. Huddersfield, and 
 35 m. S.W. York. The parish church is a neat structure of 
 pointed architecture, with a tower and six bells. There is 
 here a free grammar school founded by James I., a Wesleyan 
 school, and a national school. The principal manufactures 
 of the village and township are fancy goods, which are pro 
 duced in great variety, chiefly cloths for waistcoatings ; but 
 shawls, and broad and narrow cloths, are also manufactured to 
 a considerable extent. The weavers of these fabrics generally 
 
ALMONDSBURY 
 
 ALNWICK 
 
 work at home, having most of them one or more looms in 
 then- houses. Of the former there are, altogether, about 2000 
 in the township. Almondbury is a place of great antiquity, 
 and is said to have been the residence of some of the Saxon 
 kings. It is also supposed to be the Cambodunum of the 
 Komans. The inhabitants of both the village and parish are 
 chiefly employed in cotton, woollen, and silk mills, of which 
 there are several in the parish. Area of par., 30,140 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 37,315; of township, 8828. 
 
 ALMONDSBURY, a par. England, co. Gloucester; 
 area, 6950 ac. ; 6 m. N.E. Bristol. Pop. 1584. 
 
 ALMONTE, a river, Spain, in Estremadura, formed by 
 the union of three streams rising in the sierra de Guadaloupe, 
 in the neighbourhood of Logrosan, prov. Caceres. It takes 
 a N.W. and somewhat zigzag course, and falls into the Tagus, 
 after receiving the Megasca and numerous other affluents. 
 Its entire length is about 75 in. 
 
 ALMONTE, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 22 m. E. from Huelva, on the side of a gentle slope, sur 
 rounded by plantations of olives and pines. It consists of a 
 square, and several inconvenient and dirty streets, rendered 
 yet more filthy by the impurities conveyed into them by pipes 
 from the houses, most of which are mean and confined. The 
 town contains two churches; a municipal house, supported by 
 arches and thick marble columns; an endowed school, a 
 wretched prison, and a cemetery. In the vicinity are four 
 windmills, one water mill, and eight oilmills. Oil, wine, 
 and live stock are exported. Grain, though in insufficient 
 quantity for local use, and abundance of oil and wine, are 
 produced ; 2000 or 3000 milch cows, and 500 brood mares, are 
 kept ; and considerable numbers of sheep, goats, and pigs, 
 reared. Pop. 3779. 
 
 ALMORA, a tn. and fortress, Hindoostan, cap. district of 
 Kumaoon, 170 m. E.N.E. Delhi; lat. 29 35 30" N.; Ion. 
 79 38 38" E. (L.) ; on a hill or ridge 5400 ft. above the sea. 
 In 1790 it was taken by the Goorkhas, who were expelled in 
 1815 by the British, to whom the whole province was at that 
 time ceded. The town is compactly built, and consists chiefly 
 of a single street, 6 furlongs in length, and 50 ft. wide; having 
 a natural pavement of rock, with a gateway at each end. 
 The houses are of stone; the lowest stories, open in front, 
 with square pillars, are used as shops; and the upper project 
 ing stories are faced with wood. The sloping roof s are slated 
 and neat, but the piles of straw, or hay, with which they are 
 covered by the inhabitants for winter provision to their cattle, 
 greatly disiigure the appearance of the town. In airy situa 
 tions around, there are a number of bungalows, or low stone 
 cottages, built by Government for civil and military invalids. 
 On the E. extremity of the ridge of Almora stands the old 
 Goorkha fort, built of stone; and to the E. of it are several mar- 
 tello towers. The new citadel, named Fort Moira, erected on 
 the W. extremity by the British, is a parallelogram, with six 
 bastions, but, from its situation, is incapable of a lengthened 
 defence ; and, being composed of the friable material of the 
 hill, is fast going to decay. The natives of Almora are 
 described as honest and peaceful, but little advanced in civil 
 ization ; the surrounding country is bleak, and subject to 
 frequent earthquakes ; the climate temperate, and by no means 
 unhealthy. (Hamilton s East India Gaz.; Heber s Journal.} 
 
 ALMORAD1, a tn. Spain, in Valencia, prov. of, and 
 28 m. S.S.W. from Alicante, on the left bank of the Segura; 
 having a square, and several tolerable streets, a parish church, 
 an endowed school, and a small hospital. Brandy distilling, 
 .soap making, dyeing, oil expressing, and flour grinding, are 
 carried on. Wheat, maize, barley, and various fruits and 
 vegetables are raised. Pop. 3095. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALMOR1TIA, or BALLYMORAN, a par. Ireland, co. 
 Westmcath ; area, 2205 ac. Pop. in 1841, 700. 
 
 ALMSFORD, a par. England, co. Somerset; area, 920 
 ac. ; near Wells. Pop. in 1841, 293. 
 
 ALMU^ECAR, a small city and seaport, Spain, in 
 Andalusia, on the Mediterranean, prov. of, and 38 m. S. from 
 Granada; lat. 36 47 50" N.; Ion. 3 25 10" W. (c.) The 
 town, formerly Moorish, is in general well built, and has 
 clean streets. Its public buildings comprise a parish church, 
 chapel of ease, townhall, prison, three schools, public store 
 house, and the remains of a citadel. The inhabitants are 
 occupied in agriculture, and in the manufacture of sugar, 
 earthenware, and cotton fabrics; their trade, once flourishing, 
 
 is now insignificant, and is solely in fruits and colonial 
 requisites. The port is only adapted for small vessels, being 
 much exposed to dangerous E. winds. The vicinity produces 
 grain, fruits, vegetables, and wine of superior quality ; and all 
 kinds of domestic cattle are reared. Pop. 5000. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALMUN1A DE DO5JA GODINA (LA), a tn. Spain, in 
 Aragon, prov. of, and 24 m. S. W. from Saragossa, pleasantly 
 situated on a plain near the small river Grio. it is surrounded 
 by decayed walls, in which are three gates, and is tolerably 
 well built. It contains a spacious central square, parish 
 church, and church of the Knights of St. John ; some schools, a 
 handsomely-built consistory, storehouse, asylum, and abattoir. 
 The inhabitants are chiefly occupied in preparing soap and 
 distilling brandy. Pop. 2560. 
 
 ALNE, a par. England, co. York, N. Riding; area, 10,250 
 ac.; 4 m. S.W. by S. Easingwold. Pop. in 1841, 1703. 
 
 ALN EMOUTH, or ALEMOUTH, a small seaport, England, 
 co. Northumberland ; partly on the slope of n low hill, at the 
 mouth of the river Alne, 4 m. E.S.E. Alnwick. The houses 
 are part stone and part brick, and but indifferently built; the 
 streets crooked, and not very well kept. There is some trade 
 in exporting corn and other farm produce, and in importing 
 timber and general merchandise, from the Netherlands. There 
 is also a considerable fishery. Pop. in 1841, 480. 
 
 ALNESS, a par. Scotland, co. Ross ; extreme length, 
 about 20 m.; average breadth, 5 m. Pop. in 1841, 1067. 
 
 ALNEY (Isi.E OF), a small isl. in the river Severn, 
 England, about 1 m. W. the town of Gloucester. John 
 Olney, a charterhouse monk in the reign of Edward III., the 
 author of a few of the old Miracle Plays, was born here. 
 
 ALNHAM, a par. England, co. Northumberland; area, 
 10,360 ac. Pop. in 1841, 256. 
 
 ALNO, an isl., about 9 m. long, by 4 m. broad, in the 
 Gulf of Bothnia, S. of Hemosaud, on the coast of Sweden; 
 lat. 62 25 N. ; Ion. 17 20 E. ; with iron mines, chalk quar 
 ries, and herring fisheries. 
 
 ALNWICK, a market tn. and par. England, co. Nor 
 thumberland, Coquetdale ward, E division. The town is 
 pleasantly situated on the declivity of a hill sloping down 
 to the river Alne, from which it derives its name; 25 m. 
 S.E. Berwick, and 32 m. N. Newcastle. It is connected by 
 a short branch, of about 5 m. in length, with the Berwick 
 and Newcastle Railway. The streets are in general spacious, 
 well paved, and lighted with gas, and the town throughout 
 abundantly supplied with water. The houses are mostly of 
 freestone, many of them handsome, and nearly all of modern 
 erection; few of the ancient buildings now remaining. The 
 market place, a large area or square, occupies the centre of 
 the town. On one side is the townhall, an extensive building 
 surmounted with a square tower, erected in 1731 ; containing, 
 with other conveniences, a large and elegant hall, in which 
 fashionable assemblies were occasionally held in former times. 
 On another side of the square stands a beautiful modern 
 structure, erected in 1827, by the Duke of Northumberland, 
 the lower part of which is occupied as markets, the upper by 
 a handsome assembly room and reading room. The parish 
 church is a large Gothic structure with a neat tower. The 
 R. catholic chapel is also a handsome edifice. There are, 
 besides, several meeting houses for dissenters, a number of 
 excellent schools, a dispensary, and several charities ; a me 
 chanics institute, with library and philosophical instruments 
 attached. But the object of greatest interest in Alnwick 
 is its ancient castle, one of the seats of the Dukes of Nor 
 thumberland. This magnificent specimen of the old baronial 
 residence for nu-my centuries a fortress of great strength, 
 and as such celebrated in Border history stands on an emin 
 ence which rises from the S. side of the river Alne, opposite 
 to the town. It is believed to have been founded by the 
 Romans; at any rate, it has been ascertained that the site was 
 previously occupied by Roman buildings. About the year 
 1830, the castle was repaired and restored at an expense of 
 nearly 200,000, and is now in appearance precisely what 
 it was in the days of border chivalry, ingeniously combined 
 with modern elegancies and conveniences. The avenue form 
 ing the approach to the mansion is superb; while the grounds, 
 which are 5 m. long, and through which flows the Alne, ex 
 hibit every species of natural and artificial beauty. A cross, 
 called Malcolm s Cross, marks the spot where Malcolm III. 
 is said to have been killed by a soldier, who, on pretence of 
 
ALONIA 
 
 100 
 
 ALPES 
 
 delivering him the keys of the castle, which he presented on 
 the point of a spear, thrust the weapon into his body. 
 
 Alnwick possesses but few facilities for either trade or 
 manufactures. There are, however, several tanneries, brew 
 eries, and brick and tile works in the town ; and a considerable 
 business is done in the produce of the fertile country around, 
 chiefly corn, pork, and eggs, which are sent to Alemouth or 
 Alnumoutli, the port of the town, at the mouth of the river, 
 where they are shipped for the London market. The corpor 
 ation consists of a bailiff, nominated by the Duke of Northum 
 berland; 24 common councilman, including four chamberlains. 
 The quarter sessions for the county are held here, in turn with 
 Newcastle, Hexham, and Morpeth; and there is a county 
 court monthly for the recovery of small debts. Area of par., 
 16,250 ac. Pop. in 1841, G62G. (Correspondent in Alnwick.) 
 
 ALONIA, or LIMAN PASHA [anc. Hulone], a small isl. 
 Asiatic Turkey, in the Sea of Marmora, whose inhabitants 
 are employed in wine growing, and rearing silkworms. It 
 has a capital of the same name, the residence of a Greek 
 metropolitan bishop. 
 
 ALOKA, a city, Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 24 m. 
 N.W. from Malaga, occupying a mountainous and exposed site 
 near the foot of the sierra del Hacho. It has two squares, 
 which, with the two principal streets, are well built and paved ; 
 the remaining part of the town is very irregular and hilly. 
 The grand square contains the parish church, parts of which 
 are good specimens of Ionic architecture. The other public 
 buildings consist of an hospital, prison, several schools, alms- 
 houses ; three convents, with churches attached ; and the re 
 mains of an ancient Gothic castle. Agriculture, expressing oil, 
 and the manufacture of soap and sulphate of soda, are the chief 
 employments!. Grain, fruit, vegetables, and superior wine are 
 raised in the vicinity, and some sheep and cattle are reared, 
 for the sale of which a fair is held in August. Pop. 6794. 
 
 A LOST, a tn. Belgium, prov. E. Flanders, near the con 
 fines of S. Brabant; 15 m. W.N.W. Brussels, and 3 in. S. the 
 Audegem station of the Ostende and Brussels Railway. It 
 Ls surrounded with walls, which have five gates; and is tra 
 versed by the Dender, which has been converted into a canal, 
 from Alost to its junction with the Scheldt at Termonde or 
 Dendermonde, 8 m. below. The finest building in the town 
 is the church of St. Martin, said to be by the architect of the 
 cathedral of Amiens. It is either unfinished, or has been 
 partially destroyed ; but the part existing forms one of the 
 largest and finest churches in Belgium, and is adorned by a 
 celebrated picture by Rubens St. Roch beseeching our 
 Saviour to stay the plague of Alost. AVithin the church is 
 the mausoleum of Thierry Martens, a native of the town, who 
 introduced the art of printing into Belgium A.D. 1475. The 
 inscription states, with some ambiguity, and without much 
 regard to accuracy, that he was the first printer of Germany, 
 France, and the Netherlands. The only other buildings 
 worthy of notice are the townhouse, which was founded A.D. 
 1200, and has been recently rebuilt; and the college, which is 
 a handsome structure. The chief public institutions, beside the 
 college, are the hospital, the academy of design, the chamber 
 of commerce, and the horticultural society. Both the trade 
 and manufactures of Alost are of considerable importance. 
 The former is in corn, oil, and particularly hops, which arc 
 extensively grown in the neighbourhood. The latter are 
 chiefly lace, cotton goods, hats, leather, glue, chicory, tobacco, 
 and the various products of numerous breweries, distilleries, 
 salt refineries, flax and cotton mills, bleachfields, printfields, 
 dyeworks, copper and iron foundries. Alost, of which the 
 earliest mention in charters is A.D. 870, was anciently the 
 capital of what was called imperial Flanders. The French, 
 under Turenne, took it in 1667, but were obliged to abandon 
 it after their signal defeat by Marlborough, at Ramelies, in 
 1706. Several Roman coins have been found in the neigh 
 bourhood. Pop. 15,000. (.Meert, Diet, de la Btlgique.) 
 
 ALOUTA. See ALUTA. 
 
 ALOZAYNA, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 26 m. N.W. from Malaga, on the N. side of a ridge of rock. 
 It is, on the whole, respectably built, though inconvenient from 
 the steepness of the hill, and has a good central square, ;i parish 
 church, and some schools ; a consistory, hospital, prison, and 
 several public fountains. The inhabitants are principally 
 employed in husbandry, in grinding corn and oil, and in 
 making hardware, earthenware, and tiles. Pop. 2920. 
 
 ALPERA, a tn. Spain, in Murcia, prov. of, and 28 m. S.E. 
 from Albacete, situated on rough, uneven, ground, in an ex 
 posed, mountainous situation. It is clean, and has three good 
 squares, a parish church, and some schools ; a townhall, old 
 ruined palace, storehouse, and prison. The inhabitants carry 
 on some trade in cattle, but are chiefly agricultural. Pop. 2430. 
 
 ALPES (BASSES) [Lower Alps], a frontier dep. in the S.E. 
 of France, on the AV. slope of the Alps mountains, forming 
 part of ancient Provence, with the addition of the rich valley 
 of Barcelonnette, formerly in Dauphine" ; bounded, E. by 
 Piedmont, W. by the deps. Vaucluse and Drome ; S. by 
 that of the Var, and N. by that of the Hautes Alpes ; area, 
 1,686,127 ac.; only about a fourth part of which is arable 
 land, while nearly one-half is covered with heather and 
 moss, and about a sixth with wood. The whole depart 
 ment is of a decidedly mountainous character, being traversed 
 and intersected almost throughout by a ramification of the 
 Alps, several of whose summits attain elevations from 7000 
 to 9000 ft., and are never free of snow. The slopes of the 
 mountains are generally covered with wood, but not unfre- 
 quently yield a rich pasturage, on which numerous flocks of 
 sheep, brought hither in spring after having been wintered 
 at Aries, are said to thrive remarkably. Between the moun 
 tains, numerous valleys, some of them of considerable extent, 
 intervene. They are generally very fertile, yielding on the 
 higher levels rich herbage, and in the plains good crops of 
 grain, and large quantities of fruit. The inhabitants of the 
 more sheltered districts cultivate the olive, the mulberry, the 
 plum, the fig, and the almond. In several communes the 
 vine also is carefully cultivated, and yields a wine of tolerable 
 quality for home consumption. Bees are reared in consider 
 able numbers ; and among the articles exported are honey, 
 dried fruits, &c. The horses are small in size, and few in 
 number, mules and asses being preferred to them. Goats are 
 game, and wild animals are numerous. The chamois is com 
 mon on the mountain steeps, and the wolf not unfrequently 
 makes his appearance. Lead, calamine, copper, and iron, 
 with some coal, are among the mineral productions of the 
 department. The manufactures, not important, consist prin 
 cipally of hats, coarse woollen stuffs, some silks, leather, 
 paper, earthenware, and brandy. During a part of the year, 
 many of the poorer inhabitants emigrate into other provinces 
 in quest of employment. Salt springs are found near Castel- 
 lane, and mineral waters at Greoux. Pop. in 1846, 156,675. 
 (Diet, de la France ; French Official Papers.) 
 
 ALPES (HAUTES) [Upper Alps], a dep. France, forming 
 part of the S.E. of Dauphine*, and a small part of Provence, 
 lying on the AV. slope of the Alps ; bounded, E. by the Sar 
 dinian States, W. by the dep. of Drome, N.W. by that of 
 the Isere, and S. by that of the Basses Alpes ; area, 1,366,561 
 ac., of which nearly one-half is occupied by moors, heaths, and 
 waste lands, while not a fourth part consists of arable land, 
 meadows, and vineyards. Like the department of the Basses 
 Alpes, it is covered almost throughout by enormous masses of 
 mountains, several of which are among the loftiest of the 
 Alpine range. Mont Pelvoux, the highest mountain in 
 France, is in this department, and its culminating peak, called 
 the Pointe dcs Arsines, or des Ecrines, is 13,442 ft. above 
 the level of the sea. The height of Mont Gene vre is 11,788 ft. 
 The scenery is described as being wild and savage, but impos 
 ing. The mountains, on their S. side, are almost arid and 
 bare ; but on the N. side, are covered with forests, which ascend 
 almost to the limits of vegetation. The climate presents all 
 the vicissitudes and sudden changes of a mountain region 
 violent hurricanes, storms of hail, heavy falls of rain and 
 .snow. In general, however, the air is clear, and not much 
 subject to the unwholesome fogs with which districts of the 
 same description are frequently visited. Winter, in the higher 
 valleys, prevails for eight months, during which the inhabit 
 ants are shut out from all communication with their neighbours. 
 The department contains several lakes. The chief streams 
 are the Durance, the Guil, the Buech, the Aigues, and the 
 Drac. Though nearly half the surface is uncultivated land 
 and barren rocks, the principal occupation of the inhabitants 
 is agriculture and the rearing of cattle. In the narrow valleys 
 the snow lies long, yet the crops are seldom insufficient for 
 local consumption. Potatoes, flax, and hemp, are grown in 
 considerable quantities; and among the fruit trees cultivated 
 are the chestnut, the walnut, and the mulberry. The vine* 
 
ALPHAMSTONE 
 
 101 
 
 produce annually about 1,510,000 gallons of wine, some of 
 which is much esteemed. The slopes supply abundant pasture 
 for sheep and goats. A great number of aromatic and medi 
 cinal herbs and plants grow here. All sorts of game abound, 
 and birds of prey are numerous, particularly the great eagle. 
 In the mountains are found granite, marble, lithographic 
 stone, copper, lead, zinc, iron, antimony, coal, &c. ; and among 
 the manufactures are cutlery, woollen and cotton goods, nut 
 oil, hats, agricultural implements, brandy, leather, nails, tiles, 
 &c. The exports include most of these articles, with cattle, 
 wool to a large extent, woollen goods, wood, cheeses, and 
 chestnuts. More than 4000 of the inhabitants yearly emigrate 
 to other parts of France in search of employment. Gap is the 
 capital, and other principal towns are Briancon and Embrun. 
 Pop. in 1846, 133,100. (Diet, de la France.) 
 
 ALPHAMSTONE, a par. England, co. Essex; area, 
 1440 ac. ; 6 m. N.E. by E. Halstead. Pop. in 1841, 314. 
 
 ALPHEN, the name of three villages in Holland : 1, A 
 vil., prov. S. Holland, 7 m. S.E. Leyden, and 20 m. S.W. 
 Amsterdam, on the left bank of the old Rhine, over which 
 there is here a drawbridge. It is a comfortable and prosperous 
 village, and one of the largest in Holland, having always a 
 considerable stir in it, from the numerous boats which pass it, 
 plying up and down the Rhine. It has a Calvinistic and a 
 K. catholic church, three schools, an orphan hospital, and a 
 royal posting establishment. Pop. about 2700 2, A vil., 
 prov. Gelderland, arrond. of, and 16 in. S.W. from Nijmegen, on 
 the right bank of the Maas. It has a Calvinistic and R. cath 
 olic church, and a school. Its inhabitants, 800 in number, are 
 employed in agriculture and rearing cattle. 3, A vil., prov. 
 N. Brabant, arrond. of, and 12 m. S.E. from Breda, about 3 m. 
 
 on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, between Lyons and 
 Nice, when, separating the basin of the Rhone from the afflu 
 ents of the Po, the chain stretches across Switzerland and the 
 Tyrol to the sources of the Drave and the Salzach, where it 
 bifurcates. The N. branch covers the country round Salz 
 burg, Styria, and Austria, and proceeds N.E. to Brody, in 
 Galicia; whilst the S. branch, after having separated Carin- 
 thia from the Venetian territory, subdivides on the frontiers 
 of Illyria into two branches, including the basin of the Save, 
 and appears to terminate at the head of the Gulf of Quarnero 
 and the banks of the Kulpa. From this river, however, a 
 chain stretches S.E. through Dalmatia and Bosnia, lowering 
 down at the river Narenta (an affluent of the Adriatic), which 
 is now conventionally assumed as the S.E. boundary of the 
 Alps. This great congeries of mountains may be said to be 
 included between lat. 44 and 48 N. ; and Ion. 5 and 18 E. 
 The culminating peak of the whole system is Mont Blanc, 
 15,732 ft. high, though the true centre is St. Gothard, or 
 rather the mountains between the sources of the Rhone and the 
 Inn, and the Swiss cantons Valais, Bern, Uri, and Grisons, 
 on the N. ; and canton Tessin, and Lombardy and Sardinia, on 
 the S. It is a curious fact, that its great central mass is nearly 
 equidistant from the pole and from the equator. From its 
 slopes flow, either directly or by affluents, the great rivers of 
 central Europe, the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. From 
 the Jura mountains the Alps are separated by the narrow 
 gorge through which the Rhone passes below Geneva ; the 
 point of separation from the Appenines is assumed to be the 
 valley of Savona, E. from the Col de Tende. 
 
 Divisions. According to their altitude, the Alps are some 
 times divided into Low, Middle, and High. In the first of 
 
 from the Belgian frontier. It is mentioned in history as early \ these divisions are included all from 2000 to 5500 ft. high ; 
 as A.D. 711; and has a R. catholic church, and 350 inhabitants, I in the second, those from 5500 ft. to 8000 ft., where the snow 
 chiefly employed in agriculture. ) line commences ; and in the third, those from 8000 ft. to 
 
 ALPHETON, a par. England, co. Suffolk ; area, 2250 ac.; 
 6 m. N. by E. Sudbury. Pop. in 1841, 321. 
 
 ALPHEUS, a river, Greece. See RoumiA. 
 
 ALPHINGTON, a par. England, co. Devon; area, 
 2720 ac. ; traversed by the river Exe. Pop. in 1841, 1286. 
 
 ALPHONSE, an isl. in the Indian Ocean ; the N. point 
 of which is in lat, 6 59 30" S. ; Ion. 52 41 E. ; but the 
 mean of four other (ships ) observations places it in lat. 7 4 
 S. ; Ion. 52 49 E. It is low, of considerable extent, and 
 exhibits some small trees or shrubs. It is surrounded with 
 reefs, which are fast rising into an island of greater extent 
 than Alphonse, About 12 m. S. from the latter lies a sandy 
 isle, or bank, called South Alphonse, a little above water, with 
 a reef of high breakers surrounding it, and extending N.E. 
 and S.W. five or six miles. There are no soundings within a 
 mile of the sand. Dangerous reefs nearly unite the N. and S. 
 islands ; there is a passage through them, but it is intricate 
 and perilous, and the currents are strong and uncertain. 
 (Horsburerh s East Indian Directory.) 
 
 ALP1NGTON, a par. England, co. Norfolk ; area, 630 ac. ; 
 6 m. S.E. Norwich. Pop. in 1841, 197. 
 
 ALPNAOH, or ALPNACHT, a vil. Switzerland, canton 
 Untcrwalden; about 1 m. from that part of the Lake of 
 Luzern called Lake Alpnaeh, at the foot of Mount Pilatus ; 
 8 m. S. Luzern, and 5J W. by S. Stanz. It is chiefly remark 
 able for its famous slide, a kind of wooden trough by -which 
 the spruce firs of Mount Pilatus were at one time conveyed 
 to the lake, from a height of 2500 ft. to a distance of nearly 
 8 m., which was accomplished in six minutes from the time 
 the tree was launched. A stream of water kept the trough 
 continually moist, to prevent friction, and thus facilitate the 
 descent of the timber. It is not now in use, the timber being 
 brought down by carriages drawn by horses and oxen. Alp 
 naeh has a fine church, the steeple of which is the highest in 
 the canton. Pop. 1500. 
 
 15,000 ft., whose summits are covered with perpetual snow. 
 A better known, and more precise, division is that adopted by 
 geographers into 10 great ranges. 
 
 1. The Maritime Alps [Latin, Alpes Maritimce], consisting 
 of 14 branches, commencing at the valley of Savona, the junc 
 tion of the Alps and the Appenines, running N.W. to the 
 valley of Barcelonnette, thence N. and N.E. to Mont Viso, 
 separating Piedmont from Provence, a total distance of about 
 100 in. The culminating peak is the Col de Larget, 10,345 
 ft. high ; and the principal rivers rising in the chain are the 
 Bormida, Stura, Var, and Verdar. 
 
 2. The Cottian Alps [Latin, Alpes Cottice, from Cottius, a 
 prince who resided at Susa], consisting of nine branches, from 
 Mont Viso to Mont Cenis, having a general direction, first, of 
 S. to N., then to N.W., and latterly to N.E. Their total 
 length is about 60 m. ; their highest peak, Mont Olan, 13,819 
 ft. ; and the principal rivers rising in them are the Po and 
 the Durance. 
 
 3. The Graian, or Grecian Alps [Latin, Allies Graice, so 
 named by the Romans, from the supposition that Hercules 
 crossed them when returning from Spain], comprising six 
 branches, between Mont Cenis and the Col de Bonhomme, about 
 50 m. They include a great part of the mountains of Savoy, 
 which province they separate from Piedmont. Their direc 
 tion is N.E. and E., as far as the Rocca Melone, then N. to 
 Mont Iseran, from which point they run N.W. to the Allee 
 Blanche. Their highest peak is Mont Iseran, 13,272 ft. ; the 
 Little St. Bernard forms part of the range ; and the principal 
 river rising in it is the Isere. 
 
 4. The Pennine Alps [Latin, Alpes Pennince, from Celtic, 
 Pen, an elevated object], including 12 branches, and having a 
 direction S.S.W. to E.N.E., from the Col de Bonhomme to 
 Monte Rosa, about 60 m. Their highest peaks, as well as of 
 the whole Alps, are Mont Blanc, 15.732 ft.; Monte Rosa, 
 15,152 ft.; and Mont Cervin, or Matterhorn, 14,837 ft. In 
 
 ALPS [Celtic, Alp White Mountains], a name, with j this range are found the greatest glaciers of Europe; still no 
 various affixes, given to many mountain ranges. It is, how- large stream has its source in the Pennine Alps, their waters 
 , more particularly employed to designate that great group mingling with those of the Rhone and the Po, before acquiring 
 
 of heights containing the highest peaks of Europe, culminat 
 ing in Mont Blanc, and covering the greater part of Switzer 
 land, and part of France, N. Italy, Bavaria, Austria, and 
 Turkey, forming the central portion of the great mountain 
 system of S. Europe, which, in a manner more or less con 
 nected, extends from Cape Finisterre on the Atlantic to the 
 Black Sea. Descriptively, the Alps may be said to originate 
 
 any considerable volume. 
 
 5. The Helvetian, or Lepontine Alps [Latin, Alpes Helvetica:, 
 or Lepontina:, the latter name being derived from Lepontii, the 
 name of the ancient inhabitants of the country in which rise 
 the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Tessin or Ticino], comprising 
 11 branches, include the heights between Monte Rosa and 
 Monte St. Bernardino, a distance of about 50 m. They 
 
.ALPS 1 
 
 follow a general direction of S.W. to N.E., but E. of the 
 Luckmanier, the mountains that surround the Val Blegno 
 incline S., towards Monte St. Bernardino. This is the most 
 considerable range of the whole system, with glaciers in extent 
 only second to those of the Pennine range. Its branches 
 cover all Switzerland W. of the Rhine ; the principal one 
 being the Bernese Alps, forming the N. wall of the canton 
 Valais, and equal in height to the main chain. Its highest 
 peak is the Fiuster-Aar-Horn, 14,111 ft., besides which it 
 includes the Jungfrau, Munch, and other lofty mountains. 
 
 6. The Rlietian Alps [Latin, Alpes Hhfeticce], with 14 
 branches, forming tha Alps of the Grisons, part of the Alps 
 of Tyrol, and covering a portion of ancient Rhetia. They 
 extend from Monte St. Bernardino, generally E.N.E., to the 
 Dreyhernnspitz, or Pic des trois Souverains, about 145 m. 
 The principal branch follows the course of the Inn, from its 
 source to its mouth. In its W. part, N. of Bludentz, this 
 branch is called Arlbcry and Vorarlbery ; and an offset from 
 these mountains, covering the country between the Lech and 
 Lake Constance, is called the Alps of Algau. This range has 
 numerous glaciers ; its culminating peak is Monte Cristallo, 
 12,961 ft. high; and within its bounds rise the Iller, Lech, 
 Inn, and Isar, tributaries of the Danube, and the Adda, 
 O.^lio, and Adige. 
 
 7. The Noric Alps [Latin, Alpes Noricce, from Noricum, a 
 Roman prov.], having 10 branches, and extending from the 
 Dreyhernnspitz E. towards Hungary, culminating in the 
 Gross-Gluckner, 12,776 ft. high. The loftiest branches tend 
 N.E. to Vienna, which may be said to be the termination of 
 their range, a distance of about 205 m. E. and N., how 
 ever, it is further connected with the mountains of Galicia. 
 The Noric Alps are composed of two main ranges ; the S. 
 separating the valley of the Mur from that of the Drave, 
 and forming part of the Styrian Alps ; the N. following the 
 left bank of the Enns in its cotirse from W. to E. Below 
 this river are the Cetische Gebirge, which join on to the 
 Wienerwald, which terminate above Vienna in woodless hills, 
 named, on account of their bareness, Kahlcnberg. All the 
 streams flowing from the Noric Alps fall into the Danube ; 
 those of the N. by the Salzach, Enns, and Trasen ; those of 
 the E. by the Leitha and the Raab ; and those of the S. by 
 the Drave. 
 
 8. The Carnian Alps [Latin, Alpes Carmcce, from the 
 country of the ancient Garni S. of the Noric Alps] , comprising 
 six branches, lying S. from the Noric and Rhetian Alps, and 
 extending from the sources of the Drave to the Col de Tarvis, 
 about 108 m. between Carinthia and Venetian Lombardy. 
 Their highest peak is la Marmolata, 11,510 ft. high; from 
 their N. slope flow the Aviso, an affluent of the Adige, and 
 the Gail, a small affluent of the Drave, and from their S. 
 slope the Brenta, Piave, and Tagliamento, to the Gulf of 
 Venice. 
 
 9. The Julian Alps [Latin, Alpts Julice, from the name of 
 the ancient town Forum Julii], comprising eight branches, 
 and extending from the Col de Tarvis S.E. to Mont Kleck, 
 near Zengg, in Croatia, a distance of about 142 m. They lie 
 chiefly in Carniola, E. of Tarvis; the main range separates 
 into two branches, bounding N. and S.W. the basin of the 
 Save. From the Schneeberg, near Lake Zirknitz, the S.W. 
 branch subdivides into two offsets, of which the one proceeds 
 W. towards Fiume, and the other E. to the river Kulpa. The 
 Julian Alps are remarkable for the number of their caverns ; 
 among which are the celebrated caves at Adelsberg (which see}. 
 The highest peak of the Julian Alps is Mont Terglou, 10,863 
 ft. high ; and their principal stream is the Save. 
 
 10. The Dinaric Alps [Latin, Alpes Dinaricoe}, extending 
 from Mont Kleck to the river Narenta, a distance of about 
 161 m. They are chiefly in Croatia, Dalmatia, and Herzego 
 vina; their culminating peak is Mont Dinara, 7458 ft. high; 
 and their general direction N.W. to S.E., and in different 
 parts of their course they receive the names of Kleck, Bitorai, 
 and Wellebitsch, or Vellebitsch, which last is the Maritime 
 branch, bordering the Canale della Morlacca. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal heights of all the 10 
 divisions of the Alps, arranged according to their altitude : 
 
 Names. Ranges. N. lat. E. ion. Feet. 
 
 Mont Blanc Pennine 45 50 ... 662 15.732 
 
 Monte Rosa Pennine 45 56 ... 7 52. ...15,152 
 
 Mont Cerviu, or Matterhorn Pennine ... 7 43 H.83? 
 
 ALPS 
 
 Unnges. 
 
 Pennine.. 
 
 ..Helvetian 
 
 Names. Ranges. N. lat 
 
 Mont Comhin 
 
 Kinster-Aar.llorn 
 
 Mont Olan, N.E. the Va,i C , , , r ... 
 
 Godemard ..... J LoUlan ** 
 
 Le Geant Pennine 
 
 Jungfran (The Virgin) Helvetian... 46 32 
 
 TheMoneh Helvetian... 46 33 
 
 Mont, Pelvoux de Vallouise Cottian 
 
 Srhrivkhorn Helvetian 
 
 (irimlfUvalder-Verscher Hoiner...Helvetiaii 
 
 Mont Iseran (glaeier) Grecian... 
 
 Peak \V. of Maurin Cottian.., 
 
 Monte Cristallo Rhetian... 
 
 Ortjer^the highest point of the ^ Khetial , 
 
 Wetterhorn.!. . . . . . . . . . . .". . . . . . 
 
 Gross-G lockncr 
 
 Mount Trois KUions 
 
 Aiguille de la Vanoise 
 
 Tschernowand 
 
 Aiguille de la Sassiere 
 
 The Zebru, or Kouigs-gpitz... 
 Monte delle Di^grazie 
 
 E. Ion 
 . 7 10 . 
 
 7 57 ... 
 7 69 ... 
 
 .46 35 ... 8 5 .. 
 
 .46 33... 8 3 .. 
 
 .45 31 ... 7 16 .. 
 
 .44 30 ... 6 44 .. 
 
 .46 31 ...10 27 .. 
 
 .46 28 ...10 32 .. 
 
 Veet. 
 ..14,125 
 ..14,111 
 
 ..13,819 
 
 ..13,800 
 ..13,718 
 ..13..I-.IS 
 ..13,442 
 ..I3,38i; 
 ^ 13,321 
 . 13,- ;:! 
 .13,107 
 .12,961 
 ..12,853 
 
 .Helvetian 
 
 1 n-H.lierg 
 
 La Marmolata 
 
 The Greiner 
 
 Mont Terglou 
 
 ColdeLonget.... 
 
 Monte Pelvo 
 
 Col de Maurin.... 
 Col (In Roburent.. 
 
 Mont Dinara 
 
 Mont Kleek 
 
 .46 38 ... 8 6 12,842 
 
 .Noric 47 7 ...12 43 12,776 
 
 .Cottian 45 a ... 12,737 
 
 Grecian 45 24 ... 12,674 
 
 .Rhetian ... 12,412 
 
 .Grecian 45 30... 6 59 12,346 
 
 .Rhetian ... . . 12,271 
 
 Rhetian - ... 12,061 
 
 .Noric ... 12,028 
 
 .Carman 46 26 ...11 55 . . 11,510 
 
 .Noric ... 11,483 
 
 Julian 46 22 ...13 51 10,863 
 
 Maritime. ..-14 36... 6 52 10,345 
 
 Maritime... 14 30... 6 58 9,958 
 
 .Maritime... 44 30. 6 47 9,784 
 
 .Maritime... 44 24 ... 7 6 9,718 
 
 .Dinaric ... 7,458 
 
 .Diuarie ... - 0,926 
 
 Geology and Mines. Considered generally, the Alps will 
 be found to belong to the granite, schistous, and calcareous 
 formations ; that the main chain, or centre, is granitic ; that 
 on the S. and E. slopes, the primitive rocks descend to the 
 plain of Italy ; while to the W. and N. the mountains are 
 almost all calcareous, as well in Provence and Dauphine as 
 in Switzerland, the Tyrol, and Austria. The great mass 
 N. of canton Valais, in canton Bern, is granitic, from the St. 
 Gothard to the Lutschenthal ; but W. of that valley, the chain 
 which is prolonged from N.E. to S.E., between the Wetter- 
 horn and the Dent de Morcle, is composed of very high cal 
 careous mountains, the horizontal strata of which rest on schist, 
 gneiss, and granite. The S. flank of the Rhetian and Noric 
 Alps exhibit only schistous and calcareous rocks ; and of this 
 last formation, along with new red, or variegated sandstone, 
 is constituted almost the whole mass of the Cai-nian and Julian 
 Alps. The Carnian Alps likewise present to some extent 
 rocks of igneous origin ; and basaltic mountains are to be met 
 with in S. Tyrol, and near Verona, in two small ranges of 
 hills called Monti Berici, and Monti Eugansei, lying S. of 
 Vicenza. The mountains of Lower Provence, also, exhibit 
 traces of ancient volcanic fires. Mining is not carried on to 
 an extent proportionate to the magnitude of the mountain 
 range. Iron and lead, however, are found in considerable 
 abundance; Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, yield annually 
 about 30,000 tons of iron. The mines of Pesey and Macol, 
 in Savoy, yield likewise a considerable quantity; and the 
 Bleyberg (lead mountain) mine, in Carinthia, furnishes the 
 purest lead in Europe. Rock salt is abundant towards the 
 N. of the chain; and the salines of Bex in canton de Vaud, 
 of Hall in Tyrol, of Hallein and Berchtesgaden in the vicinity 
 of Salzburg, are of note. Mercury exists chiefly in the E. 
 part; the richness of the mine of Idria, N.W. of Trieste, is 
 well known. Besides those principal products, gold, silver, 
 copper, zinc, alum, and coal, are wrought to some extent. 
 
 Valleys. The great valleys of the Alps generally run in 
 the direction of the main range, or nearly so. Some run 
 transverse to it, the most remarkable of which is the valley 
 of the Adige, running S.S.W. from the Brenner, and having 
 a total length of 96 m. ; the other transverse valleys are much 
 shorter. Among the longitudinal valleys none can compare 
 with that of the Drave, which, supposing it to terminate to 
 the E. of Warasdin, has a length of 193 m. The valley of 
 the Inn, from Lake Sils to Kupfstein, is 133m. long; and the 
 Swiss longitudinal valleys, such as those of the Upper Rhine, 
 the Valteline, and Valais, have a length of 48 m. to 60 m. in 
 their most direct line. 
 
 Lalxs. Small lakes frequently occur in the Alps, at great 
 altitudes, and of considerable depth. They are to be met with 
 near the summit of many of the cols or passes, at the top of 
 the water sheds, and form the natural sources of streams ; and 
 sometimes sending their waters in opposite directions. Such 
 
ALPS 
 
 103 
 
 ALPS 
 
 are the lakes on Mont Genevre, Cenis, Great St. Bernard, St. 
 Gothard, Bernardino, &c. 
 
 Climate. As might be expected, the climate of the Alps 
 is exceedingly various. In the lower valleys of its S. slopes 
 we meet with Italian warmth ; in elevated regions, such as 
 the canton Bern, the temperature assimilates to that of Britain , 
 while higher up, on the Alpine heights, the climate assumes 
 an arctic character. In the lower valleys, the mean temper 
 ature ranges from 50 to 60. Half way up the Alps it aver 
 ages about 32 a height which, in the snowy regions, it never 
 reaches. But even where the temperature is lowest, the solar 
 radiation produced by the rocks and snow is often so great 
 as to raise the photometer to 120, and even higher. The 
 exhilarating and invigorating nature of the climate in the 
 upper regions of the Alps, during summer, have been acknow 
 ledged by all who have perambulated these romantic scenes. 
 The freshness of the breeze, as it comes from the snowy peaks, 
 tempered by the rays of a southern sun, enable the traveller, 
 without weariness, to perform distances on foot that at home 
 he would have shrunk from attempting. Notwithstanding, 
 however, the invigorating nature of the climate, the inhabit 
 ants of the higher valleys are afflicted with two grievous dis 
 eases goitre and cretinism ; and so strongly is taste directed 
 by external circumstances, that, in some localities, the former 
 is reckoned a point of beauty in females, and appreciated in 
 proportion to its excess. 
 
 Botany and Zoology. In a climate so varied, the vegetable 
 productions are in like manner necessarily equally so. In 
 the same region, though of course at different altitudes, are to 
 be met the vine, the walnut, and chestnut; and the Rhodo 
 dendron ferrugineum, the Campanula barbata, the Silene 
 acaulis, and Salix herbacea. But the varied vegetation of this 
 region will be more clearly apprehended from the following 
 list of heights attained in the Alps by different plants: 
 
 Name Height nhovc 
 
 Orange, Olive, and Fi<;.. 
 Vine 
 
 Chestnut, Wa 
 
 Cherry 
 
 Hazel.... 
 
 Oak 
 
 Elm, Ash 
 
 351(i* 
 
 3835 
 
 4155 
 
 -- 
 
 Alder, Yew 4474 ft. 
 
 Beech 4784 
 
 Scotch Fir 5103 
 
 Maple 5422 
 
 White Birch 5613 
 
 Siberian Ci-cl-ir (Piniw j G3g - 
 cembra) ) 
 
 * At this height cereals may be cultivated. 
 
 To these trees succeed heaths, and rich pastures, called 
 Alps, which extend to the snow line, 8000 ft. above the sea 
 level. But this is not the upper limit of vegetation, for 
 lichens are found on the highest rocks ; and Saussure, at the 
 height of 11,382 ft. on Mont Blanc, and 11,509 ft. on Mont 
 Cervin, or Matterhorn, gathered Aretia helvetica, Geum 
 montanum, and Saxifraga bryoi des. At this great elevation 
 are found two species of quadrupeds, the bouquetin or wild 
 goat, and the chamois, which delight in heights inaccessible 
 to man. The bouquetin, which has become very rare, scales 
 t lie most elevated peaks, while the chamois is generally found 
 rather lower, but is never seen in the plains. In summer, the 
 high mountain pastures are covered with large flocks of cattle, 
 sheep, and goats, which are, in winter, removed to a lower 
 and warmer level. The marmot, and white, or Alpine hare, 
 inhabit both the snowy and the woody regions. Lower down 
 are found the mole, the wild cat, the fox, the lynx, the bear, 
 and the wolf ; but the last two are now extremely rare. The 
 vulture, eagle, and other birds of prey, frequent the rugged 
 Alpine rocks, and the snowy ptarmigan seeks food and shelter 
 among the diminutive plants that border upon the snow line. 
 Other kinds of game, including the moorfowl, woodcock, and 
 partridge, abound in their usual localities, from the upper 
 limit of the wood to the more level and habitable parts below. 
 Several kinds of water fowl frequent the higher lakes, where 
 excellent trout and other fish are found ; but those situated at 
 the greatest elevation are, from their low temperature, entirely 
 destitute offish. 
 
 Passes. The passes of the Alps, called by the French cols, 
 that is, depressions, are the roads by which communication is 
 effected between districts on opposite sides of the mountains ; 
 and in no countries are these essential requisites to profitable 
 industry so supremely important as in Alpine regions. The 
 passes of the Alps may be divided into three classes: 1. Those 
 practicable for wheeled carriages. 2. Those practicable for 
 horses or mules. 3. Those suited only for foot passengers. 
 
 Of the first class, by far the most frequented is the Mont 
 Cenis, forming the principal route from France to Italy ; the 
 Simplon, from Vallais into Piedmont; and the Spliigen and 
 Bernardino, from the Orisons into Lombardy. The Simplon 
 and Stelvio passes the latter in the Khetian Alps, leading 
 from Tyrol into Lombardy are among the greatest triumphs 
 of modem engineering. The former, which was constructed 
 by command of Napoleon (1800-1805), at the joint expense of 
 France and the then existing kingdom of Italy, is about 38 m. 
 long, and averages 9 yards in width, the rise being only l 
 inches per yard : it runs mostly between bold and almost per 
 pendicular rocks, which have been tunnelled at different places, 
 bridges having been also thrown across where chasms and 
 precipices interrupt the continuity of passage. To give a 
 notion of the colossal nature of the undertaking, it may be 
 mentioned that the number of bridges, great and small, con 
 structed for the passage of the road between Brieg and Seste, 
 amounts to 611, in addition to the far more vast and costly 
 constructions, as terraces of massive masonry, miles in length ; 
 of 10 galleries, either cut out of the living rock, or built of 
 solid stone ; and of 20 houses of refuge to shelter travellers 
 and lodge the labourers constantly employed in taking care of 
 the road. (Murray s Handbook.} While some of these 
 galleries are of great extent, and, as that of Gondo, present 
 to the traveller pictures of savage wildness and sublime 
 grandeur, others are little more than simple archways of rock, 
 forming highly picturesque features in the route. Of this 
 class is the gallery of Isella, the last but one on the Italian 
 
 THK GALLERY OF ISELLA. From Bucia -, Lettren sur la Suisse. 
 
 side; near the village of the same name, 8 m. N.W. Domo 
 d Orsola. The Stelvio, which is a military road constructed 
 by the Austrian Government, and completed in 1824, is the 
 highest pass in Europe practicable for carriages, being 9174 ft. 
 above the sea, and is a very remarkable specimen of human 
 industry and skill. The galleries, cut for many miles through 
 the solid rock, along the margin of the Lake of Como; those 
 higher up, built of massive masonry, strong enough to resist the 
 fall of avalanches ; the long causeways carried over morasses; 
 the bridges thrown across roaring torrents ; the long succession 
 of zigzag terraces, carried up with the most gentle slope, but 
 which, nevertheless, surmount one of the highest ridges in 
 the Alps ; these, are works which, without exaggeration, deserve 
 to be called stupendous. (Murray s Handbook.) This road, 
 on which so much skill, labour, and treasure have been 
 expended, is seldom passable except from June to October, 
 i owing to the fearful ravages committed by storms and avnl- 
 
ALPS 
 
 ALPS 
 
 oncnea, wliien cause a large annual outlay for repairs. Of 
 the second class, which is very numerous, may be named the 
 Little and Groat St. Bernard, the Col dc Balme, the Grimsel, 
 the Gcmmi, &c. Some of these are cut along ledges of rock 
 having enormous cliffs above, and yawning gulfs beneath; or j 
 they are in the form of rough stairs, as part of that of the 
 Gemmi; to the unpractised eye apparently more suitable to 
 be climbed by monkeys, than by four-footed animals. Such 
 passes are always picturesque, and seldom dangerous, though 
 those unaccustomed to them are at times apt to have their 
 nerves severely tried when wending their way along the 
 giddy brink of a huge precipice. Of this class of pass, the 
 accompanying cut conveys a good idea. It is that over the 
 Grimsel, in canton Bern, and one of the grandest, and most 
 
 THE GRIMSEL PASS. from Barnard s Sketches in Switzerland. 
 
 interesting passes over the Alps. Its summit is 8400 ft. 
 above the sea. 
 
 The third class, those that can be traversed only on foot, is 
 still more numerous than either of the foregoing. Many of 
 them are known only to the natives of the localities in which 
 they exist ; are never to be traversed excepting in the summer 
 season; and some are not practicable for years in succession. 
 Those least frequented, and most difficult of access, appear to 
 have been used principally by contraband traders, and by per 
 sons flying from danger. Some of them rise far above the 
 line of perpetual congelation, ascending the valleys of torrents, 
 crossing dangerous ravines and snow-covered glaciers, rend 
 ered dangerous by frequent crevasses, that is, large rents, some 
 times of considerable width, and hundreds of feet in depth. 
 Of these, the highest are the Col de Geant, at the head of the 
 Mer de Glace, 11,172 ft.; and Mont Cervin, 11,096 ft. The 
 following table exhibits the heights of the principal passes of 
 the Alps. Those marked * are practicable for wheeled car 
 riages, and those unmarked for mules or pedestrians only: 
 
 Names. Ranges. Feet. 
 
 *Simplon Helvetian 6578 
 
 Splfigcn Helvetian 6814 
 
 *St. Gothard Helvetian 6808 
 
 Names. Ranges. Feet. 
 
 Col de Tcmle Maritime 6,160 
 
 Mont Genevre Cottian ... 6,476 
 
 Col de Fenestrcs Cottian ... 7,271 
 
 MontCeim Grecian... 6,775 Grimsel., Helvetian 8400 
 
 Little St. Bernard... Grecian... 7,192 Gemmi Helvetian 7160 
 
 Colde Ferret Pennine... 7,641 Bernardino.. ..Helvetian 7115 
 
 Col deBonhommc.... Pennine... 8,025 "Stelvio Rhetian 9174 
 
 ColdeG&int Pennine...ll,172 "Brenner Rhetian... 67f8 
 
 Great St. Bernard... .Pennine... 8.200 Chiavcmoa Rheti 
 
 Mont Cervin Pennine...ll,096 Traucrn Noric U803 
 
 Col de la Sei;;ue Pennine... 8,078 
 
 AralancJies. The traveller in the Alps is frequently ex 
 posed to dangers of no ordinary description. The electric 
 currents, attracted and moved in every direction by the innum 
 erable lofty peaks, which render the winds at once fickle and 
 violent, the melting of the snow, or its accumulation upon 
 declivities, or on the edge of precipices which do not allow of 
 its resting, all contribute to the perils that beset him ; besides 
 which, his progress is often interrupted by the tempests called 
 tourmentes by the French, and gurcn by the Germans, and the 
 still more destructive avalanche. The former arises suddenly 
 and with great violence, often accompanied by thunder and 
 lightning, and tossing the snow in eddying clouds around the 
 
 traveller, blinding his eyes, irritating his skin, and compelling 
 him to seek shelter. The avalanches [French, LarancJie* 
 or Lavangcs; German, Lawine or Lauwine] sometimes 
 accompany the tourmentes, to which, in that case, they owe 
 their formation ; but they occur also at different seasons, un 
 accompanied by tempests. They may, in general, be described 
 as enormous masses of snow, which, detached by various 
 causes from their original position, roll with tremendous noise 
 and force over rock and precipice, down to the plains below, 
 overwhelming man and beast, forest and dwelling, in one 
 common destruction. A touch of the foot, or the slightest 
 motion of the air, even that produced by the sound of a small 
 bell, or other instrument, is often sufficient to set the avalanche 
 in motion ; firearms are sometimes used to ascertain the dis 
 tance or nearness of such danger. The most destructive are 
 those which are composed of hardened snow, and which, 
 rolling or sliding down from the mountains, carry all before 
 them. From the frequent occurrence of avalanches, some 
 parts of the Alps are entirely uninhabited : and in others, large 
 patches of the tallest and strongest trees are left standing. I n 
 order to arrest their progress, houses are built under the 
 shelter of rocks, and all other available means adopted, to 
 avoid the effects of these destructive visitants. 
 
 Glaciers. These are to be met with in various Alpino 
 regions, but those of the Alps have been more minutely in 
 vestigated than any others. They consist of masses of snow- 
 ice, formed in valleys above the line of perpetual congel 
 ation, whose prolongations extend to those lower down, 
 reaching frequently to the borders of cultivation. They 
 present the appearance of a frozen torrent, frequently several 
 miles in length, traversed by deep rents called crevasses, and 
 are composed of snow melted by solar heat, and frozen into 
 granular ice, constituting a compound of ice and water, more 
 or less yielding, according to the state of wetness or infiltra 
 tion. The upper part of the glacier, where the snow is in a 
 transition state from a loose and powdery consistence to ice, is 
 called neve in French, and^rn in German. Professor Forbes 
 says, a glacier is an imperfect fluid, or viscous body, which is 
 urged down slopes of a certain inclination by the mutual pres 
 sure of its parts. Glaciers are consequently subject to the 
 laws of fluids, and, therefore, by no means stationary, except 
 probably during winter, but continually moving ; their rate 
 of progression during summer, as has been ascertained by 
 observation on the Mer de Glace, being 18-24 inches in 24 
 hours ; though possibly their ratio of advance may vary, some 
 of them reposing on almost horizontal surfaces, while others 
 are inclined at a vnry considerable angle. On their surface 
 they bear large quantities of stones, some of them of enormous 
 size, brought down from the mountain recesses where the 
 glaciers originate. These heaps are ultimately deposited at 
 the foot of the glacier, and form terminal moraines, presenting 
 the geologist with excellent materials for studying the struc 
 ture of the mountains whence they have been derived. The 
 term moraine is likewise applied to the lines of stones and mud 
 found on the surface, caused by the union of two or moreglaciei>, 
 which frequently happens, from several glacier-filled valleys 
 converging into one. In such cases they are called lateral 
 or central moraines, according to their position. In thick 
 ness, glaciers vary from a few feet to several hundreds. In 
 mild seasons their bulk is much reduced in size, and in cold 
 seasons they are much enlarged. In the winter of 1818-19, 
 some Swiss glaciers increased so greatly, and came so far down 
 into the lower valleys, as to sweep away whole villages. 
 During the heat of summer their upper surface is melted, and 
 the waters tumble down the crevasses and mingle with waters 
 below, formed by the melting of the under-surface glacier, in 
 consequence of the higher temperature of the earth on which 
 it rests. These accumulated waters flow down to the lower 
 end of the glacier, and issue from a natural arch, frequently 
 of considerable height, formed in the ice, in a muddy stream, 
 as if coloured with pipeclay, arising from the quantity of 
 pounded granite or limestone held in mechanical solution ; for, 
 as the enormous mass of ice rubs its way down the valley, it 
 grinds to powder stones beneath it and at its sides, and thus 
 discolours the waters that flow from it. Such an arch, vary 
 ing in size according to the season of the year, may be seen in 
 the Glacier des Bois, the termination of the Mer de Glace, in 
 the valley of Chamouni, from which arch flows the Arveyron, 
 the source of the Arvc, whose muddy stream pollutes the 
 
ALPS (SWABIAX) 
 
 105 
 
 AL-SAL1H 
 
 limpid blue waters of the Rhone, into which it falls below 
 Geneva. Of the numerous glaciers interspersed throughout 
 the Alpine valleys, la Mer de Glace is at once the most exten 
 sive, picturesque, and easily accessible. It terminates in the 
 Glacier des Bois, in the valley of Chamouni, a little way E. of 
 the Prieure, and of Mont .Blanc. This great ice river has 
 near its origin two divided streams, derived from different 
 sources. The W. branch, denominated the Glacier du Geant 
 or du Tacul, has its rise in a vast basin immediately to the 
 E. of Mont Blanc, confined between the upper ridge of the 
 Alps, extending to the Col de Geant 011 the S., and the chain 
 of Aiguilles of Chamouni on the N., and terminating with 
 that of the Charmoz, round whose E. foot the Mer de Glace 
 sweeps. The other branch, called the Glacier de Lechaud, 
 has its origin at the foot of la Grande Jorasse, one of the 
 highest mountains of the chain which separates the Val Ferret 
 from that of Chamouni. This glacier is smaller than its neigh 
 bour, although it is swelled, before their junction, by the 
 tributary ice of the Glacier du Talefre, which falls in upon 
 its right bank from a detached basin, encircled by inaccessible 
 pinnacles of rock, in whose centre is the spot called the Jardin, 
 now so frequently visited. (Forbes Alps.) This glacier is 
 7 m. in length, direct distance, and seldom exceeds two-thirds 
 of a mile in breadth, but is generally less. Its last slope, into 
 the valley of Chamouni, has a vertical height of 1800 ft. ; and, 
 in appearance, it is as if an enormous cataract or rapid had 
 suddenly been congealed. The accompanying view will serve 
 to convey a distinct idea of the grandeur and barren magnifi 
 cence of the scene presented by this glacier. The combination 
 
 of ice, pile upon pile, as it rises up the valley, green pastures, 
 beautiful flower plants, lofty snowy peaks, and enormous bare 
 monoliths with perpendicular sides many thousand ft. high, 
 forms one of the most striking natural pictures the eye can 
 vest upon. The cavern of the chapeau from which the view 
 is taken is near the lower end of the Glacier des Bois, which 
 is the part of the glacier here shown. In the valleys above 
 the glaciers, deep lakes are sometimes formed, which, at times 
 bursting their barriers, rush down the gorges and lower val 
 leys with destructive fury. For an account of a bursting, or 
 debacle, of this kind, see BAGNES (VAL DE). (Orographie de 
 V Europe; Forbes Travels through tlie Alps of Savoy ; Murray s 
 Handbook; Private Notes.) 
 
 ALPS (SWABIAN). See ALB. 
 
 ALPUENTE, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 48 m. N.W. 
 from Valencia, between the mountains del Castillo and San 
 Cristobal. It is very irregular, from the inequality of the 
 ground on which it stands ; but the streets are for the most 
 part well constructed, paved, and clean. It has a small plaza, 
 a townhall, prison, and an endowed school ; a parish church, 
 hospital, cemetery, and the ruins of an old Roman castle. 
 The troops of Don Carles burnt a considerable part of the 
 VOL. I. 
 
 place, and utterly demolished its old walls ; they, however, 
 subsequently restored part of its fortifications, though very 
 slightly. Pop. 2356. 
 
 ALPUJ ARRAS, a mountain district, Spain, in Andalusia, 
 extending about 50 m. W. to E., nearly parallel to the coast 
 of the Mediterranean. From Motril to Almeria the mountains 
 ramify N. to S. about 35 m. from the great chain of the 
 sierra Nevada to the coast, and form the subordinate ranges 
 of the sierras Bermeja, de Gador, &c., whose highest peaks, 
 about 6575 ft. high, are covered with snow three-fourths of 
 the year. These mountains in general are rugged and bare, 
 and, exceptiag some valleys, such as that of Andarax, little 
 susceptible of cultivation, though in some parts abounding 
 with vines, olives, and other fruits; and in others, clothed 
 with forests of oak, beech, pine, and other hardy trees. The 
 district is watered by the Almeria, Adra, and numerous smaller 
 streams. Some wheat, barley, rye, hemp, &c., are grown; 
 and a few horned cattle, sheep, goats, and mules, are reared. 
 Here also are mines of various metals, now little wrought, 
 except the lead mines of the sierra de Gador, and the quarries 
 yielding alabaster, which is of the finest quality. (Madoz, 
 Diccio. de Espana.) 
 
 ALRESFORD, a market tn., and name also of two pars. 
 England, co. Hants (Southampton). The town is situated 
 on the main road between London and Winchester, 55 rn. 
 S.W. the former, and? m. N.E. the latter. The river Itchin 
 passes at a short distance to the W. ; and close by, in the 
 same direction, is a fine sheet of water called Alresford 
 Pond, covering about 200 ac., formed in the reign of King 
 John, with the view of improving 
 the navigation of the river. The 
 trade of the town has much fallen 
 off from what it was formerly, the 
 only manufacture now remaining 
 being that of linseys. Alresford 
 has been a borough and market 
 town from a very remote period, 
 and at one time sent a member to 
 the House of Commons, its popula 
 tion being then much greater than 
 it is now. The town is governed 
 by a bailiff and eight burgesses ; 
 and petty sessions are held here 
 by the county magistrates. Three 
 fairs annually, chiefly for sheep. 
 The town was nearly destroyed by 
 fire three times ; first m 1 690, again 
 in 1710, and athird time in 1736. 
 The parishes are called, respective 
 ly, Old Alresford, and New Aires- 
 ford. The former is in the bun. of 
 Fawley, and contains 3660 ac., 
 and 502 of a pop.; the latter, in 
 which the town is situated, is in 
 Alton division, and contains 1250 
 
 From LaHuisseetses Lacs, ac. ; pop. 1578. Total pop. ill 
 
 1841, of the two parishes and town 
 
 2088. ALRESFORD is also the name of a par. in co. Essex, 
 
 hun. Tendring; area, 1640 ac. Pop. in 1841, 289. (Corre 
 spondent in Alresford.) 
 
 ALREWAS, a par. England, co. Stafford; area, 4350 
 ac. ; 5 m. N E. by N. Litchfield. Pop. in 1841, 1658. 
 
 ALROE, anisl. Denmark, at the mouth of Horsens-fiord ; 
 lat. 55 50 N. ; Ion. 10 5 E. It is separated from the main 
 land by a fordable channel, and is 3 m. long and 2 broad. 
 It contains a village called Alroe-By, which, with the district 
 around, forms the Danish parish of the same name. Pop. 300. 
 
 ALSENO, a small tn. and com. Italy, duchy of Parma, 
 18 m. E.S.E. Fiacenza. The inhabitants are agriculturists; 
 the productions grain, hay, and timber; wine and oil. Pop., 
 tn. and com. 4175. 
 
 ALSACE [German, Elsass; Latin, Alsatia, Alesatia, or 
 Ehsatia], a former prov. of France, now forming thedeps. of 
 the Upper and Lower Rhine. 
 
 AL-SALIH, a small tn. on the S. coast of Arabia, 40 m. 
 N.E. by E. Aden, and about 2 m. from the sea; lat. 13 
 12 N.; Ion. 45 30 E. It consists of about 200 houses, 
 some of which are of stone. The country around is well 
 watered and cultivated. Pop. about 500. 
 
 14 
 
ALSEN 
 
 106 
 
 ALTAI 
 
 ALSEN, an isl. Denmark, duchy of Schleswig, situated on 
 the Little Belt, and separated from the coast by a narrow 
 channel named Als-smul; length, 20m.; breadth, from 5 to 
 7 m. ; lat. 54 56 N. ; Ion. 9 52 E. It contains several 
 villages, and two considerable towns, Somlerborg and Norborg, 
 the former of which lias a good harbour, with a pop. of 3000. 
 It is one of the finest islands in the Baltic, being diversified 
 with forests, lakes, well-cultivated iields, and orchards. Fish 
 is abundant in the lakes, some of which, particularly the 
 Nordburger See, the Bund See, and the Wester See, are of 
 considerable extent. The produce of the soil consists of 
 wheat, rye, potatoes, rape, flax, and anise seed, the last of 
 which is much used in Denmark as seasoning. A great part 
 of Alsen belongs to the Duke of Augustenborg, whose seat, 
 a castellated building, in modern style, stands near the centre 
 of the island, on the wooded bank of a small arm of the 
 Augustenborg-fiord. Sonderborg has the remains of an old 
 castle; in one of the towers of which Christian II., of Den 
 mark and Norway, was confined from 1532 to 1549. Pop. 
 of isl. 22,500. (Baggesen s Ddnische Stoat.) 
 
 ALSFELD, a tn. Hessen- Darmstadt, prov. Upper Hesse, 
 on the left bank of the Schwalm, 25 m. N.W. Fulda, 31 m. 
 N.E. Giessen ; lat. 50 46 N. ; Ion. 9 15 E. It is one of 
 (he oldest towns in Hesscu, is walled, and has five churches, 
 and a grammar school. Linen is manufactured to a trifling 
 extent, but the staple manufacture is woollen. There are also 
 six dye works, three tobacco factories, several bleachfields, 
 and a large distillery. Pop. 3700. The district of ALS 
 FELD, lying along the chain of the Vogel, has rich cultivated 
 fields. It contains 28 parishes, and has a pop. of 10,100, chiefly 
 employed in weaving linen and other fabrics. 
 
 ALSII LOCH, an arm of the sea in co. Eoss, Scotland ; 
 lat. 57 17 N. ; Ion. 5 34 W. It forms the common en 
 trance to Loch Duich and Loch Loung ; the former is well 
 sheltered, and capable of holding a great number of vessels. 
 Loch Loung is a long and narrow inlet, the entrance to which 
 is shallow, with about 6 ft. at low water. 
 
 ALSLEBEN, a walled tn. Prussian Saxony, gov. Merse- 
 burg, on the left bank of the Saal, 15 m. N.N.E. Eisleben ; 
 lat. 51 44 N. ; Ion. 11 43 E. The inhabitants live by 
 agriculture, the rearing of cattle, and commerce. A good 
 deal of caraway seed is raised in gardens. It has an hospital, 
 a church, and a castle, belonging to the Duke of Anhalt 
 Dessau. Pop. 1850. 
 
 ALSTAHOUG, a vil. Norway, prov. Nordland, on the 
 S. shore of the Island of Alsten, 186 m. N.N.E. Trondheim. 
 It is the seat of the Bishop of Nordland and Finmarken. 
 
 ALSTEN, an isl. Norway, prov. Nordland. The N. 
 central point is in lat. 66 N. ; Ion. 13 E. The island is 
 mountainous ; its most remarkable peaks being the Seven 
 Sisters, one of which attains an elevation of 4379 ft. On this 
 island is the village of Alstahoug. 
 
 ALSTER, a river, Denmark, prov. Holstein, rising in a 
 moorish country about 20 m. N. Hamburg. It takes a S. 
 course, passes through the city of Hamburg, after forming 
 the basin of the Binnen Alster, and falls through dock gates 
 into the Elbe. 
 
 ALSTON, or ALSTON Moon. See ALDSTONE. 
 
 ALSTONEFIELD, a par. England, co. Stafford; area, 
 21,860 ac. ; on the river Dove. It has several charities, 
 lead, copper, and coal mines. Pop. in 1841, 4701. 
 
 ALTAI [more correctly Alta-yin-ula, golden mountain], 
 i.s the name of a group of mountains projecting into the plains 
 of Siberia, from the N.W. angle of the elevated table land of 
 Central Asia, and lying between the sources of the Irtish on 
 the W., and the Yenisei on the E. The literal appropriate 
 ness of the name borne by a group of mountains so distin 
 guished at the present day for its mineral riches, is probaWy 
 but accidental. The country in question was formerly the 
 seat of the Mongolian tribe called the Golden Horde (orda, a 
 tent), and it is consonant with their usages to suppose that 
 they dignified, with the title of golden, the residence of their 
 chief, or the locality in which he fixed his camp; and that the 
 name Alta-yin-ula, or golden mountain (Alta signifies gold 
 in Mongolian), which denoted, at first, only the court or royal 
 residence, came at length to be applied to the whole territory 
 of the tribe. At the present day the name Altai is given, 
 exclusively, both by natives and Russian settlers, to the 
 country actually occupied by the Kalmuks, and is thus con 
 
 fined, in its application, within comparatively narrow bounds. 
 European geographers, on the other hand, have hitherto used 
 it as a general denomination for a supposed chain of moun 
 tains extending continuously from the upper waters of the 
 Irtish W. to Lake Baikal ; and some have even carried the 
 generalization so far as to include, under the same name, the 
 several mountain chains the Stanovoi, Khrebet, Aldan, &c., 
 which stretch N.E. from Lake Baikal to the Sea of Okhotsk. 
 But, in reality, the broad belt of mountainous country in 
 terposed between the table land of Central Asia and the 
 low plains of Siberia, is broken into numerous ranges of 
 mountains, bearing different names, forming independent 
 groups, and rarely striking from W. to E. 
 
 The Altai mountains, taken according to the widest accep 
 tation of the name at the present day, extend through 6^ 
 degrees of latitude, viz., from the vicinity of Tomsk, at the 
 N. foot of the Alatou, or from lat. 56 N. to the neighbour 
 hood of Bukhtarminsk, at the confluence of the Bukhtarma 
 and Irtish, in lat. 49 30 N. ; and through 7 degrees of lon 
 gitude, from the mountains of Kolyvan in the W., Ion. 82 E., 
 to the Sayan chain in the E. The several ranges embraced 
 within these limits are, proceeding from N. to S., and from 
 W. to E., as follows : The Alatou, winding very irregularly 
 from N.W. to S.E., and sending down copious streams both 
 to the Obe and the Yenisei ; the chain of Salai r, separated 
 from the Alatou by the valleys of the Tome and the Inya ; 
 to the S. and W. of these mountains lies the wide valley of 
 the Obe; beyond which, S., we find the following Alpine 
 ranges, viz., the Bashalatsk, Chechuliha, Tegeretsk, and Koly 
 van mountains, all striking nearly N.W. and S.E. ; then the 
 Alps of Korgone, Koksu, Ubinsk, Turgusune, Ulbinsk ; and 
 bordering, on the left bank of the Katunya, the Alps of Ursul 
 and Terektinsk ; on the right bank, the chains of Kholsune, 
 Katunya, and Arghyte ; S. of these, the Shchebenuha chain, 
 above the right bank of the Bukhtarma, presents, to the 
 N., a concave outline prolonged towards the N.E., and this 
 direction of .the mountain chains becomes more frequent on 
 the E. of the Katunya; the Saljar, Kurai, and Toboshok 
 Alps still stretch from N.W. to S.E., but the Karagai, and 
 Mungun-tai ga chains, and part of the Sayan, extend in a S. W. 
 to N.E. direction. 
 
 The mountainous region thus described occupies an area 
 of about 40,000 geo. sq. m., which is nearly equal to that of 
 England ; is all comprised in the government of Tomsk, with 
 the exception of the valley of the Abakan, towards the N.E., 
 which belongs to the government of Yeniseisk. The S.W. 
 slopes of the Ubinsk, Ulbinsk, and Turgusune ranges, pom- 
 some streams into the Irtish; while the N.E. face of the 
 Alatou range contributes to swell the Yenisei ; but, with these 
 few exceptions, the waters of this extensive region, the rivers 
 of which are large as well as numerous, all flow into the main 
 branch of the Obe. The line of demarcation between the Rus 
 sian and Chinese empires crosses the Irtysh about 7 m. N. of 
 the 49th parallel of lat. ; runs in an E.N.E. direction along the 
 Narym, which joins that river, and then passes to the Bukh 
 tarma, which it follows to its sources; it turns N.E. and 
 N.N.E. through the heights of Karagai and Mungun-tai ga, and 
 follows the Sayan chain N.W. and N.E., till it reaches the 
 mountains named Shabina Dabahan. In the remainder of its 
 course E., this boundary line passes for the most part along 
 the N. side of the mountainous region ; so that the Altai 
 mountains are broadly distinguished from the other moun 
 tainous groups which follow them on the E., by the circum 
 stance that, while the former are well known, the latter form 
 a terra incognita to European geographers. 
 
 The Altai group has been described by a geological writer 
 of great authority, as a vast promontory, connected on the 
 S. with the mainland of primitive rocks, and surrounded on 
 the other three sides by an ocean of diluvial deposits. This 
 opinion requires some modification, perhaps, as far as regards 
 the E. district of the Altai, of which only the N. portion 
 presents to view diluvial formations. The Neptunian rocks 
 belong chiefly to the classes which lie furthest apart in the 
 geognostic series, namely, palaeozoic and diluvial. The strati 
 fied rocks, which, from the absence of fossil remains, cannot 
 be easily classified, form the largest portion of the Altai . 
 Clay slate, and chlorite slate, passing, in the neighbourhood 
 of granite, into mica slate, are the prevailing rocks in the 
 elevated districts. Through these the plutonian rocks, gran- 
 
ALTAI 
 
 107 
 
 ALTAI 
 
 ite, gneiss, syenite, &c., have forced their way, heaving up 
 the clay slate in many instances, so that its strata stands in a 
 vertical position. Among these eruptive rocks must be 
 mentioned porphyry and greenstone. Limestone holds the 
 next rank in respect to extent; though, like the clay slate, it 
 is seldom found unaltered by the influence of plutonic rocks ; 
 but, from its appearance in some places where it has under 
 gone least metamorphosis, and is characterized by containing 
 Calamopora poliimorpUa, geologists think it likely that the 
 limestones of this region, altered as they now are by fire, 
 were originally of the devonian system. The rocks belong 
 ing to this system are easily recognized by their organic 
 remains. In the Altai they lie in three districts, or zones, 
 namely, Smeyef (an abridged form of Smei nogorsk), Tomsk, 
 and the Yenisei. The carboniferous limestones, also, are 
 widely distributed in the Altai , though the coal formation 
 itself has not yet been discovered within the mountains. The 
 sandstones accompanying them are particularly rich in pal;r- 
 ontologic treasures, containing, among other things, the trunks 
 of Araucarites, apparently of the same spec es as the Arau- 
 cariae which now flourish in New Zealand and Norfolk Island. 
 The diluvial formation encompasses the Altai , as has been 
 already stated, nearly on three sides. In this formation, and 
 in the rocks of the devonian and Silurian systems, lies nearly 
 all the mineral wealth of this favoured region. 
 
 The physiognomy of the Altai mountains in their \V. and 
 
 S. divisions, is generally grand and interesting. The river?, 
 which are very numerous, flow rapidly with full streams ; and 
 the various forms of the stratified and metamorphosed rocks 
 of the limestones, porphyry, and granite, with the Bielki 
 (white or snowy mountains) in the distance, lend to the scene 
 the charm of perpetual novelty. The banks of the Kattmya, 
 in the heart of the mountains, present a landscape of the most 
 impressive character ; an immense wall of rock extending from 
 W. to E., supports fields of perpetual snow and glaciers, from 
 the midst of which rise numerous rocky points, pyramids, and 
 truncated cones; while in the distance are seen the two tower 
 ing peaks named the Pillars of the Katunya. These peaks, 
 which are supposed to be the highest summits of the Altai 
 mountains, stand on :\ wide and elevated table land, lying 
 between the sources of the Katunya, the Bielaya (falling into 
 the Chuya), and the Berell, which joins the Bukhtarma. 
 Glaciers, spreading from the bases of the Bielukha, or snowy 
 cones, supply the fountains of these three rivers. The absolute 
 height of the Pillars has been estimated, by Dr. Gebler, at 
 11,723 ft., or, by Tchihatcheff, at 12,790 ft. To the E. of 
 these pillars, the peaks of Chenunc-ouzoune and ^Arhhite 
 increase in number, and present forms still more deeply 
 serrated. In the course of all my long wanderings, I do not 
 remember ever to have admired a scene more grand or more 
 magnificent. (Tchihatcheff.) The accompanying view of 
 these mountains is taken from the N. summit of the plateau of 
 
 
 Saldjar, a branch of the chain of the same name. In the 
 E. part of the Altai , where the clay slate predominates, the 
 aspect of the country is more monotonous ; the mountains lose 
 all variety of form, and assume the character of long ridges. 
 It is on these mountains of slaty structure that the most 
 disagreeable characteristic of the Altai is chiefly developed, 
 namely, the great extent of deep bog and morass, through 
 which a horse crossing the hills must wade belly-deep even 
 in the middle of summer, and not without the danger of 
 breaking his legs, if he gets entangled in the boughs of the 
 trees which lie buried beneath. The principal heights of the 
 Altai are situated, as might be supposed, at the points of 
 intersection of the ranges which strike in different directions. 
 Few of them have, however, been as yet measured, and the 
 following list of points, the elevation of which has been de 
 termined by barometrical observation, may be presumed to con 
 tain the most accessible summits, rather than the highest : 
 
 The Kreuzberg (cross moiuita 
 
 the foot of the cross 
 
 Crest of the Koksun Alps 
 
 in the Ulhinsk range), at ) 
 
 Sources of the little Koksim ..................................... 6048 
 
 Crest between the valleys of the little Koksun and Tatarka 6708 
 Summit above tlie source of tlic Charysli ...................... 7633 
 
 Source of the river Kara-pi ....................................... 5834 
 
 Plateau of the Korgone, between the sources of the Inya ) --.or, 
 andKorovikha....... .J 7130 
 
 Shchebennkha, 10 m. from Fykalka ............................. 8050 
 
 Ivanofskm Bielok, near Kyderskoi ............................... 7191 
 
 Kholsun, nearthe source of the Hlack Uba ................... 8538 
 
 Peak of Aigulak ...................................................... 7784 
 
 Steppe of Kurai, above the Cliuya ............................... 5966 
 
 Chegan Alps (1000 ft., perhaps/beiow the summit) ......... 9064 
 
 area covered by perpetual snow in the Altai is very 
 the height 
 
 Th 
 
 considerable ; but the height of the snow line, which is very 
 irregular, does not appear to have been yet ascertained for 
 any locality by exact observation. It is supposed to be 
 relatively high ; owing, probably, to the great mass of the 
 high land and the contiguity of the mountains, as well as to 
 the peculiar condition of the atmosphere ; and, in the S. and 
 more elevated portion of the Altai , its general elevation does 
 not perhaps fall much short of 8000 ft. The glaciers of the 
 same region occupy a large extent, but they never descend 
 
ALTAI 
 
 108 
 
 ALT AM UK A 
 
 far below the snow line ; and it is a remarkable fact, that 
 though in the granitic districts of the Altai , valleys are to 
 be found strewed over with blocks of granite, which in some 
 places occur in great numbers, even on the crests of the 
 mountains, yet boulders, properly so called the distribution 
 of which is generally ascribed to the agency of glaciers are 
 never met with cither in the Alpine regions of the Altai, or 
 the plains surrounding them. This fact strikes forcibly the 
 traveller from the Russian shores of the Baltic, where so wide 
 an area is overspread with boulders of Finnland or Scandi 
 navian granite. The limited extent and physical agency of 
 glaciers in the Altai may be assigned, with much probability, 
 to two causes 1. The relative dryness of the air; for if the 
 climate of Barnoul, on the river Obe (lat. 52 27 N.), be com 
 pared with that of St. Gothard on the Swiss Alps, it will be 
 found that snow falls at the former place but 66 days in the 
 year, and at the latter 1 16. 2. The winter is in the Altai the 
 dry season ; most of the snow falls during the summer months, 
 and little after November. These climatic conditions explain 
 why the line of perpetual snow lies high, and why there is so 
 little accumulation of glacier ice. The stern winter of the 
 high lands is kept effectually within bounds by the heat of a 
 short summer. The frost does not disappear till the middle 
 of Slay ; and sledge travelling, on the newly-fallen snow, 
 frequently begins in the middle of September. In the moun 
 tains, the ice of the lakes may be crossed on horseback in the 
 middle of June. But the prevalence of cold indicated by 
 these circumstances, is counterbalanced by the general serenity 
 of the atmosphere ; and the town of Fykalka, on the S. slope 
 of the Shchebenukha range, near the Bukhtarma, standing at a 
 height of 4300 ft. above the sea, is yet inhabited all the year 
 round ; nay, the fields adjacent to, and even above it, are 
 cultivated with success, yielding barley, rye, oats, millet, and 
 summer wheat, besides garden vegetables. 
 
 The vegetation of the Altai is varied and abundant, and 
 often vigorous. The local Flora, to which ample justice has 
 been done by the labours of Drs. Ledebour and Bunge, 
 assumes the Asiatic character ; the European type prevailing ] 
 from the Ural mountains to the banks of the Irtish. The 
 mountain forests are composed of birch, alder, aspen, acacia, 
 willow, larch, fir, and the Siberian stone pine (Pimis cembni). 
 This last tree flourishes at an absolute height of nearly 
 7000 ft.; and at an elevation of 6000 ft., where the snow rarely 
 disappears before the end of May, it attains a great size, often 
 measuring 14 ft. in circumference. The highest limit of the 
 birch is about 4800 ft.; the dwarf willows, and other under 
 wood, cease totally about 1000 ft. higher. 
 
 The Altai mountains, and the adjoining ranges to the E., 
 are the native home of the wild sheep (Ovis argali), which 
 occupies the crags and most inaccessible rocky heights, leaving 
 the hill sides and elevated valleys to several kinds of deer, 
 CLTVUS elaplnis, C. alces, C. pi/yargus, &c. A marmot, pe 
 culiar to these regions, abounds in the vicinity of the snow. 
 These animals are preyed on by the glutton and the bear. 
 The royal tiger prowls through the steppes on the S., and 
 haunts particularly the reedy shores of Lake Balkhash ; it is 
 not unlikely, therefore, that his predatory incursions some 
 times extend into the Altai . 
 
 It is related by Tchihatcheff, in the interesting and instruc 
 tive account of his journey through the Altai", in 1841 , that 
 he found, near the sources of the Chuya, and in some other 
 elevated districts, extensive tracts covered with the skulls, 
 horns, or antlers, and other remains of the argali, elk, and 
 deer of various kinds. Sometimes whole skeletons lay exposed ; 
 but more generally they were at least partially buried, only 
 the skull and antlers rising above ground, and frequently the 
 latter alone protruded, slowly gathering little mounds about 
 them, by arresting the loose drift. Here, then, was to be seen, 
 in course of formation, the growing monuments of future 
 palaeontology. The Kalmuks, when questioned respecting 
 these appearances, ascribed them to the increasing severity 
 of the winter, the destructive effects of which, they said, had 
 been felt by the deer and argali for some years. In like 
 manner, Dr. Ledebour states that he often saw in the Altai , 
 above the present limits of arborescent vegetation, withered 
 trunks and other incontestable proofs that trees had once 
 flourished higher up. But notwithstanding all this, how are 
 we to believe that a considerable change is taking place in the 
 climate of the AltaT mountains, destroying life, and narrowing 
 
 the limits of vegetation, without being perceptible in the 
 adjoining inhabited towns, or depressing the thermometer, or 
 manifesting itself otherwise than by merely local effects ? As 
 to the limit of arborescent vegetation, may it not be liable to 
 periodical changes, owing to the exhaustion of the ground ? 
 In thick woods, when trees die, they are soon replaced by 
 other trees of a different species ; but on the borders of veget 
 ation where few species will grow, the chance of a rapid 
 succession is proportionally diminished. With respect to the 
 destruction of the deer, it appears to us that an adequate and 
 very probable explanation of it may be found in the increase 
 of peat bog, and that inordinate extension of morass and 
 quagmire, which all travellers in that region describe as its 
 most annoying feature. Nearly all the destroyed deer seen 
 by Tchihatcheff were sunk, their heads excepted, in a morass. 
 These animals are confined by their habits to certain regions. 
 If they venture into the low lands, they are attacked by flies 
 and mosquitoes, and driven back to their haunts in the neigh 
 bourhood of the snows. But there they find cold, inhospitable 
 sloughs, continually encroaching on their domains, depriving 
 them of pasture, and at last engulfing them. It is obvious 
 that the growth of peat makes a change in the surface of the 
 ground, which is capable also of destroying trees. 
 
 The Altai mountains owe their reputation and importance 
 chiefly to their mineral treasures rich silver, copper, and 
 iron ores to which gold has been recently added. It was in 
 1725 that Nikiti Demidoff first ouened a silver mine in this 
 region, at Kolyvan. A few years later, the Government took 
 the business off his hands, and Schlangenberg [in Russian, 
 Smeinogorsk a name now abridged into Smeyef] became 
 the centre of operations. This branch of industry has been 
 wonderfully developed in the Altai ; but we cannot, in this 
 place, do more than indicate the towns in which the metal- 
 lurgic operations are chiefly carried on; these are Barnoul, 
 Smeyef, Salairsk, Ustkamenogorsk, Sernipolatinsk, Riddersk, 
 and Syriinovsk, which last possesses, at present, the richest 
 silver mines of the Altai . The valuable ores are all found in 
 the devonian system, or in the carboniferous limestone, and 
 always in the vicinity of porphyry or greenstone. The gold 
 occurs lower down, in the diluvial strata, associated with 
 remains of the mammoth and rhinoceros, and generally in the 
 vicinity of dioritic rocks ; taken collectively, it belongs to the 
 plains; yet, in consequence of the investigations of Tchihatcheff, 
 an expedition was sent, in 1843, to look for gold in the granitic; 
 district in the heart of the Altai , near the sources of the 
 Semia, which joins the Katunya ; and gold was indeed found in 
 some of the places indicated, but not in sufficient quantity to 
 encourage the prosecution of the search. A variety of por 
 phyry, commonly styled jasper, which is formed in the lathe 
 into handsome vases, and takes a fine polish, may be enumer 
 ated among the valuable minerals of the Altai*. 
 
 The Kalmuks inhabiting the Altai are extremely weak, 
 poor, and inoffensive. They are distinguished by the Russians 
 into obedient (i.e., Russian subjects), and double-taxed, or 
 paying tribute to China as well as to Russia, though living 
 beyond the Chinese frontiers. They are governed by their 
 Zaizanes, or native chiefs, the Russians never interfering with 
 them, except to collect the yasak, or tribute of furs. 
 (Tchihatcheff, Voyage dans I Altai Oriental; Ledebour, Altai 
 Jleise; Rose, Reise in Altai; Humboldt, Asie Cent-rale.) 
 
 ALTAM1RA, a tn. Mexico, state Tamaulipas, on the N. 
 bank of a lake formed at the mouth of the Tampico or Panuco 
 river ; 10 m. N.W. Tampico. The town consists of a few 
 tolerable houses in a square, a church, and a number of 
 thatched cottages. Its vicinity to swamps and lagoons ren 
 ders it unhealthy, bilious fevers being very prevalent. 
 
 ALT AMUlt A , a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Bari, at the foot 
 of the Apennines, 1 19 m. E. Naples, and 29 m. S.W. Bari. It 
 is one of the most beautiful towns in the province, surrounded 
 by walls, and adorned by several elegant structures; the prin 
 cipal of which is its cathedral, a magnificent building founded 
 by Frederick II. It contains, besides, an hospital and a 
 college, both founded by King Charles of Bourbon. It was 
 sacked by the royalists in 1799. A number of ancient 
 Grecian vases, of exquisite workmanship, and other antiqui 
 ties, have been dug up in the neighbourhood, corroborative of 
 the opinion that it is built on, or near, the site of the ancient 
 Lapazia. It is the residence of a royal governor. The 
 country around is fertile, and abounds in rich pastures. The 
 
ALTAVILLA 
 
 109 
 
 ALTENBURG 
 
 vino, and olive are the chief productions of the soil. Pop. 
 14,949. 
 
 ALTAVILLA. 1, A tn. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, 
 district of, and 9 m. S. from Campagna, situated on a hill in a 
 healthy locality. It was founded by the Normans. Becom 
 ing afterwards a sanctuary for the insurgent subjects of 
 Frederick II., that monarch caused it to be destroyed. It 
 was subsequently rebuilt by the inhabitants. Pop. 3684. 
 2, A tn. prov. Principato Ultra, district of, and 7 in. N. 
 from Avellino. Pop. 2956. 
 
 ALTCAK, a par. England, co. Lancaster; area, 3580 
 ac. ; intersected by the river Alt. Pop. in 1841, 490. 
 
 ALTDAMM, or DAMM, a fortified city, Prussia, prov. 
 Pomerania, gov. of, and 4 m. E.S.E. from Stettin; situated 
 at the point where the river Plb ne flows into the Lake Damm ; 
 lat. 53 24 N. ; Ion. 14 41 E. It has two suburbs, a church, 
 two schools, an hospital, a poor s house, and manufactures of 
 cloth and cotton stuffs; but agriculture, the rearing of cattle, 
 and fishing, form the chief employments. Pop. 2419. 
 
 ALTDORF, or ALTORF [Old village], the name of several 
 towns and villages: 1, A tn. Switzerland, cap. can. Uri, 
 near the Lake of Luzern, and 21 in. S.E. from the town of that 
 name. It is beautifully situated in the midst of gardens and 
 orchards, at the termination of the great route over the St. 
 Gothard, on a plain intersected by the mountain streams 
 Schachenbach and Reuss, 1483 ft. above the sea level, and is 
 well built and clean ; has a townhouse, church, gymnasium, 
 and school ; and in the middle of the town an ornamental 
 fountain, erected 1567. It derives its chief interest from its 
 association with the Swiss patriot William Tell, whose mem 
 orable exploit of splitting an apple on his son s head with an 
 arrow, is said to have been performed here. An old tou*er, 
 ornamented with rude paintings of Tell and the Austrian 
 tyrant Gesner, stands near the spot. Tell is alleged to have 
 been born in the neighbouring village of Biirglen, which is 
 regarded as the cradle of Swiss liberty. The town was nearly 
 
 destroyed by fire in 1799. Pop. 1903. 2, A small tn. 
 
 Bavaria, on the river Schwarzach, in a beautiful and fertile 
 country, 13 m. E.S.E. Nuremberg. It has an old palace, 
 several breweries, and a considerable manufacture of wooden 
 toys of all kinds, exported in large quantities, and wood char 
 coal. Altdorfwasof some importance as early as the 13th 
 century; was once the seat of a university, which, however, 
 merged in that of Erlangen in 1806, and has still a normal 
 
 seminary for Protestant teachers. Pop. 2700. 3, A tn. 
 
 Wiirtembcrg, circle Danube, 2 m. N.N.E. Ravensburg, having 
 manufactures of straw chairs. At a short distance is the 
 castle of Weingarten, formerly a celebrated abbey of Bene 
 dictines. Pop. 2407 (R. catholics). -4, A vil. grand duchy 
 
 of Baden, in a fertile district, on the high road from Offenburg 
 to Freiburg. It has a fine palace, with a good library, pos 
 sessing a collection of coins and valuable MSS. It has also 
 two breweries, a distillery, and a vinegar work. A good 
 many cattle are reared, and in the neighbourhood some wine 
 is made, and a great deal of chicory grown. Pop., chiefly K. 
 catholics, 1478. ALTDORF is likewise the name of numer 
 ous other localities, all unimportant. 
 
 ALTE, or ALTA, a vil. Portugal, prov. Algarve, N. from 
 Louie, in a basin-like valley, on the border of a mountain 
 ridge. Its inhabitants are very poor, and subsist chiefly by 
 mining, making charcoal, and gathering and manufacturing 
 esparto. Its only importance is derived from the rich copper 
 mines, about 2 m. S.W. from it. These have only recently 
 been opened ; they do not require to be wrought to any great 
 depth, and the water which accumulates in the diggings is 
 easily carried off. The ore is rich, plentiful, and easily 
 obtained. (Willkomm s Zwei Juhre in Spanien nnd Par- 
 tugal.) 
 
 ALTEA, a maritime tn. Spain, in Valencia, prov. of, and 
 30m. N.E. from Alicante, on the Mediterranean Sea; lat. 
 38 37 N. ; Ion. 3 W. ; at the head of a bay, and built on 
 a rising ground, on the r. bank of the Alga, overlooked by 
 an old fortress. It is cheerful-looking; has spacious but 
 steep streets, a church, Latin and other schools, and a town- 
 hall. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in tillage, but also 
 in manufacturing soap, linen fabrics, ropes, and gypsum. In 
 the vicinity, grain, fruits, and vegetables, are grown ; and pigs, 
 sheep, goats, and mules, are reared. About 300 of the inhab 
 itants arc engaged in seafaring. Pop. 5502. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALTEN, a river, Norway, prov. Finmarken, rising in 
 two sources S. from Kautokeino, in the mountains that 
 separate Finmarken from Lapland. It flows N., and falls 
 into the Altenfiord at Altengaard, after a course of about 50 in. 
 
 ALTEN, or ALTENGAARD, a small tn. Norway, prov. 
 Finmarken, on the river Alten, at its embouchure into the 
 Altenfiord; lat. 69 55 N. ; Ion. 23 4 23" E. (L.) It is 
 said to be the most N. point of the globe where cultivation is 
 attempted; the produce is potatoes and barley. Two distinct 
 lines of upraised ancient sea coast, one above the other, are 
 distinguishable here. They are not parallel, and both of 
 them imply, that within a distance of 50 m., a considerable 
 slope can be detected, in such a direction as to show that the 
 ancient shores have undergone a greater amount of upheaval 
 in proportion as we advance inland. (Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., 
 No. IV. p. 534.) 
 
 ALTENA, a tn. Prussia, cap. circle of same name, gov. 
 Arensburg, in a deep valley on the r. bank of the Lenne, where 
 it is joined by the Nette, 40 m. N.N.E. Cologne ; lat. 51 18 N.; 
 Ion. 7 38 E. It has an old palace, three churches, several 
 courts of justice, and a workhouse in a building which once 
 formed the residence of the Counts of Mark. On a tongue of 
 land stand large manufacturing works driven by water power, 
 and containing machines for making needles, pins, thimbles, 
 and smaller articles of iron ware. The value of the articles 
 annually produced exceeds 75,000 sterling. Altena has 
 
 also numerous common weaving and stocking looms. The 
 
 CIRCLE has an extent of about 200 geo. sq. m. It is hilly, and 
 not well adapted for agriculture, but a -good many cattle are 
 reared. The hills, one of which (the Nordhelle) is above 
 2000, and another, near Altena (the Breloh), is 1500 ft. high, 
 furnish the supply of numerous streams. In particular, the 
 Wupper has its rise within the circle. Pop. of the tn. 4200 ; 
 of the circle, 33,000, who, with the exception of 150 Jews, 
 and 659 I. , catholics, are all Protestants. 
 
 ALTENAU, a small tn. Hanover, mining dist. of, and 
 4 m. E. from Klaustthal, in a narrow valley on the Ocker, in 
 the Harz mountains, and at a height of nearly 1 500 ft. above 
 the level of the sea. Its mines produce annually 7816 marks 
 silver, nearly 5200 sterling; about 5000 tons lead, and three 
 tons copper. Iron is likewise produced to the extent of 5000 
 tons. A good many of the inhabitants are employed in making 
 lace. Pop. 1757. ALTENAU is also the name of three vils. 
 in Prussia, and one in Bavaria. 
 
 ALTENBERG [Old hill], the name of numerous towns, 
 villages, and districts throughout Germany, of which the only 
 one worthy of being named is in Saxony, circle of, and 20 m. 
 S. from Dresden, cap. bail, of same name. It is the seat of local 
 courts of justice; has a royal storehouse for tin, an hospital, 
 several mills propelled by water power, and in its vicinity are 
 the most extensive tin mines on the Continent. Pop. 1950. 
 The BAILIWICK has an area of 40 geo. sq. in. The chief 
 employments are mining of tin, cattle rearing, and straw 
 plaiting. Pop. 3740. 
 
 ALTENBURG, or SAXE-ALTENBURO [German, Sachscn- 
 Altenburcj], a duchy of W. Germany, consisting of two divi 
 sions, which are separated from each other by the interposition 
 of Reuss-Gera. The E. division, formed by the districts of 
 Altenburg and Ronneburg, is enclosed 011 the N.E. and S. by 
 the kingdom of Saxony, and has Prussian Saxony on the N.W., 
 and Reuss-Gera on the W. The W. division consists of the 
 circle of Saal-Eisenberg, and has Reuss and Gera on the E., 
 Prussian Saxony on the N., Weimar on the N.W., the district 
 of Rudal on the S.W., and Meiningen and Weimar on the S. 
 The area of the divisions is nearly equal ; that of Altenburg 
 containing about 180, and that of Saal-Eisenberg nearly 200 
 geo. sq. in.; but the population of the former far exceeds that 
 of the latter, the one being 81,000, and the other only 45,000. 
 The difference of population is accounted for by the different 
 characters of the surface of the countries. Altenburg is one 
 of the most fertile and best-cultivated districts in Germany; 
 while Saal-Eisenberg, particularly in the S.E., is covered witli 
 mountains and forests. In the E. of Altenburg, however, 
 towards the frontier, the first slopes of the Erzegebirge begin 
 to rise. They are composed chiefly of a reddish claystone and 
 porphyry, and contain considerable seams of brown coal, or 
 lignite. The chief employment of the inhabitants of both 
 divisions, exclusive of those engaged in agriculture, is spin 
 ning and weaving. In the towns, the woollen manufacture has 
 
ALTENBURG 
 
 110 
 
 ALT-OFEN 
 
 the pre-eminence. Among the products may he mentioned 
 wooden utensils, potash, pitch, roofing slates, lignite, glue, 
 liqueurs, porcelain, and excellent stones. In the W. division 
 there is a considerable traffic in corn and timber. The inhab 
 itants, originally a branch of the Sclavonic family, have lost 
 the language ; but still in dress, and several other respects, 
 retain many of the old customs handed down by their fore 
 fathers. By the constitution given to Altenburg in 1831, it 
 is a limited monarchy ; the legislative assembly consisting of 
 12 delegates, elected every five years, and a president nomi 
 nated by the Duke. As a member of the Germanic confedera 
 tion, it is united with the other Saxon duchies, and has the 
 12th vote. Its military quota consists of a battalion of in 
 fantry, numbering 982 men. In 1672, the larger portion 
 of Altenburg was vested by succession in the family of 
 Saxe-Gotha; and in 1825, by virtue of an exchange with 
 the Duke of Meiningen, Altenburg, with the exception of 
 a few small districts, fell to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburg- 
 hausen. Pop. 126,000. (Huhn s Lex. Deutschland; Real 
 EncyMopfidic.) 
 
 ALTENBURG [Old castle].!, A city, Germany, cap. 
 duchy Saxe-Altenburg, and of circle of its name; about 2 m.W. 
 from the 1. bank of the Pleisse, 26 m. S. Leipzig, with which 
 it is connected by a railway, opened in 1842, now connected 
 with the Bavarian lines; lat. 50 56 N.; Ion. 12 27 E. I 
 It is walled, and, though irregularly built upon several hills, | 
 has some fine streets, and many handsome edifices, besides 
 five considerable suburbs, named after the former city gates. ! 
 It is the seat of the higher courts and Government offices, and 
 contains seven churches, a gymnasium, a considerable library, 
 a foundation for educating Protestant young ladies of rank ; a 
 normal school, with a deaf and dumb institute attached, and 
 several other educational establishments; also, a house of 
 correction ; three hospitals, one of them for orphans, and other 
 two charities ; an association for promoting trade and industry, 
 a philosophical society, a horticultural society, a historical 
 and antiquarian society, a drawing academy, a theatre, &c. . 
 The palace, which is surrounded by extensive gardens, lies I 
 N.E. of the town, on a hill of porphyry, from which a fine view 
 is obtained. The Magdalena, or Lutheran female endowment, 
 which stands in a garden E. of the town, is a handsome turreted 
 building. The principal manufactures are of linen, ribbons, 
 gloves, worsteds, brushes, vinegar, brandy, and liqueurs ; 
 starch, sealing wax, playing cards, paint, porcelain, stoves, 
 tobacco and snuff, optical instruments, &c. A considerable 
 trade is carried on in cattle, corn, wood, and wool. Carriage 
 building is also prosecuted to some extent. Pop. 13,697. 
 
 2, ALTEXBUKG [Hungarian, Magyar Ovar], a market tn. 
 
 Hungary, 20 m. S.S.E. Presburg, and 47 S.E. Vienna; in a 
 marsh, on an island of the Leitha, at the point where it unites 
 with the r. arm of the Danube. It is surrounded with deep 
 ditches, and finely-watered gardens ; has wide streets, and a 
 number of handsome buildings; among others, a gymnasium, 
 a Piarist college, an agricultural institution, and an old castle, 
 now used as a corn magazine. The inhabitants, Germans and 
 Hungarians, trade in black cattle, grain, and fruit. In 1605, 
 and again in 1683, the Turks, in their progress towards 
 
 Vienna, burnt this town to the ground. Pop. 3400. At 
 
 least 48 places in Germany have the common name of 
 ALTEXBURO. 
 
 ALTENDORF [Old village], the names of numerous 
 villages in Germany, in Bavaria, Hessen, Hanover, Holstein, 
 Austria, Prussia, and Saxony. They are all small. The 
 largest is a vil. in Moravia, on the Podelskybache, near 01- j 
 miitz. It has a church, school, paper mill, load mill, and two 
 wire-drawing works. In its vicinity arc lead and silver mines. 
 Pop. 2020. 
 
 ALTENGAABD. See AI.TEN. 
 
 ALTENHEIM, a vil. grand duchy of Baden; situated 
 in a rich champaign country, on the road from Kehl to 
 Freiburg, 1 m. from the Rhine. It is a very old place, men 
 tioned as early as A.D. 883. The inhabitants, mostly Protest 
 ants, are engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. Pop. 
 1500. 
 
 ALTENKIRCHEN [Old churches], a small fortified tn., 
 cap. circle of same name, Prussia, prov. Lower Rhine, gov. 
 of, and 16 m. N. from Coblentz on the Wied ; lat. 50 37 N.; 
 Ion. 7 36 E. Agriculture, the rearing of cattle, linen manu 
 factures, and the production of various articles of iron ware, 
 
 form the chief employment of the population, amounting to 
 1100. An obstinate battle took place here between the 
 Austrians, under Prince Ferdinand of Wiirtemberg, and the 
 
 French, under General Kleher, in 1796. The CIRCLE of 
 
 Altcnkirchen has an area of about 180 geo. sq. in., and is 
 rugged and mountainous. Some of the hills are of basalt ; 
 and the cup-shaped summits of some of them have all the 
 appearance of old craters. Not much grain is produced, but 
 a great number of cattle, sheep, goats, and swine are reared. 
 The cows, amounting to 9400, prove that the dairy is not 
 neglected. Within the circle, at Hamm, are a furnace for 
 making rough steel, another for smelting copper, and a powder 
 mill. In other parts of the circle, various mining operations 
 are carried on, and there are several iron furnaces. Pop. 
 34,000, nearly divided between R. catholics and Protestants. 
 There are several other places in Germany named 
 ALTENKIRCHEN. 
 
 ALTENMARKT [Old market], the name of numerous 
 unimportant places in Germany. 
 
 ALTENSTADT [Old town], the name of seven unimport 
 ant places in Bavaria, two in Hessen, one in Wiirtemberg, 
 and one in Austria. 
 
 ALTENSTEIG, or ALTENSTAIG, a tn. Wiirtemberg, 
 circle Black Forest, on the slope of a steep hill, near the 
 Nagold, 29 m. S. W. Stutgardt. It has tanneries, with woollen 
 and linen manufactures, and a work for making salt of sorrel. 
 Pop. 2000. 
 
 ALTER-DO-CHAO, a tn. Portugal, prov. Alemtejo, 
 15 m. S.W. Portalegre, on the river Avis. It is enclosed 
 within old walls, and has a poor s house, and the ruins of a 
 castle. Pop. 2000. 
 
 ALTERNON, a par. England, co. Cornwall; area, 
 13,840 ac.; 7j m. W T .S.W. Launceston. Pop. in 1841, 1334. 
 
 ALTHORNE, a par. England, co. Essex ; 2000 ac. Pop 
 in 1841, 418. 
 
 ALTHORPE, a par. England, co. Lincoln; 5460 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 1184. 
 
 ALTIN, a lake, Siberia, gov. of, and 330m. S.S.E. from 
 Tomsk ; 77 m. long, and 52 m. broad. It has a rocky bottom, 
 and gives rise to the Byia river, which, after its union with the 
 Katunya, receives the name of Obe. In winter, the N. part 
 is sometimes frozen so as to be passable on sledges, but the 
 S. part is never covered with ice. The Russians call Altin 
 Lake Teletskoc Osero, from the Teletsi, a Tartar tribe, who 
 inhabit its borders, and who give it the name of Altin-KuL 
 By the Kalmuks it is called Altin- Nor. The water in the 
 lake, as well as in the rivers which run through the adjacent 
 country, is increased during summer by melted snow ; hence it 
 appears of greater or smaller extent, according to the period of 
 the year at which it is seen by different travellers. A neigh 
 bouring branch of the Altai mountains is also called ALTIN. 
 
 ALTKIRCH [Old church], a small manufacturing tn. 
 France, dep. Haut-Rhin (Alsace), 17 m. W. Basel. It is 
 situated upon a height, at the foot of which flows the 111, 
 near the forest of Hart; and is divided into the upper and 
 lower town, between which are the ruins of an old castle, the 
 residence of the Archdukes of Austria, when they visited 
 Alsace. It is the seat of a tribunal of primary jurisdiction, 
 and of a communal college. The manufactures are princi 
 pally of earthenware, cotton, and various kinds of implements. 
 There are also breweries and tanneries in the town, and, in 
 the neighbourhood, excellent quarries of stone and gypsum. 
 A considerable trade is carried on in grain, wine, and hemp ; 
 and a cattle market is held once a month. Pop. in 1846, 
 3316. 
 
 ALTMUHL [Lat. Alemannus, Alimoma], a river, Ba 
 varia, an affluent of the Danube, from the left, rising 16 m. 
 N.W. Anspach, and 8 m. N.E. Rothenburg; about lat. 49 26 
 N.; Ion. 10 18 E. ; whence it runs S.E., past Pappenheim 
 and Eichstlidt, about 132 m., to Kelheim, where it joins the 
 Danube, 12 m. S.W. Regensburg. The Ludwig, or Mayn- 
 Danube Canal, from Bamberg on the Regnitz to Dietfurt on 
 the Altmiihl, unites the German Ocean with the Black Sea by 
 the centre of Europe. 
 
 ALT-GETTING. See. OETTJNG. 
 
 ALT-OFEN, a municipal tn. Hungary, forming almost 
 a suburb of Ofen, or Buda, from which it is separated merely 
 by a barrier. It is supposed to occupy the site of Sicambria 
 of the Romans. Pop. 9150. 
 
ALTOMONTE 
 
 HI 
 
 ALTSTRELITZ 
 
 ALTOMONTE, or ALTAMONT, a tn. Naples, prov. 
 f alabria Citra, 12 m. S.W. Cassano, situated on an eminence. 
 In the neighbourhood are mines of gold, silver, and iron; and 
 a salt spring. Fop. 4600. 
 
 ALTON. 1, A market tn. and par. England, co. Hants. 
 The town is about 16 m. N.E. Winchester, and 46 m. S.W. 
 London, on the main road from the latter to the former, and 
 near the river Wey. It consists of one principal street, about 
 half a mile long, three small streets, and a spacious market 
 place, all clean and well kept. The houses are respectable, 
 and many of them well built ; mostly of brick, although there 
 are quarries of good building stone in the neighbourhood. It is 
 amply supplied with excellent water, and lighted with gas. The 
 church is a handsome building, with a square embattled tower 
 and spire. There are, besides, several dissenting places of 
 worship; a number of schools, including a free school, and a 
 British school; several benevolent and charitable institutions; 
 and a mechanic s institute, having a library containing 1000 
 volumes. Bombazines were formerly manufactured here to 
 a considerable extent, but the trade is now entirely extinct. 
 Sacking and hop bagging both to a small amount are the 
 only manufactures now carried on here ; but there is a con 
 siderable retail trade in domestic necessaries. There are 
 also some large breweries, the ale from which is much 
 esteemed. The town is under the jurisdiction of the county 
 magistrates ; and the petty sessions for the division of N. Alton 
 are held here. It is one of the polling places for the county ; 
 has weekly corn and cattle markets ; and two fairs annually ; 
 one in April, for sheep and lambs ; the other in September, 
 for cattle and toys. Area of par., 3910 ac. ; pop. of tn. and 
 
 par. in 1841, 3139. (Correspondent in Alton.} 2, ALTON 
 
 is also the name of a division, co. Hants ; and of a hamlet, co. 
 
 Worcester. 3, A tn., U. States, in Illinois, on the E. bank 
 
 of the Mississippi, near the junction of the Illinois with that 
 river, and 1 80 m. W. Washington. Its streets are spacious, 
 and regularly laid out. There are five squares, and six 
 churches, belonging to various religious bodies; some of the 
 latter are large and handsome buildings. It is favourably 
 situated for commercial purposes, and has the best landing 
 for steam vessels on the E. bank of the Mississippi. There 
 are here three printing offices, and two weekly newspapers. 
 Pop. 2340. 
 
 ALTONA, the second city in the kingdom of Denmark ; 
 and though the most recent, yet the largest and most popu 
 lous in the duchy of Holstein. It is a river port, on the r. 
 bank of the Elbe, a little below Hamburg, with whose suburb 
 of St. Pauli its E. side is almost in immediate proximity; 
 while, on the W., it is joined by the populous villages of 
 Ottensen and Neumiihl; lat. (observatory) 53 32 42" N.; Ion. 
 9 56 42" E. (R.) It stands higher, and is hence said to be more 
 healthy, than Hamburg. It is in general well built, but does 
 not possess many objects of interest. Its finest street is the 
 Palmall, which is long and broad, is lined with good houses, 
 and has a fine shady walk in the centre, formed by a double 
 row of lime trees. Of its six churches, the only one deserv 
 ing of notice is the high church, which has two towers, and 
 is considered the finest in the duchy. Among the other 
 buildings may be mentioned a gymnasium, with a library 
 of 12,000 volumes; an orphan hospital, and large infirmary. 
 In the cemetery beyond the town, are the tomb of Klopstock, 
 who died in Hamburg in 1804, at the age of 80, and a monu 
 ment to the Hamburgers who fell during the siege of 1813- 
 1814. The trade and manufactures of Altona are extensive, 
 and have been carefully fostered by the Danish Government, 
 which has endeavoured, by special privileges and immunities, 
 to attract to it part of the extensive commerce previously 
 monopolized by Hamburg. The success has been compara 
 tively limited. Notwithstanding of the rapid, and, for an 
 European continental town, almost unprecedented rise of 
 Altona, Hamburg maintains it pre-eminence; and has even 
 converted the former into a kind of suburb, where the merchants 
 of the latter reside, not to carry on, but to retire from busi 
 ness ; thus almost justifying the vulgar pun, which, playing 
 upon the name of Altona, derives it from the Low German 
 words, al-to-nah (all too nigh), as indicating its unhappy 
 proximity to Hamburg. Perhaps the most important manu 
 facture of Altona is that of tobacco. One single factory 
 employs 120 persons, and works up 600,000 Ibs. In 1844, 
 of 1,100,000 Ibs. of raw tobacco used, 110,000 were made 
 
 into snuff, 64,000 into cheroots, and 64,000 into cigars. Tim 
 other public works are soap and oil works, dyeworks for 
 woollen goods, a chemical work, a vinegar work, a type 
 foundry, an extensive linen and cotton printfield, roperies, 
 tanneries, and breweries, famous for their beer. The railways 
 recently completed in the neighbourhood have added greatly 
 to the importance of Altona, both in a commercial and military 
 point of view; in the former, by the railway to Kiel, which 
 connects it with the Baltic; and in the latter, by a branch of 
 the same railway, which connects it with the important fortress 
 of Eendsburg. Altona has four dockyards. Its harbour is 
 only a winter haven of the third class, having a depth of 
 water from 7^ to 14 ft. ; but the largest merchant vessels 
 once over the bar of Blankenese, can unload at the warehouses 
 on the bank of the Elbe, especially at the W. end of the town, 
 where the ordinary depth of water in the river is from 15 to 
 25ft. The number of vessels belonging to Altona is 238; 
 and that of the vessels of all kinds, including fishing-boats, 
 by which its port was visited in 1853, was 3825; tonn., 
 186,680. Pop. of Altona proper in 1845, 32,200; but, in 
 cluding Ottensen and Neumiihl, which ought to be regarded 
 as its suburbs, 37,000. Other three places in Holstein, and 
 11 in different parts of Germany, have the name of ALTONA. 
 (Baggesen s Danische Sfriat; Huhn s Lex. Dcutscldand.} 
 
 ALTON-BARNES, a par. England, co. Wilts; area, 250 
 ac. ; 4 m. W. by N. Pewsey. Pop. in 1841, 167. 
 
 ALTON-PANCRAS, a par. England, co. Dorset; 1370 
 ac. ; 2 m. E. Cerne Abbas. Pop. in 1841, 248. 
 
 ALTRANSTADT, a vil. Prussian Saxony, gov. of, and 
 9 m. E. from Merseburg. In its ancient castle, the treaty of 
 peace was concluded between Charles XII., King of Sweden, 
 and Augustus, elector of Saxony, September 24, 1706. 
 
 ALTRINGHAM, or ALTRINCHAM, a small tu. and 
 chapelry, England, co. Chester. The town lies 8 m. S.W. 
 Manchester, and 25 m. E. Liverpool ; is remarkably neat and 
 clean, on which account, and the salubrity of its air, it is much 
 resorted to by invalids from Manchester. There are, besides 
 the parish church, several dissenting places of worship, some 
 schools, and a few small charities. Thread and woollen yarn 
 are manufactured to some extent, but the chief employment 
 of the labouring classes is agriculture and gardening ; the 
 fruit and vegetable markets of Manchester being chiefly 
 supplied from this neighbourhood. The Duke of Bridge- 
 water s canal passes near the town, and contributes largely 
 to its prosperity. Fairs for cattle and drapery, in April, 
 August, and November. Pop. in 1841, of tn. and chapelry, 
 3399. 
 
 ALTSOL, or ZOLIUM, an old imperial free tn. Hungary, 
 72 m. N. Pesth; on the hank of the Gran, where it is joined by 
 the Szalatna. On a rocky height are the remains of a castle, 
 supposed to have been built in 1457, once the favourite hunt 
 ing seat of King Mathias I., called by the Hungarian peasants 
 the good king Mathias, now principally used as a prison. 
 In the neighbourhood is an acidulated spring of some celebrity, 
 and hemp is cultivated to some extent. Pop. 2000. 
 
 ALTSTETTEN. 1 , A small tn. and par. Switzerland, can. 
 of, and 9 m. S.E. from the town of St. Gallen, situated on the 
 slope of a mountain in the midst of a fertile and well-cultivated 
 district. It has a fine church, a townhouse, narrow streets, 
 and mostly high stone houses, some of which are handsome. 
 The houses of the suburbs are of wood. It sustained a siege 
 of three weeks from the Austrians in 1410, and suffered at 
 various times from fire. In the beginning of the lieforma - 
 tion, Carlstadt was some time a preacher here. In the vicinity 
 is a Franciscan nunnery, and an elegant bathhouse attached to 
 the cold sulphurous spring on the E. side of the town. Pop. 
 of tn. and par. 6429. 2, A vil. and par., can. of, and 3 m. 
 W.N.W. from the town of Zurich. Pop. 992. 
 
 ALTSTRELITZ, a walled tn. Mecklenburg, circle Star- 
 gard, in a plain near the Miihlenbach, which here forms a lake, 
 58 m. N.N.W. Berlin ; lat. 53 19 N.; Ion. 13 5 E. It has 
 three gates and as many squares, but the houses are for the 
 most part paltry. In the environs are numerous gardens, and 
 a promenade called the Fasanerie (pheasantry), much fre 
 quented. Altstrelitz was at one time famed for its horse 
 markets, but the chief employments of the inhabitants now are 
 agriculture and cattle rearing. There are also carried on 
 manufactures of leather, linen, straw hats, mats, and wax- 
 tapers. Pop., of whom 390 are Jews, 2943. 
 
ALTUN-KUPRI 
 
 112 
 
 ALVINCZ 
 
 ALTUN-KUPRI [Golden bridge], a small tn. Asiatic 
 Turkey, in Koordistan, pash. Bagdad, on an island in the 
 Altun-su, or Little Zab river, which is here crossed by two 
 bridges of brick work, 60 m. S.E. Mosul, and 26 m. S.E. 
 Arbel or Erbil ; Colonel Shiel says, about 40 m., but, being 
 much fatigued, he may have over-estimated it, and the prob 
 ability of his having done so is the greater that he states the 
 distance to Kirkook, which is further away, at 25 m. The 
 pop. was formerly about 8000, but has since been much re 
 duced by plague and famine. 
 
 ALTURA, a tn. Spain, in Valencia, prov. of, and 23 m. 
 W.S.W. from Castellon do la Plana, near the r. bank of the 
 Palancia ; tolerably built, with a church, chapel, and two 
 schools. The inhabitants are principally occupied with 
 agriculture, making wine and oil, and rearing domestic cattle 
 and silkworms. Pop. 1905. (Madoz.) 
 
 ALTWASSER, a vil. Prussia, gov. of, and 35 m. S.W. 
 from Breslau, on a slope of the Vogel-koppe, belonging to the 
 chain of the Mittelgebirge, 1200 ft. above the level of the sea, 
 and overlooking an extensive valley of great beauty. There 
 are several alkaline and chalybeate springs here, and the baths 
 which have been established at them are much resorted to. 
 Pop., exclusive of bathers, 1590. 
 
 ALUMPOOR, a tn. Hindoostan, in the Dcccan, 1. bank 
 of the Kistna; lat. 15 54 N. ; Ion. 78 10 E. 
 
 ALUSHTA, a tn. Russia, on the S. coast of the Crimea, 
 beautifully situated on an isolated schistous hill, forming a 
 spur from the Taurus chain, bathed on the E. by the Temirdshi, 
 and on the W. by the Ulu, 22 m. S.E. Simferopol. It appears 
 to have been anciently a place of considerable importance. 
 The first mention made of it is in the 6th century, when its 
 castle, which bore the name of Alouston, was repaired by the 
 Emperor Justinian. The ruins of the castle still crown the rock 
 on which the town is built, and advantage has been taken of 
 them by the inhabitants, who, in many cases, have built their 
 houses against them. These houses are of a very peculiar 
 construction. They are half sunk in the ground, and, by 
 means of roughly-hewn stones, cemented by a kind of greasy 
 earth, rise a short way above the surface, and support a flat 
 roof, which serves as a terrace walk, and occasionally as the 
 platform from which the next house in the ascent is entered. 
 Alushta still contains the remains of several Greek churches ; 
 and one of them, from bearing some resemblance to a cathedral 
 church, seems to indicate that the town was once the seat of 
 a bishop. (Montpereux, Voy. Autour du Caucase.) 
 
 ALUTA, ALT, or AI.OUTA, a rapid river, Transylvania ; 
 it rises in the W. Carpathian mountains, on the Molda 
 frontier, about lat. 46 38 N.; Ion. 25 46 E.; flows S. to 
 1 llyefalva, thence N. to lat. 46, whence S.W. and S. Crossing 
 the E. Carpathian by the pass of 15othenthurm, it enters 
 and crosses Wallachia, and falls into the Danube at Nicopoli, 
 after a course of about 270 m. It is said to contain some 
 gold. 
 
 ALVA, a vil. and par. Scotland, co. Stirling. The vil. 
 7 m. N.E. Stirling, pleasantly situated on nearly level ground 
 at the base of a hill called Craigleith. It consists of two 
 principal streets, running nearly parallel to each other, botli 
 straight and well kept. The houses are generally built of 
 the native whinstone, but a few are of red sandstone, obtainec 
 from an adjoining coal field. On an eminence a little to the 
 E. of the village, stands the parish church, built in 1632 
 There are also a Free church, and a United Presbyterian 
 church. The parish school house, situated in the centre o 
 the village, is a neat building, and capable of accommodating 
 upwards of 100 scholars. There are, besides, a subscriptioi 
 .school, an infant school, and a seminary for the education o 
 female children, supported chiefly by private benevolence 
 Woollen goods, particularly shawls and plaids, are manufac 
 tured here to a very considerable extent, and have been so foi 
 upwards of a century and a half. Spinning and throwing of | 
 woollen yams is also carried on largely, the whole employing 
 about 1800 hands. Glasgow is the principal market for these 
 manufactures, although quantities are sent also to Stirling, 
 
 Perth, and Edinburgh. Pop. of 
 
 1841,2092, par. 124. 
 
 Total, 2216. There has been an increase of the population 
 since 1831 of 916, attributed to the success of the woollen 
 manufactures. 
 
 ALVAH, a par. Scotland, co. Banff; area, 11,133 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 1407 
 
 ALVAR, ALVUR, or ALWUR, a principality, Upper Ilin- 
 loostan, chiefly in prov. Agra, between lat. 27 and 28 N.. 
 N. W. the dist. of Agra, and S.W. that of Delhi ; area, 3000 
 iq. m. In Mahometan histories it is sometimes called Mewat, 
 md its inhabitants Mewaties. The greater part of the country 
 s hilly, and covered with wood ; but it contains also well- 
 cultivated valleys and plains. The natives are singularly 
 avage and brutal, and are noted for predatory incursions on 
 ;he surrounding territories. Previously to 1 780, it was subject 
 :o the rajah of Jeypoor, but is now governed by the rajah of 
 Macherry, with whom a treaty was, in 1803, concluded by Lord 
 Lake, taking him under the protection of the British Govern 
 ment ; since which event, kind treatment has so far ameliorated 
 he character of the natives, that the rapine of the Mewaties is 
 now seldom heard of. The principal towns are Alvar, the cap.; 
 Macherry, from which the rajah derives his title; and Uajgluir. 
 (Hamilton s East India Gaz.; Walker s Map of India.} 
 
 ALVAR, or ALWUR, a tn. Hindoostan, in Ajmeer, cap. 
 principality of same name, 85 m. S.S.W. Delhi ; lat. 27 30 
 N. ; Ion. 78 E. It is strongly fortified, and lies at the base 
 of a steep hill, on the summit of which there is another fort, 
 well supplied with water. Alvar is the usual residence of the 
 a jah of Macherry. (Hamilton s East India Gaz.; Walker s 
 Map of India, 1850.) 
 
 ALVARAUO. 1, A small tn. and port, Mexico, state of, 
 and 40 m. S.E. from VeraCruz; lat. 18 45 N. ; Ion. 95 
 43 W. (R.) The town stands in an unhealthy situation, on 
 the point of a small promontory, which forms the N.W. en 
 trance into the harbour, or lagoon. The latter is a bar har 
 bour, capable of admitting vessels of 12 and 13 ft. draught, 
 which, within the bar, on which there is 9 ft. depth at low 
 water, lie sheltered from every wind. There is a dockyard 
 at Alvarado. 2, A river, formed by the union of several 
 streams, rising in the mountains of the state of Oaxaca. It 
 flows E.N.E. through the state of Vera Cruz, forms a lake 
 of its own name, and falls into the Gulf of Mexico, through 
 the lagoon or harbour of Alvarado, after flowing a direct 
 distance of 120 m. from the junction of the head streams. 
 
 ALVAYAZERE, atn. Portugal, prov. Beira baixa, 31 m. 
 S. Coimbra. Pop. 1343. 
 
 ALVECHURCH, a par. England, co. Worcester; area, 
 6820 ac. Pop. in 1841, 1633. 
 
 ALVEDISTON, a par. England, co. Wilts; 2400 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 263. 
 
 ALVELEY, a par. and township, England, co. Salop 
 7640 ac. ; on the E. bank of the Severn. Pop. in 1841, 1062. 
 ALVERCA. 1, A small tn. Portugal, prov. Estrema- 
 dura, 12 m. N.N.E. Lisbon, upon a height near the r. bank 
 of the Tagus, with a small fishing port. The neighbouring 
 hills are covered with olive trees. A well-frequented annual 
 fair is held. Pop. 1275. 2, A town, prov. Beira-alta, 10 in. 
 S.E. Trancoso. Some tanning is carried on. Pop. 780. 
 
 ALVERD1SCOTT, a par. England, co. Devon; area, 
 1390 ac. ; 5 m. S.E. Brideford. Pop. in 1841, 332. 
 
 ALVERNIA, a vil. Tuscany, on a mountain of its own 
 name, 2 m. N. Chiusi. Its monastery, founded A.I). 1218, by 
 St. Francis d Assisi, was the cradle of the Franciscan order. 
 
 ALVERSTOKE, a par. England, co. Hants; 4010 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 13,510. 
 
 ALVES, a par. Scotland, co. Elgin, on the Moray Frith. 
 Pop. in 1841, 798. 
 
 ALVESCOTT, a par. England, co. Oxford; 2690 ac. ; 
 5 m. E. Burford. Pop. in 1841, 357. 
 
 ALVESTON, two parishes, England : 1, Co. Gloucester ; 
 area, 2470 ac. ; 9 m. N. by E. Bristol. Pop. in 1841, 841. 
 2, Co. Warwick; area, 4300 ac. ; 2 m. N.E. Stratford-on-Avon. 
 Pop. in 1841, 793. 
 
 ALVETON, or ALTON, a par. England, co. Stafford; 
 7470 ac. Pop. in 1841,2390. 
 
 ALVIE, a par. Scotland, co. Inverness; area, 41,660 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 1/72. 
 
 ALVIGNANO, or AVJGNANO, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra 
 di Lavora, dist. of Piedmont, 11 m. N.E. Capua, pleasantly 
 situated on the declivity of the Caprarian hills. Pop. 2092. 
 ALVINCZ, or ALVINEZ, also called ALVINTZ, VINCZA, 
 BINSTUM, WINZERDOKF, a tn. Austria, in Transylvania, W. 
 bank of the Maros, 7 m. S.W. Karlsburg; with a R. catholic, 
 a Protestant, and a Greek church, and a Franciscan convent. 
 Pop., almost entirely Magyars and Bulgarians, 3500. 
 
ALVINGHAM 
 
 113 
 
 AMALFI 
 
 ALVINGHAM, a par. England, co. Lincoln ; area, 1940 
 ac. ; 3J m. N.E. Louth, on the Navigation Canal. Pop. in 
 1841, 313. 
 
 ALVINGTON, three pars. Eng. : 1, par. Gloucester; 
 1 550 ac. Pop. 340. 2, Alvington (East], par. Devon ; 4220 
 ac. Pop. 729. 3, Alvington (West) ; 3840 ac. Pop. 998. 
 
 ALVITO. 1, A small tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Lavora, 
 dist. of, and 8 in. S.E. from Sora, on the declivity of a hill. 
 It has an hospital, and several monts-dc-pieti for the marriage 
 
 of poor young women. Pop. 3500. 2, A small tn. Portugal, 
 
 prov. Alemtejo, 18 m. N.W. Beja, with an old castle, on the 
 small river of the same name, an affluent of the Sado. Pop. 
 1570. 
 
 ALVOR, a tn. Portugal, prov. Algarve, on a streamlet 
 of the same name, 8 in. N.E. by E. Lagos, about 2 m. from 
 the S. coast of the province. It is well built, and exports 
 excellent salt. Pop. 1260. 
 
 ALVORNINHA, a tn. Portugal, prov. Estremadura, 54 
 m. N. Lisbon. Pop. 1530. 
 
 ALWALTON, par. Eng. Huntingdon ; 1040 ac. P. 329. 
 ALWINGTON, par. Eng. Devon ; 5330 ac. Pop. 392. 
 ALYTH, a vil. and par. Scotland, cos. Perth and Forfar. 
 The vil. is pleasantly situated on the rising ground on the N. 
 side of the valley of Strathmore, 17 m. N. Dundee, and is 
 intersected by the streamlet Alyth. It consists of four prin 
 cipal streets, all rather narrow and crooked, but tolerably 
 well kept. The houses are of red sandstone, roofed with 
 blue slate, and substantially built. Excellent water, brought 
 in pipes from a distance, is abundant, and the town is well 
 lighted with gas. The parish church, which was erected 
 about 10 years since, at a cost of about 7000, is a hand 
 some building, with a very elegant spire. The ruins of the 
 old parish church, consisting of three arches, which stand 
 conspicuously on an eminence in the centre of the town, and 
 are said to have been built by a bishop of Dunkeld, are still 
 entire, and in good preservation. There are also a Free church, 
 a United Presbyterian church, an Episcopal chapel, the parish 
 school, the Free church school, two female schools, and a 
 private school. The manufacture of coarse linens, chiefly for 
 exportation, affords employment to the majority of the popu 
 lation. There is also a small factory for carding and spinning 
 wool. Considerable quantities of shoes are likewise made 
 here. Alyth is the market town for an extensive agricul 
 tural district. It was erected into a burgh of barony in 1488, 
 by James III., and is governed by a baron bailie, who holds 
 a court on the first Tuesday of every month. The par. is 
 about 12 m. in length by 3 in breadth. The scenery in the 
 vicinity is exceedingly beautiful. Pop. of vil. in 1841, 
 1846; of par. 2910. (Correspondent in Alyth.} 
 
 ALZANO MAGGIORE, a tn. Venetian Lombardy, cap. 
 dist. of same name, prov. of, and 4 m. N.E. from Bergamo, 
 r. bank of the Serio. It is handsomely built, with wide clean 
 streets, and has a magnificent church, adorned with rare paint 
 ings and sculpture. Manufactures : Linen, woollen, cotton j 
 
 and silken fabrics, paper, and lace. Pop. 2154. The 
 
 DISTRICT, comprising the S. extremity of the Val Seriana and 
 its adjacent hills, is extremely picturesque and productive. 
 Grain, wine, oil, fruits, and vegetables, are raised in vast quan 
 tities, and of superior quality. The mulberry tree is also much 
 cultivated, and the hill sides covered with forests of oak, pine, 
 and chestnut. Pop. 13,032. (Dizio. Univ. Jtalia.) 
 
 ALZENAU, a market tn. Bavaria, on the Kahlbach, 10 
 m. N. Aschaffenburg, and 20 m. E. Frankfort-on-the -Maine. 
 It is the seat of a local court, and has a royal castle, some 
 mills, and ^manufactures of hats. Pop. 1041. 
 
 ALZEY [anc. Altiaia], a tn. Hesse-Darmstadt, cap. bail, 
 of same name, on the Salze, in the centre of a valley encircled 
 by hills, 18m. S.S.W. Mainz. It is walled ; has three churches, 
 two Protestant, and one R. Catholic; a handsome market 
 place, brick works, and manufactures of leather, linen, and 
 stockings. Its common and cattle fairs are of considerable 
 importance. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castle 
 of the ancient Burgraves, destroyed by the French in 1689. 
 
 Pop. 4300. The BAII-IWICK produces corn and rye, chiefly 
 
 the latter, and some excellent wine. Pop. 20,000. 
 
 AM ACUSA, or AMAKOUSA, an isl. in the Japanese em 
 pire, off the W. coast of the Island of Kiousiou, or Kiusui. 
 The centre of Amacusa is about lat. 32 20 N. ; Ion. 1 30 15 
 E. Its extreme N.W. point is 18 m. S.E. Cape Nomo. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AMADIYAH, atn. Asiatic Turkey, in Koordistan. once 
 cap. of an independent principality of the same name, 75 m. 
 N.W. Mosul. It stands on a rocky terrace of limestone, and 
 is of considerable size ; but is now nearly in ruins, not more 
 than a third of the houses being habitable, while a fourth 
 part only of the bazaar can be made use of, the remainder 
 being in a state of decay. It is entered by two gates, and is 
 defended at various points by guard houses, towers, and irre 
 gularly-constructed bastions, and by a castle, in which a garri 
 son is maintained. The town contains a solitary minaret, 
 and the residence of a pasha, the lower part of which is built 
 of stone, the upper of mud. The Jews, who are the most 
 numerous body in the town, occupy 70 dwellings, and have 
 three synagogues. (Ainsworth s Visit to the Chaldeans.) 
 
 AMAGER, sometimes erroneously called AMAK, an isl. 
 Denmark, separated from the isl. of Seeland and city of Copen 
 Iiagen merely by the harbour of the latter, part of which, in 
 deed, and the suburb of Christianshavn, are built on it ; area, 
 about 20 sq. m. It is flat, well cultivated, and may be regarded 
 as the kitchen garden of the capital, with which it is connected 
 by means of bridges across the harbour. Its inhabitants, ex 
 clusive of Christianshavn, about 6500, are descended chiefly 
 from 24 Dutch families, who settled down here from N. Hol 
 land in 1516. Lime burning, and the manufacturing of nitric 
 acid, salrniac, soap, and patent manure, are carried on. 
 
 AMAL, a tn. Sweden, Ian of, and 48 m. N.N.E. from 
 Wenersborg, in Dalsland, advantageously, but not beautifully, 
 situated on the N.W. shore of Lake Wener ; lat. 59 3 39" N.; 
 Ion. 12 41 56" E. (L.) It is intersected by a small stream 
 is built with tolerable regularity, and has a rather handsome 
 church. The harbour is convenient; and the inhabitants, 
 1457 in number, are chiefly occupied in boat traffic on the 
 lake, in retail trade, and agricultur 
 
 AMALl<l,a city and seaport, Naples, prov. Principato 
 ^o oo n the Gulf aml 9 m " W -S-W. from Salerno; lat. 
 =0 38 N. ; Ion. 14 37 10" E. (c.) The city, whose position 
 
 AMALFI, a city and 
 Citra. < - 
 40 38 
 
 is extremely picturesque, extends over the summits of a series 
 of lofty rocks, still crowned with embattled walls and ruined 
 towers memorials of its former greatness. The public build 
 ings are noway remarkable. Amongst them is alarge cathedral, 
 
 m 
 
 of Byzantine architecture, dedicated to St. Andrew, whose body 
 was deposited here in 1208. The city has an arsenal, some 
 paper mills, several manufactories of serge, and an iron work. 
 Its trade, which, at one time, comprehended that of all the 
 Levant, has now almost entirely disappeared ; and with it, the 
 population, which has fallen from 
 Amain rose early into importance, 
 
 having attained the height of its prosperity during the llth 
 century, at which time it was the great mart for all kinds of 
 Eastern merchandise. It assumed the form of an independent 
 republic, and continued to retain its rank as a commercial and 
 maritime city for several centuries, when it fell into a decav 
 
 in 
 
 greater proportion of the 
 50,000 to less than 4000. 
 
AMALLAPOOKAM 
 
 114 
 
 AMAR1BO 
 
 from which it never afterwards recovered. Amalfi took an 
 active part in the crusades ; and, for its zeal on that occasion, 
 was honoured with the title of Defender of the Faith, by 
 Leo IV. At this period the Amalfitans founded, in Palestine, 
 the hospital of St. Jolxn of Jerusalem ; from which arose the 
 famous military order of Malta. Amalfi was twice captured 
 and plundered ; first, by Robert Guiscard, the Norman con 
 queror, in 1075; and again, in 1130, by the Pisans, on which 
 occasion the latter found a copy of the Pandects of Justinian. 
 It is the birthplace of Flavia Gioja, to whom the invention of 
 the mariner s compass has been assigned, though his merit is 
 limited to that of having greatly improved it; and of Masani- 
 ello, the fisherman of Naples. Pop. 3439. 
 
 AMALLAPOORAM, a tn. Hindoostan, in the Circars, 
 on one of the mouths of the Godavery, 65 in. E.N.E. Masuli- 
 patam. Its inhabitants, who exceed 5000, are engaged in 
 weaving cotton fabrics. 
 
 AMAMBAHI, or AMAMBAY, a mountain range and river, 
 S. America. The mountain range stretches from the serra 
 Galliano, Brazil, in the S. of prov. Matto- Grosso, in a S. direc 
 tion into Paraguay, till it meets with the Cordillera de Mara- 
 cayu, running E. and \V. It is about 200 m. long; forms the 
 watershed between the Parana and the Paraguay rivers, and 
 from its E. slope flows the river of the same name, E. to the 
 Parana, which it joins about lat. 23 15 S.; Ion. 54 2W W., 
 after a total course of about 100 m. direct distance. 
 
 AM AN A. 1, A river, Venezuela, prov. Cumana, rises a 
 little W. Urica ; lat. 9 40 N. ; Ion. 64 18 W. ; from which 
 it flows, first in a S.E. direction, then N.E., and falls into the 
 Gulf of Paria, lat. 10 N. ; its entire course being about 140 m. 
 2, A lake, Brazil, formed by a bifurcation of the Tijuaca, 
 itself a stream flowing out of the Japura, an affluent of the 
 Amazon from the N. It lies in lat. 2 35 S. ; Ion. 64 38 W., 
 and is about 20. m. long by 10 in. broad. About 8 in. N. from 
 the lake is a vil. of the same name. 
 
 AMANAPOOR, a military station in the isl. Ceylon, 
 standing partly on the top, and partly at the foot, of a steep 
 mountain, 2000 ft. high ; in lat. 7 15 N. ; Ion. 80 45 E. 
 
 AMANCE, several places, France : 1, [anc. Amantia,] 
 A tn. and com., dep. Haute-Saone, 16 m. N.N.W. Vesoul ; has 
 potteries, tile works, and pits of white sand, used in glass 
 making. Pop. 1032. 2, A vil. and com., dep. Aube, 12 m. 
 from Bar-sur-Aube ; manufactures good pottery. Pop. 550. 
 3, [anc. Ementia,] A vil. and com., dep. Meurthe, 37 m. 
 N.W. Nancy; formerly a fortified place. Pop. 549. 4, A 
 small river, dep. Aube, rising a short way above the village 
 of Amance, and falling into the Aube below Basse-Fontaine. 
 
 AM AND (ST.), several villages and communes, France : 
 J , A vil. and com., dep. Manche, 9 m. from St. Lo. Pop. 1402. 
 2, A vil. and com., dep. Marne, 6 m. from Vitry le Fran^ais. 
 Pop. 1260. 3, St. Amand-de-Coly, a vil. and com., dep. Dor- 
 dogne, 15 m. from Salut. Pop. 1071. 4, St. Amand-en-Puisaie, 
 a tn. and com., dep. Nievre, cap. can. ; manufactures of pottery. 
 Pop. 1845. 5, St. Amand- Magnaziex, a vil. and com., dep. 
 Haute- Vienne, 17 m. from Bellac. Pop. 1302. 6, St. Amand- 
 sur-Sevre, a tn. and com., dep. Deux Sevres, 15 m. from Bres- 
 
 suire. Pop. 1491. Besides these there are several others, 
 
 all small. 
 
 AM AND (Sr.), or ST. AMAND-MOXTROND, a tn. France, 
 dep. Cher, on the Marmande, a tributary of the Cher, near the 
 junction of these streams ; cap. can. and arrond. of same name ; 
 24 m. S.S.E. Bourges. It is neatly built; the seat of a tri 
 bunal of primary jurisdiction, and of a communal college. 
 There are here manufactures of wooden clogs, and of chamois 
 and other kinds of leather ; and in the neighbourhood are iron 
 forges, cannon foundries, and porcelain works. A lively trade 
 in grain, wine, chestnuts, timber, iron, staves, hemp, leather, 
 goat skins, and the cattle of the district, is also carried on. 
 A branch of the Canal du Cher connects St. Amand with 
 Montl^on, and the coal mines of Commentry. At no great 
 distance are the ruins of the Castle of Montrond, originally 
 fortified by the Duke of Sully, the celebrated minister of 
 Henry IV., and formerly regarded as one of the strongest 
 
 places in the kingdom. Pop. 6943. The arrond. contains 
 
 11 cans, and 115 corns. Pop. in 1846, 103,723. 
 
 AMAND-LES-EAUX (ST.), an anc. tn. France, dep. 
 du Noird, 1. bank of the Scarpe, cap. can., 7 m. N.W. Valen 
 ciennes. It has a communal college, and is the centre of the 
 fl:ix-growing district ; and possesses manufactories of porce- 
 
 | lain, lace, thread, leather, soap, linseed oil, woollen stockings, 
 
 1 cotton coverlets, and chicory, with several distilleries and 
 
 I tanneries, and some boatbuilding yards. A considerable trade 
 
 J is carried on in oil, wine, brandy, soap, thread, cotton and 
 
 ! woollen goods, lace, &c. About 3 m. from the town are 
 
 { mineral waters and mud baths, which have been celebrated 
 
 for two centuries, and still continue to be well frequented. 
 
 ! The water is clear, and not very unpalatable, but has a strong 
 
 ! smell of sulphuretted hydrogen. It is said to be very efficacious 
 
 in paralytic and nervous affections. The walks in the vicinity 
 
 are finely wooded. A Benedictine abbey, founded here, in 
 
 634, by St. Amand, was destroyed at the Revolution ; and 
 
 all that now remains of it is the steeple, which was built in 
 
 1 636, and has a height of 300 ft. Pop. 6312. 
 
 AMAND-ROCHE-SAV1NE (ST.), a In. and com. 
 France, dep. Puy-de-Dome, cap. can., 9 m. S. Clermont. 
 In the vicinity are chalybeate springs and lead mines. Pop. 
 2276. 
 
 AMANS (ST.), several towns, villages, and communes, 
 France: 1, A vil. and com., dep. Aveyron, cap. can., 14 m. 
 from Epalion. Pop. 1331. 2, St. Amans-la-Bastide, a tn. 
 and com., dep. Tarn, cap. can., on the There, which separates 
 it from the town of St. Arnans Valtoret. Manufactures : 
 Cloth, bonnets, wool, and china ware, and brick. It has a 
 Protestant church, and is the birthplace of Marshal Soult. 
 Pop. 2686. 3, St. Amans Valtoret, a vil. and com., dep. Tarn, 
 
 on the Thore, 17 m. from Castres. Pop. 1850. Besides 
 
 these there are several others, all small. 
 
 AMANTEA, a seaport tn. Naples, on the Mediterranean, 
 prov. Calabria Citra, clist. Paola, 14 m. S.W. Cosenza; lat. 
 39 15 N. ; Ion. 16 20 E. It is surrounded with walls, has 
 an old castle, four parish churches, several convents, and a 
 high school founded by Ferdinand IV. There are some hot 
 springs in the vicinity. The town is believed to be built on 
 the site of the ancient Nipezia. Pop. 2814. 
 
 AMARANTE, an anc. tn. Portugal, prov. Entre Douro 
 e Minho, on the Tamega ; crossed here by a handsome stone 
 bridge, 34 m. N.E. Oporto; pleasantly situated in a fine 
 district, and forming the residence of several noble families. 
 It is well built, and has two churches, a Latin school, an 
 hospital, and poor s house; but is a dull, decayed place. Pop. 
 1500. 
 
 AMARAPURA, or AMRAPOORA, a city, Burmah, form 
 erly cap. of the empire, on the 1. bank of the Irrawady, 10m. 
 N.E. Ava; lat. 22 N. ; Ion. 96 18 E. ; founded, in 1783, by 
 the Burmese monarch, Mindarajee Praw, and made the capital 
 instead of Ava the ancient, and recently again the capital. 
 The city lies about three-fourths of a mile from the Irrawady, 
 and consists of a large fortress, with extensive suburbs, stretch 
 ing for about 4 m. along the river. The houses are generally 
 of wood, with tiled roofs ; but some have mats and bamboos, 
 covered with shingles, or thatch ; and a few, chiefly belonging 
 to the royal family, are of brick and mortar. Those of the 
 chief persons are surrounded by a wooden enclosure; and 
 along the ridges of every house are ranged earthen pots, filled 
 with water, to be used in case of fire. The fortress is a square, 
 the sides of which are about 2400 yards, having large bastions 
 at the angles ; and along each side 1 1 smaller ones, and three; 
 gates. The whole is of brick, surrounded by a ditch 50 ft. 
 wide, and 15 deep, crossed by causeways leading to the gates. 
 It is deemed impregnable by the natives, but would soon 
 yield to the force of artillery. In the N.W. angle is placed 
 the royal library, the books being kept in about 100 wooden 
 chests, curiously ornamented. Throughout the city there is 
 a great number of temples and pagodas, which, from the 
 expensive gilding of their roofs, have a very splendid appear 
 ance. In 1800, its population amounted to 175,000; but 
 the seat of government having been removed back to Ava in 
 1819, it has greatly fallen off, and does not now exceed 
 30,000. (Crawfurd s Embassy to Ava ; Hamilton s East India 
 Gaz. Asiatic Journal.} 
 
 AMARGURA, an isl. and volcano, S. Pacific Ocenn, one 
 of the Friendly Islands; lat. 17 58 S.; Ion. 174 16 W. (R.) 
 The volcano, which is 1600 ft. in height, has only recently 
 become active. 
 
 AMARIBO, or MANA, a river in French Guayana, rises 
 about lat. 3 35 N. ; and, after a course, nearly due N., of 
 146 m., falls into the Atlantic 20m. E. the c.mbouchure of the 
 river Marony, or Marawina. 
 
AMASKEII 
 
 115 
 
 AMAZON 
 
 AMASREII, AMASERAII, or AMASTRA [anc. Amastris], 
 a tn. Asiatic Turkey, on a rocky peninsula on the Black Sea, 
 188 m. E.N.E. Constantinople; lat.4148 N.; Ion. 32 20 E. 
 Here are Grecian, Roman, Byzantine, and Genoese remains. 
 The town overlooks the sea to the N., but its greatest exterior 
 fronts S. Pop. nearly 1000. 
 
 AM ASIA [anc. AmasiyaJt], a tn. Asiatic Turkey, cap. 
 sanjak of same name, r. bank of the Irmak [anc. 7m], GO m. 
 from its embouchure at Cape Tcherchenibeh, on the Black 
 Sea, 31 m. N.N.W. Tokat; lat. 40 38 N.; Ion. 36 15 E. 
 It is picturesquely situated in a deep valley, overhung by 
 lofty precipitous rocks, through which flows the Irmak; 
 crossed within the limits of the city by four bridges, one of 
 which is very old, and apparently of Roman construction. 
 The streets, like all those of eastern towns, are narrow and 
 tortuous; the principal are lined with Saracenic buildings, 
 either in ruins, or used as mosques. Many of the houses are 
 built of stone, but nearly all of them have a mean appearance. 
 The bazaars are small and ill supplied. One of the most 
 disagreeable and yet striking sights frequent in this town, is 
 presented by the number, and horrid tameness of the large 
 white vultures, which perform, with alacrity and zeal, the 
 disgusting office of street sweepers and scavengers. (Hamil 
 ton.) The castle and Acropolis are situated on the summit 
 of a lofty rock on the opposite side of the river, the banks ol 
 which are fringed with gardens, wherever its waters could be 
 raised for the purposes of irrigation. Of the Acropolis 
 
 nothing now remains but a portion of the walls and towers, 
 and an ancient subterranean passage of 300 ft. in depth, at the 
 bottom of which is a well of clear cold water. In remote 
 times, a flight of steps led to this subterranean fountain ; but 
 these are now either entirely worn away, or filled up with 
 mud. On the highest point of the rock on which the Acro 
 polis stands, are some remains of two Hellenic towers, of 
 beautiful construction. The other objects of greatest interest 
 in this ancient city, are the tombs of the kings, described by 
 Strabo, who was born here. They are five in number, and 
 consist of excavations in the steep face of the rock on which 
 the castle is built, about 100 ft. above its base. Three of 
 these caverns face W. and E. ; the former are very accessible, 
 being approachable by an open gallery scooped out of the 
 perpendicular face of the cliff, and protected by a low parapet 
 of rock which has been left. The import trade of Amasia is 
 insignificant, but a considerable traffic is carried on in wine, 
 grain, madder, cotton, and particularly silk, the quantity of 
 which, produced in 1841, was 132,000 Ibs. European agents 
 exported about 14,000 Ibs. the same year. The raw silk of 
 Amasia was long badly prepared, and thought unfit for the 
 English market; the quality has lately much improved. 
 Nothing is known of the early history or foundation of 
 Amasia, beyond the information imparted by its ancient coins, 
 that after the conquest of Asia Minor by the Romans, and 
 during the whole continuance of the empire, it bore the title 
 of Metropolis of Pontus. On the earlier coins, the name is 
 spelled Amasseia; and on those struck under the early Roman 
 emperors, Amasia. As already mentioned, Strabo, the ancient 
 
 Greek geographer, was born in this city, of which he gives a 
 very lively and graphic account, much of it applicable to its 
 present condition. The number of houses in the town are 
 about 4000, of which 350 are inhabited by Armenians. 
 (Hamilton s Asia Minor.) 
 
 AMATAKA. See YORK ISLAND. 
 
 AMAT1TLAN, or AMITITAN, a tn. and lake, Central 
 America, state Guatimala. The town, about 15 m. S. the 
 city of Guatimala, lat. 14 30 N.; Ion. 90 17 W., is irregu 
 larly built; and none of the houses have more than the ground 
 story; and are principally constructed of mud, beaten hard 
 with a wooden mallet, after being put into a wooden box 
 of the dimensions of the walls, which box is moved from 
 place to place till the desired height, length, and breadth are 
 attained. Each house has a large yard, and a plantation of 
 cactus attached to it, the leaves of which are cut and ranged 
 in long narrow sheds to preserve the cochineal insect in the 
 winter season. The wells in the town are all brackish ; and 
 most of those in the vicinity, particularly in low situations, 
 boiling hot, but perfectly clear and free from impurities. 
 Amatitlan is a place of some antiquity, having been one of 
 the principal seats of the Jesuits, who had large sugar estates 
 in the vicinity. The inhabitants, nearly all mulattoes and 
 sambos, are active, industrious, and enterprising. Pop. from 
 
 10,000 to 12,000. The LAKE is close by the town, to the 
 
 S.E. It is about 11 or 12 m. in length, between 2 and 3 m. 
 in breadth, and is of great depth. Immense quantities of 
 pumice stone may generally be found floating on its waters, 
 and lying on its shores. In many places around, springs of 
 boiling water gush out, some of them emitting large volumes 
 of steam. Two streams enter the lake, and one larger than 
 both united, runs out of it. It contains a great abundance and 
 variety of fish, including a species of small size, of exquisite 
 flavour. (Dunlop s Central America ; Hassel s Guatimala.} 
 
 AMATRICE, a tn. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Ultra II., 
 21 m. N.N.W. Aquila, on a hill close by the source of the 
 Tronto. It has five parish churches, two monts-de-piete, a 
 high school, and manufactures of blankets. Pop. 5000. 
 
 AMAXICIII, or AMAKIIUKHI, a tn., cap. Santa Maura, 
 one of the Ionian Isles, on its N. coast; lat. 38 50 N.; Ion. 
 20 40 E. It stands on a sandy, fertile plain, in the neigh 
 bourhood of unwholesome salt marshes, and is subject to 
 frequent earthquakes. It has one wide street; houses gener 
 ally of wood ; and a square, in which is the governor s house, 
 and an ancient marble statue. It is the seat of a Greek 
 bishop, and has numerous churches, two harbours for small 
 vessels, manufactories of cotton and leather, and a considerable 
 trade. At the distance of about 1 m. from the town, on a low 
 sandy peninsula, is the castle of Santa Maura, which was 
 taken by the British in 1810, and is now generally occupied 
 by a British garrison. A few miles from the town, are still 
 to be seen some remains of the ancient Leucas. Pop. 6000. 
 (Murray s Handbook; Balbi, Abrtr/e de Geographic.) 
 
 AM AXURA, a river, Florida , U. States, having its source 
 in the Seminole swamps ; lat. 28 15 N.; Ion. 81 57 W. It 
 flows first in a N.W. direction, then S.W. and W., till it falls 
 into the Gulf of Florida, about 4 m. S. from Green Island : 
 lat. 28 30 N. Its whole course is about 80 m. 
 
 AMAY, a rural can. Belgium, prov. Liege, on the road 
 from Liege to Namur, traversed E. to W. by the Meuse. 
 The inhabitants are principally brickmakers, and in spring 
 leave their homes in hundreds to ply their trade in distant 
 quarters, returning in winter. The canton has alum works, 
 and some trade in wood and dried fruits. Pop. 2848. 
 
 AMAZON, MARAXON, ORELLANA, or SOLIMOES, the 
 various names given to a large river in S. America, but 
 better and more generally known by the first. It rises in the 
 Andes, on the W. coast of S. America, traverses the entire 
 breadth of that vast continent from W. to E., and falls into 
 the N. Atlantic Ocean, about Ion. 50 W. ; a distance, includ 
 ing the windings of the stream, of 4000 m. It drains an area, 
 according to some authorities, of two millions and a half, and, 
 according to others, of one million and a half of square miles ; 
 is navigable for 2200 m. from the sea, and is 96 m. wide at 
 its mouth. It is thus the largest river on the globe as regards 
 the volume of its waters, which is so powerful as to force its 
 way into the ocean, without mingling with the latter, to a 
 distance of 300 m. ; but, according to Berghaus, it is inferior 
 to the Missouri-Mississippi in the length of its course, when 
 
AMAZON 
 
 lit; 
 
 AMAZUMA 
 
 taken by the windings, although greater when taken in a 
 direct line. The numbers given by him are Amazon, direct 
 course, 1781 m.; winding, 3548; Missouri-Mississippi, direct, 
 1681 111.; winding, 4096 m. Some geographers assume the 
 source of the Amazon to be the Tunguragua or Upper Marafion ; 
 and others, the Ucayale and Apurimac; the former originating 
 in the Lake Lauricaeha, Peru ; lat. 10 30 S.; Ion. 76 25 
 W. ; the Apurimac, the principal head stream of the Ucayale, 
 rising in lat. 15 38 S.; Ion. 75 W., about 90 m. W. the 
 Lake of Titicaca. From the junction of the Tunguragua and 
 Ucayale, which takes place near St. Joaquim de Omagnas, 
 after their having been increased by numerous large tributaries 
 about lat. 4 25 S.; Ion. 72 30 W., to the junction of the 
 Rio Negro, the river is frequently called the Solimoes ; and 
 from the junction of the latter stream to the ocean, it bears the 
 name Amazon or Amazonas. The course of the river may 
 be described generally as W. to E. from the junction of the 
 Ucayale and Tunguragua, though not without occasional and 
 sometimes wide deviations. During its course, it is joined 
 by various tributaries from both the N. and S., some of them 
 very large streams. Of this class is the Rio Negro, which flows 
 from the N., and falls into the Amazon in Ion. 60 W., after 
 a course of 1400 or 1500 m.; and the Madeira, not greatly 
 inferior in size to the Amazon itself, from the S., which joins the 
 latter in about Ion. 58 30 W., after a course of about 1800 m. 
 The head stream of this affluent, the Rio Grande, or Guapai, 
 which unites with the Beni in forming the Madeira, rises S. 
 of the Andes of Cochabamba, in the same plateau from which 
 flows the Pilcamayo, an affluent of the Paraguay; and the 
 sources of the Guapore, an E. branch of the Madeira, flow 
 within 3 m. of the waters of the Aguapehi, one of the head 
 streams of the Paraguay ; by so narrow a watershed are the 
 waters of the Amazon and La Plata at these localities parted. 
 Two other large tributaries are the Coqueta or Japura, which, 
 flowing from the N., falls into the Amazon in Ion. 05 W. ; and 
 the Napo, which, proceeding also from the N., joins it at 71 
 30 W. At this point, which is about 125 in. from the junction 
 of the Tunguragua with the Ucayale, its breadth is 900 fathoms, 
 and its depth more than 1 00. Between the confluence of the 
 Negro, Ion. 60 W., and the Madeira, Ion. 58 30 W., its breadth 
 is about 3 m., extending occasionally to twice that breadth, j 
 where islands are numerous, as they are, indeed, throughout 
 the whole course of the river. The width of the river gradu 
 ally increases towards its embouchure, until its opposite banks 
 can hardly be discerned. Its general depth from the sea to 
 the Rio Negro, or 
 from Ion. 50 to 
 60 W., about 750 
 in. in a straight 
 line, is nowhere 
 less than 30 fa 
 thoms ; higher 
 up, it varies from 
 10 to 12; and is 
 navigable by the 
 largest vessels up 
 to the junction of 
 the Tunguragua 
 and Ucayale. Be 
 yond this point, 
 none drawing 
 more than oor 6 ft. 
 water can proceed 
 with safety. The 
 Ucayale, which 
 flows through the 
 Pampas del Sa 
 cramento, is so 
 obstructed by ra 
 pids and catar 
 acts, as to render 
 navigation far 
 
 above its junction witli the Tunguragua quite impossible. The 
 navigation of the Amazon is in many places not without danger, 
 from numerous shoals, from the narrowness of its channels, 
 and, in the lower part of its course, from floating trees brought 
 down by the Madeira. In 1848, a steamer ascended the 
 river as far as the Rio Negro. The rapidity of the stream 
 is considerable, especially during the rainy season, when it is 
 
 subject to great floods, being, on an average, about 2| m. 
 per hour ; in some places it is 4 in. per hour ; in others less 
 than the lowest velocity named. In the last 700 m. of its 
 course it falls but 12 ft., or one-fifth of an inch per mile. In 
 the dry season, its rapidity is greatly diminished. The river 
 is perceptibly affected by the tides as far up as the town 
 of Obidos, or about 400 m. from its mouth. The singular 
 phenomenon, known by the name of the bore, occurs at the 
 mouth of the Amazon two days before, and two days after 
 the full moon. This is the rushing of the waters of the ocean 
 into the river, in the form of huge waves, of from 10 to 15 
 ft. perpendicular height, three or four of which follow each 
 other in succession, with irresistible force. This great river 
 traverses a region thickly covered with dense and lofty forests, 
 inhabited by wild animals and numerous small tribes of sav 
 ages. It abounds in fish and in turtle, and large alligators 
 are frequently seen lying motionless on its muddy banks. 
 The Amazon being navigable, as already remarked, for 22UO 
 m. from the sea, and having a communication with the 
 Orinoco by the Cassiquiare, the S. arm of its bifurcation, 
 which falls into the Rio Negro, presents, in conjunction with 
 its principal tributaries all of them also navigable for great 
 distances from their junction with the main stream a system 
 of inland water communication more extensive than is to be 
 found on any other part of the globe. 
 
 Tributaries. The known tributaries of the Amazon worth 
 noticing, besides those already named, are the Hyabary, or 
 Juvary, which joins the Amazon at Ion. 69 30 W. ; the 
 Jutay, at Ion. 67 W.; the Jurua, at Ion. 65 30 W.; the 
 Tefe, at Ion. 65 W. ; the Cavary, at Ion. 64 W. ; the Mania, 
 at Ion. 63 W. ; the Puru or Purus, at Ion. 60 30 W. ; the 
 Tapajos, at Ion. 55 W. ; and the Xingu, the last of the large 
 tributaries, at Ion. 52 W., all proceeding from the S. From 
 the N., the only river of note that joins the Amazon, so far 
 as is known, besides those mentioned elsewhere, namely, the 
 Napo, the Japura, the Negro, is the Putumaya, which falls 
 into it at Ion. 68 W., after a course of about 1000 m. All 
 these rivers unite with the Amazon below the junction of 
 the Ucayale with the Tunguragua. 
 
 The mouth of the Amazon was discovered in the year 1500, 
 by Viscount Yanez Pin9on ; but the first European who 
 descended its stream was Francis d Orellana, a Spaniard, 
 who, in 1539, sailed from the Rio Napo to the embouchure 
 of the Amazon. It was this adventurer who first reported 
 the existence of a community of female warriors on the banks 
 
 of the river, who 
 were without the 
 right breast, 
 which they had 
 removed while 
 young, in order 
 to permit of a free 
 nseof the bow,and 
 hence the name 
 Amazon, which 
 signifies, want 
 ing a breast, now 
 the popular name 
 of the stream. 
 The name Orel- 
 lana, by *vvhich it 
 is also known, 
 was derived from 
 the Spanish ad 
 venturer above 
 spoken of. The 
 origin of its third 
 name, Maraiion, 
 is uncertain, but 
 is believed to be 
 derived from that 
 of an Indian na 
 tion, by which some parts of its banks was inhabited. (Som 
 merville s Physical Geography; Lyell s Geology; Lieut. 
 Smyth s Account of the Rivers Amazon and Negro E. 
 Pouppig s Travels in Chili, Peru, and on the Amazon River; 
 Ilumboldt s Aspects of Nature; &c.) 
 
 AMAZUMA, a large tn. W. Africa, 1. bank of the Niger ; 
 about lat. 5 10 N. ; Ion. 6 1(X E. It is beautifully situated, 
 
AMBABICOI 
 
 117 
 
 AMBLETEUSE 
 
 and lias a cheerful anil cleanly appearance. (Allen s Niger 
 Expedition.) 
 
 AMBABICOI, a vil. Lower Egypt, 58 m. N.W. Cairo; 
 lat. 30 17 N.; Ion. 30 21 E.; in the Natron valley. 
 
 AMBALECrA, a tn., isl. Madura, Indian Archipelago. It 
 lies near the centre of the island, is surrounded by fine wood, 
 has a temple, and 4000 inhabitants. 
 
 AMBAT1KI, an isl., S. Pacific, one of the Fecjcc group, 
 of a dome shape, and rising to a height of 750 ft.; lat. 17 47 S.; 
 3on. 179H W. (it.) It has little wood, but produces yams, and 
 other edible vegetable productions, in abundance. Pigs are 
 also numerous, but the natives do not willingly part with them. 
 When visited by Commander Wilkes, of the U. States Explor 
 ing Expedition, there were 500 inhabitants on the island; whom 
 that officer represents as being civil, letting them have taro 
 and yams in plenty. 
 
 AMBATO, or HAMBATO (ASIENTO D ), a tn. Ecuador, 
 100 m. S.E. Quito. It was destroyed in 1698 by an erup 
 tion of the volcano of Cotopaxi. It was rebuilt shortly after 
 wards, and soon became more flourishing than before. It has 
 some good buildings, and an active trade in grain, sugar, and 
 cochineal ; the latter being produced in the vicinity in abund 
 ance, and of excellent quality. 
 
 AMBAU, or AMBOW, a small isl., S. Pacific, one of the 
 Feejee group, connected with a larger island by a coral reef, 
 fordable at high water ; lat. 16 30 S. ; Ion. 178 E. It is 
 only 1 m. in length, and about half a mile in breadth ; but is of 
 importance from having a large town of the same name, from 
 its being the seat of a kind of sovereign authority, and from 
 its chiefs having obtained a political ascendancy over the 
 neighbouring islands. The town entirely covers the island. 
 The inhabitants, like those of the Feejee Islands generally, 
 are savage and treacherous ; and have, on more than one occa 
 sion, murdered the captains and crews of vessels visiting the 
 island, previously throwing them off their guard by professions 
 of friendship. 
 
 AMBELAK1A, or AMPELAKIA, a tn. European Turkey, 
 prov. Thessaly, or Trikhala, on the S. slope of Mount Ossa, 
 above the pass of Tempe, 15 m. N.E. Larissa. Ambelakia 
 was at one time famous for its cotton yarn spinning, and 
 dyeing ; but the former has been nearly annihilated by the 
 cheaper productions of England. The trade was, at the time 
 above alluded to, carried on upon joint-stock principles, the 
 work people sharing in the profits ; but misunderstandings 
 amongst themselves, failures abroad, and the successful rival- 
 ship of Britain, put an end to the prosperity of the town. 
 The town is still, from its romantic site, and the fine scenery 
 around, a place of interest to the traveller. The heights in 
 the vicinity are covered with vineyards, from the produce of 
 which an excellent wine, resembling claret, is produced. The 
 pop. in 1798 was 4000 ; it rose to 8000 ; and has now sunk 
 below 3000. Many of the inhabitants are said to be Germans, 
 though all wear the Eastern dress. 
 
 AMBER, or AMBHEER, a tn. Hindoostan, the anc. cap. 
 of the Jeypoor territories in Ajmeer; lat. 26 57 N. ; Ion. 
 75 40 E. ; about 5 m. N. by E. Jeypoor, now the capital. The 
 town lies on the bank of a small lake surrounded by steep 
 mountains. It is now in ruins, and nearly depopulated ; but 
 its former grandeur is attested by its lofty pagodas, large 
 reservoir, and numerous arches and pavilions, through which 
 a narrow winding street leads to a second steep ascent, paved 
 with granite, and conducting through several Gothic gateways 
 to the ancient palace of the rajah, still in good preservation. 
 The stone and marble sculpture, and other ornaments of the 
 interior of this edifice, are surpassed only by those of the 
 celebrated Taje Mahal, at Agra. Higher up the hill stands a 
 grim-looking castle, formerly used as the public treasury, but 
 now as a state prison. The royal gardens occupy a small 
 island in the lak e, and part of its E. bank. (Hamilton s East 
 India Gaz. ; Heber s Journal.) 
 
 AMBER, AMBRE, or AMBRO (CAPE), Madagascar, of which 
 it forms the N. extremity ; lat. 1 1 57 30" S. ; Ion. 49 19 E. 
 (R.) It is a low point of land, terminating in a ledge of rocky 
 islets, having 15 fathoms close to them, and 20 or 25 fathoms 
 about half a mile distant. The currents set generally strong 
 to the W. all the year from this point. 
 
 AMBERG, a tn. Bavaria, formerly cap. of Upper Palat 
 inate, on both sides of the Vils, which divides it into the 
 upper and lower town ; 35 m. E. Nuremberg. It is enclosed 
 
 within a double wall, now used as a public walk ; is well built, 
 and has broad and clean streets; and contains a lyceum, gym 
 nasium, theological seminary, normal school, public library, 
 several well-endowed hospitals, 10 churches, convent for 
 noble ladies, theatre, and house of correction. Among the 
 principal buildings are the palace royal, arsenal, salt magazine, 
 church of St. Martin, and the guildhall. It has a royal manu 
 factory of arms, which produces yearly from 10,000 to 20,000 
 muskets of the best quality; and also manufactures of cotton 
 stuff s, hats, playing cards, tobacco, and stoneware ; with a 
 considerable trade in salt. The principal glassworks of Ba 
 varia are here ; but the town is chiefly indebted for its pros 
 perity to its iron mines, which annually produce about 8000 
 tons of ore. In the vicinity there is a seam of coal, and both 
 porcelain clay and fuller s earth are found. Here, on August 
 24, 1796, the Archduke Charles defeated the rearguard of the 
 French army under General Jourdan. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 AMBERGRIS ISLAND, an isl. off the coast of Hondu 
 ras, and in the bay of that name, 30 m. N.N.E. Belize. The 
 E., or Reef point, is in lat. 18 6 N. ; and Ion. 87 50 W. 
 (R.) ; the N. end admitting a passage for boats between that 
 and the main. It is ahout 20 m. in length, and 3 broad, 
 running N.N.E. and S.S.W. 
 
 AMBERLEY, a par. England, co. Sussex; 3030 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 722. 
 
 AMBERT, a tn. France, dep. Puy-de-Dome (Auvcrgne), 
 on the Dore, cap. arrond., 36 m. S.E. Clermont. It is, in 
 general, well built, but the streets are narrow and crooked, 
 and have rather a dull and gloomy appearance. Ambert is 
 rather a stirring place. It is the seat of a court of primary 
 jurisdiction, and one of commerce, and has a communal college, 
 a chamber of manufactures, and an agricultural society. 
 Manufactures: Woollen stuffs, flag bombazine for ships, 
 blankets, serges, ribbons, lace, linens, pins, and playing cards. 
 Above 60 factories are employed in making fine printing 
 paper. Ambert is the principal mart for Auvergne cheeses, 
 which are much esteemed in France. In the neighbourhood 
 are the cold mineral waters of Talaru. The arrond. area 
 about 170 sq. m. contains eight cans. Pop. arrond. 92,940 ; 
 tn. 3658. 
 
 AMBLANGODDE, a large vil. Ceylon, about 23 m. S. 
 Caltura, and 19 N. Galle. The houses are mostly covered 
 with tiles. The inhabitants are employed in fishing, and in 
 the coasting trade between Ceylon and the coast of Coroman- 
 del. There is a school here belonging to the Wesleyari mis 
 sionaries. (Ceylon Gaz.) 
 
 AMBLAU, a small isl. Indian Archipelago, one of the 
 Moluccas, 12 m. S.E. Booro, and 45 m. S.W. Amboina; lat. 
 (N.E. point) 3 49 S. ; Ion. 127 10 E. (R.) It is egg-shaped, 
 hilly, intersected by various streamlets, and is the most un 
 fruitful island in the Dutch government of Amboina. On its 
 shores and coasts, shell fish and various kinds of sea fish are 
 found, but the poor inhabitants derive the principal part of 
 their food from the neighbouring island of Booro. It was at 
 one time populous, but now contains only about 2000 inhab 
 itants. (Van der Aa.) 
 
 AMBLESIUE, a market tu. and chapelry, England, co. 
 Westmorland. The town is 11 m. N.W. Kendal, picturesquely 
 situated on the steep declivity of a hill, near the head or 
 N. extremity of Lake Windermere. It is very old, and is 
 irregularly built; but in the immediate vicinity there arc 
 many handsome houses and villas, with beautiful gardens 
 attached; and in the town are a church, rebuilt in 1812, and 
 a free school, founded in 1721. Woollen cloth is manufac 
 tured here to a considerable extent ; and petty sessions are 
 held in it. It is also one of the polling places for the county. 
 Market day, Wednesday; two fairs annually for honied cattle 
 and sheep. A number of Roman remains have been found 
 here at various times. Pop. in 1841, 1281. 
 
 AMBLESTON, a par., S. Wales, co. Pembroke; 3 m. 
 N. by E. Haverfordwest. Pop. in 1841, 605. 
 
 AMBLETEUSE, a small seaport tn. France, formerly 
 of some importance, hut now much decayed, dep. Pas de Calais, 
 5 m. N. Boulogne-sur-mer. In 1804, Napoleon, during his 
 threatened invasion of England, made much use of Ambleteuse 
 for his flat-bottomed boats; and he gave orders for the im 
 provement of the harbour, but the accumulations of the sand 
 rendered the attempt fruitless. James II., on his flight from 
 England in 1689, landed here. Pop. 573. 
 
AMBLEVE 
 
 118 
 
 AMBOISE 
 
 AMBLEVE. a river which rises in the Prussian prov. of 
 the Lower Rhine, 5 m. S.S.E. Butgenbach, flows W., and 
 enters Belgium by prov. Liege, and falls into the Ourthe at 
 Donflamme, 10 m. S. Liege. It has a course of about 50 m., 
 of which the last 7 are navigable. 
 
 AMBOINA, or AMBOYNA [Malay, Ambun dew], an isl. 
 Indian Archipelago, the most important, though not the 
 largest, of the Moluccas, cap. of same name, lying S. of Ceram, 
 and E. of Booroo; lat. (Allavy point) 3 46 S.; Ion. 127 59 
 E. (R.) It is the seat of the Dutch governor of the residence 
 or government of Amboina, which includes, besides the island 
 of Amboina, Booroo, Amblau, Ceram, Manipa, Kilung, Bo- 
 noa, Harookoo, Honimoa or Sapai-ooa, Noosa-laut or Hila, in 
 all of which are under governors, and military posts. The 
 island of Amboina is composed of two sections, the N. W. and 
 larger Hitoo, and the S.E. Le.itimor, united by the narrow 
 isthmus of Bagoovala, not more than half an hour s walk 
 across. Between these two peninsulas is a deep bay, forming 
 the roadstead of the capital, Amboina. The island is about 
 30 m. long, by 10 m. in breadth, at its broadest part, though 
 generally it is not above 5 or 6 m. ; area, 282 sq. m. It is 
 
 subject to earthquakes, and of primitive formation, granite in 
 some localities rising even to the summits of the mountains, 
 while in others it underlies serpentine and recent calcareous 
 deposits; in the valleys the soil is a reddish clay, mixed with 
 sand. The island is rocky and hilly ; some of its heights are 
 rounded, and covered with a rich verdure ; some, of medium 
 altitude, have the tops bare of vegetation, and others are only 
 covered with briers; but the dark valleys, and the shore 
 tracts, have a rich and vigorous vegetation. The size of the 
 island does not admit of large rivers, but there are numerous 
 brooks and torrents, and good water for culinary purposes is 
 plentiful. Stiil, the island is not very fully cultivated; in 
 fact, when compared with Java,, the cultivated tracts may be 
 said to be. as rare as in that fertile island are those that are 
 uncultivated. This state of things probably arises from 
 several causes. Though the valleys of Amboina are rich, 
 and capable of growing almost all tropical plants, yet a great 
 part of the island is arid and rocky, unsuited for general agri 
 culture, though admirably adapted for raising the clove tree; 
 to the cultivation of which the small energies of the native 
 population have been in a great measure exclusively directed 
 by the Dutch Government, at one time even by compulsion. 
 Cloves, consequently, are the staple product of the island, the 
 annual quantity produced being about 500,000 to 600,000 
 Ibs. The tree (Caryophyllus aromaticus] from which this 
 valuable spice is obtained, is about 30 to 40 ft. high ; branches 
 not much spread; leaves small, oblong; bark dirty white; and 
 does not yield the clove till 15 years old. The average annual 
 produce of a tree is variously stated at 2 to 6 Ibs., gathered in 
 October and November. Another reason for Amboina not being 
 more extensively cultivated is the ease with which the people 
 obtain sago, their favourite food, from the palm, which grows 
 plentifully in the woods. The pepper plant grows on the 
 island; and coffee, cotton, indigo, and cinnamon, are cultivated 
 with success; rice has been neglected, and is imported from 
 Celebes. Among the trees of Amboina are ebony, ironwood, 
 casuarina, samar, nani, cocoa nut, sago; yet building timber is 
 
 scarce, and has to be imported from Java. The fauna of the 
 island is poor. It has no carnivorous animals ; the rodents 
 are only the Mus decumanus and one allied species ; edentata 
 there are none; pachyderms, only the wild hog and the horse; 
 the deer represents the ruminants; the dugong, the antarctic 
 and sperm whale, the cetacean ; and there are no inonotremata. 
 Birds are more abundant than mauiniit erous animals, though 
 by no means numerous in species. The most remarkable is 
 the megapodius, a small gallinaceous fowl found also plenti 
 fully in Australia. Insects are numerous, the class lepidop- 
 tera being more especially rich in species, of the most brilliant 
 hues. The seas around the island teem with mollusca, in tin; 
 shells of some species of which a considerable trade is carried 
 on. The animal world of Amboina has been supposed to be 
 much more varied than it really is, from specimens in Euro 
 pean collections having that island ascribed to them as their 
 habitat, while in reality obtained from other localities 
 they have merely been brought to Amboina, and shipped 
 there. The climate of this island is healthier, and more 
 agreeable, than the generality of intertropical localities. The 
 natives, of Malay race, are of medium stature; mild, though 
 very proud; easily led, though querulous ; and generally very 
 sober; capital crimes are rare. They make good soldiers, and 
 are fond of military life. In costume, they resemble the 
 Malays of Java. Many of the natives have been converted 
 to Christianity, under the care of the Dutch, and are dis 
 tinguished from the Mahometan population by a peculiarity 
 in their dress. Considerable attention is paid to education, 
 of which Amboina is the head quarters for all the surrounding 
 islands. Native indolence and apathy, however, present 
 strong barriers to rapid progress either in religion or educa 
 tion. The Mahometan religion was established in Amboina 
 in 1515, the year in which the island was discovered by the 
 Portuguese, who took possession of it in 1564, and introduced 
 the K. catholic faith. In 1605 the Dutch coveted the island, 
 and expelled the Portuguese, and introduced Protestantism. 
 In 1796 it was captured by the British, and was restored to 
 the Dutch in 1801, at the peace of Amiens; but was again 
 taken in 1810, and finally restored to Holland in 1814, at the 
 treaty of Paris. Besides Amboina, the capital, there are 
 several villages, and two or three forts on the island. Pop. 
 in 1841, 29,592. (Temrninck, Coup d ceil sur VInde Neer- 
 landaise; Van der Aa s Nederlanden; Moniteur des Indes; 
 Crawford s Indian Archipelago.) 
 
 AMBOINA, or AMBOYNA, cap. isl. above named, and of 
 the Dutch residence or government of Amboina, Moluccas; 
 lat. (Fort Victoria) 3 41 7" S.; Ion. 128 10 E. (R.) ; on that 
 part of the island called Leitimor, S.E. side of the Bay of 
 Amboina. It is of a triangular form, and is clean, neat, and 
 regularly built, with straight and wide streets, intersected by 
 numerous streams, planted on either side with shrubbery. 
 The houses, built in the Dutch fashion, are generally of one 
 story, on account of the frequency of earthquakes. It has a 
 governor s palace, townhouse, two Protestant churches, one 
 for European, the other for native Christians; an orphan 
 hospital, theatre, and a large covered market place. A public 
 garden is attached to the town ; and a range of houses, adorned 
 by a double row of nutmeg trees, and occupied by the prin 
 cipal inhabitants, terminates in a long esplanade, leading to 
 the citadel of Fort Victoria, an irregular hexagon built by 
 the Portuguese, which, besides the usual appurtenances of 
 such strongholds, has stores for the annual produce of the 
 clove plantations. The population of Amboina is composed 
 of Malays, Europeans, and Chinese. The latter reside princi 
 pally on the W. quarter, where there is a large and well- 
 stocked market, supplied with most of the luxuries and neces 
 saries of the climate. The BAY of Amboina is about 20 m. 
 
 long, by 2 to 7 broad ; the roads secure and commodious, and 
 the anchorage good ; vessels may moor close to the wooden 
 jetty on which goods are discharged, in from 20 to 45 fathoms. 
 The outer bay has neither shallows nor reefs dangerous to 
 vessels, and everywhere it has a depth of about 50 fathoms. 
 Pop. of tn. (which seems to be decreasing) in 1841, 8966. 
 (Moniteur des Indes; Van der Aa; &c.) 
 
 AMBOISE [anc. Ambacia], a tn. France, dep. Indre-et- 
 Loire, 12 m. E. Tours, on the railway between that tn. and 
 Orleans, 1. bank of the Loire, whose bed is here divided by a 
 long narrow island, connected with the opposite banks by two 
 bridges, one of them a handsome wooden structure, with stone 
 
AMB01SES 
 
 119 
 
 AMBROSE (S-r) 
 
 piers. The town, though picturesquely situated at the foot 
 of a considerable acclivity, crowned with an antique castle 
 (the site, it is said, of a fort built by Julius Caesar), is not 
 well built, and has rather a dull appearance. The castle, 
 already mentioned, which is the most remarkable building 
 near Amboise, was the residence of several successive kings; 
 it stands in a terraced garden, about 90 ft. above the level of 
 the town, and is flanked by two enormous towers. It was in 
 
 AMHOISE. Fi 
 
 this castle that the unhappy Pluguenots, engaged in what is 
 known as the Conspiracy of Amboise, met their doom. So 
 great was the carnage, that the stench of the dead bodies, which 
 hung as headless trunks on the castle walls, or lay scattered 
 along the river, drove away the court. In a cliff a little above 
 the castle, near the old Convent des Minimes, are two caverns, 
 called Cesar s granaries, hewn out of the rock. They have 
 
 beautiful, Mondoleh, is about half a mile in length ; it rises 
 abruptly from the sea to a height of about 200 ft., and is steep 
 on all sides. It is covered with a rich soil of decomposed 
 basalt, and with very little labour yields yams, plantains, 
 cocoa nuts, &c. ; magnificent trees of bombax, African oak, 
 camwood, ironwood, &c., also abound in it. There are like 
 wise several springs of water. Notwithstanding these ad 
 vantages, the island is but thinly peopled. Abobbi, or Pirate 
 Island, is a mere accumulation of huge frag 
 ments of rock piled upon each other in the 
 wildest confusion; but numerous clusters of 
 native huts, nestling Ln the crevices, or perched 
 on open spaces, overhung by cliffs crowned with 
 beautiful foliage, give it a singularly picturesque 
 appearance. Capt. Allen s account of his land 
 ing on this wild rocky islet is amusing. Having 
 previously propitiated the chief with a bottle of 
 rum, the captain, accompanied by two officers, 
 lauded on a small pebbly bay. Here, he con 
 tinues, we looked in vain for a path leading 
 to the summit, or inhabited part, which was 
 already covered with black heads, anxiously 
 watching our progress. Two kings met us, 
 and showed a narrow ledge, which seemed to 
 be perfectly inaccessible, except to goats. They 
 were desired to lead the way, and we followed 
 up what appeared to be the edge of a basaltic 
 dyke, where hands were as much in requisition 
 as feet. We scrambled up, however, as fast 
 as their more practised Majesties, to the great 
 admiration of the crowd on the summit. It was rather a 
 nervous feat, as one false step would have dashed us to atoms. 
 The congregated huts were found to be swarming with chil 
 dren, goats, dogs, pigs, &c. The people are robust and healthy 
 looking, having, apparently, abundance of the necessaries of 
 life; they chiefly subsist by fishing, exchanging the produce 
 of the sea for vegetables, bananas, yams, &c., with their 
 
 each four stories, access to which is obtained by means of a i.eighbours on the mainland. The other principal island 
 stone stair, and are all regularly paved and vaulted with called Dameh. The habitations of the people here are superior 
 stone, and carefully plastered over with fine cement. The to those of Abobbi, or Pirate s Island. They occupy the 
 belief is, that Caesar, having fortified a camp on the cliff centre and highest part of the island, the sloping sides afford- 
 above, employed these caverns as storehouses. Within the | ing browsing to numerous goats. There is no cultivation, 
 town, the only building worthy of notice is the parish church I and but a poor supply of water. The inhabitants are civil 
 of St. Denis, which was built by St. Martin; and in the I and inoffensive, and live also chiefly by fishing. Previous to 
 cemetery of which there is a very singular allegorical group, i 1833, no European intercourse existed with these islands. 
 consisting of se\ en standing figures, in eastern costume, ap- (Allen s Niger Expedition.) 
 
 parently representing the solemn scene of our Saviour s burial, AMBOLO, or AMBOULE, a rich and beautiful valley, 
 
 but said to be exact likenesses of some of the worst char- with a tn. and stream of the same name, isl. Madagascar, 
 acters, male and female, that figured in the licentious court of 
 Francis I. The manufactures of Amboise are drabs, drug 
 get, and bombazine; also files, rasps, and blistered steel, 
 which last bears a high name. The chief commerce is in 
 wine, brandy, and vinegar. It was in this town, in 1560, 
 that the Calvinists first were called Huguenots, a word of 
 German origin, and intended as an epithet of contempt and 
 disgrace, but which merely signifies confederates. Pop. 4859. 
 
 fop. 
 
 AMJ5OISES BAY and ISLANDS, on the S.W. coast, 
 Africa, bight of Biafra. The BAY is about 17 m. N.W. the 
 mouth of the Cameroons river, and directly opposite the 
 N.E. extremity of the island of Fernando Po; lat. 4 N.; 
 Ion. 9 1 2 E. The district in which it is situated is extremely 
 mountainous ; one isolated peak near the bay rising to a height 
 of about 5000 ft., while the highest summit of a range a little 
 further N. attains an elevation of 13,760 ft. The peak of 
 
 this mountain, says Capt. Allen, which the natives call 
 
 Monga-ma Lobah, or God s Mountain, from its great height, 
 and from its having been seen, as they assert, to emit fire, 
 was often lighted up most brilliantly by the morning sun, 
 while the deep shadows thrown across its base involved all 
 the lower part in gloom, hiding the deep ravines which furrow 
 its rugged sides. The hills are clothed to within a tl 
 their summit with beautiful forest trees, and are inter 
 
 prov. Anosy. The valley produces, in great abundance, rice, 
 manioc, sugar cane, coffee, citrons, cloves, and other spices, 
 besides grazing numerous herds of cattle. It contains also 
 hot springs, of a high temperature, and medicinal quality; 
 and mines of iron. The town lies in lat. 24 15 S.; 
 Ion. 47 E. 
 
 AMBOLON, one of the smaller Philippine Islands, S.W. 
 Mindoro; lat. 12 9 N.; Ion. 121 12 E. (u.) 
 
 AMBRIERES, a small tn. France, dep. Mayenne, and 
 21 m. N.N.E. Loval ; well built, and pleasantly situated on 
 the Mayenne. It lias some manufactures of calicoes, and 
 possesses excellent market halls, formed out of the buildings 
 of an old castle, which itself is not without interest. Pop. 
 1221. 
 
 AMBRIZ (CAPE and BAY), Africa, W. coast. The 
 cape is in lat. 8 2 S.; Ion. 13 10 E. The bay lies to the 
 N. of the cape; it is difficult of entrance, but affords good 
 
 nchorage within. 
 
 AMBROOK ISLAND, a small isl. Russia, prov. Li 
 vonia, in the gulf of that name m the Baltic, about 21 m. 
 N.E. Demesnes Point. 
 
 AMBROSDEN, a par. England, co. Oxford; area, 5210 
 rd of | ac. ; 2i m. S.E. by S. Bicester. Pop. in 1841, 892. 
 ted i AMBROSE (ST.), an isl., S. Pacific Ocean, about 500 m. 
 
 by valleys covered with the richest soil. The entire region { W. from Chili, and 12 or 14 m. E. the Island of St. Felix; 
 
 bay is evidently of volcanic origin, although it 
 
 lat. 26 21 S. ; Ion. 80 60 W. (R.) At a distance it 
 
 I]>]K MI S 
 
 around the 
 
 appears to have been in a state of repose for ages. The like two small islands, but on a nearer view the two parts are 
 
 salubrity of this particular part of the African coast is spoken found to be connected by a reef. About 4 m. to the N. is a 
 
 of by Capt. Allen in strong terms of commendation. The | large rock called, from its appearance, the Sail Rock. Seals, 
 
 ISLANDS in the bay are all small, but the appearance of some I crabs, and crawfish, abound on the island, on which traces of 
 of them is exceedingly picturesque. The largest and most volcanic eruptions are visible. 
 
AMBROSETOWN 
 
 120 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 AMBROSETOWN, a par. Ireland, co. Wexford; area, 
 2197 ac. Pop. in 1841, 690. 
 
 AMBRYN, or AiiBRYM,an isl. New Hebrides, S. Pacific, 
 about 35 to 40 ra. E. the Island of Mallicollo or Mani- 
 colo; lat. 16 14 S. ; Ion. 168 24 E. (R.) This island is 
 the scat of an active volcano, forming one of the Australian 
 volcanic series. It is fertile, and contains a fair proportion 
 of inhabitants. 
 
 AMBUKOL, avil. Nubia, 1. bank, Nile; lat. 18 4 31"N.; 
 Ion. 31 34 46" E. (i,.) ; about 8 m. W. from which is a waste 
 named Haagbarlak, the superficial stratum of which is coarse 
 sandstone, containing many silicious fossil trees; parts of 
 which are splintered off by the peasantry and used as gun 
 flints. The trees appear to be the doum palm (Cucifera 
 Theba icd). 
 
 AMED, AMID, EMID, or KARA AMID, that is, Black 
 Amid, a name sometimes given to Diarbekr (which see). 
 
 AMELAN1), an isl. Holland, prov. Friesland, from the 
 N. shore of which it is about 6 m. distant, and 3 m. E. 
 the Island of Schelling; lat. (beacon) 53 27 N.; Ion. 5 42 
 E. (R.); length, 13 m. ; greatest breadth, 3 m. It is a flat 
 island, subject to inundations, that of 1825 carrying away 140 
 head of cattle. It is not well cultivated, though rye, barley, 
 wheat, beans, pease, and potatoes, are grown, rye affording 
 the best return. It has good pasture land, on which cattle 
 and horses for export are reared ; but the major part of the 
 population subsist chiefly by fishing and sea faring. Ameland 
 has three Calvinistic and one R. catholic church, and five 
 places of meeting for Baptists, who constitute nearly the half 
 of the whole population. It has also four schools, an hospital, 
 three storehouses for stranded goods, a royal breeding stud, 
 and two cornmills. The inhabitants are a healthy, stout, 
 affable race ; and the females are famed for their beauty, by 
 some being reputed the best looking in Holland. Most of the 
 young women, when they attain the age of 16, proceed to the 
 mainland as domestic servants, and return after a few years ; 
 their neat dress, slim figures, and blooming countenances, 
 insure them ready employment. The island has three villages, 
 Hollum, Ballum, and Nes. Pop. about 2100. 
 
 AMELIA, or AMERIA, a small tn. Papal States, delega 
 tion of, and 22 m. S.W. from Spoleto, upon a small hill ; the 
 see of a bishop, erected in 344; having a cathedral, three 
 churches, and some convents. It was the ancient Ameria, 
 one of the oldest cities of Uinbria, and the birthplace of 
 Roscius, the celebrated Roman actor, so frequently mentioned, 
 and so much admired by Cicero. In the neighbourhood are 
 grown the best grapes in Italy, known by the name of pizottllo. 
 Pop. 5500. 
 
 AMELIA, an isl. in the Atlantic Ocean, E. coast of U. 
 States, Florida, co. Nassau, at the mouth of St. Mary s River ; 
 lat. 30 42 N. ; Ion. 81 36 W. (R.) It is 15 m. long, and 
 4 broad. The capital is Fernandina, formerly also the capital 
 of the county. The soil is fertile. 
 
 AMELIE-LES-BA1NS, or ARLES-LE&-BAIHS, a vil. 
 France, dep. Pyrenees-Orientales, 3 m. W. Ceret, 1. bank of 
 the Mondoni, famous for well-frequented thermal springs, of 
 a high temperature, strongly impregnated with sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. Pop. 4G7. 
 
 AMENI, or AMENY, one of the Laccadive Islands; lat. 
 1 1 6 N. ; Ion. 72 41 E. (it.) ; it is of a circular form, 1 or l m. 
 in diameter, and surrounded by rocks to a small distance, 
 close to which, on the W. side, there are soundings. 
 
 AMERICA, one of the great divisions of the globe, and, 
 with exception of Asia, the largest. It stretches from Point 
 Barrow, lat. 71 24 N. (it.), to Cape Forward, the most S. 
 point of the continent, on the Straits of Magalhaens, lat. 53 
 53 7" S. (R.) Horn Island, on which Cape Horn is situated, 
 and the other islands forming the Archipelago of Tierra del 
 Fuego, and which are considered as forming part of S. Ame 
 rica, stretch between 2 and 3 degrees further S. It consists of 
 two vast peninsulas, called respectively, North and South 
 America, connected by the isthmus of Panama or Darien, 
 which, at its narrowest part, is only 28 m. in breadth ; its 
 general width being about 40 m. The near approach to 
 entire separation between the two peninsulas is effected by 
 the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, which appear like 
 vast excavations in the centre of the continent. The whole 
 length of the American continent, in a straight line, is about 
 9UOO m. Its greatest breadth, S. of the equator, is between 
 
 Cape St. Roque in Brazil, and Cape Parina in Peru, between 
 lat. 4 and 7 S., where it is more than 3250 m. wide. N. of 
 the equator, the greatest breadtli is near the parallel of 45, 
 between Cape Canso in Nova Scotia, and Cape Lookout, 
 where it is more than 3100 m. in width. It is bounded on 
 the E. by the Atlantic Ocean, N. and S., which separates it 
 from Europe and Africa; and on the W. by the Pacific 
 Ocean, N. and S., which divides it from Asia and Australia. 
 From Asia, however, it is separated by a narrow chan 
 nel only, called Behring s Straits, not more than 48 m. ii; 
 width at the narrowest part. The physical features of this 
 great division of the globe are on the most gigantic scale. 
 Here are the largest rivers and lakes in the world, the 
 largest valley, and the loftiest mountains, with exception 
 of the Himalayas, which, however, they greatly exceed in 
 length; the most extensive forests, and the tallest trees. 
 Here, also, is exhibited the greatest development of volcanic 
 phenomena, the chain of the Andes furnishing the most 
 magnificent example of linear volcanoes of any region in the 
 world. Out of 270 active volcanoes, the estimated number of 
 all in that state on the surface of the globe, 190 are on the 
 shores and islands of America, being upwards of two-thirds 
 of the whole. The climate of America is said to be colder 
 than that of the opposite continents of Europe and Africa, 
 the difference, it is alleged, being equivalent to about 8 or 10 
 degrees of latitude. In bodily conformation, the aboriginal 
 tribes of America present remarkable similarities ; but their 
 languages, though presenting many roots in common, are 
 exceedingly various, amounting in number to no fewer than 
 600. Though differing considerably in general contour, the 
 two great peninsulas present some remarkable points of resem 
 blance. Both taper towards their S. extremities, and the form 
 of both seems to have been in a great measure determined by 
 a range and by a system of mountains ; on the W. by the 
 Andes, and their continuations the Rocky or Oregon Moun 
 tains, stretching from Tierra del Fuego to near the Arctic 
 Ocean; and on the E. by the mountains of Brazil and the 
 Alleghany or Appalachian Mountains ; the former in S., the 
 latter in N. America. Both also are, to a great extent, com 
 posed of three great river basins ; N. America by those of the 
 Mississippi-Missouri, the St. Lawrence, and the Mackenzie ; 
 S. America by those of the La Plata-Parana, Amazon, and 
 Orinoco. Many other points of resemblance between the 
 two peninsulas could be named, but it is thought unnecessary 
 to do so here, as both their corresponding and distinctive 
 features will be noticed under their respective heads. 
 
 Besides the two grand divisions of America above spoken 
 of, namely, N. and S , a third, called Central America, is 
 recognized, comprehending those countries which lie between 
 the 8th and 18th parallels of N. lat., and between 82 30 and 
 94 W. Ion. To avoid perplexity, this division will be found 
 treated of as a subhead, following N. America, to which it 
 properly belongs. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA lies between the 20th degree of N. lat. 
 and the Arctic Ocean. It is of more irregular form than 
 S. America, but of greater and more uniform breadth, and, 
 consequently, of larger area. It is also more deeply indented 
 with gulfs, bays, and inlets. Two extensive mountain chains 
 run near and parallel, the one to its E., the other to its W. 
 coast. Between these lies a vast plain, the largest in the ! 
 world, stretching N. and S., from the Gulf of Mexico to the I 
 Arctic Ocean. In this plain are situated the great lakes of ; 
 N. America, and over its level surface flow its majestic rivers, 
 including the Mississippi, the Mackenzie, and the St. Lawrence ; 
 the one forming a S., the other a N., and the third an E. outlet 
 for its superfluous waters. The more remarkable of its coast 
 indentations and inlets are Baffin s Bay, Hudson s Bay, and the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, on the E. coast ; the Gulf of Mexico, on 
 the S. ; and the Gulfs of California, Georgia, and Cook s 
 Inlet, on the W. Owing to its irregular form, the coast of N. 
 America is very extensive ; its length, from Hudson s Straits 
 to the Florida Channel, being about 4800 m. ; and from the 
 latter, along the inland sea to Panama, about 4500. The 
 whole length on the Pacific side to Behring s Straits, includ 
 ing the Gulf of California, has been computed at 10,500 m. 
 Of the extent of the N. and N.E. shores no conjecture has 
 yet been hazarded, but it cannot, probably, be less than 3000 
 m. The entire extent will thus be, perhaps, about 22,800 m. 
 Amongst the more remarkable physical characteristics of N. 
 
AMERICA 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 America are its sanely deserts, treeless steppes, marshes, and 
 prairies ; the first stretch along the base of the Rocky 
 Mountains to the 41st degree of N. lat., having an average 
 breadth of 400 to 600 m. The steppes form another cheer 
 less and extensive region in the N. parts of the continent, 
 being parched in summer by scorching heat, and frozen in 
 winter by intensely cold winds from the Rocky Mountains. 
 The marshes of N. America occupy a large space, those 
 towards the mouth of the Mississippi extending over 35,000 
 sq. m. The prairies or savannahs, peculiar characteristics of 
 N. America, occur chiefly in the Mississippi valley. They 
 consist of extensive, elevated, and generally irregular tracts, 
 without trees, though sometimes capable of producing them, 
 covered in the spring with long grass, intermingled with 
 fragrant flowers. They are often, however, entirely barren, 
 and may be traversed for many days without a shrub being 
 met with, except on the banks of streams. Vast tracts are 
 also occupied by forests, comprising, probably, not less than 
 from 600,000 to 800,000 sq. m. Notwithstanding these large 
 deductions, millions of acres of rich and fertile soil remain for 
 the subsistence of man. 
 
 Mountains. Of these there are four principal systems in 
 N. America. The Oregon or Rocky Mountains a continua 
 tion of the Andes, the Sea Alps of California, the Sea Alps of 
 the N.W. coast, and the Alleghanies or Appalachian Moun 
 tains on the E. coast. The Oregon Mountains stretch along 
 the W. coast at a distance varying from 50 to 300 m. from the 
 sea. The highest part is between lat. 42 and 53 N., where 
 several peaks rise far above the snow line. Of these, Mount 
 Hooker attains an elevation of 15,700 ft., and Mount Brown 
 15,990 ft. Further N., they decrease to 4000 and 2000 ft. 
 The Sea Alps of California, and those of the N.W. coast, run 
 parallel to the Oregons, but nearer to the sea, and are con 
 nected with the latter by transverse ridges, the principal of 
 which are the Snowy Mountains, said to equal the highest 
 part of the Rocky Mountains in elevation. The Alleghanies 
 or Appalachian Mountains stretch along the E. coast. They 
 consist chiefly of four separate groups, crossing the country in 
 the same general direction, from N.E. to S.W. Their mean 
 elevation does not exceed 2500 ft. To this chain belongs 
 the group of the White Mountains, in which is situated Mount 
 Washington, 6620 ft. high, the culminating point of the 
 entire system. Their whole area is computed at 2,000,000 
 sq. m. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The principal rivers are the Missouri- 
 Mississippi, and the St. Lawrence. The first is the largest 
 river in N. America, and one of the greatest in the world, 
 occupying, with its tributaries, the whole of the S. portion of 
 the great central basin of this continent. It has its origin in 
 the junction of streams from the Lakes Itaska and Ussawa, 
 on the declivity of the Rocky Mountains, between lat. 42 
 and 43 N., and falls into the sea in the Gulf of Mexico in 
 lat. 27 N. Its whole course, which is from N. to S., reckon 
 ing the Missouri as the principal branch, is calculated to 
 exceed 4400 m. It has obtained its double name from the 
 Missouri forming about two-thirds of its earlier course. The 
 St. Lawrence rises under the name of the St. Louis, in lat. 
 47 45 N. ; Ion. 93 W., flows N.E. by N., and falls into the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence at Gaspe s Point, by a mouth more than 
 100 m. wide. The other rivers ranking next in point of 
 magnitude are the Arkansas, Red River, Ohio, and Mac 
 kenzie, all, excepting the last, tributaries of the Mississippi, 
 and having their sources in the Rocky Mountains. The 
 Mackenzie issues from the Great Slave Lake, from which 
 it flows nearly due N., and falls into the Arctic Sea about lat. 
 69 10 N. In the number and magnitude of its lakes, N. Ame 
 rica is unequalled by any other quarter of the globe. They 
 form one of its grandest natural features, and, in conjunction 
 with its rivers, present a medium of commercial intercourse 
 which no other country enjoys. The principal lakes are 
 Lake Superior, Michigan, Huron, Ontario, and Erie, which 
 together cover an area of 90,700 sq. m. The largest of these 
 is Lake Superior, the mean length of which is 400 m. ; mean 
 breadth, 80 in. The deepest are Lakes Michigan and Huron, 
 the mean depth of which is 1000 ft., or about 167 fathoms. 
 Following the chain of lakes which crosses the country in a 
 N.W. direction, there occur Lakes Winnipeg, Woolaston, 
 Deer Lake, Athabasca, Great Slave Lake, and Great Bear 
 Lake. There are, besides these, many smaller, yet consider- 
 
 Voi,. I. 
 
 able lakes, such as St. Clair, midway between Lakes Huron 
 and Erie; and the Lake of the Woods, between Lakes Superior 
 and Winnipeg. 
 
 Islands. In the Atlantic Ocean, the principal are New 
 foundland, Anticosti, Prince Edward s Island, and Cape 
 Breton, all at the mouth of the St. Lawrence ; the Bahama 
 Islands, off the peninsula of Florida and the Gulf Stream ; 
 and the W. India Islands, Cuba, Hayti or St. Domingo, 
 Jamaica, Porto Rico, Santa Cruz, Antigua, Guadaloupe, Mar 
 tinique, St. Lucia, Barbadoes, St. Vincent, Tobago, Trinidad, 
 and several others. On the N.W. coast, the principal islands 
 are Vancouver s Island, with an area of 30,000 sq. m. ; further 
 N., Queen Charlotte s Island , then King George III. s Archi 
 pelago, which contains, besides a number of small islands, 
 Prince of Wales Island, Sitka Island, and Admiralty Island 
 Next follow the Aleutian Islands, stretching W. from the 
 peninsula of Aliaska. In Behring s Straits are the group of 
 1 ribylof and Nounivok, belonging to Russia. In the Arctic 
 Ocean, there are a vast number of islands of which little com 
 paratively is yet known. Besides these, there is a multitude 
 of small islands and rocks scattered along the W. coast, par 
 ticularly between Port San Francisco and Cape St. Lucas. 
 
 Geology, Mineralogy, &c. A remarkable analogy exists 
 in the structure of the land in N. America and Central and 
 N. Europe. Gneiss, mica schist, and granite, prevail over 
 wide areas in the Alleghanies ; on the Atlantic slope, and the 
 N. latitudes of the American continent, and in the high and 
 middle latitudes, the Silurian strata extend over 2000 m. 
 Crystalline and Silurian rocks form the substratum of Mexico, 
 for the most part covered with plutonic and volcanic forma 
 tions and secondary limestone. The Rocky Mountains are 
 mostly silurian, except the E. ridge, which is of stratified 
 crystalline rocks, amygdaloid, and ancient volcanic produc 
 tions. The coast chain has the same character, with immense 
 tracts of volcanic rocks, both ancient and modern, especially 
 obsidian. In N. America, volcanic action is entirely confined 
 to the coast and high land along the Pacific. The principal 
 minerals are gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and coal. The 
 first three are found in greatest abundance in Mexico, where 
 there are nearly 3000 mines of gold and silver alone. Since 
 1848, however, the great field for gold gathering has been 
 California, where large quantities have been obtained with 
 little trouble ; and both silver and quicksilver have, in the 
 same quarter, been found to abound. The silver supplied 
 by the Mexican veins is extracted from a great variety 
 of minerals, pure or native silver being of comparatively 
 rare occurrence. Previous to the revolution of 1810, the 
 annual average produce of the American mines amounted 
 to 5,100,000; after the revolution, the amount fell to 
 2,337,500, the exports of specie falling, of course, in pro 
 portion. The principal deposits of gold in the U. States, 
 besides in California, occur in the primary rocks between the 
 river Rappahannock in Virginia, and the Coosa in Alabama ; 
 but it has also been found as far N. as Somerset in Vermont. 
 The gravel is washed by negroes, who collect each about 
 five pennyweights a day. The gold sent from this district to 
 the mint of the U. States, between 1823 and 1836, amounted 
 to $4,377,500 ; but the actual produce was estimated at twice 
 this amount. The coal fields of N. America are of prodigious 
 extent ; the Appalachian stretching, without interruption, 
 720 m., with a maximum breadth of 280, and occupying an 
 area of 63,000 sq. m. The Pittsburgh seam, 10 ft. thick, 
 exposed on the banks of the Monogahela, extends, horizon 
 tally, 225 m. in length, and 100 in breadth, and covers an 
 area of 14,000 sq. m. The coal is generally bituminous, 
 similar to British ; but anthracite is also met with. Besides 
 the coal fields named, there are various others of great extent 
 in different parts of N. America, including New Brunswick, 
 Nova Scotia, and Vancouver s Island. Iron, also, is worked 
 in many parts of the States from Connecticut to S. Carolina. 
 Salt is likewise widely diffused throughout great part of this 
 continent. 
 
 Climate. The predominating character of the climate of 
 N. America is intense cold; although, in some parts, an 
 oppressive heat prevails during a portion of the summer. In 
 Ihitish America the thermometer rises, in July, 20 degrees 
 higher than in London. Again, above the 50th degree of 
 lat., the cold is so severe as to render the country all but 
 uninhabitable ; while frosts occasionally occur as low down 
 
 16 
 
AMERICA 
 
 122 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 as the 30th degree of Lit. In winter, a keen and piercing 
 N.W. wind prevails throughout all N. America, adding 
 greatly to the natural rigour of the N. climate, and carrying 
 its chilling influence into the more southerly regions. The 
 transitions from cold to hot, or from winter to summer, are 
 very sudden, especially in Canada, where there is little or 
 none of the intermediate season of spring. The principal 
 causes assigned for the greater degree of cold prevailing in 
 N. America than in corresponding latitudes in other coun 
 tries, are its immense chains of mountains with their cover 
 ings of perpetual snow ; its prodigious forests, which prevent 
 the solar rays from reaching the earth; and to the great 
 breadth of that portion of it that lies within the Arctic circle. 
 The sudden and extreme transitions from hot to cold, for 
 which the climate of N. America, generally, is remarkable, 
 is not, perhaps, so easily accounted for. These transitions, 
 however, are said to be healthful. Hence Lower Canada, 
 where the contrasts are greatest, is more healthy than Upper 
 Canada ; and the latter than the U. States, where they are 
 least, though still sufficiently marked. In the S. portions of 
 N. America, some of which are within the tropics, the heat is 
 occasionally excessive ; but even there the chilling influences of 
 the N. regions are manifest, keen frosts being often experienced 
 between 15 and 25 N. lat. As having, probably, some con 
 nection with climate, the singular fact may be mentioned, that 
 all over America the teeth are subject to early decay. 
 
 Vegetation. The forests of N. America are of vast extent, 
 and the individual trees of the most magnificent dimensions ; 
 some of the former covering an area of 60,000 sq. m. ; and 
 many of the latter attaining a height of 200 and 300 ft., with 
 a circumference of 80. The forests of Canada consist chiefly 
 of pines, oak, ash, hickory, red beech, birch, and the lofty 
 Canadian poplar. Those of the U. States, of sycamore, 
 chestnut, black walnut, hickory, maple, white cedar, wild 
 cherry, red birch, locust tree, oak, ash, &c., and the tulip 
 tree, the pride of the American forest. The arctic flora of 
 America has much the same character with that of Europe 
 and Asia. 
 
 Maize, or Indian corn, the only important farinaceous plant 
 peculiar to the new world, has a very extensive range in N. 
 America ; although a strong heat, of considerable duration, is 
 necessary to its successful cultivation. Millet, cocoa, pimento, 
 vanilla, copaiba, cinchona, jalap, sassafras, nux vomica, to 
 bacco, and the cochineal plant (Cactus cochinilifer), &c., are 
 also indigenous. So likewise is the potato, now so widely 
 diffused throughout Europe. Wheat, barley, oats, pease, and 
 rice succeed well throughout large portions of the continent. 
 So also do various kinds of fruit trees, such as oranges, 
 peaches, lemons, and apples ; but the native fruits are mostly 
 of the nut kind. Sugar, coffee, and cotton, are amongst its 
 staple vegetable productions. The vine and tea plant have 
 been tried, but hitherto without success. 
 
 Zoology. The largest and most powerful of N. American 
 beasts of prey are bears ; of which it possesses, besides those 
 common to Europe, a species peculiar to itself, called the 
 grizzly bear (Ursus ferox). This is the most formidable 
 animal of the N. American continent. It is of such strength, 
 that it can drag, with ease, the carcass of a buffalo of 1000 Ib.s. 
 weight. It is of a fierce and vindictive disposition, and will 
 readily attack any one who comes in its way. When irritated, 
 it rears itself on its hind legs, emitting a loud, harsh, and rapid 
 sound. It is said to extend as far S. as Mexico, and is known 
 to inhabit the~Rocky Mountains and their eastern plains, at 
 least as far as lat. 61 N. The white, or polar bear, though 
 not peculiar to America, is found in great numbers on its 
 northern coast, attaining a higher latitude than any other 
 known quadruped. It is rarely seen at any distance from the 
 sea, and seldom or never further S. than about the 55th par 
 allel. The bison, or American buffalo (Bos Americanus), the 
 largest native quadruped of the new world, is distributed over 
 a great portion of the temperate regions of America. Its chief 
 haunts, however, are the prairie lands of the Rocky Mountains, 
 where they have been seen in herds of 10,000. They are, on 
 the whole, inoffensive animals, though dangerous when roused. 
 The bull has sometimes attained a weight of 2000 Ibs., but 
 the average weight is from 12 to 14 cwt. It measures about 
 8J ft. in length, and above 6 ft. high at the fore quarter. The 
 flesh is juicy and well flavoured, and the tongue and hump 
 considered delicacies. The musk ox (Ovibos moschatus) is a 
 
 small-sized animal, weighing only about 300 Ibs., exclusive 
 of offal. It inhabits a great extent of barren land N. of the 
 60th parallel. The flesh is well flavoured, resembling that of 
 rein deer, but coarser in the grain, and smeAling strongly of 
 musk. The hair or wool is remarkably fine- Several species 
 of the deer tribe are found in N. America. Of these, some 
 inhabit marshy forests, some the wooded shores of rivers, or 
 the sea, and others the bleak sides and barren valleys of 
 mountain districts. The most remarkable are the moose 
 deer or elk (Ccrvua alces), a gigantic animal when full grown, 
 6 ft. in height, with broad solid antlers, a single one of 
 which has been known to weigh 56 Ibs. ; and the rein deer, 
 the most northerly of all the ruminating animals. On the 
 Rocky Mountains are found a race of sheep, and another of 
 goats, peculiar to these elevated regions. The former, the 
 Ilocky Mountain sheep, is much larger than the largest varie 
 ties of the domestic breeds ; hair short, fine, and flexible ; and 
 flesh said greatly to exceed in flavour the finest English 
 mutton. It dwells amongst the most elevated and craggy 
 ridges. The Rocky Mountain goat also inhabits the highest 
 and least accessible summits. Its flesh is hard and dry, and 
 rendered unsavoury by a strong musky flavour. It is covered 
 with long hair, but beneath that there is a coating of wool, 
 of the finest quality. The wolves and dogs of America are 
 numerous, and some of them peculiar. The former are there, 
 as everywhere else, savage and ferocious, especially when 
 pressed by hunger. They will run down and devour deer and 
 foxes ; and have been known to break into huts, and to kill 
 and carry off the dogs they found there. The prairie wolf 
 (Canis latrans) hunts in packs, and is an animal of great 
 swiftness. It occurs on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, 
 but is most numerous in the plains of the Missouri and Sas- 
 katchawan. On the banks of the latter river, great numbers 
 of the prairie wolves are seen to start from holes in the earth 
 on hearing the report of a gun, being on the look-out for the 
 offals of the slaughtered animal. Of the domesticated tribes 
 of the canine race, there are several remarkable varieties in 
 the northern regions of America. Amongst these are the 
 well-known Newfoundland dog, and the Mackenzie river dog, 
 a small, slight animal, of a playful and affectionate disposition. 
 All the others are large and fierce. Foxes are also numerous, 
 and of a great variety of species. The most worthy of notice 
 are the American red fox (Cams fulvus), which inhabits the 
 woody districts of the fur countries, and from which about 
 8000 skins are annually imported into England ; the kit fox, 
 and the Arctic fox. Beavers, otters, racoons, opossums, hares, 
 musk rats, marmots, squirrels, and porcupines, are amongst 
 the smaller quadrupeds of N. America. The elephant and 
 camel are unknown here, and monkeys are confined to the 
 southern regions. Beasts of prey are few. and, with ex 
 ception of bears, far from being formidable. Reptiles, how 
 ever, are numerous, especially in the U. States, and some of 
 them dangerous. The most noted of this class is the rattle 
 snake (Crotalus). The longest attain a length of 6 ft. ; their 
 bite is fatal to the largest animals, and to man also, unless a 
 remedy is immediately applied ; and even in this case, the bad 
 effects of the wound are said to be felt for life. The only 
 animal secured against them is the hog, which feeds upon 
 them. The pike-muzzled cayman (Crocodilus lucius), is a 
 native of the southern States, and is found in the Mississippi. 
 It grows to the length of 1 4 to 1 6 ft. Frogs and toads are 
 also numerous ; the former include the bull frog, from 6 to 
 8 inches long, and so voracious that it will swallow young 
 ducks and goslings whole; the latter, the Salamander gigantea, 
 or gigantic salamander, measuring from 15 to 18 inches long 
 Tortoises also abound in various parts of the U. States ; and 
 sea turtles are found on the wanner parts of the coasts. 
 
 The birds of this continent are very numerous, there being 
 471 species in N. America, of which number 371 are peculiar 
 to that country. The list includes a variety of the eagle tribe, 
 vultures, hawks, and owls. Wild turkeys are found in vast 
 flocks in the woods of both Americas. Fish also abound in 
 the N. American rivers, but none of them are sufficiently re 
 markable to require any special notice here. They include 
 the well-known kinds, sturgeon, salmon, trout, pike, and char. 
 
 Races of Men. The origin of the American race is wholly 
 unknown, although there has been no want of conjecture on 
 the subject, most of it more plausible than satisfactory. This, 
 however, is certain, that America was inhabited by a people 
 
AMERICA 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 who lived long antecedent to the present races or trihcs by 
 which the soil is occupied, and regarding whom neither history 
 nor tradition have preserved any record ; although many evi 
 dences remain (see Antiquities, in articles MEXICO and YU 
 CATAN) not only to prove the fact of their having existed, but 
 to show that they had attained a degree of civilization altogether 
 unapproached by the present native inhabitants. Amongst 
 these evidences are stone walls, of regular masonry, and hearths 
 of brick, found in digging the Louisville Canal ; medals of cop 
 per and silver, swords, and implements of iron. The Indian 
 tribes of America, with exception, perhaps, of the more westerly 
 Esquimaux, have all so strong a resemblance to each other in 
 physical formation, and also, though in a less obvious degree, 
 in intellectual character, as to leave no doubt of their being 
 of one family, and their having a common origin. They are, 
 with the exception just made, of large size, robust, and well 
 proportioned ; of a bronze or reddish complexion hence the 
 name red men, which they have bestowed on themselves 
 black hair, long, coarse, and shining; thin beard, low forehead, 
 high eyebrows, prominent cheek bones, nose a little flattened, 
 but well marked. Head of a square shape; face broad, and 
 tapering towards the chin ; features, viewed in profile, pro 
 minent, and deeply sculptured. Their moral character has 
 been variously represented, sometimes better, and sometimes 
 worse, than it really is. Excepting extraordinary powers of 
 endurance, they seem to possess precisely the virtues and 
 vices common to all savages, along with some good qualities, 
 more rare, perhaps, amongst uncivilized tribes. They are 
 grateful, hospitable, and capable, sometimes, of a savage mag 
 nanimity; but they are also vindictive, cruel, and treacherous. 
 Amongst their vices, of a more venal nature, is an unquench 
 able passion for spirituous liquors. An idea very generally 
 prevails that they are singularly grave and taciturn. Wash 
 ington Irving gives them a very different character, as will be 
 found in the following quotation from his Tour to the Prairies, 
 the interest and novelty of which will be a sufficient apology 
 for its length : They (the N. American Indians) are taciturn 
 only when in company with white men, whose good will they 
 distrust, and whose language they do not understand ; and 
 that, when among themselves, there cannot be greater gossips. 
 Half their time, he goes on to say, is taken up in talking 
 over their adventures in war and hunting, and in telling 
 whimsical stories. They are great mimics and buffoons also ; 
 and entertain themselves excessively at the expense of the 
 whites with whom they have associated, and who have sup 
 posed them impressed with profound respect for their grandeur 
 and dignity. They are curious observers, noting everything 
 in silence, but with a keen and watchful eye ; occasionally 
 exchanging a glance or a grunt with each other when anything 
 particularly strikes them, but reserving all comments till they 
 are alone. Then it is that they give full scope to criticism, 
 satire, mimicry, and mirth. In the course of my journey 
 along the frontier, I have had repeated opportunities of notic 
 ing their excitability and boisterous merriment at their games ; 
 and have occasionally noticed a group of Osages sitting round 
 a fire, until a late hour of the night, engaged in the most 
 animated and lively conversation, and at times making the 
 woods resound with peals of laughter. During the war in 
 which we were engaged with the French in Canada, about the 
 middle of last century, and during the contest of the Anglo- 
 American colonies for their independence, Britain adopted the 
 policy of securing the Indian tribes as allies ; and, with this 
 view, created a department called the Indian department, 
 the duties of which were to maintain the friendly relations 
 between Great Britain and the former, by distributing pre 
 sents, rewarding services, and providing for the disabled, and 
 for the widows and children of the slain. Previous to 1816, 
 150,000 a year had been distributed in this way amongst 
 them ; chiefly in articles of personal comfort and utility, such 
 as blankets, the most useful of all articles to an Indian, sheet 
 ing, &c. The sum is now reduced to about 20,000 a year ; 
 the number of claimants, some of whom come from a distance 
 of 1600 m. to receive these pledges of our friendship, being 
 between 18,000 and 19,000. Nor is the gratification of female 
 vanity overlooked in the selection of these gifts. In a list 
 of articles, contained in a Report to Parliament regarding 
 our connection with the N. American Indians, are 5398 
 pairs of silver ear-bobs, 7186 silver brooches, 93 dozen 
 looking glasses, 9162 horn, ivory, and box combs, 702 silk 
 
 handkerchiefs, 5324 yards of ribbon, and 2387 ounces of ver 
 milion. 
 
 The Indians of N. America have been considered an in 
 ferior race., intellectually, and they have not, perhaps, made 
 advances in general civilization, or in the arts, commensurate 
 with their opportunities ; but to change the habits and modes 
 of life of an unenlightened people, not from one stage of 
 refinement to another, but from an original state, or state of 
 nature, with its freedom and its excitement, to a factitious 
 one, with its constraints, its moriotony, and, to the Indian, 
 incomprehensible motives of action, is not the work of a day, 
 nor of a century. Yet manifestations of advancement are not 
 wanting. A portion of the Mohawks, who separated from 
 their tribe many years ago, have become tolerable farmers, 
 and some of them have assumed the dress of Europeans. 
 The Chippewas and Mississiquas have also evinced a strong 
 desire to adopt the habits of civilized life. In Upper Canada, 
 the Mohawks and Six Nations have retained 260,000 acres of 
 good land, on which they raise Indian corn, beans, and potatoes, 
 and some of the more industrious several kinds of English 
 grain. They have, besides, considerable numbers of horses, 
 cows, oxen, sheep, and swine, and in some of their villages 
 there are schools in which their children are taught reading 
 and writing. The Cherokees, a numerous nation, are making 
 still more satisfactory advances in the right direction. In 
 1831, about 200 of that nation had attained a very complete 
 English education, and 500 children were in progress learning 
 English. About the same time, the Gospel of Matthew and 
 a collection of hymns had been printed in Cherokee, and a 
 newspaper published in the same language, of which the 
 characters had been invented by a native named Guess. 
 
 A large portion of N. America is still in possession of the 
 aboriginal tribes, comprising the N. parts of Spanish America, 
 the W. parts of the U. States, and the N.W. parts of British 
 America. Their entire numbers are supposed to amount to 
 rather more than half a million, of which 313,000 are in the 
 territory of the U. States. The language of the Chippewas 
 is the most prevalent among the Indian tribes, and is spoken 
 in most of their general councils and negotiations. 
 
 Political Divisions. The great political divisions of N. 
 America, exclusive of Central America, are the U. States, 
 British America, Russian America, and Mexico, which is in 
 cluded between lat. 15 30 and 34 N., bounded, W. by 
 the Pacific, and E. by the Gulf of Mexico. The territory of 
 the U. States extends from the British possessions to the Gulf 
 of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. The 
 S. boundary line of the U. States territory now includes the 
 whole of Upper California, the line coming as far S. as lat. 
 32 30 N. 
 
 British America comprises Upper Canada and Lower 
 Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Prince 
 Edward s Island, Newfoundland, Labrador, and the island of 
 Anticosti. 
 
 The boundary of Russian America, as settled by treaty in 
 1825, commences at the S. extremity of Prince of Wales 
 Island, in lat. 54 40 N., and about Ion. 132 W. All the 
 American coast lying N. of this point, and all the islands off 
 that coast, are recognized to be Russian territory 
 
 Discovery of N. America. In the department of discovery, 
 N. America has a history of its own, wholly distinct, in all 
 its circumstances, from that of S. America, the scene of the 
 j discoveries of Columbus, and to which, so far as regards this 
 I continent, they were entirely confined. The first discoverer 
 of N. America was John Cabot, a native of Venice, who 
 resided in England in the reign of Henry VII., under a 
 patent granted by that monarch, and which included Cabot s 
 three sons ; Sebastian, then in the 19th year of his age, Louis, 
 and Sanchez. John Cabot, the father, accompanied by his 
 son Sebastian, sailed from Bristol ; and about five o clock on 
 the morning of the 24th of June 1497, came in sight of 
 N. America, the coast, it has been conjectured, of Labrador. 
 This was a year before the discovery of S. America by 
 Columbus, which took place in May 1498. In the summer 
 of 1 498, Sebastian Cabot sailed from England with two ships, 
 fitted out at his own and his father s expense ; and, directing his 
 course by Iceland, reached Newfoundland, which he called 
 Terra de Baccalaos, from the great quantities of fish, so named 
 by the natives, by which the surrounding seas were filled ; 
 quantities so immense, says the old historian. Peter Martyr, 
 
AMERICA 
 
 121 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 that they actually impeded the sailing of the ships. The 
 next adventurer who reached the N. American shores was 
 Gaspar de Cortereal, a Portuguese nobleman, who sailed for, 
 and subsequently surveyed between GOO and 700 in. of, the 
 coast of Labrador in the year 1500. He returned to America 
 shortly after ; hut having excited the enmity of the people, 
 by having carried off, on his first voyage, a number of natives 
 as slaves, it is supposed that he and his ships crews were 
 destroyed, as they were never again heard of. A similar fate 
 befell his brother, who sailed in search of him in the follow 
 ing year; and in 1503 another expedition, fitted out by the 
 King of Portugal to ascertain the fate of the brothers, shared 
 the like destiny. Cortereal, who was a bold and determined 
 man, eager to distinguish himself, had been incited to his 
 enterprise by the achievements of Cabot. He sailed on his 
 expedition from Lisbon with two ships, touched at the Azores, 
 and, as already related, arrived on the coast of Labrador, 
 which was subsequently called Terra Corterealis, afterwards 
 changed by the Portuguese slave merchants to Terra de 
 Laborador, in consequence, as has been conjectured, of the 
 superior qualities of the natives as labourers, and of whom 
 they expected to make large profits by selling them as slaves. 
 The Portuguese affected to consider the Cortereals as the first 
 discoverers of Newfoundland and the adjacent coasts of N. 
 America, and attempted to establish a claim to these terri 
 tories on that ground, but the evidence of their having been 
 anticipated by the Cabots was sufficiently clear to render the 
 attempt unavailing. 
 
 In 1512, Sebastian Cabot sailed again for America, with a 
 small squadron under the command of Sir Thomas Pert, 
 fitted out by Henry VIII.; but a mutiny on board his vessels, 
 together with a want of resolution on the part of the comman 
 der, compelled him to return before more had been accom 
 plished than a visit to Hudson s Bay. In the same year 
 Florida was discovered by Ponce de Leon. The next name 
 that occurs in the history of American discovery is that of 
 Giovanni Verazzano, a Florentine navigator of great skill 
 and celebrity, who was sent out by Francis I. of France, in 
 the year 1524, and who surveyed upwards of 2000 m. of 
 coast, comprising the whole of that of the U. States, with a 
 large portion of that of British America. Verazzano gave the 
 name of New France to the region he had discovered. In a 
 subsequent voyage, he and his party were surrounded by the 
 savages, and put to death. Ten years afterwards, Jacques 
 Cartier, an enterprising seaman of St. Malo, sailed from the 
 latter place for Newfoundland, the N. coast of which he 
 surveyed and minutely described. He performed several 
 voyages afterwards, in one of which he entered the St. 
 Lawrence, being the first European who had done so, and 
 ascended the river as high as Montreal. An attempt was 
 afterwards made by the Sieur de Eoberval, a nobleman of 
 Picardy, to form a settlement in America, but the attempt 
 was unsuccessful, the only result being a fort which the 
 French erected near the present site of Quebec, and named 
 Charlesbourg. This fort, however, was the first European 
 settlement formed in that part of America. Eoberval and his 
 brother sailed on another voyage of discovery some time after, 
 and perished ; neither they, nor their ships, having ever been 
 again heard of. Previous to this, the Spaniards had con 
 quered Mexico, and a desire to extend their dominion in a 
 N. direction led to further discoveries in N. America. The 
 coast of California was discovered by Ximenes, a pilot, who, 
 with Mendoza, a captain, whom the former murdered during 
 the voyage, had been despatched by Cortez on a voyage of 
 discovery. In 1539, the Gulf of California was first entered 
 by Francisco de Ulloa, another adventurer, also sent out by 
 Cortez, who spent a year in examining its coasts and havens. 
 The Spaniards performed several voyages afterwards, hut 
 they were unattended by any results worthy of notice till the 
 years 1596 and 1602, when Sebastian Viscaino proceeded 
 along the coast as far as the river Columbia. These dis 
 coveries were followed by those of Davis in 1585, Weymouth 
 in 1602, Knight in 1606, Hudson in 1610, Button in 1612, 
 Bylot and Baffin in 1615, from the latter of whom Baffin s Bay 
 has been named. The first in point of time among the more 
 modern voyagers to the shores of N. America were Capt. 
 Behring, and Tchirikow his lieutenant, both natives of Russia, 
 who were sent out in 1725 by the Empress Catherine to 
 survey the N. coasts. They made several important dis 
 
 coveries, besides setting at rest the disputed point whether 
 Asia and America were two separate continents. The claims 
 of Russia to the American coast N. of lat. 55 N. is founded on 
 the voyages of these two enterprising seamen. In 1776, Capt. 
 Cook, accompanied by Capt. Clarke, surveyed the N.W. bound 
 aries of America, tracing the coast from lat. 50 N. till he 
 came to Cape Prince of Wales, when he steered a N.E. course, 
 till arrested by ice islands in about lat. 70 N. The remain 
 ing names associated with American maritime discovery are, 
 Meares, Vancouver, Kotzebue, and, more recently, Ross, 
 Parry, Franklin, and Beechy ; inland travellers and dis 
 coverers, Hearne, M Kenzie, Back, Rae, and Simpson ; most 
 of whom have published accounts of their discoveries. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA is the narrow tortuous strip of land 
 which unites the continents of N. and S. America, extending 
 from about lat. 7 to 18 N.; but as different limits are 
 assigned to it by various authorities, these cannot be said to 
 be exactly determined. Its entire length may be about 800 
 or 900 m., with a breadth varying from between 20 and 30 
 m. to 300 or 400. Taking the limits above stated, Central 
 America will be found to comprise the Isthmus of Panama, 
 Guatimala, British Honduras, and parts of Mexico ; some au 
 thorities include also Yucatan. It is bounded E. and N.E. by 
 the Caribbean Sea, and W. and N.W. by the N. Pacific Ocean. 
 It is traversed throughout its whole length by a chain of 
 mountains, which connects the Ancles of S. America with the 
 mountain ranges of Mexico, and the Rocky Mountains of the 
 U. States. This chain is divided into three groups ; the Costa 
 j Rica group, the Honduras and Nicaragua group, and the 
 group of Guatimala. The Costa Rica group traverses the 
 Isthmus of Panama. Some parts of this range, towards the 
 S., attain an elevation of 9000 ft. ; and the volcano of Irasu 
 rises to 11,478 ft.; but there are others said to be of still 
 greater height. The more general elevations, however, are 
 from 3000 to 5000 ft. The Honduras and Nicaragua group 
 is separated from the former by the Lake of Nicaragua, and 
 the river San Juan. On the N. side of the lake, the border of 
 the plateau forming its W. limit rises suddenly to a height 
 of 8200 ft. The Guatimala group is remarkable for contain 
 ing, with exception of the island of Java, the greatest number 
 of active volcanoes, known to exist within similar limits, on 
 the surface of the globe. The highest in Central America 
 is Agua, which is said to attain an elevation of 15,000 ft. 
 The others vary from 1000 to 11,000 ft.; but a few only of 
 these heights have been ascertained. The volcano of Agua 
 has obtained its name from its emitting torrents of water and 
 stones, instead of fire. The mountains of Central America 
 do not, generally, attain an elevation equal to those of the 
 two adjoining continents, with exception of the volcanoes. 
 The coasts are generally narrow, and in some places the 
 mountains and high lands come close down to the water s edge. 
 The rivers of this territory are small, and have necessarily, 
 from the narrowness of the land, short courses, the longest 
 not exceeding from 200 to 300 m., while many of them are 
 not more than 50. Of the latter, are those that fall into the 
 Pacific; of the former, those that join the Atlantic, both hav 
 ing their sources in the mountainous regions of the country, 
 the one flowing N.E., the other S.W. The largest river is 
 the Usumasinta, which falls into the Gulf of Campeachy. 
 There are about 30 other rivers worth noting, many of which 
 are navigable for several miles into the interior. The prin 
 cipal lake is that of Nicaragua, which is upwards of 100 m. 
 in length, and about 50 m. in breadth. The other considerable 
 lakes are those of Managua or Leon, Golfo Dolce, Golfete, 
 Peten, Atitlan, Amatitlan, Guija, and Cojutepeque. 
 
 Climate. The climate is exceedingly various, owing to 
 the inequality of its surface. The plains on the coast of the 
 Caribbean Sea are exposed to violent tropical heats, and are 
 very unhealthy; but on the table lands, any temperature, 
 according to altitude, may be obtained all the year round, 
 with a salubrious climate. The dry season lasts from October 
 to May; the rest of the year is called the wet season, although 
 the rain falls during the night only, the days being fair and 
 cloudless, and the air pure and refreshing. In March and 
 April, the thermometer sometimes rises to 86, but usually 
 ranges between 74 C and 82 in the middle of the day. 
 
 Vegetable Productions. These are as various as the climate. 
 On the higher parts of the table land, the grains, fruits, and 
 vegetables of Europe are raised. There are here, likewise, 
 
AMERICA 
 
 125 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 plantations of a kind of aloe, called maguey, from which a 
 spirituous liquor, named pulque, is extracted. The lower 
 and wanner districts produce, in great abundance, Indian 
 corn, sugar cane, bananas, mandioca, all sorts of tropical 
 fruits, including the cherimoya, said to be the most exquisite 
 of fruits; and sweet potatoes, indigo, cochineal, tobacco, and 
 cotton. The forests, which are very extensive, produce 
 mahogany, pimento, sarsaparilla, vanilla, and the black balsam, 
 commonly called Peruvian balsam, from having been brought 
 to Europe by way of Peru, together with various other drugs, 
 gums, and valuable woods, including logwood and lignum 
 vitae. The forests of Panama contain at least 97 different 
 kinds of trees, which grow luxuriantly in its moist hot climate, 
 fatal to animal life. 
 
 Zoology. The zoology of Central America differs little 
 from that of the other countries of America. The only 
 animals peculiar to it are the manati, found at the mouth of 
 the Rio Juan ; the winged squirrel, and various kinds of quad- 
 rumana. Amongst the birds, the most remarkable are hum 
 ming birds ; the quezal, whose feathers are of a bright emerald 
 green ; the great macaw, and several others of the most 
 splendid plumage. Serpents are numerous, some of them 
 dangerous, especially on the thickly-wooded coast of the 
 Pacific. Two species of locusts are known here, a brown 
 and a green; the former is particularly destructive. The 
 rivers, lakes, and seas abound with fish. 
 
 Geology, Minerals, &c. Of the geology of Central America 
 little is known. Granite, gneiss, and mica slate, form the 
 substrata of the country; but the abundance of igneous rocks 
 bear witness to strong volcanic action, both in ancient and 
 in modern times. Gold, silver, iron, lead, and mercury, are 
 found ; but the first three only are worked. Jasper and mar 
 ble are worked in Honduras ; and brimstone is collected near 
 the volcano of Quezaltenango. There are also many salt 
 springs; and salt is procured in large quantities on the shores 
 of the Pacific. 
 
 Inhabitants. The population of Central America consists 
 of three classes whites and Creoles ; mestizoes, or the offspring 
 of whites and Indians ; and aboriginal natives. The propor 
 tions of this population have been estimated at one-twelfth 
 whites, four-twelfths mixed races, and seven-twelfths Indians. 
 Morality is at the lowest ebb among all classes, especially the 
 whites and Creoles ; while ignorance, vice, and superstition pre 
 vail to an extent unsurpassed in any other part of the world. 
 
 History. In 1502, Columbus visited the E. coast of Cen 
 tral America, passing along the shores of Honduras, the Mos 
 quito territory, Costa Rica, and Veragua, when the clamours 
 of his crew, the fierce resistance of the natives, and the crazy 
 state of his ships, compelled him to return. In 1503, two or 
 three years after the conquest of Mexico, Cortes despatched 
 Pedro Alvarado, one of his most distinguished officers, to sub 
 due Central America, which he effected in two years. From 
 that period it remained subject to Spain till 1823, when it was 
 formed into a federal republic, and became independent. The 
 confederacy comprised the states of Guatimala, Nicaragua, 
 Honduras, Salvador, and Costa Rica. It existed till 1839, 
 when it was dissolved. 
 
 The commerce of Central America is very trifling, and the 
 value of its exports has declined since the revolution. Trade, 
 however, is perfectly free in all the states, and foreigners 
 possess all the privileges enjoyed by natives. The ordinary 
 revenue in the different states is derived from duties on im 
 ports, a duty of 5 per cent, on the transfer of real property, 
 and a monopoly of the sale of spirits and tobacco. 
 
 The ideaof opening a passage for vessels through the Isthmus 
 of Panama, thus connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, 
 and thereby avoiding a dangerous and circuitous navigation 
 round Cape Horn, is so obvious, that it excites no surprise to 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA is a vast peninsula of a triangular form, 
 with its apex S., extending in length from lat. 12 30 N., to 
 Cape Horn, in lat. 55 59 S. (K.) Its greatest length, from 
 N. to S., is 4800 m. ; its greatest breadth, from E. to W., 
 3230 m. About three-fourths of it lie between the tropics, 
 the remainder in the temperate zone. Its coast lines, par 
 ticularly the W., are comparatively little broken or inter 
 rupted by indentations, excepting towards the S. extremity, 
 where considerable inequalities occur on both E. and W. 
 shores. Here, also, is a group of mountainous islands, form 
 ing the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego. They are pene 
 trated in every direction by bays and narrow inlets of the 
 sea, or fiords, ending often in glaciers formed from the snow 
 on the summits of mountains 6000 ft. high. Peat mosses 
 cover the higher declivities of these mountains, and dense 
 forests their flanks. The mountainous and elevated tracts of 
 this continent are chiefly limited to the borders of the Pacific 
 and Atlantic Oceans ; the intervening space being occupied by 
 a wide, low, and level plain, or rather series of plains, which 
 reaches from one extremity of it to the other, so low and flat 
 that a rise of 1000 ft. in the Atlantic Ocean would submerge 
 the greater part of the entire continent. 
 
 Mountains and Volcanoes. There are four mountain sys 
 tems in S. America ; the most remarkable of which is the 
 Andes, that stretch along the W. coast from S. to N., in one 
 continued chain of 4180 m. in length, in a straight line, and 
 4360 when measured along the highest part of the system, 
 commencing at the Straits of Magellan or Magalhaens, to 
 the Isthmus of Panama. They are of inconsiderable width, 
 but attain great elevations, ranking in this respect next to 
 the Himalaya mountains ; the highest of the former, Acon 
 cagua, 23,910 ft. ; the highest of the latter, Kunchinginga, 
 being 28,178 ft. The second system is that of Parime or 
 Parima, also called the Highlands of Guayana, consisting of 
 numerous irregular groups of mountains scattered over a 
 table land not more than 2000 ft. above the sea, which extends 
 600 or 700 m. from E.to W., separating the plains of the lower 
 Orinoco from those of the Rio Negro and the Amazon. The 
 principal group extends from the parallels of lat. 3 to 8 N.; 
 and from the meridians of Ion. 58 to 6d W. The mean 
 direction of the range is N., 85 W., and the separate chains 
 follow, generally, nearly the same direction. The culmin 
 ating points of this system are the Maravaca, about 10,500 
 ft. high, and the Duida, 7149 ft. high. The third system is 
 known under the general name of the Coast Chain of Vene 
 zuela; the N. chain of which contains the culminating point 
 the Silla de Caracas which attains an elevation of 8600 ft. 
 The fourth is that of Brazil, which consists of two great 
 
 ranges running parallel to tht 
 
 jus but not very 
 
 great distances from the sea, and of numerous branches stretch 
 ing far into the interior, and crossing the country in different 
 directions. The higher mountains of Brazil extend, generally, 
 like the Andes, from S. to N. ; those of the interior form a 
 ridge, whose chief direction is from E. to W. The culminat 
 ing point of the highest chain of mountains in Brazil is Itambe, 
 5960 ft. high. 
 
 There are altogether upwards of 30 volcanoes in S. America 
 in a state of activity. They all belong to the Andes, and con 
 sist of three separate and distinct series; the series of Chili, 
 of Peru and Bolivia, and of Quito. The loftiest of these 
 burning mountains in Gualatieri or Sehama, one of the Peru 
 and Bolivian series; lat. 20 13 S.; Ion. 69 17 W.; height, 
 22,000 ft. The heights of the others vary from 13,000 to 
 18,000 ft. The latest eruption occurred in 1831, with the 
 volcano Pichincha, one of the Quito series; lat. 12 S.; 
 Ion. 78 50 30"W. 
 
 Plains. The plains of S. America are, as elsewhere men 
 tioned, of 
 
 , , ast extent; stretching for many hundreds of 
 
 learn that it has been entertained for upwards of three cen- j miles without exhibiting the slightest perceptible inequality, 
 tunes. During all that time, however, no attempt was made In the rainy season they display a surface of beautiful green, 
 
 to accomplish this desirable object; but there is now every 
 probability of its being effected. Already a railway is being 
 aid across the isthmus from Chagres on the E. coast, to 
 
 but in the dry season 
 Then the grass crumble 
 
 sume the appearance of a desert. 
 into dust, the surface of the soil is 
 
 rent ; the crocodiles and larger serpents remain imbedded in 
 
 1 anama on the W. ^ and three lines of water communication the dried-up mud till the first showers of spring arouse them 
 are at present (18oO) under consideration one across the | from their torpidity, when, says Humboldt, on the authority 
 isthmus, from Chagres or Puerto Bello to Panama; a second j of the aborigines, the moistened clay on the margin of the 
 from Port San Juan, in the Caribbean Sea, across the Lake swamps is sometimes seen to blister and rise slowly in a kind 
 of Nicaragua to Realejo, on the Pacific; and a third from the ! of mound; then with a violent noise, like the outbreak of 
 mouth of the river Coatzacoalcos to Tehuantcpec. | a sma n niurt volcano, the heaped-up earth is cast high into 
 
AMERICA 
 
 12G 
 
 AMKRICA 
 
 the air, and forth issues a gigantic water-snake or a scaly 
 crocodile. The great plains of S. America are variously 
 designated the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, the Silvas of tho 
 Amazons, and the Llanos of the Orinoco and Venezuela. The 
 Pampas of Buenos Ayres are about 900 m. in breadth ; occu 
 py a surface of 315,000 sq. m. ; and lie about 1000 ft. above 
 the sea. Marked by its vegetation and other characteristics, 
 from E. to W., it has four distinct regions. The first, which 
 extends 180 m. W. from Buenos Ayres, is covered with 
 thistles and lucerne of the most vivid green, so long as the 
 moisture from the ram lasts; the second, extending 450 m., 
 is covered with long grass, intermixed with gaudy flowers ; 
 the third is a tract of swamps and bogs ; the fourth a border of 
 thorny bushes and dwarf trees, reaching to the Andes. The 
 grassy plains of this level territory are occupied by thousands 
 of wild cattle and horses, who find there inexhaustible supplies 
 of food. The thistles of this region attain an extraordinary 
 size, shooting up to a height of 10 and 11 ft., with stems so 
 strong, and armed with prickles so formidable, as to form an 
 impenetrable barrier. The Silvas of the river of the Ama 
 zons, lying in the centre of the continent, form the second 
 division of the S. American lowlands. They are covered 
 with wood (hence their name), and so densely, that the country 
 can be penetrated only by sailing up the river or its tributaries. 
 They extend 1 500 m. along the Amazon ; varying in breadth 
 from 350 to 800 m. The heat is suffocating in the deep and 
 dark recesses of these primeval forests, where not a breath of 
 air penetrates ; while a death-like stillness prevails from sun 
 rise to sunset, when the forest suddenly resounds with the 
 loud and wild cries of the animals by which it is inhabited. 
 At midnight a profound silence again prevails, and continues 
 till dawn, when the discordant uproar recommences. The 
 Llanos of the Orinoco and Venezuela form the third division 
 of S. American lowlands. They occupy 153,000 sq. m. be 
 tween the deltas of the Orinoco and the river Coqueta, and 
 are so perfectly flat that frequently there is not an eminence 
 ,a foot high in 270 sq. m. They are nearly destitute of trees, 
 excepting the banks of the Orinoco, which are thickly wooded. 
 The Llanos present very different aspects at different seasons 
 of the year. Soon after the termination of the rainy season 
 in October, and the subsidence of the swollen rivers, they I 
 are clothed with fine grass, affording abundant pasturage to ! 
 the countless herds with which they are covered. But in tho 
 dry season, namely, between November and February, they 
 are converted into desolate wastes ; all vegetation is destroyed, 
 the waters are dried up, and the earth is rent in deep and 
 wide crevices a result, however, proceeding rather from the 
 absence of moisture than from excessive heat, which, although 
 very intense, is not so great as during the wet season. 
 
 Beside these three great tracts of level country, there is the 
 desert of Patagonia, occupying 1,620,000 sq. m., the most 
 barren of all the plains of S. America ; being, for the most 
 part, composed of sandy sterile dunes, intermixed with stones 
 and gravel ; occasionally diversified by huge boulders, tufts 
 of brown grass, low bushes armed with spines, brine lakes, 
 incrustations of salt white as snow, and by black basaltic 
 platforms. The climate of these plains is very cold, espe 
 cially S. from lat. 45 S., and is subject to great and sudden 
 changes of temperature. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers of S. America are the Ama 
 zon, the Orinoco, and the Plata. The first is the largest river 
 on the globe. It rises on the table land of Pasco, in Lake 
 Lauricacha, and, after a course of 4000 m., falls into the 
 Atlantic at the equator, in about Ion. 51 W. ; and is 96 m. 
 wide at its mouth. It is navigable for about 2200 m. from 
 the sea. The Orinoco rises nearly in the centre of the 
 Parime Mountains, but its source has not yet been visited by 
 any European, although Humboldt has explored the greater 
 part of its course. Its length is estimated at 1380 m. The 
 affluents of the Orinoco are numerous, and some of them very 
 large streams. The latter river is connected with the former 
 through one of its affluents, the Rio Negro, by a natural canal, 
 called the Cassiquiare, presenting, in this connection, one of 
 the most remarkable phenomena of physical geography. The 
 Plata (Rio de la Plata) is not so much a river as an estuary 
 formed by the confluence of the rivers Parana and Uraguay. 
 It is about 185 m. in length; and, at its junction with the 
 sea, between Punta del Este and Cape San Antonio, its width 
 is about 130 m. Its navigation is difficult, owing to its 
 
 shoals and strong irregular currents. Its waters are so 
 turbid that they tinge the sea visibly for 200 m. from tho 
 embouchure. There are a number of other rivers in S. 
 America, which, though not so large as any of those above 
 named, are equal, if not superior in size, to most of the 
 greatest rivers of Europe. Amongst these are the San Fran 
 cisco, the Rio Negro, Colorado, Essequibo, &c. The water 
 in some of the rivers in equatorial America is white; in 
 others it is of a deep coffee colour, or dark green, when seen 
 in the shade ; and, when ruffled by a breeze, of a vivid green. 
 
 Lakes. The lakes of S. America, of any considerable size, 
 are few, and, with exception of the Lake Titicaca, are rather 
 vast morasses than lakes ; the large inland water in Colombia, 
 called the Lake of Maracaybo, being a mere inlet from the 
 Caribbean Sea, and not a true lake. The Lake Titicaca is 
 situated near the N.W. frontier of Bolivia or Upper Peru ; 
 it covers an area of above 4000 sq. m., is elevated 12,795 ft. 
 above the sea, and is said to be 120 fathoms deep in many 
 places. Some of the temporary lakes, alternately inundated 
 and dry, or in a marshy state, cover, when flooded, vast tracts 
 of country ; that of Xarayos, on both sides of the Paraguay, 
 and nearly in the centre of the continent, extending over 
 36,000 sq. m. In the elevated mountain valleys and table 
 lands of the Andes, there are many small lakes, of the purest 
 blue and green colours, and some of them intensely cold, being 
 near the line of perpetual congelation. 
 
 Climate. There are no parts of S. America so hot as we 
 should be led to expect from it, geographical position a result 
 produced by the operation of the trade winds, atmospherical 
 influences of the huge chain of the Andes, and other physical 
 causes. The burning heats of the plains of Arabia are un 
 known on the new continent. In the steppes of the Caraccas, 
 the hottest region of S. America, the temperature of the air, 
 during the day, is only 98 in the shade ; while it rises to 112 
 in the sandy deserts around the Red Sea. Throughout the whole 
 basin of the Amazon, which comprehends between 2,000,000 
 and 3,000,000 sq. m., the climate is neither very hot nor un- 
 healthful, though under the equator. This arises from its 
 being shaded by lofty woods, and from the prevalence of a 
 cool easterly breeze, a branch of the trade wind, which ascends 
 the channel of the Amazon, following all its windings nearly 
 to the foot of the Andes. Brazil, and the country extending 
 westward from it, enjoys also an equable and temperate cli 
 mate. At Rio Janeiro, the mean temperature is only about 
 74. At Lima, the temperature varies from 53 to 82, but 
 the mean for the whole year is only 72. At Buenos Ayres, 
 the mean annual heat is 68; and, in the Straits of Magellan, 
 the temperature of the warmest month does not exceed 43 or 
 46, while snow falls almost daily. The narrowness of tho 
 continent towards the S., the immense tracts of ocean which 
 lie on either side of it, and its exposure to the rigours of the 
 polar regions, sufficiently account for this inclemency. On 
 the W. coast, there is a rainless district of nearly 1000 m. in 
 length, from N.W. to S.E. It lies between lat. 7 and 32 S., 
 and Ion. 65 and 68 W. The various climates, which so large 
 a continent must necessarily possess, will be treated of more 
 in detail in the articles on the various countries of which it is 
 composed. 
 
 Geology and Mineralogy.- Granite forms the base of tho 
 whole continent, having gneiss here and there associated with 
 it, but mica schist is the most common of the crystalline rocks. 
 Quartz rock is much developed, generally mixed with mica, 
 and rich in gold and specular iron. The Pampas of Buenos 
 Ayres are entirely alluvial, the deposit of the Plata- Parana. 
 Granite prevails, to the extent of 2000 m., along the coast of 
 Brazil ; and, with syenite, forms the base of the table land. 
 The superstructure of the latter consists of metamorphic and 
 old igneous rocks, sandstone, clay slate, limestone, in which 
 are large caverns, with bones of extinct animals ; and alluvial 
 soil. Porphyry and red sandstone abound all over the Andes. 
 As Mexico is the principal seat of the mineral wealth of N. 
 America, so is Peru that of the S. continent. Chili, of which 
 the former is but a continuation, is also famous for its mines 
 of gold, silver, and copper. The province of Minas Geraes, 
 in Brazil, is likewise, as its name implies, exceedingly rich 
 in mines. Several of the most valuable gold mines here are 
 wrought by an English mining company, organized in 1825. 
 Besides the mines, there are some valuable gold and silver 
 washings in Brazil, and other parts of S. America. The last 
 
AMERICA 
 
 127 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 returns, of any authority, which have been given of the pro 
 duce of the American mines, are nearly half a century old, 
 and can, therefore, no longer be depended upon ; particularly 
 as they precede the revolutionary struggles of 1810, which 
 totally altered the state of the mining interests of the country. 
 The entire produce of the gold and silver mines of S. America 
 has been recently estimated at between 3,000,000 and 
 4,000,000 sterling, but it is impossible to say how correctly. 
 Brazil produces more diamonds than any other country. 
 
 Vegetation. Extending through so large a space, and pos 
 sessing, in consequence, so great a variety of climate, no 
 special character can be given to the vegetation of S. America. 
 As in the case of N. America, the most distinguishing feature 
 of the former is its prodigious forests, which cover about two- 
 thirds of the whole continent; a large portion of them so 
 dense, and so choked up by twiners, shrubs, and sharp-edged 
 grasses, that a hatchet is necessary at every step to clear the 
 way. These forests are, in several remarkable particulars, 
 wholly different from those of the Old World. The trees are 
 much more various, more graceful, and have more distinctive 
 characters ; and many of them, even the largest, are adorned 
 with the most brilliant flowers ; scarlet, purple, blue, rose- 
 coloured, and golden yellow, are blended with every possible 
 shade of green. Throughout the whole of tropical America, 
 vegetation is on the grandest scale, combined with great 
 beauty and t ruitfulness. In those regions where there are 
 due proportions of heat and moisture, the magnitude of the 
 trees, and the splendour of the flowers, are extraordinary. 
 Individual plants, says Humboldt, languishing in our hot 
 houses, can give but a very faint idea of the majestic veget 
 ation of the tropical zone. Fruits also abound, including 
 oranges, limes, cocoa nuts, pine apples, mangoes, bananas, 
 pomegranates, mammoons, goyabas, jainbas, aracas, mangabas, 
 and many others. Southward of the line are found the quassia 
 hitter, the fragrant tinga bean, the beauteous rosewood, and 
 the cinchona tree, the rind of which is what is called Jesuits 
 bark ; and indigo, coffee, sugar cane, maize, and the cacao tree, 
 from whose seeds chocolate is prepared, are amongst the pro 
 ducts of S. America. The cultivation of tea also has been 
 attempted in Brazil, though hitherto with little success ; but 
 the capitalists engaged in it are still in hopes that they shall 
 be able, ultimately, to compete with China, even in foreign 
 markets. Further S., in Patagonia, vegetation gradually losts 
 its tropical character, and finally assumes the aspect of northern 
 vegetation. 
 
 Zoology. The most formidable beast of prey peculiar to 
 S. America is the Felis onca or jaguar. It is larger and 
 stronger than the panther, but inferior in size and ferocity to 
 the Bengal tiger. The puma or American lion is found in 
 both N. and S. America. Apes and monkeys abound in 
 the tropical forests of the latter, but are an inferior race 
 to those of the Old World. Amongst the winged mammals 
 is the vampire, an enormous bat, which lives on blood ; at 
 tacking the largest animals, and even man, when asleep. 
 These dangerous creatures are, fortunately, not numerous, 
 and are almost wholly confined to Guayana, Colombia, and 
 Brazil. In the marshes and swamps of tropical America, the 
 boa constrictor is found, of enormous size. Immense centi 
 pedes, scorpions, and spiders also abound in these regions. 
 Ants, termites, and locusts also swarm ; the latter to a fright 
 ful extent, especially in Buenos Ayres, and some of the 
 neighbouring provinces, sometimes covering the ground for a 
 distance of 200 ni., devouring every green thing, even the 
 grass, to the very roots. During a visitation of these destruc 
 tive insects, all the gardens, says Miers, consisting of ex 
 tensive plantations of maize, pumpkins, melons, and water 
 melons, beans, and other vegetables, had been completely 
 swept off the surface of the earth. They enter the houses, 
 and devour every edible thing they contain ; even curtains, 
 clothes, and furniture are attacked by them, and much injured, 
 if not rendered wholly useless ; and, in one night, gardens, on 
 which much pains and expense have been bestowed, are utterly 
 destroyed by these rapacious creatures. The mosquito is also 
 a grievous infliction in many parts of S. America, especially 
 in Venezuela, and along the banks of the Orinoco. The chigoe, 
 another much dreaded insect, abounds in the same localities. 
 Of the birds of S. America, the most remarkable, for size, 
 is the condor, a species of vulture. The largest specimen yet 
 met with measured somewhat less than 14 ft. between the I 
 
 extremities of the wings, though they rarely exceed 1 1 . The 
 body of the largest individuals is generally from 3 to 3 J ft. 
 in length, from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail. 
 They inhabit the most inaccessible parts of the Andes. Ridi 
 culously exaggerated accounts of the size and power of these 
 birds were current, until their falsehood was detected and 
 exposed by Humboldt and Bonpland. S. America possesses, 
 in common with other countries, eagles, vultures, falcons, and 
 other birds of prey. It also possesses many birds of exquisite 
 plumage ; amongst these, the tiny humming bird, and the 
 graceful couroucoui (Troyon pavoninus), with its splendid robe 
 of green. 
 
 The seas, lakes, and rivers of S. America abound with fish 
 of various kinds ; and many of the latter, in the tropical regions, 
 with enormous lizards and alligators. The electric eel is found 
 in the lakes of the Caraccas. 
 
 Amongst the domesticated native animals of S. America are 
 the lama and pacos ; both used as beasts of burden. The horse, 
 ass, ox, sheep, goat, and pig, were all conveyed from the Old 
 to the New World, none of them being indigenous to the latter. 
 Horses and cattle, however, have now so increased in all parts 
 of America, that the former may be bought for from 24s. to 
 32s. each, and the latter are valued principally for their hides 
 and tallow, the meat being comparatively of little account. 
 The slaughter of oxen for the hide alone, is a principal busi 
 ness of many extensive provinces, more especially in La Plata, 
 Uruguay, Paraguay, and Brazil. 
 
 JRaces of Men. As elsewhere remarked, there exists a 
 very striking general physical resemblance between the 
 native inhabitants of America throughout the whole of both 
 continents, from Cape Horn to Behring s Straits. They are 
 almost all of a reddish brown or copper colour, with long 
 black hair, deep-set black eyes, aquiline nose, and often of 
 handsome slender forms. In S. America, many are half 
 civilized, but a greater number are still in a state of utter 
 barbarism. The aboriginal population of Indian Chili, known 
 generally by the name of Araucanos, are more advanced in 
 civilization than the Indians of the Pampas. They associate 
 in small communities, have fixed residences, cultivate the 
 ground, and subsist chiefly on the produce of their labour. 
 They excel in the art of weaving, and produce a woollen 
 cloth, says Dr. Leighton, which, for fineness of thread, even 
 ness of weaving, durability, brilliancy of colours, and elegance 
 of pattern, is superior to anything of the kind I have ever 
 seen. The arts of spinning, weaving, and dyeing, are practised 
 solely by the women. Both men and women are hard workers, 
 but the latter are by far the more industrious. They are a 
 well-disposed people, have few of the vices of other savages, 
 and possess firmness and courage in a remarkable degree. 
 They are, however, fond of spirituous liquors, and manufacture 
 a kind of spirit called chicha, by fermenting different fruits, 
 but chiefly apples. They possess no written language, nor 
 any other means of putting ideas on record ; their language 
 itself is poor, harsh, difficult to pronounce, and inexpressive. 
 Like all the other Indians throughout S. America, they have 
 been long acquainted with the art of working in metals, 
 especially gold and silver. 
 
 The Pampas Indians are of a very dark complexion, with 
 long, thick, coarse black hair, which generally hangs loose 
 over their shoulders. Their eyes are black, animated, scowl 
 ing, and are placed widely apart ; foreheads low and broad ; faces 
 flattish ; high cheek bones and large jaws ; they have no beard, 
 are of rather low stature, and ill made, but muscular and 
 athletic. They are expert horsemen, and can slip round and 
 suspend themselves under their horse s belly when at full 
 speed, merely clinging by their hands and feet, and can regain 
 their seat at pleasure, without checking the animal s speed. 
 They are still in a very savage state, subsisting on raw animal 
 flesh, and leading the roving life of hunters. They do not 
 cultivate the ground, nor apply themselves to any sort of 
 labour. In manner they are boisterous, and in disposition 
 cruel and ferocious, settling their disputes with the knife, in 
 the use of which they are singularly expert. 
 
 Of the Indians that inhabited the province of Brazil, there 
 are said to have been no fewer than 200 distinct tribes. A 
 few of these may be named, and their principal physical and 
 moral characteristics alluded to. The Tapuyas, robust, well 
 made and copper coloured; long, sleek, black hair; paint 
 themselves, and pierce the under lip for the purpose of intro- 
 
AMERICA 
 
 128 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 ducing a ring or other ornament ; the greater part of them 
 said to have been cannibals. The Tupis or Tupinambas 
 inhabit chiefly the coast from the river Camama to that of 
 San Francisco. They also paint their bodies. The Cafusos, 
 a mixture of Indians and negroes, remarkable for an extra 
 ordinary peculiarity in the hair of the head, which rises per 
 pendicularly from the forehead to the height of a foot or a foot 
 and a half, giving them a very strange and disagreeable 
 appearance. The Puris, the most revengeful and vindictive 
 of all the Indian races of Brazil. The Botocudos, another 
 cruel and savage race, inhabiting the territory lying between 
 the Rio Doce and the Rio Pardo. The Indians of Brazil are 
 generally of a short or middle stature, and mostly of a robust 
 broad make. They all paint ; complexion darker or lighter 
 copper ; skin fine, soft, and shining. 
 
 South of lat. 38 S. we have the huge Patagonian. The 
 stature and bulk of this race, however, though still remarkable, 
 have been much exaggerated. Their average height is about 
 6 ft. ; heads and features large, hands and feet small, colour 
 dark copper brown ; hair black, lank, and coarse. They lead 
 a nomadic life, living in tents formed of poles and skins, and 
 subsisting on the animals they kill. 
 
 Political Divisions. S. America comprises the following 
 states : Columbia, now divided into the republics of New 
 Granada, Venezuela, and Ecuador; Guayana British, French, 
 and Dutch ; republics of Peru, Bolivia, and Chili ; the united 
 provinces of La Plata, the empire of Brazil, Paraguay, Banda 
 Oriental or Uruguay, Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, and the 
 Falkland Islands. Of these states, Paraguay is the smallest, 
 comprising only 74,000 sq. m., and a pop. of 300,000; and 
 Brazil the largest, its area being 2,743,380 m., with a pop. of 
 4,170,229. 
 
 Discovery. The first discoverer of the continent of S. 
 America was Christopher Columbus, a native of the city of 
 Genoa, where he was born in the year 1435. On August 3, 
 1492, he sailed from Spain with an expedition fitted out at 
 the expense of Isabella, Queen of that country, on the first 
 of those voyages of discovery which have rendered his name 
 immortal. On the 12th of October following, Columbus 
 reached an island in the New World, one of the Bahamas, on 
 which he bestowed the name of San Salvador, and of which 
 he took formal possession in the name of the Castillian 
 sovereigns.* Having explored this island, and taken in a 
 supply of wood and water, he sailed in quest of further dis 
 coveries, and soon after found himself amongst a number of 
 beautiful islands, three of which he visited Santa Maria de 
 la Concepcion, Fernandina, and Isabella, with the scenery of 
 all of which he was enraptured. Prosecuting his adventurous 
 voyage, he came in sight of the island of Cuba on the 28th 
 of October. Of this island he also took formal possession, giv 
 ing it the name of Juana, in honour of Prince Juan. From 
 Cuba, he proceeded to Hayti or St. Domingo, to which he 
 gave the name of Espaiiola, from an idea that the features of 
 the country resembled those of Spain. Having left several 
 of his crew here at their own request, Columbus set sail for 
 Spain on January 4, 1493. The illustrious navigator was 
 received by Ferdinand and Isabella with every mark of 
 honour and respect. A second voyage was proposed and 
 eagerly seconded by the court of Spain. An expedition, 
 composed of 17 sail, large and small, of which Columbus had 
 chief command, left the Bay of Cadiz on September 25, 1493. 
 In this voyage, the principal discovery was the island of 
 Jamaica. On May 30, 1498, Columbus set sail from Spain 
 with a fleet of six vessels, on his third voyage, and now added 
 the island of Trinidad to his former discoveries. From thence 
 he proceeded to the mouth of the Orinoco, where he landed, 
 and thus achieved the honour of being the first discoverer of 
 the continent of S. America. With a mind singularly sus 
 ceptible of the liveliest impressions from a contemplation of 
 the beauties of nature, Columbus expresses his admiration of 
 that which the New World revealed to him in the following 
 beautiful and simple language : The beauty of the new land 
 fur surpasses the Campiua tie Cordova. The trees are bright, 
 with an ever-verdant foliage, and are always laden with fruit. 
 The plants on the ground are high and flowering. The air is 
 warm as that of April in Castile, and the nightingale sings 
 
 * Some recent inqum-rg have transferred the honour of having been 
 the first land made by Columbus in the New World, from San Salvador to 
 Turk s Island, 330 m. to the S E. of the latter. 
 
 more melodiously than words can describe. At night the song 
 of other smaller birds resounds sweetly, and I have also heard 
 our grasshoppers and frogs. Once I came to a deeply-enclosed 
 harbour and saw a high mountain that had never been seen by 
 .any mortal eye, and from whence gentle waters (lintlas aguas) 
 flowed down. The mountain was covered with firs and va 
 riously-formed trees adorned with beautiful blossoms. On 
 sailing up the stream which empties itself into the bay, I was 
 astonished at the cool shade, the clear crystal-like water, and the 
 number of the singing birds. I felt as if I could never leave 
 so charming a spot, as if a thousand tongues would fail to 
 describe all these things, and as if my hand were spell-bound 
 and refused to write. In 1502, he undertook a fourth voyage, 
 but it was unattended by any remarkable results. He reached 
 the coast of Honduras, and, subsequently, the Gulf of Darien ; 
 from which he returned to Spain, where he died four years 
 afterwards, namely, in 1506. The adventurer who followed 
 next in the tract of Columbus was Alonzo de Hojeda, a 
 young, bold, and enterprising Spanish cavalier, who, in 
 spired by a similar spirit with that which animated the great 
 navigator, and partaking, in some degree, of his genius, fitted 
 out, at his own expense, an expedition of four ships, with 
 which he pursued the course taken by Columbus. Having 
 reached the continent of S. America, near the equator, he 
 passed the mouths of the Essequibo and Orinoco, examined 
 the whole coast of Venezuela, as far as Cape Vela, and thus 
 ascertained that the land alongst which he sailed was part of 
 a continent. Hojeda was accompanied in this voyage by 
 Amerigo Vespucci, a native of Florence, an experienced 
 mariner, and a man of considerable talents and acquirements. 
 On the return of the latter to Spain, in the year 1500, he 
 published an account of his voyage, and, it is said, claimed 
 the merit of being the first discoverer of the continent of 
 S. America.f His book was read with all the interest and 
 avidity which its extraordinary disclosures were so well cal 
 culated to excite, and the author s name silently but indelibly 
 affixed to the New World an injustice to the memory of 
 Columbus which it would have been gratifying to have seen 
 repaired, but which it is now too late to attempt. 
 
 Brazil was discovered in 1500 by Vincent Yanez Pin9on, 
 who had accompanied Columbus in his first voyage. Steering 
 N., he explored the mouths of the Amazon, and noting with 
 amazement the immense body of water which it poured into 
 the ocean, correctly inferred that so mighty a stream could 
 be found only in a continent of great extent. Towards the 
 close of the year above named, Roderigo de Bastedas explored 
 the coast from Cape Vela, the point at which Hojeda s pro 
 gress terminated, to Puerto del Reterte, where that of 
 Columbus closed, and thus connected the intervening con 
 tinent. In 1507, Pinzon, and Juan Diaz de Solis, an able 
 navigator, were sent out by the Spanish Government to 
 explore the W. coast of S. America. Arriving on the shores 
 of Brazil, beyond which discovery had extended but a little 
 way, they followed the coast towards the S., as far as the 
 40th degree of S. lat., landing at various points, and taking 
 possession of the country for the crown of Castile. Several 
 adventurers of smaller note than those named, sought to earn 
 wealth and reputation by making discoveries in the New 
 World, but without success. 
 
 The pop. of America, North, Central, and South, and in 
 cluding the islands, has been estimated at between 44,000,000 
 and 46,000,000. (Murray s Historical and Descriptive Account 
 of British America ; Nicol s History of the U. States; Tytler 
 and Wilson s N. Coast of America; Humboldt s Travels and 
 Researches in America; Kidder s Sketches of Brazil; Mier s 
 Travels in Chili and La Plata ; Washington Irving s Tour to 
 the Prairies ; Do. Life and Voyages of Columbus ; Norman s 
 Gambles in Yucatan; Catlin s N. American Indians; Penny 
 Magazine; Penny Cyclopedia; Bell s Geography; Geography 
 of America ; London Geographical Journal, vol. v. ; Som- 
 merville s Physical Geography; Lyell s Geology; Humboldt s 
 Aspects of Nature ; Do. Cosmos.) 
 
 t Humboldt repels this imputation on the honour of Vespucci, and 
 says, that after a careful study of certain documentary evidence bearing 
 on the question, he has ascertained that the charge is devoid of founda 
 tion ; aud that the name of America has originated in a distant region 
 (as, for instance, in France or Germany), owing to many concurrent cir 
 cumstances, which appear to remove all suspicion from Vespucci. 
 (tlumboldt s Cosmos, vol. ii. p. 680, note.) 
 

 AMERKOTE 
 
 129 
 
 AMHERST ISLES 
 
 AMERKOTE, or OMERKOTE, a tn. and fort, India, in 
 Sinde, 90 ra. E. Hyderabad; lat. 25 19 N.; Ion. 69 47 E., 
 in the E. desert. It was at one time cap. of the independent 
 principality of Dhat, and in 1813 was taken, by the Ameers, 
 from the rajah of Judpoor. It is celebrated as the birthplace 
 of the Emperor Akbar. The fort is about half a mile from 
 the town. It is a square of 500 ft., with a mud wall 40 ft. 
 high, defended by four round and six square towers, and has 
 but one gate. 
 
 AMERONGEN, a vil. Holland, prov. of, and 21 m. S.E. 
 from Utrecht. It is a nice-looking village, which has at 
 various times suffered much from war. Its inhabitants are 
 employed chiefly in cultivating tobacco and corn, and in rear 
 ing cattle.. Pop. about 1500. 
 
 AMERSFOORT [Lat. Amisfurtum], a tn. Holland, cap. 
 of arrond. and can. of same name, prov. of, and 12 in. N.E. from 
 Utrecht ; on the Eem, which is here formed by the confluence 
 of several small streams, and is navigable throughout to the 
 Zuider Zee. Amersfoort is the seat of a court of first resort and 
 of commerce ; it was once fortified, and still has several gates, 
 called poorts, but its fortifications have been converted into 
 public promenades. It is of an oval shape, and has one long 
 street, running from end to end ; and its houses, though good, 
 are more remarkable for their size and projecting gables than 
 for their beauty. It has a large quadrangular corn market place, 
 called the great market, approached by seven streets ; and a 
 fish, a vegetable, and a pig market. Outside the Koppelpoort 
 is the harbour. The town possesses a. Calvinistic church, 
 built in the great market ; one Lutheran, one Remonstrant, 
 two R. catholic, and two Jansenist churches ; and a Jewish 
 synagogue, an orphan hospital, and a cavalry barracks. It 
 has also a Jansenist seminary, a school of industry for car 
 penters, smiths, architects, &c., a Latin school, and 10 com 
 mon schools. It formerly had also the Pothouse, a benevolent 
 institution, where a pot of warm food was kept always in 
 readiness for distribution among the necessitous. A princi 
 pal branch of business in Amersfoort is the trade in grain, for 
 which there is a weekly market, more especially buckwheat, 
 grown extensively in the neighbourhood. Tobacco, also ex 
 tensively cultivated in the vicinity, is manufactured here, and 
 exported to France and Italy, from which last country a con 
 siderable quantity is re-exported to Holland in the form of 
 snuff. The manufacture of woollen goods, such as dimity, 
 bombazine, &c., is carried on to some extent; there is likewise 
 a soapboiling establishment, and a good trade is done in red 
 herrings, which are rather famed. Besides the markets al 
 ready referred to, an annual fair is held in October for horses, 
 cattle, &c. Amersfoort has suffered frequently from both fire 
 and water, and is the birthplace of the celebrated statesman 
 Johan van Oldenbarneveld, commonly called Barneveldt, 
 grand pensionary of Holland, who, to gratify popular clamour, 
 was beheaded in 1619. at the age of 72 ; and of Pieter Both, 
 the first governor -general of Dutch East India. Pop. 12,000. 
 (Van der Aa s Nederlanden.) 
 
 AMERSHAM, a market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Buckingham, 27m. S.E. by S. town of Buckingham, and 25 m. 
 N. by W. London, pleasantly situated in a valley traversed 
 by a stream called the Misburne, an affluent of the Colne. It 
 consists principally of one spacious, well-paved street, crossed 
 by a smaller. The church, erected in the 16th century, is a 
 spacious building of brick, coated with stucco, and contains 
 some handsome and interesting monuments. The only other 
 buildings worthy of notice are the townhall, surmounted by 
 a lantern and clock ; and the Union workhouse, in the Eliza 
 bethan style. There are places of worship for Baptists and 
 Quakers; a grammar school, with writing school attached; 
 a Sunday school, national. British, and infant schools, and 
 an almshouse for six poor widows. Manufactures: Silk, 
 crape, black lace, cotton, straw plait, and wooden chairs. 
 Amersham was a Parliamentary borough by prescription, but 
 was disfranchised by the Reform Bill. The par. contains 
 7855 ac., and is in general hilly. Pop. in 1841. 3645. 
 
 AMESBURY, a market tn. and par. England, co. Wilts, 
 him. Amesbury. The town lies in a narrow valley on the 
 Avon, 78 m. W.S.W. London, and 8 m. N. Salisbury. It is 
 ill built, and consists of two streets only. Near it are the 
 remains of an ancient encampment, called Vespasian s Camp, 
 although evidently not of Roman origin. At the parsonage 
 house of Milston, in the vicinity, Addison was born in 1672. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 The rudiments of his education were acquired in Amesbury. 
 Area of par., 6060 ac. Pop. in 1841, 1171. 
 
 AMGA, a river, Siberia, gov. Yakutsk ; it rises in the 
 offshoots of the Yablonoi Krebet mountains, about lat. 59 
 N.; Ion. 126 30 E.; flows N.E., and falls into the Aldan in 
 Ion. 135 E., after a course of about 466 m. At Amginsk, 
 where it flows between steep rocks 30 ft. in height, it is 3000 
 ft. broad. In winter it is frozen over, the ice forming a 
 bridge even for heavily-laden vehicles. (Erman s Travels.} 
 
 AMGINSK, a vil. Siberia, gov. Yakutsk; lat. 61 N.; 
 Ion. 132 E. ; on the 1. bank of the Amga, which is here about 
 3000 ft. wide. It is a posting station and ferry, on the way 
 between Yakutsk and Okhotsk. The dwellings are yurts or 
 huts, of the Yakutian model ; but the inhabitants are Russians, 
 and have built here a Greek church. (Erman s Travels.} 
 
 AMHARA (KINGDOM OF), formerly a prov. of Abyssinia 
 (which see), now an independent kingdom. Its boundaries do 
 not seem to be well defined, but it may be said generally to 
 lie between lat. 10 and 14 N., and Ion. 35 10 and 38 30 
 
 j E., having part of the country of the Gallas on the S., the 
 
 I country of the Shangalla negroes on the N., Tigrd on the E., 
 and Abu Ramla and other little-known territories on the W. 
 Nearly in the centre of the kingdom is the great lake of Tzana 
 or Dembea, and along its S. limit flows the Blue Nile. The 
 plains in this province, as of several others in Abyssinia, con 
 tain a large portion of good soil, which yields abundant crops 
 of barley, and rich pasturage. The principal plains are those 
 of Dembea, Biegemider, and Miecha. The first, which lies 
 around the lake of the same name, has been called, as else 
 where mentioned, the granary of the country, on account of 
 its fertility and the blandness of its climate. In the vicinity 
 
 | of the lake the land is wholly in pasture, and is covered with 
 
 j numerous herds of cattle. The plain of Biegemider lies on 
 the E. side of the Lake Tzana, and is also, in great part, under 
 pasture; but excellent grapes are grown on the declivities of 
 the mountains. The plain of Miecha stretches to the W. of 
 Lake Tzana. The botany, zoology, &c., is the same as men- 
 
 | tioned in the general article, ABYSSINIA. The capital of the 
 
 | kingdom is Gondar (which see}. 
 
 AMHERST, a seaport tn. India beyond the Ganges, 
 prov. same name, the most N. of the Tenasserim provinces 
 (which see) ; lat. 16 5 N. ; Ion. 97 33 E. (R.) ; on a trian 
 gular peninsula, on the E. side of the Gulf of Martaban, 31m. 
 S. Moulmein. When the town of Martaban was restored to 
 the Burmese, agreeably to treaty, at the conclusion of the 
 war, the spot on which Amherst is built, and which was then 
 covered with jungle and fruit trees, was chosen by the British, 
 April 5, 1826, as a military and commercial station, and also 
 as an asylum for intending native emigrants. On the higher 
 grounds are the fortifications, governor s house, and other 
 public buildings, and the houses of the Europeans and Chinese, 
 the lower being assigned to the natives. The harbour, which 
 is spacious and secure, though it has a dangerous bar. with only 
 6 ft. of water at neap tide, is described as being perfectly calm 
 for two hours both before and after high water, and well suited 
 for wet docks, having at no time a less depth than 3 fathoms, 
 while vessels may safely anchor within 100 yards of the shore. 
 The town and vicinity are well supplied with good water, 
 which is readily procured within 6 ft. < f the surface. Pop. 
 in 1838, 5000. 
 
 AMHERST, atn., U. States, Hampshire, Massachussets, 
 82 m. W. Boston. It is the seat of Amherst college, a flour 
 ishing institution, founded in 1821, and incorporated in 1825. 
 It has a president and 10 professors, or other instructors. 
 The whole number of alumni is 613. It has 15,000 volumes 
 in its libraries, a very complete set of philosophical apparatus, 
 and a cabinet of natural history, including mineralogy. There 
 are, besides, in the town, an academy with 87 students, and 
 
 eight schools with 586 scholars. Pop. 2550. AMHERST is 
 
 the name of a county, a township, and of several post town 
 ships in the U. States. 
 
 AMHERST ISLES, a group lying W. of the S.W. ex 
 tremity of the Korean Peninsula, and distant from it about 
 
 60 m. ; lat. 34 25 N. ; Ion. 126 E. There is another 
 
 island of the same name off the S.W. coast of Arracan, 
 between the island of Cheduba and the mainland ; lat. 18 45 
 
 N. ; Ion. 94 E. In the Tong Hai or Eastern Sea, off the 
 
 coast of the Chinese province of Kiang, there is a dangerous 
 
 i ledge called Amherst Rocks, in lat. 31 10 N. 
 
 17 
 
AM1IEKSTBURGI1 
 
 130 
 
 AMLWCH 
 
 AMHEESTBURGH, a garrison tn. Upper Canada, W. 
 dist., Essex co., 1. bank, Detroit, 5 in. above its junction with 
 Lake Erie, 225 m. W.S.W. Toronto; lat. 42 7 N. ; Ion. 
 83 9 W. Its streets are generally narrow ; and the town 
 contains a courthouse, five places of worship, Episcopalian, 
 R. catholic, Presbyterian, Methodist, and Baptist ; a reading 
 room, and a market place. Two annual fairs are held in 
 virtue of a charter obtained in 1845. It has a good harbour 
 with 3J fathoms water. Numerous steamers touch here. 
 Pop. (1852), 1880. (Smith s Canadian Gaz.) 
 
 AMICU, or AMUCU, a lake, S. America, in Venezuela, 
 prov. Cumana; situated in a level tract, between the rivers 
 Rupunoony and Tocoto. It is of small extent in the dry 
 season, being scarcely three m. in length, and almost covered 
 with rushes; but after the rains, it inundates the adjacent 
 low districts. The country in which this lake is situated 
 was the El Dorado of the days of Queen Elizabeth, and was 
 then known as the Great Lake with golden banks; and 
 within a few miles of it was supposed to stand the far-famed 
 imperial and golden city of Manoa, the object of the unfor 
 tunate expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 AMIENS [anc. Somarobriva, Amliani], n tn. France, 
 cap. dep. Somme, on the railway from Boulogne to Paris, in 
 the centre of a pleasing and fertile district, and traversed by 
 the Somme, which, within the town, is subdivided into 11 
 canals, and affords great facilities for its numerous manufac 
 tures. It was once a place of strength, and still possesses a 
 regular citadel, but its other fortifications have been dis 
 mantled, and the ramparts have been replaced by boulevards, 
 lined with trees, which, encircling the town, have a circum 
 ference of about 3 m., and form not the least important of its 
 j decorations. Amiens is divided into the upper and the lower 
 town. The former has wide and regular streets, lined with 
 houses with few exceptions built on an uniform plan, and 
 generally of two stories. The latter has narrow streets, houses 
 old, without being properly ancient, and in throughout so 
 intersected by the ramifications of the Somme and the numer 
 ous bridges over them, as to have made Louis XI. give it the 
 name of his little Venice. The most magnificent edifice of 
 Amiens is its cathedral, of European fame. It was founded 
 in 1220, and not completed till 1288. Its W. front, which is 
 said not to have been finished till a century later, is flanked 
 by two quadrangular towers, and is decorated in the richest 
 Gothic style. The spire, of a light and airy form, is 420 ft. 
 high. The entrance is by three magnificent porches covered 
 
 RUE ST. LEU 
 
 with numerous bas-reliefs, on which scriptural and allegorical 
 subjects are admirably represented. This magnificent struc 
 ture, at once light arid bold in design, is in the form of a cross, 
 composed of a nave and choir in the one direction, and a 
 <ransept in the other. The broad and lofty windows are 
 ranged in two tiers, and so closely that hardly any wall is 
 
 visible. The entire length of the edifice from E to W. 
 is 415 ft.; length of the transept from N. to S., 182 ft.; 
 breadth of the nave, with its aisles, 78 ft. 9 inches ; breadth 
 of the transept, 42 ft. 9 inches. Among the other buildings 
 of note are the Hotel de Ville, with the painted arcades which 
 line its base, and the large council hall, adorned with numer 
 ous pictures; the royal college, formerly the abbey of St. 
 John; the Hotel Dien or general hospital, in the Rue St. 
 Leu; the grand seminary, with its magnificent stair and 
 columned chapel ; the Chateau d Eau ; Malmaison, occupied 
 by the exchange and school of design ; the theatre ; and the 
 Bibliotheque Commnnalc, a handsome edifice, with a peristyle 
 of Doric columns, containing 40,000 printed, and 400 MS. 
 volumes. Amiens having an opening to the sea by the 
 Somme, which is navigable for vessels of 40 or 50 tons, is 
 well situated for trade, and has numerous important manufac 
 tures. From 70,000 to 80,000 pieces of cotton velvet the 
 particular species of it called velvet of Utrecht alone employ 
 ing 400 looms and 130,000 pieces of fine kerseymere, with 
 considerable quantities of serges, plush, drugget, cambric, 
 tapestry, and other cotton, linen and woollen stuffs, in great 
 variety, are annually produced. The spinning of flax and 
 worsted also is one of the great staples of Amiens. The 
 former employs 3000 looms, while the wool worked up by the 
 latter amounts to 450 million kilogrammes, equal nearly to 
 1000 millions English Ibs., or 40 million packs. Among the 
 miscellaneous works, in which numerous hands are employed, 
 may be mentioned dye, soap, and beet-root sugar works, 
 bleachfields, and paper mills. One peculiar product for which 
 Amiens has long been famous is duck pies, known by the 
 name of Pates de Canard, and largely exported to all quarters. 
 Among historical recollections may be mentioned that here 
 St. Louis gave judgment, as arbiter, in the quarrel between 
 Henry III. of England and his barons, relative to the statutes 
 of Oxford ; and that here, during the struggles to regain the 
 Holy Land, the kings of England, France, Aragon, Navarre, 
 and Bohemia, met to concert a new crusade. Here, too, to 
 come down to more recent times, was signed, in 1802, between 
 Great Britain and France, the short-lived peace which bears 
 the name of Amiens. Pop. 47,000. 
 
 AMIRANTES, a group of small islands, Indian Ocean, 
 S.W. from the Seychelles, between lat. 4 and 6 S., and Ion. 
 54 and 56 E., about 300 in. N.N.E. the isl. of Madagascar. 
 They differ little from each other, being generally from 1 J to 
 ?i m. in length, situated on coral banks, and seldom exceed 
 20 or 25 ft. in height, but they are 
 crowned with trees. They are thinly 
 inhabited, and insufficiently cultivated, 
 but the coasts abound with fish, and 
 the islands furnish vessels in passing 
 with water, cocoa nuts, buffaloes, sheep, 
 and turtle. By digging 12 or 14 ft., wa 
 ter may generally be obtained. Calms, 
 and uncertain currents, with the want of 
 good anchorage, make it desirable not to 
 approach these islands with large ships. 
 The group has belonged to Great Britain 
 since 1814. 
 
 AMISUS, an anc. seaport, Asia Mi 
 nor, on the Black Sea; lat. 41 18 N. ; 
 Ion. 36 20 E. Few vestiges of it now 
 exist. The principal are the remains 
 of its ancient pier, composed of large 
 blocks of a volcanic conglomerate, some 
 of which measure 1 9 ft. by 6 or 8 inches 
 in thickness. 
 
 AMJERAH, a tn. Hindoostan. 
 prov. Malwa, 56 in. S.W. Oojein, and 
 12 m. W. Dhar; lat. 22 23 N. ; Ion. 
 75 13 H. ; situated in a large valley, 
 1890 ft. above the sea. It has good 
 itaic ft ritu.re.que. bazaars, plentifully supplied. 
 
 AM LAI, or AMLIA, one of the 
 
 Aleutian Islands, Fox group; lat. (E. point) 52 6 N.; Ion. 
 172 50 W. (R.) 
 
 AMLWCH [pronounced Amlook], a bor , seaport, and 
 par., N. Wales, N. coast isl. Anglesey. The TOWN lies on a ris 
 ing ground on the sea-shore, 14 m. W. by N. Bangor, about 
 14 m. N.E. by E. Holyhead, arid 5Gm. W. by N. Liverpool ; lat. 
 
AMMAN 
 
 131 
 
 AMOKGO 
 
 53 24 N.; Ion. 4 19 W. It consists of one main street, 
 about a mile in length, and of several diverging lanes and 
 alleys. The houses are generally well built of stone, which 
 abounds in the vicinity. The principal buildings are the 
 church, the national school, and the scientific hall, all plain 
 edifices, without any pretensions to architectural elegance. 
 There are, besides the church, two Calvinistie chapels, one 
 Independent, one Baptist, and two Wesleyan. The most 
 important school is the national school, in which (March, 
 1 850) about 300 children are educated. There are also three 
 day schools, and an excellent literary and scientific institution, 
 with a library and museum attached. The staple article of 
 commerce is copper ore, obtained in the neighbouring Parys 
 mountains, the working of which gives employment to about 
 1000 persons, though not so flourishing at present as formerly. 
 The shipping interest of the place is in a more thriving con 
 dition. At the head of the pier, which is of stone, there are 
 20 ft. at spring, and 13 ft. at neap tides ; within there is a dock 
 capable of holding several vessels. A small white lighthouse 
 stands at the end of the N. point, exhibiting a fixed light, 
 which may be seen, in clear weather, 4 m. off. Amlwch 
 unites with the Beaiimaris district in returning a member to 
 the House of Commons. Fop. of the tn. in 1341, 1243; of 
 the par. 4974. (Correspondent in Amlwch.) 
 
 AMMAN, or AMMON [the Itdbbnli of Scripture, and Phil 
 adelphia of the Greeks], a ruined and deserted city, Syria, 
 pash. Damascus, 16 m. E.S.E. Szalt, and 58 m. N.E. Jeru 
 salem; lat. 32 5 N.; Ion. 30 20 E. Its ruins are scattered 
 along the N. bank, and near the source of a small stream, 
 called Moie Amman, a tributary of the Terka or Turka [anc. 
 Jabbok], and sufficiently attest its former grandeur. There 
 are the remains of a spacious church, several temples and 
 columns, a high bridge over the river, on each side of which 
 there are walls like quays, and whose channel is paved ; and a 
 castle, on a hill N. of the city. South of the river stood a large 
 theatre, 304 ft. in diameter, with forty-two tiers of seats, built 
 on the declivity of a hill, and partly excavated in the solid 
 rock. The whole plain on which the city stood, 1 m. long, 
 by 1 J m. broad, is covered with the remains of all kinds of 
 edifices, exhibiting traces of different eras, and composed of a 
 calcareous stone, ill suited to resist the action of the elements. 
 (Burckhardt s Travels in Syria; Kitto s Physical Geography 
 of Palestine ; &c.) 
 
 AMMER, a river, Bavaria; it rises at the head of Gras- 
 wang valley, on the frontiers of Tyrol ; flows in a crooked 
 course N.E. ; forms, about 22 m. S. W. Munich, the Ammersee 
 (Lake Ammcr), 10 m. long, by 2 broad; and falls into the 
 Isar, near Mosburg, after receiving the waters of several 
 affluents. Total length, about 100 in. 
 
 AMMERSCHW1IIZ, or AMMERSWEYEU, a small tu. 
 France, dep. Ilaut-lvhin, about 5 in. from Colmar. Both red 
 and white wines, of excellent quality, are made in the vicinity. 
 Pop. 2169. 
 
 AMMITOK, an isl., N.E. coast of Labrador, between 
 70 and 80 m. S.E. the entrance into Hudson s Straits; lat. 
 59 28 N. ; Ion. 63 W. 
 
 AMMOO, a river, Persia. See Oxus. 
 
 AMOAS, or ASIWAS [anc. EmmausaK&Nicopolis], a small 
 tn. or vil. Palestine, on a conical hill, about 10 m. N.W. 
 Jerusalem. It was at one time a bishop s seat. Both this 
 and Al-Kubeibeh, a village about half the distance of Amoas 
 from Jerusalem, have been confounded with the Einmaus of 
 
 Scripture, the site of which is now unknown. There is 
 
 another village of Palestine named Einmaus or El-hamam, 
 beside the lake, and near the town of Tiberias, celebrated, from 
 remote antiquity, for its hot springs, which are of a high tern 
 perature, and possess medicinal qualities. This place, and 
 its vicinity, exhibit the remains of many ancient baths, from 
 which it has received its name. Over the springs has been more 
 recently erected, by Ibrahim Pasha, a large circular bathing 
 house, with a dome, similar to the baths of Constantinople. 
 (Robinson s Biblical Researches; Kitto s Palestine; &c.) 
 
 AMOL, a tn. Persia, the third in importance in prov. 
 Mazuuderan, 27 m. W.S.W. Balfroosh; lat. 36 30 N.; Ion. 
 52 23 E. ; on the Herauz, a full and rapid stream, about 
 12 m. above its embouchure, in the Caspian Sea. Ainol, 
 which is without walls or defences, was formerly a flourishing 
 place, as extensive ruins in the neighbourhood testify, among 
 wiiich is the once splendid mausoleum of Seyed Quwam u 
 
 Deen, once Sovereign of Saree and Amol, who died in 1378, 
 erected by Shah Abbas, one of his descendants. In the 
 suburbs are a grand palace, which belonged to Shah Abbas ; 
 and three towers, said to have been temples of the ancient 
 Guebres, or fire worshippers. The number of houses alto 
 gether is between 4000 and 5000. The bazaars are large, 
 and well supplied ; but beyond mere local traffic, there is little 
 or no trade. The inhabitants cultivate rice and cotton, or are 
 employed in the iron forges arid cannon foundries of the 
 district. In summer they retire to their yeylaks or summer 
 houses, iu the mountains, which approach to within 5 or 6 m. 
 of the town on the S. In winter, when it is fullest, Amol is 
 supposed to contain a population of from 35,000 to 40,000. 
 
 AMONEBURG, a tn. Hesse-Casscl, 11 m. E.N.E. Mar 
 burg, on a basalt hill, in which are numerous springs. It 
 is partly surrounded by a wall, with towers, and by a ditch ; is 
 irregularly and badly built ; and has a church, and a spacious 
 marketplace. Pop. 1143. 
 
 AMOOR, AMUR, or SAGHALIEN, a large river, Asia, in 
 the Chinese prov. Manchooria. It is formed of the rivers 
 Shilka and Argun, which unite in lat. 53 30 N. ; Ion. 122 E., 
 on the frontiers of Russia and China. The former of these is 
 formed by the Ingoda and the Onon, the latter being the main 
 stream ; and rising about lat. 49 50 N. ; Ion. 1 10 E. ; in the 
 Khentai Khan, a branch of the mountains S.E. Lake Baikal, 
 called Khing-Khan-oola by the Chinese, and Yablonoi Krebit 
 by the Russians. Its sources are in the Russian gov. Irkutsk, 
 but it crosses the Chinese frontier, and again returns to Siberia, 
 in which it continues with a N.E. course till it joins the Argun 
 on the frontier, under the name of the Shilka, as already 
 stated. The Argun in the early part of its course named 
 the Kerulen, Kerlon, or Lu- Khiu rises about 30m. S.E. 
 from the sources of the Onon ; and in the same mountain range 
 that gives rise to that stream, follows a N.E. course, about 
 lat. 49 N. ; Ion. 116 E., forms Lake Kulon; and from 25 m. 
 N.E. of that lake, till it unites with the Shilka in forming the 
 Amoor, constitutes, for 300 m., the boundary between Rus 
 sia and China. The Amoor, from the junction of these two 
 streams, flows S.E. to Tchan, where, from the S., it receives 
 the Songari, lat. 47 45 N.; Ion. 131 40 E.; thence it flows 
 N.E. to its embouchure in the Gulf of Sagalin or Saghalieu, 
 opposite the N.W. end of the island of the same name, lat. 
 52 8 N. ; Ion. 140 E. Besides the Songari, the Amoor 
 receives from the S. the Ousouri, lat. 48 30 N.; Ion. 134 
 25 E.; and from the N., the united waters of the Tchikcri 
 and Silimpdi, near Sagaliu-oola, lat. 50 N.; Ion. 126 30 E. 
 It has likewise numerous smaller affluents. The whole 
 course of the Amoor, including its windings, is estimated at 
 2380 geo. in.; and the area of its basin, 582,880 geo. sq. m, 
 It is a rapid stream, navigable from the junction of its two 
 head streams, and is annually frozen over. Its navigation, 
 long kept strictly by the Chinese to themselves, was, in 1847, 
 opened up to Russia, to whom was then conceded the right to 
 trade in its waters. 
 
 AMOORANG, or AMOURAKG, a bay,^md vil. same name, 
 isl. Celebes. The BAY is on the N.W. coast; lat. 1 11 S.; 
 Ion. 124 36 E. ; it is about 14 geo. m. long inland, and about 
 6 geo. m. broad, shaped something like an open-mouthed bag, 
 
 and having anchorage for large vessels, The VIL. lies at 
 
 the head of the bay, 25 geo. m. S.W. Menado. 
 
 AMORBACII, a tn. Bavaria, circle Lower Main, at the 
 confluence of the Mudau and Bilbach, 44 m. S.S.E. Fraukfort- 
 on-the-Main; lat. 49 38 N.; Ion. 9 12 E. It has a palace, 
 in which the Prince of Leiningen resides, and which was once 
 a richly-endowed abbey of Benedictines; two churches, a. 
 school of design, infirmary, and almshouse. Manufactures: 
 Linen, paper, gunpowder, flour, and oil. It has two saw, and 
 two fulling mills. Pop. 2900. 
 
 AMORGO [anc. Amorgos], an isl. Grecian Archipelago, be 
 tween Naxia and Stampalia, about 22 m. long, by 5 m. broad; 
 lat. 36 50 42" N. ; Ion. 25 55 42" E. (R.) It is mountainous 
 and rocky, but its valleys are fertile, producing grapes and 
 olives. It has a town of the same name, with a castle ; and a 
 large harbour, called Santa Anna. Near it is a Greek con 
 vent, built on a steep rock overhanging the sea, and accessible 
 only by ladders. Amorgo was formerly a populous island, 
 with some considerable towns, and was the birthplace of the 
 poet Sinionides. Its present population, of whom a consider 
 able proportion are French and English, amounts to 2500. 
 
AMOKGO-POULO 
 
 132 
 
 AMPHILA 
 
 AMORGO-POULO, a small isl. Grecian Archipelago, S. 
 of Amorgo, lat. 36 36 54" N. ; Ion. 25 42 45" E. (R.) almost 
 uninhabited. 
 
 AMOU, or AMOU-DAHIA. See Oxu3. 
 
 AMOUR (ST.) 1, A tn. France, dep. Jura, 19 m. S.W. 
 Lons-le-Saulnier. It has sawmills, driven by water power, 
 for cutting sandstone and marble; iron mills, forges, tanneries, 
 nailworks, and potteries; and some trade in wines, cattle, 
 horses, and poultry. The remains of an old castle, which 
 belonged to the family of Choiseul, and had extensive forti 
 fications, are found here. Top. 1939. 2, A vil., dep. Saone- 
 ct-Loire, 7 m. from Macon. Pop. 792. 
 
 AMOY, a seaport tn. China, on an island of the same 
 name, prov. Fokien; lat. (citadelj 24- 26 N.; Ion. 118 4 E. (it.) 
 nearly opposite the centre of the island of Formosa. The 
 name is a corruption of the Chinese word Heamun, pronounced 
 by the natives Ha-moy. It is situated at the S. end of tha 
 
 island, at the mouth of two united rivers, one of which com 
 municates with the city Chang-chaw-foo, containing, it is said, 
 upwards of 800,000 inhabitants, and of which Amoy, though 
 itself a large and populous city, is considered merely the port. 
 Amoy is built on a declivity sloping to the harbour, and, 
 including its suburbs, is supposed to be about 9 m. in circum 
 ference. The streets are narrow and dirty, but many of the 
 buildings are of extraordinary size. In one, the residence of 
 the under governor, an entire British regiment was quartered ; 
 and another, with its staff, found ample accommodation in the 
 Admiral s office. The town is at once protected and com 
 manded by a citadel, the walls of which are castellated, and 
 from 15 to 30 ft. high, with an inner rampart all the way 
 round. It has four gates, and is a mile in circumference. A 
 range of lulls, about 600 ft. high, with broken and abrupt 
 eminences, surround the city. The bay and harbour are safe 
 and commodious, of easy access and egress, and of such depth 
 of water, that vessels anchor within 50 yards of the houses. 
 The entrance to the inner harbour is by a channel of 675 to 
 840 yards width. Amoy is well situated for both foreign and 
 native trade, and being the emporium of the province, both are 
 considerable ; although, from the imperfect manner in which 
 the trade returns are made up, their precise extent cannot be 
 ascertained. The total amount of British and foreign trade 
 for the three years ending 1848, is stated as follows: 
 
 184C 261,240, of which 176,372 were British. 
 
 184? 271,441 186,896 
 
 1848 212,416 97,373 
 
 Smuggling is carried on to a great extent. No foreign 
 merchants reside at Amoy. The city is divided into districts, 
 over each of which a sort of petty governor or tepro pre 
 sides, who collects the taxes, and is expected to maintain 
 peace and good order in his district. The houses are again 
 divided into three classes; the first, paying 10s. annually; 
 the second, 6s. &d. ; and the third, 4s. The recognized 
 taxes are a house, poll, and a land tax. The native imports 
 are rice, sugar, and camphor from Formosa and Fuh-chow ; 
 aJum and cotton from Shanghai ; and grain, pulse, oilcake, 
 
 and a coarse description of cotton goods, from the northern 
 ports. The foreign imports are Bengal and Bombay cotton, 
 English cotton goods, cotton yarn, iron, lead, steel, betel nut, 
 liquid indigo from Manilla, pepper, ratans, rice, and grain, 
 beche-de-mer, sharks fins, buffalo and deers horns. The 
 native exports are camphor, sugar, sugar candy of the finest 
 quality, earthenware, paper umbrellas, paper, joss paper, joss 
 stick, &c. The current coins are Spanish and Mexican dollars, 
 and rupees; doubloons and guilders are also in frequent use. 
 The island being extremely barren, the inhabitants are de 
 pendent on the neighbouring island of Formosa for almost all 
 the necessaries of life. 
 
 The merchants of Amoy are distinguished for their enter 
 prise, and are considered amongst the wealthiest in the Chinese 
 empire. They own upwards of 300 junks some of them 
 800 tons burden with which they carry on an extensive trade 
 with Borneo, Manilla, Macassar, Java, the Soo-loo Islands, 
 Singapore, &c. 
 
 The municipal government of Amoy is marked by all 
 the vices that everywhere distinguish Chinese rule, being as 
 weak and inefficient as it is vicious and corrupt; bribery, 
 fraud, and extortion, prevail in every department, and riot 
 and bloodshed go unchecked and unpunished. Nor is the 
 morality of the inhabitants in a better condition ; robbery and 
 assassination are frequent, and the murder of female infants, 
 by their parents, so common, amounting, it is said, to 40 per 
 cent., as to attract hardly any attention, exciting no remorse 
 on the part of the unnatural perpetrators, and no indignation 
 on that of the populace. It is, however, but justice to add, 
 that the Chinese Government has here, as elsewhere, made an 
 attempt to arrest the progress of this particular species of 
 crime, by erecting a foundling hospital; but with so little 
 effect, that in a pond hard by the hospital at Amoy, the bodies 
 of several infants, sewed up in mats, were discovered by the 
 British soon after their occupation of that town. A system 
 of the grossest immorality also prevails. 
 
 On the British taking possession of the island of Amoy, on 
 which the town stands, they found a battery 1100 yards long, 
 mounting 90 guns and constructed with extraordinary skill. 
 There were several other smaller forts and batteries, one of 
 which mounted 42 guns. Amoy was captured by the British 
 on August 26, 1841, and by the treaty of Nanking, dated Au 
 gust 29, 1842, that port, with others, was opened to our trade, 
 and a British consul established there. A supplementary 
 treaty, dated October 8, 1843, established a tariff of exports 
 and imports, and admitted other foreigners to the same 
 privileges as British subjects. Shortly after the occupation 
 of Amoy by the British, the native superintendent of trade 
 represented to the Emperor, that most of the great mercantile 
 establishments there had been ruined by the war, and that the 
 duties had fallen to little more than one-third of their former 
 amount. The remittances from Amoy for foreign and English 
 manufactures, are chiefly in tea and silk. Opium is sold in 
 every part of Amoy, and is hawked through the streets. The 
 consumption is estimated at 150 chests per month, the average 
 value being 1 70 sterling per chest. The population mostly 
 employed in the coasting trade amounts to about 250,000 to 
 300,000. (Gutzlaff s Journal; Martin s China; The Middle 
 Kingdom.} 
 
 AM PAN AN, AMPINAN, or AMPUNAN, the principal trading 
 port in the isl. of Lornbok, Indian Archipelago. It lies in the 
 Strait of Lombok, lat. 8 30 S.; Ion. 116 E., in an open 
 roadstead, in the midst of rice fields, and surrounded by a few 
 cocoa and other fruit trees; but unsheltered from the S.E. 
 monsoon when it is very hot. Few vessels visit Ampanan 
 without leaving one or more of their crew in the white man s 
 grave. (Jour. Indian Archipelago, vol. iii.) 
 
 AMPAZA, a seaport tn., E. Africa, coast of Zanzibar, 
 j cap. of a small kingdom of the same name, tributary to the 
 j Portuguese. It has a considerable trade in slaves, gold dust, 
 and ivory. 
 
 AMPFING, a vil. Bavaria, 6 m. N.W. Miihldorf; and 
 39 m. E.N.E. Munich. In 1322, Ludwig, Emperor of Ba 
 varia, here took prisoner Frederick the Beautiful, Emperor 
 of Austria; and here, in 1800, Moreau commenced his famous 
 retreat before the superior forces of the Archduke John. 
 Pop. 476. 
 
 AMPHILA, a bay, Ked Sea, N.E. coast of Abyssinia, 
 having twelve islands, one of which is named Safety Island, 
 
AMPH1NOME SHOALS 
 
 133 
 
 AMSTEL 
 
 and another Amphila. The centre of the bay is in lat. 14 43 
 N. ; Ion. 41 4 E. ; and the islands are chiefly composed of 
 madrepores, corals, and echinites ; they generally rise about 
 30 ft. above the sea level, and are covered merely with a thin 
 layer of soil. The bay is tolerably deep; and from Amphila 
 Point on the S., to its most N. point, is about 15 m. across. 
 It is frequented by numerous kinds of fish, by pelicans, herons, 
 and other aquatic birds; its shores are covered with jungle, 
 and yield good firewood. 
 
 AMPHINOME SHOALS, Australia, N.W. coast; lat. 
 19 41 S.; Ion. 119 22 E. (K.) 
 
 AMPHITKITE ISLANDS, a part of the group known 
 by the name of the Paracels, in the China Sea, lying to the 
 S.E. of the island of Hainan. The Amphitrites are in two 
 groups, to the N.N.W. and S-S.E. of each other, and having 
 a. deep water channel between them. The N. group consists 
 of five low, narrow islands, connected by a reef of rocks that 
 projects 2 or 3 m. beyond their extremes. The S. group 
 consists of two islands, called, respectively, Woody and 
 Rocky Islands, lying near each other. The first is in lat. 
 16 50 N.; Ion. 112 18 E. (R.) and is about 3 m. in circum 
 ference, covered with small trees; the second, Rocky Island, 
 is in lat. 16 52 N.; Ion. 112 20 E. 
 
 AMPLEFORTH, a par. England, co. York. N. Riding; 
 2270 ac.; 4 m. S.W. by S. Helrnsley. Pop. in 1841, 446. 
 
 AMPLEPU1S, a tn. France, dep. Rhone, 21 m. W.S.W. 
 Villefranche. Manufactures : Cotton cloth, ginghams, mus- 
 lins, and calicoes. It has also several cotton mills, driven 
 by water power, and bleachfields. Pop. 1901. 
 
 AMPNEY, the name of four parishes, England, all in 
 co. Gloucester: 1, Ampney- Crucis, area, 2660 ac. ; 3J m. 
 E. Cirencester. Pop. in 1841, 591. 2, Ampney-Down, 
 2470 ac.; 5 m. S.E. Cirencester. Pop. in 1841, 425. 
 3, Ampney (St. Mary), 1170 ac. ; 4 m. E. by S. Cirencester. 
 Pop. in 1841, 121. 4, Ampney (St. Peter], 860 ac. ; adjoining 
 the above. Pop. in 1841, 196. 
 
 AMPORT, a par. England, co. Hants; 3460 ac.; 4 m. 
 W. by S. Andover. Pop. in 1841, 771. 
 
 AMPOSTA, a tn. Spain, in Catalonia, prov. of, and 46 m. 
 S.W. from Tarragona, 1. bank of the Ebro, 13 m. from its 
 mouth. It is partly walled, overlooked on the N. by a castle ; 
 and has two squares, two churches, a large, well-conducted 
 school, and is the N. terminus of the Ebro Canal, which enters 
 the Mediterranean at Port Alfagues. Manufactures : Soap, 
 gypsum, and oil. Exports : Grain, with which the vicinity 
 abounds. Imports: Rice and salt fish. Pop. 1674. 
 
 AMPTHILL, a market tn. and par. England, co. Bed 
 ford ; the former pleasantly situate, partly .upon, and partly 
 between two gentle acclivities, 40 m. N. by W. London. It 
 is neat, clean, and regularly built, and contains many good 
 houses, with an excellent market-place. The church is an 
 ancient edifice, with a tower at the E. end. There are places 
 of worship also for Wesleyans, Independents, and the Society 
 of Friends. Besides other charities, there are almshouses 
 near the church for 12 widows, and at a little distance from 
 the town are almshouses for nine men and four women. There 
 is also a charity school for 10 boys and 14 girls, and various 
 other schools, of which the national school is the most im 
 portant. With exception of an extensive brewery, and a little 
 lace and straw-plait working, there are no manufactures in 
 Ampthill. Market-day, Thursday ; two cattle fairs annually in 
 May and November. Petty sessions are held by the county magi 
 strates. The Ampthill station on the Bedford Branch of the 
 London and North Western Railway, is 2 m. N.W. the town, 
 and a little W. is Ampthill house, formerly the residence 
 of Lord Holland. Area of par. 1928 ac. Pop. (1841), 2001. 
 AMPTON, a par. England, co. Suffolk ; 870 ac. ; 4 m. 
 N. Bury St. Edmunds. Pop. in 1841, 147. 
 
 AMPUD1A, a tn. Spain, in Leon, prov. of, and 18 m. 
 S.W. from Palencia. It possesses a small but convenient 
 square, some ill-built and narrow streets, a parish church, 
 towiihouse, hospital, granary, and two schools. Pop. 1836. 
 AMRAN, a tn. Arabia, in Yemen, cap. dist. same name ; 
 25 m. N.W. Sana, and 108 E.S.E. Loheia; lat. 15 32 N.; 
 Ion. 43 52 E. ; at the foot of a hill, in a fertile country, in 
 the midst of coffee plantations. Pop. estimated at 2000. 
 
 AMRAN MOUNTAINS, a range in the S.E. part of 
 Afghanistan, the highest summits of which attain an eleva 
 tion of about 9000 feet. It is traversed by the Kojuk Pass, 
 
 7457 ft. high. These mountains bound the table lands of 
 Shawl and Pisheen on the W. 
 
 AMRAWUTTY, or OMKAUTTE, a tn. India, prov. Berar, 
 90 m. W. by S. Nagpoor, and 30 m. S.E. by. E. Ellichpoor; 
 lat. 20 54 N.; Ion. 77 57 E. It is a large and populous 
 town, and has a considerable inland traffic. 
 
 AMREE, a vil. Sinde, r. bank, Indus, 18 m. S.S.W. 
 Sehwun. It was formerly a large town, but portions of it 
 have been swept away by the river, and it is now greatly 
 diminished in size. 
 
 AMRJTSER, AMRITSAR, or UMRITSIR, a large and popu 
 lous city of the Punjab, in the Barri Doab, 40 m. E. Lahore; 
 lat. 31 40 N.; Ion. 74 56 E. It is of a compact circular 
 form, about 9 m. in circumference, and comprises 19,015 
 dwelling houses ; those of the upper classes are lofty and com 
 modious, but the greater portion are confined, filthy, and 
 crowded into narrow and dirty streets. There are 8272 
 shops, 399 Hindoo, and 49 Mahometan places of worship. 
 The shops and bazaars exhibit, in great abundance, the 
 richest products of India. An ample supply of excellent 
 water is obtained from 650 wells. Amritser has been long 
 celebrated as a holy place, in consequence of its possessing 
 a sacred temple, situated on an island in the centre of a 
 reservoir or tank, of about 150 paces square, constructed in 
 1581, by order of Ram Das, the fourth Guru or spiritual 
 leader of the Sikhs, who gave to the work the name of Amrita 
 Saras or Fount of Immortality. The water of the tank, 
 supplied, apparently, by natural springs, is extremely pure ; 
 and the temple, which is dedicated to Vishnu, is profusely 
 adorned with gold, and costly embellishments. In the latter, 
 the Guru of the Sikhs sits to receive the homage and offer 
 ings of his followers, attended by 500 or 600 Akalis or 
 priests attached to the temple. But the most remarkable 
 object in the town is the large fortress of Govindghur, built 
 by Runjeet Singh, surrounded by a deep ditch of about 2 m. 
 circuit. It is abundantly supplied with water, but is in other 
 respects exceedingly incommodious, and is, besides, unhealthy. 
 A canal was constructed by the same chief, from Amritser to the 
 Ravi, a distance of about 30 in.; but it is little used. The staple 
 manufactures are shawls, inferior silks, and woollen and cotton 
 cloths. The shawls, which are in imitation of those of Cash 
 mere, are made of wool obtained from Thibet and Bokhara. 
 In contrast to the Sikh inhabitants generally, who are noted 
 for their cleanline-JS, the shawl weavers are represented as 
 filthy in the extreme, and wan and emaciated in appearance. 
 Amritser has also an extensive transit trade with various 
 parts of India, and is in turn an emporium for many of their 
 productions, including large quantities of rock salt, brought 
 on camels from a mine 120 m. N. Lahore. East of the city 
 there are numerous large gardens, stocked with orange, lime, 
 lemon, peach, apple, and other fruit trees. The soil in the 
 vicinity is very fertile, and the mode of cultivation superior 
 to what is found in most parts of India. The crops are 
 wheat, barley, maize, sugar cane, turnips, carrots, pump 
 kins, &c. Pop. of the town, 115,000, of which 9000 are 
 Sikhs, the rest being Hindoos and Mahometans. (Asiat. Soc. 
 Transactions; Jaquemont s Letters from India; Moorcroft; 
 Hiigel; &c.) 
 
 AMROM, AMRON, or AMRUM, a crescent-shaped isl. Den 
 mark, duchy Schleswig, in the German Ocean, about 17 in. 
 from the mainland; lat. 54 40 N.; Ion. 8 20 E. It con 
 tains a few villages, inhabited chiefly by fishermen and sailors, 
 and constitutes a parish of Denmark, named St. Clement. 
 Pop. 600. 
 
 AMROOAH, a considerable tn. Hindoostan, nearly in the 
 centre of prov. Delhi, 85 m. E. by N. the city of that name ; 
 lat. 28 51 N.; Ion. 78 31 E. It contains a neat mosque; 
 in the vicinity, there is an extensive garden, and, at a greater 
 distance, large plantations of sugar and cotton; but the country 
 around is generally poor, and thinly inhabited. 
 
 AMROTH, a par., S. Wales, co. Pembroke, 7 m. S.E. 
 Narberth. Pop. 779. 
 
 AMSTEL, a small stream, Holland, one of the many 
 mouths of the Rhine. It takes its rise from the Old Rhine 
 in N. Holland, and forms a continuation of the Aar and the 
 Drecht. It takes a N.E. course along the Lake of Haarlem, 
 traverses the city of Amsterdam, and there falls into the 
 Zuider Zee. It is canalized, and rendered navigable for 
 vessels of considerable size. 
 
AMSTELVEEN 
 
 134 
 
 AMSTERDAM 
 
 AMSTELVEEN, a vil. Holland, prov. N. Holland, 5 m. 
 S. Amsterdam, in a moorish country betwixt the Amstel and 
 the Lake of Haarlem. It consists of one long street, and has 
 a neat church, a school, a poor s house, and an animal horse 
 market. Pop. about 2500. (Van der Aa.) 
 
 AMSTERDAM, formerly AMSTELREDAMME, or AEM- 
 STELKEDAJIME, and also AMSTELUAM [The dike or dam of the 
 Amstel ; Latin, Amttelodamum], an important commercial 
 city, cap. kingdom and prov. Holland, at the confluence of 
 the Amstel with the Y or Jj [pronounced Eye], an arm of the 
 Zuider Zee connecting with the Lake of Haarlem ; lat. 
 (steeple) 52 22 30" N. ; Ion. 4 53 15" E. (a.) It is the largest 
 and most important town in Holland, constitutionally its 
 capital, and in it the ceremony of coronation is performed ; 
 but the scat of government and residence of the sovereign is j 
 at the Hague. Amsterdam lies on soft wet morass ground, i 
 under which, at a depth of 50 ft., is a bed of sand ; into this sand | 
 the piles are driven on which buildings are reared. Be 
 low the sand is a stratum of hard clay. The sea front of the 
 city forms nearly a direct line along the Y, flanked at either 
 end by extensive docks ; and near the centre intersected by 
 the Dam-Kak, the principal mouth of the Amstel, which, | 
 entering the city on the S.E., takes a winding course through | 
 it, dividing it into the old and new side (Oude en Nicuwe Zijdi.}, \ 
 and falls into the Y by this and numerous other courses. 
 Towards the land, the walls of the city form a semicircle, sur 
 rounded by a ditch 30 yards wide, bordered by a row of trees. 
 The ramparts have been pulled down, and on the eight and 
 twenty bastions have been erected as many windmills, for I 
 grinding corn and other purposes. In the walls are eight 
 handsome stone gates, named from the towns to which they [ 
 lead, Utrecht gate, Haarlem gate, &c. Outside the walls, the 
 city is surrounded by grassy meadows, and to the W. are 
 upwards of 50 sawmills. Towards the sea, and on both sides 
 of the Amstel, the streets are narrow and irregular, but 
 behind this portion there are five main lines of streets follow 
 ing the direction of the walls, and thus describing a semicircle. 
 Of these the principal three, Heeren, Keizer, and Prinzens- 
 graacht, for length, breadth, and general elegance, may vie 
 with the streets of any capital in Europe. In the centre of 
 each, as in most of the streets in Amsterdam, is a canal, either 
 side of which is lined with broad brick-paved quays, planted 
 with rows of trees. The minor streets run at right angles 
 across these like the radii of a wheel, and many of them are 
 very narrow ; those in which are the houses of sonic of the 
 first merchants not being over 17 ft. wide; all are paved, 
 well lighted, and kept very clean. The houses are mostly 
 constructed of brick, almost all approached by flights of i 
 steps ; many are six and seven stories high, pointed at the 
 top with the gable toward the street, and decorated above 
 with a forked chimney stalk; and their curious appearance is 
 further heightened by the numbers that, more especially in i 
 the business streets, are painted in a garish and tasteless style, 
 and by many being swayed from the perpendicular, partly 
 by the sinking of the foundation, and partly from the pecu 
 liar method of construction adopted, many being narrower at 
 the bottom than at the top. The city is cut up into 90 | 
 islands by the canals, over which there are 250 bridges, 
 mostly of stone, generally provided with a drawbridge in the 
 centre. The vessels to be seen in all parts of the city loading 
 and unloading, and passing to and fro along the canals, the 
 lifting and lowering of drawbridges, the transit of merchandise 
 on sledges, and the general stir of business, give the streets 
 of Amsterdam an exceedingly lively and cheerful appearance. 
 
 Amsterdam has no fine public squares, though it has 13 
 open places; and notwithstanding, that, as a whole, it is well 
 built, it cannot be said to have any pretensions to architectural 
 beauty ; even its public buildings will not bear comparison 
 with those of many other European capitals- a fact scarcely 
 to be wondered at, considering the physical difficulties the 
 Dutch have to encounter in the erection of extensive fabrics, 
 from the sinking of the piled foundations under the superin 
 cumbent load. In 1822, an event of this description occurred ; 
 the corn storehouses, built originally for the Dutch E. India 
 Company, having actually sunk in the mud and disappeared, 
 from the foundation giving way. At the time they sunk, 
 they were loaded with upwards of 70,000 cwt. of corn. 
 
 Public Buildings. The more remarkable buildings in Am 
 sterdam is the palace, formerly the townhall. It stands in an 
 
 open square, called den Dam, at the head of the Dam-Kak. and 
 is a stone edifice, in form of a parallelogram, 202 ft. long, 
 206 ft. broad, and 108 ft. high (roof inclusive), resting on 
 13,059 piles, driven 70 ft. into the ground. It was erected 
 by Jakob van Campen and Daniel Stalpart; begun in 1648, 
 and completed in 1655; nearly destroyed by fire in 1762, and 
 again in jeopardy from tho same element in 1806. At first 
 
 DAM-RAK. AND UAM-RAK 1 ALACK, AMSTERDAM. 
 From Dattj s Views of the Citus of Europe. 
 
 it was occupied by the magistracy of the city for local courts; 
 but in 1808 it became a royal palace, for which, indeed, it 
 was originally constructed. It is chiefly remarkable for the 
 great hall, 111 ft. long, 52 ft. wide, and 90 ft. high, lined 
 with white Italian marble ; an apartment of great splendour. 
 From the tower, which rises 50 ft. above the roof, a fine 
 view of the city is obtained. In the vaults below the 
 palace were formerly kept the treasures of the Amsterdam 
 bank. The present townhall (stadkuis), formerly the Admir 
 alty, is a large and commodious building, said to have been 
 founded in the 14th century. The Justiciary Hall, next to 
 the palace, is the finest building in the city. It is a modern 
 erection, in imitation of a Grecian temple, and was opened in 
 1836. Other public buildings are the exchange, a plain but 
 stately tile covered building of freestone, capable of contain 
 ing 4500 persons ; the poor s house, house of correction, the 
 weighhouse, the general storehouse, formerly the Admiralty 
 magazine ; the Orange-Nassau barracks, capable of accom 
 modating 3000 men; the city theatre, &c. Besides these, 
 may be noticed the post office, colonial office, houses of the 
 E. and W. India companies, and various offices and store 
 houses for public and private purposes, and the three towers, 
 named, respectively, Eegulierstoren, founded 1672, as a watch 
 tower ; Schreijerstoren, or Mourner s tower, so named from 
 the women coming here to weep for their husbands as they 
 passed by to go on shipboard to the wars, and now used as 
 the office of the dock master ; and Mont-Albaaustoreii, 
 founded, it is supposed, as early as 1520. Of the numerous 
 bridges in the city, the most important is the Amstel Bridge, 
 600 ft. long, and 60 ft. broad. It had originally 35 arches ; 
 but in 1822 the two centre ones were taken down, and the 
 space supplied with a drawbridge, so that masted vessels 
 might be allowed to pass. 
 
 The churches of Amsterdam are generally characterized by 
 plainness and simplicity of structure. The finest in the city, 
 and, according to the Dutch, one of the finest in Europe, is the 
 New church (Nieuwe kerk], N. of the palace, founded 1408. 
 It is 350 ft. long, by 210 ft. wide across the transepts; the 
 upper part rests on 52 stone pillars, and the church is lighted 
 by 75 large windows, some of which are finely painted. It 
 contains the tombs of Admiral de lluiter, who sailed up the 
 Medway, and burned the English fluct at Chatham ; of the 
 famous Dutch poet Vondel, and of various other notable 
 individuals. In this church the constitution was taken, 
 March 29, 1814, and the following day the king was crowned 
 as a sovereign prince. The Old church (Oude kerk}, founded 
 in the 14th century, is only remarkable for three finely painted 
 windows, and for containing the tombs of several Dutch 
 admirals, and an organ, said to be second only to that of Iluar- 
 
AMSTERDAM 
 
 135 
 
 AMSTERDAM 
 
 Jrrn. Besides these two, the Calvinistic, recognized as the 
 State church, possesses eight other chapels and churches. 
 The Evangelical Lutherans, numbering about 32,000, have 
 two churches. The Scotch Presbyterians, Free Church of 
 Scotland, and the English Episcopalians, the Moravians, 
 Baptists, Friends, and Greeks, have their places of worship. 
 The E. catholics, numbering about 45,000, have 16 churches; 
 and the Jews, numbering in all about 2 1 ,500, have two prin 
 cipal, and seven subsidiary, synagogues. Of these, one 
 belongs to the Portuguese Jews, about 2500 in number, and 
 the remainder to the Dutch Jews. 
 
 Within the city there are eight churchyards (kerk-hof), of 
 which one, St. Peter s, is chiefly used for the poor, more espe 
 cially for those who die in the poor s house. The mode of 
 sepulture being somewhat remarkable, we extract the follow 
 ing description of it : The churchyard, usually adjoining the 
 church, is surrounded by a wall to the height of 12 or 14 ft. 
 The coffins are placed in rows, one above another, till they 
 are nearly level with the top of the wall ; a little sand is then 
 spread over them, and the hof is closed till the bodies are 
 sufficiently decayed to be removed. The process is hastened ! 
 by exposure to the atmosphere, but the nuisance to the neigh 
 bourhood is intolerable. When Holland was in posses 
 sion of the French, an attempt was made to do away with 
 some of these disgusting cemeteries, and to provide more 
 suitable places for the reception of the dead ; but the burgo 
 masters pleaded the expense, as the soil being so marshy, it 
 would require immense quantities of sand to make it solid 
 enough for the purposes of interment, and strong embank 
 ments to protect it from the floods ; and ultimately succeeded 
 in maintaining the old method. When the hof has remained 
 closed several years, while another has been filling, it is again 
 opened ; the coffins are broken up, and the fragments tied up 
 and sold as firewood ; the furniture is collected and sold to 
 dealers in old iron ; the remaining bones are wheeled away 
 in barrows, and thrown into a vault beneath the church ; 
 and the rest is sold to farmers for manure. The hof is 
 then swept out, and ready to receive new inmates. (Satur 
 day Mag.} 
 
 Charitable and Lenevolent Institutions, &c. Amsterdam is 
 remarkable for the number and excellence of its benevolent and 
 charitable institutions. There are above forty of them, many 
 possessing buildings of considerable elegance. Among these 
 are hospitals for the poor, the infirm, the aged of both sexes, 
 orphans, widows, foundlings, the insane, &c., and institutions 
 for the blind and for deaf mutes. Many of these being 
 devoted to the members of one religious community, the I 
 result is several hospitals of the same description ; thus the 
 Calvinists, Lutherans, and Baptists, have each their hospital 
 for old men and women ; the R. catholics have various similar 
 institutions for their own members; and the Jews, in like 
 manner, have hospitals for the sons of Israel. Other bene 
 volent institutions are the humane society, for saving drowning 
 people, founded by Jakob de Clercq in 1767, and the first of 
 its kind in Europe ; the N. and S. Holland society, for saving 
 shipwrecked people ; the society for the moral improvement 
 of prisoners ; the cowpock institution, &c. Besides these, 
 there are a Bible and two tract societies ; a society for further 
 ing religious education among foundlings and orphans, and 
 one for the promotion of religious education among the 
 slaves and people of colour in the colonies ; the Magdalene 
 asylum, and the spinhuis or workhouse, a department of 
 which was formerly appropriated to the reformation of domes 
 tic offenders. Extravagant wives were sent here by their 
 alarmed husbands, to acquire more sober and thrifty habits ; 
 ill-conducted husbands by their indignant wives, to learn 
 better manners; and undutiful daughters, to be taught obedi 
 ence to parental authority; some of the latter, it is said, 
 being often of high families. 
 
 Educational, Literary, Scientific, and Artistic Institutions. 
 Amsterdam possesses numerous and excellent primary 
 schools and other educational institutions, both of a general 
 and special kind. Like the benevolent institutions, some of 
 them are for particular religious denominations. Among the 
 most important may be named the Athenceum Ulustre, with 
 library, botanic garden, and school of anatomy, and chairs of 
 art, law, medicine, and theology ; the city Latin school ; tha 
 seminaries for educating preachers belonging to the Remon 
 strants, Evangelical Lutherans, Baptists, and Dutch Israelites ; 
 
 and the medical and clinical school. Of institutions of liter 
 ature, science, and art, there are the royal academy of the fine 
 arts, founded 1820, and having 450 pupils; the music school, 
 founded 1784 ; the naval school ; the royal Dutch institution 
 for science, literature, and the fine arts ; the society of 
 literature and fine arts, called Felix Mentis, from the first 
 words of a Latin inscription upon the front of the building. 
 This last society has 400 members, all merchants and citizens, 
 and is divided into four sections: 1, Literature, commerce, 
 navigation, agriculture, and architecture; 2, Natural history ; 
 3, Drawing and design ; 4, Music. Besides these, there are 
 several other societies of a similar kind, but the most import 
 ant one of the whole is the society for the promotion of the 
 public weal (de Maatschappij Tot Nut van t Alycmeen), 
 established, in 1784, by J. Nieuwenhuyzen, a Baptist minister 
 at Monnikendam, and having 13,000 members, and branch 
 societies in almost every town in Holland. It has for its 
 object the moral and religious improvement of the working 
 classes, and their instruction in such brandies of education, 
 &c., as seem necessary for enabling them to play the part of 
 good citizens ; the improvement of school books, the estab 
 lishment of Sabbath schools, savings banks, public lectures. 
 &c. Last, but not least, must be named the museum of pic 
 tures, founded 1798, by a person named Trip, from whom the 
 building is called Trippenhuis. It contains a fine collection 
 of the works of the Dutch masters, and one of the most re 
 markable collections of prints in Europe, occupying 200 
 portfolios. 
 
 Amusements. For in-door amusements, there are three 
 theatres, and various other places of entertainment ; and for 
 out-door recreation, there are the Plantaadje, or Plantation, in 
 the E. end of the city, not far from the dockyards ; (he banks 
 of the Amstel, outside the Utrecht gate ; and the dikes round 
 the docks, all of which are much resorted to in good weather. 
 A favourite amusement, likewise, is boating on the Amstel 
 and the Y. 
 
 Markets and Water. Amsterdam has three fish markets, 
 the great sea, the river fish, and the Jews market. In the 
 first, as its name imparts, sea fish are sold; in the second, the 
 produce of the Amstel and other streams brought there by the 
 peasants (Boeren], and hence called sometimes the Boeren- 
 vischmarkt ; while the third, or Jodenmarkt, is for the sup 
 ply of the Jews quarter. There are likewise in the city a 
 cattle and sheep market, a pig, a butter, and various other 
 markets, called by special names. A marketable article of 
 great importance in this city is fresh water, which is very 
 scarce. From the nature of the soil, none can be obtained 
 from wells. The inhabitants are, therefore, supplied either 
 by rain water collected in cisterns, or by water carriers, whose 
 boats lie in the canals, and who fetch it from the river Vecht, 
 or from springs at Utrecht. Arising from this state of mat 
 ters, the quantity of Selzer water, mixed with Rhenish or 
 Bordeaux wine consumed, is very great. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. Amsterdam has long been, 
 and still is, famous for its banking establishments, and for 
 its insurance companies ; the amount of business done in 
 both branches being very considerable. Its manufactures, 
 though not very extensive, are still important. They consist 
 chiefly of linen, woollen cloths, and cotton to a limited ex 
 tent; thread, calico printing, dyeing, tobacco, soap, oil, canvas, 
 cordage, the refining of salt, sugar, and other substances, 
 glass blowing, brewing, distilling; gas, commenced in 1846; 
 steam engines and machinery, and tools -of various kinds, 
 boilers, iron steamers, and other kinds of iron vessels and 
 shipbuilding. Amsterdam, however, ranks much higher as 
 a trading, than as a manufacturing town. 
 
 The quantities of the chief articles imported in 1851-53 
 are shown in the following table: 
 
 1S51. 
 
 Sugar, ll>s 
 
 Indigo, chests . 
 
 Cochineal 
 
 Tobacco barrels 
 
 Nortli Aniericim,... package- 
 
 Olhw kinds,"."!!! 
 
 Rice Carolina barrels 
 
 Java, Aracaii, &e... bags 
 
 Palm-oil, casks 
 
 Paper bags 
 
 llbl, -250,0.1(1 
 1,156 
 557 
 5,434 
 11,300 
 10,393 
 
 2,080 
 
 138,168 
 
 1.0H4 
 
 8,700 
 
 132,000,000 
 2,17fi 
 685 
 6,980 
 1 4 050 
 
 13-2,600,000 
 
 "4.3 IS | 
 
 160,987 
 
 !, "00,000 It s 
 
AMSTERDAM 
 
 136 
 
 AMSTERDAM 
 
 Nutmegs 
 
 Mace, 
 
 Cloves , 
 
 Tea, 
 
 Tin 
 
 Cotton, 
 
 Hides, 
 
 Rosin, 
 
 Hemp, 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Tar, 
 
 Potash, 
 
 .. barrels 
 
 bap. 
 
 .. .. chests. . . 
 
 bars 
 
 bales 
 
 number .... 
 
 barrels 
 
 Ibs. avoi.d. 
 
 tons 
 
 barrels..., 
 
 Grain of all kiud,.... quarters.. 
 
 1/nitseed, tous 
 
 Kape-seed, , 
 
 Coffee, bags 
 
 Pepper 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Rye 
 
 Barley 
 
 Buckwheat, 
 
 Pease 
 
 uarters 
 
 5,000 | 
 
 65,268 
 
 10.5S3 i 
 
 117,000 
 
 7,19:? 
 
 1, 936,000 
 
 85S.OOO 
 
 9,565 
 
 6,181 
 
 215,600 
 
 6,500 
 
 407,269 
 8.700 
 81,640 
 72,560 
 5,670 
 16,700 
 6.000 
 
 893 
 
 120 
 
 "7,500 
 
 79,873 
 
 12,972 
 
 48,500 
 
 4,588 
 
 2.782.000 
 
 2.G75.6M) 
 
 9,800 
 
 6,868 
 
 547,900 
 
 4,318 
 
 197,960 
 
 177.020 
 
 11,400 
 
 61,569 
 
 8,400 
 
 32,7*3 
 
 9,680 
 
 . .i 18,000 
 
 3,520 00 
 
 10,407 
 
 7,492 
 2,598 
 
 nioeol 
 
 7,140 
 
 111,030 
 13,020 
 14.9SO 
 
 38,b40 
 
 The exports consist of refined sugar (in 1853), 9,038,983 Ibs., 
 raw sugar (in 1 Q 53), 36,699,912 Ibs.. coffee, spices, thread, 
 cheese, butter, oil, dyes, colours, corn, and meal. The countries 
 chiefly traded with are Britain, the Hanse towns, U. States, 
 Italy, Prussia, Russia, Norway, Denmark, Hanover, France, 
 Dutch India, E. and \V. The largest exports are to Ger 
 many aud along the Chine, amounting to nearly one-third 
 of the whole; but from these localities the imports are very 
 limited. The following table gives a condensed return of 
 the shipping cleared inwards and outwards, by the customs 
 authorities of the port, in four recent years : - 
 
 ARRIVALS Vessels. Tonnage. 
 
 In 1850 2028 313,082 
 
 1851 1951 333,831 
 
 1852 2234 374523 
 
 1853 1848 320,412 
 
 In 1850 185G 
 
 1851 2145 
 
 1852 2255 
 
 1853 1887 
 
 Tonnage. 
 325,78:5 
 
 . 390,096 
 339,476 
 
 The port of Amsterdam is about a mile and a half long, and is 
 
 defended from the encroachments of the Y by a double row 
 of piles driven into the ground, and connected by horizontal 
 beams. At either end are the E. and W. docks, capable of 
 holding 1000 vessels. The approach to the port by the 
 Zuider Zee being impeded with sandbanks, a canal, called the 
 Nieuwe Diep, was completed in 1825, leading from Buiksloot, 
 on the opposite side of the Y, to the N. Sea at the Helder, a 
 distance of 50 m. This immense canal is 1 25 ft. broad at its 
 surface, 36 ft. at the bottom, with a depth of 20 ft. 9 inches. 
 It is on the level of the high tides of the sea, from which it 
 derives its supplies of water. 
 
 Means of Communication. By the Amstel, the Zuider Zee, 
 and various canals, Amsterdam has water communication with j 
 all parts of Holland ; and by railway it communicates on the 
 one side with Haarlem, the Hague, and Rotterdam ; and on 
 the other side with Utrecht, Arnheim, and Prussia. 
 
 Health. The canals by which the city is intersected in all \ 
 directions, however convenient as highways of business, and j 
 however picturesque in general appearance, exhale damp 
 vapours, making the atmosphere very moist. These canals 
 are the receptacles of all kinds of filth. The water in them ! 
 is stagnant, and generally of an olive-green colour. It is ! 
 
 penerally 8 or 9 ft. deep, and below it are 5 or 6 ft. of mud, 
 which, being stirred up by every vessel that passes, exhales 
 mephitic odours. Great care is taken to cleanse these canals 
 and the town generally. The water in them is, as far as pos 
 sible, discharged into the Y, and supplied anew from the 
 Amstel as frequently as possible ; but the level of the latter 
 being only 1 ft. above the level of the lowest tide of the for 
 mer, this mode of cleansing must necessarily be imperfect. In 
 some of the canals, to prevent stagnation, the water is kept 
 in motion by mills, that, at the same time, draw off large 
 quantities of mud, which is sold for manure. With all these 
 disadvantages, few towns possess more healthy and robust 
 inhabitants than Amsterdam. Whatever effect, therefore, 
 the damp and fetid vapours may have upon strangers, they 
 do not appear to act in a prejudicial manner on the health of 
 the natives. 
 
 Government. The government is vested in a senate or 
 council of 36 members, and 12 burgomasters. The members 
 of the council sit during life, and fill up the vacancies that 
 occur in their own number by their own suffrages. The bur 
 gomasters, who are chosen by the citizens, out of a double 
 number first nominated by the council, sustain the active 
 magistracy of the city in rotation ; the government of each 
 lasting only three months, and the four who are to preside 
 during the year being annually appointed burgomasters 
 regent. These magistrates have the keys of the bank de 
 posited with them. There is also a court of burgomasters 
 which decides all criminal causes ; but in civil causes there 
 is an appeal to the provincial council. The police is under 
 excellent regulations, and street robberies and house breaking 
 are seldom heard of. Very few beggars are seen in the 
 streets, and these are generally the aged and infirm. 
 
 History. Early in the 13th century, Amsterdam was a 
 mere fishing village, with a small castle, the residence of the 
 lords of Amstel. Towards the middle of that century, it was 
 constituted a town, and in 1296 was wrested by William III., 
 Count of Holland, from the lords of Amstel. In 1340, Wil 
 liam IV. bestowed on it a municipal constitution, and 40 years 
 afterwards it became a place of some importance. In 1482, it 
 was walled and fortified ; it was subsequently attacked by the 
 Gelderlanders, who burned the suburbs, and a number of ves 
 sels in the port. A party of Anabaptists, headed by a shoe 
 maker called John of Leyden, attempted, in 1525, to surprise 
 and take possession of the town during night, but they were 
 repulsed. Its career of real prosperity commenced about the 
 year 1578, when it became a part of the United Provinces, 
 although previously to that period it had nearly monopolized 
 the trade of the Baltic. Additional privileges were granted 
 it by the Prince of Orange in 1581, while the siege and con 
 sequent decline of Antwerp in 1585, and the shutting of the 
 navigation of the Scheldt in 1648, were the means of raising 
 Amsterdam to the rank of the first commercial city in Europe. 
 Although its prosperity was checked by the ravages of a pes 
 tilence, which, in 1602, cut off about 60,000 of its population, 
 by the wars of Cromwell in 1653, and by other disasters, it 
 continued to flourish till the stormy period of the first French 
 revolution. During its time of prosperity, the burgomasters 
 had acquired such authority in the assembly of the States, as 
 to rival that of the stadtholder himself ; the reputation of its 
 merchants for honesty and frugality had greatly contributed 
 to the establishment and increase of its trade ; its harbour 
 was always filled with ships, laden with all the productions of 
 the E. and W. ; and the city had become the wealthiest in 
 Europe. But the French Revolution, and the compulsory 
 alliance and complete incorporation of Holland with France, 
 had almost annihilated the commerce of Amsterdam, both 
 foreign and domestic. After the changes which took place in 
 1813, it began to revive, and has since steadily improved. 
 Among the numerous famous individuals to whom Amster 
 dam has given birth, may be named the philosopher Spinosa, 
 the naturalist Swammerdam, the painters Adrian and William 
 Van de Welde, and John and Michael Van Huisum, and 
 Admiral de Ruiter. Pop. (1850), 224,235; of which above 
 20,000 are Jews. (Van der Aa s Nederlanden ; Overzigt van 
 den liandel van Amsterdam, in 18 17, ingelevert by de Lcden 
 der Kamer van Koophandel en Fabrijken aan Heeren Burge- 
 meester en WclJimtderen der Stad Amsterdam ; Family Tour 
 through S. Holland; Diet. Geo. et Slat.; Murray s Handbook; 
 Saturday 
 
AMSTERDAM 
 
 137 
 
 ANAM 
 
 
 AMSTERDAM. 1, A small volcanic isl. Indian Ocean ; 
 lat. 37 52 S. ; Ion. 77 35 E. (n.) ; discovered by Van Vlam- 
 ing, a Dutchman, in 1696. It is 2760 ft. high, about 4 in. 
 long, and 2^ broad ; but a great portion of its area is occupied 
 by a basin, about 2 m. in circumference, formed by the sea in 
 the extinct crater of a volcano. The sides of the basin rise, 
 at an angle of 65, to the height of 700 ft. above the water, 
 which, in the centre, is 174 ft. in depth. The only access to 
 the island, is through the opening made by the sea, about 200 
 ft. wide. From the sloping sides of the basin issue several 
 hot springs, of a temperature from 196 to boiling heat. The 
 soil of the island is entirely volcanic ; its only vegetation moss 
 and a few grasses, and its only inhabitants several species of 
 aquatic birds. The surface, in various parts, contains swamps 
 and pools of a temperature from 80 to 130. The sea around 
 abounds with fish, and numberless seals resort to the coast. 
 
 2, A small isl. India, in Palk s Strait, off the N.W. 
 
 extremity of Ceylon; about 5 m. long, and 2 broad; lat. 
 
 9 40 N. ; Ion. 80 E. 3, A small isl. Arctic Ocean, W. 
 
 coast, Spitzbergen; lat. 7 9 30 N.; Ion. 10E. 4, Several 
 
 places in the Dutch foreign possessions : A small isl. Indian 
 Archipelago, N. coast, Java, out from the roads of Batavia ; 
 inhabited only by a few fishermen. -A fort, isl. Amboina. 
 A fort, isl. Celebes. A fort, Surinam ; lat. 5 48 N. ; Ion. 
 55 9 W. (R.) A fort, W. Indies, isl. Cui^oa ; lat. 12 6 18" N.; 
 Ion. 68 54 W. (R.) ; near which is anchorage for large vessels. 
 A fort, W. Indies, isl. St. Eustatius, near the town of Oranje. 
 A fort, Upper Guinea, on the Gold Coast, E. part, kingdom 
 of the Fantis. (Van der Aa.) 
 
 AMSTERDAM (NEW), a tn. and port, British Guaiana, 
 near the mouth of the Berbice river, along the E. bank of 
 which it extends about 1 m. ; immediately above the junction 
 of the Canje ; lat. 6 15 2" N.; Ion. 57 21 W. (R.) ; cap. of 
 the colony of Berbice. It was begun in 1796, and is built in 
 the Dutch style ; and intersected by numerous canals, which 
 communicate with the sea. Each house, mostly of wood or 
 bamboo, has an allotment of J ac., which contains a garden; 
 and is completely separated from the neighbouring houses 
 by a trench or ditch, filled and emptied with the tide ; which, 
 preventing the accumulation of impurities, tends much to 
 the preservation of the public health. The town has Eng 
 lish, Scotch, and Dutch churches ; E. catholic and Wesleyan 
 chapels; a free school, established in 1829; eight private 
 schools, a courthouse, and barracks ; with many commodious 
 wharfs and warehouses, and two commercial banks. The 
 entrance to the river is defended by three strong batteries ; 
 and the passage to the harbour is obstructed by a sand bar 
 across its mouth, over which there is only 7 ft. water at low 
 tides. Though intricate in its access, the harbour is good. 
 Pop. about 3000. 
 
 AMTSCHITKA, one of the most westerly of the Aleutian 
 Islands (which see] ; lat. 51 43 N.; Ion. 178 45 E. (R.) 
 
 AMUCHTA, or AMOUGHTA, one of the Aleutian Islands, 
 Fox group ; lat. (centre) 52 33 N. ; Ion. 170 45 W. (R.) 
 It contains an extinct volcano. 
 
 AMULGAWEIN, a small tn. and harbour, Arabia, W. 
 coast of the promontory of Maceta or Musendom, at the en 
 trance into the Persian Gulf; lat. 25 35 N.; Ion. 55 42 E. 
 The town was at one time a place of some importance, but is 
 now deserted. About 2J m. N.E. from the town, is a large 
 quadrangular tower, in ruins, surrounded with straggling date 
 trees. 
 
 AMWELL (GREAT), a par. England, co. Herts ; 2510 ac. ; 
 1J m. E. by S. Ware. Pop. in 1841, 1545. 
 
 AMYUN, a tn. Syria, pash. of, and 10 m. S.S.E. from 
 Tripoli ; lat. 34 20 N. ; Ion. 35 50 E. 
 
 ANABARA, a river, Siberia, gov. Tobolsk ; it rises in 
 about lat. 66 30 N.; Ion. 107 E., and falls into the Arctic 
 Ocean, lat. 72 40 N. ; Ion. 112 30 E. The Anabara is 
 joined, at its embouchure, by the Olen or 01 ia, which runs 
 nearly parallel with it for between 200 and 300 m. The 
 entire course of the former is about 400 m. 
 
 ANACAPRI, a tn. Naples, isl. Capri, Gulf of Naples, 
 dist. Castel a Mare, on the N. side of Mount Solaro, the 
 higher of the two lofty masses of calcareous rock into which 
 the island is divided, and standing nearly 2000 ft. above the 
 level of the sea. The town can only be reached by a flight 
 of 552 steps, cut into the living rock, called la scalinata. It 
 contains a church and convent. In the neighbourhood are 
 VOL. I. 
 
 the remains of several ancient structures, some of them said 
 to have been built by the Emperor Tiberius. It is affirmed 
 that the inhabitants are so much attached to their beautiful 
 place of residence, that many of them have never descended 
 the steps that lead to it. Pop. 1458. 
 
 ANACHUANA, a vil. and bay on the N. coast of the 
 Isthmus of Panama ; lat. 6 41 N. ; Ion. 77 38 W. 
 
 ANACLACIIE, a nevado or snowy peak of the Bolivian 
 Andes, supposed to be upwards of 18,500 ft. high. It forms 
 a rugged ridge, of considerable length, in the direction of the 
 axis of the cordillera ; and is in lat. 18 12 S. ; Ion. 69 20 W. 
 
 ANACLOAN, a par. Ireland, co. Down ; 6544 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 3423. 
 
 AN AD I A, a small tn. Brazil, prov. Alagoas, 45 m. E. the 
 city of that name. It has a church, townhall, and prison ; and 
 carries on an active trade in cotton, brought from the interior. 
 Its inhabitants are chiefly employed in the cultivation of the 
 necessaries of life, and of cotton, which is exchanged for 
 European goods, &c. Pop. 1200. 
 
 ANADIR, or ANADYR, a navigable river, Siberia, rising 
 in Lake Ivashka ; runs W. and then E., traverses the country 
 of the Tchuktchi tribe, and falls into the Gulf of Anadir, S. of 
 Behring s Straits ; its whole course being about 540 m. 
 
 ANADIR (GULF OF), N. Asia, S. of Behring s Straits; 
 having Cape Tchukotski or Anadir Nos on the N., and Cape 
 St. Thadeus on the S. Width, at the entrance, about 200 m. ; 
 lat. 65 N. ; Ion. 177 E. The upper part of the gulf is 
 called the Bay of St. Croix. 
 
 ANADOLIA, or ANADOLI. See ANATOLIA. 
 
 ANAGNI [Lat. Anagnia], a wretched small tn. Papal 
 States, delegation of, and 12 m. N.W. from Frosinone; on a 
 hill near Mount Cassin ; the birthplace of Boniface VIII., and 
 the seat of a bishopric erected in 487, Pop. 5500. 
 
 ANAGOUNDY, a tn. Hindoostan, Nizam territory, prov. 
 Beejapoor, 1. bank, Toongabudra, a branch of the Kistna, 
 128 m. W.S.W. Kurnool; lat. 15 22 N.; Ion. 76 32 E.; 
 opposite the fine ruins of Bisnagar or Vidyanagarah, once 
 the capital of a large kingdom embracing a large portion of 
 the Deccan. A ruined bridge still connects these towns. 
 
 ANAH, a tn. Asiatic Turkey, pash. Bagdad, r. bank, 
 Euphrates, 160 m. W.N.W. the city of Bagdad, on a fringe 
 of soil between a low ridge of rock and the river. The site 
 of the ancient city of Anatti is upon the opposite bank, a little 
 below the present town. Situated in a district fertile in rice, 
 corn, fruit, wine, and cotton, Anah forms a convenient resting 
 place for the caravans which traverse the great desert of Meso 
 potamia. It is, however, exposed to the desert winds, locally 
 termed fatul (whirlwind), which blow with great violence. 
 During the Euphrates expedition, in 1836-7, the ship Tigris 
 was lost in one of these hurricanes. In 1807, Anah was sacked 
 and burned by the Wahabites. The pop., chiefly a branch of 
 the Ommiades or Beni-Ommaiyah, is estimated at 3000 or 
 4000. (Jour. Emj. Geo. Soc., vol. vii. ; &c.) 
 
 ANAHILT, a par. Ireland, co. Down; 6777 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 3551. 
 
 ANAJAZ, a river, Brazil, isl. of Joannes or Marajo, be 
 tween the mouths of the Rio Para and Amazon. It rises a 
 little E. from Salgado, and, after a W. course of about 80 m., 
 falls into the estuary of the Amazon, in lat. 52 S. ; Ion. 
 51 30 W. 
 
 ANAKLIA, or ANAKRIA, a fortified tn. and port, Russia, 
 in Mingrelia, E. coast of the Black Sea, 1. bank, Engura, 
 and near its embouchure ; lat. 42 22 N. ; Ion. 41 28 E. 
 It contains a custom house, and carries on some trade with 
 Turkey. 
 
 ANAK-SOONGI, a small state, W. coast, isl. Sumatra, 
 between the rivers Manjoota and Urei. Its cap. is Moco-moco. 
 
 ANALATIVOE, a small isl., W. of Jaffna, Ceylon, for 
 merly known by the name Donna Clara, having belonged to 
 a lady of that name in the time of the Portuguese. Its soil is 
 sandy, but productive in palmyra trees, plantains, and cotton, 
 the latter of which is largely cultivated. Pop. about 1000 ; 
 formerly considerably more. (Ceylon Gas.) 
 
 ANAM, or AX-NAM (EMPIRE OF), a country of S.E. Asia, 
 occupying the E. portion of a great promontory N. E. the 
 Malay Peninsula, from which it is separated by the Gulf of 
 Siam, between lat. 9 40 and 23 22 N. ; and Ion. 102 and 
 109 30 E. It is 965 m. in length, N. to S. ; breadth irre 
 gular, being, at the narrowest part, which is in the centre, only 
 
ANAM 
 
 138 
 
 ANAM 
 
 about 85 m., expanding N. to upwards of 400 m., and S. to 
 about 270 m. It comprises three distinct territories, and a part 
 of a fourth. These are Tonquin, which occupies the whole 
 N. part of the empire; Cochin China Proper, Champa, and 
 the E. portion of Camboja, together occupying the centre and 
 S. extremity. It is bounded, W. by Lao or Laos, and Siam ; 
 N. by China, and on all other sides by the sea. The whole 
 of the coast is considerably indented, especially at the mouths 
 of the rivers, where it affords many safe and commodious 
 harbours ; and the view which the country presents from the 
 sea is that of a varied landscape, composed of bold headlands, 
 picturesque valleys, well-cultivated slopes, extensive downs, 
 and low plains, frequently terminating in sand hills, with a 
 background of rather lofty mountains in the distance. Along 
 the coast there are numerous groups of islands. 
 
 TONQUIN is mountainous on the N., but in the E. is nearly 
 level, terminating towards the sea in an alluvial plain. It is 
 generally fertile, yielding good crops of rice, cotton, fruits, 
 ginger, and spices, with a great variety of varnish trees, areca 
 palms, &c. The principal river is the Song-ca, which flows 
 from the interior in a S.E. direction, and falls into the Gulf 
 of Tonquin by several outlets. It has numerous tributaries, 
 and several branches are joined together by canals, both for 
 irrigation and commerce. Its periodical overflowings fertil 
 ize the rice fields within the reach of its waters. The other 
 principal streams are the Koa-gok or Tonquin, and the Rok- 
 bok, the former N. from the Song-ca, and the latter S. The 
 climate resembles that of Bengal, but participates in the 
 oppressive heat and very disagreeable cold of China. It is 
 peculiarly subject also to typhoons, which sweep the land 
 with inconceivable violence. The inhabitants of Tonquin 
 are a short, squat, ill-favoured people, but extremely indus 
 trious and good tempered. Those living on the coast are 
 chiefly employed in fishing, and hunting the alligator, which is 
 used as food, the flesh being sold in the shambles. It is by 
 no means uncommon, says Dr. Gutzlaff, to see five or six of 
 these monsters in the courtyard of a fisherman s hut, with 
 their mouths gagged. The fishermen are a thrifty, hard 
 working race ; and, though exposed to all sorts of hardships 
 and sufferings, are always cheerful. Their customary diet is 
 ; the refuse of the fish which they catch, with a little rice and 
 j salt. Their females are ugly, and of filthy habits. Tonquin 
 is the only part of the empire that is rich in metals, producing 
 large quantities of gold, silver, copper, and iron. A great 
 deal of gold is found also in the sands of the rivers, thousands 
 of people being employed in collecting it. The principal 
 town or capital is Kachao, on the r. bank of the Song-ca, 
 about 100 m. N.W. from the Gulf of Tonquin. 
 
 COCHIN CHINA PROPER, lying between lat. 12 and 18 30 
 N., and averaging about 90 m. in breadth, is bounded on the 
 W. by a range of lofty barren mountains, hitherto unexplored 
 by any European. The country is, for 10 m. inland, a com 
 plete desert, and is generally sterile, but contains many fertile 
 spots ; its sandy soil also bears productions peculiar to this 
 region, including the eagle wood, which attains greater per 
 fection here than anywhere else. In the more favoured dis 
 tricts, grain, leguminous plants, and all the articles of susten 
 ance used by man, are produced in great abundance, including 
 sugar and cinnamon, the latter of superior quality. The coast 
 is beautiful and grand, being indented with numerous bays, 
 backed by mountains which rise to a height of several thousand 
 feet, and are broken into innumerable valleys and ravines. 
 There are a number of rivers, but none at all considerable. 
 Cochin China is destitute of metals, so far as yet known. Its 
 principal foreign trade is with the Chinese. The people of 
 this territory are of small stature, not very dark, and of agile 
 frame. The women are well formed, have fine eyes, and 
 beautiful jet black hair. The dress of both sexes consists of 
 trowsers and a coat, which reaches to the ankles with women, 
 and with workmen to the knees. The men rarely shave or 
 cut their hair. Their principal food is fish and rice; milk, 
 butter, and cheese, they hold in abhorrence. They are 
 cheerful, open, and kind hearted. Their dwellings consist ol 
 mud or bamboo huts, with straw roofs, low, uncomfortable, 
 and filthy. The cap. of the prov. is Hue, on the 1. bank ol 
 a river called by the natives Phu-thua-thicn ; by foreigners, 
 Hue or Sun-Hue". It is well fortified, but most of the houses 
 are mean. In the neighbourhood, which is romantic am 
 beautiful, there are several palaces, summer residences, and 
 
 royal retreats. The pop. of the city, including the military, 
 is estimated at 50,000. 
 
 C AMDOJA, or KAMBODI A ; about one-half only of this territory 
 s within the limits of the empire of Anam, the other portion 
 being in Siam. The former is a continued flat of rich alluvial 
 soil, full of navigable rivers, one of which, the Mekon (which 
 see}, is amongst the largest in S. Asia. Agriculture is much 
 jehind here; yet such is the fertility of the land, that Camboja 
 s considered the granary of Cochin China. It produces vast 
 quantities of rice, betel nuts, aniseed, and cardamoms, all 
 3steemed of the best quality. The areca palm, teak tree, and 
 Carious dye and hard woods, also grow here ; some of the latter 
 usceptible of a beautiful polish. Gamboge, and a variety of 
 weet-smelling resins, are peculiar to this country. Sticklac, 
 , substance used in dyeing red, is also amongst the products 
 if Camboja. The mulberry tree is in some regions exten 
 sively cultivated, to furnish food for the silkworm, the man- j 
 agement of which is well understood by the natives. The 1 
 climate is in general temperate, excepting during the rainy 
 season May and September when it is often very sultry. 
 From October to January the weather is extremely boister- 
 ms, and typhoons occasionally occur, but are neither so 
 requent nor so violent as in Tonquin. The inhabitants of 
 Camboja are below their neighbours, the Siamese, in point of 
 sivilization ; their features are coarse, and their complexion 
 dark. The men go half naked, and the women also dress very 
 sparingly; they are moderate in their diet, and capable of 
 nduring much fatigue, though inclined to indolence. They 
 are patient under oppression, and have a slavish veneration 
 :br their superiors. They are persevering agriculturists, but 
 lave no manufacturing skill. The animals of this territory 
 ire the buffalo, bullock, horse, both of the latter small ; the 
 rhinoceros, elephant, a formidable species of tiger, the leopard, 
 monkeys innumerable, and pigs. 
 
 CHAMPA occupies the southern extremity of the empire. 
 [t is extremely sterile, consisting, in great part, of sand hills, 
 without any vegetation ; peaks, with stunted shrubs, granite 
 formations of every description, and a reddish, disintegrated 
 mass of stones. Its coast, however, abounds in excellent 
 lavbours, and it yields, at least, one valuable production the 
 eagle wood (Aloexylum Ayallochum) which is much esteemed 
 all over Asia for its pungent fragrancy, and is, on this account, 
 n constant use in burning incense to idols. N.W. of Champa, 
 and between Cochin China and Camboja, is a bleak and wild 
 nountainous tract, inhabited by the Moi, a savage race, who 
 live chiefly on wild fruits and roots, and mostly sleep in trees; 
 some, however, construct rude huts, and live in small com 
 munities, but there are no large villages. They are a hardy 
 and muscular race, and are on this account often captured by 
 their neighbours, and sold as slaves. 
 
 Geology. The geology of Anam presents little variety, its 
 prevailing formations being primitive, and consisting mainly 
 of granite or sienite, with the occasional occurrence of quartz, 
 marble, limestone, and hornblende. As elsewhere mentioned, 
 ron, gold, and silver, are found in considerable abundance in 
 Tonquin, but in no other part of the empire. There, also, 
 great masses of beautiful white marble, with blue streaks, are 
 found. The singular mountain at Cape Varella, in Cochin 
 China, one of whose peaks has the appearance of a huge 
 broken and falling column, is supposed to contain some veins 
 of silver; and at about half its height there is a thermal 
 spring, of very high temperature. The alluvial soil of the 
 country consists of clay, loam, or sand, which alternates or is 
 mixed with gypsum and ferruginous matter ; and the sand, in 
 many parts, accumulates extensively upon the coast, and 
 forms large lagoons and dangerous shoals. 
 
 Manufactures. The principal branches of industry prac 
 tised by the natives, are spinning of cotton and silk, the 
 weaving of these into coarse fabrics, the preparation of var 
 nish, the manufacture of lacquered ware, the smelting of iron, 
 the manufacture of firearms, and the construction of ships or 
 junks. 
 
 Commerce. The internal trade is conducted chiefly on the 
 rivers of Tonquin and Camboja, along the sea coast, or by 
 the lagoons skirting the latter, which form a kind of natural 
 canals, and furnish a means of communication for about 200 m. 
 Goods are conveyed in junks, which are well constructed and 
 managed, and average 40 or 50 tons burden. The trade 
 between Hue and Tonquin, as well as a great portion of the 
 
ANAM 
 
 139 
 
 ANAM 
 
 foreign trade, is in the hands of the Chinese. The latter is 
 chiefly with China, Siam, and the British settlements on the 
 Straits of Malacca, from the ports of Kang-Kao and Saijun in 
 Camboja, Kecho in Tonquin, and Ya-trang or Aha-trang, 
 Phuyen, Quinhon, Faifo, and Hue, in Cochin China. The 
 exports to China consist chiefly of cardamoms, areca nuts, 
 cocoa-nut oil, sugar, fancy woods, eagle wood, ebony, cotton, 
 silk, rice, sticklac, ivory, peltry, hides, horns, deers sinews, 
 feathers, cinnamon, swallows nests, dried fish, varnish, gold and 
 silver bullion; the imports wrought silk, tea, opium, cloth, 
 porcelain, dried fruits, confectionery, and toys. Exports to 
 British settlements rice, salt, sugar, and raw silk ; imports 
 opium, gambier, catechu, iron, fire irons, woollens, and cottons. 
 Exports to Siam gamboge, cardamoms, ivory, hides, horns, 
 dried venison, salt fish, mats, and silk, raw and wrought; 
 imports Chinese, European, and Indian goods, iron, wrought 
 and unwrought; tobacco, and opium. The importation of 
 opium, and the exportation of coin, bullion, copper, eagle 
 wood, rice, salt, men, and women, are prohibited by law; but 
 the prohibition is in most cases evaded by the dexterity of the 
 Chinese merchants; and rice may be exported by special 
 license. There remains every year for exportation more 
 than 100,000 peculs (119,047 c\vt.) of rice, 83,333 cwt. of 
 sugar, a great portion of which finds its way to the N. ports 
 of China ; 71,428 cwt. of cotton, 4762 cwt. of cinnamon, 3571 
 cwt. of betel nuts, and 1190 cwt. cardamoms. There are, 
 besides, large exportations of cocoa-nut oil, sticklac, gamboge, 
 and eagle wood, the last of which is a royal monopoly. Fish, 
 also, to the amount of about 21,666, 13s., are exported. 
 
 Coins and Measures. The coin is made in imitation of the 
 Chinese, but of baser metal. The gold and silver pieces are 
 mostly of an oblong form, like Chinese ink, and bear the name 
 of the reign in which they were cast ; the measures of length 
 and capacity are nearly the same as in China. 
 
 Government, Military. Although nominally patriarchal, 
 the government of Anam is actually despotic, even the 
 nobility deriving their name and power from the sovereign. 
 There are two classes of mandarins civil and military 
 divided into 10 orders, two of which compose the king s 
 council. The general administration is conducted by that 
 council as supreme, and six ministers of state, namely, the 
 minister of ceremonies and religion, the keeper of the records, 
 the minister of war, the treasurer, the minister of justice, and 
 the minister of woods and forests. There are, besides, three 
 superior officers called Kun, one being the viceroy of Ton 
 quin ; another viceroy of Camboja ; and the third termed 
 minister of elephants, acting both as prime minister and 
 minister of foreign affairs. Each province is governed by a 
 military mandarin, and two civil mandarins as deputy and 
 sub-governor ; and is divided into three departments termed 
 kuyen, each of which is subdivided into several districts 
 named ton, and comprehends an indefinite number of villages. 
 The system of jurisprudence is that of China, but not so well or 
 so mildly administered as in that country. Every superior, 
 whether natural or official, has the power of inflicting corporal 
 punishment on his inferiors ; the most usual methods being 
 with the bamboo and the canque or wooden collar. Fathers 
 and mothers punish their children ; husbands their wives ; 
 superior officers their inferior ; and these the soldiers. Capital 
 punishment, besides being the penalty of higher offences, is 
 inflicted for robbery, adultery, and sometimes for malversa 
 tion and corruption. In military affairs, the Government 
 claims the service of every male inhabitant from 18 to 60 
 years of age. The guards consist of 36,000 men, divided 
 into 40 regiments, of 10 companies of 60 men each, classed in 
 five brigades. There are, besides, 25 regiments, which, with 
 the former, constitute the actual force of the empire. As 
 the horses are indifferent, there are no cavalry, but 800 
 elephants are substituted, some being attached to every regi 
 ment. The entire army consists of about 60,000 men ; but 
 has occasionally amounted to more than double that number. 
 The soldiers all wear uniforms a red tunic ; but the officers 
 wear the ordinary dress. The former are well armed, and 
 perform their manoeuvres with great regularity and precision. 
 They are badly paid, receiving only about 2s. Id. a month. 
 A lieutenant gets only double, and so on in proportion in the 
 higher grades ; nowhere, however, above a bare subsistence. 
 For the protection of the coast, marine regiments are formed, 
 to act as sailors and soldiers on board the men-of-war. These 
 
 consist of rowing boats, which sail with great rapidity, and 
 are admirably worked with 40 to 100 oars. They have also 
 galleys that sail and row, carrying from 4 to 16 cannon; 
 vessels half junk and half ship, from 10 to 24 cannon ; and 
 sloops of war according to our model. The discipline of the 
 navy, as well as army, is according to European principles. 
 The revenue is principally derived, as in China, from the 
 land. There is also a poll tax of a little more than 2s. 2d. 
 for each adult male subject not employed in the king s ser 
 vice ; with sundry other contributions from the industry or 
 consumption of the inhabitants. The land tax is partly paid 
 iu kind, and the produce hoarded up in the granaries of the 
 capital. 
 
 Religion, Ceremonies, Language, Literature, &c. The mass 
 of the people do not care for supernatural worship, and are 
 subject to the most abject superstition. The doctrines of 
 Buddha are professed by a few, but they have hardly either 
 any temples or priests. Veneration for the departed dead is 
 general, and the temples containing their tablets are the most 
 sacred spots of worship. This reverence for the dead is mani 
 fested by an interminable series of solemnities and observ 
 ances, and a reckless expenditure. A remarkable instance of 
 this propensity occurred on occasion of the death of the late 
 king, Thieu Tri, who died on November 3, 1847. The 
 funeral ceremonies on that occasion were of the most sump 
 tuous description. When the body was deposited in the 
 coffin, into which quantities of gold, silver, and other pre 
 cious articles, together with provisions, had been previously 
 placed, it was carried to a richly ornamented house, con 
 structed expressly for the purpose, and there lay in state for 
 seven months ; the coffin being hermetically closed to pre 
 vent the exhalation of offensive smells. During this period, 
 numerous sacrifices were made of bullocks, swine, and other 
 animals, and the king s son came every day clothed in mourn 
 ing to prostrate himself before the body of his father. Every 
 day, also, wax candles were lighted, or incense burned. The 
 road along which the body was conveyed to the river by 
 which it was to pass to the place of interment, was covered 
 with mats, carpets, and Indian tapestry of silk. The banks 
 of the river, also, were adorned with silks, and lined with sol 
 diers ; and, at frequent points of the progress, there were 
 large altars, on which were burned wax tapers and perfumes. 
 The bark in which the coffin was deposited was of the most 
 magnificent description ; and, when the latter was placed in 
 the tomb, large quantities of gold and silver, and other pre 
 cious articles, were shut up along with it. After the inter 
 ment, the royal barge, a splendid vessel, into which a number 
 of valuables had been previously placed, was burnt ; as were 
 also two superb palaces of wood, with rich furnishings, and 
 in all things similar to the palace which the deceased monarch 
 had inhabited. So solemn and slow was the progress of the 
 funeral procession, and so encumbered was it with tedious 
 ceremonial, that it was three days in reaching the place of 
 interment, though only 9 m. distant from the city. The lan 
 guage resembles the Chinese, from whom, as they have no 
 national literature, they receive all their books. It is with 
 out inflection, and shows a great mass of monosyllabic words. 
 It is by no means mellifluous, and is spoken with extraor 
 dinary rapidity by the natives. In writing, they use the 
 Chinese character ; with considerable difference, however, in 
 some of their combinations. A complete dictionary of the 
 Anamitic language was composed by the Bishop of Adran, 
 with explanations in French. Marriage is a matter of traffic ; 
 the price of a wife being usually from 8, 13s. to 10, 16s. ; 
 but sometimes, among the lower classes, 2, 3s. to 4, 6s. ; 
 and among the higher, 21, 12s. to 43, 4s. Among the 
 former, the usual age for marriage is, with males, 20, or some 
 times 30 ; and with females, 17 to 20 ; but the rich often 
 marry as early as 15. Polygamy is allowed, but the first 
 espoused is considered the wife. Although adultery is pun 
 ishable with death, and marriages are indissoluble except by 
 mutual consent, breaches of chastity or conjugal fidelity are 
 not considered as crimes ; and both before arid after marriage, 
 women have more liberty than in other E. countries. They 
 are, however, in many respects, the mere drudges of man ; 
 performing all kinds of household and outdoor work, and 
 acting as shopkeepers, brokers, &c., and are generally treated 
 with rigour and neglect. Men are, in a great measure, sup 
 ported by female labour ; and such is the anomalous state of 
 
AN AMI 1 . AS 
 
 110 
 
 ANATOLIA 
 
 the marriage relation, that women are said to prefer strangers, 
 especially Chinese, as husbands. 
 
 History. According to the historical records of China the 
 only sources of information on the subject, Anam was con 
 quered and colonized by the Chinese, B.C. 214. After a 
 series of revolts against their conquerors, the Cochin Chinese, 
 in A.D. 263, regained their independence, but remained tribu- 
 taries to China. In 1280, the Tartar Khans of the latter in 
 effectually attempted again to possess themselves of the Cochin 
 Chinese territory. In 1406, the Chinese occupied Tonquin, 
 but abandoned it in 1428 ; and in 1471, the Touquinese made 
 the conquest of Cochin China. In 1540, Tonquin became a 
 tributary lordship of the celestial empire; and in 1553, Cochin 
 China threw off the yoke of the former, and again became 
 independent. From that time till 1748, Tonquin was nomi 
 nally under a sovereign of its own, termed a Dava or JBoua, 
 but was actually ruled by the Choua or prime minister. In 
 1748, the sovereign recovered his authority, but a period of 
 anarchy succeeded, and was terminated only by an insurrec 
 tion which broke out in 1774, and completely revolutionized 
 the kingdom. The great agents in this revolution were three 
 brothers called Taysons [western mountaineers], of the pro 
 vince of Qui-nhor, who, having been driven to a robber s life 
 by the oppression of the Government officials, and having soon 
 collected numerous adherents in a country already ripe for 
 revolt, defeated the armies both of Anam and of China, put 
 to death their king and his eldest son, and made themselves 
 masters of the whole country, with exception of some of the 
 S. provinces. Gia-long, the king s second son, placed himself 
 under the protection and guidance of Pigneaux de Behaim, 
 Bishop of Adran, a French Franciscan missionary, at that 
 time stationed in the country. In 1781, he attempted to 
 regain possession of the throne, but being defeated by his 
 rebel countrymen, and deceived by the King of Siam, he 
 took refuge in the island of Quadrol ; and in 1787, sent his 
 son to France along with Pigneaux, to ask the assistance of 
 Louis XVI. The latter sent over some French officers, whose 
 experience enabled the king to organize an army, construct 
 forts, and finally reinstate himself in all his dominions. The 
 succession to the throne was lately disputed by two rival 
 claimants, but was settled in 1842 by the instalment of the 
 rightful heir. The population of Anam is supposed to be 
 between 12,000,000 and 15,000,000. (Crawford s Embassy 
 to Siam and Cochin China; Hamilton s East India Gaz. ; 
 Guibert, Diet. Geo. et Stat. Dr. Gutzlaff in Jour. Roy. Geo. 
 Soc., vol. xix. ; Jour. Ind. ArcMp.) 
 
 ANAMBAS, a group of 15 islands, China Sea, off the E. 
 coast of the Malay peninsula, and belonging to the kingdom of 
 Johore. They lie between lat. 2 30 and 3 30 N. ; Ion. 
 104 and 110 E., and are usually divided into N., Middle, 
 and S. Anambus, names unknown to the Malays, who call 
 them Siantan, Jumjah, Sarasan, &c. Sarasan is that which 
 lies nearest Borneo, in lat. 2 30 N., and is sometimes called 
 S. Natuna. The largest island is Domar, in the middle group, 
 lat. 2 44 N.; Ion. 105 20 E. (u.) All the islands are hilly, 
 and appear sterile. They are inhabited by pure and poor 
 Malays, who support themselves by the cultivation of rice, 
 maize, sago, and cocoa nuts, and fishing trepang. The larger 
 islands abound with tropical fruits and vegetables. The 
 natives are said to be treacherous. Pop. about 1500. 
 (Hitter s Erdkundc ; Horsburgh s East India Directory.} 
 
 ANAMIBAPUCU, a river, Brazil, prov. Para. It is 
 formed by the junction of the rivers Wahoui and Amana; 
 the latter having its sources in the mountains forming the S. 
 boundary of French Guaiana, the former in the serra Velha. 
 The junction of these streams takes place in lat. 1 ^ N. ; 
 Ion. 53 18 W., from which point the Anamirapucu flows in a 
 S.E. direction, and falls into the estuary of the Amazon, in lat. 
 15 S. ; Ion. 50 55 W. Its whole course is about 200 m. 
 
 ANAMOOE, or ANAMODR (CAPE), the most S. point, 
 Anatolia, coast ot Karamania, opposite Cyprus; lat. 36 () 48" 
 the Black Sea ; lat. 44 54 6" N. ; Ion. 37 18 30" E. (u.) 
 being on one side quite inaccessible, while the other is forti 
 fied by a castle and outworks, extending from the summit of 
 the cape to the level of the sea. Near it are the remains of a 
 town, supposed to be the ancient Anemurium, remarkable for 
 the number of its dilapidated tombs. The modern castle of 
 Anamoor, the residence of a Turkish Aga, is on a small rocky 
 eminence, close to the sea, about 5 or 6 m. E. of the cape. 
 
 ANAPA, a seaport and fortified tn. Russian Circassia, on 
 the Black Sea ; lat. 44 54 1" N. ; Ion. 37 18 5" E. (R.) 
 The port is tolerably good for small vessels, but the outer 
 road is unsheltered, and is safely accessible only in the fine 
 season. The fort was constructed in 1784 by the Turks, 
 when the Russians took possession of the Crimea and island 
 of Tainan. In 1 791, the Russians carried it by storm. It was 
 afterwards restored to the Turks, who strengthened the fortifi 
 cations. By a subsequent treaty the Russians again acquired 
 possession of it, and have retained it till now (1850). 
 The exports are grain, tallow, hides, honey, and wax. The 
 inhabitants, Circassians, Tartars, Greeks, Turks, Jews, Arme 
 nians, Russians, &c. ; and the pop., exclusive of the garrison, 
 about 3000. 
 
 ANAPHI, or NAOPHIO, an isl. Grecian Archipelago ; lat. 
 36 23 N. ; Ion. 25 47 E. (it.) It is about 7 m. long, and from 
 1 to 2 broad. It is composed chiefly of rocky barren mountains, 
 and it has no port. There are some level tracts, but they are 
 far from being fertile, a little wheat and oil being their sole 
 productions. Wax and honey are, however, obtained in con 
 siderable quantities. Partridges abound, and it has some 
 springs of excellent water. The inhabitants, who are miser 
 ably poor, amount to about 1500, the greater part of whom 
 reside in a village on the S. coast. A few miles S. of Ana- 
 phi is the island of Anaphi Poulo, surrounded by a group of 
 barren rocks. 
 
 ANAPLI, correctly NAUPLIA (wJiich see). 
 
 ANARAJAPURA, ANARAJAPOORA, or ANOORAADHA- 
 PURA. See ANURADHAPURA. 
 
 ANASTASIA. 1, An isl., U. States, E. coast, Florida ; 
 lat. (light, N. point) 29 52 N. ; Ion. 81 25 W. (u.) It is about 
 
 18 m. long, by 1 m. broad. 2, ANASTASIA (SANTA), a 
 
 vil. Naples, dist. of, and 6 m. E. from Naples. Pop. 6451. 
 
 ANATOLIA, or ANADOLIA, a pash. Turkey in Asia, 
 forming the W. portion of the peninsula called Anatolia or 
 Asia Minor. Like other Turkish pashalics, its extent is in 
 definite ; varying with the caprice of the sultan, or the energy 
 and cupidity of the governing pasha. Generally speaking, it 
 may be described as comprehending the tract from the Black 
 Sea to the Mediterranean, bounded, W. by the Grecian Archi 
 pelago, and E. by an irregular sinuous line drawn from the 
 Black Sea, about Ion. 35 E., to the Mediterranean, about 
 Ion. 31 30 E. It thus extends over about a half of Anatolia 
 or Asia Minor ; in the description of which the physical feat 
 ures, products, &c., of the pashalic are included (see the fol- 
 loiving article). It is the largest and richest province in the 
 empire, and the most populous in Asia. Its valleys are fertile, 
 but ill cultivated; its mountains produce excellent timber, 
 in large quantities ; and its climate, in the low countries, is 
 mild and genial. The capital is Kutaya. Anatolia compre 
 hends the old provinces of Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Galatia, 
 Phrygia Epictetes, Mysia, Phrygia Minor, Aeolis, Lydia, 
 Ionia, Lycia, Caria, Peraca, and parts of Phrygia Major and 
 Pisidia. 
 
 ANATOLIA, ANADOLIA, or NATOLIA [Greek, AvaToA>5 
 the East, or Levant], the peninsular-shaped \V. extremity of 
 Asia, identical with Asia Minor an inappropriate term, of un 
 certain, but comparatively modern date, and unknown both to 
 the Greeks and Romans. It comprehends the Turkish pashalics 
 of Anatolia, Itshili, Karamania, Marash, Sivas or Room, and 
 Trebizond. Anatolia is included between the 36th and 42d N. 
 parallels, and between the 26th and 41st E. meridians; being 
 bounded, N. by the Black Sea, Sea of Marmora, and the Dar 
 danelles; W. by the Grecian Archipelago; and S. by the Medi 
 terranean Sea; while its E. boundary, which is more arbitrary, 
 is usually defined by a line connecting the Alma-dagh, near the 
 Bay of Iskenderoon, with the Euphrates, and thence up to its 
 source, whence it runs down the Tchorak to the Black Sea. 
 Its greatest length, from the Gulf of Adramyti E. to the Eu 
 phrates, somewhat exceeds 700 m. ; and its greatest breadth, 
 from C. Anamoor, in Karamania, to C. Kerempe, in Anatolia, 
 is about 420 m. ; supposed area, about 270,000 sq. m. The 
 N. coast, facing the Black Sea, which presents few striking 
 irregularities, is bold and steep, with very deep water close to 
 the shore eastward, but gradually falls as it approaches the 
 Bosphorus. The W. coast, from the Bosphorus downwards, 
 presents an outline as jagged and irregular, with cliffs nearly 
 as high and precipitous, as almost any coast in the world ; in 
 cluding the Gulfs of Adramyti, Fouges, Smyrna, Scala-nuova, 
 
ANATOLIA 
 
 ANATOLIA 
 
 Mandelyah, and Kos, within which, however, there are low 
 alluvial shores. While the S. coast presents a bold irregular 
 outline, with steep and lofty rocks closely approaching the 
 shore ; its chief bays or indentations being the Gulfs of Makri, 
 Phineka, Adalia, and Iskenderoon. The principal headlands 
 N. are Capes Indjeh and Kerempc; W., Capes Baba, Kara- 
 bournou, St. Mary, Arbora, Arkyalla, and Cris ; and 8., Capes 
 Aleppo, Ghinazi, Seven-capes, Toogh-bournou, Khelidonia, 
 Anamoor, Cavaliere, and Karatash. 
 
 Mountain Chains and Plateaux. Flic surface of Anatolia, 
 which is extremely irregular, may be termed an elevated 
 plateau, supporting still higher elevations, dotted with salt 
 lakes, and enclosed by two ranges or offshoots of the Armenian 
 mountain system, the Taurus and Anti-Taurus, running E. 
 and W., not far from the shores of the Levant and Black Sea, 
 respectively. The S. range, or Taurus, commences close to 
 the Euphrates, about lat. 38 N. ; Ion. 39 E., where Akjah- 
 dagh reaches an elevation of about 10,000 ft., and running 
 W., with a very irregular course through Karamania and the 
 S. part of the pashalic of Anatolia, generally speaking, par 
 allel to the Levant, terminates in the islands of the Grecian 
 Archipelago. It has numerous offsets both N. and S., which, 
 as well as various portions of the main range, are known by 
 special names, as Allah-dagh, Bulghar-dagh, Jebel kurin, &c. 
 &c. The N . or Anti-Taurus range stretches from the Tchorak 
 W., parallel to the Black Sea, and at no great distance from 
 its shores, and terminates at the Bosphorus, an offset tending 
 S.W., comprising Mount Olympus (8800 ft.), and terminating 
 in Mount Ida (5400 ft.) at the Gulf of Adramyti. Between 
 these two main ranges there are many smaller ones, some of 
 which attain a great elevation ; and, indeed everywhere, lofty 
 mountain masses, more or less connected, are to be met with. 
 Of the loftier summits may be named the volcanic peak of 
 Erjisch-dagh (13,000 ft.), the highest in Anatolia, situated 
 about 13 m. S. Kaisarieh or Kasaria; besides which there are 
 various others attaining an elevation of 7000 to 10,000 ft. 
 The centre of this peninsula is an extensive plateau, inde 
 pendently of the mountains on it, averaging about 5000 ft. in 
 height, about 250 m. in length from N.E. to S.W., and about 
 100 m. in breadth; partly drained by the rivers flowing into 
 the Black Sea, but covered also with salt lakes, marshes, and 
 rivers having no visible outlet. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. The great number of salt and fresh 
 water lakes is the most remarkable feature in the geo 
 graphy of Anatolia. The largest of these is the Touz-Ghieul 
 [anc. Tatta-palus\, about 70 m. N.E. Konieh, and, accord 
 ing to Hamilton, about 55 m. long, and from 9 to 15 m. in 
 breadth; it is shallow, and much reduced in summer by 
 evaporations. Its waters are briny, and the incrustations on 
 its shores supply the surrounding districts with salt. The 
 other principal lakes are, the Kara-hissar, Ak Shehr, Egerdir, 
 Bey-Shehr, Soghla, Chardak, and Buldur, all between 37-39 
 N. lat. ; and 30-35 E. Ion. Besides these, there are the 
 Lakes Manyas and Abulliontc, near the shores of the Sea of 
 Marmora, and a few others of smaller extent. The largest 
 rivers of Anatolia flow into the Black Sea ; but their courses 
 have been very imperfectly explored. The largest is the 
 Kizil-Irmak [auc. Halys] , which is supposed to rise about 40 m. 
 E.N.E. Siwan, and, after a most tortuous course, first W. and 
 then N.E., entering the Black Sea, at lat. 41 48 N.; Ion. 
 36 E. ; total length at least 600 m. E. is the Jeshil-irmak 
 [anc. Iris] , a much smaller river, flowing W.N. W., and entering 
 the sea about 18 m. E. Samsoom. In the N.W. of Anatolia 
 is the Sakaria [anc. Sangarius], rising in the table land, not 
 far from Angora, flowing W. as far as Shughut, and thence N. 
 into the Black Sea, which it enters, after a supposed course 
 of about 300 m., about 80 m. E. the Bosphorus. The only 
 important rivers flowing towards the Grecian Archipelago, are 
 the Bakir-chai [anc. Caicus] ; the Gedis-chai [anc. Hermus], 
 once a famed auriferous stream, flowing into the Gulf of 
 Smyrna, after a course, W. by S., of about 200 m.; and the 
 Bojuk Mender-chai [anc. Mceandcr], after a most tortuous 
 course, S.W. by W., of more than 300 m., joining the sea 
 close to the ruins of the once famous Miletus. On the S., 
 facing the Levant, and proceeding E., are the Doloman-chai 
 [anc. Calbis], Kodja-chai [anc. Xanthus], Ak-Sfi, Kopru-Su 
 [anc. Eurymedon], the Ghiik-Su [anc. Cali/cadnus], the Tersus- 
 chai [anc. Cydnits], but now a mere torrent, the Sihoon-chai 
 [aue. /faros], and the Jyhoon-chai [anc. 1 yramus] ; though 
 
 none of them are of any considerable size, except the last two, 
 which have a length, respectively, of 260 and 180 m. 
 
 Geology, Minerals, etc. It may be said, generally, that 
 granite, serpentine, and schist form the substance of the 
 upper, and limestone of the lower, regions of Anatolia; trachy- 
 tic rocks being also found E., which are succeeded \V., and 
 partly overlaid by black volcanic breccia, interspersed with 
 angular blocks of trachyte ; while the extreme W. part of the 
 peninsula, and its S. coasts, consist almost wholly of calcareous 
 rocks belonging to the chalk formation. The most curious 
 feature, however, in the geology of this country, is the vol 
 canic region of Catacecaumene \KarKx,txa.vfjt,iiiri burnt up], 
 between lat. 38-38 40 N.; and Ion. 28 U 3U -29 10 E.; 
 which is thus described by Mr. Hamilton : West of us, a 
 black dome-shaped hill of scoriae and ashes, the Karadevlit or 
 "black inkstand," the volcano of Koula, rose about 500 ft. 
 above the plain, and was so steep, that to ascend its slope of 
 cinders seemed wholly impossible. In front, a black and 
 rugged stream of lava extended from right to left ; the surface 
 of which, broken up into a thousand forms, looked like the 
 breakers of a sea converted into stone amid the fury of a gale, 
 and forming, as it issued from the base of the cone, a striking 
 contrast with the rich plain through which it seemed to flow. 
 (Researches in Asia Minor, vol. i. p. 136.) These volcanic 
 cones, and other unquestionable traces of igneous action, extend 
 over a considerable space ; and earthquakes still occasionally 
 occur, such as those that destroyed Laodicea, Apamea Cibotus, 
 Sardis, and other cities of antiquity. Anatolia contains also 
 numerous thermal and sulphurous springs ; those near Erekli, 
 in lat. 37 40 N., and Ion. 34 5 E., are found in a low ridge 
 of calcareous hills, on the summit of which are narrow cracks 
 or fissures, whence the springs issue. In many places, little 
 conical hills have been raised by the gradual deposit of the 
 earthy matter held in suspension by the water, but speedily 
 solidified by evaporation. The expansive power of the con 
 fined water and gases is indicated by its bubbling underground, 
 where there is any obstruction to its escape. Some of these 
 springs deposit pure salt round their orifices, others pure sul 
 phur, and others sulphate of lime or gypsum. There is also 
 much difference in the heat of the springs, some being quite 
 cool, and others nearly 160 (Hamilton s Researches, vol. ii. 
 p. 308). Mining is not carried on to any great extent. Copper 
 mines, however, are wrought at Bakir-Kurehsi, Tireboli, 
 Tokat, and a few other places. Iron and rock alum are 
 wrought near Unieh ; and lead, with silver, at Denek, a little 
 E. of the Kizil-Irmak. Nitre is got at Karabunar, about 60 m. 
 E. Konieh ; and rock salt, everywhere plentiful, is especially 
 so in the tract near Angora. MaVble exists in great abund 
 ance ; an advantage which the sculptors and builders among 
 the early Greek colonists turned largely to account. Coal 
 also has been found lately along the coast of the Black Sea ; 
 but has not hitherto been worked to advantage, owing, in 
 part, to the unskilfulness of the Turkish miners. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Anatolia, so much lauded by the 
 ancients, admits of no general description, owing to the 
 diversity in the elevations of its surface, which presents 
 winter and summer within one day s journey. The W. shores 
 have been celebrated in all ages for their genial warmth ; the 
 thermometer in summer ranges from 84 to 100 Fah. ; rain 
 falls but rarely; but this defect is in some measure supplied 
 by heavy dews. The coast facing the Black Sea is almost 
 equally favoured as to temperature, and enjoys the additional 
 advantage of frequent rains. The elevated plains of the 
 interior, which rise about 3000 ft. above the sea, exclusively 
 of mountains towering some thousand feet yet higher, are 
 extremely cold in winter, but salubrious. Summer here is 
 of short duration, and the snow lies pretty deep for about four 
 months in the year. The climate of Karamania, unlike that 
 of the N. part, is oppressively hot in summer; very little rain 
 falls ; and hence, from April to November, the inhabitants 
 have little water, except what is preserved in tanks and 
 cisterns. The cold, in the passes of the Taurus, is intense. 
 
 Vegetable Productions. The N. slope of the central plateau 
 so abounds with forests of oaks, beeches, planes, ashes, and 
 almost all other building timber, that the Turks have called 
 one of its forests the Agatch-Degnis or Sea of trees. It is 
 120 m. long, by 40 m. in breadth, and is the chief, and all 
 but inexhaustible source of supply to the Turkish navy. The 
 trees here are of larger growth than in most other countries 
 
ANATOLIA 
 
 142 
 
 ANATOLIA 
 
 under the same parallel, especially in the sheltered valleys of 
 the S.AV. On the coast there are entire woods of walnut, 
 quince, mulberry, pomegranate, peach, apricot, plum, and 
 cherry trees, especially the last, to the celebrity of which the 
 ancient Cerasus, now Keresoun, owed its name. The plains 
 bordering the Kizil-Innak, Sakaria, and Mendere, afford 
 excellent pasture. The burning coasts of Karamania have a 
 similar vegetation with the coast of Syria; and rich gums 
 exude from the trees, among which is the styrax, yielding 
 the storax. The Taurus mountains comprise numerous kinds 
 of forest trees, including a great variety of pines, amongst 
 which is the stone pine. Thousands of fine trees, of the pine 
 tribe, are annually destroyed by having fire applied to them, 
 to quicken the flow of turpentine. In the more elevated 
 districts, pine splints have been long used in lieu of lamps 
 and candles. Sugar canes grow in Pamphylia, but do not 
 ripen to crystallization, a portion of them being used as a 
 vegetable, and the pith as a sweetener; and wine, olives, and 
 figs, are abundantly raised in the S. valleys, especially through 
 out Lycia, which plentifully supplies the markets of Smyrna 
 with figs, olives, and raisins. The poppy also is grown in 
 very large quantities, with a view to the opium trade, which, 
 however, is strictly a government sinecure : the preparation 
 of the opium requires great care, and is chiefly conducted by 
 females. The flora of W. and S. Anatolia, in all the valleys, 
 is extremely beautiful, and will bear comparison \\ ith that of 
 Sicily and S Spain. Shrubs and evergreens are abundant ; 
 the latter, including the myrtle which here attains an im 
 mense size bay, daphne, laurel, and a variety of holly. In 
 strong contrast with all these countries, are the vast and frigid 
 plains of the interior, which produce only stunted shrubs, 
 saline plants, wormwood, sage, and some of the ferns. There 
 are other tracts, the only vegetation on which is two species 
 of broom. The wheat of Anatolia is of the bearded kind. 
 Oats are seldom seen ; the grain supplied to horses and other 
 animals is usually barley. Maize is raised to some extent. 
 
 Animals. Anatolia has few large beasts of prey, except a 
 species of panther, called kaplan by the Turks. Jackals are 
 very common in the less frequented regions; and there are a 
 few bears, wolves, and wild hogs. Buffaloes are used for 
 draught, especially in tillage; and the female supplies the 
 place of the cow, which is scarce, in furnishing milk. The 
 horses are strong and well shaped, and the asses fleeter and 
 larger than usual; but in the transport trade of this, as of 
 other Eastern countries, the camel is mostly employed. The 
 long-haired or shawl goat was once peculiar to this country; 
 but it has travelled east, and is known equally in Persia and 
 Upper India. The sheep are usually of the broad-tailed 
 species. Among the more common birds are the eagle, hawk, 
 hooded crow, bustard, stork, and heron, quail, partridge, and 
 others known to Europeans. Land tortoises, lizards, frogs 
 (including the Sana arborea or tree frog), are more or less 
 common in various parts; and leeches are so plentiful, that 
 they form an important article of the export trade to France 
 and Italy, through Smyrna. The coast abounds with many 
 varieties of fish, especially the cuttle fish. Butterflies of 
 innumerable varieties, and of uncommon and very gaudy 
 colours, are to be seen in great numbers. 
 
 Etlinography, <f-c. The Ottoman Turks, who form about 
 nine-tenths of the population, are not only the original 
 branch of the Turkish family, but also the largest and most 
 civilized ; nor have they, for many centuries, varied to any 
 considerable extent from their primitive type. There are 
 many thousands, however, of so-called Turks, who are not so 
 really, but descended from Greek ancestors. About one- 
 twentieth part are Greeks, an unprincipled, dishonest race; 
 and the remainder comprise Jews, Armenians, Kurds, and 
 some few Zingari or Gypsies, the last of whom are itinerant 
 jobbers and tinkers, as in many countries of Europe. The 
 total population cannot be exactly ascertained, but it has been 
 estimated to be about 4,500,000. The true Ottoman Turks 
 are settled mostly in the country, and devote themselves to 
 agriculture, many leaving their houses during summer, and 
 leading a nomadic life in tents. The Kurds, also, and the 
 Yiirukhs, lead an almost wholly pastoral life, and are found, 
 for the most part, in the hilly districts. Polygamy is rare, 
 and the women commonly spend their time in spinning wool, 
 and working it and cnniel s hair into carpets, shawls, &c. In 
 the rural districts they throw off the veil, which is alway 
 
 worn in towns. The Anatolian Turks are personally hand 
 some, well-mannered, and scrupulously cleanly; the latter 
 liabit being induced, perhaps, by their religious practices. 
 As respects character, all allow them the virtues of hospitality 
 and generosity; and Sir C. Fellows gives them additional 
 credit for downright honesty, singleness of heart, and con 
 tentment of disposition. But the vices of avarice and artful 
 ness, with which they are almost universally charged, would 
 seein hardly compatible with these virtues. Their careless 
 ness, too, has become proverbial. Unlike the Turks of other 
 countries, however, they are a social people, fond of gossiping, 
 dancing, and singing, with less of religious prejudice than 
 prevails in European Turkey. 
 
 Agriculture, as a practical art, is wholly unknown. Irri 
 gation, manuring, and cropping, are little practised; and all 
 the implements of husbandry are in the most rude and primi 
 tive state. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, however, nature 
 has been so bountiful to the lower lands in Asia Minor, that, 
 
 th exception of the cereal products, its agricultural re 
 turns may vie with those of Greece and European Turkey. 
 Grazing forms a staple employment, and large flocks of sheep 
 
 d goats are to be found on the lofty plains of the interior, 
 whose wool and hair form an important article of commerce 
 between Smyrna and Angora. 
 
 Manufactures and Trade. The principal industry of Ana 
 tolia consists in growing wine and oil, and in weaving car 
 pets, shawls, and making fez caps, &c. The trade will be 
 best discussed in the articles SMYRNA and TKEBIZOND. 
 
 Roads and Caravan Routes. Asia Minor was so well 
 known to the Romans, that it was traversed by them in 
 almost every direction. Of these roads, however, by far the 
 it important were the two that led into Syria: 1, By 
 Ancyra (Angora] and Tarsus to Antioch; and, 2, That 
 through Casarea Mazaca to Comana of Cappadocia, and Sam- 
 osata to Zeugma on the Euphrates. There was a well-fre 
 quented road, likewise, by Nicomedia (Ismid), and past Boli 
 to Sinope, Trebizond, and Sivas, to Bagdad ; and another led 
 S., near the shore of the Propontis, and across the Troad to 
 Smyrna, Ephesus, &c. In all these lines there are ruins, 
 bridges, &c., clearly marking their former existence and con 
 sequence. As respects the present time, roads, as understood 
 in Europe, are wholly unknown; but relays of horses are 
 maintained, as in the days of Xerxes, at distant intervals, and 
 are stationed at the large towns of the leading routes. The 
 most frequented road is that from Smyrna to Constantinople 
 which passes by way of Magnesia, Ak-hissar [anc. Thyatird] 
 and Moukalitsch; another goes by Mudanieh, Brusa, the 
 Olympus range, Kutaya, Afium-Kara-Hissar, Konieh, Kar- 
 aman, and Gulnar ; and a third route, proceeding in the same 
 direction from the Bosphorus, takes at Eski-Sher a direction 
 exactly due E. to Angora, and thence to Ooscat and Kaisarieh. 
 Besides the above routes, a pilgrim road leads from Constan 
 tinople S.E. through the peninsula; and there are two principal 
 caravan routes one through Ala-Shehr, Afium-Kara-Hissar, 
 and Konieh; the other by the Ak-dagh or White Mountains 
 to Adalia, and the other S. provinces. 
 
 The principal cities of Anatolia are Smyrna, Trebizond, 
 Iskenderoon, Adramyti, Angora, Sivas, Sinope, Samsoom, 
 Konieh, Kaisarieh, and Afium-Kara-Hissar. 
 
 Anatolia or Asia Minor was the seat of The Seven 
 churches which are in Asia Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, 
 Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. These were 
 all places of great note in apostolic times, though only some 
 of them are so now, and that only in a modified sense: 
 1, Ephesus was long the metropolitan see of Asia; its ruins 
 lie two short days journey S.E. Smyrna, and still include 
 some magnificent Grecian and Roman remains. 2, Smyrna, 
 a city of Ionia, is situated upon the shore of the ^gean Sea, 
 at the mouth of the Meles, 38 m. N. Ephesus. The modern 
 city, called Izmir by the Turks, contains scarcely any traces of 
 the ancient. 3, Pergamos was an important city of the Greater 
 Mysia, on the river Caicus, about 20 in. from the sea. The 
 modern Bergamo is built on or near the site of Pergamos; it 
 is a large place, and has some antique remains. 4, Thyatira 
 is completely obliterated, though many architectural frag 
 ments are strewn arouud. The modern Turkish town of Ak- 
 hissar, built on or near its site, is a large place. 5, Sardis 
 was the once flourishing capital of ancient Lydia, situated at 
 the foot of Mount Tmolus, in a fertile plain, watered by the 
 
ANATOLICO 
 
 ANCONA 
 
 golden-sanded Pactolus; it is now a heap of ruins. A miser 
 able Turkish village, called Sart, partially preserves in its 
 name, and entirely in its walls, relics of the splendour of 
 ancient Sardis. 6, Philadelphia stood about 25 m. S.E. 
 Sardis, in the valley formed by the Kodus. Hard by its site 
 is the Turkish Ala-Shelir. 7, Laodicea was the capital of the 
 Greater Phrygia ; its site, now deserted, was near the rivers 
 Lycus, Asopus, and Caprus, tributaries of the Maeander. No 
 trace of it remains. (Leake s Asia Minor; Sir C. Fellow s 
 Researches in 1 838-40 ; Ainsworth s Papers in Jour. Stat. Soc., 
 London; Dictionnaire des dates; Hommaire de Hell s Survey of 
 the Black Sea; Beaufort s Survey of the S. W. Coasts; Hamil 
 ton s Researches in Asia Minor.) 
 
 ANATOLICO, a tn. Greece, in ^Etolia, Bay of Anatolico, 
 off the Gulf of Patras, 8 m. N.W. Mesolonghi; lat. 38 24 
 N. ; Ion. 21 18 E. ; built on piles on a low island. The sur 
 rounding water of the bay, or rather lagoon, is extremely 
 shallow, rarely exceeding 3 or 4 ft. in depth. 
 
 ANAVA, or GUANAHAU, a river, Brazil, Portuguese 
 Guaiana, a tributary of the Branco or Parima. It rises in 
 the serra Aricua or Acary, the S.W. boundary of British 
 Guaiana, about lat. 2 N. ; Ion. 59 20 W. ; whence it 
 flows W.S.W., till it falls into the Branco at lat. 50 N. ; 
 Ion. 61 50 W. Its whole length is about 200 m. 
 
 ANAVELHANA, a river, Brazil, Portuguese Guaiana, 
 an affluent of the Rio Negro. It rises in about lat. 10 N. ; 
 Ion. 59 50 W., flows nearly due S., 
 and falls into that river near Toroma ; 
 lat. 3 S. ; Ion. 60 15 W. The 
 length of its course is about 220 m. 
 
 ANAZO, a considerable river, 
 Abyssinia, formed by the junction of 
 the Melee and the united streams of 
 Ancona and Sabalatte. The junc 
 tion occurs in about lat. 12 N. ; 
 Ion. 40 55 E. ; from which point the 
 Anazo flows nearly due E., taking the 
 name of the Yasso, latterly, till it 
 comes within 10 m. of the Sea of Bab- 
 el-Mandeb, when it sinks into the 
 sand. ^ 
 
 ANCA, a tn. and par. Portugal, 
 prov. Douro, dist. of, and about 8 m. 
 from Coimbra. It possesses a spring 
 remarkable for its copiousness ; and 
 valuable quarries of a fine stone, 
 partly pure white, and partly bluish, 
 which admits of being sawed, and 
 has, for a long period, been exten 
 sively exported. Pop. 1626. 
 
 ANCASTER, a par. England, co. Lincoln ; area, 2800 ac. ; 
 6 m. N.E. Grantham. Pop. in 1841, 530. 
 
 ANCENIS [anc. Andenesium], a tn. France, dep. Loire 
 Inferieure, r. bank, Loire, here spanned by an elegant sus 
 pension bridge, 20 m. N.E. Nantes, cap. can. and arrond. of 
 same name. It stands on a flat, subject to the inundations of 
 the Loire, surrounded by vine-clad hills, and overlooked by 
 a gothic castle, which commands the river. Principal build 
 ings : its handsome college and the barracks, formed out of 
 a convent of Ursuline nuns. Manufactures : Salt of tartar. 
 Its port, which, in the 15th and 16th century, is said to have 
 been reached by the tide, and to have had depth of water 
 sufficient to allow ships of war to be built at it, is now chiefly 
 used as an entrepot and station for the boats plying on the 
 river. Its trade is in corn, wine, vinegar, coal, iron, timber, 
 and cattle. During the revolutionary war in La Vendde, 
 Ancenis was the theatre of some severe and exterminating 
 contests. Pop. 3296. The arrond. is divided into 5 cans, 
 and 27 corns. Pop. 47,397. 
 
 ANCERVILLE. 1, A small tn. France, dep. Meuse, 
 12m. S.W. Bar-le-Duc. The chief trade is in Kirsch-wasser, 
 a spirit distilled from cherries, of which a considerable quan 
 tity is made here. Pop. 2208. 2, A vil., dep. Moselle, 12 
 m. from Metz. Manufactures : Haircloth. Pop. 566. 
 
 ANCHOLME (!SLE OF). See LINCOLNSHIRE. 
 
 ANCHOR ISLAND. 1, A small isl. New Zealand, N. 
 side of the entrance into Dusky Bay, S.W. extremity of New 
 
 Munster ; lat. 45 46 S. ; Ion. 166 12 E. 2, Two islands 
 
 off the E. coast of Brazil, prov. Rio Janeiro, 3 m. E. Cape Frio. 
 
 ANCHORITES, a group of small islands, S. Pacific Ocean, 
 about 280 m. N. New Guinea. The centre isl. is in lat. 
 50 S. ; Ion. 145 50 E. 
 
 ANCIAENS, a tn. Portugal, prov. Tras-os-Montes, 73 
 m. E.N.E. Oporto de Moncorvo. It is walled, and has a 
 castle, and sulphurous mineral waters. Pop. 1900. 
 
 ANCIAO, a small tn. and par. Portugal, prov. Douro, 
 dist. of, and 13 m. S.S.E. from Coimbra, on a hill near the 
 river of the same name. Pop. 1240. 
 
 ANCOLAN ISLANDS, a group of small islands in 
 the N. Pacific Ocean, off the N.W. coast of the S. end of 
 Suzon, one of the Philippine Islands. They lie close together 
 about 12 m. from the shore, in about lat. 14 20 N. ; Ion. 
 123 20 E. 
 
 ANCONA, one of the most important maritime cities of 
 the Papal States, or, the Adriatic, 1 32 m. N.E. Rome ; lat. 
 43 37 42" N. ; Ion. 13 30 30" E. (R.) ; cap. delegation of same 
 name ; built on the slope of a hill, in the form of an amphi 
 theatre, between two hills, on one of which stands the citadel, 
 and on the other the cathedral. It is divided into two parts 
 the Citta Vecchia, and the Citta Nuova ; the former occupies 
 the higher ground, and is inhabited by the poorer classes ; the 
 latter is situated along the shores of the gulf. The streets, 
 with one exception, are narrow, dirty, and irregular. Ancona 
 is the seat of a civil tribunal, of a tribunal of primary juris 
 diction, of a court of appeal, and of a bishop, and is governed 
 
 ANCONA, FROM THK 1JRF.AK WATER After Th. <lu Monrel. 
 
 by a delegate who is a prelate of the Roman church. It has 
 a college, two hospitals, 10 churches, 16 convents, and a 
 lazaretto. Among the most remarkable buildings are the 
 government palace, the townhouse, the merchant s hall, the 
 cathedral, built on the site of an ancient temple of Venus ; 
 the exchange, a stately building in the Gothic style ; and, on 
 the mole, the triumphal Corinthian arch of Trajan, built of 
 Parian marble. In 1732, Ancona was declared a free port, 
 and, with exception of Venice, it has a larger trade than any 
 other port on the same coast. In 1843, its exports, consist 
 ing of wool, skins, silk, sail cloth, tow, grain, alum, sulphur, 
 fruit, and Venetian soap, amounted to 428.219. The im 
 ports of the same year amounted to 1,020,770, consisting of 
 manufactured goods, hardware, porcelain, stoneware, glass, 
 yarn, cloths, tobacco, wax, spirituous liquors, timber, coals, 
 metal goods, hides, leather, meal, and biscuits. Of these, 
 imports to the value of 271,473 were from Britain ; and of 
 the exports 28,666, mostly oak for shipbuilding. The 
 number of vessels that sailed from Ancona, in 1843, was 
 1249; tonn., 84,750 ; the number that arrived, 1234; tonn., 
 82,783. In 1846, the number of vessels that arrived at 
 Ancona was 1455 ; tonn., 103,970 ; value of total imports, 
 980,585 ; exports, 447,608. Of the imports, 355,306 
 were from Britain, and 381,806 from Austria. Of the ex 
 ports, 92,162 were to Britain, and 116,941 to Austria. 
 Considerable quantities of British manufactures, which com 
 pose about one-half of the imports from this country, find 
 their way into Austria through Ancona. Ancona is an entre 
 pot for European goods for the Levant, and the chief point for 
 
ANCKE 
 
 ANDALUSIA 
 
 the steam communication between the latter and the Adriatic. 
 The port, which is the only good one on this side the Ad 
 riatic, between Venice and Manfrcdonia, is formed by a mole 
 and a breakwater. The former runs out from the N. part of 
 the city, nearly 2000 ft. ; it is 68 ft. high, and 100 ft. broad ; 
 on its extremity there are a battery and a lighthouse; the 
 latter runs out from the lazaretto about 2100 ft., and the 
 total space enclosed measures about 3000 ft. by 2700 ft. 
 
 ft. above the sea. The great road from Madrid to Seville and 
 Granada cuts the sierra Morena at the pass called the Des- 
 pefia-perros, 7560 ft. high. The geological features of Anda 
 lusia exhibit a great prevalence of mica slate, gneiss, and 
 other primary and transition rocks on the elevated tracts, both 
 in the N. and S., with tertiary and more recent formations in 
 the large intervening river valley. All the mountains abound 
 with mineral wealth, yielding silver and lead, antimony, cop 
 per, iron, vitriol, sulphur, coal, and marble. The principal 
 river of Andalusia is the Guadalquivir, which rises in the E. 
 part of prov. Jaen, near Cazorla, and thenca flows S.W. by 
 W., and below Seville, S.S.W., for about 320 m., entering the 
 Mediterranean at San Lucar; its principal affluents being the 
 Guadalimar, Guadiato, and Xenil, and the whole basin cover 
 ing an area of 15,040 sq. m., or considerably more than half 
 Andalusia. The rivers S. of the sierra Nevada are quite in 
 significant. The vegetation is of the character peculiar to the 
 extreme S. of Europe and the N. districts of Africa; the 
 mastic (Pistacia lentiscus), myrtle, olive, palm, banana, &c., 
 grow abundantly in the valley of the Guadalquivir, which are 
 replaced S. of the sierra Nevada by saffron, cotton, and the 
 sugar cane. Wheat, maize, barley, many varieties of fruit, and 
 different kinds of grapes, grow here, almost spontaneously ; 
 besides which, honey, silk, and cochineal form important 
 articles of culture ; but the arts of husbandry are in the most 
 backward state, and the metayer system of letting land com 
 bines with the people s natural indolence to prevent any im 
 provement. The accompanying view of a farm steading near 
 
 Three or four frigates may lie, well sheltered from all winds, 
 inside the lighthouse, moored head and stern ; but nowhere 
 can large vessels swing at their anchors. A new beacon was 
 erected, in 1842, on the Volpe, or Wolf Rock, near the en 
 trance to the harbour. Wood, provisions, vegetables, &c., I 
 are plentiful, cheap, and good. 
 
 Ancona is supposed to have been founded by a Doric colony, 
 or by a band of Syracusan patriots, who fled from the tyranny 
 of Dionysius, about 400 B.C. It subsequently fell into the 
 hands of the Romans, being taken possession of by Caesar. 
 The Emperors Trajan and Clement XII. improved and beau 
 tified the harbour. In 1798, it was taken by the French, and 
 in the following year it surrendered to the allied Russian, 
 Turkish, and Austrian army, after a long resistance. In 
 1832, it was again taken possession of by the French, who did 
 not evacuate it until 1838. All religious sects enjoy here 
 complete toleration. Pop. 3G.OOO. 
 
 ANCRE. See ALBERT. 
 
 ANCRUM, a par. and vil. Scotland, co. Roxburgh ; area, 
 8316 ac. In this parish was fought the battle of Ancrum 
 Moor, in 1544, between the Scotch and English, in which 
 the latter were defeated. Pop. in 1841, 499. 
 
 ANCYRA. See ANGORA. 
 
 ANDAD KHAN, or ANDEJAN, a considerable tn. of In 
 dependent Tartary, territory of Kokan, on the 1. bank of the 
 Sihoun; lat. 41 20 N. ; Ion. 71 27 E. ; 50 m. E.S.E. the 
 city of Kokan, situated in the midst of gardens. 
 
 ANDAIA. See ANDAYA. 
 
 ANDALUSIA [Spanish, Andalucia], a dist. in the S. of 
 Spain, celebrated for its fertility and picturesque beauty, 
 between lat. 36 and 38 C 40 N. ; and between Ion. 1 40 
 and 7 25 W. ; bounded, N. by Estremadura and New Castile, 
 E. by Murcia, S by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Por 
 tugal. Length from E. to W., 320 m. ; average breadth, 
 140 m. ; estimated area, 27,221 sq. m. It comprehends the 
 ancient Moorish kingdoms of Cordova, Sevilla, Granada, 
 and Jaen, and the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, 
 Cadiz, Jaen, Cordova, Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. It 
 is of very uneven surface, being traversed through its whole 
 extent by mountain ranges. The sierra Morena runs along 
 its N. confine, and in the S.E. rise the mountains of Granada 
 and Ronda, including numerous sierras which run E. to the 
 mouth of the Guadalquivir. Many summits of the latter 
 ranges are covered with perpetual snow, the Mulahacen rising 
 11,483ft., and the Picacho de Vcleta 11,385ft., above the 
 sea; on the former of these is the Lake of Caldera, 10,112 
 
 ANBAMTSIAN FARMSTEAD. 
 From Huron Taylor, Voyage Pittoresque en 
 
 Puerto Santa Maria, 6 m. N.E. Cadiz, will convey an idea of 
 the appearance of buildings of this kind in Andalusia, and the 
 S. of Spain generally. Situated, as it is, inside a fosse covered 
 with a strong defence of prickly aloes, the features it presents 
 are more likely to attract the eye of the painter than to please 
 that of the skilful agriculturist. By far the largest portion 
 of the soil is left for pasture land, or abandoned uninhabitable 
 wastes. The horses are the best breed in the peninsula, 
 partaking very much of the Arabian character ; the bulls of 
 Andalusia are sought after over all bull-fighting Spain ; 
 sheep (trashumantes) are reared in vast numbers, and bear an 
 abundance of good, but not fine, wool ; and the hogs reared 
 on the acorns of the mountain forest furnish hams and bacon 
 unsurpassed in any part of Europe. Wolves and bears are 
 only now and then found, and there are no venomous reptiles. 
 Game, including deer, hares, rabbits, partridges, bustards, 
 and plovers, is abundant. The chief manufactures of this 
 extensive tract, which depends almost exclusively on the soil 
 for its wealth, are woollens, silk, and leather, which are by 
 no means extensive. The Andalusians are descended in part 
 from the Moors, of whom they still preserve the leading types, 
 being dark in complexion, black eyed, of exquisitely rounded 
 shape and stalwart figures, with quick wit, ready repartee, 
 and love of exaggeration. They are eminently superstitious 
 and imaginative gasconading, fawning, cowardly, and cruel ; 
 and their intellect and energy wither under the perpetual call 
 ing on patron saints and men to do their work for them. The 
 dress, both of males and females, is gaudy and picturesque. 
 Education is in a low state, and smugglers and robbers 
 
ANDAMAN ISLANDS 
 
 145 
 
 ANDENNE 
 
 abound. Pop. 2.745,858. (Widdrington s Spain; Ford s 
 Handbook for Spain; &c.) 
 
 ANDAMAN ISLANDS, or ANDAMANS, a chain of 
 islands on the E. side of the Bay of Bengal, consisting of four 
 principal islands, and a number of smaller; the former called, 
 respectively, North Andaman, Middle Andaman, South Anda 
 man, and Little Andaman; the latter separated from the 
 others by a channel of about 45 in. in width, called Dun 
 can s Passage. The three first-named islands are separated 
 by straits so narrow, that they are often considered as one. 
 The whole chain extends from lat. 10 29 to 14 55 N. ; 
 Ion. 92 23 to 94 13 E. In this extent, N. and S., are 
 included the island of Preparis, uninhabited, except by sea 
 fowl, squirrels, and apes, and the islands of the Cow and Calf, 
 which, by some, are excluded from this group. The largest 
 island, Middle Andaman, is from 55 to 60 m. in length, and 
 from 15 to 20 in breadth ; N. Andaman, 48 m. in length, and 
 15 in breadth ; S. Andaman, 50 m. in length, and varying 
 from 10 to 20 in breadth; these three forming an all but 
 continuous island of upwards of 150 m. in length. Little 
 Andaman is about 30 m. in length, by about 18 to 20 m. 
 in breadth. In the centre of the largest island there is a 
 mountain, called Saddle Peak, about 2400 ft. high. These 
 islands are mountainous, and form the continuation of the vol 
 canic line N. from Sumatra. The only active volcano, how 
 ever, in the group, is on Barren Island, which is uninhabited, 
 and sparingly covered with shrubby vegetation. It is 1700 ft. 
 high ; and its last recorded eruption took place in 1792. 
 
 There are no rivers in any of the islands, but only brooks, 
 which in the rainy season are swollen into torrents, and in 
 the summer season are quite dry. Wells, however, are nu 
 merous. The chief riches of the group consists in wood, 
 with which about nine-tenths of their surface is covered. 
 Teak, dammar, red wood, iron wood, ebony, the turpentine 
 tree, catechu, cotton, melons, aloes, bamboos, ratans, and 
 vast quantities of cocoa nuts, whence two of the islets are 
 named, constitute the most important vegetable productions. 
 There are few wild animals ; the principal are the rat, the 
 snake, the guana or lizard, and a number of diminutive swine. 
 Birds are neither numerous nor in great variety ; the Hirundo 
 esculenta builds in the sea cliffs its edible nests. Pish are 
 very abundant, more especially during the N.E. monsoons, 
 and constitute, along with shell fish, the principal food of the 
 inhabitants, who are true ichthyophagi, resorting to wild fruits, 
 roots, rats, snakes, and lizards, only when fish are scarce. 
 The natives do not eat their animal food raw, but roast it on 
 the coals. They are of the Papuan race, generally about 
 5 ft. in height, of a deep black complexion, with woolly hair, 
 "VOL. I, 
 
 flat noses, thick lips, small red eyes, and protuberant bellies. 
 They wear no covering ; live in the rudest habitations, com 
 posed of four poles intertwined with ratans, their bed a heap 
 of dried leaves ; they have no implements of iron, their spears 
 and arrows being pointed with fish bones, or wood hardened 
 in the fire. They carry bows 4 or 5 ft. long ; and, to protect 
 themselves from insects, smear their bodies daily with, mud, 
 which, added to the red ochre with which they bedaub their 
 hair, gives them a most hideous appearance. The canoes 
 with which they fish, and which they manage with dexterity, 
 are made of bamboo ; but when visiting the islands they use 
 small rafts. In 1791, the English effected a settlement near 
 the S. extremity of the Great Andaman ; but in 1793, removed 
 it to Port Cornwallis, on the E. side, and near the N. ex 
 tremity. The object of the undertaking was the procuring 
 of a good harbour to shelter ships during the N.E. monsoon, 
 and to receive convicts from Bengal; but in 1796, the situa 
 tion was abandoned as unhealthy. All the attempts then or 
 subsequently made to establish any kind of intercourse with 
 the natives proved ineffectual, as, on every occasion, they 
 manifested the most hostile disposition. The pop. of the 
 entire group does not exceed 3000. 
 
 ANDAYA, or ANDAIA, a river, Brazil, an affluent of the 
 Francisco, prov. Minas Geraes, rises in the sierra Matta 
 Gorda, about lat. 19 10 S. ; flows N.E. by N., and falls into 
 the Francisco at lat. 18 10 S. ; its whole course being about 
 120 m. 
 
 AND AYE, or HENDAYE, a small seaport tn. France, 
 dep. Basses-Pyrenees, 12 m. S.W. Bayonne, on r. bank, Bi- 
 dassoa, a little above its embouchure. It has a small fort 
 and several distilleries, in which excellent brandy is produced. 
 It was near this place that the Duke of Wellington crossed 
 the Bidassoa in 1814, and gained the first permanent footing 
 in the French territory. Pop. 470. 
 
 ANDEER, atn. Switzerland, can. Grisons, 1. bank, Rhine, 
 14 m. S.S.W. Coire. It stands about 3400 ft. above the 
 level of the sea ; has a prettily situated parish church, and 
 mineral springs, at which a bathing establishment has been 
 erected. The springs are very copious, but not much fre 
 quented. A very large landslip or beryfall occurred above 
 Andeer in 1835. Pop. 549. 
 
 ANDEJAN. See ANDAD KHAN. 
 
 ANDELFINGEN, a vil. Switzerland, can. of, and 18 
 m. N. from Zurich, cap. bail, of same name, 1. bank, Thur, 
 over which is a covered bridge. It is the seat of a civil 
 court. The inhabitants are chiefly occupied in agricultural 
 pursuits. Several engagements took place in the vicinity, in 
 1799, between the Austrians, Russians, and French. Pop., 
 
 including that of some adjacent hamlets, 2400. -The BAIL., 
 
 which lies on both sides the Thur, and borders on Schaff- 
 hausen and the Rhine, is well cultivated, fruitful, and pro 
 duces good grapes, grain, and hemp. Pop. 14,580. 
 
 ANDELLE, a small river, France, dep. Seine Inferieure. 
 It rises near Forges, and falls into the Seine a few miles 
 below Pont de-1 Arche, after a course, from N. to S., of about 
 30m. 
 
 ANDELYS (LES), two tns. France, called Le Grand and 
 Le Petit Andely, distant half a mile from each other, dep. 
 Eure, r. bank, Seine, 19m. S.E. Kouen, and 4 m. from the Paris 
 and Rouen Railway, cap. arrond. of same name. Grand An 
 dely was formerly fortified, and part of its defences still exists. 
 Its houses are ill built, and its streets narrow ; but its church 
 is one of the finest in the department. Petit Andely, which 
 lies nearest the Seine, here spanned by a suspension bridge, 
 owes its origin to Richard Coeur de Lion, who, in 1195, built 
 here, on his return from Palestine, the chateau Gaillard, in 
 its time one of the strongest fortresses in France, and in 
 which David II., King of Scotland, found an asylum in 1334. 
 This interesting building is now wholly a ruin, it having for 
 a considerable time been used as a quarry whence to obtaizi 
 stones for building convents. Manufactures: Fine cloth 
 cassimeres, cotton net, linen, earthenware, woollen and cotton 
 thread. Trade in grain, wool, cattle, linen, &c. Pop. 3456. 
 
 ANDENNE, a tn. Belgium, cap. can. of same name, 
 prov. of, and 13 m. E. Namur, r. bank, Meusc. It has a 
 church, five chapels, and a townhouse ; but none of them build 
 ings of note. The great staples are delft ware, porcelain, and 
 tobacco pipes, for all of which Andenne is famous. It has 
 paper mill and a cotton mill, both driven by steam ; a 
 19 
 
ANDERAB 
 
 146 
 
 ANDES 
 
 printfield, several bleachfields, tile works, a work for making 
 minium (red lead or vermilion), and a blast furnace. In the 
 neighbourhood are beds of pipe clay, quarries of marble, and 
 mines of lead, iron, and a kind of coarse coal called terre- 
 houille. The railway from Namur to Liege passes near An- 
 denne. Pop. 4885. 
 
 ANDERAB, or INDERAB, a tu. Tartary, in Budakshan, 
 about 85 m. N.N.E. Cabool ; lat. 35 43 N. ; Ion. 74 55 15" 
 E. (c.) It lies at the junction of the rivers Anderab and 
 Kiasan, at the foot of a hill, and surrounded by fine gardens, 
 fruit trees, and vineyards. It is a populous place ; and con 
 tains the storehouses in which are kept the silver brought 
 from Harianaand Bendjehir, supposed to be a mine, or mines. 
 (Hitter s Erdkutule.) 
 
 ANDERAVI A, or IXDERABIA, a small isl. Persian Gulf; 
 lat. 26 41 N. ; Ion. 53 39 E. (K.) It is 4 m. long, low, 
 level, and narrow; separated from the mainland by a strait 
 1 m. broad, the navigation of which is very dangerous. 
 Vessels are supplied here with fresh water. 
 
 ANDERBY, a par. England, co. Lincoln ; 1080 ac. ; 
 5 m. E. Alford. Pop. in 1841, 243. 
 
 ANDERMATT, or URSERN, a vil. Switzerland, can. Uri, 
 20 m. S. Altorf, on an elevated plain, 4500 ft. above the sea 
 level, on the great route over the St. Gothard into Italy. It 
 lias a pretty church, two chapels, a convent of Capuchins, and 
 a townhall. Cattle rearing and the transit trade are the chief 
 occupations. The cheese produced here is highly esteemed, 
 but from its softness is incapable of transportation. Though 
 a mere village, Andermatt is much visited by strangers, on 
 account of the interesting scenery of the valley. But the 
 principal object of attraction is the celebrated Devil s Bridge, 
 which spans a fearful chasm, at the bottom of which the 
 Eeuss rushes downwards with great violence. The old narrow 
 arch, said to be a construction of the 12th century, rises 75 ft. 
 above the stream. This rugged pass was, in 1799, the scene 
 of some desperate skirmishes between the Austrians, Russians, 
 and French. Pop. G63. 
 
 ANDERNACH [anc. Antoniacum, or Anthenethum], a tn. 
 Prussia, prov. Lower Ehine, gov. of, and 10 m. N.W. from 
 Coblentz, in a plain, 1. bank, Ehine. It is surrounded by 
 a strong wall, with massy gates, which give it an air of 
 great antiquity, but its streets are narrow and dirty. It is of 
 Roman origin, Drusus C ajsar having encamped on the spot 
 before the Christian era, and built a bridge over the Rhine. 
 In 355, it was pillaged by the Alemanni, and, four years after, 
 was restored by the Emperor Julian. The building most 
 deserving of notice in Andernach is the Dom, or parish 
 church of the 13th century, highly ornamented with bas 
 reliefs, and interesting specimens of sculpture. In the in 
 terior is a Roman tomb. The Coblentz gate is an elegant 
 Gothic structure. Near it, on the Coblentz road, are the ruins 
 of the castellated palace of the Archbishops of Cologne ; and 
 not far off, close to the river, stands an old gateway, supposed 
 to have been built by the Romans. Andernach has long been 
 famous for the production of two peculiar articles millstones 
 and trass or cement. The former were used by the Romans 
 and are still exported to all parts of the world. They are 
 composed of a species of basaltic lava, which is easily cut into 
 large slabs, and used as door posts, lintels, &e. The trass is 
 a species of tufa, which is chiefly found in the neighbouring 
 quarries of Brohl, and is supposed to have been formed either 
 by a torrent of volcanic mud, or showers of pumice and ashes, 
 which, falling into a lake, have then mixed with the materials 
 deposited by it, and been converted into stone. To prepare 
 it for use, it is ground to powder by mills, and then possesses 
 the property of hardening under water. The ancients used it 
 in the solid state for sarcophagi; and in the quarries of Brohl, 
 votive tablets, with Roman inscriptions, have been discovered. 
 In addition to the millstones and trass, Andemach has a 
 variety of products paper, leather, potash, earthen pipes, 
 wood charcoal ; and mineral water resembling seltzer, but still 
 more effervescent, obtained from a spring in the neighbour 
 hood. Near Andernach, various rafts of timber which descend 
 the Rhine are collected into one great float, 1000 ft. long and 
 90 ft. wide, destined for Dordrecht in Holland. Pop. 3200. 
 
 ANDERLECHT, a suburb of Brussels (which sec). 
 
 ANDEROT. See UNDEROOT. 
 
 ANDERSON, a par. England, co. Dorset ; 750 ac. ; 7 m. 
 S.W. Blandford. Pop. in 1841, 43. 
 
 ANDERSON, the name of several places, U. States:!, 
 A dist. and vil., S. Carolina. 2, A co. Kentucky. 3, A co. 
 Tennessc. 4, A township, Ohio. 5, A township, Iowa. 
 
 ANDERSON (CAPE), the E. point of the island of St. 
 Lawrence, at the entrance of Behring s Straits ; lat. 63 N. 
 Ion. 168 30 W. 
 
 ANDERSON S INLET, Australia, S. Bass s Straits, 
 between Capes Liptrap and Patterson. It is full of mud banks, 
 and available for boats only. 
 
 ANDES (THE), a range of mountains, of such vast extent 
 and altitude, as to render them one of the most remarkable 
 physical features of the globe. It commences at a point about 
 50 m. N. of the Straits of Magalhacns, and about the same 
 distance E. from the shores of the Pacific. From this point 
 it proceeds in a connected line along the W. coast of S. 
 America, at a distance from the sea varying from 20 to 
 160 m.; the former occurring in Bolivia, about lat. 18 S.; 
 the latter in Chili, between lat. 35 and 40 S. Passing 
 through Peru, it enters Colombia, where, about lat. 2 28 N.; 
 Ion. 76 31 W., near Popayan, it throws off two branches, 
 taking a N.E. direction towards the Caribbean sea. The 
 main range, continuing its N. course, but now presenting much 
 lower altitudes, traverses the Isthmus of Panama or Darien, 
 the state of Nicaragua, Guatimala, Mexico, and passing 
 throughout the entire length of N. America from S. to N., 
 under the names of the Oregon or Rocky Mountains, terminates 
 at Point Barrow on the Arctic Ocean, about 200 m. N. W. from 
 the mouth of the Mackenzie river; their whole length, thus 
 considered, amounting to about 10,000 m. The name Andes 
 is, however, usually restricted to that part of the chain belong 
 ing to S. America. It docs not, however, consist of a single 
 ridge, but of a scries of ridges, running more or less parallel 
 to each e other, between which are several elevated plains or 
 table lands. These mountains are known, also, in several 
 places in S. America, by the name of the Cordilleras ; but a strict 
 and well-defined appropriation of these names has not yet 
 been made, they being called indifferently by the one and the 
 other, and hence a good deal of confusion and inaccuracy. A 
 late intelligent traveller, J. J. von Tschudi, suggests that 
 the name Andes should be restricted to the E. chain, and that 
 of Cordillera to the W., or that nearest the Pacific. 
 
 The Andes extend through so great a space, and present 
 such a variety of aspects and conditions, that, in order to de 
 scribe its ranges with more accuracy, it has been customary to 
 divide this immense chain into four portions the Patagonian, 
 Chilian, Peruvian and Bolivian, and the Colombian Andes, 
 from the names of the countries through which they pass. 
 
 1. The Patagonian Andes, which extend about 800 m., 
 are generally considered to commence in Tierra del Fuego, 
 on the insulated Cape Horn (3000 ft.) in lat. 55 59 S. ; and 
 Ion. 67 21 W. The mountains of this insular group, how 
 ever, seem to be distinct from the continental chain, which, 
 accordingly, we reckon as extending from lat. 48 to 42 S. 
 The range presses close on the Pacific Ocean ; and the average 
 elevation scarcely exceeds 3000 ft., though several summits 
 rise some thousands of feet higher, namely, Mount Melimoyu 
 (7400 ft.), Yanteles (8030 ft.), and the volcanoes of Corcobado 
 (7510 ft.), and Minchinmadom (8000 ft.) The lower portions 
 of the W. slope are clothed with dense forests. Of the other 
 side we have no knowledge, although the width of the chain 
 scarcely reaches 40 m. 
 
 2. The Chilian Andes commence opposite the N. end of the 
 island of Chiloe, and extent N. about 1250 m., to lat. 24 S. ; 
 with an average width of about 130 m. They form a single 
 chain as far as the 35th S. parallel ; N. of which, at the 
 volcano of Peteroa, a double range may be traced, a portion 
 of which is called the Paramilla range, running parallel to 
 the main chain, and separated therefrom by the longitudinal 
 valley of Aspaltata, a barren district only 15 m. wide, but 
 extending about 160 m. N., as far as the river San Juan. 
 This chain seems to be connected, further N., with the Fama- 
 tima range, E. of which is the sierra Velasco, province of Rioja, 
 in La Plata; and also in the provinces of Catamaraca and 
 Salta there are numerous offshoots and parallel ranges. The 
 principal peaks, proceeding N., are the volcanoes of Antuco 
 (16,000 ft.), Maypu (15,000 ft.), and Tupungato (15,000 ft.); 
 but the culminatiiiff point, not only of this portion, but of the 
 entire range of tJie Andes, is the yiant porphyritic Nevada 
 of Aconcagua, which rises, according to Cants. Fitzroy and 
 
ANDES 
 
 14? 
 
 ANDES 
 
 Beechy, 23,910 ft. above the sea, and is distinctly visible 
 from Valparaiso, 100 m. distant. The line of perpetual snow, 
 in these latitudes, is about 14,000 ft. above the sea. The 
 Chilian Andes, under the 35th S. parallel, are about 150 m. 
 from the Pacific ; but this distance decreases to about 80 m. 
 in the latitude of Valparaiso. Between the Andes and the 
 shore are extensive plains, elevated from 1000 to 1500 ft. 
 above the sea ; and these are mostly clothed with forest trees, 
 and a rich vegetation ; but the more elevated mountain re 
 gions are rocky, and almost wholly without plants. 
 
 3. The Peruvian and Bolivian Andes comprise that portion 
 of the range which, from the 24th to the 6th S. parallels, 
 include a length of 1250 m. From its S. end to the Cerro 
 Cliorolque, in lat. 21 7 S.; Ion. 65 40 W., which is about 
 95 m. S. by W. Potosi, the Andes form one grand and con 
 tinuous chain; but N. of this point the range bifurcates, 
 intercepting a lofty table land or longitudinal valley of the 
 Desaguadero and Lake Titicaca. Both these parallel Cordil 
 leras the W. or coast range of which is called the cordillera 
 of the coast, the other or E. the cordillera of Bolivia or Ancu- 
 ma are of very great elevation, and were once thought to 
 comprise the highest summits of the whole range ; but Mr. 
 Pentland s observations in his second survey (1836-38) have 
 proved this conclusion erroneous. 
 
 The following list comprises some of the principal summits 
 on each side of the range, together with their position and 
 altitude as given by that gentleman : 
 
 1 . Cordillera 
 of the Coast. 
 
 2. Cordillera 
 of Bolivia or 
 \neuma. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Sahama 
 
 Parinaeota 
 
 Gualateiri 
 
 Pomaiape 
 
 Volcano of Arcquipa.. 
 Chipieani 
 
 S. lat. W. Ion. Feet. 
 
 ...18 7 . ..68 52 22,350 
 
 ...18 10 ...69 11 22,030 
 
 ...20 13 ...69 17 22,000 
 
 ...Is 8 ...69 3 21,700 
 
 ..1C- 19 ...71 23 20,300 
 
 ..17 43 ...69 47 19,740 
 
 Illimani (illi, snow) 16 39 ...67 48 N. peak..21,0(!0 
 
 Do ... S. peak.. .21,149 
 
 Ancoliuma 15 52 ...68 33 N. pcak..21,043 
 
 1)0 ... S. peak...21,286 
 
 Chachacomani 16 ...68 25 N. peak..20,235 
 
 9 St^Z?:..}"V <" 20,60 
 
 Mesada Nevado 16 30 ...67 52 19,356 
 
 Angel Peak 16 10 ...68 14 19,060 
 
 Cacaca 16 25 ...68 58 18,210 
 
 Cololo 14 57 ...69 10 17,930 
 
 Hence it will be seen that, even in this district, the highest are 
 W., not E. of the Desaguadero and Lake Titicaca, as was 
 long thought by the most eminent geographers, and, among 
 others, by Humboldt, and by Pentland himself. (See his 
 paper on the Bolivian Andes, Geo. Jour., vol. v. pp. 70-89.) 
 
 These parallel Cordilleras, however, the united breadth of 
 which nowhere exceeds 230 m., are united in various points 
 by enormous transverse groups or mountain knots, or else by 
 single ranges crossing between them like dikes. The de 
 scent to the Pacific is exceedingly steep ; the dip is also very 
 rapid to the E., whence offsets diverge to the level plains. 
 The table land of the Desaguadero, thus enclosed, has itself 
 an absolute altitude of 12,900 ft., a length of 400 m., and 
 an area of 150,000 sq. m. A large E. offset, the sierra de 
 Cochabamba, leaves the E. cordillera under the 17th parallel, 
 bounding the rich plain of Cochabamba N., and ending nearly 
 under the 63d W. meridian, at Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The 
 two main Cordilleras once more unite in the group of Vilcanota, 
 in lat. 15 S., about 120 m S.E. of Cuzco, which is itself 8370 
 ft. above the sea ; and the united range then runs about 280 
 m. N.VV. to the town of Huanaco, whence it runs N.N.W. in 
 two ridges, enclosing a plateau 11,000 ft. high, named Pasco 
 or Huauuco, in lat. 10 40 3., where the Andes separate into 
 three nearly parallel chains the E., Central, and W. cordil- 
 leras, which enclose between them the rivers Huallaga and 
 Upper Maraiion ; the W. or coast cordillera rnnning N. as 
 far as the group of Loja, near the S. extremity of Ecuador. 
 
 4. The Colombian Andes, or Andes of Quito. This por 
 tion of the range may be considered as commencing in 6 lat. 
 S., opposite the Point Aguja, where it takes a course nearly 
 due N., forming, as in Chili, a single mass or rocky plateau, 
 80 m. broad, covered with a double series of highly-elevated 
 summits, enclosing longitudinal valleys, one of which, that of 
 Cuenca, in the group of Assouan, is 15,520 ft. high, or nearly 
 within the region of perpetual snow. N. of this point the 
 c-hain again divides, the W. range comprising Mounts Chiin- 
 borazo (21,424 ft.), Iliniza (17,380 ft.), and Picliincha (15,924 
 
 ft.); while on the E. range are the volcanoes Saniray (16,138 
 ft), Tunguragua(16,424 ft.), Cotopaxi (18,875 ft.), Antisana 
 (19,137 ft.), and Mount Cayambe (19,535 ft.) Shortly after 
 entering New Granada, crossing the equator, the chain, in 
 lat. 1 & N., again meets in the knot or plateau of Los Pastes, 
 on which are the volcanoes Cumbal (15,620 ft.), and Chiles , 
 but, a little N. of the city of Pastos, it once more bifurcates, 
 enclosing the mountain plain of Almaguer, comprising the 
 volcano of Purace (17,034 ft.) on its E. branch ; and finally, 
 somewhat N. the town of Popayan, the Andes separate into 
 three distinct ridges the sierra di Choco, running N. to the 
 Isthmus of Panama ; the sierra di Quindiu, running E. of the 
 river Cauca ; and the sierra Somma Paz, extending E. of the 
 Magdalena to Lake Maracaybo and the city of Valencia in 
 Venezuela. N. of the 5th N. parallel, the only summits within 
 the snow line on these Cordilleras belong to the E. chain, which 
 also is very precipitous on its E. slope. The plain of Bogota 
 lies at an elevation of 8730 ft. On the Quindiu or central 
 chain is the volcano of Tolima (18,020 ft.), in lat. 4 46 N. ; 
 Ion. 75 37 W. The Choco or coast chain is of compara 
 tively small elevation, its highest point not exceeding 9000 
 ft. The mountains of Panama, which join the Andes N., may 
 be considered as a continuation of the sierra di Choco. 
 
 Passes and Roads of the Andes. This gigantic mountain 
 chain is traversed in its different parts by numerous roads or 
 passes, at heights almost equal to those of the extreme sum 
 mits of the European ranges. Most of them are narrow, 
 rugged, steep, and sometimes slippery and dangerous, pass 
 ing through gorges, across yawning chasms, and up nearly 
 perpendicular rocks ; nor can they be attempted with success, 
 except by the active and well -practised native, or the enter 
 prising, courageous, and well-provided traveller. It is worthy 
 of remark, likewise, that nearly all these roads cross (tor 1 ridge, 
 run transversely and direct, not, as is sometimes the case in 
 the Alps, by a circuitous course through the longitudinal 
 valleys. Subjoined is a list of most of the known mountain 
 passes, with their position, connected localities, and highest 
 elevation, commencing with the Andes of Chili, those of 
 Patagonia being as yet quite unknown : 
 Names. 
 
 1. ( Portillo, lat. 33 40 S 
 
 Chilian \ Penqucmes, do. do 
 
 Andes. ( Ciimlire. lat. 32 52 S.... 
 
 Ilolivian 
 and Pe- 
 
 Pass of Tola] 
 ass of Con 
 
 lea 
 
 rl acheta.. 
 Pass of Pacuam 
 
 Pass of Gualillas, lat. 17 
 
 50- S.. 
 
 Pass of Cliullunquiani .. . . 
 
 Feet. 
 
 from Santiago to F.stacada...! t,365 
 do. do. do. do ....... 13,210 
 
 from Valparaiso toMendo/.a. 12,450 
 from Potosi to Oruro ......... 14,190 
 
 do. do. do ............ 14,040 
 
 ( from La Paz to tlie ) , , ,, , 
 1 Valley of the Beni... [ 15 349 
 Arica to La Paz 
 
 . do. 
 from 
 
 do. 
 
 14,750 
 do ............ 15,160 
 
 i l a to Pu " ...... 15 590 
 
 t. If 
 Angostura ................... between TacoraSt lake Titieara 10,620 
 
 Pass bv San Mateo, lat. ) from Lima to Tarnia and ) , - ~ rr . 
 1148 S ........... \ Paseo ............. 16,760 
 
 Alto de Tacaibiunba Pass. [ r T . . .. (15,135 
 
 Alto de Lnclm.ni.il Pass... [ from Jau J !l to > \ l^SO 
 
 cJL, J H l" ur/.. 1 ! 1 . 6 P . aram .. de } * A1 - si *> Cnene- ....... 15,528 
 
 Andes. ( RoadovertheQuinuiuPass do. do. to Cart ago ....... 11,502 
 
 Besides the routes just mentioned, a great commercial road 
 runs longitudinally along the Andes the whole distance from 
 Truxillo, lat. 8 5 S., to Popayan, lat. 2 25 N., in the valley 
 of the Cauca, not much less than 1000 m. It runs by Loja 
 (6770 ft.), and by a pass over the Paramo de Asstiay to Cuenca 
 and Quito (9543 ft.), whence it proceeds by the Paramo de 
 Bolicha (11,500 ft.), to Pasto and Almaguer (7440ft.), and 
 Papayan (5720 ft.) Six roads are reported to cross the sierra 
 di Choco, but they are difficult and steep, practicable only by 
 carriage on the backs of the natives. Those most used are 
 from Cali on the Cauca to Port Buenaventura, from Cartago 
 to Novita, and from Antioquia to the Rio Atrato. Many of 
 these roads are exceedingly difficult to traverse, not only from 
 the great height to which they ascend, but likewise from 
 their roughness, unevenness, and narrowness, winding as they 
 often do along brinks of enormous precipices, and present 
 ing so limited a pathway, that frequently it becomes neces 
 sary to re-adjust the burdens on the mules backs, lest, being 
 left an inch or so too broad, the poor animal may be driven 
 over into the gulf below. Subjoined is a view of the pass 
 near Tacora, a village in the Bolivian Andes, on the road 
 between Arica and La Paz, and situated 13,690 ft. above the 
 sea level. The pass itself is understood to be 14,400 ft. above 
 
ANDES 
 
 148 
 
 ANDES 
 
 the son, though Lieut. Ashe, E. N., made it, by the boiling point 
 of water, 18,000 ft. The nearest truncated peak is the volcano 
 of Chipicani, 19,710 ft. high. These paths lead across que- 
 bradas or ravine*, bridged sometimes by frozen snow on which 
 
 TACORA PASS. From n Sketch liy Lieut. Ashe, R.N. 
 
 the mules cross. At times also progress is completely im 
 peded by the large masses of rock that fall down and block 
 up the path, frequently preventing for a time the passage of 
 mules. *In such cases, or where the road has been swept 
 away, or where the path is inaccessible to four-footed ani 
 mals, burdens are borne by the cargueros or carriers, who 
 not only transport baggage from one valley to another, but 
 also, in a chair strapped to their back, carry the traveller 
 likewise : an easy mode of locomotion, and not dangerous, 
 though the carguero generally takes the steepest declivities, 
 when, were the traveller not to lie back in his chair, both he 
 and his bearer might be precipitated to the bottom. The 
 accompanying view is of a remarkable pass between Tacora 
 and Lake Titicaca. It is about 10 m. long, and the river 
 which has formed it has, at the same time, cut the rocks into 
 curious castellated forms. The pathway is blocked up by a 
 fallen mass of rock. The difficulty of travelling in these 
 
 ch by Lieut, Anile, R.N. 
 
 regions presents a serious obstacle to the progress of com 
 merce and of general improvement, and tends much to pre 
 serve the primitive habits of the people, by shutting them 
 out in a great measure from intercourse with the external 
 world. 
 
 Rivera and Lakes. From the Andes rise two of the 
 largest water systems of the world the Amazon and its afflu 
 ents, and the La Plata and its affluents. Besides which, in 
 the N., from its slopes flow the Magdalen;i to the Caribbean 
 
 Sea, and some tributaries to the Orinoco ; and in the S. the 
 rivers Colorado, Negro, and some smaller streams. All these 
 rivers flow towards the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain chain 
 pressing so close upon the Pacific Ocean, no streams of import 
 ance flow from its W. slopes. The number of 
 lakes interspersed through this vast mountain sys 
 tem is not great ; in this respect presenting a strik 
 ing contrast to the Swiss Alps. The largest and 
 most important, and only one worthy of notice, is 
 that of Titicaca, on the Bolivian plateau. It is 
 12,850 ft. above the sea level, about 115 m. long, 
 by 35 broad, surrounded by lofty mountains. On 
 its banks arc some considerable towns, and its 
 waters are navigated. 
 
 G -ologi/, <{-c. In considering the geology of the 
 Andes, the first fact that strikes the observer is 
 the vast development of volcanic force along the 
 whole length of the chain, and even continued N. 
 through Guatimala and Mexico. These volcanic 
 vents seem to occur in linear groups, the most S. 
 of which is that of Chili, extending from the 42d 
 to the 33d parallel, and comprising, besides, more 
 than a dozen extinct volcanoes, 2 1 still in a state 
 of ignition ; the more remarkable of which are 
 Tupungato (15,100 ft.), Antuco (13,000 ft.), and 
 Minchinmadom (8000 ft.) From the 30th to the 
 27th parallels, no volcanic action is to be found; 
 but in the Bolivian Andes, and principally W. of 
 Lake Titieaca, are eight active craters, among 
 i which may be mentioned Gualatieri (22.000 ft.), Atacama 
 [ (18,000 ft.), Chipicani (19,740 ft.), and Arequipa (18,400 ft.) 
 Further N., as far as the 2d S. parallel, there are no active 
 volcanoes ; but here we arrive at a district of highly volcanic 
 character, comprising other eight lofty summits, now in an 
 igneous state Sangay, Tungaragua, Cotopaxi, Antisana, Im- 
 babura, Cumbal, Pasto, and Purace. As respects the geolo 
 gical formations of this gigantic range, granite, which is 
 abundant in Tierra del Fuego and Patagonia, seems to be the 
 base of the whole ; but it comes so rarely to the surface in the 
 N. parts of the chain, that, according to Humboldt, a person 
 might travel for years in the Andes of Peru without meeting 
 this species of rock ; and he never saw any at a greater abso 
 lute elevation than 11,500 ft. Gneiss is sometimes found in 
 connection with the granite ; but mica schist is by far the 
 commonest of all the crystalline rocks. Quartz is likewise 
 extremely abundant, generally mixed with mica, and rich in 
 gold and specular iron. Vast tracts of red sand 
 stone, with gypseous and saliferous marls, occur 
 near Quito, and not only on various parts of tho 
 main range, but in E. Colombia and Venezuela 
 they spread over immense tracts, here and there 
 associated with coal, as in the Andes of Pasco in 
 Peru. Porphyry and greenstone abound all over 
 the range at every elevation, both on the slopes 
 and extreme ridges; and trachyte is almost as 
 abundant as porphyry, both in Peru and Chili, 
 great masses of it, from 14,000 to 18,000 ft. thick, 
 being visible on Chimborazo and Pichincha. Ba 
 salt, of columnar structure, enclosing olivine, and 
 overlaid by thick beds of clay, is found on the 
 table land of Quito, near Popayan, and on the W. 
 bank of the Cauca. As respects volcanic products, 
 the W. face of the Andes presents immense quan 
 tides of lava, tufa, and obsidian, none of which 
 are found on the E. side; this remark applies 
 especially to that part of the chain lying between 
 Chili and the equator. Fossil remains are by no 
 means common ; but in the limestone strata of the 
 coast, towards the N. extremity of the range, 
 Humboldt found many marine shells, of the silur- 
 ian period, about 30 m. from the coast; and Portland observed 
 others of the same era, at a height of 17,500 ft., on Mount 
 Antakawa, in Bolivia, as well as in several other parts. 
 
 Earthquakes. Many of the volcanoes, as before observed, 
 are in a state either of constant or occasional action ; it cannot, 
 therefore, be matter of surprise that there should be frequent 
 and violent earthquakes. All the districts of the Andes sys 
 tem, but Chili especially, have suffered more severely from 
 these oscillations than any other part of the world ; and amow* 
 
ANDES 
 
 149 
 
 ANDES 
 
 the towns either destroyed or greatly injured by these visita 
 tions may be mentioned Bogota, Quito, Riobamba, Lima, 
 Callao, Valparaiso, and Concepcion. In 1819, Copiapo was 
 entirely overturned, not a house being left standing. Con 
 cepcion was twice destroyed in 1730 and 1751 ; and on Nov. 
 21, 1822, an earthquake was felt on the same day, not only 
 there, in lat. 37 N., but at Lima, in lat. 12 N., more than 1700 
 in. distant ; it was on this occasion that Valparaiso, Melipella, 
 and Quillota, were all but completely annihilated. This 
 earthquake, too, had the remarkable effect of upheaving the 
 land on the coast, upwards of 100 in. in extent, to the height 
 of 3 or 4 ft., and elevating a portion of the shore above high- 
 water mark. These shocks continued at brief intervals till 
 the autumn of 1823 ; and since that time the volcanoes of 
 Maypfi, until then for many years quiescent, have had frequent 
 eruptions. In fact, earthquakes, slight or more serious, are 
 of yearly occurrence, and faint oscillations of the soil are re 
 garded with scarcely more attention than a hail storm in the 
 temperate zone. When they assume a serious and destructive 
 character, however, they strike natives, as well as travellers, 
 with impressions of awe and dread, which no familiarity with 
 their occurrence can at all weaken. The native, when aroused 
 from sleep by the shock, rushes forth in terror into the open 
 air ; and the traveller, although he may before have treated 
 the matter with levity, and mocked at the fears of those 
 around him, is in turn panic-stricken, and involuntarily seeks 
 safety in flight (Tschudis Pern, pp. 109-172). 
 
 Mineral Produce. The Andes are richer in the precious 
 metals than any country in the world, excepting the plateau 
 of Mexico, and the rivers of California ; but, however great 
 the supplies that have been obtained from them, there can be 
 no question that the produce of the mines would be immensely 
 increased, if a rational and scientific method of operation were 
 substituted for the present rude and clumsy mode of working. 
 In Chili, the largest gold diggings are in the districts of Pe- 
 torea, Coquimbo, and Copiapo ; the richest in Peru are in the 
 provinces of Pataz and Huailas, and on the banks of the Tipuani, 
 E. of the Lake Titicaca ; and in New Granada, the most pro 
 ductive lavaderos or washings are in the provinces of Antio- 
 quia and Choco, in the valley of the river Cauca ; and on the 
 Pacific, in the district of Barbacoas. The largest piece of 
 gold ever found in New Granada weighed 25 Ibs. ; but, near 
 La Paz, one has been found of nearly double that weight. As 
 respects the annual produce of this metal, no very exact esti 
 mate can be formed, but it probably somewhat exceeds in 
 value 1,200,000 sterling. Silver occurs in Chili, on the 
 Cerro de Uspallata, 24 in. N. by W. Mendoza, where the ore 
 yields about 50 per cent, of pure silver. The Peruvian Andes 
 have numerous silver mines scattered over their whole extent, 
 from the province of Caxamarca S. to the confines of Chili ; 
 but incomparably the richest are the mines of Lauricacha, in 
 the Cerro de Pasco, which have been worked upwards of two 
 centuries. The returns fluctuate exceedingly, but they may 
 average annually about 2,500,000 oz. ; which, at 4s. Qd. per oz., 
 are valued at 512,500. The mines of Chota likewise, which 
 are situated on Mount Hualgayoc (13,300 ft.), are productive. 
 The ore, which is richer even than that of Pasco, lies either 
 on or very near the surface ; and the returns may average 
 annually about 670,200 oz., of the value of 184,300 sterling. 
 Close to the Pacific, at Huantajaya, in the district of Arica, 
 are several mines celebrated for the quantity of virgin silver 
 found therein, sometimes in masses of great weight. But of 
 all the mines of S. America, the most famed are those of the 
 Cerro de Potosi, lat. 19 36 S., which is perforated, in all 
 directions, by thousands of openings, some of which are within 
 100 ft. of the summit (16,000 ft.) In order to drain the lower 
 mines of Potosi, an adit has been constructed, l m. long, and 
 14 ft. in height and width. In New Granada, likewise, there 
 are rich veins of silver ; but no mines have as yet been opened 
 whose products pay the expense of working. As respects the 
 entire amount of silver in all the districts of the Andes, it is 
 not possible to arrive at any exact statement ; but it will not 
 probably be far from the truth to estimate it as equal to 
 950,000 sterling, less than one-half of its amount half a cen 
 tury ago ! If this be correct, the grand total value, annually, 
 of the precious metals, gold and silver, produced in the Andes, 
 S. of the Isthmus of Panama, may amount to 2,140,000; 
 nearly one-third less than it was, as estimated by Humboldt, 
 in 1804. Subjoined is a statement of the estimated produce 
 
 of all the gold and silver mines in 1840; and probably thesn 
 numbers are not far from being correct as regards the present 
 time : 
 
 Dols. & 
 
 Peruvian mines 5,210,000 1,042,000 
 
 Bolivian mines 3,000,000 600,000 
 
 Chilian mines 2,600,000 500,000 
 
 10,710,000 2,142,000 
 
 [t must be recollected, however, that a very considerable 
 quantity of gold and silver is exported by contraband traders, 
 vithout being sent to the mint to be coined ; this may amount 
 ,o one-fifth more, making the total equal to 2,570,000. 
 
 Quicksilver is found in several parts of the Andes, but iin- 
 3ure ; in combination with sulphur forming the red sulphuret 
 of mercury, commonly known as cinnabar. Near Azogue, 
 15 m. N. by E. Cuenca, the ore is found in an immensely 
 
 ck bed of quartzose sandstone, containing fossil wood and 
 asphaltum. Formerly the quicksilver mines of Mount Santa 
 Barbara (12,300 ft. high), near Huanvelica, were in high re 
 pute for their amazing productiveness : they were situated in 
 a compact sandstone resting on a bed of magnesian limestone, 
 nd were said to yield, on an average, 600,000 Ibs. of the metal 
 annually. In 1789, however, the mine was destroyed through 
 he ignorance of a stupid manager, who ordered its pillars of 
 upport to be dug away ; and the roof consequently fell in, 
 and closed it. Copper is found both in the E. and W. Cor 
 dilleras of Peru ; but the E. chain is too far from the coast to 
 admit of mines being profitably worked. The mines of Chili 
 are the most valuable. They are situated chiefly in the N. 
 provinces of Coquimbo and Copiapo, but also in the district of 
 Arancana, and the total produce may average annually about 
 14,000,000 Ibs., which are exported to the U. States," China, 
 and many parts of Europe. Tin also, wrought m Chili, forms 
 an article of export; but lead and iron, though plentiful, are 
 not wrought. 
 
 Climate and Meteorology. Snow of course never falls be 
 tween the tropics, except on the tops of very high mountains. 
 In the Andes, near Quito, the lowest level of perpetual snow 
 is 15,795 ft. above the sea; and from this it varies very irre 
 gularly both N. and S. Under the 18th N. parallel, in Mexico, 
 it descends to 14,772 ft., while on the S. it rises to 18,000 ft. 
 in some of the N. Cordilleras of Bolivia, owing to the exten 
 sive radiation from the plains and valleys beneath. Both 
 Pentland and Pb ppig, however, found the snow line generally 
 between 11 and 17 S. to be at an elevation of about 17,000 
 ft. It sinks to 13.800 ft. at Copiapo ; to 12,780 ft. near Val 
 paraiso; it is only 8300 ft. at the S. extremity of the Chilian 
 Andes ; and finally, is only at a height of 3400 ft. in the Straits 
 of Magellan (Sommerville s Phys. Gcog., vol. ii. pp. 60, 61). 
 Notwithstanding, however, the great number of snow-clad 
 summits, glaciers are of rare occurrence in the Andes, being 
 found only, and then of but small extent, in the narrow ra 
 vines which furrow the sides of some of its giant summits. 
 It is worthy of observation also, that Mr. Darwin, in crossing 
 the Portillo in the Chilian Andes, found the Protococcus niva- 
 lis or red snow, so well known from the account of Arctic 
 navigators (Advent, and Leayle, vol iii. p. 394). On the W. 
 side of the range, little or no rain falls, except at the S. ex 
 tremity ; and scanty vegetation appears only on spots, or in 
 small valleys, watered by streams from the mountains ; while, 
 on the opposite slope, excessive heat and moisture combine 
 to give the range a thick covering of tangled forest trees 
 and dense brushwood. Currents of cold W. and N.W. 
 winds blow nearly all the year from the ice-topped cordil- 
 leras, on the plateau beneath, daily accompanied, during four 
 months, by thunder, lightning, and snow storms. The ther 
 mometer during the cold season (here called summer) ranges 
 from 53 at midday, to 21 during the night; whereas, in 
 winter, the mercury rarely falls, even in the night, below 
 freezing point, and ascends at noon only to 48. The mean 
 temperature, however, cannot be precisely determined ; for the 
 heat, within a few hours, will often vary from 40 to 45, and 
 the cold is the more sensibly felt from being usually accom 
 panied by sharp, biting winds, so keen as to cut the skin on the 
 face and hands. Currents of warm air are also occasionally 
 found on the crest of the Andes ; they usually occur two 
 hours after sunset, being both local and narrow, like the hot 
 blasts in the Alps, not exceeding a few fathoms in width. 
 They run parallel to each other, and so closely thr.t five or 
 
ANDES 
 
 150 
 
 ANDOAIN 
 
 six of them may be passed in a few hours. They blow chiefly 
 from S.S.W. to N.N.E. and are especially frequent in August 
 and September (Tschudi s Peru, p. 305). Dr. Poppig, in cross 
 ing the Chilian and Peruvian Andes, twice observed a curious 
 kind of earth light, an indescribable reddish light, not seen iu 
 winter or on sunny days, and ascribed by him to the dryness 
 of the air, which is, from the same cause, singularly transpa 
 rent and highly charged with electricity. My flannel waist 
 coat, says Mr. Darwin, when rubbed in the dark, appeared as 
 if it had been washed with phosphorus ; every hair on a dog s 
 back crackled, and even the linen sheets and leathern straps 
 of the saddle, when handled, emitted sparks. (Vol. iii. p. 398.) 
 Vegetation. In the low, burning plains that flank the bases 
 of the Andes reign the banana, cycas, plantain, Theobroma 
 cacao- jatroplia, producing the cassava and manioc, whence 
 comes tapioca ; the cotton tree, indigo and coffee plant, and 
 sugar cane, all of which are extensively and profitably grown 
 
 otherwise they will lie down and refuse to carry it, and their 
 daily journey must not be more than eight or nine miles. The 
 alpaca is smaller than the llama, and of more elegant shape, 
 but differs little in habits and nature. Its fleece is peculiarly 
 soft, and very long, sometimes exceeding four inches ; and 
 of this wool the Indians make blankets and ponchos. It is 
 also largely exported to Europe, and is now in great use as a 
 material of dress. The guanaca is the largest of the American 
 camelidaj, but has coarse wool, and is with difficulty trained 
 as a beast of burden. Far more beautiful, however, than 
 any other of the family is the vicuna, which, unlike the rest, 
 has a beautifully soft, short, and curly wool ; it runs wild 
 in the mountains, and is regularly hunted by the Indians. 
 The forests of the warmer regions abound with marmosets, 
 monkeys, and rabbits. Many varieties of serpents are found 
 lurking in the grass, or beneath the dead leaves, several of 
 which are more or less poisonous ; but the most deadly of all 
 
 below the altitude of 4000 ft. Maize is likewise plentiful, j is a small viper, found in Peru, whose bite will destroy human 
 
 and may be said to form the bread of the Peruvians; it is of 
 t hrcc different kinds, and, according to Humboldt, is cultivated 
 7000 ft. above the sea. Within the same limits also are 
 found, either wild or cultivated, the pine apple, pomegranate, 
 shaddock, orange, lime, lemon, peach, apricot, the delicious 
 cherimoya, butter-like palta, the granadilla, tuna, and pacay, 
 together with olives, aji or pepper plants, tomatas, and sweet 
 potatoes, and gum opal, copiiiba balsam, carana, dragon s 
 blood, sarsaparilla, and vanilla. To these groups succeed, in 
 
 life in two or three minutes. Bats are likewise exceedingly 
 numerous, and of large size, some measuring nearly two feet 
 across the extended wings. The vampire (cdostoma, D Orbigny) 
 seeks its food in houses and stables ; and it is frequently a 
 source of great annoyance to the horses and mules, the in 
 jury being generally not so much owing to the loss of blood, 
 as to the inflammation afterwards ensuing. The condor, 
 a kind of large vulture, soars over the highest summits of 
 the Andes, and makes its nest among the highest and least 
 
 the humid and shaded clefts on the slopes of the Cordilleras, j accessible rocks. The turkey, vulture, and gallinazo are also 
 the tree ferns, and cinchona or cascarilla, from which we ! frequently met with ; wild curassows, turkeys, parrots, and 
 derive the febrifuge bark and quinine. Between the heights ; perroquets are common in the woods ; and there are many va- 
 of 6000 and 9000 ft., is the climate best suited for the Euro- rieties of smaller birds. (Tschudi s Peru ; Voyage of the 
 pcan cereals. Wheat, on the Peruvian and Colombian Andes, P>eagle Humboldt s Cosmos and Researches ; Pentland s Map 
 will seldom form the ear lower than 4500 ft., or ripen higher i of La Lagnna di Titicaca; Sommervillc s Physical Geography; 
 than 10,000 ft. of absolute height ; but barley and rye, being Jour. Eoy. Geo. Soc.} 
 
 more able to bear the cold, rise 2500 ft. higher. The agri 
 culture of the sierra is wholly consigned to the natives, who 
 either labour on their own account, or on very low wages for 
 the half castes or mestizoes : the ground is ploughed and sown 
 in September and October, the crop being reaped in April or 
 May. The barley, however, grows as fodder grass, even 
 higher than lucerne, which is not found above 11,200 ft. To 
 this may be added the quinoa (Clicnopodium Quinoa), a most 
 useful production for domestic uses. In this region also, and 
 a little above it, grow the potato (indigenous to Chili, and 
 thence introduced into Europe), and its tuberose congeners, 
 the maca, ulluco, oca, and mashua, all of which are pretty 
 extensively used as food ; and here likewise grow the chick 
 pea, broad bean, cabbage, and other European vegetables. 
 Within the cereal limits are found the oak, elm, ash, and 
 beech, which never descend lower than 5500 ft., and seldom 
 rise higher than 9200 ft. above the sea. Above this level 
 the larger forest trees, except the pine, begin to disappear ; 
 and on the Andes of Quito, the escallonia mark the highest 
 limit of trees, at a level of 11,600 ft. The bejarias, the 
 highest of shrubs, terminate at 13,400 ft. above the sea, 
 above which, in rich and beauteous verdure, rises the zone of 
 the grasses, one vast savanna, extending over the immense 
 mountain plateaux, and reflecting a yellow, almost golden tinge 
 to the slopes of the Cordilleras. Where the naked trachyte 
 rock pierces the grassy turf, and penetrates into those higher 
 strata of air which are supposed to be less charged with car 
 bonic acid, we meet only with plants of an inferior organiza 
 tion, as lichens, lecideas, and the brightly- coloured, dust-like 
 lepraria, scattered around in circular patches. Islets of fresh- 
 fallen snow, varying in form and extent, arrest the last feeble 
 traces of vegetable development, and to these succeeds the 
 region of perpetual snow. (Humboldt s Cosmos, vol. i. p. 14.) 
 Zoology. The fauna of the Andes is still very imperfectly 
 known. Among the carnivorous animals, the principal are 
 the jaguar, puma, ounce, ocelot, and wild cat. There are also 
 hears, tapirs, racoons, wild hogs, foxes, and otters, with both 
 red and roe deer. The characteristic animals of the Andes, 
 however, are the llama and its different congeners the guan- 
 aca, vicuna, and paco or alpaca. They are the chief beasts of 
 burden on the Andes; find, especially in the silver mines, they 
 are of the most important service, as they frequently carry 
 the metal from the mines, in places where the declivities are 
 so steep that neither asses nor mules can keep their footing. 
 The burden carried by them should not exceed 125 Ibs., for I and Portugal.} 
 
 ANDEVOURANTE, or AKDEVORONTO, a large vil. or 
 tn., E. coast, Madagascar, 1. bank, and near the embouchure 
 of a river of the same name ; lat. 19 S. ; Ion. 49 E. 
 The town consists of about 500 houses, and the pop. about 
 2000. The inhabitants, both male and female, are of a lively 
 and active disposition, neat and clean in their persons, and 
 well clothed. Their houses, also, are more commodious than 
 those in most other parts of the island. This prosperity they 
 owe chiefly to the fertility of their soil, which produces rice 
 in great abundance, and to an extensive intercourse with 
 Europeans, who come there to purchase rice. 
 
 AND1AKY, the name of two vils., W. Africa, Bondoo 
 country; lat. 14 6 N.; Ion. 13 W. One of them is a 
 large and thriving place, with neat houses. The people 
 possess large flocks. In the environs palm trees abound. 
 
 ANDKHOO, ANKKOUI, or ANKOI, a tn. Independent Tar- 
 tary, cap. of a small khanat of the same name, N. slope of the 
 Huzareh mountains, about 70 m. W. Balkh ; lat. 36 54 N. ; 
 Ion. 66 23 E. The khanat of Andkhoo consists of a small 
 territory 30 m. square, ruled by a petty chieftain, who is gener 
 ally dependent on Cabool. The capital lies on the banks of a 
 considerable stream, which rises among the Huzarehs, and is 
 lost in the plains of Bokhara. It is advantageously situated 
 on one of the great commercial routes between Bokhara and 
 Afghanistan, but the district is scantily supplied with water. 
 The number of houses is about 4000. Pop., composed of 
 Soonee Mahometans, 25,000 to 30,000. 
 
 ANDLAU, ANDELAHE, a tn. France, dep. Bas-llhin, 
 10 m. N.N.W. Schelestadt ; on the Andlau, foot of the Vosges 
 mountains, at the entrance of a narrow valley enclosed be 
 tween hills planted with vines. Potash is made here. There 
 are also flour and bark mills, and a mill for spinning worsted. 
 Pop. 1486. 
 
 ANDO, or ANDOEN, one of the Loffodcn Islands, off the 
 N.W. coast of Norway, 35 m. in length from S.E. to N.W., 
 and about 10 in breadth; lat. (N. point) 69 20 N.; Ion. 
 16 8 E. (p.) 
 
 ANDOAIN, a small tn. Spain, prov. Biscaya, 6 m. San 
 Sebastian, on the Oria, and near the point where the road 
 from San Sebastian falls into the great line of road from 
 Bayonne to Madrid. It is one of the stopping places of the 
 French mail. The church is spacious, and constructed chiefly 
 of jasper, with curious painted statues of saints in wood. There 
 s an iron foundry in the town. Pop. 1430. (Hughes Spain 
 
ANDORA 
 
 151 
 
 ANDREASBERG 
 
 ANDORA, or MARINA D ANBORA, a tn. Sardinian States, 
 territory Genoa, cap. dist. Albenga, on a hill near the sea, 
 on the W. coast of the Gulf of Genoa ; lat. 43 57 N. ; Ion. 
 8 10 E.; 3 m. S.S.W. Alassio. Olives and vines are culti 
 vated in the vicinity. 
 
 ANDORNO CACCIORNA, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. 
 Biella, 13 m. N.E. Ivrea, on the Cervo. It lies in a valley 
 which contains 10 villages, and 12,000 inhabitants, the greater 
 part of whom are engaged in the iron, copper, and lead mines 
 of the neighbouring mountains. It is the birthplace of the 
 painter Cagliari. 
 
 ANDORRA LA VIEJA, the cap. of the neutral state 
 of Andorra, 36 in. S. Foix in France, and 11 m. N. Urgel in 
 Spain. It lies at the confluence of the torrents Embalire and 
 Ordino, affluents of the Segre. Fop. 2800. 
 
 ANDORRE, or ANDORRA [Arabic, AMarra, A place thick 
 with trees], a small independent neutral state, comprised in 
 three mountain valleys, in the N. of Catalonia in Spain, on the 
 S. side of the Fyreuees, and S. of dep. Aricge in France, extend 
 ing from N. to S. about 30 m., and somewhat less from E. to 
 W., with an area of about 191 sq. in. This district, which is 
 among the wildest in the Pyrenees, is watered by the Embalira, 
 Ordino, and Os, affluents of the Segre, which is itself tributary 
 to the Ebro. It comprises very little arable land, but exten 
 sive pastures ; and the mountain sides are well clothed witli 
 building timber, which is floated down the Segre and Ebro to 
 Tortosa ; at Caldes, also, there are thermal springs. Andorra 
 is governed by its own civil and criminal codes, and has its 
 own courts of justice, the legislative power being vested in a 
 council of 24 representatives, elected by the six communes 
 into which this state is divided ; and presided over by a syndic 
 or procurer-general, who holds his office for life. The laws 
 are administered by two viziers or judges, one of whom is 
 chosen by the republic of France, the other by the Bishop 
 of Urgcl in Spain, and both of whom act on occasion as 
 supreme military commanders. All the male inhabitants are 
 liable to military service, and provided with firearms, each 
 parish company being commanded by a captain and two sub 
 alterns. The commerce, which is wholly free from impost, is 
 confined to a few necessary articles ; and the Andorrians enjoy 
 the additional privilege of annually receiving from France, 
 duty free, a certain quantity of cattle, sheep, hogs, horses, 
 and mules, salt fish, corn, and cloth. Iron is wrought in 
 several mines, its manufacture into tools and implements 
 being also conducted to some extent ; but this, and every 
 other branch of industry, is carried on in the rudest and most 
 primitive manner. The inhabitants, all of whom are strict 
 E. catholics, are extremely simple and austere in their man 
 ners, ignorant of, and indifferent to, the luxuries of cities ; their 
 wealth consisting either of cattle and sheep, or a share in the 
 iron mines, and very few being owners of any land beyond a 
 small plot adjacent to their cottages. Their clothing, too, is 
 equally simple and rough, composed of coarse brown woollen 
 cloth of home manufacture. Each family has a chief, deter 
 mined by primogeniture ; and these always choose their wives 
 from families of equal rank with their own. The young men 
 always reside with their parents until they marry ; and, unless 
 married, they are allowed no share in the management of 
 public affairs. Education is at a low ebb; but in each 
 parish there is a school, in which the children are taught 
 gratuitously. The common language of the people is a dialect 
 of the Catalan. In person, the Andorrians are strong and 
 well proportioned, almost unacquainted with disease, and 
 nearly equally so with crime. The total pop. of the state is 
 estimated at 18,000. This remarkable little republic owes 
 its independence to Charlemagne, who gave the people the 
 privilege of governing themselves with their own laws ; and 
 these rights were further confirmed by his son, Louis le 
 Debonnaire, who, nevertheless, ceded the spiritual superin 
 tendence to the Bishop of Urgel. These rights have ever 
 since been respected by the French, whom they accordingly 
 hold in high esteem. 
 
 ANDOVER, a parl. bor., market tn. and par. England, 
 co. Hants. The TOWN is beautifully situate near the Anton, 
 1 1 m. N. by W. Winchester, and 63J m. S. W. by W. London, 
 on the great road from the latter city to Salisbury. It con 
 sists of three principal streets, is compactly built, well paved, 
 lighted with gas, and amply supplied with water. The church, 
 which was recently completed at a cost of nearly 30,000, is 
 
 a spacious edifice, in the early English style. There are, be 
 sides, four Dissenting chapels, a free grammar-school, national 
 and British schools for boys and girls, an infant school, anil 
 almshouses for a certain number of poor people of both sexes. 
 The townhall is a large handsome building, with a Grecian 
 front, supported by arches, under which a considerable corn 
 market is held every Saturday. The chief business of the 
 town consists in the manufacture of silk, which has superseded 
 shalloon, the former staple ; and the timber trade, which was 
 formerly carried on to a considerable extent, has for some 
 time been discontinued. The town is governed by a mayor, 
 four aldermen, and 12 councillors. It returns two members 
 to the House of Commons. Eegistered electors (1850), 252. 
 Three fairs annually, chiefly for horses, sheep, cheese, and 
 leather. Near the town are several ancient encampments ; 
 and some beautiful specimens of Koman pavement have been 
 discovered in the neighbourhood. Andover gives the title 
 of Viscount to the Earl of Suffolk. Area of par. 7G70 ac. 
 Pop. (1841), 4941. 
 
 ANDOVER, a tn., U. States, Massachusetts, co. Essex, 
 23 m. N.N.W. Boston ; beautifully situated on the r. bank, 
 Merrimac. Its manufactures are considerable; but it is 
 chiefly remarkable for two educational institutions Phillips 
 Academy, founded in 1788; and the Andover Theological 
 Seminary, founded in 1807. Each institution has about 130 
 students. The Theological Seminary is conducted by a pre 
 sident and four professors, and the libraries contain about 
 18,000 volumes. A normal seminary, for the training of 
 teachers, was founded at Andover in 1830. A railway from 
 Wilmington to Haverhill passes through the township, which 
 is about 7J m. from the former. Pop. in 1840, 5207. 
 (U. States GUK.) 
 
 ANDRA1X, or ANDKACIIE, a tn. Spain, isl. Majorca, 
 W. side, 14 m. W. by S. Palma. The squares and streets 
 are generally well constructed, clean, and spacious. In the 
 town are a parish church, chapel, endowed school, and custom 
 house of the fourth class. The male inhabitants are chiefly 
 occupied in fishing and agriculture ; the women in spinning 
 wool and flax. Pop. 4609. 
 
 ANDRARUM, a tn. Sweden, prov. of, and 24 m. S.S.W. 
 from Christianstad, 9 m. W. from the shores of the Baltic. 
 The manufacture of alum is carried on here to a considerable 
 extent, the annual product being about 4167 bushels. 
 
 ANDRAVA BAY, Madagascar, E. coast, about 60 m. 
 S.E. Cape Amber; lat. (Berry head) 12 56 48" S.; Ion. 
 49 56 30" E. (E.) It is about l m. in extent, of circular 
 form, with an island in the middle of the entrance, having 
 depths of from 4 to 6 or 9 fathoms on either side ; but reels 
 project from the N. and S. extremities of these islands. This 
 bay is open to N. and N.E. winds, but there appears to be 
 ;ood shelter from E. winds, in 4 or 5 fathoms, at the S. ex 
 tremity of the bay. 
 
 ANDRE (ST.), with or without an affix, the name of 
 numerous places in France, of which may be named: 1, An- 
 dre-de-Cubzac (& t.), a tn., dep. Gironde, 12 m. N.N.E. Bor 
 deaux, near the r. bank of the Dordogne. It has an ancient 
 church, and some trade in grain, flour, wines, poultry, and 
 cattle. Pop. 1554. 2, A tn., dep. llcrault, 19 m. N.W. 
 Montpellier. It has a considerable trade in fruits and verdi 
 gris. Pop. 2079. 3, A tn. and com., dep. Gard, 12 m. 
 N.N.E. Vigan; among the mountains, on one of the branches 
 of the Garden d Anduze. Pop. 1820. (Murray s Handbook 
 for France.) 
 
 ANDRE, or EMDRE (ST.) 1, A market tn. Hungary, co. 
 Pesth, r. bank, Danube, 11 m. N. Buda. It has a K. catholic, 
 and seven Greek churches, although the members of the latter 
 do not exceed 1000. This originated in the immigration of 
 the Servians under Leopold I., when each sect founded its 
 own place of worship. The inhabitants are principally occu 
 pied in the cultivation of the vine, from which they produce 
 excellent wiiies. Pop. 3000. 2, An isl. in the Danube, 
 opposite to the town, 14 in. in length, and 1 in breadth; 
 remarkable for its great fertility. 
 
 ANDREA (Si .), a vil. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra, 
 3 m. S.E. Conza. Pop. 2200. 
 
 ANDREAS, a par. England, Isle of Man, 3 m. N.W. 
 Ramsey. Pop. in 1841, 2217. 
 
 ANDREASBERG, a tn. Hanover, in the mining dist. of, 
 and 16 m. N.E. from Klausthal; 13 m. S.W. Elbiugerode ; on 
 
ANDKEEVA 
 
 152 
 
 ANDREWS (ST.) 
 
 the declivity of the Andreasberg, at the S. foot of the Brocken, 
 1 ( J36 ft. above the sea. It is the second in importance of the 
 mountain towns of the Upper llarz, and owes its origin to the 
 valuable mines of iron, silver, lead, copper, cobalt, and arsenic, 
 which exist in the neighbourhood, and wcie first opened 
 at the commencement of the 16th century. The silver 
 furnace, which stands about 1J in. S.W. Andernach, on the 
 Sperr-Lutter, and at the foot of Mount Knicholz, produces 
 annually 5273 silver marks (nearly 3500 sterling), 80 tons 
 lead, and 3 tons copper. In 17 28, a piece of silver ore, 
 .veighing 80 Ibs., was found in one of the mines near the 
 town, and was preserved in the cabinet of natural history j 
 at Gb ttingcn, till 1783, when it was stolen. The town is I 
 divided by the market place into the upper and lower towns, 
 and has been much improved since 1796, when, after a great 
 fire, it was rebuilt, with much wider and more regular streets. 
 Still, most of the houses are of wood, and have shingle roofs. 
 The best buildings are the church, the towuhouse, the poor s 
 house, and a school for boys and girls. Among the employ 
 ments of the place may be mentioned the rearing of canary 
 birds, by the miners, while their wives spin yarn, and work 
 lace. The climate of Andreasberg is severe. In winter the 
 snow lies long and deep. Considerable numbers of cattle are 
 raised in the district; and though agriculture is not in an 
 advanced state, crops of oats, barley, summer rye, and potatoes, 
 are obtained. Top. 4300. 
 
 ANDREEVA, or ENDEIU, a tn. Russia, gov. Circassia, 
 principality of Koumuke, 40 in. S. Kizliar. It is the chief 
 place of a Tartar district, loosely governed by chiefs really 
 or nominally subject to Russia. There is some trade in the 
 place, including a traffic in slaves. There are here some 
 Moslem seminaries for Circassian youths. Pop. of tn. about 
 12,000. 
 
 ANDEENOVIAN ISLANDS, a group of the Aleutian 
 Islands (which see). 
 
 ANDRES (SAN), a tn. Canary Islands, in a beautiful and 
 healthy little valley in the E. of the island of Palma. A few 
 of its houses are grouped together in the centre, but the 
 remainder are scattered. It has a church, four hermitages, 
 a school, and a mont-de-piiti ; and in the vicinity, wheat, 
 barley, maize, sweet potatoes, legumes, archil, grapes, and 
 other fruits, are raised. Pop. 2635. 
 
 ANDRETTA, a small tn. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra, 
 dist. of, and 5 m. E. from San Angelo de Lombard! ; prettily 
 situated on a hill. Pop. 4609. 
 
 ANDREW (ST.) 1, A par., S. Wales, co. Glamorgan, 
 5 m. S.W. Cardiff. Pop. in 1841, 497. 2, Andrew (St.) 
 Minor, a par., S. Wales, Glamorgan, near Ogmore. Pop. 18. 
 3, A par. Ireland, co. Down; 12,907 ac. Pop. in 1841, 
 7586. 4, Andrew (St.) Jlketshall, a par. England, co. Suffolk, 
 3 m. S.E. Bungay. Pop. in 1841, 548. 
 
 ANDREWS (ST.), an ancient city and seaport, Scotland, 
 co. Fife, on the German Ocean, between the mouths of the 
 Friths of Forth and Tay; lat. 56 21 N.; Ion. 2 45 W.; 
 about 42 m. N.E. Edinburgh by sea, and about 31 m. direct. 
 The city is agreeably situated on aflat table land, about 60 ft. 
 above the level of the sea ; and, though presenting many un 
 equivocal indications of decay, has a handsome appearance, 
 the houses being all stone, generally well built, and of con 
 siderable height. It contains three principal streets, diverging 
 from the cathedral ; one of which, called South Street, is 
 spacious, well paved, and about three- fourths of a mile long. 
 It is well lighted with gas, and is tolerably supplied with 
 water, which, however, though of good quality, requires, or 
 at least is the better, to be filtered after rain. From the 
 number of its spires, pinnacles, and large public buildings, 
 and the numerous gardens and shrubberies that surround and 
 intermingle with its ancient walls and edifices, it presents, 
 when viewed from a little distance, a singularly pleasing arid 
 picturesque aspect. It contains a number of interesting re 
 mains of antiquity, the principal of which are the ruins of the 
 cathedral, situated at the E. end of the town. This once 
 magnificent structure, founded in 1 160, was destroyed at the 
 Reformation. When entire, it was 370 ft. long, 65 ft. broad, 
 with a nave or transept 180 ft. long. Its style was a mixture 
 of Saxon and Gothic. The roof was covered with sheets of 
 copper. A lofty square tower, and a portion of a chapel 
 standing close by the ruin, are believed to be the most ancient 
 remains of ecclesiastical architecture in Scotland. The castle 
 
 or Episcopal palace, situated on an eminence overhanging tho 
 sea, was founded by Bishop Roger about 1200, and was ori 
 ginally a place of great strength. There are a number of 
 
 ST. ANDREWS CASTLE. Fi 
 
 etch bj 1) O. Hill, USA. 
 
 other ruins, of less note, in various parts of the town ; and 
 many ancient edifices, no longer in existence, are spoken of 
 by historians and topographers. The University of St. An 
 drews, the oldest in Scotland, was established by Bishop 
 Wardlaw in 1413. It consisted at one time of three colleges, 
 instituted at different periods St. Salvador s, in 1455; St. 
 Leonard s, in 1512; and St. Mary s, in 1537; but in 1748 the 
 first two were united, and the buildings of St. Leonard s con 
 verted into dwellings. It has 34 bursaries, whose aggregate 
 value is about 1000 a year, divided among 94 students. 
 The principal of St. Mary s College must, as in the case of 
 Edinburgh University, be a clergyman, as he lectures on 
 systematic theology. This institution is appropriated exclu 
 sively to the study of theology, and has seven bursaries ; 
 aggregate value, 200; enjoyed by 17 individuals. The 
 United College, which stands in a different part of the town, 
 and is, excepting as regards a few cases, an entirely separate 
 and distinct establishment, is appropriated to the study of lan 
 guages, philosophy, and science. There is a library containing 
 45,000 volumes, common to both colleges. The two institu 
 tions have, together, 13 professors. Next in importance to 
 the older colleges, as an educational institution, is the Madras 
 School, founded and endowed by Dr. Bell of Madras, a native 
 of the town, who bequeathed the sum of 45,000 for the noble 
 purpose of affording gratuitous instruction to the poor, which 
 is the principal object of the establishment, although small 
 fees are taken from those who can afford to pay them. This 
 school is attended (March, 1850) by upwards of 800 young 
 persons, of both sexes. There are also two boarding or day 
 schools for ladies, an Episcopal chapel, Free church, Burgher, 
 Independent, and Baptist places of worship, a subscription 
 library, and two reading rooms. The harbour, which is on 
 the E. side of the town, is a very indifferent one, being difficult 
 of access, and dry at low water. Some attempts have been 
 made lately to improve it, but with no good result. There is 
 no trade in the town, and no manufactures worthy of notice. 
 It is the place of residence, however, both permanently and 
 temporarily, of a number of genteel families of limited means, 
 who have been induced to resort to it on account of the cheap 
 ness of living, and of education; its society is thus, in general, 
 more refined than is usually to be met with in other towns of 
 similar size. St. Andrews has been long famous for the practice 
 of the old Scottish game of golf, for which its downs are well 
 adapted. Between 8000 and 9000 golf balls are manufactured 
 in the city yearly, about half of which are exported, the other 
 half being used on the spot. St. Andrews is of great antiquity ; 
 and its history, from a remote period, is blended with the 
 civil and ecclesiastical annals of the kingdom. Its origin is 
 uncertain; but it was constituted a royal burgh by David I., 
 in 1140, having, however, been a place of religious celebrity 
 long prior to that period. From the beginning of the 12th 
 
ANDREWS (Sx.) 
 
 153 
 
 ANDUJAR 
 
 century, till the Reformation, it gradually increased in ecclesi 
 astical dignity and importance, and finally became the metro 
 politan see of Scotland. Previous to the Reformation, which 
 arrested its career of prosperity, it was one of the most popu 
 lous towns in Scotland. After that event it rapidly decayed, 
 the revenues of its religious establishments being alienated to 
 different purposes. This ancient city has been the scene, at 
 various periods, of many remarkable events, and is connected 
 with the histories, more or less intimately, of a long series of 
 the most remarkable men of their respective times. It was 
 here that the Scottish Parliament met to swear allegiance to 
 Edward I., after the subjugation of Scotland; and here the 
 same body assembled a few years afterwards, to support the 
 claims of Robert Bruce to the Scottish throne. It was here 
 that the earlier martyrs to the reformed religion, including 
 Patrick Hamilton and George Wishart, suffered death; a fate 
 which the celebrated George Buchanan barely avoided, by 
 escaping from the castle of St. Andrews, in which he was 
 confined, and in which the notorious Cardinal Beaton was 
 shortly afterwards murdered. St. Andrews was the principal 
 place in Scotland to which the first printed English New 
 Testaments were secretly sent, in 1526, from Cologne, whither 
 Tyndale, the translator, had fled. In 1645, the Scottish Parlia 
 ment held its meetings here; and, amongst other proceedings, 
 condemned to death Sir Robert Spottiswood, son of the arch 
 bishop of that name, and three other gentlemen who had been 
 taken prisoners at the battle of Philiphaugh, and who were 
 afterwards executed in the principal street of the city. Four 
 years afterwards, namely, in 1679, James Sharp, Archbishop 
 of St. Andrews, was murdered on Magus Moor, near the 
 W. extremity of the parish, by a party of Covenanters. 
 Amongst the earlier persons of celebrity connected with St. 
 Andrews, by residence or otherwise, were Andrew Wynton, 
 author of a poetical chronicle of Scotland; and John Major, 
 author of a history of Scotland, and of various theological 
 works much esteemed in their time. The more distinguished 
 names between the Reformation and Revolution, are those of 
 Spottiswood, George Buchanan, Andrew Melville, Samuel 
 Rutherford, Robert Blair, and James Gregory. Since the 
 era of the Revolution, the more celebrated names are those 
 of Thomas Halyburton, Principal Hadow, Principal Tulli- 
 doph, Professor Wilkie, Principal Watson, Professor Baron, 
 Dr. Wilson, Dr. James Playfair, Dr. George Hill, Dr. Adam 
 Ferguson, Dr. Andrew Bell, and the late Dr. Chalmers. 
 With few exceptions, all these eminent persons were con 
 nected with the university, and all distinguished by their 
 literary attainments. St. Andrews unites with the two An- 
 struthers, Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny, and Pittenweem, in return 
 ing a member to the House of Commons. The PARISH is 
 
 about 10 m. in length, with an average breadth of about 2 m. ; 
 the area comprehending a space of between 17 and 18 m. It 
 has about 6 m. of sea coast. The ground nowhere rises to any 
 great elevation, nor does it present any features of particular 
 interest. Pop. of burgh in 1841, 3653; of par., exclusive of 
 burgh, 1449. 
 
 ANDREWS (ST.) 1, A seaport tn. New Brunswick, 
 cap. Charlotte co., at the N.E. extremity of Passamaquoddy 
 Bay, on a narrow slip of low land fronting the sea, 60 m. W. 
 by S. St. John, and 3 m. from the shores of the U. States ; 
 lat. (S. point, light) 45 4 18" N. ; Ion. 67 3 W. (E.) It con 
 sists of two principal streets, which run parallel to each other, 
 and of several smaller crossing them at right angles. The 
 houses are all of a substantial and respectable appearance. 
 There are several churches, a courthouse, a jail, a grammar 
 school, a chamber of commerce, an agricultural and emigrant 
 society, a savings bank, a Bible society, a barracks, and many 
 handsome private buildings. It is conveniently situated for 
 commerce, and especially for the fishing trade, which is car 
 ried on here to a large extent. The lumber trade and ship 
 building are also actively prosecuted. It is abundantly 
 supplied with provisions of every description. The harbour 
 is commodious, but rather difficult of access. Pop. about 7000. 
 
 2, A vil. Prince Edward s Island, British N. America, 
 
 S.E. part of the island, at the mouth of the little river Mon 
 tague. The inhabitants of this and the neighbouring settle 
 ments, chieily emigrants from the W. of Scotland and the 
 Hebrides, are principally employed in shipbuilding and in the 
 exportation of timber. The soil around is good, and yields 
 large crops of wheat, barley, &c. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ANDRIA, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Bari, 30 m. 
 W.N.W. Bari. It is built on a plain ; is the seat of a bishop ; 
 and has a fine cathedral, founded 1046, by Peter Normauno, 
 Count of Trani. It possesses also a college and three monts- 
 de-piete; its supply of water is very deficient; and it has a 
 good trade in almonds. Pop. in 1842, 21,852. 
 
 ANDRO [anc. Andros], an isl. Grecian Archipelago, cap. 
 same name, about 25 m. long, and 6 or 7 m. in breadth ; lat. 
 (Mount Kovari, W. side) 37 50 1" N. ; Ion. 24 50 5" E. (R.) 
 It is in general mountainous, rising in the centre to the height 
 of 3200 ft. ; but it has many fruitful valleys. It is well 
 watered, and altogether one of ttie richest and most produc 
 tive islands of the Archipelago. The inhabitants rear cattle, 
 bees, and silkworms; and cultivate wheat, barley, vines, 
 olives, oranges, citrons, and pomegranates ; the produce of 
 most of these forming the materials of a pretty extensive 
 traffic. In Andro or Castro, the capital, situated on a hill on 
 the E. coast, there are manufactures of silk and carpets ; the 
 former constituting the staple commodity of an active com 
 merce. The town, which is defended by a strong castle, has 
 a large port ; suited, however, only for small vessels, and 
 inferior to that of Gaurio [anc. Gaurium], on the W. coast. 
 It was for a considerable period subject to the Turks ; but 
 since the revolution, has formed, once more, a part of the 
 kingdom of Greece. Pop. of isl. 15,000; of tn. 5000. 
 (Guibert, Diet. Gco. et Stat.) 
 
 ANDROS ISLANDS, a group of islands belonging to 
 the Bahamas, lying between lat. 23 41 and 25 10 N. ; Ion. 
 77 30 and 78 32 W. The passages between these islands 
 are intricate and dangerous. The principal island, Andros, 
 which gave its name to the others, is about 70 m. long by 
 10 broad, at its broadest part. The interior of the largest of 
 these islands is composed of extensive salt marshes and fresh 
 water swamps, in which are islands valuable for their timber ; 
 consisting mostly of cedar of superior quality. The sea board 
 only is habitable during the summer months ; owing to the 
 myriads of mosquitoes and other insects that infest the low 
 ground. The total amount of waste land in the Andros Islands 
 amounts to 1.046,803 ac. In Andros Island there is a school, 
 which was attended, in 1847, by 52 pupils; 27 boys, and 25 
 girls. The progress of the scholars is said to be slow. There 
 is a teacher of needlework attached to the school. The soil is 
 indifferent ; but, when carefully cultivated, yields fair crops of 
 cotton and coffee, which are exported to Europe. It sends a 
 member to the House of Assembly of the Bahamas. Pop. 
 759, nearly all coloured. 
 
 ANDRO Y, a territory, Madagascar, occupying the S. 
 extremity of that island. It consists of two countries, called, 
 respectively, the country of the Ampates and that of the 
 Caremboules. The former is flat and covered with wood, 
 presenting, however, extensive intervals of excellent pastur 
 age, on which great numbers of wild cattle of a small size 
 feed. The Ampates produce large quantities of silk and 
 cotton, and make articles of commerce of the more valuable 
 barks of trees, and of apples. Water is so extremely scarce 
 in this district, as to be considered one of the most precious 
 of commodities, and, when obtained, is treasured up accord 
 ingly. Nature, however, has in part compensated the scarcity 
 of this necessary of life, by furnishing the natives with a kind 
 of root, the internal parts of which somewhat resemble a 
 water melon. But not being in sufficient abundance to supply 
 both the people and their cattle, the latter suffer severely, 
 being always on a stated and very stinted allowance of water. 
 The principal village, called Fangahe, consists of about 100 
 houses or more, with a pop. of about 600, and is well fortified. 
 The country, altogether, has a deserted appearance, there 
 being few villages, and all of them small. The country of 
 the Careinboulcs is much less fertile than the other portion 
 of the district, and the inhabitants are little better than 
 savages. (Descartes, Hist, et Geo. de Madagascar.) 
 
 ANDRYCHOW, ANDKYCHAU, or ANDRZEIOW, atn. Aus 
 tria, prov. Galicia, 200 m. W. Lemberg. It has considerable 
 manufactures of damasks and other drapery, and important 
 mines of sulphur, yielding annually about 9132 cwt. Pop. 3000. 
 
 ANDUJAR, or ANDUXAR, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, 
 prov. of, and 20 m. N.W. from Jaen, at the foot of the sierra 
 Morena, in a wooded plain, r. bank, Guadalquivir, which is 
 here crossed by an old dilapidated bridge. Its tolerably 
 regular and cheerful-looking houses form irregular streets 
 
ANDUZE 
 
 INGERMANLANO 
 
 and squares, paved with stones ; in fragments of which are to 
 he met various metals, marble of divers kinds, and some 
 .joralines and rock crystal, evidencing the proximity of a 
 district rich in such productions. The finest building in the 
 town is the municipal chambers; though the abattoir and 
 the storehouse are not wanting in elegance. Andujar like 
 wise possesses five churches, several convents, a Jesuit theo 
 logical seminary, and six primary schools ; an infirmary, a 
 foundling hospital, an hospital for old men, and one for old 
 women. A fine road lined with trees leads to the river, and 
 in the vicinity are several alaincdas. The manufacture of 
 earthenware, soap, leather, tiles, and bricks, and various sorts 
 of coarse woollens, is carried on to a limited extent ; but agri 
 culture is the principal occupation of the people, who raise 
 wheat, barley, legumes, sumach, and a few fruits ; produce 
 exquisite oil, and rear cattle and bees. Some export trade 
 is done in grain, fruit, and cattle, and in immense numbers 
 of porous pitchers, bottles, and jars, for the purpose of cooling 
 water. It is an unhealthy town, experiencing great extremes 
 of heat and cold. Pop. 9353. (Madoz.) 
 
 ANDUZE [Latin, Andusia], a tn. France, dep. Gard, 
 26 m. N.W. Nismes, r. bank, Gardon; from the violent over 
 flows of which it is protected by a strong dike forming a fine 
 quay, as well as an agreeable terrace and promenade ; near 
 the middle of which the river is crossed by a stone bridge. 
 The town lies at the foot of the Cevennes, steep menacing- 
 looking rocks on the one side, and hills planted with vines 
 and olives on the other. It is on the whole ill built ; its 
 environs, which are cultivated like a garden, are delightful. 
 The chief articles produced are silk thread, hats, bonnets, and 
 stockings, all of silk ; serge, drabs, swanskins, earthenware, 
 leather, and glue. In the vicinity there is a beautiful grotto 
 with stalactites. The majority of the inhabitants are Protest 
 ants. Pop. 4412. 
 
 ANEGADA, one of the Virgin Islands, W. Indies, be 
 longing to Britain, 90 m. N.E. Porto Eico; lat. (W. point) 
 18 45 N. ; Ion. 64 2 1 W. (R.) Its greatest length is 1 m. ; 
 greatest breadth, 4 m. The surface is, for the most part, a 
 dead level ; but on the S.E. side the ground rises gradually to 
 the height of about 60 ft. The whole N. side is exposed to an 
 impetuous sea. The island contains numerous large salt ponds, 
 which, when undergoing evaporation during a long course of 
 dry weather, yield an exceedingly offensive effluvia. Great 
 quantities of salt are subsequently obtained from the ponds. 
 The island produces provision crops, and some cotton ; and 
 has great abundance of fresh water in almost every part, even 
 in the immediate vicinity of the sea, and surrounded by salt 
 ponds. On the N. side of the island there is a range of shelf- 
 holes, varying from 2J to 6 fathoms in depth, and from 10 
 to 25 inches wide, called the Wells, filled with fresh water 
 (Schomburgk s Itemarlcs on Anegada, in London Geo. Jour., 
 vol. ii. p. 159). There is a considerable trade, besides, in 
 underwood, rendered valuable by the great quantity of gum 
 it contains. But the chief dependence of the inhabitants is 
 on the wreck of vessels, for which the island has an unhappy 
 celebrity. The scene of these disasters is a reef extending 
 from 10 to 12 m. in a S.E. and S. direction from the E. ex 
 tremity of the island. The total number of vessels lost on 
 this fatal reef, since 1811, is 67 ; of which 21 were American, 
 17 AV. Indian, 15 Spanish, 9 British, 2 French, 2 Swedish, 
 and 1 Portuguese. 
 
 ANET [German, Ins; Latin, Insida], 1, A vil. Switzer 
 land, can. of, and 16 m. W. by N. from Bern. It is built upon 
 an eminence 4 m. N. Lake Morat, 3 m. N.E. Lake Neufchatel, 
 and 2 m. S. that of Bienne ; whence the name Insula [the 
 island], from its position between the lakes; the whole sur 
 rounding district was formerly called Inselgau [the island 
 district or meadow]. Anet commands a fine view of the sur 
 rounding scenery, and also of the distant Alps. The inhab 
 itants cultivate the vine ; and have a considerable trade in 
 
 wine and corn. Pop. 1150. 2, A tn. and com. France, 
 
 dep. Eure-et-Loir, 9 m. N.N.E. Dreux. It is situated in a 
 highly picturesque valley, watered by the Eure, and contains 
 the ruins of the superb castle built, in 1552, by Henry II. 
 for Diana of Poitiers ; and demolished in 1792, during the fury 
 of the French Involution ; when part of the facade was re 
 moved to Paris, and re-erected at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. 
 Anet has some trade in grain, wine, and fodder; and in the 
 neighbourhood are iron works and paper mills. Pop. 1409. 
 
 ANEY, a par. and vil. Ireland, co. Limerick ; 9248 ao 
 contains some interesting ruins. Pop. in 1841, 4939. 
 
 ANGAR. See ANGAUM. 
 
 ANGARA, a large river, Siberia, which issues from Lake 
 Baikal at lat. 51 30 N. ; Ion. 102 45 E., and, passing tho 
 tn. of Irkutsk, pursues a N. and W. course for about 750 m., 
 when it is joined by the river Tchadobetz in lat. 57 30 N. ; 
 Ion. 97 E., at which point its name is changed to the Tun- 
 guska, by which it is known for about 320 in., when it falls 
 into the Yenisei at lat. 57 10 N. ; Ion. 92 E. It is navi 
 gable, but much obstructed by rapids. The scenery on its 
 banks, particularly on the left, is described as extremely 
 picturesque ; the latter being adorned by magnificent forests of 
 
 cedar and other trees. Another small stream of the same 
 
 name falls into Lake Baikal at its E. extremity. 
 
 ANGARAES, a prov. Peru. See HUANCAVELICA. 
 
 ANGAUM, or ANGAK, an isl. at the entrance of the 
 Persian Gulf; lat. 26 37 N. ; Ion. 55 54 E. (R.) It is from 
 5 to 8 in. long, and contains several fresh water wells, although 
 formerly believed to have none. Extensive garden ground, 
 and ruins of houses in different parts of the island, would 
 indicate its having once been a more important and more 
 flourishing place than it is now. At the N. part of the island 
 are the remains of a considerable town, with 18 tanks or 
 reservoirs for holding water ; about half of them are still 
 arched over, and lined with brick, but filled with clay and 
 sand. Wild goats are numerous. 
 
 ANGAZIJA, the native name of the isl. of Comoro. See 
 COMORO ISLANDS. 
 
 ANGEJA, a tn. and par. Portugal, prov. Douro, dist. 
 Estarreja, 23 m. S. Oporto, on the Caima, at the extremity 
 of an extensive fertile plain. It has a large church with aisles ; 
 and a monthly corn and cattle market. Pop. 1560. 
 
 ANGELES LOS, a tn. Chili, prov. Concep9ion, 90 m. 
 E. the town of that name, and about 15 m. N. the Biobio 
 river ; lat. 33 1 54" S. ; Ion. 71 41 30" W, Streets wide and 
 regular. 
 
 ANGELN, or ANGLEN [Latin, Anglia Minor], part of 
 the duchy of Schleswig, Denmark, included between the river 
 Sley and the Gulf of Flensborg. The district is named from 
 the ancient Angli or Angles, a German nation and tribe of 
 the Suevi, who at a very early period migrated to Denmark. 
 It is said that their assistance having been asked by the 
 Britons against the Scots and Picts, a number of them passed 
 over, and, in course of time, gave the name of Angles (English) 
 to the inhabitants, and of Anglenlande (England) to the 
 country. The present inhabitants are distinguished among 
 the Danes for bodily strength, independence of spirit, in 
 dustry, and morality. Angeln is partly under good cultiva 
 tion, but its roads are bad. Pop. about 30,000. 
 
 ANGELO (SAN), the name of several towns and villages, 
 Italy : 1 , A tn. Austrian Lombardy, on the river Lambro, 
 7 m. S.AV. Lodi. Pop. 6000. 2, A vil. Austrian Lombardy, 
 llm. N.E. Padua. Pop. 2200. 3, San Angela in Vado, a 
 vil. Eoman States, on the Mctaura; 12 m. S.W. Urbino ; the 
 seat of a bishop. It has some woollen manufactures. Pop. 
 2500. 4, San Angela de Lombardi, a tn. Naples, prov. Prin- 
 cipato Ultra ; 22 m. E. Avellino ; the seat of a bishop. It has 
 two churches and a college. In 1664, it was nearly destroyed 
 by an earthquake. Pop. 6400. 5, San Angela Fasanella, 
 a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, 20 m. S.S.E. Campagna. 
 Pop. 2688. 6, San Angela di JBrvlo, a tn. Sicily, 5 m. W. 
 Patti. Pop. 3641. 
 
 ANGERA, or ANGLIERA [Latin, Angleria], an anc. tn. 
 Venetian Lombardy, cap. dist. of same name, E. shore of 
 Lago Maggiore, prov. of, and 25 m. W. from Como. It is 
 tolerably built, with a castle, church, and townhouse. Pop. 
 of tn. 1963; of dist. 7598. 
 
 ANGERBURG, a tn. Prussia, cap. of its circle, prov. 
 E. Prussia, on the Angerap, 60 m. S.E. Konigsberg. It has 
 a handsome church, good schools, linen and woollen manu 
 factures, a considerable traffic in wood and fish, and four 
 annual fairs and cattle markets. The extensive Lake Anger- 
 burg or Mauer, famous for its eels, is in the neighbourhood. 
 Pop. 3150. 
 
 ANGERMANLAND, an anc. prov. Sweden, divided into 
 N. and S. Angermanland, comprehending 45 parishes, and 
 now forming part of the liin or district of Westcr-Nordland 
 (which see). 
 
ANGERMANN-A 
 
 155 
 
 ANGLESEY 
 
 1NGERMANN-A, or ANOERMANN-ELF, a river, Sweden, 
 which rises in Lappmarken, not far from the borders of Nor 
 way, and at first consists of two branches, which unite in 
 lat. 64 50* N. Thereafter, proceeding in a S.E. direction, it 
 becomes the principal river, and gives its name to the district 
 of Angermanland, and, forming a considerable estuary, falls 
 into the Gulf of Bothnia, N. of Hernosand. Its chief affluents 
 are the Fiellsjo and the Sb dra Adals, both of which it receives 
 on its right bank. It has a course of about 150 m., and is 
 navigable for 60 m. 
 
 ANGERMLJNDE, a tn. Prussia, prov. Brandenburg, 
 cap. circle of same name, on the Lake Miinde, 42 m. N.E. 
 Berlin. It contains three churches ; and has manufactures of 
 hats, cloth, woollen stuffs, and tobacco. Pop. 3607. 
 
 ANGERS, a large anc. and important city, France, cap. 
 dep. Main-et-Loire, in the former prov. of Anjou, of which 
 it was the capital ; situated in a fertile plain, on both sides 
 the Mayenne, a little below its junction with the Sarthe, and 
 about 5 m. above its embouchure into the Loire; 150 in. 
 S.W. Paris. It stands 
 in the form of an amphi 
 theatre, on the summit 
 and declivity of a steep 
 hill, and is divided by 
 the Mayenne into the 
 higher and lower town ; 
 the city proper being on 
 the 1. bank of the river, 
 while a considerable 
 suburb, termed the 
 Doutre, occupies the r. 
 bank. In the old quar 
 ters of the town, the 
 streets are narrow and 
 crooked, and many of 
 them so steep as to be in 
 accessible to carriages. 
 The houses generally 
 are of wood, covered 
 with slate. Many of 
 them also are either 
 faced with or built of 
 slate ; a circumstance 
 
 which gives the town so dark and sombre a hue, as to have 
 obtained for it the surname of Black Angers. The two prin 
 cipal edifices are the castle and the cathedral. The former, 
 the ancient residence of the Dukes of Anjou, stands on a 
 steep rock, the base of which is washed by the Mayenne. 
 It consists of an immense parallelogram, surrounded by high 
 walls flanked with 18 large round towers, which, bulged 
 toward the top and bottom, and narrowed in the middle, 
 and bnilt of black slate, intersected horizontally by stripes of 
 white, have a very singular appearance. It is now used as 
 a prison, barrack, and powder magazine. The cathedral, 
 finished in 1240, stands on an eminence in the centre of the 
 town, and is in the form of a Latin cross. Its portal, which is 
 richly decorated in the Romanesque style, is surmounted by 
 two lofty spires, which have each a height of 225 ft. The 
 exterior consists of a single nave without aisles, and two 
 transepts. The former, one of the largest in France, is, in 
 cluding the choir, 300 ft. long, 53 ft. wide, and 110 ft. high ; 
 the latter have each a length of 40 ft., and nearly the same 
 width. The windows of painted glass, of the richest colours, 
 and as ancient as the building itself form one of its principal 
 ornaments. Among the objects worthy of notice in Angers 
 may be mentioned the picture gallery, chiefly furnished by 
 the modern French school ; the museum ; the tower of St. 
 Aubin, now converted into a shot tower; and the extensive 
 boulevards, planted with trees, and lined with elegant houses, 
 occupying the site of the old walls of the town, and commu 
 nicating with the Champ de Hars, which forms a spacious 
 promenade. 
 
 The manufactures of Angers are numerous, and consist 
 chiefly of sailcloth, camlet, serges, handkerchiefs, hosiery, 
 hats, leather, worsted and cotton twist, leathern goods, starch, 
 &c., besides establishments for bleaching wax, and sugar 
 refineries. A considerable trade is carried on in corn, wines, 
 brandy, flax, hemp, wax, honey, flour, and dried fruits. In 
 the neighbourhood are extensive slate quarries, from which 
 
 INGEBS. From 
 
 slates are exported to the value of 62,500 annually. The 
 principal pit, called Le grand carrcau, about 4 m. from the 
 town, is nearly 400 ft. deep, and occupies an area of more than 
 4000 yards. Angers is surrounded by numerous and exten 
 sive nursery gardens and vineyards, and in the neighbour 
 hood are mines both of coal and iron. The markets are well 
 stocked with provisions, but there is a great deficiency of 
 good water. 
 
 Angers is the see of a bishop, suffragan of Tours, and the seat 
 of a Cour royale, for the departments of Main-et-Loire, Sarthe, 
 and Mayenne ; of a prefecture, and of several important law 
 courts. It has an Academic Universitaire, a royal college or 
 high school, an asylum for the deaf and dumb, a diocesan 
 theological seminary, a secondary school of medicine, and a 
 public library of 26,000 volumes, with some curious old 
 MSS. ; a botanic garden, and an agricultural society. It has 
 also five hospitals, one of which, the hospital of St. John, on 
 the Doutre side of the river, is said to have been built by 
 Henry II. of England. There was formerly a military college 
 here, at which Lord 
 Chatham and the Duke 
 of Wellington received 
 part of their education ; 
 but, about the end of 
 last century, it was re 
 moved to Saumur, and 
 the building was con 
 verted into cavalry bar 
 racks. The university 
 of Angers, which was 
 founded in 1246, and 
 long continued to be one 
 of the most renowned 
 universities in Europe, 
 was destroyed at the 
 Revolution, as was also 
 a royal academy of 
 belles lettres, establish 
 ed by Louis XIV., in 
 1685. The castle was 
 surprised by the Hu 
 guenots in 1585; arid, 
 in 1793, the city was 
 
 attacked by the Vendean army, 90,000 strong, when it became 
 the scene of several sanguinary conflicts. In the siege that 
 followed, the inhabitants endured many privations. An 
 appalling accident happened here on April 16, 1850. While 
 a regiment of French infantry were passing along the suspen 
 sion bridge across the Basse Maine, the bridge suddenly gave 
 way, when the greater portion of the men were precipitated 
 into the river, and between 200 and 300 drowned. A rail 
 way, connecting Paris with Angers, has been completed. The 
 population was, in 1670, about 50,000. After the revocation 
 of the edict of Nantes, it gradually declined ; and, in 1789, 
 before the Revolution, was only 27,596. Since 1815 its 
 prosperity has revived. Pop. in 1846, 36,392. 
 
 ANGERSLEIGH, or LEIGH-MILITIS, a par. England, 
 co. Somerset; 4 m. S.W. Taunton. Pop. in 1841, 42. 
 
 ANGHIARI [anc. Castrum Angulare], a tn. and com. 
 Italy, in Tuscany, prov. of, and 8 m. E. by N. from Arezzo ; 
 on the slope of a hill, in a well-watered, fertile district, near 
 the 1. bank of the Sovara. It has a church and municipal 
 offices. Pop., tn. and com. 6358. (Dizio. Univ. Italia.) 
 
 ANGHIARI, a tn. Austrian Lombardy, prov. Verona, 
 r. bank, Adige, 3 m. N.W. Legnago. Pop. 1450. 
 
 ANGICOS, a tn. Brazil, prov. Rio Grande-do- Norte, near 
 the Conchas, about 30 m. from its mouth. It has a church, 
 an initiatory school, a townhall, and a prison. Its inhabit 
 ants are engaged in the cultivation of cotton, rice, French 
 beans, and mandioca, and in carrying on a little commerce in 
 the first of these products. Pop., tn. and dist. 2000. 
 
 ANGTSTRI, a small isl. Gulf of ^Egina, 5 m. S.W. the 
 island of that name ; lat. 37 42 N. ; Ion. 23 20 E. : about 
 3 m. in length, and 1 m. in breadth. 
 
 ANGLE, a par. and vil., S. Wales, Pembroke, nuar the 
 entrance to Milford Haven. Pop. in 1841, 388. 
 
 ANGLESEY, an isl. and co. England, N. Wales, in the 
 Irish Sea, separated from the mainland by the Mcnai Strait. 
 It is 20 m. long, and 17 m. broad, and contains 74 parishes; 
 
ANGMERING 
 
 156 
 
 ANGOSTA 
 
 Rrcn, 271 Bq. m., nr 173, -MO ac. It is divided into three can- 
 trefs, and each of these into two cwmwds, equivalent to the 
 English hundreds. The surface of the island is comparatively 
 flat, and the climate, though milder than that of the adjoining 
 coast, is unfavourable to the growth of trees. There are no 
 streams of any importance, but the coast affords some natural 
 harbours, the principal of which are at Beaumaris and Holy- 
 head. The soil is various. The chief agricultural products 
 are oats and barley; but wheat, rye, potatoes, and turnips, 
 are also grown. Cattle and sheep are the staple productions 
 of the island ; about 8000 of the former, and 5000 to 7000 of 
 the latter being annually exported. Of minerals, Anglesey 
 contains copper, lead, and silver ore, limestone, marble, coal, 
 and granite. The copper mines at Parys and Mona (see 
 AMLWCH), once so celebrated and productive, have now im 
 mensely decreased in value. The inhabitants carry on no 
 manufactures but those of coarse cloths, &c., sufficient for 
 their own use. The principal road through the island com 
 mences at the Menai Strait, which is crossed by a magnificent 
 suspension bridge, 580 ft. between the piers, and 100 ft. above 
 high water mark, allowing the largest vessels which navigate 
 the Strait to sail under it. The great Britannia Tubular 
 Bridge, for the conveyance of railway trains across the Menai 
 Strait, was opened for the first time, with great ceremony, on 
 March 5, 1849. (For a more full account of this extraordi 
 nary work of art, see MENAI STRAIT.) The chief towns are 
 Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni, and Amlwch, which unite 
 in returning a member to Parliament, while the county also 
 returns a member. Beaumaris is the returning station for both. 
 On the coast are several smaller islands, the chief of which 
 are Holyhead, and Priestholm or Puffin Island. Anglesey 
 [anc. Mono] was successively under the dominion of the 
 Britons, Romans, W. Saxons, Normans, and English. Its 
 druidical relics, which are almost its only antiquities, suffi 
 ciently indicate the religion of its original inhabitants. Pop. 
 in (1851), 57,327. 
 
 ANGMERING, a par. England, co. Sussex; area, 3640 
 sc.; 3 m. E.N.E. Little Hampton. Pop. in 3841, 1002. 
 
 ANGOLA, a Portuguese colonial prov., W. coast, Africa, 
 cap. Loanda. This province comprehends all the Portuguese 
 commercial entrepots and factories in Angola, Benguela. and 
 Congo. Pop. estimated at 400,000, of whom 12, 000 are whites. 
 
 ANGOLA, formerly DOKGO, or AMBONDE, a country on 
 the AV. coast of Africa, commencing about lat. 8 20 S., and 
 extending to the river Coanza, in lat. 9 20 S. ; Ion. 14 to 
 19 E. Along the coast, the country is flat and sterile, but 
 mountainous in the interior, though nowhere attaining any 
 great elevation. It is copiously watered by various rivers, 
 with their numerous tributaries ; amongst the former are the 
 Coanza, the Bengo, and the Danda. Situated near the equa 
 tor, the heat is very great, but not so oppressive as in other 
 places of the same latitude, being tempered by the trade 
 winds. It is on this account considered more healthy than 
 any other part of tropical W. Africa. The dry and rainy 
 seasons, into which the year is usually divided in these regions, 
 do not seem to maintain the same regularity in Angola, neither 
 the periods of their occurrence nor their duration being correct 
 ly ascertained. The nights are cool, and the dews sufficiently 
 copious to promote vegetation. The soil of the plains on the 
 sea shore is, as already stated, poor and meagre, and incap 
 able of cultivation, but in the interior it is extremely fertile, 
 yielding, in extraordinary abundance, and almost spontane 
 ously, rice, millet, sugar canes, mandioca, yams, potatoes, and 
 nearly every kind of tropical fruit known. In various parts 
 of the country, iron is found ; in others, gold and copper ; but 
 the produce has hitherto been trifling. Here are met with 
 specimens of nearly all the known wild animals of Africa, in 
 cluding lions, tigers, hyenas, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopo 
 tami, &c. The birds and reptiles are also the same with those 
 found in other tropical regions, including several exceedingly 
 venomous kinds of serpents. The waters on its coasts and in 
 its rivers also teem with animal life, the former with whales, 
 sharks, dolphins, &c., and the latter with formidable croco 
 diles, and numbers of other creatures little known to Euro 
 peans. Amongst the native useful animals are hares, rabbits, 
 antelopes, stags, goats, and hogs ; the larger domestic animals, 
 the cow, horse, and ass, have been imported from Europe. 
 
 Angola has long possessed an infamous notoriety for the 
 extent of its slave trade, which still appears to be as active as 
 
 ever, notwithstanding all the efforts that have been matTe for 
 its suppression, many thousands of slaves being shipped annu 
 ally to Brazil. In 1840, no fewer than 70 to 75 vessels, each 
 capable of carrying from 300 to 500 slaves, traded-to this part 
 of the coast, each vessel performing four or five voyages in 
 the year. The natives, though black, are distinguished from 
 the other negro races by their superior physical conformation, 
 being well limbed and regular featured, with a marked general 
 resemblance to the Portuguese, of whom great numbers are 
 settled here. Besides the slave trade with Brazil, Angola 
 carries on a large traffic with Lisbon in ivory and other native 
 products ; the imports from the latter in return are chiefly 
 wine, brandy, oil, pork, and other provisions, with silks, linens, 
 cottons, woollens, earthenware, hardware, &c. The central or 
 principal town of Angola is the Portuguese town of St. Paul 
 dc Loando, on the coast, lat. 8 48 S.; Ion. 13 8 E., in 
 which the Portuguese have a garrison, consisting of about 600 
 men, mostly convicts, with a corps of cavalry. At one time 
 the force maintained at Loando consisted of a regiment of the 
 line, 1000 strong, 300 cavalry, and 200 artillery. 
 
 The coast of Angola was first discovered in 1486, by the 
 Portuguese, who soon after began to form settlements on the 
 Zaire, and at various points S. of that river. They still 
 occupy the country, having a number of forts and commercial 
 establishments at different places, in some instances extend 
 ing many hundred miles into the interior, where the Portu 
 guese colonists and natives meet for the purposes of trading. 
 The religion is Fetichism. Pop. estimated at 2,000,000. 
 
 ANGOLLOLA, a tn. Abyssinia, kingdom of Slioa, 24 m. 
 N.W. Ankobar; lat. 9 W N. ; Ion. 39 37 E. It lies at 
 the confluence of two rivers flowing N.W., one of which, 
 named Chia-Chia, is a considerable stream. Like other Abys 
 sinian towns, it resembles a large village; and consists of 
 circular huts arranged on two eminences, one of them being 
 reserved by the king for his own use ; on it lie has erected for 
 himself and his officers about 500 huts, surrounded and de 
 fended by six rows of palisades. Angollola is a new town, 
 commenced in 1834, by King Sahle-Sallassi. (Harris s High 
 lands of Ethiopia; Hericourt, Voy. dans le Roy. de Cfioa) 
 
 ANGORA, or ENGOUR [anc. Ancyra], a tn. Asiatic 
 Turkey, 215 m. E.S.E. Constantinople; lat. 40 29 N. ; Ion. 
 33 20 E. (c.) It is surrounded with ruinous walls, and 
 contains an old dilapidated castle. It is divided into 84 dis 
 tricts, each having its mosque or ja mi. There are 17 or 18 
 khans, three hama ms, and a market place, once handsome, but 
 now in ruins; considerable remains of Byzantine architecture 
 belonging to the ancient city, and a few relics of earlier times, 
 both Greek and Roman. Some of the latter have been thought 
 to be remnants of the Monumentum Ancyranum, raised in 
 honour of the Emperor Augustus, who much embellished the 
 ancient city. Angora is celebrated for the long-haired goats 
 bred in its vicinity, called by the Arabs the ckamal or camel 
 goat, meaning silky or soft. The hair is about 8 inches 
 long, and is shorn twice a year. All the animals of this 
 region are long haired, especially the dogs, cats, and rabbits; 
 and it appears that all degenerate, and lose this peculiarity 
 when removed to a distance. The quantity of goats wool 
 exported was estimated, by Mr. Ainsworth, at 1 ,250,000 Ibs. ; 
 of this only 500,000 Ibs. were of the first quality. More recent 
 accounts give much lower returns. The items of export next 
 in importance are merino twist and goats hides; dye stuffs, 
 principally madder, and the yellow berries of the Ithamnus 
 catharticus ; mastic, tragacanth, and other gums; also honey 
 and wax. British manufactures are imported to some extent; 
 but there are few or no European houses here, the trade 
 with the West, formerly more considerable than it is now, 
 being mostly in the hands of the Armenians, who form an 
 important section of the population. Angora is the seat of a 
 Greek bishop. The pop. has been variously estimated, but 
 is probably about 35,000, of whom nearly 10,000 are Greeks 
 and Armenians. 
 
 ANGORNOW, or ANGORNU, a large and populous tn., 
 N.W. Africa, kingdom or territory of Bornoo, on the S.W. 
 shore of Lake Tchad, 20 m. S.S.E. Kouka; lat. 12 36 N. ; 
 Ion. 14 30 E. Various caravan routes pass through it from 
 the N., S., and E. 
 
 ANGOSTA, or ANOOZHA, a dist. and three islands, S.E. 
 Africa, Mozambique Channel. The district is extremely fer 
 tile, and is watered by a river of the same name. The islands 
 
ANGOSTURA 
 
 157 
 
 ANGRA PEQUENA 
 
 Ho a short distance off, and parallel to tlie coast; they are all 
 of coral, more or less wooded, and abound in fish and turtle, 
 as well as the most beautiful shells and corallines. The most 
 W. is called Caldeira, in lat. 16 38 48" S. ; Ion. 39 46 E. (R.) 
 The most E., named Mafamele, is in lat. 16 20 30" S.; Ion. 
 40 4 E. (n.) Like the other islands, it consists wholly of 
 coral, with a thin covering of sand, and is not more than 8 ft. 
 above the level of the sea ; yet it is covered with a grove of 
 stately casuarina trees, some measuring about 10ft. in cir 
 cumference, most of them perfectly straight, without a branch 
 for 30 or 40 ft. above the ground, and many 150 ft. high, 
 rendering them visible from the mast head, from a distance of 
 15 or 18 in. All the Angosta Islands are small, none of them 
 exceeding 2 or 3 m. in extent, and usually surrounded by 
 reefs. (Capt. Owen ; Horsburgh.) 
 
 ANGOSTURA, or SANTO TOMAS DE LA NUEVA GUA- 
 IANA, a city, Venezuela, S. America, cap. prov. of Guaiana, 
 at a narrow pass or strait (Angostura), r. bank, Orinoco, about 
 240 m. from the sea ; lat. 8 8 N. ; Ion. 63 55 W. The 
 streets are regular and well paved ; and the houses in general 
 good, being built, for the most part of stone, with terraces on 
 the tops. There is here a college, an hospital, and a magni 
 ficent hall, in which the second congress, commonly called 
 the congress of Angostura, was installed, Feb. 15, 1819, the 
 ninth year of the independence of Venezuela. The pass in 
 which Angostura lies is defended by fort San Rafell, situated 
 on a hill across the river from the town. From the mouth 
 of the Orinoco to this city, the voyage occupies 20 to 25 days ; 
 back again, 5 to 1 5 days. Angostura exports cotton, indigo, 
 tobacco, coffee, cattle, &c. The average value of exports, 
 1840^3, amounted to 100,203 ; in 1844, it was 92,354. 
 The imports, 1840-43, averaged 68,160; but, in 1844, they 
 fell off to 22,793. British goods are much in demand, and 
 the exportation of cattle to British colonies is increasing. 
 The climate is warm, but healthy. Pop. in 1840, 8500. 
 
 ANGOULEME, a city, France, cap. dep. Charente, and 
 formerly of the prov. of Angoumois, 1. bank, Charente, 60 m. 
 N.N.E. Bordeaux, and 235 S.S.W. Paris. It stands on the 
 summit of an isolated rocky hill, at the foot of which is the 
 suburb Houmeau, through which passes the high road from 
 Paris to Bordeaux. The town, though 221 ft. above the 
 river, is now well supplied with fresh water, pumped up by 
 machinery. The air is pure and healthy, and the views from 
 the fine terrace walks, formed on the site of the old ramparts, 
 and nearly encircling the city, are extensive and beautiful. 
 The old part of the town is ill built, and the streets are narrow 
 and crooked ; but in the new quarter the houses, of white stone, 
 are well constructed, and the streets straight and spacious. 
 In the market place, in the centre of the town, stands the old 
 castle, once the residence of the ancient Counts of Angouleme ; 
 but what remains of it is now converted into a prison. Queen 
 Marguerite of Navarre, sister of Francis I., the most accom 
 plished princess of her day, and no mean writer, was born 
 within its walls ; and there, too, Marie de Medicis found a 
 shelter after the assassination of her husband. The cathedral, 
 dedicated to St. Peter, a curious old building, restored in 
 1120, suffered much at the Revolution. Among the modem 
 structures worthy of notice are the Palais de Justice, the 
 bridge over the Charente, and the column erected, in 1816, 
 to the Duchess d Angouleme, but since, in 1830, re-dedicated 
 to Liberty (a la liberte.) 
 
 Angouleme is the see of a bishop, suffragan of the Archbishop 
 of Bordeaux ; and contains a court of assizes, a tribunal of 
 primary jurisdiction, a royal college, a society of agriculture 
 and commerce, two hospitals, a depot de mendicite, a lunatic 
 asylum, and a house of correction; besides a public library, 
 with 16,000 volumes, and a museum of natural history. The 
 royal naval school, established here in 1816, and suppressed 
 in 1830, has been transferred to Brest; the buildings, which 
 are very extensive, are now occupied by the royal college. 
 
 The staple manufacture is paper, made in numerous mills 
 in the neighbouring valleys. In all, about 35 mills are 
 at work, producing annually, on an average, about 100,000 
 reams of paper, called papiers d Angoulome, and esteemed 
 among the best made in France. There are also manufac 
 tures of woollen stuffs, linen, and earthenware; brandy distil 
 leries, sugar works, tanneries, tileworks, and iron forges. A 
 considerable trade is carried on in wine, brandy, and fruits; 
 and particularly in cherries, saffron, and salt. The port of 
 
 Angotilpme, on the Charente, is the entrepot of the commerce 
 of Bordeaux, and most of the S. departments. One article 
 for which Angouleme is celebrated is its pates de perdrix 
 anx fruffes partridge pies with truffles. Pop. in 1846, 
 17,237. 
 
 ANGOUMOIS, a former prov. France, cap. Angouleme, 
 comprehending the three districts, Angoumois proper, Aunis, 
 and Saintonge, now comprised principally in deps. Charente 
 and Charente Inferieure. 
 
 ANGOZHA, or ANGOXA. See ANGOSTA. 
 
 ANGRA, a seaport tn. belonging to Portugal, S. side 
 of Terceira, one of the Azores, of which it is the cap.; lat. 
 (custom house) 38 38 54" N. ; Ion. 27 13 45" W. (R.) It is 
 well-built and regular, and its situation beautiful. The streets 
 are broad, and have flagged footways, but are much infested with 
 pigs, every house having several of these animals. The houses 
 are mostly three stories in height. There are here magazines of 
 stores for the use of the royal navy, and for merchant vessels 
 in distress. The maritime affairs of the port are under the 
 inspection of an officer, who has a number of subordinates, 
 including pilots, to conduct vessels into the harbour, and to 
 execute the other duties connected therewith. Angra is the 
 seat of the local government ; of a bishop s court, which extends 
 its jurisdiction over all the Azores; and is the residence of 
 English, French, and Dutch consuls; and may, therefore, be 
 considered the cap., not only of Terceira, but of all the Azores. 
 The harbour in which it is situated, the only good one in the 
 island, indeed of the whole group, is of the form of a crescent, 
 and commanded at either extremity, where the passage is very 
 narrow, by a strong battery. It is, however, safe only in the 
 fine season ; in the stormy months being exposed to furious 
 tempests, which render it so dangerous, that vessels on the 
 least appearance of a gale run out to sea, there being no safety 
 for them otherwise. Its chief exports are wine and grain. 
 Pop. 10,000. 
 
 ANGRAB, a river, Abyssinia, taking its rise in Dembca, 
 a little N. from Gondar, whence it flows in a N.N.W. direc 
 tion, and falls into the Tecazze at lat. 14 20 N. Its whole 
 course is about 120 m. in length. 
 
 ANGRA DE CINTRA BAY, Africa, N.W. coast. The 
 S. point of the bay is in lat. 22 58 N.; Ion. 16 30 W.; the 
 opening into it is about 7 m. wide, and from 7 to 9 fathoms 
 deep ; its extent inland, about 4 m. It abounds with fish, 
 which are taken in great quantities by vessels from the Canary 
 Islands. 
 
 ANGRA DOS REIS, a seaport, Brazil, on a bay of the 
 same name, prov. of, and 70 m. W. from Kio de Janeiro, lat. 
 23 4 S. ; Ion. 44 30 E. It lies facing the sea, at the foot 
 of a kind of promontory, which, rising up behind it, limits in 
 some degree its facilities for increasing in size. All its streets, 
 with one exception, are narrow, crooked, and badly paved ; 
 some, indeed, are not paved at all. It has three churches, a 
 townhall, an hospital, a convent of Carmelites, and another of 
 Capuchins, and a public fountain at the end of the only 
 straight street in the town. The inhabitants are supplied 
 with excellent water from springs in the hills behind. The 
 port in front of the town forms a semicircle, the extremities 
 of which are defended by forts ; and the roadstead, which is 
 shut in from the Atlantic by the llha Grande, affords anchor 
 age for the largest vessels. Angra dos Reis carrier on an 
 active trade with Rio de Janeiro, principally in coffee. Pop. 
 rather above 3000. (Die. Geo. Imp. Brazil.} 
 
 ANGRA DOS REIS, a bay, Brazil, prov. Rio de Janeiro, 
 in that part of it called llha Grande, from the island of that 
 name, which shelters the bay from the Atlantic. It extend-* 
 E. to W. about 75 m., and has along its shores a number of 
 small, cultivated, and partially inhabited islands. The bay is 
 well sheltered from all winds, but more particularly from the 
 S. and S.W. winds, which are especially dangerous on the 
 coasts of Brazil. It affords anchorage for the largest vessels. 
 (Die. Geo. Imp. Brazil.} 
 
 ANGRA PEQUENA [Little Bay], or SANTA CRUZ, on 
 the S.W. coast of Africa, 150 m. N. by W. from the embou 
 chure of the Gariep or Orange River, lat. 26 38 24" S. ; Ion. 
 15 8 E. (R.) It has from 3 to 5 fathoms water; the best 
 and deepest anchorage is on the E. side of the isles at its en 
 trance, in 4 or 4J fathoms, sheltered from all winds. About 
 70 m. to the N.E., on the r. bank of the Fish River, is tho 
 missionary station Betni. 
 
ANGUTLLA 
 
 158 
 
 ANJAR 
 
 ANGUILLA, or SNAKE ISLAND, the most N. of the 
 Caribbee Islands, belonging to the British, due N. St. Mar 
 tin s, from which it is distant about 5 m. ; lat. (custom house) 
 18 Q 13 12" N. ; Ion. 63 4 12" W. (R.) It is about 20 m. long, 
 and 6 broad, but is so low and flat that it cannot be seen from 
 a greater distance than 10 or 12 m. The soil is calcareous, 
 and not very productive. A little sugar, cotton, tobacco, and 
 maize are grown on it, but it is deficient both in wood and 
 water. In the centre of the island is a saline lake, which 
 yields a large quantity of salt, the greater part of which is 
 exported to America. The climate is healthy. The chief 
 occupations of the inhabitants are breeding cattle and gather 
 ing salt. The town is situated on the E. side, and near the 
 N.E. end of the island ; it is a small place, with little trade. 
 Anguilla was first settled by the English, in 1659, and has since 
 continued in their possession. It is governed by a magistrate 
 elected by the colonists, but subject to the approval of the 
 governor of Antigua. The pop. is about 3131 ; of which 360 
 are whites, 320 coloured, and 2451 African. 
 
 ANGU1LLARA, a tn. Austrian Italy, on the Adige, 23 
 
 m. S. Padua. Pop. 2300. This is also the name of a tn. 
 
 in the Papal States, on the Lake Bracciano, 16 m. N.N.W. 
 Rome. Pop. 700. 
 
 ANGUS, a co. Scotland. See FORFAR. 
 
 ANHALT, a country of N. Germany, forming the three 
 duchies of Anhalt-Bernburg, Anhalt-Kothen, and Anhalt- 
 Dessau. It lies partly in the plains of the middle Elbe, and 
 partly in the valleys and uplands of the E. lower Harz, and 
 ! is bounded, N. by the Prussian prov. of Brandenburg ; E. and 
 ! S. by Prussian Saxony; S.W. by the Earldom of Mansfeldt; 
 and N.W. by the territories of Brunswick and the Prussian 
 circle of Magdeburg: area, 1018 sq. m. ; greatest length, 
 60 m.; breadth varying from 12 to 16 m. The soil through 
 out is fertile and well cultivated. All sorts of grain, wheat 
 especially, are grown in abundance; also flax, rape, potatoes, 
 tobacco, and hops. Some madder is also produced. Garden 
 fruit abounds, and in the valley of the Saale the vine is cul 
 tivated. The inhabitants are principally occupied in agricul 
 tural pursuits, and in rearing cattle and sheep. In the vicinity 
 of Bernburg are several mines and ironworks, the products of 
 which are not very great. The manufactures, which are not 
 important, include worsteds, flannels, broad cloth, linen cloth, 
 yarn, leather, tobacco, sugar, wax, soap, candles, stoneware, 
 &c. The trade in raw materials and objects of art has much 
 increased since the opening of the two railways passing through 
 Kothen the one from Berlin, the other from Leipzig. The 
 three duchies furnish a contingent of 1024 men to the army 
 of the Confederation, and of that number Anhalt-Bernburg 
 supplies 370. The total revenues of the triple principality 
 amount to 149,600, and their public debt to 292,000. 
 Pop. 149,065; of which it is computed that Anhalt-Dessau 
 lias 61, 793; Anhalt-Bernburg, 46,252; and Anhalt-Kothen, 
 41,020. 
 
 ANHANDUIIY-MIRIM & ANHANDUHY-GUAZU, 
 the names of two rivers in Brazil, prov. Matto-Grosso. Both 
 rise in the serra Galliano, within 22 m. of each other, and 
 flow E. Both fall into the Rio Vermelho ; the former about 
 lat. 20 30 S.; the latter in lat. 21 20 S., or at a distance of 
 about 60 m.; the course of the one being about 150 in. in 
 length, the other about 200 m. 
 
 AN HID, a par. Ireland, co. Limerick; 981 ac. Pop. in 
 1841, 493. 
 
 AN HOLT. 1, A small isl. Denmark, in the Kattegat, 
 about 7 m. long by 4 broad, generally unfertile, and surrounded 
 by sandbanks and dangerous reefs. One of these reefs stretches 
 from the E. corner of the island, in an E. direction, for 7 m. ; 
 and a lighthouse, erected so early as 1582, stands on that corner, 
 in lat. 56 44 18" N .; Ion. 11 39 15" E. (R.) As an additional 
 security, a floating light lies anchored in 18 fathoms water, 
 about 1 mile E. of the reef, and continues there from the 
 beginning of March to the end of December. The inhab 
 itants, amounting to 200, live chiefly in the little village of 
 Anholt-By, on the W. side of the island, and depend for their 
 subsistence on fishing and the picking up of stranded goods. 
 In 1800, the British took possession of the island, fortified the 
 tower of the lighthouse, and erected casemates for a garrison 
 of about 900 men. An attempt to dislodge them proved in 
 effectual, and they maintained possession, employing the place 
 as a head statioii till the peace. 2, A tn. Prussia, prov. 
 
 Westphalia, gov. Minister, 18 m. W. Borken, upon the Old 
 Yssel ; cap. of the barony of Salm, and the residence of the 
 Prince de Salm-Salm. Pop. 2000. 
 
 ANIANE, a tn. France, dep. Herault, 16m. W.N.W. 
 Montpellier, in a lovely and fertile plain watered by the 
 Herault. The first nucleus of the town was a monastery, 
 which was founded by St. Benedict in 780, and richly en 
 dowed. The church of the monastery is now the parish 
 church, and the other part of the building has been converted 
 into a cotton mill. Beside the cotton twist thus produced, 
 Aniane has manufactures of leather, cream of tartar, verdi 
 gris, black soap, perfumes, and other chemical products. It 
 has also limestone quarries and lime kilns, and an annual fair 
 for cattle, leather, and goats skins. Pop. 2615. 
 
 ANIBA, a small river, Brazil, Portuguese G Havana. It 
 rises in the territory Aruaquis, about lat. 1 27 S. ; lou. 
 58 40 W.; and, after a course of about 100 m., forms, with 
 other small affluents of the Amazon, the island of Ramos, in 
 lat. 2 36 S. 
 
 ANICIIE,atn. France, dep. Nord, about 9m. from Douay; 
 lies in the principal coal field which France possesses, and to 
 this circumstance owes all its importance. The mines in the 
 neighbourhood employ about 500 persons. The manufactures 
 are beet sugar, and window and bottle glass. The chief 
 export is coal. Aniche once enjoyed the singular privilege 
 of levying from every stranger who came to live within its 
 bounds, the best article among his luggage. Pop. 1818. 
 
 ANICUNS, a small river, Brazil, prov. Goj az, rises in 
 the serra Escalvada, about lat. 16 22 S.; Ion. 51 40 W.; 
 and, after a course of nearly 200 m. in a S. and S.S.W. direc 
 tion, falls into the Curumba, lat. 18 51 S. having beeu pre 
 viously joined by the Pasmados. 
 
 AN I EH. SeeAmzEH. 
 
 ANILORE, a small river, Brazil, prov. Para, rises in 
 lat. 6 51 S.; Ion. 60 10 W.; falls into the Maderia, lat. 
 5 10 S.; Ion. 60 40 W., after a N.N.W. course of about 
 130 m. 
 
 ANIUJ, or ANITJY (GREATER and LESSER), two rivers, 
 N.E. Siberia, country of the Tchuktchi ; the former rises 
 about lat. 67 10 N., and, after a W. course of 270 m., falls 
 into the Kolima by three outlets, at lat. 68 N. The latter 
 rises in lat. 66 30 N. and, after a N.W. course of about 
 250 m., also joins the Kolima, at nearly the same point with 
 the Greater Aniuj ; the two rivers gradually converging till 
 they meet at their embouchures. The banks of the larger 
 stream present a dreary appearance for a considerable way 
 from its outlets, but latterly begin to improve, the pastures 
 presenting a more verdant appearance. The right bank is | 
 higher than the left, and consists of steep sand hills, 30 or j 
 more fathoms high, and held together only by the perpetual j 
 frosts which the summer is too short to dissolve. The cur 
 rent is in some places very rapid, and the bottom is strewed 
 with rough and sharp-pointed stones, very dangerous to craft 
 navigating the stream. The Lesser Aniuj, being a mountain 
 stream, is subject to violent and sudden overflows, carrying 
 away islands and forming new ones, and sometimes altering its 
 course for many miles. Its fisheries are of little importance. 
 
 ANIVA (BAY OF, and CAP?:), an isl. Saghalien, E. coast, 
 Asia; lat. 46 2 N.; Ion. 1433 0"E. (R.) It is enclosed by two 
 projecting tongues of land, Cape Crillon and Cape Aniva, 
 distant from each other 60 m. There is good anchorage at 
 the N. extremity of the bay. 
 
 AN1ZEH, a tn. Arabia, prov. Nedjd Proper ; lat. 26 34 
 N. ; Ion. 43 25 E. ; beautifully situated in a valley. It is 
 extensive, amply supplied with water, and well built. Being 
 situated in the heart of Arabia, and at the junction of many 
 principal caravan routes, including those of Bagdad, Damas 
 cus, Basrah, &c., towards the Persian Gulf and Medina, 
 Mecca, &c., towards the Red Sea it is a place of great 
 commercial importance. Merchants, chiefly from the Gulf 
 of Persia, assemble at this place, bringing Indian rice and 
 goods to the bazaars. It is the birthplace of Abd-ul-Waheb, 
 founder of the sect of the Wahabees. 
 
 ANJAR, a small dist. and tn. Hindoostan, prov. Cutch. 
 The district was ceded to the British in 1816, and is governed 
 by a commissioner, deputed by the Bombay Government. It 
 is a dry, sandy tract, irrigated by wells or tanks. Anjar, 
 the capital, is situated on a slope, 10 m. from the Gulf of 
 Cutch; lat, 23 3 N.; Ion. 70 11 E. The fortifications 
 
ANJE-DIVA 
 
 ANKOBAR 
 
 form a polygon, anil are 6 ft. in thickness, but have no ditch 
 or outworks. In 1816, the town surrendered to the British 
 under Col. East, and, in 1819, it suftered severely from an 
 earthquake ; the fort, with its towers and guns, having been 
 hurled to the ground in one common mass of rain, together 
 with 3000 houses ; 165 lives also were lost on this occasion. 
 lu 1820, the pop. was estimated at 10,000. (Hamilton s East 
 India Gaz.) 
 
 ANJE-DIVA, or ANJADEEPA, an isl. on the Malabar 
 coast, Hindoostan ; lat. 14 45 N. ; Ion. 74 5 E. (it.) It is 
 about 2 in. from the shore, and is about 1 m. in length ; it 
 appears on the outside barren and rocky, but has an attractive 
 aspect on the side next the land, where it is fortified by a 
 wall and some towers. Close to it, on the outside, the depths 
 are 10 and 11 fathoms. 
 
 ANJEH. See ABDEH. 
 
 ANJENGA, or ANJUTENGA, a small seaport, S. Hindoo 
 stan, prov. Travancore, about 70 m. N. by W. Cape Como- 
 rin ; lat. 8 39 54" N. ; Ion. 76 45 E. (R.) In 1684, the East 
 India Company obtained permission from the reigning princess 
 to fortify Anjenga, and establish a factory; but, having been 
 found an unprofitable possession, it was abandoned in 1813. 
 Its principal exports are coir cables, made of the fibres of 
 the Laccadive cocoa nut, pepper, coarse piece goods, coir, 
 and a few drugs. 
 
 ANJER, AN.TERIE, or ANGER, a well-known maritime 
 tn. Java, in Sunda Strait; lat. 6 3 12" S. ; Ion. 105 57 E. (E.) 
 being the westernmost port on the island. It is populous, and 
 well fortified. The natives of this town, and other places on this 
 part of the coast of Java, drive an extensive trade in natural 
 curiosities among the passengers of homeward-bound India- 
 men. At Anjer, especially, says Capt. Belcher, a fair of the 
 most remarkable character is held under the shade of a 
 magnificent banyan tree, where, for a few dollars, may be 
 purchased long-armed apes, hideous baboons, pigmy musks, 
 Java finches, doves, perroquets, grackles, love birds, and 
 splendid peacocks. Ships may be conveniently supplied here 
 with water, and other refreshments, such as buffaloes, poultry, 
 turtle, fruit, vegetables, &c. In the canoes that venture along 
 side the ship with these supplies, says the authority above 
 quoted, amusing monkeys may be seen sitting among heaps 
 of fruit and vegetables, chattering and making grimaces ; and 
 huge turtles lying bound at the bottom of the boats. The 
 canoes are occupied chiefly by women, who present a very 
 singular appearance, their heads being protected from the 
 sun by large hemispherical bamboo hats, and their long black 
 shining hair streaming down their backs. The country around 
 is extremely fertile, but too thinly peopled to do it justice. 
 Col. Cathcart, who died on his way to China as ambassador, 
 in 1785, is interred here. (Sir E. Belcher s Voyage of the 
 
 ANJOS, a vil. Brazil, prov. Sao-Pedro-do-Rio-Grande, 
 beautifully situated on the Butucarahi, an affluent of the 
 Jacuy. It has a church and some schools ; the inhabitants 
 live by fishing and agriculture. Pop. 2653. 
 
 ANJOU [Latin, Andcgavensis], an anc. prov. France, 
 now forming dep. Maine-et-Loire, and parts of Mayenue, 
 Sarthe, and Indre-et-Loire. 
 
 ANKAPILLY, a tn. Hindoostan, N. Circars, 24 m. W. 
 by S. Vizagapatam ; lat. 17 41 N.; Ion. 83 11 E. It is a 
 large place, nearly 1 m. in length, and wide in proportion, 
 with a good bazaar, and thickly interspersed with trees. 
 
 ANKARA, a country or kingdom, N. end, isl. of Mada 
 gascar, extending on the E. side of the island, from Cape 
 Amber to lat. 14 25 S. ; and on the W. side to the river 
 Samberanou. The country is generally elevated, formed by 
 small hills and plateaux, disposed like an amphitheatre, and 
 cut up by deep ravines. A chain of mountains runs nearly 
 equidistant from either coast, and terminates in the high moun 
 tain Arnbouitch, a little way S. British Sound or Diego Soarez 
 Bay. The sides of this chain and its offsets are covered with 
 fine wood, among which are several species suitable for ship 
 building, and some which yield turpentine and gums. Froin 
 both slopes flow numerous, mostly rapid streamlets, in courses 
 generally much inclined. On the W. coast are the little rivers 
 Ankara, Mahavavi and Samberanou. The whole coasts are 
 deeply indented with extensive well-sheltered bays. Those on 
 the E. are Vohemare, Andrava, Manguervi or Leven, Loukez- 
 Lingvatou or de Eigny, and Antombouk ; those on the W. are 
 
 Ampanhaui or Jenkinson, Ambavaui-Be or Port Liverpool, 
 Ansatze, Ampergue-Ara or Port Chancellor, and a great num 
 ber of smaller inlets and creeks. On the W. coast are also sev 
 eral groups of islets, of which may be named Nossi- Ara, Nossi- 
 Lava, Nossi-Mitsiou, Nossi- Fali, Nossi-Comba, and Nossi-Be". 
 Rice, manioc, maize, and battatas are cultivated, but not in 
 sufficient quantity to admit of any being exported. From the 
 sugar cane, which is also grown to some extent, a kind of agree 
 able fermented liquor, named bessa-bess, is obtained, by infus 
 ing the juice with certain bitter barks ; severals kinds of palms, 
 including the cabbage palm, abound. Cattle are abundant, and 
 about 30,000 are exported annually to Bourbon and Mauritius, 
 either alive or salted. 
 
 In Ankara polygamy is practised, the most petty chief 
 having three wives ; the first being the wife proper, to whom 
 is committed the charge of the house ; the second is a kind 
 of concubine, generally pretty, and liable to be dismissed 
 when her beauty begins to fade ; the third is commonly a 
 slave, who receives her liberty as soon as she becomes a 
 mother. The men build houses and canoes, fish and make 
 war. The women till the fields, and perform all other kinds 
 of labour. During leisure hours, they make palm-leaf mats, 
 weave a kind of cloth suitable for clothing, and for making 
 canoe sails, and make earthenware. The religion of the 
 inhabitants of Ankara (called Antankaras) is a mixture of 
 Polytheism and Fetichism, the belief in two principles called 
 Zanabar and Angatch predominating. They pay great re 
 spect to their dead, and believe in the transmigration of souls. 
 The country is now subject to the Hovas, and is almost depo 
 pulated ; the shores and the banks of the streams being almost 
 the only parts inhabited. The decrease in the number of 
 the people has arisen partly from numerous intestine wars, 
 and partly from emigration, many having left and settled in 
 Nossi-Be, an island on the W. coast taken possession of by 
 the French. (Guillain, Documens sur I histoire, la geographic 
 et le commerce de Madagascar.) 
 
 ANKASSGERRY, or ANKOSGERHY, a tn. Hindoostan, 
 Mysore territories, 40 m. S.E. Bangalore; lat. 1239 N.; 
 Ion. 78 8 E. 
 
 ANKLAM, a tn. Prussia, prov. Pomerania, gov. of, and 
 49 m. N.W. from Stettin, cap. circle of same name, r. bank. 
 Peene, which is here navigable. It is surrounded by an old 
 wall with three gates, leading to three suburbs, and has three 
 churches, three hospitals, and a college. The manufactures 
 are woollen clothes, cotton stuffs, hosiery, leather, soap, 
 tobacco, and snuffboxes. It has, besides, several breweries, 
 some shipbuilding, and a brisk trade in corn, wood, and glass. 
 In 1319, Anklam was admitted into the Hans League, and 
 it still possesses some important privileges ; but never has a 
 town been more frequently subjected to the greatest calami 
 ties fire, pestilence, and war, which make its history a suc 
 cession of the most fearful disasters. From 1384 to 1696, fires 
 seven times laid great part of it in ashes. It was five times 
 visited with pestilence. From 1626 to 1761, it was besieged, 
 sacked, and plundered by all parties successively Danes, 
 Imperialists, Swedes, and Russians. In 1762, on the peace 
 which concluded the seven years war, its fortifications were 
 dismantled, and from this period its greatest prosperity may 
 be dated. Its ships, many of them built within its own port, 
 
 have rapidly increased. Pop. 7800. The CIRGXE has an 
 
 extent of about 190 geo. sq. m. and a pop. of 25,000. It is 
 watered by the Peene, and contains numerous lakes. The 
 surface is generally flat, and is in some places sandy, stony, 
 and unfertile. It, however, produces all the ordinary grain 
 and pulse crops ; also flax, potatoes, and good pasture. 
 
 ANKOBAR, or ANKOBER, a tn. Abyssinia, cap. kingdom 
 of Shoa, built chiefly on the acclivities of a steep conical hill 
 8200 ft. high, in lat. 9 34 N. ; Ion. 39 35 E. The houses 
 are constructed chiefly of wood, with tapering thatched roofs, 
 and are generally surrounded by a garden. The upper part 
 of the town is hedged in with long stakes interwoven with 
 boughs as palisades, and on the summit is the king s palace, 
 an extensive structure, built of stone and mortar, with a 
 thatched roof. The whole appearance of the town is singular, 
 the conical thatched roofs of the houses making them re 
 semble so many barns and hay cocks. The rich vegetation, 
 however, with which it is surrounded, together with the cool 
 ness and purity of the atmosphere, render it an exceedingly 
 agreeable place. A market is held every Saturday, when 
 
ANKOVA 
 
 ANNADUFF 
 
 AMvOUAtt. From Sir W. C. H. 
 
 ions of the Highlands of Ethiopia. 
 
 sheep, corn, and sometimes fat or suet, and other articles are I which it has communication by the Nipigon River. 6, A 
 sold ; the market place is about 1 m. from the town. A good harbour on the E. side of Cape Breton, British America ; lat. 
 mule according to Krapf, may be bought at Ankobar for 40s. 46 21 N. ; Ion. 60 27 W. (u.) 
 
 ANNA (SANTA), the name, as in the above 
 instance, of various places in different parts of the 
 world. The following are amongst the more im 
 portant: 1, Santa Anna Isles and Bay. The 
 former, three in number, are situated off the E. 
 coast of Brazil, prov. Rio Janeiro, about 30 m. 
 N. from Cape Busies; lat. 22 25 S.; Ion. 41 41 
 W. They lie about 6 m. from the shore, afford 
 ing shelter and good anchorage. The large bay 
 in which they are situated, having Cape St. Thome 
 on the N.E., and ( ape Busios on the S.W., is 
 called the Bay of Santa Anna. 2, A small isl. 
 N. coast of Brazil, about 20 m. from the shore, 
 prov. Maranham ; lat. 2 16 S. ; Ion. 43 41 W. 
 (R.) 3, An isl. Brazil, prov. Matto-Grosso, formed 
 by the river Araguaya, which, dividing into two 
 branches at lat. 12 30 S., reunites at lat. 9 30 
 S., and thus forms what is called the island of 
 Santa Anna or Bannanal. It is about 200 m. ia 
 length, and from 20 to 30 in breadth. 4, One of 
 the Solomon Islands, S. Pacific Ocean; lat. 10 50 
 ri. ; Ion. 1 62 32 E. (u.) 5, Santa Anna de Chavos, 
 a tn. and bay, isl. St. Thomas, Bight of Biafra, 
 S.W. coast, Africa; lat. 20 5" N.; Ion. 6 43 
 E. (E.) 6, An inlet of the sea, called a lake, in Mex 
 ico, prov. Tabasco, Gulf of Mexico, intersected 
 by the parallel 18 S. ; it is about 15 m. in length, and 10 in 
 breadth at the broadest part, and communicates with the Gulf 
 of Mexico by a narrow channel. 7, A tn., E. coast, isl. Marie 
 Galante, one of the Leeward Islands, belonging to the French. 
 
 SANTA ANNA is also the name of numerous villages and 
 
 small towns in S. America. 
 
 ANNABERG, a tn. Saxony, dist. Zwickau, r. bank, 
 Sehm, 45 m. S.W. Dresden, and 7 m. from the frontiers of 
 Bohemia. Its site is 1800 ft. above the level of the sea, 
 among hills which contain mines of silver, tin, cobalt, and 
 iron. The chief buildings are the lyceum, colle e, museum, 
 and three churches, one of them containing several good 
 pictures, and a curious bas-relief in terra cotta. The 
 manufactures are very important. A great number of rib 
 bon makers, driven from Belgium by the tyranny of the 
 Duke of Alva, found a new home in Annaberg, and have 
 made it the seat of a ribbon trade, which is carried on with 
 all the scientific improvements which have been recently 
 introduced ; and notwithstanding of the competition of Lyons 
 and other towns, which have the same staple, is still under 
 stood to yield good returns. The ornamental gauze and 
 flower ribbons are said to bear a high name, and to deserve 
 it. Great quantities of lace, hand-wrought, were at one time 
 made, but the introduction of the English lace machine has 
 seriously interfered with that kind of labour. The only other 
 manufactures deserving of notice are those of silk stuffs and 
 
 oil cloth. Pop. 7300. In addition to the above town, 
 
 Annaberg is the common name of a great number of uniin- 
 ortant places throughout Germany, particularly Austria and 
 ussia. 
 
 ANNABON, or ANNABOA. See ANNOBON. 
 ANNABURG, a tn. Prussian Saxony, gov. Merseburg, 
 2 m. N. Torgau, and 56 N.N.W. Dresden; situated near the 
 Schwarze or Black Elster. It has a castle, built by Anna, 
 consort of the elector Augustus; converted, in 1762, into a 
 military school, where 400 protestant boys, sons of Prussian 
 
 to 505., and a good horse for about 35s. Pop. generally about 
 5000; but, when the court is there, it rises to from 12,000 
 to 15,000. 
 
 ANKOVA, a kingdom, Madagascar, occupying nearly the 
 precise centre of the island, and the most powerful of all the 
 states in it. It is destitute of wood ; and is without roads, 
 canals, or other means of conveyance, rendering its capabili 
 ties unavailing, and confining the consumption of its produce, 
 chiefly rice and cotton, to the inhabitants. Agriculture is 
 thus necessarily little attended to ; and the less that rice is so 
 abundant, raised with so little trouble, and disposed of with 
 such difficulty, that there is no inducement to exertion. A 
 small extent of sugar cane is cultivated, from which a little 
 sugar, of inferior quality, is obtained, by an imperfect pro 
 cess. The air of this part of the island is considered very 
 salubrious. The inhabitants, called Ovahs or Hovas, are a 
 superior race ; in person they are tall and handsome, and of 
 all shades of colour, but chiefly copper, with long lank hair; 
 and are supposed not to have belonged originally to the island. 
 They are distinguished by their superior skill in manufac 
 turing silk and cotton dresses, to which they give a great 
 variety of the richest colours ; in forging iron, and in making 
 silver and gold chains. Their language is written in the 
 Arabic character, and their religion idolatry. In their con 
 duct and dispositions, they exhibit a mingled magnanimity 
 and ferocity ; and frequently cover sinister designs with an 
 impressive politeness. Avarice is their prevailing vice. 
 The principal town is Tananarive, almost the central point of 
 the island. Though the chief place, however, there is nothing 
 about it to indicate its rank ; being little different, in any 
 respect, from the other villages in the kingdom. It is built 
 upon a hill, and takes its name from the number of houses it 
 was supposed to contain, tanan signifying a village, and 
 arivo a thousand. (Descartes, Hist, et Geo. de Madagascar.} 
 
 AXMEU, a par. England, co. Norfolk; 1420 ac. ; 6m. 
 N.E. by E. Castle. Pop. in 1841, 175. 
 
 ANN (S r.), a name applied to a number of places in 
 various parts of the world. The best known and most 
 worthy of notice are: 1, St. Ann Sftoals, off the S. part of 
 the coast of Sierra Leone, extending from Cape Shilling to 
 Sherboro Island, a distance of between 30 and 40 m. 2, St. 
 Ann (Cape), the extreme N.W. point of Sherboro Island, coast 
 of Sierra Leone; lat. 7 34 N.; Ion. 12 08 W. (u.j having close 
 by a group of islands called Turtle Islands. 3, St Ann s, a 
 tn., river, and bay, Jamaica, on the N. coast; the latter in 
 lat. 18 26 24" N. ; Ion. 77 13 VV. (r..) 4, A capo or headland 
 on the N.W. coast of Africa, about 35 in. S.S.E. of S. Cape 
 Blanco, near Arguin, and within the bank of that name; lat. 
 20 3(X N. ; Ion. 17 W. 5, A lake, Upper Canada, 20 m. 
 long, and 20 broad, about 45 m. N. from Lake Superior, with 
 
 po 
 Pr 
 
 soldiers, are educated, from their llth to their 18th year, and 
 then appointed non-commissioned officers or musicians in the 
 army. Besides the seven classes for mental instruction, the 
 younger boys are taught gardening, knitting, and other domes 
 tic branches, while the elder ones acquire some useful trade. 
 Most of them are taught music ; and a few distinguished pupils 
 devote their time to scientific pursuits bearing upon military 
 life. At the head of the academy are two commissioned 
 officers ; besides these, a clergyman, a school inspector, nine 
 teachers, a physician, and a surgeon; four stewards, and 
 numerous subordinate officials are regularly employed. Pop. 
 1700. 
 
 ANNADUFF, a par. Ireland, co. Leitrim ; 10,970 ao. 
 Pop. in 1841, 6162. 
 
ANNAGELIFFE 
 
 161 
 
 ANNA-PAROCHIE (Si-.) 
 
 ANNAGELIFFE, a par. Ireland, co. Cavan; 82GO ac. ! 
 Pop. 3808. 
 
 ANN A Gil, the name of two small islands, three parishes, 
 a vil., and small lake, in Ireland: 1, An isl., W. coast, 
 between the isl. of Achill and the mainland of the co. Mayo ; 
 lat. 53 58 N. ; Ion. 9 39 W. It is about 4 m. in circum 
 ference, and, though rugged, has good pasturage for sheep. 
 2, A small isl. Lough Conn, co. Mayo. 3, A par., co. Kerry, 
 partly in the barony of Corkaguiny, and partly in that of 
 Trughanacmy ; 13,735 ac. Pop. in 1841, 3G59. 4, A par., 
 co. Cavan, partly in barony Loughtee Lower, and partly in 
 that of Tullygarvey; 19,145 ac., which includes 837 ac. of 
 water. Pop. in 1841, 13,071. 5, A par., co. Mayo ; 20,315 
 ac. Pop. in 1841 , 7904. 6, A small vil., co. Cork, between 
 Charleville and Liscarrol. 7, A small lake on the conriues 
 of King s and Queen s counties. 
 
 ANNAGHCLONE, or ANACLOAN, a par. Ireland, co. 
 Down ; 6544 ac. Pop. in 1841, 3423. 
 
 ANN AGIIDOWN, a par. Ireland, co. Galway ; 23,730 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 7108. 
 
 ANNAGOONDY, a small dist. and tn. Ilindoostan, prov. 
 Bejapoor ; the former lying along the 1. bank of the Toom- 
 budra, on which the town also stands. The surface of the 
 country is wild and hilly, interspersed with much wood. 
 For some miles round the town, the soil is encumbered with 
 vast piles of granitic rock. The town is 110 m. W.S.W. 
 Kurnool. 
 
 ANNAH, a tn. Asiatic Turkey, cap. sanjak, r. bank, 
 Euphrates, where the river makes a slight bend to the N.E. ; 
 lat. 34 15 N. ; Ion. 41 50 E. It is on the caravan route 
 from Bagdad to Aleppo, and is distant from the former about 
 1 60 m. N. W., and from the latter 15 or 16 days journey. It 
 consists of a long narrow winding street on the bank of the 
 river, and at the base of the hills which here line the Eu 
 phrates. There are two mosques in the town, and a beauti 
 ful minaret 80 ft. high ; a manufactory of coarse cloth, and 
 some flourmills. The number of houses is about 1800. 
 
 ANNALAND (ST.), or ANNELAND, a vil. Holland, prov. 
 Zeeland, on the isl., and about 9 m. N.W. the tn. of Tholen. 
 It is the prettiest village on the island ; and has a church and 
 good haven, used at times by passing vessels as a place of 
 refuge in stormy weather. The inhabitants are chiefly en 
 gaged in agriculture. Pop. 1694. 
 
 ANNALONG, a vil. and fishing harbour, Ireland, E. 
 coast, co. Down, between Dundrum Bay and Carlingford Bay. 
 It affords convenient shelter for small fishing vessels, and is, 
 on this account, much frequented by them. 
 
 ANNAMABOE, a seaport tn., with a fort, Gold Coast, 
 W. Africa; lat. 5 10 N. ; Ion. 1 7 W., 10 m. E. from Cape 
 C oast Castle. The town consists of houses irregularly huddled 
 together, generally built round a court seven yards square; 
 some having clay benches, in the form of sofas, running round 
 the wall inside the court. It was at one time a principal 
 mart for slaves ; in trafficking in which many of its inhabitants 
 became wealthy. A considerable trade in gold is now carried 
 on here. The country around is thickly wooded, and the soil 
 is excellent, but little cultivated ; the natives depending for 
 their subsistence upon corn, yams, vegetables, &c., brought 
 from the interior, and bought in exchange for fish, which are 
 very plentiful on the coast at certain seasons. In 1808, the 
 town was burnt by the Ashantees ; on which occasion nearly 
 two-thirds of the inhabitants were slain. The fort, however, 
 which was garrisoned by some 30 or 40 soldiers only, resisted 
 the efforts of the entire Ashantee force, consisting of 20,000 
 men, for several days, and, after receiving a small reinforce 
 ment by sea, compelled them eventually to retire. Pop. 
 about 3000. (Duncan s Travels in W. Africa.) 
 
 ANNAMALLAY.or ANiMALAYA,atn. Ilindoostan, Mala 
 bar coast, 20 m. S.E. by E. Trichoor, and 70 m. S.E. Calicut, 
 25 m. from the coast ; lat. 10 35 N. ; Ion. 76 55 E. ; 1. bank, 
 Alima, amidst extensive forests of valuable timber, opposite 
 the wide passage between the Ghauts of the Caruatic and the 
 hills to the S. It derives its name, Animalaya [Elephant 
 Hill], from the great number of these animals that inhabit the 
 vicinity. 
 
 ANNAMOOKA, NAMOUKA, or EOTTERDAM, one of the 
 Friendly Islands, Pacific Ocean, about the centre of the group ; 
 lat. 20 15 S. ; Ion. 175 2 W. (R.) It is of a somewhat 
 triangular form, from 12 to 20 m. in circumference, and sur- 
 
 YOJ, I. 
 
 rounded by islets, shoals, and sunken reefs, which extend to a 
 considerable distance from its shore. It exhibits some traces 
 of volcanic action ; and has at its E. side a large lagoon, about 
 1 m. in circumference. The island is well watered, and pro 
 duces abundance of yams, pine apples, bananas, cocoa nuts, and 
 bread-fruit. Its cultivation and artificial decorations display 
 a tastefulness rarely found among savage tribes. Even when 
 discovered in the 17th century, there were observed in the 
 interior several pieces of cultivated ground or gardens, in 
 which the beds were regularly laid out into squares, and 
 planted with different kinds of trees and shrubs, arranged in 
 straight lines. Private property is exactly ascertained, and 
 each possession is neatly fenced with a beautiful Chinese 
 railing. Highways and roads leading to public places are 
 bounded by suitable walls and hedges ; and many of the houses 
 have a handsome approach in the form of a gravel walk, lined 
 with shrubbery tastefully planted. The inhabitants, however, 
 who resemble those of Tonga, are described as ignorant, 
 superstitious, thievish, and almost destitute of any kind of 
 worship ; but regarding with reverence snakes, flies, and other 
 animals. They have a king or chief, but his power seems to 
 be very limited. Theft is punished in various ways ; but the 
 most effective is shaving the delinquent s head, which exposes 
 him to ridicule. Annamooka was discovered by Tasman in 
 1643, and by him named Rotterdam. The memory of the 
 Dutch navigator, who supplied the natives with dogs and 
 hogs, is still preserved by oral tradition. The island was 
 visited in 1773 and 1777, by Capt. Cook. In 1791, Anna 
 mooka was reached by Capt. Edwards in the ship Pandora. 
 Since 1829, the inhabitants have been partly christianized by 
 the efforts of British missionaries. Pop. about 2000. 
 
 ANNAN, a river, Scotland, formed by the union of the 
 Moffat water, which flows from Loch Skene, S.W., and the 
 Evan water, which rises in the upper part of Lanarkshire, and 
 flows S.E. These streams unite 3 m. S. Moffat, and, inter 
 secting Dumfries-shire in a S. course, fall into the Solway 
 Frith about 1 m. S. Annan. Total direct course from the 
 junction of the Moffat and Evan, about 21 m. 
 
 ANNAN, a borough, seaport tn., and par. Scotland, co. 
 Dumfries. The TOWN lies on the 1. bank of the river of same 
 name, near its confluence with the Solway Frith, 14 m. S.E. 
 Dumfries. It is neat, clean, and well built, and contains 
 many good houses, and handsome shops. The streets are 
 spacious and well paved, and the whole town presents a 
 cheerful and thriving appearance. The public buildings are 
 the parish church and towuhouse, each of which has a handsome 
 spire ; the academy, a remarkably fine structure ; and a bridge 
 over the river, of three arches, erected in 1824, at a cost of 
 about 8000. Amongst the more conspicuous edifices are 
 also some dissenting meeting-houses. There is a subscription 
 library in the town, and several benevolent and religious 
 societies. The manufacture of cotton, rope-making, and ship 
 building, are carried on here, the first and last to a very con 
 siderable extent. There is also a pretty large trade in the 
 curing of bacon and hams, for the Newcastle and London 
 markets; and an extensive export of corn, fat cattle, and 
 sheep. The harbour, a natural one, has been much improved 
 by the construction of an embankment, extending about 1 J m. 
 down the river, from the lower extremity of the town. At 
 its lower termination, this embankment is 19 ft. high, and 
 120 ft. broad at the base. At the lowest tides there are 14 ft. 
 water in the harbour, and in the lowest spring tides 22 ft. at 
 high water ; but the depths are often much greater, particu 
 larly when a westerly wind has prevailed for a clay or two. 
 Vessels of 60 tons can proceed up as far as the bridge. Annan 
 is governed by a provost, three bailies, a treasurer, dean of 
 guild, and 15 councillors. It joins with Dumfries, Lochmaben, 
 Sanquhar, and Kirkcudbright, in sending a member to Par 
 liament; constituency, 172. Pop. in 1841,4409. Area 
 
 of PAR., 17 sq. m., or 11, 100 imperial acres. Pop., exclusive 
 of the town, 1062. 
 
 ANNANDALE,adist. Scotland, Dumfries-shire, through 
 which the Annan flows, and which gave the now extinct title 
 of Marquis to the family of the Johnstones. 
 
 ANNA-PAROCIIIE (ST.), ST. ANNABUREN, or ST. 
 ANNA, a vil. Holland, prov. Fricsland, 7 m. N.W. Leu-war 
 den, and 8 m. N.E. Franeker. It consists of two double rows 
 of houses, intersecting at right angles at the church, a hand 
 some octagonal building, and has a large school, with school- 
 
 21 
 
ANNAPOLIS 
 
 ANNOBON 
 
 master s house attached. The vicinity consists of well-culti 
 vated clay lands. Pop. 1800. (Van der Aa.) 
 
 .:.,. 
 N N . 
 
 ANNAPOLIS, or PORT-ROYAL.!, A sea 
 
 river of same name, Nova Scotia, 92 in. W. Halifax ; lat. 
 44 40 N. ; Ion. 65 30 W. The harbour is commodious and 
 safe, but the entrance is through a difficult strait, called the 
 Gut of Annapolis; lat. (Point Prim) 44 41 N.; Ion. 65 45 
 W. (R.) The shores on both sides of this strait are iron-bound 
 for several miles, and rise to a great height, causing violent 
 currents and gusts of wind. On entering the basin, much 
 beautiful scenery is presented, and many thriving and ex 
 tensive farms appear. Of late years, the herring fishery of 
 Annapolis has risen to such consequence, that the merchants 
 of Halifax and St. John give them a decided preference for 
 foreign markets. There is a regular packet established from 
 hence across the Bay of Fundy to St. John, in New Bruns 
 wick. This is one of the oldest European settlements in N. 
 America, having been founded by the French, in 1604, 
 under the name of Port-lloyal ; changed to Annapolis in com 
 pliment to Queen Anne, the province having been added to 
 England during the reign of that princess. It was the capi 
 tal of the province till the foundation of Halifax, in 1750, 
 when the seat of the provincial government was removed to 
 that town. It is now a mere village, of not more than GO 
 houses. Pop. of township, including a part of Dalhousie 
 settlement, in 1827, 2578. 2, The county of Annapolis ex 
 tends along nearly the whole coast of the Bay of Fundy. The 
 soil is chiefly marsh and upland; the former composed of 
 fertile alluvial tracts on the rivers and bays, protected from 
 inundation by dikes ; the latter, long ridges of small hills, 
 called by the natives mountains, the summits of which, when 
 cleared of wood and cultivated, are very productive. Pop. of 
 county in 1851, 14,285. 3, The river of the same name rises 
 in the township of Cornwallis, King s County, about 60 m. 
 N.W. Halifax, and, flowing from the N.E., parallel with the 
 Bay of Fundy, expands into a wide estuary, and falls into the 
 sea at Annapolis, after a course of about 70 m. It is navi 
 gable 20 m. above its mouth for ships of 100 tons, and for 
 about 10 m. for vessels of any burden. The tide flows 
 between 30 and 40 m. up. 4, A city and port of entry, U. 
 States, cap. of the state of Maryland, 2 m. from the mouth of 
 the Severn, on its r. bank, and 31 m. E.N.E. Washington, 
 with which, and with Baltimore, it is connected by railroad ; 
 lat. 38 58 7" N.; Ion. 76 29 7" W. (R.) The streets, which 
 diverge from the state-house and the episcopal church, are 
 regularly laid out. The town contains several public buildings 
 deserving notice ; amongst these is the state-house, in which 
 the American Congress held some of its sessions during the 
 revolutionary war. It contains also a state library, county 
 buildings, an Episcopal and a Methodist church, a market- 
 house, bank, and theatre, several schools and aeademies, in 
 cluding a United States naval academy, established in 1845. 
 tit. John s College, a branch of the university of Maryland, 
 was established here in 1784. The trade of Annapolis has 
 been injursd by that of Baltimore. Pop. (1850), 3011. 
 
 ANNATOM, an isl., S. Pacific Ocean, one of the New 
 Hebrides ; lat. 20 1 V S. ; Ion. 169 42 E. (it.) ; about 240 m. 
 E.N.E. Queen Charlotte s Point, New Caledonia. It presents 
 undulating hills, but no remarkable peaks or striking features. 
 Productions yams, bread fruit, and cocoa nuts. 
 
 ANNE (ST.) 1, A tn. and bay, isl. Nukahivah or Nooa- 
 ueevah, one of the Marquesas, S. Pacific Ocean ; lat. 8 55 18" S.; 
 Ion. 140 6 W. (R.) 2, A small isl. near to, and on the E. 
 side of the isl. of Mahe, one of the Seychelle Archipelago ; 
 lat. 43G 0"S.; lon.5533 45"E.(u.) 3, Ariverandtn.Lower 
 Canada; the former joins the St. Lawrence about 50 m. 
 W.S.W. Quebec; the latter is situated on the S. bank of that 
 river; lat. 49 N.; Ion. 66 25 W. There are several 
 other rivers of the same name in this territory. 4, Moun 
 tains, Lower Canada, the N E. one in lat. 48 52 N. ; Ion. 
 66 49 W. (R.); 3973 ft. high. 5, A mountain, France, dep. 
 Orne, 8 m. from Alen^on, on which is a chapel, frequented by 
 great numbers of pilgrims. 
 
 ANNECY, a tn. Sardinia, in Savoy, cap. of the former 
 prov. of Genevois, pleasantly situated at the N. end of Lake 
 Annecy, 1472 ft. above the sea level, 21 m. S. Geneva. It 
 lias a cathedral, a church, 10 convents and monasteries, a 
 library, and a college, a handsome episcopal palace, and hos 
 pital. Manufactures cotton, silk, straw hats, earthenware, 
 
 glass, hardware, sulphate of copper, tinned iron, and steel. 
 Four fairs are held annually. Annecy is overlooked by an 
 old castle in a ruinous state, which was formerly the residence 
 of the Counts of Genevois. Anciently occupied by the Romans, 
 the name is said to have been derived from Anicius, ono 
 of the Roman governors of the province. It was once de 
 stroyed by the Goths, and twice by fire, the last time in 1559. 
 Pop. 5700. 
 
 ANNECY (LAKE), kingdom of Sardinia, in Savoy, be 
 tween 8 and 10 in. in length, from 1 to 2J m. in breadth, and 
 about 1400 ft. above the level of the sea. It is 20 m. S. 
 Geneva, and is surrounded by mountain scenery of the finest 
 description ; and at its lower extremity there is a beautiful 
 promenade, where fairs and public amusements are held. 
 
 ANNELAND. See ANNALAND. 
 
 ANNESLEY, a par. England, co. Notts ; 3360 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 274. 
 
 ANNESTOWN, a vil. and seaport, Ireland, co. Water- 
 ford; 12 ac. Pop. in 1841, 149. 
 
 ANNET, one of the Scilly Islands, S.W. coast, England, 
 off the Land s End, about f m. from the N.W. extremity of 
 the isl. of St. Agnes. It is now uninhabited, but the founda 
 tions of ancient houses, which may be traced at low water, 
 and other evidences, show that it formerly contained a pretty 
 large population. Encroachments of the sea are supposed to 
 have been the cause of its desertion. It now supplies the 
 other islands with fern and turf for fuel, and grazes a con 
 siderable number of sheep, but the latter are small, and in very 
 indifferent condition. 
 
 ANNI, ANI, or ANISI, an ancient and deserted tn. Turk 
 ish Armenia, about 20 m. E.S.E. Kars ; lat. 40 33 N. ; Ion. 
 43 32 E. It was built in a triangular form, on a rocky pen 
 insula overhanging the Arpa-chai, and was fortified by strong 
 and massive walls, in some places 40 and 50 ft. high, defended 
 by numerous round towers ; the whole beautifully built, and 
 curiously variegated with ornaments in black stone. The 
 entire site of the town is covered with the ruins of private j 
 houses and public edifices, the latter chiefly churches and | 
 chapels. One of the former, a large Christian church, built j 
 in the form of a Latin cross, is still in good preservation. 
 There are also the remains of an extensive building, which 
 Mr. Hamilton supposes to have been the palace of the Kings 
 of Anni ; it is of excellent masonry, and the gateway is in j 
 rich Saracenic style, while the walls are adorned with elabor 
 ate mosaic patterns, in various coloured stones. The history 
 of this ancient city is imperfectly known, but, situated on the 
 frontiers of Armenia and Georgia, it became, in the fifth or 
 sixth century, the capital of the Pakradian branch of Armenian 
 kings. In the llth century it was taken, pillaged, and its 
 inhabitants massacred, by the Tartars. Soon after, it was 
 altogether abandoned, and has never since been occupied by 
 a civilized people. (Hamilton s Asia Minor &c.) 
 
 ANNIMALLAY. See ANNAMALLAY. 
 
 ANNIVIEKS (VAL D ) [German, EinjhcWiaT], a valley, 
 Switzerland, can. Valais, formed by two ranges of mountains 
 branching off N.W. and N.E. from the Weisshom, and abutting 
 on the Upper Rhone, opposite the village of Siders. The val 
 ley is watered by the Usenz, a wild mountain-stream ; it is 
 about 12 m. long; presents wild and varied scenery; and its 
 upper end is terminated by the snow-capped Weisshorn. The 
 inhabitants, from 4000 to 5000 in number, said to be de 
 scended from a troop of Huns, are of powerful make, simple 
 habits, hospitable, and laborious; they cultivate the soil, 
 which, in some parts, is fertile ; but the chief source of sup 
 port is cattle-rearing, and the making of butter and cheese. 
 
 ANNOBON, or ANNO BOM, a small but beautiful isl. 
 belonging to the Spanish, on the W. coast of Africa, S. 
 of the Bight of Biulra, arid about 190 m. W. Cape Lopez; 
 lat. (N.W. point) 1 24 18" S.; Ion. 5 35 42" E. (R.) It is 
 about 4 m. in length, and 2 m. in breadth, and rises abruptly 
 from an unfathomable depth to a height of 3000 ft. One 
 lofty peak shoots above all the rest, the ascent to which is 
 difficult and dangerous from its extreme steepness, and the 
 looseness of the stones with which the slope is covered. The 
 summit is flat and narrow, scarcely exceeding 10 yards in 
 length, and the wind sweeps over it with great violence. At 
 the base of this peak is a beautiful little circular lake, filling 
 what appears to be the crater of an extinct volcano. The 
 lake is about 9 ft. deep in the deepest part, and the water 
 
ANNOEULIN 
 
 1G3 
 
 ANSE 
 
 sweet. Capt. Allen speaks in the warmest terms of this 
 little island. We coasted, he says, along this bright isle, 
 opening a succession of little valleys, with fine outlines of 
 steep mountains, richly clothed with wood, while every ledge 
 and crevice gave nourishment to a rich luxuriance of para 
 sitical and other foliage, and the precipitous surfaces were 
 tinged with every variety of colour. Little villages appeared 
 nestled in fertile spots, but these were few, and sometimes 
 only guessed at by the gracefully-curling smoke. At another 
 place he says, At our last resting-place, in the lower part of 
 the valley, we enjoyed a deliciously cool rill, under the shade 
 of palm trees, the arching and intersecting ribs of which 
 formed a more exact representation of the Gothic arch, than 
 any of the types that have been imagined by architects to be 
 the original of that excellent style. Vessels touch at Anno- 
 bon for refreshments, of which the supply is abundant, includ 
 ing pork, mutton (which is small, but well-flavoured), goats, 
 pigs, fowls, bananas, plantains, cassada, sweet potatoes, pines, 
 and tamarinds. Guinea-fowl are particularly plentiful, and 
 afford excellent amusement to the sportsman. The plumage 
 of those found here is richer, the birds larger, and the flesh 
 of a much finer flavour, than that of English game. Cassada, 
 cotton, sugar-cane, &c., are cultivated with care and success 
 by the natives, the grounds appropriated to these productions 
 being carefully enclosed and neatly fenced off. All articles 
 are procured much more readily by barter than for money ; 
 cheap tawdry handkerchiefs, old clothes, muskets, fish-hooks, 
 cutlery, trinkets, rum, and tobacco, being the objects chiefly 
 coveted. Water is abundant, but in some places not easily 
 procured by shipping, on account of the heavy surf on the 
 shores. At others it is obtained more readily. The wood 
 in most abundance on the island resembles in appearance 
 the cotton tree, but is unfit for fuel, on account of its spongy 
 nature. Near the N.E. point of the island is a considerable 
 town, composed of several irregular streets or lanes of detached 
 huts, the latter rudely constructed of rough unhewn boards, 
 of grass, mud, &c. The principal street, however, is tolerably 
 straight, and leads through the town to the church, having 
 crosses planted at intervals. Here is the only safe roadstead 
 for shipping round the island. The bottom is rocky, and 
 the bank of soundings is about one-third of a mile in breadth, 
 and sheltered from all the prevailing winds, except during 
 the tornadoes, against which the chief precaution is to ride 
 with a chain, to prevent the cable being cut. In taking up 
 a position, the rule is not to anchor in less depth than 17 
 fathoms, with the highest summit of the island bearing 
 S.S.W. W. (magnetic), when the distance from the shore 
 will be little more than half a mile, giving room to veer to 
 the strength of a tornado. The government, according to 
 Capt. Allen, is an oligarchy, vested in five persons, who 
 assume office by turns, strangely enough measuring its tenure 
 by the arrival of ships, the chief magistrate holding his 
 during the period of the arrival of ten. The natives are a 
 harmless, inoffensive people, extremely poor, of which they 
 are in the habit of making the most pathetic complaints to 
 their visitors. The climate is represented by Capt. Allen to 
 be extremely healthy, but a less favourable account has been 
 given by others. The regular winds are from the S.W., 
 excepting during the tornadoes. The rainy seasons are con 
 fined to April, May, October, and November. Besides the 
 town already adverted to, there are a few villages, at other 
 parts of the island. Annobon was discovered by the Portu 
 guese in 1473, and was named from the new year. Pop. 
 estimated at 3000. (Allen s Niger Expedition; London Geo. 
 Jour., vol. ii. p. 276, et seq.} 
 
 ANNOEULIN, a tn. France, dep. Nord, arrond. of, and 
 about llm. from Lille. A good deal of flax is hand-spun in 
 the town, which has also manufactures of leather and beet 
 root sugar; brick-works, an oil and a corn-mill. Pop. 3040. 
 
 ANNONAY [Latin, Annoneiim, Annoniacum~\, a tn. 
 France, dep. Ardeche, in the Vivarais (Languedoc), 30 m. 
 S.S.W. Lyons. Its site at the confluence of the Cance and 
 Deaume, which join the Rhone about 6 m. below, is pleasing 
 and picturesque. The best view of it is obtained from the 
 top of St. Denis, a steep rock in the vicinity. The town, 
 which is of a straggling and irregular form, lies immediately 
 below, occupying the tops, sides, and intervening valleys of 
 seven small hills. The most prominent object is the Gothic 
 church of Trachi, with a fine lofty spire. Near it stands the 
 
 extensive and massy structure of the Ursuline nunnery. In 
 another part is seen an old castle in ruins, once the residence 
 of the Princes of Soubise. Behind, the Deaume pursues a 
 rapid and noisy course along its rocky bed ; and further off, 
 in the same direction, the view is terminated by a mountain 
 range. Within the town, the most interesting object is a 
 monumental obelisk to the celebrated aeronauts, Joseph and 
 Stephen Montgolfier, natives, who made their first ascent 
 here, in 1783 ; and have a still stronger claim on the grati 
 tude of their townsmen for their celebrated paper-mills, which 
 have made the paper of Amionay famous over Europe. The 
 other buildings worthy of notice are the college, the town- 
 house, containing marble busts of the Montgolfiers, the 
 public library of 10,000 volumes, and the museum. Besides 
 its paper, which it produces annually to the value of 120,000, 
 and of which about a third is exported to foreign countries, 
 Annonay can boast of numerous other manufactures, woollen 
 cloth, worsted caps, refined wax, silk and cotton thread, and 
 particularly tanned leather, made chiefly from the skins of 
 unweaned kids, and partly also of lambs. These skins are 
 imported from all quarters of the world. A large portion 
 come from the S. of France, and the districts of the Alps ; 
 also from Spain and Italy, though the heat of these two coun 
 tries is said to make the quality inferior. So important is 
 this branch of manufacture, that it employs 1200 workmen, 
 and yields a produce little short of 700,000 annually. The 
 chief markets for the leather, which is used for the finer sorts 
 of gloves, are Grenoble, Paris, and different towns in England. 
 The surrounding district is covered with mulberry plantations, 
 and produces large quantities of silk. Indeed, the greatest 
 part of the very fine white silk which is employed exclusively 
 in making blonde, comes from Annonay. Pop. 9893. 
 
 ANNWEILEE, a tn. Bavaria, cap. of its dist., circle 
 of the Rhine, in a beautiful valley of the same name, on the 
 banks of the Queich, 8 m. W. Landau. It has a E. catholic 
 and two Reformed churches, an hospital, and grammar school. 
 Its public works are tanneries, colour-works, brush manu 
 factories, paper-mills, and distilleries of kirscliwasser. On 
 the top of a remarkable hill of sandstone, which overhangs 
 the town, and is 1422 ft. above the level of the sea, stands the 
 ruined castle of Trifels, which was at one time a place of great 
 strength and importance, Frederick Barbarossa, and, indeed, 
 many Emperors both before and after him, holding their court 
 in it, and making it the depository of the regalia of the empire, 
 and which still possesses a deep interest from containing the 
 subterranean dungeon in which Richard Cceur de Lion was 
 treacherously confined in 1192. The sandstone rocks in the 
 vicinity of Annweiler possess, in their fantastic shapes and 
 remarkable fissures, a peculiar attraction for the geologist. 
 Pop. 2602. 
 
 ANOPSHEHER, or AHAPASHEIIER, a tn. Hindoostan, 
 prov. Agra, 1. bank, Ganges, 72 m. S.E. Delhi; lat. 28 23 
 N. ; Ion. 78 10 E. In 1800 it was a populous town, con 
 sisting of a mixture of brick and mud buildings, and surrounded 
 by a mud wall, 20 to 30 ft. thick. 
 
 ANOTTA BAY, N. coast, Jamaica, co. Surrey, about 
 30 m. from the N.E. end of the island. There is good hold 
 ing-ground in 7 fathoms water, about a quarter of a mile from 
 the shore. 
 
 ANSE. 1, A tn. [anc. Ansa Paulini] France, dep. 
 Rhone, in a lovely valley near the junction of the Azergue 
 with the Saone, 13 m. N.N.W. Lyons. Under the Romans, 
 in the time of Augustus, it had a garrison of four cohorts 
 (about 2400 men). The ruins of a palace of that Emperor, 
 and traces of the Roman fort, still remain. In the llth and 
 12th centuries, not fewer than six councils were held here. 
 Anse possesses five fountains ; four of them flow constantly ; 
 but the remarkable circumstance is, that the fifth is dry in 
 wet, and begins to flow only in very dry seasons a fact, it is 
 said, which enables the inhabitants accurately to predict the 
 nature of the coining vintage. The country between Anse 
 and Villefranche is so rich and beautiful, as to have made a 
 proverb of the doggrel stanza 
 
 De Villefranche \ Anse, 
 La plus belle lieue de France.* 
 
 Anse has some trade in cattle, corn, hemp, and wine. Pop. 
 1750. 2, A tn., N. coast, Martinique, in a dangerous bay. 
 Pop. 4500. 3, Les Anses d Arlet, a vil. Martinique, S. of 
 Fort Noya, 
 
ANS-ET-GLAIN 
 
 164 
 
 ANTALO 
 
 ANS-ET-GLAIN, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Liege, 
 on the railway between Wareiinc and Liege, and rather more 
 than 2 m. N.N.W. the latter town. The com. has an area of 
 1850 ac. ; is watered by the Legie, vulgarly called Ri de 
 Coq-Fontaine, and possesses two coal-pits, and several flour- 
 mills. Pop. 4071. 
 
 ANSLE Y, a par. England, co. Warwick ; 3580 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 701. 
 
 ANSON BAY. 1, A bay, Australia, N.\V. coast, having 
 Cape Ford on the S., and Channel Point on the N. ; width of 
 entrance, 30 m. It is about 220 m. N.E. Cape Londonderry, 
 and 90 m. S.W. Clarence Strait. 2, A bay, W. coast, Korea; 
 lat. 39 25 N. ; Ion. 124 30 E. (R.) 3, A bay, in Tinian Isle, 
 Ladrones; lat. 14 58 N.; Ion. 145 37 E. (R.) In this bay 
 water and refreshments for ships are to be had; but the 
 anchorage is bad, and only for small vessels. 
 
 ANSON S ISLAND (LORD), an isl., S. Pacific Ocean, 
 called by the natives Bouka ; lat. (most N. point) 5" S. ; 
 Ion. 154 34 E.; separated from Bougainville s Island by a 
 narrow strait. Shores rocky and precipitous, crowned with 
 cocoa trees, dense groves of which extend to the centre of the 
 island. 
 
 ANSPACII, or ANSBACH [originally Oiwlxback], a tn. 
 Bavaria, cap. circle of same name, and of gov. of Middle 
 Franconia, prettily situated at the junction of the Holzbach 
 with the Lower Rezat, 24 m. W.S.W. Niirnberg. It owes its 
 origin to the monastery of St. Gunibert, which was founded 
 in the eighth century, and in the church of which is the burial- 
 place of the margraves of Anspach. It has one R. catholic, 
 and two Reformed churches, a Jewish synagogue, several 
 important educational and charitable institutions, a picture- 
 gallery, and a public library of 15,000 volumes. The build 
 ing perhaps most worthy of notice is the old deserted palace 
 of the margraves of Anspach, surrounded by gardens, which 
 form an agreeable promenade, and in which is a monument to 
 the poet Uz, who died here in 1796. Its principal manufac 
 tures are of woollen, cotton, and silk stuffs, leather, hardware 
 (including all kinds of cutlery, but particularly surgical instru 
 ments), earthenware, white lead, tobacco, organs, parchment, 
 and playing-cards. There is also a considerable trade in wool, 
 
 flax, and grain. Pop. 14,500. ANSPACH gives its name 
 
 to an ancient principality or margravate. which had an extent 
 of nearly 1000 geo. sq. m., and, in 1806, contained a pop. of 
 300,000. Charles Frederick, the last margrave, sold his 
 possessions, in 1791, to Prussia, and, marrying Lady Craven, 
 took up his residence at Brandenburg House, near London, 
 where he died in 1805. In 1806, Napoleon transferred the 
 principality to Bavaria. 
 
 ANSTEY, the name of five parishes in England : 1, Co. 
 Herts; 2170 ac.; 3 m. S. Barkway. Pop. in 1841, 497. 
 2, Co. Warwick; 990 ac. Pop. in 1841, 224. 3, Co. Wilts ; 
 840 ac. Pop. in 1841, 329. 4, Anstcy [East], Co. Devon; 
 2170 ac. ; 3 in. W. Dalverton. Pop. in 1841, 240. 5, An- 
 stey (West), Co. Devon ; 2820 ac. ; N. of the above. Pop. in 
 1841, 279. 
 
 ANSTON, a par. and township, England, co. York, W. 
 Riding; 3110 ac.j 12 m. S.E. Sheffield. Pop. in 1841, 1102. 
 
 ANSTRUTHER (EASTER and WESTER), two small 
 burghs and pars. Scotland, on the coast, co. Fife, mouth of 
 the Frith of Forth. They unite with St. Andrews, Crail, 
 Cupar, Kilrenny, and Pittenweem, in returning a member to 
 Parliament. Anstruther Easter, the larger of the two, has a 
 custom-house, a good harbour, and some trade in tanning, 
 fish-curing, brewing, rope and sail-making. It is the birth 
 place of Dr. Thomas Chalmers. Pop. of par. in 1841, 997. 
 Anstruther Wester has little trade. It is lighted, well paved, 
 and drained. Pop. of par. 449, including 22 inhabitants of 
 the island of May, which is claimed also by the parish of Crail. 
 The two burghs are connected by a handsome bridge over 
 the small stream called the Dreal-burn, which forms the 
 boundary between them. 
 
 ANTA. 1, A tn. Peru, prov. of, and 25 m. N.W. from 
 Cuzco; lat. 13 25 S.; Ion. 70 35 W. 2, A small lake, 
 Brazil, prov. Rio de Janeiro, near Cabo Frio. 
 
 ANTA, or AUANTA, a small kingdom on the Gold Coast, 
 Africa, about 25 to 30 m. in length, and about 25 m. in 
 breadth ; lat. 5 N. ; Ion. 2 W. On its coast are 
 Axim, Cape Three Points, Aquida, Seccondee, Dixcove, 
 and Boutre, and many commodious havens and creeks. The 
 
 country is in general woody, well-peopled, and well-watered, 
 and the soil is considered to be the most fertile on the Gold 
 Coast, yielding rice, sugar cane, and all the tropical plants 
 of that region. Its climate is thought to be less fatal to 
 Europeans than that of any other part of Guinea. Since the 
 abolition of the slave-trade, the English have withdrawn the 
 garrisons formerly stationed at Axim, Dixcove, and Sec 
 condee, and the intercourse with that country has very much 
 diminished. 
 
 ANTAKIA [anc. Antioch], a celebrated city, Syria, 1. bank, 
 Aazy [anc. Orontes], 20 in. from its embouchure in the Medi 
 terranean, 21 m. S.E. Lskcnderoon, and 50 in. E. Aleppo; lat. 
 30 12 N. ; Ion. 36 8 E. (R.) It stands close upon the river 
 which is here from 100 to 150 ft. wide, and is crossed by a 
 substantial stone bridge of four arches. Behind, and border 
 ing close on it, is the N. termination of the mountains called 
 Jebel Akra or Arsus. The houses are Turkish as to plan, but 
 of inferior construction, usually of stone, though frequently 
 consisting of a wooden frame, filled up with sun-dried bricks, 
 and having a pent roof covered with red tiles. The streets arc 
 narrow, with a raised pavement on each side for foot-pass 
 engers. The city contains 14 mostly insignificant mosques, 
 with low minarets. A considerable portion of the walls of 
 ancient Antioch still remain, with some remnants of a Roman 
 aqueduct and a few catacombs. In the modern town the 
 only objects worthy of notice are the chief bazaar, a few 
 mosques, and a new palace, built for Ibrahim Pasha, but 
 which he afterwards converted into an hospital, and a large 
 barrack, capable of containing 8000 men. The manufactures 
 of the place are trifling ; they comprise silk and cotton stuft s, 
 leather, and coarse pottery. There is also some trade in 
 silk tissues, goats wool, bees wax, and Turkey leather, and 
 in the large eels caught in the Aazy, which are salted and 
 exported in considerable quantities to various places. 
 
 Modern Antakia occupies but a small portion of the site of 
 the ancient Antioch, which was 4 m. in circumference, and 
 was considered one of the most flourishing cities in the world, 
 its inhabitants being, at the same time, celebrated for their 
 luxury, effeminacy, and licentiousness. Here it was that the 
 disciples of our Saviour were first called Christians. Few 
 places have undergone so many calamities as Antioch. In 
 B.C. 65, on the breaking up of the kingdom of Syria, it was 
 captured by Pompey ; and in A.T>. 115 it was almost utterly 
 destroyed by an earthquake ; and in 540, and again in 574, it 
 was captured by Chosrocs. In 638, it fell into the hands of 
 the Saracens, and remained in their possession till 966, when 
 it was recovered by the Greek Emperor; but it was in 970 
 again taken by the Saracens, and remained with them till 1098, 
 when it was captured by the Crusaders, who established there 
 a principality which long survived their kingdom of Jeru 
 salem. In 1268, it was wrested from them by Bibars, the 
 Mameluke Sultan of Egypt, when 40,000 Christians were put 
 to the sword, and twice that number made captives. Since 
 that period it has remained in the hands of the Mahometans 
 (Biblical Cydopcedia). In August 1822, Antakia was visited 
 by a destructive earthquake, when walls, mosques, and houses, 
 were thrown down in every direction, the streets tilled with 
 ruins, and between 4000 and 5000 persons destroyed. 
 
 Ancient Antioch was the capital of the Syro-Macedonian 
 empire. It was composed of four distinct towns, built at 
 different periods, and was founded by Seleucus Nicator, and 
 greatly enlarged by Seleucus Callinicus, and by Antiochus 
 Epiphancs. For several hundred years it was the residence 
 of the Macedonian Kings of Syria, and afterwards of the 
 Roman governors of that province. The valley in which the 
 city stands abounds in olive, fig, and mulberry trees, and in 
 vines. The rich alluvial lands on the borders of the Aa/y 
 are, however, but indifferently cultivated. Pop. in 1835, ex 
 clusive of military, 5600. (Bowring s lieport ; Paton s 
 Modern Syrians; Chesney s Euphrates Expedition.) 
 
 ANTALO, or ANTAUTW, a tn. Abyssinia, cap. prov. 
 Enderta, in Tigrd ; lat. 30 20 N. ; Ion. 39 50 E. ; on the 
 declivity of a hill, and commanding an extensive view of the 
 country 8. It contains about 1000 houses or huts of the 
 usual Abyssinian form, and the palace of the sovereign of 
 Tigre", who, in order to check the incursions of the Galla 
 tribes, has his residence occasionally here. The inhabitants 
 manufacture spears, and have some trade in cattle, hides, 
 butter, and salt. 
 
A.NTANG 
 
 1C>5 
 
 ANTEQUERA 
 
 ANTANG, a vil. and dist., E. end, isl. Java, prov. Ke- 
 cliri. The village lies in lat. 7 43 S. ; Ion. 119 E., about 
 2000 ft. above the sea. In its vicinity arc numerous Hindoo 
 antiquities, consisting of figures of Brahma, Ganessa, &c. The 
 district is a well-watered upland valley, surrounded with moun 
 tains clothed with dense forests ; the lower borders planted 
 with coffee, which is extensively cultivated. Rice is also 
 grown. Pop. variously stated at 7627 and 10,000. (Jour. 
 Indian Archipelago.} 
 
 ANTARCTIC OCEAN, the name given to the expanse 
 of sea at and around the S. pole, within the limit of the Ant 
 arctic circle, but frequently used in a more extensive sense, 
 to designate the cold oceanic regions round the S. pole, with 
 out any very positive regard to the limits of the antarctic 
 circle. The mystery in which these all but wholly unknown 
 latitudes were shrouded had invested them with an interest 
 which prompted many a daring adventure, but, until re 
 cently, without any good result. It is now otherwise, although 
 there is yet much to learn, a space equal to double the area 
 of Europe being still unexplored. The expedition, composed 
 of two ships, the Erebus and Terror, fitted out by Govern 
 ment in 1839, for purposes of discovery, and commanded by 
 Captain, now Sir James Ross, has contributed a large amount 
 of new and interesting information regarding these high S. 
 latitudes. The highest point previously attained was in lat. 
 74 15 S. ; that reached by Sir James Ross was in lat. 78 4 
 S., or within little more than 100 m. of the magnetic pole. 
 Several islands had already been discovered by various navi 
 gators within the antarctic circle, but it was reserved for Sir 
 James to add to these an extensive continent, which he named 
 S. Victoria, a discovery which confirms, in a remarkable 
 manner, the sagacious conjecture of Cook that the greater 
 cold of the antarctic than the arctic regions, is attributable 
 to the existence of a large tract of land between lat. 70 S. 
 and the pole. The interest attached to the discovery and 
 description of Victoria, Land, which had never before been 
 looked on by human eye, nor trod by human foot, will be 
 best maintained by giving the language of the discoverer 
 himself. On the morning of the llth January 1841, 
 says Sir James, when in lat. 70 41 S., and Ion. 172 36 
 E., land was discovered at the distance of nearly 100 m., 
 directly in the course we were steering, and, therefore, directly 
 between us and the pole. Continuing our course towards this 
 land for many hours, we seemed scarcely to approach it. It 
 rose in lofty mountain peaks of from 9000 to 12,000 ft. in 
 height, perfectly covered with eternal snow ; the glaciers that 
 descended from near the mountain summits projected many 
 miles into the ocean, and presented a perpendicular face of 
 lofty cliffs. Having taken formal possession of this land in 
 the name of Queen Victoria, Sir James proceeded to trace 
 its coast line. Still steering to the S., early the next 
 
 Sir James traced Victoria Land from lat. 7 1 to nearly lat. 
 78 S., when his further progress was interrupted by a barrier 
 of ice, presenting a perpendicular face of 150 ft. in height, 
 and far over-topping the ships masts. This apparently end 
 less and unbroken line of icy wall, is described as one of the 
 most imposing objects imaginable. Although the further 
 progress of the ships was thus arrested, it was not until they 
 had approached the pole more nearly by several hundred 
 miles than any preceding navigator.* Sir James is of 
 opinion that no vegetation exists in these high S. latitudes, 
 no trace of it having been visible on Franklin Island, 12 m. 
 long, and 6 broad, situated in lat. 76 8 S.; Ion. 168 12 E. 
 It would appear, also, that the seas are comparatively shallow 
 in these regions, the soundings of the Erebus and Terror 
 rarely exceeding 400 fathoms, and being more frequently 
 about from 200 to 300. Amongst the more remarkable dis 
 coveries made by this expedition, is that of a permanently 
 low barometric pressure in high S. latitudes over the whole 
 Antarctic Ocean a pressure inferior by more than an inch 
 of mercury to what is found between the tropics. Another, 
 and one of its most important objects, was to ascertain the 
 position of the S. magnetic pole, which Sir James has placed 
 in Victoria Land, in lat. 75 5 S. ; Ion. 154 8 E. It was 
 the opinion of Capt. Cook, and is now ascertained beyond 
 doubt, that the ice of the antarctic predominates greatly 
 over that of the arctic region, that encircling the S. pole 
 coming nearer to the equator by 10 than the ice around the 
 N. pole. The most distinguished explorers of these high 
 S. latitudes are Capt. Cook ; Bellinghausen, who discovered 
 Alexander and Peter s Islands within the antarctic circle ; 
 Capt. Weddcll ; Capt. John Biscoe, the discoverer of Enderby s 
 Land ; Capt. Charles Wilkes, Commander of the U. States 
 exploring expedition, who visited these regions in 1840 ; and 
 Ross and d Urville, in 1841. 
 
 The extreme points which have been reached by these 
 navigators, in their attempts to penetrate to the S. pole, are 
 as follows : 
 
 Biscoe, 1831, February 1 ........... 
 
 Bellin-rhauscn, 1821, January ..... 
 
 Cook, 1774, January SO .............. 
 
 Weddell, 18:23, January ............ 
 
 ROM, 1841, February 2 .............. 
 
 S. lat. Ion. 
 
 C8 51 0"... 12 O E. 
 
 70 .. 92 W. 
 
 71 10 30 ...107 \V. 
 
 74 15 ... 35 W. 
 
 78 10 ...161 27 W. 
 
 HEAUFOBT ISLAND AND MOUNT EREBUS. From Sir James Ross s Antarctic Expedit: 
 
 morning, the 28th, a mountain of 12,400 ft. above the level 
 of the sea was seen emitting flame and smoke in splendid pro 
 fusion. This magnificent volcano (1500 ft. higher than Mount 
 .flCtna) was called Mount Erebus, after one of the ships of the 
 expedition. It is in lat. 77 32 S., and Ion. 167 E. A 
 little further E., another, but extinct volcano was seen, 10,900 
 ft. high, and named, after the other ship, Mount Terror. 
 
 (Ross s Antarctic Expedition ; Lyell s Geology.} 
 
 ANTAREE, a small vil., S.E. Africa, 1. bank Zambesi, 
 
 which here becomes very narrow, not exceeding 20 or 30 yds. 
 ANT AS, two small rivers, Brazil : 1 , In prov. Sao Pedro 
 
 do Rio Grande, an affluent of the Taquari. It flows N.E. 
 
 to S. W., and has a course of about 40 m. 2, In prov. Goyaz, 
 
 an affluent of the Araguaia, and flowing S.E. to N.W. 
 
 ANTAS, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 40 m. 
 
 N.E. from Almeria, in a plain. It has crooked, unpaved streets ; 
 a square, in which are the council-house and 
 prison; and also a parish church, chapel, en 
 dowed school, and a cemetery. The pop., almost 
 exclusively agricultural, is 2300. 
 
 ANTEQUERA [anc. Anticai-ia], an import 
 ant city, Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 29 m. 
 N.N.W. from Malaga, on the N. slope of the 
 sierra Cabras. The city, which is clean and well 
 built, has eight squares of various sizes and de 
 grees of elegance ; in two of which, named Con- 
 stitucion and San Sebastian, are situated the 
 municipal buildings. Antequera likewise pos 
 sesses six churches, of which that of Santa Maria, 
 a doric edifice, is the finest; an infirmary, poor- 
 house, foundling hospital, a general hospital; 
 two collegiate schools, in which all branches of 
 education are taught; a theological seminary, 
 numerous convents, several hermitages, and 
 an extra-mural cemetery. In the old town, 
 which lies higher up the hill than the modern 
 city, there is a Moorish castle built on Roman 
 
 * In the Cape of Good U, 
 stated tliat the barque Fngo 
 
 Shipping Gazette, of July 25, 1840, it is 
 ired by the Colonial Government for a 
 
 scientific expedition, and commanded by Lieut. Mnore, bad returned to 
 Simon s Bay, after having penetrated further to the S. thaii any other 
 vessel had yet dune, completing the whole, series of masnetio observations 
 left unfinished by Sir James Boss. Lieut. Moore coniirms the existence 
 of the antarctic continent discovered, and culled, by Sir James, South 
 Victoria. 
 
ANTHEME (ST.) 
 
 1C6 
 
 ANTIGUA 
 
 foundations. It is a quadrangular structure, which has been 
 repaired and remodelled at various times, and presents few 
 attractions of beauty. The city is well supplied with good 
 
 CALLE BE KSTEl A, ANTKQUEKA. 
 
 From Baron Tu} lor, Voy:ie Piltorcsque en Esj 
 
 water from numerous public fountains. The woollen trade 
 is carried on here to some extent, there being eight water- 
 mills for spinning wool and weaving woollen fabrics, chiefly 
 baize, in the manufacture of which numerous handloom 
 weavers are also employed. There are, besides, in Ante- 
 quera, 10 tanneries, an equal number of earthenware fac 
 tories, several dyers ; and silk hats, &c., are manufactured 
 to some extent. The larger number of the inhabitants, how 
 ever, are agricultural. They wear the majo dress, and are 
 very fond of greeii velvets, and gilt filigrane. They raise 
 wheat and barley, some of which is exported; olives, and 
 grapes ; and rear a considerable number of sheep, goats, and 
 pigs ; of horses, mules, asses, and horned cattle. In the neigh 
 bouring plain is a salt lake whence salt is obtained. In 1410, 
 the town was taken from the Moors by the Regent Fernando, 
 who was hence called El In/ante de Antequera. Pop. 17,031 . 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 ANTHEME (ST.), a tn. France, dep. Puy-de-D6me 
 (Auvergne), 9 m. E. Ambert, and 44 m. S.E. Clermont, on 
 the Ance. Pop. 1003. 
 
 ANTHONY (CAPE ST.), a cape, S.W. coast, Arabia, prov. 
 Yemen, near the Strait of Bab-el- Mandeb ; lat. 12 41 N.; 
 Ion. 44 10 E. (R.) Its summit is 2772 ft. above the sea. 
 
 ANTHONY (FALLS OP ST.), a cataract and rapids in 
 the Mississippi, U. States, America, about 2000 m. above the 
 mouth of that river. It is 627 yards wide above the falls, 
 and 209 yards below it. The perpendicular fall is 17 ft. 
 high, with a rapid below of 58 ft. An island divides the 
 river into two parts. The entire descent of the stream for 
 three quarters of a mile is 65 ft. The falls and surrounding 
 scenery, especially during the spring floods, are exceedingly 
 picturesque. 
 
 ANTHONY (ST.), the name of three parishes, England, 
 co. Cornwall:!, (In Meneage), 1410 ac. ; S. by W. Fal- 
 mouth. Pop. in 1841, 313. 2, (In Jioseland), 710 ac. ; 
 S.W. Tregony. Pop in 1841,- 144. 3, (St. Jacob) , 2860 ac. ; 
 S.E. St. Germains. Pop. in 1841, 2894. 
 
 ANTIBES, or ANTIBOUL [anc. Antipolis], a flourishing 
 port, France, on a bay in the Mediterranean, dep. Var (Prov 
 ence), near the Piedmontese frontier, and llm. S.S.W. Nice, 
 on the opposite side of the bay. It ranks as a military place 
 of the third class ; its fortifications, erected under Francis I. 
 and Henry IV., and improved by Vauban under Louis XIV., 
 
 being of considerable strength. The harbour, though of small 
 extent, and encumbered by a sandbank formed by the bar, 
 has about three fathoms water, and is safe and of easy access. 
 It is of a semicircular form, and along the quay is a range of 
 circular arcades. It is defended by a square fort, with four 
 bastions, on a rocky islet at its mouth, and lias two lights to 
 guide the entrance ; one small, on the E. extremity of the mole, 
 and one of the first order on the adjacent promontory of the 
 Galoupe. The only buildings deserving of notice are the parish 
 church, which stands on a lofty rock overhanging the town, and 
 occupies the site of an ancient temple of Diana, near which 
 are two towers, which date two centuries B.C., and the town- 
 house, a handsome edifice. The environs are covered with 
 gardens, vineyards, and orchards. The olive trees are very 
 fine, and the oil which they produce is of superior quality. 
 The figs are delicious and in high repute. Good tobacco also 
 is raised ; while orange trees, Spanish jasmines, various kinds 
 of tuberous-rooted plants, and a profusion of roses and other 
 odoriferous flowers, furnish materials for numerous factories 
 of perfumery and scented waters. The fishery in the bay 
 occupies about 45 vessels belonging to the port, and great 
 numbers of the inhabitants find employment in curing sar 
 dines and anchovies. The chief exports are earthenware and 
 potter s clay, perfumery, salt fish, olive oil, wine, oranges, 
 figs, and citrons. The dried fruits are famous. Antibes was 
 founded 340 years B.C. by Greek colonists from Marseilles, as 
 a barrier against the incursions of the Alpine tribes. The 
 Ilomans enlarged it, and built numerous public buildings ; a 
 fine aqueduct, which conducted the water of a neighbouring 
 spring to the circus, is still in good preservation. Pop. 
 4515. 
 
 ANTICOSTI, a large isl. at the mouth of the river St. 
 Lawrence, 125 m. long, and 30 m. broad at its broadest part. 
 It lies between lat. 49V and 49 55 N. ; and Ion. 61 54 and 
 64 30 W. The original Indian name was Natiseoti, which, 
 by a simple but not very felicitous transposition of letters, 
 has been converted into its present, and far less euphonious 
 name. It has an extremely sterile and unpromising appear 
 ance, being low and swampy on the S. side, and high, rocky, 
 and barren on the N. It is mostly covered with woods of 
 stunted growth, tenanted by bears, foxes, hares, and sables. 
 Partridges, plovers, curlews, and snipes also abound. It has 
 no harbours, but there are a few coves in which ships find 
 tolerable shelter when the wind blows off the land. The island 
 was uninhabited till 1809, when, after some disastrous wrecks 
 had taken place, the governor of Newfoundland erected re 
 sidences for two families at opposite ends of the island, for the 
 purpose of affording relief to those who might be shipwrecked 
 on its shores. A lighthouse also was erected on its S.W. 
 point in 1821, and another afterwards at its E. extremity. 
 The ship channel between the island and Lower Canada is 40 
 m. broad ; but the navigation is rendered dangerous by num 
 erous shoals and reefs. Provision posts have been established 
 on the island by the government of Lower Canada, for the 
 relief of the crews of vessels wrecked upon the island, and 
 direction boards have been placed at different parts near the 
 beach to intimate where these posts are. The island was first 
 discovered in 1535, by Jacques Cartier. 
 
 ANTIGUA, one of the N. Caribbee, Leeward, or W. 
 Indian Islands, 50 m. E. St. Kitts, and the same distance N. 
 Guadaloupe, about 28 m. long, and 20 m. broad at its broadest 
 part ; first settled in 1632. Its shores are high and rocky, giving 
 but little promise of the beauty to be found within, consisting 
 of hill and dale, green fields, gorgeous flowers, and cliffs fes 
 tooned with elegant intertropical plants. The shores are in 
 dented on all sides by harbours, bays, and creeks, and lined 
 on the N. and E. coasts with a number of small rocky islets. 
 The only elevated land in the island is a range of hills, called 
 the Sheckerley Mountains, with no great propriety, as their 
 greatest height does not exceed 1500 ft. Several of the har 
 bours are good, but the best is English Harbour, on the S. 
 coast; lat. (dockyard) 17 N. ; Ion. 61 45 7" W. (A.) ; the 
 entrance to it is narrow, but it is capacious and safe, being 
 surrounded with hills. It is a naval station in time of war, 
 and has a well-arranged dockyard. The capital, St. John, 
 the residence of the governor of the Leeward Islands, is 
 built on the shore of a deep and well-sheltered harbour of the 
 same name, in the N.W. part of the island, and is of consider 
 able extent, being about three quarters of a mile in length, 
 
ANTIGUA 
 
 1C7 
 
 ANTIPAEOS 
 
 and half a mile in breadth ; the houses are of stone, and well 
 built. Pop. about 16,000. The island is divided into six 
 
 parishes, each of which has a town or village. It contains 
 six churches, as many chapels, and a number of other places 
 of worship belonging to Methodists and other dissenters. The 
 cathedral and parish church of St. John s, a new structure, 
 opened for Divine service in October 1847, cost upwards of 
 35,000. The climate is healthy, although remarkable for its 
 want of humidity, the droughts being sometimes so protracted 
 as to ruin the crops, and reduce the inhabitants to great dis 
 tress, there being no river in the island, and the few springs it 
 contains being all brackish. On these accounts it is more 
 dependent on the seasons as regards its produce, than any 
 other of the W. Indian Islands. It is subject also to violent 
 
 BT. JOHN S, ANTIGUA, from the foreground of the Scotch Church From a Drawing l,y E. Pattison, Eeq. 
 
 hurricanes. One of the most destructive with which it was 
 ever visited occurred on Aug. 21, 1848, when, beside the in 
 jury done to property, many lives were lost. The principal 
 exportable products are sugar, molasses, ruin, rice, arrow-root, 
 and tobacco ; of the last two articles, however, the quantities 
 exported are small. The entire imports of the island, for 
 1851, amounted to 198,425, and the exports to 219,239 ; 
 
 | showing a considerable decrease since 1847, when the im 
 ports amounted to 217,998, and the exports to 369,590. 
 The revenue of the island, for 1851, was 218,88, 8s. 8d.; and 
 
 I the expenditure 2 1,1 93, 17s. I0$d. The legislature not ha v- 
 
 ! ing yet made any grant for the support of schools, and parents 
 
 j being unable to do so from the extreme lowness of wages, 
 reduced, in 1848, to Qd. per day for field-work, education has 
 
 j hitherto made but little progress in the island. The school 
 
 returns for 1847 show that there were 6493 children under 
 instruction of some kind or other, in that year. A train 
 ing school was opened by the Moravian mission in 1847, into 
 which children are admitted as boarders, and where it is in 
 tended they shall remain until their education is completed, 
 the object being to qualify them for the duties of teachers. 
 The experiment of introducing European agricultural labour 
 ers into the island has been an entire failure, a great portion 
 of them having died or left the island for America. The 
 legislature is composed of a governor, a council of 12, and an 
 assembly of 25 members. The courts of equity and law 
 are the same as in Great Britain. The legislature totally 
 abolished slavery within the island, Aug. 1, 1834, dispensing 
 with the intermediate stage of apprenticeship. The compen 
 sation allowed for the freedom of the slaves, including those of 
 Anguilla, w; x s 425,547, being 14, 12s. 3d. per head. Fop. 
 (1851), including Barbuda, 37,757. 
 ANTILLES. See WEST INDIES. 
 
 ANTIMO (ST.), a tn. Naples, 7 m. N. the city of 
 Naples, having two churches, some convents, a seminary, 
 Government pawn-offices, several important fairs, and 7100 
 inhabitants. 
 
 ANTINGHAM, a par. England, co. Norfolk ; 1530 ac. ; 
 S.W. from N. Walshani. Pop. in 1841, 271. 
 ANTINOE. See ABABDE. 
 ANTIOCH. See ANTAKIA. 
 
 ANTIOCHE [PERTUIS i) 7 ], a strait, W. coast, France, 
 breadth about 7 m., between Ilochelle and Eochefort, separ 
 ating the isle of Oleron from that of Ee . It was here that, 
 July 15, 1815, Napoleon went on board the lidlerophon. 
 
 ANTIOCO (SANTO), or ANTICO (SAN), an isl. Sardinian 
 States, S.W. the isl. Sardinia, from which it is separated by the 
 Gulf of Pal mas, and a narrow shallow channel, not navigable 
 for shipping; lat. (S. point) 38 58 N. ; Ion. 8 26 E. (K.) 
 It is about 27 m. in circumference ; 9 m. long, and 2 to 4 m. 
 broad ; soil fertile. It was extremely populous in the time of 
 the Eomans, who called it Enosis. A great number of medals, 
 statues, vases, marble columns, and other monuments of anti 
 quity, have been discovered here. It was once famous for its 
 wild horses, but the race has long been extinct. The chief town, 
 San Antioco, on the E. coast, on the 
 Gulf of Palmas, is a military place, 
 with a small fort. At Calasapone 
 and Calasetta are some salt marshes. 
 Total pop. 2219. 
 
 ANTIOQUIA, a prov. and tn. 
 New Granada, dep. Cundinamarca. 
 The PROV. lies between lat. 5 40 
 and 8 N. ; Ion. 75 and 76 30 W. 
 It is watered by the Cauca ; is moun 
 tainous and extensively wooded ; a 
 very small portion being in grass, 
 or under tillage. Gold and silver 
 are the principal products ; but iron, 
 copper, tin, and lead are also found, 
 though either not worked at all, or 
 only to a very limited extent. The 
 negroes and Zamboes were formerly 
 numerous in the mining districts of 
 this province, but both races have 
 been much reduced by the war of 
 independence. The TOWN, pro 
 perly named Santa Fe de Antio- 
 quia, lies on the Cauca, in a deep 
 
 burning-hot valley, 1790 ft. above the sea; lat. 6 36 N.; 
 Ion. 76 W. The houses and churches are pretty well built, 
 and the inhabitants are lively, active, and naturally given to 
 handicrafts, making good watch-makers, carpenters, and lock 
 smiths. The town is surrounded by maize and sugar planta 
 tions ; and though the heat is great, yet the air is dry and 
 healthy, and the plague of tropical insects is not felt. Pop. 
 in 1807, 18,680; now stated at 4000. 
 
 ANTIPAROS [anc. Oliaros], a rocky islet, Grecian Ar 
 chipelago, about 16 in. in circumference, W. of Paros, from 
 which it is separated by a strait 1 to 2 m. wide; lat. (S. point) 
 36 56 N. ; Ion. 25 5 E. (R.) The island is in general flat, con 
 taining only a few eminences of no great elevation. Its soil 
 is fertile, and in good cultivation, producing cotton, barley, 
 and grapes. It has one small village, inhabited by about 
 
ANTI PAXO 
 
 IG3 
 
 ANTONIO (SANT) 
 
 100 families, with a harbour suited only for small craft; was 
 anciently peopled by a colony of Sidonians, and was the birth 
 place of Phidias and Praxiteles. The wonderful grotto, which 
 has rendered the island famous in modern times, is situated 
 in a high hill about 2 m. from the sea, and 500 ft. from the 
 surface of the ground. The entrance is by a large natural 
 arch of rugged rock, overhung with a variety of trailing plants. 
 The descent into the grotto is effected by the aid of ladders, 
 ropes, and torches. The principal cavern is 120 yards long, 
 by 113 broad, with an average height of 60 yards. It is an 
 immense marble afch, the roof and sides of which are covered 
 with stalactites, and innumerable crystallizations, assuming 
 the various figures of columns, screens, ramifications of trees, 
 and festoons of flowers, the magnificence of which dazzles the 
 eye, and seems almost to realize the idea of the enchanted halls 
 of fable. The stalactite and stalagmite pillars are of great 
 length and thickness. The former, dependent from the roofs, 
 sometimes meet with the latter rising from the floor, and 
 thus form a continuous pillar apparently giving support to 
 the arch. One stalagmite is stated to be of the great thick 
 ness of 20 ft. 
 
 ANTI PAXO, one of the smallest of the Ionian Isles ; 
 lat 39 8 42" N.; Ion. 20 5 45" E. (R.) ; about 1$ or 2 m. 
 S. S.E. Paxo. It is 2 m. in length, and half a mile in breadth ; 
 produces the olive, grape, and otlier fruits. 
 
 ANT1PHELLUS, now ANDIPHILO, a small seaport tn. 
 Asiatic Turkey, territory of Lycia, on the Mediterranean, 39 
 m. S.E. Telmissus or Makrai ; lat. 36 15 N. ; Ion. 29 40 E. 
 It has an active trade in firewood, and contains the houses of 
 several official persons. The ancient town of Antiphellus stood 
 at a short distance, on a finely-situated promontory, which still 
 presents a theatre, tombs, foundations of temples, and other 
 buildings. Many of the tombs have remained unopened dur 
 ing the 2000 years they have existed; others have been pil 
 laged. Many of them are highly ornamented with architectural 
 designs. The form of the sarcophagus found here is peculiar 
 to the district of Lycia. (Fellows Asia Minor.} 
 
 ANTIPODES ISLAND, a small isl. in the S. Pacific 
 Ocean, about 760 m. S.E. by E. the middle island of New 
 Zealand, and so called from its being nearly antipodal to Green 
 wich, the latter being in lat. 51 28 6" N. ; Ion. 0"; the 
 former, or Antipodes Island, in lat. 49 35 S. ; Ion. 179 30 E. 
 
 ANTISAN A, a volcano in the Andes of Quito, 35 m. S.E. 
 by E. the city of that name, and 80 m. N.N.E. Chimborazo; 
 lat. 29 45" S. , Ion. 78 24 30" W. Its height is estim 
 ated at 19,137 ft. Antisana is not known to have had any 
 considerable eruption for the last 260 years. When visited 
 by Humboldt, in 1802, smoke was seen issuing from several 
 openings, and an appearance resembling a current of lava was 
 observed by that illustrious person near the summit, while 
 on the slope of the mountain pumice-stone and scoriae were 
 noticed. There is a village or hamlet of the same name on 
 the mountain, 3800 ft. above the plain of Quito, and 13,454 
 ft. above the sea, being, with exception of the village of 
 Tacora in Peru, and tbat of Calamarca in Bolivia, the highest 
 congregation of houses known on the face of the globe, 
 although there are several post stations in Peru at a much 
 greater elevation. 
 
 ANTI VAKI, a tn. European Turkey, in Albania, on tho 
 Adriatic, 17 m. W. Scutari; lat. (W. point) 42 2 18" N. ; 
 loii. 19 6 30" E. (n.) It is built on a rocky eminence, about 
 2 m. from the sea, on the banks of the small river Eichanatz ; 
 is the see of a K. catholic archbishop; contains nearly 1000 
 houses, a bazaar with 100 shops, and is defended by a castle. 
 At the mouth of the river is a harbour for light vessels, by 
 which a considerable trade in exporting oil and leather is 
 carried on. Pop., composed of Turks and Christians, 4000. 
 
 ANTOINE (ST.), the common name of at least 16 villages 
 in France, but the only one worthy of notice is a tn. and com., 
 dep. Isere (Dauphine), on the Furand, among mountains, about 
 27 m. W. Grenoble. The only object of importance is tho 
 celebrated abbey of the same name, belonging to the Augustine 
 order. It was founded in the 13th century, and its church, 
 an interesting and fine edifice, is in good preservation. Some 
 silk stuffs are manufactured here. Pop. 2007. 
 
 ANTOING, a tn. Belgium, near the French frontier, cap. 
 can. of same name, prov. Hainaut, rather more than 2 m. 
 W.N.W. Tournay, on an eminence which overhangs the r. 
 hank of the Scheldt, and commands a view of the battle-field 
 
 of Fontenoy. The only buildings of note are the church of 
 St. Peter, the hospital, and the old castle of the Princes of 
 Ligne, with a very lofty tower. The high road from MODS 
 to Tournay passes through the commune, and the canal of 
 Antoing enables Mons to communicate with the Scheldt with 
 out entering the French territory. The manufactures are 
 earthenware and salt. Linseed and rapcsecd are crushed for 
 oil, and a good deal of chicory is prepared. Pop. 2104. 
 
 ANTONG1L BAY, Madagascar, E. coast, 290 m. S. 
 Cape Amber or Ambro ; 50 m. in length S. to N., and about 
 25 m. in width at the entrance. The depth of water in the 
 bay decreases, as the head is approached, to 30, 25, 20, and 15 
 fathoms. The common anchorage is to the N. or W. of Isle 
 Morossc, a small island at the head of the bay. Wood and 
 water are readily procured here. There is an excellent har 
 bour also, called by the French Port Choiseul, where ships 
 may anchor in 6 or 7 fathoms. 
 
 ANTONIE (ST.), a vil. Holland, prov. N. Brabant, 25 m. 
 E.S.E. Hertogenbosch (Bois le Due), on the E. edge of the 
 Peel. It has a E. catholic church, and 9GO inhabitants. 
 
 ANTONIN (ST.), the name of several places in France; 
 but the only one of any note, a tn. dep. Taru-et-Garonne, in a 
 spacious valley at the junction of the small stream Bonnet! e 
 with the Aveyron. The town is, in general, ill built, but the 
 E. portion contains large building dedicated to St. Genevieve, 
 occupied by the civic authorities and the gendarmery. In 
 the vicinity, on a lofty precipice above the Aveyron, stand 
 the picturesque ruins of the castle of Adelays. The manu 
 facture of leather, paper, woollens, and serges, is carried on. 
 Pop. 2691. 
 
 ANTONINA, a small port, Brazil, prov. Silo-Paulo, on 
 the Itapema creek, S. side the Bay of Paranagua, from the 
 city of which name it is distant N.W. about 10 m. ; lat. 
 25 29 S. ; Ion. 47 40 W. It has a church and a school, and 
 is favourably situated as to salubrity, in comparison with 
 some neighbouring places. A road across the hills commu 
 nicates with the town of Curitiba, whence goods are brought 
 on mules to a river, along which they are transported in 
 canoes to Antonina. The trade of the town consists in rice, 
 mandioca flour, dried beef, hides, building timber, and cord 
 age. The port, which is protected from the winds, and may 
 be entered at all times, has 21 ft. of water. Pop. of town 
 and district above 6000. (Die. Geo. Imp. Brazil.) 
 
 ANTONIO (Pom-), isl. Jamaica, 6 m. W. from the N.E. 
 end; lat. 18 11 18" N.; Ion. 76 27 W. (R.) It lies 30 m. 
 N.E. Kingston, and is composed of the E. and the W. har 
 bour, divided by a peninsula on which stands the town of 
 Titchfield, N. of which is Navy Island. The E. harbour has 
 good holding ground for anchorage in 9 to 1 1 fathoms water, 
 but is not so secure as the W. harbour, being more exposed 
 to the N. winds, but its channel is broader, and not so difficult 
 to take. The W. harbour has good anchorage in 5 to 7 
 fathoms. 
 
 ANTONIO (SAN). 1, A cape, Spain, in Valencia, one of 
 the most E. points of prov. Alicante, and forming the N. ex 
 tremity of the Bay of Jabea. It is high, naked, and precip 
 itous. On the table land at its summit are several wind 
 mills, a small convent, and a watch-tower; lat. 38 48 5" N.; 
 Ion. 10 E. (E.) 2, A cape, isl. Cuba, W. end. It is low, 
 and covered with wood; lat. 21 51 30" N.; Ion. 84 57 2" 
 W. (R.) 3, A cape, Brazil, at the entrance to the Bay of 
 Bahia; lat. 13 42" S.; Ion. 38 31 45" W. (R.) There is 
 a light on this point 140 ft. high. 4, A cape, Buenos Ayres, 
 at the mouth of the Kio de la Plata, S. side. It is high and 
 steep, and rises almost perpendicularly from the sea; lat. 
 36 19 S. ; Ion. 56 45 W. (u.) 5, A peak, and N.E. cape 
 on the Kurile, isl. Kunashir. 6, A port, isl. Ivica or Iviza, 
 N.W. side; lat. 39 24" N.; Ion. 1 14 E. (R.) It has 
 anchorage for large vessels. 7, A large port or bay, Pata 
 gonia, with anchorage for large vessels ; lat. 40 49 S. ; Ion. 
 64 54 W. (R.) 
 
 ANTONIO (SANT), the most N.,and one of the largestof 
 the Cape de \erde Islands; lat. (N. point) 17 12 N. ; Ion. 
 25 5 7" W. It is of great height, its loftiest summit attain 
 ing an elevation of 7400 ft. above the surface of the sea, and 
 may be seen in clear weather from a distance of nearly 90 m. 
 This, however, is rarely the case, as it is almost always 
 covered by a dense atmosphere. It is extremely fertile, pro 
 ducing large quantities of corn, archil, and cotton. The coast 
 
ANTONIO DE BEXAR (S 
 
 1G9 
 
 ANTRODOCO 
 
 all around is clear, and although there are no ports in the 
 island, there are several anchorages, one of which is Tarrafal 
 Bay, 011 the W. side, where excellent fresh water may be ob 
 tained. The best anchorage here is in 35 to 39 fathoms, 
 about one-third of a mile off shore, soft bottom. Pop. about 
 4000. 
 
 ANTONIO DE BEXAR (SAN), frequently called simply 
 Bexar by the inhabitants, a principal city, and once cap. of 
 Texas, on the river of the same name, which runs through the 
 town, and is here upwards of 60 ft. wide % and 12 ft. deep, 80 
 m. S.W. Austin. The town is said to be the most pleasant 
 and interesting in Texas ; laid out and built with some atten 
 tion to regularity. The houses are of stone, of one story in 
 height, have thick walls, and but few windows. The climate 
 is pure, dry, and healthy; and as little rainfalls here, the rich 
 and fertile river-margins are intersected by numerous irrigat 
 ing canals, so that even in the driest season a good crop is ob 
 tained. Peaches, melons, and other fruits are cultivated with 
 success. Although it has suffered severely from revolutionary 
 commotions, and from the irruptions of the Indians, it is still 
 a place of considerable trade. Pop. at one period 12,000, now 
 about 3000. The San Antonio River abounds in fish, and is 
 navigable for canoes to its source, and for small steamboats 
 to within 10 m. of La Bahia del Espiritu Santo, now called 
 Goliad. 
 
 ANTRIM, a maritime co. Ireland, prov. Ulster, bounded, 
 E. by the N. Channel, W. by co. Londonderry and Lough Neagh, 
 N. by the Atlantic, and S. by co. Down and Belfast Lough. 
 It extends about 55m. N. to S.; and in general breadth, from 
 E. to W., about 28 m. It comprises 761,877 ac., of which 
 176,335 are mountain and bog, 503,288 arable, and 53,288 
 water ; the remainder is in plantations, and occupied by towns. 
 One-third of the co. is mountainous, but nowhere rises more 
 than 1810 ft. above high sea level. Estates here are gener 
 ally large, but the farms, except in the hilly districts, are 
 small. Improved implements and practices have been ex 
 tensively introduced. The principal agricultural productions 
 are potatoes, barley, and oats. Wheat, pease, beans, and 
 flax, are also cultivated, but to a comparatively small extent; 
 the last, in particular, has much fallen off. 
 
 EXTENT OF LAND UNDKR CROPS IN 1848. Acr. s. 
 
 Wlieat 11,296 
 
 Oats 100 ; 8t9 
 
 Barley, Here, and Rye 3.319 
 
 Pease and Beans 4,540 
 
 Potatoes 37,699 
 
 Turnips 10,991 
 
 Manguld-wimel, Carrots. Pursncps, am! Cabliage 1,920 
 
 Flax : ". 2,895 
 
 Meadow and Clover 54,054 
 
 Total under crops 227,573 
 
 The cattle are of small size, but the breed has been much 
 improved by crossing with Dutch, Leicester, and Ayrshire 
 stock. Not much attention is paid to sheep, but in the moun 
 tain pastures are fed numerous herds of goats. Pigs are reared 
 in great numbers; and on these the small farmers and cottars, 
 who also employ themselves in domestic linen-weaving, chiefly 
 depend for the payment of their rents. During the salting 
 season, from September to May, the number of swine brought 
 to market is immense; and the bacon and pork of many 
 thousands are annually exported from Belfast. The staple 
 manufactures of the county are the spinning of linen and cotton 
 yarn, and linen and cotton weaving, in which the great bulk 
 of the population are engaged. The fishery districts are 
 Ballycastle and Carrickfergus, comprising 121 m. of maritime 
 boundaries, which, in 1849, had 636 registered vessels, em 
 ploying 2061 men and boys. Coals have been found in the 
 former district ; but the most remarkable feature in the geo 
 logical structure of this county is the stupendous range of 
 basaltic columnar strata, forming, at one part, the celebrated 
 Giant s Causeway, about 8 m. N.E. Coleraine, and extending 
 almost the whole length of the N. coast. (Sec GIANT S CAUSE 
 WAY.) Of these perpendicular basaltic columns, magnificent 
 specimens are also seen at the promontories of Bengore and 
 Fairhead. The latter consists of a range of tremendous rocks 
 and precipices, attaining in some places an elevation of G36 ft. 
 The lower portion is an inclined plane, strewn with huge 
 masses of rock, thrown together in the wildest confusion; 
 cbove this rises a mural precipice of columnar greenstone, 
 320 ft. in height, the whole presenting a scene of surpassing 
 VOL. I. 
 
 randcur and sublimity. The sea coast is diversified by 
 succession of projecting precipitous cliffs, here and there 
 
 THE FAIR HEAD, ANTRIM From the Picturesque Annual. 
 
 broken by bays and creeks. The county is divided into M 
 baronies, and comprehends 75 parishes, and parts of parishes, 
 and returns six members to Parliament; two for the county 
 at large (constituency, January 1, 1849, 1314) ; two for Belfast 
 
 orough, and one for each of the boroughs of Carrickfergus 
 and Lisburn. No county of Ireland includes a larger pro 
 portion of Presbyterian Protestants than Antrim, many of 
 
 horn are descended from natives of Scotland ; and the people 
 of this part of the country have the character of being the 
 most quiet, industrious, and orderly of the whole population 
 of Ireland. The principal towns are Belfast, Carrickfergus, 
 Lisburn, Larne, Eandalstown, Ballymena, and Ballymoney. 
 
 ANTRIM is also the name of two baronies, Upper Antrim 
 
 and Lower Antrim, and of a par., all in co. Antrim. Upper 
 Antrim contains 36,493 ac. ; pop. in 1841, 15,629. Lower 
 Antrim contains 80,827 ac. ; pop. in 1841, 25,135. Area of par. 
 8884 ac.; pop. in 1841, 5182. Pop. of co. in(1851),352,264. 
 ANTRIM, a market tn. Ireland, cap. co. Antrim, pleasantly 
 situated on the Six-Mile-Water, at the N.E. extremity of 
 Lough Neagh, 15m. N. by W. Belfast, and 18m. W. Carrick 
 fergus. It consists of two principal streets, with several 
 smaller diverging. The houses are mostly of stone, and well 
 built. The supply of water is abundant. The parish church 
 is a modern Gothic structure, with a lofty square embattled 
 tower, surmounted by an elegant octagonal spire. There are, 
 besides, several places of worship for dissenters, a meeting 
 house for the Society of Friends, a R. catholic chapel, and 
 several schools of different descriptions; a mendicity society, 
 a branch savings -barik, and a union workhouse. Antrim 
 carries on a considerable trade in bleaching, and in the weav 
 ing of linen, calico, and hosiery. In the neighbourhood are 
 two paper-mills, where the first machinery used in the N. of 
 Ireland for making paper was introduced ; also several flour 
 and meal mills, and malt kilns, as well as a brewery. About 
 half a mile from the town is the celebrated round tower of 
 Antrim. It is 95 ft. in height, and in good preservation. 
 The doorway is placed at an elevation of about 12 ft. from 
 the ground, is but four ft. four inches in height, and is con 
 structed of large blocks of coarse-grained basalt, found in the 
 neighbourhood. This doorway is remarkable in having a 
 pierced cross, within a circle, sculptured in rilievo on the 
 stone immediately over the lintel, in evidence, it has been 
 presumed, that these towers were regarded as sanctuaries. 
 Pop. in 1841, 2645. 
 
 ANTRODOCO, a tn. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Ultra II., 
 dist. of, and 9 m. E. from Citta Ducale, 17 rn. N.W. Aquila, 
 
ANTROS 
 
 170 
 
 ANTWERP 
 
 having a church, and two convents. It is the centre of a 
 considerable agricultural district, and has four important 
 annual fairs. Top. 3450. 
 
 ANTROS, a small isl. or rock, W. coast, France, at the 
 mouth of the Gironde, on which is the well-known lighthouse 
 called the Tower of Cordouan, esteemed one of the most ele 
 gant structures of the kind in Europe; it exhibits a revolving 
 light of the first class, the elevation of which, above the level 
 of the sea, is 207 ft., and maybe seen, in clear weather, at the 
 distance of 24 m.; lat. 45 35 2" N.; Ion. 1 10 2" W. (R.) 
 
 ANTUCO, a volcano and valley, Chilian Andes, 140 m. 
 E. Conception ; lat. 26 50 S. ; Ion. 70 40 W. The volcano, 
 according to Lyell and Mrs. Sommerville, is 16,000 ft. high. 
 Immense currents of lava have at various periods issued 
 from the mountain, the last discharge occurring in 1828. 
 This event is said to be an exception to the general rule ; 
 few volcanoes in the Andes, and none of those in Quito, having 
 been seen in modern times to pour out lava, but having merely 
 
 ojected vapour or scoriae. (Lyell s Geology, p. 332.) 
 
 The VALLEY is remarkable for the mildness of its climate, 
 and the beauty of its plants and flowers. 
 
 ANTURA, a vil. Syria, pash. of, and 80 m. N.N.E. from 
 Acre, about 5 m. from the coast ; lat. 32 55 N. ; Ion. 35 52 E. 
 It contains a convent and a church. 
 
 ANTURLI, or ANTOORLEE, a vil. Hindoostan, prov. and 
 dist.Candeish, 10m. S.W. Boorhaunpoor, formerly surrounded 
 by a mud wall, with brick bastions. 
 
 ANTWERP [German, Antwerpen; French, Anvcrs], a 
 city and port, Belgium, cap. prov. and arrond. of same name, 
 
 r. bank, Scheldt, 27f m., by rail, N. Brussels, and 32 m. 
 E.N.E. Ghent; lat. (Cathedral) 51 13 12" N. ; Ion. 4 24 15" 
 E. (R.); about 12 m. above the estuary of the Scheldt, and 
 about 50 from the open sea. It is situated at an abrupt bend 
 in the river, which here is about a quarter of a mile wide, 
 with an average depth of 30 ft. ; its limits landward, as marked 
 by its fortifications, form the segment of a circle, of which 
 the Scheldt is the chord. It is strongly fortified, its walls 
 and other defences completely encompassing the city on the 
 land side from the river on the N., to the citadel on the S., a 
 distance, following the line of fortification, and including the 
 citadel, of about 2 m. The latter, one of the finest and most 
 complete defences of the kind anywhere existing, was built 
 by the Duke of Alva, in 1567. It is a regular pentagon, sur 
 rounded by a wet ditch, 90 ft. broad ; and has three bastions, 
 each containing a casemate capable of holding 400 men. The 
 other works were erected partly by Philip II., in 15G7, and 
 partly by Philip V., King of Spain, in 1701. Outworks and 
 forts extend along both sides the river to near the Dutch 
 frontier. The general appearance of the city is exceedingly 
 picturesque an effect produced by its numerous churches, 
 convents, magnificent public buildings, its elaborate and ex 
 tensive fortifications, the profusion of beautiful trees with 
 which it is adorned, and in no small degree, also, by the 
 stately antique-looking houses which line its older thorough 
 fares. The entire breadth of the city, at the widest part, 
 which is between the walls and the river, or from E. to W., 
 is about three quarters of a mile ; its greatest length, between 
 the citadel on the W., and the fortifications on the E., is about 
 If- m., including the esplanade or Place d Armes on the one 
 hand, and the great and small basins on the other. Nearly 
 all the streets, of which there are altogether about 200, are 
 exceedingly tortuous and irregular ; so much so, that a stranger 
 has much difficulty in finding his way. Still, many of them, 
 from the elegance of their buildings, are imposing. The 
 principal one, called Place de Meir, will bear comparison with 
 any street in Europe. The squares, of which there are several, 
 are also fine. At the head of the numerous public buildings 
 with which the city is adorned, stands the cathedral, one of 
 
 ANTWERP CATHEDRAL, FROM THE EGG MARKET. 
 From ProufB Sketches in France and Germany. 
 
 the largest and most beautiful specimens of Gothic architec 
 ture in Belgium. It is believed to have been commenced in 
 the middle of the 13th century, and to have taken 84 years to 
 finish. It was burnt in 1533, but the tower and choir were 
 preserved. The exterior is distinguished by the delicacy and 
 elaborate beauty of the workmanship, and the interior by au 
 
ANTWERP 
 
 171 
 
 ANURADHAPURA 
 
 imposing simplicity. The height of the spire has been vari 
 ously stated from 366 ft. up to 466 ft. The entire length of 
 the huilding is said to be 500 ft., and the breadth 250. The 
 object of greatest interest and attraction in this church is the 
 celebrated masterpiece of Rubens, the Descent from the 
 Cross. The other churches of note are St. James s, St. An 
 drew s, and St. Paul s. The first is a very handsome struc 
 ture, surpassing even the cathedral in its internal decorations. 
 Behind the high altar is the tomb of Rubens, who resided in 
 Antwerp from his 10th year till his death, in 1540. It is 
 covered by a slab of white marble, on which is a long inscrip 
 tion, let into the pavement. St. Andrew s contains a carved 
 pulpit, of exquisite workmanship. All these three churches 
 are enriched with paintings by Rubens, Vandyck, Teniers, 
 and other masters. The churches of St. Michael, of the 
 Carmelites, Augustines, and Jesuits, may also be named as 
 fine edifices. Amongst the other public buildings are the 
 Exchange, built in 1583, and said to have been a model for 
 the old London Exchange, and for that of Amsterdam, neither 
 of which, however, equalled it; the Hotel de Ville, a splendid 
 edifice of marble, rebuilt in 1581; the Maison Anseatic or 
 Hall of the Hanse Towns, a large and magnificent structure ; 
 and the palace, intended for the King and royal family, when 
 they reside at Antwerp. Its institutions comprise academies 
 of painting, of the fine arts, and of the sciences ; a gallery of 
 sculpture ; a picture-gallery, with 200 pictures, many of them 
 the finest works of the first masters of the Flemish school ; a 
 public library, with 1 5,000 volumes ; a botanical garden, and 
 numerous learned societies and schools ; and several hospitals, 
 asylums, and workhouses. The quay along the Scheldt forms 
 a pleasant promenade, being spacious, and finely shaded by 
 elms. Of the docks, dockyards, and basins, constructed by 
 Bonaparte, at an expense, it is said, of 2,000,000, the last 
 only remain, the former having been demolished after his 
 downfall. The area of the great basin is 17 ac., and that of 
 the small one 7. They are now converted into commercial 
 docks, and are lined with capacious warehouses. The harbour 
 thus formed, is one of the finest in the world. It admits ves 
 sels of any size, and can easily hold a thousand. The prin 
 cipal manufactures of the city are black silks and velvets, for 
 which it is particularly famed. Cotton, linen, lace, carpets, 
 hats, and cutlery, are also manufactured to a considerable 
 extent. There are also sugar refineries, and a good deal of 
 shipbuilding. The trade and commerce of Antwerp are ex 
 tensive ; and for hides, it is one of the most important markets 
 in Europe. The number of foreign vessels that arrived there 
 in 1846 was 1970; tonn. 286,474. Of these 359 were 
 English, 704 German, 375 Danish, and the remainder other 
 foreigners. Besides these, there arrived Belgian ships 243 ; 
 tonn. 42,813. Total, 2213; tonn. 329,287. In 1839, the 
 number of ships that entered the port was only 1182, of which 
 337 were English, and the whole tonn. 202,038. The exports 
 chiefly consist of hides, flax, cotton and linen manufactured 
 goods; glass, zinc, oak bark, grain, and seeds; lace, refined 
 sugar (in 1847, 187,092 cwt.), candied sugar (in 1847, 23,632 
 cwt.) The principal imports are hides, cofi ee, sugar, cotton 
 stuffs, and other manufactured goods ; corn, raw cotton, leather, 
 timber, tobacco, wool, rice, dye-stuffs, salt, wine, fruits, &c. 
 The following list exhibits the quantities imported, in 1846 
 and 1847, of a few of the principal articles : 
 
 ARTICLES. 1847. 1846. 
 
 Skins 675,609 541,400 
 
 Coffee 278,038 bales 253,000 bales 
 
 Cotton 30,800 30,950 
 
 f Carolina 1,611 bushels 
 
 Aracan 22,092 
 
 Madras 11,160 
 
 Rice \ Piedmont 15,833 
 
 Ports of Europe 166,784 
 \ -tr -i, ( 230 tons 
 
 (.Manilla j 2,600 bags 
 
 Dyewoods 1,794 tons 
 
 ( 121,650 cases 
 
 Sugar (Raw) 1 50,500 bags 
 
 ( 1,900 ban-els 
 ( 5,074 
 
 Tobacco J 1,180 bales 
 
 ( 800 seroons 
 
 A large proportion of the imports are only transit, and are 
 forwarded with the utmost facility by means of canals and 
 railways. The passenger traffic of Antwerp is also very con 
 siderable, between 4000 and 5000 arriving annually, from 
 
 60,000 cases 
 21,600 bags 
 
 3,050 ban-els 
 11,306 
 
 2,791 bales 
 415 seroons 
 
 England, by the steam-packets, of which there are nine ply 
 ing between Antwerp, Hull, and London. It has, moreover, 
 become an important point of embarkation for emigrants, 
 2961 having sailed from this port in 1844, 5275 in 1845, and 
 15,170 in 1846. Ships of the largest burden come up to the 
 town, there being from 32 to 40 ft. water in the river at ebb 
 tide, with a rise at springs of from 12 to 14 ft. 
 
 Antwerp is a very ancient city, and had a much larger popu 
 lation, and a much more extensive foreign trade, in the 15th 
 and 1 6th centuries, than now. Its inhabitants then numbered 
 200,000, and 2000 vessels entered the port annually. Its 
 first reverse occurred in 1576, when it was pillaged for three 
 entire days by the Spaniards ; nine years afterwards, it was 
 besieged for 14 months by the Prince of Parma ; and in 
 1648, the navigation of the Scheldt was closed in accordance 
 with the terms of the peace of Westphalia, which, added to 
 other calamities, completed the ruin of the city. In 1794 
 it fell into the hands of the French, and was surrendered by 
 them to the allies in 1814. On the revolt of the Belgian 
 provinces in 1830, the Dutch garrison, consisting of 4500 
 men, commanded by General Chasse, refused to evacuate the 
 citadel, and continued to hold it for the King of the Nether 
 lands. To compel the evacuation, the fortress was invested 
 in 1832 by the French, under Marshal Gerard, and taken 
 24 days after the trenches were opened. Pop. about 79,000. 
 (Meert s Belgigue; Allgemdne EncyUopiidie; Moniteur dcs 
 Indes.) 
 
 ANTWERP, a prov. Belgium, bounded, N. by Holbnd, 
 E. by prov. Limburg, S. by S. Brabant, and W. by E. 
 Flanders ; length, about 40 m. ; breadth, about 30 ; area, about 
 620,000 ac. It is divided into three arrondissements, Ant 
 werp, Mechlin, and Turnhout; and these are subdivided into 
 22 cantons, containing 145 communes, among which are the 
 four principal towns or cities, Antwerp, Mechlin, Lierre, and 
 Turnhout. Since 1830, it has formed one of the nine prov 
 inces into which the kingdom of Belgium, then erected, has 
 been divided, sending four members to the Senate, and nine 
 to the Representative Assembly. The province is almost an 
 uninterrupted flat, composed chiefly of fertile soil, but partly 
 also of an extensive tract, called Campine, consisting of heath 
 and barren moor, with some woods of fir. It is bordered, 
 W. by the Scheldt, and intersected by the Great Nethe, the 
 Moll- Nethe, the Little Nethe, the Dyle, the Ruppel, the 
 Senne, and several smaller streams. The soil is in genera 
 light and sandy, with a wet clay subsoil, but is by no means 
 unfertile. Good crops of wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, pulse, 
 rape, flax, hemp, hops, madder, chicory, beet, potatoes, sain 
 foin, and lucerne, are raised ; and fruit, also, of every kind, and 
 a good deal of tobacco. In 1841, the number of acres under 
 cultivation was about 394,000. Cattle, sheep, and horses, 
 are reared in considerable numbers ; fish abound in the streams, 
 and honey, of excellent quality, is produced throughout the 
 district. The trade, both internal and external, is very im 
 portant. The principal manufactures are lace, tulle, cotton, 
 linen, woollen, and silk stuffs; soap, spirits, ale, and beer; 
 tobacco, refined sugar and salt, leather, and oil. Numerous 
 printfields produce goods which vie with those of Switzerland, 
 Germany, France, and England. The agriculture and manu 
 factures of the province have been considerably improved, by 
 several establishments, for the employment of prisoners and 
 mendicants, and by the formation of what is called the free 
 colony of Wortel, occupying an extensive moorland tract 
 between Antwerp and Turnhout. Still more important im 
 provements have been effected by the increased facilities of 
 transport, both by land and water. The canal of Willebroek 
 carries its produce to the capital ; while more recently, the 
 railway from Antwerp to Mechlin or Mai hies, has brought it 
 into immediate connection with all the great towns and 
 mineral and manufacturing districts in the S., E., and W. 
 Pop. in 1826, 330,125; in 1844, 365,173. (Meert s Bdgique.) 
 ANURADHAPURA, or ANARAJAPOORA, the anc. cap. 
 isl. Ceylon, but now a mass of ruins. It lies about 45 in. 
 S.E. Aripo, and 48 m. N. Dambool, on the road between these 
 two places, about lat. 8 20 N. ; Ion. 79 37 E. A few native 
 huts now contain all the inhabitants of this once densely pop 
 ulated city; and it is questionable if even these would long 
 remain in the place, were not Anuradhapura the seat of a 
 district court, and a Government agency. The country around 
 is desolate unhealthy, and naturally uninteresting; and the 
 
ANURADHAPURA 
 
 172 
 
 ANZIN 
 
 ruins are surrounded by dense masses of jungle. The walls ! roofed with inetal in place of tiles. To particularize all tlio 
 
 of Anuradliapura were built about the year A.I). 60, and their 
 remains still exist. They enclose a space of 16 in. sq., or an 
 area of 250 sq. m., and are built due N. and S., E. and W. 
 In this vast space, besides the buildings of the city, there 
 were of course included extensive gardens, water-courses, 
 &c. The ruins are characterized by an immense number of 
 stone pillars, generally square, which meet the eye on every 
 side ; carved stones in great multitudes, some in the form of 
 
 bullocks, and of lions heads, and portions of sculptured . , - , 
 
 columns lie scattered about in all directions, evidencing the | that in all these interesting remains of Singhalese art, and 
 state of refinement to which the inhabitants of this once pop- j evidences of Singhalese refinement and power, the more 
 ulous city had attained. The main streets appear to have | ancient structures are decidedly superior to those of a more 
 been as broad as the widest streets in London at the present modern date. Anuradliapura appears to have been founded 
 day. One of the earliest existing buildings, which 
 excellent state of preservation, is the Thupharamaya Dag- 
 ohah,* erected B.C. 307. It consists of a dome-shaped mass 
 
 interesting remains of this city, would greatly exceed our 
 limits. We cannot, however, pass over in silence the Ruan- 
 welle Dagobah, originally 270 ft. high, and standing on a 
 platform paved with granite, 500 ft. square ; nor the granite 
 trough, said to have been made for Dutugaimoni, for the pur 
 pose of holding his elephants food, and at which six of these 
 animals might feed without incommoding each other, com 
 posed of a single block of stone, and having an excavation 
 9 ft. long by 4 broad, and 2^ deep. It is to be remarked, 
 
 about B.C. 540, by Anuradha, a follower of Wijeya, who had 
 
 VAGOUAH OF THUPHARAMAYA. From Mnjor ForUs s Ceylon. 
 
 of brickwork, surmounted by a tapering spire, and standing 
 on a square-flagged platform. The entire erection is about 
 50 ft. high. It is surrounded by long, slender, well-propor 
 tioned columns, each consisting of two blocks of granite, the 
 one forming a square base and octagonal shaft, both together 
 about 22 ft. long; the other forming the capital, richly decor 
 ated with small human figures standing round the lower part 
 of the projecting ornament, and adding about 2 ft. to the 
 height of the pillars. There were originally 108 of these 
 pillars, standing in four rows, on the platform round the 
 dagobah. This dagobah, though by no means the largest, is 
 the most elegant structure of the kind in the city, and is, 
 besides, one of the finest extant remains of Singhalese art. 
 Probably the most remarkable ruins in this ancient capital, 
 are the remains of the numerous pillars which formerly sup 
 ported the Lowa Maha Paya or brazen palace for the priests ; 
 one of the largest buildings that ever existed in the East, and 
 built 150 years before our era, by Dutugaimono. It was 
 225 ft. square, and of the same height, supported by 1600 
 stone pillars, forming a square, with 40 on each side. The 
 pillars are nearly all standing, though in very various states 
 of preservation; time, and the wants of some of the later 
 monarchs, having made great havoc among them. They are 
 generally about 12 ft. high, those in the centre being twice as 
 thick as those outside. From the small interspaces it is evi 
 dent they were intended to be built upon; and history informs 
 us, that, when first erected, the Lowa Maha Paya consisted of 
 nine stories in height, each containing 100 apartments. In 
 the centre of this palace stood an ivory throne, having a re 
 presentation of the sun, in gold, on the one side; a similar 
 emblem of the moon, in silver, on the other; and above, the 
 stars, in pearl. It was called the brazen palace, from being 
 
 itacle of a re ic. Dagobahs 
 -; their characteristic lorm 
 
 * From D/iutu-garba, the womb 
 are monumental tombs of the relics 
 
 is bell-shaped, surmounted by a small spire; and, in small cell or hollow 
 stone in the centre, they contain ornaments or emblems of Buddhist wor 
 ship, such as pearls, precious stones, figures of Buddha, &c. (Knighton s 
 History ofCei/lan.j 
 
 shortly before invaded the island. It was greatly enlarged 
 and improved by the usurper Pandukabhayo, who, in B.C. 
 437, made it the capital of the island. He appointed 500 
 chandalas, or people of low caste, to be scavengers in the 
 city; 200 to be night men, 150 to be carriers of corpses, and 
 an equal number to be engaged at the cemetery. In the year 
 B.C. 307, in the reign of Tisso, the sacred Bo-tree of Gotamo 
 was transported from the banks of the Ganges to this place. 
 From this period to the Christian era, and for three centuries 
 thereafter, the city seems to have been in its most flourishing 
 condition. The first blow to its prosperity appears to have 
 come from the wavering monarch Mahasen, who reigned in 
 the third century. He became attached to the heterodox 
 Buddhistic sect, and employed his power in the destruction 
 of the great buildings occupied by the more numerous and 
 more orthodox community. Subsequently his opinion changed, 
 and he endeavoured to restore what he had formerly destroyed. 
 Its prosperity received a further check in the fifth century, 
 from a 24 years struggle between several Malabar invaders 
 and the royal race. It was finally deserted by the royal line 
 in the year A.D. 769. An unsuccessful attempt was made to 
 restore it by a Singhalese monarch, in the llth century. 
 (W. Knighton, in Jour. Asiatic JSoc., Bengal, 1847.) 
 
 ANWICK.apar. England, co. Lincoln; 1820 ac.; E.N.E. 
 Sleaford. Pop. in 1841, 314. 
 
 ANWOTH, a par. Scotland, co. Kirkcudbright ; 9023 ac.; 
 contains two ancient structures, the castle of Cardonnes, and 
 tower of llusco. Pop. in 1841, 883. 
 
 ANXIOUS BAY, S. Australia, having Cape Radstock, 
 lat. 32 12 S. ; Ion. 134 15 E. (K.), on the N. W., and Walde- 
 grave Point on the S.E., 125 m. N.W. from the entrance 
 into Spencer s Gulf. 
 
 ANZA, a river, Sardinian States, Piedmont, having its 
 source in the glaciers, on the E. side of Monte Rosa ; it tra 
 verses the beautiful though narrow vale of Anzasca, in a 
 direction E. by N., and falls into the Toce near Vogogna, 
 after a course of about 20 in. The scenery along its banks 
 is exceedingly picturesque. There are several mills on, it 
 for crushing the ore obtained from the gold mines in the 
 vicinity. The inhabitants of the valley of Anzasca are re 
 markable for cleanliness and industry; and the females espe 
 cially, for the beauty and symmetry of their persons. 
 
 ANZASCA VAL. See ANZA. 
 
 ANZI, a tn. Naples, prov. Basilicata, dist. of, and 12 m. E. 
 from Potenza, on a high mountain. It had its name of Ance or 
 Anza from the Romans, and was famous for its impregnable 
 position. It has a parish church, and a convent. Pop. 3297. 
 
 ANZIN, a tn. France, dep. Creuse (Flanders), about 1 m. 
 N.W. Valenciennes, in the centre of the most valuable coal 
 mines of France. The coal field of the surrounding district 
 is a very extensive tract; but what is properly called the 
 Concession of Anzin includes about 118 k. (518 sq. m.), and 
 is worked by 11 coal pits, giving employment to 2000 persons, 
 of whom nearly two thirds are miners, and raising annually 
 about 3,361,452 bushels of coal. Some of the pits at Anzin 
 are 1 50 fathoms deep. The seams are very numerous. About 
 50 have been counted, with a thickness varying from 3 ft. to 
 30. The coal is of a rich caking quality, in general tolerably 
 free from sulphur, well adapted for the smithy. The ample 
 supply of fuel has led to the establishment of numerous public 
 works at Anzin one blast furnace, several forges, with ap 
 paratus for making chains and iron plates ; glassworks, brew 
 eries, distilleries, salt-refineries, and works for firebricks. A 
 good deal of chicory, also, is prepared. Pop. 3132. 
 
ANZO 
 
 173 
 
 APENNINES 
 
 ANZO, or ANZIO [anc. Antium], a small seaport tn. Italy, W., according to Wilkes. Commander of the U. States exploi- 
 Papal States, 31 m. S.S.E. Rome. It is beautifully situated, ing expedition. It is about 5 ft. above the surface of the water, 
 and enjoys a mild, agreeable climate. The ancient port, built , and is 10 m. long by 5 m. in breadth. There is anchorage on 
 
 by Nero, still exists, but has decreased in depth from sanding 
 up; still having, however, 2J to 3 fathoms. A second port, 
 formed by a jetty, built by Innocent XII., is so shallow as 
 
 the S. side, the soundings varying from 2 to 5 fathoms, with a 
 broken coral and coral sand bottom. It has a large popula 
 tion, but yields little more than supplies their wants. 
 
 small quantity of fresh water may be had by digging on tho 
 beaches, but neither wood nor refreshments are procurable 
 
 to admit only of small boats. Its commerce is small, and 
 inhabitants few. It was a favourite Roman watering-place, 
 
 and Uie birthplace of Nero and Caligula. In and around Anzo for shipping. Apamama is also known by the names of Simp- 
 are many fine ancient architectural remains. | son and Hopper Island. 
 
 ANZUAN, or HIUZUAN, an isl. Mozambique Channel, i APANORMIA, or APONORMERIA, a tn., N.W. coast 
 See JOUANNAH. i isl. Santorin, Grecian Archipelago, 7 m. N.W. Scauro ; lat. 
 
 AOE, or AUR (Pulo), a small isl. in the China Sea, off tl.o ! 36 3S N.; Ion. 25 28 E. The only landing place in thu 
 
 E. coast of the Malay peninsula, from which it is about 47 m 
 distant, and from Singapore 116 m. ; lat. 2 29 N. ; Ion. 104 
 34 E. (u.) It is double-peaked, and has the appearance, when 
 viewed from a distance, of being two islands. The highest 
 of these peaks is 1805 ft. ; the other, 1520 ft. The island is 
 only about 3 m. in length, and little more than l^m. in 
 breadth. Its formation is granitic, and the soil red. It is 
 covered with cocoa-nut trees, which fringe its bays and cluster 
 imongst the crevices of its rocks, to a height of 1000 ft. above 
 
 Bay of Santorin, which is lined with lofty precipices, is at this 
 point, and at Pliiro. (See EPANOMERIA.) 
 
 APATI, or JASZ-APATHI, a tn. Hungary, dist. Jazig, 11 
 m. E. Jasz-Bere ny, and 50 m. E. Pesth. It lies in a fertile 
 plain, and has an elegant church. Pop. 7607. 
 
 APATIN, a tn. Hungary, near its S. borders in Sclavonic, 
 1. bank, Danube, 13 m. S. Bezdan, and 127 m. S. Pesth ; 
 lat. 45 40 N. ; Ion. 19 3 E. It has a church, some manu 
 factures of woollen cloth, and spinning-mills. Silkworms arc 
 
 the level of the sea. There are here and there, also, fine fruit reared, and madder produced in the vicinity, where there is 
 groves, iii which the durian and mangostan abound. Tho also some good meadow land. Pop. 7100. 
 
 APCHERON. See APSHERON. 
 
 APELDOORN, a vil. and par. Holland, prov. Gelderland, 
 17m.N. Arnhem, and 11 m. N.W.Zutphen, on the Grift Canal. 
 From its position on this canal, and on the high road from 
 Arnhem and Utrecht to Deventer and Zutphen, it is a consid 
 erable thoroughfare. It has a church, school, orphan hospital 
 for girls ; and manufactures of morocco leather, copper plate 
 for brewery and distillery boilers, and for sheathing ships, and 
 of chloride of lime. Pop. of vil. 700; of par. 5200. 
 
 APENNINES [Italian, Apennino], an Alpine chain of 
 mountains, S. Europe, being the continuation of the Alps into 
 Italy, which the chain traverses in its whole extent. It com 
 mences in the Sardinian States at the valley of Savonna, near 
 the town of that name, W. side of the Gulf of G enoa ; proceeds 
 N.E. to near Genoa, then in an irregular line E.S.E. till it 
 enters the Papal States, after which it runs S.E. in a branch 
 ing irregular manner till it reaches the boundary between 
 Calabria Citra and Calabria Ultra, where it changes its 
 direction to S.S.W., and terminates at the Strait of Messina, 
 throwing off some spurs W. into what has been called tho 
 heel of the boot. The ridge of mountains that traverses 
 Sicily may be regarded as a continuation of the Apennines ; 
 the connection being merely interrupted by the Strait of Mes 
 sina. The total length of the chain, from the valley of Sa 
 vonna to Cape Armi on the Strait of Messina, is about 629 m. ; 
 or, following the sinuosities, about 787 m. Its broadest part, 
 between Mount Marciano, S.E. of Sinagagliaon the Adriatic, 
 and the mountains of Piombino in Tuscany, is 121 m. ; but in 
 Liguria and the Calabrias it is not more than 18 to 24 m. 
 The average height of the Apennines has been estimated at 
 4330 ft., and in no part do they reach the limit of perpetual 
 snow, though some summits rise upwards of 9000 ft. above the 
 sea. Numerous valleys advance to the coasts of the two seas 
 that wash the shores of the peninsula, dividing Italy, more 
 especially on the N. slope of the Apennines, into a multitude 
 of narrow valleys running perpendicularly to the chain. On 
 the S. slope, the valleys of the Tiber, Arno, Garigliano, and 
 Volturno, are the only ones of the chain of any great extent ; 
 and the rivers that flow through them are the largest that rise 
 in the Apennines, and, indeed, the only ones of importance. 
 
 Divisions. The mountain chain is usually divided into 
 three great sections, the N., Central, and S. Apennines ; 
 and three minor sections, called, respectively, the Tuscan, 
 Eoman, and Vesuvian sub-Apennines. The N. Apennines 
 extend from the valley of Savonna to the source of the Tiber 
 at Monte Cornaro; lat. 43 47 N. ; Ion. 12 6 E; a total 
 length, in a direct line, of about 75 to 182 m. ; passing through 
 
 natives generally are of small stature, and puny appearance. 
 Their principal settlements are on the S.W., N.W., and N.E. 
 sides. Although shy of strangers, they are generally found to 
 be inoffensive, yet it is not considered prudent to venture far 
 into the country without due precautions. On the S. W. side 
 ! of the island there is a commodious bay, which affords shelter 
 1 in the N.E. monsoon, and in which vessels frequently anchor in 
 bad weather, to await a favourable change for entering Singa 
 pore Strait. The island is generally adopted as a point of 
 departure by ships bound to China, which also steer for it on 
 their return. Passing vessels also are supplied here with 
 firewood, cocoa nuts, and water. Pop. 1400. (Horsburgh s 
 Indian Directory ; Jour. Ind. Arcliip.} 
 
 AOSTA [anc. Augusta] , a tn. Sardinian States, cap. dist. 
 of same name, 50 m. N.N.W. Turin, 1. bank, Dorea-baltea, in 
 the middle of the Val d Aosta. It is the scat of a council of 
 justice, under the jurisdiction of Turin ; and of a bishop, suf 
 fragan to the Archbishop of Chamberry ; and possesses a colle 
 giate and three parish churches, two colleges, and two hospitals. 
 Amongst its antiquities are a triumphal arch, a gate with three 
 arches, and the remains of an amphitheatre. It has some 
 
 trade in wine, cheese, hemp, and leather. Pop. 7000. Tho 
 
 PROVINCE, which has the title of a duchy, and is* intersected 
 by the Dorea-baltea, forms one of the great valleys of the S.E. 
 slopes of the Alps, and is surrounded by the highest peaks of 
 the Pennine and Graian Alps ; area, 1024 geo. sq. m. The 
 thick pine forests of the mountains, the rich pastures of the 
 Alpine slopes, the mandel and vine plantations on the deeply- 
 cut terraces, and the mines of silver, copper, and iron, employ 
 the inhabitants in woodcutting; the manufacture of turpen 
 tine, pitch, and tar, Alpine husbandry, vine culture, and 
 mining, but not in sufficient numbers, there being a scarcity 
 of ground fit for grain growing. The poor people, many of 
 whom suffer greatly from goitre, leave their homes in con 
 siderable numbers, and wander about as sweeps, masons, and 
 smiths, returning after a time to their native place to spend 
 their earnings. Pop. 75,000. 
 
 APAE, or APEE, a small isl., S. Pacific Ocean, one of the 
 New Hebrides; lat. 16 36 S. ; Ion. 168 10 E. (R.) ; about 
 35 m. S.S.E. the island of Mallicollo or Manicolo, and 350m. 
 N.E. the nearest point of New Caledonia. 
 
 APALACIIIAN MOUNTAINS. See ALLEGHANV. 
 APAM, a native tn., N.W. Africa, Gold Coast, kingdom 
 Ashantce, 40 m. E.N.E. Cape Coast Castle; lat. 5 16 N. ; 
 Ion. 35 W. It is situated on a small eminence, and con 
 tains the ruins of an old Dutch fort, the hall of which, how 
 ever, is kept in a habitable state by a person appointed for 
 
 the Sardinian States, the duchies of Parma, Lucca, Modena, 
 and the grand duchy of Tuscany. The Central Apennines 
 
 that purpose, who has also charge of the flag. The town, 
 with a great number of its inhabitants, was destroyed by the 
 
 Ashantees in 1811 ; and shortly afterwards, the fort was pil- i run from Monte Cornaro to Monte Vellino, N. of Lake Celano 
 laged by a native chief, the gun-carriages burnt, and the whole ! in Naples; lat. 42 9 N. ; Ion. 13 33 30" E. ; a length, 
 building laid in ruins. without deviations, of 55 to 133 m., and passing from Tuscany 
 
 APAMAMA, an isl., N. Pacific Ocean, one of the Gilbert through the Papal States, and entering the kingdom of Naples. 
 Lsles, or Kingsmill group, in lat. 30 S. ; Ion. 173 54 , W., I The 8. Apennines extend from Monte Vellino to the termina- 
 accordingto Raperj and in lat. 27 21" N.; Ion. 173 57 30" I tion of the chain at Cape Armi, Strait of Messina, a total 
 
APENEADE 
 
 174 
 
 APOLLONIA 
 
 length of 55 to 133 m., wholly within the Neapolitan domin 
 ion. The Tuscan sub-Apennities are composed of a branch 
 stretching S. from Monte Cornaro towards Perugia, surround 
 ing the lake of the same name, and spreading its ramifications 
 over the whole space between the Arno and the Tiber. The 
 Roman sub-Apennines cover the S. portion of the Papal States; 
 stretching out from Monte Vcllino, they comprise all the 
 heights between the Salto, the Tiber, the Liri, and the Gari- 
 gliauo. The Vesuvitm sub-Apennines run parallel to the 
 principal chain from which they are separated by the upper 
 course of the Galore and Volturno. Vesuvius is, however, an 
 isolated mountain, not properly connected with this chain, but 
 merely surrounded by it. 
 
 The following are the highest summits in each of the three 
 great divisions : 
 
 N. Int. E. Ion. Feet. 
 
 P. ( Monte de San Peloorino.... 4-1 11 40"... 10" 31 0" 51GO 
 
 " \ Amiata 43 1 15 ... 11 41 13 5794 
 
 fc ( Cimone 44 13 
 
 Corno, the highest sum- ) . 
 mil of the Apennines...) * * 
 
 Vetora 42 49 
 
 Veiimo, W. point 42 11 
 
 Vellitio, E. point 
 
 ... 10 43 6975 
 
 ... 13 38 9519 
 
 ... 13 12 8133 
 
 ... 13 28 8174 
 
 .... 7%G 
 
 ( Amaro, summit of the 1 43 13 
 
 (Majella. 
 Gargano.... 
 Cueuzzo . 
 
 9131 
 
 41 45 ... 16 10 37 4639 
 
 5223 
 
 Geology. The S. slopes of the Apennines include several 
 
 volcanic masses ; and the only active volcano on the continent 
 of Europe, Vesuvius, belongs to one of these masses, that of 
 the environs of Naples. The others are those of Santa-Fiera 
 and Viterbo, Rome, Santa Agata, and Rocca-Monfina. In the 
 same section are numerous springs of warm water, and of gas 
 and vapours. The only volcano in the N. slope is Monte 
 Voltore, near Melfi. The environs of Modena are known for 
 their mud volcanoes. The whole chain is calcareous ; granite 
 only appearing towards its S. extremity in Calabria. It is 
 poor in metals, though iron is wrought in small quantities ; 
 and there are some coal seams, but of little importance. 
 Vast saliferous deposits exist in the vicinity of Cosenza, but 
 the true wealth of the Apennines consists in their building 
 materials, but more especially the celebrated marbles of Car 
 rara, Equi, Seravezza, and Sienna. The sub-Apennine hills, 
 in many cases, are of tertiary formation. 
 
 Vegetation. Under a height of 3280 ft., the flanks of the 
 main chain are covered with varied vegetation, of which 
 oranges, citrons, olives, and palms, form the lower zone ; but 
 pine forests are rare in the Apennines, though they produce 
 pines, beaches, cypresses, laurels, chestnut trees. Above 
 3280 ft. the mountains are in general dry, their summits naked 
 and bare. 
 
 Passes. The principal chain is crossed by numerous 
 passes, of which the most important are the pass of Bochetta 
 (2549 ft.) ; the Col de Gicoi (1539 ft.), on the roads from 
 Genoa to Milan, and from Genoa to Novi; the Col de Cento- 
 croci, between the valley of the Taro and that of the Vara ; 
 that of Monte Carelli or Pietra-mala (3293 ft.), on the road 
 from Florence to Bologna; the Col d Avezzano (4569 ft.), on 
 the road from Avezzano to Aquila ; the passage of Nicastro 
 (1054 ft.), on the way from Nicastro to Cantanzaro, and many 
 others, which need not be particularized. 
 
 General Aspect. The Apennines do not present the pyra 
 midal peaks of the Alps, the cloudy tops of the Pyrenees, or 
 the scarped walls and horizontal lines of the Jura. The 
 forms presented by them are, however, agreeable to the eye ; 
 the sub- Apennines are undulating and rounded in their 
 contour ; while the main chain is distinguished by features 
 much more marked and irregular. Notwithstanding the beauty 
 of their forms, they do not present the attractions of mountains 
 of the first order. From their limited elevation they have no 
 glaciers, their slopes are rarely covered with pastures, and 
 their summits exhibit only bare naked rocks. Their valleys 
 are narrow, presenting more the aspect of large rugged and 
 wild ravines. (Or ograpldc del Europe; Guibert, Diet. Geo. 
 ct Slat.) 
 
 APENRADE [Danish, Aabenraa], a seaport, Denmark, 
 duchy Schleswig, cap. bail, of same name, on the Little Belt 
 and in the Bay (fiord) of Apenrade; lat. 55 2 36" N.; Ion. 
 9 25 15" E. (R.) It is beautifully situated in a deep valley, 
 surrounded by woody heights and a fertile country. Its streets 
 
 are crooked ; it has only one church, which is a collegiate 
 charge ; and in the vicinity is an old Gothic castle. Apen 
 rade carries on a considerable seafaring trade, and, in respect 
 of shipping and commerce, ranks as a Danish port next to 
 Flcnsburg. The harbour, though secure, has only 11 ft. 
 water; and the whole tonn. belonging to the port is about 
 9677. It has extensive docks for shipbuilding; employs a 
 good many hands in fishing; and, since 1819, when baths 
 were established, has been much resorted to for bathing 
 
 quarters. Pop. 4100. The BAILIWICK has an area of 1 12 
 
 geo. sq. in. Pop. 9200. 
 
 APES HILL. See AKYT,A. 
 
 APIA, a vil. and harbour, isl. Upolu, or Oahtoonh, one of 
 the Samoan group, S. Pacific Ocean ; lat. 13 48 54" S.; Ion. 
 171 41 12" W. (R.) The village stands in a grove of bread 
 fruit and cocoa-nut trees. It is paved with large black boulder 
 stones, and contains a church in the European style, having 
 boarded floors and glazed windows, a store built of stone, and 
 a remarkable native building used for public meetings. The 
 latter is 102 ft. long, 22 wide, 21 high, and neatly paved 
 with small pebbles. The harbour is small, and will not con 
 tain more than six moderately-sized vessels in fine weather ; 
 but it is safe. Water and firewood are abundant and easily 
 obtained ; so also are pigs, poultry, and yams. It is much 
 resorted to by whalers. (See UPOLU.) 
 
 APICE, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra, dist. of, and 
 about 9 m. S.W. from Ariano ; on a hill. Pop. 3420. 
 
 APLEY, a par. England, co. Lincoln ; 1240 ac. ; S.W. 
 Wragby. Pop. in 1841, 162. 
 
 APO, or APPO. 1, An isl. and shoal, Strait of Mindoro, 
 Indian Archipelago, both situated between the island of Min 
 doro and that of Busvagon, the N. point of the former being 
 in lat. 12 39 N. ; Ion. 120 28 E. (R.) ; and that of the latter, 
 or shoal, in lat. 12 45 N. ; Ion. 120 31 E. (Horsburgh.) 
 The island is about half a mile in diameter, is covered with 
 trees, and lined with white beaches on its N. and E. sides. A 
 reef, which projects half a mile, surrounds it. The shoal is 
 10 m. in length from N. to S., and about 9 m. in breadth. 
 2, A small isl. off the S. extremity of Negros Island, one 
 of the Philippines, in lat. 9 N. ; Ion. 123 E. 
 
 APOLABAMBA, a dist. Bolivia, between the river 
 Beni and the S.E. confines of prov. Puno, in Peru, inter 
 sected near its centre by the 15th S. parallel. It is mountain 
 ous, and is intersected, besides, by numerous rocky heights 
 and ranges of precipices, and is traversed by several consid 
 erable streams. The productions arc rice, maize, plantains, 
 cotton, cacao, &c., the latter raised with little trouble. Wood 
 also abounds throughout the country, and monkeys swarm in 
 the forests. 
 
 APOLDA, a tn. grand duchy, Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach, 
 circle Weimar-Jena, 9 m. N.E. Weimar, on the Werlitz. It 
 is the seat of a superintendent or Lutheran bishop, and has a 
 castle, with manufactures of woollens, kerseymeres, and 
 stockings. It has also several distilleries,.and an extensive 
 bell foundry, which furnished Schiller with the subject of his 
 song Die Glocke. Pop. 3298. 
 
 APOLIMA, one of the smallest of the Navigator s 
 Islands, situated between the islands of Upolu and Savaii, the 
 Oteewby, and Oahtooah, respectively, of Arrowsmith ; lat. 
 13 49 S. ; Ion. 172 3 W. (u.) Apolima is apparently the 
 crater of an extinct volcano, and is accessible at one particu 
 lar point, being, with this exception, faced all round with 
 perpendicular cliffs. Its highest summit, which is on the S. 
 side, is 472 ft. above the sea. The soil in the interior is ex 
 tremely fertile, producing, in great abundance, cocoa, bread 
 fruit, taro, yams, &c. In the centre of the island is a village 
 of about 20 houses, having a permanent population of about 
 75 persons. (Wilkes.) 
 
 APOLLONIA, or AMANAHEA, a dist., cape, and fort, in 
 N.W. Africa, Gold Coast, Ashantce country. The DISTRICT, 
 which is tributary to the King of Ashantee, lies between the 
 rivers Ancobra and Assinee, the one forming its E., the other 
 its W. boundary. It is about 53 in. in length from E. to W., 
 and 10 to 15 m. in breadth. Its coast line consists of a 
 straight sandy beach, behind which is an undulating range of 
 high land. A great portion of the country is covered with 
 dense forests, and is but thinly peopled ; but for 30 in. along the 
 coast, villages are numerous. The soil is naturally fertile , 
 aud produces in abundance rice, millet, sugar-cane, ami cocoa 
 
APOSTLES ISLANDS 
 
 175 
 
 APPIANO 
 
 nuts ; while the woods furnish excellent timber for ship build 
 ing. CAPE AroLLONiA, which is formed of four hills or 
 
 hummocks, presenting the appearance of a long projecting 
 
 point, is in lat. 4 59 N. ; Ion. 2 35 W. (n.) FORT APOL- 
 
 LONIA, a British settlement, and the first European fort met 
 with after leaving Sierra Leone, stands on the beach about 4 , 
 m. from the cape. It was at one time an important trading 
 station, but is now abandoned, and going rapidly to decay. 
 
 APOSTLES ISLANDS, Straits of Magellan, where it , 
 joins the Pacific Ocean, near Cape Deseado ; lat. 52 34 S. ; 
 Ion. 75 6 AV. They are twelve in number, a circumstance j 
 from which they have obtained their name, and are all small | 
 and barren. Their shores abound with shell fish, but are : 
 encompassed with dangerous reefs. 
 
 APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. See ALLEGHANY. I 
 
 APPAL ACHICOLA, a tn., river, and bay, U. States. I 
 The town, which is a port of entry, and cap., of Franklin co. 
 Florida, is situated on a peninsula, at the mouth of the river j 
 of the same name. It is regularly laid out, has an Episcopal i 
 church, two banks, and several stores and warehouses. It 
 has a considerable trade in cotton, and an admiralty jurisdic 
 tion. The Kiver Appalachicola is formed by the union of 
 the Chattahoochee and the Flint in Georgia, and flows thence 
 through Florida, for a distance of 70 m., into the Gulf of 
 Mexico. It forms at its mouth a broad estuary, named Ap 
 palachicola Bay, and is navigable throughout for small vessels. 
 There were 20 steamers plying on the river in 1844. 
 
 APPALACHIE BAY, Main of Florida ; lat. 29 40 N. ; 
 Ion. 84 30 W. 
 
 APPENZELL, a can. in the N.E. of Switzerland, the 
 1 3th in order of the confederation, comprehending the two 
 independent republics of Ausser-Khoden or Outer Rhodes, 
 and Inner-Rhoden or Inner Rhodes; length, 23 m. ; breadth, 
 at the widest part, 16 m., which suddenly diminishes N.W. 
 to between 4 and 5 in. ; superficies, about 160 geo. sq. m. ; 
 wholly enclosed by the territory of St. Gall. It is an ele 
 vated district, the lowest part being at least 1400 ft. above 
 the sea, while it is traversed in various directions by the j 
 outer and lower branches of the Alps, of which Mount Sentis, 
 in the S. of the canton, is about 8000 ft. high. It has large , 
 tracts of rich pasture land, and extensive forests of pine- and | 
 is watered by the Sitter, and by several smaller afflu 
 ents of the Rhine. The prevailing rock is limestone, 
 besides which, occur whetstone, grit, and a species of 
 marble. Salt is found in some localities, and there are 
 a few mineral springs. Glaciers occupy the higher 
 valleys. The climate is cold, but healthy. The chief 
 productions of the soil being flax, hemp, and several 
 kinds of fruit, particularly apples, pears, cherries, and 
 grapes, from which are produced cider, kirschwasser, 
 and some wine ; but the wealth of Inner Rhodes, which 
 is the more elevated division of the canton, lies in its 
 herds and flocks, which are numerous ; that of Outer 
 Rhodes in its manufactures, consisting of embroidered 
 muslins, gauzes, cambrics, tulle, and other cotton stuffs. 
 Bleaching, dyeing, paper-making, letterpress, and cloth 
 printing, are also carried on to a considerable extent. 
 Very little machinery has been yet introduced into the 
 canton. Most of the weavers are proprietors of land, 
 and form the great proportion of voters in the public 
 assemblies. The exports consist chiefly of the various manu 
 factured articles, and of cattle, hides, cheese, butter, honey, 
 and wax. The imports are corn, fruit, wine, brandy, tobacco, 
 salt, raw cotton, colonial produce, dyeing materials, leather, 
 soap, cast iron, steel, pewter, tin, hardware, pottery, &c. The 
 working classes are divided into four different sections, namely, 
 manufacturers, weavers, winders, and embroiderers. The first 
 are of every grade, from the individual who manufactures the 
 quantity only which himself and his family can weave, to those 
 that employ 100 weavers or embroiderers. All the weavers 
 here, as throughout Switzerland, make use of coffee, milk, oat 
 meal, and potatoes, which compose their principal food. A few 
 indulge themselves with meat and half a pot of cider on Sundays. 
 They work from 13 to 14 hours a day, but do not constantly 
 weave, devoting a portion of their time to cultivating their 
 farms, and taking care of their cattle. Schools are numerous, 
 particularly in Outer Rhodes, in which all children above six 
 years of age are obliged to attend, no person being admitted 
 to the sacrament who cannot read. Writing, arithmetic, 
 
 grammar, singing, and drawing, form the chief branches of 
 instruction. After children have left the public schools at 
 the age of 12, they continue to receive, every eight days, and 
 afterwards once a month, until the age of 17, lessons of repe 
 tition. At the age of 17 they receive the religious instruc 
 tions necessary to the holy sacrament, after which they are 
 declared of age, assist at the popular assemblies, and perform 
 their part of military duties. For the richer classes, and 
 those in easy circumstances, there are here, as in all the other 
 cantons, public schools, where, independently of the dead 
 languages, German, French, Italian, English, geography, 
 mathematics, and geometry, natural history, and drawing, 
 form the basis of instruction. There are several orphan insti 
 tutions in the canton, and savings -banks have been estab 
 lished in almost every parish, but they are little used by the 
 working classes, who prefer buying furniture. Servants, 
 artists, and children, through their parents, however, deposit 
 their savings in these banks. Each parish is bound by law to 
 take care of its respective poor, but each has, at the same time, 
 its own particular regulations and customs as to the extent and 
 manner of affording relief. The people are, in general, moral 
 and well-behaved. Those of Inner Rhodes are Catholics, 
 those of Outer Rhodes Protestants. The separation between 
 them took place in ] 597. The two, however, count but as one 
 canton of the Swiss confederation, and have only a single 
 vote in the federal Diet, to which they send deputies each in 
 its turn. Both governments are pure democracies. The 
 supreme or legislative power is constituted by a general 
 assembly of all the male natives above 17 years of age, called 
 the Landsgemeinde, which meets once a year. The manner 
 of voting is by raising the hand. Every individual comes 
 armed to this assembly, the right to bear arms being the test 
 of citizenship. All bankrupts, paupers, &c., are excluded 
 from this assembly. The principal towns are Appenzell, 
 Trogen, Huntroyl, Herisau, and Gais. Appenzell is, next to 
 Geneva, the most densely-peopled canton of Switzerland, in 
 proportion to its extent. Pop. 51,400. 
 
 APPENZELL, a tn. Switzerland, cap. of Inner Rhodes, 
 the R. catholic division, can. Appenzell, 7 m. W.S.W. Tro 
 gen, about the same distance S.E. by E. St. Gall, and 103 m. 
 E. by N. Berne ; beautifully situated in a rich and populous 
 
 
 APPKNZELL V 
 
 valley, 1. bank, Sitter, about 2500 ft. above the sea. Its 
 houses, chiefly of wood, are ill built, and it contains a town- 
 house, arsenal, capuchin convent, and a nunnery. It is the 
 residence of the principal magistrates of the canton, and the 
 place in which the Landsgemeinde, or supreme council of the 
 Inner Rhodes, annually meets. The inhabitants are partly em 
 ployed in agriculture, but principally in weaving and bleaching, 
 and have a considerable trade in linen, cotton, saltpetre, whet 
 stones, millstones, and timber. A few miles S.E. are the 
 mineral springs and baths of Weisbad, and N. the village of 
 Gais, both noted resorts of invalids. Pop. 1450. 
 
 APPIANO, a tn. Venetian Lomhardy, cap. dist. of same 
 name, prov. of, and 8 m. S.W. from Como, and 20 m. N.N.W. 
 Milan. It is tolerably built, has three churches, and carries 
 on a considerable trade in silk, which is here manufactured 
 of superior quality. The vicinity produces grain, fruits of 
 all kinds, and vegetables ; cattle and sheep are also reared. 
 Pop. of the town, 2117; of the district, 23,065. (Dizio. 
 Univ. Italia.} 
 
176 
 
 APULIA 
 
 AI PIN, a large dist. Scotland, co. Argyle, lying chiefly 
 along the E. side of Loch Linnhe. In this district is the val 
 ley of Glencoe, which derives a melancholy interest from 
 Laving been the scene of an atrocious massacre in the reign of 
 William III. 
 
 APPINGEDAM, a market tn. Holland, prov. of, and 
 14 m. N.E. from Groningen, on the Damsterdiep, which 
 passes through the town. It is the seat of a court for the 
 arrond. and can. of Appingedam, and has a townhall, a Calvin- 
 istic, and a R. catholic church ; a Jewish synagogue, three 
 schools, and a Bible society. Important horse markets are 
 held here in July and August, a colt market in September, 
 and cattle markets weekly during summer. Pop. 900. 
 
 APPLEBY. 1, A bor. and market tn., par. Appleby 
 St. Michael or Bongate, England, co. Westmorland. The 
 town is cap. of the co., and lies on the slope of a hill, 1. bank, 
 Eden, 28 m. S.S.E. Carlisle, and 21 m. N.N.E. Kendal. It 
 is compactly built, and consists of one principal street, and 
 several smaller, the former terminated at the upper end by 
 the castle, at the lower by the church of St. Lawrence. On 
 the opposite side of the river is a suburb, called Bondgate, 
 connected with the town by an ancient stone bridge of two 
 
 Strait, or Salat Panjang, which is from 1 to 5 m. in width, 
 and navigable for large vessels. The coast line of the island 
 is low nnd swampy, as are those of the others. Appong is 
 celebrated for its sago, which is reckoned of superior quality. 
 It is made by a people who inhabit the woods, called Orang 
 Utan, the well-known name also of a large species of ape, 
 common in Sumatra and Borneo. There are 350 persons 
 employed in the cultivation and preparation of the sago, of 
 which they could produce, it is believed, about 400,000 Ibs. 
 annually. According to Carnbee s map of Sumatra, the island 
 lies between lat. 1 and 1 30 N.; and Ion. 102 10 and 
 102 34 E. 
 
 APRICENA, a tn. Naples, prov. Capitanata, dist. of, and 
 7 m. N.N.E. from San Severe. Pop. 4560. 
 
 APRIGL1ANO, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Citra. 
 dist. of, and 5 m. S.E. from Cosenza ; on a steep hill. Pop. 
 1012. 
 
 APSHERON (PENINSULA and CAPE OF), on the Caspian 
 Sea, W. coast, fonncd by the most E. branch of the Caucasus. 
 Its heights and clifl s are composed of chalky rocks, upon 
 which here and there repose masses of a sort of brown free 
 stone. The chalky rock exhibits, in great numbers, petrifi- 
 
 arches. It is well lighted, and abundantly supplied with cations of the same kinds of fish that still exist in the Caspian 
 good water. Near the church is the market-house, rebuilt Sea. About 36,000 Ibs. of prepared saffron are annually 
 in 1811, in the Gothic style. The townhall, situated in the exported from Apsheron. There are 10 salt lakes on the 
 
 peninsula, from several of which considerable quantities of 
 salt are taken, but muuh more might be obtained. There are 
 
 main street, is spacious and commodious; close by is the jail. 
 There are here a chapel for the Wesleyau Methodists, an ex 
 cellent free grammar school, founded by Queen Elizabeth ; 
 
 and an hospital or almshouse for 13 poor widows, founded by 
 the Countess of Pembroke. The town has very little trade, 
 and no particular kind of manufacture ; and cannot be said to 
 be in a thriving condition, nor to be in any way improving. 
 The corporation consists of a mayor, 12 aldermen, 16 com 
 mon councilmen, and other officers. Both the Lent and 
 summer asizes are held here, and petty sessions every Saturday. 
 The borough returned two members to the House of Commons 
 up to the passing of the Reform Act, by which it was dis 
 franchised. Three fairs annually, chiefly for linen, cattle, 
 sheep, and horses. Area of par. 14,550 ac. Pop. in 1841, 
 1165. (Local Correspondent?) 2, Appleby St. Lawrence, a 
 par., co. Westmorland, E. Ward; area, 5350 ac. Pop. in 
 1841, 1354. 3, A par., co. Lincoln, wapeutake Manley, 
 parts of Lindsey; area, 5180 ac. Pop. in 1841, 505. 4, A 
 par., counties Derby and Leicester; area, 2020 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 1075. 
 
 APPLECROSS [anc. CcmaraicJ,], a par. and vil. Scot 
 land, co. Ross ; 2700 ac. Pop. in 1841, 2861. 
 
 APPLEDORE. 1, A small sea-coast tn. England, co. 
 Devon, near the mouths of the rivers Taw and Torridge, 7 m. 
 S. W the town of Barnstaple. It stands on the side of a hill, 
 and contains a chapel of ease, and an Independent chapel. It 
 has of late years become a favourite bathing-place, for which 
 the beauty of its scenery, and the great extent and excellence 
 
 also a number of naphtha pits, black and white, which are 
 wrought by the Russian Government. The peninsula of 
 Apsheron has been celebrated for many centuries, in all the 
 E. countries, as a sacred soil, and the fire-worshippers still 
 make pilgrimages to adore the fires which there issue from 
 the earth, arising from the ignition of the naturally-formed 
 naphtha. The cape is in lat. 40 29 N. ; Ion. 50 30 E 
 
 APSLEY RIVER, Australia, New S. Wales, dist. New 
 England, a branch of the river M Leay. It flows through a 
 ravine whose upper edges are from 2 to 3 m. apart, while the 
 width at the bottom does not appear to exceed 200 ft. This 
 tremendous gulf is upwards of 3000 ft. in perpendicular 
 depth. 
 
 APSLEY STRAIT, a narrow channel, between Melville 
 and Bathurst Islands, N. coast, Australia. It is about 40 m. 
 in length, with a breadth varying from 2 to 5 m. The land 
 is low on either side, and the shores from one end of the 
 strait to the other bordered by a broad belt of impenetrable 
 mangroves, and indented by numerous salt-water creeks, 
 which present the appearance of rivers. Alligators of enor 
 mous size abound in the Straits, many of them measuring 
 from 14 to 17 ft. in length. A settlement was formed in 
 1824, on the Melville Island side of the channel, about 8 or 
 10 m. from its N. entrance, but was subsequently abandoned. 
 
 APT [anc. Apta Julia], a tn. France, dep. Vaucluse 
 (Provence), 30 m. E. Avignon, 1. bank, Calavon, in a fruitful 
 
 of its beach peculiarly adapt it. 2, A tn. and par., co. Kent, j and beautiful valley. The river is spanned by a remarkable 
 The town, on the banks of the river Rother, is a clean and j Roman bridge of a single arch, which stands unscathed by the 
 neat little place ; and though now nearly 8 m. from the sea, floods and storms of 19 centuries ; and the valley is hemmed 
 it once was an important maritime town of the Anglo-Saxons, in on all sides by hills, clothed to their summits with vines 
 Area of pan 2760 ac. Pop. in 1841, 561. | and olive trees. The town is surrounded by old walls, of 
 
 APPLEDRAM, a par. England, co. Sussex; 1070 ac. massive structure. The houses in general are well built ; and 
 
 Pop. in 1841, 156. 
 
 APPLEGARTH, a par. Scotland, co. Dumfries; 11,500 
 ac. Pop. in 1841, 857. 
 
 APPLESHAW, a par. and vil. England, co. Hants; 
 850 ac. ; E.S.E. Ludgershall. Pop. in 1841, 372. 
 
 APPLETON. 1, A par. and township, England, co. 
 Berks; 2300 ac.; N.W. Abingdon. Pop. in 1841,496. 
 2, Appletcm-le-strcet, a par. co. York, N. Riding ; 4780 ac. ; 
 
 the streets, though in the older quarters narrow and crooked, 
 are, in the more modern parts, wide, clean, and adorned with 
 fountains. The most remarkable building is an ancient Gothic 
 cathedral. The leading manufactures of Apt are woollen and 
 cotton stuffs, wax tapers of superior quality, and confectionery. 
 Excellent porcelain, and common earthenware, are also made; 
 and a good deal of silk is spun. There are also several wax- 
 refineries, tanneries, and distilleries. Before the introduction 
 
 W.N.W. New Malton. Pop. in 1841, 944. 3, Appleton-vpon- \ of percussion-locks, the gunflints of Apt were in great demand. 
 Wisk, a par., co. York, N. Riding; 1800 ac.; S.S.W. Yarm. I Pop. 4377. 
 
 Pop. in 1841, 559. APULIA, APUGIJA, or PUGLIA, an anc. prov., S. Italy, 
 
 APPODI, a river, Brazil, prov. Rio-Crande-do-Norte ; it kingdom of Naples, now comprehended in the provinces oi 
 rises in lat. 6 25 S., flows N.N.E., and falls into the Atlantic 
 
 in lat. 4 32 S., after a course of 153 m. It receives several 
 affluents, among which the most important is the Upanema, 
 which joins it 20 m. above its embouchure. (Die. Geo. Imp. 
 Brazil.} 
 
 AITONG, or PADANG, one of three large islands, N.E. 
 
 Capitanata, Terra di Bari, and Terra di Otranto. To the 
 whole or a part of this district, the name La Puglia is still 
 given. Originally, it was called Daunia, Japygia, Peucetia, 
 and Messapia, and formed part of Magna Graecia or Great 
 Greece. Here is the vast plain lying between the Apennines 
 and the sea, called LaTavoliere di Puglicre, composed nearly 
 
 coast, Sumatra, in the Straits of Malacca, about 90 m. j \vholly of pasture lands, all belonging to the crown, and on 
 !s. by W. Singapore, separated from Sumatra by Brewer s I which upwards of 1,000,000 sliecp are fed. 
 
APURE 
 
 177 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 APURE, a river, Venezuela, formed by the junction of 
 several streams which issue from the sierra de Merida, a 
 part of the E. chain of the Andes of New Granada ; and, after 
 an E. course of about 300 m., falls into the Orinoco at Capu- 
 chino; lat. 7 40 N.; Ion. 66 47 W. It is one of the 
 principal tributaries of the Orinoco, into which it rushes with 
 such violence as to agitate the current for nearly 3 m. below 
 its junction. The Apure is navigable for nearly the whole 
 length of its course, and furnishes to the province of Varinas, 
 and the neighbouring provinces of Venezuela, a ready water 
 carriage to Guiana, for the coffee, cotton, and indigo which 
 they produce. The river is infested by crocodiles, and its 
 banks abound with mules, wild horses, and cattle, immense 
 numbers of which, particularly the wild horses, perish by its 
 inundations, being swept away before they have time to reach 
 the rising ground of the llanos or plains. 
 
 APUEIMAC, a river, S. America, which rises from a 
 lake in the Andes of Peru, in lat. 15 38 S. ; Ion. 76 25 W., 
 among the savannahs of the plain of Condoroma, N. from 
 Arequipa, and W. from the Lake of Titicaca. It flows through 
 a mountainous country, in a N. direction; and, joining the 
 Yucay or Vilcamayu at lat. 9 15 S. ; Ion. 72 30 W., forms 
 the Ucayalc, one of the principal tributaries of the Amazon. 
 Numerous streams flow into the Apurimac, the most consider 
 able of which are the Pachachaca, Pampas, Mautaro, Paucar- 
 tambo, and the UrubamLa. Its whole course, till it meets the 
 Yucay, is between 500 and 600 m. 
 
 AQUAMBCE, or AKAMBCE, a petty state in the interior of , 
 the Gold Coast of Africa, formerly independent, now subject 
 to Dahomey. It lies on the E. bank of the Volta. 
 
 AQUA R A, a tn. Naples, prov. Principata Citra, dist. of, | 
 and 16 m. S.E. from Campagna. Pop. 2897. 
 
 AQUILA, a tn. Naples, cap. prov. Abruzzo Ultra II., 
 dist. Aquila, on a hill, at the foot of which runs the Alterno, 
 27 m. S.W. Teramo, and 110 m. N.W. Naples. It is forti 
 fied, has a cathedral, 24 churches, several convents, a royal 
 college, founded by Ferdinand IV., and transferred from 
 Sulmona in 1816; an academy, an hospital, two charitable 
 institutions, and an elegant theatre. It is the seat of a court 
 of justice, and of a bishopric; contains several paper-mills, 
 and manufactories of linen and wax, and carries on an exten 
 sive trade in saffron, grown in the neighbourhood. Aquila 
 was founded by Frederick II., King of Sicily, in 1240, and 
 was for a long time one of the most populous, as well as one 
 of the wealthiest towns in the kingdom. Its walls are 3 m. 
 in extent, with 12 gates, nearly all of which are now blocked 
 up. It could then boast of above 100 churches, with num 
 erous monasteries and nunneries. It is still the residence of 
 many noble families. It suffered considerably from earth 
 quakes in the years 1703 and 1706. Of all its ancient forti 
 fications only one small fort remains, which was taken by the 
 French in December 1798, after a feeble resistance. In the 
 neighbourhood are the ruins of the Amiternum of the Romans, 
 the native place of Sallust the historian. Pop. between 7000 
 and 9000. 
 
 AQUILEIA, or AQUILEJA, a small tn. Austrian States, 
 Illyria, 21m. N.W. Trieste, near the shore of the Adriatic. 
 It is encompassed by a wall and ditch, and has a good church. 
 The inhabitants, 1480 in number, support themselves chiefly 
 by fishing. In the times of the Roman Emperors, it was a 
 flourishing commercial town, and, on account of its wealth, 
 named Roma Secunda. In 452, it was destroyed by Attila, 
 when a portion of the inhabitants fled to the island, and 
 founded the future Venice. 
 
 AQUINO [anc. Aquinum], a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di 
 Lavoro, dist. of, and 15 in. S. from Sora; the see of a bishop, 
 who resides at Rocca Secca. The town, which was a Roman 
 colony, is now little else than a series of ruins ; however, it 
 still preserves its cathedral. The town was destroyed by the 
 Lombards in the sixth century, and has long been in a state 
 of decay. It is the native place of Juvenal the satirist, and 
 of Thomas Aquinas. Pop. 806. 
 
 AQUIRAS, a small, poor vil. Brazil, but the oldest in 
 prov. Ceara. It lies on the Pacoti, between Lake Aquiras 
 and the ocean; has a church, and brandy distillery and sugar 
 factory. Its district is sandy, dry, and badly watered. Pop. 
 of dist. about 5000. 
 
 AQUITA1NE [Latin, Aquitania], one of the four great 
 divisions of Gaul or France by the Romans. It subsequently 
 
 took the name of Guienne, and at present forms the depart 
 ments Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne. 
 
 ARA, a small river, Spain, in Aragon, rising on the 
 S. side of the Pyrenees, prov. Huesca, near the boundary of 
 the kingdom of France ; and, flowing in a S.E. direction, it 
 unites with the Cinca, 2 in. S. Ainsa, after a course of about 
 45m. 
 
 ARABAT, a tn. Russia, in the Crimea, gov. Simferopol, 
 on the shore of the Sea of Azov, 70 m. N.E. Akmetchet or 
 Simferopol, on a narrow peninsula, which separates the Sea of 
 Azov from the Black Sea ; lat. (E. bastion) 45 17 9" N. ; 
 Ion. 35 29 5" E. (u.) It consists principally of one long 
 street, is fortified, and contains a mosque. 
 
 ARABAT EL MATFOON. See ABYDDS. 
 
 ARABGIR, ARABKIR, or ARABKEIL [anc. Arabrace], a 
 tn. Asiatic Turkey, pash. of, and 102 m. S.E. from Sivas ; 
 lat. 39 3 N. ; Ion. 38 55 E. Originally a small town, with 
 a fortress, it owed its enlargement and prosperity to the 
 Armenians, and is said to be well built and populous. It is 
 especially noted for its manufacture of goods from English 
 cotton yarn, conducted by the Armenian inhabitants, and em 
 ploying about 1000 looms. It contains 6000 houses, of which 
 4800 are occupied by Turks, and 1200 by Armenians. The 
 district around is rough and hilly, but intersected by well- 
 watered valleys, inhabited by Turcomans. 
 
 ARABIA, the south-westernmost part of Asia, is called 
 by the natives Jeziret el Arab, that is, the peninsula of 
 the Arabs ; and by the Turks and Persians, Arabistan. In 
 early times it was called by the Hebrews simply Kedein or 
 the East, and its inhabitants Bend Kcdcm or people of the 
 East. The name Arabia, when it first occurs in the Scrip 
 tures (as in Ezek. xxvii., Arabia and the princes of Kedar ), 
 is evidently applied not to the whole peninsula, but only to the 
 territory of some pastoral tribes. Peninsular Arabia is en 
 compassed on three sides by the sea, namely, on the N.E. by 
 the Persian Gulf, on the S.E. by the Indian Ocean, and on 
 the S.W. by the Red Sea. Its most S. point, Rs Arab (the 
 Cape St. Anthony of some maps), stands in lat. 12 35 N. ; 
 Ion. 43 56 E. (R.) The shoals and patches of rock stretch 
 ing E. from this cape render its vicinity dangerous to mar 
 iners. Thirty miles to the W. of it are the Straits of Bab- 
 el-Mandeb. The most E. point of Arabia, Ras-el-Hacl, stands 
 in lat. 22 23 N. ; Ion. 59 55 E. (R.) A line drawn from 
 the head of the Gulf of Suez to that of the Persian Gulf, and 
 marking the limits of the Arabian peninsula on the N., will 
 be found to run nearly in the 30th parallel of N. latitude. 
 But beyond, or N. of this line, extends a vast and desert 
 region, which, being now occupied chiefly by Arab tribes, 
 is also called Arabia ; it is bounded on the E. by the valley 
 of the Euphrates, on the W. by the depressed tract in which 
 lie the valley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, while towards 
 the N. it gradually contracts till its terminates in the vicinity 
 of Tadmor or Palmyra, in about lat. 34 N. ; so that Arabia 
 extends in length from N. to S. through 21 degrees of lat., 
 or nearly 1300 geo. m., while its average breadth maybe 
 assumed to be about 600 m. It includes also the peninsula 
 of Sinai, between the Gulf of Suez and that of Akabah. The 
 whole area of the vast country thus described does not, prob 
 ably, fall much short of 750,000 geo. sq. m., or about eight 
 times that of the British Islands. 
 
 Notwithstanding the early reputation of Arabia, and the 
 interest attaching to a country, the inhabitants of which have 
 enacted most important parts in the early commerce and 
 general history of mankind, we still remain very imperfectly 
 acquainted with it. European travellers have hitherto pene 
 trated but partially, and to a short distance only, from its 
 coasts. Nor are the difficulties opposed to its complete ex 
 ploration likely to be soon evaded or overcome. Immeasur 
 able tracts of inhospitable stony desert ; the risk of meeting 
 with bands of predatory and merciless Bedawin; the rapacity 
 of guides, and the extortionate demands of petty chieftains 
 when they have once got the stranger in their power ; the 
 jealousies perpetually reigning among the small communities 
 into which the interior of Arabia is divided, with the bigotry 
 and fanaticism of the people ; these, together with the heat of 
 the climate, and the forbidding aspect of the desert, are enough 
 to deter the most courageous and indefatigable traveller. The 
 only European who has as yet traversed Arabia quite across 
 from sea to sea, is Cant. Sadlier, who was sent, in 1819, by 
 
 23 
 
ARABIA 
 
 178 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 the Government of Bombay, to congratulate Ibrahim Pasha on 
 his victory over the Wahrfby. He proceeded from Katif, on 
 the shores of the Persian Gulf, to Derrayeh, the ruined capi 
 tal of the subdued fanatics, and, finding that the conquerors 
 had withdrawn, continued his journey to Yambo on the Red 
 Sea. We know, however, that Arabia, taken collectively, is 
 an arid sun-burnt wilderness ; the hills, naked rock ; the plains, 
 rough stones or drifting sand. In this dreary waste may bo \ 
 traced, here and there, particularly near the mountains in the 
 S. half of the peninsula, some green spots which receive the 
 benefit of the annual rains; and the wadies or valleys, descend 
 ing from the rain-collecting heights, figure only as so many 
 green lines more or less strongly marked in the dazzling sun 
 burnt prospect. But it is seldom that the tracts of cultivated 
 land, even in the plains, attain a width of 20 m. ; so that all 
 the irrigated Tehamas or lowlands, and all the green wadies 
 of Arabia taken together, bear but a small proportion to the 
 whole peninsula. 
 
 Divisions. There is much discrepancy in the accounts of 
 native writers respecting the territorial divisions of peninsular 
 Arabia; and the limits of those divisions which they concur 
 in establishing appear to have fluctuated much at different 
 periods, if, indeed, they were ever ascertained with precision. 
 The first of the divisions met with in proceeding down the 
 lied Sea is Hejaz, which, as it includes the sacred cities, 
 Mecca and Medineh, is always set forth conspicuously by 
 Arab geographers. It extends a short way within the moun 
 tain barrier, and terminates S. in about lat. 20 N. Next 
 comes Yemen, which, according to some writers, embraces 
 the whole of S. Arabia ; but the name is now generally used 
 in a confined sense, Yemen proper occupying the S. W. part of 
 the peninsula, and comprising a Tehama or maritime lowland 
 on the shores of the Red Sea, with an elevated inland district 
 of considerable breadth. Appertaining to Yemen is Aden, 
 now a free port in the hands of the British. Next to Yemen, 
 E., and separated from it by a desert five days journey in 
 width, is Hadramaut, which commences on the coast at Mak- 
 allah. The E. limits of this province are variously assigned 
 by authors, some extending the name nearly as far as Ornfiii, 
 while others confine it to a district only 100 m. in length. 
 Beyond it, along the coast, lies Mahrah ; but across this tract, 
 and apparently included at one time in Hadramaut, extends 
 the principality of Shejcr or Shehr, at the E. termination of 
 which, near the coast, is the populous district of Dhofa"r, which 
 has occasionally figured as an independent state. At the E. 
 angle of the peninsula is situated OmaVi, the chief port of 
 which, Maskat, now carries on a considerable trade with 
 British India. On the S. shores of the Persian Gulf is Bah 
 rein, from which, towards the head of the gulf, extends the 
 maritime district of Hajar, while at a short distance S.W. in 
 the interior lies the fertile district of El-Ahsa (erroneously 
 written Lahsa or Lachsa). The interior of Arabia, from 
 Heja z and Yemen across to the vicinity of the Persian Gulf, 
 is comprised, by Arab geographers, under the single name of 
 Nejd. Towards the N.W. and N. are the deserts of Sinai, and 
 those of Sham, Jezireh, and Irak (Syria, Mesopotamia, and 
 Babylon). 
 
 Mountains. The cultivated tracts of Arabia are generally 
 in the vicinity of the mountains, the torrents from which, in 
 the rainy season, collect soil, and endow it with fertility. 
 The proximity of the green fields, however, to the rocky 
 heights, depend on the rapidity of the streams, and the con 
 figuration of the country. There are also some oases or pro 
 ductive spots in the interior, surrounded by deserts, and 
 which seem to indicate that the waters of streams lost in the 
 sands higher up, are here again collected and brought towards 
 the surface. The mountains exercising this beneficent influ 
 ence on the land, rise, as far as we have any knowledge of 
 them, at no great distance from the sea-shore, and form, with 
 their ridges, a kind of elevated frame, which encloses the 
 greater part of the peninsula. On the W., along the shores 
 of the Red Sea, from the Gulf of Akabah to the Straits of 
 Bab-el-Mandeb, a distance of 1000 m., the Arabian mountains 
 are conspicuous throughout, presenting peaked summits of 
 naked rock, from 5000 to 8000 ft. in height, and varying 
 from 12 to 60 m. in distance from the coast. This range falls 
 go abruptly to the W., that it may be said to present towards 
 the sea a series of inaccessible cliffs. The only two passes 
 at present known through it are, respectively, at Tayef, in lat. 
 
 21 12 N.; and above Reda, in lat. 18 N., and conse 
 quently 200 m. asunder. Elsewhere there are only steep and 
 narrow paths, readily climbed by the mountaineers on foot, 
 but utterly impracticable for beasts of burden. Jebel Moi lah, 
 near the entrance of the Gulf of Akabah, rises to a height of 
 7000 ft., thus matching in elevation the group of Sinai on the 
 opposite side of the gulf; and both exhibit the same mineral 
 formations, gneiss and porphyry in vertical strata, rising above 
 hills of sandstone and gypseous rook. Jebel Kora, near Tayef, 
 attains an elevation of perhaps 5500 ft., while Gurned or Sef- 
 yan, about 30 m. S.E. of the former, has an estimated height 
 of 8000 ft. Again, Sa"ber, the highest point of the elevated 
 ridge which rises on the N.E. above the Straits of Bab-el- 
 Mandeb, and commands a fine view of the Abyssinian coast, 
 is supposed, from its vegetation, to attain a height of 7000 or 
 8000 ft. Further to the N.E., the maritime chain of moun 
 tains between Aden and Shehr have a height varying from 
 3000 to 5000 ft., the highest points being above Shugra and 
 Magadaiii. In Omari, where the coast between Ras-el-Had 
 and Cape Mussendow runs from S.E. to N.W. towards the 
 Straits of Ormuz, the maritime chain, extending close to the 
 shore, seldom rises above 3000 ft. ; but the Jebel Akhdar or 
 Green Mountains behind these, striking from W. to E., attain 
 to double that height. Other mountains in the interior of 
 the peninsula, as Jebel Shamir, on the route from Bagdad to 
 Mecca, are described by Arab writers, but without any indi 
 cations of height, and there is no reason to believe that they 
 equal in elevation the maritime ranges. 
 
 liivers, Lakes, Deserts, &c. The sterility of Arabia is suf 
 ficiently proclaimed, when it is stated that that vast country 
 has no considerable, and scarcely any permanent rivers. A 
 few small streams, indeed, in Omdn, as the Massora and Sib, 
 are said to be constant, that is, to contain water, and to flow 
 throughout the year from their sources to the sea. But these, 
 supposing their permanence established, form, after all, but 
 rare exceptions. Arabian rivers, in general, are either con 
 sumed in irrigation or absorbed by the sands, even in cross 
 ing the narrow Teha"mas or lowlands of Heja z and Yemen, 
 before they reach the sea-shore. Hence, too, the interior of 
 Hadramaut has fertile and populous valleys, while the coast 
 is comparatively barren and desolate; but groups of villages, 
 with plantations of dates along the latter, mark the points 
 where the rivers of the interior, swelled by heavy rains, 
 occasionally force their way downward to the sea. In the 
 most elevated part of Nejd, the principal rivers (in the 
 local language & c : il), are the Taraba, which, in the parallel of 
 2 1 N., separates that country from Heja"z. Its course is to the 
 N.N.E. ; but as nothing more is known of it, we may infer that 
 the stream soon disappears in the sands. A degree further 
 S. flows the Thered in the same direction, and terminates in 
 a lake on the borders of the desert. This river marks the N. 
 limit of the cultivation of coffee. A day s journey S. of this, the 
 Raniyah flows N.E., and under the 18th N. parallel, the river 
 of Bisheh waters copiously a fine country, and, running to the 
 N.N.E., sinks in the sand. Some of the Arabs report that 
 this river flows through the desert to the gates of Bagdad. 
 Others, again, say that it enters a lake in the Wady Sulei meh, 
 and thence runs through El Ahsa into the Persian Gulf. But 
 we may regard it as a point ascertained, that there is no river 
 flowing through El-Ahsa, or entering the sea on the adjacent 
 coast. Besides, it is obvious that a permanent stream, or 
 even a water-course, frequently filled, and crossing the Arabian 
 peninsula, would necessarily be accompanied by a series of 
 towns and plantations, and by a commercial route which would 
 not allow such a natural feature to remain in obscurity. It 
 appears, nevertheless, that Arab geographers have been mis 
 led by fanciful accounts of the Wady Bisheh, or some other 
 of the occasionally copious streams flowing from the same 
 region ; and hence they have described a great river Afna"n 
 or Aftdn (for the original Arabic name is doubtful), as flow 
 ing permanently across the country from the W. mountains 
 to the Bay of Bahrein. The lakes of Arabia are, like the rivers, 
 but of sliort duration. After heavy rains pools are formed, 
 which, being rapidly evaporated, leave the ground incrusted 
 with salt. As to the wastes and oases of this country, Arabia 
 is, collectively, a desert, and the cultivated tracts throughout 
 are all so many oases, surrounded by sterile and irreclaimable 
 wastes. The desert of Ahkaf [the waves of sand], however, 
 is of a peculiar character, swallowing everything which falls 
 
ARABIA 
 
 179 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 on it, and is supposed by the natives to be the abode of demons, 
 or of the children of Ad. A recent traveller (the Baron Von 
 Wrede) reached the confines of El-Ahkaf, N. of Hadramaut, 
 and throwing into the sand a weight with 60 fathoms of line 
 attached to it, saw the whole disappear in five minutes. 
 
 Geology. Respecting the geology of a country so imper 
 fectly explored as Arabia, we cannot of course know anything 
 beyond some incomplete and unconnected details. The chain 
 of mountains on the W. side of the peninsula, from Anti- 
 Libanos to Bab -el-Mandeb, is granitic throughout. Its ele 
 vated summits present to view only piles of bare rocks. 
 The exposed surface of the granite is generally blackened by 
 the heat of the sun, and assumes a metallic gloss. The nar 
 row valleys between these dark masses of rock display, not 
 carpets of fresh green, but white lines formed of drift sand. 
 At the base of the granitic chain, on the W., are found lime 
 stones of various kinds, and generally of recent formation. The 
 hills bordering on the coast, however, consist of sandstone, in 
 which shells and madrepores are embedded in abundance. Such 
 is the general character of the W. range ; but towards the S. 
 angle of the peninsula, where Yemen exhibits a wide extent 
 of elevated land, volcanic rocks make their appearance, and 
 Mount Saber, which rises above all the neighbouring moun 
 tains, and attains a height of perhaps 7000 ft., is a mass of 
 trachyte. Proceeding along the S. coast, we find limestone 
 predominating, and forming ridges of 5000 or 6000 ft. in 
 height. But the elevated plains in the interior of Hadramaut, 
 which rise still higher, are said to be formed of sandstone. In 
 Oma"n, the limestone formation attains its greatest height in 
 Jebel Akhdan ; but further N., volcanic rocks again make 
 their appearance, and the N. angle of Arabia, at the Straits 
 of Ormiiz, is composed, like the S. angle at Bab-el-Mandcb, 
 of trachyte and basalts. It was the broken and indented coast 
 of volanic formation which harboured the pirates. 
 
 Climate. In considering the climate of Arabia, it is neces 
 sary to bear in mind, first, the position of that country, between 
 the burning deserts of Africa on the one side, and those of 
 western India on the other. Not that we can suppose the climate 
 of the interposed peninsula to depend on those of the adjacent 
 countries, but because it is evident that Arabia comes under 
 the influence of those meteorological conditions which have 
 consigned to drought and sterility a wide belt of country across 
 the Old World, from the shores of the Atlantic nearly to those 
 of the Pacific Ocean. This tract of desert, it is true, lies for 
 the most part beyond the tropic, and, towards Central Asia, 
 it bends much to the N. ; the Arabian peninsula, on the other 
 hand, extends several degrees S. of the tropic. But, secondly, 
 the intertropical portion of Arabia falls within the domain of 
 the monsoons or periodical winds, peculiar to the Indian seas. 
 Now, the monsoons not only interrupt the ordinary course of 
 the trade-winds (which blow from the E., with an inclination 
 to the equator), but they also interfere with that general law 
 of intertropieal climate, by virtue of which the rain falls soon 
 after the sun has passed the zenith ; and the hottest season is 
 also the rainy season. In S. Arabia, on the other hand, the 
 hottest months of the year are comparatively dry and cloud 
 less; and the scanty rains fall chiefly in the winter, when the 
 atmosphere, being less heated, is also less loaded with aqueous 
 vapours. In Oma"n, the rains fall from October till May, three 
 or four times in the month, on the lowlands, but more fre 
 quently on the mountains. The same seasons obtain along 
 the S. coast, the period of the rains being abridged, however, 
 towards the W., so that the wet season at Aden lasts only 
 from November to February. But the interior of Yemen 
 seems to be exempt, in some degree, from the influence of the 
 monsoons, and to enjoy the regular tropical rains a circum 
 stance to which may be attributed the superior productive 
 ness of that province. At Sanaa, the capital of Yemen, some 
 rain falls in January, as on the coast ; but the heavy rains 
 take place in June and July, with alternating S.E. and N.W. 
 winds. In the Tehdma of Abu Arish, also, going N. from 
 Yemen, the wet season coincides with the hottest months. 
 But N. of Yembo, on the Red Sea, rain falls only in the 
 winter, from November to February, and never abundantly ; 
 it fails totally about once in four years. 
 
 Temperature. To the extreme dryness of the atmosphere, 
 and its freedom from cloud or vapour conditions tending to 
 accelerate evaporation and the radiation of heat may be 
 ascribed the remarkable degree of cold occasionally felt in 
 
 Arabia, and which has given rise to very erroneous conjec 
 tures respecting the elevation of that country. At Tayef, not 
 above 3200 ft. in absolute elevation, and only in lat. 21 12 
 N., snow is said to fall once in every four years ; and the 
 mountains in the neighbourhood, from 5000 to 6000 ft. high, 
 are annually covered with snow. Further S., ice and snow 
 are of frequent occurrence on mountains ranging from 6000 
 to 8000 ft. in height; while in Abyssinia, on the opposite side 
 of the Red Sea, they are hardly known at the height of 
 12,000 ft. On the S. coast, in like manner, we hear of snow 
 and ice at moderate elevations ; andinOma n, the Jebel Akhdar, 
 only 6000 ft. high, and lying nearly under the tropic, are fre 
 quently crowned with snow in winter. Yet Maskat, on the 
 sea-coast of Oma"n, is perhaps the hottest inhabited place on 
 the earth a distinction which it owes in a great measure to 
 its situation beneath bare cliffs, which reverberate the heat. 
 At this place the thermometer, in the shade, in June, generally 
 rises above 100 Fah., towards the afternoon. The heat of 
 Mokha, also, and the adjacent Tehilma, is to Europeans in 
 supportable in summer. In general, the violent changes of 
 temperature which occur frequently in Arabia, are prejudicial 
 to health. The humid S. wind, the cold and dry N. wind, 
 and the storms from the E., attended with clouds of fine sand, 
 all bring with them the seeds of disease ; the N.W. wind alone 
 is regarded as salubrious and refreshing. The coast of the 
 Hcja"z is thought to be particularly unhealthy; and of late 
 years, since the campaigns of the Egyptian army against the 
 Wahdby, the plague, from which Arabia previously boasted 
 to be exempt, has been added to the list of endemic diseases. 
 Here it is as well to remark, that the imminent danger sup 
 posed to attend the occurrence of storms of wind in the desert 
 the sherky (sirocco) or east wind, loaded with fine sand, and 
 the simoom or hot poison wind, from the south exists only in 
 the tales of credulous travellers. Whatever inconveniences 
 must be endured on such occasions by men and cattle, yet it 
 never happens that they are suffocated by the pestilent blasts, 
 nor are the caravans ever buried in overwhelming sands. 
 
 Zoology. The wild animals of Arabia are few in number. 
 A country so ill provided with wood, bush, and pasture, and 
 where the scanty waters are so closely beset by an active 
 population, is necessarily unable to support such herds of 
 large animals as roam through the interior of Africa. The 
 ibex inhabits the rocky heights ; the wild ass, and antelopes 
 of moderate size, the plains. The jerboa and lizards are seen 
 even in the midst of the bare sands. Apes, chiefly of the 
 species called Hamadryas, are numerous in the woods which 
 clothe the sides of the mountains, particularly in Yemen. It 
 was stated, in the beginning of the 16th century, that the 
 road from Taes to Aden was rendered dangerous and difficult, 
 by the numbers and audacity of the apes infesting it ; but this 
 has not been confirmed by more recent accounts. The beasts 
 of prey are panthers, ounces, and hyenas. In domestic ani 
 mals, Arabia possesses advantages which may be ascribed, in 
 some degree, to the great care and attention which the austere 
 nature of the country makes absolutely indispensable for the 
 support of any kind of livestock. The camels of Ncjd are famed 
 for their speed and beauty; in size and strength they are much 
 inferior to those of Egypt, and therefore less fitted for carry 
 ing burdens; but for riding, they are said to be unrivalled. 
 Mahrah, also, boasts of its swift dromedaries, called Mahry 
 (commonly written Maherry), which are those most highly 
 prized in the African deserts. Nejd possesses, also, the finest 
 breeds of horses, large numbers of which were exported to 
 India in the beginning of the present century. These horses 
 unite perfect symmetry of form with great spirit, but they are 
 small ; and it is not improbable that the value of the breed is 
 over-estimated by its enthusiastic owners. In Yemen, the ass 
 is a handsome animal, nearly as large as a mule, with a sleek 
 coat, and bearing a high price. As to horned cattle and 
 sheep, S. Arabia, particularly Yemen, now draws, and proba 
 bly has always been in the habit of drawing, large and regular 
 supplies from the Somali coasts, near the E. angle of Africa. 
 
 Botany. The flora of Arabia presents but little novelty ; 
 it seems to be made up of contributions from Africa, India, 
 and Armenia. The sea-shore, where it is not absolutely bar 
 ren, exhibits generally plantations of the date-palm, which 
 thrives even where the ground is covered with incrustations 
 of salt. On the S. coast, towards Oma"n, the mango and 
 cocoa-nut are occasionally met with. Further inland grows 
 
ARABIA 
 
 180 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 the fig-tree, the tamarind, the almond, and, in Ouuin, the 
 orange, lemon, and citron. The wild bushes are chiefly 
 mimosa;, euphorbiaceae, and the sidr or lotus nebka. With 
 these grow lavender, wormwood, jasmine, and other scented 
 plants. As the mountains are ascended, the vegetation as 
 sumes a more European character. Apricots, plums, pome 
 granates, and grapes, are found at the height of 3000 or 
 4000 ft.; and above these, the sides of the mountains are 
 covered with forests of juniper, less properly called cypress. 
 The cotton plant and the sugar-cane grow in the Tehama; the 
 sumach or gum Arabic, the aloe, and the cassia fistula, prefer 
 the hills ; and the tree which yields the olibanum or frankin 
 cense (a Bosicellia?}, abounds on the mountains of Shejer or 
 
 Sliehr, in Mahrah. 
 
 Agriculture. The Arabs cultivate for food 
 
 heat, 
 
 are made in Onuin; and cotton cloth is said to be manufac 
 tured in lladramaut. The cotton plant, as well as saffron, 
 orchil, and other dye-stuffs, is certainly cultivated in the in 
 terior. But the Arab looms are unable to meet the demands 
 of the home trade. The Bedawy procures his supplies of 
 cloth, oil, and other luxuries, in exchange for civet, musk, 
 ostrich feathers, and other trifles, but chiefly for his horses 
 and camels. The trade in coffee, khat, almonds, balsam, 
 senna, and gums, enriches a few proprietors; but, generally 
 speaking, the chief mercantile wealth of Arabia is, and always 
 has been, derived from the carrying trade. The Arab is the 
 active factor who distributes the cotton cloth of India through 
 out half-civilized Africa, and carries back ivory, ghee, gums, 
 and dyewoods, in return. The productions of" Arabia are, as 
 a source of wealth, quite insignificant in comparison with the 
 advantage? of occupying the coasts which connect India with 
 Africa and Europe. There are, however, treasures on the 
 Arabian coasts, which, though not absolutely large, when 
 considered as sources of national revenue, are yet important 
 when compared with the much-vaunted sweets and perfumes 
 of the interior. The pearl banks in the Persian Gulf, extend 
 from Bahrein E. above 300 m. These give employment to 
 nearly 30,000 men, in above 3000 boats, and yield about 
 80,000 yearly. The pearls are nearly all bought by the 
 Hanyans, who engross still more completely the produce of 
 the pearl fishery in the Red Sea, on the coast of the Hejdz. 
 On the S. coasts of Arabia the fishermen collect much amber 
 gris and tortoise-shell. They take immense quantities of 
 fish, particularly on the line of coast between Mahrah and 
 Oma"n, with which they supply the interior ; and they are not 
 only ichthyophagi themselves, but, if we are to believe the 
 statement of a celebrated Arabian traveller, they feed their 
 too, on fish. It is certain, however, that they are 
 
 barley, and diirrah or holcus vulgare (the jmvdri of India), 
 
 besides bananas, water-melons, and other garden produce ; but 
 
 their chief dependence is on their date plantations. These 
 
 occupy everywhere the irriguous land, the level margin of 
 
 the stream, the low sea-marsh, or the hollow moistened by 
 
 land-springs. The borders only of these favoured spots, if 
 
 they admit of having water occasionally led to them, are given 
 
 up to the cultivation of grain. Near every large date planta 
 
 tion, there is ordinarily a fort, with high walls and dry ditch, 
 
 round which is collected nearly the whole population of the 
 
 district or wady. As the success of field labour depends here 
 
 wholly on irrigation, the Arabs have learned, from necessity, 
 
 to attain this object by very elaborate and ingenious means. 
 
 They conduct the water through tunnels or subterranean 
 
 canals (feltj, in the singular iflaj), so as to prevent its being 
 
 dissipated in its transit by the thirsty superficial soil, and the 
 
 sun s powerful rays. These felej have, in Oman, an extent 
 
 of many miles, with a height which allows a man to walk 
 
 upright in them. Yet, notwithstanding the care bestowed by 
 
 the Arabs on their date plantations, to which, as well as to 
 
 their horses and camels, they are ardently attached, the total 
 
 produce seems unequal to the demands of the population; 
 
 while W. Arabia receives provisions, not only sheep and 
 
 cattle, but millet and other grain also, from the Somali coast. 
 
 S. Arabia imports annually, notwithstanding the vaunted 
 
 fertility of its numerous wadies, several thousand tons of 
 
 dates from the Persian Gulf. In Yemen, however, the culti 
 
 vation of coffee, and of khat (Celastrus edvlis) is found more 
 
 remunerative than that of the necessaries of life. The former 
 
 of these thrives only in a warm and humid atmosphere, and 
 
 screened from the sun s rays; hence, being planted only under 
 
 the shade of trees, it is confined to the well-wooded part of 
 
 Yemen, from the neighbourhood of Mokha, S. to Mount the ship of the desert offered the most convenient and eco- 
 
 Sa"ber. The cultivation of coffee was introduced into Arabia l nomical mode of conveying goods from the Persian Gulf and 
 
 from S. Abyssinia; and it is now 
 
 well known, that the best coffee 
 
 exported from Mokha, even at the 
 
 present day, is in fact the produce 
 
 of Abyssinia. The khat, also, a 
 
 kind of tea-plant, is originally Abys 
 
 sinian ; but the use of it as a stimu 
 
 lant seems as yet hardly to extend 
 
 beyond Yemen ; yet there, such 
 
 is the passion for it, that it bears 
 
 a very high price. The tender 
 
 shoots, and young leaves, consti 
 
 tute the best khat; if chewed when 
 
 quite fresh, they are capable of 
 
 intoxicating; the denomination and 
 
 price of the khat depend on its age 
 
 and tenderness. At every festival 
 
 actively engaged in the shark-fishery, from which their chief 
 gains are derived; that they launch forth on a rough sea, 
 riding on a plank supported by blown skins, and with bare 
 legs thus exposed, hasten, with paddle and harpoon, to en 
 counter the most formidable monsters of the deep. They 
 kill the sharks for the sake of the tails and fins, which are 
 sent to Maskat, and thence find their way to the Chinese 
 market. 
 
 Kdfilahs. Although the carrying trade between India and 
 the shores of the Mediterranean Sea has long since sunk into 
 comparative insignificance, yet enough remains to show the 
 importance and the foundation of the monopoly of it, once 
 enjoyed by the Arabs. While navigation was in its infancy, 
 that patient and enduring animal, the camel so justly entitled 
 
 or social meeting, the master of the 
 house presents to each of his guests a twig of khat ; and, if the 
 accounts given of its virtues, in promoting social feelings, 
 serenity of temper, sprightliness, and power of enduring 
 fatigue, be true, it is to be regretted that so genial a restora 
 tive is not more widely distributed. 
 
 Manufactures and Trade. Manufacturing industry can 
 hardly be said to exist in Arabia. Handicraft trades are 
 there few in number. The armourers are the only smiths 
 whose work exhibits skill. The town of Haes, in Yemen, is 
 famous for its pottery, because it is the only place in Arabia 
 where the art of glazing earthenware is understood and prac 
 tised. Camelots are, woven in Nejd; silk and woollen stuffs 
 
 TRAVELLING IN ARABIA Drawn by H. Wl 
 
 S. Arabia to Egypt and Phenicia, whence they were dis 
 tributed through the west. It seems certain, that the trade 
 routes of the Arabs, in the earliest ages in the flourishing 
 days of Tyre and Sidon nearly coincided with those followed 
 in the days of the Caliphs, when the caravans started from 
 Bahrein for Bagdad, and thence crossed the Syrian deserts to 
 Aleppo, Damascus, or Egypt ; or from Dhofar and the ports 
 of Hadramaut, they passed through Yemen on their way 
 N. The establishment of the Mahometan religion had the 
 effect of reviving this truly Arab branch of industry ; for the 
 Hadji or pilgrimage to Mecca, which was enjoined on all true 
 believers, drew crowds annually to the sacred shrine from all 
 
ARABIA 
 
 181 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 parts of the Mahometan world. This conflux of strangers 
 required large supplies, and gave great activity to trade ; but 
 besides the pilgrim-caravans to Mecca being deemed sacred, 
 experienced favour and protection in all Mahometan coun 
 tries; and hence, the Hadji merchants taking advantage of 
 the security thus enjoyed, always united commercial specula 
 tion with the work of piety. These caravans (or Kafilahs, as 
 the Arabs call them), are at times exceedingly numerous. 
 There are authentic accounts of caravans to Mecca which 
 numbered 120,000 camels. Now-a-days, the ordinary com 
 mercial caravans rarely exceed from 500 to 1000 loaded 
 camels. These, with the guides, merchants, and followers of 
 all kinds, on horses, asses, &c., resemble in their march a 
 little army. The laden animals are preceded by a vanguard 
 of well-armed horsemen, and are divided into groups belong 
 ing to different owners. At night a lantern, raised on a pole, 
 which is fixed on the back of a leading camel, serves to guide 
 those in the rear, and pistol-shots fired from time to time 
 indicate the position of the line, and serve to prevent strag 
 gling. The Bedawin, as they travel in their migrations, 
 generally allow their camels to browze as they proceed, and 
 to pursue irregular paths ; but in case of a caravan which is 
 very large or richly laden, or which has to cross a waterless 
 desert or a country infested by robbers, care is taken to preserve 
 exact order, and implicit obedience is habitually rendered to 
 the leader. The ordinary day s march of 17 m. is occasion 
 ally, in case of necessity, lengthened to 24 m. 
 
 Origin of Hie Arabs. The doctors of the Korn ascribe 
 the first origin of the Arab nation to the sons of Iram (Aram), 
 Ad, Thamud, Jorhum, &c., whose posterity are styled Arab 
 el-Arabah or thorough-bred Arabs. These have long since 
 vanished from the page of authentic history, and figure only 
 in legends of remote antiquity. The sons of Kahtan (Yoktan) 
 are entitled Mutarabah, or Arabs by adoption; and the Ish- 
 maelites are named, in a similar sense, Mustarabah. But it 
 may be inferred from the Hebrew Scriptures, that some of 
 the posterity of Ham, also, Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, and other 
 sons of Gush, settled in S. Arabia, which was thus closely 
 connected with the land of Canaan (Phenicia), and this con 
 nection is also testified by profane historians. It is reason 
 able to suppose that the different branches of the Semitic race, 
 who thus occupied at an early age the Arabian peninsula, 
 spoke different dialects; but the prevalence since acquired by 
 the language of the Koran, has for the most part effaced such 
 distinctions. It has, however, been recently discovered, that 
 the upper classes in Mahrah, and especially in Dhofa r, speak 
 a peculiar language called Ehkili, which many circumstances 
 combine to identify with the ancient Hamyaritic. At Mareb, 
 also, where remains of the celebrated dam are still traceable, 
 as well as at several places along the S. coast, inscriptions in 
 the Hamyaritic tongue and character (probably the unknown 
 character described by Arab writers under the name of Mus- 
 nad), have been copied; and from the study of them, it has 
 been found that the Hamyaritic language bore a close resem 
 blance to Syriac and Hebrew, and still more to Ethiopic, 
 which last may be considered perhaps as its immediate 
 offspring. Some Arab writers have alluded to the Ehkfli, as 
 if it betokened a relic of the Adite race. Its modern dis 
 coverer is more inclined to consider it as the language of the 
 Cushites. It has the disadvantage of being, to a stranger, 
 disagreeable to hear, and impossible to acquire, some of its 
 sounds requiring to be uttered with an effort which causes a 
 violent distortion of the face. Anterior to Mahomet, Ham 
 yaritic was the general language of S. Arabia; but the lan 
 guage of the Koran quickly displaced it, and, in the first ages 
 of religious fervour, it fell into disuse. The tribes of Mahrah 
 and Dhofa r, therefore, who now speak Ehkfli, are not to bo 
 considered on that account as a separate race, but only as the 
 descendants of that portion of the population who rejected the 
 proffered Islam in the first instance, and have since received 
 it tardily, and perhaps incompletely. The others lost with 
 their language a chief mark of race, but they retained, and 
 still retain, ancient habits and dispositions, which broadly 
 distinguish them from their Ishmaelite neighbours further N. 
 While the latter are unalterably attached to a pastoral roving 
 life, to arms, and rude independence, the former devote them 
 selves ardently to mercantile pursuits, and dwell in towns ; 
 they seek the advantages of social combination, and cherish 
 the memory of their ancient kings. 
 
 Jews. It would appear that Jews were always numerous 
 in Arabia. Subsequent to the dispersion, they possessed 
 Yathrib [the lailirippa of Ptolemy], afterwards named Med- 
 ineh [the city] ; and in S. Arabia, with which they were con 
 nected perhaps by commerce, they seem to have been settled 
 in a still earlier age. Their Scripture lore found favour with 
 the people, who were quite willing to believe themselves the 
 posterity of Yoktan, or of Abraham, and even kings were 
 numbered among their converts. Hence, we may reasonably 
 conclude, that of the Arabian Jews of later times, the great 
 majority are probably not Israelites by descent, but only 
 Judaizing Arabs. A few Jews, mostly silversmiths or distil 
 lers, are to be found in all the chief market towns of Arabia, 
 except in the Heja"z, where they are forbidden. In Maskat alone 
 they are exempt from insult and vexation. Jewish observ 
 ances are said to characterize, in S. Arabia, many tribes pro 
 fessing Islam. But in Yemen, the native Jews still form a 
 considerable community; and further N., towards Asir, are the 
 warlike tribes of the Beni Hob^b (Num. x. 29; Judg. iv. 11), 
 who cloak the Jewish faith under a Mahometan exterior. 
 Among them are the Beni Arhab (Kechab), who, proud of 
 their descent, and persuaded of their high destiny (Jer. 
 xxxv. 19), assume the title of the Sword of Yemen. We 
 know not whether these Kechabites still observe the precepts 
 of their forefather Jonadab not to drink wine, nor to dwell 
 in houses but it is certain that the making of wine, and the 
 distillation of brandy, are among the chief occupations of the 
 Jews in Yemen. But with respect to these Arab genealogies, 
 it must be remarked, that an ignorant people, living in large 
 families, under patriarchal institutions, naturally seize on 
 whatever flatters the pride of pedigree, and that popular tra 
 ditions are not necessarily ancient, because they point to 
 remote antiquity. In truth, the original affinity of the Arabs 
 and Hebrews is sufficiently proved by a comparison of their 
 languages; but the attempts of the former to explain in detail 
 their derivation from the common stock, are obviously founded 
 for the most part on hints furnished by the latter. 
 
 Government. The prevailing form of government among 
 the Arabs is patriarchal, the chief power being vested in a 
 Sheikh, that is, an old man or elder, whose authority resem 
 bles that of the head of a family, and rests more on the senti 
 ments and habits of the community than on organized means 
 of control. The title of Sheikh has, indeed, generally become 
 hereditary, though not by so strict a rule as to prevent the 
 frequent occurrence of contests for the succession. The 
 power of the Arab chieftain depends on his ability to sway 
 the passions of the multitude by the ready use of tongue and 
 sword. If through tyranny or incapacity he forfeits his pop 
 ularity, he is ordinarily deposed by some ambitious kinsman, 
 to whom the people willingly transfer their homage. In 
 Sanaa the chief bears the spiritual title of Imam, as did form 
 erly the ruler of Maskat also; but in the latter case, the title 
 of Ima*m has been superseded by that of SuMn. 
 
 Religion and Laws. It is believed, that in early ages the 
 chief objects of adoration in S. Arabia were the sun and 
 moon; but with these there were certainly other deities of a 
 more popular character. In the recently-deciphered Ham 
 yaritic inscriptions occurs the name of Athtor, who was prob 
 ably the same as Ashtoreth, the Venus of the Phenicians. 
 The northern tribes seem to have borrowed from the Pan 
 theons of all the nations with whom they came in contact ; 
 and the Kaaba is said to have contained at one time 300 idols. 
 But Mahomet put an end to this accumulating superstition, 
 by establishing a system of pure monotheism, with which he 
 associated as much ritual observance as sufficed, without 
 being wearisome, to connect his doctrines with the habits of 
 the people. The Ishmaelites, the fellow-countrymen and 
 companions of Mahomet, hastened to rally round him as soon 
 as success began to gleam on his career, and willingly ex 
 changed their wavering superstitions for doctrines at once 
 grand, simple, and decisive; but in the S., where Judaism 
 and Christianity too, had gained a firmer footing, the new 
 Ishmaelitic creed met with an obstinate resistance; and it is 
 said that some tribes in Asir, at the S. side of Nejd, remained 
 unconverted till the early part of the last century, when they 
 were overpowered by the fanatical Waha by. At all events, 
 they adhere at the present day to peculiar and barbarous rites, 
 which are quite repugnant to the spirit of Mahometanism. 
 On the S. coast, also, the natives manifest very generally a 
 
ARABIA 
 
 182 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 striking indifference to tlie precepts of the Korff.n. This 
 volume is to Mahometans not only an exposition of religious 
 faith, but a code of laws also. In Turkey and Persia, the 
 voluminous decisions of the Ulem.-C or learned, and of the 
 Fukaha (plural of Fakfh) or doctors of the law, have reared a 
 vast superstructure on this slender foundation ; but among the 
 Bedawin, the Sheikh is supposed to be a competent lawyer, 
 and pronounces summary decisions, without appeal, or, in 
 large communities, he pays a Cadi to discharge this office. 
 
 Physical Appearance and Dress. The Arabs in general 
 are characterized by a light and active figure, oval face, regular 
 and finely-turned features, and a forehead neatly formed, but 
 somewhat narrow. Their look is bold, but often inclines to 
 melancholy. They have ordinarily a dark brown complexion ; 
 yet on Mount SKber, in Yemen, and on the Subahn mountains, 
 in Mahrah, dwell tribes who are not darker than the inhabit 
 ants of S. Europe. On the other hand, the native population 
 of the maritime districts are frequently, owing to the mixture 
 of African blood, nearly black. On the shores of the Persian 
 Gulf in particular, the slave population (chiefly from the 
 E. coast of Africa) is numerous, and the fair-skinned Arab 
 comparatively rare. The ordinary dress of the well-con 
 ditioned Arab is a cotton shirt, cotton drawers, and a woollen 
 mantle, called Abbayeh, which is sometimes exchanged for a 
 blue cotton frock, with very wide sleeves. To this the 
 wealthier sort add a caftan of cloth. Round the head is bound 
 a fringed kerchief, striped green and red, over which a shawl 
 is worn in winter as a turban. The Bedawin often cover their 
 
 nation. Their independence, in which they glory, but which 
 is founded on their poverty; their attachment to ancient habits, 
 and their incapability of change, conduce to nourish in them 
 a strong national spirit. The whole wealth of these wander 
 ing herdsmen consists in their camels and horses, their kine, 
 sheep, and goats. They live indolently in tents, made of a 
 coarse kind of dark- coloured cloth, woven by their own women, 
 drawn over poles fixed upright in the ground ; the larger ones 
 having several compartments, so as to have separate rooms 
 
 BEPAWIN APABS, WOMEN GRINDING CORN Prawn l,y U. Warren. 
 
 h.eads only with a lappet of cloth, round which they tie the 
 lint cord of their matchlocks. They despise the straw hats 
 worn by the cultivators of the ground. The men of all classes 
 wear sandals. The women, however, who when young have 
 a very engaging appearance, and are much fairer than the 
 men, go barefooted, with rings on their toes. Their brows 
 and eyelids are darkened with antimony, the palms of their 
 hands and their nails stained red with henna. For increase 
 of their attractions, they rely chiefly on henna and the scent 
 of jasmine. The married women among the Bedawin wrap 
 themselves, so as to conceal the face, in black cloaks, which 
 leave the arms exposed, and have a very unprepossessing 
 look. The young girls, on the contrary, have but little 
 clothing, and are content to adorn themselves with shells 
 strung together. The men pride themselves chiefly on their 
 arms ; their jembfa or long dagger, their sword, from India 
 or Persia; their light spears, tufted towards the head with 
 horse hair or ostrich feathers ; and their matchlocks. In the 
 commercial towns may be seen all the fashions of Turkey, 
 India, and Persia. The buttered heads of the Bedawin meet 
 there the perfumed beards of foreigners ; and even the wild 
 tribes of the interior exhibit considerable diversity of costume. 
 Manners. The Arabs maybe all divided into three classes, 
 which rarely commingle or change places one with another, 
 namely, the inhabitants of towns, the cultivators of the soil, 
 and the Bedawin, or people of the wilderness [from ledu, a 
 desert plain]. These last are considered as the type of the 
 
 VARIOUS FORMS OF ARAB TENTS From Laborde. 
 
 for the men, women, and domestic animals ; and keep by one 
 locality till the pasturage around is exhausted, and neces 
 sity compels them to change their position ; thus they wander 
 in the course of a year over a large tract of country. They 
 have no industry, and though in appearance all energy and 
 fire, are incapable of patient exertion. Their only occupation, 
 besides the care of their cattle, is pillage; for they are all 
 robbers, cruel, treacherous, and vindictive the principle of 
 blood for blood maintaining among them perpetual and de 
 structive feuds. Such are their vices, which are hardly 
 atoned for by their well-known hospitality. The stranger 
 within their tents is safe from injury; for him they kill the 
 lamb or kid, and grind their best corn. The Bedawin them 
 selves, and, indeed, the Arabs taken collectively, are the most 
 temperate and abstemious people, perhaps, on the face of the 
 earth. They can subsist on a fifth part of the food consumed 
 habitually by Europeans. Numbers live half the year on 
 nothing but camel s milk. Others on a few dates dipped in 
 ghee, or melted butter ; and some even live wholly on wild 
 honey. A handful of meal, moistened with water, suffices 
 for an Arab during a long journey. 
 
 Dwellings. The agricultural tribes inhabit villages, which 
 are frequently enclosed within square walls, the houses 
 abutting on the walls, while in the centre is an open space 
 for the herds and flocks. Near the date plantations there 
 are usually forts, with double walls, towers, and dry ditches ; 
 and near these stand the villages of the inhabitants. The 
 houses, sometimes two stories high, are built of stone, or 
 sun-dried bricks of large size, and have flat roofs, covered 
 with clay. In Yemen, which anciently attained a higher 
 degree of civilization, the castles of the chieftains resemble 
 the baronial mansions of Europe in the Middle Ages, and 
 the houses of the opulent merchants are large and commo 
 dious. Considering the general frugality of the people, it 
 may be concluded that the population of Arabia is large in 
 comparison with the natural resources of the country. It is 
 difficult, however, exactly to estimate its amount, as the people 
 elude all such inquiries, from a superstitious dread of enumera 
 tion. Chiefly on conjectural grounds, therefore, the population 
 of Arabia is assumed to amount to 12,000,000. 
 
 Language and Literature. The Arabic belongs to what is 
 called the Semitic family of languages (spoken by the poster 
 ity of Shem), and is, therefore, cognate with the Hebrew; it 
 is, however, less impaired than the latter, and preserves more 
 completely its primitive forms. The Hamyaritic, or language 
 of S. Arabia, relics of which have recently come to light, is 
 said to be in this respect still more complete, and to retain, in 
 a remarkable degree, its original construction. Of Hamyar 
 itic literature, if such ever existed, nothing now remains; the 
 inscriptions lately found in that language seem to be all of a 
 
ARABIA 
 
 183 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 (late subsequent to the Christian era. The history of the 
 northern or Ishmaelitic Arabic, cannot be traced back long 
 anterior to Mahomet. We know that the wandering Arabs 
 held the gifts of eloquence and facility of rhyme in high estim 
 ation : the ready poet and story-teller was a welcome guest in 
 every tent. At the fair of Okadh, in Hcjdz, prizes were given 
 for effusions of this kind, and some of the pieces thus distin 
 guished in the pagan age of the Arabs are still preserved. In 
 this state of things, the publication of the Koran wrought 
 wonderful effects ; and the language of the Korefsh, in which 
 it was composed, was studied with a diligence which neces 
 sarily tended to polish and enrich it. The sacred volume was 
 originally written in the old Syriac character, called estranghelo 
 (that is, es-satr-angfl, the writing of the gospel), which the 
 A rabs had recently learned ; but a few years later, when the 
 prophet s successors had founded Kufah, on the Euphrates, 
 and the copying of the Koran became the business of the place, 
 modifications were made in the estranghelo, which resulted in 
 the adoption of what is called the Kufic character. It was in 
 the fourth century of the Hejrah, that the current writing, 
 called Nishky, which continues in use at the present day, first 
 came into fashion in Bagdad. In a few ages after Mahomet, 
 Arabic was the most widely diffused language on the face of 
 the earth. It has undergone, however, in the course of time, 
 that wear and degradation to which all languages are liable, 
 particularly where conquest or trade force the use of it on 
 strangers. The vulgar Arabic of the present day has thrown 
 aside many of the grammatical forms of the old language ; and 
 this curtailment, with the change of terms, has wrought such 
 a transformation, that the illiterate Arab, though he learns to 
 repeat the Koran, rarely understands it. 
 
 The cultivation of a language implies more or less of literary 
 activity. As soon as the victorious apostles of the new faith 
 had sheathed their swords, they began to apply themselves 
 with great ardour to learning, and particularly to the study of 
 the Greek authors. Every Mahometan court, from Seville 
 and Cordova, to the Balkh and Samarcand, had its crowd of 
 poets and prose writers. But the attempt to force learning 
 and refinement thus suddenly on the children of the desert, 
 proved a failure. The literature of the Arabs is remarkable 
 alike for its extreme abundance catalogues exist of nearly 
 20,000 Arab authors and its want of masterpieces. Their 
 historical works are not without value, though dry, and occa 
 sionally disfigured by fanaticism and credulity ; but their 
 other works are usually trivial in substance, and exhibit a 
 tendency to petty astuteness, verbal display, and shallow volu- 
 j bility, which may be referred with probability to the original 
 habits of the nation. 
 
 Ancient Divisions. The Arabian peninsula was divided by 
 ancient geographers into two parts, namely Arabia Deserta, 
 embracing the modern Heja"z and Nejd, in the widest applica 
 tion of the latter name ; and Arabia Felix, or Yemen and 
 Hadramaiit. As to the E. districts, it is not easy to determine 
 how they are to be placed under this vague division. Ptolemy, 
 at a later period, added also Arabia Petrsea, which embraced 
 the Syrian deserts and those of Sinai, taking its name from 
 the city of Petra, situated among the hills E. of the Wady 
 el-Akabah. But, it must be observed, that the name Ara 
 bia was applied by the ancients with a latitude which does 
 not now belong it ; for the entire region on the E. side of the 
 Nile, between that river and the Red Sea, was called by them 
 Arabia, in contradistinction to Lybia, which lay on the W., 
 or opposite bank. This mode of speaking remained in use till 
 the latest period of what may be called ancient geography, in 
 reference to the open country on the right bank of the Nile ; 
 but the line of demarcation thus formed by the river, was, by 
 early writers, continued ideally to the S. Ocean ; and accord 
 ingly, Herodotus, in his description of the cinnamon-bearing 
 Arabia, by which he unquestionably meant the E. angle of 
 Africa, round Cape Jerdaffoon, represents Arabia and Ethiopia 
 as conterminous countries. And there can be no doubt that this 
 extensive application of the Arabian name was ethnologically 
 just; for, if we trace the Nile up as far as the ancients were 
 acquainted with its banks, and thence draw a line in continua 
 tion to the ocean at the equator, we shall find that the coun 
 tries lying E. of the limit thus drawn, have been all occupied, 
 more or less, from the earliest ages, by tribes of Semitic ori 
 gin, who generally succeeded in obtaining an ascendancy over 
 the aboriginal races. 
 
 It was an ethnographical error of the Greek and Roman 
 writers, to give to the country at the N.W. angle of the Ara 
 bian peninsula, embracing Sinai and the Wady el-Akabah, 
 the name of Arabia Petraea. Modern geographers have erred 
 still further, in supposing this to mean the Stony Arabia, a 
 name equally applicable to any part of the peninsula. The 
 epithet Petrasa was derived from Petra, the Greek name of 
 the capital of the Nabatseans, who are called by ancient writers 
 Ardbas Nabatiei, though, in fact, they were not Arabs at all. 
 The attempt to derive the Nabataeans from Ncbaioth, the son 
 of Ishmael, cannot satisfy a scrupulous etymologist; and, in 
 fact, when the popular misconceptions respecting that people 
 are set aside, it becomes plain enough that they were of 
 Aramaean race, and a colony of the Nabat, who occupied the 
 low lands on the banks of the Euphrates, and who, trading 
 with the Gherraei on the N.E. angle of the peninsula, per 
 ceived, and seized the advantage derivable from possessing 
 the N.W. angle also. Like the Hamyarites in the S., they 
 bore no resemblance to the wandering tribes occupying the 
 centre of the peninsula ; and the architecture of their cities in 
 the desert, admirable even in ruins, must have been marvellous 
 at all times in the eyes of their pastoral neighbours. 
 
 History. The Ishmaelites appear to have always retained 
 the habits of Bedawin ; they were wild Arabs ; the possession 
 of Mecca and the Kaaba was their sole boast, and they made 
 no figure in history till the time of Mahomet. The sons of 
 Yoktan, on the other hand, in S. Arabia, advanced in civiliza 
 tion, engaged in commerce, and had a regal form of govern 
 ment. Thus we find it stated, characteristically enough, that 
 Arabia (N.) and the princes of Keder, offered lambs, and rams, 
 and goats pastoral produce ; while the merchants of Sheba 
 (the Sabaeans) dealt in spices, precious stones, and gold. Ac 
 cording to the Arab tradition, however, Saba (Sheba) was not 
 the son of Kahtan (Yoktan), but the third in descent from him, 
 the genealogy being Kahtan, Yeshal, Yareb, and Saba. The 
 last had many children, among whom were Hamyar and 
 Kahlan. The descendants of the former, called Hamyarites, 
 or Hirnyarites (the Homer itce of the Greeks and Romans), 
 were not, therefore, identical with the Sabajans, but only a 
 branch of that race. Of the early history of the Sabaeans, 
 nothing now remains but a few obscure traditions. The 
 greatness of the nation appears to have been closely inter 
 woven with the construction and maintenance of the great 
 dam at Marab, in the interior of Yemen, which collected the 
 waters of several mountain-streams, and formed a reservoir 
 whence the neighbouring country was irrigated. The con 
 struction of this great work dated from a period long antece 
 dent to that of authentic history. Some ascribe it to Balkis, 
 the Queen of Sheba who visited Solomon. The bursting of 
 this dam, which probably took place in A.D. 170, constitutes 
 one of the most remarkable epochs in Arab history. It was 
 connected with a dispersion of the tribes of Yemen, many of 
 whom going N., and associating with the Ishmaelites, event 
 ually acquired the ascendency among these people. 
 
 In the fourth century of our era, a king of Yemen embraced 
 Judaism, and persecuted the Christians within his dominions, 
 : putting several thousands of them to the sword. This 
 j awakened the hostility of the Abyssinians (the Axumites), 
 I and at length, in A.U. 530, an Ethiopian army crossed the 
 Red Sea into Yemen, and put an end to the Hamyarite dynasty. 
 The Ethiopians remained masters of Yemen till A.D.601, when 
 Khosru Parviz, the Sassanide king, sent a Persian army to aid 
 in expelling them. It was during this occupation of Yemen 
 by the Ethiopians, that Abreha marched against Mecca with 
 a Christian army and a troop of elephants, but was induced 
 to retire by the intercession of the Jews of Yathrib. This 
 event gave rise to the Arab era of the Elephant, and is the 
 more remarkable because it took place in the same year (571) 
 which gave birth to Mahomet, whose fiery genius was, no 
 doubt, worked upon by the contest of religious doctrines which 
 agitated Arabia in that age. In tracing the chief epochs of 
 Arabian history, we must not omit to mention, that the era 
 used by the Arabs and Mahometans in general (Moslimin), is 
 reckoned from the prophet s departure from Mecca, July 1C, 
 622. With the diffusion of the new faith, a new destiny 
 seemed opened to the Arabs. The continued success of their 
 arms has no parallel in history. Within the course of a few 
 generations, Arab dynasties were established from Central 
 Asia and the frontiers of India, in Samarcand, Balkh, and 
 
ARABIAN GULF 
 
 184 
 
 ARACAN 
 
 Cabool, to the shores of the Atlantic, in Morocco and Spain. 
 In the flourishing days of the Khali fs [successors], the Arab 
 merchant visited China, the interior of Africa, the shores of 
 the Baltic, and N. Siberia. In truth, Arab commerce em 
 braced at one time nearly the whole of the Old World. But 
 this wide-spread superiority was in its nature transient. The 
 power of the Khalifs was extinguished, after many a struggle, 
 by that of the Ottomans, and in trade the Arabs were gradually 
 and completely supplanted by W nations. The Arabian 
 peninsula derived but little advantage from the historic splen 
 dour of the Arab name. Bagdad, Cairo, and Grenada became 
 centres of a civilization which exercised no influence on the 
 tenants of the desert. The most remarkable event in the his 
 tory of Arabia since the age of the prophet, is probably that 
 which closed the career of the Wahdby, a sect of religious re 
 formers, founded by the Shefkh Mahomet Abd-el-Wahal, 
 whose life extended from 16% to 1791. Towards the end 
 of the last century, his followers in Nejd threatened not only 
 Bagdad, but Mecca, and thus provoked the hostility of the 
 Pasha of Egypt. The enthusiasm of the Bedawin, roused by 
 the appearance of an Egyptian army in Nejd, made the con 
 test for some time doubtful, and the Turks were defeated in 
 three successive campaigns. But perseverance and artillery 
 gained the victory at last. In 1818, Derrayeh, the capital 
 of the Waha by chief, in the heart of the peninsula, was razed 
 to the ground, and the spirit of the fierce sectaries completely 
 quelled. Since that event, Hejilz, and a part of Yemen, have 
 remained under the rule of the Pasha of Egypt. (The Travels 
 of Burckhardt and Wclsted in Arabia ; Niebhur, Descrip. de 
 V Arable ; Wolf s Missionary Journey Captain Sadlier, in 
 Trans, of the Lit. Soc. of Bombay ; Crutteuden and Ilaines, 
 in Jour. Roy. Geo. Soc.) 
 
 ARABIAN GULF. See RED SEA. 
 
 ARABIAN SEA, a large expanse of sea, S.W. coast, 
 Asia, lying between the peninsula of Hindoostan on the E., 
 Arabia on the W., and having the coasts of Beloochistan and 
 Sinde on the N. The distance from shore to shore, or from 
 the Arabian to the Indian coast, may be, at the broadest part, 
 about 1500 m. The Sea of Bab-el-Mandeb, and Persian (j nlf, 
 are both ramifications of the Arabian Sea, which is itself a 
 portion of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 ARACAN, or AKKACAN [Rekhaing], a maritime prov. 
 British India beyond the Ganges, presidency of Bengal. It 
 is a strip of coast, bounded N. by Chittagong, from which it 
 is separated partly by the river Nauf ; E. and S.by the Bur- 
 man empire ; and W. and S. by the Bay of Bengal ; lying be 
 tween lat. 1825 and2rN. The natives restrict the name to 
 what is the present district of Akyab, one of the three districts 
 into which Aracan is divided. This portion of the country, 
 which is called Aracan Proper, lies between lat. 20 and 
 21 10 N., on the sea-coast, extending in the interior to 21 40 
 N. ; area variously estimated from 11,000 to 16,000 sq. m. 
 The province is divided into the districts of Akyab, Hamree, 
 and Sandoway. The chief towns are Aracan, the former cap 
 ital ; Akyab, the principal port, now the capital of the prov. ; 
 Sandoway ; and Kyouk Phyoo, the chief military post, and hav 
 ing a spacious and beautiful harbour. Aracan is separated from 
 Burmah and the valley of Irrawadi by an extensive mountain 
 range, which extends, from Cape Negrais N., along all its E. 
 frontier, and is named the Aracan, Yomadoung, or Anamec- 
 topiu Mountains, lying parallel to, and in some places ap 
 proaching very near, the sea-coast. These mountains consist 
 chiefly of granite, schist, and limestone; yield iron, and 
 small quantities of gold and silver ; and have an average 
 elevation of 4000 ft. ; the highest peak, the Table Mountain, 
 rising 8340 ft. above the sea, and separating the valley of the 
 river Aracan from that of the Miou or Mayoo. This range, 
 which on the W. is generally abrupt and broken by numerous 
 ravines, is said to be crossed by no fewer than 22 passes, of 
 which, however, only five are in use ; the best of these, the pass 
 of Aeng, being 4664 ft.above the sea. Elevated forests, wooded 
 valleys, rivers, and small lakes, form the general features of 
 this interior mountain district, which extends about 20 in. W. 
 of the main range. Between the mountains and the sea the 
 province is very narrow in the S. portion, but becomes wider 
 towards the N. It is covered with thickly-wooded jungles, 
 which are so intersected by rivers, lakes, creeks, and inlets, 
 03 to render land communication from town to town exceed 
 ingly difficult. It is watered by numerous streams, of which 
 
 may be named the Nauf, Mayoo or Miou, the Kuladyne or 
 Aracan, the Aeng and Sandoway, all of them navigable to 
 a greater or less extent. Along the coast are the islands of 
 Cheduba, Ramree, Akyab, the Broken Islands, and numerous 
 detached islets and rocks. In Ramree and Cheduba are mud 
 volcanoes. The soil of the higher grounds is a rich loam ; 
 that of the lower and most extensive portion chiefly argilla 
 ceous ; while on the rivers and on the coasts there are large 
 accumulations of sand. Oak, fir, teak, and bamboo, of all 
 sizes, are found in the forests ; and throughout the country 
 there is abundance of pine apples, plantains, mangoes, jacks, 
 sweet limes, cocoa nuts, and almost all tropical fruits, with 
 the exception of oranges, which are scarce. Among the 
 other vegetable productions are rice, sugar-cane, hemp, cotton, 
 indigo, onions, garlic, and turmeric. Almost the only wild 
 quadrupeds of which we have any account are the elephant, 
 tiger, buffalo, deer, and goat. Wild fowl, poultry, and fis-h, 
 are abundant ; and bees and silkworms are indigenous. With 
 respect to climate, the country, except among the hills, is 
 considered exceedingly unhealthy. The mean temperature 
 is about 80 Fah., and the quantity of rain that falls is very 
 great. The wet season continues from May to November, 
 and the other third part of the year can scarcely be called 
 dry, as much rain falls in December, January, and April. 
 The abundance of moisture, and the high temperature, render 
 the country peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of rice, 
 which is, accordingly, its staple production, and of which 
 there are three distinct kinds grown. Previous to the year 
 1830, the province produced rice enough only for the con 
 sumption of its scanty population; now 62,000 tons are 
 annually exported, and have been yearly since 1838. The 
 shipments, which, it is understood, were first limited to the 
 Coromandel coast, were then extended to China, Bourbon, and 
 the Mauritius ; and, latterly, to Britain, France, and Belgium. 
 The quality of the grain is excellent. Other objects of culti 
 vation are cotton, sugar-cane, hemp, tobacco, and indigo ; and 
 the fertility of the district is manifested by the largeness of its 
 crops. Agriculture, however, is little practised, the inhabit 
 ants being more addicted to hunting, fishing, and trafficking. 
 The principal article of manufacture and of export, next to 
 grain, is salt. The only other exports, the produce of the 
 province, are sandoway, tobacco, bees -wax, honey, raw cotton, 
 hides, horns, sugar, earth and wood oils, shark-fins, fish- maws, 
 chillies, ginger, cows, bullocks, and ponies The quantities 
 exported of most of these commodities are trifling. The wood 
 oil of Aracan is, as regards this country, a novel article of 
 commerce, although long well known throughout India. It 
 is the production of a lofty tree (genus Dipterocarpus] , which 
 abounds in the country, and is obtained by cutting a large 
 aperture, 3 or 4 inches deep, in the tree, near the root. A 
 fire is then kindled in the orifice, by which the sap-vessels are 
 stimulated, when the oil begins to drop slowly into a hollow 
 formed for its reception at the bottom of the aperture. Some 
 European goods, along with rice and other native products, are 
 exported to Burmah, in return for silver, copper, lacquered 
 ware, &c. The inhabitants are a hardy, inoffensive race, 
 athletic, intelligent, and have an independence of manner 
 which strikingly contrasts with the obsequiousness of the 
 Asiatic. They are far from buing civilized ; but few cannot 
 read and write. Their language is the same as that of the 
 Burmans, who look on the Aracanese as the prime stock from 
 which they themselves are descended. In religion they are 
 Buddhists, and the priests employ themselves almost entirely 
 in educating the young ; the schools, of which there are two 
 or three in every village, being open to all. They are of 
 filthy habits, and use all kinds of animal and vegetable food; 
 their houses are usually made of bamboo, covered with mats, 
 and raised on piles about 4 ft. from the ground. Limestone, 
 procured from the island of Cheduba, was formerly only em 
 ployed in building temples, its use for private buildings being 
 forbidden. Aracan was an independent kingdom till 1783, 
 when it was overrun by the King of Ava, who attached it to 
 his dominions as a province. In 1825, it was conquered by 
 the British. In 1826, by treaty it was ceded by Burmah to 
 the E. India Company. In 1795, the population was estim 
 ated at upwards of 2,000,000. Since that time it has greatly 
 decreased, but latterly has begun again to increase. Imme 
 diately after the British conquest it was reckoned at 100,000 
 or 120,000. In 1831, the pop. amounted to 173,928. 
 
AEACAN 
 
 185 
 
 ARAGON 
 
 (Crawford s Embassy to Ava; Jour. Jioy. Geog. Soc., vols. i., I 
 viii. ; Nautical Hay. ; letter s ErdLunde.) 
 
 ARACAN, a tn. British India beyond the Ganges, prov. 
 Aracan, of which it formerly was the capital, situated on the 
 river of the same name, 50 m. from the sea ; about lat. 
 20 45 N. ; Ion. 93 10 E. ; in a valley surrounded by conical 
 hills, and intersected by streams or water-courses, one of 
 which divides the town into two. It was at one time a place 
 of considerable importance, having had a population of 95,000 ; 
 but it is now so much reduced, that, in 1835, its population 
 was estimated at from 8000 to 10,000. This decrease is to 
 be accounted for by the unhealthiness of its situation, and the 
 rise of Akyab (which see). 
 
 ARACATI, or ARACATY. 1, A river-port, Brazil, prov. 
 of, and about 55 m. S.E. from Ceara, r. bank, Rio Jaquiribe 
 [river of ounces], 10 m. from the sea; lat. 4 31 S. ; Ion. 
 37 48 W. (R.) It consists principally of one long broad street, 
 with several minor ones branching to the S., and contains a 
 handsome townhall, a prison, three schools, and five churches. 
 The houses are built of a framework made of the stems of the 
 Carnahuba palm, filled up with brick, and are generally two 
 stories in height. The principal exports are cotton and hides, 
 nearly all brought from the interior. Of the former, about 
 5000 bags, or 25,000 arrobas, of 32 Ibs. each, are exported 
 annually ; and of the latter, 2000. With exception of one hill, 
 situated about 8 m. S.W. of the town, and a few sand-hills 
 near the coast, the country around is extremely flat. In the 
 rainy season, the river, which runs close to the town, often 
 rises 12 ft. above its ordinary level. The bar at the mouth 
 of the river, which has a depth of 8 ft. at low water, is nar 
 row and dangerous, owing to the sand-banks on each side, on 
 which the surf is very violent. The river widens within the 
 bar, and forms rather a spacious bay; but, from the uncertainty 
 of its depth, owing to its shifting sands, cannot be depended 
 on. Pop. about 5000. 2, A river, Brazil, prov. Ceara. It 
 flows S. to N., and falls into the Atlantic by two mouths 
 named Aracati-Acu and Aracati-Mirim, in lat. 3 10 N., after 
 a course of 120 m. 
 
 ARACENA, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 47 
 m. N. by E. from Huel va, in a valley, and having four squares, 
 and straight, clean, and well-paved streets; two churches, 
 four convents, three schools, an hospital, barracks, public 
 storehouse, and the relics of an old fortification. Manufac 
 tures : leather and oil ; but the chief occupations are agri 
 culture and cattle-rearing. Pop. 2370. 
 
 ARACUAHI, a river, Brazil, prov. Minas Gcracs. It 
 rises in the serra Esmeraldas, N. of Villa-do-Principe, flows 
 N.E. and falls into the Jequitinhonha, in lat. 16 45 S., 8 m. 
 W. of Tocoyos, after a course of upwards of 200 m. It is 
 tolerably deep, and might be rendered navigable for more 
 than half of its course. In it are found chrysolite and other 
 precious stones. 
 
 ARAD. 1, A market tn. Hungary, on the Maros, 145 
 m. S.E. Pcsth, and 27 m. N. Temcswar, divided by the 
 river into or Alt Arad [Old Arad], and Nj or Neu Arad 
 [New Arad]. The former is an open town, cap. dist. of same 
 name, not very well built, but yet possessing some good 
 houses. It is the seat of a Greek non-united bishop, and 
 contains a Greek theological seminary, a E. catholic gym 
 nasium, and "Wallachian normal school. Manufactures : 
 tobacco and snuff. It has an important fair, second only to 
 the fairs of Pesth and Debreczin ; and a considerable amount 
 of trade is carried on in cattle, and in timber grown in Sieben- 
 biirgen or Transylvania, and floated down the Maros. Nj 
 or New Arad lies across the river from Old Arad, in the 
 Banat of Temeswar ; a bridge which connected the two was 
 destroyed during the late revolution. New Arad is chiefly 
 remarkable for its extensive fortress, one of the strongest in 
 Austria, and used also as a prison for political offenders. The 
 united pop. of Old and New Arad is 20,400; the former 
 16,400, of whom 5923 are R. catholics, 6985 non-united 
 Greeks, 191 of the Reformed or Calvinistic church, and 725 
 Jews ; the latter 4000, chiefly Germans, who are the leading 
 persons, and hold the official stations of the town. The DIS 
 TRICT, which has an extent of about 1700 geo. sq. m., and a pop. 
 of 251,600, is finely diversified with mountains and valleys ; 
 the former containing marble quarries, and mines of copper and 
 iron ; and the latter producing in abundance wheat, maize, 
 melons, and other fruits ; flax, tobacco, and excellent wines. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 ARAD, besides the above, is the name of four small places 
 
 in Hungary, not deserving a separate notice. 2, One of the 
 
 Bahrein Islands (which sec). 
 
 ARAFAT (MOUNT), or JEBEL ER RAIIME [the mountain 
 of mercy], a granite hill, Arabia, 15 m. S.E. Mecca; at the 
 foot of a higher mountain, in a plain about 1 Jm. in diameter, 
 surrounded by barren heights, but separated from them by a 
 rocky valley. It is about 1 or 1 m. in circuit; its sides are 
 sloping, and its summit is nearly 200 ft. above the level of 
 the plain, with broad stone steps leading to the top. It is one 
 of the principal objects of pilgrimage to Mahometans, who 
 affirm that it was the place where Adam first received his 
 wife Eve, after they had been expelled from Paradise, and 
 separated from each other 120 years. On the summit the 
 place is shown where Mahomet used to take his station during 
 the pilgrimage. The mountain not being large enough to 
 accommodate all the devotees that go annually on pilgrimage 
 to Mecca, the law declares, that the plain in the immediate 
 neighbourhood of the mountain may be regarded as com 
 prised under the term Mount of Arafat. Burckhardt, who 
 was present during the pilgrimage in July 1814, estimated 
 the number present on the occasion at 70,000, with at least 
 40 different languages amongst them. The camp covered a 
 space of between 3 and 4 m. long, and from 1 to 2 in. broad, 
 containing 3000 tents, and from 20,000 to 25,000 camels. 
 A sermon delivered by a priest, from a platform about the 60th 
 step of the mount, constitutes the main ceremony of the pil 
 grimage, and entitles all who hear it to the name and priv 
 ileges of a Hadji. 
 
 ARAGON, a river, Spain, in Aragon, rising in the 
 Pyrenees, near Canfranc, prov. Huesca, on the borders of 
 France. It flows S. for about 20 m. to Jaca, thence W.N. W. 
 to Thiermas, then S.W. through Navarra ; and, after a course 
 of about 110 m., being augmented by the Agra and several 
 other tributaries, it falls into the Ebro, of which it is one of 
 the most important affluents. 
 
 ARAGON, or ARRAGON, an anc. kingdom, Spain ; 
 bounded, N. by France, E. by Catalonia, S. by Valencia and 
 New Castile, and W. by the Castiles and Navarra ; length 
 about 240 m., average breadth 90 m. ; area, 21,878 sq. m. 
 It is now divided into the three provinces Ilucsca, Saragossa 
 or Zaragoza, and Teruel. It forms a basin encompassed by 
 mountains the Pyrenees, the sierras of Mosella, Abarracin, 
 Molina, and Soria, while offsets from these chains traverse the 
 interior in all directions. Several peaks of the Pyrenees 
 rise upwards of 1 1 ,000 ft. above the sea ; their tops are covered 
 with perpetual snow. Their sides are clothed with forests 
 of oak, beech, and pine ; while lower down are rich and ex 
 tensive pastures, with many beautiful and fertile valleys. 
 The largest level tract is formed by the valley of the Ebro, 
 which, entering on the W., flows S.E., dividing the province 
 into two nearly equal parts. The Guadalaviar, the Xucar, 
 and the Tagus, have their sources in the extreme S., and the 
 Aragon, an affluent of the Ebro. in the N.W. of this kingdom. 
 The climate is variable, though generally healthy. On the 
 mountains, and especially among the Pyrenees, it is extremely 
 cold, becoming much warmer in the valleys near the Ebro 
 and the Cinca. High and piercing winds from the N.W. and 
 S.E., however, frequently prevail ; those which come sweeping 
 down from the hills of Montcayo being peculiarly piercing. 
 The mountains and forests abound with game, and the rivers 
 with fish. The flora of Aragon is varied and extensive, but, 
 like that of the rest of Spain, little known. Its minerals 
 are marble, jasper, pit coal, copper, iron, lead, quicksilver, 
 cobalt, and alum. Extensive tracts are wholly stony and 
 barren, while others, though capable of cultivation, are en 
 tirely neglected. Still, where proper means are employed, 
 excellent crops are obtained, of grain and fruit, saffron, flax, 
 and hemp. Silkworms are reared in considerable numbers. 
 Manufactures: woollen cloth, linen drapery, cordage, leather, 
 spirits, wine, oil, and soda most of which, with grain and 
 other products of the soil, form articles of exportation. The 
 commerce is limited, the principal means of transport being by 
 the Ebro, and the great canal of Aragon, which, commencing 
 near Tudela in Navarra, joins the Ebro 30 m. below Saragossa; 
 it is 9 ft. deep, and 64 ft. broad at the surface. It was com 
 menced, in 1529, by Charles V., and, after having been 
 abandoned for more than two centuries, was recommenced 
 and finally completed towards the close of the 18th century. 
 
ARAGONA 
 
 186 
 
 ARAL SEA 
 
 ARAKAN. Sec AKACAN. 
 
 ARAKHOVA, a small tn., N. Greece, 18 m. W.N.W. 
 Livadia, on a declivity of Mount Parnassus, iu au extremely 
 fertile district. Pop. 2000. 
 
 ARAL SEA, an extensive lake or inland sea, Indepen 
 dent Tartary; lat. 43 42 41" to 4G 44 42" N.; Ion. 58 18 47 
 to 61 46 44" E. ; and next to the Caspian Sea, from which 
 it is nearly 200 m. E., the largest lake of the E. hemisphere, 
 having a length, N.E. to S.W., of 265 m. ; a central breadth 
 of 1C5 m., and an area of 17,600 gco. sq. m. Its water is salt, 
 
 The Aragoncse are hardy, active, brave, and hard-headed, but 
 exceedingly obstinate, hard-hearted, and prejudiced, lovers of 
 self, and religious haters of foreigners, especially of the French. 
 They have also a peculiar dress knee-breeches, broad silken 
 sashes, and broad-brimmed slouched hats. The favourite 
 national air and dance is lajota Aragonesa, winch is brisk and 
 jerky, but highly spirit-stirring to the native, on whom, 
 when far from Aragon, it acts like the pibroch on the exiled 
 Highlander, or the Kanz-des-Vaches on the Swiss, creating 
 an irresistible nostalgia or home-sickness." Aragon is thinly 
 peopled, the total population amounting to 847,105 (Madoz ; 
 Murray s Handbook ; &c.) 
 
 ARAGONA, a small tn. Sicily, prov. and dist. of Girgenti, 
 from which it is distant 8 m. N.N.E. Its old castle contains a 
 fine gallery of pictures, and some interesting relics of anti 
 quity. In the neighbourhood is the mud volcano of Maccaluba. 
 The district grows great quantities of almonds. Pop. 6530. 
 
 ARAGUA, a valley and river, Venezuela, prov. Carac- 
 cas. The valley lies S. of the mountain range which skirts 
 the sea along the N. of prov. Caraccas, and adjoins the lake 
 of Tacarigua or Valencia, into which the river falls, after a 
 S.W. course of about 30 m. The valley produces a great 
 quantity of indigo, sugar, cotton, European wheat, and abund 
 ance of tobacco. (Aspects of Nature; Alcedo.) 
 
 ARAGUARI, a river, Brazil, prov. Para, in Brazilian 
 Guiana. It rises in the serra de Tumucaraque, in lat. 
 45 N. ; Ion. 52 32 W. ; flows E. ; receives several small 
 tributaries ; forms several small lakes, and falls into the 
 Atlantic, lat. 1 50 N., opposite Ilha Nova. A branch of 
 it flows N.E., and falls into the sea N. of Ilha Coelhos. 
 Another branch flows S.E., and falls into the Irigi. Total 
 course about 160 m. 
 
 ARAGUAIA, a large river, Brazil, the principal affluent 
 of the Rio Toeantins, which it joins at Sao-Joao-das-duas- 
 Barras, about lat. 6 S. ; Ion. 49 30 W. It rises under the 
 name of Copaiapos, in mountains of the same name, about 
 lat. 18 30 S. ; Ion. 52 W. ; flows N., forming the boundary 
 between the provinces of Goyaz and Matto-Grosso as far as 
 they are conterminous, and bifurcates about lat. 12 20 S., 
 its arms uniting again about lat. 9 30 S., and forming the 
 island of Santa Anna or Bannanal. It has numerous affluents 
 on either side, the principal one being the Rio-das-Mortes, 
 which it receives from the left, opposite the island of Banna 
 nal. The whole course of the Araguia stretches over about 
 13 degrees of lat., for 1 1 of which it is navigable for the vessels 
 of the country. (Die. Geo. Imp. Brazil.) 
 
 ARAHAL, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 22 m. . ^ . 
 E.S.E. from Sevilla, on an eminence, the summit of which r zo 
 forms an extensive flat. The houses are ill constructed, of 
 the worst materials ; and it has two squares, three churches, I though not unpleasantly so ; may be used for culinary pur- 
 the townhouses, in one of which is a prison ; a hermitage, poses, and is freely drunk by horses ; it regularly freezes 
 storehouse, Latin school, seven other schools, philosophical | in the N. ; in other directions the ice is seen covering the 
 society, hospital, and cemetery. Manufactures : felt hats, shores as far as the eye can reach, and probably, therefore, 
 
 soap, gypsum, earthenware, and oilmills and wine ; fruits and 
 other produce are exported, and colonial produce imported. 
 Many of the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture and in 
 rearing cattle. Pop. 6988. 
 
 ARAISCH (ALor EL), or LAEASHE [the pleasure-garden ; 
 anc. Lixus], a tn. Morocco, prov. Fez, on the steep S. point 
 
 may, in very severe winters, extend over the whole expanse. 
 Towards the N. the sea narrows, and finally becomes divided 
 into two very unequal portions by the island of Kug-Aral, 
 which stretches across it W. to E. for about 25 m., leav 
 ing between it and the mainland only a very narrow channel 
 on the W., and a passage of about 17 m. wide on the E. The 
 
 of Wad al Khos [river of the bow, or winding river] ; lat. j portion of the sea N. of the island has an area of about 1600 
 35 12 48" N.; Ion. 6 9 W. (R.) In 1765, the French entered geo. sq. m., and is called the Kitschkine-Dengis or Little Sea, 
 the river with the intention of bombarding the town; but, in contradistinction to the main expanse, which is called the 
 being induced by a feint of the Moors to advance too far, they Ulu-Dengis or Great Sea, and is ten times larger than the 
 were surrounded and destroyed. Al- A raisch had formerly a other portion, having an area of 16,000 geo. sq. m. The 
 number of good houses, paved streets, several mosques, a Little Sea is of very irregular shape, and divides into two 
 bazaar with stone piazzas, and a fort with two batteries. Its great arms which penetrate far inland, the one N.E. forming 
 
 large castle on the summit of the hill, the lofty towers of tho 
 mosques and the fortifications, still give it an imposing appear 
 ance when seen from the sea; but, on a nearer approach, the 
 whole is found to be little more than a heap of ruins. The 
 environs are laid out in pleasure-gardens and orchards, from 
 which the town received its name ; but they are now neglected. 
 The once flourishing commerce of the port is also gone. At 
 the entrance of the river is a bar with 5 or 6 ft. water at low 
 tide, within which there is a good port about three quarters 
 of a mile long by one quarter broad, with a depth of 24 ft. 
 Pop. in 1830 and 1834, stated at 4000 ; but, in 1835, 2500, 
 including 500 soldiers, and 250 Jews. (Jour. Roy. Geo. Soc., 
 vol. vi.) 
 
 the bay of Sary-Tschaganak, and the other N. and W. forming 
 the different bays of Perowski, Paskewitch, Dschideli, and 
 Nesselrode, and containing several islands. The bottom of 
 the Little Sea is muddy, and the depth in many parts exceeds 
 12 fathoms; the coast, which is deeply indented, presenting 
 many peninsulas and headlands, is in some parts low and sandy, 
 but generally consists of hills varying from 100 to 300 ft. in 
 height, and chiefly composed of clay and salt. The Ulu- 
 Dengis or Great Sea, is of an irregularly circular form, 
 having nearly the same length and breadth. Among its 
 peculiar features are the immense number of low and sandy 
 islands which line its E., and the islands, in much smaller 
 number, but of far larger dimensions, which lie at some dis- 
 
ARAMOX 
 
 187 
 
 ARARAT 
 
 tance from its W. shore. Of these islands, the largest, in 
 addition to the Kug-Aral, already mentioned, are the Takmak- 
 Aty on the S.W. shore, not far from the mouth of the Amoo- 
 Daria, Nicolas I., the chief island of the Zaren group, about 
 60 m. off the central W. shore, and Barssa Kilmes towards the 
 N. The greatest depth of the Great Sea is in the W., where, 
 almost close to the shore, a depth of 37 fathoms has been 
 found; the central depth is about 15 fathoms; on the N., and 
 more especially on the E. and S. shores, and near the islands, 
 the water becomes very shallow. The bottom is muddy in 
 the N., but in the S. consists generally of fine sand. The E. 
 and S. coasts are very low, consisting in the former direction 
 of long monotonous tracts of almost barren sand, and in the 
 latter direction of alluvial flats overflowed by the Amoo-Daria, 
 which here forms large swamps generally covered with reeds. 
 The most remarkable of these swamps is that of the Ajbujir, 
 or Lauclan, which commences at the S.W. extremity, and 
 stretches southwards in an irregular curve for about 80 m. 
 The W. coast, forming the E. abutment of the plateau of Ust- 
 Urt, is generally bold and lofty, consisting of cliffs of sand 
 stone, clay, and limestone, with scarcely an opening in them 
 where a boat can land. These cliffs lower gradually, both on 
 the N. and S. ; but towards the centre form precipices of 
 500 ft. high. This is the only part of the Aral Sea where the 
 scenery approaches to grandeur. The only rivers which it 
 receives are the Sir-Daria, Jihoon, or Jaxartes, which joins 
 it on the N.E., and the Amoo-Daria, Jihoon, or Oxus, which 
 enters it by several mouths on the S. It has no outlet. The 
 prevalence of N.E. winds blowing for months without inter 
 ruption, the violence of storms and hurricanes, and the occa 
 sional occurrence of lengthened calms, when not a breath of 
 wind is felt, are very unfavourable to the navigation of the 
 sea. Fish of numerous varieties abound, but the absence of 
 seals, so common in the Caspian, is remarkable. The only 
 part of the Aral shores regularly inhabited, is the S.W. and 
 S. ; but in winter the N. and E. shores and adjacent islands 
 are frequented by Kirghises. 
 
 The Aral Sea lies between the steppes of Kirghis and Khiva, 
 in the great depression of W. Asia; and, in Humboldt s opi 
 nion, is on the same level as the Caspian, of which, in times 
 remote, it doubtless formed a part. At first it is sup 
 posed to have been but an enlargement of the Oxus, now its 
 principal tributary, but then an affluent of the Caspian, to 
 which again, in recent years, part of its waters seems to have 
 found its way ; accumulations of sand filled up the old bed of 
 the Oxus, and thus transformed an enlargement of the stream 
 into a lake. The Aral Sea has no visible outlet, and as its 
 affluents do not furnish a supply of water equal to the amount 
 of evaporation that takes place, the lake is supposed to be de 
 creasing in size. This opinion is supported by the reports of 
 the natives; and receives a further confirmation from the fact 
 that N.E. winds being prevalent in these regions, the quantity 
 of sand wafted hither by them from the arid wastes to the E. 
 and N. is very great. The map is after Jakob Clianykow s 
 map of the Aral Sea and Khanate of Khiva. (Basiner, Nor 
 turwiss. Rrise durch Kirgisensteppe. St. Petersburg, 1848; 
 Humboldt s Asie Coitrale; Zimmermann, Denkschrift ul>er 
 unt. Lav/ Oxus ; Jour. Roy. Geo. Soc., vol. xiii. ; Maksche- 
 jew, BcscJireib. Aralsee s, in Monatsberichte iiber die Ver- 
 hand. der Gesell. Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1852.) 
 
 AR AMON, a tn. France, dep. Gard, 15m. E.N.E.Nismes, 
 r. bank, Rhone ; with manufactures of ropes, saltpetre, and 
 earthenware. Pop. 2640. 
 
 ARAN (VALLEY OF), a secluded mountain-hollow, France, 
 in the Pyrenees, dep. Haute-Garonne, on the frontiers of 
 Spain, and overlooked S.W. by Maladetta (10,890 ft.), the 
 culminating peak of the Pyrenees. Area, 260 sq. m. It may 
 be considered as the continuation of the valley of the Garonne, 
 which, above St. Beat, is called Val d Aran. Much of it con 
 sists of mountain acclivities; and it is traversed S.E. to N.W. 
 by the head waters of the Garonne. Three towns, Viella, 
 Salardu, and Bosost, and 27 villages, are scattered over the 
 valley, which is inhabited by rude mountaineers, who are con 
 stantly engaged in smuggling, except during summer, when 
 they seek employment in the S. of France. Pop. about 1 3,000. 
 
 ARAN DA DK DUERO, a decayed tn. Spain, Old Castile, 
 prov. and 46 m. S. Burgos, r. bank, Duero, here crossed by 
 a handsome stone bridge of three arches. The river is fringed 
 with rows of poplars, over which the balconied houses hang 
 
 with an agreeable effect. Some of the houses are built of 
 wood and brick, and betray a considerable propensity to fall 
 over ; many of the streets are irregular, short, and narrow. 
 Aranda has a townhall, an unhealthy and ill-arranged prison, 
 a mont-de-pitte, three schools, and two churches. The portal 
 of the church of San Juan Baptista is a fine specimen of Gothic 
 architecture, and is enriched with niches, statuary, and well- 
 executed high reliefs. The Dominican convent has also a 
 handsome portal. In former times, Aranda was frequently 
 a residence of the Kings of Castile, whose palace is still 
 standing. The inhabitants are almost wholly employed in 
 agriculture ; chiefly in raising grapes, from which a dark, 
 weak, and not disagreeable wine is produced, to the extent of 
 about 500,000 gallons annually. As it does not keep more 
 than a year, it is all consumed in the surrounding country. 
 Pop. 4122. (Madoz ; Hughes Lisbon.) 
 
 ARANJUEZ [AEA JQVIS], a tn. Spain, in New Castile, 
 prov. of, and 28 m. S. from Madrid, and 22 m. E.N.E. Toledo, 
 in an extensive valley, 1. bank, Tagus, chiefly famous for its 
 royal palace, and as being a place of retirement for the court 
 during the spring months. The town is regularly built, in the 
 Dutch style, with lines of trees on either side of the spacious 
 streets ; and is clean, and presents an agreeable aspect. Its 
 Dutch appearance is due to Grimaldi, minister to Charles III., 
 who had been at the Hague, and by whom the town was re 
 modelled. It has a church and two chapels, several schools, 
 an hospital, a fine public square, entered through a marble 
 triumphal arch in front of the entry to the palace-grounds, 
 and adorned in the centre with a marble fountain ; a noble 
 bull-ring, and a tolerable theatre. The inhabitants are en 
 gaged in agriculture, in the manufacture of crystal, leather, 
 soap, chocolate, and in ministering to the numerous visitors 
 who sojourn in Aranjuez while the court is there. The royal 
 palace, at the Madrid end of the town, and close upon the 
 Tagus, is a building possessing no architectural beauty, and 
 deriving its sole attractions from the fine .gardens and wooded 
 pleasure-grounds by which it is surrounded, which are un 
 doubtedly on a scale of great magnificence. It was here that 
 Charles IV., March 19, 1808, abdicated his crown. The Casa 
 del Labrador, erected by that same monarch, is a pretentious 
 building, in gaudy Asiatic taste, filled with artistic articles ; 
 but described as being more a kingly toy than anything else. 
 Aranjuez and its vicinity is reckoned a kind of earthly paradise 
 by the natives of Madrid ; and to those who have only been 
 accustomed to the arid, treeless Castiles, it must indeed appear 
 an oasis in the desert, with its green, leafy foliage, its brooks, 
 gardens, and singing birds, among which last the nightingale 
 is especially famous. After the month of May, the summer 
 sun, acting on the waters and marshes in the vicinity, fills the 
 air with fever and ague ; and during the winter the atmosphere 
 is moist and cold. When the court is at Aranjuez, the popu 
 lation sometimes numbers about 20,000; at other times it docs 
 not reach 4000. (Madoz ; Willkomm.) 
 
 ARANSAS. 1, A tn. Texas, the port of entry for Aran- 
 sas Bay, in Refugio co., 170 m. S. Austin, on a peninsula, and 
 having a considerable trade with Mexico. Aransas Pass, the 
 entrance to the bay, is in lat. 27 50 N.; Ion. 97 2 W. (R.), 
 between the islands of Matagorda and San Jose, in the Gulf 
 of Mexico. The bay, within the peninsula on which the town 
 stands, is about 20 m. long, by 7 to 10 broad. It has a depth 
 of from 12 to 16 ft. The harbour is secure. 2, A river which 
 flows into this bay. It is about 80 m. long, and has a few 
 small tributaries. 
 
 ARANYOS, a river, Austrian empire, in Transylvania, 
 formed by the confluence of the Greater and the Lesser Aran- 
 yos, which rise in Mount Kalimyasza, near the Hungarian 
 frontier, about lat. 46 28 N., and unite near the village of 
 Topanfalva. After a circuitous course of about 90 m. W. to 
 E.N.E. it falls into the Maros, about 7 m. E.N.E. Fel Vincz. 
 Grains of gold are found in the bed of this river, hence its 
 name, Aranyos, golden ; from arany, gold. 
 
 ARARAT, a celebrated mountain, W. Asia, in Armenia, 
 forming the point of contact of Russia with Turkey and 
 Persia, to all of which it belongs. It lies in the S. portion 
 of the extensive plain of the Aras, about 35 m. broad, and of 
 whose length about 70 m. can be taken in by the eye. It 
 consists of two mountains, the Great Ararat, on the N.W. ; 
 and the Less Ararat, on the S.E. ; their summits, in a direct 
 line, being about 7 m. apart, and their bases insensibly blend- 
 
ARARAT 
 
 188 
 
 ARARAT 
 
 ing into each other by the interposition of a wide, level, 
 upland valley. The summit of the Great Ararat lies in lat. 
 39 42 N. ; Ion. 43 38 E., and is 17,323 ft. above the sea 
 level, and 14,320 ft. above the plain of the Aras. The N.E. 
 slope of the mountain is about 14 m. in length, and the S.W. 
 about 20 m. On the former, visible even from Erivan, 
 32 m. distant, is a deep, gloomy, crater-like chasm. The 
 mountain is covered with perpetual snow and ice, for about 
 3 m. from its summit downward, in an oblique direction. 
 On the entire N. half, from about 14,000 ft. above the sea, it 
 shoots up in one rigid crest to its summit, and then stretches 
 downward on its S. side to a level not quite so low, forming 
 what is called the Silver Crest of Ararat. Little Ararat 
 rises 13,093 ft. above the sea level, and 10,140 ft. above the 
 plain of the Aras ; and is free from snow in September and 
 October. Its declivities are greater and steeper than those 
 of the Great Ararat ; and its almost conical form is marked 
 with several delicate furrows, that radiate downwards from 
 its summit. The top of the Great Ararat was first reached, 
 October 9, 1829, by Professor Parrot, who reports it to be 
 a gently vaulted, nearly cruciform surface, of about 200 
 paces in circuit, which at the margin sloped off precipitously 
 on every side, but particularly towards the S.E. and N.E. 
 Formed of eternal ice, without rock or stone to interrupt its 
 continuity, it was the austere silvery head of Old Ararat. 
 Towards the E. this summit is connected, by means of a flat- 
 tish depression, with a lower summit, distant 397 yards ; and, 
 in like manner, covered with ice. After remaining on the 
 summit three-quarters of an hour, determining the height, and 
 making various observations, Parrot descended to the mon 
 astery of St. James ; the third day after, he left it. The 
 observations of Parrot have been in every respect confirmed 
 by another Russian traveller, named Abich, who reached the 
 
 summit of the Great Ararat without difficulty, July 29, 1845. 
 He, with six others, remained an hour on the top, without 
 experiencing any inconvenience from cold, so much felt by 
 Parrot and his companions. Abich, previous to making the 
 ascent, had his tent for some time pitched on the upper slope 
 of the mountain, in the valley between the two peaks, nearly 
 GOOO ft. above the sea. He reports the important fact, that 
 from this point the ascent can with facility be accomplished, 
 few obstructions interfering with the progress of the traveller 
 compared with those met with on the ascent from the mon 
 astery of St. James. It would appear even that the ascent 
 of Mount Ararat is easier than that of Mont Blanc ; for the 
 height of the latter, above the valley of Chamouni, is 12,000 
 ft. ; while that of the former, above the point where Abich 
 pitched his tent, cannot be above 9000 ft. ; and the limit of 
 perpetual snow is lower on the Swiss than on the Armenian 
 mountain. The season most suitable for the ascent is the end 
 of July or beginning of August, when the summer attains its 
 greatest heat, and when there is annually a period of atmo 
 spheric quiet, aecompanied by a clear, unclouded sky. So soon, 
 however, as the fine days in the earlier part of August are 
 over, the atmospheric war commences in the higher regions 
 of the air, the strife being hottest between the two great 
 peaks. Then there is no certainty of fine weather, for sudden 
 thunderstorms, always on the higher parts of the mountains 
 accompanied by hail and snow, endanger the life of the travel 
 ler. This continual elemental strife has left, on the summit 
 of the Little Ararat, an enduring memorial of its rigour in the 
 lightning-tubes with which the rocks are bored. These tubes 
 are covered with a greenish glass, which was formerly sup 
 posed to be obsidian. So numerous are they on the highest 
 peaks, that they impart to the rock the appearance of worm- 
 i bored wood. 
 
 
 ARARAT, FROM TlIE PLAIN OF ERIVAN From a Paintm* by J. Baillie Fraser, Ks<j. 
 
 Wholly isolated on the N., S., and E. sides, this enor 
 mous mass shoots up abruptly from the plain on which it 
 stands, in stupendous grandeur, to the eye exceeding in height 
 the giants both of the Himalaya and the Andes. The N.W. 
 slope of this mountain is partially connected with a chain, 
 which, running W. into Turkish Armenia, borders the entire 
 r. bank of the Axares; its W. end, wheeling round the head 
 waters of that river, touches Erzeroom, and gives to the 
 I. bank a mountain-barrier similar to that which exists on the 
 right. All travellers attest the volcanic nature of the Ararat 
 mountains, as evidenced by the stones found on all their slopes, 
 undoubtedly the products of a crater. They are composed 
 chiefly of trachytic porphyry, and on them pumice and various 
 descriptions of lava have been met with (Parrot, p. 198). 
 Reineggs avers that he saw the Great Ararat send forth smoko 
 and flame for three days, in 1785 ; but this is believed to be one 
 of the many romances which tliat traveller has related. No 
 such occurrence was remembered, in 1843, by individuals 
 resident on the mountain at the period indicated, and no erup 
 tion is found recorded in the chronicles of the monastery of 
 
 Echmiadzin, though they extend back over a period of 800 
 years. All doubt as to the volcanic nature of the two Ararats 
 was put an end to on July 2, 1840, when an eruption took 
 place from the head of the great chasm, which destroyed the 
 monastery and chapel of St. James, the village of Arguri, and 
 their inmates. (See ARGURI.) Dr. Wagner, an enterprising 
 German traveller and naturalist, who visited the spot in 1843, 
 gives in substance the following account of that event, as 
 related by Sahatel Chotschaieff, brother to Stephan Aga, vil 
 lage elder of Arguri, honourably mentioned both by Parrot 
 and Dubois, arid confirmed by other two eye-witnesses : On 
 July 2, 1840, half an hour before sunset, the atmosphere 
 clear, the inhabitants of Armenia were frightened by a thunder 
 ing noise, that rolled loudest and most fearfully in the vicinity 
 of the Great Ararat. During an undulating motion of the 
 earth, lasting about two seconds, which rolled from the moun 
 tain E. and S.E., and wrought great destruction in the districts 
 of Sharur and Nakhichevan, a rent was formed in the end of 
 the great chasm, about 3 m. above Arguri, out of which rose 
 gas and vapour, hurling with immense force stones and earth 
 
ARARAT 
 
 189 
 
 ARAS 
 
 over the slope of tlio mountain down into the plain. The 
 vapour rose very quickly higher than the summit of Ararat, 
 and seems to have been wholly of aqueous composition ; for in 
 the same night a heavy rain fell in the vicinity of the moun 
 tain an unusual occurrence in this country (luring summer. 
 The vapour at first was of various colours, in which blue and 
 red prevailed. Whether flames burst forth could not be 
 ascertained ; but the pillars of vapour or smoke had a red tint, 
 which, had the eruption taken place during the night, might 
 possibly have exhibited flame. The blue and red tint of the 
 vapour soon became dark black, and immediately the air was 
 filled with a very disagreeable smell of sulphur. While the 
 mountain continued to heave, and the earth to shake, with the 
 unremitting thunder, along with the subterranean cracking 
 and growling, might be heard the whiz, as of bombs, caused 
 by the force with which stones and large masses of rock, some 
 upwards of 50 tons weight, were hurled through the air. 
 Likewise, the dash of the stones as they met in the air in 
 their flight, could be distinguished from the thundering noise 
 issuing from the interior of the mountain. Where these large 
 stones fell, there in general they lay; for in consequence of 
 the gentle declination of the ground at the foot of the moun 
 tain, to roll far was impossible. The eruption continued a 
 full hour. When the vapour had cleared away, and the shower 
 of stones and mud had ceased, the rich village of Arguri, the 
 monastery and chapel of St. James, were not to be seen ; all, 
 along with their inmates, were buried under the mass of 
 stones and mud that had been ejected. The earthquake, 
 which accompanied the eruption, destroyed 6000 houses in the 
 neighbouring districts of Nakhichevan, Sharur, and Ardubad. 
 Four days after a second catastrophe occurred, which spread 
 still further the work of destruction at the foot of the moun 
 tain. After the rent in the chasm, whence issued the vapour 
 and stones, had closed, there remained in the same place a 
 deep basin filled with water by the melting of the snow, by 
 the rain, and by a streamlet from above, so as to form a small 
 lake. The mass of stone and clay, which formed a dam, and 
 surrounded the lake like the edge of a crater, was burst by 
 the weight of water, and poured down the declivity of the 
 mountain with irresistible force a stream of thick mud, which 
 spread into the plain, and partly stopped up the bed, and 
 altered the course of the small river Karasu. A part of the 
 gardens of Arguri that had escaped the eruption, were de 
 stroyed by this stream of mud, which carried trees, rocks, 
 and the bodies of the inhabitants of the village, down into 
 the plain, and to the bed of the Karasu. This stream of mud 
 was three times repeated, and was accompanied by subter 
 ranean noises. 
 
 A document, purporting to be an account of this remarkable 
 occurrence, was drawn up by a Kussian officer, Major Wos- 
 koboinikoff, who, however, did not approach the mountain 
 nearer than Erivan, where he obtained his information solely 
 from inhabitants of that town, who had visited the place after 
 the eruption. He narrates, that the mass which covered up 
 St. James s monastery and Arguri was loosened by the earth 
 quake from the highest regions of the mountain. This vera 
 cious document, preserved in the town archives of Tiflis, gave 
 rise to the erroneous report that a part of Ararat had fallen, 
 and that the snowy summit had considerably sunk ; which 
 story Dr. Wagner distinctly contradicts, not only from very 
 perfect evidence derived from a minute investigation of the 
 locality, but also from the concurrent testimony of numerous 
 individuals who had spent their whole life on Ararat, and in 
 its vicinity. Another fable, which has gained some currency, 
 is that this mountain forms a landmark for the navigators of 
 the Caspian Sea, to which a sufficient refutation is furnished 
 by the fact, that the nearest point of the Caspian is about 
 260 m. distant. There are several glaciers on the Great 
 Ararat, from one of which flowed the stream that passed 
 through the village of Arguri ; the lowest begin about 10,000 
 ft. above the sea level. 
 
 The fauna of Ararat is very poor, the only mammal, ac 
 cording to Wagner, being the common hare rather agile prey 
 for the tigers Tournefort avers that he saw, and, even when 
 caught, calculated to form but a scanty repast for such an 
 animal. Birds are tolerably numerous till about half way 
 up the great chasm, beyond which they do not ascend. The 
 most celebrated is the rose-starling (Sturnus roseus), famed 
 as a locust-killer. Insects are numerous, among which, as 
 
 peculiar, may be noted the curiously-formed coleopter, Cal- 
 listhenes Araraticus. One reason for the small number of the 
 mammalia is, doubtless, the want of water on the mountain, 
 which at the same time causes a scant vegetation. Still, 
 many forms of plants are to be met with. The Great Ararat, 
 on its N. side at all events, has no trees ; but on the Little 
 Ararat, the birches form quite a forest, due no doubt to the 
 greater moistnuss of the soil. In autumn, yellow achillese, 
 white scabiosae, and different kinds of composite, chiefly of red 
 tints, are prominent. A few specimens of Juniperus oxycedrus 
 and Cotoneaster uniflora are to be seen. The Alpine veget 
 ation is the same as on the Caucasus ; and the most frequently 
 to be met with are Aster alpinus and pulchellus, Campanula 
 saxifraga, Pyrethrum caucasicum, and Centaurea pulcherrima. 
 That Noah s ark rested on the top of Mount Ararat is not 
 to be credited; the difficulty of the descent, and the low tem 
 perature of the atmosphere, which must have killed many ot 
 the animals, alike preclude the supposition ; and, moreover, 
 Scripture does not say it rested on the top, but merely on 
 the mountains of Ararat. If this be the mountain there 
 referred to, which is somewhat doubtful, seeing that the olive 
 does not grow near it, the ark must have rested on one of its 
 lower slopes. 
 
 The name Ararat 5s said to be derived from Arai, a king 
 who lived 1750 years B.C. He fell in battle, in an Armenian 
 plain, which was hence called Arai-Arat the fall of Arai. 
 Before him reigned Amassis, the sixth from Japhet, who 
 called the country Amasia ; hence the name Massis, by which 
 alone Armenians in the present day know the mountain. By 
 the Turks and Persians it is called Agridagh. The third 
 syllable dayh, means mountain ; but philologists are not 
 agreed on the signification of Acjri. (Parrot s Journey to 
 Ararat; Wagner s Eeise nach clem Ararat; Dubois, Voyage 
 autour du Caucase; Die Bestciyung des Ararat, am July 29, 
 1845, durch H. Abich, St. Petersburg, 1849.) 
 
 ARARAUMA, a salt-water lake, Brazil, prov. Eio de 
 Janeiro ; length, E. to W., 22 m, ; greatest breadth, 1\ m. 
 It communicates with the sea, to which it lies parallel, and 
 from which it is separated by a strip of land about 4 m. 
 broad ; and has a depth, according to the state of the tide, of 
 from 26 to 80 ft. It receives the waters of several streams. 
 At its E. extremity is the town of Cabo Frio, whence the 
 sugar, rice, millet, French beans and coffee, produced plenti 
 fully on its banks, and brought chiefly from the small ports 
 of Capitao-Mor, and Mataruna, are transhipped to Rio de 
 Janeiro. (Die. Geo. Imp. Brazil.) 
 
 ARARIPE (SEURA DE), an elevated table-land, Brazil, 
 between 4 and 6 m. S.W. the tn. of Crato or Cratto, in about 
 lat. 6 30 S. ; Ion. 38 30 W. It forms a semicircle round 
 the undulatory plain on which Crato is situated, and is the 
 source of a great many fertilizing streams. In some places 
 the ascent is steep and rugged. In the serra de Araripe, 
 George Gardner, Esq., late superintendent of the Royal 
 Botanic Gardens of Ceylon, found the chalk formation, which, 
 it was previously believed, did not exist in any part of the 
 continent of S. America. 
 
 ARAS [anc. Araxes], a large river, W. Asia. It rises in 
 Mount Bin-Gheul, about 10 m. S.E. Erzeroom in Turkish 
 Armenia; lat. 39 47 N.; Ion. 41 45 E. Its course is 
 E.N.E. for 150 m., when it enters Russian Armenia, and 
 deflects to the S.E. round the base of Mount Ararat, turns 
 again N.E. about lat. 37 N.., and continues in that direction 
 till its junction with the Kur at Jeval or Djavat, in lat. 
 39 54 N. ; Ion. 48 30 E., .after a course of above 500 m. 
 It is a rapid dirty river, and opposite Mount Ararat it is 
 described as having high steep banks, and a bed of clay-slate 
 filled with limestone shingle. From the steepness of its 
 banks its water cannot be used for the purpose of irrigation, 
 which the country round Mount Ararat stands greatly in need 
 of, the whole plain of the Aras being here nearly destitute of 
 vegetation. In some parts, however, a hard kind of grass 
 (Dactylis littoralis) occurs, on which large quantities of a spe 
 cies of the cochineal insect are found. There is a ford passable 
 all the year at Yedu Balook, near Ion. 48 E., where its bed is 
 from 3 to 4 m. across. It was known to Herodotus under the 
 name of Araxes, but this must not be confounded with tho 
 Araxes of Xenophon, which is the Chaborras of Strabo, and 
 an affluent of the Euphrates, (London Geo. Jour.; Parrot s 
 Journey to Ararat. 
 
ARASAIG 
 
 190 
 
 ARAURE 
 
 ARASAIG, a vil. and dist. Scotland, co. Inverness, W. 
 coast ; the name also of a promontory in the district, lying 
 between two inlets of the sea, Loch Nanuagh on the S., and 
 Loch-Da -Gaul on the N. In the village there is a neat 
 li. ctholic chapel Steamers call regularly off this place. 
 
 ARAT1CA, or CAKLSIIOFF, an isl., S. Pacific, one of the 
 Paumotu group or Paliser Islands, about. 310 m. N.E. by E. 
 from Tahiti, W. point in lat. 15 35 N. ; Ion. 145 38 W. (R.) 
 ARAU. See AARAU. 
 
 ARAUCANIA, an independent territory, S. part of Chili, 
 between lat. 37 29 and 40 18 S., having the Andes on the 
 E., and the Pacific on the W. Its S. and N. boundaries, 
 however, not being precisely known, are somewhat differently 
 stated by different authorities. Its entire length, taking the 
 limits above assigned to it, is about 200 m. ; its breadth from 
 90 to 180. As it differs little in its physical features, climate, 
 or productions, from other parts of Chili (winch see), this 
 article will be limited to an account of its inhabitants, who, 
 though greatly overrated by the Spanish writers, form one of 
 the most remarkable, perhaps, of all the uncivilized or semi- 
 barbarous races. "With some of the vices common to all 
 savage nations, the Araucanians possess many noble qualities. 
 They are generous and humane towards the vanquished, 
 courteous, hospitable, benevolent, and grateful, enthusiastic 
 lovers of liberty, and ever ready to sacrifice their lives in the 
 service of their country, the independence of which they have 
 successfully maintained for centuries by their indomitable 
 courage, and singular aptitude for war. Seeing the evils of 
 which gold is the cause, the Araucanians, after they had 
 expelled the Spaniards from their country by force of arms, 
 closed their mines, avowing the most profound contempt for 
 that precious metal, as the source of infamous cruelty, unmanly 
 avarice, and degrading servitude. They are highly suscepti 
 ble of mental culture, but despise the restraints of civilization ; 
 all of those who have been educated in the Spanish colonies 
 having embraced the first opportunity of resuming the haunts 
 and habits of their nation. They cultivate poetry and rhetoric, 
 and are so desirous of excellence in the latter art, that their 
 boys are brought to their public assemblies to hear speeches, 
 and to learn to speak in public. Their style of oratory, as 
 might be expected in the case of a semi-barbarous people, is 
 highly figurative and allegorical in imagery and sentiment, 
 and lively, bold, and original. This remarkable race are of 
 ordinary stature, but muscular, robust, and well-proportioned. 
 Their complexion is of a clear reddish brown, faces round, 
 eyes animated and expressive, mouth handsome, teeth even 
 and white, with little or no beard, all traces of which, when 
 such appear, are carefully removed, although the hair of the 
 head is assiduously cultivated. Possessed of great strength of 
 constitution, neither the symptoms of decay nor the infirmities 
 of age appear until they are far advanced in life ; their sight, 
 teeth, and memory remaining unimpaired till the latest period 
 of their existence. Their most prominent vices are drunken 
 ness, debauchery, and presumption. 
 
 The Araucanians have divided their country into four 
 tetrarchies or districts, corresponding to the natural divisions 
 of the country, namely, the maritime country, the plain 
 country, the foot of the Cordilleras and the Andes. Each 
 of these is governed by a toqui or tetrarch, independent of 
 each other in the civil administration of their respective 
 territories, but confederated for the general good of the whole 
 country. Each tetrarchate is divided into nine provinces, 
 commanded by apoulmencs, and these, again, into nine dis 
 tricts, presided over by ulmencs or prefects, who are subject 
 to the former. All these offices are hereditary in the male 
 line, and the limit of their authority carefully defined. The 
 criminal jurisprudence is very imperfect, and not at all in 
 accordance with the general intelligence of the people. Justice, 
 when administered at all, is administered in a tumultuous and 
 irregular manner, but is oftener left to the caprice of indivi 
 duals, whence arise interminable feuds, and mutual incursions 
 on each other s possessions, attended by great destruction of 
 property, but without effusion of blood, as, though a warlike 
 and violent people, they rarely employ arms in their private 
 quarrels. The military government is more rational and 
 better systematized than the civil. They maintain no standing 
 army ; but, as every Araucanian is born a soldier, no sooner is 
 war proclaimed than all offer their services, and thus a force 
 of 5000 or GOOO men is quickly in the field. Their army 
 
 consists of infantry and horse ; the former variously armed 
 with muskets, clubs, pikes, bows and arrows, and slings ; the 
 latter with swords and lances. Their system of fighting is to 
 close with the enemy as soon as they can, which they do with 
 tremendous shouts and yells, and with a fierceness and im 
 petuosity which no ordinary resolution can withstand. The 
 army is led by a commander-in-chief, appointed by a grand or 
 general council, who selects his subalterns, and is implicitly 
 obeyed by all ranks. 
 
 The Araucanians have little commerce of any kind, and all 
 their transactions are conducted by barter. The articles 
 which they usually give in exchange for goods are horses and 
 horned cattle. In these dealings they always act with per 
 fect good faith. When a trader from Spanish Chili comes 
 amongst them, the Araucanian takes what he wants, without 
 being required to give at the time the equivalent agreed upon. 
 Sometime afterwards, the trader, having visited all the huts 
 dispersed over the part of the country he is in, intimates that 
 he is about to return, when not one fails to bring to the place 
 appointed, generally the cottage of the chief, whatever he had 
 bargained to give in exchange for the goods he had taken, 
 which consist generally of edge tools, toys, and wine. 
 
 Polygamy obtains amongst the Araucanians, and celibacy 
 is considered ignominious. Their marriage ceremonies have 
 little formality, consisting in little more than carrying off the 
 bride by pretended violence. The women pay great attention 
 to cleanliness in their houses, which are swept several times 
 a day, and all their utensils carefully washed immediately 
 after being used. They are equally cleanly in their persons, 
 so are also the men, and all are partial to frequent bathing. 
 Their dress is made of wool. That of the men consists of a 
 shirt, a vest, a pair of short, close breeches, and a cloak called a 
 poncho, the whole of a greenish blue, the favourite colour of the 
 nation. In the case of the upper classes, however, the poncho 
 is of various colours. On their heads they wear a bandage 
 of embroidered wool, which, on going to war, is ornamented 
 with a number of beautiful plumes. The common people go 
 barefooted ; persons of rank wear woollen boots of various 
 colours, and leather sandals. The women are modestly and 
 simply attired. Their dress consists of a tunic, a girdle, and 
 a short cloak, fastened in front with a silver buckle. They 
 divide their hair into tresses, which float gracefully over their 
 shoulders. The Araucanians subsist chiefly on grain, pulse, 
 and potatoes, of the last of which they have cultivated a great 
 variety from time immemorial. They eat but little flesh or 
 fish. Their usual drinks consist of various kinds of beer or 
 cider. They use also great quantities of wine, of which they 
 are extremely fond ; but having paid no attention to the raising 
 of vines, they are obliged to purchase it from the Spaniards. 
 Their religion is simple. They acknowledge a Supreme 
 Being, whom they believe to be attended by some inferior 
 deities, who execute his behests. They believe also in the 
 immortality of the soul, but have some absurd notions regard 
 ing the future state. It is somewhat remarkable, however, 
 that they have among them a tradition of a great deluge, in 
 which only a few persons were saved, who took refuge upon a 
 high mountain called Thegtheg [the thundering] , which had 
 three points, and still, whenever a violent earthquake occurs, 
 they fly to the mountain in fear that the sea will again return 
 and overwhelm the world. Their funeral ceremonies, which 
 are both numerous and complicated, are striking manifestations 
 of the absurdities in which they believe. Araucania is the 
 subject of a laudatory epic poem by Don Alonso de Ercilla, 
 a Spanish poet of the 16th century, entitled Araucana. It 
 comprises 37 cantos or 42,000 verses, and, though not want 
 ing in lofty feeling, is so destitute of animation and of all 
 poetic enthusiasm, and so overloaded with proper names, as 
 to have been likened to a newspaper in rhyme. The pop. of 
 Araucania has been estimated at 70,000. 
 
 ARAUCO, a vil. Araucania, near the mouth of the Tu- 
 capel, at the head of a bay, 30 m. S. Conception. It is about 
 300 yards square; enclosed by a wall 12 ft. high, and guarded 
 by towers at two of the angles ; and consists of about 50 or GO 
 houses, arranged in rows. 
 
 ARAURE, a city, Venezuela, pleasantly situated, 1. bank, 
 Acarigua, an affluent of the Portuguesa, GO m. E.N.E. Trux- 
 illo ; lat. 9 17 N. ; Ion. 69 28 W. The streets are straight, 
 and the houses well built. It contains a handsome square 
 and church. It is cap. of a well watered, fertile district, which 
 
ARAVULLI 
 
 101 
 
 ARBROATn 
 
 yields cotton and coffee, and depastures numerous herds of 
 cattle. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 ARAVULLI MOUNTAINS, a range of mountains which 
 traverses the territory of Eajpootana, N.W. India, from 
 S.S.W. to N.N.E. ; extending from lat. 24 to 28 N., 
 or about 300 m. It nowhere attains any great elevation, the 
 highest summit not exceeding 5000 ft. above the level of the 
 sea, but its declivities, especially those to the \V., are so 
 extremely steep as to he nearly inaccessible. The range is 
 composed of rocks of primitive formation, granite, quartz, 
 compact dark-blue slate, gneiss, and sienite. Several kinds 
 of valuable stones are found here, including garnets, rock- 
 crystal, and an inferior sort of emerald. The southern ex 
 tremity of the chain is united to the Vindhya by a hilly and 
 broken country. 
 
 ARAWAN (EL), a tn. Sahara, territory of Zawat, 125 
 m. N. Timbuctoo ; lat. 18 55 N. ; Ion. 3 W. Fifty m. 
 S. from this town is the spot on which Major Laing was mur 
 dered, in 1826, on his return from Timbuctoo. 
 
 ARAXAS, a tn. Brazil, formerly in prov. Goyaz, but by 
 decree of April 4, 1816, transferred to prov. Minas Geraes. 
 It lies W. of the Malta Corda Mountains, 220 m. S.E. Go 
 yaz, and about 240 m. N.W. Villa Eica; lat. 19 S. ; Ion. 
 48 30 W. It has a church, townhouse, and prison. The 
 district attached to it has mineral springs in three different 
 localities ; and abounds in fine pastures, on which numerous 
 cattle are reared, and land fitted for growing cotton, which is 
 cultivated to some extent. The inhabitants manufacture 
 cotton cloth, and dispose of it in the trading towns of Minas 
 Geraes. Pop. of tn. and dist., the latter extensive, 5000. 
 (Die. Geo. Imp. Bradl.} 
 
 ARAXES. See ARAS. 
 
 ARBE, an isl. in the Adriatic, Gulf of Qnarnero, belonging 
 to Austria, 11 m. in length ; and, at the broadest part, about 
 the centre, 4 m. across. Some parts of it are mountainous 
 and uninhabited ; but it contains several extensive and fer 
 tile valleys, which produce corn, olives, wine, and figs, and 
 afford good pasturage for sheep and cattle. Its chief exports 
 are sheep, hogs, horses, hides, wool, fish, and wine. The 
 principal town is on the S.W. side of the island ; it is built 
 on a hill, and contains a cathedral and collegiate church. 
 Pop. between 4000 and 5000. 
 
 ARBEL, ARBIL, or ERBIT, [anc. Arlcla], a tn. Asiatic 
 Turkey, in a fertile plain, r. bank, Little Zab, 56 m. S.E. 
 Mosul. It derives its chief interest from the celebrated battle 
 of Arbela, in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius, and 
 decided the fate of Persia, B.C. 331. It subsequently formed 
 part of the dominions of a family of Persian or Arabic princes, 
 and is now the capital of a sanjak in the Turkish pashalic of 
 Bagdad. It was at one time a large and important city, 
 defended by a strong fortress built upon a conical hill, and 
 capable of containing a large garrison. The town stands on 
 a large mound 60 or 70 ft. high, 900 ft. long, and 600 wide. 
 It is enclosed by a brick wall with bastions, and contains 
 three large mosques, and two baths. At the foot of the 
 mound is another town, surrounded by a mud wall, and nearly 
 ruined and deserted. Pop. 6000. (Royal Geo. Jour., vol. 
 viii.) 
 
 ARBIL. See ARBEL. 
 
 ARBIRLOT, a par. Scotland, co. Forfar ; 5050 ac. ; con 
 tains a mineral spring, once held in repute. Pop. in 1841, 978. 
 
 ARBOE, a par. Ireland, cos. Londonderry and Tyrone ; 
 33,504 ac. ; contains an ancient abbey and ornamented stone 
 cross. Pop. 8005. 
 
 ARBOGA, a small tn. Sweden, Ian of, and 30 m. S.W. 
 Westerns ; beautifully situated on the navigable river Arboga, 
 by which it is intersected, and near the Arboga Canal, which 
 unites the river with Lake Hielmar. It has two churches 
 and a small library; mineral springs, iron manufactures, boat 
 building, and some coasting trade. It is one of the oldest 
 towns in Sweden ; in its vicinity many antiquities are found ; 
 and within its walls the Diet frequently sat. Pop. 2013. 
 (Possart, Handbucli fur Scliweden; Skbldberg, Bcsltrifning 
 ifoer SlandinavisTca Halfim.) 
 
 ARBOIS [anc. Arbosivm], a tn. France, dep. Jura 
 (Franche-Comtel, 45 m. S.E. Dijon. The hills around form 
 the sides of a cup, in the centre of which the town is situated. 
 The lower slopes of the hills are covered with gardens, the 
 higher with vineyards, from which wines of great celebrity 
 
 are obtained. These wines are generally white, and are made 
 from white grapes. They are all good, and are sent far and 
 wide ; but there is one surpassing all the rest, called vin de 
 (jelee [frost wine], because always made late in autumn, often 
 after the first frosts of winter. The manufactures are chiefly 
 leather and paper. There are here several sawmills driven 
 by water, and part of the ground is laid out in nurseries. In 
 the neighbourhood is a good vein of nitre. Pop. 6730. 
 
 ARBOLEAS, or ARBOLEDAS, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, 
 prov. of, and 41 m. N.N.E. from Almeria, near the r. bank of 
 the Almanzora, on a declivity, 20 m. from the sea. Its streets 
 are rough and steep. It has a square, a church, town and 
 court-houses, prison, two schools, and a public storehouse. 
 Manufactures : saltpetre, fine soap, gypsum, linen, counter 
 panes, and horse-cloths. It exports fruits, horses, and eggs, 
 and imports oil. Pop 2378. 
 
 ARBOLETES, a small seaport tn. New Granada, on the 
 Gulf of Darien ; lat. 8 55 N. ; Ion. 76 25 W. It is de 
 scribed by Alcedo as a recess at once beautiful, capacious, 
 and quiet ; covered with trees, sheltered from every wind, and 
 irrigated with a small river of delicious water. 
 
 ARBON [anc. Arbor Felix], a small tn. Switzerland, can. 
 Thurgau, cap. circle of same name, S.W. shore, Lake Con 
 stance, 7 m. N.N.E. St. Gall ; chiefly remarkable as the site 
 of a Itoman fortress, and of the ancient castle of the bishops 
 of Constance. It has printworks, dyeworks, cotton and silk 
 manufactures, and a small port upon the lake. Flax, vines, 
 and fruit trees are cultivated in its neighbourhood, which is 
 picturesque. Pop. of tn. and par., composed almost equally 
 of Protestants and Catholics, 1130. 
 
 ARBORFIELD, a par. England, co. Berks, S.W. 
 Wokingham. Pop. in 1841, 300. 
 
 ARBROATH, formerly ABERBROTIIOCK, a seaport and 
 manufacturing tn. Scotland, co. Forfar or Angus, at the 
 rnouth of a small stream called the Brothock, whence the 
 name of the town; the prefix, Aber (Gaelic), designating the 
 mouth of a river, or its point of junction with the sea ; lat. 
 56 33 42" N.; Ion. 2 35 W. (R.) It is 16 m. N.E. Dundee; 
 on the Dundee and Arbroath line of railway, now connected 
 with the railways to the N. and S. of Scotland. It consists 
 of one spacious street, about half a mile in length, running 
 N. to S., and a number of smaller, intersecting each other; 
 all well lighted with gas. Many of the shops are handsomely 
 fitted up, and well stocked. The houses are generally well 
 built, and the whole town has a cleanly and prosperous ap 
 pearance, but is indifferently supplied with water. It contains 
 several respectable modern public buildings, including a neat 
 and tasteful tower, called the Signal Tower, for communicat 
 ing with the celebrated Bell Eock lighthouse (see BELL EOCK), 
 about 1 2 m. distant. The places of worship are the parish 
 church, with an elegant spire ; three Free churches, three 
 United Presbyterian churches, an original Secession, Epi 
 scopalian (Scottish), a E. catholic, Wesleyan Methodist, Con 
 gregational, and Glassite. There are public reading-rooms 
 in the town, with a well-supported public library, and several 
 excellent scientific, educational, and charitable institutions. 
 The principal manufactures are yarn, spun from flax and hemp ; 
 canvas, brown and bleached linen, leather, cast iron, and bone- 
 dust. There are 18 spinning-mills, most of them very exten 
 sive, and four power-loom factories. The leather manufacture 
 is very important ; and shipbuilding is likewise carried on to 
 a considerable extent. Arbroath is a free port, and owns 
 about 13,000 tons of shipping ; being an increase of 5000 tons 
 since 1841. 
 
 A new harbour has been erected and completed within the 
 last eight years. It consists of a basin 124 yards long, by 80 
 broad. At the entrance, which is at the S.W. corner, there are 
 15 ft. water at spring tides, and 9 or 10 at neap tides. Though 
 small, it is secure, but of rather difficult access. A small light, 
 of red colour, is shown on the N. pier head, on the starboard 
 side on entering the harbour. It is lighted by the pilots only 
 when vessels are in the bay, in order to show the proper time 
 of the tide for them to enter, and commonly visible 2 or 3 in. 
 off, when the weather is clear. The roadstead lies nearly a 
 mile off the town, and has from 9 to 10 fathoms water. The 
 total revenue of the harbour in 1849, was 3350. The ex 
 ports are trifling compared to the imports ; the latter of which 
 consists chiefly of flax, from the Baltic and other places ; pot 
 ashes, vitriol, and manganese, for the bleaching-works ; and 
 
ARBUS 
 
 192 
 
 ARCHANGEL 
 
 coals from Newcastle and Frith of Forth. The number and 
 tonnage of vessels that entered the port in the year ending 
 December 1847, was 726, tonn. 42,574; cleared 241, tonn. 
 15,920. The town owes its rise, if not its origin, to an 
 important monastic institution planted there in 1178 by 
 William the Lion, who was subsequently interred within its 
 precincts. It is now in ruins, having been destroyed at the 
 Reformation ; but some imposing and interesting fragments 
 still remain to attest its former grandeur. Arbroath unites 
 with Brechin, Bervie, Forfar, and Montrose, in sending a 
 member to the House of Commons. Here, as at many other 
 places on the E. coast of Scotland, the sea has largely en 
 croached on the land ; many gardens and houses having been 
 carried away by it since the commencement of the present 
 :entury. Pop. in 1841, of par. 8707; of tn. 7218. (Corre 
 spondent in Arbroatli.) 
 
 ARBUS, a tn., isl. Sardinia, 34 m. N.W. Cagliari. In 
 the vicinity are lead and silver mines, in which most of the 
 inhabitants are employed. Pop. 2000. 
 
 ARBUTHNOT, a par. Scotland, co. Kincardine ; 9423 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 1015. 
 
 ARC [anc. Coenus]. 1 , A river, France, which rises in lat. 
 43 29 N. ; Ion. 5 40 E., on the confines of deps. Var and 
 Bouches-du-Klione. After a W. course of 35 m., passing not 
 far from Aix, it falls into the Lake of Berre, near the town of 
 this name. The ruins of a Roman aqueduct, from the Arc to 
 the town of Astramela, still exist at a place called Cap d CEil. 
 
 2, A river, Sardinian States, Savoy, rising at the foot of 
 
 Mount Iseran, in lat. 45 23 N. ; Ion. 7 6 E. ; thence flowing 
 S.W. to St. Michel ; thence N.N. W. to Aiguebelle, 4 m. below 
 which, after a course of about 70 m., it joins the Isere. 
 
 ARCACHON, a bay, France, S. W. of dep. Gironde, with 
 a coast line of about 30 m. in extent. At Cape Feret, near 
 the N. entrance of the bay, is a lighthouse 150 ft above the 
 sea level, and visible 14 m. off. The fishing in the bay is 
 good, and furnishes employment to the inhabitants of the 
 numerous villages which lie along its shore. The largest of 
 these is Fete-de-Buch, to which great additional importance 
 has recently been given by the construction of a railway 
 between it and Bordeaux. The harbour of Arcachon is 
 much frequented, particularly by foreign vessels, which there 
 take in cargoes of resin and pitch, which the neighbouring 
 districts furnish in large abundance. 
 
 ARCADIA, a nomos or prov. Greece, of irregular form, 
 in the middle of the Morea ; bounded, N. by the nomos of 
 Attica and part of Argolis, E. by Argolis and the Gulf of 
 Nauplia, S. by Laconia, and W. by Messinia and Attica; lat. 
 37 14 N.; Ion. 21 42 E. (R.) It is divided into the epar 
 chies or dioceses, named, respectively, Gortynia, Mantinea, and 
 Kynuria ; and is mountainous, intersected by narrow valleys, 
 which are frequently flooded so as to form small lakes and 
 unwholesome marshes. Much of the province is a table-land, 
 which, in March, is frequently covered with snow. Arcadia is 
 well watered, and produces in abundance, oak, pine, and chest 
 nut trees, and yields excellent pasture for the numerous flocks, 
 the tending of which forms the chief occupation of the inhabit 
 ants now as in ancient times. Its capital is Tripolitza. 
 
 ARCADIA is also the name of a division of Ancient Greece, of 
 somewhat more circumscribed limits than the modern nomos. 
 
 ARCADIA (GULF OF), Greece, Morea, W. coast. It is 
 shallow and open, has Cape Katacolo on the N., and Cape 
 Konello on the S., distant from each other 35 m. 
 
 ARCANGELO (SAN). 1, A tn. Naples, prov. Basilicata, 
 10m. W. Tursi, having two churches, a monastery, and 3800 
 inhabitants. 2, A vil. Papal States, delegation Forli, 7 m. 
 W. by N. Kimini, the birthplace of Clement XIV. 
 
 ARCAS. 1, A group of small islets or rocks in the Gulf 
 of Mexico ; lat. 20 12 30" N. ; Ion. 91 59 15" W. (K.) ; about 
 100 m. W. the peninsula of Yucatan. 2, A small isl. at the 
 mouth of the Rio Grande, Senegambia, W. Africa ; lat. 1 1 40 
 N. ; Ion. 15 38 W. ; and nearly in the centre of the river, 
 about 5 or 6 m. distant from either shore. 
 
 ARCE, a small tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Lavoro, dist. 
 of, and llm. S.S.W. from Sora, cap. can., on a high bill. It 
 has a collegiate and two other churches. Pop. 4340. 
 
 ARCHAIS GEL, or AKKHANGHELSK. a gov. Russia in 
 Europe, extending from the Ural Mountains on the E. to Fin 
 land on the W., comprising Russian Lapland, a distance of 
 about 920 m., and from Vologda and Olonetz on the S to the 
 
 Arctic Ocean, about 400 m. It is thus, including the White 
 Sea, which occupies a large space nearly in its centre, about 
 400 in. longer than Great Britain, and more than twice its 
 width, except where the latter is broadest. It comprises, 
 besides, the large island of Nova Zcmbla, G50 m. long, by 
 150 in. wide, and several others in the Arctic Sea. Its most 
 E. limit is about Ion. 66 E., and its most W. 29 54 E.; its 
 most S. point is in lat. 61 10 N., and its most N. the extreme 
 point of Nova Zembla, in lat. 76 N. The entire province is 
 early one continuous flat, and nearly, also, an unvaried scene 
 of desolation and sterility, especially in the N. parts, where 
 the ground remains frozen for nine months in the year. Nor 
 are the S. portions much more inviting. Here meagre pas 
 tures, marshes, swamps, and extensive forests, occupy nearly 
 all the surface, leaving but little for cultivation. Almost 
 the only crops raised are hemp, flax, and some rye, neither 
 the climate nor soil admitting of the cultivation of oats or 
 wheat. The climate is excessively cold in winter, and oppres 
 sively hot in summer, with sudden transitions from the two 
 extremes. The small quantity of grain produced being in 
 adequate to the support of the inhabitants, they are compelled 
 to mix their meal with moss, scrapings of the bark of the 
 pine, and grated roots, and of this compound to make their 
 bread. In the N. parts they cannot command even this mis 
 erable substitute for the staff of life, but must be content with 
 dried fish. On some parts of the banks of the Dwina, where 
 the pasture is a little more luxuriant than in most other 
 places, some cattle are reared, and their calves sent to St. 
 Petersburg, where this particular kind of veal is much 
 esteemed. The whole live stock of the country has been 
 estimated at 35,000 horse, 90,000 horned cattle, 100,000 
 sheep, and 450,000 rein-deer the domestic animal of these 
 regions. The timber of the forests is valuable, and forms the 
 principal wealth of the government. Game abounds, and the 
 lakes and rivers arc well stocked with fish. Gold is found in 
 this country, particularly in the district of Kola ; and in those 
 of Kemi and Pinega, naphtha and saline springs occur, the 
 latter producing annually about 2714 tons of salt. Amber 
 and the pearl oyster are met with on the shores. The indus 
 trial occupations of the thin and widely-scattered population, 
 comprise the weaving of coarse linen, manufacturing cordage, 
 fishing, hunting, shipbuilding, preparing tar, charcoal, and 
 potash, making mats, tanning leather, cutting wood, and float 
 ing it down to Archangel. The government is partitioned into 
 eight districts : Archangel, Kemi, Kholmogory, Kola, Mezin, 
 Onega, Pinega, and Scheakoursk. The means of land com 
 munication in all parts of the territory are very imperfect ; 
 but a great government road was, in 1839-40, constructed 
 along the borders of the White Sea, through Kemi to Tornea, 
 which has since been prolonged to the frontiers of Norway. 
 Pop. in 1846, 253,000, all Russians, with exception of about 
 7000 Samoiedes, 6000 Syriaenese, and about 1 700 or 2000 
 Laplanders. 
 
 ARCHANGEL, a seaport tn. Russia in Europe, cap. of 
 the above government, r. bank, Dwina, 20 m. from its em 
 bouchure in the Bay of Archangel, and 670 m. N.E. St. Peters 
 burg ; lat. (Trinity church) 64 32 1" N. ; Ion. 40 33 5" E. 
 (K.) It stands on a low flat, and extends about 2 m. along the 
 river. It is ill built, and consists of two principal and very 
 irregular streets, connected by narrow lanes and paved with 
 wood. The houses are mostly of wood, and two stories in 
 height ; those of the wealthier classes being handsomely and 
 comfortably furnished. The most remarkable buildings in 
 the town are the great bazaar or mart, surrounded by high 
 walls, and the marine hospital. The former is very extensive 
 and wholly of stone. There arc 11 churches in the town, 10 
 Greek and one Protestant, an ecclesiastical seminary with nine 
 professors, a gymnasium, and schools for navigation and en 
 gineering. In and near the town there are a sugar refinery, 
 the produce of which is sent mostly to the interior, a royal 
 dockyard, some shipyards for building merchant-ships and 
 coasting vessels, rope-walks, &c. There are, generally, two 
 or three men-of-war ships on the stocks here, and a body of 
 5000 or 6000 seamen of the imperial navy stationed in the 
 town and neighbourhood. The harbour is at the island of 
 Sollenbole about 1 m. from the town. The river below the 
 town branches out in several streams, forming islands be 
 tween. At its mouth there is a bar, with from 12 to 14 ft. 
 water on it, so that vessels drawing more than that depth, 
 
ARCHANGEL (BAY OF) 
 
 193 
 
 ARCHIPELAGO 
 
 must be partially loaded outside from lighters. The Dwina 
 is here about 5 m. broad, and is navigable by small craft for 
 about 300 m. above Archangel. The produce shipped at the 
 port is brought down the river and its branches, chiefly from 
 the government of Vologda, being floated sometimes for great 
 distances on rafts, or in boats which are afterwards broken 
 up. The trade of Archangel extends as far as Siberia, and 
 along the coasts of the White Sea, E. and W., but is greatly 
 dependent on the demand from the more southerly parts of 
 
 Europe, and especially from England, for corn ; accordingly, 
 in the dear years of 1840-7, the quantities shipped were very 
 great, amounting, in the latter, to 33,300 qrs. wheat, 155,258 
 qrs. rye, 10,430 qrs. barley, and 198,170 qrs. oats. The other 
 exports consist principally of linseed, flax, tow, tallow, train- 
 oil, mats, deals, battens and ends, pitch and tar. The imports 
 chiefly of articles for domestic use, such as coffee, spices, salt, 
 woollens, hardware, &c. A considerable quantity of sugar 
 also is imported, but mostly for the refinery. There being no 
 factories, materials used in manufactures are not required, 
 nor is there a population to consume foreign articles, which 
 are looked upon as luxuries. The number of vessels cleared 
 in 1846, was 634, of which 308 were British ; the value of 
 their cargoes amounted to 1,063,700. The coasting traders 
 bring fish, furs, some salt and other commodities from Norway, 
 which are afterwards sent to various inland towns. The 
 trade of Archangel must always labour under a serious re- 
 strictiou from its high N. latitude, and the consequent severity 
 of its climate, the navigation being interrupted by the freez 
 ing of the Dwina for about six months in the year. This is 
 one of the oldest ports in Russia, having been founded in 
 1584, and was long the only one. It is the seat of an arch 
 bishop, and the residence both of a civil and military gover 
 nor. Pop. (1849), 13,129. 
 
 ARCHANGEL (BAY OF), Russia, opens to the White 
 Sea, having Cape Keretzkoi on the N.E., and Cape Onega on 
 the S.W., distant from each other 85 m., which is the width 
 of the bay at its entrance ; it penetrates inland about 05 ni. 
 The centre is in lat. 65 N. ; Ion. 39 10 E. 
 
 ARCHANGEL (NEW). See SITKA. 
 
 ARCHENA, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 13 m. N.W. from 
 Murcia, on a plain, 1. bank, Segura. It is tolerably well built; 
 has a square, a church, townhall, prison, cemetery, and a 
 curious old palace of the Corbera family. The place, however, 
 is chiefly celebrated for its mineral baths, whose waters are 
 impregnated with hydrochlorate of soda, magnesia, and some 
 other substances, and charged with sulphuretted hydrogen 
 gas. Pop. about 2000. 
 
 ARCHI, a tn. Naples, prov. Abruzz.o Citra, dist. of, and 
 17 m. W. from Vasto. Pop. 2400. 
 
 ARCHIDONA, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 34 m. N. from Malaga, built on the S. slope of a lofty and 
 rugged mountain, 10 m. W.N.W T . Loga. The principal streets, 
 running E. and W., are level and commodious, but the lanes, 
 which cut them at right angles, are narrow and steep, and 
 
 VOD. [. 
 
 during wet weather the water from the hills above rushes 
 through them like a torrent, cutting up the paving, and leaving 
 large furrows. The houses are good ; and there are several 
 churches, a medical college, church seminary, two primary 
 schools, a large hospital, prison, and the remains of an ancient 
 fort. In the neighbourhood are rich orchards, giving occu 
 pation to many of the inhabitants ; who are also employed in 
 weaving, expressing oil, and curing bacon, which they export 
 in large quantities. Pop. 7010. (Madoz.) 
 
 ARC1I1DONA, a small tn. Ecuador, 124 m. S.E. Quito; 
 lat. 25 S.; Ion. 77 10 W.; on an affluent of the Napo. 
 The houses are constructed of wood, and thatched. It was 
 nearly destroyed in 1744 by an eruption of the volcano of 
 Cotopaxi, which is distant W. about 100 m. 
 
 ARCHIPELAGO, a name which, although neither its 
 origin nor precise signification have been ascertained, is now 
 generally understood to mean a sea interspersed with numerous 
 islands or islets ; but formerly applied, more especially, to the 
 islands scattered over the tract of sea (Grecian Archipelago) 
 lying between Greece and Asia Minor, called by the Greeks 
 and Romans the^Egean Sea (which see}. The other principal 
 groups of islands to which the term is now applied, are, 1, The 
 Aleutian Archipelago (see ALEUTIAN ISLANDS) ; 2, The Chagos 
 Archipelago (see CHAGOS ISLANDS) ; 3, Low or Dangerous 
 Archipelago, a cluster of islets, chiefly coral, in the S. Pacific 
 Ocean, E. of the Society Islands, between lat. 14 and 20 S., 
 and Ion. 1 30 and 145 W. ; 4, Corcan Archipelago (see COREAN 
 ISLANDS) ; 5, Great Cyclades Archipelago (see NEW HEBRIDES) ; 
 6, Laccadive Archipelago (see LACCADIVE ISLANDS) ; 7, Louis- 
 iade Archipelago (see LOUISIADE ISLANDS) ; 8, Caribbean 
 Archipelago (see WEST INDIES) ; 9, Maldivc Archipelago (see 
 MALDIVE ISLANDS) ; 10, Queen Adelaide s Archipelago (see 
 ADELAIDE [QUEEN] ISLANDS); 11, Archipelago de la Re 
 cherche, a scattered and intricate labyrinth of reefs and islands 
 on the S. coast of W. Australia, between Doubtful Island Bay 
 and Cape Pasley, and between lat. 33 45 and 34 S. ; they 
 are all barren, and the largest only about 4 m. in length; 
 12, Solomon Archipelago (see SOLOMON ISLANDS); 13, Sooloo 
 Archipelago (see SOOLOO ISLANDS) ; 14, Eastern, Indian, Malay, 
 or Asiatic Archipelago (see article below, namely, AUCHIFELAGO 
 EASTERN). 
 
 ARCHIPELAGO (EASTERN, INDIAN, MALAY, or ASIA 
 TIC), the various names given to the extensive system of islands 
 in the Pacific Ocean, lying between lat. 11 S. and 19 N., and 
 Ion. 95 and 135 E.; or between Australia S. and the coast 
 of China N., New Guinea E. and Sumatra, including that 
 island, W. It also includes a portion of the Malay Peninsula 
 (which see}. The whole archipelago being situated within the 
 tropics, the equinoctial line running nearly through its centre, 
 there is necessarily a general uniformity in climate, in animal 
 and vegetable productions, and in the character of the different 
 races of inhabitants. The islands vary much in external 
 aspect ; some being low, and sloping gradually to the water, 
 while others are mountainous, and rise abruptly from un 
 fathomable depths. Many of the smaller coral islands, it has 
 j been conjectured, have been reared on the summits of sub 
 merged volcanoes. The grandeur and beauty of the scenery 
 of this great group of islands, says Captain Blackwood, can 
 hardly be surpassed ; while the richness of its productions in 
 the animal and mineral kingdoms is great, and, in the veget 
 able kingdom unequalled in beauty, rarity, and value to man. 
 To this description it may be added, that the seas in this fa 
 voured region are singularly transparent, and generally smooth 
 and placid. A prevailing feature of the entire system is the 
 indication of volcanic origin; in some instances apparently 
 recent, while in others lofty peaks are in active combustion. 
 The intensity of the volcanic force in. this region is also re 
 markable. The noise of the explosions of a volcano in the 
 island of Sumbawa, in 1815, was heard at the distance of 
 970 m. ; while the ashes it emitted were carried to a distance 
 of 1 100 m., for 300 of which the darkness during the day was 
 as deep as midnight. The minerals include gold, silver, tin, 
 iron, copper, sulphur, and diamonds, the last, however, being 
 confined to Borneo. Most of the islands are eminently beauti 
 ful, their soils fertile, and their vegetation of the most luxu 
 riant kind, displaying all the bright colouring of the tropics, 
 particularly yellow and red ; while many of them are covered 
 with deep forests of stupendous trees. The most rare and 
 valued spices, and the most exquisite fruits, are amongst the 
 
 25 
 
ARCIIUDI 
 
 194 
 
 ARCOT 
 
 productions of this favoured region. Tlie latter include ba 
 nanas, oranges, lemons, shaddocks, pomegranates, pine apples, 
 guava, tamarind, mango, &c., besides two or three species 
 of delicious fruits peculiar to the archipelago; the former, 
 the clove, nutmeg, black pepper, ginger, cassia, &c. The 
 cereals chiefly cultivated are rice and maize ; the latter, how 
 ever, bearing but a small proportion comparatively to the first, 
 which forms the staple article of food. A great variety of 
 plants with nutritive roots arc also cultivated, including the 
 sweet potato and yam. The latter has been grown in the 
 islands from time immemorial, but is not held in much esteem 
 by the natives, who greatly prefer the sweet potato. The 
 cocoa-nut tree abounds, and is carefully tended by the natives ; 
 chiefly for the sake of the oil which they extract from it, and 
 which they use largely in their cookery. The pistachio and 
 several other oil-yielding plants are also extensively cultivated. 
 The sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, capsicums, onions, and cucum 
 bers are likewise common articles of culture. The sago-palm 
 abounds. The gums, of natural production, most abundant, 
 are benzoin, catechu, camphor, and olibanum. The principal 
 branches of manufacture practised by the islanders are weav 
 ing cotton and silk fabrics, which is entirely conducted by 
 females ; cloth-dyeing and painting ; working gold, silver, iron, 
 and other metals; joinery, boatbuilding, and making salt, salt 
 petre, and gunpowder. 
 
 The inhabitants consist of two distinct aboriginal races, 
 Malay and Papuan ; the one brown-cornplexioned, with lank 
 hair ; the other black or sooty coloured, with woolly hair. 
 Further particulars respecting these races and their offshoots, 
 will be found in the articles BORNEO, JAVA, and PAPUA. 
 The principal islands in the archipelago are Sumatra, Borneo, 
 Java, Celebes, the Moluccas, Luzon, Mindanao, the Sooloos, 
 Timor, Flores, New Guinea, Palawan, Banca, Lombok, &c. 
 (all of which see under their respective names.} 
 
 AKCHUDI, or ARKUDI, one of the smallest of the Ionian 
 Islands, 4 m. N.N.E. the most N. point of Ithaca; lat. 38 37 
 N. ; Ion. 20 42 E. ; 2 m. in length, from N. to S. 
 
 ARCIDOSSO, a tn. and com. Italy, in Tuscany, prov. 
 Grosseta, 8 in. W. by N. Kadicofani. It has a square, three 
 churches, and a palace of the Counts of Aldobrandeschi. The 
 commune is well watered ; yields grain, grapes, and olives, 
 and good pasture. Pop. 4999. (Dizio. Univ. Italia.) 
 
 ARC1S-SUR-AUBE [anc. Artiaca], a tn. France, dep. Aube 
 (Champagne), 1. bank, Aube, 17 in. N. Troyes. It was 
 originally built of wood, but two conflagrations, in 1720 and 
 1727, having laid the greater part of it in ashes, it was rebuilt 
 in a more substantial form, and is now a tolerably handsome 
 town, with wide streets, well laid out. From its central posi 
 tion it seems well fitted for trade ; and is the natural entrepot, 
 on the one hand, for the grain of the surrounding districts, 
 the timber of Upper Aube and the forest of Orient, the minerals 
 of the Vosges, and the exports from Switzerland, for all of 
 which it has a navigable outlet by the Aube and the Seine as 
 far as Paris; while, on the other hand, the same channel 
 enables it to bring back all the commodities which these ex 
 porting districts import in return. The manufactures of Arc-is 
 are not of much importance. The chief of them are cotton 
 thread, which employs seven mills, and hosiery, which em 
 ploys 2000 stocking-looms. During the campaign of 1814, 
 Arcis was the theatre of a fierce struggle between Napoleon 
 and the allies, when a third of it was laid in ruins. G. Danton, 
 the triumvir of the first revolution, was born at Arcis. Pop. 
 2665. 
 
 ARCO, or ARCH, a small tn. Austria, in Tyrol, in a beauti 
 ful valley, on the Satca, 7 m. N.W. Koveredo, and 3 m. N. 
 Lake Guarda. It has a richly ornamented parish church; and 
 on a height immediately behind stands the old palace of the 
 Earls of Arco, built in 1 175. The district around is healthy, 
 and one of the finest in the Tyrol. The inhabitants, about 
 2000, are chiefly engaged in spinning silk, extracting olive 
 oil, and quarrying marble in the vicinity. 
 
 ARCOLE, a vil. Austrian Lombardy, 15 m. S.E. Verona, 
 1. bank, Alpone ; celebrated for the battles of Nov. 15, 1C, and 
 17, 1790, fought between the French, under Bonaparte, and 
 the Austrians, in which the latter were defeated with great 
 slaughter. Pop. 900. 
 
 AKCONA. See ARKONA. 
 
 ARCOS DE LA FRONTERA [anc. Arci-colonia], a city, Spain, 
 in Andalusia, prov. of, and 30 m. E. by N. from Cadiz, r. bank, 
 
 Guadalete, which is here crossed by a stone bridge. Tho 
 sandstone rock on which the town, in form of a bow, is placed, 
 rises 570 ft. above the level of the river, by which it is washed 
 on three sides. The houses are mean-looking ; the streets 
 paved, but generally steep and narrow ; and the ancient walls 
 and defences are in a ruinous state. On the highest part of 
 the rock stands the castle of the Dukes of Arcos, almost for 
 saken, and partly in ruins. The fine Gothic facade of one of 
 the two parish churches occupies one side of Constitution 
 Place or Square ; on other two sides are the theatre and the 
 chapter-houses medieval buildings ; and the fourth side, which 
 is only enclosed by an iron railing, overlooks the perpendicular 
 S. side of the rock, and affords a fine view of the richly culti 
 vated valley of the Guadalete, and of the hill country of Me- 
 dina-Sidonia. There are, besides, in Arcos, a townhall, prison, 
 abattoir, granary, two general hospitals, a poorhouse and 
 foundling hospital, a patriotic society (de amirjos del pais), 
 several primary schools, and, outside the town, two badly-kept 
 cemeteries. The principal manufacture carried on is that of 
 leather, esteemed the best made in Andalusia ; but there arc 
 also manufactures of thread, sombreros, and cordage of agave, 
 of esparto, and of hair. The vicinity is rich in wheat, barley, 
 grapes, olives, legumes, and fruits of all kinds ; a few sheep 
 are reared, and the bulls and horses are famed for their vigour 
 and their majestic appearance. Pop. 11,272. (Madoz ; Will- 
 komm s Spanien.) 
 
 ARCOS DE VAL DE VEZ, a tn. Portugal, prov. Minho, 
 dist. Ponte do Lima, in a hilly but fertile territory on the 
 Vez, 19 m. N. Braga. It has a monastery, two churches, and 
 
 a poorhouse. Pop. 1 640. Several other small places and 
 
 parishes in Portugal have the name Arcos. 
 
 ARCOT, a dist., S. Ilindoostan, in the Carnatie, presidency 
 Madras, consisting of two smaller divisions, called N. and S. 
 Arcot, respectively, comprehending an area of 12,700 sq. m. 
 The N. division is bounded, N. by Cuddapah and Nellore, E. 
 by Chingleput and the Bay of Bengal, S. by S. Arcot, and W. 
 by the Balaghaut of Cuddapah. The S. division is bounded, 
 N. by N. Arcot, E. by Chingleput and the Bay of Bengal, S. 
 by Tanjore and Trichinopoly, and W. by Salem and the Bal 
 aghaut Carnatie. The surface of the country in the N. parts 
 is mountainous, but in the S. and E., near the sea, it is more 
 level, and better adapted for cultivation. The lands throughout 
 both districts are for the most part held by small proprietary 
 cultivators, either in severally, or in joint village commu 
 nities. Irrigation is effected by means of artificial water 
 courses, wells, and tanks. The cotton manufactures of these 
 districts have been nearly annihilated by British competition, 
 but a little still continues to be done at Pullicat, a place once 
 so famous for its cotton stuffs, as to give name to a particular 
 and well-known description of muslin. The principal trading 
 ports are Cuddalore, Pondicherry, and Portonovo. Arcot 
 was ceded, in 1801, to the East India Company by Azim ul 
 Omrah, nabob of the Carnatie, and has since been greatly 
 improved in every respect. Pop. of both districts (1851) 
 1,485,873. 
 
 ARCOT, or AKUCATI, a city, S. Ilindoostan, Mahometan 
 cap. of the Carnatie, r. bank, Palaur, 70m. W. by S.Madras; 
 lat. (fort) 12 54 14" N. ; Ion. 79 22 23" E. (L.) It was first 
 established as capital of the Carnatie in 1716. In 1749, it 
 was taken by Chunda Saheb, who favoured the French in 
 terests, and, in 1751, a few companies of British and sepoys, 
 under Clive, took possession of the place, which had been 
 evacuated by the natives, and for 50 days successfully de 
 fended it against a much superior force. It afterwards changed 
 hands more than once, and ultimately, in 1801, along with the 
 whole district, was ceded to the East India Company. The 
 town, which is inhabited chiefly by Mahometans, is of modern 
 erection, enclosed by walls, and contains a few buildings 
 worthy of notice. The palace of the nabob is a heap of 
 ruins, with the exception of the principal gateway, which is 
 still entire. The Jumma Musjed is a handsome mosque, 
 with seven arches in front, and two rather elegant minarets. 
 There are several other religious edifices of tolerable archi 
 tecture, and numerous tombs, of which that of Saadtit Oolla 
 alone is remarkable. The fort of Arcot was an extensive 
 structure, but the greater part of it has been demolished, and 
 the space it occupied is covered with scattered ruins, and 
 patches of raghy and the castor-oil plant. On the side next 
 the river, whose channel, though half a mile wide, is, during 
 
ARCTIC HIGHLANDS 
 
 195 
 
 ARCY-SUR-CURE 
 
 the hot season nearly dry, the ramparts are kept in good | 
 repair, and form the only defence of the town against the j 
 periodical inundations. Pop., tu. and its dist. (1851), 53,474. I 
 
 ARCTIC HIGHLANDS, a country situated in the N.E. 
 part of Baffin s Bay, on the W. coast of Greenland, between 
 lat 76 and 77 40 N., and Ion. 62 20 and 74 20 W., 
 discovered by Captain Ross in 1818, who gave it the name 
 it now bears. The coast trends S.E. and N.W., extending 
 110 m. On the N. and E., hills are seen rising to the 
 height of upwards of 1000 ft., covered with ice, and separated 
 by ravines filled with snow. The coast also is ice-bound, and 
 it is only about the bases of the rocks, chiefly granite and 
 gneiss, close by the sea, that a stunted and scanty vegetation 
 is to be seen. In the interior nothing is found growing but 
 moss and lichens, a thin wiry sort of grass, and furze. The ani 
 mals are hares, foxes, white bears, and rein-deer. The shores 
 and neighbouring seas are frequented by seals, sea-horses, and 
 whales. The inhabitants are Esquimaux, and have a close 
 resemblance to the Greenlanders, but have rather larger faces. 
 They are clothed in the same way, with sealskins, have the 
 same manners and customs, and speak a dialect of the same 
 language. They are a gentle and inoffensive people, and so 
 simple and ignorant, that, when first visited by Captain Ross, 
 they believed themselves to be the only human beings in the 
 world, and that, beyond their own country, there was nothing 
 but ice. Their sledges are drawn by dogs, whose flesh serves 
 them for food in winter, when the ice prevents them obtaining 
 the marine animals, aquatic fowls, and other produce of the sea, 
 on which they subsist during the summer. They construct 
 sledges, but have no canoes, and their knives consist chiefly 
 of pieces of sharpened ironstone. 
 
 ARCTIC OCEAN, in its widest sense, is that portion of 
 the N. Sea which extends from the arctic circle (lat 66 30 
 N.) to the N. pole, but more restrictedly from about the 70th 
 degree of N. lat. Assuming the former limit, the Arctic Ocean 
 is found entering deeply, in the form of gulfs, bays, &c., into 
 the N. parts of the continents of Europe, Asia, and America. 
 The principal of these indentations are the White Sea, in 
 Europe ; Sea of Kara, Gulfs of Obe and Yenisei, in Siberia ; 
 and Baffin s Bay, in N. America. It is united to the Pacific 
 by Behring s Strait, and to the Atlantic by a wide sea, extend 
 ing from Greenland on the W. to Norway and Lapland on 
 the E. This portion of the Arctic Ocean contains one of the 
 largest archipelagos on the globe. The middle of it is occu 
 pied by Greenland, and on the E. is the extensive group of 
 islands known under the name of Spitzbergen, the small 
 island of Jan Mayen, and Iceland. West of Greenland, and 
 divided from it by Davis s Strait and Baffin s Bay, there are a 
 considerable number of islands of great size, with which we are 
 yet but imperfectly acquainted. The regions embraced by the 
 more restricted limits of the Arctic Ocean, namely, from lat. 
 70 N., are the most dreary and dismal on the face of the globe. 
 Their shores are covered with eternal snows, and the entire 
 surface of their seas with large fields and huge masses of 
 floating ice, in perpetual motion, and whose constant and tre 
 mendous collisions are attended with the most appalling 
 sounds. Dense fogs, violent storms, and endless nights, add 
 to the horrors of the scene. In the region of Spitzbergen, 
 the sun is not seen for several months in the year, and the 
 thermometer rarely rises above 45 Fall. ; while there is but 
 one month in the year July, in which snow does not fall. 
 The only, or at least the greatest degree of light, the inhabit 
 ants enjoy during their long winters, or from the latter end 
 of September to the beginning of May, is that which proceeds 
 from the snow-blink, the aurora, the moon, and the stars. 
 The Arctic Ocean freezes even in summer ; and during the 
 eight winter months a continuous body of ice extends in every 
 direction from the pole, filling the area of a circle of between 
 3000 and 4000 m. in diameter. Some of the masses of ice 
 that line the shores of this ocean, extend many miles in length, 
 and present sea-fronts of 200 ft. in height ; while fields of 
 ice, 20 or 30 m. in diameter, and from 10 to 40 ft. in thick 
 ness, are frequent, and sometimes extend over 100 m., so 
 closely packed together that no opening is left between them. 
 They are also often found to have a violent rotatory motion, 
 by which they are dashed against one another with tremendous 
 force. The icebergs, of which vast numbers are seen floating 
 about, vary from a few yards to miles in circumference, and 
 rise to many hundreds of feet in height. The ice in these 
 
 regie. is is very transparent and compact, and remarkable for 
 the variety and beauty of its tints, the most prevailing of 
 which are blue, green, and orange. The water of the Arctic 
 Ocean is extremely pure, shells being distinctly visible at a 
 depth of 80 fathoms; it also presents rapid transitions of 
 colour, chiefly from ultramarine to olive green, the latter 
 produced by the presence of myriads of marine animals. It 
 exhibits equally sudden changes from purity to opacity. 
 The pressure of its water, at a depth of l m., was found to 
 be 280 J Ibs. on a square inch of surface. 
 
 The history of adventure in the Arctic seas presents a 
 striking disproportion between effort and achievement. All 
 that human daring can do has been done to open up the mys 
 teries of these dreary regions, but hitherto without any good 
 practical result. The first attempt to explore the polar seas 
 was made in 1553, by Willoughby and Chancellor, who were 
 sent out with instructions to ascertain if there was a N.E. 
 passage, or if they could reach China by passing to the N. 
 of Europe and Asia. Willoughby reached Nova Zeinbla, 
 but he and all his crew were frozen to death. Chancellor en 
 tered the White Sea, and thus opened a communication with 
 Russia. Capt. Cook reached Icy Cape, from the Pacific, in 
 1778. In 1607, Capt. Hudson was sent out to attempt to 
 discover the N. W. passage, and reached the latitude of 81, but 
 \vas under the necessity of putting back on account of ice. 
 In 1773, this experiment was again tried by an expedition 
 under the command of Capt. Pliipps, who advanced about a.s 
 far as Capt. Hudson had previously done; and a similar 
 attempt was made in 1818, which proved equally unfortunate, 
 under Capt. Buchan. In 1827, Capt. Parry was sen-t out to 
 reach the Pole in boats and sledges over the ice, and he 
 attained about 82 40 , the highest latitude yet reached in 
 these seas, and was obliged to return by the motion of the 
 fields of ice to the south. In 1818, Capt. Ross attempted a 
 N.W. passage, and passed through Lancaster Sound, lu 
 1819. Capt. Parry reached Ion. 110 W. ; and in 1821-23, 
 examined the coast to the N. of Hudson s Bay; in 1824, he 
 reached Prince Regent s Inlet. In 1826, Capt. Franklin was 
 sent overland to explore the N. coast of America, to the W. 
 of Mackenzie River; and at the same time Capt. Beechy was 
 despatclied to meet him in Behring s Strait. The two expe 
 ditions approached each other to within a distance of 146 m., 
 but returned without meeting. In 1829-33, Capt. Ross 
 sailed up Prince Regent s Inlet. In 1845 Sir John Frank 
 lin sailed with the Erebus and Terror in search of the long- 
 desiderated N.W.passage. No tidings of this expedition having 
 reached this country in 1848, numerous searching expeditions 
 were sent out at intervals up till 1853, under Sir John Rich 
 ardson, Dr. Rae, Sir James Ross, Sir John Ross, Capts, 
 Kellet, Austin, Peiiny, Maelure, Collinson, Sir E. Belcher, Dr. 
 Kane, &e., the last of which returned in the close of 1 855, with 
 out having discovered any traces of the missing vessels. Dr. 
 Rae, however, in the spring of 1 854, ascertained that, in 1 850, a 
 party of white men proved, by relics obtained from the Esqui 
 maux, to have belonged to Sir J. Franklin s expedition, and 
 most probably including Sir John himself had died of starva 
 tion near Point Ogle, at the mouth of the Great Fish River. 
 Though these expeditions were thus fruitless in the main pur 
 pose for which they were sent out, they have added largely 
 to our knowledge of the inhospitable regions which they 
 visited ; and Capt. Maelure, who entered the Arctic Ocean 
 by Behring s Strait, returned to this country, in 1854, by 
 Lancaster Sound, having thus solved the geographical pro 
 blem of the existence of a, N.W. passage. Among the nu 
 merous islands of the Arctic Ocean, there are doubtless 
 several water-ways connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific 
 oceans, but navigation in all of them being impeded by ice, 
 none of them is ever likely to become of commercial im 
 portance. 
 
 ARCUETL [anc. A r-Jteilum, Arcolium], a vil. France, dep. 
 Seine, about 4 m. S. Paris, on the Bierre, from which a mag 
 nificent aqueduct, built by Mary de Medicis, in 1 624, conveys 
 water to supply the fountains of Paris. Arcueil is one of the 
 greatest holiday resorts of the Parisians. It has a cotton-mill, 
 a print-work for calicoes, and numerous bleachfields. P. 1910. 
 
 ARCY-suii-cURE, a vil. France, dep. Yonne (Burgundy), 
 17 m. S.S.E. Auxerre, and famous for its grottoes. These 
 are found in a limestone rock ; consist of a series of caverns 
 opening into each other, and sometimes even standing iu 
 
ARD (Locn) 
 
 19G 
 
 ARDECIIE 
 
 succession over each other, and abounding with columns and 
 other curious forms of stalactite. The numerous concre 
 tions in course of formation are constantly diminishing the 
 extent of the grottoes, and it has been calculated that two cen 
 turies will suffice to choke them up, and convert them into fine 
 quarries of alabaster. Pop. 1495. 
 
 ARD (Locn), a beautiful lake, Scotland, co. Perth. It 
 consists properly of two sheets of water, called, respectively, 
 Upper and Lower Loch Ard. The former is about 3 m. long, 
 and three quarters of a mile broad ; the latter somewhat less 
 than 1 m. in length, and about a quarter of a mile in width. 
 Its peculiar characteristics are peacefulncss and seclusion. 
 The E. extremity of the lake is about a quarter of a mile W. 
 Aberfoil. 
 
 ARDABIL. See. AUDEBEET,. 
 
 ARDAGII, an ancient and decayed vil. and par. Ireland, 
 co. Longford, 2 m. S.S.W. Edgeworthstown, and 6|m. S.E. 
 Longford. It was at one time a place of considerable import 
 ance, but is now a mere hamlet. There is here a church, a 
 plain commodious building, with a square tower ; and close 
 by are the ruins of the old cathedral, which seems to have 
 been a small structure, rudely built of fragments of rock. 
 The place derives its name from its elevated situation, and its 
 origin has been ascribed to the fifth century, when its church 
 was founded. Pop. of vil. 165; of entire par. 4524. Area 
 
 of par. 11,417 ac. AKDAGH is the name of another village, 
 
 of other four parishes, and of a barony, in Ireland : 1, A par. 
 barony of Imokilly, co. Cork ; area, 7880 ac. Pop. 2552. 2, A 
 par., co. Limerick, partly in the barony of Glenquin, and partly 
 in that of Shanid; area, 9030 ac. Pop. 2223. In this 
 par. is the vil. above alluded to; it consists of one long irre 
 gular street, in a ruinous condition. Three fairs, however, 
 are held in it annually, in May, August, and November, 
 chiefly for cattle, pigs, and pedlary. 3, A par., co. Mayo, 
 barony Tirawley ; area, 5494 ac. Pop. 2G21. 4, A par., co. 
 Meath, partly in the barony of Morgallion, and partly in that 
 of Slane Lower; area, 3669 ac. Pop. 2518. 5, A barony, 
 co. Longford; area, 40,223 ac. Pop. 19,917. 
 
 ARDALES, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 31 in. N.W. Malaga, on an elevated plain. It is tolerably 
 well built, but has uneven and badly-paved streets. It has a 
 church, two schools, a townhall, and a prison. Pop. 2900. 
 
 ARDAMINE a par. Ireland, co. Wexford; 4215 ac. ; 
 contains a large and ancient tumulus, called the Moat of 
 Ardeminc. Pop. 1705. 
 
 ARDATOW, two towns, Russia in Europe: 1, A tn., 
 cap. dist. of same name, on the Lemet, gov. of, and 80 m. 
 S.W. Nijnei-Novgorod. It has a church and courthouses. 
 The inhabitants, about 600, are mostly labourers, many being 
 employed in the neighbouring iron-works. 2, A tn., cap. 
 dist. of same name, on the Alatyr, gov. of, and 98 m. N.W. 
 Simbirsk. It has two churches. Pop. about 1400. 
 
 ARDBRACCAN, a vil. and par. Ireland, co. Meath, 
 2 J m. W. Navan, and formerly a bishop s see. It has a very 
 fine parish church and Episcopal palace, with two parochial 
 schools. Pop. in 1841, 4596, partly employed in agriculture, 
 partly in linen and cotton-weaving. 
 
 ABDCANDBIE8, or AUDCANDRISK, a par. Ireland, co. 
 Wexford; 1227 ac. Pop. 286. 
 
 ARDCANNY, a par. Ireland, co. Limerick; 3100 ac. 
 Pop. 1283. 
 
 ARDCARXE, a par. Ireland, co. Roscommon, shores of 
 Lough Key ; 19,963 ac. ; abounds in limestone and freestone. 
 Pop. 8304 
 
 ARDCATH, a par. Ireland, co. Meath ; 4380 ac. Pop. 
 1481. 
 
 ARDCAVAN, a par. Ireland, co. Wexford; 2458 ac. 
 Pop. 947. 
 
 ARDCIIATTAN, adist., co. Argylc, Scotland, consisting 
 of the united parishes of Ardchattan and Muckairn, together 
 30 m. in length, and from 15 to 20 m. in breadth. The sur 
 face is mountainous, and intersected with numerous streams 
 abounding in trout. A great part of it is covered with wood. 
 Game is plentiful, and red deer numerous. The cultivated 
 parts yield abundant crops of oats, barley, and potatoes. 
 Some remains still exist of the ancient priory of Ardchattan, 
 built in the 13th century, where it is said Robert Bruce held 
 a parliament, in which the discussions were conducted in the 
 Gaelic language. Pop. of par. (1841), 14G1. 
 
 ARDCLARE, a par. Ireland, co. Roscommon ; 8344 ac. 
 Pop. 2555. 
 
 AKDCLINIS, a par. Ireland, co. Antrim ; 15,092 ac. ; 
 contains much romantic scenery. Pop. 1742. 
 
 ARUCOLLUM, or AKDCOLME, a par. Ireland, co. Wex 
 ford ; 2232 ac. Pop. 804. 
 
 ARDCRONEY, a par. Ireland, co. Tippcrary ; 6429 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 1571. 
 
 ARDEBEEL, ARDABIT,, ARDEIIYT,, or ERDEBIL, a tn. 
 Persia, prov. Azerbijan, on the Karasu, 100 m. E. Tabreez, 
 and 40 m. W. the Caspian Sea; lat. 38 14 N.; Ion. 48 21 55" 
 E. (c.) It lies near the S. side of the great plain of Ardebecl, 
 which is about 40 m. long by 40 broad, and 5000 ft. above 
 the sea level ; in great part uncultivated, and sparingly in 
 habited. The town, built from the ruins of a former city, is 
 surrounded by a ruinous mud wall, flanked by towers in a liko 
 state of decay. The houses are mean and small, built of mud 
 or sun-dried bricks, with flat roofs. The fort is a regular 
 square, constructed according to the European system of forti 
 fication. The only objects of interest in the town are the 
 tombs of Sheikh Suffee, Sultan Kyder, and Shah Isinacl, 
 forming a collection of domes and oblong squares, once richly 
 adorned with lacquered tiles. There are no gardens round 
 Ardebcel, the strong N.E. winds from the Caspian being very 
 prejudicial to certain kinds of vegetation, especially fruit-trees. 
 The climate is cold, and not considered healthy ; yet in many 
 localities around, more especially on the banks of the Karasu, 
 abundant crops of rice, wheat, and barley are raised. Eraser 
 gives the pop. at 500 or 600 families ; Todd, who visited the 
 place in 1837, found it in a most ruinous condition, in conse 
 quence of a visitation of the plague, and much reduced in 
 population. (Eraser s Travels on the Shores of the Caspian; 
 D Arcy Todd, Itinerary from Talrecz to Teheran, in Jour. 
 Roy. Gen. Soc., vol. viii.) 
 
 ARUECIIE, a dep. France, deriving its name from a 
 river which rises within it, and, with exception of a single 
 canton, the very same as the old division of Vivarais in 
 Languedoc. Boundaries, N., departments Loire and Isere ; 
 W., Loire, Haute-Loirc, and Lozere; S., Gard; E., the Rhone, 
 separating it from Drome, Isere, and a small corner in the 
 N.W. of Vaucluse; between lat. 44 14 and 45 22 N.; and 
 Ion. 3 50 and 4 50 E. Greatest length, N. to S., 80 m.; 
 greatest breadth, E. to W., 45 m. Area, 538,988 hectares, 
 nearly equal to 2110 sq. m., or 1,350,000 ac., of which about 
 330,000 are arable, 110,000 meadow and pasture, 220,000 
 woodland, 70,000 vineyards, orchards, and garden ground, 
 and about 400,000 swamps and moorland wastes. The whole 
 department is of a mountainous character. Mount Mezenc, 
 in the W., the highest in the department, forms a central point 
 for several mountain-chains, particularly that of the Cevenncs, 
 which send ramifications into the N.W. and S., forming, in 
 the N. the mountains of Coutiercs, in the W. the mountains 
 of Coiron, and in the S. the mountains of Tanargue. In the 
 W. the mountains have usually a nucleus of granite, and are 
 overlaid by huge masses, evidently of volcanic origin. In 
 the E., and along the course of the Rhone, calcareous rocks 
 predominate. Throughout the department numerous volcanoes 
 must have been in active operation at no very remote geo 
 logical period. Several of the craters still exhale mephitic 
 vapours, and the warm springs issue from their sides. Many 
 of these mountains exhibit ranges of basaltic columns, of great 
 magnificence. The most important of the numerous streams 
 are the Ardeche, the Erieux, and the Doux. They have all 
 an E. course, and belong to the basin of the Rhone. The 
 Loire, however, rises in the department, and continues within 
 it for the first 15 m. of its course, but it is only as a moun 
 tain-torrent. Among the mountains various metals have 
 been found; silver (a mine of which gives its name to the 
 town of Argentiere, and was at one time worked), antimony, 
 several mines of lead, and, more valuable than all, iron, 
 which is now extensively wrought in the E. of the depart 
 ment, near La Voulte ; and, in connection with the limestone 
 and valuable coal-field of Ardeche, supplies blast furnaces 
 and forges, which rank as the most important works of the 
 kind in France. The prevalence of basalt makes it the chief 
 building stone of the district; but the calcareous rocks con 
 tain good marble, which is extensively quarried. At one 
 time the whole of the W. district was covered with vast 
 forests. Though now greatly reduced, they are still large, 
 
AKDECHE 
 
 197 
 
 ARDENNES 
 
 and furnish much timber, chiefly of pine and beech. But the 
 most common, and at the same time the most valuable tree, 
 is the Spanish chestnut, which covers extensive tracts, and 
 yields excellent chestnuts, known in commerce as the chest 
 nuts of Lyons. The annual produce is estimated at 400,000 
 bushels, of which one half are consumed within the depart 
 ment as food, and the other half cither employed there in 
 feeding vast numbers of swine, or exported. The hazel and 
 walnut also cover considerable tracts, and furnish a good 
 deal of oil. In the S. both the fig and the olive thrive ; and 
 the whole department abounds with mulberry trees, which 
 supply food for silkworms, the rearing of which is carried on 
 to a great extent, and ought, perhaps, to be regarded as the 
 staple of the district. The vineyards are numerous, and a 
 large quantity of wine is produced ; some of it, particularly 
 that of Limony, St. Joseph, Comas, and St. Peray, being in 
 great request, and well known over all Europe. Agriculture 
 has its chief seat in the S., in the extensive valley of Ardeche, 
 and in the N. in the valley of Erieux. There all the ordinary 
 grain and pulse crops are abundant. Along the valley of the 
 Rhone are rich pastures, covered with cattle and sheep. 
 Horses, mules, and asses are not numerous, and the breed 
 generally are of an inferior description. Much attention is 
 paid to the rearing of bees. In addition to the different kinds 
 of industry already mentioned, notice seems due to the tile- 
 works of Theil, the ferret-silk of Vans, the figured vests of 
 Montpezat, the worsted covers of Burzet, the blonde silk, 
 glove-leather, and far-famed paper of Annonay. The inhab 
 itants of Ardeche are frugal and industrious, sober, of strict 
 morals, and strongly attached to their homes and families. 
 One of the worst blots on the reign of Louis XIV., is the 
 relentless persecution to which the fine peasantry on the S. 
 frontier of this department, amongst whom Protestantism had 
 taken deep root, were subjected on the revocation of the Edict 
 of Nantes. Ardeche is divided into three arrondissements, 
 which are again subdivided into 31 cantons. Pop. 365,000. 
 (Diet, de la France.} 
 
 ARDECHE, a river, France, largest stream in the dep. 
 to which it gives its name. Its source is at a place called 
 Cap-d Ardeche, among the mountains of Cevennes. It first 
 flows E., then, turning abruptly S., pursues a winding course 
 to St. Alban, where it receives the Beaume from the N.W., 
 and shortly after from the W. the Chasseaux, the largest of all 
 its tributaries. Now become an important river, it proceeds 
 E.S.E., and, after a course of 45 m., falls into the Rhone 
 rather more than a mile from Pont St. Esprit. It is properly 
 navigable for only 5 m. from its mouth ; but for a much 
 greater length admits of the floating of timber and firewood, 
 which are sent down in large quantities from the forests of St. 
 Remeze. Nothing can exceed the magnificence of the scenery 
 on the Ardeche, in the earlier part of its course. In one part, 
 where a current of lava had flowed down from a neighbouring 
 crater into its bed, it has cut a passage for itself over one side, 
 laying bare majestic columns of basalt, which extend, with 
 few interruptions, for 1 J m. below. In another part it plunges 
 over a precipice, called Kay-Pic, which is almost perpendicular, 
 and is above 100 ft. high. Below this cataract is the bridge 
 of Arc, justly regarded as one of the most remarkable natural 
 curiosities in France. It lies 2 m. S. Vallon, about 11 m. 
 above the confluence of the Ardeche with the Rhone, and 
 consists of a natural arch of grayish limestone, 40 ft. thick, 
 running across the river, and forming a kind of vault 90 ft. 
 high, and 180 ft. wide, through which it passes. Near the 
 bridge are several stalactite caves, which were often resorted 
 to for concealment during the civil wars of France. 
 
 AIIDEE, a market tn., barony, and par. Ireland, co. 
 Lonth. The TOWN is pleasantly situated on the small river 
 Dee, in a fertile corn district, 36m. N.N.W. Dublin. It 
 consists of one principal street, with several lanes branching 
 off; and has some good houses, with many wretched cabins. 
 It was formerly a walled town, and still has a castle, now 
 used as the courthouse, to which is attached the county jail. 
 In the centre of the town is another old castle, now converted 
 into a dwelling-house. The spacious parish church, still in 
 good condition, was formerly the church of an Augustine 
 monastery. In the town there are likewise a R. catholic 
 chapel, corn-market, two charity schools, a savings -bank, a 
 union workhouse (opened in May 1842), and a constabulary 
 barracks. Malting is extensively tarried on, and a considcr- 
 
 iblu quantity of corn is sold at the weekly market, held on 
 
 Tuesday. Pop. of tn. 3679. The BAKONY is about 11 m. 
 
 n length; breadth 7 m.; area, 53,832 ac. Annual valuation 
 
 nder the Poor-law Act, 55,796, 13s. Pop. 28,704. Area 
 
 jf PARISH, 4885 ac. Pop. 6392. There is also a small par. 
 
 ?alled AKDEE, AKDKEE, or LITTLE AKDUEE, in the co. Kildare. 
 Area, 333 ac. Pop. 205. 
 
 AKUEKU, AUDEKOO, or AKDEKAN, a tn. Persia, prov. 
 Khorassan, two days journey N.W. Yezd. It has 1000 
 ouses, a good bazaar, which owes much of its prosperity to 
 the manufactures of the place ; for here are woven the cloth 
 used for the tents of the royal household, and carpets, checked 
 with blue and yellow. 
 
 A1JDELAN, a prov. Persia, forming the E. portion of 
 Kurdistan ; bounded, N. by Azerbijan, S. by Laristan, W. 
 jy Asiatic Turkey, and E. by Irak; about 207 m. long, N. 
 :o S., by about 130 to 150 m. wide, E. to W. Its capital, 
 is well as of all Kurdistan, is Senna, where resides the Wal- 
 ee or governor, a Kurdish chief, paying tribute to Persia, 
 but in reality almost independent, and possessing the power 
 of life and death over his subjects. The province is divided 
 to two districts, the N. or Ardelan proper, and the S., named 
 Kermanshah from its local capital. Both districts are mostly 
 composed of high lands ; and the climate is so severe, that it 
 s only in June, July, and August, that the flocks can remain 
 n the summer stations. The villages in the narrow valleys 
 ire few and sparingly peopled ; the inhabitants being chiefly 
 nomadic. Little agriculture is carried on, the mainstay 
 being the rearing of sheep, horned cattle, and horses, the last 
 of which are famed for their beauty, speed, and power of 
 enduring fatigue. The woods yield excellent oak and fine 
 gall apples, the latter of which are exported chiefly to India. 
 (Hitter s Asien; Chesney s Euphrates Expedition.} 
 
 ARDENNES, a frontier dep., N. France, deriving its 
 name from the ancient forest of Ardennes, which traverses 
 the N. division, cap. Mezieres ; bounded, N. and N.E. by Bel 
 gium, E. by dep. Mouse, S. by Marne, and \V. by Aisne ; 
 length about 65 m. N. to S. ; breadth 57 m. E. to W. ; area, 
 517,385 hectares, or about 1955 sq. in. A ridge of the Fau- 
 ciles mountains, a branch of the Vosges chain, running in a 
 direction from S.E. to N.W., divides the dep. into two parts, 
 the one belonging to the basin of the Meuse, and the other to 
 that of the Seine. The principal rivers are the Aisne and 
 the Meusc, both navigable, and connected by the Canal of 
 Ardennes and the Bar river. The soil is not all equally fer 
 tile. Some of the plains in the S.W. are naked and arid, 
 while the districts in the N. are traversed by mountains 
 covered with wood and heath, the forests occupying more 
 than one-fifth part of the whole area. Of arable land there 
 are 785,550 ac.; meadows, 120,475 ac.; vineyards, 43,810 ac.; 
 orchards, nursery-grounds, and gardens, 24,500 ac. ; heath 
 and barren land, 27,050 ac. In the central valleys, which 
 are extensive and fertile, corn is grown, particularly in the 
 valley of the Aisne, one of the finest corn districts in France. 
 But though the quantity of grain produced is greater than 
 formerly, it is not equal to the consumption of the depart 
 ment. The vine is cultivated only in the S. districts, espe 
 cially around Rethel, Sedan, and Vouziers. The pastures 
 are excellent ; the domestic animals, though strong, generally 
 small ; and the cows give but little milk. The sheep, of 
 which there are large flocks, afford excellent mutton, and 
 yield wool of a fine quality. The department abounds in 
 game ; particularly roebucks, wild boars, hares, and rabbits. 
 
 The inhabitants are, in general, industrious, intelligent, 
 and enterprising, though somewhat unpolished in their man 
 ners. Mining and manufacturing operations are carried on 
 by them with great activity ; the extensive forests supplying 
 fuel in abundance for forges and factories. The minerals of 
 the department consist of iron, lead, calaminc, and some coal, 
 with marble, freestone, limestone, and slate of excellent qual 
 ity, of which there are extensive quarries at Fumayand other 
 places ; also potter s clay, and sand for the manufacture of 
 glass. Iron-works are numerous, and yield annually upwards 
 of 400 tons of bar, and upwards of 5GO tons of cast iron. Chief 
 manufactures : fine cloth, and other woollen stuffs at Sc dan 
 and Rethel; cutlery, ironware, nails, fire arms, and soap, at 
 Charleville ; leather, glass, and earthenware, at Montherm6 ; 
 with hosiery, hats, serges, copper, brass, and porcelain, at 
 various places. Nail-making is likewise carried on to a 
 
ARDENNES 
 
 193 
 
 ARDOCn 
 
 consideraljlc extent, employing upwards of COOO persons. 
 Trade is carried on in the agricultural and manufactured pro- 
 duets of the department ; the Meuse, the Aisne, and the Canal 
 of Ardennes furnishing great facilities for intercommunication. 
 The department is divided into five arrondissements, 30 can 
 tons, and 478 communes. Pop. in 1846, 326,823. (Diet, 
 de la France; French Official Table*.} 
 
 ARDENNES, an extensive tract of hilly land, forming 
 a distinct ramification of the Vosges, and stretching continu 
 ously over a large portion of the N.E. of France and S. W. of 
 Belgium. One branch proceeding N. from the forest of 
 Argonne, reaches the sources of the Meuse, Sambre, and 
 Scheldt, while another branch, still more considerable, com 
 mencing E. among the valleys of the Moselle, Eure, and 
 Ourthe, proceeds W., and is finally lost in the plains of Cham 
 pagne. None of the hills attain a great elevation. The 
 highest, La Barraqne Michel, is 2230 ft., but the average 
 height does not exceed 1540 ft. The prevailing rocks are 
 schistous, and in some places furnish extensive quarries of 
 excellent roofing slates. Limestone occurs very rarely, and 
 only in thin beds. Anciently the whole tract formed one 
 immense forest, and possesses considerable interest both in 
 history and in the drama of Shakspeare, under the name of 
 the Forest of Ardennes. Extensive districts are still under 
 wood, but large portions have been cleared, and are now 
 covered with populous towns and cultivated fields. In 
 general, however, the surface is elevated, cold, and bleak, and 
 the soil, even when it would admit the plough, by no means 
 well adapted for cultivation. It is more favourable for 
 pasture, and rears great numbers of cattle, and a breed of 
 horses, which, though small, are hardy and active, and much 
 used for light cavalry. Among minerals, lead, antimony, 
 and manganese are found, but the only mineral which seems 
 to admit of being extensively worked to advantage is iron. 
 
 ARDEKRA, a par. Ireland, co. Kilkenny; 777 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 300. 
 
 ARDERSIER, or AKDROSSEK, a par. Scotland, co. Inver 
 ness ; 3465 ac. Pop. 759. 
 
 ARDESE, a large vil. Venetian Lombardy, prov. of, and 
 18 m. N.N.E. from Bergamo, and 4 m. N. by W. Clusone ; 
 having a handsome church with a lofty spire, a chapel built 
 in 1607, an hospital, and school. The inhabitants are engaged 
 in working iron and steel, making cheese, dressing wool, and 
 in tillage. Pop. 2118. (Dizio. Univ. Italia.} 
 
 ARDFERT, a tn. and par., W. coast, Ireland, co. Kerry. 
 The town is 4 m. N.W. Tralee, and was anciently the capital 
 of Kerry, the seat of a university, and a bishopric, and sent 
 two members to the Irish parliament; but now it is a ruinous 
 and insignificant village, its see having long since been united 
 to that of Aghadoe. Near the town are the picturesque ruins 
 of a Franciscan monastery. There are two free schools, and 
 
 a dispensary in the town. Pop. of tn. in 1841, 655. The 
 
 PARISH is partly in the barony of Trughanaekmy but chiefly 
 in that of Clanmaurice. Area of both, 10,134 ac. Pop. in 
 1841, 5334. 
 
 ARDF1ELD, a par. Ireland, co. Cork ; 2645 ac. Copper 
 ore exists in this parish. Pop. 1475. 
 
 ARDFINNAN, a par. Ireland, co. Tipperary; 1813 ac. ; 
 contains the ruins of a castle built by King John in 1184. 
 Pop. 1214. 
 
 ARDGL ASS, a small decayed seaport tn. and par. Ireland, 
 co. Down. The town is 7 m. S.E. Downpatrick, and about 
 73 m. N.E. Dublin, pleasantly situated on the E. side of the 
 tongue of land which separates the Bay of Killough from that 
 of Ardglass. The town consists of one long street, nearly 
 semicircular, with several smaller streets branching off. A 
 free school, on the foundation of Erasmus Smith, educates 
 about 90 boys and 80 girls. There are also four private 
 f-chools, and a dispensary. Ardglass is inhabited chiefly by 
 fishermen, and possesses a good many fishing-smacks and 
 yawls, besides a few sloops. Several packets also ply from 
 it to the Isle of Man. It is the centre of the stations of the 
 Irish fisheries, on this line of coast, arid where, in consequence, 
 numerous vessels assemble during the fishing season, there 
 being frequently from 300 to 400 in the harbour at one time, 
 from various parts of both England and Ireland. The pier 
 has a lighthouse, and in the harbour there is sufficient depth 
 of water at any time of tide for vessels of 500 tons. On the 
 quay arc capacious stores for corn, in which a considerable 
 
 trade is carried on. A quay and pier for fishing-boats have 
 been erected at an inner harbour, called Kimmersport. Ard 
 glass was in former times an important and flourishing place, 
 but its commercial privileges, &c., having been transferred to 
 Belfast, its trade rapidly declined. There are here a constab 
 ulary police force and a coast-guard station ; a manorial court 
 is held for claims to the amount of 100; and there are an 
 excellent weekly market and four annual fairs. Area of par. 
 1137 ac.; pop. 1433. Pop. of tn. 1066. 
 
 ARD1LLATS, a vil. France, dep. Rhone (Beaujohiis) 
 pleasantly situated on the Ardiere, about 16 m. N.W. Ville- 
 tranche, and possessing a fine paper-mill, which was originally 
 established by the celebrated aeronauts Montgolfier, whose 
 improvements in the manufacture are said to form the foun 
 dation of the still more important processes which have since 
 been introduced. Pop. 1112. 
 
 ARD1NGLEY, a par. England, co. Sussex ; 4780 ac. ; 
 N.E. Cuckfield. Pop. 742. 
 
 ARD1NGTON, a par. England, co. Berks; 1310 ac. ; E. 
 Wantage. Pop. 405. 
 
 ARDIS1I. See ARJISIF. 
 
 ARDJISII, ARDSISCH, ARGISH, orKui!Ti:A-DE-ARJESCH, 
 a decayed tn. European Turkey, cap. dist. same name, prov. 
 Wallachia, 1. bank, Ardjish, 90 m. N.W. Bucharest, on the 
 road leading through the Eotheiithurm Pass into Hungary. 
 It has six churches, and a large monastery, the church of 
 which is considered the finest in Wallachia ; and the ruins of a 
 strong castle, formerly the residence of the lords or princes of 
 the district. See Aiaisn. 
 
 ARDKEEN, a par. Ireland, co. Down ; 4801 ac. Pop. 
 2238. 
 
 ARDKILL, a par. Ireland, co. Kildare ; 5848 ac. Pop. 
 1214. 
 
 ARDLEIGH, a par. England, co. Essex ; 5100 ac. ; N.E. 
 Colchester. Pop. 1605. 
 
 ARDLEY, a par. England, co. Oxford ; 1440 ac. ; N.W. 
 Bicester. Pop. 168. 
 
 ARDMAYLE, a par. Ireland, co. Tipperary; 4941 nc. 
 Pop. 1757. 
 
 ARDMORE, a tn. and par. Ireland, co. Watcrford, on 
 the Irish Channel. The town lies 5 m. E.N.E. Youghal, and 
 33 m. W.S.W. Watcrford. It has Protestant and II. catholic 
 churches, and was formerly a bishop s see. In the parish 
 churchyard is one of the ancient round towers ; and S.E. the 
 church are the dormitory and well of St. Declan, both of 
 which are held in high veneration. There is a fine beach, 
 and the country around being beautiful, renders Ardmore 
 admirably adapted for sea-bathing. Pop. of par. 8737 ; area, 
 24,2 15 ac. Pop. of tn. 706. 
 
 ARDMORE HEAD, a promontory, S. coast, Ireland, 
 co. AVaterford, N.N.E. Youghal harbour; lat. 51 52 N. ; 
 Ion. 7 40 W. 
 
 ARDMULCHAN, a par. Ireland, co. Meath ; 3583 ac. ; 
 abounds in limestone. Pop. 1038. 
 
 ARDNAGEE11Y, a par. Ireland, co. Cork; 16,335 ac. 
 Pop. 4798. 
 
 ARDNAMTJRCIIAN (POINT OF), a cape or headland, 
 Scotland, co. Argyle, the most W. point of the mainland of 
 Britain. A lighthouse has been recently erected on this 
 point, the lantern of which is 180 ft. above the level of the 
 sea. It is a fixed light of the natural appearance, and may be 
 seen, in clear weather, from a distance of 18 or 20 m. It was 
 exhibited, for the first time, 011 the night of Dec. 1, 1849; 
 lat. 56 43 45" N. ; Ion. 6 13 30" W. 
 
 ARDNAREE, a vil. Ireland, co. Sligo, on the Moy, 
 over which is a stone bridge of 16 arches, which unites Ard- 
 naree with Ballina, of which it forms a suburb (see BALLINA). 
 
 ARDNURCHER, a par. Ireland, King s co., and co. 
 Wcstmeath; 12,012 ae. ; contains the ruins of several ancient 
 castles. Pop. 3687. 
 
 ARDOCH, a small vil. Scotland, co. Perth, about 8 m. 
 S.S.W. Crieff, celebrated for the Koman camps in its vicinity, 
 one of which is the most entire of any in Scotland. There arc 
 here vestiges of three distinct Koman camps of different dimen 
 sions, and, apparently, constructed at three different periods, 
 the largest and first supposed to be constructed by Agricola, 
 in his campaign in A.n. 84. Besides these camps, there is, 
 opposite the bridge over Knaig water, a strong fort surrounded 
 by five or six fosses and ramparts, about 500 ft. long by 4; .0 
 
ARDOKE 
 
 199 
 
 ARENDAL 
 
 broad. The vicinity of Ardoch, near which stood Lindum, 
 a town of the Dainuii, one of the aboriginal tribes of Britain, 
 was the scene of many conflicts during the Eoman period. 
 The interesting remains above alluded to have been en 
 closed by the proprietor of Ardoch by a high stone wall, to 
 protect them from dilapidation. 
 
 ARDORE, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Ultra I., dist. 
 of, and 7 m. S.W. from Gerace, situated upon a hill, in a fer 
 tile country. It suffered much from an earthquake in 1783, 
 and was rebuilt by Ferdinand IV. Pop. 2959. 
 
 ARDOYE, a vil. Belgium, prov. W. Flanders, about 12 m. 
 S. Bruges. It gives its name to a rural com., which has an 
 area of 4500 ac. ; a pop. of 7G43 ; and possesses several brew 
 eries and malt-mills, brick and tile-works, and a blcachfield. 
 
 ARDOYNE, a par. Ireland, cos. Wicklow and Carlow; 
 G577 ac. Pop. 1791. 
 
 ARDPATR1CK, a par. Ireland, co. Limerick ; 624 ac. 
 Gold ore has been found in this parish ; it contains ruins of 
 an ancient monastery and round tower. Pop. 101. 
 
 ARDQUIN, a par. Ireland, co. Down ; 3043 ac. Pop. 916. 
 
 ARDRAII, or AZEM, a tn. Africa, cap. prov. of same 
 name, kingdom of Dahomey , lat. 6 35 N. ; Ion. 3 42 E. ; 
 about 20 m. from the sea-coast, on the shores of a lake. Pop. 
 10,000. 
 
 ARDRAHAN, par. Irel. Galway; 17,948 ac. P. 4191. 
 
 ARDRES [anc. Ardrea], a fortified tn. France, dep. Pas- 
 de-Calais (Picardy), 9 m. S.E. Calais, in a marshy district, at 
 the extremity of the Canal of Ardres, and on the railway from 
 Calais to St. Omer. It was a place of considerable import 
 ance during the early English wars, and the splendid fetes 
 given at the interview which took place here between Henry 
 VIII. and Francis I., are commemorated by the name of 
 Champ clu Drop a" Or [field of the cloth of gold], which the 
 spot still bears. Ardres has some salt-refineries. P. 1129. 
 
 ARDRISHAIG, a small vil. and seaport, Scotland, co. 
 Argyle, 20 in. S.S.W. Inverary, W. shore of Loch Fyne, 
 at the entrance to the Crinan Canal; with a boat-building 
 yard, and two quays ; inhabitants principally engaged in fish 
 ing. Steamers to Glasgow, &c., daily. Pop. (1851), 600. 
 
 ARDR1STAN, a par. Irel. Carlow; 1571 ac. P. 598. 
 
 ARDROSSAN, a seaport and par. Scotland, co. Ayr. 
 The town is 30 m. by railway S.W. Glasgow, and 18 m. 
 N.W. Ayr. The streets are wide and straight, and the 
 houses, mostly of two stories, are neat and well finished. 
 There are also many handsome villas in the vicinity. It is 
 much frequented in the summer season by sea-bathers. The 
 harbour, which is on an extensive scale, was begun by the late 
 Earl of Eglinton, who expended 100,000 on it. It is still 
 incomplete, but is capable of accommodating a large number 
 of vessels. The pier and breakwater, the former 900 yards 
 in length, completely protect the harbour from S. and W. 
 winds, an island, called the Horse Island, protecting it from 
 the N.W. At the extremity of the breakwater there are 
 26 ft. at spring ebbs, and it shoals gradually to 15 ft., where 
 the quays commence. There are two small red lights, one 
 on each pierhead. A branch line, about 4 m. in length, con 
 nects Ardrossan with the Glasgow and Ayr Railway at Kil- 
 wi nning. Steamers ply regularly between Ardrossan and 
 Glasgow, Ayr, Belfast, and Fleetwood. Pop. of par. 4947 ; 
 area, 11,347 ac. 
 
 ARDSALLAGII, or ARDSALLA, a par. Ireland, co. Meath: 
 1739 ac. Pop. 341. 
 
 ARUSKEAG1I, a par. Ireland, co. Cork; 1929 ac. 
 Pop. 280. 
 
 ARDSLEY. 1, (We*f), a par. England, co. York, W. 
 Hiding ; 2250 ac. ; N. W. Wakefield. Pop. 1420. 2, (East), 
 a par. adjoining the above. Pop. 900. 
 
 ARDSTRAW, or ARDSTRATH, a par. Ireland, co. Tyrone, 
 on the Mourne, a branch of the Foyle, S. Lifford, and N.W. 
 
 Oinagh; area, 45,000 ac. Pop. 17,400. ARDSTRAW BRIDGE 
 
 is the name of a vil. in this par., on the river Derg, and on the 
 road from Dublin to Londonderry. Pop. in 1841, 134. 
 
 ARD VAR (Loon), an arm of the sea, Scotland, W. coast, 
 co. Sutherland ; lat. 58 16 N. ; Ion. 5 4 W. It is a small 
 but safe harbour for small vessels. In the proper anchor age, 
 there is water enough for the largest ships to ride, but in the 
 narrow part of the channel leading to it, there are not above 
 3 ft. at low water, spring tides. 
 
 AREAS, or SAO MIGUEL DAS AREAS, a small tn. Brazil, 
 
 prov. S3o Paulo, 150 m. N.E. Santos, and 110 N.W. Rio de 
 Janeiro, on the confines of the prov. of that name, and on the 
 road to the city of Sao Paulo, in a fertile district, with a moist 
 climate. It has a church, townhouse, and prison ; and in its 
 vicinity are cultivated coffee in large quantities, millet, rice, 
 French beans, mandioca, and sugar-canes. The principal com 
 merce of Areas consists in coffee and fowls, which is trans 
 ported on mules to Rio de Janeiro. Pop., tn. and dist. 6000. 
 (Die. Gco. Imp. Brazil.} 
 
 AREBO, or ARBON, a tn. Benin, W. Africa, on the river 
 Formosa, about 37 in. from its mouth ; lat. 5 58 N. ; Ion. 
 5 8 E. The English and Dutch factories, formerly exist 
 ing here, have been abandoned. 
 
 ARECHAVALETA, a tn. Spain, prov. Guipuzcoa, 27 m. 
 N.E. Vittoria, on the high road from Madrid to Bayonne, 
 having two churches, a townhall, sulphurous spring (temper 
 ature 71 Fah.}, with an attached pump-room. The people- 
 are chiefly engaged in making rural implements, coarse linen 
 fabrics, and in agriculture. Pop. 2430. 
 
 ARED, EL-AAREDII, JEBEL ARIDH, or I MARIYEH, a 
 mountain range, Arabia, traversing Nejd S.W. to N.E., from 
 about lat. 22 30 N., Ion. 41 41 E., about 104 m. N.E. 
 Mecca, to lat. 29 50 N., Ion. 46 30 E., about 150 m. S.W. 
 Bussorah, a total distance of upwards of 550 m. At El 
 Derayeh (lat. 25 N., Ion. 46 E.), an offset, called Jebel Tuzek, 
 leaves the main chain in a N.N.W. direction, having a total 
 length of about 280 m. Jebel Aridh, and its offsets, form 
 the hill country of Nejd (which see), 
 
 ARELEY, two parishes, England:] , (Kings), Co. Wor 
 cester; 1 390 ac. ; S. by E. Bewdley. Pop. 423. 2, (Upper), 
 Co. Stafford; 5160 ac.; N.N.W. Bewdley. Pop. 667. 
 
 AREMBERG MEPPEN (DUCHY OF), a political division 
 of Hanover, between Oldenburg and Holland ; area, 544 geo. 
 sq. m. It is traversed, S. to N., by the Ems, and consists 
 chiefly of sandy wastes, moors, and heath. Its principal 
 riches consist in turf. Agriculture is little attended to, but 
 the culture of bees is pursued with advantage. Formerly 
 constituting part of the bishopric of Minister, in 1803 it came 
 into the possession of the Duke of Aremberg; in 1810 it was 
 united to France ; in 1815 it was given to Hanover ; and, in 
 1826, it was erected into the duchy of Aremberg Meppen by 
 George IV. of Great Britain. Pop. 49,000. 
 
 ARENAS [Spanish, Sands], the name of a number of 
 islands, capes, &c., in various parts of the world : 1, An isl. 
 or rather sandbank, off the N. coast of Colombia, in the middle 
 of the Bay of Galera de Zamba ; lat. 10 46 N. , Ion. 75 30 
 W. 2, A low isl. Gulf of Mexico, 3 m. long by 2 m. broad ; 
 rocks all round; lat. 22 8 N. ; Ion. 91 23 W. (R.) 3, A 
 bay or cape, off Cape Isabella, N. coast, Hayti, the cape 
 being in lat. 19 58 40" N. ; Ion. 71 6 30" W. 4, A 
 Cay, N. America, Bay of Honduras ; lat. 71 12 N. ; Ion. 88 
 W. 5, A sandy point, N. coast, Colombia, Gulf of Darien, 
 at the entrance (E. side) of the Bay of Choco ; lat. 8 33 N. ; 
 Ion. 76 56 15" W. 6, An isl. and point, N.E. coast, Guati- 
 mala, S. side, Gulf of Matina, or San Juan; lat. 10 56 42" 
 N.; Ion. 83 42 15" W. (R.) 7, A sandy point, N. coast, 
 Venezuela, E. side of the entrance into the Lake of Maracaybo ; 
 lat. 11 7 N.; Ion. 70 57 W. (R.) 8, A point, W. extremity 
 of Luzon; lat. 16 21 N.; Ion. 119 41 E. (R.) 9, Point 
 Arenas, the most W. extremity of the isl. of Margarita, Ca 
 ribbean Sea; lat. 11 N.; Ion. 64 30 W. 
 
 AREN D A L, a seaport tn. Norway, prov. of, and 36 m. N.E. 
 Christiansand on the Skager-Rak; lat. 58 23 12" N. ; Ion. 
 8 52 30" E. (R.) It lies at the mouth of the Nid River, and 
 is built on rocks projecting out into the commodious haven, 
 formed within the islands Tromo and Hisero, between which 
 is the narrow channel leading up to Arendal. The buildings of 
 the town are of wood clustered in declivities, and scattered up 
 the surrounding heights, one of which is crowned by a hand 
 some church ; long ranges of white buildings, the dwellings of 
 the merchant s line, the broad well laid-out quays, presenting, 
 from the sea, an imposing appearance ; and along the shores are 
 neat houses and stores, close to which vessels lie, the water 
 in the harbour being very deep. The town has a commercial 
 and two other schools, a custom-house, and three yards for ship 
 building a branch of industry here carried on extensively. 
 On the banks of a lake, N. the town, are some celebrated iron 
 mines. Arendal is a place of considerable trade, possessing 
 nearly 200 sea-going ships, chiefly employed in exporting 
 
ARENDONCK 
 
 200 
 
 ARETHUSA 
 
 ( iuibcr, and in importing grain and other kinds of food. Much 
 
 of the timber shipped here is brought a direct distance of 
 
 about 100 ni., from Upper Tellmarken, with which there is 
 
 ater communication. In 1842, 373 vessels arrived at the 
 
 some stone bridge. It enjoys a delightful climate, and is 
 esteemed one of the best built and most beautiful towns of S. 
 America. It has a square ornamented with an elegant bronze 
 fountain, a cathedral, several churches, three nunneries, six 
 
 port ; tonn., 39,674 ; departed, same year, 309 ; tonn., 35,543. convents, a college, and an hospital. The houses and public 
 < hitside the islands, and about 4 m. from the port, on island i edifices are all of stone, generally only of one floor, with very 
 Torungen, is a fixed light, 130 ft. high ; lat. 58 23 2" N. ; j thick walls and vaulted roofs, to resist the shocks of earth 
 quakes, which are frequent here, and so de 
 structive as to have laid the city in ruins on four 
 different occasions, besides the damage done by 
 less violent convulsions. It has manufactures of 
 woollen and cotton stuffs, and gold and silver 
 tissue, with an active and flourishing trade. In 
 the neighbourhood are several gold and silver 
 mines, and the district round the town is fertile 
 and well cultivated. Cove Mollendo was for 
 merly the port of the city, but in consequence of 
 the filling up of that port, the harbour of Hay has 
 been adopted in its stead. Pop. about 35,000. 
 The DEPARTMENT of Arequipa extends 
 between lat. 15 30 and 21 28 S., and con 
 sists of seven provinces Caman.i, Condesuyos 
 de Arequipa, the Cercado or district of Arequipa, 
 Moquejua, Arica, Tarapaca", and Caylloma. 
 
 AREQUIPA, a volcano of the Peruvian 
 Andes, about 12 m. E. the city of that name ; 
 lat. 16 20 S. ; Ion. 71 55 W. Its height, 
 according to Pentland, is 20,320 ft. The summit of the moun 
 tain, which is in the form of a stupendous cone, is generally 
 covered with snow for about 500 ft. downwards. It has a 
 deep crater, from which ashes and vapour are constantly seen 
 to issue. In the immediate vicinity of the volcano, there are 
 other two mountains of great height, Pichu Pichu and Chacani, 
 
 ARENDAL -- From Asbjbrusen, Morge Fremstillet i TegninRcr. 
 
 lou. 8 52 5" E. (R.) Areudal, in 1840, suffered a good deal 
 of damage by fire, which, however, has since been repaired, 
 much to the improvement of the town. In 1835, the pop. of 
 the town proper was 1962, including suburbs Colbjb rnsvig, 
 Strommen, Sandvigen, and Tromoen, 4000. In 1846, the 
 town proper had increased to 3562 ; including suburbs, 4500. 
 (Skb ldberg, Beslcrifning fifver SkandinavsJca Half Cm; For 
 ester s Norway, in 1848-9; Munch, Kurt over det sydliye 
 
 Norge.) 
 
 ARENDONCK, a tn. Belgium, chief place both of com. 
 and can. of same name, prov. of, and 32 m. E. from Antwerp. 
 The manufacture of stockings and worsted caps occupies a 
 fourth of the inhabitants. Of the former, 200,000 pairs are 
 annually made ; area of com. above 7000 ac. Pop. 3488. 
 
 ARENDSEE, a small tn. Prussian Saxony, gov. of, and 
 52 m. N. from Magdeburg; on the S. side of Lake Arend, 
 
 , 
 
 which are also generally covered with snow. They are com 
 posed of trachytic rocks, and are conjectured to have formed a 
 portion of the walls of a very extensive elevation-crater, in the 
 midst of which the more recent eruption-cone of Arequipa has 
 been raised. 
 
 ARES, a tn. and seaport, Spain, in Galicia, prov. of, and 
 17 m. S.S.W. from Coruiia, tolerably well built, having a 
 church, townhall, and the ruins of a castle and fortification. 
 Fishing and curing fish are carried on. Pop. 1850. 
 
 ARETHUSA, a celebrated fountain of Sicily, in the city 
 
 which abounds with pike and eels, and in which petrifactions i of Syracuse. It springs from the earth, under a natural arch 
 
 and amber are occasionally found. It is divided 
 
 into the old and new town, and has a Lutheran 
 
 chapter with seven prebendaries, an hospital, 
 
 a brandy distillery, and several breweries. 
 
 Pop. 1950. 
 
 ARENSBURG, a seaport tn. European 
 
 Russia, gov. Livonia, cap. and S.E. side of the 
 
 isl. of Oesel ; lat. 5H" lo ti" N. ; Ion. 22 27 4;V 
 
 E. (R.) It is the most unimportant liussian fort 
 
 in the Baltic. The exports are grain, timber, 
 
 cattle, butter, cheese, tallow, and hides. The 
 
 trade of the place is chiefly carried on with 
 
 Liibeck, Sweden, and Holland, in small vessels, 
 
 of which from 20 to 30 arrive annually ; they 
 
 anchor at about 5 m. from the town, at a place 
 
 called the Kettle ; their cargoes are loaded and 
 
 unloaded by small craft or prams, to and from 
 
 the town, the water in the port not being deep 
 
 enough for vessels of burden. P. (1849), 3592. 
 ARENSWALDE. See ARNSWALDE. 
 ARENYS DE MAR, a tn. Spain, in Cata- 
 
 Ionia, prov. of, and 26 m. N.E. from Barcelona, 
 
 on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, in the midst of a rich 
 
 wine district, tolerably well built, and having well-arranged 
 streets, a square, a parish church, Latin and other schools, an 
 hospital, theatre, and prison. Lace-making, weaving coarse 
 cotton fabrics, distilling brandy, making soap, and other che 
 mical operations, are carried on. Wine, charcoal, wooden 
 hoops, barrels, and timber, are exported ; and grain, alcohol, 
 &c., imported. Pop. 4780. 
 
 AREQUIPA, a city, Peru, cap. dep. of same name; 450 
 m. S.E. Lima, 200 m. S.W. Cuzco, and about 40 in. from 
 tiie shores of the Pacific; lat. 17 S.; Ion. 72 10 30" \V. (n., 
 finely situated, 7850 ft. above the sea level, on the plain of 
 Quilca, on the river Chile, which is here crossed by a hand- 
 
 in the rock, within a short distance of the sea, being separated 
 from the latter by the city wall only. The water described 
 by ancient writers as pure and sweet, is now brackish, from 
 the sea having found access to it, and is used for washing only. 
 The fish spoken of by Cicero have also disappeared, together 
 with its sacred groves and temples. The fountain is named 
 after the nymph Arethusa, who, according to Greek fable, 
 was bathing in the river Alpheus, in Peloponessus, when the 
 river-god, becoming enamoured of her, pursued her, upon 
 which she supplicated the assistance of her patron goddess, 
 Diana, who compassionately transformed her into a fountain. 
 Alpheus, then, seeking to commingle his waters with those of 
 the metamorphosed nymph, Diana opened a passage under 
 
ARETTE 
 
 201 
 
 ARGEXTAN 
 
 ground, by which her favourite escaped to where the fountain 
 now exists, the island of Ortygia, a part of Syracuse. The 
 story goes on to say that Alpheus still pursued her, either 
 underground or through the sea, without mingling his waters 
 with those of the ocean ; consequently, that substances thrown 
 into the Alpheus, in Greece, will in due time appear in the 
 fountain of Arethusa. (Ovid s Metamorphosis, v. 572.) Pau- 
 sanius gives a somewhat different version of this story (v. 7). 
 
 ARETTE, a tn. France, dep. Basses Pyrenees, about 
 11 in. S.W. Oleron, in a fine forest at the foot of hills which 
 form the first slopes of the Pyrenees. It is an ancient place, 
 and several of the houses are interesting from their antiquity. 
 
 AEEVALO, a tn. Spain, in Old Castile, prov. Arila, 
 G9 m. N. W. Madrid, partly enclosed by ruined walls, well 
 built, and having a handsome suburb, with a church, townhall, 
 sessions-house, two prisons, a storehouse, hospital, Latin and 
 other schools, &c. Pop. chiefly agricultural, 2200. 
 
 AREZZO [anc. Arretium] , a city, Tuscany, cap. of prov. 
 and bishopric of its own name, on the slope of a hill, in the 
 plain of Chiaria, r. bank, Castro, an affluent of the Arno. It 
 is surrounded by walls 3 m. in length ; has paved, regular, and 
 for the most part, well-built streets, a large square, a noble 
 Gothic cathedral, containing some fine pictures and monu- 
 
 pro 
 buil 
 
 CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA, AREZ/O. From Gaily Knight s Ecclesiastical Archit* 
 
 ments ; several churches, municipal buildings, four hospitals, 
 a university, academy of arts and surgery ; a public library, 
 museum, theatre, medical and other schools ; also an episcopal 
 palace, a palace of the Albergotti family, an aqueduct, the 
 remains of an ancient amphitheatre and citadel, and the monu 
 ment of Mecaenas. Of the churches, the handsomest, as well 
 as the most ancient, is that of Santa Maria. The whole build 
 ing, though irregular, and somewhat fantastic in its details, 
 exhibits an elegance and facility of style which is extremely 
 pleasing. Manufactures : hats, combs, cutlery, nails, imple 
 ments of husbandry, pins, and earthenware ; also woollen stuffs 
 for the army, the making of which employs more than 1000 
 persons. Dyeing, tanning, and expressing oil are carried on. 
 Four annual fairs are held. Arezzo was an important Roman 
 military station, and once famous for its terra cotta vases. 
 A few ruins are all that now remain of the ancient city. It is 
 the birthplace of Mecsenas, Petrarch, Guiclo, Pope Julius II., 
 and was long the dwelling-place of Dante. Pop. 11,716. 
 (Dizio. Univ. Italia.) 
 
 AREZZO, a prov. Tuscany (cap. Arezzo), bounded, N. by 
 prov. Florence and the Papal States, E. by the Papal States, 
 S. by Grosseto, and W. by Sienna, with an area of 1776 sq. m. 
 E. and N.E., the Apennines form a natural boundary to 
 the province, and over its surface ramify the Tuscan sub- 
 Apennines, for the most part clothed with chestnut, beech, 
 pine, and other trees and shrubs ; and some of them yielding 
 coal and sulphur. The valleys have a rich alluvial soil, pro 
 ducing abundant crops of grain, fruits, vegetables, wine, and 
 oil. Horned cattle, pigs, and sheep are reared ; and turkeys, 
 fowls, and game of all kinds are plentiful ; agriculture, dress 
 ing hides, preparing wool, and expressing wine and oil, are 
 the principal employments. There are numerous benevolent 
 institutions in the province, and the education of youth is 
 more attended to than formerly ; crimes against the person 
 are comparatively rare. The people are lively, active, and 
 VOL. T. 
 
 intelligent, fond of music, dancing, and amusement. Pop. in 
 1836, 228,416. (Disao. Univ. Italia.) 
 
 ARGA, a river, Spain, in Navarra, rising in the Pyrenees, 
 near Irurita, and, flowing S. and S.W., it falls into the Aragon 
 at Villefranche, after receiving several tributaries. Total 
 course, 60 m. 
 
 ARGAMAS1LLA DE ALBA, a tn. Spain, in New Castile, 
 rov. Ciudad-Keal, 84 m. S.S.E. Madrid, on the Guadiana, ill 
 uilt, and having a church, consistory, prison, and some schools. 
 
 Pop. 1600. - AlSO, AllOAMASILLA (DE CALATEAVA), a tn., 
 
 13 m. S. Ciudad Heal, having a church, townhall, prison, and 
 storehouse. The inhabitants are much employed in lace- 
 making for the traders in Almagro (which see). Pop. 2020. 
 
 ARGANA, or ARGIIANA MADEN, a populous tn. Turkish 
 Armenia, pash. Diarbekir, 1. bank, Tigris, near its source, 36m. 
 W.N.W. Diarbekir, cap. dist. of same name; lat. 38 13 N. ; 
 Ion. 39 10 E. It is situated on Mount Taurus, on a de 
 clivity so abrupt, that the houses appear to be piled one above 
 another ; and in winter the torrents rush down the streets with 
 a violence that often renders them impassable. It is wretchedly 
 built, and is inhabited by Kurds and Turks. At an elevation 
 of 3644 ft. above the level of the sea, there is a rich copper 
 mine. The surrounding hills are covered with vineyards. 
 Pop. 4000. 
 
 ARGANDA-DET.-REY, a tn. Spain, in New 
 Castile, prov. of, and 18 m. S.E. from Madrid, on 
 the high road thence to Valencia, ill built, and 
 having a church and two chapels, with a ceme 
 tery, townhall, hospital, prison, abattoir, and 
 some schools. The inhabitants are employed 
 chiefly in tillage, but also in soapworks and oil- 
 mills. The neighbourhood is celebrated for the 
 excellence of its red wines. Pop. 2790. 
 
 ARGANIL, a tn. and par. Portugal, prov. 
 Beira-baixa, 21 m. N.E. Coimbra. It contains 
 a parish church and a poorhouse, and has three 
 annual fairs. Pop. 1675. 
 
 ARGELES, or ARGELEZ, a tn. France, dep. 
 Hautes Pyrenees, cap. arrond. of its name, 17 m. 
 S.W. Tarbes, in the beautiful valley of Lavedan, 
 one of the finest in the Pyrenees, 1. bank, Gave 
 d Azun, near its embouchure into the Gave de 
 of itaij. Pf u. The town is not kept clean, but it contains 
 a handsome square, and groups of pretty slated 
 houses, some of them adorned with marble, and interspersed 
 with patches of rich verdure, which have a very pleasing 
 effect. The only manufacture is steel. Goitre and cretinism 
 are prevalent throughout the district. Pop. 1718. 
 
 ARGENS, a river, France, with three different sources, 
 which unite at Chateauvert, dep. Var. The chief source is 
 at the foot of Mount Scillon. The river owes its name 
 (argenteus, silvery) to its limpid waters, which are almost 
 always silvery white. Near the chapel of St. Michael, be 
 tween Vidauban and the Thoronet, it precipitates itself over 
 a lofty rock, and forms a magnificent cataract. Losing itself 
 in the abyss into which it falls, it disappears, and again 
 emerges about half a mile below. In its course, which is 
 about 60 m. it receives numerous small tributaries, and falls 
 into the Mediterranean about 2 m. S.W. Frejus. It is not pro 
 perly navigable, but an immense quantity of pine is annually 
 floated down it, and cut up in planks at the sawmills of Muy 
 and Frejus, to be afterwards carried to Toulon and Marseilles. 
 ARGENTAN [anc. Aregenuce, Argentonium Castrum], 
 a tn. France, dep. Orne (Normandy), picturesquely situated 
 on a height in an extensive and fertile plain, which is bounded 
 on the E. by the forest of Argentan, 28 m. N.N.W. Alencon. 
 The town, which is traversed by the Orne, is clean, has well- 
 built houses, and regular streets, and is surrounded by ram 
 parts, which form a promenade. The old castle of Argentan, 
 an extensive massy structure of the 15th century, has been 
 converted into a court of justice and a prison. The churches 
 of St. Germain and St. Martin are interesting edifices of the 
 same century. The manufactures are chiefly linens, ticks, 
 leather, and lace. Pop. 4760. - The ARROND. of Argentan 
 includes 11 cantons. Its chief products are corn, cattle, 
 poultry, and cheese. The last, in particular, bears a high 
 name. The district also has been long famous for its horses. 
 The famous Haras du Pin, to which the superiority of tho 
 Norman breed is mainly attributed, is near Argentan. 
 
ARGENTARO (MOUNT) 
 
 202 
 
 ARGUIN 
 
 ARGENTARO (MOUNT), a lofty and extensive pro 
 montory, N. W. end, isl. Sardinia; lat. 42 23 42" N.; Ion. 
 11 10 30" E. (R.) It is visible from a distance of 30 m., and, 
 seen from the N. or S., appears to be an island separated from 
 the main by the low land to the E. 
 
 ARGENTAT, a tn. France, dep. Correze (Limousin), 
 about 15 m. S.S.E. Tulle, in a beautiful valley, r. bank, Dor- 
 dogne, over which is here a suspension bridge. The cath 
 edral is a Gothic edifice, of striking appearance, but is dis 
 figured by paintings in bad taste. Argentat carries on a 
 considerable trade in corn, ship timber, wood, charcoal, and 
 the rather dusty coal raised from a seam in the vicinity, of 
 about 3 ft. thick. All these products are sent to Bordeaux by 
 the Dordognc, which is navigable for small barques as far up 
 as Argentat. Pop. 2076. 
 
 ARGENTEAU, a vil. Belgium, r. bank, Mouse, prov. of, 
 and 6 ra. N.E. Liege. The inhabitants are chiefly employed 
 in agriculture. A few make capsules and other vessels of 
 platina. In the vicinity is an old castle, picturesquely situated 
 ou a rocky eminence crowned with verdure. Pop. 800. 
 
 ARGENTETJIL [Latin, Argentolium}. 1, A tn. France, 
 dep. Seine- et-Oise, r. bank, Seine, 7 m. below Paris, on a small 
 hill, in a fine district abounding in vineyards and gardens, the 
 greater part of the fruit and vegetables of which are sent to 
 Paris. In the vicinity are extensive quarries of gypsum ; and 
 close to the town are the ruins of the Benedictine abbey, in 
 which Heloise received her education ; she afterwards became 
 prioress of it, previous to being abbess of the Paraclete, 
 founded by Abelard. Pop. 4569. 2, A vil., with about 700 
 inhabitants, in the dep. of the Yonne (Champagne), 10 m. S.E. 
 Tonnere. 
 
 ARGENTIERA, or KHIMOI.I [anc. Cimolis, or Cimolus, 
 and Eckinusa, or the Isle of Vipers], an isl. Grecian Archi 
 pelago, N. of Milo, from which it is separated by a channel 
 about 1 in. broad ; lat. 36 49 18" N.; Ion. 24 33 30" E. (R.) 
 It is about 18 m. in circumference, of a roundish or oval shape, 
 hilly, some heights being 1000 ft. high, of volcanic formation, 
 with a generally sterile soil, producing, however, in some 
 parts, wheat, barley, cotton, grapes, and other kinds of fruit ; 
 and, in the valleys, feeding a few sheep and goats. It is said 
 to have contained at one time a few silver mines, whence its 
 name Argentiera. It is noted also for a substance anciently 
 called creta Cimolia, Cimolian chalk, a species of fuller s earth, 
 or decomposed porphyry, possessing some of the qualities 
 of soap, and used in washing and bleaching. The island 
 contains a few hot springs, but is destitute of fresh water. 
 The climate is unhealthy. It has a harbour affording good 
 anchorage for light vessels, but has hardly any trade. 
 
 ARGENT1ERE (CoL u ), a mountain-pass, Maritime 
 Alps, on the road from Barcelonette to Coni, 7200 ft. above 
 the sea level ; lat. 44 27 N. ; Ion. 6 55 E. The path over 
 the Col skirts a little lake called La Madelaine, the source of 
 the Stura. From the summit of the pass, the view is very 
 
 extensive, especially towards France. ARGENTIERE is also 
 
 the name of a vil. in Piedmont, within a short distance of 
 the pass. 
 
 ARGENTINA, a small fort and settlement, La Plata, at 
 the head of Blanco Bay, 390 m. S.S.W. Buenos Ayres ; lat. 
 38 20 S. ; Ion. 62 10 W. The fort was commenced in 
 April 1828, with the view of checking the Indians, but was 
 never completed, and is now almost wholly neglected. Neither 
 has it made any progress as a colony, although, says Captain 
 Fitzroy, it is the beginning of what may hereafter be a con 
 siderable place. Situated favourably for communicating with 
 Conception, by way of the pass through the cordillera, near 
 Tucapel, it is the only port between lat. 25 S. and Cape Horn, 
 capable of receiving in security any number of the largest 
 ships. The country around is flat, and good grazing districts 
 are within a short distance, but it is subject to the disad 
 vantage of long droughts, some of them of 2 or 3 years con 
 tinuance, although fresh water may generally be obtained, 
 independent of the few running streams, by digging wells of 
 from 4 to 10 ft. deep. The heat in summer is excessive, but 
 in winter there are sharp frosts, sometimes snow. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. See PLATA (LA). 
 
 ARGENTON-suR-CREUSE [anc. Arr/cntonum],atn. France, 
 dep. Indre (Berri), 18 m. S.S.W. Chateauroux. It is tra 
 versed by the Creuse, which divides it into two towns, con 
 nected by a stone bridge. The upper town, the ruins of which 
 
 attest its antiquity, is built upon a rock, in the form of an 
 amphitheatre, and has still some remains of its large old castle, 
 flanked by 10 high towers, which was at one time esteemed im 
 pregnable. It has a wall of its own, with four gates, by which 
 it communicates with the lower town, which lies at the end of 
 a valley shut in by two vine-clad hills. Manufactures: 
 cloth, paper, tiles, pottery, and glass. There are also several 
 small fulling-mills and bleaching-grounds. In the neighbour 
 hood, fine potter s clay of a white colour is found. Pop. 4346. 
 ARGENTON is also the name of several small towns and 
 villages in France. 
 
 ARGHURL See ARGTTRI. 
 
 ARGISII. See ARDJISH. 
 
 ARGO, GANGODES, or CORA, an isl. in the Nile, Nubia, 
 in Dongola, between lat. 19 10 and 19 32 N. It is about 
 25 m. in length, and 5 m. in breadth. The soil is fertile, but 
 a small portion only is cultivated, the island being but thinly 
 inhabited. Great numbers of sycamores, acacias, palms, &c., 
 grow on it, and its pastures are covered with herds of cattle 
 and horses. It abounds also with hares, pigeons, quails, and 
 partridges. There are several interesting ruins on the island, 
 including two colossal figures, in red granite, of excellent 
 workmanship. They are both prostrate, and one of them has 
 been broken into three pieces, but the other is in good preser 
 vation. 
 
 ARGOLIS, one of the anc. divisions of Greece, and, with 
 Corinth, still forming one of its provinces or nomcs. It com 
 prises the peninsula formed by the Gulfs Egina and Nauplia 
 or Napoli, and part of the mainland, to Ion. 22 3 E. ; bounded, 
 W. by Achaia and Arcadia, S. by the Gulf of Nauplia and the 
 Mediterranean, and N. and N.E. by the Gulfs of Corinth and 
 Egina. It is traversed throughout its whole length, from 
 N.W. to S.E., by a ridge of mountains, intersected by deep 
 valleys, through which flow rivulets, generally dry during 
 summer. The valleys are most numerous, and of greatest 
 breadth on the S. side of the ridge, but none of them are of 
 any great extent. The coast is irregular, with numerous in 
 dentations, and generally low. The only good harbour is 
 Nauplia, at the head of the gulf of same name. 
 
 ARGOS, a tn. Greece, nome or prov. Argolis, 6 m. N.W. 
 Nauplia, r. bank, Planitza, on the W. side of a large and fer 
 tile plain, yielding corn, cotton, tobacco, figs, grapes, and rice ; 
 lat. (N.W. corner of Larissa) 37 38 9" N. ; Ion. 22 43 12" 
 E. (L.) It has regular streets, houses principally of wood, 
 .vitli projecting porticoes, which give them a light airy ap- 
 penrance. Pop. (1853), 10,000. Here are the scattered 
 ruins of the ancient Argos, little more than an undistinguish- 
 able mass. W. from the town, on an eminence, stands the 
 Acropolis, called Larissa, once a place of great strength. 
 
 ARGOSTOL1, a city, Ionian Islands, cnp. of Cephalonia, 
 on a small peninsula, E. shore of the gulf to which it gives 
 name; lat. (Hook Point fixed light) 38 11 12" N.; Ion. 
 20 28 30" E. (R.) It is marshy and insalubrious. The houses 
 are low, small, and meanly built ; but the town has a small 
 lyceum, a lazaretto, barracks, and churches. The harbour is 
 considered the best in the Ionian Islands, and has several 
 dockyards. The inner haven or port affords excellent shelter, 
 excepting when the wind is from the N.N.W., to which it is 
 open. Manufactures: cotton and pottery. Numerous trading 
 vessels frequent the port; which is the residence of the British 
 governor, of a Greek bishop, and the seat of the civil and 
 criminal courts of the island. Pop. 8000. 
 
 ARGUIN, an isl., W. coast, Africa, in a bay of the same 
 name, about 54 m. S.E. Cape Blanco; lat. 20 27 N.; Ion. 
 16 37 W. It is between 30 and 40 m. long, about 1 m. 
 broad, and about 8 m. from the mainland ; between which and 
 the island the water is shallow, the deepest part not exceeding 
 5 ft. The island is formed of a whitish rock, covered to the 
 depth of about 9 ft. with sand, which is constantly shifting. 
 The N. part is flat, but the S. rises to a considerable elevation, 
 and may be seen at a distance of 30 m. It produces no wood, 
 except a small shrub called the phinim tree ; which yields a 
 caustic juice much used by the Arabs as a healing medicament. 
 Water, of excellent quality, is abundant ; but, owing to the 
 constant shifting of the sand, the wells are often difficult to 
 find. There are two considerable markets or fairs held on 
 the island during the year, in June and December ; and many 
 strangers come from a considerable distance to traffic, bringing 
 necklaces, beads, cloths, and tobacco, for which they receive 
 
ARGUN 
 
 203 
 
 ARGYLE 
 
 fish and oil, on which the inhabitants, 60 in number in 1844, 
 entirely subsist. The only quadrupeds known are white rats; 
 and the only birds hitherto seen, storks, cranes, and pelicans. 
 The heat is sometimes very great, but the climate is healthy. 
 Arguin is supposed to be identical with the island of Cerne, 
 where Hanno settled a colony during his celebrated voyage of 
 
 discovery. The BANK or SHOAL of Arguin commences about 
 
 12 m. S. Cape Blanco, and stretches S. for upwards of 130 m. ; 
 breadth at the broadest part, which is in the centre, about 
 40 m. ; at cither end the breadth does not exceed 10 m. It is 
 a hard, sandy flat, generally covered with broken shells. Its 
 outer edge has been fixed at 7 fathoms, which lessens E., or 
 towards the land, to 4 fathoms. Close to the breakers, on 
 some parts of the bank, there are not more than 10 ft. water. 
 Numerous shipwrecks have taken place on this dangerous 
 shoal, amongst them that of the French frigate Medusa. 2, 
 A tn. of same name on the coast opposite the island. It was 
 formerly a French settlement ; and is the termination of the 
 caravan route from Timbuctoo. 
 
 ARGUN, or AKOOUN, a river of N.E. Asia. See AMOOK. 
 ARGUNSK, a fort, Siberia, gov. Irkutsk, 1. bank, Argun, 
 from which pearls are obtained, 130m. E. Nertchinsk; lat. 
 50 50 N.; Ion. 120 15 E. A considerable trade is carried 
 on here ; and in the vicinity silver and gold are obtained, and 
 from several lakes salt is procured. Pop. 800. 
 
 ARGURI, a vil. Russian Armenia, 186 m. S. Tiflis, and 
 about 30 m. S.W. Erivan, on the level ground at the end of 
 the great chasm on the N.E. slope of Mount Ararat, about 
 5400 ft. above the sea. This was formerly one of the largest 
 and most beautiful villages in Armenia ; its houses, all of 
 stone, were enclosed within courtyards, surrounded by stone 
 walls, and it had a well-built church. A rivulet, which had 
 its source in a glacier, and passed down through the great 
 chasm, had its outlet at the village, and, in conjunction with 
 some spring wells, afforded a plentiful supply of good water. 
 The inhabitants, about 1600 Armenians, and a number of 
 Kurds, lived by rearing horses and cattle, and by growing 
 some corn, though at a distance from the village, the soil in 
 the immediate neighbourhood being very stony. They also 
 cultivated the vine, which, according to very questionable 
 tradition, was first planted here by Noah when he left the ark, 
 whence the Armenian name of the village [argr/t, he planted, 
 itrri, the vine] . Up the mountain, a short distance from Arguri, 
 was the monastery and chapel of St. James, 6375 ft. above 
 the sea. It stood on a grassy terrace, about 25 ft. above the 
 rivulet in the lower part of the great chasm, which here has a 
 depth of 600 to 800 ft. In this monastery Parrot and his 
 companions resided during their exploration of the mountain. 
 On July 2, 1840, an eruption of Ararat overwhelmed, in one 
 common destruction, the village of Arguri and the monastery 
 and chapel of St. James, with their inhabitants and inmates, 
 consisting of 1500 Armenians, 400 Kurdish servants, and 
 eight monks. Only 114 individuals escaped, who were en 
 gaged in the fields, and otherwise at a distance from the scene 
 of the calamity. Since the eruption, the wells of the village 
 have given forth discoloured water of a sulphurous taste. 
 See ARARAT. (Parrot s Journey to Ararat; Wagner s Rtise 
 nacU dem Ararat.} 
 
 ARGYLE, an inland co. of New South Wales, 60 m. in 
 length from N. to S., and 36 in breadth; area, 1,248,600 ac. 
 It consists of extensive ridges and swelling hills, with irregu 
 lar plains between ; and is watered by streams branching from 
 the Hawkesbury and Shoalhaven rivers. It is more scantily 
 supplied with timber than most of the other counties, there 
 being a tract called Goulburn Plains, consisting of 35,000 ac., 
 without a single tree. The plains of this county are exceed 
 ingly fertile, and the scenery in general picturesque. The 
 county town, Goulburn, is 125 m. S.W. from Sydney. The 
 county sends one member to the Legislative Council. Pop. 
 5000. 
 
 ARGYLE, or ARGYLL, an extensive co. in the S.W. 
 of the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland, 
 and partly of islands ; bounded, N. by Inverness ; E. by 
 Perth, Dumbarton, the Frith of Clyde, and Kilbrannan Sound : 
 S. by the North Channel ; and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. 
 Area, about 2,432,000 ac., of which 308,000 are under culti 
 vation. Greatest length of mainland about 115 in.; breadth 
 exceedingly irregular, being about 60 m. near its N., and nol 
 much over 10 m. at its S., extremity. From the windings 
 
 f the numerous bays and creeks with which the land is 
 everywhere indented, it is supposed to have more than 600 
 of sea-coast. Its principal inlets are Loch Shiel, Loch 
 iunart, Loch Linnhe, Loch Etive, Loch Fine, and Loch 
 Long. 
 
 Argyle is divided into five districts, Cowall, Lorn or Argyle 
 roper, Cantyre, Morven, and Sunart. Of these there are 
 arious subdivisions, such as Appin, Glcnorchy, Ardna- 
 lurchan, and Knapdalo. The county includes the islands 
 f Tiree, Coll, Mull, Islay, Jura, Staffa, lona or Icolmkill, 
 , anna, Ruin, Muck, Lismore, Lorn, Ken-era, Seil, Easdale, 
 ^uiiig, Shuna, Lunga, Scarba, Colonsay and Oronsay, Gigha, 
 Sanda, Gometra, and Ulva. The chief towns are the capital, 
 nverary, Campbelton, Oban, Bowmore, Lochgilphead, anil 
 lobermory. For a long time this county scarcely formed part 
 f the kingdom, being subject to the Macdonalds of the Isles, 
 rho assumed regal and independent sway over it. The 
 estates, titles, and jurisdiction of the latter, however, sub- 
 equently fell to the Campbells, to whom they still belong. 
 L he Duke of Argyle, whose seat is at Inverary, is proprietor 
 >r feuar of the largest portion of the territory, and chief of the 
 amily of Campbell. The general features of the county are 
 varied and striking ; consisting of lofty mountains, deep glens, 
 and inlets of the sea running far into the land. Towards the 
 *f. it exhibits the wild grandeur characteristic of the W. 
 highlands of Scotland. 
 
 The W. termination of the great Grampian range is within 
 he county. The mountain masses which stretch N.E. from 
 he river Awe into the shires of Perth and Inverness, consist 
 jhiefly of granite; which also extends along the N.W. shore 
 )f Loch Linnhe into the districts of Sunart and Morven. In 
 ilmost every other part of the mainland (especially among the 
 jirampians, on the E. borders of the county), and in several 
 >f the islands, as Islay, Jura, &c., mica-slate is the prevailing 
 ock, and is extensively quarried. Limestone, chiefly of the 
 earlier, but partly also of the more recent formation, and 
 sometimes in the form of tolerable marble, is found ; and a 
 mall coal field is partially worked in the neighbourhood of 
 Campbelton. The earth called Strontian was first discovered 
 it the village of that name in this county, and there two veins 
 )f lead exist. Copper has been discovered in several localities, 
 and was at one time worked. 
 
 The climate, though variable, is on the whole mild. The 
 
 11s and forests abound with fallow-deer, stags, rocs, and 
 almost every sort of game. The coast, although rocky, being 
 ndented with numerous deep bays and lochs, affords abund 
 ance of safe and excellent harbourage. In the interior there 
 re several lakes, the largest of which is Loch Awe. The 
 county is intersected by numerous streams, but none of im 
 portance. Both lakes and streams abound with fish. The 
 soil is of a mixed character, the pasture various, many of the 
 
 11s being covered with heath, while others are green to their 
 summits. Numerous herds of black cattle and sheep are 
 eared ; which, next to the fisheries, occupies the chief atten 
 tion of the inhabitants. Some of the gluns are fertile, and in 
 good cultivation ; particularly Glendarucl, the finest in the 
 county. Agricultural produce is chiefly confined to barley, 
 >, and potatoes ; but wheat, rye, pease, beans, and flax are 
 also cultivated to a small extent. The chief articles of export 
 are sheep, cattle, horses, fish, slate, and granite. The prin 
 cipal manufactures are leather, the weaving of wool, and 
 smelting of iron ore. One of the most important branches of 
 ndustry is the fishing of herring, cod, and ling, which abound 
 on the coast, and around the islands. The roads by which the 
 county is traversed are generally good. It has also internal 
 water communication by the Caledonian and C rinan Canals ; 
 the latter lying wholly within the county, and shortening the 
 passage from the Frith of Clyde to the W. Highlands by 120 m. 
 Nothing has given a greater impulse to the agriculture and 
 industry of Argyllshire than the extension of steam naviga 
 tion. By this means the most distant parts of the county are 
 brought into easy communication with one another, and with 
 Glasgow, to which the inhabitants can now send their stock 
 and produce with the certainty of finding a ready market. 
 Among the antiquities of Argyle are the celebrated monastery 
 of lona, the remains of a Cistertian priory in Oronsay, and 
 the castles of Dunstaflhage on Loch Etive, Ardtornish on 
 the Sound of Mull, Skipness in Cantyre, and Kilchurn on 
 Loch Awe. The most noted of its natural curiosities are the 
 
ARGYRO CASTRO 
 
 204 
 
 ARIEGE 
 
 basaltic columns and cave of Staffa. Argyle is the birthplace 
 of Ossian, and the scene of many of the occurrences recorded 
 in his poems. The cave of Stafla still bears the name of 
 Fingal s Cave. The population of the entire county, which 
 in 1801 was 73,023, in 1851 amounted to 89,298. 
 Parliamentary constituency for 1844-5, 1766. Valued 
 rental, 12,466, 5s. Wd. ; annual real value in 1815. 
 227,493. (New Stat. Ace.; Forsyth s Beauties of 
 Scotland; Hon. Mrs. Murray s Guide to Beauties of 
 Scotland; Anderson s Guide to Highlands ; &c.) 
 
 ARGYRO CASTRO, or ERGIR CASTRO [Turkish, 
 Eryhile], a tn. European Turkey, in Albania, 1. bank. 
 Ergir or Argiro, 40 m. N.W. Jannina. This town, 
 fortified by an extensive castle perched on a rock of 
 conglomerate, and commanding the mountain-pass of 
 Derbeud, is situated on several ridges of rock, broken 
 up by deep ravines, and connected by stone bridges. 
 The houses are scattered over an irregular and broken 
 surface, giving the town a singular and romantic appear 
 ance. The place was taken and fortified by Ali Pasha BALZ 
 in 1812. It was then a place of much greater consequence 
 than it is now, its population being, in 1813, estimated at 
 13,000; but decay of trade, visitations of the plague, and the 
 
 by a patriot force, and nearly deserted by its inhabitants. The 
 port is small, and landing difficult, on account of the great 
 swell of the surf, except in the balsas, or double canoes of the 
 country, which are constructed of inflated seal skins, and being 
 
 
 war of Greek independence, had reduced the inhabitants, in 
 1839, to 2000 Albanian and 200 Greek families ; most of the 
 
 OF INFLATED SKINS. iVom I> OrLiigny, Vojase J""" 
 
 managed by the natives with great dexterity, will live where 
 an ordinary boat would be swamped. On these fragile barques 
 
 ARGYRO CASTKO. f 
 
 few Turks there resident being government officials or soldiers. | 
 The vale of Argyro Castro, which is of a pastoral character, 
 is 30 m. long, and from 4 to 5 wide. 
 
 ARTAXO, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra, 44 m. 
 N.E. Naples, on a steep hill in one of the most frequented 
 passes of the Apennines, on the main road from Naples to 
 Puglia. It is the residence of a superintendent of education, 
 and of a suffragan bishop ; it contains a handsome cathedral, 
 12 parish churches, several convents, an academy, an hospital, 
 several monts-de-piete, and some earthenware manufactories. 
 It suffered greatly from earthquakes in 1456 and 1 732. Pop. 
 11,718. 
 
 ARICA, a maritime tn. Peru, cap. dist. of its own name, 
 dep. of, and 200 m. S.S.E. from Arequipa; 200 m. N.W. 
 Potosi ; situated in an agreeable valley, upon the coast of the 
 Pacific; lat. (mole) 18 28 6" S.; Ion. 70 24 W. (R.) The 
 houses are chiefly constructed of canes and reeds, covered 
 with mats. Glass beads are manufactured in the town, and 
 near it salt is obtained plentifully. Arica was formerly a more 
 considerable place than it is now, and had a larger population. 
 From this port, the produce of the celebrated mines of Potosi, 
 in Bolivia, were shipped. It has now fallen into comparative 
 insignificance, and has at various times suffered severely from 
 earthquakes, especially in 1833, when it was almost entirely 
 destroyed. It is the principal port through which foreign 
 business is carried on with Bolivia, that country not possess 
 ing any convenient port of its own. The customs revenue 
 of Arica in 1845, amounted to 54,154; and in 1846, to 
 64,578. During the war of independence in 1821, Arica 
 was much injured by military operations, having been attacked 
 
 all kinds of goods are landed. At the entrance to the roads 
 of Arica lies the island of Guano, so thickly covered with the 
 manure of the same name as to communicate 
 no very agreeable odour to the prevalent W. 
 winds blowing over the island, right on the 
 ships at anchor. - The DISTRICT of Arica 
 is about 480 m. long, N.W. and S.E., and 
 about 40 m. average breadth, E. to W. It 
 is, in general, extremely barren, consisting 
 principally of sandy deserts, with a few 
 cultivated spots. In some of the valleys, 
 Guinea pepper, wheat, maize, and other 
 crops are grown. Pop. of the town about 
 3500, though once estimated at 30,000. 
 ARICATI. See ARACATI. 
 ARICII AT, a flourishing seaport, Cape 
 Breton Island, S. side,Madame Island, about 
 lat. 45 28 N. ; lon. 61 3 W. It contains 
 several considerable establishments for pro 
 secuting the fishery The trade is for the 
 most part in the hands of Jersey merchants, 
 who employ the people in the neighbour 
 hood in taking fish, large exports of which, 
 both dry and pickled, are made to the West 
 , Alton :., *<. Indies, to S. America, and to Europe. Pop. 
 
 between 1500 and 2000. 
 ARID, a small isl. Indian Ocean, about 70 m. S.W. 
 
 Possession Island ; lat. 46 56 S. ; Ion. 47 30 E. 
 
 ARIEGE, a river, France, supposed to derive its Latin 
 name, Aurigera, from the grains of alluvial gold found in 
 its bed ; has its source in Lake Embeix, at the foot of the 
 Pic de Framiquel, in the E. Pyrenees ; flows N.W. through 
 dep. Ariege, enters Ilaute-Garonne, and falls into the river 
 Garonne at Pinsaguel, about 6 in. S. Toulouse, after a course 
 of about 93 m. It becomes navigable at Cintegabelle, 17 m. 
 above its embouchure, the place where Lord Hill, with a 
 portion of the British forces, crossed the Ariege in 1814. 
 The river abounds in excellent salmon trout, shad-fish, &c. 
 
 ARIEGE, or ARRIEGE, a dep. France, on the Spanish 
 frontier, comprehending the former Comte de Foix, nearly 
 the whole of Couserans, in Gascony, some communes of 
 ancient Languedoc, and a considerable portion of the Pyrenees ; 
 bounded, W. and N. by Ilaute-Garonne, E. by Aude, S.E. 
 by Pyrenees Orientales, and S. by the valley of Andorra 
 and the Pyrenees. Area, 1,124,816 ac., two-thirds of which 
 are covered by mountains ; length, E. to W. 64 m. ; breadth, 
 N. to S. 48 m. The mountains rise gradually from N. 
 to S., and reach their greatest elevation on the extreme 
 frontier, in the Pyrenees. The principal summit is Mont- 
 calm, 10,663 ft. high. The others range from an altitude 
 of 10,61 1 to 6299 ft., the height of the Puy Moreins. The 
 various branches stretching from E. to W. separate the de 
 partment into two valleys, the one watered by the Ariege, 
 and the other by the Salat. These two rivers are the only 
 navigable ones. Among numerous other streams are the 
 Yolp, the Arize, the waters of which pass under ground in 
 
AEIENZO 
 
 205 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 two places, and the Leze, all of which flow into the Garonne. 
 In the N., the climate is mild and temperate, but in the S. 
 the heat is oppressive in summer, and the cold extreme in 
 winter. The higher lands in the S. furnish principally wood 
 and pastures, with some medicinal plants ; the lower are re 
 markable for their fertility, particularly in the N. districts 
 about Pamieres, St. Girons, and Mirepoix. Chief produce : 
 corn, wheat, maize, millet, potatoes, hemp, and flax. The 
 arable land in the department extends to 366,692 ac.; meadows, 
 82,835 ac.; vineyards, 28,603 ac.; wood, 222,664 ac.; heath 
 and barren land, 322,664 ac. The vine is cultivated up to 
 the middle of the highest mountains. The wine is of in 
 different quality, and is entirely consumed in the district. 
 There are numerous orchards, and woods of chestnuts, which 
 yield a great deal of fruit. A large quantity of cattle, sheep, 
 and goats, are reared. Bears, wild boars, wolves, foxes, 
 badgers, roebucks,chnmois, polecats, otters, hares, and rabbits 
 abound in the forests and mountains ; also eagles and other 
 birds of prey. Eeptiles and vipers are found in the marshy 
 places, and trout and craw-fish in the rivers and lakes. 
 
 The staple trade of the department is in iron, the principal 
 mines of which are at La Eancie, in the Vicdessos, which 
 supply nearly 60 furnaces in* this one department alone. 
 Lead and copper are procured in various places ; and also 
 small quantities of silver. Marble, jasper, gypsum, slates, 
 and coal, are worked. Cloth, hosiery, cotton stuffs, woollens, 
 linens, hats, soap, earthenware, and china; leather, paper, 
 and glass, are manufactured ; and iron, cattle, cork, resin, 
 wool, marble, and jasper, exported. A considerable tiaffic is 
 earned on with Spain, the goods being transported over the 
 Pyrenees chiefly on mule or horseback. 
 
 The department, of which Foix is the capital, is divided 
 into three arrondissements Foix, Pamiers, and St. Girons, 
 and subdivided into 20 cantons and 336 communes. Pop. 
 270,555. (Murray s Handbook for France; French Official 
 Talles.} 
 
 AEIENZO, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Lavoro, 18 m. 
 N.E. Naples, on Mount Tifati, between Naples and Bene- 
 vento ; and said to have been founded by the Normans. It 
 has seven parish churches, an hospital, and a mont-de-pitte. 
 Pop. between 10,000 and 11,000. 
 
 ARlGrNA, a coal and iron dist. Ireland, in the N. of co 
 Eoscommon, on the stream of the same name. Attempts 
 have repeatedly been made to work the minerals of this dis 
 trict, but hitherto without any advantageous result. 
 
 AEINOS, a river, Brazil, prov. Matto-Grosso. It rises 
 in the Parcels mountains, which form part of the N. boundary 
 of the Diamond District; takes a N.W. course, and falls into 
 the river Tapajos, an affluent of the Amazon, in hit. 9 30 S. ; 
 Ion. 58 20 W., after a course of about 700m. (Die. Geo. 
 Imp. Brazil.) 
 
 ARIPO, a small tn., W. coast, isl. Ceylon, Gulf of Manaar, 
 Bay of Condatchy, 125 m. N. Colombo; lat. 8 45 N. ; Ion. 
 80 8 E. The surroimding country is sterile. To the E. is 
 a bank where the pearl fishery is carried on, in the Gulf of 
 Manaar ; and during the fishing season the civil and military 
 authorities reside at Aripo. 
 
 AEISH, or ARAISH (EL), a fort and vil. Egypt, near the 
 Syrian frontier, 168 m. N.E. Cairo; lat. 31 5 30" N. ; Ion. 
 33 57 45" E. (u.) ; on a low eminence about half a mile from 
 the Mediterranean, on a creek and small river of the same 
 name. It has fragments of columns and other architectural 
 remains, and is supposed to occupy the site of the anc. Ehi- 
 nocolura; but, in modern times, it is remarkable only as 
 giving name to a convei.tion (July 24, 1800) between the 
 Turks and French, after the position of the latter, in Egypt, 
 had been rendered insecure by the battle of the Nile, by which 
 the French agreed to leave Egypt within three months. 
 
 ARISPE, a tn. Mexico, 1. bank, Sonora, cap. intendancy 
 of same name ; lat. 30 42 N. ; Ion. 109 15 W. ; about 190 
 in. E. the Gulf of California. This town, says Major Pike, 
 1 is celebrated throughout the kingdom for the vast quantity 
 of gold table utensils made use of in the houses, and for the 
 urbanity and hospitality of the inhabitants. The pop. has 
 been variously stated from 3400 to 7600 ; it may probably 
 be between the two. 
 
 ARIZE, or LAIUZE, a river, France, which rises near 
 Puy Jugon among the mountains of Esplas, a branch of the 
 Pyrenees, dep. Ariege, and, after a course of about 25 m., 
 
 falls into the Garonne opposite Carbonne. Near Mas-d Azil, 
 in lat. 43 5 N. ; Ion. 1 20 E., it traverses Eoche-du-Mas, 
 one of the most remarkable caverns of the Pyrenees. Two 
 lofty precipices, slanting towards each other, meet at their 
 summit and form an immense arch, which is capable of shel 
 tering 2000 men, and under which the Arize flows. The 
 two entries to this cavern are wide, and were at one time for 
 tified by high walls. In 1625, during the religious wars, the 
 Calvinists of the surrounding districts took refuge here, and 
 successfully withstood all the attempts of the R. catholic 
 army to force them to surrender. 
 
 ARJISIT, or AKDISH [anc. Arzes, Arsissa], a small tn. 
 Kurdistan, Turkey in Asia, pash. Van, on the N.W. shore of 
 the lake, and 40 m. N.W. the tn. of that name. It has a 
 castle, now in a ruinous condition. In the neighbourhood 
 are some beautiful gardens, and throughout the district large 
 quantities of corn and cotton are produced. Lake Van is 
 sometimes called Lake Arjish. 
 
 ARJ1SH, or EHJISH-DAGH [anc. Aryans], a celebrated 
 mountain, Asia Minor, 117 in. N. by W. from the head of the 
 Bay of Jskenderoon ; lat. 39 3 N. ; Ion. 35 40 E. Its height 
 is estimated, by Humboldt, at 13,197 ft.; and by Hamilton, 
 at 13,100 ft. It rises up almost to a single peak, from a broad 
 and extended base, consisting entirely of volcanic rocks and 
 scoriaceous cinders of different kinds. Its sloping sides are 
 studded all round with numerous cones and craters, the effects 
 of volcanic action at various periods. Being nearly destitute 
 of trees, and exhibiting little or no cultivation, it has an 
 extremely inhospitable look ; an effect which is increased by 
 the black, rugged, and cindery appearance of the rocks. The 
 lowest limit of the snow line was found, by Mr. Hamilton, to 
 be 10,300 ft. The elevation of this mountain is so great and 
 so unusual in this part of the world, that the inhabitants of 
 the surrounding country look upon it with awe and astonish 
 ment, and have associated it with many fables. (Hamilton s 
 Asia Minor ; Ainsworth s Journey from Angora to JJir.) 
 
 ARJONA, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 14 m. 
 N.W. from Jaen, on a mountain slope ; ill-built, but having a 
 pretty promenade, with a church and five schools, a consistory, 
 storehouse, hospital, and prison. The inhabitants are em 
 ployed in agriculture, domestic weaving, and grinding oil. 
 Pop. 3000. 
 
 ARJONILLA, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 16 m. N.W. from Jaen, on a plain surrounded by hills; 
 tolerably well built, and having a church and three schools, 
 a consistory, hospital, prison, and abattoir. The inhabitants 
 are employed in tillage, tanning leather, and making bricks 
 and tiles. Pop. 2400. 
 
 ARK, or ARCH, a small isl. in d Entrecasteaux Channel, 
 Van Diemcn s Land, between Bruno Island and the mainland ; 
 lat. 43 17 S.;lon. 147 19 E. 
 
 ARKAIG, or AIICHAIG (Locn), a solitary but beautiful 
 lake, S. part of Inverness-shire, Scotland, 16 m. long by 1 
 broad. It communicates with Loch Lochy, from which it is 
 only about 2 m. distant, by a dark and sluggish stream. The 
 lake is but little frequented, although the scenery around it 
 is of surpassing beauty. 
 
 ARKANSAS, one of the southern U. States of America, 
 bounded, N. by Missouri, E. by the river Mississippi, which 
 separates it from the states of Mississippi and Tennesse, S. 
 by Louisiana and Texas, and W. by the Indian territory. It 
 lies between lat. 33 and 36 30 N., and Ion. 89 30 and 
 94 30 W., and is 240 m. long, by 228 wide; area, 54,500 
 sq. m., or 34,880,000 ac. The E. part of Arkansas, watered 
 by the numerous tributaries of the Mississippi, is low, flat, and 
 marshy, thickly wooded, and subject to frequent inundations. 
 The middle is more diversified, having an undulating and 
 partly hilly surface, though of inconsiderable elevation. The 
 W. is more hilly ; being traversed by the O/.ark range, which 
 extends into Missouri, and, at some points, attains the height of 
 2000 ft. In various parts there are prairies of immense extent ; 
 and extensive forests of large trees, consisting principally of 
 oak, hickory, ash, cotton, linden, maple, locust, and pine. The 
 territory is generally well watered, though in many parts it 
 is otherwise. Its principal rivers are the Arkansas, the lied 
 Kiver, the White Eiver, the St. Francis, and the Washita or 
 Ouachitta, all tributaries of the Mississippi. Near the centre 
 of the state are numerous hot springs ; the temperature of 
 which, though variable, rises in the driest seasons to the boil- 
 
ARKANSAS 
 
 200 
 
 ARLES 
 
 ing point. They arc much resorted to for chronic and para 
 lytic affections. The higher lands are considered the most 
 healthy ; and the climate is generally mild, but is said to be 
 unfavourable to recent settlers. The soil is various ; the 
 most fertile being that which skirts the rivers. The staple 
 crops are cotton, maize, and com ; but garden plants and fruit- 
 trees are likewise cultivated with success. Wild animals 
 abound, and the domestic species are reared in considerable 
 numbers. Iron, coal, salt, lead, and other minerals, are found. 
 Manufactures and commerce, still limited, are increasing. This 
 state has no colleges, and few common schools. The Arkansas 
 territory, originally, and still partly occupied by Indian tribes, 
 was colonized by the French in 1685, under the Chevalier de 
 Tonti. In 1803, it was ceded by purchase to the U. States ; 
 and, in 1819, was made a separate territory, having been for 
 merly part of Louisiana. Seventeen years afterwards, its consti 
 tution was framed, and it was admitted into the Union. The 
 governor is elected by the people for four years, the senators 
 for four, and the representatives for two. The state sends 
 one member to Congress. Arkansas is divided into 54 coun 
 ties, and contains but few large towns and villages. Pop. in 
 1840, 97,574; of which 19,935 were slaves, and 465 free 
 people of colour. Total pop. in 1850, 209,639. (U. States 
 Gazetteer; Davenport s American Gazettrer.) 
 
 ARKANSAS, a large river, U. States, America, rishig in 
 the Eocky Mountains, about lat. 40 30 N. ; Ion. 109 W., 
 flowing E.S.E. through the Missouri and Arkansas territories, 
 and, after a course of 2170 m., joining the Mississippi in lat. 
 33 40 N. Its channel is broad, and unobstructed by rocks, 
 shoals, or rapids; boats may, at some seasons, ascend the 
 stream for 1980m. It has numerous tributaries; the prin 
 cipal being the Neosho, on the N., and the Canadian, with its 
 branches, on the S. Among the upper component streams or 
 forks, and along the banks of the main river, lies an extensive 
 plain of reddish sand, based on a thick stratum of reck salt, 
 and covered in dry, hot weather with a crust of pure, white, 
 crystallized salt, several inches deep ; and named from these 
 circumstances the salt prairie, grand saline, or salt plain. 
 (Gregg s Commerce of tlie Prairies.} 
 
 ARKENGART1I-DALE, a par. and township, England, 
 co. York, N. Kiding ; 14,180 ac. ; N. by W. Richmond. Pop. 
 iii 1841, 1243. 
 
 ARKESDEN, a par. England, co. Essex; 2320 ac.; S. 
 Saffron Walden. Pop. in 1841, 498. 
 
 ARKHANGEL. See ARCHANGEL. 
 
 ARKHOURI. See AROUHI. 
 
 ARKIKO, or ARKEIKO, a seaport, Abyssinia, at the head 
 of the Bay of Massawah; lat. 15 38 N.; Ion. 39 37 E. Il 
 is a small, miserable place, consisting entirely of mud hovels ; 
 and is surrounded by a flat and sandy country, with a few 
 gardens in the immediate vicinity. It is governed by a nayib 
 or native chief; and derives its importance from being the 
 point of the coast nearest to the Abyssinian territories, and 
 through which all intercourse by sea to the N. of that country 
 is now carried on. The principal exports are corn and slaves, 
 sent to Arabia, iire-arms being taken in exchange. 
 
 ARKINSK, a Cossack settlement in Siberia, gov. of, and 
 about 30 m. W. from Okhotsk, on the Okhota, which, a little 
 higher up, receives the Arka. It was originally founded for 
 the purpose of facilitating intercourse with the indigenous 
 population, and is one of the centres whence the Yasak or 
 tribute levied on the natives is collected. The settlers ex 
 port to Okhotsk the nuts of the stone-pine, a tree which here, 
 though nearly upright in summer, lies prostrate, covered with 
 snow, in winter ; and they do also a good business in collect 
 ing the soft horns of the rein-deer, for the Russian traders to 
 Kiakhta, where the horns are sold to the Chinese, who make 
 them into a jelly much sought after by gormands. The 
 native Tungusses also make a jelly of these horns, but they 
 only use it for glue. (Erman s Travels.) 
 
 ARKLOVV, a maritime tn. and par. Ireland, co. Wicklow. 
 The town is on the r. bank of the A voca, 14 m. S. S. W. W icklo w, 
 and 39 S.S.E. Dublin. A bridge of 19 arches here crosses the 
 river, which falls into the sea about 500 yards below the town. 
 It is divided into the upper and lower town. The houses of the 
 former are neatly built. The church, a handsome edifice, is 
 in the centre of the town ; which also possesses a R. catholic 
 chapel, and a small Methodist meeting-house. The lower 
 town, built mostly of thatched mud cabins, is inhabited prin 
 
 cipally by fishermen, engaged in the herring fishery, and in 
 dredging for oysters ; the latter chiefly sent to Liverpool. 
 The harbour being much obstructed at its entrance by a bar, 
 is resorted to by the native fishermen only. The town con 
 tains a school for boys, two schools for girls, a savings bank, 
 a fever hospital, a dispensary, and a constabulary and an in 
 fantry barracks. Some little business is done in the malt 
 trade. At one period a considerable portion of the copper ore 
 obtained from the Wieklow mines was exported from Arklow. 
 
 The principal import is coal. The PARISH of Arklow, at the 
 
 S.E. extremity of the county, 8127 ac., contains the celebrated 
 mountain of Croghau-Kinsella ; which, about the close of the 
 last century, was supposed to possess native gold, and mining 
 operations were established there by Government, but the 
 works were destroyed in the insurrection of 1798. They 
 were afterwards resumed, but no gold being discovered, they 
 were ultimately abandoned. Pop. of tn. in 1841, 3254; of 
 par. 6237. 
 
 ARKONA, or AKCOXA, a promontory, N. coast, isl. Riigcn, 
 in the Baltic. There is here a fixed light, 202 ft. above the 
 sea level; lat. 51 40 54" N.; Ion. 13 26 12" K. (R.) 
 
 ARKSEY, a par. England, co. York, W. Riding; 5220 ac.; 
 N. Doncastcr. Pop. in 1841, 1056. 
 
 ARKUDI. See Auciium. 
 
 ARLANC, or ARLANT, a tn. France, dep. Puy-de-DOme 
 (Auvergne), 40m. S.E. Clermont; agreeably situated on a 
 hill, at the foot of which flows the Dolore. Manufactures: 
 blondes, laces, and ribbons. Pop. 1532. 
 
 ARLANZA, a river, Spain, in Old Castile, rising in tho 
 sierra de Neilar, prov. Burgos ; it flows W., and, after receiv 
 ing the Pedrosa and other tributaries, joins the Arlanzon 
 about 8 m. N.E. from its confluence with the Pisuerga, after 
 a course of about 60 in. 
 
 ARLANZON, a river, Spain, in Old Castile, rising 24 m. 
 E.S.E. Burgos, in the sierra Pineda, and, flowing through 
 Burgos, winds S.W., and falls into the Pisuerga 3 m. N.E. 
 Torquemada, after a course of about 70 m. 
 
 ARLBERG, or ADLERSUKRQ [Eagle s mount], a branch 
 of the Rhetian Alps, in the W. of the Tyrol and the Vorarlberg, 
 between the sources of the 111 and the Lech. The chain is 
 traversed by a road made by the Emperor Joseph II., in 1786, 
 and greatly improved since 1835, along which there is much 
 traffic between Venice, Trieste, and Switzerland. A hospice 
 was erected on the summit in 1386, to shelter travellers from 
 the Alpine snows. 
 
 ARLECDON, a par. England, co. Cumberland ; 5700 ac.; 
 E.N.E. Whitehaven; new church, and coal worked. Pop. in 
 184l,558 ; 
 
 ARLES [anc. Arelate, Arelatum}, a tn. France, dep. 
 Bouehes-du-Ehone (Provence), cap. arrond. of same name, 
 and of two cantons, 1. bank, Rhone, about 24 m. N. from the 
 sea, and 17m. S.E. Nismcs. It stands a little below the 
 angle of the delta formed by the two branches of the Rhone, 
 on a rocky table of shell limestone, which slopes gradually to 
 the river. Its old ramparts, which are not now used, enclose 
 a space of 1 93 ac. The streets, though not laid out in per 
 fectly straight lines, are tolerably regular and spacious ; but 
 the pavement, composed of round flints, is fatiguing to the 
 foot, and inconvenient. The squares, which scarcely exceed 
 three in number, are of limited extent, but regularly formed. 
 The principal one is the Place lloyale, which is used as the 
 market-place, and occasionally as a circus for bull-fights a 
 sport to which the youth of Aries are much addicted. The 
 principal ornament of this Place is an ancient obelisk, a mono 
 lith of granite, the only one executed out of Egypt. It was 
 discovered in 1389, but not set up till 1676, when, in bad taste, 
 it was crowned by a globe of Jicur-de-lis, and dedicated, by 
 inscriptions on its pedestal, to Louis XIV. It is about 50 ft. 
 in height, and being well placed, has an imposing effect. 
 Around the Place Royale are a series of public buildings 
 the Hotel de Ville, an edifice of three stories, decorated with 
 a row of Corinthian pillars, surmounted by a tower, and con 
 taining, on its first story, the public library of about 12,000 
 volumes ; the museum, occupying the old church of St. Anne; 
 the Gothic monastery of St. Trophimus; and the ancient 
 palace of the archbishops of Aries. The other buildings of 
 note in the town are the cathedral, built by St. Virgilius in 
 the seventh century, adorned without by a fine portico and 
 facade, and within by some fine paintings ; the church of Notro 
 
AELESIIEIM 
 
 207 
 
 ARMAGH 
 
 Dame, said to have been built on the foundations of a temple 
 
 of Cybele ; the church of St. Honore", which was founded in 
 
 the sixth century, and in which a series of ancient frescoes, 
 
 analogous to those of Pompei, has been recently discovered. 
 
 The whole town, indeed, abounds in ancient monuments, the 
 
 most interesting of which is the Roman amphitheatre, which 
 
 | was fitted to contain 24,000 spectators ; and, both in size 
 
 j and magnificence, is supposed to have surpassed that of 
 
 Nisuies. Aries is the chief place of a sous-prefecture, and 
 
 THE CATHEDRAL, ARLE3, from the Grand Place. 
 From Chapuy, Cathrfraits Francaises. 
 
 possesses a court of commerce, a chamber of manufactures, 
 an agricultural society, a communal college, and a school of 
 hydrography. Its manufactures, which are not of much im 
 portance, are almost confined to hats and famous sausages. 
 It has also silkmills, and builds some vessels. Its trade is 
 extensive, and gives it, in respect of exports, the fifth place 
 among the ports of France, Aries ranking immediately between 
 Rouen and Nantes. It possesses admirable facilities for trade. 
 Its quays, which are well paved and very spacious, serve as 
 an entrepot for all the merchandise which passes between 
 Lyons and Marseilles. In addition to the Rhone, on which 
 steam-vessels passing Aries regularly ply, two canals terminate 
 in the town, one connecting it with the Durance, and another 
 proceeding S., to the Port de Bouc. To these means of com 
 munication, a valuable accession has recently been made by 
 railways. The great railway which is to pass through Paris, 
 and connect the Mediterranean with the English Channel, has 
 been completed from Aries to Marseilles, while a branch of 
 the same railway proceeds from Aries to Nismes. Aries 
 possesses great historical interest. It is mentioned by Julius 
 Caesar, who, previous to the siege of Marseilles (Massilia), 
 built twelve war-galleys at its port. It was once an arch 
 bishopric, and makes an important figure in ecclesiastical 
 history as the place where several celebrated councils have 
 been held. Its ancient magnificence is still amply attested 
 
 by numerous remains of splendid edifices. The ARKOXD. 
 
 of Aries, consisting of eight cantons, subdivided into 33 com 
 munes, has an area of 920 sq. m. Pop. of tn. 14,239 ; of 
 arrond. 85,222. (Diet, de la France.} 
 
 AKLESHEIM, a small tn. Switzerland, can. of, and 
 about 5 m. S. from the town of Basel, in a fertile district, 
 r. bank, Birs, 1154 ft. above the sea. It is well built, and 
 has some baths, but is chiefly remarkable for its beautiful 
 botanic garden. On a hill close by is situated the ancient 
 castle of Birseck. Pop. 800. 
 
 ARLES-SUK TECH, a tn. France, dep. Pyre ne es Orientales 
 (Roussillon), 20 m. S.W. Perpignan. It contains an ancient 
 church, the front and portal of which are enriched with curious 
 carvings in white marble. Manufactures : soap, hoops, deals, 
 an:l leather. In the neighbourhood are some iron forges, and, 
 
 at a short distance, the small fortress and village of Arles-los- 
 Bains, now Amelie-les-Bains, whose hot mineral springs aro 
 much resorted to. Pop. 1939. 
 
 ARLEY, a par. England, co. Warwick; 2130 ac.; W. by 
 S. Nuneaton. Pop. in 1841, 265. 
 
 ARLINGHAM, a par. England, co. Gloucester ; 2300 ac.; 
 S.E. Newnham. Pop. in 1841, 793. 
 
 ARLINGTON, two parishes, England : 1, Co. Devon ; 
 1890 ac. ; N.E. Barnstaple. Pop. in 1841, 206. 2, Co. 
 Sussex; 4790 ac.; W.S.W. Hailsham. Pop. in 1841, 686. 
 
 ARLON [anc. Orolanum],a.tn. Belgium, cap. prov. Luxem 
 bourg, 104m. S.E. Brussels, and 15 m. W.N.W. Luxembourg. 
 It has two churches and a chapel ; a townhouse, an hospital, 
 a court of primary jurisdiction, an athenaeum, a school of 
 design, and several initiatory schools. It is the best corn- 
 market in the district. Its manufactures are woollen stuffs 
 for cloaks, leather, and, on a small scale, earthen or delft- 
 wares. The antiquity of Arlon is attested by coins, and in 
 scriptions on several busts of heathen deities, which have been 
 discovered near it. It has frequently suffered by the ravages 
 of war, both in ancient and modern times. Its last disaster 
 was in 1793, when it was pillaged by the French, after the 
 victory which they gained in the neighbourhood over the 
 Austrians. Pop. 4508. 
 
 ARLSEY, a par. England, co. Bedford; 2370 ac. ; N.W. 
 Baldock. Pop. in 1841, 820. 
 
 ARM A (SANTIAGO DE-), a tn. New Granada, prov. An- 
 tioquia, on the Arma, a tributary of the Cauca, 71 m. S.S.E. 
 Santa Fe d Antioquia. The climate is very hot. The dis 
 trict produces gold, and all kinds of grain and fruit. 
 
 ARMACAO, a small tn. Brazil, island of St. Catherine, 
 prov. of that name ; lat. 27 30 S. ; Ion. 48 40 W. There 
 is a whale-fishing establishment here. 
 
 ARMAGH, an inland co. Ireland, prov. Ulster, having 
 the cos. Down on the E., Louth on the S., Monaghan and 
 Tyrone on the W., and Lough Neagh on the N. It is about 
 34 m. in length, from N. to S., and in breadth, at the widest 
 part, about 21m. It contains 328,076 ac , of which 265,243 
 are arable, 35,117 uncultivated, 8996 plantations, 17,942 
 water, and 778 occupied by towns. The surface, generally, 
 is undulating and flat, excepting in the S.E., where it rises 
 into hills of considerable height, the highest attaining an ele 
 vation of 1893 ft. above the sea. Granite is their principal 
 constituent. In other parts greywacke and slate are the 
 prevalent rocks, while red sandstone predominates along the 
 margin of Lough Neagh. The minerals of this county aro 
 inconsiderable, but they include a very beautiful description 
 of marble, of which there are quarries near Armagh. The 
 soil is, in general, fertile, except in the mountain district. 
 The chief crops are wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, and flax. 
 EXTENT OB LAND UNDEE CROPS IN 1847. 
 
 Wheat. 
 Oats.... 
 Barley. 
 Ben-. .. 
 Kve.... 
 Beans.. 
 
 Acres, i Acres. 
 
 12,216 I Brought, forward, 103,021 
 
 88,734 
 
 3,972 
 
 1,644 
 
 322 
 
 1,133 
 
 Carry forward... 103,021 
 
 Potatoes 9,652 
 
 Turnips 10,661 
 
 MangoJd-wurzel 247 
 
 Other green crops 2,585 
 
 Flax 6,833 
 
 Meadow and clover... 22,492 
 
 Total.. .155,491 
 
 There are also a great many productive orchards in tha 
 N.E. parts of the county, the greater portion of the produce 
 of which is sent to Belfast, and occasionally to Glasgow. 
 Some dairy cows are kept, and a considerable quantity of 
 butter is made. Cattle, of a small stunted breed, are reared 
 in the mountainous districts ; sheep few and inferior. The 
 weaving of cotton and linen is carried on to some extent, par 
 ticularly the latter, which has long been the staple manufac 
 ture. The farms here are smaller than in any other county 
 in Ireland, running mostly from 2 to 15 ac. ; yet the condition 
 of the lower orders, as regards house-accommodation, is better 
 than in most other parts of the kingdom, their cottages being 
 generally whitewashed, well thatched, clean, and comfortable. 
 In 1845, there were 71 national schools in operation in the 
 county, attended by 7973 children. The whole number 
 attending the various schools, in 1841, was 12,553. The 
 county is divided into eight baronies and 28 parishes, and 
 returns three members to Parliament , two for the county, and 
 one for the city of Armagh. Constituency of the former, in 
 1849, 1242; of the latter, 753. Principal towns, Armagh 
 
ARMAGH 
 
 208 
 
 ARMENIA 
 
 und Lurgan (trfrich see}. Top. in 18-11, 232,393; of which, 
 2 1 1,893 is in the rural, and 20,500 in the civic district, being 
 511 persons to the sq. m. of arable laud, and 414 to the sq. in. 
 of the entire area of the county. Pop, (1851). 196,085. 
 
 AUMAGII [anc. Irish, Ardd ifaehe], a city, Ireland, 
 prov. Ulster, cap. of the above co., 70m. N. by W. Dublin, and 
 33 in. S.W. by S. Belfast, finely situated on the sloping sides 
 of a gentle eminence, the summit of which is crowned by the 
 cathedral. The streets are well laid out. regularly built, and 
 well kept and lighted. Some of them converge towards the 
 cathedral, others ascend in more oblique directions, and are 
 intersected by those of greater magnitude which encircle the 
 town. The houses are of a hard reddish calcareous stone, 
 and generally slated. A number of the public edifices are of 
 hewn limestone, of a vivid colour, and are, for the most part, 
 advantageously situated. The town is well supplied with 
 water, by pipes from a reservoir on an eminence in the neigh 
 bourhood. The most conspicuous and most interesting archi 
 tectural object in the city, is the cathedral. The original 
 edifice is said to have been erected by St. Patrick, in the year 
 455 ; the present, in 1675 ; it is in the Gothic or pointed style, 
 and in the form of a cross, 183 ft. long, with a tower and spire, 
 the entire height of the latter from the ground to the weather 
 cock being 150 ft. Some years ago it was repaired and beau 
 tified, chiefly at the expense of Lord John G. Beresford, who 
 contributed 10,000 for this purpose. On an eminence N. 
 of the town stands the new R. catholic cathedral, a large and 
 spacious building in the pointed Gothic style. It contains 
 several monuments, but all of comparatively modern date, none 
 of those belonging to the original cathedral being now in 
 existence. There are, besides, a Protestant chapel of ease, a 
 E. catholic chapel, two places of worship for Methodists, 
 three for Presbyterians, and one for Independents. The 
 other public buildings are the county court-house, prison, and 
 infirmary, the district lunatic asylum, which cost 20,000 ; 
 the royal school, styled the college ; a public library, built 
 and endowed by primate Robinson, in 1741, containing 14,000 
 volumes, some accounts say 20,000 ; a market-house, a brown 
 linen hall, a yarn-hall, and tontine buildings, the last includ 
 ing a spacious news-room ; various hospitals and charitable 
 establishments, and a number of schools, comprising a national 
 and Sunday school. Near the city is the archiepiscopal 
 palace, with a domestic chapel, and extensive and well laid 
 out grounds, open to the public; the mall, a place of public 
 recreation ; an observatory, witli a very superior astronomical 
 apparatus ; and barracks for 800 men. The principal business 
 of the place arises from the retail trade, for the supply of the 
 populous surrounding district, and the weekly market, where 
 a good deal of agricultural produce is sold, as well as the linen 
 made in the neighbourhood. Considerable quantities of 
 corn likewise are sent to Portadown and Newry for exporta 
 tion. There are here a brewery, several tanneries, and flour- 
 mills. There were formerly two distilleries, but they have 
 ceased working. Armagh is the seat of the archiepiscopal 
 see of the primate of all Ireland, whose ecclesiastical province 
 comprises six consolidated dioceses. 
 
 The city is of great antiquity. In 448, a synod was held 
 in it by St. Patrick, the canons of which, called Canoin Pat- 
 raic, or Patrick s canons, are still extant. They composed 
 the celebrated Book of Armagh, which was considered of 
 such value, that its safe keeping became a hereditary office of 
 dignity in a particular family, who held eight town-lands, as 
 remuneration for the responsibility. In the Middle Ages, it 
 was considered the metropolis of Ireland, and so continued 
 till that distinction was transferred to Dublin. It is still, 
 however, the ecclesiastical metropolis cf the kingdom. It was 
 at one time celebrated for its college, which long continued 
 one of the most famous seminaries in Europe. Armagh has 
 been, at various intervals, from the most remote times, sub 
 jected to some of the worst calamities of war, having been 
 often captured, plundered, and burned, alternately, by Danes, 
 Ostmans, English, Scotch, and, not unfrequently, by the 
 Irish chieftains themselves, when at war with each other. On 
 some of these occasions, numbers of the inhabitants were car 
 ried into captivity by the victors. Armagh returned two mem 
 bers to the Irish Parliament, but sends one only to the British 
 House of Commons. Constituency, 753. Markets are held 
 on Tuesdays 1 or general purposes, and on Wednesdays and 
 Saturdays for grain. The population seems to have been on 
 
 the decline latterly. In 1834, it was 10,764, of which rather 
 more than one-half were R. catholics; in 1841, it was 10,2 1>. 
 
 ARMANCON, a river, France, rising in dcp. Cote-d Or, 
 and flowing N.W., parallel, for a considerable distance, to 
 the Bourgognc Canal, which crosses it by a fine aqueduct, 
 it passes Tonnere, and falls into the Yonne, about 3 in. S.E. 
 Joigny, after a course of 112 m., of which about 16 are navi 
 gable. It receives as tributaries the Brenne, Armance, and 
 some other rivulets. 
 
 ARMENIA, a mountainous country of W. Asia, not now 
 politically existing, but of great historical interest. It varied 
 in extent at different epochs, and its precise boundaries are 
 not now known ; but it may be regarded as lying between 
 lat. 36 50 and 41 41 N., and Ion. 36 20 and 48 40 E. 
 It was sometimes subdivided into First, Second, and Third 
 Armenia, to which a Fourth was afterwards added ; but the 
 division by which it was almost universally known, was into 
 Armenia Major and Armenia Minor, or the Greater and the 
 Less Armenia. The boundaries of each, according to Col. 
 Chesney, the latest authority on the subject, and probably the 
 best, are as follows : Armenia Major, commencing at Sumei- 
 sat, stretches along the Euphrates, which bounds it on the \V., 
 till near Erzingan ; a few miles to the S. of which it quits the 
 river, and keeps the direction of Tarabuzun as far as the moun 
 tains S. of Ghumish Khanah. It proceeds N.E. along this 
 range, then skirts the N. extremity of the district of Kars, 
 and passing onward to near Tiilis, becomes the right bank of 
 the Kur, whose course it follows to its estuary in the Caspian, 
 which now becomes the boundary on the E. Leaving the 
 Caspian, it turns S.W. in the direction of Tabreez, and passes 
 through the districts of Van and Diarbekir, on the frontiers of 
 which it again meets the Euphrates at Sumc i sat. Armenia 
 Minor, or, as it might be called, the territory W. of the Eu 
 phrates, lies along the range of the Kof-tagh, which runs W. 
 almost parallel to the Black Sea, and forms its N. boundary 
 as far as a point on the river Halys or Kizil-Irmak, not far 
 from its estuary in the Black Sea. Armenia Minor follows 
 the course of this river for about 180 m., and continuing S.W. 
 meets the Taurus, which becomes its boundary almost to the 
 sea, near Ayas, on the W. side of the Bay of Iskenderoon. 
 From this point it sweeps round the S. side of the districts of 
 Adana and Marash, and meets the Euphrates; which thus 
 intersects Armenia almost centrally, and forms the natural 
 boundary between the two divisions now described. Armenia 
 Major has nn area of about 84,000 sq. m. ; Armenia Minor, 
 about 70,000. The territory of this once celebrated kingdom 
 is now partitioned among Turkey, Persia, and Russia. The 
 first of these powers possesses the largest share, being that 
 which borders on the Euphrates, and includes the N. part of 
 Diarbekir, with Moosh, Van, and the pashalic of Erzeroom. 
 The share of Persia forms part of Kurdistan, and almost the 
 whole of Azerbijan. The share of Russia forms its govern 
 ment of Armenia. It stretches along the river Aras, and is 
 sometimes known as the district of Erivan. 
 
 The plateau of which Armenia chiefly consists is mountain 
 ous and volcanic. The ridges, of which there are four prin 
 cipal, are generally parallel to each other, running, with sundry 
 deviations, E. and W., and between them are broad valleys and 
 plateaux ; that of the Aras, at Mount Ararat, being 2890 ft., 
 and many others 5000 to 8000 ft. above the sea level. Tho 
 mountains are mainly composed of trachytic porphyry; with 
 slate, limestone, &c., appearing on the sides of the chains, and 
 sometimes rising up with the porphyry. Granite is also met 
 with, but is not frequent ; and in the N., in the Turkish pro 
 vince of Akalzik, tertiary fossiliferous formation is found. 
 Its volcanoes are all quiescent ; unless we except Ararat, of 
 which an eruption took place in 1840, accompanied by a 
 disastrous earthquake. A few mountains, as Ararat, Alaghez, 
 and Bangb 1-dagh, rise above the line of perpetual snow, but 
 this is not generally the case ; and there are no passes but 
 such as can be crossed in a single day. Silver, lead, iron, and 
 copper are found in the mountains ; and the last two have, to 
 some extent, been wrought in modern times. Rock-salt is 
 plentiful, and is exported, in considerable quantities, to Persia i 
 and elsewhere. Mineral waters abound, but little or nothing 
 is known of their constituents, or of their medicinal qualities. 
 Several important rivers take their rise in Armenia, namely, 
 the Kur or Cyrus, and its tributary the Aras or Araxes, flow 
 ing E. to the Caspian Sea ; the Akampsis or Tchorak, and the 
 
ARMENIA 
 
 209 
 
 ARMENIA 
 
 Halys or Kizil-Irmak, flowing N. to the Black Sea; and the 
 Tigris and Euphrates, which flow into the Persian Gulf. There 
 are also several minor tributary streams. The only consider 
 able lakes are those of Van, 70 m. in length, and about 28 in 
 breadth ; Goukcha, Sevanga or Sevan, N.E. of Erivan, about 
 40 m. long by 1 5 broad ; and Urumiyah. 
 
 The climate of Armenia is very severe, presenting quite a 
 contrast to that of the warm regions of the lower Euphrates, 
 and to the mildness prevalent on the shores of the Black Sea. 
 Any one, indeed, leaving the shores of the Pontus in April, and 
 travelling rapidly S., may in one week experience the delights 
 
 of the year. On the shore 
 i spring in her most beauteous garb ; 
 
 . 
 
 and discomforts of three 
 
 of the Black Sea he leav 
 
 on the plateau of Erzeroom he meets stiff, cold winter, and se 
 
 before him a wide extent of country covered with snow and 
 
 ice ; in Mesopotamia he finds approaching harvest, and the 
 
 farmer busy with artificial irrigation to counteract the effects 
 
 of the burning heat. Winter, in Armenia, continues from 
 
 October to May, spring and harvest a month each, and the 
 
 change to summer is very rapid. The heat, especially in the 
 
 valleys, during summer,, 
 
 is great, and rain seldom 
 
 falls. In Erivan, which 
 
 is a degree of lat. S. from 
 
 Trebizond, the thermo 
 
 meter in winter falls 36 
 
 Fah. lower than it does 
 
 in the latter; and in 
 
 summer it rises 24 Fah. 
 
 higher. On the plateaux 
 
 of Erzeroom, Gumri, 
 
 &c., the difference is still 
 
 greater ; indeed, in the 
 
 town of Erzeroom the 
 
 snow lies in the streets 
 
 for eight months of the 
 
 year. E. and S.E. winds 
 
 in summer, W. winds in 
 
 spring, and N.E. storm 
 
 winds in winter, are 
 
 most prevalent. Though 
 
 severe, the climate is, however, esteemed healthy. 
 
 their ruling passion appears to be an inordinate love of gain, 
 but they are generally esteemed honest. Their mental ca 
 pacity is good, and those who are educated are distinguished 
 by superior cultivation and refined manners ; but the mass of 
 the people inhabiting their native country, in consequence of 
 centuries of neglect, are grossly ignorant and superstitious. 
 The Armenians embraced Christianity in the fourth century; 
 and in A.D. 536, separated from the Greek church, being dis 
 satisfied with the decisions of the council of Chalcedon. In 
 doctrine, they hold that there is only one nature in Christ, 
 and that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father alone. 
 They have seven sacraments, but, in the mode of using them, 
 differ in several respects from the R. catholics. They adore 
 saints and images, but do not believe in purgatory. Their 
 hierarchy differs little from that of the Greeks. The catJiolicus, 
 patriarch or head of the church, has his seat at Echmiadzin, 
 a monastery near Erivan. A minority of the Armenians, 
 chiefly those residing in European countries, acknowledge 
 the Pope, and conform, in doctrine and church-government, to 
 the R. catholic church. They are called United Armenians. 
 The monastery of Ech 
 miadzin, the seat of the 
 catholicus, or head of the 
 Armenian church, lies in 
 the valley of the Aras, 
 13 in. E. Erivan, near the 
 village of Vagarhabad, 
 which is also frequent 
 ly, though improperly, 
 called Echmiadzin. The 
 monastery is surrounded 
 by a wall 30 ft. high, en 
 tered by four gates, and 
 flanked by towers, which, 
 as well as the walls, are 
 built of brick, excepting 
 the base, and furnished 
 with loop-holes, giving 
 to the whole structure 
 the appearance of a large 
 quadrangular fortress. 
 
 The monastery was founded in A.D. 524 ; but the church 
 it contains dates from the time of St. Gregory the en- 
 lightener, who introduced Christianity into Armenia, though 
 various additions have been made to it in later times. The 
 monks have here a printing-press and a seminary ; but little 
 good is to be expected from their labours, as they are un 
 learned, ignorant, and superstitious. In a similar condition 
 are the Armenian clergy in general, which, indeed, is scarcely 
 to be wondered at, when we know that any layman who has 
 been chosen by the congregation, and has passed 14 days 
 in the prescribed fastings and ritual observances of the 
 church, may get ordination from the bishop, and may read 
 mass, baptize, confirm, marry, give extreme unction, and 
 have authority too to forgive sins. (Parrot.) Such a fact 
 makes it easy to understand why ignorance should prevail, 
 and the Bible in the vulgar tongue should be prohibited. 
 Parrot, not knowing Armenian, expected to converse with 
 the monks and priests of Echmiadzin in Latin, but none of 
 them knew either Latin or Greek, though of works, in these 
 languages, there were numbers in the library ; three of them 
 could speak Russian, but all other European languages were 
 unknown. 
 
 The Armenian language belongs to the most distant off 
 shoots of the Indo-Germanic root ; but still, in its form and 
 structure, has much that is peculiar ; and to the ear it is harsh 
 and dissonant. The old Armenian language, also called 
 Haican, which is that of literature, may now be considered a 
 dead language. In the new Armenian language, which is 
 divided into four dialects not differing greatly from each other, 
 there are many Turkish words, and the construction of sentences 
 is regulated by the rules of Turkish syntax. With exception 
 of some songs preserved by Archbishop Moses Choronensis, 
 no specimens of the earlier Armenian literature have been 
 preserved. After the introduction of Christianity, a great 
 taste for the Greek language and literature arose, and a num- 
 
 line, and their complexion somewhat swarthy. The women ber of works in Greek and Syriac were translated into Arme- 
 are remarkable for the delicacy and regularity of their feat- I nian. Before A.D. 406, the Armenians had no alphabet of 
 .ires. Like the Jews, whom, in many respects, they resemble, I their own, but used indifferently Greek, Syriac. or Persian 
 VOL. I. 7 
 
 PATRIARCHAL CHURCH AND MONASTERY OF KCIIMIADZIN 
 
 From Duliois, Voyage Autourdu Cuuease. 
 
 The soil 
 
 of Armenia is reckoned, on the whole, productive, though in 
 many places it would be quite barren, were it not for the 
 great care taken to irrigate it ; to such an extent indeed is the 
 system of irrigation carried on, that in summer many consider 
 able streams are wholly absorbed. Wheat, barley, tobacco, 
 hemp, grapes, and cotton are raised ; and, in some of the 
 valleys, apricots, peaches, mulberries, and walnuts are grown. 
 From the nature of the country, the rearing of stock is carried 
 on to a greater extent than agriculture. The horses are 
 spirited, fleet, and fiery. Pines, birches, poplars, and beeches 
 flourish, but there are no thick forests except in the N. parts 
 of the country. The flora is not so varied as might be expected 
 in such an Alpine country ; in several respects, it resembles 
 the vegetation of the Alps of Tyrol and Switzerland. 
 
 The inhabitants are chiefly of the genuine Armenian stock ; 
 but besides them, in consequence of the repeated subjugation 
 of the country, various other races have obtained a footing. Of 
 these the principal are the Turcomans, who still maintain 
 their nomadic habits, and from whom the country has received 
 the name of Turcomania. In the S. portion are the preda 
 tory Kurds and the Turks ; on the Tchorak, Georgians ; and 
 throughout the whole country, Greeks, Jews, and Gypsies. 
 The total number of Armenians has been estimated at 
 2,000,000, of which probably one-half are in Armenia. The 
 remainder, like the Jews, are scattered over various countries ; 
 and, being strongly addicted to commerce, play an important 
 part as merchants. They are found over all W. Asia ; about 
 200,000 are in Constantinople and its vicinity; numbers 
 are in Russia, Hungary, and Italy; some in Africa and 
 America ; and a large number in India, chiefly in the great 
 marts Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. Everywhere they are 
 engaged in banking and trading. In physical structure, they 
 belong to the Caucasian race, and, in general, are well made. 
 Their eyes and hair are black, their look lively, noses aqui- 
 
ARMENIA (RUSSIAN) 
 
 210 
 
 ARNEDO 
 
 characters. In that year, however, Mesrop Masdoty invented 
 the Haican alphabet, consisting of 38 letters (30 consonants 
 and eight vowels), called, from its inventor, Mesropian, and 
 which still continues to be employed along with the modern 
 alphabet. Armenian literature flourished from the fourth to 
 the 14th century. Of this period, many writers have obtained 
 a name chiefly as historians and chroniclers. Their works, 
 which might throw considerable light on the history of the East 
 during the Middle Ages, have hitherto been little consulted. 
 Armenian literature began to sink in the 14th century, and 
 since that period scarcely any original work of importance 
 has appeared ; but, in all their wanderings, the Armenians 
 have preserved a taste for native literature, and have set up 
 printing-presses wherever they have settled ; so that we find 
 Armenian works printed in Amsterdam, Venice, Leghorn, 
 Lemberg, Moscow, Astrakan, Constantinople, Smyrna, Ech 
 miadzin, Ispahan, Madras, Calcutta, Batavia, &c. The most 
 interesting colony is that on the island of San Lazaro at Ven 
 ice, founded by Abbot Mechitar Pedrosian in 1717, who there 
 established a monastery, academy, and printing-press, whence 
 important Armenian works continue to be issued down to the 
 present time. 
 
 According to the native historians, the name Armenia is 
 derived from Aram, the seventh king of the first dynasty, who, 
 about B.C. 1800, gave a settled character to the kingdom. 
 The Armenians call themselves Haiks or Haikans, and trace 
 their origin, in their traditions, to Haic or Haico, the father 
 and patriarch of the people, a contemporary of the Assyrian 
 king, Belus. Armenia subsequently fell into the hands of 
 different rulers, and was exposed to many attacks. The Ro 
 mans and Parthians had many fierce conflicts ; but at last, 
 under Trajan, Armenia Major became a Roman province. 
 It afterwards recovered its independence, and was under the 
 rule of its own kings. Sapor, king of Persia, attempted its 
 subjugation in vain, and it remained free until 650, when it 
 was conquered by the Arabians. After this, it several times 
 changed its masters. In 1552, Selim II. conquered it from 
 the Persians, and the greater part has since remained under 
 the Turkish dominion. Armenia Minor ultimately shared 
 the same fate. Of the cities of ancient Armenia, some ruins 
 are yet to be seen, which display a good style in architecture. 
 The chief towns are Erivan, Erzeroom, Nakhichevan, Van, 
 Akalzik, &c. (which see.) Of ancient capitals there were 
 several, the most important of which was Artaxata on the 
 Aras. (Wagner s licise nach dem Ararat; Parrot s Journey 
 to Ararat; Dubois, Voi/age autour du Caucase; Conversations 
 Lexikon,, Brockhaus, 9th Edition.) 
 
 ARMENIA (RUSSIAN), a trans-Caucasian gov. Russia, 
 comprising that part of Armenia S. of Georgia, and N. of the 
 Aras and Mount Ararat, and comprehending the monastery 
 of Echmiadzin. It was ceded to Russia, in 1827, by Persia, 
 of which it formed the province of Erivan a name by which 
 it is still sometimes designated. 
 
 ARMEN1ERSTADT, or SZAMOS UJVAR [Latin, Armeno- 
 polis], a tn. Austria, in Transylvania, 22 m. N.N.E. Klausen- 
 burg ; lat. 47 N. ; Ion. 23 52 E. It is well and regularly 
 built, and the streets spacious, and tolerably straight. It 
 contains a neat Armenian church, an Armenian school, and 
 an orphan hospital ; and is defended by a strong castle. The 
 inhabitants are mostly employed in weaving and in cattle- 
 dealing A considerable transit trade is carried on with the 
 interior. In the vicinity are salt springs and salt mines. 
 Pop. 3000. 
 
 ARMENT, ERMENT, or HERMONT [anc. Hermonthis], a 
 vil. Upper Egypt, 1. bank, Nile, about 8 m. S.W. Thebes. 
 It was the capital of the Hermonthite nome ; and in Christian 
 times it was an episcopal see. Apollo and Jupiter, corre 
 sponding to the Egyptian Mandoo and Amun ; the goddess 
 Rato, and the sacred bull Basis, were here objects of worship. 
 Its modern inhabitants regard it as the birthplace of Moses. 
 
 ARMENT] EKES [Latin, Armentaria], a tn. France, 
 dep. Nord, on the Belgian frontier, 10 m. W.N.W. Lille, on 
 the Lys, which has here a small harbour, and an active navi 
 gation. The town, which is well built, has a communal col 
 lege or high school ; with factories for spinning flax, hemp, 
 and cotton yarn. There are also manufactories of woollen 
 cloth, table linen, calicoes, lace, thread, beet-root sugar, and 
 tobacco ; bleachfields, distilleries, soapworks, tanneries, and 
 salt-refineries; with a considerable trade in grain, brandy, iron, 
 
 tobacco, soap, &c. Bricks are made in the neighbourhood in 
 large quantities. Pop. 6675. 
 
 ARMENTO, a tn. Naples, prov. Basilicata, 26 m. S.S.E. 
 Potenza, on the declivity of a rock. It has two monts-dc-picte. 
 Pop. 2570. 
 
 ARMIANSKOI BAZAR, or BAZAR OF THE ARMENIANS, 
 a large vil., S. Russia, gov. Taurida; lat. 46 7 N.; Ion. 
 33 43 E.; 81 m. S.E. by E. Kherson, and 85 m. N. by E. 
 Simferopol ; situated on the Isthmus of Perekop, about 2 in. 
 S. of that town, on the principal road from Russia to the 
 Krimea. It consists of numerous narrow lanes, lined with 
 houses built of stone, or of turf plastered over, and enclosed 
 by walls, which form the boundaries of the streets. It has 
 altogether a filthy and mean appearance ; but contains numer 
 ous bazaars, several mosques with wooden minarets, a Greek 
 temple, and a Russo-Greek church, for the worship of the 
 Tatars, Armenians, and Russians, who compose its popula 
 tion. Upwards of 20,000 cart-loads of salt from the salt-lakes 
 of the Krimea, pass annually, during summer, through the 
 village, for the supply of the S. of Russia. 
 
 ARMINGII ALL, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 900 ac. P. 79. 
 
 AKMITAGE, par. Eng. Stafford ; 1950 ac. P. 987 
 
 ARMLEY, a chapelry and vil., England, co. York, bor. 
 and 2 m. S.W. Leeds, on the Aire, with a jail, house of cor 
 rection, an Episcopal and several Dissenting chapels. It is an 
 important seat of the woollen manufactures, chiefly carried on 
 for the Leeds market. Pop. (1851), 6108. 
 
 ARMOY, par. Irel. Antrim; 9665 ac. P. 2766. 
 
 AUMTHORPE, par. Eng. York (W. R.); 2810 ac. P. 449. 
 
 ARNA. 1, A tn. on the W. limits of the Libyan desert, 
 r. bank, Kuku, 420 m. N.E. from Lake Tchad. Its precise 
 position, however, is not ascertained. Arrowsmith places it 
 in lat. 17 13 N. ; Ion. 21 30 E., with a query ; and Kicpert, 
 in lat. 18 20 N. ; Ion. 21 40 E., with a similar expression of 
 
 doubt. 2, A vil. Grecian Archipelago, on the N.W. shore 
 
 of the isl. of Andros. 
 
 ARNAOUTS. See ALBANIA. 
 
 ARNAU, or RIESENSTADT, a tn. Bohemia, 1. bank, Elbe, 
 about 25 m. from its source, and 23 m. N. Koniggriitz. It is 
 walled ; and has a castle, deanery, hospital, townhouse, and 
 Franciscan monastery. The inhabitants are chiefly employed 
 in weaving. Pop. 1439. The lordship of which Arnau is 
 the capital lies along the Elbe, is well wooded, and rears a 
 considerable number of cattle. The inhabitants, employed 
 chiefly in spinning and weaving, are 10,314. 
 
 ARNAY-LE-DUC [anc. Arnceum], a tn. France, dep. Cote- 
 d Or (Burgundy), 30 m. S.W. Dijon, agreeably situated near 
 the Arroux. It is well built and well paved; and has a 
 high school, manufactures of cloth and starch, tanneries, tile- 
 works, corn and fulling-mills. Its trade is in cattle, grain, 
 wine, vinegar, hemp, wool, leather, horse hair, and poultry. 
 Near this town Admiral Coligny, the celebrated leader of the 
 Huguenots, under whom Henry IV. was then making his first 
 campaign, in 1570, gained a victory over Marshal Cosse- 
 Brissac. Pop. 2331. 
 
 ARNCL1FFE, a par. England, co. York, W. Riding; 
 35,860 ac. ; N.E. Settle. Pop. in 1841, 834. 
 
 ARNE, a par. England, co. Dorset ; 2450 ac. ; E. Ware 
 ham, on the coast. Pop. in 1841, 168. 
 
 ARNEBURG, a tn. Prussia, gov. of, and 40 m. N. from 
 Magdeburg, 1. bank, Elbe. It was well fortified, but few of its 
 defences remain ; though it is still walled, and has three gates. 
 The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture. Their 
 position on the Elbe enables them to carry on a considerable 
 corn trade. Pop. 1500. 
 
 ARNEDO, a city, Spain, Old Castile, prov. of, and 27 in. 
 S.E. from Logroiio, near the 1. bank of the Cidacos, an affluent 
 of the Ebro, on a gentle declivity, surrounded by mountains. 
 It has level paved streets, a spacious square, three parish 
 churches, a townhall, several schools, a large hospital, prison, 
 granary, cemetery, and a beautiful paseo, close to which a 
 stone bridge spans the river. On the top of a neighbouring 
 hill stands an ancient castle, recently repaired and fortified, 
 and now containing a barracks. Agriculture, weaving linen 
 fabrics, and distilling brandy, employ the inhabitants. At 
 some seasons of the year great numbers are engaged as mule 
 teers. Considerable numbers of cattle are reared in tli ; 
 vicinity ; for which, and various descriptions of merchandise, 
 two annual fairs are held. Pop. 3345. 
 
ARNEB 
 
 211 
 
 ARNSTAUT 
 
 ARNEE, or ARANI, a tn. Ilindoostan, in the Camatic, 
 80 m. W.S. W. Madras ; lat. 12 40 N.; Ion. 79 20 E. It 
 has a fortress, in which Hyder-Ali deposited his warlike 
 stores during his invasion of the Carnatic, in 1782. 
 
 ARNEMUIDEN, a small tn. Holland, isl. of Walachern, 
 prov. Zeeland, 3 m. E. Middelburg. It has a townhall, a 
 custom-house, and a Calvinistic church; but is very much 
 fallen off in its condition. Formerly it was a place of con 
 siderable importance, as a port and a place of trade. Its 
 haven was at all times filled with vessels from every part of 
 the world. In 1496, the Spanish princess Johanna, bride of 
 Philip the Beautiful, .arrived here with 135 vessels; and, in 
 1522, upwards of 150 vessels left this port to fetch Emperor 
 Charles V. from England. Its harbour is now dried up, its 
 commerce is gone, and it can only communicate with the sea 
 by means of a canal. Pop. 1200. 
 
 ARNES13Y, a par. England, co. Leicester; 1510 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 505. 
 
 ARNGASK, a par. Scotland, co. Perth; 6116 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 750. 
 
 ARNHEM or AKNHEIM, an old important and prosperous 
 tn. Holland, cap. arrond. and can. of same name, prov. and 
 cap. Gelderland, 10 m. N. Nymegen, and 34 m. E.S.E. 
 Utrecht, on a rising ground, r. bank, Rhine, about 2 m. be 
 low where it receives the Ijsscl. It is the seat of the pro 
 vincial court, of the court of the arrondissement and canton, 
 and of a tribunal of commerce. The town was fortified, and 
 the defences were improved in 1702, by Coehorn, and it still 
 has several gates ; but, during the reign of William I., it was 
 dismantled, and its ramparts are now public promenades. It 
 is built in the form of a crescent facing the Rhine, which is 
 here crossed by a bridge of boats. The environs are pleasant, 
 the town being surrounded by an undulating country called 
 the Veluwe, by parks, villas, and pleasure-gardens, and the air is 
 pure ; on these accounts, it is much frequented during summer 
 by visitors. The town, which is rapidly increasing, has a 
 townhall, Government-house, courthouse for the province, 
 weigh-house, barracks for 2000 men, civil and military prison, 
 and two squares, one of which is the corn-market, and a fish- 
 market. It has also two Calvinistic, a handsome Lutheran, and 
 two R. catholic churches ; four hospitals for decayed persons 
 and for the sick ; two orphan hospitals, and one for widows ; 
 numerous schools, among which there is one of design and 
 architecture ; and a natural history and literary society. The 
 principal business in Arnhem is the transit trade along the 
 Rhine, and connecting streams and canals, to Amsterdam, Rot 
 terdam, Amersfoort, Utrecht, &c., and the grain trade. It 
 also possesses some manufactures in earthenware, soap, cotton, 
 wool-combing, and dyeing, and has oil and bark-mills. After 
 Lent it has a fair for 14 days, and in August another for eight 
 days, two horse markets and numerous cattle-markets. 
 
 Arnhem withstood successfully all the attacks of the 
 Spaniards. In 1586, Sir Philip Sydney died there from a 
 wound received in the battle of Zutphen. In 1795, it was 
 taken by storm by the French, who were driven from it by 
 the Prussians in November 1813. It has suffered severely 
 several times by fire. Pop. about 15,000. (Van der Aa s 
 Nederlanden.} 
 
 ARNHEM S LAND, the middle portion of the N. coast 
 of Australia, lying W. of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Its limits 
 are not well defined, but it may be considered as N. of lat. 14 
 S., and as having for its E. limit Groote Eylandt or Island, 
 and for its W. Melville and Bathurst Islands. The whole 
 coast is skirted by isles and islets, of which those named are 
 the largest. It was discovered in 1623, by the commanders 
 of the Arnhem and Pera, but is still imperfectly known. On 
 Coburg peninsula was the Government station, Port Essington, 
 now abandoned. The coasts are low, the rocks being loose 
 sand with ferruginous concretions, and not esteemed healthy. 
 In some parts it is well wooded, in others thinly wooded. A 
 table-land 3000 to 4000 ft. high, lies between Ion. 132 and 
 134 E., and about lat. 13 S., composed mainly of granite. 
 The district is watered by the rivers Adelaide, S. and E. Ali- 
 
 gator, and Liverpool. ARNHEM BAY, N.E. coast, Arnhem s 
 
 Land, between point Dule, lat. 11 36 S. ; Ion. 136 7 E. (R.), 
 and Cape Wilberforce, lat. 11 53 S.; Ion. 136 34 E. (R.) ; 
 40 m. broad at its mouth, 20 m. at its upper end, and about 
 50 m. deep. It is obstructed by numerous coral islands, and 
 Rt its mouth are the W isel and Engl ish Company s Islands. 
 
 CAPE ARNHEM, the N.W. point of the Gulf of Carpentaria, 
 lat. 12 17 S.; Ion. 137 E. (R.) 
 
 ARNO [anc. Arnus], a river, Tuscany, one of the largest 
 in Italy, having its sources in the Apennines in Monte Fal- 
 terone, and Apennino dell Penna, the former about 5 m. N.E. 
 the village of Ponticelli. After the junction of the two 
 sources, the river flows S.S.E. till it receives the Chiana 
 Canal 6 m. N.W. Arezzo, whence it flows N.W. to Pontassieve, 
 where it receives from the right the river Sieve, after which 
 its course is W., passing through Florence, where it becomes 
 navigable, and Pisa, beyond which, about 7 m., it falls into the 
 Mediterranean, after a course of about 155 in. By a canal 
 from Pisa to Leghorn, the difficult navigation of the lower 
 part of the river is avoided. Besides the affluents named, the 
 Arno receives the Greve, the Pesa, the Era, and the Elsa. 
 Its source is 4429 ft. above the sea level ; at Figline, the 
 level of the river is 387 ft. above the sea, and at Florence, 
 50 m. from its embouchure, it is 144 ft. above the sea level. 
 
 ARNOLD, a vil. and par. England, co. of, and 4 in. N. 
 by E. Nottingham. The village, which is about three quar 
 ters of a mile long, stands near Harwood forest, and has a 
 church, three dissenting chapels, and an endowed free school. 
 An annual cattle-fair is held at the end of September. The 
 inhabitants are chiefly employed in cotton-mills and weaving 
 hosiery. Area of par. 4670 ac. Pop. 4509. 
 
 ARNON, a rivur, France, an affluent of the Cher, into 
 which it falls near Vierzou, in tlie department of Cher, after 
 a N.N. W. course of 84 m. 
 
 ARNSBERG, or ARENSBERG, the most S. of the three 
 govs. into which the prov. of Prussian Westphalia is divided ; 
 area, about 2250 geo. sq. m. It contains 55 towns, and 3420 
 villages, with a pop. of half a million, being 250 persons per 
 geo. sq. m. Of these 350,000 are Protestants, 4000 Jews, 
 100 Mennonites, and the remainder R. catholics. The sur 
 face is hilly, particularly in the S. division, but none of the 
 mountains are of great height ; the highest, Hunan, belong 
 ing to the Hochgebirge, on the confines of Westphalia and 
 Wittgenstein, not being more than 2600 ft. above the level of 
 the sea. Arnsberg is watered by the Lippe, Ruhr, Lenn, Eder, 
 Lahn, Sieg, Dimel, Emsche, Wupper, Volme, and Ennepe, 
 and belongs almost wholly to the basin of the Rhine ; only 
 a small portion along the E. boundary belonging to that of the 
 Weser. About a fifth of the whole government is woodland. 
 In particular, the forest of Arnsberg occupying an elevated 
 tract from 700 to 900 ft. above the sea, stretches from E. to 
 W. for 7 m. The soil is generally of a clayey texture, and 
 by no means fertile. Sometimes, however, as in Arnsberg 
 proper, it has a substratum of limestone, and is productive. 
 The best soil is in the mountain valleys towards the S. ; while 
 N., between the Lippe and Hellweg, lies a flat, rich, and well- 
 cultivated tract of a marly nature, on which great numbers 
 of cattle are reared. But minerals and the productions of 
 the loom, are the great staples of Arnsberg, and give it a 
 prominent place among the industrial districts of Germany. 
 Among the former are iron, copper, lead, silver, and calamine. 
 Coal also is raised to a considerable extent, and there are 
 numerous quarries both of slate and marble. The GOVERN 
 MENT of Arnsberg is divided into 14 circles Altena, Arns 
 berg, Brillon, Bochum, Dortmund, Hagen, Hamm, Iserlohcn, 
 Lippstadt, Meschede, Olpe, Siegen, Soest, and Wittgenstein. 
 Of these, in point both of romantic beauty and manufactures, 
 Arnsberg proper appears to take the lead. 1 1 has seven towns, 
 121 villages, and about 30,000 inhabitants. 
 
 ARNSBERG, cap. both of the above circle and gov., and 
 at one time cap. of the whole duchy of Westphalia, on the 
 spur of a hill half encircled by the Ruhr, and immediately be 
 low the ruins of an old castle of the same name, 44 m. S.S.E. 
 Miinster. It is divided into the old and the new town, and 
 has three churches (one Protestant and two R. catholic), a 
 normal and an agricultural school, and a gymnasium with 
 eight professors. In the Middle Ages, Arnsberg was one of 
 the principal seats of the Vehmic court [Vehm-gericht], which 
 exercised a powerful sway throughout Germany. Pop. 4000. 
 
 ARNSTADT, a picturesquely-situated and well built tn. 
 Germany, in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 
 cap. seigniory of same name, 11 m. S. by W. Erfurt, upon the 
 Gera, which divides it into two parts; lat. 50 49 N. ; Ion. 
 10 57 E. It has an old palace, almost entirely in ruins ; seve 
 ral churches, of which the Frauenkirche, dating from 972, has 
 
ARNSTEIN 
 
 212 
 
 ARPINO 
 
 fine painted windows, and several old sculptures; a nunnery, 
 now converted into the residence of the prince ; a Franciscan 
 monastery, now become a school-house and parsonage ; a 
 gymnasium, a normal school, a cabinet of natural history, 
 an orphan hospital, a lunatic asylum, and a house of correction. 
 Manufactures: cotton, linen, and woollen stuffs, ribbons, 
 and leather. There are also breweries, stucco, fulling, flour 
 and paper-mills. Arnstadt is one of the best markets in 
 Thuringia for grain, timber, and fruit ; and has also a consider 
 able trade in wool, peltry, and colonial produce. Pop. 5000. 
 
 ARNSTEIN, a tn. Bavaria, circle, Lower Main, on the 
 slope of a hill near the Werpe, 16 m. N.N.W. Wtirzburg. 
 It contains two churches, an hospital, and a castle ; and an 
 oil, a stucco, and four corn-mills. Its trade is in wine, fruit, 
 and grain. The historian Schmidt was born here. Pop. 
 about 1500. 
 
 ARNSWALDE, a tn. Prussia, prov. Brandenburg, gov. 
 Frankfort-on the-Oder; 39 m. S.E. Stettin; situated between 
 three lakes, which abound in fish. It has some cloth manu 
 factures. Pop. 4000. 
 
 AROA, a small tn. Venezuela, prov. Carabobo, about 3 m. 
 from the r. bank of the Aroa, 30 m. from the Gulf of Tristc, 
 on the Caribbean Sea, and 15 m. N. San Felipe; lat. 10 
 30 0" N. ; Ion. 68 55" W. The river rises in a sierra 
 about 50 m. S.S.W. the town, and, after a course of 80 m. in 
 a N.N.E. direction, falls into the Gulf of Triste, in its course 
 fertilizing a large valley. At a distance of about 10 m. from 
 the town, S.S.W., is a range of hills called by the same name ; 
 namely, the sierra Aroa. 
 
 AROCHE, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 48 
 m. N. from Huelva, on the S. slope of the sierra Morena, 
 irregularly built, and partly surrounded by old walls; having 
 a church, hospital, townhall, custom-house, and prison. The 
 inhabitants are chiefly agricultural, and hold a fair in August 
 for cattle and the produce of the neighbourhood. Pop. 2700. 
 
 AROHA, a range of basaltic hills, New Ulster, the N. 
 isl. of New Zealand, on the E. coast. It commences about 
 lat. 37 52 S., stretches N., and terminates at Cape Colville 
 or Moe-hao, a distance of 110 m. The hills composing this 
 range are covered with wood. 
 
 AROK-SZALLAS, a privileged market tn. Hungary, on 
 the small stream Gyongoys-Patak, which almost encircles the 
 plain on which the town stands. It is on the high road from 
 Kaschau to Pesth, from which it is 42 m. E.N.E. It is ill 
 supplied with good water, but the ground around is fertile, 
 and considerable numbers of sheep and cattle are reared. 
 Pop. 9106. 
 
 AROLSEN, a city, W. Germany, cap. of the principality of 
 Waldeck, and seat of the gov., on the Aar, 12 m. N. Waldcck; 
 lat. 51 23 N. ; Ion. 8 55 E. It is well built, and has a 
 handsome palace, the residence of the Princes of Waldeck, 
 containing a gallery of paintings, a cabinet of coins and 
 medals, a valuable museum of antiquities from Herculaneum 
 and Pompeii, and a library of 30,000 volumes. The town 
 possesses three churches and a grammar-school ; with manu 
 factures of worsted and woollen stuffs, and iron-ware, tan 
 neries, &c. Its yearly market is numerously attended. The 
 country around is well wooded. Pop. 2000. 
 
 ARONA, a tn. Piedmont, prov. Novara, delightfully 
 situated on the W. shore of the Lago Maggiore, and near its 
 S. extremity, 38 m. N.W. Milan. It is a neat and bustling 
 little town, carrying on a considerable transit trade between 
 Piedmont arid Switzerland, and having a small harbour on 
 the lake, with several shipbuilding yards. It has four 
 churches, a gymnasium, an hospital, and an old castle, in 
 which was born the famous Carolus Borromoeus, who has been 
 canonized, and in whose honour a colossal statue was erected 
 in 1G97. This statue, which is situated on a hill above the 
 town, called Monte di San Carlo, is 66 ft. high, and the 
 pedestal 46 ft. A staircase winds through the figure. The 
 head, hands, and feet are cast, and the body made of large 
 ttones, covered with sheets of hammered copper. The work 
 was executed by Zanelli and Falconi, and is reckoned a highly 
 meritorious performance. Pop. 5000. 
 
 AROSA (BAY OF), Spain, Galicia, W. coast, about 5 m. 
 S.E. Cape Corrobedo, and 16 m. S.E. Cape Finisterre; lat. 
 42 30 N.; Ion. 8 50 W. Dangerous place for vessels of 
 all kinds 
 
 AROSBAJA, a market tn., N.W. coast, isl. Madura, 
 
 Indian Archipelago. It is a large, prosperous, well-built 
 town, with two Mahometan temples, and two large market 
 places. It carries on with Java a considerable trade, to the 
 prosperity of which the roomy haven on which the town is 
 situated greatly contributes. (Van der Aa.) 
 
 AROUAT (L-), a tn., N. Africa, cap. khalifat of same 
 name, in the Sahara, lying about 300m. inland ; lat. 33 48 N.; 
 Ion. 1 38 E. It is built on the N. and E. slopes of a hill, at 
 the foot of which flows the Wady-Mzi, and is composed of 
 from 700 to 800 houses, surrounded by a wall, forming nearly 
 a square. It is divided into the E. and W. quarters, each of 
 which forms a separate, and often adverse jurisdiction. In 
 the former reside the Wled-Sewin, in the latter the Hallaf 
 people ; these last having also a dependent village population. 
 The houses are mostly low, whitewashed, and ranged on 
 terraces rudely faced with masonry. There are two market 
 places, or more ; and an area, surrounded by arcades, which 
 serves traders for an exchange. The people are industrious, 
 many of them being smiths, armourers, c., who display their 
 implements in public stores ; and shops, of a miscellaneous 
 kind, are numerous. Fifteen or twenty Jewish families are em 
 ployed as wool-dressers, dyers, trinket-makers, &c. The chief 
 articles of native traffic are sheep, wool, oil, grain, butter, 
 cheese, and negro slaves ; mostly exchanged for garments, 
 cutlery, agricultural implements, iron wares, essences, spices, 
 sugar, coffee, glass, small wares, women s trinkets, &c. Be 
 sides being a thriving race, the people are reputed to be kind 
 to their poor, and hospitable to strangers. In the environs 
 are large gardens and plantations, watered by the Wady 
 Lakhir, in which grow dates, vines, cucumbers, water-melons, 
 onions, &c., in large quantities. There are fine forests on 
 
 the neighbouring hills. The KHALIFAT of El-Arouat is an 
 
 ancient jurisdiction, was alternately dependent on Morocco and 
 Turkey, and, before the French invasion, paid a yearly tribute 
 of seven negroes to the dey of Algiers. Its possession was 
 confirmed to the present khalif by the French, in 1844-5. It 
 is bounded, N. by Jebel Amour, E. by the territory of Wled- 
 Nail tribe, S. by that of the Beni Mzabs, W. by that of El- 
 Arouat Ksal tribe. It comprises the following towns and 
 villages El-Outaia, Tadjemout, El-Haita, El-Assafia, Ain 
 Madi, and Ksir-el-llaeran. The people comprehend three 
 tribes, namely, Arbas (the most numerous), the Wled-Sidi 
 Atallahs, and the Arazlias. (Sahara Algerien.) 
 
 AROUBA, an isl. at the mouth of the Gulf of Maracaybo, 
 belonging to the Dutch. See URABA. 
 
 AROUCA, a tn. Portugal, prov. Douro, dist. Feira, 
 situated among mountains of granite, 28 m. S.W. Lamego. 
 It has a poorhouse, a Latin school, and a celebrated Bernardino 
 monastery. A considerable quantity of linen thread, cele 
 brated for its whiteness, is spun here. Pop. 2515. 
 
 AROUNDOU, a vil., W. Africa, 1. bank, Senegal, in the 
 Galam country; lat. 14 50 N.; Ion. 13 14 W. It is situ 
 ated 5 m. S.E. Bakel, opposite Diogountrou. 
 
 ARPAIA, a vil. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra, about 
 2 m. E. Arienzo, between Capua and Benevcnto ; supposed to 
 have been the site of the anc. Cuudium, where, in the year 
 oil B.C., a Roman army was compelled to lay down arms to 
 the Samnites; but other authority places the scene of that 
 famous disaster in a defile near Avellino, a little to the N. of 
 Arpaia, celebrated as the Furcce Caudince. 
 
 ARPAJON. 1, A tn. [formerly CMtres], France, dep. 
 Seine-et-Oise, 20 m. S. Paris, in a fertile valley, at the con 
 fluence of the Orge and the Remarde; is surrounded by 
 trees and shady walks, and has a large market-hall. The 
 parish church is large, but not of great antiquity. The Hotel 
 Dieu, an ancient endowment, is well managed. In the town 
 are tan-pits, cotton-works, and breweries ; and some trade is 
 carried on in grain, flour, poultry, pigs, calves, &c. The 
 Marolles station of the Paris and Orleans Eailway is about 
 1 m. from Arpajon. Pop. 2017. 2, A vil. and com., dep. 
 Cantal (Auvergne), 2 m. S.S.E. Aurillac; with tile-works 
 and lime-kilns. Pop. 2331. 
 
 ARP1NO [anc. Arjnnum], a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di 
 Lavoro, dist. of, and 6 m. S.W. from Sora ; agreeably situated 
 on rising ground. It has a royal college, with six professors, 
 several churches and convents, and manufactories of cloths 
 and woollen stuffs, the best in the kingdom ; also tanneries, 
 and in the environs is an extensive paper-mill. It was founded 
 by the Volsci, and erected into a municipal town by the 
 
ARQUA 
 
 213 
 
 ARRAN 
 
 Romans, who wrested it from the Samnites. Arpino is cele 
 brated as having been the birthplace of Caius Marius and 
 (Cicero. The surrounding scenery is singularly beautiful. 
 Pop. 11,060. 
 
 ARQUA, two villages, Venetian Lombardy: 1, Delega 
 tion of, and 5 m. S.W. from Eovigo, on the canal of Castag- 
 naro. It has un old dilapidated fortress, surrounded by walls 
 and ditches, built in 1129, by Guillaume Alardien. Silk 
 
 culture and cattle-rearing are carried on. Pop. 3000. 
 
 2, ARQUA, or ARQUATO [Latin, Arquatum], Delegation of, and 
 12 m. S.W. from Padua, dist. Battaglia; pleasantly situated 
 in the bosom of the Euganean hills. Here the poet Petrarch 
 spent the latter years of his life, and (July 18, 1374) died. 
 Pop. 1200. 
 
 ARQUA, a tn. Mexico, state Zacatecas, formerly pros 
 perous, but now falling into decay. It was well built, and 
 contained numerous squares and churches. Pop. about 4000. 
 
 ARQUENNES, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. Hainault, 
 dist. of, and about 18 m. N.W. from Charleroi. It has stone 
 quarries, and iron forges. Pop. 1675. 
 
 ARQUES, a small river, France, dep. Seine-Inferieure, 
 rising at Monterollier, 6 m. S.E. St. Saen, and falling into 
 the English Channel at Dieppe. Its whole course, which is 
 from S.S.E. to N.N.E., is 33 m. ; and of these, 6 m. below the 
 town of Arques are navigable. 
 
 ARQUES [Latin, Area, Arquai].!, A tn. France, dep. 
 Seine-Infe rieure (Normandy), 3 m. S.S.E. Dieppe; 31 m. 
 N.N. W. Rouen, in a beautiful valley, on the small river of the 
 same name. It has a handsome parish church, with a cotton 
 manufactory, and tanneries. Although now a mere village, 
 Arques was, during the Middle Ages, the principal bulwark 
 of Normandy on the N. Its castle, now in ruins, is cele 
 brated for the number of sieges which it sustained, and espe 
 cially for the victory gained beneath its walls in 1589, by 
 Henry IV., with 4000 Huguenots, over the army of the 
 League, amounting to 30,000 men, commanded by the Duke 
 de Mayenne. Pop. 810. 2, A tn., dep. Pas-de-Calais, near 
 St. Omer; has a manufactory of starch, glassworks, distil 
 leries, and tanneries. Pop. 1854. Several other small 
 
 places in France bear the same name. 
 
 ARRACAN. See AEACAN. 
 
 ARRAIOLOS, or ARROYOLOS, a tn. and par. Portugal, 
 prov. Alemtejo, dist. Estremoz ; on a hill of granite 14 m. 
 N.N.W. Evora. It is not walled, but is defended by a castle, 
 and contains a church, two monasteries, and an hospital. It 
 has a manufacture of carpets and tapestry, and an annual fair, 
 which lasts three days. Pop. 1473. 
 
 ARRAJAN, or ARREJAN, an anc. tn. Persia, now in 
 ruins, prov. Khuzistan, on both sides of the Kurdistan, about 
 1 m. N.W. Babahan or Behbeha n, and 135 m. N.W. Shiraz; 
 lat. 30 23 N. ; Ion. 50 40 E. The ruins, which consist of 
 the remains of stone and brick buildings, lie scattered along 
 the lofty banks of the river, mostly on the left shore ; but 
 also on the declivities of the bank, and partly along the nar 
 row strip of land which separates the bed of the stream from 
 its S. embankment. The houses appear to have been but of 
 one story, with vaulted roofs. Both sides of the town were 
 united by two bridges of magnificent dimensions, as their 
 remains, and the eulogiums of ancient Arab travellers would 
 indicate. (Baron C. A. De Bode s Travels in Laristan and 
 Arabistan.) 
 
 ARRAN, an isl., W. coast, Scotland, Frith of Clyde, co. 
 Bute, between the peninsula of Cantyre and the coast of Ayr 
 shire. It is 20 m. in length, N. to S., and about 10 m. in 
 breadth. Its appearance is very remarkable, the N. part 
 being crowded with lofty granitic mountains of a conical 
 form, connected by sharp, serrated ridges, and intersected by 
 deep gulleys and ravines. The highest summit, Goatfell, is 
 2900 ft. in height. The S. portion is composed of undulating 
 hilly ground, sloping gently towards the sea, and presenting, 
 in its cultivated fields and bright patches of verdure, a singular 
 contrast to the ruggedness and sterility which characterizes 
 I the N. half of the island. The prevailing line of coast is low, 
 I but in many places steep and rocky ; and is indented with 
 several bays and harbours, the principal of which, Lamlash, 
 on the E. side, is considered one of the best in the W. of 
 Scotland. At the N. extremity of the island is a high isolated 
 mass of new red sandstone rock, called the Cock of Arran, 
 from a real or fancied resemblance to that bird, and which 
 
 forms a well known sea-mark. On the small islet of Pladda, 
 off the S. end of the island, and distant from it somewhat less 
 than a mile, there is a lighthouse, with two fixed lights. The 
 interior of the island, as well as the coast, abounds in remark 
 able and varied scenery, some of it wild and savage, somo 
 more bland and picturesque. It was at one time covered in 
 many places with extensive forests, which have now wholly 
 disappeared, and with them nearly all the animals of the | 
 chase, by which they were inhabited. The geology and min 
 eralogy of Arran have attracted much attention. The island 
 is divided into two parts, by a band crossing its centre behind 
 the village of Brodick, composed of old red sandstone. N. 
 of this line, the whole interior of the island is composed of 
 granite, with a margin of mica and clay-slate, excepting on 
 the E. coast, where the latter is formed, in part, of old red 
 sandstone, and the carboniferous series. S. of this line, the 
 island is composed almost wholly of trap, sienite, porphyry, 
 and other unstratified rocks, with a narrow margin on the 
 E. coast of new red sandstone; and on the S. and W., of 
 alluvium and old red sandstone, with here and there patches 
 of the carboniferous series. The island contains coal, free 
 stone, slate, limestone, and ironstone. Rock-crystals, of a 
 beautiful description, are found in the granitic mountains; and 
 an extensive vein of sulphate of barytes is now, and has been 
 for some years, successfully wrought in Glen Sannox. Though 
 the hills generally present a scant vegetation, with few attrac 
 tions for the botanist, the same cannot be said of the low 
 grounds near the shore, where is a rich growth, including 
 numerous beautiful species of plants, many of them of rare 
 occurrence ; and within tide-mark are to be found numerous 
 beautiful, and many rare algae. The soil on the E. side of the 
 island is in general light, but varies greatly in the valleys, 
 which are of considerable extent. On the W. side, the arable 
 land is chiefly confined to the vicinity of the sea-coast. The 
 principal crops are oats, barley, and potatoes. The whole 
 rural economy of the island has been greatly improved of 
 late years ; and the condition of both the larger farmers and 
 smaller tenants much advanced, particularly in their domestic 
 accommodation, the houses of the former being similar to 
 those of the same class in other parts of the country, and 
 the latter greatly superior, both in appearance and comfort, to 
 those they occupied 20 years ago. The average rent of land 
 is about 1 per acre. Considerable numbers of black cattle 
 and sheep are reared on the hills, the former chiefly of the 
 Highland Argyleshire breed ; the latter are of the black-faced 
 kind, and are diminutive in size, but take on flesh readily, 
 and afford excellent mutton. In dairy husbandry, the small 
 tenants, though still far behind, are rapidly improving. The 
 larger fauna of the island presents little variety, compre 
 hending only hares and rabbits, both of which are plentiful ; 
 some wild cats ; the brown rat, which is very destructive ; and 
 a few deer, now to be seen only in the most retired recesses of 
 the mountains. Ifoes, wild boars, and foxes, were formerly 
 numerous, but have been long extirpated. Seals and otters 
 are occasionally seen along the shores. Black game and 
 grouse abound, and ptarmigan are sometimes met with on the 
 summits of the mountains. Several species of snakes are 
 found in the woods, glens, and moorlands. The sea around the 
 island abounds in fish, molluscs, zoophytes, and other marine 
 animals, of numerous species. And the entomologist, no less 
 than the geologist, botanist, or ichthyologist, may obtain a rich 
 harvest in this delightful island. There are here numerous 
 relics of antiquity, including Danish forts. Druidical circles, 
 high, erect columns of unhewn stone, cairns, and sepulchral 
 piles, within which are usually found urns enclosing ashes. In 
 this island Robert Bruce and some of his followers found shelter 
 during a season of adversity ; a cave, called King s Cave, at j 
 Drumidoon, on the W. side of the island, being pointed out 
 by tradition as the place of his retreat and residence. On the 
 walls of this cave there is a rudely-cut hunting scene, said to 
 have been done by some of the followers of the fugitive 
 monarch. Tradition asserts, also, that it was from the battle 
 ments of Brodick Castle, an ancient fortress, situated on an 
 acclivity overlooking Brodick Bay, that Bruce saw the light 
 on Turnberry-nook, on the opposite coast, which, taking for 
 a preconcerted signal, induced him to cross to the mainland. 
 The celebrated Celtic bard, Ossian, is said to have died here. 
 The inhabitants of Arran are tall, strong, and remarkably 
 well formed. They are distinguished for sound sense, activity, 
 
ARRAN (NORTH ISLAND 01^ 
 
 214 
 
 ARRECIFE 
 
 and enterprise. They are frugal and temperate, and, on the 
 whole, of excellent religious and moral character. Gaelic is 
 the prevailing language, though English is very generally 
 understood. There are a number of good schools in the 
 island ; and a universal desire exists among the people to have 
 their children taught at least the elementary branches of 
 education. The yearly rental of the island, which belongs 
 almost wholly to the Duke of Hamilton, is from 11,000 to 
 1 2,000 a year. It is divided longitudinally into two parishes, 
 Kilbride and Kilmorie, the one comprising the E., the other 
 the W. side of the island. The receipt and expenditure for 
 the relief and management of the poor, for the year ending 
 May 14, 1847, was Kilbride par. (pop. 2786), receipt, 
 164, 3s. 11JA; expenditure, 168, 18s.: Kilmorie par. 
 (pop. 3455), receipt, 131, 9s. 4cl. ; expenditure, 130. Total 
 receipt, 205, 13.?. 3J.; total expenditure, 298, 18s. Brodick 
 is the principal village. Total pop. in (1851), 5,947. 
 
 ARRAN (NORTH ISLAND OF), the largest of the group of 
 islands called the Rosses, lying off the N.W. coast of Ireland, 
 co. Donegal; area, 4335 ac., of which 650 are under cultiva 
 tion and in pasture ; lat. (X. VV. point) oo" 1 24" N.; Ion. 
 8 34 W. (R.) It is about 3 m. long, and 2 broad. Arran 
 more, the highest peak, rises 745 ft. above the level of the 
 sea. The inhabitants chiefly subsist by fishing. On the N. 
 point of the island is a lighthouse, exhibiting a fixed bright 
 light. There is a small R. catholic chapel on the island. Pop. 
 about 1000. 
 
 ARRAN (SOUTH ISLANDS OF), a group of islands, W. coast, 
 Ireland, at the mouth of Galway Bay, co. Galway. The 
 largest, Arranmore, Great Arran, Killane or Inishmore, is 
 8 J m. long, and about 3 broad at the broadest part ; and con 
 tains 7635 ac., including two small islands at its N.W. ex 
 tremity, called the Branach Isles. Pop. 2592. On the S. 
 side of this island is a lighthouse, 490 ft. above the sea, and 
 visible at a distance of 24 to 27 m.; lat. 53 7 36" N.; Ion. 
 9 42 15" W. (R.) The middle island, Inishmaan, 3 m. long 
 by 2 broad, contains 2252 ac. Pop. 473. And the most E., 
 Inisheer, 2 m. long by 1 broad, 1400 ac. Pop. 456. The 
 three islands form three separate parishes, in the diocese of 
 Tuam, and union of Ballinakill. There are also included in 
 the group, the small rocky isles called Straw Island, and 
 Illane-Earhach or the Western Isle. Arranmore yields good 
 oats ; and on it the most esteemed calves in the county are 
 reared. The coasts abound with great variety of fish, in 
 catching which, and in agriculture, the inhabitants are chiefly 
 employed. A pier, 245 ft. long, with a landing-quay, 326 ft. 
 in extent, was erected by the late Board of Commissioners for 
 the Irish Fisheries at the village of Killeany, on this island, 
 where 100 vessels of 40 tons burden may ride in safety. Pop. 
 of Killeany, 604. To the port belong 41 open boats, and 17 
 row-boats. The islanders use also a boat called a currayh, 
 made of osiers, and covered with tamied canvas, and provided 
 with a rudder. Their language is Celtic, and their costume 
 peculiar, including a kind of boot made of untanned leather. 
 The N.E. coasts of these islands present a sloping shingly 
 beach ; hut on the S. and W. are dark and rugged rocky cliffs, 
 abounding with sea-fowl. On the S. Arran Islands are found 
 antiquities of various kinds ; and on Arranmore there are 
 said, at one time, to have been 10 churches, on the other 
 islands five. 
 
 ARRAS [anc. Nemetacum~\, a tn. France, cap. dap, Pas- 
 de-Calais (Artois), in the middle of an extensive and fertile 
 plain, r. bank, Scarpe, which here becomes navigable. It was 
 strongly fortified by Vauban; and stands partly on a declivity, 
 and partly on a flat, and consists of four parts, the city, the 
 high town, the low town, and the citadel. The first and 
 highest occupies the site of the town which Caesar took. The 
 high town owes its existence to a small oratory, over which 
 a magnificent abbey was afterwards built. The low town, 
 extending to the glacis of the citadel, is a fine modern town, 
 regularly built. The houses are of hewn stone, several stories 
 high ; and the public squares are very handsome. The two 
 largest of the latter are contiguous, and are surrounded by 
 houses of Gothic construction, which form a series of pillared 
 arcades. The citadel, though enclosed within the same wall 
 as the other parts of the town, is separated from them by an 
 esplanade. It is in the form of an elongated pentagon, and 
 capable ot making a vigorous defence. The chief public 
 buildings of Arras are the cathedral, a large Gothic edifice, 
 
 not of much external lieauty, but with a fine choir, which is 
 supported by very slender pillars, and remarkable for the 
 boldness of its construction ; the public library, an extensive 
 building, and containing 34,000 volumes ; the Hotel de la 
 Prefecture, the townhouseor Hotel de Ville, theatre, barracks, 
 
 THE HOTEL DE VILLE, ARRAS. 
 From Coney s Ancient Cathedrals and Uotels de \ Hie. 
 
 &c. Arras ranks as a fortress of the third class , is the seat of a 
 bishop, of a court of primary jurisdiction, and a court of com 
 merce ; and possesses a chamber of manufactures, a communal 
 college, a literary and scientific society, a school of design, 
 and an institution for the deaf and dumb. Its chief manu 
 factures are ironware, hosiery, lace and lace-thread, pottery 
 and earthen pipes, soap, leather, and nails. It has also flax and 
 cotton-mills, salt-refineries, oilworks, engine-works, several 
 foundries, and numerous breweries. Its trade is in rapeseed 
 oil, oil-seeds, corn and flour, wine, brandy, lace, thread, wool, 
 and leather. The corn-market of Arras is the most important 
 in the N. of France. The notorious terrorist Robespierre was 
 born here. Pop. in 1846, 24,321. 
 
 ARRAYAS, a tn. Brazil, prov. Goyaz, 120 m. S.E. 
 Natividade, pleasantly situated in a hollow on the table-land 
 of the serra de Santa Brida, and surrounded on all sides by 
 low grassy hills. It contains a church, and three public 
 schools, two of which are elementary ; one for boys, the other 
 for girls ; in the third Latin only is taught. The greater part 
 of the inhabitants are in great poverty, arising chiefly from 
 their extreme indolence ; they are, however, universally of a 
 kind and obliging disposition. Pop. about 300 ; and of the 
 district, in which some gold is obtained and cattle are reared, 
 rather more than 2000. (Gardner s Travels in Brazil; Die. 
 Geo. Imp. Brazil.) 
 
 ARRECIFE, a seaport tn., E. coast, Lancerota or Lan- 
 zarote, one of the Canary Islands, of which it is the capital ; 
 lat. 28 56 N.; Ion. 13 36 W. It is situated immediately 
 S. of the harbour of Naos. The houses are large, the streets 
 spacious and well paved, and the church handsome ; and the 
 town possesses two endowed schools, and a cemetery. The 
 greater part of the inhabitants are engaged in the fishery on 
 the opposite coast of Africa, and in raising barilla, in which a 
 considerable export trade is carried on. The harbour of Naos 
 is small but secure, having two entrances, a N. and E. ; the 
 former with a depth, at low water, of 12 ft. ; the latter ] 7 , with 
 a 9 ft. rise of tide. During the winter, nearly all the island 
 
ARRESEE 
 
 215 
 
 ARRU ISLANDS 
 
 vessels resort to this harbour. Pop. 2500. (Jour. Roy. Gco. 
 Soc., vol. vi. p. 287 ; Madoz.) 
 
 ARRESEE, a lake, Denmark, in the N. of the island of 
 Seeland. It was at one time a bay of the Kattegat ; but the 
 drift sand, by completely closing its mouth, has converted it 
 into a very shallow lake, having a circumference of about 23 m., 
 and an area of about 14 sq. m. The short Fredrichswerker 
 Canal connects this lake with the Koeskelde-fiord. 
 
 ARRESKOV-SEE, a small lake, Denmark, isl. of Fiihnen, 
 tolerably deep, and abounding with fish. 
 
 ARRETON, a par. England, co. Hants, Isle of Wight ; 
 8270 ac.; S.E. Newport. Pop. in 1841, 19b 4. 
 
 ARRIATE, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. Malaga, in 
 the vicinity of Ronda. It lies in a plain near the streamlet 
 Ventilla, and has a church, prison, and two endowed schools. 
 It is surrounded by extensive meadows ; and grain, olives, and 
 fruit are cultivated, of which considerable quantities are 
 exported to Cadiz, Malaga, &c. Pop. 3024. 
 
 ARRIFANA, a fort, bay, and isl., S.W. coast, Portugal, 
 prov. Algarve ; the first in lat. 37 15 N. ; Ion. 8 52 W. ; 
 19 m. N. by E. Cape St. Vincent. 
 
 ARR1NGTON, a par. England, co. Cambridge; 1388 ac,; 
 S.E. Caxton. Pop. in 1841, 317. 
 
 ARROAS ISLANDS, a group of small islands and 
 rocks in the Strait of Malacca, about 35 m. from the coast of 
 Sumatra, and 55 from that of Malacca. The principal islands 
 are called, respectively, the Great or Long Arroa, the Round 
 Arroa, and the Western Arroa. The first is in lat. 2 52 30" N. ; 
 Ion. 100 35 E., and consists of two contiguous isles; it is 
 nearly a mile in length, flat, and covered with trees. The 
 second, or Round Arroa, is a high round rock, with some trees 
 on it ; lat. 2 49 N. ; Ion. 100 35 E. (R } Western Arroa con 
 sists of a group of islets and rocks, lying about a mile W. of 
 the Long Arroa, and on the same rocky bank. The Malay 
 fishermen sometimes frequent these isles to fish, and procure 
 turtle. (Horsburgh.) 
 
 ARROC1IAR, or ARROQUH.AK, a par. Scotland, co. Dum 
 barton, between Loch Lomond and Loch Long ; area, about 
 48 sq. m. On the banks of Loch Long, near its head, where 
 is situated the parish church, a few houses are collected 
 together, forming a sort of village, much resorted to during 
 the summer season as sea-bathing quarters. The scenery 
 around is wild and romantic. Pop. (1841), 580. 
 
 ARROE, or HARN1SH ISLANDS, a cluster of islands 
 in the Red Sea, about 30 m. N.W Mokha. The S.W. end of 
 the largest, called Great Arroe, or Harnish Island, is in lat. 
 13 39 N. ; Ion. 42 39 E. (R.) It is about 10 m. in length, 
 and 3 in breadth at the widest part. The centre rises to a 
 considerable height, and presents from some points of view a 
 remarkable bluff. The W. side is steep, with no bottom, in 
 some places, at 100 fathoms close to. There is good pasturage 
 in the valleys ; and antelopes abound. Little Arroe Island is 
 about 4 m. N. from Great Arroe ; it is of an oblong shape, of 
 great height, and upwards of 7 m. in circumference ; very 
 rugged, with grass in some parts, and a few antelopes. There 
 are a number of small islands and rocky islets scattered around. 
 (Horsburgh.) See also AEKOE. 
 
 ARROESKIOBING. See AEROE. 
 ARRONCHES [anc. Septan- Arce], a tn. and par. Portu 
 gal, prov. Alemtejo, dist. of, and 16m. S.E. from Portalegre, 
 at the confluence of the Caya and the Alegrete. It is fortified, 
 but not strongly ; and has two churches, a convent, an hospi 
 tal, and a poorhouse. Pop. 120G. 
 ARROO. See ARRU. 
 
 ARROUX, a small river, France, in deps. Cote d Or and 
 Saone-et-Loire, being an affluent of the Loire, which it joins 
 on its r. bank, 13 m. W. Charolles. Length about 65 in. 
 
 ARROW, a par. and township, England, co. Warwick ; 
 4220 ac. ; S.W. Alcester. Pop. in 1841, 543. 
 
 ARROWSM1TH (CAPE and RIVER), Australia, the for 
 mer on the W. shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria ; lat. 13 15 S.; 
 Ion. 136 32 E. The latter is in W. Australia, Victoria 
 Land ; it rises in Herschell range, and falls into the sea in 
 lat. 29 30 S. 
 
 ARROYO DEL i-UERCO [Pig Brook], a tn. Spain, in 
 Estremadura, prov. of, and 10 m. W. from Caceres, in an 
 elevated and extensive plain, enjoying a temperate climate. 
 The houses are generally two stories high, the streets clean 
 and well paved, and there are three large and two small 
 
 squares. The town contains a parish church, in which are 
 preserved several fine pictures by Morales, six endowed 
 schools, an hospital, a palace of the ancient Dukes of Bene- 
 vente, and several flour and other mills. Manufactures : 
 earthenware, linen and woollen fabrics, oil, and soap; many 
 of the inhabitants are employed as carriers in conveying 
 earthenware, oil, fruits, &c., to Andalusia and lower Estre 
 madura, and bringing back iron, grindstones, &c. Pop. 
 7395. 
 
 ARROYO MOLINOS DE MONTANCHES, a In. Spain, in 
 Estremadura, prov. of, and 27 m. S.S.E. from Caceres, on 
 the edge of the ridge of Montanches, the scene of the surprise 
 and defeat of the French by Lord Hill, October 28, 1811. 
 The town has a square, and crooked, ill-paved, and dirty 
 streets ; a parish church, a castle, townhall, prison, public 
 granary, and several extensive flourmills ; and in the environs 
 are a hermitage, and some springs of excellent mineral water. 
 Manufactures : earthenware, oil, linen and woollen quilts, 
 figured handkerchiefs, and wine. In the vicinity large num 
 bers of pigs are reared, the bacon of which is famed, and forms 
 a staple article in the trade of the town. Pop. 3286. 
 
 ARRU, ARROU, or AROO ISLANDS [Dutch, Aroe\, 
 a group of islands belonging to the Dutch, situated on the N. 
 verge of the Great Australian Bank, S. and W. from New 
 Guinea, and N.E. from Timorlaut Island, and extending from 
 N. to S. about 127 m. According to Carnbee s map, they lie 
 between lat. 5 20 and 7 6 S. ; and Ion. 134 10 and 134 54 E. 
 They are nearly unapproachable from the E., in consequence 
 of the coral reefs by which they are beset, consequently many 
 of them have not been visited. The largest are Cobror or 
 Kobroor, 69 m. by 23; Meicor or Maykor, 26 m. by 11; 
 Trana or Tranna, 34 m. by 20 to 7 ; Worcay or Workay, 
 2 1 m. by 10. Besides these, there are smaller islands of various 
 sizes, Wokan, Wamuier, Doear, Kola Waria, &c., and a great 
 number of madrepore islets. They are separated by narrow 
 channels, some of which are of great depth, and in which the 
 tide regularly rises and falls. The growth of mangroves, 
 which line the shores of these channels, tends every day to 
 abridge their breadth. The islands are all low and swampy, 
 with patches of rock here and there, about 20 ft. high ; but 
 well-wooded and fertile, producing various cereals, fruits, and 
 spices. The trees, which along the shores in many places 
 form impenetrable forests, are of great height, many of them 
 reaching to 90 ft. before they begin to branch out. The 
 timber, of which there are several kinds, is remarkable for 
 durability, and for the ease with which it works. The natives, 
 according to Capt. Stokes, appear to be a mixture between 
 the Malayan race and the Polynesian negro ; they are a harm 
 less people, and have a good character for honesty ; but the 
 greater portion are in a state of poverty, owing to an im 
 moderate use of spirituous liquors, large quantities of which 
 are brought by the traders from Java and Macassar. Many 
 of them profess Christianity, having been converted by Dutch 
 missionaries from Amboina ; from which place also teachers 
 are still sent for the schools, in which the Christian children 
 are taught the Malay language. The natives seem much dis 
 posed to embrace Christianity, and to follow the usages, and 
 adopt the manners, of social institutions. They live in villages 
 1 containing about 20 small thatched houses, and great harmony 
 prevails among them generally ; their complexion is black, 
 their hair long but strongly curled, and their stature about 
 the middle size. Their food consists of sago, rice, maize, 
 pumpkins, yams, fish, and pork. A small kind of kangaroo, 
 similar to those met with on the N. coast of Australia, and 
 here called the Pilandok, inhabits these islands ; perroqucts 
 and birds of paradise abound ; the latter are shot by the natives 
 with blunt arrows, which stun them without injuring the 
 plumage. They are then skinned and dried, forming a great 
 article of export. Other productions which form articles of 
 export are trepang, tortoise-shell, pearls, mother-of-pearl, and 
 edible birds nests. The chief trepang fisheries are on the 
 shores of the island Workay, and other smaller islands in the 
 S. of the group. The Arru Islands are much visited by native 
 traders, and a considerable amount of commerce is carried on 
 by merchants from Banda, Macassar, &c. ; and large quantities 
 of British goods are annually imported. Pop. of the group, 
 about 60,000. (Stokes s Australia; Earle s Eastern Seas 
 Temminck, Coup d ccil sur VInde Neerlandaisc ; Moniteur des 
 Lides.} 
 
ARRUL 
 
 213 
 
 ARTAKI 
 
 ARRUL, a river which emerges from the S. end of Lake 
 Munchar, on the W. confines of Sinde, and after a course of 
 20 m. joins the Indus. At Schwan, about 4 m. ahove, it is 
 nearly 100 yards wide, and the depth of its channel in the 
 middle is never less then 12 ft. The banks are fringed thickly 
 with tamarisks and acacias, and an undergrowth of camel 
 thorn and grass. The Luckee hills, part of the great chain 
 of Hale, at a short distance from its banks, consist of lime 
 stone, and a little below the junction contain a great variety 
 of petrified shells, wood, and coral. Among the shells is a 
 large species of nautilus, 18 inches across. In the country 
 through which the Arrul passes, there is a good deal of laud 
 under tillage, and numerous hamlets are seen ; but the only 
 town of any importance is Schwan, which now contains only 
 2000 families, but is surrounded by an enormous space covered 
 with ruined houses, mosques, and sepulchres, bearing testi 
 mony to its ancient magnificence. 
 
 ARS-EN-RE, a tn. France, dep. Charente-Inferieure. 
 (Aunis), 19 ni. W.N.W. Eochelle; on the W. extremity of 
 the Isle de Re, with a good roadstead and a small port. Salt 
 is procured here, and is refined and exported in large quan 
 tities. Beautiful transparent pebbles, white, yellow, and 
 rose-coloured, are also found. Pop. 231 1. 
 
 ARSAMAS, or ARZAMASS, a tn. Russia, gov. Nijni-Nov- 
 gorod, cap. dist. of same name, r. bank, Tiosha, 250 m. E. Mos 
 cow; lat. 55 25 N. ; Ion. 43 45 E. It contains 20 churches, 
 and two convents. Manufactures : soap, leather, silk, linen, 
 &c., the greater part of the latter of which is sent to Moscow 
 and St. Petersburg. Pop. (1849), 8338. 
 
 ARSIERO, a vil. Venetian Lombardy, delegation, V icenza, 
 6 m. N. Schio. In the neighbourhood are several paper- 
 mills, and quarries of beautiful marble. Pop. 2800. 
 
 ARSOLI, a vil. Italy, Papal States, 13 m. N.E. Tivoli. 
 Pop. 2000. 
 
 ART, or ARTH, a tn. Switzerland, can. of, and 7 m. N.W. 
 from Schwyz, in a picturesque valley between the mountains 
 Rigi and liossberg, at the S. extremity of the Lake of Zug. 
 The town is well built, and contains a convent of Capuchins, 
 with a library ; the church of St. George, remarkable for its 
 fine architecture ; and a large fountain formed of a single block 
 of granite. The inhabitants are employed partly in spinning 
 silk, and partly in rearing cattle. They realize consider 
 able gains, by furnishing guides and conveyances for tra 
 vellers ascending the neighbouring mountains. Pop. 2150 
 (Catholics). 
 
 ARTA, a city, Turkey in Europe, supposed to be the 
 anc. Ambracia, 1. bank, Arta, about 6 or 7 m. from its em 
 bouchure in the gulf of that name. The stream is here about 
 200 yards broad, and is crossed by a singular bridge, formed 
 of three obtuse angles in place of a uniform curve, thus ren 
 dering the passage both difficult and dangerous. It lies in a 
 picturesque but unhealthy locality ; and its principal buildings 
 are the palace of the Bey, the mosques, churches, and syn 
 agogues. In the commercial quarter, each trade has its sepa 
 rate street and bazaar. Manufactures : woollens, cottons, 
 Russian leather, embroidery, which is brought to great per 
 fection ; and a species of cloak or shaggy capote, termed floc- 
 cata, and mucli esteemed as an article of dress. Chief articles 
 of trade: cattle, wine, tobacco, cotton, hemp, hides, and 
 grain. The. market is abundantly supplied with fruit and 
 vegetables. The N. part of the city is inhabited solely by 
 Turks, who exclude all Franks. The city was nearly de 
 stroyed during the Greek insurrection. Part of the ancient 
 
 walls, built of very large stones, still exists. The RIVER 
 
 which rises in the mountains separating Albania from 
 Macedonia, flows S., and falls into the Gulf of Arta after a 
 course of about 70 m. It is not navigable for more than 5 
 or 6 m. up from its mouth. Pop. 7000. 
 
 ARTA (GULF OF) [anc. Ambradus Sinus], an inlet, 
 Ionian Sea, about 25 m. in length, and 10 in breadth ; it is 
 composed of a larger and smaller basin ; the latter forming 
 the Bay of Prevesa, and lying next the Ionian Sea. The 
 entrance to each basin is very narrow ; the entire gulf being 
 contracted at two points, by headlands running into it on the 
 N. and S. It abounds with excellent fish, and its shores 
 afford a variety of pleasing and picturesque scenery ; but 
 rocks and sand-banks render its navigation somewhat danger 
 ous. Near its entrance was fought the famous battle of 
 Actium, between Antony and Augustus. See ACTIUM. 
 
 naturally ornamented with representations resembling the 
 different architectural orders, and reflecting innumerable com 
 binations of prismatic hues from the light of the torches ; the 
 roof is studded with brilliant stalactites, and the floor strewn 
 with fragments which, from time to time, have fallen there 
 from, and studded with large gradually-increasing stalagmites ; 
 in the centre is a small pool of pure water. The second 
 cave, Infierno, is even more splendid, in all its details, than 
 the first, inasmuch as the crystal is of a purer and more 
 dazzling whiteness, having been less frequently exposed to 
 the smoke of travellers torches. 
 
 ARTAINE, a par. Ireland, co. Dublin ; 954 ac. Pop. 
 in 1841, 367. 
 
 ART AJ ANA, a fortified tn. Spain, in Navarra, 17 m. S. 
 Pamplona ; surrounded by walls flanked by 12 towers, toler 
 ably well built, and having a church, two schools, an hospital, 
 store-house, and two prisons. Its inhabitants are chiefly 
 engaged in tillage ; but also distil brandy, which, with wine, 
 oil, and grain, is sent to Pamplona, Logrouo, and Burgos. 
 Pop. 1911. 
 
 ARTAKI, or ANTAKI [anc. Artace], a small seaport, 
 Asiatic Turkey, W. shore of the peninsula of Cyzicus, Sea of 
 Marmara, about 80 m. S.W. Constantinople. It has a small 
 harbour, with the remains of an ancient mole ; and at Cape 
 Melanos, in its vicinity, are some ruins apparently of no great 
 antiquity. The district is covered with vineyards, from the 
 produce of which a wine is made which is much esteemed 
 even at Constantinople. 
 
 ARTA, a tn., E. side, isl. Majorca, 37 in. E. by N. Pal- 
 ma, at the base of a hill. It is well built, defended by a castle ; 
 has wide but rather steep streets, two large squares, a parish 
 church, several chapels, a townhouse, and two schools. 
 The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in tillage, cattle-rearing, 
 and fishing ; but also in weaving, dyeing cloth, and distilling 
 brandy. Pop. 4001. In the neighbouring hills pipeclay I 
 and millstones are obtained ; and on them are the remains of 
 an ancient Arab castle. The locality is, however, chiefly 
 noted for a natural stalactite cavern, which occupies the hollow 
 of a hill, 6 m. S.E. the town. The entrance to this cavern 
 is in the form of a halberd, and its interior is divided into two 
 distinct compartments, called Primero, first, and Infierno, 
 lower, on account of its depth and obscurity. Having passed 
 the vestibule, a gorgeous spectacle bursts upon the sight; 
 vast columns of crystal ascend to the roof profusely, though 
 
ARTANA 
 
 217 
 
 AKVA 
 
 ARTANA, a tn. Spain, in Valencia, prov. of, and 10 in. 
 S. W. Castellon de la Plana, at the foot of an isolated hill, in 
 the centre of the sierra de Espadan. It has straight, clean, 
 and generally well- paved streets ; two squares, a parish church, 
 endowed school, hospital, and cemetery. On the crest of the 
 hill are the ruins of an ancient castle, with an octagonal tower 
 of Roman workmanship. Tillage, and the manufacture of 
 bass mats and oil, are the chief employments. Pop. 2077. 
 
 ARTAXATA, a former cap. Armenia, now a mass of 
 ruins, on the Aras, 68 m. S.S.E. Erivan. It was built by 
 King Artaxes, after a plan by Hannibal, destroyed by the 
 Romans in the time of Nero, and rebuilt by King Tiridates 
 under the name of Neronia. About A.D. 344, it again became 
 the residence of the kings, who had left it on account of its 
 unhealthiness. About A.D. 370, it was taken by the Persians, 
 who burned it, and carried its inhabitants into captivity. At 
 this time, it contained 9000 Jewish, and 40,000 Armenian 
 houses, with a population of about 190,000. It rose again 
 after this; but after 798, nothing more is heard of it. 
 (Dubois, Voyage autour du Caucase.) 
 
 ARTERN, a tn. Prussian Saxony, gov. Merseburg, circle, 
 Sangerhausen, on a height 670 ft. above the sea level, near 
 the Unstrut, which here begins to be navigable, 27 m. N. 
 Weimar. It is the oldest town in the district, and has a 
 palace and two churches. Salt is made here, but the spring 
 which furnishes it is not very strongly impregnated. Pure 
 rock-salt has more recently been discovered, and has been 
 reached at a depth of 150 fathoms. Artern has a distillery, 
 a saltpetre-work, and a seam of lignite. Pop. 3600. 
 
 ARTHINGWORTH, a par. England, co. Northampton; 
 9030 ac.; S.E. Market Harborough. Pop. in 1841, 242. 
 
 ARTHUR, a river, Van Diemen s Land ; it rises in the 
 Surrey Hills, about lat. 41 25 S., and, after a N.W. course 
 of between 50 and 60 m., falls into the sea, in lat. 41 10 S. ; 
 Ion. 144 40 E. 
 
 ARTHUR (PORT), a penal settlement, Van Diemen s 
 Land, S. extremity of Tasman s peninsula, between Cape 
 Raoul and Port Arthur ; lat. 43 9 6" S. ; Ion. 147 50 45" E. 
 (R.) ; with anchorage and shelter for large vessels. It was first 
 explored by Capt. J. Welsh, who gave it the name it now 
 bears. 
 
 ARTHUR (GREAT and LITTLE), two of the Scilly Islands 
 (which see}. 
 
 ARTHURET, a par. England, co. Cumberland; 17,390 
 ac. Pop. in 1841, 2859. 
 
 ARTHUR S SEAT, a remarkable hill in the immediate 
 vicinity of Edinburgh, Scotland, rising 822 ft. above the level 
 of the sea. It is of easy ascent on its E. side, but on the W. 
 is steep and rugged. On the S. side of the hill is a remark 
 able columnar precipice, called Samson s Ribs. It is com 
 posed chiefly of trap, and other rocks of volcanic formation, 
 in which spars, zeolites, jaspers, and agates, are occasionally 
 found. On the E. the strata appear to change, and mountain 
 limestone is seen piercing the surface. Separated from 
 Arthur s Seat by a narrow valley, called the Hunter s Bog, 
 and nearer the city of Edinburgh, rises a lofty ridge called 
 Salisbury Crags, presenting a precipitous and almost perpen 
 dicular front. The upper part of it consists of greenstone, 
 which was at one time extensively quarried for the public 
 roads. This greenstone rests upon a sandstone, which, on 
 coming in contact with it, is strangely scorched and twisted, 
 and exhibits a variety of interesting geological phenomena, 
 which were confidently appealed to by both parties in the keen 
 controversy long carried on between Wernerians and Hut- 
 tonians. From the top of Arthur s Seat, as well as from the 
 road which has beer, recently formed around it, and, in honour 
 of her present Majesty, is called the Queen s Drive, a most 
 magnificent view is obtained. 
 
 ARTOIS, a former prov. France, now forming the dep. 
 of Pas de Calais, excepting the arrond. of Boulogne, and a 
 portion of the arrond. of Montreuil. 
 
 ARTRAMONT, a par. Ireland, co. Wexford; 2377 ac. ; 
 has fine scenery, ruins of a castle, and Danish fort. Pop. in. 
 1841, 754. 
 
 ARTREA, or ARDTREA, a par. Ireland, cos. Tyrone and 
 Londonderry ; 20,963 ac. ; abounds in freestone and limestone. 
 Pop. in 1841, 13,046. 
 
 ARTVIN, a tn. Turkish Armenia, pash. Trebizond, cap. 
 list. Sivanieh, in a valley, W. side of the Tchorak or Akampsis. 
 VOL. T. 
 
 The houses are all of wood, with exception of a few stono 
 buildings belonging to the Turks. It contains a large E. 
 catholic church, and has some manufactures of cotton cloth, 
 and a considerable trade in butter, honey, wax, olives, and oil. 
 Pop. 5500, chiefly R. catholics. 
 
 A RUB A. See ORUBA. 
 
 ARUCAS, a tn. Spain, on W. shore of Gomera, one of 
 the Canaries, on the slope of a mountain which is upwards of 
 3000 ft. in height, having a church, chapel, school, and 
 spacious public granary. Manufactures: hats, linen and 
 cotton fabrics, thread, and clothing, all used in the vicinity ; 
 but the chief occupation is agriculture. Pop. 4370. 
 
 ARUM, or AARDM, a vil. Holland, prov. Friesland, be 
 tween Harlingen and Bolsward, and 5 m. distant from either 
 place. It lies in a cultivated district, and has a handsome 
 Calvinistic church, and a corn-mill. Pop. 1100. 
 
 ARUN, a river, England, co. Sussex, famous for its gray 
 mullets ; rises in St. Leonard s forest, in the N. of the county, 
 flows S., receives the Rother from the right, 4 m. S.E. Pet- 
 worth, passes Arundel, to which it is navigable for vessels of 
 250 tons, and falls into the British Channel at Little Hampton, 
 after a course of about 40 m. Canals unite it with the Wye, 
 
 a tributary of the Thames, and with Chichester harbour. 
 
 ARUN is also the name of a river in Nepaul, Hindoostan. 
 
 ARUNDEL, a bor., market tn., and par. England, co. 
 Sussex. The town is 10 m. E. Chichester, and 19 W. Brighton, 
 pleasantly situated on a declivity sloping to the Arun, which 
 is here crossed by a neat stone bridge of three arches. It 
 comprises three principal streets, two of which are spacious, 
 the third narrow and irregular, but all are well kept. The 
 houses are mostly old, and timber-built, many of them dating 
 as far back as the time of Elizabeth ; but there are also a 
 number of handsome, substantial modern buildings. The 
 town is amply supplied with water, effectually drained, and 
 well lighted with gas. On the summit of a steep hill, on the 
 N.E. side of the town, stands the ancient castle of Arundel, 
 of Norman origin, the residence of the present Duke of 
 Norfolk. The church, erected in 1380, is a handsome cruci 
 form structure, with a well-built square tower rising from the 
 centre. At the E. end is the collegiate chapel, in which are 
 a number of curious and interesting monuments, chiefly re 
 lating to the noble family of Howard. The townhall, in the 
 Norman style of architecture, was built by the late Duke of 
 Norfolk, at an expense of 9000. There are here, besides 
 the parish church, an Independent and a R. catholic chapel. 
 The principal school is the national school, erected by Charles, 
 Duke of Norfolk, in 1814, and is supported by voluntary con 
 tribution, and affords instruction to 300 children. The trade 
 of Arundel is considerable, the river being navigable up to 
 the town for vessels of 250 tons burden. The chief imports 
 are butter, bacon, lard, grain, and starch, from Ireland ; grain 
 and cheese from Holland ; grain, oilcake, wine, fruit, and eggs, 
 from France ; timber from the Baltic ; and coal from Newcastle 
 and Scotland. The principal exports are oak-timber, corn, 
 flour, and bark. The gross customs receipt for 1847, was 
 2453, 7s. 4d. ; but this is little more than half the amount 
 of the preceding year. The number of vessels registered 
 at the port on December 31, 1847, was 47, tonn. 4226. The 
 number of vessels that entered the port during 1847 was 229, 
 tonn. 21,964; cleared 172, tonn. 14,682. There are two 
 extensive breweries in the town. The borough was created in 
 the reign of Edward I. The corporation consists, at present, 
 of 16 councillors, including the mayor and four aldermen. 
 The market is on Tuesday, chiefly for corn, of which large 
 quantities are disposed, and on every alternate Tuesday there 
 is an extensive cattle-market. Previous to the passing of the 
 Reform Act, the borough returned two members to the House 
 of Commons; since then, it sends one only. Registered 
 electors in 1850, 221. The par. comprises 1830 ac., 710 of 
 which are pasture, 347 in tillage, and the remainder in park 
 and forest land. Pop. of bor. and par. 2624. (Correspondent 
 in Arundel.) 
 
 ARVA. 1, A co. Hungary, N. of the Danube, between 
 lat. 49 10 and 49 35 N., having Galicia on the N. and E., 
 and partly also on the W.; area, 797 sq. m. Pop. about 
 125,000. It is watered by the Arva, occupies higher ground 
 than any other county in Hungary, and is not generally very 
 fertile, although its soil is peculiarly favourable for the culti 
 vation of the potato. Oats and flax are also grown in con- 
 
 28 
 
ARYANS (Sr.) 
 
 218 
 
 ASCALON 
 
 siderable quantities ; but its principal resources are its great 
 forests, which aftbrd large supplies of timber. The pop. is 
 
 chiefly of Bohemian-Slavonic, or Slowachian extraction. 
 
 2, A river, Spain, in Aragon, rising near the base of the sierra 
 St. Domingo, prov. Huesca ; takes a S. course, and, being 
 augmented by the Arva de Biel and other small streams, 
 foils into the Ebro 3 m. S.W. Tauste, after flowing about 
 43 ra. 
 
 ARYANS (ST.), a par. England, co. Monmouth; 2840 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 354. 
 
 A RYE, a river, Sardinian States, Savoy ; it rises at the foot 
 of the Col-de-Balme, flows S.W. through the valley of Chamouni 
 to Sallenches, thence past Bonneville N.W. to Geneva, about 
 three-fourths of a mile W. of which it falls into the Rhone, 
 after a course of about 70 m. The waters of the Arve being 
 mainly derived from the melting of glacier-ice, are conse 
 quently cold, and turbid from the quantity of pounded rock 
 they hold in suspension. After entering the Rhone, which is 
 clear and pellucid, the turbid stream of the Arve may be dis 
 tinctly traced for about half a mile, holding on its way down the 
 course of the former river, and keeping entirely apart from 
 its clear waters. The effect of the transparent and muddy 
 streams thus flowing along together, without mingling, is 
 sufficiently curious. The latter, however, finally prevails, 
 discolouring the former throughout. The beautiful pebbles 
 found in the bed of the Arve, renders it interesting to the 
 mineralogist. Some gold dust is found among its sands. 
 The scenery on its banks is beautiful. 
 
 ARVEYRON, a streamlet, Sardinian States, Savoy, an 
 affluent of the Arve, which it joins a little above the vil. 
 of Chamouni. It issues from a natural arch in the lower 
 end of the Glacier des Bois, the termination of the Mer de 
 Glace. The size of the arch, and the regularity of its forma 
 tion, varies with the season of the year. 
 
 ARVOREDO ISLAND, on the S.E. coast, Brazil, prov. 
 Catherina; lat. 27 17 N. ; Ion. 48 22 W. (K.) ; off the N. 
 end of the island of St. Catherina, and about 8 or 10 m. from 
 the mainland. 
 
 ARZAMAS, a tn. and dist. Eussia in Europe, gov. Nijni- 
 Novgorod. The TOWN lies at the confluence of the rivers 
 Tiocha and Cholka ; lat. 55 21 N. ; Ion. 43 20 E. It has 
 two convents, several churches, some soap-factories, dyeworks, 
 and iron-works. Two fairs are held annually ; and a consider 
 able trade is carried on with St. Petersburg in sailcloth. Pop. 
 
 9000. The DISTRICT is watered by the rivers above named, 
 
 and produces timber and a considerable quantity of flax. The 
 farmers raise vast numbers of poultry ; and thousands of frozen 
 or dried geese are sent annually to St. Petersburg. Pop. of 
 dist. 120,000. 
 
 ARZANO, a vil. Naples, prov. of, and 3 m. N. that city. 
 It has some beautiful villas ; and flax and hemp are much 
 cultivated in the neighbourhood. Pop. 41 43. 
 
 ARZBERG, a tn. Bavaria, Upper Franconia, circle of 
 Wunsiedel. It has two churches, two sawmills, some lime 
 kilns, two iron-works ; and the preparation of alum, leather, 
 pitch, &c., are carried on. In the vicinity are mines of iron, 
 
 coal, and cobalt. Pop. 1380. ARZBERO is the name of 
 
 numerous small towns and villages in Germany and Austria. 
 
 ARZEW, ARZEO, or ARZAW [anc. Arsenaria], a seaport 
 tn. Algiers, prov. Tlemsen, 24 m. E.N.E. Oran; lat. (fort) 
 35 51 42" N.; Ion. O u 17 W. (R.) It is ill built, but 
 exhibits many traces of former splendour ; consisting of frag 
 ments of columns, beautiful mosaic pavements, cisterns, &c. 
 The harbour is the best in the regency, and is frequently 
 resorted to by European vessels as a place of retreat in winter 
 and autumn. On the fort, on the point of Arzew, a fixed 
 light is shown, visible 4 m. distant ; lighted for the first time, 
 December 25, 1844. Corn and salt, the latter obtained from 
 saline springs in the neighbourhood, are the principal exports. 
 Pop. 500. 
 
 ARZIGNANO, a tn. Austrian Lombardy, 11 m. W. 
 Vicenza, in a plain surrounded by hills, near the Agno. It has 
 manufactories of cloth and spun silk, dyeworks, brickworks, 
 and lime-kilns ; and an active trade in wool, silk, linen, wine, 
 and cattle. Pop. 3500. 
 
 ARZ1LLA [the Carthaginian Zillia, and Roman Julia 
 Traducta], a small seaport, Morocco, 21 m. S. Cape Spartel ; 
 lat. 35 28 N. ; Ion. 6 2 W. It is a miserable village, with 
 out trade, wealth, or industry. The surrounding country is 
 
 well wooded, and partly laid out in gardens. Pop. in 1835, 
 said not to exceed 600. 
 
 ASAB. See ASSAB. 
 
 ASAHAN, or ASSAHAN, a tn., N.E. coast, isl. Sumatra, 
 in the Batta country, cap. of a district, and situated on a 
 river of the same name, about 20 m. from its embouchure 
 in the Strait of Malacca. It carries on a considerable trade 
 with Malacca, Penang, and Singapore. Its principal imports 
 are salt, opium, cotton goods, arms, and gunpowder ; principal 
 exports, wood for dyeing, rattans, rice, wax, horses, and slaves. 
 
 ASAL. See ASSAJ,. 
 
 A SAM. See ASSAM. 
 
 ASAMA-YAMA, or ASAMA-NO-DAKE, a lofty and very 
 active volcano, Japan, in the Interior of the island of Niphon, 
 N.E. of the town of Komoro. 
 
 ASANGARO, a tn. and dist. Peru, N. bank of Lake 
 Titicaca. The town lies on a river of the same name, about 
 10 m. from its embouchure in the lake; lat. 15 30 S.; 
 Ion. 71 30 7 W. Potatoes are the priiicipal agricultural pro 
 duce of the district. Cattle and swine are numerous, forming 
 the chief resource of the inhabitants. 
 
 ASAPH (ST.) [formerly, Llan Elwy], a city and par., 
 N. Wales, partly in co. Denbigh, partly in co. Flint, 6 m. N. 
 Denbigh, and 24 m. W. by N. Chester, beautifully situated on 
 the slope of a gentle eminence between the rivers Clwyd and 
 Elwy. It consists of two principal streets, and several smaller 
 diverging from them, all kept clean and in good order. The 
 houses are all of brick, substantially and well built. St. Asaph 
 is a bishop s see, said to have been founded by St. Kentigern 
 or Mungo, Bishop of Glasgow, who, when exiled from his 
 country, took refuge in Wales. On his return to Scotland, 
 he was succeeded by St. Asaph, from whom the see and town 
 are named. The only building of any note in the place is 
 its cathedral, a plain cruciform building, with a square tower 
 in the centre. The interior is striking and impressive an 
 effect not a little heightened by a magnificent stained glass 
 window in the E. end of the building. The original struc 
 ture was founded in 1284, and was burned along with the 
 town by Owen Glendower, in 1402 ; it has since been rebuilt, 
 and has undergone various repairs, but is now disused. The 
 other places of worship are the parish church, and the Cal- 
 vinist, Wesleyan, Independent, and Baptist chapels. The 
 educational means are an endowed grammar-school, a boys 
 and girls national schools, and several private schools. There 
 are also a society for the diffusion of useful knowledge, and 
 several charitable and benevolent institutions. The town has 
 a weekly market on Friday, and fonr annual fairs. It is in 
 cluded in the Flint district of burghs. Pop. in 1841, of par. 
 3338 ; city, 1701. 
 
 ASARO, a tn. Sicily, prov. Catania, dist. of, and 9 in. 
 S. Nicosia. Pop. 3000. 
 
 ASBEN, a considerable kingdom of Central Africa, about 
 lat. 20 N. ; Ion. 7 E. The inhabitants are said to be 
 Tuaricks, of the tribe of Kolluvi, but very little is known of 
 the country. Asben is also the name of the chief town, or 
 caravan station in the kingdom, and the distances are given 
 as follows, in M Queen s Africa: Asben to Tripoli, 50 days 
 journey; Asben to Tunis, two months; to Tafileh, 70 days; and 
 to Murzook, 40 days. (See AIR in Supplement, vol. ii. p. 1287.) 
 
 ASCALON, ASCULAN, or ASCALAAN [anc. Askkelon], 
 a ruined city and seaport, Syria, 40 m. W.S.W. Jerusa 
 lem, and about 14 m. N. by W. Gaza ; lat. 31 39 N. ; 
 Ion. 34 31 E. (R.) Ascalon was originally a city and lord 
 ship of the Philistines, but afterwards fell into the hands of 
 the Jews, and of various other nations in succession. In the 
 earlier part of the Christian era it was a bishop s see, and in 
 the Middle Ages it bears a conspicuous part in the history of 
 the Crusades. After being several times dismantled, and 
 repaired during the war between Richard and Saladin, its 
 fortifications were ultimately destroyed, and its port filled 
 with stones by the Sultan Bibars, in 1270. In 16GG it was 
 partly inhabited, but in 1827 it is described as without a 
 human inhabitant, and as exhibiting a scene of utter desola 
 tion, and distinctly fulfilling the prophecies of Scripture re 
 garding it. This ancient city lies on an eminence, abrupt 
 towards the sea, but sloping gently landward, and is almost 
 encircled by a ridge of rock, along the edge of which the 
 walls were built. Within arc the remains of a temple, of 
 Grecian architecture, supposed to be that of Venus, which 
 
ASCENSION 
 
 219 
 
 ASCHAFFENBURO 
 
 Herodotus states to have been plundered by the Scythians 
 u.c. 630. There exist also the relics of a Roman amphi 
 theatre, and of various churches and other buildings. Ascalon 
 was the birthplace of Herod the Great, and of Antiochus the 
 academician, and the teacher of Cicero. It is by the Arabs 
 called Jaurah, and believed to be the residence of evil spirits. 
 A little to the N. is a small modern village, named Scalona, 
 pop. 400, with a harbour for vessels employed in the coasting 
 trade. (Robinson s Bib. Researches ; Kitto s Palestine.) 
 
 ASCENSION, a. rocky isl., S. Atlantic Ocean, about 
 8 m. in length, and about 6 in breadth, between Africa and S. 
 America; lat. (Green Mountain) 7 57 S. ; Ion. 14 21 W. (R.), 
 595 m. N.W. the island of St. Helena, and presenting a very 
 rugged and uninviting appearance from the sea. It was dis 
 covered on May 20, Ascension Day, 1501, by Joao de Nova 
 Gallego, a Portuguese ; and was visited two years afterwards, 
 by Alfonzo d Albuquerque, who gave it its present name. It 
 is of volcanic formation ; consisting of a single rocky moun 
 tain, named Green Mountain, rising to the height of 2820 ft. 
 above the sea level ; surrounded with numerous craggy peaks 
 of less elevation, and with deep crevices and ravines filled 
 with scoria, pumice-stones, and other igneous products. The 
 scanty herbage of the island serves but to support a few goats, 
 whose flesh, however, is said to be exceedingly delicate. A 
 sufficiency of fresh water was long a desideratum on the 
 island ; the only supply being what remained, after rain, in 
 the clefts of the rocks. After many fruitless attempts to 
 remedy this evil, Capt. Brandreth, who was appointed by the 
 Admiralty in 1829, to survey and report on the island pre 
 vious to its adoption as a military station, succeeded in dis 
 covering a spring at a depth of 25 ft., which yields from four to 
 seven tons of water daily, a quantity far exceeding the demands 
 of the island. The coast all around is very steep ; but at the 
 
 height of about 30 ft., occurs a level plain, 6 m. in circum 
 ference, surrounded by precipitous rocks, supposed to be the 
 crater of an extinct volcano which has gradually filled up. 
 The only good anchorage is on the N.W. side of the island, 
 in a small inlet, called Sandy Bay, opposite Georgetown, and 
 known by a conical hill, called Cross Hill. Georgetown, 
 lat. (barrack-square) 7 55 30" S. ; Ion. 14 25 30" W. (n.) 
 consists of a fort, military quarters, and a few detached resi 
 dences. Sandy Bay is much frequented by East Indiarnen 
 and whalers, who have been in the habit of depositing letters, 
 enclosed in a bottle, in a certain well-known crevice in the 
 rock near the landing-place, called The Sailor s Post-Office, 
 which are taken up by vessels going out or home, as the let 
 ters may be addressed. The island formerly belonged to the 
 Portuguese, but is now occupied by the British, who erected 
 a fort, and placed a garrison there, soon after Napoleon was 
 sent to St. Helena. Several English families, from the latter 
 place, took up their residence on the island at the same time. 
 Ascension has been long famed for its turtle, which are caught 
 in great numbers. The season for taking them is between De 
 cember and June, both inclusive. As many as 2500 have been 
 
 turned in one year ; but from 400 to 500 is the usual number 
 taken within that period. Many of the turtle weigh from 
 500 to 800 Ibs. each. They are usually collected in two large 
 ponds or crawls, the water of which is occasionally changed. 
 Turtle can now be obtained only by purchase ; any one taking 
 them on the beach, or floating near the island, are liable to a 
 penalty of 25. The usual price of a turtle is 2, 10s. The 
 coast abounds also with fish of various kinds, and all excel 
 lent; the conger-eel being the most prized. Another indi 
 genous delicacy of this remarkable island, or rather rock, is 
 the egg of the tropical swallow, or wide-awake, as it is 
 called, on the island. They are largely used as an article of 
 food ; 10,000 dozen being frequently gathered in a week. 
 Wild guinea-fowl abound ; and wild goats were also to be had, 
 but their extermination being considered essential to the suc 
 cessful rearing of sheep and cattle, they are now scarce, and 
 will, in all probability, soon disappear. The atmosphere is 
 clear and elastic, and the climate remarkably salubrious. 
 Communication with the shore is frequently rendered diffi 
 cult, if not dangerous, by the setting in of heavy seas or 
 rollers, which rise suddenly in the midst of the most perfect 
 calm, and break with tremendous fury on the beach. The 
 cause of this phenomenon is unknown. Some singular fossils 
 have lately been discovered in this island, in a quarry on the 
 N.W. side of the island, about 100 yards from the sea. They 
 consist of the eggs of turtles, containing young turtle fully 
 developed. (Jour. Roy. Geo. Soc.) 
 
 ASCII, or ASCHA, a tn. Bohemia, circle, Elbogen, on a 
 
 streamlet of the same name, and about 4m. N. the Erzgebirge; 
 
 lat. 50 14 N. ; Ion. 12 12 E. It has a parish church, and 
 
 manufactures of linen, cotton, and woollen goods. Pop. 2500. 
 
 ASCH is the common name of at least 10 small places in 
 
 ASCHACH, a tn. Upper Austria, r. bank, Danube, 13 m. 
 N.W. Linz. It has a small old church, three benevolent 
 institutions, a fine castle of the Counts of Harrach, and a con 
 siderable trade in laths, timber, fruit, and linen. Pop. 1240. 
 ASCHACH is the name of several other places in Germany. 
 
 ASCH AF AS, a group of small islands in the Red Sea, off 
 the W. coast of Yemen, Arabia, from which they are about 
 25 m. distant. The 16th parallel of N. lat. passes the most S. 
 
 ASCHAFFENBURG-, a tn. Bavaria, prov. Lower Main, 
 r. bank, Main, where it receives the Aschaff, and on the S.W. 
 slope of the Spessart, 26 m. E.S.E. Frankfort-on-the-Maiu, 
 and on the proposed railway from Frankfort to Bamberg. It 
 is the seat of important local and appeal courts ; the buildings 
 in connection with which form some of its most conspicuous 
 edifices. It is surrounded by walls on all sides, except along 
 the river. Its most conspicuous building is the royal palace, 
 called Johannisberg, a large square red edifice, with five towers, 
 built originally by the Elector-Archbishops of Mainz, and now 
 the usual summer residence of his Bavarian Majesty. It 
 commands a delightful view of the surrounding country ; and 
 has a large garden, which is laid out in the English style, and 
 forms one of the greatest attractions of the place. The high 
 church, built in 974, has several fine monuments and sculp 
 tures by Vischer, and a number of paintings, including one by 
 Griinewald, and another supposed to be by Albert Durer. The 
 other buildings and institutions deserving of notice are the 
 Capuchin cloister, the Catherine hospital, with its order of 
 poor sisters ; the library, which is at once extensive, and rich 
 in ancient MSS. ; the gymnasium, and several other educa 
 tional institutions ; the grammar school, the school of agricul 
 ture, and the school of design. The chief articles produced 
 here are cloth, paper, common and stained ; leather, red and 
 white ; glue, soap, bricks, pottery, tobacco, brandy, spirit of 
 wine, and liqueurs. The trade is considerable, and has been 
 much extended by the establishment of steamboats, which ply 
 on the Main between Wiirzburg and Frankfort. The antiquity 
 of the town has led some to give it a Roman origin, and to find 
 in its name a corruption of Ptolemy s Astiburgum. Pop. 9500. 
 
 The PRINCIPALITY of Aschaffenburg, as existing in 1803, 
 
 and annexed to the dukedom of Frankfort, had an extent of 500 
 geo. sq. m., lying along both sides of the Main, and including 
 the immense forests of Odenwald and the Spessart parts of 
 the ancient Hyrcania, mentioned by Caesar and Tacitus. In 
 1814, it came into the possession of Austria, and passed by 
 exchange and purchase to Bavaria. The CIRCLE of Aschaf 
 fenburg has an area of about 80 geo. sq. m., and a pop. of 20,1 80. 
 
ASCHE 
 
 220 
 
 ASHANTEE 
 
 ASCHE, or ASSCIIE, a tn. Belgium, chief place com. and 
 cau. of same name, prov. Brabant, on the high road from 
 Ghent to Brussels, and 6 m. N. W. Brussels. It has breweries, 
 distilleries, tanneries, and soapworks ; and is famous for a 
 kind of very fine, light, sugared muffins or buns, which have 
 a large sale, and are well known under the name of couques of 
 Asche. Pop., tn. and com. 5300. 
 
 ASCHEKSLEBEN, a tn. Prussia, cap. circle of same 
 name, gov. of, and 27 m. S.S.W. Magdeburg, on the Eine, 
 near its junction with the Wipper. It is surrounded by a 
 strong wall with five gates, and has six churches (five Pro 
 testant, and one R. catholic), a synagogue, a gymnasium, a 
 poorhouse, and a foundling hospital. The chief articles pro 
 duced are frieze, flannel, worsted stockings, leather, earthen 
 ware, brandy, beer, and vinegar. In the neighbourhood are 
 several interesting ruins; among others the castle of Askaniun, 
 
 the cradle of the House of Anhalt. The CIRCLE (area 1 30 
 
 geo. sq. m.), with exception of a small level tract, is hilly, 
 being traversed by the chain of the Hartz, which is here of 
 considerable height. The soil of half the circle is good, con 
 sisting partly of the bed of a large lake which, in 1703, was 
 drained, and brought under cultivation. Pop. of tn. 10,100; 
 of circle, 40,700, of whom only 450 are R. catholics, and 200 
 Jews. 
 
 ASCIANO, an anc. tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 
 10 m. S.E. Sienna, on a declivity, 1. bank, Ombrone. It pos 
 sesses a collegiate and two parish churches, in which are some 
 fine pictures of the 16th and 17th centuries ; and municipal 
 buildings. Pop. 6508. 
 
 ASCOLI [anc. Asculum], a fortified tn. Papal States, cap. 
 delegation of same name, r. bank, Tronto, 14 m. above its 
 embouchure in the Adriatic, 90 m. N.E. Rome. The town, 
 one of the most ancient in Italy, is well built, and contains 
 many handsome edifices and noble mansions. It is the seat 
 of a civil court, and of a bishop ; has several parish churches, 
 and a college of Jesuits ; with manufactories of woollen cloths, 
 cream of tartar, china-ware, sealing wax, paper, and glass. It 
 lias an active trade, and its port, at the mouth of the river 
 Tronto, is much frequented by coasting vessels. Pop. 12,500. 
 
 The DELEGATION is 30 m. E. to W., and 23 m. N. to S. 
 
 It comprises part of the ancient mark of Ancona and Fermo, 
 is mountainous, and has about 3 m. of coast, which is low. It 
 is divided into the districts of Ascoli and Montalto. Pop. in 
 1833, 78,946. 
 
 ASCOLI-Bi-SATRiANO, a tn. Naples, prov. Capitanata, 
 (list, of, and 13 m. E.S.E. Bovino. Built on the site of the 
 Asculum Apulum of the Romans, which was destroyed by the 
 Norrnans. It contains a fine cathedral, a diocesan seminary, 
 an hospital, and some convents; and is the seat of a bishop. 
 It was destroyed by an earthquake in the year 1400, and 
 rebuilt by the inhabitants on its present site. Pop. 5560. 
 
 ASCOT HEATH, England, co. Berks, par. Winkfield; 
 about 3 m. N. the South-western Railway, and 6 m. S. W. by 
 W. Windsor. It is celebrated for its fine race-course, formed 
 by William, Duke of Cumberland. 
 
 ASCOTT-UNDER-WYCinvooD, a par. England, co. Oxford ; 
 N.E. Burford ; 2540 ac. Pop. in 1841, 463. 
 
 ASUOUD, ESDUD, or SHDOOD [anc. Ashdod and Azotus], 
 a vil. Palestine, 20 m. N. by E. Ascalon; lat. 31 5W N.; Ion. 
 34 43 E. ; between 3 and 4 m. from the Mediterranean, 
 on the top of a grassy hill, surrounded by thick plantations, 
 beautiful pastures, and a finely undulating country. Although 
 occupying the site of an ancient city of note, it exhibits no 
 remains either of antiquity or of grandeur. Asdoud was one 
 of the five satrapies or lordships of the Philistines, who kept 
 possession of it long after the Israelites were masters of the 
 land. In the New Testament, it is mentioned under the name 
 of Azotus, as the place where Philip was found after his meet 
 ing with the Ethiopian eunuch. In very recent times, the 
 village had a large khan or inn ; but was remarkable for no 
 thing but the number of scorpions by which it was infested. 
 (Robinson s Bib. Researches; &c.) 
 
 ASEERGHUR. See ASSEERGHUK. 
 
 ASG AKB Y, two parishes, England, co. Lincoln : 1 , Area, 
 1150ac.; S.E.Sleaford. Pop. in 1841, 77. 2, Area, 1590 ac.; 
 N. by W. Spilsby. Pop. in 1841, 131. 
 
 ASH, by itself, and with various affixes, the name of five 
 parishes, England:!, Ash (near Sandwich), co. Kent, 6940 
 ac.; E. by N. Wingham. Pop. in 1841, 2077. 2, Ash (next 
 
 Jtidley), co. Kent, 2930 ac. ; N. by W. Wrotham. Pop. in 
 1841, 663. 3, Co. Surrey, 12,650 ac. ; N.E. Faruham. Pop. 
 in 1841, 2236. 4, Ash, orAshe, co. Hants ; 2310 ac. ; E.N.E. 
 Whitechurch. Pop. in 1841, 160. 5, Ash (Bucking), co. Suf 
 folk ; 750 ac. Pop. in 1841, 321. 
 
 ASHANGEE, a lake, Abyssinia, in Tigre". The centre 
 is in lat. 12 18 N.; Ion. 39 33 E.; greatest length, about 
 25 m. ; greatest breadth, about 14 m. 
 
 ASHANTEE, an extensive and powerful kingdom, W. 
 Africa, on the Gold Coast, Upper Guinea (cap. Coomassie), 
 extending from lat. 5 to 9 30 N. ; and from Ion. 55 E. 
 to 4 7 W. ; bounded, W. by the Assinee, E. by the Volta and 
 Soka, N. by the Kong Mountains, and S. by the Atlantic. 
 It is thus about 310 m. from E. to W., and nearly the same 
 from N. to S., its general form being pretty compact. It is 
 veil watered, particularly towards the coast, where the country 
 is intersected by several considerable streams besides those 
 named. The principal are the Seenee or Ancobra, called the 
 Bara in the earlier part of its course; the Sube, the Amissa, 
 Bosempra, and Birrim. The country is in general mountainous, 
 though it has no systems, nor any great elevations. It is 
 covered with dense forests from the coast to a distance of 
 200 m. inland. These are wholly impenetrable, excepting 
 by paths which have been opened up in various places with 
 great labour. Ashantee abounds in gold. The richest mines 
 are in Gaman, and its provinces of Baman, Safoy, and Showy. 
 In these places the precious metal is found in large pieces, 
 some of about four Ibs. weight, called rock-gold. The ore 
 is of a deep colour, and is dug out of pits from 5 to 9 ft. 
 in depth. About 10,000 slaves are employed on the banks 
 of the Bara for two months in the year, collecting gold dust, 
 v hich is also found in great quantities, as well as the solid 
 metal. The climate is very unhealthy ; the heat great, though 
 perhaps not so excessive as the position of the country would 
 lead us to expect. Vegetable productions attain here their 
 most gigantic dimensions. On the coast flourishes the enormous 
 baobab, with the mangrove, palm and cotton trees, all of 
 which reach the most stupendous sizes. The country is ex 
 tremely fertile, producing abundant crops of rice, corn, sugar 
 cane, and yams, which last form the staple vegetable food of 
 the people. The domestic animals are cows, horses of a small 
 breed, goats, and a species of hairy sheep. The wild animals 
 are elephants, rhinoceroses, giraffes, buffaloes, deer, antelopes, 
 apes, monkeys, baboons, lions, tigers, leopards, jackals, wolves, 
 wild boars, &c. The rivers swarm with crocodiles and hippopo 
 tami ; and reptiles of all sizes, some of them enormous, and 
 many poisonous, abound everywhere. Birds of all descrip 
 tions, with every variety of plumage, many of extreme beauty, 
 are also numerous. Few of them, however, excel as songsters. 
 Insects of various kinds abound. Sharks are so numerous on 
 the coast, that they form the principal food of the natives. 
 The rivers are also well stocked with fish. 
 
 The Ashantees are warlike and ferocious, with a love for 
 shedding human blood, and inflicting violent and sanguinary 
 deaths, amounting to a passion. In war they spare neither age 
 nor sex; and human teeth, and human jaw-bones, are worn as 
 personal ornaments. Human sacrifices are made to an extent, 
 with a frequency, and accompanied by an atrocity of circum 
 stances hardly credible. Bowditch, who was in Coomassie 
 during one of their saturnalia, relates that a procession entered 
 the town, displaying a number of human heads, and accom 
 panied by two parties of executioners of about 100 each, dancing 
 with the most frightful gestures, and clashing their knives on 
 the skulls which they carried. A hundred persons, says this 
 writer, were sacrificed in different parts of the town on this 
 occasion, the victims being led to execution with knives 
 thrust through their jaws and tongue, from side to side. The 
 manner of death is hacking with large knives and swords. 
 Slaves are sacrificed over brass pans, that their blood may 
 mingle with the charmed ingredients contained in them. The 
 executioners wrangle and struggle with each other for the 
 victims, as they are brought up to suffer death. On the 
 demise of any great personage, or any member of the royal 
 family, these horrors are increased tenfold ; the streets are 
 deserted, and, from morning to night, the work of murder 
 goes on. Bowditch passed several headless trunks, in whose 
 blood vultures were revelling ; and Dupuis witnessed a royal 
 progress, in which the most conspicuous figure was that of 
 a gigantic negro bearing the execution-stool, encrusted with 
 
ASHBORNE 
 
 221 
 
 ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH 
 
 gore, and howling the song of death. The following descrip 
 tion, by Lander, of the fetiche tree, beneath which grand sacri 
 fices are made every year, completes the account of Ashantee 
 barbarity: It was the most ghastly and appalling object I 
 ever beheld. Its enormous branches were literally covered 
 with fragments of human bodies, and its majestic trunk sur 
 rounded by irregular heaps of hideous skulls. Thousands of 
 vultures were yet hovering round and over their disgusting 
 food, and now and then pouncing fearlessly on a half-devoured 
 arm or leg. Notwithstanding this singular cruelty of dis 
 position, the Ashantees are a people of superior intelligence, 
 and further advanced in civilization than any of the nations 
 of W. Africa. They are also by far the bravest, and have 
 greatly extended their dominions by conquest. The better 
 classes are extremely cleanly in their habits ; their dresses 
 are graceful, and often of rich material. The lower orders, 
 however, wear nothing but a piece of cotton cloth, fastened 
 round the waist. The former live well ; soup, beef, mutton, 
 wild hog, deer, and monkey s flesh, forming their usual fare ; 
 while the latter subsist principally on fish and millet. The 
 common drink is palm wine. Morality is at a low ebb 
 amongst them ; the husband has power of life and limb over 
 his wife, and adultery is punishable by death. Polygamy is 
 allowed, and marriage effected by paying a sum of money to 
 the parents of the girl, and giving a family feast. The 
 Ashantees excel in the manufacture of cotton cloths, and in 
 the brilliancy of their dyes. They also make good earthen 
 ware, tan leather, and work in iron, making sword-blades of 
 superior workmanship. But it is in the fabrication of articles 
 in gold that they display the greatest skill, these often exhibit- j 
 ing a combination of fine taste, with dexterous manipulation. 
 The chief article of export is gold, with a little ivory, and 
 some dyewoods. They also export great numbers of slaves. 
 Their principal imports are : muskets, gunpowder, spirituous 
 liquors, tobacco, iron, tin, copper, lead, with cotton and Indian 
 goods, the latter chiefly for the extraordinary purpose of being 
 unravelled, on account of their colours, and being re-manu 
 factured in the native looms. The currency is gold, in dust 
 and lumps, and the well-known cowrie-shell. The govern 
 ment of Ashantee is a despotism, alleged to be controlled by 
 an aristocracy, consisting of four persons, and an assembly of 
 cabouers or captains. But this control, if it does at all exist, 
 must be very slight, as it never seems to interfere with the 
 royal will, which has all the appearance of being absolute. 
 Of the military prowess of the Ashantees, their numerous 
 victories over native tribes is sufficient evidence; but still 
 stronger, perhaps, is found in their formidable and often suc 
 cessful resistance to disciplined troops. Though finally de 
 feated and brought under subjection to the British arms, they 
 had, throughout a series of years, afforded them no ground of 
 claim to superiority. Their final overthrow occurred in 1826. 
 The military force of the state, according to Bowditch, ex 
 ceeds 200,000 men. The prevailing religion of the Ashantees 
 is Fetichism (see AFRICA); but there are also many Mahometans 
 among them. They appear, however, to have some idea of 
 a Supreme Being, and of a future state, believing that their 
 kings, priests, and chief men, go after death to reside with the 
 Great Spirit, resuming their earthly state, which is thence 
 forth to be eternal. The origin of the Ashantee nation is 
 involved in an obscurity which the interest of the subject 
 would hardly warrant an attempt to penetrate. Taking up 
 its history at an early part of the 17th century, we find it 
 then forming a powerful, though small monarchy, capable of 
 sending 60,000 men into the field. In the beginning of the 
 following century, the King of Ashantee, at the head of a 
 large army, invaded the adjoining kingdom of Dinkra or 
 Dinkira, having been incited thereto by an outrage offered to 
 one of his wives, by the king of the latter kingdom. In this 
 contest, in which it is said 100,000 men fell, the Ashantees 
 were victorious, and the kingdom of Dinkira became a part 
 of the Ashantee territory. After this they conquered, in 
 rapid succession, all the states around them, until they ex 
 tended their dominion to its present limits. Bowditch estimates 
 the population of the whole empire, at somewhere about 
 3,000,000 ; but this estimate must be in a great measure con 
 jectural, or at best founded on very loose data. (M Queen s 
 Survey of Africa; Bowditch s Ashantee Mission; Dupuis s 
 Residence in Asliantee; &c.) 
 
 ASHBORNE, a market tn. and par. England, co. Derby. 
 
 The town is 12 m. N.W. Derby, and 38 m. S.S.E. Manchester, 
 in a fertile valley near the 1. bank of the Dove. The houses 
 are mostly of red brick ; the streets pretty regular, partially 
 paved, and well lighted with gas ; and the supply of water is 
 abundant. The church is a handsome building, supposed to 
 have been erected about the middle of the 13th century. 
 There are chapels here, also, for Baptists, and Wesleyan and 
 Calvinistic Methodists, a free grammar-school, a preparatory 
 English school, a school for girls under 12 years of age, several 
 daiiy schools, and four sets of alms-houses, one of which is for 
 the widows of four Protestant clergymen. A new jail or 
 lock-up has been recently erected, also a savings -bank, the 
 latter a neat stone structure. Cotton and lace are manufac 
 tured here, the former to some extent, but the chief trade of 
 the town is in cheese and malt, mostly sent to the manufac 
 turing districts in the neighbourhood. There are several 
 news -rooms and libraries, all of which are respectably sup 
 ported, and two or three branch banks. The town is governed 
 by the county magistrates, who hold petty sessions here every 
 Saturday. Market-day, Saturday ; eight fairs annually, chiefly 
 for horses, cattle, and wool. The romantic beauty of the 
 scenery in the vicinity attracts many visitors. Area of par. 
 12,800 acres. Pop. in 1841, 4936. 
 
 ASHBRITTLE, a par. England, co. Somerset; 2460 ac.; 
 W. Wellington. Pop. in 1841, 540. 
 
 ASHBURNHAM, a par. England, co. Sussex; 4280 ac. 
 Pop. in 1841, 790. 
 
 ASHBURTON, a bor. and market tu.anu par. England, 
 co. Devon; in a fertile valley, 15 m. S.S.VV. Exeter. It 
 consists of four principal streets, all well kept. The houses 
 are in general neat, and chiefly of stone. The town is amply 
 supplied with excellent water, and is lighted with gas. A 
 new market-place is just now (1850) in process of erection. 
 There are five churches altogether, some of which are rather 
 handsome structures, a free grammar-school, also a free school 
 for the instruction of children, several benevolent societies, 
 and a public library. The principal manufactures are serges, 
 for the home and China markets, but this branch has much 
 decreased lately. Area of par. and bor. 8320 ac. Pop of 
 par. in 1841, 3841; oftn. 3014. 
 
 ASHBURY. 1, A par. England, co. Devon; 1650 ac.; 
 S. W. Hatherleigh. Pop. in 1841, 65.- 2, A par., co. Berks ; 
 5520 ac. ; N.W. Lambourne. Pop. in 1841, 819. 
 
 ASHB Y, by itself, and with different affixes, the name of 1 6 
 parishes, England:!, Co. Norfolk; 640 ac.; S.E. Norwich. 
 Pop. in 1841, 263. 2, Co. Norfolk ; 1150 ac. Pop. in 1841, 
 85. 3, Co. Suffolk; 800 ac.; N.W. Lowestoft. Pop. in 1841, 
 53. 4, Ashby (Canons], co. Northampton; 2600 ac.; W. by 
 N. Towcester. Pop. in 1841, 252. 5, Asliby (Castle), co. 
 Northampton ; 1740 ac. ; E. by S. Northampton. Pop. in 
 1841, 172. 6, Ashby (Cold), co. Northampton; 1940 ac. ; 
 N.N.W. Northampton. Pop. in 1841, 443. 7, Asliby, with 
 Fenby, co. Lincoln; 1620 ac.; S. by E. Great Grimsby. Pop. 
 in 1841, 211. 8, Ashby, by Partney, co. Lincoln; 1210 ac.; 
 E. Spilsby. Pop. in 1841, 160. 9, Ashby-de-la-Launde, co. 
 Lincoln; 2880 ac. ; N. Sleaford. Pop. in 1841, 157. 10, 
 Ashby-Folville, co. Leicester; 2830 ac. ; S.W. Melton Mow- 
 bray. Pop. in 1841, 437. 11, Ashby-Magna, co. Leicester; 
 1720 ac.; N. by E. Lutterworth. Pop. in 1841, 337. 12, 
 Ashby- Parva, co. Leicester; 1260 ac. ; N. by W. Lutter 
 worth. Pop. in 1841, 179. 13, Ashby-Paerorum, co. Lin 
 coln; 1620 ac.; N.E. Horncastle. Pop. in 1841, 102. 14, 
 Asliby (St. Leger s), co. Northampton; 2050 ac.; 4 m. N. 
 Daventry, on the Lincoln and Birmingham Kailway. Pop. in 
 1841, 257. 15, Ashby (West), co. Lincoln; 1590 ac.; N. 
 Horncastle. Pop. in 1841, 534. 16, Ashby-Mears, co. 
 Northampton; 1890 ac. Pop. in 1841, 496. 
 
 ASHBY-DE-LA-zoucH, a market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Leicester, in a fertile valley on the borders of Derbyshire, 
 on the Gilwisthaw, a tributary of the Trent, 16 m. N.W. 
 Leicester. It takes its distinctive appellation from the ancient 
 Norman family of La-Zouch, who came into possession of the 
 manor in the reign of Henry III. In 1461, it devolved 
 to the Crown, by whom it was granted to the noble family of 
 Hastings. The town consists of several wide streets, well 
 paved and well lighted. The principal street is particularly 
 spacious and clean. Many of the shops are handsome, and a 
 number of substantial new houses rising in various directions 
 indicate a progressive prosperity. The church is a handsome 
 
ASHCHURCH 
 
 222 
 
 ASHTOLA 
 
 structure, and the town has, besides, places of worship for 
 Independents, Wesleyan and Calvinistic Methodists, and Bap 
 tists ; several schools, and a small theatre. The manufactures 
 are chiefly of cotton and woollen stockings, and hats. It has 
 also a considerable trade in malt. On the S. side the town, 
 are the Ivanhoe Baths occupying a splendid edifice, and 
 abundantly supplied with medicinal waters, considered the 
 strongest of their kind in England, and singularly efficacious. 
 On the S. side are also the ruins of Ashby Castle, celebrated 
 in English history as the scene of many remarkable occur 
 rences. It is of great antiquity, having been a place of note 
 as early as the llth century. About 1 m. N.W. the town, 
 are the meadows which Scott has made the scene of the 
 famous passage of arms in his magnificent novel, Ivanhoe. 
 Ashby was the native place of Joseph Hall, Bishop of Nor 
 wich, and of Dr. John Bainbridge. Pop. of par. in 1841, in 
 cluding 444 belonging to the chapelry of Blackfordby, 5652. 
 
 ASHCHURCH, a par. England, co. Gloucester ; 4240 ac.; 
 E.N.E. Tewkesbury. Pop. in 1841, 743. 
 
 ASHCOMBE, a par. England, co. Devon ; 2250 ac. ; N.E. 
 Chudleigh. Pop. in 1841, 297. 
 
 ASHDALAG, a large and beautiful vil. Eussian Arme 
 nia, about 35 m. N.W. Erivan, high up on the S. slope of the 
 Alaghez Mountains. It is inhabited exclusively by Christians, 
 enjoys a very mild climate, and is surrounded by rich gardens. 
 The inhabitants are in a comfortable condition, and cultivate 
 the well-watered fruitful soil of the vicinity. (Wagner s 
 Eeise nach dcm Ararat.} 
 
 ASHDOD. See ASDOUD. 
 
 ASHDON, or ASIHNGDON, a par. England, co. Essex; 
 4840 ac.; N.E. Saffron Walden. Pop. in 1841, 1164. 
 
 ASHELDHAM, a par. England, co. Essex; 1810 ac.; 
 S.S.W. Bradwell. Pop. in 1841, 219. 
 
 ASHELWORTH, 
 
 1710 ac.; N. Gloucester. 
 
 par. England, co. Gloucester; 
 Pop. in 1841, 594. 
 
 ASHENDON, a par. England, co. Bucks ; 1790 ac.; N. 
 Thame. Pop. in 1841, 312. 
 
 ASH1NGDON, a par. England, co. Essex; 1020 ac.; 
 N. Rochford. Pop. in 1841, 119. 
 
 ASHINGTON, two parishes, England:!, Co. Somcr 
 
 set; 550 ac.; E.S.E. 
 Suss 
 
 o parishe 
 Ilchester. 
 
 Pop. in 1841, 71. 2, Co. 
 
 sex ; 1430 ac. , N. Steyning. Pop. in 1841, 282. 
 
 ASHKIRK, a par. Scotland, cos. Roxburgh and Selkirk ; 
 3200 ac. Pop. in 1841, 563. 
 
 ASHLEY, four parishes, England: 1, Co. Northamp 
 ton; 1190 ac. ; bounded on the N. by the river Welland. 
 Pop. in. 1841, 323. 2, Co. Stafford ; 2600 ac. ; N.W. Ecclcs- 
 hall. Pop. in 1841, 853. 3, Co. Hants; 2580 ac. ; S.E. 
 Stockbridge. Pop. in 1841, 102. 4, Co. Wilts; 1010 ac.; 
 N. Malmsbury. Pop. in 1841, 9 6. 
 
 ASHLEY-CUM-SYLVERLEY, a par. England, co. Cam 
 bridge ; 2143 ac. ; S.E. Newmarket. Pop. in 1841, 417. 
 
 ASHM ANH AUGH, a par. England, co. Norfolk , 700 ac.; 
 N.N.W. Whitechurch. Pop. in 1841, 180. 
 
 ASHMORE, a par. England, co. Dorset , 3940 ac. ; S.E. 
 Shaftsbury. Pop. in 1841, 242. 
 
 ASHOLT, a par. England, co. Somerset; 2650 ac.; W. 
 by S. Bridgewater. Pop. in 1841, 201. 
 
 ASHOVER, a tn. and par., co. Derby, pleasantly situ 
 ated in a deep narrow valley, through which the Amber flows, 
 16 m. N. Derby, and 3 m. from the Stratton station of the 
 Midland Railway. The chief building is the church of All- 
 Saints, which is a large and beautiful Gothic structure, with a 
 square embattled tower, from the centre of which rises a hand 
 some spire 69 ft. high. This church contains several monu 
 ments of considerable antiquity, and possesses a curious old 
 leaden font of circular form, and ornamented with rude figures 
 in bas-relief. The other places of worship are, one for the 
 Wesleyan, and another for the Primitive Methodists. The 
 rectory is neat and spacious, and surrounded by gardens and 
 pleasure-grounds. Besides an endowed school, there is also 
 a school for girls, built in 1846. Lead mines were at one 
 time extensively worked in the parish, but all mining opera 
 tions have ceased, and Ashover has, in consequence, greatly 
 
 ASHFIELD, two parishes, England, co. Suffolk: 1, | declined. Limestone is still quarried to some extent; and 
 1560 ae. ; E. Debenham. Pop. in 1841, 343. 2, Ashfidd\ there is a twisting-mill for Nottingham lace. Medicinal herbs 
 (Great), 2030 ac. ; N.N.W. Stowmarket. Pop. in 1841, 396. are grown in considerable quantities. Area of par. 1 l,29u a.e. 
 
 ASHFORD, a market tn. and par. England, co. Kent, 
 agreeably situated on a gentle eminence, 1. bank of the Sour, 
 which is here crossed by a stone bridge of four arches, about 
 54 m. E.S.E. London, and 20 m. S.E. by E. Maidstone. It 
 consists of three principal streets, straight, well kept, and well 
 lighted with gas, but indifferently supplied with water. The 
 houses are, in general, of brick, and are well built. The 
 church, which is in the perpendicular style, is in the form of 
 a cross, with a tower 120 ft. high, surmounted by four pin 
 nacles rising from the centre ; the latter erected in the reign 
 of Edward IV. The other places of worship are a Baptist 
 and a Wesleyan chapel, a chapel for the Countess of Hunting 
 don s connection, and a meeting-house for the Society of 
 Friends. The schools are, a grammar-school, British and 
 national schools, three ordinary day schools, and several 
 boarding-schools. There are a suit of assembly rooms, lately 
 built ; two well-supported libraries, and a reading-room. 
 With the exception of some tanning, the only branch of 
 manufacture is that of table-linen, hop-bags, sacking, &c., 
 carried on to a small extent. Market-day, Saturday. Corn- 
 market, Tuesday. The South-eastern and Dover Railway 
 passes through the parish, the station here being half a mile 
 from the town. The branch line to Canterbury, Ramsgate, 
 Margate, and Deal, joins the main line near Ashford station. 
 There is another branch from Ashford to Hastings. Pop. of 
 
 par. and tn. in 1841, 3082. Also a vil., co. Derby, hun. 
 
 High Peak, par. and 2 m. N.W. Bakewell. Pop. 950. 
 
 ASHFORD, four parishes and a chapelry, England: 1, 
 Co. Devon ; 2170 ac. ; N.W. Barnstaple. Pop. in 1841, 174. 
 2, Chapelry, co. Derby; situated on the Wey. Pop. in 1841, 
 950. 3, Co. Middlesex ; 1500 ac. ; E. Stains. Pop. in 1841, 
 5 ^4. 4, (Bmodler,} co. Salop ; 630 ac. ; S. Ludlow. Pop. in 
 1841, 96 5, (Carbonell,) co. Salop ; 1480 ac. ; separated from 
 Ashford Bowdler by the river Theme. Pop. in 1841, 266. 
 
 ASHFORDBY, a par. England, co. Leicester ; 1210 ac.; 
 W. Melton Mowbray. Pop. in 1841, 482. 
 
 ASHILL, two parishes, England:!, Co. Norfolk; 
 2970 ac. ; N.W. Watton. Pop. in 1841, 637. 2. Co. Somer 
 set ; 1860 ac. ; N.W. Ilminster. Pop. in 1841 , 438. 
 
 Pop. in 1841, 3482 
 
 ASHOW, a par. England, co. Warwick ; 1 100 ac. ; N.N.E. 
 Warwick. Pop. in 1841, 172. 
 
 ASHPRINGTON, a par. England, co. Devon ; 2240 ac. ; 
 S.E. Totness. Pop. in 1841, 588. 
 
 ASH-PHIORS, a par. England, co. Somerset; 750 ac. ; 
 N.W. Taunton. Pop. in 1841, 226. 
 
 ASHREIGNEY, a par. England, co. Devon ; 6220 ac. ; 
 W. by S. Chumley. Pop. in 1841, 1088. 
 
 ASHRUFF, ASIIKAF, or USHHUFF, a tn. Persia, prov. 
 Mazanderan, 50 m. W. Asterabad, and about 8 m. from the 
 Caspian Sea ; lat. 36 41 45" N. ; Ion. 53 33 53" E. (i,.) It 
 was the favourite residence of Shah Abbas the Great, who 
 built here an extensive and magnificent palace. This and 
 many other fine buildings that adorned the town are now in 
 ruins ; enough, however, still remains to leave a favourable 
 impression of the Persian monarch s taste. Ashruff is said to 
 have formerly contained 300 baths within its walls; but it has 
 now only 500 houses, thinly scattered through an extensive 
 jungle. (Fraser; Burnes.) 
 
 ASHTEAD, a par. England, co. Surrey; 2510 ac. ; S.W. 
 Epsom. Pop. in 1841, 618. 
 
 ASHTOLA, or SUNGADEEP, a small desolate isl. Indian 
 Ocean or Arabian Sea, off the coast of Mukran in Beloochistan ; 
 lat. 25 5 N. ; Ion. 63 42 E. ; about 15 m. from the main 
 land. It is accessible at one point only, on the N. side ; on 
 all others the steep cliffs rise to a height of about 300 ft. 
 When Lieut. Kempthorne visited it in 1835, there were no in 
 habitants on it, nor any vestige of human habitation. Great 
 quantities of turtle frequent the island for the purpose of de 
 positing their eggs ; and immense numbers of the former are 
 killed by the Arabs, who export the shells to China, throwing 
 the carcass away as unclean. Ashtola was at one time a 
 favourite rendezvous of the Jowasimee pirates, who here 
 committed many savage murders on the crews of the vessels 
 they captured. The remains of their look-out tower are 
 still visible; it is built on a high cliff, very difficult of access, 
 and commands an extensive view to seaward. (Kempthorne a 
 Notes.) 
 
ASHTON 
 
 223 
 
 ASIA 
 
 ASHTON, seven parishes, England: 1, Co. Devon; 
 1560 ac. ; N. Chudleigh. Pop. in 1841 , 319. 2, Co. North 
 ampton; 1290 ac. ; S. Northampton, on the London and Bir 
 mingham Railway. Pop. in 1841, 417. 3, Asliton (Cold), co. 
 Gloucester ; 2310 ac. ; E. by S. Bristol. Pop. in 1841, 414. 
 4, Ashton (Keynes), co. Wilts ; 3820 ac. ; W. Cricklade. Pop. 
 in 1841, 1332. 5, Asliton (Lony), a vil. and par., co. Somerset; 
 4110 ac.; S.W. Bristol. Pop. in 1841, 1926. 6, Ashton- 
 upon-Merscy, co. Cheshire ; 3690 ac. ; N.E. Altrincliam. Pop. 
 in 1841, 2414. Ashton (Steeple), a par. and township, co. 
 Wilts ; 7450 ac. ; E. Trowbridge. Pop. in 1841, 1941. 
 
 ASHTON-UNDER-LYNE, a market-tn., par., and parl. bor. 
 England, co. Lancaster, hun. Salford. The town is 6 m. E. 
 Manchester, 160 m. N. W. by N. London, on a gentle declivity, 
 1. bank, Tame ; and consists of upwards of 200 streets, nearly 
 all of which are perfectly straight, but many, especially the 
 older ones, very narrow. Tiie newer streets are more spacious ; 
 and all are well paved, well lighted with gas, and water is 
 plentiful. The houses are in general substantially built of 
 brick, and two stories in height, and many of them are hand 
 some buildings. On the N. side of the spacious market place 
 or square stands the townhall, an elegant structure, erected 
 in 1840 at an expense of 7506. The banking-offices of the 
 Ashton, Stalybridge, Hyde, and Glassop Bank, and the Man 
 chester and Liverpool District Bank, are also worthy of notice. 
 Amongst the architectural objects of antiquarian interest in 
 the town are the old manor hall, the manor court-house, an 
 antique circular structure, erected in 1636, on the site of an 
 earlier building of a similar description ; the parish alms- 
 houses, and the manorial cornmills on the river Tame, known 
 to have existed in nearly the same form as now six centuries 
 ago. The ancient parish church of St. Michael, which stands 
 on an eminence near the S.E. entrance to the town, was 
 founded in the 13th century ; it has frequently been rebuilt, 
 and is at present a fine specimen of ecclesiastical architecture 
 in the later English style. It underwent a thorough repair 
 in 1842, at a cost of 6800. St. Peter s Church, erected in 
 1824 at an expense of 14,000, is adorned with a remarkably 
 fine tower. Christ-Church, situated on the N.W. side of the 
 town, was erected in 1847 at a cost of 3000 ; it is a cruciform 
 structure, in the early English style. Besides the parish 
 churches, there are 10 dissenting chapels, most of them neat 
 brick edifices, belonging to various religious denominations. 
 The means of education are 22 private and public day schools 
 with an average attendance of 1859 pupils. The principal are 
 those of the National Society, belonging to the three churches ; 
 of the British Society, belonging to the Independents ; and 
 that connected with the Wesleyan body. There are also four 
 dame schools, in which are 64 children ; one infant school, in 
 connection with St. Peter s Church, which has an average daily 
 attendance of 148 pupils ; and 12 Sunday schools, attended by 
 about 4478 scholars. The charitable and benevolent institu 
 tions consist of the female benevolent society, supported by 
 subscription; numerous sick and burial societies, and sundry 
 bequests, which are disbursed from time to time by the rector 
 and churchwardens. A mechanic s institute was established 
 in 1825 ; it has a library consisting of 2000 volumes, and a 
 reading-room well supplied with the current literature of the 
 day ; also evening classes, conducted by competent masters, 
 for the instruction of the subscribers in the various branches 
 of education usually taught in such institutions. 
 
 Principal manufactures : cotton-yarn spinning, and weav 
 ing calicoes by the power-loom. The number of factories at 
 present existing within the borough is 84, working 3533 horse 
 power, and giving employment to 14,377 work people; the 
 weekly wages of whom amount usually to about 7900. The 
 consumpt of raw cotton is estimated at 1,400,000 Ibs. weekly. 
 
 The following remarks on the working population of Ashton- 
 under-Lyne and their social condition, by an intelligent local 
 correspondent, will not be found without interest: The 
 operative classes, which comprehend nearly the whole popu 
 lation of this town, are small in stature, sallow in complexion, 
 marry early, have large families, and live expensively when 
 in full employment ; they are deficient in domestic economy, 
 fond of attending public assemblies, careless about education 
 and religion, and wanting in forethought and retrospection ; 
 but they are skilful and industrious workmen, attentive to the 
 due execution of their tasks, and, wheu unexcited by evil 
 influences, are generally contented. 
 
 In 1843 a barrack was erected near the town, at a cost of 
 42,500, in which a battalion of infantry and a troop of horse 
 are permanently stationed ; and, in 1840, a cemetery, com 
 prising nearly 3 ac., was laid out on the E. side of the town. 
 The principal market-day is Saturday; and, in 1846, a weekly 
 cattle-market, on Tuesday, was established ; markets are also 
 held on Monday and Wednesday. There are four fairs an 
 nually ; and one on the second Thursday in every month for 
 the sale of horned cattle, sheep, pigs, &c. Aston-under-Lyne 
 sends one member to the House of Commons. Constituency 
 in 1850, 724. 
 
 The increase of the wealth and population of this town 
 within the last half century, but particularly within the last 
 20 years, has been very remarkable. In 1821 its population 
 was 9222, in 1841 it was 22,689, and in 1851 it was 29,791. 
 Area of par. 9300 ac. Pop. in 1841 , 46,304. (Correspondent 
 in Ashton-under-Lyne.) 
 
 ASHURST, two parishes, England:!, Co. Kent; 1000 
 ac. ; W. Tunbridge Wells. Pop. in 1841, 224. 2, Co. Sus 
 sex ; 2250 ac. ; N. Steyning, on the Brighton and London 
 Railway. Pop. in 1841, 427. 
 
 ASH WATER, a par. England, co. Devon; 4220 ac. ; 
 S.E. by E. Holsworthy. Pop. in 1841, 1046. 
 
 ASHWELL, three parishes, England: 1, A par. and 
 vil., co. Herts ; 3500 ac. ; N.N.E. Baldock. Pop. in 1841, 
 1235.- 2, Co. Rutland ; 1890 ac. ; N. Oakham. Pop. in 1841, 
 223. 3, Ashwell (Thorpe), co. Norfolk; 1030 ac. ; S.E. 
 Wymondham. Pop. in 1841, 469. 
 
 ASHWICK, a par. England, co. Somerset ; 1700 ac. ; 
 N.E. Shepton Mallet. Pop. in 1841, 945. 
 
 ASHWICKEN, a par. England, co. Norfolk; 1260 ac. ; 
 E.S.E. King s Lynn. Pop. in 1841, 78. 
 
 ASIA, the largest of the great divisions of the globe. 
 Its mainland is bounded, N. by the Arctic Ocean, S. by the 
 Indian Ocean, E. by the N. Pacific Ocean, W. by Europe, 
 and S.W. by Africa. Its greatest length is from the Dardan 
 elles to Bchring s Strait, a distance of about 7500 m. ; its 
 greatest breadth, from Cape Sievero Vostotchnia, in Siberia, 
 to Point Romania, at the S. extremity of the Malay Penin 
 sula, about 5166 m. Asia is joined to Europe throughout 
 the whole length of its W. limit ; being separated from it by 
 an arbitrary line only, part of which is formed by the Ural 
 Mountains ; and is connected with Africa by the Isthmus of 
 Suez. On the E., it is separated from America by Behring s 
 Strait, where the two continents approach within 36 m. of 
 each other. The coasts of Asia are singularly irregular ; 
 being deeply indented all round by immense bays and gulfs, 
 forming projections of corresponding magnitude. The prin 
 cipal of the former are the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, Bay 
 of Bengal, and Gulf of Siam, on the S. coast ; the Gulf of 
 Tonquin, Yellow Sea, Sea of Japan, Gulf of Tartary, Sea of 
 Okhotsk, and Gulf of Anadir, on the E. coast. On the N., 
 the indentations are equally numerous, but, with exception of 
 the Gulf of Obe, not of the same extent. The more remark 
 able peninsulas are those of Hindoostan, Malacca, Cochin 
 China, Corea, and Anadir, on the S. and E. coasts. The prin 
 cipal islands and island groups included within the limits of 
 this division of the globe are, on the S. and E., the Laccadives, 
 Maledives, the Chagos Archipelago, Ceylon, the Andaman 
 and Nicobar islands, the Mergui Archipelago, Sumatra, Java, 
 Borneo, Celebes, and the Sunda and Banda islands, the Moluc 
 cas, Sooloo islands, Philippines, the island of Hainan, Formosa, 
 Chusan, Hong-Kong, the Japanese empire, Sagalin or Tara- 
 kai, and the Kuriles. On the N., Kotelnoi, Fadievsk, New 
 Siberia, Liokoy, and, according to Humboldt, Nova Zembla. 
 The mainland of Asia is comprised between lat. 1 15 and 
 78 20 N., and Ion. 27 and 190 E. If its islands are 
 included, its S. limit will extend to lat. 11 S., the most S. 
 point of Rotte, a small island S. of Timor. The countries 
 comprised within its limits are Asiatic Turkey, Arabia, Persia, 
 Beloochistan, Cabool, Punjab, Sinde, Hindoostan, Burmah, 
 Siam, Laos, Anam, Malacca, China, Manchooria, Corea, Mon 
 golia, Thibet, Tartary, Asiatic Russia ; and to these, and to 
 the islands above enumerated, respectively, the reader is 
 referred for such details as may be missed in this article, 
 which, to avoid unnecessary repetition, is intended to be 
 merely general. 
 
 The vast extent of Asia, the diversity of its surface, and 
 the conflicting accounts given of the physical structure of 
 
ASIA 
 
 224 
 
 ASIA 
 
 large portions of its interior, particularly in Central Asia, 
 renders it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to give such 
 a view of its general conformation as should be at once accu 
 rate and intelligible. It may, however, be characterized, 
 generally, and notwithstanding its enormous elevations, as a 
 flat country; its mean level above the sea not exceeding 
 1150 ft., while a third part has not more than 255 ft. of mean 
 height. The whole of that portion lying N.W. of the Thian- 
 Shan Mountains, or of lat. 45 N., and N. of the Altai , or of 
 lat. 50 N., is one prodigious plain or tract of lowland, a third 
 larger than Europe ; the elevation of which is little more than 
 200 to 1200 ft. The S. portion again, which stretches along the 
 Indian Ocean, is composed, likewise, of comparatively level 
 regions ; so is also a great part of the interior, where the eleva 
 tions do not exceed from 2000 to 4000 ft. above the sea ; though 
 formerly believed to be more than double the height of the lat 
 ter amount, or 9000 ft. ; a supposition contradicted by the fact 
 that grapes, vines, oranges, and cotton, grow there readily and \ 
 in great abundance. It may be added, that the heights of several \ 
 of the other plateaux of Central Asia have been greatly over- j 
 estimated ; and that there is little doubt that, if carefully 
 measured, most, if not all of them, would be found to fall far 
 short of the heights at present assigned to them. Still, while 
 a large portion of Asia is comparatively but little above the 
 level of the sea, many extensive tracts have a great elevation, 
 and no small part of the continent is actually below sea level. 
 The extensive country N. and E. of the Caspian Sea, and 
 around the Lake of Aral, forms a vast cavity of about 55,000 
 sq. m., all of which is below the sea level. The prodigious 
 mountain systems of Asia are no less remarkable than its vast 
 plains and deserts. With exception of the Ural Mountains, 
 none of any note occur throughout the whole of N. Asia N. 
 of lat. 50, and W. of Ion. 120 E. ; but E. of that meridian 
 the Aldan Mountains, and the Yablonoi and Stanovoi Krebit, 
 attain a considerable elevation. S. of lat. 50, and N. of lat. 
 31, are to be found the principal mountain-systems of Asia, 
 consisting of four great ranges, tolerably parallel to each 
 other and to the equator ; the largest extending, in an almost 
 unbroken line, under the various names of Taurus, Elbruz, 
 Hindoo Koosh, and Kuen-lun, from the Bosphorus to China 
 proper, E. of the 100th meridian, forming, in a sense, the 
 backbone of the continent. The subsidiary systems lie at 
 various angles to the equator, but, generally speaking, they 
 run parallel to the coasts ; the greater number, however, 
 having a direction S.E. to N.W., as in Arabia, Persia, the 
 coast of Malabar, the peninsula of Burmah and Anam, and 
 Malacca; while on the coast of Coromandel, in N. India, 
 China, Manchooria, and N.E. Siberia, the general direction is 
 S.W. to N.E. 
 
 Having thus rapidly sketched the physiognomy of the con 
 tinent, we now proceed to notice its principal physical features 
 in detail. 
 
 Mountains. The great mountain systems of Central Asia 
 are the Himalaya, the Altai , the Thian- Shan or Celestial Moun 
 tains, and the Kuen-lun, all, generally speaking, parallel to the 
 equator. The Himalaya range, the general course of which 
 is from N.W. to S.E., consists of three parts, the Hindoo Koosh 
 or Indian Caucasus, which extends from the Paropamisan 
 range, in Afghanistan, to Cashmere; the Himalaya or Imaus of 
 the ancients, which stretches from the valley of Cashmere to 
 Bhotan, with a semi-circular inflection ; and, lastly, the moun 
 tains of Bhotan and Assam. The entire length of the range 
 of the Himalayas is about 1800 m. ; reckoning from the W. 
 extremity of the Hindoo Koosh, near the rivre Dehas in 
 Cabool, to the Brahmapootra in Assam. The mean height of 
 these stupendous mountains has been estimated at from 1 6,000 
 to 20,000 ft. The highest summit yet ascertained with any 
 degree of certainty, is that of Kunchinginga in Sikim, which 
 is 28,178 ft. in height. Dwalagiri ranks next to it. But 
 there are several other peaks said to be of equal, and some of 
 even still greater elevation. The number that exceed 2 1 ,000 ft. 
 is upwards of 40. Most of the passes are above 15,000 ft. in 
 height, and some of them 18,000 and 19,000. The line of 
 perpetual congelation is at an elevation, on the S. side, of 
 12,981 ft..; on the N., of 16,620; a result precisely the re 
 verse of what would, a priori, be expected, but which is suj 
 posed to be owing to the greater serenity of the sky on th 
 N. side, the less frequent formation of snow in very cold dry | 
 air, and the radiation of heat from the neighbouring plains, i 
 
 which are much nearer than those on the S. The crest of 
 the Himalaya is of stratified crystalline rocks, especially 
 gneiss, with large granitic veins, and immense beds of quartz. 
 The zone, between 15,000 and 18,000 ft. above the level of the 
 sea, is of Silurian strata ; granite is frequent at the base, and 
 strata of comparatively modern date occur at great elevations. 
 Vegetation is prolonged on the Himalaya to the height of 
 upwards of 18,000 ft. These magnificent mountains are inter 
 sected by valleys and ravines of tremendous depth, through 
 many of which rivers and torrents rush with inconceivable 
 impetuosity (see HIMALAYA). The system of the Altai sur 
 rounds the sources of the Irtish and Yenisei. The Altai proper 
 forms little more than a fourth part of the entire system; 
 extending from W. to E. from the confluence of the Uba and 
 Irtish, to Mount Gurbi, and the S. of Lake Baikal. Its branches 
 or continuations stretch under various names, first to the Gulf 
 of Okhotsk, and afterwards to Eastern Cape, where it termin 
 ates ; the whole length being about 4500 m. ; the breadth vary 
 ing from 400 to 1000 m. The most prominent masses of this 
 system, attaining the limits of perpetual snow, are situated 
 between the parallels of 49 30 and 51 N. On the highest 
 known summit, Bielukha, in the Russian Altai , which attains 
 an elevation of 11,000 ft. above the sea, a glacier 1J m. in 
 length occurs. A great portion of this chain is unknown to 
 Europeans ; especially those branches that enter the Chinese 
 empire. The common distinction of great and little Altai 
 is founded on error, and therefore apt to mislead ; both the 
 name and chain of the great Altai being, according to Hum- 
 boldt, imaginary. (Asie Centrale, vol. i. p. 251.) See ALTAI. 
 The Thian-Shan, or Celestial Mountains, run nearly along 
 the 42 parallel of N. latitude, rising in Tartary and terminat 
 ing in the desert of Gobi in Mongolia. Their highest sum 
 mit, Bogda Oola, or Holy Mountain, is always covered with 
 snow. Indeed, snow lies deep on the whole range in winter. 
 Little is known of the country between the Thian-Shan 
 Mountains and those of the Altai a space of about 400 m. in 
 breadth. The Kuen-lun Mountains run nearly parallel with 
 the former range, and in some parts with the Hindoo Koosli 
 also. They rise a little to the E. of the 100th degree of E. 
 longitude, and, under the various names of Kulkun, Aneuta, 
 Kuen-lun, Hindoo Koosh, Elbruz, and Taurus, running W. 
 and N.W., closely skirt the Caspian Sea and Black Sea on 
 the S., terminating to the W. of the latter, thus forming, with 
 the exception of the American cordillera of the Andes, the 
 longest line of elevation on the surface of the globe. 
 
 In the mountain systems of the N.E. of Asia, beyond the 
 Altai , the ridges (from S.W. to N.E.) are of little extent and 
 elevation when compared to the four great chains above 
 described, running from E. to W., and which constitute, as it 
 were, the framework of Central Asia. The other principal 
 mountain-systems are the Ural and Caucasian Mountains, both 
 in W. Asia, the former running N. and S., and the latter N.W. 
 and S.E. ; the Taurus and Anti- Taurus, in Anatolia, the former 
 S.E. to N.W., and the latter N.E. to S.W. ; the Persian moun 
 tains, and the Western Ghauts in the Carnatic, both running 
 S.E. to N.W. ; the Vindhaya range, in Upper India, and the 
 Assam chain, S.W. to N.E. The numerous other chains, of 
 greater or less extent, existing over this great continent, will 
 be found noticed in the articles on the countries in which 
 they occur. 
 
 Volcanoes, Earthquakes, &c. The continent of Asia has 
 few volcanoes in a state of activity, though its islands are 
 crowded with them, Java containing a greater number than 
 any other spot on the face of the globe. In W. Asia, the 
 only active volcano existing is Dcmavend, 70 m. S. from tho 
 S. shores of the Caspian Sea. It is 14,695 ft. in height, is 
 covered with snow, and is constantly smoking. The table 
 land of W. Asia was at one time the seat of intense commotion, 
 now restricted to the mountain just named, to Seiban-dagh, 
 and Ararat. In the table-land of E. Asia, the only instance 
 of igneous explosion that occurs is in the volcanic chain of 
 the Thian-Shan, where are two active volcanoes at the distance 
 of 670 m. from each other, Peshan, and Ho-cheou. Thesa 
 are the centre of an extensive volcanic district, extending 
 N. to the Altai Mountains. Fire-hills and fire-springs are 
 numerous in China, but, so far as is known, there are no 
 mountains that eject lava. In Kauitschatka, however, there 
 are no fewer than nine volcanoes in a state 01 activity. Earth 
 quakes are frequent and violent in many parts of Asia. Th 
 
ASIA 
 
 225 
 
 ASIA 
 
 places most subject to these visitations are Asia Minor, the 
 Persian mountains, Cabool, the regions between Lake Baikal, 
 and the volcano of Ho-cheou in the S.E. of Tartary, and in 
 the province of Cutch in Hindoostan. An earthquake occurred 
 in the second of these districts on January 22, 1832, the 
 concussions of which were felt throughout a space of about 
 800 m. in length from N.W. to S.E., by about 450 m. in 
 breadth, or from Lahore to near Tashkand in Middle Tartary. 
 Another occurred in Cutch on June 16, 1819, which did much 
 damage. 
 
 Table-lands, Plains, or Steppes and Deserts. The table 
 lands of Asia, like all the other physical features of that vast 
 continent, are upon the most gigantic scale. That of Iran in 
 Persia occupies an area of 1,700,000 sq. m., and is generally 
 from 4000 to 7000 ft. above the sea, while that of Thibet 
 comprises 7,600,000 sq. m. at a mean altitude of 11,600ft. 
 The table-lands of the interior are frequently fertile, and 
 enjoy genial climates, but in some instances, as in that of the 
 table-land of Thibet, are cold and sterile, snow falling there 
 every month in the year. Among the less extensive table 
 lands are those of Taxila in the Punjab, of Malwah or Central 
 India, of the Deccan, and of Mysore. Nearly the whole of N. W. 
 Asia is one vast plain or undulating surface, occupying upwards 
 of 7,000,000 sq. m., and in W. Asia, around the Caspian, there 
 are extensive tracts of country many feet below the level of the 
 sea. The groat plain or steppe of Ischim in Siberia, extends 
 from the E. slope of the S. extremity of the Ural Mountains, 
 across the Tobol to the Irtish, a distance of about 700 m. 
 It is covered in part with dense forests, and abounds in game. 
 Next to this plain is the steppe of Baraba, occupying the 
 space between the Irtish and the Upper Obi. To the S. of 
 these steppes is another of several hundred miles in extent, 
 lying between the Altai Mountains and the E. confines of 
 Tartary, and including Lake Tengiz. In the E. of China, 
 again, there is an alluvial plain of 210,000 sq. m., most of it 
 productive and highly cultivated, and in Hindoostan there are 
 plains that extend 2000 m. along the S. slope of the Himalaya. 
 The steppes of Asia generally consist of rich pastures, inter 
 mingled with woods, barren sands, muriatiferous clay, and 
 abounding in lakes, pools, and streams of salt and bitter 
 waters. Deserts are numerous in Asia, and many of them of 
 great extent. The most remarkable is that of the Great Gobi 
 or Shamo (which see], sea of sand, occupying an area of 
 300,000 sq. m. in its E. extremity; its whole length being, 
 probably, not under 1200 m. The great salt desert of Irak- 
 Ajimi in Persia is about 390 in. in length, and 210 in breadth. 
 There are, besides, four other deserts in this country, the 
 whole occupying three-tenths of its entire surface. In Tar 
 tary there are the great deserts of Kizil, Koom, and Khiva, 
 which, with other tracts of a similar description, and equally 
 sterile, extend over nearly half the country. The deserts 
 or Afghanistan, N.W. Hindoostan (the Indian desert), and 
 Thibet, are also of great extent, and on S. W. Asia are the vast 
 deserts of Arabia, occupying many thousand square miles. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. Asia contains some of the largest rivers 
 in the world. Those in W. Asia are the Euphrates and Tigris ; 
 in E. Asia, the Amoor, the Hoang-Ho, the Yang-tse-Kiang, 
 the Hong Kiang, and the Sang Koi or Tonquin River ; in N. 
 Asia the Oby or Obi, the Irtish, the Yenisei, the Lena, the 
 Indigirka, and the Kolyma ; in S. Asia, the Indus arid its con- 
 tiuents, the Attok, Jhelum, Chenab, and Sutlej, the Ganges, 
 the Brahmapootra, the Irawady, the Martaban, the Menam, 
 and the Camboja. Some of the basins of these rivers are of 
 vast extent. That of the Obi is 924,800 geo. sq. m., being 
 the largest in the world with the exception of those of the 
 Amazon and Mississippi. The basin of the Yenisei is 
 784,530 geo. sq. m., that of the Lena 594,400 geo. sq. m. ; 
 while those of the Amoor, Yang-tse-Kiang, and Hoang Ho, 
 are all above 500,000 geo. sq. m. The river of greatest 
 length in Asia is the Yang-tse-Kiang, the development of 
 which is 2880 geo. m.; that of the Yenisei, 2800 m. The 
 lengths of the other principal rivers are from 1400 geo. m. 
 to 2400. 
 
 The largest lake or inland sea of Asia is the Caspian ; it has 
 no outlet, is about 750 m. in length from N. to S., and about 
 230 in breadth, having an area of 18,000 sq. m. Next in 
 extent is Lake Aral in Tartary, about 270 m. in length, and 
 varying from 100 to 120 or 130 m. in breadth ; area, 3372 
 sq. m. ; it is shallow, and, like the Caspian, has no outlet. The 
 
 VOL. T. 
 
 other principal lakes to the E. are Lake Tengiz or Balkash, 
 about 150 m. in length, varying in breadth from 20 to 50 m., 
 and Lake Baikal in Irkutsk, Siberia, the largest of Alpine 
 lakes. It is a fresh-water lake, embedded in a knot of moun 
 tains, is of a crescent shape, and about 350 m. in length, by 
 about 40 m. only in breadth. There are, besides, a number 
 of smalljr lakes dispersed over the continent. A great many 
 of them arc salt, some of them intensely so, and also bitter. 
 
 Minerals. All the precious and useful minerals are found 
 in Asia. Diamonds arc found in Bundeleund, Sumbhulpoor, 
 Gundur, the Deccan, the Ural Mountains, Borneo, and Ceylon, 
 and various other places. Rock-crystals, amethysts, rubies, 
 torquoises, cornelians, agates, onyxes, beryl, lapis lazuli, to 
 pazes, and many other precious stones, are found in numerous 
 different quarters. Gold is found in a great many of the coun 
 tries, but is, perhaps, most abundant in Siberia, in the Altai 
 chain, called emphatically the Gold Mountains, in the Chinese 
 province of Yunnan, in the mountains of the Indo-Chinese pen 
 insula, in Japan, and in Borneo. Silver is a product of China, 
 Asiatic Russia, Anam, and the Japanese and Ottoman Empires ; 
 mercury of China, Thibet, Japan, India, and Ceylon. Tin is 
 met with over all the Malay peninsula, in Burmah, China, and 
 some of the islands of the Indian Archipelago ; copper and iron 
 in Japan, Asiatic Russia, Thibet, Hindoostan, Anam, Persia, 
 Asiatic Turkey; in most of which countries lead also is 
 found. Coal has been discovered in N. China, Bengal, and 
 in some of the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and doubt 
 less exists in many other localities not yet explored. Salt is 
 very generally diffused over the continent, few extensive dis 
 tricts being altogether destitute of salt lakes or springs ; but 
 our knowledge of the distribution of the mineral wealth of 
 Asia, as well as on many other points, is still exceedingly im 
 perfect. 
 
 Climate. Asia, as a natural consequence of its vast extent, 
 stretching from the polar circle to the equator, possesses every 
 variety of climate, from excessive heat to the most intense 
 cold ; being exceeded as regards the former, by the tropical 
 deserts of Africa alone. This variety of climate is further 
 increased by local influences, particularly by the great heights 
 of its table-lands and mountains, by its compact configuration, 
 not being deeply penetrated by gulfs, and by the great exten 
 sion of land it presents towards the pole, and regions of per 
 petual ice. Beyond the 56th parallel of N. lat., which 
 includes all Siberia, the ground is permanently frozen, in 
 some places to the depth of 630 ft. ; and a degree of cold 
 exceeding 90 below the freezing point, is here of annual 
 occurrence ; while, in other parts of the same region, such as 
 Tobolsk, Barnaul, and Irkutsk ; the summers are equal to 
 those of Berlin, Miinster, and Cherbourg, but are succeeded 
 by winters of great severity, the mean temperature being 
 4 to 4 . The greatest heat experienced in Asia occurs in 
 the province of Mukran, in Beloochistan, where, according to 
 the natives, the unburnt bricks are made red by the scorching 
 rays of the sun. The overpowering heat of this district 
 corresponds with that on the Tehama of Arabia, and of the 
 countries on the banks of the Senegal, in Africa. But the 
 remarkable variety of climate for which Asia is distinguished, 
 is not manifested by its larger regions alone, but is equally 
 exhibited within the limits of its different countries down to 
 their provinces and districts. Thus, in Afghanistan, the 
 snow lies in some places for three months in winter ; and the 
 thermometer sinks to from 10 to 15 below zero ; while, in 
 summer, it ranges from 90 to 94. At Delhi, the winter s 
 cold is sometimes 3 or 4 below freezing ; while at Calcutta, 
 the thermometer rises to 1 1 0. These extraordinary varieties 
 and sudden vicissitudes of climate are owing, in the greater 
 number of instances, to corresponding elevations and depres 
 sions of the earth s surface, but are, in some cases, the result 
 of other influencing causes. The violent winds called 
 typhoons prevail in S.E. Asia, between lat. 4 and 40 N. ; 
 their sphere of action diminishing westerly, to a space in 
 cluded between 13 and 26 N. lat. They thus comprise 
 all China, and the empire of Anam or Cochin China, to which 
 countries, indeed, and neighbouring seas, they seem to be 
 almost exclusively limited. These destructive winds blow 
 at all seasons, but rarely between May and December. The 
 monsoons, which also prevail in this quarter of the world, 
 extend into Asia, from their central region in the Indian 
 Ocean, as far as lat. 36 N. ; including China, all Hindoostan, 
 
ASIA 
 
 225 
 
 ASIA 
 
 the Punjab, and part of Thibet. They blow regularly from 
 the S.W. from April to October; and from the N.E. from 
 October to April, the change being accompanied by heavy 
 rain, and violent storms of thunder and lightning. South of 
 the equator, the monsoons blow from the S.E. and N. W. 
 during the same periods. The rainless regions of Asia are 
 of vast extent ; one of these extends from Delhi in N. Hindoo- 
 stan, to near Nertchinsk in S.E. Siberia, a distance of about 
 2500 in., with a width of nearly half that extent. It thus 
 includes part of Thibet, the great desert of Gobi, and part of 
 Mongolia a space estimated to comprise two millions of sq. 
 in. The other is the continuation of the vast rainless region, 
 which, commencing on the borders of Morocco, terminates in 
 Bcloochistan, of which latter it includes the greater part; 
 with a large portion of Persia, the N. part of Arabia, and the 
 S. of Syria. 
 
 Vegetation. The vegetation of Asia is aa various as its 
 climate ; and is further diversified by geographical position, 
 and by the higher or lower elevations on which it is exhibited. 
 The extreme S. portions only, including Anam, Siam, the 
 Malay peninsula, Burmah, peninsular Hindoostan, the shores 
 of the Persian Gulf, and Arabia, exhibit the characteristic 
 features of tropical vegetation, excepting in partial instances ; 
 the other portions display those of temperate regions, extend 
 ing N. into those of the arctic zone. In W. Asia, the veget 
 ation approaches nearly to that of India at the one extremity, 
 and to that of Europe at the other. N. of the Altai and 
 Yablonoi Krebit Mountains, perhaps the most characteristic 
 vegetation is the pine tribes, which pervade this part of the 
 continent throughout its whole extent. On the E. coast, the 
 pines descend S. through Manchooria and China, to near the 
 tropic of Cancer ; and in the W. of Asia, they proceed in a 
 S.E. direction, from the Caucasus Mountains along the plateau 
 of Iran to the Himalaya Mountains, over all which the species 
 are plentiful, and thus nearly quite encircle Mongolia and 
 Thibet, regarding whose vegetation comparatively little is yet 
 known. The S. parts of the continent, comprising Arabia, 
 S. Persia, Beloochistan, India, Burmah, Anam, Malacca, the 
 S. part of China, and the islands of the Indian Archipelago, 
 are altogether a palm region. No cereals are cultivated in 
 Asia N. of about lat. 62 N. From that parallel, S. to the 
 Altai, there are two regions ; the most N. characterized by the 
 cultivation of barley, oats, and rye ; and the most S. by that 
 of rye and wheat. Over both, buckwheat and potatoes are 
 raised. The W. part of the continent, S. of the Altai to 
 about lat. 26 N., is wholly a wheat region, excepting the 
 coasts of Anatolia and Syria, where maize is likewise culti 
 vated. On the W. coast of Arabia, and in the S. of Persia 
 and Beloochistan, and the N. of India, wheat and rice are 
 cultivated. The whole of S. India, and the littoral countries 
 of the E. coast, as far N. as the S. end of the island Sagalin, 
 including the Japanese Islands, and the islands of the Indian 
 Archipelago, are characterized by the cultivation of rice. 
 The tea plant is cultivated over nearly the whole of China 
 and Cochin-China, between lat. 17 and 35 N., and Ion. 94 
 and 120 E., which includes Upper Assam; but is most suc 
 cessful between the parallels of 25 and 33 N. which com 
 prehends the principal tea districts. It is also cultivated in the 
 Japanese Islands. Cotton is grown in Central and S. India, 
 Burmah, Siam, Anam, and China. Sugar in Bengal, and the 
 other countries to the E. j ust named ; also, in Malacca and Java. 
 Ceylon and Java are famed for their coffee, which is also 
 grown on the coast of Malabar, i;> Sumatra, and the Philip 
 pines. Cinnamon luxuriates in Ceylon, probably its native 
 seat, and is grown in Anam ; and nutmegs, cloves, and peppers, 
 have long been known as the products of the famed spice 
 islands of the Indian Archipelago. In these latter localities, 
 also, the sago-palm attains the highest perfection ; and in 
 many of them, as well as on the continent of India, the 
 valuable indigo-plant is grown. Nor would it do, even in this 
 short and imperfect enumeration of the vegetable riches of 
 Asia, to overlook that most valuable, and at the same time 
 most baneful plant, the poppy (Ptqiaver somniferum], which 
 flourishes in the S. parts of Anatolia, in Syria, and E. into 
 India. 
 
 Zoology. Asia has 288 mammalia, of which 102 are pecu 
 liar; 64 species of ruminating animals, of which 46 are 
 peculiar; 60 genera of carnivorous animals, and 180 species 
 of apes and monkeys, all of which are entirely Asiatic. The 
 
 quadrupeds of the continent and islands include the elephant, 
 rhinoceros, camel, lion, tiger, leopard, panther, hyena, tapir, 
 wolf, bear, wild boar, hog, dog, antelope, deer, chamois, stag, 
 ox, buffalo, horse, goat, sheep, wild ass, monkey, ape, fox, 
 hare, squirrel, jackal, elk, martin cat, wild cat, weasel. The 
 habitat of the elephant extends from the S. point of Sumatra, 
 lat. 6 S. through that island, across the peninsula of Malacca, 
 over the S. province of China, throughout all India, including 
 Ceylon, to nearly lat. 30 N. It is also met with on the 
 Himalayas, at a height of 5000 or 6000 feet, and roams wild 
 in immense herds through the forests and jungles at the 
 foot of these mountains. The habitat of the rhinoceros is 
 nearly the same, only extending a little further N. in China. 
 The camel is a native of Asia, where, from the earliest ages, 
 it has formed the chief means of communication between the 
 different regions of the East. The greatest numbers, and the 
 best, are produced in Arabia. The camel of Central Asia is 
 the Bactrian camel, which has two humps ; it is stronger and 
 more muscular than the common or Arabian camel, and its 
 hair much more rough and shaggy. The latter is the only 
 description of camel known in other parts of Asia, where it 
 occurs chiefly in a domesticated state. The Asiatic lion has 
 no mane, and is confined to a comparatively limited region, 
 extending from Mount Zerdah Koh, in the Persian plateau, 
 lat. 32 N., to Goojerat and the jungle countries of India on 
 the E., and to the districts bordering on the Euphrates on 
 the W. The tiger of Asia (royal tiger) has its chief habitat 
 in the sultry jungles of Bengal, and the islands of Java and 
 Sumatra; but it occasionally wanders as far as the Altai and 
 Himalaya Mountains, which it ascends to a height of J600 ft. 
 in search of prey, and to the mountains of Persia and Armenia ; 
 it also penetrates into Siberia, and is distributed over Corea, 
 Siam, Tonquin, and the Malay peninsula, where it abounds. 
 But the tiger of the N. and E. regions of Asia, though equally 
 large and strong, differs considerably in its nature from the 
 tiger of Bengal, being much less ferocious, seldom attacking 
 man during the day-time. The leopard, panther, and hyena 
 are common, and are met with everywhere, with the excep 
 tion, as regards the last, of the Burman empire, in which there 
 are neither hyenas, wolves, foxes, nor jackals. The leopard, 
 like the tiger, ascends the Himalaya Mountains to great 
 heights. The tapir is confined to the Malay peninsula, the 
 S. provinces of China, and the Asiatic Archipelago, inhabiting 
 the forests of Sumatra, and the N. parts of Borneo. Aniflngst 
 the most remarkable of the Asiatic bears are the Syrian bear, 
 which is seldom met with ; the Thibet bear, an inhabitant of 
 the mountains of Silhet and Nepaul ; and the sun-bear of 
 Sumatra. It is thought probable that the brown bear exists 
 in Siberia and Kamtchatka, but this has not been ascertained. 
 The wild boar and hog are very generally distributed over 
 Asia, and several of the islands of the Asiatic Archipelago, 
 particularly Celebes, Booroo, and some of the Xulla Islands, 
 which are inhabited by a singular species, called Sus babi/- 
 roussa. The dog tribe abounds in the tropical province of 
 Asia, the greatest number of species, next to Africa, being 
 found there ; but there are none in India beyond the Ganges, 
 and in the Indian Archipelago only two species are known. 
 The musk-deer inhabits the mountainous countries of Central 
 and S.E. Asia, between China and Tartary, and in the regions 
 extending from Lake Baikal to the Altai Mountains ; it is also 
 common in Nepaul, Bhotan, Thibet, and the adjacent countries 
 of China and Tonquin. Four other species of deer occur in 
 India, Ceylon, Sumatra, and Borneo. The rein-deer occurs 
 in the N. parts of Asia ; the fallow-deer in the N. parts of 
 Persia and China; the common stag or red-deer, and the roe 
 buck, in Siberia, between the Altai Mountains and the Lena. 
 Ten species of antelopes are peculiar to Asia, two of which 
 belong to the table-lands, the others are distributed in the 
 Asiatic Archipelago. Various kinds of oxen have been 
 domesticated in India from time immemorial. The most 
 remarkable of these are the Indian ox, which has a hump on 
 the shoulder; and the Tartary ox, with a beautiful white silky [ 
 tail. The buffalo is native in China, India, Borneo, and the ! 
 Sunda Islands ; it is a large animal, and in its wild state for 
 midable, but is universally domesticated. The horse is now 
 known only as a domestic animal in Asia, although believed 
 to have at one time run wild in the central plains of that con 
 tinent. The greatest number of species of the goat family 
 occurs in Asia, one of the most celebrated being the goat of 
 
ASIA 
 
 227 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Cashmere, which is also spread over Thibet, where they browze 
 at elevations of from 10,000 to 13,000 feet. Another species, 
 called the Dzeran or yellow goat, is both swift and shy. The 
 sheep is originally from the countries of W. Asia, and, like 
 the goats, is most numerous in this part of the world. They 
 also browze at great heights ; a species called the ras, with 
 straight spiral horns, living on the table-lands of Pamer, at 
 an elevation of 15,000 ft. above the sea. The wild ass or 
 onagra of Tartary, a lively and handsome animal, of great 
 speed, is regarded as the origin of the common ass. It inhabits 
 the dry mountainous parts of Great Tartary, ranging, in sum 
 mer, as far as lat. 48 N. Whole herds of them are seen in 
 motion, also, as far as the deserts of the Lower Indus ; but 
 they are distributed chiefly over the E. provinces of Persia. 
 The wild ass of Cutch and N. Goojerat, is not found further 
 E. than Ion. 75 E., on the S. side of the Himalaya Mountains ; 
 it especially frequents the salt deserts and open plains of 
 Jodhpoor, Jaymlmeer, and Bickaneer. Wild asses abound, 
 likewise, on the elevated regions of Thibet, on the shores of 
 the lakes of Manasarowar and Rakastal, at a height of more 
 than 15,250 ft. above the sea. Of the ape and monkey tribe 
 Asia has 180 species. Monkeys are found only on the coast 
 of India, Cochin-China, and the Sunda Islands ; apes in the 
 Sunda Islands, Malayan peninsula, Sumatra, and Bencoolen ; 
 the orang-outang in Sumatra and Borneo ; the latter, and the 
 Chimpanzee of Africa, approach the nearest to man. The 
 Asiatic species of gnawers are all, with the exception of the 
 jerboa, which burrows in sandy deserts, confined to Siberia; 
 the most remarkable of these is the flying squirrel. At the 
 junction of Europe and Asia, on the coasts of the Black Sea 
 and the Caucasus, the European and Asiatic forms of animals 
 are mixed, and pass into each other. 
 
 The chief haunts of the reptilia of Asia are the N. and N.E. 
 parts of Hindoostan ; between about Ion. 78 and 100 E., and 
 between the Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal ; China, in a 
 less degree ; the islands of Ceylon, Sumatra, Celebes, and Java, 
 in the latter in greater numbers and variety than in any other 
 part of the world. The reptile fauna of Asia, so far as known, 
 comprises only 44 species, but there is little doubt that many 
 more remain to be added to the list. At the head of this class 
 of animals stands the crocodile, the Asiatic genera of which is 
 the Gavial (Gavialis Gangeticus), frequenting the Ganges and 
 other great Indian rivers. The crocodile with the helmet 
 (Crocodilus galeatus), and the double-crested crocodile (Croco- 
 dilus biporcatus), are numerous in various quarters, both con 
 tinental and insular. There are 10 species of frogs peculiar 
 to Asia, and nine species of toads ; but of the former three 
 only belong to the mainland, the others are distributed through 
 the islands, two being peculiar to Japan. Amongst the ser 
 pents of Asia are the Cobra da Capello, and a species of Tri- 
 gonocephalus, both amongst the most dangerous snakes in 
 existence ; vipers, two species of which are peculiar to Asia. 
 Tree-serpents, inhabiting the great tropical forests ; boa con 
 strictors, pythons, the largest snake of the eastern world; 
 chameleons, fresh-water tortoises, of which eight are peculiar 
 to Asia. Sea and fresh-water snakes are also numerous ; the 
 former swarm in the Indian Ocean, and many of them are 
 extremely venomous and ferocious. 
 
 The number and variety of birds in Asia is too great to 
 attempt either enumeration or description ; they include eagles, 
 vultures, falcons, buzzards, quails, pheasants, partridges, star 
 lings, herons, storks, cranes, swans, wild ducks, pelicans, 
 nightingales, &c. In S.E. Asia and the islands of the Indian 
 Archipelago, birds of the most gorgeous plumage abound ; while 
 several of those above mentioned, though bearing European 
 names, here present themselves in the splendid hues of the 
 tropics. Asia is peculiarly prolific in gallinaceous fowls, some 
 of them possessing most brilliant plumage. Among these may 
 be named the horned pheasants of the Himalaya, a species of 
 Tragophans, the gold and silver pheasants of China, and the 
 Argus pheasant of Sumatra and Borneo. A large gallinaceous 
 fowl (Megapodius), of remarkable habits, is found in some of 
 the islands of the Indian Archipelago ; and to this region, or 
 to the S. part of continental Asia, we are indebted for that 
 most valuable of domestic fowls, the common cock and hen. 
 
 The same or similar species of insects and fishes being dif 
 fused over a very wide extent of country, it becomes much 
 more difficult to adduce such as peculiarly characterize any 
 particular locality than when dealing with quadrupeds, which 
 
 are not endowed with the same facilities of locomotion. "We 
 shall, therefore, on these departments of zoology, refer the j 
 reader to the separate articles on the countries composing 
 Asia, in which the more prominent genera of insects and fishes 
 frequenting them will be noticed. 
 
 Races of Asia, Language, and Religion. Asia is supposed 
 to have been the cradle of the human race. It contains a 
 vast variety of tribes and nations. The great divisions or 
 families consist of the Caucasian group, the Mongol-Tartar 
 group, and the Malayan, and Ethiopian nations. The first 
 occupy nearly the whole of W. Asia, the Himalaya to the 
 Brahmapootra, and all India between these mountains and the j 
 ocean. The Mongol- Tartar family occupies all Asia N. of the 
 Persian table-land and of the Himalaya, the whole of E. Asia 
 from the Brahmapootra to Behring s Strait ; it. includes the 
 Mongol and Tartar tribes, the Chinese, Indo-Chinese, and 
 Japanese. The Malay nations occupy the Indian Archipelago. 
 The Ethiopian, Ceylon, Borneo, Sumbawa, Timor, and, ex 
 clusively or partially, numerous other islands. These great 
 divisions of the Asiatic population are again subdivided into 
 numerous tribes, most of which will be noticed in detail in the 
 respective articles on the various countries of Asia. Of the 
 four principal groups mentioned, the Caucasian is the hand 
 somest, and probably the most intellectual, though this admits 
 of question. A portion of the Mongol-Tartar race are also 
 capable of high culture, especially the Chinese. The Kalmuks, 
 a branch of the same family, who lead a pastoral life on the 
 steppes of Central Asia, are an intelligent and well-formed race. 
 The Malayan nations are dark, with lank, coarse black hair, flat 
 faces, aud obliquely set eyes. They are active, ingenious, mild, 
 and gentle, in some places ; in others, fierce and vindictive. 
 The distinguishing physical characteristics of the Ethiopians 
 are well known to consist of a black complexion, black woolly 
 or frizzled hair, thick lips, projecting jaws, high cheek-bones, 
 and large prominent eyes. The most numerous of the great 
 Asiatic races is the Mongolian, next the Caucasian, then the 
 Malay, and, lastly, the Ethiopian, frequently now called the 
 Papuan race, which is estimated at a million only. 
 
 The languages of Asia are nearly as numerous as its tribes, 
 there being, according to Aderburg, no fewer than 937 different 
 dialects. The prevailing religions of Asia are Brahmanism 
 and Buddhism ; the former being professed in Hindoostan, the 
 latter in China, Japan, Anam, Siam, the Burman Empire, 
 Ceylon, and amongst the Mongols and Tunguzes. In the 
 S.W. of Asia, Islamism prevails; and Mussulmans are numerous 
 in India, Malacca, and many parts of the Indian Archipelago. 
 There are multitudes of other sects in various parts of the 
 continent. 
 
 History. The term Asia, the origin of which is unknown, 
 was first applied to a small province of the peninsula now 
 called Anatolia or Asia Minor, but has since been gradually 
 extended to the whole Asiatic continent. The early history 
 of Asia may be regarded as that of the world. Here the 
 human race was first planted ; and here also, from the few 
 survivors of the deluge, arose in succession the primitive 
 families, tribes, nations, and dynasties, of whose history only 
 a few fragments remain. The ancient history of Asia is 
 thenceforth divisible into four great epochs, of unequal dura 
 tion, corresponding with the existence of four great dynasties 
 the Assyrian or Babylonian, the Medo-Persian, the Gre 
 cian, and the lionian, which last may be considered as extend 
 ing to the period of the Mahometan conquest, in A.n. 638. It 
 was during this latter period, and when its power was at its 
 height, that the introduction and establishment of Christianity 
 took place. This event formed a new era in the history of 
 man, and became the source of great and favourable changes, 
 both in the physical and moral state of society. It has given 
 a tone to all succeeding history, and, apart from its blessed 
 results to our race, must, even in a mere historical point of 
 view, be regarded as the most important event that has ever 
 occurred, not only in the history of Asia, but of the whole 
 world. During this long period geography had made little 
 progress. By Ptolemy s account, it would appear that not 
 more than about a fourth of the continent of Asia was known 
 to the ancients, who divided it into Asia citerior, and Asia 
 ulterior; the former corresponding with the modern Anatolia 
 or Asia Minor, and the latter with the rest of Asia then known. 
 
 The next division of Asiatic history is that which compre 
 hends what are usually termed the Middle Ages, extending 
 
ASIA 
 
 223 
 
 ASIR 
 
 from the commencement of the Mahometan era to the end of 
 the 15th century, when Vasco de Gania discovered a passage 
 to India by the Cape of Good Hope. In less than a century 
 after the Hegira, or flight of Mahomet from Mecca, in G 22, 
 his imposture, which was destined to exercise so great and 
 permanent an influence in the Eastern world, had been spread 
 over a territory extending S. and N. from the lied Sea to the 
 Caspian, and E. and "W. from the confines of Tartary and 
 India to the shores of the Atlantic. In 1037, the Tartars, 
 under Togrul Beg, subdued Persia, and his successors con 
 quered India, Tartary, Syria, and Egypt. They also took 
 and plundered Jerusalem, and by their cruelties towards the 
 Christian pilgrims to that city, aroused, throughout Europe, 
 a feeling of indignation which led to the crusades. These 
 memorable expeditions were undertaken in succession during 
 a period of 200 years, commencing about 1095, and drew into 
 their cause some of the most powerful kings and most noted 
 warriors of the Middle Ages. After various changes, the 
 dominion of the Saracens, about the middle of the 13th cen 
 tury, ultimately extended, under the sway of Kublai Khan, over 
 all the provinces of W. Asia. The crusades, and other con 
 temporary circumstances, had contributed, in a more remark 
 able degree than formerly, to direct the mind of Europe 
 towards Asia ; and the result was, the establishment of perma 
 nent commercial relations between them. About 1250, two 
 Venetian noblemen, Nicolo and Maffio Polo, visited Asia as 
 merchants, taking with them Nicolo s son Marco, who was 
 afterwards the most celebrated Asiatic traveller of the Middle 
 Ages. During a residence of 24 years at the Tartar court, 
 by which he was frequently employed as an ambassador, he 
 traversed most of China, a considerable part of India, Java, 
 Ceylon, and perhaps several other countries, making also a 
 few voyages along the S. coast of Asia. He likewise col 
 lected much information regarding places which he never 
 visited ; and his correct description of countries formerly un 
 known to Europeans, must be considered as having laid the 
 foundation of modern Asiatic geography. After him several 
 travellers published notices of Asia ; but their relations, in 
 general, are full of fables, and the partial knowledge of China, 
 and of portions of Northern and Central Asia, gleaned princi 
 pally from the travels of Polo, with the discovery, by liubru- 
 quis, that the Caspian is an inland sea, must be regarded as 
 all the geographical knowledge that the Middle Ages have 
 furnished, in addition to that possessed by the ancients. At 
 length, the Portuguese navigator, Vasco de Gama, in 1498, 
 doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and, opening a new channel 
 of intercourse with the E., ultimately led to a more accurate 
 and more extensive knowledge of its geography. From the 
 end of the 15th century to the present times, the history of 
 Asia has gradually risen in importance, and the progress of j 
 its geography has been much advanced. Within a few years 
 after the arrival of De Gama on the Indian coast, the Portu 
 guese had acquired a complete knowledge of the whole coast, 
 from Cape Comorin to the Bay of Cambay, and effected settle 
 ments in the kingdoms of Camboja, Cochin-China, Tonquin, j 
 China, and all the fertile islands of the great Indian Archi 
 pelago. At the death of their famous naval commander and 
 hero, Albuquerque, in 1515, their colonies were established 
 at various points of the Asiatic coast, and extended from the 
 Cape of Good Hope to the empire of Japan, a distance of at 
 least 12,000 m. In 1600, the Portuguese encountered a new 
 competitor and formidable enemy in the Dutch, who sent 
 several commercial expeditions to the E. by the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and, by 1G40, had made themselves masters of all the 
 E. islands and seas, with the exception of some British settle 
 ments on the coast of Sumatra. The Dutch, however, in 
 extending their settlements, acted chiefly on mercantile prin 
 ciples, and have not added much to our geographical know 
 ledge. Their most important contribution was through the 
 German naturalist, E. Kiimpfer, who has given a good de 
 scription of Japan, in which he resided, in the capacity of 
 Dutch physician, from 1G84 to 1692. During the protracted 
 contest between the Dutch and Portuguese, the N. part of 
 Asia, not previously known either to ancients or moderns, 
 suddenly emerged from obscurity. Russia, having thrown off 
 the Tartar yoke in 1461, proceeded to enlarge her dominion 
 by the conquest of Kasar in 1552, and Astrakhan in 1555, 
 thereby extending our geographical knowledge over the basins 
 of the Don. "Wolga, and Ural, up to the Ural Mountains. In 
 
 1578, Yermak, a hetman of the Cossacks, having crossed 
 the Ural range with his troop, entered Siberia, the discovery 
 and survey of which were pursued so vigorously, that, in 
 1644, the mouth of the Ainoor was reached; and, in 1648, 
 Deshncff, another hetman, proved the separation of Asia from 
 America by an open sea, by sailing round the N.E cape from 
 the mouth of the Kowyma to that of the Anadir. Some 
 what later, a complete geographical view of the vast empire 
 of China and part of Central Asia was obtained from the 
 Jesuits, who, having risen to high favour in China, actually 
 published a map of China, under the authority and at the 
 expense of the Chinese Government. The attention of Britain 
 had long been directed to Asia, and the discovery of the pas 
 sage by sea had given a new impulse to their views in that 
 quarter. For many years after that event, frequent voyages 
 of discovery were made by British navigators, and several 
 embassies and other journeys were performed by British sub 
 jects on land. But the formation of the E. India Company, 
 in 1600, which ultimately established British authority in the 
 j E., has done more than any other event to extend our geo- 
 J graphical knowledge in that quarter. At first the new infor 
 mation obtained was scanty, but from 1 740, during the wars 
 with the French in the Deccan, and more especially from 1 757, 
 after the conquest of Bengal, it rapidly increased ; numerous 
 expeditions, both military and exploring, have been made, 
 and the quantity of unknown territory is at length circum 
 scribed within comparatively narrow bounds. 
 
 Population. The entire population of Asia is estimated at 
 480,000,000, which is considerably more than half the entire 
 population of the globe. They are thus divided Cauca 
 sian race, 164,000,000; Mongolian, 291,000.000; Malay, 
 24,000,000 ; Ethiopian, 1,000,000, of which the islands are 
 supposed to contain between 50,000 and 60,000. (Balbi s 
 Abnge; Foreign Quarterly Review ; Humboldt s Asie Central/", 
 Aspects of Nature, Cosmos, &c. ; Murray s Cyclopedia of Geo 
 graphy ; Travels of Marco Polo ; Historical and Descriptive 
 Account of British India; Johnston s Physical Atlas; Mrs, 
 Sommervi lie s Physical Geography; Lyell s Geology; &c.) 
 
 ASIA MINOR. See ANATOLIA. 
 
 ASIAGO, a tn. and dist. Austrian Lombardy, gov. Venice, 
 prov. Vicenza. The town, cap. of the dist., stands on the ridge 
 of an eminence, 40 m. N.E. by N. Verona; and is celebrated 
 for the manufacture of straw hats, of which vast numbers are 
 
 made here annually. Pop. 4670. The DISTRICT is known 
 
 by the name of the Seven Communes (Sette Comuni). It 
 is generally well wooded ; and is very productive in cattle 
 and sheep, great numbers of which are reared throughout the 
 territory. It is also famous for its turnery, cabinet-work, and 
 other manufactures in wood. The inhabitants are of German 
 descent. Pop. 25,500. 
 
 ASIATIC ARCHIPELAGO. See INDIAN Ancm- 
 
 P EL AGO. 
 
 AS1MAGOMY, a lake, Upper Canada ; the centre in lat. 
 48 35 N. ; Ion. 85 30 W. It is about 12 m. in length, with 
 a breadth varying from 2 to 4 m., and discharges itself into the 
 K. extremity of Lake Superior, by a stream about 36 m. long. 
 
 ASINALUNGA [anc. Ad Meusulas], a tn. and coin. 
 Tuscany, prov. of, and 22 m. S.S.W. Arezzo, on the E. de 
 clivity of a hill in the plain of the Chiana. It is well built, 
 has wide and well-paved streets, a handsome collegiate church, 
 in which are many fine paintings ; an hospital, and a theatre. 
 The surrounding country is well watered and fertile. Pop. 
 7767. (Dizio Univ. Italia.) 
 
 ASINAKA, a small isl. off the N.W. extremity of the 
 island of Sardinia, 2 m. N. Cape Falcone ; lat. 41 5 N. ; Ion. 
 8 18 15" E. (R.) It is about 10 m. long by 2 broad ; moun 
 tainous, but fertile, and has a great deal of excellent pasturage. 
 The coast abounds with fish. It is now inhabited by a few shep 
 herds and fishermen only. It has a good lighthouse, and an 
 excellent port, called Trabuccato. 
 
 ASIR, an independent state, Arabia, occupying the high 
 land on the confines of Hejaz, Yemen, and Nejd. It appears 
 to be of recent origin, for it was unknown to Niebuhr; and 
 though Burckhardt mentions the tribe of the Asfr, yet he 
 docs not seem to have heard of a state so called. The limits 
 of Asfr are formed by deserts or impassable mountains, and, 
 like the boundary lines of all other Arabian states, do not 
 admit of being precisely defined. Nearly in the 18th parallel 
 of latitude, a number of small streams or torrents water the 
 
ASIR 
 
 229 
 
 ASNIERES 
 
 fertile valley of Khamfr Misheft, enclosed within the rocky 
 summits of the maritime chain of mountains. If the opening 
 of this valley N., be followed, it leads to Wady Shehran, 
 which is also well watered; still further N., or N.E., extend 
 the valleys of Mamaleh Kebi r, and Mamdleh Saghfr (great 
 and little Mamaleh), the latter called also Hama*mah from 
 Hamiim, the name of a bird resembling a dove in size and 
 figure, but with brilliant plumage. A little below Wady 
 Hama mah, the narrow bed of an occasional torrent with a 
 well sunk in it, marks, in the sandy plain, the N. boundary of 
 Asfr, towards Hejaz. This point is probably not far from 
 the parallel of 19 10 . The chain of valleys forming the 
 main portion of the territory of Asfr may be presumed, 
 therefore, to extend about 80 m. in length. The obvious 
 advantages of this country are, first, its numerous mountain 
 streams, which, with the aid of canals, irrigate a wide extent 
 of cultivated land; and, secondly, its natural strength and 
 general inaccessibility ; for though an overpowering force may 
 march through the central valleys of Asfr, it cannot follow 
 the inhabitants to the hills, so as to complete their subjugation. 
 The streams seem to flow collectively into the river of Wady 
 Bisheh, which has water constantly, and fertilizes a tract of 
 about 45 m. in length ; though the Arabs, in their usual style 
 of exaggeration, say that it reaches to the gates of Bagdad. 
 The rivulets are diy during half of the year ; but water may 
 generally be found in their beds at a moderate depth ; and when 
 iieavy rain falls in violent thunderstorms (in August, and 
 perhaps in May also), they are speedily converted into violent 
 and impassable torrents. To persons arriving from Wady 
 Bisheh, which is low and sultry, the air of this elevated 
 region feols cool and humid ; there is not, however, any posi 
 tive ground for supposing that the mountains of Asfr rise to 
 a great height. The favoured valleys of this country have 
 probably an elevation of from 3000 to 4000 ft., while the 
 rocky crests around them may rise 1000 or 1500 ft. higher. 
 Granite seems to be the prevailing rock in the eastern chain ; 
 higher up in Asfr, M. Tamisier thought that he found marble, 
 with ores of tin and lead. In the lower valleys, the date-palm 
 grows to a great height, but the dates are inferior to those of 
 Wady Bisheh ; cotton is also cultivated ; higher up, the date- 
 groves are interspersed with almonds, figs, apricots, peaches, 
 and vines ; the sides of the hills, where they offer any soil, being 
 clothed with forests of sidr, or pine-like juniper. The valley 
 of Khamfr Misheft, the most elevated part of Asir, produces 
 wheat, barley, durrah (Ifolcits sorghum), and excellent fruit in 
 abundance. The middle of the valley in the neighbourhood 
 of the stream is usually resigned to cultivation ; while the 
 villages are perched on the surrounding heights, enclosed by 
 walls, and otherwise fortified after the fashion of the country. 
 In some places, as in Wady Hama mah, each house is a little 
 fort. The houses are generally two stories high, built of 
 sun-dried bricks, and with roofs varying in different situations 
 from flat to pointed, according to the local climate, and the 
 violence of the rains. The ground-floor is given up to the 
 cattle. The door of the house is but a foot wide, so that it 
 may be made of a single date-tree plank. Besides the loop- 
 holed and narrow-doored walls of the villages, which bear 
 witness to the frequency of feuds and intestine wars, there are 
 also regular fortresses, strong, against native means of attack, 
 near all the principal date plantations. It was in the war 
 waged by Mehemet Ali with the Wahdbi, that the importance 
 of Asfr first came to light ; the resources of that country, and 
 the courage of its inhabitants, proved the Pasha of Egypt s 
 chief obstructions. Having subdued the Waha"bi, therefore, 
 he turned his arms against the mountaineers of Asfr, and, 
 between 1824 and 1837, the Egyptian army made three 
 campaigns against them, which all proved unsuccessful ; the 
 invaders being either beaten in the field, as in the first cam 
 paign, or worn out and famished in marches through deserted 
 villages, surrounded by a vigilant enemy, who allowed them 
 no rest, and cut off all supplies, till at last they were com 
 pelled to negotiate a peace, which virtually amounted to 
 permission to retreat unmolested. The people of Asfr are 
 bigoted followers of Abd-el- Wahab, by whom, it is said, they 
 were first converted to Mahometanisrn, in the beginning of 
 the last century; and many of their rites among others, 
 their mode of circumcising still retain a pagan character. 
 (Jomard, Etudes Gcog. et Hist, sur V Arabic, 1839; Tami 
 sier, Voyage dans I Arabic, 1837.) 
 
 ASIEMTNTAR, an active volcano in the island of One- 
 kotan or Anakutan, the most northerly of the Kurile Islands ; 
 lat. 49 40 N. ; Ion. 155 8 E. Its height is not ascertained. 
 
 ASK, or ASEK, a to. Persia, prov. Mazanderan, dist. 
 Larijan, of which it is the cap., about 12 m. N. by E. Mount 
 Demaveud, r. bank, Ileraz ; lat. 36 N. ; Ion. 52 8 E. ; at 
 a height of 5900 ft. above the level of the sea. It contains 
 from 1000 to 1500 houses. 
 
 ASKEATON, amarket-tn. and par. Ireland, co. Limerick. 
 The town is on the river Deel, about 2 m. above its junction 
 with the Shannon, 16 m. W.S.W. Limerick. In the reign of 
 Charles I., it was a large walled town, but is now a mere vil 
 lage. The parish church was formerly that of the Commandery 
 of Knights Templars, founded in 1298. There are here also 
 a R. catholic chapel and several schools. The ruins of a 
 Franciscan monastery, founded in 1420, are beautifully situ 
 ated close to the Deel ; which at high water is navigable for 
 vessels of GO tons up to the town. It is crossed by an old 
 bridge of five arches, which connects the two parts of the 
 town. The principal trade is in grain and flour. Area of 
 par. 6521 ac. Pop. (1811), par. 4438; tn. 1862. 
 
 ASKERNE, a vil. England, co. York, W. Hiding, 7j m. 
 N. Doncaster, pleasantly situated on a rocky acclivity, ascend 
 ing gradually from an extensive plain. It has risen during 
 the present century from an obscure hamlet to an elegant and 
 fashionable watering-place, through the celebrity of its sul 
 phurous spring. The accommodation provided for visitors is 
 very complete ; the hotels, baths, boarding-houses, &c., being 
 all of the first class, and most of them agreeably situated in 
 the midst of gardens and orchards. Permanent pop. in 1841 , 
 468. 
 
 ASKERSWELL, a par. England, co. Dorset; 2330 ac.; 
 E. Bridport. Pop. in 1841, 233. 
 
 ASKHAM, three parishes, England : 1 , A par. and town 
 ship, co. Westmorland ; 3000 ac. ; S. Penrith. Pop. in 1841, 
 635. 2, (Bryan], a par. and township, co. York; 1920 ac. ; 
 W.S.W. York. Pop. in 1841, 342. 3, (Richard], a par., co. 
 York; 960 ac. ; S.W. York. Pop. in 1841, 232. 
 
 ASKRIGG, a small market-tn. and chapelry, England, 
 co. York, N. Riding. The town is built on an acclivity, and 
 consists of one street, well paved, and kept very clean. The 
 houses are of stone, slated, and substantial. There is an 
 ample supply of water from springs in the vicinity. It con 
 tains a church and a place of worship belonging to the W T es- 
 leyan Methodists, and a school supported by subscription. 
 There is also a grammar-school at the distance of about a 
 mile, which is now (1850) being rebuilt. Near the town are 
 six alms-houses for poor widows. The only manufactory in 
 the town is a small mill for dressing wool for stocking-making. 
 Market- clay, Thursday, but very indifferently attended. There 
 are four fairs in the year for cattle and horses. These arc 
 held in May, June, July, and September, that in July is the 
 largest sheep fair in Yorkshire. The country around is wild 
 and mountainous, and has many picturesque waterfalls. Area 
 of chapelry, 4790 ac. Pop. in 1841, 726. 
 
 ASLA, or ASSELA, a vil. Algeria, 149 m. S. Oran ; lat. 
 33 32 N. ; Ion. 30 W. It is situated on the edge and 
 crest of a plateau, on a small stream of the same name, which 
 waters the little gardens that compose the principal riches of 
 the inhabitants. The village consists of about sixty badly- 
 built, damp, and unhealthy houses, arranged so closely to 
 gether that their exterior fronts, almost without opening in 
 them, serve the purpose of walls. From a little distance the 
 village presents the appearance of a ruined castle of the Middle 
 Ages. In the centre is a sort of square, from which lead four 
 little streets, conducting to all the houses, and to the mosque. 
 It is a storing-place for the grain of certain nomadic tribes of 
 the vicinity. (Bui. Geo. Soc.) 
 
 ASLACKBY, a par. England, co. Lincoln ; 4810 ac. ; 
 N. Folkingham. Pop. in 1841, 507. 
 
 ASLACTON, a par. England, co. Norfolk; 1310 ac. ; 
 W.S.W. St. Mary Stratton, near the London and Norwich 
 Railway. Pop. in 1841, 404. 
 
 ASMANNSHAUSEN. See ASSMANNSHAOSEN. 
 
 ASNA. &ESNEH. 
 
 ASNIERES, the name of several villages in France, one 
 of which, agreeably situated on the 1. bank of the Seine, 
 arrond. St. Denis, and about 4 m. from Paris, forms a station 
 of the railway from Paris to St. Germain. The Versailles 
 
ASOLA 
 
 ASSAM 
 
 railroad here branches off to the left, and the Rouen railway 
 to the right. Before entering the village, the Seine is crossed 
 by a railway bridge of five arches. Pop. 702. 
 
 AS( )L A, a small fortified tn. Austrian Lonibardy, 20 m. 
 N.W. Mantua, on the Chiesc. It has an hospital, and a silk 
 spinning factory ; and is a place of high antiquity. Pop. 4000. 
 
 ASOLO, a small tn. Austrian Lombardy, 20 in. N.W. 
 Treviso ; agreeably situated on a hill. It has an old cathedral, 
 some elegantly-built houses, and the remains of a Koman bath 
 and aqueduct. Near the middle of the town is an extensive 
 old castle, now uninhabited, formerly the residence of Catherine 
 Cornaro, Queen of Cyprus. The inhabitants rear silkworms. 
 A little E. of the town is the freestone quarry of Kocca. 
 Pop. 3400. 
 
 ASOPH. See AZOF. 
 
 ASOPO [anc. Asopus], a river, Greece; it has its source 
 about lat. 38 16 N.; Ion. 23 23 E.; 6 m. S.S.W. Thiva or 
 Thebes, and 27 m. W. by N. Athens. It falls into the channel 
 of Negropont, lat. 38 24 N.; Ion. 23 47 E., after an E. by 
 N. course of about 25 m. 
 
 ASP ALL, a par. England, co. Suffolk ; 1240 ac. ; S. Eye. 
 Pop. in 1841, 132. 
 
 ASPATKIA, a par. and township, England, co. Cumber 
 land ; 8610 ac. ; N.E. Maryport, near the Maryport and Carlisle 
 Kailway. Pop. in 1841, 1921. 
 
 ASPE, a tn. Spain, in Valencia, prov. of, and 17 m. W. 
 Alicante, at the foot of a low hill, near the river Elcha ; having 
 tolerably good houses, streets somewhat narrow and winding, 
 a church, townhousc, hospital, prison, abattoir, several schools, 
 a cemetery, and two squares, in one of which is a fountain. 
 Besides flourmills, there are here 18 oilmills, five soap 
 manufactories, and 10 brandy -distilleries. The commerce 
 consists chiefly of oil, wine, and brandy. Pop. 6744. 
 
 ASPE, a valley, France, dep. Basses-Pyrenees, extend 
 ing about 27 m. S. to N., from Mount Aspe to the ridge of the ; 
 Pyrenees Iie ar Oleron. It contains about 15 villages, the j 
 inhabitants of which are are mostly shepherds. Very little j 
 grain is grown ; but a great quantity of timber for shipbuilding 
 is felled, and floated down to Bayonne by the Gave d Aspe, 
 which traverses the valley, and, joining the Gave d Oleron, 
 passes into the Adour. The valley contains a quarry of 
 alabaster. 
 
 ASPEDEN, a par. England, co. Herts; 1620 ac.; S.W. 
 Buntingford. Pop. in 1841, 529. 
 
 ASPEKEN, a tn. Holland, prov. S. Holland, 20 m. 
 E.N.E. Dort, 1. bank, Linge, in form of a parallelogram, ; 
 walled, with four gates. Formerly it was strongly fortified, 
 and had two castles, the ruins of one of which still exist. It j 
 has a townhouse ; a church, built early in the 15th century ; ! 
 a school, and two annual fairs for cattle and horses, held in 
 April and October, of which the latter, for sheep especially, 
 is the greatest in Holland. Pop. 1200. 
 
 ASPERG, ASBERG, or HOHEN-ASBERG, a tn. Wurtem- 
 berg, circle, Neckar, bail, of, and 3 m. W.N.W. Ludwigsburg. 
 At a short distance to the N. is the ancient fortress of Hohen- 
 Asberg, upon an isolated rock, 1100 ft. above the sea level ; 
 the only strong place in the kingdom, and now, or recently, 
 used as a military and state prison. Pop. 1570. 
 
 ASPERN, or GROSS AsrERN, a vil. archduchy of Aus 
 tria, r. bank, Danube, nearly opposite Vienna. It was, with 
 the villages of Essling and Engendorf, the scene of a sanguin 
 ary battle, fought between 100,000 French, under Napoleon, 
 ! and 75,000 Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, on May 
 21 and 22, 1809. On this occasion the French sustained 
 great loss. Marshal Lannes and several of their generals were 
 killed, and they were forced to retreat to the island of Lobau. 
 
 ASPLEY-GUlSE,apar. England, co. Bedford; 1960 ac.; 
 N. by W. VVoburn. Pop. in 1841, 1139. 
 
 ASPROPOTAMOS, or ASPRO POTOMO [anc. Acliclous], 
 a river, Turkey and Greece, having its source in the former, 
 and its termination on the W. shore of the latter. It rises in 
 the Mezzovo Mountains, part of the Pindus range ; lat. 39 50 
 N.; Ion. 21 21 E; about 20 m. E. Janina, and a few miles 
 only from the sources of the Arta. From this point it flows 
 due S., enters Greece at lat. 39 3 N., traverses Liradia from 
 N. to S., and now, taking a S.W. by W. direction, falls into 
 the Ionian Sea, near Cape Skropha, on the N. side of the 
 entrance into the Gulf of Patras ; its whole course being about 
 J20m. 
 
 ASSAB (BAY OF), Abyssinia, about 40 m. N.W. the nar 
 rowest part of the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb ; lat. 12 55 N. : 
 Ion. 42 45 E. It is 16 m. in length, and upwards of 5 m. 
 in width, at the broadest part; bounded, S.E. and E., and 
 N.E. and N., by islands, the largest of which is Darmabah, 
 nearly 20 m. in circumference ; very low, and partly covered 
 with jungle. The soundings inside the bay are 6 and 7 
 fathoms mud. Wood may be procured on the islands, but 
 water is scarce and brackish. 
 
 ASSAL, an extensive salt lake, E. Africa. 25 m. S.W. 
 Tajoora, about lat. 1 1 4(Y N. ; and Ion. 42 40 E. It is, 
 according to D HeVicourt, upwards of 700 ft., according to 
 other authorities, 570 ft. below the level of the sea; of an 
 oval form, 8 m. in length N. to S., and about 4 m. in breadth. 
 The shores are covered with a thick salt crust, resembling 
 ice, which in most places rests on the ground, the water 
 having subsided; the incrustation is frequently found to be 
 about half a foot thick. Numerous caravans from Abyssinia 
 resort to this lake, to carry away the salt. D llericourt 
 describes it as having a singularly dismal .and repulsive ap 
 pearance, the landscape around being lifeless and desolate, 
 and much broken up by deep chasms and ravines, of volcanic 
 formation; while the waters of the sullen lake become turpid, 
 thicken, and slowly solidity under a burning sun. The same 
 author advances the theory, in which other authorities agree, 
 that it is an ancient gulf of the sea, cut off from the ocean by 
 a sudden up-heaving of the land between the latter and the 
 former, a distance of about 5 or 6 m. (D HeVicourt, Voy. dans 
 le Roy. de Choa.} 
 
 ASSAM, or ASAM, a large district or country, India beyond 
 the Ganges, in the valley of the Brahmapootra; between lat. 
 25 45 and 28 15 N., and Ion. 90 35 and 96 50 E. Its 
 limits, however, especially on the E., are not well defined ; 
 but its extreme length may be estimated at 400 m., with a 
 breadth varying from 40 to 70 m. ; area about 22,000 sq. m. ; 
 bounded, S.W. by Bengal, N. by Bhotan, E. by Thibet, and 
 S. by Burmah and Cachar. It is divided by the Brahma 
 pootra into three parts, Outcrkole, comprehending the pro 
 vinces on the N. of that river; Deccancole, comprehending 
 those on the S. ; and the Majuli or Great Island, formed by 
 the separation of the stream into two branches, named the 
 Lohit and the Diliing. It is otherwise divided into Camroop, 
 Assam Proper, and Sodiya ; or Lower, Middle, and Upper 
 Assam. The country has the appearance of a perfect flat, 
 studded over with little conical green hills, rising abruptly 
 from the level plains, to the height of from 200 to 700 ft. ; 
 bounded on the N. and E. by lofty mountains. It contains 
 several extensive tracts of well-cultivated land ; amongst 
 which are some districts of primitive soil, above the reach of 
 inundation, and suited for crops of all kinds. Of these high 
 plains, those at Bishnauth, Chardwar, and Chotegah, are the 
 most considerable. Though the country is generally swampy, 
 and intersected with half-filled channels and stagnant lakes, yet 
 in the dry season it is very susceptible of cultivation, and amply 
 repays any labour and expense bestowed upon it. The soil 
 is, for the most part, composed of rich black mould; though 
 occasionally of red stiff clay. On the hills, it is universally 
 composed of red rich loam. 
 
 Assam has no fewer than 61 rivers, of which 37 flow from 
 the N., and 24 from the S. mountains. Of the former, the 
 principal is the Brahmapootra. Most of the rivers, especially 
 during floods, are navigable by the flat boats of Assam as far 
 up as the mountains. Gold is found in nearly all the moun 
 tain-streams that flow into the Brahmapootra, and also in the 
 latter river itself. But the best is found in the most winding 
 waters with the strongest currents. Iron abounds in most of 
 the hill countries. Coal has been discovered in several 
 places, and limestone and shell lime are found in considerable 
 quantities. There are also mines of precious stones, and 
 several amber mines, which are wrought with considerable 
 advantage. The amber is cut into cylinders about one-fourth 
 of an inch in diameter, and 2 inches long, and is worn in the 
 ear as an ornament. In the Naga hills are numerous brine 
 springs, from which salt is manufactured. Petroleum is found 
 in small quantities in some parts of Upper Assam. 
 
 The climate of Assam has been long considered so un 
 healthy, that some insurance offices exact a higher rate of 
 premium on the insurance of lives in that province than 
 usual. It does not appear quite to deserve this character j 
 
ASSAM 
 
 231 
 
 ASSAMAREH 
 
 many of those instances of extreme mortality on which it is 
 founded having been the result of local influences, and of the 
 unguarded conduct of the victims themselves. The wind here 
 blows from the E. or N.E. for more than nine months in the 
 year, and seldom from any other direction for more than a few 
 days at a time. There is a greater equality of temperature 
 during the year than is general throughout India. The hot 
 weather also is much more moderate and endurable, and the 
 nights are cool and refreshing. Very violent stormsarc frequent 
 during April, May, and June ; accompanied with tremendous 
 thunder and lightning, hail showers, and torrents of rain. 
 The rainy season lasts six months ; commencing in April and 
 ending in October. During this season one universal deluge 
 prevails, and all the labours of the field are necessarily sus 
 pended. It might be thought that this would be a miserable 
 time for the natives. It is quite otherwise. Every one, 
 says M Cosh, seems happy and contented ; and lives luxuri 
 ously upon haunches of venison, or steaks of the hog or the 
 buffalo. The native anchors his boat to his own roof tree, 
 performs his ablutions on his flooded hearth, and drags his 
 net in his tobacco garden ; where the oxen lately ploughed, 
 they are swum across to higher pasture ; the sites of large 
 villages are known only by their roofs above the stream. 
 When the inundation has risen too high for the natives to 
 wade from one house to another, they paddle out of their 
 houses in canoes, or roost on scaffolds, with the frequent cala 
 mity of their children falling out of their nests and being 
 drowned. 
 
 Agriculture is generally in a very backward state; and 
 immense tracts of country are lying waste that might be pro 
 fitably cultivated. Eice is the principal crop; sugar-cane 
 grows well, but does not attract much attention. Mustard, 
 cotton, and opium, are extensively cultivated. The tea tree, 
 which grows wild on the mountains in great abundance, has 
 become an important article of cultivation and commerce. 
 Coffee, in its natural state, also grows luxuriantly, but attracts 
 little attention, and is, in consequence, not very fruitful. 
 The betel-nut palm is cultivated to a large extent about most 
 
 The natives of Assam chiefly consist of Hindoos, but there 
 is also a large proportion of Mussulmans, who, however, are 
 held in little estimation. The Assamese have generally been 
 described as a degenerate and weakly race, inferior even to 
 the Bengalese. They are a shade or two lighter than the 
 latter, with high cheek-bones, and a physiognomy resembling 
 Their moral character is extremely low ; false- 
 
 the Chinese. 
 
 hood and knavery prevail to the greatest extent ; they are 
 idle and indolent in their habits; childish and timid in their 
 manners ; and perfectly indifferent about providing for their 
 future wants. Those represented in the accompanying wood- 
 
 AS.SAMESE OOSSAINS. 
 
 cut are Gossains, or land-holders ; a fine race of people, of 
 high Hindoo caste. Their large picturesque hats are beuuti- 
 
 villages. Fruit-trees, with a very few exceptions, do not fully made of straw, or fine cane. The young man has his 
 
 thrive in Assam. The ratan grows wild throughout the 
 country, and even forms impenetrable jungles. The plan 
 tain grows abundantly on most of the hills. India-rubber, or 
 caoutchouc, is an indigenous production of Assam, but is inferior 
 to the American. The tree producing this substance is one 
 of the largest known ; the trunk often attaining a circumfer 
 ence of 74 ft. ; height, 100 ft. ; area covered by branches, 
 610 ft. ; it occurs generally as a solitary tree, but occasionally 
 two or three may be found grouped together. Many valu 
 able gums are found in the forests, including gum-copal. Fig 
 trees form a large proportion of the vegetation, but the fruit 
 is uneatable. Valuable timber abounds in many parts. 
 
 Wild elephants are numerous, moving about in large herds ; 
 and the densest parts of the forests are inhabited by the rhino 
 ceros. Tigers, leopards, bears, and buffaloes, also abound. 
 Cows are of inferior quality, and are generally in wretched 
 condition. There are no horses indigenous to Assam, but they 
 are imported from Bhotan. Sheep also are imported from 
 the same place, and from Bengal. Wild hogs and wild game 
 abound, but poultry is scarce. Porcupines, flying squirrels, 
 iguana, otters, pangolin, civet cat, and an infinite variety of 
 monkeys and snakes, are common to the country. The white 
 ant is very destructive. Crocodiles swarm in all parts of the 
 Brahmapootra ; and tortoises are also numerous. The rivers 
 abound in fish of excellent quality, which are nearly all taken 
 by the net, hooks being rarely employed. 
 
 There are few manufactures in Assam ; and, with exception 
 
 d hao or large knife, in his hand, with which he cuts his 
 crops, or clears jungle. The father carries his food, tobacco, 
 or any other little valuable, in neat-made ratan baskets, 
 which have a covering also made of cane or leaves, impervious 
 to water. The white clothes are of fine cotton ; the coloured, 
 of wild silk tissue called Tufah. The women form a striking 
 contrast to the men, being fair and handsome ; but their 
 morality is at a very low ebb. Education is extremely limited 
 throughout Assam, and, as in many other Eastern countries, 
 is confined entirely to the male sex. The aggressions of 
 the Burmese on the British territories led to a war, which, 
 in 1825, ended in their expulsion from Assam, and the 
 accession of that disturbed district to the British empire. 
 The functionaries appointed by the Bengal Government are 
 subject, in civil cases, to the court of the Sudder Dewanny 
 Adawlut; in criminal cases, to the Aviamut Adawlut; and in 
 revenue cases, to the Sudder board of revenue. The native 
 government of Assam is composed of a king, or rajah ; three 
 gohaings, or hereditary councillors of state ; the boro boruya, 
 or chief secretary ; six choruya phukons, or inferior coun 
 cillors ; and 12 rajkhaoyas, or captains of 3000 men. The 
 greater part of the land is bestowed in grants upon persons 
 called payHcs, who are bound to work four months in the year 
 for the king or his officers. Amongst the principal sources 
 of the royal revenue are the gold mine of Pakerguri, the salt 
 mine of Soduja, and an iron mine in the Doyang district. 
 The custom-house duties form another addition to the royal 
 
 of potters and coppersmiths, all kinds of artizans are brought I treasury; and in 1836, the whole revenue of the kingdoi 
 from other parts of India. There are three different quali- j amounted to 44,000 sterling. The towns of Assam arc 
 ties of silk made, called, respectively, Path, Moonga, and \ numerous, but are composed of long straggling ranges of 
 
 Judy ; the first is a fine and costly fabric ; the others are of 
 an inferior description, the last being the coarsest. Large 
 quantities of lac are prepared for export. There is little 
 or no trade. What there is, is carried on entirely by an 
 enterprising class of men, called Kyahs, emigrants from Mar- 
 war, who establish themselves in all the principal parts of 
 Assam, and, through their petty agents, carry on a barter 
 trade ; exchanging salt for lac, gold-dust, and ivory. Nan 
 kins, silks, lacquered and China ware, lead, copper, and silver, 
 tire imported from China and Burmah. 
 
 huts, which scarcely deserve the name of towns. The country 
 contains many ancient temples, and several large and sub 
 stantial causeways. Pop. in 1836, 602,500. (Martin s 
 History, Antiquities, ttc., of Eastern India; Hamilton s East 
 
 j India Gaz. Murray s British India ; Pemberton s Report on 
 
 the Eastern Frontiers of British India: M Cosh s Topography 
 
 \ of Assam.] 
 
 ASSAMAREH, a large vil., W. Africa, 1. bank, Niger, 
 about lat. 5 58 N. ; Ion. 6 45 E. Camwood abounds in 
 
 I the vicinity, and is a staple article of commerce. 
 
ASSASSINS 
 
 232 
 
 ASSISI 
 
 ASSASSINS or HA88A8SINS [Persic, &MMMM, a 
 po .iiard], the name of a military and religious order formed in 
 Persia, by a sect of Mahometans, in the ninth century, who, 
 in process of time, obtained possession of 10 or 12 cities, and 
 chose a leader or king, to whom they gave the name of The Old 
 Ulan oftlte Mountain, who resided in the hill-fort of Alamut, 
 tf. of Casvin in Persia, and surrounded himself with a devoted 
 band, dressed in a peculiar manner, and armed with sharp 
 daggers, who paid the most implicit deference to his com 
 mands, esteemed assassination meritorious when sanctioned 
 by his mandate; and who believed that the highest joys of 
 paradise awaited them, should their lives be sacrificed in his 
 service. Secret assassination, against which no precaution 
 could prevail, was the tremendous instrument of his vengeance. 
 The greatest monarchs stood iu awe of him, for his was a 
 
 S-.vcr which they could not guard against ; and many princes 
 1 under the daggers of their followers, assassins who had 
 succeeded in getting into their service, for the purpose of 
 destroying them. About the middle of the 12 th century, how 
 ever, the assassins were themselves exterminated, by the great 
 Mongol conqueror, Mangoo Khan, their haunts all taken one 
 after another, and their inmates massacred without distinction. 
 ASSATCHINSKAJA SOPKA, an active volcano in 
 Kamtschatka, lat. 52 2 N. ; Ion. 157 43 E. Its last erup 
 tion occurred in 1828. 
 
 ASSAYE. Sec ASSYE. 
 
 ASSCHE, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. S. Brabant, 
 (list, of, and 8 in. N. W. Brussels, on the road to Ghent. It has 
 a considerable trade in grain, hops, flax, and fruit. Pop. 5820. 
 ASSEEEGIIUR, or ASEERCIIUH, a tn. and fortress, 
 Ilindoostan, prov. Candeish, presidency, Bombay, 15 in. N. 
 Ijurhampoor, and 280 N.E. Bombay; lat. 21 20 N. ; 
 Ion. 76 20 E. ; long distinguished as the key of the Deecan. 
 The town, called a pettah or suburb, is large and irregular, 
 with one good street and a bazaar. It lies round the foot of 
 a rocky hill 750 ft. high, on whose summit is the fortress, the 
 walls of which are built on the edge of a precipice about 
 100 ft. high, and only accessible at two points, both strongly 
 fortified. The fort is well supplied with water, and has several 
 magazines cut in the solid rock. The principal approach is 
 on the S.W., where there is a double line of outworks of 
 admirable masonry. It was besieged and taken in 1819, 
 and, along with a small tract of unproductive country around 
 it, ceded to Great Britain. 
 
 ASSEN, a tn. Holland, cap. prov. Drenthe, and of arrond. 
 and can. Assen, 16 m. S. Groningen at the N. end of the 
 Smilder Canal, by which it communicates with Meppel, 
 Z wart-sluis, and the Zuider-Zee. It is the seat of the court 
 of justice for the province, for the arrondissement, and canton ; 
 has paved streets, and well-built houses, mostly having 
 gardens attached, and altogether has such a good appearance, 
 that it has been called a little town of palaces. It possesses 
 a townhall, a handsome Government-house, a courthouse, 
 prison, bank, a Calvinistic and a R. catholic church, 
 and a Jewish synagogue, a gymnasium, and three 
 other schools. The inhabitants are chiefly occu 
 pied in agriculture, and in the shop and transit 
 trade. An annual fair is held for cattle, &c. Pop. 
 about 2700. (Van der Aa.) 
 
 ASSEN DELFT, a vil. Holland, prov. N Hoi 
 land, 7 m. N.N.E. Haarlem, and 8 m. N.W. Am 
 sterdam. It has a townhall, a handsome cruciform 
 Calvinistic and a H. catholic church, two orphan- 
 houses, and some schools. Its inhabitants are 
 employed in making butter and sweet-milk cheese, 
 and in weaving sailcloth, upwards of 300 looms 
 being frequently at work. In the vicinity are four 
 paper-mills, and two oilmills. Pop. about 2500. 
 (Van der Aa.) 
 
 ASSENEDE, or ASSEXDE, a tn. and com. Bel 
 gium, prov. E. Flanders, N. Ghent. It has dye- 
 works, and manufactures of woollen and cotton 
 cloths. Pop. 4306. 
 
 ASSENS, a small tn. and seaport, Denmark, 
 W. side of the island of Fiihnen, situated on the 
 wider part of the Little Belt, about 20 m. S.W. Odei 
 55 16 6" N. ; Ion. 9 53 4.5" E. (R.) It has some distilleries, 
 several manufactures, amongst which is an extensive wool-card 
 manufactory, a considerable trade in corn, and a small but 
 
 safe harbour, with 12 ft. water. The towu has ten vessels, 
 gross tonn., 750. There is constant communication from 
 Assens across to the Schleswig coast. Pop. 2700. 
 
 ASSES EARS, the name of various remarkable rocky 
 peaks, in different parts of the world: 1, A double-peaked 
 hill, near the mountainous peninsula, Jebel Hassan in Arabia, 
 at the S. entrance into the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. 2, Two 
 sharp peaks near Kisseen point on the S. coast of Arabia, in 
 lat. 15 20 N.; Ion. 51 48 E. 3, Two remarkable hills i.i 
 Persia, prov. Pars, 5 in. E. the shores of the Persian Gult ; 
 lat. 28 29 N.; Ion. 51 14 E. (u.) t. A rugged double-peaked 
 hill in Malabar, about 18 m. N.E. from Mangalore, and 12 or 
 15 m. from the sea; lat. 13 2 N. ; it rises almost vertically 
 from the low country. 5, Two spire like peaks in the S. part 
 of the island of Lingin, in the China Sea, about lat. 18 S. ; 
 Ion. 105 4 E. 6, Two high remarkable peaks on the Hae- 
 Pong or Ky-Poong Island, off the S. coast of China, prov. 
 Quang-tong ; lat. 21 54 N. ; Ion. 114 E. (n.) They rise from 
 the same base almost perpendicularly from the sea, and slop 
 ing suddenly down on the N.E. side, are united to a piece of 
 moderately elevated land, which terminates that part of the 
 island. 7, Two singular peaks on the S. end of the island of 
 Timoan or Teoman, China Sea, off the E. coast of the Malay 
 peninsula; lat. 2 54 N.; Ion. 104 15 E. The peaks stand 
 on one base, and rise abruptly from the sea to a great height. 
 
 ASSEY, a par. Ireland, co. Meath ; 1218 ac. Pop. in 
 1841, 138. 
 
 ASSIN, a small state in the Ashantee territory, 1. bank, 
 Amissa. 
 
 ASSINEE, a river and vil. Guinea, N.W. coast, Africa. 
 The river forms the W. boundary of the Ashantee territory, as 
 the Voltaand Loka do the E. The village is situated at the mouth 
 of the stream, which is in lat. 5 8 36" N.; Ion. 3 23 W. (n.) 
 
 ASSINGTON, a par. England, co. Suffolk; 3450 ac.; 
 N.W. Nayland. Pop. in 1841, 778. 
 
 ASSIN 1BOIN, a large river, N. America, within the 
 Hudson s Bay territory, which, after a sinuous course of about 
 480 m., having been previously joined about lat. 50 by the 
 Red River, flows into the S.W. end of Lake Winnipeg. It 
 is navigable for canoes to its source ; and gives its name to 
 an Indian tribe of the Sioux nation, residing in the W. part 
 of N. America, near the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 ASS1SI, or ASSISSI [Latin, Assisium], a tn. Papal States, 
 delegation of, and 13 m. S.E. Perugia, 20 m. N.W. Spoleto, 
 picturesquely situated in one of the finest parts of Italy. It 
 stands on a hill, across which a long line of aqueducts stretches, 
 and is surrounded by battlements and towers, overhung by 
 a lofty citadel in ruins. It is the birthplace of St. Francis, 
 founder of the order of Franciscans ; and the most remarkable 
 edifice which it contains is the double church which is built 
 over the crypt where his remains lie, and was erected in the 
 13th century. Its architecture belongs to the early Gothic, 
 and has served as a model to all the churches of the Franciscan 
 
 THK PIAZZA, ASSISI. From! 
 
 i ; lat. 
 
 order. It contains fine paintings by Ciambue, Giotto, Lo 
 Spagna, Cavallino, and other celebrated artists of that period : 
 and the tomb is annually visited by immense numbers of pil 
 grims, during a great fair which is held here between July 2 1 
 
ASSMANNSHAUSEN 
 
 233 
 
 ASSYRIA 
 
 and August 1, and attracts visitors from all R. catholic coun 
 tries by the indulgences which are then given. There are 20 
 other churches, and 12 monasteries for mendicant friars. In 
 the Piazza, or square, stands a magnificent portico of the an 
 cient Temple of Minerva; it consists of fluted columns and a 
 pediment. The ruin has been attached to a church, to which 
 it has given the name of Santa Maria della Minerva. Assisi 
 has manufactures of iron tiles and needles ; of the latter it 
 
 ASSUMPTION ISLAND. 1, An isl., If. Pacific Ocean, 
 Marianne Archipelago ; lat. 19 41 N.; Ion. 145 27 E. (H.) ; 
 between 9 and 12 m. in circumference. It contains an active 
 volcano of 2026 ft. in height, and is almost wholly composed 
 of or covered with black lava, and presents a very dismal and 
 repulsive appearance from the sea. Perouse describes it as 
 a most wretched place, but it has been somewhat improved 
 since his time by the Spaniards, who have planted rice in it, 
 
 produces 4000 Ibs. annually. Assisi gave birth to Metastasio, j and introduced horses, cattle, swine, and lamas. It produce 
 
 and is celebrated by Dante. Pop. 6000. 
 
 ASSMANNSHAUSEN, a poor vil. Nassau, r. bank, Rhine, 
 about 2 m. N. W. Riklesheim, celebrated for the excellent red 
 
 also a few cocoa-trees ; anchorage unsafe. 2, A small isl. 
 
 at the N. entrance into the Mozambique Channel; lat. (S.E. 
 point) 9 46 S. ; Ion. 46 34 E. (it. 
 
 wine grown in the Hellenberg, famed as far back as 1108. 
 In early times the religious houses and noblemen around seized 
 on the vineyards, whence arose the poverty of the inhabitants 
 Pop. 579 
 
 ASSO, a tn. and com. Austrian Lombardy, prov. of, and battle was fought, on September 23, 1803, between the British 
 9 m. N.E. Como, and 7 m. W. Lecco, on an elevated plain and native forces under Wellington, then General Wellesley, 
 near the source of the Sambro, having a parish church, eight ! and the combined armies of Dowlet Row Sindia, and the rajah 
 
 about 7 m. in length, 
 is low, with some sand downs, covered with shrubs. 
 
 ASSYE, or ASSAYE, a small vil. Hindoostan, prov. Berar, 
 28 m. N. Janlna, and 220 E.N.E. Bombay; lat. 20 15 N. ; 
 Ion. 75 50 E.; chiefly remarkable as the spot where th 
 
 chapels of ease, and a school. It has a large bonded store 
 house, two cotton factories, and a linen-weaving factory, 
 making cloth for the great hospital in Milan. Pop. 1832. 
 (Dizio Univ. Italia; Raffelsperger.) 
 
 ASSOFOODAH, a tn. Fellattah country, W. Africa; 
 
 about lat. 10 25 N. ; Ion. 2 35 E. 
 hometans. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 The natives are Ma- 
 
 of Berar. The forces under Wellesley amounted to 14,300, 
 of which 4500 only were brought into action. The combined 
 Indian army is variously stated at 30,000 to 50,000, and of these 
 about 10,000 were regularly-disciplined infantry, commanded 
 by French officers. Notwithstanding this disparity of num 
 bers, the enemy was completely routed, and British supremacy 
 established in India. Ninety-eight pieces of cannon, seven 
 standards, the camp equipage, and a large quantity of ammu 
 nition, fell into the hands of the victors. The slain on the 
 side of the British Indian army, amounted to 1566 men 
 killed and wounded, on that of the confederates to 1200. 
 (Hamilton s East India Gaz.; Historical Account of British 
 India; Martin s East Indies.) 
 
 ASSY NT, an extensive par., N.W. coast, Scotland, co. 
 Sutherland, 36 m. long, 18 broad, and comprising 97,000 ac. 
 It is one of the wildest and most rugged districts in Scotland. 
 Some of its mountains are of considerable elevation, and of 
 peculiar form. The loftiest, Benmore, rises to a height of 
 
 3230 ft. above the level of tin 
 
 Limestone abounds in 
 
 ASSOS, or Assus, an anc. and ruined city, Asiatic Turkey, 
 pash. Anatolia, near the modern Beiram or Beahrahm, on the 
 Gulf, and about 30 m. W. the town of Adramyti ; lat. 39 30 N. ; 
 Ion. 26 20 E. It is surrounded by rocks, which rise abruptly 
 to the height of 60 or 80 ft., and which were formerly crowned 
 with temples. Among the ancient relics here are numerous 
 tombs, the ruins of temples, baths, theatres, &c. 
 
 ASSOUAN, or ESOOAN [anc. Syene], a tn. Upper Egypt, 
 r. bank, Nile, near the tenth Cataract ; lat. 24 5 30" N. Few 
 remains of the ancient city now exist. The environs are sandy 
 and barren, producing little else than palms, dates, and grain ; 
 every other kind of provision being brought from other parts 
 of the country. Dates are among the principal exports of the 
 town. Senna, charcoal, henna, wicker-baskets, and a few 
 slaves, from the interior, from Abyssinia, and Upper Ethiopia, 
 are sent thence to different parts of Lower Egypt. Near 
 Assouan commences the granite regions of Egypt ; and the 
 most interesting objects in the vicinity are the ancient quarries, 
 whence obelisks and statues were excavated of the kind of 
 granite called sienite. Syene was the place to which Juvenal 
 was banished. 
 
 ASSOUR, a tn. Nubia, kingdom of Dongola, r. bank, Nile, ---- .......... > ...... ---- --------- , ..... --- 
 
 about 10 m. N.W. Meroe, celebrated for the number of its I abounds in trout of various kinds, and is surrounded with the 
 
 most beautiful scenery. On a peninsula that juts into this 
 
 the parish. In one part, there is a stupendous ridge of that 
 valuable material, interspersed with sandstone, of about 1 
 m. in length, and 300 ft. in height. There are also inex 
 haustible quarries of beautiful marble, one white, and the 
 other of a variegated colour, and both capable of receiving 
 
 the finest polish. These quarries were worked some years 
 since, but, in consequence of the difficulty and expense of 
 conveying the blocks to the coast, they have been abandoned. 
 Fresh-water lakes are numerous ; the largest, Loch Assyut, is 
 about 7 m. in length, and 1 in breadth, where broadest. It 
 
 pyramids. Fine ruins abound in this vicinity. 
 
 ASSUAN. See ASSOUAN. 
 
 ASSUAPMOUSSOIN, a lake, Lower Canada; lat. 49 22 
 N. ; Ion. 73 55 W. It is from 8 to 10 m. in length, and 
 about 4 in breadth, and is connected with a numerous series 
 of small lakes which lie thickly around, all having communi 
 cation with each other by small streams. 
 
 ASSUAY. See ASUAY. 
 
 ASSUMPTION, or ASUNCION [Nuestra Seukora D As- 
 sumpgao), a city of S. America, cap. of the state of Paraguay, 
 on a height, 1. bank, Paraguay, a little way above where it 
 is joined by the Pilcomayo, 650 m. N. Buenos Ayres ; lat. 
 25 18 S.; Ion. 57 30 W. Founded in 1535 by a colony 
 
 of Spaniards, and originally but a small fort, from its advan 
 tageous position it became in a few years a city of some im 
 portance. It has a cathedral, three churches, four convents 
 and monasteries, an hospital, a theological seminary, and 
 
 lake, are the ruins of the ancient castle of Ardorack, in which 
 the unfortunate Marquis of Montrose was confined by Macleod 
 of Assynt, after he had been taken prisoner by that chieftain. 
 Of sea lochs or arms of the sea, which are numerous, the 
 largest is also named Loch Assynt. It is about 14 in. long, 
 from Store Point to the head ; and varies from 6 m. broad at 
 Store Point, to half a mile opposite Duart More. Springs 
 and streams also abound ; the former remarkable for their 
 size, and for the purity and excellence of their waters ; one 
 of these springs discharges a current of four cubic feet. A 
 large portion of the parish is laid out in slieep-walks, a very 
 small part only being cultivable. On this account, the great 
 
 bulk of the population live along the shores, where they have 
 the benefit of fishing. There is no market-town within the 
 parish, and only one village, Lochinver. The coast is bold and 
 
 , j , ___,, rocky, but has some good harbours. The parish is the property 
 
 college. It is ill built and irregular, most of the houses are entirely of the Duke of Sutherland. Pop. in 1841, 3178. 
 of earth, and the streets are crooked and unpaved. The in- j ASSYRIA, the name which is usually appropriated to 
 habitants carry on a considerable trade in tobacco, timber, the first of what are known as the four great empires of the 
 hides, and sugar ; and especially in matte or Paraguay tea, , world ; but which, in geography, is more correctly confined 
 grown abundantly in the surrounding district, and exported to to what was called Assyria Proper, and nearly corresponds 
 Buenos Ayres, Tucuman, Chili, Peru, and other parts of S. : with the modern Kurdistan. It was bounded on the N. by 
 America. The air is temperate, and the climate healthy ; the Mount Niphates and part of Armenia, E. by the part of Media 
 adjacent country is fertile, and abounding in rich pastures, on j toward Mounts Chaboras and Zagros, S. by Susiana and 
 which numerous flocks of cattle, and considerable numbers of j part of Babylonia, and W. by the Tigris. Its capital was 
 horses, mules, asses, sheep, and goats are fed. Wheat, maize, | Nineveh, which is still feebly represented by a modern town 
 sugar, tobacco, cotton, mandioca, and potatoes are extensively ! of the same name, near which the ancient ruins may still be 
 cultivated, and honey and wax are produced in abundance, traced; but though it had many other important cities, even 
 Pop. about 12,COO- 1 the sites of the greater number are unknown. 
 
 VOL. 1. 30 
 
ASTABEL 
 
 234 
 
 ASTI 
 
 ASTABEL, SIIERM ANTAR, or ISTABL ANTAR, a tn. 
 Arabia, in Ilejaz, coast of the Red Sea ; lat. 26 24 N. Near 
 it is a good anchor station, in a deep bay, formed in coral 
 rocks. The plant Pavetta longij olia is found abundantly in 
 the vicinity. From the long roots and twigs of this plant the 
 Arabians make tooth-picks, which they chew, that the acid 
 juice thereby obtained may clean their teeth. 
 
 ASTAFFORT, a tn. France, dep. Lot- et- Garonne, r. bank, 
 Gers ; 10 in. S. Agen. It owes its origin to the English, and 
 its name is said to be a corruption of Stafford. It was 
 anciently a place of some strength, and is still surrounded by 
 walls and bastions, in a ruinous state. In the neighbourhood, 
 a field called Champ de Iluguenots commemorates the defeat 
 of a body of Protestants, headed by Conde, who narrowly 
 escaped being taken. Pop. 1318. 
 
 ASTARA, a frontier tn. Russia, gov. Georgia, prov. 
 Shirvan, upon the river Astara, which forms the boundary 
 between Russia and Persia ; a quarter of a mile from its out 
 let into the Caspian Sea; 45 m. N.E. Ardebeel, and 130 m. 
 E. by N. Tabreez ; lat. 38 20 N. ; Ion. 48 20 E. It has 
 a small port, in former times flourishing ; and exports grain, 
 fruits, and silk. 
 
 ASTBURY, a par. England, co. Cheshire; 18,070 ac. 
 It has a spacious beautiful church, of all styles of English 
 architecture, but more especially the later. The screen and 
 the stained glass windows are fine. Pop. in 1841, 14,355. 
 
 ASTELL S ISLAND, N. coast of Australia, N.W. side 
 of the Gulf of Carpentaria, one of the English Company s 
 group, situated at the entrance to the Bay of Arnhem. It is 
 of considerable height, well-wooded, and contains iron ore. 
 
 ASTEN, or ASTHEN, a vil. Holland, prov. N. Brabant, 
 12 m. E.S.E. Eindhoven. It is a large beautiful village in 
 the S.W. part of the Peel ; and has a large handsome cruciform 
 R. catholic church, and an elegant townhouse, in the under 
 part of which is the butter weigh-house. Outside the village ! hood is a mine furnishing lead, litharge, zinc, and silver. Pop 
 
 pet, loop-holed for musketry, lias been erected. Great part 
 of the town is in ruins ; but the parts still standing have a lively 
 and picturesque appearance. The houses are chiefly of wood, 
 in a light and open style of architecture, with projecting 
 fronts, and sloping roofs covered with red tiles or thatch. 
 Not unfrequently they are furnished with verandahs, supported 
 on wooden pillars ; and lofty square towers, called vaudgeers, 
 with openings on each side, which act like windsails, and 
 maintain a circulation of fresh air throughout their interior. 
 The large extent of open space within the town, generally 
 planted or laid out in fine gardens, is one of its peculiar and 
 most attractive features. None of the buildings are deserving 
 of particular notice. The palace, in which the governor re 
 sides, is extensive ; but has a mean appearance, and bears 
 visible marks of decay. The bazaars, though large, are very 
 indifferently supplied. The manufactures are chiefly confined 
 to a few silk and cotton stuffs ; and though the locality seems 
 well fitted to make it the key of commerce between the East 
 and the Caspian, the trade is inconsiderable. The greatest 
 obstacle to its prosperity is its pestilential atmosphere, which 
 has procured for it the ominous surname of City of the 
 Plague. During the summer rains no inhabitant, whose 
 circumstances enable him to depart, remains within it. It 
 has been repeatedly ravaged by the plague ; and when Burnes 
 visited it, it had been so depopulated by that scourge the year 
 before, that the streets were literally deserted, and half of the 
 shops and houses shut from want of masters. Asterabad is 
 the birthplace of the Kujurs, the reigning family of Persia, 
 and is always governed by a royal prince. (Fraser ; Burnes ; 
 Chesney.) 
 
 ASTERBY, a par. England, co. Lincoln ; G20 ac. ; N. 
 Horncastle. Pop. in 1841, 256. 
 
 ASTFELD, a vil. Brunswick, in the dist. and vicinity 
 of Wolfenbiittcl, in the Harz Mountains. In its neighbour 
 
 is a castle called the Huis te Asten. Two annual cattle-fairs ! 664. 
 
 are held. The inhabitants are nearly all R. catholics. 
 2800. (Van der Aa.) 
 
 Pop. 
 
 ASTERABAD, or ASTRABAD [anc. Hyrcania], a small 
 prov. Persia (cap. Asterabad), between lat. 36 20 and 38 N., 
 and Ion. 53 40 and 57 55 E. ; bounded, N. by the desert 
 of Khiva, S. by the Koh Caucasian or Elbruz Mountains, E. 
 by prov. Goorgan and N. bend of the Attruck, and W. and 
 N.W. by the Caspian. The S. border, forming the abut 
 ment of the Elbruz, is lofty and mountainous ; but imme 
 diately below, an extensive plain of surpassing beauty and 
 richness stretches out to the N.E. and W. Towards the 
 Caspian, however, the country, though still continuing level, 
 loses its beauty and fertility, and exhibits the well-known 
 characteristics of a steppe. Great part of the surface, both 
 towards the S. slopes and throughout the rich plain, is covered 
 with magnificent forests, so close and tangled as not only to 
 be often impassable, but to exclude the proper circulation of 
 the air, and generate pestilential vapours. The diseases thus 
 spread over the province have repeatedly made fearful ravages ; 
 and are so much dreaded by the roving Turkomans, of whom 
 the rural population chiefly consists, that when the rain sets 
 in, and begins to form stagnant pools and swamps, they retire 
 beyond the Attruck, and prefer the verge of a burning sandy 
 desert to the fatal luxuriance of Asterabad. The inhabitants 
 of the villages, being stationary, have not the same resource, 
 and suffer severely from sickness. Nor is this their only 
 calamity. Though the rich soil produces all kinds of grain 
 and fruit in the greatest abundance, it too often happens that 
 those who sow the crop are not permitted to reap it. The 
 Turkomans who had retired usually return again before har 
 vest, and make no scruple of appropriating it as their own. 
 No redress can be obtained. The King of Persia, though 
 nominally sovereign, is scarcely able, and probably is not 
 much disposed to interfere with these predatory hordes, so 
 long as they continue, as at present, to furnish him with the 
 best UjffuncJiees, or armed horsemen, of which his army can 
 
 boast. AsTERAnAD, capital of the above province, lies at 
 
 the foot of the N. slope of the Elbruz range, and on a small 
 stream which falls into Asterabad Bay in the S.E. of the 
 Caspian, about 20 m. below. It has a circuit of about 3 in. ; 
 and is surrounded by a dry ditch and a mud wall, which, 
 though once lofty and flanked by numerous towers, has 
 mouldered down to an earthen mound, on which a low para- 
 
 ASTIIALL, a par. England, co. Oxford; 1180 ac. ; E. 
 by S. Burford. Pop. in 1841, 389. 
 
 ASTI [anc. Asia, or Hasta, Pompcia], a city, Sardinian 
 States, gov. Alessandria, cap. prov. of Asti, 1. bank, Bourbo, 
 near its confluence with the Tanaro, 28 in. E.S.E. Turin. 
 The town is surrounded with decaying walls, formerly cele 
 brated for their 100 towers, although few of them now remain. 
 It is in general badly built, although it contains many noble 
 mansions ; the streets are wide, but little frequented. It is 
 the seat of a bishop, suffragan to Turin, has a royal college, a 
 court of justice, a school of jurisprudence, and a theological 
 
 THE CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF ST. MAGDALKNK, AOTL 
 From Ohnpuy, Oathedrulen. 
 
 The original catli- 
 
 seminary, a rich, picturesque buildi 
 cdral fell in 1323, and was replaced shortly thereafter by tho 
 present fine venerable Gothic building, in which are numerous 
 fine paintings. Besides the cathedral, there are other three 
 
ASTLEY 
 
 235 
 
 ASTRAKHAN 
 
 fine churches in Asti, which moreover possesses a printing- 
 office, carried on continuously since its establishment in 1479. 
 There are likewise, in the town, several mills for spinning 
 silk, and several silk manufactories ; but it has otherwise little 
 trade, and no great appearance of prosperity. The vineyards 
 in the vicinity supply the best wines produced in Piedmont, 
 and a considerable trade is carried on in them. Alfieri was 
 bora here in the year 1749 (January 17). Asti is a town 
 of high antiquity, having been in existence long previous to 
 B,C. 400, when it was devastated by the Gauls. It subse 
 quently formed alliance with the Romans, and was afterwards 
 again destroyed by the Gauls, but was rebuilt by Pompey the 
 Great. After a series of vicissitudes, extending through 
 many centuries, and including many sanguinary visitations, 
 it fell into the hands of the French, with whom it remained 
 till about the middle of the 16th century, when it passed into 
 the hands of the Duke of Savoy, to whose dominions it is still 
 
 attached. Pop. 20,000. The PROVINCE, one of the six 
 
 intendenze or subdivisions of Alessandria, is bounded, W. and 
 N. by prov. Turin, S. by Alba, S.E. by Alessandria Proper, 
 and N.E. by prov. Cassali. It is hilly, but fertile, and is 
 celebrated for a sparkling white wine, resembling champagne, 
 called vino d Asti. It produces, likewise, corn and fruits in 
 great abundance ; also, excellent silk, mulberries being culti 
 vated to a great extent for feeding the silkworms. Pop. 
 118,709. 
 
 ASTLEY, the name of three parishes in England: 
 1, Co. Warwick ; 2550 ac. ; on the Sow brook, E. Leigh ; 
 ancient chapel ; remains of Astley Castle here. Pop. in 1841 , 
 371. 2, Co. Worcester; 3310 ac.; S. Bewdley, on a tributary 
 of the Severn. Pop. in 1841, 834. 3, Astley [Abbots], co. 
 Salop ; 3330 ac. ; N. Bridgeworth. Pop. in 1841, 657. 
 
 ASTON, a tn. and par. England, co. Warwick. The 
 town is 2 m. N.E. by E. Birmingham, and 95 m. by railway 
 from Liverpool. The parish contains three churches, and 
 several dissenting chapels, with attached Sunday-schools, in 
 fant and national schools, alms houses, and a large union work 
 house. The Birmingham and Fazely Canal passes here, and 
 is crossed by the Grand Junction Railway, on a viaduct of 
 10 arches. The inhabitants, of whom there were 45,720 in 
 1841, are chiefly employed in various branches of the hard 
 ware and Birmingham toy manufactures ; and there are like 
 wise some small silk and cotton-mills.- -AsxoN is also the 
 
 name of several hamlets in many parts of England. 
 
 ASTON, the name of numerous parishes in England : 
 1, Co. Hereford ; 1098 ac.; S.W. Ludlow. Pop. in 1841, 52. 
 2, Co. Herts; 1990 ac.; S.E. Stevenage. Pop. in 1841, 
 556. 3, Co. York, W. Riding; 2870 ac.; S. Rotherham. 
 Pop. in 1841, 763. 4, Aston (Abbots), co. Bucks; 2180 ac. ; 
 N.N.E. Aylesbury. Pop. in 1841, 356. 5, Aston (Blank), 
 co. Gloucester; 2250 ac.; N.E. Northleach. Pop. in 1841, 
 302. 6, Aston (BottereU), co. Salop; 3000 ac.; S.W. Bridge- 
 north, on a branch of the Rea. Pop. in 1841, 173. 7, Aston 
 (Cantlow), co. Warwick; 4300 ac.; N.E. Aleester, E. of the 
 Stratford-on-Avon Canal. Pop. in 1841, 1089. 8, Aston 
 (Clinton), co. Bucks; 3640 ac.; E. Tring. Pop. in 1841, 
 1025. 9, Aston, or Ashton-sub-Edge, co. Gloucester; 850 ac.; 
 S.E. Evesham. Pop. in 1841, 134. 10, Aston (Flammlle), 
 a par. and township, co. Leicester; 4670 ac.; E.N.E. Hinkley. 
 Pop. in 1841, 1909. 11, Aston (Inyham), co. Hereford; 2300 
 ac. ; N.E. Mitcheldean. Pop. in 1841, 621. 12, Aston (North), 
 co. Oxford; 1230 ae.; S.E. Deddington, E. of the river Cher- 
 well. Pop. in 1841, 289. 13, Aston (Kowant), co. Oxford ; 
 2980 ac.; N.E. Tetsworth. Pop. in 1841, 885. 14, Aston 
 (S.indford), co. Bucks; 650 ac. ; E.N.E. Thame. Pop. in 
 1841, 86. 15, Aston (Somerville), co. Gloucester; 1320 ac.; 
 S. by E. Evesham, on the river Avon. Pop. in 1841, 89. 
 16, Aston (Steeple), co. Oxford; 1870 ac.; S. by E. Dedding 
 ton. Pop. in 1841, 580. 17, Aston (Tirrold), co. Berks; 
 2030 ac.; S.W. Wallingford. Pop. in 1841, 343. 18, Aston- 
 iipon- Trent, co. Derby; 3290 ac. ; S.E. by S. Derby. Pop. 
 in 1841, 1952. 
 
 ASTORGA [anc. Asturica Augusta], a city, Spain, prov. 
 of, and 30 m. W. by S. Leon ; on a plain, 2 m. from the 
 r. bank of the Tuento, 2500 ft. above the sea level. This 
 city, surrounded by ancient walls, flanked with numerous 
 semicircular towers, and described, by Pliny, as magnificent 
 in ancient times, was the scene of various military operations 
 in the peninsular war ; and its fortifications were dismantled 
 
 by the French in 1812. It has a noble Gothic cathedral, 
 built in 1471, with a splendid screen, by Gasper Becerra ; four 
 parish churches, town and courthouses, several schools, an 
 hospital, some convents, and the remains of a palace of the 
 Osorio family, to which Astorga gives the title of Marquis. 
 In the neighbourhood of the town is the small lake of San- 
 abria, which abounds with fish, and has in the middle a rock 
 on which stands the old castle of the Counts of Benavente. 
 Astorga is the capital of the country of the Maragatos, a tract 
 which occupies about 69 sq. m. S.E. of the mountain Telleno. 
 The Maragatos follow the occupations of muleteers and car 
 riers, and monopolize nearly all the transit trade between 
 Galicia and the Castiles ; their own land, which is rocky and 
 stubborn, being cultivated entirely by the females. They 
 are a strong-built, grave people, and remarkable for scrupu 
 lous honesty. Whatever is intrusted to them is conveyed to 
 its destination in the most perfect security ; while their char 
 acter for intrepidity is such, that few robbers care to attack 
 them. They value their services, however, at a high rate, 
 and thus often acquire considerable wealth. They have their 
 own peculiar dialect, customs, and dress, and never inter 
 marry with other tribes. Pop. of Astorga, 2850. (Madoz; 
 Murray s Handbook; &c.) 
 
 ASTORIA, a small trading port and fort, Oregon, on the 
 Columbia River, about 8 m. from its junction with the Pacific. 
 It was established in 1811, by John Jacob Astor, of New 
 York, after whom it has been named. It is now called Fort 
 George, and is occupied by the Hudson s Bay Company, 
 who, however, pay little regard to it, having abandoned the 
 idea of improving it as a port, and, in consequence, removed 
 their principal seat of operations to Vancouver, 80 m. further 
 up the river. Though formerly a stirring and considerable 
 place, it now consists of a few log-houses only, with some 
 sheds and pig-styes, and presents, in all respects, an appear 
 ance of rapid decay. The Columbia River, opposite to Astoria, 
 is 4 m. wide, but is obstructed by an extensive sand bar, on 
 which there is only a few feet water. The situation of the 
 port is very beautiful, being surrounded with hills and forests, 
 and presenting wide expanses of luxuriant sward covered with 
 white clover. In the pine forests, in the rear of Astoria, some 
 of the largest trees perhaps in the world are to be found, mea 
 suring, many of them, from 40 to between 50 and 60 ft. in 
 circumference, and from 200 to 300 ft. in height, with a bark 
 of 10 to 12 inches in thickness (17. States Exploring Ex 
 pedition.) 
 
 ASTRABAD. See ASTERABAD. 
 
 ASTRAKHAN, a gov. Russia in Europe, N.W. coast, 
 Caspian Sea, between lat. 44 40 and 49 45 N. ; Ion. 43 5 and 
 51 5 E., having the Maloi Uzen for its N.E. boundary, and 
 the Manitch for its S.W. It is divided into two nearly equal 
 parts by the Volga, which traverses it from N.W. to S.E. 
 Its coast line, excluding minute sinuosities, is about 520 m. 
 in length, and is crowded throughout its whole extent with 
 small islands, rocks, and shifting sand-banks. The entire length 
 of the province is 370 m., its greatest breadth 250. Area 
 83,000 sq. m., or 51,480,000 English ac. It consists almost 
 wholly of two vast steppes or plains, separated from each other 
 by the Volga, the greater portions of which are arid sterile 
 desert. The largest tracts of this description are the deserts 
 of Naryn and Sedok, the former, in which occur hills of mov 
 ing sand, on the N.E. side of the Volga, the other on the S.W. 
 The whole of Astrakhan was at one period submerged by the 
 Caspian, as is evident from the saline nature of the soil, and 
 the shells it contains ; and as both are upwards of 80 ft. below 
 the level of the sea of Azof, should any convulsion of nature 
 cause a depression of the intervening land, Astrakhan would 
 again be overwhelmed by the ocean. The soil consists gener 
 ally of mud, salt, and sand, intermixed, and in some parts of 
 extensive salt marshes, rendering it almost wholly one wide 
 and sterile waste, destitute of wood ; the few trees it has to 
 boast of being met with on the banks of its rivers only. These 
 are oaks, poplars, birches, and some mulberry trees, the latter 
 of which are found in greatest numbers along the Aktuba. 
 Notwithstanding the general sterility of the country, a few 
 fertile tracts are met with on the skirts and delta of the Volga, 
 including some excellent pastures. Here corn is grown, but 
 not in sufficient quantity to maintain the population, with 
 some fruits, herbs, vines, tobacco, and cotton. 
 
 Salt lakes and pools are numerous throughout the province, 
 
ASTRAKHAN 
 
 236 
 
 ASTUDILLO 
 
 the largest of the former, Baskutchatsk, is situated to the K. 
 of the Volga, and is about 12 m in length and 5 in breadth. 
 When evaporated in summer, these lakes and pools leave thick 
 crusts of culinary, and, in some cases, Epsom salt. In this 
 district, low hills of gypsum and rock-salt also occur ; the 
 former vary in size and elevation, the highest rising about 
 60 ft. above the level of the steppe ; they are mostly of semi 
 circular form, and many of them are crater-shaped at the top. 
 The salt hills rise to about the same height, and contain gem- 
 salt, above which is sandstone, and over that the common 
 yellow sand of the steppe. The salt is colourless, firm, and 
 contains clear and perfectly transparent cubes. 
 
 The principal rivers of Astrakhan are the Volga (tohich see], 
 the Aktuba, which runs parallel to it at the distance of 2 or 
 3 m., and the Sarpa. The Kuma, which once formed a part 
 of the S. boundary of the province, does not now reach the 
 Caspian Sea, being absorbed by the sands 60 m. inland. The 
 climate is extremely hot in summer, and equally cold in 
 winter, and is unhealthy to all but natives, from the quantity 
 of saline particles with which the atmosphere is impregnated. 
 Pasturage and fishing constitute the principal occupation of 
 the inhabitants ; the former of the rural and nomadic tribes ; 
 the latter of the population on the coast and banks of the 
 Volga. The live stock consists chiefly of sheep of the broad- 
 tailed breed. Cattle and goats are also reared, the latter 
 principally for their skins, from which morocco leather is 
 made. The breeding of horses likewise obtains some at 
 tention, but they are diminutive and ill-conditioned. The 
 fisheries of the Volga are of great value, no stream in the 
 world being more abundantly stocked with fish, particularly 
 between the city of Astrakhan and the Caspian, a distance of 
 about 25 to 30 m.* On this ground, an immense number of 
 vessels and boats, and many thousand persons, are employed 
 in spring, autumn, and winter, in taking fish, chiefly sturgeon, 
 from the roes and bladders of which large quantities of isin 
 glass and caviar are manufactured. The population is com 
 posed of a great variety of races, including Russians, Cossacks, 
 Tartars, Kalmuks, Indians, Persians, Armenians, &c. The 
 most numerous are the Kalmuks, who occupy large tracts to 
 the E. of the Volga. They are a mild and intelligent people, 
 but addicted, it has been said, to dishonesty. Astrakhan is 
 politically divided into four circies Astrakhan, Krasno-Yarsk, 
 Yenotayewsk, and Tsherno-Yarsk. The population of the 
 government in 1850 was 290,000. 
 
 ASTRAKHAN, a city, Eussia, cap. of above gov., on an 
 elevated island in the Volga, about 30 m. from its embouchure 
 in the Caspian Sea ; lat. 46 25 N. ; Ion. 48 E. It is 
 irregularly built, streets crooked, mostly unpaved and dirty, 
 being covered with mud in winter, and with sand in summer. 
 Some of the houses are of brick or sandstone, but by far the 
 greater number are of wood. Of streets, there are altogether 
 146 ; squares or public areas, 46 ; market-places, 8 ; 1 1 wooden 
 and 9 earthen bridges. In the upper part of the town stands 
 the cathedral, from the towers of which, says Dr. Gaebel, a 
 fine view of the city is obtained, with its broad streets and 
 canals bordered by trees, the haven covered with ships, and 
 of the broad majestic Volga, with its beautiful green islands. 
 The cathedral is in the form of a parallelogram, with four 
 small gilt and painted cupolas on the roof, and a large one in 
 the centre, for the admission of light. Its walls inside are 
 hung with coarsely-painted pictures, set in costly frames, 
 mostly of silver filagrane work. There are, besides, 31 stone 
 and three wooden churches, and fifteen mosques ; many of 
 the former richly ornamented and gaudily furnished. The 
 other public buildings of note are the archiepiscopal palace, 
 the Government-offices, and the three factory halls for the 
 Russian, Asiatic, and Hindoo dealers or merchants. An 
 interesting architectural antiquity is a small disused Moresco 
 church, in the fort of Peter the Great, said to have been built 
 by order of Joan IV. Astrakhan is the seat of a Greek and 
 Armenian ecclesiastical eparchy, also of Greek and Armenian 
 archbishoprics. It contains a high court of civil and criminal 
 jurisdiction ; also a Greek theological seminary, a botanic 
 garden, a gymnasium, and upwards of 20 superior and ordi 
 nary schools, with about 1000 scholars of all ranks. The 
 manufactures are inconsiderable, not giving employment to 
 more than 200 work-people; they comprise silks, cottons, 
 
 Dr. Gicbel says 85 vcrsls, or 5Cf miles. 
 
 woollens, shagreen skins, morocco leather, and soap. The 
 fisheries form the staple trade of the city, immense quantities 
 of fish, caviar, and isinglass, being exported to foreign 
 countries. In the fishing seasons, from 20,000 to 30,000 
 persons connected with the fisheries resort to the city. The 
 haven of Astrakhan is now so sanded up as to leave only 
 6 ft. depth of water; so that large vessels have to land their 
 cargoes on an island nearer the Caspian. A few steam tug 
 
 boats are employed in taking vessels up and down the river. 
 In 1846 three iron steamers were started, to ply between 
 Astrakhan and the other ports of the Caspian. Previous to 
 that period, there was but one steamer on the Volga, and 
 it was of only 40 horse power. 
 
 Fresh water being scarce in the city, some attempts were 
 lately made to obtain an increased supply by Artesian wells, 
 but none was found at a depth of 400 ft. From some of the 
 borings, however, there issued streams of carbonic hydrogen 
 gas, which readily burnt with a clear flame. The population, 
 as in the case of the province generally, consists of various 
 races ; but most of the trade of the place is in the hands of 
 the Tartars and Armenians ; the latter of whom are also the 
 chief cultivators of the land in the vicinity. The city was 
 once fortified in the Oriental manner ; and many vestiges of 
 Tartar residence are met with in the neighbourhood, including 
 numerous graves, the stones of which have been taken by tho 
 inhabitants to form ovens. Several of the old embattled 
 towers, and portions of dilapidated walls, still remain. In 
 summer, when the thermometer seldom falls below 98 in the 
 day-time, the air is filled with gnats and other small insects, 
 which are a source of much annoyance. The resident pop. 
 of the tn. in 1842, was 45,703. 
 
 ASTROS, or ASTRO, a tn. and haven, Greece, in tho 
 Morea, 20 m. S.E. Tripolitza, W. shore of the Gulf of Nauplia. 
 The second national congress of the Greeks was held here. 
 
 ASTUDILLO, a tn. Spain, in Leon, prov. of, and 22 m. 
 N.N.E. Palencia, in a valley and on the declivity of a small 
 hill. The town is surrounded by a wall entered by five 
 gates ; it contains several squares, in one of which is held an 
 unimportant annual fair ; and its streets are narrow, tortuous, 
 
A1STURA 
 
 237 
 
 ATACAMA 
 
 and badly paved. The public buildings are three parish 
 churches, the principal of which is celebrated for its antique 
 grand altar ; a townhall, prison, convent, two well- attended 
 schools, and an hospital. Its manufactures consists of tan 
 ning, dyeing, cloth weaving, shoe-making, and several other 
 branches. Pop- 4151. (Madoz.) 
 
 ASTURA, a vil. Papal States, 37 m. S.S.E. Rome, at 
 the mouth of a small stream of its own name. It formerly 
 had a haven, and was a place of much greater importance than 
 now. Here Cicero was beheaded ; and here the last of the 
 Hohenstaufens was made prisoner by Charles of Anjou, after 
 the battle of Tagliacozzo, in 1268. Near it, on the coast, are 
 the ruins of a small castle. Pop. 250. 
 
 A8TURIAS, an anc. division of Spain, now prov. Ovicdo 
 (which see], formerly the kingdom of Asturia, and the only 
 part unconquered by the Moors. It was inhabited by a race 
 who maintained their independence against the Carthaginians, 
 but were subdued by the Komans in the time of Augustus. 
 After the fall of the Roman empire, Spain was overrun by the 
 Goths and Vandals, who were opposed by the Asturians with 
 a courage that long resisted all their efforts, but they were at 
 last compelled to yield. Upon the Moorish invasion, at the 
 beginning of the eighth century, the mountains of Asturia 
 again became the refuge of those who still struggled against 
 them ; Pelayo was elected king, and shortly after defeated the 
 Moors at Covadonga, in a battle which may be considered as 
 the inauguration of the sanguinary struggle which lasted for 
 eight centuries, and ended in the final expulsion of the Moors. 
 In 1388, it became a principality, and was appointed appanage 
 of the heir to the Spanish throne, who also has the title of 
 Prince of Asturias. A remarkable security of person and 
 property has long existed in this country ; and one consequence 
 is, that the peasantry, instead of congregating in walled towns 
 for protection, live in small farms, and often own the land which 
 they cultivate. They are generally of kind and civil disposi 
 tions, especially the women, who are gentle and attentive to 
 strangers ; of sober and industrious habits, and proverbial for 
 their honesty and fidelity. They are, however, great boasters, 
 and, during the peninsular war, afforded many instances of the 
 common association of much talk with little work. Notwith 
 standing, too, their proverbial honesty, they have been accused 
 of gross misapplication of the money sent from England in 
 support of the Spanish cause. The costume of the lower 
 classes resembles that of the Swiss ; the females, when dressed 
 in their best, wear boddices of yellow or green, laced in front 
 with gold ornaments, and coral necklaces. Dark-coloured 
 serges are also in great vogue, which, with black mantles or 
 dengues, are thrown over the head. The men generally wear 
 white felt caps, turned up with green. The patois spoken by 
 the peasantry differs from the Galieian, and is called Bable. 
 Travelling in Asturias is performed on mule or horseback, the 
 roads being impassable to carriages. 
 
 ASTWICK, a par. England, co. Bedford; 570 ac. ; S.S.W. 
 Biggleswade. Pop. in 1841, 84. 
 
 ASTWOOD, a par. England, co. Bucks; 1300 ac. ; N.N.E. 
 Newport Pagnell. The female population are employed in 
 the manufacture of lace. The church is an ancient structure, 
 with a square tower ; it contains a handsome Norman font, 
 and some curious and interesting monuments. Pop. in 1841. 
 243. 
 
 ASUAY, or ASSUAY, a dep. Ecuador ; bounded, N. by 
 dep. Ecuador, W. by dep. Guayaquil and Peru, S. by Peru, 
 and E. by Brazil ; length, W. to E., about 644 m. ; breadth, 
 N. to S., about 276 m. It lies on the E. slope, and to the E. 
 of the Andes, and stretches E. over the immeasurable plains 
 of the Maranon to the Orinoco and the confines of Brazil. 
 The whole of its W. part is covered by the paramo or desert 
 of Asuay, whence the department is named. This paramo 
 is a desert mass of mountains running E. and W., joining the 
 two N. and S. parallel ranges of mountains, and forms the S. 
 boundary of the plateau of Quito. It consists of porphyry, 
 mica-slate, and other primitive rocks ; and attains an elevation 
 of about 13,000 to 15,500 ft. The department is watered by 
 numerous streams, all affluents of the Maranon. The climate 
 varies with the elevation, from very hot to very cold ; conse 
 quently the vegetable productions are equally varied ; par 
 taking of the nature of those both of the torrid and temperate 
 zones. In the warmer localities, sugar-cane, maize, indigo, 
 tobacco, yams, batattas, bananas, &c., are raised ; and in 
 
 the colder localities, the crops are wheat, barley, rye, flax, 
 lucerne, potatoes, and all kinds of European vegetables. The 
 rearing of cattle, horses, asses, and mules, and above all, 
 sheep, is vigorously pursued. The department exports salted 
 flesh, butter, cheese, wax, beasts of burden, cattle, agricul 
 tural produce, and small quantities of cloths of various de 
 scriptions. It imports European goods of all kinds, cloths, 
 stockings, linen, &c. ; wine, brandy, oil, and dried fruits. It 
 is divided into the provinces of Cuenca, Loxa, and Jacn 
 de Bracamoros. Pop. in 1827, 110,894. (Guthsmuth, 
 Colombia.} 
 
 ASUNCION. See ASSUMPTION. 
 
 ASWARBY, a par. England, co. Lincoln ; 1940 ac. ; N. 
 by W. Folkingham. The church is a handsome building, in 
 the pointed style. Pop. in 1841, 119. 
 
 ASWARDBY, a par. England, co. Lincoln ; 650 ac. ; 
 N.W. Spilsby. Pop. in 1841, 92. 
 
 ASWATADA ISLANDS, Mozambique Channel. See 
 QUERIMBA ISLANDS. 
 
 ASYN KALE [anc. Jasus], a tn. Asiatic Turkey, at 
 the head of the bay of same name, W. coast, pash. Anatolia; 
 lat. 37 15 N. ; Ion. 27 42 E. The ancient city occupied a 
 rocky islet, about 1 J m. in circuit, now united to the continent 
 by an isthmus. The N. side of the rock is abrupt and inac 
 cessible, and the summit is occupied by a fortress. Here 
 are remains of a theatre, temples, and other buildings, with 
 ancient inscriptions, one of which is of the age of Alexander 
 the Great. The peninsula terminates in a flat point of land, 
 with a small square fort at the extremity. 
 
 ASYR. See Asm. 
 
 ASZALO, a market tn. Hungary, tbis side the Theiss, 
 1. bank, Hernad, 3 m. N.E. Szisko, in a valley. Pop. 1781. 
 
 ASZOD. a market tn. Hungary, co. and 23 m. N.E. Pesth, 
 on the Galga. It is well built, and has a R. Catholic, and a 
 Protestant church, and a synagogue ; manufactures of cloaks, 
 lined with sheep-skins, dyed blue and green ; and a consider 
 able trade in corn and wine. Pop. 2470. 
 
 ATABAPO, a considerable river, Venezuela. It rises in 
 lat. 3 10 N.; Ion. 66 40 W., whence it flows nearly due W. 
 for about 70 m. or 80 m. ; then turning N. falls into the 
 Orinoco at San-Fernando; lat. 4 N. ; Ion. 68 10 W., nearly 
 at the same point where the latter river is joined by the 
 Guaviare and Juirula. Total course, about 140 m. The 
 waters of the Atabapo are dark, clear, agreeable to the taste, 
 and singularly cool ; and so great is their transparency, that 
 the smallest fishes are distinguishable at the depth of 20 ft. or 
 30 ft.: and the bottom, which consists of white quartzy sand, is 
 usually visible. There are no crocodiles in this river, but 
 water-snakes are numerous, as are also bavas and fresh-water 
 dolphins. The banks of the stream are also free from mos 
 quitoes, and other troublesome insects. 
 
 ATACAMA, a large, thinly-peopled, sterile tract of 
 country, forming the N. portion of Chili, and S. portion 
 of Bolivia. No exact boundary line is fixed. The Chilians 
 claim as far as the Bay of Mexillanes, lat. 22 S. ; and tho 
 territory thence to the port of Huasco, lat. 28 S., with the 
 Andes tor the E., and the Pacific for the W. boundary, con 
 stitutes the present Chilian province of Atacama. 
 
 Its capital is Copiapo (which see); and it also contains the 
 towns of Vallenar and Freirina, heads of departments of 
 same names. In this province are found the richest silver- 
 mines in Chili, principally in the districts of Chanarcillo and 
 Tres Puntas. In the latter, discovered a few years back, 
 large masses of native silver are frequently found at the 
 depth of 1000 ft. or 1500 ft., weighing half a ton and up 
 wards, and the country is everywhere rich in metallic de 
 posits. The annual products of the mines amount to about 
 one million sterling; and from the frequent discovery of 
 new mines, are rapidly on the increase. Next to silver, 
 copper is the most abundant metal, and a considerable quan 
 tity of copper-ore is annually exported, chiefly to England. 
 From the dry, arid nature of the country, agricultural pursuits 
 are limited; yet a little cultivation exists on the banks of the 
 rivers, and wherever irrigation is to be had. 
 
 A railway has lately been opened between the capital of 
 the province and Caldera, one of the three ports in the pro 
 vince, the others being Huasco, and Chauaral. The principal 
 rivers are, the Copiapo, the Salado, Juncal, and Chanaral ; 
 all of them form safe anchorages at their mouths ; but all of 
 
ATACAMES 
 
 ATECA 
 
 them having short courses, contain so little water that they 
 are nearly dry in the summer. Top. (1847), 25,103. 
 
 THE BOLIVIAN PROVINCE OF ATACAMA embraces the sea 
 board of the country, bounded, S"! by Chilian Atacama, N. by 
 the river Loa, which separates it from Peru; E. by the 
 Andes; W. by the Pacific. The country throughout is a 
 complete desert, without water or vegetation ; and the lower 
 grounds on the coast, which are within the rainless district 
 of S. America, consist of wide plains, with a dark-brown 
 movable sand. It is said that in this desert the ancient Peru 
 vians were accustomed to bury their dead, the dryness of the 
 climate preserving them from decay for a long period. Some 
 copper-mines are worked in the vicinity of the port (Cobija) ; 
 gold in small quantities is found on the banks of the rivers. 
 Guano formerly existed in this province, but the deposits are 
 now well nigh exhausted. In this prov., lat. 21 35 S.; Ion. 
 69 15 W., lies the Volcano of Atacama (18,000 ft.), one of the 
 most S. peaks of the Bolivian Andes. The only town is Cobija. 
 
 ATAC A M ES, a small seaport tn. Ecuador ; lat. 53 S. ; 
 Ion. 79 40 W. (K.); 15 m. S.VV. Esmeraldas. 
 
 ATALAIA, a tn. and par. Portugal, prov. Beira Baixa, 
 7 in. S. Thomar. It has an important annual fair. P. 2200. 
 
 ATALANTI. See TALASTI. 
 
 ATALAYA, a small tn. Brazil, prov. of, and about 20 m. 
 S.E. Alagoas, and close upon the banks of the estuary formed 
 by the rivers Alagoas and Itinga. It contains a church, a 
 townhouse, and a prison. Its inhabitants carry on some trade 
 with Bahiaand Pemambuco in ipecacuan, cotton, tobacco, and 
 sugar, all produced in the district. Pop. of tn. and dist. 2000. 
 
 ATAKAIPU [the Devil s Bock], a remarkable isolated 
 pyramidal granitic peak in British Guiana; lat. 2 55 N.; 
 Ion. 58 48 \V. It rises from a plateau between the upper 
 waters of the rivers Guidaru and Kupununi, and from amidst 
 a dense mass of foliage, which spreads around it in all direc 
 tions, to a height of 900 ft. above the former river, and 1300 ft. 
 above the sea. For 350 ft. above its base, the mountain is 
 wooded, and for 550 ft. more it rises in a pyramidal form, desti 
 tute of vegetation, forming a striking contrast to the luxuriant 
 growth at the base, and in all the surrounding country. There 
 being no heights so elevated as Ataraipu for a considerable 
 distance in every direction, renders the appearance of this 
 natural pyramid all the more curious. (Schomburgk.) 
 
 ATAUN, a tn. Spain, in Biscay, prov. Guipuzcoa, 18 m. 
 S.W. Tolosa ; in a valley, r. bank, Agaunza, surrounded by 
 mountains. In the centre of the town is a square, containing 
 the parish church and townhouse. The produce of the vicinity 
 consists of grain, fruits, vegetables, and wood for charcoal ; 
 - and the river yields fish of various kinds. Pop. 21 64. 
 
 ATAWAL [for Altwal, the Long Island], an isl. Arabia, 
 N. part of the Red Sea. It contains a large fishing village of 
 the same name. 
 
 ATBARA, a territory and river, Nubia ; the former some 
 times called the island of Meroe, from its being partially in- 
 Kiilated by the river Atbara on the N.E., the Ba.hr -el-Azrek 
 on the W. and S.W., and the Nile on the N.W. Linant 
 describes it as a very flat country, with mountains scattered 
 here and there like stones placed on a floor ; the surface, for 
 the most part, thickly covered with trees and grass; but in 
 some places entirely destitute of vegetation. The inhabitants 
 are Bisharee Arabs, a handsome and bold race of people ; the 
 women of slender and elegant form, with dark brown com 
 plexions, beautiful eyes, and fine teeth. The men go con 
 stantly armed, and are frequently engaged in quarrels, being, 
 according to Burckhardt, cruel, avaricious, revengeful, and 
 inhospitable. The cattle of this territory are of a superior 
 description, and very numerous. The river Atbara, one of 
 the principal affluents of the Nile, is formed by the united 
 streams of Tokoor, Ohha, and Guangue, and those of the Te- 
 cazze and Augrab, all having their sources in Abyssinia. 
 The two former uniting at lat. 14 15 N. ; Ion. 36 28 E. ; 
 the two latter at lat. 48 11 N. ; Ion. 36 46 E. ; and the con 
 joined streams that form the Atbara, meeting near Sofie, in 
 lat 14 40 N. ; Ion. 36 25 E. ; thence flowing in a N.W. 
 direction, and subsequently falling into the Nile at Adamer; 
 lat. 17 38 N. ; Ion. 34 8 E. The whole course of the At 
 bara from Sofie, the point of its formation, to Adamer, where 
 it joins the Nile, is about 270 m. Burckhardt thus describes 
 the appearance of its banks : After a march of three hours 
 among sandy plains, we came in sight of the river Atbara, 
 
 and entered the groves of trees with which it is lined. The 
 luxuriant vegetation which now surrounded us, filled with 
 easure even the stony hearts of the slave-traders. Amongst 
 the trees were different species of the mimosa, doum trees of the 
 largest size, whose luxuriant clusters of fruit excited the wishes 
 of the slaves ; the nebek tree, with its fruit ripe ; the allobd, 
 and a number of others, with an abundance of wild herbage, 
 growing on a rich fat soil, similar to that of Egypt. At 
 those parts of the river visited by Burckhardt, the banks were 
 not more than 25 ft. high, and from 400 to 500 paces apart ; 
 and the current so slow as to be hardly perceptible. During 
 high water, crocodiles are found in the river, but no hippo 
 potami. (Burckhardt s Travels in Nubia.) 
 
 ATCHA, ATCIIU, ATCHAJI, ATCHAK, or ATSCHAK, an 
 Aleutian isl. Andrcnovian group, lat. 52 31 N.; Ion. 173 40 
 W. (R.), about 75 m. long, by about 10 m. broad. At its E. 
 point is a harbour, near which is a volcano that throws out a 
 considerable quantity of sulphur, and at the foot of which 
 there is a hot spring. Pop. 50 or 60. (Hitter s Lex.) 
 
 ATC1IAFALAYA, a river, U. States, an outlet of the 
 Mississippi, which it leaves on the r. bank, about 2 m. below 
 the confluence of the Red River. It flows very irregularly 
 for about 150 m., forming the W. boundary of the Missis 
 sippi delta, and enters a bay of its own name in the Gulf 
 of Mexico, in lat. 29 20 N.; Ion. 91 20 W. Its naviga 
 tion, however, is greatly impeded by masses of floating trees, 
 called rafts, which have been arrested in their progress 
 by snags, islands, shoals, and other obstructions, and made 
 to accumulate, so as to form natural bridges reaching entirely 
 across the stream. One of these rafts, which was cleared 
 away in 1839, after four years labour, and which had taken 
 38 years to accumulate, consisted of a mass 10m. in length, 
 220 yards wide, and 8 ft. deep. It was covered with beauti 
 ful flower-bushes and trees, some of the latter of which had 
 grown to a height of about 60 ft. A floating light-vessel has 
 been lately placed in the bay, for the guidance of vessels. 
 
 ATCHAM, a par. England, co. Salop; 3490 ac. ; S.E. 
 Shrewsbury. Pop. in 1841, 513. 
 
 ATCHEEN. Sec ACHEEN. 
 
 ATCHERA, a considerable tn. Hindoostan, S. Concan or 
 P.hoonslah country, 46 m. N. Goa; lat. 16 C 11 N.; Ion. 
 73 37 E. It was formerly a place of great reputed sanctity, 
 and a notorious depot for goods obtained by piracy. It was 
 captured by the British in 1818. (Hamilton s Vzs< India Gaz. t 
 
 ATCHINSK, or ACHINSK.!, A tn. Siberia, gov. Yen 
 iseisk. 75 m. W. Krasnoyarsk; pleasantly situated in a hilly 
 fertile country, r. bank, Tchulym or Chuluim, an affluent of 
 the Obi ; lat. 56 49 N. ; Ion. 57 50 E. It has two churches ; 
 and the exterior of the houses is in general remarkably hand 
 some. The district around is fertile in gram, and has brim- 
 springs, producing a considerable quantity of salt. Pop. 
 
 2000. 2, A tn. Russia, gov. Perm, and in the vicinity of 
 
 the city of that name. It is uiie of the mining localities of the 
 Government, where a considerable quantity of copper ore was 
 wont to be produced. The miners inhabit a little village, in 
 a fertile dell, close to the pits. 
 
 ATCHUJEFP, ATCHUCK, or ATCIIU, an isl. on the E. 
 shore of the Sea of Azof, in the Strait of Enikale, a little to 
 the N.E. of Taman, near the mouths of the Kuban, about 
 lat. 45 15 N. ; Ion. 36 40 E. ; and comprised in the Rus 
 sian government of Taurida. It is mountainous, and full of 
 swamps and morasses ; contains a castle and a port, and a 
 small town called Cozadji. The inhabitants, who are Cos 
 sacks of the Black Sea, follow the occupation of fishing, and 
 send large quantities of sturgeons in a dried state, caviar, 
 fish-fat, and isinglass, to Constantinople. 
 
 ATECA, a tn. Spain, in Aragon, prov. Saragossa, 5 m. 
 W. by S. Calatayud, on the high road from Madrid to Sara 
 gossa. It lies on the Jalon, at its confluence with the Piedra 
 and Manubles, in a damp position, in consequence of which 
 the inhabitants are much subject to ague. The Jalon, here 
 crossed by a handsome stone bridge, divides the town into two 
 nearly equal parts, the smaller of which, on the N.W. bank 
 of the river, contains the better streets. Ateca has six squares, 
 an ancient parish church, two chapels, guildhall, hospital, and 
 three schools. The inhabitants are employed in agriculture, 
 weaving, fishing, the manufacture of fire-arms, locks, tallow, 
 and wax ; and they do a little trade in cotton fabrics, hard 
 ware, tallow, fish, &c. Pop. 3600. 
 
ATEF 
 
 ATHELNEY 
 
 ATEF (EL-), a tn., N. Africa, in the Sahara, half a mile 
 S. Beni-Isguen ; lat. 32 28 N.; Ion. 2 18 E. It is walled, 
 has two gates, and is composed of 500 to GOO houses, including 
 six mosques. Here is a trade in grain, &c. 
 
 ATEGEKAT, or ADEGKAT, a tn. Abyssinia, kingdom, 
 Tigre, cap. prov. Agame, 50 m. N.N. W. Antalo, on an eleva 
 tion 8180 ft. above sea level. It contains a royal residence, 
 a large plain structure, and 2200 inhabitants. 
 
 ATELLA, a tn. Naples, prov. Basilicata, clist. of, and 
 6 m. 8. Melfi, on a river of its own name, an affluent of the 
 Ofanto. 
 
 ATENA, a vil. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, 45 m. 
 S.E. Salerno. Pop. 3400. 
 
 ATEKNO, or PESCARA [anc. Aternus], a river, Naples, 
 separating the two Abruzzi ; rising in Mount Reale, and run 
 ning past Aquila S.E., and then N.E. from Popoli, into the 
 Adriatic Sea, near Pescara, in lat. 42 26 N. ; Ion. 14 15 E., 
 after a course of about 84 in. 
 
 ATESCH-JAH, ATESCHGAU, ATESHGA, or ATASIIKUDDA 
 [The Place of Fire], a spot on the peninsula of Apsheron, on 
 the W. coast of the Caspian Sea, the object of numerous 
 pilgrimages by the Guebers, who regard it as sacred, and 
 worship the tire which issues from it by the ignition of the 
 naphtha, with which the soil is thoroughly impregnated. The 
 Atesch- Jah is about 1 m. in diameter, and, from its centre, 
 when the weather is dry, emits a yellowish blue flame visible 
 by day, but of course, much increased in intensity during 
 night. A number of cottages are erected in the neighbour 
 hood, and the inhabitants, by several simple devices, apply 
 the light to economical purposes. To prevent the escape of 
 the naphtha vapour, they cover their floors with about a foot 
 of loam, leaving small holes which they can open or shut at 
 pleasure. To kindle a fire, they have only to open a hole and 
 hold a light over it, when a continuous flame is immediately 
 obtained. An opening of 2 inches, has been known to give a 
 flame of about 4 ft. To regulate the flame, a hollow reed of 
 the size required, and previously coated with lime, by the 
 transmission of lime-water, to prevent it from being consumed, 
 is placed in the aperture. The vapour is perceptible, and 
 hence, though botii light and heat are obtained for nothing, 
 the probability is, that, being prejudicial to health, they are 
 dearly purchased. 
 
 ATESHGA. See ATESCII - JAII. 
 
 ATESSA, a tn. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Citra, di.st. of, and 
 12 m. W.S.W. Vasto d Ammone. It has a beautiful collegiate 
 church, four parish churches, several convents, an hospital, 
 and three mouts-de-pUU. Pop. 7526. 
 
 ATFEH, a vil. Lower Egypt, 1. bank, W. branch of the 
 Nile, about 14 m. above Rosetta, at the junction of the Mah- 
 moudieh Canal with the Nile, where passengers who have 
 come from Alexandria by the former, and are going either to 
 India or the interior of Egypt, embark in steamers for Cairo, 
 which is about 90 m. distant S.S.E. The voyage by steamer 
 is generally performed in a day and a half; but in a sailing 
 vessel, occupies about three days. The return voyage is 
 accomplished by a steamer in from 12 to 15 hours, having the 
 advantage of the current in descending. The passage by the 
 canal, from Alexandria to Atfeh, is made by track-boats. 
 Thus occupying an important position on the overland route 
 to India, and to Central and Upper Egypt, Atfeh has become 
 a bustling place; and is rendered still more so by an exten 
 sive transit-trade, the canal being constantly lined with vessels 
 loading grain and other cargoes. 
 
 ATFIEH, or ATFEH, a tn. Central Egypt, cap. prov. 
 Atfyh, r. bank, Nile, from which it is about 3 m. distant, and 
 41 m. S. Cairo. It was the capital of the Aphroditopolite 
 nome, and, according to Strabo, noted for the worship of a 
 white cow, the emblem of the goddess Athor, the Egyptian 
 Venus. The Coptic name of the town is Tpch or Petpieh. 
 It contains no monuments. Pop. 4000. 
 
 ATH, a fortified tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, 
 on the Dendre, about 17 m. E. Tournay, on the railway from 
 Tournay to Mons. It contains several churches, an orphan 
 asylum, an hospital, a theatre, and a college. The principal 
 buildings are the Hotel de Ville, built in 1600; the magazines 
 and arsenal; the church of St. Julien, founded in 1393, de 
 stroyed by lightning in 1817, but since rebuilt; and the college, 
 which was founded in 1416, and, with its buildings, covers a 
 considerable space. Among the ancient monuments of the 
 
 town, is a tower called Tour du Burband, supposed to have 
 been founded about the middle of the 12th century. Dyeing, 
 bleaching, and soap-making are carried on here to a con 
 siderable extent. There are also manufactures of gloves, 
 lace, and linen cloths (of which last 25,000 pieces are annually 
 sold in its market), a cotton printfield, a worsted mill, several 
 brandy and gin distilleries, and a considerable trade in hemp, 
 grain, oleaginous seeds, leather, cloth, wine, and colonial pro 
 duce. Ath is famous for its trinkets, which circulated all 
 over France; but the demand is now confined to Belgium, 
 particularly Flanders and Brabant. The defences of the town 
 were originally constructed by Vauban, but have been greatly 
 improved and strengthened since the battle of Waterloo. The 
 great barrack, which is bomb-proof, can accommodate 3000 
 men. Pop. of tu. and com. 8837. 
 
 ATHABASCA, or ATIIAFESCOW, a river and lake, British 
 N. America, N.W. territory. The river has its sources in 
 the E. slopes of the Rocky Mountains, near Mount Brown ; 
 lat. 52 10 N. ; Ion. 116 30 W. From this point, it pursues 
 a tortuous, but generally N.E. and N. course till it falls into 
 Lake Athabasca, at its \V. extremity. Its whole length, fol 
 lowing the larger windings, is about 600 m. It receives the 
 waters of the Lesser Slave Lake, in about lat. 55 N. by means 
 of a connecting stream about 20 m. in length. It also receives 
 in about lat. 56 25 N. the united waters of several .small lakes. 
 In the upper part of its course, it is known also by the name 
 of the Bichc, and in the lower part, or near its entrance into 
 the lake, by that of the Elk River. 
 
 The Lake of Athabasca, or Lake of the Hills, as it is 
 frequently called, is situated about 190 m. S.S.E. the Great 
 Slave Lake. It is about 200 m. in length from E. to W., 
 and about 35 m. wide at the broadest part, but gradually 
 narrows to a point at either extremity. It occupies an area 
 of upwards of 3000 sq. m. The only outlet of the lake is by 
 the Slave River, with which it communicates by several small 
 streams that issue from its W. end, and by which its super 
 fluous water are carried into the Great Slave Lake. The 
 Stone River falls into it at its E. extremity. The N. shore 
 of the lake is high and rocky, and thickly wooded with 
 firs and poplars, &c. The S. shore, again, is level, and 
 consists of alluvial soil. On this side, there is a shoal of 
 many miles in extent, formed by the drift-timber and veget 
 able debris brought down by the Athabasca River. The 
 lake abounds in fish ; the most numerous are trout, carp, pike, 
 methye, &c. 
 
 ATH AN (ST.), a par., S. Wales, co. Glamorgan ; 1300ac. ; 
 S. Cowbridge. Pop. in 1841, 379. 
 
 ATHASSEL, a par. Ireland, co. Tipperary ; 12,770 ac.; 
 contains the ruins of a priory of great extent and magnificence. 
 Pop. in 1841, 5431. 
 
 ATH BOY, a market tn. and par. Ireland, co. Meath, 
 prov. Leinster. The town is 35 m. N.W. Dublin, and 6 m. 
 N.W. Trim; its name, in the Irish language, meaning the 
 yellow ford, being derived from its position on a stream called 
 the Athboy river, a tributary of the Boyne. The town consists 
 chiefly of one long street ; and possesses a church, a chapel, 
 a sessions-house, and a constabulary barracks. Large cattle 
 fairs are held here ; and the weekly cattle-market, on Thursday, 
 is well attended; but there is little trade besides. Two 
 schools and a small widows alms-house are supported by the 
 Earl of Darnley, to whose estate the town belongs. A loan 
 fund was established in 1845. Athboy returned two mem 
 bers to the Irish parliament, but was disfranchised at the Union. 
 Near the town, on the N., stands the Hill of Ward, about 
 390 ft. high a distinguishing feature in the landscape. Area 
 of par. 11,884 ac. Pop. in 1841, 5365 ; of tn. 1826. 
 
 ATHELINGTON, a par. England, co. Suffolk; 980 ac.; 
 S.E. Eye. Pop. in 1841, 111. 
 
 ATHELNEY (ISLE OF), the anc. name, now disused, of 
 a rising ground situated in a marsh in the co. Somerset, 
 England, par. East Ling, about 6 m. S.S.E. Bridgewater. 
 The morass by which the island was surrounded was, in for 
 mer times, all but impassable ; thus rendering it a place of 
 security, for which it was often made available. Amongst 
 those who sought safety in this bog-begirt island, was Alfred 
 the Great, who fled thither after his retreat from the Danes, 
 then overrunning Wessex. To commemorate this event, a 
 small obelisk with an inscription has been erected on the 
 spot by the owner of the land. Alfred founded a Benedictine 
 
ATHELSTANEFORD 
 
 240 
 
 ATHENS 
 
 abbey here, about 888. Many architectural remains, bones, streets and edifices, which are rapidly springing up on all 
 and other relics, have been dug up on the site of the buildings, I sides, and promise to give the city at least the appearance of a 
 which appear to have been extensive and magnificent. The I modern capital, how much soever they may fail to rival 
 
 mound, now no longer insulated, contains about 100 ac. It 
 was, in ancient times, covered with alders, in which stags, 
 wild goats, and many other animals sheltered. 
 
 ATHELSTANEFORD, a par. Scotland, co. Hadding- 
 
 its ancient splendour. Previously to these improvements, the 
 greater part of Athens was a mere heap of ruins, the effect 
 of the recent struggle for independence; while the portions 
 still habitable furnished one of the worst specimens of a Turk- 
 
 ton ; 4000 ac. Home, author of the Tragedy of Douglas, was j ish town, consisting of a mere labyrinth of narrow, crooked, 
 for 10 years minister of this parish; and it is the birthplace j and irregular lanes. The houses in general had no architec- 
 
 of Blair, author of The Grave. Pop. in 1841, 991 . 
 
 ATHENRY, or ATHENREE, an anc. tn., barony, and par. 
 Ireland, co. Galway. The town is 13 m. E.N.E. Galway; 
 and was originally called Athnere, from Ath-na-Riagh, the 
 
 tural merit, and even those of them which it was impossible 
 to pass unobserved, attracted attention merely by occupying 
 sites on which some of the finest remains of ancient art were 
 still standing, barbarously and grotesquely dovetailed into 
 
 king s ford or the abode of a king. It was at one time ! modern structures. A specimen of this curious and incon- 
 enclosed within the walls, some vestiges of which still remain. | gruous mixture is exhibited in the woodcut on the following 
 In the 13th century, Meyler de Bermingham granted a site i page, of a marble structure on the E. side of the Acropolis, 
 of land for the foundation here of a Dominican monastery, an supposed to have been dedicated to Rome and Augustus. It 
 account of which is given in Grose s Antiquities of Ireland now stands across a street, the thoroughfare of which passes 
 
 but it was accidentally destroyed by tire in the 15th century. 
 Part of the ruins are extant, as well as of the castle of the 
 Berminghams, Earls of Lowth. There was also a Franciscan 
 friary founded here in 1464. It sent two members to the 
 Irish parliament, but was deprived of the franchise at the 
 Union. Having no manufactures or trade, it is a poor place, 
 and wears altogether a very desolate aspect. Around the 
 town, the country is flat and dreary, presenting constant alter 
 nations of peat, marsh, rich pasture, bare crag, and tillage- 
 lands. The BARONY is 20 m. in length, and from \\ to 8 
 
 m. in breadth ; area, 25,782 ac. Pop. in 1841, 8179. Area 
 of par. 24,950 ac. ; pop. in 1841, 5989. Pop. of tn. in 1841, 
 1236. 
 
 ATHENS, the name of a county, and of numerous town 
 ships, &c., U. States: 1, A co. in the S.E. of Ohio; area, 
 740 sq. m. ; watered by the Hockhocking, the Raccoon, and 
 several smaller streams. The surface is hilly and broken, 
 but the soil is productive, and alike adapted for tillage or 
 grazing. Iron, coal, limestone, freestone, clay, and salt- 
 springs, add to the riches of the county, which, besides raising 
 numerous herds of cattle, sheep, and swine, yields maize, oats, 
 potatoes, tobacco, &c. Pop. 19,109. 2, A post vil., cap. of 
 above co., 72 m. S.E. Columbus. It is a picturesque village, 
 lies on a bend of the Hoekhocking, has well-built brick 
 houses, a Presbyterian and Methodist church, a college, 
 founded in 182 1 , with five professors ; an academy, court 
 house, two tanneries,, three grist and three saw-mills, &c. 
 
 Pop. 710. ATHENS is also the name of townships in Maine, 
 
 Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania. Michigan, Georgia, 
 Alabama, &c. 
 
 ATHENS [anc. A<W Atlience], the capital of Greece; 
 nnd not only for several ages the centre of European civiliza 
 tion, but still, in many respects, particularly to the scholar and 
 the artist, the most interesting city in the world. Its site, 
 equally magnificent for scenery, and advantageous for com 
 merce, is about 4m. N.E. of the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Egina, 
 in an extensive plain of its own name, watered by the Ilissus 
 and Cephisus, and surrounded by hills on all sides, except 
 towards the sea, where it lies open, and gives a fine view both 
 of the gulf and the numerous islands which seem to float on 
 its surface. This plain, instead of being uniformly level, is 
 broken by numerous ridges of limestone, several of which, 
 with their intervening valleys, are partly occupied by the 
 city; while the highest of them rises up precipitously, and 
 forms the Acropolis or citadel. The chief approaches to 
 Athens are one on the W. by way of Eleusis, over a well made 
 carriage road, in a plain remarkable for the luxuriant beauty of 
 its oleanders ; and another on the S."\V. by the celebrated harbour 
 of Piraeus, along a tract which, though once a mere swamp, 
 has been covered with vineyards, oliveyards, and fig-planta 
 tions. In its most prosperous days, Athens enclosed a large 
 space, including not only the city proper, but a long narrow 
 suburb, stretching continuously to the Pirteus, and was sur 
 rounded by walls which had a circuit of nearly 20 m. Parts of 
 these walls still remain, particularly on the S. and W. ; but 
 within a comparatively modern period, a wall of about 4 in. 
 in circuit had been built, enclosing a space which, during the 
 possession of the city by the Turks, was more than sufficient 
 to accommodate its inhabitants. Since 1834, when Athens 
 again became the seat of Government, this wall, which was in 
 a ruinous state, has been pulled down to make way for new 
 
 between its central columns, and is seen proceeding in the 
 direction of a Turkish mosque, while modern buildings not 
 only abut on the monument, but are built into and partly con 
 ceal it. Artists have too often kept these rude accompani 
 ments out of view, and, in their sketches of Athenian build 
 ings, have exhibited them not in their actual state, but as they 
 either imagine them to have once been, or expect them to be 
 come by means of the renovating processes which the present 
 Government has begun in good earnest to employ. Though 
 several public buildings well deserving of public notice have 
 been recently erected, the chief interest connected with Athens 
 must long continue to be derived from its antiquities, and 
 with these, therefore, though contrary to the usual order, it 
 seems proper to begin. For this purpose, the reader must 
 transport himself to the Acropolis, a lofty limestone rock, 
 150 ft. high, precipitous and inaccessible on all sides except 
 the W., but terminating in a large expanse of an oval form, 
 enclosed by a wall 2330 yards in circuit. The ascent com 
 mences on the N. side, and winds round till it reaches the 
 only entrance, the Propylsea, a splendid portal, with a front 
 of six marble Doric columns and two wings, giving admission 
 by five doorways, all of which have recently been cleared of 
 Turkish rubbish, and once more appear almost in their 
 original perfection. Immediately without the entrance, on 
 the right side, a beautiful temple of Wingless Victory has 
 recently been brought to light by the removal of a Turkish 
 battery. It is now in process of re-construction from its 
 numerous fragments, which lie scattered about ; and, both 
 from its beautiful workmanship and commanding position, is 
 expected ultimately to become one of the noblest ornaments 
 of the city. On turning into the Acropolis, the majestic Par 
 thenon, justly described as the finest edifice, on the finest site 
 in the world, bursts on the view. It stands near the centre, 
 on the most elevated spot within the Acropolis, and is built 
 of the white marble of Pentelicus. It was in the form of a 
 parallelogram, 228 by 100 ft., its longest sides facing the N. 
 and S. ; and consisted of a cell surrounded by a peristyle, 
 which had eight Doric columns in front, and 1 7 on its sides, 
 each column 34 ft. high, and 6 ft. 2 inches in diameter at the 
 base, and standing on a pavement elevated by three steps. 
 The whole height was 65 ft. The Parthenon stood almost 
 entire, at least as the Emperor Hadrian had repaired it, till 
 1687, when, during a siege by the Venetians, a bomb fell upon 
 part of it, which was employed as a powder magazine, and 
 destroyed the roof. Since then, it has received numerous 
 injuries, some of them of a very recent date, and its more 
 delicate ornaments must now be looked for in private cabinets 
 and public museums. The more solid parts are tolerably 
 entire, though even these have suffered much, and must ulti 
 mately have disappeared under the barbarism of the Turks ; 
 who not only, in a case of necessity, had converted its marble 
 into cannon balls, but were in the practice of pounding it for 
 mortar. The other principal building of the Acropolis is the 
 Erectheum, or temple of Minerva Polias, consisting of a cell 
 about 90 ft. long from E. to W., and intersected at its W. end 
 by an irregular transept. The N. and E. porticoes were sup 
 ported by Ionic columns, the S. by a kind of sculptured femalo 
 figures, called Caryatides. The chief compartments in the 
 Erectheum were the temple proper, at the E. end ; the Pan- 
 clroseum, at the W. ; and, in the centre, the Cecropium, sup 
 posed to have been so called from containing the remains of 
 
ATHENS 
 
 241 
 
 ATHENS 
 
 Cecrops, the first founder of the city. Immediately to the 
 N.W. of the Acropolis, and separated from it by a narrow val 
 ley, is the Areopagus, or, as our Bibles also call it, Mars Hill, 
 famous for the venerable court which there held its sittings 
 under the open air; and still more famous as the spot on which 
 the apostle Paul pleaded the cause of heavenly truth against 
 
 THE GATE OF AUGUSTUS, ATHENS From Tbunner, Ans 
 
 Stoic fatalists and Epicurean scoffers, and proved, by a simple 
 appeal to the gorgeous temples around him, that in all things 
 they were too superstitious. A little to the S.W. of this 
 celebrated hill, and due W. of the Acropolis, lies a small 
 valley, forming the old Agora (forum or market-place) ; and 
 on a slope immediately above it, the Pnyx, with its rude 
 bench of stone, at which Demosthenes 
 was wont to stand and fulmino forth his 
 matchless eloquence to the half-over 
 awed and enraptured multitudes crowd 
 ing the forum below. To the S. of the 
 Pnyx, and almost of equal height with 
 the Acropolis, is the Musaeum Hill, so 
 called because Musaeus is said to have 
 sung, and to have been buried there; 
 but deriving its chief interest from a 
 deed of shame one out of four curious 
 dungeons, cut out of the rock at its base, 
 being by tradition that where Socrates 
 drank the poisoned cup. At the base of 
 the Acropolis, near its S.E. angle, was 
 the theatre of Bacchus ; but a few seats, 
 cut in the rock, are almost the only 
 vestiges of it that remain. About 500 
 yards N.W. of the Acropolis is the temple 
 of Theseus, built B.C. 465, 30 years be 
 fore the Parthenon, and more fortunate 
 in its fate, having not only at one time 
 been employed as a Christian church, 
 but still forming the most complete an 
 cient building of any extent within the 
 city, and serving as its museum. It 
 is built of Pentelic marble, which has 
 
 assumed a rich mellow hue, and is equally remarkable 
 for solidity and gracefulness. It is surrounded with Doric 
 columns, 13 on each side, but is of comparatively small dimen 
 sions, the cell being only 40 ft. long by 20 broad. Consid 
 erably to the S.E. of the Acropolis, and a little above the 
 torrent Ilissus, is the temple of Jupiter Olympius, which was 
 the largest in Athens; and though begun by Pisistratus, 
 B.C. 530, was first completed by Hadrian, A.D. 145. It 
 consisted of a cell, surrounded by a peristyle of Corinthian 
 columns, 10 in front and 20 at the sides, each 6J ft. in dia 
 meter, and above 60 ft. high, and appears to have had a circuit 
 of 2300 ft. All that now remains is 16 columns, on an arti 
 ficial platform, supported by a wall. It were almost endless 
 to attempt to detail all the ancient edifices with which Athens 
 VOL. I. 
 
 was adorned, and the remains of which may still be traced ; 
 but before passing to the modern buildings, there is one 
 belonging to an intervening period, which ought not to be 
 overlooked. It is the Cathedral, built of massive blocks of 
 white marble, and furnishing one of the most interesting 
 specimens of the Byzantine style. A modern steeple conceals 
 the original dome; but a frieze, running along the front, is 
 carved with a curious Greek zodiac. The interior is covered 
 with paintings. The chief part of the modern town is to the 
 N., where a new quarter, of good houses, has been built, to 
 which the diplomatic corps has recently removed. In the W., 
 also, a line of houses has lately risen up, not so regularly as 
 could be wished, but all well built, and many of them large 
 and commodious. Here the new palace has been erected, but, 
 unfortunately, by an architect on whom the mantle of his 
 earliest predecessors appears not to have fallen. It is a huge 
 quadrangular building, with massive walls of broken lime 
 stone, faced with cement ; but the front portico, as well as a 
 colonnade, together with all the window-frames, cornices, &c., 
 are of Pentelic marble. The interior is highly decorated in the 
 modern style of Munich. The university or Panepistimion, 
 is the finest modern structure of Athens, and when completed, 
 will not be unworthy of it ; but unfortunately, from want of 
 funds (the greater part of which have hitherto been furnished 
 by subscription, chiefly from foreign Greeks), only half of the 
 design has yet been carried out. It has a handsome portico 
 of Pentelic marble, from each side of which an open corridor 
 leads to the six lecture-rooms, an anatomical theatre, council- 
 room, &c. A double flight of stairs leads to the library, which 
 is a noble hall, and already contains about 30,000 volumes. 
 The number of students exceeds 200. It is pleasing to see 
 that among the different institutions which are springing into 
 existence here, education holds its proper place. In addition 
 to the university, there are numerous schools, supported partly 
 by Government, partly by public societies and private muni 
 ficence. Among the higher class of these establishments are 
 the gymnasium, which prepares for the university, and has 
 600 pupils ; the polytechnic school for drawing, geometry, 
 
 &c., attended by nearly 200; the seminary or normal school; 
 and the Risari ecclesiastical school, so called after its founder, 
 and designed to give a preparatory education to students of 
 divinity. Among the secondary schools may be mentioned 
 those of the Greek committee of education, with about 250 
 pupils ; and the Athens free school, and the American 
 school, each with 600. Athens has no manufactures, and as 
 yet cannot be said to have any important trade, though it 
 has an excellent harbour, which seems to invite the commerce 
 both of the E. and the W. This harbour, called, in modern 
 times, Porto Leone, from the marble colossal lions which once 
 stood upon it, but still better known by its ancient name of 
 Piraeus, is about 4 m. to the S.W. of the city, and was brought 
 within its enclosure by means of what was called the Long 
 
ATI1EN 7 S 
 
 212 
 
 ATIILONE 
 
 Walls. It ia very deep and capacious, forming a large basin, 
 which is somewhat difficult of entrance, but within which, in 
 its best days, 1000 triremes have rode. To the trade of this 
 port, and the naval superiority connected with it, Athens was 
 mainly indebted for the pre-eminence which she held among 
 the states of Greece; and apparently to the same sources 
 must she still look, if she is again to become great. Of this 
 the Government seems fully aware; and accordingly, one of 
 its earliest labours was to fill up a marsh, and commence the 
 construction of a quay, at which several hundred merchant 
 vessels may lie. Piraeus itself, instead of being a mere suburb, j 
 is rapidly rising into a town. It has been almost entirely built ! 
 since 1834, and already contains 1000 houses. See PIRJEUS. 
 
 The early history of Athens is obscured by fable; and 
 though Cecrops is universally admitted to have been its founder, 
 so little is known of him that it is still disputed whether he 
 came from Egypt or was a native Greek. At first the Acro 
 polis, and a few cottages clustering round its base, formed the 
 whole city ; but it soon rose into importance, though it does 
 not take a very prominent place till about B.C. 594, when 
 Solon became its legislator. The jealousy of neighbouring 
 states began now to be excited, and a combination, headed by 
 the Spartans, was formed against it. when the appearance of a 
 formidable foreign foe showed the Greeks the folly of intestine 
 dissension, and convinced them that union alone could insure 
 their safety. A numerous Persian host arrived in Attica, ! 
 and threatened to make Greece the paltry province of a bar- j 
 barian empire ; but the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490, drove 
 back the invader, and laid the first great foundation of Athenian 
 renown. Ten years later. Xerxes arrived with almost count 
 less hordes, seeking vengeance, and partly obtained it, by 
 laying the greater part of Athens in ashes. Defeat, however, 
 overtook him at Salamis, and drove him across the Hellespont, 
 a most inglorious, and almost a solitary fugitive. Mardonius, 
 his satrap, still remained, and again obtaining possession of , 
 Athens, left it a heap of ruins. But the victory of Plataea j 
 rid the Athenians of Persian invaders, and opened a career of 
 prosperity which, under the guidance of Themistocles, they 
 were not slow to follow. The city suddenly rose with a 
 magnificence which it had never before possessed, and was 
 enclosed by a wall, which not only secured it against sudden 
 incursions, but extended, so as to form a bulwark around its 
 fleet. The Athenian naval supremacy being now established, 
 an extensive commerce arose, wealth flowed in from all 
 quarters, and the munificence of individuals vied with the 
 state in extending and embellishing the city. This prosperity 
 both made the Athenians arrogant and their neighbours 
 envious. The Peloponnesian war broke out, and terminated 
 most disastrously for Athens, which surrendered to the 
 Spartans, B c. 404, was deprived of its fleet, and saw its 
 Long Walls, and other maritime fortifications, demolished to 
 the sound of music. It never completely recovered the 
 shock ; and though not a few of its great names afterwards 
 appeared, internal degeneracy, as well as outward force, con 
 curred in preparing the Athenians for a foreign yoke. First 
 Philip, and then Alexander (B.C. 336), became the generalis 
 simo of the Greeks ; and no higher part was left for Athens 
 than to furnish her quota of mercenaries to the intended in 
 vasion of Persia. The Roman empire followed, and Athens 
 finally fell under it, being taken by Sulla, B.C. 86. It after 
 wards was repeatedly ravaged by the Goths ; but its worst 
 degradation befell it in 1456, when it passed from the posses 
 sion of Christian powers, and sunk under the domination of 
 the Turks. A new era in its history has commenced. It is 
 now the capital of a monarchy, at least nominally constitu 
 tional, and has nothing but its own misconduct to prevent it 
 from rising even to a higher eminence than it ever before 
 obtained. Pop. (1845), 26,300. (Wordsworth; Thirlwall; 
 Giflard; Clarke; Murray s Handbook; Leake s Morea.) 
 
 ATHERINGTON, a par. England, co. Devon ; 2500 ac. ; 
 W. South Molton. Pop. (1841), 629. 
 
 ATHERSTONE [anc. Edrestone, and Adrestone],n market 
 tn. and township, England, co. Warwick, 20 m. N.N.E. War 
 wick, and 97 m. N.W. by N. London, situated in a valley 
 screened by finely-wooded hills. It consists chiefly of one 
 main street, which is but indifferently kept. The houses are 
 irregularly built ; many of them are very ancient ; these are 
 of stone, the modern buildings of brick. The town is amply 
 supplied with water, and well lighted with gas. The chapel, 
 
 anciently belonging to an Augustine priory, founded in 1376, 
 has been recently entirely rebuilt, with exception of the old 
 octagonal tower, which still remains. There are also in the 
 town chapels for the Wesleyan and Independent Methodists ; 
 and, in its immediate vicinity, are a convent and chapel for 
 Romanists, both handsome structures. The educational means 
 of the place consist of a free grammar-school, an endowed 
 charity school, and an infant school. Hats and stockings are 
 manufactured here, the former to some extent. Athcrstone 
 is said to be the birthplace of Drayton, the poet. The Trent 
 Valley Railway runs by the town; and the Coventry and 
 Fazely Canal passes at its N. W. extremity, where extensive 
 coal and lime wharfs have been constructed. The county 
 magistrates hold a petty session weekly. Market-day, Tues 
 day. Three fairs annually. Pop. of township in 1841, 3743. 
 
 ATHEKSTOXE-UPON-STOUR is the name of a small parish 
 
 in the same county, hun. Kingston; 1120 ac. Pop. 93. 
 (Correspondent in Atherstone.) 
 
 ATHERTON. See CIIOWBENT. 
 
 ATHLACCA, par. Irel., Limerick; 5511 ac. Pop. (18-11), 
 1372. 
 
 ATHLEAGUE, a par. and vil. Ireland, cos. Galway and 
 Roscommon: 13,012 ac. Limestone and freestone, both of 
 excellent quality, abound. Pop. (1841), 5087. 
 
 ATHLONE, a tn. and barony, Ireland. The TOWN lies 
 on the Shannon, about 67 m. W. by N. Dublin, and 12 N.E. 
 Ballinasloe, partly in co. Westmeath, prov. of Leinster, and 
 partly in co. Roscommon, prov. of Connaught, and stands 
 almost in the centre of Ireland. It is divided by the river 
 into two nearly equal parts, connected by a spacious and hand 
 some new stone bridge of five arches, opened for traffic, for 
 the first time, in November 1844 ; communication having 
 been previously maintained by a narrow old bridge, erected 
 in the time of Elizabeth, now removed. The two divisions 
 were formerly called English town and Irish town, but are 
 now known as the Leinster side and Connaught side. It is 
 an ill-built, irregular, and ill-paved place ; and consists chiefly 
 
 of narrow, dirty, crooked streets, and obscure lanes and alleys. 
 It is composed of three parishes ; St. Peter and Kiltoom, in 
 the barony of Athlone, co. Roscommon ; and St. Mary, in the 
 barony of Brawney, co. Westmeath. The best private houses, 
 and the only clean street in the whole place, are on the Leinster 
 side. On the Connaught side is the castle of Athlone, erected 
 in the reign of King John, and enlarged and strengthened in 
 that of Queen Elizabeth, and now strongly fortified in the 
 modern style. It was once the residence of the Lord President 
 of Connaught, and completely commanded the old bridge. 
 The town was incorporated by charter from James I., and 
 received a further charter from Charles II. It derives im 
 portance from being one of the chief stations or Government 
 depots for troops and military stores in Ireland. The barracks, 
 N.W. the castle, can accommodate 2000 men; to it an 
 ordnance-yard, magazines, armoury, with muskets for 15,000 
 men, and hospital, are attached, all occupying an elevated 
 position on the river above the bridge, and, with the three large 
 
ATHLUMNEY 
 
 243 
 
 ATIiNA 
 
 squares for parade and exercise, cover at least 1 5 English ac. 
 N.W. of the barracks, and outside the town, are extensive out- 
 forts and batteries, commanding the main roads from Galway 
 and Ballinasloe. The sessions -ho use is in the Connaught town. 
 Besides the parish churches, there are four R. catholic chapels, 
 including those of the Augustinian and Franciscan friaries ; 
 also places of worship for Baptists, Presbyterians, and Wes- 
 leyan Methodists ; a charter school, and several free schools, 
 one in the barracks ; with branches of the national and pro 
 vincial banks of Ireland, the usual municipal and county 
 offices, several inns, and a union workhouse, opened in Nov. 
 1841. There are also two breweries, one of them very exten 
 sive ; some large flourmills, and two distilleries. The manu 
 facture of felt hats, which has long been carried on here to a 
 considerable extent, is now declining. Friezes and linens are 
 also manufactured. The markets, held three times a week, 
 are well supplied with sea and river fish, vegetables, and meat. 
 By means of a canal at Athlone, a mile long, constructed for 
 the purpose of avoiding some fords, the Shannon is rendered 
 navigable for 71m. above the town. The facilities for carry 
 ing on trade here are further augmented by the grand canal 
 from Dublin, which joins the Shannon 17m. below the town. 
 The first bridge in Ireland is said to have been one built across 
 the Shannon at Athlone, by Turlough O Connor, king of Con- 
 naught, in 1 140. Athlone sent two members to the Irish Parlia 
 ment, but sends only one to the British House of Commons ; 
 
 constituency, 388. Pop. of tn. (1841), 6393. The BAEO.NY 
 
 is 16 m. in length by 10 in breadth ; area, 146,185 ac. Pop. 
 (1 841), 51,927. (Inglis s Ireland; Otway s TourinConnaught; 
 Murray s Handbook for Ireland ; Parliamentary Papers.) 
 
 ATHLUMNEY, par. Irel., Meath ; 2454 ac. Pop. (1841), 
 1269. 
 
 ATHNASSEY, par. Irel., Limerick; 2837 ac. Pop. 
 (1841), 1503. 
 
 ATHNOWEN, a par. Ireland, co. Cork ; 4838 ac. There 
 are some remarkable limestone caves in this parish, and the 
 remains of an ancient castle. Pop. (1841), 1925. 
 
 ATHOLE, or ATHOLL, a mountainous and romantic dist., 
 the most N. part of Perthshire, Scotland, 45 m. long, and 30 
 broad. It comprehends a great portion of the ancient Cale 
 donian forest ; and, along with Stormont, constituted, in the 
 eighth century, the possessions of a Pictish prince. It con 
 tains several lakes, and richly cultivated valleys ; and in the 
 extensive forest of Athole game of various kinds is abundant. 
 The pass of Killiecrankie, celebrated for the battle fought 
 near it in 1689, in which Graham of Claverhouse was killed, 
 is in this district ; it is a romantic, finely-wooded pass, rising 
 steeply on either side of the Garry. Amongst the most beauti 
 ful of its valleys are Glen Tilt and Glen Bruar. The district 
 contains a nu.nber of villages. It gives the title of Duke 
 to the ancient house of Murray. Athole is said to signify 
 pleasant land, and Blair- Athole, the name of its principal 
 valley, is the field or vale of Athole. The famed Athole 
 Brose is a mixture of whisky and honey. (Pennant s Tour 
 Anderson s Guide to the Highlands and Islands.) 
 
 ATHOS (MOUNT) [Modern Greek, Hagion Oros; Italian, 
 Monte Santo], the name given properly to a lofty mountain in 
 the S.E. of Turkey, lat. 40 10 N.; Ion. 24 21 E., but 
 generally applied to the whole of the narrow peninsula lying 
 between the Gulf of Contessa, and the Gulf of Monto Santo, 
 and separated from the mainland of prov. Salonichi by an 
 isthmus, whose breadth from gulf to gulf, at its narrowest 
 point, does not exceed 1 \ m. This peninsula, which stretches 
 into the Archipelago N.W. to S.E. 25 m., with an average 
 breadth of about 4m., is generally rugged, being intersected 
 by innumerable ravines. The isthmus itself is flat and sandy, 
 standing only a few feet above the level of the sea ; and traces 
 have lately been discovered of the canal which Xerxes cut 
 across it, to avoid a recurrence of the disasters which his fleet 
 experienced in rounding the promontory; but immediately 
 beyond the isthmus, at its N. end, the ground rises abruptly 
 about 300 ft., forming the abutment of a plateau, which for 
 12m. maintains a height of 600 ft. From this point the pen 
 insula becomes more decidedly mountainous, two of its heights 
 reaching respectively to 1200 and 1700 ft. Near this stands 
 the town of Karyes, picturesquely situated amidst vineyards 
 and gardens. Beyond Karyes, both the height and the rug- 
 gedness increase, and dark forests of oak, chestnut, and pine, 
 extend without interruption to the foot of the mountain an 
 
 isolated cone of white limestone or marble, resting on a gneiss 
 and schistous base, and rising abruptly, particularly towards 
 the sea, to a height of 6700 ft. The view from the summit is 
 described as one of the finest panoramas in the world. The 
 mountain belongs to Caloyers, or Greek monks, whose mon 
 asteries, chapels, &c., are scattered over its sides, and have 
 procured for it its modern name of Holy Mount. The 
 monks attempt to trace their institution to the time of Con- 
 stantine, but their earliest authentic documents do not go 
 further back than the 10th century. The site of these mon 
 asteries is very picturesque, but none of them have much 
 architectural merit. They are remarkable chiefly for the 
 solidity of their structure, and the precautions adopted to 
 make them secure as places of defence. One principal mon 
 astery, St. Laura, stands on the S.E. side of the mountain 
 facing the sea. It looks like an ancient fortress surrounded 
 with high blank walls, over the tops of which are seen 
 numerous domes and pinnacles, odd-shaped roofs, and cypress 
 trees. It encloses an irregular space of 3 or 4 ac., and has a 
 front of about 500 ft. The only entrance is by a crooked 
 passage defended by three iron doors. The interior consists 
 of several small courts, and two large open spaces surrounded 
 with two churches, and buildings to accommodate the monks. 
 These at present are only 120. The whole number now 
 inhabiting the peninsula, has been estimated variously from 
 8000 to 2500. The latter is probably the more accurate 
 estimate. At one time the whole of the monasteries were 
 rich in ancient MSS., but the monks were in general too 
 illiterate either to read them or know their value. Several 
 of the most ancient, which had become mere lumber, and must 
 soon have rotted away altogether, have been happily saved, 
 and now enrich various collections. (Curzon s Monasteries ; 
 Handbook for the East ; Orographie de V Europe.) 
 
 ATHY, a municipal and market tn. Ireland, co. Kildare, ir 
 the parishes Athy St. John and Athy St. Michael, 20 m. S.W. 
 Naas, and 37 m. S.W. Dublin; pleasantly situated on the 
 Barrow, which is crossed here by a stone bridge of five arches. 
 It consists chiefly of a main street and market square; having 
 three Protestant and two E. catholic churches, two dissenting 
 chapels, several parish schools, a dispensary, sessions-house, 
 extensive county jail, fever hospital, large union workhouse, 
 and police barracks. Athy, which was first incorporated in the 
 reign of James I., is included in a circle extending 1 m. from 
 the town, and governed by a mayor, two bailiffs, 12 burgesses, 
 and a recorder. Before the Union it sent two members to 
 the Irish Parliament, but was then disfranchised. It is, alter 
 nately with Naas, the assize town of Kildare ; quarter-sessions 
 are held in January and June, petty sessions every Tuesday, 
 and a court of presentation is held in October. The modern 
 importance of Athy is due to its position, at the junction of 
 the Grand Canal with the Barrow, which is navigable hence 
 to its mouth ; and it is also one of the chief stations on the 
 Carlow branch of the Southern and Western Railway. It has 
 a large trade in corn, which is sent in barges to all parts of 
 Ireland ; and it has two weekly markets, with six annual fairs. 
 The manufactures, however, are quite insignificant. On the 
 W. bank of the river are the remains of Woodstock Castle, 
 built, in the 15th century, by the seventh Earl of Kildare ; it 
 is in tolerable preservation, and has a fine arched gateway and 
 
 beautiful inullioned windows. Pop. (1841), 4698. -The 
 
 PARISH of Athy St. John, partly in Queen s co., and partly 
 in co. Kildare, comprises an area of 1123 ac. Pop. (1841), 
 394. The parish of Athy St. Michael, co. Kildare, comprises 
 1881 ac. Pop. (1841), 2849. 
 
 ATIBAIA, a tn. Brazil, in the E. of the prov. Sao Paulo, 
 on a river whence the town derives its name, 110 m. N.N.E. 
 Santos. It has a church, townhouse, and prison ; and its in 
 habitants, who are subject to goitre, cultivate the necessaries 
 of life, and rear cattle and hogs for the market. Pop. of tn. 
 and dist. 7000. 
 
 ATIENZA, a tn. Spain, in New Castile, prov. Guadala 
 jara, 18 m. W.N.W. Siguenza, on the E. summit of a rocky 
 hill, surrounded by a dilapidated wall, flanked with 14 towers, 
 entered by three gates. It has an old and extensive castle 
 on its N. side, has ill-paved steep streets, a square, six parish 
 churches, a hall of justice, a prison, an endowed school, 
 hospital, and a convent. Pop., chiefly agricultural, 1983. 
 
 ATINA [anc. Atinurn], a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di La- 
 voro, dist. of, and 11 m. S.E. Sora, near the Melfa. It has a 
 
ATININENI 
 
 244 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN 
 
 cathedral, a convent, and an hospital ; was formerly a bishopric, 
 and is one of the most ancient towns of Italy, being named 
 by Virgil amongst the cities that took part in the war between 
 .<Eneas and Tumus, prince of the Kutuli. It was a Roman 
 colony during the reign of Nero, and then considered one of 
 the most populous and important in the empire. It has some 
 manufactories of carpets. Pop. 6768. 
 
 ATININENI, called also ATINIVENV, a large lake, Brazil, 
 prov. Para, in Brazilian Guiana, between the rivers Negro and 
 Japura, 1 10 in. above the junction of the former stream with the 
 Amazon. It communicates S.W. with theCodaya, an arm of the 
 Japnra ; and N.E. with the Negro, through the rivers Ananay 
 and Jaumuhi. Its banks are covered with the copaiba plant. 
 
 AT1TLAN, a lake and active volcano, Central America, 
 republic Guatimala. The LAKE is 60 m. W.N.W. the city of 
 Gualimala, 30 m. in length, about 10 m. in breadth, and 
 entirely surrounded by rocks and mountains. There is little 
 gradation of depth from its shores, and the bottom has not 
 been found with a line of 300 fathoms. It receives several 
 rivers, and all the waters that descend from the mountains, 
 but there is no known channel by which this great body is 
 carried of. Crabs, and a species of very small fish, are caught 
 
 in it ; the latter are in immense quantities. The VOLCANO is 
 
 in lat. 15 47 N. ; Ion. 91 28 W., and is 12,500 ft. in height. 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN, the name given to the vast ex 
 panse of sea lying between the W. coasts of Europe and Africa 
 and the E. coasts of N. and S. America, and extending from 
 the Arctic to the Antarctic Seas, or, as may with sufficient 
 propriety be said, from pole to pole, being separated from the 
 Pacific Ocean by lines drawn from Cape Horn and Cape Agul- 
 has to the Antarctic Circle. Its greatest breadth is between 
 the \V. coast of N. Africa and the E. coast of Florida in N. Ame 
 rica, the distance here being 4150 m. If the Gulf of Mexico, 
 in reality one of its bays, be included, it will extend to 5000 m. 
 Its least breadth, which is between Norway and Greenland, is 
 about 930 m. Between Cape St. Roque, Brazil, and Sierra 
 Leone, the breadth is 1792 m. Its superficial extent has been 
 estimated at 25,000,000 sq. m. From the number and extent 
 of its inlets, gulfs, and bays, its coast lines are of great length, 
 the E. being upwards of 32,000 m., and the W. upwards of 
 55,000. Its principal inlets and bays are Baffin s and Hud 
 son s Bays, the Gulfs of Mexico, Honduras, and San Juan, the 
 North Sea or German Ocean, the Bay of Biscay, and the Gulf 
 of Guinea. The principal islands N. of the equator are Ice 
 land, the Faroe and British Islands, the Azores, Canaries, and 
 Cape de Verd Islands, Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the 
 W. India Islands; and S. of the equator, Ascension, St. Helena, 
 Trinidad, Columbus, and Tristan da Cunha, the last three 
 being mere rocks. The Atlantic is of vast depth. In lat. 
 15 3 S., Ion. 23 14 W., or rather more than half way be 
 tween St. Helena and the E. coast of S. America, Sir James 
 Ross tried soundings with a line of 27,600 ft. without finding 
 bottom, this being the greatest depth yet satisfactorily ascer 
 tained, although it is believed that many parts of the Atlantic 
 are much deeper. Some of the other more remarkable depths 
 recently ascertained are 
 
 S. ATLANTIC OCEAN, 1841. 
 
 Lat. 33 21 S. ... Ion. 9 (X K. ... 16,06 Ut. Sir James Ross. 
 27 26 ... 17 29 W. ... 14,550 ,, Do. 
 
 N. ATLANTIC OCEAN, 1843. 
 
 Lat. 25 53 N. ... Ion. 66 W. ... 19,500 ft. (line broke) Capt. Barnctt. 
 41 19 ... 44 16 ... 22,200 Do. 
 
 In the Antarctic Ocean, the depth was found by Sir James 
 Ross to be generally about 2000 ft., but on one occasion a line 
 of 24,000 ft. failed to reach the bottom. The saltness and 
 specific gravity of the Atlantic are greatest near the equator, 
 diminishing gradually towards the poles, where they are 
 affected by the melting of the ice. The degree of saltness is 
 greater in the S. hemisphere than in the N., and is greater in 
 the Atlantic than in the Pacific. The temperature of the 
 Atlantic is higher in the N. than in the S. hemisphere, and is 
 highest between lat. 5 45 and 6 15 N., where it has been 
 found to be from 82 5 to 84 5 Fah. ; but in the Gulf of 
 Mexico it attains a temperature of 88 52 . The maximum 
 temperature of the Atlantic Ocean does not, therefore, cor 
 respond with the terrestrial equator, the line of greatest 
 warmth being found invariably N. of it. 
 
 Currents. The great currents of the Atlantic are of two 
 kinds, the drift current and the stream current. The former 
 
 is produced by the wind, either by the perpetual or trado- 
 winds, or by prevailing winds ; those having the former ori 
 gin are constant, running always in the same direction, and 
 generally with a nearly equal velocity ; those having the latter 
 are not so constant, neither do they always run in the same 
 direction, nor at a similar rate. The drift currents produced 
 by the trade-winds are found between the tropics ; those result 
 ing from prevailing winds, N. and S. of the parallels of 30. 
 They are comparatively slow in their motions, proceeding at 
 a rate of little more than half a mile an hour, and are confined 
 to the surface or upper strata of water. The stream currents, 
 again, the causes of which are but imperfectly known, extend 
 to a great depth, and have, some of them, an average velocity 
 of 60 m. per diem, the maximum reaching to 120 m. The 
 great stream currents of the Atlantic are the Gulf stream, the 
 Equatorial current, the N. African and Guinea current, the 
 Southern connecting current, the Southern Atlantic current, 
 Cape Horn current, RenneVs current, and the Arctic current. 
 The Gfulf stream originates in the Gulf of Mexico, passes 
 through the Strait of Florida, runs N. along the shores of 
 that territory to lat. 31 N., then in a N.E. direction to about 
 lat. 36 N., when it crosses the Atlantic, passes the W. of the 
 Azores, and is lost in the ocean. Its entire length, from its 
 commencement to the W. of the Azore Islands, is about 3000 
 geo. m., traversing in its course 20 degrees of latitude, or from 
 23 to 43 N. Its mean breadth is about 350 m. ; its broadest 
 part is between 40 and 60 W. Ion., where it is upwards of 
 400 m. broad ; its narrowest, in the Strait of Florida and 
 along the American coast to about lat. 34 N., where it does 
 not exceed 60 m., and is often much narrower. Its compara 
 tive mean velocity in the Atlantic is 35 m. in 24 hours. In 
 lat. 26 and 27 N., it was found to have a velocity of 80 m. 
 in 24 hours, and at the end of the Gulf of Florida, in the par 
 allel of Cape Cannaveral, 5 m. an hour. On issuing from the 
 Strait of Florida it is of a dark indigo blue colour, and is dis 
 tinguishable from the green waters of the Atlantic for many 
 hundred miles. The Equatorial current, so called from its 
 being under the line, commences on the W. coast of Africa, 
 about lat. 10 S., or nearly opposite San Paul de Loando. 
 From this point it pursues a N.W. direction till it makes 
 Ion., when it proceeds due W. on both sides of the equator, till 
 it arrives at Cape St. Roque in S. America, when it is divided 
 into two branches, one running along the Guiana coast, the 
 other along the coast of Brazil, and so called, respectively, the 
 Brazil current, and the Guiana, or main equatorial current. 
 It throws off a third branch at Ion. 22 W., called the N.W. 
 branch, from its taking that direction. The length of this 
 current, from the coast of Africa to Cape St. Roque, is 2500 m. 
 Its breadth, near the commencement, is 160 geo. m. ; opposite 
 Cape Palmas, 360; and before dividing, about Ion. 31 or 32 
 W., it is 450. Its average velocity, which is greater in sum 
 mer than in winter, is from 25 to 30 m. a day. The Guiana 
 branch of the Equatorial current runs along the low coa.st 
 of Guiana to the island of Trinidad, where it enters the Carib 
 bean Sea. It extends about 500 m., and has a velocity, vary 
 ing at different parts of its course, from 10 to 21 and 36 m.. 
 per day. Temperature, 81 to 84. The Brazil branch flows 
 at a distance of from 250 to 300 m. from the shores of S. Ame 
 rica, and extends from six to seven degrees into the ocean. 
 The average velocity of its N. portion is about 20 m. per day. 
 The N. African and Guinea current originates in the sea 
 opposite the coast of France, between Cape Clear in Ireland, 
 and Cape Finisterre in Spain. It flows in a S.E. direction to 
 Cape St. Vincent, when, after sending a mass of water into 
 the Mediterranean, it pursues a S. course to Cape Mesurada, 
 S. of Sierra Leone, keeping at a considerable distance from 
 the land. It then flows rapidly for 1000 m. due E., to the 
 Bight of Biafra, where it seems to mingle with the Equatorial 
 current. The two currents come first in contact off Cape 
 Palmas, where they are found running swiftly in opposite di 
 rections. The breadth of the N. African and Guinea current 
 varies with the season ; opposite Cape Palmas it extends to 
 180 m. It runs at the rate of 12m. per day near the begin 
 ning of its course, but after passing Cape Mesurada its velo 
 city is increased to 50 m. The S. connecting current is 
 supposed to be united to the Brazil current, but this is not 
 certainly known. It flows from about Ion. 40 W. in a S.E. 
 direction, passes the Cape of Good Hope at the distance of 
 about 150 to 180 m., and enters the Indian Ocean, where 
 
ATLANTIC OCEAN 
 
 245 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN 
 
 traces of it are found 2000 m. beyond the Cape. The S. At 
 lantic, or S. African current originates N. of the Cape of 
 Good Hope, from which it flows in a N.W. direction, at a 
 rate of from 15 to 30 m. a day, and eventually merges into 
 the Equatorial current. Cape Horn current flows constantly 
 from the Antarctic and S. Seas into the Atlantic Ocean, its 
 general direction being E.N.E. and N.E. Its velocity off 
 Tierra del Fuego is from 12 to 15 m. per day, but in other 
 parts it attains a velocity of 52 and 56 m. per day. In the 
 vicinity of the coast its average rate is about 24 m. per day. 
 Rennet s current commences near Cape Finisterre, and, run 
 ning along the N. coast of Spain, turns to the N. and N.W. 
 along the W. coast of France, and traverses the English and 
 Irish Channels ; it then passes Cape Clear in Ireland, and 
 about Ion. 20 W. bends round, and, proceeding S., joins the 
 N. African current. Its velocity is about 24 to 28 m. per 
 day. The Arctic current is believed to originate in the masses 
 of ice which surround the N. pole, whence it runs along the 
 E. coast of Greenland to Cape Farewell ; having doubled this 
 Cape, it flows up the W. coast of Greenland to about lat. 66 
 N., when it turns to the S. along the coast of Labrador. 
 Arriving at the N. end of Newfoundland, it sends a branch 
 through the Strait of Belle Isle, the main stream passing be 
 tween the great and outer bank of Newfoundland, and event 
 ually joining the Gulf stream between lat. 44 and 47 N. 
 Immense masses of ice are borne S. by this current from the 
 polar seas, and either strewn along the coast of Greenland, 
 or carried into warmer regions, where they gradually dissolve 
 and disappear. Many hundred icebergs have been seen at 
 one time borne along by this current, and it has been calcu 
 lated that 20,000 sq. m. of drift ice are annually brought by it 
 along the coast of Greenland to Cape Farewell. Besides these 
 great and enduring currents, there are many of a temporary 
 character, of small extent, and of merely local influence ; these 
 are the periodical currents occasioned by tides, monsoons, and 
 other long-continued winds, and temporary currents arising 
 from similar causes. 
 
 Winds. The winds of the Atlantic, unlike its aqueous cur 
 rents, are not peculiar to that ocean, but identical with those 
 that prevail in the same latitudes in the other seas around the 
 globe. The most remarkable of these are the perennial or 
 trade-winds, which blow constantly in one direction, namely, 
 from E. to W., or nearly so. They extend generally to 28 
 on each side of the equator, but are divided by a tract of sea, 
 usually occupying a width of from six to eight degrees of lati 
 tude, in which calms and variable winds prevail. The track 
 of the trade-winds to the N. of this zone, which is almost al 
 ways found on the N. side of the equator, is called the region 
 of the N.E. trade-wind, from blowing one or two points N. 
 of E. ; that to the S., the region of the S.E. trade-wind, from 
 blowing S. of E. The N.E. trade-wind blows with less steadi 
 ness than the S.E., but towards the W. India Islands it keeps 
 generally steady between E. and N. E. The trade-winds are 
 constant only at a considerable distance from land, and become 
 more steady the greater the expanse of water over which they 
 blow. They are exceedingly gentle, as well as equable, never 
 rising into squalls, but always maintaining a uniform rate ; and 
 as the sea is but little moved by their action, sailing in these 
 regions is exceedingly pleasant. The voyage from the Cape 
 de Verde Islands or the Canaries, both of which are, accord 
 ing to the season, alternately situated in the very centre of the 
 region of the N.E. trade-winds, to the W. Indies or Gulf of 
 Mexico, is thus the most agreeable that can be imagined, and 
 so safe, that it might be accomplished without the slightest 
 apprehension of danger in an open boat, though a distance of 
 several thousand miles. Beyond the limits of the trade-winds, 
 in the temperate climates of both hemispheres, are the regions 
 of the S.W. and N.W. winds; the former prevailing in the N. 
 hemisphere, the latter in the S. The most desolating hurri- 
 can^es of the Atlantic occur in the region of the W. Indies ; 
 t^ey generally commence E. of the Leeward Islands, blow in 
 a W.N.W. direction to about lat. 30 N., then bend round to 
 the N E., forming a segment of a circle, whose beginning is in 
 about lat. 10 or 15 N., and the termination about lat. 45 or 
 50 N. They, however, not unfrequently cross the Gulf of 
 Mexico, and sometimes take other eccentric courses ; but the 
 former is their more usual track. Their breadth has been 
 estimated at 600 and 1000 m. The W. India hurricanes 
 generally occur in the months of August, September, and 
 
 October, rarely in June or July. It must be observed, how 
 ever, generally, that both the space and position occupied by 
 the various regions of wind in the Atlantic, though stated 
 above with some precision, are in reality subject to Consider 
 able changes in both respects, according to the season of the 
 year ; the trade-wind advancing towards the N. with the pro 
 gress of the sun in the N. hemisphere, and receding when it 
 passes the equator on its return to the S. hemisphere. 
 
 Tracks of Vessels Outward Voyages. Vessels sailing from 
 Europe to the W. coasts of N. America keep to the N. of the 
 
 j Gulf stream, which, if entered, would greatly retard their 
 voyage, making a difference against them of probably about a 
 fortnight. The usual and best course is between lat. 40 and 
 50 N., by which not only is the Gulf stream avoided, but, 
 on nearing the American continent, the advantage of the coun 
 ter current, which runs from Newfoundland to Cape Hatteras 
 and Florida, is obtained. Vessels going to the W. Indies, 
 or to the N. parts of S. America, direct their course to the 
 S.W. immediately on reaching the Atlantic, in order to get as 
 quickly as possible into the N.E. trade-winds, carefully avoid 
 ing, however, too near an approach to the African coast, where, 
 between Cape Nun and Cape Blanco, both tide and wind set 
 in towards the shore, and have caused the destruction of many 
 vessels that had come unguardedly within their influence. In 
 going to S. America, S. of Cape St. Roque, vessels traverse 
 the line between Ion. 18 and 23 W., keeping thus far to the 
 E. in order to avoid getting into the Guiana current, which 
 would carry them to the N. W., or nearly in an opposite direc 
 tion to that desired. Having passed the line about the point 
 specified, they make for the Brazil current, which, carrying 
 them to the S., enables them to reach any part of the coast 
 they choose. In sailing to the E. Indies, vessels now gener 
 ally follow the track to Brazil ; holding S., they pass the rocky 
 island of Trinidad on its W. side, and fall in with the S. con 
 necting, or S. Atlantic current, which carries them E., but 
 wide of the Cape of Good Hope. By this route, the voyage 
 from the English channel to the Cape has been made in 59 
 days, the usual time by other courses being 70 days. 
 
 Return Voyages. On returning from N. America to Europe, 
 the Gulf stream, though flowing towards the latter, is equally 
 avoided as in going out, it having been found that the loss 
 sustained by the tear and wear of vessels in that stormy re 
 gion, was not compensated by the gain in point of time ; they 
 therefore keep to the N. of it in returning, as well as in going 
 out. On returning from the W. ports of the W. Indies, and 
 the ports of Central and S. America on the Caribbean Sea, 
 vessels take the Mona passage, between Hayti and Puerto 
 Eico, and immediately afterwards steer in a N.E. direction, 
 so as to cut the parallel of 40 N., between the meridians of 
 30 and 35 W. Sometimes, however, they return by the 
 Strait of Florida, which having cleared, they sail E. to avoid 
 the Gulf stream, cross the Atlantic S. of the Bermudas, and 
 subsequently either pass between Flores and the other Azores, 
 or keep to the E. of the group. On returning from S. Ame 
 rica, vessels keep near the coasts, in order to take advantage 
 of the periodical and variable winds which prevail there. On 
 crossing the equator, they steer for the Azores, and sail as 
 
 j close with the N.E. passage wind as they did with the S.E. 
 when proceeding to the S. hemisphere. In coming from tlio 
 E. Indies or Cape of Good Hope, vessels sail with the S.E. 
 passage wind to St. Helena, and crossing the line about Ion. 20 
 
 j W., steer for the Azores, where they fall into the tracks from 
 the W. Indies to Europe. 
 
 In the centre of the Atlantic is a vast eddy or whirl, caused 
 by the revolution of the currents, which is thickly covered 
 
 i with a sea-weed, called Sargasso or gulf-weed (Fucus natans), 
 
 I in many places so closely matted as to retard greatly the pro 
 gress of vessels. The space covered by this weed is upwards 
 of 260,000 sq. m., extending from the meridian of 30 W. to 
 the Bahama Islands, between the parallels of 20 and 45 N. 
 Much of this weed is floated down the Gulf stream from the 
 Mexican Sea. It was formerly supposed to have been torn 
 
 : from the bottom of the ocean, but there is now good reason to 
 
 i believe that it propagates in the sea. and vegetates floating. 
 
 In the S. Atlantic there are evident signs of volcanic action, 
 rocks and islands having from time to time appeared and dis- 
 
 ; appeared. 
 
 fee. At both extremities of the Atlantic, vast masses of 
 ice are accumulated in a variety of shapes and sizes. The 
 
ATLAS (Mouxr) 
 
 246 
 
 ATOOI 
 
 most remarkable are icebergs, ice-fields, and ice-floes. The 
 first are often several miles in circumference, and rise from 
 180 to 200 ft. above the sea, with seven times as much below, 
 as floating ice shows only one-eighth of its bulk above the 
 surface of the water. These ice islands have the appearance 
 of chalk cliffs, with a glittering surface, and emerald green 
 fractures: pools of water of azure blue lie on their surface, or 
 fall in cascades into the sea. The icebergs come to a lower 
 latitude by 10 from the S. pole than from the N., being often 
 seen near the Cape of Good Hope. They appear also to be 
 larger; one observed by Captain D Urville was 13 in. long, 
 with perpendicular sides 100 ft. high ; but they are more rare 
 in the S. than in the N. Atlantic. The ice-fields are generally 
 of much greater extent than the bergs, though, as their name 
 would imply, not nearly so thick, seldom exceeding from 10 
 to 40 feet. Some of them extend 100 m. in length, with an 
 average breadth of 50 m. These immense masses of ice chill 
 the winds that blow from them, and cool the surrounding seas 
 to a distance of 40 or 50 m. on every side. Sometimes they 
 acquire a rotary motion of great velocity, and dash against 
 each other with tremendous violence. The floe-ice is of com 
 paratively small size, rarely extending to a quarter of a mile 
 in circumference. 
 
 Fish are met with in greater variety and abundance in the 
 N. Atlantic than in the S. In the latter there are only whale- 
 fisheries, while in the former there are the cod-fisheries of 
 Newfoundland, the herring-fisheries of Great Britain, the pil 
 chard-fisheries in the British Channel, and the whale-fisheries 
 of Greenland, &c. (Lyell s Geology; Mrs. Sommerville s 
 Physical Geography; Johnston s Physical Atlas; Eitter s 
 Lex.; Sailing Directions.) 
 
 ATLAS (MOUNT), an extensive mountain-system in N. 
 Africa, the S. extremity of which commences near Cape Nun, 
 in lat. 28 46 N., on the Atlantic Ocean, and, after traversing 
 the kingdoms of Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis, terminates on 
 the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, about Ion. 11 E. The 
 general course of these mountains is from W.S. W. to E.N.E. ; 
 but they do not, like most other systems, consist of one con 
 tinuous and definite range, but of a congeries of elevations ; 
 sometimes isolated, and sometimes connected, with endless 
 branches and offsets, irregularly diffused over nearly the whole 
 N.W. extremity of Africa. The Atlas Mountains have been 
 divided generally into two principal and parallel ranges, 
 running \V. to E., the one called the Greater, and the other 
 the Lesser Atlas ; the latter lying towards the Mediterranean, 
 and the former adjoining the Sahara or Great Desert, from 
 which it is separated by low sandy hills. The entire course 
 of the principal chain may be reckoned at about 1500 m., 
 measured from Cape Nun, on the Atlantic, to Cape Bon or 
 lias Iddah, on the Mediterranean Sea. Little is known of 
 the heights of the Atlas Mountains ; in some places, however, 
 they rise above the line of perpetual congelation, and, in 
 many, approach it. The highest ascertained elevation is that 
 of Miltsin in Morocco, stated, by Capt. Washington, to be 
 1 1,400 ft. high ; but their general altitude is moderate, as they 
 do not shoot up into lofty peaks like the Alps, but consist 
 principally of broad ridges and rounded summits. Of the 
 geology, botany, and mineralogy of the Atlas range, we know 
 hardly anything. As respects its geology, our information 
 supplies only die fact, that granite, gneiss, and schist, appear 
 on the higher peaks, and the lower parts of the ridges are 
 formed by secondary limestone; while, as to botany, the few 
 travellers who have penetrated these regions tell us, that on 
 the S. side, or side next the desert, the lower ranges are 
 covered with palm-trees, more especially date-trees; hence 
 the name of this region, Beled-el-Jerid [the land of dates]. 
 Higher up, gum-trees, almonds, olives, and other tropical 
 productions, abound; while, on the table-lands, apples, pears, 
 cherries, walnuts, apricots, &c., are grown in great quantities. 
 Higher up still occur forests of immense pines. The mineral 
 riches of the Atlas, so far as known, are silver, antimony, 
 lead, copper, iron, rock-salt, saltpetre, &c. The precious 
 metals, however, are confined to the province of Suse in 
 Morocco, but even there they do not appear to abound ; the 
 principal silver mine is situated about 150 m. S. W. from 
 Morocco. Three hundred miles N.E. from the same place, 
 a re mines of antimony and lead; copper is also plentiful in 
 the same vicinity, though there seems but little activity on 
 the part of the inhabitants in availing themselves of these 
 
 resources. From the N. and W. slopes flow the principal 
 rivers of Morocco and Algeria to the Atlantic Ocean and 
 Mediterranean Sea; and from their S. slopes flow numerous 
 streams, nearly all of which are absorbed in the sands of 
 the Sahara. 
 
 The Atlas Mountains are infested by large and fierce lions, 
 and abound in antelopes, monkeys, and porcupines. The 
 inhabitants consist of various tribes of the aboriginal race, 
 called the Berbers, a fierce and warlike people, who have 
 always maintained an entire independence of all the neigh 
 bouring powers, with whom they are frequently at war. The 
 name Atlas is said to have been derived from Atlas, King of 
 Mauritania, who, according to ancient fable, having been 
 transformed into a mountain, was feigned to support the 
 heavens on his shoulders. From the name of this mountain 
 region came the name of the adjoining or Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 These mountains also possess a classical celebrity from the 
 frequent mention made of them by the ancients, particularly 
 Herodotus, and the exaggerated notions which they seem to 
 have entertained of their elevation. The Atlas, however, of 
 the writer just named, was a single isolated hill, probably the 
 highest of those at Cape Ghir or Gheer, as seen from the 
 Atlantic; although several Greek authorities give the name 
 to the branch terminating at Cape Spartel, at the Strait of 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 ATLIXCO, a tn. Mexico, state, Puebla, in a very fertile 
 district, celebrated for its fruits and its fine climate; 20 m. S. 
 La Puebla de los Angeles. 
 
 ATOKO, one of the smallest of the Ionian Islands; lat. 
 38 30 N.; Ion. 20 43 E.; 5m. N.N.E. from the N. extre 
 mity of Ithaca, and 9 m. S.S.E. from the nearest S. point of 
 St. Maura. It is about 2 m. in length, and 1 m. in breadth. 
 
 ATOLL, a singular description of coral formation peculiai 
 to the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It consists of a ring of 
 coral, sometimes circular, but more frequently oval, varying 
 from 2 to 90 m. in diameter; about a quarter of a mile in 
 breadth, oftener less, and from 6 to 12 ft. in height, enclosing 
 a lagoon or portion of the ocean in its centre. The appear 
 ance of these annular reefs is equally striking and beautiful. 
 The ring is often covered with lofty cocoa-nut trees or other 
 palms ; while round this band of verdure is spread a beach of 
 glittering white sand, whose outer margin is encircled with a 
 ring of snow-white breakers, beyond which are the dark 
 waters of the ocean. The inner beach, also composed of 
 white sand, encloses the still clear waters of the lagoon, which, 
 when illuminated by a vertical sun, is of a most vivid green. 
 The depth of the lagoon varies from 20 to 50 fathoms; but 
 outside, the walls of the ring plunge at once into the un 
 fathomable depths of the ocean, no bottom having been found, 
 in some instances with a line of 1 m. long, within 200 or 
 300 yards of the reef. Ships often find safe anchorage in the 
 tranquil waters of these lagoons, to which access is obtained 
 by gaps or openings on the leeward side, where only they 
 occur, the windward presenting always a high and unbroken 
 wall ; the coral insects, by which it is reared, working with 
 greatest vigour, activity, and perseverance on the stormy side 
 of their structure, the agitation of the sea supplying them 
 with a greater abundance of food than they can find in the 
 still waters to leeward. Many of the atolls contain inhabited 
 islands; and as they are generally fertile, and the waters of 
 the lagoon in which they are situated swarm with fish, the 
 inhabitants have the means of subsistence in great abundance. 
 The most remarkable assemblage of atolls in the Pacific 
 Ocean, is Dangerous Archipelago, E. of the Society Islands, 
 which consists of 80, generally of a circular form, surrounding 
 very deep lagoons, and separated from each other by profound 
 depths; and the Caroline Archipelago, N. of the equator, 
 which extends its atolls in 60 groups over 1000 m. In the 
 Indian Ocean, the most perfect specimens of this peculiar 
 formation are the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagos (which 
 see). (Horsburgh ; Lyell s Geology; London Geo. Journal, 
 vol. ii.) 
 
 ATOOI, or TAUAJ, one of the Sandwich Islands, lat. 
 (E. point) 22 8 N. ; Ion. 159 2W W. (R.) ; about 240 m. 
 N.N.W. Hawai or Owyhee. It is of an oval form, 40 m. 
 long, and more than 24 m. wide at the broadest part ; area, 
 between 600 and 700 sq. m. It slopes on all sides from an 
 elevated centre to the sea, where it terminates in a high coast. 
 Numerous wide, fertile, and well-cultivated valleys run from. 
 
ATOUGIA 
 
 217 
 
 ATTIKE A*D VIOTIA 
 
 the shore inland. The only anchorage is the roadstead at 
 Waime a, on the S. coast of the island. The number of in 
 habitants is stated to be 10,000. 
 
 ATOUGIA, a tn. and par. Portugal, prov. Estremadura, 
 dist. Torres Vedras, at a short distance from the Atlantic, and 
 27 m. W. Santarem. It was a place of some consequence 
 during the occupation of the famous Torres Vedras lines by 
 the British. Pop. 1940. 
 
 ATRAN, a river, Sweden, rising in a small lake near 
 lat. 58 N. ; Ion. 13 35 E., and flowing N. for a few miles ; 
 then turning rapidly S.S.W., it forms Lake Asunden, and 
 after receiving several affluents, falls into the Kattegat at 
 Falkenberg. 
 
 ATRAN I, a vil. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, about 
 1 in. N. Amain, on the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. 2200. 
 
 ATRATO, a river, S. America, New Granada, dep. 
 Choco, having its sources in the mountains of the latter 
 district; lat. 5 12 N. ; Ion. 76 43 W. It flows nearly due 
 N., and, after a course of about 220 m. in length, falls into 
 the Bay of Choco, the most S. part of the Gulf of Darien ; 
 lat. 8 10 N.; Ion. 77 <Y W. The country drained by the 
 Atrato and its affluents is extremely mountainous, and does 
 not contain a level tract of any extent, except at its mouth. 
 Considerable quantities of gold are obtained from its sands ; 
 and several Europeans have settled on its banks, to prosecute 
 gold- washing. It is navigable for a short distance only from 
 its mouth by large vessels. It was at one time believed 
 that a water communication, by the Atrato, existed between 
 the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans ; but this is now known to be 
 incorrect. The junction was said to be effected by a canal 
 connecting the sources of the Atrato and the San Juan, which 
 latter river falls into the Pacific Ocean, on the W. coast of 
 New Granada; but it has been ascertained that no such canal 
 exists, and that the sources of these two rivers, though near, 
 are in no way connected. 
 
 ATRI, or ATRIA [anc. Hadria, or Hatria Picenci], a tn. 
 Naples, prov. Abruzzo Ultra I., dist. of, and 18 m. S.E. 
 Teramo, 11 m. N. Civita di Penne, and 5 m. from the coast 
 of the Adriatic; on a steep hill. It is the seat of a bishop, 
 and has a cathedral, parish church, several convents, a theo 
 logical academy, two hospitals, and a mont-de-piete. It is a 
 place of great antiquity, and was at one time surrounded by 
 walls ; but these, together with the town itself, have fallen ! 
 into decay. It is said, though on questionable authority, to 
 have given its name, Hatria or Hadria, to the Adriatic. There 
 are some remarkable excavations in a hill near the town, con 
 sisting of a number of chambers, wrought out with the greatest 
 regularity; but to what purpose they were appropriated is 
 unknown. They are supposed to be of very remote con 
 struction. The Emperor Adrian was originally from this 
 city. Pop. 6000. 
 
 ATR1PALDA, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra, 
 dist of, and about 1 m. E. Avellino. It has a collegiate and 
 parish church, and several manufactories of cloth, paper, 
 nails, iron, and copper, and a considerable trade in pork. 
 Pop. 3797. 
 
 ATTAH, a tn., N.W. Africa, 1. bank, Niger, 260 m. from 
 its embouchure; lat. 7 15 N.; Ion. 8 30 E. It is situated 
 close to the water s edge, in an elevated situation, on a fine 
 green sward, and has a beautiful appearance. It is clean, of 
 great extent, and surrounded with fine trees and shrubs. 
 
 ATTAKEMBO, one of the smallest of the Peejee Islands ; 
 lat. 18 25 S.;lon. 179 W. 
 
 ATTANAGH, a par. Ireland, Queen s co., and co. Kil 
 kenny; 2561 ac. Pop. (1841), 919. 
 
 ATTARAM, a river in the Tenasserim provinces, having 
 its source in the lofty range of mountains that separate the 
 Tenasserim coast from Siam Proper. It flows in a N.N.W. 
 direction, and falls into the Gulf of Martaban, at Moehnyne 
 or Moulmein. opposite the N. end of the island of Balu, in 
 lat. 16 25 N.; Ion. 97 37 E., having a course of about 
 92 m. It flows through a teak-clothed valley, formed by 
 ranges of sandstone and limestone hills ; and on its banks may 
 he seen sections of the secondary strata, composing beds of 
 soft blue clay with ironstone nodules, and the shales of the 
 coal basins, accompanied by a coarse calcareous conglomerate. 
 (Jour. Ind. Archip.) 
 
 ATTENBOROUGH, a par. England, co. Notts; 1930 ac.; 
 5 m. S.W. Nottingham, intersected by the Nottingham Canal, 
 
 the Birmingham and Derby Railway, and rivers Trent and 
 Erewash. Henry Ireton, Cromwell s son-in-law, was bovn 
 here. Pop. (1841), 1036. 
 
 ATTERCLIFFE-cuM-DARNALLA, a considerable vil. 
 and chapelry, England, co. York, W. Riding; 1^ m. E. 
 Sheffield ; situated on an acclivity, above the river Don. It 
 has two principal streets, which are tolerably well kept. The 
 whole village, which is straggling and irregular, is about 
 three-quarters of a mile in length. The houses are chiefly 
 brick, and generally well built. The supply of water is in 
 adequate, and the quality indifferent. It is lighted with gas, 
 and is, on the whole, improving ; it is also increasing in extent. 
 The church, a handsome Gothic edifice, was built between 
 1822 and 1826, at an expense of 14,000. There are also an 
 Independent and a Methodist chapel, and two schools, the 
 town school for boys, erected in 1779; and the girls national 
 school, erected in 1824, both of which are numerously attended. 
 The inhabitants are employed in the manufacture of cutlery, 
 and spades, scythes, anvils, &c., for the Sheffield manufac 
 turers. Pop. of chapelry (1841), 4156. 
 
 ATTERSEE, or KAMMEKSEE, a lake, Upper Austria, 
 40 m. S.W. Linz, about 12 m. in length, N. to S., and 3 m. in 
 breadth. The river Ager flows from its N. extremity. It 
 abounds in fish. The decaying village of Attersee, once cap. 
 of the district, is situated on the N.W. side of the lake. 
 
 ATTICA. See ATTIKE. 
 
 ATTIGNY [anc. Attiniacum], a com. and tn. France, 
 dep. Ardennes (Champagne), 30 m. N. Rheirns, 1. bank, Aisne. 
 Manufactures : cloth, shoes, and biscuits. It has also worsted- 
 mills, breweries, tanneries, and some trade in slates, coal, wood, 
 &c. Its vast and splendid palace, of which some remains still 
 exist, was often the residence of the Kings of France in early 
 times. Here, too, in 786, Wittikind, a bold Saxon chief, 
 received baptism, in presence of Charlemagne, his conqueror 
 and godfather; and here, in 822, Louis Debonnaire was 
 obliged to do public penance for the alleged maltreatment of his 
 brothers. Pop. 1162. 
 
 ATTIKE and VIOTIA [anc. Attica, and Bceotia}, a nome 
 or prov. Greece, Roumelia, partly insular and partly mainland. 
 The insular parts consist generally of the islands of Salamis, 
 ^Egina, and Angistri (ivliich see). The mainland part joins 
 Phokis and Phthiotis on the W. and N., and is connected with 
 the Morea, on the S., by part of the narrow tract which forms 
 the Isthmus of Corinth. In all other directions it is washed 
 by the sea by the channels Talandi and Negropont, with the 
 intervening Euripus, on the N.E. ; the Archipelago on the E. ; 
 the Saronic Gulf, or Gulf of ^Egina, on the S.E. ; and the Gulf 
 of Lepanto or Corinth, on the S.W. This nome, the territory 
 of which anciently formed the independent states of Thebes 
 and Athens, is now divided into the three eparchs or dioceses 
 of Attike, Thiva, and Viotia; which again are subdivided into 
 dome s or parishes, of which Attike has 16, Thiva 10, and 
 Viotia 9. The capitals of the respective eparchs are Athens, 
 Thebes, and Livadia. The territory is broken throughout by 
 a succession of lofty ridges thrown off from the Pindus, and 
 occasionally rising into mountains of considerable altitude. 
 Of these, the principal are Hymettus in the S.E. of Attike , 
 Fames on its N., and Cithaeron on its W. border; Helicon in 
 Thiva; and, in the N.W. of Viotia, the loftiest and most cele 
 brated of all, Mount Parnassus, or Liakura, 7570 ft. high. 
 The principal river is the Gayrios or N. Cephissus, which, in 
 the lower part of its course, flows through a spacious fertile 
 plain, and falls into Lake Topolias. This lake, the ancient 
 Copais, notwithstanding of its receiving this river, with 
 smaller streams, and having no visible outlet for its waters, 
 continues somewhat unaccountably to be little more than a 
 marsh, with some deep pools. After heavy rains, however, 
 it is subject to overflowings ; one of which, of unusual magni 
 tude, is supposed by some to be fabled under the name of 
 Deucalion s Flood. The only other rivers deserving of note 
 are the Asopo, which flows E. into the channel of Negropont, 
 and the classic streams of the Ilissus and Cephissus, the for 
 mer washing the E. part, and the latter watering the spacious 
 plain of Athens. The minerals of the district are of great cele 
 brity, and the working of them might still, it is thought, yield 
 profitable returns. In ancient times, Athens owed much of 
 its wealth to the silver mines of Laurium, situated in the pen 
 insula which terminates in Cape Colonna; and the beautiful 
 white marble in which its architects and statuaries embodied 
 
ATTINGHAUSEN 
 
 AUBE 
 
 their glorious conceptions, lies inexhaustible in the mountains 
 The nome, as a whole, is of indifferent fertility, its rugged 
 nature adapting it more for pasture than for tillage. The chief 
 exception is to be found in Boeotia, whose rich plains are almost 
 associated in our minds with the idea of fertility. Tlirougl 
 out the territory the most celebrated vegetable products con 
 tinue to be, as before, the vine and the olive. The modern 
 province embraces the whole of ancient Attica, and the greater 
 part of Boeotia. 
 
 ATTINGHAUSEN, or ETTIGHUSEN, a vil. Switzerland, 
 can. Uri, 1 m. S.W. Altdorf, 1. bank, Reuss. On a rising 
 ground in the vicinity, near the pretty little church, are the 
 ruins of the castle of the Masters of Attinghausen. It was 
 the dwelling-place of Walter Furst, one of the founders of the 
 Swiss confederacy. Pop. 507. 
 
 ATTLEBOROUGH, a market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Norfolk, W. division, on the London road, 15 m. S.W. Nor 
 wich, in the midst of a flat, open country, well wooded, and 
 highly cultivated. The TOWN consists of one principal street, 
 upwards of a mile in length, built on each side of the road. 
 The houses are not constructed on any regular plan, but some 
 of them are well built, and all are of brick. The town is sup 
 plied with water from wells ; it is not lighted. The church, 
 the only architectural object in the town deserving notice, is 
 an ancient cruciform structure, with a square embattled tower, 
 built in the commencement of the 15th century. It con 
 tains many interesting monuments. There are in the town 
 places of worship for Primitive Methodists, Baptists, and the 
 Society of Friends ; and a large new national school, in which 
 about 200 children are taught. Market-day, Thursday, chiefly 
 for corn. Two fairs annually. Attleborough is a very ancient 
 town, having been a place of considerable importance during 
 
 the Saxon era. The PARISH comprises 5247 assessable ac. 
 
 Pop. (1850), about 2000. 
 
 ATTLEBRIUGE, par. Eng., Norfolk; 810 ac. Pop. 
 (1841), 94. 
 
 ATTOCK, or ATAC, a fort, enclosing a small tn. Punjab, 
 on a rock, 1. bank, Indus, about 1 J m. below the confluence 
 of the Cabool,. 200 m. N.W. by N. Lahore; lat. 33 54 N. ; 
 Ion. 72 18 E. ; on the line of the great route between Af 
 ghanistan and N. India. Attock commands the entrance from 
 the Punjab into the Khyber Pass, by which it is said Alexander 
 the Great, Tamerlane, and Nadir Shah, in different ages, have 
 crossed the Indus and invaded Hindoostan. During the mili 
 tary operations against the Afghans in 1841-42, the British 
 forces frequently marched on the same line. The former fort 
 and town of Attock, built by Akbar in 1581, were swept away 
 by a sudden and tremendous inundation of the Indus in the 
 latter end of June or beginning of July 1841, when hundreds 
 of other towns and villages were also carried away, and many 
 thousands of human beings perished. Both town and fort 
 have been since rebuilt. The Indus at this spot, says Baron 
 Hiigel, is a clear, rapid, but unimportant stream, seven-eighths 
 of its sandy bed being quite dry at this season of the year. 
 Both banks are steep ; on the N. they soon become nearly 
 level, but on the S. side, on the contrary, they increase in 
 steepness, and lofty hills arise, to all appearance, from the 
 river itself. The banks, which rise abruptly on both sides 
 from the sandy bed, are about 80 ft. high above the level of the 
 water. The bridge, and the river in its present state, may be 
 from 40 to 45 fathoms across, and the stream in the middle 
 about three deep, but the breadth between the two shores 
 must be at least 300. During the rainy season the river is 
 tilled from bank to bank, the waters rising at this time as 
 much as 50 ft. ; when the bridge, which is admirably contrived, 
 and made of the very best timber, is taken to pieces, the boats 
 being employed to navigate the stream. (Travels in the 
 Punjab.) Other authorities give 30 ft. for the lowest, and 80 ft. 
 for the greatest depth of the river. On the opposite bank from 
 Attock are a large fort and village named Khyrabad, said by 
 some to have been founded by Akbar ; by others, by Nadir 
 Shah. The pop. of Attock is estimated about 2000, though 
 it once was much more. (Hiigel s Travels ; Thornton s 
 Gazetteer.) 
 
 ATTRI, or ATTREE, a river, Hindoostan, presid. Bengal, 
 formed by an offset of the Teesta ; lat. 26 22 N. ; Ion. 8848 E. 
 It flows S., passes near Dinagepoor, traverses dist. Kajshahye 
 flowing S.E., expands into numerous marshes and small lakes, 
 and falls into an offset of the Brahmapootra; lat. 23 59 N.; 
 
 Ion. 89 45 E.; 60 m. W.N.VV. Dacca; total course, 252 m.; 
 navigable in the wet season for boats of 30 to 40 tous. 
 
 ATTU, or ATTOU, the most W. of the Aleutian Islands ; 
 in lat.(W. point) 52 58 N.; Ion. 172 17 W. (R.); nearly 70 m. 
 in length, and about 30 in breadth. It has the same repulsive 
 and sterile aspect as the other islands of this chain. 
 
 ATTWOOD S CAY, or SAMANA, one of the Bahama 
 Islands ; lat. 23 5 5" N. ; Ion. 73 49 W. ; 10 m. long, S.W. 
 to N.E., and about 1 m. broad. 
 
 ATTYMASS, par. Irel., Mayo ; 11,154 ac. Pop. (1841), 
 3435. 
 
 ATWICK, a par. and township, England, co. York, E. 
 Eiding; 2100 ac. Pop. (1841), 300. 
 
 AU, the name of nearly 140 villages in Austria ; one of 
 them, in the circle of Briick, of some importance, from its 
 
 extensive works for making coke, and its iron-foundries. 
 
 Numerous other places, also, particularly in Bavaria, Baden, 
 and Prussia, have the same name. 
 
 AUBAGNE [Latin, Albania, Aubania], a tn. France, 
 dep. Bouches-du- Rhone (Provence), on the Huveaune, 10 m. 
 E. Marseilles. The old town stood on the top and S. side of 
 a hill of shale, overlaid by a thick layer of pudding-stone, but 
 has been abandoned for the new town, which lies below, on 
 both sides of the great road from Marseilles to Toulon, and is 
 built with some degree of regularity and elegance. It has 
 numerous cloth manufactories, a magnesia-work, potteries, 
 distilleries, tanneries, paper-mills, &c. ; and a trade in wine, 
 fruits, pot-herbs, and the products of the different works 
 already mentioned. Various antiquities have been found in 
 the neighbourhood. Pop. 3887. 
 
 AUBE [anc. Alba], a river, France, rising in a range of 
 hills near the village of Praslay, at the extremity of the wood 
 of Auberive, dep. Haute Marne, and running S.E. to N.W. 
 through the dep. of Aube, to which it gives its name. It 
 becomes navigable at Arcis, 22 m. from its embouchure, and 
 falls into the Seine a little above Marcilly, its whole course 
 
 being about 113 m. AUBE is also the name of a small river 
 
 of Champagne and Picardy, which flows into the Oise ; and 
 of two villages in France, the one in Lorraine, and the other 
 in Normandy. 
 
 AUBE, a dep. France, formed out of the S. part of Cham 
 pagne and a small portion of Burgundy, and comprised between 
 lat. 47 55 and 48 42 N., and Ion. 3 24 and 4 48 E. ; 
 bounded, N. by dep. Marne, E. by Haute Mame, S.E. by Cote- 
 d Or, S. and S.W. by Yonne, and W. by Seine-et-Marne ; 
 greatest length, 72 m. E. to W. ; breadth, 57 ; area, 609,000 
 hectares, or 1 ,504,839 ac., equal to 2351 sq. m. The surface 
 is undulating, with few hills of great height, and consists 
 generally of a slight covering of loam, resting on a subsoil of 
 chalk. It is not of equal quality throughout. In the N. and 
 N.W. it is extremely sterile, producing only scanty crops of 
 oats, rye, and buckwheat. The land is bare of trees, and 
 almost of vegetation ; large tracts, deemed incapable of repay 
 ing the expense of cultivation, are allowed to lie waste. In 
 the S.E., again, the soil is remarkable for its fertility. It 
 consists of an alluvial deposit of great depth. This district 
 abounds in all the ordinary grain and pulse crops, yields large 
 quantities of hemp of the finest quality, is well planted with 
 vineyards, and possesses extensive forests, which, after satis 
 fying the local consumption, leave a large surplus of wood and 
 charcoal for the supply of Paris. The whole arable land of 
 the department is 983,928 ac. ; meadows, 93,575 ac. ; vine 
 yards, 57,270 ac. ; wood, 199,132 ac. ; orchards, nursery- 
 grounds, and gardens, 9583 ac. ; lakes, &c., 5695 ac. ; heath 
 and uncultivated land, 55,102 ac. About 122,222 pipes of 
 wine are produced annually, one-half of which is exported. 
 The best wines are those of Riceys, Bar-sur-Aube, Bouilly, 
 Laine-au-Bois, and Javernaut. Horses, horned cattle, and 
 sheep are reared to a limited extent. Much attention is paid 
 to poultry, and the rearing of bees. Small game, wild boars, 
 stags, and roebucks are plentiful. The department is traversed 
 S.E. to N.W. by the river Aube (which see), from which it 
 derives its name. Among the streams of less importance are 
 the Armance, the Mogne, and the Vanne. In the N. parts are 
 about 100 tarns or ponds, which furnish carp and other fish. 
 
 Stone quarries exist in various parts, and chalk and marble 
 are also worked, but in minerals the department is poor. The 
 principal manufactures consist of cotton and woollen stuffs, 
 and yarn, hosiery, particularly nightcaps and stockings ; flan 
 
AUBEL 
 
 249 
 
 AUCH 
 
 nels, blankets, ribbons, hardware, and earthenware ; brandy, 
 beet-root sugar, glass, leather, and paper. In 1844 there were 
 2500 looms, and 3500 workmen occupied in the weaving of 
 cotton, producing about 30,000 pieces of cloth ; 5400 looms, 
 employing 3600 work-people, produced annually 80,000 dozen 
 caps, and 270,000 dozen pairs of stockings. The spinning of 
 wool furnishes yearly about 800.000 Ibs. of yarn, and that of 
 cotton about 1,000,000 Ibs. of yarn. The tanneries produce 
 yearly about 110,000 skins of leather. The trade of Aube 
 is principally in grain, wine, brandy, pork, cheese, biscuits, 
 hemp, wool, firewood, and charcoal for Paris, hosiery, cloth, 
 and other articles of manufacture. Capital, Troyes; other 
 towns, Arcis-sur-Aube, Bar-sur-Aube, Bar-sur-Seine, Nogent- 
 sur-Seine, Brienne, where Napoleon was educated, Romilly, 
 and Clairvaux. The dep. of Aube is divided into five arronds. 
 and 26 cans., subdivided into 447 corns. Pop. (1846), 261,881. 
 (Diet. Geo. et Stat. ; French Official Tables.} 
 
 AUBEL, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Liege, 9 m. N. 
 Verviers, with manufactures of woollen cloth and tobacco. 
 It has also spinning-mills, brick and tile works, breweries, 
 freestone quarries, a considerable trade in butter, cheese, and 
 pigs, and an important weekly corn-market, at which the 
 greater part of the province of Liege, and part of that of 
 Limburg, obtain their supplies. Pop. 3260. 
 
 AUBENAS [Latin, Albiniacum], a tn. France, dep. 
 Ardeche (Languedoc), 13 m. S.W. Privas, r. bank, Ardeche, 
 at the foot of the Cevennes. It is picturesquely situated, on 
 a height in a rich country, and surrounded by the volcanic 
 mountains of the Vivarais, but the streets, with one exception, 
 are narrow, crooked, and dirty; the squares small and in 
 elegant ; and the houses, as a whole, irregularly built. It has 
 a court of commerce, a royal college, and a high school. Its old 
 Gothic castle, occupied during the wars of religion alternately 
 by Romanists and Huguenots, is still in good preservation, 
 and now accommodates nearly all the public and municipal 
 offices. Aubenas is the great mart for the sale of the chest 
 nuts of the department, and of the silks of Ardeche. Reeling 
 and throwing silk are carried on extensively. In the town 
 there are manufactures of cotton, coarse cloths, and coloured 
 handkerchiefs; also tanneries, dye-houses, &c., and the banks 
 of the river are lined with corn, oil, paper, and other mills. 
 Aubenas has several important fairs. At two of them silk is 
 sold to the value of 83,000 sterling. Pop. 4262. (Murray s 
 Handbook; Diet. Geo. et Stat.} 
 
 AUBERVILLIERS, or NOTRE-DAME-DES-VERTUS, a 
 vil. France, dep. Seine, 5 m. N. Paris. It has a sugar re 
 finery, and is surrounded with gardens, which help to supply 
 Paris with vegetables. Pop. 2444. 
 
 AUBETERRE, a vil. France, dep. Charente (Perigord), 
 placed in the form of an amphitheatre at the foot and on the 
 slope of a hill, and traversed by the Dronne. The hill is 
 crowned with an ancient castle, and immediately beneath is 
 the parish church. The manufactures are coarse cotton, and 
 paper, and some trade is done in corn. Pop. 672. 
 
 AUBIERE, a tn. France, dep. Puy-de-D6me (Auvergne), 
 2 m. from Clermont. In the vicinity some common red wines 
 are produced. Pop. 3183. 
 
 AUBIGNY. 1, [Latin, AlUniacum,] a tn. France, dep. 
 Cher, 27 m. N. Bourges. It is traversed by the Nero, and is 
 ugly and ill built. It has manufactures of cloth, druggets, 
 serges, and leather, and a considerable trade in a white wool 
 
 known by the name of Sologne. Pop. 2381. There are 
 
 several little towns of the same name in various parts of 
 
 France. 2, A tn. Lower Canada, r. bank, St. Lawrence, 
 
 opposite Quebec. It was laid out, in 1818, in marine villas 
 for the opulent merchants of Quebec, and has a Protestant 
 church, &c. 
 
 AUBIN, a tn. France, dep. Aveyron, 17 m. N.N.E. 
 Villefranche ; consisting chiefly of one long street on the side 
 of a hill. It is supposed to have been built by the Romans, 
 to whom several ancient excavations in the rock are attributed. 
 The district of Aubin is remarkably rich in minerals pyrites, 
 sulphur, alum, but particularly iron and coal, which furnish 
 materials for several blast furnaces, and malleable ironworks, 
 situated chiefly at Decazeville and La Forezie. A consider 
 able quantity of linen is sent into Aubin from the neighbour 
 ing communes, and disposed of principally at its fairs. Pop. 
 
 1537. There are several other small towns and villages 
 
 in France named AUBIN. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AUBIN (ST.), a market tn., isl. Jersey, in a large bay of 
 B same name, opposite St. Ilelier. It consists principally 
 of one street, and contains a parish church, chapel of ease, an 
 endowed meeting-house for Independents, and a Wesleyan 
 Methodist place of worship. The pier, which is commodious 
 and strongly built, projects from a rock, surmounted by a 
 fortress called St. Aubin s Castle. At low water, the rock 
 and harbour are left dry, but at high water there is a depth 
 of 30 ft. within the pier. There are some handsome villas in 
 the vicinity, inhabited mostly by Jersey families. Pop. (1841), 
 2170. (Inglis s Channel Islands.}. 
 
 AUBONNE, or ALPONA, a tn. Switzerland, can. Vaud, 
 on a river of the same name, 12 m. W. Lausanne, and about 
 3 m. from the Lake of Geneva. It has an old church, in which 
 are some curious sepulchral inscriptions. It occupies a delight 
 ful situation, and commands an extensive prospect, including 
 the Lake of Geneva, with Mont Blanc towering in the distance 
 beyond. In this locality are made some of the most esteemed 
 wines in Switzerland. Pop. (Protestants), 1534. 
 
 AUBOURNE, a par. and township, England, co. Lincoln ; 
 3090 ac.; S.W. Lincoln. Pop. (1841), 374. 
 
 AUBURN, tha name of a number of places in the U. States, 
 the most important of which is the capital of Cayuga co., 
 state of New York, situated on the outlet of the Owasco Lake, 
 169 m. N.W. Albany. It is a thriving and beautiful village, 
 and contains some handsome buildings, a theological semin 
 ary, the Auburn female seminary, the Auburn academy, seven 
 churches, belonging to various religious denominations, two 
 banks, and a number of manufactories of various descriptions, 
 ncludiug tanneries, distilleries, and a brewery, and four weekly 
 icwspapers. It is, however, chiefly remarkable for its state- 
 prison, erected with a view to the adoption of a new system of 
 prison discipline, the principal feature of which was solitary 
 confinement, and a total deprivation of social intercourse. 
 Having been found, when pursued in its utmost rigour, to pro 
 duce the most serious effects on the health of the prisoners, and 
 even to render some of them insane, the system, though still 
 partaking largely of its original principle, has been considerably 
 modified, the prisoners being now allowed to work together, 
 but not permitted to hold any conversation. The outer wall 
 of the prison encloses a space of ground 500 ft. square. The 
 principal building, which is within this wall, is of three sides, 
 with a front of 276 ft., each of the sides being 242 ft. long. 
 It contains 555 cells, capable of holding only one person, each 
 being 7 ft. long, 3 j wide, and 7 ft. high. They are well 
 ventilated, and are arranged in five stories, opening into 
 galleries. This part of the building is so constructed, that 
 the slightest whisper in the space in front of the cells can be 
 heard on the ground story. Pop. 5626. 
 
 AUBURN, or ALDBOURNE. 1, A vil. and par. England, 
 him. Selkly, co. Wilts, N.E. Marlborough, formerly a market 
 town, but, being nearly destroyed by fire in 1760, its trade fell 
 off, and the market was discontinued. Area of par. 8060 ac. 
 
 Pop. (1841), 1556. 2, [Formerly called Lislimj,] a hamlet, 
 
 Ireland, par. and barony of Kilkenny West, co. Westmeath, 
 about 6 m. N.E. Athlone, the supposed scene of Goldsmith s 
 poem of the Deserted Village. 
 
 AUBUSSON, a manufacturing tn. France, dep. Creuse, 
 20 m. S.E. Gue>et, in an arid, sterile district, in a mountain 
 gorge, and surrounded by rocks, which give it a very pictur 
 esque appearance. It is traversed by the Creuse ; and con 
 sists of but one street, broad, and well built, is the seat of a 
 court of primary jurisdiction and a communal college, and 
 possesses a theatre, a literary club, and an agricultural society. 
 The principal manufacture is of carpets, of a superior descrip 
 tion ; besides which, cloth, velvet, hats, silk, and thread are 
 made. Tanning and dyeing are carried on ; and a good trade 
 
 is done in salt, wine, and pulse. Pop. 4828. The ARRON- 
 
 DISSEMENT of Aubusson is divided into 1 cantons and 100 
 
 communes; area, 860 sq. m. Pop. (1846), 106,795. 
 
 AUBUSSON is also the name of two villages ; the one, dep. Puy- 
 de-D6me, with pop. 796; and the other, dep. Orme, with 
 pop. 601 . 
 
 AUCH [anc. Elimberis, Ausci\, a city, France, cap. dep. 
 Gers (Gascogne), 42 m. W. Toulouse; lat. 43 38 39" N.; 
 Ion. 35 19" E. (L.) Built in the form of an amphitheatre, 
 on the summit and side of a hill, it presents a very picturesque 
 appearance. The Gers divides it into the upper and the 
 lower town, which communicate with each other by means 
 
 32 
 
AUCHENAIRN 
 
 250 
 
 AUCKLAND 
 
 of a long flight of stairs, of more than 200 steps. The upwards of a mile in length; the houses of which it is formed 
 
 streets are narrow and crooked, but well paved. The Place 
 Royale, in the upper part of the town, is a fine square, ter 
 minated W. by a beautiful promenade, which commands a 
 view of the Pyrenees. The cathedral, founded in 1489, but 
 
 dt-s Uepnrteinenta de la Franc*?. 
 
 not completed till the reign of Louis XIV., is one of the finest 
 Gothic edifices in the S. of France. The vaulted roof, and 
 carved woodwork of the choir, are greatly admired ; and the 
 painted windows, executed by Armand de Moles in 1513, are 
 of exceeding richness and beauty. The hotel of the prefec 
 ture is one of the finest of the public buildings, and the town- 
 house is an elegant structure. The town is the seat of petty 
 courts of justice and a tribunal of commerce, and contains a 
 royal college, a large hospital, a departmental normal school, 
 a scientific seminary with a library of 15,000 volumes, an 
 agricultural society, a museum, a drawing academy, barracks, 
 and a theatre. The neighbouring district yields corn, wine, 
 and brandy, and is famous for its fruits. The principal trade 
 is in wine, wool, quills, brandy of Armagnac, and ship timber; 
 and the manufactures are of coarse woollen and cotton stuffs, 
 thread, worsted velvet, serges, crapes, leather, and hats. In 
 the vicinity, a torquoise mine was formerly worked. Auch 
 is one of the most ancient towns in France, and great numbers 
 of Roman antiquities have been brought to light by means of 
 extensive excavations. Pop. (1846), 7572. 
 
 AUCHENAIRN, a vil. Scotland, co. Lanark, par. Cad- 
 der, about 3 m. N.E. Glasgow. Part of it, called Old Auch- 
 enairn, is of considerable antiquity, and stands near a spot 
 which is supposed to derive its name of The Tombs, from 
 having been used as a burial-place during the plague. The 
 more modern part is of recent construction, and owes its 
 existence to the iron mines which have been opened in its 
 vicinity, and give employment to the greater part of the in 
 habitants. There is an endowed school in the village, but no 
 place of worship. At a short distance S.W. of Auchenairn is 
 Robroyston, where Wallace was betrayed by the fause Men- 
 teath. 
 
 AUCHINLECK, a vil. and par. Scotland, co. Ayr. The 
 VILLAGE, which is 10 m. E. Ayr, and 14 m. S.S.E. Kilmarnock, 
 consists chiefly of a row of houses on each side of the Glasgow 
 
 and Dumfries road. The PARISH is upwards of 20 m. in 
 
 length, and more than 8 in breadth. It abounds in limestone; 
 coal also has been found, and in some places is wrought to a 
 considerable extent. A considerable portion of the pop. subsist 
 by handloom weaving for the Glasgow manufacturers ; the 
 more common fabrics being light silks and muslins. Snuff 
 box making is also a very general employment. Boswell, the 
 biographer of Dr. Johnson, resided in this parish, where he 
 was visited by the great lexicographer on his return from the 
 Journey to the Hebrides. Pop. of par. 1659. 
 
 AUCHTERARDER, a tn. and par. Scotland, co. Perth. 
 The TOWN is IS^m. S.W. Perth, and about ISm.N.E. Stirling, 
 on the public road between these two towns. It consists 
 chiefly of one principal street, broad, and tolerably clean, and 
 
 _ built of stone, roofed with blue slate, and generally two 
 stories high occupying both sides of the highway. It is 
 well supplied with water, and lighted with gas. There are 
 four places of worship in the town, the parish church, the S. 
 and N. U. Presbyterian churches, the latter a 
 handsome Gothic edifice; and the Free Church, 
 built in 1843, and surmounted by a handsome 
 square tower, 75 ft. high ; and four schools, in 
 one of which gratuitous education is given to 22 
 poor children. The principal occupation of the 
 inhabitants is weaving, there being about 500 
 looms in the town, chiefly employed by Glasgow 
 houses in making pullicats, ginghams, tweeds, 
 galas, &c., the last being one of the most import 
 ant articles manufactured in the locality, about 
 20,000 pieces being made annually. The linen 
 manufacture formerly carried on here, was super 
 seded, towards the close of last century, by the 
 cotton fabrics. Auchterarder is a place of con 
 siderable antiquity, and appears to have been of 
 more importance formerly than now. In 1716, 
 the town was burned by order of Prince Charles 
 Edward, who, at the same time, promised indem 
 nification to the inhabitants, the measure being 
 one of some supposed political necessity, but the 
 promise was never fulfilled. In modern times, 
 the parish has acquired notoriety from the litiga 
 tion carried on by the Earl of Kinnoul, the patron, 
 and his presentee, against the presbytery, with 
 reference to the well-known Veto Act ; the termination of 
 which, in favour of his Lordship, led to the formation of the 
 Free Church of Scotland. The par. is 8 m. long by 3 m. 
 broad. Pop. of par. and tn. (1841), 3434. 
 
 AUCHTERDERRAN, par. Scot., Fife ; 920 ac. Pop. 
 (1841), 1143. 
 
 AUCHTERGAVEN, par. Scot., Perth ; 19,000 ac. Pop 
 (1841), 3366. 
 
 AUCHTERHOUSE, par. Scot., Forfar; 3567 ac. Pop. 
 (1841), 769 
 
 AUCHTERLESS, par. Scot., Aberdeen ; 1 6,000 ac. Pop. 
 (1841), 1685. 
 
 AUCHTERMUCHTY, a tn. and par. Scotland, co. Fife. 
 The TOWN is 9 m. W. Cupar, and 24 m. N. Edinburgh ; has three 
 principal streets, and a number of lanes. The houses are of 
 stone, some of two stories in height, but mostly of one only, 
 with clay or earthen floors. The town is well supplied with 
 water, and is lighted with gas ; and has a parish church, built 
 in 1779, a Free church, three U. Presbyterian churches, and 
 five schools, including the parish school. A savings -bank 
 was instituted here in 1821, the deposits in which, in the be 
 ginning of 1850, amounted to 5054. Damasks, dowlas, 
 sheetings, tweels, drills, stripes, checks, &c., are manufac 
 tured in the town and parish to a considerable extent. In 
 these branches of industry, 1516 persons, about one-half fe 
 males, are employed. Distilling and malting are carried on 
 to a considerable extent, the latter considerably improved of 
 late years. Auchtermuchty was erected into a royal burgh 
 by James VI., and although not now recognized as such, it 
 still enjoys all the privileges of that rank. - The PARISH is 
 about 3 m. in length, and from 1 to 2 in breadth. Pop. 
 (1841), of tn. and par. 3356; supposed to be now (1850) about 
 3700. 
 
 AUCHTERTOOL, a small vil. and par. Scotland, co. 
 Fife, at the foot of the Cullalo hills. It contains an extensive 
 brewery, long famed for its ale, porter, and table-beer, the 
 first of which is much used in London. The par. is about 
 
 3 m. long 
 
 broad. Pop. (1841), 530. 
 
 by 1 
 
 AUCKLAND, a maritime co. New S. Wales, 60 m. in 
 length and 40 in breadth ; contains about 1,536,000 ac. It 
 possesses some fertile tracts, the most extensive of which is 
 that comprising the plains of Bega. Pop. upwards of 1000. 
 
 AUCKLAND," a port, and thriving settlement, in New 
 Zealand, isl. of New Ulster; lat. 36 51 30 S.; Ion. 17545 E. 
 (R.) The town consists of two streets, one running down a 
 rather steep little hill, and the other at the foot, running off to 
 the left at a right angle ; from these streets numerous small 
 lanes diverge in various directions. It has a number of good, 
 though small shops, and a great many pot-houses, the latter 
 
AUCKLAND - BISHOP 
 
 251 
 
 AUDE 
 
 accounting for a remark of Capt. Hayes, of H.M.S. Driver, 
 who visited Auckland in 1847, that he had never seen so 
 many drunken men collected together, at one time, in such a 
 small place before. On a hill above the landing-place is the 
 church, an ungainly red building, and close by is the govern 
 or s house. The general appearance of the town is not pre 
 possessing. The harbour is good and safe, and the water of 
 great depth, but the landing-places are exceedingly bad ; and 
 at low water, and even half ebb, are unapproachable, from the 
 extent of soft mud that stretches far out into the sea. The 
 anchorage is abreast of the town. Prevailing winds, S.W. 
 and N.E. Auckland, however, is a thriving place; its cus 
 toms duties in 1848 exceeded 20,000, being nearly 7000 
 more than they were in 1847. Its wealth and population are 
 also rapidly increasing. For this prosperity it is indebted in 
 a great measure to its position, which is on the E. side of a 
 narrow isthmus connecting the N. and S. portions of the 
 island, and thus affording an easy communication with both 
 the E. and W. seas. There is a small rope manufactory in 
 the town. Provisions are tolerably abundant, and the climate 
 agreeable and healthful. The country around is not remark 
 able for fertility, but yields sufficient for the present popula 
 tion of the settlement. A considerable extent is now under 
 cultivation, including some market gardens in the immediate 
 vicinity of the town. Pop. (1844), 2754; in 1847, 5217. 
 
 AUCKLAND -BISHOP. See BISHOP-AUCKLAND. 
 
 AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group of islands in the S. 
 Pacific Ocean, lying S. of New Zealand, discovered August 18, 
 1806, by Abraham Bristow, of the ship Ocean, a S. sea whaler 
 belonging to the Messrs. Enderby; lat. (S. Cape) 50 56 S.; 
 Ion. 166 7 E. (E.) The group consists of Auckland Island, 
 
 Tie 
 
 AUCKLAJSTD 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 30 m. long by 15 in extreme breadth, and several smaller 
 islands, as Adams, Enderby, Rose, Ocean, Ewing, Disappoint 
 ment Island, &c., separated from each other by narrow chan 
 nels; total area, about 100,000 ac. The Auckland Islands 
 are of volcanic formation, and composed chiefly of basalt and 
 greenstone, and have a wild picturesque appearance. They are 
 so highly magnetic in many places, that the group may be com 
 pared to an enormous magnet. The highest land, Mount Eden, 
 is only 1325 ft. above the sea level, and there being few preci 
 pices, the whole surface is covered with vegetation. Dr. Hooker 
 says, A low forest skirts all the shores, succeeded by a broad 
 belt of brushwood, above which, to the summits of the hills, 
 extend grassy slopes. On a closer inspection of the forest, it 
 is found to be composed of a dense thicket of stag-headed trees, 
 so gnarled and stunted by the violence of the gales, as to afford 
 an excellent shelter for a luxuriant undergrowtli of bright 
 green feathery ferns, and several gay-coloured herbs. The 
 woods consist entirely of four or five species of trees, or large 
 
 shrubs, which are here enumerated in the order of their relative 
 abundance, Metrosideros lucida, Dracophyllum longifolium, 
 Panax simplex, Veronica elliptica, and Coprosma fcetidissima. 1 
 For further information on the botany of these islands, see 
 Hooker s flora Antarctica. There are no land quadrupeds 
 except the domestic pig in a wild state. It was introduced by 
 Captain Bristow, and now is exceedingly plentiful. The land 
 birds are tolerably numerous in individuals, but consist of 
 few species, and these chiefly such as are common to New 
 Zealand. Hawks, cormorants, snipes, penguins, gulls, and the 
 albatross, are abundant. Insects are numerous and trouble 
 some. The climate of the group is humid, and the mean 
 temperature rather under that of Great Britain. Violent gusty 
 winds are frequent. These islands possess several harbours, 
 but the best is on the E. side of Auckland Island, and is named 
 Rendezvous Harbour, having a stream of water flowing into it. 
 The upper end of this harbour is called Lawrie Harbour, 
 which is completely land locked, and is suitable for vessels re 
 quiring to heave down or undergo extensive repair, the steep 
 S. shore affording great facilities for loading and unloading ; 
 highest spring tides, about 3 ft. Another good harbour is 
 called Sarah s Bosom ; lat. 50 38 S. ; Ion. 165 28 E. The 
 channel between Rose and Enderby s Islands might, in calm 
 weather, be mistaken by strangers ; but it is only fit for boats. 
 At the N.E. cape of Enderby s Island are some strong whirl 
 pools. 
 
 The Auckland Islands are frequently visited by French 
 vessels, and by vessels from the U. States, for the purposes of 
 refitting and refreshment, though hitherto much neglected by 
 our own. They are admirably situated for a whaling station, 
 from their proximity to the fisheries, as well as to our colon 
 ies of Australia and New Zealand ; and possess the great na 
 tural advantages of commodious harbours, and a plentiful 
 supply of good water and wood. The Government of Great 
 Britain, to whom they belong by right of discovery, have 
 granted the exclusive possession of these islands to the Messrs. 
 Enderby, by whom a company has been formed for carrying 
 on from thence the S. sea whale-fishery. (Ross s Antarctic 
 Expedition, 1839-43; U. States Exploring Expedition.) 
 
 AUCUTTA, one of the Laccadive Islands, off the Malabar 
 coast; lat. 10 51 N.; Ion. 72 17 E. It is about 3J m. in 
 length, and half a mile in breadth ; is planted with cocoa-nut 
 trees, and has a considerable population. 
 
 AUDE, a dep. in the S. of France, formed of part of 
 Lower Languedoc, so called from the river Aude, which runs 
 through it; bounded, N. and N.E. bydeps. Herault and Tarn, 
 E. by the Mediterranean, N.W. by Haute-Garonne, W. by 
 Ariege, and S. by Pyrenees Orientales ; greatest length, 
 E. to W., about 76 m.; breadth, N. to S., 50 m.; area, 
 1,497,790 ac., or 2340 sq. m. The surface presents three 
 groups of mountains, the Montagne- Noire, or black mountains, 
 a continuation of the Cevennes, on the N. ; the Corbieres, on 
 the E. ; and the Pyrenees, whose N. slopes constitute nearly 
 two-thirds of the whole department. Though generally 
 mountainous, the country is traversed by a great longitudinal 
 valley, extending from W. to E. (the upper part watered by 
 the Fresquel, and the lower by the Aude), with many smaller 
 valleys opening into it. The soil in the more elevated parts 
 is dry and unfruitful, but in the lower districts it is fertile. 
 It yields, according to the position of the locality, good crops 
 of wheat, maize, oats, rye, and buckwheat, in quantities more 
 than sufficient to supply the wants of the department. The 
 vine and the olive, especially the former, are cultivated to a 
 considerable extent. Salsola, or salt-wort, is gathered here, 
 and exported in large quantities to Italy and elsewhere. 
 Honey forms an important article of trade ; that of Narbonnc 
 being esteemed the finest in France. The cultivable land, 
 including meadows, vineyards, forests, &c., occupies aboui 
 two-thirds of the surface ; the remainder is heath and uncul 
 tivated land. A considerable quantity of wine is produced. 
 The white wines, in general, are considered superior to the 
 red ; but both the red and white wines of Limoux, particu 
 larly its Champagne du Midi, and the blanquette of Bages, 
 are among the most esteemed. Great attention is paid to irri 
 gation, and the meadows, both artificial and natural, produce 
 abundance of forage for the cattle. Asses and sheep are 
 numerous. A prodigious quantity of poultry is raised, and 
 exported in large numbers ; considerable quantities being sent 
 to Spain. The ciimate is very variable ; a good deal of rain 
 
AUDE 
 
 252 
 
 AUGSBURG 
 
 falls in the S W. Even in summer, hail and snow are not 
 unfrequent among the mountains. The hot winds, of which 
 there are two, the Marin or Autan, from the S.E., and the 
 Cers from the N.W., sometimes blow with a fury that occa 
 sions great damage. 
 
 The mineral productions consist chiefly of copper, lead, and 
 iron ; also marble in great variety, and some coal and slate, j 
 On the coast, along the shore of the Mediterranean, are numer 
 ous shallow lagoons, called Etangs. The salines or salt-pits in 
 the vicinity, eight in number, yield about 374,300 cwt. of salt 
 yearly. The inhabitants carry on considerable manufactures, 
 especially of woollen cloth (chiefly at Carcassonne, Castelnau- 
 dary, and Limoux), a large quantity of which is exported to the 
 Levant. The other principal products are flour, verdigris, 
 paper, leather, glass, tiles, bricks, steel files, combs, and small 
 articles of bijoutry, with some turnery and toys. Great facili 
 ties are afforded to trade by the river Aude, which traverses the 
 dep. S.W. to N.E. ; by the Canal of Languedoc, which crosses 
 it E. to W. ; and by the Mediterranean. At its only port, 
 La Nouvelle, in the Gulf of Lyons, between 100,000 to 
 140,000 qrs. of grain are annually shipped. Aude is divided 
 into four arronds., 31 cans., and 434 corns. Pop. (1846), 
 289,661.- (Diet. Geo. et Stat.; Ingliss S. of France; French 
 Official Tables.) 
 
 AUDE [Latin, Atax; Italian, Aldo], a river, S. of France, 
 rising in the Etang de 1 Aude, near the village of Angles, 
 dep. Pyrenees Oriental es, about 4 m. N.W. the town of Mont- 
 louis. Its whole course is less than 130 m. ; and for some 
 part it runs nearly parallel to the Canal of Languedoc. It re 
 ceives several tributaries, of which the principal is the Orbieu, 
 and falls into the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 AUDENARDE, orOuoENARPE [Flemish, Oudenaerden], 
 a fortified tn. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, 15 m. S. Ghent, and 
 20 m. N. Tournay, situated at the base of a hill in the valley 
 of the Scheldt, which runs through it. It contains three 
 churches, of which that of St. Walburge is as early as the 
 10th century ; and a townhouse, a handsome Gothic structure, 
 built in 1540, and possessing a carving in wood by Paul Van- 
 derschelden, which is regarded as a masterpiece, and said to 
 equal anything of the kind that France or Italy has produced. 
 Au denarde has courts of primary jurisdiction and of commerce, 
 a college, free communal schools, an academy of design, two 
 orphan houses, and several other benevolent institutions. Its 
 principal trade is in linens ; of which, on an average, 20,000 
 to 25,000 pieces are annually sold in its markets. It has also 
 extensive tanneries and breweries, dyeworks, soapworks, salt- 
 refineries, oilmills, and manufactures of cotton, ribbons, gloves, 
 and tobacco. The celebrated battle which bears the name of 
 Oudenarde, in which the French were signally defeated by 
 the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, was fought 
 under its walls. Pop. 5670. 
 
 AUDENHOVE (ST. MARIA), a tn. and com. Belgium, 
 prov. E. Flanders, 9 m. E. Audenarde. It has some linen 
 manufactures, breweries, and flourmills. Pop. 2425. 
 
 AUD1ERNE, a tn. and com. France, dep. Finistcre, 
 on a bay of the same name, a little above the mouth of the 
 Goyen, 20 m. W. Quimper. Its situation is picturesque, and 
 it has a good harbour, with some trade in dried fish ; but the 
 whole coast, lined with steep rocks, is very dangerous, and so 
 often the scene of shipwrecks, that many of the inhabitants 
 live only by the plunder obtained from them. Pop. 1446. 
 
 AUDINCOURT, a vil. France, dep. Doubs, 4 m. S.E. 
 Montbeliard, r. bank, Doubs. It is famed for its ironworks, 
 which produce annually 3000 tons of pig, and more than 2000 
 tons of malleable iron, 20,000 cases of sheet-iron, and 500 tons 
 of iron-plate. It has also a manufactory of spindles, a cotton 
 spinning-mill, and a tannery. Pop. 2024. 
 
 AUDLEM, par. Eng., Cheshire; 11,780 ac. Pop. (1841), 
 
 AUDLEY, par. Eng., Stafford; 8140 ac. Pop. (1841), 
 4474. 
 
 AUDRUICK, a tn. France, dep. Pas de Calais, 12 m. 
 E.S.E. Calais, at the E. extremity of an agreeable and fertile 
 plain ; with oilmills, breweries, tanneries, and a salt-refinery. 
 Pop. 1165. 
 
 AUE, the name of several small places in Germany, par 
 ticularly: 1, Atn. Saxony, circle of, and 12m. S.E. Zwickau. 
 It has an old townhouse, a knitting school, and a tin furnace 
 and stamping-mill. In the neighbourhood are tin mines, buds 
 
 of porcelain earth, and stone quarries. Pop. 1130. 2. Tha 
 name of several rivers of Germany, particularly of two in 
 Hanover ; the one of which joins the Aller on its 1. bank, near 
 Cette, and the other falls into the Elbe a few miles below 
 Horneburg. 
 
 AUERBACH. 1, A tn. Saxony, circle, Zwickau, bail, 
 of, and 13 m. E. Plauen, on the Gbltzsch. It has considerable 
 manufactures of muslin, and plain and embroidered lace. It 
 has also a needle-factory, a bell-foundry, and a paper-mill. 
 Pop. 3612. 2, A pretty vil. Hesse Darmstadt, about 12 m. 
 S. Darmstadt, with mineral springs and baths, which contain 
 a large quantity of iron, and are not much resorted to. It 
 has a manufacture of clocks. Its castle of Fiirstenlager, built 
 in 1780, is the summer residence of the Grand Duke. Pop. 
 
 1600. There are numerous other places in Germany named 
 
 AUERBACH, all of them small. 
 
 AUERSTEDT, a vil. Prussia, dist. of, and 25 m. S.W. 
 Merseburg, on the frontier of Saxe- Weimar. Pop. 437. It 
 is only remarkable for the defeat of the Prussians by the 
 French, October 14, 1806. 
 
 AUGELA, a tn. Tripoli ; lat. 29 15 N. ; Ion. 22 E. 
 Routes from Egypt and the coast of Tripoli, which is about 
 150 m. distant, to Murzook, in Fezzan, pass through it. 
 
 AUGGUR, a tn. Hindoostan, prov. Malwa, 40 m. N.E. | 
 Oojein ; lat. 23 43 N. ; Ion. 761 E. ; between two artificial 
 lakes, on a rocky height, 1 598 ft. above the sea. It is sur 
 rounded by a stone wall, and contains a well-built native forti 
 fication, but is chiefly composed of mud houses, in 1820, 5000 
 in number. 
 
 AUGHABEY, an important coal dist. of Ireland, on the 
 N. border of co. Roscommon, Connaught. The quantity of 
 coal has been estimated at from 3000 to nearly 5000 tons per 
 acre. A railway connects the Aughabey colliery with the 
 Arigna ironworks. 
 
 AUGHAGOUR, par. Ire., Mayo; 55,048 ac. Pop. (1841), 
 12,235. 
 
 AUGHALOO, par. Ire., Tyrone; 19,583 ac. Pop. (1841), 
 9867. 
 
 AUGHANAGH, par. Ire., Sligo ; 8839 ac. Pop. (1841), 
 2714. 
 
 AUGHANUNCHON, par. Ire., Donegal ; 4012 ac. Pop. 
 (1841), 1649. 
 
 AUGHAV AL, or OUGHEVAL, par. Ire. , Mayo ; 33,695 ac. ; 
 excellent limestone abounds, and both lead and copper mines 
 were formerly wrought here. Pop. (1841), 13,441. 
 
 AUGHAVEA, par. Ire., Fermanagh; 17,142 ac. ; con 
 tains quarries of excellent freestone. Pop. (1841), 1254. 
 
 AUGHAVILLAR, par. Ire., Kilkenny ; 5671 ac. Pop. 
 (1841), 1997. 
 
 AUGHER, a market tn. Ireland, co. Tyrone, 15 m. S.W. 
 Dungannon, in a rich undulating valley, watered by one of 
 the head streams of the Blackwater. It has a poor, though 
 pleasant appearance, without any bustle, except on market- 
 days. In its vicinity is Augher Castle. Pop. (1841), 753. 
 
 AUGHMACART , par. Ire., Queen s co. ; 9601 ac. Pop. 
 (1841), 3667. 
 
 AUGHNACLOY, a market tn. Ireland, co. Tyrone, 
 1. bank, Blackwater, 13 in. W.N.W. Armagh. It consists of 
 one principal and three smaller streets. A few of the houses 
 are of brick, and roofed with slate, but the greater part are 
 thatched. There are here a R. catholic chapel, and places of 
 worship for Presbyterians, Wesleyans, and Methodists; several 
 public and private schools, and a convenient market-house. 
 Market-day, Wednesday. Fairs for live stock on the first 
 Wednesday in every month. Pop. (1841), 1841. 
 
 AUGHNAMULLEN, par. Ire., Monaghan ; 30,710 ac. 
 Pop. (1841), 18,219. 
 
 AUGHNISH, par. Ire., Donegal; 9195 ac. ; contains 
 several extensive bleachfields. Pop. (1841), 4974. 
 
 AUGHRIM. See AGHIUM. 
 
 AUGHTON. 1, Apar. England, co. Lancaster; 4410ac.; 
 S.W. Ormskirk, on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal. Pop. 
 (1841), 1560. 2, A par., co. York, E. Riding; 4200 ac. ; 
 N.N.W. Howden, on the Derwent river. Pop. (1841), 634. 
 
 AUGSBURG [Latin, Augusta Vinddicorum], a city, 
 Bavaria, cap. prov. Swabia and Neuburg, on a rising ground, 
 in a fertile plain, at the angle formed by the junction of the 
 Wertach and the Lech, 35 m. N.W. Munich ; lat. (St. Ulric s 
 Tower) 48 21 42" N. ; Ion. 10 54 16" E. (L.) It is sur 
 
AUGSBURG 
 
 AUGSBURG 
 
 rounded with walls and ditches, but not fortified ; divided into 
 the upper, middle, and lower towns, and intersected by four 
 canals. Augsburg is the residence of a bishop, and the seat 
 of a court of appeal. Although irregularly built, with close, 
 narrow, and ill-paved streets, it contains many handsome edi 
 fices, and some elegant squares adorned with fountains. Most 
 of the houses are old, large, and lofty ; and many of them have 
 carved, painted, and scrolled fronts, adorned with frescoes, 
 the subjects of which are usually taken from Scripture, or the 
 legends of saints. The finest street is Maximilien Strasse ; 
 distinguished by its length and breadth, its three bronze foun 
 tains, and the townhall or Math-haus, a civic palace, of Italian 
 architecture, esteemed the finest in Germany. Adjoining the 
 townhall are the Perlach tower, a lofty belfry, ascended by a 
 
 ing the principal cannon-foundry in Bavaria. Besides these, 
 there are manufactories of articles in gold and silver, silver 
 lace, coloured papers, ribbons, mirrors, carpets, chemical stuffs, 
 with bleacheries and dyeworks. An extensive trade is done 
 in printing, engraving, and bookbinding, and the celebrated 
 Algemeine Zeitung, the leading journal of Germany, started in 
 1798, is published here. But the principal branches of busi 
 ness to which this city owes much of its modern importance, 
 are banking and stock exchange operations ; Augsburg, next 
 to Frankfort, being one of the most influential money markets 
 on the Continent. It is also the emporium of the merchandise, 
 and the chief mart for the sale of the wines of Italy. Switzer 
 land, and the. S. of Germany ; and hence has an extensive 
 transit trade. Its mercantile establishments are above 200, 
 and its annual circulation, in bills and merchandise, varies in 
 value from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 sterling. It is connected 
 by a railway with Munich, and, in the opposite direction, with 
 Niirnberg, Bamberg, and Saxony. Augsburg is a place of 
 great antiquity, the Emperor Augustus having established a 
 colony there about 12 years B.C. Ravaged by the Huns in 
 the fifth century, it subsequently came under the supremacy 
 of the Frankish kings, and was nearly destroyed in 788, in 
 the war of Charlemagne against Tassilo, Duke of Bavaria. 
 After the division of the empire of the Franks, it became part 
 of the dominions of the Duke of Swabia, and having acquired 
 riches by its commerce, finally obtained its freedom from the 
 Duke, by a purchase which was, in 1276, confirmed by the 
 Emperor. The city now reached the summit of its prosperity, 
 and was, together with Niirnberg, the principal entrepot be 
 tween N. and S. Europe, until towards the end of the 15th 
 century, when the discoveries of the Portuguese and Spaniards 
 gave a new direction to the commerce of the world. Among 
 its principal merchants in the 15th and 16th centuries, were 
 the families of Fugger and Welser. In 1550, a daughter of 
 
 MAXIMILIEN STRASSE, TOWNHALL, AND PEKLACH TOWKR, AUGS1JURG, 
 From Prout s Sketches in France and Gtrmany. 
 
 staircase of 500 steps ; and the arsenal. Among the other 
 remarkable objects are the bishop s palace, now used for 
 Government-offices, where the Confession of Augsburg was 
 presented to the Emperor Charles V. in 1530 ; the halle, a 
 handsome commercial mart and storehouse ; the public library ; 
 the academy of arts, founded in 1820; the cathedral, an irre 
 gular Gothic building, erected in the 15th century, and con 
 taining a fine picture by Domenicheno ; and the church of 
 St. Ulric, with a tower 350 ft. high, from which a fine view 
 of the surrounding country is obtained, and in such immediate 
 juxtaposition with a Lutheran church as to be apparently 
 under the same roof. The city possesses a polytechnic insti 
 tution, a Catholic seminary, a Protestant gymnasium, a gallery 
 of paintings, besides an orphan asylum, and a saving s-bank ; 
 numerous educational establishments, and 15 churches, of 
 which five are Protestant. The Benedictine abbey of St. 
 Stephen, formerly a convent of noble ladies, is now appro 
 priated to the education of youth. It comprehends a royal 
 lyceum, a gymnasium, and a Latin school ; the first having 
 five professors, the second seven, and the last eight teachers. 
 There is also a seminary attached to this institution, super 
 intended by a director and two prefects, in which 54 students 
 are educated. The town is surrounded by wooded alleys, 
 promenades, and private gardens; and in front of the cathedral 
 the Grand Parade is a pleasant place of public resort. 
 
 Augsburg has been long distinguished by its commercial 
 spirit, and by the activity and industry of its inhabitants, and, 
 although not now so important a place as formerly, is still the 
 seat of extensive manufactures. The principal public works 
 are four cotton factories, spinning and weaving, one of them 
 having 808 power-looms and 40,000 spindles, and employing 
 1500 work-people ; a flaxinill, silk-factory, machine-factory, 
 paper-mills, brass foundry, and the military foundry, contain- 
 
 6. Arsenal 
 
 ;. < Imivh and Towtr of St. Ulrii 
 
 8. Theatre. 
 
 S. Infirmary and Lunatic Asylu 
 
 the burgher Welser, Philippina, the most beautiful woman of 
 her time, became Archduchess of Tyrol, by marriage with 
 Ferdinand, son of the Emperor Ferdinand I. The patrician 
 house of Fugger the Rothchilds of the Middle Ages car 
 ried on trade at the same time both with the E. and W. Indies 
 in ships of their own, were proprietors of the richest mines in 
 
AUGST 
 
 254 
 
 AULONA 
 
 1 Europe, and more than once replenished, from their own pri 
 vate resources, the exhausted treasuries of the Emperors 
 .Maximilian and Charles V. They received from the former 
 patents of nobility, and the privilege of coining money. In 
 the following century (1619) the family numbered, in its five 
 branches, 47 counts and countesses of the empire, all tracing 
 Iheir origin from a simple weaver of Augsburg. The name 
 and the family are still numbered among those of the German 
 noblesse; but many of its branches have died off, and the liv 
 ing descendants of the patrician stock are reduced in fortune 
 and influence proportionately with the city from which they 
 sprang. (Murray s Handbook.) Augsburg early took a con 
 spicuous part in the Reformation, with which, foe a long series 
 of years, its history is closely connected. Here the celebrated 
 Confession which bears its name, and which was drawn up by 
 Mr land In in under the auspices of Luther, was, in 1531, pre 
 sented to the Emperor Charles V. Here, in 1548, that mon 
 arch promulgated his Interim, a futile attempt to suppress 
 the Reformation by giving up two of the most obnoxious dog 
 mas of Popery communion in one kind, and the celibacy of 
 the clergy; and more than all, here, in 1555, was concluded 
 the celebrated treaty which secured the Protestants in the full 
 enjoyment of their rights and liberties. Augsburg is the 
 birthplace of Holbein the elder, and other eminent artists. 
 Pop., including 13,000 Protestants, 38,000. (Murray s Hand 
 book; Heal EncyMopcidie; Huhn s Lex. Deutschland.) 
 
 AUGST, or AAKOAU-AUGST, and BASEL-AUGST, two vils. 
 Switzerland, connected by a bridge over the Ergolz, at its 
 junction with the Rhine, 6 m. E. Basel. Aargau-Augst, for 
 merly Kaiser-Augst, is in can. Aargau, and has pop. 322. 
 Basel- Augst is in can. Basel, and has pop. 231. Both of them 
 occupy the site of Augusta Jiawacorum, a Roman colony 
 which was ravaged by the Huns in 450. Some Roman re 
 mains still exist, and numerous coins, medals, &c., have been 
 found in the neighbourhood. 
 
 AUGSTHX)LZ, or AUGSTHOLZBAD, a bathing-place of 
 considerable resort, prettily situated near the S. side of the 
 Baldegger See, in the N.E. of can. Luzern. On a gentle 
 rising ground in the neighbourhood, stands an ancient castle, 
 once a commandery of the Knights of Malta, supposed to have 
 been founded in the 1 1 th century. 
 
 AUGUSTA, a vil., W. Australia, cap. co. Sussex, on 
 Hardy s Inlet, Flinder s Bay; lat. 34 18 S. ; Ion. 115 9 E. 
 
 AUGUSTA, two towns, U. States:!, Cap. of co. Ken- 
 nebec, Maine. It lies on both sides the Kennebec river, 
 35 m. above its embouchure in the Atlantic, and at the top 
 of the sloop navigation. The principal buildings are, the 
 state-house, a handsome structure, with Doric portico of 
 eight columns, situated on an eminence a little S. of the 
 town ; the U. States arsenal, a large stone edifice on the E. 
 side of the river; the State insane hospital, a fine granite 
 building, with wings, and 70 ac. ground; the high school, and 
 nine churches. Agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, 
 are in a flourishing condition; tonn.in 1844, upwards of 3000. 
 Pop. of township (1840), 5314. 2, A city, Georgia, cap. co. 
 Richmond, 1. bank, Savannah, and 110 m. N.W. the city of 
 Savannah. It is a regularly built, handsome town, contain 
 ing a city hall, courthouse, arsenal, jail, &c. ; is connected 
 with Charleston, Milledgeville, and various other places, by 
 the Georgia Railroad and branches, and has, by these means, 
 and the navigation on the Savannah, a considerable trade, par 
 ticularly in cotton and tobacco. Pop. (1840), 6403. 
 
 Several other places in the U. States have the same name. 
 
 AUGUSTENBERG, a small tn. Denmark, prov. Schles- 
 wig, isl. Alsen. It consists of one well-built street, and has a 
 small harbour and dock. In the environs are a palace and 
 park of the Duke of Augustenberg. Pop. 800. 
 
 AUGUSTINE (ST.), a city and seaport, U. States, E. 
 coast, Florida; lat. 29 54 N.; Ion. 81 26 W. (R.) It was 
 formerly of more importance than now, a circumstance chiefly 
 attributable to the badness of its port, which is shut up by a 
 bar, having not more than 5 ft. at low water, and even in 
 spring tides not more than 8 or 9 ft. A lighthouse on the 
 N. end of Anastasia Island, with a fixed light, marks the en 
 trance to the port. Previous to the acquisition of Florida by 
 the U. States, the population amounted to 40UO or 5000; in 
 1840, it was only 2459. 
 
 AUGUSTINE (ST.). 1, A bay [called Isalare by the na 
 tives], S.W. coast, isl. Madagascar (into which falls the Dar- 
 
 mouth, or Onolahe river), visited by British, U. States , and 
 French vessels, who purchase provisions for beads, gunpowder, 
 muskets, rum, &c., and supply themselves with indifferent 
 water (Naut. Mag.) -2, The N.W. isl. Lord Mulgrave s 
 Archipelago, S. Pacific; lat. 5 38 S.; Ion. 176 6 E. (K.) 
 3, An isl. Carolines; lat. 7 24 N.; Ion. 155 55 23" E. 
 4, A volcano isl., N. Pacific ; lat. 24 30 7 N. ; Ion. 141 30" E. ; 
 about 900 m. E. by S. of the Loochoo group. 5, The most E. 
 capeof S.America, in Brazil; lat.821 S.; lon.345G W.(K.) 
 6, A cape, New Grenada, N.E. Cartagena; lat. 10 14 6" N. ; 
 Ion. 80 49 35" W. 7, A cape in the S.E. of isl. Mindanao ; 
 lat 6 4 N.; Ion. 126 13 E. (K.) 8, A river, Labrador, 
 falling into the river St. Lawrence in lat. 51 N., Ion. 
 59 W. 
 
 AUGUSTINUSGA, a vil. Holland, prov. Friesland, 
 17 m. E. Leeuwarden. It is a scattered village, prettily 
 situated in a wooded district, and has a Calvinistic church 
 (which, in 1580, was burned and plundered by the Spaniards), 
 and a school. The inhabitants are mostly engaged in agri 
 culture and cattle-rearing. Pop. 600. 
 
 AUGUSTOW, a prov. and city, Russian Poland. The 
 PROVINCE is one of the eight woiwodies or palatinates into 
 which Poland was formerly divided, and is the most N. part 
 of the kingdom, lying next Russia Proper, between lat. 52 40 
 and 55 5 N. Area, about 7000 sq. in. A large portion of 
 its surface is occupied by marshes, lakes, and forests. It is 
 divided into five circles, and contains 47 towns, 276 com 
 munes, and 155 parishes, cap. Suwalki. Pop. 310,000. 
 
 The TOWN of Augustow is 20 m. S. Suwalki on the Netta. 
 It was founded by Sigismund Augustus, in 1557, and has 
 some woollen and linen manufactories, with a trade in horses 
 and cattle. Pop. 3350. 
 
 AUKBOROUGH, par. Eng., Lincoln; 2540 ac. Pop. 
 (1841), 528. 
 
 AULDEARN, a par. (6J m. long by 5 broad) and vil. 
 Scotland, Nairn. South the village, in 1645, the Marquis of 
 Montrose defeated the Covenanters. Pop., vil. (1841), 351 ; 
 par 1466. 
 
 AULENDORF, a market tn. Wiktembcrg, circle, 
 Danube, 33 m. S.S.W. Ulm; on the Schussen ; cap. barony 
 of same name. It is very old, and said to be of Roman origin. 
 Close to it is the fine castle of the Counts of Konigsegg- 
 Aulendorf, containing a valuable library, and a fine collection 
 of pictures. Pop. 980. 
 
 AULETTA, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, dist. 
 La Sala, 36 m. S.E. Palermo ; situated on a pleasant hill, at 
 the base of which flows the Negro. It contains four monls- 
 de-pitte, and was founded by a Grecian colony. Pop. 2863. 
 
 AULLAGAS (LAGUNA DE), a lake, Bolivia, in the valley 
 of Desaguadero, which lies between two lofty ranges of the 
 Andes, at an elevation of about 13,000 ft. Lake Aullagas 
 receives, at its N.W. extremity, the river Desaguadero, which 
 flows from the Lake of Titicaca, situated in the same valley, 
 but at a greater elevation. The point at which the river falls 
 into the lake is 12,280 ft. above sea level. The Laguna 
 de Aullagas is intersected, towards its S. extremity, by the 
 parallel of 19 S. It is said to have no fish, and has no 
 known outlet. The banks are inhabited by the Aullagas 
 Indians, whence its name. 
 
 AULNE, a river, France, which, rising near Lahuee, in 
 the chain of the Menez or Black Mountains, on the confines 
 of dep. Cotes du Nord, first flows S. through dep. Finistere, 
 till it meets and becomes part of the canal from Nantes to 
 Brest. At Chateaulin it again assumes the form of a river, 
 and, flowing W., falls into Brest harbour. Its whole course 
 is about 70 m. Its chief tributaries are the Eleze, the Dou- 
 fine, and the Hiere. 
 
 AULONA, AVLONA, or VALONA [anc Avion], a tn. 
 European Turkey, prov. Albania, 94 m. N.W. Janina; lat. 
 (custom-house) 40 27 12" N. ; Ion. 19 26 45" E. (it.) ; on a bay 
 of same name, environed by hills terminating S. in Cape 
 Linguetta. It stands on a hill surrounded by a wall, and has 
 on the S. a small fortress called Canina, built upon a steep 
 rock. The streets have a dirty appearance ; and though pos 
 sessing several mosques, and a Greek church, Aulona, as a 
 whole, has the appearance of an Italian town. Unwholesome 
 marshes in the vicinity, occasioning endemics, oblige the in 
 habitants, during the warmest season, almost to desert the 
 place. The bay, protected at its entrance by the island cf 
 
AULPS 
 
 255 
 
 AURORA 
 
 Sasseno, forms a safe harbour ; but being in general rocky, 
 affords bad anchorage, except close to the town, and at its 
 S. recess, named Porto Ragusano. The Turkish inhabitants 
 manufacture arms, which are in much repute ; and woollen 
 stuffs ; while the Christians, and a few Jews, are principally 
 employed in commercial pursuits. The exports consist chiefly 
 of salt, pitch from the mines of Selenitza, olive-oil, wool, gall- 
 nuts, and valonia ; and from Italy it receives in return gun 
 and pistol barrels, glass, paper, and Calabrian capotes. Aulona 
 is the seat of a bishop of the Greek church. The country 
 around produces excellent wine, of which, however, little is 
 made ; also tobacco, oil, and corn, all of good quality. The 
 town was nearly depopulated by the plague in 1800. Pop. 
 about 5000. 
 
 AULPS. See Aurs. 
 
 AULT, a small seaport, France, on the English Channel, 
 dep. Somme, 18 m. W.S.W. Abbeville; it has several cotton- 
 mills, manufactures of ironware, and is one of the principal 
 places whence Paris is supplied with fish. Pop. 1371. 
 
 AULT-HUCKNALL, par. Eng., Derby; 3730 ac. Pop. 
 (1841), 678. 
 
 AUMA, a tn. Saxe- Weimar, principality of, and 7 m. 
 S.E. Neustadt, on a small affluent of the Elster; has two 
 churches, an hospital, some cotton and woollen manufactures, 
 together with a dyework, tannery, brewery, and several mills. 
 It has also six markets, chiefly for cattle. The town was at 
 one time larger than at present, but has suffered much both 
 by war and fire. Pop. 1355. 
 
 AUMALE [anc. Alba Mama], a tn. France, dep. Seine 
 Inferieure (Normandy), 15 m. E.N.E. Neufchatel ; pleasantly 
 situated in an extensive meadow, watered by the Bresle, and 
 hemmed in on all sides by richly wooded hills. It is ill 
 built, and has a communal college, manufactures of serges, 
 blondes, China ware, and coarse woollens ; worsted and fulling- 
 mills, and a bell-foundry; and a trade in cattle, cloth, leather, 
 &c. In 1592, Henry IV. of France was wounded on the 
 bridge of this town, in an action with the troops of the 
 League, and narrowly escaped being taken. Pop. 1 697. 
 
 AUNSBY, par. Eng., Lincoln; 1250 ac. Pop. (1841), 117. 
 
 AUPS, or AULPS [Latin, Alpes, Villa Alpium], a small 
 anc. tn. France, dep. Var (Provence), 13 m. W.N.W. Dra- 
 guignan ; built on a plain, at the foot of a mountain. The 
 streets are narrow and dirty ; but the public square, in which 
 the parish church stands, is handsome, and is adorned by a 
 fountain of white marble, of which there are quarries in the 
 district. It has tanneries, and some trade in corn. Pop. 
 2568. 
 
 AURAY [anc. Auraicum], a small seaport tn. France, 
 dep. Morbihan (Bretagne), 17 m. S.E. Lorient; on a hill 
 slope, at the bottom of a deep bay, into which the small river 
 Auray falls ; lat. 47 40 4" N. ; Ion. 2 49 28" W. (c.) Its 
 harbour, which is excellent, and adorned with a fine quay, is 
 deep enough to admit vessels of large burden; and its build 
 ing-docks appear to be fully employed. On the height 
 occupied by the upper part of the town, stands the church of 
 the Holy Spirit, an extensive Gotho- Arabic edifice of the 
 latter part of the 13th century. Manufactures : cotton 
 thread, lace, tiles, bricks, &c. Trade (coasting) : corn, fruit, 
 cattle, horses, butter, honey, cloth, wine, wood, leather, wax, 
 and fish, chiefly pilchards. About 6 m. from Auray is the 
 isolated chapel of Sainte Anne, a celebrated place of pilgrim 
 age, to which about 6000 devotees annually repair from all 
 parts of Brittany, in the month of July. Pop. 3755. 
 
 AURE (VAL D ), one of the four valleys of Upper Ar- 
 magnac, dep. Hautes-Pyre nees, France. This picturesque 
 valley runs up into the Pyrenees, between the Val de Campan 
 and the Val de Luchon, at the junction of the Nestes or tor 
 rents of Louron and Aure. It is fertile, and well cultivated, 
 abounding in pasturages ; and throughout, but especially in 
 the upper part, presents scenery of surpassing beauty. 
 
 AURE, two rivers, France: 1, Dep. Calvados, affluent 
 of the Drome ; total course, N.N. W., 20 m. 2, Dep. Eure- 
 et-Loire, affluent of the Eure from the left, course E.N.E., 
 32m. 
 
 AURICH, a tn. Hanover, cap. gov. and circle of same 
 name, and of the former principality of E. Friesland ; on the 
 river, and 15 m. N.E. Emden, with which it is connected by 
 a canal. It is walled, neatly built in the Dutch style, with a 
 handsome market-place, near which stands the townhouse ; 
 
 and is the seat of the provincial courts of justice and record, 
 and also of a Protestant consistory. It contains three churches, 
 a synagogue, grammar-school, gymnasium, four public libra 
 ries, a poorhouse, an orphan hospital, a female accoucheur 
 seminary, several sawmills, tanneries, and distilleries, with 
 manufactures of paper, tobacco pipes, and tobacco. Aurich 
 has gained much by the opening of the canal. It has a con 
 siderable trade in cattle, and its horse-markets are well fre 
 quented. Pop. 4250. The GOVERNMENT of Aurich is a 
 
 low, flat tract of country, comprising about 1 1 34 geo. sq. m. ; 
 bounded, W. by Holland and the Bay of Dollart, N. by the 
 N. Sea, E. by Oldenburg, and S. by the territory of Meppen. 
 It is protected from inundation by artificial dikes, 24 ft. high, 
 and extending nearly 100 m. On the coast of the N. Sea it 
 is tolerably fertile, but in general it is a mere waste, con 
 sisting of barren moors and heaths, separated by tracts of 
 sand. The inhabitants, who are mostly Protestants, employ 
 themselves, in the more fertile districts, in agricultural pur 
 suits, and in rearing cattle ; in the less favoured parts, their 
 chief occupation is herring-fishing, and commercial naviga 
 tion. Pop. 152,400. 
 
 AURILLAC [anc. Aureliacum], a tn. France, cap. dep. 
 Cantal (Auvergne) ; 269 m. S. Paris. It is agreeably situated 
 in a valley, r. bank, Jourdanne ; is well built, and walled. The 
 houses are covered with slates, obtained from quarries in the 
 vicinity; and the streets, though irregular, are wide and clean, 
 being constantly irrigated by the overflowings of a large re 
 servoir at the top of the town, into which two fountains 
 pour their copious supplies. At the lower part of the town, 
 along the side of the river, is the public walk called Cmirs- 
 Montyon, or commonly Le Cfravier, at one end of which is an 
 elegant bridge of three arches, over the Jourdanne ; and at 
 the other a beautiful fountain, surmounted by a column. 
 Among the ancient buildings of Aurillac may be mentioned 
 the castle of St. Stephen, which on the W. overhangs the town; 
 the church of St. Gerand ; that of Notre Dame, of the 1 3th 
 century, with a much-admired ceiling; and the college, an 
 extensive pile of buildings, with a fine pavilion front, and 
 containing a valuable library, and cabinet of mineralogy. 
 Among modern buildings, the first place is due to the town- 
 house, adorned with busts of 1 2 of the principal writers of 
 France ; the prefecture, the theatre, the corn exchange, at the 
 extremity of a square, which contains a fine basin of serpen 
 tine, about 10 ft. in diameter ; the hospital, the lunatic 
 asylum, and the extensive market-place. Aurillac possesses 
 a stud of excellent horses, and a race-course, which, during 
 the races, attracts numerous visitors from all the S. depart 
 ments of France. Principal manufactures: kettles and 
 other utensils of copper, jewellery, woollen stuffs, carpets, 
 blondes, lace, and paper. Tanning, brewing, and dyeing are 
 likewise carried on, and a good trade in horses, mules, cattle, 
 cheese, stockings, tapestry, leather, and wool. Pop. 8484. 
 
 AURIOL [Latin, Auriolum], a. tn. France, dep. Bouches- 
 du-Rhone, 15 m. E.N.E. Marseilles, in a valley watered by 
 the Huveaune, on the banks of which are many agreeable 
 promenades. The town is irregularly built ; but the houses, 
 among which the Hotel de Ville is conspicuous, have an ele 
 gant appearance. Manufactures: cloths, soda, bricks and 
 red tiles, for flooring. It has also mills for spinning worsted 
 and silk, distilleries, paper-mills, copper-works, and limekilns. 
 In the vicinity are collieries, beds of gypsum and red ochre, 
 and quarries of alabaster. Pop. 2971. 
 
 AURORA. 1, One of the Society Islands, S. Pacific; 
 lat. (N. end) 15 50 S.; Ion. 148 11 W. (R.) It rises 
 abruptly from the sea, presenting, on all sides but the S., a 
 perpendicular cliff worn into caverns. Its summit is crowned 
 with trees and a luxuriant vegetation ; including the cocoa- 
 nut and bread-fruit trees. In the upper and interior part of 
 the island, the soil is extremely rich, yielding great abundance 
 of taro, sweet potatoes, melons, yams, and some tobacco. 
 Pigs and poultry also abound ; as do crabs and fish. Aurora 
 presents unequivocal marks of having been uplifted from the 
 sea, which is of great depths ; within 150 ft. of its cliffs, 
 Commander Wilkes having found no bottom with 150 fathoms 
 of line. Its inhabitants are represented, by the navigator 
 just named, as a cheerful, amiable, happy, fine-looking race. 
 Many of the natives can read and write well, and printed 
 copies of several portions of the Scriptures are to be found 
 amongst them. Pop. about 350. 2, One of the New He- 
 
AURUNGABAD 
 
 256 
 
 AUSSIG 
 
 brides, S. Pacific; lat. (N. point) 1456 S.; Ion. 1G8 6 
 E. (R.), about 22 in. long and 4 broad; discovered by Bou 
 gainville in 1768. It rises to a considerable elevation; is 
 covered with a luxuriant vegetation ; and has some beautiful 
 cascades and coasts of easy access. It produces bread-fruit, 
 cocoa-nuts, plantains, yams, and sugar-canes. The islanders 
 are of a dark colour, go nearly naked, but are of a mild and 
 
 peaceful disposition. 3, An isl. lied Sea, betwixt Dhoba 
 
 and Hassane Island ; lat. 25 30 N. ; Ion. 36 20 E. 
 
 AURUNGABAU [sometimes called Ahmcdnuggur], a 
 large prov. Deccan, or W. Ilindoostan; bounded, N. by 
 Goojerat, Candeish, and Berar ; E. by Berar and Hyderabad ; 
 S. by Beeder and Bejapoor ; and W. by the Arabian Sea. 
 Length, 300 m. ; average breadth, 160 m. The greater por 
 tion of the province is an elevated table-land, of an average 
 height of 1800 ft. above the level of the sea. It is hilly and 
 irregular, especially towards the W., where the Ghauts, cross 
 ing it from S. to N., attain a great elevation. In many places 
 singularly shaped, rocky, isolated hills arise ; affording ad 
 mirable situations for the natives forts or fastnesses. Of 
 these, the most remarkable is that on which the fortress of 
 Dowlatabad is built. Though the province has no consider 
 able rivers, the soil is fertile, and the climate favourable to 
 the production of various fruits. Eice is the principal crop 
 and staple commodity ; but the peach, strawberry, grape, nec 
 tarine, fig, melon, and orange, are cultivated, and arrive at 
 great perfection. Horses, hardy, but neither strong nor 
 handsome, were formerly reared in great numbers for the 
 Mahratta cavalry. Neither agriculture nor commerce are in 
 a flourishing condition. The inhabitants are chiefly Hindoos ; 
 about one-twentieth being Mahometans. The Mahratta lan 
 guage is that generally spoken ; but the Hindoostanee and 
 Persian are used among the higher classes. Various archi 
 tectural peculiarities distinguish the religious edifices from 
 those usually found in upper Hindoostan. Since 1818, the 
 greater part of the province has been subject to Britain. The 
 pop. is scattered, and small in proportion to the extent of the 
 country. (Hamilton s East India Gaz.; Picture of India.} 
 
 AURUNGABAD, a city, Hindoostan, cap. of above prov., 
 180 m. E.N.E. Bombay ; lat. 19 54 N. ; Ion. 75 33 E. ; in 
 a hollow, in the immediate neighbourhood of an extensive 
 marsh, and of a large tank overgrown with rank aquatic vege 
 tation ; both of which, in conjunction with a very variable 
 climate, render the locality unfavourable to health. It is separ 
 ated from its principal suburb by the Kowlah, across which 
 there are two substantial bridges. When approached from 
 the N., the view of Aurungabad is imposing ; its large white 
 domes with gilded points, and its lofty minarets, appearing 
 to rise from amidst beautiful groves ; the whole city, with its 
 terraced houses, covering a space of about 7 m. in circum- 
 
 ATJRt NGZEBE .S DAUGHTER. AURUNGABAI). 
 i Cap:. Meadow* Tajlor. Sketches in the Deccan. 
 
 ference. It is surrounded by a stone wall with round towers, I 
 but is incapable of withstanding a regular assault. The 
 streets are broad, some of them paved, and there are many 
 large and good houses ; but signs of rapid decay are every 
 
 where visible. The principal street is about 2 m. long; hav 
 ing at one end a spacious quadrangle, and near it a handsome 
 modern bazaar. The mosques, caravanseries, and other pub 
 lie buildings, are of good and substantial construction, but, 
 in point of architectural beauty, much inferior to those of 
 Delhi and Agra. One of the most important edifices, and 
 also in the best state of preservation, is the tomb or mauso 
 leum, by Aurungzebe, to the memory of his daughter. Its 
 domes are of white marble, and clustered like those of the 
 Taje Mahal, but inferior in size, fulness, and splendour. 
 Originally a small village, Aurungabad, in 1634, became 
 the seat of the Mogul Government, and was afterwards a 
 favourite residence of Aurungzebe, from whom it received 
 its present name, signifying the place of the throne. When 
 the Nizams became independent of Mogul authority, it con 
 tinued their capital till the invasions of the Mahrattas forced 
 them to remove to Hyderabad. It is now the residence of a 
 British political agent, and the head quarters of a battalion 
 of the Nizam s army under British officers. Pop. (1823), 
 60,000. (Hamilton s East India Gaz. ) 
 
 AUSEJO, a tn. Spain, Old Castile, prov. of, and 23 in. 
 S.E. Logrono, on the side of a steep hill. The parish church, 
 townhall, a small castle, an insecure prison, and a group of 
 well-built mercantile and dwelling-houses, form the main body 
 of the town. Manufactures: coarse linen and oil. Pop. 
 2050. 
 
 AUSPITZ [locally named Hustopec], a tn. Austria, prov. 
 Moravia, 20 m. S.S.E. Briinn. It has a church with an 
 ancient altar, a market-place, an hospital, and an almshouse. 
 A considerable number of the inhabitants are weavers. The 
 vicinity produces fruit and wine, and an active trade is carried 
 on in grain and cattle. Pop. 3000. 
 
 AUSSA, a tn. Abyssinia, kingdom, Aciel, 1. bank, Ha wash, 
 near its confluence with the lake of the same name, about 
 lat. 11 30 N.; Ion. 41 40 E. It was formerly capital of 
 Adel, and long regarded as their principal seat of learning. 
 The irruptions of hostile tribes put an end to its prosperity 
 and independence, and it is now little else than one of the 
 great encampments of the Dankali, and other tribes, where a 
 perpetual fair or market is held, to which large quantities of 
 salt from Lake Assal are brought for sale ; and blue calico 
 is in high demand for the caps worn by the married Bedouin 
 females ; zinc, pewter, and brass, or copper wire, are bartered 
 for the produce of the soil. It has, however, still a population 
 of from 5000 to 6000. The inhabitants are of a tawny com 
 plexion, with long hair. The LAKE of Aussa is a short 
 
 distance N.E. the town. It is about 14 m. in length, 7 in 
 breadth, and, according to D He ricourt, is upwards of 260 ft. 
 deep. It overflows during the rainy season, and, when it 
 recedes, leaves a fine deposit, like that left by the Nile. 
 (Harris s Highlands of Ethiopia, vol. i. p. 182; 
 Journals of Messrs Isenberg and Krapf; D He- 
 ricourt, Voy. dans Choa.} 
 
 AUSSEE, two towns, Austria:!, In prov. 
 Styria, in a mountainous district on the Traun, 
 2200 ft. above the sea, 53 m. S.S.W. Linz; lat. 
 47 37 N. ; Ion. 13 47 E. It has manufactures 
 of nails and ironware, and in its neighbourhood 
 are found marble, alabaster, gypsum, pit-coal, 
 salt, and sulphate of soda. It is particularly 
 noted for the extensive and valuable salt mine 
 in its neighbourhood, the produce of which is 
 obtained partly in the form of rock-salt, and 
 partly in the form of brine. The mine is divided 
 into 1 1 stories or apartments for the reception of 
 the brine, which is obtained by the admission of 
 streams of water, and is conveyed in wooden 
 pipes to Aussee, 4 m. distant. The annual pro 
 duce is about 8270 tons. Pop. 1200. 2, In 
 Moravia, circle of, and 20 m. N.N.W. Olmiitz. 
 It is a place of great antiquity, with a church 
 and a synagogue ; and in the neighbourhood a 
 palace of the Prince of Lichtenstein, a splendid 
 edifice, with a fine park. Pop., of which 739 
 are Jews, 2000. 
 
 AUSSIG, a vil. Austria, circle, Leitmeritz, in Bohemia, 
 near the junction of the Bila with the Elbe, 42 m. N.N.W. 
 Prague. It lies in the midst of gardens and vineyards, which 
 produce a wine of some celebrity called podskaler. During 
 
AUSTELL (ST.) 
 
 257 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 the Hussite struggle, it acquired considerable notoriety ; and 
 its old Gothic church, with a stone pulpit, a bust of John Huss, 
 and a little Madonna, by the celebrated Raphael Mengs, who 
 was born here, is an object of attraction to the antiquary. 
 Pop. 1759. 
 
 AUSTELL (ST.), a market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Cornwall. The TOWN is 13 m. N.N E. Truro, and 30 W. 
 Plymouth, beautifully situated on the declivity of a hill. It 
 consists of one principal street, and several smaller, branching 
 from it irregularly, all tolerably straight, paved, well kept, 
 and lighted with gas. The houses are chiefly stone, and in 
 general substantially built ; and the town is well supplied with 
 water. The places of worship are the parish church, adorned 
 with a handsome tower, two district churches, and chapels 
 belonging to the Wesleyans, Baptists, O Bricnites, Society of 
 Friends, &c. Other buildings of note are the new market- 
 house and townhall in one edifice, and the union poorhouse. 
 The schools comprise a gentleman s boarding and day school 
 for classics, mathematics, engineering, &c., a large national 
 school, two or three minor commercial schools, several ladies 
 schools, two boarding schools, and two or three dame schools. 
 Coarse woollen cloth is manufactured here to a small extent. 
 There are also two steam-engine manufactories, an iron-foundry 
 in the town, and another at Charleston, 1 in. distant. A large 
 trade is done in china clay, and stone, exported from the ports 
 of Charleston and Pentewan, for the supply of the Stafford 
 shire potteries, and foreign countries. In the vicinity are a 
 number of extensive and productive tin and copper mines. 
 About 2 m. N.W. the town, there is a remarkable ancient tin 
 mine, called Carclaze mine, a Cornish name, signifying a 
 gray rock ; it is a vast excavation, about 1 m. in circuit, and 
 22 fathoms in perpendicular depth. No record exists of the 
 period when it was first opened, but, according to tradition, 
 it was worked more than 400 years ago. Market-day for 
 
 corn and provisions, Friday. Several annual fairs. The 
 
 PARISH comprises 11,540 ac., of which 3121 are common or 
 waste. Pop. of par. and tn. (1841), 10,320; (1851), 10,750. 
 (Correspondent in St. Austcll.) 
 
 AUSTERLITZ. 1, A small tn. Austria [locally named 
 Slawkow], prov. Moravia, on the river Littawa, 12 m. E. 
 Briinn. It has a handsome church, with sculptures, and a 
 palace with a library and good pictures, some of them by 
 Titian and Rubens. It has also some manufactures, but the 
 most remarkable circumstance connected with this town is 
 the great battle of the same name, fought about 2 m. W. on 
 December 2, 1805, and in which Napoleon gained a decisive 
 victory over the united forces of Austria and Russia. This 
 battle was followed by the peace of Presburg, signed on the 
 26th of the same month. Pop. 2600, of whom 450 are Jews. 
 2, A hamlet, Holland, prov. of, and 7 m. E. Utrecht, so 
 named by the French, after the victory referred to in the 
 preceding article. General Marmont built here, in honour 
 of Napoleon, a pyramid of earth and turf, which still exists. 
 Pop. 220. 
 
 AUSTIN, a city, U. States, cap. Texas, on the Rio 
 Colorado, 37 m. above Bastrop, and 140 N.E. San Antonio. 
 It was named after Moses Austin, the first projector of the 
 colonization of Texas. In April 1839, three years after 
 Texas had achieved its independence, Austin was selected as 
 the permanent seat of government for the new state. In 
 April 1840, Austin contained 400 houses and 1200 inhabitants, 
 and since then the population has considerably increased. It 
 is an incorporated town, according to the municipal system of 
 the U. States. The public buildings are not elegant, but are 
 well suited to their various purposes. Conspicuous among 
 them is the president s house, situated upon a hill, and com 
 manding an extensive and beautiful prospect. A Presbyterian 
 church and a Methodist meeting-house have also been erected. 
 In the spring of 1840, two newspapers were published in the 
 capital of Texas; which, like ancient Rome, is built upon 
 seven hills, in a most picturesque and delightful situation. 
 The streets are generally composed of gravel. Agate and 
 cornelian, of the finest quality, are found in great abundance 
 about the city and neighbourhood. The Colorado Hills, about 
 4 m. off, contain extensive quarries of marble, limestone, and 
 granite ; and will for many years supply the adjoining country 
 with timber. Pop. of town, exceeding 2500 ; of the muni 
 cipality, 6186. (Bonnell s Topography of Texas; Kennedy s 
 Texas.) 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AUSTIN (SAN FELIPE DE), a post tn., U. States, Texas, 
 cap. Austin co., a place of some trade, on the Brazos river, 
 125 m. E.N.E. San Antonio de Bexar, and founded July 17. 
 1824. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA, a division of the globe of somewhat 
 indefinite limits, but usually esteemed to comprehend the con 
 tinental island of Australia, and an unascertained number of 
 others, many of them very little known, lying between Ion. 
 I 110 and 180 E., and from Papua or New Guinea, the fur- 
 | thest N. island of the division, to lat. 50 S. It includes thus 
 the islands of Australia, Van Diemen s Land, New Zealand, 
 New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, the Mallicollo Islands, 
 Queen Charlotte s Islands, the Solomon Islands, New Ireland, 
 New Britain, the Admiralty Islands, Papua, and the Arru 
 Islands, besides numerous other islands and island groups. 
 The island of Timor, and those lying W. of it, though com 
 ing within the general boundary above indicated, belong to 
 the E. or Indian Archipelago, called also Malasia. Austral 
 asia is estimated to have an area of 6,096,000 geo. sq. m., and 
 a pop. of 2,400,000. It forms one of three portions into 
 which some geographers have divided Oceania, the other two 
 being Malasia and Polynesia, arid corresponds with the Mela 
 nesia of other geographers, who have divided Oceania into 
 Malasia, or W. Oceania; Micronesia, or N. Oceania; Poly 
 nesia, or E. Oceania ; and Melanesia, or S. Oceania. 
 
 AUSTRALIA, or NEW HOLLAND, the largest isl. in the 
 world, or rather a sea-girt continent, lying between the Indian 
 and Pacific Oceans, S. of Asia; between lat. 10 39 and 
 39 11 S. ; and extending from Ion. 113 5 to 153 16 E. ; 
 bounded, N. by Torres Strait, the Sea of Timor, and the 
 islands of Papua, Timor, Flores, &c. ; E. by the S. Pacific ; 
 S. by Bass s Strait, Van Diemen s Land, and the S. Pacific ; 
 and W. by the Indian Ocean. It greatest length, W. to E., 
 is 2400 m. ; its greatest breadth, N. to S., 1700 to 1900 m. 
 Coast line, 8000 in. ; area, 3,000,000 sq. m. It is divided 
 into two unequal parts by the tropic of Capricorn, and has, 
 consequently, both a temperate and a tropical climate. Al 
 though there are numerous spacious harbours on the coasts 
 of Australia, there are few remarkable indentations ; the prin 
 cipal are the Gulf of Carpentaria, on the N., and Spencer s 
 ; Gulf, on the S. ; the former extending inland 650 m., with a 
 breadth of 400 ; the latter extending 180 m. inland, and vary- 
 ing in breadth from 80 to 10 m. On the "W. is Shark s Bay, 
 and on the E. Harvey s Bay, neither exceeding 40 to 50 m. 
 in length and width. A ridge of steep, but not lofty, rnouu- 
 tains runs along a great portion of the E. coast, at a distance 
 from the sea varying from 30 to 90 m. ; while the S. coast, 
 from Cape Leuwin to Spencer s Gulf, presents a low and sandy 
 surface. The N. and W. coasts, so far as they have been yet 
 explored, are also generally low, with some moderate eleva 
 tions at intervals. The interior is also believed to consist of 
 an immense plain, the hilly districts rising from it like islands. 
 The geology of Australia is remarkable for its simplicity 
 and uniformity. The strike of the rocks and the direction of 
 the principal chain of hills is, with one exception, the same 
 throughout the country, namely N. and S. Tertiary rocks 
 I prevail on its S., N., and W. coasts, expanding in the S.E. 
 into a vast tertiary plain, traversed by the Murray and Dar 
 ling rivers. Other two immense tertiary plateaux occur on 
 the S. and the N. coasts ; the former lining the great Australian 
 Bight, and the latter the Gulf of Carpentaria, and both spread 
 ing horizontally for unknown distances into the interior. On 
 the E. coast, palaeozoic rocks, basalt, and granite occur in 
 alternate patches along the whole coast from Bass s Strait to 
 Cape Flattery, in lat. 15 S. ; the last constituting the entire 
 floor of the W. portion of New S. Wales, and extending far 
 into the interior of the continent. 
 
 Colonies have been formed by the British at four different 
 
 points of this great insulated continent, but none of these have 
 
 I been yet pushed further inland than from 150 to 200 m., so 
 
 I that the interior of this vast country may still be considered 
 
 ; a terra incognita. Some individual adventurers have indeed 
 
 penetrated a considerable way into the interior, but their 
 
 accounts contain little to tempt followers. Captain Sturt, one 
 
 j of the most recent explorators of the wilds and wastes of the 
 
 interior regions of Australia, and who, in 1845, penetrated from 
 
 Adelaide as far as lat. 25 33 S., and Ion 138 E., describes 
 
 i the country he traversed as consisting of alternate sand-hills 
 
 ! and flats, with no trace of vegetation as far as the eye could 
 
 33 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 958 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 reach. Tossing the level country, he says, we once more 
 found ourselves among sand-ridges, perfectly insurmountable, 
 and so close that the base of one touched the base of another ; 
 the whole country sand. The sand-hills are of a fiery red, 
 and ran, for miles and miles, in parallel rows, with points like 
 the vanishing points of an avenue. I was at length brought up 
 by a stony desert, that stretched before us in absolute bound 
 lessness. All accounts agree in ascribing this Sterile and 
 repulsive character to the interior of the country ; nor is it 
 much better on many parts of the coast, especially on the 
 S., W., N., and N.W. Captain Stokes, who surveyed these 
 shores in 183743, makes frequent remarks in his narrative 
 on the flatness and sterility of the land. It would appear, 
 indeed, that the best portions of Australia have been already 
 located; these being chiefly confined, so far as known, to 
 the S. and E. portions of the island, where there are large 
 tracts of good land, available for the purposes of both the 
 farmer and grazier. Here also the finest scenery is to be met 
 with, composed of picturesque combinations of wood and 
 water, rocky height and deep ravine, such as is rarely to be 
 met with in any other part of the country. 
 
 Mountains. The highest and most extensive mountain- 
 system yet seen in Australia takes its rise at Cape Wilson, 
 the most S. point of that continent, and runs in a N. direction 
 through New S. Wales. These mountains, called by the na 
 tives the Warragongs, but by the settlers the Australian Alps, 
 comprise three subdivisions the Liverpool range; the Blue 
 Mountains, commencing about 37 m. W. Sydney; and a third, 
 stretching beyond the parallel of 32, which has not yet re 
 ceived any name. The Blue Mountains, so called from their 
 assuming a beautiful blue colour when viewed from a distance, 
 present some very striking scenery. The heights of the pre 
 cipices, and depths of the chasms and ravines are tremendous. 
 1 It appears, says a writer in the Saturday Magazine, as if 
 the earth, from the force of waters, or some violent convulsion, 
 had all around subsided, or been washed away, leaving im- 
 men.-e hollows and gulfs, and exposing to view, to the depth 
 of 2000 ft., the very ribs of the mountains. Dwarf trees, and 
 a scrubby underwood, which retain their verdancy, through 
 out the year, cover a great portion of these heights; the re 
 mainder consists of naked rock, destitute of all semblance of 
 vegetation, and presenting a singularly dreary and inhospit 
 able appearance. Though formidable from their character, the 
 Blue Mountains do not attain any great height ; the highest 
 peak, Mount York, being no more than 3292 ft. The Liver 
 pool range presents general features and characteristics similar 
 to those of the Blue Mountains, though not quite so imposing. 
 The highest peaks of this range have been variously estimated 
 at from 4700 to 7000 ft. It presents, however, a number of 
 points besides, from 2000 to 4000 ft. The precipices and 
 chasms are tremendous here also. Narrow, gloomy, and 
 profound, says Count Strzelecki, these stupendous rents in 
 the bosom of the earth are enclosed between gigantic walls of 
 rock, sometimes receding from, sometimes frightfully over 
 hanging the dark bed of the ravine, and its black silent eddies, 
 or its foaming torrents of water. Many of the highest sum 
 mits of the Warragongs, or Australian Alps, are covered with 
 perpetual snow, and, though no measurements have been taken 
 of them, are believed, from this circumstance, to reach a much 
 greater height than any of those above named. One of the most 
 remarkable elevations yet ascended by Europeans is Mount 
 Kosciuszko, which rises to a height of 6500 ft., and commands 
 a view extending over 7000 sq. m., while immediately beneath 
 the spectator yawns a gulf of 3000 ft. perpendicular depth. 
 This range is continued N. by a series of low, but imperfectly 
 known heights, to Cape York, on Torres Strait, thus forming 
 a connected chain, at no great distance from the E. coast, the 
 whole length of the island, from its most S. to its most N. 
 point. Another range, commencing near the S. coast at Port 
 land Bay, in lat. 36 52 S., Ion. 142 25 E., after taking a N. 
 course for some time, connects with the Australian Alps by a 
 series of grassy hills. The first have been named by their dis 
 coverer, Major Mitchell, the Australian Grampians; and the 
 Jatter, by the same authority, the Australian Pyrenees. In S. 
 Australia occurs another mountain-chain, running N. from Cape 
 Jervis to the singular horse-shoe depression of Lake Torrens. 
 Many of the mountains of Australia exhibit evidences of their 
 being extinct volcanoes. Of these, the most remarkable are 
 Mount Gambier and Mount Lehank, between the W. bank of 
 
 the Glenelg and Uiveli Bay. Mount Lehank has five craters, 
 
 each about three-fourths of a mile in diameter, and all filled 
 
 with water. So far as is known, however, there is no volcano 
 
 in that country now in active operation, if a bituminous burn- 
 
 1 ing hill be excepted, belonging to a range called Wingcn, which 
 
 | exhibits a red heat at the depth of about four fathoms, but has 
 
 no crater, and discharges no lava. The following are* the 
 
 j elevations of a few of the highest known mountains of Aus- 
 
 ! tralia; they all occur in New S. Wales Mount Koscinsko, 
 
 6500 ft.; Mount Sea View, 6000 ft.: Mount Lindesay, 5700 
 
 ft.; Mount Dargal, 5490ft.; Mount Canoblas, 4610 ft.; Mount 
 
 Mitchell, 4120 ft. ; Mount Pinnabar, 4100 ft. ; Mount Bathurst, 
 
 4000 ft. 
 
 fiiccrs and Laics. A scarcity of fresh water, whether in 
 the form of rivers or lakes, is one of the prevailing character- 
 ] istics of Australia. Along a coast line of not less than 8000 m., 
 few rivers of any considerable magnitude discharge themselves 
 into the sea, most of them being absorbed before they reach it ; 
 | while on the S. coast there is not a single water-course to be 
 found from Port Lincoln to King George s Sound, a distance of 
 more than 1500 in. Want of water forms not only one of the 
 chief complaints of all the travellers who have sought to pene 
 trate into the interior of the country, but has, in several in 
 stances, been the cause of their abandoning their enterprise. 
 Lakes are not scarce, but they are nearly all salt, as are also 
 many of the rivers and springs. Long droughts, which dry 
 up the channels of streams and jirrest vegetation, and sudden 
 ! and violent rains, which cause them to overflow their banks 
 I and inundate the surrounding country, are calamities to which 
 j the agriculturists of Australia are much exposed. The floods, 
 in particular, are extremely formidable and destructive, rush- 
 ! big down with an impetuosity which nothing can resist, and 
 carrying off at one sweep the entire produce of the harvest. 
 A still more remarkable characteristic of the rivers of Aus- 
 tralia is, the circumstance of many of them terminating in 
 marshes situated in the interior of the country, thus reversing 
 the order observed in most other lands, by flowing inwards 
 instead of towards the sea. 
 
 filters. Amongst the principal known rivers of Australia, 
 exclusive of those more recently discovered, and to be after 
 wards mentioned, are the Hawkesbury lliver, the Richmond 
 River, Hunter s River, the Murrumbidgee, Murray, Lachlan, 
 Macquarrie, and Darling. The Hawkesbury River rises in 
 the Blue Mountains, and falls into the sea at Broken Bay, 
 30 m. N. of Port Jackson. The Richmond River falls into 
 the sea between 50 and 00 m. S. of Moreton Bay, and is navi 
 gable for small vessels about 70 m. from its mouth. Hunter s 
 river also has its rise in the Blue Mountains, and is navigable 
 for small craft of 30 or 40 tons burden, for 50 m. from New 
 castle, into the harbour of which it discharges itself. The 
 Murrumbidgee has its origin in a range of mountains about 
 200 m. S.W. Sydney, in the parallel of 35 S., and under 
 the meridian of 149 E. It is subsequently joined by the 
 Lachlan and Murray, and ultimately enters the sea through 
 the large marsh, or shallow brackish lake, called Alexan- 
 drina or Victoria Lake, and the lagoon named Coorong. 
 These large rivers are thus rendered useless as a means of 
 communication from the sea to the interior. The origin of 
 the Murray is unknown, but it is supposed to be formed by 
 the junction of two small streams, called the Hume and the 
 Ovens, which have their rise in the Warragong Mountains. 
 The Lachlan has its origin in the Cullarin range of mountains, 
 in county Argyle, New S. Wales. The Macquarrie is formed 
 by the junction of the Fish and Campbell Rivers. This river 
 also takes an inland course, and is finally lost in one of those 
 vast internal marshes which form a feature of internal Aus 
 tralia. The Darling is supposed to be formed by the junction 
 of numerous streams in the interior, to the W. of Moreton 
 Bay. Its waters are perfectly salt, and the banks incrusted 
 wiih the same substance. It falls into the Murray River 
 ] 30 m. E N.E. Adelaide. Besides the rivers described, there 
 are, of lesser note, the Glenelg, Manning, Hastings, Clarence, 
 and Brisbane. The scenery along the latter stream is said, 
 by Mr. Oxley, to be very beautiful, and the adjoining country 
 well adapted for cultivation or grazing. The recent discover- 
 l ies of Capt. Stokes have added live new rivers to those pre 
 viously known, the Fitz-Roy, Victoria, Adelaide, Flinders, 
 I and Albert, all situated on the N. and N.W. coasts. The two | 
 1 last fall into the Gulf of Carpentaria, within 50 m. of each | 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 259 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 other. The scenery on the banks of the Albert is described 
 by Capt. Stokes in the most glowing terms, lie ascended the 
 river to the distance of 10 m., and found it to be from 12 to 
 15 ft. in depth, with a breadth of about 200 yards. Some of 
 the reaches, particularly that called Hope Beach, was found 
 to present one of the most beautiful specimens conceivable of 
 river scenery. 
 
 Lakes. The lakes possess no characteristics of any inter 
 est, indeed hardly deserve the name, the larger of them being, 
 
 duration, and rarely take the mariner by surprise, giving 
 ample warning of their approach by the gathering of heavy 
 clouds and much lightning. On the N. coast, the E. and W. 
 monsoons blow with great regularity ; the E. monsoon setting 
 in generally about the beginning of April, and the W. in 
 October. As might be expected, the temperature of Australia 
 is various, being affected both by geographical petition and 
 local circumstances. In New S. Wales the average tempera 
 ture of spring is 65 5 ; of summer, 72 ; of autumn, 66 ; and 
 
 in general, rather marshes than lakes, depending for their of winter, 55. On the N.W. coast, again, Capt. Stokes 
 
 supplies of water on the rivers that flow into them, instead j found the thermometer standing in the month of January 
 
 of being themselves the sources of rivers ; the consequence I at 98 in the shade on shore, and fluctuating during the day 
 
 is, that they arc often so dried up by absorption and exhala- j between 98 and 94. Capt. Wickham found the average 
 
 tion, as to present the appearance of vast reedy swamps; and range of the thermometer on this coast, between the N.W. 
 
 even when filled with water, more resemble submerged flats j cape and the meridian of 120 E., during the months of May, 
 
 than lakes, with low muddy shores, so soft,; nd of such extent, June, July, and August, to be, on board ship, 75 in the 
 
 as to render the water unapproachable. Small lakes are nu- middle of the day, and 60 at night. 
 
 merous in all the level portions of Australia, but they are all I Mineralogy. Granite, sandstone, limestone, coal, slate, 
 
 ,ny of the largest, their muddy banks being ! potters clay, and sand eminently adapted for glass-making, 
 
 salt, as are also many of the la 
 
 incrusted with the same substance. An opinion at one time 
 prevailed, and still prevails, though not now so general, that 
 there was a vast lake in the interior of Australia a theory 
 apparently adopted to account for the inward flow of so many 
 large rivers, which were supposed to discharge their waters 
 into this inland sea. Of this opinion, for one, is Capt. Sturt. 
 The idea was supported by the evidence of the natives in the 
 vicinity of Swan Iviver, who asserted that there was such a 
 lake ; and, to give a notion of its magnitude, said that if a boy 
 commenced walking round it, he would be an old man before 
 
 his task was completed. There se 
 
 now good reason to 
 
 believe, that this accourt either refers to one of the marshes 
 illuded to, or is otherwise a gross exaggeration, and that the 
 
 occur abundantly. Beautiful marbles, suitable for statuary 
 and other ornamental purposes, have also been found in New 
 S. Wales. Copper, tin, and lead likewise abound ; but all 
 these metals have been thrown into the shade by the discovery, 
 in 1851, in New S. Wales, and in 1852 in Victoria, of numerous 
 rich and extensive deposits of gold, eclipsing in productive 
 ness even the previously unrivalled gold regions of California. 
 Vegetation. There is much yet to learn regarding the 
 vegetation of Australia, our knowledge of it being almost 
 entirely confined to its coasts and maritime districts. The 
 verdure being perpetual, the forests never exhibit either the 
 varied tints of autumn nor the soft freshness of spring, but 
 wear continually a dull, monotonous hue of olive-green. The 
 
 rivers which take an inland course diffuse themselves, as flowers, too, are generally without perfume, though there are 
 
 already mentioned, over vast flats, and finally disappear by 
 being partly exhaled and partly absorbed by the sandy soil. 
 Capt. Stokes is of opinion that the centre of Australia is a vast 
 
 everal odoriferous plants that scent the air to a great distance ; 
 but many of the former are beautifully formed, and exquisitely 
 tinted, although but short-lived. The forests of Australia 
 
 desert, into which all the waters that flow inland are poured, j are often found differing considerably from each other in their 
 converting it, after heavy falls of rain, into an immense morass general features and characteristics, and in the prevailing de- 
 or lake, which eventually discharges its surplus waters slowly scription of tree of which they are composed ; some of them 
 into the Gulf of Carpentaria. The largest of these swamps exhibiting an agreeable variety of scenery, but most of them 
 or lakes yet discovered, are those of Alexandrina or Victoria, \ having a gloomy and melancholy appearance, and being difii- 
 Dambeling, and Torrens. The first, as already mentioned, 
 traversed by the Murray. The Dambeling was discovered in 
 
 1843 by Messrs. Lander and Lefroy. It is 15 m. long by 7J 
 broad, and is quite salt. It is situated 100 m. S.S.E. Bever- 
 ley, in W. Australia, and is supposed to be the lake of which 
 I the natives in that part of the country speak in such hyper- 
 bolical terms. Torrens lies inland from the head of Spencer s 
 Gulf, in S. Australia. It is of a horse-shoe form, and is said 
 by Mr. Eyre to be 400 m. in length, with an average breadth 
 of 15 to 20 m., but its real extent has not yet been determined. 
 The shores, according to the same authority, are composed of 
 soft mud and sand, in many places coated over with an in 
 crustation of salt, which glitters brilliantly in the sun. In 
 the dry season, Torrens is merely a salt marsh. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Australia, so far as regards the 
 localities touched at, or occupied by Europeans, is, with some 
 exceptions, extremely healthy. That of New S. Wales is 
 particularly so, being perhaps the most salubrious on the face 
 of the globe. The climate may be considered generally as very 
 dry, particularly S. of the tropic of Capricorn, where the amount 
 of moisture is about equal to that of S. Africa, and the S. parts 
 of S. America ; which places it resembles, also, in its mean 
 annual temperature. But here, years of uninterrupted drought 
 frequently occur. N. of this tropic, considerably more rain 
 falls ; while at the N. extremities of the island, including Cape 
 York Peninsula and Arnhem s Land, the quantity is equal to 
 that which falls in Ireland and the S. parts of England. It is, 
 
 cult to penetrate, owing to the quantity of scrubby underwood 
 with which they arc choked up. Amid the apparent sameness 
 of the forest, says Count Strzelecki, may be often found spots 
 teeming with a gigantic and luxuriant vegetation, sometimes 
 laid out in stately groves, free from thicket or underwood, 
 sometimes opening on glades and slopes, intersected with 
 rivulets, carpeted with the softest turf, and which lack only 
 the thatched and gabled cottage, with its blue smoke curling 
 amongst the trees, to realize a purely European picture. 
 Sometimes, again, the forest skirts an open country of hill 
 and plain, gracefully sprinkled with isolated clumps of trees, 
 covered with the richest tufted herbage, and enamelled with 
 flowers of varied form and colour ; or it is lost in immense 
 thickets, where innumerable flowering shrubs, and elegant 
 interwoven creepers, form Lowers as impenetrable and as 
 picturesque as those seen in the forests of Brazil. In New 
 S. Wales, many of the forests take their names from the 
 predominating trees, such as Stringy-Bark Forest, Iron- 
 Bark Eorest, &c. ; the former, a gloomy- looking tree, impart 
 ing to the woods a dreary and sombre character. Acacias are 
 extremely common, up wards of two hundred kinds having been 
 found, all of them possessing a family resemblance, which dis 
 tinguishes them from the acacias of the Old and the New 
 World. The Proteas and Banksias are almost peculiar to 
 New Holland, and the Eucalyptus, Casuarina, and Norfolk 
 Island pine are remarkable for their beauty, and afibrd valu 
 able timber. The barks of several trees abound in tanning 
 
 however, extremely irregular, and, though heavy, lasts only matter, and large quantities have been sent to Britain as 
 for a few hours daily. On the W. coast of Australia, S. winds a substitute for oak bark. Several of the acacias afford a 
 prevail from October to the beginning of April, the commence 
 ment of the Australian winter, which is opposed to our summer ; 
 
 June, July, and August being their winter months. In April, 
 the S. winds are interrupted by violent gales from the N. and 
 W., accompanied by heavy rain. On the N. W. coast the winds 
 are more various, but the W. seems to prevail, especially 
 during the months of September, October, November, and 
 December. This coast is exposed also to heavy squalls be 
 tween E.S.E. and N.E. They are, however, generally of short 
 
 gum resembling gum-arabic. One of the most imposing 
 trees of the Australian forest is the Eucalyptiis yloluhis, 
 called by the settlers the gum-tree, which often attains a 
 
 height of 150 ft., with a girth at the 
 
 of from 25 to 
 
 40 ft. Most of the trees of this species shed their bark an 
 nually; the process is curious. When the season arrives, the 
 old bark bursts, splits, and falls off, or is blown off by the 
 wind as it hangs dangling in the air, and the renovated tree 
 stands forth shining, stem and branches, in a new bark of a 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 2 GO 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 beautiful silvery hue. Nearly all the Eucalypti are called 
 gum-trees, although one species only yields a pure gum, the 
 exudations of some of the others being merely resins. Another 
 species yields a substance which the colonists call manna ; it 
 is of two kinds a pure white, and a pale yellow. It has the 
 taste of a delicious sweetmeat, with an almond flavour; and 
 is so luscious, that much cannot be eaten of it. This sub 
 stance is much sought after by the natives, who sometimes 
 scrape from the tree as much as a pound in a quarter of an 
 hour. It appears, however, to be by no means very plentiful. 
 From Eucalyptus G-unni the colonists obtain, by incisions in 
 the bark, a cool, refreshing, slightly aperient liquid, which 
 ferments and acquires the properties of beer. The most 
 remarkable and most beautiful tree of the Australian forest 
 is the fern-tree, which grows to the height of 15 or 20 ft., 
 when it suddenly spreads out its enormous leaves, each 4 or 
 5 ft. in length, in every direction. These leaves differ none , 
 iii appearance from those of the common fern, except in size. 
 Intermingling with the other trees of the forest, is seen, at 
 intervals, the tall slender stem of the palm-tree, rising to a 
 height of 70 or 100 ft. Palms, however, are limited to the 
 N. and E. shores, where vegetation assimilates more to that 
 of India than to the prevailing character of that of Australia. 
 The lilyworts constitute a marked feature of Australian vege 
 tation ; among them are the Xanthoreas or grass-trees, with 
 shrubby stems, somewhat resembling small palms. They bear 
 tufts of long wiry foliage at their extremities, from the midst of 
 which rise very long cylindrical spikes of densely compacted 
 flowers like bulrushes, which furnish valuable fodder for all 
 kinds of cattle ; the base of the inner leaves of some species may 
 be used as food, and the inner portion of the top of the trunk 
 is eaten by the aborigines raw and roasted. In the more 
 favoured regions of Australia, grasses are abundant and nutri 
 tious, presenting pasturages of great extent, and admirably 
 adapted for the rearing of cattle. It is not a little remarkable, 
 however, that notwithstanding the excellence of the climate, 
 and the luxuriance of vegetation, Australia does not produce 
 a single native edible fruit, if we except some insignificant 
 berries, and a kind of chestnut lately discovered. But exotic 
 fruits and vegetables are found to thrive well, and may now 
 be had in New S. Wales in great abundance, and of excel 
 lent quality. The fruits comprise all thoso of the tropics, as 
 well as those of colder climates, and include oranges, lemons, 
 figs, bananas, guavas, pine-apples, &c. Amongst the culinary 
 vegetables are all those known in the gardens of Europe. \ 
 Green pease are gathered in winter as well as summer, and the 
 potato produces two crops in the year. Seed-time is from 
 March to June; harvest in November and December. Every 
 species of corn is cultivated with success in the settled 
 districts. The vine, the olive, and mulberry, also thrive 
 well. Tobacco, of good quality, is grown ; but being unable 
 to compete with the American, in point of cheapness, some 
 attempts to cultivate it on a large scale were attended with 
 ruin to the speculators. The oat, in a wild state, was met 
 with on the W. coast of Australia by Capt. Stokes, who 
 therefore supposes it to be indigenous to that country. 
 
 Zoology. Of the class Mammalia, three orders are entirely 
 wanting in Australia the quadrumana, pachydcrmata, and 
 ruminantia. There are thus none of the monkey tribe in that 
 country ; no elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, nor deer ; no 
 native hoofed quadrupeds of any kind, nor any native rumin 
 ating* animals, all of the latter now there being of foreign 
 introduction. Neither are there any lions, tigers, bears, 
 wolves, hyenas, or any other wild beasts of prey. The native 
 animals of Australia are mostly inoffensive; few of them being 
 dangerous to man, either from natural ferocity or from the 
 possession of venomous qualities. Of the ten or eleven 
 
 * An opinion is entertained in Australia that unknown animals, of 
 mense size, inhabit the lar<:e water-hotel anil marshes of the inter. 
 This opinion is confirmed by native authority, always, however, to be 
 doubted in such cases. In one instance, a larjre animal, with two 
 white deciduous tusks, and which made a tremendous 
 
 noise is said to 
 
 species of Carnivora that inhabit Australia, and its seas and 
 rivers, one only is a land animal the wild dog. Another is 
 the alligator ; the rest are marine mammals, belonging to the 
 seal kind, and comprehending the sea-lion, sea-bear, &c. As 
 a set-off against the above large deduction from its zoology, 
 Australia possesses several animals peculiar to itself, and of 
 singular physiological structure. It has more than 40 species 
 of marsupials, of which scarcely any congeners occur elsewhere. 
 The largest of these, as well as the largest native quadruped, 
 is that remarkable herbiferous mammal, the kangaroo, attain 
 ing at times the weight of 160 to 200 Ibs. Its flesh is held 
 in high estimation by the settlers, particularly the tail, which 
 grows to an enormous size. There are many varieties of this 
 singular animal, some of them very small, but beautifully 
 fui red; the smallest species is called the kangaroo rat; the 
 largest are locally distinguished by the names of the forester, 
 and the old man. It is said that the kangaroo is rapidly dis 
 appearing before the advance of civilized man. Opossums, 
 similar to those of America, are numerous, taking up their 
 abodes in the hollows of decayed gum-trees. Capt. Stokes 
 met with a beautiful specimen on the N. coast, which he 
 describes as being about half the size of a full-grown rat ; its 
 colour and fur resemble the chinchilla. Next to the animals 
 described, wild dogs are the most frequently met with; their 
 appearance is wolfish, ears erect, and colour a reddish-brown. 
 They do not bark, but sometimes yelp, like the common dog. 
 When hard pressed by hunger, they devour each other ; 
 and, being very destructive to sheep, are eagerly hunted by 
 the settlers. One of the most remarkable animals of this 
 island is the ornithorhynchus, an aquatic, egg-laying mam 
 mal, frequenting rivers and lakes, and their margins ; with 
 the beak of a duck, and a fur-covered body, in shape resembling 
 that of an otter ; length, from tip of beak to that of the tail, 
 13 inches. It swims well, and, indeed, seldom quits the wa 
 ter, as it crawls with difficulty on land. The foot of the male 
 is armed with a spur like a cock s, through which passes a 
 poisonous liquor, rendering the animal dangerous. Besides 
 these quadrupeds, there are porcupines of two kinds, flying 
 foxes, flying opossums, and flying squirrels, wombats, sloths, 
 the porcupine ant eater, &c. Australia now possesses a large 
 stock of the domestic animals of Britain, which thrive there 
 remarkably well. The breed of horses is excellent. Horned 
 cattle, sheep, and swine, also prosper, the first attaining a great 
 size; while the sheep improve in fleece, and their flesh in 
 flavour. Neither goats, asses, nor mules are reared to any 
 extent. 
 
 The birds of Australia are numerous, and in great variety; 
 and comprehend many beautiful, and some remarkable kinds. 
 Eagles, some very large, measuring 9 ft. from wing to wing ; 
 falcons, and various other species of hawks and owls, are nu 
 merous ; and so also are parrots, perroquets, and cockatoos, many 
 of them of the most beautiful plumage. Pigeons of various 
 species, and the most delicate and varied hues, frequent sundry 
 parts of the island. Vultures are entirely wanting, as are like 
 wise the common domestic fowls, there being nearly a total 
 absence of the gallinaceous birds. All the tribes of usual sing 
 ing birds are also absent. The largest Australian bird is the 
 emu or cassowary, excelled in size by the African ostrich alone, 
 and attaining a height sometimes of more than 7 ft., 5 and 6 
 being the average. It is widely diffused over the S. parts of 
 Australia, but is rapidly disappearing before the encroach 
 ments of civilized man. Bustards are not uncommon, some 
 of them attaining a weight of from 15 to 18 Ibs. A remark 
 able bird was met with on the N. coast by Capt. Stokes. 
 The large tumuli, says that intelligent navigator, noticed 
 by Capt. King and others, and supposed to be raised by the 
 inhabitants, are the works of a bird ; some of these tumuli are 
 30 ft. long, and about 5 ft. high. The edifice is erected by 
 means of the feet, which are remarkable both for size and 
 strength, and a peculiar power of grasping ; they are yellow, 
 while the body is brown. Nothing can be more curious than 
 to see them hopping towards these piles on one foot, the other 
 being filled with materials for building. They resemble 
 
 nary noises are alleged also to have been heard proceeding from some of their eggs in these mounds, where they are hatched by the 
 the large and remote water-holes, Inch those who heard them believed j heat generated, in part, by decomposition, and from which 
 
 animal*, oTa imee thought to be unMutiuct, is rappMed to glve^ausi! pendent of parental tendance. This bird is gallinaceous, and 
 biUly to the above belief. 1 the name which has been given it is Meyapodius tumulus. 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 261 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 From the size of its nest, which is spoken of with astonish 
 ment by Capt. Cook, it was presumed to be a bird of enormous 
 bulk. Birds of Paradise abound in the N. parts of Australia, 
 where they are shot by the natives with blunt arrows, in 
 order to avoid injuring their elegant plumage ; they are then 
 skinned and dried for sale. The most common birds belong 
 to the honey-sucking family, and many of the warblers are 
 unusally beautiful; the two most magnificent being the rifle , 
 bird, and the ring oriole. The spotted grossbeak, a splendid j 
 bird, and the menura lyra or lyre-bird, with its magnificent 
 lyre-shaped tail, are natives of this land of extrordinary natural 
 productions. Quails are numerous, and supply the place of 
 partridges to the sportsmen of the antipodes. The gigantic 
 crane may frequently be seen on the borders of the rivers, 
 lakes, or swamps, which also abound in ducks, teals, and 
 widgeons, affording many a savoury dish to the hard-wrought 
 settler. Other aquatic birds are, the pelican, goose, and that 
 rara avis of the Latin poets the black swan, a bird of the 
 most stately form and graceful carriage, to be seen in great 
 numbers on the lagoons of New S. Wales. 
 
 The reptiles of Australia are pretty numerous, though only 
 a few are dangerous. The most formidable is the alligator, 
 which abounds in the N. They were seen in great numbers 
 in the rivers Adelaide, Albert, and Victoria, discovered by 
 Capt. Stokes. Serpents are numerous, and some of them 
 extremely venomous. Those most commonly seen in New 
 S. Wales are the diamond snake, the black, the gray, and 
 the brown, the whip, and the yellow snakes. In the N. parts 
 of Australia they are more numerous, of greater variety, and | 
 of larger size. The diamond snake, the largest of those 
 named, attains a length of from 10 to 15 ft., and girth of 13 
 to 15 inches ; it is not venomous, but, owing to the size of its 
 fangs, its bite is dangerous. It is beautifully marked, and 
 obtains its name from being covered with a series of diamond- 
 shaped spots, of various brilliant colours. The black snake, 
 which varies in length from 3 to 5 ft., is poisonous, as are 
 also the gray, brown, and whip snakes ; but the most deadly 
 is the yellow snake, the bite of which is almost instantly 
 fatal. This reptile is also the ugliest of the tribe ; it has a | 
 large flat head, a malignant eye, and emits a strong, offensive 
 fetor. Lizards and frogs are also numerous in various parts. 
 Scorpions, centipedes, and tarantulas do not exist in such num 
 bers as to cause inconvenience or discomfort to the settler. 
 
 The seas, rivers, and lagoons, abound in fish, of numerous 
 varieties, and other aquatic animals, many of them peculiar. 
 Bream, nearly as large as the sea-fish of the same name, are 
 plentiful in the rivers ; and in the lagoons are caught enormous 
 eels, some of them weighing 20 Ibs. Cod-fish are abundant on 
 the coast, and of a large size, being not unfrequently caught 
 of the weight of 50, 60, and even 90 Ibs. Whales and seals j 
 frequent the coasts and coves. On the N. coasts are extensive 
 fisheries of trepang, much visited by native traders from the 
 Indian Archipelago. The seas are likewise frequented by j 
 several species of sharks, and by sea-serpents of great size. 
 Insects are numerous, and in some respects resemble those of 
 Africa and Asia. Locusts are plentiful in some parts. Of 
 bees there are three kinds, all destitute of stings. Ants are 
 numerous, both in numbers and species, one kind being an 
 inch long; and their hills attain a height of 13 ft., with a 
 width, at the base, of 7 ft., gradually tapering to a point. 
 Spiders are very large; and caterpillars, in some seasons, 
 blight the finest crops. 
 
 Aborigines. The Australian natives belong to the Papuan 
 negro race, and are of a sooty brown or chocolate colour ; they 
 are of rather less average height than Europeans, ranging from 
 5 ft. 4 inches to 5 ft. 7 inches, and frequently falling below the 
 lowest of these measurements ; the head is small, the trunk 
 slender, the arms and legs of a rounded and muscular form, 
 and the whole figure, in general, very well proportioned, but 
 frequently marred by the protuberance of the abdomen. The 
 hair, which they wear very long, is jet black, and for the most 
 part lank and coarse, though in some individuals it is soft and 
 curling ; if attended to, it might be made ornamental to their 
 persons, but, being utterly neglected, it becomes matted and 
 greasy, the owners using it as a towel to wipe their hands 
 with. The most remarkable feature, however, of the Austra 
 lian savage is the eye, which is large, full, penetrating, and 
 singularly eloquent, expressing the emotions and workings of i 
 the mind with vivacity and energy. The women are not, in j 
 
 general, so well formed as the men a circumstance attribut 
 able in some measure to their being much employed in digging, 
 and to the custom of carrying their children on their shoulders. 
 Both parents are fond of their offspring, and treat them with 
 the greatest indulgence. Some of the points alluded to are 
 illustrated in the accompanying woodcuts, all representations 
 
 B. AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES. From An K a B . South Australia Illustrated. 
 
 of S. Australians. No. 1 is a warrior of the Mount Barker 
 tribe ; he is painted with narrow stripes of red ochre that reach 
 quite round his body ; his shield is made of bark. No. 2 is 
 a woman of the Parnkallah tribe, Port Lincoln, with her 
 child on her shoulders, as mentioned above. The little one 
 holds on by the hair of its mother s head. No. 3 is a boy 
 amusing himself with a reed spear. In this figure, the singular 
 protuberance of the abdomen, for which the Australians are 
 so remarkable, particularly when young, is very observable. 
 
 3. AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES From Angus South Australia Illustrated. 
 
 No. 4 represents a man of the Nauo tribe from Coffin s Bay, 
 W. of Port Lincoln. He wears a covering of emu feathers, 
 with ornaments .of shaved sticks in his hair, which is bound 
 round with spun opossum fur ; in his hand is a womera or 
 instrument for throwing the spear. His breast is marked 
 with deep incisions, cut horizontally across the breast ; these 
 are filled with clay, which prevents them healing, and renders 
 them hard and horny, resembling tubes of gristle, which pro 
 ject from the skin, and produce a repulsive disfigurement of 
 the body. No. 5 represents a woman of the Milmendura tribe, 
 on the Coorong, equipped for travelling, with her net made of 
 bulrush fibres and her rush-basket slung at her back ; she is 
 also provided with the digging stick or katta, and carries fire 
 in her hand between two pieces of bark. Her garment is the 
 circular mat made of reeds, called paingkocut. No. 6 is a man 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 262 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 of the Milmendura tribe, wearing the sea-weed cloak, the most 
 complete and perfect garment to be met with among the S. 
 Australian natives. It resembles a coarse matting, the long 
 ends of the grass-like weed forming a graceful fringe at the 
 bottom of the garment. This dress is of rare occurrence, and 
 only manufactured during the inclement season to protect the 
 individual from the weather on exposed shores. No. 7 is an 
 old man of the Moorundi tribe, on the Murray. The form of 
 the Australian is less massive than that of the African negro, 
 but he is much more swift and graceful in his movements, 
 and is much more agile and adroit; and when beheld, says 
 Count Strzelecki, in the posture of striking, or throwing 
 his spear, his attitude leaves nothing to be desired in point of 
 manly grace. Their speech, meaning particularly the natives 
 of New S. Wales, says the same authority, possesses all 
 those felicitous combinations of syllables which constitute a 
 highly sonorous and euphonious language. Both the physical 
 an 1 intellectual qualities of the Australian aboriginal have been 
 rated much too low, the descriptions hitherto given of him 
 having been apparently from specimens found amongst the 
 debased and degenerate races in the neighbourhood of Sydney, 
 corrupted by the contact of civilization, which, instead of im 
 proving his condition, has taught him new vices, and reduced 
 him from the independence of savage life to a state of Starva 
 tion and beggary. Inform he is by no means the miserable 
 looking creature he has been so frequently represented, 
 neither are his perceptions nor intellectual capabilities at all 
 so limited as they have been described. There is, as might 
 be expected, great diversity, both as regards personal appear 
 ance and character amongst them ; but we have the evidence 
 of Capt. Stokes, and other recent writers, to show that both 
 have been unwarrantably disparaged. The former, who circum 
 navigated Australia, and who thus came in contact with a 
 great variety of tribes, frequently speaks of them as being a 
 fine race of men, and the tribes about Shoal Haven and the 
 small S. ports, he describes as good-looking, useful fellows, 
 of whom much may hereafter be mads. A curious and inter 
 esting manifestation of native talent was found by this intel 
 ligent navigator in Depuch Island, on the N. coast; this was a ! 
 series of drawings of animals, &c., on the smooth surface of j 
 the rocks. Much ability, says Capt. Stokes, is displayed | 
 in many of these representations, the subjects of which could 
 be discovered at a glance. The number of specimens was | 
 immense, so that the natives must have been in the habit of 
 amusing themselves in this innocent manner for a long period j 
 of time. When to this the fact is added, that on the same j 
 coast, the canoes of the natives, according to the same author- 
 ity, are neatly and artistically made, it is irrational to insist on ; 
 entertaining a mean opinion of their capacity. In common j 
 with other savages, but perhaps in a higher degree than any, j 
 not excepting the red men of America, they possess singu 
 larly acute physical perceptions, which they exercise in a way 
 that would appear to be incompatible with a very low condi 
 tion of the intellectual faculties. Of their extraordinary 
 sharpness of vision, Capt. Stokes records an interesting in 
 stance: Two natives were employed to track the footsteps 
 of the strayed child of a settler, a boy of six or seven years of 
 age, which they did for many miles, tracing the tiny footprints 
 through brushwood, over fallen leaves, and large spaces of 
 grass-covered ground, till the object of their search was found. 
 Not the least interesting feature in this case was the joy which 
 these poor savages expressed on discovering the strayed child. 
 Capt. Stokes mentions another instance of their singular 
 acuteness of vision, where a particular individual, a settler, was 
 distinguished and named by a native from his footprint, sub 
 sequent inquiry confirming the accuracy of the recognition. 
 In the following slightly abridged quotation from the same 
 author, we have an account of an aboriginal whose conduct 
 and bearing are alone sufficient to elevate the character of his 
 whole race in the estimation of civilized man : We had just 
 completed our surveying operations, says Capt. Stokes, when \ 
 two of the boat s crew came to report a visit from one of the j 
 natives ; they said their sable visitor came to them without 
 any enticing, no offers of red or blue handkerchiefs, or some 
 gaudy bauble that seldom fails to catch the eye of the savage, ! 
 and without the slightest indication of fear. We hurried down ! 
 to see this marvellously confiding native, whom we found 
 coming up the hill; he met us with all the confidence of 
 an old acquaintance. His first act of civility was to show , 
 
 Mr. Tarrant and myself an easy road to the beach ; and I 
 shall never forget, as he preceded us, or rather walked by our 
 side, yielding the path, with natural politeness, to those he 
 seemed to regard as his guests, how wonderful was the agility 
 he displayed in passing over the rocks, sometimes coming 
 down the face of one almost precipitous without the lca.st 
 apparent effort. His height was about 5 ft. 8 inches, his 
 forehead was remarkably high, his perception very quick, and 
 his utterance gentle and slow. His extraordinary confidence 
 in us commanded the respect of us all. As already remarked, 
 there is, however, great diversity in the characters of the dif 
 ferent tribes, as well as in their social condition ; while many 
 of them are mild, intelligent, and inoffensive, some are fierce, 
 vindictive, and generally in a state of the rudest barbarism. 
 Of this description are the natives inhabiting the vicinity of 
 Cape Villaret; these savages, unlike the more advanced tribes, 
 who wear cloaks made of opossum skins, go entirely naked, 
 with the exception of a coarse grass mat round the waist ; 
 their spears, also, are clumsy and ill-shaped. Neither is there 
 now any doubt that the native Australians, or at least some 
 of the tribes, indulge in cannibalism. Haydar says that he 
 has on several occasions seen human flesh in their possession, 
 and that he was told that they make a point of eating certain 
 portions of their enemies killed in battle. Infanticide also is 
 practised to a great extent, arising from the extreme difficulty 
 the mother finds in rearing her offspring. 
 
 They have several curious superstitious beliefs and observ 
 ances. One of the most extraordinary of the former is, the 
 belief that white men were their fellow-countrymen in a former 
 state of existence. Acting on this belief, a party of natives 
 regularly visited a settler twice a year on account of his re 
 semblance to a deceased relative. On these occasions, the 
 settler s kindred, as these poor savages thought themselves, 
 travelled a distance of CO m., and had, besides, to pass through 
 an enemy s country. The Australians have a superstitious 
 horror of approaching the graves of the dead ; they are 
 averse even to speak of them, and when they do, it is 
 always in a whisper. They stand, also, in great awe of 
 the noises of the forest when agitated by a tempest. From 
 the reports of the Commandant at the aboriginal settlement 
 on Flinder s Island, it appears that the natives are making 
 a gratifying progress towards civilization, and becoming 
 expert in some of the industrial arts. In road-making, 
 says one of these reports, they are complete adepts ; they 
 are fully equal, in this kind of labour, to the most experi 
 enced of the white men in the settleraent, and for celerity 
 of movement are greatly superior. In husbandry they had 
 also made great progress, preparing the ground for, and plant 
 ing their own potatoes. Several of the younger male mem 
 bers of the establishment had been put to different trades, and 
 were making rapid proficiency ; one youth, who wrote a fair 
 hand, was employed in the Commandant s office as a clerk or 
 copyist, and another as a messenger. Nor were the females 
 behind the males in aptitude. They had become expert 
 needlewomen, and had attained great proficiency in the art of 
 manufacturing French net. In regard to the domestic arrange 
 ments of their dwellings, they were found to be fully equal to 
 a large majority of white women, and to many much superior. 
 Their culinary utensils were kept clean, and were tastefully ar 
 ranged; they washed their husband s linen, cooked, baked bread, 
 and performed all the ordinary domestic duties of civilized life 
 with judgment and propriety. Some of the more intelligent 
 of the men were employed as police, and were found perfectly 
 efficient in all respects. On one occasion, several of these 
 aboriginal police were despatched in search of a convict who 
 had absconded ; they discovered him, brought him back to 
 the settlement handcuffed, and safely lodged him in the jail. 
 Unfortunately, our relations to the aborigines are not all of 
 this satisfactory character. Violence and bloodshed have 
 marked the contact of the two races. The savage, driven 
 from his hunting grounds, and deprived of subsistence, commits 
 depredations on the flocks of the settler, who, in return, puts 
 the savage to death when and wherever he meets with him ; 
 the latter retaliates by murdering the white man when oppor 
 tunity offers, and a war of extermination is the result. From 
 this fierce and sanguinary spirit, some of the most atrocious 
 scenes have arisen that can well be conceived, the greater 
 turpitude, and greater recklessness of human life and human 
 suffering, being almost always with the whites. Ft is but pro 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 263 
 
 AUSTRALIA 
 
 per to add, that the British Government has ever shown the 
 utmost anxiety for the protection and well-being of tine native. 
 The despatches of Lord Glenelg, while colonial secretary, to 
 the governor, and other public officers of New S. Wales, are 
 filled with injunctions to these functionaries to use every 
 means in their power to protect the native from the violence 
 of the settlers, to conciliate him by forbearance and gentle 
 treatment, and to provide for his wants. The aborigines are 
 declared to be British subjects, and as such entitled to the 
 protection of the laws, and to all the rights and privileges 
 pertaining thereto. The murder of a native to be considered 
 in the same light as the murder of a white man, and the same 
 consequences to attend the perpetration of the crime, by whom 
 soever committed. Acting on this principle of justice, seven 
 men, all convicts and servants of settlers, were hanged at 
 Sydney in the year 1838, for the murder of 22 natives, men, 
 women, and children, whom the ruffians led out, tied together 
 by a rope, to a solitary place, and assassinated, one after the 
 other, burning the bodies afterwards. 
 
 The native Australians possess no regular habitations, be 
 ing generally on the move in search of food ; but some places 
 along the coasts, where they can obtain a constant supply of 
 fish and oysters, they construct such huts as those represented 
 
 IVE UUTS, JKUVIS BAl 
 
 D Urville, Voyage di- i Astrolabe. 
 
 iu the accompanying woodcuts. No. 1 is a hut of the natives 
 of Jervis Bay. New S. Wales. It is a superior structure to 
 that which follows, bearing out the opinion held as to the 
 greater intelligence of the aborigines of the E. parts of Aus 
 tralia. The native at the door of the hut is procuring fire, by 
 
 Colonies. The colonies established in Australia are, S. 
 Australia, W. Australia, New S. Wales, and the settlement of 
 Victoria, Port Philip or Australia Felix, and Cooksland or 
 Moreton Bay. A settlement, called N. Australia, was formed 
 some years since, but was abandoned in 1847, after an outlay 
 by the Government of upwards of 15,000. 
 
 There are two rival routes to Australia, the E. and the W. 
 The one by the Isthmus of Suez, and the other by the Isthmus 
 of Panama. The latter is more direct, and shorter than the 
 former by 1798 m.; the distance by Suez and Singapore be 
 ing 14,488 m , while that via Panama is only 12,690. The 
 distance by the Cape of Good Hope to Sydney, is 13,880 m. ; 
 being 1190 m. more than that by Panama, which is thus the 
 shortest of the three. 
 
 Commerce, &c. The trade of Australia is still only in pro 
 cess of being developed, many articles not being yet produced 
 in sufficient quantity to admit of extensive export. The com 
 merce is, however, already considerable, and is rapidly extend 
 ing; and, with the increase of population, becomes every year 
 more important to L ritain, whence the colonists derive their 
 supplies of manufactured goods. Particulars respecting the 
 commerce of Australia will be found in articles on the separate 
 colonies. Here it may be noted, generally, that of late years, 
 copper ore, gold, and wool have formed important items of 
 export. After gold, wool is the staple commodity. The ex 
 traordinary increase, from 1830 to 1853, in the quantity of 
 this article produced in Australia, and exported to Great Bri 
 tain, is shown in the following table: 
 
 Year 1S30 1810 1815 
 
 Lbs. 1,967,309 9,721,433 | 24,177,31: 
 
 1851 1852 1853 
 
 S5.803.831 1. 37,567.5-23 40,861,437 
 
 QUANTITIES of the CIIIKF AHTI 
 the U.NITKU Ki 
 
 I.KS ExrouTKn from AUSTBALI 
 ODOM in 1*51-18:V?. 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Copper ore, resmlusof copper, cast copper, ton? 
 Copper, wrought 
 Hides, not tanned cwts 
 Hides, tanned Ihs 
 
 7,583 
 
 2.H 
 33,280 
 562,769 
 248 
 3,601 
 1,091 
 
 10,545 
 373 
 89,638 
 
 : ,! ,) m I 
 1,970 
 10.69 1 
 804 
 14631 
 37,675 
 159,(!C1 
 3.44 i 
 
 3,327 
 686 
 41,S2t 
 213 
 993 
 8.&31 
 425 
 
 ?,(>5\1 
 1 -21,12s 
 752 
 
 Mother-of-pearl shi lls, rousjh cwts 
 O 1, cocoa-nut 
 
 Oil, spermaceti .. tuns 
 
 Quicksilver Ihs 
 
 Skins, sheep, undressed and tanned No 
 Tallow cwts 
 Wine, produce of Brit. set. in Australia, ;;als 
 
 6,552 
 170.154- 
 1,714 
 
 HOT 01 MILMKNDUKA TRIBE From j^ngns South Australia Illustrated. 
 
 nibbing together two pieces of grass tree. The grass sticks are 
 of two kinds, hard and soft. The soft piece is held firmly by 
 the feet, whilst the hard one is rubbed between the hands, with 
 the point inserted into the soft piece. No. 2 is a hut of the 
 Milmendura tribe, built on the shores of the Coorong, a lagoon 
 in S. Australia, IS. and W. Lake Alexandrina or Victoria. 
 On these bleak shores, the huts are built facing the N.E., in 
 order to shelter them from the prevailing S. and W. winds. 
 
 To the end of 1.852 probably above 10,000,000 of gold have 
 been exported. In 1851, 271 vessels, tonn. 145,777 left the 
 United Kingdom for Australia; but in 1852, 501 vessels, 
 tonn. 304,118, were despatched. Pop. (1849) 287,409. 
 History and Discovery. The first account given of Australia 
 was by Torres, a Spaniard, who passed 
 , through the strait that now bears his 
 
 name, between Papua and Australia, in 
 the year 1C06. Between this period and 
 1 628, a large portion of the coast line of 
 Australia had been surveyed by various 
 Dutch navigators. Between 1684 and 
 1690, Dampier explored a part of the W. 
 and N.W. coasts, to which discovery had 
 hitherto been confined; but, in 1770, Cook 
 extended it to the E. coast, which he care 
 fully surveyed. He was followed by 
 Bligh in ] 789, who carried on a series 
 of observations on the, N.E. coast, adding 
 largely to the knowledge already obtained 
 of this new world. Colonists had now 
 arrived on the soil, and a penal settlement 
 was formed (1787) at Port Jackson. 
 Since then, various adventurers, both by 
 land and sea, have been endeavouring, 
 with more or less success, to increase 
 the amount of information regarding 
 both the interior and the coasts of Aus 
 tralia. Amongst the former are, Mr. Oxley, Messrs. IIowcll 
 and Hume, Capt. Sturt, Major Mitchell, Mr. Earle, Count 
 Strzelecki, Capt. Gray, Messrs. Lander and Lefray, Dr. 
 Leichardt, and Assistant-Surveyor Kennedy, who was mur 
 dered by the natives, when exploring the course of the Victoria, 
 in 1848. Amongst the more eminent navigators, besides those 
 already named, who have explored the coasts of Australia, are, 
 Capts. King, Bass, and Flinders ; and, in recent times, Capt, 
 
AUSTRALIA FELTX 
 
 261 
 
 AUSTRALIA (WESTERN) 
 
 Ptokcs, to the latter of whom we are, as the reader will have 
 perceived, indebted for much of the newest and most interest 
 ing information contained in this article. (De Strzelecki s 
 Physical Description of New S. Wales and Van Diemen s Land; 
 Stokes s Discoveries in Australia, <&c.; Dutton s S. Australia 
 and its Mines; Government Returns regarding Australian 
 Aborigines; Martin s British Colonial Library; James s S. 
 Australia; Butler s Handbook for Australian Emigrants; 
 Sturt s Expedition into Central Australia, 1845 ; Jukes s Sketch 
 of the Physical Structure of Australia.) 
 
 AUSTRALIA FELIX. See PORT PHILIP. 
 AUSTRALIA (EASTERN), or NEW S. WALES, the E. 
 part of Australia, S. of lat. 26 S., and E. of Ion. 141 E.; 
 bounded, N. by N. Australia, W. by S. Australia, S. by Bass s 
 Strait, and E. by the Pacific; greatest length about 900-m., 
 and greatest breadth about 750 m. This large district is now 
 divided into 1, Cooksland, or Moreton Bay, comprising the 
 N. portion, S. to lat. 30 S. 2, New S. Wales proper, or the 
 middle district, the oldest colony in Australia, from lat. 30 S. 
 to Cape Howe, lat. 37 30 S. 3, Australia Felix, Port Philip, 
 or Victoria, W. of Cape Howe, S. of the rivers Murrumbidgee 
 and Murray, and E. of S. Australia. See NEW S. WALES, 
 COOKSLAND, and PORT PHILIP. 
 
 AUSTRALIA (NORTH), that part of Australia lying N. of 
 lat. 26 S.. and E. of Ion. 129 E. ; bounded, N. by the Indian | 
 Ocean; E. by the Pacific, on which side it is fringed by the 
 Great Barrier Keef (which see); S. by E. and S. Australia; j 
 and W. by W. Australia ; greatest length, W. to E., about i 
 1500 m.; greatest breadth, N. to S., about 1000 m. On the j 
 N. shore is the immense Gulf of Carpentaria, about 400 m. sq. j 
 and in the W., the Gulfs of Van Diemen and Cambridge. Of 
 this large tract of country comparatively little is yet known. 
 Not a single permanent settlement exists upon it ; the hot un 
 healthy Government station at Port Essington, on Coburg s 
 Peninsula, Arnhem s Land, notwithstanding the great hopes 
 that were formed of it, having been abandoned in 1849. For 
 what is known respecting N. Australia, the reader is referred 
 to the articles ARNHEM S LAND, PORT ESSINGTON, CAPE YORK, 
 CARPENTARIA (GULF OF), ADELAIDE RIVER, &c. 
 
 AUSTRALIA (SOUTH), a British colony, so called from 
 occupying an extensive region on the S. shore of the Aus 
 tralian island-continent, between lat. 26 and 38 S., and Ion. 
 132 and 141 E., and bounded S. by the Southern Ocean, 
 E. Victoria, N. unoccupied and almost unexplored territories, 
 and W. Western Australia; area, 300,000 sq. m. The coast, 
 about 1500 m. long, is generally low and of desolate aspect, 
 but is occasionally skirted by low sandhills, and towards its 
 E. extremity rises into rocky cliffs of sandstone, covered with 
 wood, and rising to the height of 600 ft. to 800 ft. It is lined j 
 by numerous islands, all small except that of Kangaroo, and 
 is remarkable, particularly in the S., for the number and depth 
 of its indentations, being penetrated from S. to N. by the large 
 gulfs of Spencer and St. Vincent, separated from each other i 
 by Yorke Peninsula, and containing, on the S.W. shore of 
 the former, the excellent harbour of Port Lincoln, and, on the 
 E. shore of the latter, Adelaide, the rising capital of the 
 colony. A large portion of the interior consists of stony bar- j 
 ren tracts, often so completely destitute of vegetation as to 
 present all the appearance of a desert waste, and apparently 
 doomed, from the want of water, to remain for ever unfit for 
 human habitation. Still, after deducting the waste, large 
 tracts remain, some of tolerable fertility, covered with wood 
 or scrub, or somewhat scanty grass, well adapted for exten 
 sive sheep-walks, and others of admirable fertility, capable of 
 raising all kinds of grain and fruit. 
 
 The surface is traversed by several mountain-ranges, the 
 highest summits of which scarcely, if it all, exceed 3000 ft. Of 
 these, Mount Lofty, commencing at Cape Jervis, which forms 
 the E. entrance of the Gulf of St. Vincent, skirts the E. shore ; 
 of thatgulf for about 40m., attaining the height of 2334 ft, and j 
 then continues N. into the interior, where it seems gradually 
 to descend, but its course has not been traced. Its principal j 
 summits are Razor Back, 2992 ft., in lat. 33 30 ; imme 
 diately N. of it, Mountain Bryan, 3012 ft., with its celebrated 
 Burra-Burra mine; and still farther N., about lat. 32 40 , 
 Black Rock Hill, 2750 ft. Near the head of Spencer Gulf 
 Mount Lofty throws off an arm nearly at right angles, which, 
 under the name of the Gawler Range, stretches nearly due 
 
 W., rising gradually as it proceeds, and makes a sudden bend 
 N.N.W. Its extreme height appears to be about 2000 ft. 
 It is singularly rugged and barren. On the 1. bank, and near 
 the mouth of the Murray, a range of moderately elevated 
 heights proceeds S.S.E., skirting the coast to its extremity 
 near Cape Northumberland. Throughout these ranges the 
 existence of volcanic agency at a former period is everywhere 
 apparent, and several distinct craters can be traced. The 
 higher summits are usually composed of granite, sienite, por 
 phyry, greenstone, and other igneous rocks. On the lower 
 slopes slate usually prevails, but both on them, and at still 
 higher elevations, a ferruginous sandstone is largely developed. 
 Among the mountains E. of Gulf St. Vincent primitive lime 
 stone, often in the form of a beautiful white marble, is very 
 abundant. Throughout these formations, and more especially 
 in veins of quartz penetrating the clay-slate, a great variety 
 of valuable minerals have been found, including copper, which 
 has already been worked to a considerable extent, and yielded 
 most profitable returns, argentiferous lead, manganese, zinc, 
 and iron. Gold also exists, but has not yet been found in such 
 abundance as to entitle S. Australia to rank as a gold-field. 
 
 Almost the only stream within the colony which deserves 
 the name of river is the Murray, which enters the colony on 
 the E., in lat. 34, flows first circuitously W., and then S. into 
 the extensive lagoon called Lake Victoria, communicating 
 with Encounter Bay. Though the largest river of S. Australia, 
 it would, in well-watered countries, rank as a comparatively in 
 significant stream, but its great importance here cannot easily 
 be over-estimated, more especially since it has been ascertained 
 that daring the rainy season it is navigable by steamers 
 through its whole course within the colony. Almost all the 
 other streams are, for the greater part of the year, merely 
 chains of ponds. Lakes, both salt and fresh, are numerous, 
 but seldom large. The shallow lagoon of Victoria or Alex 
 andria has been already mentioned. The only other deserv 
 ing of notice, as forming a remarkable physical feature, is Lake 
 Torrens, a shallow basin, which curves from S. to N. in the 
 form of a horse-shoe, for at least 400 m., with a breadth vary 
 ing from 20 m. to 30 m. 
 
 The climate is hot, but salubrious, and has proved by no 
 means trying to European constitutions. At Adelaide, in the 
 summer months of December, January, and February, the 
 maximum temperature is about 103, the minimum about 65. 
 In July, the depth of the Australian winter, the maximum is 
 60, and the minimum 48. The surface being much more 
 pastoral than agricultural, wool has hitherto been the staple 
 product; but all the ordinary grain-crops, maize, and pota 
 toes, grow well. The vine finds both a congenial soil and 
 climate, and many varieties of fruit, including melons of un 
 common size and quality, are becoming abundant. By far 
 the most important export is copper, which, in the three years 
 ending 5th January, 1854, amounted as follows: Copper 
 ore (1851), 4128 tons; (1852), 8582 tons ; (1853), 2G77 tons: 
 regulus of copper (185!), 18G tons; (1852), 401 tons; (1853), 
 36 tons: copper unwrought (1851), 760 tons; (1852), 629 
 tons; (1853), 462 tons: copper partly wrought (1851), 219 
 tons; (1852), 372 tons; (1853), 581 tons. The great falling 
 off in 1853 is accounted for by the greater attraction of the 
 Victoria gold-fields. The next most valuable export is wool, 
 which, in the last of the above years, amounted to 3,339,743 Ibs.; 
 the declared value of imports was 1,182,455. The revenue 
 of 1851 was 109,469. In 1853 the population amounted 
 to 70,000. For administrative purposes South Australia is 
 divided into 11 counties. As a colony it was founded by the 
 South Australian Company in 1834, but not properly esta 
 blished till 1837. 
 
 AUSTRALIA (WESTERN), in the most extended sense, 
 that portion of Australia W. of Ion. 127 1 E.; bounded, E. by 
 N. and S. Australia, and N., W., and S. by the Indian and S. 
 Pacific Oceans. It lies between lat. 13 45 and 35 10 S.; 
 Ion. 112 40 and 127 E. Of this vast territory little is 
 known. Its interior has never been visited, and even its 
 shores have only been partially explored with any degree of 
 minuteness. Its principal bays and gulfs are, Cambridge 
 Gulf, King Sound, Exmouth Gulf, and Shark Bay, all on the 
 N. and W. coasts, there not being a single gulf of any extent 
 on the S. coast, as far as yet known. The principal capes 
 are on the S.W., Cape Leeuwin; on the W., N.W. Cape; 
 
AUSTRALIA (WESTERN) 
 
 2 Go 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE) 
 
 and on the N., Capes Leveque, Voltaire, Bougainville, Talbot, | 
 and Londonderry. The coast is everywhere, but especially j 
 on the N. and N.W., fringed with coral reefs and islets. N. | 
 of lat. 18 S. it is, as a whole, high, frequently rocky, and at . 
 times well wooded. From lat. 18 to 26 S., it is gener- 
 ally low, sandy, and mostly barren, though here and there 
 rocky hills, patches of grass, and thick mangroves are met 
 with. The remainder of the coast, including the whole of the 
 colony of W. Australia, is elevated, with some intervals of 
 low sandy shore; in some parts it is barren, but in many it is 
 well wooded. The only part of this portion of Australia 
 known with any degree of accuracy, is the colony above 
 referred to. 
 
 W. AUSTRALIA (Colony of). In a more restricted sense, the 
 name W. Australia is applied to a British colony on the S.W. 
 coast of Australia, founded in 1829, between lat. 30 30 and 
 35 10 S.; and Ion. 115 and 119 35 E., occupying a space 
 of 300 m. N. to S., and about 160 or 170 E. to W., with a 
 coast line of about 600 m. Its first appearance is not very 
 inviting; dull, green-looking downs, backed by a slightly 
 undulating range of hills, rising to nearly 2000 ft. high, are 
 the chief natural features. It consists of 26 counties, mostly 
 of pretty regular form, lying compactly together, and varying 
 from about 40 to 70 m. in length, and from 30 to 45 in breadth. 
 The land here generally is not remarkable for fertility, the 
 entire territory containing, perhaps, a greater quantity of 
 positively bad land than any other of the Australian colonies ; 
 but, with manure and proper cultivation, very good grain 
 may be produced. The weight of the wheat hitherto grown 
 has been more than 70 Ibs. per bushel, and its quality gener 
 ally as good as that of S. Australia. Soil, upon which sheep 
 have been folded, produces on an average about 20 bushels 
 per acre, but it might be much increased. A great deal of 
 barley is grown. Oats will not grow well, and the climate is 
 unsuited to flax. The herbage is scanty, and the average 
 soil would keep about one sheep to 5 ac. ; but there is the 
 advantage of a supply of water throughout the year, remain 
 ing in pools or lakes, sufficient for the pastoral system, and 
 for the climate generally. The vine, fig, and olive, are 
 beginning to be extensively cultivated in the colony. Grapes 
 and currants of every species also thrive, and a great deal of 
 wine has been made from the former for the consumption of 
 the colony. The quantity of vineyard already planted is 
 290 ac. The live stock of the colony, in 1848, was estimated 
 at 116,570 head; but there is reason to believe that it much 
 exceeds this, many of the settlers who had considerable flocks 
 having refused to give returns, while others made incorrect 
 ones. With the exception of cinnabar, which has been found 
 in masses on the surface of the ground, in various places, no 
 metalliferous ores have yet been discovered within the colony. 
 Coal of good quality has been found, and, from the reports of j 
 the geologist employed by the Government, it appears that 
 fields of great extent may be calculated on. Very little trade is 
 carried on from this colony to S. Australia or New S. Wales, ! 
 but there is an active communication with Singapore and j 
 the Mauritius. To the latter place, the exports are sheep, 
 bullocks, and potatoes. The principal export of the colony 
 is wool. It has, however, a less average market-price in . 
 Britain than the wools of the other Australian colonies, partly j 
 from its being less known, and partly owing to inferior care 
 bestowed on getting it up, from want of labour, though, in 
 trinsically, it is quite equal to any of them. Its production 
 has greatly increased, and there is a capacity of almost un 
 limited extension. The next most important article of export 
 is sandal-wood, the markets for which are Singapore and , 
 China. In 1846, there were only 32 tons of this wood shipped 
 from the colony ; in the following year the quantity amounted 
 to 370J tons, and would have been much larger had the 
 colonists possessed the means of conveying the wood which 
 had been felled to the port. There is likewise an available 
 supply of shipbuilding timber, which grows quite close to the 
 sea ; it is analogous to Honduras mahogany, is of a great size, 
 possesses the peculiar property of resisting the sea-worms, 
 and is not apt to split or warp, while at the same time it is 
 more easily worked than any other wood in Australia. It | 
 has been used in the colony for building small vessels, and 
 also for rafters, &c., in house-building, being impervious to 
 the white ant. A ship-load was supplied to the Admiralty, 
 under contract, last autumn (1848), and was very highly 
 VOL. I. 
 
 approved of. It is confidently expected that when the value 
 of this timber, the jarrah of the colonists, becomes more 
 widely known, it will materially promote the progress of the 
 colony, which hitherto has not been very rapid; while, in some 
 respects, there has been a positive retrogression. In 1853 the 
 only item of export to the United Kingdom was wool, and 
 that only to the amount of 24,059 Ibs., though in 1851 it 
 had attained the amount of 368,595 Ibs., and in 1852 that of 
 327,696 Ibs. The total imports in the same year, amounting 
 to 100,917, consisted chiefly of haberdashery, beer and ale, 
 cotton, woollen, and silk goods, iron, steel, hardware, and cut 
 lery, leather, soap, and candles. In 1853 the quantity of land 
 alienated was 1,332,303 acres, and the quantity surveyed and 
 open for settlement only 21,600 acres. In 1849 the tonnage 
 entered was 7592 tons, and cleared 8145 tons; in 1850 the 
 entered was 15,988 tons, and the cleared 14,748 tons. For 
 administrative purposes the colony is divided into 32 counties. 
 The government is similar to that of the other Australian 
 colonies. The most important part of the colony is the Swan 
 Eiver settlement, founded in August, 1829, by Captain Stir 
 ling, who was appointed governor. Freemantle, at the en 
 trance of the river, is the port ; and Perth, situated about 9 m. 
 inland, in the county of the same name, is the capital and 
 seat of government. It is a large straggling village, partly 
 concealed by the abrupt termination of a woody ridge, and 
 standing on a picturesque slope on the right bank of the river. 
 Guilford and York are the other chief places in the colony. 
 The Swan Eiver, like all the other rivers of Australia, is sub 
 ject to sudden and tremendous floods, which inundate the corn- 
 lands in its vicinity, and sweep away all opposing obstacles 
 with irresistible impetuosity. The number of aborigines is 
 about 1500. A good feeling exists towards them, and many 
 of them are employed by the settlers in menial capacities, 
 but they are fast decreasing. Pop. of colony (1851), 0967. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN ALPS, a mountain-range, Australia, in 
 the colonies of Port Philip and New S. Wales, extending 
 from lat. 38 S.; Ion. 146 30 E., in a N.E. direction for about 
 200 m., and forming part of the great Australian chain from 
 Wilson s promontory to Cape York. Its highest peaks are, 
 Mount Kosciusko or Wellington, 6500 ft. ; Mount Dargal, 
 5490 ft.; and Mount Pinnabar, 4100 ft. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN GRAMPIANS, a mountain-system in 
 Victoria or Port Philip, W. the Pyrenees, cos. Kipon and 
 Dundas. The highest known peak, Mount William, is 4500 
 ft. above the sea level. This, the most W. system in the 
 colony, has generally a N. and S. direction, and is composed 
 of several ridges. From its N. slopes rise the Wimmera and 
 Norton, which unite and flow N. to Lake Hindmarsh. From 
 its W. and E. slopes flow the rivers Glenelg, Wando, Wan- 
 nou, and Grange, which all unite into one stream, and fall 
 into the sea in Ion. 141 E. 
 
 AUSTRALIAN PYRENEES, a congeries of mountains 
 in Victoria or Port Philip, N.W. Melbourne, cos. Talbot and 
 Kipon, and connected W., by low ridges, with the Australian 
 Grampians. The culminating peak, as far as known, is Mount 
 Cole, rather more than 100 m. W.N.W. Melbourne. From 
 their N. slopes rise the rivers Avoca and Yarrayne, the latter 
 an affluent of the Murray. 
 
 AUSTREY, par. Eng. Warwick; 2280 ac. Pop. (1841), 
 479. 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF) [German, Oesterreich or Ostreiclt 
 the Eastern kingdom]. The Austrian empire is one of the 
 largest and most populous of the European states, situated 
 nearly in the centre of the continent. It extends from about 
 lat. 42 to 51 N., or, exclusive of Dalmatia and the narrower 
 part of Croatia, from about lat. 44 30 to 51 N., and from 
 about Ion. 8 30 to 26 30 E. ; comprising 258,000 sq. m. or 
 45,000 more than France. Its greatest length, from E. to W. , 
 is about 860 m. ; its greatest breadth, from N. to S., with the 
 exclusions above stated, isabout 400m.; bounded, S. by Turkey, 
 the Adriatic Sea, and the independent states of Italy; W. by 
 Sardinia, Switzerland, Bavaria, and Saxony; N. by Prussia 
 and Russian Poland ; and E. by Russia and Moldavia. On 
 the shores of the Adriatic, along the coasts of Dalmatia arid 
 Venetian Lombardy, lies its only sea frontage, extending, 
 exclusive of islands, about 500 m. 
 
 The Austrian empire is composed of a union of different 
 states, some of them at one time forming independent king 
 doms, inhabited by races of people differing from each other 
 
 84 
 
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE) 
 
 2G6 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE) 
 
 in descent, language, customs, laws, anil religion, held together 
 as one empire, by being under one sovereign and one central 
 government It is divided into 15 governments, correspond 
 
 ing in a certain respect to the nationalities of which it is com 
 posed. The following table exhibits the name and area of 
 these governments, with their population in 1850: 
 
 ARRANGEMENT of PROVINCES according to tlie Constitution of March 4, 1849, and POPULATION in 1850, 
 exclusive of Military. 
 
 PKOVI.NCKS. 
 
 G.o. sy. m. 
 
 Pollution, 
 1830. 
 
 Pop. per 
 
 CHIEF TOWNS. 
 
 Population, 
 
 1. Archduchy 
 Upper Austria 
 
 3,484-32 
 6,781-00 
 2,086 08 
 6 539-36 
 
 706,316 
 1,53-sOtf 
 14fi,()07 
 ] 106971 
 
 202-7 
 2C60 
 C98 
 1 54-0 
 
 I.inz 
 
 2B,67fi 
 407 980 
 
 Vicn-m 
 
 2 Thich\ of Salzlmr" 
 
 Salzhur" 
 
 11.185 
 61,349 
 12,051 
 17,375 
 
 53,310 
 
 12,512 
 1 1 5, 136 
 45,189 
 12.827 
 7( ,970 
 15,016 
 0,850 
 1 56,306 
 1-27,925 
 141,100 
 
 15.000 
 25,500 
 
 3. Duchv of Stvria ., 
 
 
 4. Duchy of Carinthia . .. *.. .. 
 
 8,0(17-04 
 2,9021)8 
 
 2,313-76 
 
 8,365-92 
 15,103-^0 
 6 4CO-80 
 1, -197- 12 
 83,738-39 
 3,0:5504 
 8,718-56 
 6,274-40 
 
 31y,224 
 403,956 
 
 03,016 
 
 659,706 
 4,109,900 
 1,799,830 
 438,586 
 4,555,477 
 380.82S 
 893,715 
 2.7^5,740 
 
 1061 
 1691 
 
 219-5 
 
 102-7 
 892-0 
 278 5 
 2 .3-0 
 2004 
 125-4 
 K 5-8 
 434-4 
 
 s-::8-7 
 
 1505 
 1G3-0 
 103-1 
 117-5 
 1034 
 
 KlauenfMrt 
 1, ay bach 
 
 5. Duchy of Carniola 
 
 6. County of Goritz and Gradisra, with the) 
 Marjtraviate of Istria, and the town and [ 
 territory of Trieste . . ) 
 
 Trieste 
 
 Innspruck 
 I rusiue 
 Brunn 
 
 7. Counties of Tyrol and Vorarlberg 
 
 
 10. Ducliy of Upper and Lower Silesia 
 11. Galicia, with Zator, Auschwitz, and Cracow ... 
 
 Troppau 
 
 Lemberg 
 
 13. Kingdom of Dalrnatia 
 
 Zara 
 
 H Lombardy. 
 
 Milan 
 Venice 
 Buda and Peith 
 
 Agram 
 
 15 Venice 
 
 16. Kingdom of Hungary 
 
 62.217-20 
 8,710-96 
 5,323-84 
 17 OH 48 
 9,752-32 
 
 7.804,262 
 1,420,221 
 868,458 
 
 2,073,7^7 
 1,009,109 
 
 17. AVoiwody of Servia anil Temeswar Banat 
 18. KinL domof Croatia and Sclavonia, with the ) 
 Croat coast lands and Fiume f 
 19. Principality of Transylvania 
 20. Military Frontiers ...". 
 
 
 Total 
 
 193,920-72 
 
 35,775,834 
 
 184-5 
 
 As this article on the empire, as a whole, must necessarily be 
 general, the reader is referred, for more specific notices of the 
 pro vinces, to the separate articles on them throughout the work. 
 
 General Aspect. Although presenting every variety of 
 surface, the prevailing character of the Austrian dominions is 
 mountainous, there being few districts where mountains are 
 not found ; while the plains do not occupy more than a fifth 
 part of the whole superficies. The loftiest ranges, and the 
 most extensively ramified, are found in Tyrol, Styria, Illyria, 
 and the S. parts of Austria Proper. In some of these regions, 
 the scenery is bold and romantic, and has been considered equal 
 to that of Switzerland. The most extensive tracts of low or 
 i!at land occur in Sclavonia and the S.E. and central parts of 
 Hungary; much of this level land is remarkably fertile, but 
 it is met at various points by vast morasses and arid steppes. 
 The principal valleys are found in Tyrol, Salzburg, Styria, 
 and Illyria. Extensive plains stretch along the courses of the 
 rivers, particularly the Po, the Danube, and the March. The 
 principal rivers of Austria are the Danube, the Elbe, the Save, 
 the Drave, the Jluhr, the March or Morawa, the Teiss or 
 Theiss, and the Maros. The Danube, for upwards of 300 m., is 
 navigable for pretty large vessels, throughout the whole Aus 
 trian territory; while all the others, most of them tributaries 
 of the Danube, are navigable for vessels of smaller size. All 
 of them abound in fish. The lakes are numerous ; though 
 those in the low lands, particularly in the plains of Hungary, 
 are rather marshes than lakes, being collections of stagnant 
 water with swampy margins. Those in the more elevated 
 regions of Illyria, Tyrol, and the other mountainous districts, 
 are pure lakes, surrounded with wood and rock, and all the 
 other attributes of picturesque scenery. The finest lakes are 
 to be found in Upper Austria; of which the principal are the 
 Attersee, the Mondsee, the Traunsee, and several others. In 
 Styria, the lakes are numerous but small. 
 
 Climate, and Vegetable Productions. Austria lies between 
 the isotherms of 60 and 50, and has a climate nearly as vari 
 ous as its surface. In some parts, as in Hungary, the annual 
 fall of rain is comparatively small ; while the W. and N.\V. 
 parts of the empire, in this respect, resemble the W. of Eng 
 land ; and the alpine regions are probably the most rainy in 
 Europe. The N. regions, between the 49th and 51st degrees 
 of N. lat., have an average temperature resembling that of 
 the N. of France. Between lat. 40 and 49 the heat is con 
 siderable; and betyveen 42 and 46, which comprises the 
 whole of S. Austria, it is still greater ; the winter lasting two 
 or three months only, and being, in general, extremely mild. 
 In the first region, the principal products are wheat, barley, 
 
 oats, and rye; in the second, vines and maize are added; anrl 
 in the third, olives. The productive capabilities of the soil, 
 however, are by no means rendered available to their full 
 extent. The quantity of land under cultivation is equal to 
 that in Great Britain, but the produce, even where the soil is 
 superior, is nearly a third less. The wines of Austria are 
 poor, with exception of a few choice kinds, including the 
 well-known Tokay; and none, therefore, but such descriptions 
 are exported, and these in very limited quantity. A great 
 portion of the worst wine is made into brandy. The average 
 produce of wine is about 3,200,000,000 gallons, of which 
 Hungary yields by far the largest proportion. The vineyards, 
 by which the above quantity of wine is produced, occupy 
 487,202 ac. The quantity of arable land is 52,433,382 ac. ; 
 producing, of yvheat, maize, rye, barley, and oats, 60,260,666 
 quarters. The forests cover more than an eighth part of the 
 productive soil of the empire, and form no inconsiderable 
 source of wealth. About half of the whole is in Hungary, 
 including the Banat, Croatia, and Sclavonia, and in Transyl 
 vania. Much of it is of excellent quality, and well adapted 
 for house and ship building, furniture, and for all other pin- 
 poses. In general, however, owing to bad management, it is 
 not nearly so productive as it ought to be. 
 
 Animals. "Wild deer, wild syvine, chamois, foxes, lynxes, 
 and a species of small black bear, are found in many districts, 
 the fox and iynx being particularly abundant. Herds of a 
 native breed of horses, of small size, roam wild over the plains 
 of Hungary. All the domestic animals of England are known 
 throughout the empire. Domesticated birds, especially ducks 
 and geese, are abundant, and wild birds more numerous than 
 in any other part of Europe. Among the latter are wild 
 geese, bustards, grouse, blackcocks, woodcocks, wild ducks, 
 widgeon, teal, &c. 
 
 Geology, Mineralogy, <fe. A large portion of the countries 
 now composing the Austrian empire, was at one time sub 
 merged by the sea; particularly Hungary, where the general 
 appearance of its vast plains, the nature of their soil, and, 
 above all, the occurrence of fossil sea-shells, leave no room to 
 doubt the former dominion of the ocean. Throughout all 
 Austria the tertiary formation prevails, with a margin of the 
 secondary formation, stretching to a greater or lesser extent 
 into the surrounding countries, and diversified by patches of 
 igneous rocks of the tertiary and alluvial epochs. In mineral 
 productions, Austria surpasses, probably, everyother country 
 in Europe; possessing, with the exception of platinum, all 
 the metals. In Transylvania, gold is obtained in large quan 
 tity; and in Hungary, silver abounds. Copper and lei d 
 
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE) 
 
 267 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE) 
 
 mines exist in different parts of the empire. The repositories 
 of iron are inexhaustible; but, from the high price of fuel, 
 the quantity produced is far short of what it might be. Tin 
 is raised in Bohemia, but in no other part of the empire. 
 Quicksilver is obtained in many places; but the richest mine, 
 not only in Austria, but in Europe, is that at Idria in Car- 
 niola. Calamine, zinc, cobalt, arsenic, antimony, chrome, 
 bismuth, manganese, black tourmaline, alabaster, serpentine, 
 gypsum, black-lead, slates, and flint, abound in many of the 
 countries of the empire, and coal in almost every province. 
 Salt, vitriol, alum, sulphur, saltpetre, and soda, are also among 
 the mineral productions. In every part of the Austrian do 
 minions, mineral springs are numerous. The precious stones 
 are the Bohemian carbuncle and Hungarian opal, both much 
 esteemed ; the chalcedony, ruby, emerald, jasper, amethyst, 
 topaz, carnelian, chrysolite, and beryl. Marble, of every 
 description and variety of colour, occurs in most of the 
 provinces. 
 
 Industry, Commerce, Minerals, &c. The quantity of gold 
 obtained, in 1847, was 56,407 oz.; of silver, 867,607 oz.; of 
 quicksilver, 3351 cwts., of which about a third was con 
 verted into cinnabar ; of tin, found wholly in Bohemia, only 
 42 tons, a quantity quite insufficient for the home consumpt, 
 though apparently not on the increase. Copper is found 
 principally in Hungary. The whole produce, in 1847, was 
 2770 tons, but, as in the case of tin, the quantity obtained is 
 not equal to the home demand ; zinc obtained, 294 tons. 
 The produce in lead, in 1847, amounted to 3080 tons, anti 
 mony to 201 tons, cobalt to 144 tons, but the largest produce 
 of the metals is iron, which was, in 1850, 108,481 tons. 
 Cast iron is produced chiefly in the N. provinces of Styria, 
 Carinthia, with Carniola, Bohemia, Moravia, and Hungary. In 
 1841 there were, of blast-furnaces and smaller smelting-works 
 in operation, 226; cupola-furnaces, 32 ; iron and steel forges, 
 835; puddle-works, 15, with 54 furnaces; plate-rolling works, 
 40, and 9 cast-steel furnaces. An important branch of the 
 iron trade of Austria is the manufacture of rails for railways. 
 Some years ago, however, Austria could not supply tlie 
 demand for rails, and large quantities were imported. These 
 importations have now greatly diminished, in consequence of 
 an increase in the production. The quantity of coal produced 
 in 1847, amounted to upwards of 685,499 tons, more than 
 four times the quantity which was raised in 1833. The 
 quantity of salt produced in 1850 rock, boiled, and bay 
 salt amounted to 275,320 tons. The far greater number of 
 the Austrian mines belong not to private companies, but to 
 Government. The following table exhibits a comparative 
 view of the produce of the Austrian mines, in the years 1823, 
 1833, and 1847: 
 
 
 1853. 
 
 1633. 
 
 1847. 
 
 Gold 
 
 Oz. 
 81,117 
 
 Oz. 
 
 311,135 
 
 Ot. 
 
 56 407 
 
 Silver 
 Quicksilver 
 
 498,21? 
 Cwts. 
 1,991 
 
 691,755 
 Cuts. 
 3711 
 
 8fi7,C07 
 Cwt*. 
 3351 
 
 
 27,327 
 
 43,500 
 
 55 400 
 
 Lead 
 
 550 
 
 80882 
 
 1,009 
 
 61 578 
 
 840 
 
 Lithar-e 
 
 
 19 8^4 
 
 27 557 
 
 Lead of commerce 
 
 "6929 
 
 12,897 
 1 188 
 
 15,480 
 1 d"6 
 
 Zuicbleiid 
 
 
 
 791 
 
 Zinc 
 
 1 055 
 
 50 
 
 
 Kavv iron 
 Foundry iron 
 Sulphur . . . 
 
 1.0S2.7C8 
 71,517 
 8 809 
 
 1,47(5,374. 
 159,460 
 Ifi 323 
 
 2,PG : -VI49 
 447,038 
 23 5T 
 
 
 28 
 
 1 555 
 
 
 Antimony 
 
 
 6 373 
 
 4029 
 
 Colialt 
 Graphite 
 Coal 
 Alum 
 Sulplinte of iron 
 Sulpliate of copper 
 
 2, 225,8i2 
 24,811 
 31,270 
 360 
 15 
 
 1,087 
 10,187 
 3,228,556 
 25,251 
 40,000 
 4,700 
 
 2,700 
 28,937 
 13,711,350 
 26.6D2 
 41,135 
 6,014 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Value 
 
 1014,310 
 
 1,387,421 
 
 700,690 
 
 Silk. The textile manufactures of Austria have consider 
 ably improved in extent of late years, but are still behind in 
 regard to many important circumstances, including judicious 
 selection of locality, subdivision of labour, and general man 
 
 agement, which so largely contribute to the success of the 
 English manufacturing establishments. Amongst the textile 
 manufactures, silk holds a conspicuous place, although con 
 fined chiefly to Vienna, Milan, Como, Prague, and Pesth. The 
 first-named of these places consumes annually 600,000 Ibs. 
 of spun silk, or silk-thread; the second, 180,000; and the last, 
 240,000, making, in all, ] ,020,000 Ibs. The whole produce of 
 the silk manufactures of the Austrian empire amounts to 
 about 3,500,000, employing altogether, in the various pro 
 cesses, about 160,000 persons. The principal silk-producing 
 provinces are Lombardy, Venice, Tyrol, the coast-lands, Hun 
 gary, and the military frontiers. The produce of the Italian 
 provinces alone was estimated at 5,000,000 Ibs. The silk-mills 
 and silk-factories, in 1846, amounted in all to about 6850. 
 
 Wool. The woollen trade of Austria is also considerable. 
 In 1843 the entire annual produce of the empire was 771,875 
 cwts., of which Hungary produced nearly the one-half. The 
 manufacture of woollen cloths is confined to Bohemia and 
 Moravia chiefly ; the other provinces do not produce sufficient 
 to meet their own demands. The entire production of Austria 
 in woollen cloth and walked stuffs may be reckoned at about 
 1 ,000,000 pieces, value about 4,500,000. In the production 
 of combed yarn, from which the finest description of goods 
 is manufactured, the improvement has been considerable. 
 In 1841, there were 14 mills for combed yarn, with 25,4(JO 
 spindles, producing 88,258 cwfs. Tlie number of spindles 
 may now be reckoned at 30,000. The whole produce of 
 Austria, in combed woollen stuffs, may be reckoned at 658,500 
 pieces. In the manufacture of shawls, and shawl-cloths, 
 Austria is rapidly acquiring a high reputation. The prin 
 cipal seat of the manufacture is Vienna, where there are six 
 factories, which, together, produce annually about 400,000 
 pieces, value 340,000. 
 
 Linen. In consequence of the large quantity of linen pro 
 duced by private individuals throughout the various provinces 
 of Austria, an approximation, by estimate, of the value of the 
 whole quantity produced, is all that can be attempted. This, 
 founding on the best attainable) data, is about 6,570,000, 
 employing 30,000 looms, and about 500,000 weavers ; and as 
 each weaver requires 12 spinners, to supply the necessary 
 quantity of yarn, there would appear to be three and a half 
 millions of individuals, or a tenth part of the whole popula 
 tion of the empire, more or less employed in this branch of in 
 dustry. Though machinery for flax-spinning has recently been 
 introduced, this operation is still performed chiefly by the hand. 
 
 Cotton. The cotton-weaving of Austria is also upon the in 
 crease. Besides the handlooms which it employs, and which, in 
 1843, were estimated at 90,000, numerous cotton-mills or fac 
 tories have been erected, chiefly in Lower Austria and Bohemia, 
 but partly also in Lombardy, the Tyrol, and other provinces. 
 In 1848 the number, exclusive of those in Austrian Italy, Hun 
 gary, and Transylvania, was 168, with 1,227,361 spindles. 
 
 Cloth-printing. In the printing of both woollen and cotton, 
 and in Turkey-red dyeing, Austria has made, and is making, 
 great progress. The quantity of cotton and woollen goods printed 
 in 1841 was, together, 2,035,000 pieces, value 2,181,000, 
 of which about six-sevenths were cotton. To the number of 
 pieces of printed cotton and woollen goods above given, there 
 falls to be added 254,000 pieces of mixed fabric, produced in 
 Lower Austria. The principal establishments for Turkey- 
 red dyeing are in the N. of Bohemia in Vorarlberg, Moravia, 
 Galicia, Lombardy, Treviso in Venice, Stein in Carniola, and 
 one or two other places. The united produce of the whole 
 was, in 1841, 12,000,000 pieces. The entire quantity of 
 goods cotton, woollen, and mixed fabrics printed in Aus 
 tria, is rather more than one-fifth of that printed in England, 
 nearly equal to that of France, upwards of one-fourth more 
 than that of Eussia, and more than double that of Prussia 
 and Switzerland. 
 
 The whole cotton manufactures of the empire, including 
 spinning, weaving, and dyeing, may be estimatedat 4,500,000 ; 
 the number of hands employed, at 360,000. 
 
 Distilling and Brewing. Austria is somewhat remarkable 
 for the number of its breweries and distilleries. Of the former, 
 there are 3165, which produce about 100,000,000 gallons 
 annually, consuming about 900,000 quarters of malt. The 
 value of the beer produced in 1842 was stated at 2,500,000; 
 the beer-tax amounting, in the same year, to 650,000. The 
 whole quantity produced, however, only equals half that pro- 
 
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE) 
 
 268 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE) 
 
 duoed in Bavaria. The number of distilleries in Austria, 
 exclusive of Hungary, Transylvania, the military frontiers, 
 Austrian Italy, and Dalmatia, was in 1850, 14,937, producing 
 39,577,5 10 gallons of spirit, of which Galicia alone produced 
 11,791,141 gallons. In Galicia, Moravia, and Silesia, the 
 distilleries work chiefly from grain ; but in Bohemia, Styria, 
 and Austria Proper, large quantities of spirits are manufac 
 tured from wine-lees, plums, cherries, potatoes, &c. 
 
 Austria had, in 1851, in addition to the sugar-refineries, 
 which annually use about half a million cwts. of colonial 
 sugar, 123 solely employed on the sugar obtained from beet 
 root and potatoes. Of "these there are 63 in Bohemia, 26 in 
 Moravia, and 20 in Hungary ; the remainder are scattered 
 over the other crown-lands. In 1850, when the number of 
 these refineries was only 82, they used 3,090,000 cwts. beet 
 root, and 133,850 cwts. potatoes, in producing 161,174 cwts. 
 raw sugar. The competition with colonial sugar is maintained 
 by means of a heavy protecting duty. 
 
 In addition to the general import and export trade, Austria 
 carries on partly from its central position in the continent of 
 Europe, and partly from its numerous navigable streams, 
 excellent roads, and, in later times, its partially completed 
 railway system a very considerable amount of business in 
 the transit of goods through her territory to other countries. 
 The transit duties vary from 2 kreutzers, or the 15th part of 
 a shilling, to 27 kreutzers, or 10f d. per centner of 123 Ibs. 
 The relative importance of these three branches of commerce 
 will be perceived from the following table : 
 
 IMPORT, EXPORT, and TRANSIT TRADE, in 1550. 
 
 Natural and Agricultural Productions: Imports. 
 
 Colonial produce 1,829,020 
 
 Southern produce and fruit 412,470 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Oil 
 
 Grain, field and garden produce 
 
 Liquors 
 
 Fish.&c 
 
 Fowls and giime 
 
 Cattle and gheep 
 
 Animal products (food) 
 
 Draught cattle 
 
 Fuel and bark 
 
 Other natural and agricultural pro- ) 
 
 252,070 
 1.251,130 
 1,451,260 
 
 274,450 
 
 7,200 
 1,045,520 
 10N.600 
 69,270 
 240,680 
 61,200 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1.580 
 53,740 
 
 1U.130 
 2,090 
 
 43:5,360 
 
 128,710 
 24,670 
 8,330 
 
 302,910 
 
 217,640 
 35,960 
 
 514,040 
 
 98,983 
 
 62,208 
 
 6,087 
 
 25,645 
 
 204,123 
 
 28,2(i3 
 
 10,535 
 
 47 
 
 19,262 
 
 6,097 
 
 13,236 
 
 117,470 
 
 duce 
 
 manufacturing Materials, and Partially 
 
 Manufactured Articles . 
 
 Medical and perfumer) goods (stuffs) 143.ROO 
 
 Chemical products 8*8,990 
 
 Salt . 92,250 
 
 Dves, dvein-. and tannin- stuffs 1,115,370 
 
 Gum and resin " 1-U.060 
 
 Materials for colours 53,320 
 
 Minerals and earths 110,340 
 
 Precious stones and crude precious) 145770 
 
 Othrr metals partially manufactured 228,620 
 
 Raw or crude stuffs 4,016360 
 
 Yarn ,. 1,504,780 
 
 Manufactures* 666,260 
 
 Literary and artistic articles 73,780 
 
 55,240 15,980 
 
 152,440 
 
 109,160 
 
 65,410 
 
 95,880 
 
 18,500 
 
 10,400 
 
 72,790 
 
 8,110 
 
 354,180 
 
 3,731,180 
 
 169,820 
 
 3,745,220 
 
 59,180 
 
 7003 
 
 7,400 
 
 151,734 
 
 11,050 
 
 5,241 
 
 11.718 
 
 6,761 
 
 10 
 
 42,452 
 181,802 
 12,351 
 180,255 
 1,37* 
 
 Total 15,895,540 10,431,750 1,051,159 
 
 TBADE of AUSTRIA with FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 1833-1850. 
 
 Yrmr. 
 
 Import. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1831 
 
 6,880,911 
 
 7,949,083 
 
 14,830,028 
 
 1832 
 
 7,902,348 
 
 8,922,147 
 
 16,824,496 
 
 1833 
 
 8,146,572 
 
 9,237,017 
 
 17,383,590 
 
 1834 
 
 8,146,1(15 
 
 8,803,931 
 
 U.,950,097 
 
 1835 
 
 9,144,532 
 
 8,890,322 
 
 18,031,855 
 
 1836 
 
 9,855,358 
 
 9 755,433 
 
 19,610,792 
 
 1837 
 
 9.734/.3S 
 
 9,200,950 
 
 18.935,588 
 
 1838 
 
 10.305,79 
 
 10,548,266 
 
 20,854,035 
 
 1839 
 
 10,313,013 
 
 10,711,573 
 
 21,024,587 
 
 1840 
 
 11,118,687 
 
 10,850,869 
 
 21,909,556 
 
 18 ll 
 
 10,588,939 
 
 11,232,034 
 
 21 8)0,964 
 
 1812 
 
 11,065,775 
 
 10.855,906 
 
 21,921,681 
 
 1843 
 
 11,142,085 
 
 10,411,395 
 
 21,553,481 
 
 1844 
 
 11.448.475 
 
 10,961,782 
 
 22,410,257 
 
 18*5 
 
 12,200,847 
 
 11,379,258 
 
 23,580,106 
 
 1846 
 
 12,674,223 
 
 10,582,142 
 
 23,256. 366 
 
 1*47 
 
 12,799,793 
 
 11,220,807 
 
 24,020.601 
 
 1818 
 
 8,311,149 
 
 4,636.192 
 
 13,007,342 
 
 1819 
 
 8,807,694 
 
 5,912,602 
 
 1 1,~50,296 
 
 1850 
 
 15,895,540 
 
 10,484,750 
 
 26,380,290 
 
 Roth the exportation of wine, and the importation of raw 
 cotton, have greatly increased of late years, the latter being, 
 in amount, nearly twice what it was in 1831. In timber, a 
 similar improvement has taken place. The average annual 
 exports between 1831 and 1840 was to the amount of about 
 250,000 ; in 1844 it amounted to 427,000. This branch 
 of trade suffers greatly from a want of suitable means of trans 
 port, and, until these are obtained, one of the most important 
 sources of the national wealth must remain comparatively un 
 available. In the iron trade, there has been an improvement 
 during the last 20 years, equal nearly to 400 per cent. ; and 
 on coals to 700 per cent. The exports, again, of linen goods, 
 linen yarn, and flax, show a gradual falling off, the result of 
 the advance of the cotton manufactures. The decrease, how 
 ever, is limited chiefly to fine goods. In the regular increase 
 in the importation of dye-stuffs, we have a marked indication 
 of the progress of industry. The quantities of indigo and woad 
 imported in 1844 were nearly one-third more than in 1840 
 and previous years, and in dye-woods the increase was about 
 as much. The woollen manufactures of Austria are also im 
 proving, and the exports of the finer description of goods in 
 creasing. Nor do the imports of foreign wool indicate any 
 falling off in the home produce, it being a coarse material 
 from Russia and Turkey for the manufacture of cloths for the 
 poorer classes. 
 
 The following table exhibits a comparative view of the total 
 imports and exports of the empire in the years 1847 and 1850, 
 and at the same time shows the chief localities from which 
 they come or to which they are sent : 
 
 S. Germany 
 
 Imports from 
 
 Exports to 
 
 1847. 
 1,410,050 
 ],762, 150 
 571,900 
 1,590,410 
 1,432,560 
 227,860 
 486,660 
 76,560 
 52,530 
 3,030,360 
 1,660,600 
 498,080 
 
 1,549,470 
 2,254,050 
 1,386,450 
 1,884,320 
 1,924,330 
 311,650 
 361,490 
 99,120 
 123,210 
 3,554,210 
 1,616,430 
 829,810 
 
 1847. 
 
 1,410,910 
 1,756,290 
 761,750 
 241,450 
 243,430 
 1,254,030 
 1,237,360 
 8,107,660 
 185,110 
 1,147,010 
 548,950 
 325,530 
 
 1850. 
 
 1,111,970 
 1,356,290 
 752,880 
 168,210 
 207,240 
 1,189,890 
 1,195,650 
 1,978,690 
 185,540 
 1,445,310 
 531,720 
 561,360 
 
 Prussia 
 Poland 
 Russia. . . . 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Italy 
 
 Switzerland 
 Fiuine 
 
 Trieste 
 
 Venice 
 Other coasts 
 
 Total 
 
 12,799,720 
 
 15,895,540 
 
 11,220,830 
 
 10,481,750 
 
 IMPORTS and EXPORTS i 1844, from and to each Province. 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 Austria, Lower 2,110,300 1,210,200 
 
 Upper 291,600 493,900 
 
 Btyria,Caruithia,Cariiiola, Littoral 857,300 
 
 Tv rol 555,600 
 
 Bohemia 1,608,900 
 
 Moravia and Silesia 417,400 
 
 Galuia 612,900 
 
 Lombardy 1,735,600 
 
 Venice 1,580,400 
 
 Hungary and Tnuwylvaflia 1,460,500 
 
 , 
 
 447,700 
 1,913,900 
 
 229,700 
 
 955,100 
 2,919,700 
 
 457,200 
 1,538,600 
 
 Total 11,448,500 10,961,800 
 
 The imports from Great Britain and Ireland include a great 
 variety of articles, the more important of which are refined 
 sugar, cotton manufactures, cotton yarn and twist, woollen 
 goods, fish, &c. A considerable quantity annually enters 
 Austria through Germany ; what reaches it by sea will be 
 seen from the following table : 
 
 DKCLARED VALUE of the Principal Articles O/BRITISTI and IRISH PRO 
 DUCE and MANUFACTURES, EXPORTED /rom the UNITKU KINGDOM 
 (through the ports on the Adriatic), to AUSTRIA, in 131 to 1850. 
 
 1831 
 
 619,484 
 
 1841 
 
 404,392 
 
 1832 
 
 578,074 
 
 1842 
 
 431,849 
 
 1833 
 
 482.231 
 
 1843 
 
 508,034 
 
 1834 
 
 626,412 
 
 1844 
 
 511,452 
 
 1^35 
 
 681,618 
 
 1845 
 
 570,522 
 
 1836 
 
 543,313 
 
 1846 
 
 751,981 
 
 1837 
 
 557,958 
 
 1847 
 
 637.009 
 
 1838 
 
 723,963 
 
 1848 
 
 491,525 
 
 1839 
 
 525,382 
 
 1819 
 
 658,993 
 
 1840 
 
 497,407 
 
 1850 
 
 607,755 
 
 To carry on the foreign and internal commerce and trade of 
 the empire, Austria, in 1847, had 5799 vessels of all sizes; 
 to:m. 241,708 ; employing 25,980 men. Of these, upwards of 
 
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE) 
 
 269 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE) 
 
 500 are of large size, handsomely and strongly built. Besides 
 these, there are a great number of lighters employed in load 
 ing and unloading vessels, of which Dalmatia alone has up 
 wards of 2000. The vessels built in 1850 were of larger 
 size for foreign trade, 46 (16,120 tons), large coasters 20 (1456 
 tons), small coasters 65 (831 tons), and fishing-boats 308 
 (343 tons). The principal ports of Austria are Trieste, 
 Venice, Chioggia, and Fiume, all in the Adriatic. The vessels 
 that arrived at, and sailed from these ports, in 1844, with 
 their tonnage, was as undernoted : 
 
 VESSELS entered in AUSTRIAN POETS in 1844. 
 
 Trieste 
 
 llovigno 
 
 Venice 
 
 Chioggia 
 
 Hungary, coast ) 
 frontier, Fiume, c 
 &c ) 
 
 Zara, &c 
 
 Military frontier... 
 
 277,276 
 
 6,218 
 35,082 
 
 17,870 
 5,994 
 
 421,783 28,234 
 
 4,206 
 
 7,283 
 
 210,030 
 39,590 
 
 18,687 
 134,422 
 
 4,919 
 762 
 
 7,826 
 5,133 
 
 854,593 31,858 
 
 493,306 
 40,536 
 
 362.217 
 24,905 
 
 169,504 
 
 130,8?.0 
 
 55,078 
 
 76,376 
 
 VESSELS cleared in 18-14. 
 
 
 To Foreign Ports. 
 
 To Austrian Ports. 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Trieste 
 
 1765 
 
 241,829 
 
 6,573 
 
 244,959 
 
 8338 
 
 486,818 
 
 Korigno 
 
 37 
 
 2,075 
 
 1,985 
 
 38,962 
 
 2,022 
 
 41,037 
 
 Venice 
 
 683 
 
 69,331 
 
 3,418 
 
 244,497 
 
 4,101 
 
 313,828 
 
 Chioggia 
 
 63 
 
 3,216 
 
 1,534 
 
 69,568 
 
 1,587 
 
 72,784 
 
 Hungary, coast ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 frontier, Fiume, > 
 
 758 
 
 67,035 
 
 7,231 
 
 101,949 
 
 7,989 
 
 168,984 
 
 &c ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Zara, &c 
 
 216 
 
 22,698 
 
 4,824 
 
 104,981 
 
 5,040 
 
 127,679 
 
 Military frontier... 
 
 288 
 
 21,495 
 
 2,687 
 
 34,682 
 
 2,975 
 
 56,177 
 
 Total 
 
 3800 
 
 427,679 
 
 ^8,252 
 
 839,628 
 
 32,052 
 
 1,267,307 
 
 Coins, Weights, and Measures. In Austria, accounts are 
 kept in gulden or florins of 60 kreutzers each, the value of 
 the florin being 2s. sterling. The gold coins are double 
 sovereigns, 2, 13s. id. each; single sovereigns, 1, 6s. 8d.; 
 and half-sovereigns, 13s. 4d. The principal silver coin is the 
 rix-dollar, equal to two florins or 4s. sterling. The copper 
 coin are groschen, grochels, kreutzers, and phennings or 
 hellers. At Trieste, and at all the inland towns of the 
 Austrian dominions, except those of the Lombardo-Venetian 
 kingdom, the imperial dollar of two florins, the florin, and the 
 20-kreutzer piece, called zwanziger, are the current coins. 
 The Austrian centner, the weight by which all large quanti 
 ties are rated, is 123J Ibs. avoirdupois. The metze (phiral, 
 metzen), the largest dry measure, is somewhat more than 
 the fourth part of an English imperial quarter ; nine metzen 
 making two quarters nearly. The eimer, the most generally 
 used liquid measure, is equal to 14-94 English wine gallons. 
 In long measure, the Vienna foot is equal to 12-45 inches 
 English, the Viennaelle or aune, to 30*66 inches English. 
 In superficial measure, the yoch of land is equal to 6889 
 English square yards, or 1 acre, 1 rood, 27| poles. 
 
 Population, Religion, Education, &c. The population of 
 the Austrian empire consists of five distinct races ; the Ger 
 man, Sclavonic, Magyar, Italian, and Wallachian. The re 
 spective numbers of these nations have been estimated as 
 follows : 
 
 Nations. 
 
 Sclavonians 
 
 Germans 
 
 Magyars 
 
 Italians 
 
 Wa 
 
 To these maybe added 
 
 Population. 
 
 17,033,000 
 7,285,000 
 4,800,000 
 5,183,1100 
 2,156,000 
 
 36,457,000 
 
 Total 37,060,000 
 
 The Germans, who constitute above one-fifth of the entire 
 population, keep compactly together, occupying the archduchy 
 of Auotria, the N. half of Styria, a part of Carinthia, a small 
 
 portion of Carniola, the N. part of the Tyrol, and the N. and 
 W. borders of Bohemia. There are, besides, about 1 ,200,000 
 in the Hungarian provinces. The Austrian population is 
 increasing rapidly. This increase is great in all the provinces, 
 but is most remarkable in Galicia and Dalmatia, being in the 
 first, 1-42 per cent., and in the second, 1-10. As far back as 
 1827, the average annual increase of the population amounted 
 to 1-193 per cent., or nearly doubling itself in 50 years. The 
 ratio of increase is now much greater. 
 
 fieligion. The state religion of Austria is the R. Catholic, 
 and next in numbers is the Greek church. Calvinism and 
 Lutheranism are also professed by a large body of the people ; 
 the former mostly in Hungary and Transylvania, the latter 
 in the German provinces, and in Galicia. The civil power 
 exercises supreme control in all ecclesiastical matters, the 
 emperor being in everything but the name head of the 
 church ; and as no sentence of excommunication, or other ec 
 clesiastical edict, can be issued without the sanction of the 
 crown, the Pope s direct authority in Austria is more limited 
 than in some other countries. 
 
 In 1851, the numbers of the various confessions were as 
 follows : 
 
 Roman Catholics 2?,090,044 
 
 Greek Catholics 3,4.^,1 H 
 
 Greek, not united 2,742,U55 
 
 Protest iintg, Augsburg 
 
 Coiilessiou 1,151,041 
 
 Protestants, Helvetic 
 
 Confession 
 
 Unitarians 46,020 
 
 Oti.er sects 9,695 
 
 Jews 835,196 
 
 Education. The educational establishments of Austria are 
 divided into eight classes: 1, universities; 2, academies, 
 including high, special, and art schools ; 3, lyceums ; 4, theo 
 logical institutions; 5, philosophical institutions; 6, gym 
 nasiums ; 7, particular institutions ; 8, people s schools. The 
 last, as forming the foundation of the whole system, fall first 
 to be considered. In their nature they come near to our idea 
 of parochial schools, every parish of the empire, almost with 
 out exception, containing one. They are divided into high 
 schools (Haupt schulen), and elementary schools (Trivial und 
 Madchen schulen}. The former amount to 293, the latter to 
 17,511, being the whole schools of this class throughout the 
 empire, with the exception of those of Hungary, Transylvania, 
 and the military frontiers, for which there are no returns. In 
 the elementary schools, the education is strictly national. It 
 consists only of the most necessary branches ; and every in 
 dividual between the ages of six and twelve, male and female, 
 without distinction of rank or creed, is understood to be re 
 ceiving it. To insure this, accurate registers are kept of all 
 the children who have arrived at the school age, and the 
 priest and local functionaries of each parish are enjoined to 
 see to their attendance. By the registers of 1842, the number 
 of children of the school age was 2,595,563, and the actual 
 attendance throughout the empire (still with the exceptions 
 above-mentioned) was 2,273,453. Here the education ceases 
 to be compulsory, but all for whom a superior or professional 
 education is required are amply provided by the other classes 
 of educational establishments. The leading statistics belonging 
 to each class are given in the following Table : 
 
 Universities 
 
 Academies 
 
 Lyceums 
 
 Theological Institutions 
 
 Philosophical Institutions.... 
 
 Gymnasiums 
 
 Particular Institutions 
 
 People s, or National Schools 
 
 Number. 
 
 9 
 
 37 
 
 31 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 283 
 
 1,428 
 
 17,511 
 
 
 419 
 
 427 
 
 817 
 
 348 
 
 303 
 
 1,842 
 
 4,420 
 
 37,233 
 
 15,794 
 
 8,747 
 5,511 
 56,903 
 53,233 
 2,273,453 
 
 66,941 
 34,018 
 
 Hospitals. Out of the 63 cities and principal towns of 
 Austria, 21 possess foundling-hospitals, with lying-in estab 
 lishments attached. The number of foundlings received into 
 these hospitals in 1833 was 14,897, and in 1840, 17,410. 
 From 1821 to 1840 there were in public keeping 986,345 
 children, with a yearly increase of numbers. The number of 
 foundlings claimed is very small proportionally. At Laibach, 
 242 only were sought back in the course of 81 years, out of 
 5302 foundlings. In the Prague hospital, 2309 only were 
 sought back from 1822 to 1841, out of 87,341 foundlings. In 
 Milan, the proportion sought back was much greater, indeed 
 remarkable, when the other cases are considered ; it was 7623 
 out of 20,147 foundlings, or considerably more than a third. 
 
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE) 
 
 270 
 
 AUSTRIA (EnriKE) 
 
 Government, Revenue, Army, and Navy. The whole legis 
 lative authority is vested in the emperor, who exercises 
 supreme control in all the provinces, excepting Hungary and 
 Transylvania. But a constant tendency on the parts of the 
 various states to resume their independence, and maintain 
 their respective national distinctions, has the efl oct of temper 
 ing the exercise of this control, and thereby preventing what 
 has been lately threatened the dismemberment of the empire. 
 The provincial states, whose business it is to receive and 
 register the laws framed by the Emperor on financial matters, 
 and to allocate or apportion the amount of supplies to be con 
 tributed by the different districts, meet once a year, or oftener 
 if necessary. The executive government acts through coun 
 cils or boards, each having a chancellor, who communicates 
 with the provincial councils and with the cabinet. Hungary 
 and Transylvania have each a separate chancery, and are 
 governed by their own laws ; as are, likewise, the Italian 
 states. The nobles form a separate order in the state, and 
 are so disproportionately numerous as to make the distinction 
 appear ridiculous, the total number of nobility in the empire 
 being no less than 400,000, or one to every 90 inhabitants. 
 Of these there are 259,648 in Hungary alone, or one for every 
 20 burghers. The privileges and prerogatives of these last 
 are seriously detrimental to the national interests in various 
 respects ; those of the nobles of the other provinces are few 
 and unimportant. 
 
 The Austrian Government has always been extremely re 
 luctant to give any official account of its financial position or 
 operations ; it is thus difficult to ascertain what these really are. 
 In 1851, the total income was 22, 325,203 ; total expenditure, 
 27,842,047 ; deficiency, 5,516,846. The national debt, in 
 1841, was 115,745,042 ; in 1852, 122,376,980. The prin 
 cipal sources of revenue are a land-tax, a tax on consumable 
 articles, customs on goods, and monopolies of salt, tobacco, &c. 
 
 The numerical strength of the Austrian army on the peace 
 establishment is 400,481, of which 48,842 are cavalry. The 
 war establishment is 589,160. During the last years of the 
 peninsular war, the Austrian army amounted to 650,000 men. 
 The period of service, in all but the Hungarian regiments, is 
 eight years. The military schools of the empire are the 
 academy of engineers in Vienna ; the military academies of 
 Milan, Wiener-Neustadt, and of Waitzen; the military schools 
 of Olmiitz and Gra tz, with a variety of other schools and in 
 stitutions, all having reference to military purposes ; in several 
 of them the pupils are educated at the public expense. 
 
 The Austrian navy, which is under the management of a 
 naval commandant at Venice, is small, consisting of, in 1852, 
 six frigates, five corvettes, seven brigs, six galliots, with eleven 
 steam-vessels and small craft, and a Danube flotilla of gun 
 boats, having 123 guns and eight howitzers ; the whole force 
 mounting 742 guns. Marine force 3215, staff, artillery, and 
 seamen, with six companies of marine infantry. The chief 
 naval station is Venice, where there is established an academy 
 of naval cadets. 
 
 Laws, Literature, and Fine Arts. The administration of 
 justice is under the superintendence of the superior ministry 
 of justice, at the head of which there are two presidents. It 
 is divided into two senates, one at Vienna, and one at Verona. 
 All trials are conducted with a degree of secrecy, and those 
 of criminals scandalously protracted; years often elapsing 
 before their trials are brought on, and years more before they 
 are concluded. Sentence of death can be passed after confes 
 sion only; a law which, whatever may be said of its humanity, 
 must have a tendency to defeat the ends of justice. 
 
 History. After the erection of the German empire in the 
 ninth century by Charlemagne, that prince subdued the district 
 on the S. bank of the Danube, to the E. of the river Ens, and 
 converted it into a military frontier to repel the incursions of 
 the Huns, and other barbarous nations. It was then called 
 Ost-reich, or the East country, from its relative position to 
 Germany, but subsequently obtained the name of Lower 
 Austria, and became the nucleus of the present Austrian 
 empire. The governors of this district or province were 
 appointed by the Emperors of Germany, to whom they were 
 subject, with the title of margrave [German, markgraf 
 lord of the marches], which title was borne by their successors 
 for three centuries after. 
 
 About the middle of the 12th century, Upper Austria was 
 added to Lower Austria, and the title of margrave merged 
 
 I into that of Duke. Soon after, Styria came by bequest to the 
 
 ; Dukes of Austria, when the latter, for the first time, established 
 
 the ducal residence at Vienna. Hitherto the Dukes of Austria 
 
 had been of the house of Bamberg; but, in 1246, the male 
 
 ! branch became extinct, when Rudolph of llapsburg, Emperor 
 
 I of Germany, one of the ablest princes of his age, vested the 
 
 , succession to the ducal throne in his son Albert and his 
 
 [ descendants, and with this prince commenced the llapsburg 
 
 ! dynasty over Austria. Various accessions of territory by 
 
 j marriage, purchase, and inheritance, now rapidly increased 
 
 the extent of the ducal dominions, raising Austria from the 
 
 rank of a mere province to that of an important state, and 
 
 giving it a corresponding influence in the councils of Germany. 
 
 Continuing to extend its limits, Austria finally became so 
 
 much greater than any other state in the empire, that its 
 
 Dukes were raised to the dignity of Emperors of Germany, the 
 
 first so elevated being Albert II., who, in 1438, obtained the 
 
 imperial crown, which has remained ever since in uninter- 
 
 : rupted possession of the Hapsburg line of Austrian sovereigns. 
 
 j In the latter part of the 15th century, Maximilian I., an 
 
 Emperor of the Austrian line, married the daughter and heiress 
 
 of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and by her secured 
 
 further large accessions to the Austrian dominions, namely, 
 
 the Netherlands, Tranche Comte", and Artois. 
 
 In 1521, Ferdinand I. married Anne, sister of Louis, King 
 of Hungary and Bohemia, and succeeded to these states on 
 the death of the latter, which occurred in 1526, at the battle 
 of Mohacz. The vast and continually-increasing power of 
 Austria having excited the jealousy, and her oppressive 
 conduct towards the Protestants, the fears, of the other 
 European nations, a war was the result, from its duration, 
 1618 to 1648, known as the Thirty Years War. It was a war 
 between the 11. Catholic princes of the empire, with Austria at 
 their head, and Saxony and the Protestant states, aided by 
 Sweden and France. The most distinguished generals of this 
 war were Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, on the part 
 of the Protestants; and Wallenstein, the Austrian, on that of 
 the E. Catholics. The Thirty Years War ended in the treaty of 
 Westphalia, which secured the independence of the different 
 states of the Germanic empire, the free exercise of the 
 Protestant religion, and, for a time, the tranquillity of Europe. 
 In 1740, the male line of the house of Hapsburg was brought 
 I to a close by the death of Charles VI., when the succession 
 devolved on his daughter, Maria Theresa, who, with the aid 
 of English subsidies, successfully repelled attacks on her 
 dominions by Bavaria, Saxony, and France. Regarding 
 j the possession of Silesia, she was less fortunate, however, in 
 | a contest with Prussia, to which it was finally ceded in 
 j 1763, after a war of seven years duration. Maria Theresa 
 was succeeded by her son, Joseph II., a well-meaning and 
 enlightened prince. In 1804, Francis I. assumed the title 
 of hereditary Emperor of Austria, and, two years afterwards, 
 renounced the title of Emperor of Germany. The late Emperor, 
 i Ferdinand I., born April 19, 1793, succeeded his father, 
 I Francis I., March 2, 1835; married February 27, 1831, Anne, 
 daughter of Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia. Abdicated, 
 : December 2, 1848, in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph I , 
 : the present Emperor, who was born on August 18, 1830. The 
 political commotions of 1848, by which the peace and pros- 
 : perity of so many of the nations of Europe were wrecked for 
 a time, extended to Austria, where a predisposition to revolt 
 had long existed previously, being a necessary consequence 
 of the association of the jarring and incongruous elements of 
 j which that empire is composed. In the year above named, a 
 spark from the revolutionary fires of France ignited the com 
 bustible materials, and in a short time Austria was in a blaze. 
 Lombardy revolted. The Austrians were driven out of 
 Milan, Venice, and many other towns, by their disaffected 
 inhabitants, who subsequently formed an alliance with Charles 
 Albert, King of Sardinia, who then invaded the Austrian 
 territory at the head of a large army ; and for a time victory 
 seemed to favour the Italians. In the following year, however, 
 both the insurgents and their Sardinian ally were repeatedly 
 defeated by the Austrian forces under Marshal Radetzky, and 
 Lombardy was again brought under the Austrian sway. 
 Taking advantage of this state of things, Hungary also came 
 forward with a demand for entire independence, assuming, at 
 the same time, that supremacy on her own account over Croatia 
 and Sclavonia, which the two latter had hitherto yielded to her 
 
AUSTRIA (ARCHDUCHY) 
 
 271 
 
 AUSTRIA (ARCHDUCHY) 
 
 merely as proxy for the monarchy. Austria resisted the 
 demand, as threatening the dismemberment of the empire, 
 when a short but sanguinary war was the consequence, which 
 terminated in favour of the monarchy. This result, however, 
 was owing, in part at least, to judicious concession, as well as 
 to superiority in arms, as the following heads of the new con 
 stitution promulgated at Vienna, March 7, 1849, sufficiently 
 show: Granted Full enjoyment of political and religious 
 liberty ; science and scientific instruction free ; the general 
 education of the people to be provided for by public institu 
 tions ; every one to have free expression of opinion ; the press 
 to be relieved from censorship ; the right of petitioning to 
 belong to every one ; citizens to have the right to assemble 
 and to form associations if the object be lawful ; individual 
 liberty guaranteed ; a man s domicile inviolable ; the secrecy 
 of private correspondence to be held sacred. (Miiller s Stat- 
 istisches Jarlvrbucli; Paton s Servia ; Thompson s Austria; 
 Foreign Quarterly Review ; Annual Register ; Almanack de 
 Gotha ; Lyell s Geology ; Parliamentary Papers.} 
 
 AUSTRIA (THE ARCHDUCHY OF). The archduchy of 
 Austria, or Austria Proper, is the nucleus around which has 
 grown the vast empire known as the Austrian dominions. 
 In extent it is comparatively small, its area being only 10,909 
 geo. sq. m. ; while the area of the entire Austrian dominions 
 is estimated at 195,662 geo. sq. m. It is bounded, N. by 
 Bohemia and Moravia, S. by Salzburg and Styria, E. by 
 Hungary, and W. by Bavaria; and is comprised between lat. 
 47 28 and 49 2 N., and Ion. 12 45 and 17 5 E. It 
 is divided into two provinces by the river Ens or Enns, I 
 which, flowing N., falls into the Danube about 2 m. N. the 
 town of Enns, the line of separation N. the Danube running 
 from a point on that river 4 m. W. Ips, N. W. to the Bohemian 
 frontier. The province W. of the Enns, also called Austria 
 above the Enns or Upper Austria [O/ierosterreich], has Linz 
 for its capital ; the W. boundary is formed by the Inn ; area, 
 3485 geo. sq. m. The province E. of the Enns, also called 
 Austria below the Enns, or Lower Austria [Unter- or Nieder- 
 osterreich], has for its capital Vienna, the capital also of the 
 empire ; area, 7424 geo. sq. m. E. boundary N. of the 
 Danube, the river March ; and S., the river Leitha, separat 
 ing it from Hungary. Both provinces are mountainous, and 
 abound in beautiful and romantic scenery. The entire vale 
 of the Danube, from Passau to Vienna, a distance of not less 
 than 130 m., presents a continued series of the most pictur 
 esque views, equal, it has been asserted, to those on the far- 
 famed lUiine ; while the scenery on the Enns, and several of 
 the other streams, has been considered but little, if at all in 
 ferior. The confines of the archduchy, on the S., are marked 
 by a range of mountains, including a branch of the Noric 
 Alps, which spreads its branches over the whole country S. 
 of the Danube. The N. portions, again, are traversed in all 
 directions by the JjdJimerwald, or Bohemian mountains. Be 
 tween these N. and S. mountain-ranges lie the vale and basin 
 of the Danube, to which both provinces almost exclusively 
 belong. The principal tributaries of the Danube from the S. 
 are the Inn, Traun, Enns, Ips, Traisen, and Leitha all Alpine 
 streams, and remarkable for the green tinge of their waters 
 and numerous smaller streams ; from the N. come the Krems, 
 Kamp, Gb ller, March, &c. ; the last, after the Danube, the 
 largest stream pertaining to the province. The lakes, chiefly 
 confined to Upper Austria, are numerous, and remarkable 
 for the beauty of their scenery. The principal are, the 
 Giniindensee or Traunsee, about 7 m. long, and 2 broad at the 
 broadest part; the Halstattersee, 5 m. long and about 1 broad ; 
 the Attersee, about 12 m. long and 3 broad; the Mondsee; 
 the Lake of St. Gilgen, and an immense number of smaller 
 lakes. Swamps and morasses of great extent are of frequent 
 occurrence. The mineral wealth of the archduchy is not 
 great. In Lower Austria there are some iron mines, while 
 both provinces contain quarries of marble and freestone, slate, 
 alum, and potter s clay ; and coal, alabaster, gypsum, rock- 
 crystal, garnets, beryls, topazes, and emeralds are obtained. 
 A little gold and silver, copper, lead, and iron are found in 
 certain localities ; salt in the hills of Ischil ; and sulphur in 
 various quarters. The whole produce of the mines and fur 
 naces of the archduchy amounted, in 1845, to 69,915. Of 
 this sum, 27,153 is the value of coal, found only in Lower 
 Austria. 
 
 The climate of the archduchy varies with the level of the 
 
 different localities, but neither the heat nor the cold is extreme, 
 though the lower province is subject to sudden changes. The 
 average annual temperature in Vienna is about 51 Fan. The 
 maximum heat does not exceed 97, and the winter cold ranges 
 between 1 and 1 2 C below the freezing point. At Linz, the 
 mean heat is 48 28 . 
 
 The soil is as various as the climate. In the hilly regions 
 there is little cultivation, but compensation is found in valu 
 able forests. Agriculture, however, is on the whole in an 
 improved and improving condition. The cultivation and 
 general management of the vine, however, is still defective. 
 The following table will give an idea of the productive super 
 ficies of the country, and of the extent to which its capabilities 
 have been made available : 
 
 PRODUCTIVE SUPERFICIES or THE Ancimucm. 
 
 Arable 3,180,710 
 
 Vineyards 114,128 
 
 Gardens, &c 1,392,654 
 
 Carry forward. ..4,037,492 
 
 Brought forward, 4,6^7,492 
 
 Pastures 1,094,683 
 
 Woodlands 3,222,917 
 
 Total. ..9,Ut r,Vj2 
 
 AVERAGE OF ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF THE GRAIN. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Maize and KM:... 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 . 41 9,708 
 .1.048,603 
 
 Cany forward... 2,058,311 
 
 Brought forward, 2,0:,8,311 
 
 Barley 504,; <J9 
 
 Oats 1,099,339 
 
 Total... 4,202,449 
 
 Throughout the territory, fruits and kitchen vegetables of all 
 sorts are produced in great abundance, and of excellent quality. 
 In Lower Austria, a considerable quantity of wine is produced, 
 especially in the hilly districts around Vienna, where the quality 
 is much superior to that obtained from the vineyards on the 
 plains. Flax is cultivated to some extent; and, in Upper Aus 
 tria, hops also. The valley of the Enns, and the plain of Tulla 
 on the Danube, are the most fertile tracts, both yielding most 
 luxuriant crops of corn. The woods and forests consist chiefly 
 of beech, oak, maple, linden, elm, alder, pine, and fir. In 
 Upper Austria, where pastures abound, the rearing of cattle 
 is general ; and the horses bred in the S.W. parts of the pro 
 vince, are noted for their size. The numbers of horned cattle, 
 horses, and sheep, in both provinces, in 1842, was 
 
 Oxen 200,104 I Horses 119,123 
 
 Cows 599,522 | Sheep 839,128 
 
 In the mountainous regions goats abound. The lynx, wolf, 
 and bear are also met with. Foxes, stags, deer, marmots, 
 polecats, squirrels, martens, hares, and wild fowl, are numer 
 ous. The lakes and rivers are well stocked with fish. 
 
 The commercial resources of the archduchy, and the activity 
 and enterprise of its inhabitants, are greater, perhaps, than 
 those of any of the other dominions of the empire ; Lower 
 Austria and Lombardy, with little more than a tenth of the 
 population of the whole Austrian territory, engrossing about 
 a third of its entire trade. Lower Austria, however, is partly 
 indebted for this result to the possession of Vienna, the capi 
 tal, and the largest, the most populous, and perhaps, also, the 
 greatest manufacturing city of the empire. 
 
 The quantity of spirits annually distilled in the archduchy 
 is very considerable, being no less than 1.180,315 imperial 
 gallons ; of which rather more than the half is made in Upper 
 Austria. To produce this quantity of spirits, there are 7326 
 distilleries, but most of these are on a very small scale. 
 
 The quantity of wine produced annually, amounts to 
 24,896,659 imperial gallons, the produce almost entirely of 
 Lower Austria, neither the climate nor the soil of Upper 
 Austria being favourable to the vine. There are, in Lower 
 Austria, seven sugar-refineries, and three manufactories of 
 sugar from beet-root. Both Austrias produce considerable 
 quantities of iron and wool. In 1845, the amount of wool 
 was 4,446,000 Ibs. The produce of iron in the same year 
 was small, not much exceeding 3000 tons ; the greater part 
 from Upper Austria. The manufacture of linen, though it 
 has suffered greatly by the progress of the cotton manufac 
 tures, is still prosecuted to a considerable extent. Spinning 
 machinery has been lately introduced into the country ; but 
 flax is still spun almost exclusively by the hand, and forms a 
 principal employment of the inhabitants of the mountainous 
 districts. The quantity of linen manufactured in 1845, was 
 290,000 pieces of 30 ells each; value, 150,000; of which 
 
AUSTRIAN ITALY 
 
 272 
 
 AUTUN 
 
 quantity Upper Austria produced 90,000 pieces, and Lower 
 Austria 200,000. The cotton manufacture is also con 
 siderable, and is rapidly increasing. In Lower Austria there 
 are 40 factories, with about 385,000 spindles ; in Upper Aus 
 tria, four factories, with 20,000. Silk is likewise manufac 
 tured to a large extent, especially in Vienna ; to a more limited 
 extent in Neustadt and some other towns. The woollen 
 manufactures have not been so prosperous ; although there are 
 some large factories at Vienna, Rittersdorf, and other places ; 
 the supply, however, is not equal to the home consumption. 
 
 In Upper Austria, the saltworks afford employment to 
 several thousand persons, the produce amounting annually to 
 about 46,000 tons. The other manufactures are laces, iron 
 ware, and cutlery ; tools, copper-ware, brasswork, jewellery, 
 articles of wood, leather, porcelain, paper, glass, chemicals, 
 beer, and spirits. In Lower Austria are numerous tanneries, 
 bleachfields, and also printfields, at which 254,000 pieces of 
 woollen and cotton goods are printed annually. The exports 
 of Upper Austria consist principally of salt, timber, wood for 
 fuel, yarns, linens, woollens, carpets, ironware, tools, cutlery, 
 flax, cotton yarn, cotton stockings, cheese, beer, earthenware, j 
 mill and polishing stones, marble, and considerable quantities j 
 of fruit. 
 
 The trade of the archduchy in 1845, was as follows : 
 
 Upper Austria 1,976,065 1,329,707 
 
 Lower Austria 306.S48 388,131 
 
 Total... 2,282,413 1,717,838 
 
 The internal traffic is much facilitated by the excellence of 
 the roads, the navigable rivers and canals, the steam naviga 
 tion of the Danube, and by the introduction of railways, of 
 which there are three in the archduchy. 
 
 Education is an object of anxious solicitude to the Govern 
 ment, which provides gratis instruction for all who cannot afford 
 to pay for it. To secure an ample supply of teachers, numerous 
 normal schools have been established in various parts of the 
 country, particularly in Vienna, which furnishes from 1600 to 
 1700 teachers annually. Throughout the whole archduchy, 
 every child must go to school for a certain number of years. 
 A more questionable law enjoins that no person shall marry, or 
 set up in any trade, who cannot produce a written certificate 
 of attendance at school. 
 
 The inhabitants of Austria Proper are almost all Germans, 
 and are an active, industrious, and good-natured people, living 
 easily and contentedly, with a reasonable command, not only of 
 the necessaries, but of the enjoyments of life. The peasantry, 
 in general, are in comfortable circumstances ; are kind, cheer 
 ful, and affable, simple in their manners, and perfectly con 
 tented with their lot. Pop. in 1845, Upper Austria, 851,288 ; 
 Lower Austria, 1,415,695; together, 2,266,993; of which, per 
 haps, 50,000 or 60,000 are settlers from other parts of the 
 Austrian dominions, and foreigners ; the remainder are native- 
 born Germans. 
 
 AUSTRIAN ITALY. See LOMBARDY 
 
 AUTERIVE, a tn. France, dep. Haute-Garonne (Langue- 
 
 doc), 18 m. S.E. Toulouse, r. bank, Ariege, which is here 
 
 navigable, and is crossed by a bridge of brick. The chief 
 
 occupation of the inhabitants is in making army-clothing. 
 
 Pop. 2230. There are other three places of the same name 
 
 in France. 
 
 AUTEUIL, a vil. France, dep. Seine, at the entrance of 
 the Bois de Boulogne, within 1 m. of the W. barrier, and pro 
 perly only a suburb of Paris. It has several manufactories, 
 chiefly of printed stuffs, and soap ; a considerable tannery, with 
 some breweries, distilleries, &c. A great number of elegant 
 country mansions are in the neighbourhood. Auteuil is cele 
 brated as the residence, in former times, of many literary per 
 sons of distinction, among whom are the poet Boileau, whose 
 country-seat is still shown, and Moliere, whose house has been 
 converted into a rustic temple, containing not only his bust, 
 but also those of Boileau, Fontaine, Corneille, and Racine. 
 
 Pop. 3313. Two other places in France bear the same 
 
 name. 
 
 AUTHIE. 1, A vil. France, dep. Somme, 7 m. E. 
 Doullens. It has numerous manufactories of nails, and one 
 of cotton yarn. Pop. 946. 2, A small river, France, which 
 rises near the above village ; for about 20 m. forms the bound 
 ary between the deps. Somme and Pas de Calais, and, alter a 
 
 course of about 55 m., falls into the English Channel. 3, 
 A vil., dep. Calvados (Normandy), not far from Caen. 
 
 AUTHION, a river, France, rising in dep. Indre-et-Loirn, 
 flows W., and falls into the Loire on its r. bank, after a course 
 of about 66 m., for 18 of which, from Beaufort to the Loire, 
 it is navigable. 
 
 AUTHORPE, par. Eng., co. Lincoln; 1390 ac. Pop. 
 (1841) 117. 
 
 AUTOL, a tn. Spain, in Old Castile, prov. Logrono, 8 m. 
 S. by W. Caluhorra, on the side of a limestone hill, called 
 Santiago, 1. bank, Cidaco ; and having a parish church, prison, 
 hospital, and school. Pop. 2740. 
 
 AUTOLIN DE VILLANEUVA, a vil. Spain, in Asturia, 
 prov. Oviedo, 2 m. N. Navia ; on the sea-shore, at the em 
 bouchure of the Navia. It has a large parish church, an 
 agricultural population, and is celebrated for salmon and other 
 fish. Pop. 2500. (Madoz.) 
 
 AUTUN [anc. Bibracte or Augustodunum] , a city, France, 
 dep. Saone-et-Loire (Burgogne), cap. ofarrond.; picturesquely 
 situated on a hill, at the foot of a lofty range of well-wooded 
 mountains, 1. bank, Arroux, 28 m. E.N.E. Chalons-sur-Saone. 
 It is the seat of a bishop, suffragan to the Archbishop of 
 Lyons, and has courts of primary jurisdiction, and of com 
 merce; also a communal college, two libraries, a collection 
 of pictures and antiquities, a society of agriculture, sciences, 
 and arts ; two hospitals, and two ecclesiastical seminaries, with 
 other institutions. The numerous remains of antiquity in and 
 around Autun, render it a very interesting place. Part of 
 the ancient walls are still standing, and are remarkable for 
 their massiveness and solidity. Of the gates built by the 
 Romans, two remain, the Porta Senonica, now called the Porte 
 d Arroux, surmounted by a gallery of the Corinthian order, 
 and covered with ornaments of exquisite workmanship, in 
 good preservation ; and the Porta Lingonensis, now the Porte 
 Saint Andre. A tower is also pointed out as having formed 
 part of a temple of Minerva. In the old parts of the town 
 are the ruins of an amphitheatre, and of several temples, the 
 principal of which appears to have been that of Janus, a square 
 building, of which three sides remain. The modern city is 
 divided into three parts, the highest, the chateau or castle, 
 being supposed to occupy the site of the ancient capitol. The 
 cathedral of St. Lazare, a Gothic edifice, founded in the llth 
 
 ATJTUN CATHEDRAL, N >rth Side From Ch^puy, Ca 
 
 century, has a fine lofty spire, 325 ft. high, and a choir richly 
 adorned with marble sculptures. Above the principal portal 
 is a beautiful zodiac; while the tympanum exhibits a curious 
 representation of the resurrection, and final judgment. In 
 the square adjoining the cathedral is an Ionic fountain of 
 great beauty. The quarter called La Ville contains the prin 
 cipal open space or square, named the Champ de St. Ladre, 
 
AUVEEGNE 
 
 273 
 
 AYA 
 
 which is planted with trees, and forms an agreeable promenade. 
 There are several other public walks, particularly the Champ 
 do Mars, a spacious square in the middle of the town, elevated 
 upon a terrace. The houses of the third quarter, the Marcheau 
 or Martiale Forum, of the ancient city, are mean and ill built, 
 and the streets narrow and dirty. The river here is crossed 
 by two bridges, d Arroux and St. An- 
 doche. Manufactures: carpets, serges, 
 cotton velvet, cloth, hosiery, and delft- 
 ware. During the first Revolution there 
 were here a cannon-foundry, and manu 
 factories of other kinds of arms. In the 
 neighbourhood are some tanneries and 
 paper-mills. Autun is the chief, if not 
 the only place in France where a species 
 of fabric called tapis de Marchau, used 
 for bed-coverlets, horse-cloths, &c., is 
 made. The principal trade is in grain, 
 wood, wine, hemp, leather, horses, and 
 cattle. In the vicinity are iron and lead 
 mines ; and not far distant, the valuable 
 coal-pits of Epinac and Creuzot. At the 
 latter place are extensive iron furnaces. 
 A kind of gray granite, and potter s clay, 
 are also found in the surrounding district. 
 Autun was a place of great extent and im 
 portance, even before the conquest of Gaul 
 by Julius Caesar, who makes frequent 
 mention of it under the name of Bibracte, 
 capital of the _<Edui. Talleyrand was Bishop of Autun at the 
 breaking out of the great Revolution. Pop. (1846), 9098. 
 
 AUVEKGNE, a prov. Central France, now merged into 
 deps. Cantal and Puy-de-Dome, and an arrond. of Haute 
 Loire ; but still deserving of separate notice, because of its 
 frequent use as a geographical boundary, particularly in the 
 numerous works, both popular and scientific, to which its 
 interesting geological phenomena have given birth. The 
 part of Auvergne to which these works specially refer, is an 
 extensive plain, usually known by the name of the Limagne, 
 stretching from S. to N. about 50 m., with an average breadth 
 of 20 m., and an altitude above the sea of 1200 ft., and 
 bounded, E. and W., by two parallel ranges of gneiss and 
 granite, about 3000 ft. high. The surface of the plain con 
 sists of alluvial deposits, resting on a substratum of limestone, 
 and is broken by numerous hills, which appear to have origin 
 ally formed part of the same substratum, and been upheaved 
 by volcanic agency. The best proof of this is in the fact that 
 many of them are surmounted by a crest or cupping of basalt. 
 To the W. of the plain the limestone disappears, and is suc 
 ceeded by a plateau of granite, which, rising 1600 ft. above 
 the valley of Clermont, must be 3000 ft. above the sea. This 
 plateau forms the base of a long chain of volcanic cones and 
 domes, which, to the number of 70, form a zone of nearly 
 20 m. by 2 m., and vary in altitude from 500 to 4000 ft. 
 The highest of them, Puy-de-Dome, is 4000 ft. above the sea. 
 It is entirely composed of volcanic matter, and has a regular 
 crater 1000 ft. in circumference, and 300 ft. deep. The whole 
 of the cones present the same general character well-defined 
 craters, enclosed by regular cones, on whose sides the lava 
 currents may be traced as easily as on those of Vesuvius. 
 (Diet, de la France; Lyell s Geology; Mantell s Wonders of 
 Geology.} 
 
 AUVERS-LE-HAMON, a tn. and coin. France, dep. Sarthe 
 (Maine), r. bank, Trulon, 22 m. S.E. Lard; on an acclivity, 
 and built in the form of a square, the sides of which are oc 
 cupied by houses, while an ancient church rises in its centre. 
 The district around is watered by the Trulon, the Erve, and 
 the Vaige. From the margin of those streams abrupt preci 
 pices arise, some of them crowned with the remains of old 
 forts, and others of them in the form of fantastic peaks, which 
 
 have a very picturesque effect. Pop. 2233. Other three 
 
 villages in France have the name of AUVEKS. 
 
 AUVILLARDS. 1, Atn. France, dep. Tarn-et-Garonne 
 (Armagnac), 22 m. W. Montauban; on a height, 1. bank, 
 Garonne, with a port, and considerable trade. Manufac 
 tures: porcelain, earthenware, woollen, hosiery, and hats. 
 Pop. 1742. 2, Auvillards-sur-Saone, a vil., dep. Cote-d Or 
 (Burgundy). Pop. 521. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 AUXERRE [anc. Antissiodimtm], a city, France, cap. 
 dep. Yonne, 96 m. S.E. Paris, on the side of a hill, 1. bank, 
 Yonne, which here begins to be navigable. The situation is 
 remarkably fine, and the air pure, but the town itself is in 
 general ill built and dirty, with narrow, crooked streets. Its 
 churches constitute its chief attraction. The cathedral, dedi- 
 
 - 
 
 
 AUXERRE. From I/i France Pitroresque. 
 
 cated to St. Etienne, is a splendid Gothic structure, though 
 still unfinished. Its interior is finely proportioned, and the 
 windows, of stained glass, are exceedingly beautiful. The 
 old episcopal palace, once regarded as among the finest of the 
 kind in France, is now the Hotel de Prefecture. The abbey of 
 St. Germain contains some curious crypts, one below another ; 
 in the lower are tombs of the early Counts of Auxerre. 
 
 Auxerre is the seat of a court of assizes, and of courts of 
 primary jurisdiction and commerce. It has a communal col 
 lege or high school, a museum of antiquities and natural his 
 tory, a primary normal school, a public library containing 
 25,000 volumes and nearly 200 MSS., an agricultural society, 
 a theatre, a large foundling-hospital, baths, and a botanical 
 garden. Over a gatehouse in the market-place is a curious 
 old clock-tower. The principal manufactures are of woollen 
 cloths, serges, druggets, hosiery, cotton yarn, hats, wine casks, 
 blankets, violin strings, and earthenware ; leather, red and 
 yellow ochre, rouge, called de Prusse, and chalk. It has 
 some commerce in hemp, leather, staves, bricks, and cattle ; 
 but the chief trade is in wood, and in the wines of the district, 
 of which about 120,000 tuns are annually sent along the 
 Yonne and Seine to Paris and Normandy. Of these wines the 
 most noted is the white Chablis. Auxerre was the ancient 
 capital of the Auxerrois or county of Auxerre, which now 
 constitutes the principal part of the arrondissement of that 
 name. Pop. (1846), 11,890. 
 
 AUXONNE [Latin, Asona, Aussona], a tn. France, dep. 
 Cote-d Or (Burgundy), 18 m. E.S.E. Dijon, 1. bank, Saone, 
 here crossed by a beautiful bridge of 23 arches. At one ex 
 tremity of the bridge is a bank or causeway, about 1 m. long, 
 to give access to it during inundations of the river. Auxonne 
 is a fortified place of the fourth class, well built, the seat of a 
 court of commerce, and has a communal college, and a public 
 library containing 4000 volumes ; a castle, an arsenal, a 
 cannon-foundry, and an artillery school has been formed on 
 the ramparts. Manufactures : woollen stuffs, serges, muslins, 
 and hardware. Trade: grain, flour, fruit, wine, brandy, 
 iron, wood, and coal. Auxonne was the capital of a small 
 sovereignty, separate from the duchy and county of Burgundy, 
 the sovereigns of which took the title of Sires d Auxonne. 
 Pop. 2944. 
 
 AUXY-LE- CHATEAU, a small tn. France, dep. Pas 
 de Calais (Artois), in a marshy country on the Authie, which 
 intersects it, 30 m. S.W. Arras. It has an old parochial 
 church, tanneries, and four fairs. Pop. 2342. 
 
 AVA [Burmese, Angwa or Aingwa Fish-pond; Sanscrit, 
 
 Ratanapura City of gems], a city, Burmah, of which it was 
 
 formerly cap., 1. bank, Irrawady, about 1 m. S.W. Amarapura, 
 
 | also formerly the cap. ; lat. 21 51 N. ; Ion. 95 58 E. It 
 
 35 
 
AVAL 
 
 274 
 
 AVENDALE 
 
 is divided into an inner and outer town, each surrounded by 
 a brick wall and fosse ; the circumference of the whole being 
 about 5J m. The houses are, in general, mere huts thatched 
 with grass ; but a few, belonging to persons of distinction, are 
 of somewhat superior construction. The outer town is but 
 thinly sprinkled with these wretched habitations, and some 
 large quarters are entirely destitute of buildings. The inner 
 town, about 1 m. in circumference, and forming the N.E. 
 angle of the city, is chiefly occupied by the palace, finished 
 in 1824 ; the Rung-dhau or hall of justice ; the Lut-dhau or 
 council-chamber ; the arsenal ; and the houses of a few persons 
 attached to the court. Ava contains also some dilapidated 
 monasteries. The bazaars, including one without the Avails, 
 are eleven in number ; and were at one time well stocked with 
 native commodities, goods from China and Laos, and British 
 cottons, woollens, glass, and earthenware. The pop. in 1826 
 amounted to 25,000 or 30,000, but is now much less. An 
 earthquake, in 1839, destroyed every substantial building 
 in the city. Since this event, the seat of government has 
 been removed to Monchobo. 
 
 AVAL, the largest of the Bahrein Islands (which see], 
 
 AVALON, a large peninsula, forming the S.E. part of 
 Newfoundland, having Trinity Bay on the N., and Placentia 
 Bay on the S., separated only by an isthmus of about 4 m. 
 broad. The bays of St. Mary and Trepassey on the S., and 
 Conception on the N., divide the district into three lesser penin 
 sulas. It has also several smaller bays, with many excellent 
 harbours. The Great Bank of Newfoundland lies E. of it. 
 
 AVALLON [anc. Aballo], a tn. France, dep. Yonne, cap. 
 arrond., 26 m. S.E. Auxerre ; romantically situated in a fer 
 tile country, 1. bank, Cousin, which here takes the name of 
 the Voisin, on a hill of red granite, along the brow of which 
 runs a broad terrace-walk, planted with lime-trees, more than 
 500 ft. above the bed of the river. It has well-built houses, 
 broad and clean streets, an hospital, concert-hall, and parish 
 church, an old edifice with a curious Romanesque portal ; 
 likewise a court of commerce, a coimnunal college, and an 
 agricultural society ; a theatre, and public baths. Manufac 
 tures : woollen cloth, casks, staves, mustard, and paper. It 
 has also some tanneries and fulling-mills, and a trade in grain, 
 wine, cattle, and coals. Pop. 4896. 
 
 AVARES (KHAXAT OF), a political division of E. Cir- 
 cassia, on the N. slope of the Caucasus, between the rivers 
 Aksai and Koisu ; area, 2287 m. It is mountainous and 
 sterile, inhabited by the Avares, a tribe of Lesghians, governed 
 by a khan, and is nominally subject to Russia. The Avares 
 are Mussulmans, and live by the chase and by plunder. To 
 prevent their predatory incursions on the surrounding tribes, 
 an annual sum is paid to the khan by Russia, and the rank of 
 lieutenant-general is given him. Pop. 31,000. 
 
 AVATCHA, a river, Kamtchatka. rising in a meadow 
 at the foot of a volcano of same name ; flowing E., and falling 
 into the Pacific Ocean at the town of Petropavlosk, on the 
 Bay of Avatcha. Its whole course is about 30 m. 
 
 AVATCHINSKAIA, a volcano, Kamtchatka ; in lat. 
 53 15 N.; Ion. 158 50 E.; height, 9055 ft. The last 
 eruption of this mountain occurred in 1827. 
 
 AVE, a small river, Belgium, rising in prov. Luxem 
 bourg, and, after passing Lomprez and Wellin, disappearing in 
 a calcareous mountain, under which it continues its course for 
 nearly half a mile. After emerging, it passes Ave and Auffe, 
 and joins the Lesse. 
 
 AVEBURY, a vil. and par. England, co. Wilts. The 
 village is 6 m. W. by N. Marlborough, and consists of one 
 principal street, badly kept ; houses principally poor-looking 
 cottages, built of stone from the neighbouring downs; supply 
 of water abundant. The parish church is a fine old struc 
 ture of Norman architecture. There are also a Baptist chapel 
 and an Independent chapel in the village, a boarding-school, 
 and a national school. The village occupies part of the site 
 of a place of worship belonging, it is supposed, to the ancient 
 Britons. It was enclosed by an extensive ditch and rampart, I 
 including double circles of large unhewn stones. On the 
 neighbouring downs are numerous barrows or tumuli, one of 
 which, called Silbury Hill, covers an area of upwards of 5 ac., | 
 and is 2027 ft. in circumference at the base, and 120 at the 
 summit, with a perpendicular height of 170 ft. There are 
 numerous other memorials of antiquity of a similar kind in 
 the vicinity. Area of par. 5450 ac. Pop. (1841), 751. 
 
 AVEIRO, or BRAGAN<?A NOVA, a seaport tn. Portugal, 
 prov. Douro, on a bay of same name, formed by the estuary 
 of the Vouga, 35 m. S. Oporto; lat. 40 38 24" N.; Ion. 
 8 37 45" E. (R.) Aveiro is situated in a flat, marshy coun 
 try, which renders it very unhealthy. The old walls still re 
 main, but the suburbs extend beyond them. It is a bishop s 
 see, and contains four parishes, a cathedral, and four other 
 churches, six monasteries, a college, and an hospital. The 
 houses are small, and the people generally in poor circum 
 stances. Aveiro has manufactures of earthenware, and salt 
 is made in great quantities from the lagoons in the neigh 
 bourhood; but the quality is reckoned inferior to that pro 
 duced at Setubal and Lisbon. The fishery is active, and the 
 province is supplied with sardines chiefly from Aveiro; and 
 besides salt and fish, a thriving trade is carried on in oil, wine, 
 oranges, &c. The oysters caught off the coast are reputed 
 the best in Portugal. The entrance to the mouth of the 
 river is marked by two lofty stone pyramids, each 70 ft. high. 
 The port is wide and safe, but a shifting bar at the entrance 
 renders the aid of a pilot indispensable. During spring-tides 
 there are 15 ft. water on that bar; at neaps, from 7J to 12. 
 Pop. 4094. 
 
 AVEIRO, a tn. Brazil, prov. Para, pleasantly situated in 
 a fertile country, admirably adapted for the growth of cacao 
 and cotton ; r. bank, Tapajos, which is here navigable, and 
 70 m. above its embouchure in the Amazon. The inhabit 
 ants are chiefly Indians. 
 
 AVELEY, par. Eng. Essex; 3920 ac. Pop. (1841), 849. 
 
 AVELGIIEM, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. W. 
 Flanders, dist. of, and 8 m. E. Courtray, containing salt 
 works, dyeworks, breweries, tobacco-factories, and oil and 
 flour mills. Pop. 5295. 
 
 AVELLA, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Lavoro, dist. of, 
 and 5 m. N.E. Nola; delightfully situated, and commanding 
 a view extending to Naples. It has four parish churches. 
 Close by are the ruins of the Roman Abella, celebrated by 
 Virgil for its natural products. Pop. 6030. 
 
 AVELLINO, a tn. Naples, cap. prov. Principato Ultra, 
 dist. Avellino, 29m. E. Naples; situated at the foot of Mount 
 Vergino, near the Sabbato. It is a fortified place, and the 
 seat of a bishop, suffragan to Benevento, and of a civil and 
 criminal tribunal, and contains a mean-looking cathedral, 
 three parish churches, and a royal college. It stands on the 
 declivity of a hill ; the houses are in general well built, but 
 the streets, though wide, are exceedingly irregular. It has 
 a square, adorned with an obelisk, and possesses several 
 agreeable promenades; but the public edifices, with the excep 
 tion of a granary, are of the poorest description. It has some 
 manufactories of maccaroni, of sausages, long celebrated; 
 and of coarse cloth ; also, several dyeworks, much favoured 
 by the plentiful supply of soft water ; it is likewise famed for 
 its confectionery, and carries on an active trade in grain. 
 The neighbourhood abounds in chestnuts and hazel-nuts. The 
 latter were much prized by the Romans, and are still cele 
 brated under the name of Avellino nuts. The town suffered 
 a good deal by earthquakes in 1694 and 1731. At a short 
 distance is the famous Val di Garzano, the site of the Furcm, 
 Caudincc, where the Samnites compelled a Roman army to 
 lay down their arms and pass singly under the yoke, B.C. 321. 
 Pop. 15,586. 
 
 AVENBURY, par. Eng. Hereford; 3140 ac. Pop. 382. 
 
 AVENCHES [anc. Aventicum], a small tn. Switzerland, 
 can. Vaud, about 3 m. S. the Lake of Morat, and 30 m. 
 N.E. Lausanne, cap. of a detached dist., surrounded by Frei 
 burg and the Lake of Neufchatcl. The ancient walls, which 
 had a circuit of several miles, may still be traced. A 
 Roman tower, a Corinthian column, 37 ft. high, the remains 
 of an amphitheatre, an aqueduct and baths, numerous inscrip 
 tions, and specimens of Mosaic work, are the chief relics of 
 the former splendour of Aventicum. About a tenth of the 
 ancient city is occupied by the modern town or village of 
 Avenches, consisting of a few streets, and having an old 
 church, a castle, and an institution for lunatics. The environs 
 are beautiful and fertile. Pop. (Protestants), 1458. 
 
 AVENDALE, or AVONDALE, a par. Scotland, Lanark, 
 watered by the Avon; area, 32,000 ac., of which more than 
 one-half is under cultivation. Drumclog, where Graham of 
 Claverhouse was defeated by the Covenanters, in 1 679, is in 
 this parish. It contains a considerable town, called Strathaven 
 
AVENING 
 
 275 
 
 AVEYEON 
 
 or Straven, by which name the parish also is sometimes 
 designated. Pop. (1841), 6180. 
 
 AVENING, vil. and par. Eug. Gloucester, the former 
 on an acclivity; area of par. 46GO ac. Pop. (1841), 2227. 
 
 AVENWEDDE, a vil. Prussia, pro v. Westphalia, gov. of, 
 and about 32 m. S.S.W.Minden, on the Dolke; with woollen 
 and linen manufactures. Pop. 3322. 
 
 AVENZA, or LAVENZA, a small tn., N. Italy, in the united 
 duchies of Modena and Massa-Carrara, on the Gulf of Genoa, 
 1. bank, Avenza, near its mouth ; lat. 44 5 N. ; Ion. 10 C 5 E. 
 It was at one time the principal place of shipment for the 
 Carrara marbles ; but in consequence of the gradual elevation 
 of the coast, it is now 1 m. distant from the sea, and therefore 
 no longer a shipping point. There is here a magnificent 
 castle, built by Castruccio degli Interminelli. Avenza is the 
 first town of the duchy of Massa, and the Modenese custom 
 house is stationed here. 
 
 AVEREEST, a vil. Holland, prov. Overijssel, 13 m. 
 N.E. Zwolle, and 9 m. S.E. Meppel, r. bank, Keest. It has 
 a Calvinistic, a K. catholic church, and a school. Pop. about 
 1300, chiefly employed in agriculture and cattle-rearing. 
 
 AVERHAM, par. Eng. Notts ; 2530 ac. Pop. 264. 
 
 AVERNAKOE, an isl. Denmark, Little Belt, lat. (centre) 
 55 2 N. ; Ion. 10 17 E. It is of irregular form, about 5 m. 
 long, varying from J to 1 J m. broad, and is separated from 
 Bjonioe by a deep channel ; but from Dreiue and Skaaroe by 
 shallow water, not more than 6 ft. deep. Pop. 350. 
 
 AVERNO [anc. Avernus], a celebrated lake, Neapolitan 
 States, occupying the crater of an extinct volcano, about 9 m. 
 W. Naples, dist. Pozzuoli, near the Mediterranean. It is 
 between 1 and 2 m. in circumference, of a circular shape, and 
 about 180 ft. deep in some of the deepest places. It is often 
 referred to by the ancient poets, especially by Virgil, by all of 
 whom it is associated with everything gloomy and dismal. In 
 ancient times the lake was surrounded with groves, which, ex 
 cluding a free circulation of air, rendered the place extremely 
 unhealthy, from noxious accumulations of mephitic vapours. 
 The account of Lucretius is, that birds could not fly over it 
 without being suffocated ; and Lyell sees no reason for dis 
 crediting it, though the spot has now become salubrious and 
 cheerful. The groves were cut down by Agrippa during the 
 reign of Augustus, and a communication opened between 
 Averno and the Lucrine lake, which was afterwards almost 
 entirely displaced by an eruption in 1 538, which threw up 
 from the midst of its waters a mountain, now called Monte 
 Nuovo; but the outlet joining it to the Lake of Avemo 
 still remains. On the S.E. bank are the ruins of a temple 
 of Apollo ; and a little further W., the entrance into the 
 subterraneous grotto of the Cumsean sybil. The surround 
 ing heights are now clothed with vines, and retain none of 
 their original gloomy character. It is still, however, resorted 
 to for its vapour-baths, though its vicinity is unhealthy in 
 summer. (Lyell s Geology.} 
 
 AVEROE, an isl. Norway, off the coast of Eornsdal ; lat. 
 (centre) 62 57 N.; Ion. 7 25 E. 
 
 AVERRI. See WAKEE. 
 
 AVERSA, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Lavoro, dist. 
 Caserta, 9 m. N. Naples; on a delightful plain, covered with 
 vines and orange-trees. It is a bustling and lively place, 
 spacious, and well built ; the seat of a bishopric, one of the 
 richest in the kingdom ; of a royal governor, and of a tribunal ; 
 and contains nine churches, several convents, a well-conducted 
 foundling hospital, and a lunatic asylum, celebrated for the 
 excellence of its system. Aversa is famed for its almond- 
 cakes, called torrone, which are in great demand in Naples, 
 with which it communicates by a fine broad avenue. Aversa 
 was built in 1020, by Kainalph, a Norman chief. Andreas, 
 of Hungary, was strangled in a convent here by some con 
 spirators, Sept. 8, 1345. Pop. 16,158. 
 
 AVES ISLANDS, or BIUD ISLANDS.!, An isl., E. 
 coast, Newfoundland; lat. 50 5 N. 2, An isl. 60 m. N.W. 
 Dominica, and 51 W. Guadalupe. 3, A cluster of small 
 barren, rocky islands, Lesser Antilles, about 100 m. E. by S. 
 the Gulf of Venezuela, between the islands of Buen-Ayre and 
 lioques; lat. 11 5y N.; Ion. 07 40 W. (n.) 
 
 AVESNES, a small fortified tn., of the fourth class, 
 France, dep. Nord (Hainaut), cap. arrond., on the Greater 
 Helpe, 49 m. S.E. Lille. It is the seat of a sub-prefecture, 
 and of a court of primary jurisdiction; and has a communal 
 
 college or high school, an hospital for old men, and an agri 
 cultural society. The town is in general well built, and has 
 a cathedral, surmounted by a tower, 300ft. high; some court 
 houses, townhall, barracks, and a fountain, in the Place 
 d Armes. It has manufactures of coarse serge, hosiery, and 
 soap, with several tanneries, breweries, brickworks, salt- 
 refineries, and marble saw-works. A considerable trade is 
 carried on in grain, fruit, hops, wood, cattle, ironware, slates, 
 and cheese. Pop. 2827. 
 
 AVESNES-LES-AUBERT, a tn. France, dep. Nord, 8 m. 
 from Cambray. It has a church, cemetery, and manufactures 
 of cambric, bricks, and oil. Pop. 2871. 
 
 AVESTA, a tn. Sweden. See AFVESTADT. 
 AVETON-G1FFORD, par. Eng. Devon; 1840 ac. 
 Pop. 1057. 
 
 AVEYRON [anc. Veronirts\, a rapid river, France, giv 
 ing its name to the dep. Aveyron. It issues from the springs 
 of Veyron, among the Cevennes. Taking a W. direction, it 
 passes lihodez, Belcastel, and Villefranche; and becomes navi 
 gable at Negrepellisse, about 20 m. above its embouchure in 
 the Tarn, into which it falls, after a course of about 130 m., a 
 little above Moissae. Its principal affluent is the Viaur. 
 
 AVEYRON, a dep., S. of France, formed of the ancient 
 dist. of Rouergue, a subdivision of the prov. of Guienne ; 
 bounded, N. and N.E. by deps. Cantal and Lozere; E. and 
 S.E. by Gard and llerault, which separate it from the Medi 
 terranean ; W. and S. W. by Lot, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Tarn ; 
 between lat. 43 41 and 44 55 N.; and Ion. 2 50 and 
 3 50 E. ; length, N. to S. about 96 m., breadth, E. to W. 66 ; 
 area, 2,137,664 ac., or 3340 sq. m. It is one of the most 
 mountainous departments of France ; traversed in the E. by 
 branches of the La Margeride range, which unites the moun 
 tains of Auvergne with the Cevennes its boundary on the 
 S.E. Prolongations of the latter, and of the mountains of 
 Cantal, cover the S. and N. parts. One long chain, called the 
 mountains of Aubrac, extends nearly 30 m. in length, from 
 1. bank, Truyere, to the point where the Lot enters the de 
 partment. These mountains are all of volcanic origin, and 
 contain numerous grottoes and subterranean caves. Between 
 Guiolle and tha village of Naves, they exhibit basaltic co 
 lumns of various forms, and perpendicular rampart-like preci 
 pices of the most striking appearance. A group, called the 
 Leveson, an offshot of the Cevennes, rises between the sources 
 of the Aveyron and the Tarn, and runs N.E. to S.W. throw 
 ing out several branches. Five considerable rivers traverse 
 the department namely, the Aveyron, after which the de 
 partment is named, the Viaur, the Truyere, the Lot, and the 
 Tarn. Of these, the only one navigable within the department 
 is the Lot. The other streams of any consequence are the 
 Dourdon, the Lorgues, and the Dourbie. During winter, 
 which continues more than six months, the snow lies deep 
 upon the mountains, the sides of some of which are covered 
 with vast forests, principally of chestnuts. It is only in the 
 W. that plains of any considerable extent are found. The 
 soil is of three different kinds, varying with the different 
 species of rocks, from the decomposition of which it has been 
 produced a calcareous earth in the limestone district, a rich, 
 friable mould among the volcanic basalts, and generally a 
 poor hungry clay, when primitive schist, quartz, and gneiss 
 prevail. Agriculture is in a very defective state. In field 
 labour, oxen are generally used. Throughout the N. districts, 
 oats and rye are mostly cultivated. In the W. cantons, 
 besides these, a little wheat is raised, but this species of grain 
 is more abundantly grown in the E., where the farms are 
 often so large as to employ 25 yoke of oxen. Barley, maize, 
 and buckwheat are also produced. Altogether, the grain 
 raised is nearly sufficient for the consumption. The extent 
 of arable land is 909,310 ac.; meadows, 303,790 ac.; vine 
 yards, 86,025 ac. Nearly a fourth part is waste land, and 
 the remainder is occupied with forests, orchard and garden 
 grounds, &c. There are few lakes, and no marshes. Tho 
 I wine produced is of inferior quality. In the district of 
 ! Guiolle, cheese of excellent quality is made ; but the best is 
 i produced in the village of Roquefort; it is made from a mix 
 ture of ewe and goat milk, and is considered the finest in 
 I France. The quantity exported is from 30,000 to 36,000 Ibs. 
 I yearly. Considerable attention is paid to sheep-breeding, and 
 I about 1,400,000 Ibs. wool are annually produced. In the more 
 i mountainous localities both siieep and cattle are very inferior. 
 
AVEZZANO 
 
 276 
 
 AVIGNON 
 
 Mules are reared for export to Spain. "Wolves and foxes 
 abound, and adders, lizards, and other reptiles are numerous. 
 Aveyron is rich in coal, iron, and alum ; the coal mines being 
 among the most valuable in France. They are principally in 
 the neighbourhood of the small town of Aubin, in the district 
 lying between the Lot and the Aveyron. Here are also con 
 siderable ironworks ; and the burning mountain of Fontagnes, 
 the coal of which having accidentally caught fire, has continued 
 burning for centuries. It also possesses copper mines. Ar 
 gentiferous lead, antimony, sulphate of iron, sulphur, fuller s 
 earth, gypsum, and marble, are procured in large quantities. 
 Manufactures : silks, coarse woollen stuffs, common cloths, 
 table-linen, silk thread, hosiery, china-ware, paper, leather, 
 and glass. Some trade is carried on in grain, prunes, and 
 other fruits ; wool, cheese, hams, sheep, and mules ; copper 
 utensils, coal, alum, nails, staves, casks, &c. 
 
 The inhabitants are, in general, well-behaved and indus 
 trious ; grave in their manners, but still of a cheerful disposi 
 tion. In the greater part of the department, but especially in 
 the district situated between the Lot and the Aveyron, the 
 females begin to work at an early age, and take part in all 
 agricultural labours, however severe. Aveyron is divided 
 into five arronds., 42 cans., and 274 coins. Its cap. is Ehodez, 
 and other principal towns are Milhau, St. Affrique, and Ville- 
 franche. Pop. (1846), 289,661 . (Diet, de la France; French 
 Official Tables.) 
 
 AVEZZANO, a tn. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Ultra II., cap. 
 dist.. on a beautiful plain near the lake Fucino, about 22 m. 
 S.S.E. Aquila, surrounded by dilapidated walls, and believed 
 to be founded on the ruins of the ancient Alba. It has 10 
 churches, and a large public square adorned by some hand 
 some buildings, amongst which is a palace belonging to the 
 Colonna family. Pop. 3166. 
 
 AVIANO [properly PIEVE DI ARKANO], a vil. Venetian 
 Lombardy, gov. Venice, deleg. of, and 30 in. W. from Udiue, 
 cap. of (list. Pop. 5000. 
 
 AVIEMORE, vil. Scotland, co. Moray, 1. bank, Spey; 
 25 m. S.E. Inverness. 
 
 AVIGLIANA, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 20 m. 
 E.S.E. Susa. Manufactures: silk and coarse cloth. Pop. 
 3000. 
 
 AVIGLIANO, a tn. Naples, prov. Basilicata, dist. of, and 
 11 m. N.W. from Potenza, on the brow of a hill, part of which 
 gave way in 1824, in consequence of long-continued rains, and 
 destroyed a portion of the town. It has an elegant collegiate 
 church, several convents, and a royal college. On the pas 
 turage in the neighbourhood, the largest and finest oxen in the 
 kingdom are raised. Pop. 9290. 
 
 AVIGNON [anc. Avenio], a city, France, cap. dep. Vau- 
 cluse, situated in a valley, 1. bank, Rhone, here broad, deep, 
 and rapid, crossed by a wooden bridge, and also by a bridge 
 of boats; 403m. S.S.E. Paris, and 53 N.N.W. Marseilles; 
 lat. 43 57 N.; Ion. 4 48 38" E. (U It is a very ancient 
 
 larly from the Doms, a rock which starts up abruptly from 
 the Khone to a height of 180 ft., a fine view is obtained of the 
 rich surrounding country. The town is, upon th whole, well 
 built, of large antique-looking houses; but the streets are 
 narrow, crooked, ill paved, and extremely dirty. Avignon is 
 the seat of an archbishop, and has courts of primary jurisdiction 
 and of commerce ; a college, a primary normal school, a public 
 library of 42,000 volumes, an Athenaeum, a medical library, 
 a museum of natural history, a collection of pictures and anti 
 quities, a botanical garden, and a school of design ; with an 
 agricultural society, and an association called the Academy of 
 Vaucluse. Among its charitable institutions are a subsidiary 
 infirmary of the Hotel des Invalidcs at Paris for old and 
 wounded soldiers, an orphan hospital, and a lunatic asylum. 
 Many of the public edifices possess great interest. The cath 
 edral, called Notre Dame des Dons, a building of great extent, 
 is said to have been originally founded in the first ages of 
 Christianity on the ruins of a heathen temple ; and, after its 
 destruction by the barbarians of the North, was rebuilt by 
 Charlemagne. The richly-sculptured Chapel of the Resurrec 
 tion is considered a masterpiece. Several popes officiated in 
 this cathedral, and Innocent VI., Urban V., and Gregory X I. 
 were consecrated in it. The former palace of the popes, near 
 the cathedral, now used as a barrack and prison, is a vast irre 
 gular Gothic structure, built at different periods, with walls 
 of great thickness and height, and strong towers, some of them 
 150 ft. high. The chamber of the Inquisition, established 
 here in the 13th century, and several of the atrocious contriv 
 ances to subdue the minds by torturing the bodies of its vic 
 tims, are still shown. The church of the Cordeliers, of which 
 nothing now remains but fragments of the tower and sidewalls, 
 was celebrated for containing the tomb of Petrarch s Laura. 
 The church was destroyed at the Revolution, when the tomb 
 of Laura, with others, was broken open, and the contents 
 scattered to the winds. Of the churches, those of St. Pierre 
 and St. Martial are almost the only two now deserving notice. 
 In the Place d Horloge are the Hotel de Ville, a semi-gothic 
 edifice, originally a palace of the Colonna family ; the princi 
 pal cafe s, and the theatre, erected in 1824. An ancient stone 
 bridge across the llhone was destroyed by a flood in 1 689 ; 
 only four of its arches remain. 
 
 ly fou 
 The si 
 
 city, of an oval form, built on a gently undulating surface, and 
 surrounded by lofty walls, which are crowned with battle 
 ments, flanked with square towers, and adorned with hand 
 some gates. Along the ramparts is an excellent boulevard, 
 planted with elms, from the lofty platform of which, particu 
 
 Ik manufacture is the principal source of employment 
 at Avignon, and the rearing of silkworms is carried on exten 
 sively in the district. The city has also manufactories of velvet, 
 woollen and cotton goods, hats, jewellery, &c , with silk-dye 
 ing establishments, a cannon-foundry, a type-foundry, iron 
 works, paper-mills, tanneries, &c. ; and a trade in wine, brandy, 
 iron, cotton, wool, truffles, grain, and other articles, of which 
 it is the entrepot for Lower Dauphine, Provence, and all 
 Languedoc. Its chief manufactures, however, have been 
 transferred to Lyons ; the annual fair at Beaucaire has sup 
 planted its market; and it now depends chiefly on its olives, 
 its vines, and the transit of goods upon the Rhone. The means 
 of conveyance which Avignon possesses are 
 very extensive. Numerous diligences run on 
 the public roads which centre in it. Two 
 steamers ply daily to Lyons, and two to Aries. 
 The railway, connecting it on the one hand 
 with Montpellier, and on the other with Mar 
 seilles, has been completed ; while that which 
 is to connect it with Lyons and the capital is in 
 rapid progress. With such means of convey 
 ance, it cannot be doubted that the improve 
 ment which is said to have commenced in the 
 trade of Avignon, will soon become much more 
 decided. 
 
 Avignon is supposed to have been founded 
 i= i, by the Greeks who settled at Massilia, now 
 Marseilles. After the Romans, it passed under 
 the domination of the Goths, and other northern 
 barbarians. In 730, it was taken by the Sara 
 cens, who possessed it till 737, when it was 
 nee . wrested from them by Charles Martel. After 
 
 a variety of fortunes, during which it passed 
 to the Counts of Provence, it was sold by a Countess of that 
 name, in 1348, to Clement VI., who, as its price, not only 
 promised to pay her 80,000 crowns, but declared her innocent 
 of the murder of her husband, of which she was almost univer 
 sally believed to be guilty. From that time Avignon con- 
 
AVIGNONET 
 
 277 
 
 AVRANCHES 
 
 tinued to be possessed, for more than four centuries, by the 
 popes, of whom not fewer than seven reigned at it, besides 
 three others, generally regarded as schismatic popes, who, on 
 the deposition of Gregory XI., the last of the seven, set up 
 their throne here, and maintained it for 40 years. The popes 
 latterly governed Avignon by legates, the last of whom was 
 expelled at the Revolution of 1791. Fop. (1846), 26,185. 
 
 AVIGNONET, a tn. France, dep. Haute-Garonne, 4 m. 
 E. S.E. Villefranche, on the Lers, near the Canal of Languedoc. 
 It has a considerable trade in cattle. The only remarkable 
 event connected with it, is the summary vengeance which 
 some Albigenses inflicted here, in 1242, on several priests and 
 familiars of the inquisition. Pop. 1031. 
 
 AVILA, a prov. Spain, in Old Castile, cap. same name, 
 near the centre of the peninsula, and bounded, N. by prov. Val- 
 ladolid, E. by Segovia and Madrid, S. by Toledo and Caceres, 
 and W. by Salamanca; area, 4917 sq. m. ; watered by the 
 Alberche, Adaja, and several smaller streams. The prevail 
 ing formations are granite and mica. The N. portion of the 
 province is, for the most part, flat and exposed, but adapted 
 for tillage ; that on the S. very rugged and mountainous, 
 interspersed with fruitful valleys and verdant slopes. The 
 principal mountain-ranges are the sierras de Gredo.s, Pidra- 
 hita, Villafranca, Villatoro, Avila, and Tiemblo; they are 
 rocky and precipitous, covered with oak, pine, poplar, juniper, 
 &c. Silver, copper, lead, iron, coal, marble, and various 
 other minerals are found in Avila, and to some extent wrought. 
 The plains in the N. part of the province are stony and poorly 
 cultivated, but produce good grain and flax ; the valleys of 
 the S. portion afford rich pasturage, and abound in grapes, 
 olives, mulberries, chestnuts, filberts, and other fruits. Sheep, 
 goats, pigs, horned cattle, &c., are reared in considerable 
 numbers. Cloth, linen, silk, paper, soap, earthenware, hard 
 ware, copper vessels, and leather are manufactured and ex 
 ported. Avila possesses numerous benevolent institutions, 
 and education is perhaps better attended to in it than in any 
 other province of Spain ; crime is proportionally rare. The 
 people are honest, temperate, and cheerful, but reserved and 
 ceremonious towards strangers. Pop. 132,936. (Madoz.) 
 
 AVILA, a city, Spain, in Old Castile, cap. prov. of same 
 name, 65 m. W.N.W. Madrid, on a hill 3069 ft. above the 
 sea, at the foot of which runs the river Adaja ; divided into 
 three districts San Nicholas, San Antonio, and San Francisco 
 and partially surrounded by a wall of polished granite, in 
 good preservation, entered by nine gates, and formerly flanked 
 with 88 towers. Before the invention of gunpowder, the 
 I place was considered impregnable. It has irregular, badly 
 paved, and filthy streets ; two large squares, containing the 
 principal buildings, which, as well as the houses generally, 
 are built of gray granite. Avila is the see of a bishop ; and 
 has a Gothic cathedral, eight other churches, a university, an 
 endowed school, a school of arts, townhall, public storehouse, 
 hospital, cemetery, and several convents. Two annual fairs ; 
 one held in June, for the agricultural and industrial produce 
 of the country; the other in September, for horses, cattle, 
 sheep, &c. Pop. 4121. (Madoz.) 
 
 AVILES, a tn. and port, Spain, in Asturias, prov. of, and 
 17 m. N. Oviedo ; lat. 43 35 N. ; Ion. 5 51 W. ; 4 m. from 
 the sea, 1. bank of the river Aviles, here crossed by a bridge 
 called San Sebastian. The river at high water is navigable 
 for vessels of the largest size up to the town. Aviles has some 
 what regular, but convenient, well-lighted, paved, and drained 
 streets ; several squares, in some of which are some fine 
 houses with arcades ; an elegant guildhall, built on 13 arches, 
 and having a quadrangular tower ; two churches, a townhouse, 
 an hospital, several well-attended schools, a small theatre, the 
 old palaces of the Marquises of Santiago and Ferrera, with 
 numerous public and private fountains. Manufactures : - 
 copper vessels, lime, earthenware, glass, linen, damask, cam 
 bric, and drills ; and bleaching is carried on. The commerce 
 is active, and consists chiefly in the export of copper vessels, 
 earthenware, and a considerable quantity of coals, obtained 
 from the mine of Arnao in the vicinity. Pop. 5600. (Madoz.) 
 
 AVINGTON. 1, par. Eng. Berks; 1100 ac. Pop. 93. 
 2, par. Hants; 1820 ac. Pop. 204. 
 
 AVID, a market tn. Austria, in the Tyrol, on the Adige, 
 circle, Trent. It is the seat of a deanery ; and has a castle, 
 manufactures of silk and velvet, and flint quarries. Pop. 
 2780. 
 
 AVISE, a tn. Persia, in Kurdistan, on the Kherka, 72 in. 
 S.W. Shuster. Pop. 8000. 
 
 AVIZ [Latin, Avisium], a tn. and par. Portugal, prov. 
 Alemtejo, dist. of, and 35 m. S.W. Portalegre, r. bank, Aviz, 
 an affluent of the Zetas ; chief place of the order of military 
 knights of Aviz, founded in 1146 by Alphonso I., and the 
 residence of the grand prior. It is surrounded with good 
 walls, and defended by a castle ; and contains a church, a con 
 vent of the order of Aviz, an hospital, and a poorhouse. Pop. 
 1415. 
 
 AVLONA. See AULDXA. 
 
 AVOCA, or OVOCA. 1, A valley and river, Ireland, co. 
 Wicklow, celebrated as the scene and subject of one of Moore s 
 songs. The Avoca river traverses the parish of Arklow, and 
 falls into the sea about half a mile below Arklow. It abounded 
 at one time with salmon, but since the drainage of the Bally- 
 mustagh copper mines was led into it, the fish have entirely 
 
 disappeared. 2, A river, Australia Felix, which divides 
 
 the districts of Wimmera and Westernport. There are a 
 number of stations on its banks. It rises in the Australian 
 Pyrenees, flows N., and falls into Lake Bael ; total course 
 above 100 m. 
 
 AVOCH, par. Scot. Ross; 6198 ac. Pop. 1931. 
 
 AVOLA, or AOLA, a seaport tn. Sicily, defended by a 
 battery, prov. of, and 13 m. S.W. Syracuse, pleasantly situated 
 on a wooded eminence, with a marine village on the beach. 
 It is clean and regularly built, has a good trade in wine, corn, 
 cheese, oil, honey, almonds, and fruit ; and some sugar is made 
 at the only cane plantation now remaining in Sicily. The 
 adjacent country produces large numbers of cattle, many of 
 which find a market at Malta. Game is abundant. Tunnies 
 are caught a short distance from the town. Pop. 8500. 
 
 AVON, the name of five rivers in England, two in Wales, 
 three in Scotland, and two in Australia. Those in Scotland 
 are sometimes called Aven ; the name Avon or Even, accord 
 ing to Ireland, being common to rivers the course of which 
 is easy and gentle. In ENGLAND are: 1, The Upper Avon, 
 which rises in co. Northampton, passes Stratford-on-Avon, the 
 birthplace of Shakspeare, and falls into the Severn at Tewks- 
 bury. 2, Lower or West Avon, which rises in co. Gloucester, 
 and enters the Bristol Channel about 8 m. below Bristol. 
 3, The Hampshire Avon, which falls into the English Channel 
 at Christchurch Bay. 4, The Little or Middle Avon, rises 
 in co. Gloucester, and falls into the Severn. 5, The Avon- 
 Llivyd or Torvden, which rises in co. Monmouth, and, after 
 a course of about 15 m., falls into the Usk at Caerleon, in the 
 same county. Those in WALES are, a river in co. Glamor 
 gan, which falls into Swansea Bay ; and another which rises 
 
 in co. Merioneth, and falls into Cardigan Bay. -Those in 
 
 SCOTLAND are: 1, A tributary of the Spey, which has its 
 source in Loch Avon, in the S.W. extremity of co. Banff. 
 2, A stream which rises in Loch Avon, co. Ayr, and falls 
 into the Clyde at Hamilton. 3, A river which, for nearly 
 half of its course, forms the boundary between the cos. of 
 Linlithgow and Stirling. It takes its rise in co. Dumbarton, 
 and falls into the Frith of Forth a little W. of Borrowstoun- 
 
 ness, in co. Stirling. Those in AUSTRALIA are: 1, A river 
 
 in W. Australia, rising in co. Grantham, about lat. 32 30 S., 
 from which it proceeds N. through the co. of York, and falls 
 into the Swan river, at lat. 31 30 S., co. Victoria. 2, A 
 river, Australia Felix, on which there are several stations. 
 It is a small affluent of Lake Banynong ; lat. 36 25 S. ; Ion. 
 142 42 E. 
 
 AVRANCHES [anc. Alrincce], a tn. France, dep. La 
 Manche (Normandy), can. arrond., 30 m. E. St. Malo, 1. bank, 
 Seez, about 3 m. above its embouchure in the Atlantic, 
 pleasantly situated on the extremity of an extended ridge, the 
 summit of which is crowned with the ruins of the cathedral, 
 which was built in the llth century, and destroyed at the 
 Revolution. Here Henry II. of England did penance in 1172, 
 before two of the Pope s legates, for the murder of Thomas-a - 
 Becket. A flat stone, with a cup engraved on it, marks the 
 spot ; and is all, save a single broken pillar, that remains of 
 the once magnificent cathedral. Avranches is the seat of a 
 tribunal of primary jurisdiction ; and has a high school, a 
 public library of about 10,000 volumes, an hospital, a theatre, 
 and a botanic garden. 
 
 From the latter, and from the public walk formed in what 
 was formerly the garden of the bishopric, at the entrance to 
 
AVRANCHIN 
 
 278 
 
 AXUM 
 
 tlie town, and various other points, the view obtained is said 
 to be the finest in the N. of France. One of the most pro 
 minent objects is the remarkable peak called St. Michel. 
 Manufactures: lace, blondes, white thread, and wax candles. 
 A small trade in grain, butter, cider, hemp, flax, and cattle is 
 carried on. Avranches is a favourite residence of the English, 
 on account of the beauty of its situation, the salubrity of the 
 air, and the cheapness of living. The celebrated Huet, 
 whose Demonstratio Evangelica is still regarded as one of the 
 best works on the evidences of Christianity, was Bishop of 
 Avranches. Pop. 7247. 
 
 AVRANCHIN [Abricatinus Pagus], an ancient dist. 
 France, now comprised in dep. La Manche, and forming the 
 arroudissements of Avranches and Mortain. 
 
 AWA. 1. A prov., tn., and cape, Japan, in the S. of isl. 
 Niphon. The town Awa lies in lat. 34 N.; Ion. 140 E., 
 about 80 m. S. Jeddo. 2, A principality in the same island. 
 3, A tn. Japan, cap. of isl. Sikoko. 4, A British fort in 
 Bengal, Hindoostan, N. from Agra. 5, A market tn. Persia, 
 prov. Irak, N.W. Sawa. 
 
 AWASI, or AWADSI, an isl. Japan, about 60 m. in cir 
 cuit, off the S. coast of Niphon, between it and the E. coast 
 of Sikoko, in lat. 34 30 N.; Ion. 134 30 E. It forms a 
 principality of the same name, has an area of 468 geo. sq. m., 
 is high and hilly, has a stony and sandy soil, and yields cotton, 
 but only sufficient for local consumption. From some of its 
 lagoons, salt is gathered. On the coast is a town called also 
 AWASI, besides which there are on the island the towns of 
 Tsina, Mijwara, Mussima, and Jesima. 
 
 AWATCHINSKAJ A, an active volcano in Kamtchatka; 
 
 lat. 53 1 5 N. ; Ion. 158 50 E. 
 last eruption took place in 1827. 
 
 It is 9055 ft. in height ; its 
 
 AWE (Locn), a fresh-water lake, Scotland, co. Argyle, 
 extending about 28 m. in length, from N.E. to S.W., with a 
 breadth of about 2 m., and communicating with Loch Etive 
 by the river Awe, which, after a course of 7 m., discharges 
 its waters into the latter at Bunaw. It is very deep ; and its 
 sloping shores are well cultivated ; but the horizon is closed by 
 lofty mountains, from which fall many picturesque cascades, 
 Ben Cruachan frowning over its N. end, and giving it a singu 
 larly wild and mountainous character. About 24 small islets 
 are scattered over its surface, on two of which, inishail and 
 Fraoch-Elan, are some beautiful ruins. Near its N.E. end, 
 likewise, is Traocheillan Castle, once the seat of the chief of 
 the M Naghtens ; and about 4 m. E., close on its banks, is the 
 beautiful ruin of Kilchurn Castle, once the residence, and still 
 the property, of the Marquis of Breadalbane. 
 
 AWLISCOM13E, par. Eng. Devon ; 1820 ac. Pop. 590. 
 
 AWRE, par. and vil. Eng. Gloucester, the former on a 
 plain near the banks of the Severn. Area of par. 4120 ac. 
 Pop. (1841), 1277. 
 
 AX, a small tn. France, dep. Ariege, 20 m. S.E. Foix; 
 picturesquely situated amidst mountains of granite belonging 
 to the Pyrenees, at the intersection of three valleys, watered 
 by the mountain-torrents of Ascou, Orgeix, and Merens, 
 which, on their junction here, take the name of Ariege. It 
 is celebrated for its hot sulphurous springs, varying in tem 
 perature from 113 to 168 Fah. There are two or three 
 establishments of baths, and several hotels and hospitals, one 
 of which has been constructed by the French Government 
 for military patients. Near it is an ancient bath, established 
 in 1200, called Basin-des-Ladres, or Leper s Basin. The 
 inhabitants use these hot springs for various domestic and 
 even culinary purposes. Ax has some manufactures of woollen 
 goods, and tanneries. Pop. 1991. (Murray s Handbook; 
 Diet, de la France.) 
 
 AX, or AXE, two rivers, England, one of which has its 
 source in the Mendip 11 ills, in the remarkable cavern of Wokey 
 hole, co. Somerset, and after being joined by the Chedder 
 water, passes Axbridge, and flows into the Bristol Channel 
 near the village of Uphill. The other Ax rises near Cheding- 
 ton, co. Dorset, passes Axminster, and falls into the British 
 Cliannel at Axmouth, co. Devon. 
 
 AXBRIDGE, a market tn. and par. England, co. Somer 
 set, him. Winterstoke. The town is 11 m. N.N.W. Glaston- 
 bury, and 120 m. S. W. London, on the banks of the Ax, under 
 the Mendip H ills, and consists of three or four irregular streets. 
 The church, which stands on an eminence, is a large and 
 handsome Gothic structure, of great antiquity, and contains 
 
 some ancient monuments. There are, besides, chapels for 
 Wesleyan Methodists and Particular Baptists, a guild-hall, 
 a market-house, several schools, and some small charities. 
 Knit stockings are manufactured here, and are in some request. 
 Market-days, Tuesday and Saturday. Four fairs annually 
 for cattle. Area of par. 540 ac. Pop. (1841), 1045. 
 
 AXEL, a small tn. Holland, cap. can. of same name, prov. 
 Zeeland, S. of the W. Scheldt, and 7 m. W. Hulst. It is 
 built in the shape of a parallelogram, and has a townhall, a 
 Calvinistic church, a school, two breweries, a saltwork, a hat 
 manufactory, and two corn-mills. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 employed in agriculture, and number 2200. 
 
 AXHOLME, a river isl., England, N.W. angle, co. 
 Lincoln, formed by the rivers Trent, Idle, and Don, about 
 17 m. long, N. to S. and generally 5 m. broad, E. to W. ; 
 area, 47,800 ac. The soil is fertile, and large quantities of 
 flax and hemp, rape and turnip-seed, are cultivated. In June 
 1747, the body of a woman was found 6 ft. deep, in a peat 
 moss in this island. The antique sandals on her feet, afforded 
 evidence of her having been buried there for many ages ; yet 
 her nails, hair, and skin, showed hardly any marks of decay. 
 It contains seven parishes, Althorpe, Belton, Crowle, Epworth, 
 Haxey, Luddington, and Owston, and has two market towns, 
 Crowle and Epworth, the latter the principal town of the 
 isle. Pop. (1841), 12,775. 
 
 AX1M, or AKSIM, a tn. and dist. Ahanta, on the Gold 
 Coast. The Dutch had a fort here called Fort Anthony, 
 situated on the most W. promontory of Cape Three Points. 
 The Portuguese founded the first settlement, but were driven 
 from it by the Dutch in 1642. The landing is good, and the 
 country well cultivated. The town, on a river of the same 
 name, lies between Dixcove and Cape Apollonia ; lat. 5 25 N. ; 
 Ion. 2 35 W. 
 
 AXMINSTER, a market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Devon. The town is 24 m. E. Exeter, on the 8.W. side of 
 a hill that rises above the river Axe ; consists of five principal 
 streets, somewhat irregularly laid out, with houses mostly of 
 stone, and slate-roofed ; is supplied abundantly with water, 
 and well lighted with gas. The only public building worthy 
 of notice is the parish church, a very ancient edifice, contain 
 ing some interesting antique monuments. Its doorway is a 
 fine specimen of Anglo-Norman. The other places of worship 
 are, an Independent chapel, a Wesleyan chapel, and a R. ca 
 tholic chapel. The educational means are, a national school, 
 with a small endowment, in which about 120 boys and girls 
 are educated; a school on the British system, and several 
 private, dame, and Sunday schools. There are a news-room, 
 several reading societies, and a few minor charities. Axminster 
 was at one time celebrated for its woollen cloth and carpet 
 manufactures; it had also an old established tape-factory; but 
 none of these branches now exist in the town, the trade of 
 which is entirely a retail one. Area of par. 6590 ac. Pop. 
 2860. 
 
 AXMOUTH, par. Eng. Devon; 4280 ac. Pop. 645. 
 
 AXUM, or AKSUM [anc. Axvma or Axiomis], a tn. Abys 
 sinia, kingdom, Tigre, now much decayed ; situated about 
 10 m. W. Adowa, and 110 S.W. Arkeeko, near one of the 
 sources of the Mareb, 7000 ft. above the level of the sea; 
 lat. 14 IV N. ; Ion. 39 E. Modern Axum is a miserable 
 village of about 600 huts, built in a small recess between two 
 hills, at the N.W. end of a large and fertile valley, and is now 
 worthy of notice only for its antiquities. Of these, the most 
 celebrated is an obelisk, 60 ft. high, consisting of a single 
 block of granite, highly ornamented in relief, and crowned 
 with a representation of the ancient patera. It is of Grecian 
 workmanship, and the only entire and erect specimen remain 
 ing of upwards of 50, the rest lying in fragments around. 
 Probably the most ancient relic in the place is a small square 
 enclosure, with pillars at the corners, and a seat and footstool 
 of granite in the centre, where the coronation of the kings of 
 Axum took place. Axum was capital of a powerful kingdom, 
 but we have no accounts of it previous to the commencement 
 of the Christian era, when it was a great commercial mart, 
 carrying on an extensive trade, especially in ivory, by the 
 port of Adule, Adulis, or Zulla. on the Ked Sea. Its monarchs, 
 \vho ruled not only the country of the AxumiicK, but also part of 
 Arabia, were of Greek origin, and used the Greek language, 
 and for many centuries maintained their dominion unimpaired. 
 (Salt s Abyssinia; Russell s Nubia and Abi/ssinia.) 
 
AY (PULO) 
 
 279 
 
 AYR 
 
 AY (Fui.o), or PULO WAY, one of the Banda Islands, 
 Indian Archipelago; lat. 4 30 S.; Ion. 159 58 E. It is 
 one of the most beautiful and picturesque of the Bandas, but 
 is without water, the inhabitants depending on rain, or on sup 
 plies from the other islands. In common with the other islands 
 of the group, it produces excellent nutmegs. 
 
 AY, or Ai (Sx.), [Lat. Ageium], a tn. France, dep. Marne 
 (Champagne), 12 m. 8. Kheims; at the foot of a hill covered 
 with vineyards, r. bank, Marne. It is celebrated for its white 
 wines, which are considered the best of any in Champagne, and 
 produced annually to the value of about 75,000. Besides its 
 trade in wine, it has some distilleries and vinegar-works, and 
 beds of fine clay for earthenware and porcelain. Pop. 3382. 
 
 AYACUCHO, a dep. Peru, between lat. 12 and 15 30 S., 
 and Ion. about 73 and 76 W.; bounded, N. by dep. Junin, 
 E. and N.E. by independent Indian tribes, S. and W. by the 
 Cordilleras, which separate it from Lima ; greatest length, 
 from N.W. to S.E., 275 m.; greatest breadth, about 160 m.; 
 area estimated at 25,000 geo. sq. m. With the exception of 
 the S.W. frontier, formed by the magnificent range of the 
 Cordilleras, it consists chiefly of a series of plains, from one 
 of which it derives its name. It is well watered by numerous 
 tributaries of the Amazon, the largest of which, the Montaro, 
 proceeds through the N. of the department in a course so tor 
 tuous, as almost to describe a circle. Ayacucho is divided 
 into the 10 provinces of Tajacaja, Huanta, Huancavelica, Hua- 
 manga, Anco, Castrovixeyna, Cangallo, Andahuailas, Lucanas, 
 and Parinacochas. Cap. Huamanga. Pop. about 180,000. 
 
 AYAMONTE, a seaport tn. Spain, prov. of, and 80 m. 
 W.S.W. Seville, on the 1. bank, and near the mouth of the 
 Guadiana, which here forms the boundary between Spain and 
 Portugal. It stands on an acclivity which slopes from N. to 
 S., and is defended by two small batteries, of modern con 
 struction. The town consists of two parts, an upper and a 
 lower, which have a very marked difference in their appear 
 ance ; the former consisting of narrow and irregular streets, 
 while those of the latter are regular and spacious, and lined 
 with good houses, generally two, and sometimes three stories 
 high. There are three public squares, all with well-planted 
 walks. The largest of these, San Francisco, is adorned witli 
 a fine fountain. The chief public buildings are, two churches, 
 a townhouse, and prison ; but none of them are deserving of 
 notice. Ayamonte has a well-endowed hospital, and two en 
 dowed schools, in which only the humblest branches are taught. 
 Boat-building and lace-making, once carried on to a great ex 
 tent here, have greatly fallen off, though the latter still gives 
 employment to a considerable number of females. The chief 
 occupation at present is fishing. Pop. 4675. 
 
 A YAK- NOR, a lake in Chinese Tartary, lat. 44 45 N.; 
 Ion. 86 15 E. It is of an oval form, and receives several 
 streams, the chief of which is the Loklon, but has no outlet. 
 Greatest length, from E. to W., 35 m. ; breadth, 20. m. 
 
 AYAS. SeeAiAS. 
 
 AY ASH. See AJASII. 
 
 AYCLIFFE (GREAT), par. Eng. Durham; 10,490 ac. 
 Pop. 1372. 
 
 AYERVE, a tn. Spain, in Aragon, prov. of, and 20 m. 
 N.W. Huesea, on a hill near the source of the Vadillo. It 
 has ill-paved streets ; two squares, connected by two lofty 
 arches through the hereditary palace of the Marquis of Ayerve ; 
 two churches, a townhall, an hospital, and two schools. Manu 
 factures: linen, oil, and wine. Annual fair in September. 
 Pop., including the adjacent hamlets of Anglis and Fontanellas, 
 2170. (Madoz.) 
 
 AYLESBEAR, par. Eng. Devon; 3750 ac. Pop. 982. 
 
 AYLESBURY, market tn. England, co. Buckingham, 
 38 m. N.W. London ; houses badly built, chiefly of brick ; 
 water scarce ; six principal streets, irregular, indifferently kept, 
 but lighted with gas. It has two established churches, one 
 of them, St. Mary s, an ancient cruciform structure ; one In 
 dependent, two Baptist, one R. catholic, one Methodist, and 
 some_other smaller places of worship; a national, British, 
 archdiaconal, and other schools ; a mechanics institution, and 
 numerous minor charities. Principal public buildings: 
 county-hall and market-house, handsome edifices; union work 
 house and jail. Chief manufactures: silk throwing and 
 weaving. Ducklings and tame rabbits bred in great numbers 
 for the London market. Aylesbnry returns two members 
 to Parliament; constituency (1849), 1513. Pop. of tn. and 
 
 par. (1841), 5429. There is a vale of the same name in 
 
 co. Buckingham, celebrated for its fertility. 
 
 AYLESBY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 2110 ac. Pop. 201. 
 
 AYLESFORD, a vil. and par. England, co. Kent. The 
 vil. is 32 m. S.E. London, on the r. bank, Medway, over 
 which there is a stone bridge of six arches. The only manu 
 facture is paper. Pop. par. (1841), 1344. 
 
 AYLESTONE, par. Eng. Leicester; 3840 ac. Pop. 757. 
 
 AYLMER, a considerable lake in British N. America, 
 immediately adjoining Clinton Colden Lake, with which it is 
 connected by a small stream ; about 80 m. N. from the N.E. 
 extremity of Great Slave Lake ; and intersected by the parallel 
 of 64 15 N., and the meridian of 109 W. It is about 50 m. 
 in length, and about 30 in breadth. 
 
 AYLMERTON, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 14GO ac. Pop. 289. 
 
 AYLSHAM, a market tn. England, co. Norfolk, on a 
 gentle acclivity rising from the river Burr, 10J m. N. Nor 
 wich. It consists of four principal streets, tolerably well 
 kept, lighted with gas ; houses of brick, and generally well 
 built ; supply of water ample, but not reckoned of the best 
 quality. The church is in the decorated style. The other 
 places of worship are, a Baptist chapel, and a Wesleyan and 
 Primitive Methodist chapels. Aylsham was formerly celebrated 
 for the manufacture of linen, sold under the name of Aylsham 
 web. Subsequently, the manufacture of woollen articles gave 
 employment to many of the inhabitants ; but since the intro 
 duction of machinery, all these branches of industry have 
 ceased to exist. Corn now forms the only article of trade. 
 Aylsham has a national school for boys, another for girls, and 
 a third for infants ; a commercial school, in connection with 
 the Norwich Board of Education, for the sons of farmers and 
 tradesmen ; a literary society, with a good and increasing 
 library; and several minor charities. A cemetery with walks 
 has been recently formed. Pop. (1841), 2448. 
 
 AYLTON, par. Eng. Hereford; 810 ac. Pop. 69. 
 
 AYMARGUES. See AIMARGUES. 
 
 AYMAUN, a small tn. and harbour, Arabia, W. coast of 
 the promontory of Maceta or Musendom, at the entrance into 
 the Persian Gulf; lat. 25 25 N. ; Ion. 55 33 E. The houses 
 are built principally of mud. The inhabitants depend for sub 
 sistence upon the pearl-fishery, the produce of which is be 
 tween 2400 and 3000 annually. The country around is 
 sterile, and fresh water scarce, being procured from wells three 
 quarters of a mile distant, and which are often filled up with 
 sand by N.W. gales. The anchorage off the town is bad, over 
 a rocky bottom. Pop. of tn. 1000 to 1200. 
 
 AYMESTREY, par. Eng. Hereford; 7070 ac. Pop. 958. 
 
 AYNHO, par. Eng. Notts ; 2330 ac. Pop. 662. 
 
 AYORA, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 51 m. S.W. Valencia, 
 in an extensive hollow at the base of an isolated limestone 
 mountain. Its streets are, for the most part, straight, com 
 modious, and clean, with wide well-paved footpaths. It has 
 four squares, a parish church and a chapel of ease, a handsome 
 townhall, an unhealthy prison, two schools, an hospital, a large 
 public granary, and a public bath. On the summit of the hill, 
 where a part of the town once stood, are the remains of an old 
 castle. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in husbandry and 
 expressing oil. Pop. 3786. (Madoz.) 
 
 AYOTT, two pars. Eng. Herts:!, (St. Lawrence}. 
 980 ac. Pop. 134. 2, (St. Peter], 1270 ac. Pop. 240. 
 
 AYR, a river, Scotland, Ayrshire, running a W. course 
 of 30 m. through the dist. of Kyle, dividing the co., to which 
 it gives name, into two nearly equal parts, and finally falling 
 into the Frith of Clyde below the town of Ayr. The species 
 of claystone, known as the Water of Ayr Stone, is found in its 
 channel. 
 
 AYR, AYKSHIKE, or AIKSHIRE, an extensive maritime co. 
 on the S.W. coast of Scotland, having somewhat of a crescent 
 form; bounded, N. by Renfrewshire, S. by Wigton and Kirk 
 cudbright, E. by the shires of Lanark and Dumfries, and W. 
 by the Irish Channel. It is about 70 m. in length, with a 
 breadth varying from 1 to 22 m., but diminishing to 4 or 5 m. 
 at^ its N. and S. extremities. Its coast line, which is about 
 75 m. in length, presents no deep indentations, but has several 
 excellent harbours. The singular rock off the coast, known 
 by the name of Ailsa Craig, belongs to the county, as does also 
 the island of Little Cumbrae. Ayrshire comprises, altogether, 
 668,800 ac., of which about a half is supposed to be arable. 
 The county was formerly, and is still popularly divided into the 
 
AYR S 
 
 three districts of Carrick, Kyle, and Cunningham. The first 
 comprehends all that part of the county lying S. of the Doon ; 
 the second, the space between the Doon and the Irvine; and 
 the third, the remaining part of the county N. of the Irvine, the 
 smallest, but the most wealthy and populous of the three. 
 The surface is irregular, and a large portion of it hilly. Of 
 the latter description is the whole district of Carrick, the E. 
 part of Kyle, and the N. extremity of Cunningham. The other 
 parts of the county are in general flat, and somewhat mono 
 tonous, with exception of the banks of the streams, which are 
 remarkable for their picturesque beauty. The level lands are 
 extremely fertile and well cultivated ; but in the lower dis 
 tricts along the coast, the soil is mostly light and sandy, and 
 less productive. Although, as above stated, a large portion 
 j of Ayrshire is hilly, it has no great elevations, the highest 
 summits varying from about 1200 to 1900 ft. The principal 
 streams are the Ayr, Stinchar, Girvan, Doon, Irvine, and 
 Garnock, more than one of which have been rendered classic j 
 by the muse of Burns. There are several small lakes in va- j 
 rious parts of the county, some of them well stocked with fish, 
 but not otherwise remarkable. Fish are also plentiful on the 
 coast, although not so abundant, it is said, as formerly. 
 
 The mineral riches of Ayrshire are very considerable, 
 although in part but of recent development. Coal is abund 
 ant, especially in the middle and N. parts of the county, which 
 may be considered as included in the great coal-field of Scot 
 land. Extensive seams, also, of black-band ironstone have 
 recently been discovered in various parts, and of so promising 
 a character, as to render it extremely probable that Ayrshire 
 will, at no distant day, become the great seat of the iron 
 manufactures of Scotland. The principal ironworks already 
 established in the county are those of Blair, Glengarnock, Eglin- 
 ton, Muirkirk, Lugar, Kilmarnock, and Dalmellington ; but 
 others are from time to time being added. Humbago is 
 found in some localities in considerable seams; and lead, 
 antimony, and copper are also met with, but in small quan- 
 tity. Limestone and freestone abound. Mill-stones, of coarse 
 granite, much esteemed for their hardness and durability, are j 
 quarried near the N. coast, in the district of Cunningham, j 
 The well-known whetstone, called Water of Ayr Stone, is 
 found in the river Ayr. Marl, also, is procured in many 
 places. 
 
 The climate of Ayr is moist, the average annual amount of 
 rain falling near the centre of the county being 39 and 42 in. ; 
 but it is by no means insalubrious. The agriculture of the 
 county was in a miserable condition till about the middle of 
 the last century, when it began to improve, and has since con- 
 tinued to make rapid progress. The principal grain raised is j 
 the oat; turnips are rapidly increasing, the quantity now raised 
 being upwards of ten times that grown 15 to 20 years since. 
 Potatoes, also, are universally cultivated. Flax is raised, and : 
 big or bere, but very little wheat. Lime is the common 
 manure, but on the coast sea-weed is much used. Dairy-hus 
 bandry is extensively practised, the Ayrshire cows being 
 celebrated as milkers. The well-known and much esteemed 
 Dunlop cheese, so called from a parish of that name in the 
 district of Cunningham, is produced in large quantities; but 
 most part of the cheese made in the adjoining parishes, and 
 even in the adjoining counties, is sold as Dunlop cheese. 
 Great quantities of milk, also, are sent, in large tin cases, by 
 railway to Glasgow. On the dry lands along the coast, a 
 small white-faced breed of sheep, of indifferent quality, has 
 long been maintained, but in the moors the native sheep are 
 bred in great numbers ; their wool is coarse and scanty, but 
 the flesh is excellent. The horses of Ayrshire are of superior 
 breed, being hardy, strong, and of large size. The arable 
 farms are mostly small ; average rent of land, about lla. 3d. 
 per acre. There are several large estates, although there are 
 also many of the middling and smaller class of proprietors. 
 The roads throughout the county are now excellent, although 
 in former times there was scarcely a practicable road in it. 
 As already mentioned, iron is manufactured to a great extent, 
 and is yearly increasing ; its woollen manufactures are also 
 extensive, particularly carpets, bonnets, and worsted shawls, 
 which are produced in great quantities at Kilmarnock, 
 Stewarton, and other towns. There are some considerable 
 tanneries, and likewise several extensive cotton-works in dif 
 ferent parts of the county ; and a great deal of yarn is spun 
 for the Glasgow and Paisley manufacturers. Ayrshire needle- 
 
 AYR 
 
 work is also much esteemed, and has been long known and 
 celebrated under that name ; nor is the county less famed for 
 its beautiful wooden snuff-boxes. The county is adorned with 
 many elegant mansions, of which probably the finest and most 
 picturesque is Culzean Castle, the seat of the Marquis of Ailsa, 
 standing on the verge of a basaltic clilf, overhanging the sea, 
 about 1 1 in. S.S.W. Ayr. Among the many interesting monu 
 ments of antiquity, may be noticed two enormous cairns of 
 gray stones, one in the parish of Galston, the other, the larger 
 of the two, in that of Sorn. Nothing is known of the history 
 of either. There are also traces of encampments in various 
 parishes, supposed to be of Danish origin. On the coast of 
 Carrick, about 13 m. S.S.W. the town of Ayr, is the ancient 
 castle of Turnberry, in which llobert Bruce, King of Scot 
 land, is said to have been born, and where he is known to 
 have spent many of his youthful years. It was here that a 
 fire, accidentally kindled, was mistaken by Bruce for an ap 
 pointed signal, and caused him to cross the sea from the island 
 of Arran opposite, to attempt the deliverance of his country. 
 Dunure Castle, a tall empty tower occupying a commanding 
 position on the coast, about 7 m. S.S.W. Ayr, is also an in 
 teresting relic of former times. Of the ecclesiastical ruins, 
 the most interesting is the abbey of Crossraguel, in the parish 
 of Kirk-Oswald, founded in 1244. 
 
 The chief towns are Ayr, Kilmarnock, Irvine, Troon, 
 Saltcoats, Largs, Ardrossan, Girvan, Ballantrae, Tarbolton, 
 Mauchline, Beith, Dairy, Catrine, and Maybole. Ayrshire 
 contains 46 pars., and returns one member to Parliament. 
 Constituency in 1849, 4308. Annual value of real property 
 in 1842-3, 531,319. Pop. (1851), 189,858. 
 
 AYR, a seaport, royal and parl. bor. Scotland, cap. of above 
 co., on a wide plain, 1. bank, river Ayr, near its confluence with 
 the Frith of Clyde, 30 m. S.W. Glasgow, and 40 by railway; 
 Int. 55 27 54" N. ; Ion. 4 37 42" W. (K.) Two bridges, the 
 Twa Brigs of Burns, called, respectively, the Auld and New 
 Brigs, the latter an elegant structure of five arches, connect 
 the town with the suburbs, Newton or New Town, and Wal- 
 lacetown, both on the r. bank of the river. In the more 
 modern parts of the town the streets are spacious, many of 
 the shops elegant, and the houses handsome. Here, also, is 
 one of the finest squares of which any provincial town can 
 boast, called Wellington Square. All the principal streets 
 are well paved, lighted with gas, and kept remarkably clean. 
 In the town and suburbs there are four established churches, 
 two Free, two U. Presbyterian, a Keformed Presbyterian, 
 Original Seceder, Congregationalist, Episcopalian, and K. 
 catholic. The other principal edifices are the Town s New 
 Buildings, containing a suite of elegant assembly-rooms, and 
 a public reading-room, the whole structure being finely set off 
 by an elegant spire, 226 ft. in height; the county buildings, 
 on the N. W. side of Wellington Square, after the model of the 
 temple of Isis at Eome; and Wallace Tower, a handsome struc 
 ture, 115 ft. in height, having, in a niche in front, an indiffer 
 ently-executed statue of the hero. This tower occupies the site 
 of an ancient one of the same name, in which, according to 
 tradition, Wallace was confined. Between the town and the sea 
 are the remains of a citadel erected by Cromwell, now called the 
 Fort. The academy at Ayr has long been celebrated for the 
 excellence of its system, and the ability of its teachers a cir 
 cumstance which has tended in no small degree to promote 
 the prosperity of the town, many families resorting to it for 
 the education of their children. The number of scholars 
 averages from 500 to 600 annually. The building is plain 
 but commodious, and occupies a healthy situation. With ex 
 ception of carpets, there are no manufactures of any extent in 
 the town, which, on the whole, in a business point of view, is 
 a dull place, depending greatly on the weekly markets and the 
 county courts for its support. 
 
 The harbour of Ayr has two piers, which extend into the 
 sea upwards of 300 yards, one on the S. side of the river, and 
 the other on the N. Further out, there is a breakwater, re 
 cently constructed. The depth of water, in ordinary spring 
 tides, is from 13 to 14 ft., but at low water only 2 ft. The 
 channel, however, is too narrow to admit vessels drawing more 
 than 12 ft. water, while the navigation is much impeded by a 
 shifting bar of sand near the mouth, on which, at ebb tide, 
 there is not more than a foot of water ; but, in spring tides, 
 there is 9 ft. at high water, and 7 in neaps, with a foot or two 
 more with fresh S. winds. The shipping trade of Ayr is 
 
AYR ( NEWTON-UPON ) 
 
 281 
 
 AZERBIJAN 
 
 chiefly with Ireland, the principal exports being cotton, wool 
 lens, iron, coal, and whetstone. Imports: grain, spirits, 
 limber, slates, bricks, and lime. There is also a small foreign 
 trade in hemp, mats, tallow, tar, iron, and pitch. The sea 
 fisheries of Ayr were at one time very considerable, but have 
 greatly declined of late years. Races are held here on a 
 course about a mile S. from the town, and are generally well 
 attended ; and about 2 m. S. stand Burns s Cottage, Alloway 
 Kirk, &c. See ALLOWAY. 
 
 The town of Newton-upon-Ayr, on the opposite bank of the 
 river, is now generally ranked as a suburb of Ayr, although 
 it is a burgh of barony, having magistrates of its own, and a 
 peculiar and independent constitution. The principal street 
 is of considerable length, but contains few handsome houses, 
 while those in the other and older parts of the town are nar 
 row, irregular, and straggling, and the houses of homely 
 appearance ; but towards the sea, several new and spacious 
 streets have been laid out, and a number of neat villas erected. 
 The only building of any note, exclusive of the churches, is 
 the council-house. Handloom weaving and hand-sewing are 
 carried on here to a considerable extent, especially the latter, 
 the celebrated Ayrshire needlework, in which several huft- 
 dred females are employed. Newton upon- Ayr has a joint 
 interest with Ayr in the harbour, and supplies nearly all 
 the coal shipped there. It has, likewise, some shipbuilding 
 docks, rope-walks, and iron and brass-foundries. Although 
 called New Town, the erection of the burgh dates as far back 
 as the time of Eobert Bruce. It is included within the par 
 liamentary boundaries of the burgh of Ayr by the Reform Act, 
 and thus forms a constituency with it, Campbelton, Inverary, 
 Irvine, and Oban, in returning a member to Parliament. The 
 terminus of the Glasgow and Ayr Railway is in this suburb. 
 Wallacetown, mainly in the par. of St. Quivox, was formerly 
 a vil. adjoining Newton-upon-Ayr, but is now so blended with 
 it as to form one compact town. Its population consists 
 almost entirely of colliers, artizans, and weavers. It also 
 is within the parliamentary boundaries of Ayr. Pop. Ayr, 
 8264; Newton-upon-Ayr, tn. and par. 4482. Pop. of parl. 
 bor. 15,749. 
 
 AYR (NEWTON-UPON). See AYR. 
 
 AYSGARTH par. and township, Eng. York, N. Riding; 
 79,980 ac. Pop. 5725. 
 
 AYSTON, par. Eng. Rutland; 1030 ac. Pop. 88. 
 
 AYTON. 1, (Great), par. Eng. York, N. Riding ; 5740 
 
 ac. Pop. 1216. 2, par. Scot. Berwick; 7000 ac. Pop. 
 
 1784. 
 
 AZAMBUJA, a tn. and par. Portugal, prov. Estrema- 
 dura, dist. Alemquer, 18 m. S.W. Santarem. It is situated 
 on a fine and well-cultivated plain, and has an annual fair. 
 Pop. 1640. 
 
 AZAMOR, a small tn., N.W. coast, Morocco, prov. 
 Dukaila, on a sand-hill, 120 ft. above the sea, at a short 
 distance from the 1. bank of the river Um -er -biegh; lat. 
 33 18 N. ; Ion. 8 15 W. (it.) The walls, which are 1 J m. in 
 circuit, are in ruins, and the only defence remaining is a few 
 guns, pointed seawards. The town is dull and lifeless, the 
 streets narrow and filthy. Provisions, fish, vegetables, and 
 fruit are, however, abundant, and of excellent quality. At 
 the S.E. angle of the town is a suburb, containing a mosque 
 and a sanctuary. The inhabitants carry on some trade in 
 wool, which is shipped at Mazagan, a small port about 8 m. 
 S.W. ; a sand-bar at the mouth of the Um -er -biegh, and the 
 rapidity of the current, rendering the approach to Azamor 
 dangerous. The country around is open, and well cultivated, 
 with many gardens, and extensive plantations of henna. Pop. 
 1000. 
 
 AZANI, an ancient Phrygian city of Turkey in Asia, 
 pash. Anatolia, now in ruins, 1. bank, Rhyndacus, 22 m. S W. 
 Kutaya. It was formerly a wealthy and magnificent city, as 
 appears from the numerous and imposing relics with which 
 it abounds, including a great quantity of shafts of columns, 
 beautifully-worked capitals, entablatures, and the ruins of a 
 noble temple and theatre. The columns of the temple are of 
 the Ionic order, formed of a single block of marble, 28 ft. in 
 length. Some of the Greek inscriptions on the walls refer to 
 the reign of Hadrian. The modern village consists of a few 
 straggling huts. 
 
 AZAUGHAL, a tn. Spain, Estremadura, prov. of, and 
 24 m. S.S.E. Badajoz ; in u, valley, encompassed by three hills. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 It has straight, well-paved streets, three squares, a parish 
 church, townhouse, public storehouse, two schools, prison, 
 barrack, and an hospital. Agriculture, domestic weaving, 
 oil-pressing, and brandy-distilling, are the chief occupations. 
 Pop. 2890. 
 
 AZAY, several small tns. and corns. France: 1, Azay- 
 Bi-uU, a vil. and com., dep. Deux-SeVres. Pop. 1906.- 
 
 2, Azay-le-Ferron, a tn. and com., dep. Indre (Berry), 16 m. N. 
 Le Blanc; with a hot sulphurous spring. Pop. 1541. 
 
 3, Azay-le-Rideau, a tn. agreeably situated on the Indre, dep. 
 Indre-et-Loire (Touraine), 15 m. S.W. Tours; with manufac 
 tures of leather and bombazines. Pop. 1219. 4, Azay-sur- 
 Cher, a vil. and com., dep. Indre-et Loire, 7 m. E.S.E. Tours, 
 1. bank, Cher. Some good red wines are made here, called 
 vins du Cher. Pop. 1262. 5, Azay-sur-Indre, a vil., dep. 
 Indre-et -Loire, 1. bank, Indre, at the confluence of the Indroy. 
 Pop. 461. 6, Azay-sur-Thoue, a vil. and com., dep. Deux- 
 Sevres ; with manufactures of linsey-woolsey and druggets. 
 Pop. 1199. 
 
 AZCOITIA, a tn. Spain, Biscay, prov. Guipuzcoa, 20 m. 
 N.W. Tolosa; in a verdant plain, 1. bank, Urola, at the base 
 of the lofty mountain of Itzarriz. The town is in three 
 divisions, and comprises a square, one principal and several 
 other well-constructed and commodious streets, with wide 
 foot -pavements. The townhouse, a fine edifice, with five 
 arches in front ; the parish church, a good specimen of Doric ; 
 and the school, are the only buildings worth notice. Chief 
 employments : agriculture, and the manufacture of iron nails 
 and hardware. There are also some flourmills. The vicinity 
 yields grain, fruits, especially cherries, chestnuts, and veget 
 ables; also, some game and fish. Pop. 3795. (Madoz.) 
 
 AZEITAO, or VILLA NOGUEIRA, a tn. and par. Portugal, 
 prov. Estremadura, dist. of, and 6 m. W. Setubal ; on a small 
 stream, which falls into the estuary of the Tagus. It has two 
 churches, a cotton-factory, several dyeworks, and some trade 
 in wood. Pop. 1590. 
 
 AZERBIJAN, or ADERBAIJAN [anc. Media Atropatene], 
 a frontier prov. Persia, between lat. 36 10 and 38 55 N. ; 
 and Ion. 44 20 and 48 20 E.; bounded, N. by trans-Caucasian 
 Russia, E. Russia and Ghilan, S. Irak-Ajemi and Ardelan, and 
 W. Kurdistan ; length, from borders of Kurdistan to the Ma- 
 sula Mountains, 210m.; breadth, 185 m. ; area, 25,285 sq. m. 
 Nearly the whole country consists of a succession of high 
 mountains, intersected by deep and rugged ravines, which 
 occasionally open into plateaux or extensive plains. Many 
 of these are fertile, and partially cultivated. In the very 
 centre of the province are the mountains of Sahend, rising to 
 the height of 9000 ft. above the sea level , towards the E. 
 of Tabreez, Mount Sevelan is between 12,000 and 13,000 ft. 
 The principal rivers are the Aras or Araxes, on the N. border, 
 with its affluent the Karasu ; the Kizil-Ozein, in the S., with 
 its numerous affluents, which water the central parts of the 
 province; the Jugatty, the Sosar-chai, the Aji, and the Salyan, 
 which fall into the Lake of Urmiah. One of the most re 
 markable features of Azerbijan is the great salt lake of 
 Urmiah (which see). The best soils yield from 50 to 60 fold, 
 when abundantly irrigated, by means of the many small rivers 
 by which the province is intersected. The principal produce 
 consists of wheat, barley, maize, rye, flax, hemp, madder, dried 
 fruits, cotton, tobacco, honey, grapes, wax, and wool ; and a 
 considerable number of cattle, camels, horses, and sheep are 
 reared. The chief articles of manufacture are velvets, silk 
 stuffs, carpets, woollens, copper utensils, arms, and a little 
 cutlery. There are very extensive tanneries ; and the dressing 
 of furs and skins is a general occupation. The province has 
 some valuable minerals, particularly iron, lead, copper, salt, 
 saltpetre, and sulphur ; and among the hills in the neighbour 
 hood of Maragha is found a beautiful transparent white marble, 
 much prized in Persia for paving baths and palaces ; and in 
 thin plates it is used for bath-windows. 
 
 The climate of Azerbijan is healthy, but extremely hot in 
 summer and autumn, and intensely cold in winter ; the latter 
 being severely felt from the great want of fuel, the only sub 
 stitute for which is dried cow-dung mixed with straw. The 
 spring is temperate and delightful in the plains ; but, on moun 
 tains destitute of wood, the snow lies for nine months in the 
 year; and hailstorms are so violent as frequently to kill 
 cattle in the fields. The province is divided into 12 districts; 
 chief towns, Tabreez or Taurus, the capital ; Meanna or Mian- 
 
 36 
 
AZIMGHUR 
 
 282 
 
 AZOKES 
 
 nali, Anlubeel, Shebuster, Tasouj, Shar, Shelmast, Khoi, 
 Urtniah, the birthplace of Zoroaster, and Maragha. The 
 oppressive and exacting system of the Government tends 
 much to depress the energies of the people; and, in 1832, a 
 colony of no less than 40,000 Armenians left this province 
 and settled within the Russian territories. Pop. 1,500,000; 
 consisting of Persians, Turks, Armenians, and Jews. (Kin- 
 nier s Gcog. Memoir of the Persian Empire; Ouseley s Travels; 
 Eraser s History of Persia, and Travels on ilie S. banks of tlie 
 Caspian Sea; Gcog. Jour., vol. iii. ; Col. Chesney.) 
 
 AZIMGHUR, a tn. Hindoostan, prov. Allahabad, 60 m. 
 N.N.E. Benares, and 400 m. N.W. Calcutta ; lat. 26 3 N. ; 
 Ion. 83 4 E. It was ceded to the British by the Nabob of 
 Oude, in 1801. The inhabitants manufacture and export a 
 considerable quantity of cotton goods. 
 
 AZIMNAGUR, a large dist. Hindoostan, prov. Bejapoor, 
 S. the Krishna, about lat. 16 N.; watered by the Gutpurba 
 and Malpurba, but still to a great extent remaining in a state 
 of nature. Chief towns : Gokauk, Belgaum, and Shahpoor. 
 
 AZINCOURT. See AGINCOURT. 
 
 AZMERIGUNGE, or AJAMIDA GANJ, a tn. Hindoostan, 
 prov. Bengal, on the river Soormah, a tributary of the Brah 
 mapootra, 225 m. N.E. Calcutta; lat. 24 31 N. ; Ion. 91 10 E. 
 It has an establishment for the construction of native boats, 
 and a considerable inland trade. 
 
 AZOF (SEA OF), [called by the Russians, More Asowslcoe ; 
 Latin, Palus Mceotis; Greek, A, , MJT], a large body of 
 water in S.E. Europe, forming the N. subdivision of the Black 
 Sea, with which it is connected by the Strait of Kertsch or 
 Yenikale [anc. Cimmerian Bosphorus] ; situated between the 
 parallels of 45 15 and 47 18 N., and between the meridians 
 of 35 and 39 E. ; its length, S.W. to N.E. (from the Strait 
 of Kertsch to the mouth of the Don), being 168 m. ; its average 
 breadth, about 80 m. ; and its area, about 14,000 sq. m. The 
 N. coast is, for the most part, bold and craggy, rising about 
 100 ft. above the water; the E. coast, inhabited by Cossacks, 
 is very low, chiefly sandy, and intersected with lakes and 
 morasses ; the W. coast is formed by the tongue of sand, 
 called the Tongue of Arabat, which divides it from the 
 Sibache" More or Putrid Sea; while the Crimea, and the 
 territory of the Cossacks of the 
 Black Sea, form the S. shore, on 
 which, here and there, are some 
 hills, visible a considerable dis 
 tance Its greatest depth, between 
 Yenikale and Bielosaria, on the N. 
 side, is 7J fathoms; and it dimin 
 ishes considerably towards the Gulf 
 of Don, several banks extending a 
 great distance from the shore. The 
 water is muddy, and, from the 
 numerous rivers running into it, 
 almost fresh. The Sea of Azof has 
 no remarkable current, the strong 
 est never running more than 1 m. 
 an hour ; the navigation is gener 
 ally stopped from November to 
 March by ice. Perhaps no body 
 of water of equal extent so abounds 
 with fish; the principal fisheries 
 are along the S. coast, between 
 ( ape Dolgava and the Strait of 
 Yenikale, the sturgeon, sterlet, and i 1 ^ 
 other fish, from which are prepared, 
 
 in large quantities, both caviare and isinglass. The extreme 
 W. part of the Sea of Azof, called the Putrid Sea, is, during 
 the greater part of the year, little better than a noxious quag 
 mire, and, at all times, wholly useless for navigation. The 
 Strait of Yenikale is about 11 m. long, and 4 broad; though 
 the navigable channel never exceeds 1 m. in breadth. A 
 new island was raised in the Sea of Azof, in 181 4, by volcanic 
 eruptions. The chief towns on its banks are Taganrog and 
 Marioupol, on the N. shore, and Kertsch, on the W. shore 
 of the strait of the same name. 
 
 The commerce of the Sea of Azof has been much hindered, 
 not only by the impossibility of navigating it during four 
 months of the year, but also to the extensive activity of Odessa, 
 which has deprived it of much of its trade. The following 
 
 gives a comparative view of the foreign and coasting trade, 
 
 both import and export, in 1845 and 1846 : 
 
 IMPORT TBADK, 1845-6. 
 
 POUTS. 
 
 
 
 Value. j 
 
 Coat ten. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 M 
 
 : ....: 
 
 1MB 
 
 1846 
 
 1845 
 
 1846 
 
 1845 
 
 1816 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Taganrog... 
 
 !97 
 
 238 
 
 200,481 
 
 219,852 
 
 1604 
 
 1863 
 
 51,614 
 
 82,192 
 
 Marioupol.. 
 
 74 
 
 1,1 
 
 379 
 
 112 
 
 318 
 
 411 
 
 31,257 
 
 31,630 
 
 Kostow 
 
 ii 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 1559 
 
 1597 
 
 18,002 
 
 37,240 
 
 Berdiausk.. 
 
 B6 
 
 82 
 
 26 1 
 
 1294 
 
 252 
 
 350 
 
 8,773 
 
 18,286 
 
 Total .. 
 
 167 
 
 S82 
 
 201,124 
 
 251,258 
 
 3733 
 
 4221 
 
 109,646 
 
 169,348 
 
 EXPORT TRADE, 1845-6. 
 
 PORTS. 
 
 VeS 
 
 Value. 
 
 COM ten. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 ,845 
 
 1846 
 
 1815 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 
 1844 
 
 1846 
 
 184.1 
 
 
 
 I:MG 
 
 
 Taganrog... 
 
 540 
 
 -J-- 
 
 359,669 
 
 360,632 
 
 1569 
 
 1753 
 
 99,539 
 
 98,318 
 
 Marioupol.. 
 
 84 
 
 71 
 
 164,860 
 
 195,70:1 
 
 296 
 
 376 
 
 5,921 
 
 3,772 
 
 Rfttow 
 
 ii 
 
 (i 
 
 520,747 
 
 448,432 
 
 1592 
 
 1818 
 
 396,040 
 
 135,734 
 
 Berdiansk.. 
 
 101 
 
 1 !8 
 
 215,468 
 
 280,115 
 
 216 
 
 280 
 
 7,606 
 
 8,526 
 
 Total.. 
 
 526 
 
 1-7 
 
 1,260,744 
 
 1,284,882 
 
 3673 
 
 4227 
 
 509,106 
 
 246,350 
 
 AZOF, or Azov, a decayed tn. Russia, gov. Ekaterinoslav, 
 
 1. bank, Don. about 10 m. from its emb( 
 
 mchure in the Sea of 
 
 Azof; lat. 47 7 N. ; Ion. 39 26 5" E. 
 
 (R.) 
 
 AZOGUES, or AZOQUES, a tn. Ecuador, prov. of, and 
 
 15 m. N.N.E. Cuenca; lat. 2 42 S.; 
 
 Ion. 79 7 W. The 
 
 valley of Yunguilla, in wh ch it is situated, is remarkable for 
 
 its fertility. There are mines of both s 
 
 ilver and quicksilver 
 
 in the vicinity. Rubies are found in the sands of a stream 
 
 which runs through the valley. 
 
 
 AZORES, or WESTERN ISLANDS, a 
 
 series of islands, N. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Portugal ; 
 
 situated between lat. 
 
 36 59 and 39 44 N., and Ion. 31 7 and 25 10 W. They 
 
 are nine in number, and arranged in three groups ; the N.W. 
 
 being composed of the islands of Flores 
 
 and Corvo ; the cell- 
 
 tral group, about 114 m. S.E. from these 
 
 consists of Terceira, 
 
 THE AZORES 
 
 OR, WESTERN ISLES. 
 
 
 table, taken from the Journal of Austrian Lloyd s, 1847, tion. The climate, though somewhat humid, is delightful 
 
 St. George, Pico, Fayal, and Graciosa ; and the third group, 
 69 m. S.E. from the central, of St. Michael and St. Mary. 
 St. Michael is the largest of all the islands, being 50 m. long, 
 and from 5 to 12 broad. St. Mary is distant from it about 
 45 m. The Azores, all of which are of volcanic origin, seem 
 ingly of a late period, present a very rugged, though pictur 
 esque aspect, being lofty, precipitous, and generally of a coni 
 cal form. The most remarkable of them is the Peak of Pico, 
 a conical mountain, which shoots up to the height of about 
 7000 ft. Though presenting a very unpromising appearance 
 from the sea, a closer inspection discovers these islands to be 
 covered with the most luxuriant vegetation, vineyards, corn 
 fields, groves of lemon and orange-trees ; and rich open pas- 
 ures, skirted by beautiful woods, meet the eye in every direc- 
 
 ,. . ., i . 1 1 :J : jl r>li frit f Till 
 
AZORES 
 
 283 
 
 AZBEK (BAHR-EL-) 
 
 and, combined with the natural fertility of the soil, brings 
 every sort of vegetable product to the utmost perfection. The 
 sugar-cane, coffee-plant, and tobacco grow luxuriantly ; and 
 fruits and plants of all kinds, and from all countries, could be 
 here cultivated with greater success than perhaps in any other 
 part of the world. Unfortunately, however, the inhabitants 
 have neither the energy nor intelligence necessary to turn the 
 natural advantages of their position to the best account. They 
 know nothing of gardening, and very little of the science of 
 agriculture. Their implements are of the rudest description ; 
 and in sowing they throw the seed about at random, calculat 
 ing on the bounty of nature for a rich return, in which they 
 are never disappointed. The lupine, which grows to an extra 
 ordinary size in these islands, is one of its most valued pro 
 ductions. It is raised in great quantities, and the seeds, after 
 being soaked in sea-water, to divest them of their bitterness, 
 constitute a favourite food of the poorer classes. The Azores 
 produce annually upwards of 17,000 pipes of wine and brandy, 
 and about 160,000 boxes of oranges and lemons ; the greater 
 part of which find their way to Britain, the remainder being 
 divided between Brazil, Hamburg, and the U. States. They 
 also export considerable quantities of coarse linen, salted pork, 
 and beef. Their imports are, chiefly, from England, hard 
 ware, cotton and woollen stuffs, wearing apparel, &c. ; from 
 the Brazils, rum, coffee, sugar, &c. ; from the U. States, fish, 
 staves, timber, tar, oil, &c. ; from Portugal, salt, tea, images, 
 crucifixes, indulgences, dispensations, relics, &c. These last 
 are sold openly in the shops, at high prices. The beasts of 
 burden are asses and bullocks, and a few horses, but of a 
 very inferior description. Sheep, goats, pigs, and dogs are 
 numerous, the last two in excess. The lands are held 
 under strict entail, and the farmer to whom they are leased 
 is oppressed with every possible sort of exaction. The great 
 hinderance, however, to the commercial prosperity of the 
 Azores is their want of good harbours ; the only tolerable 
 port being that of Angra, in the island of Terceira, and even 
 that is much exposed, and offers little safety excepting in 
 the fine season. All the rest are open bays or roadsteads, 
 affording hardly any protection whatever. The Azores, 
 as already remarked, are of volcanic origin, and many tre 
 mendous evidences of the activity of the subterranean fires 
 have presented themselves at various times. In 1591, an 
 earthquake, which continued 12 days, destroyed the town of 
 Villa Franca in the island of St. Michael ; and in 1808 a vol 
 cano rose up in the island of St. George, to the height of 
 3500 ft., and became extinct after burning with great fury for 
 six days, and sending out a flood of lava which overflowed 
 the island, and covered it with ruin and desolation. In this 
 
 archipelago, several rocks and volcanic islands have from 
 time to time been thrust up from the bottom of the ocean. 
 The last that appeared was in 1811, off the W. end of St. 
 Michael. In June of that year, the crater of a volcano sud 
 denly emerged from the sea, rose to the height of 300 ft., 
 raged furiously for some time, ejecting ashes, cinders, and 
 
 stones, and again gradually disappeared. Fountains of boiling 
 water also exist in many of the islands, affording further evi 
 dence of the presence of internal heat. One of the finest 
 specimens both of the mountain-scenery of the Azores and 
 their extinct volcanoes, is the Caldeira of Flores. Its steep 
 sides are clothed with box, cedar, and faya ; while its crater, 
 filled with water, forms a magnificent mountain-lake, deep and 
 clear, and often covered with sea-gulls, whose cries awaken 
 the echoes, and have a strange effect. The islands are poli 
 tically divided into three departments, under a governor 
 general and two lieutenant-governors ; the seat of government 
 being at Angra, in the island of Terceira. Both intelligence 
 and morals are at an extremely low ebb amongst the people 
 of the Azores, who are, besides, very bigoted. The lower 
 classes are abominably filthy in their persons. Their best 
 redeeming quality is temperance. The period of the first 
 discovery of the Azores is not ascertained, but they were 
 known, and several of them were laid down in maps, in the 
 1 4th century. Little, however, was known of them till about 
 the year 1431 or 1432, when a Flemish merchant of the name 
 of Joshua Vanderberg, in a voyage to Lisbon, was driven by 
 stress of weather on their coasts ; having mentioned his dis 
 covery on his arrival at Lisbon, the Portuguese Government 
 immediately fitted out an expedition, and took possession of 
 them, giving them the name of the Acores, from the great 
 numbers of hawks found on the islands ; Agor being the Por 
 tuguese for hawk. They were at this period totally unin 
 habited, and without animals of any kind, excepting birds, 
 which were numerous and various. A dangerous reef of 
 rocks, on which the sea breaks heavily, has been recently 
 discovered about midway between the islands of St. Michael 
 and Terceira. It is in about lat. 38 16 or 38 18 N. ; and 
 Ion. 26 41 or 26 50 W. ; 35 m. N.W. of the N.W. point 
 of St. Michael. The reef is supposed to have been thrown 
 up recently by the agency of a submarine volcano ; several 
 islets having been formerly thrown up near the same spot, 
 but, from being of arenaceous constitution, were soon washed 
 away. The pop. of the Azores is reckoned altogether at 
 203,500. Terceira, 40,000; Santo Miguel or St. Michael, 
 80,000; Pico, 24,000; Fayal, 22,000; Flores, 14,000; Santo 
 Jorge, or St. George, 10,000; Graciosa, 7800; Santa Maria, 
 5000 ; Coroo, 700. 
 AZOV. See AZOF. 
 
 AZPEITIA, a tu. Spain, in Biscay, prov. of, and 18 m. 
 W.N.W. Tolosa, 10 m. from the sea, 1. bank, Urola, at the 
 N. base of Mount Itzarriz. Though rather a scattered town, 
 yet near its centre, part of the ancient walls, with four gates 
 of hewn stone, still exist ; as do many old Moorish- looking 
 houses, once highly ornamented, but now partly 
 dilapidated. It has well-constructed and paved 
 streets, and three squares, in the principal of 
 which are the former convents of St. Domingo 
 and St. Augustine, now converted into a primary 
 school and public reading-room ; in the same 
 square bull fights are held on the festival of St. 
 Loyola. In the smaller squares are two town- 
 houses, one of which is now used as a prison. 
 The town also possesses two churches, one of 
 which is of mixed Tuscan and Gothic architec 
 ture ; several good fountains, and a public bath. 
 Manufactures : iron vessels, nails, and shoes, 
 all of limited extent. In two marble-works, 
 driven by water-power, the marble, from the quar 
 ries of Mount Itzarriz, is cut. Ignatius Loyola, 
 the founder of the order of the Jesuits, was born 
 about a mile from Azpeitia, on the banks of the 
 Urola, in a house which is still preserved within 
 the marble walls of the convent that bears his 
 name; and in the same locality, bearing also the 
 name of Loyola, is u fine church in the Corin 
 thian style, also built of marble. Pop. 5300. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 AZREK (BAHR-EL-), or BLUE NILE, a river, 
 N.E. Africa, one of the two principal head-streams of the Nile. 
 It rises, under the name of the Dedhesa, in the Galla country, 
 S. from Abyssinia, in an elevated district, about 73 m. S.W. 
 Sokka, cap. of Encrea. It issues from a swampy meadow, 
 and pursues a general N.W. course till it joins the Bahr- 
 el-Abiad or White Nile at Khartoom ; lat. 15 40 N. ; Ion. 
 
AZUELA 
 
 234 
 
 BAALBEC 
 
 32 40 E. Its largest tributary is the Aba"i, which joins it 
 about lat. 11 N. See NILE. 
 
 AZUELA, a large river in S. America, Ecuador, prov. 
 Quito. It rises on the E. slopes of the Cayambe, one of the 
 loftiest summits of the Bolivian Andes, directly under the 
 terrestrial equator, whence it flows E. and S.E. for upwards 
 of 200 in., when it assumes the name of the Ahuaricu, an 
 affluent of the Napo, one of the tributaries of the Amazon. 
 
 AZUN (VAL D ), a valley, France, dep. Hautes-Pyre ne es, 
 traversed by the Gave, and called, from its beauty, the Eden 
 of the Pyrenees. It is intersected by the stream whence it 
 is named, and opens out \V. of the valley of Argelez, about 
 
 3 m. S.W. the town of that name, and extends up into the 
 central chain, between the mountains called Pic du Midi 
 d Azun and Pic de Gabisos, and contains 10 considerable vil 
 lages. It produces principally flax and millet. The heights 
 are cultivated with care, and the lower parts afford excellent 
 pasturage for numerous herds of cattle. At the extremity of 
 the valley is the road leading to Spain. 
 
 AZURARA, a seaport tn. Portugal, prov. Entre Douro- 
 e-Minho, 1. bank, Ave, at its junction with the sea ; the former 
 separates it from Villa do Conde, of which it may be con 
 sidered a suburb ; lat. 41 20 N. ; Ion. 8 37 18" W. ; 15 m. 
 N. from Oporto. Pop. 788. 
 
 BAAGOE, or BAAO, two small islands, Denmark: 1, 
 In bail. Mb en, between isls. Falster and Seeland, from which it 
 is about equally distant ; lat. (centre) 54 57 N. ; Ion. 12 4 E.; 
 about 3 or 4 m. long, and about 2 m. broad at the broadest 
 part. It is fertile, has a village named Bogoby, and about 
 1000 inhabitants. 2, In the Little Belt, between isl. Odense 
 and the E. coast of Schleswig, in lat. (S. point) 55 17 42" N. ; 
 Ion. 9 48 0" E. (R.), about 2 m. in length, and 1 in breadth. 
 It is fertile, and forms part of the par. of Assens in Ftihnen. 
 
 BAALBEC, or BALBEC [called by the Greeks, Heliopolis 
 the city of the sun], Syria, 40 m. N.W. Damascus, 
 anciently a populous and magnificent city, now in ruins, and 
 inhabited only by a few poor families ; situated on a rising 
 ground, near the N.E. extremity of the plain of Bocat or 
 Bekka, between the heights of Libanus and Anti-Libanus. 
 On an elevated platform, about 1 100 ft. in length, from E. to 
 W., and 700 ft. in width, from N. to S., the principal ruins, 
 seen from a distance, tower like the ridge of a hill. The 
 most remarkable ruin is that of the great temple, which 
 stands at the E. extremity, and occupies a circuit of more 
 than half a mile. A handsome flight of steps leads to a Corin 
 thian propylaBum or portico, 260 ft. in length. This portico 
 leads into a hexagonal court, 1 44 ft. in diameter, surrounded 
 by chambers in ruins. From the AV. side of this enclosure, 
 a gateway and sloping ascent lead into a grand quadrangular 
 court, 347 ft. long, by 317 ft. wide. It occupies the highest 
 and central part of the platform, and is surrounded by apart 
 ments, some of them semicircular alcoves, 30 ft. in diameter, 
 and others quadrangular, of larger dimensions, with light 
 arched roofs. A kind of colonnade appears to have run 
 
 BAALBKO. From Labonle, Voyjtge 
 
 alon" the front of these apartments, supporting in its centre a 
 
 level with the hexagonal court already mentioned, are two 
 vaulted parallel passages, running E. and W., and connected 
 with a third passage running N. and S. The walls of these 
 passages, and a semicircular arch which rests upon them, are 
 composed of large blocks closely fitted, and of admirable work 
 manship. Immediately to the W. is a space 283 ft. long, by 
 1 18 wide, once the site of a magnificent temple. It appears to 
 have had a peristyle of Corinthian columns, 10 in front, and 19 
 on the sides. Six of them still remain, of exquisite proportions, 
 and colossal dimensions. They are 7 ft. in diameter, and, with 
 their pedestals, are 7 1 ft. high. The shafts consist of three 
 pieces, beautifully fitted without cement. The whole height, 
 including the entablature and a fine cornice above the columns, 
 is nearly 80 ft. A little to the S. there is a smaller but more 
 perfect temple, in the form of a quadrangle, 225 ft. by 118 ft., 
 with a peristyle of Corinthian columns, 45 ft. high, 19 ft. in 
 circuit, and 9 ft. apart. They were surmounted by a bold 
 cornice 7 ft. high, and connected with the wall by a stone 
 ceiling finely sculptured. The entrance to this temple is 
 through an exquisitely carved doorway, 26 ft. high by 20 ft. 
 wide, with a staircase on each side leading to the summit. The 
 interior, 118 ft. by 65 ft., had niches on each side, and two 
 screens, behind the innermost of which the object of worship 
 is supposed to have been placed. The roof has fallen in, and 
 the floor lies covered with a confused mass of sculptured frag 
 ments. The substructure of these monuments consists of pon 
 derous hewn masses of such prodigious size, that one is lost in 
 astonishment as to the mechanical means by which they could 
 be removed from the quarry to their place. The largest of 
 them is 67 ft. long, 14 ft. broad, and 9 ft. thick. Another, 
 still more gigantic, lies in the 
 great quarry about three quar 
 ters of a mile from the town, 
 almost separated from the rock 
 preparatory to its removal. 
 There are other interesting ruins 
 in Baalbec besides those alluded 
 to, and the entire neighbour 
 hood, for several miles round, is 
 covered with them. 
 
 The history of Baalbec is very 
 obscure, but there is evidence of 
 its having been a place of im 
 portance in the time of Antoni 
 nus Pius, under the name of 
 Heliopolis, and in all probability 
 for ages before. It was the sta 
 tion of a garrison in the time of 
 Augustus, and was then a great 
 and wealthy city. By whom it 
 was first founded, however, is 
 unknown, neither has it been as 
 certained when its temples were 
 erected. Although gradually de 
 clining through a long series of 
 
 years, its decay, latterly, was peculiarly rapid. In 1751, its 
 
 , 
 
 structure of considerable extent, on which one of the altars of population amounted to 5000; in 1835, it had fallen to 200. 
 Baal is supposed to have stood. Beneath this court, and on a i The whole town presents now a most wretched appearance. 
 
BAAMBKUGGE 
 
 285 
 
 BAB-EL-MANDEB 
 
 The inhabitants manufacture white cotton cloth to a smal 
 extent, and have some dyeing-houses. There were also, unti 
 within these few years, several tanneries in the town. The pro 
 
 PoancUM OF THE LITTLE TEMPLE, BAALBKC. 
 
 From Luborde. Voyage en Orient. 
 
 perty of the people consists chiefly of cows, with a few goats and 
 sheep. Baalbec mules are much esteemed. Pop. (1835), 200. 
 
 BAAMBRUGGE, a vil. Holland, prov. of, and 12 m. 
 N.W. Utrecht, 1. bank, Krommen-Angstel, having a small 
 Calvim stic church and two schools. Being on the main road 
 from Utrecht to Amsterdam, there is considerable traffic 
 through it. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in cattle- 
 rearing, and in the cheese and butter trade. Pop. 700. 
 
 BAAU. 1, An extensive dist. Baden, forming the chief 
 part of the principality of Fiirstenburg. It lies in the Black 
 Forest, partly in the Lake and partly in the Danube circle, 
 and, besides numerous villages, contains 10 towns. It is very 
 hilly, but a good deal of grain is grown on its lower grounds, 
 while the higher yield excellent pasture. The horses reared 
 on it are in high repute. A great many of the inhabitants 
 
 are clockmakers. 2, BAAR, or BAR, a tn. Switzerland, can. 
 
 of, and 2 m. N. Zug, on the road to Zurich, in a fertile plain, 
 1380 ft. above the sea. The townhall is a handsome edifice, 
 built in 1674. There is a large paper-manufactory here, and 
 a considerable trade is carried on with the surrounding district. 
 The vine is cultivated, and fairish wine produced. Pop. 2 135. 
 
 BA ARDWIJK, a pleasant vil. Holland, prov. N. Brabant, 
 10 m. E. Geertruidenburg, founded, say some, by the Danes, 
 say others by the Longobards. It has a R. catholic and a 
 Calvinistic church, a small almshouse for old men, a school, 
 and a cornmill. Pop. chiefly agricultural, 1153. 
 
 BAARLAND, a vil. Holland, prov. Zeeland Island, S. 
 Beveland, 14 m. S.E. Arnemuiden, in the middle of a fertile 
 country and richly-watered meadows. It has a good-looking 
 church, with a lofty spire, a school, and a pop. of 500. 
 
 BAARLE, BAARLE-NASSAU, or BAAL, a vil. Holland, 
 prov. N. Brabant, 12 m. S.S.E. Breda, on the Belgian frontier, 
 so closely connected with Baarle-Hertog in Belgium, prov. 
 Antwerp, that the two in fact make but one village. Of two 
 contiguous houses, one is frequently in Holland, and the other 
 in Belgium, and some even being built exactly on the line 
 of demarcation between the two countries, have the frontier 
 mark on their gables and chimney-stalks. It has two churches, 
 
 some church, which is adorned with a lofty spire. It is an 
 old place and was formerly a town. Pop. 900. 
 
 BABA, the name of several towns in different parts of 
 the world, of two capes in Asiatic Turkey, and of two islands 
 in the Asiatic Archipelago: 1, A tn. Turkey in Asia, on a 
 shelving point of Cape Baba, on the Grecian Archipelago, 
 immediately above the sea ; lat. 39 30 5" N. ; Ion. 26 5 E. 
 It is ill built, and the houses mean- looking, being constructed 
 of iinburnt brick. It contains a mosque and a half-ruined 
 castle, and was at one time celebrated for the manufacture of 
 knives and sword-blades, which were held in high esteem by 
 the Turks. This trade has now much fallen off, though a 
 portion of it yet remains, the yataghans of Baba being still 
 famous. The port, which is in front of the town, and formed 
 of large fragments of rock, is capable of admitting small boats 
 only. Large vessels, however, frequently anchor in the road 
 stead, under shelter of the cape, during the prevalence of N. 
 winds. The inhabitants are occupied chiefly in pastoral pur 
 suits, raising cattle, the pasturage both on the high and low 
 grounds being excellent, and in growing valonia, which they 
 export in large quantities. Pop. 4000. 2, A tn. Turkey in 
 Europe, Upper Wallachia, 1. bank, Ketniste ; lat. 44 5 N. ; 
 Ion. 25 53 E. Pop. 2000. 3, A tn. Turkey in Europe, prov. 
 Trikala or Thessaly, r. bank, Salembria, and about 9 m. from 
 its embouchure in the Gulf of Salonika, 14 m. N.N.E. La- 
 
 rissa. 4, A tn. Ecuador, dep. of, and 42 m. N. Guayaquil, 
 
 at the N. extremity of Lake Sanboramban. Pop. 4000.- - 
 5, and 6, Two capes in Asiatic Turkey, one on the S. shore of 
 the Black Sea; lat. 41 20 54" N.; Ion. 31 26 E. (R.) ; the 
 other, the Lectrum Promontorium of the ancients, 011 the 
 E. shore of the Grecian Archipelago ; lat. 39 28 12" N. ; Ion. 
 26 2 30" E. (R.); on the N. side of the Gulf of Adramyti. 
 ?, An isl. in the Banda Sea, Indian Archipelago. See 
 BABBEK. 8, One of the Aiou islands (which see). 
 
 BABABEG, SHUHRE-BABIC, or SHEHER-E-BABEC, a tn. 
 Persia, prov. Kerman ; lat. 29 53 N. ; Ion. 55 3 E. ; for 
 merly a flourishing city, and the depot of merchandise passing 
 from Gombroon, on the Persian Gulf, into the interior, but 
 .ow much decayed. It has four gates, and from each a long 
 street leads to the market-place in the centre, the dome over 
 which is said to be the largest in Persia. It is the residence 
 of the deputy-governor of Kerman, and celebrated for its fruit- 
 gardens. 
 
 BABA-DAGH, a fortified tn. Turkey in Europe (Bul 
 garia), pash. Silistria, built by the Turkish Sultan, Bajazet; 
 "at. 44 53 N. ; Ion. 28 40 E. The streets are paved, but 
 dirty ; it has five mosques, two public baths, and a college ; 
 nd carries on a considerable trade through the port of Kara 
 Kerman, an outlet of Lake liassein, on the Black Sea. Pop. 
 10,000. 
 
 BABAKANDA, a tn. Fellattah country, W. Africa; 
 at. 10 2 N. ; Ion. 2 55 E. It contains a royal residence, 
 n which the king or chief of the district frequently resides, 
 jrood crops of rice and other kinds of grain are produced in 
 he vicinity ; very large yams and edible bulbous plants are 
 cultivated ; and ginger is abundant. Cattle are plentiful, 
 hough of inferior appearance. The chief manufacture of the 
 )lace is leather, and wretched sabres, which retain whatever 
 )end is given them. Pop. 9000 or 10,000. (Duncan s 
 Travels in W. Africa.} 
 
 BABBER, or BABA, an isl., S. Moluccas, 69 m. W. Timor 
 Laut ; lat. (E. point) 7 52 S. ; Ion. 129 53 E. It is hilly, 
 and in its W. end is the village Tepa, off which is good 
 inchorage, during the E. monsoon, in 14 to 16 fathoms. 
 The greater part of the island is covered with natural wood, 
 ind abounds in wild cattle, pigs, and goats. Very little of it 
 s cultivated, the inhabitants raising their Egyptian wheat, 
 :ocoa-nuts, &c., in the small fertile island of Wetang, lying 
 W. of Babber. The people are poor, and are visited once a 
 ear by vessels from Banda, for the purpose of trading. 
 
 BABCARY, par. Eng. Somerset ; 2450 ac. Pop. 465. 
 
 BABEL ISLAND, an isl. Bass s Strait, contiguous to the 
 E. point of Great Island ; lat. 39 57 S. ; Ion. 148 20 E. (R.) 
 BAB-EL-MANDEB [The gate of tears], the straits at 
 he entrance to the Red Sea, from the Gulf of Aden, formed 
 
 as many schools, two horse and cattle-markets, and an agri- | by approaching points of Arabia and Abyssinia, about 15 m. 
 cultural pop. of 500. I broad at the narrowest part ; and divided into two channels of 
 
 BAARN, a vil. Holland, prov. of, and 12 m. N.E. Utrecht, j unequal breadth, by the small island of Perim, lying near the 
 pleasantly situated, and built round the large, old. but hand- I Arabian coast; lat. (S. point) 12 38 N. ; Ion. 43 23 E. (R.) 
 
BAB-EL-MANDEB (SEA OF) 
 
 BACCARAT 
 
 The E. or Little Strait, between Perim and the Arabian coast, 
 about 3 in. in width, with from 9 to 14 fathoms water, is the 
 most frequented, notwithstanding the greater rapidity of its 
 current, being free from shoals, and its moderate depth allow 
 ing anchorage. The W. channel, or the Greater Strait, be 
 tween Perim and the Abyssinian shore, is about 12 m. wide, 
 but much obstructed by rocks and islets. At the narrowest 
 part, Cape Bab-el-Mandeb projects from the Arabian coast, 
 in lat. 12 41 N.; Ion. 43 27 E. (u.) 
 
 BAB-EL-MANDEB (SEA OF). Sec ADEN (GULP OF). 
 
 BABENHAUSEN. 1, A tn. Bavaria, circle, Swabia, 
 
 1. bank, Giinz, 34 m. S.W. Augsburg. It has a handsome 
 palace, the residence of the Fugger family, the celebrated 
 banker princes, and an agricultural population of 1711. 
 
 2, A vil. grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, prov. Starken- 
 burg, 1. bank, Gesprenz, 19 m. S.E. Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
 It contains an ancient castle, formerly the residence of the 
 Counts of Hanau-Lichtenberg, now a military house of cor 
 rection; and a Lutheran parish church, built in the 16th cen 
 tury, with statues of popes and bishops ; also a brickwork 
 and a gluework. Pop. nearly all Lutherans, 1650. 
 
 BABIACORA, a tn. Mexico, state, Sonora, 1. bank, 
 Souora, 50 m. S.S.W. Arispe. 
 
 BABINAGrtEDA, a large vil. Austria, Sclavonia, dist. 
 of, and about 30 m. E. Brod, between the morasses of Berava 
 and Koniska. It contains a R. catholic parish church, and 
 an old castle. Pop. 4185. 
 
 BABINGLEY, or BABURGHLEY, par. Eng. Norfolk; 
 870 ac. The first Christian church in E. Anglia was erected 
 here. Pop. 54. 
 
 BABINGTON, par. Eng. Somerset; 600 ac. Pop. 163. 
 
 BABRAHAM, par. Eng. Cambridge; 2350 ac. Pop. 
 217 
 
 BABUAN, an isl. Sooloo Archipelago, about 20 m. N.E. 
 Tawi-tawi ; lat. 5 20 N. ; Ion. 120 4 E. 
 
 BABUYANES, or BATANES, a group of small islands, 
 N. the island of Luzon, and S. of Formosa, between lat. 
 18 52 and 19 36 N.; and Ion. 121 6 and 123 12 E., 
 separated on the N. from the Bashee Islands by the Strait of 
 Balintang. They consist of numerous rocky islets, and the 
 five larger islands of Calayan, Claro, Babuyan, Camiguin, 
 Dalupiri, and Fuga ; some of which are volcanic. Camiguin, 
 which is one of the largest of them, abounds in sulphur, 
 and has a port called San Pio Quinto. The inhabitants of 
 these islands, who are tall and well made, and have but an 
 indifferent character for honesty, are not subjected to tribute, 
 on account of their extreme poverty ; only contributing a 
 little tortoise-shell, and a small number of other articles. The 
 natural products are wax, ebony, bananas, and cocoa-nuts. 
 (Mallat s Philippines.) 
 
 BABWORTH, par. Eng. Notts; 5490 ac. Pop. 577. 
 
 BABYLON, or BABEL, an anc. city, Assyria, cap. Chaldea, 
 on a branch of the Euphrates, wnich divided the city into two 
 parts. Although once the most famous city in the world, so 
 complete has been its annihilation that its very site has be 
 come matter of doubt. Rich, Niebuhr, and Rennel suppose 
 it to have been near the modern town of Hillah, about 48 m. 
 S. Bagdad, containing about 12,000 inhabitants, chiefly Arabs 
 and Jews, and the residence of a Turkish bey. According to 
 Herodotus, the city was of a square form, each side measuring 
 15 m., and of course the four sides 60 in. It was encompassed 
 with walls built of burnt bricks, cemented with bitumen, 
 350 ft. high and 87 ft. thick, and with 250 towers, 100 gates 
 of brass, and protected on the outside by a vast ditch filled 
 with water, and proportioned in width and depth to the eleva 
 tion of the walls. Streets, 50 in number, stretched across the 
 city, intersecting each other at right angles, and terminating 
 at the different gates. The river, traversing it from N. to S., 
 was lined with quays of the same thickness as the walls, and 
 crossed by bridges of great beauty and admirable contrivance, 
 each about 200 yards long and 10 broad. The whole city 
 contained 676 squares, each 2J m. in circumference. It is 
 difficult to conceive a more thorough destruction than that by 
 which Babylon has been overtaken. The city enclosed large 
 tracts of pasture and arable land, sufficient to support the 
 whole population during a long siege. Amongst the ruins of 
 Babylon, three mounds attract particular attention. First, 
 Birs Nemroud, or Nim rod s Tower (called by the Jews Nebu 
 chadnezzar s Prison), the most remarkable and stupendous 
 
 mass of all the ruins. It is a huge oblong edifice, 762 ft. in 
 circumference, situated about 6 m. S.W. of Hillah, on the W. 
 bank of the Euphrates. It has been generally supposed to 
 be a remnant of the great pile of Babel, but more properly 
 belonged to the city of Birs, Bursif, or Borsippa, one of the 
 quarters of the Babylon of Herodotus. Second, El-Kasr, the 
 castle or palace, consisting of several ruined walls and piers, 
 which face the cardinal points, and contain many caves and 
 passages. These walls are 8 ft. thick; in some places orna 
 mentcd with niches, and in others strengthened by pilasters 
 and buttresses, built of fine-burnt brick, still perfectly clear 
 :uid sharp, laid in lime cement, of such tenacity that it is 
 almost impossible to extract a whole brick. (Rich.) Third, 
 The MujelibS, or the Overturned, an extensive mound, of 
 oblong shape and irregular height, also facing the four cardinal 
 points. The elevation of its highest angle is 141 ft. Rich 
 thinks that, in some respects, the Mujelibe corresponds to the 
 accounts of the celebrated hanging-gardens of Babylon ; which, 
 according to Strabo, formed a square of 400 ft. on each face, 
 and stood upon the river, that supplied them with water. But, 
 from the circumstance of skeletons and wooden coffins being 
 found in this mass of ruins, it is conjectured to have been a 
 great brick pyramid for the dead, and perhaps also used for 
 an observatory. The surrounding country is a desert, in 
 habited only by some wandering Arab tribes, and periodically 
 subject to inundations. At one period, immense canals, inter 
 secting the plain of Babylon, connected the waters of the 
 
 Euphrates with the Tigris. Besides the ancient capital of 
 
 Chaldea, there appears to have been another city of the same 
 name in Egypt, on the site of which old Cairo is built. 
 (D Anville s Gco.; Rich s Memoir; Kennel s Geo. of Herodotus; 
 Porter s Travels; Mignan s Travels in Chaldea; Niebuhr, 
 Voyage en Arable.) 
 
 BABYLONIA, the name of an ancient kingdom, which 
 comprehended a narrow tract along the Euphrates, extending 
 about 154 m. from the modern town of Sheikh el-Shuyukh 
 N.W. to the ruins of Babylon, and thence, in the same direc 
 tion, 287 m. to Kalneh on the Khabur. Its E. boundary was 
 Assyria, and thus it included the greater part of what was 
 afterwards called Mesopotamia. The name Babylonia still 
 remains, and is more particularly applied to the S.E. portion 
 of the pashalic of Bagdad. 
 
 BABY PULO, three islands, Indian Archipelago [Ptilo 
 signifying island "] : 1, An isl., E. the N.E. entrance into the 
 Strait of Sunda; lat. (W. point) 5 48 S. ; Ion. 106 17 E. (R.) 
 It is woody and bold, excepting at the E. end. 2, A small 
 isl. off the S.W. extremity of Wetter Island, at the N. entrance 
 of the Ombay Passage ; lat. 8 5 S. ; Ion. 125 40 E. It is 
 high and bold to approach on the W. side. The passage be 
 tween it and Wetter is said to be unsafe. 3, A small isl. 
 between the islands of Ceram and Booro, but much nearer 
 the former than the latter; lat. 3 10 S. ; Ion. 127 50 E. 
 The passage channel between Baby Pulo and Ceram is narrow, 
 and fit for proas and small vessels only. 
 
 BACALAR, or SAN FELIPE DE BACALAK [anc. Sala 
 manca], a vil. Yucatan, on the N.W. extremity of a small lake 
 of the same name, where it receives the San Joseph, about 
 86 m. N.N.W. Belize. It contains about 120 houses, inhab 
 ited chiefly by Indians, and is much frequented by English 
 smugglers. 
 
 BACALHAO, an isl. off the S.E. coast, Newfoundland ; 
 lat. (N. point) 48 9 N. ; Ion. 52 52 W. (R.) It is high, 
 nearly 4 m. long and 1 broad, and is distant about 1 m. from 
 the mainland, with a good channel between. 
 
 BACAMARTE, a vil. Brazil, prov. Parahiba, 16 m. from 
 Campina-Grande. It lies in the hills of the same name, and 
 its inhabitants are chiefly engaged in cultivating cotton. 
 
 BACCARAT [anc. Burgaracum], a tn. France, dep. 
 Meurthe, arrond. of, and 16 m. S.E. Luneville, on the 
 Meurthe, which is here crossed by a bridge of nine arches. It 
 is noted for its extensive manufacture of crystal, which affords 
 employment to upwards of 1000 workmen. The method of 
 moulding crystal in imitation of cut glass was invented here, 
 by M. Ishmael Robinet, in 1823. Baccarat has also manu 
 factures of calicoes and cotton stuffs, tanneries, sawmills, and 
 a chemical work, for the preparation of soda, muriatic acid, 
 chloride of lime, manganese, &c. An annual fair is held in 
 July, for grain and cattle, and a considerable trade is done in 
 timber. Pop. 2794. 
 
BACCIIIGLIONE 
 
 287 
 
 BADAJOZ 
 
 BACCHIGLIONE, a river, Austrian Italy, gov. Venice. 
 It rises about 13 m. N. Vicenza, passes that city and Padua, 
 (lowing S. and S.E., and falls into the Gulf of Venice in lat. 
 45 8 N. ; Ion. 12 17 E., about 3 m. S. Chioggia, after a 
 course of about 65 m. 
 
 BACHARACH, a tn. Prussia, prov. Lower Rhine, 1. 
 bank, Rhine, 29m. S. Coblentz. It is a place of great an 
 tiquity, surrounded by an old wall, flanked with towers, which 
 have a picturesque effect. It is said to have been originally 
 a Roman fort, and to take its name from a rock in the river, 
 called Bacclii-ara [altar of Bacchus] , which, though usually 
 under water, becomes exposed in very dry seasons, and is 
 then hailed as the harbinger of a good vintage. The chief 
 things worthy of notice in Bachar.ach are the romantic remains 
 of an old church, called Werner s Church, on a steep acclivity 
 above the town; and its wine, which, though produced in 
 limited quantity, the only soil fit for it being confined to scat 
 tered patches among the rocks, has been celebrated for 
 centuries. Besides the culture of the vine, a manufactory of 
 morocco and common leather gives employment to the in 
 habitants, amounting to about 1900. 
 
 BACHIAN. See BATSHIAN. 
 
 BACK STAIRS PASSAGE, the E. entrance into the 
 Gulf of St. Vincent, S. Australia, formed by the E. end of 
 Kangaroo Island, and Cape Jervis on the mainland. It is 
 about 7 m. wide, and has some islands, called the Pages, at 
 its entrance ; but the passage is safe, with from 9 to 15, and 
 17 fathoms. 
 
 BACK S RIVER, the name now given, in honour of 
 Capt. Back, to a river originally called the Thleweechodezeth 
 or Great Fish River, British N. America, N.W. territory. 
 It rises in Sussex Lake, near the N.E. extremity of Lake 
 Aylmer, in lat. 64 15 N., and Ion. 108 10 W., and proceeds 
 N.N.E., through a region of sand and granite, to lat. 65 30 N., 
 then turns suddenly S., and makes a long circular sweep 
 towards the S.E., passing over numerous rapids. Near lat. 
 65 10 N. and Ion. 104 W., it again turns N., and enters 
 Lakes Pelly and Garry; on emerging from which it is broken 
 by a series of falls and rapids, and resuming its original course 
 of N.N.E., continues it to its mouth in a bay, supposed to be 
 part of Boothia Gulf, lat. 67 N. ; Ion. 95 W. The whole 
 tract through which the river flows is sometimes called Back s 
 Land. 
 
 BACKERGUNGE. 1, A dist. Hindoostan, prov. Ben 
 gal, on the coast between the Ganges and the Brahmapootra, 
 and including part of the deltas of these rivers, and having the 
 Sunderbunds or Soondurbuns on the S.W. Tigers and alliga 
 tors are numerous here, and attain an immense size. The dis 
 trict is in many parts exceedingly fertile, producing annually 
 two abundant crops of rice, but is subject to destructive inun 
 dations; that which occurred in June 1822 destroyed 10,000 
 persons. It was much infested, also, by Dacoits or river 
 pirates; but, by the perseverance of the British authorities, 
 they have been almost wholly put down. More than one-half 
 of the inhabitants are Hindoos, the remainder Mahometans. 
 Area, 3794 sq. m. Pop. 733, 800. 2, A tn., same dist., 120m. 
 E. Calcutta; lat. 22 42 N.; Ion. 89 20 E. 
 
 BACKFORD, par. Eug. Chester; 3320 ao. Pop. 556. 
 
 BACKNANG, a tn. Wiirtemberg, circle, Necker, 16 m. 
 N.E. Stuttgardt, on the Murr; contains a collegiate church, 
 with the tombs of the first Margraves of Baden, and has 
 manufactures of woollen and linen goods, and some tanneries. 
 Pop. 3587. . 
 
 BACKOFEN, a market tn. Bohemia, circle, Bunzlau, 
 1. bank, Iser, 35 m. N.E. Prague. It is governed by its own 
 magistracy, and contains a townhouse, two churches, and an 
 hospital. In the Thirty Years War, it was pillaged by the 
 Swedes. Pop. 1010. 
 
 BACKWELL, or BACHWELL, par. Eng. Somerset; 
 2750 ac. Pop. 1161. 
 
 BACOLOR, a tn., isl. Luzon, cap. prov. Pampanga, 
 about 38 m. N.W. Manilla; in a plain, and near the river 
 Pampanga, with which it has communication by means of a 
 
 Ion. 69 20 W.; when, assuming the name of Guanaparo, it 
 falls into the Portuguesa, in lat. 8 5 N.; Ion. 68 W. 
 
 BACON8THORPE, par. Eng. Norfolk; 1460 ac. P. 326. 
 
 BACQUEVILLE, a tn. France, dep. Seine-Inferieure, 
 llm. S.W. Dieppe. It manufactures stockings, serges, and 
 bed-ticking; and has some trade in cattle. Pop. 1494. 
 i BACS, or BATSCH, a market tn., S.E. Hungary, co. Bacs- 
 Bodrogh, 27 m. S. Zomhor, near the Mosztonga marsh; lat. 
 45 24 N.; Ion. 19 20 E. It was formerly a royal free 
 town, and the see of a R. Catholic and Greek bishop. The 
 transit trade is considerable. Pop. 2770. 
 
 BACS-BODROGIIER, a co., S. Hungary, circle, beyond 
 the Danube. It contains three free towns, nine market towns, 
 and 96 villages ; is one of the largest counties in the circle, 
 and forms part of the great alluvial, often swampy, and 
 consequently unhealthy tract, which lies between the Theiss 
 and the Danube. It is bounded N. by the Franzens Canal, 
 so called after the Emperor Francis. The soil is very fertile, 
 and produces in abundance wheat, tobacco, and wine. The 
 lakes are numerous, and teem with fish. From the largest 
 of them, Lake Palics, large quantities of alkali are obtained. 
 Fuel is scarce ; and the only substitute possessed by the greater 
 part of the population is cow-dung, mixed with straw. In this 
 county is an entrenchment, attributed to the Romans, which is 
 several miles long. Area, 3625 sq. m. Pop. nearly 500,000. 
 
 BACTON, three pars. Eng.: 1, Hereford ; 950 ac. P. 140. 
 2, Norfolk; 1730 ac. P. 513. 3, Suffolk; 2380 ac. P.800. 
 
 BACUP, a vil. and chapelry, England, Lancashire. The 
 VILLAGE, in a beautiful valley, 12 m. E. by S. Blackburn, 
 and a station of the East Lancashire Railway, contains a 
 church, two Baptist and two Methodist chapels, and a 
 mechanics institution. Here are brass and iron foundries, 
 a large corn-mill, and three considerable dye-works ; but the 
 principal manufactures consist of cotton-spinning, and power- 
 Joom- weaving. Pop. 7279. 
 
 BADAGRY, a tn. of W. Africa, Bight of Benin; lat. 
 6 24 12" N.; Ion. 2 53 15" W. (R.) ; 60 m. E. Whydah, and 
 315m. E.N.E. Cape Coast Castle, on the inner side of a lagoon, 
 two-thirds of a mile from the landing-place. Pop. 10,OUO. 
 
 BADAJO/ [anc. Pax Julia; Arab. JJdedaix\, a tn. Spain, 
 cap. prov. of same name, Estremadura, about 5 m. from the 
 E. frontiers of Portugal. It stands on a tongue of land formed 
 
 canal. It was the capital of the Philippines during the British 
 In December, January, and February, 
 
 invasion in 1762. 
 
 fever is prevalent. Pop. tn. and environs, 8548. 
 
 BACONO, a river, Venezuela, rises in a mountainous 
 district, about 10 m. S.E. Truxillo; lat. 8 52 N. ; Ion. 
 70 20 W.; whence it flows S. and S.E., to lat. 8 N.; 
 
 
 1. St. Vincent* 
 
 2. St. Joseph. 
 
 3. St. Jaga. 
 
 Reference to Bastions, &c.: 
 
 14. St. John. 
 6. St. Roque. 
 . Santa Maria, 
 
 7. Trinidad. 
 
 8. Peter del Pilgrli 
 
 9. Catliedral. 
 
 by the junction of the Rivillas and the Guadiana; the former 
 enclosing it on the N. and E., and the latter on the N.W., 
 where it is crossed by a superb granite bridge of 28 arches. 
 Badajoz is a regular fortress, of remarkable strength. For 
 midable walls and bastions, with a wide and deep fosse, sur 
 round it on all sides ; while a series of important outworks, 
 placed partly on the tongue of land and partly on the opposite 
 
BADAJOZ 
 
 288 
 
 BADEN (GRAND DUCHY) 
 
 banks of the rivers, adds greatly to its means of defence. The 
 highest part of the site in the N., near the Rivillas, is occupied 
 by an old Moorish castle, from which point the ground slopes 
 gradually to the E., S., and W., and is intersected by numerous 
 streets, which, though very indifferently paved, are in general 
 spacious, clean, and lined with well-built houses, many of 
 them of three stories, with balconied, and painted or white 
 washed fronts, which have a cheerful appearance. As a whole, 
 however, the town is said to be dull, and to have few social 
 attractions, beyond a fine promenade along the banks of the 
 river. The principal building is the cathedral, begun in 1248, 
 but possessed of no architectural merit. The facade, which 
 is of a later date, is in the Graco-Roman style, with Ionic 
 pillars, and a statue of the Baptist. The interior is adorned 
 with some fine paintings by Mateo Cerezo and Luis Morales, 
 the latter of whom, surnamed El Divino, was born here, and 
 gives name to a street. In addition to the cathedral are four 
 parish churches, two of which, the Conception and St. Augus 
 tine, also contain several paintings by Morales. The other 
 principal buildings are the arsenal ; the military hospital, with 
 beds for 220 patients; the college (seminario conciliar], well 
 endowed, and provided with a full establishment of professors ; 
 the theatre, and the prison, a large building, very imperfectly 
 ventilated. 
 
 Badajoz is the seat of a bishop, and at one time abounded 
 in ecclesiastical establishments, many of which have been 
 suppressed. Four nunneries, and some monasteries, still re 
 main. As the capital of the province, it is also the residence 
 of a captain-general, and contains several courts and public 
 offices. Its chief charity is the extensive and well-endowed 
 Hospicio de Nostra Sefiora de la Piedad, founded in 1757. 
 The manufactures are of little importance, consisting of a few 
 linen and woollen stuffs, china, and leather. There is some 
 trade by the river, and a little transit by muleteers. The 
 importance of Badajoz as a frontier fortress has subjected it to 
 repeated sieges. Those which took place during the penin 
 sular war are well known, particularly the last, in April 1812, 
 one of the most murderous on record, in which the British 
 prowess, so eminently displayed, was unhappily tarnished by 
 the brutal scenes which succeeded it. Pop. 11,715. 
 
 BADAJOZ, n prov. Spain, Estremadura, bounded, N. by 
 prov. Ciiceres, E. Ciudad Real, S.E. and S. Cordova, Seville, 
 and Huella, and W. Portugal ; area, 10,580 sq. m. The sur 
 face is very much diversified. Numerous mountain-ridges, 
 ramifications of the sierra Morena, traverse it in different 
 directions, but between these, and along the banks of the 
 rivers, are extensive tracts of rich alluvial soil, particularly 
 one called Barros, which is celebrated throughout Spain for 
 its remarkable fertility. The mountainous tracts are well 
 wooded with oak, ash, and other trees ; which are not only 
 extensively used for fuel, but furnish good timber, while the 
 acorns and the mast feed large herds of swine. Too much of 
 the province is said to be devoted to pasture ; and the parts 
 under cultivation, owing to a very imperfect system of man 
 agement, are far less productive than might be expected, from 
 their natural fertility. The chief river is the Guadiana, which 
 traverses the province E. to W., and receives several tribut 
 aries within it. The manufactures consist chiefly of soap, 
 coarse linen, leather, and a few other articles of home con 
 sumption ; the trade is chiefly internal, and as yet insignificant, 
 though a great addition is anticipated from a railroad which 
 is intended to connect Badajoz with Seville. The mines 
 registered within the province amount to 84 ; among which 
 are one of gold, 10 of silver, and several of cinnabar or quick 
 silver. The greater proportion, however, are of lead and 
 copper, though many even of these have ceased to be pro 
 ductive. The climate, particularly in the lower districts, is 
 both hot and damp, and intermittent fevers are very prevalent. 
 The province, for administrative purposes, is divided into 15 
 districts ; and, ecclesiastically, forms a diocese of same name, 
 whose bishop is suffragan to Santiago. Pop. 336, J 36. 
 BADAKSHAN. See BUDUKSHAN. 
 BADALONA, a tn. Spain, in Catalonia, prov. -of, and 
 7 m. N.E. Barcelona; in a fertile plain, 1. bank, Besos, near 
 its embouchure in the Mediterranean Sea. It has two squares, 
 an ancient parish church, two schools, several fountains, and 
 a ruined convent, of the order of St. Jerome, burned in the 
 late war. Cotton-weaving and silk-dyeing are carried on, 
 agricultural produce is exported, and, besides husbandry, 
 
 the inhabitants are engaged in fishing and seafaring. Pop. 
 5000- 
 
 BADAUMY, a hill-fort, Hindoostan, prov. Bejapoor, 
 55 m. N.E. Darwar ; considered one of the strongest forts in 
 India ; lat. 15 55 N. ; Ion. 75 49 E. It was taken by the 
 British, under Sir Thomas Munro, in 1818, although it had 
 previously successfully resisted the efforts of an entire Maha- 
 ratta army. The neighbourhood presents an extraordinary 
 assemblage of huge disconnected rocks, piled on each other, 
 and scattered about in the wildest confusion. 
 
 BADBY, par. Eng. Northampton; 2370 ac. Pop. 624. 
 
 BADDESLEY, three pars. Eng. : 1, Baddesley (North], 
 Hants; 2570 ac. Pop. 302. 2, Baddesley Clinton, War 
 wick; 1140 ac. Pop. 115. 3, Baddesley- Ensor, a parochial 
 chapelry, Warwick; 1340 ac. Pop. 579. 
 
 BADDILEY, par. Eng. Chester; 2080 ae. Pop. 275. 
 
 BADDOW, two pars. Eng.: 1, Baddow (Great), Essex; 
 4030 ac. Pop. 2022. 2, Baddmo (Little), Essex; 1830 ac. 
 Pop. 592. 
 
 BADEBORN, a tn. Germany, duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg, 
 dist. of, and about 5 m. from Ballenstadt. It is a tolerably 
 well-built thriving place, and has two gates. Pop. 1210. 
 
 BADEN (GRAND DDCHY OF), the seventh state of the 
 Germanic Confederation, in the S.W. corner of Germany, be 
 tween lat. 47 and 49 N., and Ion. 25 and 27 E. ; bounded, 
 N. by Hesse -Darmstadt and Bavaria, E. by Wiirtemberg and 
 an interjected portion of Hohenzollern, S. by Switzerland, and 
 W. by France. It is of very irregular form, and has no 
 proper natural boundaries. On the W., and part of the S., 
 its contour is defined by the Rhine ; but in other directions it 
 is much indented and mixed up with other states. It may be 
 described as a long stripe of land stretching N.E. to S.W., 
 narrowest at the centre, widening considerably towards the 
 N., and much more towards the S. base. The line through its 
 centre, and forming a slight curve, with its convexity E., is 
 about 175 m. Its breadth varies from 13 m., where it is nar 
 rowest, a little to the N. of Baden town, to 85 m. Its area, 
 owing to its extreme irregularity, is not easily calculated ; but, 
 according to the latest measurements, is 4456 geo. sq. m., sub 
 divided into four circles, viz., the Lake Circle in the S.E., and 
 the circles of the Upper, the Middle, and the Lower Rhine, in 
 the S., W., centre, and N., respectively. The surface is occu 
 pied as follows: Arable land, 2,179,375 ac.; meadows and 
 pastures, 993,795 ac. ; wood, 2,234,850 ac. ; vineyards, 127,780 
 ac.; gardens, 89,930 ac.; waste, 31,700 ac. The remainder 
 is occupied by water, buildings, streets, roads, &c. 
 
 Physical Features. Baden is decidedly mountainous, being 
 traversed to a considerable extent by the lofty plateau of the 
 Schwarzwald or Black Forest, which, commencing in the 
 circle of the Upper Rhine, between Basel and Waldshut, pro- 
 eeeds in a N. direction, forming, by its W. side, the range of 
 romantic precipices which bound the valley of the Rhine, while 
 its E. side slopes much more gradually. Its highest points 
 are the Feldberg, 4675 ft. in height; the Belchen, 4642 ft.; 
 Blossling, 4380 ft. ; Hochkopf, 4333 ft. ; Kohegarten, 4039 ft. ; 
 Hochfiirst, 4000 ft. ; and the Faulenfiirst, 3553 ft. Another 
 range, of no great elevation, though somewhat precipitous, 
 called the Heiligenberg, attains its greatest height in the 
 vicinity of Heidelberg. In addition to these ranges, are the 
 two smaller groups of the Kaiserstuhl and the Odenwald. 
 The former has an isolated position, and appears to have at 
 one time belonged to an island. Its greatest height is about 
 1 916 ft. The Odenwald is usually regarded as a continuation 
 of the Black Forest, with which it merges imperceptibly, and, 
 stretching N. into Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt, flattens down 
 by a series of gentle slopes, and disappears. The nucleus of 
 the Black Forest and Heiligenberg consists of gneiss and 
 granite, usually overlain, S.W. by Jura limestone, E. by red 
 sandstone, which often forms extensive tracts, and occasion 
 ally appears in isolated masses, and N.E. by Alpine limestone. 
 The Kaiserstulil is evidently of volcanic formation. The Oden 
 wald is composed, for the most part, of red sandstone. In the 
 W., however, there is some gneiss, granite, and sienite; and 
 in the S., Alpine and shell limestone. These mountains are 
 intersected by valleys of more or less extent, which, occasion 
 ally cutting the Black Forest transversely, reach its E. side. 
 In the S., the valleys are generally short, with a rapid declivity 
 towards the N.W. In the N. they are much longer, and 
 have, in general, a much more gradual descent. 
 
BADEN (GKAND DUCHV) 
 
 289 
 
 BADEN (GIUND DUCHY) 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. Baden belongs entirely to the basins 
 of the Rhine and the Danube ; the former draining the far 
 larger portion of the surface, while the latter occupies only a 
 small portion of the S.E. corner, where it takes its rise, and 
 merely runs the few first miles of its mountain course. The 
 torrents which rush down the steep sides of the Black Forest, 
 hastening into the Rhine, are almost without number ; but 
 its chief affluents within Baden are the Neckar, Kinzig, Pfinz, 
 Alb, Murg, Elz, Weissen, and Wutach. Baden abounds in 
 lakes. A considerable part of the Lake of Constance, and 
 the whole of the Uberlingersee and Zellersee, belong to it, 
 with a great number of others, which, though small, are by 
 no means inconsiderable. 
 
 Minerals and Mineral Springs. The variety of minerals 
 is very great, but the number of those which exist in such 
 quantity as to be workable to profit is comparatively small. 
 Gold is still occasionally washed from the sands of the Rhine, 
 and the Black Forest contains numerous veins of silver, which, 
 in earlier times, were extensively wrought, and maintained 
 several silver furnaces. Copper is still produced from the mine 
 of Herrensegen, cobalt near Wittich, manganese near Eisen- 
 bach, lead in the Minister valley, and calamine near Wiesloch. 
 These, however, are all surpassed in value by the iron mines, 
 which are worked to the number of 30, and employ 15 smelting 
 furnaces. In addition to these, may be mentioned coal, rock- 
 salt, gypsum, alabaster, marble, whetstones, alum, sulphur, 
 potters and porcelain clay, ochre, and occasionally garnets 
 and agates. In mineral springs, Baden is particularly rich. 
 The number of them has been estimated at 70, and of these 
 not a few are of great celebrity, attracting to the different 
 watering-places to which they have given rise, crowds of visit 
 ors from all parts of the world. 
 
 Climate and Vegetable Productions. The climate of Baden 
 varies, of course, with the nature of the surface. While in 
 the valleys and plains all the ordinary fruits are coming to ma 
 turity, cold winter blasts are often felt among the mountains ; 
 a nd there are even ravines on the sides of the Feldberg from 
 which the snow seldom entirely disappears. Some observa 
 tions seem to indicate, that in the region of the Feldberg the 
 seasons are becoming colder, and that the formation of glaciers 
 upon it is by no means impossible. In the Black Forest the 
 grape no longer ripens, and on the loftiest summits of the 
 Feldberg ordinary pines and larches have ceased to thrive. 
 Even a few hundred feet above the base, they begin to be 
 scraggy and stunted. The summit now exhibits only patches 
 of grass and Iceland moss, while its lofty sides are chiefly 
 occupied by the alpine rose and bilberry. The open valleys 
 of Baden, in the S., are much warmer than in the N. The E. 
 side, and also the Odenwald, are cold, lying exposed to the 
 blasts of the Swabian Alps, and extensive tracts of table-land, 
 where as yet the labours of the husbandman have done little 
 to mitigate the natural rigour of the seasons. The finest cli 
 mate of Baden, and, indeed, of Germany, is in the valley of 
 the Rhine. Here winter is short, and spring early; the heats 
 of summer are tempered by evaporation from the river and 
 the lakes ; the fields are covered with rich crops, and all the 
 ordinary fruit-bearing plants and trees, particularly the vine 
 and the chestnut, grow in luxuriance. Indeed, the vegetation 
 throughout Baden is peculiarly rich, and manifests itself espe 
 cially in the magnificent forests which line many of its valleys, 
 and clothe its mountain sides, furnishing supplies, both of fuel 
 and excellent timber, which are almost inexhaustible. The 
 mean annual temperature of Baden, taken at Mannheim, is 
 51 40 ; at Carlsruhe, 51 48 . At Freiburg, which is in the 
 neighbourhood of the Black Forest, and lies exposed to alpine 
 blasts, the temperature is somewhat lower. One peculiarity 
 in the climate of Baden is the frequency of hailstorms in the 
 district of the Kaiserstuhl, and the hurricanes which proceed 
 from the direction of Strasburg. 
 
 Agriculture. Baden is quite an agricultural country, the 
 arable land occupying rather more than a third of the whole 
 surface. The annual produce of grain is estimated at 1,390, 125 
 quarters, of which rather more than one-half is spelt or German 
 wheat; about one-fifth oats, one-ninth barley, and rather more 
 than one-ninth rye. Large quantities of potatoes are grown 
 throughout the country, and hemp of excellent quality; to 
 bacco and hops in particular districts. The culture of green 
 crops attracts a good deal of attention, and the soiling of stock 
 is generally practised ; but though scarcely a patch of land on 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 which any crop can be raised is allowed to lie waste, and the 
 collection of manure is never lost sight of, the science of agri 
 culture cannot be regarded as far advanced. The operations 
 of the field are often performed in a very slovenly manner, 
 the implements are clumsy in the extreme, and bullocks, and 
 even cows, are employed to do much of the work. The rear 
 ing of cattle forms an important occupation, but superiority of 
 breed is too often regarded as a matter of secondary conse 
 quence. Numerous herds of goats and swine are fed in the 
 Black Forest. The rearing of bees is duly attended to ; that 
 of the silkworm exists, but has not as yet made much pro 
 gress. In regard both to quantity and quality, few countries 
 are richer in wine than Baden. Vineyards occupy a com 
 paratively large extent of its surface, and several of the wines, 
 both white and red, produced in them, rank in the first class. 
 Baden has long been famous for its fruits, among which may 
 be mentioned extensive orchards, or rather forests of apples, 
 pears, chestnuts, and particularly the cherries and plums of 
 the Black Forest, from which are obtained the liquors which, 
 under the name of Kirschwaeser and Zwetschgewasser, are 
 universally known and esteemed. 
 
 Manufactures and Trade. Of neither of these has Baden 
 much to boast. The whole number of families engaged in 
 occupations immediately connected with the woollen, cotton, 
 and linen manufactures, Las been estimated not to exceed 
 200. The working of the minerals enumerated above, 
 affords much more extensive occupation ; but perhaps the 
 most important manufacture is that of wooden clocks, con 
 fined chiefly to the districts of the Black Forest, and, con 
 nected with it, the making of musical boxes, and other 
 musical toys, in which extraordinary skill and ingenuity are 
 displayed, and for which prices, amounting from 12,000 to 
 15,000 florins (1000 to 1250), have been obtained. The 
 chief trade of Baden is derived from its forests. Timber of 
 the finest quality, much of it adapted for shipbuilding, is 
 transmitted to Holland by the Rhine, and by way of Basel, 
 to Switzerland and France ; both of which also take large 
 quantities of charcoal. The only other articles of trade de 
 serving of notice are wine, particularly the Markgrafler, 
 Klingelberger, and Staufenberger ; liqueurs especially Kirsch- 
 wasser; hemp, tobacco, and fruit. Salt is exported in con 
 siderable quantities to Rhenish Prussia and Switzerland. 
 
 Population and Moral Statistics. The last regular census 
 of the population of Baden was taken in 1839, and gave a 
 total amount of 1,277,365, apportioned among the four circles 
 into which the country is divided in the following manner: 
 
 
 Area 
 
 
 
 Population Classified. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 sq. ni. 
 
 wicks. 
 
 ishei. 
 
 Protest-l R. Ca- 
 a,,ts. tboliM. 
 
 Men- 
 nons. 
 
 Jtws. 
 
 
 lake Circle 
 
 984 
 
 18 
 
 376 
 
 7,951 1 173,6;i8 
 
 43 
 
 1,348 
 
 182,979 
 
 Upper Rhine Circle. 
 
 1248 
 
 18 
 
 448 
 
 94,195 238,482 
 
 67 
 
 3,613 
 
 336,377 
 
 Jlidille Ehine Circle 
 
 123:1 
 
 21 
 
 388 
 
 151,708 269,334 
 
 286 
 
 6,011 
 
 427,339 
 
 Lower Khine Circle 
 
 993 
 
 22 
 
 383 
 
 147,991 171,370 
 
 913 
 
 10,396 
 
 330,670 
 
 
 4456 
 
 79 
 
 1094 
 
 401,845|85i,8i4 
 
 13,8 
 
 21,368 
 
 1,277,365 
 
 At the date of this census, and for some time previous, the 
 average annual increase of the population of Baden was about 
 8500. Accordingly, in 1842, allowing for this increase, the 
 total population was estimated at 1,290,146. At present 
 (1850) it cannot be less than 1,300,000. From the above 
 Table, it appears that the proportion which Protestants bear 
 to R. catholics is barely one to two, while the Jews muster 
 unusually strong. The races which inhabit Baden are chiefly 
 two, the Allemanni and the Franks ; the former occupying the 
 territory from the Murg to the Rhine, and the latter the terri 
 tory to the N. of the Murg. The language corresponds to 
 this territorial division ; the Allcmannisch prevailing in the 
 high country, particularly in the valley of the Wiese, and in 
 tolerable purity, though frequently intermixed with Swabian 
 and Frankish. It is spoken with the least adulteration in the 
 Black Forest, whose inhabitants have a character differing 
 decidedly from that of the inhabitants of the valley of the 
 Rhine. The native of the Black Forest is lively, industrious, 
 of an ingenious and somewhat speculative turn, hence fond of 
 trade, and rather too fond of law ; in general religious, but 
 apt to allow his belief to degenerate into superstition. The 
 natives of the Rhine valley are of more mixed character, and 
 differ greatly from each other. Hence the inhabitant of 
 
 37 
 
BADEN (GRAND Duciiv) 
 
 200 
 
 BADEN 
 
 Brisgau is easily distinguished from that of Old Baden ; who, 
 in his turn, is as easily distinguished from the inhabitant of 
 the Baden palatinate. In general the inhabitants of Baden 
 are robust and healthy, with some tendency to corpulence ; 
 which, however, is said to be less common than formerly. 
 In the more secluded parts of the country, their manners are 
 primitive and their morals pure ; but, on the whole, their 
 character in this respect is not the highest, and contrasts un 
 favourably with that of their Swiss neighbours. Education 
 is very generally diffused, and the means employed for the 
 purpose deserve honourable mention even in Germany. The 
 general charge of public instruction is committed to a board 
 called Oberstudienrath. Every village has at least one primary, 
 and every town a grammar school. Parents are obliged to 
 send their children to the schools, and continue them there 
 for a certain period, or till a certain degree of proficiency is 
 attained. Of a higher order than those already mentioned 
 are numerous seminaries, called real schools, Latin schools, 
 paedagogiums, gymnasiums, and lyceums. At the head of the 
 whole are the two universities of Heidelberg and Freiburg, 
 both of great antiquity, and entitled to an honourable place 
 among the most distinguished universities of Germany. In 
 addition to very complete courses of classics, literature, and 
 science, the former has a Protestant, the 
 latter a R. catholic faculty of theology. 
 In regard to religion, the course of which 
 France has set the example is followed. 
 There is no proper religious establish- i-flt%s&. 
 
 ment, but every form of religious belief - > 
 
 is protected, and, where the adherents are 
 of any numerical importance, directly 
 recognized. 
 
 Government. Baden ranks as the 
 seventh state in the Germanic Confeder 
 ation. It has one vote in the ordinary 
 deliberative assemblies, and three in 
 what is called the plenum. The govern 
 ment is a constitutional monarchy, 
 founded on a liberal representative basis. 
 In its present form it was established in 
 1818, being voluntarily conceded by the 
 Grand Duke. The states are composed 
 of two chambers. In the upper sit the 
 princes of the Grand Ducal family, the 
 nobles and barons, the Protestant and 
 R. catholic bishops, 14 deputies from the 
 landed gentry, elected for eight years ; 
 two deputies from the universities, 
 elected by the professors, for four years ; 
 and eight individuals nominated by the 
 Grand Duke, at will, from any class. 
 The lower chamber consists of 63 deputies, elected for eight 
 years ; 22 by 14 privileged localities, and the remainder by 
 41 electoral districts. The members of this chamber, while 
 actually sitting, are allowed about 8*. Qd. per day. The 
 executive belongs entirely to the Grand Duke, who appoints 
 his ministers and councillors, and all the leading functionaries 
 and judges. The supreme civil and criminal court has its 
 
 territory, and the title of Elector. At the dissolution of the 
 German empire he received additional accessions of territory, 
 and died in 1811; succeeded by his grandson Charles, who 
 married Stephanie, an adopted daughter of Napoleon, and 
 shared largely in the favours of that dynasty. Shortly after 
 giving the constitution of 1818, he was succeeded by his uncle 
 Lewis; who, dying in 1830, made way for his half-brother 
 Leopold, the reigning Duke. Baden has had its share in the 
 recent insurrections which have taken place in Germany. 
 On May 13, 1849, a popular assembly, held at Offenburg, 
 passed a series of violent resolutions, inter alia, dissolving the 
 chambers, and convoking a constituent assembly. Military 
 insubordination also began to appear, and manifested itself so 
 strongly at Carlsruhe that the Grand Duke quitted it, and 
 withdrew into Alsace. Ultimately, by the aid of Prussian 
 troops, but not without a severe engagement with the in 
 surgents, the insurrection was put down, and matters again 
 returned to their former state. (Huhn s Lex. Deutschland.) 
 
 BADEN, or BAADEN [commonly Baden-Baden; anc. 
 Ciritas Amelia Aquensis], a tn. and watering-place, grand 
 duchy of Baden, circle, Middle Rhine, 18 m. S.S.W. Carls 
 ruhe, one of the most beautiful localities of Europe. It is 
 built in the form of an amphitheatre, on a spur of the Black 
 
 CAD EX From Fernet, Voyage rtt,ns le Grand Duehe de Bade. 
 
 Forest, overhanging a valley, through which runs the little 
 stream Oosbach. The houses are, in general, old and high ; 
 the streets, with one exception, narrow and crooked, and 
 nearly all steep and hilly. The finest buildings lie along the 
 river, but there is not a single handsome square. The edifices 
 most deserving of notice are the new palace, standing on 
 an isolated height above the town, on the site of a Roma 
 
 seat at Mannheim, but the capital of the grand duchy is j temple and baths, and surrounded by fine gardens ; the palace, 
 Carlsruhe. The military quota which Baden furnishes to the and near it the less extensive but prettier villa of the Duchess 
 Germanic Confederation is 10,000 men. The ordinary stand* i Dowager Stephanie; the town church, containing the tombs 
 ing army, including officers, is about 15,000 men. In 1845, j of 14 members of the margraviate house of Baden, and altar- 
 
 the public revenue was about 1,275,730 ; and the expenditure, 
 1,207,470. In 1843, the public debt was 2,547,500. 
 
 screens painted by Lill after Guido Eeni ; the spital church, 
 an old Gothic building now used by the Protestants, and in 
 
 History. The hereditary possessions of the House of Baden j which also the English service is regularly performed ; and 
 
 the museum of antiquities, built in the form of an old Grecian 
 temple. Baden is the chief place of a bailiwick, and con 
 tains the different public offices belonging to it. It has also 
 an excellent hospital, a poorhouse, and savings bank. Ita 
 chief manufactures are linen, ropes, and pottery. Baden has 
 been celebrated, from the remotest antiquity, for its thermal 
 baths, which made it a favourite resort of the Romans. The 
 springs are at least 13 in number, and the temperature ot 
 each, though uniform in itself, differs from that of the others. 
 The hottest, and, at the same time, most copious of the 
 springs, is the Ursprung. It has a temperature of 153 
 Fah., and yields about 40 cubic ft. of water per minute. 
 The chief ingredients of the water are saline, with some 
 muriatic and carbonic acid, and small portions of silex and 
 
 extend over little more than a fourth of its present territory. 
 The reigning family dates its historical origin from Berthold, 
 surnamed the Bearded, Count of Thurgau and Brisgau. The 
 Emperor Henry III., to secure or reward his services, allowed 
 him to assume the name of Duke of Zahringen, and gave him 
 the expectancy of the dukedom of Swabia. His grandson 
 Herrman succeeded to his domains in the end of the lltli 
 century, and is the proper founder of the House of Baden. 
 He took the title of Margrave, and died in 1130. On the 
 death of the Margrave Christopher I. in 1527, two lines were 
 formed by his sons Bernard and Ernest ; by the former that 
 of Baden Baden, by the latter that of Baden-Durlach. Both 
 lines became united in 1771, in the person of the Margrave 
 Charles Frederick, who obtained considerable accessions of 
 
BADEN 
 
 BADMINTON (GREAT) 
 
 the oxide of iron. It is clear, lias a slightly salt and animal 
 taste, and deposits a kind of chalk sinter. Its chief efficacy 
 is in scrofulous, catarrhal, and rheumatic affections. The 
 old vaulting over the Ursprung is of Roman construction ; 
 and in the museum are many Roman remains, found in and 
 about the locality. The annual number of visitors, said to 
 be of a more mixed character than formerly, is estimated 
 at 20,000. July and August are considered the season. 
 On the banks of the On, opposite the town, is the Conversa- 
 tions-haus, with its promenade and gardens. It also contains 
 gaming saloons, with a cafe -restaurant, theatre, and reading- 
 room. The parties who hold the tables on lease from the 
 Grand Duke, pay a heavy sum for the odious privilege. The 
 manufactures of the town are insignificant ; they include rope- 
 making, pottery, and leather-dressing, to a small extent. 
 Light wares of wood, glass ornaments, trinkets, toys, &c., are 
 sold, in a kind of fair held upon the promenade, to attract 
 visitors; but, upon the whole, Baden-Baden must be con 
 sidered merely as a place of fashionable resort, and which is 
 losing its once great respectability. Resident pop. 4343. 
 
 BADEN [anc. Thermce Ceti<Ba.ndAustriacce],a. tn. Lower 
 Austria, gov. and circle, Vienna, from which it is distant S.W. 
 15 m., 1. bank, Schwochat, at the foot of the Styrian Alps. 
 It consists of a nucleus and seven suburbs ; and has numerous 
 hot sulphurous springs (84 to 99 Fah.), used both for bathing 
 and drinking, and resorted to annually by thousands of invalids 
 and others. The finest baths are those of the Sauerhof, the 
 Frauenbad, and the Carolinenbad. They are, for the most 
 part, society baths (Gesellschafts or Vollbader), in which the 
 bathers, male and female, in ample dressing-gowns, mix pro 
 miscuously, and walk about up to the neck in the steaming 
 water. They are efficacious in cutaneous diseases, gout, and 
 rheumatism, resembling in their effects the springs of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. Baden was almost wholly destroyed by fire in 
 1812, but has been rebuilt witli increased architectural beauty. 
 The chief modern buildings in the town and neighbourhood 
 are the Weilburg, the handsome chateau of the Archduke 
 Charles, in the valley of St. Helen ; the palace of the Arch 
 duke Anthony ; the Sauerhof, a military hospital, with baths 
 for 400 soldiers ; the church of St. Augustine, the only one 
 in the town ; the townhall, theatre, an hospital, founded in 
 1815 ; and several other charitable institutions. There is a 
 park and public promenade, much frequented, and in the 
 environs the scenery is highly picturesque. The dyeing of 
 yarn, cotton-spinning, and the manufacture of silk, velvet, and 
 muslin, are carried on to a limited extent. Pop. 4800. 
 
 BADEN [anc. TJiermce Helvetica;], a tn. and dist. Switzer 
 land, can. Aargau. The town ( Ober-Baden or Baden-im-Aar- 
 yau) is 12 m. N.E. Aarau, in a narrow defile, 1. bank, Limmat, 
 which is here crossed by a wooden bridge. It is the seat of 
 a district court, and has a townhall, a handsome R. catholic 
 church, a convent, monastery, hospital, and house of correc 
 tion, and is celebrated for its hot sulphurous baths. The 
 hottest springs have a temperature of 1 16 Fah. The Romans 
 had a castle at Baden, called the Castdlum Thermarum; and 
 during the Middle Ages there was a fortress here, where the 
 Dukes of Austria frequently resided, the ruins of which still 
 exist. From 1426 to 1712, Baden was the seat of the federal 
 diet of the Swiss cantons, and the residence of the foreign 
 ambassadors. The treaty of peace between France and the 
 empire was signed here, Sept. 7, 1714. The town has some 
 trade in wine. Pop. 1844. 
 
 BADENOCH, a dist. Scotland, Inverness, about 35 m. 
 in length, and 28 in breadth ; bounded, E. by cos. Elgin 
 and Aberdeen, S.W. by Athole and Lochaber, and N. by 
 Nairnshire. The name is derived from a word signifying 
 bushy, the country having been originally covered with natural 
 forests, many of which still remain. Though, like all moun 
 tainous districts, possessing some fertile spots, the country may 
 be generally described as barren, poorly cultivated, and thinly 
 peopled, but abounding in beautiful and picturesque Alpine 
 scenery. In this district is situated, at an elevation of 1 200 ft. 
 above the level of the sea, Loch Spey, the source of the river 
 of that name, one of the largest in Scotland. The lake is sur 
 rounded by the Corryarik Mountains, from which descend 
 the torrents by which it is principally supplied. Badenoch, 
 in days of old, was a lordship of the Cummins, of which 
 family was the Red John Cummin, slain in the church at 
 Dumfries, in 1306, by Robert Bruce. The Cummins, who 
 
 were long the most powerful family in Scotland, ruled here 
 with absolute sway, planting numerous strong fortresses over 
 the country to support their authority. Bruce subsequently 
 annexed Badenoch to the earldom of Moray, but it was after 
 wards bestowed, by Robert II., on his son, Alexander, Earl 
 of Buchan, a man of a disposition so fierce and ruthless, that 
 he was called the wolf of Badenoch. The issue of the lat 
 ter failing, the lordship of Badenoch fell into, and remained 
 with the Crown till 1452, when it was bestowed on the Earl 
 of Huntly. Badenoch was long the property of the Gordon 
 family, but is now in other hands. It was the birthplace of 
 M Pherson, the translator or author of Ossian s poems, who 
 also died there, on Feb. 17, 1796; his body being afterwards 
 carried up to Westminster Abbey, where it was interred. In 
 this district, also, in the parish of Alvie, is Kinrara House, 
 the beautiful and favourite residence of the celebrated and 
 accomplished Duchess of Gordon, who died there, and who 
 was there buried by her own desire. 
 
 BADENWEILER, a vil. grand duchy, Baden, circle, 
 Upper Rhine, 15 m. S.S.W. Freiburg, celebrated for its 
 baths, used in rheumatic, hysterical, and hypochondriacal 
 affections. They are insipid, tasting like lukewarm water, 
 and have a temperature of 82 Fah. They were known to 
 the Romans, whose baths were discovered in 1784, and are 
 regarded as the most perfect out of Rome. They are 324 ft. 
 long by 100 broad, and consist of four large and eight small 
 baths, with vapour-bath, anointing and dressing-rooms, &c. 
 Two altars have been found, the one bearing the inscription 
 Diance Abnoba, and the other containing traces of the name 
 of Diana. The wine called Markgrafler, the best which 
 Baden produces, grows in the neighbourhood. Pop. exclusive 
 of visitors, 300. 
 
 BADESWUR, or BADDESSUR, a small but neatly built 
 tn. Hindoostan, prov. Orissa, presidency, Bengal, picturesquely 
 situated on the r. bank, Mahanuddy, 32 m. S.W. Cuttack ; 
 lat. 20 17 N. ; Ion. 85 25 E. It consists of one broad 
 street having a row of gardens up the centre, with trellis- 
 work coverings, over which beans and other creeping escu 
 lents and flowering plants are trained, forming one continued 
 bower ; at intervals there are fantastic, and sometimes taste 
 fully-constructed vases made of pottery, in which the tulsf 
 plant is reared. There are also several wells in the town, 
 with terraces round them ; the houses are all elevated on 
 plinths, with narrow ledges projecting beyond the walls, on 
 which the people sit in fine weather, and the thatch projects 
 considerably, so as to admit of the rain falling clear. There 
 is a mart here for grain, iron, cotton cloths, silk dhotis, iron 
 mongery, &c., which are both manufactured and brought 
 from the neighbouring places. In the vicinity are some 
 ancient temples, and a hill of volcanic appearance, which rises 
 abruptly from the river to a height of 300 ft. (Journal of 
 the Asiatic Society of Bengal.} 
 
 BADGENDON, or BADDINGTON, par. Eng. Gloucester ; 
 990 ac. Pop. 172. 
 
 BADGER, par. Eng. Salop; 980 ac. Pop. 137. 
 
 BADGE WORTH, par. Eng. Gloucester; 1730ac. P.903. 
 
 BADGEWORTH, par. Eng. Somerset; 1470 ac. P. 321. 
 
 BADIA, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, prov. of, and 
 15 m. W.N.W. Rovigo, r. bank, Adige, near the source of 
 the Adigetto. There is here a fine bridge over the Adige, 
 and in the town are several monasteries, a college, a manu 
 factory of earthenware ; considerable trade in corn, flax, silk, 
 hides, firewood, and iron, is carried on. Pop. 3400. 
 
 BADIA CALAVENA, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, 
 prov. of, and 12 m. N.E. Verona; cap. dist., in which are 
 several quarries of fine marble. Pop. 2000. 
 
 BADIA SAN SAL V ADORE. See ABBADIA. 
 
 BADIA TEDALDA, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, 
 and 23 m. N.E. Arezzo, on a skirt of the Alps near the 1. 
 bank, Marecchia ; well built, commanded by a small castle, 
 and having a fine square, parish church, and an ancient abbey 
 of the Benedictines. The greater part of the inhabitants are 
 shepherds or husbandmen, subsisting chiefly on chestnuts. 
 Pop. 2074. 
 
 BADINGHAM, par. Eng. Suffolk; 3390 ac. Pop. 864. 
 
 BADLESMERE, par. Eng. Kent; 820 ac. Pop. 122. 
 
 BADLEY, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 1050 ac. Pop. 83. 
 
 BADMINTON (GREAT), par. Eng. Gloucester; 1450 ac. 
 Pop. 552. 
 
BADOLATO 
 
 292 
 
 BAFFO 
 
 BADOLATO, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Ultra, (list, 
 of, and 22 m. S. Catauzaro, on a hill about 2 m. from the sea. 
 Fop. 3394. 
 
 BADONG, a vil., S.W. part isl. Bali, Indian Archipelago, 
 about 9 in. from the coast, with markets twice a week, attended 
 often by 3000 people. 
 
 BADONV1LLER, a tn. France, dep. Meurthe, arrond. 
 of, and 21 m. S.E. Luneville, on the Blette. Metallic moulds 
 for the glassworks at Baccarat are manufactured here, besides 
 large quantities of awls and prickers, with some cotton goods 
 and hosiery. There are here, also, tanneries, breweries, and 
 potteries. Pop. 2090. 
 
 BADONY, two pars. Ireland: 1, Badony, or Bailony 
 flower, Tyrone; 47,921 ac. Pop. 7784. 2, Badony, or 
 Badony Upper, Tyrone ; 38,208 ac. Pop. 5822. 
 
 BADRACHELLUM [Sacred mountain], a tn. Hindoo- 
 Stan, in the Deccan, prov. Hyderabad, 1. bank, Godavery, 
 about 100 m. from its embouchure in the Bay of Bengal, and 
 165 m. E. by N. from the city of Hyderabad ; lat. 17 40 N. ; 
 Ion. 81 E. 
 
 BADSEY, par. Eng. Worcester; 1770 ac. Pop. 497. 
 
 BADSWORTH, par. Eng. York, W. Hiding; 4320 ac. 
 Pop. 750. 
 
 BADULLA, a tn. and fort, isl. Ceylon, 35 m. S.E. Kandy, 
 1. bank, Komene; lat. 6 45" N.; Ion. 81 15 E. It stands 
 at an elevation of 2100 ft. above the level of the sea, and is 
 surrounded by mountains. The town is insignificant, and the 
 fort, now unoccupied in consequence of the unhealthiness of 
 of the situation, is inconsiderable, though possessing a good 
 barracks and hospital. The surrounding country is fertile, 
 and though 40 m. from the sea, is favourable to the growth 
 of the cocoa-nut tree. 
 
 BAD WELL -ASH, or LITTLE ASHFIELD, par. Eng. 
 Suffolk ; 2000 ac. Pop. 458. 
 
 BAELEGHEM, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. E. Flan 
 ders, 10 m. S. Ghent, having manufactories of linen, cotton, 
 tobacco, and candles; also breweries. Pop. 2932. 
 
 BAELEU. 1, A tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Antwerp, 
 on the Great Nethes, 14 m. S.E. Turnhout. Here are a 
 manufactory of coarse woollens ; a distillery ; oil, malt, and 
 corn-mills. Pop. 3262. 2, A vil. and com., prov. Liege, 
 5J m. N. Verviers, with stone quarries, limeworks, and a 
 paper, a cloth, a thread, two corn, and four fulling mills. 
 Pop. 2041. 
 
 BAENA, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, and 24 m. 
 S.S.E. Cordova, r. bank, Marbella. It has hilly though toler 
 ably good streets, two principal and two smaller squares, four 
 parish churches, a town and court-house, ladies college, several 
 well-attended schools, two hospitals, a prison, public store 
 house, riding-school, numerous convents, and a palace of the 
 Counts of Altamira. Portions of the old walls, and the re 
 mains of a castle, still exist. Manufactures : linen, woollen, 
 and cotton fabrics, tiles, bricks, and earthenware, and there 
 are some tanneries, and oil and corn-mills, in the place; still 
 a considerable number of the inhabitants are engaged in 
 agricultural pursuits. Large quantities of grain and oil are 
 exported to Malaga, and the trade with the interior is ex 
 tensive. An annual cattle-fair is held. Pop. 12,944. 
 
 BAEPENDI, a tn. Brazil, prov. Minas Geraes, 180 m. 
 W.N.W. Rio de Janeiro, on a streamlet of same name. It 
 has a church, townhouse, and prison ; its district well watered, 
 and here and there well wooded, is in general fertile, and 
 yields good tobacco, which is extensively cultivated. Millet 
 and beans are also grown for local consumpt, and a consider 
 able quantity of pigs are reared for the Rio de Janeiro market. 
 Pop. tn. and dist. 9000. 
 
 BAESRODE, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. E. Flanders, 
 on the Scheldt, about 5 m. E. Dendermonde ; with breweries, 
 oil and corn-mills, and a building dockyard. Many of the 
 inhabitants live by fishing and seafaring. Pop. 3085. 
 
 BAEZA [anc. Beatia], a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. of, 
 and 22 m. E.N.E. Jaen, cap. dist. of same name, about 3 m. 
 N. of r. bank, Guadalquivir, agreeably situated on a height 
 called Loma de Ubeda, amid rich and well-watered plains. 
 When seen from a distance, it-? numerous churches and mon 
 asteries, many of them of Gothic architecture, and its lofty 
 steep-roofed houses, present a very striking appearance. At 
 one time it had a double enclosure of turreted walls, but of 
 these only a few fragments now remain. The streets, though 
 
 not straight, are in general spacious and well paved; and 
 the houses, mostly of two or three stories, are built of a fine 
 sandstone, quarried in the neighbourhood. This sandstone, 
 by exposure to the air, becomes dark, and gives the town a 
 sombre hue. Of the three public squares which Baeza con 
 tains, the largest is the Plaza de la Constitucion. The houses, 
 which line two of its sides, have a range of porticoes ; and its 
 interior is beautifully laid out, being both planted with pop 
 lars and adorned with a fountain of white and black marble, 
 with several jets. The principal edifices are the cathedral, 
 now united to that of Jaen, an irregular edifice, erected at 
 different times, and in different styles of architecture ; the 
 university, one of the finest edifices of the town, though as a 
 literary institution it has been suppressed; and the old mon 
 astery of St. Philip de Neri. Baeza contains nine parishes, and 
 three monasteries ; is the seat of several district courts, and 
 possesses a seminary (seminario conciliar], in which both 
 theology and philosophy are taught ; an economical society, 
 and several endowed schools, chiefly for elementary instruc 
 tion. The principal manufactures are cloth, leather, and 
 soap. The dyeworks of Baeza were once celebrated, but 
 have greatly fallen off. The annual fair lasts a fortnight. 
 The celebrated sculptor, Caspar Becerra, was born here in 
 1520. Pop. 10,851. 
 
 BAFFA [anc. PapTios], a seaport tn., S.W. coast, island 
 of Cyprus ; lat. 34 47 18" N. ; Ion. 32 24 30" E. (R.) It oc 
 cupies the site of the celebrated Paphos of antiquity, where 
 Venus is fabled to have lauded after her birth, having sprung 
 from the froth of the sea near this island. She was worshipped 
 by the inhabitants, and had 100 altars at Paphos; hence her 
 titles of Cyprian and Paphian Queen. The numerous ruins 
 of palaces and churches everywhere to be met with, bear 
 evidence of the splendour of the ancient town, and present 
 a striking contrast to the squalor and wretchedness of the 
 modern one, which consists of an assemblage of miserable 
 houses, with a few Greek churches and mosques. In the 
 neighbourhood are a number of excavations made in the rocks, 
 and inhabited by Turkish families. Beautiful crystals are 
 found in the rocks near Baffa, called Baffa diamonds. The 
 country around is fertile, yielding large crops of corn, besides 
 cotton and silk. The bay is large, but shallow, and unsafe. 
 Pop. 1000. 
 
 BAFFIN S, or BYLOTS BAY, a large gulf or inland sea, 
 communicating with the N. Atlantic, by Davis Strait, N.E. 
 coast, America, between lat. 68 and 78 N., and Ion. 52 and 
 80 W., extending S.E. to N.W. about 950 m., with a mean 
 breadth of about 280 m. It was first explored by Baffin in 
 1616, and more fully by Capt. Ross, in 1818, and Capt. Parry 
 in 1819. It is of great depth in many places, but of extremely 
 unequal bottom, the ascertained depths varying from 200 to 
 1050 fathoms. Its shores are rocky and precipitous, attain 
 ing a height, in many places, of 1000 ft., backed by ranges 
 of lofty mountains, covered with perpetual snow. In this 
 dreary and barren region there is hardly any vegetation ; the 
 little there is, consists chiefly of mosses, lichens, and ground 
 berries. The coasts are rendered remarkable by the presence 
 of prodigious numbers of high, sharp, conical rocks, so arti 
 ficial in form and appearance, that they are called monuments. 
 Both sides of the bay are indented by numerous sounds, creeks, . 
 and inlets, few of which, however, have b^en yet explored. 
 It abounds in black whales, of a large size, and in seals, the 
 capture of which employs a number of British vessels. The 
 principal land animals are bears, black foxes, hares, and wal 
 ruses. Birds ptarmigans, terns, gulls, eider ducks, auks, 
 and petrels. 
 
 BAFFIN S ISLANDS. 1, Three small barren unin 
 habited islands, E. shfcres, Baffin s Bay, and so called by 
 Capt. Ross. They are in lat. 74 4 N. ; Ion. 58 W. (R.) 
 2, A small isl. Fox s Channel, N. branch of Hudson s Bay. 
 It lies S. of Melville peninsula ; lat. 65 40 N. ; Ion. 83 29 
 W. (R.) 
 
 BAFFO, a considerable tn. Mahee country, a district of 
 Dahomey, W. Africa. It is situated near the Fellattah fron 
 tier, at the foot of one of the Kong mountains, and is orna 
 mented with a variety of trees silk, cotton, sycamore, ash, 
 acacia. From being in the hill country, the climate here is 
 more temperate than in other localities of Dahomey. The 
 country around is well watered ; and some of the streams are 
 impregnated with iron, others with magnesia. The land pro- 
 
BAFING 
 
 293 
 
 BAGDAD 
 
 (luces four crops of Indian corn each year, and two of Guinea 
 corn. Tamarinds, grapes, figs, cashew and kolla nuts, &c., 
 abound. There is a good, though small, breed of cattle, but 
 no horses. Sheep and goats, as well as guinea-fowl of various 
 kinds, partridges of a large size, and pigeons, are plentiful ; 
 and venomous serpents numerous. Pipe-clay is abundant in 
 some of the valleys. The market is well supplied with all 
 articles of native consumpt. The inhabitants, who manufac 
 ture a little cloth, are literally slaves, but live at peace since 
 they were brought under the sway of the King of Dahomey. 
 (Duncan s Travels in W. Africa.} 
 
 BAFING, or BLACK KIVER. See SENEGAL. 
 
 BAFLO, a vil. Holland, prov. Groningen, 15 m. N.W. 
 Appingedam ; in a well-cultivated district, and having a 
 church and school, and in the vicinity a rye-mill. Pop. 600. 
 
 BAFRA, a tn. Asiatic Turkey, pash. Koom, r. bank, 
 Kizil-Irmak, 13 m. above its junction with the Black Sea. 
 It has a bridge, and two mosques. Flax and rice are raised 
 in great abundance in the neighbourhood. Pop. 2000. 
 
 BAGAGEM, a river, Brazil, prov. Goyaz, an affluent of 
 the Maranhao. It rises in the serra Viadeira, flows W.N. W. 
 and falls into the Maranhao about 20 m. above the junction 
 of that stream with the Tocantins, after a course of about 
 160 m., in lat. 13 30 S. ; Ion. 49 5 W. 
 
 BAGARIA, a vil. Sicily, 11 m. E.S.E. Palermo, with 
 the mansions of whose nobility it is adorned, that of the Prince 
 of Palagonia being the most distinguished. Pop. 4000. 
 
 BAGBOROUGH (WEST), par. Eng. Somerset; 1000 ac. 
 Pop. 449. 
 
 BAGDAD, a pash. Turkey in 
 Asia, of a triangular form, stretch 
 ing N.W. from the head of the 
 Persian Gulf, in about lat. 30 to 
 38 N.. and lying between Ion. 40 
 and 48 E. ; bounded, S.W. by the 
 Arabian desert, E. by Persia, and 
 N. by the pashalics of Van and 
 Diarhekir. It is thus about 630 m. 
 long, and about 450 at its greatest 
 breadth, traversed by the Euph 
 rates and Tigris, which afterwards 
 unite and enter the Persian Gulf 
 in a single stream. This pashalic 
 is usually divided into three por 
 tions, that E. of the Tigris, that 
 W. of the Euphrates, and that 
 lying between these two rivers. 
 The first is fertile ; the second flat BAO 
 
 and sandy, without herbage and 
 
 without water, excepting along the immediate banks of the 
 river, the overflowings of which form productive rice-grounds ; 
 the third is now a complete desert, though anciently one of the 
 richest and best cultivated territories of the old world. This 
 result proceeds almost solely from the wretched govern 
 ment of the Turks. The better cultivated and more fertile^ 
 portions of the province, produce large crops of wheat, barley,* 
 rice, and maize, with a good deal of tobacco, hemp, flax, and 
 cotton. Near the towns and villages, to which nearly all 
 agricultural efforts are confined, great quantities of fruit are 
 grown, particularly dates, which are reckoned of a superior 
 description, and form an important article of subsistence. 
 Melons, cucumbers, and onions are also abundant, and of 
 excellent quality. Among the wild animals are lions, hyenas, 
 jackals, wolves, gazelles, hogs, and hares. There are not 
 many lions, but jackals are both numerous and troublesome. 
 The domestic animals are horses, asses, mules, buffaloes, 
 camels, and dromedaries. The horses are of small size, 
 seldom exceeding 14 hands high, but are held in much esteem 
 on account of their beauty, docility, and capability of enduring 
 fatigue. The most numerous and most useful, however, of 
 the (lomesticated animals, is the camel. As beef is not used 
 as an article of food, oxen are raised solely for the yoke. The 
 wild birds are black partridges, snipes, wild doves, and, on 
 the lakes and marshes, wild geese, ducks, widgeons, and 
 pelicans. Ostriches are found in the deserts. The only 
 domestic birds bred are the common fowl and pigeons, neither 
 geese, turkeys, nor ducks being domesticated. The province ia 
 only partially subject to the Porte, the Arabs being sole masters 
 of the country from Bagdad to the Persian Gulf. The Arab 
 
 sheikhs or chiefs are bound to furnish the pasha with a certain 
 number of troops, and a certain amount of tribute ; but these 
 contingents are very irregularly paid, often evaded altogether. 
 The population of the pashalic, consisting of Turks, Arabs, 
 Kurds, Turkomans, Armenians, and Jews, has been estimated 
 at 1,300,000. 
 
 BAGDAD, a large and celebrated city, Asiatic Turkey, 
 formerly cap. of the empire of the khalifs, now cap. pash. of 
 same name; on the banks of the Tigris, about 190 m. above 
 its junction with the Euphrates; lat. 33 19 50" N.; Ion. 
 44 22 38" E. (L.) The city stands on both banks two- 
 thirds being on the left, and the remainder on the right of 
 the river, which is here about 620 ft. wide, the communica 
 tion being maintained by a long, narrow, and very inconvenient 
 bridge of boats. It is of an irregular oblong form, and about 
 3 m. in circuit, and, as seen from a little distance, has a strik 
 ing appearance, being surrounded by formidable-looking walls 
 of furnace-burnt bricks, strengthened with round towers, 
 and mounted with cannon. A forest of palm and date-trees 
 growing around and within the city, adds to the picturesque 
 effect. The interior, however, disappoints the high expecta 
 tions which a distant view is calculated to excite. A large 
 portion of the ground within the walls is unoccupied ; and the 
 bricks of which the houses are built are mostly old, being dug 
 out of the ruins of former edifices, and hence rounded, chipped, 
 or otherwise disfigured. The streets are narrow, unpaved, 
 and extremely filthy; and the houses, built of burnt bricks of 
 a yellowish-red colour, generally consist of two stories above 
 
 
 the ground, or rather underground flat. They have seldom 
 any window to the street, and the doors are all strong, and 
 iron-clenched. A few of them, however, are enlivened by a 
 sort of oriel or projecting window, admitting light to a sitting- 
 room, in which the various members of the family meet, and 
 visitors are received. Here the males may be seen smoking, 
 and occasionally the females peeping through the half-closed 
 lattice. The houses consist of a range of apartments opening 
 into a square or inner court, with one or two subterraneous 
 rooms called serdals, in which the inhabitants seek shelter 
 during the day from the intense heat. The bazaar, built by 
 Dawd Pasha, is one of the finest in the East, and is well sup 
 plied with home and foreign manufacture ; but the other ones 
 are mean structures, though sufficiently spacious, and generally 
 well stocked. The shops are poor and dilapidated, the whole 
 indicating neglect and decay. There are about 100 mosques 
 in the town, although not more than 20 or 30 are deserving 
 notice. They differ from, and are in general inferior to, those 
 of other Mahometan cities ; still, some of them have a very 
 gay appearance, their domes and minarets being covered with 
 glazed tiles, of various colours, but chiefly green, white, yellow, 
 and black, arranged in a kind of mosaic work, with consider 
 able taste, and so as to reflect the rays of the sun with brilliant 
 effect. The caravanseries and baths are mostly mean establish 
 ments. Bagdad was formerly a place of extensive trade, 
 having been for many ages the great emporium for the com 
 merce of all the surrounding countries ; but it has of late 
 years much declined, in consequence, principally, of the 
 rapacity of the Government, and its unwillingness or inability 
 to protect the property of the merchants from the Arabs, and 
 
BAGE 
 
 294 
 
 BAGNERES DE BIGORRE 
 
 in part from the interruptions caused by plague, war, and 
 inundation. Another great cause of decline is, that Persia 
 no longer receives her chief supplies from Bagdad, but obtains 
 them in the N. provinces, via Trebizonde, from Great Britain 
 and Constantinople ; and on the S. direct from India and the 
 Persian Gulf. The yearly trade between Aleppo and Bagdad, 
 at present, seldom exceeds one caravan of 700 to 1 000 camels ; 
 that between Damascus and Bagdad, one of 1200 or 1500 
 camels. The chief imports of this trade are cotton twist, 
 calicoes, shirtings, prints, imitation shawls, woollen cloths, 
 and djes. The returns, independently of remittances in 
 specie, in which the greater part is paid, are Persian tombak, 
 galls, buffalo-hides, East India indigo, pearls, Cashmere shawls, 
 some Moklia coffee, gums, myrrh, &c. Bagdad has few manu 
 factures. The principal are red and yellow leather, both of 
 which are much esteemed; and a kind of plush, of rich and 
 beautiful patterns, which is much used by the Turks for cover 
 ing cushions and sofas. 
 
 The climate of Bagdad is intensely hot in summer ; but, on 
 on the whole, salubrious, although subject, during part of the 
 summer, to a hot wind, known by the name of Samicl, which 
 is said to feel as if it had jiut passed over the mouth of a lime 
 kiln. Rain rarely falls later than the beginning of May, or 
 earlier than towards the end of September, after which it con 
 tinues for a time to fall copiously, though the winter on the 
 whole is dry. So far from considering the excessive heat of 
 summer unhealthy, the natives assert, that if it does not attain 
 its usual intensity, sickness is sure to prevail. It has been 
 observed that the plague visits Bagdad every ten years. A 
 tremendous visitation of that calamity took place in 1831, 
 when the city was nearly depopulated, upwards of 4000 dying 
 daily for several days continuously, out of a population of 
 about 60,000! To add to the horrors of the scene, the Tigris 
 overflowed its banks, inundated the lower part of the city, 
 causing the destruction, in one night, of 7000 houses, which, 
 falling with an almost simultaneous crash, destroyed 15,000 
 
 The population of Bagdad is exceedingly mixed, consisting 
 of Persians, Turks, Armenians, Arabs, and Jews; and as they 
 all dress after the fashions of their respective countries, the 
 variety of costume displayed in the streets and bazaars is 
 very striking. The natives are said to be the ugliest people 
 in the Turkish empire a circumstance in part owing to the 
 effects of a cutaneous disorder to which they are subject, and 
 which leaves disfiguring marks on the countenance. The 
 only women in Bagdad who exhibit any part of the face are 
 the Arab females, whose dress consists of a wide chemise of 
 red or blue cotton, and whose faces, arms, &c., are tatooed 
 in a manner exceedingly disagreeable to a European eye. 
 The handsomest women, and the least disfigured by art, are 
 the Georgians and Circassians ; but all ranks and classes stain 
 the hair and the palms of the hands with henna, the last so 
 deeply, that they are said to resemble those of a sailor covered 
 with tar. The Turkish women, when they go abroad, are 
 enveloped in large sheets of checked-blue linen, which give 
 them a shapeless appearance, their legs being, at the same 
 time, enclosed in large jack-boots of yellow leather, and their 
 faces covered with a thick blac . horse-hair veil. Two other 
 striking features of this far-famed eastern city, are the immense 
 numbers of singularly ugly negro slaves and white donkeys, 
 that throng the streets. Both are in great request; the latter 
 so much so, as to bring often from 40 to 50 each. Only a 
 very imperfect approximation can be made to the actual popu 
 lation. It once exceeded 100,000. Fontanier makes it as 
 low as 30,000. The probable number does not exceed 65,000. 
 
 BAGE, a vil. Brazil, prov. Sao-Pedro-do-Rio-Grande, 
 near Piratini, on the S. frontier of the province. It has a 
 church, and about 2000 inhabitants. 
 
 BAGE, name of two vils. France, dep. Ain, about 3 m. 
 distant from each other, and 15 m. N.W. Bourg: 1, Bage 
 le-Chatel, agreeably situated on a hill, in the midst of a fertile 
 plain, and possessing some manufactures of cloth, leather, and 
 earthenware; and a trade in agricultural produce, particularly 
 poultry. Pop. 740. 2, Vagt-la- Vil/e, a large vil., can. Bage - 
 le-Chatel. Pop. 2069. 
 
 BAGH, or BHAO, a tn. Beloochistan, dist. Cutch Gun- 
 dava; lat. 28 35 N.; Ion. 68 8 E.; r. bank, Naree, and 
 not far from the celebrated Bolan Pass. It is surrounded by 
 a ruinous mud wall. The houses, about 2000 in number, are 
 
 of the same material, and wretchedly built. It has a large 
 roofed bazaar, well supplied with wares. Adjoining the town 
 is an extensive cemetery, containing some remarkable tombs ; 
 and near it, a large mosque. In dry weather, water is 
 extremely scarce, the stream of the Naree becoming then 
 exhausted, while the water in the tanks and wells is brackish 
 and unwholesome. The neighbouring country, when properly 
 irrigated, is fertile in grain. The climate is sultry. 
 
 BAGHTCIIECIISEKAI. See BAKHTBOUBSAUAI. 
 
 BAGINTON, par. Eng. Warwick; 1480 ac. Pop. 245. 
 
 BAGLAN, par., S. Wales, Glamorgan. Pop. 548. 
 
 BAGLANA, or BHAGELANA, a dist. Hindoo^tan, prov. 
 Aurungabad ; extremely hilly, with many fertile plains inter 
 spersed. It is one of the original Mahratta countries, and 
 remained under the sovereignty of that tribe until the fall of 
 Peshwain 1818. 
 
 B A GLEN, or BAGALEEN, a prov. island of Java, S. coast; 
 bounded, W. by Banjoemas, N. by Samarang, E. by Kadoe 
 and Djocjokarta, and S. by the Indian Ocean. It lies between 
 lat. 7 10 and 8 11 S., and Ion. 109 25 and 110 5 E.; is 
 mountainous, but fertile, generally of volcanic formation, and 
 has lime in its S. parts. The principal mountains are Sindoro, 
 about 10,432 ft. high; and Praauw, about 8202 ft., both in 
 the N. of the province, and both volcanoes; the former an 
 active one. Besides these, several other lower heights have 
 craters. The principal streams are the Ambal and Bogowonto, 
 both falling into the Indian Ocean. The atmosphere gener 
 ally is clear, and, from the height of the ground, the heat is 
 seldom greater than 80 Fah. Rice, Egyptian wheat, tobacco, 
 sugar, and coffee, are the principal products. Buffaloes are 
 plentiful ; and in the woods tigers, panthers, boars, apes, and 
 numerous kinds of birds abound. On the coast the edible 
 birds nests are found. 
 
 BAGNA, or BAGNI, a tn. Turkey in Europe, prov. Rou- 
 melia, sanjak of, and 40 m. S.S.W. Sophia, 1. bank, Moritza, 
 at the S.W. extremity and near the base of the mountain 
 range that separates the provinces of Bulgaria and Ivouinelia. 
 It is surrounded by an embattled wall, outside of which are 
 some thermal spring baths. Pop. about 1000. 
 
 BAGNA CAVALLO, a tn. Papal States, 29m. S.S.E. 
 Ferrara, on the Seno. It has some silk-mills ; and large quanti 
 ties of hemp are grown in the surrounding district. P. 10,609. 
 
 BAGNA LOUKA. See BANJALUKA. 
 
 BAGNALSTOWN, a tn. Ireland, co. of, and 10 m. S. 
 Carlow ; agreeably situated on the Barrow, over which there 
 is here a handsome bridge. The sessions-house is on an ele> 
 vated site, and has an elegant Ionic portico. The town has 
 a fever-hospital, a dispensary, and a R. catholic chapel. 
 Many persons are employed in the quarrying and dressing of 
 granite for building, and of Carlow flag; both of which abound 
 in the district, and are shipped down the Barrow to Water- 
 ford, Dublin, &c. Pop. (1841), 2225. 
 
 BAGNAN, or BAGUAN, a small isl. Indian Archipelago, 
 off the N.E. coast of Borneo, from which it is distant about 
 25 m.; lat. 6 8 N.; Ion. 118 30 E. (R.) 
 
 BAGNARA. 1, A seaport tn. Naples, prov. Calabria 
 Ultra, 17 m. N.E. Reggio, at the N. entrance of the Strait of 
 Messina. It has a considerable trade in wood and tar. Ex 
 cellent muscat wine is produced in the vicinity. This town 
 is supposed to be the Portus Orestis of the ancients. Pop. 
 3175. 2, A tn. and castle, Papal States, 20 m. W. Ravenna, 
 r. bank, Santerno. Pop. 2440. 
 
 BAGNAREA, a tn. Papal States, 15 m. N. Viterbo; on 
 a hill. It is the seat of a bishop. Pop. 2733. 
 
 BAGNERES-DE-BiGORRE |anc. Aqucnsis Vicus, Aqucc 
 Bigerronum] , a celebrated watering-place, France, dep. Hautes 
 Pyrenees, cap. arroud. of same name, at the entrance of the 
 valley of Campan; 1. bank, Adour, 13 m. S.S.E. Tarbes. Its 
 site is one of the most romantic in the Pyrenees. Well-cul 
 tivated slopes surround it on all sides, and are terminated 
 in the distance by a mountain-range, the most conspicuous 
 summit in which is the peak of Midi. The town is well 
 built, and contains several good squares, and numerous spa 
 cious, handsome streets. The houses are all whitewashed, 
 
 many of them have doorposts, lintels, and window-sills 
 of a blue marble, which abounds in the neighbourhood. One 
 of the worst evils by which Bagnbres suffers, is a bright glare 
 and sultry stifling heat; but this is considerably allayed by 
 copious streams drawn from the Adour, and made to circulate 
 
B AGNEEES DE - LUCHON 
 
 295 
 
 BAGULCOT 
 
 in almost every street. Bagneres owes its chief celebrity to and 38 m. E. by N. Florence, near r. bank, Savio. 
 
 its baths, which are sulphurous and saline, and have a tem 
 perature varying from 87 to 123 Fah. There is also in the 
 vicinity a chalybeate spring, said to be almost the only one 
 in the Pyrenees. The bathing establishment, called Fracasti, 
 is very complete, and is the largest and most handsome build 
 ing of the town. It stands at one of its extremities, imme 
 diately under Mount Olivet, and is approached by a long 
 avenue of poplars, winding through a verdant valley. The 
 inhabitants depend chiefly on the baths, almost every house 
 receiving lodgers ; but the manufactures are of some import 
 ance. The chief of these is the crape known by the name 
 of Crepe-de- Bareges, and a fine woollen gauze, almost as fine 
 as lace, woven into shawls and scarfs. A great proportion 
 of the females, young and old, are employed in knitting. 
 Bagneres has also extensive marble-works, dyeworks, tan 
 neries, and paper-mills. Pop. 6401. 
 
 BAGNERES-DE-LUCHON, a tn. France, dep. Haute 
 Garonne, arrond. of, and 21m. S.W. St. Gaudens. It is one 
 of the principal watering-places of the Pyrenees, and derives 
 its celebrity from its sulphurous thermal waters, said to be 
 beneficial in rheumatic complaints ; are used chiefly as baths. 
 The town is situated in the picturesque valley of Luchon, 
 surrounded on all sides by hills covered with natural wood. 
 The main street forms a splendid avenue, at the W. end of 
 which the large bathing establishment is placed. The neigh 
 bourhood exhibits some of the most interesting scenery of the 
 Pyrenees ; and as horses can be procured for a trifle, eques 
 trian excursions are the chief amusements of the visitors, who 
 are most numerous in the months of July and August, at 
 which period the place is very gay. Chocolate, of good 
 quality, is made here. The winter lasts seven or eight 
 months. Eesident pop. 2415. 
 
 BAGNES (VAL DE), a valley, Switzerland, can. Valais, 
 about 25 m. in length. It commences at St. Branchier, 
 little below Orsieres, and follows the course of the Dranse 
 upwards to Chable, stretching thence, in a S.S.E. direction 
 to the glaciers of Chermontane. In the year 1545, the village 
 of Bagnes was destroyed by an inundation, caused by the 
 stoppage of the Dranse at a glacier until its waters had accu 
 mulated. In 1818, a similar stoppage of the Dranse took 
 place at the glacier of Getroz, and the water formed a lake no 
 less than 1 m. long, 700 ft. wide, and at one part 200 ft. deep. 
 Attempts, partially successful, were made to cut a channel 
 through the ice, so as to drain the lake gradually, but the 
 barrier at last gave way, and a deluge of 500,000,000 of cubic 
 feet of water was let loose, in the space of half an hour, to 
 sweep through a tortuous valley. A flood five times greater 
 than that of the Rhine at Basel filled the bed of a mountain- 
 stream. All the bridges on the Dranse were swept away, 
 even that of Mauvoisin, which stood 90 ft. above the ordinary 
 level of the river ; houses were destroyed, many lives were 
 lost, and the fertile pastures were converted into a desert of 
 gravel. The valley contains several hamlets, and about 9000 
 inhabitants. (Forbes s Travels through the Alps.) 
 
 BAGNI, or BAGNO m LUCCA [anc. Balnea Corsennce et 
 Villce], a tn. and com. duchy of Lucca, 12 m. N. the city of 
 Lucca, r. bank, Lima, here crossed by a bridge. In the TOWN 
 there are a handsome parish church, an English chapel, muni 
 cipal buildings, theatre, several public libraries, and five bath 
 ing establishments. The waters, which are much used, contain 
 sulphate of magnesia, carbonate of lime, alum, and iron, and 
 
 their temperature varies from 1 12 to 129. The COMMUNE 
 
 yields grain, oil, wine, and great quantities of fruits and 
 vegetables ; has forests of chestnut and beech ; and feeds a 
 considerable number of cattle and sheep. Pop. 8834. 
 
 BAGNI, or ST. GIULIANO [anc. Thermce Pisance], atn. and 
 com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 4 m. N.E. Pisa, at the W. base 
 of Mount Pisano, on which stands the ancient chapel of St. 
 Giuliano, whence the town derives its name. The town is 
 well constructed and clean, and much resorted to by the citi 
 zens of Pisa on account of the reputed efficacy of its thermal 
 baths. The establishments for the accommodation of bathers 
 are extensive and well regulated. The waters are clear, in 
 odorous, and saline; temperature, 107. In Mount Pisano 
 marble is quarried ; and in the vicinity are the remains of a 
 magnificent ancient Roman aqueduct, the Aquce Calidce Pisa- 
 norum of Pliny. Pop. 11,183. 
 
 BAGNO, a small fortified tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, 
 
 It has 
 
 an ancient and handsome church, municipal buildings, and 
 noble old edifice used as a bathing establishment. The 
 ;hermal baths are much frequented ; temperature of water, 
 
 108 to 110. The COMMUNE is fertile towards the river ; 
 
 ts mountains are covered with forests of pine, chestnut, beech, 
 and oak, the fruit of which feeds numerous swine; cattle, 
 sheep, and goats are reared to some extent. Five annual fairs 
 are held ; one of which, in the spring, is the most extensivo 
 and best attended cattle fair in Tuscany. Pop. 6887. 
 
 BAGNO A ACQUA [anc. Bagni di Casciani], a vil. Tus 
 cany, prov. Pisa, S.S.E. Lari on the Era, celebrated for its 
 thermal, sulphurous, and carboniferous waters, of a tem 
 perature of between 97 and 98 Fah. They are clear and 
 nodorous, but have a sharp acid taste. Pop. 1285. 
 
 BAGNO A KIPOLI, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 
 4 m. E. by S. Florence, having a parish church with a few 
 fine pictures, and a townhouse. The vicinity is very fertile, 
 and the low meadows towards the river Arno, N. of the town, 
 afford food for numerous cattle and sheep. Pop. 13,189. 
 
 BAGNOLI, a tn. Naples, prov. Sannio, 8 m. S.W. Tri- 
 vento, on the slope of a hill. It has five churches, an abbey, 
 and an hospital. Pop. 4379. 
 
 BAGNOLO. 1, A tn. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra, 
 8 m. S.W. St. Angelo de Lombardi, on the declivity of Mount 
 Calvello. It has a fine collegiate church, and several convents. 
 
 Pop. 4500. 2, A tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, cap. dist. 
 
 of same name, prov. of, and 7 m. S. by W. Brescia, on the 
 
 high road from that city to Cremona. Pop. 2646. The 
 
 DISTRICT is fertile, and feeds a considerable number of cattle. 
 
 Pop. 15,895. -3, A tn. Sardinian States, prov. Salazzo, 
 
 1. bank, Grana, at the foot of the Alps. Pop. 2000. 
 
 BAGNOLS, or BAGNOLS LES BAINS, a vil. France, dep. 
 Lozere, on the Lot, 10 m. S.E. Meude, on a slope near 
 1. bank, Lot, and deserving of notice for its bathing establish 
 ment, which is very complete, and much frequented. The 
 springs, which are thermal, having a temperature of 111 to 
 1 13 Fah., rise in a narrow valley. The water, on first issuing, 
 is limpid, and free from smell, but after it has run some dis 
 tance emits an odour of sulphuretted hydrogen. It is not dis 
 agreeable to the taste, but has a kind of soapy, unctuous feel. 
 It is used both internally and externally, and is said to be 
 very efficacious in scrofulous and similar affections. 
 
 BAGNOLS [anc. Balnea ], a tn. France, dep. Gard, arrond. 
 of, and 15 m. N.E. Uzes, r. bank, Ceze, and of some celebrity 
 for its wines. It is on the whole an ill-built town, with narrow 
 streets, but has one fine square, adorned by two fountains, 
 and surrounded by a balustrade. The college also is a good 
 building. The chief products of the manufactures of Bagnols 
 are coarse cloth, serges, and spun silk. It has also distilleries, 
 
 tanneries, and dyeworks. Pop. 3803. Four places in 
 
 France, in addition to the two already mentioned, have the 
 name of BAGNOLS. 
 
 BAGNONE, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. Pisa, 7 m. 
 S.E. Pontremoli, at the S. base of Mount Orsajo. It contains 
 a large square, parish church, and castle. The inhabitants 
 are chiefly engaged in tillage and rearing cattle, for which four 
 yearly fairs are held. Pop. 4855. 
 
 BAGOLINO, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, prov. of, 
 and 24 m. N. by E. Brescia, 2 m. N.W. lake Idro, 1. bank, 
 Caffaro, having a fine church, an hospital, and extensive iron 
 works. Hardware, coarse cloths, and serge are manufactured 
 here, and an annual cattle-fair is held in July. In the vicinity 
 are the sulphurous thermal springs of St. Giacomo. Pop. 
 3599. 
 
 BAGSHOT [formerly, Holy Hall], a vil. and chapelry, 
 England, co. Surrey, hun. Woking, 10 m. S.S.W. Windsor. 
 Pop. 1071. It gives its name to an extensive heath in the 
 neighbourhood, once famous for the numerous highway rob 
 beries committed on it. The heath is now much reduced in 
 extent, considerable portions of it having been enclosed and 
 cultivated. Along its borders are numerous handsome villas. 
 BAGTHORPE, par. Eng. Norfolk; 710 ac. Pop. 78. 
 BAGULCOT. 1, A subdivision of the dist. of Darwar, 
 Hindoostan, prov. Bejapoor, presid. Bombay, including the 
 pergunnahs Bagulcot and Bedaumy; length, 54 m.; breadth, 
 44 m. ; area, 1230 sq. m. It is badly supplied with water, 
 there being few springs and a deficiency of rain, the annual 
 amount rarely exceeding 26 inches. On this account, the vil- 
 
BAGUU 
 
 290 
 
 BAHAR 
 
 lages are built mostly on the banks of rivers. The principal 
 language is Canarese. Pop. about 100,000. 2, A tn., cap. 
 of above subdivision, 125 ra. N.E. Goa, and the residence of 
 the principal merchants and bankers of the district. Pop. 7523. 
 
 BAGUR, a dist. Iliudoostan, now attached to the provs. 
 of Mahva and Goojerat. 
 
 BAHADURl OOR, two towns, India:!, A tn., prov. 
 Goojerat, 20 ra. S.E. Banda, and 81 m. N.N.E. Surat; lat. 
 22 11 N. ; Ion. 73 46 E. 2, A tn., prov. Malwa, dist. 
 Cheudaree ; lat. 24 15 N. ; Ion. 78 4 E. 
 
 BAHAMA (GRAND), one of the principal islands of the 
 Bahama group, 57 m. E. from the coast of E. Florida ; lat. 
 (W. end) 26 41 N. ; Ion. 79 W. (K.) ; about 70 m. long 
 by 9 broad ; healthy and tolerably fertile, but thinly inhab 
 ited. Pop. 454 males, and 350 females ; chiefly employed in 
 raising Indian corn, and other agricultural pursuits. 
 
 BAHAMA ISLANDS, or LUCAYOS, a group of about 500 
 islands, belonging to Great Britain, many of them mere rocks, 
 lying N.E. Cuba, and E. of the coast of Florida, the gulf- 
 stream of which passes between them and the mainland. They 
 extend from the Grand Bahama or Mantanilla Cays, in lat. 
 27 31 N., and Ion. 79 5 W., to the Mouchoir Bank, in lat. 
 21 N., and Ion. 70 32 "W., a distance of upwards of 600 m. 
 Generally speaking, they present a flat appearance, and are 
 mostly long and narrow. They are formed of calcareous rock, 
 which, by retaining the moisture, is found well adapted to the 
 growth of various kinds of fruits. Of the whole group, not 
 more than 12 or 14 are inhabited ; and some of the largest 
 are either altogether uninhabited, or but thinly peopled, while 
 others, again, are almost unexplored. The climate, though 
 rather hot, the thermometer varying from 80 to 90 in 
 summer, is healthy, and, with moderate care, well suited to 
 European constitutions. Though generally sterile, some of 
 the islands produce oranges, limes, lemons, esculent veget 
 ables, maize, and ground provisions, for the consumption of 
 the inhabitants, and a little cotton for exportation. The 
 general wild vegetation of the Bahamas is a close growth of 
 trees, comprising the Madeira, horse-flesh mahogany, mastic, 
 lignum vitae, pigeon, alum, dyewoods, &c., with an entangled 
 underbrush. Numbers of cattle are reared on the islands, 
 and the hog and agouti are found wild in the woods. In the 
 more S. islands, there are natural salt-ponds, of great value, 
 the cultivation of which is increasing, but is capable of much 
 further improvement. Turtles abound on the shore, and are 
 an article of export. In 1850 the total exports amounted to 
 69,385, and the imports to 124,486. In 1851 there cleared 
 outwards 373 vessels, tonnage 36,914, navigated by 2356 
 seamen ; and there entered 363, tonnage 36,038, navigated 
 by 2266 seamen ; and there were built 13 vessels, tonnage 494. 
 In 1851 the revenue of the colony amounted to 26,105, and 
 the expenditure to 25,068, of which sum 1650 were for 
 educational purposes. The schools supported by the govern 
 ment are 21 in number, attended by 1857 scholars, besides 
 which there are several private schools. There is also a 
 library and museum, partly supported by government. The 
 colony is divided into 13 parishes, and contains nine Episcopal 
 churches, and 1 1 Episcopal chapels, a Presbyterian church, six 
 Methodist, and several Baptist chapels. The seat of govern 
 ment is Nassau, island of New Providence; one of the largest, 
 and, from its geographical position and natural advantages, 
 the most important of the group. Here also is the heai- 
 qnarters of the troops. The legislature consists of a governor 
 and council, appointed by the crown, and a house of assembly, 
 fhe present inhabitants are composed of two classes, residents 
 and wreckers; the former are chiefly the descendants of 
 American royalists, great numbers of whom repaired to these 
 islands, with the remains of their property, at the close of the 
 American war. The wreckers, as their name implies, follow 
 as a calling the occupation of rescuing the crews and cargoes 
 of shipwrecked vessels a calamity exceedingly frequent in 
 these intricate and dangerous seas. They are licensed by the 
 governor, are excellent sailors, and prompt and intrepid in 
 danger. Their vessels, well adapted for the purpose, are 
 small flat-bottomed sloops, which they manage with great 
 skill. They receive a salvage on all property rescued from 
 the waves. The gambling life of a wrecker has, however, 
 much militated against agricultural pursuits, against the real 
 advancement of these islands, and against the comfort and in 
 tersts of the inhabitants. Much has been done to promote 
 
 education in the Bahamas; numerous schools having been 
 established and chiefly supported by the colonial government, 
 and also, to a great extent, by the Wcsleyans. San Salvador, 
 one of the islands, was the first land fallen in with by Columbus 
 on his first voyage, in 1492. At this period, the larger of 
 the Bahamas were densely peopled by a mild and inoffensive 
 race of Indians, whom the Spaniards removed to Hispaniola 
 to work the mines, or act as divers in the pearl-fisheries of 
 Cnmana. By this cruel proceeding, the race became entirely 
 extinct in the course of about 14 years. The Bahamas now 
 remained uninhabited for nearly a century and a half, when 
 they were colonized by the English (1629), who were, in 
 turn, expelled by the Spaniards. They subsequently changed 
 masters repeatedly, but were finally ceded to the British in 
 1783. The principal islands are Grand Bahama, Great and 
 Little Abaco, Andros Islands, New Providence, Eleuthra, 
 San Salvador, Great Exuma, Rum Cay, Watling Island, Long 
 Island, Crooked Island, Acklin Island, Atwood Cay, Man- 
 cuana Island, Great, and Little Inagua, and the Caricos Islands. 
 The entire pop. in 1845 amounted to 26,500; according to 
 the census of 1851 it had increased to 27,519. 
 
 BAHAR, or BEHAR, an extensive prov., a dist., and tn., 
 Hindoostan, presidency of Bengal. The PROVINCE, of very 
 irregular outline, is situated between lat. 22 49 and 27 20 
 N.; Ion. 83 1 and 87 14 E.; bounded, N. by Nepaul, 
 W. by Allahabad, Oude, and Gundwana, S. by Gundwana, 
 and E. by Bengal ; area, about 50,000 sq. m. The Ganges, 
 flowing W. to E., divides it into two nearly equal parts; the 
 N. consisting partly of the extensive alluvial tract along the 
 1. bank of the Ganges, and stretching N. to the forests of 
 Nepaul and Morung ; the S. consisting partly of a similar 
 tract along the r. bank of that river, and an extensive moun 
 tainous tract commonly called Nagpoor, from the diamond 
 mines it was supposed to contain. The province of Bahar 
 is divided into six districts or zillahs, and is, in respect of 
 natural advantages, one of the most highly favoured in Hin 
 doostan. Its climate is temperate and healthy, though sub 
 ject, particularly towards the centre, and during the hot season, 
 to a parching W. wind, succeeded, however, towards evening, 
 by a cool breeze from the E. The cold season among the 
 hills is singularly bracing to European constitutions. At sun 
 rise during that season, the temperature ranges between 35 
 and 40, and often, in the course of the same day, reaches 
 75 Fah. The province is well watered. In addition to the 
 Ganges, which traverses it centrally, it possesses the Sone, 
 the Gundach, the Caramnassa, and the Dewah, with almost 
 innumerable smaller streams. The soil, particularly in the 
 plains, is of remarkable fertility. In the tracts S. of the 
 Ganges, irrigation is usually effected by means of wells, from 
 which the water is drawn by a lever and buckets ; in other 
 parts, by damming up the streams. The chief products are 
 opium (the staple commodity), indigo, sugar-cane, rice, wheat, 
 maize, cotton, flax, sesamum, ginger, pepper, tobacco, betel- 
 leaf, and a variety of flowering plants, from which essences 
 are made. There are, besides, considerable numbers of cattle 
 reared. The manufactures consist of cottons (once a staple 
 of great importance, but now almost entirely superseded by 
 English imports), carpets, essences, as rose-water, and otto of 
 roses ; oils, refined sugar, saltpetre, hides, soap, earthenware, 
 and paper. The natives of Bahar excel the Bengalese in 
 stature and physical strength, and in general have better 
 houses, many of them in the towns being two stories high, 
 but they fall below them in cleanliness, domestic economy, 
 and moral propriety. Intoxication is nearly universal, and 
 religion is mocked in the persons of a degraded and dissolute 
 priesthood. The capital of Bahar is Patua. At a remote 
 period of Hindoo history, Bahar seems to have been the 
 seat of two independent sovereignties, that of Magadh.i 
 or S. Bahar, and Mithila (Tirhoot) or N. Bahar. There 
 are no Buddhists here, although Gaya, the birthplace of 
 Buddha, the great prophet and legislator of E. Asia, is 
 within the limits of the province. Bahar was transferred to 
 the British in 1765. Pop. (one-third Mahometans) 9,101,492. 
 The DISTRICT occupies the central portion, bounded N. 
 by the Ganges, E. by Bhaugalnore, S. by Ramghnr and 
 Bhaugalpore, and W. by Shahabad; greatest length, N.E. to 
 S. W., 1 65 m. ; breadth, 68 m. ; area, 5694 sq. m. The greater 
 jiart of the country consists of a rich alluvial plain, bounded 
 on the N. by the Ganges, is level and highly cultivated. 
 
BAIIAWULPOOR 
 
 BAHIA 
 
 although barren isolated hills are of frequent occurrence, par 
 ticularly in the centre of the district. None of these, how 
 ever, attain a greater elevation than 700 ft. ; but in the S. 
 parts, there are hills of nearly twice that height. The 
 principal rivers besides the Ganges, are the Sone or Golden 
 river, the Punpun, the Phalgu or Fulgo, the Saeri, and 
 the Panchaue, with their numerous branches. About 500 
 sq. m. are covered with woods and thickets, consisting of 
 palms, bamboos, mangoes, pomegranates, fig-trees, apple, and 
 other fruit-trees. Hot springs and volcanic substances are 
 met with in various places. The principal wild animals arc 
 black bears, spotted tigers, badgers, ichneumons, jackals, 
 squirrels, foxes, hares, dogs, and monkeys ; porpoises, alliga 
 tors, and fish abound in the Ganges ; birds are numerous, 
 but all song-less. The climate is on the whole healthy, 
 though the heats of spring are excessive, and the E. and W. 
 winds hot and parching. The chief productions are wheat, 
 barley, maize, and rice, about a fourth of which, of superior 
 quality, named bismati, is in great demand in the markets 
 of Calcutta. The lands near the Ganges yield two crops a 
 year. Cruciferous plants, ginger, capsicum, turmeric, corian 
 der, linseed, sesamum, potatoes, and legumes, are also exten 
 sively cultivated, together with many other kinds of succulent 
 vegetables ; cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco, betel-leaf, safflower, 
 and indigo, are likewise cultivated to a greater or less extent. 
 Poppies are grown in great quantities in garden land carefully 
 watered, generally along with onions, garlic, and coriander. 
 The manufactures consist of cottons, carpets, blankets, paper, 
 soap, leather in many shapes, bricks, coarse earthenware, &c. 
 There are six great places of pilgrimage in this district, and 
 200,000 pilgrims have been known to visit one of them called 
 Gaya in a year. The chief towns of the district are Gaya 
 (the capital), Bahar, Shorgotty, Daudnagar, Unvul, &c. The 
 villages are numerous, consisting of mud-built houses, huddled 
 together without regard to regularity or comfort. It is di 
 vided into twenty-eight pergunnahs. Pop. 2,500,000, of 
 
 whom about a fourth are Mahometans. The TOWN is in 
 
 the above district; lat. 25 13 N. ; Ion. 85 35 E. ; 40 m. S.E. 
 Patna, 265 m. N.W. Calcutta. It is a large straggling place, 
 built chiefly around a ditch marking out the boundary of the 
 ancient city, which, though now nearly deserted, must have 
 been a place of importance, and was probably the capital 
 both of the district and province. The best part of the 
 town consists of a long, narrow street, roughly paved with 
 bricks and stones, but presenting, altogether, a wretched 
 appearance. In the centre are the remains of a massive 
 stone building, roofed with a number of small domes, having 
 its interior divided into as many cells, resembling the Patan 
 mosques of the upper provinces. The environs are well cul 
 tivated, and improved by irrigation. Pop. about 25,000. 
 
 BAHAWULPOOR, BIIAWULPOOK, or DOADPOOTRA, a 
 thinly-peopled principality, N.W. Hindoostan, between lat. 
 2T 41 and 30 25 N. ; Ion 69 30 and 73 58 E.; bounded 
 N. and N.W. by the Punjab, from which it is separated by the 
 rivers Gharra, Punjnud, and Indus ; W. by Sinde ; S. and 
 S.E. by the Jesselineer, and Beckaneer ; and E. by Sikh 
 territories of Patiala ; length, N.E. to S.W. about 300 m.; 
 breadth, about 100 m. at the broadest part. Along the rivers 
 forming the N.W. boundary, the soil is fertile, producing 
 cereals, tobacco, indigo, and sugar, and in this district are 
 situated all the important towns in the principality, Bahawul- 
 poor, Ahmedpoor, Seedapoor, and Och. The remainder of the 
 territory to the S.E. is nearly wholly included in the Great 
 Indian desert ; and consists of arid sand covered with the 
 prickly pear, and saline plants. In some spots, however, 
 a scanty vegetation is met with, supplying food to the herds 
 belonging to nomadic tribes frequenting these localities. The 
 domestic animals are the camel, reared in great numbers in the 
 desert ; the buffalo, the cow, the gaddi or short-tailed sheep, the 
 goat, &c. Poultry is plentiful. West, near the rivers, wild 
 fowl are so abundant that, according to Masson, a goose may 
 be had for a halfpenny, and two or three ducks for the same 
 sum. Many of the inhabitants are Juts and Belooches (Ma 
 hometans), but the majority are Hindoos. The manufactures, 
 carried on almost entirely by the latter, consist chiefly of 
 silken girdles and turbans, and a species of cottons called 
 coongees, of remarkably fine texture. The merchants, also 
 Hindoos, manifest a considerable degree of enterprise, and 
 carry on an extensive trade, chiefly in articles of European 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 manufacture, received by way of Beckaneer, and the desert 
 of Ajmeer. The merchants of Bahawulpoor are not unfre- 
 quently seen in Balkh and Bokhara, and sometimes even in 
 Astrakhan. Bahawulpoor is governed by a khan, whose mili 
 tary force consists of about 2500 regular troops, with about 4000 
 of a heterogeneous class. Chief tns. Bahawulpoor (the cap.), 
 Ahmedpoor, Ooch, and Khanpoor. P. estimated at 600,000. 
 
 BAHAWULPOOR, cap. above principality, about 2 m. 
 from the Gharra, 55 m. S.S.E. Mooltan, and 330 m. W.N.W. 
 Delhi ; lat. 29 J 32 N. ; Ion. 71 40 E. It is a place of con 
 siderable antiquity, and had walls, indications of which may 
 still be traced along the public walk. The houses, chiefly 
 of kiln-burnt bricks, are much mixed with gardens, which 
 give them an isolated and straggling appearance. The whole 
 is encircled by groves of date and pipal-trees. The only 
 public buildings deserving of notice are the palaces of the 
 khan, though in appearance they are not very attractive 
 residences. The manufactures are numerous, and some of 
 them costly. They consist chiefly of silk stuffs and coongees. 
 The trade also is extensive. Pop. about 20,000. 
 
 BAHIA, the name, with various affixes, of a number of 
 bays in different parts of the world: 1, Bahia de Todos-os- 
 Santos, see ALL SAINTS BAY. 2, Bahia Blanca, a bay in 
 S. America, Buenos Ayres ; lat. 38 59 S. ; Ion. 61 40 W. (n.) 
 3, Bahia Honda, a bay on the N.W. coast of Cuba ; lat. 
 22 59 N.; Ion. 83 13 W. (it.) 4, Bahia Honda, a bay on 
 the S.W. coast of Guatimala; lat. 7 43 30" N.; Ion. 81 31 
 W. (R.) 5, Bahia Honda, S. America, Venezuela, at the 
 extremity of the promontory forming the W. side of the gulf 
 of the latter name; lat. 12 19 N.; Ion. 71 48 W. (R.) 
 
 BAHIA, a maritime prov. Brazil, cap. Bahia, bounded, 
 W. and N. by Pernambuco, from which it is separated by the 
 Eio Suo Francisco ; N.W. by Sergipe ; E. by the Atlantic ; 
 and S. by Espirito Santo, from which it is separated by the 
 Eio Mucuri or Mucury, and Minas Geraes, towards which 
 it is bounded by the Rio Pardo and the Eio G urutuba, the 
 latter flowing W. to the SSo Francisco, and the former E. 
 to the ocean. It is comprehended between lat. 9 20 and 
 16 35 S., and Ion. 37 20 and 44 50 W. ; estimated area, 
 222,168 sq. in., divided into 13 districts. The province of 
 Bahia is traversed S. to N. by a mountain-range, under vari 
 ous names, Almas, Chapada, &c., at a distance of rather more 
 than 200 m. from the sea, forming the water-shed between the 
 rivers that flow E. to the Atlantic, and those that flow W. to 
 the Eio Sao Francisco. Numerous offsets of this main chain 
 traverse the province in various directions, causing the course 
 of the rivers to deviate less or more from their general direc 
 tion of E. or W. Gold and copper are rare, but mines of silver 
 exist, though they have not been wrought, on account of the 
 presumed small quantity of the precious metal in them ; iron, 
 granite, and different kinds of clays are abundant in certain 
 localities, as are also limestone, saltpetre, whetstone, and rock- 
 crystal. The principal streams flowing to the Atlantic are, the 
 S. boundary river, the Eio Grande do Belmonte, the Contas, 
 Patipe , Itapicaru, and the Paraguassu, which falls into the Bahia 
 de Todos os- Santos. Besides those named there are numerous 
 others, reaching the ocean either directly or indirectly. The 
 Paramirim and the Eemedio are the principal streams flowing 
 W. to the Eio Silo Francisco, but besides them there are num 
 erous others of less note. Though hilly, the province has also 
 extensive plains, and is throughout well watered ; but, from 
 the limited population, and the agriculturists always preferring 
 the sea- shore or the margin of the rivers, a large portion is 
 still uncultivated. The principal agricultural products are 
 sugar, cotton, tobacco, and coffee, mandioca, rice, beans, and 
 maize. Its supplies of sheep and cattle are drawn from othei 
 provinces. Among its plants and their products are, Brazil 
 wood of several kinds, cedar, gum elerai, and copal, dragon s 
 blood, jalap, ipecacuanha, and saffron. The oranges, mangoes, 
 and numerous other fruits are excellent. This province sends 
 14 deputies to the general assembly, and seven senators to the 
 upper chamber. Its own provincial legislative assembly is 
 composed of 36 deputies, who are paid both during the session 
 and its prorogations, and receive, besides, an indemnity pro 
 portioned to the distance they have to travel. The revenue 
 of the province for the financial year 1849-50, was estimated 
 at about 74,000 sterling. Besides Bahia, the capital, the 
 principal towns are Jacobina, Cachoeira, C aravellas, San 
 Francisco, Ilheos, &c. Pop. about 800,000. 
 
BAHIA 
 
 298 
 
 BAHIA 
 
 BAHIA, or SAO SALVADOR, an important maritime city 
 and seaport, S. America, empire of Brazil, cap. prov. of sanio 
 name, beautifully situated in an elevated position on the W. 
 side of a spit of land forming the E. side of the entrance 
 
 to the Bahia de Todos-os- Santos or All Saints Bay, imme 
 diately within Cape St. Antonio, on which is a revolving 
 light, 140 ft. above the sea level, in lat. 13 42" S.- Ion 
 38 31 42" W. (R.) It lies 800 m. N.N.E. Rio 
 de Janeiro, and is the seat of the only arch 
 bishopric in the empire. Nothing can be finer 
 than the view of Bahia when seen at a short 
 distance from off the sea ; one part towers above 
 another, and the whitened houses and red-tiled 
 roofs contrast magnificently with the rich foliage 
 interspersed between. It is composed of two 
 parts, the upper (alta) and lower (baixa). The 
 lower or shore town (Eua da Praya) consists 
 of a single narrow, badly-paved, dirty street, 
 with a gutter in its centre, following the sinu 
 osities of the shore, and in all about 4 m. long, 
 from the suburb of Bomfim to the locality called 
 Gamboa. The buildings (of stone) are high, and, 
 though old, have a cheerful exterior; those 
 nearest the shore projecting considerably into 
 the sea. A wide space in this street is i 
 
 the most important public buildings. The general aspect of 
 the upper city is antique. It is built on the crest of the hill 
 and composed principally of one or two principal streets, which, 
 in their direction, follow the outline of the hill, as the Rua da 
 Praya follows that of the shore, and in all about 6 m. long. 
 These streets are well paved, more, however, with the view 
 of preserving them from injury by rain, than for the further 
 ance of locomotion, which, indeed, in Bahia, except for foot- 
 passengers, appears to be a secondary consideration; the 
 inequality of the ground rendering the use of wheeled-carriages 
 almost impracticable. Rome is not built on so many hills as 
 Bahia, which, according to one writer, is so irregular in its 
 surface, as to give it the appearance of having been thrown up 
 by an earthquake. The wealthier class progress through the 
 streets in a sort of litter or palanquin, called cadeira ; and sugar, 
 cotton, and coffee are borne along in bags on the heads of the 
 negroes, or in bulkier packages, hung by slings from poles, 
 supported on the shoulders of slaves. On one of the most 
 commanding heights of the city is placed the finely-wooded 
 public promenade (Passeio publico) , from which a magnificent 
 view of the ocean is obtained ; it overlooks, likewise, the city 
 and bay, towards which latter it is bordered by a steep pre 
 cipice, protected by an iron railing. A marble monument, to 
 commemorate the landing of Don John VI., the first royal 
 governor of Brazil, decorates the promenade. The city is 
 divided into ten parishes, each having its own church, the 
 most important of which is the cathedral, Sao Salvador ; but 
 numerous other places of worship are scattered through the 
 city; so much so, that it exceeds every other city in the 
 empire for the number and the sumptuousness of its churches. 
 Many of these are attached to monasteries and convents ; 
 which, with their inmates, are, in like manner, more numerous 
 here than elsewhere, and all in the most excellent state of 
 repair. Such are the convents of Benedictines, Carmelites 
 shod and unshod, Franciscans, Capuchins, &c. Among the 
 churches attached to the religious houses, that of Nossa 
 Senhora da Piedade is a large important Spanish edifice. Bahia 
 is abundantly provided with public buildings. Besides those 
 
 a market-place ; and near it is the exchange, no 
 way remarkable for architectural beauty, but 
 worthy of attention for having been constructed 
 of the best native materials. In this part of the 
 city dwell the mercantile agents, and here the 
 great business bustle exists, the streets being 
 continually thronged with pedlars, carriers, &c., 
 increased in consequence of the difficulty of using carriages 
 or sledges of any kind, from the unevenness of the ground. 
 Recent alterations have, however, greatly improved the ap 
 pearance of the lower town, into which omnibuses have been 
 introduced. Here likewise are situated the custom-house, 
 those stores or magazines called trapiches, for merchandise 
 of all kinds; the granary, the arsenal, and the shipbuilding- 
 yard. One of the most note-worthy edifices in this part of 
 Bahia is the large church of Conceicao or Conception, built 
 of stones brought cut and ready from Lisbon. The upper 
 town lies at an elevation of several hundred feet above the 
 lower town ; and the streets connecting the two parts are con 
 sequently very steep, following, in some instances, the zig 
 zag course of ravines, and in others slanting across the hill- 
 slope. This is the larger, finer, and more populous part of the 
 city. Here the wealthier classes dwell, and here are situated 
 
 HO.SPICE DE NOSSA SENHORA DA PIEDADE. 
 From Rugf-ndas, Voyage Pittoresque duns le Bresil. 
 
 mentioned as being in the low town, the more important are 
 the governor s palace, a large quadrangular edifice, of 600 ft. 
 on each face ; the archiepiscopal palace, communicating with 
 the cathedral ; the mint, foundry, courthouse, prison, a public 
 and a military hospital, orphan seminary, theatre, and granary. 
 These are all stone, and mostly solidly-constructed buildings, 
 but none of them possessing especial pretensions to architec 
 tural beauty or elegance. The suburbs of Bahia are beauti 
 ful, Victoria hill being peculiarly so. Here are situated the 
 finest houses and gardens of the city, the residences of the 
 principal British merchants, and the English cemetery. At the 
 Campo do forte do Sao Pedro is an English Protestant chapel. 
 In 1811, a public library was established in the city; which 
 likewise has a surgical school and an agricultural society, an 
 excellent collegiate institution, 16 primary schools, and a 
 normal school, besides several private schools. The upper 
 
BAHIA 
 
 299 
 
 BAHKE1N 
 
 town has some printing-presses, and is the scat of the manu 
 factures of the place, consisting of tobacco, glass, brandy, &c. 
 
 Alternate land and sea breezes render the climate of Bahia 
 pleasant, though the temperature ranges between 75 and 
 85 Fah. 
 
 The harbour of Bahia is one of the best in America, and 
 suitable for vessels of any size. The bay which forms it is 
 much more extensive than the celebrated bay of Rio de Janeiro. 
 The harbour is defended by seven forts, and at its entrance is 
 a lighthouse. War vessels lie in front of the city, S.E. of 
 fort S2o Marcello; merchant vessels lie further N.W., towards 
 fort Montserrat. The commerce of Bahia consists chiefly in 
 the export of sugar, cotton, tobacco, rum, and other articles 
 of native product ; but it has fallen off considerably since the 
 revolution of 1837, and does not appear even now to be re 
 covering itself. One considerable branch, th importation of 
 slaves, has been materially curtailed by the activity of British 
 cruisers, and by the withdrawal of British credits of money, 
 consequent upon repeated losses from seizure of the slave ves 
 sels. The whale-fisheries of this city were once the greatest 
 in the world ; and a considerable number of whales are still 
 caught in the neighbouring seas, and brought in here for 
 flensing and boiling. Notwithstanding the fetid effluvia dif 
 fused by the decaying animal matter, the capture of a whale 
 is the occasion of general triumph in Bahia. Hundreds of 
 the people, the coloured especially, throng round to witness 
 
 the monster s dying struggles, and to procure portions of his 
 flesh, which they cook and eat. Vast quantities of this flesh 
 are cooked and sold in the streets. Numbers of swine also 
 feast upon the carcass of the whale. 
 
 The following table of the vessels cleared and entered at 
 the port of Bahia, 1840 to 1847, shows that the number of 
 vessels and the amount of tonnage has fluctuated considerably, 
 and on the whole has decreased : 
 
 STATEMENT of the NUMBER and TONNAGE OF VESSELS, belonging to 
 various Nations, Entered and Cleared at the PORT or BAIIIA, in each 
 year from 1840 to 1847. 
 
 
 ENTERED. 
 
 CLEARED. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1840 
 
 767 
 
 109,261 
 
 764 
 
 112,075 
 
 1841 
 
 1061 
 
 138,026 
 
 936 
 
 139,350 
 
 1842 
 
 297 
 
 69,312 
 
 282 
 
 70,010 
 
 1843 
 
 286 
 
 67,280 
 
 301 
 
 73,4-19 
 
 1844 
 
 300 
 
 70,111 
 
 288 
 
 71,709 
 
 1845 
 
 378 
 
 89,347 
 
 367 
 
 <JO,783 
 
 1846 
 
 411 
 
 98,533 
 
 369 
 
 91,861 
 
 18 i7 
 
 335 
 
 76,230 
 
 335 
 
 78,537 
 
 A similar general result of decrease in the exports is ex 
 hibited by the following table, notwithstanding the evident 
 increase in some important articles : 
 
 STATEMENT of the QUANTITIES of the PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OP DOMESTIC PRODUCE exported from the PORT OF BAHIA 
 to various countries, in each year, from 1843 to 1846. 
 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 COFKEE. 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 
 HIDES. 
 
 PIASSAVA. TAPIOCA. 
 
 Vears. 
 
 Cases. 
 
 boxes. 
 
 llimli. 
 
 Bags. 
 
 Bundles. 
 
 Bags. 
 
 Rolls. 
 
 Packages. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 No. 
 
 Bundles. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 18-K3 
 
 39,139 
 
 661 
 
 2005 
 
 18,342 
 
 208 
 
 11,439 
 
 3827 
 
 63,032 
 
 6,390 
 
 152,838 
 
 33,813 
 
 1335 
 
 1844 
 
 54,036 
 
 772 
 
 1949 
 
 18,937 
 
 
 16,490 
 
 1763 
 
 68,452 
 
 5,247 
 
 130,290 
 
 24,170 
 
 2057 
 
 1845 
 1846 
 
 77,792 
 67,565 
 
 1211 
 1332 
 
 3628 
 3425 
 
 11,724 
 10,913 
 
 " 
 
 12,373 
 20,443 
 
 3889 
 S674, 
 
 90,917 
 57,631 
 
 12,884 
 18,678 
 
 124, . 05 
 125,634 
 
 39,114 
 
 38,802 
 
 3966 
 471 
 
 The imports consist chiefly in manufactured articles ; and 
 possessing no returns for the port of Bahia alone, we present 
 the following table of the imports of the province, which are 
 evidently on the increase : 
 
 STATEMENT of the VALUE OF THE IMPORTS into the PRO-VINCE OF 
 BAHU,J>0M various Countries in each year from 1840 to 1846. 
 
 1814.. 
 1815.. 
 
 . 1,070,996 
 .... 1,241,121 
 .... 1,431,548 
 
 1810 
 
 1841 
 
 1842 910,690 
 
 1843 1,009,264 
 
 Bahia de Todos-os-Santos, or All Saints Bay, was discovered 
 in 1503, by Americus Vespucius. In 1510, a vessel com 
 manded by Diogo Alvares Correa, was wrecked near the 
 entrance of the bay, and every one, himself excepted, was 
 murdered by the Tupinambas Indians. Having secured a 
 musket, and saved some powder and ball, CoiTea soon acquired 
 unbounded influence over the Indians, who knew nothing of 
 fire-arms ; and in process of time, he married Paraguassu, 
 daughter of the head chief, Itaparica, whose name was given to 
 the large island in front of the city. He now began a settle 
 ment, which he named Sao Salvador, subsequently recognized 
 by the Portuguese Government as the capital of the Brazilian 
 empire, and residence of the Governor-general, the first one, 
 Thomaz de Souza, landing in 1549. From this time it con 
 tinued to increase rapidly in size and importance, but under 
 went many vicissitudes of fortune, having been taken by the 
 Dutch, and, even after reverting to its original possessors, it 
 euffered from the attacks of its former captors. It continued 
 to be the capital till 1763, when the viceroyalty was trans 
 ferred to Ivio de Janeiro. In 1808, Don John, the first member 
 of the royal family who came to Brazil, landed as stated above. 
 He was pressed to make his court at Bahia, the citizens 
 promising to erect him a magnificent palace. The wide mouth 
 of the bay, and the difficulty of effectually fortifying the 
 harbour, formed a weighty objection to the city as a residence 
 for royalty. The Prince regent, therefore, resolved to pass 
 on to Kio de Janeiro ; but, before the fleet weighed anchor, he 
 communicated to Count de Ponte, the governor, that celebrated 
 document the Carta llegia, by which the ports of Brazil were 
 thrown open to the commerce of all nations. The first printing- 
 press was established in 1811, and the first sugar-mill was 
 introduced from England in 1815. At the Portuguese re 
 
 volution in 1820, Bahia was plunged into the horrors of 
 civil war, from which it was freed in 1823. It had a small 
 revolution of its own in 1837, which did great damage to 
 the prosperity of the city, but was soon suppressed by the 
 supreme Government. Pop. about 120,000. (Diccio. Geo. 
 Imp. Brazil; Kidder s Brazil; Gardner s Travels in Brazil- 
 Parliamentary Papers; Private Information.) 
 
 BAHIA-NEGRA, a lake, Brazil, prov. Matto- Grosso, 
 r. bank, Paraguay, on the confines of Bolivia ; lat. 20 8. It 
 is about 20 in. long by about 7 broad. Its waters are of a 
 dark colour, whence its name Negra (black], and flow S. to the 
 Paraguay 35 m. below Nova Coimbra. 
 
 BAHLINGEN, or BALINGEN. 1, A tn. Wurtemberg, 
 circle of the Black Forest, valley of the Eyach and Steinach, 
 25 m. S.S.W. Stuttgardt. It has two churches, one of them 
 containing the tomb of Count Frederick von Zollern. It 
 carries on an active business in the manufacture of woollen 
 stuffs, hosiery, and leather ; has also several breweries and 
 distilleries, and a considerable trade in grain. Pop. 3230. 
 The DISTRICT of Bahlingen has a pop. of 32,000, in 31 
 parishes. It lies along the Swabian Alps, the highest summit 
 of which, Oberhohenberg, 3369 ft. above the sea level, is 
 
 within it. 2, A vil. grand duchy of Baden, circle of the 
 
 Upper Khine, 11 m. N.\V. Freiburg. Pop. 1750. 
 
 BAHN, a tn. Prussia, gov. Stettin, circle, Greifenhagen, 
 r. bank, Thue, 22 m. S. Stettin. It is walled, and contains 
 2000 inhabitants, who live by agriculture and the manufacture 
 of straw bonnets. 
 
 BAHREIN, a group of three islands, in a deep bay, on 
 the S. side of the Persian Gulf; to the largest of which, 
 exclusively, Europeans give the name of Bahrein, and the 
 natives, Awal or Aval (i.e., the first) ; close to it is Mahragh ; 
 while Arad adjoins the mainland to the S.E. Arab geo 
 graphers, on the other hand, apply to the whole of this tract 
 of coast the expressive name Bahrein, which signifies the two 
 waters, that is, the salt and the fresh water ; the distinguishing 
 peculiarity of this coast being the number and copiousness of 
 the fresh-water springs which gush forth from the bottom of 
 the sea along the shore. To this abundance of good water is 
 attributable the comparatively dense population of the coast, 
 which is, in general, sterile and forbidding. Some villages 
 have pumps in the sea ; but the chief supply of fresh water, 
 
BAHR-EL-ABIAD 
 
 300 
 
 BAIKAL 
 
 "^" 
 
 both for the mainland and the islands, is furnished by divers, 
 who, on reaching the bottom, hold their goatskins open over 
 the springs, and are quickly carried up by the ascending cur 
 rent. Awal extends about 25 m. in length N. to S., with an 
 average breadth of 8 m. ; its N. extremity, 
 where stands the capital town Manama, with 
 a good-sized harbour for vessels of moderate 
 size, being in lat. 26 12 N. ; Ion. 50 40 E. 
 A ridge of low hills runs through the island 
 N. to S. About a fifth of the island is 
 under cultivation, and being well irrigated, 
 is extremely fertile; producing, besides 
 wheat, barley, and dates, a great variety of 
 tropical fruits. This is the centre of the 
 Persian Gulf pearl-fishery, which is carried 
 on with the greatest advantage on the banks 
 in a moderate depth of water. The diving 
 commences in June, but becomes more 
 productive in the three following months, 
 when the temperature of the sea increases. 
 Bahrein is said to own 3000 boats engaged 
 in this business, besides 150 vessels of 
 larger size. The annual value of the fish 
 ery has been variously estimated at from 
 90,000 to five times that amount; per 
 haps the lowest estimate is intended to re 
 present what accrues to the fishermen, who 
 are always kept in debt to their employers, 
 and extremely poor. Manama, being much resorted to by 
 foreign merchants, is well provided with ample earavanseries, 
 and boasts also of a handsome mosque. Its population may 
 amount to 5000. It is supposed that there are 40,000 inhab 
 itants in Awal, and 20,000 in the other islands. Bahrein was 
 occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century ; but, in 1622, 
 they were expelled by the Persians. These, after many con 
 tests with the Arabs, finally withdrew from the island in 1790. 
 Subsequently, the Waha by extended their sway over the 
 islands as well as the coast; but since 1819 their power has 
 been extinct, and the peaceful fisherman is now protected by 
 British cruisers. 
 
 BAHR-EL-ABIAD. See ABIAD (BAHR-EL-.) 
 BAHR-EL-AZREK. See AZREK (BAHR-EL-.) 
 
 a celebrated watering-place of ancient Italy, AY. 
 shore of the Bay of Naples, and 8 m. \V. the city of same name. 
 This Campanian Brighton, once the place where the wealthy 
 Romans had their country-seats, is now deserted. Its great 
 attractions were its hot springs, and its picturesque situation, 
 on a beautiful bay, sheltered by surrounding hills from the 
 violence of the winds. The strip of land, however, that lay 
 between the hills and the sea was too narrow for the numerous 
 mansions with which it was crowded, and men who possessed 
 half a province elsewhere, contended here for a single acre. 
 Those who could find no room on the bank, built into the sea. 
 But, on the decline of Rome, Baiae fell into decay ; its villas 
 and palaces were deserted, and the dikes and other contriv 
 ances by which the sea was held back being neglected, the 
 waters resumed their ancient territory, overwhelming the 
 mansions of the voluptuous Romans. The temple of Jupiter 
 Serapis is the most celebrated monument of antiquity in the 
 neighbourhood of Baise ; and has recently acquired great 
 additional interest in the eyes of the geologist, from the un 
 equivocal evidence which it affords of great alternating changes 
 in the relative level of sea and land in the surrounding dis 
 trict, two of them since the Christian era, and each exceeding 
 20 ft. The evidence of this important fact is derived chiefly 
 from three pillars, still standing, which, at the height of 23 ft. 
 above high-water mark, exhibit perforations by lithodomi and 
 other marine animals ; of course, proving incontestably that 
 at the time when these perforations were made, the pillars 
 must, up to that height at least, have been submerged. 
 
 BAIBOUT, or BAIBOURT, a tn. Asiatic Turkey, pash. of, 
 and 61 m. W. by N. Erzeroom, r. bank, Tchorak, on the road 
 between Erzeroom and Trebizonde. It is irregular and ill 
 built ; occupying the base of an insulated hill, on the summit 
 of which is an ancient castle fortified by an outer wall, which 
 descends far down the hill. The castle was one of the strong- 
 
 which cover aconsiderable extent of ground, display much bean- 
 
 tiful masonry ; while the numerous towers, of all forms, with 
 
 which the walls are strengthened, are remarkably well built. 
 
 The fall of snow at Baibout, iu winter, is so great, as to 
 
 @ 
 
 THE TOWN A?TD CASTLE OF BAIDOUT. From Texicr, Inscription de 1 Armenie la Perse. So. 
 
 interrupt all communication with the neigbouring villages for 
 several months together. Cow dung, baked in the sun, con 
 stitutes the fuel of the poorer classes, who can afford no other. 
 The inhabitants are described as a stout, active, hardy race, 
 and of mild and civil manners. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BAIERSDORF, or BAYERSDORF, a tn. Bavaria, circle, 
 Middle Franconia, dist. Erlangen, 14 m. N. Niirnberg, on the 
 railway between that city and Bamberg, and on the Ludwig 
 Canal. It contains a parish church, a synagogue, and the 
 ruins of the palace of Scharfeneek ; and has a copper -work 
 and numerous needle-factories. Pop. 1546, of whom 440 are 
 Jews. 
 
 BAIKAL [Russian, Svriatoje More Holy Sea], an ex 
 tensive alpine lake, Siberia, gov. Irkutsk, between lat. 51" 
 and 56 N., and Ion. 103 and 110 E. ; greatest length, 
 measured through its centre, from N.E. to S.W., about 380 m.; 
 average breadth, from 30 to 40 m. ; area, 11,200 geo. sq. m. 
 It has somewhat the form of a crescent, with its concavity 
 towards the W., and is surrounded on all sides by lofty moun 
 tain-ranges, intersected usually by dark precipitous ravines, 
 but sometimes, also, by wider valleys covered with pines. 
 These mountains often rise up precipitously in fantastic peaks 
 from the shore of the lake, and appear to be continued as pre 
 cipitously beneath its surface in some parts, a depth of 100 
 fathoms ; in others, no bottom has yet been found. The preval 
 ence of volcanic rocks, and the violent twisting and upheaving 
 of the more regular strata by their agency, together with the 
 thermal springs which abound in the neighbourhood, seem to 
 justify the belief generally entertained, that the bed of the 
 lake is the crater of an extinct volcano. This belief derives 
 additional support, from the fact that volcanic agency is still 
 active throughout the surrounding country. Scarcely a year 
 elapses without an earthquake. The level of the lake is 
 1420 ft. above that of the sea an elevation which, taken in 
 connection with the cold mountainous region in which it lies, 
 accounts for the long period during which it continues frozen. 
 Snow usually begins about the end of August. Shortly after, 
 winter sets in, and the lake begins to be frozen only par 
 tially, however, as the whole surface is seldom frozen over 
 before the middle of December. Thereafter it continues so, 
 and may be traversed on sledges till the end of April. The 
 lake receives the drainage of a vast extent of country, not 
 fewer than 200 streams pouring their water into it. Of these 
 the most important are the Selenga and the Bargousin, which 
 both join it on its E. shore ; and the Upper Angara, which 
 falls into its N. extremity by four mouths. The only outlet 
 is the Lower Angara, a tributary of the Yenisei, which brings 
 Lake Baikal into communication with the remotest parts of 
 
 holds belonging to the Genoese, who were permitted by the ( W. Siberia. Though both a broad and a rapid river, the 
 sovereigns of Armenia to establish a line of fortified stations water which it carries off has been estimated at less than a 
 through their kingdom to the frontier of Persia. The ruins, | tenth of that which the lake receives. The lake has no 
 
BATLEN 
 
 301 
 
 BAJA 
 
 islands at any considerable distance from its shores, but num 
 bers of them situated near the mouths of the principal streams, 
 and formed, probably, by their deposits. The largest of all, 
 Olkhon, not far from the middle of the W. coast, is above 
 40 m. long by about 15 broad, but, with exception of a little 
 pasturage in its interior, and a few birches, pines, and brush 
 wood along its rocky sides, is, as its name in Mongolian 
 implies, completely barren. Lake Baikal abounds in fish, 
 particularly sturgeon and sterlet, salmon, salmon trout, omoul, 
 and a very remarkable fish called kalamenka, which, though 
 only from 4 to 6 inches long, is a mere mass of fat, and is 
 often thrown up dead upon the shores in immense shoals. 
 Seals also, though naturalists are very much puzzled to know 
 how they got there, are very numerous; and, at certain 
 seasons, the air is perfectly filled with flocks of swans and 
 ducks. The shores of the lake are thinly peopled, and are 
 occupied chiefly by the Tunguses and Bouriats ; the latter 
 the more numerous, and almost all employed in the fisheries, 
 which are of considerable commercial importance. Sturgeon 
 is caught in large quantities throughout the summer, and 
 salted, and, together with the caviare and isinglass obtained 
 from it, is largely exported ; but the most important fishery 
 is that of the omoul (Salmo migrator ius), which, though rather 
 capricious in its habits, generally appears in vast numbers 
 between August and September. The kalamenkas are seldom 
 taken alive, but furnish large quantities of oil, which finds 
 ready purchasers among the Chinese. The situation of the 
 lake makes it the channel of a considerable traffic, particularly 
 between the E. and W. During the frozen season, sledges 
 laden with goods are continually passing and repassing, while 
 a considerable number of small vessels, of a peculiar construc 
 tion, are similarly employed during the summer months. An 
 enterprising merchant was lately employed in building a 
 steam-vessel, which, in all probability, has been completed, 
 and is now navigating the lake. (Erman ; Hitter ; Marost, 
 Nouv. Annul, de Voyages; Ernst Hofmann.) 
 
 BAILEN, or BAYLEN, a tn. Spain, in Andalusia, prov. 
 of, and 20 m. N.N.E. Jaen, in a mountain district, on the 
 high road from Madrid to Seville. It has spacious streets, 
 three well-paved squares, a large Gothic church, townhall, 
 five schools, an hospital, prison, public storehouse, cemetery, 
 a castle, and a palace of the Counts of Beneveute. The in 
 habitants are engaged in manufacturing linen, glass, bricks, 
 tiles, soap, expressing oil, distilling brandy, and in agriculture 
 and cattle-rearing. A mine of antimony is wrought in the 
 vicinity. On July 19, 1808, Bailen was the scene of the first 
 victory in the peninsular war, gained by the Spaniards over 
 the French. Pop. 4976. 
 
 BAILIEBOROUGH, a small market tn. and par. Ireland, 
 co. of, and 15 m. S.E. Cavan. The town, though a sequestered 
 place, is well built, has a respectable appearance, and the 
 markets are well attended. It possesses an established church, 
 two R. catholic chapels, two Presbyterian meeting-houses, 
 several schools, a bridewell, and a large union workhouse. 
 Bailieborough Castle, an extensive and handsome edifice, stands 
 about 1 m. from the town. Pop. of tn. 1203. Area of par. 
 1 2,416 ac. Pop. 6984. 
 
 BAILIQUE, PENITENCIA, MARRIATUBA, or ARIPOKE, an 
 isl. Brazil, prov. Para, in the mouth of the Amazon, 40 m. S. 
 Cabo Norte, near the embouchure of the Araguari ; lat. (N. 
 point) 1 4 N. ; Ion. 49 56 W. (R.) It is about 20 m. long 
 by 3 or 4 broad, about 10 in. from the shore, has a village, 
 and about 100 Indian families. 
 
 BAILLEUL [anc. Baliolum], a tn. France, dep. Nord, 
 arrond. of, and 10m. E. Hazebrouck. It is situated on an 
 eminence, and generally well built. The houses are mostly 
 built in the Flemish style. Large numbers of cattle graze 
 the rich meadows around the town. Manufactures : various 
 kinds of thread, lace, cloth, linen and cotton goods, &c. There 
 are also here a sugar-work, a pottery, several breweries, and 
 some oil-mills. A considerable trade in corn, cattle, cheese, 
 
 and other agricultural produce, is carried on. Pop. 5988. 
 
 BAILLEUL is the name of several other small towns in France. 
 
 BAIN, a tn. France, dep. Ille-et-Villaine, arrond. of Redon, 
 18 m. S. Rennes, formerly an episcopal see, and a place of 
 some note in the province of Brittany. Manufactures: 
 voollen stuffs. Trade : cattle. Pop. 1249. 
 
 BAINS (LEs), two watering-places, France: 1, Called 
 also Amelie-les-Bains (which see). 2, Bains, or Bains -les- Bains, 
 
 a neat tn., dep. Vosge.3 (Lorraine), arrond. of, and 16m. S.W. 
 Epinal, in a fine valley, traversed by the streamlet Bargnerot, 
 which shortly after joins the Coney. The thermal springs 
 here have been known since the Romans invaded Gaul, 
 although little use was made of them during the Middle Ages. 
 What is called the Old Bath was constructed in 1713, and the 
 New Bath in 1750. The springs, which are 10 in number, 
 have a temperature varying from 93 to 122 Fah. The 
 I baths are used principally for chronic affections, rheumatism, 
 indigestion, and female complaints. The bathing establish 
 ment is very complete. Bains has forges, and a work for 
 
 making sheet-iron for tinsmiths. Pop. 1505. Two places 
 
 .in France, in addition to the above, have the name of BAINS. 
 
 BAINTON, two pars. Eng.: 1, Bainton (St. Andrew), 
 York, E. Riding ; 3280 ac. Pop. 452. 2, Bainton (St. Mary), 
 Northampton; 9GO ac. Pop. 161. 
 
 BAIRAMITSH, a tn. Asiatic Turkey, pash. Anatolia, 
 55 m. S.W. Beja, and 25 m. N.W. Adramyti. ; lat. 39 45 N. ; 
 Ion. 36 25 E. It is regularly built. Roman antiquities 
 abound in the vicinity. 
 
 BAIRDSTOWN, a post township, U. States, cap. Nelson 
 co., Kentucky. Contains a courthouse, jail, market-house, 
 church, a bank, an academy and school, both well attended ; 
 and a R. catholic seminary, founded in 1819, called the College 
 of St. Joseph, under the direction of the R. catholics, with a 
 president, and 13 professors or teachers. Pop. (1840), 1492. 
 
 BAIREUTH, or BAYREUTH, a tn. Bavaria, circle, Upper 
 Main, on the Red Main, 41 m. N.E. Niirnberg. It lies in 
 a pleasant district, among rich meadows, at the foot of the 
 Fichtel Mountains. It is partly surrounded by old walls, and 
 has some pleasant promenades. The houses are lofty, and 
 well built of hewn stone ; the streets spacious, well paved, 
 and occasionally adorned with fountains. It contains the 
 palace of Duke Pius of Bavaria, an opera-house, a riding- 
 school and gymnasium, seven churches (six Protestant and 
 one R. catholic), a synagogue, a public library, and some 
 benevolent and charitable institutions. Principal manufac 
 tures : stoneware and porcelain, tobacco-pipe heads, parch 
 ment, linen, and cottons. There are also in the town a paper- 
 mill, a factory for playing-cards, works for cutting marble and 
 glass, a sugar-refinery, a bell-foundry, tanneries at which both 
 white and red leather are prepared, and several breweries. 
 In the neighbourhood are three palaces, Fantasie, Sanspareil, 
 and Hermitage. The first is surrounded by gardens, well laid 
 out in terraces and alcoves, which are a favourite resort of the 
 inhabitants of Baireuth. In the last are shown the apartment 
 and bed of Frederick the Great. In a cemetery at the entrance 
 of the town, is a monument erected by the King of Bavaria 
 to the celebrated writer, Jean Paul Frederick Richter, who 
 died here in 1825. Pop. 17,000. 
 
 BAIRRO, two vils. Brazil, prov. Sao Paulo : 1, Four m. 
 N. Sao Sebastiao ; lat. 23 45 S. It has a convent of Fran 
 ciscans ; and its inhabitants, all Indians, are occupied in fishing. 
 The women manufacture some clay vessels. 2, Bairro-das- 
 Silveiras, on the N.E. frontiers of the province, near the town 
 of Lorena, in province Rio de Janeiro. It has a church ; and 
 around it the ordinary necessaries of life are cultivated, and 
 likewise some coffee, which is sent to Rio de Janeiro. Pop. 
 2000. 
 
 BAISE, or BAYZE, a river, S. of France, rising in dep. 
 Hautes-Pyre ne es, flowing N., and falling into the Garonne 
 near Aiguillon, dep. Lot-et-Garonne, after a course of 99 m. 
 It has been rendered navigable, by means of locks and sluices, 
 from its confluence with the Garonne to Nerac, a distance of 
 between 10 and 15 m. 
 
 BAISY-THY, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. Brabant, 
 
 arrond. Nivelles, remarkable as the birthplace of Godfrey of 
 
 Bouillon, the leader in the first crusade. The inhabitants live 
 
 by agriculture, brewing, distilling, oil and soap-works. Pop. 
 
 , 2234. 
 
 BAIXAS, a vil. France, dep. Pyrenees-Orientales, in a 
 fertile valley which produces wine of good quality, about 6 m. 
 j N.W. Perpignan. In the neighbourhood are marble quarries, 
 and a celebrated grotto, called the Hermitage of St. Catherine, 
 romantically situated in the heart of a little valley, surrounded 
 by barren rocks which overhang the Gly. Pop. 1960. 
 
 BAJA, a market tn. and lordship, Hungary, co. Bacs- 
 Bodrogh, 92 m. S. Pesth, near 1. bank, Danube. It is the 
 seat of the courts of justice for the county ; has a Greek and 
 
BAJADA 
 
 302 
 
 BAKONYER -WALD 
 
 a R. catholic church, a synagogue, and a Franciscan mon 
 astery, important markets, and a brisk river-trade. Here 
 is the beautiful chateau of Prince Grassalkovics. Top. 
 14,834. 
 
 BAJADA, a considerable tn. and river-port, La Plata, 
 cap. state Entre Rios, 1. bank, Parana, about 10 in. S.E. Santa 
 Fe, and 238 in. N.N.W. Buenos Ayres. The bustle and ani 
 mation which prevail here, present a curious and striking 
 contrast to the solemn silence, interrupted only by the cries 
 of birds, and particularly the chda, which reigns on the banks 
 of the Parana, above and below the town. Provisions are 
 here abundant and cheap. Pop. GOOO. 
 
 BAJ ADORE, or BOXEADOK (CAFE), in the isl. of Luzon, 
 about 20 in. from its N.W. extremity; in about lat. 18 32 N. ; 
 Ion. 120 39 E. 
 
 BAJIBO, or BAJIEBO (OLD and NEW), two towns, W. 
 Africa, on the Niger, on opposite banks; lat. 9 31 N. ; Ion. 
 4 25 E. ; about 47 m. below Boussa, where Park, the cele 
 brated African traveller, was killed. At this town, Lander 
 met with very large canoes, having a hut in the middle, which 
 contained merchants and their whole families. 
 
 BAJMOCZ, or BOJNITZ, a market tn. Hungary, cap. 
 dist. of same name, co. Neutra, on the Nyitra, 72 m. N. by E. 
 Komorn. It is surrounded with walls ; and contains a parish 
 church and a castle. The German colonists here annually 
 prepare several thousand saddle-trees for the cavalry regi 
 ments, and a great variety of wooden articles are made both 
 in the town and its environs. Pop. 890. 
 
 BAJOUR, or BAJOOK, a dist. and tn. Afghanistan, N.E. 
 extremity of that kingdom, and on the S. side of the Hindoo- 
 Koosh. The DISTRICT, which consists of a plain, or rather 
 spacious valley, lies between lat. 34 45 and 35 10 N., and 
 Ion. 71 5 and 71 35 E., and is about 25 m. long and 15 
 broad. It is enclosed by mountains, nearly inaccessible from 
 their steepness, and covered with dense forests, inhabited by 
 numerous wild beasts. The plain is very productive, and is 
 occupied by an Afghan tribe, culled Turcolaunee, about 70,000 
 or 80,000 in number, who are ruled by a chief of considerable 
 power. The district contains inexhaustible stores of the finest 
 
 iron ores. The TOWN of Bajour, cap. of the dist., supposed 
 
 to be the Bazira mentioned by the historians of Alexander, is 
 in lat. 34 50 N. ; Ion. 71 30 E. ; 130 m. N.E. Cabool, and 
 170 m. N.N.E. Ghuznee. Pop. about 5000. 
 
 BAKEL, a large, well-built, and thriving vil., W. Africa, 
 in the lower Galam country, 1. bank, Senegal; lat. 14 54 N. ; 
 Ion. 12 14 W. Here the French have a factory, which is 
 tolerably well fortified, and has a garrison of about fifty black 
 soldiers. The surrounding territory is very fertile, but also 
 very unhealthy ; serpents, alligators, and lizards abound in 
 the environs ; and there are clouds of mosquitoes. The factory 
 of Bakel, which is a dependency of the colony of St. Louis, 
 was established in the year 1819. The people are a simple, 
 contented race, have partially adopted European attire and 
 habits, and show some tincture of French politeness. (Raf- 
 fenel s Afrique Occidentale.) 
 
 BAKE WELL, a market tn. and par. England, co. Derby. 
 The town occupies chiefly the bottom, and one acclivity of a 
 valley, between Buxton and Matlock, 10 m. from the former 
 and 12 from the latter, and consists of four principal streets, 
 generally kept in good order; lighted with gas, and amply 
 supplied with water; houses well built, chiefly of stone. The 
 parish church is a fine old Gothic structure, and contains 
 many interesting monuments ; and the places of worship for 
 Independents, Wesleyans, &c., are some of them handsome 
 edifices. The educational means are an endowed grammar 
 school, a national and British school, and a few parish schools. 
 Bakewell likewise possesses a dispensary, clothing society, and 
 a mechanics institute. The only trade is marble-cutting, 
 which is carried on to a considerable extent, the workmanship 
 being reckoned of a superior description. In the immediate 
 vicinity there is a cotton-mill, erected by the late Sir Richard 
 Arkwright. The chalybeate baths of Bakewell, formerly 
 celebrated, have been lately re-established by the Duke of 
 Rutland. Market on Friday ; four fairs annually. The parish 
 comprises 43,020 ac., chiefly hilly ground. Pop. of par. 
 (1841), 10,363; of tn. 1976. -(Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BAKHMONT, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 130 m. E. 
 Ekaterinoslav, cap dist. of its own name; a region of steppes. 
 Here some coal is mined, and there is a brisk traffic in horses 
 
 and cattle The town, founded in 1708, was once fortified 
 and flourishing. Pop. 4000. 
 
 BAKHTEGAN, a salt lake, Persia, prov. Fars, about 
 12 m. S.E. Shiraz. Its dimensions do not seem to be ac 
 curately ascertained; some authorities giving it a length of 
 60 in., while Kinneir, in his Geographical Memoirs of the 
 Persian Empire, gives it about that measure of circumference. 
 During summer the lake is nearly dry, and its bottom be 
 comes encrusted with a remarkably fine salt, much esteemed 
 :hroughout the province. 
 
 BAK1ITIYARI MOUNTAINS, a range of mountains 
 i S.W. Persia, stretching N.W. and S.E. between, and par 
 allel to, the rocky range of Awa and Laristan. None of these 
 mountains, or rather ridges of rocky hills, are more than 
 1000 ft. above their base. The Bakhtiyari Mountains are 
 ihabited by a wild and lawless tribe, who do not hesitate to 
 rob strangers, though not incapable, at times, it is said, of a 
 savage hospitality. They are represented also as a brave and 
 lardy race. They live in villages of about 20 to 30 honses 
 each, in nooks of the mountain, wherever they can get water 
 and grass ; and some establish themselves in caves, of remote 
 nd dangerous access. They calculate their numbers, with 
 their dependencies, at 28,000 families. 
 
 BAKHTSCHISSARAI, or BAGTCHE-SEKAI, an ancient 
 tn. Russia, gov. Taurida (Crimea), on the Tschourouk-Su, 
 15 m. S.W. Simferopol. It is the capital in which the khans 
 or Tartar sovereigns of the Tauridian peninsula long held 
 sway, as deputies or tributaries of Turkey, before Russia 
 established herself in the Crimea. Bakhtschissarai is an inter 
 esting place, and is pronounced, by Dr. E. D. Clarke, one 
 of the most remarkable towns in Europe. The Tartar im 
 press is still strong upon it. It stands at the bottom of a 
 arrow valley, hemmed in by precipitous rocks, and watered 
 by a small rivulet, by no means of the most limpid appearance, 
 and consists almost entirely of a single street, built along the 
 side of this rivulet, and lined with bazaars and workshops, in 
 which the Tartar toils, in primitive simplicity, in the produc- 
 .ion of articles of the very same form and quality as furnished 
 by his forefathers two centuries ago. The town contains 
 several mosques, which are usually embosomed among trees, 
 and whose minarets rise high above the houses, and is adorned 
 with numerous fountains. The Karaim Jews, a peculiar sec 
 tion of that people, carry on a considerable trade in common 
 stuff goods, mercery, and colonial produce. The old palace 
 of the khans, a singular edifice, is in good repair, and even 
 suitably furnished. It stands in the centre of the town, and 
 is enclosed by high walls. A bridge gives access to the 
 principal court, which is spacious, planted with Lombardy 
 poplars and lime-trees, and ornamented with an elegant Turk 
 ish fountain, shaded by willows. The buildings present all 
 the usual irregularity of Eastern mansions ; but the wide gal 
 leries, brilliant painting, pavilions, of a make so light that 
 they seem hardly to belong to the body of the edifice, and a 
 profusion of great overshadowing trees, produce an effect 
 seldom obtained by systematic regularity. It first, became 
 the residence of the khans in the year 1475. In the 16th 
 century, their domination extended not only over the entire 
 Tauridian peninsula, but the contiguous territory, W., N., 
 E., and S., from the banks of the Danube to the foot of the 
 Caucasus; but their rule, continually shaken by Russian in 
 vasions and influence, from the year 1736 downward, ceased 
 altogether in 1783, when the country was incorporated with 
 that empire. The number of houses in the town exceeds 2000, 
 inhabited by about 10,000 persons ; the majority of Tartar 
 blood, the rest Russians, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. 
 (Demidoff; Ilommaire de Hell.) 
 
 BAKlR-KUREH-si, a small tn. Turkey in Asia, pash. 
 Anatolia; lat. 41 47 N.; Ion. 33 51 E., about 15 m. from 
 the shores of the Black Sea; situated in a deep hollow, sur 
 rounded by lofty mountains, the most remarkable of which is 
 called Bakir Sultan. It consists of about 200 houses, of 
 which only one-half are substantially built, the remainder are 
 the dwellings of poor miners, and often ruinous and un- 
 tenanted. It contains, however, a handsome mosque. The 
 district around was at one time famous for its copper mines, 
 but they have long since been abandoned. 
 
 BAKONYER-WALD, a forest covered mountain-chain, 
 Hungary, co. Vesprim, N. Lake Balaton or Platten. It is one 
 of the last offsets of the Noric Alps, running S.W. to N.E., 
 
BAKU 
 
 303 
 
 BALAMBANGAN 
 
 nearly 60 m. long; culminating point, about 2089 ft. high. 
 The hills are covered with excellent timber, consisting chiefly 
 of lime, oak, and beech. Immense herds of swine, known 
 by the name of Bakonyer, are fed in it; and large quantities 
 of oil are extracted from the beech mast. The burning of 
 wood for potash, by which great havoc had been made in the 
 forest, is now under proper regulation. Game is very abundant 
 
 BAKU, or BADKU, a seaport tn. Russia, cap. of the 
 khanate of Shirvan, in Caucasia, S. shore of the peninsula of 
 Apsheron, W. coast, Caspian Sea, of which it is one of the 
 most frequented ports; lat. 40 21 20" N.; Ion. 49 51 6"E. (L.) 
 The walls of the town were formerly washed by the Caspian, 
 but they are at present about five yards distant from it ; the 
 sea, however, has gained upon the land in other places, the ruins 
 of ancient buildings being found at the depth of upwards of 
 18 ft. It stands on a declivity, the summit of which is crowned 
 by the palace of the former khans ; is defended by a double 
 wall and deep ditch, constructed in the time of Peter the 
 Great, and has two strong forts, under whose protection ves 
 sels can anchor in from four to six fathoms water, within 80 
 yards of the shore, in a spacious road, sheltered from all quar 
 ters. The town is ill-built, streets narrow and crooked; the 
 houses small, with flat roofs coated with naphtha. The Vir 
 gin s Tower is the most striking object in the place. There 
 are, however, several spacious mosques, public squares, marts, 
 and caravansaries; a Greek and an Armenian church, and 
 some Tartar schools. The chief exports of the town and 
 neighbourhood are naphtha, salt, and saffron ; in return for 
 which it receives, chiefly from Persia, raw silk and cotton, 
 rich carpets and shawls, rice, &c.; and from Europe, all kinds 
 of ironware and cutlery, cotton, linen, and woollen manufac 
 tured goods, thus becoming an entrepot through which an 
 important trade is carried on between the E. and the W. The 
 adjacent island of Saiian has important fisheries. Pop. 5500. 
 The peninsula of Apsheron is celebrated for its mud vol 
 canoes and naphtha springs, the latter yielding, annually, up 
 wards of 4000 tons. Near these springs is the Artech-gah, or 
 Field of Fire, nearly half a square mile in extent, and from 
 which inflammable gas is continually escaping. In ancient 
 times, it was held in the highest veneration by the Guebers 
 or Parsees, and frequented by thousands of pilgrims. They 
 have still several temples here, and many of them spend their 
 days in worship and in penitential exercises so severe, as often 
 to cost them their lives. 
 
 The jurisdiction of Baku extends over 32 villages, with 
 19,000 inhabitants, of whom 1000 are Turkomans. The 
 khanate of Baku was formerly attached to Persia, but wrested 
 from it by Russia about 1723; restored in 1735, but retaken 
 in 1801 by the Russians, to whom it now belongs. 
 
 BAKU, or BAKOWA, a vil. Moldavia, on the Bistritz, near 
 its confluence with the Sereth. It was formerly a flourishing 
 place, but has now fallen into utter decay, retaining only a 
 very small trade in cattle, corn, salt, and wood. It contains 
 the ruins of a cathedral, having at one time been the residence 
 of a catholic bishop. 
 
 BALA, a market and assize tn., N. Wales, co. Merioneth, 
 on a plain at the efflux of the river Dee from the N.E. end of 
 Lake Tegid, 18 m. W. by S. Langollen. It consists of one 
 straight, wide street, chiefly of well-built stone houses. It 
 has an Episcopalian chapel, a Welsh Calvinistic Methodist 
 chapel, and chapels for Wesleyans and Independents, all plain 
 buildings ; a school connected with the Welsh Methodists, and 
 one with the Independents, both for educating young men for 
 the ministry. W T oollen stockings and flannels are manufac 
 tured here to a small extent, and there is a considerable trade 
 in butter and cheese. The spring assizes, and the winter 
 and summer quarter-sessions for the county, are held here, 
 and the county court for the recovery of debts. Tegid or 
 Bala Lake, near which the town is situated, is the largest in 
 Wales, being from 12 to 13 m. in circumference; it abounds 
 with trout, carp, and pike. Pop. (1841), 1255. (Local Cor 
 respondent.) 
 
 BALABAK, or BALABAC, an isl. Indian Archipelago, 
 between the N. of Borneo and Palawan; lat. (middle) 7 59 
 N.; Ion. 11 6 56 E. (it.), about 20 m. long; yields ebony, 
 sago, hcney, and wax, which, along with the fish caught on 
 
 the coasts, are purchased by Chinese traders. Pop. 300. 
 
 S. of this island, and N. of Balambangan and Banguey, is the 
 Balabak Passage. 
 
 BALABALAGAN. See PATERNOSTERS (LITTLE). 
 
 BALAGHAUT [above the Ghaut], a dist. Hindoostan, 
 presid. Madras, between lat. 13 15 and 16 20 N.; Ion. 
 75 40 and 79 20 E.; the territory acquired by the E. 
 India Company, under treaty with the Nizam, in 1800, and 
 since subdivided into the districts of Bellary, Cuddapah, and 
 Kurnool; bounded, N. by the rivers Krishna and Toombu- 
 dra, and comprising the conquests of the Nizam, acquired by 
 the treaties of Seringapatam and Mysore, in 1792 and 1799. 
 There are no large rivers in the country, except the Krishna and 
 Toombudra, which mark its N. boundary. The soil is in gene 
 ral, good, consisting either of a black loam, or of a red gra 
 velly mould. Droughts are frequent, and rains uncertain : 
 yet much mischief is done occasionally by inundations in Sep 
 tember and October. Balaghaut is not well wooded, its forests 
 having been cut down by the numerous armies by which it 
 has been traversed. Only a few clumps are still found, chiefly 
 among the hills. When this district was ceded to the British, 
 it had 50,258 tanks and wells. Indigo, cotton, sugar, betel- 
 leaf, and tobacco, are raised. Neat cattle, sheep, and goats 
 are reared in great numbers. Diamond mines exist in several 
 places, especially in the E. and central divisions, from which 
 the Golconda merchants are supplied, the country so called 
 not producing any. 
 
 Balaghaut once formed part of the Hindoo empire of Bijana- 
 gur; after the fall of the Delhi dynasty, it was broken into 
 several independent states, was conquered by Hyder between 
 1766 and 1780, and in 1800 ceded by the Nizam to Great 
 Britain. Area, 28,669 sq. m. Pop. (1836-37), 2,176,003. 
 
 BALAGUER, a city, Spam, Catalonia, prov. of, and 13 m. 
 N.N.E. Lerida, r. bank, Segre, here crossed by a stone bridge. 
 The city is surrounded by stone walls, with six gates, and 
 has tolerably good, though rather dirty streets, one grand and 
 several smaller squares, a parish and several conventual 
 churches, a townhouse, college, two schools, an hospital, two 
 reservoirs, and, at the N. side, on the top of a commanding 
 hill, a castle, flanked with four towers, of considerable strength, 
 and in good preservation. The inhabitants, though chiefly 
 agricultural, manufacture hempen fabrics and shoes, express 
 oil, and distil brandy. Three fairs are held annually, in 
 March, September, and December. Pop. 4642. 
 
 BALAKIIXA, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and about 20 m. 
 N. W. Nijni-Novgorod, cap. dist. of same name, r. bank, Volga, 
 where it is joined by the Usola. It was formerly surrounded 
 by wooden walls and towers, which were destroyed by fire ; 
 but it still has a rampart of earth, with a deep fosse. It con 
 tains 15 churches and a convent, and has a considerable trade, 
 chiefly in grain. Its salt springs are no longer used. Pop. 
 3500. 
 
 BALAKLAVA, or BALACLAVA, a tn. Russia, on the 
 Black Sea, gov. Taurida, dist. of, and 38 m. S.S.W. Simfero 
 pol; lat. 44" 29 N. ; Ion. 33 34 40" E. It has a good, but 
 little-frequented port, completely sheltered by lofty hills. The 
 general appearance of the town, perched upon heights, is very 
 picturesque, though it is composed chiefly of a single street, 
 with half-deserted shops, and of houses mostly in a ruinous 
 condition, and is surrounded by a half-fallen wall. It has 
 a fortress, placed immediately above the harbour, on an almost 
 inaccessible rock, and is inhabited chiefly by Greeks, who 
 have a handsome church here ; and, though rather indolently 
 disposed, occupy themselves with fishing, particularly that 
 of mackerel. The trade is of very little consequence, but 
 the hills in the neighbourhood contain marble, which is occa 
 sionally worked, and a good deal of timber is shipped. The 
 wine and melons of the district are excellent. Balaklava is 
 the port of the Lystrigonians, at which Ulysses is said to have 
 touched ; and the description of it given by Homer is so gra 
 phic and correct, that Dubois de Montpereux says (Voyage 
 antour du Caucasc), that were he to give a description of the 
 Bay of Balaklava, he could not do better than borrow that of 
 the old poet. Under the domination of the Genoese, it was 
 called Cembalo, a modification of the ancient appellation 
 (Symbalon), given it by Arrian. In the environs is a wooden 
 Greek convent, built, it is believed, on the site of the cele 
 brated ancient temple of Diana Taurica. A number of churches 
 and mosques, in ruins, attest the ancient magnificence of the 
 town. Pop. about 2000. 
 
 BALAMBANGAN, a fertile, uninhabited isl., Indian 
 Archipelago, 15 m. N. Borneo; lat. (S.W. point) 7 12 N. ; 
 
BALANGA 
 
 304 
 
 BALFROOSH 
 
 Ion. 110 50 E. ; 15 m. long, and 3 broad. Wood, of various 
 tine sorts, and fresh water, are plentiful ; the sea around 
 abounds with fish, and two good harbours afford anchorage 
 for large vessels. A settlement was formed here, in 1774, by 
 the E. India Company, with a view to the spice trade; but, in 
 the following year, it was treacherously destroyed by the 
 Sooloos; and a second one, formed in 1803, was soon after 
 abandoned. 
 
 BALAXGA, a tn., isl. Luzon, cap. prov. Bataan, W. side, 
 Bay of Manilla, near the embouchure of a small river. It is 
 esteemed healthy, and is the residence of the alcalde. Pop. 
 tn. and dist. 6855. 
 
 BALARUC-LES-BAixs, a small tn. and watering-place, 
 France, dep. Herault, 15 m. S.W. Montpellier. The spring, 
 which is saline and thermal, was known to the Romans, 
 who formed aqueducts and built a temple on the spot, and has 
 long been celebrated for its efficacy in cases of paralysis. An 
 hospital has been erected for poor and military patients, whose 
 expenses are defrayed by the public. Enamelled rings are 
 made here. Resident pop. 595. 
 
 BALASORE [Valesicara], a seaport tn. Hindoostan, 
 presid. Bengal, prov. Orissa, dist. Cuttack, of which it is the 
 chief port; lat. 21 28 N. ; Ion. 87 E. (R.) ; 130 m. S.W. 
 Calcutta, situated in a very populous district, on a low dreary 
 plain, deformed by numerous unsightly ridges and ant-hills, 
 near the muddy banks of the Bura Balany, and considered 
 unhealthy during the rainy season. It is a long straggling 
 town, with a few brick houses, inhabited by merchants carry 
 ing on an inconsiderable traffic with Calcutta, and was for 
 merly a flourishing town, having Portuguese, Dutch, and 
 English factories, but is now greatly decayed. It has dry 
 docks, in which vessels drawing 14 ft. water can be admitted 
 at spring tides, but is chiefly frequented by Maldive vessels, 
 salt-boats, and a class of sloops that carry rice to Calcutta 
 during the cold season. The Maldivians arrive at Balasore 
 during the S.W. monsoon, bringing with them coir, oil, and 
 all the other produce of the cocoa-nut tree, which is their 
 grand staple; cowries, salt fish, turtle- shell, &c., which they 
 exchange for rice, sugar, cutlery, hardwares, cloths, silks, 
 cottons, tobacco, &c., returning home during the N.E. mon 
 soon. Pop. about 10,000. (Pegg s Orissa Mission.) 
 
 BALASSA-GYARMATH, a market tn. Hungary, co. 
 Neograd, 1. bank, Eipel, 40 m. N.N.E. Pesth, in a bi.-autiful 
 and fertile district, where large crops of wheat are grown. In 
 the neighbourhood are the ruins of an old castle, belonging to 
 the Balassa family, and celebrated for its repeated heroic de 
 fences against the Turks. A congress, for peace between the 
 Turks and Austrians, was held here in 1626. Pop. 4580. 
 
 BALATON (LAKE OF), or PLATTENSEE, Hungary, 55 m. 
 S.W. Pesth; length, 50 in. ; breadth, 3 to 10 m.; depth, 39 ft, ; 
 area, about 390 sq. m. It receives the water of 32 rivulets, 
 of which the Szala is the largest, and communicates with the 
 Danube by the rivers Sio and Sarviz. It abounds withfogacs, 
 a species of perch. BALATON, by itself, or with an addi 
 tional term, is the name of several villages in Hungary. 
 
 BALAYAN, a bay, isl. Luzon, prov. Batangas, opposite 
 the N. end of Mindoro Island, about 9 m. long by 6 broad. 
 A village of same name lies a little way N. of the bay. 
 
 BALBEC. See BAALBEC. 
 
 BALBRIGGAN, a tn. and seaport, Ireland, co. of, and 
 18 m. N.N.E. Dublin ; lat. 53 36 42" N. ; Ion. 6 10 42" W. (R.) 
 It consists of one long, and some smaller streets; houses gener 
 ally of stone or brick, and thatched. It contains a neat church, 
 with a handsome spire, a large R. catholic, and a small Metho 
 dist chapel, and has a national, a mixed, and an infant school, a 
 charitable institution, called the Balbriggan Protestant Bene 
 volent Society ; public baths, and a dispensary. It is much 
 resorted to in summer for sea-bathing. Various branches of 
 cotton manufacture were formerly carried on here, and a good 
 deal of embroidery; but, excepting weaving, which still exists 
 to a small extent, the other branches have nearly, or alto 
 gether ceased ; hosiery, however, for which the town has 
 been long famous, still thrives. Balbriggan has likewise 
 some coasting trade ; exports corn and flour, and imports 
 coals. The harbour has a pier, or quay, of about 600 ft. in 
 length, with a lighthouse at the head, at which vessels of 200 
 tons can discharge. Pop. 2959. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BALCARRY, a small seaport, Scotland, on the W. side 
 of the entrance to Auchiucairn Bay, Solway Frith, co. of, and 
 
 10 m. E.S.E. Kirkcudbright ; lat. 54 47 N.; Ion. 4 49 W. 
 It is safe and commodious. 
 
 BALSAS, or BALSAS, a river, Brazil, rising in the scrra 
 Corvados, which separates Marnnham from Goyaz; flows, 
 with many windings, N.E., and falls into the Parnaiba or 
 Paranahiba, lat. 7 15 S.; Ion. 45 10 W., after a course of 
 upwards of 200 m., for 80 of which it is navigable for canoes 
 or the balsas, whence the river is named, and which are used 
 by the Indians. 
 
 BALCOMBE, par. Eng. Sussex; 6050 ac. Pop. 1542. 
 
 BALDEGG, a vil. Switzerland, can. of, and 19 m. N. 
 Luzern, on the lake of same name, which stands about 
 1400 ft. above the sea, is about 3 m. long, and 1 m. broad, 
 and contains various kinds offish. Baldegg is famous for its 
 old castle, which was once an important fastness. 
 
 BALDERNOCK, par. Scot. Stirling; 4 in. long by 3 
 broad. Pop. 972. 
 
 BALDERTON, par. Eng. Notts; 4050 ac. Pop. 899. 
 
 BALI) HEAD, several promontories, capes, or head 
 lands, in various parts of the world : 1, A cape, Australia, 
 S.W. coast, forming the S.W. entrance into King George s 
 
 Sound; lat, (S. point) 35 7 S.; Ion. 118 1 E. (R.) 2, A 
 
 headland, U. States, Maine; lat. 43 13 N.; Ion. 70 34 30" 
 W. (R.) 3, A headland, S.W. extremity of Smith s Island, 
 off the coast of N. Carolina ; lat. 33 51 N. ; Ion. 78 W. (H.) 
 
 BALDUNGAN, or B ALUOKQAS, par. Irel. Dublin ; 858 ac. 
 Pop. 118. 
 
 BALDOCK, par. and market tn. England, co. of, and 14 m. 
 N.N.W. Hertford, in a valley near the source of the Rhea ; 
 regularly built. Malting and brewing are carried on, and a 
 considerable quantity of straw-plait is made. The old Roman 
 road, Ickneild Street, passes along the N. side of the town ; 
 and, in the vicinity, on the S. side, are vestiges of both Roman 
 and Danish camps. Area of par. 200 ac. Pop. 1807. 
 
 BALDON, two pars. Eng. Oxford:!, Baldon-Marsli, 
 570 ac. Pop. 360. 2, Baldon-Toot, 2010 ac. Pop. 269. 
 
 BALDOYLE, vil. and par. Irel., co. of, and 6 m. N.E. 
 Dublin. The neat and lively-looking village is resorted to 
 in the summer months as a watering-place, and has little trade 
 except fishing. Area of par. 1236 ac. Pop. 1100. 
 
 BALDRASHANE, BALLYRASIIANE, SraoEHSTOWH, ST. 
 JOHNSTOWN, par. Irel. Antrim and Londonderry; 6361 ac. 
 Pop. 1658. 
 
 BALE, or BAITIILET, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 710 ac. Pop. 229. 
 
 BALEARIC ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Mediter 
 ranean, off the coast of Spain, to which kingdom they belong, 
 between lat. 38 40 and 40 5 N. ; Ion. 1 and 5 E. They 
 consist of Majorca, Minorca, Ivica or Ivisa, Formentera, and 
 Cabrera (which sec). Strabo ascribes their first colonization 
 to the Phenicians. They afterwards fell successively into the 
 hands of the Carthaginians and Romans, by whom they were 
 almost depopulated. About 423 A.r>., they were seized on 
 by the Vandals ; in 790, by the Moors; subsequently, they 
 were alternately in the hands of the Moors and Christians, 
 and, finally, were annexed to the crown of Aragon by James I., 
 in 1229, since which time they have continued under Spanish 
 domination. These islands are divided, ecclesiastically, into 
 three bishoprics, namely, Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica or 
 Ivisa. The language of the lower orders is a compound of 
 Catalan, Greek, and Arabic, with a mixture of Syrian, Plien- 
 ician, and Gothic. Pop. 253,000. (Madoz and Mellado.) 
 
 BALFEIGHAN, par. Irel. Meath; 1617 ac. Pop. 152. 
 
 BALFRON, a tn. and par. Scotland, Stirling. The town, 
 pleasantly situated near the Enclrick, 15 m. N. Glasgow, is 
 built of a reddish sandstone ; well supplied with water from 
 springs; has two churches, an Established and a United Pres 
 byterian, neither of them of much architectural pretension; 
 and three schools. The inhabitants are nearly all employed 
 in handloom-weaving, for the Glasgow manufacturers ; and in 
 a cotton spinning factory, which employs about 100 workers. 
 The parish is about 11 m. long by 3 broad. Pop. of tn. and 
 par. 1970. 
 
 BALFROOSH, or BALFURUSH [Ikirfurusli the mart of 
 burdens], a commercial city, Persia, prov. Mazanderan, 98m. 
 N.E. Teheran; lat. 36 33 15" N. ; Ion. 52 51 27" E. (L.) ; 
 on the Bawool or Bahbul, here crossed by a stone bridge of 
 eight arches ; about 12 m. from its port, Mushedisir, on the 
 Caspian Sea. The town, which is open, and of considerable 
 extent, is built in the midst of a forest ; streets straight, wide, 
 
BALGACII 
 
 305 
 
 BALKAN 
 
 but mostly unpaved and dirty; houses chiefly of brick, and 
 scattered over a vast extent of surface ; bazaars and caravan 
 saries numerous. A good trade in silk and cotton is carried 
 on ; and the iron found in the adjacent district of Amol is 
 worked here. Chief imports: iron and naphtha. The in 
 habitants are principally merchants and mechanics, and 
 moolahs or learned men. Balfroosh is celebrated for its 
 schools or colleges, about 30 in number. Pop. estimated at 
 about 150,000; according to Eraser (in 1822), 200,000. 
 (Eraser s Travels on the S. banks of tlie Caspian Sea; London 
 Geog. Journal, vol. viii. p. 104.) 
 
 BALGACH, a vil. and par. Switzerland, can. of, and 
 11 m. E. St. Gall ; contains both a Protestant and a R. catholic 
 church, two Protestant schools, and one R. catholic, and a well- 
 endowed infirmary, not only for this parish, but also those of 
 Marpach and Rebstein. Balgach has also a chalybeate spring ; 
 and in the neighbourhood, on a slope clad with vines, stands 
 the fine modern castle of Grunenstein. Pop. 1395. 
 
 BALHARUY. See BELLAKY. 
 
 BALI, an isl. belonging to Holland, Indian Archipelago, 
 between lat. 8 3 30" and 8 53 30" S., and Ion. 1 14 26 and 
 115 40 E.; bounded, N. by the sea of Java, and S. by the 
 Indian Ocean. Separated W. from Java by the Strait of Bali, 
 1 m. wide, and E. from Lombok, by the strait of same name. 
 Greatest length, 85 m. ; greatest breadth, 55 m. ; area, about 
 1700 geo. sq. in. Bali, in shape, bears some resemblance to 
 a triangle, and has been divided into the following districts: 
 Bleling, occupying the whole of the N. coast ; Djembrana on 
 the W. ; Tabanan, Mengoel, Gianjar, and Klorigkong, on the 
 S.; Karang Assam on the E. ; and Pajangang and Bangli in 
 the centre. The surface is chiefly occupied by a series of 
 volcanic mountains, of great height, stretching W. to E., and 
 attaining their culminating point in Agoeng, a volcano of 
 11,326 ft., which, after long quiescence, became active in 
 1843. It lies in the continuous line of volcanic action, which 
 stretches in an irregular curve from the Aleutian Isles, through 
 Sambawa, Java, and Sumatra, to the Bay of Bengal. Bali, 
 as might be anticipated from its locality, has had its full 
 share of subterranean disturbance. In particular, in 1815 
 an earthquake took place, when a mountain near Bleling was 
 broken into fragments, and suddenly disappeared ; while both a 
 large lake from the interior, and the sea, burst in and inundated 
 a space of about 6 m. in extent, drowning more than 1200 
 persons. The part of Bali not consisting of volcanic rocks, 
 appears to be of a recent calcareous formation. This is par 
 ticularly conspicuous in the S., where a plateau several 
 hundred feet above the level of the sea, abuts on the coast, 
 and forms the precipitous cliff of chalk well known to sailors 
 under the name of Taffelhoek or Table-Point. Notwith 
 standing the mountainous nature of the surface generally, 
 Bali has several extensive and well-watered valleys, in which 
 immense quantities of rice are grown. Coffee is cultivated 
 on the higher grounds, but the quality is inferior. Cotton 
 thrives well. The island is well wooded ; but the most im 
 portant tree, in all respects, is the cocoa, which forms whole 
 forests. The principal animals are cattle and buffaloes, of 
 which some are exported. The horses are small and shabby, 
 but are said to be of a much hardier nature than their ap 
 pearance indicates. Swine, goats, and monkeys abound ; and 
 in the N. and \V. of Bleling and Djembrana, tigers are not 
 uncommon in the mountains. Immense flocks of wild fowl, 
 particularly ducks, are seen in every quarter. The inhabit 
 ants, whose origin is unknown, are a handsome race, much 
 taller and better made than the Javanese. They are of a 
 yellow copper colour, and have regular features. In many, 
 the excessive use of opium and other vices have produced 
 premature decay. Their submission to their princes or chiefs 
 is unbounded, and no degree of ill usage from them provokes 
 a murmur. In domestic life everything bespeaks the savage. 
 The female is first carried off by violence, then becomes her 
 husband s slave. The upper and lower part of the body is 
 uncovered, and the only dress is a piece of cotton cloth, to 
 which, on occasions of ceremony, such as a visit to the prince, 
 a kind of mantle, called a sabak, is added. The villages 
 usually consist of large squares, surrounded by mud walls, 
 within which the cottages, also of mud, covered with reed, 
 but without any window, are arranged. Employments of 
 every kind are carried on in the open air; artizans sitting on 
 a bench outside, with which every hut is provided. These 
 VOL. I. 
 
 villages have populations varying from 500 to 3000. The 
 dwellings of the princes are of a much superior description, 
 being generally built of well-cemented bricks, and surrounded 
 with substantial walls, with gates. The prevailing religion is 
 H indooism. Education, confined chiefly to reading and writing, 
 is by no means general. Some of the Brahmins, however, 
 cultivate science; and the princes, and other chiefs, have 
 good schools for their children. The manufactures are very 
 trifling. Every family has its loom, worked by the females, 
 and employed in producing some ordinary cotton stuffs. 
 Pottery is confined to the making of gods, and a few domestic 
 implements. Both in the working of iron, particularly steel, 
 and the making of trinkets from gold, considerable progress 
 has been made. The chief articles made for consumption are 
 salt from sea water, and black sugar from a kind of date. 
 The commerce of Bali, with the neighbouring isles of the 
 Archipelago, is considerable. The chief exports are rice, 
 tobacco, and oil ; and the chief imports coarse British cottons, 
 and opium. Pop. 700,000. 
 
 BALI-BADONG, a petty state, S. angle, isl. Bali. It 
 is wholly a plain, all cultivated, and yielding plentiful crops 
 of rice, large quantities of which are annually destroyed by 
 multitudes of rats, whose overpowering numbers the natives 
 have not found means to withstand. The crops sometimes 
 fail, and the inhabitants, 130,000 in number, are frequently 
 subjected to all the horrors of famine. 
 
 BALISAKEERY, BALLISAKEERY, or BALLYSAKEEKY, 
 par. Irel. Mayo ; 12,692 ac. Pop. 6034. 
 
 BALIZE. See BELIZE. 
 
 BALK, a vil. Holland, prov. Friesland, 10 m. S.S.W. 
 Sneek, in a bushy place near the Lake Slot (Slotermeer). It 
 has a R. catholic, a Calvinistic, and a Baptist church, a school, 
 and council-hall. Many French families came here after the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes, whose descendants may be 
 traced in the names of many of the country people. Agri 
 culture is the principal employment, but there is likewise 
 a deal of trade done in wood, obtained from the neighbouring 
 forests of Gaasterland. Pop. 1000. 
 
 BALKAN [anc. Hcemus], an extensive range of moun 
 tains, Europe, Oriental alpine system ; and, when understood 
 in its largest sense, extending in an irregular curve from the 
 Adriatic to the Black Sea, between lat. 42 and 44 N., and 
 Ion. 16 and 28 E. More properly, however, the W. part 
 of the range belongs to the Dinaric Alps, and the true Balkan 
 or Haemus begins near the sources of the Lepentz, lat. 42 
 N., and Ion. 21 E., where the first great bifurcation of the 
 range occurs, the one branch proceeding S. and forming the 
 Pindus, while the other, or Balkan range, proceeds E., com 
 mencing with the name of Tchar-dagh, and taking in succes 
 sion the names of Ghoubotin-dagh, Mount Argentaro, Egrison- 
 dagh, Ghiustendil-dagh, Codja Balkan, and Emineh-dagh or 
 the Balkan of the Turks. This range, particularly towards 
 the E., has been very imperfectly explored; and the heights 
 assigned to its loftiest summits are only conjectural. The 
 average height of the range does not exceed 5000 ft., and in 
 the E., towards the Black Sea, is far lower than this ; but in 
 more than one summit of the Tchar-dagh, the limit of per 
 petual snow is understood to be attained, while on the tops of 
 Dokimi and Peristera, near Mezzovo, the snow scarcely ever 
 melts. Calculations, founded chiefly on this fact, give to 
 Doubnitzka [anc. Scomius], a height of 8500 ft; to Mount 
 Orbelus, near Sophia, 8000 ft. ; and to Mount Scardus, the 
 culminating point of Tchar-dagh, and probably of the whole 
 Balkan range, 9700 ft. The S. side of the Balkan consists 
 of argillaceous schist, and is much more precipitous than the 
 N. side, which is calcareous. The chain is broken across by 
 numerous ravines of terrific appearance, so deep and narrow, 
 that daylight is almost excluded. There are, however, several 
 practicable passes, the best and most frequented of which, 
 known by the name of Trajan s Gate, leads from Bazardjik, 
 in the N. of Roumelia, to Sophia*, in the S.W. of Bulgaria. 
 Numerous rivers take their rise in this range. Those on the 
 N., the principal of which are the Bosna, Morava, and Iskar, 
 belong to the basin of the Danube, with the exception of a 
 few small streams, which proceed E., and pour their waters 
 directly into the Black Sea. The chief rivers on the S. side 
 are the Vardar, the Struma or Karasu, and the Maritza. These 
 all fall into the Archipelago. The Balkan range is well 
 wooded, and is understood to be rich in minerals. To the 
 
 39 
 
13ALKII 
 
 BALLINAKILL 
 
 S. of Ghiustendil, in the district of Caratova, silver mines are 
 known to exist, and rich beds of iron appear in almost every 
 quarter; but the Turks neglect to turn them to account. 
 (Orographif. de I Europe.) 
 
 BALKH, a city, khanate of, and 260 m. S. Bokhara, cap. 
 prov. of same name, on a fertile plain, 1800 ft. above the sea; 
 on the Adirsiah or Balkh river, about 17 m. above its junc 
 tion with the Amou ; lat. 36 45 N. ; Ion. 67 20 E. It was 
 anciently named Bactra, and was long one of the most nourish 
 ing cities of the East, and the emporium of the trade between 
 India, China, and \V. Asia. On account of its antiquity, it is 
 still called the Mother of Cities, and is said to have been built 
 by Kyamoors, the founder of the Persian monarchy. The re 
 mains of the ancient city extend over a circuit of about 20 m., 
 and consist chiefly of fallen mosques, decayed tombs, and 
 three colleges of handsome structure ; none of the ruins, how 
 ever, being of an age prior to that of Mahometanism. The 
 modern town, merely a large village, is surrounded by a mud 
 wall, which excludes the ruins on every side for about 2 m. 
 In the citadel or ark, on the N. side, a white marble stone is 
 pointed out as the throne of Cyrus. The climate is not dis 
 agreeable, but the water is bad ; soil, of a marshy nature, and 
 in appearance not unlike pipe-clay, very fertile; crops good, 
 the wheat grows as high as in England ; and the fruits, par 
 ticularly apricots, are rich. The river Balkh, which has its 
 source in the mountains of the Hindoo Koosh, gives its name 
 to the city and province ; and water from it is distributed by 
 aqueducts and canals, which, frequently overflowing, leave 
 the ground marshy. Snow is brought from the mountains 
 about 20 m. S., and sold in the streets. The travellers 
 Moorcroft and Guthrie are buried outside the town. Pop. 
 about 2000, chiefly Afghans, and a few Arabs. The PRO 
 VINCE lies between lat. 35 20 and 37 20 N., and Ion. 63 
 and 69 E., extending about 250 m. E. to W., and 110 N. 
 to S.; area, 30,100 sq. m.; bounded, N. by theOxus or Amou, 
 E. by Budukshan, S. by the mountains of the Hindoo Koosh, 
 and W. by the desert on the N. of Khorasan. The country 
 slopes gently towards the Oxus, in which direction there are 
 great facilities for irrigation ; and the soil is generally rich 
 and productive, as is proved by the great population which it 
 once maintained. In the S. and E. the country is mountain 
 ous, but has some fertile valleys. This province formed, 
 during several ages, a powerful and independent state. It is 
 now subject to the Khan of Bokhara. Pop. estimated at 
 r.bout 1.000,000. (Burnes s Bokhara; Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc., 
 vol. iv.) 
 
 BALL, or BALLAGH, a vil. and par. Irel. Mayo, E.S.E. 
 Castlebar. Here are the remains of a round tower and an 
 cient church; area of par. 5509 ac. Pop. 1934. 
 
 BALLACHULISH, a ferry, Scotland, cos. Argyle and 
 Inverness, across Loch Leven, an arm of Loch Linnhe, 10 m. 
 S.S.E. Fort- William. Loch Leven lies nearly E. and W., and 
 the ferry is about a quarter of a mile across. On both sides 
 there is an inn, and on the N. side a few scattered crofters 
 houses, part of the male inhabitants of which are employed 
 at the well-known slate quarries on the S. side of the loch, 
 about 2 m. E. the ferry, where a small village has risen, with 
 an Established church, and an Episcopalian, and a R. catholic 
 chapel. The excavations, each of which is called a quarry, 
 are 60 to 70 in number, every one employing four hands. 
 
 BALLAGHADIREEN, a tn. Irel. Mayo, 14 m. N.W. 
 Tulsk ; has a mean and uninviting appearance ; and a barrack. 
 Pop. 1342. 
 
 BALLAGHMOON, par. Irel. Kildare ; 2178 ac. P. 308. 
 
 BALLANE, or BULLANE, par. Irel. Galway; 1729 ac. 
 Pop. 445. 
 
 BALLANTRAE, a vil., harbour, and par. Scotland, co. 
 Ayr. The VILLAGE, 59 m. S.W. Glasgow, r. bank, Stinchar, 
 half a mile from its mouth in the frith of Clyde, has a neat 
 church, regular steam communication with Glasgow several 
 times a week, a valuable salmon-fishery employing about 1 6 
 boats, and is frequented during summer as bathing-quarters. 
 The PARISH is about 10 m. sq. Pop. 1651 ; (vil.), 256. 
 
 BALLAS, a tn. Upper Egypt, 1. bank, Nile, about lat. 
 26 N.; Ion. 32 42 E.; celebrated for its earthen jars, called, 
 from the name of the town, Ballasee, which are used all over 
 Egypt for carrying water. Large rafts made of ballasee jars 
 are frequently floated down the Nile, to be disposed of in the 
 markets of the metropolis. 
 
 BALLATER, a vil. Scotland, co. of, and 36 m. W.S/W. 
 Aberdeen, 1. bank, Dee, celebrated for its much-frequented 
 chalybeate springs; houses well-built, streets regular; sur 
 rounding scenery bold and picturesque. There is here a 
 Free church. The wells are distant about 1J in. from the 
 village, at a place called Pannanich, where there is a lodging 
 house and baths of various kinds. Pop. 379. 
 
 BALLAUGH, a par. and vil. Eng. Isle of Man, 7 m. 
 S.W. Ramsey. Pop. 1516. 
 
 BALLEE, or BALLY, par. Irel. Down; 6428 ac. P. 2255. 
 
 BALLEEN, par. Irel. Kilkenny; 2559 ac. Pop. 837. 
 
 BALLENSTADT, a tn. duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg, on 
 the Getet, at the foot of the Lower Harz Mountains, 48 m. 
 S.S.E. Brunswick. It has an hospital, manufactures of linen, 
 and dyeworks. In the vicinity is a castle, the residence of 
 the Duke, on a commanding situation, surrounded with fine 
 gardens. Pop. 4000. 
 
 BALLENY ISLES, a group of five volcanic islands, 
 Antarctic Ocean, of which the central one is in lat. 66 44 S. ; 
 Ion. 163 1 1 W. (R.) Two of the islands are small and low, 
 the other three are of considerable size and elevation, the 
 highest, Young Island, rises in a beautiful peak to a height 
 of about 12,000 ft. They are covered with snow and ice, 
 and are walled in with steep precipitous cliffs, without any 
 appearance of inlet or harbour. In one of the islands there 
 are two active volcanoes. 
 
 BALL1BAY. See BALLYBAY. 
 
 BALLIN A, a market tn. and river-port, Ireland, co. Mayo, 
 on both banks of the Moy, the town itself being on the 1. bank, 
 and the suburb Ardnaree, with which it is connected by two 
 bridges, being on the r. bank, about 5 m. above its mouth in 
 Killala Bay, where there is a bar with 3 to 5 ft. water at low 
 tide. The general appearance of the town is rather pleasing ; 
 one excellent street runs parallel to the river. Most of the 
 other streets lie at right angles, and consist chiefly of poor 
 cabins and cottages, intermingled with a few better buildings. 
 The town contains an ancient parish church, a handsome 
 It. catholic cliapel, and a courthouse. The retail and provision 
 trade of Ballina is considerable ; it has also a little coasting 
 and foreign trade. The number of vessels entered coastwise 
 in 1847 was 103, tonn. 6151 ; cleared the same year, 29, 
 tonn. 1978; foreign entered, 7, tonn. 957; cleared, 10, tonn. 
 1895. The river Moy is navigable for vessels of 200 tons 
 to within 1 m. of the town, where there, is a good quay. The 
 exports are chiefly corn, meal, provisions, hides, feathers, &c. 
 The town is a great resort of anglers in the summer season, 
 the fishing in the Moy being excellent. The Ballina Union 
 contains an area of 149,320 ac., and a pop. of 51,980. The 
 value of property rated in the Union, amounts to 43,228. 
 The workhouse affords accommodation for 1554 inmates. 
 Pop. (1841), 5313. 
 
 BALLINABOY, par. Irel. Cork; 7973 ac. Pop. 2749. 
 
 BALLINACARGY, a small post tn. Ireland, co. West- 
 meath, 5 m. E. by S. Colehill, on the Royal Canal. It is a 
 thriving and clean town, surrounded bv a fertile district. 
 Pop. (1841), 483. 
 
 BALLINACARRTG,par. Irel.Carlow;2605ac. Pop. 692. 
 
 BALLINACLOUGH, two pars. Irel.: 1, par. Tip- 
 perary; 3869 ac. Pop. 1152. 2, par. Limerick; 1092 ac. 
 Pop. 630. 
 
 BALLINACOR, par. Irel. Wicklow ; 17,449 ac. P. 1359. 
 
 BALLINACOURTY, two pars. Irel.: 1, par. Galway; 
 6293 ac. Pop. 3407. 2, par. Kerry ; 5318 ac. Pop. 1472. 
 
 BALLIN ADEE, par. Irel. Cork ; 8334 ac. Pop. 3038. 
 
 BALLINADRIMNA,par.Irel.Kildare;4285ac.P.150]. 
 
 BALLINAFAGH, par. Irel. Kildare ; 4155 ac. Pop. 929. 
 
 BALLINAHAGL1SH, two pars. Irel.: 1, par. Mayo; 
 12,659ac. Pop. 5397. 2, par. Kerry ; 3006 ac. Pop.2147. 
 
 BALLINAHINCH. 1, A vil. Ireland, co. Down, 8 m. 
 E. Dromore; has a parish church, and two Presbyterian 
 meeting-houses. In the neighbourhood is a much-frequented 
 chalybeate spring. Pop. 911. 2, A barony on the coast 
 of co. Galway, the S. part abounding in singularly wild, 
 romantic, and magnificent scenery, but mostly uncultivated j 
 it is the name, likewise, of a lake, rivulet, bay, and village, 
 in the same barony. 3, A river, otherwise called Annacloy, 
 co. Down. 
 
 BALLINAKILL, a tn. and several pars. Ireland : 1, A 
 market tn. Queen s co. 52 m. S.W. Dublin, in a fertile plain, 
 
BALLINAKILTY 
 
 307 
 
 BALLY 
 
 on a tributary stream of the Nore. It contains a modern parish 
 church, with a tall spire. Pop 1540. 2, par. King s co.; 
 6761 ac. Pop. 1079. 3, par. Waterford; 1877 ac. Pop. 
 639. 4, par. Galway and Eoscommon; 17,578 ac. Pop. 
 4998. 5, par. Galway ; 49,053 ac. Pop. 7928. 6, par. Gal- 
 way; 5221 ac. Pop. 1762. 7, par. Sligo; 4590 ac. Pop. 1 906. 
 
 BALLINAKILTY, par. Irel. Galway ; 522 1 ac. P. 1 762. 
 
 BALLINAMARA, par Irel. Kilkenny; 3839 ac. P. 915. 
 
 BALLINAMOND, par. Irel. Limerick; 1498 ac. P. 587. 
 
 BALLINAMORE, a market tn. Ireland, co. Leitrhn, 
 12 m. N.W. Carrick- on -Shannon, well built, clean, and 
 thriving ; has a church, a R. catholic chapel, some schools, a 
 bridewell, and small session-house. The market is well at 
 tended. Pop. 946. 
 
 BALLINAMUCK, a vil. Ireland, co. of, and 11 J m. 
 N.N.E. Longford. Bemarkable only as having been the 
 scene of the capture of the remainder of the French army, 
 under General Humbert, by Lord Cornwallis, Sept. 8, 1798. 
 
 BALLINARD, par. Irel. Leinster; 1442 ac. Pop. 91K 
 
 BALLINASCREEN, par. Irel. Londonderry; 32,492 ac. 
 Pop. 8384. 
 
 BALLINASLANEY, par. Irel. Wexford ; 2646 ac. Pop. 
 1061. 
 
 BALLINASLOE, a market tn. Ireland, cos. Galway and 
 Roscommon, on both sides the Suck, crossed here by bridges 
 and causeways, about 6 m. above its junction with the Shan 
 non, 15 m. S.W. Athlone. The town, chiefly the property 
 of Lord Cloncarty, is neatly built, the streets wide and clean ; 
 has a parish church, an elegant structure, with an octan 
 gular spire; E. catholic and two Methodist chapels, infantry 
 barracks, and lunatic asylum for the province of Connaught ; 
 a prison, and union workhouse ; several public and private 
 schools, and a horticultural and an agricultural society. The 
 town contains three tanyards, four flour-mills, manufactories 
 of hats and coaches, and an extensive establishment for curing 
 bacon ; in the vicinity are good limestone quarries. It is the 
 head quarters of the Galway constabulary police ; and petty 
 sessions are held every Wednesday and Saturday in the court 
 house. Branches of several banks have been established 
 here. Near the E. end of the town are the remains of a 
 castle, esteemed one of the strongholds of Connaught in the 
 reign of Elizabeth. Ballinasloe communicates both with the 
 river Shannon and with Dublin by canal, and is, consequently, 
 a great thoroughfare both for goods and for passengers, par 
 taking thus largely in the transit trade. It is, however, chiefly 
 noted for its great wool-fair and cattle-market. At the for 
 mer, held annually on July 13, the amount of wool sold has 
 considerably decreased of late years. The cattle-fair, the 
 largest and most important in Ireland, commences on the 5th 
 and ends on the 9th of October. On an average, 12,000 head 
 of black cattle, and 90,000 sheep, are annually brought to this 
 fair. Pop. (1841), 4934. 
 
 BALLINAULTIG, par. Irel. Cork; 4842 ac. Pop. 1404. 
 
 BALLINCALLA, par. Irel. Mayo and Galway ; 15, 1 95 ar. 
 Pop. 2165. 
 
 BALLINCOLLIG, a vil. Irel. Cork, 5 m. W.S.W. Cork, 
 on the river Bride, near its confluence with the sea ; a cheerful 
 place, with a barracks, police station, and the ruins of an 
 ancient castle. Along the river are several extensive powder- 
 mills. Pop. 1287. 
 
 BALLINCUSLANE,par. Irel. Kerry; 39,740ac. P.5701. 
 
 BALLINDERRY, two pars. Irel.: 1, par. Antrim; 
 
 10,891 ac. Pop. 5679. 2, par. Tyrone r.nd Londonderry; 
 8178 ac. Pop. 3362. 
 
 BALLINDOON,par. Irel. Galway; 20,033 ac. P. 5615. 
 
 BALLINEEN, vil. Irel. Cork, 5 m. E. by N. Dunman- 
 way, on the Bandon River. Pop. 670. 
 
 BALLINGADDY, par. Irel. Limerick ;5999ac. P. 1761. 
 
 BALLINGARRY, a tn. and four pars. Irel. : 1, Tn. and 
 par. Limerick, 4 m. S.E. Rathkeale. The town is small, but 
 tolerably clean, and has a church, R. catholic chapel, several 
 schools, and a dispensary. Pop. 1690. Area of par. 17,732 ac. 
 Pop. 8679. 2, par. Limerick ; 61 14 ac. Pop. 2834. 3, par. 
 Tipperary; 6683 ac. Pop. 1962. 4, par. Tipperary; 13,714 
 ac. Pop. 7062. 
 
 BALLIIS GHAM, par. Eng. Hereford ; 950 ac. Pop. 149. 
 
 BALLINGLY, par. Irel. Wexford; 765 ac. Pop. 221. 
 
 BALLINGRAY, or BALGKAV, par. Scot. Fife, 3J m. 
 long by 1 broad. Pop. 436. 
 
 BALLTNLANDERS, par. Irel. Limerick; 7717 ac. 
 Pop. 4000. 
 
 B ALL 1NLOGHY, par. Irel. Limerick; 2340ac. P.1153. 
 
 BALLINOE, par. Irel. Cork; 7716 ac. Pop. 2566. 
 
 BALLINROBE, a tn. and par. Ireland, co. Mayo. The 
 town stands on a gentle acclivity on the Robe, about 2 m. 
 from its embouchure in Lough Mask, and 25 m. N.N.W. 
 Galway. It consists of two principal streets, and three or 
 four smaller, all much improved of late ; houses of stone, but 
 not particularly well built ; the court-house, however, is a 
 good substantial structure. Water is obtained wholly from the 
 river. In the town there are a parish church, and three 
 chapels, one of which is R. catholic ; an excellent school- 
 house, in connection with the Church Education Society, but 
 at present (1850) disused for want of funds. Ballinrobe has 
 no manufactures ; and its trade in corn, potatoes, and pigs, 
 formerly considerable, has greatly fallen off, in consequence 
 of the failure of the potato crops. But as the Robe is now 
 in course of being rendered navigable, and a canal being 
 cut between Lough Mask and Lough Corrib, thus opening 
 up a water communication between Ballinrobe and Galway, 
 it is expected that the trade of the place will rapidly improve. 
 There is little agricultural employment here. Pop. of tn. 
 about 3000, of which about 1000 are employed on the drain 
 age-works. Area of par. (in cos. Mayo and Galway) 26,903 ac. 
 Pop. 11,150. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BALLINTEMPLE, four pars. Irel. : 1, par. Wicklow; 
 4087 ac. Pop. 1114. 2, par. Tipperary; 4208 ac. Pop. 
 656. 3, par. Cork; 2660 ac. Pop. 1742. 4, par. Cavan ; 
 10,658 ac. Pop. 5341. 
 
 BALLINTOBBER, two pars. Irel.: 1, par. Roscommon; 
 6352 ac Pop. 2616. 2, par. Mayo; 22,966 ac. Pop. 7199. 
 
 BALLINTOY,par.&vil. Irel. Antrim; 12,754ac. P.4816. 
 
 BALLINURE, two pars. Irel.: 1, par. Wicklow; 
 7404 ac. Pop. 17 18. 2, par., with vil. of same name, form 
 ing part of the tn. of Ballyclare, Antrim ; 8540 ac. Pop. 3549. 
 
 BALLINVOHER, par. Irel. Kerry; 16,661 ac. P. 3579. 
 
 BALLON, a small tn. France, dep. Sarthe, 15m. N. Le 
 Mans, on a rising ground, 1. bank, Orne. It consists of a 
 principal and several lateral streets, and has manufactures of 
 coarse linens and serges. Its old castle, of which only one 
 large tower and a few turrets now remain, was of some con 
 sequence in the wars between the English and French in the 
 early part of the 15th century. Pop. 1075. 
 
 BALLON, par. Irel. Carlow ; 3700 ac. Pop. 1524. 
 
 BALLY [a town], a prefix very common in Irish topo 
 graphy. The following table comprises all the parishes in 
 Ireland having this prefix, excepting such as are noticed in 
 
 conjunction with towns or villages of the same name, of suffi 
 cient importance to require a separate article, which will be 
 found in their place elsewhere- 
 
 PAR. 
 
 County. 
 
 Artn 
 in acres. 
 
 Pop. in 
 1841. 
 
 r.Mt. 
 
 County. 
 
 _ Area 
 
 Pop. in 
 1841 
 
 PAU. 
 
 County. 
 
 Area 
 
 p i Si in 
 
 BALLYADAMS 
 
 .Queen s 
 
 . 6,908.. 
 
 2,051 
 
 BALLYBROOD.. 
 
 ....Limerick 
 
 2,355.. 
 
 1,121 
 
 BALLYCLUG 
 
 .Antrim... 
 
 8269 
 
 4,307 
 
 BALLY AGHRAN... 
 
 .Loudouderr 
 
 -. 3,897.. 
 
 2,318 
 
 BALLYBUR 
 
 ....Kilkenny 
 
 667.. 
 
 . 200 
 
 BALLYCOMMON.. 
 
 King s 
 
 .. 6,641... 
 
 1,066 
 
 BAI.LYANE 
 
 .Wexford.... 
 
 . 4,578.. 
 
 1,293 
 
 BALLYBURLEY 
 
 ....King s 
 
 7,868.. 
 
 . 1.621 
 
 BALLYCONNICK.. 
 
 .Wexford.... 
 
 .. 1,611... 
 
 625 
 
 BALLYBACON 
 
 .Tipperary... 
 
 .11,120.. 
 
 3,109 
 
 BALLYCAHANE 
 
 Limerick 
 
 2,411.. 
 
 1,196 
 
 BALLYCONRY 
 
 .Kerry 
 
 .. 1,206... 
 
 417 
 
 BAI.LYBEG. See 
 BALLYBOGGAN... 
 
 BUTTEVANT. 
 .Meath 
 
 . 6,222.. 
 
 1,43(1 
 
 BAI.LYCAHILL. 
 BALLYCALLAN 
 
 ::::BK:::: 
 
 3,844.. 
 
 6,835.. 
 
 . 1,903 
 
 1,778 
 
 BALLYCOR 
 BALLYCROGUE.... 
 
 .Antrim 
 .Carlow 
 
 .. 7,330... 
 .. 870... 
 
 2,611 
 64 
 
 BALLYBOGHII.f... 
 
 .Dublin 
 
 . 2,789.. 
 
 595 
 
 BALLYCANEW. 
 
 ....Wexford 
 
 3,628.. 
 
 1,275 
 
 BALLYCULTEK ... 
 
 .Down 
 
 .. 6,177... 
 
 2,182 
 
 BALLYBOUGHT ... 
 
 .Kildare 
 
 . 1.44L. 
 
 265 
 
 BALI.YCARNEY. 
 
 ....Wexford 
 
 8,234.. 
 
 2,045 
 
 BALLYCURRANY. 
 
 .Cork 
 
 .. 3,939... 
 
 1,160 
 
 BALLYBOY, fctn.. 
 
 .King s 
 
 .14,274.. 
 
 4,753 
 
 BALLYCASHIN. 
 
 See KILRONAN 
 
 
 
 BALLYDELOHER. 
 
 .Cork 
 
 .. 2,101... 
 
 1,183 
 
 BALLYBOYS 
 
 .Louth 
 
 . 1,436.. 
 
 748 
 
 BALLYCLERA- 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 BAT.LYDF. LOUGH Y 
 
 .Cork 
 
 .. 2,000... 
 
 796 
 
 BALLYBRACKEN . 
 
 .Kildare 
 
 . 3,057.. 
 
 1,365 
 
 CHAN & tn 
 
 f Tipperary 
 
 1,044.. 
 
 728 
 
 BALLYDUFF,&tn 
 
 .Kerry 
 
 .. 6,984... 
 
 488 
 
 BALLYBRAZIL.... 
 
 .Wexford .... 
 
 . 2,371.. 
 
 567 
 
 BALLYC LOG.... 
 
 ....Tyrone 
 
 7,796.. 
 
 2,697 
 
 BALLYELLIN, &tr 
 
 .Carlow 
 
 . 4,957... 
 
 1.750 
 
 BALLYBREKNAN. 
 
 .Wexford.... 
 
 . 1,041.. 
 
 260 
 
 BALLYCLOGU,&.tn.Cbrk 
 
 9,711.. 
 
 3,971 
 
 BALLiFKARU 
 
 .Cork 
 
 . 3,462... 
 
 1,113 
 
BALLYFERMOT 
 
 308 
 
 BALLYMONEY 
 
 P tbuntv A * P P " 
 P *- County. ,..,. , 8 ,,. 
 
 PAR. County. to ^JJJ fc P | in 
 
 PA.. County. ,_ P P, 
 
 BALLYFERMOT DuWin 1,183... 346 
 
 BALLYUACWIL- ) v - , 
 
 BALLYNAKILL Sliro 4,590... l,90fl 
 
 BALLYFOYLE Cork 2,882... 1,811 
 
 LIAM J ^ * 4,J/0... J,193 
 
 BALI.YNAMONA Limerick 1,498... 5H? 
 
 IULLYOAKTH Meath 7 r 9... 165 
 
 BALLYMADUN Dublin 3,438... 522 
 
 BALLYNASCRKKN ..Londonderry.32,492... 8,384 
 
 BALLYGIBBON Tipperary 3,294... 1,321 
 BALIYGRIFFIN Tipperarv 2,862... 1,406 
 
 BALLYMAGI.ASSAN Meath 3,476... 667 
 
 BALLYNASLANKY.. Wexford 2,646... 1,061 
 BALLYNOE, & tn ...Cork 7,716... 2,566 
 
 BALLYGUKNER Waterford 2,266... 807 
 
 BAI.LYMAKENNY...LoUth 1,581... 499 
 
 BALLYNUKK, & tn.. Wicklow 7,404... 1,718 
 
 BALLYGURRIM Kilkenny 1,924... 796 
 
 BAI.LYMANY Kildare 507... 193 
 
 Antrim .V 8, o41." 3^469 
 
 BALLYHALBEBT, ) p. 4n]Q ...., 
 
 BAI.LYMARTIN Antrim 2,806... 870 
 
 BALLYOUTER.\cn..Cork 4,532... 1,728 
 
 9rt n r Down 4,U1#... 2,666 
 
 BALLYMARTLE Cork 5,503... 1.761 
 
 BALLYOVEY Mayo 27,622... 4,505 
 
 BALLYHEAN Mayo 7,675... 4,032 
 
 BALI.YMITTY Wexford L365... 393 
 
 BALLYPHILIP Down 2,430... 3,086 
 D . . - ( Antrim &.Lon- 
 
 BALLYHKIGF..&. tn. Kerry 11,261... 4,795 
 
 BALLYMODAN Cork 8,080... 9,298 
 
 BALLYRASHANE. j dondurry 636 , 2 658 
 
 I!ALLYHOGE Wexford 4,270... 997 
 
 BALLYMONKY Cork 7,308... 3,733 
 
 BALLYRJAN Queen s 9,682... 3,689 
 
 BALLYHOOLY Cork 5,253... 2,337 
 BALLYHU S K\RD Wexford 7 048 2874 
 
 BALLYMORK Wexlbrd 2,525... 568 
 & tn Westnieath ll 46fi 3487 
 
 BALLYROBKRT Antrim 884... 291 
 
 BALLYKEAN "*Khu s......!..12 914!" 2/445 
 
 "Armagh !.14J59 ."ll 505 
 
 BALLYSAX Kildare 7,208.. 1,220 
 
 BALLYK.INK Wicklow 11,054... 2,755 
 
 BALLYMORTN Wertmeath... 2,205... 700 
 
 BALLYSCAD DAN... Tipperary 944... 749 
 
 BALLYKINLER Down 2,039... 793 
 
 BALLYMUHKEKN... Tipperary 3,8-46... 1,203 
 BALLYMYBE Armagh 7,381... 3,071 
 
 BALLYSCULLION { A o t ^ y L ; l , i750 69?9 
 
 g^ t n>> r Limerick 7,717... 4,000 
 
 BALLYNACLOGH. ..Limerick 1,092... 630 
 
 BALLYSCULLION ) , . . 
 
 BALLYLANEEN Waterford 6,315... 5,153 
 
 ...Tipperary 3,870... 1,152 
 
 GRANGE \ Antrim 4,279... 3,183 
 
 BALLYLANMAN Wexford 2,493... 710 
 
 BALLYNACOURTY ..Kerry...! 6,318.. 1,472 
 
 BALLISEEIIY Kerry 3,489... 1,472 
 
 BALLYLARKI is- Kilkenny 1,394... 264 
 
 ...Galway 6,293... 3,407 
 
 BALLYSKANNON ..Kildare 2,815... 494 
 
 BALLYLINWY Antrim s ,364." 2,204 
 
 BALLYNAFAGH Kililare 4^155... 929 
 
 BALLYSHEEHAN ...Tipperary 9,216... 3,068 
 BALLYsm.LANE...Cork 2,088... 603 
 
 BALi.YLOUGiiLOE..Westmeath... 13,578... 4,793 
 
 BALLYNAHAGLISII. Kerry 3,006... 2,147 
 
 BALLTfSUMAGHAN.SligO 4,217... 1,902 
 
 BALLYMACART Waterford 2,538 ... 1,196 
 
 Mayo 12,659... 6,397 
 
 BALLYTAIISNKY.... Kilkenny 8 J6... 258 
 
 .....Down 576... 6,697 
 BALLYMACELLI- ) K itms AOIS 
 
 Waterford 1/77... 639 
 
 BALLYTOBIN Kilkenny 2,394... 714 
 BALLYTRUSTAN....DOWH 1,081... 75t 
 
 > Kerry 14,018... 4,0oo 
 
 Galway 49,05:!... 7,928 
 
 BALLYVALDON Wexford 3,911... 1,550 
 
 BALLYMACHUGH .Cavan 7,729... 3,518 
 
 j Galway and 
 
 BALLYVALLOO Wexford 1,891... 822 
 
 BALLYMACKEY Tipperary 9.713... 3,178 
 
 \ B.08comnum 61,614... 4,998 
 
 BALLYVOURNF.Y ...Cork 26,603 .. 4.466 
 
 BALLYMACOHMicKLongford 8,925... 3,926 
 
 Galway 5,221... 1,762 
 
 BALLYWALTKR Down 3,379... 1,916 
 
 BALLYMACWARD...Galway 17,258... 6,027 
 
 Galway 59,607. ..14,373 
 
 BALLYWILLIN Antrim 4,673... 2,202 
 
 BALLYAGHRON. See AGHERTOX. 
 
 place, with a handsome market-house, and some considerable 
 
 BALLYBAY, a market tn. and par. Ireland, Monaghan. 
 The tn. is 55 m. N.W. Dublin; has a thriving appearance; 
 
 corn-mills. Pop. 704. 
 BALLYJAMESDUFF, a market tn. Ireland, co. Cavan, 
 
 numerous new and good houses having been recently erected ; 
 
 5 m. N.W. Virginia; has a church, R. catholic chapel, places 
 
 possesses a neat church, and two chapels for Presbyterians, 
 
 of worship for Presbyterians and Wesleyans, several schools, 
 
 Wesleyans, and R. catholics; several schools, a public library, 
 
 and a dispensary. 
 
 Fairs are held in May, July, October, and 
 
 and dispensary; considerable manufactu 
 
 re of linen fabrics, 
 
 December. Pop. 1 
 
 071. 
 
 and in the vicinity are some bleachgreens. There has been 
 
 BALLYLONGFORD, a tn. and harbour, Ireland, co. 
 
 a great increase in the trade and population of the place within 
 
 Kerry, at the head of a creek, S. side of the Shannon, 37 m. 
 
 the last few years. Cattle-fairs are held in January, April, 
 
 W. by S. Limerick 
 
 The harbour has 16 ft. water at high 
 
 July, and October. Area of par. 8741 
 
 ac. Pop. (1841), 
 
 tides, and is capable of being much improved. Large quan 
 
 6606; oftn. 1768. 
 
 
 tities of corn and 
 
 turf are conveyed hence by lighters to 
 
 BALLYBOFEY, a tn. Ireland, Donegal, on the Fin, 
 
 Limerick. Pop. 1143. 
 
 14 m. W.S.W. Lifford ; has a union workhouse, and a pretty 
 
 BALLYMAHON, a market tn. Ireland, co. Longford, 10 
 
 extensive retail trade with the surround 
 
 ing districts. Pop. 
 
 m. N.W. by N. At 
 
 ^ilone, on a declivity near the Inny, here 
 
 782. 
 
 
 crossed by a fine bridge of five arches ; consists chiefly of one 
 
 BALLYCASTLE, a small senport 
 
 tn. Ireland, co. An- 
 
 long and spacious street ; has a church, a handsome R. catholic 
 
 trim, beautifully situated in a valley, head of bay of same 
 
 chapel, market-house, dispensary, two distilleries, some malt- 
 
 name, W. of Fair Head, 43 m. W. by N. 
 
 Belfast; Iat. 55 12 
 
 houses, and manuf 
 
 actures of linen, frieze, linsey-woolsey, 
 
 N. ; Ion. 6 5 W. It consists of one principal and several 
 
 leather shoes, nails, 
 
 &c. Several well-attended fairs are held 
 
 smaller streets; houses well built, chiefl) 
 
 r of sandstone ; sup- 
 
 during the year, th 
 
 at in May being reckoned the best cattle 
 
 ply of water ample. It has two established churches, one of 
 
 fair in the central counties, except Ballinasloe. Pop. 1229. 
 
 them having a handsome spire ; a Presbyterian meeting-house, 
 
 BALLYMENA, or BALLYMENAGII, a market tn. Ireland, 
 
 R. catholic chapel, and an infant school. 
 
 In the vicinity are 
 
 co. Antrim, 22 m. I 
 
 >f.W. by N. Belfast, on a gentle acclivity. 
 
 coal mines and iron smelting-works. 
 
 Pop. 1697. (Local 
 
 It consists of 15 streets, mostly straight and well kept; the 
 
 Correspondent.} BALLYCASTLE is also 
 
 the name of a small 
 
 houses, in general, 
 
 substantial, but old-fashioned, with their 
 
 maritime tn. Mayo. Pop. 798. 
 
 
 gables to the street 
 
 amply supplied with both river and well 
 
 BALLYCLARE, a small market t 
 
 n. Ireland, Antrim, 
 
 water, and lighted w 
 
 ith gas. Contains an elegant townhouse, 
 
 2 J m. S.W. Ballinure, on the highroad from Antrim to Larne. 
 
 an Episcopal church, four Presbyterian meeting-houses, one 
 
 It has a church, R. catholic chapel, and Presbyterian and 
 
 Wesleyan, one Methodist, and a R. catholic chapel. Schools, 
 
 Methodist meeting-houses. Linen is 
 
 manufactured here. 
 
 unusually numeroi 
 
 s for a place of this size ; they are 
 
 General fairs are held in May, July, August, and November. 
 
 the district school 
 
 for the diocese of Down and Connor, 
 
 Pop. (1841), 847. 
 
 
 district national m 
 
 odel school, two classical and mercantile 
 
 BALLYCOTTON BAY, Ireland, co. Cork, 12 m. N.E. 
 
 schools, Guy s free national school, national female and 
 
 from the entrance into Cork harbour ; 
 
 bottom smooth and 
 
 industrial school, two boarding-schools for young ladies, a 
 
 even, of fine sand and clay, perfectly clean, and the holding- 
 
 parochial school, a Methodist chapel school, and several others 
 
 ground good ; Iat. 51 50 N ; Ion. 7 5c 
 
 > W. 
 
 of less note. The 
 
 principal trade of the town is in brown 
 
 BALLYFERRIS POINT, a headland, Ireland, E. coast, 
 
 linens, and linen yarns ; the manufacture of which is carried on 
 
 co. Down ; Iat. 54 39 N. ; Ion. 5 34 W. A dangerous reef 
 
 to a great extent. 
 
 There is also a brewery. In the vicinity 
 
 stretches from Uiis point into the sea ; a 
 
 nd a little S. from it 
 
 are a flax spinning 
 
 -mill, and 16 bleachfields. Three weekly 
 
 there is another still more formidable, called Scalmartin. 
 
 markets are held two for country produce, and one for linen 
 
 BALLYGAVVLEY, a market tn. Ireland, co. Tyrone, 3 
 
 cloth, cattle, horses 
 
 , &c. Pop. (1841), 5152. (Local Corre- 
 
 m. N.N.W. Aughnacloy ; tolerably well built ; has a clean and 
 
 spondent.} 
 
 
 thriving appearance ; and a neat moderi 
 
 i church, R. catholic 
 
 BALLYMON 
 
 2Y, a tn. and par. Ireland, co. Antrim. 
 
 and Presbyterian chapels, some schools, a dispensary, brewery, 
 
 The town is 38 m. 
 
 N. by W. Belfast, on an acclivity with a 
 
 and an extensive distillery. Manufacture 
 
 s : linen and gloves, 
 
 S. inclination ; coi 
 
 sists of four main streets at right angles, 
 
 to a considerable extent. Fairs are he 
 
 d here in J une, Sep- 
 
 and four smaller ; 
 
 houses generally well built, some of stone 
 
 tember, and November. Pop. 881. 
 
 
 and others of brick 
 
 ; well supplied with both spring and river 
 
 BALLYHAISE, a market tn. Ire 
 
 and, co. of, and 3 m. 
 
 water, and lighted 
 
 with gas. It has a court-house, lately 
 
 N.N.E. Cavan, on the Aunalee. It is a clean and improving 
 
 erected ; bridewell 
 
 , and union workhouse ; one Established, 
 
BALLYMORE 
 
 309 
 
 BALTIC SEA 
 
 and four Presbyterian churches ; one Unitarian Remonstrant, 
 and one R. catholic chapel ; a national, and three private 
 schools. Manufactures : linen, tanning, brewing, and che 
 mical stuffs. The trade in linen and flax is considerable ; 
 there being a market for these articles on the first Thursday 
 of every month, and alternate markets, fortnightly, for pork, 
 b ltter, and grain. Area of par. 21,923 ac.; pop. 11,727. 
 Pop. of tn. 2490. -(Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BALLYMORE, a tn. and par. Ireland, co. Kildare, 3 J m. 
 S.W. Blessington, on the Lifl ey, here crossed by a handsome 
 bridge, near the celebrated waterfall Poul-a-Phooka. It con 
 tains a church, R. catholic chapel, the ruins of an ancient and 
 once strong castle, and several schools. Area of par. 4203 
 ac. Pop. 2129. 
 
 BALLYMOTE, a small tn. Ireland, co. Sligo, 12 m. 
 N.W. Boyle, near the river Owenmore. It has a church, 
 R. catholic chapel, several schools, bridewell, dispensary, and, 
 in the vicinity, the ruins of an extensive castle and small 
 abbey. Linen is manufactured to some extent ; and several 
 fairs for cattle and general merchandise are held. Pop. 839. 
 BALLYNAK1L. See AQHIART. 
 
 BALLYQUINTIN POINT, a well-known cape, Ire 
 land, co. Down, forming the N.E. entrance into Loch Strang- 
 ford ; lat. 54 20 N. ; Ion. 5 25 W. 
 
 BALLYRAGGET, a tn. and par. Ireland, co. Kilkenny, 
 1. bank, Nore, 10 m. N.N.W. Kilkenny; has a barrack, but 
 nothing else deserving of notice. Pop. 1577. Area of par., 
 5270 ac.; pop. 2694. 
 
 BALLYSADARE, a small tn. and par. Ireland, co. Sligo. 
 The town is situated 4 m. S.W. Sligo, at the head of Ardinglass 
 Bay, near the cataracts of the Owenbeg and Arrow ; the waters 
 of which propel several extensive corn-mills. It has a church, 
 two R. catholic chapels, and some storehouses ; area of par. 
 16,025 ac.; pop. 7822. Pop. of tn. 869. 
 
 BALLYSHANNON, a tn. and seaport, Ireland, co. of, 
 and 11 m. S.S.W. Donegal; lat. 54 30 12" N.; Ion. 8 11 42" 
 W. (R.) on the Erne, about 1 m. from the S.E. shore of 
 Donegal Bay. The river flows through the town from E. to 
 W., and divides it into two parts, connected by a bridge of 
 14 arches. The larger portion is on an acclivity, the other, 
 partly on low, level ground, and partly on a rock of consider 
 able elevation. The town comprises eight streets, most of 
 them straight, and all tolerably well kept ; houses generally 
 well built, some of brick, but many of stone, and slated ; 
 supply of both river and spring water ample. On a com 
 manding eminence in the N. part of the town, stands the 
 Episcopalian church, a handsome structure in the Elizabethan 
 style. The other places of worship are two R. catholic, a 
 Presbyterian, and two Methodist chapels. There are in the 
 town a classical school, an infant and four other schools, and 
 a destitute sick society. Distillation, leather-dressing, and 
 salt, tobacco and rope manufacturing are carried on, but to a 
 very small extent. The trade of the port is very inconsider 
 able, its imports being confined to some building materials ; 
 it had formerly a considerable export trade in corn, but this 
 has entirely ceased since 1846. The harbour is fit for small 
 vessels only, having, at low water, not more than 3 ft. on 
 the bar. The population is chiefly employed in agricultural 
 labour, but a considerable portion, also, in salmon-fishing 
 during the season, and in the salt works. Pop. (1841), 4307. 
 (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BALMACLELLAN, par. Scot. Kirkcudbright, 12 m. 
 long by 5 to 8 broad. Pop. 1134. 
 
 BALMAG1IIE, par. Scot. Kirkcudbright, 9 m. long by 
 7 broad. On an island formed by the Dee, in this parish, are 
 the ruins of the ancient castle of Threaves, formerly a strong 
 hold of the redoubted Douglases. Pop. 1252. 
 
 BALME, a vil. France, dep. Isere, about 20 m. from Tour 
 du-Pin, remarkable for an extensive stalactitie grotto, with a 
 lake in it, regarded as one of the wonders of Dauphine". P. 850. 
 BALME (COL DE), a celebrated pass, Pennine Alps, 
 Savoy, on the frontiers of can. Valais, leading from the valley 
 of Trient into that of Chamouni. Its highest point is 72 1 8 ft. 
 above the level of the sea. It forms the boundary between 
 Savoy and Valais, and presents many magnificent views of 
 wild and picturesque scenery. 
 
 BALMERINO, par. Scot. Fife, about 3 m. long, and 
 2J broad, contains the ruins of Balmerino Abbey, founded 
 by Alexander II., in 1229.. Pop. 993. 
 
 BALMORAL. See ABERDEEN (COUNTY). 
 BALONNE, a river, N. Australia ; the upper part of the 
 stream is inferior only to the Murray, in breadth and depth. 
 The banks are thickly peopled by natives. It was discovered 
 by Sir T. L. Mitchell, who fell in with it in lat. 28 35 38" S., 
 and Ion. 148 25 E. 
 
 BALOOCHISTAN. See BELOOCHISTAN. 
 BALOU, a vil., W. Africa, Galam country, 1. bank, 
 Senegal; lat. 14 44 N.; Ion. 12 16 W.; built on a rocky 
 site, and having several islets in the river opposite to it, which 
 obstruct its navigation. 
 
 BALQUHIDDER, par. Scot. co. Perth, about 18 m. long, 
 and from 6 to 7 broad. It abounds in romantic scenery, and 
 contains some of the highest mountains in Scotland, one of 
 which, Benmore, is nearly 4000 ft. above the sea. In the 
 caverns of another of its rocky and romantic heights, called 
 /raigruigh [the King s rock], King Robert Bruce concealed 
 limself for some time, after his defeat at Dairy. Pop. 871. 
 BALRAHAN, or BALKAIN, par. Irel. Kildare; 3374 ac. 
 Pop. 485. 
 
 BALROTHERY, par. Irel. Dublin; 6885 ac. Pop. 4881. 
 BALSAMO, a com. and vil. Austrian Italy, gov. and 
 prov. of, and 7 m. N. Milan, comprising a church, and public 
 square ; in the vicinity are several palaces and country-seats, 
 h-am, fruits, and vegetables are grown, and excellent wines 
 produced. Pop. 4935. 
 
 BALSCADDAN, par. Irel. Dublin; 3948 ac. Pop. 1074. 
 BALSHAM, par. Eng. Cambridge; 4402 ac. Pop. 1271. 
 BALSOON, par. Irel. Meath; 1269 ac. Pop. 340. 
 BALTA [formerly, Jozefogrod], a tn. Russia, gov. Po 
 dolsk, cap. dist. of same name ; on the Kodyma, 1 15 m. 
 N.N.W. Odessa. It is well built, contains several Greek 
 churches, and has some general trade. Its suburb, on the 
 S. side of the river, a tributary of the Bug, was once in the 
 Turkish territory, but is now in the Russian government of 
 Kherson ; most of the town, or N. portion of the place, was 
 once m the Poland of earlier times. Pop. 7500. 
 
 BALTA, a small isl. and harbour, Scotland, co. Orkney 
 and Shetland. The ISLAND is 40 m. N. Lerwick, lat. 60 44 24" 
 N.jlon. 047 42"W. (R.) It is worthy of notice only for hav- 
 ng been the locality chosen, in 1817, for the trigonometrical 
 survey of Great Britain, for determining, in this high latitude, 
 
 the variation in the length of the seconds pendulum. The 
 
 HARBOUR is on the E. coast of the island of Unst., the most 
 N. of the Shetland group ; lat. 60 45 N. ; Ion. 47 W. It 
 is safe and commodious, of easy access, and completely pro 
 tected by the small island of Balta, which lies at the mouth 
 of it. 
 
 BALTANAS, or VALTANAS, a tn. Spain, Leon, prov. of, 
 and 14 m. W. by N. Valencia, at the head of an extensive 
 valley; has regularly-built but badly-paved streets, a large 
 square, two churches, a townhall, poors -hospital, unwhole 
 some and insecure prison, endowed school, public storehouse, 
 ducal palace of the Abrante family, and several baths and 
 fountains. Pop. chiefly agricultural, 2575. 
 
 BALTEAGH, or BALLYDAIGH, par. Irel. Londonderry; 
 1 1,506 ac. Pop. 3371. 
 
 BALTIC (THE), or BALTIC SEA [Latin, Mare Balticum; 
 German, Ost See], an internal sea in the centre of N. Europe, 
 between lat. 53 30 and 65 40 N., and Ion. 10 and 30 E., 
 enclosed by the shores of Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Prussia, 
 and Mecklenberg, and communicating with the Kattegat by 
 three passages the Sound, the Great Belt, and the Little 
 Belt. Its greatest length from N.N.E. to S.S.W., is nearly 
 900 m. Its breadth is very irregular, and varies from 40 to 
 200 m. Its area, including the three gulfs of Bothnia, Fin 
 land, and Riga, has been estimated at 160,000 sq. m., and its 
 basin, which receives the drainage of more than a fifth of the 
 surface of Europe, is at least, 900,000 sq. m. Its largest 
 volumes of water are derived from the S., where it receives 
 the Oder and the Vistula ; and the E., where it receives the 
 Niemen, the Diina, and the Neva ; but these supplies are 
 probably exceeded in accumulated amount by the almost 
 innumerable torrents which flow down from the N. and N.W., 
 and are fed by the vast reservoirs of the Norwegian moun 
 tains. The shores of the Baltic, proceeding from the Little 
 Belt in the W., and along the S. and E., as far as Dome s 
 Point, at the entrance to the Gulf of Riga, are flat and sandy ; 
 and even towards the N., where the coast assumes a rocky 
 
BALTIMORE 
 
 310 
 
 BALTIMORE 
 
 character, the beach seldom attains a height of 50 ft. The 
 sea itself seems to partake of the character of its shore. It 
 shelves very gradually, presenting scarcely any harbours 
 which vessels of above 300 tons can enter. Its depth nowhere 
 exceeds 167 fathoms; and, in general, is not more than 40 or 
 50. Owing to the general flatness of the coast, the Baltic 
 is much more exposed than inland seas usually are to distant 
 influences. The warm moisture accumulated over the Atlantic, 
 and wafted along by the prevailing west wind, meets with no 
 interruption till it arrives at the Baltic, when it encounters 
 the keen blasts of the Ural Mountains, and of the steppes 
 extending to the N. of the Caspian Sea, and is precipitated in 
 heavy falls of rain or snow, which materially affect the com 
 position of the water of the Baltic, and reduce the quantity of 
 salt contained in it to little more than a half of that contained in 
 the water of the N. Sea. According to experiments apparently 
 performed with the greatest accuracy ; of 3 Ibs. of water taken 
 from each, that of the N. Sea yielded 747, that of the Baltic, 
 only 389 grains of salt. This comparative freshness of the 
 water of the Baltic, and shallowness of its bed, disposes it to 
 freeze easily ; and hence, though it rarely happens that exten 
 sive portions of it are entirely frozen over, its shores usually 
 begin to be covered with ice before the end of December, and 
 the navigation of its harbours thereafter, continues interrupted 
 till the beginning of April. The shallowness of the water 
 along the shores of the Baltic is obvious, owing, in a great 
 degree, to the immense quantities of mud and sand deposited 
 by rivers and torrents, the number of which has been estimated 
 at 250 ; but it was early suspected that other causes were in 
 operation, and the Swedish naturalist Celsius, followed by the 
 more celebrated Linnaeus, maintained, that the water in the 
 Baltic was gradually subsiding, at the rate of about 3 ft. in a 
 century. A more philosophical opinion, now more generally 
 adopted, is, that the bed and the surrounding shores, are 
 gradually rising. Scientific measures have been adopted, for 
 the purpose of determining the point ; but, until the result is 
 known, it is still a question whether the amount of alluvial 
 deposit is not of itself sufficient to account for the phenomenon. 
 The Baltic has no proper tides. Its surface is of too limited 
 extent to feel the solar and lunar influence directly ; and the 
 passages which connect it with the ocean are too narrow to 
 communicate the changes of level, which the tides produce on 
 the ocean surface. There is, however, a slight irregular 
 change of level in the Baltic, of which no very satisfactory 
 account has yet been given. The fishing of the Baltic is not 
 of much importance. The herring, which used to visit it in 
 shoals in the 14th and 15th centuries, is now only met with 
 in individual specimens ; but, along the Swedish coast, espe 
 cially in the Gulf of Bothnia, a fish called straemling, and very 
 much resembling the herring, 
 though smaller, is caught in 
 great numbers ; and, besides, 
 a large home consumption, 
 is extensively exported. The 
 other fish which abound most 
 are, the salmon, sturgeon, tur- 
 bot, and flounder. Near the 
 islands of Gothland and Aland, 
 a considerable number of seals 
 are killed. One of the most 
 celebrated productions of the 
 Baltic is amber. It is often 
 thrown on the S. coast after 
 N.W. and W. winds, and is 
 also dug up in a few places, 
 about 200 ft. inland from the 
 beach. 
 
 BALTIMORE, a small 
 tn.orvil.and seaport, Ireland, 
 co. Cork, S. coast ; lat. 51 29 
 N.; Ion. 9 22 W. (R.) ; 53 m. 
 W.S.W. the city of Cork, on 
 the E. shore of the harbour 
 of same name. It contains a 
 handsome church with a lofty 
 square tower, a school-house, 
 
 and dispensary. On the summit of a rock, rising over the 
 pier, stands the picturesque ruins of the ancient castle of 
 Baltimore. The harbour, which lies about 4 m. N.E. of 
 
 Cape Clear light, is very convenient for ships bound either 
 E. or W. The entrance, in which there are from 12 to 14 
 fathoms, lies between Baltimore Point, on the E. side, and 
 Sherkin Island or Fort Point, on the W. Small vessels 
 may ride, two or three cables length to the N.N.W. of 
 Baltimore town, in 10 or 11 ft. at low water, quite sheltered 
 from all winds. The number of vessels registered at the 
 port in 1847, was 120; tonn. 3926. Entered in the same 
 year, 357; tonn. 16,803. Cleared, 153; tonn. 9466. The 
 principal exports are slate, copper ore, and agricultural 
 produce ; imports timber, iron, coal, salt, and general mer 
 chandise. There was a considerable fishery here some years 
 since, but it is now much fallen off. .In the beginning of the 
 17th century, Baltimore was plundered by the Algerines, who 
 carried away 200 prisoners to Algiers, most of whom were 
 English settlers. The population of the town, together with its 
 prosperity, is rapidly declining. Pop. (1831), 459; (1841), 168. 
 BALTIMORE, a city and port of entry, U. States, Mary 
 land, cap. co. of same name, N. side of the Patapscc*, 14 m. 
 
 above its embouchure in Chesapeake Bay, 42 m. N.E. Wash 
 ington; lat. (Battle Monument. 39 17 24" N.; Ion. 76 37 30" 
 
 BALTIMORE. After L Lclireton 
 
 W. (R.) It is the third city of the U. States in population, 
 and the fifth in extent of commerce; pleasantly situated on 
 a bay, on slightly undulating ground. The streets are spa- 
 
BALTINGLASS 
 
 311 
 
 BAMBARRA 
 
 cious, regularly laid out, generally at right angles, with a few, 
 here and there, running diagonally : rendering the ground-plan 
 not quite so like the squares of a draught-board as that of 
 many other towns in the U. States ; they are well paved, the 
 side walks being laid with red bricks, placed diagonally. The 
 houses are, for the most part, built of red brick, with marble 
 or granite basements, and have a neat and substantial appear 
 ance. A small river, called Jones s Falls, over which there 
 are three handsome stone bridges, and four of wood, intersects 
 the town. The principal public buildings are the city hall, 
 a plain building, three stories high ; the court-house, two stories 
 high ; the state penitentiary, the various buildings of which, 
 with gardens and walks, occupies four acres of ground ; the 
 county prison, a neat structure, with embattled towers ; and 
 the house of refuge. There are, besides, two handsome monu 
 ments, the Washington Monument and the Battle Monument ; 
 the former 163 ft. high, surmounted by a statue of Washing 
 ton ; the latter, which was erected in commemoration of the 
 successful defence of the city against an attack of the British, 
 in September 1814, is 52 ft. high, with a statue on the top, 
 emblematical of the city of Baltimore ; the names of those 
 who fell in the battle are inscribed on the column in letters 
 of gold. The city is well supplied with water, both by pipes 
 and public fountains ; there being several of the latter in vari 
 ous parts of the city, tastefully enclosed by circular railings, 
 and covered by small open temples composed of a dome sup 
 ported by columns. Besides the public buildings and other 
 objects already enumerated, Baltimore contains two museums, 
 two theatres, a custom-house, an hospital, in which there is 
 nn excellent collection of anatomical preparations in wax ; 
 and several other benevolent institutions ; an exchange, five 
 market-houses, 14 banks, 104 places of public worship, of 
 which the Episcopalians have twelve, R. Catholics eleven 
 (including a handsome cathedral), Presbyterians eleven, Lu 
 theran eight, Baptists five, Methodists 43 ; a public library, 
 a lunatic asylum, an observatory, four universities and col 
 leges, with 395 students; 50 schools, with 173 teachers, and 
 9081 scholars, of whom 3783 in primary schools. The har 
 bour is excellent, and of ensy access, though sometimes ob 
 structed by ice. It consists of three divisions the first 600 
 yards wide, with 22 ft. water; the second 12 ft. deep at the 
 entrance, increasing at the upper end to 15 ft. ; the third or 
 inner harbour, which penetrates to the centre of the city, has a 
 depth of 10 ft., and admits vessels of 200 tons; those drawing 
 more lie at wharfs near Fell s Point, a little way further down. 
 The commerce of Baltimore is extensive, including most 
 of the trade of Maryland, and a portion of that of the W. 
 states. It is the greatest tobacco and flour market in the 
 U. States ; there being upwards of 60 flour-mills in its imme 
 diate neighbourhood, each capable of producing 32,000 barrels 
 in a year. Cotton, coal, lumber, coffee, hides, guano, grain, &c., 
 are included in its trade ; the department of provisions alone 
 being estimate at 1,600,000 annually. The total imports in 
 1851 amounted to 1,448,792, and the exports to 1,253,233. 
 In 1852 the total number of vessels that entered the harbour, 
 exclusive of bay craft, was 1889; and the same year there 
 cleared for foreign ports 583 vessels, tonnage 147,570, being 
 a considerable increase since 1846, when the total vessels en 
 tered were 476, tonnage 106,149, and cleared 541, tonnage 
 123,821. There are also a number of establishments for the 
 manufacture of cloth, cotton, paper, powder, iron, copper, 
 glass, steam-engines, &c. In a large locomotive establish 
 ment here, 100 engines are manufactured annually. Its sup 
 ply of periodical literature is also ample ; consisting of nume 
 rous daily, weekly,andsemi-weekly newspapers, and magazi: 
 or journals. By means of the extensive railway system of the 
 U. States, Baltimore has easy communication with the most 
 important places in the Union. Pop. (1850), 109,054. 
 
 BALTINGLASS, a market tn. and par. Ireland, co. 
 Wicklow. The town is 28 m. S.S.W. Dublin; pleasantly 
 situated in a vale on both banks of the Slaney, which is here 
 crossed by a stone bridge of three arches. It consists of four 
 principal streets and several smaller, and contains some good 
 houses, but is generally ill built and straggling. There are 
 here the ruins of an ancient abbey, called Baltinglass Abbey, 
 founded between 1148 and 1151, for Cistertian friars. In 
 the vicinity are several calico printing-works, bleachgreens, 
 and a flour-mill. A savings -bank was established here iu 
 1823. Area of par. 6383 ac.; pop. 4436. Pop. of tn. 1928. 
 
 BALTONSBOROUGH, or BALTONSDUKY, par. Eng. 
 Somerset; 2700 ac. Pop. 718. 
 
 BALU ISLAND, an isl. Indian Ocean, Gulf of Martaban, 
 at the embouchure of the Sulween or Thanluyn river, which 
 separates Burmah from Siam. It is 17 m. long, and 8 broad, 
 extending from lat. 16 14 to 16 31 N. It is moderately 
 elevated, and said to be very fertile. 
 
 BALVASH, or POOLVASU BAY, Isle of Man, S. end of 
 the island; lat. 54 7 N.; Ion. 4 45 W. The bay is spa 
 cious, and affords good anchorage and shelter. 
 
 BAMBA, prov., W. Africa, kingdom, Congo; bounded, N. 
 by the Coanza, S. by the Loz, and W. by the Atlantic ; lat. 
 6 12 S.; Ion. 14 30 E. It is one of the largest and 
 richest districts in Congo, possessing mines of salt, silver, 
 copper, lead, and iron, and a fishery of cowries. The cap. 
 of the prov. bears the same name, and is about 90 m. S. 
 St. Salvador. 
 
 BAMBARRA, an extensive country in the interior of 
 W. Africa, but whose boundaries have not been exactly ascer 
 tained. Its lat. is given by Rennell, 1 2 to 15 22 N.; Ion. 15 E. 
 to 5 20 W. The greater part of the country is level, or slightly 
 undulated, and is traversed by several rivers of considerable 
 size, including the Joliba or Niger, which flows through its 
 entire length, from S.W. to N.E. The W., and lesser por 
 tion of it, is hilly, but the general aspect of the country is 
 beautiful, resembling, it has been said, the central districts of 
 England. The climate, in the N. parts, is intensely hot, though 
 hardly so oppressive as in some of the adjoining countries. In 
 the S. parts it is more temperate. The rainy season com 
 mences in June, and terminates in November, its termina 
 tion being generally followed by a dry N.E. wind, which is 
 reckoned healthful by Europeans, from absorbing the super 
 abundant moisture. Vegetation is various and luxuriant. 
 Rice, maize, millet, yams, cotton, water-melons, French beans 
 and onions, are raised in great abundance ; and, in the rainy 
 season, cabbages, carrots, and turnips. Considerable quanti 
 ties of tobacco, also, are grown in some districts, and in some 
 the indigo plant grows spontaneously. Fruit-trees, however, 
 are scarce, the most numerous being the pistachio, and the 
 shea or butter-tree, the kernel of whose fruit yields a grayish 
 butter, that will keep sweet for twelvemonths without salt a 
 great advantage in a country where the latter is extremely 
 scarce, and consequently dear. The huge baobab, with several 
 other trees, common to other parts of Africa, abound here. 
 The pastures are extensive and rich, maintaining numbers of 
 horned cattle, sheep, goats, and horses, the latter of a superior 
 breed. The wild animals, with the exception of monkeys, 
 are those of tropical Africa, lions, tigers, wolves, panthers, 
 elephants, c. Birds, of a variety of species, are numerous, 
 especially in the marshes, which are resorted to by pelicans, 
 egrets, puffins, ducks, teals, and other aquatic fowls. 
 
 The rivers abound with fish, which form the principal sub 
 sidence of the natives living on the banks of the Joliba, and 
 other streams. Alligators, too, are numerous, but not, gene 
 rally, of a very dangerous kind. Venomous reptiles, how 
 ever, swarm, and are held in much dread by the natives. Of 
 the mineral wealth of the country little is known, but the 
 mountains are said to be rich in gold. The aborigines of 
 Bambarra are of the Mandingo family, their language, habits, 
 and appearance being precisely the same. They are repre 
 sented as a kind and humane people, inferior to some of the 
 other negro races in refinement and ingenuity, but greatly 
 superior to them in the kindlier feelings and sympathies of 
 humanity. The men manufacture articles in gold and iron, 
 and tan and dress leather, and make gunpowder ; the women 
 spin, weave, and dye a soft coarse cloth, much prized for its 
 durability, and beautiful blue colour. In these commodities, 
 to which may be added ivory, they carry on a pretty extensive 
 trade with various more remote kingdoms, importing, in re 
 turn, salt and European merchandise. The country, generally, 
 is but thinly peopled, the bulk of the population congregating 
 in towns and villages. Some of the towns are thus very 
 crowded, containing, many of them, not fewer than 30,000 
 inhabitants. Though having a king, the country is in reality 
 governed by a number of petty independent chiefs, who often 
 go to war with one another. The Bambarras are superior to 
 their neighbours in the art of war, and their assistance is often 
 invoked, to turn the scale in the frequent wars that are waged 
 around. Such assistance is usually granted, on condition of 
 
BAMBEKG 
 
 312 
 
 BAMBOUK 
 
 tribute being paid them, and they are said to be, in general, 
 
 tory, and a cabinet of natural and experimental philosophy 
 
 faithful to treaties. The religion of the natives consists sim- There are also surgical, anatomical, and other medical schools, 
 ply in the acknowledgment of a Supreme Being, and a future attached to the general infirmary, founded (1789) by Bishop 
 state ; a few arc Mahometans, and a few practise Fetichism. Frank Ludwig, of Erthal, and possessing a capital of upwards 
 Polygamy is common. Amongst the marriage laws of the of 30,000. The principal manufactures of the town are of 
 country is one of a sigular nature. Should a woman refuse I porcelain, gloves, jewellery, wax, tobacco, starch, musical 
 to become a wife, and afterwards contract a marriage with j instruments, marble wares, &c. Large quantities of garden- 
 another person, she maybe seized by the first suitor as a seeds, and of liquorice, are raised in the vicinity; of the 
 
 slave. A remarkable feature in the moral character of this 
 amiable, though primitive people, is the extraordinary love of 
 children for their mothers a trait often touchingly displayed. 
 Pop. estimated at 2,000,000. 
 
 BAMBERG, a tn. Bavaria, circle, Upper Main, beautifully 
 situated at the foot of a range of slopes clothed with orchards, 
 hop-gardens, and vineyards, and traversed by the Regnitz, 
 the branches of which divide the town into three districts, and 
 give it a form very much resembling the letter |<- The com 
 munication between these districts is maintained by seven 
 bridges, one of them an elegant suspension bridge, about 250 ft. 
 long and 30 broad. The town is surrounded with walls, and 
 well built. Its handsome houses, spacious, well-paved, and 
 well-lighted streets, together with the pleasant walks and the 
 gardens of the environs, make it one of the finest towns, and 
 most delightful residences in Bavaria. Among the public 
 buildings of note are the Dom Kirche or cathedral, a fine 
 structure, in the Byzantine style, founded in 1004, and contain 
 ing, among other interesting monuments, the curious and 
 richly-sculptured tomb of the emperor Henry II., and his 
 empress, Cunigunda; the church of St. James, founded in 
 1073, and remarkable for its handsome portal and frescoed 
 dome; St. Gangolph s Church, with two towers, and a fine 
 altar-screen, executed by celebrated masters ; the upper parish 
 church, or St. Mary s, a handsome Gothic building of a quad 
 rangular form, containing several fine paintings and sculptures, 
 and the Jesuit church of St. Martin s, a massy structure, in 
 which beauty and grandeur are happily combined, and to 
 which is attached a library, particularly rich in MSS. To 
 these buildings may be added the old Benedictine monastery, 
 occupying the height called St. Michael s Mount, and now 
 converted into a workhouse ; the old palace of the bishops of 
 Bamberg, the theatre, and the townhall, completed in 147G, 
 
 THK TOWN 
 Prom Da Konigrex-li 
 
 and restored in 1 756. The educational and literary institu 
 tions comprise a lyceum, in which full courses of divinity and 
 philosophy are given by eight professors, assisted by other 
 teachers, and attended by 700 pupils ; a normal school, a me 
 chanics institute, a drawing academy, and a royal library, 
 containing about 56,000 volumes; a museum of natural his- 
 
 latter, about 50,000 Ibs. are annually sent abroad. The beer 
 of Bamberg is in much repute throughout the surrounding 
 country, and the demand for it is so great, as to employ up 
 wards of 60 breweries. The environs abound in picturesque 
 scenery. Pop., exclusive of military, 19,312, of whom 400 
 are Jews. (Huhn s Lex. Dcutschland.} 
 
 BAMBOUK, a country in the interior of N.W. Africa, in 
 the angle formed by the Faleme" and the Senegal, S. of the latter 
 river, E. of Bondou, and N. of Wooli and Dentilca, in from lat. 
 12 30 to 14 30 N., and from Ion. 10 30 15" to 12 15 W. 
 Its precise extent has not been ascertained, but is supposed to 
 be about 140 m. in length, by 80 to 100 in breadth. It is, on 
 the whole, a mountainous district, and in some parts rugged, 
 though attaining no great elevation ; the highest points never 
 exceeding 600 ft. above the general level of the land, while 
 the ordinary heights are about 300 ft. The higher regions 
 are sterile, being composed mostly of naked rock, but the 
 valleys and plains are remarkable for their fertility, and for 
 the luxuriance, or rather exuberance of their vegetation ; 
 every sort of plant and tree attaining the most gigantic 
 dimensions. Amongst the latter, the enormous baobab, 
 the calabash, and tamarind, with a great variety of acacias 
 and palm-trees, all of which reach here the utmost limits of 
 their growth, and fruitfulness. The rich soil produces like 
 wise in abundance, and almost without culture, maize, millet, 
 cotton, water-melons, and an immense variety of leguminous 
 plants. The low lands, which are subject to inundation, yield 
 large crops of rice of the finest description. With all this 
 fertility, however, Bambouk is one of the most unhealthy 
 places on the face of the globe, and is wholly uninhabitable 
 by Europeans. The rainy season, which lasts for four months, 
 commences about July or August, flooding the low lands, and 
 causing the rivers to overflow their banks, adding to the fer 
 tility of the soil, but greatly increasing the insalubrity of the 
 climate. Immense herds of wild oxen and cows rove through 
 the forests, or feed on the rich pasture of the plains. Lions 
 and elephants are also numerous, and birds and insects of all 
 descriptions, while the rivers swarm with crocodiles of the 
 most formidable kind. But the most remarkable feature of 
 Bambouk is its rich gold mines. The principal one, an insu 
 lated hill of 3000 paces in circumference, and about 300 ft. 
 high, is at the distance of about 1 m. from the large and 
 wealthy town of Natakoo. The soil of this hill is almost 
 wholly auriferous, every cubic foot containing gold in the 
 shape of lumps, grains, or spangles. It is perforated with 
 deep holes or pits in all directions, the greatest quantities of 
 gold being found at the greatest depths. There are numerous 
 other noted gold mines in Bambouk ; those of Kenieba were 
 were visited by Mr. Raffenel in 1843-44, who found them not 
 extremely rich, and wrought, as might be expected, in the 
 rudest manner possible. These mines being considered com 
 mon property, are open to any of the inhabitants of the adja 
 cent villages who choose to work in them. Most of the gold 
 found is given to the Moors in exchange for salt a scarce 
 and much coveted commodity in this part of Africa, as in many 
 others. Bambouk is densely peopled. The natives are Man- 
 dingoes, and so notorious for their ferocity and cruelty, as to 
 be esteemed the type of barbarism. They profess the Maho 
 metan religion, but disregard some of its most important 
 observances, amongst others, as to the use of wine and intoxi 
 cating liquors, drinking to excess of a description of the latter 
 made from millet and honey. They are indolent and volup 
 tuous, and prefer the less laborious employment of searching 
 for gold, to cultivating the fertile lands with which they are 
 surrounded. Bambouk was at onetime, during the 15th century, 
 in the possession of the Portuguese, who had been tempted 
 by its gold mines to invade the country. They do not appear, 
 however, to have held it long. Many of them fell in quarrels 
 amongst themselves, many by debauchery and disease, and the 
 miserable remnant by the weapons of the natives, who, when 
 their numbers were reduced, rose against them, aud massacred 
 
BAMBROUGH 
 
 313 
 
 BANAT 
 
 them all in one day. The ruins of ancient Portuguese forts 
 and houses are still to be seen in the country. 
 
 BAMBROUGH, or BAMBORCUGH, a vil., par., and castle, 
 England, co. Northumberland, on the coast. The VILLAGE, 
 about 11 m. S.E. by S. Berwick on-Tweed lat. 55 37 N.; 
 Ion. 1 42 W., is beautifully situated near the sea, and was 
 anciently a royal borough, and important market town. It fell 
 latterly into decay, but is again improving. Close by the 
 village is the ancient castle of Bambrough, a residence of the 
 Earls of Northumberland, and famous in English story. It 
 stands majestically on the summit of a steep rock, which pro 
 jects into the sea, and rises perpendicularly to the height of 
 150 ft. above low-water mark. The keep, a lofty square 
 structure, is of Norman architecture, and is the most ancient 
 part of the building. The date of the present structure is 
 uncertain, but it is said that a fortress was erected here as 
 early as the sixth century. In 1095, it was taken from the 
 Northumberland family by William Rufus, and remained in 
 possession of the crown till about the middle of the 15th 
 century, soon after which it ceased to be considered a fortress 
 of importance. The castle, latterly, fell by purchase into the 
 hands of Lord Crewe, Bishop of Durham, who, at his decease, 
 in 1720, left a large property to be applied to charitable pur 
 poses. From this source a btnevolent establishment has been 
 formed at Bambrough, for the succour of shipwrecked seamen, 
 the education of children, and the relief of indigent persons. 
 As part of the arrangement, ships stores of all sorts are kept 
 in the castle, while various expedients are adopted in stormy 
 weather to aid distressed vessels. Thirty girls are here edu 
 cated, clothed, and boarded gratis. There are also two free 
 schools, a good library, and a dispensary.- The PARISH con 
 tains 21 townships, and three chapelries; area, 25,100 ac. 
 Top. 4237. 
 
 BAM1AN, or BAMEEAN, an ancient tn. and celebrated 
 valley in Afghanistan. The town is situated on the slopes 
 of an isolated hill situated in the latter, 52 m. N.W. Cabool ; 
 lat. 34 17 N. ; Ion. 68 8 E. The valley is about 1 m. broad, 
 and very fertile, and is bounded on each side by nearly per 
 pendicular steeps. On the S. side, are several passes varying 
 in height from 9000 to nearly 13,000 ft. The town and its 
 vicinity throughout, indeed the whole extent of the valley, is 
 crowded with relics of antiquity of an extraordinary descrip 
 tion, including colossal idols, and vast caves excavated in the 
 face of the living rock. Two of the idols are upwards of 
 130 ft. in height, and the caves so numerous as to extend in 
 continued series for 8 miles. It is not known by whom these 
 gigantic works were executed, although many more or less 
 plausible conjectures have been hazarded on the subject. 
 
 BAMMAKOO, a tn., W. Africa, Bambarra, 186 m. S.W. 
 Sego, I. bank, Joliba, important for its commerce, especially 
 iu salt. 
 
 BAMOO. See BHAMO. 
 
 BAMPOORA, or BIIAMPOORA, a tn. Hindoostan, prov. 
 Malwa, on the Rewa, 1344 ft. above the sea level; lat. 
 24 33 N. ; Ion. 76 E. The fort of Bampoora is unfinished, 
 but the walls are well built, and enclose a palace, also un 
 finished, erected by order of Jeswunt Row Holcar, of whom 
 it contains a statue in white marble. The city and pergnnnahs 
 attached formed part of the dominions of Mulhar Row Holcar. 
 Pop. 20,000. (Hamilton s East India Gaz.) 
 
 BAMPTON, several towns and parishes, England: 1, A 
 market tn. and par. Devon. The town, situated in a valley, 
 on the river Batheram, an affluent of the Exe, about 20 m. N. 
 Exeter, consists of two principal streets, irregular, but well 
 kept ; houses, stone and slate, but indifferently built ; spring 
 water abundant. It has a church (an ancient, but neat 
 structure), and a Baptist chapel; several schools, including 
 national one for 50 boys and 50 girls ; also two or three minor 
 charities, by one of which 25 boys and 25 girls are clothed 
 yearly. At one time, the serge trade was carried on here to 
 a considerable extent, but has declined since the introduction 
 of machinery. The chief business of the place consists in 
 stone-quarrying and lime-burning. Bampton is noted for its 
 fairs for sheep and cattle, particularly that held on the last 
 Thursday of October. Area of par. 8130 ac. Pop. 2049 
 of tn. 1275. 2, A tn. and par. Oxford. The town is 16 m. 
 ly road W. by S. Oxford, and 70 W.N.W London ; hou 
 neatly built ; supply of water ample. The town was cele 
 brated in former times for its manufacture of leather jackets, 
 VOL. I. 
 
 gloves, &c. Area of par. 10,250 ac. Pop. 2734. 3, A par. 
 Westmorland; area, 10,390 ae. Pop. 579. 
 
 BAN-DE-LA-ROCHE, a valley, France, dep. Vosges, cele 
 brated as the scene of Oberlin s labours. It lies among the 
 mountains of the Vosges, and is enclosed by a number of 
 rounded schistous hills, some of which are 1000 ft. above the 
 leadows below. The soil is naturally sterile, and the climate is 
 severe. Winter sets in about the beginning of October, the snow 
 lies deep, and seldom melts away before the middle of May, 
 leaving at the utmost only five months of tolerable weather. 
 Half a century since, this valley was a barren desert, inhabited 
 by a few poor ignorant peasants. By the labours of a single 
 Christian philanthropist, roads were made, trees planted, schools 
 erected, a better system of agriculture introduced, and the 
 moral habits of the people so much improved, that manufac 
 tures established themselves here, from no other motive than 
 that of obtaining work-people whose conduct was so exemplary. 
 The chief establishment is a cotton ribbon factory. At the 
 entrance of the valley, in the churchyard of the quiet village 
 of Fonday, is the tomb of Oberlin, a plain stone, with his 
 name engraved, and an inscription bearing in terms equally 
 true and touching, He was 60 years the Father of this district. 
 BAN, or BANOWICZ, a lordship and market tn. Hungary, 
 S.E. Trentschin, 64 m. N. Komorn, on a height, near an 
 affluent of the Neutra, with nine annual markets, and an 
 extensive trade in cattle, wool, and iron. Pop. 2660. 
 
 BANAGHER. 1, A market tn. Ireland, King s co., 
 42 m. E. Kildare, on elevated ground, 1. bank. Shannon, here 
 crossed by a handsome new bridge of 60 elliptical arches, with 
 lavigable opening of 40 ft. It consists chiefly of one long, 
 rrow street; has a church, R. catholic chapel, royal en 
 dowed and national schools, and small infantry barracks ; a 
 considerable trade in corn and provisions, and large horse and 
 cattle fairs. Pop. 2827. 2, A par. Londonderry; 32,475 ac. 
 Pop. 5810. 
 
 BANAL-MILITARGRENZE, in Austria, a division in 
 the S.E. of Military Croatia, between the rivers Save, Kulpa, 
 and Una, subdivided into the two nearly equal districts of 
 Banal-Grenz-Regiment I., and Banal-Grenz-Regiment II., each 
 with an area of 400 geo. sq. m. The former has Glina for its 
 capital, and consists of the free military community of Petrinia 
 and 130 villages ; the latter consists of the free military com 
 munity of Costainicza or Kostainiza and 143 villages. The 
 whole Banal is hilly, but tolerably fertile, producing all kinds 
 of corn and pulse, also maize, flax, hemp, and madder. 
 Banal was taken from the Turks by Leopold I., and secured 
 to Austria, by the peace of Carlo witz, in 1699. Pop. 119,600. 
 BANANA ISLANDS, a group of small islands, N.W. 
 Africa, off the coast of Sierra Leone, near Cape Shilling ; lat. 
 8 8 N. ; Ion. 13 11 42" W. (R.) The largest is 4 m. long, 
 and 1 broad. They are extremely fertile, have abundance of 
 water, and are so comparatively healthy, that the European 
 residents of Sierra Leone, from which they are little more 
 than 30 m. distant, frequently resort to them for the benefit 
 of their health. Good anchorage off the islands in 5 fathoms. 
 All inhabited. 
 
 BANANAL. 1, Two villages, Brazil. The one in prov. 
 Sao Paulo, on the road from the city of that name to Rio de 
 Janeiro, in the district of Areas, and near the r. bank of the 
 Paraiba. In the vicinity, coffee and sugar are extensively 
 cultivated, and large quantities of poultry are reared for the 
 Rio de Janeiro market. The other vil. is in prov. Rio de 
 Janeiro, on a streamlet of the same name, an affluent of the 
 Paraiba from the right, and navigable for about 5 m. It has 
 a church and sugar-mill. 2, A river isl. Brazil, called also 
 SANTA ANNA, formed by the river Araguia. It lies in the 
 N.E. corner of prov. Matto-Grosso, is 200 m. long by about 
 35 broad, covered with vast forests, and has in its centre a- 
 navigable lake, said to be about 90 m. long by about 30 broad. 
 The soil of the island is extremely fertile. The name Bananal 
 was given it from the remarkable increase in the banana-trees 
 planted there by the discoverers in 1773. 
 
 BANAT, a large prov. Austria (cap. Temeswar), bounded, 
 N. by Hungary, W. Hungary and Sclavonia, S. Servia, E. 
 Wallachia and Siebenbiirgen or Transylvania. It consists of 
 the three counties of Temes, Torontal, and Krasso, and two- 
 military districts, called the German Banat and the Wallacho- 
 Illyrian Banat. Greatest length, from E. to W., 120 m. ;. 
 greatest breadth, from N. to S., 98 m. ; area, 5720 geo. sq. nu 
 
 40 
 
BANBRIDGE 
 
 314 
 
 BANDA 
 
 It is very compact, in form approaching a square; bounded 
 by the Danube, Theiss, and Maros, on all sides excftpt the E., 
 where it becomes hilly. With this exception the surface is 
 flat, and on the W. is partly covered with swamps. The 
 other rivers, besides those mentioned, are the Temes, which 
 traverses the province almost centrally; the Nera, the Karasch, 
 and the Alt Bega, so called to distinguish it from the Neu 
 Bega, a canal about 85 m. long, and wholly within the pro 
 vince. Taken as a whole, the Banat is one of the most fertile 
 districts in Europe. Its wheat has long been famous for the 
 great quantity and excellence of the flour it yields ; while its 
 maize frequently gives 24, 48, or even 60 returns. The vine 
 is extensively planted, and great attention is paid to the rear 
 ing of the silkworm. Good cotton also is grown. Live Stock 
 is abundant, and of good breed. Rearing horses particularly 
 engages the attention of the German colonists. The whole 
 territory is well wooded, and game abounds. Immense flocks 
 of water fowl frequent the marshy districts ; and the rivers, 
 particularly the Theiss, teem with fish. The minerals hitherto 
 have not been considered of very much importance, but an 
 extensive coal field has been recently discovered. The in 
 habitants belong to various races. Magyar villages prevail 
 in the N., Servian in the W., and German colonies both in 
 the W. and S. There are also several settlements of Bul 
 garians and other races, but the mass of the population is 
 Wallaehian. Pop. nearly 1,000,000. 
 
 BANBRIDGE, a market tn. Ireland, co. Down, 22 m. 
 S.W. Belfast, on the Barm, which, flows through, and divides it 
 into two portions, one of which occupies a rising ground on the 
 1. bank of the river, the other a sloping space on the r. bank. 
 It consists of four streets; houses chiefly stone, and well built; 
 well supplied with water, but not lighted. The only buildings 
 of any note are the church, in the Gothic style ; three Pres 
 byterian meeting-houses, Episcopalian, R. catholic, and Uni 
 tarian chapels, and a large union workhouse, with fever 
 hospital attached. There are five or six schools; one of 
 which is in connection with the Church Education Society, 
 two in connection with the National Board of Education, and 
 several private schools. A literary institute has been lately 
 established, where monthly lectures are delivered on literary 
 and scientific subjects. The principal manufactory is that of 
 linen, which is carried on to a great extent both in the town 
 and neighbourhood ; where are also several bleaching estab 
 lishments. Pop. 3324. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 B ANBURY, aparl. bor. and par. England, co. Oxford. The 
 town, situated in a valley, on the Cherwell, 22 m. N. Oxford, 
 consists of several spacious streets, well paved and lighted ; 
 water abundant. The church, a modern erection, with a 
 tower 133 ft. high, has an ungainly exterior, but is well fitted 
 up within. Independents, Particular Baptists, and Wesleyans, 
 have each a neat and commodious place of worship; and there 
 are small chapels, also, for Primitive Methodists, Calvinistic 
 Dissenters, and Unitarians ; a R. catholic chapel, lately built, 
 and a Friends meeting-house. It has four schools (a charity, 
 national, British, and infant), and numerous charitable in 
 stitutions, supported by voluntary contribution ; a mechanics 
 institute, subscription library, theatre, townhall, and jail. 
 Manufactures: plushes, girth, and other webbing; celebrated 
 also for its cakes, which have been famous for upwards of two 
 centuries, and for its ale. An extensive trade in cattle, corn, 
 and all kinds of provisions. Returns a member to the House 
 of Commons. Registered electors (1849), 538. Area of par. 
 3150 ac. Pop. 736(5. 
 
 BANCA, BANKA, or BANGKA, a large isl. Indian Archi 
 pelago, belonging to Holland, between Sumatra and Borneo, 
 celebrated for its tin. It lies between lat. 1 30 and 3 7 S., 
 .and Ion. 103 9 and 106 54 E. ; is of irregular shape, and 
 .about 108 geo. m. long, by 64 broad at its N. end, the broadest 
 .part ; area, 4340 sq. m. ; separated \V. from Sumatra by the 
 Strait of Banca, about 14 m. broad; and E. from the island 
 of Biliton by Gaspar Strait. It has several considerable bays, 
 of which the most important are Muntock and Claba ; and is 
 .hilly, but none of its elevations much exceed 2000 ft. The 
 higher hills are granite, the lower of red ferruginous earth. 
 In black alluvium between these latter are found the tin de 
 posits, discovered first by chance in 1710, and rarely more 
 than 25 ft. below the surface. Only a small portion of the 
 island, in the N. end, near the capital Minto or Muntock, has 
 yet been explored for this metal ; the yield of which, in 1841, 
 
 reached 4189 tons. The Banca tin is the best obtained in the 
 Indian Archipelago, and said to be equal, or nearly so, to that 
 obtained in Britain. Besides this metal, the island yields iron, 
 lead, copper, silver, and arsenic ; rock-crystal and amethyst ; 
 and, in the W. part, there are beds of lignite. The hills are 
 covered with valuable timber, particularly red-wood (hcematoxy- 
 lon) ; resinous trees are in great numbers, those furnishing 
 gum elastic, and the myrtaceae, forming whole forests. Though 
 vegetation is very vigorous, the soil and climate of Banca are 
 not favourable to cultivation ; the former being too stony and 
 dry for the latter, which, during August, is so hot, that all the 
 leaves of the trees are dried up ; still, were the numerous 
 streams by which the island is intersected turned to the pur 
 poses of irrigation, with the same attention that they are ap 
 propriated to the washing of tin, excellent agricultural results 
 might be obtained. Among the vegetable products may be 
 named dragon s blood, sassafras, nutmegs, benzoin, sago, cassia, 
 &c. The fauna of this island includes three species of apes, 
 and the Galeopithecus marmoratus, all common to Sumatra ; 
 Stenops tardigradus, Pteropus funereus, Viverra Indica, Sus 
 vittatus and verrucosus, Cervus russa, and Moschus kantchil. 
 Neither tigers, bears, nor large pachyderms are to be found 
 in the island, of which probably the most formidable animal 
 is the alligator, which infests the rivers in great numbers, and 
 is exceedingly audacious, attacking boats without hesitation. 
 The birds are nearly similar to those found in Java and Su 
 matra. Banca is inhabited by Malays, Chinese, and a small 
 number of Bengal Cipays, and a still smaller number of Bugis 
 from Celebes. The Chinese, numbering 18,000, are the only 
 laborious race in the island, one of them doing as much work 
 as any three of the others. The climate on the higher grounds 
 is esteemed tolerably healthy ; but on the lower grounds, and 
 along some parts of the coast, which are swampy, fever, of a 
 very dangerous kind, is so prevalent, that Dutch soldiers think 
 no greater misfortune can befall them than to be ordered to 
 Banca. Pop. (1840), 35,000. (Van der Aa; Temminck s 
 Coup d ceil ; Davidson s Trade and Travels in the Far East.} 
 
 2, A small island group at the N.E. point of Celebes, 
 
 separated from that island by a narrow strait of same name. 
 The largest island, whence the group takes its name, is in lat. 
 (E. point) 1 43 S. ; Ion. 125 12 E. (R.) It is about 7 m. 
 long, well inhabited, and produces lemons, cocoa-nuts, bread 
 fruit, ratans, tortoise-shell, &c. 
 
 BANCALLAN, or BANCALLANG, a large and populous 
 tn., W. coast, isl. Madura, Indian Archipelago ; lat. 7 2 S. ; 
 Ion. 1 12 43 E. ; cap. of the isl., and of the dist. of same name, 
 with a fort and palace ; in the latter of which the sultan of 
 the island resides. The Dutch have a residency here, and a 
 considerable trade is carried on. 
 
 BANCHORY. 1, (Devenick, or Davinick), a par. Scot 
 land, partly in co. Aberdeen, and partly in that of Kincardine. 
 Pop. 2736. 2, Banchory-Ternan, another par. wholly in the 
 latter co.; area, 21,307 ac. Pop. 2241. The affixes in both 
 cases are the names of saints. The etymology of the word | 
 Banchory is unknown. 
 
 BANDA, a gov. or prov., Dutch possessions, Indian 
 Archipelago, composed of the Banda Islands, the E. part of 
 isl. Ceram, and the isls. Keffing, Ceramlaut, Kisser, Gorum 
 Key, and Aroo. 
 
 BANDA, a Moluccan island group, belonging to Holland, 
 Indian Archipelago, in the Banda Sea, S. Ceram, between lat. 
 3 50 and 4 40 S. ; Ion. 129 38 and 1 30 2 E. The group 
 consists of the inhabited islands of Great Banda or Lonthoir, 
 by far the largest, about 12 m. long by 2 broad; Banda Neira, 
 Pulo Rhun, Pulo Ay, Goenong Api, a volcano, and Rosingyn ; 
 and of the uninhabited islands of Kapal, Pisang Sjethan, and 
 Vrouwen. They are all of volcanic origin, covered with a 
 thick stratum of garden earth, admirably adapted for the cul 
 tivation of the nutmeg, which is, however, limited to the 
 three more important islands, Great Banda or Lonthoir, Banda 
 Neira, and Pulo Ay, the cultivators being partly slaves and 
 partly convicts, together comprising upwards of three-fifths of 
 the total population of the group. The annual produce is 
 upwards of 400,000 Ibs. of nutmeg, and above 130,000 Ibs. of 
 mace. Besides these articles, some trade is done in the oil 
 obtained from the nuts of the Canarium commune, a tree which 
 here attains great perfection. When fresh, the oil is used at 
 table; when stale, for burning. Other vegetable products of 
 those islands, which are all well wooded, are cocoa-nuts, sago, 
 
BANDA ORIENTAL 
 
 315 
 
 BANEZA 
 
 pisang, and the ordinary tropical fruits. Wild cattle are found 
 on some of them, especially on Rosingyn, where they are 
 hunted by the officers of the garrison. Wild goats, sheep, 
 and pigs are also found. The most remarkable birds are four 
 kinds of pigeons, Columba perspicillata, aenea, javanica, and 
 diademata; and some species of muscicapa and nectarinia. 
 
 j The two species of pigeons first named are very destructive to 
 the nutmegs, which they eagerly seek, and swallow whole ; 
 
 ! and, after digesting the fleshy substantial envelope, they void 
 the nut or kernel in a state fit for germination. In like manner, 
 
 I also, they, and species of the genus Buceros, swallow and void 
 the fruit of the clove-tree, and of the Canarium commune. To 
 
 ; birds such as these, capable of long-sustained flight, has nature 
 committed the diffusion of the aromatic plants over the Archi- 
 
 ! pelago. 
 
 The harbour, which is beautiful, well-sheltered, and easy 
 
 : of access, lies N. the island of Great Banda, and between it 
 
 j and the islands of Banda Neira and Goenong Api, all of which 
 approach close to each other. It is defended by several forts , 
 of which the more important are those of Belgica and Nassau 
 on Banda Neira, and llollandia on Great Banda. On the for- 
 
 mer of these islands is the governor s residence, and the small 
 village or town of same name, the houses in which are built 
 chiefly of wood, and roofed with leaves, on account of the fre 
 quent earthquakes to which the group is subject, caused by 
 the island Goenong Api, which rises 7880 ft. above the sea, 
 and is one of the most active volcanoes in the Indian Archi 
 pelago. It forms an immense cone, increasing in size with 
 each eruption, and is covered with luxuriant vegetation to the 
 limit where the lava, by becoming cold, ceases to flow ; but 
 down through the vegetation to the sea, are to be seen the 
 courses of lava torrents, filled with half burnt-up trees. At the 
 foot of the mountain, cocoa-nut, and other fruit trees of tropical 
 countries, flourish ; and its only inhabitants are a few families, 
 natives of Timor. The proximity of this volcano subjects 
 the Banda Islands to the ravages of frequent eruptions, and 
 of frequent earthquakes, some of which have been very de 
 structive. The strongest recorded were those of 1598, 1615 
 1 632, 1691, 1711, 1749, 1798, and 1820; but the most fatal in 
 their consequences, those of 1629, 1683, 1686, 1743, and 1816. 
 So terrible were the ravages of the eruption and earthquake of 
 1691, that all the more wealthy inhabitants fled the islands, 
 and emigrated to Amboina, Ternate, &c., and only through 
 the firmness and courage of the governor, Coyet, was the total 
 abandonment of the establishment prevented. Goenong Api 
 likewise renders the climate very insalubrious. The annual 
 deaths in the group are one in 21. Several of the islands 
 have no fresh water. Pop. of the whole group in 1840, 5081, 
 of whom 2183 were slaves, and 1029 convicts. (Van der Aa; 
 Temmincks Coup d ceil; Jour. Ind. Archip.; Stokes s Dis 
 coveries in Australia.) 
 
 BANDA ORIENTAL. See URUGUAY. 
 
 BANDA SEA, Asiatic or Indian Archipelago, the space 
 of sea enclosed by the islands of Booro and Ceram, on the N. ; 
 Timor and the Serwatty Islands, on the S.; Timor Laut, 
 Larat, and other small islands, on the E. ; and the Flores Sea, 
 Oil the W. 
 
 BANDAH, a tn. Ilindoostan, prov. of, and 94 m. W. by 
 N. Allahabad, presid. Calcutta, cap. dist. of S. Bundelkhund, 
 r. bank, Cane; lat. 25 31 N.; Ion. 80 20 E. A few years 
 ago, this town was an unimportant village, but is now a large 
 and bustling town. Its cotton is proverbially excellent. 
 
 BANDITTI, a small isl. Indian Archipelago, Strait of 
 Lombok; lat. (S.E. point) 8 51 S.; Ion. 115 29 E. (u.) 
 about 13 m. long by about 10 broad. 
 
 BANDOLS [anc. Bandoluni], a vil. France, dep. Var 
 (Provence), about 10 m. from Toulon, occupying a lovely 
 spot on the shores of the Mediterranean, and enjoying a 
 I climate in which frost is scarcely known, where the orange 
 grows in the open air, and artichokes, green peas, and the 
 early crops of less favoured climates, are gathered in the dead 
 of winter. Pop. 1814. 
 
 BANDON, or BANDONBRIDGE, a tn. Ireland, co. of, and 
 20 m. S.W. Cork, on both banks of the Bandon, a beautiful 
 stream celebrated by Spenser as The pleasant Bandon crowned 
 by many a wood. There are several good streets in the town, 
 straight and well kept; houses of stone from a quarry in the 
 vicinity ; generally well built, lighted, and amply supplied 
 with water. There are two parish 
 churches, two R. catholic chapels, 
 two Methodist chapels, one Scotch 
 church, and one Unitarian meeting 
 house. The other principal public 
 buildings are the courthouse, mar 
 ket-house, and savings -bank, none 
 of which are worthy of note in an 
 architectural point of view ; and a 
 small barrack, where one troop of 
 horse, and a company of foot, are 
 accommodated. There are two good 
 classical schools, besides two paro 
 chial schools in connection with the 
 Church of England, two national, 
 and one Methodist school, for the 
 instruction of the lower classes. 
 Baudon was, about 25 years ago, 
 a flourishing manufacturing town, 
 but hardly a vestige of its former 
 prosperity now remains. Between 
 3000 and 4000 persons were then 
 employed in weaving, cotton-spinning, &c., but these, and all 
 other branches of industry, with the exception of distilling and 
 porter-brewing, carried on by two distilleries arid two brew 
 eries, have wholly disappeared, the largest cotton-mill in the 
 place having been converted into an auxiliary workhouse. 
 Bandon is one of the most remarkable towns in the S. of Ire 
 land. Peopled originally by a colony of English Protestants, 
 it has been always distinguished for its loyalty and strictly 
 Protestant character. Indeed, so strictly Protestant was it 
 at one time, that, until about the period of the Union, no 
 It. catholic would be permitted to live within its walls. It 
 returns a member to the House of Commons ; constituency in 
 1850, 396. Pop. 9049. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BANDONG, a tn. Java, 75 in. S.E. Batavia. It has 
 an agreeable aspect, but, in consequence of the vicinity of 
 morasses, is unhealthy. The hills around are clothed to a con 
 siderable height with coffee plantations, and the lower grounds 
 are covered with rice fields. 
 
 BANEC, or BANNEC, a small isl. France, S. Cape Finis- 
 tere, between Ushant and the mainland; lat. 48 2y 7" N.; 
 Ion. 5 V 42" W. 
 
 BASfERAS, or BANERES, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. of, 
 and 28 m. N. by W. Alicante, r. bank, Vinalapo ; tolerably 
 well built, has a parish church, a townhouse, two schools, an 
 hospital, prison, and three public fountains. The inhabitants, 
 though chiefly agricultural, manui acture caps, blankets, and 
 winter clothing. Pop. 2236. 
 
 BANEZA (LA), a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 28 m. S.W. 
 Leon, at the head of a valley, r. bank, Suerto, here crossed 
 by a wooden bridge. It has straight and tolerably good 
 streets, one principal and three smaller squares, two parish 
 churches, four chapels, one Latin and three other schools, a 
 townhouse, prison, extensive hospital, storehouse, &c. Pop. 
 2308, chiefly agricultural, but also manufacturing coarse 
 cloth and ticking, hats, tiles, bricks, leather, and eartheu- 
 I ware. 
 
 ille, Voyage an Pjle Sud. 
 
BANFF 
 
 316 
 
 BANGKOK 
 
 BANFF, a co. Scotland, bounded N. by the Moray Frith, 
 S. and E. by the co. Aberdeen, and W. by cos. Moray and 
 Inverness ; extreme length, about 67 m. ; breadth, very un 
 equal, averaging about 12 m. ; area, 647 sq. m., or 414,080 
 ac. The general surface is mountainous, the county contain 
 ing some of the highest mountains in Britain ; Cairngorm, 
 celebrated for its topazes, rising 4060 ft. above the level of 
 the sea ; Benrinnes, 2763 ft. (according to the late Government 
 survey); Corryhabbie, 2558 ft.; Knockhill, 2500 ft.; and 
 Cabrach, 2377 ft. The N. side of Benmacdui, the highest of 
 all the Scottish mountains, is also in this county. These 
 mountains generally consist of a nucleus of granite, overlain 
 by gneiss, quartz rock, and mica schist, succeeded by clay- 
 slate, and old red sandstone. At Portsoy, near the coast, 
 there is a bed of serpentine, known by the name of Portsoy 
 marble; and in different places iron and lead have been dis 
 covered. Towards the E. the mountains gradually slope 
 away, and leave along the coast a level tract, which extends 
 about 30 m., and has a fertile soil, which is well cultivated, 
 and produces large and early crops. In the interior there is 
 comparatively little arable land, but many fertile valleys 
 between the hills and mountains well adapted for grazing 
 the principal dependence of the farmer, as the coldness and 
 humidity of the climate render the harvests precarious, and 
 always late, being seldom completed before the end of October. 
 Agriculture has made considerable progress in the county, 
 but there is still ample room for improvement. The farm- 
 steadings are in general substantial, the fields well enclosed, 
 and large tracts of waste land are brought every year under 
 cultivation. The principal rivers are the Spey, remarkable 
 for its rapidity, and for the value of its salmon-fisheries, 
 which, for some miles from its mouth, yield a rent of from 
 8000 to 10,000 a year to the Duke of Richmond, who is 
 now proprietor; the Doveran, whose salmon-fisheries rent at 
 2000 a year ; the Avon, the waters of which are so singularly 
 transparent, and consequently so deceptive as to depth, that 
 it is extremely dangerous for strangers to attempt to ford it. 
 Salmon were abundant in this river in former times, but they 
 are now scarce; it is still, however, an excellent trouting 
 stream, and for this sport is preferred by anglers to the Spey. 
 There are, besides these, the smaller streams of Livet, Fid- 
 dich, Isla, and Conglass, the first giving its name to the Glen 
 so celebrated for its whisky. The Isla is another fine trout- 
 ing stream, and the scenery on its banks beautiful. The 
 principal lakes are Lochavon, 3 m. long and 1 broad ; and 
 Lochbuilg, upwards of 1 m. long, and about half a mile broad, 
 both in the parish of Kirkmichael, and both abounding in 
 trout. Game of all kinds abounds in the county. Its most 
 valuable minerals are marble, limestone, marl, granite, free 
 stone, slate, rock-crystals, and topazes. Its manufactures are 
 few and unimportant, comprising several breweries, tanneries, 
 and ropeworks. Its commerce is confined to the coasting- 
 trade, through the medium of the ports at Banff, Macduff, 
 Portsoy, and Gardenstown, where oats, butter, salmon, &c., 
 are shipped, and coals, iron, and timber imported. The 
 principal productions of the county are cattle, corn, and fish. 
 The white fisheries along the coast occupy from 100 to 120 
 boats. The herring-fishing is also extensive. The county 
 is divided into districts, and includes 24 parishes, but only 
 one town of any consequence, namely, Banff. It returns one 
 member to the House of Commons ; constituency in 1849, 
 826. Pop. (1851), 54,171. 
 
 BANFF, a seaport tn. and royal bor. Scotland, cap. above 
 CO., 121 m N. by E. Edinburgh, and 39 m. N.W. Aberdeen ; 
 lat. (N. pier) 57 40 18" N. ; Ion. 2 31 30" W. (R.) ; situ 
 ated at the influx of the Doveran, across which is a fine bridge 
 of seven arches, into the Moray Frith ; it is separated into 
 two parts, one of which lies partly on the lower extremity of 
 a plain on the river side, and partly on a declivity; the other 
 portion, called the Sea Town, stands on an elevated ridge, 
 terminating abruptly within a short distance of the sea. Be 
 tween these two, and beautifully situated on a projecting point, 
 stands the castle. The houses are, for the most part, irregu 
 lar in size, but the streets are generally straight and wide, and 
 are kept remarkably clean ; one of them, under different names, 
 is more than half a mile in length. The town contains a gas- 
 work, a commodious market-place in a centrical situation, and 
 public baths, all of modern erection. It has Established, 
 Free, United Presbyterian, Independent, Episcopalian, and 
 
 R. catholic places of worship ; a literary society, and scientific 
 institution ; several benevolent institutions, several well-con 
 ducted educational institutions, and four branch banks. The 
 public buildings of note, besides churches, are the townhouse, 
 adorned by an elegant spire ; and an academy. The harbour 
 is situated on the W. extremity of a circular bay, at the opposite 
 extremity of which are the town and harbour of Macduff. It 
 consists of an old basin partly sanded up, and now suitable only 
 for vessels of very limited draught of water ; and of a new basin 
 formed by a pier and breakwater, built in 1816. Vessels drawing 
 12 ft. water can enter the new basin at high water of ordinary 
 neap tides; drawing 15 ft. at spring tides. The herring- 
 fishery of the port was at one time very considerable, there 
 being about 70 boats employed in it in the year 1819; but, 
 in 1848, the number had fallen off to 22. The number of 
 vessels registered in 1847, was 1 14 ; tonn. 9396 ; mostly em 
 ployed in carrying grain, herrings, salmon, live cattle, and 
 cured pork, to London, Leith, Aberdeen, and other places in 
 the S. There is also a small foreign trade, occasional voyages 
 being made to Sweden, Russia, and Holland, for iron, deals, 
 hemp, and flax. Of the few and limited manufactures in the 
 town, the principal are a foundry, and some small manufac 
 tories of ropes and sails, chiefly for home use. The town 
 was erected into a royal burgh by Robert II., in 1372 ; after 
 wards confirmed by James VI. and Charles II. In 1645, 
 the town was pitifully plundered by the Marquis of Mon- 
 trose, by which the inhabitants were reduced to a state of 
 absolute beggary, as set forth in their humble supplication to 
 the high court of Parliament, in 1647 ; the copy of which is 
 indorsed, Supplicatione, Town of Banff Bodies, 1647. Par 
 liament granted the petitioners their own excise as a means 
 of relief. James Sharp, the celebrated Archbishop of St. 
 Andrews, was born in Banff castle in May 1613 ; and James 
 Macpherson, the notorious Highland outlaw, was executed 
 here on November 16, 1700. Banff suffered by the great 
 inundations of 1829 and 1835, there being, on these occasion.*, 
 5 or 6 ft. of water in some of the streets. The town is 
 governed by a provost, four magistrates, and 17 councillors, 
 all elected by the 10 constituency. The parliamentary con 
 stituency, in 1849, amounted to 218, Banff uniting with 
 Elgin, Cullen, Inverury, Kintore, and Peterhead, in sending 
 a member to the House of Commons. Pop. of tn. 5309 ; 
 of par., exclusive of bor., 3958. 
 
 BANGALORE [Barujalura}, a fortified tn. Hindoostan, 
 Mysore, 70 m. N.E. Seringapatam, 190 m. W. Madras; lat. 
 13 N. ; Ion. 77 40 E. ; built on a plateau 3000 ft. above 
 the sea, and much resorted to by Europeans, on account of its 
 salubrious climate, the thermometer ranging between 82 and 
 57 Fah. The cypress and vine grow luxuriantly ; and apples, 
 peaches, and strawberries are raised in the gardens. The 
 houses are in general two stories high, well built of red earth, 
 and roofed with tiles. The principal bazaar is spacious and 
 handsome, ornamented with rows of cocoa-nut trees. Tippoo 
 Saib s palace, built of mud, in the Saracenic style, is an im 
 pressive structure, used occasionally by the rajah for public 
 entertainments. The fortress, detached from the town, was 
 of great extent and strength ; but it is now in ruins, having 
 been destroyed by Tippoo Sultan, when he found that it 
 was not impregnable. The cantonment is about 2 m. from 
 the town ; and contains a large barracks, numerous shops 
 stocked with European manufactures, a public library and 
 assembly-room, and a handsome race-stand. From its central 
 position, Bangalore is of considerable importance, both poli 
 tically and as a trading station. Its merchants carry on a 
 traffic with every part of S. India; chiefly in sugar, salt, 
 betel-nut, metals, spices, dye-stuffs, raw silk, and cotton wool. 
 The silk goods manufactured here are of a particularly strong 
 description. The cotton bought at the weekly markets is spun 
 by poor women of all castes, except the Brahmin. Bangalore 
 was founded by Hyder Ali ; in 1791, it was taken by Lord 
 Cornwall!*. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 BANGIL, a tn. Java, 23 m. S. Soorabaya, having good 
 houses, many of them large stone buildings, and a spacious, 
 roomy market-place, well supplied with provisions, and much 
 frequented. 
 
 BANGKA. See BANCA. 
 
 BANGKOK, or BANKOK, an extensive city, cap. of the 
 kingdom of Siain, extending for 3 or 4 in. on both sides of 
 the Menam, 15 m. above its embouchure in the Gulf of Siam, 
 
BANGKOK 
 
 317 
 
 BANGOR 
 
 and 45 m. S. Yuthia or Siam, the former capital; lat. 13 58 N.; 
 Ion. 100 34 E. (u.) The river is deep enough for vessels of 
 350 tons, but there is a bar at its mouth on which the depth 
 at low water is never more than 6 ft., and at no time exceeds 
 14 ft. The city properly consists of three parts the town 
 itself, the floating town, and the royal palace. The first stands 
 on a rich tract of alluvial land, low, but not marshy, and in 
 tersected by tributary streams, and winding creeks and canals, 
 so that almost all intercourse is by water. Owing to the daily 
 tides, and the annual inundations to which the town is exposed, 
 the houses, which are mostly of wood, and many of them 
 wretched hovels, are built on piles, and elevated above the 
 water level. There are no regular streets, and each house 
 has a small canoe or boat for its use. The floating town 
 occupies the channel of the river, opposite to the town itself, 
 leaving a considerable opening in the centre. The floating 
 houses are of an oblong form, constructed of boards, and rest 
 ing on rafts of bamboos, moored to the bank, in rows of 
 eight, ten, or more in depth ; they are occupied principally 
 by Chinese, and provided with a covered platform, on which 
 merchandise, fruits, rice, earthenware, dried fish, and fresh 
 pork, are exposed for sale. The king s palace is on an island, 
 from 2 to 3 m. in length, but of inconsiderable breadth, 
 separated from the land by a narrow arm of the river, and is 
 surrounded by high walls. Numerous temples, conspicuous 
 by their tall spires and glittering gilding, are scattered through 
 
 nwfunrt Embassy to Siam 
 
 the city. The principal one is of a pyramidal form, and is 
 surmounted by a spire 200 ft. high. The palace, temples, and 
 houses of a few chiefs, are the only edifices of brick and mortar, 
 roofed with timber, and covered with red tiles. Fires are in con 
 sequence frequent. There are a R. catholic bishop, and three 
 R. catholic churches, at Bangkok, and about 1000 R. catholics, 
 either converted natives, or descendants of Portuguese settlers. 
 The trade of Bangkok is considerable. The imports into 
 the port, in the year 1846, amounted to about 1,130,000 
 ticals (120,000), and the exports to 1,500,000 ticals (about 
 160,000) ; this amount comprehending the trade with Singa 
 pore, Bombay, Batavia, Palembang, and England, but not the 
 direct junk trade with China, which is very large, but of which 
 no estimate can be obtained. The import duties are levied, 
 not with any regard to the value of the goods, but upon the 
 tonnage of the vessels entering the port. They act, therefore, 
 almost as a prohibition, especially on cotton manufactures, 
 which hold the most important place in the trade. Principal 
 exports : sugar, pepper, lac, ivory, aromatic wood, and fine 
 wood for cabinet-work ; tin, hides, cotton, rice, salt fish, edible 
 nests, &c. Chief imports : porcelain, tea, mercury, dried 
 fruits, silk and silk goods, nankins, paper, and other Chinese 
 manufactures ; Indian printed goods, British cotton goods and 
 woollens, British glassware, and opium. The commerce with 
 the interior is also important. There is a considerable manu 
 facture of tin vessels by the Chinese settlers ; who are also 
 workers in iron and leather, tanning and preparing large quan 
 tities of deer, ox, and buffalo hides for exportation. Vessels 
 of 300 tons burden, and a great number of large junks, are 
 
 built here of the teak and other timber furnished by the 
 Siamese forests. The Chinese and their descendants compose 
 nearly three-fourths of the inhabitants. The remainder con 
 sists of Siamese, natives of Cambodia, Burmese, Peguans, 
 Malays, and natives of Laos. Total pop. estimated at between 
 350,000 and 500,000. (Crawfurd s Embassy to Siam; Ham 
 ilton s East India Gas.; Singapore Free Press.) 
 
 BANGOR, a city, port, and par., N. Wales, co. Carnarvon, 
 at the head of Beaumaris Bay ; lat. 53 13 N. ; Ion. 4 6 W.; 
 beautifully situated at the entrance of a small valley which 
 opens upon the Laven Sands, opposite to, and about 2^ m. 
 S.E. Beaumaris, on the railway to Holyhead. It consists 
 chiefly of one narrow crooked street, nearly 1 m. in length, 
 and several smaller, lighted with gas, and abundantly supplied 
 with water ; houses substantially built of stone. The prin 
 cipal buildings are the cathedral, a finely-situated and hand 
 some structure, chiefly in the later style of English architec 
 ture, 214 ft. in length, breadth of body and side aisles, 60 ft. ; 
 an Episcopal palace, deanery house, freo school, market-house, 
 assembly-rooms, and infirmary. The other places of worship 
 are a Baptist, Independent, R. catholic, two Calvinistic, and 
 two Wesleyan chapels. Bangor has likewise a free grammar, 
 national, British, infant, and two boarding schools, an infir 
 mary, dispensary, and a set of alms-houses for. six poor old 
 single men. The principal trade is in slate, brought by rail 
 way from quarries about 7 m. distant, which employ upwards 
 of 2000 men; chimney-pieces, tomb-stones, 
 ridge-slates, writing-slates for schools, &c., are 
 manufactured from slate in the town. The 
 only other trade carried on is shipbuilding. 
 The scenery around Bangor is exceedingly 
 pleasing and picturesque, and in many parts 
 characterized by features of striking grandeur. 
 The town is, on this account, much frequented 
 by strangers, no fewer, it is said, than 50,000 
 visiting it annually. Bangor is one of five 
 parliamentary boroughs returning together one 
 member to the House of Commons. Market- 
 day Friday; four fairs annually. Area of par. 
 6000 ac. Pop. of tn. and par. (1841), 7232 ; 
 bor. alone, 5030, now (1850) estimated at 6000. 
 (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BANGOR, par., N. Wales, co. Cardigan. 
 Pop. 210. 
 
 BANGOR-MONACHORUM, BANGOR-IS-Y- 
 COED, par., N. Wales, cos. Flint and Denbigh. 
 Pop. 1257. 
 
 BANGOR, atn., seaport, and par. Ireland, 
 co. Down. The town, situated on an acclivity, 
 S. side of Belfast Lough, 4 m. N.W. Dona- 
 ghadee, lat. 54 40 N. ; Ion. 5 35 W., consists of one prin 
 cipal and several smaller streets, all clean and well kept ; 
 houses of stone, but some of them so old and dilapidated, 
 as to give a very unfavourable appearance to the town. 
 There are many neat buildings, however, along the shore, 
 which are let in the summer season as bathing quarters, 
 Bangor being much resorted to for this purpose. It has an 
 Episcopal church, a small Methodist, and a R. catholic 
 chapel, and two Presbyterian churches, one of which is an 
 elegant structure, and finely situated near the centre of the 
 town ; several well-conducted mercantile and mathematical 
 schools, two cotton spinning-mills, and some trade in import 
 ing coals. The male part of the population is chiefly employed 
 in fishing ; the females in hand-sewing, in all its branches. 
 Bangor takes its name from one of the earliest religious houses 
 built with lime and sand Bangor, i.e., White wall ; built in 
 555 ; destroyed by the Danes in the 12th century, and rebuilt 
 by Malachy O Morgair, primate of Armagh part of the walls 
 are still standing. In this town and parish are six Presby 
 terian churches ; 9500 inhabitants, of which upwards of 9000 
 are Presbyterians, descendants of Scotch settlers in the reigns 
 of Elizabeth and James I. Hamilton the poet, and corre 
 spondent of Allan Ramsay, was a native of Bangor, and Moore 
 ! contends that this, and not Bangor in Wales, was the birth 
 place of Pelagius. Pop. of tn. 3500. (Local Correspondent.) 
 BANGOR, a city and pert, U. States, cap. co. Penobscot, 
 Maine, at the head of the navigation, r. bank, Penobscot 
 river, 60 m. from the sea ; lat. 44 47 50" N. ; Ion. 68 47 
 W.; 68 m. E.N.E. Augusta, and 230 N.E. Boston; occupies 
 
BANG-PA-KUNG 
 
 318 
 
 BANJOEWANGI 
 
 a pleasant and commanding situation, affording a fine view of I and well-watered by numerous streams, of which the Banjar 
 the river and surrounding country. The buildings, both is navigable for a considerable distance inland. The soil is 
 public and private, are neat, and many of them elegant. It \ exceedingly fertile, bearing a spontaneous vegetation of great 
 has seven churches a Congregational, Episcopal, Baptist, richness and variety. Amongst the products are dragons 
 Methodist, Lutheran, Universalist, and R. catholic ; two blood, wax, pepper, benzoin, rattans, rice, and cotton ; birds 
 academies, 25 schools, a courthouse, and three banks. There i nests, iron, gold, and diamonds, large and fine. The gold is 
 is here also a theological seminary, called The Maine Charity found at a depth of 15 to 20 ft. Good coal in abundance is 
 School. It is under the direction of the Congregationalists, I found in the S.E., on the river Riam. In the N., at Nagara 
 has three professors, 43 students, 139 alumni, and 7000 i and Margasari, famed steel blades and other kinds of armour 
 volumes in its libraries. The harbour is spacious, of easy are manufactured, and excellent proas are constructed. The 
 access, and capable of floating vessels of a large class, the population is meagre for the extent of country, being estimated 
 
 tide rising 17 ft.; but it is not open in winter. The prin 
 cipal article of trade is lumber, brought down the river 
 Penobscot in large quantities, 1200 vessels, of about 100 tons 
 each, being employed in this trade during the navigation 
 season. There are, besides, 100 vessels engaged in the 
 coasting trade, 50 in foreign commerce, and about 20 in the 
 fisheries. It enjoys regular communication with Portland 
 and Boston, by steamers, for eight months in the year. The 
 city is governed by a mayor, seven aldermen, and 21 com- 
 mon-councilmen. Pop. (1840), 8027. 
 
 (1846) at not more than 120,000. (Van der Aa; Temminck, 
 
 Coup rl feil ; Mntiitf.ur des Indes.) 
 
 BANJALUKA, a sanjak and tn. Turkey in Europe, 
 prov. Croatia. The town stands on the Verbas, which here 
 separates Bosnia from Croatia, in lat. 44 45 N.; Ion. 17 12 
 E. It is strongly fortified, and contains a citadel, a number 
 of mosques, several colleges, baths, and bazaars, and a manu 
 factory of gunpowder. Pop. 7000. 
 
 BANJARMASSIN, a tn. Borneo, Dutch cap. of above 
 territory, on an arm of the Banjar, about 14 m. above its 
 
 BANG-PA-KUNG, a river, Siam, having its sources in mouth. The houses, being exposed to daily inundations of the 
 
 the mountains which separate Siam from Cambodja, 
 lat. 14 45 N. ; Ion. 102 15 E.; whence it flows in a S.S.W. 
 direction towards the Gulf of Siam, into the N.E. corner of 
 which it falls near Bang-pa-soe, lat. 13 30 N.; Ion. 101 7 
 E. Its entire length is about 200 m., and in size it is said 
 not to be inferior to the Menam. 
 
 BANG-PA-SOE, a tn. Siam, cap. of a dist. fertile in rice 
 and sugar, near the mouth of the Bang-pa-Kung; lat. 13 30 
 N.; Ion. 101 13 E.; 47 m. E.S.E. Bangkok. It is a con 
 siderable town, containing several thousand inhabitants, and 
 surrounded with a wooden stockade. 
 
 BANGUEY, a small isl. in the E. seas, near Balamban- 
 gan lying off the N. extremity of Borneo ; lat. 7 19 N. ; 
 Ion. 117 6 E.; abounds in turtle. 
 
 BANHAM, par. Eng. Norfolk; 3710 ac. Pop. 1165. 
 
 BANHO, a tn. and par. Portugal, prov. Beira-alta, dist. 
 of, and about 10 m. from Viseo; on the Vouga, which is here 
 crossed by a fine stone bridge of 10 arches. It has thermal 
 springs, which were used by the Romans, and are so copious 
 as to be capable of turning a mill. Pop. 650. 
 
 BANIAK. See BANJACK. 
 
 BANIAS. 1, A vil. Syria, near the source of the river 
 Banias, a tributary of the Jordan, 47 m. S.W. Damascus. 
 This place, once the important city of Paneas, is now mean 
 and insignificant, though many existent ruins, amid the finest 
 scenery, attest its past grandeur. The relics of its Saracenic 
 citadel, which once crowned the adjoining hill, still include 
 foundation walls 10 ft. thick. (Robinson s Researches in Pales 
 tine.) 2, A small tn. Syria, coast of, and 53 m. N. Tripoli ; 
 with ruins of ancient Baneas. 
 
 BANJACK, BANIAK, or BANJKH, an island group, Indian 
 Archipelago, W. coast, Sumatra, 16 in number, yielding 
 nothing but birds nests and trepang; lat. (S.W. island, W. 
 point) 2 8 N. ; Ion. 97 14 E. (R.) The principal island, Ban- 
 jack, from which the group is named, lies opposite the mouth 
 of the river Singel, and is about 18 m. long by 7 broad ; lat. 
 (S. point) 2 2 30" N.; Ion. 97 15 E. 
 
 BANJARMASSIN, BANJERMASSINO, or BANDJIRMASING 
 [from Bandjar, inundation, Massing, frequent; or, according to 
 others, Banjer, water, tlassin, salt], once an extensive empire 
 occupying the S.E. corner of Borneo, upwards of 350 m. long 
 and 270 broad, now all included in the Dutch province of the 
 S. and E. coasts of the island. The supremacy over this 
 extensive tract has been ceded to Holland from time to time, 
 so that now the Sultan of Banjarmassin reigns over only a 
 small portion of his former empire, and even in governing 
 that remnant, which he does in a manner absolutely, he owns 
 the Dutch as his suzerain. Banjarmassin, as arranged by 
 treaty of 1846, comprehends the tract of country bounded 
 W. by the river Banjar or Barito, and Bekoompai ; E. by 
 the Mcratoos Mountains, the loftiest summit of which is 
 5905 ft. high. The two boundaries converge and unite N. 
 at Mount Loeang, about lat. 1 S.; Ion. 115 45 E., and 
 S. about 8 m. S.W. Martapoora; area, estimated at 5946 
 sq. m. The Sultan resides in Martapoora, about 17 m. 
 S.E. the town of Banjarmassin, which is the seat of the 
 Dutch governor. The country appears to be generally flat, 
 
 large 
 t the 
 
 river, are built on piles, elevated 3 ft. above the level of the 
 marshy ground, and communicate with each other by means 
 of a plank, which serves the purpose of a street. A 1 
 number of the houses are built on rafts, the front nex 
 river being used as a shop or stall on which wares are exposed 
 for sale. On market-days, the water is covered with skiffs, 
 having a single individual in each, moving about selling 
 vegetables, &c. The people are continually on the river, all 
 necessaries being purchased at these floating markets, and all 
 business being done on the water. In every respect it is a 
 floating town, possessing neither carriages nor horses; the 
 only animals reared being pigs, goats, ducks, geese, and fowls. 
 The houses of the European functionaries, the government 
 buildings, and the fort, are built partly of stone and partly of 
 wood. The fort Tatas is surrounded with palisades, and 
 contains the resident s house, the magazines, and barracks. 
 Exports: pepper, benzoin, bezoar, ratans, dragons blood, 
 birds nests, iron, and straw mats, very artistically made ; and 
 imports : rice, salt, sugar, opium, coral,Chinese porcelain, silk, 
 cutlery, gunpowder, &c. The navigation of the Banjar is ob 
 structed by a bar at its mouth, in lat. 3 32 S.; Ion. 114 42 
 E. (R.), on which there are 11 to 16 ft. of water at high tide. 
 BAN JOE MAS, a dist. or prov. and tn Java. The DIS 
 TRICT lies near the centre of the island, between Ion. 108 35 
 
 and 110 E., and has a sea- 
 
 1, towards the Indian Ocean, 
 
 of about 35 m. It is chiefly of volcanic formation ; consists 
 in greater part of an extensive valley, watered by numerous 
 streams, and is one of the richest and most fertile provinces 
 in Java ; producing rice, Turkish wheat, sugar, coffee, indigo, 
 &c. The climate, especially on the S. coast, is very change 
 able ; still Banjoemas is not esteemed unhealthy. Pop. 316,063. 
 The TOWN, cap. of prov., lies 22 m. from the coast, at the 
 opening of the valley above referred to; lat. 7 33 S.; Ion. 
 109 20 E. It is tolerably well built, is the residence of 
 the governor, and contains a fort and garrison. The inhabit- 
 ts carry on a considerable trade, and are extremely frank 
 d hospitable. Pop. 9000. 
 
 BANJOEWANGI, a tn., E. coast of Java, prov. Bezoeki, 
 cap. of dist. of same name, on the Strait of Bali. It has a 
 fort, and only one stone house the governor s residence. It 
 
 s an exceedingly unhealthy place. The lofty mountains land 
 ward prevent the wind from clearing the atmosphere, so that 
 the heat is very great. In the vicinity are several volcanoes ; 
 
 the loftiest, Idjeng, about 15 m. N. W., is 10,170 ft. high. 
 
 The DISTRICT is the most E. portion of Java, and in greater 
 part uncultivated, and covered with wood. A range of lofty 
 ountains, several of them active volcanoes, shut it out from 
 the rest of Java. The soil, mixed with lime, is naturally so 
 fertile, that this is esteemed the most beautiful district in the ! 
 
 sland, but, at the same time, one of the most unhealthy. It 
 was formerly used as a place of banishment; the convicts 
 being employed in clearing the ground of trees, and in bringing 
 
 t under cultivation. The coffee raised here is esteemed equal 
 to Mokha ; and many other products are of the greatest excel 
 lence. On the coast, near the capital, are some pearl-fisheries. 
 Hanjoewangi was formerly a small state, governed by its own 
 chiefs, under the protection of the Prince of Bali. 
 
BANKA 
 
 319 
 
 BANTAM 
 
 BANKA. See BANCA. 
 
 BANKEL, an isl. in the Asiatic Archipelago, at the 
 entrance into the Bay of Tolo, E. coast, Celebes ; lat. 2 20 
 S. ; Ion. 122 50 E. (R.) 
 
 BANKS S ISLANDS. 1, A group of islands in the 
 8. Pacific Ocean, about lat. 13 53 S.; Ion. 168 45 E. (R.), 
 named after the celebrated botanist, Sir Joseph Banks, as have 
 also been various other islands, points, capes, peninsulas, 
 straits, &c., in different parts of the world. 2, A group of 
 islands in Spencer s Gulf, S. Australia, lat. 35 18 S. ; Ion. 
 136 55 E. (R.) 3, An isl. in Torres Strait, in lat. 10 12 S.; 
 Ion. 142 19 E. (R.) 4, Cape (West}, S. Australia, Bonny 
 Land; lat. 37 53 S. ; Ion. 140 24 E. (R.) 5, Bantes Land, 
 British America, Arctic Ocean, the westernmost land seen by 
 Parry; lat. 74 N.; Ion. 1 17 W. 6, Banks s Peninsula, 
 New Zealand, S.E. coast, isl. New Munster; lat. (extreme 
 point) 43 54 S.; Ion. 173 1 E. (R.) 7, Banks s Strait, 
 the channel formed between the N.E. end of Van Diemen s 
 Land and the Furneaux Islands. 8, A bay on the W. side 
 of Albemarle Island, one of the Galapagos group, S. Pacific 
 Ocean; lat. 9 S.; Ion. 91 30 W. 9, A cape, isl. Baranov, 
 King George III. Archipelago, Russian America. 
 
 BANMO. See BHAMO. 
 
 BANN (UPPER and LOWER), two rivers in N. of Ireland. 
 The first rises in a plain called the Deer s Meadow, and some 
 times the King s Meadow, in the mountains of Mourne, co. 
 Down, about 8 m. E. Newry. After flowing a distance of 
 38 m., in a N. direction, it falls into Lough Neagh, near the 
 Ban-foot ferry, in co. Armagh. It is navigable by boats of 50 
 tons burden. The Lower Bann is the outlet of Lough Neagh. 
 It runs past Toome, and expands into Lough Beg, winding 
 through a rugged country ; and afterwards flowing by Port- 
 glenone in Antrim, and Kilrea in Londonderry, forming the 
 boundary of the two counties ; passing Coleraine, it falls into 
 the Atlantic Ocean, 4 m. below that town, after a course of 
 nearly 40 m. A bar at its mouth renders the navigation at 
 the entrance to the river difficult in rough weather; but, on 
 ordinary occasions, vessels of 200 tons can proceed as far up 
 as Coleraine bridge. At that town occurs a fall of the river, 
 called the Salmon Leap, and above it are one or two rapids. 
 By means of the Newry navigation, the Upper Bann is made 
 subservient to the opening of a communication from Lough 
 Neagh to the Irish Sea; and, if the Lower Bann were rendered 
 navigable throughout, a safe communication would be opened 
 from the Irish Sea to the Atlantic. 
 
 B^NNA, a river, S. Guinea, having its sources in a 
 mountainous region, about 80 m. from the coast. It flows in 
 a W.S.W. direction, and falls into the sea in about lat. 3 30 S. 
 
 BANNALEC, a tn. and com. France, dep. Finistere, 
 19 m. E. Quimper; noted for its wrestling-matches, held an 
 nually in September, and which attract multitudes of specta 
 tors. The Breton wrestlers are celebrated for their strength, 
 and scarcely less so for the singularity of their costume. A 
 considerable trade is done here in cattle, horses, and poultry. 
 During the wars of the League, a bloody battle was fought 
 under the walls of Bannalec, between the leaguers and the 
 royal trrops. Pop. 4372. 
 
 BANNINGHAM, par. Eng. Norfolk; 770 ac. Pop. 329. 
 
 BANNOCKBURN, a vil. Scotland, co. of, and 2 m. S.E. 
 Stirling, on both sides of the Bannock, which divides it into 
 two parts, called, respectively, Upper and Lower Bannock- 
 burn. It is amply supplied with water, and both the private 
 dwellings and public works are lighted with gas. It has three 
 churches (Established, Free, and United Presbyterian), and 
 four schools, well taught, and well attended. Bannockburn 
 has been long celebrated for its woollen fabrics, consisting 
 chiefly of tartans, tartan shawls, carpets, and hearth-rugs. All 
 the tartan worn by the Highland regiments in the British 
 army, has been made here for the last half century. The 
 chief kinds of carpeting are Brussels, three ply, and Venetian. 
 In Bannockburn moor, not far from the village, is an extensive 
 coal-work, employing upwards of 100 workmen, who bear a 
 high name for intelligence and moral character. A school 
 has been established for the miners children. This village, 
 however, is still more celebrated for the decisive battle of the 
 same name, fought in its vicinity, between the English forces 
 under Edward II., and those of the Scotch under Robert 
 Bruce, by which the independence of Scotland was fully and 
 finally secured, the former having been defeated with great 
 
 loss. This memorable battle was fought on Monday, June 24, 
 1314. The English army amounted to 100,000 men, the 
 Scotch to about 30,000. The best authorities represent the 
 loss of the English on this occasion, in the battle and pursuit, 
 to have been 30,000 men ; while that of the Scotch is alleged 
 to have been about 8000, An interesting memorial of the 
 conflict still remains at a short distance S. W. from the village 
 of St. Ninians, on the position occupied by the Scottish army. 
 This is a large piece of granite, with a hole in it, in which was 
 planted the Scottish standard, called Bored Stone, from its 
 having been pierced or bored for the reception of the pole of 
 the standard. It is now protected by an iron grating from 
 the depredations of the relic-hunter. Pop. 1987. 
 
 BANOLAS, a tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, and 10 m. 
 N. by W. Gerona ; tolerably built ; has four squares, a parish 
 church, chapel, town-hall, hospital, Latin, and two other 
 schools, and three public fountains. The inhabitants manu 
 facture cotton fabrics of all kinds, oil, and paper ; but most 
 of them are engaged in agriculture and cattle-rearing. Three 
 annual fairs are held. Pop. 4600. 
 
 BANOS [baths], by itself, and with affixes, the name of 
 numerous towns and villages in Spain, of which the following 
 are the most important: 1. Banos, a tn. Andalusia, prov. of, 
 and 24 m. N. by E. Jaen ; on the skirt of the sierra Morena ; 
 has indifferently-built streets, steep, but well paved ; a parish 
 church, several chapels, a school, hospital, storehouse, and 
 cemetery. The inhabitants are employed in agriculture and 
 cattle-rearing. In the vicinity are mines of antimony, and 
 thermal springs ; from the baths attached to which last, the 
 town derives its name and importance. Pop. 1770. 2, Banos 
 de Cerrato, or de rio Pisuerga, a tn. Leon, prov. of, and 6 m. S. 
 Palencia, between the rivers Carrion and Pisuerga. It is ill 
 built, has a small square, handsome Gothic parish church, 
 chapel, townhall, prison, school and storehouse, and cemetery. 
 Near it are baths, esteemed efficacious in various disorders. 
 Pop. 272. 3, Banos de Ebro, a tn. Old Castile, prov. of, 
 and 15 m. W. by N. Logroiio, r. bank, Ebro ; tolerably well 
 built, and possessing a church, townhouse, prison, school, and 
 storehouse. The baths are much frequented in the summer 
 season for cutaneous affections. Pop. 331. 4. Banos, a vil. 
 Estremadura, prov. Caceres, 30 m. W. Palencia, at the base 
 of the hills which divide Estremadura from Leon. The baths 
 are much resorted to for rheumatic complaints. Pop. 1636. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 BANSBEREA, a considerable tn. Hindoostan, prov. 
 Bengal, 1. bank, Hooghly, and 3 m. N.W. the town of that 
 name. Within its limits are comprised two adjoining villages ; 
 and near it, to the N., are ruins of stone buildings of Maho 
 metan structure. 
 
 BANSWARRA, a tn. Hindoostan, dist. of Bagur, prov. 
 Goojerat, cap. of a small native state, under British protection, 
 117 m. N.N.E. Baroda; lat. 23 34 N. ; Ion. 74 32 E. It 
 is an agreeable place, surrounded with gardens, and contains 
 some handsome temples, and a respectable bazaar. At a short 
 distance from the town is a pool of water, with a stately 
 flight of steps, overhung by palms, peepuls, and tamarind- 
 trees ; and beyond it, on the crown of a woody hill, are the 
 towers of a large castle, formerly the palace of Banswarra. 
 
 BANTALLAN, an isl. Indian Archipelago, one of the 
 allest of the Philippines, at the N. entrance of the strait 
 between the islands Negros and Zebu; lat. 11 N.; Ion. 
 123 20 E. 
 
 BANTAM, or BATAN [rebellious people], a prov. Java, 
 occupying the whole W. end of the island ; bounded, N. by 
 the Java sea, W. by the Strait of Sunda, and S. by the Indian 
 Ocean, about 88 m. N. to S. in its greatest length, and as 
 much in its greatest breadth. It is of very irregular outline, 
 Cape Java or Java Head forming a high rocky peninsula, and 
 is indented by the extensive bays of Bantam, Pepper, Wel 
 come, &c. The coast, in many parts, is difficult of access, but 
 verywhere it abounds with fish. Bantam, inland, is moun 
 tainous, and has several extinct and two active volcanoes, 
 Pulo Sarie, and Karang ; the latter, the loftiost summit in 
 the province, is 6069 ft. high Many of the mountains are 
 ooded to the top, and among them warm sulphurous springs 
 are numerous. The N. part of the province is flat, in some 
 places marshy, in others sandy, and in many insalubrious. 
 Health is supposed also to be injured, on the S. coast, by 
 the strong winds from the Indian Ocean. The climate of 
 
BANTAM 
 
 320 
 
 BAR-LE-DUC 
 
 the interior mountainous country is bracing and healthy, 
 in proportion to the elevation. Here the thermometer 
 does not rise so high, and is much more steady than on the 
 coast, where sudden and great changes of temperature are 
 frequent. Bantam, though fertile, is less so than some of the 
 neighbouring provinces; and its fruits are not esteemed so 
 highly as those of Batavia. Pepper was long the principal 
 article of culture; but now, rice is the main article of pro 
 duce, for the raising of which the numerous marshes through 
 out the province render it peculiarly well adapted. Coffee, 
 cotton, indigo, and sugar, are also extensively cultivated ; 
 batatas and cocoa-nuts are produced in great quantities, and 
 tobacco to a small extent. The rearing of cattle, buffaloes of 
 large size, and goats, is a principal means of support ; the 
 latter are sent extensively to the market at Batavia. Of wild 
 animals, tigers, rhinoceroses, serpents, and apes, are plentiful ; 
 and pigs are superabundant. 
 
 Though spirited in hunting the tiger, the inhabitants are 
 effeminate, voluptuous, and jealous in the highest degree ; 
 false, revengeful, and indolent. Still they manufacture coarse 
 cotton cloths, striped and lozenge figured, much esteemed as 
 an article of dress, and extensively sold to the natives of the 
 interior, and to the neighbouring islanders. They prepare, 
 also, yarn from the fibres of the pine-apple, pottery-ware, 
 excellent mats of bulrushes and bamboos, and fine chalk, 
 extensively used by Europeans throughout the Indian Archi 
 pelago for plastering and whitewashing houses, and by the 
 natives themselves, for various purposes. The religion is 
 Islamisin. The principal towns are Bantam (the capital), and 
 Serang. 
 
 Bantam at one time formed an independent kingdom, 
 under a sultan of her own ; and though, from the time the 
 Dutch obtained full supremacy in Java, they held a certain 
 sway over it, still it was not till the beginning of the present 
 century that it was incorporated formally with their posses 
 sions, and placed directly under their government, the then 
 reigning sultan being banished to Amboina. Pop. (1838), 
 3(52,242. (Van der Aa.) 
 
 BANTAM, an old and celebrated tn. Java, cap. former 
 kingdom, and present prov. of same name. It is beauti 
 fully situated on the bay and river of the same name, and 
 hacked by lofty picturesque mountains ; lat. 6 1 42" S. ; Ion. 
 1 06 1 42" E. (K.) The river Bantam divides into three arms ; 
 the centre one of which, not very deep, passes through the 
 town, the other two bounding it right and left. The houses, 
 chiefly of reeds plastered with clay, roofed with leaves, and 
 each one surrounded by a bamboo enclosure, and thus separ 
 ated from one another, are so embosomed among cocoa-nut 
 trees -that it is somewhat difficult at first to suppose one s self 
 in a town. The Sultan s palace, and the Dutch forts Spel- 
 wijk and Diamant are in ruins ; and the only building of 
 note is the mosque or temple, surrounded by a lofty wall, and 
 adorned with a small tower or minaret. In the \V. part of 
 the town is the Chinese quarter ; and beyond it, at some little 
 distance, are situated the dwellings of the Europeans. To 
 wards the shore, fishermen live in miserable huts, and behind 
 them are some salt-pans. In consequence of the numerous 
 mud banks on the shore, and the pent-up position of the place, 
 Bantam is one of the most unhealthy spots in Java, frequently 
 being the whole day so enveloped in thick mist, that nothing 
 can be seen from the roads but the mere outline of the bay. 
 A few miles from the town the atmosphere is found to be 
 quite clear. 
 
 Bantam is one of the oldest and most famous towns in the 
 East, and, at one time, was the principal mart of the Dutch ; 
 but its trade has now been transferred to other channels. It 
 was at one time 2 m. long, but, by fire, as well as the loss of 
 trade, it has been reduced both in size and appearance. The 
 BAY is about 8 m. E. to W., by about 5 or 6 m. N. to S., from 
 the island of Panjang, at its mouth, to the town of Bantam. 
 Several islands are scattered over its surface, of which Pan 
 jang is the largest. Formerly the bay was deep and the 
 anchorage good, and it was frequented by numerous and large 
 vessels, but, from the increase of the mud deposits, it has 
 become much shallower, so that even small vessels reach the 
 town with difficulty. (Van der Aa.) 
 
 BANTKY, a seaport tn. Ireland, co. Cork, at the head 
 of Bantry harbour, near the N. end of Bantry Bay, E. side, 
 64 m. W.S.W. Cork; lat. 50 4(y 48" N.; Ion. 9 27 12" 
 
 W. (R.) It consists of two parallel streets, irregularly and 
 ndifferently paved; some good houses, but the greater portion 
 squalid huts, imparting to the town altogether a very mean ap- 
 jearance ; and contains a parish church (a plain modern build- 
 ng), a R. catholic chapel, and a Wesleyan meeting-house. It 
 las little trade, and no manufactures, although it had formerly 
 a considerable amount of both. The scenery around it is of 
 
 most picturesque description. Pop. 4082. The BAY, 
 remarkable at once for its natural beauties, and its natural 
 advantages, although the latter are turned to little account, 
 s large, safe, and commodious for vessels of any size. The 
 water is deep close to both shores, no rocks or shoals in the 
 way but such as may be easily avoided, and the stream of 
 tide is scarcely sensible in any part of it. The points of land 
 Forming the entrance into Bautry Bay are, Crow Head on 
 the N.W , and Sheep s Head on the S.E. ; the latter in lat. 
 51 33 N.; Ion. 9 27 4" W. 
 
 BAN WELL, vil..& par. Eng. Somerset; 4970 ac. P. 1819. 
 BANYA-FELSO, a mountain village, Hungary, circle, 
 Thither-Theiss, co. Szathmar, 5 m. E. Banya-Nagy. It con 
 tains a parish church (R. catholic), a Greek, and a Reformed 
 church. Pop., consisting of mixed races, 4720. 
 
 BANYA-NAGY [anc. Rivuli Dominanim], a mountain 
 tn. Hungary, co. Szathmar, 93 m. E. Debrecsin, and not far 
 from the borders of Transylvania. It has gradually risen 
 from a mere mountain village to the rank of a town, and 
 carries on a considerable trade in wine, fruit, arid earthen 
 ware. The inhabitants suffer much from a want of good 
 water, though there are springs in the neighbourhood which, 
 it is said, might be brought into the town at very little cost. 
 Four yearly markets are held here. Pop. 5500. 
 
 BANYU WANG1. See BANJOEWANGI. 
 
 BANYULS-SUR-MER, or BANYULS-LA-MAISO, a vil. 
 France, dep. Pyre ne es-Orientales, arrond. of, and 20 m. E. 
 Ceret, in a small bay formed by the Mediterranean, near the 
 frontiers of Spain. It was a place of some military import 
 ance in the Spanish war, and the scene of several encounters. 
 An excellent red wine, of a deep colour and great strength, 
 called Rancio, from its resemblance to a Spanish wine of that 
 name, and a rich sweet wine, known by the name of Grenache, 
 are grown in this district, which, in addition to its wines, has 
 also a trade in grain. Pop. 1357. 
 
 BAOL, a state of W. Africa, Senegambia, having the 
 state of Sin on the S., of Kayor on the N., the Jaloff territory 
 on the E., and the Atlantic on the W. Its N. boundary is 
 about 35 m. S.S.E. Cape Verde, the parallel of 14 3l>" N. 
 passing nearly through its centre. 
 
 BAPAUME, a tn. France, dep. Pas-de-Calais, 14 m. 
 S.S.E. Arras, regularly built, and fortified after plans of 
 Vauban. The inhabitants were formerly obliged to use water 
 of bad quality, but, in 1723, an artesian well was sunk in the 
 vicinity, and an abundant supply obtained. Fine woollens 
 and calicoes are made here, and cambric is extensively manu 
 factured in the vicinity. Bapaume has also spinning-mills, 
 
 saltworks, soapworks, and tanneries. Pop. 2973. The 
 
 name of a large manufacturing village in the neighbourhood 
 of Rouen, on the top of the long and steep hill of Caiitalen, is 
 pronounced in the same way, but spelled Bapeaume. 
 
 BAPCHILD, par. Eng. Kent, 1080 ac. Pop. 338. 
 
 BAR, a tn. Ilindoostan, prov. Bahar, presid. Bengal, 
 r. bank, Ganges; lat. 25 28 N.; Ion. 85 50 E. It is 
 meanly built, but is of large extent, and has a considerable 
 trade. Pop., including Masurgunge, 26,000. 
 
 BAR [formerly Ii6w], a tn. Russia, gov. Podolsk, 68 m. 
 N.E. Kamenetz, on the Rdw. It is defended by a citadel, 
 built on a rock, and contains several churches, and a mon 
 astery. Bar is famous for the confederation, formed here 
 Feb. 29, 1768, by the Polish nobles, Pulaski, Potocki, and 
 Krasinski, against the Russians. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BAR-LE-r>uc, or BAR-SUR-OKNAIN, a tn. France, cap. 
 dep. Mouse, 125 m. E. by S. Paris. It was formerly fortified, 
 and had a castle, but which, with the fortifications, is now in 
 ruins. The modern Bar is composed of an upper and a lower 
 town. The former, situated on an eminence, on which it rises 
 in the form of an amphitheatre, is the aristocratic district. It 
 commands a fine view, is well built, and has several elegant 
 mansions. The lower town extends into the valley traversed 
 by the Ornain, which is here crossed by three stone bridges. 
 It is a busy active place, with many shops, manufactories, 
 
BAR -SUR- AUBE 
 
 321 
 
 BARBADOS 
 
 warehouses, and places of business. The streets are wide, 
 and well laid out; in particular, those of Rochelle and the 
 Capuchins, which are lined with a double row of lime-trees, 
 but the public buildings are of an inferior description. The 
 church of the upper town contains the monument of Rene de 
 Chalons, Prince of Orange, who was killed in 1544, at the 
 siege of St. Dizier. It consists of an altar of black marble, 
 into which a white marble skeleton, of almost hideous appear 
 ance, has been inlaid, and was executed by Richier, a pupil of 
 Michael Angel o. The chief manufactures are cotton yarn, 
 cotton and woollen stuffs, printed calicoes, and coloured hand 
 kerchiefs. The preserved fruits and confectionary, as well as 
 the wines of Bar, are in great repute. In the environs are 
 ironworks and stone quarries. Fir and oak planks are also 
 prepared, and sent to Paris. Pop. 12,673. 
 
 BAK-SUR-AUBE [Bar rum ad Albam], an aric. tn. France, 
 dep. Aube, 29 m. E. Troyes, agreeably situated, r. bank, Aube, 
 here crossed by a bridge; at the foot of the St. Germain moun 
 tain, in a valley, surrounded with picturesque hills covered 
 with vineyards. In general it is badly built, and the streets 
 inconveniently laid out. It has two ancient churches, one of 
 which is of large dimensions, and an hospital, founded in the 
 1 1th century. On the neighbouring mountain of St. Germain 
 are the remains of a camp, said to have been occupied by 
 Attila. Calicoes, waxcloths, nails, brandy, and vinegar are 
 manufactured here ; and a considerable trade is done in corn , 
 wine, wood, hemp, and wool, is embarked on the Saone, and 
 forwarded to Lyons and the S. of France. In 1631, above 
 three-fourths of the inhabitants of Bar-sur-Aube were carried 
 off by the plague. In 1814, a hotly contested action was 
 fought here between Napoleon and the allies. Pop. 4134. 
 
 BAR-scR-SEiNE, a tn. France, dep. Aube, 19 m. S.E. 
 Troyes, r. bank, Seine, which is here a small limpid stream, j 
 and is crossed by an elegant stone bridge. It is walled, well 
 built, and very clean, with streets regularly laid out ; and has 
 manufactures of paper, cotton, hosiery, cutlery, and some | 
 tanneries. Its principal trade is in corn, wine, brandy, hemp, 
 wool, and leather. Pop. 21G2. 
 
 BARABA, a steppe, Siberia, govs. Tobolsk and Tomsk. 
 It is a vast plain, formerly a sea, between the rivers Irtish 
 and Obi, which constitute its N., W., and E. boundaries, while 
 the Altai Mountains bound it on the S., about 400 m. in length, 
 and about 300 in breadth. This great expanse of flats is full 
 of s\vamps and salt lakes, but is in many parts fertile; and 
 a considerable portion has been brought under cultivation by 
 colonists settled there by the Russian Government. Bears 
 and wolves abound, as well as domestic poultry and cattle. 
 The horses are small, but so vigorous and nimble, that there 
 is no part of Siberia where one is conveyed from place to 
 place with such celerity as here. (Cochrane s Journey through 
 Russia and Siberian Tartary.} 
 
 BARACOA.-l, A harbour, N.E. end of Cuba; lat. 
 (entrance) 22 20 50" N.; Ion. 74 21 W. The opening is 
 clear, but exposed to heavy swells. 2, A tn. situated on the 
 S.E. point of the harbour, and between the two anchorages 
 of Baracoa and Molasses*beach. It is inhabited chiefly by 
 pilots. 
 
 BARAHAT, or BAUAMATII, a tn., N. Hindoostan, cap. 
 Gurwal ; lat. 30 45 N.; Ion. 78 22 E.; on the N.W. bank 
 of the Ganges ; once a place of some importance, afterwards 
 an insignificant village, but again rising into importance ; n 
 station for pilgrims visiting Gangoutri. 
 
 BARAITCHE, or BERAITCII, a tn. and dist. Hindoostan, 
 prov. Oude. The town stands in a pleasant situation, 64 m. 
 N.E. _Lucknow, 68 m. N.W. Oude; lat. 27 38 N. ; Ion. 
 81 35 E. It is a place of great antiquity, and is described 
 by Abu Fazel, in 1582, as a large city. The N. part of the 
 district is covered with dense forests ; but towards the river 
 Goggra, the country is open, fertile, and tolerably well culti 
 vated. Many of the old Patan race are found scattered over 
 the district, and one of their chiefs has still the title of Khan 
 of Baraitche. 
 
 BARANCA (NUEVA), a tn. New Granada, at the junction 
 of the Mahates with the Rio Magdalena, 45 m. S.E. Carta- 
 gena. It is a thriving place, and the point of embarkation of 
 goods and travellers from Cartagena going up the Magdalena, 
 and of debarkation for those coming down that river. 
 
 BARANELLO, a tn. Naples, prov. Sannio, 5 tn. S.W. j 
 Campo-Basso. Pop. 2663. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 BARANYA, one of the best peopled counties of Hungary, 
 forming part of the circle beyond the Danube, and lying 
 between that river and the Drave. It has an area of nearly 
 1500 geo. sq. m. The surface is generally flat, and, where 
 under cultivation, very fertile, yielding, in abundance, corn, 
 wine, fruit, and fodder ; but about a half of the whole is covered 
 with forests. Great numbers of cattle are reared. The county 
 is divided into six districts, containing one royal burgh (Fiinf- 
 kirchen), one municipal town, 11 market towns, and 337 vil 
 lages. Pop. 285,000. 
 
 BARATAR1A, an is!., bay, and lake, U. States, Loui 
 siana, N. coast, Gulf of Mexico. The ISLAND is small, lies at 
 the entrance of Barataria Bay ; lat. 29 N. ; Ion. 90 W. ; is 
 a strong military position, and affords a safe and commodious 
 
 harbour for merchant vessels and small ships of war. The 
 
 BAY, 37 m. S. New Orleans, is surrounded by a flat marshy 
 
 country, and was formerly much resorted to by pirates. 
 
 The LAKK, a little W. of the bay, is about 30 m. long, and 
 8 m. broad. 
 
 BARBA, a river, Guatimala; rises in lat. 14 48 N.; 
 Ion. 84 45 W., and falls into the Caribbean Sea, by two 
 branches, one terminating near Beaver s Island, the other 
 several miles to the E. of it; the embouchures of both being 
 nearly on the parallel of 14 N. Tbe entire course of the 
 river is about 90 m. 
 
 BARBACENA, a city, Brazil, prov. Minas Geraes, 150 m. 
 N.W. Rio de Janeiro, on the top of two hills in the serra 
 Mantiqueira, about 3500 ft. above the sea; lat. 21 22 S.; 
 Ion. 45 W. It enjoys a mild climate; has broad straight 
 streets, the two principal ones are paved, and have a footpath 
 on either side ; the houses are low, and have gardens in the 
 rear. The parish church is in the middle of a large square, 
 in which the two principal streets meet, and there are, besides, 
 in Barbacena three other churches, a townhall, prison, and 
 primary school. The chief occupations are extracting gold, 
 and exporting large quantities of cotton and coffee to Rio de 
 Janeiro. Pop., tn. and dist., including three parishes besides 
 that of Barbacena, 12,000. 
 
 BARBADOS, an auriferous river, Brazil, prov. Matto- 
 Grosso, which falls into the Paraguay, on its r. bank, lat. 
 15 S.; Ion. 57 30 W., after a S.E. course of 120 m. 
 
 BARBADOS, or BARBADOES, the most E. of the Carib- 
 bee Islands, standing apart from that chain at about equal 
 
 distances (78 m. E.) from St. Lucia and St. Vincent. Its 
 capital, Bridgetown, situated at the S.W. corner of the island, 
 is in lat. 13 V 12" N. ; Ion. 59 37 W. (it.) Barbados is 21 in. 
 
 4.1 
 
BARBADOS 
 
 322 
 
 BARBADOS 
 
 in length, 13 in breadth, and 55 in circumference, excluding 
 the sinuosities of the bays, and contains about 166 sq. m., or 
 106,470 ac. It is nearly encircled by coral reefs, which in 
 some places extend 3 m. to seaward, and render the navigation 
 dangerous. It has no mountains, nor any very elevated sum 
 mits, the highest, Mount Hillaby, being only about 1145 ft. 
 above the level of the sea. The surface, however, is much 
 diversified, and often picturesque, presenting, on a small scale, 
 a succession of valleys, hills, table-lands, cliffs, gorges, and 
 ravines, some of the latter exhibiting perpendicular walls of 
 150 ft. The low lands are of limited extent, and are confined 
 to the N., S., and S.E. parts of the island. About a seventh 
 part of Barbados consists of tertiary sandstones and limestones, 
 rising to considerable heights ; the remainder is covered by 
 raised coral reefs, divided by vertical walls of coral rock, 
 some of them nearly 200 ft. high, into six terraces, indicating 
 as many periods of upheaval. In the lowest of these terraces, 
 15 or 20 ft. above high water, Indian hatchets have been 
 found, showing that the last movement had taken place within 
 the human period. With exception of the most minute forms 
 of organic life, marine bivalve and univalve shells, no fossil 
 remains of any kind have been hitherto discovered in the 
 rocks which compose the island. It is not supposed that 
 Barbados possesses any of the precious metals. Bituminous 
 coal is found in many places, and is used as fuel in furnaces. 
 Petroleum, potter s clay, and ochres, yellow and brown, also 
 abound. The clays, which are more or less mixed with sili- 
 cious matter, were formerly extensively used for the prepara 
 tion of earthenware, and the ochres are sometimes employed 
 as paints by the labourers. There are also several mineral 
 springs on the island, but no streams deserving the name of 
 rivers ; although some are so called ; they are mere streamlets, 
 excepting during the tropical torrents, when they become 
 impassable. The productive soil of Barbados is of a reddish 
 brown hue on the higher table-land ; in the low lands it is 
 black, and somewhat reddish in the parts where it is shallow. 
 This black mould is the best suited for the growth of the 
 sugar-cane. It is considered one of the healthiest islands in 
 the \V. Indian Archipelago ; for, being open to the sea breezes, 
 and cultivated throughout, injurious miasmata are unknown. 
 The most delightful months in the year are January and 
 February ; the hottest, July, August, September, and Oc 
 tober, when the heat is extremely sultry and oppressive. 
 The heaviest rains fall in November and December. Bar 
 bados is subject to hurricanes and thunder-storms of the most 
 violent character. One of the most destructive of the former 
 on record, occurred on October 10, 1780, when 4326 persons 
 perished, and the colony was damaged to the extent of 
 1,320,564 sterling. Land-slips have frequently occurred 
 by which houses and growing trees have completely changed 
 their positions. There are now no woods or forests in Bar 
 bados, these having been all cut down to make way for agri 
 cultural operations. The indigenous mammalia comprise only 
 the Barbados monkey, the racoon, both animals nearly extinct, 
 though formerly so numerous as to be objects of legislative 
 enactment for extirpation ; an indigenous mouse, and two 
 species of bats. The list of birds is also extremely meagre ; 
 the number of indigenous species amounting only to 11, of 
 which the Barbados blackbird is the most conspicuous. The 
 island is now much infested with wild dogs the progeny of 
 the domestic animals imported from Britain, chiefly by the 
 labourers. These have turned wild, and have increased so 
 rapidly as to commit the most serious ravages in the sheep- 
 pens. A dog-law has been introduced for their destruction, 
 but hitherto without entire success. The cattle used in the 
 island are chiefly imported from Porto Rico, Angostura, and 
 the Orinoco ; the horses mostly from the U. States. An ex 
 traordinary mortality, amounting to 25 per cent, prevails here 
 among the latter, causing a large annual importation of these 
 animals. Barbados possesses an unusual portion of cultivable 
 soil. Out of the 106,470 ac. which its area contains, no fewer 
 than 1 00,000 are under cultivation, 40,000 of which are an 
 nually planted in sugar canes; the remainder being either 
 appropriated to provisions, or used as pasture. The cultiva 
 tion of the natural pasture grasses, however, seems to be 
 neglected for that of sugar ; the best descriptions of the former 
 having been eradicated by the progress of the latter, leaving 
 only the hardiest and worst. There is also much room for 
 improvement in some of the agricultural departments. Few 
 
 things strike a stranger more, on his arrival at Barbados, than 
 the bad state of the working cattle, and seeing 10, and some 
 times 12, weak oxen drawing in a waggon. The same num 
 ber are put to the plough. The cattle are generally of a small 
 breed, and much out of condition, which seems attributable 
 Loth to the scarcity of sufficient food, and to the want of 
 shelter from the sun and rain. (Governor Reid s Report, 
 May 24, 1848.) The account given by Mr. Henry Dummet, 
 .1 native of Barbados, and a large proprietor there, is some 
 what different, and, generally, suggestive of other inferences. 
 In his evidence before the select committee on sugar and 
 coffee planting, in March 1848, he states, That mules and 
 horses are generally employed, and have nearly superseded 
 cattle; that the cultivation of the island, particularly that 
 of the sugar-cane, is perfect, and that improvements of every 
 nature are eagerly sought after and adopted. The staple 
 articles produced in the island for export, are sugar, arrow 
 root, aloes, and cotton. Fustic, logwood, rum, indigo, and to 
 bacco, were formerly exported in considerable quantities, but 
 the cultivation of the last two has been long since entirely 
 abandoned ; rum does not remunerate, and fustic and logwood 
 are now raised in small quantities only. The greatest quan 
 tity of sugar the island ever produced was in the year 1838, 
 when 32,500 hogsheads were exported ; latterly the quantity 
 has been much less, rarely exceeding 25,000 or 26,000 hogs 
 heads, and often considerably below that amount. Notwith 
 standing this great decrease, the general trade of the island, 
 judged of by the following table, appears to be on the in 
 crease : 
 
 TUA.DE AND NAVIGATION OK BARBADOS. 
 
 1840... 
 1841... 
 1842... 
 1843... 
 1844... 
 1845... 
 1846... 
 
 Commerce. 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 ..643,826.. 465,459 ... 
 
 .. 610,954... 529,210 
 
 .. 609,254... 551,984... 
 
 .. 642,180... 679,802 ... 
 
 .. 618,028... 681,598 .. 
 
 .. 682,368... 691,809 ... 
 
 .. 631,267... 773,405 ... 
 
 Shipping. 
 
 Outward. Inward. 
 
 .. 73,511 tons.... 73,523 tons. 
 
 .. 78,524 ...80,832 
 
 .. 82.571 ...87,875 
 
 ..100,281 ...99,869 
 
 .. 84,468 ...88,137 
 
 .. 93,773 ...94,542 
 
 .. 90,310 ...9:5,330 
 
 The trade with Great Britain has always been, and continues 
 to be, the most important, surpassing in amount the whole 
 commerce of Barbados with all other parts of the world. 
 More than three-fourths of the exports go to Great Britain, 
 principally sugar molasses, cotton, and aloes ; the remainder 
 to the other W. India islands, the British N. American 
 colonies, the U. States, and various other foreign parts. The 
 chief imports from Great Britain, amounting to more than a 
 half of the whole trade, consist of corn, flour, manure, salted 
 meat, rice, spirits, refined sugar, tea, wines, and miscellan 
 eous goods. All British manufactures, or articles of British 
 growth, are free of colonial duty. The number of vessels 
 belonging to the colony in 1843 was 41, tonn. 1778; of these, 
 12 were above 50 tons. The revenue of the island, chiefly 
 derived from the exports and imports, from duty on brandy 
 and gin, and from surplus tonnage and crown duties, amounted, 
 in 1845, to 57,751, 2s. 9rf. ; the expenditure, to 52,347, 
 19s. 3d., of which the expenses of the civil establishment 
 absorbed 34,571, 10s. lOd. Both income and expenditure 
 appear to be on the decrease. The moral condition of the 
 lower classes in the island is far from being satisfactory, 
 although it is said to be improving. This, however, does not 
 appear to be the case from the report of Governor Reid, who, 
 in his despatch of May 24, 1848, says, That the number of 
 marriages contracted, does not show the progress making in 
 this respect (social order), and that marriage is too often con 
 tracted in order to obtain legal powers over younger women. 
 Illegitimate ties with a plurality of women, he adds, are main 
 taining many social evils in the W\ Indies, which Government 
 should strive to diminish. The condition of the agricultural 
 population of Barbados, which is estimated at 45,000, seems, 
 on the whole, to be tolerably comfortable. A labourer s pay, 
 with a cottage, is about lOrf. per day; without, from Is. Q$d. 
 to Is. 3d. nine hours work, but working only five days in 
 the week, Saturday being a holiday, or employed in the culti 
 vation of his provision-grounds, which, favoured by the climate, 
 yield so abundantly, that a single day s labour is sufficient 
 for a week s subsistence. The local government of Barbados 
 consists of a governor-in-chief, assisted by a council. The go 
 vernor has the title of Excellency, and is invested with the chief 
 civil and military authority. The council have, by courtesy, 
 
BARBADOS 
 
 323 
 
 BARBERINO-DI-MUGELLO 
 
 whilo iu the colony, the title of Honourable, and consists of 
 12 members, who are appointed by mandamus of the sovereign. 
 The house of assembly is composed of 24 delegates, elected 
 annually, two for each parish, and two for the city of Bridge 
 town, by the body of the people. The governor may, at any 
 time, of his own authority, adjourn, prorogue, or dissolve the 
 assembly. The courts for the administration of civil justice 
 are, the courts of chancery, of common pleas, of exchequer, 
 of ordinary, of admiralty, of error, and of escheat. For the 
 administration of criminal justice, there are the court of grand 
 sessions, and the court of admiralty sessions. An efficient 
 police force was established in the island in 1835. In 1846, 
 the militia of the island amounted to 1733 men, including 
 officers, &c. ; but the usual number is from 1000 to 1100, 
 the year named having been one of political excitement. 
 The island is divided into 11 parishes, and has 11 parish 
 churches, and 32 chapels, chapel-schools, or licensed places of 
 worship. There are in the island, besides, four missionary 
 stations belonging to the United Brethren, the congrega 
 tions of which amount altogether to 3911 individuals; eight 
 chapels and four meeting-houses belonging to the Wesleyan 
 Methodists, the united congregations of which amount to 
 5380 persons; and a Jewish synagogue, one of the hand 
 somest buildings in the West Indies, although the congre 
 gation numbers only 70 persons. There are but few It. 
 Catholics on the island, but there is a priest stationed there, 
 chiefly in consequence of the military, amongst whom there 
 are always many of that persuasion. The whole church 
 accommodation of the island comprises 13,800 sittings, for a 
 population of about 123,000. Of the schools of the island 
 generally, Governor Reid, in the despatch previously referred 
 to, reports unfavourably. He says, he found them in a very 
 low state, and not at all suited for the wants of the colony ; 
 but that means were being taken for their improvement, and 
 for increasing the number of branches taught. The schools 
 for the education of the poor are 59 in number ; in which, 
 between 3000 and 4000 children are educated. There are also 
 Sunday-schools attached to nearly all the churches and chapels. 
 Some of the public schools are supported by parochial grants ; 
 the children being, in some cases, maintained and clothed, as 
 well as instructed. At the head of the educational establish 
 ments of the island, stands Codrington College, founded by 
 Col. Codrington, a native of Barbados, who died in 1710. 
 The building was begun in 1716, and was finished in 1721. 
 It is beautifully situated on the E. side of the island, at the 
 distance of about 14 m. from Bridgetown ; and has a disposable 
 annual revenue of 3610 ; expenditure in salaries to professors, 
 schoolmasters, &c., 2510. Neither booksellers nor public 
 libraries are so numerous in the island as might be desired ; 
 of the former, there are only two, and of the latter, there were 
 none till 1847, when one or more were established, through 
 the instrumentality of Governor Reid ; previously, however, 
 several libraries belonging to private associations, including 
 a clerical library, were in existence. The benevolent and 
 charitable institutions are numerous, and on a scale highly 
 creditable to the Christian feeling of the inhabitants. The 
 principal institutions of this kind are, the general hospital, 
 opened in 1844, with accommodation for 77 in-door patients, 
 and a lunatic asylum. There are, besides, a largo and com 
 modious alms-house in Bridgetown, and a long list of minor 
 charities, supported by voluntary contribution. There are 
 several literary and agricultural societies, and five weekly 
 newspapers ; one of which, the Barbados Mercury, has existed 
 for upwards of 114 years. 
 
 There are several small towns on the island, but ihe prin 
 cipal is Bridgetown, which was erected into a city in 1842. 
 (See BRIDGETOWN.) 
 
 The early history of the island is involved in uncertainty, 
 and the events of the settlement variously related. It would 
 seem, however, to have been known to geographers in the 
 early part of the 16th century, as appears from a manuscript 
 chart of the world preserved in the British Museum, and 
 believed to have been executed previous to the year 1536, 
 where it is shown in correct relative position to the other 
 Caribbee Islands, under the name of Bernados. No settle 
 ment, however, was made in Barbados till 1625, when Sir 
 William Courteen, a merchant of London, established a colony 
 there, although it had been visited 20 years before by an 
 English vessel, called the Olive Blossom, the first ship from 
 
 that country, it is supposed, that had ever touched its shores. 
 It has remained in the possession of the British ever since the 
 founding of the settlement in 1 625. 
 
 The population of Barbados is the most dense of any spot of 
 land in the world, and is believed to be fast increasing. At 
 present it is about 122,198, which gives 734-8 individuals to 
 each sq. m., being nearly three times that of England, Wales, 
 and Ireland, and nearly eight times that of Scotland. (Schom- 
 burgk s Barbados; Parliamentary Reports, &c.) 
 
 BARBARA SANTA. 1, A small isl., channel, and tn. 
 California. The ISLAND is in lat. 33 23 N.; Ion. 119 2 
 W. (K.) The CHANNEL is the narrow passage between the 
 island of Santa Cruz and the mainland, the S. entrance of 
 which is crossed by the parallel of 34 N. The TOWN lies at 
 the head of the port or harbour of San Felipe, 230 m. S.W. 
 San Francisco; lat. 34 24 12" N.; Ion. 11 9 41 W. (R.) 2, 
 A port, N. end of the isl. Campana, W. coast, Patagonia ; lat. 
 48 2 S. ; Ion. 75 30 W. (R.) 
 
 BARBAREEN, a small tn. and seaport, Ceylon, W. 
 coast, dist. of, and 3 m. S. Cultura; lat. 6 28 N. ; Ion. 
 80 3 E. Most of the houses are covered with tiles. It has 
 manufactures of cordage and iron, is a port of entry and ex 
 port. The principal article of commerce is cocoa-nuts, of 
 which large quantities are produced in the vicinity. (Ceylon 
 Grazetteer.) 
 
 BARBARY [anc. Barlaria or Bcrberorum Terra], the 
 most N. general division of N. Africa ; bounded, N. by the 
 Mediterranean, E. by Egypt, S. by the Sahara or Great 
 Desert, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Its length, from E, 
 to W., is about 2600 m. ; its breadth, from N. to S., varies 
 from about 140 to about 550 m. It comprises the empire of 
 Marocco and Fez on the W., the French colony of Algeria, 
 and the regency of Tunis in the centre, and the regency of 
 Tripoli, including Barca and Fezzan, on the E. Its different 
 parts were known to the ancients under the names of Mauri 
 tania, Numidia, and Africa Proper. Its superficial extent has 
 been estimated at 650,000 to 700,000 sq. m. The name has 
 given rise to some dispute, but is probably derived from 
 Berber, the designation given by the Arabs to its ancient in 
 habitants, who were called Berbers, and whose descendants, 
 forming a large portion of the general population, still inhabit 
 the mountains and valleys of the Atlas. (See ALGERIA, 
 BAKCA, FEZ, FEZZAN, MAROCCO, TRIPOLI, and TUNIS.) 
 
 BARBASTE, a tn. France, dep. Lot-et-Garonne (Condo- 
 mois), close on the edge of the Geslise, 4 m. from Nerac. The 
 town, which is well built, and has a cotton-mill, numerous 
 vinegar-works, and several cork-factories, lies at the termina 
 tion of the ancient road commonly called Caesar s road or 
 Tenarese, which crossed the river by a bridge, at a point a 
 little below that where a Gothic bridge of seven arches now 
 stands. At one extremity of this bridge stands a large square 
 building with walls of great thickness, and flanked at each of 
 its corners by a square turret, which terminates in a point. 
 This edifice, and the mills attached to it, having been the 
 property of Henry IV., sometimes procured for him the sur 
 name of the Miller of Barbaste. Pop. 1715. 
 
 BARBASTRO, a city, Spain, Aragon, prov. of, and 
 28 m. E.S.E. Huesca, in a mountain district, occupying a 
 declivity, at the top of which stand the principal buildings 
 and older parts of the town, and at its base runs the river 
 Nero, crossed by two bridges of stone, and one of wood. The 
 city has straight, well-made, and paved streets, several squares, 
 a cathedral, parish church, college, Latin, and three other 
 schools, townhouse, session-house, ecclesiastical court-house, 
 extensive hospital, two prisons, several convents, with churches 
 attached, two palaces, a theatre, xnd bull-ring. Fn the vicinity 
 are fine gardens and promenades, adorned with luxuriant trees 
 and elegant fountains. It also possesses philosophical, agri 
 cultural, commercial, and other literary and beneficent as 
 sociations. The manufactures of Barbastro have greatly 
 declined, consisting only of hats, hardware, cutlery, shoes, 
 and ropes ; and a little trade is carried on in horned cattle, 
 horses, and mules, reared in the vicinity ; and two annual 
 fairs are held. Pop. 6175. 
 
 BARBERlNO-ni-MUGELLO, a tn. and com. Tuscany, 
 dist. of, and 16 m. N. by E. Florence, on the Sieve. Straw 
 hats are made here in large quantities. In the vicinity is the 
 royal villa of Cafaggiola, the ancient residence of the Medici. 
 Pop. 9399. 
 
BARBEKINO-DI-VAL-D ELSA 
 
 324 
 
 BARCELONA 
 
 BARBERINO-Di-VAL-i/ELSA, a tn. Tuscany, prov. of, 
 and 14 m. S. by W. Florence, commanded by a castle. The 
 Uarberiiii family, to which Pope Urban VIII. and several 
 cardinals belonged, derived its name from this town. Excel 
 lent cheese, called di Lucardo, is prepared here. Pop. 725. > 
 
 BARBENTANNE, a tn. France, dep. Bouches-du-Khonc, ! 
 about 4 m. S. Avignon, at the confluence of the Rhone and 
 Durance, in a wine and fruit district. The town, on the 
 slope of a hill, surmounted by the ruins of an old castle, is j 
 well built, and has a fine promenade. The inhabitants, who | 
 are remarkable for their liveliness and love of dancing, are 
 engaged exclusively in the culture of the ground, and more 
 especially in that of vines and olives. Pop. 1831. 
 
 BARBEZIEUX, a small tn. France, dep. Charente, 20 m 
 S.W. Angouleme. It is tolerably well built, and pleasantly 
 situated in a wine and grazing district. Trade : principally 
 in agricultural produce. It has also some manufactures of 
 coarse hempen cloth, and extensive tanneries. There is a 
 mineral spring in the vicinity. Pop. 2335. 
 
 BARBONA, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, prov. of, 
 and 20 m. S.S.W. Padua, 1. bank, Adige, containing a parish 
 church and an oratory. Pop. 2500. 
 
 BARBUDA, one of the Caribbean or W. India Islands, 
 belonging to Great Britain, 27 in. N. of Antigua, of an oval 
 form, 15m. long, S.E. to N.W., and 8 m. broad; lat. 1733 N.; 
 Ion. 61 43 W. (R.) It is low, level, and fertile, well covered 
 with woods, stocked with deer and various kinds of game. 
 Some dangerous reefs extend off the island. The climate is 
 healthy, and the air so mild and pure, that invalids from other 
 islands resort here for the benefit of their health. The island 
 is a proprietary of Government, the only one in the W. Indies, 
 and belongs to the family of Codrington. It produces, in 
 great abundance, corn, cotton, pepper, and tobacco, but no 
 sugar. It has no harbour, but a roadstead on its W. side. 
 
 BARBY, a tn. Prussian Saxony, gov. of, and 14 m. S.S.E. 
 Magdeburg, 1. bank, Elbe. It is walled, and well built, has 
 an old castle and three churches, with manufactures of linen 
 and cotton, soapworks, breweries, and distilleries. Pop. 3400. 
 
 BARBY, par. Eng. Northampton ; 3700 ac. Pop. 640. 
 
 BARCA, a dist., N. Africa, forming the E. division of the 
 regency of Tripoli ; between lat. 26 30 and 33 N., and from 
 Ion. 20 to 25 30 E. ; length, N. to S., about 500 m. ; greatest 
 breadth, E. to W., about 400 m. All ancient writers, with 
 exception of Herodotus, represent this country as a desert, 
 and this representation was generally believed even in modern 
 times ; but it is now ascertained, that though that part of it 
 next the Libyan desert, which bounds it on the S., is almost 
 barren, the sides and summits of the hills in the E. and N. 
 portions are fertile ; both containing cultivated fields, which 
 yield luxuriant crops, and large tracts of excellent pasturage. 
 A little way inland, an extensive plateau, broken by a range 
 of hills, lies parallel with the coast. The utmost height of 
 these hills does not exceed 1800 ft. The whole of this tract 
 is thickly wofdcd, and covered with excellent soil. Among 
 its vegetable productions are the pine, palm, date, fig, and 
 olive, and a great variety of flowering shrubs, including roses, 
 laurestinas, honeysuckles, &c. The principal cereals culti 
 vated are Indian millet and oats. There are no rivers which 
 contain water at all seasons, but a great number of mountain- 
 torrents, that pour down the ravines to the W., S., and E., and 
 are soon lost in the sands ; amidst which, however, are found 
 the two oases of Aoudjelah and Syouah. The domestic animals, j 
 camels, hor.ses, oxen, assus, sheep, and goats, are numerous, 
 and form the chief wealth of the inhabitants, who are Bedouin 
 Arabs. Beasts of prey, such as hyenas, jackals, &c., and all 
 sorts of noxious insects, also abound. Barca, so called from i 
 the Greek Kanxtt, once contained two wealthy Greek colonies, I 
 one of the same name, and the other called Cyrene ; and was , 
 regarded as one of the chief granaries of the African coast. | 
 The Romans succeeded the Greeks ; and the remains of temples, 
 aqueducts, and other great public undertakings, together with 
 the discovery of numerous Greek and Roman coins, whose 
 inscriptions identify them with the country, show at once the 
 importance to which it had attained, and the amount of civili 
 zation introduced. All this, however, has long passed away, 
 and the Arab is again sole master of the country. The seat 
 of the fabulous Hesperian gardens was placed here. Pop. 
 astimated at 1,000,000. 
 
 BARCELONA, a prov. Spain, one of the four subdivi- 
 
 sions of Catalonia, bounded, N.E. by prov. Gcrona, S.E. by 
 the Mediterranean, S. NV. by Tarragon.",, and N.W. by Lerida ; 
 area, 3905 sq. m. It is generally mountainous, especially the 
 N. portion, being traversed by offsets from the Pyrenees ; the 
 highest peak, the Turon de la Loina, on the confines of Gerona, 
 is covered with perpetual snow. The mountains are mostly 
 well wooded, and afford fine timber for ship and house build 
 ing. One of the most remarkable objects in this province, 
 perhaps in Europe, is an enormous mass of rock-salt near 
 Cardona, between 400 and 500 ft. above the river Cardener, 
 and nearly 4 m. in circumference, equally celebrated for the 
 purity of the mineral and for the brilliant effect of the sun s 
 rays on its crystal pyramids. The plains and valleys, watered 
 by the Llobregat, Besos, Tordera, and numerous other streams, 
 all falling into the Mediterranean, are fertile, and yield good 
 crops of wheat, rye, barley, and other grain, fruits and veget 
 ables, with abundance of oil and wine ; and the rich meadows 
 depasture numerous flocks. The climate is variable, cold, 
 and rough in the uplands, but mild, salubrious, and clear in 
 the lowlands, especially on the coast. Game abounds, and 
 wolves and bears are sometimes met with in the wilder parts 
 of the mountains. The manufactures are considerable and 
 various, consisting of woollen, cotton, linen, and silken fabrics ; 
 hats, glass, soap, cutlery, ribbon, earthenware, gunpowder, 
 cocoa, stockings, gloves, and brandy ; tanneries, dyeworks, and 
 bleachfields are numerous. Education in Barcelona is, per 
 haps, better attended to than in any other province in Spain ; 
 benevolent institutions of various kinds, as well as schools for 
 the instruction of the rising generation, being generally found 
 in all towns of any importance. Probably in some measure 
 owing to these advantages, crime (with exception of smug 
 gling) has of late years been considerably on the decrease. 
 Pop. 533,695. (Madoz.) 
 
 BARCELONA, a seaport tn. Spain, cap. prov. of same 
 name, Catalonia, 312 m. E.N.E. Madrid; lat. (Mole light) 
 41 22 36" N.; Ion. 2 11 E. (R.) It is semicircular in its 
 general outline, and is both surrounded by walls and defended 
 
 Plaza del Pnlacic. 
 6 Governor s Paln-x. 
 c Kxchamr-. 
 d Cathedral. 
 
 < ni.hop s Palace. 
 </ ( aliil.lo (lowiihounf) 
 h Convent . f St. AuRU! 
 k La RamWa. 
 
 by a citadel, which forms its N.E. boundary. It is not strong, 
 however, in itself, being commanded by the fort of Montjoi, 
 occupying a height of that name in the 8. The possession 
 of this fort necessarily secures that of the town and citadel 
 
BARCELONA 
 
 325 
 
 BARCELONA (Naw) 
 
 also. Barcelona is divided into two nearly equal parts by 
 a finely-planted promenade, called La Kambla, running 
 N.N.W. from the shore. The N.W. division forms the old, 
 and the S.W. division the new town, the former consisting 
 chiefly of narrow, crooked, ill-paved streets, while those of the 
 latter are more spacious and regular. To the E. of the 
 town, and S. of the citadel is the extensive suburb of Bar- 
 celonetta, laid out with great regularity, built chiefly of 
 brick, and occupied by sailors, and other seafaring people. 
 Many of the houses of Barcelona itself are also of brick, but 
 most of them, particularly in the new town, are of hewn stone, 
 several stories in height, and of an imposing appearance. In 
 recent times, great improvements have been made. Gas has 
 been introduced, and extensive sewers have been constructed. 
 Fountains of the finest water are found in every quarter, and 
 in addition to La Kambla, already mentioned, the Muralla de 
 Tierra and the Muralla del Mar, form almost unrivalled pro 
 menades. The principal public edifice is the cathedral, which 
 stands in the highest part of the old town. Its origin dates 
 from the first ages of Christianity, but its present form of 
 Gothic architecture appears to belong to the end of the 13th 
 century. It is approached by a lofty flight of steps, and sur 
 mounted by two towers. It is by no means an elegant struc 
 ture, and part of it, particularly its portal, remains unfinished. 
 There are numerous other churches, several of them ancient 
 and handsome, but scarcely entitled to a separate notice. One 
 of the most remarkable buildings of Barcelona is the Palacio 
 de la Deputacion, where the Cortes of the province used to 
 hold their sittings. It is in the Greco-Roman style, and is 
 now called the Audiencia, being occupied by the courts of 
 law. The records of Aragon and Catalonia are kept in it. 
 Some of them are of the ninth century, and the whole collec 
 tion is said to be one of the most interesting of the kind in 
 
 of cotton and woollen goods manufactured in one year, lia* 
 been estimated at 440,000, and the number of shoes annually 
 exported at 700,000, value 70,290. Its other chief exports 
 are iron, copper, fire-arms, cork, fruit, wines, and brandies. 
 Its principal imports are Baltic timber, wax from Africa, 
 stock fish from Newfoundland in British bottoms, Swedish 
 iron, Styrian steel, Kiga and Petersburg hemp, copper and 
 iron ware from Germany, and various articles of French and 
 Italian manufacture. The following table exhibits the amounts 
 of the exports and imports of the port from 1841 to 1846, 
 along with the number of vessels entered and cleared : 
 
 Y~ 
 
 ENTERED. 
 
 CLEARED. 
 
 V.-ssuls. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Value of Cargo 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Value of Carto. 
 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 
 6134 
 3GG7 
 2551 
 3125 
 3266 
 3193 
 
 206,730 
 189,117 
 224,411 
 256.121 
 259,592 
 537,040 
 
 4,433,832 
 3,651,750 
 2,672,858 
 3,121,879 
 3,065,499 
 3,267,632 
 
 5803 
 
 2872 
 2610 
 3010 
 3623 
 3522 
 
 189,873 
 147,269 
 225,960 
 245,090 
 270,287 
 756,807 
 
 3,968,457 
 3,007,404 
 2,076,560 
 2,180,970 
 2,221,197 
 2,389,120 
 
 THE CUSTOM-HOUSE, AND STREET OF THE CUSTOM-HOUSK, BARCELONA From Chapuy, L 
 
 existence. Of modern buildings, the principal are the custom 
 house, the exchange, the theatre, and the prison. The con 
 ventual establishments, though many of them have been 
 suppressed, are still nominally 22. The principal educational 
 establishment is the university, which, though it had almost 
 fallen into complete decay, has lately been revived, and pro 
 mises again to become worthy of its early fame. At present 
 its chief functions are performed by the colleges, in which a 
 complete course in the arts and sciences is given. In con 
 nection with it are numerous schools, in which elementary 
 education is provided for all classes. Theological education 
 is given chiefly in the Seminario Conciliar, while there are 
 several separate establishments specially set apart for the 
 study of medicine. Charitable and beneficent institutions are 
 numerous; the chief being the Casa de Caridad, Casa de 
 Misericordia, and the hospital of the Holy Cross. Among 
 literary institutions, may be mentioned four public libraries 
 and two museums, the Academy of Belles Lettres, and the 
 Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, &c. 
 
 Barcelona is the seat of various manufactures, the principal 
 of which are silks, woollens, flowered cottons, calicoes, lace, 
 and shoes; and it also has a foundry for cannon. The amount 
 
 The trade of Barcelona has greatly fallen off from what it 
 used to be in former times, more especially the decrease of 
 intercourse with Britain is very marked. Half a century ago, 
 many hundreds of British vessels entered the port in the course 
 of a year; in 1841 the number was 57, which, in 1846, had 
 increased again to 90 ; the tonnage, at the same dates, being 
 respectively 7469 and 15,080. Amongst the causes assigned 
 for this decav in the trade with Britain are, the non-importa 
 tion of English hardware, the German being now preferred 
 on account of its greater cheapness ; the falling off of the 
 traffic in Newfoundland fish, which has passed almost entirely 
 into the hands of the Swedes and Norwegians ; and, lastly, an 
 all but total cessation of the cotton trade 
 with England, the Catalonians now import 
 ing their cotton themselves direct from 
 Pernambuco. The main part of the trade 
 now is coasting; the number of Spanish 
 vessels entered in 1846 was 2925; cleared, 
 327 1 ; and for the preceding years the pro- 
 ^_ portion was similar. The principal trades 
 
 A m the town are shoemakers, tailors, bra 
 ziers, armourers, cutlers, carpenters, em 
 broiderers, silk-weavers, cabinet-makers, 
 and turners. The port of the city is com 
 modious, but obstructed by a bar, which 
 will not allow of vessels entering that draw 
 more than 12 ft. water ; large ships are, 
 therefore, obliged to anchor outside. On 
 the mole, which is 400 fathoms in length, 
 there are a lighthouse, two batteries, and 
 two redoubts. 
 
 Barcelona is said to have been founded 
 by the Carthaginians under Hamilcar 
 Barca; hence its name. After the fall 
 of Carthage, the Romans first became its 
 masters, then the Goths, who possessed 
 it, with the rest of Catalonia, till the year 714, when it was 
 conquered by the Saracens. In 805, it was retaken from 
 them, and governed by French viceroys. In 874, it became 
 an independent earldom, and maintained its independence till 
 the annexation of Catalonia to the crown of Aragon in the 
 12th century. In 1714, it was besieged by the Duke of Ber 
 wick, for Philip V. of Spain, and taken, after a defence equal 
 ling in desperate valour that of Saragossa in more modern times. 
 In 1 786, when the population was a third less than now, 
 the number of monks in the city was 1212 ; of secular priest?, 
 1216; and of nuns, 654. Pop. (1842), including Barcelonett.i , 
 12], 815. (Madoz; Parliamentary Papers.} 
 
 BARCELONA (N E w), a tn. and port, Venezuela, at the 
 mouth of the Neveri, on the Caribbean Sea; lat. 10 10 N.; 
 Ion. 64 47: W. The houses are mostly of mud, ill constructed, 
 and poorly furnished. The streets are unpaved, and, in wet 
 weather, extremely filthy; while, in dry, the dust is intoler 
 able. Its harbour and shipping are protected by a fortress, 
 called El Morro de Barcelona, situated on a hill which rises 
 to about 400 ft. above the level of the sea. In 1847, the 
 number of vessels entered was 27; tonn. 3241; cleared, 39; 
 tonn. 4497. Barcelona is a most unhealthy place, from the 
 
BAECELONETA 3 
 
 excessive lieat and moisture of the air. The country around, 
 however, is extremely fertile. The chief trade of the town 
 is in horned cattle, jerked beef, and hides; and of agricultural 
 produce, in indigo, annotto, cotton, and cacao. Pop. (1807), 
 15,000, half whites, and half mulattoes and negroes. 
 
 BARCELONETA, a tn. Venezuela, 105 m. S.S.E. An 
 gostura, 1. bank, Paraguay. Pop. about 2000. 
 
 BARCELONETTA. See BARCELONA. 
 
 BAECELONETTE, a tn. France, dep. Basses Alpes, on 
 the Italian frontier, 30 in. N.E. Digne. It stands in the 
 middle of the valley of same name, here 1 in. broad. The 
 two principal streets, the houses of whicV are lined with a row 
 of arcades, cross each other at right angles, and have smaller 
 streets, laid out in regular order, opening into them. Most 
 of the houses have their windows as much as possible to the 
 S., with very small openings to the N., on account of the 
 extreme severity of the cold when the wind blows from the 
 mountains. At the end of the main street, towards Italy, a 
 handsome square, planted with trees, forms an agreeable pro 
 menade, and round it are placed the barracks, courthouse, 
 prison, and other public buildings. Snow falls heavily in 
 winter, during which, the arcades already mentioned form 
 convenient and sheltered pathways. Like most frontier towns, 
 Barcelonette has suffered by war, having been burnt no fewer j 
 than seven times. It is now, however, perhaps the prettiest 
 of all the French towns in the Alps. Silk, serges, and small ! 
 drapery are manufactured here, and as it is the central point 
 where the inhabitants of the valley dispose of their produce, 
 and purchase their household and other articles, the Saturday 
 market has the appearance of a fair. The valley of Bar 
 celonette formerly belonged to the Counts of Provence, sub 
 sequently to Savoy, but is now in France. The people have 
 always been noted for their love of liberty, and, at the close 
 of the 18th century, when an attempt was made to revive 
 feudal exactions, which had previously been abolished, the 
 measure was abandoned on account of the clamour it created, 
 the mountaineers willingly paying a sum of 1 00,000 livres 
 (about 4000) for exemption from seignorial claims. Pop. 
 of tn. 1905. 
 
 BAECELLOS. 1, A tn. and par. Portugal, prov. Minho, 
 chief town of dist. of same name, r. bank, Cavado, here crossed 
 by a handsome stone bridge, 27 m. N. Oporto. It is sur 
 rounded by walls, flanked with towers ; and has broad and 
 straight streets, lined with well-built houses; contains two 
 churches, two monasteries, an hospital, a poorhouse, and a 
 grammar-school ; stands in a rich and well-cultivated district, 
 and has several important fairs. Barcellos is said to have 
 been founded by Hamilcar, the father of Hannibal, 250 years 
 
 B.C. Pop. 3900. 2, A tn. Brazil, prov. Para, r. bank, Rio 
 
 Negro ; lat. 1 S. ; Ion. 63 W. It has a church ; and, at one 
 time, was the residence of the chief of the district of Kio Negro. 
 Now it is inhabited by Indians, and by a few people, partly 
 fiehermen, agriculturists, and merchants. 3, A vil. Brazil, 
 prov. of, and 100 m. S.S.W. Bahia, advantageously situated 
 on the river Marahu. It has a church and primary school, 
 and its inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture. 
 
 BAECHESTON-wiTii-wii.LiNGTON, par. Eng. Warwick; 
 1620 ac. Pop. 193. 
 
 BAECHFELD, a market tn. Hesse-Cassel, prov. of, and 
 33 m. N.E. Fulda, r. bank, Werra. It contains a palace, a 
 castle, a church, a stamp-hall, and has four yearly markets. ! 
 Pop. 1600. 
 
 BAECOMB, par. Eng. Sussex; 5280 ac. Pop. 1028. 
 
 BAUD, or BAKDO, a vil. and fortress, Sardinian States, 
 Piedmont, 1. bank, Doire, 22 m. E.S.E. Aosta. It stands on 
 a height at the S. entrance of the valley of Aosta, and, in 1800, 
 after a siege by the French, was taken and razed. It has since 
 been rebuilt. 
 
 BAEDEL, a tn. Japan, Bay of Totomi, in the S.E. of the 
 isl. of Niphon. It is a place of some note, and has botn a con 
 siderable general trade and fishing. 
 
 BAEDENBEEG, a tn. Rhenish Prussia, prov. of, and 5 m. 
 N.N.E. Aix-la-Chapelle. It has a It. Catholic parish church, 
 and three yearly markets. Coal is worked in the neighbour 
 hood. Pop. 1290. 
 
 BAEDFIELU, three pars. Eng. Essex: 1, Bardfield 
 [Great], 3400 ac. Pop. 1 120. 2, Bardfield (Little], 1970 ac. 
 p. 375. 3, Bardfield- Soling, or Little Kalinrj, 1510 ac. P. 381. 
 
 BAEDT, a tn. and com. Italy, duchy of, and 30 m. S. by 
 
 BAEEILY 
 
 E. Piacenza, 1. bank, Ceno, commanded by a castle situated 
 on a hill S. the town, erected in the ninth century. In the 
 vicinity are forests of chestnut, beech, and oak, and abundant 
 pasturage for cattle. Two annual fairs are held. Pop. of 
 tn. 720; com. 7314. 
 
 BAEDIA, an isl. Gulf of Siam, E. coast, Lower Siam, 
 opposite the embouchure of the Tayung; lat. 10 50 N.; 
 Ion. 99 50 E. (R.) It is 20 m. in length, 10 m. in breadth, 
 very lofty, and is separated from the mainland by a channel 
 about 2 m. in width. 
 
 BAEDNEY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 5490 ac. Pop. 1192. 
 
 BAEDOLINO, a vil. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, 15 m. 
 N.W. Verona, having a small harbour on the E. margin of 
 Lake Garda, 7 m. N. Peschiera. Near this village, at the 
 famous battle of Rivoli, January 1797, the French under 
 Bonaparte defeated the Austrians under Alvenzi. Pop 1320. 
 
 BAEUONNECHIA, or BARDONNF.CHE, a vil. Sardinian 
 States, Piedmont, prov. of, and 18 m. W. Susa, on a streamlet 
 of same name, a tributary of the Doria. It has some trade in 
 cattle. Pop. 1000. 
 
 BAEDOWICK, a vil. Hanover, prov. of, and 4 m. N. 
 Liineburg, on the Ilmenau. It is a very ancient place, and 
 has a cathedral church. The chief employments are field and 
 garden culture and linen weaving, and some trade is done in 
 seeds. Pop. 1400. 
 
 BAEUSEY, par. Eng. York, W. Riding; 2780 ac. P. 469. 
 
 BAEDSEY, an isl., N. Wales, co. Carnarvon, in the Irish 
 Sea, at the N. point of Cardigan Bay; lat. 52 45 N.; Ion. 
 4 48 W. (R.) ; about 2 m. long and 1 broad, called in Welsh. 
 Juys Eulli [the island of the current], from the violence of 
 the stream in Bardsey Sound. On the S.E. side is a small 
 harbour, capable of admitting vessels of 40 tons burden. 
 There is a lighthouse on the island, with fixed and revolving 
 lights, 129 ft. above the sea. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 employed in fishing and agriculture. Pop. 90. 
 
 BAEDT, or BARTH, a tn. Prussia, prov. Pomerania, on 
 the Binnensee or Gulf of Ribnik, a large lake communicating 
 with the Baltic, 17 m. W. Stralsund; lat. 54 21 N.; Ion. 
 12 42 E. It is old, but tolerably well built ; has manufactures 
 of soap, candle, and tobacco ; and, by means of its harbour, 
 which is good, and its communication with the Baltic, carries 
 on a considerable commerce. Pop. 4400. 
 
 BAEDWELL, par. Eng. Suffolk; 3320 ac. Pop. 826. 
 
 BAEEGES, or BAKREGES [anc. Valletria], a watering- 
 place, France, dep. Hautes-Pyre ne es, 22 m. S. Tarbes, on the 
 Gave de Bastan, celebrated for its hot sulphurous springs. The 
 narrow valley of Bareges contains 18 villages, perched, like 
 eagles nests, high up in the mountains, or on little plateaux, 
 formed by the debris that has fallen from them, and affording 
 a few acres of ground for cultivation. The village of Bareges 
 is composed of a single tolerably spacious street, of about 60 
 good houses, intended principally for the accommodation of 
 the visitors to the baths. It is a dull-looking place, but some 
 of the wildest scenery of the Pyrenees is in the neighbourhood, 
 and the road that passes up the valley from Pierrefitte and 
 Luz is considered an extraordinary effort of engineering skill. 
 From June to September the place is crowded with invalids, 
 sometimes to the number of 800, besides the soldiers in tho 
 military hospital. The remainder of the year is winter, but 
 snowfalls in summer are not uncommon. There are six 
 springs, varying in temperature from 82 to 111. Their 
 principal ingredient is sulphuret of sodium, with portions of 
 carbonate, muriate, arid sulphate of soda; azote, sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, and animal matter. They seem principally bene 
 ficial in rheumatic complaints, cutaneous affections, ulcers, 
 old wounds, and contractions of the muscles or tendons. The 
 inhabitants are remarkable for their skill in knitting, and many 
 articles of dress are very tastefully got up. The ladies 
 dresses called bartyes, take their name from this place. 
 
 BAEEILY, a dist. Hindoostan, Delhi, between lat. 28 
 and 29 N.; bounded, N. by the Kumaon hills, W. by the 
 Ganges, E. and S. by part of the Oude territory, and S., S.W., 
 and N.W. by Furruckabad, Alighur, and Mooradabad; area, 
 6900 sq. m. The soil is well watered by numerous small 
 streams. To N. of Rampoor, the Kosila is navigable during 
 the rainy seasons, and serves to float down large timber. In 
 summer the heat is intense ; but in winter, with N. winds, the 
 thermometer falls below 30 Fah.. and water freezes in the 
 tents. The surface, in general, is level, and the soil excellent: 
 
BAREILY 
 
 327 
 
 BARI 
 
 date-palms, bananas, walnut, apple, and pear trees, vines, &c., 
 are plentiful. Sugar and grain are grown everywhere, and, 
 together with rice and cotton, bring the highest prices. The 
 chief imports from the lower provinces are chintzes, salt, coarse 
 sugar, cottons, cutlery, cheap trinkets, and coral beads. From 
 the hilly country, and even from Thibet, goods are transported 
 on the backs of goats. The Rohillas or Patans, of this dis 
 trict, are a tall and handsome race of men, and comparatively 
 fair and well-featured. The tribe of Bungaries (carriers and 
 bullock-drivers), are estimated at 14,000, all Mahometans. 
 Bareily formed part of Rohilcund previous to the conquest of 
 that country, in 1774, by the British. In 1801, it was ceded 
 to the East India Company by Vizier Shuja-ud-Doolah, Nabob 
 of Oude. 
 
 BAREILY, a tn. Hindoostan, cap. of above dist., on the 
 united streams of the Jooah and Sunkra; lat. 28 38 N.; 
 Ion. 79 20 E.; 131 m. E.S.E. Delhi, and 148 m. N.W. 
 Lucknow. The site of Bareily is elevated and pleasant; the 
 principal street is nearly 2 m. long, and the houses, although 
 mostly of one story only, are well built; in some other parts 
 of the town, the houses are mere huts or hovels. There are 
 here several mosques, and an old fort in ruins ; the civil and 
 military servants of the E. India Company live in cantonments 
 S. of the town, where a new and strong quadrangular citadel, 
 surrounded by a ditch, has been built. The articles manu 
 factured here, wholly by the Mahometans, are chiefly warlike 
 cutlery of all kinds, such as swords, daggers, &c., also bows 
 and arrows ; saddles, and horse trappings ; fine carpeting, em 
 broidery, and jewellery. Bookbinding and engraving; shoe- 
 making, tailoring, tanning aud dressing leather, and all the 
 minor trades from pursuing which the Hindoo is prohibited, 
 are likewise carried on by them. The brazen water-pots of 
 Bareily are much valued, as well as the cabinet-work, painted 
 black, varnished, and adorned with a yellow pigment, in imi 
 tation of gilding. Bareily possesses 131 Persian and Hindoo 
 schools, and some hundreds of seminaries, pretty well attended, 
 besides an English college, teachers of medicine, &c. A native 
 school, under the auspices of the Company, had, in 1841, about 
 70 Hindoo scholars. Bareily is the head-quarters of a civil 
 establishment and circuit court, to which nine other districts 
 are subordinate. The lands in the neighbourhood are but 8 ft. 
 above the waters of the Ramgunga, and are annually inundated. 
 Pop. (one-third Mahometans), 65,796. (Hamilton s East India 
 Gaa. ; Parliamentary Papers.) 
 
 BARENTIN, a tn. France, dep. Seine-Inferieure (Nor 
 mandy), r. bank, Austreberte, about 10 m. N.W. Rouen, with 
 manufactures of handkerchiefs and calicoes, cotton, paper, and 
 oil mills. There is also a mill for spinning flax, which has 
 500 spindles. Pop. 2278. 
 
 BARENTSWEIL, or BAKETSCHWEIL, a vil. and par., 
 can. of, and 16 m. E.S.E. Zurich, on a height near a stream 
 of same name, which traverses the parish, and is here crossed 
 by a stone bridge. The church is new and handsome, and 
 possesses a fine chime of bells. The greater part of the inhab 
 itants are employed in spinning and weaving silk. Pop. 3462. 
 
 BARETOUN (AL), [anc. Parcetonium}, a tn. Egypt, on 
 the Mediterranean, on the borders of the desert of Barca ; 
 lat. 31 30 N. ; Ion. 27 30 E. It is now, perhaps, better 
 known by the name of Port Mhaddra or Berek Marsa. Its 
 harbour is good, and enables it to carry on a considerable 
 trade. 
 
 BARFLEUR, a seaport tn. France, dcp. Manche (Nor 
 mandy), 15 m. E. Cherbourg; lat. 49 40 6" N.; Ion. 1 15 30" 
 W. (R.) It is situated ou the peninsula of Cotentin. in the 
 English Channel, and lias a harbour so small, so encumbered I 
 with rocks, and every way so ill adapted for the purposes of 
 navigation, that the only wonder is, not how it should now 
 have ceased to be, but how it ever could have been, a port of 
 any consequence. Accordingly it deserves notice at present 
 solely on account of interesting historical associations. In 
 the 12th century, Barfleur was more frequented than any other 
 port of Normandy ; and, after the Norman conquest, it was the 
 principal point of communication with England, and it was 
 on one of the rocks near the port that William, only son of 
 Henry I., was shipwrecked in 1120, and perished, with several 
 members of the royal family, and 140 young English iioble- 
 naen. In the 13th century, Normandy was annexed to France, 
 when the trade of Barfleur was transferred to Cherbourg. In 
 1346, and again in 1405, Barfleur was pillaged by the English. 
 
 At the close of the 16th century, the fortifications were de 
 stroyed by command of Henry IV. of France. Small vessels 
 only can now enter the harbour, but there can be no doubt 
 that it admitted vessels of considerable burden during the 
 Middle Ages. It has two lighthouses, with fixed lights, 
 neither of which can be seen from any great distance at sea. 
 The little traffic now carried on is in flax, hemp, butter, oys 
 ters, and fish. Pop. 1185. 
 
 BARFORD, six pars. Eng.: 1, par. Norfolk; 940 ac. 
 Pop. 417. 2, par. Warwick ; 1490 ac. Pop. 849. 3, Barford 
 (Great), par. Oxford ; 1180 ac. Pop. 370. 4, Barford (Great], 
 par. Bedford; 2830 ac. Pop. 814. 5, Barford (Little), par. 
 Bedford; 1190 ac. Pop. 190. 6, Barford (St. Martin], par. 
 Wilts; 2290 ac. Pop 569. 
 
 BARFRESTON, or BARSTON, par. Eng. Kent; 3GO ac. 
 Pop. 125. 
 
 BARGA-DE-GARFAGNANA, a tn. and com. Tuscany, dist. 
 of, and 25 m. N. Pisa, near the 1. bank of the Lerchio. It has 
 a handsome collegiate church, and a powder manufactory. 
 Beautiful jasper is found in the vicinity, and chestnut forests 
 cover the mountain sides. Pop. 7194. 
 
 BARGE, a tn. Sardinian States, Piedmont, prov. Saluzzo, 
 at the foot of Mount Monbracco ; 1. bank, Grandon, 28 m. 
 S.S.W. Turin. It has a communal college, manufactures 
 fire-arms, and carries on a brisk general trade. Slates are 
 quarried in the neighbourhood. In 1808 it suffered greatly 
 from an earthquake. Pop. 7000. 
 
 BARGOUZINSK, a tn. Siberia, gov. Irkutsk, cap. dist. 
 of same name, 30 m. above the mouth of the Bargousine, 
 which, after a course of about 200 m., falls into the E. side 
 of Lake Baikal. In its neighbourhood are thermal baths, and 
 the bitter lakes from .which the purgative salt of Siberia is 
 obtained. 
 
 BARIIAM, three pars. Eng.: 1, par. Huntingdon; 700 
 ac. Pop. 107. 2, par. Kent; 4480 ac. Pop. 1151. 3, par. 
 Suffolk; 2520 ac. Pop. 576. 
 
 BARIIOLME, par. Eng. Lincoln; 1230 ac. Pop. 165. 
 
 BARI, a vil., isl. Sardinia, near the E. coast, prov. 
 Lanusei, 55 m. N.N.E. Cagliari. It is very unhealthy; but 
 has a small harbour, at which some corn and wine are shipped. 
 Pop. 1500. 
 
 BARI (TERRA m), a prov. Naples; bounded, N. and 
 N.E. by the Adriatic, N.W. prov. Capitanata, S.W. and S. 
 Basilicata, S.E. Otranto; greatest length, from N.W. to S.E., 
 80m.; average breadth, about 34m.; area, 1290geo. sq. m. In 
 the S. and S.W. it is traversed by an offset of the Apennines; 
 but the province, as a whole, is perhaps the most fertile and 
 best cultivated in the kingdom. It has three lakes, and 
 numerous mountain-torrents; but the only river of the least 
 consequence is the Ofanto ; and even it is almost confined in 
 its course to the N.W. frontier. The principal products are 
 corn, flax, tobacco, cotton, wine, olives, and capers. Large 
 numbers of sheep, goats, swine, and asses are reared. The 
 principal manufacture is salt. Some saltpetre also is obtained. 
 Bari takes its name from its capital. Pop. 426,000. 
 
 BARI [anc. Barium}, a seaport tn. Naples, prov. and cap. 
 of Terra di Bari ; W. shore, Adriatic, 50 in. N.W. Taranto; 
 lat. 41 7 42" N. ; Ion. 16 52 30" E. (R.) It stands on a small 
 promontory, and is defended by walls and a castle; streets in 
 general narrow, and houses badly built. The cathedral is a 
 handsome structure, with a tower upwards of 260 ft. high. 
 Other public edifices are, the celebrated priory of St. Nicholas, 
 founded in 1087, and still resorted to by pilgrims; the royal 
 lyceum or academical school, with 1 6 professorships of sciences, 
 letters, luw, aud medicine; the college, founded in 1817, for 
 the education of the nobility; the diocesan seminary, several 
 parish churches and convents, an orphan institution, two 
 hospitals, an arsenal, with extensive magazines for grain, and 
 a mont-de-pitte. Ban is the seat of a criminal and civil court, 
 and of an archbishopric, metropolitan to the sees of Bitonto- 
 et-Ruvo and Conversano. It has manufactures of cotton and 
 linen goods, hats, silk, soap, and glass. The aqua stomachlca 
 di Santa- Scolastica, so generally used as a liqueur throughout 
 the kingdom of Naples, is prepared here in great perfection. 
 The port is small, and almost choked up with sand, but the 
 roadstead affords good anchorage-ground. Trade, principally 
 with Venice, Trieste, and the coasts of Dalinatia. Exports : 
 wine, grain, almonds, oil, and cotton, produced in the sur 
 rounding district. Bari, under the Romans, was governed 
 
BARIGIANO 
 
 BARNARD CASTLE 
 
 by its own magistrates. On the fall of the empire, it passed 
 first into the hands of the Saracens, and afterwards into those 
 of the Northmen, who became masters of Apulia, and fixed 
 their government in this town. It was thrice taken and de- j 
 stroyed, and thrice rebuilt on the same site. Pop. 21,373. I 
 
 BARIGIANO, a tn. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Ultra I., \ 
 1 1 m. S.W. Aquila. Pop. 2000. 
 
 BAR1LE, a tn. Naples, prov. Basilicata, 4 m. S.S.E. 
 Melfi, agreeably situated on a hill. It was founded by a 
 Greek colony of the Lower Empire, and the rites of the 
 Greek church were practised so late as the 17th century. It 
 has three churches. Pop. 3730. 
 
 BAR1MA, a headland and river, British Guiana. The 
 former is the extreme N.W. point of that territory, on the 
 S.E. side of the estuary of the Orinoco; lat. 8 36 N. ; Ion. 
 00 40 W. (K.) The river, after a course of about 60 m., 
 almost precisely parallel with the coast, falls into the estuary 
 of the Orinoco a little further up than point Barima. 
 
 BARJAC. 1, A tn. France, dep. Card, 17 m. E. Alais, 
 at the foot of the Ceveimes ; with a cold mineral spring ; and 
 in the neighbourhood a quarry of excellent stone, for building 
 or sculpture. Pop. 1748. 2, A tn., dep. Lozere. Pop. 1028. 
 
 BARJALS, a tn. France, dep. Var, 9 m. N.N.W. Brig- 
 nolles. It is well built, and the environs are singularly 
 picturesque. The chief products of Barjals are nongat, a kind 
 of cake, made of almonds and honey, for which there is a great 
 demand ; vermicelli, glue, and earthenware. It has also a 
 refinery of wax, paper and fulling mills, tanneries, and distil 
 leries. Its trade is in oil, brandy, figs, raisins, and olives. 
 Pop. 3181. 
 
 BARKA. See BUKKA. 
 
 BARKBY. par. Eng. Leicester; 2290 ac Pop. 849 
 
 BARKEHDIEH, a populous vil., W. Africa, Damga 
 country, on the Senegal ; inhabited by a warlike and agricul 
 tural tribe, called Daliankes, whose chief resides here. 
 
 BARKHAM, par. Eng. Berks; 1450 ac. Pop. 248. 
 
 BARKING, a tn. England, co. Essex, 1. bank, Ifoding, 
 about 2 m. above its junction with the Thames, and 7 N.E. 
 London ; consisting chiefly of one principal street ; houses 
 mostly of brick, and generally well built ; well lighted, but 
 badly supplied with water. It has a parish church, a hand 
 some structure, with a lofty tower, and containing some 
 ancient monuments; a Wesleyan and an Independent chapel, 
 and a meeting-house belonging to the Plymouth Brethren, 
 a national, infant, and Plymouth Brethren schools, a mutual 
 improvement society, a friendly society, and a parochial lend 
 ing library. No manufactures ; but the fishing trade is carried 
 on to a great extent. There is a convenient wharf at Barking 
 creek, which is navigable to llford for vessels of 80 tons. 
 Pop. (1841), 8718. 
 
 BARKING, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 3010 ac. Pop. 1879. 
 
 BARKOUL, or TcniN-Si, a tn. and lake, Mongolia, 
 prov. TV. Kansuh, on the N.N.W. margin of the desert of 
 Gobi. The TOWN is in lat. 43 40 N.; Ion. 94 E. ; a little 
 S.S.E. from the.lake, and about 38 m. N. the important town 
 of Kamil or Hami. Barkoul has a considerable trade in 
 provisions and clothing, and is governed, along with several 
 other towns and settlements around it, partly by Chinese 
 officers, and partly by the chieftains of the various tribes. 
 
 The country around is cultivated to a small extent. The 
 
 LAKE is from 10 to 15 m. in length, and about half that 
 breadth. 
 
 BARKSTON, par. Eng. Leicester ; 2870 ac. Pop. 403. 
 
 BARKSTONE, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 2080 ac. Pop. 41 3. 
 
 BARKWAY, a par. and tn. Eng. Hertford ; 5060 ac. 
 Pop. 1291. 
 
 BARK WITH, two pars. Eng.: 1, Barfa -itli (East], par. 
 Lincoln ; 990 ac. Pop. 255. 2, Earkwith (West], par. Lin 
 coln; 500 ac. Pop. 130. 
 
 BARLASTON, par. Eng. Stafford; 2340 ac. Pop. 591. 
 
 BARLAVINGTON, or BARLTON, par. Eng. Sussex; 
 1710 ac. Pop. 132. 
 
 BARLBOROUGH, par. and vil. Eng. Derby; 3220 ac. 
 Pop. 804. 
 
 BARLETTA, a seaport tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Bari, 
 cap. dist. of same name, W. shore, Adriatic, 33 m. N.W. Bari ; 
 lat. (telegraph) 41 19 18" N.; Ion. 16 17 30" E. (K.) It 
 is a fortified place of the fourth class, and is surrounded by a 
 tingle wall. The streets are wide, and well paved ; the houses 
 
 high (of stone), and in general well built. In the market 
 place is a colossal bronze statue, about 18 ft. high, supposed to 
 represent the Emperor Heraclius. The cathedral is a fine 
 Gothic edifice, the nave of which is supported by antique 
 granite columns. There are several other churches, con 
 vents for both sexes, an orphan institution, a college founded 
 by Ferdinand IV., and a theatre. The harbour is formed by 
 a mole running out from the shore. It admits of small vessels 
 only, but good anchorage-ground is found in the roadstead. 
 The port is defended by a citadel, part of which is falling to 
 ruins, (/lose by is a lazaretto. Barletta has a considerable 
 trade in grain, wine, almonds, and the other productions of 
 the country, which are exported to the different ports of the 
 Adriatic. The Neapolitan Government have some extensive 
 saltworks about 3 in. from the town. The sea-fishery forms 
 an important branch of industry. A great corn-market or 
 fair is held annually in November. Pop. 19,929. 
 
 BARLEY, par. Eng. Hertford; 2700 ac. Pop. 792. 
 
 BARLING, par. Eng. Essex ; 1240 ac. Pop. 326. 
 
 BARLINGS, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 2630 ac. Pop. 352. 
 
 BARMBY-ON-THE-MOOR, par. Eng. York, E. Riding; 
 2290 ac. Pop. 475. 
 
 BARMEN, a manufacturing tn. Rhenish Prussia, circle, 
 Elberfeld, dist. Diisseldorf; situated in the valley of the 
 Wupper, 27 m. N.N.E. Cologne. It is in fact a continuation 
 of the town of Elberfeld, to which it is united by a bridge, 
 and with which it forms one uninterrupted street of 6 m. in 
 length ; and it is composed of an agglomeration of numerous 
 places of different names, now constituted a town. Its situation 
 is healthy and picturesque, but the town itself is dirty, and 
 not prepossessing. The staple manufactures are ribbons and 
 tapes, which are very widely diffused. Silk is likewise manu 
 factured, with cotton and linen fabrics, linen and cotton thread, 
 velvet, lace, steel and plated articles, hardware, chemical 
 products, and earthenware, with establishments for calico- 
 printing, which have long been famous for the excellence of 
 Ihe dye called Turkey-red. The town is surrounded by 
 kitchen-gardens, the cultivation of which employs many 
 persons. It contains four churches, one of which, the Pro 
 testant church, is a very handsome building ; a high school, 
 a deaf and dumb asylum, exchange, two banks, a police court, 
 and a commercial tribunal. The district in which the united 
 towns of Elberfeld and Barmen are situated is the most popu 
 lous, the most industrious, and most thriving in the Prussian 
 dominions. Pop. (1846), 34,932. 
 
 BARMING, par. En-. Kent; 1210 ac. Pop. 584. 
 
 BARMOUTH, or ABEBMAW, a small seaport tn., N. 
 Wales, co. Merioneth, 8 m. W. Dolgelly; lat. 52 44 N. ; 
 Ion. 4 2 W.; at the mouth of the Maw or Afou; built on 
 steep and unequal ground, at the foot of a lofty mountain. 
 The houses rise in successive terraces above each other, and 
 are reached by steps cut in the rock. The town is much 
 frequented in summer for sea-bathing ; and some trade is done 
 in flannel and hosiery; and tanning and shipbuilding are also 
 carried on to some extent. Its chief exports are timber, 
 bark, copper, lead, &c.; imports: corn, flour, coals, lime 
 stone, hides, and groceries. It contains several dissenting 
 chapels. Pop. (1841), 1930. 
 
 BARMSTEDT, a market tn. Denmark, Holstein, co. 
 Eanzau, 19 m. N.N.W. Hamburg. Besides agriculture, the 
 main employment is shoemaking, for export, over Hamburg 
 to America. In the middle of the town is a good market 
 place. Four annual fairs are held, one of which, for oxen, is 
 important. Pop. 1700. 
 
 BARMSTON, par. Eng. York, E. Riding; 2180 ac. 
 Pop. 254. 
 
 BARNACK, par. Eng. Northampton ; 4440 ac. Pop. 860. 
 
 BARNAIIKLY, par. Irel. Cork; 895 ac. Pop. 1183. 
 
 BARNANEELY, par. Irel. Tipperary ; 21 67 ac. P. 752. 
 
 BARNARD CASTLE, a tn. and par. England, co. Dur 
 ham. The TOWN is on an eminence rising abruptly from the 
 Tees, 22 m. S.W. by S. Durham. From the principal street, 
 which is about 1 m. in length, two or three smaller ones, and 
 numerous lanes, diverge. The main streets are macadamized 
 in the middle, and pitched at sides with pebbles, and all are 
 lighted. The better class of houses are of freestone, and 
 many of them handsome ; but those of the working classes 
 are overcrowded and ill ventilated. Manufactures: two 
 , extensive thread-mills, ar.d four large carpet-manufactories. 
 
BARNARDISTON 
 
 329 
 
 BARNSTAPLE 
 
 Barnard Castle has a national school, which was attended, in 
 1849, by 295 scholars 181 boys, and 114 girls ; a dispensary, 
 and several charitable societies. A well-attended market is 
 held on Wednesdays. The greater portion of the working 
 population are of the manufacturing class, most of them being 
 employed in the thread-mills and carpet manufactories. Their 
 
 moral condition is represented as being extremely low. 
 
 The ruins of the CASTLE, which stand between the N. ex 
 tremity of the town and the river, form an imposing object. 
 They enclose an area of about 6 ac. Portions of the walls 
 stand on the verge of a cliff, which rises precipitously from 
 the bed of the river Tees, to the height of 70 ft., commanding 
 an extensive view of the beautiful valley of Teesdale. The 
 castle was originally built about the year 1178, by Barnard 
 Baliol, grandfather of John Baliol, king of Scotland. Pop. 
 (1841), 4452. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BARNARDISTON, or BARNISTON, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 
 1520 ac. Pop. 217. 
 
 BARNARD, a group of islands, N.E. coast, Australia, 
 within the Great Barrier Reef, extending in a straggling 
 direction for 6 m.,to the S. of Double Point; lat. 17 40 S.; 
 Ion. 146 30 E., about 30 in. from the shore. 
 
 BARNAUL, or BARNAULSKOI ZAVOD, a considerable 
 mining tn. Siberia, gov. of, and 230 m. S.W. Tomsk, on the 
 Barnaulska, near its influx into the Obi ; lat. 53 20 N. ; Ion. 
 83 26 E. It is well built, and contains regular and spacious 
 streets. The chief edifices, besides the churches, one of which 
 is Lutheran, for the use of the Germans employed about the 
 mines, are, the chancery offices for the mines, the command 
 ant s residence, the stores and barracks, and the public mart, 
 all built of wood. There is also a mining school, an observ 
 atory, a public library, and a museum of antiquities and na 
 tural history. It is the seat of the court of directors for the 
 whole of the mines of the Kolyvan line, including the silver 
 mines on the Obi, and the mines of the Altai Mountains. Ex 
 clusively of the lead mines in the vicinity of the town itself, 
 large quantities of that metal are here smelted from the 
 Sme inogorsk or Schlangenberg [Mountain of serpents] mines, 
 and also all auriferous silver ores. There are lime and brick 
 kilns here, a bell-foundry, two tile manufactories, glassworks, 
 and a mint for copper coin. Pop. (1850), 0920. 
 
 BARNBROUGII, BARNUURGH, or BARNBOROUGII, par. 
 Eng. York, W. Riding; 1770 ac. Pop. 508. 
 
 BARNBY, two pars. Eng. : 1, par. Suffolk; 1390 ac. 
 Pop. 296. 2, Barnby-in-the-willows, par. Notts; 1690 ac. 
 Pop. 266. 
 
 BARNBY- UPON DON, or BARNBY-DUN, par. and town 
 ship, Eng. York, W. Riding; 3670 ac. Pop. 629. 
 
 BARNEGAT INLET, U. States, New Jersey, 70 m. S. 
 New York. On the S. side is a fixed light, in lat. 39 45 54" 
 N ; Ion. 74 7 W. (R.) 
 
 BARNES, par. and vil. Eng. Surrey; 820 s,c. Pop. 1461. 
 
 BARNET, CHIPPING, or MARKET BARXET, a tn. and par. 
 England, co. Hertford. The town is 11-f m. N.W. London; 
 pleasantly situated on the summit of a hill, and consisting of 
 one principal street upwards of 1 m. in length. Some of the 
 houses have a respectable appearance, but many of them the 
 reverse ; water scant. It has a church, a venerable structure 
 of the 15th century ; an Independent chapel, a free school, a 
 national school, an hospital for six elderly women, several 
 alms-houses, and other minor charities. Races, and a large 
 cattle and horse fair, held in September. The cattle con 
 sist chiefly of small black cattle from Scotland. Baniet is 
 celebrated for the battle fought near it in 1470, between the 
 Earl of Warwick and Edward IV., in which the former was 
 defeated and slain. A column commemorates the event. 
 
 Area of par. 1440 ac. Pop. (1841), 2485. BARNET is the 
 
 name of other three parishes in England: 1, Barnct (East), 
 Hertford ; 1630 ac. Pop. 598. 2, Barmt-Friarn, or Friarn 
 Hornet, Middlesex; 1330 ac. Pop. 84 ( J. 3, Barnet-bylt- 
 Tf We?, Lincoln; 1030 ac. Pop. 679. 
 
 BARNEVELD, a vil. Holland, prov. Gelderland, 18 m. 
 N.W. Arnhem, in a fertile district surrounded by sandhills, 
 and having a Calvinistic and a beautiful R. Catholic church, 
 some good schools, and an alms-house for okl men and women. 
 It has numerous markets and fairs for horses and cattle. Pop. 
 1400. 
 
 BARNEY, par. Eng. Norfolk; 1210 ac. Pop. 276. 
 
 BARNHAM, three pars. Eng. :- 1, par. Suffolk; 5420 ac. 
 Voi . I. 
 
 ; Pop. 412. 2, par. Sussex ; 730 ac. Pop. 125. 3, Barn- 
 \ ham-Broom, par. Norfolk ; 1870 ac. Pop. 494. 
 
 BARNINGHAM,five pars. Eng.: 1, par. Suffolk; 1520 
 ac. Pop. 508. 2, par. York, N. Riding; 10,930ac. Pop. 600. 
 3, Barmnyham (Little), par. Norfolk; 1200 ac. Pop. 229. 
 4, Barningham-Norwood, par. Norfolk; 8H)ac. Pop. 54. 
 5, Earningham- Winter, par. Norfolk; 860 ac. Pop. 86. 
 
 BARNOLDBY-LE BECK, par. Eng. Lincoln; 1460 ac. 
 Pop. 292. 
 
 BARNOLDSWICK, par. Eng. York, W. Riding; G040 
 ac. Pop. 2<U4. 
 
 BARNSLEY, a market tn. England, co. York, W. Riding, 
 12 m. N. Sheffield, partly on the summits, and partly on the 
 slopes of two hills, having three principal streets, generally 
 well kept; houses substantially built of stone, but a good many 
 also of brick ; well supplied with water, and lighted with gas. 
 The only edifices of note, exclusive of the churches, are the 
 commercial buildings, including the post-office ; the commer 
 cial news-room, mechanics news-room and library, the latter 
 a substantial Ionic structure; and the theatre, now converted 
 into the mechanics hall. There are two churches in Barns- 
 ley, one of which, St. George s, is a handsome building, in 
 the decorated Gothic style ; and nine chapels for various re 
 ligious demominations, including Wesleyans, Independents, 
 Baptists, R. Catholics, &c.; also a Friends meeting-house. 
 It likewise has a free grammar, national, two boarding, two 
 public, several day and infant schools, connected with the 
 church and with the various dissenting bodies, and four female 
 seminaries; a mechanics institute, restored in 1847; a church 
 institute, established in 1847; and a Franklin club, composed 
 chiefly of working men. Linen, in a great variety of fabrics, 
 is the staple manufacture of Barnsley. These fabrics include 
 damasks, drills, ticks, huckabacks, sheetings, shirtings, dow- 
 lasses, towellings, ducks, drabbets (a thick and warm fabric), 
 plain and fancy hollands, &c. There are five factories in the 
 town, the largest of which contains 350 looms. Hand-loom 
 weaving is still extensively carried on. The other works 
 are, a wire manufactory, a patent stay manufactory, four iron- 
 foundries, four dyeing establishments, and seven bleachfields. 
 In the vicinity are three stone quarries, a number of coal 
 mines, and several beds of ironstone. The market, which is 
 ! toll-free for all kinds of grain, is on Wednesday ; and there 
 is also a market for provisions on Saturday ; fairs for cattle 
 and horses in May, October, February, and September. In 
 January 1 850, a branch from the Lancashire and Yorkshire 
 Railway, near Wakefield, was opened to this town. Barnsley 
 is improving greatly, and increasing in size and population. 
 Pop. (1841), 12,310; now (1850) estimated above 14,000. 
 (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BARNSLEY, par. Eng. Gloucester; 2050 ac. P. 305. 
 
 BARNSTABLE, a seaport tn., U. States, Massachusetts, 
 cap. co. of its own name, 63 m. S.E. Boston; on a harbour 
 at the bottom of Cape Cod Bay, neatly built, and has a con 
 siderable trade, besides extensive fisheries. There is a bar 
 with 6 or 7 ft. water at the mouth of the bay. Between 50 
 and 60 fishing vessels belong to the port ; the tonn. of which, 
 in 1840, was 56,556. It has two academies and 22 schools. 
 
 Pop. (1840), 4301. The COUNTY includes the whole of Cape 
 
 Cod. The inhabitants depend for subsistence chiefly on cod, 
 mackerel, and other fisheries ; the greater number of the male 
 population are sailors. Pop. 32,548. 
 
 BARNSTAPLE, a port, market tn., and par. England, 
 co. Devon. The town is situated on r. bank, Taw, where it 
 receives the Yeo, and is crossed by a handsome bridge of 16 
 arches, 34 m. N.W. Exeter. It has been much improved 
 and enlarged during the present century, and now extends 
 about 1 m. in length, including its suburbs Pilton and New 
 port. It consists of two principal and a number of smaller 
 streets ; the larger of which are generally straight, flagged, 
 paved, well kept, and all lighted; houses mostly of stone, and 
 the more modern well built, supply of water ample. The 
 principal civic buildings are the guildhall, a spacious and 
 handsome Grecian edifice, the new fish-market, the borougli 
 prison and bridewell, and the blue-coat schools. The churches 
 are, the parish church, a large ancient Gothic structure, said 
 to have been rebuilt in 1318, but enlarged and altered at sub 
 sequent periods ; Holy Trinity church, in the perpendicular 
 style, having an elegant tower 133 ft. high; St. Mary Mag 
 dalene, a handsome building, with a tower aaid spire, together 
 
BARXSTON 
 
 330 
 
 BARRA 
 
 115 ft. high ; Pilton parish church, an ancient Gothic struc 
 ture with an embattled tower ; and five chapels for Independ- j 
 ents, Baptists, Wesleyans, &c. It has also four large national j 
 schools, several Sunday, private, boarding, and day schools, a 
 grammar, blue-coat, and girls charity school ; an infirmary, 
 dispensary, and several sets of alms-houses, besides a number 
 of minor charities ; likewise a literary institution, established in 
 1845; a museum, two reading-rooms, a musical society, a farm 
 ers club, and horticultural and agricultural societies. The | 
 manufactures consist of wool stapling, lace-making, malting, 
 paper-making, tanning, shipbuilding, stocking-weaving, brush 
 and rope-making, &c. There are also two potteries ; and in 
 the neighbourhood several serge and blanket-mills. Some of 
 these branches of industry are carried on to a great extent. 
 The trade of the port is considerable, and its foreign trade 
 increasing. The number of vessels registered here for the 
 year ending December 31, 1847, was 89; tonn. 5010. Ves 
 sels entered for the same year, 1032 ; tonn. 46,932 ; cleared, 
 418; tonn. 21,585. Chief exports: grain, wool, bark, 
 leather, paper, &c. Imports : coals, timber, iron, groceries, 
 spirits, porter, freestone, &c. There are four commodious 
 quays, at which vessels of 100 to 200 tons load and unload ; 
 and the river is navigable for barges and small craft for 3 m. 
 above the town. Barnstaple is governed by a mayor, re 
 corder, six aldermen, and 18 councillors. It returns two 
 members to the House of Commons. Registered electors 
 (1849), 781. Area of par. 109(3 ac. Pop. of tn. (1850) about 
 11,000. 
 
 BARNSTON, or BIRNSTON, par. Eng. Essex; 2770 ac. 
 Pop. 197. 
 
 BARNVILLE-sun-MEK [anc. Crociatonum portus], a 
 small tn. and seaport, France, dep. Manche, 15 m. W.S.W. 
 Valognes. It has an ancient and curious Roman church, and 
 carries on considerable trade in agricultural produce, with 
 Guernsey, Jersey, and Alderney. Pop. 1205. 
 
 BARNWELL, two pars. Eng.: 1, Barnwell-all- Saints, 
 or King s Barnwell, par. Northampton ; 1680 ac. Pop. 140. 
 2, Barnwell St. Andrews, par. Northampton; 1740 ac. 
 Pop. 282. 
 
 BARNWOOD, par. Eng. Gloucester; 1150 ac. P. 383. 
 
 BARO, a river, Africa, which rises in the country of the 
 Wallegas, S. W. of Abyssinia, near lat. 8 N., in an extensive 
 plateau, in which the Dedhesa, Gandji, Naso, and Gddjeb, all, 
 like the Baro itself, tributaries of the White River or true 
 Nile, have their source. The course of the Baro is not ex 
 plored, but the natives represent it as a very large river, the 
 valley of which is inhabited by Shankalahs, and frequented 
 by herds of elephants. (Geo. Jour. vol. xiii., xvii.) 
 
 BAROACH, or BIIOACH [anc. Barygaza water of 
 wealth], a tn. Hindoostan, Bombay presidency, prov. Goo- 
 jerat, cap. dist. of its own name, on the Nerbudda [anc. Na- 
 madus], 25 m. from its embouchure in the Gulf of Cambay ; 
 lat. 21 46 N.; Ion. 73 24 E.; 42 m. N. Surat; a poor, 
 mean-locking, unhealthy town, with narrow and dirty streets ; 
 but in the vicinity are numerous dilapidated mosques and 
 mausoleums, indicating its former importance. The river is 
 here 2 m. broad, very shallow, but abounding in fine fish, 
 especially carp. A considerable trade is carried on with 
 Bombay and Surat in raw cotton, grain, and seeds. There is 
 here a pinjrapole or hospital for animals, supported by volun- [ 
 tary donations, and by taxes on marriages, mercantile transac 
 tions, &c. About 1000 are annually raised for this purpose. I 
 Baroach was taken by storm by the British in 1772, and since 
 1803, along with the district, has remained part of the British 
 
 dominions. Pop. about 33,000. The DISTRICT has an area 
 
 of 1600 sq. m., and is one of the most populous and best cul 
 tivated in the W. of India, yielding large quantities of excel 
 lent cottcn. Pop. (one-fourth Mahometans), 229,500. 
 
 BARODA, a city, Hindoostan, cap. dist. of same name, 
 and of the Guicowar s dominions, and the station of a British 
 resident and a body of troops ; lat. 22 20 N. ; Ion. 73 25 E. ; 
 240 m. N. by E. Bombay. It stands on marshy ground, 1. bank, j 
 Viswamitra, and is surrounded by a double wall of mud, with 
 round towers at irregular intervals, and several double gates. 
 Two spacious streets, which cross each other at right angles, 
 divide the town into four equal parts. In the market-place 
 is a square pavilion, with three bold arches on each side, and 
 a flat roof, adorned with seats and fountains, and is a Mogul 
 building, like everything else in tliis city having the smallest 
 
 claim to grandeur or elegance, the Mahratta structures being 
 mean and shabby. Baroda was a large and wealthy town 
 during the reign of Aurungzebe, and is still considered one of 
 the richest cities of its size in India. Here is a stone bridge 
 over the Viswamitra, remarkable as being the only one in 
 Goojerat; and some singular wells with grand flights of steps. 
 
 Pop. in 1818 estimated at 100,000. The DISTRICT has an 
 
 area of about 12,000 sq. in.; yielding sugar-canes, tobacco, 
 indigo, corn, legumes, opium, hemp, flax, and cotton, the last 
 being a staple commodity. Deer, hares, partridges, and other 
 game are numerous. 
 
 BARON, or NOESSA-BARON, an isl., S.E. coast, Java; 
 lat. (centre) 8 30 S.; Ion. 113 25 E. 
 
 BARONSTOWN, par. Irel. Louth ; 2209 ac. Pop. 967. 
 
 BAROS, or BAROOS, a tn. Sumatra, W. coast ; lat. 2 N. ; 
 Ion. 98 25 E., near the mouth of a small river. There is 
 here a good harbour, to which much of the produce of the 
 island of Nias is brought, such as batatas, rice, beans, fowls, 
 &c., and exchanged for Steel, iron, tobacco, coral, and cotton 
 goods. The district round Baroos was formerly a kingdom 
 or petty state here, of the same name. It produces excellent 
 camphor, benzoin, and some gold. 
 
 BARQUESIMETO, a tn. Venezuela, cap. prov. of same 
 name, 92 m. W.S.W. Valencia; lat. 9 54 35" N.; Ion. 
 69 12 27" W. (L.) Previous to the great earthquake of 
 1812, the town was well built, having straight and wide 
 streets, a handsome parish church, a rich convent of Francis 
 cans, and an hospital. It is now but a wreck of what it was. 
 It has several schools and higher seminaries. Pop. 10,000 to 
 
 12,000. The PROVINCE lies between lat. 8 47 and 10 
 
 46 N.; and Ion. 68 30 and 70 30 W., and is bounded N. 
 by the Caribbean Sea ; area, 12,312 geo. sq. m. Agriculture 
 and cattle- rearing are the chief occupations. The principal 
 products are wheat, coffee, cacao, maize, and indigo. Pop. 
 (1825), 85,557; (1839), 122,755. 
 
 BARR, a tn. France, dep. Bas Rhin (Alsace), 9 m. N. 
 Schelestadt, agreeably situated at the foot of the Vosges ; 
 tolerably well built, and has a good square. Near Barr, on 
 the mountain of Hoeuburg, are the cax"e of Landsperg, and 
 the convent of St. Odila, founded in 622, by Odila, daughter 
 of Attic, Duke of Alsace. Part of a Roman wall, called by 
 the inhabitants the Pagans wall, in some places 10 or 12 ft. 
 high, and from 6 to 9 ft. broad, is also still to be seen there. 
 The trade of Barr is principally in woollen stuffs, manufactured 
 in the town. The dyeing establishments employ almost 800 
 workmen. Barr has also several mills, among others spin 
 ning, tan, and oil mills, driven by water-power, and some 
 trade in wine and brandy. Pop. 3585. 
 
 BARR, two vils. and a par. Scotland: 1. A vil. and par. 
 Ayr, the former 18 m. S.W. the town of Ayr, picturesquely 
 situated on an angle formed by the water of Gregg and the 
 river Stinchar. The most of the houses occupy an acclivity, 
 and have been built without regard to order: but the whole 
 village has a clean and neat appearance, and is well kept. 
 The inhabitants are mostly employed in handicraft and agri 
 cultural labour, and in muslin-weaving for the Glasgow manu 
 facturers. Their social condition is excellent, there having 
 been no criminal action against any inhabitant of the parish 
 for 30 years. In August 1849, the lower part of the village 
 was nearly swept away by a sudden flood from the neighbour 
 ing heights, supposed to have proceeded from the bursting of 
 a water-spout. Area of par., stated to be about 100 sq. m. 
 or 64,000 imp. ac. Pop. 959. 2, A small vil., co. Argyle, 
 dist. Cantyre, about 13 m. N. Campbelton. 
 
 BARRA [a bar] , the name, with different affixes, of various 
 places in Brazil: 1, Barra-das-Vdhas, a considerable vil., 
 prov. Minas Geraes, r. bank, Rio Sao Francisco, where it is 
 joined by the Rio das Velhas; lat. 16 50 S.; Ion. 45 20 W. 
 It is situated in a vast plain, annually inundated by the two 
 rivers which fertilize it. In this plain are salt deposits, from 
 which the province is supplied. The village has two churches, 
 and is rather unhealthy. Gold-washing, peltry trade, and 
 agriculture, employ the 3000 inhabitants of the vil. and dis 
 trict. 2, Barra-do-Rio-de-Contas, a flourishing tn., prov. 
 Bahia, agreeably situated, r. bank, Rio de Contas, at its em 
 bouchure in the Atlantic; lat. 14 22 S.; Ion. 39 W. It 
 has a municipal hall, prison, church, primary school, and a good 
 port for coasters. Two rivulets hard by are esteemed excel 
 lent for tempering steel. In the district a considerable quan- 
 
BARRA 
 
 331 
 
 BARRADA 
 
 tity of mandioca and cacao are cultivated for export to Baliia. i 
 Pop. (tn. and dist.), 3000. 3, J3arra-do~ltio-Sao-Joao, a 
 hamlet, prov. Rio de Janeiro, at the mouth of the Rio Sao I 
 Joao ; and having a church and primary school. Sawing 
 planks from timber cut in the neighbouring forests, is the I 
 principal business of the place. The port is commodious, I 
 and has 12 to 15 ft. of water. In winter, fever is prevalent 
 in the district, arising from numerous marshes, with which it 
 abounds. Pop. 4000. 4, Barra-do-Eio- Grande, a tn., prov. 
 Bahia, at the junction with the Rio Grande and the Sao 
 Francisco. It was formerly in prov. Pernambuco, but in 
 1820 was annexed to prov. Bahia. It has a church, and a 
 primary school ; its district is generally sterile, producing 
 only salt, in the procuring and transportation of which the 
 most of its 4000 inhabitants are employed. 5, Barra-do-Eio- 
 Neyro, also called Rio Negro, au ancient tn., prov. Para, 
 1. bank of the river after which it is named, near its junction 
 with the Amazon. It has a church, and is the depository of 
 various kinds of produce brought down the Rio Negro and its 
 affluents ; and in it are three Government establishments, 
 under Government superintendents, for making piassava cor 
 dage, cotton cloth, and earthen tiles. 6, Barra-Longa, or 
 Sao Jos6, a vil., prov. Minas Geraes, 45 in. S.W. Pilla-Rica 
 or Ouro-Preto, on the Rio Gualcho, across which there is here 
 a bridge. The village has a church, and 5000 inhabitants, 
 mostly agriculturists. 7, Barra-Mansa, a vil., prov. Rio de 
 Janeiro, on a river whence it is named, an affluent to the 
 right of the Parahiba. It has a church, and sugar mill. The 
 inhabitants of town and district are about 6000, and chiefly 
 engaged in cultivation of coffee. (Diccio Geo. Imp. Brazil.} 
 
 BARRA, a large vil. Naples, 4 m. E. the town of Naples. 
 It produces silk, and contains many country houses belonging 
 to the inhabitants of the metropolis. Pop. 5000. 
 
 BARRA, a petty state, N. W. Africa, at the mouth of the 
 Gambia, r. bank, extending about 54 m. along the coast, with 
 a breadth of about 42 m. It is in general well cultivated, and 
 contains a number of considerable villages, with some fine 
 forests. The palm, banyan, and fig trees are also plentiful. 
 Horses are scarce, but asses are numerous, as are also wild 
 bufialoes. The greater part of the population is composed of 
 Mandingoes, a fine race; the women stout, active, and pretty; 
 the males tall, and well made, and of a more intellectual cast 
 of countenance than is usual amongst negroes. They are also 
 more refined, and of a more amiable and benevolent nature 
 than the natives of the neighbouring kingdoms. In com 
 mercial transactions they are shrewd, sharp, and wary. A 
 principal branch of industry is the manufacture of salt, large 
 quantities of which are exported ; maize, cotton stuffs, ivory, 
 gold dust, &c., being taken in exchange. Their laws are 
 inild, just, and in general fairly administered. They are all 
 rigid Mahometans, and strict observers of the laws of the 
 prophet. Pop. estimated at 200,000. The capital, Barra- 
 Inding, lies on the coast, at the mouth of the Gambia, about 
 7 in. N.E. Bathurst, and has some trade in the articles above 
 noticed. 
 
 BARRA, or BARKA* ISLANDS, a group of upwards of 20 
 islands, forming a par. of same name, W. coast, Scotland, co. 
 Inverness, forming part of the chain known by the name of 
 the Outer Hebrides. About 10 of these are inhabited, and 
 the others used as grazings. The principal island, from which 
 the group is named, is about 12 m. in length, varying in 
 breadth from 6 to 3 m.; its N. point is in Iflt. 67 2 N. ; Ion. 
 7 34 W. (R.) It is much indented by bays and arms of the 
 sea, particularly on the E. side. On the W., with exception 
 of two or three sandy bays, it is defended from the billows of 
 the_ Atlantic by a barrier of huge rocks, excavated by the 
 action of the sea into vast caves and fissures, the latter of 
 appalling depth. Gneiss is the universal formation of these 
 islands, but of an unusually refractory nature, undergoing 
 little change from the action of the atmosphere, and every 
 where displaying a singular aspect of obstinate durability ; 
 while the difficulty with which it decomposes, imparts to the 
 surface of the island a naked and barren appearance. The 
 climate, like that of all the W. islands of Scotland, is variable 
 and fluctuating, but mild and healthful. Notwithstanding its 
 unpromising look, Barra contains a great deal of fine pasturage 
 in the hollows and valleys ; while the hills, which are of con 
 siderable height, afford excellent grazing to their very sum 
 mits. The island, and parish in general, being better adapted 
 
 for grazing than agriculture, the latter has not made much 
 progress, although the adoption of improved implements has 
 enabled the small farmers to turn their ground to much better 
 account than formerly. The black cattle raised in Barra are 
 much esteemed ; and for rearing sheep it is considered one 
 of the best places in the Highlands, although it is but lately 
 that a regular sheep stock was introduced there. The chief 
 part of the lands is let to small tenants in crofts, from year to 
 year a system under which no improvement can of course be 
 expected. For the most part the inhabitants are miserably 
 quartered, their houses being composed of loose stones and 
 earth, and having neither windows nor chimneys, a round 
 hole in the roof, and one or more holes on each side of the 
 house, supplying their place. Their habits are uncleanly, and 
 their household furniture generally of the most wretched 
 description. Their ordinary food consists of barley-meal, 
 potatoes, milk, and fish. More ardent spirits are said to be 
 consumed in this island than in any place of the same extent 
 in the W. isles. The manufacture of kelp employs a great 
 many hands, old and young, for about two months in the year, 
 but the pay is miserably small, the commodity itself having 
 fallen to about a fourth of the former price. Few of the 
 natives can either read or write. The coasts abound in 
 fish, including ling, cod, tusk, hake, turbot, flounders, and 
 herrings, the latter frequently visiting the island in immense 
 shoals ; but the inhabitants, unfortunately, are in such a state 
 of poverty, that they cannot provide themselves with the 
 tackling necessary to enable them to take the utmost advantage 
 of the wealth on their shores, perhaps not equalled, certainly 
 not exceeded, in any other part of Scotland. As it is, there 
 are from 20 to 30 boats of 3 tons each, with five men to each 
 boat, employed in fishing. They carry the cod and ling they 
 take, in a dried state, the latter being highly esteemed, to 
 Glasgow and Greenock. Shell-fish are also abundant on the 
 shores of Barra; lobsters, crabs, &c., and cockles in immense 
 quantities. In scarce seasons the inhabitants live in a great 
 measure on cockles, boiling them with milk, and thus making 
 them into a kind of soup, which they consider wholesome and 
 nutritious. There are four fresh-water lakes in the island, of 
 from half a mile to a mile in length, all abounding in trout 
 and eels. The ruins of several religious houses, apparently 
 of very old date, exist in Barra, the more remarkable of 
 which two churches, said to have been built by the monks 
 of Icolmkill are at a place called Killbar. There are also 
 numerous ancient watch-towers distributed over the islands ; 
 and on every lake there is a dun or fort, supposed to have been 
 built by the Scandinavians. Many Druidical circles are also 
 to be met with. The ancient castle or stronghold of the 
 MacNeils, the former proprietors of Barra, a rude and lonely 
 mansion, stands in the middle of a beautiful bay, upon a 
 small rock, which is entirely covered by the sea at high water. 
 It is of an irregular form, strongly built, and about 60 ft. high, 
 with a square tower in one corner, rising many feet above the 
 adjoining walls. Here the MacNeils, in times of old, main 
 tained the state and authority of sovereign princes, ruling 
 with despotic sway, and mimicking the pomp and dignity of 
 royalty. The names of the larger islands, of which the parish 
 is formed, are Watersay, Sanderay, Pabbay, Mingalay, and 
 Bernera to the S., with several others of lesser size, unin 
 habited, to the E. and N.E. Mingalay and Bernera are re 
 markable for their lofty rocks, one on the former being 
 1400 ft. perpendicular above the sea. To these rocks the 
 natives resort for sea-fowl and their eggs. The most pre 
 valent winds here are the S.W. and N.W., the former often 
 blowing with such extraordinary violence, as to sweep away 
 the sandy soil with its vegetation, leaving only naked rocks be 
 hind. Pop. of par. 2363, of whom about 2000 are R. Catholics. 
 
 BARRACKPOOR, a military cantonment, liindoostan, 
 presid. Bengal ; 1. bank, Hooghly, 10 m. N.N.E. Calcutta. 
 The site is beautiful, and the climate salubrious. Near this 
 village is the palace of the Governor-general of India, the 
 park around which is 4 m. in circumference. The canton 
 ment is a large military village, with bungalows for the Euro 
 pean officers and the other white inhabitants, who are attracted 
 thither by the beauty and healthfulness of the place, and by 
 its vicinity to the Governor s residence. Ruces are held here 
 in the cool season. 
 
 BARRADA, a river, Syria, pash. Damascus ; it rises near 
 Ain-el-Hawra-Ujmt, flows S. along the Anti-Libanus, and 
 
BARRAFRANCA 
 
 332 
 
 EARROSA 
 
 then, turning S.S.E., proceeds in a tortuous course through 
 a rich valley, bordered alternately by bold rocks and wooded 
 hills. On approaching Damascus, it is divided into two 
 branches, one of which passes along the N. side of the city, 
 while the other is diverted into eight different channels, for 
 watering the city and irrigating its gardens. The former 
 branch is supposed to be the Pharpar, and the latter the 
 Abana, of ancient times. The branches shortly after unite, 
 and the trunk receiving two tributaries, enters the marshes 
 and lake of Bahr-el-Merdj-Atibe. (Chesney.) 
 
 BARRAFRANCA, a tn. Sicily, valley of Caltanissetta, 
 dist. Piazza. Pop. 5800. 
 
 BARRAGH, par. Irel. Carlow; 13,297 ac. Pop. 3742. 
 
 BARRAMAHL, or BARRA-MAUL, a subdivision of prov. 
 Salem, Hindoostan, presid. Madras. See SALEM. 
 
 BARRAUX, a vil. France, dep. Isere, 21 m. N.N.E. 
 Grenoble. On an eminence, contiguous to the village, stands 
 fort Barraux, a place of considerable strength. The inhabit 
 ants are chiefly engaged in agriculture. Nearly opposite, 
 across the Isere, stand the mouldering turrets and shattered 
 walls of Bayard, the birthplace of the famous chevalier Sans 
 Peur et sans Reproche. Pop. 2029. 
 
 BARRAX, a tu. Spain, New Castile, prov. of, and 20 m. 
 W. by N. Albacete ; in a plain, at the foot of the sierra de 
 Alcaraz. It has clean streets, a square, parish church, town- 
 house, with prison attached ; two schools, a storehouse, and 
 a cemetery. The people are engaged in tillage, raising grain 
 and saffron, and as muleteers. Pop. 2361. (Madoz.) 
 
 BARRE, several townships, U. States:!, In Massa 
 chusetts, co. Worcester ; the soil fertile, and well adapted for 
 grazing. It contains one academy and 13 schools. Pop. 2751. 
 2, In Vermont, co. Washington ; with four churches and 
 15 schools. Pop. 2126. 3, In New York, co. Orleans; 
 containing several villages, two academies, and 34 schools. 
 Pop. 5539. 4, In Pennsylvania, co. Huntingdon ; with 10 
 schools. Pop. 2225. 
 
 BARRE A, a vil. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Ultra II. ; on a 
 hill, r. bank, Sangro, 19 m. S.S.E. Salmona. Benedetto di 
 Yirgilio, a poet of some name, was born here. Pop. 1 150. 
 
 BARREAH, a tn. Hindoostan, prov. Goojerat, cap. of a 
 small principality, 80 m. E.N.E. Cambay; lat. 22 44 N.; 
 Ion. 74 E. It stands in a narrow valley, near the Pannah, 
 a tributary of the Mhye, and is neatly built ; many of the 
 houses are of brick. The district is wild, and covered with 
 jungle, extending for a space of almost 40 m. wholly unculti 
 vated, and inhabited by a few nomadic and predatory Bheels. 
 
 BARREGES. See BAREGES. 
 
 BARREL-OF-BUTTER ISLAND, a skerry or small 
 rocky islet, Scotland, Orkney, off the S. end of Pomona, de 
 riving its name from the circumstance of the tenant paying 
 the proprietor a barrel of butter, as rent for the privilege of 
 killing seals on it, the only thing of value it produces. 
 
 BARREN ISLAND, the name of several islands in 
 various parts of the world: 1, An isl., S.W. entrance into 
 Bass s Strait, one of the Hunter group ; lat. 40 32 S. ; Ion. 
 144 48 E. 2, An isl., S.E. entrance, Banks s Strait, one of 
 the Furneanx islands ; lat. 40 23 S.; Ion. 148 6 E. (R.) 3, 
 A group of 7 or 8 islands, Mozambique Channel, W. coast, 
 Madagascar; they are small, and low, with white sandy 
 beaches, and shrubs on them. Some of them have reefs and 
 breakers projecting to a considerable distance, and are ex 
 tremely dangerous: they lie between 17 50 and 18 35 S., 
 Ion. 43 32 and 43 55 E. 4, An isl. in the Bay of Bengal, 
 about 55 m. E. from Middle Andaman Island ; lat. 12 16 N.; 
 Ion. 93" 54 E. (R.) It is a volcano, 1848 ft. high, and may 
 be seen from a distance of 36 to 40 m. It is of small extent, 
 covered with trees, except near the crater. It was not gener 
 ally known that this volcano was in an active state until ] 791, 
 since which time it has continued so, and is subject to violent 
 eruptions. The crater is very large when compared with the 
 extent of the island. 5, A small isl. in the S. entrance of the 
 Malayan or China Sea, between Borneo and the Malay Pen 
 insula; lat. 1 29 N.; Ion. 106 28 E. (R.) 6, A small isl., 
 sometimes called Rocky Island, on the E. coast of China, in 
 the Tong Hai or Eastern Sea ; lat. 30 43 N. ; Ion. 123 8 
 E. (R.) 7, An isl. of Russian America, at the S. entrance 
 into Cook s Inlet; lat. 58 53 N.; Ion. 151 26 W. (R.) 
 
 BARRENJUEY POINT, New S. Wales, co. Cumber 
 land ; it is a rocky peninsula, joined to the mainland by a 
 
 narrow isthmus ; bounded by the sea on the E., and Pitt- 
 water, an inlet from Broken Bay, on the W. ; lat. 33 37 S. ; 
 Ion. 151 25 E. 
 
 BARRHEAD, a large manufacturing vil. Scotland, co. 
 Renfrew, in the vale, and on the banks of the Levern, 7 m. 
 S.W. Glasgow; consisting chiefly of a row of houses on either 
 side of the public road to Irvine. The more modern houses, 
 mostly occupied by the working classes, are neat and com 
 modious. The most elegant building is the chapel of ease, 
 in the Norman style, connected with the Established church ; 
 besides which, there are a Free and a U. Presbyterian church, 
 and a R. Catholic chapel. Numerous extensive factories line 
 either bank of the Levern. In the village and its vicinity 
 there are four spinning-factories, with about 80,000 spindles ; 
 and two weaving factories, nine bleacheries, seven printfields, 
 a flour-mill, an iron-foundry, and a machine-shop, employing 
 in all about 5000 hands. The railway to Barrhead, opened 
 1849, has greatly increased the prosperity of the place. Pop. 
 (1841), 5337; now (1850), estimated at 8000. (Local Cor- 
 \ respondent.) 
 
 BARRIE, par. Scotland, Forfar; on the German Ocean, 
 I N. of the Frith of Tay, having two lighthouses, which form 
 1 the leading lights for vessels entering the Tay. Pop. 2124. 
 BARRIER REEF (THE GREAT) ; this reef, called ein- 
 ! phatically the Great Barrier Reef, from its vast extent, is 
 j situated off the N.E. coast of Australia. It commences witli 
 Breaksea Spit, in lat. 24 30 S.; Ion. 153 20 E.; and ex 
 tends to Bristow Island, on the coast of Papua, in lat. 9 15 
 S. ; Ion. 143 20 E., being a distance, in a straight line, of 
 about 1260 m. It stretches along the coast at a mean distance 
 | of about 30 m., being in some places not more than 10 or 15 in. 
 j from the land, at ethers upwards of 100. This prodigious 
 [ reef is wholly composed of coral, and rises in general precipi 
 tously from a very great depth, no bottom having been 
 reached in some places on the outer side of the barrier with a 
 line of 285 fathoms. If laid dry, says Mr. Jukes, it would 
 be found to have a considerable resemblance to a gigantic 
 and irregular fortification ; a steep glacis, crowned with a 
 | broken parapet wall, and carried from one rising ground to 
 another. In sailing from Sydney, through Torres Strait, 
 vessels have their choice of two tracts, called, respectively, 
 the Inner and Outer Routes. In taking the former, they enter 
 within the Barrier Reef at its S. extremity, and run np to the 
 northward along shore. This passage, although narrow and 
 intricate, is safe, with good anchorage the whole of the way, 
 the depth being generally about 1 2 fathoms ; and it is protected 
 also from the violence of the sea by the reefs themselves. 
 The outer route has not yet been surveyed, and is only known 
 roughly by having been traversed by whalers and merchant 
 vessels. It has not, of course, the advantages of the inner 
 passage, being exposed to the open sea, and having a depth 
 of water which precludes all possibility of anchoring. Several 
 vessels having been lost on these reefs, in consequence of there 
 having been no chart to point out their dangers, or to indicate 
 the openings by which, when taking the Outer Route, they 
 might steer through the reefs for Torres Strait, Capt. Black- 
 wood was despatched by the Admiralty, in II. M. S. Fly, in 
 the year 1842, to survey the Barrier, and to lay down such 
 channels between the outer and inner seas as offered a secure 
 passage. This has been done, and several eligible openings 
 marked, together with a very complete scries of soundings. 
 ! On Maine s Islet, lat. 11 35 S. ; Ion. 144 5 E. ; which marks 
 I the best passage through the reef, a beacon has been raised 
 | 40 ft. high, and 30 ft. diameter at the base. It is built of 
 i stone quarried in the island, and wrought into square blocks. 
 ! (J. B. Jukes s Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of 
 II. M.S. Fly. ) 
 
 BARRIGA NEGRA, a tn. and dist. Uragnay or Banda 
 
 Oriental. The town is 85 m. N.E. Monte Video. Large 
 
 herds of cattle are reared in the district, many of the estates 
 
 into which it is divided having from 60,000 to 200,000 head. 
 
 BARRINGTON, four pars. Eng.: 1, par. Cambridge; 
 
 ,2129ac. Pop. 533. 2, par. Somerset; 1520 ac. Pop. 531. 
 
 3, Harrington (Great), par. Berks and Gloucester; 2580 ac. 
 
 Pop. 553. 4, Barrinyton (Little), par. Gloucester; 1780 ac. 
 
 Pop. 208. 
 
 BAKROSA, a vil. Spain, S.W. coast, Andalusia, prov. 
 
 ! of, and 16 m. S.S.E. Cadiz. To the E. of the village, on a 
 
 knoll of the same name, was fought (March 5, 1811) the well- 
 
BARROW 
 
 333 
 
 BARTON 
 
 known battle in which the British, when shamefully aban 
 doned by the Spaniards, gallantly repulsed an attack by a 
 superior force of French under Victor, and took two of their 
 
 BARROW, a large and important navigable river, Ire 
 land, prov. Leinster ; it rises at the foot of Glenbarrow, in the 
 Sliebhbloom mountains, on the borders of the King s and 
 Queen s counties, a few miles W. Portarlingfon ; and, after a 
 generally S. course of about 90 in., joins the Suir in forming 
 the estuary called Waterford harbour. It is navigable to 
 New Ross, a distance of 25 m. from the sea, for vessels of 
 200 tons ; and above that town for barges to Athy, where a 
 branch of the Grand Canal joins it. Its principal tributaries 
 are the Nore, the Greece, and the Blackwood river. 
 
 BARROW, nine pars. England:!, Suffolk; 2810 ac. 
 Pop. 995. 2, Chester; 2620 ac. Pop. 668. 3, Salop; j 
 2290 ac. Pop. 383. 1, (-Gumey), Somerset; 2130 ac. j 
 Pop. 303. 5, (North], Somerset; 970 ac. Pop. 140. 6, j 
 (South], Somerset; 580 ac. Pop. 140. 7, (-on- Trent), Derby; j 
 4040 ac. Pop. 641. 8, (upon-IIumler}, Lincoln; 4620 ac. 
 Pop 1662. 9, (-upon-Soar), Leicester; 7950 ac. Pop. 5782. 
 BARROW STRAIT, the connecting channel between 
 Baffin s Bay on the E. through Lancaster Sound, and the 
 Polar Sea on the W.; between lat. 73 45 and 74 40 N. ; | 
 from 30 to 45 m. in breadth. The coasts are rocky, rugged, 
 and sterile, and the water of great depth, frequently upwards 
 of 350 fathoms, while often no soundings at all can be found. 
 Icebergs of immense size are met with in this Strait. Whales 
 abound there also, as in Baffin s Bay, which it quite resembles 
 in all other respects. The strait was discovered in 1616 by 
 Baffin, but Capt. Parry, who visited it in 1819, gave it its 
 present name, after the late Sir John Barrow. 
 
 BARROWBY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 4010 ac. Pop. 799. 
 
 BARROWDEN, par. Eng. Rutland ; 1530 ac. Pop. 658. 
 
 BARRY, a vil. and par., S. Wales, co. Glamorgan, 9 m. 
 
 S.W. Cardiff. Pop. (1841), 104. There is a small isl. of 
 
 the same name in this parish, abounding with rabbits, and 
 
 having an area of about 300 ac. 
 
 BARS. 1, A co. Hungary, circle, Hither Danube, length 
 from N. to S. about 45 m., average breadth from W. to E. 
 18 m. ; area, 784 geo. sq. in. Towards the N. the surface is 
 generally hilly, but in other directions it consists for the most 
 part of rich alluvial plains or valleys, watered by numerous 
 streams, of which the principal are the Gran, Nitra, and 
 Sitra. It is rich in corn, wine, and cattle. Its minerals, 
 once important, are understood to be nearly exhausted ; but 
 some gold is still obtained. It possesses chalybeate springs 
 and thermal baths. The cap. is Aranyos-Maroth. Pop. 
 (chiefly Sclavonian and German), 133,000. 2, The name of 
 four small places, Hungary ; three of them in the above co. 
 on the Gran, in the vicinity of the town of Leva, and one in 
 co. Siimegh, on the Drave. 
 
 BARSAC, a tn. France, dep. Gironde, 23 m. S.E. Bor 
 deaux, 1. bank, Gironde, in a district celebrated for its white 
 wines. The best vineyards are above the town ; these pro 
 duce a wine similar to Sauterne, having only a little less 
 flavour, and rather more spirit. Pop. 1701. 
 
 BARSHAM, four pars. Eng.: 1, par. Suffolk; 1470 ac. 
 Pop. 250. 2, Barsham (East), par. Norfolk; 1230 ac. Pop. 
 240. 3, Barsham (North), par. Norfolk; 710 ac. Pop. 89. 
 4, Barsliam (West), par. Norfolk; 1380 ac. Pop. 86. 
 
 BARSOE, an isl. Denmark, Schleswig, in the Little Belt, 
 bail. Apenrade, about 2 m. long by 1 broad ; lat. 55 7 N. ; 
 Ion. 9 32 E. A large portion of the E. side of the island 
 forms a perpendicular limestone wall ; which, being under 
 mined by the sea, causes Barsbe to become gradually less. 
 On it is a small village. 
 
 BARSTON, par. Eng. Warwick ; 1990 ac. Pop. 392. 
 BART AN, or BARTIN, a tn. Asiatic Turkey, pash. Ana 
 tolia, built at the junction of two rivers, the Ko jahna s and 
 the Ordei ri, and near where the united streams fall into the 
 Black Sea ; lat. 41 46 N. ; Ion. 32 10 E. It is surrounded 
 by a ruinous wall, and consists of about 650 houses, and is 
 built on two low hills of cretaceous limestone. The houses, 
 on account of the marshy character of the surrounding country, 
 are all built of two stories, the upper one of which alone is 
 inhabited. For the same reason the streets are carefully 
 paved with large limestone slabs. It has 12 mosques, five 
 khans, and four baths, and carries on a lively trade with 
 
 Constantinople, from which it imports various kinds of mer 
 chandise, sending, in exchange, hemp, fruit, and building 
 timber. Small vessels only can come to the town, there being 
 but 7 ft. water on the bar. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 BARTEN, a tn. Prussia, circle, Rastenberg, duchy of E. 
 Prussia ; on the Siebe, 47 m. S.E. Kb nigsberg ; with a church, 
 
 and a linen, horse, and cattle market. Pop. 1637. Other 
 
 five villages in Prussia have the same name. 
 
 BAKTENHEIM, a vil. France, dep. Haut-Ehin (Alsace), 
 15m. from Alt-kirch, near the Neuf-Brisach Canal. P. 1865. 
 BARTENSTEIN, a tn. Prussia, circle, Rastenberg, 
 duchy of E. Prussia; on the Aller, 34 m. S.S.E. Kb nigsberg; 
 with woollen manufactures, tanneries, and more especially 
 potteries. Pop. 4000. 
 
 BARTFA, or BAETFELD, a free tn. Hungary, co. Saros, 
 156 m. N.E. Pesth ; on a rising ground, near the banks of 
 the Tepla and Lauka. It is one of the oldest towns in Hun 
 gary, and is well built ; has several It. Catholic churches, a 
 Lutheran church and school, a Franciscan monastery, military 
 academy, hospital, theatre, paper-mills, potteries, forges, &c. 
 In the public square stands the townhall. Some acidulous 
 chalybeate springs and baths, near the town, are much fre 
 quented. In the neighbourhood a meteoric ironstone was 
 found, weighing nearly 2 cwt. The trade in wine, hemp, 
 linen cloth, and woollen yarn, is considerable. Pop. 5200. 
 EARTH. See BARDT. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW (ST.) 1, One of the W. India 
 leeward islands, belonging to Sweden, in lat. (centre) 1 7 50* 
 N.; Ion. 62 52 W.; having the isl. of St. Martin N.N.W., 
 distant about 12 m. ; and St. Christopher S.S.E., distant about 
 30 m. It is about 8 m. long, varying from 2 to 3 in breadth ; 
 area, about 25 sq. m. It is of irregular shape, and deeply 
 indented by numerous small sandy bays, separated by bold 
 and steep rocky acclivities, of moderate height. In the in 
 terior it is hilly, but its loftiest elevations do not reach 1000 ft. 
 The island is, in most parts, barren and sterile ; but the 
 numerous little valleys are well cultivated, and vegetables 
 are at all times to be obtained. It produces also a little cotton, 
 sugar, tobacco, and indigo ; but its only exports are cattle, 
 and some salt. The trees of the island comprise lignum 
 vita3 and iron-wood. Water is scarce, the inhabitants being 
 obliged to depend for their supplies almost wholly on rain. The 
 only harbour, Le Carenage, a safe and commodious one, and 
 much frequented, is on the W. side of the island. Close by 
 is Gustavia, the principal town, inhabited by a mixed popula 
 tion of Swedes, English, French, Danes, and Americans. It 
 is a thriving place, having a considerable commerce with the 
 neighbouring islands in general supplies, which may be ob 
 tained there at all times. This island was settled by the 
 French in 1648, and was ceded by them to the Swedes in 
 1784, with whom it still remains. The slaves on this island 
 were emancipated by a decree of the Swedish Government, 
 dated October 9, 1847, on which occasion the negro popula 
 tion framed an address of thanks to the King of Sweden. 
 The population is estimated to be between 8000 and 9000, of 
 
 which two-thirds are black. 2, An isl. of coral formation 
 
 in the N. Pacific Ocean ; lat. 6 35 N. ; Ion. 148 47 E. ; it is 
 low, covered with cocoa-nut trees, and inhabited by a light- 
 complexioned race. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW (ST. HYDE), par. Eng. Hants; 
 2250 ac. Pop. 776. 
 
 BARTHOMLEY, par. Eng., cos. Chester and Stafford ; 
 ll,600ac. Pop. 2725. 
 
 BARTIN. See BARTAX. 
 
 BARTLOW, par. Eng. Cambridge ; 320 ac. Pop. 89. 
 BARTOLOMEO-ix-GALDO (ST.), a tn. Naples, prov. 
 Capitanata, 28 m. W. by. S. Foggia ; on an elevated hill, E. 
 of the Fotore. It has a diocesan seminary, with a collegiate 
 and several other churches. Pop. 3425. 
 
 BARTON, numerous pars. Eng.: 1, par. Cambridge; 
 1500 ac. Pop. 319. 2, Barton, or High Barton, par. West 
 morland ; 33,690 ac. Pop. 1668. 3, par. York, N. Riding ; 
 2790ac. Pop. 631. 4, Barton-in-Fabis, par. Notts; 1620ac. 
 Pop. 333. 5, Barton- Bendish, par. and vil. Norfolk; 4390 ac. 
 Pop. 455. 6, Barton-Blount, par. Derby; 1530 ac. Pop. 68. 
 7, Barton-in-the- Clay, par. Bedford ; 2270 ac. Pop. 855. 
 8, Barton (St. David s), par. Somerset; 1090 ac. Pop. 455. 
 9, Barton (Earls), par. Northampton ; 1 760 ac. Pop. 1079. 
 10, Barton (Great), par. Suffolk; 4030 ac. Pop. 774. 
 
BARTOX-UPON-HUMBER 
 
 334 
 
 BASEL 
 
 11, Barton-Hartshorne, par. Buckingham ; 870 ac. Pop. 165. 
 12, Barton-upon-the-Heaih, par. Warwick ; 1540 ac. Pop. 
 212. 13, Barton (Little), or Barton Mills, par. Suffolk ; 
 2050 ac. Pop. 640. 14, Barton-Segrave, par. Northampton ; 
 2030 ac. Pop. 219. 15, Barton Stacey, par. Hants; 4520 
 ac. Pop. 561. 16, Barton-Steeple, par. Oxford; 2710 ac. 
 Pop. 640. 17, Barton in-the- Street, par. York, N. Riding; 
 3180 ac. Pop. 419. 18, Barton-Turf, par. Norfolk; 1750 
 ac. P. 408. 19, barton -TFesta>,par. Oxford; 650 ac. P. 290. 
 
 BAETOX-CPON-HUMBEis, a tn. and par. Eng., co. Lincoln. 
 The TOWN is pleasantly situated, on r. bank, Ilurnber, 33 m. 
 N.N.E. Lincoln; has two ancient churches, and Wesleyan, 
 Calvinist, Primitive Methodist, and R. Catholic chapels ; an 
 endowed charity school, several alms-houses, and other chari 
 ties. Trade principally in corn, flour, malt, coal, and bones 
 for manure. Rope and sacking are manufactured ; and there 
 are corn-mills, breweries, tanneries, potteries, c. Area of 
 par. C710ac. Pop. 3475. 
 
 BAETOX-UPON-iiiWEL, a township, England, co. Lan 
 caster, 5 in. W. by S. Manchester, on botli sides the Irwel, 
 here crossed by the Bridgewater canal, and on the Liverpool 
 and Manchester railway. It has a neat church, Methodist, 
 Independent, Unitarian, and R. Catholic chapels; several 
 schools, and manufactures of calicoes, nankeens, iron and steel. 
 It includes the village of Patricroft (which sec}. Pop. 10.865. 
 
 BARTSCI1, a river, Prussia, which rises in gov. Posen, 
 near the frontiers of Poland. It first takes a N. course, then 
 turning E. passes Adelnau, and at Meletsch becomes navi 
 gable. Here it turns to the S., and proceeds in a circuitous 
 course till it is joined by the Orta. From this its course is 
 W.N.W., till it falls into the Oder, 8 m. E. of Glogau. 
 
 BARVAS, a vil. and par. Scotland, isl. Lewis, co. Ross. 
 The VILLAGE is situated at the mouth of a small river of the 
 
 same name, on the N.W. coast. The PARISH, in the N. 
 
 part of the island, is 12 m. long by 7 broad. Pop. 2040. 
 
 HARWELL, par. Eng. Leicester; 3950 ac. Pop. 1607. 
 
 BARWICK, three pars. Eng.: 1, Barwick~with-Sta/ord, 
 par. Somerset; 920 ac. Pop. 446. 2, Barwiclc, or Berwick- 
 in-the-Brakes, par. Norfolk; 890 ac. Pop. 32. 3, Barwick, or 
 Berwick-in-Elmett, par. York, W. Riding ; 8030ac. Pop. 2275. 
 
 BAS, or BATZ, a small isl. France, in the English Channel, 
 N. coast of dep. Finistere, 15 m. N.W. Morlaix. It is 2 m. 
 long, and nearly 2 broad ; has three villages, four batteries, 
 and two forts. The spring from which the inhabitants derive 
 their sole supply of water, is below high-water mark. No trees 
 grow on the island. The channel between the island and the 
 mainland is a tolerable refuge for ships. A revolving light 
 stands on an elevation, 223 ft. above the level of the sea, in 
 lat. 48 44 48" N. ; Ion. 4 1 30" W. (R.) 
 
 BASCHURCH, par. Eng. Salop;10,270 ac. Pop. 1491. 
 
 BASECLES, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, on 
 the road, and nearly half-way between Tournay and Mons ; 
 with extenisve lime and marble quarries, and a considerable 
 export of agricultural produce and cattle. Pop. 26G1. 
 
 BASEELAX. See BASILAN. 
 
 BASEL, or BASIL [French, Basle, Bah}, a can., N. W. 
 corner of Switzerland, the llth in the Confederation, between 
 lat. 47 21 and 47 37 N., and Ion. 7 29 and 7 48 E.; 
 bounded, W. by France, N. by Baden and can. Aargau, E. by 
 Aargau, and S. by cantons Soleure and Bern. Its shape is 
 so very irregular, as to make it almost impossible to give an 
 average length and breadth ; but its area is 140 geo. sq. m. The 
 surface in the S. is mountainous, being intersected by portions 
 of the Jura range, which in a manner isolates the canton from 
 the rest of Switzerland; but the N. part is flat, lying along the 
 banks of the Rhine. The whole canton belongs to the basin 
 of that river, and is watered by a great number of its affluents, 
 the chief of which are the Ergolz and Birse. The highest 
 summit is about 2500 ft. The forests are considerable, and 
 consist of oak, ash, pine, and fir. The soil, where it admits 
 of cultivation, is fertile, and produces good crops, particularly 
 on the borders of the Rhine, and in the valleys of the Ergolz 
 and the Birse ; but the corn raised does not much exceed 
 what is necessary for the consumption of the inhabitants. 
 Wine of good quality, the best being Schwcizerblut, and fruit, 
 are also produced. In the mountains, where the pasturage is 
 excellent, cheese and butter are made to a large extent, and 
 many cattle are reared. The only minerals wrought are sand 
 stone, limestone, a little coal, and seme iron. Salt is obtained 
 
 from salt springs. Manufactures employ the greater part of 
 the population. Ribbon-making in particular had become an 
 important branch of industry as early as the commencement 
 of the 17th century, and was greatly extended by the influx 
 of French Protestants, on the revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes. It occupied 1238 looms in 1754, and has since in- 
 i creased to such an extent, that the number of persons employed 
 j by the ribbon manufacturers of Basel, in this and the neigh- 
 bouring cantons, is about 15,000; and the value of the ribbons 
 i produced varies from 480,000 to 600,000 annually. The 
 patterns were formerly imported from France; but the manu 
 facturers now employ draughtsmen, who furnish the designs. 
 The U. States take about a half of the whole, and the greater 
 part of the remainder goes to Germany. England was at one 
 time a considerable purchaser, but the great improvements 
 in the manufactures of Coventry have almost entirely ex 
 cluded those of Basel. Other manufactured articles are, 
 silk thread, tape, sarsanets, leather, paper, cotton thread, some 
 cotton goods, tobacco, and hardware. The commerce of the 
 canton is extensive and flourishing ; its exports including in 
 addition to the staple of ribbons already mentioned leather, 
 paper, tobacco, hardware, and agricultural produce, particu 
 larly wine, fruits, cattle, butter, and cheese. Its imports are 
 colonial produce, silk, cotton, salt, leaf-tobacco, metals, iron, 
 copper, and steel. The position of the canton between France, 
 Germany, and Switzerland, procures for it an extensive 
 transit trade, facilitated by the Rhine, and by the railways 
 on either side that river. Its contingent to the army was 
 918 men, and its war contribution 34,425 francs (1377). It 
 was divided into six Bezirk or administrative divisions- 
 Basel, Liestall, Sipach, Waldeuburg, Berseck, and Unterer 
 Bezirk. Since 1833, this canton has been definitively divided 
 into the two cantons of Basel Country (Basel-Landschaft) , and 
 Basel City (Basel-Stadt, Basle- Ville), Basel Country compris 
 ing the whole territory of the old canton, with the exception 
 of the town of Basel, its suburbs, and three communes on the 
 r. bank of the Rhine, which together constitute the canton of 
 Basel Town. Both cantons are portions of the Swiss Con 
 federation, but have only a single vote between them an 
 arrangement attended with the awkward result, that when 
 they are not agreed they neutralize each other, and the vote 
 is lost. 
 
 BASEL [French, Basle or Bale}, one of the most extensive 
 towns in Switzerland, cap. formerly of the whole can. of 
 Basel, but now, since the subdivision of that can., cap. only 
 of the can. of Basel Town. It is 43 m. N. Bern, pleasantly 
 situated on the Rhine, which is here crossed by a wooden 
 bridge, supported partly on stone piers. The river divides 
 the town into two parts Gross Basel or Great Basel on the 
 left bank, and Klein Basel or Little Basel on the right bank ; 
 lat. 47 34 N. ; Ion. 7 36 E. Basel is surrounded by walls, 
 and is tolerably well built ; streets irregular but clean, and 
 plentifully supplied with fountains. The cathedral, built by 
 Henry II. in 1019, has a tower 250 ft. high, and is one of the 
 finest churches in Switzerland. It contains the tombs of 
 Erasmus, (Ecolampadius, Bcmouilli, and Anne, wife of Ru 
 dolph of Hapsburg, mother of the line of Austrian princes. 
 In a corner of the square in which the cathedral is situated, 
 is the public library, containing 50,000 volumes, with many 
 important manuscripts, an interesting collection of paintings 
 and drawings by Holbein, and a number of antiquities from 
 Augst, the site of the Roman Augusta Ilauracomm. Behind 
 the cathedral is a terrace, about 60 ft. above the level of the 
 river, planted with chestnut trees, and commanding a fine 
 view of the Rhine, the town, and the hills of the Black Forest. 
 The arsenal contains the armour worn by Charles the Bold at 
 the battle of Nancy. The university, founded in 1459 by Pope 
 Pius II., and re-organized, in 1817, with 24 professors, was the 
 first great seminary for the advancement of learning estab 
 lished in Switzerland. It once enjoyed a high reputation, and 
 numbered Erasmus, Bernoulli!, and Euler, among its profess 
 ors ; the two latter were natives of Basel. The town has also a 
 normal school, a gymnasium with 12 professors, an element 
 ary polytechnic school, a theological institution, a school of 
 practical agriculture, and the Erasmus college. The library 
 of the theological institution contains 20,000 vols. ; and a 
 special library attached to the botanical garden is said to be 
 the richest of the kind in Europe. As a commercial and 
 manufacturing town, Basel is the most important in Switzer- 
 
BASELE 
 
 335 
 
 BASHKIRS 
 
 land. This is partly to be attributed to its position on the Batanes. That portion of them formerly called N. Bashees, 
 frontiers of France and Germany, a few miles below the spot as will be seen from the following extract, is supposed to have 
 where the Rhine becomes navigable, and at the termination no existence, at least in the position in which they are usually 
 of the French and German railways on either side the river, 1 laid down, lat. 21 9 N.; Ion. 122 E.: The following 
 
 morning we found ourselves close 
 off Ya"mi or the northernmost of 
 the Batanes group, and were for 
 tunate enough to effect a landing 
 on a detached islet, and obtain 
 its position. This enabled us to 
 efface from the chart the islets 
 termed N. Bashees, which have 
 no existence in the position as 
 signed to them, nor in the visual 
 radius from the mast-head po 
 sition of the Samarang, 108 ft. 
 above the level of the sea. The 
 channel between the two north 
 ernmost islands is safe, and carries 
 soundings, but too deep for an 
 chorage, as well as the bottom 
 being rocky. The position of the 
 islet lying off the S. extremity of 
 Ya"mi, is in lat. 21 5 N.; Ion. 
 121 54 E. See BATAN and 
 BATANES. (Sir E.Bel cher s Voy., 
 Samaranfj, vol. i. p. 310.) 
 
 BASHKIRS, apeculiarpeople 
 
 BASEL, from above the town From Front s Sketches in France nnrt Switzerland. inhabiting the plains adjoining 
 
 the S. Uralian Mountains, on the 
 which naturally renders it the entrepot of the commerce of | confines of Europe and Asia, between the parallels of 52 and 
 
 Switzerland with France, Germany, and the Low Countries. 
 Its ribbon manufactories are extensive (see preceding ar 
 ticle); and it also produces paper, silks, gloves, leather, jewel 
 lery, printed cottons, and turnery ware. About a quarter of 
 a mile beyond the gates a cross is erected, to commemorate 
 the battle of St. Jacob, fought in 1444, when 1600 Swiss 
 attacked a French army of twenty times their number, com 
 manded by the Dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, and for 10 
 hours kept it in check ; nearly all the Swiss fell, not more 
 than 10, according to some accounts, escaping alive. This 
 exploit first spread the fame of Swiss valour, and led to the 
 enrolment of the Swiss body-guard of France, The vineyards 
 near the field of battle produce a red wine called Schweizer- 
 llut [Swiss blood], esteemed the best in the canton. Down 
 to the end of last century (1795), the clocks of Basel were 
 kept an hour in advance of those in other places of Europe 
 a singular custom, the origin of which is unknown. The 
 treaties of peace, between France and Spain, and France and 
 Prussia, were signed here, July 22, 1795. Pop. 21,601, 
 almost all Protestants. 
 
 BASELE, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. E. Flanders, 
 on the Scheldt, 12 m. N.E. Tcrmonde. The chief church is 
 handsome, and contains some good paintings ; and in the im 
 mediate vicinity is an old Gothic castle of the 13th century, 
 surrounded with a fine domain laid out in modern style, with 
 a lake and suspension bridge. In the commune are large 
 brickfields, producing from 60 to 70 million bricks annually. 
 Many of the inhabitants gain their living by making sabots 
 or wooden shoes. Pop. 4918. 
 
 BASELICE, a tn. Naples, prov. Sannio, 18 m. S.E. Cam- 
 poliapo, on the declivity of a mountain. It has an hospital, 
 and two mcnts~de-piete, established to portion poor girls on 
 their marriage. Pop. 4406. 
 
 BAS-EN-BASSET, a tn. France, dep. Haute Loire, 11 m. 
 N. Yssengeaux. Overlooking the town is the picturesque 
 ruin of the castle of Rocliebaron. There are here manufac 
 tures of blonde lace, ribbons, and earthenware. Pop. 1080. 
 
 BASFORD, par. Eng. Notts ; 2720 ac. Pop. 8688. 
 
 BASHEE ISLANDS, a group of islands, Indian Archi 
 pelago, N. of the Philippine Islands, and between lat. 20 
 and 21 20 N., and Ion. 121 and 122 E.; discovered, in 1687, 
 by Dampier. They were so called, by their discoverer, from 
 the name of an intoxicating liquor which is much drunk there. 
 Bashee is a thick yellow fluid, of a sub-acid taste, between 
 that of cider and toddy, and is not very potent in its effects. 
 They are hilly, and produce sugar-canes, plantains, bananas, 
 pumpkins, yams, and vegetables ; abundance of goats, hogs, 
 and good horses. These islands are now frequently called 
 
 55 30 N., and the meridians of 58 and 63 E. The origin of 
 these people is extremely obscure ; their language, which dif 
 fers but little from that of the Tatars of Kasan, seems to connect 
 them with the Turkish race, while in looks and features they 
 are said to bear a stronger resemblance to the Finnish tribes. 
 It is not improbable that they are the descendants of Bulga 
 rians, Nogays, and other Tatar adventurers who settled in 
 the Uralian valleys, partly expelling, partly mixing with, and 
 absorbing the original Finnish population. In the 13th cen 
 tury, the travellers Carpini and Rubruquis point out in 
 this quarter the country of Bascart or Pascatir, which they 
 entitle Great Hungary. The Ostiaks on the river Obe, have 
 the tradition that their nation came from the S.W., that is, 
 from the S. Ural. The tradition of the Bashkirs is, that they 
 left Bulgaria towards the end of the 16th century. They are 
 now called, by their Tatar neighbours, Ueshtak (Ostiak) or 
 strangers, so that all circumstances tend to show that, in 
 occupying the territories, they succeeded also to the names 
 of the original Finnish race. It is true that the name Bash 
 kir is usually explained from the Turkish language ; some 
 suppose it to be a corruption of Bash-kurt [a bee-head] , which 
 is explained to mean a keeper of bees. Others endeavour to 
 make the word signify shaven heads; but these etymologies, 
 ingenious as they may be, fail to reconcile the comparatively 
 recent and evidently Turkish origin of the present Bashkirs, 
 with the mention of Pascatir, in the 13th century, in connec 
 tion with the Hungarian or Finnish name. 
 
 As to physical characters, the Bashkir may be said to be 
 long to the rudest and most uncouth Mongolian type. He 
 is of middle height, very muscular and strong ; his eyes are 
 small, his mouth large, his face flat and broad, and widened 
 still further to the view by the projection of enormous ears. 
 He has black hair, and an olive complexion. The Bashkirs 
 may be justly called the Bedouins of the N. They are in 
 dolent on foot, but indefatigable on horseback; and being 
 habitually intent on pillage, these bold horsemen and expert 
 archers long proved extremely troublesome neighbours to the 
 Russians. In 1741, however, they were completely subdued, 
 and being placed, at a subsequent date, on the same footing 
 as the Cossacks, they were obliged to furnish 3000 cavalry to 
 the general service of the empire. They are allowed to 
 choose their own chiefs their Starshiman and Attaman (Het- 
 man) who govern each a volost or canton, assisted by a Rus 
 sian secretary bearing the title of Tsemskoi Ispraonik. The 
 Bashkir guards are armed with spear, bow, and arrows, and 
 so expert are they in the use of the latter weapons, that it has 
 not been thought worth while to supply them with fire-arms. 
 
 The Bashkirs are, at the present day, the only people within 
 
BAS1LAN 
 
 336 
 
 BASS (THE) 
 
 the limits of the Russian empire who still cling to their ancient 
 nomadic habits. During half of the year at least, they live 
 under trees or tents ; as winter approaches, they return to their 
 villages for each encampment owns a group of wooden houses 
 at the borders of some wood they send forward the women 
 to exorcise the fixed, and, to their senses, gloomy dwellings, 
 and thus settle for a few months with their droves and flocks 
 around them. In spring, again, with different feelings, they 
 hurry to the open plains, and encamp in small companies. 
 The women milk the cattle, make cheese, weave cloth, and 
 prepare felt for tent coverings ; the men drive the mares, 
 tend the cattle, fish, and hunt with hawks. Their falconry is 
 successful, and hawks trained by them fetch good prices in 
 the Kirghiz steppes, and in Persia. With abundance of mares 
 milk, mutton, and honey, to say nothing of game and wild 
 fruits, devoid of care, and always on horseback, the Bashkirs 
 lead a singularly happy and healthful life. Their wealth 
 consists chiefly in droves of horses. A rich man will possess 
 2000 or 3000 mares, and there are few so poor as not to have 
 a score. Their bee-hives are also extremely numerous ; 
 honey, and, still more, wax, constituting chief articles of their 
 export trade with the Russians. The Bashkirs are Maho 
 metans, but of the most illiterate kind ; they assemble round 
 their priest or mollah to pray in an open enclosure, having 
 no covered mosques. They do not bury their dead in con 
 secrated ground, but in the plain. The Bashkirs avoid as 
 much as possible the towns and mines, and readily sell to the 
 Russians the right of mining on their estates ; nor have they 
 villages anywhere on the mountains, except near the pass of 
 Zlatoust. At that point, the line of their usual haunts crosses 
 the Uralian chain, extending N.E. to the Isset, and S.W. to 
 the Bielaya, the Samana, and the Ural. Their territory S.W. 
 Slatoust, is of the finest kind, well watered, wooded, and 
 abundantly fertile ; but these equestrians think only of pas 
 ture, and never of their own accord engage in agricultural 
 pursuits. They do not go beyond Ekaterinburg on the one 
 side, nor Orenburg on the other. In 1770, they reckoned 
 27,000 families or probably about 160,000 souls; in 1838, 
 they had increased to 195,000; of whom about 20,000 were 
 in the government of Perm, the remainder in that of Orenburg. 
 
 BASILAN, or BASEELAN, one of the largest islands of 
 the Sooloo Archipelago, off the S.W. extremity of Mindanao, 
 from which it is separated by the Strait of Basilan, abut 
 15 m. broad, a safe channel, though having irregular tides ; 
 lat. (E. point) 6 41 N.; Ion. 122 17 E. (H.) It is about 
 42 m. in length by 6 average breadth. It is low towards the 
 coast, but mountainous in the centre ; produces bananas, sugar 
 cane, and rice. Its coast abounds with fish ; hogs and deer run 
 wild, and in the depths of the forest elephants are met with. 
 Basilan is a favourite resort of pirates, particularly of a daring 
 and active race calling themselves Illanos, a distinct people, 
 who inhabit the line of coast comprised within the bight of 
 the bay of that name in the island of Mindanao. (Journal of 
 Hie Asiatic Society of Bengal.} 
 
 BASILDEN, or BASILDOX, par. Eng. Berks ; 3120 ac. 
 Pop. 812. 
 
 BASILICATA, a pror. Naples, bounded, N. by provs. 
 Principato Ultra and Capitanata, N.E. Bari, E. Otranto and 
 Gulf of Taranto, S. Calabria Citra, S.W. the Mediterranean, 
 W. Principato Citra ; greatest length, from N. to S., 95 m., 
 greatest breadth, from E to W., 65 m. ; area, about 2464 
 geo. sq. m. It lies almost wholly on the E. side of the Ap- 
 pcnnines, and its numerous streams, the chief of which are the 
 Sinno, Agri, Salandrella, Basento, and the Bradano, flow E. 
 into the Gulf of Taranto. The valleys in which these rivers 
 flow, slope gradually in the same direction till within 10m. 
 of the coast, when they sink down into a low plain. Here 
 the fertility is great, and abundance of corn (principally maize), 
 wine, flax, hemp, liquorice, and tobacco, are produced. Many 
 of the hilly parts are planted with olives, and the more moun 
 tainous districts afford excellent pasturage, on which great 
 numbers of sheep, goats, and swine are reared. The capital 
 of the province is Potenza. Pop. 469,000. 
 
 BASING, par. Eng. Hants; 4970 ae. Pop. 1172. 
 
 BASINGSTOKE, a tn. and par. England, co. Hants. 
 The town, pleasantly situated near the source of the Loddon, 
 18 m. N.N.E. Winchester, consists of several streets lined 
 with well-built houses, paved, amply supplied with water, and 
 lighted. A handsome new townhall was erected here in 1832, 
 
 containing a spacious market for corn, a ball-room, and other 
 | apartments for public purposes. Basingstoke has a church, 
 a fine Gothic structure erected in the time of Henry VIII.; 
 ; two Dissenting chapels, and a Friends meeting-house ; a blue- 
 coat and national school united, a British day-school for boys 
 and girls, supported by the Society of Friends, and several 
 Sunday-schools ; a mechanics institute, with good library, and 
 numerous charities founded by private persons. A consider 
 able trade is carried on in corn and malt, which is much faci 
 litated by the favourable position of the town as regards the 
 means of transport. Area of par. 3970 ac. Pop. 4066. 
 
 BASINGTHOKPE-wiTii-WESTBY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 
 920 ac. Pop. 137. 
 
 BASLE. See BASEL. 
 
 BASLTC, par. Irel. Roscommon ; 15,396 ac. Pop. 3608. 
 BASOUDA, a tn. Hindoostan, Malwa, on an affluent of 
 the Betwah; lat. 23 53 N.; Ion. 78 E., containing about 
 2000 houses. 
 
 BASQUE PROVINCES [anc. Cantabria], a territory of 
 a nearly triangular shape, in the N. of Spain, formed by the 
 three provinces Alava, Guipuzcoa, and Biscay, which contain 
 j unitedly an area of about 4863 sq. m. It is bounded, N. by 
 the Atlantic, E. by France and Navarre, S. by Old Castile, and 
 W. by Santandcr, between lat. 42 25 and 43 28 N. ; and Ion. 
 1 44 and 3 20 W. These provinces are very mountainous 
 and picturesque (see ALAVA, BISCAY, and GUIPUZCOA), and in 
 language, manners, costume, and government, differ materially 
 from the rest of Spain, each having a separate constitution. 
 The privileges enjoyed by these provinces are not merely 
 political ; for they have free trade in salt, tobacco, &c., on 
 which a heavy duty is paid by the rest of Spain, and freedom 
 from conscription. The Basques generally are honest, simple, 
 and primitive, attached to music and dancing, and remarkably 
 fond of the bagpipe ; with kindness they are easily managed, 
 but are sullen and revengful if treated with severity. In 
 person they are of the average height, remarkably well built, 
 muscular, and capable of enduring great exertion ; they make 
 the best sailors in Spain, and are industrious and skilful in 
 mercantile pursuits. They are a brave people, much addicted 
 to smuggling, and eminently fitted for the desultory manner of 
 guerilla fighting, by which they have so long preserved their 
 independence. The name Basque is derived, by Humboldt, 
 from Basoa, a forest, whence Basocoa, belonging to a forest ; 
 other antiquaries derive it from Bassoco, a mountaineer. The 
 nation is, as far as history informs us, the first that took up 
 its abode in Spain, though its origin is doubtful. Humboldt 
 imagines that the inhabitants are the modern representatives 
 and descendants of the ancient Iberi, and, according to the 
 Basque historians, the Vascones, so called by the Romans, had 
 settlements in France, Italy, and Ireland. Be this as it may, 
 it is evident that the Basque nation has at different periods 
 held the greater part of Spain in subjection, and successfully 
 resisted all attempts to deprive it of its liberties and privileges. 
 Pop. 373.149. 
 
 BASS (THE), a remarkable insular trap rock, Scotland, 
 co. Haddington, at the mouth of the Frith of Forth; lat. 
 56 4 42" N. ; Ion. 2 38 12" W. ; 2 m. from the coast of E. 
 Lothian, and 3 m. from N. Berwick. It is of a circular form, 
 about 1 m. in circumference, rising majestically out of the 
 sea to a height of 420 ft. On being closely approached, its 
 aspect is tremendous, from its lofty precipitous walls of rock, 
 and the immense excavations which the sea has opened all 
 around, one of which, running N.W. and S.E. may be taken 
 in calm weather. The rock is inaccessible, except on one flat 
 shelvy point to the S.E. There is a spring of water on its 
 summit, whose superficies has been guessed at 7 ac., and 
 where a few sheep also are grazed, which bring a high price, 
 Bass mutton being considered a delicacy. Solan geese, and 
 other sea fowl in myriads, cover its rocks, and keep flying 
 around it in clouds. On the N.E. side, the water is of great 
 depth, but shallow on the S. Among the several ruins on the 
 island, of historical interest, are (Jie remains of a fortalicc, com- 
 
 Imanding the landing-place, capable of accommodating upwards 
 1 00 men, and which had been accessible only by ladders or 
 i buckets and chains, and the ruins of a chapel, about half-way 
 ; up the acclivity of the rock. The Bass was purchased by 
 Government after the Revolution, and its castle, long since 
 demolished, converted into a state prison, in which various 
 I leaders of the Reformation were confined. It was the last 
 
BASSA 
 
 337 
 
 BASTIA 
 
 place in Britain that held out against William III., its gallant 
 defenders, a small band, yielding only when they had no longer 
 a means of subsistence. This singular rock anciently belonged 
 to a family of the name of Lauder, whose head was styled, 
 Lauder of the Bass. 
 
 BASSA, BAFFA, or BUFFA, a harbour, Grain Coast, coast 
 of Guinea, between the Capes of Mesurado and Palmas, in 
 about lat. 7 N. ; Ion. 10 20 W., and distant from the former 
 between 70 and 80 m. The neighbouring country abounds 
 in fruits, especially oranges, lemons, and bananas. Cattle, 
 sheep, and goats are also reared in great numbers, affording 
 ample supplies to vessels resorting to the harbour. 
 
 BASSAIN, a tn. Bunnah, cap. prov., 1. bank, Bassain 
 river, one of the mouths of the Irawady, 99 m. W. Rangoon; 
 lat. 16 50 N. ; Ion. 94 45 E. It is considered the third 
 port in the empire ; has a greater depth of water than Eangoon, 
 but is less centrally situated for trade. Pop. (1826), 3000. 
 
 BASSALEGr, par. Wales, Monmouth ; 6290 ac. P. 1731. 
 
 BASSAM (GRAND). 1, A river, W. Africa, the embou 
 chure of which is on the S. part of the Ivory Coast, where the 
 French have a settlement. Its chief affluent, the Acka or 
 Ackba, which comes from the N., is said to approach near one 
 of the arms of the Niger. 2, A tn. near the mouth of the 
 above river, and cap. of a district of same name ; lat. 5 20 
 N. ; Ion. 3 30 W. It is a place of some trade, and exports a 
 considerable quantity of gold. 
 
 BASSANO, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, 15 m. 
 N.E. Vicenza, 1. bank, Brenta, here crossed by a beautiful 
 stone bridge, connecting the town with its suburbs on the 
 opposite side of the river. Bassano is surrounded by walls, 
 is well built, and well paved, having marble footpaths. It 
 has 30 churches, four nunneries, two hospitals, a gymnasium, 
 schools, and several benevolent institutions ; a mont-de-piete, 
 and barracks ; works for spinning silk and bleaching wax, 
 tanneries, manufactures of woollen cloth, straw hats, and cop 
 per utensils ; and likewise a printing establishment, founded 
 1663, which, at one time, employed 50 presses, and more than 
 1 000 persons, but is now much fallen off. Paper-mills are 
 attached to it, and also a school of engraving, by which Bar- 
 tolozzi, Volpato, and other distinguished engravers, largely 
 benefited. The trade of Bassano consists chiefly of silk, 
 the produce of its own territory; cloth, timber, iron, corn, 
 wine, and cattle. In the vicinity a great quantity of charcoal 
 is made, which is sent to Venice. The country around is 
 studded with villages, and abounds in vines and olive-trees, 
 which last here reach their N. limit of growth. Bassano is 
 the birthplace of Francesco, Giacomo, and Leonardo da Ponte, 
 the fathers of the Venetian school of painting, and of Aldus 
 Manutius, the celebrated printer of Venice. On September 
 9, 1796, the Austrians, under Wurmser, were here defeated 
 by the French under Bonaparte. Napoleon, when Emperor, 
 created his secretary, Maret, duke of Bassano. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 BASSAR (AL), or EL-KASR-KEBIR, a tn. Marocco, 85 m. 
 S.S.W. Tangier, r. bank, Luccos or Loukkos. It has good- 
 looking houses, roofed with tiles in the European style, 14 
 mosques, a large number of shops, and a market. Pop. 5000. 
 
 BASSAR PULO, a small isl., Asiatic Archipelago, N. 
 coast Ceram, a little W. of the entrance into Sawa Bay ; lat. 
 2 45 S.; Ion. 129 10 E. 
 
 BASSAS DA INDIA, an isl. Mozambique Channel ; lat. 
 22 22 30" S.; Ion. 40 24 15" E. (R.) The name of Baxosda 
 India, given it by the Portuguese discoverers, it still bears in 
 all European charts except our own. It is of a circular shape, 
 about 3 or 4 in. in diameter, highest towards the N., but 
 generally flat; and on the W. has a white sandy beach, 
 without any appearance of shoals or rocks. It is of easy 
 access, is well wooded, and the shores abound in turtle. 
 (Horsburgh.) 
 
 BASS STRAIT, the passage between Van Dicmen s Land 
 and Australia, about 150 m. in length, and 120 to 140 in 
 breadth. It is much obstructed by islands and coral reefs, and 
 is, on this account, a rather dangerous navigation. The pre 
 vailing winds are from the W. The tide rises from 8 to 12 ft., 
 and runs at the rate of 1^ to 3 m. per hour. The soundings 
 vary from 35 to 42 fathoms. The strait is called after Mr. 
 Bass, a surgeon, by whom it was explored while on a sealing 
 voyage from Port Jackson. 
 
 BASSEE (LA), a small tn. France, dep. Nord, 14 m. 
 S.W. Lille, on the canal of same name, that forms the water 
 VOL. I. 
 
 communication from the Deule to St. Omer, Dunkirk, and 
 
 Calais. Bonnets, soft soap, and pottery, are made here. 
 
 i There are also spinning-mills for wool and cotton, oil- mills, 
 
 tanneries, and a saltwork. The trade is principally in grain, 
 
 seeds, wine, oil, butter, fruit, cattle, pigs, wood, and coal. 
 
 Pop. 2248. 
 
 BASSEIN, a seaport tn. Hindoostan, presidency Bombay, 
 prov. Aurungabad ; lat. 19 22 N. ; Ion. 72 54 E. ; 30 m. 
 N. Bombay, and separated from the island of Salsette by a 
 narrow channel. It was fortified by the Portuguese in 1531, 
 and remained in their possession until captured by the Mah- 
 rattas, in 1750. Here the treaty was signed, December 31, 
 1802, between the Peshwa and the British Government, which 
 annihilated the federal empire of the Mahrattas ; since which 
 it has belonged to the British. A considerable part of the 
 rural population of the district are R. Catholics. To the N. 
 and N.E. of the town are extensive forests of teak, from which 
 the dockyards of Bombay are supplied. 
 
 BASSENTHWA1TE, par. Eng. Cumberland ; 6930 ac. 
 Pop. 536. 
 
 BASSERSDORF, a vil. and par. Switzerland, can. of, 
 and 8 m. N.E. Ziirich, pleasantly situated in an open valley. 
 It has a church and two schools. The inhabitants are engaged 
 partly in agriculture and partly in manufactures. Pop. 825. 
 
 BASSES (GREAT and LITTLE), the former, called Kaman- 
 paaj by the natives of Hindoostan, is the name of a ledge of 
 rocks nearly 1 m. in extent, off the S. end of the island of 
 Ceylon; lat. 6 11 N. ; Ion. 81 36 E. It is elevated but a 
 few feet above water, and the sea breaks over it with great 
 violence in stormy weather. There is a safe channel between 
 it and the main, which is about 9 m. distant. About 21m. 
 N.E. by E. of the Great Basses, is the ledge of rocks called 
 the Little Basses ; lat. 6 24 30" N.; Ion. 81 54 E. 
 
 BASSETERRE, two tns. West Indies:!, Cap of isl. 
 St. Christopher s ; is situated at the mouth of a small river, 
 S. side of the island ; contains about 800 houses, a spacious 
 square, and a church, and is defended by three forts. The 
 district of Basseterre contains 17 sq. m., with a population of 
 6620; and is divided into two parishes St. George s, and St. 
 Peter s, the former of which sends four, the latter two members 
 to the Assembly. The vale of Basseterre is beautiful, and 
 well cultivated. 2, The cap. of isl. Guadaloupe, lies near the 
 S. end of the island, and consists of one principal long street, 
 stretching along the sea-shore. Defended by Forts-Royal 
 and Matilda. The anchorage is unsheltered, and exposed 
 to a constant swell. 
 
 B ASSIGN AN A, a tn. Sardinian States (formerly fortified), 
 prov. of, and 7 m. N.E. Alexandria ; r. bank, Po, not far 
 from the mouth of the Tanaro. Pop. 4000. 
 
 BASSINGBOURNE, par. Eng. Cambridge; 4235 ac. 
 Pop. 1774. 
 
 BASSINGHAM, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 1940 ac. P. 792. 
 
 BASSORA. See BUSSORAH. 
 
 BASTAD, or BATSTA, a market and fishing tn. Sweden, 
 bail, of, and 58 m. N. W. Christianstad, on the Kattegat ; lat. 
 56 26 N. ; Ion. 12 49 E. It has a tolerably good harbour, 
 and carries on some seafaring business with Malmb Ystad and 
 other places. 
 
 BASTELICA, a tn. France, dep. Corsica, arrond. of, and 
 15 m. E.N.E. Ajaccio; on the Prunnetta, chief place of can 
 ton. Pop. 2528. 
 
 BASTIA, a seaport tn. France, N.E. coast, isl. Corsica, 
 55 m. N.N.E. Ajaccio ; lat. 42 41 48" N. ; Ion. 9 27 E. (R.) 
 It is the wealthiest and most populous town in the island, is 
 built in the form of an amphitheatre, amid olive, orange, and 
 citron gardens, and has a fine appearance from the sea ; but 
 on a nearer approach, the houses are found to be mean, the 
 streets narrow, though well paved with a kind of marble 
 jasper. Several of the churches are handsome, with rich 
 gilding and marble sculptures, resembling the churches of 
 Italy. The finest is that of St. John the Baptist, which is of 
 large size, and highly decorated. This town is the seat of 
 the royal court of appeal for the island, of a court of com 
 merce, and of an inspector-general of forests. It has a royal 
 college, a royal school of hydrography, a theatre, a public 
 library, with 6000 volumes, and is the residence of consuls 
 from most of the European states. The staple of Bastia is 
 leather. Its numerous tanneries prepare, on an average, 
 annually, 5000 to 6000 bullock-hides, 1000 calf, and 6000 
 
EASTIDE-DE-SEROU 
 
 333 
 
 BATAVIA 
 
 Bheep-skins. Tlie other manufactures consist of soap, wax 
 candles, liqueurs, and stilettoes, which are highly esteemed 
 by the Italians. The trade is chiefly in wine, oil, leather, 
 goats hair, and coral. Coral-fishing, also, is carried on to 
 some extent. A considerable trade is done in wine, oil, figs, 
 pulse, grain, oak-bark, and fruit; and there is regular com 
 munication by steam with Toulon. Of late years, Bastia has 
 greatly increased in importance, and has become a centre of 
 most extensive traffic between France, Sicily, Italy, and 
 the Levant. The former incommodious port is (1850) in pro 
 cess of being replaced by a new one, which will enclose a 
 surface of 20 ac., one-half of which will present a depth of 
 19 ft. ; and a quarter, 26 ft. It will be protected by a mole, 
 and form an excellent harbour of refuge. Before the annexa 
 tion of Corsica to France, Bastia was the capital of the island. 
 Pop. (1846), 12,571. 
 
 BASTIDE-DE-SEROU, a neat little tn. France, dep. 
 Ariege, 8 m. N.W. Foix ; situated or the Arizo, here crossed 
 by a stone bridge of a single arch. There are in the vicinity 
 a remarkable grotto, and a copper mine, no longer worked"; 
 and a worsted, and some saw mills. Tiles, pottery, and 
 hosiery are made here. Pop. 1107. 
 
 BASTIDE-ROUAiROCx, a tn. France, dep. Tarn, 23 m. 
 from Castres ; well built, has some dyeworks, and cloth manu 
 factories. Pop. 1496. 
 
 BASTOGNE, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Luxem 
 bourg; in a plain, on the high road between Namur and 
 Luxembourg, from the latter of which it is about 32 m. 
 N.W. It has two churches, four chapels, a small seminary, 
 and an hospital. Its fortifications were demolished by the 
 French in 1688. Tanneries, and the knitting of worsted 
 stockings, employ a great part of the inhabitants. There is 
 also an important trade in grain and cattle. Bastogne is 
 famous for its hams. Pop. 2220. 
 
 BASTON, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 3520 ac. Pop. 765. 
 
 BASWICH. or BERKSWICH, par. Eng. Stafford ; 6200 ac. 
 Pop. 1438. 
 
 BATAAN, a prov. Philippines, isl. Luzon, forming a 
 peninsula, W. side of the Bay of Manilla; to the N. it is 
 bounded by prov. Zambales. It is poor, and little cultivated, 
 yet produces the best sugar in the Philippines, and very good 
 indigo, but scarcely enough of rice to supply the wants of the 
 people. The country is frequently inundated, and the roads 
 rendered impracticable in the rainy season. The province is 
 traversed by lofty mountains, which are well covered with 
 valuable wood ; but the streams by which it is watered are 
 generally small, and only to be navigated by native boats ; 
 they abound, however, in fish, which forms a staple article of 
 food to the inhabitants. Pop. 37,010. 
 
 BATAC, or BATAG ISLAND, Asiatic Archipelago, X. coast, 
 Samar, one of the Philippines; lat. (N. point) 12 43 N.; Ion. 
 1255 E. (it.) Inside of this island is the port of Palapa, having 
 5 and 6 fathoms water, accessible by two channels, one on 
 each side of Batac. 
 
 BATALHA, atn.and par. Portugal, prov. Estremadura, 
 dist. of, and 7 m. S. Leiria, on the Lis. The Dominican con 
 vent here, was founded by King John I., in commemoration 
 of a victory over the King of Castile, near Aljubarrota, in the 
 year 1385. This convent, in the Norman Gothic style, is one 
 of the most splendid buildings in Europe. An Irishman, named 
 Hacket, was the architect. It was intended as the royal bury- 
 ing-place for the Kings of Portugal, but the sepulchre of the 
 Braganzas is now at Belem. The town has some trade in 
 salt, and an important annual fair, which lasts eight days. 
 Pop. 1002. 
 
 BATALIN, or BATAI.TNG, a small isl. Asiatic Archipelago, 
 S.W. Cape Talyabo, on the E. coast of the island of Celebes ; 
 lat. 1 30 S.; Ion. 123 50 E. (K.) 
 
 BATAN, an isl. Indian Archipelago, the principal of the 
 Batanes group, belonging to the Philippines ; lat. (cathedral of 
 San Domingo) 20 27 30" N.; Ion. 121 59 E. (R.) It is 
 about 12 m. long by about 4 broad, covered with rich vege 
 tation, and is mountainous, the highest peak being 5000 ft. 
 high, and apparently an extinct volcano. It yields in abund 
 ance, yams, sweet potatoes, maize, onions, garlic, rice, grain, 
 &c. Cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, and poultry, wood and water, 
 are plentiful. Batan has three convents. The Alcalde resides 
 in the Casa Real, San Domingo, in the bay of same name, in 
 which good anchorage and shelter are to be found. He has 
 
 jurisdiction over the Babuyanes ; the Batanes proper, in most 
 British maps named the Bashees (all of which see}. 
 
 BATANES, a group of islands, Indian Archipelago, be 
 longing to the Philippines. They lie N. of the Babuyanes, 
 but in British maps are usually called Bashees. They consist 
 of six islands, Batan (which sec], Bayat, or Ibayat, or Orange. 
 Island, Saptang, Chevre, Bashee, and Dampier, all off the 
 N. end of the island of Luzon, between lat. 20 and 21 20 N. 
 The Babuyanes, in some authorities, are named Batanes. 
 (See BASHEE.) 
 
 BATANG ISLAND. See BATTAM. 
 
 BATANG PASSA AND BATANG LOBO. 1, Two 
 fine streams, Sumatra, affluents of the Rokan or Rakan, which 
 falls into the Strait of Malacca, at Tanah Pooti. 2, Batang 
 Ilari, a considerable stream, Sumatra, an affluent of the Jambi, 
 which falls into the China Sea, N.W. the island of Banca. 
 3, Batang Godis, a considerable stream, Sumatra, but not 
 navigable. It falls into the Indian Ocean, on the W. coast, 
 opposite the island of Niha or Nias. 
 
 BATANGAS, a prov. and tn. Philippines, isl. Luzon, 
 S. Manilla. The PROVINCE is intersected by lat. 14 N., and 
 bounded S. by the Mindoro Strait; it is composed principally 
 of plateaux and fertile meadows, variegated with beautiful and 
 fragrant flowers, yielding ample food to innumerable humming 
 birds and bees, the latter producing large quantities of honey. 
 The mountains of this province, among which are four peaks 
 of considerable elevation, are well wooded on the W., but 
 have scarcely any vegetation on the E. side. They are said 
 to contain iron and some gold. The principal rivers, all small, 
 are the Baytigbug, Obispo, Gemil, Daccan, Caon, and Bonbon. 
 This last flows from the lake of the same name, otherwise called 
 Taal, and falls into the Bay of Balayan; it abounds in excel 
 lent fish. Lake Bonbon or Taal, lies near the centre of the 
 province, and is about 12 m. long by about 10 broad. It is 
 deep, full of fish, and in its centre is a small island, in the 
 middle of which is the crater of a still active volcano. At 
 the bottom of this crater and in the midst of flaming vents, is 
 a small lake, the waters of which, as analysed by the chemist 
 Lopez, are composed of sulphuric acid. This lake is sufficiently 
 large and deep to be navigated by small boats, and round its 
 edge is a flat space sufficiently broad to form a carriage way. 
 It has no communication with the large exterior lake. The 
 province is subject, to earthquakes. It grows excellent coffee, 
 indigo, maize, a little pepper, fine cotton, legumes, fruits, cacao, 
 and wild nutmegs. Its pastures are good, and feed beauti 
 ful flocks, cattle, and horses. Some little cotton spinning 
 and weaving are carried on ; and fishing supports a considerable 
 number. Commerce: chiefly with Manilla, in the various 
 articles of native produce already enumerated, but more 
 especially in cattle, the flesh of which is highly esteemed. 
 The province is reckoned healthy, and the people are affable 
 
 and laborious. Pop. 180,937. The TOWN, cap. of the prov., 
 
 lies on the bay of the same name, 1. bank, Calumpang, 58 m. 
 S.Manilla: lat. 13 45 N.; Ion. 121 5 E. (R.) It was founded 
 in 1581, is large, built with tolerable regularity, has spacious 
 streets, an elegant royal house, the dwelling of the Alcalde, 
 with several elegant private houses. It is well situated for 
 trade, the large bay on which it lies, about 10 m. sq., opening 
 into the Strait of Mindoro, which is the track of a great 
 number of vessels. Pop., tn. and dist. 17,380. (Mallat s 
 Philippines.} 
 
 BATANTA, an isl. Indian Archipelago, off the N.W. end 
 of Papua; lat. (W. end) 58 S.; Ion. 130 30 E. It is 
 separated S. from the island of Salawatty by Pitt s Strait, and 
 N. from Waygin, by Dampier Strait. It was formerly under 
 the king of Tidor, but is now under the Dutch. It is inhabited 
 by Malays and Papuans. 
 
 BAT AV AN AN, an isl. Indian Archipelago, S.E. coast, 
 Luzon, a little E. of the bay of St. Miguel, in lat. (N. point) 
 14ll N.;lon. 123 3(X E. (it.) 
 
 BATAVIA, a coast prov., N.W. end, isl. Java, cap. same 
 name, bounded, E. by Krawang, S. by Buitenzorg, W. by 
 Bantam, and N. by the Java Sea ; length, about 50 m. ; breadth, 
 about 20; area, 880 sq. m. Along with Buitenzorg, it funned 
 at one time the native kingdom of Jaccatra. This province 
 is in general flat, the ground rising a little in the S., and is 
 not so fertile as other parts of Java, arising doubtless from 
 the scarcity of water in many localities. Rice in moderate 
 quantities, coffee, and pepper are grown ; excellent fruit and 
 
LATAVIA 
 
 339 
 
 BATAVIA 
 
 good vegetables in superabundance are cultivated, and a con 
 siderable number of cattle, horses, and pigs are reared. Sea 
 and river fish are plentiful, and so are likewise crocodiles. 
 Pop. (1845), 281,143. 
 
 BATAVIA, a large important commercial tn. Java, cap. 
 not only of that island, but of all the Dutch possessions in the 
 East. It lies near the N.W.end of Java, in a spacious and 
 beautiful island-studded bay ; lat. (observatory) 6 8 S. ; Ion. 
 106 50 E. (R.) It is composed of two portions, the old, 
 called Jaccatra by the natives, situated in a marshy flat near 
 the sea, and intersected by the Tjiliwong or Great Kiver, 
 and sundry canals ; and the new suburban portion, extending 
 over the higher grounds to a distance of several miles inland, 
 the respective sections of this latter portion being called Hijs- 
 wijk, Noordwijk, Molenvliet, Tanabang, Koningsplein (King s 
 Plain), and Weltevreden. In these suburban portions are the 
 dwellings of the Europeans, who no longer inhabit the old 
 town, on account of its well-known insalubrity, so great, that 
 instances are on record of fever being taken from sleeping in 
 
 it one night only. Much has been done, however, to improve 
 public health in Batavia ; marshes have been drained, and into 
 the stagnant canals currents of water have been led, so that 
 now the sanitary condition has been much ameliorated. In 
 consequence of the desertion of the Europeans, many houses 
 in the old town present a very dilapidated appearance, ren 
 dered all the more melancholy by the white stone of which 
 they are built. Still it is the business part of the town. The 
 principal warehouses and offices of the Europeans, together 
 with the Java bank and the Exchange, are all collected into 
 one long street, which, from nine A.M. till four P.M., presents 
 a very busy scene ; but in the evening, after business hours, 
 when the merchants have returned to their dwellings in the 
 suburbs, it is as still as before it was animated. The prin 
 cipal buildings in the old town are, the Stadhuis or townhall, 
 the Lutheran and Reformed churches, the exchange, the cus 
 tom-house, and the Chinese hospital, none of them having any 
 pretensions to architectural beauty. On the W. side of the 
 Great River, is the Chinese quarter, inhabited exclusively by 
 
 THE TOWN AND POUT OF BATAVIA. Af 
 
 natives of the celestial empire, who form an important and 
 industrious portion of the population of Batavia. This quarter 
 is so Chinese in outward appearance, as might almost lead to 
 Vhe supposition that a section of Canton had been transported 
 to Java, In smaller matters, the Chinese are governed by 
 their own laws, administered by native officers, usually re 
 spectable merchants, appointed to the duty by the Dutch 
 Government. The suburbs, inhabited by the Europeans, pre 
 sent more the appearance of a garden than a town, each house 
 being built apart from its neighbour, and surrounded by cocoa- 
 nut trees, bananas, &c., whose shade imparts a delightful 
 freshness to the apartments. Here are located the Governor s 
 house, the general hospital, William s church ( Willemskerl;} , 
 the society of arts and sciences, and the museum of that society, 
 containing an extensive collection of Malay and Hindoo deities, 
 and having a reading-room attached to it. The Government 
 offices are united in a large building, at one of the extremities 
 of Waterloo plain, formerly called Weltevreden, and in the 
 same plain are located the 11. Catholic church, and an excel 
 lent primary school. Elsewhere throughout the town there are 
 several other schools, a Mahometan mosque, several Chinese 
 temples or pagodas, and a theatre. Batavia, in common with 
 the other two principal towns of Java, possesses an orphan 
 court, charged with the administration of all successions not 
 expressly excluded by testamentary deed. This court has 
 agents in all the towns over which it has jurisdiction. 
 
 The streets of Batavia have footpaths on either side, re 
 served for the use of freemen natives, or Chinese. Slaves 
 must either walk on the unpaved centre, or if on the footpath, 
 get out of the way of any freeman they may chance to meet. 
 Earopeans never walk. So strict is etiquette in- this respect, 
 according to Dumont d Urville, that if a European, either from 
 choice or necessity, should walk on his feet in the streets, he 
 must needs be followed by a carriage. 
 
 Batavia is the depot for the produce of all the Dutch pos 
 
 sessions in the E. Seas. Of the three articles most in demand 
 for European consumption, coffee, pepper, and sugar, the two 
 former are entirely monopolized by the Dutch Government. 
 Spices are brought from the Moluccas ; coffee and pepper, 
 camphor, benzoin, edible birds nests, and elephants teeth, 
 from Celebes and Sumatra ; gold dust and diamonds from 
 Borneo ; tin from the government mines in Banca ; tortoise- 
 shell, bces -wax, dyewoods, &c., from Timor, Sumbawa, and 
 the other islands to the E. ; tea, nankin, porcelain, mother-of- 
 pearl, borax, tobacco, and paper, from China; and opium, 
 drugs, patna cloths, &c., from Bengal. A valuable trade is 
 also carried on with Japan; but since the establishment of 
 the British in Singapore, the Dutch trade with India, China, 
 and Siam, has considerably decreased. To these importations, 
 ice from America has recently been added, large quantities 
 being now yearly brought to Batavia, to India, and to various 
 islands of the Indian Archipelago. The principal exports 
 are rice, coffee, sugar, pepper, and arrack. The Dutch ships 
 from Europe seldom proceed further than Batavia, to which 
 place the produce of the other possessions is brought in Dutch 
 country ships, a fine class of vessels, for the most part owned, 
 officered, and commanded by British subjects. 
 
 The bay forms an open but secure roadstead, of great 
 beauty, and may be entered by the largest vessels. It con 
 tains a number of islands, many of them named after towns in 
 Holland. On Onrust is the naval arsenal, well fortified ; 
 on another is a convict establishment; on a third, an hospital; 
 and on a fourth, warehouses. 
 
 The chief articles of native consumption are rice, fish, and 
 salt, the two latter monoplized by the Government. Near the 
 town are extensive works for making salt from sea-water, but 
 the produce is disposed of at the Government stores at about 
 seven times its real value. The whole of the fish brought to 
 Batavia is, in the first instance, sold wholesale by a Govern 
 ment auctioneer to the rich Chinese fishmongers, who retail 
 
BATAVIA 
 
 340 
 
 BATH 
 
 it at a large profit. The markets are well supplied with fruit 
 and vegetables. The principal sorts arc mangosteens, durians, 
 and shaddocks, the three prime fruits of Java ; pine apples, 
 
 soursops, rambutans, rose apples, guavas, dookoos, limes, 
 lemons, melons, pomegranates, and sixty different kinds of 
 plantain and banana. Poultry is plentiful 
 and cheap, but turkeys, pigeons, and wild 
 fowl are, in general, scarce, and butcher 
 meat is dear. 
 
 Bata-via originally was merely a com 
 mercial station. It received from the Dutch 
 its present name in 1619, and in 1723 it 
 had risen to be a considerable town. In 
 181 1 it was taken from the Dutch by the 
 British, but was restored by the treaty of 
 1815. The population is very mixed, 
 consisting of Dutch, English, and Por 
 tuguese, and their descendants, 2800; 
 Javanese, chiefly of Malay extraction, 
 80,000; Chinese, 25,000; Moors and 
 Arabs, 1000 ; Slaves, 9500. Total pop. 
 (1832), 118,300. (Temrninck s Covp 
 d ceil; Van der Aa s Nederlanden ; Earl s 
 Eastern Seas ; lla.ussma.rm, Voy.en Chine, 
 Inde, et Malaisie ; Dumont D Urville, 
 Voy. autour du Monde.) 
 
 BATAVIA, a township and post vi!., 
 U. States, cap. co. Genessee, New York, 
 40 m. E. Buffalo. It has three academies, 
 and 22 schools. The post village contains a court-house, jail, 
 county clerk s office, five churches, and a female seminary. 
 
 Pop. (1840), 2000. There are several other places of this 
 
 name in the United States. 
 
 BATCHIAN. See BATSHIAN. 
 
 BATCOMBE, two pars. Eng. : 1 , par. Dorset ; 1790 nc. 
 Pop. 171. 2, par. Somerset; 3150 ac. Pop. 780. 
 
 BATE ISLE, an isl. Ilindoostan, off thcN.W. extremity 
 of the province of Goojerat, and the entrance to the Gulf of 
 dutch ; lat. (Fort) 22 28 30" N. ; Ion. G9 9 E. (p.) It has a 
 good harbour, and about 2000 houses, chiefly inhabited by 
 Brahmins. It was for many years the retreat of pirates, who, 
 in 1803, repulsed a British force, but were at length put down. 
 Pop. 7000. 
 
 BATEA, a tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, and 50 m. W. 
 Tarragona, at the foot of a small hill. It is tolerably well 
 built, and possesses two squares, a parish church, chapel, two 
 schools, a prison, and an old castle. The inhabitants are 
 chiefly occupied in tillage, and in expressing oil and wine ; 
 which, as well as fruit, they export ; and import rice, and 
 other articles of consumption. Pop. 2444. 
 
 BATEMAN BAY, Australia, S.E. coast, co. St. Vincent; 
 142 m. S.W. Port Jackson; lat. 36 15 S. ; Ion. 150 20 E. 
 
 BATENBUKG, a tn. Holland, prov. Gelderland, 10 m. 
 Vv .S.W. Nijmegen, r. bank, Maas, consisting of two streets, 
 crossing each other in the centre, and having a Calvinistic 
 church with a lofty tower, a R. Catholic church, and a school. 
 It is reputed to be one of the oldest towns in the country ; was 
 formerly of much greater extent than now ; was walled, sur 
 rounded by a ditch, and had a castle and two gates. Its 
 decrease in size is probably owing to its having been repeat 
 edly burned. Pop. 500. 
 
 BATH, a city, England, co. Somerset, 12 m. E. by S. 
 Bristol, and 107 \V. London. The greater part of it lies in 
 a deep valley on the Avon, the remainder on the surrounding 
 acclivities ; the whole presenting a singularly striking and 
 imposing appearance. The principal streets are straight, 
 well lighted with gas, and particularly well kept great atten 
 tion being paid to this department of municipal economy; 
 supply of water plentiful. The houses are of freestone, which 
 is obtained in abundance from the adjacent hills, and are 
 generally handsome. The principal buildings are, the as 
 sembly rooms, guildhall, theatre, the pump-room, King s and 
 Queen s baths, cross bath, hot bath, and swimming bath, hot 
 bath pump-room, Kingston bath, general hospital, city dis 
 pensary, and united hospital, and the literary institution. 
 Among the numerous fine specimens of domestic architecture 
 in the city, associated with unrivalled beauty of situation, 
 the Circus, Eoyal Crescent, and Pulteney Street, are the best. 
 Bath has, altogether, 12 churches, and 12 chapels ; most of tho 
 latter belonging to various bodies of Protestant dissenters ; 
 two R. Catholic chapels, and a Jews synagogue. Two of 
 the churches, the Abbey church, and St. Michael s, are par 
 ticularly handsome ; the W. front of the former being richly 
 embellished, and the pierced spire of the latter forming one of 
 
 BA1II, AEUEY CHURCH, CHEAP STKEKT, 4 
 
 i:e Oranxe Grove. 
 
 the most interesting features of the city. The most important 
 schools are the grammar college, grammar school, blue-coat 
 charity school, and the national school. The principal 
 charitable and literary institutions are, the Bath general 
 
BATH 
 
 341 
 
 BATHURST 
 
 hospital, the united hospital, and several dispensaries, two 
 literary and scientific institutions, and a mechanics institute. 
 There are no manufactures of any consequence in the city, 
 nor any trade beyond the retail business of a fashionable place 
 of residence. 
 
 The famous thermal springs to which Bath owes its cele 
 brity, are three in number, yielding, respectively, 128, 120, 
 and 112 gallons per minute, their temperature ranging from 
 1 1 2 to 116 Fall. The waters have been analyzed by various 
 chemists, the results of whose investigations exhibit consider 
 able discrepancies, inducing the belief that the ingredients 
 vary both in kind and proportion, at different times. The 
 following analysis of water taken from the large spring that 
 supplies the Grand Pump-room, was made by the German 
 chemist, Walcker: 
 
 In 1000 RT. 1 pint (34-659 cub. in.) 
 
 Chloride of Sodium 0-21560 1-89031 
 
 Chloride of Magnesium 0-19018 1-66744 
 
 Sulphate of Potassa 0-04173 0-36583 
 
 Sulphate of Soda 0-27618 2-42145 
 
 Sulphate of Lime 1-16371 10-20303 
 
 Carbonate ot Lime 0-15208 1-33339 
 
 Proto-carbonate of Iron 0-00347 0-03042 
 
 Alumina 0-00215 0-01885 
 
 Silica 0-04610 0-40419 
 
 Extractive matter 
 
 2-09120 gr. 18-33196 gr. 
 Carbonic Acid Gas, ) t , , , ( 0-05 cub. in. 
 Atmospheric Air, ) ( 1-74 cub. in. 
 
 The accommodation provided for bathers at the various 
 bathing establishments is of the most complete and elegant 
 description. The King s bath, one of the most extensive, is 
 GO ft. long by 41 ft. wide, is filled daily to the height of 4 ft. [ 
 7 in., and contains more than 314 tons of water ; the Queen s 
 bath, adjoining, is 25 ft. square. The new royal private 
 baths, of which there are seven, contain, each, 14 hogsheads 
 of water, and the tepid swimming bath, 670, being 62 ft. long, 
 and 23 ft. wide. Salubrity of climate, beauty of scenery, and 
 abundance and cheapness of markets, in all of which respects 
 it is unequalled by any other city in the kingdom, are the 
 other leading attractions of Bath. It is not now, however, 
 so popular a place of resort for the fashionable world as it was 
 in former times, but still contains a great number of gentry, 
 who have been induced, by its numerous advantages, to make 
 it a permanent place of residence. 
 
 Bath was founded by the Romans, and called by them Aquce 
 Solis. Amongst the remains of that people discovered there, 
 were some baths, exceeding in elegance, it is said, those of 
 the present day. These baths were found about 20 ft. below 
 the present level of the soil. The city owed much, if not all, 
 its early celebrity and prosperity, to the singular personage 
 known by the name of Beau Nash, who came to reside there 
 in 1703, and who, from the zeal and tact he displayed in 
 arranging and conducting the balls, assemblies, and other 
 amusements of the town, was unanimously voted master of 
 the ceremonies a position which he occupied undisputed 
 for about half a century. Nash died in 1761, and was buried 
 with great pomp in the Abbey church. Anstey, the author 
 of the New Bath Guide, in which the follies and vices of that 
 fashionable resort are so cleverly satirized, was a native of 
 this city. The corporation of Bath consists of a mayor, 14 
 aldermen, and 42 councillors. Jointly with Wells, it is the 
 head of a diocese, and returns two members to the House of 
 Commons. Registered electors, in 1850, 3059. Top. (1850), 
 estimated at 60,000. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BATH. 1, A seaport tn., U. States, Maine, co. Lincoln, 
 of which it is one of the principal commercial towns ; pleasantly 
 situated, W. bank, Kenebec river, 12 m. from the ocean. 
 Shipbuilding is carried on here to a great extent; in 1840, to 
 the amount of about 44,000. The tonnage of the port, in 
 the same year, amounted to 64,035 tons. It contains three 
 churches, five academies, and 20 schools. Pop. (1840), 5141. 
 2, A co. Virginia, having nine schools, and a pop. of 4300. 
 3, Several towns and townships, the largest of which is the 
 cap. of eo. Steuben, state of New York, which has a court 
 house, jail, five churches, one bank, a female seminary, and 26 
 schools, with two weekly newspapers, and a pop. of 4915. 
 
 BATHAMPTON, par. Eng. Somerset ; 860 ac. P. 354. 
 
 BATHEALTON, par. Eng. Somerset ; 740 ac. P. 135. 
 
 BATH-EASTON, par. Eng. Somerset; 1900ac. P. 2191. 
 
 BATHFORD, par. Eng. Somerset ; 2030 ac. P. 1099. 
 
 BATHGATE, a tn. and par. Scotland, co. Linlithgow. 
 The town is situated on an acclivity, and near the base of a 
 ridge of hills, 19 m. W. Edinburgh, and 25 m. E. Glasgow, 
 on the Edinburgh and Bathgate Railway. It comprises an 
 old and new town ; the former consisting of several narrow, 
 crooked, and very dirty lanes ; the latter of several principal 
 streets, on a regular plan, straight and spacious, with broad 
 footways. The houses are almost all of stone, and, in the 
 new part of the town, are well built. The town is lighted 
 with gas, and abundantly supplied with excellent water, 
 chiefly from springs. It has a parish church, a Free church, 
 and two U. Presbyterian churches, all very plain buildings. 
 The schools are, the parish school, and the well-known aca 
 demy, a handsome structure, erected in 1 832-34, situated on 
 a rising ground a little E. of the town. The principal manu 
 factures are ginghams and pulicates, mostly for exportation ; 
 but, during the last few years, the weaving of the finer sorts 
 of worsted plaids and shawls has been carried on to a limited 
 extent. Except at times when trade is depressed, there are 
 about 530 hand-loom weavers employed on fabrics of the 
 former, and about 30 on fabrics of the latter description. The 
 weavers are mostly all employed by large mercantile houses 
 in Glasgow. There are, besides, a distillery, a brewery, and 
 three grain-mills. A number of the females are employed in 
 tambouring ; and a good many hands are engaged in the coal 
 and ironstone mines in the neighbourhood. On the low 
 grounds, a little S. of the town, the remains may still be 
 traced of a castle, in which Walter, High Steward of Scotland, 
 resided, and in which he died, 1328. Bathgate was erected 
 into a free burgh of barony in 1824. The length of the par. 
 is 7 m. ; its greatest breadth 4 m.; area, 11,214-6 ac. Pop. 
 of tu. and par. (1841), 3928. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BATHURST. 1, An English settlement, W. coast, 
 Africa, at the E. end of the small isl. of St. Mary, at the 
 mouth of the Gambia; lat. 13 28 N. ; Ion. 16 32 W. 
 The principal street, called Wellington Street, faces the river, 
 and consists of warehouses and private dwellings, built of 
 stone or brick, and roofed with slates or shingles. The 
 houses consist of one floor, raised from the ground on brick 
 pillars; have verandahs, and large open apartments, and are 
 approached by a long flight of steps. They are, in general, 
 commodious, and have a handsome appearance. The other 
 parts of the town are composed chiefly of African huts, with 
 small gardens on each side. The market is held under a long 
 open shed, and is thronged by individuals of various tribes, and 
 with people from the different neighbouring kingdoms. Pro 
 visions are plentiful ; beef, mutton, poultry, fish, niilk, and 
 butter, being brought into the town by the natives in great 
 abundance. At a short distance from Bathurst is a spacious 
 hospital for liberated Africans. The English settlers are 
 chiefly merchants, who deal in gum, bees -wax, hides, ivory, 
 and gold, receiving, in exchange for these articles, the cloths 
 and cutlery of England. Bathurst settlement was established 
 in 1816. 2, A tn. Cape Colony, co. Albany, 20 m. S.S.E. 
 
 Graham s Town. 3, A dist. Upper Canada, of a triangular 
 
 form, with its base stretching along the r. or S. bank of the 
 Ottawa ; area, 1 700 sq. m. The surface is generally level or of 
 but moderate elevation, covered with lofty forest trees. The 
 soil, in this and the adjoining districts, is, in some situations, 
 marshy, but, in general, fertile ; average value of cleared land, 
 2, Qs. Id. per ac. ; wild, 6s. Sd. In 1848, there were 41,659 ac. 
 under crop; of which 16,083 were wheat, 16,359 oats, and 
 4767 potatoes. The remainder comprised barley, rye, pease, 
 maize, and buckwheat. The agricultural produce of Bathurst, 
 for 1848, includes also 158,693 Ibs. maple sugar. Live stock 
 in the same year : cattle, 22,329; sheep, 36,416; hogs, 
 13,375. Daiiy produce: butter, 303,730 Ibs.; cheese, 
 9573 Ibs. The principal manufactures of the district are, 
 fulled cloth, linen, and flannel ; of the first of which, upwards 
 of 33,000 yards are manufactured yearly; of the second, 
 about 2000 yards ; and of the third, upwards of 71 ,000 yards. 
 Bathurst comprises the counties of Lanark and Renfrew, cap. 
 Perth. It sends one member to the legislative assembly. Pop. 
 (1848), 29,448. (Canadian Almanac, 1849-50; Bouchettes 
 British N. America.} 4, A tn. and bay, New Brunswick ; 
 
 the latter in lat. 47 37 N. ; Ion. 65 45 W. 5, A cape, 
 
 Arctic Ocean; lat. 70 36 N.; Ion. 127 35 W. (K.) 6, An 
 
 inland co., New S. Wales, 65 m. in length uud 40 in breadth; 
 
BATIIWICK 
 
 342 
 
 BATTA 
 
 area, 1,190,400 ac. It consists, in general, of broken table 
 land ; in some places forming extensive downs or plains with 
 out a tree. This is one of the most flourishing counties in 
 New S. Wales, and its resources, as a fine-woolled sheep- 
 farming district, considerable. The live stock is estimated 
 (1849) at 3131 horses, 27,166 head of horned cattle, 853 pigs, 
 and 236,033 sheep. Being the most W. county of the colony, 
 it labours under several disadvantages distance from mar 
 kets, and want of easy access to the coast, from which its 
 nearest point is distant about 90 m. These drawbacks oper 
 ate unfavourably on its agricultural interests, compelling the 
 settlers to confine their attention to the rearing of sheep. 
 Pop. of co. 4391, of which 2799 are males. Bathurst, the 
 cap. of the co., is situated, r. bank, Macquarrie, 100 m. N.W. 
 Sydney, to which there is a carriage road. It contains 364 
 houses, and is built mostly of stone or brick. Pop. of tn. 
 (1848), 1883. 7, An isl. Australia, N.W. coast, separated 
 from Melville Island by a narrow channel called Apsley 
 Strait; lat. 11 19 S.; Ion. 130 16 E. (K.) The island is of a 
 triangular shape, each side measuring about 40 m. The 
 N.W. coast is generally low, and lined with mangroves ; the 
 other sides are more elevated, and sometimes abrupt, forming 
 cliffs or clay banks. The W. end is sandy and barren, but 
 in all other parts it is covered with wood, chiefly the red 
 gum and papyrus ; presenting one mass of dark- green foliage, 
 which imparts to the island a gloomy and forbidding appear 
 ance. Cockatoos abound. Captain Stokes found rocks con 
 taining iron ; these rocks, he adds, had a strange appearance, 
 being heaped together in the form of a whirlpool ; the ground 
 beneath appeared quite hollow. 8, A bay, Australia, N.E. 
 coast; lat. 14 7 S.jlon. 144 10 E.; having Cape Melville 
 on the E. side of its entrance, and Flinder s Islands on the 
 W., the distance between these two points being about 15m. 
 The bay runs inland about 6 m. 9, A lake, New S. Wales, 
 
 co. Argyle, from 3 to 5 m. in diameter. 1 0, A harbour, 
 
 Van Diemen s Land, S. coast, a branch of Port Davey, ex 
 tending about 9 m. to the E., having several islets in it, with 
 coves or indentations on either side. The entrance by Port 
 Davey is in lat. 43 18 S. ; Ion. 146 1 E. 
 
 BATH WICK par. Eng. co. Somerset ; 630 ac. P. 4972. 
 
 BATICALO, a tn. and seaport, E. side, isl. Ceylon, 
 cap. dist. of same name; on an island, about 3^ m. in circum 
 ference, called by the natives Puliantive, close to the land ; 
 lat. 7 42 30" N.; Ion. 81 42 E. (R.) Being embosomed in 
 cocoa-nut trees, it presents a very pleasing appearance. It is 
 protected by a small square fort, and is chiefly occupied by 
 Dutch burghers and natives. It has one Protestant church, 
 two K. Catholic churches, and several places of worship for 
 Mahometans and heathens. Baticalo was the first port visited 
 by the Dutch on their first voyage to Ceylon, in May 1602. 
 (Ceylon Gaz.) 
 
 BATIGNOLLES-MoxcEAUx, a com. on the N.E., and 
 properly a suburb of Paris. In 1814, it was an open unoc 
 cupied space which the Prussians, under Blucher, used as 
 their camp. It is now covered with handsome buildings, and 
 has a pop. of 19,380. 
 
 BATINDAH, or BEHTINIDEH, a large tn. Hindoostan, 
 in Rajpootana; lat. 30 12 N.; Ion. 75 7 E.; 75m. N.N.W. 
 Ilissar. The surrounding country abounds in excellent pas 
 tures, and is famous for its breed of horses. 
 
 BATISCAN. 1, A seigniory, Lower Canada, co. Cham- 
 plain, 60 m. long and 6 broad ; comprises three parishes, St. 
 Stanislaus, St. Genevieve, and St. Francois. Timber grows 
 here in abundance, but a great part of the seigniory is cleared, 
 and agriculture extensively pursued as an occupation. Pop. 
 
 2700. 2, Two rivers, N. America, the one falling into the 
 
 St. Lawrence about 2 m. S. Batiscan, and the other into the 
 river St. Maurice. 
 
 BATLEY, a tn. and par. England, co. York, W. Riding, 
 in a valley, 2 m. N. Dewsbury. The tn. consists of two 
 parallel streets, straight, and well kept ; houses of stone and 
 brick together, and rather irregularly built. The supply 
 of water is indifferent, but the town is well lighted with gas, 
 and Is rapidly increasing and improving. Batley has a parish 
 church, an ancient fabric, in the early English style , several 
 chapels, for Wesleyans and other dissenters ; a free grammar 
 school, national, free girls , an academy, with several minor 
 and Sunday schools ; a literary society, called the Batley 
 Literary and Mental Improvement Society, and several benefit 
 
 societies. The principal manufactures are those of heavy 
 woollen cloths, such as pilot, beaver, kersey, army and frieze 
 cloths, as well as blankets and carpets. This is a very important 
 | place, as regards the above trade ; it may fairly be considered 
 the seat and centre of it. There are 8 or 10 large woollen 
 mills in the valley, in the compass of about 1 m., besides as 
 many others in various parts of the town. The ruins of 
 Howley Hall, which stand on an eminence overlooking the 
 town, form an object of some interest. Area of par. 6390 ac. ; 
 pop. 14,278. Pop. of tn. (1841), 7076; (1850), about 10,000. 
 (Local Coi-responcknt.) 
 
 BATON ROUGE (EAST), a tn., U. States, Louisiana 
 1. bank, Mississippi ; on a bluff or high land, 85 m. N.W. 
 New Orleans. It is limited almost to one street, and con 
 tains a court-house, jail, penitentiary, four churches, one 
 college, three academies, and three schools. Pop. (1840), 2269 
 
 BATOUANI, a tn., S. Africa, E. end of Lake Ngami, 
 where the river Zouga emerges from it; lat. 20 46 S.; Ion. 
 24 E. Batouani is inhabited by people of the same name. 
 (Jour. Boy. Geo. Soc., 1850.) 
 
 BATOUM, or BATUM, a seaport tn. Turkey in Asia, 
 pash. Trebizond, E. shore, Black Sea, 4 m. N. from the mouth 
 of the Tchorak; lat. (Cape Batoum) 41 39 24" N. ; Ion. 41 37 
 E. (R.) It is irregularly built, contains a bazaar, situated on 
 the W. side of the bay, close to the sea; about 60 shops, 
 several coffee-houses, khans, and a mosque, all built of wood. 
 It is a safe port, being well sheltered, with deep water, and 
 capable of containing a great many ships of large size. It has, 
 however, little trade, excepting with Trebizond, in coasters 
 which import chiefly British manufactured goods. The 
 country around is fertile in fruits, corn, and rice. The W. 
 side of the bay is considered unhealthy, especially from July 
 to October; the E. the reverse, having none of the marshy 
 ground around it, which is the source of the insalubrity of the 
 other. Pop. 2500. 
 
 BATSFOED, or BATTESFORD, par. Eng. Gloucester; 
 980 ac. Pop. 79. 
 
 BATSHIAN, BATCIIIAN, BACHIAS, or BATJAN, a Molluca 
 isl. Indian Archipelago, W. coast, Gillolo, about 57 m. long 
 by 5 to 20 broad; lat. (fort Barneveldt) 37 S.; Ion. 
 11736 E. (R.) It is of volcanic formation, mountaii ous, 
 and picturesque ; produces large sago and cocoa palms, good 
 rice, and the best cloves in the Mollucas ; but the culture of 
 these last is not attended to. It has some warm sulphurous 
 springs. On the coasts, fish are very plentiful. The island is 
 governed by the Prince of Batshian, a vassal of the Sultan of 
 Ternate. The principal town or village is Batshian, on a 
 narrow neck of land near the centre of the island. It con 
 tains about 200 native houses or huts, and a school, the 
 teacher of which, on Sabbaths, preaches in a neat little Chris 
 tian church, which stands about half-way between the town 
 and the Dutch fort, Barneveldt, distant about 1 m. About half 
 of the 1100 inhabitants of the town are Christians. In 1707, 
 the island was nearly depopulated by small-pox. 
 
 BATTA, or BATTAK, a dist. Sumatra, extending from 
 the Battu Barra river on the N.N.W., to the Rackan on the 
 S.S.E., and occupying the entire breadth of the island, which 
 is here comparatively narrow. It is divided into six principal 
 districts, and, according to Dutch authorities, into three small 
 kingdoms. The centre of the territory is occupied by ex 
 tensive plains, in the midst of which is a considerable lake. 
 On its S.W. side it is traversed by the Dili Mountains, a 
 portion of the continuous range which runs parallel to the 
 S.W. coast of the island, throughout its whole length. On 
 this side, therefore, the land is high near the shore, and some 
 times thickly wooded. The soil is in general fertile, and 
 better cultivated than that of some of the S. districts, though 
 water is not over abundant. Batta district is inhabited by a 
 peculiar race of people, differing widely, in many respects, 
 from those occupying the other parts of the island. They 
 are muscular, square built, and strong, rather below the stature 
 of the Malays, and having fairer complexions. Their dress 
 is commonly of a sort of cotton cloth, manufactured by them 
 selves; thick, harsh, and wiry, of various colours, and worn 
 round the middle, with a scarf over the shoulder. The women, 
 who are treated as slaves, are far from being attractive, either 
 in manner or appearance. The liattas, although they do not 
 seem to be naturally either of a ferocious or sanguinary dis 
 position, are accused of cannibalism, but with the usual palli- 
 
BATTAGLTA 
 
 343 
 
 BAUUOUR 
 
 ntion that it is practised as a species of ceremony, and not 
 from any inherent love for human flesh. In other respects, 
 they seem to be a sufficiently amiable sort of people, with a 
 general tendency rather to good than evil. The houses are 
 built with frames of wood, with the sides of boards, and usually 
 consist of a single large room, which is entered by a trap-door 
 in the middle. The ordinary food of the lower class of people 
 is maize and sweet potatoes. Amongst their delicacies are 
 horse-flesh, and the flesh of a small black dog, which they 
 fatten and eat. Toddy or palm-wine, they drink copiously 
 at their feasts. Polygamy is practised, each wife occupying 
 a different part of one large room, but being no otherwise 
 separated. Their religion is at once peculiar and unintelli 
 gible. The natives of the sea-coast exchange their benzoin, 
 camphor, cassia, and small quantities of gold dust, for iron, 
 steel, brass wire, and salt. These they barter again with the 
 more inland inhabitants, for the products and manufactures 
 of the country, particularly the home-made cloth. The 
 Government of the Batta country, although nominally in the 
 hands of three or more sovereign Kajas, is effectively divided 
 into numberless petty chiefships. 
 
 BATTAGLIA, a small tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, 
 9 m. S.W. Padua, on the canal of Monselice, at its junction 
 with the canal of the Battaglia. It is celebrated for its hot 
 sulphurous springs and baths, 158 Fah., to which crowds of 
 foreigners resort every year. The promenades along the 
 banks of the canal are charming, and a great source of enjoy 
 ment to visitors. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BATTAHAN, a dist., W. coast, Sumatra, Dutch prov. 
 of Padang, with vil. of same name, 12 m. S. Natal, at the 
 mouth of the river Battahan. The district yields gold, which 
 is sent for sale to Natal. 
 
 BATTALAH, or BETTAT.A [Vatala], a large tn. Punjab, 
 in a vast open plain, 26 m. N.E. Amritser; lat. 31 48 N. ; 
 Ion. 75 6 E. It is surrounded by groves of mango trees, 
 and tanks of water. All kinds of fruits prized by Europeans 
 grow here in abundance ; it is considered the healthiest place 
 in the Punjab. 
 
 BATTAM, or BATANO, an isl. Indian Archipelago, W. 
 entrance into the Strait of Singapore, and distant from the 
 island of that name, 13 or 14 in. E.S.E.; lat. 1 5 N.; Ion. 
 104 E. It is about 28 m. long by 8 broad, and contains 
 a good harbour, called Boolang Bay, which has been lately 
 much frequented by American ships trading with Singapore, 
 who, by discharging and receiving their cargoes there, avoid 
 the dues exacted at the latter port. It is surrounded by rocky 
 islets, and is separated from Bin tang island by a narrow strait. 
 
 BATTERSEA, a par. and vil. England, co. Surrey, in a 
 low situation, r. bank, Thames, across which there is here a 
 wooden bridge, connecting it with Chelsea on the opposite 
 side. A great portion of the parish is laid out in market 
 gardens, the produce of which is sent to the London market. 
 The parish church is a neat brick building, and contains, 
 amongst other interesting monuments, one to the celebrated 
 Lord Bolingbroke, sculptured by Eoubiliac. Area of par. 
 3020 ac. Pop. 6887. 
 
 BATTICE-josE, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. of, and 
 12 m. E. Liege. From 300 to 400 looms are employed in 
 weaving cloth. A great deal of butter, and still more of 
 cheese, known by the name of Liinburg, are exported. Pop. 
 4490. 
 
 BATTICOTTA, a vil. and par. Ceylon, in Jaffna; the 
 former contains a seminary, established by the American 
 missionaries, into which native youths only are admitted. 
 There is here, likewise, a Bible association. Pop. of par. 
 and vil. 6841, all Malabars. (Ceylon Gaz.) 
 
 BATTISFORD, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1340 ac. Pop. 520. 
 
 BATTLE, par. and vil., S. Wales, Brecon. Pop. 176. 
 
 BATTLE, a market tn. and par. England, co. Sussex. 
 The town, in a valley nearly encircled by wooded hills, 7 m. 
 N.W. Hastings, consists chiefly of one irregular street, in 
 which there are many old-fashioned buildings, is well supplied 
 with water, and lighted with gas. The church is ancient, 
 and contains some fine specimens of painted glass, and numer 
 ous antique monuments. There are places of worship, also, 
 for Baptists, Wesleyans, Swedenborgians, and Unitarians, 
 and an endowed and charity schools. Battle has been long 
 celebrated for the manufacture of gunpowder. Tanning is 
 likewise carried on to a considerable extent. Interesting 
 
 remains of the ancient abbey, built by William the Norman, 
 still exist, including the gateway, a beautiful specimen of the | 
 decorated English style. The town was anciently called 
 Epiton, but changed to its present name after the battle of 
 Hastings. Market-day, Thursday; three fairs annually. 
 Area of par. 7880 ac. Pop. 3032. 
 
 BATTLEFIELD, par. Eng. Salop ; 850 ac. Pop. 64. 
 
 BATTLESDEN, par. Eng. Bedford ; 1140ac. Pop. 179. 
 
 BATTUECAS, or BATUECAS-LAS, two remarkable valleys 
 in Spain, prov. Salamanca, in the midst of high and rugged 
 mountains, on the borders of Estremadura. They are difficult 
 of access. Spanish tradition had peopled these wild and 
 lonely glens with demons, and other supernatural beings ; but 
 the establishment of a Carmelite convent there, in 1599, tended 
 to put an end to this absurd belief. The principal valley is 
 3 m. long, and 2 broad. On the summit of the highest moun 
 tain, by which it is overhung, is a chapel dedicated to the 
 Virgin, which is visited by immense numbers of people on 
 the 8th of every September. State prisoners were sometimes 
 sent to this dreary region. The romance of Las Batuecas, 
 by Madame de Genlis, is founded on a story which represents 
 these valleys as having been discovered in the 16th century 
 by two fugitive lovers. 
 
 BATU, an isl. Indian Archipelago, W. coast, Sumatra, 
 immediately S. of the equator; 40 m. long, and 10 average 
 breadth ; almost entirely covered with wood. It is rich in 
 sago, cocoa-nuts, and birds nests ; and is inhabited by a tribe 
 from the island of Nias, who pay a yearly tribute to the Kaja 
 of Baluaro, a small fortified village in the interior, belong 
 ing to a different tribe, whose number is never allowed to 
 exceed 100. 
 
 BATURIN, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 78 m. E. Tscher- 
 nigov ; pleasantly situated on a hill, near the Se im, a tributary 
 of the Desha. It contains a handsome chateau, belonging to 
 the Counts of Easumowski ; a convent, and eight churches. 
 The inhabitants depend chiefly on agriculture, and several 
 yearly markets. Baturin was once the residence of the 
 hetmans of the Cossacks; and had a fastness, which, on the 
 revolt of the celebrated Mazeppa, in 1708, was demolished. 
 Pop. (1819), 1399. 
 
 BATURITE [formerly Montemor Vellio], a tn. Brazil, 
 prov. Ceara, 95 m. S.W. Aracaty, in the serra Baturite. It 
 has a church, school, and electoral colleges. The inhabitants 
 of town and district, 2200, are engaged in cultivating and 
 gathering cotton, and in rearing cattle. The serra of Baturite 
 or Botarite, runs S.W. to N.E., with a considerable curve; 
 total length, about 150 m. It is fertile, and well peopled. 
 
 BATURSKA-WOLA, a vil. Austria, Galicia, circle, and 
 9 m. N.W. Bochnia; on the Vistula. Pop. 2260. 
 
 BATZ (ISLE OF). See BAS. 
 
 BATZ, a fishing tn. France, dcp. Loire-Inferieure (Brit 
 tany), amidst salt marshes, on the shores of the Bay of Biscay, 
 and about 22 m. W. Sevenay. The houses are well built of 
 granite, with lofty windows and slated roofs. The inhabit 
 ants are chiefly engaged in fishing, for which their locality 
 and little harbour are well adapted ; they are remarkable for 
 their cleanliness, which is especially manifested in the care 
 fully waxed floors and furniture of their houses, and for a 
 curious costume peculiar to themselves, and transmitted with 
 out change from generation to generation. The object most 
 worthy of notice is the church, whose square belfry, sur 
 mounted by a cupola, about 170 ft. high, is an important land 
 mark for vessels, in passing two very dangerous reefs at the 
 entry of the Loire. A variety of curious shell-work is made 
 here. Tho chief trade is in fish, herrings, and pilchards ; 
 corn, hay, flax, and salt of the finest quality obtained from 
 the salt marshes. Pop. 1286. 
 
 BAUBELTHOUAP, an isl. Pacific Ocean, the largest 
 of the Pellew group; lat. (N. extremity) 7 49 N. ; Ion. 
 134 52 E. (R.), forming the N.E. part of the chain; it is 
 about 24 m. in length, and on its W. side there is a high 
 hill, from the summit of which both extremes of the chain 
 may be seen. 
 
 BAUCO, a tn. Papal States, 6 m. W. Frosinone. P. 3000. 
 
 BAUD, a tn. France, dep. Morbihan, 20 m. N.W. Vannes; 
 having some trade in grain, cattle, hemp, butter, and honey. 
 Pop. 1082. 
 
 BAUDOUR, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, 
 7 in. W. Mons. The DISTRICT is noted for its pottery. It 
 
BAUEEWITZ 
 
 344 
 
 BAVARIA 
 
 lias also two salt-refineries, two breweries, an oil and two 
 
 corn mills. The COMMUNE is watered, on its E. extremity, 
 
 bj the Haine, and traversed by the canal from Mons to 
 C onde. A large part of its surface is covered by a morass. 
 Top. 2946. 
 
 BAUERWTTZ, or BABOROD, a tn. Prussia, gov. of, and 
 34 m. S. Oppeln, circle, Leobschutz, 1. bank, Zinna. It con 
 tains a R. Catholic church, a chapel, castle, townhouse, and 
 hospital ; is the seat of several public offices, and some manu 
 factures of linen and earthenware. Pop. 2300. 
 
 BAUGr, a tn. Hindoostan, prov. Malwah, at the confluence 
 of the Guirna and Waugerry, 92 m. E. Baroda; lat. 22 22 N. ; 
 Ion. 74 49 E. It stands on horizontal beds of sandstone, 
 at the base of a range of hills, in a valley, on the road between 
 Malwah and Goojerat by the Oudipoor pass, and is famous 
 for its smelting furnaces and forges. About 3J m. S. the 
 town are four extraordinary cave temples, cut out of the solid 
 rock, and supposed to be of Buddhist origin, though there is 
 no record of the existence of Buddhism in the district. Their 
 walls are sculptured with mythological representations, which, 
 with a single exception, apparently of modern date, have no 
 resemblance, to those of the Brahmins. Pop. 5000. 
 
 BAUGE, a tn. France, dep. Maine-et-Loire, 19 m. E.N.E. 
 Angers ; agreeably situated in a valley near the Couesuon, 
 which is here crossed by a handsome stone bridge. Some of 
 the houses are good ; but the town is, in general, very irregu 
 lar. An old castle, built by Foulques Nerra, still remains in 
 good preservation, and the hospital is one of the best in the 
 department. Coarse cloth and woollen stuffs are made here. 
 The trade is principally in cloth, wood for carpentry, and 
 cattle. Pop. 3107. 
 
 BAUGHURST, par. Eng. Hants ; 1020 ac. Pop. 528. 
 
 BAULEAH,a tn. Hindoostan, presidency Bengal, 1. bank, 
 Ganges, 20 m. N.E. Moorsliedabad. It is a large place, and 
 of some commercial importance ; has a spacious factory ; and 
 is the residence of a commercial officer of the E. I. Company. 
 
 BAUMBER. or BAMBUJIGH, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 3200 ac. 
 Pop. 371. 
 
 BAUME, the name of several places in France, espe 
 cially: 1, Baume les Dames [anc. Balmea], an anc. tn. France, 
 dep. Doubs. It is well built, and pleasantly situated, r. bank, 
 Doubs, in a hollow surrounded with vine-clad hills, and close 
 to the canal that connects the Rhone and the Rhine. The prin 
 cipal buildings are the parish church, which is large and hand 
 some, and the spacious hospital. Previous to the Revolution 
 of 1798, there was here a celebrated Benedictine convent, to 
 which only nuns who could exhibit proof of nobility were ad 
 mitted. This convent was founded in the fifth century, and 
 was patronized by the kings of Burgundy. Hats are manu 
 factured here to a considerable extent ; and in the environs 
 are glassworks, ironworks, tanneries, paper-mills, &c. Pop. 
 2211. 2, Baume les Messieurs [formerly Baume les Moines], 
 a tn. France, dep. Jura, 6J m. N.W. Lons-de-Saulnier. It 
 has a magnificent church, and was formerly noted for its 
 large monastery of Benedictine monks. The neighbourhood 
 
 is very rugged and precipitous, and much visited by travellers 
 for its romantic scenery. Pop. 771. 
 
 BAUMEEAN, or BAUMIAN. See BAMIAN. 
 
 BAUNTON, par. Eng. Gloucester; 1310 ac. Pop. 187. 
 
 BAURE, BAURUS, or BAURES, a river, Bolivia, rising in 
 Lake Guazamire; lat. 15 18 S.; Ion. 62 30 W.; flowing 
 N.W., and falling into the Itenez or Guapore, on its 1. bank, 
 on the frontier of Brazil, after a course of about 300 in. 
 
 BAUTSCII, a tn. Austria, Moravia, circle Prerau, 23 m. 
 N.E. Olmu tz. It has a parish church, and its own magis 
 tracy. Pop. (German), about 2500. 
 
 BAUTZEN, or BUDUISSIN, a tn. Saxony, cap. Upper 
 Lusatia, r. bank, Spree, 32 m. E.N.E. Dresden. It is well 
 built, with large massy houses, broad, straight, well-paved 
 streets, and suburbs adorned with beautiful gardens. It was 
 formerly defended by a strong castle, which is now in ruins. 
 The public buildings of note are, the royal palace of Orlen- 
 burg, now used as public offices ; the cathedral, a large struc 
 ture, built in 1213, with a very lofty spire; a R. Catholic 
 chapter-house, a townhall, and public library ; a gymnasium, 
 a normal school, with a number of churches, hospitals, and 
 other charitable institutions. It has considerable manufac 
 tures of tobacco, woollen, cotton, linen goods, and hosiery, 
 with iron, powder, and paper-mills ; copper and wire works, 
 dyeworks, tileworks, bleachfields, breweries, distilleries, and 
 tanneries. About 7 m. E. by S. from Bautzen is Hochkirch, 
 the scene of a great battle fought in the Seven Years War, 
 1746. Near the town is the scene of another sanguinary 
 conflict, the battle of Bautzen, fought between the French 
 under Napoleon and the allies, May 21 and 22, 1813. Pop. 
 exclusive of garrison, 8676. 
 
 BAVARIA [German, Baiern; French, Bavierc], a king 
 dom of Central Europe, in the S. of Germany, composed of 
 two isolated portions of unequal size. The larger portion, 
 comprising about seven-eighths of the monarchy, is included 
 between lat. 47 19 and 50 41 N., and Ion. 8 53 and 
 13 50 E. ; bounded, E. by Bohemia and the archduchy of 
 Austria, S. by Tyrol, Vorarlberg, and Lake Constance, W. by 
 Wiirtemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Hesse-Cassel, N. 
 by the states of Ducal Saxony, the principalities of Reuss, 
 and the kingdom of Saxony. The smaller portion, the Pfalz 
 or Palatinate, lies W. from the main portion of the kingdom, 
 and separated from it by Wiirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse- 
 Darmstadt. It is included between lat. 48 57 and 49 50 
 N., and Ion. 7 6 and 8 31 E.; and is bounded, E. by the 
 Rhine, which separates it from Baden, S. by France, W. by 
 the Prussian Rhine provinces, and a portion of Saxe- Coburg, 
 and N. by Hesse- Darmstadt. 
 
 Bavaria is estimated to contain an area of 29,657 sq. m 
 and is divided into eight circles (kreisc), which were formerly 
 named after the rivers that watered them ; but an edict of 
 Nov. 29, 1837, gave the circles new names and new bound 
 aries. The following table shows the new and old names of 
 the circles, with their area and population, at the present 
 time : 
 
 CIRCLES (KRKISE). 
 
 s A q ^ 
 
 Population. 
 
 1. 
 
 Fop. per 
 q. m. 
 
 CHIEF TOWNS. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Modern Name. 
 1. Oberbaiern (Upper Bavaria) 
 2. Niederbaiern (Lower Bavaria) 
 3. Pfalz (Palatinate) 
 4. Oberpfalz (Upper Palatinate), and ) 
 Regen-burg (Katisbon) f 
 5. Oberfranken (Upper Franconia) 
 
 6. Mittelfranken (Middle Franconia) 
 7. Unterfranken (Lower Franconia), and ) 
 Ascbaffenburg ) 
 8. Schwaben (Swabia), and Neuburjj 
 
 Ancient Name. 
 
 6,614 
 4,113 
 3,226 
 4,198 
 2,226 
 2,793 
 3,004 
 3,858 
 
 715,238 
 5-15,421 
 615,005 
 468,923 
 498,943 
 527,430 
 587,403 
 561,184. 
 4,519,546 
 
 108 
 
 132 
 271 
 112 
 223 
 
 m\ 
 
 163 
 145 
 
 Munich (1846) 
 Passau (1845) 
 Spires 
 Ratisbon (1845) 
 Baireuth 
 
 113,38-4 
 10,211 
 9,240 
 23,000 
 17,000 
 16,000 
 45,381 
 26,814 
 37,000 
 
 Unterdonaukreis (Lower Danube). 
 Rheinkreis (Rhine) 
 
 Obermainkreis (Upper Main) 
 Rezatkreis (Rezat) 
 
 Untermainkreis (Lower Main) 
 Oberdonaukreis (Upper Danube) ... 
 
 Anspach 
 Nuniburg....(1846) 
 Wiirzburg (1846) 
 Augsburg 
 
 29,637 
 
 Mountains. Bavaria is a hilly rather than a mountainous 
 country. A large portion, more especially S. of the Danube, 
 is a plateau country of considerable elevation, and indeed, 
 the whole of the main portion of the kingdom may be de 
 scribed as an upland valley, averaging about 1 600 ft. above 
 the sea level, intersected by numerous large streams and ridges 
 of low hills. On all sides it is surrounded by hills of a greater 
 or less altitude, either quite upon the frontier or only at small 
 
 distances from it. The whole S. frontier is formed by a branch 
 of the Noric Alps, offsets from which project far into the S. 
 plateau of Bavaria. Besides numerous peaks which this range 
 contains, varying from 4000 to 8000 ft. high, the following 
 may be named as being above the latter number : the Zug- 
 spitze, 9675 ft. high ; the Watzmann, 8732 ft. ; the Hochvogel, 
 8475 ft. ; the Madlehorn, 8650 ft. Passing along the valley 
 of the Inn and across the Danube, we come to the Bohemian 
 
BAVARIA 
 
 345 
 
 BAVARIA 
 
 frontier, formed by the Bb hmerwald Mountains, running S.E. 
 to N. W., and lowering down at the valley of the Eger. The 
 highest peaks in this range, are the Rachel, 4743 ft., and 
 the Arber, 4848 ft. Crossing the Eger, we meet with the 
 Picbtelgebirge, presenting the Schneeberg, 3450 ft. high ; and 
 the Ochsenkopf, 3341 ft. W. from this range, and along the 
 frontier of the Saxon ducal territories and Hesse-Cassel, run 
 hills of moderate elevation, under various names,Frankenwald, 
 Rhbngebirge, &c., no peaks of which attain an elevation of 
 more than 3148 ft. The W. mountain boundary of the Ba 
 varian valley is formed N. of the Main by the Spessartwald 
 range, and in the kingdom of Wiirtemberg by the Alb (which 
 see}. The only note-worthy interior ranges are in the N.W., 
 the Steigerwald ; and in the N.E., running in a S.W. direction 
 from the Fichtelgebirge, the Franconian Jura ; a low limestone 
 range, containing numerous remarkable stalactitic caves. The 
 Pfalz or Palatinate, is traversed S. to N. by the N. extremity 
 of the Vosges, the highest peak in this locality being Don- 
 nersberg, 2137 ft. high. 
 
 Lakes. The lakes of Bavaria are neither very numerous 
 nor of very great extent, though many of them present ex 
 ceedingly picturesque scenery. The larger are all situated 
 on the upper part of the S. plateau ; the smaller within the 
 range of the Noric Alps. The most remarkable of the former 
 are, Lake Ammer, about 10 m. long by 2 broad, 1736 ft. 
 above the sea; Lake \Viirm or Starnberg, about 12 m. long 
 by 3 broad, 1899 ft.; and Lake Chiem, 9 m. long by 9 to 4 
 broad, 1 651 ft. above the sea. Of the smaller, the more re 
 markable are, Lake Tegner, about 3 m. long, 2586 ft. ; Lake 
 Walchen, 2597 ; and various others, upwards of 2000 ft. above 
 the sea level. Most of the lakes are well supplied with fish. 
 
 Rivers. Bavaria belongs wholly to the basins of the 
 Danube and the Rhine, with exception of a very small por 
 tion in the N.E. corner, which through the Eger appertains 
 to the basin of the Elbe. The river Danube intersects the 
 main portion of the kingdom W. to E. nearly in the centre, 
 and before it enters the Austrian dominions at Passau, where 
 it is still 925 ft. above the sea, it receives on its r. bank the 
 rivers Iller, Lech, and Isar, which have their sources in the 
 Noric Alps, besides numerous smaller streams ; and on its 
 1. bank, the Wornitz, Altmuhl, Naab, and Regen, besides 
 other lesser streams. The Main traverses nearly the whole 
 of the N. part of this portion of the kingdom from E. to W., 
 and is navigable for steam vessels from Bamberg to the Rhine. 
 Its principal affluents are the Regnitz, and the Saale. In the 
 Palatinate there are no streams of any importance, the Rhine 
 being merely a boundary river. 
 
 Climate. If we except the valley of the Rhine, and the 
 valley of the Main in Lower Franconia, Bavaria, even includ 
 ing the Palatinate, in comparison with other German States, is 
 a cold country. The average temperature of the year is about 
 47 Fah., the same as the E. coast of Scotland. Winter, 30 ; 
 spring, 47; summer, 63; and autumn, 47. 
 
 Soil and Vegetation, <tc. Bavaria is one of the most favoured 
 countries in Germany, in respect of the fruitfulness of its 
 soil, due no doubt in a considerable degree to the undulating 
 nature of the country, to the numerous streams by which 
 it is watered, and to being nearly wholly composed of Jura 
 limestone. In the plains and valleys the soil is capable of 
 producing all kinds of crops, but not until lately were the 
 natural advantages of the country turned to good account. 
 Ignorance and idleness opposed a barrier to improvement, 
 which it took the utmost efforts of an enlightened Govern 
 ment, aided by the general spread of education, to remove. 
 At length a spirit of agricultural enterprise pervades the 
 kingdom, improved methods of cultivation have been intro 
 duced, and large tracts of waste land have been reclaimed and 
 brought uiider the plough. The principal crops are wheat, 
 rye, barley, and oats ; but in some districts rice, spelt, maize, 
 and buck-wheat, are also raised. To these productions of the 
 soil may be added potatoes (the culture of which is yearly 
 increasing), tobacco, and fruit, of which large quantities are 
 grown in the valleys of the Main and the Rhine. In the circles 
 of Mittelfranken and Sehwaben-Neuburg, the hop plant is cul 
 tivated to a considerable extent, the quantity varying from 
 30,000 to 40,000 cwt. per annum ; and the vine in the circles 
 of Pfalz and Unterfranken. The latter produces the Francon 
 ian wines ; the best wines of the former are produced neat 
 Deidesheim and Wachenheim. The celebrated Steinwein and 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Leistenwein are the produce of the S. slope of the Marienberg, 
 near the town of Wiirzburg. The forests of Bavaria, com 
 posed chiefly of fir and pine trees, cover nearly a third of its 
 entire surface, and yield a large revenue to the state ; much 
 timber being annually exported, together with potashes, tar, 
 turpentine, and other products peculiar to these wooded regions. 
 
 The principal mineral products are, salt, coal, and iron. 
 The first is a royal monopoly, and produces a considerable 
 revenue ; the latter are not wrought to nearly the extent they 
 might be, though a considerable number of ironworks and 
 coal mines are in operation. Black-lead is found in several 
 places, and pretty largely exported, especially to America, 
 where it is used for making crucibles. Porcelain clay, of the 
 finest quality, likewise abounds in some localities, the best 
 being obtained in the district of Wunsiedel in the Upper Main. 
 
 In the rearing of cattle and sheep, the Bavarians are still 
 far behind. Notwithstanding the extent and excellence of 
 their pastures, the stock, generally, is of inferior quality, and 
 inadequate to the home consumption. Improvement in these 
 respects, however, is now in progress, through the instrumen 
 tality of agricultural and veterinary schools, which were estab 
 lished a few years since, and which distribute prizes to encourage 
 the breeding of stock. Swine are reared in great numbers in 
 all parts of the country, and poultry and wild fowl are abundant. 
 The wolves and bears with which the forests of Bavaria were 
 at one time infested, are nearly extinct. 
 
 The manufactures of Bavaria are singly very unimportant, 
 being mostly on a small scale, and conducted by individuals 
 of limited capital. The principal articles manufactured are 
 coarse linens, woollens, cottons, leather, paper, glass, earthen 
 and ironware, jewellery, &c., but the supply of the first three 
 articles is inadequate to the home consumption. Of leather, 
 paper, glass, and ironware, pretty large quantities are exported. 
 The optical and mathematical instruments made at Munich, 
 are the best on the Continent, and are prized accordingly. 
 But the most important branch of manufacture in Bavaria is 
 the brewing of beer the universal and favourite beverage of 
 the country. There are upwards of 5000 brewing establish 
 ments in the kingdom, which have been calculated to supply 
 on an average, about 20 gallons a year to every individual of 
 the population. The beer is neither so strong nor so sweet 
 as Scotch ale ; but is of more delicate flavour, and forms a 
 pleasant and wholesome beverage. It is not only consumed 
 in immense quantities in the country, but is sent to all parts 
 of Germany. A large portion of the industrial population 
 maintain themselves by weaving linen, and by the manufacture 
 of articles in wood (some of which are of beautiful workman 
 ship), and by the felling and hewing of timber. Notwith stand 
 ing its favourable geographical position, and other natural 
 advantages, the trade of Bavaria is very limited. The whole 
 amount of import, export, and transit duties collected in 1843, 
 did not much exceed 200,000. Principal exports : corn, 
 timber, wine, cattle, sheep, hogs, butter, salt, iron, leather, glass, 
 hops, fruit, beer, &c. Imports: sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, 
 tobacco, drugs, copper, oil, spices, dye-stuffs, silk, and silk 
 goods, lead, &c. 
 
 From its position, Bavaria enjoys a considerable portion of 
 transit trade, much facilitated by the good roads that traverse 
 the country in all directions. The means of communication 
 have recently been greatly augmented, by the completion of 
 the Kb nig Ludwig (King Louis) Canal, which connects the 
 Main at Bamberg with the Altmuhl, a short distance above 
 its embouchure in the Danube, thus establishing direct water 
 communication through the Rhine, between the German Ocean 
 and the Black Sea. By the railway from Munich through 
 Augsburg, Niirnberg, and Bamberg to Ilof, Bavaria is con 
 nected with the railway systems of N. and W. Germany. 
 Several other railways are contemplated, but the only one yet 
 opened is that from Augsburg to Kaufbeuren. 
 
 Education and Art. The department of education is under 
 the superintendence of the Superior Board of Education and 
 Ecclesiastical Affairs. A complete system of inspection is 
 established throughout the country ; the reports of the in 
 spectors, including not only the number and proficiency of the 
 scholars, but also the conduct of the teachers, the state of the 
 buildings, and the nature and extent of the funds available. 
 It is necessary in Bavaria, before admission can be obtained 
 into any higher school, to have passed a satisfactory examina- 
 nation in the lower school. Not only must all candidates for 
 
 44 
 
BAVARIA 
 
 346 
 
 BAVARIA 
 
 offices under the state pass examinations, but examinations 
 are held of apprentices in trade, who wish to become masters, 
 and even of officers in the army on promotion. The total of 
 both sexes receiving instruction in 1844, was 1,038,203, or 
 about 1 in 5 of the whole population. There are three uni 
 versities in Bavaria; two of which (Munchen and Wiirzburg) 
 are R. Catholic, and one (Erlangen) Protestant. In the first, 
 there were, in 1847, 1471 students; in the second, 521 ; and 
 in the third, 364. There are also several lycea, a number of 
 gymnasia, numerous Latin, normal, and polytechnic schools, 
 besides academies of arts and sciences, fine arts, horticulture, 
 &c. The capital, Munich, contains a library of 600,000 
 volumes, including 16,000 MSS. ; several scientific and literary 
 institutions, academies, and national societies, and extensive 
 collections of works of art. 
 
 Bavaria enjoys the honour of having originated a school of 
 painting of a high order of merit, known as the Niirnberg 
 school; founded, about the middle of the 16th century, by 
 Albert Diirer, a native of that town, whose works are little, 
 if at all, inferior to those of his great Italian contemporaries. 
 Hans Holbein, who excelled Diirer in portrait, though far be 
 hind him in historical painting, is claimed by Bavaria, but 
 neither the precise locality nor date of his birth are known 
 with certainty ; Augsburg, Basel, and Griinstadt being sever 
 ally named as the one, and the dates 1495 and 1498 as the 
 other. To these celebrated names have to be added those of 
 the eminent sculptors Kraft and Vischer, both also Bavarians; 
 the former born about 1435, and the latter about the middle 
 of the same century. The masterpiece of the latter distin 
 guished artist is the bronze shrine of St. Sebaldus in Niirnberg, 
 esteemed a marvel of art, for beauty of design, and delicacy 
 of workmanship. The most celebrated of Kraft s works is 
 the remarkable tabernacle in stone, affixed against one of the 
 columns of the choir of the church of St. Lawrence, also in 
 Niirnberg. The restoration of Bavarian pre-eminency, in 
 modern times, in connection with the fine arts, is, in a great 
 measure, if not entirely, owing to Louis, the late sovereign of 
 that kingdom ; whose love of art, and liberal patronage, have 
 rendered the capital one of the most celebrated seats of the 
 fine arts in Europe. 
 
 Religion. There is no predominant church in Bavaria, 
 but the prevailing religion is the 11. Catholic, professed by 
 3,000,000 out of about 4,500,000. The principal portion of 
 the remainder are Lutherans, Reformed, and Jews. Although, 
 however, Catholicism be the religion of the state, all others 
 are free ; and all citizens, whatever their creed, are equally 
 admissible to the same public functions and employments, and 
 possess the same civil and political rights. The Articles of 
 the Concordat concluded with the Pope, are subordinate in 
 their application to the fundamental law of the state. By an 
 ordinance of Louis, late King of Bavaria, females are pro 
 hibited from pronouncing any monastic vow until after having 
 passed their 33d year. The ceremony of taking the veil must 
 always be performed in presence of a lay commissioner, in 
 trusted with the power of interrogating the person about to 
 withdraw from the world. The dioceses of Bavaria are, 
 Munich, an archbishopric, with 20,000 florins (1666) ; Bam- 
 berg, also an archbishopric, with 15,000 florins (1250) ; 
 Augsburg, Ratisbon, and Herbstadt, bishoprics, with 10,000 
 florins (833) each ; Passau, Eichstadt, and Spires, bishoprics, 
 with 8000 florins (666) each. The dean at Munich has 4000 
 (333), at Bamberg, 3500 (291), in the first set of bishoprics, 
 3000 (250), and in the second, 2500 florins (208) a year ; and 
 the dignitaries called pr&positi, who rank between the bishop 
 and dean, have the same as the dean. The canons incomes 
 vary from 1400 (116) to 2000 florins (166). These salaries 
 are paid by Government. In Bavaria, marriage between in 
 dividuals having no capital cannot take place without the 
 consent of the principal persons appointed to superintend the 
 poor institutions, who, if they grant such liberty where there 
 are no means of supporting the children that may spring from 
 such marriage, render themselves liable for their maintenance. 
 The law is apparently intended to prevent improvident mar 
 riages, for which it seems certainly better adapted, than for 
 the promotion of morality. 
 
 People. In personal appearance, the Bavarians are stout 
 and vigorous, well adapted to bear the fatigues of war, and 
 are in general considered as good soldiers. They are indolent, 
 addicted to drinking and to immoral practices, but are brave, 
 
 patriotic, and faithful to their word. Their manners and cus 
 toms, towards the close of the last century, were described as 
 coarse in the extreme, and strongly marked with the super 
 stitious bigotry of their religious creed ; but since the more 
 general diffusion of knowledge, a great change for the better 
 has taken place. The peasantry are clad in long loose snuff- 
 coloured coats, lined or edged with pink, and studded in front 
 with clusters of silver or white metal buttons, thrown open to 
 display a smart waiscoat of various and brilliant colours ; their 
 hats are ornamented with artificial flowers. Many of the Ba 
 varian females are handsome, lively, and graceful. They dress 
 smartly, and display much taste in their attire. Some of them 
 wear black silk handkerchiefs tied tightly round their heads, 
 decorated with flowers or ribbons ; some caps of silver or gold 
 tissue, and all having their hair neatly braided. German is the 
 language chiefly spoken by the Bavarians ; but they have never 
 been conspicuous for the cultivation of their native tongue. 
 
 Money, WeiyJits, &c. The Bavarian currency is the same 
 as that of Frankfort, Wiirtemberg, &c. Accounts are kept 
 in florins and kreutzers. The most common Bavarian silvei 
 coins are : 
 
 Pieces of 3 kr., of which 20 make a florin. 
 6kr., 10 
 12 kr., 6 
 
 24 kr. (Zwan/iger), 2* 
 Bavarian dollars = 2 florins 24 kreutzers. 
 
 i = 1 12 =1 Aiist. fl.irin. 
 Prussian coins are very common throughout K. Bavaria. 
 
 The principal linear measures are the /MSS = -958005 Eng. 
 foot ; die = -911 378 Eng. yard ; and Uafte.r = 6 fuss. Each of 
 these measures, multiplied by itself, gives the square measure 
 of the same name. The principal dry measure is the schcijfel = 
 764688 Eng. quarter. The basis of the liquid measures is 
 the maass or maasskanne = -235307 Eng. gallon. The eimer 
 (wine measure) is = 60 maasskannen, but the eimer (beer 
 measure) = 64 maasskannen. The principal weights are the 
 pfund (pound) = 1-23459 Eng. lb., and the centner = 123-45 
 Eng. Ibs., or about 11 Ibs. more than the English cwt. 
 
 Constitution. Bavaria is an integral part of the Germanic 
 Confederation, the domains inalienable, the crown hereditary. 
 The executive is in the hands of the King. The legislature 
 consists of two chambers, one of senators, and one of deputies ; 
 the former composed of princes of the royal family, the great 
 officers of the state, the two archbishops, the heads of certain 
 noble families, a bishop named by the King, the president of 
 the Protestant General Consistory, and any other members 
 whom the King may create hereditary peers; the latter, 
 of members chosen, one to every 7000 families, or 35,000 
 persons. The qualifications are, that the candidate have 
 completed his 30th year, that he be a free and independent 
 citizen, that he be a member of the Romish or Reformed 
 church, and pay taxes on property of the value of 765 at the 
 least. The members are chosen every six years, unless dis 
 solved by the King, and are generally convened once a year, 
 but are bound to assemble at least once every three years. 
 Each of the eight circles or provinces has a provincial govern 
 ment, consisting of two boards, one for the management of the 
 police, schools, &c., and the other for the management of 
 financial affairs. The national budget exhibits a favourable 
 state of matters, the receipts considerably exceeding the ex 
 penditure. The full war complement of the army is about 
 57,000 men; the contingent furnished to the German Confed 
 eration, 35,800. The army is raised by conscription, every 
 man, excepting the nobility and clergy, being liable to serve 
 after the completion of his 21st year. The period of service 
 is six years, and no Bavarian can settle or marry, or accept 
 of any definite appointment, until he has fulfilled his military 
 liabilities. 
 
 History. The Bavarians are descended of the Boii, a Celtic 
 tribe, who subdued the native inhabitants, and took possession 
 of the country about 600 years before the Christian era. 
 The Boii were in turn conquered by the Romans, who re 
 tained the territory till the fall of the empire, when it was 
 overrun by the Ostrogoths and Franks. The sovereignty of 
 Bavaria was subsequently assumed by Charlemagne, and on 
 the death of that monarch, the kings of the Franks and Ger 
 mans governed it by their lieutenants, who bore the title of 
 Margrave, afterwards converted into that of Duke, and latterly 
 (1623), into that of Elector. In 1070, Bavaria passed into 
 the possession of the family of the Guelphs, and in 1180, it 
 
BAVARIA 
 
 347 
 
 BAYAS 
 
 was transferred by imperial grant to Otho, Count of Wittles- 
 bach. On the extinction of the direct line of that family in 
 1777, the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore, added the Pala 
 tinate, and the duchies of Juliers and Berg to the Bavarian 
 dominions. In 1799, Charles Theodore died without issue. 
 and the Sulzbach branch of the line of the palatinate became 
 extinct with him. The Duke Maximilian Joseph of Deux- 
 Ponts came into possession of all the Bavarian territories. 
 The peace of Luneville (Feb. 9, 1801) put an end to the re 
 newed war, and its most important article the cession of the 
 left bank of the Rhine to France essentially affected Bava 
 ria. Whilst it lost all its possessions on the left bank of the 
 Rhine, and also the lands of the palatinate on the right bank, 
 it obtained, on the other hand, by an imperial edict, an indem 
 nification, by which it gained, in addition to the amount lost, 
 a surplus of 2109 sq. m., and 216,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The political importance of Bavaria, with respect to Austria 
 as well as to France, was more fully displayed in the war of 
 1805. When Austria resumed hostilities against France, she 
 required the Elector of Bavaria to unite his troops with the 
 Austrian army, and refused to allow him to remain neutral, 
 which (as the Emperor Francis wrote to the elector, Sept. 3, 
 1804) France herself only would suffer as long as she should 
 find it expedient. Bavaria, however, did not find it accord 
 ant with its own interests to place itself entirely in the power 
 of Austria. At the beginning of the war, the Elector joined 
 the French with about 30,000 troops, and the peace of Pres- 
 burg annexed to his dominions 10,595 sq. rn., and 1,000,000 
 inhabitants, and conferred on him the dignity of King ; in 
 return for which, he ceded Wiirzburg, which was erected into 
 an electorate, in the place of Salzburg. The King of Bavaria, 
 like the rulers of Wurtemberg and Baden, now assumed sove 
 reignty over the lands of the nobility of the empire within 
 his borders. When, in 1812, the war between France and 
 Russia broke out, Bavaria sent anew its whole proportion of 
 troops to the French army. Insignificant remains only of the 
 30,000 Bavarians returned in the spring of 1813. Maximi 
 lian Joseph, notwithstanding this sacrifice, placed fresh troops 
 under the command of Napoleon as the protector of the con 
 federation of the Rhine, when the new campaign was opened, 
 near the close of April. This army also suffered great losses, 
 but distinguished itself with its wonted bravery, under the 
 command of Marshal Oudinot. It suffered particularly in 
 the battles of Luckau and Grossbeercn (1813). In 1805, 
 Bavaria was raised, by the treaty of Presburg, to the rank 
 of a kingdom, with some further accessions of territory, all 
 of which were confirmed by the treaties of 1814 and 1815. 
 In 1 848, the discreditable conduct of the King of Bavaria, 
 in maintaining an open liaison with a wandering actress, 
 who had assumed the name of Lola Montes, but who was 
 in reality the eloped wife of an Englishman, and whom he 
 had created a Bavarian countess, by the title of Grafin von 
 Lansfeldt, had thoroughly alienated the hearts of his sub 
 jects, and quickened that desire of political change which 
 had previously existed. In this spirit the people, early 
 in March 1848, demanded the immediate convocation of the 
 Chambers, the liberty of the press, that judicial trials should 
 be public, that an electoral reform should be granted, and that 
 the army should take an oath to observe the constitution. 
 The King having refused to convoke the Chambers before the 
 end of May, the people flew to arms, attacked and captured 
 the arsenal after a short engagement. They subsequently 
 marched against the royal palace, the military refusing to 
 charge them, although commanded to do so. In this predica 
 ment, the King, finding further resistance useless, yielded to 
 all the demands of the people, who now returned their arms to 
 the arsenal, and afterwards dispersed quietly. Fresh tumults, 
 however, occurred, and on March 21, King Louis announced 
 his resignation of the sceptre to his son, the crown prince 
 Maximilian, the second of that name who has filled the throne 
 of Bavaria. Bavaria contains several very ancient and vener 
 able cities, formerly free towns of the empire, such as Augs 
 burg, Ratisbon or Regensburg, and Niirnberg, in their day of 
 prosperity, centres of wealth and commercial activity, created 
 and fostered by the extensive carrying trade overland from 
 Italy and the East, to the Baltic, and to the great cities of the 
 Netherlands. Nor less remarkable were the Episcopal cities, 
 Wiirzburg and Bamberg, once capitals of ecclesiastical princi 
 palities, but now still further reduced than the imperial towns. 
 
 Pop. (1849), 4,519,546. (Berghaus ; Huhn; Parliamentary 
 Papers ; Annual Register, <c.) 
 
 BAVAY [anc. Eagacum], an anc. tn. France, dep. Nord, 
 arrond. of, and 15 m. N.N.W. Avesnes, of considerable mili 
 tary importance in the time of the Romans. It contains the 
 ruins of an aqueduct, amphitheatre, and fortifications, and has 
 manufactures of glass, earthenware, hardware, agricultural 
 implements, hosiery, and leather. The inhabitants are also 
 engaged in agriculture and rearing cattle. Pop. 1605. 
 
 BAVERSTOCK, par. Eng. Wilts ; 710 ac. Pop. 194. 
 
 BAVISPE, a tn. Mexico, prov. Chihuahua, in a moun 
 tainous district, near the source of a river of the same name. 
 It used to be classed as one of the Spanish presidios or small 
 forts, built as a protection against the wild Indians. 
 
 BAW BURGH, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 2070 ac. Pop. 404. 
 
 BAWDESWELL, or BALDESWELL, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 
 1310 ac. Pop. 582. 
 
 BAWDRIP, par. Eng. Somerset ; 1780 ac. Pop. 425. 
 
 BAWDSEY, par. Eng. Suffolk; 2640 ac. Pop. 468. 
 
 BAWSEY, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 1090 ac. Pop. 28. 
 
 BAWTRY, a market tn. England, co. York, W. Riding, 
 on a plain on the Idle, 9 m. S.S.E. Doncaster. It consists of 
 two principal streets, straight, and well kept ; lighted with 
 gas, and amply supplied with water ; houses, chiefly of brick, 
 plastered or stuccoed ; and contains a parish church, a Method 
 ist and an Independent chapel, several Sunday-schools, and 
 a day-school. It has some trade in corn, oak-timber, and 
 stone, which is sent chiefly to London and Hull. The Idle 
 is navigable to the town for small vessels of about 24 tons. 
 Pop. (1841), 1083. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BAXTERLEY, par. Eng. Warwick ; 850 ac. Pop. 228. 
 
 BAY, a lake, isl. Luzon, S. of Manilla. It is of very 
 irregular form, but measures above 30 m. both in length and 
 breadth. There are several small islands in it, of which the 
 largest, named Tatin, is about llm. long by half that width 
 at its broadest part. It receives the waters of several rivers, 
 but has only one outlet, the Passig, which falls into the Bay of 
 Manilla, at the town, after a course of about 18 m. The lake 
 is deep in many parts, though generally not more than about 
 16 fathoms ; it contains vast quantities offish, of which daily 
 supplies are sent to the Manilla market. Game is abundant 
 on its shores ; fowls of various kinds, and crocodiles in immense 
 numbers, frequent its banks and waters. (Mallat s Philip- 
 pities.) 
 
 BAY OF ISLANDS, a large and commodious harbour, 
 N.E. coast, New Ulster [native name, Eaheinomauwe], the 
 most N. of the New Zealand Islands ; about 90 m. S.E. North 
 Cape; lat. (E. point, Cape Brett) 35 10 S. ; Ion. 174 22 E. 
 (R.) It is of easy access ; and, with exception of one rock, 
 called the Whale-rock, the position of which is well ascertained, 
 there are no hidden dangers. It is studded with islands, 
 whence its name, and contains a surface of water of about 
 10 m. sq. Near the middle of the W. side of the bay is the 
 opening of Kororareka harbour, a secure but shallow port ; 
 better adapted to merchant shipping than to the use of men- 
 of-war. Within the line from Cape Pococke to Cape Brett, 
 between which is the entrance into the bay, there is not more 
 than 30 fathoms of water ; and everywhere, excepting close 
 to the rocks, the bottom is soft and tenacious, affording secure 
 anchorage. The view on all sides is pleasing, exhibiting 
 everywhere an appearance of fertility, but is without any 
 grand, or remarkable features. The bay has been the resort 
 of whalers for many years. (Surveying Voyages of Adventure 
 and Beagle ; Parliamentary Report.) 
 
 BAYAMO, or SAN SALVADOR, a tn., E. part, isl. Cuba, 
 60 m. N. W. Santiago, near 1. bank, Cauto, a small stream that 
 falls into the bay called the Canal of Bayamo. It lies in lat. 
 20 40 N. ; Ion. 76 55 W. ; and carries on a good trade. 
 Pop. variously stated from 7500 to 14,000. 
 
 BAYAN or BAIN, KHARA-COOLA, a lofty mountain-range 
 in Asia, on the N.E. border of Thibet, a branch of the Kuen- 
 lun, stretching N.W. and S.E. between the sources of the 
 Hoang-Ho and the Yang-tse-Kiang, two of the largest rivers 
 in China. 
 
 BAYAS [auc. Baiai], a tn. Syria, pash. Aleppo, a little 
 to the S. of the river Deli Chili, and 15 m. N. Iskenderoon. 
 It contains a castle, khan, bazaar, baths, and numerous ruins. 
 There are several villages in its neighbourhood, situated 
 amidst groves of orange and palm trees. (Chesney.) 
 
BAYAZID 
 
 348 
 
 BAYONNE 
 
 BAYAZID, or BAYEZEED, a tn. Turkey in Asia, pash. 
 of, and 140 in. S.E. Erzeroom; S.W. Mount Ararat, from 
 the base of which it is separated by a lava-covered plain 
 10 m. in width; lat. 39 24 N.; Ion. 44 20 E; governed 
 by a pasha of two tails, appointed by the pasha of Erzeroom. 
 It is situated on the declivity of a rugged eminence, the sum 
 mit of which is fortified, and surrounded by a wall and ram- 
 
 porcelain, although the latter is of a purer white. A 
 considerable trade is carried on in horses, cattle, pigs, 
 poultry, fish, and butter, of which latter article large 
 quantities are sent weekly to Paris, either fresh or 
 slightly salted. The All-Saints fair, which lasts two 
 days, is devoted to the sale of horses. Bayeux is of 
 high antiquity, having existed previously to the inva 
 sion of Gaul by the Romans. Pop. 9106- 
 
 BAYFIELD, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 780 ac. P. 21 . 
 
 BAYFORD, par. En-. Hertford; 1450ac. P. 357. 
 
 BAYLEHAM, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 830 ac. P. 275. 
 
 BAYLEN. See BAILEX. 
 
 BAYONNE, a seaport tn. France, dep. Basses Py- 
 re ne es; lat. (cathedral) 43 29 30" N.; Ion. 128 30" 
 W. (R.) It is advantageously situated about 4 m. 
 from the sea, at the confluence of the Nive and Adour. 
 The former divides the town into two nearly equal 
 parts, called Great and Little Bayonne, connected by 
 the Mayou and Paneco bridges. Both parts are sur 
 rounded by ramparts, flanked with bastions and broad 
 deep ditches, which can at any time be filled with 
 water. Four gates form the entrances to the town, 
 parts. The town is in a ruinous state ; most of the houses : As a fortified place, Bayonne ranks in the first class. Great 
 are small and ill built, and the streets are in an extremely | Bayonne extends along the 1. bank, Nive, and contains the old 
 filthy condition. Besides the extensive palace of the pasha, ! castle ; Little Bayonne stretches along the r. bank of the same 
 
 THE CASTLE OF BAYAZID Fn 
 
 xie , Description de 1 Armenle la Perse, t 
 
 the town contains two Christian churches, three mosques, and 
 the famous monastery of Kara-Keleeseh, celebrated for its 
 beautiful architecture and antiquity. The inhabitants con 
 sist chiefly of Kurds and Armenians. The former amount 
 only to 300 or 400 families ; the latter to not more than 190 
 families. Kurdish is the common language of the place. 
 Some trade is carried on with Georgia and Persia, on the 
 frontiers of which the town is situated. Total pop. 5000 
 (Smith and Dwight s Researches in Armenia?) 
 
 BAYDON, par. Eng. Wilts ; 3060 ac. Pop. 335. 
 
 BAYEIYE [men], a tribe of people, S. Africa, inhabiting 
 the banks of Lake Ngami, and the river Zouga. They are 
 a fine intelligent race, much darker and larger than, and 
 in every respect superior to, the Bechuanas. They make 
 canoes, roughly fashioned, out of entire trees ; and so that one 
 end counterbalances the other they do not care for them 
 being straight ; consequently, many are quite crooked ; sails 
 are unknown. They live chiefly on fish, caught by means 
 of neatly-made nets, dyed in tan, made from the bark of the 
 camel-thorn, to prevent them from rotting. (Letter from 
 W.C. Oswell, Esq., in Jour. Soy. Geo. Soc. 1850.) 
 
 BAYEUX, an anc. city, France, dep. Calvados, 16 m. 
 N.W. Caen; situated on the Aure, in a fertile plain about 
 5 m. from the sea, and surrounded with excellent pasturage. 
 The principal street is handsome, but most of the others are 
 narrow and irregular. The houses have an antique and singu 
 lar appearance ; the squares are large, and planted with trees. 
 
 river, and the 1. bank, Adour, and contains the new castle, which 
 is flanked by four towers. A third quarter, properly a suburb 
 of the town, although it does not belong to it, nor even to the 
 same department, is situated on the r. bank, Adour. It is called 
 St. Esprit, and belongs to the department of Landes, com 
 municating with Bayonne proper by a handsome wooden bridge 
 across the Adour. In St. Esprit is situated the citadel, which 
 commands the town of Bayonne, the port, the surrounding dis 
 trict, and the approach from the sea. Bayonne is an agreeable 
 town, built in the Spanish fashion, and presenting a different 
 appearance from the generality of French towns. The houses 
 have lattice-windows and balconies, over which cloth blinds 
 are extended. The shops are open in front like booths, and 
 the Grande Place resembles a Spanish square in all its principal 
 features. The inhabitants are remarkable for the animation 
 and gaiety of their manner, and have an appearance of light- 
 heartedness that contrasts strongly with the more solemn de 
 meanour of their Spanish neighbours. The town is well and 
 substantially built. The main street, through which the high 
 road to Spain passes, contains several handsome edifices. The 
 other streets are narrow, and appear to be more confined than 
 they really are, from the height of the houses, which are gener 
 ally of three or four stories. The Place Grammont, which opens, 
 on one side, on the Nive, and on the other on the Adour and 
 the harbour, is embellished with some fine buildings, amongst 
 which are the custom-house and theatre. This square is the 
 great resort of both the busy and the idle. The only remark 
 
 The cathedral is a splendid Gothic edifice, with a tower 240 ft. able public building in Bayonne, besides those named, is the 
 
 " cathedral, a small but elegant Gothic structure. Its arsenal 
 is one of the best and most complete in France. The mili 
 tary hospital, also, is of considerable extent, being capable of 
 
 high. It contains some interesting statues, sculptured in th 
 16th century. The church of St. Exuperus, situated outside 
 the town, is supposed to be the oldest in Bayeux. Little remains 
 of the original structure, however, excepting a portion of the 
 square tower. Tn the Hotel de Ville is preserved one of the 
 most interesting relics of the Middle Ages, known by the 
 name of the Bayeux Tapestry, although, in reality, the work 
 of the needle. It is a representation of the events connected 
 with the invasion and conquest of England by the Normans, 
 wrought, in worsted of various colours, in the style of a sam 
 pler. It is 2 14 ft. long, and 20 inches broad, and is divided into 
 72 compartments, each with a Latin superscription indicating 
 its subject. This singular relic is said, on good grounds, to 
 have been the work of Matilda, Queen of William the Con 
 queror, assisted by her female attendants. Napoleon, during 
 
 accommodating 2000 invalids. On the bank of the river is 
 an agreeable promenade, carefully kept. On one side is a row 
 of houses painted in various colours, and on the other a noble 
 quay. An avenue of trees occupies the intervening space. 
 A little lower down the river are the dockyards, which are 
 very commodious, and well adapted for the construction both 
 of ships of war and merchant vessels. The walks along the 
 river are much frequented, and present a picturesque variety 
 
 of cc 
 
 The women of Bayonne are celebrated for the 
 
 elegance of their figures. Their attractions have become 
 almost proverbial in France. The harbour of Bayonne is 
 encumbered by a bar across the mouth of the Adour, but, 
 
 his meditated invasion of England, caused this tapestry to be ! when entered, it affords every security. The rise of flood 
 
 carried from town to town, and exhibited in the theatres 
 tween the acts, to animate the spectators to a second conquest. 
 An excellent engraving of the tapestry has been made by 
 
 tide is 13 ft., of neap tide, 8 ft. In 1849, the number of 
 vessels that entered the port was 728, of which 59 were Brit 
 ish ; cleared the same year, 726, of which 43 were British. 
 
 Stothard, for the London Society of Antiquaries. There are 
 several manufactures in the town, including lace of superior 
 quality, calicoes, serges, table linen, cotton yarn, and hats ; 
 and tanning and dyeing are carried on. The porcelain manu 
 factory, established in 1812, continues to maintain its reputa 
 tion. It employs about 60 workmen, and the articles produced i 
 | are stronger, and stand heat much better than the Limoges i 
 
BAYPOOR 
 
 BEAR LAKE 
 
 Bayonne Las an exchange, and schools of commerce and 
 navigation. The chief products consist of Andaye brandy, 
 liqueurs, chocolate, ropes, cordage, glass, and refined si .gar. 
 It has a chamber of commerce, and carries on an important 
 trade, not the least portion of which is by smuggling, into 
 Spain. The chief exports are resins, woollen cloths, serges, 
 linens, dyed silks, drugs, cream-of-tartar, wines, brandy, &c. 
 The chief imports are fine Spanish wool, liquorice root and 
 juice, wines, iron, cocoa, olive-oil, millstones, &c. Bay- 
 onne prides itself on never having been taken by an enemy, 
 and its motto is, Nunquam polluta. The bayonet, a well- 
 known military weapon, was invented here, and derives its 
 name from the town. Pop. (1846), 13,850. 
 
 BAYPOOR, a seaport tn. Hindoostan, in Malabar, prc- 
 sid. Madras, 7 m. S. Calicut; lat. 11 10 N.; Ion. 75 52 E. 
 Tippoo Saib new named this place Sultanpatnam, and intended 
 to make it a commercial emporium. Teak ships of 400 tons 
 are built here, and teak tar is extracted from the chips and 
 sawdust. 
 
 BAYREUTH. See BAIKEUTII. 
 
 BAYSWATER, a hamlet, England, co. Middlesex, in 
 the immediate W. vicinity of London, of which it may now 
 be considered a suburb, being only 3 m. from St. Paul s, on 
 the Uxbridge road, on a plain adjoining Kensington gardens. 
 The houses are tolerably well built, principally of brick, the 
 fronts faced with composition ; many of them are in the villa 
 style, and some of them spacious and handsome residences ; 
 well lighted with gas, and water abundant. It contains a 
 church, Episcopal and Wesleyan chapels, and several schools, 
 including three ladies schools, and one connected with the 
 Wesleyans. (Local Correspondent,} 
 
 BAYTON, par. Eng. Worcester ; 1960 ac. Pop. 468. 
 
 BAYVILL, par., S. Wales, Pembroke. Pop. 130. 
 
 BAZA [anc. Basti] , a city, Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 53 m. E.N.E. Granada, in a valley N. the sierra Baza. It has 
 ill-arranged, and, for the most p;irt, crooked and narrow streets, 
 three squares, a collegiate, and two parish churches, town- 
 hall, hospital, college, four elementary schools, civil and ec 
 clesiastical prisons, numerous public fountains, fine gardens, 
 and promenades. Manufactures : hats, linen fabrics, earth 
 enware, and gypsum. The environs yield wine and hemp ; 
 sheep, cattle, and mules are reared ; and an annual fair is held 
 in September. Baza is famed in early Spanish history, more 
 especially in that of Granada. In 1489, it was taken from 
 the Moors by the Spaniards, after a siege of nearly seven 
 months. In 1810, the French, under Marshal Soult, here 
 defeated the Spaniards under Generals Blake and Freire. 
 Pop. 10,133. 
 
 BAZA DOTS (THE) [anc. Vasates], France, one of the dis 
 tricts into which prov. Guyenne was divided, and now included 
 in deps. Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne. Its capital was Bazas. 
 
 BAZARUTA, a group of islands, Africa, off the coast of 
 Sofala, just beyond Cape St. Sebastian. They extend in a 
 chain to the N., and, approached from the S., appear like one 
 island. Their N. extremity, forming the cape of the same 
 name, lat. 21 31 S.; Ion. 35 33 E., has a reef projecting 
 from it, which is covered at high water. On the W. side of 
 the N. island there is a cove called Punga Bay, with from 
 7 to 9 fathoms water, but lined by shoals on each side. There 
 a ship might find shelter from E., S., and W. winds, and pro 
 cure wood and water. (Horsburgh.) 
 
 BAZAS [anc. Cossio], a tn. France, dep. Gironde, 33 m. 
 S.S.E. Bordeaux ; on a rocky eminence, at the foot of which 
 flows the Beauve. It is surrounded by agreeable promenades, 
 and by ruined walls, the only remains of its ancient fortifica 
 tions. The houses are generally badly built ; the only edifice 
 possessing any architectural interest is the cathedral, a Gothic 
 structure, erected in the 13th or 14th century. It is small, 
 but well proportioned, and remarkable for the number and 
 lightness of its columns, for the purity of its style, and for the 
 delicacy of the principal fa9ade, which is ornamented with 
 numerous statues and sculptures. In the principal porch is 
 a font for holy water, in which, by a curious optical effect, 
 the whole vault of the cathedral is reflected. Some saltpetre, 
 glass, and leather are manufactured ; and a considerable trade 
 is carried on in agricultural produce, and wood for fuel, car 
 pentry, and shipbuilding. Pop. 2325. 
 
 BAZZANO, a tn. Papal States, 14 m. W. Bologna, on the 
 Samoggia. Pop. 2937. 
 
 BEACH AMPTON, par. Eng. Bucks; 2110 ac. P 248- 
 
 BEACHINGSTOKE, BEECHINGSTOKE, or BIRCHAM 
 .STOKE, par Eng. Wilts; 740 ac. Pop. 19<>. 
 
 BEACHY HEAD, a promontory, England, coast of 
 Sussex, between Hastings and Seaford, about 1 m. S. East- 
 bourn ; lat. 50 44 24" N. ; Ion. 12 42" E. (R.) It is the 
 highest headland on the S. coast of England. In 1828, a re 
 volving light of the first class was erected here, 285 ft. above 
 the level of the sea, visible in clear weather from a distance 
 of 28m. 
 
 BEACONSFIELD, a tn. and par. England, co. Bucking- 
 ham. The town stands on an eminence, 23 m. W. by N. 
 London, and consists of four principal streets, which meet in 
 a spacious market-place in the centre. The houses are in 
 general well built ; water abundant. The church is a hand 
 some ancient structure, in the Norman style, of stone and 
 flint, with tower and spire. It contains the remains of 
 Edmund Burke, and of Waller the poet, both of whom were 
 interred within its precincts. Beaconsfield has likewise 
 Independent, Wesleyan, and Presbyterian chapels ; a free 
 school, and some small charities. Area of par. 3710 ac. 
 Pop. 1732. 
 
 BEAFORD, par. Eng. Devon ; 37GO ac. Pop. 713. 
 
 BEAGH, par. Irel. Galway; 14,581 ac. Pop. 5751. 
 
 BEAGLE, BANK, ISLAND, and EEEF : 1, An extensive 
 coral sand-bank, N.W. coast, Australia, N.N.W. Buccaneer 
 Archipelago ; lat. 15 19 S. ; Ion. 123 35 E. (n.) It is 
 about 4 or 5 m. in length N.W. and S.E., having part of it 
 dry. 2, An isl., coast of S. Australia, about 60 m. N.N.W. 
 from the entrance into Spencer s Gulf; lat. 34 49 S. ; Ion. 
 134 49 E. (R.) 3, A reef, in Bass Strait; lat. 39 41 S. ; 
 Ion. 147 42 E. (R.) 
 
 BEAKESBOURNE, or LYVYNGSBOURNE, par. Eng. 
 Kent; 1200 ac. Pop. 332. 
 
 BEAL, a vil. and headland, Ircl. co. Kerry, S. side of the 
 estuary of the Shannon, 6 m. W.N.W. Ballylongford. Near 
 the village is an old castle. 
 
 BEALINGS, two pars. Eng. : 1, Beatings (Great], par. 
 Suffolk; 830 ac. Pop. 377. 2, Bcalings (Little], par., W. 
 of the former ; 410 ac. Pop. 322. 
 
 BEAMINSTER, a tn. and par. England, co. Dorset. 
 The town is situated in a fertile valley, on the Birt, 14 m. 
 N.W. Dorchester ; houses, in general, good modern buildings ; 
 streets well paved and lighted with gas; water abundant. 
 The church, built on an eminence on the S. side of the town, 
 is a stately structure, with a well-proportioned tower nearly 
 100 ft. in height. The Wesleyans and Independents have 
 chapels each ; and a new chapel of ease is now (1850) in 
 course of erection. There is an endowed school, several daily 
 and Sunday schools, and an alms-house for eight aged persons. 
 Principal manufactures: sailcloth, iron, tin, and copper 
 wares ; market-day, Thursday. The town was almost entirely 
 destroyed by fire on three different occasions; first, in 1644; 
 again, in 1684; and third time, in 1781. Area of par. 
 4350 ac. Pop. 3270. 
 
 BEAR, or BERE ISLAND AND HAVEN, Ireland, Bantry 
 Bay, co. Cork. The ISLAND, which is about 5 m. long and from 
 1 to 2 broad, is situated on the N.W. side of the bay. Its 
 loftiest summit, 897 ft. high, is in lat. 51 37 30" N. ; Ion. 
 
 9 52 12" W. (R.) The HAVEN, situated between the island 
 
 and the mainland, is spacious and well sheltered, and has suf 
 ficient depth of water for large ships. It has two entrances, 
 one at the E., the other at the W. end of Bear Island. Bere- 
 haven has recently been pointed out as well adapted for a naval 
 and transatlantic packet station. 
 
 BEAR ISLANDS. 1, An isl., N. Ocean, about 315 m. 
 S. Cape South, in Spitzbergen ; lat. 74 30 N. ; Ion. 20 E. 
 
 (R.) 2, Three islands in Hudson s Bay, one in lat. 54 24 
 
 N. ; Ion. 80 50 W. (R.) ; another in lat. 54 32 N. ; the third 
 
 in lat. 54 46 N. 3, A group of islands in the N. Polar 
 
 Sea, off the N.E. coast of Siberia, between lat. 70 and 70 30 
 N. ; and Ion. 164 and 168 E. 
 
 BEAR LAKE (THE GREAT), an extensive sheet of fresh 
 water in the N.W. part of N. America, on the Arctic circle, 
 between about 65 and 67 32 N. lat. ; and under the 20th 
 degree of W. Ion. It is of irregular shape, and measures 
 170 m. N. to S. and E. to W. Its depth has not been ascer 
 tained, but where tried, no bottom was found with 270 ft. of 
 line. The water is remarkably transparent, and appears of 
 
BEARN 
 
 850 
 
 BEAUFORT 
 
 a light bine colour. It abounds with fish, particularly with 
 a kind known by the name of the herring salmon of Bear 
 Lake. The Bear Lake river flows from it to the Mackenzie 
 river. 
 
 BEARN [anc. Pagus Bearnensis], an anc. prov. France, 
 now constituting the department of the Basses Pyrenees, 
 with the exception of the arrond. of Bayonne, and part of 
 that of Mauleon. Pau was the capital ; the other towns were 
 Lescar, Oleron, Nai, Orthez, Navarrens, Morlaas, St. Jean, 
 Pied de Port, St. Palais, Sauveterre, Pontac, and Sallies. 
 
 BEARN (CAPE), a promontory, France, dep. Pyrenees 
 Orientales, on the Mediterranean ; lat. 42 31 N. ; Ion. 3 d 7 30" 
 E. (R.) Its summit is formed by Mount Bcarn, on which 
 a lighthouse of the first class has been erected, 751 ft. above 
 the level of the sea, visible from a distance of 14 m. 
 
 BEARSTEAD, par. Eng. Kent; 640 ac. Pop. 605. 
 
 BE AS, or BEYAS [anc. Hyphasis}, one of the great rivers 
 of the Punjab, having its rise at the Ratanki Pass, on the S. 
 side of the Santch Mountains, a branch of the Himalaya 
 system, in lat. 32 21 N. ; Ion. 77 22 E. ; where the former 
 attain an elevation of 13,300 ft. From this point, the Beas 
 flows generally in a S. direction for about 50 m., when it 
 turns W. and N.W., till it reaches the E. margin of the 
 Punjab, a distance of about 90 m., when it proceeds S.S.W. 
 for 75 m. ; forming, throughout that space, the E. boundary, 
 and is then joined by the Sutlej, about 8 m. N.N.E. Sobraon ; 
 lat. 31 10 N.; Ion. 75 2 E. Its entire course is thus 
 about 215m. The Beas has been considered larger than the 
 Sutlej, but it is greatly inferior to that river in the length of 
 its course -, and, according to Burnes, though they have about 
 the same breadth each 200 yards, the Sutlej has the greater 
 volume of water. The united stream, below the point of 
 junction, is called the Ghara or Gharra. 
 
 BEAS DE SEGURA, a tn. Spain, Murcia, prov. of, and 
 50 m. N.W. Jaen, in the centre of a fertile vale, near the 
 1. bank of the Guadalimar. It has two principal and several 
 smaller streets, two squares, a church, town and court houses, 
 an hospital, endowed school, damp and gloomy prison, and 
 the relics of a large old castle. Coarse cloth and linens are 
 manufactured, and dyeing, bleaching, tanning, and oil- express 
 ing, are carried on, Pop. 2695. 
 
 BEATENBERG (ST.), a mountain, Switzerland, can. 
 Bern ; it rises from the S.E. side of Lake Thun, and has a re 
 markable cave called the Beatenhohle, in which St. Beatus is 
 said to have lived, and worked miracles. On the slope of the 
 mountain stands the alpine village and church, of the same 
 name, about 3500 ft. above the level of the sea. Pop. 974. 
 
 BEATH, a small par. Scot. Fife. Pop. 487. 
 
 BEAUCAIRE [anc. Bellum Quadrum], a tn. France, 
 dep. Gard, 14 m. E. by S. Nismes, r. bank, Rhone, opposite 
 Tarascon. It is favourably situated for commerce ; the 
 
 THE CASTLE OF BEAUCAIRE. Irom France, II 
 
 Rhone being navigable for vessels of moderate burden, up to 
 the town. From its easy communication with the sea, Beau- 
 caire is frequented by vessels from all parts of the Mediter 
 ranean, and has become the depot of the French trade with 
 
 Spain, Italy, the coasts of Africa, and the Levant. The town 
 is, in general, tolerably well built, but the streets are narrow 
 and inconvenient. There are no public establishments here, 
 and very few manufactories ; but the suspension bridge across 
 the Rhone, which forms the communication with Tarascon, 
 is the finest work of the kind in France. The river here is 
 about 478 yards wide. Previous to the erection of the 
 present bridge in 1829, the Rhone was crossed by a bridge 
 of boats. Picturesquely situate on a rock stand the ruins of 
 the ancient castle, erected at the period of the first Crusades, 
 and partly demolished in the reign of Louis XIII. Beaucaire 
 is principally celebrated for its great fair, which rivals the 
 fairs of Leipzig and Frankfort, and is held partly in the town, 
 and partly in booths erected on the bank of the river. It 
 commences on the 1st of July, and terminates on the 28th, at 
 midnight. Little business is done, however, till the 15th. 
 About the 20th, buyers and sellers arrive in multitudes, and 
 the town, which has not more than the ordinary accommoda 
 tion for 10,000 inhabitants, receives an influx of 80,000 or 
 100,000 strangers. Merchants from all parts of Europe, and 
 even from the coast of Africa, attend with their goods ; and 
 almost every kind of article, however rare, is to be purchased 
 here. French, Italians, Spaniards, Greeks, Armenians, Turks, 
 Egyptians, and Arabs, attend with the produce or the fabrics 
 of their various countries; and notwithstanding the short period 
 allotted to the transaction of business, sales are effected to the 
 amount of several millions of francs. A court, composed of 
 ] 2 members, pronounces judgment in all disputed cases. After 
 the 28th, the unsold goods are either re-packed, or disposed of 
 at a low price; and the town sinks into its usual state of quiet. 
 The ordinary trade of the town is principally in olive-oil, 
 wine, and agricultural produce. Steamboats ply to Lyons, 
 and to Toulon, and there is railway communication to Nismes, 
 Montpellier, Alais, Avignon, Aix, and Marseilles. Pop. 8536. 
 BEAUCHENE, a small isl., S. Atlantic, about 34 m. S. 
 of E. Falkland Island ; lat. (S. point) 52 55 42" S. ; Ion. 59 J 
 12 42" W. (R.) 
 
 BEAUCOURT, a vil. France, dep. Haut Rhin, 16 m. 
 S.E. Belfort, noted for an extensive factory, employing in the 
 town, and its vicinity, about 3000 persons ; and in which are 
 made all the finest kinds of clock and watch work, screws, 
 
 locks, &c. Pop. 1 987. Three other places in France have 
 
 the same name. 
 
 BEAUDESERT, par. Eng. Warwick ; 840 ac. Pop. 205. 
 BEAUFORT. 1, A group of islands, Gulf of Boothia, 
 N.W. or outer isl. in lat. 69 55 N. ; Ion. 97 5 W. 2, A 
 cape, E. side of Cockburn s Gulf, lat. 67 40 N. ; Ion. 96 
 W. 3, A cape, Russian America, lat. 69 N. ; Ion. 163 W. 
 4, A bay, Russian America, on the Arctic Ocean, lat. 70 
 N. ; Ion. 142 W. 
 
 BEAUFORT. 1, A tn. France, dep. Maine-et-Loire, 
 1. bank, Couesnon, 16 m. S. S.E. Angers. It 
 has a parish church with a lofty spire, a college, 
 two hospitals, and a large sailcloth manufac 
 tory. Pop. 3062. Several other places in 
 France bear the same name. 2, A tn. Sar 
 dinian States, prov. Upper Savoy, 10 m. E. 
 Conflans, near the Doro. Has some trade in 
 
 cattle and cheese. Pop. 3000. 3, A tn. 
 
 Cape Colony, S. Africa, cap. of dist. of same 
 name, 280 m. N.E. Cape Town; lat. 32 31 
 S. ; Ion. 22 40 E. 4, A seaport, Cape Colony, 
 dist. Zwellendam, 145 in. E.S.E. Cape Town, 
 at the mouth of the Breede river; lat. 34 25 
 S.; Ion. 20 E. It is encumbered by a bar, 
 and only admits vessels of 200 tons, but is, 
 notwithstanding, one of the best harbours on 
 the S. coast of the colony, and has a consider 
 able trade. 5, A seaport tn., U. States, N. 
 
 Carolina; lat. 34 40 N.; Ion. 76 41 W. 
 Contrary to an opinion formerly entertained, 
 the harbour of Beaufort has been found to have 
 sufficient depth for ships. By soundings and 
 explorations, made in February 1850, it was 
 ascertained that there was 22 ft. water on the 
 bar at half flood, a depth of several feet beyond former sound 
 ings. It is, besides, safe and spacious, and admits of direct 
 and easy communication with the ocean. Beaufort is a place 
 of considerable commerce j it has a Methodist church, a court- 
 
BEAUFORT 
 
 351 
 
 BEAUMONT 
 
 house, jail, and several seminaries. Pop. 1974. 6, A small 
 seaport, U. States, S. Carolina, on an arm of the sea off Port 
 Eoyal, 50 m. S.S. W. Charleston ; lat. 32 26 N. ; Ion. 80 41 
 
 W. (R.) 
 
 BEAUFORT. 1, A dist. Cape Colony, bounded, N. by 
 part of the extensive barren tract recently included within 
 the colony, E. Graaf Reynet, and Uitenliage, S. George, and 
 W. Worcester and Clanwilliam ; area, about 20,000 sq. m. It 
 is divided into three parts, namely, Zwarteberg, Gouph, and 
 Nieweveld. Zwarteberg, lying in the S.W., is adapted for 
 agriculture, is well watered, has extensive orchards and vine 
 yards, and raises the greater part of the grain (chiefly wheat) 
 consumed in the division. Gouph, an extensive elevated 
 tract belonging to the Great Karoo, is chiefly used as a sheep- 
 walk, consisting principally of heath, with very little grass. 
 The want of water is here greatly felt. Nieweveld, com 
 mencing with the mountain range of the same name, stretches 
 N. to the limits of the division. It has some grassy pasture 
 on the mountain-slopes, and is tolerably supplied with water, 
 but the greater part of the surface is, like Gouph, covered 
 with heath. Beaufort, the capital of the division, stands 
 near the source of the Gambia or Great Lion river, about 
 360 m. E. Cape Town, and has not, as yet, acquired much 
 importance. Bad roads appear to be one of the greatest 
 obstacles to its prosperity. Pop. 5807, of whom nearly a 
 
 half are coloured. 2, A co., U. States, N. Carolina; area, 
 
 650 sq. m. Surface low, and, at times, extensively over 
 flowed. Principal productions: cotton and rice. Cap. 
 Washington. Pop. (1840), 12,225, of which 7050 are slaves. 
 
 3, A co. W. Australia, of a triangular form, each of the 
 
 three sides being about 45 m. in length. Its most prominent 
 physical features are the Glenelg Hills, Emu Hill, and Mounts 
 Walker and Arrowsmith ; the latter at the southernmost point 
 of the county. 
 
 BEAUGENCY [anc. Belgenciacum, Castrum de Belgency] , 
 a tn. France, dep. Loiret, 16 m. S.W. Orleans; agreeably 
 situated on the side of a hill, r. bank, Loire, which is here 
 crossed by a stone bridge of 39 arches. The town was for- 
 merly surrounded by a wall flanked by towers and bastions, 
 parts of which still remain. In the middle of the last cen 
 tury, the fortifications of the castle extended to the bridge, 
 but they were destroyed in 1767. The square donjon tower 
 of Beaugency, 115 ft. high, is a remarkable structure, and of 
 high antiquity, probably of the 10th or 11th century, though 
 the exact date of its erection is unknown. The articles manu 
 factured here are principally cloth and leather. There are 
 also some distilleries. A considerable trade is carried on in the 
 wine of the neighbourhood, which bears the name of Beau 
 gency, and is the best grown in the Orleanais ; and in brandy, 
 grain, wool, and beet-root sugar. Pop. 4028. 
 
 BE AUH A ENOIS, a co. Lower Canada,U. States frontier, 
 S.W. Montreal ; length 55m.; breadth 22 m. ; area, 710 sq. m. 
 Both its soil and climate are good ; and it possesses consider 
 able local advantages from its extensive frontage to the St. 
 Lawrence, here called the Lake of St. Francis. The principal 
 villages are, Beauharnois, St. Regis, and Dundee. Pop., 
 consisting of natives, Scotch, Irish, and Americans, 14,164. 
 
 BEAUJEU, a tn. France, dep. Rhone, arrond. of, and 
 14 m. N.N.W. Villefranche. It is the oldest town of the 
 Beaujolais, of which it was the capital, and was formerly a 
 place of some importance, being the residence of the feudal 
 lords of that small state. Paper-mills and a cotton-mill, 
 driven by water, are established here, besides several tanner 
 ies. The trade is principally in wine of good quality, grain, 
 iron, leather, and casks, made in the town. It is the entrepot 
 for the trade between the Saone and the Loire. Pop. 2469. 
 
 BEAUJOLAIS [anc. Bellojoviensis Ager], a dist., anc. 
 prov. Lyonnais, cap. Villefranche. It is now included in the 
 deps. Loire and Rhone. 
 
 BEAUL1EU, or BEWLEY, par. Irel. Louth; 1228 ac. 
 Pop. 688. 
 
 BEAULIEU, a tn. France, dep. Correze, 20 m. S. Tulle, 
 agreeably situated, r. bank, Dordogne. The church is en 
 riched with some very remarkable Gothic sculptures. Cutlery 
 is manufactured here, and the wine grown in the neighbour 
 hood is of fair quality. The trade is in wine and ship-timber. 
 
 Pop. 2151. BEAULIEU is the name of a number of other 
 
 small towns in France. 
 
 BE AUL Y, a vil. and port, Scotland, co. Inverness, 1. bank, 
 
 Beauly, at the head of the loch of same name, and near the 
 embouchure of the river, 9 m. W. Inverness. It consists of 
 one spacious street, with several smaller diverging from it ; 
 houses of stone, and generally well built ; supply of water 
 insufficient. The only building of any note is the N. of Scot 
 land Bank, in the Elizabethan style. The parish church is 
 2 m. W. from the town, and the Free church about 1 m. 
 in the same direction. There are two schools in the village 
 under the auspices of the latter. An extensive pork-curing 
 establishment, and a large brewery, are here busily employed. 
 The harbour is an excellent one, and has sufficient depth of 
 water for vessels of from 150 to 200 tons. Principal ex 
 ports: timber, potatoes, and grain; imports: coal, lime, 
 salt, &c. The moral condition of the people is good, crime 
 being hardly known among them. At the E. end of the vil 
 lage stand the ruins of its ancient priory, founded in the 13th 
 century. They are surrounded by trees of great size and 
 age, and have a very picturesque appearance. The scenery 
 along the banks of the Beanly is, in many places, of surpassing 
 beauty ; the acclivities on either side being covered with birch 
 and fir, and the edges of the stream lined beautifully with 
 oaks, weeping birches, and alders. Pop. (1841), 560. (Local 
 Corresponden t.) 
 
 BEAUMARIS, a tn., seaport, and par., N. Wales, isle 
 Anglesey. The town is situated on the W. shore of the 
 Menai Strait, near its junction with the Irish Sea, where it 
 expands into a good roadstead called Beaumaris Bay; lat. 
 53 16 N.; Ion. 4 5 W. It consists of several streets well 
 paved and clean; houses, in general, good, particularly in the 
 principal street, which is terminated by the ancient castle of 
 Beaumaris, erected by Edward I.; while many modern dwell 
 ings, of very handsome appearance, have lately arisen, and 
 are (1850) in course of erection, in various parts of the town 
 and vicinity. The chief public buildings, exclusive of the 
 churches, are the townhall, a commodious and handsome edi 
 fice, containing a splendid ball-room, and other spacious apart 
 ments appropriated to public purposes ; the county hall, the jail, 
 and a custom-house. The places of worship comprise the 
 chapel of St. Mary, a spacious and elegant structure, in the 
 later style of English architecture, with a lofty square em 
 battled tower; Wesleyan, Calvinistic, Methodist, Independent, 
 and Baptist chapels. Beaumaris has a free, national, and 
 several daily and Sunday schools ; several charities, and be 
 nevolent societies. The harbour is safe and commodious, and 
 may be entered at any time of tide with a moderate breeze. 
 Registered shipping in 1847, 17,219tons; entered for the same 
 year, 36,762 tons; cleared, 48,580. Customs revenue for 
 1846, 4993, 11s. The town has neither trade nor manufac 
 tures, but is much resorted to in the summer season for sea 
 bathing. It unites with Amlwch, Holyhead, and Langefin. 
 in sending a member to the House of Commons. Registered 
 electors in 1849, 354. Area of par. 327 ac. Pop. of muni 
 cipal bor. and par. 2299; of parliamentary bor. 2680. 
 
 BEAUME (LA), a vil. France, dep. Ardeche (Vivavais), 
 6 m. from Aubenas ; picturesquely situated under a mass of 
 basalt occupying the angle of a valley nearly opposite to the 
 junction of the Fontaulier with the Ardeche. The face of 
 the basalt is finely pillared, and the top of it, forming what is 
 called the Causeway of Pont-de-Beaume, is covered with vines. 
 Within the rock is a grotto lined and vaulted with pillars, 
 evidently natural, but so regularly joined and indented as to 
 have all the appearance of a work of art. The causeway 
 seems to be the joint product of the lava streams of several 
 extinct volcanoes. Crowning a lofty peak, between the Fon 
 taulier and Ardeche, stand the unmantled ruins of an old 
 castle, which belonged to the dukes of Ventadour. La Beaume 
 is encircled with terraced gardens, formed on the line of the 
 old fortifications ; and contains numerous antique houses of 
 the 15th and 16th centuries, with some probably of a still 
 
 [ earlier date. Pop. 1065. Other three villages have the 
 
 name of BEAUME. 
 
 BEAUMONT, two pars. Eng. : 1, par. Cumberland; 
 1470 ac. Pop. 288. 2, Beaumont with- MOKB, par. Essex; 
 2890 ac. Pop. 451. 
 
 BEAUMONT, a tn. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, 33 m. S.E. 
 Mons. It owes its name to its site on an elevated table-land, 
 from which an extensive and richly diversified prospect is 
 obtained. The marble of Beaumont is in great demand for 
 ornamental purposes. It has marble saw-works, forges, manu- 
 
BEAUMONT 
 
 352 
 
 CEAUVAIS 
 
 factures of woollen stuffs, soapworks, breweries, distilleries, productive ridges, covered with timber ; which, however, is 
 
 and tanneries, and also a considerable trade in articles of mer 
 eery. Beaumont is a place of considerable antiquity. In the 
 llth century it was the capital of a large county belonging 
 to the princes of the house of Croy, and had an old castle, of 
 which only a few walls and towers now remain, William III., 
 King of England, having blown it up on taking the tower in 
 
 1691. Pop. 200 i. Other three places in Belgium have 
 
 the name of BEAUMONT. 
 
 BEAUMONT, several towns, France: 1, Beaumont-de- 
 Lomagne, a tn., dep. Tarn-et-Garonne, 9 m. S.S.W. Castel- 
 Sarrasin, beautifully situated, 1. bank, Gimonc. The town is 
 
 of excellent quality. The chief agricultural productions of 
 the seigniory are grain, fruit, vegetables, and maple sugar. 
 Sandstone and limestone are found in the district ; which also 
 contains the quarries that supply the building-stone to Quebec. 
 There is a village of the same name in the seigniory, beauti 
 fully situated on a gentle eminence, and remarkable for its 
 neatness and regularity. It is inhabited by persons of the 
 first respectability. In the vicinity are the celebrated falls of 
 Montmorency. 
 
 BEAUPREAU, a tn. France, dep. Maine-et-Loire, cap. 
 
 rrond., in a fertile country, on the Evre, 26 m. S.W. 
 
 at once remarkable for the regularity of its plan, the neatness Angers. Parts of its former wall, and other defences, still 
 of the houses, and the beauty and fertility of the surround- j remain. The old castle of Beaupreau, on a hill in the vicinity, 
 ing country, which is particularly rich in vineyards. The j has a picturesque appearance. The town possesses one of the 
 square is intersected by a main road, and in the centre is I best colleges of the department. Manufactures: handker- 
 a covered market. The streets run at right angles from the chiefs, linens, flannel, and common woollen stuffs. Trade: 
 square, and are broad and well kept. Manufactures: coarse principally in cotton and woollen cloth, and leather. Pop. 
 cloth, tiles, and leather. A good trade is done in agricul- 2117. 
 tural produce. Pop. 3217. 2, Beaumont-le-Roger, a tn., BEAUPRE ISLANDS, a group in the S. Pacific, be- 
 
 dep. Eure, 9 m. E. Bernay, near the forest of same name, 
 r. bank, Killc. Cloth manufactories are established here, 
 employing 400 workmen, and producing annually about 1000 
 pieces, of 21 yards each. The town has also bleachfields and 
 glassworks. Trade: principally in wood, flax, yarn, and 
 cloth. Pop. 1250. 3, Beaumont-sur-Sarthe, or Beaumont-le- 
 Vicomte, a tn., dep. Sarthe, 13 m. S.W. Mamers, in the form 
 of an amphitheatre, on the side of a hill, above the Sarthe, 
 which is here crossed by two bridges. The streets are narrow 
 and crooked, and the town, in general, badly built. It has 
 manufactures of coarse cloth and matting, with worsted and 
 cotton spinning-mills, besides tanneries. The trade is in grain, 
 hemp, thread, honey, wax, poultry, and cattle. Pop. 1893. 
 4, Beaumont-sur-Oise [Bettus Mons], a tn., dep. Seine-et- 
 Oise, 14 m. N.E. Pontoise, agreeably situated on the brow of 
 a hill, at the foot of which flows the river Oise, here crossed 
 by a handsome bridge. The houses are well built ; and a 
 ruined tower, the sole remains of the ancient castle, overlooks 
 the town. Leather is manufactured to some extent. Trade : 
 principally in grain, flour, and agricultural produce. Pop. 
 
 2030. Numerous other places in France, in addition to the 
 
 above, have the name of BEAUMONT. 
 
 BE AUNE, a tn. France, dep. Cote-d Or, cap. of arrond., 
 23 m. S.S.W. Dijon, at the foot of a hill, on the Bouzeoisc. 
 
 longing to the Loyalty Isles, N.E. of New Caledonia. The 
 most N.E. of the group is in lat. 20 22 S.; Ion. 160 14 
 E. (R.) 
 
 BEAUREPAIRE, a vil. France, dep. Isere, 14 m. S.E. 
 Vienne, formerly a place of considerable strength. During 
 the wars of religion, it was besieged on more than one occa 
 sion. It has manufactures of table linen ; corn and fulling 
 mills, and carries on some trade in silk, grain, fodder, and 
 cattle. Pop. 2030. 
 
 BEAUQUESNE, a tn. France, dep. Somme (Picardy), 
 5 m. S.S.E. Doullcns. On its square are to be seen the re 
 mains of a castle, built there, in the 13th century, by Philippe 
 d Alsace, Count of Flanders. Pop. 2671. 
 
 BEAUSSET (LE), a tn. France, dep. Var, 8 m. N.W. 
 Toulon. It has manufactories of soap, olive-oil, linens, casks, 
 and tar ; and some trade in wine, brandy, &c. Pop. 2050. 
 
 BEAUVAIS [anc. Bratuspantium, Bc.llovacitm], an anc. 
 tn. France, cap. dep. Oise, 43 m. N. Paris, at the con 
 fluence of the Avelon with the Therain, in a rich valley sur 
 rounded by wooded hills. Several branches of the river run 
 through and by the side of the town, forming canals which 
 are of great service to the manufacturers. The houses of the 
 town are badly built, being for the most part of wood, clay, 
 and mortar, but what is wanting in solidity is made up in 
 
 The houses are well built, the streets spacious, and watered ornament, and the stranger is struck with the prodig: 
 by a fountain. The ramparts are planted with trees, and number of wooden sculptures and statues that decorate their 
 afford an agreeable promenade. The church of Notre Dame exterior. As in most old towns, the streets are narrow, 
 is a handsome edifice, and ranks next to the cathedral of the 
 diocese. The great hospital, however, is the finest building 
 in the town. It was founded in 1443, by Nicholas Rollin, 
 chancellor of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. In the 
 court of the hospital are some fine remains of Gothic archi 
 tecture. Beaune has also a public library, containing about 
 10,000 volumes, a very fine public garden, a theatre, public 
 baths, &c. It manufactures cloth, serges, druggets, vinegar, 
 casks, and beet-root sugar; and is noted for its dyeworks, 
 breweries, and tanneries. In the neighbourhood are some 
 excellent orchards. The trade is principally in the wines of 
 Burgundy, of which Beaune exports thirty or forty thousand 
 butts per annum. The wines grown in the district are the 
 best of the ordinary Burgundy. A large trade is also carried 
 on in agricultural produce, grain, provisions, .and cattle. The 
 arrondissement of Beaune contains 10 cantons. Tn the 17th 
 century, Beaune was a flourishing manufacturing town, and 
 had 200 Calvinistic families, who furnished employment to 
 2000 workmen; but the revocation of the Edict of Nantes 
 having driven the Protestant manufacturers from France, the 
 manufactures fell into decay, and have never been revived. 
 This town is the birthplace of the celebrated geometer, Gas- 
 pard Monge, the chief improver, if not inventor, of Descriptive crooked, and inconvenient. The main street runs E. and W., 
 Geometry, and one of the founders of the Polytechnic School, j and, under five different names, divides the town into two 
 
 Pop. 10,753. 
 
 BEAUNE-LA-KOLT.ANDE, a tn. France, dep. Loiret, 1 1 m. 
 N.E. Pithiviers, noted for the quantity of fine saffron, honey, 
 
 and wax produced in the neighbourhood. Pop. 1118. 
 
 Other three small places have the name of BEAUNE. 
 
 BEAUFORT (SEIGNIORY OF), Lower Canada, co. Quebec. 
 The ground on the banks of the St. Lawrence is level, fertile, 
 
 nearly equal parts. A small portion of the present town is 
 called the city ; it is very ancient, nearly square, and sur 
 rounded by walls two yards thick, strengthened by round 
 towers at intervals. The new town, which is much larger 
 than the city, was formerly fortified, but the fortifications fell 
 into decay after the invention of artillery, and are now replaced 
 by handsome boulevards, which afford agreeable promenades. 
 
 and well cultivated. In the interior, the land rises into un- ! The ramparts were demolished in 1803, when the town uii- 
 
BEAUVAL 
 
 353 
 
 BEDALE 
 
 derwent several important alterations and improvements. 
 The cathedral, although a fine Gothic edifice, part of it only 
 has been completed on the original plan. Its choir is the 
 loftiest in the world, the height from the pavement to the 
 roof being 153 ft., 13 ft. more than that of Amiens. The 
 painted glass, executed in the best period and by the most 
 celebrated masters of the art, is particularly rich. The church 
 of St. Stephen has likewise fine painted glass windows, and the 
 facade of the S. transept is remarkable for the richness of its 
 sculpture. The Hotel de Ville is the finest modern building 
 in Beauvais. The Episcopal palace, now the Hotel de Prefot, 
 is an ancient structure, partially fortified during the Middle 
 Ages. In Beauvais there are also a college established in the 
 old Ursuline convent, two hospitals, one for the sick, another 
 for orphans, aged persons and foundlings, a theatre, cavalry 
 barracks, and the court-house, where the sittings of the court 
 of primary resort are held. Before the Revolution of 1793, 
 there were here no less than 26 churches, monasteries, and 
 convents, the greater number of which have been appropriated 
 to secular purposes. The principal manufacturing establish 
 ment of Beauvais is the Royal tapestry and carpet manufactory, 
 famed for the beauty of its productions, and employing about 
 400 hands. The high price of the articles, however, confines 
 them to the wealthy. Other principal manufactures are flan 
 nels and woollen cloths, and, to a smaller extent, lace, earthen 
 ware, and chemical stuffs. In the neighbourhood are some 
 extensive bleacheries and tanneries, and the dyeworks of Beau 
 vais are in high repute. None of the manufactures, however, 
 can be said to be in a flourishing condition. Printed cottons, for 
 merly made here to some extent, are now superseded by other 
 fabrics. The trade, however, is extensive, a large district 
 being supplied by the town with the articles of ordinary con 
 sumption. Large quantities of corn and other agricultural 
 produce are brought to the weekly market, held on Saturday. 
 Beauvais is a place of great antiquity, having existed under 
 the Romans. One of the most remarkable events in its history 
 is the siege which it successfully stood in 1472, against an 
 army of 80,000 Burgundians, under Charles the Bold. Though 
 ungarrisoned, the citizens boldly closed their gates, and made 
 a most heroic defence. The women particularly distinguished 
 themselves. One of them, Jeanne Hachette, seeing a Bur- 
 trundian planting a standard on the walls, hurled him to the 
 bottom, and bore it off in triumph. In the procession of St. 
 Angadreme, which still commemorates the raising of the 
 siege, the ladies, conformably to an ordinance of Louis XL, 
 lead the way, bearing the banner which La Hachette so valor- 
 ously acquired. Pop. 12,355. 
 
 BEAUVAL, a tn. France, dep. Somme, 4 m. S. Doullens, 
 on the highroad from Paris to Lille. It is neatly built, has 
 a parish church, and manufactures coarse linen, chiefly pack 
 sheeting. Pop. 2562. 
 
 BEAVER ISLANDS, a group of five or six islands in 
 Lake Michigan, U. States. The largest, Big Beaver, contains 
 40 sq. m. 
 
 BEAWORTHY, par. Eng. Devon ; 6270 ac. Pop. 405. 
 
 BEBEHAN. See BEHBEHAN. 
 
 BEBINGTON, par. Eng. Chester ; 5250 ac. P. 5008. 
 
 B^CAN, par. I re l. Mayo; 15,373 ac. Pop. 5589. 
 
 BECCLES, a market tn. and par. England, co. Suffolk 
 The town, 33 m. N.N.E. Ipswich, r. bank, Waveney, consists 
 of several well-paved and well-lighted streets, uniting in a 
 spacious market-place ; houses in general well built ; supply 
 of water ample. It has a handsome townhall, a theatre, at 
 present used as a corn exchange ; a jail, a custom-house, and 
 assembly rooms. The church, erected in the 14th century, is 
 a spacious and elegant structure in the later style of English 
 architecture, with a fine freestone tower, and beautiful porch. 
 There are, besides, chapels for Independents, Baptists, Wes- 
 leyans, and Primitive Methodists, also two free schools, one 
 of which has 10 exhibitions at Emmanuel College Cambridge, 
 and various charities. Beccles maintains an active carrying 
 trade in coals and corn coastwise by the Waveney, which is 
 navigable to Yarmouth. A good deal of malting is likewise 
 carried on in the vicinity. Races are held annually on a fine 
 course near the town. The environs abound in beautiful 
 scenery. Area of par. 1740 ac. Pop. 4086. 
 
 BEC-DU-RAZ, or POINT RAZ, a dangerous promontory, 
 France, coast of Brittany, surrounded with rocks. There is 
 a lighthouse on it ; lat. 48 2 24" N. ; Ion. 4 43 45" W. (R.) 
 
 VOL. I. ( i 
 
 BECERRIL-DE-CAMPOS, a tn. Spain, Leon, prov. of, and 
 10 m. N.W. Palencia, in a fertile valley, intersected by the 
 Canal de Campos, having a central square, six parish churches, 
 a large townhouse, session-house, with attached prison, two 
 endowed schools, an hospital, and numerous fountains. Em 
 ployments : agriculture, and domestic weaving. Pop. 3069. 
 
 BECHIN, a tn. Bohemia, circle of, and 10 m. S. W. Tabor, 
 47 m. S. Prague, r. bank, Luschnitz. It has a castle, manu 
 factories of woollen cloth, and a chalybeate spring (temperature 
 73 Fall.), formerly much frequented. In the neighbourhood is 
 found a singular mineral called the stone of Bechin. P. 2 1 30. 
 
 BECHUANAS, or BICHUANAS, a nation, S. Africa, in 
 habiting the country N. of lat. 27 S.; and between Ion. 22 
 and 28 E. They are said to be superior to the Kaffirs in 
 arts and civilization (Liclitenstein], and in personal appearance; 
 their complexion being a brighter brown, and their features 
 more European. They inhabit large towns, their houses are 
 well constructed, and remarkable for their neatness ; they cul 
 tivate the soil, and store their grain for winter consumption. 
 
 BECKANEER. See BICKANEER. 
 
 BECKBURY, par. Eng. Salop ; 1640 ac. Pop. 312. 
 
 BECKENHAM, par. Eng. Kent ; 3820 ac. Pop. 1608. 
 
 BECKENR1ED, a vil. and par., Switzerland, can. Un- 
 terwalden, pleasantly situated on the 1. bank, Lake Luzern, 
 at the foot of a mountain-range. The parish church, a hand 
 some building, possesses a fine organ. The deputies of the 
 four Waldstatte used to meet here. In the neighbourhood are 
 the remains of the castle of Isenring. Pop. 1314. 
 
 BECKERMET, two pars. Eng. Cumberland : 1, Becker- 
 met (St. John s], 3030 ac. Pop. 468. 2, Beclcermet (St. 
 Bridget s), 4640 ac. Pop. 630. 
 
 BECKFORD, par. Eng. Gloucester ; 2650 ac. Pop. 461. 
 
 BECKHAM, two pars. Eng.: 1, Bed-ham (East), par. 
 Norfolk; 790 ac. Pop. 56. 2, Beclliam (West), par. Nor 
 folk; 780 ac. Pop. 179. 
 
 BECK1NGHAM, two pars. Eng.: l,par. Notts; SOlOac. 
 Pop. 491 .2, Beclincjliam-with-Sutton, par. Lincoln ; 2200 ac. 
 Pop. 462. 
 
 BECKINGTON, par. Eng. Somerset ; 1840 ac. P. 1190. 
 
 BECKLEY, two pars. Eng.: 1, par., cos. Oxford and 
 Bucks; 4370 ac. P. 763. 2, par. Sussex; 5540 ac. P. 1412- 
 
 BECKTHEIM, a market tn. Hesse - Darmstadt, prov. 
 Rheinhessen, near Osthofen. It has a church and a synagogue, 
 and gives its name to an excellent wine grown in the district. 
 Both coal and iron are worked in the neighbourhood. Pop. 
 1600. 
 
 BECKUM, a tn. Prussia, Westphalia, gov. of, and 23 m. 
 S.E. Miinster, cap. circle of same name, on the Werse, which 
 at a short distance from the town, is crossed by a handsome 
 stone bridge. It contains five churches and chapels, and a 
 synagogue ; is the seat of several provincial offices, and has 
 manufactures of linen, together with numerous breweries and 
 
 distilleries, and four yearly markets. Pop. 2050. The 
 
 CIRCLE, which has an area of 199 geo. sq. m., is watered by 
 the Werse, Angel, Sterne, and Liese. It has a few heights, 
 as the Stromberg and Mockenberg, but is for the most part 
 flat, and covered witli moors and heathy pastures. Very little 
 corn is grown, but considerable numbers of cattle are reared. 
 Pop. 34,268. 
 
 BECLAEERE, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. W. Flan 
 ders, ^ m. E. Ypres, with a manufactory of woollen cloths, 
 two breweries, and oil and corn mills. Pop. 2235. 
 
 BECSKEREK, two tns. Hungary, Banat: 1, Becskerck 
 Nagy, or Great Becskerek, prov. Thither Theiss, co. Torontal, 
 cap. dist. of same name, 1. bank, Bega ; 45 m. S. W. Temesvar, 
 with which it communicates by the Bega Canal. It possesses 
 important privileges as a market town, is the seat of several 
 district offices, and contains a R. Catholic (parish), and a Greek 
 non-united church. Pop. 1 2,000. 2, Becskerelc Kis, or Little 
 Becskerek, co. Temes, and 10m. N.W. Temesvar. It is in 
 habited by Germans and Wallachians. The former have a 
 R. Catholic and the latter a Greek non-united church. 
 
 BECTIVE, par. Irel. Meath ; 3386 ac. Pop. 602. 
 
 BEDAF, a vil. Holland, prov. N. Brabant, 12 m. E.S.E. 
 Hertogenbosch, with a church and school, and 600 R. Catholic 
 inhabitants. 
 
 BEDALE, a market tn. and par. England, co. York, N. 
 Riding. The town, situated in a valley, on the stream called 
 Bedale-beek, which flows into the Swale. 33 m. N.W. York, 
 
 45 
 
BEDARIEUX 
 
 354 
 
 BEDFORD 
 
 consists chiefly of one principal street, lighted with gas ; houses 
 mostly of brick, and irregularly built. The church, erected 
 in the reign of Edward III., is a spacious building in the early 
 English style, and contains some interesting monuments. The 
 Methodists, Particular Baptists, Wesleyans, and 11. Catholics, 
 have also chapels here. A handsome public building was 
 erected in 1840, containing a suite of assembly rooms, and 
 various other commodious apartments for public purposes. 
 Bedale has an endowed grammar, and two national schools, 
 with numerous charities, including an hospital for six decayed 
 townsmen, and another for six aged persons. Wool stapling 
 is carried on here to a considerable extent, giving employ 
 ment to numerous wool-combers. The adjoining country is 
 famed for its breed of hunters and race horses. Market-day, 
 Tuesday ; and several annual fairs. Area of par. 7070 ac. 
 I op. 2803; of tn. 1250. 
 
 BEDARIEUX, a tn. France, dcp. Herault, 18 m. N. 
 Beziers, agreeably situated, 1. bank, Orb, which separates it 
 from one of its suburbs. It is well built, the streets con 
 veniently laid out, and is one of the busiest, and most thriving 
 commercial and manufacturing towns of the same size in 
 France. It has manufactures of fine and common cloth, 
 woollen stuffs, and floss silk, worsted and cotton stockings, 
 hats, soap, olive-oil ; tanneries, dyeworks, paper, and glass 
 works, and a brass foundry. It has also trade in wine and 
 brandy. Top. 8722. 
 
 BEDARRIDES, a tn. France, dep. Vaucluse, beautifully 
 situated, r. bank, Ouveze, which is crossed by a fine bridge, 
 and near the confluence of the Ozeille and the junction of 
 several canals, about 8 m. N.E. Avignon. The environs are 
 very picturesque, fertile, and covered with rich pastures. 
 Bedarrides has a mill for grinding madder. Pop. 1494. 
 
 BEDDGELERT, or BETHGELKRT, a vil. and par., N. 
 Wales, the former in co. Carnarvon, and the latter partly 
 in Carnarvon, and partly in co. Merioneth. The village is 
 situated in a beautiful tract of meadows, at the junction of 
 three vales, near the confluence of the Glas-Llyn, and the 
 Colwyn, 12 m. S.E. Carnarvon. The scenery in this parish 
 is remarkably wild and picturesque, and derives no little 
 additional interest from the touching story so beautifully 
 versified by Southey, in his ballad entitled The Grave of 
 Bethgelert. Area of par. 26,71 6 ac. .Pop. 1397 ; of vil. 777. 
 
 BEDDINGHAM, par. Eng. Sussex; 2250 ac. P. 268. 
 
 BEDDINGTON, par. Eng. Surrey ; 3830 ac. P. 1453. 
 
 BEDEEKARFEE, a large and populous tn. Central 
 Africa, kingdom, Bornou, 110m. W. Kouka, r. bank, Yeou, 
 which falls into Lake Tchad, about 110 m. to the N.E.; lat. 
 1 2 45 N. ; Ion. 1 2 47 E. It is the residence of the governor, 
 commonly called here and in other African towns, Sultan. 
 His dwelling, which is large and extremely clean, consists of 
 a spacious quadrangular enclosure, surrounded with mats fixed 
 to high poles. The Arab women of this place are remarkable 
 for their beauty. 
 
 BEDE-GUNA, a tn. and territory, Central Africa, king 
 dom, Bornou. The TO\VN is 130 in. W. by S. Kouka, and 80 
 
 S.S.W. Old Birnie ; lat. 12 17 N.; Ion. 12 3(Y E. The 
 
 TERRITORY, called sometimes Bedee, lies between lat. 12 13 
 and 13 T N. ; and Ion. 11 16 and 12 45 E., and is bounded 
 on the N. by the Yeou, which here bends suddenly in that 
 direction. It includes many towns and villages, and pro 
 duces Indian corn, wheat, and cotton. Herds of cattle also 
 are numerous. The principal implement of agriculture, as 
 throughout all Bornou, is a hoe of native iron, and native 
 manufacture. The reaping is performed with a crooked knife, 
 and merely the ears of corn are cut off, and stored in round 
 thatched huts of clay, or matting, raised on wooden blocks 
 above the ground. The grain is cleared from the husk by 
 hand-rubbing, and ground into flour between two stones. 
 The inhabitants of this district are Bornouese, and speak their 
 native language. Although in the centre of the hottest region 
 on earth, Capt. Clapperton and Dr. Oudney found the tem 
 perature so low in this part of Africa in a morning in Decem 
 ber, that the water in their shallow vessels was crusted with 
 thin flakes of ice, the water skins themselves frozen as hard 
 as a board, and the horses and camels shivering with cold. 
 (Denhain and Clapperton s Travels.) 
 
 BEDFIELD, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1780 ac. Pop. 358. 
 BEDFONT (EAST), WITH-HATTON, par. Eng. Middlesex ; 
 1890 ac. Pop. 982. 
 
 BEDFORD, an inland oo. England, cap. Bedford, bounded, 
 
 N.W. by Northampton, W. by Bucks, S. by the latter co. 
 and Herts, E. by the latter and Cambridge, and N.E. by Hunt 
 ingdon ; area, 296,320 ac., of which about 250,000 are arable, 
 meadow, and pasture. The surface is pleasingly diversified 
 by hill and valley, and presents every variety of soil ; but, 
 on the whole, of about an average fertility. Chalk prevails 
 in the S. division ; while a belt of sand, varying from 1 m. to 
 5 m. in breadth, extends from Leighton Buzzard, on the S. W. 
 border of the county, to Potton, on the N.E., particularly well 
 suited for horticultural purposes, and for the turnip husbandry. 
 The vale of Bedford, the soil of which consists mostly of clay, 
 is very fertile ; and the meadows on the margin of the Ouse and 
 other streams are verdant and luxuriant, from frequent over 
 flowings. The land is chiefly under tillage, but agriculture is 
 by no means in a very advanced state. On the sandy and 
 chalky soils, culinary vegetables are extensively cultivated for 
 the London, Cambridge, and other markets. The onions pro 
 duced here are reckoned little inferior to the Spanish ; and 
 the cucumbers, which are raised in great quantities, in the 
 open air, are much esteemed. On the clays, beans and wheat 
 are the principal produce ; on the light soils, turnips, barley, 
 seeds, and wheat usually follow each other ; on the loams, 
 beans or pease are generally sown after wheat. The drill is 
 in extensive use, and a good deal of wheat, is dibbled. Cattle 
 and sheep, of indifferent breeds. The stock of the former has 
 been estimated at about 200,000 ; and the produce of wool at 
 4250 packs. Average size of farms, about 150 ac., mostly 
 held from year to year; average rent of land in 1842-43, 25s. M. 
 per ac. The Ouse, with an exceedingly winding course, W. 
 to E., intersects the county ; besides which, it is watered by 
 the Ivel, and some smaller affluents of the Ouse. Principal 
 manufacture : straw plait for hats, reckoned inferior only to 
 that brought from Tuscany. The county is divided into nine 
 hundreds, and 123 parishes. It returns four members to the 
 House of Commons ; namely, two for the county, and two for 
 the borough of Bedford. Registered electors (1849), for co. 
 4287; forbor. 1071. Pop. 124,478. 
 
 BEDFORD, a bor. and market tn. England, cap. Bedford 
 shire, 4(5 m. N.N. W. London ; pleasantly situated on both banks 
 of the Ouse, which is here crossed by a handsome stone bridge 
 of five arches. The streets, the principal one of which is 
 about 1 J m. long, are open, clean, and lighted with gas. In 
 the part called New Town, on the N., there are several new 
 terraces, and rows of handsome houses. Water is abundant. 
 The principal buildings are the five parish churches, one sup 
 plementary church in the large parish of St. Paul, a range of 
 public schools in the early English style, to be afterwards more 
 particularly mentioned ; a large infirmary, a lunatic asylum, 
 and an elegant and spacious chapel, built by the church and 
 congregation over which Bunyan was pastor. There are also 
 public assembly rooms, a sessions-house, a subscription library 
 containing 8000 volumes, and a handsome market-house, lately 
 erected. The principal feature of the town is the Bedford 
 Charity, founded by Sir W. Harpur in 1561, which comprises 
 the ancient grammar-school, a commercial and preparatory 
 school, a girls and infant schools; educating, altogether, with 
 out cost to the parents, about 1200 children. Connected with 
 the grammar-school there are eight exhibitions, of 80 each, 
 to Oxford, Cambridge, or Dublin, tenable for three years. 
 Besides these schools, marriage portions of 20 each are given 
 to poor maidens, premiums of 20 to boys, and 15 to girls, 
 on going out apprentice; benefactions to the same, of 10 
 each, on the expiration of their apprenticeship ; donations to 
 domestic servants ; 56 alms-houses, handsomely endowed; an 
 hospital for the sustentation, clothing, and educating a limited 
 number of poor children ; and lastly, 500 a year given away 
 in alms. The qualification for the schools is residence and 
 parochial settlement of the parents in one of the five parishes 
 of the town, excepting to the preparatory school, for admis 
 sion to which, simple residence is required. The revenue 
 of this establishment is upwards of 12,000 per annum ; hav 
 ing risen to this amount from a comparatively small sum, 
 through the improved value, in course of time, of the land 
 from which it is derived. There are several smaller charities 
 in the town, the principal of which belong to Bunyan meet 
 ing. These latter amount to upwards of 300 a year, and 
 are, with the exception of 70 to the minister, given to the 
 i poor of the congregation. The public free schools have at- 
 
BEDFORD LEVEL 
 
 355 
 
 BEDOUINS 
 
 tracted large numbers of residents during the last 20 years. 
 -There was once a large trade done in Bedford in pillow lace, 
 the manufacture of which employed most of the poor female 
 inhabitants ; but this trade has been all but destroyed by the 
 introduction of machinery ; and there is now no staple trade 
 in the town ; but within the last few years, two manufactories 
 of agricultural implements have been successfully carried on, 
 employing about 150 hands. There is a large and increasing 
 market for corn and cattle held on Saturday, and another for 
 pigs on Monday. Bedford has given birth to no very emi 
 nent men, but is identified with two imperishable names 
 Bunyan and Howard. John Bunyan was born at Elstow, a 
 village situate 1 m. S. of the town. It was at Bedford, how 
 ever, that he lived, preached, and was imprisoned. He lived 
 at a house in St. Cuthbert s parish ; preached in a barn fitted up 
 as a chapel, on the site of the new place of worship ; and was 
 imprisoned, some say, in the county jail, and others, in a cell 
 of the old gate-house ou the bridge, probably in both. But 
 the house, barn, and prisons, are all pulled down. There are 
 several relics of Bunyan in the town, the principal of which 
 are, his chair in the vestry of the chapel, and the copy of 
 Fox s Book of Martyrs which he read in prison. The latter 
 is in the county subscription library. It is in two vols. folio, 
 black letter, and has Banyan s autograph in each of the titles, 
 and several verses in his handwriting scattered over the book. 
 John Howard lived at Cardington, 3 m. S.E. the town. He 
 is identified with Bedford by having constantly attended the 
 dissenting places of worship there. Bedford has railway 
 communication with the London and North Western line, by 
 a branch from Bletchly station. Pop. (1841), 9178; believed 
 now (1850) to be about 12,000. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BEDFORD LEVEL, a large tract of low-lying land in 
 England, comprising about 400,000 ac., in cos. Cambridge, 
 Norfolk, Suffolk, Huntingdon, Northampton, and Lincoln, 
 formerly full of fens and marshes, and, in rainy seasons, for 
 the most part under water. Peterborough Fen, which is that 
 part of the Level running into Northamptonshire, and extend 
 ing between Peterborough and Crowland, contains between 
 6000 and 7000 ac. One-seventh part of the Level is situated 
 in Huntingdonshire. Nearly the whole of the isle of Ely, 
 which forms the N. division of Cambridgeshire, consists of 
 this marshy ground. The S.E. part of Lincolnshire, usually 
 termed Holland, extending to the river Witham on the N., is 
 also included in the Bedford Level. 63,000 ac. are situated 
 in Norfolk ; and 30,000 in Suffolk. It derives its name from 
 Francis, Earl of Bedford, who, in the 17th century, expended 
 large sums of money in attempting to drain this fenny district. 
 There is sufficient evidence to show that this part of the 
 country was formerly dry land, at a much lower level than 
 the present surface, which is formed by sedimentary deposi 
 tions. Various expedients have been had recourse to for 
 the purpose of draining these marshes. Numerous cuts have 
 been made, intersecting every part. Some of these are so 
 large and deep as to serve for navigable canals. In the isle 
 of Ely, the Old and New Bedford rivers are two cuts, running 
 nearly parallel to each other. These are both navigable for 
 upwards of 20 m. In various places, windmills have been 
 erected, which raise the water to the requisite height, to admit 
 of its being conveyed to receptacles sufficiently elevated, by 
 which it may be carried off to its proper channel ; but the 
 expense incurred in draining sometimes exceeds greatly the 
 value of the land reclaimed. In Huntingdonshire, about the 
 latter end of the last century, the tax raised on the land by 
 the conservators, for its drainage, and the preserving of its 
 embankments, was in some instances so great, that the farmers 
 preferred forfeiting their land to paying so exorbitantly for its 
 preservation. In the present day, the art of drainage is better 
 understood than when this stupendous work was first under 
 taken ; but even yet, in many places, the farmer is still liable 
 to have the produce of his grounds carried away by sudden 
 inundations. Great improvements are now, however, con 
 stantly being made in the drainage and embankment of this 
 extensive tract of land. In 1795, an Act was passed for ini 
 proving the outfall of the river Ouse, and for making a cut 
 across the marshes, from Eau Brink to Lynn ; but it was not 
 till 1818 that this important work was commenced. It was 
 completed in about two years, and has proved highly service 
 able. A great part of Bedford Level has been brought under 
 cultivation, and produces grain, flax, and cole-seed, in con 
 
 siderable quantities ; but there is still sufficient fenny land to 
 yield a rich harvest of wild fowl, in winter, for the London 
 narket. (Elstobb s History of the Bedford Level; Vancouver s 
 Survey of Cambridge; Gough s edition of Camden s Britannia.) 
 
 BEDHAMPTON, par. Eng. Hants; 32GO ac. Pop. 533. 
 
 BEDINGFIELD, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1680 ae. Pop. 336. 
 
 BEDINGHAM, par. Eng. Norfolk; 1140 ac. Pop. 316. 
 
 BEDIZZOLE, a vil. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, 9 in. 
 E. Brescia, pleasantly situated on a rising ground, in the dist. 
 of Lonato, near the Chiese. It is well built, and has a hand 
 some church ; with forges for the manufacture of nails and 
 agricultural implements, and an extensive silk spinning work. 
 Pop. 2200. 
 
 BEDJA, a dist. Nubia, lying along the W. coast of the 
 Red Sea, and extending N. from Suakin to Cape Camol, be 
 tween lat. 19 and 22 30 N. It is chiefly inhabited by the 
 Bisharye, a tribe of Bedouins, possessing the usual features 
 and characteristics of that race, but with some of their worst 
 qualities in an aggravated form. They are very savage ; and, 
 t is said, will even rcb the house of the person who receives 
 them as guests. Their food is almost entirely flesh and milk. 
 Much of the former is eaten raw ; the hot Mood of slaughtered 
 sheep is highly relished, but the greatest luxury is the raw 
 marrow of camels. A few of them occasionally visit Derr 
 or Assouan with senna of the best kind, sheep, and ostrich 
 feathers ; taking in exchange linen sheets and Indian millet, 
 the grains of which they swallow raw, as a dainty, and never 
 make into bread. They possess a breed of camels said to be 
 uperior to any other ; and make plundering excursions as far 
 as Dongola, and along the route to Senaar. Bedja is generally 
 mountainous, and is rich in minerals, particularly gold. 
 
 BEDLES. See BETLIS. 
 
 BEDLINGTON.par. Eng. Northumb.; 8910ac. P. 3155. 
 
 BEDMINSTER, par. Eng. Somerset; 4180 ac. P. 1 7,862. 
 
 BEDNORE, or BEDENORE, a tn. and dist. Hindoostan, 
 Mysore territory. The TOWN is 25 m. N.W. Coondapoor; 
 lat. 13 50 N. ; Ion. 75 6 E. It was formerly of great ex 
 tent and importance, but was ruined by Hyder Ali, who took 
 and plundered it in 1763. It has since, however, greatly 
 
 recovered, being a convenient thoroughfare for goods. The 
 
 DISTRICT occupies the N.W. extremity of the Mysore Raja s 
 territories, and extends over the summit of the range of W. 
 hills, some of which are 4000 and 5000 ft. high, which over 
 looks the provinces of Canara and Malabar, and is named the 
 W. Ghauts. The climate is extremely moist, rain falling 
 frequently for nine months in the year; but this redundant 
 moisture only favours the peculiar products of the soil, which 
 consist principally of pepper, betel-nut, sandal-wood, and 
 cardamums. Great numbers of cattle are reared for domestic 
 purposes, but they are small. 
 
 BEDONIA, a tn. and com. Italy, duchy of Piacenza, 
 8 m. W. Borgo Tara, at the foot of Mount Selpi ; tolerably 
 well built, and having a church, medical college, and ele 
 mentary schools. The surrounding country is hilly, well 
 wooded, and produces fine fruits, but little grain ; cattle and 
 sheep are reared in considerable numbers. Pop. 5378. 
 
 BEDOUIN, a tn. France, dep. Vaucluse, 8 m. N.E. Car- 
 pentras, at the foot of Mount Ventoux. It is surrounded by 
 very old walls, of remarkable strength. Bedouin has exten 
 sive potteries, and also spins a good deal of silk. This town 
 was the scene of one of the most atrocious massacres of the 
 revolutionary party. Because a tree of liberty had been 
 sawed across during the night, the inhabitants were con 
 demned en masse, and given up to military execution. Under 
 the direction of Margnet, an apostate priest, the town was set 
 on fire, the public buildings blown up, and 180 of the inhab 
 itants either butchered on the scaffold, or shot while attempt 
 ing to escape. Pop. 2550. 
 
 BEDOUINS [Arab. Bedawi inhabitants of the desert], 
 a race which, supposed to be derived from Islnnael, the son 
 of Hagar, had its original seat, and forms the great bulk of 
 the population in Arabia. It is not, however, confined to 
 that country, but has spread in all directions, particularly to 
 the E. and W. In the former direction, Bedouins are said to 
 have penetrated as far as China, and are found among the 
 hills of Kurdistan; and in the latter, they have extended 
 almost over the whole of N. Africa, and made its boundless 
 deserts their peculiar domain, forming no inconsiderable part 
 of the whole population, along the shore of the Mediterranean 
 
BEDRULE 
 
 35G 
 
 BEERNEM 
 
 to the Atlantic on the W., Egypt and Nubia on the E., and 
 Negritia on the S. For the peculiar characteristics of the race, 
 which in all countries seem scarcely susceptible of change, 
 see ARABIA. The name is now frequently written Bedawin, 
 plural, Bedaici or Bedaiay. 
 
 BEDRULE, par. Scot. Roxburgh, 4 in. long, and from 
 2 to 3 in. broad. Pop. 256. 
 
 BEDSTONE, par. Eng. Salop; 1200 ac. Pop. 139. 
 BEDUM, a vil. Holland, prov. Groningen, 11 m. W. by 
 S. Appingedam. It is a lively, thriving place, and has an 
 old Calvinistic and a K. Catholic church, a school, and several 
 mills corn, bark, saw, and oil. Pop. 800. 
 
 BEDWARDINE (ST. JOHN), par. Eng. Worcester; 
 3730 ac. Pop. 2G63. 
 
 BEDWAS, par. Eng., S. Wales, cos. Glamorgan and 
 Monmouth. Pop. 800. 
 
 BEDWELTY, or BVDWELTY, par. Eng. Monmouth; 
 15,440 ac. Pop. 22,413. 
 
 BEDW1N (GREAT and LITTLE), a market tn. and vil. 
 England, co. Wilts. GREAT BEDWIN lies on a plain, sur 
 rounded by forest and woodland, 7 m. S.E. Marlborough ; 
 consists chiefly of one main street, straight and well kept ; 
 houses brick, and mostly old ; water abundant. It has a 
 church, a plain, ancient structure, principally of flint, with a 
 square tower ; a Methodist chapel, a Ranters meeting-house, 
 a townhall, built over the market-house ; a school for poor 
 children, established by the Marquis of Aylesbury. The town 
 has a little trade in coals, timber, &c., by the Kennet and 
 Avon Canal, which passes through it ; and some business also 
 
 is done in malting. Pop. (1841), 2178. LITTLE BEDWIN 
 
 is situated about If m. N.N.E. the former ; it contains a neat 
 little church, and has a pop. of 580. (Local Correspondent.} 
 BED WORTH, par. Eng. Warwick; 2240 ac. P. 4253. 
 BEEBY, par. Eng. Leicester; 1020 ac. Pop. 115. 
 BEECH AM WELL, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 3730 ac. P. 246. 
 BEEDER, a prov. Hindoostan, chiefly between lat. 17 
 and 20 N. ; bounded, N. by Aurungabad and Berar, W. by 
 Aurungabad and Bejapoor, S. by Hyderabad, and E. by 
 Hyderabad and Gundwana. It is divided into seven districts, 
 namely, Calberga, Naldroog, Akulcotta, Calliany, Beeder, 
 Nandere, and Patree; and is well watered by several rivers, 
 of which the Godavery and Manjera are the principal. The 
 surface is rather hilly, though not properly mountainous, and 
 the soil generally fertile. Under the old Hindoo Govern 
 ment, Beeder was very populous ; but since its conquest by 
 the Mahometans, it has been comparatively deserted. Three 
 languages, the Mahratta, Telinga, and Canarese, are spoken 
 in this province. Beeder, with the other provinces of the 
 Deccan, was conquered by the Moguls towards the close of 
 the 17th century, in the reign of Aurungzebe, from whose 
 successors it was wrested, 1717, by Nizam ul Mulk, the 
 sovereign of Hyderabad, in the occupation of whose suc 
 cessors it has since remained. 
 
 BEEDER, or BIDER, a city, Hindoostan, cap. of above 
 province; lat. 17 49 N.; Ion 77 36 E.; 73 m. N.W. 
 Hyderabad. It stands on an open plain ; is fortified by a stone 
 wall, a ditch, and round towers, and is said to have been for 
 merly 6 m. in circumference. About the end of the 16th 
 century, Beeder was founded near the ruins of an old city, 
 by Ahmed Shah Bhamenee, who named it Ahmedabad, aud 
 transferred to it the seat of government from Calberga. 
 
 BEEDINGr,orSEAL,par. Eng. Sussex ; 3500 ac. P. 1389. 
 BEEDON, or BUDON, par. Eng. Berks; 1930 ac. P.334. 
 BEEFOKD, par. Eng. York, E. Riding; 5270 ac. P. 977. 
 BEEK [a brook or rivulet], several villages, Holland: 
 1 , A vil., prov. Limburg, 6 m. N.E. Maastricht. It is a pretty 
 large place, has a large R. Catholic and a Calvinistic church ; 
 and two annual fairs. 2, A vil., prov. N. Brabant, 2J m. 
 N.W. Breda; with a church and school. 3, A scattered vil., 
 prov. N. Brabant, 9 m. N.E. Eindhoven, lying round the tri 
 angular market-place, in which is the It. Catholic church, and 
 the townhouse. It has a school, and two annual fairs. Pop. 550. 
 4, A vil., prov. Gelderland, 7 m. S.S.E. Doesburg; with a 
 R. Catholic church, and school. Pop. 600, all R Catholics. 
 5, A vil., prov. Gelderland, 3 m. S.E. Nijmegen. It is 
 picturesquely situated on the N. shoulder of a ridge of hills, 
 at the end of which Nijmegen lies. It has two churches, and 
 a school ; and besides agriculture, a considerable number of 
 the inhabitants are employed in washing and bleaching, for 
 
 which the numerous clear streams in the vicinity render the 
 
 place peculiarly well adapted. Pop. 640. BEEK is also a 
 
 name applied to numerous streamlets in Holland, but usually 
 conjoined with a descriptive prefix, as Broedijkerbeek [broad- 
 dike-brook] ; JHuUnbeet [mill-brook], &c. (Van der Aa.) 
 
 BEELSBY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 1980 ac. Pop. 181. 
 
 BEEMSTER, a fertile dist. Holland, prov. N. Holland, 
 N. of Purmerende. It consists of a drained part of the sea ; 
 has an area of 18,868 ac., and is divided into Middle, N., E., 
 W., and S. Beemster. In Middle Beemster, the most im 
 portant section, are a Calvinistic and a Baptist church, town- 
 house, and a school ; in W. Beemster are a R. Catholic church 
 and a school, and there is a school likewise in each of the 
 other three divisions. Beemster has two building-yards for 
 vessels, one near either end of the district. The inhabitants 
 are chiefly engaged in making Edam cheese. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BEENHAM, or BENHAM VALENCE, par. Eng. Berks; 
 1890 ac. Pop. 421. 
 
 BEER, or BERE, two tns. and four pars. Eng.: 1, Seer- 
 Alston, a small tn., co. Devon, pleasantly situated on a gentle 
 eminence, overlooking the vales of the Tamar and Tavy, 6 m. 
 S. Tavistock, and 7^ N. Davenport. It consists of four prin 
 cipal streets, and a few smaller ; most of the houses are mere 
 cottages, built of clayslate, brick being used for the chimneys 
 only. There is a moderate supply of water, but it is apt to 
 fail in summer. The places of worship are a chapel -of-ease, 
 a neat new building, in the early English style ; and an Inde 
 pendent, Methodist, and Bryanite chapels. There are fivo 
 schools, one of which is endowed for a master and 16 scholars ; 
 another is a dame s school, in connection with the Estab 
 lished church, having about 120 children. The principal 
 sources of industrial employment are mining and smelting, 
 there being some extensive lead and silver mines in the 
 vicinity. Much employment is afforded, also, by picking 
 black cherries in the season, of which there are large orchards 
 in the neighbourhood. Beer- Alston formerly returned two 
 members to the House of Commons, but was disfranchised by 
 the Reform Act. 2, Beer-Ferris, a par. co. Devon, in which 
 the above town is situated; 5850 ac. Pop. 2142. 3, Beer- 
 licgis, a decayed market tn. and par., co. Dorset. The town 
 is pleasantly situated on the small river Beer; houses in 
 general modern, and well built ; abundant supply of water. 
 The church is a large ancient structure, in different styles ; 
 it has a noble roof of carved oak, and contains some interest 
 ing monuments. The other places of worship are an endowed 
 meeting-house of Congregationalists, and a Wesleyan chapel. 
 The parish comprises 7898 ac. Pop. 1394. 4, Beer-Cro- 
 combe, a par., co. Somerset ; 770 ac. Pop. 179. 5, Beer- 
 Hacket, a par., co. Dorset; 450 ac. Pop. 103. 
 
 BEERBHOOM, or BIRBHOOM [Sanscrit, Viralhumi 
 the land of heroes], a dist. Hindoostan, N.W. extremity of 
 prov. Bengal, between lat. 23 25 and 24 25 N., and Ion. 
 86 20 and 88 20 E. ; bounded, N. by the district of Bogli- 
 poor, E. by Itajshahy, S. by Burdwan and the jungle Mahals, 
 and W. by Boglipoor and the jungle Mahals. The district is 
 hiUy, and mostly covered with jungle ; the navigable streams 
 are few, and trade is consequently limited. The roads and 
 bridges are kept in good order by the Government convicts, 
 and the prosperity and population of the district are increas 
 ing. The chief productions are silk, sugar, and rice. Mines 
 of coal are profitably worked for the Calcutta market, and to 
 supply the shipping. Iron ore is found in abundance, and 
 smelted in native works. The fuel used is wood ; but though 
 the quantity required is very great, the forests from which it 
 is taken continue undiminished, the power of reproduction 
 rapidly filling up the gaps caused by consumption. Chief 
 towns, Noony, Nagore, and Soory, in the last of which are 
 the head quarters of the judicial establishment. Area, 3884 
 sq. m. Pop. about 1,267,065. 
 
 BEERFELDEN, a market tn. Hesse-Darmstadt, prov. 
 Starkenburg, at the source of the Miminling, 23 m. E.N.E. 
 Mannheim. It contains a church, synagogue, and townhouse, 
 and has some manufactures of cloth and hosiery; also, a dye- 
 work, tilework, and oil-mill. Pop. 2600. 
 
 BEERNEM, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. W. Flanders, 
 5 m. S.E. Bruges, not far from the canal from Bruges to 
 Ghent, which traverses the commune. It has trade in linen 
 and cattle; and also possesses corn, oil, and malt mills. Pop. 
 3440. 
 
BEEROO 
 
 357 
 
 IlKIIIJEHAN 
 
 BEEROO, a kingdom or dist, \V. Africa, N. of Bam- 
 barra. Its principal town, Walet, is large and populous. 
 
 BEERSE, or BEERZE, a river, Holland, prov. N. Bra 
 bant, an affluent of the Dommel, into which it falls near 
 Boxtel. It is formed by the junction of the Great Beerse 
 and Little Beek. The former originates in a lake within the 
 Belgian frontier, takes a N. course, and receives the Little 
 Beek near Oostel-Beers. Total course, exclusive of windings, 
 from the source of the Great Beerse, 22m. 
 
 BEERSHEBA, or BERSABA, the site of an ancient tn. or 
 vil., on the S. borders of Palestine, pash. Gaza, 40 m. S.S. W. 
 Jerusalem. It stood on a brook or torrent, now called Wadi 
 Seba, on the N. side of which are still two wells, at some 
 distance apart, circular, and lined with masonry. The larger 
 is 12 ft. in diameter, 44 ft. deep, to the surface of the water, 
 and partly excavated out of the rock ; the less is 5 ft. in 
 diameter, and 42 ft. deep. The water is abundant, pure, and 
 sweet. The ruins, though scarcely any part is standing, can 
 be traced about half a mile along the N. bank of the torrent, 
 and about a quarter of a mile behind it. Beersheba possesses 
 great interest from the frequent mention of it in Scripture, as 
 the place where Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob often dwelt. The 
 name may mean either Well of the Seven, or Well of the 
 Oath, referring to Abraham s offering of seven lambs, on 
 making a covenant with Abimelech. 
 
 BEERTA. 1 , A vil. Holland, prov. of, and 24 m. E. 
 by S. Groningen. It is an old thriving place, consisting of 
 a row of good-looking farm houses, the corn stacks connected 
 with which are thatched with red tiles. It has a Calvinistic 
 and a Baptist Church, and three schools. The inhabitants 
 are mainly engaged hi agriculture. Pop. 1600. 2, New 
 Beerta, a vil. Holland, 1 m. N.E. the preceding village, with 
 a church, two schools, and a corn and a bark mill. Pop., 
 chiefly agricultural, 700. 
 
 BEES (ST.), par. Eng. Cumberland ; 69,260 ac. P. 20,123. 
 
 BEES HEAD (Si.) \_Cliff of Barath], a promontory, 
 England, the most W. point of co. Cumberland, par. of St. 
 Bees, ward of Allerdale-above-Derwent, projecting into the 
 Irish Sea, and forming a conspicuous sea-mark for vessels; lat. 
 54 30 48" N. ; Ion. 3 38 W. (R.) On the summit of the 
 cliff is a lighthouse, erected in 1718, which exhibits a bright 
 fixed light, visible at the distance of 20 m. in clear weather. 
 
 BEESBY-iK-THE-MAKSH, par. Eng. Lincoln; 1180 ac. 
 Pop. 157. 
 
 BEESKOW, a tn. Prussia, prov. Brandenburg, 1. bank, 
 Spree, 18 m. S.W. Frankfort-on-the-Oder. It is the seat of 
 a court of justice; and has manufactures of cloth, linen, and 
 tobacco ; with breweries, tanneries, limekilns, and four annual 
 fairs. A considerable number of the inhabitants live by fish 
 ing, and seafaring occupations. Pop. 3625. 
 
 BEESf, a vil. Holland, prov. Gelderland, 29m. W.S.W. 
 Arnhem, 1. bank, Linge. It has two churches. The houses 
 are built close to each other, along a street paved with stone, 
 the only one in the like circumstances in all the district. 
 Pop., chiefly agricultural, 1000. 
 
 BEESTON, several pars. Eng.: 1, par. Norfolk; 3100 
 ac. Pop. 679. 2, par. Notts; 1440 ac. Pop. 2807. 
 
 3, Beeston (St. Andrew), par. Norfolk; 920 ac. Pop. 46. 
 
 4, Beeston (St. Laurence), par. Norfolk; 450 ac. Pop. 48. 
 5, Beeston- Regis, par. Norfolk; 740 ac. Pop. 265. 
 
 BEESTON, a township, chapelry, and vil., England, co. 
 York, bor. and 2 m. S.S.W. Leeds, with an Episcopal and a 
 Weslsyau chapel. Inhabitants chiefly engaged in the woollen 
 manufactures, and the numerous coal mines in the vicinity. 
 Pop. (1851), 1973. 
 
 BEETGUM, a vil. Holland, prov. Friesland, 5 m. N.W. 
 Leeuwarden ; with a church and school. It was at one time a 
 coast village, but is now several miles from the sea ; the inter 
 vening land having been gained by means of dikes. Pop. 800. 
 
 BEETHAM, or BETHOLME, par. Eng. Westmoreland ; 
 12,850 ac. Pop. 1656. 
 
 BEETLEY, par. fing. Norfolk ; 1770 ac. Pop. 394. 
 
 BEETSTERZWAAG, a vil. Holland, prov. Friesland, 
 10 m. N.E. Heerenveen; with a church, a school, and a corn- 
 mill. Pop. 700. 
 
 BEFORT. See BELFORT. 
 
 BEG (LOUGH), a small lake, Ireland, co. Antrim, separated 
 from Lough Neagh by a neck of land, on which is the village 
 of Toome. It is about 4 m. long, 1 to 1 m. broad, contains 
 
 several islets, and is considered an expansion of the Lower 
 Bann, which flows through it. 
 
 BEGA, a river, Hungary, which rises on the confines of 
 Transylvania, and, proceeding in a circuitous course, traverses 
 the Banat N.E. to S.W., passing Temesvar, and joining the 
 1. bank of the Theiss near Teriasvaros, about 6 m. above the 
 junction of that river with the Danube. The navigation of 
 the Bega itself is very imperfect ; but, by feeding the Bega 
 Canal, which runs parallel to it during the greater part of its 
 course, it has greatly added to the trade of this portion of 
 Hungary. 
 
 BEG-BAZAR, or BEY-BAZAR, a tn. Turkey in Asia, 
 pash. Anatolia ; in a close valley, on three low hills, near 
 r. bank, Kirmir, 52 m. W. Angora. The houses cover the 
 declivity of the hills, and are of two stories, neatly covered 
 with planks. It has some manufactures of carpets ; and, in 
 the vicinity, which is very fertile, the excellent pears sold in 
 Constantinople as those of Angora, are raised. Pop. about 
 4000. 
 
 BEGBROOKE, par. Eng. Oxford; 380 ac. Pop. 110. 
 
 BEGELLY, par., S. Wales, Pembroke. Pop. 1159. 
 
 BEGEM DER, a prov. Abyssinia, E. from Dembea, about 
 200 m. in length, and 50 or 60 in breadth. It is more level 
 than the other provinces , and rears large numbers of black 
 cattle, horses, and sheep. The hilly portion of it contains 
 valuable iron mines. In this province is situated the valley 
 of Weekneh, where the relations of the royal family, suspected 
 of a dangerous ambition, are confined. 
 
 BEGHARMI, or BEGHERMEH, an extensive, but little- 
 known country, E. part of Central Africa, bounded, W. by 
 Bornou, N. by Lake Tchad and the district of Kanem. It is 
 traversed by the river Shary, which discharges itself into the 
 lake just named. The inhabitants are warlike and predatory. 
 
 BEG-SHEHER, BEY-SHEHER, or BEI-SHEHR, a tn. 
 Turkey in Asia, pash. Karamania, 38 m. S.W. Koniyeh, cap. 
 sanjak of same name. It stands near Lake Beg-sheher, on 
 both sides of the river Bey-sheher, which is here crossed by 
 a stone bridge of seven arches. The principal part of the 
 town is on the N. side of the river, and contains some hand 
 some buildings, among others an old mosque, richly orna 
 mented ; but the place generally is dirty and wretched, and 
 though once possessed of an extensive commerce, appears fast 
 falling to decay. The principal manufacture is common 
 earthenware. Lake Bey-sheher is vaguely described as 32 
 hours in circuit, and evidently, from the number of tertiary 
 fresh-water shells found about 200 or 300 ft. above its present 
 level, has formerly occupied a much larger space. On the 
 E. it is very shallow, and covered with rushes and reeds. 
 On the W. and N. are some rocky, wooded islands. Large 
 fish are sometimes caught in it. The water is perfectly fresh, 
 though it has been described as salt ; and one traveller even 
 talks of hillocks of salt on its shores. 
 
 BEGU, or BAGUR, a cape, Spain, N.E. coast of Catalonia; 
 lat. 41 56 38" N. : Ion. 3 14 E. 
 
 BEGUILDY (UPPER and LOWER), par., S. Wales, Radnor. 
 Pop. 1051. 
 
 BEHBEHAN, or BABAHAN, a tn. Persia, prov. Fars, 
 cap. dist. of same name, in a very fertile and extensive plain, 
 watered by the Kurdistan, 128 m. W.N.W. Shiraz; lat. 
 30 23 N. ; Ion. 50 42 E. It is surrounded by a mud wall, 
 flanked with circular towers and bastions ; and at its S.E. 
 corner is a castle, with thick and lofty mud walls, encircled 
 by a deep ditch. The streets contain few good houses, and 
 are lined chiefly by wretched mud hovels, almost in ruins. 
 The bazaar is small, and commerce is almost neglected. Pop. 
 
 about 4000. The DISTRICT is bounded, N. by the mountain 
 
 range which separates Irak-Ajemi from the S. provinces of 
 Persia, E. by Shulistan, S. by the Persian Gulf, and W. by 
 Eam-Hormuz and the Chab country. The soil, particularly in 
 the plain, is a rich alluvial deposit ; yielding, in the neighbour 
 hood of the town, a return of twenty-four fold of corn. Near 
 the gulf, cotton and rice are the staple productions. Among 
 fruit trees, are the lemon, orange, pomegranate, and palm. Of 
 these, the last takes the precedence. The whole district is 
 watered by numerous streams ; the principal being the Shemsi- 
 Arab, Kheirabad, and Kurdistan. The climate is so mild, that 
 in January the meadows in the vicinity of the town are 
 covered with the narcissus, appearing spread out like a white 
 sheet several miles in circumference, and diffusing the most 
 
BERNARD 
 
 358 
 
 EEITII 
 
 delicious fragrance. The inhabitants consist chiefly of Kho- 
 gilu tribes. 
 
 BEHNARD, a tn. France, dep. Maine-et Loire (Anjou), 
 on the Loire, about 9 m. from Angers. Directly opposite to 
 the town is a little island of the same name, containing a 
 Gothic chapel, embosomed among trees, and founded on a 
 rock, whose uneven surface forms its only pavement. It was 
 for ages a place of pilgrimage ; and was visited by Louis XL, 
 whose faded portrait still hangs within it. The walls, painted 
 with Jleurs de Us and other coats of arms, are hung with the 
 votive chains of Christian slaves who had been rescued from 
 Algiers. Pop. 2712. 
 
 BEHNESEH, or BAH.VKSE [anc. Oxyrldnchus], a tn. 
 Central Egypt, on the Bahr Yousef, 110 m. S.S.W. Cairo; 
 lat. 28 33 N. ; Ion. 30" 47 E. It was formerly a place of 
 great strength and importance, but has long been going to 
 decay. It is still, however, the residence of a governor; and 
 was, some years ago, garrisoned by Turkish soldiers. In the 
 vicinity are some mounds, covered with sand, on which stand 
 several Sheikhs tombs ; and others, consisting of broken pot 
 tery and bricks. Numerous granitic columns, fragments of 
 cornices, mouldings, and altars, lie scattered about, sufficiently 
 indicating the former importance of the town. 
 
 BEHRING S STRAIT, SEA, and ISLAND. The 
 STRAIT is the channel that separates the continents of Asia and 
 America, and which connects the N. Pacific with the Arctic 
 Ocean. Its breadth, at the narrowest part, which is between 
 Cape Prince of Wales, on the American coast, and E. Cape in 
 Asia, is about 36 m., but it widens rapidly both to the N. and 
 S. of these points. Its depth, in the middle, varies from 29 
 to 30 fathoms. On both sides of the strait are several com 
 modious bays ; but the country has a repulsive aspect, being 
 barren and rocky, with but a scanty display of vegetation. 
 The sea here is frozen over every winter, and foggy, hazy 
 weather is almost perpetual ; the sun seldom shining, even in 
 the summer, for more than a few hours, and being often in 
 visible for days together. Whales frequent the strait, and 
 the walrus in vast numbers. The inhabitants on either shore 
 support themselves chiefly by hunting and fishing; but those 
 on the Asiatic side are greatly superior, both physically and 
 intellectually, to those on the American. The strait is called 
 after Vitus Behring, a German, and captain in the Russian 
 navy during the reign of the Empress Catherine, by whom it 
 was first discovered. It was, however, more fully explored 
 by Captain Cook in 1778, who surveyed the whole length of 
 
 both coasts. BEHRING S SEA, sometimes called the Sea of 
 
 Kamtchatka, is that portion of the N. Pacific Ocean lying 
 between the Aleutian Islands and Behring s Strait, or between 
 lat. 50 and 63 N. ; having Russian America on the E., and 
 the peninsula of Kamtehatka and the country of the Tchuktchi 
 
 on the W. BEHRING S ISLAND is in the S.W. part of the 
 
 above sea, off the E. coast of Kamtchatka ; lat. (W. point) 
 55 17 N. ; Ion. 165 46 E. (R.) ; the most W. of the Aleutian 
 elutin. It is uninhabited, and is without wood. It has, how 
 ever, several springs of excellent water, and fine cataracts ; 
 and is frequented by various marine animals. On this island, 
 the celebrated navigator, Behring, died under the most un 
 happy circumstances. After undergoing a series of great 
 hardships, his ship was wrecked on this barren island, on 
 November 3, 1741, where neither food nor shelter, of any 
 kind, were to be obtained ; and here, as already stated, the in 
 trepid mariner sunk under his sufferings, both of mind and 
 body, on the 8th of the following month. 
 
 BEIGHTON, three pars. Eng.: 1, par. Derby; 3070 ac. 
 Pop. 1121. 2, par. Norfolk; 910 ac. Pop. 288. 3, par. 
 Suffolk; 550 ac. Pop. 884. 
 
 BEIJERLAND, or OLD BEIJERLAND, a vil. Holland, 
 prov. S. Holland, 7 m. S.S.W. Rotterdam. It is the largest 
 and finest village in the country ; has eleven streets, and 
 through the centre a canal, planted on either side with chest 
 nut-trees. It has also a fine market-place and two harbours, 
 frequented by numerous vessels during the flax season. The 
 townhouse, an elegant structure, is built over the canal, and 
 has a pleasing appearance. There are here two churches, a 
 synagogue, some schools, and a branch of the Society for 
 
 General Good. Pop., chiefly agricultural, 3000. NEW 
 
 BEIJERLAND is a vil. about 3 m. S.W. the former. It consists 
 of one long, broad street, lined with good houses and rows of 
 elm-trees ; and has a church and school. SOUTH BEIJER 
 
 LAND, or HITSERT, is a vil. 6 m. S. of Old Beijerland, with a 
 small church and school. Pop. 200. 
 
 BEILA, or BELA, a tn., S.W. Asia, Beloochistan, cap. 
 prov. Las or Lus, 50 m. from the Arabian Sea; lat. 26 17 N. ; 
 Ion. 66 34 E. ; on a rocky height, W. of which flows tho 
 Pooralee river. The houses are built of mud, and have but 
 the ground floor. The residence of the Jam, or chief of the 
 province, is also mud-built, and surrounded by lofty castellated 
 walls, flanked with circular towers at the angles. Within tho 
 enclosure is a large mosque, covered with a dome. The streets 
 are narrow, but always dry ; and the bazaar, though small, neat 
 and clean. In the neighbourhood are some old Mahometan 
 sepulchres. In the ancient bed of the Pooralee, are fields of 
 vegetables and tobacco, with a large cultivation of rice. Pop. 
 5000. (Masson s Journeys in Beloochistan. } 
 
 BE1LAN, a tn. Syria, near the sea, 9 m. S.E. Iskanderoon ; 
 lat. 36 29^ 30" N. ; Ion. 30 17 E. Situated in the gorge of 
 a mountain, from which numerous torrents pour down in 
 winter. One large stream rushes through the centre of the 
 town. The houses, which are of stone, are flat-roofed. The 
 climate in summer is extremely pleasant, though somewhat 
 severe in winter. A great many wealthy Turks have taken 
 up their residence here, attracted by its local and political 
 advantages ; the town being governed by a Sheikh, chosen by 
 the inhabitants from amongst themselves. Pop. between 
 4000 and 5000. 
 
 BEILEN, or BEYLEN, a vil. Holland, prov. Drenthe, 
 10 m. S.S.W. Assen, near the Havelter Aa. It is a thriving 
 place ; has a church and school, and branch of the Society for 
 General Good; a good deal of trade, and two annual fairs. 
 Pop. 500. 
 
 BEIRA, a prov. Portugal, bounded, N. by provs. Entre- 
 Douro-e-Minho and Tras-os-Montes, E. by Spain, S. by provs. 
 Estremadura and Alemtejo, and W. by the Atlantic ; area, 
 6480 geo. sq. m. The surface is mountainous, being inter 
 sected by the sierra d Estrella, and traversed by its ramifica 
 tions. The soil, though by no means fertile, produces wine, 
 oil, corn, flax, and different kinds of fruit. Chestnuts are 
 particularly abundant. The mountainous districts afford fine 
 pasture both for sheep and cattle, and are famous for their 
 cheese. Considerable attention is paid to the rearing of bees. 
 The chief rivers are the Douro, Tagus, Aguada, and Mondego. 
 Among the metals are traces both of gold and silver, but the 
 only one wrought is iron. The other minerals are marblo 
 and a little coal. The principal trade is in wine, oil, and fruit. 
 In 1835, Beira was subdivided into Upper and Lower Beira 
 (Beira-alta and Beira-baixa) ; the former containing 298 con- 
 celhos, cap. Viseu; and the latter 29 concelhos, cap. Castel 
 Branco. The heir-apparent of Portugal has the title of Prince 
 of Beira. Pop. 615,238. * 
 
 BEIROUT. See BEYROUT. 
 
 BE I SAN. See BETHSHAN. 
 
 BEI-SHEHR. See BEG-SHEHER. 
 
 BEITAVEND, a vil. Persia, Irak-Ajemi, about 15 m. 
 N.E. Shuster, at the foot of gypsum hills, surrounded by 
 green fields and meadows, and intersected by a small stream 
 of brackish water. It consists of about 100 neat and clean 
 houses. 
 
 BEIT-EL-FAKiH [commonly called Beetlrj acJrie], a tn. 
 Arabia, Yemen, 32 m. S.S.E. Hodeidah, and 77 N.E. Mokha ; 
 lat. 14 31 N. ; Ion. 43 41 E. It is without walls, but has 
 a strong castle. It is celebrated for its trade in Mokha coffee, 
 which is chiefly grown in the neighbourhood. Merchants from 
 Persia, Russia, and Turkey visit the town, for the purpose 
 
 of purchasing the coffee. Pop. 7000. The word Beit, 
 
 signifying a house or hut, is prefixed to the name of various 
 other small towns and villages in Arabia. 
 
 BEITH, a tn. and par. Scotland, the former in co. Ayr, 
 the latter in cos. Ayr and Renfrew. The TOWN, which is 
 15 m. S.W. Glasgow, is situated on terrace ground, sloping 
 W., at an elevation of 300 ft. above the sea level. It consists 
 of one principal street, stretching N. and S., and intersected 
 by several smaller, all tolerably well kept; is lighted with 
 gas, but indifferently supplied with water. The churches and 
 schools are, the parish church, two U. Presbyterian churches, 
 and a Free church ; the parish school, with library attached, 
 U. Presbyterian school, Free Church school, besides private 
 schools, both in town and parish. There are here a thriving 
 savings -bank, a public reading-room, and several benevolent 
 
BEITSTAD 
 
 359 
 
 BELALCAZAR 
 
 societies. Principal manufactures : tanning, spinning, and 
 hand-loom weaving ; the first employing 150 hands, the second 
 about 200, and the third about 400. A considerable busi 
 ness is also done in seed and grain. The PARISH is about 
 
 5 in. in length, and 4 in breadth, mostly in co. Ayr, a small 
 portion only being in Renfrew. Montgomerie, an early and 
 celebrated Scottish poet, author of the Cherry and the Slae, 
 was born at Hazlehead Castle, in this parish. Pop., tn. and 
 par., 5795. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BEITSTAD, or BEDSTAD, a tn. Norway, prov. N. 
 Trondhjem, on the Beitstad Fiord, the most N. arm of the 
 Trondhjem Fiord ; lat. 64 5 N. ; Ion. 11 20 E. Pop. 2700. 
 
 BEJA [anc. Pax Julia, afterwards Pax Augusta}, a tn. 
 Portugal, prov. Algarve, dist. of same name, 85 in. S.E. Lis 
 bon. It stands on a height in the centre of a pleasant district, 
 is surrounded by walls flanked with 40 towers, and defended 
 by an old fort built by King Denis. It is the seat of a bishop ; 
 and contains a cathedral, four parish churches, six monasteries, 
 a well-endowed hospital, and grammar-school. It has pot 
 teries and tanneries, but the chief employment is rearing bees, 
 goats, and swine. In the neighbourhood are some fine olive 
 plantations. The town was founded by the Romans, and some 
 remains of their works are still visible. Pop. 5284. 
 
 BEJAPOOR, a large prov. of the Deccan, Hindoostan, 
 comprised partly in the British dominions, and partly in those 
 of the Rajah of Sattara and the Nizam, and containing the 
 Portuguese territory of Goa. It is situated between lat. 15 
 and 18 N., and Ion. 73 and 78 E. ; bounded, N. by Aurun- 
 gabad, E. by same province and that of Hyderabad, S. by the 
 rivers Wurda and Toombuddra, and the Cavara district, and 
 W. by the Indian Ocean; length, 320 m. ; average breadth, 
 200 m. The W. districts of this province include part of 
 the Ghauts, in which are numerous fortresses of great natural 
 strength, usually built on isolated eminences, of which the 
 sides are either naturally scarped, or cut perpendicular for 
 70 or 80 ft. below their upper margin, with only one narrow 
 path leading up to the fortress. The country E. of the Ghauts, 
 although less mountainous, is considerably elevated above the 
 sea. Along the banks of the chief rivers, and other flat and 
 arable tracts, a black soil prevails. The horses reared in this 
 province were highly esteemed by the Mahrattas, and mounted 
 their best cavalry. The Ramoozes, a numerous tribe of rob 
 bers, are spread over the province ; but their chief strongholds 
 are in the hills adjoining the Ghaut Mountains, S.W. of Sat- 
 tara. They are without caste, abstain from eating beef, dis 
 like husbandry and mechanical trades, but are much attached 
 to hunting and other similar recreations. In 1818, the whole 
 of this province, except the part reserved for the Rajah of 
 Sattara, came under British government, and the numerous 
 petty chiefs, though most unwilling to adopt peaceful habits, 
 have been coerced into them. 
 
 BEJAPOOR [anc. Vijayapura the impregnable city], 
 anc. cap. of the above prov., stands near the r. bank of an 
 affluent of the Krishna; lat. 16 48 N.; Ion. 75 40 E. ; 
 122 m. S.E. Sattara. From the great extent of its ruins, it 
 would seem to have been one of the largest cities of India, 
 while the splendour of these remains have procured for it the 
 title of the Palmyra of the Deccan. In its present state, it 
 may be described as two cities adjoining each other the fort 
 on the E., and the old city on the W. The former, though 
 much less than the latter, has one entire and regular street, 
 50 ft. wide and nearly 3 m. long. Groups of houses stand scat 
 tered over its extensive area, and numerous mud hovels are 
 seen stuck up among its massy ruins. Some of the mosques 
 and mausoleums of Bejapoor exhibit specimens of elaborate 
 architectural elegance, but the prevailing character is solid 
 and massive. _ The great dome of Mahomet Shah s tomb is 
 visible at the distance of 14 m.; and numerous spires, cupolas, 
 and minarets, are still standing. The fretwork on the ceil 
 ings and verandahs, the pannels covered with passages of the 
 Koran in bas-relief, and stone trellises pierced with a mesh- 
 work of Arabic characters, are all in the richest style of 
 Oriental sculpture. Among the religious structures is a 
 low Hindoo temple, built in the earliest and rudest style 
 of Brahminical architecture, and popularly supposed to have 
 been raised by Pandoos, a mythological race. There are 
 here some guns of enormous size; one of brass, cast in 1549, 
 capable, it is said, of carrying an iron ball of 2646 Ibs. 
 weight 1 It was intended to send this gun to England, but 
 
 the state of the roads rendered its removal to the coast im 
 practicable. 
 
 BEJAR, a tn. Spain, Leon, prov. of, and 48 m. S. Sala 
 manca, near the sierra de Bejar. It is surrounded by a wall, 
 now ruinous, and entered by nine gates ; has narrow, crooked, 
 steep, and dirty streets ; a square, three parish churches, town 
 and court houses, an orphan and four other schools, some pub 
 lic fountains, an old palace, and several convents witli churches 
 attached. The inhabitants manufacture linen and hempen 
 fabrics, baize, and cloth, which they export; and import grain, 
 oil, wool, &c. Pop. 4994. 
 
 BEJETSK, a tn. Russia, cap. dist. of same name, gov. of, 
 and 70 m. N.N.E. Tver, near the Alaloga. It contains 14 
 churches, two convents, and a theological seminary. Pop. 
 about 4000. 
 
 BEJIJAH, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 19 m. 
 N.E. Jaen, r. bank, Guadalquivir. It is well built, and has 
 a parish church, two endowed schools, several fountains, and 
 a palace, once a castle, presented at the conquest, by Don 
 Alonso, to the bishops of Jaen. Domestic weaving of linen 
 and hempen fabrics, and tillage, are the chief employments. 
 Pop. 2159. 
 
 BEJIS, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. of, and 35 m. W. 
 Castellon de la Plana, on the skirt of a mountain forming part 
 of the sierra de Javalambra, at the confluence of the rivers 
 Canales and Palanacia. It is indifferently built, with irregular 
 and steep streets ; and has a parish church, townhall, endowed 
 school, and, at the top of the hill, an old castle, originally of 
 Roman construction, but rebuilt by the Arabs ; and, in the 
 civil war, repaired and fortified by the C arlists ; but, as a place 
 of defence, insignificant, being commanded by the neighbour 
 ing heights. Paper, linen and woollen fabrics, wine, and oil, 
 are manufactured and exported. Pop. 3155. 
 
 BEJUCAL, or BAJUCAL, a tn. and dep. Cuba. The 
 TOWN lies 25 m. S.S.W. Havana; is well built. Pop. 2000. 
 
 The DEPARTMENT is mountainous,well watered, and fertile, 
 
 yielding excellent tobacco. Pop. 24,000, of whom 10,000 
 are slaves. 
 
 BEKES, BEKESVAK, or BEKESCH, a market tn. Hungary, 
 beyond the Theiss, cap. co. of same name, at the junction of 
 the Black and White Kbrbs, 41 m. S.W. Grosswardein ; for 
 merly strongly fortified, and having three churches. Chief 
 productions : flax, cattle, corn (particularly wheat), wine, and 
 honey, in all of which the trade is considerable. Fuel is scarce. 
 It has an old castle, whence the province obtained its name. 
 
 Pop. 18,850. ThecouNTY of Be"kes,forming the two districts 
 
 of Gyala and Ksaba, has an area of about 1040 geo. sq. m., and 
 a pop. of 1 57,000. It is watered by four streams the AVhite 
 and Black Kbrbs (which both flow S.E. to N.W.), the rapid 
 Kbrbs, and Brettyo, which join the former two, and fall with 
 them into the Theiss. The soil, composed of a rich alluvium, 
 is of remarkable fertility, and produces heavy crops, particu 
 larly of wheat ; but the wine is indifferent, fuel scarce, water 
 bad, and the climate, owing to the numerous swamps formed 
 by the inundations of the rivers, very unhealthy. Water 
 melons attain great perfection ; fish abound, and crawfish and 
 tortoises abound in every quarter. 
 
 BEL A. See BEILA. 
 
 BELABRE, a tn. France, dep. Indre, 7 m. S.E. Blanc, 
 r. bank, Anglin. Near it are iron furnaces and foundries. 
 Pop. 829. In the old castle of Belabre was strangled the 
 Sieur de Flavi, whose cowardly order to shut the gates of 
 Compi egne led to the capture of Joan of Arc. 
 
 BELAIA (WHITE), two rivers, Russia:!, A river, Si 
 beria, which rises in the mountains of Okhotsk, in lat. 62 N., 
 and Ion. 138 E., and, flowing W., joins the Aldan. 2, A 
 river which rises in the Ural Mountains, gov. Orenburg, and, 
 after proceeding for about 100 m. S.E., suddenly turns almost 
 due N. for another 100 m., then turns N.E. to Oufa, and con 
 tinuing in the same direction, with numerous small windings, 
 passes the town of Birsk, and ultimately joins the Kama on 
 its 1. bank. Its -principal affluents the Oufa from the N., 
 and the Dioma from the S., both join it at the town of Oufa. 
 Its whole course is about 550 in. Of these, 240 m. are 
 navigable. 
 
 BELALCAZAR [anc. Cacta}, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, 
 prov. of, and 45 m. N.N.W. Cordova, 1. bank, Caganchas. 
 It has a large square, parish church, two schools, small 
 hospital, and an ancient fortress, once of great strength and 
 
BELAN 
 
 BELFAST 
 
 celebrity. The inhabitants are employed in agriculture, 
 weaving, and expressing wine and oil. Pop. 3380. 
 
 BELAN, par. Irel. Kildare; 1198 ac. Pop. 286. 
 
 BELASPOOR, a tn. Ilindoostan, Gurhwal, 1. bank, Sut- 
 lej ; lat. 31 19 N.; Ion. 76 47 E.; 27 m. N.W. Simla, and 
 GO m. N.E. Loodiana. It lies about 1465 ft. above the level 
 of the sea, in a spacious and extremely fertile valley, through 
 which the Sutlej winds. The town is said to be well built, 
 chiefly of flint stones ; to contain about 3000 houses, and to 
 exhibit a regularity rather exceptional in this quarter of India. 
 Baron Hiigel found the streets paved with flint stones about 
 1 ft. in diameter, and as often loose as not ; dislodging the un 
 steady foot of a luckless wayfarer, and knocking it violently 
 to one side or the other. The natives, however, trip lightly 
 over these stones without ever once stumbling. Towards the 
 S. are three fortresses Bahadurpoor, Futihpoor, and Champa, 
 formerly serving as a retreat to petty tyrants, who plundered 
 both travellers and inhabitants indiscriminately. To this, 
 however, an end has now been put. From Belaspoor, the snowy 
 peaks of the Himalaya are distinctly visible. (Hamilton s 
 ast India Gaz.; Hiigel s Travels in the Punjab.} 
 
 BELAUGH, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 810 ac. Pop. 161. 
 
 BELAUN, or BELAWAN, a small isl. Sooloo Archipelago, 
 about 35 m. S. the isl. of Basilan, or about midway between 
 that isl. and the isl. of Sooloo ; lat. (E. point) 6 N. ; Ion. 
 122 8 E. (R.) It has a high round mount on its W. part, 
 with a long space of low level land, extending several miles 
 to the E. 
 
 BELBEIS, or BELBEYS, a tn. Lower Egypt, 28 m. N.N.E. 
 Cairo, on the road from that city to Syria a circumstance 
 which gives it considerable importance, in despite of its want 
 of attractions in other respects, being ill built and dirty. It 
 was occupied, in 1798, by the French army, when its fortifi 
 cations were repaired. They arc now falling into decay, the 
 walls being composed chiefly of mud. Belbeis is successor 
 to the ancient Bulastis, from the site of which it is 14 m. 
 distant. In the neighbourhood are traces of the ancient canal 
 that joined the Nile to the Ked Sea. Pop. 5000. 
 
 BELBROUGHTON, par. Eng. Worcester; 5350 ac. 
 Pop. 1765. 
 
 BELCASTRO, a tu. Naples, prov. Calabria Ultra, 14 m. 
 N.E. Catanzaro, on a rock. It is the residence of a bishop, 
 has a cathedral, diocesan seminary, and a mont-de-piete. Great 
 numbers of cattle are reared in the neighbourhood. P. 1005. 
 
 BELCHALWELL, par. Eng. Dorset ; 950 ac. P. 225. 
 
 BELCH AMP, three pars. Eng. Essex:!, Belchamp- 
 otten, 1600 ac. Pop. 389. 2, Belchamp (St. Paul), 2270 ac. 
 Pop. 731. 3, Belchamp (Walters), 2110 ac. Pop. 698. 
 
 BELCHFORD, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 2390 ac. Pop. 554. 
 
 BELCH1TE, a tn. Spain, Aragon, prov. of, and 30 m. 
 S.S.E. Saragossa ; pleasantly situated in a plain, at the foot of 
 a small hill which commands it on the S. and W. Its houses 
 are tolerably well built, and its streets generally wide, though 
 unpaved and indifferently kept ; and it has five squares, of 
 which the principal, Plaza Nueva, is handsome, and occu 
 pies the centre of the town. The parish church is an old 
 structure, built of brick in the Gothic style, with a lofty tower 
 of the same material. Other public edifices are, a capacious 
 townhall, hospital, two chapels, two schools, and a theatre, 
 formerly a church dedicated to St. John. Manufactures : 
 serge, stuff, blankets, horse-cloths, and linen fabrics of vari 
 ous kinds and excellent quality, which are exported to a con 
 siderable extent. On June 18, 1809, an engagement took 
 place here between the French army, under Suchet, and the 
 Spaniards, commanded by General Blake, in which the latter 
 suffered a signal defeat, and lost 9 or 10 pieces of cannon. 
 Pop. 2385. 
 
 BELCLARE, par. Irel. Galway ; 7847 ac. Pop. 2663. 
 
 BELEM, a tn. Portugal, prov. Estremadura, r. bank, 
 Tagus, 2 m. S.W. Lisbon, of which it may almost be regarded 
 as a suburb. It has a church and a monastery, built by King 
 Emanuel in 1499; the former a fine building, ir. the mixed 
 Norman-Gothic and Arabic styles, and the latter containing 
 a royal mausoleum. It has also an hospital, high school, and 
 extensive iron-foundry. A remarkable square tower rises out 
 of the Tagus, called the Torre de Belem, which defends the 
 entrance to the port, and whence ships entering the river are 
 boarded by the custom-house officers. Here also are com 
 modious quays, and a quarantine station. In the neighbour 
 
 hood is the royal palace of Ajuda, with a botanical garden, 
 menagerie, and cabinet of natural curiosities; and the Quinta 
 da ttaiuha, a royal villa, with fine gardens and extensive 
 parks all of which are accessible to the public. Belem is 
 inhabited by many of the nobility and rich citizens of Lisbon. 
 Pop. about 5000. 
 
 BELEM, or PAKA, a city and seaport, Brazil, cap. prov. 
 Para, 1. bank of the estuary of Kio Para ; lat. 1 34 S. ; Ion. 
 48 50 W. ; having W. the Moju, E. the Guama, and S. the 
 Acara, a tributary of the Moju, all falling into the Bahia 
 Guajara, on the S. shore of which the city is placed. Belem 
 has straight, and mostly paved streets; its houses are of stone, 
 constructed with solidity and some pretensions to elegance. 
 The principal buildings are, the Governor s palace and the 
 cathedral, magnificent edifices ; but, besides these, the cruci 
 form church of Santa Anna, and the octagonal one of Sao 
 Jofio Baptista, are note-worthy. The city possesses several 
 other churches, a convent, turned into a barrack; an arsenal, 
 an episcopal palace, a seminary, in which Latin, theology, &c., 
 are taught; a college, with chairs of Latin, rhetoric, philosophy, 
 geometry, and French ; a normal, and two primary schools, 
 two convents one of Carmelites, and another of Capuchins ; 
 three hospitals, and a botanic garden rich in plants, both 
 exotic and indigenous. Belem is the seat of the legislative 
 assembly of the province, the residence of the president, of 
 the commander of the forces, and of the Bishop of Para. The 
 port is defended by forts, and is capable of admitting vessels 
 of any size ; the tide rises 10 or 12 ft. The trade of the port 
 is in rice, cacao, cotton, coffee, sarsaparilla, hides, and leather; 
 tapioca, balsam, copaiba, gum-elastic, and Maranham chest 
 nuts. The principal disease is intermittent fever. Pop. 
 10,000, mostly European. 
 
 BELENYES, a tn. Hungary, beyond the Theiss, co. 
 Bihar, 32 m. S.E. Grosswardein, on the Black Koros. It 
 is the see of a bishop ; has three churches, a salt-office, and in 
 the vicinity, quarries of beautiful black marble, mines of iron, 
 copper, and silver ores. Pop. 3250. 
 
 BELESTA, a vil. France, dep. Ariege, 19 m. S.E. Foix ; 
 remarkable for an intermitting spring in its vicinity, which, 
 after flowing 36 minutes, ceases for about 32 minutes before 
 it again begins to flow ; but, after heavy rains, flows continu 
 ously without intervals. Belesta has extensive marble quar 
 ries, and mills driven by water for sawing marble, porphyry, 
 and alabaster. It has also forges and iron-mills, and a con 
 siderable trade in fir timber. Pop. 1212. 
 
 BELFAST, a seaport tn. and parl. bof. Ireland, co. An 
 trim, 88m. N.N.E. Dublin; lat. 54 36 24" N.; lon.556 12" 
 "W. (n.) ; mostly on low ground on the 1. bank of the Lagan, 
 near its embouchure in Belfast Bay. The river, which is 
 here about 250 yards wide, is crossed by an elegant stone 
 bridge of five arches, each of 50 ft. span. Two other bridges, 
 of less pretension, cross the stream ; one about a quarter of a 
 mile further up, and the third about three-fourths of a mile 
 above the second. The town, owing to its extremely low 
 position, has from a distance nothing imposing in its appear 
 ance; but, on a nearer approach, is found to improve consider 
 ably. The houses, mostly of brick, are well built, many of 
 them very handsome ; the streets are regular, spacious, and 
 cleanly, well macadamized and lighted, and the whole general 
 aspect of the place eminently calculated to make the most 
 favourable impressions, not a little strengthened by the cheer 
 ful stir and activity which prevails in the mercantile quarters ; 
 and which, associated with an enterprising spirit, have ob 
 tained for Belfast the reputation of being the first town in 
 Ireland in commercial prosperity, and second to Dublin only 
 as a port. The places of worship are numerous ; consisting 
 of eight Established churches, 21 Presbyterian, one Indepen 
 dent, eight Methodist, one Society of Friends, and four K. 
 Catholic. Some of these are handsome structures. Of this 
 description is St. Anne s, which is also the oldest ; it has a 
 graceful cupola, and is fitted up inside with rich old mahogany. 
 Trinity Church is a good specimen of the pointed Gothic, with 
 a spire 130 ft. high. St. George s Church is adorned with a 
 beautiful portico, but has little other architectural beauty. 
 At the head of the educational establishments is the Queen s 
 College, a magnificent structure of brick and stone, built at 
 an expense of upwards of 25,000, and opened for the recep 
 tion of students in November 1849. The collegiate body 
 consists of the president, vice-president, and 20 professors ; 
 
BELFAST 
 
 361 
 
 BELFAST 
 
 and, for the maintenance of the institution, 7000 
 allowed from the consolidated fund. The other edu 
 establishments are, the Royal Academical Institution 
 
 a year is 400,000. The other branches of industry 
 iueational vicinity are, two distilleries, 12 breweries, ; 
 i, founded I and corn mills, four large, and several i 
 
 ilustry in the town or its 
 veral large flour 
 
 7 _, large, and several smaller foundries, 
 
 in 1810 by voluntary subscription, an annual parliamentary | several tanyards, two vitriol-works, a patent felt manufac 
 tory, saw-mills, &c. ; four extensive ship-yards, 
 and yards for manufacturing ropes and sailcloth. 
 Previous to the potato failure, Belfast had also 
 a very large provision trade ; and, since the par 
 tial restoration of that crop, it has begun to 
 revive. 
 
 The commerce of Belfast is very considerable, 
 and is rapidly increasing ; the most important 
 branch is across the Irish Channel. The tonnage 
 which entered the port, in 1849, showed an in 
 crease of 48,068 tons over that of the previous 
 year. The following statement of the number 
 of vessels and their tonnage, registered at the 
 port, and which entered the harbour since 1842, 
 shows the rapid development of the trade of the 
 port : 
 
 Registered. Entered. 
 
 Years. Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tons. 
 
 1842 375 51,278 3349 337,505 
 
 1843 359 49,402 3370 363.038 
 
 1845 39 1 54,771 3888 492,560 
 
 1846 42C C2.094 4168 543,862 
 
 1847 464 68,659 4213 538,523 
 
 1848 475 71,556 3905 506,953 
 
 1849 467 75,441 4080 555021 
 
 1851 461 88,860 56H3 684,798 
 
 1852 464 78,373 5818 706,840 
 
 The tonnage which entered the port in 
 1849 consisted of Irish coasters, 8474; across 
 channel, 213,827; steamers, 270,921; foreign, 
 61,799; total, 4080 vessels; 555,021 tons. In 
 the year 17*6, the port revenue was but 1533, 
 in 1850, 29,012. In 1852 the net customs 
 receipts were 355,308, 3s. lid. About 30 
 steamers ply regularly between Belfast and Lon 
 don, Liverpool, Fleetwood, Carlisle, and White- 
 haven ; Glasgow, Greenock, Stranraer, Ardros- 
 grant of about 1900 a year, which it received latterly, is now san, and Dublin. The chief articles of export are cotton and 
 
 ;. Trinity Church. 
 2. St. Anne s Church 
 a. St. George sChuvei 
 
 I 4. Christ Church. 
 
 5. St. M;ilitl-lii sC:ilie.lriil. 
 I 6. R. Academical Institution. 
 
 1. House Of (\,n, rl . 
 
 2. Barracks. 
 
 discontinued ; the Belfast Academy, the Lancasterian School, 
 numerous national schools, and private seminaries. The 
 charitable and benevolent institutions comprise the poorhouse, 
 with medical and surgical hospitals attached; the lying-in 
 hospital, the fever hospital, the district lunatic asylum, the 
 deaf and dumb and blind asylum, a new and elegant edifice ; 
 the Ulster female penitentiary, and the union workhouse. The 
 other public buildings are, the commercial buildings, erected 
 on a capital of 20,000, containing a spacious public news 
 room, hotel, offices, and assembly-room ; the white and brown 
 linen-halls, the theatre, the music hall, the new house of cor 
 rection, built on the model of the London prison at Penton- 
 ville, and capable of containing 300 prisoners ; and the new 
 county court-house, a handsome pile, with a Corinthian portico 
 of eight columns, crowned by a colossal figure of Justice. The 
 building occupied by the Belfast Banking Company is also a 
 very handsome edifice. The literary and scientific institutions 
 comprise a natural history society, a royal botanical and horti 
 cultural society, a society for the promotion of knowledge, 
 Ulster teachers association, established for the purpose of im 
 proving the literary character of elementary teachers gener 
 ally, and for securing to them a more adequate remuneration ; 
 Belfast music class, rhetorical society, and Belfast mechanics 
 institute. 
 
 Belfast is the great depot of the linen trade of the N. of 
 Ireland, as well as the chief seat of the manufactures of both 
 linen and cotton. In 1841, there were, in the town and its 
 
 linen manufactures, linen yarn, corn, meal, flour, provisions, 
 flax, tow, and horses. 
 
 Belfast Lough is 13 J m. in length, and 8 in breadth at the 
 entrance, gradually narrowing as it approaches the town. 
 Prior to 1839, large vessels had to lie in the pool or basin of 
 Garmoyle, 4 m. from the town ; but, in 1840, a new channel 
 was formed, having 9 ft. water at low tides, so that vessels 
 drawing 16 ft. water can now come up in neap tides, and those 
 drawing 18 ft., in spring tides. A lighthouse and pilot sta 
 tion have been established at Garmoyle. 
 
 Belfast is governed by 10 aldermen, one of whom is mayor, 
 and 30 councillors, and returns two members to Parliament. 
 Registered electors, in 1849, 4701. The country around is 
 extremely beautiful. The lough itself is a fine object; and the 
 hills which bound it, and partly encircle the town, are being 
 gradually brought under cultivation, while their slopes are 
 thickly studded with the villas and country houses of the 
 merchants. 
 
 Belfast is comparatively a modern town, dating from about 
 the beginning of the 17th century, when it was erected into a 
 municipal and parliamentary borough, having the privilege 
 of sending two members to the Irish parliament ; but its pro 
 gress was subsequently much impeded by the civil wars of 
 Charles I., during which it was occupied successively by 
 royalists and parliamentarians. In 1704, one of the first 
 editions or the Bible printed in Ireland was printed here; 
 .nd in 1777 the cotton trade was introduced, from which its 
 
 uu couon. in io4i, mere were, in tne town ana its ; ana in n 1 1 me cotton traue was mirouuceu, irum wuic 
 mediate vicinity, 25 steam mills for spinning linen yarn; I chief prosperity, it is considered, has arisen. Three railways 
 
 there are now (1850) upwards of 30, employing many thousand 
 persons; one alone affording constant work to 1200 people, 
 the annual amount of whose wages is about 20,000. This 
 house consumes about 1000 tons of flax yearly, producing 
 450,000 bundles of yarn, at an estimated value of from 
 100,000 to 110,000. The same concern produced, besides, 
 during the six months ending June 1850, 55,637 webs of 
 brown linen, and 70,282 webs of bleached linen, each web 
 averaging 60 yards. The number of spindles now at work 
 in Belfast and the neighbourhood, is between 300,000 and 
 VOL. I. 
 
 diverge from Belfast N. W. the Ballymena and Carrickfergus 
 railway, N.E. the County Down, and S. W. the Ulster railway 
 in connection with the line to Dublin. Pop. (1851), 100,300. 
 (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BELFAST, a post township, and seaport, U. States, cap. 
 Waldo co., Maine, beautifully situated at the head of Belfast 
 Bay, W. side of Penobscot River, 38 m. from the ocean. A 
 small river passes near the centre of the town, over which is 
 an extensive bridge. Belfast has a spacious and safe harbour, 
 rarely obstructed by ice, and sufficiently deep for vessels of thr 
 
BELFAST LOUGH 
 
 362 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 largest class. It has an extensive trade foreign, coasting, 
 in fishing, and in shipbuilding. Principal exports : lumber 
 end fish. Its tonn. in 1840, was 38.218. As the river above 
 it freezes, Belfast forms the principal mart of the winter trade 
 of Penobscot River. It has an academy, and 21 schools. 
 
 Pop. (1840), 4186. Also the name of another post township 
 
 in Alleghany county, with a pop. of 1 646 ; and of several other 
 places in the U. States. 
 
 BELFAST LOUGH, or CARRICKFERGUS BAY, a navi 
 gable marine inlet, N. of Ireland, between the cos. Antrim 
 and Down. It is about 13J m. long, with a breadth at the 
 entrance of 8 m., gradually contracting to about 2 m. It is 
 almost completely sheltered from the prevailing winds, by 
 heights on the AV. and N.AV. Its banks are studded with 
 woods, parks, elegant mansions, villages, and towns, and at 
 the head of it, where it receives the river Lagan, stands the 
 manufacturing town of Belfast (which see). 
 
 BELFOKD, a market tn. and par. England, co. Northum 
 berland. The town, which is small and neatly built, is pleas 
 antly situated on a gentle eminence, 9 m. N.E. Wooler, about 
 2 m. from the sea, and consists chiefly of two tolerably wide 
 streets; houses well built, and principally of stone, water 
 abundant. The church, originally erected in 1700, has been 
 rebuilt, in the early English style, and is capable of contain 
 ing 600 or 700 persons. Market-day, Tuesday, when an ex 
 tensive business in corn is done. Area of par. 9380 ac. Pop. 
 (1850), about 1500. 
 
 BELFORT, or BEFORT, a tn. France, dep. Haut Rhin, 
 on the Savourcuse, 40 m. S.S.AV. Colmar. Before the year 
 1648, Belfort consisted of little more than a castle, the forti 
 fications of which were considerably increased by Vauban, 
 who surrounded the town with a wall flanked with bastions. 
 The new town was built inside of the works, and laid out on 
 a regular plan, with spacious, handsome streets. It is now 
 a fortified place of the first class, and has three gates. Its 
 situation at the intersection of six main roads, is highly favour 
 able to its commerce, and makes it an entrepot for the traffic 
 between the interior of France, and Alsace, and Switzerland. 
 Belfort is well built, and has a fine parish church, barracks, 
 townhouse, court of primary resort, public library containing 
 20,000 volumes, and a communal college. Manufactures : 
 hats, clocks, wax tapers, iron, wire, sheet-iron, &c. There 
 are also breweries, tanneries, and iron furnaces. The prin 
 cipal trade is in grain, wine, brandy, and liqueurs. Iron is 
 extensively worked in the neighbourhood. In 1814, Belfort 
 
 was besieged by the Allies without success. Pop. 4114. 
 
 Other two small places in France have the same name. 
 
 BELG^E, the name given by Cssar to the inhabitants 
 of one of the three divisions of Gaul. This division stretched 
 from the Rhine to the German Ocean, and extended into 
 France as far as the Seine and the Marne. The Belgae were 
 of Germanic origin ; and being very warlike, had succeeded, 
 about A.D. 280, in driving out the Celtae, by whom the country 
 had been previously inhabited. 
 
 BELGARD, a tn. Prussia, circle, same name, prov. Po- 
 merania, 20m. E.S.E. Colberg, at the confluence of the Leitz- 
 nitz with the Persante, and nearly insulated. It is surrounded 
 with a wall, which, though old, is still strong, has an old castle, 
 three churches, two hospitals, and manufactures of cloth and 
 
 tobacco. Pop. 3000. The CIRCLE has an area of 320 
 
 geo. sq. m., and a pop. of 29,392, of whom only 40 are K. 
 Catholics, and 2GO Jews. The surface is for the most part 
 flat, and the soil, though occasionally inclining to sand, is 
 fertile. 
 
 BELGAUM, a tn. Hindoostan, prov. Bejapoor, presid. 
 Bombay, dist. of, and 55 m. N.AV. Darwar; lat. 15 52 N.; 
 Ion. 74 42 E. The site of the town is elevated and healthy, 
 having the benefit of the sea breeze ; supply of water abund 
 ant, and of good quality. The fortifications are extensive 
 and complete ; the walls are massy and solid, with a broad and 
 deep ditch, surrounded by an area of 600 yards. The inner 
 area is large, but full of the ruins of native buildings, among 
 which are two ancient temples. In 1818, the fort and town 
 were taken by the British, after a gallant resistance by the 
 Peshwa s forces. The former stands in a plain, and is of 
 great strength and extent. Its ramparts are faced with stone, 
 flanked by massy round bastions, and protected by an admir 
 able wet ditch cut out of the rock. The soil of the district, 
 though barren in dry weather, becomes very fertile during the 
 
 rainy season, which lasts for six months. From the salubrity 
 of the climate, and the purity of the water, it has been selected 
 as a permanent military station. Pop. of tn. 7652. 
 
 BELGENT1ER, a small tn. France, dep. Var, arrond. of, 
 and about 14 m. N.N.AV. Toulon. It is a place of great an 
 tiquity, and Roman remains have been found in its vicinity. 
 Its manufactures consist of woollen stuffs, paper, and leather ; 
 and it has some trade in wine and olives. Pop. 1320. 
 
 BELGERN, a tn. Prussia, prov. Saxony, 1. bank, Elbe, 
 circle of, and 7 m. S.E. Torgau. It has a church, an hospital, 
 and townhouse. The inhabitants live chiefly by agriculture, 
 including that of the vine, the rearing of cattle, and traffic on 
 the Elbe. Their general and cattle markets are considerable. 
 Pop. 2850. 
 
 BELGIOJOSO, a tn. Austrian Italy, cap. dist. of same 
 name, gov. Milan, prov. and 8 m. S. by E. Pavia. It is 
 situated in a beautiful and remarkably fertile plain, between 
 the Po and the Olona, from each of which it is about 1 m. 
 distant. It is well built, and contains a parish and an auxiliary 
 church. The old castle, in which Francis I. was temporarily 
 lodged after being taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia, has 
 been converted into a magnificent chateau, surrounded by fine 
 gardens. Belgiojoso has an important annual fair, which lasts 
 three days. Pop. 3383. 
 
 BELGIUM [French, Belgique; German, Bt lgien], a king 
 dom in the W. of Central Europe, between kt. 49 30 and 
 51 30 N., and Ion. 2 35 and 6 7 E. ; bounded, N. by Hol 
 land, N.AV. by the N. Sea or German Ocean, W. and S. by 
 France, and E. by the duchy of Luxembourg, Rhenish Prussia, 
 and Dutch Limburg; greatest length, N.AV. to S.E., 165 m.; 
 greatest breadth, N. to S., 120 m. ; area, about 11,400 sq. m. 
 Belgium, in shape, resembles a triangle, which has its vertex 
 in the AV. ; the base resting on Germany on the E., the shorter 
 side facing Holland and the sea, and the larger forming the 
 frontier of France. For administrative purposes, it is divided 
 into nine provinces Antwerp, S. Brabant, E. Flanders, AV. 
 Flanders, Hainaut, Liege, Limburg, Luxembourg, and Namur. 
 These provinces do not differ much in area, and are so ar 
 ranged as to form a compact and commodious division of the 
 kingdom; S. Brabant, which, from containing Brussels, the 
 capital, may be considered the metropolitan province, occu 
 pying the centre, while the others cluster round, and, with 
 exception of the extreme provinces of Luxembourg and AV. 
 Flanders, actually touch it. 
 
 Physical Features. A general idea of the surface of the 
 country may be obtained by regarding it as an inclined plane, 
 somewhat rugged, and considerably elevated in the S.E., from 
 which it slopes, more or less gradually, N. and AV. till it sinks 
 into low plains, only a few feet above the level of the sea. The 
 elevated districts are formed by ramifications of the Ardennes, 
 which, entering Belgium from France, stretch along the S. 
 of Namur, occupy the greater part of Luxembourg, and attain 
 their culminating point in the S.E. of Liege, at Stavelot, in the 
 neighbourhood of Spa, where the height exceeds 2000 ft. The 
 rocks appear to rest on primary formations; but those which 
 reach the surface generally consist of slate, old red sandstone, 
 and mountain limestone. Proceeding N.AV., in the direction 
 of the dip, these rocks take a cover, and the coal formation 
 becomes fully developed. This coal field is a continuation of 
 that of the N. of France, and stretches through Belgium in a 
 N.E. direction, occupying the greater part of the province 
 of Hainaut and a considerable part of that of Liege, and 
 skirting the provinces of Namur and Luxembourg. It con 
 tains numerous workable seams, both of coal and iron. N. 
 and W., beyond the limits of this coal field, a more recent 
 formation is found, covered by deep beds of clay and sand, the 
 former prevailing more in the interior, and the latter near the 
 coast, where it has been drifted into hillocks or downs, and forms 
 the only barrier against the encroachments of the sea. Some 
 of the clay in this district is fit for the manufacture of fine 
 pottery ; but the greater part of it is fit only for coarse ware, 
 or for bricks. In accordance with the general slope of the 
 surface already mentioned, the main streams of Belgium have 
 a N. direction ; and the whole country lies within the basin 
 of the German Ocean. In the S.E., where the surface is ele 
 vated and broken, numerous torrents descend with rapidity ; 
 and, becoming confined within rocky, precipitous, and richly 
 wooded banks, often furnish, if not the grandest, the most 
 picturesque and enchanting of landscapes. On reaching the 
 
BELGIUM 
 
 363 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 lower country tlieir speed is slackened, and their augmented 
 volume moves along in a slow winding course. Only two of 
 them the Meuse and the Scheldt have a magnitude which 
 entitles them to the name of rivers ; but so important are 
 these two in themselves, and so numerous their affluents, that 
 TIO country in Europe is better supplied with water communi 
 cation. Besides the Scheldt or Schelde, and Meuse or Maas, 
 the navigable streams are, the Ambleve, Denier, Dender, 
 Darme, Dyle, Lys, Great Nethe, Little Nethe, Ourthe, Rupel, 
 Sambre, Yperlee, and Yser. The climate of Belgium bears 
 a considerable resemblance to that of the same latitudes in 
 England. Though subject to sudden change, it is, on the 
 whole, temperate and agreeable. Luxembourg and Namur, 
 where the surface is high, and the numerous hills and dales 
 which diversify it, both cheer the animal spirits and freely 
 circulate an air at once keen and pure, are most favourable 
 to health and longevity. The only parts of the country which 
 can be considered unhealthy are the low flats, which prevail 
 in Flanders, and the polders or rich alluvial tracts which have 
 been gained from the rivers by embankment, chiefly in Ant 
 werp. There agues, and other diseases engendered by a humid 
 and sluggish atmosphere, are prevalent. 
 
 Woods and Forests. Nearly one-fifth of the whole surface 
 of the kingdom is occupied by wood. The distribution of it, 
 however, is by no means equal ; and hence, while the two 
 Flanders and Antwerp fall far below the average amount, 
 Luxembourg and Naiiiur rise far above it, and are very densely 
 wooded. In these provinces, extensive tracts are covered 
 with natural woods, in which the wolf and wild boar still have 
 their haunts. These woods are the remains of the ancient 
 forest of Ardennes, which Csesar describes as stretching far 
 out into France from the banks of the Ehine. They consist 
 of hard wood, principally oak, which is often of great size, and 
 furnishes large quantities of the most valuable timber. By 
 carefully dressing the stools after it is cut, a fine oak copse 
 is raised, the cuttings of which annually produce many tons 
 (if bark ; which not only supplies the tanneries of the country, 
 but leaves a considerable surplus for exportation, chiefly to 
 England ; while the wood, unfit for the carpenter, is partly 
 employed as fuel, and partly converted into charcoal, for the 
 use of the ironworks, where the superiority of the iron smelted 
 and wrought by it is well known. S. Brabant also possesses 
 several fine forests ; among others, that of Soignies, with which 
 the field of Waterloo has made us familiar. In the other 
 provinces, scarcely anything deserving the name of forest is 
 eeen. Wood is distributed over them in occasional patches, 
 and more frequently in the form of hedgerow. The timber 
 thus grown is by no means small in aggregate amount, and I 
 forms a well-known feature in the rich rural landscapes which 
 the old Flemish masters loved to paint; but, taking into 
 account the injury which the cultivated crops sustain from it, 
 it is very questionable whether it ought to be regarded as a 
 source of profit either to individual proprietors or to the coun 
 try at large. The timber itself, consisting chiefly of various 
 kinds of poplar, is soft, and of an inferior description. 
 
 Agriculture. The greater part of the country is well 
 adapted for agricultural operations, and the inhabitants have 
 so happily availed themselves of their natural advantages, 
 that they early began, and in some respects still deserve, to 
 be regarded as the model farmers of Europe. In the high 
 lands traversed by the Ardennes, the climate is ungenial, and 
 the soil so shallow and stony, as almost to forbid the labour 
 of the plough. Here the occupants display their skill, not so 
 much by what they do, as by what they refrain from attempt 
 ing. Instead of vain endeavours to force the growth of corn, 
 where it could never yield an adequate return, they have been 
 contented to turn the natural pastures of the district to the 
 best account, by employing themselves chiefly in the rearing 
 of stock. In particular, they produce a hardy breed of horses, 
 which, being admirably adapted for light cavalry, are largely 
 exported to France for that purpose, while vast herds of swine 
 are fed, almost at no expense, on the mast of the forests. At 
 the same time, no part of the surface is allowed to lie waste. 
 Where arable land occurs, it is carefully applied to its proper 
 use. Even the vine has not been forgotten, and sunny slopes 
 on which little else could have been grown, have been made 
 to yield a tolerable wine. In the opposite extremity of Bel 
 gium, chiefly in the province of Antwerp, and partly in that 
 of Limburg, an extensive tract occurs, which strikingly con 
 
 trasts in appearance with the hilly districts of the S.E., but 
 is perhaps still less adapted for the ordinary operations of 
 agriculture. This tract, known by the name of Campine, is a 
 vast expanse of moorland waste, of the most dreary appearance, 
 a dead monotonous flat, composed for the most part of barren 
 sand, in which the ordinary heaths and lichens will scarcely 
 grow. The greater part of this tract seems destined to re 
 main for ever in its natural state, but whenever a patch of 
 more promising appearance occurs, the hand of industry has 
 been at work, and corn fields and green pastures have become 
 not unfrequent even in the Campine. Agricultural colonies, 
 partly free, and partly compulsory, have been planted in dif 
 ferent parts of the district. The former consist of persons 
 generally in poor circumstances, who have voluntarily en 
 gaged in reclaiming barren tracts as the means of procuring 
 a maintenance, and saving them from the degradation of pau 
 perism. The latter consist of convicts, who, having forfeited 
 their liberty, give compulsory labour as the penalty of their 
 offences. By the united exertions of both, a wondrous im 
 provement has been made, and on parts of this waste, some 
 of the finest cattle of the country are reared, and much dairy 
 produce of excellent quality is obtained. Still, however, about 
 300,000 ac. remain untouched. With exception of the two 
 districts now described, there is no part of Belgium in which 
 agriculture does not flourish ; but the husbandry which has 
 been so much lauded, is seen in its greatest perfection in the 
 two Flanders. Its excellence is owing not to any superior 
 knowledge of what may be called the theory of agriculture, 
 nor to any remarkable ingenuity in the invention of imple 
 ments, by which its operations are more efficiently or more 
 cheaply performed, but chiefly to an innate spirit of economy 
 and industry an economy which carefully appropriates every 
 gain however small, and an industry which grudges no labour 
 however great, provided it is possible, by the application of it, 
 to obtain an additional amount of valuable produce. In fact, 
 the Flemish husbandry partakes more of the nature of garden 
 than of field culture. In many of its operations, no doubt, 
 horse labour is employed. The plough and the harrow are 
 in frequent requisition, but the implement on which the 
 greatest dependence is placed, is the earliest and simplest of 
 all the spade. To give full scope for the use of it, the 
 ground is parcelled out into small fields of a square form, 
 which have their highest point in the centre, and slope gently 
 from it in all directions towards the sides, where ditches of 
 sufficient size carry off the superfluous water as it filters into 
 them. To promote this filtration, the ground is trenched to 
 a uniform depth, so that the slope of the subsoil corresponds 
 as nearly as possible to that of the surface. In performing 
 this trenching, a considerable degree of skill and ingenuity is 
 displayed. The performance of the whole at once, would be 
 a formidable and not a very efficient process. In a few years, 
 a new subsoil would be formed, and the trenching would re 
 quire to be renewed. This is rendered unnecessary in the 
 following manner. The land is laid out in ridges about 5 ft. 
 wide, and when the seed is sown it is not covered, as usual, by 
 the harrow, but by earth dug from the furrows to the depth 
 of two spits, and spread evenly over the surface. By chang 
 ing the ridges, and throwing the furrow of the previous year 
 into the ridge of the next, the whole ground becomes furrow 
 in the course of five successive crops, and is consequently 
 trenched to the depth of about 18 inches. This process of 
 trenching never ceases, and is unquestionably one of the most 
 important characteristics of the Flemish husbandry. The only 
 other process particularly deserving of notice, is the care and 
 skill manifested in securing an adequate supply of manure. 
 Every farm is fully stocked, and the cattle, instead of being 
 grazed in the fields, are fed at home, in winter, on turnips and 
 other roots ; and in summer, on green crops carefully arranged, 
 so as to come forward in regular succession, and yield a full 
 supply of rich succulent food. In addition to this, every 
 homestead has a tank built and generally arched with brick, 
 into which all the liquids of the cattle sheds are conveyed, 
 and have their fertilizing properties increased by the dissolu 
 tion of large quantities of rape-cake. This liquid manure is 
 of singular efficacy in promoting the growth of flax, which 
 enters regularly into the Flemish rotation, and is perhaps the 
 most valuable crop of all, the produce of an acre being not 
 unfrequently sold for 50. As this crop is one of the most 
 exhausting which can be grown, and requires the richest 
 
BELGIUM 
 
 364 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 manure while it yields none, the growth of it to any great 
 extent, must, without the aid of the tank, have been impos 
 sible. At present, in Flanders alone, the value of flax 
 
 annually raised has been estimated at 1J millions sterling. 
 To save the necessity of further details, we subjoin tho fol 
 lowing table. 
 
 The PROVINCES of BELGIUM, their AREA, EXTENT under CULTIVATION, and POPULATION, as at Jan. 1, 1849. 
 
 PROVINCES. 
 
 Aren, in 
 *q. m. 
 
 Ana, in ae. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Wood. 
 
 Waste. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Pop. 
 pcrsq m 
 
 
 1 093 
 
 699 778 
 
 394 792 
 
 80 601 
 
 
 
 
 Brabant (S.) 
 Flanders (W.) 
 Flanders (E ) 
 
 1,267 
 1,248 
 1 157 
 
 810,958 
 798,916 
 740 474 
 
 671,504 
 669,219 
 621 701 
 
 106,175 
 72,856 
 74438 
 
 3,117 
 11,379 
 2 781 
 
 711,332 
 
 626,847 
 
 661-43 
 502-28 
 
 Lie"e 
 l.imburg 
 
 1,456 
 1,116 
 931 
 1 705 
 
 919,346 
 714,618 
 596,048 
 1 091 009 
 
 723,997 
 5:8,535 
 381,183 
 371 63G 
 
 1 50,201 
 134,121 
 88,163 
 
 9,043 
 33,612 
 
 123,903 
 
 723,539 
 460,663 
 185,621 
 
 503-05 
 412-79 
 199-37 
 
 Namur 
 
 1,413 
 
 904,465 
 
 447,826 
 
 310,086 
 
 119^407 
 
 268,143 
 
 118-92 
 
 
 11,366 
 
 7,275,613 
 
 4,800,393 
 
 1,360,218 
 
 813,116 
 
 4,359,090 
 
 
 It thus appears that about two thirds of the whole kingdom 
 is under cultivation, and nearly eight-ninths profitably occu 
 pied, leaving only about one-ninth waste. Of this last, the 
 far greater part belongs to the comparatively barren districts 
 of the S.E. and N.E., already described ; and hence, in the 
 more favoured provinces, particularly those of S. Brabant, the 
 two Flanders, and Hainaut, the quantity of waste is so very 
 small, that the whole surface may be regarded as one vast 
 garden. It is an error, however, to assert, as is usually done, 
 that Belgium raises more corn than it consumes. For several 
 years the import has considerably exceeded the export. In 
 1844, the import of wheat for home consumption amounted 
 to above 60,000 quarters. The average price, for the same 
 year, was 2, Is. 8d. per qr. Considerable attention has been 
 paid in Belgium to the rearing of stock, and the breeds both of 
 cattle and horses are of a superior description. The horses 
 of Flanders in particular, are admirably adapted for draught, 
 and an infusion of their blood has contributed not a little to 
 form the magnificent teams of the London draymen. In 
 general, however, Belgium stock of all kinds is inferior to 
 that of England. Throughout the kingdom, the estimated 
 number of horses is 250,000 ; of cattle, 900,000 ; and of 
 sheep, 753,000. 
 
 Mines. The mineral riches of Belgium are great, and, after 
 agriculture, form the most important of her national interests. 
 They are almost entirely confined to the four provinces of 
 Hainaut, Liege, Namur, and Luxembourg, and consist of lead, 
 manganese, calamine or zinc, iron, and coal. The lead is 
 wrought to some extent at Vedrin, in Liege ; but the quantity 
 obtained forms only a small part of the actual consumption. 
 Manganese, well known for its important bleaching properties, 
 is obtained both in Liege and Namur. The principal field of 
 calamine is at Liege, where it is worked to an extent which 
 not only supplies the home demand, but leaves a large surplus 
 for export. All these minerals, however, are insignificant 
 compared with those of iron and coal. The former has its seat 
 in the country between the Sambre and the Meuse, and also in 
 the province of Liege. At present, the largest quantity of ore 
 is raised in that of Namur. The coal field already described, 
 has an area of above 500 sq. m. The annual output exceeds 
 3,000,000 tons, and of these nearly two-thirds are obtained 
 in the province of Hainaut. It forms the largest and most 
 valuable of all the Belgian exports. More than a half of the 
 whole coal raised is taken by France. There cannot be a 
 doubt that this export yields a handsome profit to the coal- 
 masters, and adds greatly to the national wealth ; but a ques 
 tion has been raised as to the policy of thus lavishly disposing 
 of a raw material which is absolutely essential to the exist 
 ence of a manufacturing community, and the quantity of 
 which, though great, is by no means inexhaustible. One 
 obvious effect of the great foreign demand, is to raise the 
 price, and thus place some of the most important manufactur 
 ing interests of the country in an unfavourable position for 
 competing successfully with so formidable a rival as Great 
 Britain. Besides minerals, properly so called, Belgium is 
 abundantly supplied with building-stone, pavement, limestone, 
 roofing-slate, and marble. Of the last, the black marble of 
 Dinant is the most celebrated. 
 
 Manufactures. The industrial products of Belgium are 
 very numerous, and the superiority of many of them to those 
 of most other countries, is confessed. The fine linens of 
 
 Flanders, and lace of S. Brabant, are of European reputation. 
 Scarcely less celebrated are the carpets and porcelain of 
 Tournay, the cloth of Verviers, the carriages of Brussels, the 
 cutlery of Namur, the extensive foundries, machine-works, 
 and other iron establishments of Liege. The cotton manu 
 facture, confined chiefly to Flanders and the province of 
 Antwerp, engrosses a capital of 2,500,000, and gives em 
 ployment to more than 12,000 persons. 
 
 Trade and Commerce. The geographical position, the 
 admirable facilities of transport, and the indefatigable industry 
 of the inhabitants, early combined to place Belgium at the 
 very head of the trading countries of Europe. The gradual 
 rise of competitors still more highly favoured, has deprived 
 her of this pre-eminence ; but her trade is still of great im 
 portance, and within recent years has made a rapid advance. 
 Her coal and iron, and the numerous products of her manu 
 factures, furnish in themselves the materials of extensive 
 traffic ; while the possession of one of the best harbours in 
 the world, situated on a magnificent river, which directly, or 
 by canals, stretches its arms into every part of the kingdom, 
 and now made accessible by a system of railways with every 
 kingdom of Central Europe, promises to make it the seat of 
 a transit trade even more important than that which it mono 
 polized during the Middle Ages. The limited extent of the sea- 
 coast, on which alone mariners can be reared, seems to make 
 it impossible for Belgium ever to take high rank as a naval 
 power; but if others must be the sea- carriers, she certainly 
 bids fair soon to become the greatest land-carrier of the world. 
 This she owes chiefly to the admirable system of railway com 
 munication which, in the exercise of an enlightened policy, 
 was early established throughout the kingdom. This system 
 has its centre at Malines, from which a line proceeds N. to 
 Antwerp; another W. to Ostend, another S.W. through Mons, 
 and on to the Northern Railway of France, which communi 
 cates directly with Paris; and another S.E. to Liege, and on 
 into Prussia, where it first communicates with the Rhine at 
 Cologne, and thence by that river, and by rail, gains access 
 both E. and S. to all the countries of Central Europe. In 
 addition to these great trunks, one important branch connects 
 Liege with Namur and Mons ; and another from Antwerp, 
 after crossing the W. trunk at Ghent, passes Courtray and 
 proceeds directly towards Lille. The ramification is thus 
 complete ; and there is not a town in Belgium of any impor 
 tance which may not now, with the utmost facility, convey 
 the products of its industry by the safest and the speediest of 
 all means of transport. Electric telegraphs have been an 
 nexed to all or most of the lines. 
 
 From the official returns of external commerce of Belgium, 
 published by her government for the year 1850, it appears 
 that the Belgian trade is steadily advancing. Thus, taking 
 quinquennial periods as the best criterion to judge by, it 
 results that, from 1835 to 1839, the valued amount was 
 15,480,000; from 1840 to 1844, 25,000,000; from 1845 to 
 1849, 28,720,000; and in 1850, 36,480,000. The ex 
 ports of Belgian produce and manufactures, which in 1840 
 were to the value of 5,600,000, in 1849 had increased to 
 nearly 9,000,000. The articles of export are far more 
 numerous than those of import, the latter being chiefly raw 
 cotton, wool, and colonial produce. The former are prin 
 cipally coal and flax, tissues of flax, cotton, and wool; glass 
 wares, firearms, ami nails, in 1853 there were sent to Great 
 
BELGIUM 
 
 BELGIUM 
 
 Britain nearly 7,000,000 eggs; wool (sheep s and lambs ), 
 1,760,916 Ibs.; glass (flint) 142,530 Ibs. ; plate glass, 9598 
 sq. ft.; poultry and game (value) 15,381. 
 
 Little more than a half of the foreign commerce of Bel 
 gium is of a substantive nature, the rest depending on her 
 position and polity, as a trading intermediary for the produce 
 and goods passing to and from the states of the German 
 Zollverein, the Netherlands, Britain anil her colonies, America, 
 &c. Thus it appears that the value of the direct exports in 
 1850, from Belgium to the United States, was about 660,000 ; 
 from the United States to Belgium, about 1,300,000; but 
 these figures give us no clear idea of the balance of trade 
 between the two countries, as much of the American produce, 
 finally destined for Belgian use, is borne first to Britain, 
 &c. ; while, on the other hand, not a few manufactures of Bel 
 gian origin pass to the United States through France. To 
 the latter country, in fact, more than a third of the whole 
 exported products of Belgium is sent. Of similar character, 
 probably, is the Belgian trade with Turkey, the imports from 
 which, in 1850, were valued at fully 150,000, and the exports 
 thither to not quite 30,000. 
 
 The external trade of Belgium is chiefly carried on by 
 means of foreign vessels. The returns for 1849, indeed, 
 give a list of 161 ships, &c., employed in deep-sea voyaging; 
 but not more than five of these were of considerable burden. 
 In that year, the arrivals of vessels in Belgian ports from 
 foreign countries were 2424; total tons of their cargoes, 
 268,931. Belgium is, in fact, much more of a manufacturing 
 than a trading country. 
 
 The commercial intercourse between Belgium and Great 
 Britain is considerable. From the reports of the Board of 
 Trade, published in 1855, the following table of the chief 
 articles of British export has been drawn up: 
 
 GOODS AND PRODUCE. 
 
 Tt 
 
 1851. 18. 
 
 Cottons 
 Declared value of do. 
 Cotton yarn 
 
 ...yards. 
 .V.V. .Vb s; 
 
 2,122,4*1 1,57 
 54,209 S 
 1. 1 J79,556 1,15 
 
 Value 
 
 
 1(14,926 6 
 
 Linens 
 
 Value 
 
 ...yards 
 
 260,990 6 
 6,322 
 
 Linen yarn 
 
 V. .V. .iijs. 
 
 674,6-13 9 
 
 Value... 
 Woollens 
 Value 
 
 ..pieces 
 
 25.766 4 
 68,343 6 
 105,187 9 
 
 Woollens 
 
 . .[yards 
 
 846,636 1-2 
 
 Value... 
 
 
 3 637 
 
 Wool, sheep and lambs . 
 Value 
 Woollen yarn 
 
 .......Ibs 
 . . ." .Ibs 
 
 ).760istt 308 
 
 116.488 21 
 453,488 SfiJ 
 
 Value 
 
 
 1-8,620 3< 
 
 Silks, vnlue 
 
 
 33,013 4 
 
 Aggregate of British 
 exports, value 
 Do. foreign and colonial 
 
 native ^ 
 ) 
 
 984,501 1,076 
 7,718,407 1*6,848 
 
 L. 19,824 
 
 ,151,603 
 
 60.837 
 
 2 675 
 968,705 
 45,631 
 
 6S.106 
 95,243 
 7--!4.313 
 
 3,506 
 
 62.170 
 
 3,159.883 
 
 179,676 
 
 08,033 
 
 4,667 
 
 1,451,075 
 
 74,821 
 
 61,843 
 
 88,708 
 
 1,024,386 
 
 2,481 
 
 1,677,383 
 
 126,250 
 
 970,592 
 
 100,235 
 
 70,669 
 
 1,371,817 
 
 People. The Belgium population is the densest in Europe 
 and is composed of two distinct races-Flemish, who are of 
 German and Walloons, who are of French extraction. The 
 tormer, by tar the more numerous, have their principal locality 
 in Flanders ; but also prevail throughout Antwerp, Limburg 
 and part of S. Brabant. The latter are found chiefly in Hainan? 
 Liege, Namur, and part of Luxembourg. The language of 
 each corresponds with their origin-the Flemings speaking 
 a dialect of German, and the Walloons a dialect or rather 
 corruption of French, with a considerable infusL of words 
 and phrases from Spanish and other languages. This distinc 
 mixture of races, and the repeated changes of masters to which 
 they have been subjected, have necessarily been very unfa 
 vourable to the formation of a national character. Still in 
 some leading features, there is a remarkable uniformity in the 
 populate Though the position of the country between 
 France and Germany has made it the battle field of Europe, 
 the inhabitants show few warlike tendencies, and are unwearied 
 m pursuing the arts of peace. Hostile armies have frequently 
 met upon their soil to decide the fate of kingdoms, carryin- 
 devastation into every quarter; but no sooner have Set- 
 withdrawn, than the labours of the field and the workshop 
 have been quietly resumed, and the very traces of devastation 
 been, in a few years, effaced. The tact bears strong testi 
 mony to the patient endurance of the Belgians, but bespeaks 
 
 a deficiency both of physical and moral courage, and thus pre 
 pares us for another leading feature in their character their 
 blind and slavish subjection to the llomish see. Protestantism 
 is fully tolerated, and even salaried by the state, but cannot 
 count above one-twentieth of the population among its adher 
 ents. One astonishing circumstance connected with this state 
 of matters is, that Belgium early embraced, and at one time 
 seemed on the eve of being gained to, the Kefonnation. Per 
 secution of the most fearful kind took place, and did what, 
 perhaps, it has never done in any other part of the world, not 
 only forced the people back to a religion which they had 
 renounced, but induced them to return to it as willing con 
 verts. Where such a spirit prevails, education of an enlight 
 ened kind cannot have made much progress. Numerous 
 schools, partly free and partly supported by the state, are 
 planted throughout the kingdom ; but the instruction given is 
 of the most elementary description. Under the Dutch, attend 
 ance at these schools was compulsory. It has since become 
 voluntary, and is said to have, in consequence, declined. In 
 all the large towns, colleges (athcnees) have been established, 
 where a superior education may be obtained, while a complete 
 course for the learned professions is provided by four univer 
 sities ; two of them at Ghent and Liege respectively, established 
 and supported by the state ; one at Brussels, called the free 
 university, founded by voluntary association ; and one at 
 Louvain, called the Catholic university, founded by the clergy, 
 and apparently the most flourishing of all. Many of the pro 
 fessors in these universities are of distinguished reputation ; 
 but their works, written in French, which is still the official 
 language, and in general use among the educated classes, can 
 scarcely be regarded as forming part of a national literature. 
 Of late, however, patriotic feelings, to which the Belgians 
 have too long been strangers, have acquired new strength ; 
 and one of its first manifestations has been an eager desire to 
 cultivate the vernacular Flemish. It is said to possess great 
 power and flexibility, and several works have already appeared 
 in it, which bid fair to make it a classic language. The popu 
 lation, generally, is moral, and apparently in comfortable cir 
 cumstances. The far larger proportion of it is rural ; and 
 though property is very much subdivided, the Belgians, in 
 stead of exhibiting the wretchedness so common among the 
 small occupiers in Ireland, manage, by a happy combination 
 of agricultural with other industrial employments, to derive 
 from their little tenures all the necessaries, and not a few of 
 the comforts of life. It is not to be denied, however, that in 
 some of the provinces, particularly in Flanders, population, 
 in so far, at least, as it can be maintained by agricultural 
 resources, has reached its limit ; and that a deficiency of other 
 employment, particularly spinning and hand-loom weaving, 
 has placed large numbers on, if not within, the verge of pau 
 perism. In Flanders and S. Brabant, a fourth of the people is 
 dependent on total or occasional relief; and pauper riots have 
 repeatedly occurred. Still, the population continues to move 
 on, as if with accelerated pace. In 1841, it was 4,067,393 ; 
 and in 1849, 4,359,090. 
 
 Government. The Belgian constitution combines mon 
 archical with a strong infusion of the democratic principle. 
 The executive power is vested in a hereditary king ; the 
 legislative in the king and two chambers, the senate and the 
 chamber of representatives ; both elected by citizens paying 
 about 35*. of direct taxes the former for eight years, and 
 the latter for four ; but one-half renewable every two years. 
 The chief divisions of the territory is into nine provinces, 
 each of which is administered by a governor, and is subdivided 
 into arrondissements admiuistratifs, and arrondissements judi 
 ciaries ; subdivided again, respectively, into cantons de milice 
 and cantons de justice de paix. Each canton is composed of 
 several communes, of which the sum total throughout the 
 kingdom is 2514. The other great territorial divisions are 
 the ecclesiastical, which divides the kingdom into six dioceses ; 
 and the military, which divides it into four sections. The army 
 has an effective force of 90,000 men, with a reserve of the same 
 amount ; but all citizens between the age of 21 and 50 are 
 enrolled in the garde civiqite, and form a militia of not less 
 than 500,000. The defensive power of the kingdom is greatly 
 id-eased by numerous strong fortresses. The navy of Bel 
 gium is confined to a few steamers and a small flotilla of gun 
 boats. The public revenue for 1850, derived chiefly from 
 direct taxation and dues of transport, amounted to 4,636,420. 
 
BELGRADE I 
 
 The expenditure amounted to 4,670,206. About one-third 
 of it was absorbed by the interest of the debt, the sum total 
 of which, at the same date, was 39,747,060. The coins, 
 weights, and measures are the same, both in name and value, 
 as those of France (which see). 
 
 History. The first mention of the country is made by Julius 
 Csesar, who includes it in one of the three divisions of Gaul, 
 and describes its inhabitants as particularly distinguished for 
 valour. It continued under Roman domination till A.D. 409, 
 when it became part of the empire of the Franks; which, under 
 Clovis, extended from the Khine to the Loire. On the death 
 of Clovis, in 511, it was divided among his sons, and formed 
 four separate kingdoms. Ultimately, about A.D. 800, they 
 all merged in the empire of Charlemagne. In the partition 
 which took place on his death, almost the whole of modern 
 Belgium fell to his son Lothaire. It was afterwards subdivided 
 into several duchies, which, having been gradually absorbed by 
 that of Brabant, passed with it to the house of Burgundy, in 
 1406, and continued with it till 1477, when, by the marriage of 
 Mary, heiress of Charles the Bold, it became united to Austria ; 
 and shortly after formed part of the extensive dominions of 
 the Emperor Charles V. Through him, Belgium was united 
 to the Spanish monarchy. On the peace of 1714, it was ceded 
 to Austria; which maintained its possession till 1791, when 
 the armies of the French republic overran the country, and 
 portioned it out into nine departments, as part and parcel of 
 France. On the downfall of Napoleon, the allies united Bel 
 gium and Holland, under the king of the latter, into the king 
 dom of the Netherlands. The union was never harmonious, 
 and proved short-lived. Taking advantage of the agitation 
 caused by the expulsion of the Bourbons from France, in 
 1830, the Belgians revolted, and obtained a recognition of their 
 independence. They have since enjoyed great prosperityunder 
 the enlightened and constitutional government of their own 
 king, Leopold I. The recent changes in France were gene 
 rally expected to produce corresponding changes in Belgium ; 
 and thousands of Frenchmen proceeded to the frontier to 
 bestow the benefits of their republicanism. The Belgians, 
 by the decisive manner in which they rejected the boon, 
 proved that they are both sensible of the better blessings which 
 they already enjoy, and prepared, if necessary, to defend them. 
 (Meert s Belyique ; Almanack Jtoyal de Heltjique Almanack 
 de Gotha; Das Gegenwart; Parliamentary Papers.} 
 
 BELGRADE [anc. Sicjindunum; Latin, Alba Grccca, 
 Uettogradia], a fortified city, N. part of European Turkey, 
 cap. of Servia, r. bank, Danube, at the junction of the Save 
 with that river ; lat. 44 47 46" N. ; Ion. 20 39 E. ; on the 
 declivity of a hill. It is composed of the citadel, rising in the 
 centre, and situated on a rock 100 ft. high; the lower town 
 stretching W. from the citadel to the river ; and the suburbs, 
 Baizenstadt on the Save (opposite to the mouth of which river 
 is the island Zingaris), and Palanka on the E. and S., leaning 
 upon the height on which the citadel stands. The houses 
 are, in general, very mean ; the streets filthy in the extreme, 
 and infested by swarms of half-famished dogs ; and the shops 
 consist wholly of a series of wooden stalls or booths, open 
 towards the street, and, in general, poorly stocked. The only 
 public buildings worthy of notice are the caravansary, the 
 college, the two exchanges, and the two bazaars, the residence 
 of Prince Milosch, a Greek church, and the barracks. Belgrade 
 was at one time strongly fortified, and might still be rendered 
 almost impregnable ; but its works have been neglected, and 
 are now rapidly decaying. Within the fortress are the arsenal 
 and magazines erected by the Austrians, the principal mosque, 
 with its lofty tower, and the palace of the pasha, the latter 
 composed of wood and mud. The garrison maintained in the 
 citadel is in keeping with its ruinous condition, consisting of 
 a few half-disciplined, ill-equipped, and miserably paid Turk 
 ish soldiers. The principal articles of manufacture are carpets, 
 silk stuffs, hardware, cutlery, and saddlery ; but the quantities 
 produced are inconsiderable, compared to what they were in 
 former times, when Belgrade was celebrated for the extent of 
 its manufactures. From the excellence of its port, formed 
 by three islands in the Danube, above the town, and its favour 
 able position on the Danube, which gives it an easy communi 
 cation with the Black Sea, it still carries on a pretty extensive 
 trade. The military experiences of Belgrade have rendered 
 it famous in history. Being the key of Hungary, it was long 
 an object of fierce contention between the Austrians and the 
 
 BELIZE 
 
 Turks. It was besieged by the latter in 1456; and again, 
 with more success, in 1522, from which time it was held by 
 them till 1688, when it was retaken by the Elector of Bavaria. 
 Two years afterwards, it was again captured by the Turks, 
 who perpetrated every sort of atrocity in the conquered city, 
 besides killing 1200 of the garrison. In 1693, the Austrians 
 made an unsuccessful attempt to regain the town, sustaining 
 a loss of 1000 men. From this period it remained in posses 
 sion of the Turks till the year 1717, when it was besieged by 
 Prince Eugene, with an army of 90,000 men ; the Turkish gar 
 rison amounting to 25,000 men, supported by a strong flotilla 
 on the Danube, and subsequently by an army of 200,000 men, 
 under the Grand Vizier, who marched to the relief of the city. 
 After a desperate conflict between the contending armies, the 
 Turks were defeated, with a loss of 13,000 killed, 5000 
 wounded, and 3000 prisoners ; the Austrians having only 
 3000 killed and 4500 wounded. In 1739, the Turks made 
 another vain attempt to retake Belgrade ; but came, soon after, 
 into possession of it by treaty, retaining it till 1789, when it 
 was taken by the Austrians, who restored it to the Turks in 
 1791 ; since which time it has remained in their possession, 
 except for a short period during the Servian insurrection, when 
 (1813) its suburbs were burned and its fortifications partly 
 destroyed. Pop. 30,000. 
 
 BELGRAVE, par. Eng. Leicester; 3430 ac. P. 2609. 
 
 BELHAVEN, a small marine vil. Scotland, co. of, and 
 10 m. N.E. Haddington, and half a mile S.W. Dunbar, beau 
 tifully situated at the head of a small bay. The houses are 
 of stone, and most of them neatly built ; and in the vicinity 
 are several handsome mansions. Water is abundant, and a 
 supply of gas is obtained from Dunbar. Belhaven has a chapel 
 in connection with the Establishment. Ale is the only manu 
 facture, for the making of which there is here erected an 
 extensive brewery. The locality is remarkably healthy, and 
 forms, altogether, a very desirable summer retreat ; enhanced 
 for such purpose by a mineral spring lately discovered there. 
 Belhaven gives the title of Baron to a branch of the family of 
 Hamilton. Pop. 380. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BELHELV1E, par. Scot. Aberdeen. Pop. 1594. 
 
 BELIDA, or BLIDA, an inland tn. Algeria, at the foot of 
 the Lesser Atlas, near the plain of Metidjah, 30 m. S. the town 
 of Algiers. It is surrounded by a wall, entered by four gates. 
 The streets are comparatively wide, and the supply of water 
 abundant. The adjoining country is fertile, yielding grain 
 and all sorts of fruit in great quantities, including, amongst 
 the latter, oranges and olives. To these, and spices, the 
 trade of the place is chiefly confined. The town was nearly 
 destroyed by an earthquake in March 1825. P. (1849), 8247. 
 
 BELITZ, a tn. Prussia, prov. Brandenburg, 12 m. S. by 
 W. Potsdam. It is surrounded by old walls, and has con 
 siderablc manufactures of linen. Flax is grown extensively 
 
 in the neighbourhood. Pop. 2000. There are several 
 
 other small places of this name in Prussia. 
 
 BELIZE, or BALIZE, a tn. British Honduras, or the 
 Settlement of Belize, Yucatan, Central America, situated at 
 the mouth of the river of the same name, which is crossed by 
 a substantial wooden bridge ; lat. 17 29 18" N. ; Ion. 88 12 
 W. (R.) It consists of a long street, running parallel to the 
 sea-shore, from which three or four smaller streets diverge. 
 The houses are constructed entirely of wood, and are raised 
 8 or 10 ft. from the ground on pillars of mahogany ; they are 
 well built, spacious, and convenient. The town seems almost 
 entirely inhabited by blacks ; the streets, stores, and market 
 places being thronged with them. They arc described by 
 Mr. Stephens as a fine-looking race, tall, straight, and athletic, 
 and well dressed the men in white cotton shirts and trousers, 
 with straw hats ; the women in white frocks, and short sleeves, 
 and broad red borders, and adorned with large ear-rings and 
 necklaces. During the three dry months of the year, April, 
 May, and June, fresh water is extremely scarce here, and, 
 indeed, throughout the whole settlement, there being no rivu 
 lets, and the water of the river being brackish for several miles 
 upwards. The consequence is, that the inhabitants, at this 
 season, are compelled to have recourse to wells about 3 ft. 
 in depth, from which they procure a muddy, brackish, and 
 fetid water, injurious to health, and productive of a variety 
 of disorders. Strenuous efforts sre now being made to re 
 medy this evil, both by the Government and the European 
 public of Belize ; and considerable sums have already been 
 
BELK 
 
 367 
 
 BELLE-ISLE-EN-MER 
 
 expended in sinking wells. An iron market-house has re 
 cently been erected in the town, for which 4000 was voted. 
 A savings - bank has been established, under the gaurantee 
 of the local legislature. There are, also, a public hospi 
 
 tal, a dispensary for the relief of the poor, an asylum for 
 the reception of lunatics, and a grammar-school, conducted 
 on the Madras system, and which was attended, in 1847, 
 by 100 pupils, while in the year before the number was 
 only 75. This school, which is entirely supported by the 
 local government, has a department for girls annexed. The 
 Baptists and Wesleyans have chapels here, with schools con 
 nected the former, one ; the latter, two. There are five 
 judicial courts in Belize the court of ordinary, and the 
 supreme, grand, summary, and police courts. It is also the 
 seat of the Honduras legislation. The anchorage in front of 
 the town is excellent, being protected from the heavy swells 
 of the open sea by the numerous cays ; but is adapted for 
 vessels of moderate size only. Belize is said to have obtained 
 its name from a noted bucaneer, called Wallace, by whom it 
 was first discovered. The name was written Waliz by the 
 Spaniards, and subsequently corrupted into Belize, as it now 
 stands. For trade, &c., see HONDURAS (BRITISH). 
 
 BELK, or HUMMOCK ISLAND, an isl. Asiatic Archipelago, 
 one of theSerangani Islands; 23 m. S. Serangani Point, isl. 
 Mindanao; lat. 5 24 N.; Ion. 125 21 E.. (R.) 
 
 BELL ROCK, or INCH CAPE, a dangerous reef off the E. 
 coast of Scotland, in the German Ocean, opposite the Frith of 
 Tay, 12 m. S.E. by S. Arbroath, and about the same distance 
 N.E. Fife Ness; lat. 56 26 N.; Ion. 2 23 W. (R.) The 
 reef, which is of a reddish sandstone, is about 850 yards in 
 length, and 110 in breadth. At low water, some of its highest 
 parts are from 4 to 8 ft. above the level of the sea, but at 
 high water the whole is covered, in some places to a depth of 
 about 12 ft. In stormy weather the sea breaks over it with 
 tremendous fury, and many vessels have been lost on it, as it 
 lies in a much frequented track. To prevent as much as pos 
 sible the recurrence of such disasters, a magnificent lighthouse 
 was erected on one of its points in 1808-10, at an expense of 
 61,331. The total height of the building, including the 
 light-room, is 115 ft.; the lantern being elevated 90 ft. above 
 the sea at high-water mark. The light is revolving, the 
 flashes succeeding each other every two minutes. During 
 
 foggy weather, bells are tolled every half minute. In ancient 
 times, there was a solitary bell on the rock, which was rung 
 by the action of the waves, and warned vessels of their danger. 
 The circumstance, according to tradition, of this bell having 
 been sunk by a Dutch pirate, who was himself, in consequence, 
 afterwards wrecked on the reef, has afforded subject for an 
 impressive ballad by Southey, called The Inch Cape Bell. 
 
 BELL S (KING) TOWN, atn.,\V. Africa, 1. bank, Came- 
 roons River, near its embouchure in the Bight of Biafra; 
 lat. 4 2 N. ; Ion. 9 41 E., cap. of a self-styled regal chief 
 of Guinea. The houses are neatly constructed of bamboo, in 
 wide and regular streets, interspersed with plantain and cocoa- 
 nut trees. The King s house is well built, with a raised story, 
 surrounded by a verandah. A spacious saloon occupies the 
 whole front, and is filled with European goods in chests, and 
 piles of crockery ; figures and looking-glasses in abundance 
 adorning the walls. (Allen s Niger Expedition.} 
 
 BELLA, a tn. Naples, prov. Basilicata, 15 m. S.W. Melfi 
 on a hill. It has a collegiate and one other church, an hos 
 pital, and three charitable institutions. Pop. 5800. 
 
 BELLA ISOLA. See BORROMEAN ISLES. 
 
 BELLAC, a tn. France, dep. Haute Vienne, on the slope 
 of a hill on the r. bank, VinQou, 23 m. N.N.W. Limoges. It 
 has manufactories of cloth, paper, table linen, hats, and leather, 
 th a considerable trade in horses, cattle, mules, oak wood, 
 &c. Pop. 3166. 
 
 BELLAGIO [Latin, Bilacus], a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. 
 Milan, cap. dist. of same name, prov. of, and 15 m. N.N.E. 
 Como, on the 1. bank of the lake of that name, at the ex 
 tremity of the promontory which divides the lake into two 
 arms. Here are several beautiful villas, and it is said that 
 here Pliny the younger had his country-house. Pop. 2258. 
 
 The DISTRICT is, for the most part, fertile ; but in some 
 
 parts hilly and well wooded. Pop 9051. 
 
 BELLANO, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, cap. dist. 
 of same name, prov. of, and 26 m. N.N.E. Como, at the mouth 
 of the Pioverna, on the E. shore of Lake Como. It is well 
 built, has a handsome principal street, an archiepiscopal palace, 
 and several curious natural caverns. Pop. 2135. The DIS 
 TRICT is very productive, and it pastures large herds of cattle. 
 Pop. 7685. 
 
 BELLARY [VaMiari], a collectorate, Hindoostan, pre 
 sidency of Madras, part of the Balaghaut ceded districts. It 
 occupies the W. section of Balaghaut, but its limits have not 
 been well denned. The principal towns in it are, Bellary 
 (the capital), Bijanagur, Adoni, Gooty, and Curnoul. It is 
 watered by the Krishna, Toombudra, and Vadavati; and 
 
 yields cotton, but not in large quantities. The TOWN, cap. 
 
 of the above collectorate, the head-quarters of a civil estab 
 lishment and military division, is 272 m. N.W. Madras; lat. 
 15 5 N. ; Ion. 76 57 E. The fort is a square building, on 
 an isolated rock, very difficult of access, and protected by 
 three distinct ranges of works, one above the other. The 
 pettah, or small fortified town below, is spacious, and contains 
 perhaps the most regular military bazaar in India. BEL 
 LARY is also the name of a tn., prov. Allahabad, 50 m. N.E. 
 Gurrah, where are several fine Hindoo temples, and the ruins 
 of a large town. 
 
 BELLAS, a tn. Portugal, prov. Estremadura, 9 m. N.W. 
 Lisbon, 1. bank, Ancelva. The chalybeate waters in the 
 neighbourhood are highly valued. Pop. about 3446. 
 
 BELLE-ALLIANCE, a farm-house, Belgium, field of 
 Waterloo, r. side of the highroad to Brussels, and about 2 m. 
 S. Mont St. Jean. Here Napoleon marshalled his guards for 
 their last effort at Waterloo, and here Wellington and Bliicher 
 met after the battle was gained. 
 
 BELLEAU, par. Eng. Lincoln; 650 ac. Pop. 193. 
 
 BELLEEK, par. and vil. Irel. Fermanagh; 12,849 ac. 
 Pop. 2875. 
 
 BELLEGARDE, the name of 12 or 13 small towns and 
 villages in France. One in dep. Pyre nees-Orientales, is a 
 fortification of the first class, intended to command the pass 
 of Perthus, between France and Spain. 
 
 BELLEGHEM, a tn. and com. Belgium, W. Flanders, 
 3 m. S. Courtray ; with breweries aud oil-mills, and some trade 
 in flax and thread. Pop. 3233. 
 
 BELLE-iSLE-EN-MER [anc. Colonesus, Pulclira insula], an 
 isl. France, dep. Morbihan, in the N. part of the Bay of Biscay ; 
 lat. (lighthouse) 47 18 42" N. ; Ion. 3 13 30" W. (R.) ; 11 m. 
 
BELLE ISLE 
 
 BELLOVAK 
 
 long, and about 6 broad. It is almost entirely surrounded by 
 rocks, but is accessible by vessels at low water. Le Palais is 
 the chief town, and has the best of the three harbours on the 
 island ; the depth of water, however, seldom exceeds 5 ft. 
 It is defended by a citadel. The island is fertile, and produces 
 excellent wheat. There is also a considerable extent of rich 
 pasture, on which 700 or 800 horses of the best Breton breed 
 are annually reared. Fresh water, of good quality, is abun 
 dant; and, about Ij m. from Le Palais, may be seen the 
 reservoir of Port Larron, constructed by Vauban, for the 
 supply of water to the ships of the French navy. On the 
 S.W. part of the island, a light of the first class is situated, 
 27G ft. above the sea level, and can be seen from a distance 
 of 19 m. Several druidical monuments are to be found 
 in the island. The English took possession of Belle-isle in 
 1761, but restored it to France at the peace of 1763. Pop. 
 about 6000. 
 
 BELLE ISLE. 1, An isl. and strait, British America. 
 The former is situated near the middle of the N.E. entrance 
 to the strait of the same name, 15 m. N. from the most N. 
 point of Newfoundland, and about the same distance E. from 
 the coast of Labrador ; lat. (N.E. point) 52 1 N.; Ion. 55 17 
 W. It is about 21 m. in circumference ; and has a small, but 
 convenient harbour, on its N.W. side. The fisheries round 
 the island are said to be of great value, but have hitherto 
 
 been, in a great measure, monopolized by the French. The 
 
 STRAIT is a channel between the N.W. coast of Newfoundland 
 and the coast of Labrador, on the continent of N. America. 
 Its length is about 80 m., and its breadth about 12. It is 
 
 considered unsafe, and therefore little frequented. 2, Two 
 
 other small islands, Newfoundland. One on the N.E. coast; 
 lat. 50 40 N. ; Ion. 55 25 W. ; and the other on the S.E. 
 coast, in Conception Bay, about 20 m. N.W. St. John. 
 
 BELLEM, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. E. Flanders, 
 19m. W.N.W. Ghent; with a considerable manufacture of 
 sailcloth, a brickwork, an oil and a corn mill. 
 The canal from Ghent to Bruges traverses 
 the commune from E. to W. Pop. 1847. 
 
 BELLEME, or BELLESME, a tn. France, 
 dep. Orne, 10 m. S. Mortagne. The streets 
 are neat, clean, straight, and well paved. It 
 has manufactures of cotton, table linen, can 
 vas, cotton yarn, and paper ; and has a good 
 trade in corn, ship-timber, cotton goods, 
 horses, and cattle. Pop. 3241. 
 
 BELLEVILLE. 1, A vil. France, dep. 
 Seine, 3 m. from Paris, built in an agreeable 
 situation, on an eminence, for the most part 
 covered with country-seats. It has very much 
 increased within the last 50 years, and now 
 forms almost a suburb of the metropolis. It 
 has numerous gmngiiettes, tea gardens, and 
 other places of amusement, much resorted to 
 by the Parisians. On the hill of Belleville 
 are springs of water, which supply the capital 
 by an aqueduct, which is one of the most an 
 cient in the neighbourhood of Paris, being 
 mentioned as early as the year 1244. It has 
 manufactures of varnished leather, chemical 
 stuffs, articles in polished steel, &c.; and 
 spinning-mills for fine woollen yarn, which 
 is wovtn into cachemires. Pop. (1846), 
 24,235. 2, Bellevitte-sur-tSavne, a tn. France, dep. Rh5ne, 
 8 m. N.N.E. Villefranche. It has manufactures of calico and 
 embroidery ; and carries on a considerable trade in casks, and 
 in wine produced in the vicinity, which is sent to Paris and the 
 
 N. of France. Pop. 1870. 3, A vil., U. States, New 
 
 Jersey, 3 m. N.E. Newark. It has an episcopal and several 
 other churches, with a variety of schools ; fine mill-streams, 
 and various kinds of manufactories. The calico printing-works 
 are extensive. Pop. 2466. 
 
 BELLE Y [anc. Bellied], a. tn. France, dep. Ain, cap. 
 arrond., 39 m. S.E. Bourg, and 38 m. S.W. Geneva, agreeably 
 situated between two hills, a short distance from the Rhone, 
 in a fertile valley, watered by the Furan. A suspension 
 bridge across the Rhone, at Balme-sous-Pierre-Chatel, con 
 nects France with the magnificent road of the Mont-du-Chat, 
 leading to Italy by Chambery and Mont Cenis. The town is 
 very ancient, having been a place of note in the time of Julius 
 
 Caesar, and is the scat of a bishopric, founded in 412. It 
 contains a communal college, agricultural society, and court 
 of primary resort. The episcopal palace, the belfry of the 
 cathedral, the college, and the rich cabinet of medals and 
 antiquities, are worth notice. Muslins and Indianas are 
 made here. Silkworms are reared ; and lithographic stones, 
 reckoned the best in France, are obtained from quarries in 
 the neighbourhood. Pop. 3666. 
 
 BELLHEIM, a market tn. Bavaria, circle, Pfalz, about 
 5 m. from Germcrsheim, on the Spiegelbach. It is a place of 
 great antiquity, being noticed so early as the eighth century ; 
 and has two churches a Protestant and a R. Catholic. Pop., 
 chiefly agricultural, 2375. 
 
 BELL1GAM, a tn. Ceylon, prov. same name, situated 
 on a small, but beautiful bay, between Matura and Point de 
 Galle. The houses are scattered among cocoa-nut groves. 
 It contains many religious edifices, in one of which is a colos 
 sal figure of Buddha, in a reclining posture. The inhabitants, 
 who are composed of Singhalese and Moors, are chiefly em 
 ployed in fishing. (Ceylon Oaz.) 
 
 BELLI NGEWOLDE, a vil. Holland, prov. of, and 
 27 m. E.S.E. Groningen, in a moorish district on the Hano 
 verian frontier. It has a church, and two schools. The in 
 habitants are mainly employed in agriculture. Pop. 1500. 
 
 BELLINGHAM, a market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Northumberland. The town, pleasantly situated on a decliv 
 ity, 1. bank, N. Tyne, contains an ancient church, the only 
 one in the district which has survived the Reformation, one 
 Presbyterian, and one R. Catholic chapel. Area of par. 
 15,540 ac. Pop. of par. 1730; of tn. 672. 
 
 BELLINGHAUSEN ISLAND, one of the Society 
 Islands, S. Pacific Ocean; lat. 15 48 S.; Ion. 154 30 W. (R.) 
 about 350 m. N.N.W. Tahiti. 
 
 BELLINZONA [German, Bellenz], a tn. Switzerland, 
 one of the three caps, of can Tessiu or Ticino, 1. bank, Ticino, 
 
 BELLINZONA. From Sazerac, Lettres sur la Suiase. 
 
 here crossed by a stone bridge of 10 arches, and about 5 m. 
 from its embouchure in the N. end of Lago Maggiore. It 
 occupies the whole breadth of the narrow valley in wliichit 
 stands. The walls and ditches prevented the increase of the 
 town, the houses of which, built of stone, have a regular ap 
 pearance, and are mostly built over arcades, but form narrow 
 and dirty streets. It is a place of some commercial im 
 portance, as an entrepot for the merchandise of Germany and 
 Italy, and from its position at the union of the four roads 
 from the St. Gothard, the Bernardin, and from Lugano, and 
 Locarno on the Lago Maggiore. It contains an arsenal, 
 prison, Benedictine college, some silk-mills, and tanneries. 
 Pop. 1520. 
 
 BELLOVAR,or BELOVAii,afortifiedtn. Austria, Croatian 
 military frontier, on the Belovar, 12 m. S.E. Kreutz; lat. 
 45 56 N. ; Ion. 16 46 E. It has two churches, and a sem 
 inary of Piarists, all handsome structures ; a grammar-school. 
 
BELLUNO 
 
 BELOOCHISTAN 
 
 and an hospital. A considerable quantity of silk is spun and 
 exported, and the potteries, which are numerous and extensive, 
 produce wares which are in great repute, not only in Croatia, 
 but the surrounding provinces. Pop. 2800. 
 
 BELLUNO, a prov. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, bounded 
 N. and AV. by Tyrol, E. by prov. Friaul, and S. by provs. 
 Treviso andViceuza; area, 1088 geo. sq. m.; divided into 
 eight circles. It is mountainous ; its principal stream is the 
 Piave, and the only lakes of note are Capicino and Allegho. 
 Grain, wine, fruits, and timber, are produced plentifully, and 
 its rich pastures feed a large number of cattle and sheep. It 
 likewise yields copper, lead, iron, alum, sulphur, chalk, pipe 
 clay, and marble. Pop. 125,000. 
 
 BELLUNO [Latin, BeUunum], a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. 
 of, and 48 m. N. Venice, cap. of above prov., on a hill, r. bank, 
 Piave, at its junction with the Ardo. It is well built, and 
 fortified, and contains, besides the cathedral planned by Pal- 
 ladio, several churches, convents, and hospitals ; an extensive 
 public library founded by the prelate Lollini, a gymnasium, 
 and several other educational institutions. It has a consider 
 able trade in timber, wines, and fruits ; and has manufactories 
 of wax, silk, leather, hats, and earthenware. The town is 
 supplied with water from a considerable distance, by means 
 of an aqueduct. It is the see of a bishop, who had formerly 
 the title of Count of Belluno, and is the residence of the 
 governor of the province. From this town, Victor, one of 
 Bonaparte s marshals, took his title of Duke of Belluno. Pop. 
 10,000. 
 
 BELLUS, or BELUSSA, a market tn. Hungary, co. of, and 
 16m. N.N.E. Trentschen, 1. bank, Waag. It is governed by 
 its own magistracy, has a parish church and a chapel, a con 
 siderable manufacture of earthenware, and a sulphur spring. 
 Pop. 2330. 
 
 BELMONTE. 1, A tn. Spain, New Castile, prov. of 
 and 45 m. S.W. by S. Cuenca, on the declivities of two small 
 hills in the extensive plain of La Mancha. It has irregular 
 and badly-paved streets, two squares, two churches, a town- 
 house, hospital, school, prison (once a Jesuits college), and some 
 convents. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in tillage, but 
 they also weave some woollen stuffs, and express oil. Pop. 
 
 2533. 2, A coast tn. Brazil, prov. Bahia, at the mouth of 
 
 the Jequitinhonha, also called the Rio Grande or Belmonte ; 
 lat. 15 54 S. ; Ion. 38 30 W. It consists of three straight 
 streets, each of upwards of 80 houses, surrounded by palm- 
 trees, which give the place an agreeable aspect ; and has a 
 church, townhall, prison, and primary school. The port is 
 inconsiderable, and is impeded by a sand bar at the mouth of 
 the river ; still it admits coasters, and has communication up 
 the river with the interior of the province of Minas Geraes, 
 whence, from Minas Novas, considerable quantities of salt are 
 
 brought. Pop. 600. 3, A tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Citra, 
 
 13m. S.W. Cosenza, on a mountain not far from the Mediter 
 ranean. It has a citadel, and four churches. Silkworms are 
 
 reared in the district. Pop. 2914. 4, A small tn. Naples, 
 
 prov. Sannio, 18 m. N.E. Isema. 5, A small tn. Portugal, 
 
 prov. Beira-baixa, on a hill overlooking a fertile valley, 15 m. 
 S. Guarda. Pop. 1144. 
 
 BELMONTE (Rio). See JEQUITINHONHA. 
 BELMULLET, a small tn. and port, Ireland, co. Mayo, 
 32 m. AV.N.AV. Ballina, consisting of two streets, and a small 
 central square, a session-house, &c. Corn and fish are exported, 
 and timber, iron, slates, and other requisites imported. Many 
 of the inhabitants are engaged in fishing. Pop. 637. 
 
 BELCE1L, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, 16 m. 
 E.S.E. Tournai, on the road to Mons. It is chiefly remark 
 able for its old castle, built in 1146, now the seat of the Princes 
 de Ligne. With its gardens and parks, it forms a noble do 
 main; and its interior is rich in pictures and other objects 
 of art and curiosity. The commune of Belceil is one of the 
 loveliest in the province, and exports various kinds of agri 
 cultural produce, as well as cattle. It has several breweries, 
 two salt-refineries, and a tannery. Many of the inhabitants 
 live by tambouring. Pop. 2429. 
 
 BELOOCHISTAN, or BALOOCHISTAN, an extensive 
 country, S. Asia, lying between Persia and the valley of 
 the Indus, having the former on the AV., Afghanistan on the 
 N., Scinde on the E., and the Arabian Sea on the S.; extend 
 ing from lat. 24 50 to 30 40 N.; and from Ion. 58 51 to 
 67 30 E.; greatest length, E. to AV.. about 600 m.; greatest 
 VOL. I. 
 
 breadth, N. to S., 380; area, 160,000 sq. m. Its sea-coast 
 rom Cape Monze, or Ras Moaree, to Cape Jask at the W. 
 extremity, is of remarkably uniform outline, about 630 m. in 
 extent, and has several well-sheltered roadsteads, particularly 
 Soumeanee Bay and Choubar Bay, but no good harbours. 
 Beloochistan is a little-known country, consequently in de 
 cribing it, only an approximation to accuracy can be attained. 
 It comprises seven divisions, or provinces: 1, Cutch Gun- 
 dava on the N.E, bordering E. on Scinde, and N. on Afghan- 
 tan. 2, Sarawan, bounded, N.and W. by Afghanistan, and E. 
 by Cutch Gundava. 3, Kelat, in which is the reputed capital 
 of the country of the same name, bounded, E., N.,and W.,by the 
 two provinces already named, and S. by Jhalawan. 4, Jhala- 
 an, bounded, N. by the three preceding provinces, E. by 
 Scinde, W. by prov. Mekran, and S. by Lus. 5, Lus, bounded 
 E. by Scinde, S. by the Arabian Sea, W. by Mekran, and N. 
 by Jhalawan. 6, Mekran, or Mukran, occupying the whole 
 breadth of the country, from the desert of Afghanistan on the 
 N., to the Arabian Sea on the S., and bounded, E. by Jhalawan 
 and Lus, from which it is separated by a ridge of mountains, 
 and W. by Persia and Kohistan ; from the latter of which it 
 "s separated by the Bushkurd mountain-range. 7, Kohistan, 
 the mountain-country, and the most W. province, bounded, E. 
 and S. by Mekran, W. by Persia, and N. by Seistan. Harrand 
 and Dajil, included in some enumerations, appear properly to 
 belong to Scinde. The provinces will be found noticed in 
 separate articles, in their proper place. 
 
 Surface and Geology. The general surface of Beloochistan 
 s rugged and mountainous, with some extensive intervals of 
 barren sandy deserts. The direction of the numerous moun 
 tain-chains with which it is intersected, are almost wholly 
 unknown, with exception of a few of the principal ranges, and 
 of these the general parallelism and uniformity are somewhat 
 remarkable, one system having an inclination from N. to S., 
 another more palpably from E. to W. ; of the latter, one vast 
 chain stretches along the entire coast, from the vicinity of 
 Ras Jask on the W., to the river Pooralee on the E., appar 
 entlya continuation of the great mountain-systems of Armenia, 
 Azerbijan, Kurdistan, and Luristan, which, uniting at Shiraz, 
 hold on their course in a single range to the valley of the 
 Indus. Parallel to this range, and at the distance of about 
 70 m. N. from it, another well defined chain intersects Mekran, 
 stretching from about Ion. 60 30 to 65 30 E., where it joins 
 the Sarawanee Mountains near Beila. A third parallel range, 
 called the Wushutee, or Mue Mountains, about 110 m. N. 
 from the last-described chain, forms part of the N. boundary 
 of Beloochistan, separating it from the great S. desert of 
 Afghanistan. This range is much shorter than either of the 
 other two, being not more than a third of the length of the 
 first, and scarcely a half of that of the second. The other 
 more remarkable chains are the Bushkurd Mountains, stretch 
 ing S.W. to N.E., or from Ras or Cape Jask, to near Sibbo, 
 and forming the S.E. boundary of the prov. of Kohistan. 
 The length of this range may be about 240 m. The Sara 
 wanee Mountains, stretching generally N.E. and S.W. from 
 lat. 26 to 28 50 N., thence to 30 in a N.N.E. direction. 
 The Hala Mountains, forming a part of the E. boundary of 
 Beloochistan, are connected with the elevated region of Af 
 ghanistan by the Toba Mountains, of which they may be con 
 sidered a prolongation. Tracing their course N. to S., they 
 are found overspreading the N.E. part of Beloochistan with 
 their branches and offsets, in one of which is the famous Bolan 
 Pass, and ultimately terminating at Cape Monze. Many of 
 these mountains are of great height, and covered with snow. 
 
 The geology of Beloochistan, like all its other physical 
 features, is but imperfectly known. Some of the mountain- 
 chains are of compact limestone, enclosing marine shells and 
 corals, identical with similar objects picked up on the sea-shores 
 at this day. The strata of the Hala range, where it presents 
 a section of great depth in the Bolan Pass, exhibits similar 
 formations, the hills being of coarse conglomerate, secondary 
 limestone, and sandstone ; of which, also, the more S. portion 
 of the same range, and the low hills extending along the coast 
 on the S., are composed. The Kohistan, or hill country in 
 the N.W., bears strong marks of existing volcanic action. 
 Excepting fragments of quartz, found in Lus, primary forma 
 tions have not been observed in any part of the Belooche 
 mountains. In the same province is a singular geyser of liquid 
 mud, resembling the Malacuba, or mud volcano of Sicily. 
 
BELOOCHISTAN 
 
 370 
 
 BELOOCHISTAN 
 
 The mineral wealth of the country is believed to be consid 
 erable, including gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, tin, antimony, 
 brimstone, alum, sal-ammoniac, and many kinds of mineral 
 salts, and saltpetre. Rock-salt is common in Kohistan. 
 
 Itivers. Throughout Beloochistan there is a great defi 
 ciency of water, particularly in summer. The largest streams 
 are the Dustee, or the Bhugwar, the Bunth, the Sudgee, the 
 Siroo or Tank, the Aghor, the Kurmut, and the Pooralce, all of 
 which fall into the Indian Ocean. In the N. part are the Bolan 
 and the Molloh, which are ultimately lost in the sands of Cutch 
 Gundava. Their courses form the celebrated passes bearing 
 their names, leading from the valley of the Indus to Belooch 
 istan and Afghanistan. The roads through the mountains in 
 this country generally lead through the dry beds of rivers ; 
 and the plains are everywhere intersected by mounds, in 
 tended to collect the rain water for the purposes of irrigation. 
 Climate. The climate in the higher parts is extremely 
 cold, particularly during the months of December, January, 
 and February ; while in the plains and valleys, the heat in 
 summer is oppressive. Some parts of Mekran are said to be 
 the hottest localities in Asia. Snow falls from October to the 
 end of February; and in some parts, remains continuously on 
 the ground for two months. In February and March, a good 
 deal of rain falla. From the latter month to September is the 
 dry season. 
 
 Soil and Produce. The soil is not in general fertile ; but 
 patient industry has rendered the plains and valleys produc 
 tive in wheat, barley, and millet. The other chief crops are 
 madder, and various kinds of pulse and oil seeds, in the 
 districts principally N. and E. of Kelat ; cotton, particu 
 larly in Cutch Gundava; and in the low and hot regions, rice, 
 maize in small quantities, indigo of excellent quality, and 
 tobacco. The sugar-cane grows chiefly on the plains of Lus, 
 and the date in Mekran. Vegetables are abundant. The 
 principal esculents are turnips, carrots, cabbages, lettuces, 
 cauliflowers, pease, beans, radishes, onions, celery, parsley, 
 garlic, egg-fruit, and cucumbers. The gardens and orchards 
 in the vicinity of the towns produce the finest fruits, espe 
 cially figs, apricots, grapes, pomegranates, apples, plums, 
 peaches, almonds, cherries, quinces, pistachio-nuts, and melons 
 of fine flavour and large size. On the sides of some of the 
 mountains, and in the jungle, which generally covers the 
 wide beds of the rivers, trees are numerous, consisting of the 
 juniper, cedar-tree, the tamarind, tamarisk, mulberry, caper- 
 tree, babool, oriental plantain, ber-tree, chinar, peepul, mango, 
 walnut, sycamore, wild fig, and willow. The oak, ash, fir, 
 and other trees common in Europe, are unknown. 
 
 Tribes, Manners, and Customs. The inhabitants are divided 
 into two great branches, called Belooches and Brahooees, dif 
 fering in their language, figure, and manners, and each subdi 
 vided into a number of minor tribes. The Belooches are tall, 
 and well formed, and have small bones, long faces, with 
 prominent features, a dark complexion, and black hair. They 
 are indolent and dissolute, avaricious, vindictive, and cruel. 
 The Brahooees, so called from the words bah-roh-i [on the 
 waste], are much shorter and broader than the Belooches; and 
 have large bones, round faces, and flat features, their hair and 
 beards frequently brown. Many of the females are pretty. 
 They are most numerous in the province of Jhalawan, and in 
 the N. and W. parts, but are found everywhere. They have 
 greater physical strength, and are less addicted to rapine and 
 predatory violence than the Belooches. . Both races, but par 
 ticularly the Brahooees, are pastoral. Both races are hospit 
 able, brave, and capable of enduring much fatigue. They 
 live in rude tents, made of black felt or coarse cloth, of goat 
 or camel hair, stretched over a frame of wicker-work. Their 
 usual dress is an under-coat, trowsers gathered at the ankle, 
 and a white or blue tunic of cotton cloth, with a scarf about 
 the waist. In winter, men of rank wear an upper-coat or 
 tunic of quilted cotton, and the lower orders a rough capote 
 of felt or coarse cloth. The dress of the women within doors 
 is much the same as that of the men, excepting that their 
 trowsers are wider, and their cotton tunic is open in front 
 below the bosom, When they go abroad, they muffle them 
 selves up from head to foot in a long shroud-like mantle. 
 Both Belooches and Brahooees are of the Soonee sect of 
 Mahometans, and opposed to the Shiites, Neither race pos 
 sesses a written language, and their early histories have not 
 been preserved. The Belooche language resembles the modern 
 
 Persian, the Brahooee the Hindoo. The other inhabitants 
 of Beloochistan are few in number, and consist principally of 
 Hindoos, who are found in almost all the towns ; Dehwars or 
 villagers, of Persian descent, and speaking the Persian lan 
 guage, who are engaged in agricultural and other settled 
 pursuits ; and Jets, of Indian origin, who speak a peculiar 
 dialect, called Jetki, allied to Hindoostanee, and form the bulk 
 of the fixed population of Cutch Gundava ; while others of 
 them lead a wandering life, like the gypsies of Europe. All 
 the Belooches are excellent marksmen, and attached to field 
 sports. Gambling, of various kinds, is one of their chief 
 amusements. They keep as many slaves as they can main 
 tain, and often domesticate and treat kindly the captives 
 carried off in their predatory excursions. Polygamy is uni 
 versal. Few, however, have more than two wives. Some 
 of the chiefs have four. Wives are obtained by purchase, 
 payment being made in sheep, &c. The ceremony of marriago 
 is performed by the mollah or priest, and a man is expected 
 to marry the widow of a deceased brother. On the occur 
 rence of a death, the body is watched for three nights by the 
 friends and neighbours, and the time is passed in feasting. 
 
 Animals. The domestic animals are horses, mules, and 
 asses, camels, and dromedaries ; sheep, goats, cows, and buf 
 faloes. The sheep are generally of the fat-tailed species. 
 The horses are strong, bony, and large, but vicious. The 
 best are to be found in the N. and W., where the breed is 
 much improved by the admixture of Arabian and Persian 
 blood. The wild animals are numerous. Leopards, wolves, 
 lyeuas, jackals, tiger-cats, and foxes, are found in the jungles ; 
 but except on the E border, lions and tigers are rarely seen. 
 There are also wild dogs, wild asses, antelopes, elks, red and 
 noose deer, hares, mongooses, mountain goats, and wild hogs, 
 with various sorts of monkeys. Reptiles and insects are not 
 common. Of birds, there are almost every kind, including 
 eagles, vultures, kites, falcons, and magpies ; parroquets, 
 mainas, the variety of kingfisher called mitu, herons, flam- 
 ngoes, bustards, black partridges, and snipes. Fowls and 
 pigeons are plentiful ; and the thickets in the hot districts 
 abound with the jungle-fowl. Geese, ducks, and turkeys are 
 not found in the country. On the coast, fish are caught in 
 great quantities. 
 
 Trade and Commerce. The manufactures of Beloochistan 
 are confined to a few matchlocks and other fire-arms at Kclat, 
 .nd the trade is very unimportant. Besides horses, the only 
 exports are, grain from Cutch Gundava and Lus, and dates 
 from Mekran ; with butter, hides, wool, a few coarse drugs, 
 dried fruits, and vegetable oil. The imports consist of a small 
 quantity of British and Indian silk and cotton manufactured 
 goods, some metals, rice, betel-nut, sugar, spices, and dyed 
 stuffs ; with salt from Mooltan, and slaves from Muscat. 
 
 Gacernment. The government is despotic, the Khan hav 
 ing unlimited power over life, person, and property. He 
 usually resides in Kelat, and his rule is almost confined to 
 the immediate province around it ; the greater part of the 
 country being held by tribes who acknowledge subjection 
 only to their own chiefs. He has no standing army, but all 
 the heads of tribes are bound to furnish contingents of men 
 in case of war, as well as to pay tribute an obligation which 
 is often evaded. The Khan s revenues are estimated at up 
 wards of 30,000. He has a great number of household 
 slaves, from among whom he selects fit persons to be ap 
 pointed governors of towns and provinces. 
 
 Modern History. About the middle of the last century, 
 Beloochistan was made tributary by Nadir Shah, who be 
 stowed it on Nasir Khan, with the title of Beglerbeg or com- 
 mander-in-chief. The latter greatly extended the Belooche 
 dominions, and was the ablest ruler who has ever governed 
 Beloochistan. On his death, in 1795, the country was left 
 in a comparatively prosperous condition ; but since the com 
 mencement of the present century, especially since 1809 and 
 1810, it has suffered much from intestine wars and revolutions, 
 and its territorial boundaries have been greatly curtailed. In 
 March 1839, on the advance of the British army of the Indus 
 through the Bolan Pass towards Afghanistan, the conduct of 
 Mehrab Khan, the ruler of Beloochistan, was marked with 
 so much hostility, that Major-General Willshire was detached 
 to assault Kelat, which, with the citadel, was taken by storm 
 after a siege of a few hours, Nov. 13, the same year. The 
 Khan himself, and about 400 of his troops were slain ; and 
 
BELOEADO 
 
 371 
 
 BEN 
 
 2000 of his soldiers became prisoners. In 1840, the governor 
 established at Kelat by the British, with a feeble garrison of 
 sepoys, was overpowered by the Belooches ; but, at the close 
 of the same year, the capital was re-occupied by the army 
 under G eneral Nott. In 1841, Mir Nasir Khan, the youthful 
 son of Mehrab Khan, was recognized as ruler by the British, 
 who soon after left the country. Principal town, Kelat. 
 Pop. uncertain, being computed at 450,000 to 2,000,000, 
 which is presumed to be nearest the truth. (Masson s Jour 
 neys in Beloocliistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab; Elphin- 
 stone s Account of Cabool; Pottinger s Beloochistan; Hart s 
 Journey from Kurrachce.) 
 
 BELORADO, a tn. Spain, Old Castile, prov. of, and 
 25 m. E. Burgos, 1. bank, Tiron. It has ill-made streets, 
 three small squares, as many parish churches, a Latin and two 
 other schools, prison, chapter-house, hospital, some convents, 
 a cemetery, and some vestiges of the ancient walls and castle. 
 Coarse cloth, sacks, linen, and earthenware are made, but 
 tillage is the chief employment. Pop. 1897. 
 
 BELP, a tn. Switzerland, can. of, and 5 m. S.E. Bern, at 
 the foot of the Belpberg, near Ifbank, Aar, which occasionally 
 inundates it. The mountain of Belp, which extends S. from 
 the town, parallel to the Aar, furnishes excellent grindstones, 
 and some good veined marbles. On its side are the ruins of 
 the castle of Hohburg. Pop. (Protestants), 3146. 
 
 BELPASSO, a tn. Sicily, cap. can. same name, dist. of, 
 and 8 m. N.W. Catania, about the same distance S. Mount 
 Etna. Pop. 2500. 
 
 BELPECH, a tn. France, dep. Aude, 14 m. S.W. Cas- 
 telnaudary, r. bank, Lers, formerly a place of importance, but 
 the religious wars, and several destructive fires, almost anni 
 hilated it. Woollen cloths are made here. Pop. 1496. 
 
 BELPER, a market tn. England, co. Derby, in a valley, 
 1. bank, Derwent, over which there is a handsome stone bridge 
 of three arches, 7 m. N. Derby, on the Midland Railway. It 
 consists of several streets, partially paved, lighted with gas, 
 and amply supplied with water from wells and pumps. The 
 older houses of the town are fast disappearing, and are being 
 replaced by handsomer and more commodious buildings, while 
 numerous neat little villas, with flower gardens, orchards, &c., 
 attached, are fast rising on the elevated grounds around the 
 town. An elegant new church was built here recently, at an 
 expense of nearly 12,000, and another is now (1850) in course 
 of erection. There are places of worship, besides, for Independ 
 ents, Wesleyan and Primitive Methodists, Baptists, Unita 
 rians, and Plymouth Brethren ; a national, Wesleyan, and 
 infant school ; a mechanics institution, library, and two neat 
 alms-houses. Belper owes its prosperity to its cotton, and silk 
 and cotton hosiery manufactures, which are very extensive, 
 the latter said to be the largest in the kingdom, while the for 
 mer, one company alone, employs 2000 persons. Nails and 
 eartlienware are also manufactured here to a great extent. 
 Pop. 9885. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BELSTEAD, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1090 ac. Pop. 261. 
 BELSTONE, par. Eng. Devon ; 2010 ac. Pop. 208. 
 BELT (GREAT and LITTLE). The GREAT BELT, a strait 
 forming the central communication between the Baltic and 
 the Kattegat, and separating the island of Ftihnen from that 
 of Zeeland. Its length is about 37 m., its medium breadth 
 18 m. The depth of its channel ranges between 6 and 26 
 fathoms. It has many shoals, and the navigation through it 
 is difficult. In autumn and winter, ships have often a rough 
 passage. Owing to the strength of the current it is seldom 
 frozen over, but is often much encumbered with drift ice. 
 Lighthouses with fixed lights, chiefly for the purpose of 
 guiding the packets between Fiihnen and Zeeland, have been 
 placed on Knudshoved, an E. promontory of Fiihnen, on 
 Halstov, on the W. coast of Zeeland, and on Sprogo, a small 
 island which lies in the middle of the strait between these 
 two points, and is constantly wearing away by the force of the 
 waves. The LITTLE BELT is another strait, forming the W. 
 communication between the Baltic and the Kattegat, and 
 separating the island of Fiihnen from the mainland of Jut 
 land. Its length is about 30 m. ; its breadth varies from 1000 
 yards to 12 m. ; its depth ranges between 5 and 30 fathoms. 
 The same inconveniences and dangers beset this passage as 
 the former. It is annually frozen up from December to 
 April. The two Belts, with the Sound, form the only com 
 munication between the Baltic and the Kattegat. 
 
 BELTON, five pars. Eng.: 1, par. Leicester ; 1900 ac. 
 Pop. 718. 2, par. Lincoln; 3120 ac. Pop. 176. 3, par. 
 Lincoln; 8530 ac. Pop. 17064, par. Rutland; 2380 ac. 
 Pop. 402. 5, par. Suffolk ; 2120 ac. Pop. 465. 
 
 BELTURBET, a market tn. Ireland, co. Cavan, r. bank, 
 Erne, over which there is a new stone bridge, 8 m. N.W. 
 Cavan. It is irregularly built ; has straggling and mean 
 streets, a parish church, a 11. Catholic chapel, a Methodist 
 meeting-house, several schools, a small cavalry barrack, a 
 dispensary, and alms-houses for six poor widows. There is 
 a weekly market for corn, which is well attended; and barges 
 with timber, coals, &c., navigate the Erne to and from the 
 town. Pop. 2070. 
 
 BELUGYUN, or BELOOGYOON, other names for BALU 
 (which see] . 
 
 BELVEDERE, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Citra, 28 m. 
 N.W. Cosenza, on a hill close to the Mediterranean. It has 
 a fort, several churches and convents, and three monts-de- 
 piete for portioning poor girls. The wine and raisins of the 
 district are of good quality. Pop. 3970. 
 
 BELVES, a tn. France, dep. Dordogne, 32 m. S.S.E. 
 Perigeux, on the brow of a hill that overlooks several valleys. 
 Its public square is large and handsome, but the streets which 
 terminate in, or open into, the principal street, are narrow 
 and irregular. The extraction of oil from nuts is carried on 
 here to a large extent. Manufactures : paper, leather, 
 serges, and hosiery. Belves is the entrepot for the wines and 
 agricultural produce of the district, which are conveyed in 
 boats to Bordeaux. Pop. 1851. 
 
 BELYANDO, a river, N. Australia, about 190 m. from 
 the E. coast, to which it runs parallel throughout the greater 
 part of its course. It joins, under the name of Cape River, 
 the Suttor River at lat. 20 25 S.; Ion. 147 3 E. The 
 portion of the river called the Belyando was discovered by 
 Sir T. L. Mitchell, in 1846; that part called the Cape was 
 discovered, at an earlier period, by Leiehhardt. 
 
 BELZ, a tn. Galicia, gov. Lemberg, circle of, and 21m. 
 N. Zolkiew, on the Zolokia, in a plain surrounded by forests. 
 The houses are, for the most part, constructed of wood. 
 There are here an old castle, two handsome churches, and a 
 potash-work. Pop. 2400, of whom 600 are Jews. 
 
 BELZIG, a tn. and circle, Prussia, gov. Potsdam. The 
 TOWN, on a small stream of the same name, 23 m. S.W. Pots 
 dam, has an old castle, three churches, an hospital, and con 
 siderable manufactures of linen and woollen cloth, and paper. 
 
 Pop. 2500. The CIRCLE, area about 565 geo. sq. m., is 
 
 flat, and of considerable fertility, producing all the ordinary 
 grain and pulse crops, hops, flax, and some wine. Manufac 
 tures both of woollen and linen goods exist, particularly the 
 latter. There are also breweries, distilleries, tanneries, paper, 
 and other mills. A considerable quantity of vermicelli is pre 
 pared. Pop. 55,640. 
 
 BEMBATOOKA, a tn. and bay, N.W. coast, Madagascar, 
 N.E. or Majunka Point; lat. 15 42 54" S.; Ion. 46 20 30" 
 E. (R.) The town, an insignificant place, is on the N.E. side 
 of the bay, which is large and safe. The entrance to this bay 
 is about 3 m. wide, clear of danger, the depths irregular, 
 from 18 or 20 fathoms to 6 and 7 fathoms in some places. 
 This bay is esteemed an eligible place to refresh a fleet of 
 ships. Bullocks are plentiful at 8s. tid. each ; rice and other 
 articles may also be procured at reasonable prices. 
 
 BEMBR1DGE, a vil. England, E. side, Isle of Wight, 
 4 m. S.E. Ryde. It was formerly a mere collection of fish 
 ermen s huts, but is now a favourite watering-place. 
 
 BEMMEL, a vil. Holland, prov. Gelderland, 3 m. N.E. 
 Nijmegen. It is an agreeable beautiful village, surrounded 
 by shady lanes and rich fields of grain and tobacco, and fine 
 meadows and orchards. It has a Calvinistic and a R. Cath 
 olic church, two benevolent societies, three brick fields, and 
 an extensive brewery. Pop. 1200. 
 
 BEMPTON, par. Eng. York, E. Riding; 1930 ac. P.313. 
 
 BEN, BEIN, or BUEIN, a Gaelic word, signifying an ele 
 vated summit, and applied with various distinguishing affixes 
 to a number of the highest Scottish mountains, the principal, 
 or, at any rate, the most widely known, of which are : 1 , 
 Bcnlawcrs, co. Perth, 31 m. W.N.W. Perth, height, 3945ft.; 
 being the fourth highest mountain in Scotland. It is of easy 
 ascent, and the view from it singularly grand and imposing. 
 It is rich in rare and beautiful specimens of alpine plants, in- 
 
BENABARRE 
 
 372 
 
 BENARES 
 
 eluding Gentiana nivalis. Eutilitc, an ore of titanium, a scarce 
 metallic mineral, is found here. Scott speaks of this moun 
 tain in the Fair Maid of Perth, as The frowning mountain of 
 Benlawers. 2, Denial!, co. Perth, 2 in. W. Callander, 3009 ft. 
 high. It derives its name from the Gaelic words Beinn-lc- 
 Dia [the hill of God], supposed to have been so called by the 
 Druids, who had a place of worship on its summit. The view 
 from it is magnificent, including the Friths of Forth and 
 Clyde, the towering hills of Arran, .and a large portion of the 
 Grampian range. Allusion is made to it in Scott s Lady of the 
 Lake: Beuledi saw the cross of fire, &c. 3, Benlomond, 
 co. Stirling, on the E. side of Lochlomond, from which it rises 
 by a succession of swelling knolls. The height has been va 
 riously stated, from 3190 to 3240 ft. On the S.E. side, it 
 presents a sheer precipice of about 2000 ft. By the usual 
 route to the summit, the distance is 6 in. of continuous ascent, 
 and generally occupies about three hours. The lower regions 
 are finely wooded, and the intervening knolls comparatively 
 smooth and verdant. It commands a prospect of vast extent 
 and sublimity, including the beautiful lake below, with its 
 numerous islands. 4, Benmacdhu or Benmacdhuie, co. Aber 
 deen. The precise height of this mountain also is uncertain, 
 being variously stated from 4290 to 4305 ft. It disputes with 
 Bennevis, the honour of being the highest hill in Scotland. 
 5, Benmore, the name of three mountains in Scotland, of re 
 markable elevation one in co. Perth, 44 m. W. by S. from 
 the city of that name, height, 3818 ft.; a second in the island 
 of Mull, co. Argyle, height, 3168 ft.; and the third in co. 
 Sutherland, height, 3231 ft. 6, Bennevis, co. Inverness, re 
 puted the highest mountain in Scotland, the height assigned 
 to it being 4380 ft. It is thus 809 ft. higher than Snowdon, 
 the highest mountain in Wales, and 1214 ft. higher than 
 Scawfell, the highest in England. Its circumference at the 
 base is supposed to exceed 24 m. On the N.E. side, there is 
 a tremendous precipice of 1500 ft. sheer descent, and in the 
 clefts of the rocks on this side, snow is found all the year 
 round. To reach its summit is a laborious achievement, and 
 should never be attempted, but by those capable of enduring 
 much fatigue, nor ever without a guide. 7, Benwyvis, co. 
 Ross. As in the cases of most of the other Scottish mountains, 
 the height of Benwyvis is variously stated, from 3722 to 
 3426 ft. With the exception of the year 1826, the summit 
 of this mountain has never been entirely free from snow in 
 the memory of man. In the September of that year, how 
 ever, it had wholly disappeared. 8, Bencruachan, co. Argyle, 
 on the banks of Loch Awe ; 3669 ft. 9, Benvoirlich [Great 
 Mountain of the lake], co. Perth, S. side of Loch Earn ; 3180 
 ft. ; by other authorities, 3300 ft. (For other remarkable ele 
 vations, see SCOTLAND.) 
 
 BENABARRE, or BENAVARRA, a fortified tn. Spain, 
 Aragon, prov. of, and 35 m. E. by S. Huesca, at the base of 
 a limestone bill, defended by a castle, surrounded by a stone 
 wall, and having six gates. It has narrow streets, a ^rand 
 square, parish church, townhall, college, hospital, small and 
 unwholesome prison, public fountains, and baths. Tillage, 
 the manufacture of hempen shoes, brandy distilleries, and an 
 oil expressary, afford the chief employment. Pop. 1900. 
 
 BENACO. See GAKDA. 
 
 BENAGAUCIL, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 14 m. N.W. 
 Valencia, 1. bank, Turia. It comprises two large and three 
 smaller squares, an ancient castle, townhouse, prison, parish 
 church, two endowed schools, and a storehouse. The in 
 habitants are chiefly occupied in agriculture and weaving. 
 Pop. 3577. 
 
 BEN-AHIN, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. Liege, 3 m. 
 W. Huy, r. bank, Mouse, with manufactures of woollen stuffs, 
 leather, gunpowder, and paper ; and some trade in oil and 
 wood. It has also breweries and limekilns. Pop. 1466. 
 
 BENAMARGOSA, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, 
 and 18 m. E. by N. Malaga, on the river of same name. It 
 has steep, narrow, and badly- paved streets, a square, parish 
 church, chapel, endowed school, two fountains, and a cemetery. 
 The inhabitants are engaged in tillage and mule-driving ; 
 besides expressing oil. and distilling brandy. A considerable 
 quantity and variety of fruit is grown in the vicinity, and sent 
 to Malaga. Pop. 3200. 
 
 BENAMEJI, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 38 
 m. S. by W. Cordova, in a plain, surrounded, on the N.E., S., 
 and W., by precipitous mountains. It has well-made clean 
 
 streets, two large squares, a paiish church, chapel of ease, 
 townhouse, hospital, public storehouse, small, damp, un 
 healthy prison, a palace, and a cemetery. The inhabitants 
 are employed in agriculture, and in the manufacture of bass 
 mats, soap, and vinegar, which they export. Pop. 4552. 
 
 BENAMOCARRA, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, 
 and 20 m. E. by N. Malaga, on a rising ground at the base 
 of the sierra de Eeugel, near the river Benamargosa. It has 
 three squares, and badly-made, unpaved, and dirty streets ; 
 a Gothic parish church, civil and ecclesiastical court-houses, 
 two schools, a public storehouse, prison, cemetery, and three 
 fountains of mineral waters ; with baths much esteemed as 
 remedies for scorbutic and cutaneous disorders. Manufac 
 tures : linen fabrics of all kinds, brandy, wine, and oil. 
 Fruit is extensively cultivated in the vicinity, and exported. 
 Pop. 2364. 
 
 BENAOCAZ, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 60 m. 
 N.E. Cadiz, in a mountainous district E. of the Guadelcte, 
 and W. of the sierra de Ronda ; having a parish church and 
 townhouse. It is celebrated also for its beautiful promenade 
 and avenue, adorned with fountains and gardens. Pop. 3176. 
 
 BENAOJAN, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 42 m. 
 W.N.W. Malaga, at the base of the sierra de Juan Diego. 
 It has a parish church, two schools, a ruinous prison, and two 
 fine fountains ; two oil-mills, a soapwork, and distillery. 
 Trade in agricultural products, grain, fruits, and vegetables. 
 Pop. 2377. 
 
 BENARES, one of the N.W. provinces, Hindoostan, for 
 merly included in that of Allahabad, presid. Bengal. It lies 
 chiefly between lat. 24 and 26 N., and Ion. 82 and 84 30 
 E. ; and is divided into five districts, the names of which, with 
 their area, population, &c., will be seen in the accompanying 
 table: 
 
 Gorackpore 
 Aziraghur 
 Jounpore 
 Mirzapore 
 Benares 
 Ghazeepore 
 
 No. of 
 Town 
 ships. 
 
 in gfo 
 sq. m. 
 
 Ana in 
 Acres. 
 
 Land 
 Revenue in Total Pop. 
 1845-6. j 
 
 Site 
 
 geo. m. 
 
 15,607 
 6,277 
 3,380 
 8,208 
 
 2,0] A 
 
 2,38S 
 
 5,521 
 
 l.MW 
 1,111 
 -!,:>< 7 
 691 
 1,650 
 
 4,677,792 
 l,609.39(i 
 968.970 
 1,954,120 
 585,318 
 1,398,2:55 
 
 11,193,831 
 
 206,538 
 149,217 
 125,361 
 90.819 
 91,402 
 149,839 
 
 2,.S8(i,831 
 97^.7 ^ 
 (itse.OUl 
 726,13* 
 554,112 
 1,059,08? 
 
 132-3 
 515-4 
 599-0 
 314-7 
 801-9 
 641-0 
 
 Total 
 
 52,865 
 
 13,212 
 
 813,179 |ti,390 ; 970 
 
 483-7 
 
 About five-sixths of the whole consist of a well-cultivated 
 flat on both sides of the Ganges, abundantly watered by that 
 river, and by the Goomty, Caramnassa, Sone, &c. The 
 climate, which is cold enough in winter to make fires agree 
 able, is in summer scorching, from the N.W. winds which 
 set in after March, and continue for three months. Not much 
 rice is grown. The chief productions are wheat, barley, 
 legumes, flax, indigo, tobacco, betel-nut, sugar, and opium. 
 The last is a Government monopoly, and Benares and Bahar 
 are the only provinces of Bengal presidency in which its cul 
 tivation is allowed. Benares is one of the most flourishing 
 provinces in India. The chief manufactures are flowered 
 muslins, brocades, and ornamented gauzes ; some salt, of in 
 ferior quality, is made, but the greater part is imported. The 
 principal export is indigo. In 1775, the Nabob of Oude 
 ceded Benares to the East India Company, and the Rajah has 
 since become merely a stipendiary. 
 
 BENARES [Sanscrit, Varanashi or Kasi the splendid], 
 a large and populous city, Hindoostan, the ecclesiastical me 
 tropolis of India, presidency Bengal, cap. prov. and dist. of 
 same name, 1. bank, Ganges, 400 m. N.W. Calcutta; lat. 
 25 18 33" N.; Ion. 82 55 51" E. (L.) The Ganges here 
 makes a sweep of about 4 m. long, and on the convex side of 
 the curve stands the most holy city of the Hindoos, the 
 Lotus of the world : believed by the natives not to belong to 
 earth at all, but to be perched upon the top of one of the 
 prongs of the trident of the god Shiva. The streets are so 
 exceedingly narrow, that it is difficult to pass through them 
 even on horseback, while some houses are connected, with 
 those on the opposite side of the street, by balconies. The 
 city, seen from the river, presents the form of an amphi 
 theatre, extending for 3 m. along the banks of the river, 
 which are elevated some 40 or 50 ft., above which are reared 
 a series of temples and palaces but chiefly the latter with 
 superb ghauts or flights of steps. The palaces are those of 
 
BENARES 
 
 373 
 
 BENARES 
 
 the Indian Rajahs and Indian chieftians, from one end of In 
 dia almost to the other ; every independent potentate being 
 earnestly desirous to have a palace in Benares, so that, once 
 in his life, at least, he may make a pilgrimage to the holy 
 
 city ; and that, when not there, he may have a resident repre 
 sentative in the person of an official, or some member of his 
 family. Many of the houses are built of stone, six stories in 
 height, with small windows, each story inhabited by a separate 
 family; some of the larger houses thus contain, perhaps, 200 
 persons ; the walls are daubed with mythological representa 
 tions from the Hindoo pantheon. The more wealthy Hindoos 
 live in detached houses, with open courts, and surrounded 
 by walls. The British and other Europeans reside chiefly 
 at Seroli, a handsome well-built village, about 2 m. from the 
 city ; they are few in number, consisting principally of officials 
 connected with the G o vernment, and courts of j ustice ; medical 
 men, and a few merchants ; indigo planters, and persons em 
 ployed in the Government mint. Besides the native popula 
 tion, there are settled in Benares a great number of Turks, 
 Tartars, Persians, and Armenians. The Rajah s palace stands 
 at Bamnaghur, about 1 m. above the city, on the opposite 
 side of the river, where is also a superb temple built by Cheyt 
 Singh ; and, on an elevated and conspicuous site, on the city 
 side of the river, the Emperor Aurungzebe erected, in the 17th 
 century, a magnificent mosque. There are numerous other 
 mosques, many of them inconveniently situated ; also a number 
 of Hindoo temples, stuck, says Bishop Heber, like shrines, 
 in the angles of the streets, and under the shadow of the lofty 
 houses. Their forms, however, are not ungraceful, and many 
 of them are covered over with beautiful and elaborate carvings 
 of flowers, animals, and palm-branches ; equalling, in minute 
 ness and richness, the best specimens that I have seen of 
 Gothic or Grecian architecture. Fakirs houses, as they 
 are called, adorned with idols, and sending out an unceasing 
 tinkling of discordant instruments, occur at every turn ; while 
 religious mendicants, with distorted limbs, and in hideous 
 attitudes of penance, literally line the chief streets on both 
 Bides. 
 
 An old observatory, founded before the Mussulman con 
 quest, and still very entire, though not made use of, is one of 
 the most interesting and singular objects in the city. It is 
 of stone, with a large square tower, containing instruments, 
 
 chiefly of stone, of which many had been evidently used for 
 judicial astrology. A few miles E. of Seroli is the Saranath, 
 a remarkable monument, 40 to 50 ft. in diameter, seemingly 
 of solid masonry ; considered, by some, to be of Grecian origin ; 
 but alleged, by the inhabitants of Benares, to be a Buddhist 
 structure. This city and its environs, for a distance of 10 m. 
 round, are held sacred by the Hindoos ; and the number of 
 pilgrims who resort hither, during religious festivals, from 
 all parts of India, and even from Thibet and Burmah, is very 
 great. It is crowded with mendicant priests, and there are, 
 it is said, 8000 houses occupied by Brahmins who live on the 
 alms and offerings of the pilgrims. 
 
 Several of the natives here are men of affluence, who act 
 as bankers, and are wont to facilitate the money operations of 
 the East India Company. Some deal in diamonds, and other 
 precious stones, brought hither from Bundelcund. Benares 
 is, in fact, says Heber, a very industrious and wealthy, as 
 well as a very holy city. It is the great mart where the shawls 
 of the N., the diamonds of the S., and the muslins of Dacca 
 and the E. provinces centre ; and it has considerable silk, cot 
 ton, and fine woollen manufactures of its own ; while English 
 hardware, swords, shields, and spears, from Lucknow and 
 Monghyr, and various European luxuries, circulate througli 
 Bundelcund, Gorruckpoor, Nepaul, and other tracts which are 
 removed from the main artery of the Ganges. Benares has 
 long been the most celebrated seat of Brahminical learning in 
 Hindoostan ; and is still so revered, that many foreign Hindoo 
 Rajahs keep vakeels or deputies here to perform for them the 
 requisite oblations and sacrifices. The Hindoo Sanscrit col 
 lege of Benares, founded in 1791, is the chief seat of native 
 learning in India ; an English class was added to this college 
 in 1827, when the number of students was 259; in 1830, the 
 number of students was increased to 287. In 1811, it was 
 found necessary to re-model the regulations of the Hindoo 
 college, and to correct the prevailing abuses. A great many 
 other schools have been established here by missionaries 
 
 MADHOEAY GHATJT, AND THE MINARETS, HENARES, from the River. 
 From Prinsep s Benares Illustrated. 
 
 and others, of late years, which are well attended ; in one of 
 these, upwards of 200 scholars are taught English, Hindoo- 
 stance, Persian, and Arabic, as well as writing, arithmetic, 
 geography, general history, and astronomy; there are also 
 
BENASAL 
 
 374 
 
 BENE 
 
 private teachers of both Mahometan and Hindoo law. The 
 vicinity of the city is fertile and well cultivated, but very 
 bare of wood ; fuel is, consequently, scarce and high -priced. 
 In 1017, the city was taken by Sultan Mahmood, and, from 
 1 190, followed the fortunes of the Delhi sovereigns until 1775, 
 when it devolved to the British, under whom it has enjoyed 
 perfect tranquillity, with the exception of one single instance 
 of temporary disturbance. Pop. about 200,000. (Heber s 
 Narrative; Hamilton sEastliulia Gaz.; Parliamentary Papers.} 
 
 BENASAL, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. of, and 30 m. 
 N. Castellon de la Plana. It has three squares, a parish 
 church, three chapels, townhall, prison, a Latin and two other 
 schools, two fountains, and a cemetery. Manufactures : 
 soap and woollen fabrics, but the chief occupation is agricul 
 ture. Pop. 2108. 
 
 BENATEK, several small places, Bohemia; the only 
 one of importance is the municipal town of Benatek or New 
 Benatek, cap. of a circle of same name, r. bank, Iser, about 
 20 m. N.E. Prague ; with an old castle, which was long the 
 residence of the famous astronomer, Tycho Brahe. Pop. of 
 tn. 904 ; of circle, 5347. 
 
 BENAVENTE. 1, A tn. Spain, Leon, prov. of, and 
 23 m. N. by E. Zamora. It is overlooked by a castle, and 
 is surrounded by an old decayed wall, entered by six gates. 
 Its squares and principal streets are spacious, well paved, and 
 clean, but want uniformity. It has six churches, one Latin 
 and seven other schools, townhouse, three hospitals, two 
 prisons, storehouse, ecclesiastical court, a bishop s palace, and 
 one belonging to the Counts of Benavente ; many of the above 
 edifices, especially the last, are of high antiquity, and of con 
 siderable architectural merit ; and in some of the churches 
 several good pictures, and good specimens of monumental sta 
 tuary, are preserved. Manufactures: linen, woollen, silken, 
 and cotton fabrics, and velvets, which are exported to some 
 
 extent. Three annual fairs. Pop. 12,464. (Madoz.) 2, A 
 
 tn. and par. Portugal, prov. Estremadura, dist. Saiitarem ; in 
 a beautiful plain, 1. bank, Zatas, 26 m. N.E. Lisbon. It has 
 a royal palace, and an annual fair, which lasts three days. 
 Pop. 1860. 
 
 BENBECULA, a small isl. Scotland, one of the outer 
 Hebrides, co. Inverness ; lat. 57 28 N. ; Ion. 7 18 W. ; lying 
 between the islands of N. and S. Uist, separated from the latter 
 by a channel half a mile broad, which is dry at low water. The 
 island is 8 m. long by 8 broad, and mostly flat, sandy, and 
 unproductive ; and contains numerous fresh-water lakes, and 
 its shores are serrated with bays, lochs, and inlets. There 
 are no trees now on the island, but the trunks and branches 
 that are being constantly dug out of the mosses afford evi 
 dence that it must have been at one time well wooded. A 
 good deal of moss land has been lately brought under cultiva 
 tion here, and considerable improvement generally has taken 
 place in the mode of agriculture. The language spoken is 
 Gaelic. The ordinary food of the peasantry, who are not of 
 very cleanly habits, consists of barley-bread, potatoes, milk, 
 and occasionally fish. The rents are mostly paid in kelp. 
 Anciently there was a nunnery in this island, and the ruins 
 of several old castles still exist; one of them, called Caisteal 
 a Bhrelidcr or the Weaver s Castle, is a very conspicuous 
 object. Pop. 2107. 
 
 BENCOOLEN [Dutch, Bengkoelen and Benloelen ; pro- 
 perly, Banyka-lwoloo\,3. tn.,W. coast, isl. Sumatra, cap. Dutch 
 prov. of same name. It is protected by Fort Marlborough, 
 and lies at the mouth of a small river, in an unhealthy situa 
 tion, on a contracted, incommodious, and insecure roadstead, 
 and in a thinly-peopled district; lat. (Fort Marlborough) 
 3 47 36" S. ; Ion. 102 19 E. (R.) At one time, it was the 
 first town on the W. coast of the island ; but, not being ad 
 vantageously situated for commerce, it is now far eclipsed by 
 Padang, the residence of the governor of Sumatra. As a 
 whole, the town is mean-looking ; the houses of the Chinese 
 inhabitants are mostly in a falling condition. The houses 
 of the Europeans are built apart from each other, and have 
 stone foundations, but the upper parts are constructed of wood, 
 on account of the earthquakes to which the locality is subject; 
 one which occurred in 1833, destroyed the only Christian 
 church, and injured nearly all the houses in the place. The old 
 and new governor s houses, situated within the fort, are both 
 respectable-looking edifices ; the former is surrounded by a 
 | pleasant park, planted with cocoa-nut and nutmeg trees.- The 
 
 only other public building of importance is the Roema-Pand- 
 jang, in which are all the Government offices. The trade of 
 Bencoolen has declined greatly from what it was formerly. 
 The imports consist of cloths, rice, and salt, by the Bugis and 
 Bali traders ; handkerchiefs, tobacco, sugar, and various other 
 articles, from Batavia; opium, taffetics, coarse cloths, chintzes, 
 and white cloths, from Bengal ; salt, and blue and white piece 
 goods, from Coromandel ; iron, steel, cloth, beads, brass wire, 
 cutlery, and printed cottons, from Europe ; and gambir, salt 
 fish, oil, salted eggs, poultry, salted fish roes, timber, and 
 planks, from the N. parts of the island. The principal exports 
 are coffee, sugar, and wood, with pepper, nutmegs, cloves, 
 benzoin, and camphor. The town was formerly several miles 
 further N., where the British settled in 1685, and, in 1690, 
 built Fort York. In 1714, they built Fort Marlborough, on 
 the site of the present town, as being a more healthy locality. 
 In April 1825, Bencoolen, which had always been maintained 
 at a great loss by the British, was ceded, with their other 
 settlements on the island of Sumatra, to the Dutch, in ex 
 change for their possessions on the continent of Asia. The 
 population is very mixed, being composed of Europeans, 
 Javanese, Bengalese, Malays, and 600 or 700 poor Chinese ; 
 total, 6000, or not more than half the number it formerly 
 
 contained. The PROVINCE of Bencoolen is a mountainous 
 
 district, and lies on the W. side of a mountainous range ; and 
 all its streams flow to the Indian Ocean. It extends from the 
 river Mandjoeta, S.E., to Point Basse; or from about lat. 
 2 20 to C S., with a breadth varying from 5 to 40 m. It is 
 thinly peopled. Its principal products are benzoin, camphor, 
 cassia, cotton, indigo, rice, ivory, gold, and tin. The culti 
 vation of cloves and nutmegs, formerly carried on to a con 
 siderable extent, is understood now not to be very extensive. 
 Pop. variously estimated, from 94,000 to 200,000. (Van der 
 Aa ; Temminck, Coup d ceil Monitevr des Indes.) 
 
 BENDEM1E, or KUR [anc. Araxes], a river, Persia, 
 which rises among the mountains of Zagroosch, on the fron 
 tiers of Irak-Ajemi and Khuzistan, and, after a S.E. course 
 of nearly 300 m., falls into the W. extremity of the salt 
 lake, Baghtegan, 55 m. E. Shiraz. It is wholly within prov. 
 Fars, and its chief affluent is the Ab or Cyrus. The passage 
 
 of Alexander the Great over the Bendemir, is celebrated. 
 
 A village, also called BENDEMIR, and traversed by the river, 
 lies 30 m. N.E. Shiraz. 
 
 BENDEK, a tn. European Russia, cap. dist. of same name, 
 gov. Bessarabia, 34 m. S.E. Kijenef, r. bank, Dniester. It 
 is a fortified town, having a citadel. It likewise has a leather 
 manufacture. In the environs is Varnitza, a locality famed 
 as the retreat of Charles XII., King of Sweden, from 1709 
 to 1712, after the battle of Pultowa. Bender once had some 
 importance, but lost it long before it was ceded by the Turks, 
 in 1812. The Russians took it by assault in 1770, and again 
 in 1809. Pop. (1849), 14,820. 
 
 BENDER-ABBAZ or ABASS, or GOMBEROON, a seaport 
 tn. Persia, prov. Kcrman, opposite the island of Ormus, at the 
 entrance to the Persian Gulf; lat. 26 10 N. ; Ion. 56 15 E. 
 During the period that Ormus was occupied by the Dutch, it 
 was a place of great importance. Though a considerable 
 quantity of goods are still landed here for transmission into 
 the interior of Persia, yet the town has much fallen off from 
 its former condition, no trace of its splendour now remaining, 
 excepting the ruins of the dwellings of the Europeans. It is 
 a town of Arab construction, and is only inhabited during 
 winter, the summer heat being so suffocating, and being suc 
 ceeded by dangerous fevers. A good deal of trade is done in 
 fish, caught plentifully in the gulf; and salt, fruits, and sul 
 phur, the latter obtained in the vicinity, are shipped to Mascat. 
 The roadstead is by no means secure. Bender-Abbaz, though 
 situated in Persia, is a dependency of the Imaun of Mascat. 
 
 BENDOEF, a tn. Prussia, gov. circle of, and 6 m. N. 
 Coblentz, r. bank, Rhine; with a valuable iron mine, and two 
 iron furnaces. The vineyards and orchards of the vicinity 
 employ a great number of the inhabitants. It has also stone 
 quarries, clay pits, tileworks, some manufactures of cloth, and 
 a mill for spinning worsted. Pop. 2063. 
 
 BENE, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 11 m. N. 
 Mondovi, between the Sture and the Tanaro. It has a col 
 lege, an old castle, and an hospital. This town has arisen out 
 of the ruins of the ancient Avyusta Bayiennorum, destroyed 
 by Alaric, and of which many interesting vestiges are found at 
 
BENEFIELD 
 
 375 
 
 BENGAL 
 
 Roveglia, about half a mile distant. The ruins of an aqueduct, 
 amphitheatre, baths, and other buildings, extend over a con 
 siderable tract of ground. North of Bene is the district of 
 Salmoria, anciently called Sarmatia, from the Sarmatiaas who 
 settled there during the lower empire. Pop. 5600. 
 
 BENEFIELD, par. Eng. Northampton ; 5100 ac. P. 533. 
 
 BENENDEN, par. Eng. Kent ; 6780 ac. Pop. 1594. 
 
 BENESCHAU, a tn. Bohemia, circle, Beraun, 23 m. 
 S.S.E. Prague; with two churches, one of them ancient, and 
 in ruins ; a Piarist college and gymnasium, and an hospital. 
 The inhabitants live chiefly by weaving and agriculture. 
 
 Pop. 2000. Other four places in Bohemia, two in Prussia, 
 
 and one in Moravia, have the same name. 
 
 BENET, a vil. France, dep. Vende e, 12 m. E.S.E. 
 Fontenay, in a fertile plain ; with manufactures of woollen 
 and linen goods. Pop. 1364. 
 
 BENEVENTE, a maritime tn. Brazil, prov. Espirito- 
 Santo, 1. bank, river of same name, 50 m. S.W. Victoria; 
 having the church on an eminence behind, and the vicar s 
 house, sessional chambers, townhall, and prison all in one 
 building, which was formerly a church. Before the town is 
 a bay, affording shelter to vessels. The port is one of the 
 most frequented in the province. The building of merchant 
 vessels is carried on here to a limited extent. Pop. of tn. 
 
 and dist, chiefly agricultural, 3000. The KIVEH Bene- 
 
 vente has an E.S.E. course of about 70 m., and is deep at its 
 mouth, forming a good harbour for merchant vessels. 
 
 BENEVENTO [anc. Seneventum] , a city, Papal States, 
 cap. deleg. of same name, situated on the declivity of a hill, 
 near the confluence of the Calore and Sabbato, 31 m. N.E. 
 Naples; lat. 41 7 N.; Ion. 14 43 E. It is about 2 m. in 
 circumference, surrounded by walls, and defended by a castle. 
 It contains a number of interesting antiquities, and many of 
 the walls of the modern buildings are constructed of frag 
 ments of the altars, tombs, and columns of ancient Bene- 
 ventum. The monument in best preservation is the triumphal 
 arch of Parian marble, erected in honour of Trajan, by the 
 Eoman senate, about the year 114. It forms one of the gates of 
 the city, called the Porta Aurea, and is ornamented with sculp 
 tures of exquisite workmanship. The other public buildings 
 are the palazzo publico or townhall, the archiepiscopal palace, the 
 cathedral, eight other churches, and several convents. There 
 are here, likewise, a seminary of architecture, containing a rich 
 library ; a college, an orphan hospital, three other hospitals, 
 and two monts-de-piete. The town is the seat of a district 
 court, and of an archbishopric, founded in 969 ; and metro 
 politan to ten episcopal sees. 
 
 The origin of Benevento is attributed to Diomed. At 
 first, it is said to have been called Maleventum, on account 
 of the violence of the winds that prevailed in the district. 
 When the Romans established a colony here, they changed its 
 name to Beneventum. In 545, it was taken and partially 
 destroyed by the Goths. The neighbouring plain was the 
 field of battle where Charles of Anjou, King of Naples, de 
 feated and slew his rival Manfred, in 1266. In the 16th 
 century the population of the town was much more consider 
 able than at present. The plague of 1652 carried off 4000 
 persons, and the earthquakes of 1688 and 1703 were also 
 very destructive. Several councils were held here in the 
 
 llth and 12th centuries. Pop. 16,316. The PROVINCE 
 
 or delegation is locally within prov. Principato Ultra of 
 Naples, but belongs to the States of the Church. It is 
 of an elliptical form, and is traversed from E. to W. by 
 the Calore, which divides it into two nearly equal parts; 
 greatest length, 10 m. ; breadth, 6 m. ; area, about 45 sq. m. 
 The surface is hilly, but the soil fertile in corn, fruit, and 
 pasture. Game is very abundant, and the Sabato, which 
 joins the Calore from the S., teems with fish. In the sixth 
 century, Benevento became a dukedom under the Longobards, 
 and was of great extent, including all their conquests in 
 Samnium, Campania, and Apulia. On their subjugation by 
 Charlemagne, Benevento became independent, and its dukes 
 assumed the title of Princes. The Normans having taken it, 
 gave it to the Pope, in whose possession, with occasional in 
 terruptions, it has since remained. In 1806, Bonaparte gave 
 it to Talleyrand, with the title of Prince; but it was restored 
 in 1815, and is now governed by a cardinal, with the title of 
 Legate. Pop. about 23,000. 
 
 BENFELD, a tn. France, dep Bas-Rhin, 10 m. N.N.E. 
 
 Schelestadt ; agreeably situated on the river 111, in a district 
 which is remarkable for its fertility, and is the centre of the 
 tobacco culture. It has cotton mills, a tannery, breweries, 
 dyeworks, tile and brick works, and manufactures of candles, 
 earthenware, and various articles of ironmongery. It also 
 carries on a considerable trade in grain, tobacco, hemp, 
 leather, &c. Pop. 2642. 
 
 BENFLEET, two pars. Eng.: 1, Benfleet (North), or 
 Little Benfleet, par. Essex ; 1730 ac. Pop. 364. 2, Benfleet 
 (South), or Great Benfleet, par. Essex ; 2160 ac. Pop. 707. 
 
 BENGAL (PRESIDENCY OF), the largest and most im 
 portant of the three presidencies into which the British pos 
 sessions in E. India are divided, extending between lat. 1 6 
 and 31 15 N., and Ion. 74 to 96 E.; bounded, N. by Raj- 
 pootana, the Himalaya Mountains, Nepaul, and Bootan, E. by 
 the Burman Empire, S. by the Bay of Bengal and the presid 
 ency of Madras, and W. by Bhopal, Independent Bundelcund, 
 and Rajpootana ; thus comprising the provinces of Bengal, 
 Bahar, the government of Agra, composed of the N,W. 
 provinces, Agra, Allahabad, Meerut, Delhi, Benares, and 
 Rohilcund ; portions of Oude, Gundwana, Berar, Orissa, and 
 the British possessions beyond the Ganges; Assam, Cachar, 
 Aracan, the Tenasserim provinces, and the possessions in the 
 Straits of Malacca, Penang, Malacca, and Singapore. The 
 government is vested in the Governor-general of India, at 
 Calcutta, and five councillors, three of whom are appointed 
 absolutely by the East India Company ; the fourth is also ap 
 pointed by the Company, but subject to the approbation of 
 the sovereign ; the fifth is the commander-in-chief. These 
 form the Supreme Council of India. The net revenues of 
 the presidency, including the N.W. provinces (formerly Agra 
 presidency), for 1847 and 1848, was 17,089,527. The 
 largest items in the revenue returns of the presidency, are the 
 land revenue, and the customs and stamp duties. The tariff, 
 which came into operation in June 1845, levying increased 
 duties on various descriptions of goods imported into the 
 presidency, has had the natural effect of checking the impor 
 tation of such goods. Woollens have fallen more than one- 
 half, metals to nearly a half, and wines and spirits about a 
 fourth ; the whole reduction in imports amounting to nearly 
 a million and a half. An increase has, however, singularly 
 enough, taken place in the importation of English salt, to the 
 serious detriment of the Indian revenue, one of the most im 
 portant sources of which was the sale of the native salt 
 manufactured by Government. Both the exports and im 
 ports of the presidency are, however, on the increase, and have 
 been so since 1835, being now nearly double what they were 
 then. The imports of 1842 amounted to 5,855,826, and 
 the exports to 8,440,880. Accounts throughout the presid 
 ency are kept in Company s rupees (value about 2s. each), to 
 which standard all current specie must be reduced. Cowries, 
 and other small coin formerly in use, are now disappearing, 
 being confined to small payments amongst the natives. There 
 is little gold in circulation ; the most common coin in that 
 metal is the mohur, equal to 16 rupees or 1, 12s. (For 
 trade and commerce, see CALCUTTA.) The native infantry of 
 the presidency consists of 74 regiments, containing 80,249 
 men ; their number, however, varies according to circum 
 stances, having been at times nearly the double of that named. 
 The principal cities are, Calcutta, the British capital of India ; 
 Delhi, the Mahometan capital ; with Benares, Moorshedabad, 
 Dacca, Bahar, Patna, Allahabad, and Agra. For an account 
 of the physical features of the presidency, its climate, pro 
 ductions, &c., see the articles on the different provinces of 
 which it is composed. Estimated area of the entire presidency, 
 220,312 sq. m. Pop. 69,710,071. 
 
 BENGAL, a large and important prov. Hindoostan, and 
 the principal seat of British authority in the East ; is situ 
 ated between lat. 21 and 27 N., and Ion. 86 and 93 E., 
 being about 400 m. N. to S., and 470 E. to W. It is bounded, 
 N. by Nepaul, Bootan, and Assam ; S. by Orissa and the Bay 
 of Bengal, E. by Assam, Cachar, and Burmah, and W. by the 
 province of Bahar. Its general physical character is that of 
 a champaign country, there being few remarkable elevations 
 within its limits, though surrounded with lofty chains of 
 mountains ; the N. part resting on the terraces of the Hima 
 laya Mountains, the E. being bounded by the Garos or Garrows 
 chain, and the W. being ribbed with offsets of the Vindhya 
 Mountains. It is intersected in all directions by rivers, the 
 
BENGAL 
 
 376 
 
 BENGAL 
 
 principal of which are the Ganges and Brahmapootra, whose 
 annual inundations render the soil which they reach extremely 
 fertile, particularly in the production of rice, of which it yields 
 immense crops. In those tracts where this advantage is not 
 
 important vegetable productions of the province are cotton, 
 indigo, tobacco, sugar-cane, mulberry, and poppy, from which 
 opium is manufactured. The fruits are pine-apples, citrons, 
 lemons, limes, oranges, pomegranates, grapes, almonds, tama- 
 
 enjoyed, the soil is thin, seldom exceeding a few inches in | rinds, and plantains. Apples and pears are met with in the 
 depth. Notwithstanding, however, the general fertility of j N. districts, but there only. Orchards of mango-trees are to 
 the country, the crops sometimes fail, chiefly through the ! be found in every part of Bengal, the fruit being held in the 
 
 abundance of the periodical rains, when all the horrors of 
 famine ensue, the unfortunate natives dying by thousands, 
 of starvation. The most inhospitable part of Bengal is 
 vhat is called the Sunderlnnds (from being covered with the 
 
 highest estimation, and in general demand during the hot 
 months. Most of the vegetables known in other countries 
 are cultivated in the gardens, including potatoes, carrots, 
 onions, garlic, &c. Many of them, however, become tasteless 
 
 soondru or sunder-tree), that portion of the country through and insipid, as in all other tropical climates. The flowering 
 
 which the numerous branches of the Ganges seek the sea, or 
 the space lying between the river Hoogly and Chittagong, 
 about 150 m. from E. to W., and about 1GO from N. to S. This 
 district is infested with tigers, is traversed in all directions 
 by water -courses or nullahs, and interspersed with numerous 
 sheets of stagnant water, called jheels, which abound with 
 fish and water-fowl, and are much resorted to by alligators. 
 The greater part of these contain no water during the dry 
 season. 
 
 Geology and Minerals. In the N. part of Bengal, at the 
 foot of the Himalayas, is a band of tertiary formation ; S. from 
 which, and along the course of the Ganges, more especially 
 E. from that river, and including the greater part of its delta 
 and that of the Brahmapootra, the country is wholly composed 
 of alluvium or modern detritus. Calcutta stands upon strata 
 of the transition series, which stretch W. into Bahar ; and are- 
 flanked, N. and S., by tracts of crystalline formation. In the 
 Garos hills, coal, iron, and limestone are found ; and nitre 
 effloresces on the surface round Calcutta and elsewhere. 
 Mineral springs are not numerous. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers besides the Ganges and 
 Brahmapootra, the latter of which enters the province at its 
 N.E. extremity, and falls into the Bay of Bengal, near the 
 principal embouchure of the Ganges, are the Soobunreka, which 
 
 trees and shrubs that grow wild, or with little care, are nu 
 merous. Of the former, the most remarkable is the Ficus 
 Indica or banyan-tree, whose immense size, beautiful foliage, 
 and golden-coloured berries, with its singular manner of send 
 ing down roots from its branches, and thus forming new stems, 
 renders it an object at once of surprise and admiration. This 
 tree, though of little use, is much esteemed by the natives of 
 Bengal. Flowers are numerous, and many of them of the most 
 gorgeous hues ; but, excepting roses and a few others, none 
 of them have any scent. Few countries equal, and none sur 
 pass Bengal, for useful timber. The principal trees of this 
 description are teak (Tectona grandis), Sal (Shorea robustu), 
 yielding a resinous exudation ; toon (Cedrela toona], well 
 adapted for boat-building ; mahogany (Swietenia mahogani), 
 billoo (Chloroxylon Swietenia} or satin-wood (Pterocarpus 
 santalinus), red sandal-wood (Pterocarpus murrupium), which 
 is said to produce a variety of gum- kino, and is impervious to 
 insects. Several kinds of ebony, and numerous other valu 
 able woods, are also abundant. 
 
 Animals. The wild animals are lions, tigers, elephants, 
 boars, bears, wolves, foxes, jackals, hyenas, leopards, panthers, 
 lynxes, hares, deer, zebras, buffaloes, antelopes, apes, and 
 monkeys. The most formidable of all these animals, not ex 
 cepting the lion, is the tiger, which here attains its utmost 
 
 falls into the Bay of Bengal in lat. 21 35 N. ; S.S.W. of the size, and perhaps also its greatest ferocity, there being, prob- 
 
 Hoogly, the Cosi or Coosee, which rises near Khatamandoo 
 in Nepaul, and falls into the Ganges near Bhagulpore in lat. 
 
 ably, no animal on tha face of the earth so tremendous as the 
 Bengal tiger, which is said to be able to clear 100 ft. at one 
 
 25 20 N. ; and the Dumooda, which, rising in Bahar, falls | spring, and to carry off a large bullock with the gi eatest 
 into the Hoogly about 22 m. below Calcutta. There are ease. The jungles in the province are infested with them ; 
 numerous other streams of less note, mostly tributaries of the but they are most numerous, as are lions also, on the delta 
 
 of the Ganges, where they every year carry off many of the 
 natives. Dogs, most of them without owners, swarm in the 
 streets of every town in Bengal ; they are generally of the 
 
 Ganges and Brahmapootra, or their larger affluents. 
 
 Climate. There is more regularity in the changes of the 
 seasons in Bengal, than, perhaps, in any other part of India; 
 but it is subject to great extremes of heat, which, added to 
 
 cur species, with sharp erect ears, and pointed tails. The 
 domestic animals are native horses, thin, ill-shaped animals, 
 and not well adapted for any kind of labour; cattle, of a very 
 inferior breed, being extremely small and miserable-looking; 
 sheep, likewise of diminutive size, with very coarse hairy 
 wool; but when well fed, their flesh is excellent. Hogs 
 and goats are also plentiful, and buffaloes are domesticated 
 for the sake of their milk. Keptiles are numerous and for 
 midable, including gavials, a kind of crocodile, with which 
 the larger rivers are infested ; and, amongst the serpent tribe, 
 many of which are highly poisonous, the deadly cobra-da- 
 capello. Turtles, frogs, and lizards, also abound, with swarms 
 of mosquitoes. The turtle are chiefly procured from the island 
 of Cheduba, in the Bay of Bengal. Fish are so exceedingly 
 plentiful, as to be within the reach of almost every class of 
 inhabitants. Those most highly esteemed are the mango-fish 
 (a sea fish which ascends the rivers when the mango-fruit is 
 most abundant, hence its name), the bicktee, sable fish, ani/ 
 mullet, the first two being especial favourites with Europeans. 
 Game, poultry, and water-fowl of all descriptions, abound 
 in Bengal, particularly ducks, of which there is a great variety, 
 and most of them of a superior kind. The gigantic crane, 
 commonly called the adjutant, from the stately air with which 
 he struts about, frequents the towns in considerable numbers, 
 
 generally cultivated, being found in almost every part of the performing the office of scavengers, by clearing the streets of 
 province, in an endless variety of species. Forming the I garbage, in consideration of which duty he enjoys an entire 
 chief article of food, much care is bestowed on its cultiva- immunity from all disturbance; its principal food is offal, 
 
 the humidity of its surface, and the heavy dews that fall, 
 renders it generally unhealthy to Europeans. The preval 
 ence of hot winds, which are sometimes loaded with sandy 
 particles, is another source of disease. The seasons are dis 
 tinguished by the terms hot, cold, and rainy. The hot season 
 continues from the beginning of March to the end of May, 
 within which periods the thermometer frequently rises to 
 100, sometimes to 110. The month of September is also 
 often intensely hot; and when so, is the most unhealthy period 
 of the year to natives as well as Europeans, owing to the pro 
 fuse exhalations from stagnant waters left by the inundations, 
 and from a rank, decaying vegetation. The rainy season 
 commences in June, and lasts till October. During the first 
 two months of this period, the rain is frequently so heavy, 
 that 5 inches of water have fallen in one day, the annual 
 
 average being from 70 to 80 inche 
 
 It is 
 
 e day, 
 in this 
 
 season that 
 
 the inundations take place, and that the Ganges overflows 
 its delta, covering the land with its waters for more than 
 100 m. The cold season, the most grateful and healthful of 
 any to Europeans, continues from November to February, 
 during which period N. winds prevail, with a clear sky. 
 
 Natural Productions. Almost all kinds of grain and pulse 
 are grown in Bengal ; but rice (called also paddy) is the most 
 
 tion ; embankments are formed to retain the water indispens 
 able to its growth on the plains, and reservoirs are formed 
 on the higher grounds for irrigating the lands below. Millet 
 (called also jowary) is also extensively cultivated, and in the 
 W. districts large quantities of maize are grown. At the 
 commencement of the colder season, wheat and barley are 
 sown, and are reaped before the rains set in. The next most 
 
 toads, lizards, serpents, and insects. The argill or hurgill, 
 a species of ardea. may also be noticed ; it is a large and 
 ravenous bird, held in great veneration by the Brahmins. 
 Crows, kites, sparrows, and other small birds, are numerous. 
 Agriculture, Manufactures, &c. There being few gar 
 deners by profession in India, vegetables are grown mostly 
 by farmers; who, however, meet with little demand for them 
 
BENGAL 
 
 377 
 
 BENGAL 
 
 from the natives, who have never acquired a relish for them, 
 not even for the potato, which is rarely to be met with, 
 excepting in the gardens of Europeans. The plant called 
 pat, from which a stout cordage and a coarse kind of cloth is 
 made, is largely cultivated in Bengal. It will grow on almost 
 any description of land ; is sown generally in May, and cut 
 down in August and September. It attains to a height of 5 
 or 6 ft. ; and after being cut, is steeped in water for about 
 10 days, when it is reduced to a substance like hemp. The 
 greater part of this crop is cultivated by those who use or 
 manufacture it, almost all the Hindoo farmers weaving cloth 
 from it. About a fourth part of the whole is sold for exporta 
 tion. The East India Company are endeavouring to promote 
 the cultivation of an article called the son, similar in its uses 
 to pat, affording excellent material for both sails and cordage, 
 and from which the natives make their fishing nets. Cotton 
 is grown over all India, but the best of the herbaceous kind is 
 raised in Bengal and on the Coromandel coast ; the finest grows 
 on light rocky soil. The cotton seed is sown in the latter end 
 of October, and is gathered between the middle of April and 
 the middle of June, the produce varying from 500 to about 
 800 Ibs. an acre. In the absence of rain, the cotton field is 
 watered every 8 or 12 days, four men watering about an acre 
 a day. The cotton of India is generally inferior to that of 
 N. and S. America ; but this is believed to be wholly owing 
 to careless cultivation, and to the slovenly manner in which it 
 is prepared for the market. Sugar-cane is cultivated through 
 out the whole valley of the, Ganges, but hitherto without 
 much success. For the four or five years preceding 1848, 
 the average produce of Bengal did not exceed 70,000 tons. 
 Where a proper system of agriculture is observed, one crop 
 only of sugar-cane is grown on the same field in three years. 
 There are two kinds of sugar-cane, the Khagra and Kajoli. 
 The former is a yellow hard cane, about the thickness of a 
 finger ; the other is much thicker, is deeply stained with pur 
 ple, and often attains a height of 12 and 14 ft. The Kajoli 
 is by far the most productive, but the most troublesome to 
 cultivate ; and, therefore, avoided by the most indolent farm 
 ers ; the land on which it is grown requiring 10 or 12 double 
 ploughings, and a great deal of manure. These ploughings 
 take place between October and January ; the cuttings, about 
 a foot in length, are planted in February and March, and are 
 cut between the middle of December and the end of the fol 
 lowing March. Extensive farmers, and these only, cut so 
 much as an acre of cane in a year. One mill, and one set of 
 implements used in inspissating the juice, thus serve for 
 several farms. The mill and implements generally belong 
 to some wealthy man, who lets them out on hire. Although 
 the expense of cultivating sugar is more than that of cul 
 tivating grain, the profit accruing from the former is con 
 siderable. Tobacco, which requires a light soil, is grown 
 in three different situations, in rich spots of land con 
 tiguous to the farmer s house, in high land suitable for the 
 growth of sugar-cane, and often alternating with that crop, 
 and on the banks of rivers. The crop is generally largest 
 in the first of these situations, and most scanty in the last. 
 The betel leaf, famous for its intoxicating quality, and largely 
 used over all India on that account, is cultivated in what 
 is called a voroj or fort, and is carefully protected from the 
 sun and wind. So great a luxury is this plant considered, 
 and such the importance attached to it, that its cultivators 
 form one of the nine tribes of tradesmen that were admitted 
 to be pure. A betel garden lasts from 12 to 30 years, 
 yielding the best return of any land in Bengal. Indigo 
 being one of the principal articles of foreign commerce with 
 Bengal, is extensively cultivated in that province. It is, 
 however, a very uncertain crop, and both the soils chosen for 
 it, and the seasons for sowing it, are various. The land 
 most commonly selected is high, sandy, and, in general, poor. 
 The seed is sown broadcast in March, April, and May, and is 
 fit for cutting in four months after; its cultivation is neither so 
 laborious nor expensive as that of rice. Indigo is also grown 
 on the flat sandy banks of rivers, which are inundated in the 
 rainy season ; but here the additional risk is run of the waters 
 rising earlier than usual, in which case the crop is over 
 whelmed and entirely lost. It is remarkable that the pro 
 duce of indigo in Bengal has not increased in any degree for 
 the last 30 years. 
 
 The luxuriance of vegetation in Bengal is, perhaps, un- 
 
 VOL. L 
 
 equalled in any other part of the world. The cultivation of 
 the land requires little effort, and large crops are obtained 
 without the application of any other manure than the sediment 
 or mud deposited by the inundations. It is doubtful, how 
 ever, how far this facility is good, since it seems to have had 
 the effect of preventing all attempts at improvement, either in 
 the science of agriculture itself, or in the implements used in 
 its practice. The Indian plough is of wretched construction, 
 having neither coulter nor mould-board, and, in some districts, 
 it wants even the share ; while the animals by which it is 
 dragged, two oxen or cows, are miserable, half starved crea 
 tures. The reaping-hook (kastya) is a most inefficient imple 
 ment, the curved or cutting part of the blade is 6 inches long by 
 1 broad, with teeth like a saw ; the handle is about 4 inches 
 long. The dengki, by which the husks are separated from 
 the grain, is another wretched implement, and so ill adapted 
 to its purposes, that one fifth part of the whole grain is sacri 
 ficed in the operation. Nearly all the other implements in use 
 are of an equally rude and imperfect description. Rotation 
 of crops and the use of fallows are unknown to the farmers 
 of India; the land is generally in an exhausted condition, 
 and the enclosures everywhere bad. Grain is trodden out by 
 oxen, and stacking corn is unusual ; the corn being often left 
 exposed to the weather. Irrigation, however, is well under 
 stood necessity giving rise to invention and is accom 
 plished by the most ingenious and efficient means. Farms 
 are generally small, varying from 1 to 20 ac., and are oppres 
 sively high rented ; the consequence is, that the farmers are, 
 most of them, miserably poor, and are without the means of 
 effecting improvements of any kind. Another obstacle to 
 improvement is the mixture of occupations ; the peasants in 
 differently quitting the plough to use the loom, and the loom 
 to resume the plough. 
 
 Manufactures. The principal manufactures are, cotton 
 piece goods of various descriptions, calicoes, blanketing, diaper, 
 chintzes, woven silks, and taffetas ; pack-thread, and sailcloth. 
 Muslins of the most beautiful and delicate texture were for 
 merly made at Dacca, a city in this province, but the manufac 
 ture is now extinct. Some of these fabrics, says Ta vernier, 
 were so fine that they could hardly be felt in the hand, and 
 the thread, when spun, was scarce discernible. In Ward s 
 History, <&c., of the Hindoos, this character of the muslin of 
 Dacca is confirmed; though, perhaps, in both cases, it is a 
 little exaggerated. When this muslin is laid on the grass," 
 says the latter, and the dew has fallen upon it, it is no longer 
 discernible. In the hyperbolical, but poetical, language of 
 the East, these delicate airy fabrics were designated as webs 
 of woven wind. The extraordinary fineness and beauty of 
 India muslins manufactured under the disadvantages of rude 
 machinery, and ill-prepared material, is attributed to the ex 
 quisitely fine sense of touch possessed by the Hindoos, an 
 effeminate people, to their patience and gentleness, and to the 
 hereditary continuance of a particular species of manufacture 
 in families, through many generations. The delicate forma 
 tion and flexibility of their fingers is equally remarkable, and 
 presents a striking contrast to the rigid clumsy fingers of the 
 European. The extinction of the muslin manufactures of 
 India has been owing, in a great measure, to the successful 
 competition of this country, and to the circumstance of British 
 fabrics being subject to no duty in Bengal, while high duties 
 were levied on the fabrics of Bengal in Britain. In 1831, a 
 great number of natives of the highest respectability individu 
 ally petitioned the Lords of the Privy Council, to allow the 
 cotton and silk fabrics of Bengal to be used in Great Britain 
 free of duty, or at the same rate which may be charged on 
 British fabric consumed in Bengal. The petition was not 
 complied with. Large quantities of a coarse cloth called 
 tat or choti, manufactured from pat, a plant formerly spoken 
 of, are made in various districts of Bengal ; and many of the 
 poorer people are clothed with a coarse linen (megili) prepared 
 from the same material. 
 
 Commerce. The trade of Bengal with Britain is at once 
 extensive and various. The chief imports are metals, foreign 
 wines and spirits, beer, woollen and cotton cloths, cotton 
 yarn, glass, and hardware ; the exports, silk and silk manu 
 factures, cotton, indigo, sugar, saltpetre, and lac dye. Ben 
 gal has also a considerable trade with France, Portugal, the 
 U. States, China, Burmah, Java, and several of the larger 
 islands of the Asiatic Archipelago. The following Table ex- 
 
BENGAL 
 
 378 
 
 BENGAZI 
 
 hibits the proportion of the commerce of Bengal enjoyed by 
 each country in the year 1849-50 : 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 France 
 
 Hamlmnr 
 
 Oilier countries of Europe 
 
 Coromandel coast 
 
 Malabar coast 
 
 China 
 
 Singapore 
 
 Other countries of Asia 
 
 Africa (Mauritius, liourhon, Cape) 
 
 North America 
 
 South America 
 
 1,057,275 4,7C>8,074 
 
 123,380 609,i 2 1 
 
 13,227 
 12.763 
 163,824 
 2(18,924 
 938,072 
 
 339,966 
 
 67,877 
 
 112,887 
 
 13.551 
 9,272 
 191,881 
 3 n 15,440 
 3,219,696 
 
 io :, 
 469,974 
 316,110 
 
 2J132 
 
 6,497,114 10,932,712 
 
 The aggregate exports, as shown above, exceed those of the 
 preceding year by 1,078,203; and the imports by 791,138. 
 For a more detailed account of the foreign trade and com 
 merce of the presidency and province of Bengal, see CALCUTTA, 
 the only port of importance. 
 
 People, Education, Social and Domestic Condition, &c. 
 The natives of Bengal are generally handsome, particularly 
 when young, though slightly formed, and small of stature ; 
 their colour varies from light olive to dark brown ; faces oval, 
 hair and eyes universally black. Their dispositions are lively, 
 and their manners mild and polite ; but their bad qualities are 
 numerous, and their moral character, generally, exceedingly 
 low. They are overbearing to inferiors ; strangers to truth, 
 honesty, and good faith ; and incorrigible cheats and pilferers. 
 The lower classes live in a state of continual warfare with 
 each other ; and there are few families without internal divi 
 sions, accompanied by the most bitter and lasting enmities. 
 They want courage to meet their enemies in open combat, and 
 to commit thefts attended by danger; but have little hesi 
 tation in murdering and robbing when darkness or other 
 circumstances promise a safe perpetration of these crimes. 
 
 It is a necessary consequence of the extreme poverty of the 
 bulk of the population of India, that education should be there 
 at a very low ebb. The first rudiments of education are 
 usually given in small schools called patlisals, in which the 
 fees are extremely low, but still far beyond the reach of the 
 majority of the people ; they are, therefore, few in number ; 
 and did not parents, in many instances, instruct their own 
 children, there would not be many who could either read or 
 write. Children usually go to school at five years of age, and 
 are instructed in reading and writing at the same time, tracing 
 letters on the floor with a pencil of steatite ; at a more ad 
 vanced stage, they write on the palmyra leaf, with a pen (made 
 of reed or bamboo) and ink ; afterwards, they begin to write 
 on paper, and learn to keep accounts. Nothing is taught in 
 these schools but reading and writing, in the common lan 
 guage of the province, together with arithmetic. The Prak- 
 rito, or polite language of Bengal, is confined to persons of 
 liberal education, amongst whom it is the usual means of cor 
 respondence. In the common language of the country, there 
 is neither grammar nor dictionary, nor a single book from 
 which anything can be learned ; neither are there many books 
 of value in the Prakrito, the usual printed compositions in 
 that language being songs, hymns, and poems. The English 
 language is now, however, making rapid strides in every part 
 of India. 
 
 The private houses of Bengal are huts, with pent roofs, 
 constructed of two sloping sides, which meet in a ridge. One 
 hut of this kind serves the poor man for himself, family, and 
 cattle ; wealthy men increase the number of houses, without 
 altering the plan, and without having any communication be 
 tween the different apartments. The walls are generally 
 made of mud, and the floor is raised a foot or two above the 
 level of the plain, to prevent its being flooded in the rainy 
 season, which however is not always accomplished ; in which 
 case the family have to wade through mud to reach the door. 
 The frames of the houses consist of bamboos tied together ; 
 wooden posts and beams being used in the construction of the 
 houses of the wealthy only. The huts, collectively sufficient 
 for the accommodation of a family, are usually surrounded by 
 a common fence. Farmers have, in general, larger and better 
 houses than people living in towns. A rich farmer will some 
 times have as many as 12 or 14 huts within his enclosure. 
 
 The expense of maintaining the table of a Hindoo family 
 
 of high rank and station, with eight domestics, exclusive of 
 the master and mistress, has been estimated, by Mr. Masters, 
 at about 167 per annum. The maintenance of a common 
 labourer, with a wife and two children, is estimated at between 
 8 and 9 per annum; his whole expenses at about 12. 
 Intermediate classes, with one or two more in family, vary, 
 according to position, from 87 to 33 and 15 per annum, 
 for food alone ; which consists chiefly of rice, wheaten flour, 
 fish, vegetables, and butter, with various condiments and 
 seasonings. In the case of the labourer, there is neither flour, 
 fish, vegetables, nor butter, the chief food of that class being 
 a coarse description of rice. 
 
 Hjstori/. The English first established themselves in Ben 
 gal in 1656, when, through the influence of an English medical 
 man named Boughton, the East India Company obtained the 
 sanction of the Emperor of Delhi to locate themselves on the 
 right bank of the river Hoogly. Thirty years afterwards, the 
 Company s factors, having had a rupture with the Moslem 
 commander at the place where they were located, removed to 
 Calcutta, then the village of Chuttanutty, where they con 
 tinued to carry on their trade. In 1700, the Viceroy of Ben 
 gal, being in want of money to dispute the succession to the 
 Mogul throne, obtained a large sum from the Company for 
 the township on which their factory stood at Calcutta, and 
 some adjacent lands. Seven years afterwards, namely, in 
 1707, Calcutta was erected into a presidency, and the founda 
 tion of British power in India laid ; presenting a striking 
 proof of the superior energy of the British character, there 
 having been settlements in India by the Portuguese, Dutch, 
 French, and Danes, previous to, and contemporary with, the 
 location of the English in that quarter of the world, but the 
 mighty achievement of attaining the supremacy in that vast 
 empire, could, it appears, be accomplished only by the British. 
 For nearly half a century, the Company pursued a peaceful 
 and profitable commerce ; but, at the expiry of that period, 
 1756, Calcutta was attacked and taken by the Soubahdar of 
 Bengal, who threw the Englishmen he found there, 147 in 
 number, into a dungeon, the well-known black hole of Calcutta, 
 where 123 of them perished in 11 hours. In the ensuing 
 year, Calcutta was retaken by Lord Clive ; an event which 
 was followed by a series of victories on the part of the 
 British, that terminated in the entire conquest of India. (See 
 INDIA.) 
 
 Bengal is distributed into three divisions Calcutta, Moor- 
 shedabad, and Dacca which have 17 subordinate districts or 
 collectorates. The principal cities, besides the three just 
 named, are Burdwan, Hoogly, Chandernagore, Purneah, Kaje- 
 mahal, and Dinajepore. Pop. estimated at about 25,000,000. 
 (Martin s Eastern India; Hamilton s East India Gaz. ; 
 Journal of the Statistical Society of London The Picture of 
 India; Porter s Progress of the, Nation; M Culloch s Account 
 of the British, Empire ; The Anglo-Indian and Colonial Al 
 manac ; Martin s British Colonial Library ; Baine s History 
 of the Cotton Manufacture ; Parliamentary Reports.} 
 
 BENGAL (BAY OF), a gulf of the Indian Ocean, and, 
 with exception of the Arabian Sea, the largest indentation on 
 the S. coast of Asia. It lies between the peninsular portion 
 of Hindoostan, on the W., and the coasts of Lower Siam, Tan- 
 asserim, Tavoy, Burmah, and Aracan, on the E. ; or between 
 lat. 7 and 23 N., and Ion. 78 and 99 E. It is about 1400 m. 
 in width at the broadest part, or between Cape Comorin, the 
 extreme S. point of Hindoostan, and the corresponding lati 
 tude on the coast of Lower Siam. From this point it dimin 
 ishes little in breadth till lat. 15 N. is passed, when it 
 gradually contracts to a breadth not exceeding 250 m., and 
 latterly terminates in a comparatively narrow inlet, of not 
 more than 50 m. in width, crowded with islands, and in which 
 are the embouchures of the Brahmapootra, and the largest 
 and most E. branch of the Ganges. 
 
 BENGAZI, or BENGAZY, a maritime tn. regency of Tripoli, 
 dist. Barca, E. coast of the Gulf of Sidra ; lat. (castle) 32 6 48" 
 N. ; Ion. 20 2 42" E. (R.) ; situated on the verge of a large 
 and fertile plain, extending to the foot of the Cyrenaic chain 
 of mountains. It is wretchedly built, and most of the houses 
 are constructed of mud, or of rough stones cemented with that 
 material instead of mortar. Those who can afford it, spread 
 a preparation of lime over the mud, which renders it imper 
 vious to the weather. The houses consist generally of one 
 floor, having a quadrangular courtyard within, into which the 
 
BENGEO 
 
 379 
 
 BENIGANIM 
 
 doors of the various apartments open. The roofs are flat, laid 
 over with rafters, and thereafter covered with all sorts of rub 
 bish, which is kept down by a thick coating of mud. The 
 houses of the poorer classes are composed of such frail mate 
 rials, and so unskilfully constructed, that numbers of them 
 fall on their inmates, often seriously injuring them, during the 
 rainy season of each year a calamity which combined indo 
 lence and poverty prevent them providing against, notwith 
 standing their repeated experiences. The town is, besides, 
 extremely filthy throughout ; and in the market-place is a 
 pool of stagnant and putrid water, into which all the blood 
 and offals of the animals killed, and all the rubbish of the 
 town, excepting what is deposited on the streets, is thrown. 
 The harbour, which was, about 50 years since, of sufficient 
 depth to admit vessels of from 200 to 300 tons burden, is fast 
 filling up with sand, and will not now float vessels drawing 
 more than 7 or 8 ft. water. It is defended at the entrance by 
 a castle, so slightly constructed as to be incapable of a pro 
 tracted resistance. The trade of the town, which is carried on 
 principally by Jews, is still pretty considerable. The exports 
 consist chiefly of cattle, sheep, corn, wool, and salted butter. 
 Provisions, fruits, vegetables, and fresh water abound ; and 
 ships touching at the port may have ample supplies of them all. 
 Bengazi occupies the site of the Berenice of the Ptolemies, of 
 which few vestiges are to be seen above ground ; but numerous 
 and interesting remains are found at almost every point within 
 the distance of half a mile, on digging a little way beneath the 
 surface of the earth. In the neighbourhood are to be seen 
 some singular chasms, of large area, filled with luxuriant vege 
 tation, and surrounded by perpendicular walls of rock, pre 
 senting a most picturesque appearance, and supposed to have 
 been the sites of the gardens of the Hesperides. Bengazi 
 is in the dominions of the Pasha of Tripoli, under whom it is 
 governed by a Bey, who resides in the castle ; where, also, his 
 officers and troops are quartered. Pop. estimated at 5000. 
 
 BENGEO, par. Eng. Hertford; 3020 ac. Pop. 1141. 
 
 BENGE WORTH (Si. PETEK), par. Eng. Worcester. 
 Pop. 1082. 
 
 BENGORE HEAD, a promontory, N. coast, Ireland, 
 co. Antrim ; lat. 55 15 N. ; Ion. 6 29 W. It is formed of 
 a number of capes, the most prominent of which rises 320 ft. 
 above the level of the sea. 
 
 BENGUELA, a little-known dist., W. coast, Africa, lying 
 between lat. 11 and 17 S., and bounded, N. by Angola, E. 
 by the Cunene river, S. by Nourse s river, and \V. by the 
 Atlantic Ocean. The interior of the country is mountainous, 
 the direction of the elevated lands being from N.E. to S.W. 
 It is well watered, having numerous springs and lakes, many 
 of the latter brackish, and some salt ; and being thickly inter 
 sected by rivers and streams. Its vegetation is luxuriant, 
 including every description of produce peculiar to tropical 
 countries. The slopes of the mountains are covered with 
 dense forests of cedars, palms, date-trees, tamarinds, &c. The 
 vine, the banana, ananas, and other descriptions of tropical 
 fruit, also abound. The soil is well adapted for the produc 
 tion of gram ; but, from indolence and want of skill on the 
 part of the natives, little is grown. The larger and fiercer 
 animals of the African wilds are numerous in this district ; 
 lions, tigers, rhinoceroses, elephants, hippopotami, and alli 
 gators (the latter of a very formidable kind) frequently in 
 vading, in large bodies, the neighbouring towns and villages, 
 when the rivers they inhabit run low. Zebras, elks, deer, 
 and antelopes are likewise abundant. Horses are scarce, but 
 cattle, sheep, and goats plentiful. The ostrich and the pea 
 cock are found here ; the latter wild in the woods. Reptiles 
 of all sorts, harmless and dangerous, are met with everywhere. 
 The mineral wealth of the district consists of copper, sulphur, 
 petroleum, and crystals. Gold and silver have also been 
 found, but it is not known whether they abound. 
 
 BENGUELA (Slo FELIPE DE), a tn., W. coast, Africa, 
 Portuguese cap. of the above dist. It is situated on an open 
 bay, formed to the S.W. by projecting cliffs, below Mount 
 Sombreiro or St. Philip s Cap; lat. (flag-staff) 12 32 15" S.; 
 Ion. 13 30 45" E. The buildings are of half-baked bricks, 
 cemented with mud, and covered with a thick plaster of shell 
 lime. The town is surrounded by a marsh, full of stagnant 
 pools, from which the most deadly exhalations arise, rendering 
 the place so unhealthy that no European can live in it. A 
 large mud fort, going to decay, mounted with a few rusty 
 
 guns, forms the chief defence of the town. Here an exten 
 sive trade in slaves was at one time carried on, 20,000 being 
 annually exported from it ; and there is no good reason for 
 believing that there are fewer now. The town was, some 
 time ago, invaded by a herd of elephants in quest of water, 
 and almost wholly destroyed by them. The pop. consists of 
 free blacks and slaves, and amounts to about 3000. 
 
 BENHALL, par. Eng. Suffolk; 2010 ac. Pop. 749. 
 
 BENHOLME, par. Scot. Kincardine, about 3 m. square, 
 bounded on the S.E. by the German Ocean. Pop. 1648. 
 
 BENI, a river, Bolivia, formed by several head-streams 
 having their sources in the high mountain-ranges N.W. of 
 Cochabamba, about lat. 18 S., and which unite about lat. 
 16 42 S. ; Ion. 68 10 W. From this point, the Beni holds 
 a generally N. course for about 300 m., when it bends N.E., 
 arid subsequently joins the Mamore or Marmore in lat. 10 35 
 S., the united streams receiving the name of the Madeira, 
 which falls into the Amazon near Serpa, in lat. 3 20 S. It is 
 but proper to mention that there are considerable differences 
 of opinion regarding some parts of the course of this stream, 
 the whole not having been yet explored. Extensive levels, 
 of great fertility, stretch along its banks, which are also 
 adorned with the most magnificent trees, many of them fruit- 
 bearing; medicinal herbs and aromatic gums also abound. 
 Fish are numerous ; and gold is found on its shores. The 
 banks are inhabited by various tribes of Indians, some of 
 whom are in a barbarous state. 
 
 BENI, a dep. Bolivia, formed, in 1843, by uniting provs. 
 Caupolican or Apolabamba, previously included in dep. La 
 1 az, to those of Moxos and Yuracares, which made part of dep. 
 La Cruz. The new department, therefore, embraces the terri 
 tory on both banks of the river Beni. It extends N., according 
 to the Bolivian maps, to lat. 10 S. ; and includes, on the W., 
 the highest points of the Bolivian Andes, Sorata, and Illimani ; 
 on the E., a vast tract of level plain, watered by numerous 
 great rivers, clothed with superb forests, and extensively in 
 undated during the wet season. The pop. of this vast terri 
 tory probably does not exceed 35,000, nearly all indigenous. 
 
 BENICARLO, a tn. and port, Spain, Valencia, prov. of, 
 and 44 m. N.E. Castellon de la Plana, 1 m. from the Medi 
 terranean. It is entered by four gates ; and has well-made 
 and paved streets, four squares, a parish church, townhouse, 
 custom-house, hospital, adult and three other schools, a ceme 
 tery, and several convents. Manufactures : hempen fabrics, 
 ropes, and sailcloth. There are here two brandy distilleries, 
 tanneries, numerous wine-presses, and oil-mills. Fishing, to 
 a limited extent, is carried on. Exports: red wines, brandy, 
 and oil, which are sent to Cadiz, Malaga, and other points of 
 the peninsula. Imports :- wheat, ling, sardines, sugar, iron, 
 and timber. Benicarlo is chiefly noted for the red wines of 
 the surrounding country, of which it exports upwards of 
 220,000 casks annually. Most of these wines are sent to 
 Bordeaux, for the purpose of mixing with their clarets. A 
 portion, and no inconsiderable one, is also sent to this country 
 to be manufactured into port. During the vintage, says 
 Mr. Ford in his Handbook, the mud of these towns is abso 
 lutely red with grape-husks, and the legs of the population 
 dyed from treading the vats. Nothing, he adds, can be more 
 dirty, classical, and unscientific than the modus operandi. The 
 press is rude ; the filth and negligence boundless. Pop. G060. 
 
 BENICIA, a recently-commenced seaport tn., U. States, 
 California, about 30 m. N.N.E. San Francisco. It is admir 
 ably situated on a spit of land in the N. part of the Bay of 
 San Francisco, and commands the navigation both of the 
 Sacramento and San Joaquim rivers. The largest vessels 
 lie close in shore. The climate is fine ; the place is rapidly 
 increasing. Shipbuilding is carried on. 
 
 BENIDORM, a tn. and port, Spain, Valencia, prov. of, 
 and 27 m. N.E. Alicante, on a hill at the head of a bay of 
 same name. It has a parish church, townhall, prison, four 
 public schools, custom-house, and a ruinous castle. The inhab 
 itants are chiefly employed in fishing, and as muleteers. As 
 a port, its commerce is unimportant ; consisting principally 
 in importing grain from Andalusia, and exporting salt fish, 
 fruits, vegetables, c. Pop. 4502. 
 
 BENIGANIM, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 37 m. S. Va 
 lencia. It has spacious, clean, and well-paved streets, an 
 extensive square, two parish churches, two endowed schools, 
 a substantial townhall, hospital, prison, two public fountains, 
 
BENI-ISGUEN 
 
 BENNINGTOX 
 
 a palace of the Marquis of Bclgida, and several convents. The 
 inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture, but also manu 
 facture linen fabrics, soap, and a kind of sweetmeat called 
 nrropa de Beniganim. There are here also four brandy dis 
 tilleries, and some wine-presses. Pop. 2318. 
 
 BENI-ISGUEN, a tn. Algeria, in the Sahara Desert, on 
 the Wady Mzab ; lat. 33 30 N. ; Ion. 2 E. It is described 
 as approaching hi size to the town of Algiers, as being strongly 
 built, and surrounded by a rampart, on which are five towers. 
 It has three gates, and some trade in grain. The inhabitants 
 are of the Beni-Mzab tribe. (Daumas, Le Sahara Algerien.} 
 
 BENI SABIH, a tn. Marocco, cap. prov. Darah or Draha, 
 r. bank of streamlet Draha, 224 m. S. by E. the city of Ma 
 rocco ; lat. 28 58 N. ; Ion. 6 45 W. It is a small but rather 
 densely-populated town, and has some trade in goat -skins. 
 
 BENIN, a Negro country or kingdom, W. Africa, Upper 
 Guinea, on the Bight of Benin, Gulf of Guinea, extending 
 along the coast on both sides of the Benin Eiver, but how far, 
 and to what distance inland, is not known ; indeed, respecting 
 the whole country, our information is exceedingly defective. 
 It is, however, now understood to be neither so extensive, 
 nor important, as at one time it was deemed. The capital is 
 Benin. The coast is thickly indented with estuaries, some of 
 them of considerable breadth, and studded with islands. The 
 country is flat for some distance inland, when it begins gradu 
 ally to rise, till it attains a height of between 2000 and 3000 ft. 
 It is very well wooded, and being likewise well watered, it is 
 rich in all the vegetable productions of the tropics. Cotton 
 is indigenous, and its wool is woven into cloth by the women. 
 Sugar-cane of good quality is grown ; the soil is laid out in 
 square plots, producing yams, plantains, Canada and Indian 
 corn. The religion is Fetichism. Human sacrifices are num 
 erous, and cruelty, in its most atrocious forms, is character 
 istic of the people and the Government. An extensive traffic 
 in slaves is carried on in this country. Besides this nefarious 
 traffic, there is a considerable trade in salt, palm-oil, and blue 
 coral. 
 
 BENIN, a large tn., W. Africa, cap. of above kingdom ; 
 lat. 6 12 N. ; Ion. 5 45 E. (c.), r. bank, river of same name, 
 formerly called by the Portuguese Rio Formosa, but now 
 ascertained to be one of the mouths of the Niger. As in 
 almost all African towns, the houses are set down without 
 the slightest regard to order, and often at wide distances from 
 each other. They are built of clay, neatly thatched with 
 reeds, straw, or leaves, and kept exceedingly clean. The 
 palace of the King stands outside of the city, and is defended 
 by walls. Benin was at one time the great emporium of the 
 district for slaves, but this traffic is now carried on nearer the 
 coast, as large vessels could not come within a shorter distance 
 of the town than Gatto or Agattou, a port about 40 m. down 
 the river. It is still, however, the scene of a busy market 
 for cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, yams, cottons, ivory, 
 and European wares; with fruits of various kinds. The 
 country around is fertile, but low and swampy, and very un 
 healthy for Europeans. Belzoni, the celebrated traveller, died 
 here in 1823. Pop. estimated at 15,000. 
 
 BENIN (BIGHT OF), a large indentation of the Gulf of 
 Guinea, extending along the entire coast of Benin and Da 
 homey. The coast is low and swampy, and rendered exceed 
 ingly dangerous by the heavy surf which is continually rolling 
 on the beach. The current on the shore sets always E. at a 
 rate varying from half a mile to one and a half per hour. 
 The prevailing winds are W. In the months of February 
 and March the coast is subject to violent tornadoes from the 
 N.E., accompanied by heavy, cold rains. There are a number 
 of considerable towns along the coast, carrying on a pretty 
 extensive trade in palm-oil and ivory, and at all of which, 
 the necessaries of life, with fruits and vegetables, may be had 
 cheap, and in abundance. 
 
 BENIN (RIVER OF), [called by the Portuguese Rio For 
 mosa, and still recognized by that name], in W. Africa, king 
 dom of Benin, and believed to be one of the mouths of 
 the Niger. It falls into the Gulf of Guinea about 180 m. 
 below Benin, and about 115 m. N.N.W. Cape Formosa ; 
 lat. (entrance, N.W. point) 5 46 N. ; Ion. 5 4 E. (R.) It is 
 a fine bold river. It divides into two branches, both of which 
 were ascended in 1 840, in a steamer, by Capt. Becroft, the one 
 branch for a distance of 50, and the other for a distance of 
 70 m. Further progress was stopped, by the impenetrable 
 
 nature of the aquatic vegetation. The river is 2 m. wide at its 
 mouth, across which is a bar of mud, clay and sand, extending 
 from 4 to 5 m. seaward, and on which there are not more 
 than 12 ft. water at spring tides. A few miles up, the river 
 contracts to the width of half a mile. The depth of water 
 does not in any part exceed 24 ft. The climate here is fatal 
 to Europeans ; the disease, a malignant remittent fever, which 
 frequently carries off great numbers of the crews of vessels 
 frequenting the river. The chief articles of export are palm 
 oil, ivory, and pod or cayenne pepper, for which cloth, par 
 ticularly scarlet, beads, guns, gunpowder, hardware, and 
 spirits, are taken in exchange. The tide rises in the river 
 5 or 6 ft. 
 
 BENIOLEED, a tn. and valley, N.W. Africa, regency 
 of Tripoli, about 100 rn. S.S.E. from the seaport town of that 
 name. The valley, which is very fertile, is described by 
 Major Denham as being bounded on all sides by whitish 
 brown hills, capped in many places with greenstone, and 
 amygdaloid, or vesicular lava, rugged villages, and ruinous 
 castles, on every point, some overtopping the columnar green 
 stone, and scarcely distinguishable from it. The hills do 
 not exceed 400 ft. in height, and are composed mostly of 
 limestone. 
 
 BENISA, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. of, and 38 m. N.E. 
 Alicante, on a lull overlooking the Mediterranean. It has 
 badly-constructed and mean-looking streets, a parish church, 
 two schools, a townhnll, public prison, hospital, storehouse, 
 and a Franciscan convent, the church of which is used as a 
 chapel of ease. The inhabitants are engaged in tillage, and 
 in preparing Muscatel raisins, which are exported. A monthly 
 market is held for the sale of the agricultural produce, and for 
 cattle. Pop. 3678. (Madoz.) 
 
 BENISALEM, a tn. Spain, isl. Majorca, prov. Baleares, 
 10 m. S.W. Inca, having spacious streets, two squares, a 
 parish church, two schools, a townhall, and a cemetery. Trade 
 in coal, and marble, wrought in the neighbourhood, and in 
 lime, grain, oil, and exquisite fruits. Pop. 3027. 
 
 BENISUEFF, or BENISOO^F, a tn. Egypt, cap. prov. or 
 j beylik of same name, 1. bank, Nile, 83 m. S. Cairo. It is 
 the residence of the bey or governor, who has a palace in the 
 town, and contains a maufactory for silk and cotton stuffs, 
 established by Mehemet AH in 1826, and a large barracks 
 for cavalry. Benisueff was once famous for its linen manu 
 factures, and for its trade in flax, but both are now extinct. 
 An indifferently supplied market is held here once a week. 
 The bank of the river at BenisooeT, says Sir Gardner Wil 
 kinson, presents the ordinary scenes common to all the large 
 towns on the Nile ; the most striking of which are, numerous 
 boats tied to the shore, buffaloes standing or lying in the 
 water, women at their usual morning and evening occupation 
 of filling water-jars, and washing clothes, dogs lying in holes 
 they have scratched in the cool earth, and beggars importun 
 ing each newly-arrived European stranger, with the odious 
 word bakshish [a present]. Pop. 5000. 
 
 BENNECKENSTEIN, a tn. Prussia, prov. Saxony, on 
 the Rapbode, at the foot of the Ilarz, 13 m. N.N.W. Nord- 
 hausen ; lat. 51 40 N. ; Ion. 10 40 E. It has an iron foundry, 
 a nail-work, a brewery, and manufactures a variety of articles 
 from wood. Pop. 3500. 
 
 BENNEKOM, a vil. Holland, prov. Gelderlaml, 10 m. 
 W. by N. Anihem. with a church, school, and 900 inhabitants. 
 
 BENNESCH, or BENNISCH, a tn. Austrian Silesia, on the 
 borders of Moravia, 9 m. E. Troppau. The inhabitants, who 
 1 are almost all Germans, live chiefly by weaving linen, and 
 spinning yarn. A valuable silver mine, which employed a 
 great number of furnaces, once existed in the neighbourhood. 
 It had long been closed, but was again opened in 1817. 
 Nothing, however, is obtained from it except iron ochre, and 
 clay ironstone. Pop. 2750. 
 
 BENN1NGTON, three pars. Eng.: 1, par. Hertford; 
 2950 ac. Pop. 605. 2, par. Lincoln ; 3090 ac. Pop. 539. 
 3, Beunmyion (Long), par. Lincoln; 4420 ac. Pop. 1007. 
 
 BENNINGTON, a post vil., U. States, Vermont, on 
 elevated ground, 37 m. N.E. Albany; lat. 42 42 N. ; Ion. 
 73 W. It has a court-house, Congregational church, two 
 academics, and 12 schools. In 1777, an engagement took 
 place on the W. border of the village, between the British 
 and Americans, in which the former sustained a defeat. Pop. 
 ! (1840), 3429. 
 
BENNIWORTH 
 
 BERAR 
 
 BENNIWORTH, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 2840 ac. P. 488- 
 
 BENOIT (ST.), a tn., E. coast, isle of Bourbon, 27 m. 
 S.E. St. Denis, for which place the produce of the district is 
 shipped in small vessels. Pop. about 9000. 
 
 BENOWEN, par. Irel. Westmeath; 6S87 ac. Pop. 1548. 
 
 BENOWM, or BENOWN, a tn., N. Africa, cap. of king 
 dom Ludamar, S. border of the Great Desert; lat. 15 8 N.; 
 Ion. 9 40 W. 
 
 BENSHEIM, a tn. grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
 prov. Starkenburg, on the highroad and the railway between 
 Frankfort and Heidelberg, 17 m. S. Darmstadt; lat. 49 40 
 N. ; Ion. 8 35 E. It is surrounded with old walls ; and con 
 tains a gymnasium, a normal school, and three churches. The 
 inhabitants live by trade and agriculture, including that of the 
 
 vine. Pop., chiefly R. Catholic, 4000. The DISTRICT of 
 
 the same name, though mountainous, is fertile ; produces all 
 the ordinary crops ; rears a great number of excellent cattle ; 
 and has a pop. of 23,200. 
 
 BENSINGTON, par. Eng. Oxford; 2800 ac. Pop. 1254. 
 
 BENTALA, a tn. Senegambia, about 210 m. N.N.E. 
 Sierra Leone ; lat. 1 1 25 N. ; Ion. 12 W. ; 1. bank of a tri 
 butary of the Rio Grande. 
 
 BENTHALL, par. Eng. Salop ; 770 ac. Pop. 587. 
 
 BENTHAM, par. Eng. York, W. Riding; 23,100 ac. 
 Pop. 3535. 
 
 BENTHEIM, a prov. or earldom, Hanover, lying be 
 tween the Prussian prov. of Westphalia, and the Dutch prov. 
 of Overijssel ; area, about 399 sq. m., mostly level, and toler 
 ably productive. Amongst its mineral products are potters 
 clay, coals, millstones, and freestone. Its only manufactures 
 are flax yarn spinning and weaving. The climate is, on the 
 whole, temperate and healthy. Both the language and manners 
 
 of the inhabitants are Dutch. The TOWN of Bentheim, in 
 
 lat. 52 18 N. ; Ion. 7 8 E., is built on an acclivity, on the 
 W. side of the Wechte. The streets are steep and crooked ; 
 but the palace, which crowns the summit of the acclivity, and 
 is of a castellated form, surrounded with walls, commands a 
 beautiful prospect. There is a sulphur spring in the neigh 
 bourhood, which is much resorted to. Pop. of tn. 1972 ; of 
 prov. 28,754. 
 
 BENTINCK ISLAND, an isl. in Australia, Gulf of Car 
 pentaria; lat. (S. point) 17 8 S. ; Ion. 139 30 E. It is 
 about 10 m. long, and as many broad, of moderate elevation, 
 and thickly covered with wood. Its S. side is much indented, 
 and the projections are lined with mangroves. 
 
 BENTLEY, several pars. Eng. : 1, par. Hants; 2450 ac. 
 Pop. 766. 2, par. Suffolk ; 2350 ac. Pop. 419. 3, Bentley 
 (Great], par. Essex ; 2850 ac. Pop. 1005. 4, Bentley (Little), 
 par. Essex; 2750 ac. Pop. 462. 5, Bentley (Fenny], par. 
 Derby; 670 ac. Pop. 343. 
 
 BENTON (LONG), par. Eng. Northumberland; 8760 ac. 
 Pop. 8711. 
 
 BENTOTTE, a beautiful vil. or small tn. Ceylon, 1. bank, 
 river of same name, 12 m. S. Cultura. It has distilleries of 
 arrack, and manufactures considerable quantities of cordage, 
 both of which are exported to the coast of Coroinandel. There 
 is a pretty large church in the village, and a house for the 
 reception of travellers. Fish is abundant ; and the oysters 
 taken in the vicinity are celebrated for their flavour. The 
 pop. is numerous. (Ceylon Gas.) 
 
 BENWEE HEAD, Ireland, co. Mayo, rises perpendicu 
 larly from the sea to a height of 900 ft. ; lat. 54 21 N. ; Ion. 
 9 45 W. 
 
 BENTWORTH, par. Eng. Hants ; 3770 ac. Pop. 609. 
 
 BENZERTA. See BIZERTA. 
 
 BEOLEY [anc. Beaulieu], par. Eng. Worcester ; 4700 ac. 
 Pop. 657. 
 
 BEPTON, par. Eng. Sussex; 1260 ac. Pop. 207. 
 
 BEQUIA ISLAND, one of the Grenadines, a chain of 
 small islands, belonging to the British, between St. Vincent 
 and Grenada, W. Indies, 7 m. S. from the former. It is about 
 7 m. in length, and from 1 J to 2 m. in breadth. On the W. 
 side is a spacious bay, called Admiralty Bay ; lat. (N. point) 
 13 5 N. ; Ion. 61 14 W. (K.) It has a slightly hilly surface. 
 Produces cotton and sugar. 
 
 BERAR, a large prov. Hindostan, in the Deccan, incor 
 porated into the Britisli dominions in the year 1854; be 
 tween lat. 17 48 and 22 43 N., and Ion. 75 20 and 82 48 
 E. ; bounded, N. by Candeish and Malwa, E. by prov. Gund- 
 
 wana, S. by Aurungabad and Beeder, and W. by the dominions 
 of the Nizam ; greatest length, N. to S., 330 m. ; breadth, 
 300 m. ; area, 56,723 sq. m. It is centrally situated, being 
 almost equidistant from the Bay of Bengal and the W. coast 
 of India ; and consists chiefly of an elevated valley, reached 
 by a chain of ghauts or mountain passes, sometimes sloping 
 gradually, sometimes terminating abruptly towards the valley, 
 which, owing to the undulations of the ground, and numerous 
 intervening small peaks, is seldom seen till it is nearly ap 
 proached. The chief rivers are the Wurda, the Khahan, 
 Wynegunga, and other affluents of the Godavery, and the 
 Tuptee or Tapty, and Mahanuddy. The soil is fertile, yield 
 ing abundant crops of dry grains ; also pease, vetches, flax, 
 sugar, betel, and tobacco. The wheat is reckoned the best in 
 India, and is harvested three months after it is sown, leaving 
 time for a crop of Indian corn. Cotton is grown to some ex 
 tent, and considerable numbers of sheep are reared. Since the 
 country has been under the supervision of the British, a large 
 proportion of the land has been brought into cultivation, and 
 greater attention paid to the means of irrigation generally. The 
 agricultural implements in use are still of a very inferior de 
 scription, particularly the plough, which is extremely rude and 
 inefficient. The indigo-plant is not cultivated, though grow 
 ing wild ; neither is opium much attended to. A large portion 
 of the country is in the hands of zemindars, who pay small 
 quit-rents to Government, but are otherwise independent. In 
 the more civilized parts of Berar, the revenue is collected 
 by the potail or head village farmer, who is responsible to 
 Government for the punctual payment of the ryot s rents ; he 
 himself receiving some 17 per cent, by way of remuneration. 
 The office of potail is usually considered hereditary, but the 
 Government claims the power of dismissal. The judicial 
 authorities rank, under the Rajah, in the following order: 
 the soubahdar of the district, the native pergunnah collector, 
 and the potail. The punchayet, a body of five arbitrators, of 
 whom two are chosen by each party in the cause, and the fifth 
 by the local authority, decides most petty civil causes, finally, 
 without appeal. Cases of more importance are decided by 
 the Rajah in person, or by the soubahdar, who is usually a 
 military officer ; when the loser must pay down one -fourth of 
 the disputed claim, as a fine, to the Rajah, and the gainer 
 another fourth, as recompence for the trouble of decision. 
 Education in Berar is chiefly confined to the children of 
 Brahmins and those of the mercantile classes, and is of a de 
 scription little calculated to advance their moral or intellec 
 tual faculties. All the other classes are exceedingly illiterate, 
 it being rare to find a cultivator of the soil who can write his 
 own name. The only order who ever study books are Brah 
 mins, and these books are exclusively books of theology. 
 The trade of Berar is chiefly limited to internal traffic, and 
 that is insignificant, from the want of good roads and other 
 means of communication ; still a considerable quantity of 
 cotton, and numerous sheep, are sent to Kamgaum, in the 
 N.W. part of the province, to be forwarded thence usually 
 by the Chandore pass to Bombay. The road, however, is so 
 wretched, that large quantities of the cotton are lost or de 
 stroyed on the way, and not one-third of the sheep reach 
 Bombay alive, and even those that do survive the journey are 
 greatly reduced in flesh. 
 
 Towards the end of the 17th century, Berar, which had 
 been formerly ruled by independent sovereigns, was added to 
 the Mogul empire. On the decline of that empire it was 
 overrun by rapacious hordes of Mahrattas, and for some time 
 it was nearly equally divided between the Peshwa and the 
 Rajah of Nagpoor. The latter, however, in 1803, having 
 taken part with Dowlat Row Siudia against the British, he 
 was, in the December of the same year, compelled to cede to 
 the latter the province of Cuttack, including the port of 
 Balasore, as well as the provinces of Sumbulpore and Patna 
 (afterwards restored to him), also some districts on the Hyder 
 abad frontier, which were made over to the Nizam. In 1817, 
 the new Rajah, Appah Sahib, having joined the Peshwa 
 against the British, the latter took upon themselves the 
 government of his territory, in the name of Bajee Rao Boosh- 
 lah, then a minor. In 1826, the young Rajah attained his 
 majority, and was put in possession of part of his territory, 
 the remainder of which was given up to him in 1829. lie 
 died without issue, December 11, 1853, and in course of the 
 following year his territories were incorporated with the pos- 
 
EERAT 
 
 382 
 
 BERBICE 
 
 sessions of the East India Company. (Mill s History of British 
 India; Parliamentary Papers, &c.) 
 
 BE RAT, or ARNAUT BERAT [anc. Arnaout Bcligrad], a 
 tn. Turkey in Europe, near the centre of Albania, sanjak of, 
 and 28 m. N.E. Aulona, romantically situated on both sides of 
 the Tuberathi or Ergent, here crossed by a handsome bridge 
 of eight arches. It contains an acropolis or citadel, repaired 
 and strengthened by Ali Pasha, situated upon a high hill, with 
 in which are the palace of the Vizier, several Greek churches, 
 and about 250 houses. The lower town, without the walls 
 of the acropolis, has 13 mosques and a large and handsome 
 bazaar, well supplied with articles from Constantinople and 
 Macedonia, and with foreign goods imported through the port 
 of Aulona. It lies in, and commands a narrow pass, is con 
 sidered an important post, and its possession has been fre 
 quently disputed by contending Pashas. It is the residence of 
 a bishop. The Greek women here wear a peculiar kind of cap 
 or bonnet, nearly two feet high, and shaped like a bishop s 
 mitre, generally made of blue cloth, well stuffed, and fastened 
 under the chin with ribbons. The vicinity is fertile in grain, 
 wine, and oil. Pop. about 8000 or 9000. 
 
 BERAUN, a small walled tn. Bohemia, cap. prov. of same 
 name, 17 m. W.S.W. Prague, on the Beraun, near its junction 
 with the Litawka. It has a gymnasium, and a monastery of 
 Piarists. Its staple manufacture is earthenware, of excellent 
 quality. In the vicinity are marble quarries and coal mines. 
 A few miles off, on a rock, in the middle of a valley, stands the 
 castle of Karlstein, the most remarkable feudal fortress in Bo 
 hemia. It suffered greatly during the Thirty Years War, but 
 is still tolerably entire. It has a donjon tower 1 2 1 ft. high, with 
 walls 13 feet thick. On the third story is an interesting old 
 chapel ; and close to it, the magnificent oratory of St. Catherine, 
 built by Charles IV. of Austria, by whom the castle itself was 
 erected, in 1348, for the preservation of the Bohemian regalia. 
 Within the castle is a well 232 ft. deep. At Beraun, in 1744, 
 the Austrians gained a signal victory over the Prussians. 
 
 Pop. 2200. The PROVINCE of Beraun, area 720 geo. sq. m., 
 
 consists of mountains, intersected at intervals by fertile val 
 leys, and is watered by the Moldau, Sasawa, Beraun, and 
 Litawka. It produces rich crops of grass, and small quantities 
 of wine and hops ; and is famous for its breeds of horses, cattle, 
 and sheep. Its higher slopes are covered with excellent 
 timber ; and among its mountains are mines of silver, lead, 
 and iron, the last maintaining several blast furnaces and other 
 iron works. Coal, also, and quarries of marble, abound. Nor 
 are the manufactures of Beraun unimportant. Its naileries 
 are the most extensive in Bohemia; and it has numerous 
 sugar-works, potash-works, potteries, and paper-mills, together 
 with manufactures of linen and cotton goods. Pop. 185,000. 
 
 BERBER, a dist. Nubia, on either side the Nile, inter 
 sected by lat. 18 N. It consists of rich alluvial land, suitable 
 for growing grain, cotton, tobacco, and indigo ; but it is to a 
 great extent uncultivated. It is the rendezvous for merchants 
 from Sennaar and Kartoom, on their way to Cairo. A con 
 siderable traffic in slaves is carried on. Pop. 8000 to 9000. 
 
 BERBERA, a seaport and tn., or rather market-place, E. 
 coast, Africa, Somauli country, on the Gulf of Aden, situated in 
 a beautiful harbour, formed by a curvature of the coast line, 
 and a low sandy cape projecting out nearly at right angles 
 with the general line of the coast to a distance of nearly 1 j m. 
 The extreme of this sandy cape is in lat. 10 26 20" N. ; Ion. 
 44 6 20" E. The direction of the harbour is E.N.E. to 
 AV.S. W., and at its entrance it is three-quarters of a mile wide, 
 with 13 fathoms mid-channel ; shoaling to 5 fathoms, within 200 
 yards of the town. Daring the summer, from April till early in 
 October, Berbera is a waste, utterly deserted, without inhabit 
 ant ; but no sooner does the season change, than the inland 
 tribes commence moving towards the coast, to prepare huts 
 for the expected visitors. These huts being merely for tem 
 porary use, mostly consist of leaves of the doum palm, long 
 dried grass, or badly-preserved skins, extended over a few poles, 
 so as to form a roof. A few huts of the more wealthy mer 
 chants make an attempt at greater display ; but being wholly 
 composed of roof, there is little scope for the exercise of 
 architectural genius. Now the traders begin to arrive from 
 all points of the compass ; long strings of camels wind through 
 ^TB^streets, and now the annual fair commences. Here are 
 met slave merchants from Hurrur and Efat, Egyptians, 
 Nubians, Abyssinians, Dankali, and natives of Somauli, Susa, 
 
 Ivaffa, Kombat, Isah, and Zingero, surrounded with the pro 
 ducts of their respective countries; Banians from India, 
 peering forth cunningly between piles of rich goods ; Persians, 
 
 th shawls from Kerman, and turquoises from the neighbour 
 hood of the Caspian Sea ; the natives of Mesopotamia, and 
 Oman, and Hadramaut, and Yemen, and the Hejaz, with 
 whatever commodities the soil of Arabia produces. The har 
 bour is filled with vessels from Arabia, Persia, India, &c. 
 The imports are white and blue cotton cloths of Indian manu 
 facture ; also, piece goods, Indian handkerchiefs, brass and 
 copper wire, zinc and beads, dates and grain from the coast 
 of Arabia, and some few prints from Hurrur. The exports are 
 ghee, hides, deers horns, ivory, gums, ostrich feathers, coffee, 
 sheep, and horned cattle. Among the principal subjects of 
 traffic are slaves, particularly young females, most of whom 
 have been kidnapped from their parents. The greater part 
 of the trade of this fair is in the hands of the Banian mer 
 chants, and the amount of business done, mainly by barter, 
 rery great ; the amount of coffee alone sold having been 
 estimated as high as 15,000 tons. The whole of the multi- 
 
 .dinous assemblage brought together at this remarkable fair, 
 and pervaded by the spirit of gain, is engaged from morning 
 till night in excessive turmoil and wrangling. Honesty, 
 moreover, is a rare visitor among them. Each endeavours 
 to overreach the other, high words arise, quarrels spring up, 
 blows are given and returned, lances flourished and creeses 
 drawn ; and here and there a pool of Mussulman or Pagan 
 blood tells of the way in which bargains are sometimes con 
 cluded by these rough customers. All the dialects and idioms 
 of Babel pass current, each man screaming at the top of his 
 voice, in order to make himself heard amid the indescribable 
 din. By the end of March, the fair is nearly at a close ; craft 
 of all kinds, deeply laden, sail on their homeward voyage, and 
 kafilas depart on their homeward journey; and by the first 
 week of April, Berbera is again a desolate waste, with nothing 
 left to mark the site of a town lately containing 20,000 in 
 habitants, beyond bones of slaughtered camels and sheep, and 
 the framework of a few huts carefully piled on the beach, in 
 readiness for the ensuing year. Beasts of prey now take the 
 opportunity to approach the sea. Lions are commonly seen 
 at the town well during summer, and ostriches walk quietly 
 about on what recently was the scene of business, activity, 
 and turmoil. 
 
 Berbera has evidently been a market-place for centuries ; 
 but there are no architectural remains in or near it, excepting 
 the remains of an aqueduct, similar to those at Aden, of a 
 stone reservoir, of a small building which has apparently been 
 a mosque, and of a small fort or tower. The water in the 
 town wells is brackish ; and the wealthier merchants procure 
 supplies of good water from Seyareh, a small harbour 18 m. E. 
 (Lieut. Barker and Lieut. Cruttenden, in Jour. Roy. Geo. 
 Soc.; Johnston s Travels in S. Abyssinia; D Hericourt s Voy. 
 dans le Eoyaume, de Choa; Commercial Tariffs; Foreign 
 Quarterly Iteview.) 
 
 BERBERS, a name given by the Arabs to the original 
 inhabitants of N. Africa; who, however, do not recognize it, 
 calling themselves, in their own languages, Amazirgh or Tam- 
 zirght. The country of the Berbers, in its widest accepta 
 tion, includes the whole of the mountains and deserts of N. 
 Africa, from the Atlantic to the Egyptian oases, and from 
 the Mediterranean to the banks of the Senegal and Niger ; 
 but it is now generally restricted to the Atlas range, from the 
 Atlantic coast of Marocco to the shores of the Gulf of Cabes, 
 in the regency of Tunis. The Berbers in the mountains live 
 under tents, or in huts covered with mats, or in caves ; but 
 in the plains they have houses and villages, built generally of 
 wood and clay, covered with straw, and surrounded by a wall 
 full of loop-holes, to fire through. They subsist chiefly on 
 the produce of their cattle, and all rear bees. They have 
 light complexions, fair hair, and thin and scanty beards; they 
 are remarkably well proportioned, robust, active, lively, rest 
 less, and bold, and implacable in their revenge. 
 
 BERBICE, a river, British Guiana, supposed to rise about 
 lat. 3 30 N. ; and which was ascended by Schomburgk as 
 far as a great cataract S. of lat. 4 N. It flows nearly due N., 
 and falls into the Atlantic in lat. 6 24 30" N. ; its whole 
 course, so far as known, being upwards of 200 m. The bore 
 which occurs at the mouth of this river is noted for its height 
 and strength, rising, it is said, from 12 to 15 ft. At the dis- 
 
BEEBICE 
 
 383 
 
 BERENT 
 
 tance of 165 m. from the sea, measured along the windings of 
 the river, the influence of the tide ceases. Beyond this point, 
 formidable and frequent rapids and cataracts render further 
 navigation impracticable. The river is much infested by the 
 species of alligator called Cayman, some of them of immense 
 size. It was in a basin of this river that Schomburgk dis 
 covered the magnificent and gigantic flower known by the 
 name of Victoria regia. The Berbice is about 4J m. wide 
 at its mouth, where there is a bar, having only 7 ft. water 
 at low tide. In the middle of the channel is an island, called 
 Crab Island, from its abounding in crabs, which divides the 
 course of the river into two passages, both of which are 
 navigable; the one on the E. side having from 17 to 20 ft. 
 water, that on the W. from 8 to 13 ft. Vessels of considerable 
 size can ascend the stream for about 50 m. The banks of the 
 river are generally low, and covered with mangroves. 
 
 BERBICE, co. Guiana. See GUIANA (BRITISH). 
 
 BERBICE, tn. Guiana. See AMSTERDAM (NEW). 
 
 BERCETO, a tn. Italy, duchy, Parma, 10 m. E. Borgo 
 Tare, near the borders of Tuscany. It is well built, and 
 clean; has a castle, a church, and school. Pop. 900. 
 
 BERCHEM, a vil. Holland, prov. N. Brabant, 12 m. 
 E.N.E. Hertogenbosch. It is a large spread-out place, some 
 thing in the form of a semicircle, with a windmill in the 
 centre. It has a R. Catholic church and a school. Three 
 annual fairs are held here. 
 
 BERCHEM. 1. A vil. and com. Belgium, a short dis 
 tance S. Antwerp, of which it may be considered a suburb. 
 It has a manufactory of starch, a cotton printfield, a brewery, 
 a distillery, and two corn-mills. Here, in 1830, a struggle 
 took place between the Belgian and Dutch troops; here, also, 
 the French besieging army had its head quarters in 1832. 
 
 Pop. 3045. 2, A vil. and com. Belgium, prov. E. Flanders, 
 
 r. bank, Scheldt, 6 m. S.W. Audenarde, with linen manu 
 factures, two oil-mills, and a distillery ; it has also extensive 
 establishments for the preparation of chicory. Pop. 2386. 
 
 BERCK, a coast vil. France, dep. Pas de Calais (Picardy), 
 9 m. S.W. Montreuil. There is here a lighthouse, with a 
 fixed light, which can be seen from a distance of 8 m. ; lat. 
 50 24 N. ; Ion. 1 33 42" E. (R.) Pop. 2100. 
 
 BERCY, a large and handsome vil. France, outside the 
 walls of Paris, beyond the Barriere de Bercy. It owes its 
 origin to the guinguettes and wine-houses, established outside 
 the barriers of the capital for the retail of liquors, that pay a 
 tax on entry. As the greater part of the wine and brandy 
 that come to Paris arrives by the Seine, it necessarily passes 
 in front of Bercy, and the merchants found it advantageous 
 to establish a depot here, which in a short time presented an 
 extensive range of excellent warehouses, and is now one of 
 the best depots of its kind in France. A quay was soon after 
 added, and a suspension bridge to communicate with the 1. bank 
 of the Seine. The most noteworthy building is the chateau 
 of Bercy, in a park on the r. bank of the Seine ; a handsome 
 edifice, ornamented with numerous statues. There are dis 
 tilleries, vinegar-works, a sugar-refinery, and some tanneries 
 at Bercy. The business done in wine, brandy, vinegar, oil, 
 wood for fuel and for building, is very considerable. Pop. 8641 . 
 
 BERDIANSK, a seaport, S. Russia, gov. Taurida, at the 
 mouth of the Berda, N. shore of the Sea of Azof, 150 m. N.E. 
 Simferopol ; lat. 46 38 12" N. ; Ion. 36 48 1 5" E. (R.) When 
 viewed from the sea, its appearance is by no means prepossess 
 ing ; but it gains much on a nearer inspection, and is found to be 
 a clean, well-built town, consisting of several regular spacious 
 streets, lined with handsome houses, many of them provided 
 with gardens, and indicating, by their exterior, the comfort 
 which prevails within. The roads of Berdiansk are the best in 
 the Sea of Azof. They are sheltered on all sides except the S., 
 and have a sandy bottom, affording good anchorage. Coasting 
 vessels unload on the beach ; but larger vessels lie at some 
 distance. A lighthouse shows the entrance into the roads. 
 Berdiansk is admirably situated for trade, and is rapidly out 
 stripping the neighbouring ports. Its trade is furnished, to a 
 considerable extent, by the products of its own immediate 
 neighbourhood ; but it is also the natural entrepot for the pro 
 ducts of the surrounding governments, which send to it large 
 quantities of grain, oil seeds, and wool for exportation. The 
 interior trade extending by the mouth of the Don, and through 
 it by the Wolga, into the whole of E. Russia, and even Siberia, 
 consists chiefly of wood, coal, fish, and salt. The mines in 
 
 the neighbourhood furnish the last to the extent of 1600 tons 
 annually, and are apparently inexhaustible ; while the fishing 
 already employs from 400 to 500 persons. Pop. (1849), 
 6498. 
 
 BERDITSCHEF [Pol. Zerdyczew], a city, European 
 Russia, gov. Volhynia, dist. of, and 25 m. S. Jitomir. It is 
 an ill-built place, swarming with Jews, but contains several 
 churches, and a large Carmelite convent ; in the church of 
 which is an image of the Virgin Mary, the object of pil 
 grimages. It carries on a considerable trade in corn, wine, 
 cattle, honey, wax, and leather ; and it is famous for its quar 
 terly fairs. At these, goods to the value of about 600,000 
 are disposed of, and much business is done, especially with 
 Austrian dealers. An almanac of great repute is printed 
 here. Pop. (1842), 35,592. 
 
 BERDON, BEUDEN, or BERDIN, par. Eng. Essex; 1570 ac. 
 Pop. 391. 
 
 BERE ISLAND. See BEAR. 
 
 BERECHTESGADEN, a tn. Bavaria, circle, Upper 
 Bavaria, on the Achen, or Alben, in a pleasant valley at the 
 foot of the two Matzmanns, about 13 m. S. Salzburg. It has 
 a judicial tribunal ; an office of woods and forests ; an ancient 
 cathedral church ; a Franciscan monastery ; a charitable asylum, 
 and a royal palace. The chief manufactures are cutlery and 
 hosiery. The salt mines in the neighbourhood are important, 
 employing 200 miners, who turn out annually about 800 tons 
 of rock salt. Pop. 1800. 
 
 BERECHURCH, or WEST DONILAND, par. Eng. Essex; 
 1450ac. Pop. 146. 
 
 BEREGH, several places in Hungary : 1, A tn., circle, 
 this side the Danube, co. Bacs ; on the Danube, near the con 
 fines of co. Baranya, about 5 m. from Bezdan. Pop. 2331. 
 2, A market tn. and co., circle, this side the Theiss. The TOWN 
 stands near the Borsoa, in the lordship, and about 14 m. S. 
 
 Munkacs, and has a pop. of 1750. The COUNTY, area, 1070 
 
 geo. sq. m., is hilly in the N., level in the S., and in the latter 
 direction particularly, is very fertile. Great part of the sur 
 face is covered with forests, which abound with game, and in 
 which great herds, both of cattle and swine, are reared. It 
 is well watered by streams, which abound in fish, and are 
 much frequented by water-fowl. Land tortoises also are 
 numerous, and of large size. The principal minerals are iron, 
 rock-crystal, and alumstone. The last is in great abundance, 
 is extensively refined, and bears a high name. Gold, in small 
 quantities, has been found near Muzsaj. There are several 
 extensive swamps, but the climate is said, notwithstanding, 
 to be healthy. Pop. 121,500. 
 
 BEREGHSZASZ, a tn. Hungary, circle, this side the 
 Theiss, co. Beregh, on both sides the Verke, 16 m. S.S.W. 
 Munkacs, famous for its millstones. In the environs an ex 
 cellent wine is produced ; and a gold mine was at one time 
 worked. Pop. 3560. 
 
 BEREGUARDO, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, prov. 
 of, and 9 m. N.W. Pavia, on the grand canal which runs 
 through Pavia and Abbiate-Grasso. The irrigation of the 
 soil in this district is effected through supplies of water drawn 
 from this canal. Pop. 1002. 
 
 BERENICE [modern name, SaMyt-d-Kubla, or The 
 Southern Saka"yt ], an anc. port, W. side of the Red Sea, at 
 the extremity of a deep gulf, formed by the projecting point 
 of Septe Extrema, now Ras el-Ans, or Cape Nose; lat. 23 56 
 N. ; Ion. 35 34 E. The inner bay, which constituted the former 
 port of Berenice, is now nearly filled up with sand. The 
 ancient town was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who 
 named it after his mother. A number of interesting antiqui 
 ties have been found here, including sculptures of various 
 kinds, inscriptions, and hieroglyphics, in which last occur the 
 names of Tiberius and Trajan, &c. ; besides a temple built 
 in the Egyptian style, 102 ft. long, and 43 wide, the walls of 
 which are adorned with well-executed figures in basso-rilievo. 
 The ancient town is said, by Belzoni, to have measured 1600 
 ft. N. to S., 2000 E. to W., and to have contained 10,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 BERENT, or BEHREND, a tn. and circle, Prussia, gov. 
 Dantzic. The TOWN lies on the Ferse, 32 m. S.W. Dantzic. 
 There are two blast furnaces in the neighbourhood. Pop. 2000. 
 
 The CIRCLE, area, 470 geo. sq. m., is almost entirely 
 
 covered with forests and lakes. The chief crop raised is pota 
 toes. Fish is very abundant. The manufactures are various, 
 
BEEETHALOM 
 
 BERGAMO 
 
 but none of them are carried on to any great extent. Pop. 
 28,000. 
 
 BERETIIALOM, or BERTHALM, a market tn. Hungary, 
 Transylvania, in a valley between vine-clad hills, 30 m. N.E. 
 Hermanstadt. It is the residence of a Lutheran superintend 
 ent, and has a Lutheran parish, and a Greek non-united church. 
 Its wines are the best in the principality. Pop. 3290. 
 
 BERETTYO, a river, E. Hungary, which rises in the 
 Beregh hills, in the N. W. part of Transylvania. It flows N., 
 and then W., and, after a somewhat winding course of about 
 170 in., falls into the Koros near Szarvas. It is subject to 
 frequent inundations, and is the cause of numerous marshes. 
 
 BERETTYO-UJFALU, a market tn. Hungary, beyond 
 the Theiss, co. Bihar, r. bank, Berettyo; with a reformed 
 church. Pop. 5426. 
 
 BEREZINA, a river, European Eussia, which rises in the 
 gov. and N. the town of Minsk ; lat. 54 53 N. ; Ion. 27 4 E. ; 
 and, after. a course mainly S.S.E. for above 250 m., for the 
 most part navigable, falls into the Dnieper 8 m. above Eet- 
 chitzka. It is united to the Diina, or Dwina, by a caual, which 
 thus gives a communication between the Baltic and the Black 
 Sea. This stream is memorable for the disastrous passage of 
 the French army at Studianka, near Borisov, in 1812, on its 
 retreat from Moscow. 
 
 BEREZNA, a tn. Eussia, gov. of. and 24 m. E.N.E. Tcher- 
 nigov, on the Desna, containing six churches. Pop., including 
 the villages dependent on it, 5500. 
 
 BEREZOV, or BERESOFF [the town of birch-trees], a tn. 
 Siberia, gov. of, and 400 m. N. Tobolsk, cap. dist. of sa me name, 
 on a height above the 1. bank Sosva, one of the branches 
 of the Obi ; lat. 63 55 59" N.; Ion. 65 4 19" E. (L.) It 
 consists of wooden houses, carefully built of large timbers, 
 and generally with high steps in front, and contains three 
 churches and a chapel. The chief trade of the place is iu 
 connection with the important fair of Obdorsk. Many of the 
 merchants are opulent, and have their warerooms stored with 
 Ostyak and Samoyed products, principally rein-deer skins, 
 much valued for clothing. Its inhabitants, who are chiefly Cos 
 sacks, subsist by the chase and by fishing ; they barter furs, 
 skins, fish, &c., for flour, flesh meat, tobacco, ironware, and 
 brandy, brought by the Tobolsk dealers, whose craft are floated 
 down the Irtish into the Obi. Berezov is the favourite place 
 of resort for the Ostyaks and Yoguls. Prince MenzikofF, the 
 favourite of Peter the Great, died here in exile in 1731, having 
 been banished by his grandson, Peter II. In 1821, nearly a 
 century after, his grave having been opened, the coffin was 
 found embedded in frozen soil, and the contents so entire, that 
 parts of the clothing, and even the eyebrows, heart, and other 
 parts of the body, were sent to his descendants. P. (1842) , 1 1 79. 
 
 BEREZOV1E, an isl. Eussia, Gulf of Finland, gov. 
 Viborg, separated from the mainland by the Biork Sound or 
 Strait of Berezovie. 
 
 BERG [hill]. 1, An anc. duchy of Germany, forming 
 part of Ehenish Prussia, and now included in go vs. Anisberg, 
 Cologne, and Diisseldorf. It extended along the Ehine from 
 the Euhr to the frontiers of Nassau, and had an area of 864 
 geo. sq. m. It is more a manufacturing than an agricultural 
 district, and has long been famed for its minerals, which 
 include iron of the finest quality, lead, copper, zinc, and the 
 precious metals. In addition to the employment furnished 
 by these minerals, the, inhabitants, who are very industrious, 
 have, with considerable success, superadded textile manufac 
 tures. The duchy of Berg, founded in 1 389, had been long con 
 solidated with the Prussian dominions, when, 1806, Napoleon 
 revived the title, and conferred it, with an enlarged territory, 
 on Murat. It returned to Prussia in 1815. Pop. 376,238. 
 2, Of the numerous places in Germany of the name of BERG, 
 the most deserving of notice is a vil. Wiirtemberg, roman 
 tically seated on the Neckar, N.E. Stuttgart, and containing 
 the remains of the ancient castle of the Lords of Berg. It has 
 a cotton-mill, dye-works, copper-work, and manufactures of 
 leather, a considerable wine and general trade, and a strong 
 
 chalybeate spring. Pop. 1200. 3, A vil. Switzerland, 
 
 can. of, and 4 in. N.N.E. St. Gall ; with a church and school. 
 The vicinity yields good fruit and wine; the latter of which 
 used to be a favourite beverage of the abbots of St. Gall, and 
 was presented at all high festivals in the monastery. Pop. 609. 
 4, A vil. France, dep. Bas-Ehin, 18 m. N.W. Saverne; 
 with lime quarries. Pop. 470. 5, A vil. Holland, prov. 
 
 Limburg, 11 m. N. by E. Maastricht, r. bank, Maas, built in 
 a semicircle. It has a E. Catholic church, a school, and a corn- 
 mill. Pop. 700. 6, A vil. Holland, prov. N. Holland, 9 m. 
 
 S.E. Amsterdam, on an island formed by the Vecht; con 
 sisting of a single street, on the W. side of which stands the 
 church, elevated on a height, whence the village takes its 
 name. This elevation or mound is supposed to be of artificial 
 formation, raised for the purpose of keeping the church dry 
 during inundations, to which the place is exposed, from the 
 overflowing of the river. Besides the chutch here referred 
 to, there is also a E. Catholic church. Hoop, charcoal, and 
 vinegar making are carried on, but the principal employments 
 are agriculture and turf-cutting. Pop. 800. 
 
 BERG-AMBACIIT, a vil. Holland, prov. S. Holland, 
 14m. E. Eotterdam. It is a good-looking, well-built place, 
 and has a church, built in the 16th century in place of one 
 burnt in 1 51 3. There is a school here. Pop. 650. 
 
 BERGA. 1, Atn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. Barcelona, 18 in. 
 N.E. Solsona, near the river Lobregat. Its streets are paved, 
 but for the most part narrow and crooked. It has five squares, 
 three churches, a chapel, a Latin, and three other schools ; 
 a small, but respectable townhouse, two prisons, an hospital, 
 theatre, several fountains, and a castle, with a strong battery, 
 by which the town is overlooked and defended. The manu 
 factures of Berga, though on the increase, are confined to 
 cotton fabrics, and the usual branches of mechanical industry ; 
 the bulk of the inhabitants are employed in husbandry and as 
 muleteers, by which conveyance the produce of the vicinity, 
 grain, wine, oil, fruits, &c., are exported. Two annual fairs 
 
 are held. Pop. 6999. 2, A vil. Prussian States, prov. 
 
 Saxony, gov. Merseberg, circle of, and near to Sangerhausen ; 
 with an evangelical church, and hospital. Pop. 1182. 
 
 BERGAMO [anc. Pergamos], a tn. Turkey in Asia, pash. 
 Anatolia, r. bank, Grimaldi or Cai cus, 42 m. N.N.E. Smyrna. 
 It occupies the site of the ancient town, which was the seat 
 of one of the seven churches of Asia, and contains numerous 
 remains attesting its ancient magnificence. In the centre is 
 an extensive ruin, supposed to have been the palace of a 
 Roman emperor. Numerous khans and mosques among the 
 latter, one which, from its style, appears to have been an 
 early Christian church occupy the site of ancient buildings. 
 Triumphal arches, and ruined houses, are interspersed with 
 Turkish hovels. To the S.W. of the castle are the remains 
 of the amphitheatre, with arches of fine workmanship, though 
 now almost under ground. The cemeteries are full of beauti 
 ful relics. Pop. about 10,000. 
 
 BERGAMO [anc. Bergarmim], a city, Austrian Italy, cap. 
 prov. of same name ; gov. of, and 29 m. N.E. Milan. It is 
 well fortified, being surrounded by walls flanked with bastions, 
 and is defended by several small forts, and is built in the man 
 ner of an amphitheatre, on an isolated height, between the 
 Serio and the Brembo. It is divided into the high and the 
 low town. The former, or town proper, consisting of all that 
 lies within the walls, has steep narrow streets, and old houses, 
 several of them, however, interesting, as affording fine speci 
 mens of the architecture of the Middle Ages. The low town 
 consists of the three districts of St. Antonio, St. Tomaso, 
 and St. Leonard s; the last of which, in particular, is well and 
 regularly built, with spacious well-paved streets, and hand 
 some houses, chiefly occupied by the more wealthy merchants. 
 Bergamo is the seat of a court of primary resort in civil, 
 criminal, and mercantile causes; and the see of a bishop, suf 
 fragan to Milan. It contains a very ancient cathedral, com 
 pletely repaired in 1689, after the designs of Carlo Fontana, 
 and adorned with numerous fine frescoes, wood carvings, and 
 figures in bronze and marble ; and 14 other churches, several 
 of them handsome, and rich in tine paintings. The other public 
 buildings of note are the museum, particularly rich in the 
 antiquities of the district ; the old palace Delia Eagione, with 
 a fine colonnade ; the market hall or fiera, a large quadrangular 
 building, with a handsome piazza, shaded by old trees, and 
 adorned with a beautiful fountain ; the governor s palace ; the 
 municipal buildings ; the theatre ; and the Academia Carrara, 
 so called after its founder, the Count of Carrara, a magnificent 
 building, in which, with a view to promote the study of design 
 and painting, numerous pupils are gratuitously instructed. 
 The chief benevolent institutions are, the general hospital, the 
 foundling hospital, the house of invalids, the house of industry, 
 the institute of mercy, the mont-deyriett, and the peniten- 
 
EERGAKA 
 
 385 
 
 BERGEN 
 
 tiary. Among the educational establishments are, four higher 
 elementary, and numerous minor schools, a gymnasium, and 
 a lyceum, to which a good collection of philosophical appar 
 atus, and cabinet of natural history, are attached. Here is 
 also an institution for teaching the deaf and dumb. There 
 are in the town some large manufactories of silk, cotton, and 
 woollen stuffs, wax candles, china, and earthenware; and its 
 trade is considerable in these, and in corn, wine, oil, whet- 
 stones, confections, and ironware. Within the market hall, 
 containing 540 booths, a great annual fair, which dates from 
 the 10th century, is held in the months of August and Sep 
 tember, during which all the products of the Austrian pro 
 vinces are exposed for sale, but chiefly silk, wine, and ironware. 
 It is said that goods to the value of 1,000,000 sterling are 
 sometimes sold during the fair. Bergamo is the birthplace of 
 Bernardo Tasso, father of Torqua to Tasso, 
 to the latter of whom a statue has been 
 erected in the great square; of Tiraboschi, 
 a learned Jesuit, author of the Storia della 
 Letteratura Italiana ; of Antonio Serassi, 
 the biographer of Dante, Petrarch, and 
 Tasso ; and of many painters of note. The 
 city was taken by the French in 1796, and 
 made the capital of the department of the 
 
 Serio. Pop. 32,614. The PROVINCE of 
 
 Bergamo has an area of 928 sq. m., divided 
 into 18 districts. Its greatest length is 
 about 100m.; its greatest breadth, 45 m. 
 With the exception of the S., which is 
 level and fertile, it is of a mountainous 
 nature, and much covered with wood. Its 
 pastures are rich, and rear large numbers 
 of sheep and goats ; but the produce, neither 
 of corn nor wine, does not equal the con 
 sumption. Chestnuts and olives abound, 
 and considerable quantities of excellent ~"i$^S^ 
 
 silk are produced. Among the mineral 
 products are iron, marble, whetstones, and 
 lignite. Pop. 363,754. 
 
 BERGARA, or VERGARA, a tn. Spain, BERGEN from th* cui 
 prov. Guipuzcoa, 25 m. S.E. Bilbao, in a 
 fertile valley, surrounded by mountains, r. bank, Deva. The 
 houses are generally well built, the streets wide, well kept, 
 and paved ; and the two squares, in the principal of which 
 is a substantial townhouse, supported by 12 arches, are spaci 
 ous, though somewhat irregular. The other public edifices 
 are three parish churches, several chapels, an hospital, prison, 
 and fives-court, a convent wherein females are educated, and 
 several public schools. Hardware, agricultural implements, 
 and cutlery, are manufactured ; and a handsome cotton fac 
 tory, recently constructed, employs above 300 persons. In 
 the vicinity, turnips are raised in considerable quantities, and 
 form the chief winter provender of the numerous cattle. An 
 annual fair is held in May for general produce, and one monthly 
 for cattle. This place has obtained considerable celebrity, on 
 account of the Convention of Bergara, concluded here on 
 August 31 , 1839, after protracted negociation between Mazoto 
 and Espartero, thereby putting an end to the disastrous civil 
 war of that period. The site of this act of fraternization is 
 called El Campo del Abrazo. Pop. 3785. 
 
 BERGEDORF, a small tn. Germany, under the joint 
 jurisdiction of Liibcck and Hamburg, and about 10 m. 
 E.S.E. the latter, with which it is connected by a railway. 
 It carries on a considerable trade. Pop. 2151. 
 
 BERGEN, a tn. and seaport, Norway, cap. prov. of same 
 name, and of bail. Sondre Bergenhuus, beautifully situated 
 iwar the head of the innermost bay of liyfiord, called Vaagen, 
 about 25 m. from the open sea, and 186 m. N.W. Christiania; 
 lat. 60 24 N. ; Ion. 5 18 E. (it.) The houses are mostly 
 timber built, and painted white ; those of the wealthier classes 
 being often very handsome structures, somewhat in the Dutch 
 style. By the side of each door stands a water cask, for use 
 in case of fire, from which Bergen has frequently suffered 
 severely. The streets are irregular and narrow, but for the 
 most part well paved. The Strand-Gaden, the principal 
 thoroughfare and place of traffic, is described by Mr. Forres 
 ter as having a busy air, from the number of shops, and the 
 groups of citizens, sailors, and country people by whom it is 
 thronged. Almost all the houses of the better sort have pots 
 
 of flowers ranged in the windows, the effect of which is ex 
 ceedingly pleasing. There are five churches in the town, 
 including the cathedral ; of these the most remarkable, as well 
 as the most ancient, is the German, or St. Mary s Church, 
 situated near the entrance-gate on the N. side of the port. 
 The exterior is of a cumbrous, but effective, style of architec 
 ture ; it has two towers, and contains many objects of interest, 
 including an ancient altar-piece, and several fine specimens of 
 carving. All the other churches are of modern date, and 
 have no particular claim to attention. The principal schools 
 comprise: one cathedral school (a handsome new building), 
 and five church schools ; two burgher ; four poor and free 
 schools, and one commercial and artizan school. There are 
 several charities, hospitals, and poorhouses ; three or four small 
 libraries, in one of which both native and foreign works are 
 
 to be had ; a theatre, and a museum, the latter containing a 
 large and interesting collection of Norsk antiquities. The 
 only other place worthy of special notice is the castle, or 
 fortress, which commands the entrance to the harbour ; it is 
 of irregular construction, consisting of three bastions, and a 
 ravelin towards the town, and three bastions and two batteries 
 towards the sea. All the guns, however, are now dis 
 mounted, except one battery of twelve-pounders, on traversing 
 platforms. Within the fort there is an agreeable promenade, 
 and several walks planted with trees. Above all rises Walk- 
 endorf s Tower, a square massive building, with a flat roof 
 of stone, supported by immense beams of timber, forming a 
 platform, from which a splendid view of the surrounding 
 scenery is obtained. The inhabitants of Bergen are said to 
 be remarkable for an excessive politeness. Persons who 
 have but the slightest acquaintance of each other, on meet 
 ing in the street, uncover the head with a profound obeisance; 
 the same ceremony is observed as often as a window is passed 
 in which females are seated. On entering a shop for the 
 purpose of purchasing any trifling article, the intending pur 
 chaser takes off his hat, and remains uncovered during the 
 transaction. Even young boys take off their caps to each 
 other in the street with the utmost gravity. 
 
 The principal manufactures of Bergen are tobacco-spinning, 
 candle-making, rope-making, and shipbuilding ; there are also 
 several distilleries. Its commerce, though much fallen off 
 from what it was in former times, still exceeds that of any 
 other port in Norway. Vessels from almost every country 
 in Europe may be seen in its harbour ; and in the early part 
 of the season, it is crowded with the craft which bring the 
 produce of the cod-fisheries from the stations on the N. coast, 
 and by the sea-going ships by which it is conveyed to foreign 
 ports. Bergen exports annually about 231,250 worth of 
 stock fish, and 400,000 or 500,000 barrels of salted herrings, 
 with 20,000 barrels of cod-oil. Large quantities of spawn 
 and fish-scales also, are sent to the S. of Europe, where they 
 are used as baits, particularly for the fishery of sardines, 
 in the Mediterranean. There is likewise a considerable ex- 
 
 49 
 
BERGEN 
 
 386 
 
 BERGHOLT 
 
 port of rye. The principal imports are com, brandy, and 
 wines, cotton and woollen manufactures, slates, soap, salt, 
 coals, hemp, aud colonial produce. In 1 846, there were 364 | 
 vessels belonging to the port, and in the same year it was ! 
 entered by 973 vessels, in all about 71,000 tons. The ! 
 business of the place is facilitated by a branch of the Nor 
 wegian bank, established here. The harbour is sheltered and 
 secure, but is of difficult, and even dangerous access, without 
 a pilot. 
 
 Bergen was founded in the llth century, and was at an 
 early period a town of the Hanseatic League, but since Chris 
 tian ia has become the seat of the legislature, as well as of a 
 university, it has taken precedence of the former, while lofty 
 ranges of empty warehouses, extending along the quay, testify 
 at once the large scale on which trade was here conducted 
 by the llanse merchants in the latter part of the 16th century, 
 and the decay which ensued on the overthrow of the Hanse 
 atic influence in the middle of the 18th. Bergen sends four 
 representatives to the Storthing, or Senate, of Norway. 
 
 Although there is little attraction in the town itself, its 
 vicinity is exceedingly picturesque, having mountains 2000 ft. 
 in height on three sides, and the fiord, with its islands, in 
 front. Numbers of beautifully-situated villas are scattered 
 along the heights, commanding fine and extensive views. 
 Top. (1845), 25,000. (Forrester s Norway in 1848, 1849 ; 
 Skoldberg s Beskrifning dfver Skandinaviska Half on; Parlia 
 mentary Papers ; Murray s Handbook.) 
 
 BERGEN. 1, A tn. Prussia, cap. of isl. Eiigen, 15 m. 
 N.E. Stralsund, situated in the centre of the island ; streets 
 aud lanes dirty, and the houses mean. North of the town 
 rises the hill of Rugard, the highest in Eiigen, crowned by 
 old fortresses, and from which a complete view of the whole 
 island is commanded. Bergen has a court of justice, a castle, 
 and a convent of noble ladies. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 employed in agricultural pursuits, and the linen manufacture. 
 
 Pop. 3100. The CIKCLE of the same name has an area of 
 
 about 275 geo. sq. m. The surface is generally flat, fertile, 
 and well cultivated. The district around Gingst in particular, 
 is so rich, as to have acquired for it the name of Paradise. 
 
 Pop. 38,500. Numerous places in Germany have the name 
 
 of BEKGEN. 2, a vil. Holland, prov. Limburg, 25 m. N. 
 
 Eoermonde. It has a E. Catholic church, and a school ; and 
 in the vicinity are several breweries, two tanneries, two grain, 
 
 two oil, and two malt mills. Pop. 850. 3, Two vils. and 
 
 two townships, U. States : a vil. and township, New York, 
 237 m. W. Albany. Pop. 2032. a vil. and township, New 
 Jersey, 56 m. N.E. Trenton. It was settled by Danes in 
 1616, and contains two churches and 14 schools. Pop. 5255. 
 
 BERGEN, or BERGENS-STIFT, an administrative prov. 
 and diocese, Norway ; bounded, N. by prov. Trondhjem, E. 
 by Chrfstiania, S. by Christiansand, and W. by the N. Sea. 
 It lies between lat. 59 30 and 62 41 N., and Ion. 4 42 and 
 8 12 E. ; area, 1C ; 984 geo. sq. in. It is mountainous; the 
 coast is very much indented by a multitude of bays, gulfs, 
 and fiords, and fringed by innumerable islands and rocks. 
 The highest hills are on the E. boundary, and among them 
 may be named the Uouklefjeld, Ilardangerfjeld, Halnefjeld, 
 Filefjeld, and Sognefjeld, all portions of the Langefjeld ; 
 besides these, there are numerous lofty peaks in other parts 
 of the province. Many of the hills are covered with perpetual 
 snow, and on their slopes are numerous glaciers. The valleys 
 are narrow, and only the islands and the coast land can be 
 said to be low. Lakes and rivers of any size there are none, 
 but there arc innumerable rivulets. Though mountainous, 
 Bergens-Stift is by no means well wooded; the forests having 
 been to a great extent exhausted, the hills are now mostly 
 covered merely with copsewood. In consequence of this 
 want, the iron and copper, which are plentiful, can only be 
 wrought to a very limited extent. Besides metals, marble, 
 whetstones, millstones, &c., are wrought. Agriculture is not 
 much pursued ; and though some grain, vegetables, and fruits 
 are raised, yet the quantity is far from being sufficient for 
 the demands of the inhabitants, who mainly subsist by cattle- 
 rearing and fishing, for which the fine pastures, and numerous 
 gulfs and fiords, render it peculiarly well adapted. The 
 climate is moist ; winter is wet, dark, and cold, and summer 
 warm. Manufactories, except in the capital, Bergen, which 
 is the only town in the province, there are none; but the 
 country people make violins, combs, turnery-wares, and fish 
 
 ing-nets. Bergens-Stift is divided into two ami or bailiwicks 
 Nordre (North) Bergenliuus (area, 5072 geo. sq. m.), and 
 Smdre (South) Bergenliuus (area, 4368 geo. sq. m.) ; and one 
 fiigderi or stewartry, SimdmiJers ftijderi, being a portion of 
 the bailiwick of Komsdal ; area, 4544 geo. sq. m. The pro 
 vince is subjoined into six fogderi or stewartries, and 168 
 parishes. Pop. of prov. (1845), 276,281. 
 
 BERGENHUUS (NORDRE and SONDRE), Norway, two 
 bailiwicks in Bergen or Bergens-Stift (which see). 
 
 BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, an important fortress and port, 
 Holland, prov. N. Brabant (formerly cap. of a margraviate 
 of same name), in a marshy situation, r. bank, E. Scheldt, 
 20 m. N.N.W. Antwerp; lat. (church) 5 r 29 42" N.; Ion. 
 4 17 30" E. (R.) It is strongly fortified both by nature and 
 art, the impassable morass on one side adding greatly to the 
 strength of the defences constructed in 1699-1700, by the 
 celebrated Coehorn. The town has four gates, and a con 
 venient harbour, furnished with spacious quays, planted with 
 trees. It is generally well built, and has been greatly im 
 proved since 1831, when many houses were destroyed, and 
 many lives lost, by an unfortunate explosion which then took 
 place. It has five open squares, of which the most important 
 are the great market, the fish market, and the horse square. 
 In the great market stands the townhouse, a large elegant 
 building ; and in the middle of the town is the barracks, an 
 old good-looking edifice, still called Markiezenhof, and form 
 erly used by the Margraves as a place of residence. The 
 military hospital, formerly a nunnery; the cloth hall, now 
 used as a military watch-house ; the shambles, now become 
 a repository of works of art, are all respectable structures 
 of their kind. The places of worship are a E. Catholic 
 and two Protestant churches, and a synagogue ; and the 
 schools, a Latin, a French, and five common schools. Of 
 benevolent institutions there are several, an hospital for old 
 men, one for orphans, and an infirmary, besides some others 
 of less note. 
 
 Bergen-op-Zoom was at one time a place of much greater 
 commercial importance than it is now, having suffered greatly 
 from the proximity and rise of Antwerp. Some transit and 
 shipping, however, is still done, and some fishing carried on, 
 the anchovies and plaice caught in the neighbourhood being 
 highly esteemed. Many of the inhabitants, however, depend 
 on the garrison for their support. The principal manufactures 
 of the town are earthenware and tiles, which are considered to 
 be of a superior description, and for the making of which there 
 are no less than ten establishments. The only other manu 
 factures are ale and salt. The history of this fortress dates as 
 far back as A.D. 422, at which period a castle is said to have 
 stood here. Bergen-op-Zoom suffered greatly during the 
 Spanish war, and was deemed impregnable, having withstood 
 the attacks both of the Duke of Parma (1581 and 1588), and of 
 the Spanish General, Spinola (1622), and others; but in 1747, it 
 was taken, after a siege of 63 days, by the French under the 
 Count of Lowenthal. It was again taken by the French in 
 1794. An attempt made to reduce it, in 1813-U, by the 
 British under Sir Thomas Graham, was unsuccessful, and the 
 loss to the besiegers considerable. Pop. 7000. (Van der 
 Aa s Aardrijkskundig Woordmboek de.r Nederlandcn.) 
 
 BERGERAC, a tn. France, dep. Dordogne, 25 m. S.S.W. 
 Pcrigueux; on a large and fertile plain, r. bank, Dordogne, 
 here crossed by a fine bridge of five arches. The town is in 
 general very badly built, the greater portion being composed 
 of narrow, crooked streets. It contains a theatre, a public 
 library, a communal college, a court of first resort, and manu 
 factories of liqueurs, chemical stuffs, serges, and crockery. 
 In the neighbourhood are iron-foundries, tanneries, and 
 brandy-distilleries. A considerable trade is carried on in 
 grain, truffles, white wine, iron, copper, timber, and paper. 
 Pop. 6805. 
 
 BERGHEIM, a tn. France, dcp. Ilaut Ehin (Alsace), 
 about 9 m. from Colmar. On a height above it stands the old 
 castle of Eeichenberg. The manufactures are cutlery and 
 larger articles of ironmongery. Pop. 3363. 
 
 BERGHOLT, a vil. and two pars. England:!, A vil. 
 Suffolk, N. bank of the Stour, 6 m. S.S.E. Hadleigh, and {) 
 m. S.S.W. Ipswich ; contains a church, in the decorated Gothic 
 style, the tower of which is unfinished. 2, Bergltolt (East), 
 par. Suffolk; 2380 ac. Pop. 1461. 3, Bergholt (West), par. 
 Essex; 2170 ac. Pop. 822. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
BEEGOO 
 
 387 
 
 BERKHAMPSTEAD 
 
 BEEGOO, or BEKGOU, an extensive territory in the in 
 terior of Africa, bounded, E. by Nubia and Darfur, W. by 
 Berghanni. It is more generally named Wada or Waday 
 (which see). 
 
 BERGREICHENSTEIN, a tn. and lordship, Austria, 
 Bohemia, circle, Prachin. The town lies in a narrow valley, 
 42 m. S.S.E. Pilsen, and was once famous for its gold mines. 
 It contains two churches, three chapels, a townhouse, and 
 school. About 30 persons are still employed in the mines, 
 which are nearly exhausted ; but the inhabitants live chiefly 
 by agriculture and weaving. Pop. of tn. 1752 ; of lordship, 
 4593. 
 
 BERGUES, a fortified tn. France, dep. Nord, 5 m. S. 
 Dunkirk ; situated in a marshy country, at the junction of the 
 Bergues, Dunkirk, and Colme Canals. The town is well built 
 of brick, has a good port on the canal, capable of admitting 
 vessels of 250 tons, and is the centre of a considerable trade. 
 The Hotel de Ville is very elegant ; but the most remarkable 
 
 THE CLOCK TOWER AND HOTEL DE VILLK, BEKGUES. 
 From Coney s Cathedrals and Hotels de Ville. 
 
 edifice is the belfry, upwards of 160 ft. high, of unknown date, 
 but supposed to be of Spanish origin. The other public build 
 ings are two high towers that once belonged to the abbey of St. 
 Winnoc, preserved to serve as landmarks to vessels entering 
 the port of Dunkirk ; a public library, and a museum. Bergues 
 has manufactures of soft soap, earthenware, hats, cotton yarn, 
 and lace. It has also sugar and salt refineries, distilleries, 
 tanneries, and a considerable trade in grain, cheese, butter, 
 wine, brandy, and cattle. The weekly grain and cattle 
 market is the most extensive in this part of France. The 
 fortifications were constructed after the plans of Vauban, and 
 it is now a fortified place of the first class. Bergues owes its 
 origin to the castle of Berg, to which St. Winnoc retired in 
 902. Baldwin II., Count of Flanders, walled and fortified it; 
 and Baldwin IV. adorned it with a magnificent monastery, in 
 honour of St. Winnoc. In the beginning of the 13th century, 
 it had become a flourishing manufacturing town, but suffered 
 greatly during the three following centuries, when it passed 
 successively under different masters, and was subjected to a 
 series of assaults, in one of which, by the French (1383), the 
 most fearful atrocities were committed. It was finally secured 
 to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Pop. 5827. 
 
 BERGUM, a vil. Holland, prov. Friesland, 9 m. E. Leeu- 
 warden ; pleasantly situated, N. side of lake of same name, 
 in a flat country, well covered with underwood, and possessing 
 good pasture and arable land. Bergum has a church and i 
 school, and two annual markets one for cattle, the other for j 
 horses. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture, i 
 
 and in rearing young trees. Formerly there was a convent 
 here; and on some neighbouring moorlands, Coehorn, the 
 celebrated constructor of fortifications, while a youth, made 
 
 some of his early experiments. Pop. 1900. The LAKE 
 
 has a circumference of about 9 m., and, by means of canals, 
 communicates with the sea both from the E. and from the 
 W. side. 
 
 BERGZABERN, a tn. Bavaria, circle, Pfalz, 10 m. 
 S.S.W. Landau. It contains a R. Catholic and two Pro 
 testant churches, a castle and several public offices. It has 
 some tobacco factories, a saw, oil, and two flour mills. Iron 
 stone is worked in the neighbourhood. Pop. 2565. 
 
 BER1NGEN, a vil. and par. Switzerland, can. of, and 
 3 m. W. Schaffhausen ; at the foot of the Eanden, in the 
 midst of vineyards and cherry orchards, from the former of 
 which a good wine, and from the latter a famous cherry 
 brandy is made. Pop. 1417. 
 
 BERJA, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 22 m. W. 
 Almeria, in a glen overlooked by the sierra de Gaclor. The 
 houses are generally two stories high, well built, commodious, 
 and have gardens attached ; the streets are clean, and paved. 
 It has four squares, of which the principal one contains the 
 parish church and townhouse. The other town buildings are 
 a chapel, prison, storehouse, a Latin and three primary schools, 
 a cemetery, and several fountains. Linen fabrics, hats, hard 
 ware, wine, oil, and leather are manufactured. Lead and 
 antimony, from the mines of the sierra de Gador, are smelted 
 and exported to Adra and Roquetas ; and some of the inhab 
 itants are engaged in husbandry. Berja suffered severely 
 from an earthquake in 1804, during which numerous indi 
 viduals were maimed, and 67 lost their lives. Many public 
 edifices were also destroyed, amongst others the parish church, 
 which has since been only partially restored. The structure 
 now used as a sanctuary was once a pantheon. Pop. 8709. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 BERKEL, two vils. Holland: 1, a vil., prov. N. Bra 
 bant, 9 m. S.W. Hertogenbosch, whose inhabitants, about 
 500, are employed in agriculture, raising chiefly rye, buck 
 wheat, and coleseed. 2, a vil., prov. S. Holland, about 8 m. 
 N.W. Eotterdam ; well built, with a Calvinistic, a Remon 
 strant, and a R. Catholic church, and a school. Pop. 1100. 
 
 BERKEL, BOKCKEL, or BORKUL, a river, Holland, prov. 
 Gelderland. It rises in the Prussian province, Westphalia, 
 near Coesfeld, flows with a generally N.W. course past 
 Borkulo and Lochem in Holland, and falls into the Ijssel at 
 Zutphen, after a course, exclusive of windings, of nearly 
 50 m. It is in many places shallow, and sanded up, so that 
 it is of very little use as a water-way. 
 
 BERKELEY, a market tn. and par. England, co. Glou 
 cester. The TOWN, 16 m. S.W. Gloucester, is pleasantly 
 situated on a gentle eminence in the vale of Berkeley, r. bank, 
 Avon, about 1 m. from its junction with the Severn, and 
 within 1 m. of the Bristol and Birmingham Railway. It con 
 sists chiefly of two irregular streets, one of which is well 
 paved, and contains some good houses of brick and stone 
 water abundant. The church is a spacious structure, style 
 later Norman and early English; it contains some curious 
 monuments, and is the burial-place of Dr. Edward Jenner. 
 There is also here a Wesleyan chapel. The Avon being 
 navigable to the town, for vessels of 40 or 50 tons burden, 
 a pretty extensive trade is carried on by its means, in coal, 
 brought from the Forest of Dean. At the S.E. end of the 
 town stands Berkeley Castle, esteemed a singularly perfect 
 specimen of castellated building. It has been the scene of 
 many remarkable events, including the atrocious murder of 
 Edward II. The date of the commencement of the castle has 
 not been ascertained ; but it is known to have existed long 
 prior to the 12th century. A tradition, told by Matthew of 
 Westminster, respecting an old woman, a noted witch, who 
 lived in Berkeley A.D. 852, has furnished Southey with the 
 
 subject of a curious ballad. The PAKISU is the largest in 
 
 the county, comprising about 14,680 ac. Pop. 4405; of 
 town, 926. (Local Correspondent:) 
 
 BERKESWELL, a par. Eng., co. Warwick; 6360 ac. 
 Pop. 1504. 
 
 BERKHAMPSTEAD, a tn., vil., and three pars. Eng 
 land, all in co. Hertford: 1, Berkhampstcad (Great), a tn. and 
 par., the former beautifully situated in a hollow, surrounded 
 by hills, on the main road leading from London to Ayles- 
 
BERKLEY SOUND 
 
 BERLIN 
 
 bury ; W. side of the Bulbourn stream, and tlie Grand 
 Junction Canal ; on the line of the London and North- Western 
 Railway; 26 m. N.W. London, by railway; and 26by road. 
 It consists almost wholly of one main street, which is nearly 
 1 m. in length; is well-supplied with water, and is lighted 
 with gas. The church is an ancient and beautiful Gothic 
 edifice, and contains some curious antique monuments. The 
 other places of worship are, a Baptist, Independent, and 
 Wesleyan chapels, and a Friends meeting-house. Schools : 
 one national, with infant school connected, one day school, on 
 the British system, one charity school, called Bourne s school 
 after the founder, and maintained by endowment ; and a free 
 grammar-school, where a certain number of boys receive a 
 liberal education. There are various small charities and 
 benevolent associations connected with the different religious 
 denominations, and a mechanics institute on a small scale. 
 The only manufacture is straw-plaiting. Market-day, Satur 
 day, chiefly for corn. Four fairs annually. Petty sessions 
 are held once a fortnight. Area of par. 4250. Pop. 2979. 
 2, Berkhampstcad (Little), a par., and small but neat vil. 
 in hund. of Hertford, 4 m. S.W. Hertford. It contains a 
 national school, for boys and girls, and a provident society, 
 one of the principal establishments of the kind in the county. 
 Area of par. Iu70 ac. Pop. 555. 3, BcrMampstead (St. Mary), 
 a par., hund. Dacorum. Area, 3890 ac. Pop. 1265. (Local 
 Correspondent.} 
 
 BERKLEY SOUND, a spacious inlet, at the N.E. 
 extremity of E. Falkland Island, about 4 m. wide at its 
 entrance, and upwards of 15 m. in length, terminating in 
 three excellent and distinct anchorages, Johnson Harbour, 
 Stag Road, and Port Louis. This sound is the only place 
 on the E. coast of the island that can be entered by night. 
 
 BERKSHIRE, an inland co. England, and one of the 
 most beautiful in the kingdom, bounded, N. by Oxford and 
 Buckingham, from which it is separated by the Thames, E. by 
 Buckingham and Surrey, S. by Southampton, and W. by 
 Wilts. Area, 481,280 ac. ; of which 237,000 are arable, 
 meadow, and dairy land. The principal high land consists 
 of a range of downs, running W. by N. ; which in some parts 
 attain a considerable elevation. The soil is various, being 
 very poor on the hills, and in the low lands, cold and labo 
 rious to work ; but in the district called the vale of the 
 White Horse, which comprises a large portion of the county 
 N. of the chalk range, there occurs some of the most fertile 
 lands in England, and in its W. parts, the richest pastures. 
 Here, also, along the bottom of the hills, lies the fine corn 
 laud for which the vale is renowned. The vale of Kennet, 
 extending along the river of that name for about 25 m., is 
 also a fine tract of land, and well adapted for corn, though not 
 so fertile as the vale of the White Horse. The E. part of the 
 county, or what is called the forest district, contains Windsor 
 Forest, part of Bagshot Heath, and some other considerable 
 tracts of waste land. It is, perhaps, the least productive part 
 of the county, but exhibits much pleasing woodland scenery. 
 Rich meadows stretch along the banks of the Thames and 
 Kennet. 
 
 Agriculture is a good deal improved in this county, but is 
 still at rather a low ebb. Principal crops, oats and wheat. 
 Farms are usually held on leases for 7 and 14 years; but, as 
 there are rarely any restrictions imposed on the tenant as to 
 cultivation or mode of cropping, the land is generally in bad 
 condition, and is often left by the outgoing tenant completely 
 exhausted. Farms, for the most part, rather small, average 
 rent in 1842-43, 1, 4s. 8%d. per acre. The W. parts of the 
 vale of the White Horse, is celebrated for its dairies ; producing 
 cheese of the description called Double Gloucester. The 
 number of cows has been estimated at 5000, and the quantity 
 of cheese made at 1000 tons. The cattle are now chiefly of 
 the Holderncss and Teeswater breeds ; but Scotch and AVelsh 
 cattle are extensively grazed in the forest district. Of sheep, 
 the South Down breed, but much crossed, is at present the 
 most generally diffused. The total stock of sheep has boen 
 estimated at about 308,000, and the total annual produce of 
 wool at 4500 packs. Hogs are reared in great numbers in 
 this county, and are esteemed the best in England. Manu 
 factures and minerals, of no importance. Berkshire con 
 tains 20 hundreds, and 151 parishes. It returns nine members 
 to the House of Commons three for the county, two each 
 for the boroughs of Reading and Windsor, and one each for 
 
 Abingdon and Wallingford. Annual value of real propertv, 
 iu 1842-43, 967,475. Pop. (1851), 170,065. 
 
 BERLAER, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. Antwerp, 
 
 10 m. N.E. Mechlin, on the Greater Nethe. The inhabit 
 ants are chiefly employed in weaving, and have also a little 
 trade in wood and coal. Pop. 3075. 
 
 BERLAERE, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. E. Flanders, 
 r. bank, Scheldt, 12 m. E. Ghent. Agriculture and weaving 
 are the principal employments. Pop. 3505. 
 
 BERLANGA, a tn. Spain, Estremadura, prov. Badajoz, 
 j 13 m. E. Llerina, in a hilly district. It has a parish church, 
 | several schools, town and court houses, prison, poor s hospital, 
 j large fountain, several convents, and a cemetery. The in 
 habitants are chiefly engaged in tillage, and manufacturing 
 frieze cloth. An annual fair is held in August. Pop. 3410. 
 
 BERLEBURG, a tn. Prussia, prov. Westphalia, gov. of, 
 and 28 m. S.S.E. Arnsberg. It is the residence of the prince 
 of Wittgenstein ; has some manufactures of woollen goods ; 
 and in the neighbourhood are several forges and iron- mills. 
 Pop. 2035. 
 
 BERLENGAS, a group of small islands in the Atlantic, 
 near the W. coast of Portugal, about 8 in. N.W. Peniche ; lat. 
 39 25 N. ; Ion. 9 30 W. They are surrounded by shelving 
 rocks, and are, for the most part, precipitous. Berlenga, the 
 chief of them, has some flat ground and a fresh-water spring, 
 and is defended by a small fort, which has been occasionally 
 used as a state prison. 
 
 BERLICHINGEN, a vil. Wiirtemberg, on the Jaxt, 7$ 
 m. W.N.W. Kunzelsau ; with a E. Catholic church and a syn 
 agogue. Wool-spinning is carried on ; but a large proportion 
 of the inhabitants are musicians, in which capacity they travel 
 about to distant parts. There was formerly here a castle, the 
 natal place of the family of Berlichingen, from which sprung 
 the famous robber knight Gb tz von Berlichingen, with the 
 iron hand, whom Goethe has made the subject of one of his 
 dramas. Pop. 1410. 
 
 BERL1KUM, a vil. Holland, prov. Friesland, about 8 m. 
 N.W. Leeuwarden, consisting chiefly of a double row of houses, 
 running E. and W., with some small bye-streets, all well 
 paved. It has a beautiful Calvinistic and a Baptist church, 
 and a school ; and its inhabitants are chiefly engaged in 
 trafficking in apples, pears, berries, and other fruits, the 
 ! produce of their gardens and orchards. Two annual fairs are 
 held. Pop. 1200. 
 
 BERLIN, a post township, U. States, Connecticut, 10 m. 
 S. by W. Hartford ; containing New Britain, a considerable 
 vil., where various articles, particularly tin ware, are exten 
 sively manufactured. It has an academy and 16 schools 
 Pop. (1840), 5255. 
 
 BERLIN [anc. Berle uncultivated land], the cap. of the 
 Prussian dominions, the residence of the King and foreign 
 ambassadors, prov. of Brandenburg; lat. (new observatory) 
 52 30 16" N.; Ion. 13 23 53" E. (L.) ; after Vienna, the largest 
 town in Germany, and, for the beauty and size of its build 
 ings, the regularity of its streets, the importance of its insti 
 tutions of science and art, and its activity, industry, and trade, 
 one of the first cities in Europe. It is situated on a dreary 
 sandy plain, about 126 ft. above the level of the sea, on both 
 sides of the Spree, a sluggish stream, here about 200 ft. broad, 
 which winds through the city from S.E. to N.W., and, near 
 its centre, forms an island by the division of its channel. It 
 is somewhat more than 10m. in circumference, and occupies 
 a surface of 6700 ac. It is surrounded with a wall 16 ft. 
 high, with 16 gates, besides minor outlets; and divided into 
 
 11 sections or quarters, namely, Berlin Proper, Old and 
 New Kolln, Friederichswerder, Luisenstadt, Dorotheenstadt, 
 Friedrich-wilhelms-stadt, Spandauer quarter, Kb nigs-stadt, 
 and Stralauer quarter, besides the two suburbs beyond the 
 walls Kosenthal and Oranienburg. The principal public 
 buildings are in Berlin Proper. The original portion of the 
 city lies on the r. bank of the river, and is very irregularly 
 built, consisting, for the most part, of narrow crooked streets, 
 and very indifferent houses. The more recent portion rose 
 up, as if by magic, at the orders of Frederick the Great ; who, 
 having previously adopted a plan, subdividing its intended 
 site by straight and spacious streets, partly parallel, and partly 
 at right angles to each other, caused them to be lined by 
 elegant houses of uniform appearance, and, for the purpose 
 of occupying a larger space, of only two stories iu height. 
 
BERLIN 
 
 3S9 
 
 BERLIN 
 
 As yet, however, the plan has only been partially completed, 
 and nearly a third of the whole space within the walls, to 
 wards the S. and E., is still unoccupied. The houses are 
 built partly of white freestone, but the greater number are of 
 brick covered with a thin coating of plaster or stucco. The 
 drainage of the city, however, owing to the flatness of the 
 ground on which it stands, and to the sluggishness of the 
 Spree, is so bad, that, in hot weather, the most offensive 
 odours pollute the air and render it unhealthy. The streets 
 are now well paved and well lighted with gas. Hackney 
 coaches and other street conveyances are numerous, and 
 under excellent surveillance. The houses are all heated 
 with stoves. Of the numerous bridges, the finest is the long 
 bridge or Frederick s bridge, constructed of iron, 245 ft. long, 
 and 33 ft. broad, with eight arches, each of 27 ft. diameter. 
 The city has 27 churches, and 1 synagogue; 17 public hos 
 pitals, 8 military infirmaries, 17 barracks, 8 royal magazines, 
 and 24 cemeteries, 16 within the walls, and 8 beyond. Ber 
 lin, though not advantageously situated, is one of the finest 
 cities of Europe. Its principal and most frequented street, 
 the Uriter den Linden, is perhaps unsurpassed. It is situated 
 in the new portion of the city, and traverses it from E. to W. 
 It is three quarters of a mile in length, and of remarkable 
 width, the centre- 
 being occupied by 
 a double avenue 
 of lime-trees, 
 which give it its 
 name, and form a 
 fine shady pro 
 menade ; while on 
 either side of the 
 trees is a carriage 
 way, and beyond 
 each carriage 
 way, in front of 
 the houses, a spa 
 cious foot pave 
 ment. At the E. 
 end of this street 
 are clustered the 
 principal public 
 buildings of the 
 city, the museum, 
 with its fine col 
 lection of sculp 
 ture and paint 
 ings; and behind 
 it the new mu 
 seum, erected for 
 the reception of 
 Egyptian antiqui 
 ties; and the castle 
 or schloss, royal 
 palace, arsenal, 
 university, opera house, and theatre, and, diverging from it, 
 several fine squares : at the W. end, it terminates magnifi 
 cently with the Brandenburg gate, a noble structure, modelled, 
 on a grand scale, after the Propyloeum of Athens, and regarded 
 as one of the finest portals in existence. It is surmounted by 
 a colossal Victory, mounted in a car drawn by four horses, and 
 bearing in her hand an eagle and iron cross. Outside the walls, 
 immediately beyond this portal, are two large open spaces ; on 
 the right, the Exerzier Platz, or exercise-ground, where the 
 troops are drilled ; and, on the left, the Thiergarten, an exten 
 sive and well-wooded park. The royal castle or scltloss is a 
 vast pile, more remarkable for a certain air of grandeur than 
 architectural beauty. It is sumptuously furnished, and contains 
 the great library belonging to the heir-apparent, the royal 
 treasury, a valuable picture-gallery, with museums of natural 
 history, the mechanical and fine arts, including an interesting 
 collection of historical relics. The arsenal (Zeiujliaus} is a 
 building of the most exquisite architecture. It is in the 
 Grecian style, and above the windows of the inner court are 
 21 masks, admirably carved in stone by Schliiter, and repre 
 senting the agonies of dying combatants. The apartments 
 on its first and second floors form a kind of military museum ; 
 the former containing various kinds ot ancient artillery, and the 
 latter about 00,000 stand of arms. The palace of Prince Albert, 
 
 a handsome edifice ; the architectural academy, by the emi 
 nent architect, Schinkel, one of his most original achievements 
 in this department of art ; the Italian opera-house, the colon 
 nade of the new museum, the guard-house, and the university, 
 are all beautiful structures. Amongst the more remarkable 
 monuments are an equestrian statue, in bronze, of the great 
 Elector Frederick William, finely placed on an elevated 
 pedestal at one extremity of the long bridge. In front of 
 the arsenal is a statue of Bliicher, also in bronze, in which 
 the celebrated IJauch has admirably succeeded in exhibiting 
 both the features and well-known characteristics of the hero. 
 Two marble statues by the same sculptor one of Bulow and 
 another of Leharnhorst, are well deserving of notice. There 
 are also, in the square called Willhelms Platz, statues of six 
 heroes of the Seven Years War Prince of Anhalt Dessau, 
 Generals Ziethen, Schwerin, Winterfeldt, Keith, and Seid- 
 litz, but they have little merit. The literary institutions of 
 the city are numerous and respectable ; they include the uni 
 versity, attended by nearly 1800 students, and numbering, 
 among its professors, many names of European reputation ; 
 the academy of sciences, the gymnasia or high schools, of 
 which there are six, with a number of less celebrated aca 
 demies ; an institution for instructing the deaf and dumb, an 
 
 academy of fine 
 arts, the Gewerlie 
 Schule or in 
 dustrial school, 
 where promising 
 young artists are 
 taught drawing, 
 modelling, &c., 
 gratuitously. 
 
 Berlin is the li 
 terary and scien 
 tific metropolis of 
 Germany, and, in 
 the various walks 
 of literature, phi 
 losophy, science, 
 and art, can show 
 a galaxy of names 
 such as few cities 
 can equal. Since 
 the time of Fre 
 derick the Great, 
 it has been the 
 policy of thePrus- 
 sian kings to at 
 tract to their capi 
 tal, either through 
 professorships in 
 the university or 
 otherwise, learn 
 ed men in every 
 department of 
 knowledge. Consequently, though but a city almost of yester 
 day, the number of eminent men who have laboured, or who 
 still labour, within the walls of Berlin, is very great. Of those 
 who are world-renowned, may be named Leibnitz, who founded 
 the academy of sciences in 1700, and became its first president ; 
 the pious Spener, the historian Puffendorf, the philosophers 
 Fichte, Schleiermacher, F. A. Wolf, and Hegel ; the theo 
 logians Neander, Twetsten, and Hengstenberg ; the historians 
 Earike and von Uaumer ; the geographers Kilter and Leipsius ; 
 the linguists Bopp, Zumpt, the brothers Grimm, and many 
 others. In the natural sciences, stands unrivalled in the 
 present or any other age, Alexander von Humboldt; and 
 after him are many brilliant names, as Poggendorf, Ermann, 
 Mitscherlich, IJose, Erichson, Ehrenberg, and Link. Many 
 others might be mentioned ; but it may suffice, further, to 
 name the poets Tieck and Riickert, the famous sculptors 
 Kauch and Schadow, and the composer Felix Mendelssohn. 
 
 The charitable institutions include the hospital of charity, 
 the royal institution for providing for widows, the hospital for 
 invalids, the hospital of St. Dorothy, the new royal hospital, 
 &c., with a great number besides for all kinds of benevolent 
 purposes. 
 
 The manufactures of Berlin are various and extensive. Its 
 chief productions are china, silks, cottons, stockings, ribbons, 
 
BERLIXCHEN 
 
 390 
 
 BERMUDA ISLANDS 
 
 cast iron ware, types, silk hats, paper, oils, refined sugars, two of which one of them a very handsome buildin^ have 
 
 
 
 tabacco, ami snuff. In the iron-foundry, busts, statues, has 
 reliefs, and copies of pictures, are cast ; together with a great 
 variety of ornaments of unrivalled delicacy of workmanship. 
 The black varnish with which the ironware is laid over, to 
 prevent rust, is made of amber, dissolved, and mixed with 
 lamp-black. The society of the upper classes of Berlin is 
 difficult of access, and their hospitality limited. Music is 
 here extensively and successfully cultivated. The perform 
 ance of sacred vocal music in particular, has attained extra 
 ordinary perfection. The opera and theatres are on the most 
 respectable footing, and are liberally encouraged, the taste 
 for such entertainments pervading all classes. The local 
 affairs of the place are administered by a magistracy, consist 
 ing of 25 individuals, with the assistance of the assembly of 
 deputies. 
 
 Railways. Berlin is well supplied 
 with railways. It communicates W. 
 direct with Hamburg ; N. with Stet 
 tin, and thence S.E. with Posen ; E. 
 through Frankfort -on -the -Oder and 
 Breslau, with Cracow, Warsaw, and 
 Austria ; S. by a line of two forks 
 one to Leipzig by Cothen and Halle, 
 and the other to Dresden, and from 
 these cities communicating: with the 
 lines of S.W. Germany; S.W. through 
 Potsdam, with Magdeburg, and thence 
 through Hanover, with Cologne, Bel 
 gium, and France. 
 
 History. About two centuries ago, 
 Berlin was a place of little importance. 
 It was confined to the immediate bank 
 of the Spree, and the island which 
 divides its channel ; and consisted of 
 a series of villages, which have grad 
 ually merged into each other, and now 
 form its different quarters. The first 
 important improvement was made by 
 the great Elector, Frederick William, 
 who planted the Uuter den Linden. 
 His successor, Frederick I., seconded 
 his efforts ; but Berlin never assumed 
 the appearance of a capital till the tim 
 
 been erected within the last two years ; and several dissenting 
 chapels, including Baptists and Wesleyans, and a handsome 
 R. Catholic chapel. There is also a convent of the Sisters of 
 Mercy for about 40 inmates, a free school, the united charity 
 schools ; each of the four churches above mentioned having, 
 besides, schools attached. Leather-tanning is carried on here 
 to a great extent ; there are also numerous woolstaplers, felt- 
 mongers, curriers, and manufacturers of vellum, parchment, 
 and hats ; vinegar-works, a distillery, a brewery, and some 
 boat-building. The London and Greenwich Railway crosses 
 the parish by means of a magnificent viaduct. Area of par. 
 620 ac. Pop. (1841), 34,947. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BERMUDAS (THE), or SOMEU S ISLANDS, a group of 
 islands, N. Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Great Britain, 580 m. 
 
 of Frederick the 
 
 Great, who, determined to make it worthy of his extended 
 dominions, enclosed a large space within the walls, and pro 
 ceeded to build upon it, to supply the wants, not so much 
 of actual, as of an anticipated population. He was twice 
 interrupted in the work, and almost driven from his purpose, 
 when, in 1757, the city fell into the hands of the Austrians ; 
 and, in 1760, into those of the Austrians and Eussians. But 
 he soon repaired the damage ; and his successors, having fol 
 lowed ardently in his steps, Berlin has rapidly risen to be the 
 second city in Germany in respect of population, and perhaps 
 the very first in respect of architectural grandeur and political 
 influence. Pop. (1846), 408,502 ; of whom 19,194 were sol 
 diers, and 5000 Jews. (Huhn s Lex. Deutschland; Murray s 
 Handbook; Forster s Deutschland; Dieterici, Die Bev dkerung 
 des Prcussisclien Staats.} 
 
 BERLINCHEN, a tn. Prussia, gov. Frankfort, on the 
 large lake of the same name, 40 m. S.E. Stettin, with a large 
 church, an hospital, a paper-mill, linen manufactures, and 
 distilleries. Pop. 3400. 
 
 BERMEJO. See VERMEJO. 
 
 BERMEO, a tn. and seaport. Spain, prov. Biscay, 15 m. 
 N. Bilbao, lat. 43 35 N. ; Ion. 2 40 W., on a slope facing 
 the bay. It has two parish churches, two schools, a town- 
 house, which contains the prison and the public storehouse, a 
 custom-house, two fountains (one of medicinal waters) , and some 
 convents. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is agricul 
 ture, fishing, and salting and drying fish, which they export, 
 although the trade has much fallen off. Pop. 4000. (Madoz.) 
 
 BERMONDSEY, a tn. and par. England, co. Surrey, 
 r. bank, Thames. The town is 1 j m. S.S.E. London, and 
 consists of several principal streets, all straight, paved, and 
 well kept, and a number of smaller. The houses are of 
 various form and construction, and mostly of brick, with some 
 ancient structures of timber intermingled. It is lighted with 
 gas, and amply supplied with water ; and has four churches, 
 
 S.E. Cape Hatteras, in N. Carolina, and lying between lat. 
 32 14 and 32 25 N., and Ion. 64 38 and 64 52 W. They 
 lie S.W. to N.E., based on the edge of a bank stretching in 
 the same direction, 23 m. by 13; but only occupy a space 
 of about 18 m. by 6, though said to be about 365 in num 
 ber. They are separated from each other by very narrow 
 channels, and are mostly rocky islets, five only being of any 
 considerable size. They are of difficult access, being enclosed 
 on three sides, N., W., and S., by formidable coral reefs, 
 nearly all under water, and extending, in some parts, 1 m. 
 from the islands, the only reefs of this description occurring in 
 the whole central expanse of the Atlantic Ocean. Some of the 
 corals now growing here, are asserted by the natives, on the 
 authority of tradition, to have been living in the same spots 
 for centuries, and are supposed to vie in age with the most 
 ancient trees of Europe. In removing some reefs, by means 
 of divers, at the entrance of St. George s harbour, in the 
 island of that name, evidences were found confirmatory of 
 the idea that part of the former land of the Bermuda Islands 
 has subsided, and is now below the sea. The islands have 
 little elevation, and, in their general aspect, much resemble 
 the W. India Islands. The climate is delightful, a perpetual 
 spring clothing the fields and trees in perpetual verdure. 
 Severe thunderstorms, however, frequently occur ; and when 
 S. winds prevail, the atmosphere becomes charged with a 
 humidity unfavourable to various complaints, including those 
 of a pulmonary nature. Though the soil is not so fertile 
 as it was, being now much exhausted, almost every descrip 
 tion of fruit and vegetable grows here abundantly, and the 
 arrow-root is said to be superior to that of any other place. 
 The orange orchards of the islands are extending and improv 
 ing; and generally more skill and industry has been applied 
 to the clearing of land, and to cultivation, within the last few 
 years than formerly. The quantity of live stock maintained 
 is small, and the dairy produce sufficient only for the wants 
 of the inhabitants. Domestic fowls are abundant, especially 
 
BERN 
 
 391 
 
 BERN 
 
 ducks ; and during summer, numbers of turtle are taken. It is 
 somewhat remarkable that there are neither springs nor fresh 
 water streams in the islands, and only a few wells, the water of 
 which is brackish. This want is supplied by collecting rain 
 water in tanks, every house being provided with one, and the 
 roofs being adapted as conductors. The adjoining seas are 
 stored with various kinds of fish ; and many whales are taken 
 in the season, which is between March and June. The flesh 
 is sold in the markets, and eaten by the natives. The principal 
 employment is building vessels, generally of cedar ; small, 
 swift, and durable. Platting straw, and the mid-rib of the 
 palmetto leaf, is also carried on to some extent. Principal 
 exports: arrow-root, potatoes, and onions. The amount of 
 imports into the Bermudas, for the year ending January 5, 
 1848, was 138,992, 16s. 9cL; exports for the same year, 
 20,205, 6s. 8d. The number and tonnage of vessels inwards, 
 for the same period, were 185; tonn. 19,399 ; outwards, 189, 
 tonn. 20,400. The number and tonnage of vessels belonging 
 to the celony in the year named, were 52 ; tonn. 3372. The 
 largest harbour is that of St. George s, a beautiful and ro 
 mantic bay, capable of containing a large fleet, but of difficult 
 ingress and egress, from the narrowness of its entrance, now, 
 however, much improved. It is strongly fortified, and gen 
 erally garrisoned by a regiment of the line, with some com 
 panies of artillery and engineers. The legislature consists of 
 a governor, council, and legislative assembly. The council is 
 composed of eight members and a president, nominated by the 
 governor, but subject to confirmation by the Crown ; the 
 House of Assembly of 36 members, returned by the nine 
 tribes or parishes into which the island is divided. The islands 
 contain nine churches, five chapels for dissenters, and 24 
 public or free schools, principally supported by different so 
 cieties in England, an; 1 , by funds under the control of the 
 Bishop of Nova Scotia, in whose diocese the Bermudas are 
 situated. There are, besides the above, 25 private schools. 
 An establishment for convicts has recently been placed here. 
 The number of the latter, in 1848, amounted to 1750. The 
 computed cost of a convict to the public at the Bermuda 
 establishment, including the expense of the passage out, and 
 every other charge, is about 20 per annum; and the value of 
 his labour, 33 per annum. The capital is Hamilton, on Ber 
 muda or Long Island. Pop. (1848), estimated at from 9500 
 to about 11,000 whites, coloured, and free blacks. 
 
 BERN, or BERNE (CANTON OP), the largest, and in rank, 
 the second canton in the Swiss Confederation, one of the three 
 vorort or directing cantons, situated in the W. of Switzerland, 
 between lat. 46 19 and 47 30 N.; and Ion. 6 50 and 
 8 28 E.; bounded, N.W. by France; N. and N.E. by the 
 cantons of Basel Country, Soleure, and Aargau ; E. by Luzern, 
 Unterwalden, and Uri ; S. by the Valais ; S.W. by Vand ; and 
 W. by Freiburg, and Neufchatel; greatest lengih, 83 m.; 
 greatest breadth, 65 m. ; area, 2560 sq. m. The S. boundary 
 of the canton is formed by the Bernese Alps, which include 
 some of the highest summits of the alpine system. Among 
 these are the Finster-Aarhorn, 14,111 ft; Jtingfrau, 13,718 ft.; 
 Schreckhorn, 13,386 ft. ; the Monch, 13,498 ft., &c. Offsets 
 from this mountain-range cover the S. part of the canton, and 
 form the high country or Bernese Oberland, celebrated for the 
 beauty of its valleys, the principal of which are, the Siminen, the 
 Lauterbrunnen, the Grindelwald, and the Hasli. The N. part 
 of the canton, separated from the S. by the valley of the Aar, 
 bears the name of Leberberg or Jura country, from the moun 
 tain-range that intersects it. This range is considerably lower 
 than the Bernese Alps. Excepting a small portion on the 
 French frontier, watered by the Doubs, the whole of the canton 
 belongs to the basin of the Khine. The principal streams 
 are, the Aar, and its tributaries, the E:nmen, Simmen, Kander, 
 and Thiele. In the N.W., besides the Doubs, the canton is 
 watered by the Suss and the Birs, with its affluent the Trame; 
 the former falling into the Lake of Biel, and the latter into the 
 Khine near Basel. The canton contains three considerable 
 lakes, Biel in the basin of the Thiele, and those of Thun and 
 Brienz, in the basin of the Aar. The climate is healthy, but 
 rigorous in the alpine regions, where the incessant snows form 
 extensive glaciers; and in some localities it is exposed to 
 sudden changes, a warm day being frequently succeeded by a 
 night of frost. In the valleys of the Thiele, the Emmen, and 
 lower Aar, the temperature is much milder. The mountains 
 of Bern are finely wooded with pine and ash ; the valleys are 
 
 fertile, and yield good crops of grain, but not in sufficient 
 quantity for the population. Hemp, and flax of good quality, 
 are raised, and indifferent wine to a small extent, is grown in 
 the neighbourhood of the lakes. But cattle form the principal 
 wealth of the inhabitants ; the rich pastures of the canton ren 
 dering it peculiarly well adapted for the rearing of cattle, of 
 which, the breeds found in the vales of Emmen, and Sarine or 
 Saane, are esteemed the best in Switzerland. The dairy produce 
 of these valleys has a high reputation, the cheese being reckoned 
 only second to that of Freiburg. The total cheese made in 
 the canton, amounts to about 2500 tons annually. Bern is 
 famed for its horses ; those of Emmenthal are exported in con 
 siderable numbers to France, for draught and heavy-armed 
 cavalry. The canton contains mines of iron, lead, and copper, 
 with quarries of marble, gypsum, freestone, grindstones, granite, 
 and limestone. Coal is also obtained, but in small quantities. 
 Fine crystals are found among the quartz rocks of the Grimsel, 
 and gold dust is met with in the sands of the rivers. Mineral 
 springs are numerous, and the bathing establishments of Weis- 
 senburg, Blumenstein, &c., are much frequented. In the 
 mountain districts, the houses are generally of wood, but in 
 the lowlands, and round Bern, of stone. The land, in general, 
 is very much subdivided, from being equally partitioned among 
 children, except in Emmenthal, where the youngest son in 
 herits the patrimonial domain. The manufactures of the can 
 ton are inconsiderable ; linen and woollen goods are made in 
 the Emmenthal ; paper, leather, hardware, kirschwasser, fire 
 arms, and agricultural implements are also made, and partly 
 exported. Horses, cattle, and cheese, form the principal ex 
 ports. The imports consist of salt, colonial produce, wine, 
 grain, tobacco, metals, cotton, wool, silk, hemp, and flax. The 
 transit of goods in the W. part of the canton, is much facilitated 
 by the Aar and its tributaries, from which also a considerable 
 quantity of fish are obtained. Schools and educational insti 
 tutions are numerous. Attendance at school is obligatory. 
 The contingent of troops furnished to the Confederation, is 
 5824 men, and the war contribution, 104,080 Swiss franks 
 (5960), annually. The canton is divided into 28 administra 
 tive sections or prefectures, the first magistrates of which are 
 elected for six years by the executive council. The prefec 
 tures are divided into political communes, whose boundaries 
 frequently differ from those of the ecclesiastical communes or 
 parishes. The tribunals are 1 . The supreme court, composed 
 of 10 members, chosen for 15 years by the Grand Council, 
 and a president chosen for five years. This is the high court 
 of appeal, both for criminal and civil cases. 2. The district 
 courts, 30 in number, one for each prefecture, and two each 
 for the prefectures of Delemont or Delsperg, and Cerlier. 
 Ecclesiastical affairs are under the direction of two ecclesias 
 tical committees, one Protestant, the other R. Catholic. One- 
 third of the vacant Protestant churches, are filled up by the 
 executive council, and the other two-thirds by the seniority 
 of the ministry. The first Protestant minister is the Dean 
 of the Miinster or cathedral of Bern, capital of the canton. 
 The R. Catholic part of the state belongs to the the bishopric 
 of Basel, and is dependent on the vicar-general of Porrentrui. 
 The canton of Bern has formed a portion of the Swiss Con 
 federation since 1352. In 1798, it comprised a larger extent 
 of territory, and was then divided into four cantons, Bern, 
 Aargau, Lemar (which afterwards became the canton of Vaud), 
 and Oberland, which was reunited to Bern in 1803. As an in 
 demnification for its dismemberment, the Congress of Vienna, 
 in 1815, added to it the town of Biel or Bienne, and the terri 
 tory on ths W. side of the Thiele, which formed the greater 
 part of the ancient bishopric of Basel, and was then possessed 
 by France. "With exception of the inhabitants of this dis 
 trict, who are of French extraction, the Bernese belong to the 
 German stock, and speak German. The great majority are 
 Protestants. Pop. (1837), 407,913. 
 
 BERN [Latin, Hcrna, Arctopolis], a tn. Switzerland, cap. 
 of above canton, and, alternately with Zurich and Luzern, seat 
 of the federal government, and of the diet or vorort of the 
 Swiss Confederation, 59 m. S.W. Zurich, 39 m. W.S.W. 
 Luzern ; lat. (observatory) 46 57 6" N. ; Ion. 7 26 34" E. (L.) 
 Height (at the observatory) above the level of the sea, 1912 ft. 
 The town, situated on a sandstone promontory formed by the 
 Aar, is bounded on three sides by the river, and on the fourth, 
 the W. side, it is defended by fortifications. A magnificent 
 stone bridge, 909 ft. long, and the central arch of which is 93 ft. 
 
BERN 
 
 392 
 
 BERNARD (LITTLE ST.) 
 
 above the stream, here crosses the Aar, and supplies a level 
 road between the town and the high bank on the opposite side. 
 Bern is the handsomest town in Switzerland, and one of the 
 most regularly built in Europe. It has the air of a metropolis, 
 and is the reputed capital of the Confederation, being the 
 residence of the ministers from all the foreign states, except 
 the Papal nuncio, who resides at Luzern. The houses are 
 substantially built of stone, and the streets are spacious; all 
 of them are plentifully supplied with water by means of 
 fountains, some of which are grotesque, others elegant, and 
 many of the streets have a rapid stream of water running 
 under the footpath. The principal street or Grande Hue, like 
 a majority of the others, is steep, but it is also wide, and 
 is adorned with many fountains; the houses are lofty and 
 handsome, and built over arcades or covered piazzas, which 
 line the street on either side, affording shade and shelter from 
 summer s heat, and from winter s snows; though, from being 
 neither high nor wide, they make the street look rather 
 heavy and sombre. From the platform on which the cathedral 
 stands, which is about 100 ft. above the river, a 
 magnificent view of the Bernese Alps is obtained. 
 Gardens, in terraces, hang upon the bank ; which, 
 for a mile in length, presents a beautiful declivity, 
 covered with fruit-trees, evergreens, and weeping 
 willows. Beyond the river, the country presents a 
 verdant and finely-diversified surface, sprinkled with - 
 villages, houses, and cottages ; and, in the farther 
 distance, is a vast range of mountains. The cathe 
 dral is a fine Gothic structure, built between 1421 
 and 1502, with a spire 190 ft. high, but incomplete. 
 The other public edifices are, the church du St. 
 Esprit; the museum, containing an extensive collec 
 tion of the natural productions of Switzerland ; the 
 townhouse, a Gothic edifice of the 15th century ; the 
 mint, where money is coined for several cantons; 
 the extensive citizen-hospital (BurgerspitaT), the new 
 prison and penitentiary, the Inselor island hospital, 
 the corn market and corn magazine, for storing grain 
 in case of scarcity ; the bank, and the state house. 
 The university of Bern was founded in 1834, and has 
 a full equipment of professors in all the different 
 faculties and arts. There is also an academical 
 lyceum, with 11 professors; a gymnasium, with 11 
 professors and masters ; a school of arts, with nine 
 professors ; a school of painting and design, and a 
 deaf and dumb institution. The public library con 
 tains 35,000 volumes, and 1200 MSS. ; the medical library, 
 7000 volumes. Bern is celebrated for the number and excel 
 lence of its charitable institutions ; and, in addition to the hos 
 pitals, has two orphan asylums, an infirmary, lunatic asylum, 
 and a fund for the aid of indigent students. It has also an 
 observatory and a botanical garden. The chief manufactures 
 are cloth, linen, cotton, and printed goods, clocks and watches, 
 delicate mechanical and philosophical instruments, straw hats, 
 leather, gunpowder, &c. The property belonging to the cor 
 poration is very large ; and the revenue not only suffices to 
 defray the public expenses, but to provide all the citizens with 
 fuel, and still leaves a surplus. 
 
 Bern owes its foundation to Bcrchtold, fifth Duke of Z;ih- 
 ringcn ; who, in 1191, fortified the peninsula on which the 
 town stands, and invited merchants and craftsmeii to resort 
 thither for protection. In 1218, it was raised to the rank of a 
 free town of the einpire, with extensive privileges. In 1353, 
 it entered the Swiss Confederation, at that period consisting 
 of seven cantons, and obtained the second rank. In 1798, 
 Bern was obliged to open its gates to the republican armies 
 of France, and the canton was dismembered From 1799 to 
 1803, it was the scat of the Helvetic Government. The 
 government of Bern had hitherto been oligarchical, but, in 
 1830, the population threw off the rule of the privileged fami 
 lies, and appointed a supreme council, which entered on its 
 duties in October 1831. Bern is said to derive its name from 
 liiren, the plural of the German word bar [a bear] ; and that 
 animal figures on the armorial bearings of the town, as well 
 as on the coins, sign-posts, fountains, and public buildings. 
 For many centuries, living bears have been maintained at 
 the public expense, as part of the state property. The great 
 majority of the inhabitants of Bern are Protestants. Pop. 
 22.422, 
 
 BERNARD (GREAT ST.), a celebrated pass of the Pen 
 nine Alps, can. Yalais, on the mountain-road leading from 
 Martigny in Switzerland to Aosta in Piedmont; lat. 45 51 
 N. ; Ion. 7 1 1 23" E. (r..) On the E. side of the pass is 
 Mount Velan, and, on the \V., the Pointc de Dronaz ; there is 
 no mountain known by the name of St. Bernard. Almost on 
 the very crest of the pass is the famous Hospice, supposed to 
 be the highest inhabited spot in Europe, 8200 ft. above the 
 level of the sea. It is a massive stone building capable of 
 accommodating 70 or 80 travellers with beds, and of shelter 
 ing 300. As many as 500 or 600 have received assistance 
 in one day. It is situated on the highest point of the pass, 
 exposed to tremendous storms from the N.E. and S.W., 
 and is tenanted by 10 or 12 brethren of the order of St. 
 Augustine, who have devoted themselves by vow to the aid 
 of travellers crossing the mountains. The climate of this high 
 region is necessarily rigorous. There is a lake on the summit, 
 at a short distance from the Hospice, on which ice has fre 
 quently remained throughout the whole year. The severest 
 
 CONVENT OF THE GREAT ST. HERNARD. 
 From racliar&on t Sketches in Italy anil Switzerland. 
 
 cold recorded is 29 below zero, Fah., but it has often been 
 18 and 20 below zero; the greatest summer heat recorded 
 is 68 Fah. From the difficulty of respiration in so elevated 
 a locality, and the severity of the climate, few of the monks 
 survive the time of their vow, 15 years from the age of 18, 
 when they are devoted to this service. They are driven, 
 often with ruined health, to retire to the more genial climate 
 of Martigny, where there is a branch establishment for the 
 brethren who cannot live on the mountains. The dogs kept 
 at St. Bernard, to assist the brethren in their humane labours, 
 are well known. In the museum of Bern, the skin of one, 
 called Barry, is preserved, who is recorded to have saved the 
 lives of 15 human beings. In 1847, the revolutionary go 
 vernment of Valais laid the monastery under the heavy forced 
 contribution of 120,000 francs (4800), thereby much impair 
 ing the resources of the establishment, and, according to a 
 letter of the prior, written at the time, rendering its continu 
 ance impossible. Subscriptions from various quarters have 
 since been made, to enable the brethren to continue their 
 benevolent labours. The pass of St. Bernard appears to have 
 been known at a very early period ; and a pagan temple for 
 merly stood here, from which a IJoman road led down the 
 Picdmontcse side of the mountains. The remains of a massive 
 pavement are still visible ; and the cabinet of the Hospice con 
 tains votive tablets, bronze figures, and other antiquities, found 
 in the vicinity. The Hospice was founded in 962, by Bernard 
 de Menthon, a Savoyard nobleman, for the benefit of those 
 who performed pilgrimages to Rome. In May 1 800, Napoleon 
 led an army of 30,000 men, with its artillery and cavalry, into 
 Italy by this pass. 
 
 BERNARD (Lirn.E ST.), a mountain, Sardinian States, 
 belonging to what are called the Grecian Alps, about 10 m. 
 S. Mont Blanc. It stands between Savoy and Piedmont, 
 
BERNARDIN (ST.) 
 
 BERTHOLSDORF 
 
 having the valley of the Isere, in the former, on the W., and 
 ( hat of the Doire, in tho latter, on the E. The pass across it 
 is one of the easiest in the Alps, and is supposed to be that 
 which Hannibal used. The Hospice, at the summit of the 
 pass, has an elevation of 7192 ft. 
 
 BERNARDIN (ST.), or BERNARDINO, a mountain, Switz 
 erland, can. Orisons, over which a road, constructed at the joint 
 expense of the Sardinian and Grison governments, leads from 
 the Rheinwald into the valley of the Misocco, and forms one 
 of the direct lines of communication, through Switzerland, 
 between W. Germany and the N. of Italy. It leads to Lago 
 Maggiore ; the pass of the Splugen departing from the same 
 main road in Grisons, leading to Lago di Como. The summit 
 of the pass is 7115 ft. above the sea, and is partly occupied 
 
 by Lake Moesola, the source of the Moesa. On the S. slope 
 
 stands the VILLAGE of St. Be.rnardin, a post station, the first 
 and loftiest in the valley of the Misocco, consisting of a few 
 houses on a small plain or ledge. It possesses a mineral 
 spring, which is one of the highest in the Alps, and attracts a 
 few visitors. 
 
 BERNAU, a tn. Prussia, prov. Brandenburg, on the 
 Planke, 14 m. N.E. Berlin. It is surrounded with walls and 
 ditches ; has two churches, an ancient townhouse, and an hos 
 pital. It has manufactures of silk, velvet, calicoes, linen, &c., 
 
 and a number of breweries. Pop. 2850. Several other 
 
 places in Germany and Bohemia have the same name. 
 
 BERN AY, a tn. Prance, dep. Eure (Normandy), 25 m. 
 W.N.W. Evreux, agreeably situated, r. bank, Charentonne. 
 The grain market occupies part of an old abbey church, the 
 remains of which are very curious and interesting. The 
 church of St. Croix is distinguished by its large and magni 
 ficent altar, and by marble statues and sculptures, brought 
 from the abbey of Bee ; and the church of La Conture was 
 formerly celebrated for being supposed to cure persons pos- 
 Kessed with evil spirits, and is still visited by numerous devo 
 tees. Bernay has also a communal college, an hospital, a court 
 of first resort, a board of manufactures, an agricultural society, 
 and a savings -bank. It has important manufactures of cloth, 
 and flannel, tape, linen, and cotton goods ; and spins a good 
 deal of cotton, thread, and worsted. It has also bleachfields, 
 dyeworks, tanneries, &c. Trade: principally in grain, cider, 
 cloth, iron, paper, leather, linen, horses, and cattle. The 
 horse fair, held in Lent, is one of the greatest in France, and 
 is attended by purchasers from all parts of the country, to 
 procure post and diligence horses, for which Normandy has 
 long been celebrated. Pop. 5490. 
 
 I5ERNBURG-, or ANHALT-BERNBURG, a tn. Germany, 
 cap. duchy of same name, on both sides of the Saale, in N. W. 
 Leipzig, with which, as well as with Berlin and Magdeburg, it 
 is connected by railway. It is divided into the old, the new, 
 and the high town ; the first two surrounded by walls, and com 
 municating by a bridge 173 ft. long. Bernburg is well built, 
 and contains several well-paved and well-lighted streets. The 
 principal building is the palace, situated, with a garden, on 
 the highest part of the high town. It is very ancient, but has 
 received numerous modern additions ; and contains a picture- 
 gallery, theatre, and church. Among the other buildings and 
 establishments are a townhouse, court-house, three Protestant 
 churches and a chapel, a It. Catholic oratory, a synagogue, 
 gymnasium, savings -bank, hospital, widow s asylum, bride 
 well, and seven schools. Besides an oil-mill, and several 
 breweries and distilleries, there are manufactures of paper and 
 
 earthenware. Pop. 6772. The DUCHY, forming part of the 
 
 country of Anhalt (which see), has an area of 256 geo. sq. m., 
 is well wooded and well cultivated, and has made considerable 
 progress in manufactures. The minerals include coal, copper, 
 lead, silver, and iron, of which the last is the most important. 
 Pop. 46,252. 
 
 BERNE. See BERN. 
 
 BERNECK, BERNEGG, or BERNANG, a vil. and par. 
 Switzerland, can. of, and 1 1 m. E. St. Gall, pleasantly situated 
 in the Rheirithal, and containing an ancient church, which is 
 used in common by Protestants and R. Catholics. The cul 
 ture of the vine, spinning, and knitting, are the chief employ 
 ments. Pop. 2119. 
 
 BERNECASTEL, or BERNCASTEL [anc. Bcronis Castel- 
 
 lum], a tn. Prussia, prov. Lower Rhine, cap. circle of same 
 
 name, r. bank, Moselle. It is a dirty town, but picturesquely 
 
 situated at the base of the Hundsriick Mountains, 38 m. S. W. 
 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 Coblentz. The wines of the neighbourhood are celebrated. 
 Bernecastel has several quarries, from which excellent grind 
 stones are obtained, also a lead and a copper mine. Its com 
 merce is considerable. Pop. 2100. The CIRCLE of the 
 
 same name has an area of 210 geo. sq. m. It is very hilly, 
 several of its highest points exceeding 2000 ft. About two- 
 thirds of the surface are covered with wood. The hills are 
 rich in minerals, particularly iron, lead, and copper, which 
 are extensively worked ; and, along with the coal which is 
 also found in the district, maintain numerous furnaces. Pop. 
 43,318. . 
 
 BERNERA, a small isl. Scotland, the most S. of the 
 Hebrides ; lat. (N. point) 57 43 N. ; Ion. 7 12 W. (R.) ; 
 about 5 m. in circumference. The S.E. side is rocky, and 
 frequented in the summer months by immense numbers of 
 sea-fowl. The interior is fertile. It contains a quarry of 
 granite, beautifully marbled, and of a very superior quality. 
 A handsome lighthouse, built of this granite, has been erected 
 here. The island is said to have been a sanctuary of the 
 Druids, an entire circle of upright stones giving a plausibility 
 to this belief. There are here the remains of two chapels, one 
 dedicated to St. Asaph, the other to St. Columba. Pop. 30. 
 
 BERNESTADT, or BERNSTADT, a tn. Prussia, prov. 
 Silesia, r. bank, Wida, 24 m. E.N.E. Breslau. It is walled, 
 has an old castle, two churches, a synagogue, an hospital, and 
 manufactures of woollen cloth, linen, and leather. Pop. 3600. 
 
 BERNIER S ISLAND, a small isl., W. Australia, at 
 the entrance of Shark Bay ; lat. (Kok s Island, off N. point) 
 24 43 S. ; Ion. 113 T E. (R.) It is about 15 m. long by 
 3 to 5 broad. 
 
 BERRE, a tn. and com. France, dep. Bouches-du-Rhoue, 
 and 14 m. W.S.W. Aix, on the lagoon of same name. It is 
 well built, but ill supplied with water, there being but one 
 well in the town. The little port is safe and commodious, 
 and carries on an active coasting trade in salt, chemical sub 
 stances, oils, and fruit. Soda and chemical stuffs are manu 
 factured. Pop. 1926. The LAGOON is about 12 m. long, 
 
 by 7 broad, and communicates with the sea by the canals of 
 Martignes and Tour-de-Bouc. It deposits on its shores large 
 quantities of salt, the gathering of which gives a considerable 
 amount of employment. The lagoon also abounds in fish. 
 
 BERRI (LE), a former prov. of France, which, with the 
 exception of the single arroncl. of St. Amand, belonging to the 
 Bourbonnais, now forms the departments of Indre and Cher. 
 
 BERRI AN, a vil., N. Africa, in the Sahara of Algiers, 25 m. 
 E. Gardaia. It is walled, and has 250 to 300 houses, including 
 some mosques and schools ; and has a little trade in grain. 
 
 BERRIEDALE, or BERRYDALE, a small fishing hamlet 
 and ness, or headland, Scotland, co. Caithness, par. Latheron. 
 The VILLAGE is situated at the mouth of the Berriedale water, 
 which rises in the mountains in the S. W. part of the parish, and 
 is one of the most picturesque and romantic streams in Scot 
 land. In the vicinity are the ruins of the ancient Castle of 
 
 Berriedale. The NESS, or promontory, is about 2 m. S. by 
 
 W. the village, and is in lat. 58 12 N. ; Ion. 3 30 W. This 
 district gives the title of Lord Berriedale to the Earl of 
 Caithness. 
 
 BERRIEW, or ABEK-RIIIW, par.,N. Wales, Montgomery. 
 Pop. 2259. 
 
 BERRIMA, a tn. New S. Wales, co. Camden, 66 m. 
 S.W. Sydney, on a remarkable bend of the flat which forms 
 the channel of the Wingecarribbee river. Pop. 377. 
 
 BERRIN, a tn., W. Africa, Senegambia, in the country 
 of the Feloops, on the 1. bank of the Casamanza ; lat. 12 28 N. ; 
 Ion. 16 28 W. 
 
 BERRINGTON, par. Eng. Salop; 2920 ac. Pop. 651. 
 
 BERROW, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Somerset; 2310 ac. 
 Pop. 578. 2, par. Worcester; 1940 ac. Pop. 480. 
 
 BERRY HEAD, a promontory, England, co. Devon, 
 S. point of Torbay; lat. 50 24 N. ; Ion. 3 28 W. (R.) 
 
 BERRY-POMEROY, par. Eng.Devon;4610ac. P.1149. 
 
 BERR YN-ARBOR, par. Eng. Devon ; 5050 ac. Pop. 899. 
 
 BERSTED, par. Eng. Sussex ; 2750 ac. Pop. 2490. 
 
 BERTHOLSDORF, a market tn. Austria, duchy, Lower 
 
 Austria, on the railway between Vienna and Trieste. It lies 
 
 among the hills between Brunn and Roclaun ; surrounded by 
 
 j vineyards, and contains an ancient church, with a lofty tower, 
 
 and a curious subterranean chapel. Behind it are the ruins 
 
 I of an old castle, which was repeatedly occupied by dowager 
 
BERTHOUD 
 
 39 1 
 
 BERWICK-ON-TWEED 
 
 princesses of the house of Hapsburg. Baths, and a swimming 
 establishment, have recently been erected here. Pop. 2226. 
 
 BERTHOUD. Su BURGDORF. 
 
 BERT1NORO, a tn. Papal States, 7 m. S.E. Forli, on a 
 hill, at the foot of which flows the Ronco. It is the seat of a 
 bishopric, and has a cathedral, three parish churches, and five 
 convents. The wine produced in the neighbourhood is highly 
 esteemed. Pop. 4000. 
 
 BEK VIE, BEUVY, or INVERBERVIE, a royal bor. and par. 
 Scotland, coast of co. Kincardine. The town is 22 m. S.S. W. 
 Aberdeen. It is irregularly built, and the only buildings 
 worth mentioning are the parish church, an elegant Gothic 
 structure; a Free church, commodious and substantial; a 
 small Baptist chapel, and the townhall, also a good building. 
 The ancient market cross is an object of interest; it is an 
 octagon of six steps, surmounted by a column 12 or 14ft. 
 high. The first flax spinning-mill in Scotland driven by in 
 animate power was erected at Bervie, but was unsuccessful. 
 There are now five small flax spinning-mills here, all driven 
 wholly by water, excepting two, which have some auxiliary 
 steam power. Collectively, they throw off about 4000 spindles 
 of yam weekly, and employ about 100 hands. There are 
 also a meal mill, and a small wool mill on the water of Bervie; 
 the latter employing about 30 hands on the premises, carried j 
 on by a firm principally in the hosiery trade, who employ out 
 of doors, chiefly in Aberdeenshire, in the winter season, about 
 1300 women knitting hose; and in the summer season, about 
 a third of that number. Tiles are likewise made here to a 
 considerable extent. The staple trade of Bervie used to be 
 handloom-weaving ; but it has declined very much of late, 
 and now only about 60 looms are employed, by houses in 
 Arbroath, Montrose, Brechin, and Aberdeen. The seaport 
 of Bervie is Gourdon, about 1 m. distant, where the grain 
 from the Howe of the Mearns is mostly shipped, amounting 
 to about 30,000 qrs. annually, principally barley and oats, 
 sent mostly to Glasgow. About 1 6 boats belong to Gourdon ; 
 and during the herring fishery, about 40 boats fish here, 
 manned by about 200 men. There is one fish-curing firm in 
 the place, who send the fish to London and Glasgow. Bervie 
 has long been famous for its smoked haddocks, known by the 
 name of bervies. It unites with the Montrose district of 
 burghs in returning a member to the House of Commons. 
 The parish is about 2 m. in length, and 1 J in breadth. Pop. 
 of burgh (1841), 864; of par. 478; total, 1342, which in 
 cludes the vil. of Gourdon, containing 390 inhabitants. 
 (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BERWICK, four pars. England:!, par. Sussex; 1250 
 ac. Pop. 199. 2, Berwick (St. James], par. Wilts; 2370 ac. 
 Pop. 247. 3, Berwick (St. John), par. Wilts; 4230 ac. Pop. 
 419. 4, Berwick (St. Leonard), par. Wilts ; 970 ac. Pop. 41. 
 
 BERWICK, a co. Scotland, forming the S.E. extremity 
 of the kingdom, bounded, N. by co. Haddington, W. by cos. 
 Edinburgh and Roxburgh, S. by the Tweed, and E. by the 
 German Ocean ; area, 282,880 ac., of which, from a third to j 
 a half are supposed to be arable. The Lammermoor range of , 
 hills, varying in height from 630 ft. to 1500 ft., occupy the! 
 N. parts of the county ; between these again and the Tweed is 
 a tract of comparatively level country, called the Merse, one 
 of the most fertile and best cultivated districts in Scotland. 
 The farms here are in general large, and the farmers a wealthy 
 and intelligent class of men. Handsome country seats and 
 farm houses, with comfortable cottages, thickly distributed 
 over the country, afford pleasing evidence of the prosperity 
 that everywhere prevails. The E. part of the county is also 
 hilly, and in many places broken up into deep, rugged gullies 
 and ravines. The sea-coast is bold and rocky, and of irregular 
 outline, curving into bays, and winding round numerous pro 
 montories, of which the most remarkable is St. Abb s Head. 
 Wheat and turnips are the great objects of culture, but barley 
 and oats are raised in large quantities ; beans also are culti 
 vated to a considerable extent. Many improvements have 
 been effected during the last 20 years, by the more complete 
 drainage of the land, the adoption of rotations better suited to 
 its varying capacities, the introduction of bone manure, tlu: 
 culture of waste land, &c. The horses are principally of the 
 Clydesdale breed, and in general strong and active. Cattle, 
 a mixed breed, latterly improved by the introduction of short- 
 horned bulls. In the Merse, the sheep are principally long- J 
 woolled ; in the Lammermoor hills, the Cheviots have been ! 
 
 extensively introduced ; but in the bleak parts of the country, 
 the black-faced breed keep their ground. The stock of sheeji 
 lias been estimated at about 115,000. Average rent of land 
 in 1842-43, 16s. 9|d an ac. The principal river connected 
 with the county is the Tweed, which is here a beautiful and 
 majestic stream. There are a number of smaller rivers, 
 amongst which are the Whitadder, Blackadder, and Leader, 
 all well stored with trout. There is only one lake in the 
 county, Coldingham Loch, a small sheet of water, covering 
 about 30 ac. The county is all but purely agricultural, the 
 majority of its population subsisting by its pursuits, and the 
 various arts connected with them ; almost the only excep 
 tion is found in the bleak, hilly district of Lammermoor, 
 which, being unfit for any other purpose, is appropriated to 
 the grazing of sheep. Interesting remains of antiquity are 
 numerous in this county, every parish containing old castles, 
 towers, abbeys, priories, &c., with many tumuli, cairns, &c. 
 The county contains 33 parishes, and has Greenlaw for its 
 capital ; it returns one member to Parliament. Registered 
 electors in 1849, 1050. Pop. (1851), 36,297. 
 
 BERWICK (NORTH), a royal burgh, seaport, and par. 
 Scotland, co. Haddington. The town is situated on a small 
 bay, near the base of a beautiful conical hill, 940 ft. in height, 
 called N. Berwick Law, at the S. entrance to the Frith of 
 Forth, 21 m. N.E. Edinburgh; lat. 46 14 N.; Ion. 2 41 
 W. It is built on a sandy plain, and consists chiefly of two 
 principal streets, straight, and well kept, running nearly at 
 right angles to each other ; and one of which is adorned with 
 a row of fine plane-trees. The houses are mostly plain, and 
 are built of hard trap rock. They are generally old, and 
 have a weather-beaten appearance ; but of late years, some 
 handsome houses have been erected to the E. and W. of the 
 town. The supply of water is obtained from springs, and is 
 generally much impregnated with lime. The churches are, 
 the parish church, cruciform, built in 1670; a Free church, 
 and a U. Presbyterian church. Schools the parochial, burgh, 
 and two private schools, none of them very numerously at 
 tended. The harbour is small, but of easy access. Its coasting 
 trade, which was at one time considerable, is now altogether 
 extinguished by the railways. Of late years the town has 
 come into some repute as bathing quarters ; and a number of 
 the inhabitants depend, to a considerable extent, on letting 
 portions of their houses to summer visitors. About a quarter 
 of a mile W. from the town, are the ruins of the abbey of 
 North Berwick, beautifully situated on the summit of a gentle 
 elevation. The town forms one of the Haddiugton district of 
 burghs, which return a member to Parliament. Pop. (burgh 
 and par.) in 1841, 1708. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BERWICK-ON-TWEED, a port, bor., market tn., par., and 
 co. of itself, England, on a gentle acclivity, 1. bank, Tweed, 
 near its confluence with the sea, 48 m. S.E. Edinburgh, and 
 300 N. by W. London; lat. (lighthouse) 55 46 12" N.; Ion. 
 2 W. (R.) It occupies an area of nearly 2 m. in circumfer 
 ence, and is surrounded by fortified walls 1 J m. in circuit, 
 formed of earth, and faced with stone, along which is an 
 agreeable promenade. The streets are for the most part 
 narrow, steep, straggling, and irregular; but some of the 
 principal ones are wide, and open. Houses chiefly of stone, 
 and well built ; supply of water indifferent, and the quality 
 often objectionable ; lighted with gas by two companies, an 
 old and new. There are altogether 12 churches in the town, 
 namely, the parish church, four U. Presbyterian, an Inde 
 pendent, a Baptist, one in connection with the Church of 
 Scotland, one with the English Presbyterian, a Wesleyan, ;\ 
 Primitive Methodist, and a R. Catholic. The schools are: 
 the corporation academy, for the education of the children of 
 burgesses, no others being admissible, conducted by a rector, 
 with three male and three female teachers, and managed by 
 the town council ; a classical academy, the management of 
 which is vested in 21 trustees, appointed by the Lord Chan 
 cellor ; a charity school, founded in 1725; a school of industry, 
 established in 1819; and an infant school, the workhouae, 
 and various private schools. The principal public buildings 
 are: the townhall, erected between 1750 and 1760, a hand 
 some modern freestone structure, with a beautiful portico of 
 the Tuscan order, and a spire 150 ft. high; the barracks for 
 infantry, built of stone, in the form of a quadrangle, capable 
 of accommodating upwards of 600 men ; the parish church, a 
 commodious building, without a spire, having been built in 
 
CERZOCANA DE SAN FULGENCIO 
 
 395 
 
 BESSARABIA 
 
 the time of the Puritans ; a prison, finished in 1850, affording 
 accommodation for 12 prisoners, and containing, besides, a 
 room in which the petty sessions are held ; a chapel, &c. Thee 
 Tweed is crossed at the town by a bridge of 15 arches, mea 
 suring 1164 ft. in length, and only 17 ft. in width, commenced 
 in the reign of James I. ; and by a magnificent railway viaduct, 
 considered to be the largest stone bridge in the kingdom, con 
 sisting of 28 semicircular arches, each 61 ft. 6 inches in span. 
 Of literary and benevolent institutions, Berwick has a natur 
 alists club, a public subscription library, established in 1812 ; 
 and a dispensary, combining the advantages of an infirmary. 
 The only manufactures carried on, and these but to a small 
 extent, are linen, sack and sail cloth, ropes, hosiery, carpets, 
 and hats. The river is navigable to the bridge only, though 
 the tide flows for several miles beyond it. The harbour, 
 which is naturally inconvenient, has been recently deepened 
 several feet, and the shipping trade of the place thereby much 
 improved, large steamers and other vessels now superseding 
 the smacks and small craft by which the traffic of the port 
 was formerly exclusively carried on. The number of vessels 
 registered at Berwick-on-Tweed, for the year ending December 
 31, 1847, was 251 ; tonn. 17,219. The number and tonnage 
 entered for the same period, was 995 ; tonn. 53,859. Cleared, 
 553 ; tonn. 39,082. The chief exports are salmon, of which 
 great quantities are caught in the Tweed, and mostly sent to 
 London, packed in ice ; cod, haddocks, herrings, corn, wool, 
 and coal. The imports timber-deals, staves, iron, hemp, 
 tallow, and bones for manure. 
 
 In the beginning of the, l 2th century, during the reign 
 of Alexander I., Berwick was part of his realm of Scotland, 
 and the capital of the district called Lothian. Soon after this 
 date, it became populous and wealthy; was the chief seaport 
 of Scotland, contained a strong castle, with churches, hospitals, 
 and monastic buildings, and was created one of the four royal 
 burghs of Scotland. In 1216, the town and castle were 
 stormed and taken by King John. During the competition 
 between Baliol and Bruce for the Scottish throne, the English 
 Parliament sat in Berwick ; and in the hall of the castle, 
 Edward I. pronounced judgment in favour of Baliol. Bruce 
 retook the town and castle in 1318; but, after undergoing 
 various sieges and vicissitudes, both were surrendered to 
 Edward IV. in 1482, and have ever since remained in pos 
 session of England. By 6 and 7 Will. IV., Berwick is consti 
 tuted a county of itself to all intents and purposes (excepting 
 the return of members of Parliament). Pop. of par. (1849), 
 9000 ; or for the entire parliamentary and municipal bor. 
 13,800. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BERZOCAXADE SAN FULGENCIO, a tn. Spain, Estre 
 madura, prov. Caceres, 6 m. N.E. Logrosan, on the borders 
 of New Castile. It has spacious, clean, and paved streets, 
 a parish church, endowed school, townhall, storehouse, several 
 fountains, and a cemetery. The inhabitants are almost ex 
 clusively engaged in agriculture, and in rearing goats, pigs, 
 horned cattle, and a few sheep. Pop. 2026. 
 
 BESALU, a tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, and 15 m. N. 
 by W. Gerona, in a plain, between the river Fluvia and the 
 brook Campellada. It has two squares, two churches, an 
 endowed school, townhouse, prison, and a public fountain. 
 The inhabitants, engaged in agriculture and as carriers, also 
 spin and weave cotton. Pop. 2012. 
 
 BESANCON [anc. Vcsontio], a fortified tn. France, cap. 
 of dep. Doubs, and of the sixth military division of the 
 kingdom, 206 m. S.E. Paris ; lat. (citadel) 47 13 46" N. ; Ion. 
 go 2 i9 E ( L _) j t is a g reea biy situated at the extremity of 
 a valley watered by the Doubs, which almost surrounds the 
 town, and divides it into two parts. These communicate with 
 each other by a stone bridge, part of which is a Roman struc 
 ture of large blocks, and part a modern erection, for the pur 
 pose of enlarging the roadway. The town is surrounded by 
 hills covered with vineyards. The isthmus or peninsula, on 
 which it is built, is composed of a mass of rocks crowned by 
 the citadel, which commands the country towards the N. ; but 
 the citadel itself is commanded by several eminences in the 
 neighbourhood, on which forts have been erected for the pur 
 pose of securing the approaches. Besancon, which is a forti 
 fied place of the first class, and one of the strongest towns in 
 France, is also considered to be one of the best built. Within 
 the walls it contains 1455 houses, all built of hewn stone, 
 two or three stories high, and ornamented with balconies. 
 
 The streets are spacious and well laid out, and the squares, 
 which are of considerable extent, are adorned with fountains. 
 A splendid promenade is formed, within the town, on the 
 banks of two branches of the Doubs. The public buildings 
 are, the cathedral, and three other churches (containing some 
 fine pictures and sculptures), the hospital, the hotel of the 
 prefecture, the college, the palace of justice, and the citadel, 
 which is one of Vauban s finest works. There are also a 
 theatre, and a public library containing 50,000 volumes and 
 some valuable manuscripts ; and an aqueduct, cut in the 
 rock by the Romans in the second century, and called now 
 Porte Taille e. The celebrated architect Paris bequeathed to 
 his native town, BesanQon, a collection of antiquities, pictures, 
 drawings, books, and other objects of rarity, now forming 
 a museum here. In the environs are the splendid ruins of 
 the castle of Montfaucon, supposed to have been built by 
 Louis XI. BesanQon is the seat of a royal court for the de 
 partments of Doubs, Jura, and the Haute Saone ; of a court 
 of first resort and of commerce ; and of an archbishop. It like 
 wise has a school of artillery, academy of arts and sciences, 
 royal college, agricultural and medical societies, deaf and 
 dumb institution, and grand seminary. Previous to the 
 j Revolution of 1793, it was the capital of the Franche-comte; 
 | had a parliament, university, mint, eight parishes, two chap- 
 I ters, a college, and 13 convents or abbeys. Besan9on car- 
 I ries on a considerable trade, especially with Switzerland ; the 
 principal articles are, wine, brandy, liqueurs, vinegar, salt, 
 drapery, clocks, and watches ; files, "iron, chains, nails, horses, 
 cattle, grain, butter, cheese, &c. ; and manufactures carpets, 
 hats, stoves, ironmongery, printing-presses, coach-springs, 
 stained papers, artificial flowers, liqueurs, and mustard. It has 
 also extensive foundries, breweries, and tanneries. Watch 
 making is the principal trade. It was introduced from Switz 
 erland about 50 years ago, and employs 2000 workmen, who 
 work principally at their own houses. About 600,000 bottles 
 of artificial Seltzer water are made here annually. 
 
 The origin of the town is too remote to be traced. Julius 
 Caesar entered it 56 years before the Christian era, and men 
 tions it in his Gallic War as a place of great extent and natural 
 strength. Louis XIV. besieged and took it in 1660 ; and by 
 the treaty of Nijrnegen its possession was secured to France, 
 along with the rest of the Franche-comte. In 1495, a council 
 was held here under Charles of Neufchatel. Pop. (1846), 
 27,854. 
 
 BESHEK, or BELSCHIK [anc. Bolbe], a lake, Turkey, 
 Macedonia, a little E. of the Gulf of Contessa, into which it 
 pours its superfluous waters, and about 20 m. E. Salonica ; 
 greatest length, E. to W., about 14 m. ; greatest breadth, 4 m. 
 To the N. it is bounded by a chain of mountains stretching 
 E. and W., and the scenery in its neighbourhood is very mag 
 nificent, bearing some resemblance to that of Switzerland. 
 Various kinds of fish are found in the lake. On its N. shore 
 are the two villages of Greater and Lesser Beshek, both beauti- 
 I fully situated ; the former on the water edge ; the latter, and 
 larger of the two, on a promontory jutting into it, with lofty 
 hills behind, covered to their summit with olive- trees. 
 
 BESIGHEIM, a tn. Wiirtemberg, 15 m. N. Stuttgardt, 
 on a rocky tongue of land, at the junction of Enz with the 
 Neckar. It has two Roman towers, and is walled. On the 
 Schalkstein, a hill hard by, the best wines on the Neckar are 
 produced. Pop. 2412. 
 
 BESNI, a tn. Turkey in Asia, pash. Marash, 38 m. W.N. W. 
 Sumeisat. It is 2340 ft. above the level of the sea, but, being 
 pent up in a narrow limestone glen, and having neither trees 
 nor gardens within it, is hot and unhealthy in summer. It 
 contains 2500 houses of Mahometans, and 250 of Armenians, 
 clustering round the castle, which stands on the summit of a 
 | cliff, and is in a very ruinous condition. There is a tolerable 
 bazaar. 
 
 BESOEKT. See BEZOEKI. 
 
 BESSARABIA, once the E. division of Moldavia, now 
 the most S.W. gov. of European Russia; bounded, S. by the 
 Danube, N. and E. by the Dniester and the Black Sea, W. 
 by the Pruth, which separates it from Moldavia, and by the 
 Buckowina, part of Austrian Galicia. It thus forms, between 
 two rivers, a strip of territory 372 m. long by 50 of medium 
 breadth ; area, 14,256 geo. sq. m. On nearing the maritime 
 borders, it gradually widens, and naturally divides itself into 
 two portions. The portion named by the Tartars Budjak t 
 
BESSASTAD1R 
 
 396 
 
 BETHLEHEM 
 
 I* composed of a flat, reaching to the sea-shore, between the 
 mouths of the Danube and the lower course of the Dniester, 
 and lias the common aspect of the Russian steppes, being 
 chiefly suited to the breeding of stock. The N. portion pre 
 sents a hilly country, beautifully undulated, covered with 
 noble forests, and extremely fertile. The climate is in general 
 mild, salubrious, and agreeable ; the grape, the finer kinds of 
 fruit, and melons, growing in the open air. The chief mineral 
 product is salt, obtained from lakes in the Budjak. Saltpetre, 
 coal, alabaster, marble, and lime, are also found. Bessarabia 
 is divided into six districts Ismael, Akermann, Bender, 
 Kichinev, Khotin, and Yassy. 
 
 In the Budjak territory are met Russians, Cossacks, Ger 
 mans, Jews, Bulgarians, Swiss vine- dressers, Gipsies, with 
 Greek and Armenian traders. The N. part of the province, 
 again, is almost entirely inhabited by the Moldavian race, the 
 line of their villages extending along the Dniester, to near 
 Akermann. 
 
 Bessarabia was the fairest and most productive portion of 
 Moldavia at the beginning of this century, and perhaps has 
 more capabilities, natural and commercial, than any portion 
 of the Russian empire of the same extent. Yet, till very re 
 cent years, it has been strangely neglected, being poorly cul 
 tivated, and in many places almost deserted. The Russian 
 Government has established, in different parts of the territory, 
 colonies of Bulgarians, Germans, Cossacks, and even some 
 heretofore wandering Gipsy tribes. The people of Bessarabia 
 are essentially agricultural, few of them take to trades ; the 
 few of these that exist in the country, are entirely of the do 
 mestic kind. Of what is understood by the term manufactures, 
 there are none. The Moldavian peasants are generally frank, 
 cheerful, and hospitable; but are said by the Russians to be 
 indolent. Hommaire de Hell, however, asserts that in the 
 Moldavian villages the houses are usually kept in the neatest 
 order, and generally surrounded with gardens and fruitful 
 orchards. 
 
 Bessarabia once formed the E. district of the Roman pro 
 vince of Dacia. After various vicissitudes consequent upon 
 the fall of that empire, it was invaded by the Asiatic Turks, 
 and became a portion of European Turkey. It was ceded 
 to the Russians by the treaty of Bucharest in 1812. At 
 first, the Bessarabians were allowed to retain their peculiar 
 laws and privileges undisturbed ; but misunderstand 
 ings soon arose, and since 1829, the administrative 
 institutions of the country have been assimilated tD 
 those of the rest of the empire. P. (1850), 808,000. 
 
 BESSASTADIR [Danish, Bessastad], a vil. and 
 church, S.W.coastof Iceland, dist. Gullubringu-Syssel, 
 on a promontory, opposite to, and about 3 m. S.W. 
 Reikiavik, to which the school formerly possessed by 
 Bessastadir has been recently removed. (Baggesen.) 
 
 BESSE, several small tns. France, particularly: 
 1, Besse-sur-Braye, dep. Sarthe, 7 m. S. St. Calais, 
 r. bank, Braye. It has manufactures of coarse cottons, 
 paper, and wax candles. Pop. 1195. 2, Besse, dep. 
 Puy -de-Dome, on the Couse, 17m. W. Issoire. It lies 
 in the midst of a mountainous district, and is built on 
 an immense mass of basaltic lava. All the houses are 
 built of the same material, and have in consequence a 
 gloomy appearance. An ancient building in the town, 
 of a circular form, has been supposed to be the remains 
 of a temple of the sun, but is more probably only a bap 
 tistery. In the neighbourhood there is an acidulated 
 spring. Pop. 996. 
 
 BESSELSLEIGH, par. Eng. Berks; 980 ac. 
 Pop. 106. 
 
 BESSIXGBY, r ar Eng. York, E. Riding; 1230 ac. P.66. 
 
 BESSIXGHAM, or BASSINGHAM, par. Eng. Norfolk; 
 410ao. Pop. 139. 
 
 BESSUNGEN. See DARMSTADT. 
 
 BESTIIORPE, par. Eng. Norfolk; 2440 ac. Pop. 536. 
 
 BET AN IM EXES, a maritime dist. Madagascar, E. coast, 
 extending between lat. 18 30 and 20 S. It is watered by 
 several rivers, and contains two considerable towns, Devour- 
 ante and Manooroo, both of which are situated on the coast, 
 at the mouths of rivers bearing, respectively, the same names. 
 
 BETANZOS, a city, Spain, Galicia, prov. of, and 12 m. 
 S.E. Coruna, on an eminence, at the base of which flow the 
 rivers Mandeu and Mendo, subsequently uniting to the N. 
 
 The houses are well built and commodious, forming several 
 steep, but clean streets ; and the square, or Campo de la 
 Feria, contains a handsome edifice, once used as a depository 
 for the archives of Galicia, but now converted into a barrack. 
 Here are also two parish churches, several chapels, a hand 
 some townhall, hospital, two endowed schools, two suppressed 
 convents, and an Augustine monastery, on the bank of the 
 Mcndo, near the old bridge. Linen fabrics, earthenware, 
 leather, and bread, are manufactured; considerable quantities 
 of the latter article being exported to Coruiia. An annual 
 cattle fair is held in May. Pop. 4210. 
 
 BETCH WORTH, or BEACHWORTH, par. Eng. Surrey; 
 3660 ac. Pop. 1140. 
 
 BETHANIA, or BETHANY, a tn. Syria, about 2 m. S.E. 
 Jerusalem, on the way to Jericho. It is now a mean village, 
 inhabited by a few Turkish families, by whom it is called 
 Lazari, in memory of Lazarus, who dwelt here, and who was 
 here raised from the dead. The inhabitants of the village 
 show the pretended sites of the houses of Lazarus, of Martha, 
 of Simon the leper, and of Mary Magdalene. The alleged 
 tomb of Lazarus, a large excavation in the rock, is also shown 
 to the credulous. The situation of Bethania is extremely 
 picturesque. 
 
 BETHERSDEN, par. Eng. Kent; 6410 ac. Pop. 1011. 
 
 BETH-HORON (UPPER and LOWER), or BEIT-UR .EL- 
 FOKA, and BEIT-UK EI.-TAIITA, two vils. Palestine, pash. Gaza, 
 about 9 m. N. W. Jerusalem. They are small, but exhibit traces 
 of ancient walls and foundations. They were both fortified by 
 Solomon. The one stands on the side, and the other at the 
 bottom of a hill, and between them is the pass of Beth-horon, 
 which still, as in ancient times, is the great thoroughfare 
 between the sea-coast and Jerusalem. 
 
 BETHLEHEM, a tn. Syria, honoured above all other 
 towns, in having been made the birthplace of our Saviour. It 
 stands 6 m. S.W. Jerusalem, on an eminence, surrounded by 
 small valleys, or depressions, covered with vine and olive- 
 yards. Half the town is in ruins, and the other half consists 
 of houses irregularly huddled together. These, though not 
 large, are solidly built; and several of the streets are entered 
 by gates. The convent, which is separated from the town by 
 a platform, crowns au E. slope, and is occupied by three sets 
 of monks, Greek, Armenian, and Latin. The church called 
 
 TUB PRINCIPAL STREET, BETHLEHEM From Slajtr 8 Views in Palestine. 
 
 St. Mary of Bethlehem, or the Church of the Nativity, was 
 built by Helen, the mother of Constantino the Great, and is 
 said to stand on the spot where our Saviour was born. It 
 is a structure of considerable grandeur, though of irregular 
 architecture. The roof, which is of a moderate height, is 
 supported by a double row of marble Corinthian columns. 
 The floor also is of marble, and both the walls and ceiling 
 are covered with half-faded pictures, and representations of 
 Mosaic, apparently of great antiquity. Beneath the chancel 
 is a cave, which is entered from above by a flight of steps, 
 and is shown by the monks as the Cave of the Nativity. 
 An inscription bears, Hie de Virgins Maria Jesus Christus 
 natus est Here Jesus Christ was born of the Virgin Mary. 
 
BETHLEHEM 
 
 397 
 
 BEUTHEN 
 
 The chief occupation of the inhabitants is in making cruci 
 fixes, chaplets, &c., for pilgrims. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BETHLEHEM, a tn., U. States, Pennsylvania, 1. bank, 
 Lehigh, at the mouth of Manskicy Creek, 48 in. N.N. W. Phil 
 adelphia. It has a commanding appearance, being built on 
 ground which gradually rises from the river and creek. It 
 consists of a compact street running N. and S., and two others 
 running E. from it. It has a large Gothic church, with a 
 small tower rising from the centre, and surmounted by a 
 dome. The burying ground, E. of the town, is laid out with 
 great elegance and taste. A bridge over the Lehigh is 400 ft. 
 long, and the Lehigh Canal passes along the river through the 
 lower part of the town. It has likewise a celebrated female 
 school, conducted by the Moravians ; by which community of 
 Moravians it was settled under Count Zinzendorf, in 1741. 
 Pop. (1840), 2989. 
 
 BETHNAL GREEN, par. Eng. Middlesex, and one 
 of E. suburbs of London ; area, 760 ac. Pop. 74,088. (See 
 LONDON.) 
 
 BETHSHAN, or BETHSHEAN [Greek, Scijthopolis ; mo 
 dern, Beisun], a vil. Palestine, pash. Damascus, 20 m. S.E. 
 Nazareth, on a height a little above r. bank, Jordan. It was 
 anciently a place of importance, as indicated by the extensive 
 ruins, both of the city itself, and of its acropolis, which stood 
 on a lofty circular hill. At present it is only a village, contain 
 ing 70 or 80 houses, occupied by inhabitants who have made 
 themselves somewhat notorious by fanaticism and lawless 
 demeanour. 
 
 BETH8HEMESH, or Am SHEWS, anciently a city, 
 Palestine, about 15 m. W.S.W. Jerusalem. It stood in a fine 
 deep valley, and is repeatedly mentioned in Scripture as a 
 place of importance. At present its site is merely marked 
 by a ruin. 
 
 BETHUNE, atn. France, dep. Pas de Calais, cap. arrond. 
 of same name, 19 m. N.N.W. Arras. It stands on a rock 
 washed by the Brette, and is a place of considerable strength, 
 ranking as a fortress of the second class. It is nearly in the 
 form of a triangle, one of the angles of which is occupied by 
 the castle, built by Vauban. The appearance of the town is 
 not prepossessing. The houses are ill built, and the streets 
 are bad. There is, however, one fine square, the centre of 
 which is occupied by an ancient belfry of remarkable con 
 struction, while the Hotel de Ville, among the best edifices 
 in the town, forms one of its sides. There are two parish 
 churches. The nave of one of them is remarkable for the 
 elegance and lightness of the pillars which support its roof. 
 The chief manufactures are oil, soap, and cloth. There are 
 also distilleries, tanneries, and salt and sugar-refineries. The 
 trade, including corn, wine, brandy, oil-seeds, cheese, linen, 
 and earthenware, is greatly favoured by the canals of Lawe 
 and Basse e, which meet here, and form a fine basin. A native 
 of Bethune is said to have invented Artesian wells, which are 
 common in the town, and supply several fountains of excellent 
 water. The family of the Lords of Bethune is very cele 
 brated, and a branch of it was established in Scotland about 
 the end of the 12th century. To this branch the persecutor, 
 
 Cardinal Beaton, belonged. Pop. 7 1 50. The ARRONDIPSE- 
 
 MENT has an area of 200 sq. m., and is subdivided into eight 
 cantons. Pop. 131,973. 
 
 BETLEY, par. Eng. Stafford; 1480 ac. Pop. 884. 
 
 BETLIS, BEDIJS, BIDLIS, BITLIS, and BITTIS, a tn. Turk 
 ish Armenia, about 20 m. W. Lake Van. It is one of the 
 most ancient cities of Kurdistan, situated in a wide ravine, 
 traversed by a stream, on whose steep banks the town is built. 
 The houses are of red stone, generally two stories in height, 
 with grated windows to the streets. In the centre of the 
 town, on a high rock, is an ancient castle, formerly the resi 
 dence of the Khans of Betlis. The town contains several 
 caravansaries, a number of mosques, nine churches, and three 
 baths. The country around is fertile, well cultivated, and 
 produces excellent crops of grain, cotton, hemp, rice, olives, 
 tobacco of the best description, and a variety of fruits and 
 vegetables of superior quality. Game is plentiful in the 
 neighbourhood, and on the surrounding hills are numbers of 
 lions, wolves, and bears. The principal manufactures of the 
 town are of coarse cotton cloth and tobacco, the greater part 
 of the latter being sent to Erzeroom and Constantinople, where 
 it is much esteemed. The inhabitants consist of Turks, Kurds, 
 and Armenians. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 BET8ILEO, a prov. Madagascar, in the interior of the 
 S. part of the island, divided into N. and S. Betsileo. Having 
 a great extent of excellent pasturage, it produces vast num 
 bers of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. The scenery is pic 
 turesque, and the indications of volcanic action numerous and 
 distinct. Saline springs are of frequent occurrence. The 
 inhabitants of this district are so attached to the place of their 
 nativity, that they seldom leave it ; they are of a warlike 
 disposition, but false and treacherous. 
 
 BETSIMSARAKA, a maritime prov. Madagascar, E. 
 coast, between lat. 16 45 and 18 S. It is, in general, flat 
 towards the sea, and mountainous as it approaches the in 
 terior ; in some places it is swampy, and covered with thickets 
 and forests, but in others it presents abundance of grazing 
 land, and is covered with numerous herds of cattle belonging 
 to the Queen, and a few also to the inhabitants. Several fine 
 lakes exist in this province, forming a series along the coast 
 of upwards of 100 m. in extent. The soil is fertile, and the 
 country to some extent brought under cultivation. The crops, 
 however, are often much damaged, and not unfiequently alto 
 gether destroyed, by the herds of wild pigs with which the 
 neighbouring provinces are infested. The N. part of this dis 
 trict is celebrated for the growth of roots. Rice is also cul 
 tivated to a great extent, as well as other grain. The principal 
 trading ports are Foule Pointe, Tenerif, and Tamtave. 
 
 BETTALA. See BATTALAH. 
 
 BETTESHANGER, or BETSHANGER, par. Eng. Kent ; 
 370 ac. Pop. 18. 
 
 BETTISCOMBE, par. Eng. Dorset ; 1810 ac. Pop. 53. 
 
 BETTOLA (SAN GIOVANNI DE), a tn. and com. Italy, 
 duchy of, and 20 m. S. by W. Piacenza, 1. bank, Nure. 
 It contains a church, and a school for both sexes. The 
 vicinity is fertile, but not wholly cultivated. The low marsh 
 land on the r. bank of the river is much infested by snakes. 
 Pop. 6608. 
 
 BETTUS, par. Eng. Salop ; 8500 ac. Pop. 452. 
 
 BETTWS, numerous pars. Wales: 1. Bettws-yn-rhos, or 
 Bettws-abergeley, par. Denbigh. Pop. 911. 2, Bettws, par. 
 Carmarthen. Pop. 1109. 3, Bettws, par. Glamorgan. Pop. 
 438. 4, Bettws, par. Montgomery; 7000 ac. Pop. 821. 
 5, Bethos-bleddrws, par. Cardigan. Pop. 227. 6, Bettws-dyro, 
 par. Radnor. Pop. 218. 7, Bettws-diserth, par. Radnor; 
 1800 ac. Pop. 132. 8, Bettws-garmon, par. Carnarvon. 
 Pop. 111. 9, Bettws-gwerJ ijl-gocli, par. Merioneth. Pop. 
 279. 1 0, Bettivs-jevan, or Evan, par. Cardigan. Pop. 426. 
 
 11, Bettws-newydd, par. Monmouth; 1200 ac. Pop. 106. 
 
 12, Bettws -y-coed, par. Carnarvon. Pop. 451. 
 BEUNINGEN, a vil. Holland, prov. Gelderland, 3 m. 
 
 W. by N. Nijmegen; with a R. Catholic and a Protestant 
 church, a school, and 800 inhabitants, chiefly engaged in agri 
 culture. 
 
 BEUSICHEM, a vil. Holland, prov. Gelderland, 7 m. 
 N.W. Thiel, near 1. bank, Leek. It is an old, nice-looking 
 village, with the church (founded in the middle of the 10th 
 century) placed in a large open space, planted with linden- 
 trees. It has, likewise, a school ; and in the vicinity, across 
 the Leek, formerly stood the old castle of Beusichem. In 
 the month of June a market is held, celebrated for its horses 
 and stallions. Pop. 900. 
 
 BEUTELSBACH, a tn. Wiirtemberg, circle, Jaxt, on 
 the Beutelsbach. It contains an ancient church, and a castle, 
 which was the original seat of the Wurtemberg family. Pop. 
 1850. 
 
 BEUTHEN. 1, Beutlien, or Butom, a tn. Prussia, gov. 
 of, and 46 m. S.E. Oppeln, cap. circle of same name, contain 
 ing two churches, a synagogue, townhouse, and hospital. Pop. 
 
 4400. The CIRCLE, which has an area of 226 geo. sq. m., 
 
 is intersected by ridges of clay, but has a good deal of fertile 
 loam, inclining, in the N. and E., to sand. Among the hills, 
 the Trockenberg is particularly remarkable for its mineral 
 riches. The principal rivers are the Malapane, Brinnitze, 
 Stola, and Klodnitz. The chief minerals are, argentiferous 
 lead, calamine, iron, marble, alum, and millstones. The lan 
 guage almost universally spoken is Polish. Pop. 69,000. 
 2, A tn. Prussian Silesia, gov. Liegnitz, 1. bank, Oder, 11 m. 
 below Glogau. It contains a palace, two parish churches (a 
 R. Catholic and a Protestant), two schools, a townhouse, and 
 an hospital. There is a garrison ; and several public offices 
 have their seat here. The inhabitants are chiefly employed 
 
BEVAGNA 
 
 393 
 
 BEVERWIJK 
 
 in making earthenware and straw-plait, and in boatbuilding. 
 Pop. 3200. 
 
 BEVAGNA [anc. Mevania], a vil. Papal States, 17 m. 
 S.E. Perugia, on the Maroggia, a tributary of the Tiber. It 
 suffered much by an earthquake in 1832. In the neighbour 
 hood an excellent wine is grown. 
 
 BEVEDEHO, a considerable lake, La Plata, prov. or 
 state, Mendoza, between lat. 32 45 and 34 17 S., and Ion. 
 66 and 66 32 W. It is composed of two distinct portions, 
 called sometimes the Greater and the Less Bevedero, con 
 nected by a river channel about 8 m. long. The smallest, 
 and most N., measures about 22 m. by 15 in. ; and the larger, 
 which is very irregular in form, though somewhat triangular, 
 measures 40 m. N. to S., and from 3 or 4 m. to 25 m. E. to W. 
 This lake is the reservoir of the waters flowing E. from the 
 Andes, between lat. 31 and 34 S. Through the Desagua- 
 dero, it receives the waters of the rivers Mendoza and San 
 Juan, and the lakes Guanacache and Silvero, besides numerous 
 extensive morasses. The other principal affluent is the. river 
 Tunuyan, which enters it by numerous arms. The lake, has 
 no outlet. 
 
 BEVEL AND (NOORD), or NORTH BEVEL AND, a river 
 isl. Holland, prov. Zeeland, forming part of the delta of the 
 Scheldt. It is isolated from Schouwen, Duiveland, and Tholen, 
 by the E. Scheldt ; from Zuid or South Beveland and Wol- 
 faartsdyk it is parted by the Zuid-Vliet ; and from Walcheren 
 by the Sloe. N. Beveland is 11 in. long, by 5 broad at its 
 widest part. The lands here are tolerably fertile, and produce 
 corn and madder ; and much stock is raised on the grazing 
 flats. It was entirely submerged in the year 1532, and a 
 considerable number of the inhabitants drowned. The soil 
 was not recovered for many years. Pop. 4800. 
 
 BEVELAND (Zuio, or SOUTH), a river isl. Holland, the 
 largest and most fertile in prov. S. Zeeland. It is situated at 
 the parting of the E. and W. Scheldt, and is separated from 
 Walcheren by the Sloe, and from Wolfaartsdyk by a narrow 
 canal. The entire length of S. Beveland is 25 m., its greatest 
 breadth about llm. This district, too, suffered an inunda 
 tion, though not so complete as that of N. Beveland, in 1532 ; 
 it suffered greatly from floods again, Jan. 14 and 15, 1808. 
 It is now a very productive territory, especially in wheat, 
 esteemed the best grown in Holland ; much vegetables and 
 madder are also grown, and butter and cheese made. It is 
 well covered with underwood, and has some good orchards 
 and nursery gardens. Fish are caught in abundance near the 
 coast. The capital is Goes, N. side of the island. Pop. 23,000 
 
 BEVERCOATES, par. Eng. Notts ; 790 ac. Pop. 44. 
 
 BEVEREN. 1, A tn. and com. Belgium, prov. E. Flan 
 ders, about 6 m. W. Antwerp, on the road between Ghent 
 and Antwerp. It has a fine church, built of white stone, with 
 a lofty pyramidal tower ; from the top of which is a fine view 
 over the Waes territory. This church contains the tomb of 
 Adolphus of Burgundy, Lord of Beveren, who died in 1540, 
 and also several tolerable pictures. In the town there are 
 breweries, tanneries, dyeworks, tobacco-factories, and exten 
 sive manufactures of lace, employing about 2000 women 
 Pop. 6566. 2, A tn. and com. Belgium, W. Flanders, in 
 which aro a brewery and brickworks. Pop. 2996. 
 
 BEVERLEY, a vil. and township, U. States, Massa 
 chusetts, 16 m. N.E. Boston. N. of it is Salem, with which 
 it is connected by a bridge 1500 ft. long. It has considerable 
 manufactures, but the inhabitants are chiefly employed in com 
 merce and the fisheries. The village contains four churches 
 (two Congregational, one Baptist, and one Unitarian), an 
 academy, and 10 schools; a bank and an insurance office. 
 Pop. 4689. 
 
 BEVERLEY, a market tn. and bor. England, co. York, 
 cap. E. Riding, 27 m. E.S.E. York, at the foot and E. edge 
 of the chalk range of the Yorkshire Wolds, and on the Hull 
 to Bridlington branch of the York and N. Midland Railway. 
 It consists of one continuous street, bearing various names, 
 and upwards of a mile in length, and of 13 smaller streets, 
 some of which, however, are spacious, and not inelegant. 
 The streets are all paved with boulders, called cobbles; and 
 the principal ones have flagged footways, and are kept ex 
 tremely clean. The houses are mostly of brick, and are 
 irregular as to height and dimensions. Water is supplied by 
 pumps and deep wells, or borings in the chalk, below the 
 gravel on which the town stands. Several of these wells are 
 
 60 ft. in depth, and in some the water rises spontaneously to 
 the surface. The town is lighted with gas. The most re 
 markable and most interesting edifice in Beverley, and one of 
 the finest structures of its kind in the kingdom, is the minster. 
 This superb specimen of ecclesiastical architecture was built 
 at different periods, and is in the decorated and perpendicular 
 English styles. Its length, from E. to W., is 334 ft. 4 inches; 
 the breadth of the nave and aisles, 64 ft. 3 inches ; the height 
 of the nave, 67 ft. ; and the length of the great cross aisle or 
 | transept, 167 ft. 6 inches. The centre tower is 107 ft., and 
 the two W. towers 200 ft. high. It is now the parochial 
 church of the united parishes of St. John and St. Martin. 
 The other places of worship are, St. Mary s Church (a large 
 and beautiful structure), St. John s Chapel, two Wesleyan 
 Methodist chapels, and chapels for Independents, Baptists, 
 Primitive Methodists, Scotch Baptists, and a small R. Catholic 
 chapel. The town or guild hall is a spacious and handsome 
 edifice, and contains several public offices. At the N. end of 
 the town is an extensive range of buildings, comprising the 
 E. Riding sessions -house and jail, the principal front of which 
 consists of a portico, supported by four Ionic columns. The 
 other public buildings are, the register office, assembly rooms, 
 temperance hall, and news and billiard room. A beautiful 
 cross in the market-place, erected in 1711, may be also men 
 tioned. Principal schools: an endowed grammar-school, 
 St. Mary s national, St. Mary s infant and school of industry, 
 St. Martin s national, the minster girls , a Wesleyan, blue-coat 
 charity, and two infant schools. Charities: a dispensary, 
 seven sets of alms-houses, in which upwards of 90 aged poor 
 are maintained; and several minor charities. Literary in 
 stitutions, &c. : a mechanics institute (established in 1833), 
 several good libraries, the Methodist reading society, a pam 
 phlet club, two news-rooms, and the news and billiard room 
 already mentioned. Manufactures : the principal manufac 
 tories are, an extensive foundry and manufactory of agricul 
 tural implements, employing, when in full work, 400 hands ; 
 a large cement and colour-work, a linseed-cake and rape-dust 
 manufactory, a bone-crushing mill, and several extensive 
 breweries and tanneries. There is a considerable trade in 
 wool and leather. The corporation is composed of six alder 
 men and 1 8 councillors, who annually elect a mayor out of 
 their number. Beverley sends two members to the House 
 of Commons ; registered electors (1849), 1373. The vicinity 
 of the town abounds in the most beautiful and picturesque 
 walks ; while its inhabitants have, at all times, unobstructed 
 access to a tract of pasture land, consisting of 1174 ac., be 
 longing to the freemen of the town, to whom it is open as 
 pastures ; and as public walks and rides to every one. Bever 
 ley was, at one time, deemed one of the healthiest places in 
 England, and was, on this account, a favourite place of resid 
 ence with persons of independent means. It is now otherwise. 
 Owing to bad drainage, defective sewerage, and the extreme 
 hardness of the water, its mortality has been rapidly increas 
 ing, and is now very great; the deaths in 1848 being 32 per 
 cent, over those of 1847. Pop. (1841), 8409. (Local Corre 
 spondent.) 
 
 BEVERLOO, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. Limbourg, 
 12 m. N.W. Hasselt. On the extensive heaths in the neigh 
 bourhood is held a yearly camp for exercising the Belgian 
 army. Pop. 1505. 
 
 BEVERSTONE, par. Eng. Gloucester; 2360 ac. P. 178. 
 
 BEVERUNGEN, a tn. Prussia, gov. Minder., circle of, 
 and 8 m. S. Hb xter, 1. bank, Weser, near the confluence of 
 the Bever. It is walled, and otherwise fortified ; and has a 
 R. Catholic church, a synagogue, and poorhouse. Manufac 
 tures : leather, soap, and paper ; some shipbuilding ; several 
 oil-mills ; and an active trade in corn, iron, wood, and colonial 
 produce. Pop. 1918. 
 
 BEVERWIJK, an anc. market tn. Holland, prov. N. 
 Holland, 8 m. N. Haarlem, close upon the Wijkermeer, an 
 arm of the Ij. It is a large, beautiful, well-built, and well- 
 paved town, situated in one of the most agreeable localities of 
 N. Holland. The principal street (Breestraat) is broad, and 
 planted on either side with a double row of trees; and opens, 
 to the one side, through Meerstraat, upon the harbour, which 
 has a spacious, excellent quay. By means of the Pipe, about 
 1000 yards long, the harbour communicates with the Wijker 
 meer. The townhouse of Beverwijk is a respectable-looking 
 edifice, and, besides the usual offices, contains the weigh-house 
 
BEVILACQUA 
 
 BEZIERS 
 
 and the chief watch-house. There are here four churches 
 (Calvinistic, Evangelical Lutheran, E. Catholic, and Baptist), 
 and a small Jewish synagogue. The town, moreover, pos 
 sesses two ordinary and two industrial schools (of the latter, 
 one being for boys, the other for girls), an orphan hospital, 
 and two hospitals for the sick. Beverwijk has an annual 
 leather market, and formerly had cattle markets ; the latter 
 have, however, been discontinued. It is much exposed to 
 inundations. Pop. 2300. 
 
 BEVILACQUA, a vil. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, prov. 
 Verona, 5 m. E. Legnago, on the Togna. The only object in 
 it deserving of notice is a feudal castle, built in 1354. The 
 greater part of the ancient edifice has disappeared, but a palace, 
 of modern erection, has been united to what remained ; and 
 the whole, though much dilapidated during the revolutionary 
 wars, has a very picturesque appearance. 
 
 BEWCASTLE, par. Eng. Cumberland ; 26,640 ac. Pop. 
 1274. 
 
 BEWDLEY, a market tn. and bor. England, co. of, 
 and 14 m. N.N.W. Worcester, beautifully situated, r. bank, 
 Severn, here crossed by an elegant stone bridge. It has two 
 or three spacious paved streets, is lighted with gas, and amply 
 supplied with water. The houses in the principal street are 
 in general well built, and of respectable appearance. The 
 townhall is a neat structure of stone. Places of worship : a 
 chapel of ease (a spacious stone building, witli a tower and 
 peal of bells), and chapels for Baptists, Wesleyans, Unitarians, 
 and a Friends meeting-house. Schools and charities : a free 
 grammar-school, a blue-coat school, and several sets of alms- 
 houses. Manufactures : comb and rope making, tanning and 
 brassfounding ; some malting is also carried on. The corpor 
 ation consists of a mayor, four aldermen, and 12 councillors. 
 Bewdley returns a member to the House of Commons. Re 
 gistered electors (1849), 394. Pop. 3400. 
 
 BEX, a large vil. Switzerland, can. Vaud, 26 m. S.S.E. 
 Lausanne, on the Avencon, an affluent of the Rhone, and in 
 a mountainous and picturesque country. It is a beautiful vil 
 lage, with substantial stone houses, and a tastefully-built 
 church, and five annual fairs. Near it are saline springs, and 
 mines of rock-salt; the most important source in Switzerland 
 whence salt is derived ; besides, sufphurous springs and baths, 
 and marble quarries. In the salt mines, beautiful crystals of 
 selonite and muriacite are obtained. Pop. 2854. 
 
 BEXAR, (SAN ANTONIO DE), a tn. Texas. See ANTONIO. 
 
 BEXH1LL, par. Eng. Sussex ; 7900 ac. Pop. 1916. 
 
 BEXLEY, par. Eng. Kent ; 5370 ac. Pop. 3955. 
 3EXWELL, par. Eng. Norfolk; 1280 ac. Pop. 70. 
 
 BEYED, a lofty mountain, Abyssinia, prov. Samen, king 
 dom of Tigre; lat. 13 18 N. ; Ion. 38 40 E. ; covered with per 
 petual snow, and believed to be nearly 16,000 ft. high. About 
 15m. S. by W. from Mount Beyed is Amba Hai, the highest 
 mountain in Abyssinia, also covered with perpetual snow. 
 
 BEYERLAND. See BEIJEKLAND. 
 
 BEYROUT, BEIRUT, or BAIROUT fane. Berytus], a sea 
 port tn. Asiatic Turkey, pash. Acre, agreeably situated on a 
 promontory which on one side projects about 2 m. into the 
 sea, and on the other merges into a beautiful plain, backed by 
 the mountains of Lebanon, 60 m. W.N.W. Damascus; lat. 
 33 54 30" N. ; and Ion. 35 28 15" E. (E.) It consists of 
 the town proper, and of suburbs far surpassing it in extent. 
 The latter are situated among fine gardens, orchards, and 
 groves, and contain a great number of villas and other com 
 modious buildings. The former occupies a kind of shoulder, 
 sloping from the N.N.W. side of the promontory to the shore, 
 where two castellated buildings defend the anchorage ; on the 
 land side it is enclosed by a substantial wall of no great 
 height, flanked by large square towers, and is entered by six 
 gates. The houses, all of stone, are well built, and generally 
 lofty, but have the disadvantage of being much crowded, and 
 arranged in narrow and ill-cleaned streets. Its principal edi 
 fices are a mosque, a Capuchin convent, a nunnery belonging 
 to the sisters of charity, and the mansions occupied by the 
 different consuls, and rendered conspicuous by their national 
 flags. The manufactures consist chiefly of silk and cotton 
 goods, the latter produced to some extent by European ma 
 chinery; the bazaars are large and well supplied; and the 
 trade though wanting the benefit of a proper harbour, and 
 possessing only an anchorage capacious and deep enough, but 
 exposed to W. and N.W. winds -is already extensive, and 
 
 promises a rapid increase. As the port of Damascus, Beyrout 
 has extensive connections with the interior. Its chief imports 
 are Manchester goods, rice, and hardware ; its exports, the 
 above articles of manufacture, tobacco, gall-nuts, madder, and 
 oil. It is considered the healthiest town on the coast of 
 Syria, is the residence of a wealthy class of Armenian Chris 
 tians, and has every appearance of being in a flourishing con 
 dition, though possessing little of the splendour for which it 
 was celebrated in early times, and of which some traces still 
 exist in the fragments of granite columns strewn along the 
 shore. It is supposed (o be the Berothah of Scripture, or 
 Baal Beroth of the Phenicians. Undei* the Romans it had a 
 famous school of jurisprudence, and in the 6th century was 
 considered the finest city of Phenicia, It subsequently expe 
 rienced disastrous changes, and suffered much, particularly 
 during the Crusades. Pop., including suburbs, at least 30 000 
 
 BEY-SHEHER. See BEG-SHEHER. 
 
 BEZIERS, a tn. France, dep. Herault, cap. arrond. of 
 same name, 38 m. S.W. Montpellier, on a hill on the banks of 
 the Orbe, here crossed by a stone bridge, and at the mouth of 
 the Languedoc Canal. The situation of the town is celebrated 
 for its beauty, and is, likewise, deemed healthy. Beziers 
 is surrounded by old walls, but has no gates. The streets 
 are, in general, narrow, but the houses are tolerably regular, 
 and substantially built of stone ; and the inhabitants boast 
 greatly of the recent improvements made in the town, which 
 is a busy thriving place. The general aspect of Beziers, on 
 the Narbonne side, is extremely picturesque, as it seems to 
 rise high above the plain. The effect is heightened by the 
 
 THE CATHEDRAL, I 
 
 oyagee dam 1 Anoienne France. 
 
 old cathedral, which stands on the top of the hill, and is a 
 regular Gothic structure, with a handsome nave ; an elegant 
 choir, in form of a semicircle, surrounded with columns of 
 red marble, and well-painted windows. On the terrace of 
 the cathedral, there is a reservoir to supply the town with 
 water, which is raised from the river Orbe by a steam-engine. 
 Besides the cathedral, there are two other churches of interest 
 in the town. Beziers has courts of first resort, and of com 
 merce ; a communal college, a public library containing about 
 5000 volumes, a courthouse, formerly the episcopal palace, 
 and an agricultural society. In the vicinity, excellent red 
 wines are produced. Brandy-distilling is: carried on here to a 
 great extent, this being one of the chief markets for that spirit 
 in France. Other manufactures, some of them extensive, are, 
 cloth, silk stockings, gloves, confectionary, chemical stuffs, 
 silk yarn, glass, paper, soap, leather, and casks. It has 
 a considerable trade in wool, grain, oil, soda, verdegris, 
 
BEZOARA 
 
 400 
 
 BHAUGULPORE 
 
 almonds, nuts, fruits, and the articles manufactured. In 1209, 
 Beziers was the scene of a horrible massacre of the Albi- 
 genses by a fanatical crusade, headed by the bishop of the 
 district, and the abbot ofCiteaux. The number of victims 
 has been stated at 00,000 ; but the abbot himself, in a letter 
 
 natives being made of reeds thatched with grass, but thos? 
 belonging to the Chinese are mostly substantially built of 
 blue-stained bricks. The Chinese temple is built, and the 
 streets are paved with the latter material, and the grounds of 
 emple are surrounded by a neat brick tile-covered wall. 
 
 to Pope Innocent III., humbly apologizes for not having ; Besides the regular inhabitants, who are chiefly Laos, there 
 succeeded in slaying more than 20,000. Pop. 16,322. | always numerous strangers in Bhamo Chinese, Shans, and 
 
 BEZOARA, a tn. Hindoostan, Carnatic, presid. Madras, Kakhyens, who come either as purchasers or in search of 
 1. bank, Kistnah, 42 m. N.W. Masulipatam; lat. 16 37 N. ; 
 Ion. 80 43 E. The Kistnah, which is here confined be 
 tween two bold projecting mountains, is 3300 ft. wide, and 
 is crossed by a ferry, which forms the great thoroughfare be 
 tween the Circars and the Carnatic. The town contains a 
 well-built Mahometan serai and mosque. The rocks are em 
 bellished with picturesque Hindoo pagodas, and cave temples 
 of an inferior description have been formed in the body of the 
 mountain. Brahmins and beggars are the only inhabitants. 
 
 BEZOEKI, a prov. Java, occupying the whole of the E. 
 end of that island ; bounded, W. by prov. Passoeroean, N. by 
 the Strait of Madura, E. by the Strait of Bali or Bally, and 
 S. by the Indian Ocean ; area, 3072 geo. sq. m. It is vol 
 canic and mountainous ; the highest peaks, volcanoes, are, 
 Idjeng, 10,170 ft. ; Wido Daren, 7956 ft.; and Lemongan, 
 0561 ft.; and those not volcanoes, Argopoero, 8530 ft. ; and 
 Krintjing, 8202 ft. The E. part is thickly wooded, and yields 
 sulphur ; and in the W., limestone rocks are found. Towards 
 the shore, the land is low, marshy, and unhealthy ; but, over 
 all, the soil is fertile. Coffee, rice, and sugar, are the prin 
 cipal products. Among the trees is found the upas-tree. 
 
 mimals are, horses, buffaloes, oxen, sheep, and numer 
 ous tigers. Fish are plentiful on the coast. The province 
 is divided into the districts Probolingo, Bezoeki, and Banjoe- 
 wangi. Pop. (1838), 398,061. 
 
 BEZOEKI, a tn. Java, cap. above prov., on a rivulet of 
 same name, At its embouchure in the Strait of Madura, 69 m. 
 S.S.E. Soerabaya. Being built on a plain formed by the 
 alluvium of the river, and sand thrown up by the sea, in the 
 midst of rice fields, and at the foot of high wooded mountains 
 that prevent a free circulation of air, it is a very unhealthy 
 place even for Java. The stagnant water in the marshes de 
 voted to the culture of rice being, at certain seasons, run off, 
 the decomposition of vegetable matter, and of the thousands 
 of worms and marine animals exposed under a tropical sun, 
 raise a stench felt even on board ships in the roads, though 
 vessels must lie a considerable way off. Intermittent fevers 
 are then prevalent, attacking both natives and Europeans. 
 These last, however, chiefly reside up the river from the 
 town, in a more healthy locality. A good deal of business 
 is done here in the products of the province. The roadstead 
 is secure in the E. monsoon. 
 
 BHADRINATH, or BADRINATH [anc. Vadarinatha]. 
 1, A small tn., N. Hindoostan, prov. Kumaon, in the centre 
 of a narrow valley of the Himalaya, on the Alacananda, 10,290 
 ft. above the sea, 80 m. N. Almora; lat. 30 43 N.; Ion. 
 79 39 E. ; famous for a Hindoo temple, said to possess 
 700 villages in different parts of Gurwal and Kumaon, and 
 visited yearly by upwards of 50,000 pilgrims from all parts 
 of India. There are here warm, sulphurous, and cold springs. 
 2, A peak of the Himalaya, 17 m. W. the town, 23,440 ft. 
 high. 
 
 B HAG, or BAGH, a tn. Beloochistan, dist. Cutch Gun- 
 dava, 140 m. E.S.E. Kelat. It is a large place, and surrounded 
 by walls, which are in a ruinous state. It has not much trade 
 in the products of the district, but its situation, on the caravan 
 route from Shikarpoor to Khorasan, gives it an important 
 transit trade. Pop. 8000. 
 
 BHAMO, BAMO, or BANMO [also ZefAlicet-eeit the new 
 mart landing-place], a large trading tn. Burmah, the seat of 
 a viceroy. 1. bank, Irawadi, which is here a deep navigable 
 stream. It lies 170 m. N.N.E. Ava, and 15 m. W. from the 
 frontier of the Chinese province of Yunan ; lat. 24 9 N. ; 
 Ion. 96 45 E. (Gutzlaff.) This is a modern town, erected 
 for the convenience of water carriage to Ava; the old Shan 
 town, Manmo or Bamo, being two days journey distant up 
 the river Tapan, which falls into the Irawadi about 1 m. 
 above the new town of Bhamo. It lies on unequal clay 
 ground, 40 to 50 ft. above the level of the river, and is sur 
 rounded with a bamboo palisade. The houses, about 2000 
 in number, are large and comfortable ; these belonging to the 
 
 work. There is here a good bazaar, and the principal mer 
 chants are Chinese, with an intermixture of Burmans. The 
 principal article of export trade, cotton, is entirely in the 
 hands of the Chinese. Other articles of trade are, salt, dried 
 fish, rice, betel-nuts, and other vegetable produce; birds nests, 
 ivory, copper pots, carpets, and warm jackets. From China, 
 the imports are, tea, manufactured goods, paper, &c. It is 
 the chief entrepot between Burmah and China, and, in many 
 respects, maybe considered a southern Kiakhta. The people 
 are wealthy and comfortable, and pay for everything in silver, 
 the export of which, however, from Burmah, is prohibited. 
 The Palongs, who inhabit the neighbouring hills on the Chinese 
 frontier, are remarkably industrious ; they are good dyers, 
 carpenters, and blacksmiths, and make all the swords used in 
 this part of the country. (Jovr. Bengal Asiatic & oc., April, 
 1837.) 
 
 BHATGONG, a city, N. Hindoostan, Nepaul, 9 m. E.S.E. 
 Katamandoo, once the seat of an independent chief, and said 
 to have formerly contained 12,000 houses. It is now much 
 decayed, but is still a favourite residence of the Nepaulese 
 Brahmins. It has a palace, several public buildings, and an 
 extensive library. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 BHATNEER, or BHUTNEER, a tn. Hindoostan, Rajpoot- 
 ana, modern cap. of the Bhatty Country, and the most E. town 
 in the presidency of Bengal, 180 m. W.N.W. Delhi, 130 m. 
 N.N.E. Bicanere; lat. 29 36 N.; Ion. 74 27 E. It was 
 taken and destroyed by Tamerlane in 1398, and in 1807, was 
 again captured by the Rajah of Bicanere, who kept possession 
 of it for several years. 
 
 BHATTIES (THE COUNTRY OF THE), Hindoostan, prov. 
 Ajmeer. Its limits are not fixed, but it may be assumed to be 
 bounded, N. by the riven Garra or Gharra, S. by the terri 
 tories of the Bicanere Eajah, E. by Hurrianna and parts of 
 Delhi, and W. by the great sandy desert. Bhatneer and 
 Batindah are the chief Bhatty towns, but those best known 
 to Europeans are, Futtehabad, Sirsah, Raneah. The inhabit 
 ants barter or export little produce, and import only white 
 cloth, sugar, and salt, being almost wholly abandoned to pre 
 datory habits. They were originally shepherds, whose descend 
 ants are still to be found in the Punjab, and E. of the Indus 
 from the sea to Ooch. 
 
 BHAUGULPORE, or BOGLIPOOR, a dist. Hindoostan, 
 presid. Bengal, chiefly in prov. Bahar, but the E. portion in 
 Bengal, between lat. 23 4 and 25 49 N., and Ion. 86 15 
 and 87 31 E.; bounded, N. by districts Tirhoot and Pur- 
 neah ; E. by Purneah and Moorshedabad ; S. by Ramghur 
 and Beerbhoom ; and W. by Bahar and Ramghur ; length, 
 N.W. to S.E., 133 m. ; breadth, 80 m. ; area, 8225 sq. m. It 
 lies on both sides of the Ganges, and has several chains and 
 groups of hills, forming part of the Vindhya Mountains. The 
 two principal groups arc situated, respectively, near the N.E. 
 and N.W. boundaries of the district. The former, close by Raja- 
 mahal, are pretty well cultivated ; but the hills to the W. are 
 mostly waste, and, in many places, covered with almost im 
 penetrable forests. A great part of the surface of the level 
 land is mere rock ; in other parts, the ground is studded, at 
 intervals, with fragments of rock, particularly on the W. hills, 
 where the plough cannot be employed. It has been estimated 
 that the area of the rocky level ground is upwards of 1700 
 sq. m. ; and that of the uncultivable hills, 1 150 sq. m. The 
 re maining arable portions consist of rich and productive soil, 
 about 3000 sq. m. being under tillage. The chief crops are, 
 wheat, barley, maize, cotton, sugar-cane, and indigo. Of the 
 last, large quantities are exported. Potatoes are grown near 
 Monghir and Boglipoor. Small quantities of silk and salt 
 petre are produced. Tissues of cotton, and silk and cotton 
 mixed, fire-arms, sugar, arid domestic articles in metal, are 
 the only manufactures. Owing to the want of good roads 
 and bridges, there is little trade. Besides the Ganges, which 
 runs through the district for 60 m., the chief rivers are the 
 Goggra and the Gandahi. South of the Ganges, the streams 
 
BHAUGULPORE 
 
 401 
 
 BHURTPOOR 
 
 are merely liill torrents, which, though broad, are usually 
 fordable during the rainy season, when several of them are 
 deep enough to float down bamboos and timber. The winds 
 most prevalent are the E. and W. ; they are also the most 
 violent. The winters are less cold than in the adjoining 
 district of Purneah, and the summer season is often oppres 
 sively hot. There are a few wild elephants on the hills in the 
 E. part of the country ; but the most destructive quadruped 
 is the Hunimaun baboon (considered by the Hindoos nearly 
 as sacred as the cow), which abounds here. Great numbers 
 of pilgrims, soldiers, and European travellers, are constantly 
 passing through the district both by land and water ; and this 
 forms a principal source of profit to the inhabitants, who 
 furnish travellers with provisions and other necessaries ; it 
 is estimated that, at certain seasons, no fewer than 100 pas 
 sage boats stop daily at Eajamahal, besides those stopping at 
 Pointy, Colgang, Sultangunge, Boglipoor, and Monghir. In 
 the 12th century, W. Bhaugulpore was seized by the Maho 
 metans, and E. by the Bengalese, and, until the British su 
 premacy was established, anarchy prevailed in both. Pop. 
 2,020,000, of which one-sixth are Mahometans. (Tennant s 
 Indian Recreations ; Martin s History of East India; Rennell s 
 Memoir of a Map of Hindoostan ; Report on East Indian Af 
 fairs; Hamilton s East India Qaz.} 
 
 BHAUGULPORE, (more commonly now, Boglipoor}, 
 [the abode of refugees], cap. of above dist., seat of a govern 
 ment, resident, and circuit court, beautifully situated near 
 r. bank, Gauges, 113m. N.W. Moorshedabad ; lat. 25 13 N.; 
 Ion. 86 58 E. The town is large and finely situated, but is 
 meanly built, and contains numerous bazaars inconveniently 
 placed. The European houses and Mahometan mosques are 
 handsome buildings, and the monument of Hosein Khan is 
 well worth notice. Bhaugulpore has a neat jail, an hospital, 
 Arabic college, with about 40 scholars, and an English school, 
 well attended, chiefly by the children of the hill chiefs. There 
 is a small R. Catholic church, attended by persons of that re 
 ligion, partly descendants of the Portuguese, and partly by 
 native converts, who, in other respects, retain their own dress 
 and manners. A little N.W. of the town, are two singular 
 round towers, supposed to be of Jain origin, and meant for 
 the accommodation of the numerous worshippers of this sect, 
 who annually visit them. As the traveller approaches the 
 town, the numerous mosques, overtopped by lofty palms, and 
 mingled with the hanging foliage of the tamarind-tree, give 
 it a very pleasing appearance. The vicinity abounds with 
 swelling hills, and is very fertile, well-cultivated and healthy, 
 though much infested by snakes, particularly the Cobra da 
 capello. Pop., chiefly Mahometans, 30,000. 
 
 BHAWULPOOR. See BAIIAWULPOOR. 
 
 BHEELS, a race of mountaineers, Hindoostan, inhabit 
 ing the mountains of Candeish, and the wild and uncultivated 
 country along the 1. bank, Nerbudda, from the plains of Newaur, 
 to those of Goojerat. They differ from the other natives in 
 appearance and manners, and are believed by some to be the 
 original inhabitants of the country. They are small, have 
 dark complexions ; go almost in a state of nudity, constantly 
 armed with bows and arrows, and are greatly addicted to 
 thieving and robbery. They are said to be Hindoos of the 
 Brahminical persuasion ; but they bury their dead, eat beef 
 and pork, drink spirits of every description, and indulge in 
 many other practices which are in direct opposition to the 
 requirements of the Hindoo religion. Many of them, in cer 
 tain districts, pretend to be converts to Mahometanism ; of 
 which, however, they seem to know little beyond the name. 
 
 BHEERJOON, or BIEDBCHDN, a tn. Persia, prov. Kho- 
 rasan, cap. dist. of same name, about 1 80 m. S. Mushed. It 
 is of great antiquity, and though much decayed, is still a place 
 of considerable importance. It is the seat of Government, 
 and has extensive felt manufactures. The population has been 
 stated at 30,000 families, but Fraser thinks that it does not 
 exceed that number of individuals. 
 
 BHOBANESER, or BHAVANESWARA, a small tn. or vil. 
 Hindoostan, prov. Orissa, 16m. S. Cuttack, on the site of a 
 very ancient city, founded in the seventh century. It consists 
 of a few hundred mud huts. At one extremity of it is the bur- 
 rali tellores or great tank, half a mile square, and very deep, 
 with a magnificent temple in the centre. 
 
 BHOOJ, a city, Hindoostan, prov. Cutch, of which it is 
 the modern cap., on an acclivity in a plain, S.W. a fortified 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 hill called Bhoojan, 240 m. N.W. Surat, and 35 m. N. the 
 Gulf of Cutch ; lat. 23 17 N. ; Ion. 69 53 E. It is situated 
 on a rising ground, and presents, from a little distance, a pic 
 turesque appearance, with its mosques, pagodas, and brilliant 
 white houses, shining from amidst thick plantations of date- 
 trees. As in the case of most Eastern cities, however, a nearer 
 view dispels the illusion. The fort of Bhooj was taken by 
 the British in 1819, and both port and town suffered consider 
 ably from an earthquake in June of the same year. West of 
 the city, and close to the walls, is a large tank, with stairs to 
 the water s edge, and in the centre an elevated terrace, form 
 erly a place of recreation for the chiefs ; but the buildings are 
 now in ruins. Bhooj is celebrated for the skill of its artists in 
 working gold and silver. Infanticide is frequent in the vicinity. 
 Pop. 30,000. (Bombay Researches; Trans. Bombay Lit. Soc.) 
 
 BHOONG-BARA, a dist. India, N. part of Scinde, about 
 lat. 28 N. ; Ion. 69 E. It contains 15 villages, and formerly 
 yielded an annual revenue of 60,000. It has repeatedly 
 changed masters, and in 1843 the British authorities in Scinde 
 bestowed it upon Mahomet Bhawl Khan, ruler of Bahawulpoor, 
 as a reward for his zeal and fidelity. 
 
 BHOPAUL, or BOPAUL, a territory, Hindoostan, under 
 British protection, presid. Bengal, provs. Malwa and Gund- 
 wana, between lat. 22 32 and 23 46 N.; and Ion. 76 40 
 and 79 20 E. ; bounded, N., W., and S., by the Scindias dom 
 inions. The Nerbudda forms a natural boundary through nearly 
 the whole extent of the S. frontier; length, E. to W., 140 m.; 
 breadth, N. to S., 81 m. ; area, 6764 sq. m. The surface is 
 uneven and full of jungles, and is traversed centrally from E. 
 to W. by a hilly tract, forming part of the Vindhya Mountains. 
 The soil is generally fertile, especially in the valleys, yielding 
 wheat, maize, millet, pease, and other vegetable productions 
 peculiar to Central India. Rice is not largely cultivated, but 
 sugar, tobacco, ginger, and cotton, are raised in quantities 
 exceeding the home consumption, and exchanged for salt 
 and manufactured goods. The district is well watered by the 
 Nerbudda, Betwah, and other minor streams. The dominant 
 people are Patans, established here by Aurungzebe, in the early 
 part of the 18th century. In 1812, the Vizier Mahomet made 
 a gallant and successful defence against the combined forces 
 of Scindia, the Rajah of Nagpoor, and the Pindarrees ; but on 
 his death in 1816, the British took Bhopaul under their pro 
 tection, conferring on Mahomet s son, Nusseer Mahomet Khan, 
 a considerable part of the present territory. The country has 
 remained since in a peaceful and prosperous condition. Popu 
 lation estimated at 662,872. 
 
 BHOPAUL, a tn. Hindoostan, cap. of above territory, 
 on the boundary between Malwa and Guild wana, 108 m. E. 
 Oojein ; lat. 23 16 N. ; Ion. 77 28 E. It is surrounded by 
 a stone wall, and has on the S.W. a native fort or ghuny, with 
 square towers, all much dilapidated. E. and W. of the town 
 are two large tanks, the source of the rivers Bess and Patra. 
 
 BHOTAN. See BOOTAN. 
 
 BHOWNUGGUR, a seaport tn. Hindoostan, prov. Goo 
 jerat, W. side of the Gulf of Cambay, 60 m. W. Baroche ; lat. 
 21 50 N.; Ion. 72 15 E., and the chief mart of import and 
 export for Ahmedabad, &c. The trade with Arabia is con 
 siderable. 
 
 BHURTPOOR, a native state, Hindoostan, bounded, E. 
 by Agra, and S. and W. by the Rajpoot states, extending 
 from lat. 26 43 to 27 50 N.; Ion. 76 54 to 77 49 E. ; 
 area. 1978 sq m. The chief towns are, Bhurtpoor (the 
 capital), Deeg, Weyre, Biana, Combher, Gopaulghur, and Kur- 
 nau. Some parts of the country are so low and flat, as to be 
 completely inundated during the rainy season. The soil in 
 general is light and sandy, but well watered, and well cul 
 tivated. The chief productions are corn, cotton, and sugar. 
 Salt also is obtained from brine springs. From the country 
 not being well wooded, fuel is scarce, and consequently high- 
 priced. The villages are in good condition, and indicate an 
 industrious population. There are numerous wells, constructed 
 by building the masonry first, and afterwards undermining and 
 sinking it. The peacock is an object of such veneration here, 
 that it is dangerous to kill it. 
 
 About A.D. 1700, the Jats settled in this district, having 
 emigrated from the banks of the Indus, in the lower part of 
 the province of Mooltan ; they assumed the title of the military 
 caste, and their chief that of Rajah. In 1768, this territory 
 was at its greatest extent, stretching along the course of the 
 
BHURTPOOR 
 
 402 
 
 BIASCA 
 
 river Jumnah, from near Delhi to Etawah ; but in 1780, Nud- 
 jiff Khan conquered it and reduced it to an insignificant area, 
 diminishing in proportion the revenue of the Rajah. After 
 various changes, Buldeo Singh, in 1824, ascended the throne 
 of his father Runjeet, and his son, Bulwunt Singh was recog 
 nized by the British, in 1825, as legitimate Rajah. In 1826, 
 Durjunt Sal attempted to usurp the throne of the young 
 Rajah, and having resisted British interference, was defeated, 
 and himself and family sent prisoners to Allahabad. Since 
 this time, Bhurtpoor has been under British protection. 
 
 BHURTPOOR, a tn. Hindoostan, cap. of above dist., 
 110 m. S.S.W. Delhi, and 30 m. E. Agra; lat. 27 12 N.; 
 Ion. 77 32 E. It is about 4 m. in circuit, and was formerly 
 strongly fortified, but its defences have been long demolished, 
 and it is now surrounded by a low wall only. The streets, as 
 in all Eastern towns, are extremely narrow and dirty, but are 
 full of life and bustle ; the houses are of stone, and two or three 
 stories in height. At the N.W. part of the town is the fort, 
 in the form of a pentagon. It consists of walls of hewn stone 
 60 ft. high, reckoning from the bed of the moat, which is 
 30 ft. deep, and is full of water, in winch are a number of 
 tortoises. Within the walls is the Rajah s palace, situated on 
 
 THE RAJAH S PALACE, BHURTPOOR From an original drawing, by Capt. R. Smith, 41th R-giment 
 
 an eminence, surrounded with pretty flower-gardens and foun 
 tains. The building is of red and yellow freestone, in the 
 Mogul style, and has a singularly picturesque appearance, not 
 a little heightened by the fine trees with which it is encom 
 passed. Bhurtpoor derives no small interest from having 
 been the scene of two sieges, in one of which the flower of the 
 British army was destroyed. The first occurred on January 3, 
 1 805, when the place was invested by Lord Lake, and taken 
 after a siege of upwards of 1 4 weeks, with a loss to the British, 
 in killed and wounded, of 3100 men. The second took place 
 in January 1826, when it was again taken, but with a loss, on 
 this occasion, of no more than 103 killed, and 446 wounded. 
 Standing on a plain, Bhurtpoor is seen from a great distance; 
 in approaching it, luxuriant fields of wheat and barley arc 
 eeen on every side. Pop. about 100,000. 
 
 BHUTNEER. &.e BHATNEER. 
 
 BIAFRA (BIGHT OF), Africa, Gulf of Guinea, having Cape 
 Lopez on the S., and Cape Formosa on the N., distant from 
 each other 390 m. The shores of the bight extend to about 
 GOO m., between lat. and 4 N. ; and Ion. 5 and 10 E. 
 The_N. African and Guinea current terminates in this bight, 
 coming slightly in contact with the equatorial current before 
 entering it. There are three islands in the bight, Fernando 
 Po, Prince s Island, and St. Thomas s; and it receives the Old 
 Calabar river, the Cameroons, and some others. 
 
 BIAGIO (Sr.), or ST. BIASE, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria 
 Ultra, 2 m. W. Nicastro. In the vicinity good wine is pro 
 duced, and there are some mineral springs ; but the situation 
 of the town is unhealthy. It suflered from an earthquake in 
 1783. Pop. 3300. 
 
 BI ALA. 1 , A tn. Austrian States, Galicia, gov. Lemberg, 
 on the frontiers of Moravia, circle of, and 18 m. S.W. Wa- 
 dowice, on the Biala. It has manufactures of woollens, linens, 
 nails, and iron utensils. It has been a free town since 1789, 
 and was made capital of the circle by the Confederation of 
 
 Bar. Pop. 4000. 2, A tn. Poland, gov. Podlachia, 38 m. 
 
 E.S.E. Siedlec, on the Krzna. It contains the fine castle of 
 the Radziwill family. Pop. 3600. 
 
 BIALYSTOK, or BELOSTOK. 1, A prov. Russia in Eu 
 rope, formerly belonging to Poland, but ceded to Russia by 
 the treaty of Tilsit, in 1807. It is bounded, E. and S. by the 
 Grodno territory, and N. and W. by Poland, and is divided 
 into four districts Bialystok, Sokolka, Bielsk, and Drohiczya; 
 area, nearly 3400 sq. m. The surface is flat, and marshy at 
 intervals, but is in general fertile ; and a considerable portion 
 is covered with fine forests, those belonging to the Crown 
 comprising about 250,000 acres. In these forests, bears and 
 wolves are not uncommon, and game abounds. The agricul 
 tural produce includes rye, wheat, oats, barley, flax, hemp, 
 and hops. Its manufactures comprise coarse cloths, hats, 
 leather, soap, &c. The chief exports are grain, flax, hemp, 
 hops, tallow, and timber. Pop. (the majority R. Catholic), 
 265,944. 2, A tn. Russia in Europe, cap. of above prov., 
 on the Bialy, 45 m. S.S.W. Grodno. It is a well-built, 
 handsome town ; is the seat of a criminal court, and of a civil 
 court of appeal, and contains a gymnasium and seven other 
 schools, with about 500 pupils. It has some manufactures, 
 employing about 700 hands; also 
 a busy trade. Here are the fine 
 dwelling and domain formerly pos 
 sessed by the Counts of Braniski, 
 once called The Versailles of 
 Poland. Pop. about 10,000. 
 
 BIANA, or BEANA, a tn. Hin 
 doostan, prov. of, and 52 m. S.W. 
 Agra, dist. Bhurtpoor, on the Ban- 
 gunga; lat. 26 56 N.; Ion. 77 14 
 E.; situated at the foot of a hill. 
 It was formerly the capital of the 
 province of Agra, and is still a con 
 siderable town, containing large 
 stone buildings, and a spacious and 
 flourishing bazaar. In the environs 
 may be traced the remains of a 
 more extensive city. 
 
 BIANCAVILLA, a tn. Sicily, 
 dist. of, and 14 m. N.N. W. Catania. 
 It stands on the S.W. slope of 
 Mount Etna, from which it is about 
 10 m. distant, and is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient 
 Etna or Inessa. It lias some trade in grain, silk, and cotton. 
 Pop. about 6000. 
 
 BIANCO [white], four capes, Mediterranean Sea: 1, A 
 cape, Tunis, the most N. point of Africa; lat. 37 20 N., 
 Ion. 9 47 E. (R.) 2, A cape, isl. Cyprus ; lat. 34 29 18" N. ; 
 Ion. 32 28 15" E. (R.) 3, A cape, Ionian Islands, the most 
 S. point of Corfu ; lat. 39 21 12" N.; Ion. 20 7 45" E. (R.) 
 4, A cape, isl. Sicily, S.W. coast; lat. 37 22 24" N.; Ion. 
 13 16 30" E. (R.) 
 
 BIAR, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. of, and 29 m. N. Iv 
 W. Alicante, in a valley of same name. It has steep, but 
 generally wide and well-paved streets, two squares, a parish 
 church, townhouse, containing the prison ; an hospital, poor- 
 house, endowed school, and storehouse. The inhabitants are 
 engaged in agriculture, weaving woollen fabrics, and in cut 
 ting tombstones, &c., and manufacturing earthenware. Two 
 mines of copper and iron are wrought in the neighbourhood ; 
 wine and oil made, and excellent honey produced. Pop. 2963. 
 BIARRITZ, an unimportant seaport tn. France, dep. 
 Basses Pyrenees, 4 m. from Bayonne. There is here a light 
 house, situated on a point called St. Martin de Biarritz ; lat. 
 43 30 N. ; Ion. 1 33 W. The light is revolving, and visible 
 from a distance of 16m. The town is much frequented by 
 the inhabitants of Bayonne as a watering place. Pop. 1892. 
 BIASCA, or ABLENTSCH, a vil. and par. Switzerland, 
 can. Tessin, on the Blegno, 8 m. N. Bellinzona. It contains 
 a very ancient church, from which a series of chapels, forming 
 what is called a Via Crucis, leads up to the chapel of St. Pe- 
 tronilla, commanding a fine view. In 1512, a mass of earth 
 and rock, thrown down by an earthquake, dammed up the 
 Blegno, which soon formed an extensive lake. Two years 
 after, the barrier gave way, and the flood carried devastation 
 into the district. Biasco, then a flourishing place, was almost 
 destroyed, and has never recovered. Pop. 1912. 
 
BIBBIENA 
 
 403 
 
 BIDEFORD 
 
 BIBBIENA, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and ll m. 
 N. Arezzo, near 1. bank, Arno, commanded by a castle of 
 considerable strength and extent ; and having two churches, 
 a townhouse, theatre, several palaces, an academy of science, 
 and other educational institutions. Some grain and fruits are 
 grown, and a considerable number of sheep and cattle reared. 
 Pop. 5079. 
 
 . BIBBONA, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 34 in. 
 S. by E. Pisa, 16 m. N. Campiglia, on a declivity N.W. 
 Mount Gherardesca. It possesses a spacious square, and 
 handsome church ; and is commanded by a castle, defended 
 by a wall flanked with towers, and surrounded by a deep fosse. 
 Here are extensive ironworks, supplied with metal from the 
 island of Elba. The commune is fertile in grain, and is rich 
 in pasturage. Pop. 1 656. 
 
 BIBERACH, a tn. Wiirtemberg, circle, Danube, on the 
 Riss, 22 m. S.S.W. Ulm. It is surrounded by walls, has a 
 townhouse, five churches, numerous educational institutions, 
 and an hospital. It carries on an active business in skin- 
 dressing, tanning, and brewing, and in the manufacture of 
 strong woollen fabrics. It has also a considerable trade in 
 grain. In the vicinity is Oberholzheim, the birthplace of 
 Wieland. The French, under Moreau, defeated the Austrians 
 
 near Biberach in 1796. Pop. 4687. Several other places 
 
 in Germany have the same name. 
 
 BIBIANA, a vil. Sardinian States, Piedmont, prov. of, 
 and about 8 m. S.S.W. Pinerolo, on the Felice. It contains 
 a parish church, a convent, and a castle, and has two annual 
 fairs. Pop. 2500. 
 
 BIBLIS, a tn. Hesse -Darmstadt, prov. Starkenburg, 
 r. bank, Weschnitz, 15m. S. W. Darmstadt ; with a E. Catholic 
 parish church. Pop. 2050. 
 
 BIBURY, par. Eng. Gloucester; 6300 ac. Pop. 1077. 
 
 BICANERE, BICKANEER, or BICANIK, a principality, 
 Hindoostan, prov. Ajmeer, of which it occupies the centre. 
 It lies chiefly within lat. 27 and 29 N. ; and has, N. the 
 great Ajmeer desert and the Bhatty country, S. the Joudpoor 
 and Jeypoor dominions, E. the British district Hurriana and 
 the Shekawutty country, and W. Jesselmere and the great 
 desert, into which it merges ; but like all other states in this 
 desert of moving sand, its limits are not easily defined, and 
 are continually changing; area, supposed to be about 18,000 
 sq. m. The country is somewhat elevated, but the surface is 
 flat; and the soil, which is a light brown sand, absorbs the 
 rain as soon as it falls. Various kinds of Indian pulse are 
 almost the only produce of the soil. Artificial irrigation 
 must, in almost all cases, be resorted to, in order to obtain a 
 crop of any kind. Horses and cattle, of a very inferior kind, 
 are the sole exports ; while rice, sugar, opium, and indigo, are 
 the principal imports. This is the poorest of the Rajpoot 
 principalities, and in 1818 was admitted within the pale of 
 British protection. The capital is Bicanere. Pop. 539,250. 
 
 BICANERE, or BICKANEEK, a fortified tn., W. Hindoo- 
 Btan, prov. Ajmeer, cap. principality of same name, 240 m. 
 W. by S. Delhi; lat. 27 57 N.; Ion. 73 30 E. It stands 
 within a tract of desolate country, and has a magnificent ap 
 pearance at a distance, which is not borne out by a closer 
 inspection. It is surrounded by a wall, with numerous round 
 towers and Indian battlements. There are some elevated 
 houses and temples, one of which has a lofty spire ; but the 
 great majority of the dwellings are mere huts, with mud walls, 
 painted red. The citadel, a confused assemblage of towers 
 and battlements, about a quarter of a mile square, and sur 
 rounded by a wall 30 ft. high, is regarded by the natives as a 
 place of great strength. In it is a well, 300 ft. deep and 20 
 ft. diameter. There are generally several Europeans in the 
 service of the Eajah. Pop. vaguely estimated at 60,000. 
 
 BICCART, a tn. Naples, prov. Capitanata, 18 m. W.S.W. 
 Foggia, on the E. declivity of the Apennines. It has a col 
 legiate, and several other churches. Large fairs are held 
 here. Pop. 3460. 
 
 BICESTER, a market tn. and par. England, co. Oxford. 
 The town stands on a plain, 54 m. N.W. London, and llm. 
 N.N.E. Oxford. It consists of three principal streets, two of 
 them straight, and all well kept ; houses mostly of stone, and 
 all well built. The town is lighted with gas, well supplied 
 with water, and has been much improved of late by flagging 
 and draining. The churches are, the parish church, a spacious 
 structure, with a lofty tower and peal of bells, rebuilt in 
 
 1400, and containing many interesting monuments and antique 
 sculptures ; an Independent chapel, and Wesleyan chapel, 
 both handsome edifices. The principal schools are, the 
 national school, for girls only; the blue-coat school, founded 
 1721, for 30 boys; the diocesan school, two private schools 
 for girls, and two for boys, and several sabbath-schools, two 
 of which are endowed. There are also several benevolent 
 and charitable societies and associations ; the most remark 
 able of which is an ancient institution called The Town 
 Stock, for the relief of decayed parishioners who have been 
 formerly in good circumstances. A savings -bank was estab 
 lished in 1842. The manufacture of leather slippers and 
 sacking, and the combing of wool, were formerly carried on 
 here to a considerable extent ; but one only of these branches 
 (the manufacture of sacking) now remains, and that only on 
 a very small scale. Ale is brewed to some extent, and has 
 obtained considerable celebrity, its excellence being supposed 
 to arise from the purity of the water. Area of par. 2580 ac. 
 Pop. (1841), 3022. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BICETRE. See GENTILLY. 
 
 BICKANEER. See BICAKEKE. 
 
 BICKENHILL (CHURCH), par. Eng. Warwick ; 3810 ac. 
 Pop. 774. 
 
 BICKER, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 3720 ac. Pop. 925. 
 
 BICKERTON S ISLAND, Australia, W. coast, Gulf 
 of Carpentaria ; lat. 13 45 S. ; Ion. 136 15 E. (R.) 
 
 BICKINGTON, two pars. Eng. Devon:!, 1220 ac. 
 Pop. 374. 2, Bickington (High), 3890 ac. Pop. 895. 
 
 B1CKLE1GH, two pars. Eng. Devon : 1 , 1690 ac. Pop. 
 362. 2, 2980 ac. Pop. 469. 
 
 BICKNOLLER, par. Eng. Somerset ; 1370 ac. P. 345. 
 
 BICKNOR, three pars. Eng. : 1, Bicknor (Church], par. 
 Kent; 500 ac. Pop. 46. 2, Bicknor (English), par. Glou 
 cester; 2440 ac. Pop. 576. 3, Bicknor (Welsh), par. Mon- 
 mouth ; 960 ac. Pop. 74. 
 
 BICTON, par. Eng. Devon; 1180 ac. Pop. 198. 
 
 BIDASSOA, or VIDASOA [Basque, way to the west, or 
 two streams ], a river, Spain, about 45 m. long, the last 12 
 of which form the boundary between France and Spain. It 
 rises in the mountains of Spanish Navarre, and, after various 
 changes of direction, falls into the Bay of Biscay near Font- 
 arabia. In former times, Spain claimed not only the entire 
 river, but so much of its banks, on the French side, as its 
 waters covered at full tide. This difference was finally settled 
 by each country contenting itself with its own shore. Near 
 Irun, there is a small island in the middle of the stream, called 
 the Island of Pheasants ; on which, being a sort of neutral 
 ground, Louis XI. and Henry IV. met in 1463. Here, also, 
 a peace was concluded between France and Spain in 1654; 
 and here, again, in 1660, Cardinal Mazarin met Louis de Haro, 
 and arranged the marriage between the daughter of Philip IV. 
 and Louis XIV. 
 
 BIDBOROUGH, par. Eng. Kent; 1360 ac. Pop. 260. 
 
 BIDDENDEN, par. Eng. Kent; 7110 ac. Pop. 1486. 
 
 BIDDENHAM, par. Eng. Bedford ; 1760 ac. Pop. 345. 
 
 BIDDESHAM, par. Eng. Somerset ; 510 ac. Pop. 145. 
 
 BIDDESTONE (ST. NICHOLAS and ST. PETER), par. 
 Eng. Wilts ; 2530 ac. Pop. 452. 
 
 BIDDLESDON, or BITTLESDEN, par. Eng. Bucks ; 1630 
 ac. Pop. 169. 
 
 BIDDULPH, par. Eng. Stafford ; 5530 ac. Pop. 2314. 
 
 BIDEFORD, a market tn., river-port, and par. England, 
 co. Devon, him. Shebbear. The town is 44 m. N. Plymouth ; 
 lat. 51 4 30" N. ; Ion. 4 12 W. (R.), picturesquely situated 
 on both sides the Torridge, the principal portion being on the 
 W. side, on a bold acclivity, 3 m. from the sea. A handsome 
 stone bridge of 24 arches, and 677 ft. in length, connects tho 
 two divisions of the town. There are six principal streets, all 
 well paved, and which, from their being on a slope, are always 
 clean and dry ; houses mostly of stone, and generally well 
 built. The town is abundantly supplied with water from 
 numerous springs, there being scarcely a house without a 
 pump ; and it is well lighted with gas. Near its centre is a 
 spacious market-place ; and, on the margin of the river, a 
 commodious quay. The principal public civic buildings are 
 the town and guild halls, both extremely plain. There are 
 six different places of worship, including the parish church ; 
 an endowed grammar-school, two other public schools, and 
 two private seminaries, and a number of minor charities ; also 
 
131DFORD 
 
 404 
 
 BIELO-OZERO 
 
 a dispensary (lately established), a literary and scientific in 
 stitution, with a good library. The woollen manufactures, 
 formerly considerable, have been discontinued. The most 
 important manufactures now are coarse earthenware, and pot 
 tery of a finer description, ropes, sailcloth, shipbuilding, and 
 the various branches connected therewith. A prolific culm 
 mine, also, has been lately opened, which promises to form a 
 considerable addition to the ordinary trade of the town. In 
 former times, Bideford had an extensive shipping trade, having, 
 at the close of the 17th century, more ships engaged in the 
 Newfoundland trade than any port in England, except London 
 and Topsham. It is also said that it imported more tobacco 
 in some years of last century than the metropolis. The trade 
 of the port is still considerable. The number of vessels re 
 gistered, in the year ending December 1847, was 150; tonn. 
 12,436. Entered during the same period, 572 ; tonn. 26,376 ; 
 cleared, 250; toun. 12,912. The imports consist chiefly 
 of timber, hemp, tallow, wines, fruit, cattle, coal, iron, flag 
 stones, &c. The principal export is agricultural produce. 
 The amount of customs received in 1847 was 3750. By 
 the municipal act of 1835, the government of the town is 
 vested in a mayor, four aldermen, 12 councillors, a recorder, 
 and several borough magistrates. The scenery around the 
 town is singularly beautiful, and the climate is salubrious. 
 Area of par. 4510 ac. Pop. (1811), 5211 ; of tn. 4830. 
 (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BIDFORD, par. Eng. Warwick; 3240 ac. Pop. 1567. 
 
 B IDOUZE, a small river, France, an affluent of the Adour, 
 into which it falls 15 m. W.N.W. Bayonne. It rises in the 
 Pyrenees, near St. Jean Pied de Port, dep. Basses Pyrenees, 
 and by means of the tide is navigable for a small part of its 
 course, which in all does not exceed 50 m. The chief article 
 of traffic upon it is hewn stone, for Bayonne, from the quarries 
 of Came and Bidache. 
 
 BIDSCHOW (NED), or NEW Biczow [Bohem. Nowy- 
 Bydsow], a tn. Bohemia, circle of same name, 45 m. E.N.E. 
 Prague, on the Czidlina, near a small lake. It is very old, 
 and has a church, a synagogue, a townhouse, and an hospital. 
 The inhabitants live chiefly by agriculture and weaving. 
 The cattle reared here are of a superior kind. Topaz, chal 
 cedony, agates, and jasper have been found in the environs. 
 
 Pop. 7891, of whom 3863 are Jews. The CIRCLE is 
 
 bounded, N. by Prussian Silesia, W. by circle Bunzlau, S. by 
 Chrudim, Czaslau, and Chocsim, and E. by Koniggratz ; area, 
 744 geo. sq. m. The surface consists of three marked de 
 scriptions the highlands, belonging to the Riesengebirge, and 
 containing several ridges of considerable height, broken by 
 narrow valleys ; the midlands, exhibiting generally an undu 
 lating surface ; and the plains. The summits of the moun 
 tains are granite, and their sides mica-slate ; the lower hills 
 are chiefly of red sandstone, in which are some appearances 
 of coal ; the plains have usually a substratum of chalk, covered 
 by a deep alluvium. The principal rivers are the Elbe, which 
 rises in the circle ; the Iser, the Milnitz, and the Czidlina. 
 The minerals are of no importance. The hilly districts are 
 in general well wooded, and the lower very fertile, producing 
 all kinds of corn and pulse. The principal fruits are cherries 
 and plurns. Excepting in the lower valleys, the climate is 
 unfavourable to agriculture; consequently the inhabitants are 
 chiefly engaged in trade, and in the manufacture of cotton, 
 linen, glass, iron, paper, &c. Pop. 251,414. 
 
 BIDSTONE, par. Eng. Chester; 4260 ac. Pop. 1013. 
 
 BIEBRICH, or BIEBERICH, a tn. duchy of Nassau, 20m. 
 W.S.W. Frankfort; prettily situated, r. bank, Rhine, which 
 here forms the boundary between Nassau and Hesse-Darm 
 stadt. It is the usual residence of the Duke, whose palace is 
 a large and handsome edifice, surrounded by gardens and an 
 extensive park. The railway from Wiesbaden to Mainz has 
 a station at Biebrich. There is here also a quay, at which 
 vessels can load and unload. The sawing and polishing of 
 marble is carried on to some extent. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BIEDENKOPF, a tn. Hesse-Darmstadt, on the Lahn, 
 23 m. N.N.W. Giessen; with ironworks, and considerable 
 manufactures of cloth, serge, and hosiery. Pop. 3200. 
 
 BIEL. See BIENNE. 
 
 BIELA, the name of numerous small German villages, 
 particularly in Bohemia. 
 
 BIELEF, or BELEV, a tn. Russia, cap. dist. of same name, 
 gov. of, and 62 m. S. W. Tula, 1. bank, Oka ; lat. 53 45 N.; 
 
 Ion. 36 5 E. It is the second town of the government, and 
 gives name to the Greek bishopric of Tula-and-Bielef. It 
 has manufactures of soap, leather, and hardware. Leather- 
 dressing and tallow-melting are carried on, and a considerable 
 general trade. Pop. 8000. 
 
 BIELEFELD, a tn. Prussian prov. Westphalia, cap. 
 circle of same name, 38 m. E. Miinster. It has walls with 
 ramparts, along which spacious walks have been formed; 
 several R. Catholic and Protestant churches, a synagogue, 
 and an orphan asylum, with a fine old castle, now turned into 
 a prison. It has extensive manufactories of thread and linen ; 
 the last, the best made in Germany ; and is celebrated, also, 
 for its tobacco pipes, made of carbonated magnesia, and called 
 
 meerschaum. Pop. 5800. The CIRCLE, area, 80 geo. sq. m., 
 
 is of far greater importance than its extent would seem to 
 indicate. The inhabitants are remarkable for their industry. 
 The chief agricultural products are hemp and flax ; but bleach 
 ing, and the weaving of common linen and damask, are carried 
 on to an extent which makes Bielefeld one of the most im 
 portant manufacturing districts of Prussia. The other in 
 dustrial products are ironmongery, tobacco, woollen stuffs, 
 leather, soap, and yarn. Pop. 45,903. 
 
 BIELGOROD, a tn. Russia, cap. dist. of same name, 
 gov. of, and 76 m. S. Koursk, on the Donetz ; lat. 50 40 N. ; 
 Ion. 36 35 E. It comprises, properly speaking, two towns, 
 the old and new, with three suburbs ; the houses are nearly 
 all of wood. It is the seat of an archbishopric, contains 13 
 churches and two monasteries, and has three very important 
 fairs, of a week each. Its name, which in Russia means 
 white town, is derived from a chalk hill in the vicinity. 
 The environs are noted for producing fine fruits. Pop. 10,318. 
 
 B1EL1TZ, a tn. Austrian Silesia, gov. Briinn, circle of, 
 and 18 m. N.E. Teschen; 42 in. W.S.W. Cracow, 1. bank, 
 Biala, which divides Silesia from Galicia. A stone bridge 
 connects it with the town of Biala in Galicia. It has exten 
 sive manufactures of woollens and linens ; and dyeworks and 
 printfields of considerable repute. A large amount of business 
 in manufactures is done with Hungary, Italy, Poland, Russia ; 
 and in Hungarian wine, sent to Prussia, Silesia, and Galicia, 
 from which last province it in return receives rock-salt. 
 Here are several charitable institutions, and a Protestant con 
 sistory, having under its jurisdiction Moravia and Austrian 
 Silesia. The town was totally destroyed by fire in 1808. 
 In 1751, Bielitz was erected by the Emperor Francis I. into 
 a duchy, and has since belonged to the princes Sulkowsky, 
 who have here a castle, converted into public offices, with a 
 handsome park attached. Pop. of the duchy, about 10,000 ; 
 of the tn. 6000. 
 
 BIELITZA, two tns. Russia: 1, Bielilza (Novo), gov. 
 Mohilew, at the confluence of the Mies and Soj with the 
 Dnieper, 63 m. N. Tchernigov. Pop. 2000. 2, Bielitza, 
 gov. of, and 55 m. E. Grodno, r. bank, Nieinen. Pop. 900. 
 
 BIELLA [Latin, Eugella], a tn. Sardinian States, Pied 
 mont, cap. prov. of same name, gov. of, and 36m. N.N.E 
 Turin, on the Cerno. It is the seat of a bishop, and of a 
 district court of justice; and contains a cathedral, five parish 
 churches, eight convents and monasteries, two hospitals, and 
 a college. Manufactures : cloth, serges, linen, and stockings, 
 silk, wool, and paper; and carries on some trade in silk, oil, 
 
 and chestnuts. Pop. 7700. The PROVINCE is 20 m. long, 
 
 and 16m. broad ; mountainous, being partly formed by spurs 
 of the Pennine Alps ; and has no rivers, except some small 
 affluents of the Po. It produces the best wine in Piedmont, 
 depastures a large number of cattle, and yields copper and 
 iron. The inhabitants are industrious, and carry on an active 
 trade. The province is divided into 1 mandements, which 
 are again subdivided into 78 communes. Pop. 94,958. 
 
 B1ELOI, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 80 m. N.N.E. 
 Smolensk, on the Mega or Obsha. It has a considerable 
 trade, particularly in grain. Pop. 3476. 
 
 BIELOPOLJE, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 108 m. N.W. 
 Kharkof, in the Vira. It contains eight churches, has several 
 large distilleries, and a considerable general trade. Pop. 9600. 
 
 BIELO-OZERO [White Lake], a lake, Russia, gov. 
 Novgorod, about 240 m. E. St. Petersburg; 25 m. long by 
 20 broad. Several streams flow into it; and it sends its 
 waters by the Scheksua into the Wolga. It is very dee]), 
 abounds in fish, and, by means of canals, communicates with 
 the Onega, Sukona, and Dwina. 
 
BIELOZERSK 
 
 405 
 
 BIHAR 
 
 BIELOZERSK, a tn. Russia, cap. dist. of same name, 
 EOV. Novgorod, S. side of Lake Bielo-Ozero ; agreeably situ 
 ated on a hill, and possessing a pure, healthy air ; indifferently 
 built of wood. It contains 16 churches, and a seminary. Its 
 chief manufacture is candles; and it has some trade in pitch, 
 tallow, cattle, corn, and especially fish. Bielozersk is an 
 ancient city, and was capital of the old principality of the same 
 name. It was taken and ravaged by the Lithuanians in 1 678. 
 Pop. 3000. 
 
 BIELSK, a tn. Russia, cap. dist. of same name, gov. of, 
 and 25 m. S. Bialystok, on the Biala. It is well built, and 
 paved ; has a fine custom-house, and was once capital of a 
 Polish palatinate. In 1831, the Poles gained a victory here 
 over the Russians. Pop. 2400. 
 
 BIENNE [German, Biel], a tn. and lake, Switzerland, 
 can. Bern. The TOWN is situated at the N. end of the lake, at 
 the foot of the Jura Mountains, 16 m. N.W. Bern. It is sur 
 rounded by ancient walls and watch-towers, is well built, and 
 approached by several avenues. It has a parish church, 
 townhouse, public library, college, and hospital, with exten 
 sive tanneries, dyeworks, and a cotton mill. The transit 
 trade is considerable, from several main roads meeting at the 
 town. Six fairs are held in the year. Pop. (principally 
 
 Protestants), 4248. -The LAKE [German, Biclersee] is in 
 
 length, N.E. to S.W., 10 m.; greatest breadth, 3 m. It 
 stands 1400 ft. above the level of the sea, and has a depth of 
 about 30 fathoms. It lies 8 ft. lower than Lake Neufchatel, 
 whose superfluous waters it receives by the Thiel, and after 
 wards sends with its own, by the same river, into the Aar. 
 The scenery around is beautiful, but not bold. One of the 
 most interesting objects is its little islet of St. Pierre, where 
 J. J. Rousseau took up his residence for two months, in 1765, 
 to avoid imaginary persecution. 
 
 BIENTINA, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. Pisa, 2 m. 
 N.E. Vico Pisano, at the E. base of Mount Pisano. The 
 town is well built, and has a square, and a parish church, in 
 which are some good pictures. Pop. 2537. 
 
 BIENVENIDA, a tn. Spain, Estremadura, prov. of, and 
 49 m. S.E. Badajoz, in a fertile plain. It has a church, a 
 large and substantial building ; a chapel of ease, approached 
 by a fine avenue of poplars ; a townhouse, prison, two schools, 
 a storehouse, and cemetery. Some little trade is done in 
 wine, fruits, and wool. Pop. 2800. (Madoz.) 
 
 BIEQUE, VIEQUE, or CRAB ISLAND, one of the Virgin 
 Islands, W. Indies; lat. 18 7 N.; Ion. 65 C 34" W. (R.) It 
 is uninhabited, and is about 16 m. long, E. to W., and 3 to 4 
 broad, N. to S. ; low towards the E., and covered with trees 
 and bushes ; and towards the W., rising to an elevation of 
 600 to 800 ft. It has no harbour, but has some good road 
 steads. The British, Danes, and Spaniards have the right of 
 cutting wood and fishing here, but none of them are allowed 
 to form settlements in the island. 
 
 BIERTON-wmi-BKOUGHTON, par. Eng. Bucks ; 2470 
 ac. Pop. 605. 
 
 BIERVLIET, a vil. Holland, prov. Zeeland, 9 in. E. by 
 N. Oostburg, 1. bank, Braakman; with a church, school, and 
 small port, from which grain is exported, and to which wood, 
 stones, &c., are imported. In olden times, Biervliet was 
 rather an important town, subsisting chiefly by fishing, more 
 especially the herring-fishing. Frequent inundations almost 
 totally destroyed this town and its fortifications, which were 
 renewed early in the 17th century, from which period the 
 present village dates its existence. In the 15th century, 
 Willem Beukelsz, a native of Biervliet, invented the method 
 of curing herring by salt. He died in 1497, and his picture 
 is preserved in the church. Pop. 470. 
 
 BIESBOSCII, a large sheet of water or marshy lake, 
 Holland, provs. N. Brabant and S. Holland, between the towns 
 of Dordrecht, Geertruidenburg, and Willemstad. It is also 
 now called Hollands Diep, and forms part of the estuary of 
 the Maas. It was formed, November 18, 1421, by an inunda 
 tion of the sea, and, according to some, a simultaneous rise of 
 the Waal and the Maas. Dikes and dams were broken down, 
 and the sea burst in and overflowed 72 villages and towns, 
 of which 34 were never more seen; and drowned 100,000 
 human beings, besides innumerable cattle. It is not very 
 deep, and has numerous islands. 
 
 BIETIGHEIM, a tn. Wiirtemberg, circle, Neckar, at 
 the confluence of the Metter with the Enz, 14 m. N. Stutt 
 
 gart; with woollen manufactures, dyeworks, worsted spinning- 
 mills, and fulling-mills. Pop. 2920. 
 
 BIEVENE, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, 34 m. 
 E.N.E. Tournai; with considerable linen manufactures. Pop. 
 3414. 
 
 BIGBURY, par. Eng. Devon; 4160 ac. Pop. 652. 
 
 BIGBY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 1040 ac. Pop. 245. 
 
 BIGGA or BIGA, one of the Shetland islands in the Sound 
 of Yell, between the island of the latter name, and the main 
 land. It is about 2 m. long and from 1 to 1J broad ; and is 
 inhabited by a few families, who rear some black cattle and 
 sheep. 
 
 BIG GAR, a bor. of barony and par. Scotland, co. Lanark, 
 Upper Ward. The town stands on a gentle acclivity, having 
 a fine S. exposure, 25 m. S.W. Edinburgh, 4 ra. from the 
 Caledonian Railway, on both sides the Biggar Water, that on 
 the r. bank being of modern erection. It consists chiefly of 
 one principal street, straight, spacious, and clean ; houses, of 
 stone, and generally well built ; and many of the shops hand 
 some. It is lighted with gas, and is amply supplied with 
 water. The churches are, a parish church, a plain Gothic 
 building, with an unfinished spire, and two U. Presbyterian 
 churches. Schools : a parish, infant, and U. Presbyterian. 
 There are about 140 hand-loom weavers in the town. A well- 
 attended market is held here every Thursday. The parish 
 contains 11 sq. m. and an entire pop. of 1865. Pop. of tn. 
 1395. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BIGGLESWADE, a market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Bedford. The town is pleasantly situated r. bank, Ivel, here 
 crossed by two stone bridges, 9 in. S.E. Bedford. Since 
 1785, when a large portion of the town was destroyed by fire, 
 it has been greatly improved, and now presents a very hand 
 some appearance. It is lighted with gas, and well supplied 
 with water ; has a respectable townhall, a modern structure 
 of the Doric order, a mechanics institute, a saving s bank, 
 and free, British, national, and infant schools, and four small 
 charities. Places of worship : the parish church, a hand 
 some Gothic edifice, built in 1230, but much modernized, 
 a Wesleyan and a Baptist chapel. The making of white- 
 thread lace and edging, and straw-plaiting, afford employment 
 to a considerable portion of the female population. The river 
 is navigable to the town, and affords the means of carrying 
 on a considerable traffic in coals, timber and oats. A well- 
 attended market for corn is held every Wednesday. The 
 Great Northern Railway, which passes through the town, has 
 a station near it. Area of par. 4220 ac. Pop. 3807. 
 
 BIGIIA, or BIGA, a tn. Turkey in Asia, pa.sh. Anatolia, 
 cap. sanjak of same name, in a fertile plain, about 15 m. S. the 
 Sea of Marmora. The sanjak is ancient Troas, and celebrated 
 as containing both Mount Ida and the plain of Troy. Its 
 chief products are cotton, silk, wine, tanning bark, gall-nuts, 
 and turpentine. 
 
 BIGHORN, a navigable river, U. States, rising in the 
 Rocky Mountains, in lat. 42 30 N., and falling into the 
 Yellowstone River, at Fort Manuals, after a N.E. course of 
 240 m. direct distance, unobstructed by falls, through a 
 fertile open country. 
 
 BIGHTON, par. Eng. Hants ; 1580 ac. Pop. 284. 
 
 BIGNOR, par. Eng. Sussex; 1180 ac. Pop. 210. 
 
 BIGORRE [anc. Birjeritanus Pagus}, France, a dist. of 
 the former prov. of Gascogne, of which the cap. was Tarbe s. 
 It now forms almost the whole of dep. Hautes Pyrenees. 
 
 BIHACS or BIHATCH, a fortress, Turkey in Europe, 
 prov. Croatia, on an island in the Unna or Unnaly, about 50 
 m. E. the Adriatic. It is one of the strongest places in N. 
 Turkey, and its possession was often keenly contested during 
 the Turkish wars. It consists of old Hungarian stone 
 buildings, and more modern Turkish houses ; the latter look 
 ing as if they would tumble to pieces. A mosque has 
 recently been constructed, and a Christian church which once 
 stood without the walls, is now known only by its site, where 
 the Christian rayahs still assemble for their devotions, though 
 the Turks have so completely destroyed the building, that 
 not a stone is standing. Owing to the lowness of the situa 
 tion, the town is unhealthy, and the inhabitants have a sickly 
 look. Pop. 3000. (Paton s Adriatic.) 
 
 BIHAR, a co. Hungary, circle, beyond the Theiss, area, 
 3200 geo. sq. m. Its capital, which stands near its centre, is 
 Grosswardein. The E. side is encircled by the Carpathian 
 
BIHAR 
 
 406 
 
 BILDESTONE 
 
 Mountains, the \V. stretches out into an extensive plain. It 
 i.s watered by the Koros, the Black Koros, and the Berettyo. 
 All are subject to great overflows, which have covered the 
 plains with lakes and morasses, and made them very unhealthy. 
 A clearer air and better climate are found in the upper grounds, 
 and also in the valley of the Korotch, which is of great extent 
 and very beautiful. The county is on the whole fertile, 
 producing large crops of winter and summer corn, .about 
 120,000 pipes of wine, and 6200 tons of hay. The higher 
 grounds are well, the plains but indifferently, wooded. The 
 minerals are numerous and valuable. Gold and silver are 
 found in small quantities; copper, lead, and iron, in abundance. 
 The woods are well supplied with game, and the rivers and 
 lakes team with fish. Crawfish also, and land tortoises, are 
 found in great numbers. There are several mineral springs 
 and baths. The chief employment of the inhabitants is in 
 pursuits connected with agriculture. There does not seem 
 to be any manufactures. Pop. 459,200. 
 
 BIIIAR, a market tn. Hungary, above co. to which it 
 gives its name, within 3 m. of Grosswardein, with a Pro 
 testant church. Pop. 2440. 
 
 BUSK. See BIYSK. 
 
 BIJANAGUR \Vijayanagara the city of triumph], a 
 city, Hindoostan, of great antiquity, and once of great import 
 ance, but now nearly uninhabited, and little more than a 
 heap of ruins ; presid. Madras, prov. Bejapoor, r. bank, 
 Toombuddra, 30 m. N.W. Bellary ; lat. 15 15 N.; Ion. 
 76 37 E. It stands in a plain, surrounded by enormous 
 masses of granite, in some places assuming the appearance 
 of hills ; and in others, presenting detached blocks, heaped 
 together in the most extraordinary manner; sometimes 
 obstructing all passage excepting through the narrow winding I 
 defiles which separate the fragments. N. and W., the city 
 is bounded by the Toombuddra, and S.E. it is enclosed partly 
 by natural barriers, and partly by strong stone walls, the 
 whole nearly 8 m. in circuit. The main streets, which often 
 follow the tortuous passages between the stone blocks, are 
 paved with large flags of granite, and are intersected at 
 intervals by aqueducts. The remains of numerous temples, 
 and public and private buildings, exhibit the purest style of 
 Hindoo architecture. There is a continued succession of 
 paved streets, now almost uninhabited, for 3 m. W. from the 
 Toombuddra ferry. Near the W. extremity, and terminating 
 a street 90 ft. wide, is a magnificent temple, dedicated to 
 Mahadeva (the great god) ; it is surrounded by numerous 
 cells for devotees ; facing the E. is a pyramidal portico, about 
 160 ft. high, divided into 10 stories. The attendant Brahmins 
 are numerous ; and the establishment is well endowed. The 
 street leading to this temple is lined by a row of handsome 
 stone buildings, decorated with sculptures, and appropriated 
 to the use of pilgrims during the annual festival. Another 
 temple, near the centre of the city, is dedicated to Wittoba 
 (an incarnation of Vishnu), and occupies an area of about 400 
 by 200 ft., environed by cells, and entered through a painted 
 pyramidical portico. The temple of Kama is known by its 
 pillars of black hornblende, covered with mythological sculp 
 tures of the minutest elegance ; and near the ferry, among a 
 group of picturesque temples, is a gigantic figure of Hunimaun, 
 the huge monkey, carved in basso-rilievo. Besides these, 
 there are the ruins of numerous other pagodas, temples, &c. 
 Bijanagur was built between 1336 and 1343, by two brothers, 
 named Aka Hurryhur, and Bucca Hurryhur, who ruled here 
 in succession, the former until 1350, and the latter until 1378. 
 In 1564, it was taken, and completely sacked, by a confedera 
 tion of Mahometan rajahs, which caused it to be almost totally 
 deserted. (Hamilton s East. India Gaz.) 
 
 BIJA-PUR, or VIJAYA-PURA. See BEJAPOOR. 
 
 BIJBAIIAR, or VIGIPARA, a tn. Cashmere, r. bank, 
 Jailum, 20 m. S.E. Serinagur, with nothing in it worthy of 
 notice except a large bazaar. Next to the capital, it is the 
 largest town in the valley. Over the river here is a wooden 
 bridge. 
 
 BlJNEE, or KHUNGTAGHAUT, a principality, Hindoostan, 
 cap. same name, prov. Bengal, adjoining Assam, consisting 
 partly of independent territory, and partly of lands under 
 the British jurisdiction. It lies on both sides of the Brahma 
 pootra, and consists chiefly of a flat country, watered by the 
 affluents of that river. The soil is suited for the production 
 of rice (the chief crop), wheat, barley, mustard, legumes, the 
 
 THE CHURCH OF SAN ANTONIO ABAD, BILBAO. 
 From Espans Artistiea y Monumental. 
 
 a very handsome suspension bridge of recent construction ; 
 and along its banks is a wide and pleasant promenade, well 
 planted with oak and lime trees. The chief educational estab 
 lishment is the general college of Biscay. There is also a 
 Latin, five public, and numerous private schools. Bilbao is 
 uncommonly well supplied with water, which is conveyed in 
 stone tunnels under the street, and, in order that these may 
 not be disturbed, wheeled carriages are absolutely prohibited, 
 all the traffic being carried on on horseback, or by means of 
 sledges. The chief manufactures are, woollen and linen goods, 
 silks, iron and copper ware, hats, paper, and soap. Ship and 
 boat building is also extensively carried on. The port of 
 Bilbao is reached by the tide, but does not admit vessels of 
 more than 70 tons. The trade, however, is still important, 
 though much less so than formerly. Merino wool used to be 
 the staple export, but has suffered much by the competition 
 of the fine wools of Saxony. One of the chief imports i.s 
 dried cod, which is transmitted to all parts of the interior. 
 Bilbao was twice besieged by the Carlists, without success, 
 in 1835. The first siege was conducted by the celebrated 
 Zumalacarregui, who received a death-wound. Pop. 10,234. 
 
 BILBOROUGH, par. Eng. Notts ; 1090 ac. Pop. 267. 
 
 BILBROUGII, par. Eng. city of York Ainsty; K10 ac. 
 Pop. 216. 
 
 BILDESTONE, or BILSON, a decayed market tn. and 
 par. England, co. Suffolk. The town is 11 m. W.N.W. Ips 
 wich. The parish church, on an elevation at a short distance 
 W. the town, is a spacious and handsome structure. There 
 is also a Baptist chapel here. Bildestone was at one time 
 
 betel, sugar cane, and mulberry. Many of the villages are 
 stationary, and much neater than those of Bengal, and many 
 have plantations of betel-nut and sugar-cane; but numbers 
 of cultivators are migratory, and, on the least dispute, with 
 draw into the territories of Assam and Bootan. The inhabit 
 ants are divided into two sections, the Bhakat, or worshippers 
 of Krishna, and the Goraini, who eat pork, and indulge in 
 strong drink. BIJNEE, the capital, is 310 m. N.N.E. Cal 
 cutta ; lat. 26 35 N. ; Ion. 90 51 E. It is surrounded by a 
 brick wall, has some small brick temples, and a few thatched 
 huts ; and is the residence of the rajah. 
 
 HIJORE. See BAJOUR. 
 
 BILBAO, a city, Spain, cap. prov. Biscay, in a fertile 
 plain surrounded by mountains on all sides, except towards 
 the sea, r. bank, Nervion, 26 m. N. Vittoria ; lat. 43 15 40" 
 N. ; Ion. 2 54 W. (R.) The appearance of the town, when 
 viewed from any of the heights around it, is very picturesque. 
 It is generally well built. The houses are usually of three 
 stories, with ornamental facades ; and some of the principal 
 streets are straight and spacious, though the majority of them 
 are narrow and winding. All of them, however, are remark 
 ably clean and well paved. There are, properly, only two 
 squares in the town, but both of them are handsome. The 
 principal buildings are, the four parish churches, several mon 
 asteries and convents, the hospital, a magnificent stone build 
 ing, supported by voluntary subscription, and containing 600 
 beds ; the custom-house, townhall, court-houses, the theatre, 
 and slaughter-house. The last, which serves also as the flesh 
 market, is a fine building of the Tuscan order, and is kept 
 perfectly clean by a copious fountain, which is constantly 
 flowing. The river is crossed by three bridges, one of them 
 
BILEDULGERID 
 
 407 
 
 BILSTON 
 
 noted for its manufactures of blue cloth and blankets, but 
 both have fallen into decay. The market which used to be 
 held here has been discontinued for some time. Area of par. 
 1420 ac. Pop. (1841), 857. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BILEDULGERID, an extensive and little-known tract, 
 N. Africa, lying between the S. declivity of Atlas and the 
 Great Desert, and between Fezzan on the E., and Cape Non, 
 on the Atlantic, on the W. It consists of gently-inclined 
 plains, which spread to the foot of the mountains, and which 
 are nearly as sandy and barren as the desert itself, excepting 
 along the courses of the numerous streams descending from the 
 S. slopes of the Atlas Mountains, all of which are absorbed by 
 the sand, and many of which are strongly impregnated with salt. 
 Along these streams date-palms abound, which, with camels, 
 horses, and cattle, form the sole wealth of the inhabitants. 
 The real name of the place is said to be Beled-el-Jereed, which 
 has been translated, by some, into the land of dates, by others, 
 into the parched country. Both would, to a certain extent, 
 apply, as the date-tree flourishes luxuriantly in its limited 
 localities, while an utter sterility characterizes all other por 
 tions of the country. 
 
 BILGORAY, a tn. Russian Poland, dist. of, and 50 m. 
 S. Lublin, 1. bank, Lada. It contains three churches, and has 
 several important fairs. Pop. 1 600. 
 
 BILIARSK [anc. Boulimer], a tn. Russia, gov. and 
 about 80 m, S.E. Kazan, 1. bank, Tcherem-Kana. It is a 
 place of great antiquity ; and, though now decayed, its former 
 magnificence is attested by numerous ruins, particularly those 
 of an ancient temple, which is still held in great veneration 
 by the Tartars. Pop. about 2500. 
 
 BILIN [Bohemian, Byllna; Latin, Belina], a post tn. Bo 
 hemia, circle, Leitmeritz, 42 m. N.W. Prague, prettily situ 
 ated in the vale of the Bila. It is walled, contains a fine old 
 castle, built in 1680, and one of more modern date, in which 
 is a good collection of minerals, an armoury, and a museum. 
 In the town there are several churches, chapels, cotton-spin 
 ning mills, and beet-root sugar manufactories. Within 1 m. 
 of the town are mineral acid springs, much resorted to, and 
 from which 900,000 jars of water are exported annually. The 
 waste water of the wells is evaporated, and the salts and mag 
 nesia thus obtained form important articles of commerce. In 
 the vicinity are found coal and garnet. Here is also the sin 
 gular basaltic rock called Borzenberg or Biliner Stein. 
 
 BILLERICAY, a small market tn. England, co. Essex, 
 on a hill, 24 m. E.N.E. London. It consists of two principal 
 streets, one of which is straight, spacious, and about half a mile 
 in length. It is amply supplied with water from numerous and 
 copious springs, and is well lighted with gas ; and contains a 
 plain, but neat market-house, in which a corn market is held 
 every Tuesday. The churches are, the district church, having 
 au ancient and handsome tower adorned with turrets ; and a 
 chapel belonging to the Independents, a very tasteful struc 
 ture. Principal public schools : a national and British school, 
 also a respectable academy, several minor schools, and a thriv 
 ing mechanics institute. No manufactures, and the chief 
 business of the town is limited to a retail trade. The scenery 
 in the vicinity is exceedingly beautiful, and from several 
 points extensive and delightful views are obtained. Pop. 
 1284. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BILLESDON, a small market tn. and par. England, co. 
 of, and 8 in. E. Leicester. In the town are a church, Baptist 
 chapel, alms-houses, and other charities ; also a school-house, 
 erected in 1650. In the vicinity are vestiges of a strong 
 Roman encampment and pagan temple ; and, though the trade 
 and population are now inconsiderable, Billesdon appears to 
 have been, in the time of the Romans, a place of some conse 
 quence. A fair is held in April. Area of par., including the 
 chapelries of Goadby and Rolleston, 4430 ac. Pop. 878. 
 
 BILLESLEY, par. Eng. Warwick ; 750 ac. Pop. 31. 
 
 BILLING, two pars. Eng.: 1, Billing (Great), par. 
 Northampton; 1290 ac. Pop. 401. 2, Bitting (Little), par. 
 Northampton; 890 ac. Pop. 101. 
 
 BILLINGBOROUGH, par. Eng. Lincoln; 2020 ac. 
 Pop. 999. 
 
 BILLINGFORD, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Norfolk; 
 1650 ac. Pop. 353. 2, Billingsford or I iiicston, par. Nor 
 folk; 1100 ac. Pop. 219. 
 
 BILLINGHAM, par. Eng. Durham; 8970ac. P. 1053. 
 
 B1LLINGHAY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 7630 ac. P. 2095. 
 
 BILLINGHURST, par. Eng. Sussex ; 6830 ac. P. 1439. 
 
 BILLINGSLEY, par. Eng. Salop ; 1560 ac. Pop. 149. 
 
 BILLITON, BILLETON, or BLITONG, an isl. Indian Ar 
 chipelago, belonging to Palembang in Sumatra. It lies E. of 
 Banka and W. of Borneo, between lat. 2 3 and 3= 20 S. ; Ion. 
 107 28 and 108 22 E. ; rises to a considerable height above 
 the sea, and is surrounded with dangerous rocks and shoals. 
 Billiton, as well as Banka, contains vast deposits of tin, which 
 the Dutch Government keeps in reserve in case of the ex 
 haustion of that metal in the larger island. At present, the iron 
 and steel ores only are worked, and are found, without much 
 trouble, in the form of slightly oxydized iron. It produces 
 the same woods as Banka. The inhabitants live chiefly by 
 fishing, and the sale of trepang, tortoise-shell, wax, rosin, and 
 edible birds nests. They were, for a long period, notorious 
 pirates; but having, in 1821, had the audacity to attack and 
 plunder a Dutch gun-boat conveying stores and money to Sara- 
 pua, the Dutch Government made Billiton a military post, and 
 gradually brought the island entirely under its sway. The 
 inhabitants, being excellent boat-builders, were employed in 
 constructing light cruisers, which have proved of great use 
 in suppressing piracy. Billiton was recognized as a Dutch 
 possession by the treaty of London, in 1824. Pop. 6000. 
 
 BILLOCKLY, or BILLOCKBY, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 260 ac. 
 Pop. 71. 
 
 BILLOM, a tn. France, dep. Puy-de-D6me, 13 m. E.S.E. 
 Clermont, on a hill in a fertile district. The town is ancient, 
 and in the 1 5th century was surrounded with walls, and had 
 a flourishing university. At that period its tanneries were 
 very considerable, but the walls have now disappeared, and 
 the trade has long been on the decline. Still, however, it 
 has manufactures of linen, serge, delft, and coarse earthen 
 ware, bricks, and tiles, and a considerable trade in hemp (the 
 great staple of the district), thread, wool, honey, corn, cattle, 
 wood, and tanned leather for gloves. Storms are of frequent 
 occurrence, and the great quantity of rain that falls at Billom 
 has become proverbial. Pop. 3265. 
 
 BILL-QUAY, a vil. England, co. Durham, 3 m. E. 
 Gateshead. It has extensive works for .smelting lead ore, 
 and making litharge and red lead ; green glass bottle-works 
 on a large scale ; a tar, naphtha, and turpentine distillery; and 
 an establishment for distilling oil from bones ; also manufac 
 tures for preparing colours, and making mustard, besides a 
 large ship-building yard, and floating dock. 
 
 BILLY, par. Irel. Antrim ; 17,330 ac. Pop. 7277. 
 
 BILMA, a tn. in N.W. Africa, Sahara, and in the W, 
 limit of the Tibboo country, of which it is the cap. ; lat. 
 18 30 N.; Ion. 13 30 E. It stands in a hollow, on the 
 oasis called Wady Kawas, and is surrounded by low mud 
 walls, which, with the houses within, are mean and miserable. 
 The women of this town, says Major Denham, are of a 
 superior class to those of the minor towns ; some having ex 
 tremely pleasing features, while the pearly white of their 
 regular teeth is beautifully contrasted with the glossy black 
 of their skin. They are further described as dancing with 
 great taste and skill, and being altogether exceedingly attrac 
 tive. Bilma is the residence of the Sultan, and derives fur 
 ther importance from the caravans which pass through it on 
 the road between Murzook and Bornou, and from its vicinity 
 to some salt lakes, from which large quantities of fine crys 
 tallized salt are collected, and sent to Bornou and Soodan. 
 Dates also grow here abundantly, but other provisions are 
 scarce and dear. 
 
 BILNEY, two pars. Eng.: 1, Bilney (East), par. Nor 
 folk; 670 ac. Pop. 218. 2, Bilney (West), par. Norfolk; 
 2750 ac. Pop. 298. 
 
 BILSA (BILVESA), a large tn. Hindoostan, prov. Malwah, 
 belonging to Scindia, r. bank, Betwa, near its junction with 
 the Bess, 34 m. N.E. Bhopaul ; lat. 23 33 N. ; Ion. 77 56 E. 
 It is surrounded by a stone wall, and some years since con 
 tained 5000 houses. The vicinity is celebrated over all India 
 for its tobacco. 
 
 BILSBY-AND-THUKLUY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 2960 ac. 
 Pop. 584. 
 
 BILSINGTON, par. Eng. Kent ; 2800 ac. Pop. 385. 
 
 BILSTHORPE, par. Eng. Notts ; 1600 ac. Pop. 244. 
 
 BILSTON, a market tn. England, co. Stafford, 3 m. S.E. 
 Wolverhampton, on a rising ground, and extending nearly 
 2 m. in length. It is irregularly built, but the principal 
 
BILTON 
 
 408 
 
 BINGEN 
 
 street contains some substantial and handsome houses. It is 
 lighted with gas, but very inefficiently; the smaller streets 
 are nnpaved, and the larger macadamized. There are few 
 public buildings, and none of any note. The church is a neat 
 edifice, in the Grecian style, with a low tower. St. Mary s 
 chapel is also a handsome structure, in the perpendicular Eng 
 lish style, built in 1829. A third church lias been recently 
 erected. There are places of worship, besides, for Baptists, 
 Independents, Primitive and Wesleyan Methodists, Metho 
 dists of the new connection, and R. Catholics; also a small | 
 Welsh chapel. Schools numerous, including what is called 
 the Cholera Orphan school, instituted for the gratuitous edu 
 cation of the children under 12 years of age, of those who died 
 of cholera in the town in the autumn of 1832, amounting to 
 no fewer than 742 in less than seven weeks, leaving 450 des 
 titute children. The manufacturing industry of Bilston is 
 very great. The noise and smoke of engines a.nd furnaces is 
 heard and seen in all directions, and for many miles around 
 the town. The manufactures include tin, japanned and en 
 amelled wares of every kind; iron-wire, nails, screws, iron 
 gates, and palisades, machinery, steam-engines, &c. There 
 are also some mills for forming pig-iron into bars, and many 
 iron and brass foundries. Coarse pottery is made with the 
 clay which is found in the neighbourhood in great abundance. 
 A particularly fine sand for casting, and a very hard stone, 
 suitable for grindstones, are also obtained here in great plenty. 
 Pop. 20,181. 
 
 BILTON, two pars. Eng. : 1, A par. and small vil. War 
 wick; 1820 ac. Pop. 623. 2, A par. Ainsty of the city of 
 York; 4150 ac. Pop. 881. 
 
 BIMA, a seaport tn., isl. Sumbawa, Asiatic Archipelago, 
 cap. dist. of same name, N. side of the island, and near its E. 
 extremity, at the head of the Bay of Bima. It is a place of 
 pome importance, being the residence of the Sultan, of a Dutch 
 agent, and having a considerable export trade in rice, pis- 
 tacia-nuts, timber, wax, and horses. During the dreadful 
 volcanic eruption of the Tomboro Mountain, 40 m. distant, 
 which occurred in this island in April 1815, many of the 
 houses in Bima were choked up with ashes, while the lower 
 parts were inundated with the sea, which, though there was 
 a perfect calm, rolled in upon the shore. The Bay of Bima 
 stretches 21 to 24 m. into the island, with soundings of GO 
 or 80 fathoms at the entrance, 2 or 3 m. inside of which the 
 bay narrows, and has on each shore a native fort. Rugged 
 Point, the E. entrance into the bay, is in lat. 8 11 S.; Ion. 
 118 51 E. 
 
 BIMBIA, a river, W. Africa, falling into the Bight of | 
 Biafra, W. the Cameroons ; lat. 4 N. ; Ion. 9 20 E. On 
 its banks are numerous villages, built on a beautiful amphi 
 theatre of rocky ground. The inhabitants, who are of the 
 Dualla nation, are principally occupied in the collection of 
 palm-oil, which forms the staple article of their traffic. In 
 1833, their chief placed himself under British protection. 
 
 BIMLIPATAM, a small seaport tn. Hindoostan, Carnatic, 
 16m. N.N.E. Vizagapatam; lat. 17 53 N. ; Ion. 83 22 E. 
 The only tolerable buildings are a few houses in the European 
 style near the beach, and a temple on the slope of a moun 
 tain that bounds the town on the S. Traces of a Dutch fort 
 still remain. A considerable trade is carried on from hence 
 in native craft. 
 
 BINAB, a tn. Persia, prov. Azerbijan, 1. bank, Sofi Chai, 
 55 m. S.S. W. Tabreez, and 8 m. E. Lake Urumia ; lat. 37 1 7 
 N. ; Ion. 46 E. It is abundantly supplied with water, and 
 is one of the neatest and cleanest towns of Persia ; having 
 several good caravansaries, and a bazaar. It is surrounded 
 for many miles by orchards and vineyards ; and, from its mild 
 climate, is well adapted for the cultivation of grapes, vast 
 quantities of which are exported to Tabreez. It is a depend 
 ency of Maraghah ; yielding a considerable revenue, and fur 
 nishing a quota of 400 men to the Azerbijan army. Binab is 
 quite a modern settlement, no mention being made of it by 
 any of the Oriental geographers. Pop. about 7500. 
 
 BINABOLA, or TWELVE PINS, a group of mountains, 
 Ireland, co. Galway, about midway between Lough Corrib 
 and Aghris Head, consisting of two distinct mountain-ranges, 
 connected by an elevated pass called Maam Ina, and occupy 
 ing a space of about 25 sq. in. The highest summit is 2400 ft. 
 above the level of the sea, and the lowest about 1800 ft It 
 Ls intersected by glens, and encircled by lakes, and in most 
 
 places is very precipitous. Quartz is the principal formation, 
 but towards the foot of the mountains limestone abounds. 
 
 BINACRE,orBENACRE,par.Eng.Sufiolk; 1660ac. P.194. 
 
 BINASCO, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, cap. dist. 
 same name, prov. of, and 12 m. N. by W. Pavia, and inter 
 sected by the Pavia Canal. The town is defended by a castle, 
 and has a handsome church. It was burnt by the French in 
 
 1796. Pop. 1182. The DISTRICT is well irrigated, arid 
 
 produces fine crops. Pop. 9338. 
 
 BINBROOKE (St. Gabriel and St. Mary), a united par. 
 Eng. Lincoln ; 6070 ac. Pop. 1209. 
 
 BINCHE, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, nearly 
 midway between Mons and Charleroi. It is pretty; its en 
 virons are picturesque; and it contains several handsome 
 buildings; among others a church, a communal house, a small 
 college, and an hospital. The manufactures are considerable, 
 including metal forging, cutlery, glassworks, soapworks, sugar 
 refineries, hat factories, tanneries, three breweries and distil 
 leries. Some hundreds of women are engaged in flowering 
 lace. Binche was walled, in 1110, by Baldwin the builder, 
 Count of Hainaut ; and burnt, in 1534, by Henry II. of France. 
 Pop. 5131. 
 
 BINCOMBE, par. Eng. Dorset; 1220 ac. Pop- 170. 
 
 BINDRABUND, a large tn. India, prov. of, and 35 m. 
 N.N. W. Agra, r. bank, Jumna ; lat. 27 37 N. ; Ion. 77 43 E. 
 It is chiefly famous as having been the scene of the youthful 
 sports of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu, who is an 
 object of enthusiastic admiration to the Hindoos, and to whom 
 many temples, still existing, were dedicated. Some of these 
 
 HINDOO TEMl LKS AT BINI)I!AIlt*KP. 
 
 are of a remarkable style of architecture, and the great cruci 
 form pagoda is esteemed one of the most massy and elaborate 
 works of Brahminical superstition. There are likewise several 
 sacred pools, where the pilgrims perform their ablutions, and 
 wash away their sins. Different parts of the neighbouring 
 woods are pointed out as the abode of ancient Hindoo saints 
 and sages, and which are now occupied by religious mendicants. 
 
 B1NEG AR, par. Eng. Somerset ; 680 ac. Pop. 338. 
 
 BINFIELD, par. and vil. Eng. Berks; 3530 ac. P. 1242. 
 
 BI NGEN , a tn . grand duchy Hesse- Darmstadt, prov. of, and 
 on 1. bank,Rhine,l 5 m. W. Mainz. It contains about 520 houses, 
 and is the place of sale for the wines produced in its vicinity, 
 which are much esteemed. It has also a considerable trade in 
 corn, several extensive tanneries, and manufactures of tobacco, 
 and carries on an active traffic on the Rhine. It is a place of 
 high antiquity, having existed under the Romans. The bridge 
 across the Nahe into Bingen, is said to have been constructed 
 by Drusus, the Roman general. On an eminence near the 
 town are the ruins of an old fort, called Klopp, or Drusus 
 Castle, commanding a fine view. The navigation of the 
 Rhine was formerly obstructed near Bingen, by a ledge of 
 rocks that ran obliquely across the river; but by blasting, 
 
BINGHAM 
 
 409 
 
 BIRIOUSSA 
 
 a channel of 210 ft. width, called Linger Loch [liole of Bin- 
 gen], has been opened in them, through which vessels now 
 pass in safety. In its vicinity are the Mausethurm [mouse 
 tower], the retreat ?.nl death-place of Bishop Hatto of Mainz, 
 the castle of Eheinstein, and other architectural remains. 
 Pop. 4415. 
 
 BINGHAM, a small market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Notts. The town, 9 m. E. Nottingham, has two principal 
 streets, and a few smaller, a large church, several dissenting 
 chapels, a poorhouse, some parochial and Sunday schools, 
 and other charities. The petty sessions for the hundred of 
 Bingham are held here, and it is one of the polling places for 
 the S. division of the county. Two annual cattle-fairs are 
 held, in February and May ; and two others, one in Whitsun- 
 week and one in November, for hops, &c. The par., intersected 
 by the Grantham Canal, has an area of 2930 ac. Pop. 1998. 
 
 BINGPIAMTON, a post vil., U. States, New York, cap. 
 Broome co., 138 m. S.W. Albany. It contains a court-house, 
 jail, county clerk s office, an academy, nine churches, two 
 Presbyterian, one Episcopal, one Baptist, two Methodist, one 
 E. Catholic, and two African ; is surrounded by a rich agri 
 cultural country, and exports a large amount of lumber. Pop. 
 (1840), 2800. 
 
 BINGLEY, a tn. and par. England, co. York, W. Riding. 
 The town lies on the sides and summit of a gentle eminence, 
 between the Aire, and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, 36 m. 
 W.S.W. York, and consists chiefly of one long street, is toler 
 ably well built, lighted with gas, and amply supplied with 
 water. The churches and schools comprise the parish church, 
 a spacious and venerable structure, with a square embattled 
 tower, in the later English style ; Baptist, Independent, Primi 
 tive Methodist and Wesleyan chapels, a free grammar, na 
 tional, and several day and Sunday schools. The manufacture 
 of worsted and cotton is carried on here, and in the neigh 
 bourhood, to a great extent. There are also paper manu 
 factories, and some trade in malt. The town is altogether 
 rapidly increasing in importance and prosperity. Area of 
 par. 13,180 ac. Pop. 11,850; of tn. 10,157. 
 
 BINGTANG, PULU-BINTAM, or BIXTAM, an isl. Indian 
 Archipelago, between lat. 1 10 N. and 1 10 S.; Ion. 104 15 
 and 104 37 E.; bounded, N. by the Strait of Singapore, 
 E. and S. by that of Riou, and AV. by the China Sea. It is 
 30 m. in length, and nearly the same in breadth. Numerous 
 small islands and reefs make its waters dangerous to seamen, 
 to whom it and some of the neighbouring islets are best known 
 under the name of Riou, a port in the small island of Tand- 
 jong-Pinang. Bingtang is subject to a Viceroy of the Sultan 
 of Linga, but the supremacy of the Dutch is fully recognized. 
 It contains GOOO ginger gardens. Pop., with surrounding 
 islets, 6000. 
 
 BIN HAM, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 2200 ac. Pop. 502. 
 
 BINIC, a seaport tn. and com. France, dep. Cotes-du- 
 Nord, 6 m. N.N.W. St. Brieuc, at the foot of a semicircular 
 hill, whose base is washed by the sea. A wooden bridge 
 across the river Ic unites the communes of Pordic and Binic. 
 The port has a depth of above 18 ft. in spring, and about 8 ft. 
 in ebb tides, and is one of the most convenient on the coast 
 of Brittany. It receives annually between 150 and 160 ves 
 sels of various sizes. Twenty-nine belong to Binic, and of 
 these, 18 to 20, from 120 to 300 tons burden, are engaged 
 in the Newfoundland cod-fishery. Pop. 2324. 
 
 BINLEY, par. Eng. Warwick ; 2470 ac. Pop. 233. 
 
 BINSEY, par. Eng. Oxford; 470 ac. Pop. 61. 
 
 BUNSTED, two pars. Eng. : 1, Hants ; 7060 ac. Pop. 
 1055. 2, Sussex; 1010 ac. Pop. 111. 
 
 BINTON, par. Eng. Warwick ; 1260 ac. Pop. 269. 
 
 BINTEEE, par. Eng. Norfolk; 2120 ac. Pop. 409. 
 
 BIOBIO, the largest river in Chili, prov. Concepcion. 
 Its head streams, which are numerous, rise in the Andes, and, 
 uniting at Nacimiento, or about lat. 37 20 S., form the Bio- 
 bio, which falls into the Pacific at the town of Concepcion, 
 lat. 36 49 30" S. ; Ion. 73 5 30" W. (K.), after a total course of 
 about 150 m., but not more than 80 m. from the junction of 
 the head streams at the point above named. It is about 2 m. 
 wide at its mouth, but is too shallow for large vessels; small 
 river barges, however, and canoes, navigate it as far up as 
 Nacimiento. The Biobio forms the N. boundary of the ter 
 ritory of Araucania. 
 
 BIR, or BEER [anc. HirtJia], a tn. Asiatic Turkey, 62 m. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 N.E. Aleppo, on the side of a steep hill, 1. bnnk, Euphrates, 
 which is here about 600 yards wide, and from 10 to 12ft. 
 deep. The town is surrounded, on the land side, by a wall, 
 with towers at the angles, and pierced with loop-holes. The 
 streets are narrow, but clean. It contains several mosques 
 with tall minarets, a few coffee-houses, a bath, a bazaar, and 
 a caravansary. In the centre, on a steep rock, is an old 
 ruined fortification. The rocks on which Bir is built are of 
 chalk, and the houses of the same material, the whiteness of 
 which, in bright sunshine, is painful to the eyes. Bir has 
 long been the point where caravans and travellers, from Aleppo 
 to Orfah, Diarbekir, Bagdad, and Persia, cross the Euphrates, 
 which they do in boats of a peculiar description, 40 ft. long 
 by 10 broad, 15 ft. high at the prow, and only 2 ft. at the 
 stern. It is also the point from which it is proposed to navi 
 gate the Euphrates by steam. Pop. between 3000 and 4000. 
 
 BIRBHOOM. See BEERBHOOM. 
 
 BIRCH, two pars. Eng.: 1, Birch (Great], par. Essex; 
 2940 ac. Pop. 794. 2, Birch (Little], par. Hereford; 930 ac. 
 Pop. 375. 
 
 BIRCH AM, three pars. Eng. Norfolk:!, Bircham 
 (Great), 3530 ac. Pop. 51 1. 2, Bircham (Newton], 1 150 ac. 
 Pop. 107. 3, Bircham (Tofts), 1450 ac. Pop. 142. 
 
 BIRCHANGER, par. Eng. Essex ; 1150 ac. Pop. 386. 
 
 BIRCHINGTON, par. and small seaport, Eng. Kent ; 
 1760 ac. Pop. 874. 
 
 BIRCHOLT, par. Eng. Kent; 310 ac. Pop. 37. 
 
 BIRD ISLAND. See AYES ISLAND. 
 
 BIRD ISLAND, numerous small islands:!, An isl. 
 Banda Sea; lat. 5 29 S.; Ion. 130 1 E. (R.) 2, One of the 
 Falkland Islands, about 1 J m. long, and 410 ft. high ; lat. 
 52 11 S.; Ion. 60 54 W. (R.) 3, An isl. Ladrones, about 
 2 m. in extent, and having rocks round it; lat. 16 1 N.; 
 Ion. 146 3 E. (R.) 4, An isl. Low Archipelago, called also 
 Heknerd, about 2tV m. in extent, and having a lagoon in it; 
 lat. (N. point) 17" 48 S.; Ion. 143 7 W. (R.) 5, An isl., 
 S.W. coast, Papua; lat. 4 19 S.; Ion. 133 28 E. (R.) 
 6, An uninhabited isl. Sandwich group ; lat. 23 6 N. ; Ion. 
 161 57 W. (R.) 7, A low isl. Seychelle Archipelago, in 
 which water may be procured by digging. It is about 2 m. 
 in extent; lat. (N.E. point) 3 42 42" S.; Ion. 55 15 42" 
 E. (R.) 8, An isl., W. coast, Africa, about 2 m. long; lat. 
 13 39 30" N.; Ion. 16 40 W. (R.) 
 
 BIRD ISLANDS. 1, A cluster of low islands, N.E. 
 coast, Australia, named by Capt. Cook; lat. 11 46 S.; Ion. 
 143 9 E. (R.) 2, A small cluster of islands, called also 
 Chaon, off Algoa Bay, Cape Colony, extending over a space 
 about 7 m. by 2 m. ; lat. (E. one) 33 52 6" S. ; Ion. 26 18 
 E. (R.) 3, Two small islands, N.W, the Magdalen Islands, 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence ; lat. (E. one) 47 51 N. ; Ion. 61 9 42" 
 W. (R.) 
 
 BIRDBROOK, par. Eng. Essex ; 2640 ac. Pop. 557. 
 
 BIRDHAM, par. Eng. Sussex; 1930 ac. Pop. 506. 
 
 BIRDINBURY, par. Eng. Warwick; 1180 ac. P. 201. 
 
 BI RDSALL, par. Eng. York, E. Riding; 3650 ac. P. 267. 
 
 BIRGHAM, a small vil. Scotland, co. Berwick, on the 
 Tweed, 15 m. S.W. Berwick, formerly called Brigliam, from 
 a bridge which, it is supposed, united the two kingdoms at 
 this point. The village is worthy of notice on account of its 
 historical associations only. It was here that Hugh, Bishop 
 of Durham, ambassador of Henry II. of England, and Wil 
 liam the Lion of Scotland, attended by bis bishops, earls, and 
 barons, met on the subject of the Saladin tenth, .1 tax which 
 Henry proposed to levy in Scotland, as he had done in Eng 
 land, to carry on a new crusade ; but which William there in 
 formed the bishop he could not prevail on his people to pay. 
 It was here, also, that a numerous meeting of the community 
 of Scotland assembled to express their approbation of the pro 
 posed man-rage of Prince Edward, son of Edward I., with 
 Margaret of Scotland, but which, in consequence of the death 
 of the latter, never took place. In July of the same year, 
 1290, another meeting was held at Birgham, at which were 
 present the Bishop of Durham and five others, who ratified, 
 in the name of the King of England, certain measures taken 
 by the Scots to secure the independence o"f their kingdom. 
 
 BIRIOUSSA, a river, Siberia, forming part of the bound 
 ary between govs. Irkutsk and Yenesei. It is one of the 
 head streams of the Ona, an affluent of the Tchuna, and has 
 a N. course of about 200 m. 
 
 2 
 
BIRIOUTSCH 
 
 410 
 
 BIRMINGHAM 
 
 BIRIOUTSCH, a tn. European Russia, cap. dist. of same 
 name, gov. of, and 80 m. S.S.W. Yoroneje, 1. bank, Sosna, 
 a tributary of the Don. It is surrounded by an earthen ram 
 part, and a ditch of considerable depth, contains seven churches, 
 and has four important annual fairs. Pop., chiefly agricul 
 tural, about 6000. A stream of the same name, near the 
 town, is remarkable for the pearls occasionally obtained from 
 its oysters, and the bones and teeth of elephants often exposed 
 upon its banks. 
 
 BIRKBY, or BRETBY, par. Eng. York, N. Riding; 3400 
 ac. Pop. 256. 
 
 BIRKENFELD, a principality, cap. same name, belonging 
 to the grand duchy of Oldenburg, but locally separated from it, 
 1. bank, Rhine, N. of Hesse-Homburg, and surrounded on all 
 sides by the Prussian governments of Trier and Coblentz. 
 It has an area of 154 geo. sq. m., and is divided into the three 
 bailiwicks of Birkenfeld, Oberstein, and Rohfelden. The 
 surface is generally rugged, the soil by no means fertile, and 
 the climate, particularly in the neighbourhood of the Hunds- 
 riicken, cold and severe. The chief streams are, the Nahe, 
 Frais, Idar, and Kanne. The wood is principally oak and 
 beech ; and the minerals are, coal, iron, roofing-slate, and whet 
 stones. Pop. 28,669. The TOWN is 24 m. E.S.E. Treves 
 
 or Trier, with a sharpening and polishing mill, linen manufac 
 tures and tanneries. Pop. 2385. Numerous small places, 
 
 particularly in Prussia, have the 
 same name. 
 
 B1RKENHEAD, a market tn. 
 and port, England, co. Cheshire, on 
 the estuary of the Mersey, here 134(J 
 yards wide, opposite Liverpool ; lat. 
 53 23 N. ; Ion. 3 2 W. It is of 
 entirely modern erection, and owes 
 its formation and the prosperity which 
 has attended it, to its commodious 
 docks. It has five principal streets, 
 running from N.W. to S.E. ; crossed 
 at right angles by a number of shorter 
 ones ; a handsome square, having an 
 area of 6J ac., four of which are en 
 closed and planted with shrubbery ; a 
 townhouse that cost 10,000 ; market 
 on an extensive scale, which cost 
 30,000; slaughter-houses on the 
 most approved plan, and ranges of 
 dwelling-houses for workmen, unusu 
 ally complete in their accommodation 
 and in all their appointments. The 
 system of drainage and sewerage is 
 
 also singularly complete. The width of courts is regulated, 
 and the streets are generally wider than in the best parts of 
 most towns. It is well paved, lighted with gas, and abund 
 antly supplied with water. There are four churches belong 
 ing to the establishment, all handsome edifices, in various 
 styles of architecture, a Scotch church, five dissenting places 
 of worship, and a R. Catholic chapel, five schools in connec 
 tion with the parish church, three with Trinity church, three 
 with St. John s, and two with St. Anne s, besides schools in 
 connection with the dissenting chapels. There is also a theo 
 logical college, where young men are prepared as clergymen 
 for foreign missions. A mechanics institute was established 
 in 1840. The benevolent institutions comprise an hospital 
 or infirmary, a lying-in hospital, and a dispensary. In the 
 N.W. part of the township, on rising ground, a large public 
 park beautifully laid out, has been formed, having a noble 
 carriage entrance, in the Ionic style. Its magnificent docks, 
 however, form the great distinguishing features of Birkenhead, 
 and are the sources of its prosperity. When the works are 
 completed, there will be a total accommodation of more than 
 200 ac. The dock warehouses are on an equally magnificent 
 scale. The area of the principal or floating dock will be 
 120 ac.; and its depth 19 ft. 
 
 The communication with Liverpool is kept up by small 
 steamboats, which ply from each side of the river every quarter 
 of an hour. Birkenhead is connected by railway with Chester, 
 and thence with all parts of England. The rails are brought 
 round all the quays of the docks. Pop. of the township, which 
 includes Birkenhead and a few neighbouring places, about 
 23,000. 
 
 BlRKlN.par. Eng. York, W. Riding; 5890 ac. P. 921. 
 
 BIRLEY, par. Eng. Hereford; 1260 ac. Pop. 172. 
 
 BIRLING, par. Eng. Kent; 2240 ac. Pop. 511. 
 
 BI RLINGH AM, par. Eng. Worcester ; 1450 ac. P. 390. 
 
 BIRMAII. See BURMAH. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM [anc. Brememum}, one of the greatest 
 manufacturing towns of England, N.W. extremity of co. War 
 wick, division of its name, him. Hemlingford, on the borders 
 of the counties of Stafford and Worcester; 102 m. N.W. Lon 
 don, and 112J by railway. It stands nearly in the centre of 
 England, on slightly elevated ground, having an ascent on all 
 sides but the N.W., is somewhat circular in form, and about 
 5j^ to 6 m. in circumference. The streets are generally wind 
 ing, few of them running parallel to each other, and still fewer 
 being perfectly straight ; many of them, however, are imposing, 
 and are lined with handsome buildings. The lower part of the 
 town, consisting chiefly of old houses, is crowded with workshops 
 and warehouses, and inhabited principally by manufacturers ; 
 but the upper part contains a number of new, broad, and regular 
 streets ; houses well built, chiefly of brick, the more recently 
 erected being, in most instances, faced with Roman cement and 
 plaster. They are lighted with gas, and the main streets, upon 
 the whole, well paved ; in the smaller, however, as in many other 
 towns in England, the footways are laid with boulders, making 
 very uncomfortable walking to unaccustomed feet. 
 
 THE TOWNHALL, BIRMINGHAM From Nature and on inxxl. by C. W. Rulelyffe. 
 
 Public Buildings. The most remarkable of these are the 
 townhall, and free grammar-school; the latter founded and 
 chartered by Edward VI. The townhall, situated at the E. 
 end of Paradise Street, and erected for municipal purposes, 
 public meetings, and musical performances, is the great orna 
 ment of the town, and is so lofty and large, that it is seen from 
 almost every part of it. The building is rectangular, and 
 after the model of the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome. It 
 rests on a rustic basement of 20 ft. in height, pierced with 
 doors and windows, and is surrounded by a series of Corin 
 thian columns supporting entablatures above. It is 160 ft. 
 long, 100 broad, and 83 high, and is of brick, faced with 
 marble. The large saloon or hall is 1 45 ft. long, 65 wide, 
 and 65 high. It can accommodate above 4000 persons sitting ; 
 and contains a large orchestra, capable of holding 400 per 
 formers, with a lofty, wide, and deep recess for the organ, one 
 of the largest and finest in the world. The free grammar- 
 school, a beautiful structure, erected in 1834 at an expense 
 of about 50,000, stands nearly in the centre of the town. 
 The architect, Mr. Barry, has employed in it the same general 
 style as that which he has adopted in the new Houses of Par 
 liament. It is of a regular quadrangular figure, 174 ft. in 
 front, 25 wide, and 60 high, and embodies an adaptation of 
 the collegiate, civil, and ecclesiastical pointed architecture 
 of the latest Gothic or Tudor style. It contains both a 
 clnssical and a commercial school; and the education given 
 in it has been eulogised as consisting of a happy combination 
 of classic lore and practical science. In 1847, the number 
 of pupils was 1200, about 400 of these being in the central 
 schools, and 800 in three branch schools, erected in suitable 
 
BIRMINGHAM 
 
 411 
 
 BIRMINGHAM 
 
 situations for the children of artizans and others, thus con 
 veying the benefits of this noble foundation very extensively. 
 The institution is now open to persons of every denomination. 
 It is under the management of 20 governors, and the bishop 
 of the diocese. Among the other public buildings of note, 
 besides several of the churches to be afterwards mentioned, 
 are the Queen s college (late the royal school of medicine and 
 surgery), opposite the townhall, in Paradise Street, founded 
 in 1828, containing most valuable and extensive museums 
 of human and comparative anatomy, incorporated by royal 
 charter in 1843 up to 1846 open to medical students only, 
 but now open to all classes of students, and entitled to issue 
 certificates for degrees in the university of London, in arts, 
 law, or medicine ; Queen s hospital, lying-in hospital, deaf 
 and dumb institution, blue-coat school, blind asylum, Bingley 
 exhibition hall, Hebrew school, Odd-fellows hall, bank 
 ruptcy court, the building belonging to the society of arts, 
 the theatre, the post-office, the news-room in Bennett s Hill, 
 the philosophical society, the polytechnic institution, the dis 
 pensary, and the new market-hall, wash houses, and baths ; and 
 to these may be added the public office, the proof-house, 
 the London and North-western Railway station, the general 
 hospital, the cavalry and infantry barracks, the Birmingham 
 new and theological library, the extensive and commodious j 
 baths at Lady Well and Balsalt, and the statue of Lord j 
 Nelson, a colossal figure in bronze, in the centre of the open ; 
 area called the Bull Ring. New barracks, on a large scale, 
 are about to be built at Birmingham. 
 
 Places of WorsJiip. Birmingham, within the borough, 
 which includes Edgbaston, a suburban par. and town, and 
 part of Aston, contains 23 churches and chapels in connection 
 with the Establishment. The old parish church of St. Mnr- | 
 
 to have been 
 founded in the 
 seventh or 
 eighth century, 
 though its pre 
 sent exterior 
 does not seem 
 earlier in date 
 than the 13th, 
 is not remark 
 able either for 
 grandeur or 
 architectural 
 beauty, but has 
 a large massive 
 tower, sur 
 mounted by a 
 tall symmetri 
 cal spire, about 
 210 ft. high; 
 measures are 
 now in pro 
 gress for re- 
 building it. 
 The interior 
 contains some 
 
 fine and remarkably curious monuments of the De Birming- 
 hams, the ancient lords of the place. St. Philip s Church, 
 erected in 1725, on the most elevated spot in the town, is 
 a beautiful structure, in the Palladian or Italian style, con 
 sisting of a pedestal line, of good height, a range of lofty 
 Doric pilasters, enclosing the large and well-proportioned 
 windows, and a handsome balustrade. The tower, carried 
 upwards by a series of carved figures, is surmounted by a 
 dome and cupola. St. George s Church, erected in 1822, is 
 a handsome and graceful structure, in the decorated English 
 style, with a lofty, square, embattled tower. St. Thomas s 
 Church, the most capacious in the town, built in 1829, gives 
 a fine specimen of Doric architecture. The other churches 
 are St. Mary s, belonging formerly to the parish of St. Mar 
 tin, erected by subscription in 1744 ; St. Paul s, erected 
 by subscription in 1779, somewhat heavy in its architecture, 
 but relieved by an extremely light and elegant spire ; Clirist 
 Church, a large, plain, and commodious stone building, ad 
 mirably situated on an angular tongue of land, formed by 
 the convergence of several important streets ; St. Bartho- 
 
 TH E BULL RING AND ST. HAKTIS CHDECH, 
 
 lomew s, a plain brick building, with a powerful organ, by 
 England, and a handsome altar-piece ; St. Peter s, formerly 
 a chapel of ease to St. Philip s, in the Grecian style, with a 
 massive Doric portico, in imitation of the Parthenon at Athens ; 
 St. James s Chapel, a chapel of ease to Aston Church, as are 
 also St. John s, built in 1735, and Holy Trinity Chapel, a 
 handsome Gothic building; All Saints , erected in 1833, a 
 large and handsome brick structure, interspersed with Bath 
 stone ; and Bishop Ryder s Church, so called as a testimonial 
 to the memory of the prolate of that name, by whose example 
 and influence subscriptions were raised for its erection. To 
 these may be added, the old and the new church at Edgbaston, 
 and several churches recently built in those populous parts 
 of the adjoining parishes, included within the Parliamentary 
 boundary of the borough. The dissenting places of worship 
 are very numerous. There are a large R. Catholic cathedral, 
 and three or four chapels ; ten Wesleyan Methodist chapels, 
 three new connection, and one belonging to the Wesleyan 
 Association, besides several smaller, belonging to other sec 
 tions of Methodists ; eight Baptist chapels, seven Independent 
 chapels, five places of worship for Unitarians, an elegant new 
 Presbyterian church in Broad Street, and a chapel belonging 
 to Lady Huntingdon s connection; a New Jerusalem church, 
 a Quakers meeting-house, and a Jews synagogue. Some of 
 these places of worship are very elegant and spacious build 
 ings. The most remarkable is the E. Catholic cathedral of 
 St. Chad, erected at an expense of 60,000; it contains a 
 melodious peal of bells ; contiguous is a handsome building-, 
 the residence of the R. Catholic bishop and clergy. 
 
 Charitable Institutions. Amongst the charitable institu 
 tions, the most important are the general hospital, supported 
 by subscriptions, and by the profits arising from the triennial 
 
 musical festi 
 val ; and the 
 Queen s hospi 
 tal, founded in 
 1840. There 
 are, besides, 
 the general and 
 self-supporting 
 dispensaries, 
 the lying-in - 
 hospital, the 
 eye infirmary, 
 an institution 
 for the relief 
 of deafness, the 
 general institu 
 tion for the 
 blind, the deaf 
 and dumb asy 
 lum, and the 
 Magdalene 
 asylum at Is 
 lington. In va 
 rious parts of 
 the town are 
 
 numerous 
 almshouses, for 
 
 the aged and infirm poor ; and sundry other charitable insti 
 tutions, the names of which need not be here specified. 
 
 Schools, Literary and Scientific Institutions, &c. Besides 
 the free grammar-school, and Queen s college, already de 
 scribed, the principal educational establishments of Birming 
 ham are: the blue-coat school, with accommodation for 200 
 boys, and 100 girls; the education includes the ordinary ele 
 mentary branches, and religious instruction; the girls are 
 also taught sewing, knitting, and household work, and are 
 prepared for domestic servants; the Protestant Dissenters 
 charity school, established in 1762, and entirely supported 
 by voluntary subscription, at present clothes, maintains, and 
 educates 40 girls, but the number is not limited ; St. Philip s 
 industrial free school originally established in 1824, though 
 the present building was erected in 1846 admits 170 chil 
 dren, boys and girls. Besides these, there are numerous pri 
 vate, ordinary, and boarding schools ; National, British, and 
 Lancasterian schools ; a Hebrew school ; infant, Sunday, and 
 ragged schools, &c. ; Springhill College, for the education of 
 young men for the dissenting ministry amongst Independents, 
 
BIRMINGHAM 
 
 412 
 
 BIRMINGHAM 
 
 is a well-endowed seminary, recently established; and in the 
 neighbourhood of Birmingham is the 11. Catholic seminary of 
 Oscott. A diocesan training institution is about to be erected, 
 for the diocese of Worcester, at Saltley. There are two public 
 subscription libraries in the town, one containing 30,000 
 volumes, and the other 7000; a society of arts, and Govern 
 ment school of design, an Odd-fellows literary institute, a 
 philosophical institution, a polytechnic institute, and a society 
 of artists. Among the scientific institutions, the Birmingham 
 botanical and horticultural society, established in 1829, whose 
 gardens are at Edgbaston, is deserving of notice. 
 
 Manufactures. The origin and progress of the prosperity 
 of Birmingham, is wholly attributable to the excellence and 
 extent of its hardware manufactures. Its geographically cen 
 tral situation on the border of a great coal and iron district, 
 combined with the command of a wide and ready transit, both 
 by canal and railway, have contributed to render it one of the 
 
 greatest manufacturing towns, in the particular line above 
 alluded to, in the world ; approached only, perhaps, by 
 Sheffield. Nowhere else can we find such extraordinary de 
 velopments of human skill and ingenuity, nor such perfec 
 tion in the arts in which they are employed. The vast 
 variety of trades render it a desirable place for the talented 
 and skilled artizaii ; and this variety is such, that it has 
 seldom happened that Birmingham has been distressed, like 
 many towns, from utter lack of employment. Of the early 
 history of Birmingham, as a manufacturing town, little fur 
 ther is known, beyond the general fact that it has enjoyed a 
 reputation for its iron and steel manufactures for several 
 centuries ; although its greatest and most rapid progress has 
 taken place within the last forty years. In 1805, the amount 
 of hardware and cutlery exported was 4288 tons; in 1844, 
 it amounted to 22,552 tons, all the intermediate years, with 
 two or three exceptions, showing a progressive increa-e. In 
 
 1821, the value of the exports was 1,237,692; in 1844, 
 2,179,087. But the value of hardware goods was, probably, 
 fully a third more in the former than in the latter year ; so 
 that the quantity exported in 1844, exceeds that of 1821 far 
 more than the respective valuations indicate. The extra 
 ordinary reduction in the price of Birmingham manufactures 
 has arisen, partly from a reduction in the cost of the material, 
 but chiefly, and in many cases solely, from improved methods 
 of production, as the cost of the material forms, generally, a 
 very small portion of the value of the finished article. Some 
 of these reductions are truly extraordinary : on fire-arms the 
 reduction is about 53 per cent. ; on gun-locks, from 65 to 85 
 per cent. ; on spoons, stirrups, &c., from 61 to 69 per cent. , 
 and on iron chains, 68 per cent. One of the most important 
 manufactures of Birmingham is that of fire-arms. During the 
 last war, 5,000,000 were furnished on account of Government, 
 and oi the private trade ; those for the former being supplied 
 
 24. St. Bartholomew s Church. 
 25 S:. James s Church. 
 86. St, Matthew s Church. 
 27. Church of England Cemeter 
 
 29. R. Catholic Cathedral. 
 
 at the rate of 15,000 muskets weekly. The manufacture of 
 swords is also one of the staple trades of Birmingham. Both 
 of these trades, however, have, of course, much fallen off; and 
 the skill and industry employed in them have taken other 
 directions. At Soho, in the vicinity of the town, was formerly 
 one of the largest steam-engine manufactories in the world, 
 belonging to Boulton, partner of the celebrated James Watt ; 
 but the steam-engine department is now carried on, exclusive 
 ly, at Smethick, a short distance to the west of Sol.o, where 
 extensive works have recently been erected by the same 
 company. Goods of various descriptions, however, are still 
 made here, such as vases, candelabras, and other articles in 
 bronze or ormulu, with large quantities of plate. Here, also, 
 the copper coinage of the kingdom used to be executed. The 
 coining mill, working eight machines, was capable of throw 
 ing off 4000 pieces of money per hour. Cast-iron articles of 
 all kinds, and of the most beautiful patterns and workmanship, 
 
BIRMINGHAM 
 
 413 
 
 BIRMINGHAM 
 
 are manufactured here to a great extent, superseding those 
 made of more expensive metals. In former years, iron-found 
 ing was limited to large and heavy articles, but is now ex 
 tended, with the most entire success, to the lightest and most 
 graceful, in the finishing of which bronze is now very gener 
 ally employed. The quantity of solid gold and silver plate 
 manufactured in Birmingham is not great; but the con 
 sumption of silver in plating was very considerable, having 
 been estimated at about 200,000 oz. a year. It is now, how 
 ever, rather less, in consequence of the introduction of such 
 metallic compounds as that called albafa, which, though in 
 ferior in appearance to well -finished plated goods, are durable 
 and cheap. The beautiful invention of electro-plating, first 
 discovered in this town, tends very greatly to the increase of 
 the consumption of silver, and also of gold. The vast estab 
 lishment of Smith, Elkington, and Co., New Hall Street, is 
 an object of great attraction. Japanning, in all its forms and 
 varieties, is carried on here to a large extent ; and, though of 
 comparatively recent introduction, has attained to a great 
 degree of perfection, especially in the pictorial department ; 
 the trays and waiters manufactured in Birmingham, particu 
 larly those of papier mache, often displaying, in the conception 
 and execution of their ornamental designs, taste and talent of 
 the highest order. Glass manufacturing, and glass staining 
 or painting, forms another important branch of manufacture ; 
 in the former, ornaments of a size are made, which it was once 
 thought could be produced only in metal ; on these the most 
 beautiful, delicate, and brilliant surfaces are raised by the. 
 lathe and cutting tool. The manufacture of steel pens, 
 scarcely known 25 years ago, is another important branch of 
 the trade of Birmingham. One manufacturer of this appar 
 ently trivial article, employs 400 individuals, and consumes 
 upwards of 85 tons of fine sheet-steel annually, each ton 
 making 10,000 gross of pens. The price of this article has 
 fallen from 12s. per dozen to Is. per gross, and still lower for 
 an inferior article. The whole quantity of steel pens now 
 manufactured is estimated at 750,000,000 annually, consum 
 ing above 400 tons of steel. Large quantities of these are 
 exported. Pins are also manufactured here to a great ex 
 tent ; and such is the extraordinary productive powers of the 
 machinery employed, and of the system of minute subdivision 
 of labour, that 12,000 pins can be cut and pointed in an hour, 
 and 50,000 heads rounded off in the same space of time. The 
 manufacture of buckles was at one time carried on to a great 
 extent at Birmingham, but has long been extinct, in conse 
 quence of the general disuse of that article. Buttons are still 
 made in large quantities, and, though there has been a great 
 falling off in some of the branches of that trade, yet necessity, 
 the mother of invention, has given birth to many new species 
 of buttons. The whole number made annually in the town 
 is estimated at 750,000,000. When gilt buttons were more 
 in demand than they now are, so extraordinary a degree of 
 perfection was attained in the art of gilding, that 3d. worth 
 of gold was made to cover a gross of buttons. In making 
 florentine, or silk buttons, 14 pairs of hands, and a number 
 of machines, are employed ; and yet a set of 14 buttons can 
 be sold for a Id. or l^d. Fancy seals, brooches, clasps, and 
 other trinkets, composed of what is called Birmingham gold, 
 and polished steel, are made in immense quantities, of the 
 most beautiful workmanship, and at prices which excite 
 astonishment. Great numbers of gold rings are also manu 
 factured ; in 1839, no fewer than 25,000 wedding gold rings 
 were assayed and marked at the Assay Office in Birmingham. 
 The above sketch gives only a selection of a few of the leading 
 articles manufactured at this great seat of human industry and 
 ingenuity. The simple enumeration of all, without any statis 
 tical detail, would occupy a far greater space than could be 
 afforded in a work of this nature. The machinery employed 
 in the manufacture of nails, screws, button shanks, and in 
 rolling out thick bars, or ingots of metal, into long thin sheets, 
 are amongst the most wonderful inventions of the mechanical 
 genius of this extraordinary place ; all of these combining 
 prodigious power, with the most delicate and beautiful pre 
 cision of movement. The most delicate impressions on metals 
 are often produced by the die sinking stamp. Not many large 
 capitalists are engaged in the manufactures of Birmingham; 
 a great proportion averaging from 500 to 1000. These 
 persons give out their work to the workmen they employ, who 
 are generally paid by the piece, and work at home. The 
 
 employer has thus no expensive establishment to maintain, 
 and no wages to pay but when he has orders to execute. The 
 workman, again, when the work put into his hands requires 
 the aid of machinery, may hire, for any given time, one or more 
 rooms, together with a certain quantity of steam power, in any 
 one of a number of buildings appropriated to such purposes, 
 which are furnished with steam-engine, working-shafts, lathes, 
 benches, &c. The engine power of Birmingham, in 1849, 
 was estimated at that of 5400 horses, and consumed 377 
 tons of coal per day. The working of this power employed 
 8000 to 10,000 persons. It has been greatly lamented by 
 those who take an interest in the morals of this town, that a 
 vast and increasing employment of married women and of 
 very young children in the delicate manufactures, should 
 occasion much domestic evil and physical suffering ; but still 
 more that the morals of the cottage hearth, together with its 
 comforts, should vastly suffer by the absence, in so many 
 cases, of the mother and wife. The effect upon the educa 
 tional effort is very disastrous. There is a branch bank of 
 England in Birmingham, and seven other banks, and a very 
 flourishing savings -bank. 
 
 Canals and Railways. Birmingham is in the centre of the 
 canal and railway systems of the kingdom ; and is indebted to 
 them for a great part of its prosperity. The Old Canal opens 
 a communication, through the Severn, with Shrewsbury, 
 Gloucester, and Bristol ; and, through the Trent, with Gains 
 borough, Hull, and London. This canal has also a junction 
 with the grand line, running through the potteries of Stafford 
 shire, to Manchester and Liverpool ; so that both the Irish Sea 
 and the German Ocean are laid directly open to Birmingham 
 traders. The new Birmingham and Fazely Canal provides a 
 similar water conveyance, by Tamworth, Atherston, Nuneaton, 
 and Coventry, to Oxford; and thence, by the Thames, to 
 London. In addition to the facilities for conveyance by canals, 
 Birmingham has the advantage of the following railways : 
 the London and Birmingham, and the Grand Junction, now 
 amalgamated under the name of the London and North-western 
 Railway ; the Birmingham and Derby Junction, which passes 
 from the London and Birmingham line to Derby, and thence 
 to Nottingham ; the Birmingham and Bristol, which passes 
 through Worcester and Gloucester ; both of which branch 
 from the London line to their respective termini. There is 
 now open a railway into the potteries, and the N. parts of 
 Staffordshire are also penetrated. Shortly there will be a 
 direct communication with the populous district of which 
 Dudley and Wolverhampton are the extremities, by means of 
 the Stour Valley Railway, soon to be opened. The Oxford 
 Railway, amalgamated now with the Great Western, is ex 
 pected to proceed in its works, which are far advanced ; its 
 immense viaduct being now a prominent object. 
 
 Markets, Fairs, &c. The markets are held, Monday, Thurs 
 day, and Saturday, and are well and abundantly supplied. On 
 Tuesday, there is a market for hay, straw, and hides. Fairs 
 are held at Whitsuntide and Michaelmas ; that is, on the 
 Thursday and two following days in Whitsun-week, and on 
 the Thursday and the two following days nearest to September 
 29. At these fairs, considerable business is done in cattle, 
 horses, and agricultural produce generally. Birmingham is 
 the emporium of the midland couuties. 
 
 Municipal Government and Representation. By the Reform 
 Act in 1832, and Corporation Reform Act, 1835, Birmingham 
 was constituted a borough, and sends two members to Parlia 
 ment. Constituency in 1846, 6129. Its municipal charter 
 bears date October 31, 1838, and divides the borough into 13 
 wards. Sixteen aldermen are elected ; one for each of the 
 13 wards, and three supernumeraries to act in the absence of 
 any of the other 13. The number of councillors is 48. . The 
 aldermen are in the commission of the peace, and hold regular 
 borough courts. The county magistrates sit in petty session, 
 for the division, at the public office, twice a week, and the 
 borough magistrates daily. The county court has also been 
 established in Birmingham, and has superseded the old court 
 of requests. A separate court of quarter-sessions for the 
 borough, has recently been granted by the Crown. Previous 
 to the erection of this court, all prisoners committed for trial 
 were sent to the county prison, at Warwick ; but a borough 
 jail has been lately completed at Winson Green, 2 m. from 
 the centre of the town, at the estimated cost of 50,000. 
 There is also a lunatic asylum erected near it. The borough 
 
BIBNAM 
 
 414 
 
 BISAYAS 
 
 comprises the parishes of Birmingham and Edgbaston, and the 
 townships of Bordesley, Deretend, Duddeston, and Nechells. 
 Area, within the parliamentary and corporate boundary, 
 8780 ac. 
 
 Name and History. Birmingham was known to the Romans 
 under the name of Bremenuim, and is mentioned in Doomsday 
 Book under the name of Bermengeliam. The name, as well 
 as those of the neighbouring hamlets of Castle Bromwich and 
 West Bromwich, is supposed to have been derived from the 
 great quantity of broom which grows in the vicinity. It is 
 said to have been celebrated for the manufacture of arms 
 previous to the Roman invasion. Of its early history, how 
 ever, very little is known. It was the centre of the Saxon 
 kingdom of Mercia ; and, at the time of the Conquest, was a 
 place of some consideration. Birmingham was distinguished 
 in the cause of the parliament ; and was the scene of some 
 conflicts, in the last of which, in 1643, it suffered consider 
 ably ; having been taken, partially burnt, and a heavy fine 
 inflicted on the inhabitants by Prince Rupert. It suffered, to 
 a fearful extent, from the plague in 1665. Its first consider 
 able increase in size and population, took place in the reign 
 of Charles II. Toward the middle of the last century, it be 
 gan to assume an important appearance, and has since con 
 tinued rapidly to increase. It is not eighty years since it was 
 made a post town ; previous to this, letters used to be directed 
 to Birmingham, near Walsall. The American and French 
 wars, during the latter part of the last century, and the early 
 part of this, were the great causes of the prosperity and in 
 crease of the place, by the great demand which they caused for 
 muskets. In July 1791, Birmingham was the scene of a 
 series of disgraceful riots ; property was destroyed to the 
 amount of 60,000. In 1839, riots again took place, when 
 several private buildings in the neighbourhood were set on 
 fire, and various other excesses committed. During the ex 
 citement of 1848, not one man was taken into custody for 
 any political offence a circumstance indicative of great moral 
 improvement. The general healthiness of Birmingham is de- 
 | serving of notice. Dr. Price considered it the healthiest place 
 in England. For this it is thought to be indebted partly to 
 the quantity of vitriol which is consumed in the manufactories, 
 and is considered to have a purifying influence on the atmo 
 sphere ; but a more obvious and more extensive cause may be 
 found in the larger quantity of open space which Birmingham 
 possesses, when compared with such towns as Manchester and 
 Liverpool; in the general excellence of its drainage, greatly 
 facilitated by the substratum of sand and gravel on which it 
 is built ; and in the important fact that there is scarcely an 
 underground dwelling, or what is called a cellar, within its 
 precincts. One man in Birmingham lives on the same space 
 as two in Manchester, and three in Liverpool ; and the mor 
 tality of each town is as nearly as possible in the same ratio. 
 Edgbaston, already named, a suburban par. and tn. Birming 
 ham, is pleasantly situated about half a mile W. from the 
 latter. It is a favourite residence of the wealthier classes of 
 Birmingham, and is almost exclusively inhabited by them. 
 It is in consequence rapidly increasing, and becoming quite a 
 fashionable resort. It consists of several principal streets, 
 regularly laid out, and remarkably well kept. The houses, 
 mostly modern, are well built, chiefly of brick stuccoed, there 
 being few of stone. Water is abundant, and all the principal 
 thoroughfares are now lighted with gas. There are here two 
 churches, and a third is about (1850) to be erected, all con 
 nected with the Establishment, and three public schools. No 
 workshops of any description are allowed to be erected in 
 the parish. There are botanical gardens here, open to the 
 public one day in the week. Area of par. 2790 ac. Pop. 6609. 
 Population. In 1801, the population of Birmingham and 
 the suburbs was 73,670; in 1841, it was 182,922; being 
 about 150 per cent, in 40 years ; in 1849, it was estimated at 
 220,000. (Local Correspondent ; Guide to Birmingham ; &c.) 
 
 BIRXAM, a hill, Scotland, co. of, and 12 m. N.W. Perth ; 
 according to the last statistical account 1300 ft. in height; and 
 according to some other authorities, 1580. It was anciently 
 included in a royal forest, but has long since been denuded 
 of the wood, rendered famous by Shakspeare. Birnam is 
 12 m. distant from Dunsinnan. 
 
 BIBNBAUM, a tn. Prussia, cap. circle of same name; 
 on the Wartha, 45 m. W.N.W. Posen; with a R. Catholic 
 and a Reformed church, a synagogue, an orphan hospital, and 
 
 manufactures of linen. Pop. 2800. The CJRCLE, area, 
 
 400 geo. sq. m., is in general flat, and covered to a great 
 extent with forests and meadows. The inhabitants are 
 
 chiefly occupied with agricultural pursuits. Pop. 38,158. 
 
 Numerous small places in Germany have the same name. 
 
 BIRNEE, or BIRNIE (Ot.D and NEW), two tns. Bornou, 
 both W. Lake Tchad. Old Birnee, formerly cap. of the 
 kingdom, but now deserted and in ruins, is near the r. bank 
 of the Yeou, 70 m. N.N.W. Kouka, and 75 W. the lake; lat. 
 13 N.; Ion. 13 15 E. In the days of its splendour, it 
 covered a space of 6 sq. in., and is said to have contained a 
 population of 200,000. The walls, of which portions are still 
 standing, in large masses of hard red brickwork, were from 
 16 to 18 ft. in height, and from 3 to 4 ft. in thickness. New 
 Birnee is about 75 m. S.S.E. Old Birnee, 20 due N. Kouka, 
 and 15 from Lake Tchad; lat. 12 30 N. ; Ion. 14 16 E. 
 This town is also walled, and contains a royal palace, a large 
 mud edifice. Pop. about 10,000. 
 
 BIRNIE, par. Scot. Elgin, 7 m. long, and about 2 broad. 
 Pop. 407. 
 
 BIKE, or PARSON S- TOWN, a market tn. and par. Ireland, 
 King s co. The town stands on gentle acclivities, on both 
 banks of the little Brosna, 69 m. W.S.W. Dublin. It con 
 sists chiefly of one principal street and several smaller, the 
 better description of which are straight and well kept ; houses 
 generally of stone, and the greater number having a respect 
 able appearance. There is also a good square, in which is a 
 statue of the Duke of Cumberland, at one of the terminations 
 of the main street. Water is sufficiently abundant, but of 
 indifferent quality. The only buildings of note are the parish 
 church, and the R. Catholic chapel. The former has a square 
 tower, and the latter an elegant spire. They are both in the 
 Gothic style, and both of recent erection. There is also a 
 court-house. Besides the churches mentioned, there are a 
 neat Wesleyan Methodist chapel, and a Presbyterian meeting 
 house. There are two national schools in the town, one for 
 boys, the other for girls the latter conducted by nuns; a 
 school connected with the parish church, one with the Pres 
 byterians, a classical school, and several smaller primary 
 schools; likewise a fever hospital, a dispensary, a public 
 reading-room, and a mechanics institute. In the town and 
 neighbourhood are several corn and rape mills, and a distillery. 
 There is no trade of any importance. Area of par. 7218 ac. ; 
 pop. 9567. Pop. of tn. 6336. 
 
 BIRSA, par. Orkney, Mainland, 7 J m. long, and 5 broad. 
 Pop. 1634. 
 
 BIRSE, par. Scot. Aberdeen, 10 m. long, and about the 
 same breadth. Pop. 1295. 
 
 BIRSIS, a small maritime tn. Tripoli, dist. Jeb-el-Akdar; 
 lat. 32 17 N.; Ion. 20 39 E. 
 
 BIR-SEBA. See BEER.<HEBA. 
 
 BIRSK, a tn. Russia, gov. Orenburg, at the confluence of 
 the Bir with the Belaia, 50 m. N.W. Outa. It contains three 
 churches. Pop. 3500. 
 
 BIESTALL, a par. and vil. Eng., co. York, W. Riding ; 
 13,180 ac. ; 7 m. S.W. Leeds. The inhabitants are princi 
 pally employed in the manufacture of woollens, cottons, linen, 
 silk, and in the coal and ironstone mines. Pop. 29,723. 
 
 B1RTS-MORTON, par. Eng. Worcester; 1410 ac. 
 Pop. 313. 
 
 BIRU, or BEROO, a kingdom, W. Africa, in Soodan, N. 
 and W. of the Niger, with the Sahara bounding it N., between 
 lat. 15 and 16 N., and Ion. 5 30 and 7 15 W. The cap. 
 town, Walet, is 260 m. S.S.W. Timbuctoo. 
 
 BISACCIA, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra, 12 m. 
 N.E. St. Angelo de Lombardi, on a hill ; with several churches, 
 and an hospital. Pop. 5916. 
 
 BISACQUINO, or BUSSACHINO, a tn. Sicily, 28 m. S. 
 Palermo ; with a considerable trade in grain, oil, and flax. 
 Pop. 8000. 
 
 BISAMBERG, a vil. Lower Austria, about 8 m. N. 
 Vienna, cap. of a dist. and situated on a hill of the same 
 name, the summit of which is 1190 ft. above the sea. It 
 has a palace, a parish church, a school, and an hospital. In 
 its neighbourhood, one of the best wines of Austria is pro 
 duced, and a great deal of lavender grown. Pop. 642. 
 
 BISAYAS, a name given by the Spaniards to all the 
 
 Philippine islands excepting Luzon. It is derived from the 
 
 \ language spoken throughout them, called Bisaya, which has 
 
BISBAL 
 
 415 
 
 BISHOP- AUCKLAND 
 
 numerous dialects, and differs greatly from the Tayala, the 
 language spoken in Luzon. These islands were also called 
 Pintados [painted men], from the inhabitants painting their 
 bodies different colours a custom not yet quite disused among 
 the tribes of the interior. 
 
 BISBAL, a tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, and 12 m. E. 
 by S. Gerona, in a fertile plain surrounded by hills. It has 
 a parish church, two chapels, several schools, a chapter-house, 
 prison, hospital, and a fine promenade. Manufactures : 
 linen fabrics, bricks, tiles, earthenware, and corks. An 
 annual fair is held for grain, cattle, implements of husbandry, 
 and industrial requisites. Pop. 4000. 
 
 BISBROOXE, par. Eng. Rutland; 720 ac. Pop. 211. 
 BISCARA, a tn. Algeria, originally built by the Romans, 
 200m. S.S.E. Algiers. It is defended by an insignificant 
 castle, mounted with a few guns, and is said to be so infested 
 with scorpions and other poisonous reptiles, as to be unin 
 habitable during summer. It carries on a small trade in 
 negroes and ostrich feathers. The natives are held in great 
 esteem for their honesty in Algiers, to which town the greater 
 number of the poorer classes resort for a livelihood. 
 
 BISCAEI, or VISCARI, a tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 44 m. 
 W. by S. Syracuse, founded in the 15th century. Pop. 2700. 
 BISCATHORPE, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 1050 ac. Pop. 63. 
 BISCAY [Spanish, Vizcaya], also called BILBAO, a prov. 
 Spain, forming one of the three Basque provinces [Spanish, 
 Vascongadas] , bounded, N. by the Bay of Biscay, W. by prov. 
 Santander, S. by Alava, and E. by Guipuzcoa ; area, 1267 sq. m. 
 The surface is generally mountainous ; the only plains of any 
 extent lying along the banks of the principal streams. The 
 loftiest summits are in the W., S., and E. ; in which last 
 direction they attain their culminating point in Mount Arno, 
 on the borders of Guipuzcoa. In geological structure, the 
 province belongs to the more recent secondary formation ; the 
 smaller portion of it, lying to the N. and N.E., consisting of 
 lias, and the larger portion of chalk. Both, but particularly the 
 chalk, are traversed by ridges of trachyte, and occasionally of 
 green porphyry. The principal river is the Nervion or Ibaiza- 
 bal, which crosses the province from S.E. to N.W., and divides 
 it into two nearly equal parts. The other streams are little 
 more than mountain-torrents. In point of soil and natural 
 productions, Biscay is one of the least favoured provinces of 
 Spain ; but the industry of the inhabitants has been success 
 fully exerted, in converting naturally barren tracts into fruit 
 ful fields and verdant pastures. The chief crops are maize 
 and barley. Many fine fruits, especially nectarines, are raised ; 
 walnuts and chestnuts everywhere abound, and form a con 
 siderable export to England and Germany. The cattle are 
 of a small and inferior breed ; and the rearing of sheep for 
 wool is rendered difficult by the brushwood, which covers 
 great part of the mountain-districts, and tears and destroys 
 the fleece. Fish abound along the coast, and give occupation 
 to a great number of fishing-boats. The principal species 
 taken are bream, tunny, cod, and anchovies. The most im 
 portant mineral is iron, which is found of excellent quality 
 throughout the province, and is extensively worked. Lead, 
 copper, and zinc also occur. The inhabitants of Biscay are 
 brave, active, and industrious One of their most distin 
 guishing features is their love of freedom, and their history 
 is full of the exploits which they have performed in repelling 
 attempted encroachments on it. Pop. 150,000. 
 
 BISCAY (BAY OF), a gulf of the Atlantic, on the coasts 
 of Spain and France, extending from Cape Ortegal, in Spain, 
 to the isle of Ushant, off Brest, in France, distant from each 
 other about 400 m. This bay is remarkable for its heavy 
 seas, produced by N.W. winds. It is of great depth, and is 
 traversed by Kennel s current. (See ATLANTIC.) 
 
 BISCEOLIA, a seaport tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Bari, 
 13 m. E.S.E. Barletta, on a rock, W. shore of the Adriatic; 
 lat. 41 14 24" N. ; Ion. 16 30 30" E. (R.) surrounded by 
 walls, and in general badly built. It has a cathedral, two col 
 legiate and several other churches, convents of both sexes, a 
 seminary, hospital, and a mont-de-pictt. It is the residence of 
 a bishop. The port admits vessels of small burden only. The 
 town being almost destitute of water, rain is collected in large 
 cisterns cut in the solid rock. The neighbourhood produces 
 good wine. Important fairs are held here twice a j ear. Pop. 
 15,141. 
 
 B1SCHHEIM, a tn. France, dep. Bas-Ehin (Alsace), 
 
 about 3 m. N. Strasburg, with a manufactory of starch. Here 
 the first attempt was made to cultivate tobacco in Alsace. 
 Pop. 2929. 
 
 BISCHOFSBURG, a vil. Prussia, prov. E. Prussia, on 
 the Dimmer, 15 m. S.S.W. Rossel. The inhabitants are em 
 ployed in weaving and spinning. Pop. 2450. 
 
 BISCHOFSHEIM. 1, BiscTiofsheim vor der ETiim, a tn. 
 Bavaria, Lower Franconia, cap. dist. of same name, on the 
 Brent, in a mountainous district, 19 m. S.E. Fulda. It has 
 manufactures of woollen and linen cloth, a dyework, a large 
 
 worsted and several other mills. Pop. 1795. The DISTRICT 
 
 has an area of 56 geo. sq. m. Pop. 12,241. 2, Biscliofs- 
 
 heim-Neckar, a tn. Baden, circle, Lower Rhine, cap. dist. of 
 same name, about 1 6 m. S.E. Heidelberg. It is walled ; and 
 has two palaces and a powder-mill. Pop. 1930. The DIS 
 TRICT has an area of 48 geo. sq. m. Pop. 14,803. 3, Bischofs- 
 heim-7iein, a tn. Baden, circle, Middle Rhine, cap. dist. of 
 same name, 10m. N.E. Strasburg. Pop. 1652. The DIS 
 TRICT has an area of 36 geo. sq. m. Pop. 12,606. 4, Bischofs- 
 heim-Tauber, a tn. Baden, circle, Lower Rhine, cap. dist. of 
 same name, 16m. S.W. Wurzburg, on the Tauber, with a 
 
 parish church. Pop. of tn. 2427 ; of dist. 16,482. 5, Two 
 
 small places, the one in Hesse-Darmstadt, the other in Hessc- 
 Cassel, each containing a parish church. 
 
 BISCHOFSTEIN, or BISCHSTEIN, a tn. Prussia, prov. 
 E. Prussia, 47 m. S.S.E. Kb nigsberg, with three churches 
 (one of them amongst the finest in the province), a high 
 school ; manufactures of cloth, hosiery, and leather ; distilleries, 
 breweries, &c. Pop. 2830. 
 
 BISCHOF-TEINITZ, a fortified tn. Bohemia, circle, 
 Klattau, 1. bank, Radbusa, 26 m. S.W. Pilsen, with a palace, 
 surrounded by a fine park ; several churches, two of them 
 founded in the 1 3th century, and containing fine tombs and 
 statues. The inhabitants live by agriculture, weaving, and 
 
 shopkeeping. Pop. 2403. The LORDSHIP of the same 
 
 name has a pop. of 17,775. 
 
 BISCHWILLER, a tn. France, dep. Bas-Ehin, 12 in. 
 N. Strasburg, r. bank, Moder. It was formerly an episcopal 
 town, and defended by a castle, erected in the loth century, 
 but dismantled in 1706. It has manufactures of cloth for 
 the army, ticks, linen, woollen gloves, knitted articles, oil, 
 and pottery ; besides bleachfields, spinning-mills, breweries, 
 tanneries, madder-mills, and iron mines. Its trade is in wine, 
 hops, hemp, tobacco, madder, coal, cattle, &c. Pop. 6242. 
 
 BISENTINA, or POSSENTINA, an islet, Papal States, in 
 Lake Bolsena. It contains a church, built by the Farnese 
 family, and decorated by the Caracci ; and a Franciscan con 
 vent, with fine gardens. 
 
 BISENTO, or BISENTI, a tn. Naples, prov. Abruzzo- 
 Ultra, 9 m. N.W. Civita-di-Penne, in a valley. It has several 
 churches, and a dyework for woollen cloth. Pop. 2742. 
 
 BISENZ, a tn. and lordship, Moravia, circle of, and 12 m. 
 S.W. Hradisch. The town lies in a plain, at the foot of a 
 hill, which produces the best wine in Bohemia. It has a 
 handsome palace, surrounded by extensive gardens. A good 
 deal of garden produce is raised, and the vine is successfully 
 cultivated. The chief field crop is maize. Pop. of tn. 2800 ; 
 of lordship, 5858. 
 
 BISERT, a river, Russia, gov. Perm. It rises in the 
 Ural Mountains, and, after a S.W. course of about 80 m., 
 joins r. bank, Oufa, a little above Krasnoufimsk. 
 
 BISHAM, par. Eng. Berks ; 2520 ac. Pop. 659. 
 
 BISHAMPTON, par. Eng. Worcester ; 2 140 ac. P. 4] 0. 
 
 BISHOP and CLERK, two rocky islets, S. Pacific Ocean, 
 S. from Macquarie s island, lat. 55 15 S. ; Ion. 158 56 E. (R.) 
 
 BISHOP-AUCKLAND, a market tn. England, co. of, 
 and 9 m. S.W. Durham, on the Stockton and Darlington Rail 
 way, pleasantly situated on an eminence, nearly 140 ft. above 
 the level of the plain. The slopes on each side are partly 
 covered with hanging gardens, while the houses occupy the 
 i brow and remaining portion of the declivity. It consists of 
 three principal streets, and a spacious market-place. The 
 | houses are generally old, ill built, and of every sort of material. 
 It is well lighted with gas, but is indifferently supplied with 
 water. The parish church is a mile from the town. The 
 other places of worship are, a chapel of ease, belonging to the 
 Church of England ; a Wesleyan, an Associated Wesleyan, a 
 Primitive Methodist, an Independent, and a R. Catholic chapel, 
 and a Quakers meeting-house. Schools : a grammar-school, 
 
BISHOPBKIDGE 
 
 416 
 
 BISTRAU 
 
 Barrington school, a Quakers school, and four or five private 
 schools. There are likewise several benefit societies, and a 
 mechanics institute. No manufactures, the town depending 
 on the coal trade, being situated in the midst of a coal field, 
 known as S. Durham. Pop. 3776. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BISHOPBKIDGE, or BISHOPIIKJGGS, a vil. Scotland, 
 co. Lanark, par. Cadder, about 3 in. N.N.E. Glasgow, and a 
 station on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway. The quar 
 ries in its vicinity are very extensively worked, and furnish 
 much of the fine freestone of which Glasgow is built. Above 
 the freestone is a good seam of Roman cement. 
 
 BI8HOPSBOUKNE, par. Eng. Kent; I860 ac. P. 334. 
 
 BISHOP S CANNINGS. & e CANNING* (BisnopV. 
 
 BISHOP S CASTLE, a market tn. and par. England, 
 co. Salop, bund. Purslow. The town is situated on a gentle 
 acclivity, 17 m. S.W. by S. Shrewsbury. It consists chiefly 
 of two streets, both straight and well kept; houses of stone, 
 and, though old, generally well built; supply of water ample. 
 The only buildings of note are, the union workhouse, the 
 market-house, a neat modem building, and the parish church, 
 a fine old structure, partly in the Norman style. The other 
 places of worship are a Primitive Methodist chapel, and a 
 chapel belonging to the Independents. The schools are a 
 national school, and a partially free school, for the benefit of 
 the inhabitants of the town. With exception of a little chair- 
 making, no manufactures are carried on here, the people being 
 chiefly engaged in agriculture. The castle, from which the 
 place takes its name, is not now in existence, its site being 
 occupied by the Castle Inn. It belonged to the Bishops of 
 Hereford. Area of par. 6000 ac. Pop. of par. 1781 ; of tn. 
 1510. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BISHOP S BTOBTFOBD, a market tn. and par. Eng 
 land, co. Hertford. The town, which is 27 m. N.N.E. 
 London, is built in the form of a cross, and occupies the 
 acclivities of two hills, on the river Stort. It consists chiefly 
 of four streets, call nearly straight and well kept; houses, 
 mostly brick ; lighted with gas, and supply of water abund 
 ant. The corn exchange, built in 1828, is a handsome and 
 commodious building, containing assembly and coffee rooms. 
 The. church is also an elegant structure, having a tower 
 at the W. end, with a spire about 80 ft. in height. Other 
 places of worship are, "Wesleyan, Baptist, and Independ 
 ent chapeb, one of each, and a Quakers meeting-house. 
 There are here, likewise, a free grammar-school, a national 
 school, and a British and Foreign school, some alms-houses, 
 several minor charities, a savings -bank, and a mechanics 
 and literary institution. The principal trade of the town is 
 malting, which is carried on to a very considerable extent. 
 A large patent tanning manufactory, which employed many 
 hundred hands, is now, and has been for some years, closed. 
 The business of the town is facilitated by the Eastern Counties 
 Railway, which has a station here, and by a canal, which joins 
 the river Lea. The market, now one of the principal in the 
 county, is held on Thursday. Petty sessions are held once a 
 fortnight, and the county court once a month. Area of par. 
 3080 ac. Pop. 4GS1. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BISHOP S SUTTON, par. Eng. Hants; 3510 ac. P.517. 
 
 BISHOPSTONE, five pars. Eng.: 1, par. Hereford; 
 840 ac. Pop. 304. 2, par. Sussex; 1820 ac. Pop. 288. 
 3, par. Wilts; 2730 ac. Pop. 569. 4, par. Wilts; 3330 
 ac. Pop. 704. 5, par., S. Wales, Glamorgan. Pop. 491. 
 
 BI8HOPSTROW, par. Eng. Wilts; 980 ac. Pop. 296. 
 
 BISHOP S WALTHAM, a small market tn. and par. 
 England, co. Hants, the former 10 m. N.E. Southampton. 
 Its church is an ancient structure, in the mixed style, with 
 a square stone tower. The schools are, a national school for 
 boys and girls, and an endowed grammar-school. S.W. the 
 town are the ruins of Waltham Abbey, the ancient palace of 
 the bishops of Winchester. Bishop s Waltham is a polling 
 station for the election of county members for N. Hants. 
 Area of par. 7389. Pop. 2193. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BISHOPTHORPK-, or TiionrE-ur-ox-OusE, par. Eng. 
 city of York Ainsty ; 760 ac. Pop. 404. 
 
 BISHOP \VEARMOUTH. See SONDEULANP. 
 
 BISHOPTON, par. Eng. Durham ; 5100 ac.- Pop. 473. 
 
 BISIITON, par. Eng. Monmouth ; 1850 ac. Pop. 187. 
 
 BISIGNANO [anc. Eisitianium], a tn. Naples, prov. 
 Calabria Citra, 14 m. N. Cosenza, the seat of a bishop, and 
 defended by a citadel occupying the summit of the highest 
 
 of the seven hills that surround it. It contains a cathedral, 
 19 churches, several convents, a seminary, two hospitals, ami 
 a house of refuge. The cultivation of the silkworm forms a 
 principal branch of industry. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 BISK. See BIYSK. 
 
 BISKRA, a tn., N. Africa, in the Sahara, 214 m. S.E. 
 Algiers ; lat. 34 47 N. ; Ion. 5 22 E. It is less a town than 
 the collocation of seven villages, or urban quarters, lying 
 among plantations of date-trees covering nearly 50,000 ac. 
 of land. Nearly in the centre rises the kasbah, a kind 
 citadel, where a garrison is lodged. The summit of the chief 
 mosque surmounts the highest palm-trees near it. The general 
 aspect of the town buildings is not otherwise remarkable than 
 that, like all other houses in towns of the Sahara, they are 
 built of baked earth, and have terraced roofs. Biskra is the 
 capital of the Zibans. Pop. about 4000. (Sahara Algerica.) 
 
 BISLEY. 1, A vil. and par. England, co. Gloucester. 
 The former, 11 m. S.E. Gloucester, consists chiefly of one 
 main street ; houses well built, supply of water indifferent. 
 There are here but one church, and a parish school. Broad 
 cloth was formerly manufactured here to a great extent, but 
 is now very limited ; area of par. 7980 ac. Pop. (1841), 5339. 
 2, par., co. Surrey; area, 780 ac. Pop. (1841), 321. 
 (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BISPHAM, par. Eng. Lancaster; 3490 ac. Pop. 2339. 
 
 B1SSAGOS (THE), or BIJUGA ISLANDS, a group of small 
 volcanic islands, about 20 in number, W. coast, Africa, opposite 
 the mouth of the Rio Grande, between lat. 10 and ]2 N.; 
 and Ion. 1 5 30 and 1 6 30 W. The largest, Marshi, is about 
 15 m. in length. Most of them are inhabited, but some of 
 them are merely bare rocks, and visited only occasionally. 
 The soil of the more fertile islands is excellent, consisting 
 principally of decomposed lava, and vegetable matter. They 
 are mostly covered with wood, but present a few clear spaces 
 covered with a rich verdure, on which herds of elephants, 
 deer, buffaloes, and other wild animals depasture. The in 
 habitants cultivate maize, and have plantations of bananas and 
 palms, but their chief dependence is on their cattle, goats, and 
 fisheries. They are a brave, but treacherous people, and go 
 
 always armed. There is a town of the same name on the 
 
 1. bank of the Bulola laver, about 22 m. from its embouchure ; 
 lat, 1136 N.; Ion. 15 10 W. 
 
 BISSAO, an isl. and seaport tn., W. Africa, coast of Sene- 
 gambia, at the mouth of the Jeba or Geba, the latter in lat. 
 11 52 N.; Ion. 15 37 W. (K.) The island is extremely 
 fertile, and densely peopled by a race called Papels, remark 
 able for their industry and fidelity. On the E. side of the 
 island, and close to the beach, is a Portuguese fort, a large 
 square building with four bastions and several guns, garrisoned 
 by about 300 soldiers, who are chiefly convicts and mulattoes. 
 excepting the officers, who are detached from the Cape de 
 Verde Islands, of which this settlement is a dependency. Good 
 anchorage may be had off the town in 7 fathoms mud. Re 
 freshments of all kinds are to be obtained here, but at high 
 prices. Water of good quality is also to be had, but the 
 supply is scanty. The Portuguese have been in possession of 
 this island for upwards of two centuries, but of the numerous 
 fortifications with which it was formerly protected, the one 
 above spoken of is all that remains. The present trade is 
 confined to a very few annual ships from Lisbon. 
 
 B1SSOLEE, two towns, India:!, A tn. Punjab, r. bank, 
 Ravee ; lat. 32 28 N. ; Ion. 75 44 E., with an irregularly 
 built bazaar, and a remarkable palace of the Rajah, regarded 
 by Vigne as the finest building of the kind in the East. 2, A 
 tu., prov. Delhi, 31 m. S.W. by W. Bareily ; lat. 28 19 N.; 
 Ion. 79 10 E. It flourished under the early Mogul Emperors 
 and the Rohillas, but is now comparatively desolate. It con 
 tains the tombs of some of the family of the Rohillah founder. 
 
 BISSUNPOOR, an anc. tn. Hindoostan, prov. Bengal, 
 79 m. N.W. Calcutta; lat. 23 4 N.; Ion. 87 25 E. It is 
 situated in a tract of ferruginous soil, about 30 ft. above the 
 alluvial plains of the Ganges, and is still a place of consider 
 able traffic and importance. The only note-worthy structure 
 is the old fort where the Rajah resides, at one time a place of 
 great strength and magnificence, though now fallen into decay. 
 
 BISTRAU, a tn. Bohemia, circle, Chrudim, cap. lordship 
 of same name, in a deep valley, 39 m. W. by S. Olmu tz. It 
 has a church with a fine altar-screen, an industrial school, and 
 a weekly market. Pop. of tn. 1926 ; of lordship, 10,179. 
 
BISTRITZ 
 
 417 
 
 BJO RNEBORG 
 
 BISTRITZ. t, A tn. and lordship, Moravia, circle, Pre- 
 rau, The town, situated on the Bistritsa, 25 m. S.E. Olmiitz, 
 lias a parish church, two chapels, a castle, and an hospital. 
 Pop. 1463. The lordship has an undulating surface, and is 
 watered by the Bistritsa and Eussawa. Pop. 9512. 2, A tn. 
 and lordship, Moravia, circle, Iglau. The town, 42 m. W. 
 by S. Olmiitz, has its own magistracy, two churches, a town- 
 house, an hospital, and considerable manufactures of cloth. 
 Pop. 2447. The lordship is generally level, though in part 
 hilly, and is watered by the Schwazawa, Nedwedicka, and 
 Bobruwka. Pop. 6328. 3. A vil. and lordship, Bohemia, 
 circle, Klattau. The village has a castle, a chapel, a manu 
 factory of looking-glasses, a mill, and two workhouses. Pop. 
 of vil. 524; of lordship, 14,299. 4, Bistritz (Neu), a tn. and 
 lordship, Bohemia, circle, Tabor. The town lies in a valley 
 almost level, 35 m. S.S.E. Tabor, and contains a church, a 
 castle, a townhou.se, and hospital, and has some woollen and 
 linen manufactures. Pop. of tn. 3450; of lordship, 10,164, 
 all R. Catholic. 
 
 BISTRITZ, a royal free tn. Transylvania, cap. dist. of 
 same name, on the Bistritz, opposite to the Borgo Pass, in a 
 fine valley, 29 m. E.N.E. Szamosujvar; lat. 47 6 N.; Ion. 
 24 30 E. It is walled, has two churches, one Lutheran, 
 with a tower 250 ft. high ; and one R. Catholic, a monastery 
 of Piarists, and one of Minorite Friars, a Protestant, and a 
 R. Catholic gymnasium, a printing-office, two hospitals, two 
 schools, and a handsome corn-market. The inhabitants manu 
 facture cloth, cordage, leather, potashes, and soap, and trade 
 with Bukowina, Austrian Poland, and Moldavia. Two large 
 cattle-markets are held here annually. Wine is produced in 
 the vicinity. Near the town are the remains of an old castle, 
 formerly the seat of the Hunyads. Pop. 6620. The DIS 
 TRICT, area, 530 geo. sq. m., is intersected by a branch of the 
 Carpathian Mountains, and particularly in its higher parts has 
 a severe climate. Agriculture is necessarily of very limited 
 extent, but the woods abound with game, and the rivers with 
 fish. There are about 30 salt springs in the district. The 
 great Szamos is the largest stream, but the most celebrated 
 is the Little Bistritz, known by the name of Golden Bistritz, 
 which it owes to the gold dust found among its sands. Pop. 
 55,000. 
 
 BITBURG, a tn. Rhenish Prussia, gov. Trier or Troves, 
 cap. circle of same name, between the Nyms and the Kyll, 
 18m. N.N. W. Treves. It is the seat of several public offices, 
 has two R. Catholic churches, and a castle, some manufactures 
 of cloth and leather, a weekly, and four yearly markets. 
 
 Pop. 2000. The CIRCLE, area, 220 geo. sq. m., lies between 
 
 the Ardennes and the Eifel, and is watered by the Moselle or 
 Mosel, Kyll, Priini, Nyms, Sauer, Diezbach, and Enzbach. 
 The surface is much broken by hills, which are generally 
 well wooded, and in the N. W. furnish quarries of slate, lime 
 stone, and sandstone. The valleys are fertile and well culti 
 vated, and produce good crops of grain, pulse, potatoes, rape, 
 flax, and hops. Iron is worked to some extent. Pop. 39,941. 
 
 B1TCHE, a fortified tn. of the first class, France, dep. 
 Moselle, 59 in. E. by S. Metz. The lower town, formerly called 
 Kaltenhausen, is built at the foot of a rock, near a lake, from 
 which the Home takes its rise. The castle, situated on a 
 rock about 150 ft. above the valley, mounts about 80 pieces 
 of cannon, and requires 1000 men for its defence. It consists 
 of four bastions and a half-moon battery, and is well supplied 
 with water from fine cisterns, and a very deep well sunk in 
 the heart of the rock. Bitche has manufactures of earthen 
 ware and paper snuff-boxes ; and in the neighbourhood are the 
 glassworks of Munsthal. Pop. 3131. 
 
 BITCH FIELD, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 1540 ac. Pop. 160. 
 
 BITETTO.a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Bari, 10 in. S.W. 
 Bari, in a fertile plain, W. shore Adriatic. It is the seat 
 of a bishop, has several convents, and a cathedral, containing 
 numerous interesting pictures and marbles. Pop. 4664. 
 
 BITIOUG, a river, Russia, which rises in the S. of gov. 
 Tambov, shortly after enters Voroneje, and, after a S. course 
 of above 130 m., joins 1. bank Don, about 15 m. above Pav- 
 lovsk. Its banks are covered with fine forests. 
 
 BITLTS. See BETLIS. 
 
 BITONTO [anc. Butuntum], a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di 
 
 Bari, in a fine plain, 15 m. W.S.W. Bari. It is the seat of a 
 
 bishop, and has a handsome cathedral, 1 2 parish churches, 
 
 convents for both sexes, an hospital, and a seminaiy. The 
 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 environs produce excellent wine, called Zagarello. A short 
 distance from the town the Spaniards gained a decisive victory 
 over the Austrians, May 25, 1734. Pop. 16,235. 
 
 BITRITTO, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Bari, 6 m. S. 
 from Bari. It has a collegiate church ; and its territory is 
 noted for the excellence of its wines and almonds. Pop. 2607. 
 
 BITSCHWILLER, a tn. France, dep. Haut-Rhin, 18 m. 
 N.N.E. Belfort, in the valley of the Thur. It has cotton mills, 
 iron furnaces, and manufactures of numerous articles in tin, 
 steel, and common iron. Pop. 2847. 
 
 BITTADON, par. Eng. Devon ; 5100 ac. Pop. 78. 
 
 BITTBURG. See BITBURG. 
 
 BITTERFELD, a tn. Prussia, prov. Saxony, cap. circle 
 of same name, 1. bank, Mulde, 21 m. N. Leipzig, 16 m. S. 
 Dessau. It was founded by a colony of Flemmgs, is walled, 
 and has some manufactures of cloth and earthenware. Pop. 
 
 3850. The CIRCLE, area, 210 geo. sq. m., is level, and the 
 
 soil fertile. The railway between Leipzig and Magdeburg 
 skirts the circle. Pop. 41,373. 
 
 BITTERLEY, par. Eng. Salop; 5610 ac. Pop. 1098. 
 
 BITTESWELL, par. Eng. Leicester ; 2630 ac. P. 495. 
 
 BITTI, a vil., isl. Sardinia, about 55 m. S.E. Sassari, 
 in a mountainous district. The rearing of cattle is the chief 
 employment. Pop. 2200. 
 
 BITTON, par. Eng. Gloucester ; 7520 ac. Pop. 9338. 
 
 BIVERI, or BIVIERI, a lake, Sicily, 15 m. 8. S.W. 
 Catania. In summer, the greater part of it, converted into 
 a mere marsh, produces a miasma which makes the whole 
 district unhealthy ; but when swelled by the rains of winter, 
 it has a circuit of nearly 20 m. It communicates with the 
 sea by the river Lentini, and contains various kinds of fish, 
 the taking of which employs from 50 to 60 boats. 
 
 BIX, or BIXBRAND, par. Eng. Oxford ; 3130 ac. P. 427. 
 
 BIXLEY, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 760 ac. Pop. 110. 
 
 BIYA, a river, Siberia, uniting with the Katunya, 10 m. 
 S.E. Biysk, and forming the Obi. It rises in Lake Altin, 
 flows N.W., then S.W., and has a total course of upwards of 
 100m. 
 
 BIYSK, BUSK, BISK, or BEJSK, a tn. Siberia, gov. of, 
 and 270 m. S. Tomsk, on the Biya ; lat. 520 N. ; Ion. 85 10 E. 
 It is wholly composed of wooden houses, and derives its chief 
 importance from the facilities it offers for carrying on trade 
 with China, from the frontiers of which it is only 190 m. 
 distant. The country around is fertile in wheat, depastures 
 numerous cattle, and produces a considerable quantity of 
 honey. Pop. 2000. 
 
 BIZERTA, or BENZERTA [anc. Hippo Zarrhytus], a seaport 
 tn. and bay, regency of Tunis. The town stands on the W. 
 side of the bay, 35 m. N. by W. Tunis ; lat. 37 16 36" N. , 
 Ion. 9 49 15" E. (R.) ; and is thus the most N. town of Africa. 
 It is about a mile in circumference, and is fortified, towards 
 the sea, by several castles and batteries ; which, however, are 
 all but useless as defences, in consequence of being commanded 
 by a hill at the distance of a quarter of a mile. Bizerta was 
 formerly one of the best ports in Tunis ; and is still good, 
 though now seldom frequented, except by small vessels. The 
 shores of the bay are chiefly composed of sandy downs ; there 
 is good anchorage at a little distance from the shore, in 5, 6, 
 and 7 fathoms. A lake, or rather lagoon, runs from the bay 
 a considerable distance into the land, and is said to have a 
 depth, in some places, of 40 to 50 fathoms ; but its entrance 
 from the sea is narrow, and has not more than 9 ft. over the 
 bar. There is an extensive fishery here, which is farmed at a 
 high rate ; the fish taken are chiefly mullet, of a large size 
 and fine flavour. The country around is singularly beautiful 
 and fertile, producing corn, pulse, oil, cotton, and fruits in 
 great abundance. Notwithstanding this, its inhabitants have 
 been represented as living in a state of the greatest poverty. 
 Pop. about 10,000. 
 
 BJORKO. 1, An isl. Sweden, in Lake Malar, about 13m. 
 from Stockholm. It is supposed that here stood the famed 
 large and great city Bjb rko ; and ruins of walls, gates, &c., 
 seem to confirm the accuracy of the supposition. 2, An isl. 
 E. coast, Sweden; lat. 59 53 N. ; Ion. 19 E.; 10 m. long 
 by 4 broad. 3, An isl. Russia, Gulf of Bothnia, W. coast, 
 Finland; lat. 63 21 N.; Ion. 19 13 23" E. 
 
 BJORNEBORG, a seaport tn. Russian Finland, dist. of, 
 and 70 m. N.N.W. Abo, and on a sandy tongue of land, at 
 the mouth of the Kumo, in the Gulf of Bothnia. It has some 
 
BLABY 
 
 418 
 
 BLACKBURN 
 
 shipbuilding; and exports of timber, pitch, tar, articles of I 
 wood, and fish ; the two last chiefly to Stockholm. Its entrepot 
 is N. Sanbad, above a mile from the town. The States of 
 Sweden met here in 1602. Pop. 4570. 
 
 BLABY, par. Eng. Leicester; 3300 ac. Pop. 1896. 
 
 BLACK FOREST. See SCHWARZWALD. 
 
 BLACK HEAD. 1, A bay, Ireland, co. Clare, S.side, 
 Galway Bay, having the promontory of Black Head lat. 
 53 9 N.; Ion. 9 17 W. (R.) on the W., and Finvarra 
 Point on the E. 2, A point, N.E. coast, Ireland, co. Antrim, 
 N. side of the mouth of Belfast Lough ; lat. 54 46 6" N. ; 
 Ion. 5 41 15" W. (R.) 
 
 BLACK RIVER, a river, U. States, New York, falling 
 into Black River Bay, in the N.E. part of Lake Ontario, after 
 a N.W. course of about 108 m., of which about 40 m., near 
 its centre, are navigable for boats. The lower part of the 
 river is obstructed by rapids. 
 
 BLACK SEA, or EUXINE [anc. Pontus Euxinus}, a 
 large inland sea, bounded, N. and N.W. by Russia, N.E. by Cau 
 casia, W. by Turkey in Europe, S. by Anatolia, and S.E. by 
 Armenia, between lat. 41 V and 46 37 N., and Ion. 27 25 
 and 41 46 E. Greatest length, from E. to W., about 
 700 m. ; breadth, about 300 m. ; extent of coast, upwards of 
 2000 m.; area, variously estimated at 160,000 and 180,000 
 sq. in. It receives some of the largest rivers in Europe, in 
 cluding the Danube, Dnieper, and Dniester, and drains a 
 surface of 950,000 sq. m. ; its waters are, in consequence, 
 only brackish. Its depth in general is great, no bottom 
 having been found in some parts with a line of 140 fathoms, 
 although, in a few places, as the Strait of Yenikale", it does 
 not exceed 10, 20, or 30 ft.; while off the mouth of the 
 Danube the water deepens so gradually from the shore, that 
 the distance from the latter may be ascertained within half a 
 mile by soundings alone. Throughout the whole of the 
 1 Slack Sea there are scarcely any rocks, and almost every 
 where are excellent anchoring-places. Storms are rare, and, 
 when they do occur, are of short duration, seldom lasting more 
 than 12 hours, without considerable abatement. During the 
 summer, N. winds prevail, and S. in the beginning of autumn 
 and spring. The former frequently detain vessels from the 
 Mediterranean in the Dardanelles and Bosphorus for weeks 
 together. The currents of the Black Sea, generally, have a 
 tendency towards the Bosphorus or channel of Constantinople. 
 The most constant and powerful is that which sets along the 
 W. shore, from the mouth of the Dnieper to the Bosphorus, 
 occasioned by the great influx of water, especially on the 
 melting of the snow, from the great rivers that fall into the 
 N.W. portion of this inland sea. There is no flow of tide in 
 the Black Sea, the slight difference of elevation that occa 
 sionally occurs arising solely from the winds and currents. 
 The S. coast of the Crimea, and the coast of Anatolia and 
 Caucasia, abound in lofty mountains, which rise up imme 
 diately from the margin of the sea, and afford excellent land 
 marks. On the N.W. and N., the coast is generally low, and 
 on this account dangerous, as it can be seen only from a very 
 short distance. Harbours and bays are numerous, and many 
 of them good ; but there are none of any great extent. Those 
 that penetrate deepest into the land are the Gulf of Kerkinet on 
 the N., between the Crimea and the mainland ; the Gulfs of 
 Rassein and Burgas on the W., and those of Sinope and 
 Samsoon on the S. There are no remarkable projections or 
 headlands, excepting those formed by the W. and S. extremi 
 ties of the Crimea, and Cape Indjeh and Bozdepeh in Anatolia. 
 The Black Sea communicates with the Sea of Azof by a nar 
 row channel, called the Strait of Kertsch or Yenikale , and 
 with the Mediterranean by the Bosphorus or Channel or Strait 
 of Constantinople, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles. 
 There are few fisheries of any importance carried on in the 
 Black Sea, although it abounds with various kinds of fish, 
 including porpoises, sturgeons, dolphins, mackerel, mullet, 
 bream, &c. Seals, also, are numerous. One of the most 
 extensive fisheries is at the entrance of the Strait of Yenikale", 
 where considerable quantities of sturgeon are taken. The N. 
 ports are frequently shut up by ice for three or four months 
 in the year, or from about December to March. 
 
 The Black Sea extended, at a remote period, much further 
 E. and N. than it now does, occupying the whole of the vast 
 plains and steppes that surround the Caspian and the Sea of 
 Aral, in Tartary, neither of which had then a separate exist 
 
 ence, being included in this great inland sea. The relative 
 level of the Black Sea, with the Caspian on the one hand and 
 the ocean on the other, Avere long undetermined points ; but 
 seem now to be pretty well ascertained. It has been found 
 that the Caspian is 101 ft. lower than the Black Sea, and that 
 the latter is precisely of the same level as the ocean. That 
 it is, however, a little, though, perhaps, but a very little above 
 the level of the Mediterranean, which is itself kept below 
 that of the Atlantic by evaporation, would appear from the 
 almost constant flow of a current towards the Grecian Archi 
 pelago, through the Dardanelles. The amount of evaporation 
 which takes place in the Black Sea must be also very great, 
 as the discharge by the Bosphorus is wholly insufficient to 
 account for the disposal of the immense quantities of water 
 passed into it by its rivers. How it should retain its saltness, 
 notwithstanding this large and constant accession of fresh 
 water, has not yet been satisfactorily explained. 
 
 The Black Sea was explored at an early period by the 
 Greeks, who, from their ignorance of the arts of navigation 
 and shipbuilding, represented it as beset with dangers of the 
 most formidable kind ; and who, it has been said, gave it the 
 name of Black Sea, as expressive of the dread and terror 
 in which they held it a feeling further manifested by their 
 placing the Cimmerian land of everlasting darkness on its N. 
 shore. Having gathered courage from experience, the Greeks, 
 at a later period, formed numerous establishments along its 
 shores, from which they carried on an extensive trade in 
 slaves, cattle, and corn ; and to this day, their vessels are the 
 most numerous in the Black Sea, the greater part being em 
 ployed in exporting the corn, hides, timber, iron, and furs of 
 Russia, and in importing wine and fruits, and the manufac 
 tures of England and France. 
 
 BLACK WARRIOR RIVER, a river, U. States, Ala 
 bama, falling into the Tombeckbe ; lat. 32 32 N.; Ion. 88 
 W., after a S.S.W. course of about 160 m. For steam 
 boats, it is navigable to Tuscaloosa, 48 m. direct distance; 
 and for boats, much higher up. 
 
 BLACKAUTON, par. Eng. Devon ; 5850 ac. P. 1449. 
 
 BLACKBURN, a parl. bor., market tn., and par. Eng 
 land, co. Lancaster. The town is 21 m. N.N.W. Manchester, 
 pleasantly situated in a valley, sheltered by hills on the N.E. 
 and N.W. It is very irregularly built, but contains many 
 respectable houses ; is lighted with gas, and amply supplied 
 with water, but indifferently paved. The church, a spacious 
 and elegant edifice, in the later English style, with a lofty 
 square tower, was almost wholly rebuilt in 1819-26, at an 
 expense of 30,000. The other churches are, the district 
 churches of St. Paul, St. John, and St. Peter ; the latter two 
 neat modern edifices. There are places of worship for Bap 
 tists, Independents, Wesleyans, Primitive Methodists, War- 
 renites, and Society of Friends ; also a Scotch kirk, and R. 
 Catholic chapel ; a free grammar-school, several national, and 
 numerous other schools, in which 5000 children, altogether, 
 are educated ; a number of charitable institutions, and a gym 
 nasium, established by a private company for the recreation 
 of their workmen, for whose children the same benevolent 
 individuals have erected a school, at a cost of 1 000. There 
 is a spacious covered market, with tower and clock, a small 
 theatre, assembly rooms, and a cloth hall, now seldom used 
 for that purpose, the stalls for the sale of cloths being erected 
 in the streets. The house is still shown in Blackburn in 
 which the father of the late Sir Robert Peel was born. It 
 is a homely-looking dwelling, situated in what is called Fish 
 Lane. 
 
 Blackburn is the seat of extensive manufactures of cotton 
 goods, of which from 50,000 to 60,000 pieces are manufactured 
 weekly in the town and vicinity, employing above 10,500 per 
 sons. The annual value of the goods produced, is estimated 
 at upwards of 2,000,0000. This species of manufacture 
 has entirely superseded the Blackburn grays, a fabric for 
 which that town was formerly celebrated, as it was, also, at 
 an earlier period, for Blackburn checks. 
 
 Some of the most important improvements, in the spinning 
 and manufacturing of cotton, originated with James Har- 
 greave, a carpenter in Blackburn, who was the inventor and 
 patentee of the spinning- jenny. 
 
 Blackburn commands an extensive inland navigation by 
 means of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, which passes the 
 outskirts of the town; railways afford it still further facilities, 
 
BLACKFORD 
 
 419 
 
 BLAKENEY 
 
 connecting it, on the E., with Burnley and the W. Riding of 
 York ; on the W., with Preston and Liverpool ; and on the S., 
 with Bolton and Manchester. There are two railway stations 
 in the town, belonging, respectively, to the East Lancashire, 
 and to the Bolton and Clitheroe Railway Companies. Black 
 burn returns two members to the House of Commons. Re 
 gistered electors (1849), 1116. Areaof par. 45,620 ac. Pop. 
 of parl. bor. (1841), 36,186; of par. 71,711. 
 
 BLACKPORD, par. Eng. Somerset ; 680 ac. Pop. 178. 
 
 BLACKHEATH, a vil. and well-known heath, England, 
 co. Kent, the former about 6 m. S.E. London, with which it 
 is connected by the Greenwich Railway, pleasantly situated 
 on a gentle slope on the verge of the heath. It consists of 
 one principal street, spacious, but irregular ; the houses plain, 
 and mostly of brick ; those of the working classes said to be 
 ill drained, and otherwise exceedingly uncomfortable. Close 
 by is Morden College, a quadrangular red brick building, 
 founded by Sir John Morden, for the benefit of decayed 
 Turkey merchants, many of whom reside here in the greatest 
 comfort, and are remarkable for their longevity. The only 
 place of worship in the village is the Wesleyan chapel. There 
 
 are no manufactures in the village. The HEATH contains 
 
 about 70 ac. within its present limited bounds. It is very 
 picturesque, and, in summer, is much resorted to by pleasure 
 parties, donkey-riding being one of the amusements for which 
 it is well adapted. This celebrated heath has been the scene 
 of many remarkable events, some of them of great historical 
 interest. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BLACKLAND, par. Eng. Wilts ; 460 ac. Pop. 81. 
 
 BLACKMORE, par. Eng. Essex; 1990 ac Pop. 709. 
 
 BLACKNESS, a vil. Scotland, co. Linlithgow, r. bank, 
 Forth, 3 m. E. Borrowstounness. It has been long in a de 
 caying state, and is now only resorted to by a few families 
 in summer as bathing quarters. On a peninsula near the 
 village stands Blackness Castle, one of the four forts in 
 Scotland, stipulated to be kept in repair by the articles of 
 union, and famous as the place of confinement of many of the 
 Covenanters. 
 
 BLACKPOOL, a vil. England, coast of Lancashire, be 
 tween the estuaries of the Ribble and Wyre, 27 m. S.S.W. 
 Lancaster, which has, of late years, attracted many visitors 
 by its advantages as a watering-place. It is elevated con 
 siderably above the sea at low water ; affords excellent ac 
 commodation for visitors, a range of lofty houses about 1 m. 
 long facing the sea. A library and news-room are kept open 
 during the bathing season, and an excellent promenade has 
 been formed along the edge of the breakwater. The air is 
 healthy and bracing. The number of visitors present at one 
 time, during the bathing season, varies from 2000 to 6000. 
 Stationary pop. 1304. 
 
 BLACKRATH, par. Irel. Kilkenny; 1759 ac. P. 341. 
 
 BLACKROCK. 1, Atn. Ireland, co. Dublin, 4 m. S.E. 
 Dublin Castle, S. shore of Dublin Bay, intersected by the Dublin 
 and Kingston Railway. It is much resorted to as a bathing 
 place by the inhabitants, and its numerous handsome villas 
 form suburban retreats for the wealthy citizens of Dublin. 
 Pop. 2372. 2, A vil., U. States, New York, near the foot 
 of Lake Erie, 2 J m. below Buffalo, with which it is connected 
 by railway. It has a church, with several stores, warehouses, 
 and manufactories of different kinds. The harbour is formed 
 by an immense pier projecting into the Niagara, built by the 
 State of New York for the accommodation of vessels on the 
 lake, and of boats which here enter it from the canal. Pop. 
 (1840), 1800. 
 
 BLACKTOFT, par. Eng. York, E. Riding ; 2730 ac. 
 Pop. 505. 
 
 BLACKWALL, a tn. England, forming an important 
 suburb of London, co. Middlesex, par. Poplar, 4 m. E.S.E. 
 St. Paul s, at the confluence of the Lea and the Thames. It 
 is a scene of immense bustle and activity, containing a great 
 number of shipbuilding yards, and also the E. and W. India 
 docks. It is connected with the city of London by a railway ; 
 and numerous steamers are continually arriving and departing 
 from its wharfs. The Cabinet Ministers take an annual white 
 bait dinner here, prior to the prorogation of Parliament. Pop. 
 of par. (1841), 20,342. See LONDON. 
 
 BLACKWATER, several rivers, Ireland:!, Rising in 
 the S. part of co. Tyrone, and forming, for a considerable por 
 tion of its course, the boundary between that county and cos. 
 
 Monaghan and Armagh. After flowing S.E., N., and N.E., 
 and receiving the Cullen and several other affluents, it falls 
 into the S. part of Lough Neagh. Total course, 30 to 40 m. 
 It long formed the boundary between the English Pale and 
 the Tyrone O Neills. 2, The principal stream, co. Cork, and 
 celebrated for the romantic and picturesque beauty of its 
 banks; by Mr. Inglis esteemed not inferior to either the 
 Rhine or the Danube. It rises on the confines of cos. Kerry 
 and Limerick ; flows, generally E., by Mallow to Cappoquin, 
 where it bends S., and falls into St. George s Channel, through 
 Youghal harbour, after a course of upwards of 80 m. It is 
 not navigable, but it abounds in salmon, and propels numer 
 ous mills. The other streams of the same name, nearly 20 
 
 in number, are all small, and famous for nothing but trout. 
 
 BLACKWELL, par. Eng. Derby ; 1700 ac. Pop. 477. 
 
 BLACKWOOp RIVER, a small stream, W. Australia, 
 co. Sussex, falling into the Indian Ocean at Cape Leeuwin, 
 after a course of about 50 m. 
 
 BLADON, par. Eng. Oxford ; 1350 ac. Pop. 687. 
 
 BLAEN-PORTH, par., S. Wales, Cardigan. Pop. 752. 
 
 BLAGDON, par. Eng. Somerset; 2520 ac. Pop. 1178. 
 
 BLAIR-ATHOLE, a vil. and par. Scotland, co. Perth ; the 
 former on a plain near the confluence of the Tilt and Garry, on 
 the great Highland road from Perth to Inverness, 30 m. N.N. W. 
 Perth. It consists of a single row of ornamental cottages, and 
 a commodious inn, erected by the Duke of Athole. At a short 
 distance are the parish church and school, both plain but sub 
 stantial buildings. At the distance of about a quarter of a mile 
 is Blair House or Castle, the seat of the nobleman above named 
 a plain but beautifully situated building. There are here 
 some larch trees of enormous size, which derive no small in 
 terest from their being amongst the first planted in Scotland. 
 The parish is about 30 m. in length, and 18 in breadth, and 
 is remarkable for the beauty of its scenery. Pop. 2231. 
 (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BLAIRGOWRIE, a vil. and par. Scotland, co. Perth. 
 The VILLAGE is on a rising ground with a S. exposure, 15m. 
 N.N.E. Perth. The streets are, in general, straight and well 
 kept ; houses of stone, and slated, and, for the most part, well 
 built. The churches and other places of worship comprise 
 the parish church, a Free church, and Independent chapel ; an 
 Episcopal chapel, and a R. Catholic chapel, none of which 
 have any claim to architectural beauty. The principal schools 
 are, the parish school, the Free church school, and a school 
 supported chiefly by private subscription. There is here a 
 charitable clothing society. Flax-spinning is carried on here 
 and in the vicinity to a great extent, there being 110 fewer than 
 1 3 mills in the village and around it, all driven by water-power 
 from the river Ericht. They employ, altogether, about 1200 
 hands ; from 300 to 400 more are engaged in hand-loom 
 weaving. The salubrity of the climate, and the beauty of 
 the scenery around Blairgowrie, have rendered it a favourite 
 
 summer resort. The PARISH is about 1 1 m. in length, and 
 
 upwards of 8 in breadth. Pop. of par. (1841), 3471 ; of vil. 
 (1850), upwards of 3000. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BLAIR-LOGIE, a small vil. Scotland, co. of, and about 
 
 3 m. N.E. Stirling, beautifully situated at the base of the 
 Ochils, at the entrance to Glendevon, and much resorted to 
 by invalids on account of the salubrity of its climate. Pop. 
 124. 
 
 BLAISDON, par. Eng. Gloucester; 760 ac. Pop. 264. 
 
 BLAISE, two small rivers, France ; the one rises above 
 Senonches, arrond. Dreux, dep. Eure-et-Loire, and running 
 N.E., falls into the Eure, after a course of about 25 m. ; the 
 other rises above Juzennecourt, arrond. Chaumont, dep. Hauto 
 Marne, and after a course of about 36 m. falls into the Marne. 
 
 BLAISE (ST.), a well-built vil. Switzerland, can. of, and 
 
 4 m. N.E. Neufchatel, and on the borders of the lake. It has 
 an old church with a lofty tower, three schools, and an ex 
 tensive cotton-printing work. Good white wine is grown in 
 the vicinity. Pop. 1050. 
 
 BLAISOIS, a dist. France, which formed a dependency 
 of anc. prov. Orleannais, and had Blois for its capital. It now 
 forms the greater part of dep. Loh-et-Cher. 
 
 BLAKEMERE, or BLACKMOOK, par. Eng. Hereford; 
 1080 ac. Pop. 183. 
 
 BLAKENEY, a par. and small seaport, Eng. Norfolk; 
 1630 ac. The harbour is capacious and safe, and numerous 
 vessels are employed in oyster-fishing. Pop. 1021. 
 
1JLAKENIIAM 
 
 420 
 
 BLARNEY 
 
 BLAKENHAM, two pars. Eng. Suffolk:!. Bldkf.nham 
 (Great], 1850 ac. Pop. 180. 2, Blakenham (Little], 250 ac. 
 Pop. 119. 
 
 BL A KESLEY, par. Eng. Northampton; 2840 ac. P. 830. 
 
 BLAMONT. 1, A tn. France, dep. Meurtho, 17 m. E. 
 LuneVille, on the Vezouze. Its old castle was occupied by 
 the allies in 1814. It manufactures calicoes, woollen yarn, 
 earthenware, and leather. Pop. 2671. 2, A small tn., dep. 
 Doubs, on the frontiers of Switzerland, 40 m. E.N.E. Besaii- 
 9on. It has a castle of considerable strength. Pop. 698. 
 
 BLANC (L E ), a tn. France, dep. Indre, 32 m. W.S.W. 
 Chateauroux, picturesquely situated on the Creuse, which 
 divides it into the Upper and Lower town, and formerly a 
 place of great strength, but now its fortifications are dis 
 mantled. It is, however, one of the neatest towns in the 
 department, and has recently received great improvements. 
 It has a court of first resort, manufactures of coarse cloth, 
 vinegar, earthenware, woollen yarn, linen thread, and an ex 
 tensive brewery, and in the vicinity there are several blast 
 furnaces, and other ironworks. Trade: principally in the 
 wine of the district, iron, wood, and fish. Pop. 4770. 
 
 BLANC MONT. See MONT BLANC. 
 
 BLANCA, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 20 m. N.W. Murcia, 
 in a rocky and barren district, near 1. bank, Segura. It has 
 a spacious, paved, principal street, with several smaller streets 
 and narrow hilly lanes diverging from it, a large square, a 
 parish church, town and chapter house, prison, hospital, school, 
 and some remnants of a Moorish castle. Manufactures : 
 silk, linen fabrics, bass-mats, and oil, but people mainly en 
 gaged in agriculture. Pop. 2240. 
 
 BLANCH VILLESKILL, par. Irel. Kilkenny; 854 ac. 
 Pop. 152. 
 
 BLANCO CAPE, numerous capes in various parts of 
 the world: 1, A well-known cape, W. coast, Africa ; lat. 20 
 46 30" N. ; Ion. 17 4 W. (R.) It forms the extremity of a 
 rocky ridge, named Jebel-el-Bied or White Mountain, which, 
 bending S., forms, with the shore, a spacious harbour, called 
 the Great Bay. It was discovered by the Portuguese in 1441. 
 A lucrative fishery is carried on here by natives of the Canary 
 Islands, who resort to it in boats or vessels of 100 to 150 tons 
 burden. 2, A cape, N. W. Africa; lat. 33 8 N.; Ion. 8 38 
 W. (R.) 3, A cape, N. Africa, Tunis; lat. 37 15 N.; Ion. 
 8 35 E. 4, A cape, Corfu Island; lat. (S. end) 39 20 N.; 
 Ion. 20 10 E. 5, A cape, Palestine, N. of Acre, and 13 in. 
 S. Tyre; lat. 33 5 N.; Ion. 35 E. (R.) 6, A cape, isl. 
 Cyprus, S. W. coast ; lat. 34 20 N. ; Ion. 32 41 E. 7, A 
 cape, isl. Majorca, S. \V. side; lat. 39 20 N. ; Ion. 2 47 
 E. (n.) 8, A cape, Peru, N. W. extremity; lat. 4 17 S. ; 
 Ion. 81 16 W. (R.j 9, A cape, E. coast, Patagonia, N. of 
 the Gulf of St. George ; lat. 47 12 S. ; Ion. 65 44 W. (K.) 
 
 BLANDAIN, a vil., tn., and com. Belgium, prov. Hai- 
 naut, 6 m. W.N.W. Tournai. The chief employments are 
 weaving and spinning. Much oil is made here ; and butter, 
 Loney, and wax are exported. Pop. 2783. 
 
 BLANDFOED FORUM, a market tn. and par. England, 
 co. Dorset. The TOWN is 14 m. N.E. Dorchester, beautifully 
 situate on a bend of the Stow ; across which are three bridges, 
 one of them having six arches. It has regularly laid out, 
 well-paved, and lighted streets ; a townhall and theatre, neat 
 and commodious buildings ; the church, situated in the centre 
 of the town, an elegant modern structure, in the Grecian style, 
 with a tower and spire ; places of worship for Independents 
 and R. Catholics ; a free grammar-school, a blue-coat school, 
 for clothing and instructing 12 boys, besides daily and board 
 ing schools, with alms-houses, and other charities. Blandford 
 was formerly celebrated for its fine point lace ; but shirt 
 buttons are now the only manufacture, and even that is 
 declining. Races are held in August, on fine downs, in the 
 immediate vicinity. The weekly market is on Saturday ; and 
 fairs are held on March 7, July 10, and November 8, for 
 horses, sheep, cattle, and cheese. Blandford is a borough by 
 prescription ; and a charter of incorporation was granted by 
 James I. The government of the town is vested in a bailiff, 
 four aldermen, and 12 councillors. Petty sessions are held 
 every alternate week. The town has suffered severely, at 
 four different times, from fire; the last time, June 4, 1731, 
 it was nearly wholly destroyed. It gives the title of Mar 
 quis to the Duke of Marlborough. Area of par. 920 ac. 
 Pop. 3349. 
 
 BLANDFORD (ST. MARY), par. Eng. Dorset; 420 ac. 
 Pop. 407. 
 
 BLANKENBERGH, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. 
 W. Flanders, 9 m. N.W. Bruges. The village was once a 
 seaport, and called Scharphout ; but was destroyed, with a great 
 number of other villages, in 1334, by a rise of the tide; and 
 afterwards rebuilt under its present name. Fishing is nearly 
 the whole support of the inhabitants. Pop. 2125. 
 
 BLANKENBURG, a tn. duchy of, and 38 m. S.S.E. Bruns 
 wick, cap. circle of same name ; situate on the Harz Moun 
 tains, surrounded by walls, and has a gymnasium, with several 
 educational and charitable institutions. On the summit of a 
 height close by the town is the ducal palace of Luisenburg, a 
 heavy-looking structure, containing 270 apartments, and a 
 
 large collection of paintings. Pop. 2800. The CIRCLE, 
 
 area, about 144 sq. m., is, in some parts, well cultivated ; 
 
 but a great portion of it is covered with forests. Pop. 22,600. 
 
 Several other places in Germany have the same name. 
 
 BLANKENESE, a tn. Denmark, prov. Holstein, r. bank, 
 Elbe, 5 m. W. Altona, to which there is a good road ; and 
 about lat. 53 34 N.; Ion. 9 48 E. Three small creeks of 
 the Elbe divide it into three parts, which rise up in terraces 
 to a considerable height. It is irregularly built ; but has a 
 beautifully laid out park containing about 110 ac., the price 
 of admission to which, a small sum, yields a considerable 
 yearly amount, which is appropriated to charitable purposes. 
 The inhabitants are nearly all engaged in seafaring pursuits. 
 About 240 vessels, together 15,876 tons, belong to the place ; 
 but there being no harbour, they are obliged to winter in 
 Altona and Hamburg. There is a ferry across the Elbe, 
 which is here about 1 m. broad. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BLANKENHAYN, a tn. Germany, duchy of Saxe- 
 Weimar, on a height 8 m. S.S.E. Weimar. It contains a 
 castle, two churches, and a R. Catholic chapel ; and has 
 manufactures of ginghams, porcelain, common pottery, and 
 tiles. It has also some trade in wool and ribbons ; and three 
 yearly markets. Pop. 1690. 
 
 BLANKNEY-wiTH-LiNWOOD, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 6000 
 ac. Pop. 640. 
 
 BLANQUEFORT, a tn. France, dep. Gironde, 6 m. 
 from Bordeaux. In the vicinity, excellent white wines are 
 grown. Four fairs are held annually. Pop. 1648. 
 
 BLANQUILLA, an isl. Caribbean Sea, 53 m. N.N.W. 
 Santa Margarita ; lat. 1 1 55 N. ; Ion. 64 37 W. (R.) It is 
 about 15 m. in circuit, abounds in turtle, and is inhabited 
 by a few fishermen. 
 
 BLANTYRE, a vil. and par. Scotland, co. Lanark, the 
 former on a plain 8 m. S.E. Glasgow, and 3 m. W. Hamilton. 
 It is kept extremely neat and clean, and being tastefully 
 adorned with trees, has a remarkably pleasing appearance. 
 The houses are of stone, and generally well built. The parish 
 church is in the village, and at a little distance from it is a 
 Free church. Pop. 261. About 1| m. from Blantyre stands 
 a village called Blantyre Works, or Low Blantyre, containing 
 a manufacturing pop. of 1750, connected with the works carried 
 on there by Henry Monteith and Co., including the branches 
 of cotton spinning, weaving by hand and power loom, and 
 Turkey-red dyeing. The houses of the village are beautifully 
 situated about 90 ft. above the level of the river, and over 
 look a fine sloping bank of about six acres, laid out in green 
 sward as recreation ground for the inhabitants. The houses 
 and streets are lighted with gas, and well supplied with river 
 and spring water. A station of the Hamilton branch of the 
 Clydesdale Junction Railway is within 200 yards of the vil 
 lage, affording communication with Glasgow, Hamilton, &c. 
 
 The PARISH, about 6 m. in length, and about 1 m. in 
 
 breadth, contains the ruins of Blantyre Priory, founded by 
 Alexander II., situated on a high rock on the banks of the 
 Clyde, opposite Bothwell Castle. Pop. of par. 3047. 
 
 BLANZY, a vil. France, dep. Saone-et-Loire (Burgundy), 
 which gives its name to part of a very important mining 
 district, known as the coal-field of Creuzot and Blanzy. 
 
 BLARNEY, a vil. Ireland, co. of, and 4 m. N.W. Cork, 
 on a rivulet of same name, here crossed by a handsome bridge 
 of three arches. It is small, but well built ; and, besides the 
 parish church, contains a national school and dispensary. Flax 
 and cotton were formerly manufactured to some extent, but 
 both of these branches have now decayed. Spinning and 
 dyeing woollen yarn, is, however, still carried on ; and there 
 
BLAS (SAN) 
 
 421 
 
 BLENHEIM PARK 
 
 is an extensive paper-mill, employing about 170 hanfo. 
 Blarney Castle stands on an isolated limestone rock, at tha 
 junction of the Blarney and Comane; erected in the 15th 
 century, and the scene of several interesting historical events ; 
 but deriving its chief notoriety from a stone in its N.E. angle, 
 about 20 ft. from the top, bearing a Latin inscription, record 
 ing the date of the erection, and called the Blarney Stone ; 
 to which tradition ascribes the faculty of communicating to 
 all who kiss it, that species of most persuasive fluency of 
 speech, commonly called blarney. The groves of Blarney are 
 extensive and interesting ; and beneath the castle there are 
 also some curious natural caves. The Dublin and Cork 
 Railway passes close to the vil. Pop. 253. 
 
 BLAS (SAN). 1, A point or cape, and bay (the latter 
 called also Mandingo Gulf), Caribbean Sea, N. coast, isthmus 
 Panama, and precisely at the narrowest part of the latter, 
 which is here not more than 30 m. broad. The point, which 
 forms the N.W. side of the bay, is in lat. 9 35 N. ; Ion. 
 78 58 W. (it.) The mouth of the gulf from Cape Bias to 
 the anchorage of Mandingo, is 6 in. N. and S. ; and from that 
 line, as much to the \V., its coasts are low, and covered 
 with mangroves, which run into the sea. The anchorage is 
 sheltered, and has depth sufficient for any class of vessels. In 
 the gulf, and extending from it several miles E., there are 
 numerous islets and cays, with banks. It is about 50 m. E. 
 
 Porto Bello, and 70 m. N.E. Chagres. 2, A seaport tn. 
 
 Mexico, Jalisco, on an island, at the embouchure of the 
 Santiago, in the Pacific Ocean, 37 m. W.S.W. Tepic; lat. 
 21 32 30" N. ; Ion. 105 15 30" W. (R.) The climate is ex 
 tremely unhealthy, the harbour bad, and the trade very 
 
 inconsiderable. 3, A tn., S. America, La Plata, on the 
 
 bay of same name, 480 m. S.W. Buenos Ayres ; lat. 40 32 
 S. ; Ion. 62 10 W. The port is known also to sailors as 
 
 the liubia de todos Santos. Pop. about 2000. 4, A cape, 
 
 N. shore, Gulf of Mexico, mainland of Florida, U. States; 
 lat. 29 40 N. ; Ion. 85 22 W. (R.) 
 
 BLASENDORF, or BALASFALVA, a market tn. Transyl 
 vania, in a very fertile district, on the angle formed by the 
 confluence of the Great and the Little Kokel, 39 m. N.N.W. 
 Hermanstadt. It is the see of a bishop of the Greek United 
 Church; and contains, besides the cathedral, several other 
 churches, a divinity hall, a diocesan seminary, a gymnasium, 
 a normal school, and a monastery. Pop. 4000. 
 
 BLASEWITZ, a vil. Saxony, circle of, and about 5 m. 
 S.S.E. Dresden, 1. bank, Elbe ; and only deserving of notice 
 because Schiller has named the female Suttler in the camp 
 of Wallenstein Gustel of Blasewitz, doubtless after a person 
 of the same name, who, in Schiller s time, sold cakes at the 
 inn close to the ferry. Pop. 230. 
 
 BLASKAT, or BLASQUET ISLANDS, a group of 12 rocky 
 Islets, lying off the S.W. coast of Ireland, N. side of entrance 
 to Dingle Bay, co. Kerry, the largest of which, called the 
 Great Blaskat, is 2 m. long. 
 
 BLASTON (ST. MICHAEL), par. Eng. Leicester; 1300 ac. 
 Pop. 102. 
 
 BLATHERWYCKE, par. Eng. Northampton; 2750 ac. 
 Pop. 236. 
 
 BLATNA, a tn. Bohemia, circle, Prachin, cap. lordship 
 of same name, on the Uslawa, 52 m. S.W. Prague. It con 
 tains a palace, a deanery church, townhouse, school, and 
 hospital, and has a potash refinery. Gold was at one time 
 found in the neighbourhood. Pop. 1500. 
 
 BLATON, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, 14 m. 
 S.E. Tournai, with manufactures of woollen stuffs, hosiery, 
 serges, &c. It has also limekilns, and some trade in cattle. 
 Pop. 2608. 
 
 BLAUBEUREN, a tn. Wtirtemberg, circle of the Danube, 
 on the Aach, 9 m. W. Ulm. The principal buildings are the 
 church, and the monastery, which was founded in 1467, and 
 contains some good pictures. Besides woollen and linen manu 
 factures, Blaubeuren possesses several breweries, a vinegar 
 work, and numerous mills, among others, an iron, a saw, an 
 oil, a paper, and a fulling mill. Pop. 1 973. 
 
 BLAXHALL, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1930 ac. Pop. 576. 
 
 BLAYDON, a vil. England, co. Durham, r. bank, Tyne, 
 4 m. W. Newcastle, a station of the York, Newcastle, and 
 Berwick Railway. It has an Established, and three Wesleyan 
 churches. Large quantities of coals are embarked here in 
 keels, to be shipped at Shields. Here are extensive works 
 
 for the manufacture of lead ; several white lead and sulphuric 
 acid works; a chain and nail manufactory; a foundry for 
 ovens, stoves, and other articles ; a coke and lamp-black 
 factory ; a steel and iron forge ; and a fire-brick manufactory. 
 Pop. 1114. 
 
 BLAYDON -BURN, a hamlet, England, co. Durham, 
 6 m. W.S.W. Newcastle, pleasantly situated on the Tyne, 
 at the confluence of a small rivulet. It has extensive works, 
 where fire-bricks and various articles of fire-clay are manu 
 factured. Here is also an extensive colliery, employing from 
 200 to 300 hands. 
 
 BLAYE [anc. Elavia], a seaport tn. France, dep. Gironde, 
 r. bank, Gironde ; lat. 45 7 N. ; Ion. 41 W. It is a forti 
 fied place of the fourth class, and lies at the foot of a rock, on 
 the top of which stands the Upper town, called the citadel, a 
 modern fortification built round an old Gothic castle. The 
 glacis is planted with trees, and forms an agreeable promenade. 
 Blaye is also defended by Fort Medoc, on the r. bank of the 
 Gironde, and by the Patd, a fortified tower oil a small islet 
 in the middle of the river, here 2 m. wide, which is thus 
 completely commanded. The fort of Blaye is much frequented, 
 inward bound vessels delivering their manifests here, and out 
 ward bound usually calling for provisions. This town has 
 courts of first resort, and of commerce, an hospital, and an 
 agricultural society, with manufactures of linen and woollen 
 stuffs, brandy distilleries, glassworks, potteries, and building- 
 yards for coasting vessels; a considerable trade in wine, 
 brandy, oil, soap, apples, nuts, dried fruits, resin, ship and 
 house timber, &c. In 1832, the Duchess de Berri, who had 
 been arrested in Nantes, was confuted in the citadel of Blaye. 
 Pop. 3348. 
 
 BLAZEY (ST.), par. Eng. Cornwall ; 2000 ac. P. 3234. 
 
 BLEADON, par. Eng. Somerset; 2490 ac. Pop. 778. 
 
 BLEAN, par. Eng. Kent ; 5760 ac. Pop. 606. 
 
 BLEASB Y, par. Eng. Notts ; 1550 ac. Pop. 353. 
 
 BLECHINGDON, par. Eng. Oxford ; 2540 ac. P. 638. 
 
 BLEUD-FA, or BLETHVAUGH, par., S. Wales, Radnor. 
 Pop. 235. 
 
 BLEDINGTON, par. Eng. Gloucester ; 11 10 ac. P. 354. 
 
 BLEDLOW-wiTH-BLEDOW-KiDGE, par. Eng. Bucks; 
 4130 ac. Pop. 1205. 
 
 BLEGNO, a river and valley, Switzerland, can. Tessin. 
 The VALLEY lies in the N. part of the canton, formed by the 
 mountains of the Laventina Valley on the one side, and of the 
 Grisons on the other ; it is watered by the river, and is fertile, 
 
 yielding fruit and grain, and depasturing cattle. The RIVER 
 
 falls into the Tessin, after a S. course of about 15 m. 
 
 BLEIBACH, a tn. Austria, Carinthia, circle of, and about 
 5 m. W. Villach, in the valley of the Drau, and not far from 
 the famous Bleiberg or Lead Mountain. It contains two 
 churches, a R. Catholic and Lutheran. Pop. 5600. 
 
 BLEIBERG, a vil. Austria, Carinthia, about 7 m. W. 
 Villach, and so called from standing in the centre of the 
 important mining district of Bleiberg, which yields annually 
 about 1600 tons of lead and copper. 
 
 BLEICHERODE, a tn. Prussia, prov. Saxony, gov. 
 Erfurt, 11 m. W.S.W. Nordhausen, at the foot of the Pocken. 
 It is walled, and has considerable woollen and cotton manu 
 factures, tanneries, bleachfields, and oil-mills. Pop. 2780. 
 
 BLEISWIJK, a vil. Holland, prov. S. Holland, 7 m. N. 
 Rotterdam, in a pleasant fertile situation, surrounded by a 
 canal called de Snelle. It has a respectable townhouse, in 
 which is a weigh-house ; two churches, and a school. 
 
 BLELING, a small principality, cap. same name, N. side, 
 isl. Bali, against which a successful expedition was directed 
 by the Dutch, in July 1846, in consequence of the piratical 
 
 doings of the Rajah and his subjects. The TOWN, lat. 
 
 8 15 S.; Ion. 115 5 E., is the second on the island. 
 
 BLEND WORTH, par. Enc. Hants ; 31 10 ac. Pop. 280. 
 
 BLENHEIM, or BLINDHEIM, a vil. Bavaria, on the 
 Danube, circle, Schwaben and Neuburg, near the town of 
 Hochstadt, celebrated as the scene of the great battle fought 
 between the English, aided by Prince Eugene and the Im 
 perialists, under Marlborough, and the French and Bavarian 
 forces, under Marshal Tallard, on August 13, 1704, when the 
 latter were defeated with a loss of 40,000men, killed, wounded, 
 and taken prisoners, 120 pieces of cannon, and 300 standards. 
 
 BLENHEIM PARK, a tract of land, England, co. Ox 
 ford, 60 rn.W.N. W. London, containing 2940 ac., bestowed by 
 
BLERF, 
 
 422 
 
 BLOIS 
 
 Queen Anne, upon the great Duke of Maryborough, in reward 
 of the splendid victory of Blenheim ; and subsequently con 
 firmed by Act of Parliament, the House of Commons further 
 voting the sum of 500,000, for the erection of a suitable 
 palace. The structure was completed in 1715, after a design 
 by Sir John Vanbrough. 
 
 BLERE, a tn. France, dep. Indre-et-Loire, 16 m. E.S.E. 
 Tours, 1. bank, Cher, here crossed by a bridge, built, about 
 the middle of the 12th century, by Henry II. of England. 
 Ble re is the entrepot for the timber from the forest of Loche, 
 and for most of the merchandise that comes down the Cher, 
 from the Berry and the Bourbonnais. In the canton, and 
 near the town of Ble re , is the castle of Chenoneeaux, which 
 at first was a simple manor-house, but extended to its present 
 dimensions in the reign of Francis I. It was purchased, in 
 1535, by Henry II., who gave it, with the duchy of Valen- 
 tinois, to the celebrated Diana of Poitiers, who embellished it 
 with great magnificence ; but, before her designs were com 
 pleted, was obliged to cede it to Catherine de Medicis, who 
 continued the embellishments on a still more lavish scale. It 
 was afterwards possessed by the house of Conde; and, in 1733, 
 was purchased by M. Dupin (former General), the wit and 
 beauty of whose widow attracted the most distinguished 
 literati of the last century to the castle. Voltaire, Montes 
 quieu, Buffon, and Rousseau, who wrote one or two pieces 
 for the theatre, were amongst the visitors. The castle is 
 constructed on a kind of bridge across the Cher, and has a 
 long gallery that leads from one side of the river to the other. 
 It fortunately escaped the Revolution, and is in perfect pre 
 servation. Many fine pictures decorate the interior. The 
 architecture, furniture, and decorations all belong to the time 
 of the Valois. Among the curiosities, is shown the mirror 
 used by Mary, Queen of Scots, when married to the Dauphin. 
 Pop. 1972. 
 
 BLESSINGTON, a tn. and par. Ireland, co. Wicklow, 
 on the Liffey, 16m. S.W. Dublin. The TOWN is tolerably 
 well built, has a thriving appearance, and comprises a hand 
 some church, two R. Catholic chapels, several schools, a 
 dispensary, and numerous elegant private dwellings. Manu 
 factures : frieze cloth, and linen fabrics. Fairs are held in 
 
 May, July, and November. In the PARISH, which is for 
 
 the most part hilly, are several quarries of excellent granite. 
 Area, 15,781 ac. Pop. (1841), 2168. 
 
 BLETCHINGLY, a tn. and par. England, co. Surrey. 
 The town, 19 m. S. London, is pleasantly situated on an emi 
 nence, and commands an extensive prospect of the S. Downs, 
 and other parts of Sussex. It has a church, a venerable and 
 spacious edifice, in the early English style ; an Independent 
 chapel, an endowed grammar-school for 25 boys, alms-houses 
 for 10 aged persons, and several smaller charities. The in 
 habitants are principally employed in agriculture. It formerly 
 returned two members to Parliament, but was disfranchised 
 by the Reform Bill ; since which it has sunk into a mere vil 
 lage. The market has long been discontinued ; but there are 
 two annual fairs, for horses, cattle, and pigs. The South- 
 Eastern, and the London, Brighton, and South-coast Railways, 
 have each a station at Bletchingley. Area of par. 5250 ac. 
 Pop. 3546. 
 
 BLETCHINGTON, two pars. Eng. Sussex:!, Bletcli- 
 ingtvn (East), 2110 ac. Pop. 163. 2, Bletcliington (West), 
 2590 ac. Pop. 04. 
 
 BLETCHLEY, par. Eng. Bucks ; 2220 ac. Pop. 685. 
 
 BLETHERSTON, par., S. Wales, Pembroke. Pop. 271. 
 
 BLETSOE, par. Eng. Bedford ; 2220 ac. Pop. 420. 
 
 BLEWBERRY, par. Eng. Berks ; 6950 ac. Pop. 1096. 
 
 BLEWFIELDS, or BLUEFIELDS, a tn. Central America, 
 Mosquito territory ; lat. 11 59 18" N. ; Ion. 83 41 30" W. (R.) 
 It stands on an inlet of the Caribbean Sea, on a height, near 
 the mouth of the river of same name, has a good harbour, and 
 
 is the residence of the king. The RIVEK rises about lat. 
 
 13 1(K N. ; Ion. 86 O 7 W., flows S.E., and falls into the 
 inlet on which the town stands, about 7 m. N., after a course 
 of upwards of 200 m., for 80 of which it is navigable. 
 
 BLICKLING, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 2240 ac. Pop. 356. 
 
 BL1DA. See BELIDA. 
 
 BLIDWORTH, par. Eng. Nottingham ; 6610 ac. Pop. 
 1132. 
 
 BLTEP, a small river, W. Germany, which rises in an 
 isolated part of the territory of Saxe-Coburg, and, after a 
 
 circuitous course through a corner of Rhenish Prussia and 
 Rhenish Bavaria, joins r. bank, Sarre, near Sarreguemine. 
 
 BLIESKASTEL, a tn. Bavaria, Palatinate, cap. can. of 
 same name, on the Blies, here crossed by a bridge, 5 m. W. 
 Zwei-Briicken or Deux Ponts. It contains two churches and 
 a grammar-school, and has a tobacco-factory. Pop. of tn. 
 1874; of can. 19,762. 
 
 BLIGII, an inland co. New S. Wales, 88 m. in length, 
 S.W. to N.E., and about 28 ra. in breadth at the broadest 
 part, or throughout about half its length, and from 10 to 15 m. 
 throughout the remainder ; area, 1683 sq. m., or 1,077,120 ac. 
 The plains in this county are extremely fertile. Live stock : 
 horses, 927; head of cattle, 9035; pigs, 151; sheep, 120,986. 
 The principal town is Ailsa; the others are Dalkeith and 
 Montefiores. Pop. 598. 
 
 BLIGH, a dist. New S. Wales, containing 5,000,000 ac., 
 bounded, S.W. by the Macquarie river, and N. by the Liver 
 pool range. Live stock: horses, 695; head of horned cattle, 
 35,754; pigs, 100; sheep, 124,211. Pop. 788, of whom 615 
 are males. 
 
 BLIJHAM, a vil. Holland, prov. Groningen, 3 m. S.W. 
 Winschoten, near the Hanoverian frontier, with two churches 
 and a school. The vicinity is chiefly fertile clay lands, in the 
 cultivation of which the inhabitants are mainly employed. 
 Pop. 800. 
 
 BLIND BAY, New Zealand, N. end, isl. New Munster, 
 off Cook s Strait, having, at its entrance, D Urville Island on 
 the E.,and Cape Farewell on the W., distant from each other 
 50 m. ; lat. 40 42 S. ; and between Ion. 173 and 174 E. 
 
 BLIS, BALIS, or BELES [anc. Barlissus], a ruined tn. 
 Syria, 60 m. E.S.E. Aleppo, r. bank, Euphrates ; lat. 36 1 21" 
 N. ; Ion. 38 7 10" E. The ruins lie among chalk hills and dry 
 valleys, and extend about 2 m. parallel to the river, and about 
 half a mile from it ; and consist of remains, both Roman and 
 Saracenic, including mosques, castles, and domestic buildings. 
 There are here the remains of a landing-place or port, and 
 Blis is supposed at one time to have been the Euphrates port 
 of Aleppo. (Chesney s Euphrates Expedition.) 
 
 BLISLAND, par. Eng. Cornwall ; 6800 ac. Pop. 688. 
 
 BLISWORTH, par. Eng. Northampton ; 1 980 ac. P. 882. 
 
 BLITHFIELD-wiTH-NEWTON, par. Eng. Stafford ; 4180 
 ac. Pop. 390. 
 
 BLOCK ISLAND, an isl., U. States, state of Rhode 
 Island, 10 m. S. the mainland; lat. 41 13 24" N. ; Ion. 
 71 35 W. (K.) The surface is uneven and hilly, and the 
 soil fertile. It has no harbour. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 employed in fishing. 
 
 BLOCKLEY, par. Eng. Worcester ; 7660 ac. P. 2136. 
 
 BLOF1ELD, par. Eng. Norfolk; 1990 ac. Pop. 1112. 
 
 BLOIS [anc. Blesum, Blcsia], a tu. France, cap. dep. Loire- 
 et-Cher, 99 m. S.S. W. Paris ; lat. 47 35 20" N. ; Ion. 1 20 24" 
 E. (c.) ; built in the form of an amphitheatre, r. bank, Loire, 
 on one of the finest sites of the kingdom. From its position, 
 on an acclivity, it is divided into upper and lower town. The 
 upper portion, which more properly forms the town of Blois, 
 is ill built ; with narrow, crooked streets, almost impassable by 
 carriages, but clean, and ornamented with fountains. The lower 
 town consists of a series of well-built houses, extending along 
 a handsome quay ; a stone bridge of 1 1 arches, which crosses 
 the river at this point, unites it to one of the principal suburbs. 
 The castle of Blois is celebrated from its historical associations. 
 It was for several centuries the abode of the Counts of that 
 name, and afterwards the favourite residence of the Kings of 
 France. It has been inhabited by more than a hundred princes 
 or crowned heads, who from time to time embellished and 
 extended it. Louis XII. was born there; and Francis I., 
 Henry II., Charles IX., and Henry III. held their courts in it. 
 Amongst other events, the Castle of Blois was the scene of the 
 murder of the Guises. During the religious wars which at 
 that period (1588) desolated France, the states known by the 
 name of the States of Blois, were convoked in the castle by 
 Henry III., to put an end if possible to the troubles by which 
 the kingdom was distracted. The Due de Guise, and his 
 brother the Cardinal, were on their way to attend the sitting, 
 when the former was stabbed, almost in presence of the King. 
 The Cardinal was murdered next day by some soldiers in the 
 tower of the castle, and his body was burnt, to prevent the 
 leaguers from making relics of his remains. The castle has 
 been rebuilt and extended at so many various periods, that 
 
BLOKZTJL 
 
 423 
 
 BOAVISTA 
 
 nothing remains of its original structure, except the Gothic 
 tower. The E. portion was built by Louis XII., the N. by 
 Francis I., and the fine W. facade by Gaston of Orleans, 
 after the designs of Mansard. The castle is now used as a 
 barracks; but the states hall, the Queen s room, and the cor- 
 
 COURT OF THE CASTLE OF LOIS -- From France M 
 
 le ct Pittoresque 
 
 ridor where the Duke of Guise was assassinated, are still 
 pointed out. The finest modern building of Blois is the 
 episcopal palace, built by Gabriel, architect to Louis XIV. 
 It is now used as the hotel of the Prefecture. The old church 
 of the Jesuits, built after the designs of Mansard, is an inter 
 esting structure. The aqueduct that supplies part of the 
 town with water, is cut through the solid rock. It is a 
 stupendous work, and is supposed to have been executed by 
 the Eomans. Blois has also a fine public promenade, a public 
 library, containing 17,000 volumes ; a theatre, hospital, bo 
 tanic garden, lunatic asylum, and several interesting monu 
 ments. It is the seat of a bishopric, a court of first resort, 
 and of commerce, and has an exchange and an agricultural 
 society, communal college, two seminaries, and a royal stud. 
 Manufactures: gloves, vinegar, earthenware, and leather. 
 It has a considerable trade in wine, brandy, cloth, paper, 
 ship-timber, and firewood. Blois is the principal entrepot 
 for the spirit called Orleans brandy. The town is of great 
 antiquity, and was formerly the capital of an extensive 
 county. In the 16th century, it was twice the seat of the 
 states-general of the kingdom. When the allied armies 
 menaced Paris in 1814, the Empress Maria Louisa retired 
 here, and made this place for a short period the seat of imperial 
 government, the last acts of which were dated and despatched 
 from Blois. Pop. (1846), 13,132. 
 
 BLOKZIJL, a market tn. Holland, prov. Overijsel, 
 16m. N.N.W. Zwolle, at the embouchure of the Blokzijler 
 Aa, in the Zuider Zee. It is a regularly built, good-looking 
 town, with two churches, Calvinistic and Baptist ; a synagogue, 
 three schools, and a weigh-house. The chief occupations are 
 trade, shipping, the manufacture of salt and leather. Pop. 
 1700. 
 
 BLOMBERG, a tn. Germany, Lippe-Detmold, on the 
 Distel, 26 m. S.S.E. Minden. It is entered by three gates, 
 contains two churches, a townhouse, and old castle ; and has 
 a bark-mill, a fulling-mill, and a tilework. Pop. 1950. 
 
 BLOOMINGTON, a vil., U. States, Indiana, 43 m. 
 S. Indianopolis. It has five churches, belonging to different 
 religious bodies ; a female academy, and a university. Pop. 
 (1840), 1550. 
 
 BLO-NORTON, par. Eng. Norfolk; 1400 ac. Pop. 435. 
 
 BLORE, par. Eng. Stafford; 3730 ac. Pop. 333. 
 
 BLOTZHEIM, or BLADOLSHEISI, a vil. France, dep. 
 Haut-Rhin, 15 m. E. Altkirch. Near it is a ferruginous 
 spring. Pop. 2280. 
 
 BLOXHAM, par. Eng. Oxford ; 4240 ac. Pop. 1543. 
 
 BLOXHOLME, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 1100 ac. Pop. 67. 
 
 BLOXWORTH, par. Eng. Dorset ; 3420 ac. Pop. 306. 
 
 BLUDENZ, or PLUDENZ, a tn. Austria, Vorarlberg, r. 
 bank, 111, 12 m. S.E. Feldkirch. It is a sombre-looking place, 
 has a capacious monastery, salt and alum works, and, on a 
 neighbouring hill, an old castle. Pop. 1865. 
 
 ELUEFIELDS. See BLEWFIELDS. 
 
 BLUE MOUNTAINS. 1, A system of mountains occu 
 pying the E. portion of isl. Jamaica. The principal ridge 
 runs from E. to W., and varies in height from 5000 to 6000 ft. 
 Some isolated peaks rise still higher. 2, A range of moun 
 tains in E. Australia, about 70 m. from the coast, stretching 
 generally from N. to S., and lying between lat. 33 and 35 S. 
 3, A range of mountains in the Oregon territory, mid 
 way between the Rocky Mountains and the coast ; they are 
 about 200 m. in length, and attain an elevation, at the highest 
 
 part, of 2400 ft. 4, Blue Ridge, the E. portion of the Alle- 
 
 ghany Mountains, U. States, branching off from the main range 
 in N. Carolina, crossing the state of Virginia, and extending 
 to the high lands on the Hudson River, the highest peak has 
 an elevation of about 4000 ft. 
 
 BLUNDESTON, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 1500 ac. Pop. 592. 
 
 BLUNHAM, par. Eng. Bedford ; 3300 ac. Pop. 1050. 
 
 BLUNSDON (ST. ANDREWS), par. Eng. Wilts; 1420 ac. 
 Pop. 79. 
 
 BLUNTISHAM-AND-EARiTH, par. Eng. Huntingdon; 
 3410 ac. Pop. 1457. 
 
 BLYA, a vil. Holland, prov. Friesland, 12 m. N.E. Leeu- 
 warden ; with a church and school. The inhabitants, chiefly 
 agriculturists, are said to be the best flax-growers in Friesland. 
 Pop. 990. 
 
 BLYBOROUGH, par. Eng. Lincoln; 3080 ac. Pop. 197. 
 
 BLYMHILL-wiTn-BRiNCTON, par. Eng. Stafford; 2190 
 ac. Pop. 633. 
 
 BLYTH (SOUTH), or BLYTH NOOK, a small seaport tn. 
 England, co. Northumberland, r. bank, Blyth, at its confluence 
 with the German Ocean, 11J m. N.N.W. Newcastle; lat. 
 55 7 30" N. ; Ion. 1 30 W. It has but one principal street, 
 crooked, and indifferently kept ; houses of stone, ill built ; and 
 water carted into the town. It has a chapel of ease connected 
 with the Established church, four places of worship belonging 
 to dissenters, day and Sunday-schools, a mechanics institu 
 tion, baths, and two public gardens. The harbour is secure, 
 and the entrance for small vessels at all times free from 
 obstruction. A lighthouse was erected here in 1788, which 
 shows a fixed light visible for 10 m. in clear weather. There 
 are also a beacon light, a dry dock, two slipways for building 
 and repairing ships, and a custom-house. In the neighbour 
 hood are several coal mines. The export of coals and salt, 
 and of iron, from the Bedlington ironworks, 5 m. distant, 
 employs about 100 vessels. The Cramlington station of the 
 York, Newcastle, and Berwick Railway, is 6 m. from the town. 
 Pop. (1841), 1921. North Blyth, situated opposite S. Blyth, 
 1. bank of the river, is a small vil., inhabited chiefly by fisher 
 men and pilots. 
 
 BLYTH, a par. and vil. England, co. York, W. Riding, 
 area, 17,070 ac. The vil. lies 6 m. N.N.W. East Retford, on a 
 gentle acclivity ; and possesses a church and several charities. 
 It was formerly a place of some importance. Pop. of par. 
 3488. 
 
 BLYTH , a river, England, co. Suffolk, rising near Lax- 
 field, and, after an E. course of 16 m., falls into the German 
 Ocean, 1 m. S. by W. SouthwoJd. It is navigable to Hales- 
 worth, a distance of about 8 m. 
 
 BLYTHBURGH, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 3590 ac. Pop. 837. 
 
 BLYTHFORD, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 1240 ac. Pop. 223. 
 
 BLYTON-wiTH-WHARTON, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 2830 ac. 
 Pop. 647. 
 
 BO, or Po, a group of seven islands, Indian Archipelago, 
 E.S.E. isl. Gilolo; lat. 1 17 S.; Ion. 129 18 E. They 
 abound in cocoa-nuts and sago, are very populous, and subject 
 to the Rajah of Popo. 
 
 BOARHUNT, par. Eng. Hants ; 1850 ac. Pop. 232. 
 
 BOAVISTA, or BONAVISTA, the most E., and one of the 
 largest of the Cape de Verde Islands, 21 m. S. by E. Ilha de 
 Sal, and 300 m. W. by N. Cape Verde, the nearest point of the 
 African coast ; lat. (N. point) 16 5 N. ; Ion. 22 48 W. It is 
 of irregular form, about 16m. long, and as many broad ; and, 
 as its name implies, presents a beautiful appearance. Hills and 
 valleys alternate, while, in some places, low points project into 
 the sea ; on the E. side, in particular, is a low projecting point, 
 not discernible at a distance, from which extends a reef of 
 dangerous rocks ; and N. this point are several rocky islets, 
 terminating in another reef, which has caused the destruction 
 of several vessels. Salt is the principal article of trade, 
 exchanged for clothes and other necessaries. The best and 
 
BOBBING 
 
 424 
 
 BODE 
 
 safest of the several anchorages is English Road, a little off 
 the only town on the island. The inhabitants exhibit every 
 variety of colour, owing to intermarriages ; and several years 
 ago were estimated at 3000. 
 
 BOBBING, par. Eng. Kent; 1040 ac. Pop. 404. 
 
 BOBBINGTON, par. Eng. Salop and Stafford ; 2320 ac. 
 Pop. 418. 
 
 BOBBTNGWORTH, par. Eng. Essex ; 1430 ac. P. 357. 
 
 BOBBIO, a tn. Sardinian States, cap. prov. of same 
 name, gov. of, and 37 m. N.E. Genoa, on the Trebbia. It is 
 surrounded by walls, has a dismal appearance, and is the seat 
 of a bishopric suffragan to Genoa, and of a district court of 
 justice. It owes its origin to a monastery founded here in 
 the 7th century. In 1743, it was ceded to Sardinia by Austria. 
 
 Pop. 4000. The PROVINCE is 25 m. long, and 10 ni. broad. 
 
 A spur of the Apennines divides it into two parts ; the S. 
 portion watered by the Trebbia, and the N. by the Stafora 
 and Tidone. It is divided into four maudements, which are 
 again subdivided into 27 communes. Pop. 31,354. 
 
 BOBER, a river, Prussian Silesia, which rises near a vil. 
 of same name, in the Riesengebirge, and after receiving, 
 1. bank, the Queis and Oels, and, r. bank, the Sprotta, falls 
 into the Oder, near Crossen, after a N.N.W. course of nearly 
 180 m. 
 
 BOBERKA, or BOBRKA, a small tn. and lordship, Aus 
 tria, Galicia, circle, Berzezany, 19 m. S.S.E. Lemberg. It 
 contains a R. Catholic and a Greek church. The inhabitants 
 are chiefly employed in weaving linen. Pop. 2700. 
 
 BOBIA, ABOBBI, or PIRATE ISLAND. See AMBOISES. 
 
 BOBLINGEN, a vil. Wiirtemberg, 10m. S.W. Stuttgart; 
 with woollen, linen, and cotton manufactures, vinegar and 
 
 chemical works. Pop. 3300. The DISTRICT, area, 54 geo. 
 
 sq. m., has a pop. of 40,000, employed chiefly in weaving, 
 the culture of hops, and the timber trade. 
 
 BOBROUISK, a fortified tn. Russia, cap. dist. of same 
 name, gov. of, and 85 m. S.E. Minsk, at the junction of the 
 Bobrouiia with the Berezina. It has four churches and a 
 school, and forms a station for steam-vessels navigating the 
 Berezina and Dnieper. It was besieged by the French, 
 without success, in 1812. Pop. 5500. 
 
 BOBROV, or BOBROFF [beaver], a tn. Russia, cap. dist. 
 of same name, gov. of, and 53 m. S.E. Voroneje, r. bank, 
 Bitioug. It has two churches, extensive gardens, and some 
 trade. Pop. 5500. 
 
 BOCA, or BOCCA [mouth]. 1, Boca del Toro, a channel 
 between two islands, leading into the bay of the same name, 
 Carribean Sea, N. coast, Veragua ; lat. 9 20 30" N. ; Ion. 
 82 15 15" W.(R.) 2, Boca del Drcif/o, a channel leading into 
 the same bay, 15 m. N.W. the former. 3, Boca de Chiriqui, 
 a channel, Carribean Sea, leading through a cluster of islands 
 into a lagoon of the same name, N. coast, Veragua, 40 m. 
 S.E. Boca del Toro. 4, Boca Cliica [little mouth], the 
 entrance into the harbour of Cartagena, New Granada ; lat. 
 10 20 N. ; Ion. 75 38 W. 
 
 BOCAGE (LE), two dists. France, the one forming part of 
 dep. Vendee, and so called from the great quantity of wood 
 which covers it; and the other, called also Bessin Meridional, 
 which belonged to prov. Normandy, and had Vire for its 
 capital, is now included in dep. Calvados. 
 
 BOCAINA, a mountain-range, Brazil, prov. Rio de 
 Janeiro. It is an offset of the Orgaos or Organ Mountains. 
 
 BOCAYRENTE, a walled tn. Spain, prov. of, and 50 m. 
 S. S.W. Valencia, on a small conical hill at the \V. extremity of 
 the valley of Agres. It has hilly and inconvenient streets, four 
 squares, a parish church, three well-attended schools, a town- 
 Lall, small and very unwholesome subterraneous prison, an 
 hospital, public storehouse, and an extensive palace of the 
 Baron de Casasnova. Manufactures: linen and woollen 
 fabrics, cloth and baize of all kinds, hats, soap, hemp, and 
 brandy. A monthly market is held. Pop. 4074. 
 
 BOCCA TIGRIS, or BOGUE, the name given to the 
 embouchure of the principal branch of the Chu Kiang, or 
 Canton river, China. At this point the river suddenly ex 
 pands to an estuary of 20 m. in breadth. To the S.W. there 
 are several shallow channels, by which the flat-bottomed 
 trading craft of the Chinese can reach Canton ; but British 
 ships, and all others of large draught of water, can ascend the 
 river by the Bogue only. On this account it was strongly 
 fortified by the Chinese, but, though mounting 120 camions, 
 
 I was forced, with little effort, by the British frigates Imogene 
 and Andromache, in September 1834. 
 
 BOCHNIA, a tn. Austria, Galicia, cap. circle of same 
 name, gov. Lemberg, 25 m. E.S.E. Cracow, near the Raba. 
 It is tolerably well built, with several churches, a gymnasium, 
 a grammar and other schools, and a board for the government 
 of mines and saltworks. The salt mines here employ 500 
 persons, and yield about 12,500 tons per annum. Pop. 5500. 
 The CIRCLE, area, 800 geo. sq. m., contains five municipal 
 and eight market towns, and 377 villages. In addition to 
 agriculture and the ordinary handicrafts, mining, particularly 
 that of salt, gives employment to the inhabitants. There are 
 also considerable manufactures of linen, and various articles 
 of ironware. Pop. 178,760. 
 
 BOCHOLD, or BOCHOLT, a tn. Prussia, prov. Westphalia, 
 gov. Minister, on the Aa, 15 m. E.N.E. Cleves. It contains 
 three churches, one of them a beautiful structure, in the Gothic 
 style, and a castle of the princes of Salm-Salm; and has 
 manufactures of silk, cotton, and woollen stuffs, bonnets, and 
 hosiery; with several distilleries. In the neighbourhood 
 are valuable iron mines, and ironworks, which produce sheet 
 iron, and all kinds of castings. Pop. 4462. 
 
 BOCHOLZ, a vil. Holland, pcov. Limburg, 13 m. 
 E.S.E. Maastricht, with a R. Catholic church, a school, an 
 old castle, a brewery, and a distillery. Pop. 680. 
 
 BOCHUM, a tn. Prussia, prov. Westphalia, gov. Arns- 
 berg, cap. circle of same name, 25 m. N.E. Diisseldorf. It 
 is walled, contains four churches and chapels, and has manu 
 factures of kerseymeres and ironmongery. Pop. 3813. 
 
 The CIRCLE, area, 104 geo. sq. m., consists of an undulating 
 plain, which is very fertile, watered by the Ruhr, and the 
 Emsch, and studded over with old castles, which gives the 
 whole district a very picturesque appearance. Pop. 48,058, 
 almost all Protestants, only 2000 being R. Catholics, and 
 300 Jews. 
 
 BOCKAU, a mining vil. Saxony, circle, Zwickau, dist. 
 of, and 4 m. W.N.W. Schwarzenberg. It has a tin furnace, 
 several chemical, and numerous vitriol works. In the neigh 
 bourhood, silver and cobalt are worked, and medicinal herbs 
 extensively grown. Pop. 1700. 
 
 BOCKENHEIM, a tn. Hesse-Cassel, prov. and circle of 
 Hanau, not far from Frankfort-on-the-Main. It is a very 
 stirring place ; and has numerous manufactures cloth, straw 
 hats, ironware, machinery, and the well-known Hessian cru 
 cibles. It has also a bleachfield, and a distillery for spirits 
 of wine. Pop. 3300. 
 
 BOCKING, a vil. and par. England, co. Essex. The 
 village lies on a gentle acclivity on the Blackwater, a little N. 
 from Braintree; with which it forms a continuous town, 
 though in a different parish. It consists of one principal 
 street, and several smaller; some of the houses are well 
 built ; most of the others are merely lath and plaster. It is 
 well supplied with water, but not lighted. The only build^ 
 ings of any note are the parish church, an Independent and 
 Wesleyan chapels, and the union workhouse. The schools 
 are, a national school, a British school, and a respectable 
 boarding-school. There are several minor charities ; also a 
 literary and mechanics institute. Bocking was, formerly, 
 celebrated for its baize manufacture ; but this branch has 
 given place to the silk trade, which is carried on here to a 
 great extent ; the weaving of silks, satins, and velvets, em 
 ploying many hundred hands. There is also a crape manu 
 factory. Area of par. 3800 ac. Pop. 3437. (Local Cor 
 respondent.) 
 
 BOCKLETON, par. Eng. Hereford ; 3300 ac. Pop. 358. 
 
 BOCOGNANO, a tn. France, isl. Corsica, 16 m. N.E. 
 Ajaccio, in an extensive and very fertile plain, near 1. bank, 
 Gravone. Many persons in easy circumstances retire to it 
 during the summer heats, to enjoy its cooling breeze. Pop. 
 2631. 
 
 BOCONNOC, par. Eng. Cornwall ; 2230 ac. Pop. 312. 
 
 BODDINGTON, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Gloucester; 
 1550 ac. Pop. 414. 2, Boddington (Lower and Upper), par. 
 Northampton ; 3770 ac. Pop. 675. 
 
 BODE, a small river, Germany, which rises in the Harz 
 Mountains, and is formed by two streams, called the Cold and 
 the Warm Bode. It afterwards receives the Rapp-Bode and 
 the Lup-Bodc; and, flowing E.N.E., joins the Saale about 
 7 m. E. Halberstadt. 
 
BODEDERN 
 
 425 
 
 BOGOEODITZK 
 
 BODEDERN, par., N. Wales, Anglesey. Pop. 1085. 
 BODEGA, a port and settlement, U. States, California, 
 on the Pacific, 40 m. N.W. the embouchure of the San 
 Francisco, lat. 38 40 N. ; Ion. 122 40 W. The settle 
 ment was made by the Russians, in 1812, and was designed 
 to serve as the factory of the Russian American Company, 
 and the entrepot of their peltry. 
 
 BODEGRAVEN, a vil. Holland, prov. S Holland, 11 m. 
 W.S. W. Leyden. It is well built, on both sides of the Rhine, 
 here crossed by a drawbridge, and has a cruciform Calvinistic 
 church, a small evangelical Lutheran church, and two schools. 
 It is one of the stations between Leyden and Utrecht, the 
 traffic between which makes the village cheerful. 
 
 BODENHAM, par. Eng. Hereford ; 5530 ac. P. 1017. 
 
 BODENSEE. See CONSTANCE (LAKE). 
 
 BODENSTADT, a tn. Austria, Moravia, circle, Prerau, 
 
 in a valley 20 m. E. Olmiitz. It is a very old place, and 
 
 contains a castle, two churches, and an hospital. Pop. 1305. 
 
 BODENSTOWN, par. Irel. Kildare; 2832 ac. P. 459. 
 
 BODENWERDER, a tn. Germany, on an isolated part 
 
 nf Hanover, and 30 m. S.S. W. the city of that name, 1. bank, 
 
 Weser. It has walls with two gates, carries on a good 
 
 shipping trade, and contains numerous tanneries, a printfield, 
 
 and cotton mills. Pop. 1486. 
 
 BODEWRYD, par., N. Wales, Anglesey. Pop. 32. 
 BODFARY, or BODVAKI, par., N.Wales, Denbigh. P. 945. 
 BODFERIN, par., N. Wales, Carnarvon, Pop. 64. 
 BODFUAN, or BODVEAN, par., N. Wales, Carnarvon, 
 Pop. 366. 
 
 BODHAM, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 1680 ac. Pop. 292. 
 BODIAM, par. Eng. Sussex ; 1480 ac. Pop. 377. 
 BODMIN, a parl. bor. and tn. England, co. Cornwall, near 
 its centre, chiefly on the slops of a hill, 26m. N.W. Plymouth. 
 It has three principal streets, lying E. and W., all straight 
 and well kept ; houses of stone, and those of recent erection 
 commodious and substantial ; well lighted with gas, water 
 abundant. The church, erected about the middle of the 15th 
 century, and situate at the E. end of the town, is the largest 
 in the county, and, in the interior, the handsomest. It con 
 tains, amongst other interesting relics, a curious font, evi 
 dently of high antiquity. There are chapels, besides, for 
 Bryanites, Independents, and Methodists. The schools are, 
 a national school, an endowed British and Foreign school, and 
 an academy. There are also a literary institution and a dis 
 pensary. The town has much improved since 1839, when 
 the whole of the county sessions and assizes began to be held 
 in it, although its population does not seem to be increasing. 
 It has no manufactures. By the municipal act, its govern 
 ment is vested in a mayor, fonr aldermen, and 12 councillors. 
 It returns two members to the House of Commons. Area of 
 par.6310ac. P.(1841),4643;ofbor.5901. (Local Correspond.) 
 BODNEY, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 2390 ac. Pop. 98. 
 BODGE, a tn. Norway, prov. Tromsoe, cap. bail. Nord- 
 land, on the Salten-fiord, at the extremity of Bodb e peninsul 
 the youngest and most unimportant chief town in the country! 
 It has a good harbour ; trade is its only support, and fish its 
 only export. Pop. 309. 
 
 BODROGH KERESZTUR, a market tn. Upper Hun 
 gary, 3 m. N.N.W. Tokay, r. bank, Bodrog. It has t 
 churches, a synagogue, and large annual cattle-markets. The 
 environs produce rye, and the famous Hegyalla wines, known 
 
 by the name of Tokay. Pop. 4500. An important river, 
 
 which is formed by the confluence of the Latoreza, the Ungh, 
 the Laborez, and the Ondava, takes the name of BODROGH in 
 the latter part of its course, before joining the Theiss at 
 Tokay. 
 
 BODROROG, par., N. Wales, Anglesey. Pop. 358. 
 BOEO (CAPE), [anc. Lilybceum Promontorium\, the most 
 W. point of Sicily, about 1 m. W. Marsala ; lat. 37 48 10" N. ; 
 Ion. 12 25 10" E. The cape, like the rest of the coast in 
 its vicinity, is low, and the shore is foul, a shelving rocky 
 bottom extending more than a mile out, and making the navi 
 gation dangerous. This cape being the point of Sicily nearest 
 to ancient Carthage, early became an important naval station ; 
 and near it was fought a famous naval battle between the 
 Romans and Carthaginians. The decisive victory gained by 
 the former, put an end to the first Punic war. 
 
 BCEOTI A, a division of ancient Greece, now included in the 
 modern nome or province of Attike and Viotia. See ATTIKE. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 BOG. See BUG. 
 
 BOGAN, a river, New S. Wales, Wellington district. Its 
 chief sources are in Harvey s Range, in about lat. 32 50 S. ; 
 on. 148 27 E. It flows N.W., and falls into the Darling, 
 n lat. 30 S. ; Ion. 145 51 E. ; whole course, about 300 m. 
 The uniformity of this river is remarkable, neither the charac 
 ter of its banks nor the breadth of its bed undergoing any 
 perceptible change throughout its entire length. 
 
 BOGARRA, a tn. Spain, New Castile, prov. of, and 29m. 
 S.S.W. Albacete, near 1. bank, Madera; with irregular and 
 steep streets, a large square, a parish church, townhouse, 
 ion, endowed school, and two public storehouses. Manufac 
 tures : linen, woollen, and silken fabrics ; trade, cattle and 
 grain. Pop. 1927. 
 
 BOGDOIN DABASSU, a salt lake, Russia, gov. As 
 trakhan, at the foot of the remarkable hill Bogdo-oola, and 
 14 m. E. Tchernoiarsk. It is about 10 m. long, from N. to S., 
 and 6 m. broad ; produces a fine sparkling white salt, the 
 incrustation of which along the shore makes it look as if 
 covered with snow. The salt, owing to the expense of trans 
 port, has ceased to be an object of traffic. 
 
 BOGDO-OOLA, a remarkable hill, Russia, gov. Astra 
 khan, not far from the banks of the Aktuba, and about 14 m. 
 E. Tchernoiarsk. It stands isolated in the middle of a vast 
 steppe, and, rising up into a conical peak, to the height of nearly 
 500 ft., forms a conspicuous object from a great distance. 
 Its base forms a mass of earth and rock of a triangular form, 
 and appears to rest on limestone. Higher up, it consists of 
 sandstone, which, on the N.E. side, rises perpendicularly 
 like a rampart, and is cut into deep clefts, which are the 
 resort of innumerable birds from the steppes. The sandstone 
 is succeeded by layers of clay and sand, alternately white and 
 red, giving it a very strange appearance. The summit con 
 tains fragments of mussel limestone, but is chiefly composed 
 of masses of rock-salt. Bogdo-oola, or Holy Mount, is the 
 name given to the hill by the Kalmuks, who hold it in the 
 highest veneration, and have a tradition that the Dalai Lama 
 once passed a night upon it, and, while dining, let fall a grain 
 of salt, which grew up into the present salt cone. At the foot 
 of the hill is the salt lake Bogdoin Dabassu (which see). 
 
 BOGENHAUSEN, a vil. Bavaria, r. bank, Isar, in the 
 immediate vicinity, and almost a suburb of Munich. It con 
 tains two palaces and a fine royal observatory. Pop. 196. 
 
 BOGENSE, a tn. Denmark, N.W. coast, isl. Fiihnen, 
 17m. N.W. Odense ; with a small harbour, from which there 
 is regular communication to the coast of Jutland. Pop. 1400. 
 
 BOGIE, a rivulet, Scotland, co. Aberdeen, formed by the 
 confluence of two burns near the manse of Auchindoir, and, 
 after a course of about 1 1 in. through the beautiful strath to 
 which it gives its name, falls into the Doverin a little below 
 Huntly. 
 
 BOGLIPOOR. See BHAUGULPOKE. 
 
 BOGMUTTI, BOGMUTTY, or BOGMUTTEE, a river, Hin- 
 doostan, rising in Nepaul, S. W. Khatamandoo, and after a S.E. 
 course of 22 m. and receiving numerous affluents, it falls into 
 the Ganges opposite Monghur ; lat. 25 25 N. ; Ion. 86 28 E. 
 
 BOGNOR, a small market and maritime tn. England, co. 
 Sussex, 6 m. S.E. Chichester, on an extensive plain, sheltered 
 from the N. winds by the S. Down hills. It is lighted with 
 gas, amply supplied with excellent water, and has three prin 
 cipal, straight, spacious, and well-kept streets, houses built 
 without any attempt at regularity, but generally substantial. 
 There are, besides, two handsome terraces, and numerous 
 elegant villas in the vicinity. Bognor has four churches, the 
 parish church, a chapel of ease, and a dissenting and Wes- 
 leyan places of worship, all of them plain structures ; a national 
 and infant school, and an academy. Jt has become a favourite 
 watering - place. Pop. 3000. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BOGOE, or BAAGOE, an isl. Denmark, between islands 
 Moen and Falster. It is fertile, has a village named Bogb by, 
 and about 1000 inhabitants. 
 
 BOGODOUKHOF, or BOHODOUKHOF, a tn. Russia, cap. 
 dist. of same name, gov. of, and 34 m. N.W. Kharkov, on the 
 Merle. It has some trade in ox-hides, and goat-skins, which 
 are prepared in considerable quantities. Pop. 10,606. 
 
 BOGORODITZK, a tn. Russia, cap. dist. of same name, 
 gov. of, and 32 m. S.E. Tula. It is a mean-looking place, but 
 contains three churches, a fine palace, and has some export of 
 grain, flax, and honey, produced in the district. Pop. 3000. 
 
BOGORODSK 
 
 420 
 
 BOHEMIA 
 
 BOGORODSK, or BOHORODSK, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 
 30 m. E. Moscow, r. bank, Kliasma, and on the road between 
 Moscow and Vladimir. Though it ranks as a town, and is chief 
 place of a circle of the same name, it is in appearance a mere 
 village. The houses are of wood, and have steps to the doors, 
 and covered balconies. Most of them have bath chambers, 
 and at almost every front door, an earthen vessel is hung up 
 called riikamoinik [hand-washer], which is used by the inmates 
 every morning. In the neighbourhood are quarries, with 
 strata of compact quartz, generally yellow, but sometimes 
 brown, and exhibiting marks which have evidently been made 
 by the spines of encrinites. Pop. about 500. 
 
 BOGOSLOYSK, a mining vil. Russia, Ural Mountains, 
 gov. of, and 185 m. N.E. Perm, near lat. 60 N., 960 ft. above 
 the sea. The copper ores obtained here are found in lime 
 stone, about 2 m. from the village. The mines are the pro 
 perty of the bank of Russia, the workmen convicts. Grain 
 will not ripen, and turnips do not thrive here. 
 
 BOGOTA [formerly Santa Fede Bogota], a city, S. Ame 
 rica, cap. republic of New Granada, the seat of government, 
 and of an archbishopric ; lat. 41 35 48" N. ; Ion. 74 13 45" 
 W. (L.) It is situated on an elevated plain, 8863 ft. above 
 the sea, at the foot of two lofty mountains, with a delightful 
 though moist climate, resembling a perpetual autumn ; the 
 temperature rarely exceeding 59 Fall. Seen from a distance, 
 it presents a very imposing appearance, rising in the form of 
 an amphitheatre. The streets are narrow, but regular, cross 
 ing each other at right angles, and many of them having a 
 stream of water flowing down the middle. They are all paved, 
 and have footpaths, but are indifferently lighted ; and, there 
 being no common sewers, are often in a filthy state. The 
 principal street, Calle Real, is very handsome, terminating at 
 one end in a square, formed by the palace of the president, 
 the cathedral, the custom-house, &c. There are several 
 other squares besides, of inferior pretensions, though spacious, 
 and all ornamented with fountains. Bogota being subject to 
 earthquakes, the houses are low, and strongly built ; few of 
 them exceeding two stories in height. They are constructed 
 of sun-dried brick, whitewashed, and tiled, without chimneys, 
 stoves only being used. Traffic is carried on in the streets by 
 mules, no vehicles of any kind being employed. The religious 
 structures of the city are disproportionately numerous, there 
 being no fewer than 26 churches, a cathedral, nine monasteries, 
 and three nunneries, to which more than half the houses in 
 the city belong. The churches, though gorgeously adorned 
 interiorly, display more splendour than taste. Bogota contains 
 a university, three colleges, most of the professors in which 
 are monks or priests, a school of chemistry and mineralogy, a 
 Lancasterian school, a national academy, a public library, an 
 observatory, a botanic garden, and a well-attended theatre. 
 The inhabitants, mostly Creoles, are described as a mild, polite, 
 and cheerful people. The women are reputed handsome, 
 with fair and clear complexions, and Spanish physiognomy. 
 The market is well supplied with provisions of every kind, 
 and with fruits and vegetables, the former including straw 
 berries, pine-apples, peaches, &c. Manufactures : soap, 
 cloth, leather, and precious metal ; trade active. Bogota was 
 founded in 1538, and made an archbishopric in 1561 . It was 
 formerly capital of the Spanish vice-royalty of New Granada, 
 and also capital Republic of Colombia. Pop. 30,000 to 40,000. 
 BOGOUSLAV, or BOGUSLAW, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 
 70 m. S.S.E. Kiew, cap. dist. of same name, r. bank, Rossa. 
 It contains three churches (two Greek and one United). A 
 great proportion of the inhabitants are Jews. Pop. 6000. 
 
 BOGOWONTO, a river, isl. Java, rising in prov. Baglen, 
 skirting the W. of Djocjokarta, and falling into the Indian 
 Ocean. 
 
 BOGUTSCIIAK, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 138 m. S.E. 
 Yoroneje, on the Bogutscharra, at its junction with the Don. 
 The district is productive of corn and cattle. Pop. 2600. 
 
 BOGWANGOLA,orBiiAGAVAN GoLA,atn. Hindoostan, 
 presid. and prov. Bengal, 8 m. N.E. Moorshedabad, r. bank, 
 Ganges. It is a busy place, presenting more the appearance 
 of a fair than a town, and is built entirely of bamboos and 
 thatch. The encroachments of the river have caused the town 
 to be removed back several times. Having always plenty 
 of water, it is a busy emporium for inland navigation. 
 
 BOHAIN, a tn. France, dep. Aisne, 12 m. N.N.E. St. 
 Quentin. Cashmere and light silk shawls are made here, and 
 
 n the surrounding villages, to a large extent. Musical clocks 
 
 ire also manufactured. Pop. 3748. 
 
 BOH ARM, a par. Scotland, cos. Banff and Moray; length, 
 9 m.; breadth, from 2 to 3 m. Pop. 1261. 
 
 BOHEMIA (KINGDOM OF), [German, Biihmen or Boheim; 
 French, Boheme}, an administrative division of the Aus- 
 
 rian empire, in the Germanic Confederation, cap. Prague; 
 bounded, E. by Moravia, N.E. by Prussian Silesia, N.W. by 
 
 he kingdom of Saxony, W. by Bavaria, and S. by the arch 
 duchy of Austria; and between lat. 48 33 58" and 51 3 39" 
 N. ; and Ion. 12 4 and 16 47 8" E. ; length, E. to W., 210 m. ; 
 
 Breadth, N. to S., 171 m.; circuit, 814 m.; area, 20,223 sq.m. 
 
 Bohemia forms an extensive upland valley, with an inclination 
 
 o the N.W. It is surrounded on all sides by mountains, and 
 belongs almost exclusively to the basin of the Elbe, by which 
 stream nearly all the water that falls in the country is drained 
 off through a single defile on the Saxon frontier, which separ 
 ates the Erzgcbirge from the Lausitz branch of the Riesenge- 
 birge. It is divided into 16 circles (kreise) or provinces, and 
 e metropolitan district of Prague. 
 
 CIJICLES. 
 
 Kakonitz 
 
 Beraun 
 
 Kaurzim 
 
 liunzlau 
 
 Bidschow .... 
 
 Koi 
 
 Chi 
 
 Czaslau 
 
 Tabor 
 
 Budweis 
 
 Prachin 
 
 Klattau 
 
 Pilsen 
 
 Elnbostn 
 
 Saatz 
 
 Leitmeritz.... 
 Prague 
 
 864 
 
 lisa 
 1111 
 
 1042 
 954 
 1206 
 1243 
 1243 
 1200 
 1605 
 19oO 
 977 
 1444 
 1198 
 909 
 1441 
 
 CHIEF TOWNS. 
 
 Schlan (1849) 
 
 Beraun (1849) 
 
 Kaurzim (1849) 
 
 Jung-bunzlau (1846) 
 
 Bidschow (1849) 
 
 UtaiggrStz (1845) 
 
 Chnulim (1846) 
 
 Czaslau <ls<49) 
 
 Tabor (1849) 
 
 Budweis (1846) 
 
 Pisek (IM J, 
 
 Kl;m;m (1849) 
 
 Pilsen (1845) 
 
 r.hilmu en (1849) 
 
 Saatz (1M9) 
 
 Leitmeritz (149; 
 
 Prague (1846) 
 
 Populatio 
 
 4,180 
 2,200 
 2,170 
 5,074 
 3,831 
 8,454 
 6,107 
 3,100 
 4,043 
 8,730 
 5,406 
 6,564. 
 9,798 
 2,000 
 4990 
 4,300 
 C8.6J5 
 
 Mountains. Four chains of lofty mountains constitute the 
 natural boundaries of the Bohemian basin. N. and N.E., it is 
 separated from Silesia by the Riesengebirge [giant mountains], 
 one of the principal branches of the Sudetic chain. The 
 highest peaks, which are likewise the loftiest of N. or Central 
 Germany, are the Riesenkoppe [giant cap] , or Schneekoppe 
 [snow cap], 5400 ft.; the double-capped Brunnberg, or Born- 
 berg, 5007 ft.; and the Sturmhaube [storm- hood] , 4756 ft. 
 N. and N.W., it is separated from Saxony by the Erzgebirge 
 [ore mountains]; parted N.E. from the Riesengebirge by 
 the defile through which the Elbe leaves Bohemia. The 
 Erzgebirge is not so much a chain of mountains as a huge con 
 tinuous mound, sloping gradually on the Saxon side, but re 
 markably abrupt on the Bohemian. It is well wooded, and 
 ts undulating ridges are broken in some places by consider 
 able depressions. Its highest peaks are the Schwarzwald, or 
 Sonnenwirbel, near Joachimsthal,4124 ft. ; Little Fichtelberg, 
 near Wiesenthal, 4009 ft. ; Schnecberg, 3300 ft. W. and S.W., 
 Bohemia is separated from Bavaria and the archduchy of 
 Austria by the Bohmerwaldgebirge [Bohemian forest moun 
 tains], a range which forms part of the Sylva Hcrcynia of 
 ancient geographers. At its N.W. extremity, it is separated 
 from the Erzgebirge by the depression through which the 
 Eger flows. It is wild, precipitous, and full of deep chasms 
 and ravines ; towards Bavaria it is very steep, but of more 
 gradual inclination on the Bohemian side. Its most elevated 
 points in Bohemia are the Heidelberg, 4623 ft.; Kubani, or 
 Boubin, 4521 ft.; Plakenstein, 4482 ft.; Ossaberg, 4245 ft. 
 S., S.E., and E., the Mahrischesgebirge [Moravian mountains] 
 separate Bohemia from the archduchy of Austria and Moravia. 
 This chain, uniting at its S.W. extremity with the Bohmer 
 waldgebirge, and at its N.E. with the Riesengebirge, com 
 pletes the circle of mountains by which Bohemia is enclosed. 
 The Moravian chain is of gentle acclivity, of the average height 
 of 3281 ft., and separates the basin of the Elbe and Moldau 
 from that of the Danube. Several offsets from these chains, 
 of inferior height, intersect the kingdom. 
 
 Geology and Minerals. The whole of these mountain- 
 ranges, generally speaking, are of primitive formation, though 
 later formations are found on the N.W., where the Elbe 
 
BOHEMIA 
 
 427 
 
 BOHEMIA 
 
 quits Bohemia, and on the N.E. near Trautenau. In the 
 centre of the country is an extensive sandstone formation; and 
 that the carboniferous series likewise exists, is evidenced by 
 the presence of coal, of which the quantity produced in 1845 
 was 285,180 tons, and in 1846, 321,855. Indeed, one of the 
 chief sources of the country s wealth has been its valuable 
 minerals, found chiefly in the Erzgebirge and the spurs of the 
 Fichtelgebirge. Of gold and silver it now yields little ; of the 
 latter, in 1844, the quantity obtained was only 21,243 Ibs. 
 Troy. But it produces cinnabar, tin, bismuth, copper, zinc, 
 nickel, lead, manganese, litharge, sulphur, alum, iron, arsenic, 
 chrome, sulphate of iron and copper, and plumbago ; some of 
 these in considerable quantity. For the years 1842, 1843, 
 and 1844, the total money-value of the produce of the mines 
 was, respectively, 317,172, 322,093, and 368,109. The 
 plumbago, or graphite, is said to be inferior to that of Eng 
 land, though still of good quality. In 1845, the quantity 
 produced was about 400 tons; and in 1846, upwards of 550 
 tons. Quarries are worked everywhere, and excellent marble, 
 alabaster, quartz, granite, freestone, superior millstones, and 
 grindstones are obtained. The beautiful garnets, famous over 
 Europe, are found chiefly in the circles of Czaslau and Leit- 
 meritz; and in various localities topazes, chalcedonies, ame 
 thysts, jaspers, sapphires, carnelians, rubies, agates, and many 
 other kinds of precious stones, porcelain earth, and potters 
 clay. 
 
 Rivers, Lakes, and Springs. The streams of Bohemia con 
 verge from all sides towards the Elbe, which rises in the Eies- 
 engebirge, and of which, either directly or indirectly, with ex 
 ception of some inconsiderable tributaries of the Danube and 
 Oder, they all are affluents, and through which their waters are 
 drained off through a mountain defile in the Saxon frontier, 
 where the level of the river is 287 ft. above the sea. The 
 principal affluents of the Elbe in Bohemia are the Moldau, with 
 its tributaries the Berauuand the Egcr; the first rising in the 
 Moravian mountains, and the second in the Fichtel, and the 
 third in the Bohemian forest. These streams afford excellent 
 water-ways for navigation and flotation. Bohemia has no 
 large lakes, but it is said to possess 20,000 ponds, and 160 
 mineral springs. Some of these last are famed over Europe, 
 of which may be specified the saline chalybeate springs of 
 Franzensbruun, near Eger; those of Marienbad and Giess- 
 hiibel; the warm alkaline aperient springs of Carlsbad and 
 Toplitz (166 and 99 Fah., respectively) ; one at Marienbad, 
 and others at Bilin and Liebwerda ; the bitter, cathartic 
 waters of Sedlitz, Saidschiitz, and Piittna; the sulphurous 
 springs of Toplitz ; besides a host of others of less repute. 
 The warm spring to which Carlsbad owes its celebrity, seems 
 to have been known in the seventh century. 200,000 gal 
 lons of these mineral waters are exported annually. 
 
 Climate. The climate is variable, but in general healthy; 
 and warmer in the low districts, the central parts, and towards 
 the N., than in the S. The mean annual temperature at 
 Prague, is 48 43 Fah.; winter, 32 31 ; spring, 47; summer, 
 69 5tf ; autumn, 50 22 . In the Bb hmerwald, the snow is 
 often found 12 ft. deep, and lies till the middle of April ; in 
 some of the other ranges it remains throughout the whole 
 year. The prevailing winds are W., N.W., and S.W., bring 
 ing drought in winter, and rain in summer ; the annual fall 
 of rain is about equal to that of the midland counties of 
 England. 
 
 Vegetation, Agriculture, c. Excepting in the lofty moun 
 tain-ranges, the soil of Bohemia is generally fertile, more 
 especially in the N. and N.E., and in the valleys of the Eger 
 and the Elbe. The whole amount of arable land is estimated 
 at 12,259,362 ac., of which 6,101,649 ac., or nearly one-half, 
 is under the plough, the remainder being laid out in orchards, 
 vineyards, pastures, &c. The principal crops raised are rye 
 and oats, about equal in quantity ; barley and wheat, about 
 half the two former. Potatoes and turnips are grown exten 
 sively, and considerable quantities of legumes, poppies, rape 
 and clover seeds, flax, and hemp. Of the hops, which are 
 good, a large portion is sent to Bavaria. Fruit is abundant 
 on the lower grounds ; and in the warmer localities, on the 
 banks of the Elbe, the vine ripens, and yields about 250,000 
 gallons of wine. Besides the portion under cultivation, 
 3,756,290 ac. are under wood, yielding annually 3,638,000 
 cubic fathoms of timber, value 1,916,811. The horses are 
 superior, though of small size, being handsome and vigorous, 
 
 especially in the circles of Saatz, Leitmeritz, and Chrudim. 
 The horned cattle are small, and ill formed, owing, in part, to 
 the scarcity of fodder ; and the supply for home demand is so 
 inadequate, that it is found necessary to import large numbers 
 from Poland and Moldavia. The breed of sheep is now 
 greatly improved, and the wool excellent. Comparing the 
 stock of cattle in 1834 with the stock in 1846, as follows, it 
 will be found that cattle-rearing has been on the increase: 
 183t. 1846. 
 
 Horses 144,882 158,319 
 
 Horned cattle 1,011,559 1,059,092 
 
 Sheep and goats 1,357,566 1,409,856 
 
 The rearing of poultry and bees is extensively prosecuted ; 
 but attempts to introduce the silkworm have not been suc 
 cessful. On the whole, agriculture has made considerable 
 progress in Bohemia of late years; but still, the utmost 
 capabilities of the soil are not, and cannot be fully developed 
 under a system which, as there, excludes the cultivator from 
 participation in its produce. In Bohemia there are no tenants, 
 properly speaking, and, therefore, no class corresponding to 
 our farmers ; the owners of estates keep them in their own 
 hands, and employ labourers to perform the necessary work. 
 Hence arise two evils of great magnitude the land is not 
 parcelled out into manageable farms, but retained, in immense 
 tracts, in the hands of the landlord ; and the immediate culti 
 vator of the soil, receiving no share of the produce, takes no 
 interest in its amount. 
 
 Animals. Game is still abundant; and hunting is a 
 favourite amusement, though, from the progress of agricul 
 ture, gradually on the decrease; still, extensive preserves 
 exist, containing large numbers of the wild boars for which 
 Bohemia is noted. Polecats, martens, foxes, and squirrels 
 are met with, but wolves and bears have been nearly exter 
 minated. Pike, carp, and trout are plentiful in the rivers 
 and ponds ; and in the Moldau and some other streams, large 
 numbers of pearl mussels are found. 
 
 Manufactures. For manufacturing skill and activity, Bo 
 hemia has long ranked as one of the most important provinces 
 of the Austrian empire. In 1844 there were produced 1 ,500,000 
 pieces of linen, of 30 ells each ; value, 1 ,050,000. There are 
 83 cotton-spinning factories in the kingdom, with 395,000 
 fine spindles, producing about 3,500,000 pieces, and employ 
 ing about 150,000 persons. Much cotton yarn, of the inferior 
 numbers, is spun by machinery, but the higher numbers are 
 imported from the archduchy of Austria, and from Britain. 
 Calico-printing has increased of late, and bleachfields are 
 numerous. The whole quantity of wool produced in Bohemia, 
 is estimated at 106,960 ewt. ; and the cloth made, at about 
 186,000 pieces value, 1,082,000. Tapes, ribbons, and 
 lace are also manufactured ; and in Prague, silk to a small 
 extent. The manufacture of potash employs nearly 6000 
 people, and leather 4000. In 1845, there were 10 manu 
 factories of sugar from potatoes, and 25 from beet-root ; but 
 the quantity produced was too small to supply the home con 
 sumption. Besides these, there are five sugar refineries. 
 There are likewise 917 breweries, and 1228 brandy distil 
 leries, mostly on a very small scale, producing 4,052,852 
 imperial gallons of spirits distilled from various articles, such 
 as rye, potatoes, wine-lees, plums, cherries, &c. ; but the 
 national beverage is beer made from barley. The total 
 amount of cast-iron manufactured in Bohemia, in nails, wire, 
 cutlery, locks, &c., may be estimated at 17,500 tons per annum, 
 employing about 6000 persons ; and the value of the whole 
 ironware produced, 170,000. Gold, silver, and pewter are 
 manufactured at Elnbogen, Budweis, Koniggratz, and Prague, 
 at the last of which, and at Carlsbad, good needles are made. 
 Other manufactures are white lead and brass, to a small ex 
 tent; spoons, buckles, buttons, porcelain, earthenware, and 
 paper, the last extensively. Glass has been a staple article 
 of Bohemian manufacture since the 13th century, although it 
 is not supposed to be now so flourishing as it was formerly. 
 There are in the kingdom 67 glassworks, properly so called, 
 besides mirror factories, and glass-cutting works, and factories 
 of glass pearls, employing in all about 30,000 persons. It 
 has been estimated that about one-third of the entire popula 
 tion of the kingdom is employed in the various manufactures. 
 
 Eoads, &c. By means of the two navigable rivers, the 
 Elbe and the Moldau, and the numerous excellent roads 
 throughout the country, the business of Bohemia is greatly 
 
BOHEMIA 
 
 BOHOL 
 
 furthered. The first railway completed in Germany was that 
 from Budweis in Bohemia, to Linz in the archduchy of Aus 
 tria, and subsequently prolonged to Gmiinden. From the 
 capital there is direct railway communication with Vienna, 
 through Olmiitz, and also to the N.W. with Dresden and W. 
 Germany, excepting 18 m. between Leitmcritz and Tetschen, 
 gtill (1851) incomplete. Besides these there is a short line 
 W. to Lana. 
 
 People. The greater proportion of the inhabitants of Bo 
 hemia are Czeches or Tscheches, of Sclavonian descent, and re 
 markable for bravery, general intelligence, strength of memory, 
 and a passionate love of music. The second, in point of 
 numbers, are 1h. Germans, about 900,000, who dwell chiefly 
 at Prague, and in the districts bordering on Saxony, Prussia, 
 and Bavaria. They constitute the most industrious part of 
 the population, and in mercantile and mechanical pursuits 
 excel the Sclavonians. The Jews seem to have settled in 
 the country at a very remote period ; for inscriptions, dis 
 covered on several tombstones, indicate their presence as 
 early as the first century of the Christian era. They number 
 about 70,000, and apply themselves principally to trading in 
 corn, cattle, leather, and wool, and to banking or exchange 
 business. Most of the breweries, distilleries, and potash 
 factories are in their hands. The average ratio of deaths to 
 the whole population is 1 in 33, including the capital ; iu the 
 low country it is said to be 1 in 39. 
 
 Religion. The R. Catholic is the prevailing creed, and 
 the state religion of the Bohemians; other Christian denomi- 
 I nations are tolerated. The secular clergy are governed by 
 the metropolitan Archbishop of Prague, three bishops at 
 Leitmeritz, Koniggratz, and Budweis, one titular bishop, and 
 12 prelates. The total number of parishes is 1765. The 
 regular clergy, though much reduced by the reforms of 
 Joseph II., still possess 75 monasteries or communities, and 
 six nunneries. Protestants are almost exclusively confined 
 to the N.E. districts, and have 53 parishes. The Jews have 
 a head rabbi at Prague, and several district rabbis. 
 
 Educational Establishments. Bohemia is abundantly sup 
 plied with educational establishments, comprehending a uni 
 versity at Prague, with 53 professors, 14 assistants, and more 
 than 2000 students ; a model normal seminary, 3493 schools, 
 of which 48 are chief or grammar, 3371 R. Catholic, 74 Pro 
 testant, and 19 Jewish schools; a polytechnic institute, 26 
 gymnasia, with about 6000 scholars, for the most part kept 
 by monks, especially Piarists ; three diocesan philosophical 
 schools, three diocesan seminaries of theology, a Jewish college, 
 an academy of painting, a conservatory of music, and several 
 military academies. The school attendance is, male one to 
 five, and female one to six, of the population ; while in the 
 whole Austrian empire, the proportion is only, male one to 
 nine, female one to 12. The total sum expended on schools, 
 chiefly by provincial districts and local and municipal govern 
 ments, is about 26,000. 
 
 Charitable, Institutions, &c. There is no legal provision 
 for the poor in Bohemia, consequently the number of street 
 beggars is almost incredible. There are, however, numerous 
 benevolent institutions at Prague, and in the chief towns of 
 the kingdom, for the relief of the sick and destitute, such as 
 foundling and lying-in hospitals, dispensaries, infirmaries, 
 houses of refuge, &c., for widows and orphans ; asylums for 
 the blind, the insane, the deaf and dumb, &c. 
 
 Languages. The use of the vernacular tongue, a dialect 
 of the Sclavonian, is confined in a great measure to the lower 
 and middle classes. A knowledge of Bohemian is not deemed 
 necessary in the service of Government. Among the edu 
 cated classes, German is generally spoken ; and in the schools, 
 German alone is taught, and has been so since the time of 
 Maria Theresa, who enjoined its use in all educational esta 
 blishments. Of late years, however, there has been a great 
 national movement amongst the Bohemians, directed chiefly 
 to the cultivation of their language and literature. This 
 movement is discouraged, but not openly opposed by the 
 Austrian Government. 
 
 Government, &c. Bohemia, with the title of Kingdom, 
 forms a provincial government of the Austrian empire, with 
 certain special political rights. The Emperor of Austria is 
 styled King of Bohemia, and is crowned at Prague. The 
 crown is hereditary in the Imperial family, both males and 
 females ; but, in case of extinction of the reigning dynasty, 
 
 the right to elect a king appertains to the Estates, consisting 
 of the clergy, the high nobility, the knights, and the burgesses. 
 The civil administration is managed by a central gubrrnium 
 at Prague, subordinate to the higher powers at Vienna. 
 Military affairs are under the direction of the Couimander- 
 
 eneral. 
 
 Ifistort/. Bohemia derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic 
 people, who settled in the country about 600 years B.C., and 
 who were expelled, in the time of Augustus, by the Marcc- 
 
 anni. About the middle of the sixth century, a numerous 
 army of Czeches entered the country, and subdued it. The 
 5rst Duke known to us by name is Przemislas, a peasant, 
 whom the Princess Libussa married in A.D. 632, and raised 
 to the throne. In 1061, the Emperor Henry IV. gave the 
 royal title to the Dukes of Bohemia. By the extinction of 
 the male line, the crown came to the House of Luxembourg, in 
 1310, when Charles IV. united Bohemia with the German 
 empire. After many vicissitudes, Bohemia fell to the House 
 of Austria, in the person of Ferdinand the Archduke, brother 
 of Charles V., and brother-in-law of Louis II., King of Hun 
 gary and Bohemia, who was killed in 1526, in a battle with 
 the Turks, near Mohacz. At this period, Bohemia possessed 
 a comparatively free constitution, and the most of its inhabit 
 ants were Protestant. In consequence of the encroachments 
 the succeeding emperors on the religious liberties of the 
 Protestants, serious disturbances arose, which threatened the 
 House of Austria with the loss of the kingdom. In 1619, 
 the people offered the crown to Frederick V., Elector-palatine, 
 the exclusion of Ferdinand II. But the battle of the 
 White Mountain, fought in November 1620, and in which 
 Frederick was totally defeated, put an end to the rising hopes 
 of the Protestants, and proved the source of innumerable 
 calamities to the Bohemians, who were subjected by their 
 conquerors, the Austrians, to a persecution scarcely paralleled 
 n history. The Protestant religion, held by three-fourths of 
 the people, became well nigh extinct ; the free constitution 
 
 as totally subverted, and Bohemia converted into an absolute 
 and hereditary monarchy, and the R. Catholic faith established, 
 to the exclusion of all others. From this time the kingdom 
 continually declined. More than 30,000 families, including 
 many of the nobility, all the Protestant ministers and teachers, 
 numerous artists, mechanics, &c., were forcibly driven into 
 exile, or had their estates and property confiscated. When 
 Frederick II. died, in 1637, out of 3,000,000 inhabitants 
 which Bohemia contained in 1617, there remained only 
 780,000. On the death of Charles VI. (1740), Charles Albert, 
 Elector of Bavaria, claimed the crown, but Maria Theresa 
 succeeded, after an arduous struggle, in securing possession 
 of the kingdom. She was succeeded by her son, Joseph II., 
 n 1780; and from this time downwards, a more liberal and 
 enlightened system of administration has been pursued, under 
 which Bohemia is advancing in prosperity as steadily as any 
 other portion of the Austrian empire. Pop. (1843), 4,249, 669, 
 of which 1,991,667 are males, and 2,258,002 females, being 
 210-14 to the sq. mile. (Raffelsperger s Lex. alter Osterreich; 
 Staaten; Osterreich Nat. Encyclopadie; Statistichcs Jahrbuch; 
 Parliamentary Papers.) 
 
 BOHILLANE, par. Irel. Cork ; 1097 ac. Pop. 572. 
 BOHMERWALD [forest of Bohemia], a wooded moun 
 tain-range of considerable extent, running nearly N.W. and 
 S.E., and separating Bohemia from Bavaria and the arch 
 duchy of Austria. W.N.W. it joins the Erzgebirge [ore 
 mountains], and S.S.E. the Mahrischesgebirge [Moravian 
 mountains]. Length, about 120 m. ; mean breadth, about 
 25 m. In its whole length it is traversed only by six roads, 
 along one of which, at Freistadt, the railway from Budweis 
 to Linz passses. It is the Sylva gabreta, forming part of the 
 Hercynian forest of the Romans. This chain is mainly con 
 stituted of granite, overlaid by gneiss, schist, and calcareous 
 deposits. Towards the N. and N.W., the hills are frequently 
 basaltic, isolated, and almost of a conical shape. The prin 
 cipal peaks are Mounts Arber, 4848 ft. ; and Rachel, 4743 ft., 
 in Bavaria; and Heidelberg, 4623 ft.; and Kubaiii, 4521 ft., 
 in Bohemia. 
 
 BOHOE, par. Irel. Fermanagh; 15,058 ac. Pop. 2824. 
 
 BOHOL, one of the Philippine Islands, dependent on 
 
 Zebu, and lying between that island and Leyto, and N. of 
 
 Mindanao; lat. (S.E. point) 9 48 N.; Ion. 124 26 E. (K.) ; 
 
 about 52 in. long by 34 broad. It is watered by several 
 
BOHOLA 
 
 429 
 
 BOKHARA 
 
 rivers, one of which comes from a lake in the centre of the 
 island. Rice is grown, and cattle reared. The inhabitants 
 make cocoa-nut oil, cultivate and weave cotton, producing 
 strong cloth ; and weave also silk. 
 
 BOHOLA, par. Irel. Mayo ; 8674 ac. Pop. 4301. 
 BOHORODCZAN, a market tn. Austria, Galicia, circle, 
 of, and 10 m. S.S.W. Stanislau, on the Bistrica. It contains a 
 Dominican cloister, and a Greek church. Pop. 1920. 
 
 BOI-ABAD, or AVAD, a tn. Turkey in Asia, pash. Ana 
 tolia, r. bank, Kara-su, an affluent of the Kizil-lrmak, 96 m. 
 N.N.W. Amasia; lat. 41 28 N.; Ion. 34 45 E. It con 
 sists of ahout 300 scattered houses, contains three khans, 
 and, with its luxuriant gardens, full of fine fruit-trees, and 
 overrun by vines, presents a pleasing appearance. There is 
 here a castle, attributed by the natives to the Genoese, but 
 bearing no inscriptions ; it was long the seat of an independent 
 chieftain. Pop. 1800. 
 
 BOIPEBA-VELHA, a tn. Brazil, prov. of, and 65 m. 
 S.W. Bahia, on the island of same name. It has a church, 
 and primary school ; but is a poor little place, exporting to 
 Bahia piassava, rice, and bark for tanning. 
 
 BOIS (LEs), [German, Rudisholz], avil. Switzerland, can. 
 of, and 26 m. W.N.W. Bern; 3421 ft. above the sea level, 
 on the Jura Mountains. It has an old church, and a school. 
 Watch-making is carried on to some extent ; and two well 
 frequented cattle-markets are held. Pop. 994. 
 
 BOIS BLANC, or WHITE WOOD, an isl., U. States, 
 Michigan, in Lake Huron ; lat. 45 45 N. ; Ion. 84 55 W. 
 It is 11 m. long by 3 broad, and is generally fertile, though 
 the under portion of the soil is sandy. It has a lighthouse on 
 the E. end. 
 
 BOIS-DE-LESSINES, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. 
 Hainaut; 28 m. N.E. Tournai ; with some linen manufactures. 
 Pop. 1752. 
 
 BOIS-LE DUG. See HERTOGENBOSCII. 
 BOIZENBURGr, a tn. Mecklenburg -Schwerin, circle, 
 Wendisch, on the Elbe, 32 m. S.W. Schwerin. It has walls, 
 with two gates; and is a handsome, well-built, stirring place, 
 containing numerous manufactures ; among others leather, 
 glue, vinegar, soap, and tobacco ; and carrying on a consider 
 able shipping trade, for which its situation on the Elbe gives 
 it great advantages. The vessels belonging to the town 
 amount to 30. Pop. 3184. 
 
 BOJADOR (CAPE), a promontory, W. coast, Africa; lat. 
 26 7 10" N.; Ion. 14 29 W. (R.) ; one of the projecting 
 points of the Great Desert of the Sahara, and forming the 
 W. extremity of a rocky ridge, called the Jebel-khal or Black 
 Mountains. The coast N. of this cape is extremely danger 
 ous, being shallow to a great distance out, and constantly 
 enveloped in a haze. It has been, in consequence, the scene 
 of many melancholy disasters. Cape Bojador was long the 
 limit of navigation towards the S., and was first passed by the 
 Portuguese in 1433. 
 
 BOJANA, a river, Turkey in Europe, prov. Albania, 
 pash. Scutari. It issues from Lake Scutari, near the town 
 of that name, and after a winding course of from 20 to 25 in., 
 falls into the Adriatic in lat. 40 5 N. ; Ion. 19 21 E. 
 
 BOJANO [anc. Bavianum], a tn. Naples, prov. Sannio, 
 10 m. S.W. Campobasso; on the Biferno, in a deep defile, 
 at the foot of Mount Matese. It is the seat of a bishop, and 
 has a cathedral, several churches and convents, a seminary, 
 and an hospital. Two fairs are held annually. Pop. 3117. 
 
 BOJANOWO, a tn. Prussia, prov. and gov. Possen, 9 m. 
 N.W. Rawiez. It is divided into the old and new towns. 
 Most of the houses are of wood. It has some manufactories 
 of coarse cloth, linen, leather, and earthenware. Pop. 2450. 
 BOKA, a vil. Hungary, circle, this side the Theiss, co. 
 Torontal ; on the Temes, between Kanak and Szetsany, 33 m. 
 S.S.W. Temeswar. Pop. 2599. 
 
 BOKHARA, or UZBEKISTAN [Uzbek -land], a kingdom, 
 Independent Tartary, Central Asia, cap. same name. Its 
 geographical limits have not been precisely ascertained, hardly 
 any two authorities agreeing exactly as to the space it occu 
 pies ; but it may be said to lie between lat. 36 and 42 or 
 45 N., and Ion. 61 or 63 and 67 or 70 E., for all these 
 different boundaries have been assigned to it. Khanikoff, a 
 Russian traveller, who was there in 1842, says that the Emir s 
 sway extended over the space of country comprised between 
 lat. 37 and 43 N., and Ion. 61 50 to 69 50 E. Arrow- 
 
 smith s map places it between lat. 36 and 41 20 7 N., and Ion. 
 62 25 and 70 10 E. It is bounded, N. by the Kirghis 
 steppe and the khanate of Khokand, W. by Khiva, S. by 
 Afghanistan, and E. by Hissar and the khanate of Khoondooz. 
 Burnes makes the Sea of Aral, and the river Sir or Jaxartes 
 the N. boundary, but the former, at all events, is now known 
 to belong to Khiva. Khanikoff makes the Amou or Jihoon 
 the S. boundary, though Balkh and Andkoo are understood to 
 be at least tributary to the Khan of Bokhara. Area estimated 
 at 228,808 sq. m. According to native authorities, the poli 
 tical divisions are Karakool, Bokhara, and seven districts 
 around, Kermina, Meeankal or Kutta Koorghan, Samarcand, 
 with five districts, and Juzzak, all in the valley of Samarcand ; 
 besides these, Kurshee, Lubiab or banks of the Oxus, and 
 Balkh, and the provinces S. of that river. It is mountainous, 
 and elevated towards the E., where it includes the valleys 
 forming the W. slopes of the great Asiatic plateau, some of 
 the summits of which Burnes estimated at 18,000 ft. high, 
 being enveloped in snow in June; and S. it leans on the 
 Hindoo Koosh and N. escarpment of the Persian plateau. All 
 the rest of the country is uniformly low and flat, belonging, 
 in its characteristics, to the dry steppes and sandy wastes of 
 the Caspian and Aral Seas. Bokhara forms part of the plain 
 of Toorkistan, which has an elevation of 2000 ft. It slopes 
 N.W. towards the Sea of Aral, to whose basin it exclusively 
 belongs. It is very imperfectly watered, possessing only 
 two streams of any consequence, the Amou, Jihoon, or Oxus, 
 traversing the country S.E. to N.W., and receiving, accord 
 ing to some, as affluents, the Balkh or Adirsiah on the left, and 
 the Zourkab on the right ; though, according to others, both 
 these streams are absorbed in the sand before reaching the 
 Oxus. The other principal stream is the Samarcand, Zer- 
 afshan or Zurufshan, which traverses the country E. to W., 
 passing the cities of Samarcand and Bokhara, and falling into 
 Lake Dengis, a short distance N. of the Oxus. Besides these, 
 there are some other smaller streams, as the Kurshee or 
 Karchi, described by Burnes as a mere rivulet. Along the 
 banks of these rivers lie the only cultivable lands in the 
 country, not reaching to more than a tenth of the entire area. 
 Along the stream Samarcand is the valley of the same name, 
 so vaunted for its beauty by the Arabian conquerors, that it 
 was called an earthly paradise. Though certainly beautiful, 
 its attractions are doubtless heightened by comparison with 
 the sandy wastes which on every side surround it. The ter 
 ritory on the banks of the Oxus is likewise greatly favoured 
 by nature. N. of the Oxus, and from the mountains W. to Bo 
 khara, the country is occupied by a succession of low rounded 
 ridges of oolite, limestone, and gravel, covered with a scanty 
 verdure ; between these ridges are hardened plains of argilla 
 ceous clay, forming excellent natural roads. On these occur 
 sand-hills of no great extent, but sufficient to absorb the 
 rivulets flowing towards the Oxus. W. the city of Bokhara, 
 and S. the Oxus, however, the country is covered with these 
 hills or rather mounds of loose sand, of a horse-shoe shape, 
 about 15 to 20 ft. in height, resting on a firm soil, having 
 been accumulated by the winds, and so numerous that little 
 space is left for cultivation. In the valleys formed by these 
 sand - hills, deposits of salt and saline rivulets frequently 
 occur. The only lake of importance is Dengis or Karakool, 
 about 50 m. S.S.W. the city of Bokhara. It is deep, brackish, 
 and about 10 m. long. 
 
 Mineralogy. Gold, in considerable quantities, is found 
 among the sands of the Oxus ; but there are no mines of that 
 metal in the kingdom, neither are there any of silver, copper, 
 or iron, all these being imported from Russia. Sal-ammoniac 
 is found in its native state, and salt deposits are numerous. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Bokhara is salubrious and pleasant ; 
 it is dry, and in winter very cold, the Oxus being frequently 
 frozen over so strongly, that travellers pass across it on the 
 ice. In summer, the heat seldom rises above 90, except in 
 the desert, where, in June, it reaches 100. In Balkh, also, 
 the heat is oppressive, and the climate unhealthy. The sky 
 is always clear, and of a bright and beautiful azure. The 
 country, however, is subject to violent tornadoes, which usu 
 ally follow excessive heat. In winter, snow lies for three 
 months on the ground at and around the city of Bokhara, and 
 the spring rains are often very heavy. 
 
 Vegetable Products. The tree most abundant in Bokhara 
 is the poplar, which is used for house-building. The cotton 
 
BOKHARA 
 
 430 
 
 BOKHARA 
 
 plant is cultivated, and hemp is likewise grown ; but the only 
 use to which the latter is turned by the natives, is the ex 
 tracting oil from the seeds, and also an intoxicating drug 
 called bang ; the stalks of the plant are given to cattle. The 
 principal grain crops are rice, wheat, barley, Indian corn, and 
 sesarnum. The fruits of Bokhara are celebrated, especially 
 the melon, which here attains an excellence known nowhere 
 else. The other fruits are the peach, plum, apricot, cherry, 
 sour cherry, apple, pear, quince, walnut, fig, pomegranate, 
 mulberry, grape, pumpkin, and cucumber. The raisins of 
 Bokhara are large, and of delicious flavour, but the wines are 
 very indifferent. Neither indigo nor sugar-cane grow here ; 
 but an excellent substitute for the latter is found in an article 
 called turunjuleen, a saccharine gum which exudes from the 
 camel s thorn. Tliis singular and valuable plant abounds in 
 the vicinity of Kurshee and Samarcand, to which localities it 
 is almost wholly confined, not being found W. the city of 
 Bokhara. Tobacco, of a superior quality, is grown at Kur 
 shee, and wild rhubarb abounds in many places. Vegetables 
 are in great plenty turnips, carrots, onions, radishes, and 
 beet-root. 
 
 Animals. The only beasts of prey in Bokhara are leopards, 
 and a very small species of tiger ; the other wild animals are 
 deer, antelopes, foxes, wolves, jackals, and bears ; there are 
 also wild hogs and wild asses. Bats, tortoises, and lizards 
 are found in the deserts. Scorpions are common, but com 
 paratively harmless. Eagles and hawks are met with, and 
 plover, wild pigeon, and water-fowl abound ; but there are 
 no singing-birds, and game of all kinds is scarce. There 
 being few rivers or lakes, fish is not abundant ; those taken 
 in the Oxus are similar to what are found in other Asiatic 
 rivers, with the exception of an enormous kind of dog-fish called 
 lukha, which has no scales, and sometimes attains the weight 
 of 600 Ibs. English. In the Lake Dengis or Karakool, fish of 
 good quality and flavour are caught. There are no alligators 
 in the Oxus, nor any other animals to be dreaded. Locusts 
 sometimes infest the country, but few other noxious insects 
 are met with. Silkworms are reared in great numbers in 
 all parts of the kingdom where there is water, especially on 
 the banks of the Oxus, the silk produced there being con 
 sidered the most valuable, both from the softness and fineness 
 of the thread. The guinea-worm, called by the natives risJitu, 
 which burrows in the flesh of the human body, and causes 
 great pain and annoyance, is one of the greatest evils with 
 which Bokhara is afflicted ; it is calculated that one-fourth of 
 the entire population are annually attacked by this animal. 
 The natives are singularly dexterous in the extraction of the 
 worm, which they effect with needles. Of the domestic 
 animals the sheep and goat are the most important, the former 
 furnishing valuable skins, and the other a wool second only 
 to that of Cashmere. Both feed on furze and dry grass, and 
 their flesh is sweet and well flavoured. The sheep have large 
 tails, sometimes weighing so much as 15 Ibs. ; those that pro 
 duce the black, curly fleece, in such demand in Persia for 
 caps, are peculiar to Karakool ; and it is said the animal will 
 thrive nowhere else, and that, when removed to any other 
 place, the fleece becomes deteriorated. The skins having the 
 smallest curls are most prized ; of these about 200,000 are 
 annually exported. The goats of Bokhara are about the 
 common size, and of a dark colour ; their wool is gray, and 
 lies next the skin. The camels of Bokhara, of the Bactrian 
 or two-hump kind, are greatly superior in appearance to those 
 of India, being covered with a sleek coat of hair, whereas the 
 latter are almost naked, and often disfigured by eruptions. 
 The ass of this country is large and strong, and is much used 
 both for saddle and burden. The horned cattle are of good 
 size, but greatly inferior to those of England. Beef is eaten 
 by the lower orders only, mutton being always preferred. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. There are no manufactures 
 in Bokhara of any extent ; the most considerable are those of 
 silk and cotton, and of a kind of cloth in which both are com 
 bined. Articles of steel, gold, and silver are also made, and 
 of good quality, such as sabres, knives, rings, and other 
 jewellery. The art of dyeing is well understood, but in tan 
 ning the Bokharians are inferior to the Russians, and their 
 leather generally bad, with exception of morocco. The prin 
 cipal articles of export to foreign countries are cotton, raw 
 and manufactured, the latter consisting of coarse chintzes and 
 cotton thread ; silk, sent chiefly to India and Cabool ; lamb 
 
 skins, of which, as already stated, 200,000 are annually ex 
 ported. In former years, the greater part of the trade of 
 Bokhara in European goods was carried on through Russia ; 
 it is now conducted chiefly through India and Cabool. The 
 chief articles of import from India are muslins, brocades, 
 white cloth for turbans, sugar, and shawls; those from Russia 
 are white cloth, muslin, chintzes, broad cloth, velvet, nankeen, 
 gold thread, hardware, metals, cutlery, jewellery, leather, 
 paper, &c., the greater part of British manufacture, as are 
 also the greater part of the goods imported from India, the 
 cloths of England being greatly preferred to those of any other 
 country. Owing, principally, to the want of good roads and 
 other means of communication, the internal trade of Bokhara 
 is very limited, although large quantities of merchandise are 
 brought yearly to the city, no less than from 12,000 to 15,000 
 camel loads, but this is owing to the circumstance of its being 
 the central point of all the commercial routes between E. and 
 W. Asia, and being on this account made a depot for goods 
 intended ultimately for remote destinations. The trade with 
 Russia is carried on by caravans, from 5000 to 6000 camels 
 being yearly employed in the transport of merchandise from 
 Bokhara to that country, the value of which amounts to be 
 tween 600,000 and 800,000, the returns to about 450,000, 
 having increased nearly threefold within the last 20 years. 
 The trade with Cabool, Herat, and Cashmere employs from 
 3000 to 3500 camels; the chief article imported from Cabool 
 is indigo, most of which is used in Bokhara, the rest being 
 sent to Russia. 
 
 Government. The Government of Bokhara is a monarchy, 
 the Emir, or sovereign, having all but absolute power, in 
 cluding the right of life and death, and being limited only by 
 the Mussulman canonical law. The Emir appoints chiefs, or 
 governors, to the distant towns, giving them the fullest powers, 
 excepting life and death, which he reserves in his own hands. 
 The number of troops of all arms which the Emir can raise, 
 is conjectured by Khanikoff to be about 40,000 men, of which, 
 the same authority says, not more than a third is completely 
 armed, the rest consisting merely of the followers of the army, 
 or such as are indifferently equipped. During Khanikoff s 
 stay at Bokhara, there were only 1000 regular infantry who 
 had proper fire-arms. The Emir s prime minister, and highest 
 state officer, is the Kush-beghi, or Vizier, who is keeper of 
 the seals, and general receiver and disburser of the national 
 revenues. The public revenue has been estimated at about 
 400,000, derived chiefly from land, but in part also from 
 farm produce, fruits, and skins. The present Emir (1847), 
 is Nasr-Ullah Bahadur Khan Melik-el-Mumcnin, second son 
 of Emir Seid, who died in 1826. 
 
 Races of Men. Bokhara is at present inhabited by no 
 fewer than 11 different nations, the Uzbecks, Tadjicks, Toork- 
 mans, Arabs, Persians, Mongols or Kalmuks, Kirghis, Kara- 
 Kalpaks, Jews, Afghans, Lesghis, and Gipsies. The most 
 numerous by far are the Uzbecks, who were the last con 
 querors of the country. Most of them lead a wandering life, 
 while a few apply themselves to the arts of peace, inhabiting 
 the large towns and cities. The Tadjicks consider themselves 
 the aborigines of the country; they resemble Europeans in 
 personal appearance, and are remarkably industrious. The 
 Toorkmans, Kirghis, and Kara-Kalpaks are all of Turkish 
 descent ; the former inhabit the desert W. of the Oxus, the 
 last are few in number, and live N. of the Zar-afshan, and in 
 the vicinity of Kurshee. The other nations settled in Bo 
 khara at different periods, and have no particularly distinctive 
 character. 
 
 Jteligion, Education, Habits, Dress, &c. The people of 
 Bokhara are all Soonite Mahometans, and no other religion 
 may be publicly professed. There are daily public prayers 
 in the capital, during which time there is a cessation of all 
 business. Bokhara was long celebrated as a seat of learning, 
 but although there are still many educational establishments, 
 both in the capital and throughout the country, the greater 
 portion of the population remain wholly uninstructed. The 
 diet of the people, generally, is simple, consisting chiefly of 
 tea, rice, vegetables, mutton, cheese, and milk. Knives and 
 forks are not used, all kinds of food being raised to the mouth 
 with the fingers. Large white trowsers, close short drawers, 
 and caps of red cloth, form the principal articles of dress of 
 the Bokharians. The dress of the women is very nearly 
 similar to that of the men, with the addition of highly decor- 
 
BOKHARA 
 
 431 
 
 BOLAN PASS 
 
 ated boots, and black veils. Both sexes are in the habit of 
 staining their nails with henna. 
 
 History. Bokhara, in part, corresponds to the Bactria of 
 the ancients. After the destruction of the Greek Bactrian 
 empire, it formed a powerful kingdom, conquered in 705 by 
 the Arabs. In 1232, it fell into the hands of Genghis Khan, 
 whose descendants were dispossessed by Timor in 1303. In 
 1505, the Uzbecks became masters of the country and the 
 throne. 
 
 Bokhara contains 19 towns of some note, including the 
 capital. The pop. has been variously estimated, by Myen- 
 dorff at 2,478,000, by Khanikoff at 2,000,000, and byBurnes 
 at 1,500,000. (Burnes s Travels in Bokliara ; Khanikoff s 
 Bokhara, its Emirs and its People; <&c.) 
 
 BOKHARA [the treasury of sciences], the cap. of the 
 kingdom or khanate of Bokhara ; lat. 39 48 N. ; Ion. 64 26 E. 
 It is situated in a flat country, and is embosomed in trees ; is 
 surrounded by a mud wall, with battlements; has 11 gates, 
 
 PLAN OF BOKHARA. From Eve 
 
 I E. ise von Orenburg I 
 
 and is between 8 and 9 m. in circumference. The streets are 
 extremely narrow, and the houses small ; of the former, there 
 are, altogether, about 360, few of which are paved, and those 
 that are, are so very ill kept, that the large rough project 
 ing stones rather impede than facilitate locomotion. The 
 principal public edifices are the Emir s palace, which stands 
 on an elevated piece of ground, of about 300 ft. high, in the 
 centre of the city ; it is surrounded by a brick wall of 70 ft. 
 in height. Within this area, besides the palace of the Emir, 
 is the residence of the Vizier, his public courts of audi 
 ence, and the dwellings of several other grandees, with the 
 houses of their numerous retinues, and three mosques. There 
 are, altogether, 360 mosques in the city, there being thus one 
 for every street ; but eight only of any note. The largest 
 occupies a square of 300 ft., and is enamelled with tiles of 
 azure blue ; attached to this mosque is a tower of 2 1 ft. 
 high, from which criminals are thrown. Of colleges, there 
 are 103 ; none of them, however, have any architectural 
 pretensions; but a few have their fronts ornamented with 
 coloured tiles. The number of students, in 1840, amounted 
 to about 10,000. The city contains 38 caravansaries, 24 of 
 stone and 14 of wood; and 16 principal baths. The private 
 dwellings, all built of sun-dried bricks, and flat roofed, gen 
 erally enclose several four-cornered courts ; the inner walls 
 are sometimes plastered, but the windows are without glass, 
 and the houses of the poorer classes often extremely filthy. 
 Those, however, of the wealthy are frequently tastefully 
 adorned with comfortable and elegant apartments. The city 
 is intersected by a canal, shaded by mulberry-trees ; but in 
 summer, it is often dried up for months, when water becomes 
 extremely scarce, and what is to be had is so exceedingly 
 bad, that it gives rise, it is said, to the terrible disease occa 
 
 sioned by the guinea- worm, as mentioned in the preceding 
 article. The bazaars are numerous, there being places of 
 this kind appropriated to each of various different articles of 
 provision, fruits, clothing, drugs, hardware, &c. Khanikoff, 
 in this way, enumerates 24 ; three of which are for kid boots. 
 The streets of Bokhara, during the day, are densely crowded, 
 and the din of the busy population perfectly stunning ; im 
 mense quantities of fruit are exposed for sale, and the demand 
 for it incessant. Tea is in universal favour with the Bokha- 
 rians, and is drunk at all times of the day, and in all manner 
 of ways ; it is sold prepared, in the market-places, in small 
 bowls, and is largely consumed. Grape jelly or syrup, 
 mixed up with chopped ice, and called, in Eastern phrase, the 
 delight of life, is another much-prized luxury of Bokhara, 
 which is always to be had on the streets during the warm 
 weather. With regard to the population of Bokhara, ac 
 counts differ widely. Burnes, in 1835, states it 150,000 ; 
 while Khanikoff, in 1843, estimates it at 60,000 to 70,000. 
 
 BOKOL, a large vil. Senegambia, near the Senegal river ; 
 lat. 16 24 N. ; Ion. 15 24 W. ; governed by a marabout. 
 It has some trade ; and the people are cultivators and cayman 
 hunters. 
 
 BOLABOLA. See BOUABORA. 
 
 BOLAM, par. Eng. Northumberland ; 8260 ac. P. 603. 
 
 BOLAN PASS, a formidable defile in the lofty range of 
 mountains that traverse the N.E. corner of Beloochistan, 
 prov. Sarawan; about lat. 29 30 N.; Ion. 67 40 E. The 
 elevation of the crest of the pass is 5793 ft. above the sea ; 
 its total length, between 54 and 55 m. ; average ascent, 90 ft. 
 in the mile. The minutest description, says Lieut. Conolly, 
 could hardly convey a just idea of its strength ; it is a defile 
 which a regiment of brave men could defend against an army. 
 The eminences bounding the pass, however, are not generally 
 of very great elevation ; but there are points where it is edged 
 by perpendicular cliffs of 500 to 600 ft. in height, and ap 
 proaching so near as to leave but a narrow lane between, 
 tremendous in its dejjth, and overshadowed by huge walls of 
 
 living rock, which seem almost to close over the gloomy path 
 below. The air, in the lower parts, is, in summer, oppres 
 sively hot, and so excessively unhealthy, that scarcely any 
 persons then venture through it, except messengers on urgent 
 business. 
 
 It is traversed by a small river called the Bolan, wliich, 
 
BOLANOS 
 
 432 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 when there is rain in the higher parts of the mountain, comes 
 down in an almost perpendicular volume, without warning, 
 and sweeps all before it. The pass is infested by Belooches, 
 a lawless, treacherous, sanguinary race, who rob and murder 
 all travellers whom they think they can overpower. In 1839, 
 the Bengal column, with its accompanying artillery, marched 
 through this pass, on their way to Cabool, taking six days to 
 accomplish it. 
 
 BOLANOS, a tn. Mexico, Jalisco, 65 m. N.N.W. Gua 
 dalajara ; chiefly remarkable on account of the rich silver 
 mines in its neighbourhood. 
 
 BOLAS (MAGNA and MEESON), par. Eng. Salop ; 2650 ac. 
 Pop. 288. 
 
 BOLBEC, a tn. France, dep. Seine Inferieure, 17 m. 
 E.N.E. Le Havre ; agreeably situated on the side of a hill, 
 washed by the Bolbec, and at the junction of four valleys. 
 It is well built, partly of brick, partly of stone ; the streets 
 are wide and straight, and have a lively appearance. On 
 July 14, 1765, a fire occurred in the town, which destroyed 
 868 houses, and reduced 3000 persons to destitution. The 
 modern town, in consequence of the conflagration, was built 
 without that admixture of wood so common in the houses of 
 Normandy. It is a thriving and industrious place, and well 
 situated for commerce. It carries on the manufacture of 
 cotton goods to a large extent, receiving the raw cotton from 
 Le Havre, coals from Fecamp and Ilarfleur, and disposing 
 of the products at Eouen. Its printed cottons and handker 
 chiefs have long been held in high estimation. Besides these, 
 it produces linen and woollen stuffs, lace, cotton, velvet, and 
 thread ; and has several dyeworks and tanneries, with a con 
 siderable trade in grain, horses, and cattle. Pop. 8658. 
 
 BOLDON, par. Eng. Durham; 4760 ac. Pop. 915. 
 
 BOLDRE, par. Eng. Hants ; 5260 ac. Pop. 2888. 
 
 BOLE, par. Eng. Notts ; 1250 ac. Pop. 191. 
 
 BOLECHOW, a market tn. Austria, Ga .icia, gov. Lem- 
 berg, circle of, and 14 m. S. Stry, on the Sukiel. The salt 
 springs in the neighbourhood furnish a large quantity of salt ; 
 and the convent of Hoszow is much frequented by pilgrims. 
 Pop., of whom more than a half are Jews, 2322. 
 
 BOLESKINE-AND-ABERTARF, a united par. Scotland, co. 
 Inverness. Length, about 21 m.; average breadth, about 10. 
 It has a rough climate, abounds with tarns, and is intersected 
 by Loch Ness. Pop. 1876. 
 
 BOLI, a city, Asiatic Turkey, pash. Anatolia, 87 m. N.W. 
 Angora, on an eminence, at the W. extremity of a fertile plain, 
 on or near the site of the Hadrianopolis of the Romans. It 
 has several mosques, a square, market-place, and public baths ; 
 and is the residence of a pasha of two tails. It is a thorough 
 fare for the caravans travelling between Erzeroom and Con 
 stantinople. There are mineral baths within a short distance 
 of the town, much frequented by the Turks. Pop. 6000. 
 
 BOL-ILMEN, or MANITCH, a lake, Russia, formed by the 
 Manitch ; between govs. Don Cossacks and Caucasus. It is a 
 long irregular expanse of brackish water, stretching nearly 60 
 m. S.E. to N.W. ; and in average breadth does not exceed 3 m. 
 
 BOLINGBltOKE, a market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Lincoln. The town, 22 m. S.E. Lincoln, comprises an ancient 
 church, several Nonconformist chapels, some schools and 
 charities, and the ruins of an old castle. The market is held 
 on Tuesday, and an annual fair on St. Peter s day. Area of 
 par. 2570 ac. Pop. 919. 
 
 BOLIVIA [formerly called UPPER PERU], an independent 
 republic, S. America, confining on, and nearly enclosed by 
 the States of Peru, Brazil, the Argentine republic, and Chili. 
 When the freedom of the Spanish-American colonies was 
 definitively won by the victory at Ayacucho, on Dec. 9, 1824, 
 the future government and political organization of Alto 
 (Upper) Peru, as the country was called, which embraced the 
 provinces of Charcas, Potosi, la Paz, Cochabamba, and Santa 
 Cruz de la Sierra, became the first and most pressing object 
 of consideration. These territories had originally belonged 
 to the viceroyalty of Peru, the seat of which was at Lima, 
 500m. distant along the cordillera; but in 1767, they were 
 annexed to that of Buenos Ayres, still further off, and the 
 road to which, through the desert of the Grand Chaco, was 
 hardly less dangerous than that of the mountains. The in 
 convenience arising from the remote distance of the seat of 
 supreme authority, being universally felt and admitted, it was 
 resolved to unite the liberated provinces in question into a 
 
 separate republic, which, through gratitude to General Bolivnr, 
 was named Bolivia, and this resolution was carried into effect 
 in 1825. 
 
 Boundaries. The boundary of Bolivia, towards Peru, be 
 gins on the shore of the Pacific Ocean, at the river Loa, in 
 lat. 21 32 S., and follows up the course of this stream E. 
 to the Andes, where it turns N., inclining a little to the W., 
 as far as the Nevado of Tacora, above Arica, in lat. 18 S.; 
 it then goes N. by E. across the Lake of Titicaca to the E. 
 cordillera, in lat. 14 S., and continues along a branch of these 
 to the river Yapure, whence it turns to the confluence of the 
 Beni with the Mamore, in about lat. 10 S. Here the Brazilian 
 frontier commences, going along the Mamore, and its great 
 affluent the Guapore or Itenez, and from the latter river in a 
 straight line to the Yuarii, which falls into the Paraguay. 
 Such were the boundaries fixed by treaties between Spain and 
 Portugal, in 1750 and 1777 ; but the Brazilians have in fact 
 encroached so much on this line, that from the Ite"nez or 
 Guapore, in lat. 13 S., to the Otuquis, which falls into the 
 Paraguay in lat. 20 S., a distance of at least 500 m., they 
 have occupied a tract 50 or 100 m. wide on the S.W. or W. 
 banks of the rivers marked by treaty as the lines of demarca 
 tion. Along the Paraguay the Bolivian frontier extends S. 
 to lat. 22 S., where it meets that of the Argentine republic, a 
 conventional line running generally W. from that point across 
 the plains to the Andes, separating these two states. The 
 boundary towards Chili is undefined, parts of the territory 
 being in dispute. 
 
 Area. Thus it appears that Bolivia, with a frontier of 
 more than 3000 geo. m., yet possesses but a small extent of 
 sea-coast; and this maritime tract, which is extremely in 
 hospitable throughout, is connected with the inland and pro 
 ductive provinces by a portion of the cordillera, not more than 
 80 m. in length. Owing to its remoteness, therefore, as well 
 as to its natural character, which unites the disadvantages of 
 steep, rocky mountains, with those of sterile, sandy deserts, 
 it is of little value. The most N. point of Bolivia is at the 
 junction of the rivers Beni and Mamore, in about lat. 10 S. ; 
 its most S., the confines of Chili. In width it extends 
 through rather more than 12 of longitude, from the Para 
 guay, in Ion. 58 W., to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. 
 The area of Bolivia probably does not fall much short of 
 450,000 geo. sq. m. ; or nearly five times the surface of the 
 British Islands. 
 
 Divisions. Bolivia is divided into seven departments, 
 namely, Chuquisaca, La Paz, Potosi, Cochabamba, Oruro, 
 Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and Beni ; besides two provinces, 
 namely, Cobija and Tarija, which, in respect to local govern 
 ment, are on the footing of departments. These divisions are 
 all named from their chief towns, respecting which it will be 
 sufficient in this place to mention, that Chuquisaca is the 
 capital of the state, and the seat of Government ; and that 
 Cochabamba is, in public documents, sometimes called Oro 
 pesa, though this name having failed to become popular, is 
 now seldom used. The subdivision of the departments is as 
 follows. For the little information possessed respecting the 
 area and population of the departments, the reader is referred 
 to the separate articles. 
 
 Departments. 
 1. Chuquisaca... 
 
 Provinces. 
 Chuquisaca. 
 Ciuti or Zinti. 
 Yamparaes. 
 Tumina. 
 
 2. La Paz \ S 
 
 (La Pa-/, de Aya- 
 
 cliucho. 
 Paciijes. 
 
 Yungas. 
 
 Omasuyos. 
 
 Larecaja. 
 
 { Potosi. 
 Lipes. 
 Porco. 
 Cliayantr 
 Chichas. 
 
 Departments. Frovina 
 
 Cocliabamli 
 Sacaba. 
 Tapacari. 
 
 4. Cocliabaraba Arque. 
 
 Ayopaya. 
 Ciisa. 
 Misque. 
 (Oruro. 
 
 5. Oruro -j Poopo. 
 
 ( Caranga. 
 
 !Sta. Cruz 
 Sierra. 
 Valle Grande. 
 Cprdillera. 
 Cbiquitos. 
 (Cau|)olican, 01 
 MS abamba< 
 Yuraciircs. 
 (Colijja, including 
 J Atacama. 
 ( Tarija. 
 
 de IB 
 
 Two of the provinces, Chiquitos, in the department of Sta. 
 Cruz de la Sierra, and Moxos, in the department of Beni, are 
 
BOLIVIA 
 
 4R3 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 BO important on account of their magnitude forming, as 
 they do, nearly two-thirds of the whole Bolivian territory 
 their great natural capabilities, and the civilization partially 
 diffused among their indigenous inhabitants by the Jesuit 
 missionaries, as to deserve especial mention. 
 
 Aspect. There is no country in the world, perhaps, pos 
 sessing such a variety of soil and climate, of physical aspect 
 and productions, as Bolivia. Nowhere else are to be seen 
 such contrasts of nature, exhibited in close juxta-position, and 
 on so grand a scale. The broadest part of the Andes, where 
 these mountains, encompassing the great lake of Titicaca, 
 divide into two chains, known as the E. and W. Cordilleras, 
 lies within the limits of this state. On its W. side, therefore, 
 Bolivia presents to view an immense pile of mountains, rising 
 in many points beyond the limits of perpetual snow, and 
 enclosing within them an elevated plateau nearly 100 m. wide. 
 The slope of the W. cordillera, towards the Pacific Ocean, 
 presents a most forbidding aspect; bare rocks, fearful pre 
 cipices, and moving sands, with but few and partial traces of 
 verdure, weary the eye of the traveller as he toils up the 
 steep paths which lead him from the burning climate of the 
 coast to the regions of perpetual winter. Arrived on the 
 elevated, treeless plain, and having now in view the snowy 
 peaks of the E. cordillera, he may admire the grandeur of 
 the scene, but not without a sense of its dreariness and mono 
 tony. But when he arrives at the passes of the E. cordillera, 
 and looks down on the deep valleys which stretch beyond, he 
 is ravished at the total change which the garb and aspect of 
 nature at this point undergo, and gazes with delight on the 
 luxuriant prospect of interminable forests, and the hundreds 
 of lively streams which hasten on to form the mightiest rivers 
 in the world. The Andes, while they present to the W. an 
 abrupt and uniform ridge, throw off to the E. numerous rami 
 fications, which extend a long way from the cordillera. In 
 the valley of the Guapey or Kio Grande, the chains of hills 
 connected with the Andes may be traced to a distance of 
 350 m. from the sea-coast ; such then is the width of the 
 Bolivian mountain region. And here again nature takes a 
 new face. The hills cease, and are succeeded by a plain ex 
 ceeding Great Britain in superficial extent, in which no stone, 
 nor even a pebble is to be found, and which is annually 
 flooded to such a degree by the numerous fine rivers which 
 run through it towards the Amazon, that communications 
 by boat are practicable across it, through the stately forests, 
 in nearly all directions. This is the country of the Moxos. 
 Beyond this, towards the Paraguay, the plain rises in general 
 above the reach of inundation, and rocks and hills of moderate 
 height again make their appearance. This is the country of 
 the Chiquitos. These dry plains separate the basin of the 
 Amazon from that of the La Plata ; but some of the affluents 
 of the Paraguay approach so close to the sources of the Itenez, 
 that in floods it is said a canoe can pass from the one river 
 to the other. Such is the general outline of Bolivia ; but the 
 chief natural features of this remarkable country, its moun 
 tains, valleys, plains, rivers, &c., demand a more attentive 
 and detailed consideration. 
 
 Mountains. The W. cordillera of the Andes in Bolivia, 
 attains a great height at no great distance from the sea, and 
 exhibits not a few nevados or summits rising above the limit 
 of perpetual snow, which in the vicinity of a great table-land 
 lies higher than on an insulated mountain, and rarely descends 
 here below an absolute elevation of 17,000 ft. The road from 
 Arica into Bolivia passes between the nevados of Tacora and 
 Niuta, while on the left is seen that of Chipicani, and on the 
 right a still loftier series of snowy crests. The heights of these 
 mountains, as determined by Mr. Pentland, are as follows: 
 
 Feet. Feet. 
 
 Tacora 18,890 i Parinacota 22,030 
 
 Chipicani 19,740 Pomarapa 21,700 
 
 Sahama Peak, iu lat. 187 ...22,350 | Gualatieri, in lat. 18 23 21,960 
 
 The pass of Tacora is itself at an elevation of 14,400 ft., 
 which is about the general height of the W. portion of the 
 table- land to which it conducts. The village of Tacora, one of 
 the most elevated inhabited places on the earth, is but 150 ft. 
 below this ridge. Of the nevados in the E. cordillera, on 
 the opposite side of the plain, the most conspicuous are: 
 
 Feet. Feet 
 
 Aneohumi.or the \evatlo) 91 9Rfi I Huwayua Potosi 20,200 
 
 iiffl*:::::: =123 1 
 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 Here it must be remarked, that Ancohumi and Illimani 
 were long regarded as the highest mountains in America, or 
 even, with the exception of one or two points of the Himalaya, 
 in the whole world. The re-calculation, however, of the ob 
 servations made to ascertain their height, has recently reduced 
 them to the measure given above, Sorata losing by this cor 
 rection nearly 4000 ft. of its supposed elevation. With this 
 fact before us, it is impossible not to receive with mistrust the 
 heights assigned by the same observer to the series of nevados 
 between the parallels of 18 7 and 18 25 , and which all 
 exceed the height of Chimborazo. From Illimani a chain of 
 mountains runs W. by S., which bears, throughout a great 
 portion of it, perpetual snow, and may therefore be assumed 
 to reach an elevation of 18,000 ft. 
 
 Valleys. Between the snowy heights of the Cordilleras 
 extends a great plain, from N.N.W. to S.S.E. for above 
 300 m., widening towards the S. The W. side of this plain 
 has an elevation of 14,400 ft., for a width of about 40 m.; it 
 then sinks abruptly about 1000 ft., and slopes to the shores 
 of the Lake of Titicaca, the level of which is about 12,700 ft. 
 above that of the ocean. The Lake of Titicaca is connected 
 by its outlet, the Rio Desaguadero, with the Lake of Aullagas 
 or Ullaguas, 160 m. S.S.E. from it, and lower in level by 
 nearly 490 ft. Here then is a great valley equal in area to 
 Ireland, and lying at the height of from 12,280 to 14,400 ft. 
 above the sea. This remarkable feature in the geography of 
 Bolivia is the more deserving of attention, inasmuch as it was 
 on the shores of Lake Titicaca that the power of the Incas 
 chiefly lay, and the indigenous civilization of America, cradled 
 in that elevated region, grew up with a character harmonizing 
 completely with the skies above, and the scenes around it. 
 Besides, the peculiar husbandry of the indigenous inhabitants 
 of these plains, who are still numerous, and who keep large 
 herds of llamas and alpacas, employing the former almost ex 
 clusively in the mountains as beasts of burden, depends alto 
 gether on the boundless extent of their dry plains and elevated 
 pastures. The S. and more depressed part of this high plain 
 is traversed by several low ridges, running nearly from W. to 
 E. The openings between these break off towards the E. into 
 numerous valleys, some of which pour their waters into the 
 Pilcomayo, which joins the La Plata, while hundreds more 
 contribute to swell the Mamore , Beni, and other great affluents 
 of the Amazon. The chief of these valleys, in respect of 
 magnitude, is Valle Grande or the valley of the Rio Grande. 
 
 Elvers. The W. slope of Bolivia, or the tract between the 
 W. cordillera and the Pacific Ocean, has no river deserving 
 of notice ; but on the E. side of the E. cordillera, the rivers 
 are countless, and the utmost we can do here is to group them. 
 The hills of Chuquisaca separate the streams which flow into 
 the Pilcomayo from those running into the Rio Grande. The 
 Pilcomayo is probably navigable from the commencement of 
 the plains to the Paraguay ; but, owing to the inhospitable 
 character of much of the country through which it flows, 
 it has hitherto engaged but littln attention, and nothing is 
 known of its capabilities. Between the Pilcomayo and the 
 Kio Beni, the Parapiti descends into the plains, and seems 
 long doubtful whether it shall ally itself with the floods of the 
 Amazon, or with those of the La Plata ; it decides, however, 
 for the former, and spreads into extensive marshes, which 
 overflow, during the rainy season, into the Rio Grande. This 
 great river descends from Chuquisaca, in an E.S.E. direction, 
 for 300 m., till it turns the last hills connected with the cor 
 dillera; it then winds N.N.W. under the name of the Sara", 
 till it meets the Mamore, when the joint stream flows N. 
 through the low country of the Moxos, till it receives the 
 Beni, and leaves the territory of Bolivia. The river-course 
 thus described, from the source of the Rio Grande to the 
 junction of the Beni and Mamore , exceeds 1000 m. in length, 
 and the lower half of it is navigable for large boats. But the 
 Mamore, and Beni also, with several of their affluents, are 
 noble streams, navigable, to a great extent, at all seasons, 
 and, after the rains, even to the foot of the cordillera. But 
 again the Mamore is joined, on its r. bank, by the Guapore or 
 Ite nez, a great and navigable river, which marks the Bra 
 zilian frontier ; and the head waters of the Ite nez are separ 
 ated by a portage of only a few miles from the Juara, which 
 maybe navigated in canoes to the Paraguay. A better com 
 munication, however (for Bolivia at least), with the last-named 
 great river, may be found in the Oxuquis or Otuquis, which. 
 
 55 
 
BOLIVIA 
 
 434 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 joins the Paraguay on its r. bank, in lat. 19 50 S., and re 
 ceives the Tucabaca, into which flows the San Rafael river, 
 from the hills of the Chiquitos ; from the same heights flow 
 the San Miguel, anil Baures or Rio Blanco, both navigable 
 streams, N.N.W. to the Ite nez. 
 
 Lakes. The few and inconsiderable rivers of the elevated 
 plain between the Cordilleras, may be considered as belong 
 ing to the lake or lakes which form one of the most striking 
 features of that region. Lake Titicaca, the position of which 
 has been already described in general terms, has a length of 
 perhaps 90 m., and a breadth of about 25 ; but the delineations 
 of it hitherto published are much at variance with respect to 
 its shape, and are obviously not entitled to implicit confi 
 dence. At about a third of its length from the S. end, it is 
 contracted by peninsulas from both sides, which divide it, in 
 fact, into two lakes ; of these, the S. and smaller one is pro 
 perly named the Lake of Chicuito, and lies wholly in Bolivia ; 
 of the larger basin or Titicaca, the E. shores alone fall within 
 the limits of this state. The waters of Lake Titicaca and 
 Chicuito are carried off, at the S. extremity of the latter, by 
 the Rio Desaguadero, which flows S.E. about 160 m., to the 
 Lake of Aullagas or of Pausa, as some call it. This lake is 
 about 490 ft. lower than that of Titicaca, the waters of which 
 it receives. It has, itself, no outlet, but is wasted by evapor 
 ation, and is, consequently, salt. The Rio Desaguadero has 
 a general width of 300 ft., with a moderate uniform current, 
 and appears to be navigable throughout. In the plains of 
 E. Bolivia, lakes are numerous, particularly during the rains ; 
 bat these inundated tracts, however they may be denominated, 
 are still forest as well as lake. Little in fact is known, as 
 yet, of the situation and extent of the permanent standing 
 waters in those great plains ; nor can we even tell exactly the 
 position of the Salinas, whence the Indians of the mission of 
 the Chiquitos draw, in the dry season, large quantities of 
 excellent salt. They are vaguely described as lying about 
 150 m. S.W. from the most southern of these missions. 
 
 Geology. The slope of the W. Cordillera, towards the sea, 
 is formed almost wholly of trachytic conglomerates, in various 
 stages of decomposition ; it is generally whitish, or of a red 
 dish hue, but dark-coloured rocks of kindred origin frequently 
 break through it. The point which shelters the harbour of 
 Cobija is a mass of basaltic porphyry. The Cerro de Tacora, 
 and other dome-shaped summits of the ridge, are of trachyte, 
 the bare rock being often exposed, as on the nevado of Chipi- 
 cani, in consequence of its steepness. It has been said that 
 some of the conical summits of this cordillera are extinct 
 volcanoes, and that the Cerro de Tacora is a true Solfatara ; 
 but it seems now fully established, that no lavas or other vol 
 canic productions, of a geologically recent age, are found on 
 the Bolivian table -land, which is never disturbed by earth 
 quakes ; and, as to active volcanoes, the Bolivians know of 
 only one, which is situate, in the S. part of the maritime 
 cordillera, in the province of Carangas. The disintegrated 
 trachyte, which covers the W. and more elevated part of the 
 table-land, abounds in quartz crystals, exhibits much saline 
 efflorescence, and is generally adverse to vegetation. The 
 river Maure, running S.E. through this tract till it falls into 
 the Desaguadero, has worn its bed, in a wide chasm, 600 ft. 
 deep ; the W. side of which presents to view horizontal strata 
 of the whitish trachytic conglomerate, while the E. side is 
 formed of basaltic porphyries. The country thence E. has a 
 more diversified and broken outline, the hollows of the ground 
 not being filled up, as on the W., by mouldering trachyte. 
 This geological character continues across the plain to the 
 E. cordillera ; there the snows of the Illimani rest on an im 
 mense pile of granite. The general direction of the granitic 
 range is N.W. and S.E. In its neighbourhood the trachytic 
 rocks become micaceous; on the E., the granite is overlaid 
 by rocks of the Silurian and Devonian systems, through which 
 it has forced its way, upheaving them so that some of the sand 
 stones of the Devonian series nearly reach the height of per 
 petual snow. The granite seems to extend from Illimani 
 N.W. ; but towards the S., from Oruro to Potosi, it is probable 
 that the Silurian and other overlying strata have been raised 
 by trachyte. The granite shows itself only in the elevated 
 chain of the E. cordillera ; but to the E. of it are found a few 
 spots of porphyry, and with these end all traces of Plutonian 
 rocks throughout the lowlands of Bolivia. The rock next 
 met with in the plains is older, and of a totally different char 
 
 acter. The hills or mountains of the Chiquitos are 200 m. 
 distant from the nearest branch of the cordillera, and form a 
 system quite distinct from the Andes on the one side, and the 
 Brazilian mountains on the other. They consist of gneiss, a 
 stratified rock, which here extends from W.N.W. to E.S.E., 
 and resembles a long island in the midst of a sea of alluvium. 
 It is, in many places, broken and dislocated by the forces 
 which have raised it into its present position. The gneiss is 
 overlaid by foliated Silurian strata, the lowest of which has 
 a thickness of at least 600 ft. ; and on this again rests sand 
 stone of the Devonian series, after which comes the red car 
 boniferous sandstone. The depressions in these formations 
 are, as it may be supposed, filled up, and levelled by alluvium 
 or sedimentary deposits of various ages. Of these, the most 
 remarkable are the alluvium of the Pampas, which seems to 
 have been derived from the wear of the gneiss rock, and con 
 tains, in great abundance, the fossil remains of mammalia, 
 many of them of great size, as the giant armadillo, the three- 
 toed sloth, the American horse, &c.; this stratum, which 
 contains the remains of an extinct animal world, is covered 
 immediately by a deposit, enclosing the shells of existing 
 species ; another alluvium, called the guardni tertiary, con 
 tains hydrates of iron in abundance, and is generally found 
 resting horizontally on the carboniferous limestones. It may 
 be remarked, that the cretaceous and marine tertiary forma 
 tions are here wholly wanting, and that the plain, in general, 
 has been levelled by a sea of mud, now distinguished as the 
 fossiliferous alluvium, and which is, in many places, covered 
 by modern sediments made up of fine sand and decayed vege 
 tation. 
 
 Minerals. Here, as elsewhere, the precious metals are 
 found chiefly in the Silurian strata, where these approach the 
 igneous rocks. Gold is found in many of the streams that 
 fall down the E. side of the cordillera, and at Choquecameta ; 
 near Cochabamba, at the sources of the Rio Grande, as well 
 as at Tipuani, near Sorata, the washing of the gold-sands is 
 still carried on with profit. In the same district the schists 
 of Palca are rich in silver ; and thence S.E., by Oruro to Po 
 tosi, this whole country is famed for the incalculable treasures 
 which have been drawn from it, chiefly in the form of auriferou.3 
 silver-ores. The celebrated Potosi was once the richest silver- 
 district in the world. From the year 1556 down to 1834, it 
 yielded 163,000,000, without counting the large quantity of 
 silver stolen by the Indian labourers ; probably equal to one- 
 fourth more. Though many of the veins are now exhausted, 
 and the rest are imperfectly wrought, the annual yield of this 
 renowned mountain is still 450,000. The tin -mines, in the 
 department of Oruro, are said to be the richest in the world. 
 At Corocoro and Huallamarca, both in the same department, 
 but 120 m. asunder, copper is found nearly pure. But these 
 and all other sources of wealth are rendered comparatively 
 valueless for export purposes from the difficulty and great 
 expense of bringing them down to the coast. 
 
 Climate. From the foregoing account of the physical 
 aspect and conformation of Bolivia, it might be at once con 
 cluded that it embraces every variety of climate, from the 
 heat and humidity of the torrid zone, to the perpetual frost of 
 the polar circle. On the elevated table-land there is frost 
 every night, and the morning ice on the river Tacora is always 
 strong enough to bear a man ; but here, on the borders of 
 perpetual snow, the climate has one great advantage over that 
 of polar regions, for the sky is always bright and cloudless, 
 and the air dry. The atmospheric phenomena which charac 
 terize this region may be best studied on the E. cordillera, 
 whence may be seen, towards the E., like a misty sea, the 
 clouds which roll over the luxuriant forests of the plains and 
 valleys beneath. This sea of clouds generally rests, at a cer 
 tain elevation, on the side of the cordillera ; but, during three 
 months of the year, it rises, and fragments of it pass over to 
 the table-land. Then follow violent storms and showers of 
 rain ; and, at this season (chiefly in December, the hottest 
 month), the nevados put on their annual covering of new snow. 
 But the clouds and rains rarely reach the W. half of the table 
 land, and never pass the W. cordillera. From the confines 
 of Bolivia, on the S., as far N. as Payta, in Peru, or about 
 the parallel of 5 S., it seldom or never rains. Adjacent to 
 this arid region, the table-land of Bolivia enjoys bright skies 
 for nine months in the year, and has three months of rain to 
 restore the verdure, and of mountain-snows to supply the 
 
BOLIVIA 
 
 435 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 rivers. But a little further E., even a day s journey down 
 from the crest of the cordillera, may be found places where 
 rain falls every day in the year. The inhabitants of these 
 countries distinguish three regions of climate, the Puna, Pa 
 ramo, and Yungas. The first is elevated and cold, and dis 
 agreeable to those unused to it, from the difficulty of respiring in 
 an attenuated atmosphere. This is the region of the llama and 
 alpaca ; higher up still is the Puna brava, which is frequented 
 by the wild guanaco and the vicuna. The country round 
 Lake Titicaca comes, for the most part, under the denomina 
 tion of Puna. The second or middle region is the Paramo, 
 which is temperate and productive. The Paramos have been 
 naturally taken advantage of by the European settlers, who 
 have filled them, as in the valley of La Paz, with European 
 grains and fruits. Below the Paramos lie the Yungas or 
 valleys, having a decidedly hot climate, and distinguished by 
 a rank vegetation. Thus La Paz, seated in a Paramo, and 
 enjoying a climate resembling that of the S. of France, is 
 close to the region of the llama on the one side, and on the 
 other, to valleys yielding excellent coffee, cocoa, and other tro 
 pical productions. The inhabitants of these deep valleys are 
 not uufrequently afflicted with goitres, but are said to be not 
 liable to the cretinism which, in Europe, often attends on that 
 disease. Intermittent fever is frequent in some of the valleys 
 on the E. side of the cordillera ; but it is not easy to trace 
 out the source of the malaria producing it, as some spots, 
 quite exempt from the disease, enjoy no visible advantages 
 of situation above others, the air of which is reputed to be 
 most deadly. Water does not seem, in this part of the world, 
 to be a principal agent in creating or disseminating disease ; 
 for while some valleys, apparently favoured by nature, are 
 scarcely habitable, owing to fever, the villages of the Indians, 
 
 in the midst of marshes or of inundated forests, are often quite also the viscacha or long-eared marmot, the burrows of which 
 healthy. In the plains of the Moxo and Chiquitos, the pre- i sometimes occupy a great space in the plains. On the wooded 
 
 vailing wind is from the N. ; the E. wind blows sometimes, 
 and is likewise a warm wind. The W. wind is never felt, 
 being intercepted by the cordillera. The S. wind is extremely 
 cold, and, to the inhabitants of the plains, disagreeable. The 
 rains fall chiefly from October to April. 
 
 Botany. The botany of Bolivia is, of course, as various 
 as its climate. On the ridge of the W. cordillera, there is 
 no deficiency of species of Alpine plants ; but, taken collec 
 tively, they form but a scanty vegetation, so that the treeless 
 and dreary plain seems, at the first glance, to be wholly des 
 titute of vegetable life ; yet dwarf plants occupy the clefts of 
 the loosened rocks. A broom grows to the height of 5 or 15 
 inches, according to the elevation of the ground ; and several 
 small plants (as Laretia acaulis, Verbena mimina, and Lyco- 
 podium hastatum), attaching themselves to the projecting parts 
 of rocks, there increase, in the course of ages, perhaps, into 
 tufts of considerable magnitude, so compact that lichens grow 
 upon them, and so strong that the axe alone can lay them 
 j open. Owing to their density and resinous nature, these tufts 
 are valuable as fuel. An aromatic little bush character 
 izes the trachytic plain ; lower down, as soon as available soil 
 is met with, the Indian plants, potatoes, and, in favourable 
 spots, barley is sown, not for the sake of the grain, which does 
 not ripen here, but as green food for the loaded mules that 
 cross the plain. Towards the shores of the lake, though trees 
 are still wanting, the grasses become luxuriant, and 20 species 
 of gramineous plants have been gathered there in a hasty 
 excursion. In descending the E. cordillera, the first plant 
 which attracts especial attention is the cactus, like a cande 
 labra, or in other majestic forms, and which, in a particular 
 zone (perhaps about 7000 ft. above the sea), attains a height 
 of 40 ft. This is followed by the zone of acacias ; and, lower 
 down, the species increase, and the forest thickens, till at 
 length, near the foot of the mountains, the bamboo and tree 
 ferns grow beneath the canopy formed by the graceful foliage 
 of palms nearly 50 ft. high. An attempt to describe system 
 atically the productions of these forests would here be out of 
 place. Let it suffice to say, that, in these primeval forests, 
 the Indians find all their wants supplied. Here they procure 
 the trunks of trees, from which their large canoes are made ; 
 as well as the canes to build, and palm leaves to cov their 
 houses. From the inner bark of a kind of mulberry, they 
 obtain a vegetable gauze, of which they make their shirts, 
 and which does not lose by a comparison with cotton. The 
 woods of the Moxos abound in the mate leaf or Paraguay tea ; 
 
 the sea-shore or in the forests, they are numerous enough, 
 when on the wing, to darken the sky. From the condor, 
 which soars above the Andes, to the diminutive humming 
 birds, from the loud-screaming parrot to the musical organito, 
 birds of all character, size, and plumage, are to be found in 
 Bolivia. 
 
 People. The population of this country is variously esti 
 mated at from f.OO.ooO to 1,600,000; it probably does not ex 
 ceed 1,000,000 ; of whom two-thirds belong to the aboriginal 
 race of the country, and the remainder are Mestizoes, or de 
 scendants of the original settlers by native women. The in 
 digenous inhabitants of the Bolivian highlands, near Lake 
 Titicaca, are, the Aymaru; while to the N. and E. dwell 
 the Quichua, with whom the former were united under the 
 dominion of the Incas. These two nations speak distinct, 
 though cognate languages. Numerous monuments of the 
 national prosperity and civilization of the Aymarus still 
 remain. Ancient villages, with domed houses built of stone, 
 or of sun-dried brick, and with enclosures for cattle ; truncated 
 obelisks, facing E. and W.; and well-built tombs, containing 
 the mummies of whole families, arranged together in a 
 sitting posture, are strewed thickly over the country, and 
 seem to indicate the former existence of a considerable popu 
 lation. The Aymarus are industrious, gentle, and intelligent. 
 They seem to prefer the pastoral life, and the cultivation of 
 the potato, to any other occupation. As Christians, they 
 
 nearer the cordillera is found the tree which yields the balsam 
 of Peru ; and higher up, that producing cinchona or Peruvian 
 bark. 
 
 Cultivation. The valleys occupied by the Spanish settlers 
 on the E. slope of the Bolivian high land, and varying in 
 height from 12,500 ft. to 8000 ft. above the ocean, produce 
 abundantly all the fruits and grains of Europe. The vine, | 
 the cultivation of which was forbidden by the jealous policy | 
 of Spain, is now introduced. The warm and well watered | 
 valleys, as that of Cochabamba, supply with corn and fruit 
 the populous buf comparatively sterile districts of the table 
 land. In the Yungas, and the hot plains of Santa Cruz, the 
 objects of culture are coffee (said to be excellent), cocoa, 
 tobacco, indigo, cotton, maize at all seasons, yuca or mandioc, 
 potatoes, guavas, the chirimoya (a delicious fruit), the sugar 
 cane, and, abos e all, coca. This is the leaf of a shrub (Kry- 
 tkroxylum Peruvianum) which the inhabitants of this part of the 
 world masticate as the Malays chew the betel-nut ; and such 
 is the force of habit, that coca is, to the Bolivian and Peru 
 vian, an article of the utmost necessity; without it he pines ; 
 with it, the smallest quantity of food will sustain him through 
 great fatigue. The yearly sale of coca in Bolivia amounts 
 to 10,150,000 Ibs. a large quantity to supply the wants of 
 a particular class, in a population of 1,000,000 at the utmost. 
 
 Zoology. The quadrupeds inhabiting the elevated parts of 
 the cordillera, are few in number as well as in species. The 
 llama and alpaca, which are domesticated, are thought to be 
 but varieties of the guanaco, which is still wild ; the vicuna 
 is a different species. On the same heights with the guanaco 
 is often to be seen the rough-haired deer (Cervus Antisianus). 
 The chinchilla, hunted for its beautiful fur. and now almost 
 extirpated, prefers the neighbourhood of the snow, as does 
 
 .es of the E. cordillera, the cactus thickets afford shelter 
 to bears. Lower down, the pecari wastes the cultivated fields, 
 and the jaguar attacks the cattle. The number of these beasts ! 
 of prey, however, is rapidly diminishing, the governor of Santa 
 Cruz paying a cow for every jaguar skin brought in. The 
 tapir, the glutton, sloth, armadillo, and many other animals, 
 are killed by the natives for food. The large rivers flowing 
 into the Amazon are frequented by the fresh-water dolphins 
 peculiar to this quarter of the globe. These have a formid 
 able enemy in the cayman or alligator, which, together with 
 the palameta or armed bream, and some voracious small fish, 
 renders the waters of the Bolivian plains extremely danger 
 ous. The vampire bat is so troublesome in Caupolican and 
 other parts of the Yungas, as to prevent the rearing of cattle. 
 The forests are crowded with monkeys of different species, 
 always social and active. Their varied cries, mingled with 
 those of birds, show how much life there is in these wild 
 solitudes. But that which chiefly astonishes the naturalist 
 here, is the multitude of the feathered tribe. Whether on 
 
BOLIVIA 
 
 438 
 
 BOLNHURST 
 
 retain many of their pagan usages, dancing in masquerade at 
 certain church festivals, for two or three days without inter 
 mission. The clothing of the peasantry is generally black ; 
 in the towns, the women pri.le themselves on the number of 
 
 2 3 1 
 
 COS1VMES OF AYM AIU S AKD QUICIR AS. Fjom D Orbigny. 
 Fis. I, 2, 3, Ajmarue; Fig. 4, tjuichua. 
 
 petticoats they wear ; they load themselves accordingly, till, 
 with felt hats of immense circumference, these swarthy 
 beauties are as broad as they are long. The Quichua Indians, 
 on the E. side of the Cordillera, do not differ much from the 
 Aymarus. In the provinces of the Moxos and Chiquitos, 
 
 DO.MKD HOUSE OP THE AYMARUS. 
 From D Orbi s ny, Voywit cian 1 Anu-rique Miri.lionnle. 
 
 1 iere are the remnants of perhaps some 20 nations or com 
 munities, speaking different languages; but the judicious 
 policy of the Jesuits, who founded these missions, and sought 
 l>y all means to unite the scattered tribes under one language 
 (the Chiqutto) and uniform customs, is still persevered in, and 
 the original distinctions between the aboriginal tribes are 
 rapidly disappearing. The Indians are collectively tractable 
 and honest ; and some of them, as the Moxos, seem to have 
 entered fairly on the career of civilization. The Spaniards 
 in Santa Cruz, and other remote parts of Bolivia, have adopted 
 the simplest mode of life ; the clothing of both sexes is scanty; 
 their houses, far from being luxurious, want even comfort. 
 Their amusements, which occupy much of their time, are 
 dancing, and drinking chicha, a kind of beer made from maize. 
 Trade. It might be supposed at the first view, that a state, 
 possessing such extensive territories as Bolivia, with a soil 
 so prolific, such variety of climate and productions, and such 
 noble rivers, has within itself all the elements of commercial 
 prosperity; but a little consideration will show, that the state 
 in question is debarred to a great extent, by nature and posi 
 tion, from those facilities of communication without which 
 commerce cannot flourish. The enormous cost of carriage 
 from the sea-coast across the Cordillera, to the populous towns 
 of the interior, must necessarily operate to discourage trade 
 by that route. And as to facility of intercourse with the sea, 
 by muaii.-j of the rivers Otuquis, Paraguay, Parana, and La 
 
 Plata, or by the Beni, Guapey, Madeira, and Amazon, thp.*e 
 courses suppose a river navigation of 1500 or 2000 m., a 
 preliminary condition which, so far as commerce by sea is 
 concerned, must subject the foreign trade of Bolivia to great 
 disadvantage. With these drawbacks the trade of the country 
 is not of much importance, the most of it being internal with 
 the neighbouring republics of La Plata and Peru. The 
 Yungas supply the high lands with coca, coffee, sugar, and 
 cocoa, and other products of the warmer regions ; the high 
 lands send chilona (or dried meat) and corn to the Yungas ; and 
 the silver of Potosi, the tin of Oruro, the copper of Corocoro, 
 the cinchona of the forest, and the gold of Tipuani, constitute 
 the medium of exchange for European commodities. The 
 Spanish settlers, who thought of nothing but the precious 
 metals, have never condescended to profit from the example 
 of the Incas, and to construct good roads. Hence it is that 
 wheeled vehicles are unknown in Bolivia. The construction 
 of a good road for wheel carriages over the \V. cordillera, 
 and of a railway connecting the Parana with Chuquisaca, may 
 appear perhaps to be undertakings far beyond the present 
 resources of the republic ; but they must, nevertheless, pre 
 cede any considerable development of its trade and industry ; 
 and, under judicious management, would doubtless prove even 
 tually remunerative. 
 
 History. The early history of Bolivia is included in that of 
 Peru. As the state was constituted in 1825, Bolivian history, 
 properly so called, commences with that epoch. The constitu 
 tion which was drawn up for the new state, by General Bolivar, 
 and was adopted by the Congress in 1826, makes ample pro 
 vision for personal and political liberty, securing religious 
 toleration, the freedom of the press, and the independence of 
 the tribunals. It established a legislative body, composed of 
 two chambers, namely, the congress and the senate, with a 
 president elected for five years. The public debt amounts 
 (1850) to about 1 ,084,943. (Procter s Nar. of Jour, across the 
 Cordillera of the Andes, and of a ltesiden.ee in Lima; Steven 
 son s Historical and Descriptive Narrative of Twenty years 
 Residence in tS. America, &c.; Lieut.-Col. Brand s Journal of 
 a Voyage to Peru, and Passage across the Cordillera of the 
 Andes; Memoirs of Gen. Miller in the Service of the Republic 
 of Peru ; Beauchamp, Histoire de la Conquite et des Revolu 
 tions du Perou; D Orbigny, Voyage dans I Amerique Mtri- 
 dionale, 1826-33 ; Private Information.} 
 
 BOLKENHAIN, a tn. and circle, Prussian Silesia. The 
 
 I town lies 19 m. S.S.W. Liegnitz, 1. bank, Neiss ; and has two 
 churches, two schools, a townhouse, and hospital ; with some 
 
 woollen, linen, and ribbon manufactures. Pop. 2450. 
 
 The CIRCLE, area, 98 geo. sq. m., is mountainous, and covered 
 to a great extent with wood, but is fertile ; yielding flax, hops, 
 
 i and potatoes. Silver, copper, arsenic, and sulphur, are found, 
 
 ! and linen is manufactured extensively. Pop. 32,413. 
 
 iBOLEHOFF, or BALKHOV, a tn. Itussia, cap. dist. of same 
 name, gov. of, and 34 m. N. Orel, on the Nougra. It is a very 
 ancient place, is chiefly built of wood, and contains 22 churches, 
 a monastery, and a nunnery. It has manufactures of leather, 
 and of worsted stockings, and a considerable trade in hemp, 
 hemp-oil, and tallow. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 BOLLATE, a tn. Austrian Italy, prov. of, and 6 m. 
 N.W. Milan ; with a square, and a parish church. Pop. 2021. 
 
 BOLLENE, a tn. France, dep. Vaucluse, 23 m. N. 
 Avignon, in a fertile territory, watered by the Lez. Silk of 
 good quality is spun, and several important markets, two of 
 them of three days each, are held here. Pop. 2860. 
 
 BOLL ULOS- DEL -CONDADO, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, 
 prov. of, and 18 m. E. by N. Huelva. It has narrow, ill-made 
 streets, a square, two churches, a session-house, townhall, hos 
 pital, three schools, a prison, and several convents. Manu 
 factures : earthenware, tiles, and brandy. Produce of vicinity : 
 wine and oil. Exports: grain and wine. Pop., chiefly 
 agricultural, 4638. (Madoz.) 
 
 BOLM, a maritime dist. or territory, "W. Africa, S.S.E. 
 from the peninsula of Sierra Leone, extending N. from the 
 Sherboro river to Yawry Bay, and intersected nearly in the 
 centre by the parallel of 8 N. 
 
 BOLMEN, a lake, Sweden, Jonkopings Ian, 53 m. N.N.W. 
 Christianstad, about 20 m. long, by 7 broad. In it is the 
 island of Bolmso, forming a whole parish. 
 
 BOLNEY, par. Eng. Sussex ; 3550 ac. Pop. 713. 
 
 BOLNHUKST, par. Eng. Bedford ; 2130 ac. Pop. 344- 
 
BOLOGNA 
 
 437 
 
 BOLOGNA 
 
 BOLOGNA, a delegation, Papal States, bounded, N. 
 by deleg. Ferrara, E. by deleg. Ravenna, S. by Tuscany, 
 and W. by Modena; area, 1296 sq. m. The surface in the 
 S. is mountainous, being traversed by ramifications of the 
 Apennines; but, in the N., slopes down toward the plains of 
 Lombardy. It is watered by numerous streams, which are 
 extensively employed in irrigating rice fields, and make the 
 air rather unhealthy. In addition to wheat and maize, which 
 are the principal cereal crops, rice, hemp to a great extent, 
 and saffron, are raised. The olive also is cultivated, and a 
 good deal of wine of moderate quality is produced. Con 
 siderable attention is paid to the rearing of silkworms, and 
 silk is both spun and woven to a considerable extent. The 
 chief trade is in hemp, cordage, rice, and silk. Pop. 322,228. 
 
 BOLOGNA [Latin, Bononia; French, Boloyne], after 
 Rome, the first city, Papal States, cap. deleg. of the same name, 
 residence of a cardinal legate, seat of an archbishopric, and 
 of one of the four appeal courts of the States, in a beautiful 
 and fertile plain, at the foot of the lower slopes of the Apen 
 nines, between the Savena and the Reno, 190 m. N.N.W. 
 Rome, and 396 ft. above the level of the sea. It is sur 
 rounded by a high brick wall, in which are 12 gates, and has 
 a circuit of about 5 m., being nearly 2 in. long, and 1 in. 
 broad. It is divided into four quarters, the older of which, 
 indifferently built, and consisting of narrow tortuous streets, 
 have a heavy, antique, and gloomy aspect, and strikingly con 
 trast with the broad and well-paved thoroughfares and the 
 noble structures of the modern city. One of the peculiar 
 features of Bologna is the line of arcades continued through all 
 the streets, and covering the footpath, so as to afford both shade 
 and shelter. The public edifices are numerous, and many of 
 them magnificent. The churches alone exceed 70, and are 
 remarkable, not more for the beauty of their architecture than 
 the works of art which they contain. The most deserving of 
 notice are the cathedral (il Duomo), founded in very early times, 
 but repeatedly rebuilt, and not completed, in its present form, 
 till 1748, of imposing appearance, arranged, in the interior, in 
 the Corinthian style, and adorned with numerous fine paint 
 ings and frescoes, particularly an Annunciation, the last 
 fresco executed by Ludovico Carracci ; the church of San 
 Petroneo, the largest in Bologna, and though unfinished, one 
 of the finest specimens of Italian Gothic ; San Stefano, the 
 oldest, and perhaps the most curious, formed by the union 
 of seven churches, containing numerous fine paintings and 
 very early relics of antiquity ; San Domenico, with its adjoin 
 ing cloister of the same name ; San Salvatore, San Giacomo, 
 and San Giovanni in Monte. Of numerous public and private 
 palaces, the most deserving of notice are the Palazzo Mag- 
 giore del Publico, where the legate resides, adorned with 
 numerous fine statues, and containing, among other magnificent 
 halls, the Sala Farnese, whose roof and walls are covered 
 by paintings of celebrated masters ; and the Palazzo de Podesta, 
 remarkable as the prison of King Enzius, son of the great 
 Emperor Frederick II., captured by the Bolognese, in 1249, 
 and detained, in spite both of the threats and offered ransom 
 of the Emperor, till his death in 1272. Among the most 
 conspicuous structures of the city are two leaning towers, 
 near its centre. The one, built in 1109, by Gerard Asinelli, 
 whose name it bears, was originally higher than at present, 
 but an earthquake overthrew the upper portion of it, and 
 reduced its height to 256 ft. It inclines 3 ft. 2 in. from the 
 perpendicular. The Garisenda tower was built in 1110. Its 
 height is 130 ft., and its inclination 8 ft. From one of the 
 gates of the city, an arcade, nearly 3 m. long, with 700 arches, 
 leads to the handsome church of La-Madonna-di-San-Luca; 
 in the vicinity of which is a fine public cemetery. This 
 arcade is one of the finest structures of the kind built since 
 the time of the Romans. Bologna has always held a pro 
 minent place in the annals of art and science. Its university 
 is the most ancient in Italy, having been founded in the year 
 425, by the Emperor Theodosius. It was considerably 
 augmented by Charlemagne. The number of students attend 
 ing it, at one period, was not less than 10,000 ; and its pro 
 fessors were of European reputation. One remarkable honour 
 peculiar to this university is the number of its learned female 
 professors, of whom three distinguished themselves, respec 
 tively, in the chairs of law, mathematics, and anatomy. Legal 
 studies at one time had the pre-eminence, but medicine now 
 uolda the first place. The building, including the university, 
 
 institute, and other similar establishments, was originally the 
 Palazzo Cellesi, purchased by the Senate to receive the noble 
 bequests of Count Marsigli, a friend of Newton, including 
 a rich cabinet of natural history, a museum of antiquities, 
 
 THE ASINELLI AND GARISENDA TOWERS, BOLOGNA. 
 
 Fivm Galij Knight s Eicli statical Architecture ofl.alj. 
 
 and a library of 150,000 volumes, with many MSS. Count 
 Marsigli also founded and endowed an observatory, an anato 
 mical hall, and a botanical garden, which is one of the most 
 complete in Europe. There is another public library, con 
 taining 83,000 volumes, and 4000 MSS. The collection of 
 works of art is numerous ; among which, that of the academy 
 of painting, endowed in modern times by the municipality, 
 principally with the treasures of abolished churches and 
 monasteries, is rich and full of historical interest. In the 
 16th century, the Caracci, Guido Reni, Domenichino, and 
 Albano, founded a school, to which their works have given 
 great reputation. Many of their paintings adorn the churches 
 and collections of the city. Bologna has likewise three 
 theatres, and a casino -or assembly-room, for the upper 
 classes, supplied with literary and political journals, and 
 several well- endowed and well-managed hospitals, of which 
 the first place is due to the Ospedale Grande. One curious 
 fact connected with it is, that the number of cases of stabbing 
 annually admitted into it averages 500. The manufactures 
 of Bologna are important ; consisting of silk goods, velvet, 
 crape, coarse linen, common cloth, cordage, and paper, excel 
 lent liqueurs, scented soap, artificial flowers and fruits, and 
 salted provisions. The cervelas and mortadello sausages of 
 Bologna, are known throughout Europe. Glass, jewellery, 
 leather, needles, and small steelwares, straw hats, nitric and 
 sulphuric acid, and cream-of tartar, are likewise manufactured 
 here. Commerce is facilitated by the Bologna Canal. 
 
 The people of Bologna are frank, gay, and spirited ; their 
 bearing is the most manly and independent of any people of 
 the Papal States, owing probably to the ardour for political 
 freedom, imbibed from their ancient political institutions. 
 The women are generally handsome. The dialect spoken is 
 the most uncouth and corrupt of all Italy. Foundlings are 
 numerous, illegitimate births being one-eighth of the whole. 
 The air of Bologna is pure, but, from the proximity of the 
 Apennines, liable to sudden changes, causing frequent inflam 
 matory diseases. Bologna is the Bononia of the Romans. A 
 Christian church was erected in it in the third century, and in 
 728 it passed into the hands of the Lombards, from whom it 
 was taken in 800 by Charlemagne. In the 12th century, 
 Bologna took possession of several of the surrounding cities, 
 and for 156 years (1118 to 1274), formed the most flourishing 
 republic in Italy. In 1506, it was united to the Papal States. 
 Bologna has produced eight popes, 100 cardinals, the natur 
 alists Galvani and Aldrovandi, the anatomists Malpighi and 
 
BOLONCHEN 
 
 438 
 
 BOLSOVER 
 
 Mondino, the astronomer Marsigli, the mathematician and 
 engineer Manfredi, the painters Guido, Albano, Barbieri, 
 Domenichino, the three Caracci ; and the professors Monti, 
 Orioli, Tommasini, and Mezzofanti. Pop. 72,000. 
 
 BOLOXC1IEN, a large thriving vil.. Central America, 
 Yucatan, 66 m. N.E. Campeachy. It derives its name from 
 two Maya words: Bolen, nine, and cJien, wells ; nine wells 
 having formed, from time immemorial, the centre of a popu 
 lation, and these wells being now in the plaza or square of 
 the village, which consists of a long line of straggling houses 
 or huts, on either side the road. The wells are circular open- | 
 ings, cut through a stratum of rock, evidently communicating , 
 with a common reservoir, for the water is always at the same j 
 level in one that it is in all the rest. The village authorities 
 make it a principal part of their business to keep these wells j 
 in a proper state of preservation ; but, with all the care be- | 
 stowed upon them, the supply of water completely fails for , 
 four or fi ve months in the year. During the season of scarcity, 
 the inhabitants derive their supply of water from a remark 
 able cavern (cueva) at a considerable distance from the village, j 
 The entrance to this cavern is by a lofty and abrupt opening, I 
 under a ledge of overhanging rock. At the distance of 60 j 
 paces from the entrance, the descent is precipitous for about 
 80 ft., and is accomplished by a ladder. A little further ; 
 advance leads to the brink of a great perpendicular descent, | 
 to the bottom of which a strong body of light is thrown from I 
 a hole in the surface, a depth of 210 ft. From the brink of j 
 this precipice the descent is made by a ladder, between 70 and i 
 80 ft. long, and about 12 ft. wide, rudely constructed of the 
 rough trunks of saplings, lashed together lengthwise, and sup 
 ported by horizontal trunks, braced against the face of the 
 precipitous rock. In the large cavern at the foot of this lad 
 der, seen in the accompanying view, a village fete is annually 
 
 the nature of the whole descent some idea may be formed by 
 an examination of the accompanying section. There would 
 
 ooda Views in Central 
 
 held at the opening of the wells in the cueva, which takes 
 place on a day appointed by the municipality. The walls of 
 the rocky chamber are dressed with branches, and hung with 
 lights, and the whole village comes out with refreshments 
 and music, the pastor at their head, and pass the day in dancing 
 in the cavern, and rejoicing that when one source of supply 
 fails, another is opened to their need. 
 
 By a laborious descent from this great cavern, Mr. Stephens 
 reached a pool of water, calculated to be at a depth of 450 ft. per 
 pendicular height, and 1 400 ft. distant from the entrance to the 
 cave. The number of ladders leading down is seven ; and of 
 
 Scale oj Feet. 
 
 SECTION OF WELL AT BOLONCHEN. 
 
 appear to be seven water pools, several of which Mr. Stephens 
 visited, reached by various passages diverging from the great 
 cavern, at the foot of the ladder. The surface of the surround 
 ing country is mountain limestone. Pop. of vil. 7000. 
 (Stephens Incidents of Travel in Yucatan.} 
 
 BOLOR-TAGH, a lofty mountain-range, Central Asia, 
 W. of Little Tibet, stretching nearly due N. and S. It forms 
 one of the N. branches of the Himalaya, connecting it with 
 the Thian Shan range, and several others beyond or further N. 
 Its most elevated summits are supposed to exceed 19,000 ft. 
 in height. In these mountains, great numbers of a diminutive 
 species of ox, called yalc or kash-gow, are reared. 
 
 BOLOTANA, a tn., isl. Sardinia, 41 m. S.E. Sassari, in 
 a fertile district that produces excellent corn and pasture. It 
 contains a monastery. Pop. 2274. 
 
 BOLSAS, a river, America, rising in confederacy and 
 state of Mexico, and, after a considerable \V. course, in part 
 of which it forms the boundary of the state of Mexico and 
 Valladolid, falls into the Pacific Ocean at Zacatula, 240 m. 
 S.W. the city of Mexico ; lat, 17 53 N.; Ion. 102 20 W. 
 
 BOLSCHA.TA-RJEKA, a river, Kamtchatka, which 
 rises among hills in the S. of that peninsula, and, flowing W., 
 falls into the Sea of Okhotsk, below Bolsherezk. Its chief 
 affluent is the Natschika, after receiving which it becomes 
 navigable for barges. In spring tides, it admits the largest 
 vessels at its mouth. 
 
 BOLSENA [anc. Vulsinium], a tn. and lake, Papal States, 
 deleg. of, and 20 m. N.N.W. Viterbo. The TOWN stands on 
 the N. side of the lake of the same name. It is surrounded 
 by a high wall flanked with towers, and defended by a ditch, 
 
 and is rich in remains of antiquity. Pop. 2000. The LAKE 
 
 [anc. Locus Vulsiniensis}, supposed to have been a crater, is 
 about 9 m. long, and about 7 m. broad, 285 ft. deep at the 
 deepest part, 1000 ft. above the level of the sea, and well 
 stocked with fish. It is surrounded by wooded hills, affords 
 some charming scenery, contains the two islands of Bisentina 
 and Martana, which were anciently believed to be floating ; and 
 gives rise to the river Marta, which flows to the Mediterranean. 
 
 BOLSHEREZK, a small tn. and port, Kamtchatka, 
 S.W. coast, about 160 m. N.W. Cape Lopatka; lat. 52 55 30" 
 N.; Ion. 156 50 E. (K.) The houses are built of wood, and 
 thatched. 
 
 BOLSOVER, a tn. or vil. and par. England, co. Derby. 
 The town, about 22 m. N.N.E. Derby, stands upon a high 
 
BOLSWARD 
 
 439 
 
 BOLTON 
 
 table-land overlooking the vale of Scarsdale, and has tolerably 
 straight, and pretty well kept streets ; the houses are irregularly 
 built, and generally of a mean appearance. The church, an 
 ancient building, is in the early English style, and contains 
 some curious specimens of antique sculpture. There are also 
 an Independent and Wesleyan chapels, and a national school. 
 Bolsover was at one time celebrated for the manufacture of 
 buckles, but now it has no manufactures of any kind. Area 
 of par. 6060 ac. Pop. (1841), 1512. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BOLSWARD, a tn. Holland, prov. Friesland, 15 m. S. W. 
 Leeuwarden, at the junction of several canals. It is bordered 
 N.E. by rich corn and pasture lands, and on the W. and S. has 
 several lakes that teem with fish. It is circular, surrounded 
 by a high earthen rampart, now a public walk planted with 
 trees, and is everywhere intersected with deep canals, crossed 
 by numerous stone and wooden bridges. The streets are 
 wide and airy, the houses and gardens remarkably neat and 
 clean. The parish church is said to be the largest and finest 
 in Friesland, and has an elaborately carved pulpit, represent 
 ing the four seasons, and supported by two eagles. There 
 are two Eeformed churches, two R. Catholic, a Baptist church, 
 and a synagogue ; a Latin, a Dutch and French, a Dutch, and 
 a poors school. Bolsward has a highly ornamented townhouse, 
 and a court-house, a well-endowed poorhouse for Reformed, 
 R. Catholics, and Baptists, a poorhouse for the Reformed 
 alone, and an hospital, called the Provenier s House, in which 
 frugal persons, by yearly payments beforehand, may purchase 
 a comfortable retreat for their old age. The trade consists 
 chiefly in cattle, cheese, and butter ; above half a million Ibs. 
 of cheese, and nearly as much butter, are yearly brought to 
 market. Many of the inhabitants make their living by spin 
 ning what, under the name of Friesland worsted, is sent largely 
 to other provinces. There are also two woollen and one linen 
 manufactory, shipbuilding yards, tile and brick works, pot 
 teries, and tanworks. Pop. 3650. 
 
 BOLT HEAD, a cape, England, co. Devon, the most S. 
 point of that county ; lat. 50 13 N. ; Ion. 3 49 W. 
 
 BOLTANA, a tn. Spain, Aragon, prov. of, and 30 m. 
 N.E. Huesca, 1. bank, Ara. It has pretty good though steep 
 streets, one principal and several smaller squares, a collegiate 
 church, chapel, two schools, a townliall, prison, and store 
 house. Manufactures: linen, woollen, and silken fabrics, 
 and hempen shoes. Trade : cattle, earthenware, and apparel, 
 manufactured goods, and raw silk. Pop. 2360. 
 
 BOLTON, or BOLTON-LE-MOORS, a large manufacturing 
 tn., bor., and par. England, co. Lancaster. The town lies 
 10 m. N. W. Manchester, and consists of two divisions, called, 
 respectively, Great Bolton and Little Bolton. It contains a 
 great number of narrow and irregular lanes, but by far the 
 larger portion of "it is modern, the public improvements, 
 within the last 30 years, having been very extensive. The 
 principal streets unite at a spacious market-place, and are 
 crooked and irregular ; ill paved, and worse drained. The 
 houses are chiefly of brick, badly built, and of every form 
 and dimension, and destitute, in most cases, of all comfort and 
 conveniency. The town is lighted with gas ; and, since 1824, 
 has been plentifully supplied with water. The public edifices 
 comprise a townhall, exchange buildings, erected in 1825, in 
 which year a mechanics institute was established ; a theatre, 
 the old cloth hall, the Bolton dispensary and infirmary, a 
 spacious temperance hall, in Little Bolton, used for lectures, 
 public meetings, concerts, &c. In 1846, splendid baths, with 
 public rooms for concerts, &c., were erected. A handsome 
 building has recently been finished for the savings -bank. 
 Great Bolton has also several news -rooms and public libraries. 
 The parish church of St. Peter, in Great Bolton, is a spacious 
 and very ancient structure, with a beautiful stained-glass 
 window. In 1825, an elegant new church, in the later style 
 of English architecture, with a tower, was erected ; and, 
 since then, Emmanuel Church and Christ Church have been 
 built, all in Great Bolton. In Little Bolton there are three 
 Established churches. The Wesleyans have three large chapels 
 in the borough, one of which is also used as a Sunday-school. 
 The Wesleyans are also erecting (1850) a spacious new chapel 
 in stone, in the perpendicular Gothic style. The R. Catho 
 lics have two chapels, and the Independents three. A Scot 
 tish church, in the early English style, was erected in 1846. 
 There are many other places of worship, for Baptists, several 
 denominations of Methodists, Unitarians, and Swedenborgians. 
 
 The local charities are numerous and well conducted. The 
 free grammar-school, containing 60 boys, was founded and 
 endowed in 1641. A charity school, containing 90 pupils, 
 was founded and endowed in 1693; and another, the Church- 
 gate charity school, was founded in 1714. There are, be 
 sides, in the parish, numerous public schools, conducted on 
 the systems of the National, and British and Foreign School 
 Societies. Some of these are in edifices that are highly credit 
 able to the friends of education, and ornamental to the town. 
 There are Sunday-schools in connection with almost every 
 place of worship in the parish, embracing in their operations, 
 nearly one-fifth of the population, and frequently retaining the 
 scholars until they become adults. The one in connection 
 with the parish church numbers more than 1300 scholars, 
 and is conducted in a building of freestone, in the later Eng 
 lish style, erected in 1819. Within the last 70 years, the 
 town has greatly increased, and attained to a high degree of 
 commercial prosperity. In 1337, emigrant Flemings intro 
 duced the manufacture of woollen cloth into Bolton, and laid 
 the foundation of its future importance. So early as the reign 
 of Henry VIII., the town and its vicinity were celebrated for 
 producing what Leland calls cottons ; which, however, were 
 woollens, the vegetable cotton not having been introduced 
 until the reign of James I. After the revocation of the Edict 
 of Nantes, in 1685, many of the French refugees took up 
 their abode in the town. Prior to the introduction of the 
 cotton trade, some weavers from the palatinate of the Rhina 
 had introduced the manufacture of a mixed fabric, partly of 
 linen yarn (chiefly imported from Germany), and partly of 
 cotton. The chief articles were fustian, jean, and thickset ; 
 velvets, entirely of cotton, were first made here in 1756; and 
 muslins, cotton quiltings, and dimities, in 1763. Many of the 
 subsequent improvements in the cotton manufacture origin 
 ated in Bolton, and to these it mainly owes its present flourish 
 ing condition. Between 1767 and 1775, Sir Richard Ark- 
 wright, originally a barber, and resident here, brought the 
 spinning jenny and the water-frame machines to perfection ; 
 and Samuel Crompton, a native of the parish, who resided in 
 the neighbourhood, invented a machine called the mule, 
 combining the properties of both. The factories of Bolton 
 continued long on a small scale, in consequence of the scarcity 
 of water, till the employment of steam as a motive power, and 
 the adoption of power looms, enabled the proprietors both to 
 enlarge their works, and greatly to improve and extend the 
 trade. In 1847, Bolton had 61 cotton-mills, using annually 
 about 6000 tons raw cotton ; and other four large factories are 
 just now (1850) being built. The articles chiefly made are, 
 plain and fancy muslins, superfine printing calicoes, quiltings, 
 and counterpanes ; dimities, jeans, cotton shawls, and the gen 
 erality of power-loom productions. The power of the steam- 
 engines used, exceeds that of 2200 horses. A large propor 
 tion of the cotton fabrics manufactured here are bought up 
 by the Manchester manufacturers ; and the principal Bolton 
 manufacturers have warehouses in Manchester, where they 
 generally attend every Tuesday for the sale of their goods. 
 Bleaching is also carried on to a great extent, there being 
 23 bleaching grounds, some of them very large. More than 
 10,000,000 pieces of cloth are annually bleached in the 
 parish. In each of the three most extensive establishments, 
 from 130,000 to 150,000 pieces are, on an average, bleached 
 every month. There are 22 iron-foundries and machine- 
 works, some of them on a very extensive scale. They con 
 sume together about 35,000 tons of coal and coke, and use 
 nearly 20,000 tons of metal. Besides these, there are several 
 paper-mills, saw-mills, and chemical works. The whole 
 amount of horse power employed in the different works of 
 Bolton in 1846, was 3816. The abundant and cheap sup 
 ply of coal from the neighbouring collieries, and the advant 
 ages of an extensive inland canal navigation, together with 
 the introduction of railways, have added materially to the 
 prosperity of the place. A canal connects Bolton and Man 
 chester, and has a branch to Bury. The Bolton and Leigh 
 Railway, a branch of the Liverpool and Manchester line, was 
 completed in June 1831. The Bolton and Salford Railway, 
 which, running almost parallel with the Bury and Bolton 
 Canal, establishes a direct line of communication with Man 
 chester, was opened in 1838; a railway to Euxton, a few 
 miles S. of Preston, in 1843 ; and a railway to Darwen and 
 Blackburn, in 1847. The market-days are Monday and 
 
BOLTON 
 
 440 
 
 BOMBAY 
 
 Thursday ; the former, for general provisions, being the prin 
 cipal. There is likewise a large market on Saturday for 
 butcher meat ; and one for store cattle every alternate Mon 
 day, between January 5 and May 12. Fairs for horned 
 cattle, horses, and cheese, hardware, and toys, are held on 
 April 28, July 30 and 31, and October 13 and 14. 
 
 The name of Bolton-le-moors or Bolton-on-the-moors, is 
 derived from its situation in the midst of moors ; a portion 
 of which have been brought under cultivation, having been 
 enclosed under an Act passed in 1792. The town received a 
 charter of incorporation in 1838, and is now governed by a 
 mayor, 12 aldermen, a recorder, and 36 councillors. Petty 
 sessions for the borough are held every Monday and Thurs 
 day. By the Reform Act, Bolton returns two members to 
 the House of Commons. The boundaries of the parliament 
 ary borough and the municipal borough are the same. Num 
 ber of electors (1849), 1531. Bolton is the centre of a poor- 
 law union, comprising 26 other townships and chapelries. 
 The parish of Bolton includes, altogether, 12 populous town 
 ships, and six chapelries; area, 31, 390 ac.; pop. (1831), 63,034; 
 in 1841, 73,905. Pop. (1841), Great Bolton, 33,610; Little 
 Bolton, 16,153 ; together, 50,163. It is now (1850) supposed 
 to be about 60,000. (Baines* Lancashire; Parliamentary 
 Papers; Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BOLTON, five pars. Eng., and one, Scot.: 1, par. Cum 
 berland ; 8760 ac. Pop. 121 1. 2, Bolton (by Bowland], par. 
 York, W. Elding; 4940 ac. Pop. 933. 3. Bolton-upon- 
 Dcarne, par. York, W. Riding; 2390 ac. Pop. 671. 4, 
 Bolton Percy, par. city of York Ainsty ; 7320 ac. Pop. 1040 
 5, Bolton le-Sands, par. Lancaster; 7630 ac. Pop. 1774. 
 6, par. Scot. Haddington; 2400 ac. Pop. 341. 
 
 BOLUS HEAD, a cape, Ireland, co. Kerry, N.W. side 
 of the entrance into Ballynaskelling Bay; lat. 51 48 N.; 
 Ion. 10 15 W. 
 
 BOLVA, a river, Russia, rises in the N.W. of gov. 
 Kalouga, and, after a S. course, joins the Desna near Briansk. 
 During part of the year it is navigable. 
 
 BOLY, or GALVOLY, par. Irel. Tipperary ; 1268ac. P. 410. 
 BOMBA, a vil. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Citra, 18 m. 
 W.S.W. Vasto, on the side of Mount Pallano, watered by the 
 Sangro. The parish church is one of the most remarkable 
 and most richly ornamented churches in the province. On 
 the mountain on which the town stands, are soma gigantic 
 ruins, whose history is unknown. 
 
 BOMBAY (PRESIDENCY or), one of the three presidencies 
 into which British India is divided, situated between lat. 14 
 and 29 N.; and Ion. 66 and 77 E. It comprehends the 
 districts Ahmednuggur and Poonah in prov. Aurungabad; 
 N. and S. Concan, and Darwar, in prov. Bejapoor ; Ahmeda- 
 bad, Baroach, Kaira, and Surat, in prov. Goojerat ; the island 
 of Bombay, Candeish, and Scinde, recently added. The sur 
 face is irregular, presenting the diversities of low barren hills, 
 mountainous tracts, valleys, and elevated table-lands. The 
 mountains comprise a large portion of the W. Ghaut range, 
 which line the whole W. coast of peninsular Hindoostan, the 
 Santpoora chain, the W. portion of the Vindhya chain, and 
 further N. the Aravulli chain. E. of the latter lies the table 
 land of Malwa, having an average height of 1 600 ft. above 
 sea level, and of which two-thirds are in the presidency of 
 Bombay. The principal rivers are the Nerbudda and Tapty, 
 both falling into the Gulf of Cambay, but there are several 
 other considerable streams that have their sources only in the 
 presidency, such as the Godavery and Kishna, which fall 
 into the Bay of Bengal. The valleys are remarkably fertile, 
 and many parts of the presidency are in a high state of culti 
 vation, although there is still much waste land, particularly 
 in Surat. The roads, also, are so exceedingly bad, as seri 
 ously to affect the development of its resources, and, conjoined 
 with the absence of navigable rivers, to limit greatly its 
 internal traffic. So detrimental to the interests of the country 
 have these evils been found, particularly the former, that in 
 1850, the merchants and bankers of the city of Bombay pre 
 sented a memorial to the Governor-general of India, stating 
 that so miserably inadequate are the means of communica 
 tion with the interior, that many valuable articles of produce 
 are, for want of carriage and a market, often left to perish in 
 the fields, while the cost of those that do find their way to 
 Bombay is enormously enhanced, to the extent sometimes of 
 200 per cent.; considerable quantities never reach their des 
 
 tination at all, and the quality of the remainder is almost 
 universally deteriorated. It appears further, that in conse 
 quence of this wretched state of the roads in the presidency, 
 of the vast numbers of sheep fed in Candeish and the Deccan, 
 which are sent down to the Bombay market, not one-third 
 reach the city alive, and those greatly reduced in flesh. A 
 railway, however, has recently been commenced at Bombay 
 (which see), which may be the precursor of a better state of 
 things, as regards internal communication. 
 
 Climate and Vegetable Productions. The climate of the 
 presidency is various ; in some parts, such as Bombay and its 
 immediate vicinity, it is exceedingly unhealthy, liver com 
 plaint being more frequent and fatal there than in any other 
 part of India. In other places, again, such as Poonah, which 
 is only about 80 m. distant from the city of Bombay, and lies 
 in an elevated situation, the climate is so favourable to Euro 
 peans that the ratio of mortality amongst the British troops 
 stationed there, has not much exceeded that of the Foot 
 Guards in England. These extraordinary differences in the 
 salubrity of adjoining districts, are now carefully attended to 
 by the Bombay Government in the distribution of the European 
 troops, by which means a great saving of life has been effected. 
 The principal vegetable productions are cotton, rice, dates, 
 and cocoa palins. In the N. parts, a great abundance and 
 variety of fruit is produced, and in S. Concan, and the central 
 districts, large quantities of rice are grown. Cotton also is 
 cultivated to a great extent, particularly in Baroach, and is 
 the best raised in India. It is brought from Baroach to Bom 
 bay in half-screwed bales. Sugar and indigo are grown in 
 Candeish, the latter of a superior quality, but considered rather 
 light in the colour. 
 
 Animals. These are such as are met with generally through 
 out India elephants, tigers, panthers, leopards, hyenas, buf 
 faloes, wild boars, deer, antelopes, and jackals. Snakes abound, 
 and many of them of the most venomous description, includ 
 ing the whip snake, and the cobra da capello. Birds are 
 numerous, and of great variety. 
 
 Government, &c. The government of the presidency is 
 vested in a governor, subject to the authority of the Governor- 
 general of India, but independent of all other local control. 
 He is assisted by three councillors, with several secretaries, 
 and various officers of state. The law department is presided 
 over by a chief, and one puisne judge. Civil justice is 
 administered almost exclusively by native judges, and with 
 remarkable efficiency. In 1844, the number of cases decided 
 by them was 74,067; and of these, 3571 were appealed, or 
 4-82 per cent.; and of this number, 936 were reversed, or 1-26 
 per cent. ; that is, not more than 1 -25 cases were reversed in 
 100 tried, affording strong testimony to the carefulness of the 
 decisions by the native judges. There are at Bombay, as at 
 Calcutta, courts of requests for the recovery of small debts ; 
 the recorders of which are Europeans. The public revenue 
 for 1846 was 2, 647,171. Expenditure, 2,741,231. The 
 expense of maintaining the military force in the presidency, 
 in the same year, amounted to 1,704,852. 
 
 Church Establishment and Education. Bombay is the see 
 of a bishop, subordinate to the Bishop of Calcutta ; and has 
 also a recognized branch of the Church of Scotland, which 
 annually receives a grant of 1994; and a grant of 826 is 
 also made to the R. Catholics, who are more numerous in this, 
 than in either of the other presidencies. The most numerous 
 body of Christians here are Nestorians. The Government 
 educational institutions in Bombay are under the management 
 of a board of education. This board consists of a president, 
 five members, and a secretary; three of the members are 
 Europeans, one a Parsee, one a Hindoo, and another a Maho 
 metan. A maximum sum of 12,500 is fixed for educational 
 purposes, under the Bombay presidency ; and the board con 
 trol a sum of 2000, constituting the Sanscrit College Fund. 
 The provincial English schools are at Poonah, Tannah, and 
 Surat ; at which the scholars, in 1842, amounted to 174. Of 
 the district vernacular schools in 1842, there were 120, with an 
 attendance of 7750 scholars. There are, besides, a number 
 of village schools. 
 
 Manufactures, Trade, &c. The principal manufactures are 
 of sugar, indigo, and silks ; a description of the latter, orna 
 mented with gold and silver, is woven at Poonah; but, with 
 exception of these, there are no other manufactures worth 
 mentioning. The internal trade of the presidency, for thu 
 
BOMBAY 
 
 441 
 
 BOMBAY 
 
 reasons mentioned at the beginning of this article, namely, 
 want of roads and of navigable rivers, is much more limited 
 than it would otherwise be. For an account of the foreign 
 trade, see BOMBAY (Crnr OF). The population of this presid 
 ency, including Scinde, is estimated at about 8,500,000. 
 
 BOMBAY [Portuguese, Bom-Bahia Good Harbour], a 
 well-known city and seaport, W. coast of the peninsula of 
 Hindoostan, cap. of the presidency of Bombay, and situated 
 on a narrow point of land at the S.E. extremity of the island 
 of the same name; lat. 18 53 42" N. ; Ion. 72 48 E. (n.) ; 
 660 m. N.W. Madras, and 1050 m. S.W. Calcutta overland, 
 
 Xufrretuxs 
 
 1 CasBa 
 
 2 Cathefral SLig 
 
 3 HospituL eMajx Course 
 
 and somewhat more than double that distance by sea. The 
 city is divided into two portions, one lying next to the sea, 
 and surrounded by fortifications ; and situate about 1 m. 
 N.W. the other, called the Black, or Native town. The 
 streets of the former are narrow, without any foot pavement, 
 and in many places choked up with dust. The houses arc 
 three, and sometimes four stories high, and are provided with 
 verandahs, which rise one above the other, and are supported 
 by wooden pillars ; they have also small bow windows, adorned 
 with neat trellis-work. In the lower part of the town are 
 the bazaars, which are narrow and dirty, and are chiefly kept 
 by Parsees, an industrious and singularly intelligent race, of 
 Persian descent, to whom a large portion of the mercantile 
 wealth of Bombay belongs, and who assimilate themselves to 
 Europeans in habits, manners, and mode of living, more than 
 any other race in the East. Between the fort and the nearest 
 part of the native town without, is what is called the esplam 
 used as parade and airing ground, on which no permanent 
 building is allowed to be erected. The European population 
 is accommodated, partly within the fort, in the largest and 
 best-situated houses, but the greater proportion in bungalows, 
 or villas, in various parts of the island ; these are generally 
 large and handsome, with extensive areas, called compounds, 
 in front, and built with careful reference to the climate, ver 
 andahs encircling the rooms of the house. Bombay Castle, 
 the treasury, the Government-offices, and almost all the 
 merchants warehouses and offices, are situated within the 
 You. 1. 
 
 fort. The principal building is the townhouse, within the fort, 
 and occupying the E. side of the square called the Bombay 
 " en ; it contains many of the Government-offices ; a library, 
 rich in collections, gathered from all parts of Asia, and a 
 pacious saloon, adorned with marble statues of Mountstuart 
 Eiphinstone and Sir John Malcolm. In the centre of the 
 Green itself, is a statue of Lord Wellesley ; and another, to 
 the memory of Lord Cornwallis, stands outside the fort, at 
 what is called the church gate. There are now several Pro 
 testant churches in Bombay: four of the Church of England, 
 one being a cathedral, a handsome building ; one Established 
 Church of Scotland, and one Free Church of Scotland, a 
 graceful structure, with an elegant spire, lately erected, and 
 one American Presbyterian. There are also a great many 
 Portuguese and Armenian churches in the city, several syn 
 agogues, for both white and black Jews, and a great number 
 of Mahometan mosques and Hindoo temples. Bombay is 
 the seat of a Protestant bishop, of English and American 
 missions, and of missions from the Established and Free 
 Church of Scotland. There is also a large K. Catholic popu 
 lation in the city, whose religious establishments enjoy the 
 support of the East India Company. A great portion of the 
 Black, or Native town, is built on a low tract of land, which, 
 in former times, suffered much from inundations, and was, 
 during seven or eight months in the year, an unwholesome 
 swamp. Much has been done of late to remedy this evil, by 
 draining, and the formation of roads and streets, and with 
 some success, although the streets, which are here also most 
 inconveniently narrow, still continue to abound in nuisances ; 
 while, during the rainy season, much sickness and suffering 
 prevail, in consequence of the excessive damp. The houses 
 in Black town are small, built of brick, and two stories in 
 height. The lower stories are kept open as bazaars, in which 
 the dealers sit cross-legged, surrounded by baskets containing 
 piles of merchandise. In the evenings, the scene here is very 
 animated ; the streets and bazaars are lighted up with numer 
 ous small lamps, and crowds of natives throng the stalls, 
 examining the goods, and making purchases. 
 
 The markets of Bombay, though not equal to those of 
 Calcutta, are well supplied with provisions, mutton, kid, 
 poultry, and fish in abundance, and generally of good quality ; 
 the onions are particularly excellent, and as such, are cele 
 brated all over the coast. The wages of servants here are 
 much higher than in Bengal ; but food is dearer, which is 
 probably the cause ; yet the salaries of the public servants are 
 smaller here than in either of the other two presidencies. 
 
 The harbour of Bombay is one of the largest and safest in 
 India ; while its scenery, and that of the neighbouring con 
 tinent, presents a rare combination of grandeur and beauty. 
 It is 12 or 14 m. long, with a general width of from 4 to 6 in. 
 It is situated between the islands of Colabah, Bombay, and 
 Salsette on the one hand, and the mainland and islands of 
 Caranjah and Elephanta on the other, and is defended by 
 formidable batteries, particularly strong towards the sea. 
 The usual anchorage is on the W. side of the harbour, off the 
 town of Bombay. The general depths in approaching the 
 former, are from 14 to 8 fathoms. The docks, which are the 
 property of the East India Company, are under the manage 
 ment of Parsees, by whom the shipbuilding is conducted. 
 Two ships of the line can be completely built and equipped 
 in these docks every 18 months, and the slips and basins are 
 calculated for vessels of any size. The ships constructed here 
 include merchant vessels of large dimensions, occasionally 
 frigates, and even ships of the line ; the timber being amply 
 supplied from the neighbouring districts of Malabar and 
 Goojerat. 
 
 The trade of Bombay is of great extent and importance. 
 The following table shows the value of the imports and ex 
 ports each year, from 1844-5 to 1847-8: 
 
 Exports Imports. Exports. Imports. 
 
 1S44-5 5,126,552 . 3,773 261 I 1846-7... 4. 604,897... 2,701 ,41 7 
 1845-6... 5,801,780... 3,014,948 | 1847-8... 4,326,796... 2,949,591 
 
 Of the imports of 1848, Great Britain furnished to the value 
 of 1,289,757, and took of exports 951,370. China fur 
 nished to the value of 738,434, and took 2,959,169. After 
 these, but to a much smaller extent, stands the trade with the 
 Persian and the Arabian Gulfs; the coast of Africa; the Portu 
 guese possessions in the East ; France, including the isles of 
 
 56 
 
BOM-FIM 
 
 442 
 
 BONA 
 
 France and Bourbon ; and America. The shipping, inwards 
 and outwards, at Bombay, for the year ending April 30, 1843, 
 was : 
 
 Vi-sac s. No of Ships. 
 
 British 328 175,963 
 
 French 7 2,191 
 
 Portuguese 4 843 
 
 American 4 1,398 
 
 Arabian G 2,193 
 
 Siamese 1 350 
 
 350 182,93 
 
 Bombay is the chief Indian port connected with the estab 
 lishment of steam navigation between India and this country. 
 In 1837, three steam vessels sailed between Bombay and Suez ; 
 and in 1843, there were eight. There is now a regular trans 
 mission of mails by steam, every fortnight, by way of the Me 
 diterranean and the Red Sea. Steamers ply between Bombay 
 and Point de Galle in Ceylon, where they meet other steamers 
 which proceed to Madras and Calcutta, and also to Canton in 
 China. A railway between Bombay and Tannah, a town and 
 fortress on the island of Salsette, about 25 m. N.N.E. from the 
 former, was commenced on October 31,1850, and is the first rail 
 way begun in India. The ISLAND of Bombay, on which the 
 
 city is situated, is one of a cluster of islands, and the largest 
 of all, excepting Salsette, with which it has long been con 
 nected towards the N.E. by a mound and arched stone bridge; 
 another connecting mound was formed towards the N.W. a 
 few years ago. It is about 8 m. long from N. to S., and 
 about 3 m. broad, formed by two ranges of rock of unequal 
 length, running parallel to each other on opposite sides of the 
 island ; these ranges are united at the extremities by hills of 
 sandstone, which are only a few feet above the level of the 
 sea. The interior of the island was formerly liable to be 
 overflowed by the sea, which is now prevented by substantial 
 works and embankments, but the lower parts are still covered 
 with water during the rainy monsoon. On the S.W., the 
 island terminates in a rocky peninsula 60 ft. high, called 
 Malabar Point, stretching far into the sea, and forming the 
 \V. side of Back Bay, by which the S. end of the island 
 is hollowed out. It is adorned with a pleasing variety of 
 country seats, interspersed with groves of cocoa-nut trees, and 
 traversed in all directions by good roads. Magnificent views 
 are obtained from this point. The S.E. extremity of the 
 island, again, terminates in a similar, but much longer pro 
 jection, formed, in part, by Old Woman and Colabah islands 
 connected together, and to Bombay, by causeways. This 
 projection, which, by the junction of the islands, appears an 
 entire peninsula, forms the E. side of Back Bay. Here, also, 
 are a number of spacious houses, most of which are sur 
 rounded by small gardens, and overshadowed by mangoes, 
 palms, and tamarinds. At the extremity of this point, which 
 forms the S. entrance point of Bombay 
 harbour, is a light-house. The jurisdic 
 tion of the supreme court is confined to 
 the island of Bombay, and to Europeans 
 in the rest of the presidency ; the civil 
 and criminal laws are those of England. 
 Bombay is, next to Madras, the oldest of 
 our possessions in the East. At present 
 it rules the whole N.W. coast of India. 
 The mean temperature of Bombay is 
 higher than that of Calcutta, but lower 
 than that of Madras, which is 84 Fall., 
 Bombay 82, and Calcutta 79. 
 
 The population of Bombay has increased 
 tenfold within a century. In 1716, it was 
 estimated at 16,000; in 1816, at 161,550; 
 it is now, according to the census of 1849, 
 upwards of 500,000, composed of British, 
 Portuguese, and Armenians, Jews, Maho 
 metans, Hindoos, and Parsees. (Hamil 
 ton s East India Gaz.; Von Orlich s Tra 
 vels in India; Porter s Progress of the 
 Nation; M Culloch s Account of the British Empire; British 
 Colonial Library ; Historical and Descriptive Account of 
 British India; Horsburgh s East India Directory; The Orien 
 tal Interpreter ; Private Information, Sic.) 
 
 BOM-FIM, the name of several tns. and vils. Brazil: 
 1, A small tn.. prov. of, and 95 in. S.E. Goyaz. Once more 
 
 populous than at present ; the falling off being the result of 
 the exhaustion of the gold washings in the vicinity. 2, A tn., 
 prov. Minas Geraes, 120 m. W. Villa Rica; having a church, 
 and a pop., for town and district, of 3000. 3, A consider 
 able vil., prov. Minas Geraes, 75 m. N. Tejuco or Cidade 
 Diamantina. Pop., vil. and dist., 2000. 4, A suburb of the 
 
 city of Bahia. There are several other unimportant places 
 
 of this name. 
 
 BOM-JARDIM [good garden], a tn. Brazil, prov. 
 Ceara, 30 m. S. Crato, in a fertile valley of the serra Cairiris- 
 Novos. The town is small, but the district extensive ; 
 yielding mandioca, sugar, &c. Pop. 6000. 
 
 BOM-JESUS [good Jesus], the name of numerous places 
 in Brazil ; all unimportant. Among them are a vil., prov. 
 Pornambuco ; three vils., prov. Bahia ; a par., prov. Matto 
 Grosso ; and an isl., Bay of Rio de Janeiro. 
 
 BOMMEL, or DE BOMMEL, a vil. Holland, prov. Zeeland, 
 14 m. E. by S. Brielle, on the Harringvliet. It has a hand 
 some octagonal church, with painted glass windows, and a 
 copper covered steeple. 
 
 BOMMEL (ZALT). See ZALT-BOMMEL. 
 
 BOMMELERWARD, an enclosed dist. or isl. Holland, 
 prov. Gelderland. It lies immediately above the meeting of 
 the Waal and the Maas, and is 16 m. long and 6 m. across at 
 its greatest breadth. Besides the town Zalt-Bommel, it con 
 tains 17 villages. The soil is a rich clay, and particularly 
 suited for flax and hops. The pop., of which about two-thirds 
 are Protestant and one-third R. Catholic, is chiefly agricul 
 tural, and amounts to about 15,000. 
 
 BOMST, a tn. and circle, Prussia, prov. and gov. of 
 Posen. The TOWN lies on the Obra, 10 m. N.E. Zullichau; 
 and has throe churches, a good deal of hop and garden ground, 
 and some vineyards. It has also some manufactories of coarse 
 cloth, and a considerable trade in shoes. Inhabitants, Ger 
 mans, Poles, and Jews, 2250. The CIRCLE, area, 308 geo. 
 
 sq. in., is flat, and the soil, though light, tolerably fertile. A 
 considerable part of it is in pasture, and feeds great numbers 
 of cattle. Pop. 44,227. 
 
 BON (CAPE), or RAS IDDAH, a cape, Tunis, on the Medi 
 terranean ; lat. 37 4 48" N.; Ion. 11 3 30" E. (R.) 
 
 BONA [anc. Hippo fiegius ; Arabic, Bded-el-Anab the 
 town of jujubes], a maritime city, Algeria, prov. of, and 85 m. 
 N.E. Constantine, W. side of the Gulf of Bona; lat. (Lion 
 point) 36 54 30" N.; Ion. 7 46 30" E. (u.) It is built at 
 the foot of a hill which rises to the N. and N.W. of the city, 
 and is surrounded by a wall 30 ft. in height, and nearly 2 m. 
 in circumference, with four gates; and is further defended by 
 a strong fort or citadel on the top of the hill ; and the fortifi 
 cations have been greatly strengthened since the place came 
 into the hands of the French. It is the seat of French judi 
 cial courts. The streets are narrow and crooked, but many 
 
 BONA, from Fort Usogne. From Derbruftger, Algerie. 
 
 of the houses substantial and well built. There is a good mar 
 ket, with shops, reading-rooms, coffee-houses, and a theatre. 
 The harbour is now nearly choked up with mud, but there are 
 good landing-places in the vicinity, and the trade of the town 
 is still considerable. Its chief manufactures are of burnooscs, 
 a piece of Arab dress, and other garments; tapestry, and 
 
BONABONA 
 
 443 
 
 BONHILL 
 
 saddles. Its exports are corn, wool, ox hides, wax, and coral, 
 being the seat of a fishery of the last. In 1842, the exports 
 amounted to 72,526; in 1843, to 95,364; the imports 
 (1842), 247,681 ; (1843), 327,689. The citadel and town 
 were taken, in 1832, by the French, by whom it has been 
 greatly improved. About 1 m. S. the town are the remains 
 of Hippo Eegius, once a residence of the Numidian kings, 
 and the episcopal scat of St. Augustine. Pop. (1838), 5310 ; 
 (1847), 9799. 
 
 BONABONA. See BORABORA. 
 
 BONAIRE, also BUEXOS-AYIIES, or BUEJT-AYRE, an isl. 
 W. Indies, off the coast of Venezuela, 27 m. N.E. Curacao, by 
 which it is used as a place of transportation for criminals ; 
 lat. (lighthouse, S. point) 12 2 N. ; Ion. 68 17 W. (u.) It 
 is about 20 m. long by 8 to 10 broad ; of a very irre 
 gular shape, high and hilly, chiefly composed of calcareous 
 deposits, but, in some places, of pure quartz. It is thickly 
 wooded ; the soil is hard and dry, suffering from a deficiency 
 of rain, yet not without excellent pasture. On the S. coast, 
 the land is covered with low knolls, clothed with verdant 
 creepers and cactuses, which yield considerable quantities of 
 cochineal. The chief product is Turkish wheat, constituting 
 the general food of the people ; the hill sides are covered with 
 Brazil and yellow wood, but there are no fruit-bearing trees. 
 The island produces sheep and goats, as also asses, which run 
 wild, and are caught, for sale, by the Government, to Ameri 
 cans and other foreigners. The flamingo frequents the S.E. 
 peninsula ; turtles are caught on the coast. Large quantities 
 of salt are produced ; and lime is procured by burning the 
 corals with brushwood, but the quality is bad, in consequence 
 of its being slaked with sea-water, for want of fresh. The 
 inhabitants, though not rich, are frank and hospitable. The 
 roadstead is on the S.W. side, in a deep exposed bay, where 
 there is a fort ; but vessels can come close up to the shore. 
 Pop. 1348, of whom 112 are whites. 
 
 BONACCA, or GUANAJA, an isl. Caribbean Sea, Hon 
 duras Bay, 30 m. N. Cape Castilla; lat. 16 28 N.; Ion. 
 85 55 W. (R.) It is about 9 m. long, and from 1 to 3 broad ; 
 covered with wood, and, towards the centre, attains a height 
 of 1200 ft. 
 
 BON ATT, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, 21 m. S. 
 La Sala, near the Gulf of Policastro. Pop. 3300. 
 
 BONAVISTA, Cape de Verde Islands. See BOAVISTA. 
 
 BONAVISTA. 1, A bay, E. coast, Newfoundland, N. 
 America, between Cape Freels on the N., and Cape Bona- 
 vista on the S. Its entrance is 35 m. wide ; but the bay is 
 crowded with islands, and the whole coast is extremely rocky 
 and dangerous. 2, A cape, forming the S.E. limit of the 
 above ; lat. 48 42 N. ; Ion. 53 8 W. (it.) It is a bluff bold 
 headland, having a lighthouse, with a revolving light at two 
 minute intervals, alternately red and white, 150 ft. above the 
 level of the sea. 3, A tn., N. America, Newfoundland, 3 m. 
 S.E. the cape, and on the E. coast of bay of same name. It 
 is a large and straggling place, but is surrounded by a good 
 deal of cultivated land, and has, upon the whole, a respectable 
 appearance. The want of a good harbour, or even good 
 shelter for boats, prevents its advancement. 
 
 BONBON (LAKE). See BATANGAS. 
 
 BONBY, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 2900 ac. Pop. 380. 
 
 BONCHURCH, a vil. and par. England, Isle of Wight ; 
 the former picturesquely situated on an elevation, embosomed 
 among trees, and commanding a delightful view of the sea, 
 about 1 m. E. by N. Ventnor. It is much resorted to by in 
 valids on account of its genial climate, and is rapidly rising 
 into importance. Area of par. 150 ac. Pop. (1841), 302. 
 
 BONDENO, a tn. Papal States, 10 m. W.N.W. Ferrara, 
 at the confluence of the Panaro and Po d Argento. One of 
 the defiles that lead across the Apennines, commences at this 
 place. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BONDJOL, a strong native fortress, isl. Sumatra, prov. 
 Padang, famed as the first scene of the insurrection of the 
 fanatics, called Padries, in Sumatra, in 1833 ; and that of their 
 last stand, in 1837, when, after much fighting, it fell into the 
 hands of the Dutch. 
 
 BON DO U, a little-known country, Senegambia, cap. 
 Boulebani ; lat. 14 21 N. ; Ion. 12 30 37" W. ; bounded, 
 N. by Galam, W. by Fouta-Damga, E. by the Faleme (a 
 tributary of the Senegal, which separates it from Bam- 
 bouk), and S. by the Tenda and Wooli countries, close to 
 
 the Gambia ; extent supposed to be about 97 in. N. to S., 
 and 80 m. E. to W. It is mostly a flat country, with some 
 elevations of no great height, in its N. and central parts; 
 and watered in its E. side by numerous small streams that 
 fall into the Faleme. It is very fertile and well cultivated, 
 producing cotton, millet, maize, indigo, pistacia-nuts, tobacco, 
 c. Vegetation is exuberant, and there are extensive forests, 
 including the baobab, acacia, &c. Iron abounds, but is not 
 worked, and also some gold is obtained. The people have a 
 tolerable stock of horses, cattle, and sheep. Wild beasts are 
 numerous. The Faleme* swarms with crocodiles. The 
 natives are spirited, brave, and (for Africans) industrious; 
 weaving of cotton cloth is carried on to some extent, chiefly 
 of long and narrow slips of cotton, called pagne ; which, 
 besides being made up into garments, serve as a kind of 
 currency. The Bondou people are chiefly Foulahs, but 
 include several tribes ; many of them can read and write 
 Arabic, there being regular schools for teaching that lan 
 guage ; and all, or nearly all, are professed Mahometans ; but 
 the bulk of the people trust in a kind of sorcerers, and are 
 firm believers in the sovereign efficacy of their gris-gris or 
 charms ; some of which are merely written words, taken from 
 the Koran. Nineteen-twentieths of the men of Bondou are in 
 a servile condition ; and not a few are absolute slaves. Among 
 their superiors, the chief are, the sissibehs or relatives of 
 the amamy, or sovereign ; next in order are the imams, or 
 official functionaries ; then come the tamsirs, or judges ; after 
 them the talibas, or learned men. All these come under the 
 general name of marabouts ; and the sovereign himself is a 
 head marabout, or pontiff. He is, in all respects, an absolute 
 prince ; and the office is hereditary, usually passing from brother 
 to brother. His influence is very extensive, and he has a 
 considerable revenue, derived from the produce of land, the 
 sale of slaves, tribute from neighbouring countries, tolls on 
 traffic, and presents from French and English traders. Pop. 
 not certainly known, but estimated by some at 1,500,000. 
 (Raffcnel, Voyage dans I Afrique Occidental^ in 1843-44.) 
 
 BONGA, a tn., E.Africa, cap. of KafaorKaffa; lat. 
 7 10 N.; Ion. 37 20 23" E.; represented to be in a richly 
 wooded and fertile country, in some respects resembling Brazil. 
 
 BONGAY, BANGEY, or BANGAVI, an isl. Indian Archi 
 pelago, E. coast, Celebes, between Peling and Xoola or Sylla ; 
 lat. (S. point) 2 10 S. ; Ion. 123 53 E. (K.) It gives name 
 to a group of about a hundred islets, much resorted to for 
 slaves and wood. 
 
 BONGO, a small isl. Philippines, Illana Bay, isl. Min 
 danao, opposite the river and town of that name; lat. 7 15 
 N. ; Ion. 124 15 E. Nearly opposite, also, is a well-known 
 watering-place, called Pollock Bay, or Cove, where good 
 anchorage is to be had ; but the treacherous disposition of 
 the inhabitants render it dangerous to land, unless every 
 precaution is used. 
 
 BONGOOS, a tn. on a bay of same name, W. coast, isl. 
 Sumatra, a few m. S. the town of Padang. It consists of 80 
 to 100 bamboo houses, inhabited chiefly by fishermen. The 
 large quantities they daily take, are immediately bought up 
 for the most part, by inland dealers, who dry the fish for 
 future sale. The bay is small, and expanding reefs and 
 shoals make it dangerous for large vessels. 
 
 BONHILL, a vil. and par. Scotland, co. Dumbarton. 
 The VILLAGE is beautifully situated in the valley of the Leven, 
 about 4 m. from its junction with the Clyde, 3 m. N. Dum 
 barton. It has one principal street, and two smaller ; houses 
 generally well built, of a reddish-coloured stone, obtained in 
 the neighbourhood, and roofed with slate ; well supplied with 
 water from the Leven, and the houses, but not the streets, 
 lighted with gas. There are three churches in the village 
 the parish church, a neat and handsome structure ; the Free 
 church, a U. Presbyterian church, and four schools, one of 
 which is liberally endowed by the proprietors of one of the 
 printworks in the vicinity, not only for their own work 
 people, but for the public generally. There are three public 
 libraries, one of which is in connection with a mechanics 
 institute. The inhabitants are nearly all employed in the ex 
 tensive printworks in the vicinity, in one of which 17,000,000 
 yards of cambrics, gauzes, de laines, &c., are printed and 
 
 finished annually. The PARISH is about 4J m. in length, 
 
 and 4 in breadth. Pop. of par. (1841), 6682 j of vil. 2041. 
 [Local Correspondent.) 
 
BONI 
 
 444 
 
 BONNY 
 
 BONT, or BONY [called by the inhabitants Sewa], a terri 
 tory S.W. peninsula of isl. Celebes, W. side gulf of same 
 name, N. of Boolookamba, about 80 m. in length, and stretch 
 ing from a half to two-thirds across the peninsula. The N. 
 part is beautiful and fertile, producing rice, sago, and cassia. 
 The inhabitants excel in the working of gold, iron, and cotton, 
 in which they trade with the whole Archipelago. The ancient 
 institutions of Boni, whose first prince is believed by the 
 people to have come from heaven, are remarkable for their 
 near approach to constitutional monarchy, and its annals, from 
 the commencement of authentic history, are highly interesting. 
 Its first King gave the country settled laws, and appointed 
 seven elective lords to assist the Crown in administering the 
 government. AYomen, as well as men, might form part of 
 this chosen council, which had to be consulted on all matters 
 of public importance, and especially about the settlement of 
 the crown, and the making of peace and war. When a crime 
 was committed, the culprit was denounced to the King, who 
 called upon the grandees to try the accused ; and, when judg 
 ment was pronounced, if the sentence was capital, the Prince 
 gave a wink, and instantly the criminal was dragged out and 
 stabbed to death. If there were aggravating circumstances, 
 the King commanded him to be bound to a tree, and his body 
 to be pricked all over with the points of krises, and then be 
 smeared with syrup, on which the ants immediately attacked 
 him, and he expired under the direst tortures. The Dutch 
 East India Company having repeatedly assisted the Boni 
 people against their enemies, is said to have made them over- 
 powerful and haughty. When the British took Celebes in 
 1811, they offended the Bonese by prohibiting the slave- 
 trade, and on being refused indemnity for injuries done to 
 British commerce, were attacked by General Nightingale, 
 who took and plundered their capital. This only produced 
 exasperation, and was followed by some British ships being 
 attacked, and their crews sold into slavery. Hence another 
 expedition against them in 1814, when their King was slain. 
 The Dutch returned to a milder policy, and succeeded in re 
 establishing friendly relations in 1838, though not until after 
 considerable bloodshed, caused by the obstinacy of the Bonese 
 in claiming a supremacy over all other principalities in Celebes. 
 
 Pop. 200,000. The BAY, or GULF, is formed between the 
 
 S.E. and S.W. peninsula of Celebes, and is about 180 geo. m. 
 long, by about 120 broad at the mouth, narrowing to 45 at 
 the upper end. It has numerous shoals, and its navigation 
 is intricate. 
 
 BONIFACCIO [Latin, Bonifacium], a seaport tn. Cor 
 sica, 45 m. S.S.E. Ajaccio ; on the Strait of Bonifaccio, which 
 separates Corsica from Sardinia ; lat. 41 23 48" N. ; Ion. 
 9 9 15" E. (R.) It stands on a peninsula, about 1 80 ft. above 
 the sea ; is well built, and tolerably well fortified, and con 
 tains several handsome churches. The port is good, but 
 difficult of access, on account of its narrow entrance. The 
 town has a court of commerce, and exports wine and oil. 
 The coral fishery is carried on here. In the neighbourhood 
 are curious marine grottoes and granite quarries, in which may 
 still be seen huge blocks and pillars left half finished by the 
 
 Eomans. Pop. 3120. The STRAIT of Bonifaccio is 7 m. 
 
 broad, and contains several small islands, on one of which is 
 an ancient pillar, 19 ft. high. 
 
 BONIFATI, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Citra, 3 m. 
 S.E. Belvedere. It has several churches and a convent. 
 Silk is produced to a large extent in the district. Pop. 
 2670. 
 
 BONIN, or ARZOBISPO ISLANDS, several groups of islands, 
 N. Pacific Ocean, extending from lat. 27 44 30" to 26 30 N. 
 The N.W. island of the most N. cluster, called Parry Group, 
 is in lat 27 43 30" N.; Ion. 142 8 E.; the cluster consists 
 of small isles, pointed rocks, and very irregular bottom. The 
 largest of the chain is Peel Island, on the AV. side of which 
 is a good harbour, called Port Lloyd, in lat. 27 5 30" N.; 
 Ion. 142 11 30"E.; nearly surrounded by hills, crowned 
 with palm-trees. Almost every valley has a stream of water. 
 Green turtle abound in the sandy bays. Sharks are numerous, 
 and fish of several kinds plentiful. 
 
 BONMAHON, or BUNMAHON, a maritime vil. Ireland, co. 
 of, and 14 m. S.AV. AVaterford, on St. George s Channel, at the 
 mouth of the Mahon, from which it takes its name. It has a 
 fine beach, and numerous respectable lodging-houses, and is a 
 place of great resort during the summer mouths for sea-bathing. 
 
 Near it are lead and copper mines, which have been occasion 
 ally worked to some extent. Pop. 1771. 
 
 BONN [Latin, Bonna ad Ilhenum}, a tn. Prussia, prov. 
 Rhine, pleasantly situated on a gentle acclivity, 1. bank, 
 Rhine, about 16 m. S.E. Cologne, having a very pleasing and 
 cheerful appearance; encircled with walls, and surrounded 
 with beautiful gardens. The streets are narrow, and indif 
 ferently lighted, and the air often bleak and cold ; yet, from 
 its delightful situation, it is one of the most desirable places 
 of residence on the Rhine. It comprises about 1200 houses, 
 36 public buildings, eight churches and chapels, with a number 
 of mills and manufactories, the chief of which are of cottons, 
 silks, and sulphuric acid. Bonn enjoys the reputation of a 
 high antiquity, but derives its greatest celebrity from its 
 university, which has had many distinguished men amongst 
 its professors ; among others, Schlegel and Niebuhr, the his 
 torians. The number of students attending it is generally 
 between 600 and 800. In 1844 the number was 714, of 
 whom 196 were students of theology (76 Protestant, and 120 
 R. Catholic), 232 of law, 103 of medicine, and 120 of philo 
 sophy. The building of the university is an immense pile, 
 and was formerly the residence of the electors of Cologne. 
 It has a library of about 100,000 volumes. The principal 
 square in the town is called Minster Square, a fine area planted 
 with trees, and which derives its name from the Minster, or 
 church of St. Cassius, an ancient Gothic structure. The 
 townhall is the handsomest of the modern public edifices. 
 In the vicinity, at Poppelsdorf, are an extensive botanic 
 garden, an agricultural school, museum of natural history, 
 with 200,000 specimens of minerals, and 10,000 petrifactions, 
 besides a large collection of zoology and plants. Amongst 
 the scientific associations of Bonn is an academy of naturalists, 
 called the Leopold-Caroline Academy, which has extensive 
 collections. There are five elementary schools in the town, 
 and a free school for the education of poor children. Beethoven, 
 the celebrated musician, was a native of Bonn, having been 
 born there on Dec. 17, 1770. Prince Albert was a student 
 here. Bonn has ample means of conveyance by the railway 
 from Cologne, which was opened in 1844, and passes the 
 town ; and the numerous steamboats which ply on the Rhine. 
 
 Pop. 14,369. The CIRCLE, area, 80 geo. sq. m., is level, well 
 
 wooded, well watered, and fertile, producing in abundance 
 corn of all kinds, flax, tobacco, and wine. Pop. (mostly 
 R. Catholic), 50,000. 
 
 BONNETABLE, a tn. France, dep. Sarthe, 12 m. S. 
 Mamers, consisting of two principal parallel streets, joined 
 by numerous smaller ones. The old Gothic castle is one 
 of the best preserved monuments of the feudal times now to 
 be found in the kingdom. In one of its halls are curious 
 wooden sculptures, with figures of the lords of Bonuetable. 
 The manufactures consist of calicoes, bombazines, and cotton 
 handkerchiefs ; and the trade in grain, grass-seeds, fruit, and 
 cattle is considerable. Pop. 3247. 
 
 BONNEVAL, a tn. France, dep. Eure-et-Loire, 9 m. 
 N.N.E. Chateaudun ; formerly fortified, but nearly demolished 
 by Henry V. of England, while besieging Orleans, and rebuilt 
 by the successors of Charles VII. The parish church has a 
 singular spire, of great height. There are here some spinning- 
 mills, and extensive tanneries ; and flannels, blankets, calicoes, 
 and printed goods are made. Trade : in agricultural pro 
 duce. Pop. 1780. 
 
 BONNEV1LLE [anc. Burgum Castn], a tn. Sardinian 
 States, Savoy, cap. prov. Faucigny ; on the Arve, near the 
 junction of the Borne, 16 m. E.S.E. Geneva. It is well 
 built, and contains a college and a handsome townhouse. 
 The river is crossed by a good stone bridge ; and near it is a 
 statue lately erected to King Carlo Felice, and placed on a 
 column 90 ft. high. A fine hard pavement is extensively 
 quarried in the neighbourhood. Pop. 1500. 
 
 BONNIEUX, a tn. France, dep. Vaucluse, 6 m. S.W. 
 Apt, formerly surrounded by strong walls. About 2J m. 
 from it is a Roman bridge of three arches, in a state of perfect 
 preservation ; supposed to have been built by the Emperor 
 Julian. Pop. 1256. 
 
 BONNINGTON, par. Eng. Kent ; 4310 ac. Pop. 155. 
 
 BONNY. 1, A river, AV. Africa, Upper Guinea, forming 
 one of the mouths of the Niger, and falling, with the New 
 Calabar, into the Bight of Biafra, its E. point, according to 
 Boteler. being in lat. 4 23 42" N. ; Ion. 7 5 29" E. It can 
 
BONOA 
 
 415 
 
 BOOM 
 
 be entered at any time of the tide by vessels drawing 18 ft. 
 water; is deep inside the bar, and affords safe anchorage at 
 all times of the year. Its banks are low and swampy. Large 
 quantities of palm-oil are exported from this river; and it has 
 long been notorious for the extent to which the slave-trade 
 has been carried on along its banks. 2, A to., on 
 a narrow and deep creek of the above river. Al 
 though the residence of the King, it consists merely 
 of a collection of huts, differing much in quality, 
 size, and style of building, but strongly resembling 
 English cottages in shape. They are composed 
 chiefly of stakes, plastered with mud, roofed witli 
 palm-leaves, and all extremely dirty, not excepting 
 the King s dwelling. The inhabitants are remark 
 ably superstitious ; and great numbers of them die 
 annually of dysentery and jungle fever, occasioned 
 by the marshy and unwholesome situation of the 
 town. 
 
 BONOA, or BENOA, an isl. Indian Archipelago, 
 Moluccas, 8 m. from the N.W. end of isl. Ceram ; 
 lat. (S.W. point) 3 3 S. ; Ion. 127 57 E. (R.) It 
 is about 12 m. long, and 10 m. broad; very hilly, 
 and so stony towards the W. that it is not all in 
 habited. It was once a noted haunt of piratical 
 Malays, but the inhabitants now devote themselves 
 to fishing and tillage. There was formerly a Dutch 
 establishment on the island for extirpating clove- 
 trees. THE POR . 
 
 BONORVA, atn., isl. Sardinia, Alghero, 17 m. 
 N.E. Bosa, on the declivity of a mountain. It has two mon 
 asteries, and a breeding stud of horses. Pop. 4274. 
 
 BONSALL, par. Eng. Derby; 2750 ac. Pop. 1496. 
 
 BONTHAIN, or BONTEIN, the W. part of the territory 
 Boolekomba-and-Bonthain, with town of same name, in the 
 S.W. peninsula of the isl. Celebes. The country is beautiful, 
 abounding in rice, timber, and fruits, and swarming with wild 
 boars. It has been twice conquered by the Dutch, and by 
 the Bongay contract was left in their possession. See BOO 
 LEKOMBA-AND-BONTHAIN. The TOWN lies in a bay of same 
 
 name, 35 m. S.S.E. Macassar; lat. 5 30 S.; Ion. 120 E. 
 About 2 m. off there is good anchorage, in 7 or 8 fathoms, 
 sandy bottom. 
 
 BONV1LSTON, par., S. Wales, Glamorgan. Pop. 282. 
 
 BONYHAD, or BONHARD, a market tn. Hungary, circle, 
 beyond the Danube, co. Tolna, 21 m. N.E. Funfkirchen; 
 with a R. Catholic church, a Reformed church, an alms-house, 
 and a synagogue. Pop 5340. 
 
 BOO, or Hoo, a group of islets, between Gilolo and Papua ; 
 lat. T12 S.; Ion. 129 20 E. (L.) 
 
 BOOAN, or BOUAN, a small isl. Asiatic Archipelago, off 
 the N.E. coast of Borneo; lat. 6 22 N.; Ion. 118 10 E. 
 
 BOOBY ISLAND, a mere rock, Torres Strait; lat. 
 10 36 S.; Ion. 141 52 50" E. ; but derives interest from 
 containing a depot of provisions and water, left by men-of- 
 war and other vessels passing, for the use of those who have 
 been wrecked in the strait. It is one-fourth of a mile in dia 
 meter, flat, and about 30 ft. high, the summit being bare por 
 phyry rock. A valley intersects the N.W. side of the island, 
 in which grow a few creepers, some brushwood, and two or three 
 trees of tolerable size, with a peculiar broad green leaf, which 
 gives shelter to some pigeons and quails, in which latter the 
 island abounds, even more than in the bird which gives its 
 name to the locality. Turtle were once found upon this isle, 
 but none are now taken. (Stokes s Australia.) 
 
 BOODROOM, BOODROUM, or BODRUN. A seaport tn. 
 Asiatic Turkey, pash. Anatolia, 93 m. S. Smyrna; lat. 
 37 1 21" N. ; Ion. 27 25 18" E. ; beautifully situated on a 
 rising ground at the head of a bay, opposite the island of 
 Cos. The houses are of stone, the streets narrow and dirty, 
 and the bazaars miserable. The harbour is small, but well 
 sheltered; with two to three fathoms water, and convenient 
 dockyards. On a projecting rock on the E. side of the har 
 bour is an ancient fortress, built by the knights of Rhodes, in 
 1402, and still mounted with cannon. Boodroom is believed 
 to occupy the site of the ancient Halicarnassus, the country of 
 Herodotus ; and the magnificent ruins that abound in the 
 town and vicinity would seem to strengthen the idea. 
 Amongst these are a number of temples, and other buildings, 
 ornamented with cornices and columns, and rows of pedestals, 
 
 finely sculptured, and of admirable workmanship. On the 
 side of a hill above the town are the remains of an elegant 
 theatre, 280 ft. in diameter, and with 36 rows of marble seats. 
 The seats, and the great part of the proscenium, remain, and 
 the cornices and statuary are but little impaired, although 
 
 
 IT AND CASTLE OF BOODROOM.- From Texwr, Description 
 
 part of the front wall has fallen in. A picturesque church of 
 the earliest Byzantine age stands near the W. extremity of 
 the terrace that overlooks the city. 2, A tn. [anc. Sagalassus] 
 Asiatic Turkey, pash. Anatolia, about 30 m. S.W. Isbarta ; 
 with the remains of seven or eight temples, and numerous 
 other Greek buildings. A picturesque Byzantine church 
 overlooks the city. 
 
 BOOKARIA, a tn., W. Africa, 100 m. N.N.E. Free 
 Town, Sierra Leone ; lat. 9 38 N.; Ion. 12 31 W. 
 
 BOOKHAM, two pars. Eng. Surrey:!, Boolcham 
 (Great), 3170 ac. Pop. 963. 2, Bookham (Little), 950 ac. 
 Pop. 237. 
 
 BOOKIT BARISAN, a chain of mountains, of primitive 
 formation, isl. Sumatra, running along the whole length of the 
 island, from Acheen Head to the Straits of Sunda. 
 
 BOOLAC. See BOULAC. 
 
 BOOLEKOMBA, BOOLAKAMBA, or BOOLOOKOMBA, a 
 prov., cap. same name, S.W. peninsula of isl. Celebes. It 
 is now subject to the Government of Macassar, and forms 
 part of the territory called Boolekomba-and-Bonthain. It is 
 the most S.W. portion of the peninsula, about 48 m. long 
 by 20 broad ; and is particularly productive in rice, which 
 is sown here while gathered in Maros, where it is sown when 
 gathered here, although the two provinces are separated only 
 by hills of no great height. It produces much gum also, but 
 has no good timber. Wild animals abound, particularly deer. 
 The people are industrious. The chief river is the Kalekon- 
 gang, on which the town stands, near its mouth. In 1820, 
 the sea rose, in a few moments, from 60 to 80 ft. above its 
 usual height, and again retired, after destroying two villages 
 and many lives. In the W. monsoon, the roadstead is very 
 dangerous for large vessels, though small eraft can find shel 
 ter in the river. The Dutch have a fort here, which was 
 attacked, without success, in 1825, by the Bugis. 
 
 BOOLEKOMBA-AND-BONTHAiN, a territory, S.W. pen 
 insula, isl. Celebes ; about 48 m. W. to E., and 20 m. N. to 
 S. ; and bounded, N. by the mountains Kindan and Torotea, 
 S. and E. by the sea, and W. by the Tino. The inhabitants 
 are reckoned the most peaceable and best disposed of the 
 subjects of the Dutch in Celebes. Pop. 25,000. 
 
 BOOLEKOMBA POINT [called also CAPE LASSOA, or 
 BORAK], the S.E. point of the W. peninsula of Celebes; lat. 
 5 35 S.; Ion. 120 27 E. (R.) 
 
 BOOLEY, BOOBIE, or BOOBEE, a tn. Benin, near the 
 mouth of the Benin river, 120 m. S.E. Badagray ; lat. 5 40 
 N. ; Ion. 5 7 E. The caboceer or head governor of the river 
 resides here. There are two other towns close by Fish 
 Town and Salt Town. 
 
 BOOM, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Antwerp, at the 
 junction of the Brussels Canal with the Eupel, 12 m. S. 
 
BOONDEE 
 
 446 
 
 BOOSEMPRA 
 
 Antwerp city. Boom, being admirably situated for trade, is 
 a busy inland port. It contains 50 brick and tile works, six 
 building-yards, many breweries, tanneries, and saltworks; 
 soapworks, roperies, and sailcloth manufactures; numerous 
 oil, saw, and corn mills, fish-stores, woodyards, &c. P. 7464. 
 
 BOONDEE [anc. Bundi].l,A principality, Hindoostan, 
 prov. Ajmeer, under British protection; bounded, N. by Jey- 
 poor and Oonjara, W. Jajghur, S. and E. Kotah ; area, 2500 
 sq. m. It was pretty extensive before Kotah and its territory 
 were separated from it. In 1817, more than half 
 the revenues was usurped by Scindia and Holcar, 
 and the peasantry were impoverished by oppres 
 sive exactions; but, in 181 8, the Rajah received a 
 considerable addition of territory, together with 
 the town of Patun, from the British Government. 
 Although small, Boondee is important as the me 
 dium of communication between the N. and S. The 
 inhabitants are of the Kara tribe, which has given 
 birth to many famous men, and, among others, to 
 Kara Singh Hara, one of Aurungzebe s most re 
 nowned generals. 2, A tn. Hindoostan, prov. 
 Ajmeer, cap. of above principality, and residence 
 of the Rajah, on the S. declivity of a long range 
 of hills ; lat. 25 28 N. ; Ion. 75 30 E. It con 
 sists of Old Boondee and New Boondee ; the for 
 mer surrounded by a high stone wall, extending 
 up the acclivity behind it, and connected with the 
 fortifications on the cliff above ; the houses are of 
 stone, and, for the most part, two stories high. 
 The natural situation, antiquity, numerous 
 temples, and magnificent fountains of Boondee, 
 give it a very interesting appearance. For pic 
 turesque effect, its main street is almost unequalled. At its 
 upper extremity stands the palace, a remarkable edifice, built 
 of stone, with turreted windows and battlements, supported 
 partly by the perpendicular rock, and partly by solid piers of 
 masonry, 400 ft. high. At its lower extremity is the great 
 temple, dedicated to Krishna. Old Boondee, which is W. 
 of New Boondee, contains some fine fountains and pagodas, 
 but is in a state of general decay. The passes N. of Boondee 
 are strongly defended, and the scenery around is exceedingly 
 picturesque. (Asiatic Researches.) 
 
 BOONEV1LLE, a city and post vil., U. States, Missouri, 
 r. bank, Missouri river, 40 in. N.W. Jefferson city. It has 
 a court-house, Methodist church, two academies, and two 
 schools ; two ropewalks, and some trade in cattle and pro 
 visions. Pop. 2581. 
 
 BOONTING ISLANDS, a group of four small islands, 
 Indian Archipelago, N. of Penang, and of moderate height. 
 The most S. is in lat. 5 45 N.; Ion. 100 20 E. 
 
 BOORHANPOOR [anc. BarJianpura], a tn. Hindoostan, 
 in the Deocan, prov. Candeish, of which it was the anc. cap., 
 137 m. S. by E. Oojein, in a plain, r. bank, Tapty, which is 
 fordable during the dry season; lat. 21 19 N.; Ion. 76 18 
 E. It is one of the largest and best built cities of the Deccan ; 
 most of the houses are of brick, with neat facades, and roofed 
 with tiles. Many of the streets are wide, regular, and paved 
 with stone ; as are also the Raj bazaar and the market-place, 
 an extensive square, the two handsomest places in the town. 
 The most remarkable public edifice is the Jumma Musjeed 
 or mosque, a fine pile of gray stone. Boorhanpoor is sup 
 plied with water by aqueducts 4 m. in length, which distribute 
 it through every street beneath the pavement, whence it is 
 drawn up by means of leathern buckets. A singular sect of 
 Mahometans, named Bohrah, have their head quarters here. 
 They are the chief merchants In this part of Hindoostan, have 
 Arab features, wear the Arab costume, and derive their origin 
 from a disciple of their great prophet. Grapes grow abund 
 antly in the neighbourhood, and are said to be the finest in 
 India. 
 
 BOORLOS, or BOUKLOS, a lagoon, Lower Egypt, delta 
 of the Nile, separated from the Mediterranean by a narrow 
 strip of land, the W. extremity 5 m. E. Rosetta. Utmost 
 length, 38 m.; average breadth, about 15 m. It is shallow 
 and marshy, and is connected, by canals, with both the 
 Damietta and Rosetta branches of the Nile. 
 
 BOORO, or BOOROO, an isl. Indian Archipelago, 46 
 m. W. Amboina ; lat. (Fort Defence, Cajeli Bay) 3 22 36" 
 S. ; Ion. 127 6 15" E. (K.) It is oval shaped, 92 m. long 
 
 by 58 m. broad, and the third largest of the Moluccas. Its 
 largest bay, that of Cajeli, says Sir Edward Belcher, possesses 
 great advantages over Amboiua, as regards supplies of poultry, 
 eggs, water, and wood. The harbour also is snug and safe, 
 sheltered from the monsoons, and less troubled with the diurnal 
 rains than Amboina ; consequently, better adapted for casual 
 refit, as well as astronomical observations. Viewed from this 
 bay, Booro presents a magnificent panorama. On a shore of the 
 richest verdure, the minarets of the mosques and the bamboo 
 
 TEMPLES AND HOUSES AT CAJELI BAY. BOORO. 
 
 houses of the natives are seen through the openings between 
 the trees, or crossing the infinite variety of forms assumed 
 by the rich vegetation of the tropics ; while, behind this 
 beautiful foreground, rise the lofty mountains of the interior, 
 wooded to their very summits. On the E., a succession of 
 rising grounds exhale the odours of plantations of balsams. 
 The N.W. side, on the contrary, presents nothing but vast 
 swamps, partly under water, and swarming with crocodiles. 
 Even the higher grounds are watered by a thousand fresh and 
 generally limpid streams, which meander in all directions, and 
 moisten the turf, covered by the Jussieua tenella, with its 
 beautiful flowers. From the height of its mountains, Booro 
 is seen at a great distance at sea. Mount Dome has an alti 
 tude of 10,400 ft., and Tomahoo, 6528 ft. above the sea 
 level. The island is watered by 125 rivers, large and small, 
 the Abbo, the Boy, the Ila, &c. In the centre of the W. part, 
 a spacious lake, 20 fathoms deep, is fed by mountain streams, 
 and communicates by three rivers with the sea. The interior 
 is difficult of access, and dangerous from the number of ser 
 pents. Booro has a variety of valuable woods. Its myrta- 
 ceae supply the best balsams. It produces, besides many 
 odoriferous flowers and resins ; the sin, a gramineous plant, 
 gives a highly aromatic oil. The wooded marshes are fre 
 quented by large herds of the Sus russa or babyroussa, a kind 
 of hog peculiar to the islands of the Indian Archipelago. The 
 interior of Booro is occupied by Alfoories, reputed to be as 
 mild and pacific as those of Ceram are haughty, quarrelsome, 
 and warlike. They live a frugal life among the hills, feed 
 ing chiefly on sago and what game they kill, .abandoning the 
 coast to the Malays. To their rooted aversion to the visits 
 of Europeans, and the circumstance of the island producing 
 no cloves, we probably owe its being, till very lately, ne 
 glected by the Dutch, although so near Amboina. The popu 
 lation is matter of conjecture, but, by the last estimate, Booro, 
 with some smaller isles, contained 18,000 souls. (Van der 
 Aa ; Temniinck, Coup d ceil.) 
 
 BOOROOGIRD, BUKUGJKD, or BOOROJERD, a tn. Persia, 
 prov. Irak-ajemi, cap. gov. of same name, 190 in. N.W. Ispa 
 han ; lat. 33 43 N. ; Ion. 48 45 E. ; with a castle and several 
 mosques. It lies in a fertile and well-cultivated valley, yield 
 ing saffron ; belonging to the Lack tribe. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 BOOSEMPRA, or BOOSUM PRAH, a river, N.W. Africa, 
 kingdom, Ashantee. It is formed by the junction of two 
 streams, which rise in the interior, at the distance of about 
 100 m. from the coast, and falls into the Atlantic in lat. 
 4 52 N.; Ion. 1 30 W. It has yet been examined but a 
 short way inland, and, so far as explored, was found to bo IOC 
 
BOOTAN 
 
 447 
 
 BOOTON 
 
 yards broad, and 4 fathoms deep. The water is quite fresh, 
 and the banks, which are fringed with mangroves, are only 
 3 or 4 ft. above the stream. There are but 2 ft. on the bar, 
 the difficulties of which for boats, as by these alone it can be 
 attempted, are increased by the enormous rollers that sweep 
 over it. The natives, nevertheless, most adroitly paddle 
 their canoes both in and out of the river. 
 
 BOOTAN, BHOTAN, BHUTAN, or BUTAN, an independent 
 state, N. Hindoostan; between lat. 26 18 and 28 2 N.; and 
 Ion. 88 32 and about 92 30 E.; bounded, N. by the Hima 
 laya, which divides it from Tibet, S. by Bengal and Assam, 
 and W. by a branch of the Teesta, which separates it from 
 Sikkiin ; the E. boundary is not certainly known ; length, E. 
 to W.,230 m., breadth, N. to S., 120 m.; area, 19,000 sq. m. 
 It is a mountainous country, consisting chiefly of terraces of 
 the Himalaya, of which, on the frontiers of Tibet, it contains 
 some of the loftiest peaks ; that of Chamulari or Chamalari 
 attaining an elevation of 27,200 ft. The country lowers 
 gradually by steps to the Brahmapootra, to the basin of which 
 it wholly belongs, and jiear which, on the frontier of Bengal, 
 is a strip of jungle-covered country, 25 m. broad, forming the 
 only plain in Bootan. The loftier mountains are bare, many 
 of them covered with snow. Lower down, at an elevation of 
 8000 to 10,000 ft., are fine forests of pine, birch, maple, ash, 
 and yew, but no oak. The hilly tracts, likewise, produce the 
 smaller fruits of Europe blackberries, raspberries, apples, 
 apricots, &c. The valleys are mere water-courses between 
 the hills ; and their vegetation is similar to that of the S. of 
 Europe. In the lower parts, the vegetation is tropical. Iron 
 is the only metal as yet wrought, and good building stone 
 abounds. 
 
 The chief river is the Tchinchicn, which intersects Bootan 
 from N. to S., traverses the valley of Tassisudon, and, after 
 an impetuous course of about 150 m., falls into the Brahma 
 pootra, below Eangamatty, under the name of the Gadawhar. 
 All the rivers are remarkable for the number of falls in them, 
 and the impetuosity of their courses. 
 
 In the N. parts, the climate is rigorous ; in the centre ter 
 races, at an elevation of 8000 to 10,000 ft., it is pleasant and 
 healthful ; and in the lower grounds, hot and pestilential. 
 Showers are frequent ; but the heavy falls of rain which 
 accompany the S.W. monsoon in Bengal seldom occur. 
 
 The wild animals of Bootan are comparatively few in num 
 ber. The elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, and buffalo, are found 
 among the jungle and marshes of the plains; and a monkey 
 of a large and handsome species, held sacred both by Bootans 
 and Hindoos. The only domestic animals are horses, cattle, 
 and hogs. The first consists of a breed called Tangum, indi 
 genous to this part of the world, and usually 13 hands high, 
 of a piebald colour, and fine symmetry ; strong and active, 
 but said to be somewhat headstrong. They are chiefly bred 
 in the valley of the Pa-tchien. 
 
 Agriculture, Trade, &c. The natives are industrious cul 
 tivators of the soil. Irrigation is extensively employed, and, 
 where the climate is temperate, every part of the mountains 
 which has a favourable aspect and a coating of soil, is cleared, 
 and adapted for cultivation, by being cut into horizontal beds. 
 Eice, wheat, and barley, are the common agricultural products. 
 The culture of vegetables, excepting turnips, which are re 
 markably good, is much neglected, although shallots, cucum 
 bers, gourds, and melons, are grown. Bootan trades with all 
 the neighbouring countries, but chiefly with Tibet and Ben 
 gal, in horses, linen cloth, musk, fly whisks, walnuts, oranges, 
 and Indian madder, exchanged for woollen cloth, cottons, in 
 digo, sandal wood, asafetida, and spices. Part of the articles 
 brought from Bengal are sent to Tibet, with rice, wheat, and 
 flour. Tea, gold, silver, and embroideries are received in 
 exchange. From Cooch-Behar, cattle, hogs, dried fish, tobacco, 
 betel, and coarse cottons, are imported. The chief manufac 
 ture is that of paper, made from the bark of a tree, from 
 which material a fabric like silk and satin is also manufac 
 tured. 
 
 People. The inhabitants of Bootan are generally Buddhists 
 in religion, and are hardy, vigorous, and tall, with smooth 
 and dark skins, broad faces, and high cheek-bones features 
 prevalent among the Tartars and Chinese. They are not 
 deficient in courage, but are peaceably inclined, and have little 
 skill in the military art. Goitre is a common complaint with 
 those who live near rivers liable to inundations. Woollen 
 
 cloth is the usual wear, and animal food, tea, and spirits, the 
 common articles of consumption. The houses are usually one 
 story high. The bridges are ingeniously built, some of tim 
 ber, others of iron; of this latter kind, is one across the 
 Tchinchien at Chooka, an admirable structure. The aque 
 ducts are formed of hollowed trunks of trees. No religious 
 forms are observed in marriage ; and both men and women 
 are addicted to polygamy. The dead are burnt, and the ashes 
 thrown into the river. On such occasions, the Gylongs, a sort 
 of priests, officiate. 
 
 Government. The Dherma Rajah, regarded as an incarna 
 tion of the Divinity, is their ecclesiastical chief a"s well as 
 sovereign. Being a sort of spiritual entity, and of course 
 immortal, he is quite absorbed in the contemplation of his 
 own essence, and leaves the regulation of the affairs of the 
 country to the Deb Eajah, saving only that he appoints one 
 member of the state council, which consists of eight persons, 
 without whose authority the Deb Rajah can do nothing im 
 portant. The passes from the low countries to the mountains 
 are numerous, under the jurisdiction of officers styled soobahs, 
 who live in their respective fortresses, visiting the lower 
 country in the rigour of winter, either to enforce their 
 authority or to invade the neighbouring states. Both the 
 lower hill and the plain country are partitioned into small 
 domains, each having a distinct officer for the collection of the 
 revenue, and the superintendence of the police. The Eajah s 
 revenues are usually paid in articles of produce, and mer 
 chandise. Tassisudon, Wandipore, Poonakha, Ghassa, Paro, 
 and Murichom, are the chief towns. 
 
 History, &c. In ancient Brahminical legends, Bootan is 
 called Madra ; but little was known about it till 1772, when 
 Cooch Beher was invaded by the Deb Eajah, with whom, how 
 ever, peace was eventually concluded. The boundaries of 
 the country are uncertain ; a regular system of encroachment 
 on the British possessions having been long practised by the 
 natives. In 1816, the advance of the Chinese forces towards 
 Nepaul, excited great alarm at the court of the Deb Eajah, 
 who was induced by his fears of the enemy, and hopes of 
 assistance from the British, to declare himself friendly towards 
 the latter. (Capt. Turner s Embassy to Thibet; Asiatic Re 
 searches.} 
 
 BOOTEESTOWN, par. and vil. Irel. Dublin; 541 ac. 
 Pop. 3318. 
 
 BOOTHBY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 2850 ac. Pop. 214. 
 
 BOOTHBY-PAGNELL, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 2560 ac. 
 Pop. 132. 
 
 BOOTHIA GULF, a large inland sea, N. of Hudson s 
 Bay, between the island of Boothia Felix and a portion of the 
 continent of N. America on the W., and Melville, Pen and 
 Cockburn Island on the E., between lat. 67 and 72 N. It 
 is about 310 m. in length, N.E. to S.W., with a breadth vary 
 ing from 60 to 1 00 m. The gulf is entered by Prince Eegent s 
 Inlet, off Barrow s Strait, or by Fury and Hecla Strait, from 
 Fox s Channel. 
 
 BOOTLE, a market tn. and par. England, co. Cumber 
 land. The town, 5 m. S. by E. Eavenglass, has a church, an 
 Independent chapel, and some schools ; and a little trade in 
 corn, pork, bacon, &c. Area of par. G570 ac. Pop. 696. 
 
 BOOTON, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 1030 ac. Pop. 241. 
 
 BOOTON, BOUTON, or BATON.!, An isl., strait, and 
 tn., Indian Archipelago. The ISLAND lies off the S.E. peninsula 
 of the island of Celebes ; lat. (S. point) 5 42 S. ; Ion. 122 44 
 E. (K.) ; 90 in. in length, and varies in breadth from 20 to 
 40 m. A long narrow strait, to which it gives its name, separ 
 ates it from the island of Moona ; and the large bay of Kalin- 
 soosoo or Dwalbay, lies on the E., presenting a safe anchorage 
 during the W. monsoon. The N. coast is rendered dangerous 
 by a shoal, and the S. by a reef. Booton is hilly, and much 
 wooded. It produces rice, Turkish wheat, sweet potatoes, 
 beans, fruits, sago, spices, among which is the dwarf nutmeg; 
 also, buffaloes and goats, a variety of birds, and edible birds 
 nests. The inhabitants are of Malay origin, and a dark 
 brown, small, ill-looking race. Though haughty and re 
 vengeful, when well treated some are not undeserving of 
 trust. They profess Maliometanism, and manufacture cotton 
 stuffs, and a tissue from the fibres of the aloe. By treaty, the 
 Dutch were long allowed to employ an Extirpator to traverse 
 the island, and destroy the clove and nutmeg trees, for the 
 preposterous purpose of enhancing their monopoly ; but the 
 
BOOWANG-BESI 
 
 448 
 
 BORDEAUX 
 
 Sultan, by a renewal of the Bongay contract, on improved 
 terms, may now grow spices. Pop. including Pangasani, &c., 
 300,000. - Tlie TOWN stands on the strait, lat. 4 30 IS. ; 
 Ion. 122 48 E.; is large, and walled round. The houses 
 are of bamboo; the streets straight and narrow. - 2, Two 
 islands, Indian Ocean, N.W. entrance of the Malacca Strait, 
 off the W. coast of the Malay peninsula, from which they are 
 distant about 45 in. They are close together, in about lat. 
 G 34 N.; Ion. 99 17 E. They are both high, and the 
 easternmost is formed of a regular sloping pyramidal moun 
 tain, generally called Bouton Dome, visible from a distance 
 
 of upwards of 50 m. 
 one island. 
 
 When seen from the W., they appear as 
 
 BOO WANG-BEST, OMA, or HAKOOKO, an isl. Indian 
 Archipelago, 1 J m. N.E. isl. Amboina, and about If m. long, 
 and lj m. broad. It is hilly, and the climate reckoned very 
 healthy; yet frightful cutaneous diseases prevail among the 
 natives, and, which is very uncommon in the Indian islands, 
 malformation of the limbs. There are hot springs on the 
 island, resorted to for rheumatism and gout. Many tropical 
 fruits and vegetables thrive in the gardens. The inhabitants 
 on the S. side profess Christianity ; those on the N. Mahomet- 
 anism. The Dutch have possessed the island since 1627. 
 Pop. 4000. 
 
 BOPAL. See BHOPAUL. 
 
 BOPPART, or BOPPARD, an anc. tn. Prussia, prov. 
 Rhine, 1. bank of that river, where it is joined by the Konigs- 
 bach, 9 m. S. Coblenz. The houses arc mostly of wood, and 
 the streets narrow, ill paved, dark, and dirty. It has several 
 large worsted and cotton factories ; considerable manufactures 
 of linen, hosiery, tobacco-pipes, and leather; and numerous 
 mills. Pop. 3654. 
 
 BORABOKA, BOLABOLA, or BONABONA, one of the 
 Society Islands, S. Pacific Ocean; lat. 16 30 S. ; Ion. 
 151 45 30" W. (R.) It is about 21 m. in circumference, and 
 presents a singularly picturesque appearance) from the sea. 
 
 TIIK ISLAND Oi EOEABORA F 
 
 Duperrey, Voyage atourdu Monde. 
 
 from which it rises abruptly in the form of a lofty double- 
 peaked mountain, the highest summit of which, called Piton, 
 attains an elevation of 1095 feet. The sudden ascent of the 
 land from the sea is, however, more apparent than real, there 
 being a considerable margin of level ground next the water, 
 which is fertile, and covered with cocoa palms, and bread 
 
 fruit trees. Borabora 
 
 is in an atol or lagoon, being sur 
 
 rounded by a chaplet or ring of coral ; the water within which, 
 as usual in such cases, is remarkably pure and limpid. The 
 island abounds with albatrosses, several kinds of petrel, and 
 other birds, including woodpeckers, and small perroquets of 
 rich and splendid plumage. Domestic fowls also are numer 
 ous, and were found on this, and the adjoining islands, when 
 
 first visited by Europeans. 
 
 Captain Cook in July 1769. Pop. 1800. 
 
 Borabora was discovered by 
 
 >^r* 1 QAA 
 
 BORAS, a tn. Sweden, Wernersborgs or Elfsborgs, Ian 
 on the Wiske-an, 35 m. E. Gbteborg or Gottenburg, sur 
 rounded by mountains and forests, and in an unfertile district. 
 It is regularly built, is the centre of some local trade ; and in 
 and around the town, spinning, weaving, and working in 
 timber are carried on. The most important works are the 
 
 dyeworks. In the vicinity is a mineral well. The town was 
 founded by Gustavus Adolplius, in 1632. Pop. 2328. 
 
 BORBA, a tn. Portugal, prov. Alemtejo, dist. of, and 
 19 m. W.S.W. Elbas. It is surrounded with walls, and has 
 an old castle, two churches, three monasteries, an hospital, 
 and a poorhouse. Its annual fair is of some importance. 
 Pop. 2636. 
 
 BORBA, a poor old tn. Brazil, prov. Para, advantageously 
 situated on an eminence, r. bank, Madeira, about 70 in. above 
 its embouchure in the Amazon ; lat. 4 22 S. ; Ion. 59 30 W. 
 It has a church, and is a resting-place for the canoes navi 
 gating the Madeira. Tobacco and cacao are cultivated in the 
 vicinity to a considerable extent, for export. The inhabitants 
 live much on the flesh of the tortoise, which is here abundant. 
 BORBOREMA, a mountain-range, Brazil, forming the 
 S. boundary of prov. Ceara, and trending N.W. to the sea, 
 through prov. Eio-Grande-do-Norte. In general it is well 
 wooded, presents a vigorous vegetation, and, from its con 
 siderable height, has a low temperature. 
 BORCETTE. See BURTSCHEID.* 
 BORCULO, or BORKELO, a small tn. Holland, prov. 
 Gelderland, 15 m. E. Zutphen, on the Berkel. It derives its 
 importance from the royal stud kept at the old castle of Bor- 
 culo, the lordship of which was bought by William V., Prince 
 of Orange, from Prince Adam Czartorinski, in 1777. A stud 
 of above 100 of the finest horses and mares is kept on the 
 grounds, and has greatly contributed to the improvement of 
 the breed in Holland. The district round Borculo is purely 
 agricultural ; eight-ninths of the inhabitants Reformed, one- 
 ninth E. Catholics. Pop. of tn. and par. 3750. 
 BORCUM. See BORKHUM. 
 
 BORDEAUX [anc. Burdigala], an important commer 
 cial and maritime city, France, cap. dep. Gironde, and of the 
 llth military division of the kingdom, 284m. S.W. Paris; 
 lat. 44 50 18" N.; Ion. 34 30" W. (R.) ; 1. bank, Garonne, 
 57 m. from its mouth. The approach to it by the Paris road 
 from the E. is very striking. The 
 road winds round the shoulder 
 of a hill, consisting of gently 
 terraced slopes ; and on reaching 
 its foot, leads, by a straight 
 avenue 2 m. long, to a magni 
 ficent stone bridge of 17 arches, 
 which spans the Garonne, and 
 was erected in 1821, at an ex 
 pense of 260,000. This bridge 
 furnishes perhaps the finest view 
 of the city, which is built in a 
 crescent form, along the bend 
 of the river, lined with magni 
 ficent quays for more than 3m., 
 while Gothic towers and antique 
 spires rise behind, and form the 
 most conspicuous objects in the 
 background. Bordeaux consists 
 of an old and a new town, the 
 boundary between them being 
 formed by the Rue de Chapeau 
 Rouge, a wide and handsome street, which, commencing 
 at the quay near the centre of the crescent at the Bourse, 
 stretches across the city E. to W. The old town, lying to 
 the S. of this street, is chiefly composed of irregular squares, 
 and narrow, crooked streets, with houses which, though sub 
 stantially built of hewn stone, are mean and ugly. In this 
 respect they present a striking contrast to the new town, 
 which is laid out with great regularity, and on a scale of 
 magnificence not surpassed by any provincial town in Europe. 
 The streets, squares, and avenues are of the most splendid 
 description, and, in particular, the Faubourg des Chartrons 
 in the N.E., is composed of edifices which at once indicate 
 the good taste and great wealth of their inhabitants. The 
 objects chiefly deserving of notice in the old town are the 
 triumphal arch, called Porte de Bourgogne, placed at the 
 extremity of the bridge, and forming the principal entrance 
 to the town ; the cathedral, a fine Gothic edifice, said to date 
 from the ninth century, but destroyed by the Normans, and 
 rebuilt in the 13th century by the English, who are said to 
 have given it its two elegant spires, 150 ft. high ; St. Michael s 
 Church, in the line of the bridge, distinguished by its lofty 
 
BORDEAUX 
 
 449 
 
 BOEDWELL 
 
 detached tower, superb front of florid, Gothic, and rose window, 
 framed w ithin a richly decorated arch ; the church of St. Croix, 
 at the S. extremity of the town, a specimen of gorgeous 
 Romanesque, witli rows of curious bas-reliefs, and elaborately 
 carved mouldings; the Bourse or exchange, and custom 
 house, both on the quay, not far from the Rue de Chapeau 
 Rouge; the Hotel de Ville, once the residence of the Arch 
 bishops of Bordeaux; and, in its neighbourhood, the Palais 
 
 1. Cathedral. 
 
 5. Custom-house. 
 
 9. Hotel dc Ville. 
 
 b. Place n.iupMiie. 
 
 igghSS 
 
 8. Palais de Justice. 
 
 11. Porte and Place Ue 
 Boureoan. . 
 a. Pluce Philippe I. 
 
 d. Place liov.lr. 
 f. PtaceU^Aci mtilii 1 : 
 
 de Justice. The new town is not so rich in public buildings. 
 The most conspicuous are the library (containing about 130,000 
 volumes), the museum, and the theatre, the latter regarded as 
 the handsomest edifice in Bordeaux, a Grecian structure, with 
 a Corinthian portico of 12 arches, finely situated in an open 
 space on the N. side of the Chapeau Rouge. Among the 
 beneficent establishments, the first place is due to the grand 
 hospital or infirmary, which occupies the highest site in the 
 town, is admirably arranged, and can accommodate above 700 
 patients. Few cities are so well supplied with extensive and 
 finely planted promenades. Among others may be named those 
 of the Place originally called Louis XVI., and subsequently 
 Philippe IV., Tourny, d Albret, and the Jardin Publique. 
 
 Bordeaux is the seat of a royal court of appeal for the de 
 partments of Gironde, Charente, and Dordogne ; of courts of 
 first resort, and of commerce ; and has an academy, faculty 
 of theology, of letters, and of sciences ; a theological seminary, 
 secondary school of medicine, royal college, school of hydro 
 graphy and navigation (first class) ; school of painting and de 
 sign, botanic garden, observatory, chamber of commerce, and 
 bank, founded in 1818. There are consuls resident here 
 from all the States of Europe, and from the States of America. 
 Bordeaux is also the seat of an archbishopric, of which the 
 diocese comprehends the department of Gironde, and is me 
 tropolitari to the sees of Agen, Angouleme, Poitiers, Peri- 
 gueux, La Rochelle, and Lit9on. 
 
 The position of Bordeaux on the Garonne gives it admirable 
 facilities for trade, and enables it to rank as the second sea 
 port of the kingdom. The river, opposite to the town, is 
 2000 ft. wide, and deep enough to float vessels of 1200 tons. 
 Up to the bridge its noble quays are lined, and its channel 
 almost covered, with shipping. Besides the immediate access 
 to the sea by the river, Bordeaux has the advantage of a direct 
 communication with the Mediterranean by the canal of Lan- 
 guedoc, and is thereby enabled to supply the S. of France 
 with colonial produce as cheaply as Marseilles. The only 
 railway Bordeaux yet possesses is a short line to Teste, on 
 the coast. Another, to connect it with Tours, and thereby 
 with Paris, is in course of construction. The chief exports 
 are, wine (to the extent, annually, of nearly 80,000 pipes), 
 VOL. I. 
 
 brandy, and fruit. In addition to the articles already men 
 tioned, the trade includes grain, hemp, flax, tar, rosin, tur 
 pentine, oil, soap, leather, ironware, cotton twist, and cotton 
 and linen goods, timber, &c. In 1846, the number of vessels 
 which entered the port was 918; tonn. 143,228; cleared, 
 727; tonn. 134,542. In 1843, 48 vessels (tonn. 6637) were 
 engaged in the cod-fishery; but, in 1846, they had fallen off 
 to 11 ; tonn. 847. The whale-fishery, at one time carried on 
 here to a considerable extent, seems to 
 be altogether abandoned. The value 
 of goods placed in bond, in 1846, was 
 2,108,903; taken out, 2,268,492. 
 The number of vessels belonging to the 
 port in same year, was 374 ; tonn. 
 60,980. Though Bordeaux depends 
 chiefly on its commerce, it is by no 
 means destitute of manufactures. These 
 include woollen, linen, and cotton goods, 
 gloves, hosiery, soap, chemicals, tobac- 
 co,and cordage ; but perhaps the most 
 important of all is shipbuilding, for 
 carrying on which admirable yards have 
 been provided. 
 
 Bordeaux is mentioned by Strabo and 
 Ptolemy, under the name of Burdigala, 
 and the Romans made it the capital of 
 the second Aquitania. Ausonius, the 
 Latin poet, has left a description of it 
 as it appeared in the fourth century, 
 after which, it suffered from the numer 
 ous tribes who ravaged the S. of Eu 
 rope towards the decline of the Roman 
 empire. In 1132, it passed into the 
 hands of the English by the marriage of 
 Eleanor of Guienne, with Henry, Duke 
 of Normandy, afterwards King of Eng 
 land, and remained in their possession 
 till it was taken from them in 1451. At 
 that period the Bordelais were much 
 more attached to England than to France, and were so 
 averse to the change, that they revolted the following year, 
 although without success. In 1548, Henry II., who had 
 recently come to the throne, having resolved to take ven 
 geance on the town, for some disturbance which had taken 
 place in it, despatched an army, under the command of Duke 
 de Montmorency, who has rendered his name infamous by the 
 cruelties he committed. A Bordelais was hanged at every 
 tenth house, and the municipal authorities were executed in 
 the public square. In modern times, Bordeaux has been 
 rather attached to the Bourbon interest. Eighteen councils 
 have been held at it. The Latin poet, Ausonius, was a native 
 of Bordeaux, as were also Edward the Black Prince, and his 
 son Richard II., Pope Clement, and the celebrated painter 
 Carle Vernet. Pop. 120,203. 
 
 BOKDEL AIS, a dist. France, which formed part of prov. 
 Guienne, and had Bordeaux for its capital. It now forms 
 almost the whole of dep. Gironde, and part of dep. Landes. 
 BORDEN, par. Eng. Kent ; 2010 ac. Pop. 860. 
 BORDENTOWN, a tn., U. States, New Jersey, co. Bur 
 lington, 1. bank, Delaware, 26 m. N.E. Philadelphia, and on 
 the railway to New York ; built on a plain, 65 ft. above 
 the level of the river ; is a cleanly and healthy town ; and was 
 the place of residence, during his stay in America, of Joseph 
 Bonaparte, who erected here a splendid mansion, surrounded 
 by extensive and highly ornamented grounds. It is a favourite 
 resort of the people of Philadelphia in the summer season. 
 Pop. 1800. 
 
 BORDESHOLM [formerly Bardeslwlm], a vil. Denmark, 
 Holstein, cap. bail., and on a lake of same name ; and also on 
 the railway between Altona and Kiel, and llm. S.S.W. the 
 latter town. It contains a large church, which once belonged 
 
 to a monastery of Augustines, and was built in 1332. The 
 
 BAILIWICK has an area of 64 geo. sq. m. and is traversed by 
 the Eider, which divides it into two nearly equal parts. Pop. 
 of vil. 433; of bail. 8820. 
 
 BORDOE, one of the Faroe Islands, belonging to Den 
 mark. It belongs to the Norderbe group, which contains six 
 inhabited islands. Pop. 300. 
 
 BORDWELL, par. Irel. Queen s co. ; 2805 ac. Pop. 957. 
 
 67 
 
BOKEE 
 
 450 
 
 EORJA 
 
 BOREE, a large fortified tn. Afghanistan, prov. Sewestan, 
 on the route called the Boree Pass, leading from Dera Ghazee 
 Khan to Kandahar and Ghuznee; lat. 31 N.; Ion. 69 10 E. ; 
 185 m. S.S.E. Ghuznee. The country around is fertile, well 
 cultivated, and has a dense population, almost exclusively 
 agricultural. 
 
 BOREEL, or FRIAR ISLANDS, a group of small islets, 
 S.E. coast, Van Diemen s Land, off the most S. point of 
 Brune Island; lat. 43 32 S.; Ion. 147 21 E. (R.) 
 
 BOREHAM, par. Eng. Essex; 3820 ac. Pop. 1054. 
 
 BORERAY. 1, A fertile isl. Scotland, Hebrides, N. 
 from North Uist ; length, 1 J m. : breadth, about half a mile. 
 2, An islet, Scotland, Hebrides; about 2 m. N. St. Kilda. 
 
 BORG (TEH), BUKG, or TER-BUKG, a tn. Holland, prov. 
 Gelderland, on the Old Ijssel, 9 m. S.E. Zutphen. It is 
 open, and beautifully situated amid woods, and has a Reformed 
 and a R. Catholic church, and a school. The inhabitants, 
 though chiefly agricultural, have a little trade, and an iron- 
 foundry. At one time there was much traffic through Ter- 
 Burg to and from Germany, but the badness of the roads has 
 diverted it to other places. Pop. 700. 
 
 BORGA, a seaport tn. Finnish Russia, dist. Nyland, 82 m. 
 N.N.E. Revel, on the Borga-A, near where it falls into the 
 Gulf of Finland; lat. 60 22 N.; Ion. 25 45 E. It has 
 miserable houses, crooked streets, and is the seat of a Lutheran 
 bishop, and chief place of one of the two eparchies of Finland. 
 It possesses a stone cathedral, a wood en church, a gymnasium, 
 and small public library; and has some manufactures of linens 
 and woollens ; but its harbour is bad, and its trade insignifi 
 cant. Pop. 2500, nearly all Swedes. 
 
 BORGEXTREICH, a tn. Prussia, Westphalia, gov. 
 Minden, circle of, and about 7 m. N.E. Warburg. It con 
 tains a R. Catholic parish church, and a synagogue. The 
 inhabitants live chiefly by agriculture. Pop. 1733. 
 
 BORGERHOUT, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Antwerp, 
 on the high road from Antwerp to Turnhout ; with bleach- 
 fields, dyeworks, and corn mills. Pop. 4491. 
 
 BORGHETTO, a tn. and com. Austrian Italy, prov. of, 
 and 7 m. S. Lodi ; on the streamlet Silero, 2 m. from its 
 junction with the Lambro. An annual cattle-fair is held here 
 in August. Pop. 4837. 
 
 BORGHOLM, a tn. Sweden, isl. Oland, and the only one 
 on it. It has a good harbour for coasters ; was founded in 
 1817; and is increasing. Pop. 320. 
 
 BORGIA, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Ultra, 6 m. S.W. 
 Catanzaro; almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 
 1783, and rebuilt nearly on its former site by Ferdinand IV. 
 It has a parish church, and wine and silk of good quality are 
 produced in the neighbourhood. Pop. 3497. 
 
 BORGNE BAY, or GULF, U. States, Louisiana, con 
 nects with the Gulf of Mexico by Pascagoula Sound, and on 
 the N.W. with Lake Pontchartrain. It is about 40 m. long, 
 and 15 broad. 
 
 BORGO, with various affixes, the name of numerous 
 towns, Italy: 1, Boryo Forte, a tn. Austrian Italy, cap. dist. 
 of same name, prov. of, and 9 in. S.S.W. Mantua, 1. bank, Po, 
 
 defended by a citadel, now ruinous. Pop. 3186.- The 
 
 DISTRICT, much exposed to the inundations of the Po, is 
 marshy and unhealthy. Pop. 7353. 2, Borgo Franco, a tn. 
 and com. Austrian Italy, prov. of, and 24 m. S.E. Mantua, 
 r. bank, Po. The vicinity is marshy. Pop. 2000. 3, Borgo 
 Lanezzano, a tn. and com. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 9 m. 
 S.E. Novara, on the Arbogna. Silkworms are reared to a 
 large extent in the vicinity, and the town has several silk 
 spinning-milis. Two annual fairs are held. Pop. 4000. 
 4, Boryo Franco, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 3 m. 
 N.N. W. Ivrea, near 1. bank, Doire. Fine grain and fruits are 
 produced here. Pop. 1800. 5, Borgo Manero, a tn. and com. 
 Sardinian States, prov. of, and 17 m. N.N.W. Novara, on the 
 Gogna. It has a college, hospital, and several convents. 
 Pop. 6000. 6, Borgo Sesia, a tn. and com. Sardinian States, 
 prov. Val-de-Sesia, 1. bank, river of same name; with manu 
 factures of silk. Pop. 2384. 7, Borgo-san-Dalmazzo, a tn. 
 and com. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 5 m. S.W. Cuneo. 
 It has an ancient Benedictine abbey, and a tolerably active 
 commerce. In the neighbourhood are iron and copper works, 
 and grain and fruits are grown. Pop. 3000. 8, Borgo-san- 
 Donnino, a small city, duchy of Parma, cap. dist. of same 
 name, and see of a bishop, suffragan to the Archbishop of 
 
 Bologna; in an agreeable plain, r. bank, Stirone, 15 m. N.W. 
 Parma. It is surrounded by walls, has several good streets, 
 a cathedral, four parish churches, a college, Hebrew, and 
 some other schools and literary institutions ; a ducal palace, 
 Gothic townhouse, hospital, theatre, cavalry barracks, several 
 convents, public baths, and storehouses. Manufactures: 
 woollen, linen, and silken fabrics, oil, and wine. An annual 
 fair is held in October. This town obtained its name from 
 
 St. Donninus, who was beheaded here in 304. Pop. 3829. 
 
 The DISTRICT is well watered and fertile, about 38 m. long, and 
 16 broad ; area, 706 sq. m. Pop. 130,1 95. 9, Borgo-a-Muz- 
 zano, a tn. duchy of Lucca, cap. dist. of same name, 13 m. N. 
 Lucca, r. bank, Serchio. Pop. 1500. 10, Borgonovo (in 
 Valtidone], a tn. and com. duchy of Piacenza, 3 m. S. by E. 
 Castel-san-Giovanni, in a plain at the foot of Mount Valti 
 done. The vicinity is mountainous, but the valleys are fer 
 tile. Forests of oak, beech, chestnut, &c., cover the hill 
 sides, and much cattle is reared. Pop. 5252. 1 1, Borgo-san 
 Bernardino, or Betiola-san-Bernardino, a tn. and com. Italy, 
 duchy of, and 20 m. S. Piacenza, 1. bank, Nure. The vicinity 
 is mountainous, and covered with forests. The valleys are 
 fruitful, and cattle and pigs are reared in great numbers. Pop. 
 5252. 12, Borgo-san-Lorenzo, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. 
 of, and 15 m. N. Florence, on the Sieve. Grain and fruits are 
 good and abundant here, and cattle are reared. Pop. 3225. 
 
 BORGO-DI-VAL-SUGANA, a tn. Austria, Tyrol, in the 
 valley of the Sugana, on the Brenta, 12 m. E. by S. Trent. 
 It is well built, has a parish church, with three fine pictures, 
 a Franciscan monastery, which was founded in 1603, several 
 schools, an hospital, richly endowed ; a theatre, a mineral spring, 
 and a handsome stone bridge over the Breuta. The raising 
 of silk employs about 340 persons. Pop. 3450. 
 
 BORGOBRUND, a vil. Austria, Transylvania, co. Dobak, 
 cap. dist. of same name, 12 m. N.E. Bistritz, at the entrance of 
 a pass over the Carpathians, leading from Transylvania into 
 Bukowina. It contains a Greek non-united church, and has 
 some manufactures of earthenware, particularly tobacco-pipes. 
 The whole district is mountainous. Pop. about 800. 
 
 BORGOMANERO, a tn. Sardinian States, Piedmont, 
 prov. of, and 18 m. N.N.W. Novara, l.Lank, Gogna, and nearly 
 equidistant from the S. extremities of Lakes Maggiore and 
 Orta. It is walled and well built, and contains a communal 
 college, several convents, an hospital, a mont-de-pitte, &c. It 
 lias little trade, but some manufactures, and three annual fairs. 
 Pop. 6000. 
 
 BORGOO, three countries, interior Africa: 1, A country 
 in the land of the Tibboos or Tippoos, 15 days journey S. 
 Fezzan. 2, A country, four days journey S.S.E. the former, 
 and called also Waday (which see}. 3, A country on the S.W. 
 frontier of Houssa, and separated from it by the Joliba or 
 Niger, and bounded S. by Dahomey and Yaribba. 
 
 BORGOTARO, a small tn. Italy, Parma, cap. dist. of 
 same name, 32 m. S.W. Parma, 1. bank, Taro. It is well 
 built, surrounded by walls, has three gates, handsome streets, 
 two churches, town and session houses, an hospital, public 
 library, cavalry barracks, theatre, some schools, and public 
 
 fountains. Four annual fairs are held here. Pop. 2687. 
 
 The DISTRICT of Borgotaro is hilly, and well wooded ; area, 
 489 sq. m. Pop. 48,784. 
 
 BORGUE, a par. and vil. Scotland, stewartry of Kirk 
 cudbright ; area, 40 sq. m. ; interesting ruins of the tower of 
 Balmangan, and Plunton Castle. Pop. 1117. 
 
 BOR1SSOFF, or BORYSSOW, a tn. Russia, cap. dist. of 
 same name, gov. of, and 44 m. N.E. Minsk, 1. bank, Berezina. 
 Near to Borissoff, at the village of Stoudianka, the French 
 made their disastrous passage over the Berezina. Pop. 2700. 
 
 BORISSOGLEBSK, two tns. Russia:!, A tn., gov. of, 
 and 55 m. N.W. Yaroslav, r. bank, Wolga, opposite Romanov, 
 built among woods. It has several forges, chiefly employed 
 in making iron pots, and some trade in grain and fish. Pop. 
 about 4000. 2, A tn., cap. dist. of same name, gov. of, and 
 102 m. S.E. Sambov, on the Vorona, near its junction witli 
 the Khoper. It contains two churches, and is an entrepot for 
 some inland traffic by water. Pop. about 2000. 
 
 BORJA, a city, Spain, Aragon, prov. of, and 38 m. W. 
 by N. Saragossa, at the foot of a small hill, on the top of 
 which stand the remains of an ancient castle. It has well- 
 built and paved streets and squares, a collegiate, and two 
 other churches, a college, two endowed schools, townhouse, 
 
BORJAS 
 
 451 
 
 BORNEO 
 
 two prisons, an hospital, a storehouse, three convents, and a 
 cemetery. Manufactures: cloth, blankets, silk, hempen 
 fabrics, and brandy. Pop., chiefly agricultural, 4239. 
 
 BORJAS, a tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, and 14m. E. 
 by S. Lerida, tolerably well built, and having a parish church, 
 a chapel, townhall, session-house, an endowed school, hospital, 
 prison, and storehouse. Pop., exclusively agricultural, 2000. 
 
 BORKAI, or BOKGUI. 1, A bay, Arctic Ocean, Siberian 
 coast, between lat. 70 4 and 72 N. ; Ion. 129 and 133 E. 
 2, A cape, forming the N.E. boundary of the above. 
 
 BORKEN. 1, A tn. and circle, Prussia, gov. Minister. 
 The TOWN lies on the Ahe, 34 m. W.S.W. MUnster, has a 
 chicory factory, and both manufactures and deals largely in 
 
 linen. Pop. 3000. The CIRCLE, area, 190 geo. sq. m., is 
 
 undulating and well wooded, fertile, and well cultivated, and 
 rears a great number of cattle. Its manufactures of woollen, 
 silk, and cotton stuffs, worsted, chicory, and cutlery, are also 
 
 extensive. Pop. 41,372. 2, A tn. Hesse Cassel, prov. 
 
 Niederhessen, circle of, and 4 in. W.N.W. Homberg; on the 
 Olmsbach, at the N. foot of a little basaltic hill, on which a 
 strong castle of the noble family of Borken once stood. It 
 contains a church, synagogue, burgher school, and hospital. 
 The inhabitants depend chieily on agriculture ; five yearly 
 markets. Pop. 1373. 
 
 BORKHUM, BOEKUM, or BOECUM [Latin, Burchania], 
 an isl., N. Sea, belonging to Hanover, off the mouth of the 
 Ems, bail. Pewsum ; lat. (lighthouse) 53 35 30 N. ; Ion. 
 6 40 42" E. (R.); about 14m. in circumference. At high 
 water, the sea flows through a hollow in the centre of the 
 island, and divides it into two nearly equal parts. Borkhum 
 is a parish. Its church has a tower 154 ft. high, which is 
 used as a lighthouse, and provided with English lamps, and 
 28 parabolic reflectors, which guide the entrance into the Dol- 
 iart. Most of the male inhabitants are seamen ; the remainder 
 support themselves by husbandry, gardening, and the rearing 
 of cattle. Pop. about 500. 
 
 BORLEY, par. Eng. Essex; 730 ac. Pop. 188. 
 
 BORMIDA, a river, Sardinia, which rises in the Maritime 
 Alps, near Mount Calvi, and in two branches, the one called 
 the W., and the other the E. The Bormida proceeds N. to Bis- 
 tagno, where the two branches unite. It turns E. till it passes 
 Acqui, near which it resumes its N. course, and, after receiving 
 the Orba, joins r. bank, Tanaro, 2 m. E. Alexandria. 
 
 BORM10 [German, Worms], a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. 
 Milan, on the route of the Steivio, 31 m. N.E. Sondrio, in the 
 valley of, and on r. bank, Adda, 4550 ft. above the sea level. 
 Near it, upon the side of Mount Braglio, are hot saline springs 
 and baths (100 Fall.), celebrated by Cassiodorus, and much 
 frequented by invalids. It enjoyed a considerable trade with 
 Venice and the Grisons, but in 1799 it was partly burnt by 
 the French, when it fell into decay, but is again reviving 
 Pop. 2500. 
 
 BORNA, a tn. and bail. Saxony, circle of, and 17 m. 
 S.S.E. Leipzig. The inhabitants live by spinning, weaving, 
 and the ordinary handicrafts. Pop. of tn. 3800 ; of bail. 30,988. 
 
 BORNABI, or ASCENSION, one of the Caroline Islands, 
 N. Pacific Ocean ; lat. 6 48 N. ; Ion. 158 25 E. It is about 
 80 m. in circumference, of volcanic formation, and so lofty, 
 that it may be seen, in clear weather, 40 m. from a ship s 
 deck. It is surrounded by coral reefs, between which and 
 the island are many small islets, that do not rise more than 
 a few feet above the water, yet are covered with cocoa-nut 
 trees and other timber. Bornabi having more communica 
 tion with strangers, on account of its good harbours, than 
 any of the surrounding islands, is much resorted to by their 
 inhabitants for the purpose of obtaining tobacco and other 
 foreign commodities. The two principal harbours, Matalanien 
 and Koan Kiddi, are situate, the former on the N.E. side of 
 the island, the latter on the S. side. They are much fre 
 quented by whalers. (Nautical Magazine, 1848.) 
 
 BORNEO, an isl. Indian Archipelago, lying under the 
 equator, and nearly bisected by meridian 114 E. Except 
 ing Australia, it is the largest island on the globe. Its most 
 N. point (Cape Sampanmangio) is in lat. 7 5 N. ; its most S. 
 (Cape Salatan) in lat. 4 13 S., so that it extends through 
 12 18 of latitude; while, in longitude, it stretches through 
 10 28 , from Cape Pandan on the W. (108 52 E.), to Cape 
 Oonsang on the E. (in 119 20 ). The form of Borneo is that 
 of an irregular pentagon, with a small rhomboid attached to 
 
 it on the side facing the N.E.; or, to use a homely similitude, 
 it may be compared to a shoulder of mutton the knee-joint 
 pointing to the N.E., and the blade-bone expanding to the 
 S.E. The greatest length of the island is in the direction 
 of N.E. by N., and S. W. by S., from Cape Sampanmangio to 
 Cape Sambar, a distance of 850 m. ; its width, taken at right 
 angles to the direction here inlicated, is, in some places, 600 
 m., but diminishes towards the N. The area cannot fall short 
 of 270,000 sq. m.; and, consequently, exceeds threefold that 
 of Great Britain. 
 
 Surrounding Seas. Borneo forms the central mass of the 
 Archipelago which extends from Sumatra in the W., to the 
 Moluccas and Philippine Islands in the E. ; and which is 
 sharply circumscribed, on the S., by the chain of islands that 
 stretches from Java to the Arru group, in the vicinity of Papua. 
 The seas surrounding it are variously denominated from the 
 adjoining shores. From N. to S.\V., it is washed by the 
 Chinese Sea, which, narrowing in the latter direction, be- j 
 tween Cape Sambar arid the island of Biliton, takes the name 
 of the Straits of Carimata. On the S., Borneo faces the Sea 
 of Java ; on the E., it is separated from Celebes by the Straits 
 of Macassar ; N. of which, from Cape Kanioongan to Cape 
 Oonsang, a distance of 250 geo. m., its shores are washed by 
 the Sea of Celebes. From the vicinity of Cape Oonsang (lat. 
 5 N.), the Sooloo Islands extend across, in an E.N.E. direc 
 tion, to Mindanao ; and N. of them is the Sea of Mindoro, 
 which mixes its waters with those of the Chinese Sea, at the 
 N. point of Borneo. The coasts of this great island are beset 
 by numerous reefs, which, in many places, rise into count 
 less islets ; and further off lie clusters of islands, such as those 
 of Balabalagan, or Little Paternosters, in the Straits of Macas 
 sar ; of Carimata, in the straits of the same name ; and the 
 islands of Tambelan and Natuna, in the Chinese Sea. These 
 insular groups, usually considered, with little reason, as be 
 longing to Borneo, are as yet hardly known in detail. 
 
 General Aspect. Though the mountains of Borneo are, in 
 some places, visible from the sea, particularly off its N. coasts, 
 yet the general character of its shores is that of mangrove 
 wastes, or of interminable low plains, liable to inundation, 
 and covered with dense forests. The parts frequented by 
 Europeans are chiefly in the vicinity of great rivers, which 
 form extensive deltas, wherein there is hardly anything to be 
 seen but the water and the impervious forest. There must, 
 of course, be a great extent of elevated country in the inte 
 rior, whence descend the innumerable streams intersecting 
 the maritime tracts ; but still there is reason to believe that 
 a very large portion of Borneo consists of immense alluvial 
 
 Elains of the greatest fertility, and raised but little above the 
 jvel of the sea. 
 
 Mountains. The mountains in the interior of Borneo, it has 
 been already observed, become more conspicuous towards the 
 N. The highest of them, Kinibaloo, in lat. 6 8 N., and 
 Ion. 116 33 E., attains an elevation of 13,680 ft. On the E. 
 side of this mountain, there is said to be a great lake of the 
 same name, from which, if the accounts of natives are to be 
 relied on, issue numerous rivers. From this culminating 
 point, a chain of mountains may be conjectured to extend 
 S.W. throughout the whole extent of the island, terminating 
 a little E. of Cape Sambar. From about lat. 2 N., and from 
 that part of the central ridge named Anga-anga, a ramification, 
 known in its successive portions as the Longooloo and Sakoo- 
 roo Mountains, extends E. by S. to Cape Kanioongan, lat. 
 1 N. A second ramification leaves the central ridge further 
 S., and, running S.E. about 200 m., turns S., and finally S. W., 
 till it terminates in Cape Salatan, the most S. point of the 
 island. Again, from the mountains of Madei, in the central 
 region, lat. 1 N., a chain of mountains runs W. about 200 m., 
 and then N., till it ends in Mount Pangi, near Cape [Tanjong] 
 Datoo, lat. 2 5 N. Thus it appears that Borneo, the moun 
 tain chains of which all branch out from one central nucleus, 
 resembles the neighbouring island of Celebes in its formation 
 much more closely than might be suspected from the hasty 
 comparison of their figures on the map. For if the former 
 island were sunk 1000 ft., or even 500 ft, it would lose 
 immediately its compact form, and its mountain-ranges would 
 figure as narrow peninsulas, some hundreds of miles in length, 
 separated by immense gulfs instead of alluvial plains. The 
 following list of heights all, probably, with exception of 
 I the first and last, to be considered only as rough estimates 
 
BORNEO 
 
 452 
 
 BORNEO 
 
 may serve to give some idea of the configuration of the 
 country : 
 
 F<*k 
 
 Kinibaloo 13,680 
 
 Karaintmg, the. S.W. chain 6,500 
 
 Luangi, S.K. chain, above the sources of the Nagiira 6,300 
 
 Meratoos, same chain further S 4,000 
 
 Batang Loopar, W. chain, E. of Sarawak 4,000 
 
 S^}W. chain, S. of Sarawak l;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;!^ 
 
 Pandan, in Sambas 3,000 
 
 Santobong, at the mouth of the river Sarawak 2,050 
 
 JRivcrs. The rivers are, in general, tide-rivers, descending 
 in a winding course, and with little current, through vast level j 
 deltas, the lower portions of which are often overflowed by 
 the sea. Hence their mouths are nearly all barred or obstructed 
 by sand-banks ; and while, with broad streams and numerous 
 branches, they afford great advantages within for internal 
 communication, they are quite inaccessible from without by 
 vessels of moderate size. They are extremely numerous, and 
 still so little known, that it would be hazardous, in most cases, 
 to venture an opinion as to their relative importance. It will 
 be sufficient, in this place, to enumerate only the chief rivers 
 within each of the great basins or river regions marked out by 
 the chains of mountains described above. From Kinibaloo, 
 the mountains running S.W. and then W. to Cape Datoo, 
 confine a maritime tract 600 m. long, facing the N.W. and N., 
 and intersected, probably, by several hundreds of rivers ; the 
 direct course of which, however, from the mountains, can 
 hardly ever exceed 150 m. Towards the N., some of these 
 rivers descend with so lively a stream as to carry fresh water 
 to the sea-side, an advantage of rare occurrence on other parts 
 of the Bornean coast. In lat. 5 N. is the estuary of the 
 river of Brunai or Borneo Proper, which some describe as 
 the largest river of the whole island. It is in reality, how 
 ever, a stream of second or third-rate magnitude ; but has the 
 advantage of flowing in a single broad channel, easily entered 
 by ships of burden. Near lat. 2 N. are the mouths of the 
 Rejaug and the Sarebus, both great rivers ; the former being 
 nearly 1 m. wide 80 m. above its mouth. But the Batang 
 Loopar, about 50 m. further S., lat. 1 35 N., far exceeds 
 them ; and is, probably, the largest river in this region of 
 the island, being 4 or 5 m. wide, with depth of water suffi 
 cient for a frigate. Then follows, 40 m. \V., the Sarawak, a 
 river of comparatively short course, but offering, in its numer 
 ous branches, intersecting an extensive delta, extraordinary 
 facilities for internal communication. In the region confined 
 by the W. and S.W. chains, flow the Sambas, lat. 1 12 N., 
 as large a river as that of Brunai and the Kapooas, the most 
 N. mouth of which is under the equator. This is probably 
 the greatest river of Borneo ; its sources being 350 m. dis 
 tant, in a straight line ; while its winding course can hardly 
 be less than 700 m. in length. Between the S.W. and S. 
 chains of mountains, lies an immense alluvial expanse, watered 
 by numerous great rivers, the Pembooan, the Sampit, Men- 
 dawei, Kahajan, Murong, and Banjarmassin, or Banjar, in 
 creasing in magnitude towards the E. ; the last-named river 
 being the largest of all, and hardly inferior to the Kapooas. 
 It is connected by several arms, some of which are above 
 100 m. inland, with the Murong on the W., and thence again ! 
 with the Kahajan. The character of the country, through j 
 which it issues to the sea, is indicated by its name, Banjar- \ 
 massin, signifying usual or frequent inundation ; but this 
 name is given to it only in the flooded delta ; higher up it 
 is called the Dooson [village-river], its banks being occu 
 pied by a settled agricultural population. The valley of 
 the Nagara, an E. affluent of the Banjarmassin, the sources 
 of which are but three days journey distant from Pasir, 
 on the E. coast, is one of the most populous districts of the 
 whole island. The region enclosed between the S.E. and E. 
 chains (Pangaloo and Sakooroo), is drained by the Kootai, 
 a river not much inferior to. the Banjarmassin, but little 
 known. Its delta, embracing above 100 m. of coast on the 
 Straits of Macassar, begins a little S. of the equator. A 
 Dutch officer, Major G. M tiller, ascended this river in 1825, 
 for the purpose of exploring the interior, and had succeeded 
 in crossing the mountains into the valley of the Kapooas, 
 when he was unexpectedly attacked and killed by the natives. 
 N. of the E. chain, which terminates at Cape Kanioongan, lat. 
 1 N., the Pantai, or river of Berow, enters the sea in lat. 2 
 N. ; while the Sabanoon and Umara, both mouths of the Boo- 
 
 longan, lie respectively in lat. 2 45 and 2 52 N. These 
 rivers, though barred, are not inaccessible, and may be navi 
 gated a long way up. Further N., for some hundreds of miles, 
 the details of the coast are but little known, but the Kinaba- 
 tangan, in lat. 5 45 , is reported to be a great river. 
 
 Lakes. Of the lakes, little is known, and that little chiefly 
 through native information. The most celebrated of them is 
 that of Kinibaloo, E. side of the mountain of the same name. 
 About three degrees further S., near the source of the Boo- 
 longan, report places another great lake (no doubt erro 
 neously), to be, like the former, the source of many great 
 rivers. These two lakes are situate in or near the mountains. 
 In the alluvial plains also, particularly near the large rivers, 
 lakes are numerous, but not remarkable either for magnitude 
 or as interesting physical features. Yet the chain of lakes 
 which connects the Kapoo as and the Kotaringin is said to 
 prove that the principality of Matan, at the S.W. angle of 
 Borneo, was insulated, at a comparatively recent period, by 
 a narrow strait or arm of the sea. 
 
 Geology. Borneo being so little explored, its geological 
 formation is necessarily very imperfectly known. All that 
 can be done, therefore, is to bring together those ascertained 
 facts which seem to indicate the general structure of the 
 island. In Sarawak, granite, with the several allied varieties 
 of rock, prevail along the coast, the valleys being filled chiefly 
 with a detritus of feldspathic materials, while limestone 
 mountains encompass this district on the S. The Gunong 
 Eatoos [hundred mountains] also, a chain 3000 ft. high, 
 separating the Tanah-laut, or maritime country, at the S.E. 
 angle of the island, from the valley of the Banjarmassin, is 
 formed of granitic rocks, underlying, probably, the limestone, 
 which shows itself further N., in the same valley. In both 
 the granitic districts here mentioned, are found quartzose 
 masses, resembling scoriaj, widely disseminated, and contain 
 ing iron. It is in this diluvial formation of quartzose gravel, 
 reddened with oxide of iron, that the gold and diamonds of 
 Borneo are found in such abundance. In the vicinity of 
 Brunai or Borneo, and also in Labuan, 30 m. further N., 
 coal has been discovered, under circumstances which indicate 
 the existence of a large field of this valuable mineral. On 
 the river of Martapoora, also, E. of the town of Banjarmassin, 
 have been found beds of excellent coal. Basalts, and other 
 volcanic rocks, occur in Maludu Bay, at the N. end of the 
 island, and also at the falls of the Dooson, or Banjarmassin 
 river, where it issues from the mountains. Besides gold, 
 the annual produce of which has been estimated at a quarter 
 of a million, Borneo yields copper, tin, antimony, and iron, 
 which last is of the best quality. The diamonds are widely 
 disseminated in the red soil, but the largest are said to be 
 found on Mount Landa, in Pontianak. The business of 
 mining, for gold and diamonds, is wholly in the hands of 
 Chinese adventurers, and is carried on chiefly in Pontianak 
 and Sambas. 
 
 Climate. The wet season in Borneo begins in September, 
 and ends in April, during which time the rain falls heavily, 
 attended with much thunder and lightning, and violent 
 squalls. During the rest of the year, or the dry season, as 
 it is called, copious showers fall nearly every day. In the 
 equatorial parts, the winds are variable throughout the year, 
 sea-breezes, however, blowing close on shore. On the N. 
 shores, the monsoons are those of the Chinese Sea in general 
 N.E. from October to April, and S.W. the remainder of the 
 year ; on the S. shores, about Banjarmassin, the monsoons 
 resemble those of Java, being from the \V. and E. respectively, 
 in the seasons already mentioned. The heat is not by any 
 means so great as might be expected, from the geographical 
 position of the country a circumstance attributable, no doubt, 
 to the prevailing humidity, the vast extent of forest, screening 
 the ground, and itself incapable of accumulating or rever 
 berating heat, and to the frequency of the sea-breezes. In 
 Pontianak, the summer heat rarely exceeds 82 Fah. This 
 equability of temperature, and the atmospheric circulation, 
 may, perhaps, explain why the European visitors to the 
 swampy, luxuriant shores of Borneo, rarely complain of their 
 insalubrity. 
 
 Zoology. An equatorial land, exceeding France in extent, 
 varied and fertile, and still, for the most part, in a state of 
 nature, may well be supposed to teem with animal life in 
 great diversity of form. Here it will be sufficient to point 
 
BORNEO 
 
 453 
 
 BORNEO 
 
 out what is peculiar to, or characteristic of, Borneo, in the 
 department of Zoology. A great portion of this island is 
 covered with dense forests, excluding the light, and frequently 
 inundated beneath to a depth of some feet. In these secure 
 retreats lives the orang-outang (Simia satyrus), an animal 
 peculiar to Borneo and Sumatra. It is less formidable than 
 is commonly supposed, and rarely ventures to the ground ; 
 but, in running through the forest from bough to bough, or 
 on the compact foliage which forms its roof, it displays much 
 address and activity. Two other remarkable apes, the long- 
 nosed and the crested, inhabit the skirts of the same woods, 
 near the banks of rivers and lakes. The only gibbon (lar) 
 found in the island, haunts the fig-tree thickets on the slopes 
 of the mountains. In the mountainous districts is found also 
 the striped tiger (Felis macrocelis), which is here the chief 
 beast of prey, though not so powerful nor voracious as the 
 panther. But the most remarkable animal in Borneo, after the 
 orang-outang, is a singularly-whiskered carnivorous creature, 
 resembling at once the otter and ornithorhynchus, and which 
 lias received the scientific name of Potamophilus barbatus. 
 The bear, which spoils the cocoa-nut trees, and steals the 
 honey in the woods, does not appear to be a new species. A 
 porcupine (Hystrix fasciata) supplies a favourite food to the 
 natives, who say that this animal alone can feed with im 
 punity on the upas. There is reason to believe that neither 
 the elephant nor rhinoceros exist in Borneo , which possesses, 
 however, a peculiar species of hog (Stis barbatus}, distinguished 
 by its enormous whiskers and hideous aspect. The banteng, 
 a large and handsome species of buffalo, inhabits the moun 
 tains ; the napu, a musk, frequents the borders of the woods. 
 Of deer, only three species are known ; respecting one of 
 which, the murchac, it is said by the natives, that whoever 
 eats its flesh will die of cutaneous disease. In the rivers of 
 Borneo are three species of crocodile, one of which resembles 
 the gavial of the Ganges. Fish are extremely abundant along 
 the shores. In the Chinese Sea, all the reefs and islets are. 
 covered with oysters. In the Straits of Macassar, pearls and 
 mother-of-pearl are ordinary productions. 
 
 Botany. Of the countless forms of the vegetable kingdom 
 which clothe this prolific island, only a few can here be men 
 tioned. The cocoa-nut, betel, sago, and gomati, the fibre of 
 which serves to make cordage, are the palms most highly 
 esteemed by the natives. The Nipa fruticens also, which 
 adorns the banks of the rivers, where it invariably grows on 
 the side of the deep water, while the mangrove overspreads 
 the shallow side, is of great importance. Its scented flowers 
 feed the bees which furnish the wax exported in such quantity ; 
 its fruit resembles the cocoa-nut, and its branches serve to 
 form the roofs of houses. This must not be confounded with 
 the niebong, the leaves of which are used to cover the roofs, 
 and its exterior sheath of wood for flooring and boatbuilding. 
 A species of sugar-cane here grows wild, as well as a kind of 
 nutmeg (in this state flavourless), and a cinnamon, which has 
 a taste of cloves. The mountain sides, where there is a sand 
 stone soil, are covered with pine woods ; and still higher up, 
 the iron-wood tree (Diospyros) attains, with slow growth, 
 colossal dimensions. In the district of Sarawak, and probably 
 throughout the island, the gutta percha tree (Isonandra guttu] 
 is plentiful. It attains a diameter of 6 ft., and is called Niato 
 by the natives, who are ignorant of the use of its juice. 
 
 Inhabitants. The Europeans, who now arrogate the do 
 minions of the shores of Borneo, find themselves preceded in 
 that island by three different races the Chinese, the Malays, 
 and the Dyaks. The first of these are temporary visitors, 
 in constant circulation, and led to this country by the desire 
 of exercising a lucrative industry. The Malays are conquer 
 ors, who have issued from Sumatra or the Malayan Peninsula, 
 within the last five centuries, and have established themselves 
 on the coasts, throughout the Indian Archipelago, for the 
 sake of engrossing the commerce. In Borneo they are strictly 
 confined to the sea-board, and banks of the navigable rivers. 
 The interior of that great island still remains wholly to its 
 aboriginal possessors the Dyaks. But it must be observed, 
 that the native wild tribes of the interior are properly called 
 Dyaks only in the W. Dutch residences, and the adjoining 
 district of Sarawak ; in other parts, they are called Biajow, 
 Kajan, Marat, &c. Yet, notwithstanding the doubts and con 
 tradictions uttered on this subject in recent accounts of Bor 
 neo, it may be confidently assumed, that the nations owning 
 
 these various appellations are all connected together by the 
 ties of a common origin, a common language, and similar 
 manners, though varying in dialect and fashions, and divided 
 into numberless petty tribes, each of which usually bears the 
 name of the river whereon it is settled. 
 
 Dyaks. The Dyaks are of middling stature, well made, 
 but not vigorously developed. They are fairer than the 
 Malays, have good foreheads, regular features, and a frank, 
 agreeable aspect. Their eyes are somewhat oblique, and their 
 cheek-bones prominent, thus seeming to betray a mixture of 
 Mongolian blood. Their dress varies much in different parts 
 of the island. In general, they wear a cotton cloth round the 
 loins. The Doosons of the N. coast wear immense rings of 
 solid tin or copper round the lower parts of the body and 
 the shoulders ; while the Saghai of the S.E. are dressed in 
 
 DYAKS. 1. DOOSON. 2. SAGHAI 
 From Marryafa Borneo, and Belcher s Voyage of the Samar;m. 
 
 tigers skins and rich cloth, with splendid head-dresses made 
 of monkeys skins and the feathers of the argus pheasant. 
 Others wear rings of ratan, in place of metal ; the neck is 
 loaded with collars of human teeth, or of the teeth of apes 
 and wild boars; the head-dress is made of cloth, decked 
 with feathers, or of the bark of trees, with tufts of fibre resem 
 bling feathers. Their ears are loaded with as many heavy 
 rings as they can bear, which stretch the lobes immoderately. 
 Some tribes are tattooed in blue lines from head to foot, others 
 make war dresses of handsome peltry, preferring the skin 
 of the tiger. Their arms are a buckler of hard wood, a 
 spear, and sword or knife ; some tribes use also the sarbacan, 
 or sumpitan, a slender tube, about 5 feet long, through which 
 is blown a small dart, 9 inches long, and no thicker than 
 a strong wire, the point of which is dipped in a poison made 
 from the upas. The women s dress is becoming, but their 
 stays, made of bark, sometimes stiffened with rims of brass, 
 are sewed on them, and never removed except in case of preg 
 nancy. The Dyaks of the W. side of the island generally 
 dwell in sheds or houses, capacious enough to contain the 
 whole community ; some have been seen nearly 500 feet long, 
 and capable of lodging 400 people. These houses are uni 
 formly erected on piles of iron-wood, from 5 to 20 feet from 
 the ground. The floors are of split bamboo ; the roofs covered 
 with the leaf of the Niebong. Thin partitions of split cane 
 separate the apartments of the married people from the com 
 mon room ; the chief occupies the centre of the building, and 
 in front of his chamber, usually, a portion of the common hall 
 is set apart as the head-house. And here we are led to con 
 sider the most revolting characteristic of these people ; for the 
 Dyaks, though ordinarily neither fierce, treacherous, nor san 
 guinary, yet covet human heads ; and no man can marry till 
 he has won the object of his affections, by presenting to her 
 at least one of these horrid trophies. These fruits and memo- 
 
BORNEO 
 
 454 
 
 BORNEO 
 
 rials of murder are pickled, and, with, cowry shells in the 
 eye-sockets, and tufts of grass in the ears, are hung up in the 
 head-house. On festivals they are taken down to adorn 
 the persons of the heroes to whom they respectively belong, 
 who dance with these ornaments dangling at their sides, 
 suspended by belts over the shoulders. A similar custom of 
 obtaining heads is prevalent among the Alfoories of Celebes 
 and Ceram. The Dyaks, apart from Malayan influence, seem 
 to have no ideas of religion. They have no form of wor 
 ship, and no priests ; the only superstition distinctly recog 
 nized among them, consists in augury, or in attention to the 
 flight of several birds. Most of the tribes bury the dead ; 
 some burn the body, and others suspend the coffin from a 
 tree. In all cases, the head first acquired by the deceased 
 accompanies him to the grave. The Dyaks marry but one 
 wife, and though there is said to exist among them much 
 license before marriage, infidelity is rare. Their govern 
 ment seems to be republican ; their chiefs exercise influence, 
 but are not armed with effectual authority. These people, 
 even when turned cultivators, and residing in villages, still 
 retain a trace of nomadic habits ; when the fertility of their 
 rice grounds is exhausted, they abandon them, and settle 
 elsewhere. They have little industry, yet their sumpitans 
 or blow- pipes, their utensils of plaited cane, and their prahus, 
 often 50 feet long, are so many specimens of excellent work 
 manship. Some of the native tribes on the N. shores of 
 Borneo live much on the water, where they are always ready 
 to attack those who seem weaker than themselves. 
 
 Language. The language of the Dyaks is radically re 
 lated to the Malayan, both being apparently derived from that 
 primeval Polynesian language, the remains of which may 
 now be traced from Madagascar to the Sandwich Islands. It 
 is reported that in the mountainous interior of the island, N. 
 of the valley of the Banjarmassin, there exists a wild people 
 who go quite naked, live in trees, and shun all intercourse. 
 They are called by the S. tribes Orang Vut; on the W. coast 
 they are known as the Orang Bunan. 
 
 Chinese. The Chinese who crowd to the shores of Borneo 
 belong to the dregs of the people, yet in their newly-adopted 
 country they exhibit a decided superiority in social and in 
 dustrial capabilities, and their villages are patterns of good 
 order, comfort, and abundance. The mining business is wholly 
 in their hands, and, after some years labour, they return to 
 China, generally in good circumstances, enriched, it is supposed, 
 by the concealment of gold dust and diamonds. They are 
 accused of turbulence, that is to say, impatience of Malayan 
 rule, and in truth, if they could bring with them Chinese wives, 
 and dispose themselves to settle permanently in Borneo, they 
 would have long since dispossessed the Malays. For their 
 own protection they combine in societies called Kong-sies, 
 the members of which are bound by an oath, solemnized by 
 drinking blood, and the administration of which, in China, is 
 forbidden under pain of capital punishment. The three great 
 Kong-sies, which may be said to govern the mining interests 
 of W. Borneo, are Lang-fong in Pontianak, which is said to 
 have at its command 6000 fighting men ; the other two, viz., 
 Tay-kong, and Lara Sin-ta-kiou, able to levy 10,000 and 5000 
 combatants respectively, are in Sambas. 
 
 Malays. The Malays in Borneo have lost none of the dis 
 tinctive characters of their nation; they manifest the greatest 
 inclination towards a seafaring life, and many of them may be 
 said to have their home on the waters, following piracy as an 
 occupation as well as commerce. Though habitually indolent, 
 they are not without capability of exertion as well as skill, 
 and, with their excellent iron, they can imitate to perfection 
 the finest work of our cutlers and gunsmiths. 
 
 Antiquities. It deserves to be remarked that, both in the 
 valley of the Nagara, E. of the Banjarmassin, and near the 
 banks of the Kapooas, in Pontianak, remains have been found 
 of Hindoo temples, with sculptures, coarse indeed, yet indi 
 cative of art and civilization, superior to any now existing in 
 Borneo among either the Dyaks or Malays. At one village 
 on the Nagara, the memory of the Hindoo colony (Orang 
 Kling) is still traditionally preserved. Among the Dyaks 
 also are preserved, as precious heirlooms, with religious care, 
 certain large jars, with dragons in relief, said to have come 
 from Java, but thought, by good judges, to be of Chinese 
 origin. Such jars, however, are no longer made in Java or 
 in China, and nothing seems to be preserved of the history of 
 
 their manufacture which can throw light on the question of 
 their age. 
 
 Produce. The productions of Borneo which find their way 
 into commerce are, gold, platina, tin, antimony, copper, iron, 
 and diamonds. Edible birds nests, collected in the interior, 
 as well as on the coasts, trepang or liolothuria, fislu d in the 
 Straits of Macassar these three articles are destined wholly 
 for the Chinese market. Camphor, iron-wood, ebony, ratans, 
 cassia, wax, sago, and rice, are in general demand. 
 
 Divisions. Of the great island of Borneo, above two-thirds 
 are claimed by the Dutch, either as actually possessed by them, 
 and subject to their immediate authority, or by virtue of 
 treaties made with the native princes, who have acknowledged 
 their supremacy. The portion exempted from their rule is 
 the N. and narrow part ; its limits on the coast being Tanjong, 
 or Cape Datoo, on the W., lat. 2 5 N. ; and the mouth of 
 the river Atas, lat. 3 20 N., on the E. This maritime 
 region, 1200 m. in extent, was, till lately, divided between 
 two States ; the Sultan of Borneo Proper claiming the 
 dominion of the N.W. coasts, from Tanjong Datoo to the 
 river Kimanis, lat. 5 35 N.; while the Sultan of Sooloo 
 domineered over the remainder. But a third power, capable 
 of counterpoising the influence of the Dutch, has recently 
 arisen here, which threatens to extinguish the preceding two 
 ere long, if that result be not indeed virtually accomplished 
 already. The district of Sarawak, extending from Tanjong 
 Datoo E.S.E., about 70 m., to the mouth of the river Sama- 
 rahan, and consequently within the dominions of Borneo 
 Proper, was purchased in 1842, from its native chiefs, by an 
 English gentleman, Mr. Brooke, and formally and absolutely 
 ceded to Great Britain in the followimg year, by the Sultan 
 of Borneo, who probably foresaw that he could never reckon 
 on the obedience of his new vassal. In fact, the English 
 rajah of Sarawak attacked and took the city of Brunai or 
 Borneo in July 1846; and among the fruits of his victory 
 may be reckoned the cession to Great Britain, a few months 
 later, of the small island of Labuan, situate about 30 m. N. 
 the Borneo river, and well fitted, by local circumstances, to 
 command the trade of these coasts. Thus the British are 
 now established on the N. coasts of Borneo, where they figure 
 as the protectors of lawful commerce ; but, as the Sultans of 
 Borneo Proper and Sooloo, with their subordinate chiefs, are 
 always more or less obnoxious to the general charge of piracy, 
 and the consequent penalty of extermination, it is obvious that 
 the sway of the British, in these seas, must eventually extend 
 itself over both the shores protected by them, and the States 
 coerced by the act of protection. 
 
 The Dutch possessions and dependencies in Borneo are 
 embraced by a coast line of not less than 1800 m., from 
 Tanjong Datoo, round by the S., to the river Atas on the E. 
 coast. The former are divided into three residences or pro 
 vinces, of very unequal size Sambas, Pontianak, and Banjar 
 massin. The first of these adjoins Sarawak, from which it 
 is separated by the mountains on the S.W., and extends about 
 120 m. along the coast, from Tanjong Datoo to the river 
 Doori. Mount Bajang, its furthest inland limit, is probably 
 100 m. from the sea. Between the rivers Doori and Kotar- 
 ingin, the coast boundaries of Pontianak, the distance is 300 
 m. in a straight line ; while, in the interior, this residence 
 embraces the entire valley of the Kapooas. It comprises 24 
 principalities, of which, however, only the following seven are 
 immediately under Dutch control : Mampowa, Pontianak, 
 Lanclak, Kooboo, Simpang, Succadana, and Matan. And 
 here it may be observed, that the name Succadana, which 
 means terrestrial paradise, and belongs properly to a small 
 district S. of the Simpang river, is by some writers extended 
 to the whole of this region, including Sambas. Among the 
 dependencies of Pontianak are reckoned about 100 islands. 
 The residence of Banjarmassin, or of the S. and E. coasts, 
 far exceeds that of Pontianak in magnitude ; and besides, as 
 the chief seat of Government, it claims the vassalage of the 
 dependent states on the E. coast ; these are, the kingdoms or 
 principalities of Tanah-Bumbu, Pasir, Kootai, Gonong-Tabur, 
 and Bulongan. Within this ample territory, in the town of 
 Martapoora, about 20 m. from the Dutch capital, the Sultan 
 of Banjarmassin is allowed to retain, within a narrow district, 
 the semblance of independence. The Governor of Banjar 
 massin was, till 1846, subordinate to the Governor-general of 
 the Dutch Indies, in Batavia ; but, since that date, he has 
 
BORNEO PROPER 
 
 455 
 
 BORNOS 
 
 exercised, under the title of Governor of Borneo, plenary and 
 independent powers. 
 
 Population. The population of Borneo may be estimated, 
 with some probability, to be 2,000,000, of whom 400,000 are 
 Malays, 100,000 Bugis, from Celebes, and 140,000 Chinese; 
 the rest are Dyaks or indigenous tribes. 
 
 History and Name. The Europeans who first visited this 
 island, early in the 16th century Lorenzo de Gomez, in 1518, 
 and Pigafetta, with the ships of Magalhaen s expedition, in 
 1521 both named it Brunai or Brung, from the port and prin 
 cipal city on its N.W. shores, at which they touched. This 
 name, written by the Malays themselves Burni or Boorni, is 
 obviously the Sanscrit Bliurni or Blioorni [land] ; its conversion 
 into Borneo, and application to the whole island, came into 
 use, among Europeans, in the 17th century. Some writers 
 have stated that the island, in its whole extent, is called, by 
 the natives, Pulo Kalamantan; but those who have had most 
 intercourse with the native tribes of Borneo, deny that they 
 have any general name for the whole island. 
 
 The first Dutchman who arrived at Borneo was Oliver van 
 Noort, in 1 598. The reputation of the island for abundance of 
 diamonds and bezoar-stone (the latter was considered, at that 
 time, as a universal medicine) induced the Dutch settled in 
 Batavia to send, in 1608, to the Queen of Succadana, an 
 officer, demanding a treaty of commerce ; to whom she replied, 
 that the trade of her country was free to all nations. In 
 1 609, however, they succeeded in making a treaty with the 
 Sultan of Sambas. A factory was thus established, and the 
 factors gradually raised themselves into sovereigns, by steps 
 which cannot be here detailed. In 1769, the English, having 
 taken Manilla, obtained from their ally, the Sultan of Sooloo, 
 the cession of his claim to the N. coasts of Borneo ; and took 
 possession of Balambangan. But, in 1775, the garrison of 
 that island, composed chiefly of Bugis, was cut to pieces by a 
 band of pirates ; and the settlement was consequently aban 
 doned. When Java was taken by the British, in the late war, 
 the Dutch power in Borneo fell to the ground, and the native 
 chiefs, watched by a few British political agents, resumed the 
 exercise of their original authority ; but they now found 
 themselves unable to cope with the Chinese Kong-sies ; and 
 were, therefore, well pleased at the return, in 1818, of their 
 Dutch masters. In 1842, the boldness of Mr. (now Sir James) 
 Brooke, who had become acquainted with the lucrative com 
 merce of those seas, and contrived to obtain the territory of 
 Sarawak, with the title of Eajah, broke through the limits of 
 the monopoly so long maintained by the Dutch. These, to 
 meet the danger, have renewed their treaties with all the 
 native princes within their influence, in terms which assign 
 them an express supremacy. But British influence must neces 
 sarily extend from Labuan and Sarawak over the N. of the 
 island ; and if the maxim of the Queen of Succadana, in favour 
 of a free trade with all nations, be steadfastly adhered to, that 
 influence will probably gain the ascendant in the S. also. 
 (Van der Aa s Aardrijkskundig Woordenboelc der Nederlanden ; 
 Temminck, Coup ffce.il sur Vlndcs Neerlandaiscs ; Moniteur des 
 Indes; Earl s Eastern Seas; Low s Sarawak; Sir E. Bel 
 cher s Voyage of the Samarang Keppel and Brooke s Borneo 
 llaussman s Voyage en Malaise ; &c.) 
 
 BORNEO PROPER, a kingdom or independent prin 
 cipality, N.W. coast, isl. Borneo, extending from the com 
 mon bounds of Sarawak and Sadong (lat. 1 33 N. ; Ion. 
 110 40 E.), about 500 m. N.W. to the river Kimanis, in 
 lat. 5 40 N. It was at the capital of this kingdom that 
 Europeans first learned the name Burni or Boorni, which 
 they afterwards changed into Borneo, and extended to the 
 whole island. The river of Borneo is a noble stream, 1 J m. 
 wide, and with a depth of water for a frigate up to the city, 
 which is situate about 12 m. above the river s mouth, in lat. 
 4 52 N. ; Ion. 114 52 E. The city is built on piles in the 
 river, like most Malayan towns, occupying, in three portions, 
 both shores and an island, or rather mud bank, projecting 
 from the S. side. The houses are raised about 3 ft. above 
 high water, and are connected together by narrow planks ; but 
 the intercourse of the place is carried on chiefly by means of j 
 canoes. Borneo has been lately described as a Venice of 
 hovels. It presents a singular spectacle on market-days, 
 when the river is covered with little canoes paddled by women 
 selling eatables, and screened by immense hats, made of palm 
 leaves. When Pigafetta visited this place, in 1521, he sup 
 
 posed it to contain 25,000 houses, or about 100,000 inhabitants ; 
 subsequent estimates fell lower, and we find the population of 
 Borneo, at the present day, variously estimated at 22,000 or 
 10,000; the latter number probably being near the truth. 
 Before Europeans had penetrated so far to the E., Borneo 
 enjoyed, in an eminent degree, the prosperity derivable from 
 a most advantageous position on the Chinese seas ; but those 
 active rivals quickly intercepted its chief sources of wealth. 
 Chinese emigrants, however, still frequented the old em 
 porium, where they were deeply engaged in two branches of 
 industry, namely, the cultivation of pepper, and the building 
 of junks, but the disquietude of the country at the commence 
 ment of this century, arising probably from the progressive 
 decline of trade, and general loss of fortune, had the effect of 
 driving away these industrious sojourners, and there are few 
 or no Chinese in Borneo at present. The alienation of Sara 
 wak in 1843, and the forced cession of Labuan to the British, 
 in 1846, were events calculated to hasten the downfall of 
 Borneo Proper ; for Labuan, uniting equal advantages of posi 
 tion with that of the perfect security afforded by civilized 
 government, and an efficient police, will easily become the 
 mistress of these seas, and the old city of Borneo will sink in 
 decay. The dominion of Borneo, along 500 m. of coast, is 
 little more than nominal. There exists no social organization 
 in the country ; there are no roads nor regular communica 
 tions by land ; the Government exercises no prompt or pervad 
 ing authority, but its wild subjects, habitually pillaged and 
 oppressed, are always ready to disobey, when there ceases to 
 be the power to compel their obedience, and that day is 
 evidentally not far distant. 
 
 BORNHEM, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Antwerp, 
 1. bank, Scheldt, 15 m. W. Mechlin, with numerous looms 
 for linen- weaving, several breweries, mills, bleacheries, and 
 tanneries; and trade in seeds, flax, and linen. Pop. 4194. 
 
 BORNHOLM [anc. Borringia}, an isl. Denmark, Baltic 
 Sea, 90 m. E. Zeeland, and 25 m. S. the most S. point of 
 Sweden. Its most N. point is Cape Hammeren, on which 
 is a lighthouse, 279 ft. high, in lat. 55 17 42" N.; Ion. 
 14 46 30" E. (K.) It is about 23m. long by 18 broad ; area, 
 170 geo. sq. m. In general, the coast is high and rocky, 
 presenting perpendicular cliffs, close to which is deep water. 
 Where cliffs do not prevail, reefs and sandbanks stretch out 
 to sea, rendering all approach dangerous, more especially in 
 stormy weather, when the surf is heavy. The island has no 
 good or secure harbour for large vessels, and only few and 
 indifferent ones for small. The best is at Eonne, on the S.W. 
 side, with 1 1 J ft. water. The roadstead, however, is not very 
 good, being exposed to the S.W. winds. Bomholm, both 
 geographically and geologically, belongs to Sweden. In the 
 N. and N.E. it is composed of granite and gneiss, occupying 
 more than a half of the whole area, W. from this crystal 
 line formation, and lying generally N.W. and S.E., are seams 
 of inferior coal, connected with the oolite and the older green 
 sandstone. In the S. are strata of sandstone, schist, and lime 
 stone, of the transition series. Excepting a heath tract near 
 the centre of the island, on a plateau, 250 ft. above the sea, 
 the land is generally fertile, producing the same grain crops 
 as the rest of Denmark, and the same trees, beech excepted. 
 The island has no lakes of any size, and its streams, numerous 
 enough, are merely rivulets, with narrow, rocky courses. 
 Good building stone, and marble, are quarried and exported. 
 The coals are likewise raised and used to some extent, but 
 they are of inferior quality. The island has long been famous 
 for its rock crystals. Its watches have likewise a local re 
 putation. The chief support of the inhabitants is agriculture, 
 cattle-rearing, fishing, and seafaring. The principal town and 
 port is Eonne, after which come Nexoe, and Svanike. Pop. 
 26,600. (Baggesen, Der Danisclie Staat.) 
 
 BORNO, a large vil. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, 
 prov. of, and 32 m. N.E. Bergamo, r. bank, Oglio. It has a 
 large square, handsome church, two chapels, and a court-house. 
 Pop. 2228. 
 
 BORNOS, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 28 m. 
 E.N.E. Cadiz; on a slope, near r. bank, Guadalete, and built 
 with considerable regularity. The houses are generally of 
 two stories, and many of them have good gardens. There 
 are fine spacious squares, and the streets are usually of good 
 width, but those which follow the direction of the slope on 
 which the town stands, are more or less steep. The most 
 
BORNOU 
 
 456 
 
 BORROWSTOUNNESS 
 
 remarkable building is the palace of the Dukes of Medinaceli, 
 part of which consists of an old Moorish castle, in good pre 
 servation. The parish church is large and handsome, and has 
 some good pictures. Manufactures unimportant, and consist 
 ing chiefly of linen and cotton cloth, and soap. Bornos is 
 famous for its water, and the fineness of its climate, which 
 makes it the resort of invalids. Pop. 4826. 
 
 BORNOU, an extensive kingdom, Central Africa, lying 
 S. and \V. Lake Tchad, having the latter, part of Kanem, 
 and the river Shary, and Begharmi, on the E. and S.E., 
 Houssa on the W., Mandara on the S., and the Desert on the 
 N. and N.\V.; a tract comprehended between the parallels of 
 15 and 10 N.; and the meridians of 12 and 16 30 E. 
 The whole country is flat, and by far the greater part is 
 covered with thick underwood, high coarse grass, and creep 
 ing and climbing plants, while all around Lake Tchad, and 
 for a considerable distance W., S.W., and S., is alluvial 
 and marshy, and by no means cultivated to the extent it 
 might be. 
 
 The heat in Bornou is very great, but not uniform. In the 
 hottest season, that is, from March to May or June, the ther- j 
 mometer sometimes rises to 105 and 107 at two o clock in | 
 the afternoon, and is rarely below 100 even during the night. ! 
 The hot season is followed by violent thunder-storms, accom- j 
 panied by heavy rains, which are then nearly continual, with ! 
 cloudy weather, and a damp and sultry atmosphere. The in- i 
 habitants now begin to prepare the ground for corn, and now j 
 the rivers and lakes begin to overflow their banks, and confer ! 
 fertility on the soil. The dry and cold season commences in 
 October. Towards December, and in the beginning of January, 
 the thermometer, no part of the day, mounts higher than 74 
 or 75, and in the morning it descends to 58 and 60. 
 
 The country produces little besides grain, the principal kind 
 raised being a species of millet, called gussub. Prepared in 
 various ways, it forms the staple food of the inhabitants. Four 
 kinds of beans, all known by the general name gafoody, are 
 also grown in large quantities. Cotton and indigo, the latter 
 of excellent quality, grow wild, close to the Tchad and over 
 flowed grounds. There are no fruit trees of any description 
 in the kingdom, with exception of a few lime and fig trees in 
 the garden of the Sheikh, at Kouka. The only implement of 
 husbandry is an ill-shaped hoe. 
 
 The domestic animal are dogs, sheep, goats, cows, horses, 
 and oxen, the last in incalculable herds ; horses are also bred 
 in vast numbers. Domestic fowl and game are abundant ; 
 and bees so numerous, as in some places to obstruct the pass 
 age of travellers. 
 
 The wild animals of the country are those common to tro 
 pical Africa the lion, leopard, elephant, crocodile, hippopota 
 mus, giraffe, &c. Most of these are eaten by the natives, the 
 flesh of the crocodile, in particular, being reckoned extremely 
 fine, having, according to Denham, a green firm fat, resem 
 bling turtle, while the calipee has the colour, firmness, and 
 flavour of the finest veal. The civet cat also abounds, and its 
 secretion forms an important article of trade. Reptiles are 
 numerous, including scorpions, centipedes, enormous toads, 
 and many varieties of serpents, one of which, said to be harm 
 less, measures from 14 to 16 ft. The rivers and lakes abound 
 with fish. The country is frequently desolated by the visita 
 tions of the locust, which, though a favourite article of food, 
 is on this account much dreaded by the natives. 
 
 The people of Bornou consist of two classes the descend 
 ants of Arab settlers, and the native race ; the former called 
 Shouas, and the latter Kanowry. The Shouas, who are of 
 a light copper complexion, with an open, pleasing countenance, 
 are a shrewd, cunning, and intelligent people, but deceitful 
 and overbearing; the Kanowry, or aborigines, exhibit all 
 the Negro qualities, both moral and physical. They are 
 simple, peaceable, and inoffensive, but wanting in energy ; 
 have flat noses, large mouths, and inexpressive countenances, 
 of a deep black colour. The latter acknowledge the supe 
 riority of the former, and conduct themselves towards them 
 with a conscious inferiority. There are nine different dialects 
 spoken in the country, besides the Arabic. The government 
 is an absolute monarchy; and the King can, at any time, 
 muster a well-disciplined and well-equipped army of 15,000 
 or 20,000 men, mostly cavalry, armed with sabre, pike, and 
 bow. A favourite and important body of the infantry consists 
 of spearmen from Kanem, on the N. side of Lake Tchad. The 
 
 laws are arbitrary ; the punishments severe and summary, but 
 generally administered with justice. 
 
 The chief articles of export are gold dust, slaves, horses, 
 salt, and civet. The only manufactures known in Bornou are 
 
 coarse linen, made from the hemp of the country; a species of 
 carpet, used as a covering for the horses ; and a coarse cloth, 
 from wool, mixed with the hair of goats and camels, of which 
 they make tents, for the use of the army. Principal town, 
 Kouka. (Narrative of Travels in Northern and Central Africa, 
 by Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney.) 
 
 BORODINO, a vil. Russia, gov. of, and 70 m. W.S.W. 
 Moscow, on a small tributary of the Moskwa. Near this 
 village, an obstinate battle was fought, September 7, 1812, 
 just before Napoleon reached Moscow the French gaining 
 a costly victory. 
 
 BOROFSK, or BOROVSK, an anc. tn. Russia, cap. dist. of 
 same name, gov. of, and 49 m. N.N.E. Kalouga, traversed by 
 the Protva. It gives title to a Greek bishop ; contains four 
 churches ; has important manufactures of sailcloth, one fac 
 tory employing 250 hands ; and, in addition to this staple, 
 carries on a considerable trade in flax, hemp, leather, &c. 
 Borofsk is famous for its garlic and onions. In the environs 
 is one of the richest convents in the empire, founded in J 444. 
 Pop. 6000. 
 
 BORONGO, or BOLONGO. See BROKEN ISLANDS. 
 
 BOROU. See BOORO. 
 
 BOROUGHBR1DGE, a small market tn. England, co. 
 York, W. Riding, 17 m. N.W. York, in a valley, on the Urc. 
 It has three streets, straight and well kept ; and is well sup 
 plied with water. The houses are mostly of brick, and tiled 
 or slated. The places of worship are the parish church, a 
 Wesleyan and Independent chapel. There are eight schools, 
 including a national school, and a mechanics institute. Bo- 
 roughbridge returned two members to Parliament from 1553 
 to the passing of the Reform Act, when it was disfranchised. 
 It has neither trade nor manufactures, the inhabitants being 
 nearly all employed in agricultural labours. The York, New 
 castle, and Berwick Railway have a station here. Pop. of 
 chapelry, 1024. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BOROV1TSCKI-POROQUI, a tn. Russia, cap. dist. of 
 same name, gov. of, and 98 m. E. Novgorod, on the Msta. 
 It owes its additional name, Poroqui [cataracts], to extensive 
 rapids in its vicinity, which, though passed by boats, greatly 
 obstruct the navigation. The worst of the obstructions have 
 been removed, and the trade of the town has increased. 
 Pop. 4000. 
 
 BORROWSTOUNNESS. or BO NESS, a bor. of barony, 
 seaport, and par. Scotland, co. Linlithgow, r. bank, Frith of 
 Forth. The town is situated on low ground, 1 7 m. W. by 
 N. Edinburgh ; lat. 56 1 N. ; Ion. 3 36 W. It consists of 
 
BOREIOL 
 
 457 
 
 BOSCO 
 
 two principal streets, and numerous narrow lanes ; and hai 
 altogether an exceedingly irregular and confused appearance 
 Its general condition also, as regards cleanliness, c., is very 
 indifferent, although somewhat improved in this respect of 
 late years- There are some good houses in the town, but 
 many of an inferior description, and most of them much 
 blackened by the smoke of surrounding manufactories. The 
 town is lighted with gas, but extremely ill supplied with 
 water. The townhouse, though now never used as such, is a 
 large, square, castellated building, with a tower at each corner. 
 There are a parish, a United Presbyterian, and a Free church, 
 all substantial, but plain buildings; and six schools, several of 
 which are taught by females. The parish school is the largest, 
 and is (1850) attended by nearly 200 children. There are sc 
 ral religious, benevolent, and provident societies, and a good 
 public library. The working population are mostly employed 
 in a pottery within the town, and in extensive ironworks, and 
 numerous coal mines, in the vicinity. Close by, there are also 
 a chemical work, and a distillery ; and a considerable busin 
 is done in corn. 
 
 The harbour, which is of safe and easy access, is formed by 
 two piers carried out into the frith. It is 240 ft. broad and 
 568 ft. long, with a depth of water, at spring tides, of from 
 16 to 20 ft. Registered shipping, in 1847, 5857 tons. The 
 number of vessels that entered the port, in the same year, was 
 185; tonn. 12,390. About 60 years since, Borrowstounness 
 had eight ships engaged in the whale-fishing ; there is now but 
 one. Salt also was manufactured here, and exported to the 
 extent of 37,000 bushels annually, but it has now altogether 
 ceased. Borrowstounness is one of the oldest seaports in Scot 
 land, having been the great emporium of commerce with Hol 
 land and the Baltic in the 17th century. The PARISH is 
 
 about 4 m. in length and 2 in breadth, and nearly the whole 
 of it arable. The great wall of Antoninus, commonly called 
 Graham s Dyke, traverses it, and is supposed to have termin 
 ated hereabouts. Pop. of tn. and par. (1841), 2347, being 
 462 less than in 1831. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BORRIOL, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. of, and 4 in. 
 N.N.W. Castellon-de-la-Plana, at the foot of a steep hill, and 
 in the vicinity of an extensive and fertile plain. It is regu 
 larly built ; and has a parish church, which, though small, is 
 handsome ; a consistorial house, of modern construction ; and 
 several endowed and well-attended schools. Borriol is of great 
 antiquity, and contains numerous Roman remains. Pop. 2069. 
 
 BORRIS, several small tns., vils., and pars., Ireland: 
 1, Borris-in-Ossory, a market tn. Queen s co., 5f m. E. Ros- 
 crea ; consisting of one long street, of mean appearance ; and 
 having a bridewell, dispensary, and small market-house. Pop. 
 821. 2, Borris-o -Kane, a small tn. and par., co. Tipperary, 
 8 m. N. by W. Nenagh, llm. S.W. Birr ; having a church, 
 R. Catholic chapel, and places of worship for Wesleyans and 
 Baptists ; several schools, a bridewell, fever hospital, and dis 
 pensary. Area of par. 5128 ac. Pop. 3175. 3, Borris-o - 
 Leagh, a small tn., co. Tipperary, 5 m. S.W. by S. Temple- 
 more ; with a dispensary. Pop. 1438. 4, Borrisleagh, par. 
 Tipperary; 11,939 ac. Pop. 3372. 5, Boms or Borris- 
 Idrone, vil. Carlow, 14 m. N. New Ross, on the Borris rivulet ; 
 consisting of a single row of houses, extending parallel to 
 the boundary of the demesne of Borris Castle. Here are a 
 R. Catholic chapel, school, fever hospital, and dispensary. 
 Pop. 950. 6, Borrismore, par. Kilkenny; 1271 ac. Pop. 267. 
 
 BORROWDALE, a small dist. England, co. Cumberland, 
 par. of Crosthwaite, 6 m. S. Keswick ; chiefly famous for the 
 production of black-lead or wad, as it is provincially called, 
 in great abundance, and of the finest quality. The scenery 
 of the district is extremely beautiful ; and near a lake at the 
 lower extremity of the dale is a salt spring, resembling that 
 of Cheltenham. Pop. 369. 
 
 BORROWMEAN ISLES [anc. Insula Cuniculares], situ 
 ated in a bay of Lake Maggiore, and belonging to Sardinia, in 
 Piedmont, prov. Novara. Their names are Isola Madre, Isola 
 Bella, and Isola Superiore. The first is the largest, contains a 
 fine garden, and has great natural beauty. The second is the 
 most celebrated, and is greatly visited on account of a vast 
 unfinished palace of Count Borromeo, which occupies one 
 end of it ; its fine terraced gardens, rising from the edge 
 of the lake in a pyramidal form, lined with statues, vases, 
 obelisks, and black cypresses ; and in which, owing to the 
 extreme mildness of the climate, not merely the orange, 
 VOL. I. 
 
 citron, myrtle, and pomegranate, but the camphor-tree, sugar 
 cane, and other tropical plants, flourish in the open air. The 
 surface was originally barren slate, and every handful of 
 mould is artificial. The third island contains a small fishing 
 village. 
 
 BORSA, a vil. Hungary, co. Marmaros, on the Viso, 46 m. 
 S.E. Szigeth. It stands at the mouth of the gorge of Tater- 
 Volgye, which leads into Bukowina ; and in its neighbourhood 
 are mines of argentiferons lead and copper. Pop. 3478. 
 Several other small places in Hungary have the same name. 
 
 BORSOD, a co. Hungary, circle, this side the Theiss ; 
 divided into four dists., Miskolcz (containing the cap. of co. of 
 same name) Erlau, Szendro, and Szent Peter; area, 1043 geo. 
 sq. m. Its surface is partly hilly, partly alluvial ; and the soil, 
 in general extremely fertile, producing abundant crops of grain 
 and a good deal of wine. On the pastures and morasses, some 
 of which are of great extent, numerous cattle are reared. The 
 forests furnish excellent timber, of various kinds, and abound 
 with game. The rivers, of which the principal are the Theiss, 
 Sago, Hernad, Bodva, Szinyva, and Hezo, teem with fish. 
 The chief mineral is iron, which is worked to a considerable 
 
 extent, and partly converted into steel. Pop. 216,500. 
 
 The VILLAGE of Borsod, which gives its name to the county, 
 stands on the Bolva, dist. of, and about 5 m. from Szendro ; is 
 the property of several noble families ; and contains a Re 
 formed church, and an old castle. Two other small places, 
 
 one in this county and the other in Bacs, have the same name. 
 
 BORSSELE, or BRAMSALE, originally two islands, Holland, 
 prov. Zeeland, but now part of S. Beveland, by means of gradual 
 acquisitions from the river and the sea. History shows that 
 its villages have to sustain a constant struggle to defend what 
 they have taken from the surrounding waters, to which they 
 have had more than once to give back what they had attempted 
 to enclose. 
 
 BORSTALL, par. Eng. Bucks ; 3080 ac. Pop. 252. 
 
 BORT, a tn. France, dep. Correze, 14 m. S.E. Ussel, 
 r. bank, Dordogne, here crossed by an ancient bridge, leading 
 to the principal suburb. It has manufactures of linen, held 
 in high estimation throughout the S. of France, tanneries, 
 breweries, and wax bleacheries, with a considerable trade in 
 agricultural produce and live stock. Marmontel was a native 
 ofBort. Pop. 1685. 
 
 BORTHWICK [anc. LocJierwarf], a par. Scotland, co. 
 Edinburgh, 6 m. in length, and 4 in breadth. The ancient 
 uninhabited castle of Borthwick, built, in 1430, by the first 
 Lord Borthwick, in the valley of that name, is one of the 
 finest old structures in Scotland. It was frequently visited 
 by Mary, Queen of Scots, and was the scene of several pas 
 sages of painful interest in the history of her unhappy con 
 nection with the infamous Bothwell. Pop. 1617. 
 
 BORTIGAL1, a vil., isl. Sardinia, prov. Cagliari, pleas 
 antly situated on a hill, in a healthy district, about 40 m. S.E. 
 Sassari. Pop. 2500. 
 
 BORTSCHE-BEEK, a small stream, Holland, forming 
 the boundary between Gelderland and Overijssel, between 
 Zutphen and Deventer. 
 
 BOSA, a seaport tn., W. coast, isl. Sardinia, division, 
 Cape Sassari, 18 in. S.S.E. Alghero, near the mouth of the 
 Terno; lat. 40 17 N.; Ion. 8 27 E. The town is built 
 partly on the side of a hill, on the summit of which is an old 
 castle, now in ruins, and partly in an unhealthy plain. It is 
 surrounded by walls in bad repair, and has a cathedral, and 
 other Gothic churches ; several monasteries, and a theological 
 minary. A bishop, suffragan to the Archbishop of Sassari, 
 resides here. The port is inconsiderable, and admits only 
 small vessels. Wine, grain, and cheese, are exported from 
 t, and it is frequented by the Genoese, who come here to 
 fish coral, fine specimens of which are found on the coast. 
 Pop. 6500. 
 
 BOSBURY-wiTH-UPLEADER, par. Eng. Hereford ; 5200 
 ac. Pop. 1137. 
 
 BOSCASTLE, a small seaport, England, co. Cornwall, 
 5 m. N.N.W. Camelford, with a commodious quay, and a con 
 siderable trade in corn, slate, and manganese, of which last 
 ;here is a mine in the vicinity. Pop. 807. 
 
 BOSCO. 1, A tn. Sardinia, Piedmont, dist. of, and 8 m. 
 S.S E. Alexandria, in the midst of a forest. It possesses a 
 ine library, and is the birthplace of Pope Pius V. Pop. 
 
 2680. 2, Two towns, Naples, the one called Bosco Tre 
 
 53 
 
BOSCOMBE 
 
 458 
 
 BOSNIA 
 
 Case, and tlie other Bosco Reale. They stand at a short 
 distance from each other, at the S. foot of Mount Vesuvius, 
 and contain several churches and convents ; also a royal manu 
 factory of arms, and a powder-mill. A famous pate is made 
 here, and good wine and much silk produced in the district. 
 Pop. of Bosco Tre Case, 2355 ; of Bosco Reale, 5046. 
 
 BOSCOMBE, par. Eng. Wilts; 2000 ac. Pop. 156. 
 
 BOSHAM, par. Eng. Sussex; 3860 ac. Pop. 1091. 
 
 BOSHEST ON, par., 8. Wales, co. Pembroke. Pop. 225. 
 
 BOSJESMANS, or BUSHMEN, a race supposed to have 
 descended, at a remote period, from the Hottentots ; and the 
 remnant of which for they are now nearly extinct are to be 
 met with chiefly in the Karroos or desert plains lying between 
 the district of Clan William and the Orange river, Cape of 
 Good Hope colony. They are of remarkably low stature, 
 olive colour, small twinkling eyes, thick projecting lips, and 
 small depressed nose ; altogether, their appearance is singu 
 larly repulsive, being at once diminutive and deformed. They 
 have long been a persecuted race, having been shot down like 
 wild beasts by the boors of the colony, who were in the habit 
 of boasting of the numbers they had slain. The miserable 
 remnant of this ill-fated tribe lead a life of great wretched 
 ness. Holes scraped in the earth serve them as houses, in 
 which no other domestic utensil is found than a wild gourd or 
 ostrich egg-shell, to carry water. In seasons of scarcity they 
 devour all kinds of wild roots, ants, ants eggs, locusts, snakes, 
 &c. Their most efficient weapon is the bow and arrow, which 
 they use with great dexterity at short distances : the arrow is 
 poisoned, and speedily fatal in its effects. Notwithstanding their 
 most unprepossessing personal appearance, the Bosjesmans 
 are remarkable for vanity, and are at great pains in decorating 
 their figures. Though reckoned the lowest in civilization of 
 all the inhabitants of S. Africa, they are the only tribe that 
 practise instrumental music and painting. 
 
 BOSKOOP, a large vil. Holland, prov. S. Holland, 10J 
 m. S.E. Leyden, on the Gouwe, with a handsome Reformed 
 church. Its central position makes it a bustling place, from 
 the perpetual passing of vessels from Amsterdam, Leyden, the 
 Hague, &c., to Gouda, the Ijssel, Zeeland, Brabant, and other 
 provinces. Boskoop is famed for its butter and beef; also 
 for its nursery-grounds, the timber and fruit-trees, and like 
 wise the strawberries and other small fruit raised here, being 
 much in request. The local branches of industry are very 
 various ; comprising the manufacture of agricultural and hor 
 ticultural implements; also shipbuilding, tanworks, corn-mills, 
 wooden-shoe making, and, among the poor, the manufacture 
 of sulphur matches, from stalks of hemp. Pop. 1884. 
 
 BOSKOWITZ, a tn. and lordship, Moravia, circle, Briinn. 
 The TOWN, which is about 22 m. N.N.E. Briinn, is fortified ; 
 has a modern palace, belonging to Count Francis of Dietrich- 
 stein, with some fine pictures ; a parish church, a synagogue, 
 
 potash and alum work, and several mills. The LORDSHIP, 
 
 area, 33 geo. sq. m., has a pop. of 10,389. 
 
 BOSNA, a river, Turkey in Europe, prov. Bosnia. It 
 rises in the hilly district in the S.W. part of the province, 
 flows N., and falls into the Save, in lat. 45 7 N.; Ion. 
 19 31 E. ; total course, exclusive of windings, 95 m. 
 
 BOSNA-SERAi, SERAI, or SERAJEVO [anc. Tiberiopolis], 
 a city, Turkey in Europe, cap. prov. Bosnia, situated on the 
 Migliazza, which is here crossed by a handsome stone bridge, 
 570 m. W.N.W. Constantinople. It is well built, and, al 
 though most of the houses are of wood, has a gay and pleasant 
 appearance, from the number of steeples and minarets with 
 which it is embellished. It contains a serai or palace, built 
 by Mahomet II., to which the city owes its name; 100 
 mosques, great and small ; four churches, three monasteries, 
 two large bazaars, several schools, baths, and charitable in 
 stitutions. It was formerly surrounded with walls, but these 
 are now completely decayed ; and its only remaining defence 
 is a citadel, built on a rocky height at a short distance E. from 
 the town, mounted with cannon. Bosna is the chief mart in 
 the province, the centre of the commercial relations between 
 Turkey, Dalmatia, Croatia, and S. Germany ; and has, in con 
 sequence, a considerable trade. The people are industrious, 
 and manufacture arms and utensils of copper, for the Turkish 
 market ; ironware, woollen and worsted stuffs, morocco leather, 
 horse-hair bags (for holding rice), cottons, &c. There are 
 also several tanneries in the city, and, at a short distance 
 .from it, several important iron mines ; and, on a plain which 
 
 stretches to the W., the baths of Serajevesko. Pop. 60,000 ; 
 of which 40,000 are Turks, 3000 Catholics, and the remainder 
 Greeks and Jews. 
 
 BOSNIA [Turkish, Botchmah-IK], a prov. Turkey in 
 Europe, sometimes extended so as to include Turkish Croatia, 
 Herzegovinia, and Bosnia Proper, but more correctly confined 
 to the last, which lies between lat. 42 35 and 45 20 N., and 
 Ion. 17 10 and 21 E. ; and is bounded, N. by the Save, which 
 separates it from Austria, E. by Servia, S. by Albania and Mon 
 tenegro, S.W. by Herzegovinia, and W. by Turkish Croatia ; 
 greatest length, from S.E. to N.W., 240 m.; average breadth, 
 65 m. ; area, variously estimated, but probably about 1 6,000 
 sq. m. Bosnia is not very regular in shape, but bears some 
 resemblance to a triangle, which has its base on the Save, and 
 gradually narrows to its apex in the S.E. Viewed generally, 
 it may be regarded as a plateau, which has its highest eleva 
 tion in the S.,and slopes partly from S. to N.,and partly from 
 S.W. to N.E. Its surface is much broken by mountains, 
 which have an average height exceeding 6000 ft., and consist 
 of ramifications of the Dinaric Alps. The principal range 
 stretches, from N.W. to S.E., along the frontiers of Bosnia, 
 presenting, towards Montenegro and Albania, a lofty mural 
 face of calcareous rocks, apparently of secondary formation. 
 The same formation, containing the sandstones and shales of 
 the carboniferous system, and also, it is said, beds of coal, is 
 general throughout the country. Valuable minerals, includ 
 ing the precious metals, quicksilver, &c., abound ; but the 
 working of them, for some reason or other, is prohibited, or at 
 least discountenanced by the Turks. The only metals wrought 
 are iron and lead. The principal rivers are, the Verbas, 
 Bosna, which gives its name to the province, and Drin. They 
 all take their rise in the principal range above mentioned, and 
 proceed, in a course in the main N., to join the r. bank of the 
 Save ; thus belonging, in common with it, to the great basin 
 of the Danube. The valleys in which these rivers flow are 
 steep, and confined in the S., but gradually widen out in ap 
 proaching the N. ; still, however, continuing to be too much 
 broken and inclined to deserve the name of plains. The only 
 proper plain of Bosnia occupies the centre of the province, 
 having its greatest length, N.W. to N.E., above 50 m., with 
 an average breadth of 20 m. It forms an extensive basin 
 enclosed by mountains, and appears formed by the prolonga 
 tion of their basis. It is not uniformly level, but broken by 
 numerous small protuberances. The strata, as indicated by 
 these, consists of calcareous and schistous rocks ; but the sur 
 face is covered by a thick bed of yellowish clay, evidently a 
 lacustrine deposit, indicating that the whole basin had once 
 been the bed of a lake. The climate of Bosnia, considering 
 its latitude, is severe. The warm winds of the S. and S.E. 
 can scarcely reach it, being intercepted by the mountain ridges 
 in those directions ; while the valleys, lying open to the N. 
 and N. W., give free access to the colder winds. In the moun 
 tains exceeding 3000 ft., night frosts begin in the end of Sep 
 tember ; and, even in the lower grounds, snow begins to fall 
 in the end of October, and often continues on the ground till 
 late in spring. Frost and snow cover the higher plateau till 
 the end of April. Bosnia being, geographically, only a part 
 of the mountain belt which girds the tertiary plains of Hun 
 gary, strongly resembles that country in its vegetation. The 
 loftiest summits are generally bare, but the descending slopes 
 are densely clad with the oak, beech, and pine, which afford 
 excellent timber, and shelter great numbers, both of larger 
 and smaller game, the hunting of which is too often preferred 
 by the inhabitants to more settled employment. The walnut 
 grows at 1 500 ft. above the level of the sea. On the lower 
 slopes fruits of various kinds are grown, particularly cherries 
 and prunes, from the latter of which a weak brandy is exten 
 sively made. The vine thrives in low and sunny vales, and 
 would grow in many other spots where its culture is not at 
 tempted. The wine made is of indifferent quality ; and the 
 inhabitants, probably on good grounds, instead of forcing the 
 culture of grapes, prefer that of prunes, on which they can cal 
 culate for a surer crop. Pears and apples are of excellent qual 
 ity; and a good deal of cider, as well as a spissated apple-juice, 
 called pckmes, is made. Much of the country is incapable of 
 cultivation, but the great plain and the wider valleys are fertile, 
 and yield good crops of wheat, rye, barley, and oats. In the 
 mountainous districts, a kind of black corn (called in Turkish, 
 Arnaout-darese) is commonly grown. Maize is grown only 
 
BOSPORUS STRAIT 
 
 459 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 in low valleys, particularly those to the N. of Sarajevo ; 
 tobacco and hemp on alluvial flats, on the banks of rivers, and 
 haricots, to a great extent, in the great plain. The potato 
 thrives well, and flax is frequently seen in mountain valleys 
 of considerable height. The mountain pastures are excellent, 
 and feed large flocks of sheep and goats. From a mixture 
 of these, milk and excellent cheese, resembling C-ruyere, is 
 made. Manufactures are comparatively insignificant. Iron 
 is mined, smelted, and manufactured, to some extent at 
 Voinitza, and good linen cloth is made in the S. of the pro 
 vince ; as at Roujai, coarse woollen covers are made in several 
 places, and bear a high name, both for quality and cheapness. 
 To these may be added the Russian leather manufactured, 
 particularly at Sarajevo and Visoka, and earthenware, espe 
 cially that of Central Bosnia, where the manufacture of a 
 species of yellow vases, extensively used throughout the 
 country, has long had its principal seat. Trade, for which 
 several districts are well situated, is rendered almost imprac 
 ticable by the state of the roads, and the quantity of wood and 
 debris, which is allowed to choke up and impede the naviga 
 tion of the rivers. The principal exports are fruit, chiefly 
 prunes, and wax. Bosnia is governed by a Vizir, who has 
 under him two Pashas of one tail, arid several Agas. For 
 judicial purposes, it is divided into 64 cadilouks. The people 
 are of Servian extraction, and about two-thirds of them are 
 Mahometans. The remainder profess Christianity. Bosnia, 
 after the irruption of the Sclavonians, Croats, and Servians, 
 into Turkey, passed to different masters, particularly Hun 
 gary; and sometimes maintained its existence as an independ 
 ent State. It ultimately fell under the domination of the Turks, 
 and yields them a reluctant allegiance, which it has repeatedly 
 attempted, and only wants a favourable opportunity, to throw 
 off. Pop. 700,000. 
 
 BOSPORUS STRAIT, or CHANNEL of CONSTANTINOPLE 
 [often incorrectly written Bosphorus; Turkish, Boghaz; Latin, 
 Bosporus Thracius], a narrow passage which connects the 
 Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara, and separates Europe 
 
 >. a. c It So 
 
 . 
 ^M^vr - BOSPORUS, 
 
 
 from Asia; it is about 17 m. long, and varies in width from 
 a half to 1^ m. A current sets constantly through it from 
 the Black Sea, running with great violence and rapidity when 
 the wind is from the N.E., but hardly perceptible when it 
 blows from the opposite quarter, namely, the S.W. The 
 depth of water is considerable, and the navigation safe. At 
 its S. entrance, which is rather more than 1 m. wide, are two 
 
 lighthouses, one on either side ; that on the right or E. shore 
 is situated on a hilly point of laud, about 1 in. to the S.W. of 
 the ruins of Kavac Serai ; the other, on the left or W. side, 
 stands a little to the S. of the celebrated mosque of St. Sophia. 
 The former light may be seen from a distance of about 5 m., 
 the latter from about 10 m. On entering the Bosporus from 
 this end, the voyager has the city of Constantinople, the 
 Golden Horn or harbour of Perami, and the suburbs of Ga- 
 lata, Pera, and Tophana, on the left ; and on the right, the 
 town of Scutari, in Asiatic Turkey. At the N. entrance of 
 the strait there are also two lighthouses, which exhibit fixed 
 lights on an improved principle, one on either side, with a 
 fortress near each, and a few houses. This entrance is diffi 
 cult to make by vessels, and the attempt is often attended 
 with the most disastrous consequences, the danger being in 
 creased by a false entrance about 15 m. E. from the real one. 
 The scenery along the banks of the channel is extremely 
 beautiful magnificent palaces, of which no fewer than 10 are 
 imperial summer residences, and most of them on the Asiatic 
 side, handsome houses and noble gardens being thickly dis 
 tributed over the face of the country in the vicinity of the 
 strait, on both sides, alternated with picturesque cliffs of jas 
 per, porphyry, and agate. Animals and vegetables of every 
 variety abound in this favoured region. At the narrowest part 
 of the channel, about 8 m. from its S. entrance, occur the two 
 castles or forts, called, respectively, Roumeli Ilissar, and 
 Anadoli Ilissar; the former on the W. or European side, 
 and the latter on the E. or Asiatic. The Bosporus was, in 
 ancient times, remarkable for its tunny-fishery, which is still a 
 source of considerable profit to the inhabitants. The rivers, 
 great and small, that fall into the strait, are said to amount to 
 30 in number. The Bosporus of Constantinople is called the 
 Thracian Bosporus, to distinguish it from the Cimmerian Bos 
 porus, the narrow channel that connects the Sea of Azof with 
 the Black Sea, now called the Straits of " enikale. By a 
 treaty executed in 1829, between the Russians and the Porte, 
 the navigation of the Bosporus was opened to the merchant 
 ships of all nations. 
 
 BOSRA, or BOSTRA. See BOSZUA. 
 
 BOSSALL, par. Eng. York, N. Hiding; 8880 ac. P. 1181. 
 
 BOSTAN (EL), [anc. Comana], a tn. Turkey in Asia, 
 Natolia, pleasantly situated on a fine plain, on the Syhoun. 
 A considerable trade in wheat is carried on here with the 
 Turkomans. The town can be surrounded with water at any 
 time, should the attack of an enemy be threatened. It con 
 tains four mosques, one of which is very ancient. El Bostan 
 (Comana) was celebrated in remote times for the worship of 
 Ma, the Cappadocian Bclluna ; the population then consisting 
 principally of soothsayers, priests, and slaves belonging to 
 the high-priest. 
 
 BOSTON, a seaport, market tn., and bor. England, co. 
 Lincoln, 100 m. N. London, and 28 m. S.E. Lincoln; lat. 
 53 N. ; Ion. 2 W., on a plain, on both banks of the 
 Witham. It has two principal streets, called, respectively, 
 High Street and Bargate, one on each side of the river ; and 
 a number of smaller streets and lanes, all generally clean, and 
 most of them well paved. There is also a spacious market 
 place near the centre of the town. It is lighted with gas, and 
 abundantly supplied with excellent water, brought from a dis 
 tance of 14 m. in iron pipes. The houses are almost entirely 
 of brick, there being no stone quarries in the vicinity. An 
 iron bridge over the Witham, of a single arch, 86 ft. span, 
 erected at an expense of upwards of 20,000, connects the 
 two divisions or wards of the town. The church, built in 1309, 
 is a noble structure, and is the largest parish church without 
 cross aisles in the kingdom ; the width of the nave, including the 
 side aisles, being 100 ft., and the extreme length, 300 ft. The 
 tower, 282 ft. in height, on the plan of that of the cathedral 
 of Antwerp, is surmounted by an elegant octagonal lantern, 
 forming a conspicuous landmark for sailors, being visible at 
 sea from a great distance. The other places of worship are, 
 a chapel of ease, a Baptist, Methodist (Wesleyan and Primi 
 tive), Independent, Unitarian, and a II. Catholic chapel. Tha 
 charitable institutions are very numerous, the funds admini 
 stered by the charity trustees exceeding 2000 per annum ; a 
 staff of clergy for the parish church are supported out of this 
 fund, and the free grammar-school, founded by the Royal 
 Charter of Philip and Mary; the other schools are, a blue-coat 
 school, for 33 boys and 33 girls ; Laughton s school, for 25 
 
BOSTON 
 
 460 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 boys, founded in 1707 ; with one upon Dr. Bell s system, and 
 another on the national plan. There is also a dispensary, 
 a mechanics institution, permanent library and news -room 
 (founded in 1799), library of the people, working-man s so 
 ciety, and several subscription book-clubs, but none of great 
 magnitude, or very flourishing. The public edifices not yet 
 noticed are, the guild hall (an ancient structure), the borough 
 jail, the assembly rooms, and the session s-house, completed 
 in 1844, at an expense of 15,000. There are in the town 
 branches of the Stamford and Boston Banking Company and 
 the National Provincial Bank, with two private banks, a cus 
 tom-house, a pilot office, and a large fish market. On the 
 banks of the \Vitham are commodious baths, surrounded by 
 ornamental gardens. 
 
 Boston can hardly be said to have any manufactures, beyond 
 a few iron-foundries, where a number of steam thrashing- 
 machines, have been lately made ; and some shipbuilding, 
 there being two building yards with patent slips, where ves 
 sels of 200 tons can be constructed. Its shipping trade, how 
 ever, is considerable. Up to 1751, an accumulation of silt 
 in the river greatly impeded the navigation, but the channel 
 has been deepened, and the harbour enlarged, so that vessels 
 of 250 tons can now unload at the quay. The exportation of 
 wool formerly constituted a very extensive portion of its 
 trade ; at present the exports consist chiefly of corn, and other 
 agricultural produce. The principal imports are timber, hemp, 
 tar, and iron, from the Baltic. The number of vessels regis 
 tered at the port on December 31, 1847, was 186; tonn. 8753. 
 The number of vessels entered during the year ending same 
 date was 1988 ; tonn. 95,370; cleared, 691 ; tonn. 29,629. As 
 already stated, the principal trade of Boston is in grain, of 
 which 220,000 quarters are, on an average, sold annually. 
 The following Table shows the extent of the trade for five 
 consecutive years : 
 
 Grain sold in 1841... 
 1842.. 
 1843... 
 1844... 
 1845... 
 
 222,369 quarters. 
 
 235,463 
 
 207,0 J9 
 
 197,153 
 
 222.9U3 
 
 It is worthy of note, that Boston, at one period, namely, 
 A.D. 1204, ranked second in mercantile importance among the 
 English seaports, if we may judge from the amount of a tax 
 levied on them ; London paid 836, Boston 780, Southamp 
 ton 712, Lynn 651. (Madox s History of the Exchequer.) 
 
 The healthiness of Boston has been improved, and its 
 general prosperity materially increased, by draining the sur 
 rounding fens, which now form a rich tract of nearly 70,000 ac. 
 The market-days are Wednesday and Saturday, when an ex 
 tensive business is done in corn and wool ; large quantities of 
 soles and smelts are taken in Boston deeps, and sold in the 
 market. A cattle market is held once a week, sometimes 
 twice ; and there are four important annual fairs. Boston 
 received its first charter of incorporation from Henry VIII. 
 By the Municipal Act of 1835, the government of the town 
 was vested in a mayor, six aldermen, and 18 councillors, with 
 the usual assistant officers. Petty sessions are held every 
 Friday; the general sessions quarterly ; and the county courts 
 monthly. Boston sends two members to the House of Com 
 mons. Eegistered electors (1849), 1206. 
 
 The early history of Boston is obscure, but it is believed that 
 the Romans built a fort at the mouth of the Witham. The 
 monastery built by St. Botolph was destroyed by the Danes in 
 870, but was afterwards rebuilt on the N. side of the site of the 
 present church. Its remains were lately visible in a dwelling- 
 house called Botolph s Priory, which is now pulled down, and 
 the new sessions house stands on this site. In the Middle 
 Ages, it became a place of considerable commercial importance, 
 second only to the metropolis itself. In 1281, the town suf 
 fered much from fire ; and in 1285 was greatly injured by an 
 inundation. By 27 Edward III., it was made a staple port 
 for wool, leather, tin, lead, and other commodities ; and the 
 Hanseatic merchants who settled in England here established 
 a guild. Boston afterwards suffered by the plague, and by 
 inundations, to which its low situation rendered it particularly 
 liable ; but the principal cause of its decline was the increas 
 ing difficulty of the navigation of the Witham. The channel 
 having been improved, and being now kept clear, the former 
 prosperity of the place has been in some degree restored. 
 John Foxe, the celebrated martyrologist, was a native of the 
 
 town. Boston has direct railway communication with London 
 through Peterborough, and with the W., through Lincoln, by 
 means of the Great Northern line, opened in October 1848; 
 and with Hull, by the East Lincolnshire Railway, opened at 
 the same time. Pop. (1841), 14,618. (Thompson s History 
 of Boston; Noble s Gay. of Lincoln ; Parliamentary Papers ; 
 Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BOSTON, a vil. England, co. York, W. Riding, 3 m. 
 S.S.E. Wetherby, in a valley, r. bank, Wharfe. It consists 
 of one principal street ; houses generally of stone, and sub 
 stantially built. The church is a neat structure, with a tower. 
 Boston is chiefly noted for its saline springs, and is nearly 
 altogether supported by the visitors who resort thither to 
 benefit by them. Pop. 1014. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BOSTON, a city, U. States, cap. Massachusetts, co. Suf 
 folk, situated principally on a peninsula, 3 in. long, and 
 1 m. broad, at the W. extremity of Massachusetts Bay ; lat. 
 42 21 24" N.; Ion. 71 4 30" W. (11.) ; 210 m. N.E. New 
 
 1. State-house. I 5. Court-house. I 9. Nvy YHI 
 
 2 New fust.. m-luusc. . City Hall. 10. Buuker l 
 
 il. Ftinriiil Hull. 7. Athenaeum. II. House of Imlustry. 
 
 1. Exchange. | U. MassuchusiUs llospitu!. | 12. House ol Itc-foi mutton. 
 
 York. Boston consists of three parts, Old Boston on the 
 peninsula, S. Boston on the S. side of the harbour, and E. 
 Boston, built within the last 15 years, situated on an island, 
 and communicating with Old Boston by a steam ferry, which 
 starts every five minutes from each side. The promontory 
 on which it is built is connected with the mainland by a nar 
 row isthmus, called the Neck, about 1 m. in length. It is 
 well situated for commerce, and is a place of great trade and 
 opulence. In the older parts of the town, the streets are 
 narrow and crooked, the houses small, and constructed of wood ; 
 but in the newer portions, the streets are wide and straight, 
 the houses spacious, and many of them built of granite, though 
 the greater part are of brick. This change for the better is 
 gradually pervading the whole city. Communication with 
 the mainland is maintained by six different bridges. The 
 principal public buildings are the state-house, situated on 
 Beacon Hill, forming a conspicuous object from a distance, 
 and from which one of the finest views in the U. States is 
 obtained ; Faneuil Hall market, an elegant market-house of 
 granite ; Faneuil Hall, in which public meetings are held ; 
 the city hall or old state-house, an old building used for 
 public offices ; tiie Massachusetts hospital, a handsome granite 
 building, 168 ft. long by 54 wide, with 4 ac. of open ground 
 around it, on the bank of Charles river ; the custom-house, 
 a splendid granite building, of Grecian architecture. There 
 
BOSTON 
 
 461 
 
 BOSZKA 
 
 r.re, besides, nearly one hundred churches in the city, many 
 of them very handsome structures. Among the public places, 
 the Common is the most important. It occupies the S. de 
 
 W. side is a botanical garden, containing about 25 ac. The 
 literary institutions are also creditable to the intelligence of the 
 citizens. The public libraries contain 70,000 volumes, and are 
 
 ^UUHIHMI 1 tllC UlUaii lUJyiFA LailL. Al/ WK^I.I|JIGO 111^ KJ. M.U ,,,., f A 1_ T> i. A *1 ,,*, ^^.r. 
 
 ty of Beacon Hill, and contains about 50 ac. On its I yearly increasing. The library of the Boston Athenaeum con- 
 
 - 
 
 tains 30..000, and that of Harvard College, 40,000. There are 
 30 newspapers published in Boston, eight of which are daily. 
 Besides these, there are a number of magazines and reviews, 
 including the North American Review, a work of European as 
 well as American reputation. Its principal literary societies 
 are, the American academy of arts and sciences, the Massa 
 chusetts historical society, and the Boston natural history 
 society, which has a fine cabinet. It contains, likewise, two 
 theatres the Tremont and the National theatre. The medi 
 cal branch of Harvard University has its seat in Boston, and 
 schools are numerous, and in general well conducted. There 
 are also a number of religious and charitable societies in the 
 city. 
 
 The harbour is esteemed one of the best in the U. States, 
 being spacious, safe, and easily defended. The passage to it 
 is not more than 4 m. wide, with several islands obstructing 
 it, so that the main entrance will scarcely admit two vessels 
 to pass abreast, while 500 may ride at anchor within, with a 
 good depth of water. The outer harbour has about 40 small 
 islands, 15 of which afford excellent pasturage. The wharfs 
 are extensive, commodious, and some of them of great length, 
 with ranges of lofty brick warehouses. The trade of Boston 
 is extensive. The imports consist principally of woollen, 
 cotton, linen, and silk manufactures, sugar, coffee, indigo, 
 hemp, and iron ; and the exports chiefly of fish, and fish oils, 
 salted meat, flour, soap, candles, and ice. In 1852 the total 
 value of the foreign exports of cotton manufacture amounted 
 to 616,019; and the total foreign imports amounted to 
 6,797,428. In the same year the aggregate tonnage of the 
 shipping amounted to 381,088 tons. Three-fourths of the trade 
 between Russia and the U. States, and above half of that with 
 India, passes through Boston. There are, besides, a packet 
 line of large steam-ships between Boston and Great Britain, 
 and other packet lines to every port of importance throughout 
 the U. States. Six different lines of railway connect Boston 
 with various places in the state. A line also communicates 
 with the state of Maine, passing through New Hampshire. 
 
 Boston has a history of some interest. It was founded in 
 1630, by the settlers established at Charlestown, on the shore 
 of Massachusetts Bay. The name was given in compliment 
 to the Rev. John Cotton, a persecuted clergyman from Boston 
 in Lincolnshire. It was here that the revolutionary move 
 ment, which terminated in the independence of America, first 
 commenced, several of its most active leaders being natives 
 of the city. Boston was the scene also of hostilities connected 
 with that event. The royalist forces under General Howe, 
 were here blockaded by the American troops under General 
 
 BOSTON, from above CholKa BrirtireAfler L.Lebret fr! ato/e^ 
 
 Putnam, but the latter were ultimately dislodged from their 
 
 position on 0brhester heights, after a serious loss on the 
 part of the British. During this action, usually named 
 Bunker s Hill, fought in June 1775, Charlestown, a suburb 
 of the city, and the scene of action, was set on fire by the 
 latter, and entirely consumed. A month afterwards, Boston 
 was invested by Washington, and the British General event 
 ually (March 1776), compelled to evacuate the town. The 
 city is governed by a mayor, eight aldermen, and a common 
 council of 48 members. The well-known philosopher, Benja 
 min Franklin, was a native of Boston, having been born there 
 on January 17, 1706. Pop. (1840), 93,383 ; (1850), 136,881. 
 
 BOSWELL S (ST.), a par. Scotland, co. Roxburgh, on 
 the Tweed, chiefly noted for the great annual fair held on 
 18th July, for sheep, horses, cattle, wool, linen cloth, and 
 various other articles ; area, 2600 ac. Pop. 348. 
 
 BOSWOETH (HUSBANDS), par. Eng. Leicester ; 3870 ac. 
 Pop. 953. , 
 
 BOSWORTH MARKET, a market tn. and par. Eng 
 land, co. Leicester. The town is agreeably situate on an emi 
 nence, in a fertile district, 11 m. W. by S. Leicester ; has a 
 parish church, a handsome edifice, in the perpendicular style, 
 with a tower surmounted by an elegant spire, and chapels for 
 Independents and Baptists ; a well-endowed free grammar- 
 school, in which the celebrated lexicographer, Dr. Samuel 
 Johnson, was once usher. The manufacture of worsted 
 stockings employs many persons in the town and neighbour 
 hood. The battle of Bosworth, between Richard III. and 
 the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., and the closing 
 scene of the long-protracted struggle between the houses of 
 York and Lancaster, was fought (1458) on an extensive moor 
 3 m. S.E. the town. Area of par. 7220 ac. Pop. 2539. 
 
 BOSZORMEN Y, two places, Hungary:!, A municipal 
 to., co. Bihar, 12 m. W.N.W. Grosswardein. Pop. 17,000. 
 2, A free tn., co. Szaboltz, 12 m. N.N.W. Debreczin, con 
 taining a Reformed and a Greek church. Pop. 14,660. 
 
 BOSZRA, BOZRAH, or BOSRA [the Bostra of the Greeks], 
 a tn. Syria, 80 m. N.E. Jerusalem, anciently of great import 
 ance, now, for the most part, a heap of ruins ; some of which, 
 however, are magnificent, and mark the height from which 
 the prostrate city has fallen. Amongst these are the great 
 mosque, a triumphal arch, a castle of great strength, built by 
 the Saracens ; and a vast reservoir for water ; besides numerous 
 pillars, and other ruins of the most elaborate workmanship. 
 The courses of the streets and alleys are almost wholly obli 
 terated, and the few inhabitants that now remain are lost in 
 the labyrinths of shattered edifices and crumbling walls, with 
 
BOTAFOGO 
 
 462 
 
 BOU SADA 
 
 which they are surrounded. The vicinity was at one time 
 celebrated for its vineyards ; but they have long since wholly 
 Jisappeared. After the establishment of Christianity, it was 
 an archbishop s see, with 19 bishoprics under its jurisdiction. 
 Boszra is mentioned in several places in Scri|,-ture. 
 
 BOTAFOGO, a considerable vil. Brazil, prov. of, and 
 about 4 m. S.W. Rio de Janeiro, on a bay of same name, com 
 municating with the Bay of Kio de Janeiro. This village, 
 which is rapidly increasing in size, is composed of fine coun 
 try houses, ranged in a semicircle round the N. margin of 
 the bay. 
 
 BOTANY BAY, a bay, New S. Wales, co. Cumberland, 
 and so called by Captain Cook, the first discoverer of Aus 
 tralia, on account of its profuse vegetation. It is capacious 
 and safe, with an entrance about 1 m. wide, but afterwards 
 enlarging to 3 m. Good anchorage is found in from 4 to 7 
 fathoms water, but both on the N. and S. side, and in the 
 bottom of the bay, flats extend to a great distance from the 
 shore, having only 4 or 5 ft. of water on them. The anchor 
 age on the E. side, too, contiguous to the entrance of the bay, 
 is exposed to heavy seas, from the E. winds. Cook landed 
 here on his first voyage, in 1770, and took possession of the 
 country in the name of his sovereign, calling it New S. Wales. 
 Eight years afterwards, Government having resolved on 
 founding a penal settlement in the S. hemisphere, sent out 
 Governor Phillip, to establish such a settlement in Botany 
 Bay. Finding it to possess the disadvantages above enumer 
 ated, the Governor proceeded to Port Jackson, a few miles 
 further N., and there planted the new colony, founding, at the 
 same time, the now large and populous town of Sydney. 
 
 BOTANY ISLAND, S. Pacific Ocean, off the S.E. ex 
 tremity of New Caledonia ; lat. 22 27 S. ; Ion. 167 1 E. (R.) 
 
 BOTEL TOBAGO (GREAT and LITTLE), two small 
 islands, China Sea, off S.E. coast, isl. Formosa, from which 
 they are distant about 45 m. The largest is in lat. 2 1 59 N. ; 
 Ion. 121 38 E.; the smaller, in lat. 21 56 30" N. The 
 former is 3 or 4 m. in extent, of considerable elevation, and 
 the higher part crowned with trees. It is well inhabited, 
 having several large villages on the S. portion. The 
 latter, or Little Botel, which is about 2 or 2J m. to the 
 S. E. of Great Botel, is also of considerable height, with some 
 bushes on it. 
 
 BOTESDALE, or BOTOLFH S-DALE, a tn. England, co. 
 Suffolk, 13 m. N.N.E. Bury St. Edmund s, in a dale; and 
 consisting of one street, nearly 1 m. long ; houses, chiefly of 
 brick. It contains a chapel of ease, belonging to the estab 
 lished church, a Baptist and AVesleyan Methodist chapels, and 
 a free grammar-school, founded by Sir Nicholas Bacon, father 
 of the celebrated Chancellor Bacon. Pop. G33. (Local Cor 
 respondent,} 
 
 MOTH ALL. par. Eng. Northumberland ; 8200 ac. P. 800. 
 
 BOTHAMSALL, par. Eng. Notts ; 1630 ac. Pop. 325. 
 
 BOTIIENHAMPTON, par. Eng. Dorset; 600ac. P.533. 
 
 BOTHNIA (GULP OF), [Swedish, Batten Wiken], the N. 
 portion of the Baltic Sea, beyond the Aland Isles, between 
 Sweden and Russian Finland. Length, from N. to S., 400 m. ; 
 extreme breadth, 136 m. Its depth is very various, round the 
 small islands 4 fathoms, and elsewhere 20 to 50. It has 
 fewer shoals than other parts of the Baltic, and its harbours are 
 better. It receives a great number of considerable streams 
 from Sweden, and several small ones from Russia. On its 
 shores are the towns of Abo, Tornea, Hernbsand, c. 
 
 BOTHNIA, BOTN, or BOTEN, a territory, N. Europe, 
 both sides of the gulf to which it gives its name. It was 
 composed of the provinces of E. and W. Bothnia, both of 
 which once formed a portion of Sweden ; but the former now 
 belongs to Russia, as well as a small part of the latter. E. 
 Bothnia, or Oster-Botn, is now comprised in Russian Finland 
 (which sec}. W. Bothnia, or Wester-Botn, is now comprised 
 in the two Swedish Ian or counties of Umea and Pitea. 
 
 BOTHWELL, a par. Scotland, co. Lanark, with vil. of 
 same name. The PARISH, extreme length, about 8 m., ex 
 treme breadth, 4 m., is rich in coal. In a picturesque hollow 
 at the S.E. end of the village, through which runs the Clyde, 
 is Bothwell Bridge, now much altered and improved, but 
 originally of great antiquity, which gave name to the battle 
 fought there between the Covenanters and the royal troops, 
 under the Duke of Monmouth, on June 22, 1679, when the 
 former were defeated. The ancient castle of Bothwell, a 
 
 I magnificent ruin, once a stronghold of the Douglasses, is 
 situated on the summit of a steep bank, sloping down to the 
 Clyde, and, surrounded by fine woods, and extensive pleasure 
 grounds, forms an exceedingly interesting and striking object. 
 Joanna Baillie, the celebrated authoress, daughter of the Rev. 
 James Baillie, at one time minister of the parish, was born in 
 
 Bothwell manse. The VILLAGE consists chiefly of a row 
 
 of houses on either side the road from Glasgow to Hamilton, 
 about 8 m. S.E. the former, and 2 in. N.W. the latter. The 
 houses are of stone, mostly of respectable, some of neat ap 
 pearance ; the latter is more especially the characteristic of 
 various recent erections, built to accommodate the increase of 
 ! summer visitants since the opening of the Clydesdale Junc 
 tion Railway, which has a station about a mile from Bothwell. 
 I Besides the parish church, there is here a Free church, and 
 some schools. Pop. of par. (1841), 11,175. 
 
 BOTLEY, par. Eng. Hants; 3090 ac. Pop. 904. 
 
 BOTOUSCHANI, or BOTTOSCHANY, a vil. Moldavia; 
 carries on a considerable trade with Germany in wine, cattle, 
 wool, honey, wax, and tobacco. Pop. 4500. 
 
 BOTRIPHNIE, par. Scot. Banff; length, 4.J m. ; breadth, 
 3m. Pop. 714. 
 
 BOTTESFORD, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Lincoln; 
 : 7470 ac. Pop. 1586. 2, Bottcsford, par. Leicester; 5010 
 ac. Pop. 1375. 
 
 BOTTISH AM, par. Eng. Cambridge ; 4700 ac. P. 1 497. 
 
 BOTTWNOG, par., N. Wales, Carnarvon. Pop. 191. 
 
 BOTUSFLEMING,par.Eng.Cornwall; 1290 ac. P. 250. 
 
 BOTZEN [Italian, Bolzano], a tn. Austria, Tyrol, gov. 
 of, and 54 m. S. Innsbruck, at the confluence of the Talfer 
 with the Eisack, near where these fall into the Adige. It is 
 a well-built flourishing town, surrounded by a wall 2 m. in 
 length, and in some places 24 ft. thick, built to protect it from 
 a mountain-torrent close by. Its situation at the junction of 
 the roads from Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, has secured 
 it a share of the trade of these countries, rendering it a 
 thoroughfare for the transit of goods, and making it the first 
 trading town of the Tyrol. The parish church is a Gothic 
 building of the 14th century, with an elegant spire; adjoin 
 ing it is the new cemetery. The other objects worthy of 
 notice are, the church of St. Nicholas, a gymnasium, custom 
 house, two monasteries, a normal school, and a nunnery. It 
 has also some silk and woollen manufactures, tanneries, dye- 
 works, and a printing-office. Botzen is known principally for its 
 four annual fairs, resorted to by commercial travellers from all 
 parts of Italy and Germany. In the environs, wine and fruits 
 are produced in abundance, and of excellent quality. The 
 inhabitants of the town are chiefly German, but in the neigh 
 bourhood a dialect of the Italian is spoken almost universally. 
 It is thought that the town occupies the site of the ancient 
 
 Roman citadel, Pons Druni. Pop. 10,000. The CIKCLE, 
 
 area, 964 geo. sq. m., produces all kinds of grain, hemp, and 
 flax. A great quantity of silk is produced, and some of the 
 wines, particularly the Kochelberger and the Leitacher, are 
 celebrated. The cheese of Botzen also bears a high name, 
 and is largely exported. Pop. 107,072. 
 
 BOU NOURA, a small tn. Algerian Sahara, S. slopes of 
 the Atlas ; lat. 32 28 N. ; Ion. 2 E. It is walled, and has 
 three gates ; and some trade in grain. 
 
 BOU SADA, a tn. Algerian Sahara, lat. 35 33 N. ; Ion. 
 4 9 E. ; in a fertile site, amidst an arid plain, among the 
 Atlas Mountains. It consists of 500 or 600 houses, and five 
 mosques, divided into eight distinct quarters, each of which 
 being surrounded with its own gardens, gives the whole the 
 aspect of a cluster of villages. In one of these dwell the 
 Jewish inhabitants, apart from the others. They have a syn 
 agogue, and their own cemetery, and schools. Each quarter 
 has its school, wherein are taught reading, writing, and re 
 ligious precepts. The Rahbat-el-Nader or public market 
 place has, daily, all the bustle of a fair ; and it is not un 
 common to see 500 to 600 camels of burden there at once ; 
 the town being, in fact, one of the greatest entrepots of N. 
 Africa, and frequented by the people of many Arab tribes, 
 who there exchange country products for local and foreign 
 manufactures, of which part come from Algiers and Con- 
 stantine. It is also a busy seat of industry, containing 40 
 soapworks, 10 smiths and armourers shops, several farriers 
 forges, four dyeworks, and numerous shops for general wares. 
 Each family makes its own vestments and pottery The 
 
BOUCHES-DU-EHONE 
 
 463 
 
 BOULAY 
 
 Jews are employed either in commerce, or as wool-carders, 
 tailors, dyers, goldsmiths, &c. 
 
 BOUCHES-DU-RIIONE, a dep. France, Provence (cap. 
 Marseille), situated, as its name implies, at the mouths of the 
 Rhone; hounded, E. by dep. Var, N. by dep. Vaucluse, from 
 which it is separated by the Durance, and W. by dep. Gard, 
 from which it is separated by the main stream of the Rhone, 
 as far as Aries, and thence to the sea by the W. branch of 
 that river, and S. by the Mediterranean; between lat. 43 20 
 and 43 55 N. ; and Ion. 4 25 and 5 42 E. ; about 76 m. E. to 
 W., by about 30 m. N. to S. Area, 1,267,088 ac., of which 
 about one-half is under cultivation, the remainder being occu 
 pied by forests, heaths, wastes, water, &c. A great portion of it 
 is occupied by calcareous hills, the last elevations of the Alpine 
 range in this direction, of which St. Victoire (3417 ft.) is the 
 highest peak. Between the mountains are various basins, 
 and towards the shore are extensive plains, sloping gently 
 to the sea. Between the Rhone and the lagoon of Berre 
 is the great plain of the Crau d Arles. Its borders are 
 tolerably well cultivated, and support a number of cattle ; but 
 the centre is little better than a desert of stones and pebbles, 
 scantily mixed with reddish-brown earth, but affording winter 
 pasture for sheep, which are fed on the pastures of Dauphiny 
 in summer. The Rhone is the principal river. Near Aries 
 it divides into two branches, leaving a large delta, called the 
 Isle of Camargues ; other streams are the Durance, the Tou- 
 loubre, the Are, and the Huveaune. Several canals facilitate 
 transport, and are especially useful for irrigation. Some 
 small islands in the Mediterranean belong to the department. 
 The climate in general is very warm, with little rain during 
 summer. A cold, and generally violent wind, called mistral, 
 from the Cevennes, so invariably follows rain, that even a 
 shower will bring it. It lasts from three to nine, and some 
 times, though rarely, to twelve days ; and produces evapora 
 tion, which dries the ground with astonishing rapidity. The 
 soil of the department is generally arid and unproductive, 
 without irrigation. Some alluvial spots are fertile, but the 
 total produce of grain is inconsiderable, except in the territory 
 of Aries. Vines, however, thrive, and some of the wines are 
 esteemed, though seldom exported. The plains of Crau and 
 Camargues produce many plants not indigenous in the N. of 
 France. The cypress, laurel, and myrtle appear in the hedges ; 
 the oleander along the streams ; the cistus and rosemary amidst 
 the rocks ; and lavender, thyme, sage, and other odoriferous 
 plants on the hills. Almonds, figs, capers, and nuts, and 
 particularly olives, are extensively cultivated. The pastures 
 are only used in winter, cattle being unable to endure the in 
 tense summer heat, which likewise parches the grass. Coal, 
 limestone, marble, alabaster, gypsum, clay for pottery and 
 crucibles, &c., are found, but the minerals are of little com 
 mercial importance. Salt is extensively manufactured from 
 the lagoons ; and the saltworks of Berre are celebrated both 
 for the quantity and quality of their produce. The articles 
 manufactured are principally soap, brandy, olive-oil (the best 
 in France), soda, chemical stuffs, vinegar, scents, essential 
 oils, cloth, leather, articles in coral, silk, glass, tiles, bricks, 
 tobacco, &c. The fisheries are numerous and productive. 
 The tunny, anchovy, and sardine are caught on the coast, or 
 in the lagoons, which, during winter, are also frequented by 
 the numerous water-fowl that migrate from the N. of Europe. 
 The common language of the people is a compound of Celtic, 
 Greek, and Latin, mingled with Catalan and Italian, and is 
 very expressive. The inhabitants are frank, hospitable, and 
 sober, but excitable and passionate. They are robust, and 
 industrious, have great natural vivacity, and an excessive 
 propensity to buffoonery. The women of this part of France 
 are celebrated for their personal attractions. Before the first 
 Revolution, paternal authority was recognized to an extent 
 now altogether unknown. The head of the family was its 
 chief, and nothing was done without his sanction. This 
 authority descended from father to son, and a general register 
 was kept of domestic proceedings in a book, called the livre de 
 raison. This book contained a record of titles, genealogies, 
 partitions, divisions of property, inventory of movables, &c., 
 and was contained in a chest appropriately sculptured, of which 
 the head of the house alone kept the key. During the life 
 time of the father, the eldest son made the entries in the livre 
 de raison, and each was signed by the father, who, on winter 
 nights, brought forth the family treasure, and caused it to be 
 
 read for the general edification. Most of these singular books 
 have now disappeared ; but some of them are still extant in 
 the vicinity of Aries, and carry back the history of families 
 to the time of Charles of Anjou, or even to a period more 
 remote. Principal ports: La Vignole, Aries, Martigues, 
 Port de Bouc, Ponteau, Marseille, Cassis, and La Ciotat. 
 Pop. (1846), 413,918. 
 
 BOUFARIK, a vil. Algeria, prov. of, and 16 m. S.S.W. 
 Algiers. It has well-frequented markets, and is an important 
 military station on the road from Algiers to Blidah and Oran. 
 Pop. 2131. 
 
 BOUGAINVILLE. 1, An isl., S. Pacific, one of the 
 Solomon Group. Cape Friendship, near the E. end, is in 
 
 lat. 6 44 S. ; Ion. 155 40 E. 2, A cape, N.\V. coast, 
 
 Australia, forming the N.E. side of Admiralty Gulf; lat. 
 13 52 S.; Ion. 126 12 E. (K.) 3, A cape, Van Diemen s 
 Land, E. coast, forming the W. entrance into Oyster Bay ; 
 lat. 42 30 S.; Ion. 148 E. (R.) 4, Shoals or reefs, situated 
 about 180 m. off the N.E. coast of Australia ; lat. 15 17 S. ; 
 Ion. 147 57 E. 
 
 BOUGHIIOOD, par. AVales, Radnor; 1000 ac. Pop. 322. 
 
 BOUGHTON, several pars. England:!, par. Norfolk; 
 1500 ac. Pop. 209. 2, par. Northampton ; 1850 ac. Pop. 
 389. 3, par. Notts; 1630 ac. Pop. 309. 4, BougUon- 
 Aluph, par. Kent; 2200 ac. Pop. 524. 5, Boughton-under 
 Blean, par. Kent; 2390 ac. Pop. 1373. 6, Boughton- 
 Malherbe, par. Kent; 2590 ac. Pop. 512. 7, BougUon- 
 MoncMsea, par. Kent; 1740 ac. Pop. 1106. 
 
 BOUGIAH [French, Bougie]^ a tn. Algeria, prov. of, 
 and 113 m. E. Algiers, on the Mediterranean, near Cape Car 
 bon. It is strongly fortified, and has a considerable garrison. 
 It has no harbour, but the anchorage is secure. Consider 
 able trade is carried on here in oil, honey, wax, betel, and 
 grain ; and the town gave its name, Bougie, to the wax can 
 dles, for the manufacture of which it has been long famous. 
 It was formerly a place of great importance, and contains 
 extensive and interesting remains of antiquity. The French 
 troops took possession of it in September 1833. Pop., exclu 
 sive of garrison, 467. 
 
 BOUILLON, a tn. Belgium, prov. Luxembourg, 17m. 
 "W.S.W. Neufchateau, 1. bank, Semoy, in a deep gorge of the 
 Ardennes, and overlooked by a strong castle, built on the 
 summit of an adjacent rock, commanded in its turn by the 
 surrounding hills. The town is small, but regularly built ; 
 and possesses two churches, a town-house, prison, hospital, 
 poorhouse, and two schools. Manufactures : woollen stuffs, 
 leather, and oil, with fulling, bark, and saw mills. Trade: 
 hardware, cattle, oak-bark, &c. Bouillon was once capital of 
 an ancient duchy of its name, and was the property of the 
 famous Godfrey, loader of the first crusade, and subsequently 
 King of Jerusalem. The duchy was annexed to the French 
 republic in 1794, and the town was beseiged by the allied 
 troops in 1815. The castle was restored to Belgium, and 
 fortified, in 1827. Pop. 2510. 
 
 BOUIN, a small isl. and com., W. coast, France, at the 
 bottom of the bay of Bourgneuf, dep. La Vendee. It is separ 
 ated from the mainland by a narrow channel, now crossed by 
 a causeway. The circumference of the island is about 15m.; 
 and although low and marshy, it has some excellent pastur 
 age, and produces large quantities of salt, obtained from the 
 salt marshes ; besides some corn, cattle, and horses. It con- 
 :ains only one village, that of Bouin [anc. Bovinum], from 
 svhicli the products of the island are exported. Pop. 2628. 
 
 BOULAC, BOOLAC, or BULAK, a river port, Egypt, r. 
 bank, Nile, 3 m. N. Cairo, of which it is the port. The houses, 
 generally of one or two stories, line the river at the port, and 
 present an indifferent appearance, excepting the palace of 
 Ishmael Pasha, which is a singular compound of Italian, 
 Greek, and Saracenic architecture. Here passengers for Suez 
 and India debark ; and here is a custom-house, at which all 
 duties on goods imported from Alexandria are levied. Boulac 
 also has a school for engineers, a Government printing-house, 
 i cotton-factory, a silk-mill, and some other manufacturing 
 establishments. It was taken and burned by the French in 
 1799, and was rebuilt by Mahomet AH ; since which time it 
 las become an important place. Pop. 13,200. 
 
 BOULAY, a tn. France, dep. Moselle, 15 in. E.N E. 
 Metz, r. bank, Nied. It is well built. The streets are regu- 
 ar and spacious ; and the market-place, where the townhouse 
 
BOULEBANI 
 
 464 
 
 BOURBON 
 
 stands, is of great extent, and adorned with a fountain. The 
 parish church is large, and richly decorated. Its manufac 
 tures are cloth, blankets, glue, ivory black, hardware, foil 
 blades, cotton yarn, and leather. Pop. 2894. 
 
 BOULEBANI, a tn., W. Africa, cap. Bondou, near 1. bank, 
 Faleme"; lat. 14 W N.; Ion. 12 24 W. It lies in a large 
 plain ; bounded, E. by low rocky hills, and on other sides by 
 forests. The buildings, many of which are mere huts, are 
 grouped together in clumps, the whole surrounded by a rudely 
 embattled wall, pierced at intervals with gates. The streets, or 
 rather, irregular passages around these groups of dwellings, are 
 not paved or kept with the least regard to cleanliness ; although 
 the place is famous for its spring water, and, indeed, takes its 
 name from its wells. In the centre of the town is an area, on 
 which stands a mosque, an extensive building, of very rude 
 architecture, and the tata or fortified residence of the amamy, 
 or sovereign of Bondou. Most of the people here are the slaves 
 of the monarch, who draws a large revenue from their sale. 
 Pop. about 2200. (Raffenel s Afrique Occidentale.) 
 
 BOULGE, par. Eng. Suffolk; 700 ac. Pop. 45. 
 
 BOULOGNE [anc. Bononia Parvd], a large and hand 
 some vil. France, dep. Seine, 5 m. W. the centre of Paris, of 
 which it forms a kind of suburb, between the wood of same 
 name (Bois de Boulogne) and the Seine, which is here crossed 
 by a stone bridge of twelve arches, leading across to St. 
 Cloud. It is well built, and is especially celebrated for the 
 promenades in its vicinity. The bois de Boulogne contains 
 about 2400 ac. ; was replanted and remodelled by Napoleon, 
 when he fixed his residence at St. Cloud. In 1815, the 
 English troops encamped in it ; and it has recently suffered from 
 the construction of the fortifications of Paris, which traverse 
 one of its extremities. The wood is surrounded with walls, 
 has eleven gates, and is intersected with an infinity of roads 
 and avenues, which form the resort of the fashionable popu 
 lation of the capital. Pop. 6906. 
 
 BOULOGNE -SUR-MER |anc. jBononia], a seaport tn. 
 France, dep. Pas de Calais, at the mouth of the Liane, 20 m. 
 S.S.W. Calais ; lat. (column) 50 44 30" N.; Ion. 1 37 15" 
 E. (R.) It is divided into the upper and lower town. The 
 former, situated on an eminence, is surrounded with ramparts 
 of ancient construction, along which is a promenade, from 
 which a fine panoramic view is obtained, embracing not only 
 the surrounding country, but extending across the Channel to 
 the chalky cliffs of England, which, in dear weather, are dis 
 tinctly visible. It contains the imperial palace, formerly 
 inhabited by Napoleon ; and the house where Le Sage, author 
 of Gil Bias, died. The Hotel de Ville occupies the site of the 
 palace of the Counts of Boulogne. The castle, situated at 
 a corner of the ramparts, was built in the 13th century, by 
 Simon de Villers. On the ruins of the ancient cathedral, a 
 modern cathedral is in course of erection, which, when com 
 pleted, will far outstrip all the other public buildings of Bou 
 logne. One of the gates lead down by a steep but spacious 
 street, called the Grande Eue, to the lower town, which stands 
 on a flat, and is well built in the modern style, and presents a 
 greater appearance of activity and commerce than is usual in 
 French towns. It has several churches, including an English 
 Protestant church; a publiclibrary, containing25, 000 volumes; 
 a museum of natural history and antiquities ; an hospital, and 
 an elegant bathing establishment. The harbour, formed by 
 two large basins, defended by several forts ; was enlarged 
 by Napoleon when he proposed to invade England, and was 
 the scene of Nelson s unsuccessful attack on the flotilla by 
 gun-boats. A French army of 180,000 men was then en 
 camped in the neighbourhood of the town, where, on August 
 15, 1805, were distributed the first decorations of the legion 
 of honour. To commemorate the foundation of that order, 
 and also, by anticipation, the conquest of England, the army 
 erected a monumental column at its own expense, and dedi 
 cated it to the Emperor. The column, which is 1 64 ft. high, 
 stands on an elevated plain about 1 m. from the town, and is 
 surmounted by a statue of Napoleon, and ornamented with 
 bronze bas-reliefs. The port is safe, but encumbered with a 
 bar, and of difficult access. A fixed red light is placed on 
 the N.E. jetty; and two other lights, one above the other, on 
 the S.W. jetty. The harbour has latterly been improved, 
 but is still, and in all probability must ever remain, only a 
 tide harbour. The town is the seat of courts of first resort 
 and of commerce. It has also an exchange, a custom-house, 
 
 and several societies agricultural, commercial, and scientific. 
 It manufactures coarse woollen stuffs, sailcloth, lace, fishing- 
 nets, crockery, and fine hewn stone for the colonies, bottles, 
 cordage, bricks, tiles, and leather. The inhabitants are much 
 employed in fishing, and daily despatch large quantities of 
 fresh fish to Paris. They also engage extensively in the 
 herring-fishery, and, in 1843, had nine vessels employed in 
 the Newfoundland cod-fishery. They are also understood to 
 carry on a large contraband trade, particularly in brandy, with 
 the English coast. The general trade of the port is extensive, 
 and steam communication is kept up with London, Dover, 
 and Brighton. In 1843, the foreign vessels entered at Bou 
 logne were 831 ; tonn. 80,610; cleared, 862 ; tonn. 82,408. 
 The recent (1848) completion of the railway to Amiens has 
 brought it into communication with Paris. The annual 
 number of passengers who embark and disembark, is about 
 60,000. Many English reside at Boulogne; and there are 
 numerous educational establishments and boarding-schools 
 for English children. The fishers are a body by themselves, 
 inhabiting a particular part of the town, speaking their own 
 dialect, and seldom intermarrying with the other inhabitants. 
 They are bold seamen, and their boats are not surpassed by 
 any in the Channel. 
 
 Boulogne still exhibits some Roman remains. The North 
 men took it in 882, and massacred the inhabitants. On 
 September 13,1544, the town capitulated to Henry VIII. of 
 England, after a siege of six weeks. The English retained 
 it till 1550, when Edward VI. restored it to France, upon 
 payment of 400,000 crowns. Charles V. demolished it in 
 1553. During the Republic, Boulogne received the name of 
 Port de TUnion. Pop. (1821), 16,607; (1831), 20,856; 
 (1846), 29,741. 
 
 BOULSTON, par., S. Wales, Pembroke. Pop. 319. 
 
 BOULTHAM, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 1210 ac. Pop. 72. 
 
 BOUNGO, a prov. Japan, one of the largest in isl. Kiu- 
 Siu. 
 
 BOUNTIFUL ISLANDS, two isls., about 1 m. apart, 
 Australia, Gulf of Carpentaria ; the larger is intersected by 
 the meridian of 140 E., and is 2 J m. long, and three-fourths 
 of a mile broad. The smaller is about half a mile each way. 
 They obtained their name from the quantity of turtle found 
 on them. 
 
 BOURBON (ISLE OF), an African isl., belonging to 
 France, Indian Ocean; about 400 m. E. Madagascar, and 
 90 m. W.S.W. the Mauritius ; lat. (St. Denis) 20 51 30" S.; 
 Ion. 55 29 45" E. (R.) ; 45 m. long, N.W. to S.E., and 33 m. 
 
 extreme breadth ; area, 900 geo. sq. m. It is nearly circular, 
 has no great indentations on its rocky coast, is volcanic, and 
 composed of a mass of mountains, rising to a considerable 
 elevation near the middle of the island, and sloping down 
 on all sides to the coasts, along which is a girdle of cultivated 
 
BOURBON 
 
 465 
 
 BOURG-ARGENTAL 
 
 land, 3 to 4 m. broad. The mountains form two principal j by a council of 30 members, elected for five years ; and there 
 
 are a royal court, two courts of assize, and two of first resort. 
 Besides a college, there are numerous schools on the island, 
 16 churches, two hospitals, two establishments for the relief 
 of the poor, and two prisons. 
 
 The island was discovered by Mascarenhas, a Portuguese 
 navigator, in 1545, at which period it was not inhabited, and 
 received the name of its discoverer. In 1642, the French 
 sent here some criminals from Madagascar, and, having for 
 mally taken possession of it in 1649, named it Bourbon. At 
 the beginning of the first French Revolution, the name was 
 
 groups; that of Piton des Neiges [snowy peak], an extinct 
 volcano, in the N.W., the most extensive ; and that of the 
 active volcano, Piton de la Fournaise, in the S.E. The 
 culminating peaks arc Piton des Neiges, 10,334 ft.; Grand 
 Bernard, 9743 ft.; and Cimandef, 7492 ft.; all in the N.W. 
 group; and Piton de la Fournaise, 7217 ft. The plains 
 between the two mountain groups are not extensive. The 
 principal ones, called the plain of the Caffres, and that of the 
 Palmists, separated by a rampart of volcanic rocks, are at a 
 
 considerable elevation above the sea level. The soil of the , ..~ ,^ & ........ & . *..~ .^^ * +^.^* ... , 
 
 former is entirely composed of lava and other volcanic sub- changed into that of lleunion, and during the Empire into that 
 stances ; and it is nearly destitute of vegetation, although in ! of Bonaparte and Napoleon. It was captured by the British 
 some places a few stunted shrubs exist. In the latter many j in 1810, and restored to France in 1815, when it resumed the 
 trees are found, including palms, whence the plain derives its j name of Bourbon. Pop. (1841), 111,682, of which 65,993 
 name. Streams are numerous, coursing down the mountain I were slaves. 
 
 sides in all directions, and forming deep rugged ravines. They | BOURBON -L ARCHAMBAULT [anc. Borbo Erchenbaldi], 
 are, however, mostly torrents of no great size, except during [ a tn. France, dep. Allier, 13 m. W. Moulins, whence the 
 the rainy season, when they descend with devastating force j royal Bourbons are said to have been named. The ruins 
 on the cultivated plains below. Earthquakes are rare, and j of a castle, which belonged to the first lords of Bourbon, are 
 little felt. I pointed out as all that remains of the ancestral halls of the 
 
 The climate is delightful, and healthy, especially in elevated j royal families of France and Spain. The town is now only 
 situations on the windward side. The air is pure, and the noted for its thermal springs, used in cases of rheumatism, 
 sky always clear. At St. Dennis, the hottest part of the paralysis, gun-shot wounds, and diseases of the eye. The 
 island, and at the sea level extreme heat, 90 50 ; mean of baths were known to the Romans, who appear to have had an 
 
 February and March, the hottest months, 81 50 ; mean of 
 August, the coolest month, 72 50 ; lowest temperature, 
 61 25 . There are two distinct seasons, the hot and rainy 
 
 establishment in this locality. Pop. 1615. 
 
 BOURBON -VENDEE, a tn. France, cap. dep. Vendee, 
 231 m. S.W. Paris, agreeably situated on a hill, r. bank, Yon. 
 
 season, from the end of November to the beginning of May; j The streets are broad, straight, clean, and lined with good- 
 
 and the temperate season, from May to the end of November. 
 The prevailing winds throughout the year are from the E. 
 and S.E., except at new and full moons. The island is some 
 times swept by terrible hurricanes, but was esteemed, until 
 recently, entirely free of endemic maladies and fevers. It 
 would appear, however, that now, after a residence of four or 
 five years, Europeans arc subject to bloody flux and typhoid 
 fever. The mountains were at one time well wooded, and are 
 still partly covered with forests, in which many useful trees 
 are to be found. Excepting a circular basin, near Piton des 
 Neiges, no part of the interior is cultivated or inhabited. All 
 
 cultivation is on the shore girdle, already adverted to, round , _. . . A 
 
 the foot of the mountains, where the soil, generally speaking, ! dismantled by Charles IX. and Louis XIII., and, in 1793, 
 is of the greatest fertility, and presents all varieties of levels, | thoroughly destroyed by the Republicans. In 1805, Napoleon 
 from the margin of the sea to 3000 ft. high. The principal | selected Bourbon for the capital of the department, and de- 
 
 looking houses ; and nearly all end in the Place Royale, a 
 spacious square, bordered with ranges of fine trees, and sur 
 rounded by public monuments and elegant mansions. The 
 parish church, with a peristyle of six Doric columns, and the 
 mairie or mansion-house, an elegant Italian building, are both 
 in the Place Royale. Besides these, there are an elegant 
 market-house, theatre, and extensive public offices, large 
 barracks, and a small public library. Bourbon is likewise 
 the seat of a court of first resort; and it has an agricultural 
 society, and lyceum. It has no manufactures, and scarcely 
 any trade. The town occupies the site of the ancient Roche- 
 sur-Yon, a large feudal castle, founded prior to the Crusade 
 
 articles cultivated are sugar, coffee, cloves, peppers, tobacco, 
 and potatoes. Wheat, maize, and rice are also raised, but 
 not in quantity sufficient for the consumption of the island. 
 Manioc, the esculent arum, legumes, &c., are also grown to 
 some extent. The fruits of Bourbon are those both of 
 European and tropical countries, and include pine-apples, 
 bananas, bread-fruit, dates, figs, grapes, oranges, strawberries, 
 raspberries, &c. The dryness of the pasture-lands prevents 
 the rearing of cattle in numbers sufficient for the wants of the 
 population ; of domestic animals, pigs are, as usual, in greatest 
 plenty, their numbers nearly equalling that of the inhabitants. 
 A few wild goats are to be found in the woods, and land- 
 turtles are obtained in the W. districts. Bats are numerous, 
 and are esteemed a great delicacy by the nati ves. The coasts 
 abound with fish, and the shores with beautiful shells. Am 
 bergris is also found. The island has neither metals nor 
 useful minerals, other than volcanic stones and earth. It lias 
 one ferruginous alkaline spring, in the vicinity of Piton des 
 Neiges, which is somewhat frequented. Manufactures there 
 are almost none, excepting that of bags for holding sugar, &c. ; 
 some lime-burning, and tanneries. The principal exports 
 are : raw sugar, rum, coffee, cacao, cloves, mace ; imports : 
 rice, wheat, oil, wines, cattle, salt, porcelain, &c., with cottons, 
 and other manufactured goods. After France, Bourbon trades 
 chiefly with India, to which it sends cloves, and from which it 
 imports rice; Madagascar, from which it obtains large cattle, 
 and rice ; and the Mauritius. In 1 840, the imports amounted 
 to 686,894, and the exports to 420,871. The island has no 
 harbour, but only about a dozen of open, exposed roadsteads; 
 
 s of St. Denis on the N., and St. 
 It is divided into two arrondisse- 
 
 of which, the best are tin 
 
 Paul s on the N.W. side. 
 
 ments, sub-divided into 13 communes, six cantons, and 13 
 
 parishes ; and has two principal towns St. Denis, the capital, 
 
 and St. Paul; and 11 other towns and villages, mostly built on 
 
 the coasts. Bourbon is presided over by a Governor, assisted 
 
 A r OL. I. 
 
 ^oted 3,000,000 francs (120,000), to the erection of the 
 public edifices requisite for the chief town of a prefecture. 
 It was named Napoleon -Ville until 1814, when a decree of 
 the Comte d Artois, dated April 25, changed it to Bourbon- 
 Vende e. Pop. 5280. 
 
 BOURBONNAIS, a prov. France, now forming the dep. 
 of Allier, and also the arrond. of St. Amand, dep. Cher. 
 
 BOURBONNE-LES-BAixs [anc. Eorbonna], a tn. France, 
 dep. Haute-Marne, 21 m. E.N.E. Langres, occupying the 
 site of Roman thermal baths, succeeded by a feudal castle, 
 and then by a small town. The present town was built about 
 the commencement of last century, the former one having 
 been almost entirely consumed by fire. The baths, whence 
 the town is named, are derived from three springs, of the re 
 spective temperature of 136, 134, 121 Fah. The latter 
 belongs to the military hospital. The public bathing estab 
 lishment is a very handsome edifice, where every convenience 
 is provided for the invalid. The waters are used exclusively 
 for chronic complaints, and for old wounds, in the cure of 
 which they enjoy considerable reputation. The town is 
 agreeably situated, and has some fine promenades. Its manu 
 factures are cutlery and cotton hosiery. Pop. 3683. 
 
 BOURBOURG, a tn. France, dep. Nord, 9 m. S.W. 
 Dunkirk ; in a marshy country, near r. bank, Aa, on the 
 canal from that river to Dunkirk. It is an ancient town, and, 
 during the Middle Ages, was the place where the Kings of 
 England usually held their interviews with the Counts of 
 Flanders. It has manufactories of lace, salt-refineries, brew 
 eries, and oil-mills. Pop. 2438. 
 
 BOURG-AKGENTAL, a tn. France, dep. Loire, 12 m. 
 S.E. St. Etienne; on the Deome, in a district where silk of a 
 superior quality is produced, bought principally by the manu 
 facturers of Lyons, St. Chamond, and St. Etienne. The silk 
 is white, and, being the best in France for the manufacture 
 of blonde lace, brings a high price. The manufactures are 
 
BOURG-D OISANS 
 
 466 
 
 BOURGES 
 
 lace, crape, and ribbons. There is an excellent bleachfield, 
 and silk and cotton are spun in the. town. In the neighbour 
 hood are extensive nurseries. Pop. 1685. 
 
 BOURG -D OISAXS, a tu. France, dep. Isere, 18 m. 
 S.E. Grenoble, at the extremity of the dark and picturesque 
 valley of the Romanche, which is completely hemmed in by 
 wooded heights, with numerous cascades. In the neighbour 
 hood are the remains of a natural embankment formed by two 
 torrents, which, becoming overflooded, threw down rocks and 
 trees into the valley below, and gave rise to the Lake of 
 St. Laurent. The lake thus formed in 1181, covered the 
 valley near Bourg-d Oisans to a depth of about 90 ft. Thirty- 
 eight years afterwards the embankment suddenly gave way, 
 and the vast volume of water rushing down, carried devasta 
 tion into numerous villages in the line of its course, and 
 almost drowned the town of Grenoble. Lead mines and 
 rock crystal are wrought in the vicinity. Pop. 1643. 
 
 BOURG-DU-rEAGE, a tn. France, dep. Drome, 11 m. 
 N.E. Valence, r. bank, Isere, which separates it from St. 
 Romans. The mulberry is extensively cultivated in the 
 vicinity, and silk is spun in the town. Nut-oil is also manu 
 factured here. Pop. 3360. 
 
 BOURG-EN-BRESSE [anc. Burgas Seyusianorum], a tn. 
 France, cap. dep. Ain, 232 m. S.E. Paris, 1. bank, Keys- 
 souse. It is well built, with good streets, tolerably clean, 
 and ornamented with public fountains, one of which, in the 
 form of a pyramid, was erected by the inhabitants to the 
 memory of General Joubert. On the Promenade du Bastion 
 is a bronze statue of Bichat, the celebrated anatomist, who 
 pursued his early medical studies in the hospital here. Bourg 
 has a parish church, a handsome edifice of the 16th century; 
 a public library, containing 19,000 volumes ; a museum, and 
 a spacious corn-market. Outside the town is a magnificent 
 hospital, surrounded by gardens; and the beautiful Gothic 
 church of Biou, built by the direction of Margaret of Aus 
 tria, daughter of Maximilian f. In front of the portal stands 
 a curious elliptical sun-dial, reconstructed by the celebrated 
 astronomer Lalande, who was a native of this place. Bourg is 
 the seat of a court of first resort, and has also a lyceum, 
 seminary, and agricultural society ; some manufactures of 
 linen and hosiery, several tanneries, and a cotton mill ; and a 
 considerable trade in grain, poultry, wine, leather, horses, 
 and cattle In 1814, the inhabitants of Bourg offered a stout 
 resistance to the Allies, and held 1500 Austrians in check for 
 some time ; but the town was ultimately taken, and pillaged. 
 Pop. 8863. 
 
 BOURG-ST. -ANDEOL, a tn. France, dep. Ardcche, 25 
 m. S. Privas ; agreeably situated in a fertile and well culti 
 vated country, r. bank, Rhone, which is here crossed by a 
 suspension-bridge. It has manufactures of silk, and some 
 trade in grain, flour, wine, brandy, olive-oil, and other pro 
 ductions of the S. of France. The church contains a Roman 
 tomb, in marble ; and in the immediate vicinity of the town 
 is a grotto, with a temple to the god Mithras, and curious 
 sculptures. The principal figure wears the Persian tiara. 
 Pop. 3751. 
 
 BOURG-ST. -MAURICE, a vil. Sardinia, Savoy, prov. 
 Tarentaise; on the Isere, about 6 m. S.W. of the Little St. 
 Bernard. It was almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1794, 
 but has since been rebuilt in an improved form. A cheese of 
 some celebrity is produced in the neighbourhood, and, with 
 cattle, forms the only article of trade. Pop. 2380. 
 
 BOURG -SUR- GIRONDE, or SUR-MER, a tn. France, 
 dep. Gironde, 8 m. S.E. Blaye, r. bank, Dordogne, near its 
 confluence with the Gironde. It is tolerably well built, has 
 a small port, admitting vessels of 200 or 300 tons ; and, in 
 the neighbourhood, some quarries of excellent stone, from 
 which Bordeaux is supplied. The town has a considerable 
 trade in wine. Pop. 1356. 
 
 BOURG AKEUF, a tn. France, dep. Creuse, 17 m. 
 S.S.W. Gueret, on the Thorion. It gives its name to a coal 
 field or basin, extending through four of the neighbouring 
 communes ; and has manufactures of porcelain and paper. 
 Pop. 2480. 
 
 BOURG AS, BOUROHAP, or BURGAS.!, A seaport tn. 
 Turkey in Europe, prov. Koumelta, on the Black Sea, at the 
 bottom of gulf of same name, 70 m. N.E. Adrianople; lat. 
 (minaret) 42 30 18" N. ; Ion. 27 30 45" E. (it.) It is built on 
 an eminence, and has a prepossessing appearance. The shops 
 
 are kept neat and clean, and being well stocked with showy 
 articles, look very pretty. Its principal source of prosperity 
 is in the manufacture of pottery, pipe-bowls, cups, c., for 
 which a superior clay is found in the neighbourhood. They 
 are, besides, tastefully made, richly ornamented, and are sold 
 at a high price. The town has also a considerable trade in 
 grain, wine, iron, woollen stuffs, butter, cheese, and other 
 
 productions of the country. Pop. 6000. The GULP is 
 
 formed by Cape Emineh on the N., and the town of Sizeboli 
 or Sizopoli on the S., 17m. apart. It opens E. and stretches 
 about 22 in. inland. 2, Tchatal Bonrgas, or Burgas, a tn. 
 same prov. 45 m. S.E. Adrianople; lat. 41 21 N. ; Ion. 
 27 18 E.; with an old castle, a fine mosque, hospital, baths, 
 small market-place, manufactures of terra-cotta, and about 
 2000 houses. 
 
 BOURGES [anc. Bituricce or Bitiiria], a very ancient tn. 
 France, cap. dep. Cher, 124 m. S. Paris, at the confluence of 
 the Auzon and Yevre. It is surrounded with ramparts, now 
 converted into public promenades, and is about 2J m. round. 
 The streets are generally broad, but deserted and gloomy, 
 owing to the small population, and peculiar construction ol 
 the houses. Large unbuilt spaces, likewise, generally planted 
 with trees, or occupied as gardens and nursery-grounds, are 
 met with here and there. The principal public buildings are, 
 the cathedral, erected in the 13th century, and esteemed one of 
 the finest Gothic structures in France ; the church of Notre 
 Dame, founded in 1157, destroyed by fire in 1487, and re 
 built in 1520 ; and the church of St. Bonnet, founded in 1250, 
 destroyed by the same fire of 1487, and re-built in 1510. The 
 glass in the chapels of the latter is exquisitely painted. The 
 archiepiscopal palace is a handsome building, with gardens, 
 designed by Le Notre. The hotel of the prefecture occupies 
 the site of the old palace of the Dukes of Berry. Next to the 
 cathedral, however, the most remarkable building of Bourges 
 is the Hotel de Ville, built in 1443, and originally the man 
 sion of Jacques Cceur, a native of the town, and the cele 
 brated and unfortunate treasurer of Charles VII., who, 
 after lending his master 200,000 gold crowns, was cast into 
 prison, and all his property confiscated, for certain imaginary 
 crimes, of which he was accused by courtiers who shared in 
 his spoils. He was condemned to death, but escaped to 
 Rome, and died on a naval expedition, iu the service of 
 
 the Pope. This building is in the florid Gothic stylo, 
 ma-nificence. Besides the mairie, the m 
 
 mansion 
 
 and of great 
 
 of Jacques Cceur contains the halls of the royal court,jtne 
 
 courts of first resort, of commerce, and justiciary. 
 
 The 
 
BOURGET 
 
 467 
 
 BOVEY-TEACEY 
 
 ancient seminary is also a handsome edifice, now occupied as 
 barracks. Bourges has a public library, containing 20,000 
 volumes ; a college, museum, seminary, theatre, general hos 
 pital, prisons, and a house of refuge. The town is the seat 
 of an archbishopric, of a royal court for the departments of 
 Cher, Indre, and Nievre, of a diocesan theological seminary, 
 ecclesiastical school, and normal school for the department. 
 It is also the capital of the 21st military division of the king 
 dom. The manufactures are inconsiderable, consisting of 
 some coarse woollens, blankets, cutlery, and leather. It has 
 also saltpetre works, breweries, and tanneries. The number 
 of silversmiths is remarkable for a provincial town. The 
 principal trade is in grain, hemp, wool, flannel, hides, wood, 
 and fruit-trees. Bourges is of high antiquity. Six centuries 
 before the Christian era, it was the capital of Celtic Gaul. 
 In the time of Julius Caesar it was called Aearicum, and was 
 the capital of the Bituriges, from whom the modern name 
 appears to be derived. Caesar besieged and took it, B.C. 52. 
 Under the Romans it became the capital of Aquitania. In 
 475, it fell into the hands of the Visigoths, but submitted to 
 Clovis, when he had vanquished Alaric, in the plains of 
 VoniHe". It then became the capital of prov. Berri ; and, 
 during the Middle Ages, partook of the vicissitudes common 
 to the towns of France. The great fire of 1487 destroyed 
 3000 houses, and gave a blow to the commercial prosperity of 
 the town, from which it never recovered. The cloth manu 
 facturers, who were at that time numerous, removed from the 
 place, and Lyons profited by the disaster, as the fairs were 
 transferred to that town. In 1583, the plague carried oft 
 5000 of the inhabitants. Seven councils have been held at 
 Bourges, and the Pragmatic Sanction was accepted here by 
 the clergy in 1438. Pop. (1846), 18,255. 
 
 BOUKGET. 1, A lake, Sardinia, Savoy, 7 m. N. Cham- 
 bery, and near the E. frontiers of France. It is about llm. 
 long, from N. to S., and, on an average, not more than 2 m. 
 broad. It empties its surplus water into the Rhone, by a 
 tortuous channel, which permits steam-vessels to enter, and 
 navigate the lake. The scenery is very romantic, the W. 
 shore consisting of a precipice of limestone, which rises almost 
 perpendicularly. 2, A vil. at the S.W. extremity of the lake. 
 It is a place of great antiquity, and many Roman remains 
 have been found in it. Pop. 1650. 
 
 BOURGOGNE. See BURGUNDY. 
 
 BOURGOIN [anc. Bergusium}, a tn. France, dep. Iscre, 
 8 m. W.N.W. La Tour-du-Pin, on the Bourbre. It is sur 
 rounded with marshes, which have been partly drained, and 
 which afford inexhaustible supplies of turf for fuel. The 
 town has some woollen, cotton, and silk manufactures, and 
 numerous flour-mills. It carries on a good trade in flour of 
 excellent quality, hemp, linen, and woollen cloth, &c. Pop. 
 3337. 
 
 BOURGUEIL, a tn. France, dep. Indre-et-Loire, 26 m. 
 S.W. Tours, r. bank, Doit, here called the Authion. The 
 district produces red wine of good quality, flax, hemp, anise, 
 liquorice, nuts, onion and other vegetable seeds. Trade in 
 nut-oil, dried fruits, butter, maize, millet, and wine. Pop. 
 1729. 
 
 BOURKE, a co., S. Australia, 65 m. long, and 60 broad ; 
 area, 3000 sq. m., or 2,496,000 ac. It contains 35 parishes 
 Pop. 17,331, of which 9440 are males, 7891 females. 
 
 BOURLOS. See BOORLOS. 
 
 BOURN, or BOURNE, three pars. Eng.: 1, par. Cam 
 bridge; 4073 ac. Pop. 909. 2, Bourne (St. Mary), par. 
 Hants ; 6640 ac. Pop. 1152. 3, Bourne (West], par. Sussex; 
 4230 ac. Pop. 2093. 
 
 BOURNE, a tn. and par. England, co. of, and 33 m. 
 S. Lincoln. The town lies at the foot of a range of hills, and 
 consists of four principal streets, recently much improved in 
 cleanliness and sewage; houses generally of brick, for the 
 most part irregularly but well built ; amply supplied with 
 water, and well lighted with gas. The church is a large 
 ancient structure, with two towers at its W. end. There are 
 chapels belonging to Baptists, Methodists, Independents, and 
 Calvinists; also, a grammar, national, and several private 
 schools ; a set of alms-houses, a clothing-fund, and some other 
 minor charities, and a mechanics institute. The manufac 
 ture of leather, formerly carried on here to a considerable 
 extent, has long since ceased. The only trade of the town 
 now is in wool and corn. Area of par. 8190 ac. Pop., in 
 
 cluding the hamlets of Dyke and Cawthorpe, 3361. (Local 
 Correspondent.} 
 
 BOURNEMOUTH, a vil. England, co. Hants, 6 in. W. 
 by S. Christ Church. It lies on the coast, and having of late 
 years become a place of fashionable resort for bathing, many 
 tasteful villas have sprung up. A spacious hotel, a range of 
 elegant and commodious baths, and a church, have also been 
 recently erected. 
 
 BOURNEY, par. Irel. Tipperary; 12,931 ac. Pop. 4620. 
 
 BOURO. Sec BOORO. 
 
 BOURT ANGER MORASS, an extensive swamp, up 
 wards of 40 m. in length, on the confines of Holland and 
 Hanover, bank of the Ems. Being quite impracticable for 
 the passage of troops, it forms, to the adjacent provinces, an 
 important defence against invasion. At the N. extremity of 
 the morass, in province Groningen, is a fort of the same name. 
 
 BOURTIE, par. Scot. Aberdeen ; 4000 ac. Pop. 469. 
 
 BOURTON, three pars. Eng.: 1, Bourton-upon Puns- 
 moor, par. Warwick; 2520 ac. Pop. 390. 2, Bourton-on- 
 tlie-IKll, par. Gloucester; 2960 ac. Pop. 542. 3, Bourton- 
 on-tlie- Water, par. Gloucester; 2290. Pop. 943. 
 
 BOUSSA, a city, Africa, Soodan, cap. prov. of samo 
 name, on an island in the Niger or Quorra, about 3 m. long, 
 and 1 m. broad ; lat. 10 14 N.; Ion. 6 11 E. It is walled, 
 and being surrounded by rocks, is a place of considerable 
 strength. As in all African cities, the houses are irregularly 
 placed, and thus cover a space of ground disproportioned to 
 the number of inhabitants. The soil of the province is fertile, 
 producing corn, yams, cotton, rice, and timber trees, in great 
 abundance. Amongst the wild animals are elephants, hippo 
 potami, lions, tigers, &c. Boussa has obtained a melancholy 
 notoriety, from the circumstance of its being the place where 
 the enterprising traveller, Park, met his death. The popu 
 lation of the town of Boussa has been estimated at 12,000 to 
 18,000. 
 
 BOUSSU, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, 7 m. 
 W. Mons ; with the fine castle of the Counts of Caraman and 
 Beaumont, whence Louis XIV. directed the siege of Saint 
 Ghislain, in 1665. The commune has extensive breweries, 
 an iron-foundry, and forge, and abounds in coal ; 30,000 tons 
 are raised annually, two-thirds of which go to France. Pop. 
 3287. 
 
 BOUTONNE, a river, France, which rises at the foot of 
 one of the towers of the ancient castle of Malesherbes, near 
 Chef-Boutonne, dep. Deux-Sevres, and, after a S.W. course 
 of about 50 m., falls into the Charente, about 10 m. above its 
 mouth. It passes, and is navigable from, St. Jean d Angely. 
 
 BOUXW1LLER, or BOSWILLER, a tn. France, dep. 
 Bas Rhin, on the Moder, 20m. N.W. Strasburg; formerly 
 walled. It has extensive chemical works, producing alum, 
 vitriol, Prussian blue, ammonia, animal charcoal, pyrolignous 
 acid, &c. It likewise has some large tanneries, bleachfields, 
 madder-works, ropeworks, and manufactures of fustian, linen, 
 ironmongery, and excellent glue. Pop. 3951. 
 
 BOUZONVILLE, a tn. France, dep. Moselle, on the 
 Nied, 19 m. N.E Metz. Its manufactures are leather 
 (common and shammy), glue, nails, and cabinet-work. In the 
 neighbourhood are the ruins of an abbey, founded in 1030. 
 Its extensive Gothic buildings crown a hill, whose sloping 
 sides are covered with orchards, and at the foot of which the 
 Nied meanders through large and verdant meadows. Pop. 
 1580. 
 
 BOVA, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Ultra, 17 m. S.E. 
 Reggio, on a mountain not far from the sea ; seat of a bishop, 
 suffragan to Reggio. It has a cathedral, and several other 
 churches, a seminary, hospital, and two monts-de-picte, Silk 
 worms are reared in the neighbourhood. Pop. 2882. 
 
 BOVEGNO, a vil. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, prov. of, 
 and 18 m. N. by E. Brescia, near 1. bank, Mella. It has a 
 parish church, an hospital, and manufactory of iron vessels, 
 and cutlery. In the vicinity are iron mines, and several 
 mineral springs. Pop. 2546. 
 
 BOVEVAGH, par. Irel. Derry ; 19,636 ac. Pop. 5174. 
 
 BOVEY, two pars. Eng. Devon :\,Bo-cey (North), 6600 
 ac. Pop. 660. 2, Bovey (South), 6480 ac. Pop. 1823. 
 
 BOVEY-TRACEY, a vil. and par. England, co. Devon, 
 4 m. W. by S. Chudleigh. There are here a large parish 
 church, in the early English style ; chapels for Wesleyans 
 and Baptists, and an endowed free school for 20 boys. There 
 
F 
 
 BOVINO 
 
 468 
 
 BOYLE 
 
 are several extensive earthenware potteries, and some coal 
 mines in the parish. Area of par. 6480 ac. Pop. 1823. 
 
 BOVINO [anc. Bovinum], a tn. Naples, prov. Capitanata, 
 20 m. S.S.W. Foggia, near the Cervaro; the seat of a 
 bishopric, suffragan to Benevento. It is fortified, and has a 
 cathedral, two parish churches, and several convents. The 
 Spaniards were defeated here by the Imperialists in 173-1. 
 Pop. 5721. 
 
 BOW, or NYMET-TRACEY, par. Eng. Devon ; 2740 ac. 
 Pop. 973. 
 
 BOW, an id., S. Pacific; lat. 18 6 S.; Ion. 140 48 
 \V. (E.) ; of coral formation, 30 m. long by 5 mean breadth ; 
 well wooded on the weather side, but scantily on the other ; 
 visited for its pearl-fishery. Pop. about 100. 
 
 BOW, or STRATFORD-LE-BOW, a vil. and par. England, 
 co. Middlesex, 4J m. E.N.E. St. Paul s Cathedral, London. 
 The village is agreeably situated ; well paved, and lighted 
 with gas. The church, an ancient structure, of a mixed style 
 of architecture, has a low square tower, and a window gor 
 geously ornamented with figures in stained glass. There 
 are, besides, places of worship for Wesleyans, Baptists, and 
 R. Catholics ; several free schools, an alms-house, and various ! 
 other charities. Porcelain was formerly manufactured here ! 
 to a great extent. The Eastern Counties Railway passes a j 
 little N. the town. Area of par. 630 ac. Pop. 4626. 
 
 BOWDEN, two pars. Eng.: 1, Bowden (Great], par. 
 Leicester; 3120 ac. Pop. 3698. 2, Bowden (Little], par. 
 Northampton; 2410 ac. Pop. 439. 
 
 BOWDEN, a vil. and par. Scotland, co. Roxburgh. The 
 vil., 3 m. S. Melrose, has a church, and a good parochial 
 school. Pop. 253. Area of par. 6700 ac. Pop. 857. 
 
 BOWD1TCH ISLAND, an id., S. Pacific; lat. (N. point) 
 9 20 S.; Ion. 171 4 W. (R.) ; of coral formation, and tri 
 angular form, with the apex S. It is 8 m. long N. to S., and 
 about 4 m. broad. On its N.W. and N. points the land is of 
 considerable elevation, and on the E. are extensive groves 
 of cocoa-nut trees and shrubbery. The scenery on some 
 parts of this little island is of surpassing beauty, equalling all 
 that the imagination has pictured, or can picture of these 
 paradises of the ocean, with their balmy climates and luxu 
 riant foliage. The inhabitants, of whom there are about 600, 
 are friendly, gentle, and good-humoured, but extremely timid. 
 In their persons they are well formed, and the expression of 
 their countenances is extremely agreeable. The younger 
 portion of the community go naked, but those more advanced 
 in life wear the maro, a sort of apron, which in the men is 
 from 16 to 18 inches wide; in the case of females it is of 
 preposterous size, and weighs about 50 Ibs., presenting a very 
 uncouth and ridiculous appearance. They do not cultivate 
 the soil, but live chiefly on its spontaneous productions, 
 which include cocoa-nuts, and on the produce of the sea ; and 
 that these sources afford them sufficient sustenance, says 
 Capt. Wilkes, is amply proved by their robust and healthy 
 looks. They are a very ingenious people, exhibiting great 
 taste and dexterity in the manufacture of various small 
 articles, such as fish-hooks, boxes, and working-implements, 
 saws, files, and drills, formed, indeed, from rude materials, 
 but well adapted for their purposes. They also manufacture 
 an excellent kind of matting for sleeping in, and for clothing. 
 Bowditch Island was discovered by Commander Wilkes, of 
 the U. States Exploring Expedition, on January 29, 1841, the 
 island not having been laid down in any chart previous to 
 that period, and being still wanting in many maps. 
 
 BOWDON, par. Eng. Chester; 18,660 ac. Pop. 9373. 
 
 BOWER, par. Scot. Caithness, 7 in. long by 3 broad. 
 Pop. 1689. 
 
 BOWER-CHALK, par. Eng. Wilts; 3120 ac. Pop. 447. 
 
 BOWERS-GIFFORD, par. Eng. Essex; 2230 ac. P.249. 
 
 BOWES, par. Eng. York, N. Riding; 18,440 ac. P. 850. 
 
 BOWFELL, a mountain, Eng. Westmoreland, 7 m. W. 
 by N. Ambleside, 2911 ft. high. 
 
 BOW MORE, a vil. and port, Scotland, co. Argyle, isl. 
 Islay, near the head of Loch-in Daal. It is laid out with 
 tolerable regularity. A principal street ascends a pretty 
 steep hill, and is crossed by another wide street ; and a third 
 street, with inferior houses, runs parallel to the first. The 
 quay is substantial, and suited for coasting vessels. The 
 parish church, a respectable circular building, surmounted 
 by a neat spire, stands in the village, which likewise has 
 
 three schools. A distillery here is somewhat noted for the 
 quality of the whisky produced. Pop. about 1500. 
 
 BOWNESS, a post tn. England, co. Westmorland; de 
 lightfully situated on E. shore, Lake Windermere, 9 m. 
 W.N.W. Kendal, a favourite residence of visitors to the lake 
 scenery. It has a parish church, free grammar school, and 
 several handsome villas, and is within 1 J m. of the Winder 
 mere station of the Kendal and Windermere Railway. 
 
 BOWNESS, par. Eng. Cumberland ; 10,830 ac. P. 1488. 
 
 BOX, par. Eng. Wilts ; 4130 ac. Pop. 2274. 
 
 BOXFORD, two pars. Eng. : 1, par. Suffolk; 2450 ac. 
 1 Pop. 1121. 2, Boxford-cum-WcsOirook, par. Berks; 2880 ac. 
 Pop. 612. 
 
 BOXGROVE, par. Eng. Sussex ; 3410 ac. Pop. 736. 
 
 BOXLEY, par. Eng. Kent ; 5670 ac. Pop. 1398. 
 
 BOXMEER [anc. JUeer], a tn. Holland, prov. N. Brabant, 
 28 m. E. Hertogenbosch, near the Maas. It is neat and clean ; 
 has an old castle, a handsome court-house, a R. Catholic 
 church, a Carmelite monastery and convent, a gymnasium 
 for the tuition of Latin, philosophy, and theology, and three 
 other schools. Boxmeer has two calico printworks, and is 
 noted for its fine beer. Pop. 630. 
 
 BOXTED, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Essex; 3120 ac. 
 Pop. 856. 2, par. Suffolk; 1580 ac. Pop. 200. 
 
 BOXTEL, a tn. Holland, prov. Gelderland, 7 m. S. Her 
 togenbosch, on the Dommel, which, winding through among 
 the houses, propels a variety of mills, besides serving for the 
 passage of boats, and together with the constant traffic of 
 carriages of all sorts to and from Maastricht, &c., renders this 
 one of the most stirring places in the district. Boxtel has a 
 R. Catholic, and a Reformed church, two schools, and a small 
 alms-house. It is noted for the beauty of its diapers and 
 damasks, and has bleacheries, and a paper mill. Pop. nearly 
 all R. Catholics, about 3600. 
 
 BOXWELL-wiTH-LEiGHTERTON, par. Eng. Gloucester ; 
 2210ac. Pop. 334. 
 
 BOXWORTH, par. Eng. Cambridge ; 2000 ac. Pop. 326. 
 
 BOYACA, a vil. New Granada, dep. same name, 60 in. 
 N.N.E. Bogota, with important limekilns. It has become noted 
 from the defeat here sustained by the Spaniards in 1819, and 
 
 which secured the independence of the W. provinces. 
 
 The DEPARTMENT is very extensive, bounded by the republic 
 of Venezuela, and provinces Cundinamarca and Magdalena ; 
 area, 92,800 geo. sq. in. ; capital, Tunja. In the W., it is 
 traversed by a chain of the Andes, and in the E. it is com 
 posed of immense plains, watered by affluents of the Orinoco. 
 Pop. (1840), 46,500. 
 
 BOYANAGH, par. Irel. Galway ; 15,832 ac. Pop. 5288. 
 
 BOYANNA BAY, a bay, N.W. coast of Madagascar, 
 N.W. point; lat. 15 59 S.; Ion. 45 23 E. It is about 
 3 m. wide in the entrance, and 6 or 7 m. in length ; extend 
 ing S., with depths from 6 to 4 fathoms, and which shoal to 
 2 and 1 fathom near the shore and at the bottom of the hay, 
 around which there are several small villages ; and on the 
 W. side is the principal town of the province. 
 
 BOYD TOWN, a seaport, Australia, New S. Wales, at the 
 head of Twofold Bay; lat. 37 10 S.; Ion. 149 57 E., separ 
 ated from E. Boyd by the river Kiah. Though but lately 
 founded, it is in a flourishing condition, and has already a 
 pretty extensive trade, and is laid out in good taste, and com 
 posed of well-built brick houses, and neat cottages, with ver 
 andahs. It contains a handsome Gothic church, with a lofty 
 spire, a spacious hotel, and several ranges of commodious shops. 
 There are here a large whaling establishment, employing nine 
 sperm whaling ships, and several extensive salting and boiling- 
 down houses. The port has a convenient jetty, 300 ft. long, and 
 vessels refitting have here the advantage of a heaving-down 
 hulk, and every necessary mechanical assistance, abundance 
 of water, and every description of provisions and vegetables. 
 Both Boyd and E. Boyd are consequently favourite resorts 
 for shipping. 
 
 BOYLE, a garrison tn. and par. Ireland, co. Roscommon. 
 The town is 22 tn. S.E. Sligo, on a stream of same name, con 
 necting Lough Gara with Lough Key, in a valley nearly sur 
 rounded by hills. It consists of four principal streets crossing 
 at right angles, two of which are straight, the other two wind 
 ing, one of the latter ascends a very steep hill ; all indifferently 
 paved and kept. The more modern houses, many of which 
 are of stone, are well built, great improvement in this respect 
 
BOYLSTON 
 
 469 
 
 BRACKENHEIM 
 
 having taken place of late years, but in the outskirts are many- 
 miserable hovels. Boyle has an Episcopal church, and chapel 
 of ease, a R. Catholic, and two Methodist chapels, a work 
 house, in the old English style ; court-house, and bridewell, 
 the latter a plain building, with freestone front ; a national 
 school for boys and girls, and a male and female infant school 
 connected with the church ; a dispensary, and a charitable 
 loan fund. Oatmeal and flour are made at very extensive 
 mills erected on the Boyle river, at the extremity of the town, 
 and coarse frieze and flannels are manufactured by some of 
 the peasantry, but to a very limited extent, and only for the 
 home market. A large number of cattle is sold at the fairs, 
 which lake place nine times a year, and, being the centre of 
 an extensive district, there is a good retail trade. In the 
 environs is a public garden, decorated with a statue of King 
 William III., with well laid-out walks, for the recreation of 
 the inhabitants, provided by Viscount Lorton, the proprietor 
 of the town. Pop. 3235. Areaof par. 20,737 ac. Pop. 12,591. 
 (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BOYLSTON, par. Eng. Derby; 1360 ac. Pop. 343. 
 
 BO YNDIE, or BOINDIE, par. Scot. Banff; 3000 ac. P. 875. 
 
 BOYNE, a river, Ireland ; rises in the bog of Allen, co. 
 Kildare, 1 m. S.E. Carbery, and after a winding N.E. course 
 of about 60 m., through beautiful and romantic scenery, falls 
 into the Irish Sea 4 m. E. by N. Drogheda. By artificial 
 means, it has been rendered navigable for barges to a distance 
 of 25 m. from the sea ; but the bar at its entrance can be 
 crossed only by vessels of small burden. The Boyne derives 
 its chief importance from the memorable and decisive battle 
 fought on its banks, July 1, 1690, between William III. and 
 James II. An obelisk, in commemoration of the battle, was 
 erected in 1786, on the spot where William received a slight 
 wound, the evening before the engagement. 
 
 BOYNTON, par. Eng. York, E. Biding; 2690 ac. P. 100. 
 
 BOYSTOWN, or BALTIBOYS, par. Irel. Wicklow; 25,134 
 ac. Pop. 3644. 
 
 BO YTON, three pars. Eng. ; 1 , par. Devon and Corn 
 wall ; 5120 ac, Pop. 600. 2, par. Suffolk; 1890 ac. Pop. 
 239. 3, par. Wilts ; 4580 ac. Pop. 360. 
 
 BOYTONRATIT, par. Irel. Tipperary ; 992 ac. Pop. 255. 
 
 BOZEAT, par. Eug. Northampton ; 2400 ac. Pop. 845. 
 
 BOZZOLO, a fortified tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, 
 prov. of, and 16m. W.S.W. Mantua, near r. bank, Oglio, 
 with old fortifications, some silk looms, and an annual fair. 
 Pop. 4049. 
 
 BRA, a tn. Sardinian States, div. Coni, prov. of, and 9 m. 
 W.S.W. Alba. It has three parish churches, the principal 
 of which is the church of Santa Chiara, built in 1742 by 
 Vettone. The town has a good trade in cattle, grain, wine, 
 and silk, which last is held in high repute. Pop. 8000. 
 
 BRAA, or BRAHE, a river, Prussia, rising in Pomerania. 
 It forms numerous small lakes in the upper part of its course, 
 flows S.S.E., and falls into the Vistula on its 1. bank, 6 m. E. 
 Bromberg ; total length, about 108 m. The canal from Brom- 
 berg to Nakel unites it with the Netze, and thus forms a com 
 munication between the Vistula and the Oder. 
 
 BRAAK, or BRAKKE, several streams, S. Africa, Cape 
 Territory: 1, Braak, or New River, rising in Graaf Reynet, 
 near lat. 31 S., flowing N.W. and falling into the Gariep or 
 Orange River, after a course of 120 m., exclusive of windings. 
 2, The Gh-eat and Little Braak, the two head streams of the 
 Great Fish River. 3, A small affluent of the Little Fish 
 River. 
 
 BRAAKE. See BRAKE. 
 
 BRABANT [Dutch, Hertogdom Braband], an ancient 
 duchy of the Low Countries, of which Brussels was the capi 
 tal. On the emancipation of the United Provinces of Holland, 
 it became divided into two parts one Dutch or N. Brabant, 
 and Austrian Brabant, comprehending not merely the present 
 province of S. or Belgian Brabant, but both it and the present 
 province of Antwerp. 
 
 BRABANT (NORTH), [Dutch, Noord-Brdband], a prov. 
 Holland, and on the frontier betwixt it and Belgium, along 
 which it extends about 60 m.; area, 842,240 ac. It is generally 
 flat, and is drained by the Maas, the Merwede, the Scheldt, the 
 Amer, the old Maas, the Dommel, the Aa or Ade, the Donge, 
 the Mark, and the Dintel, to which may be added the great 
 South-William s-vaart Canal. Careful drainage has made the 
 province famous for health and longevity, and while epidemics 
 
 have raged in other parts of the Netherlands, N. Brabant has 
 been exempt from their attacks. There are no minerals of 
 any consequence, The soil varies from barren moor and wet 
 bog, to the richest arable and pasture land. Besides the 
 common cereals, it produces hops, madder, cole-seed, flax, 
 hemp, and orchard fruit. Not the least important product is 
 the running plant, found indispensable for the preservation of 
 the dikes from abrasion by the water. Oak and elm thrive 
 well. The lower grounds afford excellent oziers and bulrushes, 
 and the white mulberry is much grown for silkworms, which 
 are reared chiefly at St. Michael s Gestel. The horses and 
 cattle of N. Brabant are smaller than those of some of the 
 neighbouring provinces. The wool of the sheep is mostly 
 used within the province, particularly at Tilburg. The pigs 
 are excellent. Immense quantities of geese and poultry are 
 raised and exported. Bees also are an object of profitable 
 attention. The rivers abound with fish, of which the ancho 
 vies of Bergen-op-Zoom, and the salmon of Gertruidenburg, are 
 in great repute. Manufactures : Woollen cloths, made at 
 Tilburg, Eindhoven, and Gelddrop ; coloured cottons at Hel- 
 mond, and linen and cotton fabrics at Eindhoven and the 
 villages around Hertogenbosch, where also the finest damasks 
 and diapers are manufactured. In other towns there are 
 carpet, hat, and pin manufactories, potteries, brick-fields, many 
 celebrated breweries, lace-making, iron-mills, &c. For the 
 administration of justice, N. Brabant is divided into three 
 districts, and these again into 19 cantons. It has 349 primary, 
 and 14 Latin schools, the latter attended by about 300 scholars. 
 Pop. 378,437, of whom R. Catholics, 328,741 ; Protestants, 
 47,535; Jews, 1951 ; attached to no religious communion, 210. 
 
 BRABANT (SOUTH), [Dutch, Z aid -Braband], a prov. 
 Belgium, which, though in population only the third, and in 
 extent only the fourth, is from its central position, and posses 
 sion of the capital, the most important of all the provinces of 
 Belgium. Its boundaries are, N. prov. Antwerp, E. prov. 
 Limburg and Liege, S. prov. Hainaut and Namur, E. prov. 
 E. Flanders. It has an area of 810,955 English ac., of which 
 67 1,484 are cultivated, 105,131 under wood, of which one-tenth 
 belongs to forest Soignies, and only 3107 uncultivated and 
 waste, the remainder being occupied by water, roads, towns, 
 &c. Its soil, which owes much to nature, but more to industry, 
 produces in abundance all the ordinary grain and pulse crops, 
 seeds, and grasses ; its manufactures are various and extensive, 
 consisting chiefly of cotton stuffs, muslins, velvet, lace, and 
 carpets. It has numerous potteries, tanneries, and currying- 
 houses, hat-factories, sugar and salt refineries, coachworks, 
 paper-mills, glassworks, distilleries, and very extensive brew 
 eries. There is also a very large book trade, the chief ma 
 terials of which are obtained, not from native authors, but from 
 the appropriated literature of France. Brabant is divided into 
 three administrative and judicial arrondissements, of which 
 the chief places are Brussels, Louvain, and Nivelles. Ac 
 cording to the proportion of one to every 45,000 inhabitants, 
 it should send 18 members to the Chamber of Deputies. Pop. 
 691,357, of whom 220,547 use the French, and 467,696 the 
 Flemish language. 
 
 BRABOURNE, par. Eng. Kent ; 3640 ac. Pop. 889. 
 
 BRACADALE, a par. Scotland, co. Inverness, Isle of 
 Skye; length, 17 m.; breadth, 4 to 7 m.; rocky, and intersected 
 by several arms of the sea. Pop. 1824. 
 
 BRACCIANO [anc. Arcennum or Bracennum"] , a tn. 
 Papal States, W. side, lake of same name, 22 m. N.W. Rome ; 
 with a magnificent castle, belonging to the Dukes of Bracciano. 
 In its vicinity are thermal springs and baths. Pop. 1800. 
 
 The LAKE [anc. Sabantina starjna] is 2437 ft. above the 
 
 sea; area, 25 sq. m., and nearly circular. By the Arone it 
 communicates with the Mediterranean. 
 
 BRACEBOROUGH.par.Eng. Lincoln; 2230ac. P.231. 
 
 BRACEB Y, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 970 ac. Pop. 155. 
 
 BRACE-MEOLE, par. Eng. Salop ; 2487 ac. Pop. 1195. 
 
 BRACEWELL, par. Eng. York, W. Riding; 1920 ac. 
 Pop. 153. 
 
 BRACKENHEIM, a tn. Wiirtemberg, circle, Neckar, 
 cap. dist. of same name, 23 m. N.N.W. Stuttgart. It con 
 tains two churches, a townhouse, an old castle, a grammar- 
 school, and a well-endowed hospital. It is a place of great 
 antiquity, and is said to have been a Roman station. Pop. 
 
 1520. The DISTRICT, area, 70 geo. sq. in., produces much 
 
 fruit and wine. Pop. 24,415. 
 
BRACKLEY 
 
 BRADLEY 
 
 BRACKLEY, a market tn. and par. England, co. Nor 
 thampton. The town is 18 in. S.W. Northampton, and consists 
 chiefly of one straight spacious street, nearly 1 m. in length ; 
 houses chiefly of stone, with large gardens behind; well 
 lighted with gas. It contains a church, an ancient and hand 
 some building; Wesleyan and Independent chapels, a free and 
 a national school. The townhall, in the centre of the town, 
 is also an ancient structure. There are two large breweries 
 here, but no other manufactures of any consequence. Pop. 
 2121. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BRACON- ASH, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 950 ac. Pop. 293. 
 
 BRADANO, a river, Naples, which rises in a branch of 
 
 the Appenines, prov. Basilicata, and, after an E.S.E. course of 
 
 nearly GO m., falls into the Gulf of Taranto, at Ponte Tavole. 
 
 BRADBORNE, par. Eng. Derby ; 6400 ac. Pop. 1303. 
 
 BRADDEN, par. Eng. Northampton ; 1000 ac. P. 171. 
 
 BRADEX1IAM, three pars. Eng. : 1, par. Bucks; 830 
 
 ac. Pop. 226. 2, Dradenliam (East), par. Norfolk ; 2120 ac. 
 
 Pop. 368. 3, liradenham (West), par. Norfolk; 1790 ac. 
 
 Pop. 364. 
 
 BRADESTON, par. Eng. Norfolk; 630 ac. Pop. 126. 
 BRADFJELD, six pars. Eng. : 1, par. Berks ; 4270 ac. 
 Pop. 1042. 2, par. Essex; 2270 ac. Pop. 995. 3, par. 
 Norfolk; 630 ac. Pop. 195. 4, Lradfald Combust, par. 
 Suffolk; 590 ac. Pop. 192. 5, Bradfield (St. George), 
 par. Suffolk; 2090 ac. Pop. 479. 6, Bradfield (St. Clair), 
 par. Suffolk, 1 1 90 ac. Pop. 240. 
 
 BRADFORD, a flourishing manufacturing tn., bor., and 
 par. England, co. York, W. Riding, 29 m. N.E. Manchester. 
 It is pleasantly situated at the junction of three beautiful and 
 extensive valleys, and is almost entirely built of fine freestone. 
 In the older parts of the town, the streets are narrow and ill- 
 constructed ; but in the more modern they are spacious, well 
 paved and lighted. The exchange is a beautiful building, 
 with a library and news-room attached. Opposite to it is the 
 piece-hall, for the exhibition and sale of stuff goods. Thurs 
 day is the day of sale ; but, of late years, sales of goods have 
 been effected, to a much larger amount, at the rooms and 
 warehouses of the leading manufacturers and merchants, both 
 on Mondays and Thursdays. The courthouse, erected in 
 1834, is a handsome and convenient building. There are 
 also a good market-place, with a spacious enclosed area ; a 
 mechanics institute, for which a commodious and handsome 
 building has been erected ; a flourishing philosophical society, 
 and a dispensary, liberally supported. Churches : the parish 
 church, erected in the reign of Henry VI., in the decorated 
 style of English architecture ; Christ Church, a chapel of ease, 
 a neat structure, with a low tower ; St. James s, St. John s, 
 St. Jude s, and St. Paul s. The other places of worship are, 
 three large Baptist chapels, three Independent, three Wes- 
 leyan Methodist, one New Connection Methodist, two As 
 sociation Methodist, one U. Presbyterian (recently erected), 
 one Unitarian, one Society of Friends, one Moravian, and or.e 
 11. Catholic. Bradford has a free grammar-school, liberally 
 endowed by Charles II., and rebuilt in 1830; four national 
 schools, and one conducted on the system of the British and 
 Foreign School Society ; and several parochial and Wesleyan 
 schools. In the immediate vicinity is Airedale College, for 
 the education of young men for the ministry among the Inde 
 pendents. The Baptists have a similar academical institution 
 at Little Horton ; and at Woodhouse Grove, 4 m. distant, the 
 Wesleyan Methodists have a school for ministers sons. The 
 infirmary, erected in 1842, is a noble building in the Tudor 
 Btyle, with wards for 60 patients, and a dispensary. 
 
 The staple manufacture of the town is worsted stuffs, and 
 mixed worsted, alpaca, and mohair ; also cotton and silk fabrics. 
 The spinning of worsted yarn employs a great number of 
 hands ; and when spun it is largely exported, and also woven 
 in the power-loom factories of the town. There are not 
 luss than 112 mills in the parish, for spinning and weaving 
 worsted, &c. ; of these, 38 are in the town. Broad and narrow 
 cloths (employing six extensive mills, chiefly in adjoining 
 townships), wool-cards, and ivory and horn combs are made 
 in great quantities. In the town and neighbourhood, some 
 very extensive dyeworks have of late years been erected. 
 The cotton manufactures are of recent introduction, but are 
 making rapid progress. The vicinity abounds with coal and 
 ironstone ; and about 3 m. S.E. the town are the Low-moor 
 ironworks, and 1 in. E. the Bowling ironworks, both of 
 
 which are on a very extensive scale, and particularly cele 
 brated for the quality of their iron. Bradford has suffered 
 less from the depression of trade than most other large manu 
 facturing towns. Thursday is the market-day ; and there 
 are three important annual fairs. There is here a flourishing 
 savings -bank, with a handsome building, erected in 1837. 
 Commercial operations have been greatly facilitated by the 
 cutting of a branch from the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, near 
 Shipley, into the very centre of the town. The admirable 
 position of the town in respect to railways is also of advantage 
 to its prosperity. The station of the Leeds and Bradford Rail 
 way, through which communication is established with the 
 N.E. and N.W. of England, and with Scotland, is within 300 
 yards of the exchange. Equally easy communication is afforded 
 with the S.E. and S.W. of England by the Lancashire and 
 Yorkshire Railway, connected with Bradford by two branches, 
 proceeding, respectively, in a S.E. and S.W. direction. A 
 direct line from Bradford to Leeds is contemplated. 
 
 Bradford was incorporated in 1847. A mayor, 14 alder 
 men, and 42 common couucilmen constitute the corporate 
 body. By the Reform Act, it returns two members to Par 
 liament. The boundaries of the borough comprise four town 
 ships. Number of electors (1850), 1871. Bradford is a 
 polling station at elections for the W. Riding of the county. 
 The rapidity with which the population of the town has in 
 creased, affords one of the best evidences of its prosperity. 
 In 1801 it was only 6393 ; in 1841, 34,560. The four town 
 ships forming the parl. bor., in 1801, contained 13,264; and 
 
 in 1841, 66,718 inhabitants. The PARISH of Bradford is 
 
 15 m. in length, and, at an average, 4 m. in breadth, and 
 comprises the town of Bradford, three chapelries, and nine 
 townships; area, 33,710 ac. Pop. 105,257. (Local Corre 
 spondent.) 
 
 BRADFORD (GREAT), an anc. market tn. and par. Eng 
 land, co. Wilts. The town is beautifully situated 28 m. N.W. 
 Salisbury, on a declivity, banks of the Lower Avon, here 
 crossed by two bridges a very old one of nine arches, in the 
 centre of the town, and a modern one of four. The town con 
 sists of three regular streets, containing many handsome, and 
 some elegant houses. It has a spacious church, with a tine 
 altar-piece, and windows of stained glass ; places of worship 
 for Baptists, Independents, Friends, the Countess of Hunting 
 don Connection, Wesleyans, and Unitarians, an endowed free 
 school for the education of 60 boys, a news -room, two alms- 
 houses, and a workhouse. Woollen cloth is the staple manu 
 facture of the place, particularly that composed of fine Spanish 
 and Saxony wool, for the dyeing of which the water of the 
 river is highly favourable. Weekly market, Saturday ; two 
 fairs annually. Bradford was of some note in the time of the 
 Saxons, St. Dunstan having been elected Bishop of Worcester 
 at a synod held in it. The Kennet and Avon Canal passes 
 close to the town, and the Trowbridge station of the Great 
 Western Railway is 4 m. distant. Area of par. 11,740 ac. 
 Pop. 10,563. Pop. of tn. 3836. 
 
 BRADFORD, four pars. Eng. : 1, par. Devon ; 3670 ac. 
 Pop. 530.--2, par. Somerset ; 1710 ac. Pop. 550. 3, Brad 
 ford Abbas, par. Dorset; 1810 ac. Pop. 652. 4, Bradford 
 Pevcrell, par. Dorset; 2700 ac. Pop. 355. 
 
 BRADING, a small maritime tn. and par. England, Isle 
 of Wight. The former is prettily situated at the head of an 
 inlet called Brading Haven, E. end of isl., 3 J in. S. Ryde, has 
 little trade and no manufactures, and consists principally of 
 one long irregular street. The church is an old and humble 
 structure ; and in the churchyard a plain head-stone marks 
 the last resting-place of the heroine of Legh Richmond s 
 interesting tale of Little Jane. There are two other churches 
 in the parish, as also two dissenting chapels, and a national 
 school. The market, which is well supplied with corn, is 
 held on Monday ; and fairs are held on May 12 and October 2. 
 Vessels of moderate burden can enter the harbour at high 
 water. Area of par. 7350 ac. Pop. 2701. 
 
 BRADLEY, nine pars. England:!, par. Derby; 1860 
 ac. Pop. 271. 2, par. Lincoln; 1450 ac. Pop. 106. 
 3, par. Hants; 670 ac. Pop. 125. 4, par. Stafford; 4690 
 ac. Pop. 649. 5, Bradley (Great), par. Suffolk; 2280 ac. 
 Pop. 544. 6, Bradley (Little), par. Suffolk; 890 ac. Pop. 
 33. 7, Bradley (North), par. Wilts; 3020 ac. Pop. 2427. 
 8, Bradley-in-tlie- Moors, par. Stafford; 570 ac. Pop. 72. 
 9, Bradley (West), par. Somerset; 300 ac. Pop. 116. 
 
BRADMORE 
 
 471 
 
 BRAHMAPOOTRA 
 
 BRADMORE, par. Eng. Notts ; 1560 ac. Pop. 416. 
 
 BRADNINCH, or BRAINS, a decayed bor., market tn., 
 and par. England, co. Devon, 8 m. N.N.E. Exeter; pleasantly 
 situated on an eminence, and nearly surrounded with hills, 
 3 m. from the Collumpton station of the Bristol and Exeter 
 Railway. It consists of one principal street, nearly straight, 
 about 1 m. in length, and of several smaller ; houses generally 
 of stone, mostly thatched, the remainder covered with slate. 
 A new guildhall, with a prison under it, was erected in 1835. 
 Bradninch has an old parish church, with a beautifully carved 
 screen, time of Henry VII. ; a Baptist and a Wesleyan chapel, 
 and a national school, erected in 1837. There are two large 
 manufactories for paper in the parish the one, called Ken- 
 sham Mills, for coarse papers, and the other, for fine papers, 
 called Hole Mills. Area of par. 4320 ac. Pop. 1714. 
 (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BRADON, par. Eng. Somerset ; 530 ac. Pop. 41 . 
 
 BRADPOLE, par. Eng. Dorset; 990 ac. Pop. 1357. 
 
 BRADSBERG, or BRATSBERG, a bail. Norway, composed 
 of the fogderi of Ovre [Upper] Tellemarken, in prov. Chris- 
 tiansand, and of Nedre [Lower] Tellemarken, in prov. Aggers- 
 huus; area, 4030 sq. m. It has about 25 m. of sea-coast 
 in the Skager-llak, and stretches landwards to the Hardanger 
 Fjeld. It contains the coast towns of Stathelle, Langesund, 
 Kragerb e, and Brevig, and the inland towns of Skien, Pors- 
 grund, and Osebacken. Pop. (1845), 67,090. 
 
 BRADSTONE, par. Eng. Devon ; 1300 ac. Pop. 166. 
 
 BRADWELL, four pars. Eng.: 1, par. Bucks ; 790 ac. 
 Pop. 381. 2, par. Essex ; 3210 ac. Pop. 293. 3, par. Suf 
 folk; 1540 ac. Pop. 274. 4, Bradwdl-near-the sea, par. 
 Essex; 3870 ac. Pop. 1034. 
 
 BRADWORTHY, par. Eng. Devon; 12,220 ac. P. 1081. 
 
 BRAEMAR, a par. Scotland, co. Aberdeen, now united 
 to the parish of Crathie, remarkable for the grandeur and mag 
 nificence of its scenery. It is crowded with lofty, picturesque 
 mountains, whose projecting cliff s and steep acclivities are 
 covered with trees : while commingling with these sterner 
 features are numerous gently sloping hills, which gradually 
 subside into beautiful valleys and verdant plains. The prin 
 cipal mountains in this romantic district are Loshnagar, 
 Cairntoul, Benmacdhui, Bennabuird, &c. Balmoral Castle, 
 one of the summer residences of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, 
 is in the united parish of Crathie and Braemar. (See ABER 
 DEEN COUNTY.) 
 
 BRAFFERTON, par. Eng. York, N. Eiding; 4860 ac. 
 Pop. 873. 
 
 BRAFFIELD-ON-THE-GKEEx, par. Eng. Northampton ; 
 1980 ac. Pop. 428. 
 
 BRAGA [anc. Brarara Augusta], a tn. Portugal, cap. 
 prov. Minho. and seat of an archbishop, primate of Portugal, 
 
 THE SCJUARE AND FOUNTAIN OF TOWERS, BRAGA. 
 
 82 m. N.N.E. Oporto, in a plain watered by the Este, and 
 about 3 m. S. of the Cavado. It is surrounded by walls 
 flanked with towers, and defended by a castle. The houses 
 ore old, and the streets, though broad, are not well laid out. 
 
 It contains seven squares ornamented by fountains, an archi- 
 episcopal palace, a large quadrangular building, containing a 
 library ; a fine richly ornamented Gothic cathedral of the 13th 
 century, six parish churches, eight monasteries, a seminary, 
 college, hospital, and numerous antiquities, among which are 
 remains of a Roman temple, amphitheatre, and aqueduct. 
 The inhabitants are industrious, and have manufactures of 
 some importance, with which they supply the fairs of Portu 
 gal and of Galicia in Spain. The principal articles produced 
 are, hats, shoes, iron and horn ware, harness, linen cloth, &c. 
 Besides weekly markets, Braga has two annual fairs, each of 
 which lasts a fortnight. In the vicinity are cold sulphurous 
 springs. Braga is supposed to have been founded by the 
 Carthaginians. On a hill about 1 m. E. from the town is the 
 famous sanctuary Bom Jesus do Honte, the most sumptuous 
 and best frequented of any in Portugal. Pop. 16,077. 
 
 BRAGANCx\. 1, An anc. tn. Brazil, prov. Para, 100m. 
 N.E. Belem, 1. bank, Caite, near its mouth in the bay of same 
 name ; lat. 1 S. ; Ion. 47 20 W. It has several churches 
 and a prison, and the river is navigable up to it at high water. 
 Pop., tn. and dist. 6000. 2, A tn. Brazil, prov. of, and 50 m. 
 N.E. Sao-Paulo. It has a church ; its district is fertile, feeds 
 numbers of cattle and pigs for the Rio cle Janeiro market, and 
 has a number of sugar-mills. Pop. 1 0,000. 
 
 BRAGANZA, or BRAGAN^A [anc. Bragantid], a tn. Por 
 tugal, prov. Tras-os-Montes, in a pleasant and fertile plain on 
 the little river Fervenca, 24 m. N.W. Miranda. It ranks as 
 a fortress, being surrounded by walls, though in a ruinous 
 condition, and defended by a citadel ; is the seat of a bishopric, 
 suffragan to Braga ; has two churches, three monasteries, a 
 college, and manufactures of silk and velvet. Braganza is 
 said to have been founded by Sancho I., in 1187. In 1640, 
 John II., eighth Duke of Braganza, ascended the throne of 
 Portugal, under the name of John IV., and from him is de 
 scended the present royal family, who retain the name of Bra 
 ganza. Pop. 3315. 
 
 BRAGENAS. See DRAMMEN. 
 
 BRAHESTAD, a small seaport, Russian Finland, N.E. 
 shore of Gulf of Bothnia, dist. of, and 37 m. S.W. Uleitborg. 
 The port is good, and some trade is carried on in pitch and 
 tar. Pop. about 1000. 
 
 BRAH1LOW, or BRAILOFF, a fortified tn. Turkey in 
 Europe, Wallachia, r. bank, Danube, of which it is one of the 
 posts, 99 m. from its mouth, and may be reached by any vesse 
 capable of entering that river; lat. 45 15 N.; Ion. 27 54 
 E. The houses are regularly built, and several handsome 
 new streets have recently been added a result of the increas 
 ing prosperity of the town, in which all the foreign trade of 
 the province centres. It contains several large granaries and 
 commodious warehouses. The principal exports are wheat, 
 tallow, hides, beef, wool, salt, timber, 
 staves, &c. It has, besides, a valuable 
 sturgeon-fishery. The chief merchants are 
 Greeks, but of late years several English 
 houses have been established iu the town. 
 Pop. 6000. 
 
 BRAHMAPOOTRA, BRAHMAPUTRA, 
 and erroneously, BURREMPOOTER [offspring 
 of Brahma], one of the largest rivers of 
 Asia, formed by the junction of three 
 streams, which unite in the N.E. part of 
 Upper Assam, in lat. 27 47 N.; Ion. 
 95 30 E.; 1026 ft. above the sea level. 
 These rivers are called, respectively, the 
 Dihong, Dibong, and Lohit or Luhit, and 
 have each, in turn, been represented as 
 the head stream of the Brahmapootra, but 
 without any of them having been left in 
 undisputed possession of that honour. Nor, 
 in the present state of information on the 
 subject, can this point be yet confidently 
 decided. All probability, however, is in 
 favour of the Dihong ; but this, again, is 
 on the presumption that it is a continua 
 tion cf the Sanpo a presumption which, 
 although apparently highly probable, is by no means free from 
 uncertainty. The Sanpo, a very large river, and on this 
 account worthy to be the head stream of the Brahmapootra, 
 rises in Tibet, on the N. slopes of the Himalaya, in lat. 30 8 X.; 
 
 Scpjierv of Portugal and Spa 
 
BRAHOOIC MOUNTAINS 
 
 472 
 
 BRAMBANAN 
 
 km. 82 10 E.; nearly opposite the sources of the Ganges, on 
 the S. side of the range, and not far from those of the Indus. 
 It flows in an E. direction, parallel to the Himalayas, for about 
 750 m., or to about Ion. 95 E., when, as is presumed, it sud 
 denly bends round to the S., cuts through the Himalayas, as 
 the Indus does between Iskardo and Attock, and enters Upper 
 Assam under the name of the Dihong, where, in lat. 27 50 , j 
 it is joined by the Dibong and Lohit, and then becomes the 
 Brahmapootra, a name which it retains till within about 30 m. 
 of its embouchure, when it is called the Megna. From the point 
 at which it is joined by the Dibong and Lohit, the Brahma 
 pootra flows in a S.W. direction, through the centre of Assam, 
 to Ion. 90 15 E., when it bends round, proceeds nearly due S., 
 and falls into the Bay of Bengal ; its outlets mingling almost 
 undistinguishably with those of the Ganges. The length of 
 the Brahmapootra, from the point at which it obtains that 
 name, or from the junction of its head streams in Assam to 
 its embouchure, is between 500 and 600 m. If the Sanpo is 
 taken as the original stream, the entire length of this great | 
 river will be nearly 1 4UO m. The volume of water discharged | 
 by it during the dry season, is about 146,188 cubic ft. in a 
 second ; the quantity discharged by the Ganges in the same : 
 time, and under the same circumstances, is only 80,000 
 cubic ft. In the annual floods, the quantity of water poured 
 through the tributaries of the Brahmapootra from their snowy 
 sources is very great ; the plains of Upper Assam are an en- i 
 tire sheet of water from the middle of June to the middle of 
 September ; the only means of communication then being by 
 elevated causeways 8 or 10 ft. high. Its waters unite also 
 with those of the Ganges in overflowing the E. portions of 
 Bengal. In its course through Assam and Hindoostan, the 
 Brahmapootra forms numerous islands, some of which are of 
 very considerable extent. For 60 m. from its embouchure, 
 it is about 4 or 5 m. in breadth, and interspersed with numer 
 ous islets and sandbanks, and were it not for the freshness 
 of the water, it might be taken for an arm of the sea. From 
 its mouth to the junction of the three head streams in Upper 
 Assam, the river is navigable for the boats of the country ; i 
 and above the junction, up the Lohit, there is plenty of water 
 for canoes for many miles further. Its waters are usually I 
 thick and dirty, and its banks, during the latter part of its ! 
 course, mostly covered with jungle or marsh land. It is : 
 subject to the sudden and abrupt influx of the tide called the 
 bore, but not to such an extent as the Hooghly, the principal 
 branch of the Ganges. Its principal affluents in Upper Assam 
 are, the Dikho, Deesung, Booree-dehing, Noa-dehing, and 
 Debooroo, with a great number of smaller streams. Those i 
 in Bengal are the Soormah, Barak, and Goomty on the left ; i 
 and the Gadada, Neelcomer, and Teesta on the right. The 
 Dibong and Lohit, the two other alleged head streams of the 
 Brahmapootra, flow from the N.E., and have their sources in 
 a mountainous district in the S.E. corner of Tibet, and within 
 about 30 or 40 m. of each other. The Lohit is formed by the 
 junction of two mountain-streams, the Talooding and Talooka, 
 which unite at lat. 28 12 N.; Ion. 97 10 E. 
 
 BRAHOOIC MOUNTAINS, a name given by Pot- 
 tinger to the Hala Mountains, between Beloochistan and 
 Scinde. 
 
 BRATC-Y-PWLL HEAD, N. Wales, co. Carnarvon; 
 lat. 52 47 N.; Ion. 4 48 W. 
 
 BRAILES, par. Eng. Warwick; 5220 ac. Pop. 1284. 
 
 BRAILSFORD, par. Eng. Derby; 5200 ac. Pop. 756. 
 
 BRAINE L ALLEUD, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. S. 
 Brabant, 13 m. S. by E. Brussels. Part of the operations 
 of the battle of Waterloo were in this commune, in which is 
 raised a mound surmounted with a colossal lion, to com 
 memorate the event. Clothing, leather, glass, &c., are manu 
 factured here ; and in the commune are some quarries of 
 paving- stones, but the inhabitants are chiefly agricultural. 
 Pop. 4645. 
 
 BRAINE-LE-COMTE. 1, A small and anc. tn. Belgium, 
 prov. Hainaut, 34 m. S.S.W. Brussels; containing a hand 
 some church, founded in the 13th century, and a large well- 
 built chateau. The Southern Railway branches off from this 
 town, on the W. side, to Mons and Quievrain, E. to Namur | 
 and Charleroi. Amongst its public works are, breweries, 
 wire-works, dyeworks, oil, cotton, and corn mills. At one 
 time it manufactured and dealt extensively in tin wares, but 
 this branch of trade is almost if not entirely extinct. Pop. I 
 
 1100. 2, A com. Belgium, prov. Brabant, with a brewery, 
 and a paper and two cotton mills. Pop. 2350. 
 
 BRAINTF1ELD, par. Eng. Hertford ; J540ac. P. 201. 
 
 BRAINTREE,a market tn. and par. England, co. Essex. 
 The town, pleasantly situated on a rising ground on the Brain, 
 40 m. N.E. London, consists of three principal streets, and 
 several smaller; the former spacious, commodious, and well 
 kept, but the latter dirty and inconvenient. A new town, in 
 which the streets are wide, and most of the houses provided 
 with small gardens, is forming between the railway terminus 
 and the town, and rapidly extending towards Braintree. All 
 the new houses are of brick. The town is lighted with gas, 
 and tolerably well supplied with water from wells and springs. 
 The corn exchange, recently built, is the only public building 
 worthy of notice ; it is a commodious structure, in the Corinth 
 ian style of architecture. Braintree has a church, a Congre 
 gational, and two Baptist chapels; one boy s free school, two 
 boys boarding and day schools, two girls schools, and several 
 other smaller schools ; several religious and benevolent so 
 cieties, and a mechanics institute. The manufactures consist 
 of silk and crape weaving. The former gives employment 
 to about 470 persons altogether; the latter employs about six 
 looms. The town is increasing in size and population. Area 
 of par. 2500 ac. Pop., tn. and par. (1841), 3670. 
 
 BRAITHWELL, par. Eng. York, W. Riding ; 2990 ac 
 Pop. 800. 
 
 BRAKE, a vil. duchy of Oldenburg, circle, Ovelgonne, 
 on the Weser, 16m. N.E. Oldenburg. It forms part of the 
 parish of Hammelwarden, and has a wool market, and some 
 woollen manufactures, a dyework, and printfield. It is chiefly, 
 however, as a shipping port that Brake possesses importance, 
 being one of the principal commercial entrepots in the duchy. 
 The Bremen ships usually stop here, being unable to get fur 
 ther up the Weser ; and in the building-yards, vessels of 300 
 to 400 tons are built. In 1848, the number of vessels that 
 entered was 394 ; and in 1849, 297. Of the former, 109 were 
 British; of the latter, 70. Pop. 1397. 
 
 BRAKEL. 1, A tn. Prussia, Westphalia, gov. Minden, 
 on the Brucht, near its confluence with the Netthe, 32 m. 
 N.N.W. Cassel. It is walled, has two E. Catholic churches, 
 a synagogue, a monastery, an hospital, and a workhouse. The 
 inhabitants depend chiefly on agriculture, more particularly 
 the culture of flax. They have also breweries and distill 
 eries. In the neighbourhood are glassworks, and a mineral 
 
 spring of some repute. Pop. 2560. 2, Brakel (Neder), a vil. 
 
 and com. Belgium, prov. E. Flanders, 19 m. S. by Ei Ghent, 
 1. bank, Zwalin, a small tributary of the Scheldt. It is regu 
 larly built, and has a church, communal, and several private 
 schools ; dyeries, bleacheries, breweries, malt-houses, a salt 
 refinery, three oil-mills, and a flax-mill. Several cattle-fairs 
 
 are held annually. Pop. 3763. 3, JJraJcel ((ty), a vil. and 
 
 com. Belgium, prov. E. Flanders, 1 in. S.W. the above. The 
 village is small but neatly built, and possesses a church 
 and two primary schools. The inhabitants are chiefly en 
 gaged in weaving, grinding corn and oil, and in husbandry. 
 Pop. 2120. 
 
 BRAMBACIL 1, A tn. Saxony, circle, Zwickau, on 
 the Geisberg, on the Bohemian frontier, 11 m. N. Eger. It 
 contains a castle and several mills, and has some linen manu 
 factures and general trade. Pop. 1200. 2, A tn. Nassau, 
 cap. bail, of same name, r. bank, Rhine, 7 m. W. Nassau. It 
 lies well, but is a dull place, with dark narrow streets. It 
 contains a palace and a parish church. Pop. 1507. 
 
 BRAMBANAN, a dist., isl. Java, prov. Soorakarta, 
 famous for its magnificent remains of Brahrninical temples. 
 These were first visited by a Dutch engineer, who found 
 them nearly buried under the luxuriant vegetation of the soil. 
 They were afterwards examined by Colonel C. Mackenzie, in 
 1812. An intelligent sepoy from Benares, who accompanied 
 h : m, and who was perfectly acquainted with the history and 
 purpose of the sculptured objects in Hindoo temples, was lost 
 in surprise at the number, magnitude, and superior execution 
 of those at Brambanan, to which he said that India could 
 furnish no parallel. The temples at Brambanan are entirely 
 composed of plain hewn stone, without the least mixture of 
 brick, mortar, or rubbish of any kind, even to fill up the 
 floors and basements of the largest structures. Capt. Baker, 
 afterwards employed by Sir T. S. Raffles to take measurements 
 and drawings of them, declares, after extensive experience 
 
BRAMBER 
 
 473 
 
 BRANDENBURG 
 
 of like surveys in India, that he had never met with such 
 finished specimens of human labour, and of ancient science 
 and taste, crowded together in so small a compass as at the 
 Chandi Sewu or Thousand Temples, at Brambanan. On 
 the S. face there are two gigantic figures in a kneeling posture, 
 and of ^errific forms, appearing to threaten, with uplifted clubs, 
 impertinent intruders. The ground plan is disposed in five 
 parallelograms, one within the other, of which the outer con 
 sists of 84 small temples, 22 on each face ; the second, of 76 ; 
 the third, of 64 ; the fourth, of 44 ; and the central one, of 28 ; 
 in all 296 temples. In the centre of the whole stands the 
 great temple, about 90 ft. in height, and still a magnificent 
 monument, though rent and overgrown by the trees that cover 
 it. The style, taste, and execution of the sculpture with 
 which the great temple in particular is covered, are light, 
 chaste, and beautiful, and the figures, 3848 in number, display 
 a wonderful variety of mythological characters. But of the 
 smaller temples, at least two-thirds lay strewed on the ground. 
 
 BRAMBER, a vil. and par. England, co. Sussex. The 
 village is 9 m. N.W. Brighton, on the Adur, which, from this 
 place to the sea, at New Shoreham, is called the Bramber 
 water, and is navigable for small craft. It has a Norman 
 church, and the remnants of an old castle. Though now con 
 sisting of only a few cottages, Bramber was once a parlia 
 mentary borough, and continued to send two members to the 
 House of Commons, till it was disfranchised by the Reform 
 Act. Area of par. 870 ac. Pop. 138. 
 
 BRAMCOTE, par. Eng. Notts ; 1000 ac. Pop. 732. 
 
 BRAMDEAN, par. Eng. Hants; 1360 ac. Pop. 225. 
 
 BRAMERTON, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 1000 ac. Pop. 229. 
 
 BRAMFIELD, par. Eng. Suffolk; 2050 ac. Pop. 746. 
 
 BRAMFORD, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1940 ac. Pop. 881. 
 
 BRAMHAM, a tn. and par. England, co. York, W. Rid 
 ing. The town, on an acclivity, 4 m. S.S.W. Wetherby, 
 consists chiefly of two main streets, intersecting each other ; 
 well kept ; houses, principally of stone, and well built ; sup 
 ply of water ample. Area of par. 5260 ac. Pop. 2760. 
 
 BRAMLEY, a chapelry, England, co. York, bor. and 4 
 m. N.W. Leeds, with an Episcopal and several Dissenting 
 chapels, and three schools. Woollen cloths, chiefly for the 
 Leeds market, are extensively manufactured here, and near it 
 are quarries of excellent building stone. P. (1851), 8949. 
 
 BRAMLEY, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Hants; 2350 ac. 
 Pop. 428. 2, par. Surrey ; 4420 ac. Pop. 970. 
 
 BRAMPFORD-SPEKE, par. Eng. Devon; 670 ac. 
 Pop. 393. 
 
 BRAMPTON, a market tn. and par. England, co. Cum 
 berland. The town, 9 m. N.E. Carlisle, is irregularly built, 
 but well paved, and kept tolerably clean ; amply supplied with 
 with water, well lighted with gas, and generally improving. 
 It contains a handsome octagonal market-house, a church, a 
 Presbyterian chapel, three Dissenting places of worship, five 
 private schools, and a national and infant school, supported 
 by subscription. Calico-weaving is carried on to a small ex 
 tent. There are two breweries in the town. Area of par., 
 16,970 ac. Pop. 3304. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BRAMPTON, nine pars. Eng.: 1, par. Huntingdon; 
 3640 ac. Pop. 1164. 2, par. Norfolk ; 530 ac. Pop. 263. 
 3, par. Northampton; 2290 ac. Pop. 104. 4, par. Suffolk; 
 1800 ac. Pop. 322. 5, Brampton-with- Cutthorpe, par. Derby ; 
 8820 ac. Pop. 3937. 6, Brampton (Abbot s), par. Hereford; 
 1600 ac. Pop. 197. 7, Brampton- Bryan, par. Radnor and 
 Hereford; 3190 ac. Pop. 419. 8, Brampton- Chapel, par. 
 Northampton; 1330 ac. Pop. 229. 9, Brampton- Church, or 
 Brampton- Magna, par. Northampton; 1100 ac. Pop. 169. 
 
 BRAMSHALL, par. Eng. Stafford; 1310 ac. Pop. 170. 
 
 BRAMSHAW, par. Eng. Wilts and Hants; 2760 ac. 
 Pop. 793. 
 
 BRAMSHOT, par. Eng. Hants; 6190 ac. Pop. 1313. 
 
 BRAMSTEDT [Danish, Bramsted], a tn. Denmark, Hoi- 
 stein, cap. bail. Segeberg, 22 m. N. Hamburg, on the Bramawa, 
 a tributary of the Storen, and on the high road from Kiel to 
 Altona. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture 
 and weaving. Here are some sulphur and chalybeate springs 
 and baths. Pop. 1700. 
 
 BRAMWITH (KIRK), par. Eng. York, W. Riding; 
 1200 ac. Pop. 251. 
 
 BRAN (THE), a rivulet, Scotland, Perthshire, issuing 
 from the E. end of Loch Freuchie, and after a N.E. course of 
 VOL. I. 
 
 about 14m. through the strath to which it gives its name, 
 falls into the Tay a little above Dunkeld Bridge. 
 
 BRANCASTER, par. Eng. Norfolk; 3340 ac. Pop. 913. 
 
 BRANCEPETH, par. Eng. Durham; 21, 850 ac. P. 2 151. 
 
 BRANCO, a high and rugged islet, Cape de Verde group, 
 between Santa Luzia and Santa Nicolao. It has a well on it, 
 and some decayed small wood ; and a low sandy spit runs 
 out from its S.E. side. 
 
 BRANCO. 1, A large river, Brazilian Guiana. It rises 
 from various sources on the S. confines of British Guiana and 
 Venezuela, flows S., and falls into the Rio Negro ; lat. 1 25 S. ; 
 Ion. 62 10 W. ; after a course of 400 m., in which it receives 
 numerous affluents. 2, An affluent of the Rio Grande, prov. 
 Bahia, in the part lately annexed from Pernambuco. It rises 
 in the serra Duro; lat. 11 25 S.; Ion. 46 10 W.; flows 
 S.E. a course of about 120 m., and is navigable from its mouth 
 to Tres-Barras, a distance of 40 m. 
 
 BRAND, a tn. Saxony, circle, Dresden, inhabited chiefly 
 
 by miners. Pop. 2150. Numerous places in Germany 
 
 have the same name. 
 
 BRANDEIS, a tn. Bohemia, 14 m. N.E. Prague, called 
 also Brandeis-on-the-Elbe, to distinguish it from another 
 Brandeis, on the Adler. It has a castle, a deanery church, a 
 
 synagogue, and a manufacture of liqueurs. Pop. 2500. 
 
 BRANDEIS-ON-THE- ABLER has a pop. of 1172. 
 
 BRANDENBURG (MARK, or MARGRAVIATE OF), an 
 anc. fief of the German Empire, and identical with the modern 
 province of the same name, with the addition of a part called 
 the Old [Alt] Mark, which is now included in the province of 
 Saxony. The country was first possessed by the Varini, and 
 thereafter, from the fifth century, by the Wends, till their sub 
 jugation by Charlemagne. In 926, the Mark was united to 
 the dukedom of Saxony, but in 1 143, under Albert the Bear, 
 it was separated and became an immediate fief of the Empire. 
 In the 14th century, it passed to the two houses of Bavaria 
 and Luxembourg, the latter of which sold it to the burgrave 
 of Niirnberg, Frederick, a younger branch of the house of 
 Hohenzollern, under whom it became the nucleus of the pre 
 sent Prussian Monarchy. 
 
 BRANDENBURG, a prov. Prussia, the centre of the 
 monarchy, bounded, N. by the two grand duchies of Mecklen- 
 burg-Schwerin and Strelitz, and the Prussian province of Po- 
 merania ; E. by provs. W. Prussia, Posen, and Silesia; S. by 
 provs. Silesia, and Saxony, and the Anhalt principalities ; W. 
 byprov. Saxony, and the Hanoverian dominions ; 15,330sq.m., 
 about a seventh part of the whole surface of the Prussian 
 States. It is divided into the governments of Potsdam and 
 Frankfort, and 34 circles. Its principal towns are Berlin, 
 Potsdam, Frankfort, Brandenburg, &c. The province is almost 
 an entire plain, slightly elevated above the level of the Baltic 
 Sea. The soil is extremely poor, being composed mostly of 
 tracts of barren sand, and extensive heaths and moors. The 
 principal products are grain, chiefly buckwheat, potatoes, wool, 
 hemp, flax, tobacco, timber, hops, &c. Much attention is also 
 paid to the rearing of cattle and sheep, particularly the latter, 
 the breed of which has been much improved of late years. 
 Lakes are numerous, some of them of considerable beauty, 
 and well supplied with fish. Its principal streams are the 
 Elbe, the Oder, the Spree, and the Havel ; but the first two 
 merely skirt the territory, the one forming the N.W. bound 
 ary, the other the E. The climate of Brandenburg is temperate, 
 but exceedingly variable, and subject to violent winds. The 
 minerals are iron, gypsum, lime, alum, brown coal (lignite), 
 and saltpetre. There are several mineral springs. The 
 greater portion of the inhabitants are of German descent, a 
 few of French, most of whom are settled in Berlin. The 
 majority of the former are of the Lutheran religion. The 
 manufactures are confined almost exclusively to a few towns. 
 Pop. (1841), 2,066,993. The province is well supplied with 
 good roads, and is traversed by the railways from Berlin to 
 Leipzig, Halle, Dresden, Stettin, Hanover, and Hamburg. 
 
 BRANDENBURG, a tn. .Prussia, prov. of same name, 
 gov. Potsdam, cap. circle of W. Havelland, 35 m. W.S.W. 
 Berlin, on the Havel, which divides it into two parts, the old 
 town and the new, with an island in the middle, on which is a 
 castle, cathedral church, equestrian college, and other build 
 ings. The streets in the old town are narrow and crooked, 
 those in the new town broad and straight. They are both 
 walled, the former having five gates, the latter four; some of 
 
 CO 
 
BRANDENBURG 
 
 474 
 
 BRAUNSEIFEN 
 
 these pates are very handsome. It contains, inclusive of the 
 cathedral church, eight churches, one of which, the church of 
 St. Katherine, though of brick, is of heautiful architecture; five 
 hospitals, a council-house, a puhlic library, a gymnasium, with 
 a number of elementary and charity schools. Its manufactures 
 consist of woollens, linens, brandy, beer, leather, stockings, 
 &c. It has, besides, a considerable trade in shipping, and in 
 fishing ; and is on the railway from Berlin to Magdeburg. 
 
 Pop. (1846), 17,589. Numerous places in Prussia have the 
 
 name of BRANDENBURG. 
 
 BRANDENBURG (NEW), the largest and most beau 
 tiful tn. in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg- Strelitz. It lies 
 at the N. end of Lake Tollen, 55m. W.N.W. Stettin; is 
 walled, and has four gates. It is regularly built; has a 
 palace, a townhall, two churches, a chapel, several schools, a 
 theatre, and two squares. The palace stands in the market 
 place, and is a long low building. The inhabitants are generally 
 in comfortable circumstances, and carry on trade in tobacco, 
 hides, rags, paper, and horses. Manufactures: tobacco, 
 paper, soap, leather, and cloth ; with oil, bark, fulling, and 
 corn mills. Pop. 6145. 
 
 BRANDESTON, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Norfolk; 580 
 ac. Pop. 137. 2, par. Suffolk, 10(50 ac. Pop. 555. 
 
 BRANDON, a market tn. and par. England, co. Suffolk. 
 The town consists of two portions, the more important of 
 which, called Town Street, is pleasantly situated 33 m. N.W. 
 Ipswich, on the Little Ouse or Brandon, over which is a neat 
 stone bridge ; and the remaining portion, called Ferry Street, 
 about 1 m. lower down, where there is a ferry for the con 
 veyance of goods to the Isle of Ely. The church, situated 
 midway between the two streets, is a handsome structure, 
 with a lofty embattled tower. There are also places of worship 
 for Primitive and Wesleyan Methodists, a free school, an 
 alms-house, and several minor charities. Gun-flints were wont 
 to be extensively manufactured here ; and a considerable trade 
 is carried on in corn, malt, coals, bricks, iron, and timber. 
 The extensive rabbit-warrens in the neighbourhood afford 
 large supplies to the London market. Weekly market on 
 Thursday, and annual fairs in February, June, and November. 
 The Eastern Counties Kailway has a station here. The Duke 
 of Hamilton and Brandon takes the latter title from this place. 
 Area of par. 5570 ac. Pop. 2002. 
 
 BRANDON (LITTLE), par. Eng. Norfolk; lOlOac. P.222. 
 
 BRANDON BAY, AND HEAD, W. coast, Ireland, co. 
 Kerry. The bay is 4J m. wide at its entrance, and stretches 
 about 5 m. inland. It is formed between Brandon Head on the 
 W. lat. 52 18 N. ; Ion. 10 10 W. (R.) and a narrow neck 
 of land on the E., which separates Brandon from Tralee Bay. 
 
 BRANDSBURTON, par. Eng. York, E. Riding; 3140 ac. 
 Pop. 718. 
 
 BRANDYWINE CREEK, a small stream, U. States, 
 rising in Pennsylvania, flowing S.E. through part of Delaware, 
 forming the harbour of Wilmington, where it falls into the 
 Delaware river, after a course of about 40 m. It is navigable 
 to Brandy wine village, where there is 8 ft. water at high tide. 
 
 BR ANNIXTO WN, par. Irel. Kildare ; 889 ac. Pop. 111. 
 
 BRANSBY-wiTH-STEARSBY, par. Eng. York, N. Riding ; 
 2700 ac. Pop. 304. 
 
 BR ANSCOMBE, par. Eng. Devon ; 1 750 ac. Pop. 956. 
 
 BRANSTON, par. Eng. Leicester ; 960 ac. Pop. 333. 
 
 BRANTHAM, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 1940 ac. Pop. 404. 
 
 BRANTINGHAM, par. Eng. York, E. Riding; 3040 ac. 
 Pop. 635. 
 
 BRANTOME [anc. Brantosomum], a tn. France, dep. 
 Dordogne, 13m. N.W. Perigueux, on the Drome. It was 
 formerly fortified, and had a rich Benedictine abbey, said to 
 have been founded by Charlemagne. The building still re 
 mains, and annexed to it is a church of singular construc 
 tion. A crypt near the abbey has some bas-reliefs, with 
 curious colossal figures. The town has some manufactures 
 of serges and bombazine, tanneries, and dyeworks, and ex 
 ports large quantities of truffles. Brantome, the historian, 
 field this abbey in ccmmendam, and wrote part of his works 
 here. In the neighbourhood is a curious tolmen, consisting 
 of a large horizontal block, 10 ft. long by 4 ft. broad, resting, 
 about 7 ft. from the surface, on three smaller blocks. Pop. 
 1413. 
 
 BRANXTON, par. Eng. Northumberland; 1120ac. Pop. 
 2G1. 
 
 BRASS. 1, A river, Africa, Guinea, being one of the 
 mouths of the Niger, falling into the Gulf of Biafra; lat. 
 4 20 N.; Ion. 6 C 12 E. 2, A tn. near the mouth of the 
 above, where the slave-trade is carried on to a great extent, 
 chiefly by agents from Havanna and Brazil. 
 
 BRASSAC. 1, A. tn. France, dep. Tarn, 12 m. E.N.E. 
 Castres, traversed by the Agout, which is here crossed by a 
 bridge. It has manufactures of corduroy, moleskins, and 
 cotton fabrics. Pop. 1301. 2, A vil. France, dep. Puy-de 
 Dome, 8 m. S. Issoire, 1. bank, Allier, which is here navigable, 
 and makes Brassac the entrepot for the coal which is exten 
 sively worked, in a coal field of the same name in the neigh 
 bourhood. Pop. 938. 
 
 BRASSCIIAET, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. of, and 
 7 m. N.E. Antwerp, on the great road between that city and 
 Breda. The inhabitants are chiefly occupied with agriculture, 
 disposing of their produce at Antwerp. They have also some 
 trade in madder. Pop. 2468. 
 
 BRASSO. See KRONSTADT. 
 
 BRASTED, par. Eng. Kent ; 4630 ac. Pop. 1130. 
 
 BRATSLAV, a tn. Russia, gov. Podolia, cap. dist. of 
 same name, r. bank, Bug, 110 m. E. Kaminietz. It is de 
 fended by an old rampart and fosse, and makes some figure in 
 history, having been taken successively by the Poles and 
 Turks, previous to its final reunion with Russia. Pop. 2600. 
 
 BRATTLEBY, j>ar. Eng. Lincoln ; 1220 ac. Pop. 168. 
 
 BRATTON, three pars. Eng.: 1, Bratton-Clovelly, par. 
 Devon ; 8200 ac. Pop. 870. 2, Bratton-Fleming, par. Devon ; 
 4370 ac. Pop. 708. 3, Bratton-Seymour, or St. Maur, par. 
 Somerset; 1170 ac. Pop. 103. 
 
 BRAUGH IN, par. Eng. Hertford ; 4300 ac. Pop. 1358. 
 
 BRAUNA. 1, A fortified tn. Upper Austria, gov. Linz, 
 on the confines of Bavaria, 28 m. S.W. Passau, at the conflu 
 ence of the Salza with the Inn. It has manufactories of cloth, 
 and paper, some celebrated breweries, several churches, one 
 of them an old Gothic church, built of tufa stone ; a townhall, 
 barrack, and an arsenal. Pop. 2000. 2, Brauna, a tn. and 
 lordship, N.E. corner of Bohemia, circle, Kbniggratz. The 
 LORDSHIP consists of a valley about 30 m. long by 5 m. broad, 
 bounded towards the N.E. and S.W. by lofty hills. It is 
 fertile, and rears great numbers of cattle. Pop. 17,046, who 
 
 are almost all R. Catholics, and speak German. The TOWN 
 
 stands in the centre of the valley on the Steine, has two 
 churches, one of them a large building, with two towers, 
 several fine frescoes, and an excellent organ ; a gymnasium, 
 and a town school, with 360 scholars. The chief employ 
 ments are weaving and spinning. Pop. 1 699. 
 
 BRAUNCEWELL-wrm-DuNSBY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 
 3470 ac. Pop. 125. 
 
 BRAUNFELS, a tn. Prussia, prov. Rhine, gov. of, and 
 36 m. E.N.E. Coblenz. It has a handsome palace, adorned 
 with fine pictures, and surrounded by well laid out gardens. 
 Pop. 1472. The principality of the same name has an area 
 of 50 geo. sq. m., and pop. 20,000. 
 
 BRAUNHIRSCHEN, a vil. Austria, in the immediate 
 neighbourhood of Vienna. It contains a palace, and a church, 
 and has several large manufacturing establishments. Pop. 
 2700. 
 
 BRAUNSBERG, a tn. Prussia, prov. E. Prussia, gov. 
 Kbnigsberg, circle of same name ; on the Passarge, about 4 m. 
 from its junction with the Frische Haff ; lat. 54 19 N. ; Ion. 
 19 54 E.; divided by the river into the old and new towns. 
 It is the residence of the Bishop of Ermeland, and the seat of 
 a royal court of justice ; contains four R. Catholic churches, 
 and one Protestant church; a R. Catholic lyceum, with theo 
 logical and philosophical faculties ; a gymnasium, and semi 
 nary for priests, with six professors; a normal school, an 
 asylum, and three hospitals. It has some linen and woollen 
 manufactures, and tanneries; and a considerable trade in 
 yarns, grain, and ship-timber, the river being navigable for 
 
 small vessels as far as the town. Pop. 8161 . The CIRCLE, 
 
 area, 280 geo. sq. m., contains 172 parishes, four towns, and 
 178 villages. The surface is well wooded, and the soil toler 
 ably rich, both in arable and pasture land. It is watered by 
 several considerable streams, and has good roads. Pop. 41,716. 
 
 BRAUNSEIFEN, a small tn. Austria, Moravia, circle of, 
 and 18 m. N.N.E. Olmiitz; with a handsome parish church, 
 adorned with frescoes, an hospital, two workhouses, and a 
 great number of looms for weaving linen. Pop. 2062. 
 
BRAUNSTON 
 
 475 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 BRAUNSTON, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Northampton; 
 3930 ac. Pop. 1469. 2, par. Rutland; 3250 ac. Pop. 443. 
 
 BRAUNTON, par. Eng. Devon; 7010 ac. Pop. 2274. 
 
 BRAVA. 1, One of the Cape de Verde Islands, 10 m. 
 W. by S. Fogo ; lat. (W. point) 14 49 42" N. ; Ion. 24 45 15" 
 \V. (R.) It is very high, and would be visible from a great 
 distance were it not constantly covered by a dense atmos 
 phere. It has a temperate climate, fertile soil, and produces 
 abundant crops of beans and Indian corn. It possesses four 
 anchorages ; but none of them being safe for vessels of 
 burden, they are only frequented by small craft for orchilla i 
 
 and grain. Pop. 2000. 2, A tn., E. Africa, coast of Zan- j 
 
 guebar, 110 m. S.W. Magadoxo; lat. 1 6 48" N.; Ion. I 
 44 3 E. (R.) It stands at the foot of a hill composed of j 
 sand and red earth, and has an imposing appearance on being 
 approached from the sea. The houses of the Arabs and more [ 
 wealthy inhabitants, are generally two stories high, and are . 
 formed of blocks of coral, cemented with mud ; while the J 
 poorer part of the population dwell in small huts built around 
 the town, and very closely huddled together. Brava carries 
 on a considerable trade with India and Arabia. 
 
 BRAWDY, par., S. Wales, Pembroke. Pop. 767. 
 
 BRAXTED, two pars. Eng.: 1, Braxted (Great], par. 
 Essex ; 1240 ac. Pop. 410. 2, Braxted (Little], par. Essex; 
 1680ac. Pop. 126. 
 
 BRAY. 1, A maritime tn. Ireland, cos. Dublin and 
 Wicklow, on both banks of the Bray, which here forms the 
 boundaries of these two counties, 12 m. S.E. Dublin. The 
 portion of the town in Wicklow stands on an acclivity, that 
 on the Dublin side on a plain. It contains but one prin 
 cipal street, straight, but indifferently kept. The houses are 
 mostly of stone, but not in general well built ; supply of water 
 indifferent. The places of worship are a parish church, a 
 chapel of ease, two R. Catholic chapels, and a Scotch and 
 Methodist meeting-house. The schools consist of a national 
 and several other schools. Brewing and malting are the 
 only trades carried on in the town ; both, however, are ex 
 tensive. There is no harbour here ; but a few small vessels 
 are employed in the importation of coals, limestone, and j 
 slates, and are run upon the beach at high water, where their 
 cargoes are unshipped. The scenery in the vicinity is beauti- 1 
 
 (ul. Pop. 3185. (Local Correspondent] 2, A vil. and j 
 
 par. England, co. Berks. The village, 4J m. N.W. Windsor, j 
 now forming part of the royal demesne, and included within : 
 the liberty of Windsor forest, contains a spacious parish 
 church, an endowed school for boys, a national school for 
 girls, and an hospital for 40 poor persons. It derives con 
 siderable notoriety from the conduct of the time-serving vicar, 
 who, according to Fuller, conformed to all thp changes in j 
 religion that took place during the reign of Henry VIII. and j 
 his three immediate successors ; and expressed his determin- i 
 ation to be true to the one principle, of living and dying ; 
 Vicar of Bray. Area of par. 8900 ac. Pop. (1841), 3722. j 
 
 BRAYBROOKE, par. Eng. Northampton; 3060 ac. I 
 Pop. 420. 
 
 BRAY FIELD (COLD), par. Eng. Bucks; 530 ac. Pop.83. 
 
 BRAYTOFT, par. Eng. Lincoln; 1220 ac. Pop. 235. | 
 
 BRAYTON, par. Eng. York, W. Riding; 10,690 ac. 
 Pop. 1894. 
 
 BRAZIL [French, Bresil; German, Brasilien; Italian, 
 Brasile], a vast empire, S. America, occupying a space nearly 
 equal to one-half of that entire continent. It is of extremely 
 irregular outline, and varying dimensions ; its greatest dia 
 meter being, E. to W.,or from Cape Augustin, lat. 8 21 S.; 
 Ion. 34 56 W. (R.), to the river Yavari or Jabary, which 
 separates it from Peru, 2630 m. ; and, N. to S., from Cape 
 Orange, lat. 4 23 N. ; Ion. 37 27 W. (R.), E. of Oyapok 
 Bay, to the river Tahim, E. from Lake Mirim, 2540 m. ; area, 
 roughly estimated at 3,956,800 sq. m. It is bounded, S.E., 
 E., and N.E. by the Atlantic Ocean; N. by French, Dutch, 
 and English Guiana, and Venezuela ; W. and S.W. by Ecua 
 dor, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and the Argentine republic of 
 Missiones, and by the republic of Uruguay. Its entire coast 
 line, from the river Tahim or Itahy, lat. 32 45 S., to the 
 head of the Bay of Oyapok, lat. 4 N. ; Ion. 51 32 W., is 
 upwards of 3700 m. Throughout this vast extent of coast, 
 there are few great indentations; though, in some parts, 
 smaller harbours and inlets are pretty numerous, many of the 
 former excellent, and generally surrounded by flats. The 
 
 principal bays, reckoning from the S. extremity of the empire, 
 are, Ilha Grande, Rio Janeiro, St. Salvador, or All Saints , 
 on the S.E. coast ; and St. Marcos, St. Jose, Pinzon, and 
 Oyapok, on the N. and N.E. coast. The principal capes or 
 headlands are, Capes Frio, St. Thome, Point St. Antonio, St. 
 Augustin, St. Roque, on the S E. and E. coasts ; and Magoary, 
 Norte, and Orange, on the N. coast. 
 
 General Description. The appearance of the coast of Brazil 
 is very different at different places. From the river Tahim 
 to the island of Sta. Catharina, a distance of about 400 m., it 
 is low, sandy, and intersected by the outlets of numerous 
 lakes or lagoons, which skirt the shores throughout this whole 
 extent. From this point, or from about lat. 27 30 S., to 
 lat. 21 45 S., 700 m., the land is very elevated, appearing 
 rugged and mountainous from a distance, but, when more 
 nearly approached, becoming highly picturesque ; its hills 
 being clothed with thick woods, and its valleys with a never- 
 fading verdure. This part of the coast, the most rocky por 
 tion of which is between Santos and Cape Frio, may be seen 
 from sea from a distance of 55 m. From lat. 21 45 S., or 
 from about St. Joao to Bahia, lat. 13 S., 650 m., the coast 
 is in general low and level, with hardly any indentations. 
 From Bahia to about lat. 4 N., which embraces the whole E. 
 projection of Brazil, the coast (about 800 m. in extent) is of 
 moderate height, nowhere rising above 30 ft., and is also de 
 stitute of harbours, excepting those formed by the mouths of 
 rivers. From this point to the Amazon, it is extremely low 
 and marshy ; W. and N. of that river it is sandy, and some 
 what higher, though still of inconsiderable elevation. From 
 these details, it will be seen that the only portion of the coast 
 of Brazil that can be called mountainous, or which has any 
 pretension to picturesque appearance, is that between the 
 island of Sta. Catharina, lat. 27 35 S., and St. Joao da Praia, 
 lat. 21 40 S., or about a fifth part of the whole. With the 
 exception of the Rio Francisco and the Parana, all the large 
 rivers of Brazil empty themselves on its N. shores ; and nearly 
 all run parallel courses from S. to N., traversing the vast plains 
 which occupy the centre and N.W. portions of the empire, and 
 presenting means of internal communication unequalled in any 
 other part of the globe. The surface of Brazil, generally, is 
 divided into upland and lowland, in pretty equal portions ; the 
 former, which comprises the hilly districts and table-lands, 
 extends over the E., S., and central parts, and has an average 
 elevation of about 2000 to 2500 ft., although at some points 
 it reaches from 4000 to 6000 ft. ; the lowland comprises the 
 silvas or woody regions, and llanos or plains and flats ; the 
 former lying principally along both sides of the Amazon, 
 and the latter stretching chiefly along the N. and N.E. shores. 
 
 Brazil is divided, politically, into 18 provinces, of which 
 there are at least 11, each exceeding Great Britain in super 
 ficial extent. It is, however, very difficult to ascertain ac 
 curately the area of the provinces, and of the whole empire, 
 the existing data being very unsatisfactory and conflicting. 
 In the following table, the area of the provinces has been cal 
 culated from the measurements given in Diccionario Geo- 
 grafico do Imperlo do Brazil, 1845; and the population has 
 been supplied through a private source as the most recent and 
 most accurate existing: 
 
 PROVINCES. 
 
 s q re m. 
 
 Population. 
 
 MARITIME PROVINCES. 
 
 1 28 1- 270 
 
 205 000 
 
 JMaranhau 
 \ Kaul y 
 . Ceara 
 B I Rio Grande (do Korte) 
 jjj ( Parahylia 
 
 94,910 
 
 109,fiC8 
 60.378 
 28,860 
 51,948 
 
 390,000 
 80,0(10 
 190,000 
 110,000 
 260,000 
 
 g J Pernambuco 
 " ] Ala^oas.. 
 
 103,896 
 75 036 
 
 600,000 
 20 000 
 
 W I Sergipe 
 
 40484 
 
 175 000 
 
 . f Baliia 
 Espirito-Sunlo 
 
 202,020 
 43,290 
 89466 
 
 780,000 
 140,000 
 850000 
 
 ) Sao Paulo 
 
 173 160 
 
 458 UOO 
 
 W Santa Catharina 
 aj [ Sao Pedro (do Sul) 
 
 INLAND PROVINCES. 
 Miuas Geracs 
 MattoGrosso 
 Goyaz 
 
 31,746 
 llb,758 
 
 21(5,450 
 865,81.0 
 360,750 
 
 90,000 
 260,000 
 
 900,000 
 180,000 
 185,000 
 
 
 3,956,800 
 
 6,065,000 
 
BRAZIL 
 
 476 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 Mountains, Table-lands, and Plains. In remarkable con 
 trast to the countries on the W. side of the S. American con 
 tinent, Brazil has no mountains of very great elevation ; with 
 exception, perhaps, of Itambe, an isolated peak, in the pro 
 vince of Minas Geraes, which is variously stated at 5960 and 
 8426 ft. above the sea. The higher mountains of Brazil, most 
 of them occurring at greater and lesser distances from the E. 
 coast, extend generally, like the Andes, from S. to N., although 
 numerous inferior ranges traverse the country in various other 
 directions. The most connected chains, and those in which 
 the highest summits occur, are the Serra do Espinhaco, the 
 Serra dos Orgaos, and the Serra do Mar. The first originates 
 in Bahia, about lat. 15 S., and, intersecting the province of 
 Minas Geraes, terminates at lat. 23 S. It lies parallel to the 
 coast, and at a distance from it of about 250 m. ; its culminat 
 ing points are Piedade, 5830 ft. high, and Itacolumi, 5750 ft. 
 The Serra dos Orgaos [organ mountains], so called from the 
 fancied resemblance of its peaks to the tubes of an organ, and 
 the Serra do Mar, which form, in fact, but one chain, the first 
 name being applied to the N.E. half of the range, and the 
 second to the S.W., lie also parallel to the coast, N.N.E. and 
 S.S.W., but at a distance from it of a very few miles only, 
 extending from about lat. 22 to 27 S. The culminating 
 point of this range, Morro dos Canudos, which occurs in the 
 Serra dos Orgaos division, has an elevation of 4476 ft. Hilly 
 regions also extend N. and W. from these mountain-systems, 
 through the provinces Minas Geraes. Pernambuco, Goyaz, 
 and Matto G rosso, but none of the peaks appear to attain any 
 very great elevation. Towards the Rio Paraguay, the hills 
 become lower, and terminate, on the Bolivian frontier, in ele 
 vated marshes. In this locality occurs the water-shed between 
 the affluents of the Amazon and La Plata. It is of very incon 
 siderable elevation ; and some of the sources of the Madeira, 
 which falls into the former, and of the Paraguay, the head- 
 stream of the latter, are not more than 3 m. apart, and might 
 easily be joined by means of a canal. The hilly region or 
 table-land extends along the E. side of the empire as far N. as 
 lat. 3 S., but inland, in Matto Grosso, not farther than 12 S. ; 
 and, N. of lat. 10 S., the Serra Ibiapaba may be taken as the 
 W. limit. This table-land occupies half the empire, together 
 with part of the Argentine republic and Uruguay, and its 
 average elevation is from 2000 to 2500 ft. Along the Amazon 
 and its affluents, the vast plains or silvas are said to occupy a 
 space equal to six times the size of France. Another great 
 plain stretches between the Serra Ibiapaba and the river 
 Tocantins, measuring from N. to S. upwards of 600 m., and 
 from E. to W. more than 400. 
 
 Eimrs and Lakes. The river system of Brazil is un 
 equalled, perhaps, in any other part of the world, for the 
 number and magnitude of the streams of which it is composed, 
 the surface of the whole N.W. portion being interlaced with 
 rivers of every length and volume ; presenting the complex 
 appearance of veins in the human body, to which the Amazon 
 and its larger tributaries may be said to stand in the relation 
 of main arteries. By far the greater portion of these num 
 berless streams have a N. direction, and finally find their way, 
 either directly or through their principals, to the N. shores of 
 the empire. The largest river of Brazil, and the largest, it is 
 believed, in the world, though not the longest, is the Amazon, 
 which enters the empire from the \V., about lat. 4 30 S. ; 
 Ion. 70 W., and, after a N.E. course, from the point named, 
 of about 800 m., falls into the Atlantic near the equator. The 
 next in size is the Rio Francisco, which, after flowing N. for 
 about 800 m., suddenly turns due E., and subsequently S.E., 
 falling into the sea about lat. 11 S. In order of magnitude, 
 follow the Rio Negro and Madeira, both tributaries of the 
 Amazon ; the former flowing from the N.W., the latter from 
 the S.W. The other large rivers in this portion of the empire 
 are the Branco, a tributary of the Nio Negro; the Tapajos 
 and Xingu, other two large tributaries of the Amazon ; the 
 Araguay, Tocantins, Maranhao, and Paranahyba. Passing 
 along the coast, S. from the embouchure of the Francisco, the 
 following considerable rivers occur, the Vazabarris, Itapicuru, 
 Paraguassu, Belmonte or Jequitinhonha, province of Bahia ; 
 Doce, province of Espirito-Santo ; and the Paraiba-do-sul, the 
 S. boundary of the same province. In this enumeration of the 
 rivers having their embouchures on the E. coast of Lrazil, 
 we have omitted an immense number of smaller streams, per- 
 Laps not many below a hundred. In the interior of the S. 
 
 portion of the empire, occur the large rivers Uruguay, 
 Yguazu, Paranapanenm, Tieta, Para, Paraguay, and Parana, 
 with numerous smaller streams smaller in comparison to 
 these, but still large rivers winding in all directions through 
 every province. Most of the rivers in this part of Brazil have 
 a "W. and S. direction; those having the former proceeding 
 from the W. side of the serras by which this part of the coast 
 is lined ; and those having the latter, issuing from the hilly 
 tract which crosses the centre of the province of Matto Grosso 
 from E. to W., and which forms the water-shed of the W. and 
 central part of the empire, the rivers of the province of Para 
 flowing from it N., and those of Matto Grosso S. and W. Of 
 the rivers last named, the Paraguay and Parana are the largest, 
 and have the longest courses. The former has its sources in 
 the central high lands of Matto Grosso, whence it flows nearly 
 due S., quitting the Brazilian territory at lat. 21 S., and from 
 this point forming the W. boundary of the independent state 
 of Paraguay. The latter rises in the hilly district of the pro 
 vince of Goyaz, not far from the sources of the Tocantins, 
 although their subsequent courses are nearly in direct opposi 
 tion ; the latter proceeding due N., while the former flows 
 S.S. W. The Parana forms, throughout a portion of its course, 
 the boundary between the Brazilian territory and Paraguay, 
 quitting the former about lat. 25 40 S. Although unrivalled 
 in the number and magnitude of its rivers, Brazil has com 
 paratively few lakes of any great extent. The largest is the 
 Lagoa dos Platos, in the province of Rio Grande de Sao Pedro, 
 the most S. of the Brazilian provinces ; it is 150 m. in length, 
 and 35 m. in breadth at the widest part, and is separated from 
 the sea by a narrow strip of land only ; it discharges its waters 
 into the ocean by a channel called the Rio Grande. Farther 
 N., several smaller lakes occur, the largest of which may be 
 from 20 to 30 m. in length. There are hardly any others 
 worth mentioning throughout the whole of Brazil. 
 
 Geology and Mineralogy. Granite prevails to the extent of 
 2000 m. along the coast of Brazil ; and, with syenite, forms the 
 base of the table land. The superstructure of the latter con 
 sists of metamorphic and old igneous rocks, sandstone, clay- 
 slate, limestone, in which are large caverns, with bones of 
 extinct animals and alluvial soil, of which the N. part of tho 
 empire is almost wholly composed, being intersected by numer 
 ous large streams. The mineral wealth of Brazil is consider 
 able, and includes gold, silver, and iron, diamonds, topazes, and 
 other precious stones. Amongst the earliest discovered, and 
 first wrought gold mines, were those of Jaragua", but they have 
 long ceased to be regularly worked ; the precious metal being 
 found more easily, and in greater abundance, mingled with 
 the sands and alluvial deposits of rivers. The process of 
 separation, the gold being in small particles, is efi ected by 
 repeated washings, which are continued until nothing but the 
 pure metal remains at the bottom of the vessel. The entire 
 quantity of gold produced has greatly fallen off of late years, 
 being now hardly a fourth of what it was three quarters of a 
 century since, owing, chiefly, to the auriferous sand having 
 been exhausted. No country is so rich in diamonds as Brazil. 
 The most celebrated mines are those of Serra do Frio, a dis 
 trict surrounded by almost inaccessible rocks, and guarded 
 with the utmost vigilance. The diamonds have been hitherto 
 found in the beds of rivers only, and are washed from the sand 
 and flints with which they are mingled, much in the same way 
 as the gold. The largest known diamond was found in the 
 Rio Abaste in 1791, and weighs 138 carats. Another, worth 
 45,000, was found, according to the Brazil journals, in 1847, 
 by a negro. The negro who finds a diamond weighing 17 
 carats obtains his liberty, a variety of proportionate rewards 
 being appointed for those of lesser value. About 20,000 
 negroes are employed in the diamond mines. The Govern 
 ment receives one-fifth of the total value of all the gold and 
 diamonds found in the country. Notwithstanding the sound 
 ing names of these two items of the mineral wealth of Brazil, 
 neither of them have been nearly so profitable, nor so bene 
 ficial to the general interests of the country, as the homeliest 
 of its agricultural productions. In the short space of a year 
 and a half, the exports of sugar and coffee amounted to more 
 than the value of diamonds found throughout a period of 80 
 years. 
 
 Climate. As almost the whole of Brazil lies S. of the 
 equator, and in a hemisphere where there is a greater propor 
 tion of sea than land, its climate is generally more cool and 
 
BRAZIL 
 
 477 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 moist than that of countries in corresponding latitudes in the yield a tasteless oil, more powerfully cathartic than castor- 
 N. hemisphere. This is particularly applicable to the flat por- oil, and now imported into Europe; the cacao or chocolate- 
 tions of the empire, where impenetrable forests occupy the ! tree, the caesalpina echinata or Brazil-wood tree, use 
 
 the name of Pernambuco wood, for dyeing silk of a crimson 
 colour ; the rosewood-tree, the fustic, mahogany, and a variety 
 of others well adapted for the purposes of shipbuilding. The 
 different kinds of forests and woods in Brazil are distinguished 
 by the inhabitants by particular names. There are the Matos 
 Virgens, or virgin forests, such as those which exist on the 
 Organ Mountains, and along the whole maritime cordillera ; 
 the Catingas, consisting generally of small and deciduous 
 trees ; the Carrascos, close-growing shrubs, about 3 or 4 ft. 
 high ; and the Capveira, such wooded tracts as are formed 
 by the small trees and shrubs, which spring up where virgin 
 forests have been cleared away. The beauty, variety, and 
 abundance of the flowers of this extraordinary country, are no 
 less remarkable than any other of its vegetable productions. 
 The whole country, says Mr. Gardner, through which we 
 had passed for nearly two days, was one vast flower-garden, 
 where, "like a child at a feast," I knew not which object to 
 grasp at first ; everything was not only new to me, but each 
 more beautiful, or more curious than the other. 
 
 Animals. The principal domestic animals of Brazil are, 
 horned cattle and horses ; the numbers of the former are pro 
 digious, covering the boundless plains of the interior. The 
 greatest part of them live in a wild state, and are not milked. 
 Horses are numerous in the S. provinces; they are of a 
 middling size, from 12 to 14 J hands high, but strong, lively, 
 and swift. Mules are reared in the S. provinces. Sheep 
 are in little repute, the meat being ill flavoured, and the wool 
 of indifferent quality. Goats and hogs are abundant. The 
 woods of Brazil swarm with rapacious animals, tiger cats, 
 hyenas, saratus (a ferocious creature about the size of a fox), 
 which seems peculiarly well adapted for the cultivation of jaguars, sloths, porcupines, &c. Wild hogs are also common, 
 
 luvial plains; and, by preventing the sun s rays reaching the 
 earth, cut off one of the principal sources of heat radiation. 
 In the S. parts of Brazil, in consequence of the gradual narrow 
 ing of the continent, the climate is of an insular character 
 cool summers and mild winters. The quantity of rain that falls 
 in Brazil differs widely in amount in different localities. The 
 N. provinces generally are subject to heavy rains and violent 
 storms; but the S. regions rejoice in a settled, mild, and 
 salubrious climate. The rainy season commences in October, 
 and usually lasts till March, setting in with heavy thunder 
 storms. At Rio, where the climate has been much modified 
 by the clearing away of the forests in the neighbourhood, the 
 mean temperature of the year is 72; and the rains have been 
 so diminished as to have seriously reduced the supply of water 
 to the city. Generally, the climate of Brazil is delightful, 
 diffusing and maintaining a perpetual summer throughout this 
 favoured land. In the N. parts, the air in the lower tracts 
 is somewhat sultry and oppressive ; but vegetation is vigorous 
 and profuse, the ground being covered with flowers, and the 
 trees with a foliage that is ever green ; while the nights are 
 deliciously cool. Near the coast, the temperature is modified 
 by the trade-wind; which, after traversing the Atlantic, fans 
 the shores of Brazil, imparting a refreshing coolness to the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Soil, Vegetable Productions, &c. The soil of Brazil, so far 
 as its capabilities have been tested, is highly fertile ; although 
 but a comparatively small portion has yet been subjected to 
 this test, not more than a hundred and fiftieth part of the 
 whole surface being under cultivation, and this portion is en 
 tirely limited to the coast, and to the N.E. part of the empire, 
 
 maize, sugar, and aoffee. The pastures, however, are of vast 
 extent ; and, being covered with prodigious herds of horned 
 cattle, form one of the principal sources of the wealth of the 
 country. Being almost wholly within the limit of the palm 
 region, the vegetation of Brazil is characterized generally by 
 the peculiar physiognomy which that beautiful family of 
 vegetables impresses on tropical countries. Of these no fewer 
 than 100 species are native to the country. The chief food 
 plants are sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa, rice, tobacco, maize, 
 wheat, manioc, beans, bananas, ipecacuanha, ginger, yams, 
 lemons, oranges, figs, &c. ; the two first, sugar and coffee, 
 being the staple products of the empire. The manioc is a 
 native of Brazil, and its farina is almost the only kind of meal 
 used in that country. An acre of manioc is said to yield as 
 much nutriment as 6 acres of wheat. The Indians find in 
 this beautiful and useful plant a compensation for the rice, 
 and other cerealia of the Old World. But it is in the bound 
 less forests of Brazil, that the vigour of the vegetative power 
 is exhibited in its most imposing form. No language, it has 
 been said, can describe the glory of the Brazilian forests ; 
 the endless variety of form, the contrast of colour and size, 
 the largest trees bearing brilliant blossoms of every hue, 
 and clothed with a drapery of curious epiphytes and festoons 
 of climbing plants, while thousands, of a diameter of not less 
 than 8 and 12 ft., stand so close together, that it is impossible 
 (the intervals being filled up with an undergrowth of plants) 
 to clear a passage between them. In contrast to these giants 
 of the forest stands the graceful palm, the delicate acacia and 
 bamboos, and grasses of 40 ft. high. If the name of primeval 
 forest, says Humboldt, can be given to any forest on the face 
 of the earth, none can claim it perhaps so strictly as those that 
 fill the connected basins of the Orinoco and the Amazon. 
 But it is not in the plains alone that this gigantic vegetation 
 is met with; the sides of the mountains are also clothed with 
 trees of enormous size, including the most beautiful specimens 
 of the palm and tree-fern. The cocoa-nut palm attains a 
 great size on the sea-shores ; and the curious Bertholettia, or 
 monkey-pot tree, the kernels of which are exported from 
 Para under the name of Brazil nuts, is met with in many 
 localities, but more especially in the N.W. parts of the em 
 pire. A peculiar characteristic in Brazilian vegetation, is the 
 host of species of myrtle-trees which, though not of much use 
 economically, perfume the air with their exhalations. Among 
 the more valuable trees of the Brazilian forests are the andaacu, 
 or Purga da Paulistas (Anda Gomezii), the seeds of which 
 
 as well as an amphibious animal called the water-hog or 
 capybara, resembling a hog in form, but of the size of a heifer. 
 Monkeys are likewise numerous ; and vampyres are in some 
 localities so destructive, as to prevent the rearing of cattle. 
 Amongst the feathered tribes are, the smallest, the humming 
 bird, and one of the largest, the emu and vulture. Water 
 fowl, especially geese and ducks, abound, in certain seasons, 
 on the lakes and lagoons at the S. extremity of Brazil. The 
 reptiles consist of the boa constrictor, the corral snake, the 
 sorrocuco, and the jarraraca (Bothrops Neuwiedii, Spix), all 
 venomous, and much dreaded by the natives, especially the 
 last, which, when full grown, is usually aboat 6 ft. long, 
 and is nearly allied to the rattlesnake genus. It pre 
 vails over all the S. provinces. Its bite is attended with 
 great suffering, and with the most serious consequences, even 
 where death is averted. In the marshy countries of the 
 S., the boa or python is said to attain a length of 48 ft. ; 
 but, according to Humboldt, the largest skins which have, 
 as yet, been brought to Europe, and carefully measured, do 
 not exceed 21 to 23 ft. The insects of Brazil are, many of 
 them, remarkable for the beauty of their colours and their 
 size, especially the butterflies. Other descriptions are so 
 numerous in the woods, that their noise is heard in a ship 
 at anchor some distance from the shore ; while the white ants 
 are so numerous and destructive, that Humboldt says, there 
 is not a manuscript in S. America 100 years old. The 
 scorpions of Brazil attain a length of 6 inches. Most of the 
 bees of that country are stingless, there being no fewer than 
 30 species of that description. The shores and rivers abound 
 with fish. Amongst the most valuable of those caught on 
 the former, is the garopa, which attains a length of from 12 
 to 20 ft., and is well tasted ; they are most numerous on the 
 coast of Bahia, where great quantities are annually taken and 
 exported. The numbers of fish caught in the Amazon, and 
 other rivers of the empire, is very great, constituting a prin 
 cipal part of the subsistence of the inhabitants, European 
 settlers as well as Indians. 
 
 Literature, Education, &c. In every town schools for 
 teaching the first rudiments are now to be found, to which all 
 citizens are admitted free. There are two universities one in 
 Sao Paulo, the other in Pernambuco ; of which, the former is 
 held in the highest estimation. In all large towns there are 
 professorships of Latin, Greek, English, French, philosophy, 
 rhetoric, geometry, chemistry, botany, &c. ; and printing- 
 presses are now common throughout Brazil. 
 
BRAZIL 
 
 478 
 
 BRAZZA 
 
 People. The free population of Brazil consists of Euro 
 peans, white persons born in Brazil, or native Brazilians; 
 nmlattoes ; Mamalucoes, a mixed caste between whites and 
 Indians; Indians in a domesticated state, called Caboclos; 
 Indians in a savage state, called Tapuyas ; free negroes, born 
 in Brazil; manumitted Africans; Mestizoes, a mixed caste 
 between Indians and negroes. The slave population consists 
 of Africans, Creole negroes, mulattoes, and Mestizoes. The 
 native Brazilians are an idle and inactive race, with few wants, 
 and fewer enjoyments. The mulattoes, the offspring of Euro 
 peans and negroes, are ingenious, and evince an aptitude for the 
 mechanical arts. The Tapuyas or native Indians of Brazil, are 
 of a copper colour, robust, and well made, but of short stature. 
 They generally go naked, paint their skins, and are fond of 
 ornamenting their heads with feathers. To this race belong 
 the Botocudes or Botucudoes, a ferocious tribe, who inhabit 
 the banks of the Rio Doce and the Belmonte. They are 
 said to be descendants of an ancient people called the Aymores, 
 who distinguished themselves by their cruelty to the Portu 
 guese, whom they slaughtered on one occasion, about the 
 middle of the last century, without mercy, leaving impres 
 sions of horror and apprehension on the Portuguese colonists 
 which are not yet effaced. They go entirely naked, and render 
 themselves hideous by the insertion of large circular pieces 
 of wood in the lower lip and lobes of the ears, the former 
 giving the mouth the semblance of an ape s. In other respects, 
 they have all the personal characteristics of the Tapuyas, 
 while some of their young women are said to be really hand 
 some ; their light copper colour glows all over when they 
 blush. They are said to be cannibals, and there seems little 
 doubt that they were so at one time ; but it would appear that 
 the practice is now becoming obsolete amongst them. Those 
 inhabiting the banks of the Belmonte seem to be of a some 
 what milder nature than those on the Doce, who manifest an 
 irreconcilable hostility to the whites, and are by far the most 
 savage tribe in Brazil, if not in all S. America. 
 
 Commerce. The principal articles of import are cottons, 
 trinkets, furniture, wax, candles, hats, dry fruits, and wine 
 from France; glass, beer, linen, paper, &c., from Holland; the 
 same, with the addition of iron and brass utensils, from Ger 
 many and Bohemia ; iron, copper utensils, sailcloth, cords, 
 ropes, &c., from Russia and Sweden; wine, brandy, fruits, &c. 
 from Portugal, and wheat, flour, biscuits, soap, leather, 
 &c., from America. The exports consist of coffee, sugar, cot 
 ton, hides, cabinet and dye woods, drugs, gums, and diamonds. 
 The value of cotton goods, nearly all from Britain, imported 
 into Brazil between August 22, 1846, and March 22, 1848, 
 was 2,670,200. 
 
 STATKMENT o/W VAI.UK of the IMPOSTS and DOMESTIC EXFOETS or 
 BEAZIL, in each of the years 1843, 1844, and 1S45. 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 1843 5,880,2o9 4,7-19,413 
 
 1(444 6,460,423 5,110,033 
 
 1846 6,676,602 6,489,679 
 
 The annual imports from Great Britain are above 3,000,000; 
 and the exports, to the same quarter, considerably above a 
 million. The number and tonnage of vessels that entered 
 and cleared from the principal ports of Brazil in 1847, 
 was: entered, 4072 vessels; tonn. 535,106; cleared, vessels 
 3998; tonn. 589,159. Very strenuous efforts have been re 
 cently made by the Brazilian Government to put down the 
 slave-trade. In September 1850, a law was passed declaring 
 it piracy : several vessels have since been captured by Brazil 
 ian men-of-war, and two have already been declared good 
 prizes. (For further particulars regarding the commerce of 
 Brazil, see BAHIA, PARA, PERNAMBCCO, and Rio I>E JANEIRO.) 
 Religion, Government, &c. The established religion of 
 Brazil is R. Catholic, although other religions are tolerated. 
 The Government of the empire is monarchical, hereditary, 
 constitutional, and representative. The Legislative power is 
 in the General Assembly, which consists of two chambers, 
 the Senate, and Chamber of Deputies ; the former elected for 
 life, and the latter for four years. In 1848, the public debt 
 stood as follows : 
 
 External 6,187,050 
 
 Internal 4,914,171 
 
 Paper money in circulation 4,815,772 
 
 15,916,993 
 Expenditure for 1849-50, 2,680,217, being less than the 
 
 receipts. The military force for 1850-51, was fixed at 25,000 
 men of the line, besides which there are 60,000 national 
 guards, and each province has a well-equipped municipal 
 guard or police force. The navy, in 1850, comprised 40 
 vessels of all sizes ; three frigates, seven corvettes, and nine 
 steamers ; the remainder consisting of brigs, schooners, &c., 
 manned in all by 3500 men. The steam force is annually on 
 the increase. 
 
 History. Brazil was discovered May 3, 1500, by Vin- 
 cente Yanez Piu9on, one of the companions of Columbus, 
 but was subsequently taken possession of by Pedro Alvares 
 de Cabral. Various towns now sprung up along the coast 
 under the auspices of the Portuguese Government, but not 
 without much annoyance from the cupidity and jealousy, 
 or envy, of other nations, especially the English, Dutch, 
 and Spaniards, who repeatedly attacked and destroyed their 
 settlements. The Portuguese, however, still retained posses 
 sion of the country, which, notwithstanding these calamities, 
 continued to prosper. On the invasion of Portugal in 1 808 
 by the French, the sovereign of that kingdom, John VI., 
 sailed for Brazil, accompanied by his court and a large body 
 of emigrants. Soon after arriving there, he began to im 
 prove the condition of the country by placing the administra 
 tion on a better footing, and throwing open its ports to all 
 nations. On the fall of Bonaparte, the King raised Brazil to 
 the rank of a kingdom, and assumed the title of King of Por 
 tugal, Algarve, and Brazil. The revolution which took place 
 in Portugal in 1820, compelling the King to return to that 
 country, he next year sailed for Lisbon, leaving Pedro, his 
 eldest son and successor, as lieutenant and regent. In the 
 following year, 1822, Don Pedro, availing himself of a general 
 wish on the part of the Brazilians for an entire separation 
 from the parent country, declared Brazil to be a free and in 
 dependent state, and assumed himself the title of Emperor. 
 The King, after some slight and ineffectual attempts to re 
 establish the former relations between Portugal and Brazil, 
 acknowledged the independence of the latter country in 1825. 
 Some years afterwards, a series of tumultuary proceedings 
 ended in the abdication of Don Pedro, who left Brazil on April 
 7, 1831, leaving his son, who was under age, as his successor. 
 The rights of the latter were recognized and protected, and a 
 regency of three persons appointed by the chamber of deputies 
 to conduct the Government during his minority. In 1840, 
 the young Emperor was declared of age, being then in his 15th 
 year, and was crowned on July 18, 1841. (Spix and Martins 
 Travels in Brazil; Kidder s Brazil; Gardner s Travels in 
 Brazil; Mrs. Somrnerville s Physical Geography; Humboldt s 
 Aspects of Mature, and Cosmos; Diccio. Gco. Imp. Brazil; Parl. 
 Papers; Private Information.) 
 
 BRAZOS-DE-Dios, a large river, U. States, Texas, rising 
 among the mountains in the N. W. part of the state, under the 
 parallel of 33 N. ; flowing S.E. between the Colorado and 
 Trinidad, and after a course of about 900 m., falling into the 
 Gulf of Mexico, between Quintana and Velasco, 58 m. W.S.W. 
 Galveston ; lat. 28 48 N. ; Ion. 95 40 AV. It is navigable, 
 during freshets, for a considerable distance ; but there are 
 only 6 ft. water on the bar at its mouth. The plain through 
 which it flows is strongly impregnated with salt and nitre ; 
 and one of the streams which forms its head waters, issues 
 from a saline lake, 20 m. long, and about 6 broad. Its prin 
 cipal affluents are, the Red Fork and Navosota. Among the 
 towns on its banks are Milam, Nashville, Washington, and 
 Richmond. The cotton plantations along its banks are highly 
 productive. 
 
 B RAZZA [anc. firachia], an isl. Austria, in the Adriatic 
 Sea, and belonging to Dalmatia; lat. 43 16 42" N.; Ion. 
 16 37 ,30" E. (R.) It is 24 in. long, and from 5 to 7 broad ; 
 contains 20 villages, and is separated from the mainland by 
 a channel 12m. broad, which affords excellent anchorage for 
 shipping. The island is very mountainous and well wooded; 
 and in the valleys vines are grown, from which are made the 
 best wines in Dalmatia. It produces, also, good oil, almonds, 
 and saffron, and grain in small quantity. Much attention is 
 paid to the cultivation of bees and silkworms. The kids and 
 lambs of this island are prized for the delicacy of their flesh, 
 and the cheese is also in high repute. Near St. Martin, in 
 the E. part of the island, there is an extensive stone quarry, 
 from which large quantities of building-stone are exported. 
 The chief town, St. Pietro di Brazza, has a small port, de- 
 
BREADALBANE 
 
 479 
 
 BRECON 
 
 fended by a mole. At Milna there is a considerable ship 
 building yard. The island of Brazza forms a district, divided 
 into seven communes, and gives a title to the Bishop of Lesina- 
 Brazza. Pop. 14,090. 
 
 BREADALBANE, or BKAIDALISIN, a mountainous dist. 
 Scotland, co. Perth, in the centre of the Grampian range, 
 about 33 m. in length, and 31 in breadth. The hills afford 
 excellent pasturage, and the valleys are, many of them, sus 
 ceptible of profitable cultivation. One of the most striking 
 features of this romantic district is Loch Tay, a beautiful 
 sheet of water, of about 16 m. in length, with an average 
 breadth of about 1 m. From the N.E. extremity of this lake 
 issues the river Tay, one of the three principal rivers of Scot 
 land. Loch Lyon is another beautiful, though much smaller 
 lake. It is situated at the head of Glenlyon, is about 3 m. 
 long, and half a mile in breadth. The district abounds in 
 limestone and various kinds of minerals. Breadalbane gives 
 the title of Marquis to a branch of the family of Campbell, 
 who are also principal proprietors. The chief seat of the 
 family is Taymouth Castle, a magnificent residence. 
 
 BREADSALL, par. Eng. Derby; 2410 ac. Pop. 620. 
 BREAGE (ST.), par. Eng. Cornwall ; 7390 ac. P. 6166. 
 BREA HEAD, Ireland, W. coast, co. Kerry, Valentia 
 Island, S. side of Dingle Bay ; lat. 51 55 N. ; Ion. 10 15 W. 
 BREAKSEA ISLAND. 1, A small isl.,S.W. extremity j 
 of New Munster, the most S. of the two larger islands of New 
 Zealand, at the entrance of a narrow strait between Paterson j 
 and Resolution Islands, lat. 45 35 S.; Ion. 166 40 E. j 
 2, Breaksea Spit, a reef of 18 or 19 m. in length, E. coast, j 
 Australia, stretching N. from Sandy Cape ; its extreme N. ; 
 point is in lat. 24 24 S.; Ion. 153 18 E. 
 
 BREAMORE, par. Eng. Hants ; 3440 ac. Pop. 647. 
 BREANE, par. Eng. Somerset; 1330 ac. Pop. 126. 
 BRECH, a tn. France, dep. Morbihan, about 20 m. from 
 Lorient. A battle, fought here in 1364, in consequence of 
 a challenge given by Jean de Montfort, son of Edward III., 
 to Charles de Blois, was gained by the former, chiefly by the 
 aid of his English allies, and gave him the crown of Burgundy. 
 Georges Cadoudal, the celebrated Vendean partizan, was a 
 native of Brech. A monument, begun to be erected to his 
 memory, was abruptly terminated by the Revolution of 1830. j 
 Pop. 134. 
 
 BRECH-FFA, or BEECHVA, par., S. Wales, Carmarthen. I 
 Pop. 109. 
 
 BRECHIN, a royal bor. and par. Scotland, co. Forfar. The 
 town is situated on an acclivity, 1. bank, S. Esk, 8 m. from its , 
 junction with the sea at Montrose, 23 m. N.N.E. Dundee. It 
 consists of one principal street, stretching N. to S., of another, 
 nearly three-fourths of a mile in length, and several cross 
 streets. The houses are all stone, and have a respectable appear 
 ance, particularly those of recent erection ; and, on the whole, 
 the town is rapidly improving. The cathedral church, which 
 now forms the parish church, is situated on the N. bank of a 
 ravine formerly a moat which separates the town from 
 Brechin Castle. It has a large and beautiful Gothic window 
 over the W. door, and a tower and spire 120 ft. high. Near 
 the church stands the tall slender tower of Brechin, commonly 
 called the Little Steeple, which has long been a puzzle to anti 
 quarians. It is an unadorned turret of freestone, 85 ft. in 
 height to the cornice, and 15 ft. more to the pinnacle of the 
 spire, which has more than once been repaired. There is an 
 interior communication to the cornice, by means of movable 
 ladders. There are here also the remains of an ancient chapel, 
 called Maison Dieu. The other churches are two Free, 
 three United Presbyterian, one Original Secession, and one 
 Congregationalist ; a Scotch Episcopal chapel, and a R. Ca 
 tholic meeting-house. The two Free churches are handsome 
 edifices. The public schools, which have been long celebrated, 
 are situated in the lower floor of a building erected by Lord 
 Panmure for educational purposes ; besides which, a building 
 has been erected, called the Educational Institute, chiefly sup 
 ported by Free Churchmen and Dissenters, in which also are 
 schools, well attended by young children. Brechin has like 
 wise a mechanics institution, occupying a handsome building, 
 erected and endowed a few years ago by Lord Panmure, with 
 a large library attached. The linen trade is the staple of the 
 town. A considerable quantity of flax is annually spun into 
 yarn, employing a large number of hands. There is also an 
 extensive bleaching establishment here ; but the greater part 
 
 of the working population within the town are employed in 
 hand-loom weaving of linen fabrics. There are also two dis 
 tilleries and two breweries ; the former manufacturing not less 
 than from 80,000 to 100,000 gallons of whisky per annum. 
 Brechin Castle, for many centuries the residence of the Maules 
 of Panmure, stands on a precipice overlooking the Esk, and 
 is separated from the town by a deep ravine. Brechin unites 
 with Montrose, Forfar, Bervie, and Arbroath, in returning a 
 member to the House of Commons; registered electors in 
 
 1850, 172. The PARISH is about 7 m. in length, and 6 m. 
 
 in breadth. Pop. 7560. Pop. of tn. 3951. (Local Corre 
 spondent.} 
 
 BRECHT, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. of, and 14 m. 
 N.E. Antwerp, with manufactures of cloth, tanneries, brew 
 eries, a dyework, and a brick and tile work. Pop. 3126. 
 
 BRECKLES, par. Eng. Norfolk; 1860 ac. Pop. 160. 
 
 BRECON, or BRECKNOCK, an inland co. England, S. 
 Wales, about 38 m. N. to S., and varying from 34 to 14 m. 
 E. to W. ; bounded, N. and N.E. by co. Radnor, E. by co. Here 
 ford, S.E. by co. Monmouth, S. by co. Glamorgan, and W. 
 by cos. Carmarthen and Cardigan ; area, 482,560 ac., or 754 
 sq. m. It is one of the most mountainous counties in the 
 principality, and is distinguished by great sublimity and beauty 
 of scenery. The principal mountain-range, called the Black 
 Mountains, traverses the S. part of the county from E. to W. ; 
 and near its centre rises the Van or Beacon, forming the high 
 est summit of S. Wales, and having a height of 2862 ft. The 
 chief geological formation of Brecon is the old red sandstone, 
 which is most largely developed in the central and S.E. dis 
 tricts. According to Mr. Murchison, it is divisible into three 
 minor formations ; viz., a basis of tile-stones, a centre of marls, 
 limestones, locally called cornstones, sandstones, &c., and an 
 upper portion, consisting of sandstones and conglomerate, which 
 usually compose the great mountain masses, and, as in the case 
 of the Beacon already described, ascend to their highest sum 
 mits. In the N. districts, the rocks are still older in the series, 
 consisting chiefly of graywacke slates, traversed and pene 
 trated by a remarkable line of trap and porphyry. In the S., 
 near the borders of Glamorgan, a band of mountain limestone 
 appears, forming part of the long narrow zone which encircles 
 the important coal fields of S. Wales. A very small and in 
 ferior portion of this coal field is included in Brecon ; and 
 though some ironworks have been established near its E. 
 borders, they must derive their chief supplies, both of coal 
 and iron, from adjoining counties. As a whole, Brecon can 
 not boast of minerals. The river Wye forms a natural bound 
 ary between this county and Radnor ; and the Usk, rising in 
 the Black Mountains, crosses the county, and flows through a 
 fine valley towards the town of Brecon. About 2 m. E. from 
 the latter is Brecknock- Mere or Llans-afeddar, one of the 
 largest lakes in S. Wales, abounding in otters, pike, tench, 
 perch, and eels. The climate is, in general, temperate and 
 salubrious. The farms are small, and the land under culti 
 vation is about 230,000 ac. The lower parts of the county 
 contain several fertile valleys, which yield considerable agri 
 cultural produce, consisting of oats, wheat, rye, barley, 
 nips, vetch, and potatoes ; also of wool, timber, butter, c " 
 and cattle, which are sent to the markets in the neighbouring 
 English counties. The mountains are usually of a sterile 
 nature, and, towards their summits, produce little herbage ; 
 but their lower slopes are verdant, and are chiefly used to 
 pasture sheep, which are generally small, but much prized 
 for their excellent quality. The manufactures of the county 
 consist principally of coarse woollen cloths, stockings, and 
 other worsted stuff s. The trade has been considerably facili 
 tated by a canal from Brecknock to Llanelly, 18 m. in length, 
 and 9 ft. deep, and navigable for barges of 25 tons burden, 
 thus opening a communication with the sea ; and by the Brecon 
 and Merthyr-Tydvil Railway. The county is divided into six 
 hundreds, and possesses four market towns Brecon, Builth, 
 Crickhowell, and Hay. It sends one member to Parliament j 
 number of electors (1850), 2548. Pop. (1851), 61,474. 
 
 BRECON, or BRECKNOCK, cap. of above co., and nearly 
 in its centre, in an open valley, at the confluence of the rivers 
 Honddu or Hondey, and Usk, over which there are four 
 bridges; 145 m. W. by N. London It consists chiefly of 
 three principal streets, and several smaller; most of them 
 tolerably straight, and well kept ; and all of them paved and 
 flagged. The houses are of stone, and generally well built, 
 
BREDA 
 
 480 
 
 BREISACH 
 
 particularly those of recent erection. It is badly supplied with 
 water, and is but indifferently lighted, though furnished with 
 gas. The town, however, is, on the whole, improving in 
 appearance, particularly as regards its shops and public build- 
 ings ; of which last the most noteworthy are, the new county- ! 
 hall, a handsome structure in the Grecian style; a new girls ! 
 and infants school, in the Elizabethan style; a large and j 
 commodious market-house, and a barrack. Brecon has three 
 churches, two chapels belonging to the Independents, two 
 Wesleyan, two Baptist, and one Calvinistic Methodist The 
 Priory church, one of the above, is a fine structure, partly Nor 
 man, and partly English style. Its schools are the college 
 school, and several others for boys, for girls, and for infants. 
 There are here an infirmary, and a mechanics institute. The 
 trade of the town is merely of a local nature, and it has no 
 manufactures, except that of flannel and coarse woollen cloths, 
 wrought to a small extent. Markets three times weekly; and 
 fairs annually, for hops, leather, cattle, &c. Brecon returns 
 a member to the House of Commons ; registered electors in 
 1850, 342. The celebrated Mrs. Henry Siddons was born 
 here in 1755. The town is of high antiquity, its origin dating 
 A. D. 1 092, at which time its castle was built. Of this building 
 hardly any trace now remains. Pop. 5317. 
 
 BREDA, a tn. and frontier fortress, Holland, prov. 
 N. Brabant, on the Mark, about equidistant from Bergen- 
 op-Zoom, Antwerp, and Hertogenbosch, in a finely-wooded 
 country. Its defences are strong, though irregular, and 
 capable of being increased by flooding the surrounding coun 
 try. The town is of a triangular form, has four gates and 
 above 50 streets, nine of which open into the market-place, 
 which is surrounded with trees. There are other charming 
 public walks within the walls. St. Barbaras, now the parish 
 church of the Eeformed, adorns the market-place with its 
 lofty tower. Destroyed by lightning in 1694, it owed its 
 restoration chiefly to William III. of England. The Luther 
 ans also have a handsome church. The R. Catholics are 
 divided into three parishes, of which each has a church ; and 
 the Jews have a synagogue. The other public buildings are 
 the castle, used for the royal military academy until the re 
 volt of Belgium ; the Government-house ; a handsome town- 
 house ; the palace of justice, where the local courts meet ; 
 a bridewell, and two prisons. On the parade ground there is 
 the great arsenal, a beautiful building; also the new and 
 the little arsenals, and various other buildings required in a 
 fortress of the first order. Among the public institutions 
 there are hospitals for the old and sick, and two orphan-houses, 
 a drawing-school, a scientific and literary association, a branch 
 of the imitative arts society, a department of the public utility 
 society, and three musical societies ; besides a Latin, there are 
 other 16 schools of various kinds. From its central position, 
 and water communication with other provinces and the sea, 
 Breda is frequented by vessels trading with all the principal 
 towns in Holland ; but its trade has suffered from the separation 
 from Belgium. It has manufactories of carpets, hair-cloth, 
 linen, hats, soap, tallow, and wax candles ; also, cotton print 
 and dye works, tanworks, breweries, roperies, letterpress and 
 lithographic printing-houses, a letter foundry, a copper foun 
 dry, and japanning works ; coachmakers, armourers, &c. 
 Previous to the revolt of the Netherlands against Philip II., 
 Breda was a favourite residence of William I. of Orange. 
 There he held court, and exercised a princely hospitality, 
 occupied more with hounds and hawks than with politics. 
 At Breda, in 1566, the famous league of the nobles was first 
 proposed by Count Louis of Nassau and the famous Marninx, 
 Count St. Aldegonde. Breda repeatedly fell, by force or 
 fraud, into the hands of the Spanish or Dutch during the 80 
 years war of independence ; but was finally secured to the 
 latter in 1637. The pop. of the town, 13,000, adding 2700 
 for the garrison, 15,700 ; of which 11,780 R. Catholics, 3700 
 Protestants ; and 180 Jews. 
 
 BREDE, par. Eng. Sussex ; 5700 ac. Pop. 1151. 
 
 BREDEN BURY, par. Eng. Hereford ; 540 ac. Pop. 46. 
 
 BREDFIELD, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1630 ac. Pop. 468. 
 
 BREDGAR, par. Eng. Kent; 1810 ac. Pop. 540. 
 
 BREDHURST, par. Eng. Kent; 400 ac. Pop. 131. 
 
 BREDICOT, par. Eng. Worcester; 430 ac. Pop. 53. 
 
 BREDON, par. Eng. Worcester; 6130 ac. Pop. 1567. 
 
 BREDSTEDT, a tn. Denmark, duchy of, and 27 m. 
 W.N.W. Schleswig, near the coast. It has a church (built 
 
 in 1510), a manufactory of tobacco, some trade in cattle and 
 corn, a considerable number of looms employed in weaving 
 linen, and owns 8 or 10 small vessels. Pop. 1800. 
 
 BREDY, two pars. Eng. Dorset:!, Bndy (Little), 2190 
 ac. Pop. 196. 2, Bredy (Long], 2000 ac. Pop. 340. 
 
 BREDWARDINE, par. Eng. Hereford; 3890ac. P. 409. 
 
 BREEDE, a river, S. Africa, Cape Colony, rising in the 
 district of Worcester, and, after a considerable course, chiefly 
 S.E., falling into St. Sebastian s Bay; lat. 34 45 S. ; Ion. 
 20 5(y E. Though it has only 13 ft. water at low tide, it is 
 the deepest river in the district, and considerable quantities 
 of the wool grown in the neighbourhood are shipped from it. 
 
 BREEDEVOORT, or BREEVOORT, a tn. Holland, prov. 
 Gelderland, 20 m. S.E. Zutphen. It was once fortified, has 
 a Reformed and a R. Catholic church, and a school. Besides 
 some linen-weaving, and bleaching, there is a tanwork, and a 
 cotton manufactory. Pop. 900. 
 
 BREEDON-ON-THE-uiLL, par. Eng. Leicester; 6410 ac. 
 Pop. 2625. 
 
 BREGENZ, a tn. Austrian States, cap. of co. Vorarlberg, 
 gov. of, and 77 m. W. by N. Innsbruck; beautifully situated 
 on the slope of a hill, on the banks of Lake Constance. It is 
 well built, divided into the old town, which is an ugly place, 
 and occupies the eminence; and the lower town, which is 
 more pleasant, and spreads along the shores of the lake. It 
 has three churches and a school, two monasteries, an orphan 
 asylum, and a military swimming -school. Woollen and 
 cotton spinning are carried on, and articles in wood and straw 
 arc manufactured. The inhabitants are very industrious, and 
 export large quantities of frameworks, wooden fittings for 
 houses, and even wooden chalets, ready for erection, to the 
 Swiss cantons. They likewise do a good business in corn, 
 fruit, wine, butter, and cattle. In the neighbourhood are 
 saltpetre-works, blast-furnaces, and coal mines. Bregenz is 
 supposed to be the Brigantium of Strabo and Ptolemy, whence 
 the Locus Brigantinus [Lake of Bregenz, but now Lake Con 
 stance] got its name. The old castle, once the stronghold of 
 the powerful Counts of Montfort, and the ruins of which are 
 to be seen on Mount Gebhard, behind the town, was for a 
 long time one. of the most important fortresses in this part of 
 Germany. Pop. 4800. 
 
 BREGOGE, par. Irel. Cork; 1333 ac. Pop. 441. 
 
 BREHAR, or BRYHER, one of the Scilly Islands, England, 
 off the Land s End, co. Cornwall, at the S.W. entrance into 
 the English Channel, about lat. 49 53 N. ; Ion. 6 20 W. 
 It is about 1 J m. in length N. to S., with an average breadth 
 of half a mile, and comprises an area of 330 ac. It consists 
 of several steep hills, connected by tracts of low land, a con 
 siderable part of which is in cultivation. A small group of 
 houses is called the town of Brehar, in which there is a 
 church erected a few years ago, on the site of a more ancient 
 one. Pop. between 2000 and 3000. 
 
 BREHAT, an isl. France, coast of Brittany, dep. CStes- 
 du-Nord, 24 m. from St. Brieuc, in the English Channel; 
 lat. 48 55 N. ; Ion. 3 5 W. It is about 3 m. long, and 2 m. 
 broad, and is separated from the mainland by a channel 1 m. 
 broad. It has three harbours, Clos on the S., la Corderie on 
 the W., and la Chambre on the E. ; the last of which has 8 to 
 16 fathoms water, according to the state of the tide. Brehat 
 is the only point on the French coast, between Brest and St. 
 Malo, where frigates can enter, and in time of war is much 
 frequented by convoys navigating the channel. On the rocky 
 reef of Heaux-Brehat, there is a lighthouse, the light of which 
 is visible from a distance of 14 m. The island is defended by 
 12 small batteries. It has no springs, the inhabitants using 
 ram water. Pop. 1519. 
 
 BREINTON, par. Eng. Hereford ; 1490 ac. Pop. 362. 
 
 BREISACH (ALT), [Latin, Brisiamm~\, atn. grand duchy 
 of Baden, circle, Upper Rhine, 12 m. W. Freiburg, 34 m. S. 
 Strasburg, r. bank, Rhine, opposite Neu Breisach, and Fort 
 Mortier, in France. This is an ancient town, and was form 
 erly very strong, being regarded as the key of Germany, on 
 the W., but its fortifications were dismantled in 1641. The 
 only building in the town worthy of notice is the minster of 
 St. Stephen, remarkable for a beautiful altar-screen, carved in 
 wood. The chief employments of the inhabitants are weav 
 ing, agriculture, and the rearing of cattle. Pop. 3200. 
 
 The BAILIWICK of the same name has a pop. of 22,000. 
 
 BREISACH (NEU). 
 
BRE1SGAU 
 
 481 
 
 BREMEN 
 
 BREISGAU, a fertile district, one of the most beautiful 
 hi the grand duchy of Baden, comprised in the Upper and 
 Middle lihine circles , area, 960 geo. sq. in. It is hilly, con 
 taining the highest peaks of the Schwarzwald, and includes 
 the towns Breisach, Freiburg, Waldshut, &c. The Breisgau 
 belonged, from the 15th century till 1801, to the House of 
 Austria; by the treaty of Luneville, in that year, a portion 
 was ceded to, and the rest subsequently acquired by, the 
 House of Baden. Rudolph of Hapsburg, was born in the 
 castle of Limburg, in this district. Pop. 150,000. 
 
 BREITENBACH, numerous small places in Germany, 
 the only one of which, deserving of notice, is a market town, 
 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 7| m. S.S.E. Illmenau, contain 
 ing a castle, a porcelain factory, and an alum and vitriol work. 
 In the neighbourhood a good deal of oil-seeds and medicinal 
 herbs are grown. Pop. 2502. 
 
 BRETTENBRUNN, a tu. Saxony, circle, Zwickau, with 
 a paper and several other mills, a vitriol and sulphur work, 
 and an iron forge, which employs 300 persons. In the neigh 
 bourhood are tin and iron mines, and limestone quarries. Pop. 
 2100. 
 
 BREITENBURG, a vil. and lordship, Denmark, duchy of 
 Holstein, dist. Itzehoe, on the Stor, 30 m. N.W. Hamburg. 
 The castle of Breitenburg, built in 1530, was a place of great 
 strength, and stood several sieges. It was stormed in 1627, 
 by Wallenstein, after a bombardment of six days. Only a 
 chapel and a tower now remain. The lordship, which belongs 
 to the Counts of Eantzau, has an area of 48 geo. sq. m., and 
 is traversed by the Stbr and the Bramane. Pop. 6700. 
 
 BREITENFELD, a small vil. Saxony, circle of, and 
 5 m. N.N.W. Leipzig, famous for the battle fought in its 
 neighbourhood, September 7, 1631, in which Tilly and Pap- 
 penheim were signally defeated by Gustavus Adolphus. 
 
 BREJO-n AREA, a tn. Brazil, prov. of, and 45 m. N.W. 
 Parahiba, on the mountains of same name. It has a church, 
 and two schools ; its district is fertile, and has 5000 inhabitants. 
 
 BRELADE (ST.), par. Eng. Isle of Jersey. Pop. 2170. 
 
 BREMBILLA, a vil. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. 
 Milan, prov. of, and 12 m. N. Bergamo, on river of same 
 name, near the bridge of Sedrina. It has a church, and some 
 mineral springs, and stone quarries, in which fine fossils are 
 found. Pop. 2036. 
 
 BREMBIO, a vil. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, prov. of, 
 find 9 m. S.E. by S. Lodi, on the Brembiolo, near the high 
 road from Lodi to Casal Pusterlengo. The vicinity is very 
 fertile, and well irrigated, and the herbage rich. Pop. 2746. 
 
 BREMBO, a river, Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, which 
 rises in a series of small lakes on the mountain-ridge separat- 
 ting prov. Bergamo from the Valteline, and, after a S. course 
 of about 40 m., joins r. bank, Adda, near Vaprio, 10 m. 
 S.S.W. Bergamo. It is nowhere navigable, but is employed 
 for transporting rafts of timber. After passing Zogno, it 
 becomes a considerable stream, and both supplies water to 
 irrigate the fields, and move several manufactories. It is 
 well supplied with fish. 
 
 BREMEN. 1, One of the four free German Hanseatic 
 cities, on the Weser, and cap. of the republic of the same 
 name, 58 m. S.W. Hamburg ; lat. (observatory) 53 4 36" N. ; 
 Ion. 8 49 E. (R.) The city is divided by the river into two 
 unequal portions the larger, called the old town [Altstadt], 
 on the right ; the less, the new town (Neustadt), on the left 
 bank. There is also a populous suburb on the E. side of 
 the town, well built, and containing many fine gardens. The 
 streets of the old town are narrow and crooked, and lined 
 with antique houses, in the style of the Middle Ages ; while 
 those of the new town are regular and spacious, with hand 
 some houses of modern construction. Between the two towns 
 is an island called the Werder, on the lower part of which 
 are some houses included within the limits of the town. The 
 whole is kept remarkably clean. The communication be 
 tween the two parts of the town is maintained by a bridge. 
 The old town was formerly surrounded by ramparts; but 
 they have been levelled, planted with trees, and converted 
 into beautiful promenades. Both sides of the river are lined 
 with quays, from which a fine view of the city may be had. 
 Its principal public buildings are the cathedral, an ancient 
 structure in the Gothic style, built in 1160, 296 ft. in length, 
 1 24 in breadth, and 105 in height ; the church of St. Ansgarius, 
 with a handsome steeple, 325 ft. high ; and the old townhall, also 
 
 VOT,. I. 
 
 a Gothic structure, formerly an archiepiscopal palace. Below 
 this hall is the RathsweinMler, the council s wine-vaults, 
 which contain wines, chiefly hock, 100 and 200 years old, kept 
 in vats called the Twelve Apostles, and said from age to have 
 become nearly as thick as oil. Other public buildings are the 
 
 1. Citthe.li al. 
 
 2. St. P, tt-r s Church. 
 3 Our Lmly s Church. 
 
 4. St. Ansirarius Church. 
 6. St. John s Church. 
 
 fi. St.Stephen aCh 
 
 exchange, the schutting, the waterworks, the arsenal, weighing- 
 house, and granaries ; the museum, which contains a large 
 library, with collections in natural history, mechanics, and 
 the arts ; Dr. Gibers observatory, from which he discovered 
 the two planets Pallas and Vesta, in 1802 and 1807; and 
 several other buildings of less note. Bremen has a number 
 of schools and other educational establishments, including a 
 school of design, and another of commerce and navigation 
 Its charitable institutions are also numerous, and include two 
 orphan asylums. The principal manufactures are of woollens, 
 cottons, leather, hats, tobacco, refined sugar, rape-oil, whale 
 bone, flour, soap, starch, vinegar, &c., with above 100 brew 
 eries and distilleries, several soap boiling works, and sail- 
 makers. There is also a considerable trade in building and 
 fitting out vessels. Vessels drawing more than 7 ft. water 
 cannot ascend so high as the city; those drawing 12 to 14 ft. 
 stop at Vegesack, and larger vessels at Bremerhafen, where 
 an excellent new harbour has been formed. The principal 
 | imports are tobacco, coffee, sugar, whale-oil, cotton, and cot 
 ton yarn ; cheese, butter, wine, tea, &c. The exports consist 
 of linen and other manufactured goods, including tobacco; 
 also oak-bark, rags, oilcake, bacon, &c. Having become one of 
 the chief outlets for the goods of the Zollverein, and the main 
 port of embarkation for German emigrants, its trade in recent 
 years has greatly increased. The following table exhibits 
 the gross exports and imports in the years 1847-1853: 
 
 Export 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852... 6,733,636... 6,236,356 
 1853... 8,034,371... 7,460,415 
 
 1848... 4,529,306... 
 1849... 5,130,067... 
 1830... 5984,453... 5,300,582 
 The largest amount of the imports is derived from the Zoll 
 verein, amounting, in 1853, to 3,184,114; and the greatest 
 i exports are to the U. States, amounting, in 1853, to 2, 779,663. 
 i In 1847 there embarked at Bremen 33,689 emigrants, in 235 
 1 vessels; and in 1853 the numbers were 58,111 emigrants, 
 in 288 vessels. The total of vessels entered at Bremen in 
 
BREMEKHAFEN 
 
 482 
 
 BRESCIA 
 
 1853 was 2729, tonn. 343,046; and cleared 2696 vessels, 
 tonu. 373,529. A railway connects Bremen with E., N., and 
 Central Germany on the one hand, and with W. Germany, 
 Belgium, and France, on the other. Bremen was founded, 
 or, nt any rate, first rose into note, in the year 787 or 788, 
 when it was made the seat of a bishopric by Charlemagne ; 
 subsequently elevated to the dignity of an archbishopric, 
 which, at the treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, was secularized 
 in favour of Sweden. After various political changes, the 
 city was taken by the French, in 1806; and from 1810 to 
 1813, it was the capital of the department of the Mouths of 
 the Weser. In 181-5 it was restored to its old franchises, 
 by the Congress of Vienna. Bremen holds the third rank 
 amongst the free cities of the Germanic Confederation, and witli 
 them holds the 17th rank in the Diet. Pop. (1842), 49,700. 
 2, REPUBLIC, a territory stretching along both sides of the 
 Weser, and is bounded, N., E., and S. by Hanover, and W. 
 and S. by Oldenburg ; area, 100 sq. m. The inhabitants are 
 nearly all of the Protestant faith. The executive govern 
 ment of the republic of Bremen (city and territory) is vested 
 in a senate, called die Wittlwit [the Wisdom], consisting of 
 four burgomasters, two syndics, and 24 councillors ; and in 
 the convention of burgesses, composed of all resident citizens 
 who pay a certain amount of taxes, without regard to their 
 religious opinions. Pop. 72,820, including the city. 
 3, DUCHY, a subdivision of the landdrostei or province of 
 Stade, Hanover, occupying the N. portion of that kingdom 
 between the Elbe and Weser. Area, 1957^ sq. m. 
 
 BREMERHAFEN, a seaport at the mouth of the Weser, 
 formed on ground on its r. bank, purchased by Bremen from 
 Hanover in 1827, and completed in 1830; lat. (Bremcr or 
 Weser Light) 53 49 30" N.; Ion. 8 9 E. (R.) It is 34 m. 
 N.N.W., and is the proper port of Bremen. It consists of an 
 outer harbour, a slniced dock, and an inner harbour. The 
 difference between the lowest ebb and the highest flood is 
 26ft.; but the average rise does not exceed 10 ft. Since 
 the completion of the harbour, Bremerhafen has grown up 
 into a considerable village ; but the narrow limits of the space 
 of ground purchased, and its sterile nature, give no promise 
 of its ever becoming an important town. It is garrisoned by 
 Hanoverians, and defended by the Hanoverian battery, Fort 
 Wilhelm, on the opposite side of the river. Pop. 2380. 
 
 BREMERVOKDE, a tn. Hanover, dist. of, and 18 m. 
 S.W. Stade, duchy, Bremen, on the Oste; with distilleries, 
 lime-kilns, dyeworks, and manufactures of cloth, leather, and 
 paper; and some trade in turf and wood. Pop. 2481. 
 
 BREMGARTEN, a tn. Switzerland, can. Aargau, cap. 
 circle of same name, 14 m. E.S.E. Aaran, r. bank, Reuss, 
 which is here crossed by a wooden bridge. On the 1. bank 
 of the river is a Capuchin cloister. It has a large church, a 
 respectable townhouse, and a paper-mill. The chief employ 
 ment is agriculture. Bullinger, the reformer, was born in 
 this town. Pop. 1882. 
 
 BREMHILL, par. Eng. Wilts; 5920 ac. Pop. 1550. 
 
 BREMILHAM, or COWITCII, par. Eng. Wilts; 300 ac. 
 Pop. 47. 
 
 BRENCHLEY, par. Eng. Kent ; 8590 ac. Pop. 2472. 
 
 BRENDON, par. Eng. Devon ; 9470 ac. Pop. 271. 
 
 BRENKELEN, a vil. Holland, prov. of, and 8 m. N. 
 by W. Utrecht, 1. bank, Vecht, with a Reformed and a R. 
 Catholic church, two schools, a brewery, and a brickfield. 
 Pop. 1500. 
 
 BRENN, a populous vil., W. Africa, on the Senegal, about 
 50 in. above its embouchure; lat. 16 25 N.; Ion. 16 W.; 
 built on two sides of a marsh. 
 
 BRENNE (LA), [Latin, Briona Sylva\,a. country, France, 
 in the ancient prov. of Touraine and Berri. The part of this 
 country still retaining the name is marshy, and filled with 
 pools, affluents of the Claise, and lies in dep. Indre, between 
 Chateauroux and Le Blanc. The inhabitants collect leeches 
 in the marshes. 
 
 BRENNER, a mountain of the Tyrolese Alps, between 
 the Inn, the Aicha, and the Adige; height, 6777 ft. The road 
 from Innsbruck to Verona, by Botzen and Trent, traverses 
 this mountain, at an elevation above the sea of 4658 ft. This 
 is one of the lowest roads practicable for carriages over the 
 main chain of the Alps ; and one also of the most ancient, 
 Laving been much used by the Romans. 
 
 BRENO, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, prov. of, and 
 
 35 m. N.E. Bergamo, 1. bank, Oglio. It is well built; and has 
 a fine square, townhouse, an ancient Gothic church, and a 
 strong castle. In the vicinity is also a beautiful stalactitiu 
 grotto. Pop. 2466. 
 
 BRENT, five pare. Eng.: 1, Brent (East], par. Somer 
 set ; 3180 ac. Pop. 849. 2, Brent- Eleitjh, or Ely, par. Suf 
 folk ; 1650 ac. Pop. 289. 3, Brent (South), par. Devon; 
 10,180 ac. Pop. 1237. 4, Brent (South), pur. Somerset; 
 3210 ac. Pop. 1074. 5, Brent-Tor, par. Devon; 2810 ac. 
 Pop. 169. 
 
 BRENTA [anc. Medoaaia Major], a river, Austrian 
 Italy. Its source is Lake Caldonazzo, in the Tyrol, 8 m. S.E. 
 Trent, whence it flows S.E., with a winding course of 1 12 m., 
 and falls into the Adriatic through the canal of Brenta-nova 
 or Brentono, at Brondolo. Formerly its embouchure was at 
 Fusina, opposite Venice. It has a rapid course, and is navi 
 gable for 46 m. 
 
 BRENTFORD, a market tn. England, co. Middlesex, 
 7 m. W. London ; on a slight acclivity, on the Great Western 
 Hoad, and at the junction of the Brent with the Thames, the 
 former dividing it into Old and New Brentford. It consists 
 chiefly of one long, winding street, well kept, and containing 
 some good houses. There is a great deficiency of water in 
 Old Brentford ; but in New Brentford the supply is better. 
 The former is lighted with gas, the latter only partially. The 
 town is exceedingly ill drained, and the poorer localities filthy 
 and wretched in the extreme. The townhall and market- 
 house recently erected is a handsome structure. The churches 
 are two one in Old Brentford, and one in New ; three Baptist 
 chapels, two Independent, and one Wesleyan ; and the schools, 
 two infant, a national, and a British, both for boys and girls. 
 The charitable institutions are a dispensary, and Old Brent 
 ford visiting society. A large distillery, a soap manufactory, 
 which makes between 2000 and 3000 tons annually, and ex 
 tensive sawing and planing mills, arc the chief manufactories. 
 The retail trade is considerable, especially on market days. 
 Petty sessions are held every Saturday, and the county court 
 is held every month. Brentford is the county town for elec 
 tions, a market, and union town. Pop. 7232 (New Brentford, 
 2174; Old Brentford, 5058). (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BRENTONICO, a tn. and com. Austria, Tyrol, 6 in. S. 
 Roveredo ; on the N. slope of Mount Baldo, overlooked by a 
 small castle. Vine-culture is the main occupation. Pop. 2661 . 
 
 BRENTWOOD, a market tn. England, co. Essex, on a 
 commanding eminence, 11 m. S.W. Chelmsford; consisting 
 of one principal street, with houses in general old, and irregu 
 larly built. It has a chapel connected with the Established 
 church, Independent meeting-house, and free grammar-school, 
 open to all boys within 3 m. of the town; and a large ale and 
 porter brewery. The weekly market is on Saturday ; and 
 there are two annual fnirs for horses and cattle. The Eastern 
 Counties Railway has a station here. Pop. 2362. 
 
 BRENZETT, par. Eng. Kent; 1740 ac. Pop. 228. 
 
 BREOCK (ST.), par. Eng. Cornwall; 7860 ac. Pop. 1733. 
 
 BRERETON, par. Eng. Chester; 4240 ac. Pop. 667. 
 
 BRESCIA, a deleg. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan; bounded, 
 N. by the Tyrol and Valteline, E. by Verona and Mantua, S. by 
 Mantua and Cremone, nnd W. by Bergamo ; area, 888 geo. sq. m. 
 Towards the N. it is hilly, but in all other directions it is a 
 fertile plain. The chief rivers are the Oglio, and its tribu 
 taries Mella and Chiese. The air is mild and pleasant. The 
 chief productions are grain, flax, hemp, grapes, and olives. 
 A good deal of silk is produced and manufactured. The 
 principal mineral is iron, which is extensively mined, and 
 supplies numerous works. A great deal of paper also is 
 made. Pop. 310,000. 
 
 BRESCIA [Latin, Brixia; French, Bresce], a city, Aus 
 trian Italy, cap. of above delegation; lat. 45 36 N.; Ion. 
 10 13 E.; 40 m. N.W.Verona, and about the same distance 
 N.E. Lodi, on a beautiful plain, 1. bank, Mella. It is a hand 
 some and flourishing city, of a square form, about 4 m. in 
 circuit, and surrounded by walls; its streets are spacious, 
 and its public buildings numerous, particularly its churches, 
 which are further remarkable for the number and value of the 
 paintings with which they are enriched. A few of them only, 
 however, have much pretension to architectural beauty ; 
 amongst those that have, are the new cathedral, a handsome 
 structure of white marble, and the church of San Domenico. 
 But however plain in exterior appearance most of the Brescian 
 
BRESCOU 
 
 483 
 
 BRESLAU 
 
 churches may be, they are all richly decorated within with 
 the most beautiful frescoes, and other creations of taste and 
 art. The other buildings most worthy of notice are the 
 Palezzo della Logia, and the Broletto. The first was intended 
 for the palace of the municipality, or townhall ; it is com 
 posed of the richest marbles, and was worked upon by the 
 first architects of the 15th and 16th centuries, successively. 
 The Broletto, the ancient palace of the republic, combines 
 the characters of fortress and townhall, and is surmounted by 
 a great tower, whose deeply-cleft Italian battlements produce 
 a singularly grand effect. The whole is in a colossal style, 
 and marked by the peculiar characteristics of the age in 
 which it rose supposed to be about the end of the 12th, and 
 beginning of the 13th centuries. The city contains, also, 
 a lyceum, two gymnasia, an athenaeum, a college, with a 
 museum of antiquities, and a botanic garden ; a public library, 
 with 30,000 volumes; a theological seminary, a handsome 
 theatre, a corn exchange, an extensive hospital, two monts-de- 
 piete, a workhouse, and several other educational and chari 
 table establishments. There are 72 public fountains in the 
 streets and squares, besides some hundreds of private ones. 
 Outside the town is a cemetery, begun in 1815, designed by 
 Vantini. 
 
 Brescia is a place of considerable trade and manufacturing 
 industry. Near it are large ironworks ; and its fire-arms are 
 esteemed the best that are made in Italy. It has also silk, 
 linen, and paper factories, tanyards, and oil-mills, and is an 
 important mart for raw silk. But it derives its greatest in 
 terest from its fine Roman remains, having been at one time 
 the seat of a Roman colony. These first attracted attention 
 in the 1 7th century ; although, as far as regards inscriptions, 
 they had been objects of especial care to the citizens of 
 Brescia for two centuries before this period ; but it was not 
 till 1820 that any very earnest efforts were made to bring the 
 buried remains of entire buildings to light. Since that period 
 some remarkable discoveries have been made, embracing, be 
 sides numerous statues and inscriptions, the beautiful marble 
 temple of Vespasian, and a number of noble and magnificent 
 Corinthian columns, with numerous fragments of mouldings 
 and ornaments, some gilt, and all of great elegance. Brescia 
 was the seat of a school of painting, of great merit, to which 
 many eminent artists belonged, including Alessandro Bon- 
 vicino, commonly called il Moretto, who flourished in the 
 16th century, and was remarkable for the deep devotional 
 feeling which he threw into his sacred subjects, as well as for 
 his excellence as a portrait painter. The city is of great 
 antiquity, having been the chief town of the Cenomani, a Gallic 
 tribe, who were subsequently conquered by the Romans, when 
 it became but at what period is unknown a Roman colony, 
 and afterwards a municipium. In the year 412 it was burned 
 by the Goths, and was soon afterwards destroyed by Attila ; 
 but was rebuilt about the year 452. In 936, Otho I. of 
 Saxony declared it a free city ; and it so remained for nearly 
 three centuries, when it fell a prey to the factions of the 
 Guelphs and Ghibellines, and ultimately put itself under the 
 protection of Venice. In 1796 it was taken by the French, 
 and was assigned to Austria by the general treaty signed at 
 Vienna, on June 9, 1815. In 1849 it was involved in the 
 commotions by which so large a portion of continental Europe 
 was disturbed in that year ; its streets were barricaded, but 
 the city was eventually carried, at the point of the bayonet, 
 by the Austrians under General Haynau. Brescia is the 
 see of a bishop, suffragan to the Archbishop of Milan. Pop. 
 35,551. 
 
 BRESCOU, a rocky islet, France, dep. Hcrault, in the 
 Mediterranean, 2 m. from Agde. It appears to be an ex 
 tinct volcano, and is crowned by a fort, which has batteries 
 hewn out of the rock, and was formerly a state prison. On 
 the fort is a lighthouse, lat. 43 17 N.; Ion. 3 30 E. The 
 light is visible 8 m. off. 
 
 BRESKENS, or BKESJES, a vil. Holland, prov. Zeeland, 
 5J m. S. Middelburg, 1. bank, W. Scheld. The Reformed 
 church is evidently the chancel of a R. Catholic church, of 
 which the nave is supposed to have been washed away by the 
 sea. Breskens is a very thriving place, mainly owing to the 
 steamboat ferry thence to Flushing, and its corn trade with 
 Rotterdam and Antwerp. Pop. 620. 
 
 BRESLAU, a gov. (Regierungsbexirl) Prussia, prov 
 Silesia; area, 3870 geo. sq. m. The surface in the S., 
 
 towards the borders of Bohemia and Moravia, is mountainous, 
 some of the summits being about 4000 ft. ; in other directions 
 it is almost level. The chief rivers are the Oder, and its 
 tributaries the Stober and the Weide on the right, and the 
 Neisse, Ohlan, Lohe, and Weistritz on the left. There are no 
 lakes of great extent. The climate varies with the surface, 
 being cold and severe among the mountains, but mild in the 
 plains ; and also healthy, except where swamps prevail. The 
 valley of the Oder is generally fertile on the left bank, but on 
 the right bank inclines too much to sand, and is extensively 
 covered with forest. In addition to the ordinary cereals, a 
 good deal of flax, madder, hops, and tobacco are grown. The 
 minerals include arsenic, zinc, lead, iron, and copper, and a 
 little graphite. Precious stones, particularly amethysts, car- 
 nelians, agates, opals, and garnets, are frequently found. The 
 manufactures of this government were at one time of very 
 great importance, but have lately suffered muck by foreign 
 competition. Pop. 1,084,522. 
 
 BRESLAU, the third city of the Prussian dominions, and 
 sixth of Germany, cap. prov. Silesia, and of gov. of same name, 
 at the confluence of the Ohlau and Oder ; situated on a spacious 
 plain ; bounded, N. by the Trebnitz Mountains, and S., at a 
 greater distance, by those of Zobten. It is divided, by the Oder, 
 into old and new towns, which, with the various suburbs, are 
 
 4 Royal Palace. 
 
 connected by not fewer than 120 bridges, of which one of cast- 
 iron, erected in 1822, is particularly handsome. The streets 
 of the old town are narrow, those of the new broad, and the 
 houses in general good. The public squares and buildings 
 are handsome. The churches, numbering in all 37, possess 
 peculiar interest from the number of mural monuments and 
 other sculptures with which they are enriched, some of 
 which are in the finest style of art. The most remarkable 
 buildings are the cathedral, built in the 12th century; the 
 Eailihaus or townhall, a quaint and curious old Gothic struc 
 ture, supposed to have been built in the beginning of the 
 14th century, situated in the square called Grosse Ring; and 
 the Government-house, an elegant edifice. In the square 
 named after Bliicher is a colossal bronze statue of him, by 
 Rauch, in commemoration of his victory on the Katzbach, in 
 1813. The university, which was transferred hither from 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1811, occupies a building which 
 was originally an imperial palace. Attached to the university 
 are a museum of natural history, a library of 250,000 volumes, 
 an observatory, a cabinet of antiquities, a picture-gallery, and 
 a botanic garden. The number of students amount to about 
 700. Besides the university, there are a school of industry, 
 of deaf and dumb, of surgery, one R. Catholic, and three 
 Protestant, together with a vast number of other educational 
 institutions. There are also a great many hospitals and 
 asylums ; amongst the latter, one for the support and education 
 of officers daughters ; and amongst the former, an hospital 
 for faithful servants, opened in 1820. Breslau is the seat of 
 
BKESSAY 
 
 484 
 
 BREST 
 
 government for the province, and has various administrative 
 establishments. It is also the seat of a royal mint and bank, 
 with a royal office for mining productions. There is a theatre 
 and opera-house in the city, and a number of musical asso 
 ciations, both public and private. The fortifications with 
 which Breslau was formerly surrounded have been levelled, 
 and tastefully planted and laid out in gardens and pleasure- 
 grounds, the whole forming a delightful promenade. The 
 manufactures of Breslau are numerous, comprising gloves, 
 plate, jewellery, silks, woollens, cottons, linens, and stock 
 ings. Its lithographic and common printing-presses amount 
 to 24. It carries on, besides, an extensive trade in Silesian 
 products and fabrics, the principal of which are corn, metals, 
 and timber. The number of distilleries in the town amount 
 to nearly 100. Breslau is also the first market for wool on 
 the Continent. It is altogether a bustling and thriving city ; 
 and from its salubrity, the cheapness of provisions and educa 
 tion, the sociable dispositions of the people, and the beauty 
 of its environs, is a very desirable place of residence. By 
 railway it communicates with Vienna on the one hand, and 
 with Berlin, Stettin, and Hamburg on the other. Pop. 
 (1710), only 41,000; (1844), 103,282 ; (1846), 112,194. 
 
 BRESSAY. 1, An isl. Scotland, one of the Shetlands, 
 opposite Lerwick, united, parochially, with Barra and Quarff ; 
 lat. 60 10 N. ; Ion. 1 6 W. ; about 6 m. in length, and from 
 2 to 3 m. in breadth. Its coast line is rocky, and deeply ex 
 cavated in many places by the action of the sea ; the interior 
 hilly, but presenting some cultivated land sloping towards 
 the shore. A dismal-looking hill, covered with heath, stunted 
 grass, and peat-moss, 724 ft. high, called the Ward or Beacon 
 Hill, rises near its S. extremity; and another of 400 ft., 
 called St. Andrew s or Ander Hill, on the E. side. On the 
 S. are three bold headlands, the Ord, the Bard, and Hammer; 
 the first is 500 ft. high, and inhabited by eagles; the other 
 two are about 200 ft. each. There are a number of small 
 lakes in the island, abundantly stored with excellent trout. 
 Quarries of a coarse kind of slate have been wrought for many 
 years. Culinary vegetables thrive well here, but trees make 
 little progress, although it must have been otherwise at one 
 time, as large trunks are frequently found buried in the mosses. 
 Sea-fishing is the principal occupation of the inhabitants. To 
 the ling-fishing, called the haaf or far-fishing, Bressay sends 
 upwards of 13 boats, of 18 or 20 ft. keel ; and shares propor 
 tionately in the cod and herring fishing. Kelp, also, is manu 
 factured here to a considerable extent ; herring-nets, and a 
 little Shetland hosiery. Several traces of Pictish buildings 
 occur in the island, and some tumuli, in which human bones 
 have been found. There are also two or three perpendicular 
 or standing-stones here, one of which forms a landmark for 
 vessels entering Bressay Sound. Pop. 904. 2, BKESSAY 
 SOUND, between the isl. of Bressay and Mainland ; is well 
 known as a safe harbour; from about 1 m. to 1J m. average 
 breadth; depth, about 15 fathoms at high water ; fall of tide, 
 about 8 ft. Two centuries ago, Bressay Sound was much 
 frequented by foreign vessels during the fishing season. It 
 is still resorted to by numbers of English and Dutch busses, 
 and is a rendezvous for whale ships on their voyage to Green 
 land and Davis Straits. The S. entrance is the one always 
 taken by vessels of a large draught, the N. being narrow, 
 with a rapid current, and only 18 ft. water at its deepest 
 point, even at spring tides. At the N. entrance is a sunken 
 rock, seen at low water, called the Unicorn, from the circum 
 stance of a war-vessel of that name, sent in pursuit of the 
 Earl of Bothwell, having been wrecked on it. 
 
 BRESSE (LA), a dist. France, which formerly belonged 
 to prov. Burgundy, and had Bourg for its capital. It took 
 its name from an extensive forest, which stretched from 
 the Rhone to Chalons, and was called Brixius Saltus. It 
 now forms the greater part of dep. Ain. 
 
 BRESSINGHAM, a par. England, co. Norfolk; 2300 ac. 
 Pop. 647. 
 
 BRESSUIRE, a tn. France, dep. Deux-Sevres, 38 m. N. 
 by W. Niort. It was formerly strongly fortified, but was 
 ruined by wars, especially that of La Vendee, when it was 
 reduced to ashes, with exception of one house and the church. 
 It is now improving, and has some manufactories of flannel 
 and cotton. Granite quarries are worked in the neighbour 
 hood, and the parish church is built entirely of that material. 
 Pop. 2320. 
 
 BREST, the principal naval seaport tn. France, dep. Fin- 
 istere, situated almost at the W. extremity of the kingdom, 
 near the mouth of the English channel, 320 m. W. by K 
 Paris; lat. (observatory) 48 23 36" N.; Ion. 4 29 15" \V. 
 (n.) The town stands on the N. side of a superb roadstead, 
 
 r 
 
 at a short distance from the mouth of the Elorn, and on both 
 banks of the Peiifeld, which divides it into two parts. On the 
 1. bank is Brest Proper, and on the r. an extensive suburb 
 called Recouvrance. Its circumference is about 3 m. The 
 upper part of the town stands on the slope of a hill, with a 
 declivity so abrupt, that the streets leading to the lower town 
 are in some cases provided with flights of steps. The upper 
 town is built with tolerable regularity, and has some fine 
 edifices. The lower town is well and substantially built, 
 and clean in the vicinity of the port, but some quarters are 
 confused and dirty. Recouvrance has one or two good streets, 
 but the greater portion are very inferior to those on the other 
 side of the river, and very dirty. Brest is encircled by i - am- 
 parts, which, being planted, form agreeable promenades, and 
 afford a fine view of the port and shipping. From its natural 
 advantages, the extent of its various establishments, and its 
 means of defence, the port of Brest is considered one of the 
 first naval ports in Europe. The outer road is perhaps one 
 of the finest in the world, and although surpassed in extent by 
 those of Constantinople and Rio de Janeiro, it is surpassed by 
 none in the safety and excellence of its anchorage. It com 
 municates with the ocean by a single passage called the Goulet, 
 1750 yards broad. In the middle of this channel rise the 
 Mingan rocks, which contract the entrance still more, and 
 oblige ships to pass immediately under the batteries. From 
 this entrance to the mouth of the Elorn, the roadstead is 
 about 6 m. in length. Its diameter varies considerably from 
 the irregularity of the shores, but in some places it is 3 m., so 
 that the port could contain all the navies in Europe. The 
 Goulet is so completely defended, that no hostile ship could 
 enter it without being knocked to pieces. There are about 
 400 pieces of cannon and mortars in the various batteries that 
 command the channel, and the anchorage inside is still further 
 protected by the guns that line the shore. Outside of the 
 Goulet is the fort of St. Matthew and the new lighthouse. 
 The inner port or harbour of Brest is formed at the mouth of 
 the Penfelil. It is narrow, but has depth of water for ships 
 of war, 40 or 50 of which might lie here in single file. The 
 mouth of the harbour is closed by a boom. It is defended by 
 several tiers of batteries rising from the water edge. Near 
 the entrance to the harbour is the old castle which belonged 
 to the Dukes of Brittany, and was partially transformed into 
 a modern fortification by Vauban, in 1688. The horse-shoe 
 battery is on the water level, and has every convenience for 
 heating shot. In addition to all these defences, the town is 
 protected by numerous batteries, mounting several hundred 
 pieces of cannon. On the summit of the hill behind it is the 
 powder magazine, where ships that enter the port deposit their 
 powder. The celebrated dockyard of Brest is situated on 
 both sides of a narrow but deep inlet of the sea. It contains 
 the building slips, dry docks, sail-house, general repository, 
 ropery, cannon-foundry (begun in 1841), the sailors barracks, 
 where seamen arc lodged while in port in the same manner as 
 
BREST-LITOV 
 
 485 
 
 BRIANSK 
 
 soldiers ; and the bagne or convict station, a building 300 yards 
 long. There are also timber-yards and boat-sheds, and fine 
 building-yards. The victualling-office contains 24 ovens and 
 a slaughter-house, granary, &c. In the year 1803, when the 
 French and Spanish fleets were here, it supplied 50,000 rations 
 daily. Outside the dockyard is the naval hospital. The town 
 has also a naval library, containing 20,000 volumes, a cabinet 
 of national history, a botanical garden, a marine observatory, 
 theatre, Hotel de Ville, and naval schools of medicine, surgery, 
 pharmacy, artillery, hydrography, and seamanship. The 
 communal college is attended by more than 300 students. 
 
 Brest has little trade excepting for the supply of the naval 
 department, and its manufactures scarcely extend beyond 
 glazed hats and tarpaulins for the seamen. The merchant 
 shipping is small in extent, bringing principally timber, build 
 ing materials, wine, grain and flour, salt, iron, hemp, tar, 
 &c. Although Brest has been alleged to occupy a Eoman 
 site, no mention of it occurs in history till the year 1240, 
 at which period its castle was ceded to John, first Duke of 
 Brittany. This castle had a small town in its vicinity, and was 
 several times besieged by the English, French, and Spaniards. 
 Cardinal Kichelieu was the first to take advantage of the na 
 tural capabilities of the port for a naval station, and, in 1631, 
 commenced the fortifications which were improved and ex 
 tended by Vauban. In 1 694, it was attacked by an English 
 fleet under Admiral Berkley, but the expedition failed, and 
 900 men who landed were cut to pieces, as the tide had re 
 ceded and left the boats dry. In 1773, the line of fortifica 
 tions was considerably extended, and the town soon became 
 as populous as it is at present. Pop. (1846), 35,163; 
 besides which, the barracks can accommodate nearly 10,000 
 military. 
 
 BREST-LITOV, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 110 m. S. 
 Grodno, r. bank, Bug. It stands in a marshy district, and is 
 a place of some strength, being both walled and defended by 
 a castle seated on a rock. Outside the town is an imperial 
 palace with gardens. Both the Greeks and R. Catholics have 
 churches and schools here, and there is a famous synagogue, 
 held in high repute, and much visited by Jews from every 
 quarter of Europe. The trade is in grain, hemp, flax, and 
 honey. Pop. 4000. 
 
 BRETAGNE [English, Brittany}, one of the 33 pro 
 vinces into which France was divided before the revolution of 
 1 789. It is now distributed among the five departments of 
 Ule-et-Vilaine, Loire Inferieure, Cotes du Nord, Morbihan, 
 and Finistere. Its inhabitants still retain their ancient lan 
 guage, which is closely allied to the Welsh, and is exclusively 
 used by the peasantry in the W. part of the province. Brit 
 tany is principally remarkable for its people, who are a century 
 or two behind in costume, manners and customs, agriculture, 
 &c., and for the prodigious number of Celtic remains that are 
 scattered over its heaths. It is supposed to have been peopled 
 by natives of Great Britain, partly during the Roman domin 
 ion, and partly after the invasion of the Saxons. 
 
 BRETEUIL, two tns. France:!, In dep. Eure, 16 m. 
 S.W. Evreux-on-the-Iton. near an extensive forest of same 
 name, in a district abounding in iron mines. It has a church, 
 erected in the llth century, and the remains of a castle built 
 by William the Conqueror. The inhabitants are principally 
 engaged in the ironworks, foundries, pin and nail works, 
 which are extensive. Pop. 1487. 2, In dep. Oise, 16 m. 
 N.E. Beauvais, near the source of the Noye, with remains of 
 ancient walls. The only remarkable building is the exten 
 sive abbey of St. Mary, built 1628. The town produces 
 large quantities of shoes for the hospitals and troops of Paris, 
 and has manufactories of shawls, serges, woollen goods, paper, 
 leather, ironmongery, and earthenware. Pop. 2474. 
 
 BRETFORTON, par. Eng. Worcester; 1530 ac. P. 51 1 . 
 
 BRETHERTON, par. Eng. Lancaster; 2360 ac. P. 833. 
 
 BRETIGNY, a vil. France, dep. Eure-et-Loire, 5 m. 
 S.E. Chartres, remarkable for the treaty of 1360, which bears 
 its name, by which Edward III., influenced, it is said, by a 
 vow made during a violent thunderstorm, renounced his claim 
 to the crown of France, and John II. of France, who had been 
 made prisoner at Poitiers, obtained his liberty, after four 
 years captivity, on agreeing to pay a ransom of three millions 
 of crowns of gold, and delivering the first persons of his 
 kingdom as hostages among others two of his sons, and his 
 brother the Duke of Orleans. 
 
 BRETON BAY, W. Australia, co. Twiss, about 18 m. 
 N. Perth, the cap. of the colony. The river Garban discharged 
 itself into the bay. 
 
 BRETON (CAPE). See CAPE BRETON. 
 
 BRETTEN, or BRETHEIM, a tn. Baden, circle, Middle 
 Rhine, on the Salzbach, 12 m. E. Carlsruhe, remarkable 
 chiefly as the birthplace of Melancthon, the great theologian 
 of the Reformation. An inscription, stating the fact, has been 
 placed on the house in which he was born. Pop. 3059. 
 
 BRETTENHAM, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Norfolk; 
 2170 ac. Pop. 62. 2, par. Suffolk ; 1550 ac. Pop. 367. 
 
 BREVEN, or BREVENT, a mountain of the Pennine Alps, 
 Savoy. It forms the N. W. boundary of the valley of Chamouni, 
 viewed from which it presents a vast line of apparently inac 
 cessible precipices. Its summit, which is 5000 ft. above the 
 valley, and 8500 ft. above the level of the sea, is the best posi 
 tion for obtaining a view of the whole mass of Mont Blanc. 
 
 BREVIG, a seaport tn. Norway, prov. Aggershuus, bail 
 Bradsberg, 12 m. W. Laurvig, with a good harbour, on the 
 highway from Christiania to Christiansand, and on the Lange- 
 sunds Fjord, across which there is here a ferry. It has a 
 busy trade in deals and iron. Pop. 1308. 
 
 BREWARD (ST.), par. Eng. Cornwall; 9180 ac. P. 724. 
 
 BREWHAM, two pars. Eng. Somerset:!, Brewliam 
 (North), 2310 ac. Pop. 392. 2, Brewliam (South), 3590 ac. 
 Pop. 513. 
 
 BREWOOD, par. Eng. Stafford; ll,950ac. Pop. 3641. 
 
 BREZNO-BANYA. See BRIES. 
 
 BREZOWA, a market tn. Hungary, co. Neutra, on a 
 river of same name, about 19 m. N.W. Leopoldstadt. It 
 contains two churches, a R. Catholic and a Protestant, and 
 has some manufactures of leather and several distilleries. 
 Pop. 6157. 
 
 BRIANCON [Latin, Brigantium], a tn. France, dep. 
 Hautes Alpes, r. bank, Durance, 35 m. N.E. Gap, near the 
 Italian frontier ; a fortified place of the first class, formerly 
 a kind of Alpine Gibraltar. It stands on an eminence at the 
 foot of the Col de Genevre, at the point where two small 
 rivers unite and form the Durance. It is 4284 ft. above the 
 level of the sea, and is the highest town in France. The for 
 tifications consist of a triple line of walls encircling the town, 
 with seven forts commanding the approaches. The road to 
 
 BRIANCON From Voyag. s dans 1 Ancienne Prance. 
 
 Italy is commanded by several redoubts and half-moon bat 
 teries. The principal works are on the 1. bank of the Claire"e, 
 whose deep gorge is crossed by a bridge of a single arch. All 
 the heights in the vicinity are converted into points of defence, 
 and the position is considered impregnable. Brian9on is the 
 French arsenal of the Alps, and the central point of attack and 
 defence from which troops can be marched on the passes of 
 Mont Cenis, St. Bernard, the Simplon, and the Col de Tende. 
 From the town itself there is a practicable passage into Italy 
 by Mount Genevre. There is only one tolerable street. 
 Brian^on manufactures cotton goods, hosiery, scythes, sickles, 
 hemp hackles, and other small articles, and has some trade in 
 mules and sheep reared in the vicinity, chalk, crayons, tur 
 pentine, lavender water, and manna. Pop. 1419. 
 
 BRIANSK, a tn. Russia, cap. dist. of same name, gov. of, 
 and 70 m. W.N W. Orel, r. bank, Desna. It is surrounded 
 with an earthen rampart, contains 16 churches, a monastery, 
 with a seminary, and two pool-houses ; and has a considerable 
 
BRIARE 
 
 48G 
 
 URIDGEWATER 
 
 trade in grain, hemp, hemp-oil (sent to Petersburg and Itiga), 
 honey, arid wax ; and linen, cables, and cordage, foundry pig 
 and ironware, bark, mats, lime, and tar, sent to Kherson, 
 Odessa, and other parts of the Black Sea. It contains im 
 perial building-yards ; near it are a cannon- foundry, and a 
 manufacture of small arms. Pop. 6000. 
 
 I3RIAKE, a tn. France, dep. Loiret, 43 m. S.E. Orleans, 
 r. bank, Loire, where it is joined by the Briare Canal. This 
 canal, begun by Sully, was completed in 1642, and is re 
 markable as the first constructed in France. The town has 
 some trade in wine, wood, and charcoal. Pop. 2587. 
 
 BRIAVELS(ST.),par.Eng.Glo ster;4710ac. Pop. 1287. 
 BRICETT (GREAT), par. Eng. Suffolk ; 950 ac. Pop. 214. 
 BRICHERASCO, a vil. Sardinian States, Piedmont, 
 prov. Pignerol, 23 m. S.W. Turin; with a church and con 
 vent, two paper-mills, and numerous tanneries. Pop. 3000. 
 BR1CKENDON, par. Eng. Hertford ; 1690 ac. P. 757. 
 BRICKENUOWN, par. Irel. Tipperary; 125-1 ac. P. 388. 
 BRICKHILL, three pars. Eng. Bucks: 1, Brickhill 
 (Dow), 1380 ac. Pop. 566. 2, Brickhill (Great), 1800 ac. 
 Pop. 721. 3, BricWiill (Little), 1360 ac. Pop. 563. 
 
 BRICQUEBEC, a tn. France, dep. Manche, 12 m. S. 
 Cherbourg ; situated in the middle of a forest of same name. 
 The picturesque ruins of an old castle, with a lofty donjon 
 tower, occupy the centre of the town. In the vicinity are 
 some iron mines, and several cold mineral springs. A little 
 more than 1 m. N.E. of Bricquebec is a Trappist convent, 
 established in 1823. Pop. 1953. 
 
 BRIDE, six pars. Eng. : 1, Bride (St.) Major, par. 
 Glamorgan. Pop. 914. 2, Bride (St.) Minor, par. Glamor 
 gan. Pop. 472. 3, Bride s (St.) Wentlloog, par. Monmouth ; 
 2180 ac. Pop. 247. 4, Bride s (St.) Netherwent, par. Mon 
 mouth ; 1 190 ac. Pop. 179. 5, Bride s (St.) Super-Ely, par. 
 Glamorgan. Pop. 129. 6, Bride s-Kirl;, par. Isle of Man. 
 Pop. 1153. 
 
 BRIDE (Sx.) BAY, an inlet, W. coast, England, St. 
 George s Channel, co. Pembroke, S. of St. David s; about 
 8 in. long, and as many broad, having at its entrance Ramsay 
 Island on the N., and Skomer Island on the S. 
 
 BRIDECHURCH, par. Irel. Kildare; 2217 ac. P.335. 
 BRIDEKlRK,par. Eng. Cumberland; 9270 ac. P. 2112. 
 BRIDELL, par., S. Wales, Pembroke ; 3000 ac. P. 404. 
 BRIDESTOWE, par. Eng. Devon; 5170 ac. Pop. 1128. 
 BRIDFORD, par. Eng. Devon; 4090 ac. Pop. 560. 
 BRIDGE, par. Eng. Kent; 1280 ac. Pop. 817. 
 BRIDGE OF ALLAN. See ALLAN (BRIDGE OF). 
 BRIDGE OF EARN. See EARN (BRIDGE OF). 
 BRIDGEFORD, two pars. Eng. Notts:!, Bridgcford 
 (East), 1910 ac. Pop. 1110. 2, Bridgeford (West), 1720 ac. 
 Pop. 332. 
 
 BRIDGEHAM, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 2330 ac. Pop. 328. 
 BRIDGEND, a market tn., S. Wales, Glamorgan, 17 m. 
 W. by N. Cardiff; beautifully situated in a fertile district, on 
 the Ogmore, which divides it into two hamlets, called Old- 
 castle and Newcastle, connected together by a neat stone 
 bridge. It consists of four straggling, irregular streets, con 
 taining substantial stone houses ; is well supplied with water, 
 lighted with gas, and is increasing in size and population. 
 It has two Established churches, six chapels, belonging to 
 Baptists, Independents, Calvinistic Methodists, and Unitari 
 ans; several schools, a dispensary, and savings -bank. In 
 the town and neighbourhood are several extensive ironworks. 
 The South Wales Railway passes close to the town, and has a 
 neat station within a few minutes walk of it. Pop. 1471. 
 (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BRIDGENORTH, a bor. and market tn. England, 
 Shropshire, 19 m. S.E. Shrewsbury; on the Severn, which 
 divides it into two portions, called the High and Low towns, 
 connected by a handsome bridge of six arches. The high town 
 is about 200 ft. above the bed of the river. The steep ac 
 clivity here is covered with houses, the foundations of the 
 one row being higher than the chimneys of the other. These 
 are approached by a winding carriage-road, or more directly 
 by flights of steps cut in the rock, and rendered safe by iron 
 railings. There are six streets in the high, and two in the 
 low town, all straight, and, with one exception, well kept. 
 The houses are principally of brick, some of them sufficiently 
 handsome, but the greater portion of a very mean description. 
 The market- hall is a spacious old structure, of timber frame 
 
 work, filled up with plaster. The town is well supplied with 
 water, the higher from a reservoir, into which the water is 
 breed by machinery from the river; and lighted with gas. 
 I5ridgenorth has two churches, a chapel of ease, a Baptist, 
 Independent, and Wesleyan Methodist chapels, and a hand 
 some little church belonging to the Irvingites ; and a free 
 rammur-school, a blue-coat and national schools, a school in 
 connection with the Baptists, and another in connection with 
 he Independents, besides several well-conducted private 
 academies ; an infirmary, supported by voluntary contribu- 
 ions; some alms-houses, and a mechanics institute and 
 reading-room. The principal manufacture is carpeting, which 
 s carried on to a great extent. There was formerly a large 
 carrying trade by the Severn, but it has been nearly annihil 
 ated by the railways. Bridgenorth sends two members to the 
 House of Commons. Constituency (1850), 793. Pop. oftn. 
 5770. (Local Correspotidcnt.) 
 
 BRIDGEPORT, a city and post township, U. States, 
 Connecticut, co. Fail-field, 62 m. N.E. New York, W. side of 
 an arm of Long Island Sound. The harbour is upwards of 
 1000 yards wide at high water, but the channel is reduced to 
 160 yards at ebb tide. The bar at its mouth has 13 ft. at 
 gh water. There is a lighthouse on Fairwcather Island. 
 A mile and a half above its entrance, the harbour is crossed 
 by a bridge 1237 ft. long. The city is neatly built, and con 
 tains six churches two Congregationalist, one Episcopal, one 
 Baptist, one Methodist, and one R. Catholic. It has two 
 banks, 20 vessels engaged in the coasting trade, and five in 
 the fisheries. Its manufactures of carriages and saddles are 
 extensive. Daily steamboats connect it with New York. It 
 has eight academies, and 13 schools. Pop. (1840), 4570. 
 
 BR1DGERULE, par. Eng. Devon and Cornwall; 4010 
 ac. Pop. 497. 
 
 BR1DGE-SOLLERS, par. Eng. Hereford; 740 ac. P. 65. 
 
 BRIDGETOWN, the cap. of isl. Barbados; lat. 13 4 12" 
 N.; Ion. 59 37 W. It extends along the shore of Carlisle 
 Bay, S.W. coast of the island, and is nearly 2 m. long, and 
 about half a mile broad. On entering the port, its appear 
 ance is very pleasing, the houses being embosomed in trees, 
 while hills of moderate height rise behind, studded with ele 
 gant villas. Many of the houses have balconies, painted in 
 gay colours, which give them a lively and cheerful appear 
 ance. The town contains a handsome square, called Tra 
 falgar Square, in which there is a bronze statue of Lord 
 Nelson, placed there with great ceremony in 1813. The 
 principal buildings, none of which are in any way remarkable, 
 are the church of St. Michael, now the cathedral of the 
 diocese, a large but plain edifice, rebuilt in 1789 ; the church 
 of St. Mary, the Jewish synagogue, the central school, 
 Harrison s free school ; a handsome market-place, shaded by 
 trees ; the barracks at the S. extremity of the city, and the 
 military hospitals. There are six hotels in the town, and 
 several private boarding-houses. Bridgetown has been r,t 
 several periods much damaged by fire ; the last calamity of 
 that kind occurred in 1845, when a large portion of the town, 
 which still remains unbuilt, was destroyed. The population 
 is estimated at from 35,000 to 40,000. 
 
 BRIDGETOWN, par. Irel. Cork ; 3240 ac. Pop. 993. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER [anc. Brugia, Brugge-Waller, and 
 Burgli Waller], a. river-port, municipal and parl. bor. and par. 
 England, co. Somerset, on both sides of the Parrett, between 8 
 and 9 m. from its embouchure in Bridgewater Bay, Bristol Chan 
 nel, and 29 m. S.S.W. Bristol, and on the Bristol and Exeter 
 Railway. The river divides the town into two nearly equal 
 parts, which are connected by an elegant iron bridge of one 
 arch, erected in 1795, on the site of an ancient stone structure. 
 The town is of considerable size, and generally well built, 
 particularly the more modem houses, all of which, as well as 
 the old, are chiefly of red brick. There are several principal 
 streets, and a number of smaller, the former spacious, well 
 paved, and lighted with gas. In the portion of the town on 
 the W. side of the river, water is abundant, and of excellent 
 quality, but in that occupying the E. side it is more scanty, 
 and less pure. There are three churches the parish church, 
 or St. Mary s, Trinity Church, and St. John s. The first is a 
 large, handsome, .ancient structure, with a low tower at the 
 W. end, surmounted by a lofty spire, together 174 ft. high. 
 The interior decorations are very fine, and include an altar- 
 piece of great merit. Trinity Church, which stands a littlo 
 
BRIDGETOWN 
 
 487 
 
 13R1EG 
 
 out of the town, is a plain building, of no architectural pre 
 tension. St. John s is an elegant modern Gothic edifice, with 
 a well-designed tower at the W. end. The other places of wor 
 ship are eight in number, belonging to Wesleyan and Primi 
 tive Methodists, Baptists, Independents, Unitarians, Society 
 of Friends, and F. Catholics. About a quarter of a mile from 
 the town is a recently laid off cemetery. There are two en 
 dowed schools, within the borough the free grammar-school, 
 founded by King James I., and a school for the sons of de 
 cayed gentlemen and trades-people residing within the town ; 
 also, two national and Unitarian infant schools. There is one 
 literary and scientific institution, indifferently supported, and 
 an infirmary, a plain building, established in 1814. The 
 market-house, a modern building, is large and commodious, 
 and forms a prominent object in the centre of the town. The 
 townhall is a large, plain, modern building, containing apart 
 ments for the local law courts, and for the meetings of the 
 town-council. .The union-house, and hospital attached, is a 
 large brick edifice, on the N. side of the town, capable of 
 containing 368 paupers. Situated still further N. are the 
 docks and warehouses, erected within the last few years ; the 
 former consisting of an outer and inner dock. The docks, 
 which were made legal quays, July 20, 1850, comprise an 
 area of 3 ac., and are capable of accommodating 80 or 90 
 vessels of ordinary size ; the highest register entered was for 
 552 tons ; vessels drawing 19 ft. can enter readily. In 
 1845, the number of vessels that entered inwards was 2997 ; 
 tonn. 222,880 ; outwards, 768 ; tonn. 30,000. Bricks, &c., 
 not liable to enter at the custom-house, and not including the 
 above as exports from this place, amount to about 20,000 
 tons annually. The trade of the port may be averaged at 
 about 200,000 tons. About 10,000 tons of timber are annually 
 imported from the Baltic and America. One hundred and 
 three vessels entered the docks from foreign ports in 1849 ; 
 tonn. 12,220. The principal imports are timber, corn, coal, 
 flax, divi-divi, tallow; and exports bricks (scouring and 
 building), tiles, timber, hay, beans, potatoes, &c. The bor 
 ough returns two members to the House of Commons ; regis 
 tered electors (1849), 529. The corporation consists of a 
 mayor, six aldermen, 18 council-men, recorder, town-clerk, 
 and coroner. Bridgewater being chiefly a trading port, has 
 few manufactures, the principal being brick making, including 
 a kind of scouring-brick, composed of a mixture of clay and 
 sand from the river, and called Bath or Flanders brick. There 
 are also two corn-mills. It was the birthplace of the cele 
 brated Admiral Blake, who was born there in 1599, and re 
 ceived his early education in King James s grammar-school 
 in that town. Bridgewater obtained its ancient name, Burgh 
 Walter, from its having belonged to Walter de Douay, one 
 of William the Conqueror s followers, to whom it was given 
 by that monarch. In the civil wars of the 17th century, the 
 inhabitants embraced the royal cause, and defended the town 
 resolutely against the Parliamentarians, but were subdued by 
 Fairfax, who carried off a large booty, and 1000 prisoners. 
 The town again suffered severely for supporting the preten 
 sions of the Duke of Monmouth, who was here received with 
 great pomp, and proclaimed King. Pop. (1841), 10,436. 
 
 BKIUGTOWN, a post vil., port of entry, U. States, 
 New Jersey, on both sides of Cohansey creek, 20 m. from its 
 entrance into the Delaware Bay. It has, on the W. side of 
 the creek, a court-house, jail, and public offices ; on the E. 
 side, a Presbyterian, a Baptist, and a Methodist church, a 
 bank, an academy, a public library, and various manufac 
 tories. Thirty vessels, of from 50 co 80 tons, sail from the 
 place. On the W. side of the creek are very extensive 
 ironworks, which employ about 122 persons. Tonnage of 
 the port (1840), 14,171 tons. 
 
 BRIDLINGTON or BURLINGTON.!, A market tn. and 
 par. England, co. York. The town is agreeably situated about 
 1 m. from the sea, 37 m. N.E. York, on the railway from 
 Hull to Scarborough, and consists of one principal, and several 
 smaller streets, narrow and irregular; houses, in general, 
 ancient, but having a respectable appearance; lighted with 
 gas. The parish church forms part of an ancient priory of 
 elegant architecture, but now much defaced. There are 
 places of worship for Independents, Baptists, Primitive and 
 Wesleyan Methodists, the Society of Friends, and R. Cath 
 olics, together with a free grammar-school. A considerable 
 trade is carried on in corn. Market-day, Saturday, and two 
 
 fairs annually. Area of par., 12,410 ac. Pop. 6070. 
 2, Bridlington Quay, a handsome modern little tn., about 1 m. 
 S.E. Bridlington, on the sea- coast, in the recess of Bridlington 
 Bay. It consists of one spacious street, and several smaller, 
 is lighted with gas, and abundantly supplied with water. It 
 contains a handsome new district church in the English style, 
 besides places of worship for Wesleyans and Primitive Me 
 thodists, national schools, and an infant school. There is 
 here an excellent harbour, enclosed by two substantial stone 
 piers, which afford a safe retreat to coasting vessels during 
 contrary winds, while the bay, which is protected from the 
 N.W. winds by the coast, and the N. winds by Flamborough 
 Head, offers safe anchorage to ships in gales of wind. Brid 
 lington Quay is much frequented during the bathing season, 
 for which a beach of fine hard sand peculiarly adapts it. For 
 invalids, there are hot and cold baths, and commodious rooms. 
 At a short distance from the town, there is a chalybeate 
 spring of reputed efficacy. Pop. 1852. 
 
 BRIDPORT, a seaport, bor. , market tn., and par. England, 
 co. Dorset, 14 m. W. by S. Dorchester, in a fertile valley, 
 surrounded by hills, with the river Bride, whence the town is 
 named, on the W., and the Asher on the E. These streams 
 unite S. of the town, and form a commodious harbour, of 
 easy access ; lat. 50 42 7" N. ; Ion. 2 44 5" W. (R.) Brid- 
 port consists chiefly of three spacious, clean, and well-paved 
 streets, containing many well-built modern houses, mostly of 
 brick, with a few of Portland stone. It is well lighted with 
 gas, but the supply of water is not abundant. In the centre 
 of the town is the market-house, a handsome building in the 
 Grecian style, containing the townhall, which occupies the 
 second story. The church is a beautiful structure, and con 
 tains a fine organ. There are, besides, seven chapels for 
 Wesleyans, Independents, Baptists, Unitarians, R. Catholics, 
 and a Quakers meeting-house. The educational and literary 
 institutions are, one public, and four private schools, with 
 several excellent boarding-schools, a mechanics institute, 
 young men s mutual improvement society, and a young men s 
 Christian association. The principal manufactures are hempen 
 goods, sailcloth weaving, and shoe-thread, which are carried 
 on to a considerable extent. The harbour is safe and com 
 modious for vessels not exceeding 250 tons. The principal 
 imports are coals, timber, hemp, and flax ; exports, manu 
 factured hempen goods, and fishing-nets, chiefly for New 
 foundland and Holland. The number of vessels registered 
 at the port in 1847, was 21 ; tonn. 2105. The number 
 entered for the same year was 255; tonn. 19,767 ; cleared, 
 147 ; tonn. 8570. In 1845, the former was 232 ; tonn. 1647 ; 
 the latter, 139; tonn. 591 9; showing an increase of several 
 thousand tons, in both cases, in favour of 1847. Shipbuild 
 ing is carried on to some extent. . Market-days, Wednesday 
 and Saturday; and three fairs annually. Bridport returns two 
 members to the House of Commons; constituency (1850), 
 538. Area of par. 250 ac. Pop. 4787. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BR1DSTOW, par. Eng. Hereford; 1870 ac. Pop. 625. 
 
 BRIE, a dist. France, which formed part of Champagne 
 and Isle-de-France, and had Meaux for its capital. Its name 
 was derived from a large forest called Saltus Brigeruis, still 
 in part existing. It is now included in deps. Seine- et-Marne, 
 Aisne, and Marne. 
 
 BRIE coMTE-itouERT, a tn. France, dep. Seine-et- Marne, 
 12 m. N.N. W. Melun, r. bank, Isere. Its former fortifications 
 are now demolished ; and its old castle, founded by Count 
 Robert, brother to Louis VII., is now a heap of ruins. The 
 parish church was built in the 13th century, and has some 
 remarkable tombs. The only manufacture is that of writing 
 quills, but a good trade in grain and cheese is carried on. 
 Pop. 2629. 
 
 BRIEGr, a tn. Prussia, prov. Silesia, 1. bank, Oder, cap. 
 circle of same name, 26 m. S.E. Breslau; a thriving place, 
 with well-built houses, and broad and straight streets. It is 
 surrounded by fortifications, which, however, are not very 
 formidable, and some of which have been converted into pro 
 menades. It has five gates, two Lutheran, and two R. Cath 
 olic churches, a synagogue, several hospitals, and other 
 charitable institutions; a gymnasium, with a good library 
 attached ; and a lunatic asylum. Its manufactures consist 
 of linens, woollens, woollen gloves, and stockings ; cottons, 
 ribbons, lace, leather, tobacco, &c. Its trade has gained 
 much by the completion of the Vienna and Breslau Railway, 
 
BRIELLE 
 
 BRIQHTLING 
 
 on which the town lies. It is the seat of a head office for the 
 royal Silesian mines, of a royal salt factory, and of district j 
 courts of justice. The Oder is crossed here by a substantial 
 
 wooden bridge. Pop. (1846), 12,615. The CIRCLE, area, 
 
 174 geo. sq. in., consists almost entirely of an extensive fertile 
 plain. It is traversed by the Oder, on the 1. bank, of which 
 the soil is generally a strong loam, while on the r. it is 
 rather of a sandy nature. The principal crops are wheat and 
 barley. On the left of the Oder, German, on the right Polish, 
 is generally spoken. Pop. 46,761, of whom nearly nine-tenths 
 lire Protestants. 
 
 BRIELLE, or THE BRIEL, a tn. and fortress, Holland, 
 prov. S. Holland, 1. bank, Maas, and near its mouth ; 14 m. 
 S. W. Rotterdam ; lat, 51 54 15" N. ; Ion. 4 10 E. (R.) An 
 outer haven connects its two inner havens with the Brielle-diep 
 at the narrowing of the Maas, by the island of Rozenburg. As 
 Brielle commands the mouth of an important river, it is well 
 fortified, particularly towards the sea. It has a water and 
 three land gates, is intersected by several canals, has three 
 market-places, a townhouse, prison, arsenal, and look-out 
 house, for the use of pilots. The Reformed have two churches. 
 The larger is remarkable for the height of its tower, which 
 forms a characteristic feature of the place when seen from 
 the sea ; and a chime of two octaves of bells. The R. Cath 
 olics have also a church, and the Jews a synagogue. Brielle 
 has an orphan house, two hospitals for the old of both sexes, 
 a military hospital, a savings -bank, and several benevolent 
 societies, a department of the public utility society, a Latin, 
 a Dutch and French, a Dutch, and a poors school. 
 
 Brielle was a flourishing town early in the 15th century, 
 when it had a large trade with the Baltic and Scotland. The 
 cutting of the Voorne Canal, and the transference of the English 
 steam-packet station to Helvoet-sluis, have diverted business 
 to other channels. But it will ever bear a conspicuous place 
 in history, as the first place in which the standard of Dutch 
 independence was raised, in the 16th century, and the first 
 fortified town in Holland, in which the burghers, without the 
 slightest aid from without, rose against and overpowered the 
 French garrison, in 1813, in both instances verifying the 
 words, Libertatis primitice, inscribed in front of the town- 
 house. Pop. 4170. 
 
 BRIENNE -LE-CHATEAU, a tn. and com. France, dep. 
 Aube, 14 m. N.W. Bar-sur-Aube, at the foot of a high hill. 
 The town consists of two streets, behind which is situated the 
 chateau, a magnificent edifice, erected in the last century by 
 Louis de Lomenie, last Count of Brienne. In 1776, a mili 
 tary school was established here, which Napoleon Bonaparte 
 entered as a pupil, April 23, 1779 ; being thug 10 years of 
 age, and unable to speak any language but Italian. He left 
 the school October 17, 1784, after an attendance of five and a 
 half years. Brienne, which saw the first dawn of Napoleon s 
 career, had almost seen its termination thirty years after ; for, 
 as he was about to enter the town after driving Bliicher out 
 of it, a band of Cossacks charged his staff, and one of them, 
 who had couched his lance at the Emperor, was only arrested 
 by a bullet from the pistol of Gourgaud, when so near Napo 
 leon that the Cossack fell at his feet. The town had been 
 almost destroyed in the contest, and Napoleon promised to 
 rebuild it, and found a military school in place of the old one, 
 which had been suppressed in 1790. His projects were never 
 realized, but he bequeathed a million of francs to the town, 
 and 200,000 to the inhabitants, who had suffered most severely. 
 Pop. 1930. 
 
 BRIENON, or BHIENON L ARCHEVECQUE, a tn. France, 
 dep. Yonne, 10 m. E. Joigny. It is well built, clean, and 
 agreeably situated on the Burgundy Canal, which separates it 
 from a suburb called the Port. It manufactures coarse cloth, 
 and hag worsted-mills and tanneries, and carries on a large 
 trade in firewood, charcoal, and grain. Pop. 2661. 
 
 BRIENZ, a tn. Switzerland, can. Bern, beautifully 
 situate on the N.E. shore of the lake of same name; on a 
 narrow ledge, at the foot of the Bernese Alps, and in the 
 immediate vicinity of the Giesbach Falls. The shore of the 
 lake is lined by the gardens of the town, enclosed by a wall 
 8 ft. high, to protect them from inundation. The church, 
 with some old ruins, and a handsome school, stand on a height, 
 and have a very picturesque appearance. The chief article 
 of traffic is cheese, which bears the name of Brienz, and is 
 celebrated. Pop. 3102. 
 
 BRIENZ (LAKE OF), [German, Brienzcrsee], a lake, 
 Switzerland, can. of, and 30 m. S.E. Bern; 8 m. long, N.E. 
 to S.W., and on an average about 2 m. broad. It receives 
 the Aar at its E. extremity, and at its W. empties its surplus 
 water, by a continuation of the same river, into the Lake of 
 Tliun. It is surrounded by lofty mountains, the chief of 
 which, the Rothorn. commands magnificent views of the 
 whole range of the Bernese Alps. The lake is 850 ft. above 
 the level of the sea, and varies in depth from 80 to 300 
 fathoms. A small steamer now plies upon it. The principal 
 fish is the Lotte, a fish in some respects resembling herring, 
 which is esteemed a great delicacy. 
 
 BRIERLY-H1LL, a vil. England, co. Stafford, 2J m. 
 N.N.E. Stourbridge. It has several streets, a large chapel, 
 a national school for 500 children, and a handsome infant 
 school. There are numerous collieries, large ironworks, glass 
 works, and potteries in the vicinity, and the manufacture of 
 steam-boilers, and other heavy articles of iron, is extensively 
 carried on. 
 
 BRIES, BRISEN, or BREZNO-BANVA, a royal free tn. Hun 
 gary, co. Sohl, on the Gran, 22 m. E.N.E. Neu Sohl. It 
 stands on a plain, surrounded by hills and forests, and con 
 tains a parish church, Piarist college, and grammar-school. 
 The inhabitants live chiefly by agriculture, the rearing of 
 cattle, and the timber trade, and make an excellent cheese, 
 which is known by the name of the town, and extensively 
 exported. Pop. 3500. 
 
 BRIEUC (Sx.), a seaport tn. France, cap. of dep. C6tes- 
 du-Nord ; lat. (cathedral) 48 30 54" N.; Ion. 2 45 W. (R.); on 
 the Gouet, about 1 m. from its mouth, in the Bay of St. Brieuc. 
 The port, properly speaking, is the hamlet of League, at the 
 mouth of the river, with quays accessible to vessels of 300 or 
 400 tons. The intermediate space is partially occupied by build 
 ings, which have rapidly increased of late years. The town is 
 badly built, with old tortuous streets, and has several public 
 fountains, bridges, and a cathedral erected in the 13th cen 
 tury. On the top of a promontory, commanding the entrance 
 to the river, are the remains of the tower of Cesson, which 
 Henry IV. attempted to blow up after the wars of the League. 
 It now serves as a landmark, visible 15 m. at sea. The town 
 is a bishop s see, and has courts of first resort and of com 
 merce, an agricultural society, communal college, diocesan 
 seminary, school of hydrography, and a public library with 
 24,000 volumes. Linsey-woolseys, drabs, and moleskins, 
 serges, paper, leather, gilt buttons, and liqueurs are manufac 
 tured here, and a tolerable trade is carried on in agricultural 
 produce. Vessels are equipped for the Newfoundland cod- 
 fishing, in which the inhabitants were at one time largely 
 engaged, but it has now fallen much off. Races are annually 
 held on the sands below the tower of Cesson for three days, 
 during the first fortnight of July. Pop. 9398. 
 
 BRIG, or BRIEG, a tn. Switzerland, can. Valais, between 
 1. bank, Rhone, and its small tributary the Saltina, and at the 
 commencement of the ascent over the Simplon, 47 m. N.E. 
 Martigny. It is well built ; and the houses are covered with 
 a white slate, which shines like silver. During the last Euro 
 pean war, it carried on an extensive and gainful traffic, but, 
 since the peace, it has lost all its importance ; has no manu 
 factures, and scarcely any trade. The most conspicuous build 
 ing is the Jesuits college, and church attached. There is also 
 an Ursuline convent. Pop. 751. 
 
 BRIGA, a vil. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 33 m. N.E. 
 Nice, on the Livenza ; with a castle, and collegiate church ; 
 and trade in cattle, wax, and honey. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BRIGG. See GLANDFORD-BRIGG. 
 
 BRIGHAM, par. Eng. Cumberland; 22,580 ac. P. 7397. 
 
 BRIGHOUSE, a vil. and ecclesiastical dist. England, co. 
 York, W. Riding, 3 m. E. by N. Halifax. The village, de 
 lightfully situated in the Calder Valley, contains many hand 
 some houses, and is kept in excellent order ; the church is 
 an elegant structure, with an embattled tower. The manu 
 facture of worsted and cotton goods, and of cards for wool, 
 flax, and cotton, is carried on. The town has some tanneries 
 and flour-mills ; and there are valuable quarries in the vicinity, 
 from which stone is sent to different parts by the Calder and 
 Hibble navigation. The Yorkshire and Lancaster Railway 
 has a station at the village. Pop. (1841), 3200 ; (1851), 6091. 
 BRIGHT, par. Irel. Down ; 5544 ac. Pop. 1886. 
 BRIGHTLING, par. Eng. Sussex ; 3390 ac. Pop. 692. 
 
BRIGHTLINGSEA 
 
 BRIGNOLES 
 
 BRIGHTLINGSEA, par. Eng. Essex; 2890 ac. P. 2055. 
 
 BRIGHTON [formerly Briyltthdmstone], a parl. bor., 
 maritime tn., watering-place, and par., England, co. Sussex, 
 at the junction of the London and Brighton with the S. coast 
 Railway. The town is 47 m. S. London, or by railway 
 50 m. ; lat. (pier light) 50 49 N. ; Ion. 8 W. (K.) ; on a slope 
 near the centre of the curved line of coast, between Beachy 
 Head and Worthing Point, and stretching along the shore for 
 nearly 3 m. It is divided into two nearly equal parts by an 
 open space of ground called the Steyne or Steine, surrounded 
 by elegant houses. The high land of the S. Downs, imme 
 diately behind the town, protects it from the N. winds. 
 
 Brighton comprises upwards of 500 streets, of all descrip 
 tions, with numerous handsome terraces, squares, and cres 
 cents. The principal streets have a slight curve in conformity 
 with the shore line, and contain many shops fitted up in the 
 most splendid style. In front of the town is a stupendous sea 
 wall, extending nearly 2 m., and supporting a spacious drive 
 and promenade, constructed at a cost of 100,000. The 
 houses are mostly of brick and flint-stone, and some of those 
 of modern erection 6 or 7 stories in height; many of them 
 are covered with cement, painted and finished in a tasteful and 
 ornamental style. The town is abundantly supplied with 
 water, and well lighted with gas. The buildings of any note, 
 exclusive of the churches, are few. The most remarkable 
 
 THK ROYAL PAVILION, BRIGHTON, Garden front. 
 
 is the pavilion, built by George IV., but recently purchased 
 by the commissioners of Brighton, an edifice in the Oriental 
 style of architecture, with numerous cupolas, spires, and 
 minarets, on the model of the Kremlin at Moscow. It has 
 a handsome stone front, 200 ft. in length, with a large 
 Oriental dome, ] 30 ft. high, nearly in the centre. The whole 
 structure, with its stables, out-buildings, and gardens, which 
 are open to the public as pleasure-grounds, occupies 9 ac. 
 Opposite the palace front, within a railed area, stands a bronze 
 statue of George IV., by Chantrey. The other buildings 
 worthy of notice are the townhall, a large massive building, 
 of recent erection, containing, with other accommodations, 
 a spacious ballroom ; the market-house, opposite the town- 
 hall, a commodious edifice; the Sussex county hospital; the 
 theatre ; the Brighton College ; and the chain pier, an object 
 of great utility and ornament, 1134 ft. long and 13 ft. wide, 
 erected at a cost of 30,000. Several of the hotel.?, also, 
 are very handsome buildings. Brighton has 13 churches 
 and chapels belonging to the Establishment, five Independ 
 ent chapels, four Baptist, two Wesleyan and one Primitive 
 Methodist, one Countess of Huntingdon connection, two Cal- 
 vinist, one Scotch Presbyterian, one Unitarian, one R. Cath 
 olic, one Society of Friends meeting-house, one Bible Chris 
 tians, one Latter-day Saints, one Plymouth Brethren, one 
 Huntingtonians, and one Jews synagogue. The church of 
 St. Nicholas stands upon elevated ground, and forms an ex 
 cellent sea mark. St. Peter s, situated at the N. end of the 
 town, is a beautiful Gothic structure, said to be one of the 
 best modern specimens of the kind in England. The educa- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 tional institutions comprise the Brighton College, opened in 
 1847, for the education of the sons of noblemen and gentle 
 men ; the St. Mary s Hall Institution, for the education of 
 the daughters of poor clergy ; a diocesan school, for training 
 school- mistresses ; several national schools, British schools, 
 ragged schools, numerous private schools, &c. The bene 
 volent institutions are the county hospital, already named, 
 containing about 50 rooms, some of them large enough to hold 
 20 beds ; a dispensary ; an infirmary, for diseases of the eye ; 
 lying-in dispensary ; self-supporting dispensary ; orphan asy 
 lum ; Percy alms-houses ; and Swan Downer s school for girls. 
 Literary institutions : the royal literary and scientific insti 
 tution, athenaeum and young men s literary union, working 
 man s institute, &c. At a short distance E. from Brighton, 
 on a piece of sloping ground, a cemetery, having an area of 
 13 ac., was laid off in 1850. 
 
 Brighton has no manufactures ; the greater portion of the 
 inhabitants being almost exclusively engaged in providing for 
 the accommodation and comfort of the numerous visitors who 
 resort to the town. Some idea of the extent to which this 
 prevails may be inferred from the fact, that there are no fewer 
 than 500 regular lodging-house keepers, besides a large amount 
 of hotel and private accommodation ; and 346 licensed hack 
 ney coachmen. Building is the chief source of employment 
 to the mechanics and labourers resident in the town ; but 
 mackerel and herring fishing are also exten 
 sively prosecuted, there being about 400 per 
 sons so employed. 
 
 Races are held here in the beginning of 
 August. The race-course is situated on the 
 summit of the Downs, to the N. and N.E. of 
 the town. 
 
 Brighton was anciently a fortified town 
 of considerable importance ; but was gradu 
 ally annihilated by the sea, which has, from 
 time immemorial, been encroaching on the 
 coast of Sussex. In the reign of Elizabeth, 
 the town stood in the tract where the chain 
 pier stands, but no traces of it are now per 
 ceptible ; and but for the sea wall recently 
 erected, the modern town would, in all pro 
 bability, have shared a similar fate. The 
 town owes its prosperity to George IV., who 
 made it his residence when Prince of "Wales. 
 Brighton returns two members to the House 
 of Commons. Registered electors (1849), 
 2776. Area of par. 1980 ac. The increase 
 of its population is remarkable ; in 1801, it 
 was only 7339; in 1821, 24,429; in 1841, it 
 had reached 46,661 ; and is now (1851) es 
 timated at 63,000. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BRIGHTON (NEW), a watering-place. England, co. Ches 
 ter, 3 m. N.W. by N. Liverpool. It forms the N.E. corner 
 of the peninsula of Wirral, between the Mersey and the Irish 
 Sea. It possesses excellent natural advantages for sea bath 
 ing, having a bracing atmosphere, a smooth and firm sandy 
 beach, and clear water. It has communication with Liver 
 pool by steamers every hour. On the black rock, at the 
 confluence of the Mersey with the Irish Channel, is a strong 
 fort, mounting 15 large guns. 
 
 BRIGHTWELL, three pars. England:!, par. Berks; 
 1680 ac. Pop. 611. 2, par. Suffolk; 510 ac. Pop. 81. 
 3, Brightivell- Baldwin, par. Oxford; 1660ac. Pop. 312. 
 BRIGNALL, par. Eng. York, N. Riding; 1910 ac. P.190. 
 BRIGNANO, a vil. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, prov. of, 
 and 1 1 m. S. Bergamo, surrounded by walls, and entered by 
 two gates. It has a large and handsome church, and a palace 
 of the Counts of Milan, and some trade in silk and lace. 
 Pop. 2655. 
 
 BRIGNOLES, a tn. France, dep. Var, 22 m. W.S.W. 
 Draguignan, pleasantly situated in a fertile valley, surrounded 
 by wooded hills, and watered by a small stream named the 
 Calami. It is well built, and has several squares planted with 
 trees, and ornamented with handsome fountains ; is the seat 
 of courts of first resort and of commerce, and has a normal 
 school for the department. It has long been celebrated for 
 its salubrity, and formerly was the summer residence of the 
 Counts of Provence. It manufactures common cloth, silk, 
 crockery, soap, wax candles, glue, and has distilleries, several 
 
BRIGOWN 
 
 490 
 
 BRISTOL 
 
 extensive tanneries, and silk and fulling mills. The neigh 
 bourhood produces olive-oil, and large quantities of excellent 
 prunes, called prunes de Brignolcs. Pop. 4707. 
 
 BRIGOWN, par. Irel. Cork; 15,212 ac. Pop. 10,614. 
 
 BRIGSLEY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 860 ac. Pop. 125. 
 5RI GSTOCK, par. Eng. Northampton ; 5900 ac. P. 1262. 
 
 BRIGUS, a settlement, Newfoundland, Conception Bay, 
 S. of Port de Grave. It is a wild rocky place. Pop. 2000. 
 
 BKIHUEGA, a tn. Spain, New Castile, prov. of, and 
 19m. W. by S. Guadalajara, on a stony slope, r. bank, Tajuna, 
 crossed here by a stone bridge of one arch. It was formerly 
 surrounded by walls, of which, and its gates, the ruins yet 
 remain. The town is tolerably built, though with badly-paved 
 and crooked streets, and has four parish churches, four schools, 
 a townhouse, hospital, prison, 14 public fountains, and the 
 remains of an old Moorish fortress, which now serves as a 
 cemetery. Manufactures : glass, cloth, woollen fabrics, and 
 shoe leather. Pop. 4464. 
 
 BRILL, par. Eng. Bucks; 2600 ac. Pop. 1449. 
 
 BRILL (THE). See BKIEU.E. 
 
 BRILLEY, par. Eng. Hereford; 4250 ac. Pop. 587. 
 
 BRILON, a tn. and circle, Prussia, prov. Westphalia, 
 gov. Arnsberg. The town, on a height above the Mo nne, 
 23 m. E. Arnsberg, is one of the oldest in Prussia, has two 
 churches, one of them, the Great Parish Church, said to have 
 been built by Charlemagne in 776; a college, an hospital, and 
 manufactures of linen, tinware, and nails. In the neighbour 
 
 hood are mines of iron, lead, and calamine. Pop. 3301. 
 
 The CIRCLE, area, 280 geo. sq. m., is rugged and mountainous, 
 at some points nearly 2500 ft. high, and yields silver, copper, 
 iron, lead, calamine, and gypsum. There is not much land 
 under the plough, but a great number cf cattle are reared. 
 Pop. 33,000. 
 
 BRIMFIELD, par. Eng. Hereford; 1880 ac. Pop. 591. 
 
 BRIMP8FIELD, par. Eng. Gloucester; 2240 ac. P. 417. 
 
 BRIMPTON, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Berks; 1900 ac. 
 Pop. 412. 2, par. Somerset; 860 ac. Pop. 123. 
 
 BR1ND1S1 [anc. Brundusium], a seaport tn. Naples, 
 prov. Terra di Otranto, on a small promontory, in a bay 
 formed by the Adriatic ; lat. 40 39 N. ; Ion. 18 1 E. Brun- 
 dusium was one of the most important cities of ancient Italy, 
 and one of the most flourishing ports in the Adriatic. It had 
 an excellent harbour, from which the Romans usually em 
 barked for Greece and Asia. Cresar attempted to blockade 
 Pompey s fleet here, and commenced the ruin of the harbour, 
 by running mounds of earth across the entrance. In the llth 
 century, it fell into the hands of Roger Guiscard, King of 
 Naples, and in the 12th, its population is said to have amounted 
 to 60,000. It is now a fortified town of the third class, but 
 its defences are of little importance. The inhabited houses 
 are scattered over a great extent of ground, where many ves 
 tiges of antiquity are still visible. Brindisi is the seat of an 
 archbishopric, and has a cathedral, several churches, convents 
 for both sexes, a seminary, college, and two hospitals. The 
 harbour only admits small vessels. There is good anchorage 
 in the roadstead. The poet Virgil died at Brundusium, in 
 the year 19 B.C. Pop. 6555 
 
 BRINDLE, par. Eng. Lancaster; 2940 ac. Pop. 1401. 
 
 BRINGHURST, par. Eng. Leicester ; 3650 ac. Pop. 840. 
 
 BRINGTON, two pars. England:!, par. Huntingdon; 
 1 1 90 ac. Pop. 1 29. 2 , Brington ( Great] , par. Northampton ; 
 4180 ac. Pop. 795. 
 
 BRININGHAM, par. Eng. Norfolk; 1450 ac. Pop. 243. 
 
 BRINKHILL, par. Eng. Lincoln; 780 ac. Pop. 168. 
 
 BRINKLEY, par. Eng. Cambridge; 1500 ac. Pop. 366. 
 
 BRINKLOW, par. Eng. Warwick; 1410 ac. Pop. 797. 
 
 BRINK WORT II, par. Eng. Wilts; 6470 ac. Pop. 1 694. 
 
 BRINNY, par. Irel. Cork; 4898 ac. Pop. 1852. 
 
 BRINSOP, par. Eng. Hereford; 1470 ac. Pop. 116. 
 
 BRINTON, par. Eng. Norfolk; 650 ac. Pop. 193. 
 
 BRIONES, a walled tn. Spain, Old Castile, prov. of, and 
 22 m. W.N.W. Logrofio, on a declivity, near r. bank, Ebro. 
 It is composed of a square, and several well-paved, clean, and 
 neat streets, and has a parish church, Latin, and two endowed 
 schools, townhouse, prison, hospital, and cemetery. Manu 
 factures: linen and hempen fabrics, and brandy. Trade: 
 export of manufactures, wine, brandy, and hemp. Pop. 2736. 
 
 BRIONNE, a tn. France, dep. Eure, 9 m. N.E. Bernay, 
 on the Uille. It was formerly strongly fortified, and suffered 
 
 several sieges during the English wars in France. Manu 
 factures: cloth and cotton spinning. Pop. 1902. 
 
 BRIOUDE, a tn. France, dep. Haute Loire, 28 m. N.W. 
 Le Puy, near 1. bank, Allier, in a spacious basin, surrounded 
 by hills. In general it is badly built, with narrow, dirty 
 streets. The only edifices of note are the college, and the 
 cathedral church of St. Julian, founded in the ninth century. 
 Brioude has courts of first resort and of commerce, a com 
 munal college, an agricultural society, and a public library. 
 It has manufactures of linen and woollen stuffs, and a trade in 
 grain, wine, hemp, and antimony. Lafayette was a native of 
 this town. Pop. 4795. 
 
 BRISACH (NEUF). See NEDF-BRISACH. 
 
 BRISBANE, an inland co. New S. Wales; length, 86 m. 
 S.W. to N.E.; breadth, at the broadest part, about 48 m.; 
 area, 2344 sq. m., or 1.500,160 ac. It consists of several 
 ranges of table land, with occasional plains and peaks, some 
 of which rise to a considerable elevation. In this county is 
 situated the burning hill called Mount Wingen, or the Burning 
 Mountain ; lat. 31 55 S.; Ion. 150 56 E. The portion of 
 it under the process of combustion is from ] 400 to 1500 ft. 
 above the level of the sea. The stock of the county is com 
 puted at 1332 horses, 11,125 head of horned cattle, 211 pigs, 
 and 174,969 sheep. The chief town is Murrurundi. Pop. 
 1406; of which 936 are males, and 470 females. 
 
 BRISBANE RIVER, New S. Wales; it rises in the 
 mountains in the county Canning, flows S.E. to lat. 27 35 ; 
 Ion. 153 E., when it suddenly bends round, and, after a 
 further course of about 15 m. in a N.E. direction, falls into 
 Moreton Bay. The whole length of the stream is about 70 m. 
 The tide ascends 50 m. above its mouth. 
 
 BRISIGHELLA, a tn. Papal States, deleg. of, and 26 m. 
 S.W. Ravenna, on the Amone. It has a considerable trade 
 in silk. Pop. 2500. 
 
 BRISLEY, par. Eng. Norfolk; 1230 ac. Pop. 388. 
 
 BRISLINGTON, par. Eng. Somerset ; 2960 ac. P. 1338 
 
 BRIS8AGO, a tn. and par. Switzerland, can. Tessin, 
 W. bank, Lake Maggiore, 6 m. S.W. Loearno. The situa 
 tion is remarkably pleasant. The houses, of a white colour 
 and cheerful appearance, are built on sunny slopes. Orange 
 and citron trees line the shore of the lake, and an alley of old 
 cypresses leads to the church, which is adorned by a fine 
 picture by a native artist, named Caldelli. The situation of 
 Brissago gives it a good transit trade. Pop. 1493. 
 
 BRISTOL, a city, co., and seaport, England, situated 
 near the mouth of the Bristol Channel, at the S. extremity of 
 co. Gloucester, and the N. of Somerset, but independent of 
 both ; covering seven knolls or hills, and their intermediate 
 valleys, on both sides of the Avon and Frome; lat. 51 26 8" 
 N. ; Ion. 2 35 5" W. (R.) ; 120 m. W. London by the turnpike 
 road, and 118J by the Great Western Railway, which here 
 connects with the Bristol and Birmingham, and the Bristol and 
 Exeter Railways. The entire city, with its suburban districts 
 Clifton, Westbury, Montpelier, St. Philip and Jacob Out, 
 and Bedminster all of which are included within the parlia 
 mentary and municipal borough, has an area of about 2000 ac., 
 and a circumference of about 9 m. The old town, which now 
 forms the heart of the city, stands upon a narrow hill, about 
 40 ft. in height. Of the eminences on which Bristol is built, the 
 highest are St. Michael s Hill and Kingsdown, which are 200ft. 
 above the lower parts of the town. In the old town, some of 
 the streets are narrow, and the houses lofty and incommodious ; 
 but, in the more modern parts, the former are wide, and 
 the buildings elegant and spacious. Many of the principal 
 merchants and traders, however, reside at Clifton, Westbury, 
 Abbots Leigh, and in the other suburbs. Bristol is tolerably 
 well supplied with water for ordinary household purposes, and 
 now with wholesome drinking water, from the river Chew and 
 the Barrow Springs by the New Water Works Company. In 
 the report of the Health of Towns Commission," the want 
 of a sufficient supply of soft water most of that in Bristol 
 being hard is represented as the cause, in a great measure, 
 of that unusual amount of uncleanliness amongst the poor of 
 the city, which, combined with deficient sewage, has ranked 
 it as the third most unhealthy town in England. 
 
 Churches, CJtapels, and Public Buildings. The established 
 churches and chapels of Bristol are 36 in number, besides 
 four R. Catholic chapels, one Jews synagogue, and 42 dis 
 senting chapels of the various denominations. Bristol pos- 
 
BRISTOL 
 
 491 
 
 BRISTOL 
 
 sesses rather more than the usual proportion of handsome 
 public buildings, among which may be mentioned many of 
 its churches, some of which present beautiful specimens of 
 early English architecture, particularly the cathedral, a fine 
 
 CHURCH (IF ST MARY RKI-CLYKKE. BRISTOL. 
 
 structure, in the form of a cross, 175 ft. in length; breadth 
 of transept, 128 ft.; height of tower, 140 ft.: and breadth of 
 the nave and aisles, 73 ft. Of the parish churches, that 
 of St. Mary Redcliffe, which is now (1850) being restored, is 
 one of the most elegant ecclesiastical structures in England. 
 It was founded in 1249, and is of various dates, and built in 
 the form of a cross, having a nave raised above the aisles, 
 and lit by a series of lofty windows on each side, in the manner 
 of a cathedral. In the muniment room over the N. porch of this 
 church, Chatterton pretended to have found the poems which 
 he attributed to Rowley, Among the other public buildings 
 
 TUB NEW GUILDHALL, BRISTOL. 
 
 of note are the exchange, erected in 1760 ; the new guildhall, 
 and branch of the Bank of England ; the Victoria Rooms, the 
 council-house, the commercial rooms, the theatre, the city 
 library, the blind asylum, the Bishop s College, Queen Eliza 
 beth s hospital or the city schools, the Colston s school and 
 alms-houses, the merchants hall, the philosophical institution, 
 which possesses a valuable museum of natural history, and 
 of objects of vertu. 
 
 Sclwols and Charities. The principal endowed educational 
 
 establishments are the city grammar-school, where upwards 
 of 200 boys receive a good classical and commercial educa 
 tion; the college grammar-school; Queen Elizabeth s hospital, 
 for the education, subsistence, and apprenticing of 100 boys, 
 to be increased to 200; Colston s hospi 
 tal, for maintaining, educating, and ap 
 prenticing 100 boys, which, with two 
 other schools, and several alms-houses, 
 was founded and endowed by the philan 
 thropist Edward Colston, upwards of a 
 century ago ; a school in Temple parish 
 for 40 girls ; the merchants -hall school 
 for teaching gratuitously the sciences of 
 mathematics and navigation, in addition 
 to a general education; the Red Maid s 
 school, for maintaining and instructing 
 about 120 girls, and afterwards provid 
 ing them with places of service; the 
 Bishop s College, opened in 1831, for 
 teaching a university education, &c. In 
 addition to these, there are a variety of 
 unendowed schools, upon the Lancas 
 terian, national, and other plans of edu 
 cation, to the number of 58. On the 
 books of these schools, by a return just 
 (1850) made, there are 4179 boys, of 
 whom 3275 are in daily attendance; 
 3080 girls, of whom 2296 are in daily 
 attendance; and 2270 infants, of whom 
 
 1572 were in attendance. In the day and the endowed schools 
 there are therefore 19,089 children entered, receiving educa 
 tion. This return does not include evening and Sunday- 
 schools, of which there are several. The hospitals, alms- 
 houses, and other charitable institutions, are very numerous ; 
 and the donations and bequests to the poor, both in and out of 
 the Corporation and Charity Trustees, exceed in number and 
 amount those of any other place in England, except London. 
 The Bristol infirmary, now (1850) the Royal Infirmary by 
 grant of Her present Majesty, was founded in 1736, and is 
 the largest provincial infirmary in the kingdom ; the Bristol 
 general hospital was founded in 1832, and is 
 now (1851) about to be rebuilt in a more 
 extensive form; the Bristol institution for 
 diseases of the eye in 1810, and the eye-dis 
 pensary in 1812. There are also two dis 
 pensaries for the treatment of diseases gen 
 erally. The workhouse usually contains 
 about 550 inmates, and the out-poor gener 
 ally amount to about 4000. 
 
 Manufactures. Bristol has numerous 
 glassworks and potteries, and has long been 
 famous for its glass and pottery ware. There 
 are also brass, copper, zinc, lead, iron, and 
 tin works; chain, cable, and anchor factories ; 
 sugar refineries ; locomotive, and other steam 
 engine works ; distilleries, breweries, malt- 
 houses, chemical works ; soda, soap, leather, 
 ropes, sails, shoes, saddlery, patent shot, spel 
 ter, floor cloth, pins, hats, tobacco and snuff, 
 &c., are also extensively manufactured ; and 
 a large cotton factory, employing several 
 hundred hands, has recently been erected. 
 On the banks of the Avon are several dock 
 yards, in which shipbuilding, to a very con 
 siderable extent, both in wood and iron, is 
 carried on, Bristol having been for centuries 
 celebrated for this art, and having built some 
 of the finest frigates used in the late wars, 
 and steamers used in the Royal Mail service. 
 Commerce. The commerce of Bristol is 
 | principally with the West Indies, the Mauritius, Havana, Vene 
 zuela, the East Indies, China, Canada, and the U. States, car 
 ried on in vessels varying from 500 to above 1000 tons. There 
 is also an extensive fruit trade with the Mediterranean and the 
 Azores, and considerable commercial intercourse with Russia, 
 S. America, France, and the African coast. Bristol formerly 
 possessed a large trade with Spain in wools, but this has latterly 
 fallen into decay. With America, outwards, the trade is princi 
 pally in emigration, iron, or coals for ballast; this trade is rapidly 
 
BRISTOL 
 
 492 
 
 BRISTOL 
 
 increasing, as are also the imports from the U. States and 
 Canada, consisting of cottou, timber, flour, provisions, tobacco, 
 and turpentine. The tobacco trade of Bristol is considerable, 
 and the manufacture of snuff extensive. The quantity of leaf 
 tobacco entered in 1843, amounted to 1,326,605 Ibs. ; of manu 
 factured tobacco and cigars, 790 Ibs. From the period of 
 the establishment of the floating harbour up to 1848, owing 
 to heavy dues being charged by the dock company, the trade 
 of Bristol did not increase correspondingly with other ports, 
 but in tliat year the enormous dues were reduced, and the 
 trade has been improving ever since. On January 1, 1846, 
 the number of sailing vessels registered at the port of Bristol 
 was 272, tonn. 38,143; steam vessels, 26, tonn. 3905. 
 
 V, s., Is inwards. , x, lu-Hv of eonstc-rs. 
 
 Vessels. Tonn. Custom Duties. 
 1847.. ..372....546,753.... 0,911,314 
 Ibl8.... 451. ...659,292.... 1,004,789 
 1 819.. ..541. ...641,351.... 1,036,732 
 1850.. ..616.. ..643,217.... 1,042,319 
 
 Vt-sscN outwards to Foreign ports. 
 
 Vesiels. Tonn. Export*. 
 1847. ...122.. ..28 214.. ..161,559 
 1048.... 142... .35,940.... 167,481 
 1819.. ..157.. ..34,674.... 147,044 
 1850.. ..177.. ..47,793.... 221.9U4 
 
 Bristol also possesses a very considerable Irish and coasting 
 trade, which is also increasing, employing, in 1847, 546,753 
 tons of shipping, and in 1850, 643,217 tons. The inland 
 commerce of Bristol is much promoted by the Great Western, 
 the Birmingham and Bristol, and other railways, and by 
 tlie extensive internal water communication afforded by the 
 Severn, the Wye, the Usk, the Avon, the Parret, the Tone, 
 and the numerous canals connected with them. 
 
 Municipal Government. Bristol received from Henry II. 
 a partial charter ; which was confirmed and extended by John 
 and Henry III. Edward III. constituted it a city and county 
 in itself; and Henry VIII., after the general dissolution of 
 the religious houses, made it the seat of a bishopric. Its 
 privileges were still more extended by the charters of Eliza 
 beth and Charles I. ; and it received a new charter from 
 Charles II., which was confirmed by Queen Anne. By the 
 new Municipal Act, the city is divided into 10 wards, and is 
 governed by a mayor, 16 aldermen, and 48 councillors, with 
 a recorder. It holds its own sessions. Bristol has returned 
 two members to Parliament since the 23d of Edward I. in 
 1283; number of electors (1850), 11,032. In October 1831, 
 this city was the scene of a series of frightful riots, which 
 lasted for several days ; when the custom-house, the excise 
 office, the bishop s palace, the public jails, and more than 
 40 private houses, were burned down, and many lives 
 were lost. The pretext for the riots was the attempt of Sir 
 Charles Wetherell, who had rendered himself very unpopu- 
 
 lar by his opposition to the Reform Bill, to make a public 
 entry into the city as recorder, previous to holding the 
 assizes. Bristol confers the title of Earl and Marquis on 
 the noble family of Hurvoy. It has three principal market 
 
 places, and a daily market, which is well supplied. Two 
 annual fairs, for two days each, are held March 1, and Sep 
 tember 1. They used to be frequented by dealers from all 
 parts of the country, but of late have greatly declined. 
 
 The suburban town of Clifton, the locality of the celebrated 
 Bristol waters, is situated about 1 m. N. the city, on the 
 summit of lofty cliffs, whence its name. It contains a num 
 ber of elegant squares, terraces, crescents, and many hand 
 some houses, of freestone and limestone, from quarries in 
 the vicinity. The streets are well paved, and lighted with 
 gas. There are four churches, and a chapel of ease, besides 
 chapels belonging to the Independents, Wesleyan Methodists, 
 and Baptists, and an unfinished R. Catholic place of worship, 
 intended for a cathedral. The national school is the only 
 endowed school in Clifton, but there is an educational institu 
 tion, called Bishop s College, at which a university education 
 is given, several academies for the higher classes, both male 
 and female, and a number of private subscription schools 
 for the children of the poorer inhabitants. Being merely a 
 watering place, Clifton has neither trade nor manufactures. 
 Its medicinal waters, and the beauty of its scenery, form its 
 chief attractions, and are the sole sources of its prosperity. 
 In the scheme of Pope Pius IX., in 1850, for establishing a 
 Papal hierarchy in England, a R. Catholic bishop was ap 
 pointed to Clifton. The pop. of the town is estimated at 
 20,000. 
 
 Bristol was a fortified city in the fifth century, but was not 
 otherwise of any consideration, but in the beginning of the 
 12th century, when it was called Brie or Briestow, it had be 
 come a place of some importance. In the reign of Edward III., 
 it contributed to the service of that monarch against France 
 as many ships and nearly as many men as London, while Liver 
 pool, a few years before, had furnished one small barque only. 
 With exception of some occasional vicissitudes, it continued 
 from this period to advance steadily, till it became one of the 
 most flourishing and wealthy towns in the empire, being, in 
 the 17th century, next to London, the greatest seaport in 
 England. At this period it carried on a thriving trade with 
 N. America and the West Indies, not the least active or pro 
 fitable part of which was shipping kidnapped persons for the 
 colonies a traffic in which the first magistrates of the city were 
 extensively engaged, and from which some of them derived 
 large fortunes. The Bristol of these days, however, was a 
 very different place from the Bristol of the present time, as 
 may be learnt by reference to Macaulay s History of England 
 (vol. i. p. 535, et seq.), where, amongst other curious particu 
 lars, it will be found that the streets were 
 then so narrow, that if a coach or cart ven 
 tured into them, there was no small danger 
 of its being wedged between the houses; 
 that goods were conveyed about the town 
 on trucks drawn by dogs, and that the 
 richest inhabitants exhibited their wealth, 
 not by riding in gilded carriages, but by 
 walking the streets with trains of servants 
 in rich liveries, and by keeping tables loaded 
 with good cheer. Among the more eminent 
 natives of Bristol, were William of Worces 
 ter, the topographer; William Grocyn, an 
 eminent Greek professor at Oxford ; the cele 
 brated discoverer of Newfoundland, Sebas 
 tian Cabot, son of a resident Venetian ; the 
 ill-fated Chatterton ; Bayley, the sculptor ; 
 Bowdich, the African traveller; and the 
 late poet-laureate, Dr. Southey. Bristol re 
 turns two members to the House of Com 
 mons. Registered electors in 1850, 12,157. 
 Pop. in 1831, 59,074, exclusive of the sub 
 urbs, which returned 44,812; total (1841), 
 1 40,158. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BRISTOL, a flourishing tn. and port, 
 U. States, Rhode Island, 15 m. S. by E. Pro 
 vidence, on E. side, NarrgansettBay; lat. 
 (Episcopal church) 41 40 N. ; Ion. 71 17 15" 
 W. (R.) It has a townhouse, and five churches, 
 Baptist, Christian, Congregational, Episcopal, and Methodist ; 
 and two banks. It has a good harbour, and is extensively en 
 gaged in the coasting trade and the fisheries. Tonnage (1840), 
 15,890. Pop. 3490. 
 
BRISTOL BAY 
 
 493 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 BRISTOL BAY, N. America, Russian territory, S.W. 
 coast, having the promontory of Aliaska on the S., and Cape 
 Newenham on the N.; lat. 58 N.; Ion. 158 W. 
 
 BRISTOL CHANNEL, England, an arm of the Irish 
 Sea, extending between the S. shores, of Wales and the coast 
 of Somerset and the N. coast of Devon, and terminating in the 
 estuary of the Severn ; remarkable for its high tides, and for 
 the rapidity with which they rise. Outside the channel, the 
 spring tides rise from 22 to 24 and 26 ft., at the mouth of the 
 Lower Avon to 48 ft., and at Chepstow to 60 ft. Taking 
 Lundy Island, lat. 51 10 6" N.; Ion. 4 40 15" W. (R.), as 
 the W. extremity of the channel, and meridian 3 W. as the 
 E. extremity, it will be about 50 m. long, by a breadth vary 
 ing from about 40 to 14 m. 
 
 BRISTON, or BURSTON, par. Eug. Norfolk; 2450 ac. 
 Pop. 963. 
 
 BRITAIN (GREAT). See BRITISH EMPIRE (THE). 
 
 BRITAIN (NEW), the name of two large and several 
 small islands, in the S. Pacific Ocean, lying between the 
 parallels of 4 and 6 30 S., from near the N.E. point of 
 New Guinea, to the S.W. part of New Ireland ; and having 
 Dampier Strait to the W., and St. George Channel to the E. 
 The two larger islands contain mountains of great elevation ; 
 and at the N.E. extremity of the most northerly, is a volcano 
 in active operation. Extensive plains, of great fertility, 
 stretch along the shores of both islands, which produce cocoa- 
 nuts, sago, bread-fruit tree, and other kinds of palms ; also 
 bananas, yams, ginger, sugar-cane, bamboo, &c. Pigs, turtle, 
 and fish, are also plentiful. The islands of New Britain have 
 a large population, a stout and well-made race, of very dark 
 complexion, and bearing altogether a strong resemblance to 
 the natives of Papua. These islands were believed to form 
 part of the latter, till the discovery of Dampier Strait, in 
 1699 or 1700, by the celebrated navigator of that name, who 
 established their insular character. 
 
 BRITANNIA ISLAND [native name, Uea], in the 
 S. Pacific, off N.W. extremity of New Caledonia ; lat. 21 26 
 S.; Ion. 168 10 E. (R.) It is about 30 m. in length, of 
 coral formation, elevated on the S.E. part to about 250 ft., 
 and quite level on the top ; the other parts are not quite so 
 high, and the whole of it is thickly wooded. The coast on 
 the S.E. part is composed of perpendicular cliffs, and no 
 soundings within 100 yards of the breakers ; on the W. side 
 the land is low, thickly studded with cocoa-nut trees, and 
 liaving a white sandy beach stretching along its margin, which 
 gives the shore a beautiful appearance. From the E. side to 
 the centre of the island, the ground is rocky, and destitute of 
 soil ; but on the W. side, around, and a little inland from the 
 villages, the soil is good, and capable of producing every 
 variety of tropical fruits and vegetables. It is well cultivated, 
 and yields abundant crops of sweet potatoes, bananas, and 
 sugar-cane. The climate is salubrious, and well adapted to a 
 European constitution. The island is inhabited by two dis 
 tinct tribes, who live in a constant state of warfare. They 
 are generally above the middle size, and their complexion 
 between black and copper colour. They are treacherous, and 
 are accused of cannibalism. Pop. estimated at about 4000. 
 
 BRITFORD, par. Eng. Wilts ; 3350 ac. Pop. 878. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA comprises, with exception of the 
 Russian possessions, the whole of N. America north of par 
 allel 49, together with some irregular portions, including 
 New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, stretching S. to lat. 43 30 
 N., and the triangular portion of which the Canadas form the 
 base, the apex extending S. to lat. 41 56 N. This vast terri 
 tory is thus bounded, E. by the Atlantic, Davis Strait, and Baf 
 fin s Bay, N. by the Arctic Ocean, N.W. by Russian America, 
 W. by the Pacific, and S. by the U. States. It comprehends 
 the Canadas (Upper and Lower), New Brunswick, Nova 
 Scotia, Cape Breton, Prince Edward s Island, Newfoundland, 
 N.W. Territory, and Hudson s Bay Territory. British N. 
 America is, generally speaking, a level country. It contains 
 few hills ; and those, for the most part, of inconsiderable height, 
 with exception of the Rocky Mountains. The climate in the 
 N. parts is so extremely rigorous, that the hardiest forest trees 
 cannot withstand it. It is covered with lakes and rivers, all 
 of which abound with fish of various kinds. Wild fowl are 
 also numerous, especially grouse, wild geese, and ducks. 
 The animals hunted for food are deer, of four different kinds, 
 buffaloes, rabbits, and porcupines. The principal objects of 
 
 traffic, in the more N. parts, are the skins of fur-clad animals, 
 of which there are here a great variety. The chief tribes 
 inhabiting these N. regions are the Chippewas, the Assini- 
 boins, the Crees, the Slave Indians, and the Esquimaux. Of 
 all these tribes the Crees have the best character, being active, 
 honest, and hospitable, kind to their women, and fondly at 
 tached to their children. The others are cruel, treacherous, 
 and unprincipled. 
 
 BRITISH CHANNEL. See ENGLISH CHANNEL. 
 BRITISH EMPIRE (THE), in many respects the great 
 est now existing, or that has ever existed, in the world ; and re 
 markable not more for the magnitude to which it has attained, 
 than for its comparatively humble origin an empire which, 
 though apparently destined, by geographical position, to oc 
 cupy only an archipelago in the N.W. corner of Europe, so 
 remote as to have been at one time deemed beyond the limits 
 of civilization, now stretches out its arms in every quarter, 
 in a manner encircling the globe, and ruling its destinies, 
 pre-eminent alike in wealth and population, manners and re 
 ligion, law, literature, and arts an empire, in short, in which 
 the great problem of human government is practically solved, 
 and the power of the sovereign so happily reconciled with true 
 freedom in the subject, that other States, in reforming them 
 selves, look to the British Constitution as their most perfect 
 model ; and the humblest, as well as the most illustrious of 
 other lands, when driven into exile, hasten to the British 
 shores as their safest asylum. 
 
 It is obvious, both from the extent of the subject, and the 
 narrow limits here necessarily assigned to it, that little more 
 than a general sketch of this magnificent empire can now be 
 attempted. Its minuter subdivisions will of course be de 
 scribed under their different names. 
 
 The British empire comprehends two great divisions : 1 , 
 The BRITISH ISLES, or what is commonly called, the UNITED 
 KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND ; and 2, COLONIES 
 and DEPENDENCIES. 
 
 General Description. The British Isles occupy a kind of 
 archipelago in the N.W. of Europe, and consist of the two 
 principal islands of Great Britain and Ireland, and s> great 
 number of smaller islands, which sometimes singly, but more 
 frequently in groups, line the shores of the other two, or lie 
 in the surrounding seas at no great distance from them. On 
 the N.W. and S.W. they lie open to the surges of the Atlantic, 
 on the E. they are washed by the N. Sea, or German Ocean, 
 and on the S. by the Atlantic and the English Channel. 
 Taking the most N. point of Unst, in the Shetland Isles (lat. 
 60 49 N.), and the most S. point of England, Lizard Point 
 (lat. 49 57 30" N.), as their extremities N. and S., and 
 Lowestoffe (Ion. 1 46 E.) and Dunmore Head (Ion. 10 27 
 W.) as their extremities E. and W. ; straight lines drawn 
 through these four points, will include a space extending over 
 nearly 11 of latitude, and rather more than 12 of longitude. 
 Hence, at the summer solstice, the longest day at the N. will 
 exceed that at the S. extremity by 2 h. 40 m., being 18 h. 
 48 m. at the former, and only 16 h. 8 m. at the latter, while 
 at all seasons there will be a difference between the E. and 
 W. extremities of nearly 49 m. of time. The United King 
 dom, formed by the union of what were formerly the three 
 independent kingdoms of Scotland, England, and Ireland, is 
 still similarly subdivided for administrative purposes. The 
 principal subdivision of the kingdoms is into counties, of which 
 England, with Wales, has 52, Scotland 32, and Ireland also 32. 
 
 The COLONIES and DEPENDENCIES are not confined to any 
 particular quarter of the world, but lie scattered over its 
 surface, often at immense distances, some of them forming 
 the very antipodes of the mother country, while others stretch 
 over the globe in succession, from E. to W., and make that 
 which was once flatteringly said of the Spanish monarchy to be 
 emphatically true of the British empire that the sun never 
 sets upon it. It is singular, however, that with all these vast 
 dominions, Britain possesses not one colony, and has only one 
 dependency on the continent of Europe. On the accession of 
 her present Majesty, the kingdom of Hanover, previously in 
 cluded in the empire, passed from it, under the operation of the 
 Salic law ; and the only continental spot now remaining is the 
 impregnable fortress of Gibraltar. To this may be added, in 
 the same quarter, the strong island of Malta, possessed in 
 absolute right, and the Ionian Isles, held under the name of a 
 protectorate ; and off the estuary of the Elbe, the rock of Heli- 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 494 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 goland, which had great commercial importance during the j 
 ascendancy of Napoleon, but lost it on his downfall. Leaving 
 the European, and proceeding S. to the African continent, on 
 reaching the coast of Senegambia, nearly in the parallel of 
 15 N., we find a series of British settlements skirting the 
 coast, and extending, with interruptions, for 1000 m., almost 
 to the equator. These settlements are of little commercial 
 value ; but have, perhaps, done more than any other part of 
 the empire to raise the British name, and place it on the proud 
 eminence which it now occupies among the nations. There, 
 with no hope of pecuniary return, and in the deadliest climates 
 to which European constitutions can be exposed, Britain pur 
 sues a labour of love both keeping up her settlements, though 
 at fearful sacrifices, and scouring the coasts with her ships, 
 in order to put down an inhuman traffic. Crossing the equa 
 tor, and still proceeding S., the first British possession reached 
 is the island of Ascension ; and after it, at a long distance, 
 the more famous island of St. Helena, of some importance as 
 a point of rendezvous on the voyage to India, and still long 
 to be remembered as the ocean-isle where Napoleon, by just 
 retribution, found a prison and a grave. The next British 
 settlement is the important one of Cape Colony, occupying 
 the peninsular extremity of S. Africa, and possessing, with 
 great intrinsic, still greater adventitious value, from its admir 
 able position in regard both to the mother country and her 
 possessions in the E. On the S. and W. it is washed by the 
 ocean, while in the N. its natural limits are determined by 
 bleak elevated tracts, called karoos, so sterile in soil, and so 
 seldom visited by rain, that vegetation is almost extinct ; but 
 a large space of better promise stretches far eastward, and, 
 being already under British protection, must, at no distant 
 period, merge into the colony. Indeed, the work of in 
 corporation has already begun, and promises to make rapid 
 progress by means of the recent settlement of Natal, which, 
 for the present, may be regarded as the limit of British pos 
 session in this quarter. To Africa, however, properly belong 
 the groups o-f the Amirantes and Seychelles, forming a small 
 archipelago on the N.E. of Madagascar, and also, though far 
 to the E. of the African coast, the valuable dependency of the 
 Mauritius ; while the importance recently given to the navi 
 gation of the Red Sea, now one of the great highways to the 
 E., has already led to negotiations for the acquisition of So- 
 cotra, and the actual purchase of the islands of Mushakh, in 
 the Gulf of Aden. The passage across this gulf brings us 
 from Africa to Asia, and places us in the town of Aden ; which, 
 since it became a British dependency, has made such rapid 
 progress as to justify the belief that it is the nucleus from 
 which other important settlements are destined to radiate. 
 From this point E., the Asiatic coast is skirted by the Arabian 
 desert, where, notwithstanding of the perfumed gales, poeti 
 cally said to be wafted from its shores, neither the enterprise 
 nor cupidity of Europeans has yet found anything to tempt 
 the formation of a settlement ; but, once across the A rabian Sea, 
 and the scene alters. There an immense peninsular tract is 
 reached, commencing in the S. in a mere point, but gradually 
 swelling out on both sides as it ascends towards the N., till 
 length and breadth have become almost equal, each having a 
 stretch of nearly 2000 m., while a mountain-range of un 
 equalled height and grandeur crowns the N. frontier, and forms 
 the appropriate barrier of this great territory. The whole, 
 with a few insignificant exceptions, belongs in property or in 
 trust to Great Britain, and is unquestionably her most mag 
 nificent foreign possession a possession in extent so vast, in 
 resources so rich, and in people, tongues, and nations, so 
 multitudinous, that there is no extravagance in the language 
 which isolates it from other dependencies, and speaks of it 
 apart as our Indian Empire. At the S.E. of Hindoostan, and 
 so closely connected with it by the islets of Manaar and Kam- 
 eserum, that no properly navigable passage intervenes, is the 
 large and beautiful spice and coflfee island of Ceylon, in which 
 British supremacy has long been established. Proceeding E. 
 across the Bay of Bengal, we arrive at Aracan, and consider 
 ably to the S.E. on the same coast, at the Tenasserim Pro 
 vinces, both once belonging to Burmah, and ceded to Britain 
 in 1826, and both now included in India E. of the Ganges. 
 Considerably to the W. are the Andaman, and to the S. 
 some other island groups, nominally the property, but not 
 actually in the possession of Great Britain. Leaving these, we 
 reach the peninsula of Malacca, and; turning into its Straits, 
 
 find several British trading settlements first, Prince of Wales 
 Island or Penang, then Malacca, of much larger extent, but as 
 yet far inferior in trade ; and lastly, on emerging from the 
 straits and rounding the peninsula, the most important of all, 
 the flourishing settlement of Singapore, placed at the entrance 
 of the Chinese Sea, and forming the great depot for its traffic. 
 In the lower portion of this Sea, the only British settlement is 
 that of the island of Labuan, with the accompanying rajahship 
 of Sarawak, both now regarded with deep interest by the 
 British public, not so much on account of the results which 
 they have actually produced, as of those which are sanguinely 
 anticipated from them. The number of British settlements in 
 the Chinese Sea, bears no proportion to the magnitude of the 
 British interests connected with it. Not another is met with 
 on this side of the coast of China, and even then, the only 
 possession which Britain calls her own, is the paltry island 
 of Hong-Kong. Passing out of the Chinese Sea by the S. of 
 the Philippine Isles, and proceeding into the vast archipelago, 
 to which, on account of its numberless islands, the name of 
 Polynesia is perhaps the most appropriate that could be given, 
 we reach New Holland or Australia, the largest island of the 
 world, and only a fifth less than the continent of Europe. 
 This island Great Britain as yet possesses undivided, and is 
 apparently converting into a new empire. Wherever favour 
 able localities could be found, colonies have been placed, and 
 appear to prosper, subject, however, to the serious drawback 
 of being partly peopled by convicts, and their immediate de 
 scendants. On the S.E. of Australia is the thriving colony 
 of Van Diemen s Land, and considerably further S.E., first the 
 Auckland Islands, granted by Government to the Enderbys, 
 their discoverers, as a whaling station, and then Campbell 
 Island. To the N. of these islands are the recently formed 
 and hopeful colonies of New Zealand, consisting mainly of two 
 islands, which, though the antipodes of Great Britain in respect 
 of position, bear some resemblance to it in shape, and, from the 
 thousands of respectable emigrants who have crowded to their 
 shores, promise soon to resemble it in more important fea 
 tures. To the N.W. of New Zealand, is the penal settlement of 
 Norfolk Island. Beyond it, the bosom of the Pacific is dotted 
 over with islands, of which several nominally belong to Great 
 Britain, while to many others she possesses all the right which 
 both priority of discovery, and of possession by her subjects, 
 can give. It would seem, however, from recent occurrences, 
 that this title is either incomplete, or has been voluntarily 
 abandoned. These islands, interesting as they must always be 
 to the true philanthropist, as the scenes where civilization, 
 with religion for its handmaid, early gained some of its com- 
 pletest triumphs, have little political or commercial import 
 ance ; and their inhabitants, therefore, still lie at the mercy of 
 any unprincipled power, which, under the alternate guidance 
 of infidelity and bigotry, chooses to force its protection upon 
 them. Turning, then, from Tahiti and the other islet groups 
 of the same Sea, our course now lies S. over a long ex 
 panse, then round Cape Horn, and N. to the Falkland Isles, 
 which Britain early acquired, but chiefly values as a station 
 in connection with the fisheries of the South Sea. Almost 
 the whole coast of S. America must now be coasted N. be 
 fore another British settlement is reached. The first which 
 occurs is British Guiana, the N.W. extremity of which is 
 almost lost in the embouchure of the Orinoco. In common 
 with the other parts of the extensive tract almost encircled 
 by this river and the Amazon, it is chiefly remarkable for 
 the rank luxuriance of its vegetation, and the large supplies 
 which it raises of all kinds of colonial produce. In this 
 latter respect, it may be considered as belonging to the 
 series of settlements which lie principally in and around the 
 Caribbean Sea, there forming the West India Islands, the 
 management of which presents, with many of the darkest, 
 one of the brightest spots in British annals. Before leaving 
 this quarter, mention should be made of Honduras, a settle 
 ment from which Britain has long continued to derive some 
 of her finest ornamental timber. Proceeding N., past the 
 Bermudas, now a penal station, we reach the last great divi 
 sion of our settlements a division included under the general 
 name of British America, and originally almost of boundless 
 extent, as may be estimated from the fact, that, though its 
 S. portion already constitutes a vast union of independent 
 democracies, it still stretches from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
 Ocean, and from the parallel of 42 to the North Pole. Tho 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 495 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 area and population of the different countries of which the 
 British Empire is composed, is exhibited in the following 
 Table: 
 
 AREA and POPULATION of the BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
 
 sq. m. 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 Area In 
 q. m. 
 
 Population. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 
 
 Br- for 4 
 
 1,403,552 
 
 170,535,705 
 
 British Isles. 
 
 120,971 
 
 27,019,558 
 
 AMKRICA. 
 
 
 
 Heligoland.. 
 
 5 
 
 2,300 
 
 Canada E. ... 
 
 191,815 
 
 693,649 
 
 Gibraltnr 
 
 a 
 
 15,000 
 
 Canada W.... 
 
 147,000 
 
 506,055 
 
 Malta and ) 
 Gozo f 
 Ionian Isls... 
 
 120 
 
 1,092 
 
 119,247 
 219,797 
 
 New Bruns.. 
 Nova Sco. ) 
 C. Breton ) 
 
 27,700 
 17,500 
 
 130,000 
 199,870 
 
 
 
 
 P. Ed. Isl.... 
 
 2,134 
 
 34,666 
 
 AFRICA. 
 Gambia 
 
 19 
 
 4,857 
 
 Newfound... 
 
 85,913 
 
 81,517 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 800 
 
 44,935 
 
 Hud. Bay ) 
 
 3,700,000 
 
 1 ,099,700 
 
 Gold Coast ) 
 possessions ) 
 Fernando Po 
 Ascension.... 
 St. Helena . 
 
 N^\ c ! on . y 
 
 GOOO 
 400 
 35 
 48 
 110,256 
 18,000 
 
 275,000 
 
 4oo 
 
 4977 
 1CC.408 
 
 Territory f 
 West India) 
 Islands \ 
 Bermudas.... 
 Honduras.... 
 Guiana 
 Falk. Islands 
 
 13,753 
 19 
 
 62,750 
 95,000 
 13,000 
 
 848 490 
 
 10,240 
 . 5,130 
 103,100 
 
 Mauritius... 
 
 708 
 
 151,089 
 
 
 
 
 Seychelles.. 
 
 75 
 
 159,243 
 
 N. S Wales.. 
 
 53,100 
 
 162,351 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 
 
 S. Australia.. 
 
 300,000 
 
 31,153 
 
 Aden 
 
 8 
 
 50,000 
 
 W. Australia 
 
 45,000 
 
 4,6;2 
 
 India, Brit... 
 India Depen 
 Tunas, provs. 
 Ceylon 
 
 ncs.ooo 
 
 1-2,000 
 32,500 
 24,664 
 
 93,500,000 
 47,000,000 
 118,000 
 1,507,326 
 
 Victoria or ) 
 Port Philip f 
 Australia, ) 
 not settled ) 
 
 93,000 
 2,500,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 Penang 
 Malacca 
 
 160 
 900 
 
 40,323 
 45,953 
 
 Van Die- ) 
 men s Land f 
 
 24,000 
 
 70,164 
 
 Singapore... 
 
 2/0 
 
 57,421 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 95,000 
 
 122,000 
 
 Labuan 
 
 25 
 
 
 Norf. Island. 
 
 
 
 Hong Kong.. 
 
 
 "23,872 
 
 Auck. Island 
 
 " 156 
 
 
 Carry for* 
 
 1,403.552 
 
 170,535,7< 5 
 
 Total, 
 
 8,888,392 174,678,412 
 
 The rapid sketch now given must suffice for the British 
 colonies and dependencies, but the geography of the United 
 Kingdom requires a fuller description, and to it, therefore, 
 we now return. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. Geography. As already observed, it 
 occupies a kind of archipelago in the N.W. of Europe, and 
 consists of numerous groups of islands, the principal of which 
 are Great Britain and Ireland, separated from each other by 
 the Irish Sea, which, near the centre, attains its greatest 
 width of about 130 m. ; but between Holyhead in Wales, and 
 Howth Head in Ireland, in the tract taken by the English 
 packets, is not wider than 60 m. ; and between the Mull of 
 Cantyre in Scotland, and Fair Head in Ireland, narrows to 
 about 12m. Great Britain, the larger, and by far the more 
 important of the two islands, is situated between lat. 49 57 42" 
 and 58 40 24" N. It is the largest island in Europe, and 
 the seventh largest in the world ; the only islands ranking 
 before it, in this respect, being Australia, Borneo, Papua, 
 Sumatra, Niphon, and Madagascar. Its nearest approach 
 to the continent of Europe is at its S.E. extremity, where the 
 Strait of Dover, separating it from France, is only 21 m. 
 broad. On both sides of the Strait the distance is rapidly 
 increased. To the W., the English Channel widens out till 
 the extremities of England and France are 100 m. asunder. 
 On the E., the German Ocean, where it separates England 
 from Belgium and Holland, is also about 100 m. across ; but, 
 a little N., it suddenly gains thrice that width, and retains 
 it so as to place the E. shores of Great Britain at the aver 
 age distance of 350 m. from the W. shores of Denmark 
 and Norway. The contour of Great Britain is so very ir 
 regular, that it seems vain to compare it to any mathema 
 tical figure. It has sometimes been described as a triangle, 
 with its vertex in the N., and its base resting on the S. ; 
 and it is, no doubt, true that the island narrows much in the 
 former, and attains nearly its greatest breadth in the latter 
 direction ; but the E. and W. coasts, which, to complete the 
 figure, must represent the sides of the triangle, cannot, by 
 any force of imagination, be made to assume the form of 
 straight lines. The N. part of the island in particular, ex 
 hibits on its E. coast a succession of large salient angles, 
 while the W. coast is broken and ragged in the extreme ; the 
 land ever and anon jutting out into the sea, and the sea 
 making deep inroads into the land, as if the two elements had 
 not yet ascertained their boundaries, and were contending for 
 mastery. The greatest length of Great Britain, measured on 
 
 a line bearing N. by W. from Rye to Dunnet Head, is 608 m. 
 The breadth, necessarily modified by the numerous indenta 
 tions of the coast, varies exceedingly. The longest line 
 which can be drawn across the island, in a slanting direction, 
 is, W.S.W. to E.N.E., 367 m., from Land s End to Lowes- 
 toflfe ; but the longest line, measured from the W. to the E. 
 coast on a parallel of latitude, between St. David s Head, in 
 Pembrokeshire, and the Naze, in Essex, is only 280 m. The 
 breadth is least in the N. parts of the island. Between the 
 Clyde at Dumbarton, and the Forth at Alloa, it is only 33 m. , 
 in the Oikel, which falls into Dornoch Firth, the tide ascends 
 till within 18 m. of the W. coast, and the remarkable chain of 
 lochs between the Moray Firth and Loch Liimhe leaves so little 
 land intervening between the opposite coasts, that the com 
 munication left unfinished by nature has been completed by 
 art, and now forms the Caledonian Canal. The area of Great 
 Britain, including the groups of the Orkneys, Shetlands, and 
 Hebrides, is about 88,051 sq. m. Of these, England and 
 Wales occupy 57,812 sq. m., and Scotland 26,014 sq. m. 
 
 Ireland, as already mentioned, lies to the W. of Great 
 Britain, being separated from it by the Irish Sea, and sur 
 rounded on all other sides by the Atlantic Ocean. It nowhere 
 extends so far as either the N. or S. extremities of Great 
 Britain, but occupies an intermediate space between lat. 51 25 
 and 55 23 N., its N. extremity being on the same parallel 
 with the central part of Ayrshire, and the town of Alnwick, 
 in Northumberlandshire ; and its S. extremity being opposite 
 to Bristol Channel, nearly in the latitude of London. E and 
 W. it lies between Ion. 6 and 1 1 W. Its shape is much more 
 regular than that of Great Britain, and bears a considerable re 
 semblance to a rhomboid, two sides of which are nearly due N. 
 and S., while the other two take a slanting direction, between 
 W.S.W. and E.N.E. The greatest diagonal of the rhomboid 
 is between Mizzen Head, in Cork, and Fair Head, in Antrim, 
 about 300 m. ; the greatest length, measured on a meridian 
 (nearly that of 8 W.), is 230 m. ; and the greatest breadth, 
 measured on a parallel (about 54 25 N.), is 180 m. The 
 breadth across the centre is nearly 1 65 m. Owing to the com 
 pactness of its form, Ireland does not exhibit such variation of 
 breadth as we have seen to exist in Great Britain ; but the 
 breadth, from Galway Bay to Dublin, is not 110 m. ; and the 
 shortest breadth of all, between Ballyshannon and Dundalk, is 
 only 85 m. One remarkable fact is that, notwithstanding the 
 general compactness of Ireland, its opposite coasts and arms of 
 the sea are so conveniently situated in regard to each other, 
 that there is not a spot on its surface which is not, in some 
 direction or other, within 55 m. of the ocean. The area of 
 Ireland is about 32,513 sq. m. 
 
 AREA of the BRITISH ISLES. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 Area in 
 *q. m. 
 
 Area in acres. 
 
 England 
 Wales 
 Isle of Man 
 Scilly Mes 
 
 50,387 
 7.425 
 280 
 8 
 
 32,247,680 
 4.752,000 
 179,200 
 5570 
 
 Channel Islunds 
 Scotland 
 Hebrides, viz., Bute, &c 
 Isles of Argyle 
 Isles of Inverness 
 Isles of Ross andCromartv.. 
 Orkney Isles 
 
 120 
 26,014 
 165 
 950 
 1209 
 580 
 440 
 
 76,600 
 1 6,648.960 
 105,600 
 608.000 
 773,700 
 871,200 
 281 600 
 
 Shetland Isles 
 
 880 
 
 563 200 
 
 Ireland 
 
 32,513 
 
 20,81)8,271 
 
 Total 
 
 120,971 
 
 77,421,641 
 
 Physical Features. We are so much accustomed to think 
 and speak of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland, that 
 we are apt to imagine, not merely a political, but also some 
 great physical distinction between them. In fact, however, 
 there is no such physical distinction. Their frontiers, in 
 part at least, merge insensibly into each other, and the whole 
 must be viewed as one island, which in regard even to phy 
 sical features, is among the most interesting islands in the 
 world. Though of comparatively limited extent, all varieties 
 of scenery are exhibited in rich profusion on its surface, and 
 all forms of geological structure lie within its bosom. The 
 N. part of Great Britain is, for the most part, rugged, moun 
 tainous, and barren. To the N. of a line drawn from the 
 Frith of Clyde on the W., to Stonehaven on the E. coast, 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 496 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 the whole country is composed of primary rocks. Gneiss, and 
 mica slate, with numerous outbursts of granite, form lofty 
 mountain chains, whose lower slopes are usually covered with 
 beds of conglomerate and old red sandstone. These moun 
 tain chains maintain a remarkable degree of parallelism, their 
 longer axis almost invariably taking a direction between S.W. 
 and N.E. The principal chain is the Grampians, but though its 
 mountains are the loftiest in the island, they are by no means 
 of the first class. Their culminating points, Bennevis and 
 Benmacdhuie, are, respectively, 4380 and 4305 ft. From their 
 N. sides, snow scarcely ever disappears. These mountains, 
 from the nature of the materials of which they are composed, 
 frequently assume the form of peaks and frowning precipices, 
 which, as they descend, instead of terminating at the general 
 level of the base, are continued downwards, and become the 
 romantic barriers of deep extensive lakes, presenting scenes 
 in which sublimity and beauty strangely intermingle. The 
 last range within the line already mentioned is that of the 
 Ochils, which are much less elevated than the Grampians, 
 and exhibit scenery of a much tamer description. They con 
 sist chiefly of porphyry and amygdaloid, in which numerous 
 nodules of agate and carnelian are found. Instead of tower 
 ing up in sterile peaks, they are generally rounded, and clothed 
 to their summits with verdant or heathy pastures. On their 
 S. slopes, a new geological formation appears. The carbon 
 iferous system, at first with its strata almost turned on edge, 
 and thrown into confusion by contact with masses and veins 
 of trap, soon becomes fully developed, and stretches, with 
 occasional interruptions, from the E. to the W. coast, over the 
 basins both of the Forth and Clyde. The mineral treasures 
 of this district make it one of the most important in Great 
 Britain. To the S., immediately beyond the limits of this coal 
 field, the country again assumes an alpine character, and moun 
 tains, which, for the most part, are composed of rocks of gray- 
 wacke and coarse slate, rise with heights varying from 2000 
 to 3000 ft. above the level of the sea. A considerable part 
 of this district is occupied by the Lead Hills, so called from 
 the rich veins of lead by which its strata of graywacke are 
 intersected. In earlier times, their alluvial covering em 
 bedded a more precious metal, and the mere washing of the 
 soil is said to have yielded gold to the value of 100,000. 
 Still further to the S., several large masses of granite occvir. 
 Coal also again appears, and forms two minor coal fields. To 
 wards the S.E.,the most conspicuous feature is formed by the 
 Cheviot Hills, a porphyritic range, which once formed part of 
 the boundary between two independent kingdoms, and sends 
 its ramifications into both. Those which pass into England 
 may be regarded as the commencing links of a long chain of 
 mountains and hills, which extends, with scarcely a single 
 interruption, along the W. side of that division of the island, 
 forming its most important water-shed, and throwing out 
 numerous branches, particularly those which penetrate into 
 Cumberland and Wales, and give a somewhat modified, but 
 scarcely less attractive repetition of the magnificent scenery 
 to which reference has been made. In the N. part of this 
 chain, or that part to which the name of Cumbrian range is 
 sometimes given, the most striking feature is formed by 
 the series of romantic lakes so well known to tourists from 
 all countries. Here granite and a species of basalt are oc 
 casionally seen, but the prevailing rocks are slates and sand 
 stones, belonging to the Silurian series. In other parts of 
 this range, trap-porphyry occurs. It forms the very sum 
 mit of Scawfell, and is seen, in still more interesting circum 
 stances, at Sotaller, in Borrowdale, where, at its contact with 
 a bed of red unctuous clay and ironstone, occurs the cele 
 brated vein of graphite, which has long furnished the finest 
 black-lead pencils in the world. Another largely developed | 
 rock of the same range is the mountain limestone, which, if 
 anywhere, here truly deserves the name ; inasmuch as it 
 forms lofty mountain-masses Ingleborough, Whernside, Pen- 
 nigant, and Cross Fell being almost entirely composed of it. 
 This limestone is often intersected by rich veins of lead. In 
 the lengthened chain already referred to, and to the S. and W. 
 of the Cumbrian, is the Cambrian range, spread over the great 
 part of Wales ; and containing, among others, the highest 
 mountain of S. Britain Snowdon, 357 1 ft. The rocks, like 
 those of the Cumbrian range, lie low in the geological series, 
 and consist almost entirely of slate, and different varieties of 
 trap and porphyry. The great exception is towards the S. 
 
 limits of the range, where the silurian rocks are overlain by 
 an extensive tract of old red sandstone, overlain in its turn by 
 the mountain limestone, which, like a girdle, encircles the 
 most extensive, if not the most valuable of the British coal 
 fields. 
 
 To the S. of the Cambrian is the Devonian range, stretch 
 ing from the Bristol to the British Channel, and though lofty 
 enough, when viewed from the level of the sea, to present 
 a coast of remarkable boldness, too low to deserve the name 
 of mountainous. Here granite is extensively developed, and, 
 often possessing the property of decomposing rapidly, furnishes 
 the white clay called kaolin, of which our finest porcelain is 
 made. The granite is overlain by the old red sandstone, or 
 rather by a slate which is considered to be its equivalent ; 
 and prevails to such an extent, particularly in Devonshire, 
 as to have given its name to a geological formation, hence 
 termed the Devonian series or system. Here the mineral 
 treasures are tin and copper, veins of which, generally at a 
 high angle, and in a direction from E. to W., intersect the 
 slate and granite, and vary in width from a few inches to 
 several feet. Not unfrequently a vein commencing with tin 
 is converted into a vein of copper after a considerable depth 
 has been reached. Tin, too, occurs in the sands of rivers 
 and valleys in the form of grains and pebbles, and is known 
 by the name of stream-tin the rocky walls which once en 
 closed it having evidently been decomposed and washed away. 
 The different ranges now described as occupying the W. side 
 of England, and stretching from its N. to its S. extremity, are 
 composed entirely of primary rocks, or at least of rocks which, 
 with the exception of the great Welsh coal field, and another 
 of limited dimensions on the N. coast of Cumberland, never 
 stand higher in the geological series than the lowest strata of 
 the carboniferous system. On proceeding E. the case is re 
 versed, and the oldest strata which occur are identical with 
 those which were formerly the most recent. Here, accord 
 ingly, secondary formations prevail, beginning with the moun 
 tain limestone or coarse quartzose sandstone, known by the 
 name of millstone grit, on which our coal fields are usually 
 based, and ascending by regular gradations up to the more 
 recent tertiary deposits. The coal fields, notwithstanding of 
 their incalculable economical value, occupy a comparatively 
 limited extent of surface an extent certainly not under 
 estimated at one-twentieth of the whole. A line drawn from 
 Lyme Regis to Bath, thence to Gloucester, Warwick, Leices 
 ter, Nottingham, and Tadcaster, and from Tadcasterto Stock- 
 ton-on-Tees, has on its E. side nearly two-thirds of the whole 
 surface of England. In the whole of this space no coal is 
 worked. If the series of strata are regular, there can be no 
 doubt that coal exists ; but probably at a depth far beyond 
 the reach of any known means of excavation. Immediately 
 above it lie immense beds of red marl, sands, sandstones, 
 and conglomerates, composing the new red sandstone series, 
 and remarkable for the saline springs and rock-salt with 
 which it abounds. This series, from its proximity to the coal, 
 is usually at no great distance from the coal fields, and its 
 lower strata must often be sunk through to great depths 
 in order to reach them. It occupies a considerable portion 
 of surface, but its saliferous deposits nowhere appear so rich 
 as in the neighbourhood of Chester. Above the new red 
 sandstone is the oolitic series, composed of numerous beds 
 of limestones, clay schists, and sandstones, and stretching, 
 with partial interruption, from the S. of England into York 
 shire. It is rich in fossils, and beds of fireclay, and furnishes 
 much of the finest building stone in the kingdom. Passing 
 the wealden series, so called from having its chief develop 
 ment in the Weald of Sussex, we reach the chalks, which 
 occupy the uppermost place in the secondary formation, and 
 which, though confined to a few patches of N., constitute a 
 marked feature in the geology of S. Britain, where they not 
 only compose the prevailing strata of extensive undulating 
 tracts, but form in many places, both on the E. and S. coasts, 
 bold and giddy cliffs, from whose white colour the ancient 
 name of Albimi is said to be derived. The tertiary formation, 
 which includes all the rocks above the chalk, is of compar 
 atively limited extent, and is succeeded by immense beds of 
 diluvial gravels, sands, and clays, in which are found remains 
 of the larger existing quadrupeds, several of them, like the 
 elephant and rhinoceros, belonging to genera which now exist 
 only in much hotter climates. Above these diluvial beds lie 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 497 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 Diluvium and other superficial deposits, the constituents of 
 which, mainly depending on the rocks from which they have 
 been disintegrated, determines the natural properties of the 
 soil, sometimes giving it an almost inexhaustible fertility, 
 and sometimes dooming it to perpetual barrenness. 
 
 Turning from Great Britain to Ireland, one of the most 
 marked features which meets our view, is the dreary expanse 
 of bog which stretches over its interior. The surface, as might 
 hence be inferred, is much flatter than that of Great I5ritain. 
 It is not, however, by any means destitute of mountains. Of 
 these no fewer than 24 exceed 2000 ft., and four exceed 3000 ft. 
 Cam Tual, the culminating point of the island, is 3404 ft. It 
 belongs to a great range called the mountains of Kerry, which, 
 in connection with the lakes of Killarney, placed in the very 
 heart of them, furnish scenes of grandeur which few countries 
 can surpass. The great mountain groups consist of primary 
 and transition rocks, and are generally situated noar the coasts, 
 which accordingly become of the boldest description. Inland 
 behind these lofty barriers lies a vast undulating plain, oc 
 casionally penetrated and broken up by masses of primary 
 rocks, but occupied almost throughout its whole extent by 
 secondary formations. Of these, by far the most largely de 
 veloped is mountain limestone, much of it so fine-grained and 
 compact as to furnish quarries of marble, both black and 
 variegated, but seldom containing the rich veins of lead which 
 usually accompany the same formation in England. The 
 limestone is succeeded in regular gradation by the upper 
 strata of the carboniferous system, and coal has been found 
 to a greater or less extent in no fewer than 17 Irish counties. 
 In general, however, its quality is inferior. Much of it is in 
 the form of anthracite, of which seams of remarkable purity, 
 cilmosf. entirely composed of carbon, occur in the vicinity 
 of Kilkenny ; but the greater part of the coal raised is mere 
 dross or culm, scarcely fit to be employed for any more im 
 portant purpose than burning limestone. Still higher in the 
 series above the coal, the upper strata of the secondary for 
 mation are considerably developed in the N., where they are 
 capped by numerous masses of volcanic origin. The most 
 magnificent specimen of these is the range of basaltic columns 
 which forms the celebrated Giant s Causeway. 
 
 Rivers and Ports. The mountain-chains which constitute 
 the principal water-sheds of Great Britain, are generally at no 
 great distance from the W. coast, and hence the rivers which 
 descend from them in that direction, have a short course and 
 are comparatively unimportant. The two great exceptions 
 to this rule are the Clyde and the Severn. Both of them 
 have their mouths on the W. coast, but they owe both their 
 volume and the length of their course to a series of longitud 
 inal valleys, which, instead of opening directly to the coast, 
 take an opposite or parallel direction, and thus rather skirt 
 ing the water-shed than flowing from it, obtain much larger 
 supplies of water than a direct course could have given them. 
 The former of these rivers, though of vast commercial import 
 ance, is indebted for it far less to its natural channel, than to 
 the immense sums judiciously expended through a long series 
 of years, in improving and almost creating its navigation. 
 Considered merely as a river, it is comparatively insignificant, 
 the whole length of its course to Dumbarton, where the Frith 
 properly commences, being not more, including windings, than 
 73 m. The Severn is a much longer stream, and carries 
 along with it a much mightier flood, which, commencing in 
 the mountains of N. Wales, proceeds S. through long valleys 
 opened into by others which add their tributary streams, till 
 the immense accumulated volume is poured into the Bristol 
 Channel. To counterbalance these, the only rivers of any 
 considerable volume of which the W. coast can boast, though 
 it also possesses the Mersey, in commercial importance the 
 second river of the empire, the E. coast, proceeding from N. 
 to S. receives the Spey, Don. Dee, Tay, Forth, Tweed, Tyne, 
 Ouse, Trent, and Thames. This list contains the Tay, in 
 volume the first river of Great Britain, and the Thames not 
 much less in volume, and in navigable importance the greatest 
 river of the world. It is remarkable that no river of import 
 ance empties itself either on the N. or S. coast. Owing to 
 the great central flat of Ireland, its rivers usually flow on 
 in a gently winding course, and, little interrupted by natural 
 obstructions, are admirably fitted for navigation. Those of 
 importance are not very numerous, but one of them, the 
 Shannon, is understood to be the largest river of the British 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 Isles. Within 7 m. of its source it enters Lough Allen, which 
 is itself navigable, and after passing out of the Lough pursues 
 a S.W. course of 214 m., the whole of which is available for 
 transport by smaller vessels, while from its mouth up to 
 Limerick, a distance of 70 m., it floats vessels of 400 tons. 
 In numerous features this noble river bears a remarkable 
 ! resemblance to the Severn. We have seen that in Great 
 Britain the E. coast receives the greater part of its rivers. 
 In Ireland the rule is reversed. The Liffey, more important 
 from having the capital on its banks, than from its own mag 
 nitude, is the only river on that coast deserving of notice. 
 While both Great Britain and Ireland are thus provided with 
 numerous streams, which ramify over their various districts, 
 and are either themselves navigable, or, when they cease to bo 
 so, furnish the means of continued navigation by acting as the 
 feeders of canals, the coasts are scooped out into deep and 
 sheltered bays, in some of which whole fleets of the largest 
 ships can float and ride in safety. It is true, however, that 
 the number of ocean harbours, properly so called, is not great, 
 and that the E. coast of Britain in particular, is so scantily 
 provided, as to make the construction of a great harbour of 
 refuge at some central point a work of primary necessity, 
 which must sooner or later be performed. The best of these 
 harbours are situated on the S. coast, and most providentially, 
 at the very points where the proximity of the Continent, and 
 the presence of a mighty rival, animated by a deadly hate, 
 and ever on the watch to strike a blow, made it of most im 
 portance to possess them. Within these harbours lie the 
 wooden walls which form the true defences of the British 
 Empire. 
 
 Climate. Among the many advantages which the British 
 Isles derive from their geographical position, one, the bene 
 ficial effects of which cannot easily be over-rated, is the 
 peculiar kind of climate conferred by that position a climate 
 in which the natural rigours of a comparatively high lati 
 tude are so modified, that at no season is either cold or heat 
 in extreme ; and the mean temperature maintained is one of 
 the most favourable to the full and healthy development both 
 of animal and vegetable life. The peculiar excellencies of 
 this climate cannot be more correctly and happily expressed 
 than in the words which, according to Sir William Temple, 
 were used by Charles II., when, in answer to some courtiers 
 who were disparaging the British climate, and lauding that 
 of Italy and France, he said, He thought that was the best 
 climate where he could be abroad in the air with pleasure, or 
 at least without trouble or inconvenience, the most days of 
 the year, and the most hours of the day; and this, he thought, 
 he could be in England more than any other country of 
 Europe. The accuracy of this opinion is undeniable, and 
 the ground on which it rests might easily be explained, did 
 our limits admit of detail. The British Isles being nearly in 
 the centre of the temperate zone, have, in common with all 
 countries so situated, four different seasons, which merge 
 almost insensibly into each other, but exhibit a wide range of 
 temperature between their opposite extremes, as determined 
 by the sun s elevation above, or his depression below, the 
 equator. The central latitude of the United Kingdom is 
 nearly 55 N., and the isothermal line which passes through 
 it indicates a mean annual temperature of 50. Did this 
 isothermal line, when continued E. across the continents, of 
 Europe and Asia, or W. across that of America, pursue the 
 same parallel, it would prove that the climate of all countries 
 on that parallel was uniform, and that the British Isles, if 
 they had nothing to complain, had also nothing to boast of. 
 In point of fact, however, the deviation is very great, and it 
 is wholly in their favour. The isothermal line, on crossing 
 the German Ocean, and approaching the coast of Holland, 
 s deflected S. ; and this deflection continues to increase in 
 the same direction till it reaches lat. 45, on the E. side of 
 the Sea of Azof. From this point it pursues its course with 
 great uniformity, skirting the N. shore of the Caspian, and 
 passing onward through Mongolia and Manchooria on the N. 
 f China, to the Sea of Japan. The fact thus established is, 
 that iii respect of mean temperature, the British Isles have 
 the advantage of all countries of the same latitude to the E. of 
 hem ; and that on the continent of Asia this advantage is so 
 marked, as to amount to a difference of 10 of latitude, the 
 British latitude of 55 enjoying as much annual heat as thfi 
 Asiatic latitude of 45. But this is by no means the whole 
 
 C3 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 493 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 amount of the advantage. A mean temperature is an average 
 obtained by adding temperatures of different seasons together, 
 and then dividing them. Hence it follows, that the same mean 
 temperature may exist when the climates are of a different 
 and almost of an opposite description. A winter of 10, and 
 a summer of 90, give the same mean temperature as a winter 
 of 40, and a summer of 60; but how unlike the climates 1 
 The former gives a range of temperature equal to 80, the 
 latter a range equal only to 20 ; in other words, the inhabitants 
 living under the one climate are alternately benumbed by 
 piercing cold, and enervated by scorching heat, whereas those 
 living under the other are blessed with a kind of perpetual 
 spring. Now, it is precisely in regard to range of tem 
 perature, that the superiority of the British climate becomes 
 most apparent. The range of the temperature between the 
 coldest and the warmest months, is, at Paris, 30; at Lon 
 don, only 26. In the S.W. and S.E. of France, it is, re 
 spectively, 31 and 35 30 , and in Italy, 32 30 ; in England 
 generally, only 24 30 . The range of Edinburgh is 25 3 ; 
 that of St. Petersburg, no less than 55. The mean winter 
 temperature of Dublin, only 39 8 , is 3 6 higher than that 
 of Milan, Pavia, Padua, or the whole of Lombardy. In the 
 N.E. of Ireland, the myrtle grows in the open air, as in Por 
 tugal ; and in the S.E. of Cornwall, the mean temperature is 
 only 2 4 less than that of Montpellior and Florence. The 
 chief agent in moderating the natural climate of the British 
 Isles, is the Atlantic Ocean. Its temperature, never below 
 the freezing point, and raised by the influx of the Gulf Stream, 
 is communicated to the winds and vapours which are wafted 
 along its surface ; and hence, these winds and vapours, on 
 reaching our coasts, combine with the colder temperature of 
 the atmosphere and surface, in forming one of a medium and 
 mitigated description. A continual struggle is carried on 
 between the low current of dense and intensely cold air, which 
 comes from the frozen regions of the N., and the downward 
 current of warm air, which is expanded and driven N. by the 
 vertical snns of the N. tropics. In this struggle the warm 
 air generally proves victorious, and hence the general preva 
 lence of S.W. winds. While they blow, frost is of rare 
 occurrence, and never of long duration in the British Isles. 
 When the wind blows from the N., after it has passed over 
 immense fields of ice, or from the E., where, from the limited 
 expanse of the German Ocean, its temperature continues nearly 
 as low as that which it had acquired in passing over the 
 Continent, our atmosphere is rapidly cooled down, and frosts 
 are occasionally severe. These considerations explain the 
 only disadvantages under which the British climate labours. 
 South-west winds, charged with vapour, bring deluges of rain ; 
 and N. and E. winds are accompanied with considerable, and 
 too often sudden accessions of cold. East winds, in particu 
 lar, prevail in spring, and not only check vegetation, but tend 
 to produce, or, at all events, greatly aggravate pulmonary 
 complaints. Still the advantages already enumerated far 
 more than counterbalance the disadvantages ; and the cloud 
 less skies of S. Europe, accompanied as they are with 
 scorching heats which wither up the fields, and often make 
 what should be the finest the least tolerable season of the 
 year, poorly compensate for the magnificent foliage and rich 
 verdure which, at the same season, give a peculiar charm to 
 the British Isles. 
 
 INDUSTRY. Great Britain, though somewhat late on enter 
 ing on the career of improvement, and hence indebted to 
 foreigners for the first establishment of more than one flour 
 ishing manufacture, ultimately succeeded in outstripping her 
 competitors, and now confessedly leads the world in all the 
 great branches of industry. This unexampled success is 
 owing, partly to physical, and partly to moral causes. To 
 the former belong the vast resources of the country itself 
 the fertility of its soil sufficiently great to reward industry, 
 but not to foster indolence, the comparative mildness of its 
 climate, and the untold treasures deposited beneath its sur 
 face ; to the latter belong the spirit of activity, enterprise, and 
 independence, engendered by free institutions, and the perfect 
 security of property, guarded from foreign aggression by in 
 vincible fleets, and effectually maintained at home by good 
 laws, fairly and vigorously administered. Another great 
 cause of industrial prosperity may be found in the obstacles 
 which have been removed, and the facilities afforded, by bring 
 ing all the parts of the United Kingdom into easy communica 
 
 tion with each other, by means of roads, canals, and railways. 
 On all of these, sums of almost fabulous amount have been 
 expended, and the proportion which their united lengths bear 
 to the whole area, far exceeds that of any other country. Be 
 fore proceeding to give a sketch of the leading industrial 
 interests, the following Table of the lines of communication, 
 to which all these interests are essentially indebted, may be 
 appropriately introduced : 
 
 LENGTH IK MILES, O/ROADS, CANALS, and RAILWAYS, in th 
 UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 England and Wales 119,531 2400 
 
 Scotland 18,348 113 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Total 
 
 Railv.a; 1 
 .. 4222 
 
 .. 7*0 
 
 5417 
 
 Agriculture. Of all branches of industry, this unquestion 
 ably demands precedence, both because the produce which it 
 yields is greater in aggregate value than that of any other 
 branch, and is also, by its very nature, not merely conducive 
 to the well-being, but essential to the very existence of society. 
 But though agriculture is at once the most useful, and the 
 earliest of arts, there is none in which improvement advances 
 with so sluggish a pace. A routine once established, becomes 
 almost immovable; and not unfrequently when everything 
 else has yielded to the force of improvement, the husbandman 
 continues in the ancient tract, performing all rural operations 
 after the fashion, and with the rude implements, of centuries 
 before. Even yet, traces may be found of the wretched 
 farming which reserved all the manure for the fields around 
 the homestead, and kept unmercifully scourging those at a 
 greater distance, till, as if resenting the injury, they refused to 
 repay the expense of seed and labour; and in some parts near 
 the very heart of England, a long line of horses is still attached 
 to an ordinary plough, to move along in solemn state under tl;o 
 guidance of drivers, and do the work which is elsewhere better 
 performed by a single pair. Such things, however, are not 
 now the rule, but rare exceptions to it ; and in almost every 
 district in Great Britain where the plough can move, farming 
 of a superior description may be seen. Instead of the slovenly 
 manner in which, not a century ago, all operations upon the 
 soil were performed, new implements, many of them of recent 
 and ingenious contrivance, now execute the work in the most 
 efficient manner, and with the least waste of draught. Drain 
 ing, not confined as formerly to swampy spots, is extended 
 systematically to whole farms, and every field of them, not a 
 single furrow being left without its artificial drain of tiles or 
 stones, into which the surplus water may percolate freely, 
 and yet so gradually, as not to carry off nourishment along 
 with it. Science, too, has been called in to act as the hand 
 maid of art. The organism of plants, the primary elements 
 of which they are composed, and the food on which they live, 
 have been assiduously and skilfully investigated, and most 
 important results obtained, particularly in regard to manures 
 and rotations. These results, instead of remaining a dead 
 letter, have passed from books into the hands of practical 
 farmers; and the farmyard, though still justly retaining its 
 pre-eminence, has ceased to be the only source from which 
 the soil derives its nourishment, and becomes capable of pro 
 ducing heavy crops. Artificial manures, in great variety, 
 have come into common use, not only increasing the produce 
 of lands previously cultivated, but extending the limits of 
 cultivation itself. Steeps which, from the impossibility of 
 carrying up the requisite weight of farmyard dung, could 
 not be brought under a regular course of cropping, are 
 easily supplied with a few cwts. of bone-dust, or of some sub 
 stance chemically prepared. This application first secures a 
 crop of turnips ; sheep eat them where they grow, and thus 
 supply the soil with additional nourishment of the richest 
 kind ; a grain crop of wheat or barley, sown with grass seeds, 
 follows, and the succeeding year shows a rich clothing of the 
 finest grass, where all previously was weeds and barrenness. 
 This grass, allowed to lie, becomes for years a feeding pas 
 ture ; or, cut for hay, is broken up at the close of the year for 
 another green crop. The rotation is now complete, and the 
 process as described again begins. The effects produced by 
 such means are truly astonishing. Under an improved sys 
 tem of management, the produce of many farms has at lea> t 
 been doubled, and, over the whole kingdom, has so greatly 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 499 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 increased, that the territory which once with difficulty sup 
 ported ten millions, finds no difficulty in supporting twenty. 
 Part of the result, no doubt, is to be ascribed to additional 
 lands which, formerly possessed as commons, or lying as un 
 improved wastes, have been brought under cultivation. But 
 .lie far greater part is undoubtedly derived, not from new, but 
 from the increased productiveness of old lands. 
 
 The following Table gives a good general idea of the state 
 of land in the British Empire : 
 
 Fnzland... 
 Wale. 
 Scotland... 
 Ireland.... 
 Brit. Isles. 
 
 Arable nnd 
 Gardens. 
 
 Meadows, 
 
 p -sr 
 
 Wastes im- 
 provuble. 
 
 Wastes not 
 improvable. 
 
 Summary. 
 
 10,252,800 
 890,570 
 2,493,950 
 5,389,040 
 109,030 
 
 15,379,200 
 2,226,430 
 2,771,050 
 6,736,24-0 
 974,060 
 
 8,4*1,000 
 
 530,000 
 5,950,000 
 4,900,000 
 166,100 
 
 3,256,400 
 1,105,000 
 8,523,930 
 2,116,664 
 569,469 
 
 82,342,400 
 4,752,000 
 19,738,930 
 19,441,944 
 1,119,159 
 
 19,135,990 
 
 28,086,980 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 15,871.463 
 
 78,074,433 
 
 One of the most striking facts apparent from the above 
 Table is the proportion which the available land of England 
 and Wales bears to its whole area, compared with the same pro 
 portion in Scotland. In England and Wales, excluding wastes 
 of all kinds, improvable and unimprovable, and including 
 only the two first heads of the table, that proportion is seven- 
 ninths : in Scotland it is little more than one-fourth, proving, 
 that while the former is agriculturally one of the most 
 favoured portions of the world, the latter is among the 
 poorest. Ireland is in a middle state, having more than one- 
 half of its surface available. The land under the plough in 
 Great Britain is generally cultivated on systematic principles, 
 according to one or other of the following rotations : 
 
 First Rotation. 1. Fallow, often not manured; 2. Wheat; 
 3. Beans, heavily manured ; 4. Barley, with grass seeds ; 
 5. Hay; 6. Oats. 
 
 Second Rotation. 1. Potatoes or Turnips, generally latter 
 eaten off by sheep ; 2. Barley, with grass seeds ; 3. Hay or 
 1 asture ; 4. Wheat or Oats. 
 
 Third Rotation. -1. Part fallow, manured; part potatoes or 
 turnips; 2. Wheat or Barley, with grass seeds; 3. Hay once 
 cut, then pastured; 4. Pasture; 5. Oats. 
 
 The first of these rotations is particularly adapted to rich 
 alluvial clays, which have originally formed the beds of lakes 
 or flooded banks of rivers, and been gained either by the 
 spontaneous retirement of the water, or the exclusion of it and 
 subsequent elevation of the surface by the well-known pro 
 cess of warping. The finest specimens of these soils are seen 
 near the mouth of the Humber, and in the rich carse lands 
 of Scotland. The second rotation constitutes the celebrated 
 Norfolk husbandry, so called from its having first come into 
 most extensive use in that county, particularly under the 
 auspices of Mr. Coke. It is generally used on light sandy 
 loams, on which heavy crops of turnips can be raised, and then 
 eaten off by sheep. It is a severe rotation, keeping the land 
 almost constantly under the plough, and repeating clover at 
 such short intervals as are scarcely consistent with its growth. 
 A great improvement of the rotation has been made, by ex 
 tending it to five or six years, by means of two or more addi 
 tional years of pasture between the barley and wheat. This 
 makes it almost identical with the third rotation, than which 
 perhaps no better can be adopted on two-thirds of the soils 
 of this country. In addition to the crops above mentioned, 
 several others are occasionally introduced. The most im 
 portant of them are rye, cole or rape, beet-root, hops, and flax. 
 At the present low price of grain, the culture of the last will 
 probably be greatly extended. It already forms almost a 
 staple crop in Ireland. From the above Table of the state of 
 the employment of the land, it will be seen that the quantity 
 under the plough in England, is about five millions of acres 
 less than that in meadow and pasture. The produce of the lat 
 ter is consumed to a considerable extent in feeding farm horses ; 
 still a vast surplus remains, and exhibits, both in the mode in 
 which it is raised, and the uses to which it is applied, a peculiar 
 feature of English, as distinguished from Scotch husbandry. 
 In Scotland, there is not much arable land kt_pt permanently 
 in grass, except that which is intended for ornament, in the 
 neighbourhood of country seats. Meadows artificially formed 
 for irrigation, by a kind of catch-work, exist on an extensive 
 
 scale, in particular localities, but meadows, in the sense in 
 which an Englishman understands the term, are scarcely 
 known. The meadows of England are permanent hay-fields, 
 which are annually cut, and maintained in fertility, by regular 
 and heavy doses of farmyard manure. Much of the land 
 thus employed is naturally of poor quality, having only a 
 thin covering of soil over a hungry gravel, or ferruginous 
 tenacious clay, but, by the careful management of perhaps a 
 century, has become covered with a close sward of the richest 
 green, and of admirable feeding qualities. The attention 
 paid to this kind of land is sometimes in excess, and has led, 
 in several districts, to a comparative neglect of the labours of 
 the plough a circumstance which accounts, in some degree, 
 for the alleged superiority of the best Scotch, to the general 
 average of English farming. Taking the term, in its widest 
 sense, as including not merely the raising of crops of grain, 
 or roots, but the rearing and fattening of stock, the improving 
 of breeds, and dairy management, there is no country in the 
 world that can be compared to several of the S. districts of 
 Great Britain. It is sufficient to mention, among horses, the 
 race-horse, the finest type, and the parent of the best existing 
 breeds of that animal ; among cattle, the short horns of Dur 
 ham ; and among sheep, the celebrated South Downs and Leices- 
 ters. In dairy produce, several districts are equally pre-eminent. 
 Attempts have sometimes been made to specify the extent of 
 acres devoted to each particular kind of crop, and from this, 
 on a supposed average yield per acre, to estimate the gross 
 value of the agricultural produce of the United Kingdom. 
 Such calculations being, for the most part, founded on data 
 which have no official authority, can only be regarded as very 
 distant approximations to the truth ; and, therefore, instead 
 of entering into details, it seems sufficient here to mention 
 the general results from Mr. M Culloch s Account of the 
 British Empire, Ed. 1847. 
 
 England and Wales... 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 Produce of Lu..d 
 under crop. 
 
 r:o,)uce of grass 
 land and wood. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 79.992,857 
 18744,285 
 28,200,834 
 
 
 61,614,000 
 9,000,000 
 20,000,000 
 
 
 141,606,857 
 
 27,744,285 
 48,200,834 
 
 126,937,976 
 
 90,614,000 
 
 217,551,976 
 
 The above Table, in common with all others yet published 
 on the same subject, labours under the serious defect of 
 assuming an erroneous average of price. In the Table, for 
 instance, the price of wheat is taken at 50s., whereas, at 
 present (1851), it does not exceed 40s. 
 
 MINERALS. Such is the mineral wealth of the British Isles, 
 that, with exception of quicksilver and gold, which, though 
 found both in Scotland and Ireland, are too limited in quantity 
 to repay the labour of searching for it, it is scarcely possible 
 to mention a metal or mineral product, of economical value, 
 which is networked, to a greater or less extent, beneath their 
 surface. Among these, the first place is unquestionably due to 
 
 Coal. It claims precedence, not merely because the annual 
 output of it, in regard both to quantity and aggregate value, 
 exceeds that of any other mineral product, but because with 
 out it the other natural resources of the country, and the in 
 dustry of its inhabitants, must have for ever remained, in a 
 great measure, undeveloped. The coal fields are not confined 
 to one particular district, but occupy a series of basins some 
 times touching, but more frequently at a considerable dis 
 tance from each other, and extending, in an irregular curve, 
 from the S. slopes of the Ochil Hills to the Bristol Channel. 
 Under the head of Physical Features, reference has already 
 been made to the carboniferous formation both of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, and little more can now be done than glance at the 
 localities of particular fields, and append a few important 
 statistics. Beginning with the N. limit, we find a field com 
 mencing in the W. by great outbursts of trap, of which Stir 
 ling Castle crowns the most prominent summit, skirting the 
 foot of the Ochils, and passing onward to the German Ocean, 
 near St. Andrews ; then turning round into the estuary of the 
 Forth, and continuing up the 1. bank of that river; occupy 
 ing great part of Fifeshire, a small isolated portion of Perth 
 shire, and almost the whole of Clackmannanshire. The coal 
 of this field is of several kinds ; but the most important seams 
 are splint, part of it of a free, open, burning quality, greatly 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 500 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 in demand for steam navigation, from its not corroding the 
 furnaces and boilers, and part of it admirably adapted for the 
 blast furnace. Tart of this field, immediately to the W. of 
 Dunfermline, contains a coal which, in its richness and quality 
 of caking, bears a resemblance to that of Newcastle, and has 
 been worked, as ancient records prove, for at least five cen 
 turies. On the opposite side of the Forth, and almost in 
 visible communication with the field already described, another 
 field extends over a considerable portion of the Lothians. It 
 furnishes the greater part of the fine fuel which is used in the 
 metropolis of Scotland, and contains excellent seams of parrot 
 coal. To the W., but at some distance, lie the coal basins of 
 Lanark, Itenfrew, and Ayrshire ; the first, famous throughout 
 the world for the immense manufacturing establishments which 
 it mainly has called into existence, and made prosperous ; the 
 second, remarkable chiefly as containing, near Johnstone, the 
 thickest seam of coal in Scotland or (if the Dudley field be not 
 an exception) in the British Isles ; and the last, as yet imper 
 fectly developed, but evidently destined to higher importance 
 than it has yet attained. In the N. W. of Dumfries-shire, in the 
 neighbourhood of Sanquhar, there is a coal field, the capabili 
 ties of which, hitherto little known, because of its inland and 
 almost inaccessible position, will be proved, now that an im 
 portant railway intersects it. In the S.E. of the same county 
 is another small field near Canonbie, with a considerable local 
 consumption, and particularly interesting as the last of the 
 Scotch, and the connecting link with the great English coal 
 fields. Immediately on passing the border, the first of these 
 fields lies before us, extending over the greater part of the 
 counties of Northumberland and Durham, and centering near 
 Newcastle, which gives it its name. The proximity of this 
 field to the sea, and the excellence of the coal, unrivalled for 
 domestic use, early made it the great theatre of mining oper 
 ations, which are there carried on to an extent, and on a scale of 
 magnificence, which make it a world s wonder. It furnishes 
 the larger proportion of sea-borne coal, whether to domestic 
 or foreign ports, and, notwithstanding of the competition 
 which it now has to sustain with inland supplies by rail 
 way, still sends annually to London about 3,000,000 tons. 
 Several of the pits have a depth exceeding 150 fathoms, and 
 more than one colliery has a capital exceeding 100,000, 
 sterling. On the opposite coast, nearly in the same latitude, 
 i.s a small coal field, the workings of which, at Whitehaven 
 and Workington, have been carried to a great distance beneath 
 the sea. Besides supplying the local consumption, it exports 
 extensively to the S. of Scotland and the N. of Ireland ; in 
 particular to the town of Belfast, whose flourishing foundries 
 and factories mainly depend upon it. The next coal field to 
 the S. is, in many respects, the most important of all. It 
 includes a large central space, not entirely occupied by coal, 
 but interrupted, longitudinally, by a broad belt which consists 
 nf the lower strata of the carboniferous system, and thus form 
 ing a kind of twin fields, the one of which extends from Leeds to 
 Nottingham, while the other has its greatest length from S.W. 
 to N.E., and borders, at its E. and W. extremities respec 
 tively, on Manchester and Liverpool. It thus can boast, not 
 only of being the seat of what has been termed the world s 
 great workshop, but of furnishing the most essential elements 
 both of its existence and prosperity. The W. branch of this 
 coal field is continued S. by a narrow belt, and terminates in 
 a space of a triangular shape, occupied by the small field of 
 Newcastle- under-Line. The only other coal field of a magni 
 tude similar to those already mentioned, is that of S. Wales, 
 which, though it long lay almost unknown or unheeded, has, 
 in comparatively recent times, become the centre of some of 
 the greatest public works of the empire. It is of an irre 
 gularly oval shape, and passing from Monmouth on the E., 
 continues W., without interruption, through Glamorgan to 
 Carmarthen Bay, across which another field or continuation 
 of that already mentioned, stretches irregularly to St. Bride s 
 Bay. The characteristic features of this great coal field are, 
 the large quantities of anthracite or stone coal which it con 
 tains, and the hilly nature of the country in which it lies. 
 The latter gives the important advantage of obtaining access, 
 even to the deepest seams, by means of horizontal adits, which, 
 as the miners express it, carry off the water on its own feet, 
 and save the expense both of deep sinkings and powerful en 
 gines From the extent of this field, and the number and 
 thickness of its seams, which, near its centre, number 23, with 
 
 an aggregate thickness of 95 ft., the field of S. Wales lias 
 probably a better title than any other in the kingdom, to be 
 deemed almost inexhaustible. There are several other minor 
 fields, all of them, with exception of that of N. Wales, situated 
 near the centre of England, and thus, from position as much 
 as from extent, possessed of great value. Their names are, 
 the N. Staffordshire, the Shropshire, the S. Gloucester and 
 Somersetshire, the Warwickshire, and the S. Staffordshire. 
 The most important on the list are, the first, N. Staffordshire, 
 from being the principal seat of the potteries ; and the last 
 two, Warwickshire and S. Staffordshire ; Coventry deriving 
 its supplies from the one, Lichfield, Walsal, and Dudley from 
 the latter, and Birmingham chiefly also from it, but partly 
 from both. In S. Staffordshire occurs the enormous seam 
 known as the Ten-yard Coal of Dudley. It properly con 
 sists of several seams separated by very thin beds of clay, 
 called partings, and, owing to the necessity of working it in 
 sections, is by no means so profitable as might be imagined. 
 The average annual output of coal in Great Britain has been 
 conjectured, rather than calculated, at 30 millions of tons, and 
 apportioned in three equal parts ten millions to domestic 
 use, ten to ironworks, and ten to manufacturing and miscel 
 laneous establishments and export. Assuming the medium 
 price of 6s. 8d. per ton, the value is 10,000,000 sterling. The 
 export of coal to foreign countries, in 1849, was, including 
 cinders and culm, 2,837,979 tons. The following Table 
 shows the progress of the foreign coal trade : 
 
 TONS or COALS SHTPPED COASTWISE, and EXPORTED to BHITISH 
 COLONIES and FOREIGN COUNTRIES i 1844-46. 
 
 1844. 1845. 1846. 
 
 Coastwise 7,377,863 8,723,468 8,305,443 
 
 British Colonies 324,425 363,255 412,928 
 
 Foreign Countries 1,429,740 2,167,927 2,118,180 
 
 Total 9,132,033 11,254,630 10,836,550 
 
 Iron. Almost the whole of the iron ore smelted in this 
 country is a carbonate, which is invariably found, to a greater 
 or less extent, in all coal measures, but exhibits itself in 
 a great variety of forms, and with very different qualities. 
 Of our great coal fields, none is so destitute of iron as that cf 
 Newcastle ; and hence, though not a few blast furnaces are 
 in operation there, the ores used are obtained, not from the 
 surrounding pits, but by importation, often from consider 
 able distances. More than one furnace is supplied by black- 
 band ironstone shipped from Scotland, after being calcined. 
 The most important iron districts of England are those of 
 S. Yorkshire, Shropshire, S. Staffordshire, and S. Wales. 
 The coal fields already described sufficiently fix their locali 
 ties ; and, therefore, it is only necessary to mention here that 
 the ores are obtained partly from bands, and partly from 
 seams. The former name is usually applied to nodules or 
 balls, generally of a round or oval shape, which lie together 
 with considerable regularity, often in contact, but always 
 without adhesion, and are, for the most part, embedded in 
 thick beds of shale or Macs. The latter name is given to 
 ironstone lying in regular strata, and worked in the same 
 manner as coal. These strata generally are only a few inches, 
 and scarcely ever a foot in thickness. Perhaps not always 
 the finest in quality, but, for many reasons, the most valuable 
 of the stratified ironstones is the blackband, so called from the 
 darkness of colour produced by the large proportion of coaly 
 matter which it contains. It is singular that the only part 
 of England known to contain this stratum, is a portion of the 
 coal field of S. Wales. In Scotland, also, it was at one time 
 supposed that it was merely a local deposit, and that its ex 
 istence, or at least its good qualities, were confined to the 
 range of a few miles in the neighbourhood of Airdrie. Here, 
 accordingly, some of the largest smelting establishments of tho 
 kingdom suddenly sprung up; and a small estate, the surface 
 of which did not yield 500 per annum, began to yield its 
 fortunate possessor, from its mineral treasures, at least 10,000 
 ocr annum. A more careful examination has proved that 
 few of our Scottish coal fields are without these blackband 
 seams, and numerous ironworks have, in consequence, 
 arisen in numerous districts, where their profitable exist 
 ence had hitherto been deemed impossible. To the N. of 
 the Forth, only one ironwork had been able to maintain a 
 languishing existence. Other two, one with five and the 
 other with two blast furnaces, have already been erected. 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 501 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 On the opposite bank of the Forth, stand the Kinneil Works, 
 with four furnaces, supplied with ironstone from old pits, in 
 which the seam had been sunk through while its value was 
 unknown. In Lanarkshire, the area of the seam has proved 
 equally extensive, but, from the number of ironworks previ 
 ously existing, it has not so much led to the establishment of 
 new as to the extension of old works, and to the almost universal 
 substitution of blackband for the inferior claystones formerly 
 in use. Ayrshire, on the other hand, where the works of Muir- 
 kirk only existed, is now beginning to be almost studded over 
 with them. A discovery of perhaps greater importance than 
 that of the blackband, because applicable to the ironworks of 
 England as well as to those of Scotland, took place about the 
 same time. By heating the blast, before entering the furnace, 
 to about 600 (i.e., to such a degree that lead exposed to it 
 melts), its power is so much increased, that the most stubborn 
 materials quickly give way before it, and raw coal becomes 
 even more efficient in smelting than coke was before. A ton 
 of iron can thus be obtained with much fewer materials, and, 
 what is of considerable moment, in far less time. A furnace 
 which, under cold blast, makes 70 tons a week, easily makes 
 100 under hot blast. Another improvement, by which the 
 gases evolved within the furnace are not allowed to escape, 
 but collected, and made available for fuel, is in operation in 
 several works, and promises important results. The annual 
 make of pig-iron in the kingdom is estimated at 1,500,000 tons. 
 About one-third is used for castings, and the remainder, not 
 exported, is converted into malleable iron. In this second part 
 of the process, Scotland apparently fails. Her furnaces smelt 
 about one-third of the whole produce, but a considerable part 
 of this make is sent as pig to England, to be made malleable 
 there, either by itself, or in mixture with English pig. The 
 cause of this is not very obvious, but there is probably some 
 ground for a prevalent belief that pig made from a variety of 
 ores, as in England, is somewhat superior to that made from 
 blackband alone, and that this superiority becomes still more 
 manifest when it is made malleable. A similar opinion exists 
 in some quarters as to the superior strength of iron made by 
 cold blast ; which, accordingly, notwithstanding of its numer 
 ous disadvantages in other respects, is still used to a consider 
 able extent. The principal statistics of the iron trade arc 
 given in the following Table : 
 
 PRODUCTION OF IRON, and EXPORT, in GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Export in tons. 
 Years. Furnaces. Quantities in tons. Bar Iron. Pig Iron. 
 
 1830 376 677,417 59,885 ]2,036 
 
 3840 4o2 1,396,400 144,719 49,801 
 
 1844 1,400,000 249,915 99,960 
 
 The whole production of 1849 has been estimated at 1 ,500,000 
 tons. Of this quantity, Scotland, possessing 113 furnaces, pro 
 duced 690,000 tons. The annual produce, per furnace, in 
 1796, did not exceed 1033 tons; in 1849, it had risen to 
 6306 tons. 
 
 The principal localities in which lead, copper, and tin are 
 found, have been already mentioned. Additional facts of 
 importance are subjoined : 
 
 ESTIMATED ANNUAL AVERAGE PRODUCE of SMELTED LEAD, COPPER, 
 and TIN, form 1845-48, in tons. 
 
 Lead. Copper. Tin. 
 
 England 35,721 12.870 5000 
 
 Wales 10,027 20,823 
 
 Scotland 942 
 
 Ireland 811 .... 
 
 Isle of ilau 1,663 . 
 
 Total 49,164 
 
 5000 
 
 The ton of lead is supposed to yield, on an average, about 
 8 oz. of silver. 
 
 It seems unnecessary to give any details as to minerals of 
 minor importance. The principal articles are salt, of which 
 the quantity obtained, chiefly from rock-salt and brine pits, 
 has been estimated at nearly 550,000 tons. The locality in 
 which salt is most extensively worked at present, centres near 
 Chester ; and the supply is so great as to be inexhaustible. 
 Quarries also exist in every part of the British Isles, except 
 the S.E. of England. They furnish granite susceptible of a 
 polish which makes it fit for statuary, freestone of the purest 
 white and most durable substance, and immense quantities 
 of the finest roofing-slates. As to the value of the produce 
 from quarries, little authentic information exists. The fol 
 
 lowing summary of the mineral produce of Great Britain, on 
 an average of three years, ending 1846, is from M Culloch s 
 British Empire, 3d edition, vol. i. p. 624 : 
 
 17,500 Ibs., Troy, worth.. . 50,000 
 
 Silver 
 
 Copper 13,000 tons 
 
 Tin 5,500 tons 
 
 Lead 5(1,000 tons 
 
 Iron 1,6( 0,000 tons 
 
 Coal 88,000,000 tons 
 
 Salt, Alum, and other minor produce... 
 
 1,300,000 
 350,000 
 1,000,000 
 9,000,000 
 19,000,000 
 1,500,000 
 
 32,200,000 
 
 It will be seen that several of the quantities differ from 
 those already given, and believed to be more accurate. At 
 present prices, also, the iron and coal as rated in this estimate, 
 are greatly over-valued. 
 
 Fisheries. The raw materials obtained from the land of 
 the United Kingdom, either by growing them on its surface, 
 or digging them, from its bowels, having now been described, 
 we proceed to notice those which are obtained from its waters, 
 including under the term, not merely rivers and lakes, but 
 bays and creeks, and immediately surrounding seas. Con 
 sidering the large extent of space occupied by these within 
 the interior of the kingdom, and along its coast, it might be 
 supposed that the fisheries, by which their produce is obtained, 
 would be one of our greatest national interests. They have 
 accordingly been felt to be so, and many efforts have been 
 made by Government to foster them. The success of these 
 efforts not being such as to encourage their continuance, all 
 bounties have been withdrawn. One great obstacle to the 
 general consumption of fresh fish, has been the difficulty of 
 transport, now much diminished by the facilities offered by 
 railways, and it would seem that in some important inland 
 towns, where fresh fish were previously known only as an 
 expensive luxury, they can now be had at a price which 
 places them within the general reach, so far at least as to 
 afford a wholesome and grateful change of diet. The prin 
 cipal British fisheries are those of salmon, herring, and cod. 
 The first is carried on chiefly in the rivers and estuaries of 
 Scotland and Ireland ; the second on all the coasts and islands 
 of Scotland, the great centre of resort for curing being the 
 towns of Wick, Peterhead, and Fraserburgh ; the last around 
 the N. islands, and along the E. coast of Great Britain, par 
 ticularly the edges of the Dogger Bank, off the coast of York 
 shire. Among minor fisheries may be mentioned those of 
 mackerel, pilchards, oysters, and lobsters. Of these last, and 
 indeed of all kinds of fresh fish, by far the largest consumer 
 of the kingdom is London. 
 
 Manufactures. Taking these in the order of their import 
 ance, we begin with cotton. The history of this manufacture, 
 which now employs more hands than any other within the 
 kingdom, and furnishes above one-third in value of the whole 
 exports, is indeed remarkable. The raw material is of vege 
 table origin, and is obtained from the internal coating of the 
 pod or seed-vessel of the Gossypium, of which there are 
 several varieties, some growing as a tree or shrub, and others 
 as an annual herbaceous plant. It is from the latter that the 
 far greater part of the supply is obtained ; and for this supply, 
 as none of the varieties grow in our climate, we are entirely 
 dependent on other countries. Cotton grows well in India, and 
 would undoubtedly thrive well in many of our other posses 
 sions ; but at present, and for many years, the supply has 
 been in a manner monopolized by a few of the slave states of 
 N. America. In so far, therefore, as regards the raw material, 
 we have no advantage in the market over other competitors ; 
 but, compared with one of the most jealous and enterprising 
 of them, are placed in unfavourable circumstances. The 
 more astonishing is our success in gaining the lead, and main 
 taining it, while all other nations are lagging at an immeasur 
 able distance behind. The explanation of the fact is to be 
 found in the nature of the manufacture, and a series of won 
 derful inventions, all made, with the exception of that of the 
 American Whitney, for separating the cotton from the seed, 
 by subjects of Great Britain by Arkwright, Hargreaves, 
 Compton, and Cartwright contrivances, too, tending, in a 
 remarkable manner, to give new advantages to a country 
 possessing, like ours, exhaustless fields of coal, unrivalled 
 machinery, vast accumulations of capital, and a dense, orderly, 
 and industrious population. On the subject of this manu 
 facture, interesting volumes have been written; and as any 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 502 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 analysis, however condensed, would far exceed our limits, the 
 leading facts must be exhibited in a tabular form. 
 
 TABTE OF IMPORTS of COTTON WOOL into, and of EXFOKTS and 
 DECLARED VALUE of COTTON MANUFACTUKKS, TWIST, and YAKN, 
 from the UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 
 Import. 
 
 Export 
 
 
 Wool. 
 
 TwUt and Tarn. Cotton Goods. 
 
 Dec. Value. 
 
 Tear.. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 11)8. 
 
 yds. 
 
 
 
 1>20 
 
 151,672,655 
 
 23,032,325 
 
 248,370,630 
 
 16,516,748 
 
 1890 
 
 203,961,452 
 
 64,645,342 
 
 4-14,598,498 
 
 19,428,064 
 
 ItvM) 
 1-45 
 1819 
 
 592,488,010 
 722,080,000 
 755,469,008 
 
 118,470,223 
 135,144,865 
 154,457,540 
 
 790,631,997 
 1,091,685,469 
 1,442,813,645 
 
 24,668,618 
 26,119,804 
 19,642,770 
 
 1850 
 
 664,696,816 
 
 185,790,278 
 
 1,472,334,391 
 
 21,431,180 
 
 TABLE, shotting the effect of successive improremtnts in diminishing the 
 price of COTTON CLOTHS ; the same article a piece of Culico, titotcn in 
 the trade as 72J w given throughout. 
 
 1814 
 
 1-20 
 1830 
 1810 
 1644 
 
 Price of 
 Cotton. 
 
 Price of 
 Weaving. 
 
 Selling Price. 
 
 J. d. 
 2 6 
 1 1 
 
 o <;; 
 
 6 
 4f 
 
 i. d. 
 
 3 
 2 
 1 4 
 1 3 
 1 It 
 
 S. d. 
 
 1 8 
 15 9J 
 8 3 
 073 
 069 
 
 Woollen. This is our most ancient, and was for centuries 
 our great staple manufacture. The flocks fed on our downs 
 a iid other pastures, furnished wool of peculiar excellence, and 
 in such abundance, as both supplied the home demand at a 
 moderate price, and left a large surplus for exportation. 
 There cannot be a doubt, however, that the first great im 
 provements were not of native invention, but were intro 
 duced by foreigners, whom either the wise policy of our 
 sovereigns had allured, or the merciless bigotry of their 
 sovereigns had driven into the kingdom. Though the manu 
 facture cannot boast of an extension like that of cotton, it 
 holds the next place to it ; and, besides working up the 
 greater part of the wool grown within the kingdom, draws 
 largely on other countries for additional supplies, particu 
 larly on Australia, which see, p. 263. In the finer broad 
 cloths our manufacturers have formidable competitors in the 
 Belgians, from whose forefathers we may be said to have 
 learned this branch, and also in the Saxons ; but in other 
 woollens our position, in several branches, is at least as high 
 as that of any other country, while in not a few our superi 
 ority is decided. The chief seat of the woollen manufacture 
 is in England the W. Riding of Yorkshire, Lancashire, 
 Gloucestershire, and Wiltshire, being the most distinguished 
 for broad cloths ; Norfolk for worsted stuffs, Leicestershire 
 and Nottinghamshire for woollen hosiery. Blankets and 
 flannels have numerous localities, but for the finer qualities 
 the W. of England and several of the Welsh counties are most 
 conspicuous. Carpets, of every 
 qualityand pattern, are extensively 
 made at Kidderminster, Cirences- 
 ter, Worcester, &c. ; but those of 
 Wilton and Axminster are so su 
 perior, as to suffer little by compa 
 rison with the celebrated fabrics of 
 Turkey and Persia. A particular 
 species of woollen manufacture, in 
 which the resources of modern in 
 genuity are signally displayed, is 
 that of shoddy. Its raw material is 
 woollen rags, which, after various purifying processes, are re 
 duced to their original wool, then re-spun, re-dyed, and re- 
 manufactured. Formerly, the article produced was so coarse 
 as to be fit only for padding and similar purposes, but now, 
 either alone or with a partial mixture of raw wool, shoddy is 
 made into flushings, druggets, pilot and other great-coats, car 
 pets, and table-covers, some of the last of great beauty. The 
 principal seat of the shoddy trade is Dewsbury, about 8 m. from 
 Leeds. The woollen manufacture of Ireland is on a verylimited 
 scale, being confined to a few broad-cloth factories near Dublin 
 and Cork ; and a few blankets and flannels, the former in Kil 
 kenny, and the latter at Wicklow. Scotland has made much 
 
 more progress, but still bears no proportion to England. Tho 
 chief seats of the Scotch woollens are Aberdeen for broad 
 cloths, chiefly coarse, and the spinning of worsted ; Kilmar- 
 nock for carpets, bonnets, and shawls ; Stirling and its 
 neighbourhood for carpets and tartans ; Galashiels, Jed- 
 burgh, and also a number of small towns along the foot 
 of the Ochils, for narrow cloths of several varieties, tartans, 
 shawls, plaids, &c.; Inverness for tartans, and llawick for 
 hosiery. 
 
 Linen. In England the spinning of flax is carried on to a 
 great extent, but its manufacture into cloth is comparatively 
 limited. A considerable quantity of damask and diaper is 
 made at Bamsley. Should the recently invented process, 
 for the improved preparation of raw flax, have the effect an 
 ticipated, and enable the present cotton machinery to spin fine 
 thread from a mixture composed of a large portion of flax 
 and a small portion of cotton, and producible at a much 
 cheaper rate than cotton singly, the manufacture of flax in this 
 form may be expected to make almost unexampled progress. 
 Linen is the great staple of Ireland, and was long, in regard 
 to textile fabrics, the staple also of Scotland. In the former, 
 extraordinary means were employed to foster it. It early 
 fixed its seat in the N., particularly near Belfast, and there 
 the great changes which have taken place in the mode of 
 manufacture, by the substitution of spinning- mills and fac 
 tories for the domestic wheel and loom, appear only to have 
 fixed it more permanently. Almost the only form into which 
 flax is manufactured in Ireland is plain linen, chiefly shirt 
 ings. In Scotland, the manufacture assumes greater variety. 
 Besides plain linen, it has manufactures of Osnaburgs, sheet 
 ings, sailcloth, sacking, &c., chief seat, Dundee ; and of diaper 
 and damask, chief seat, Dunfermline. The staples of both 
 towns are by far the most important of their kind in the king 
 dom. 
 
 Silk. Here the raw material is, like cotton, entirely of 
 foreign production, with the important difference in favour 
 of silk, that, instead of being almost monopolized, and con 
 sequently liable, in regard both to quantity and price, to be 
 controlled by a single country, the limits of its production 
 include an immense range, of which a considerable portion 
 belongs to our own colonies and dependencies. This is per 
 haps the only great branch of manufacture, in regard to which, 
 at least in finer fabrics, we must yield the palm of superiority, 
 and be contented with something less than equality. The 
 number of silk-mills is considerable, and confined chiefly to 
 England. To England, likewise, belong the chief seats of the 
 silk manufacture. Paisley is almost the only town out of 
 it in which it is carried on to a great extent ; and even there, 
 the celebrated shawls of unrivalled excellence are generally a 
 mixed fabric of silk and wool. The chief seats of the silk 
 trade in England are, the district of Spitalfields in London, 
 Manchester, and Coventry. 
 
 The following Table contains a statement of the imports 
 of the raw materials of the woollen, linen, and silk manu 
 factures; and of the exports of goods manufactured from them. 
 
 
 Quantity of Rrw Materials Imported. 
 
 Declared Value of Goorls Exported. 
 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Flax and 
 Codilla.. 
 
 Silk. 
 
 Woollen 
 Goods. 
 
 Woollen 
 Tarn. 
 
 Linen Goods. 
 
 Linen Tarn. 
 
 Silk Good.. 
 
 Tear.. 
 
 11)8. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 11)3. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1815 
 
 76,813,855 
 
 1,418,323 
 
 4,354,696 
 
 10,564,434 
 
 l,06fi,925 
 
 3,036,370 
 
 1,060,566 
 
 766,405 
 
 Is46 
 1847 
 1818 
 1849 
 1850 
 
 65,117,668 
 62.130.S07 
 70,521,957 
 75,113,347 
 72,674,483 
 
 1,146,743 
 1,049,541 
 1,462,007 
 1,806,673 
 1,821,578 
 
 4,:;9n,OlH 
 4,123,811 
 4,418,360 
 4,991,472 
 4,942,417 
 
 6,334,296 
 6,870,818 
 5,740,634 
 7,342,723 
 K.584,859 
 
 907,893 
 1,006,891 
 776,175 
 1,090,228 
 1,451,093 
 
 2,838,384 
 2,968,895 
 2,802,823 
 3,493,829 
 3,957,735 
 
 b/5,556 
 600.307 
 
 4^9,^78 
 732,065 
 887.295 
 
 837,577 
 978,114 
 585,033 
 798,651 
 1,050,645 
 
 Beside the manufactures already mentioned, there is a great 
 number which, though separately of less importance, absorb 
 immense sums of capital, exhibit many of the most wonderful 
 specimens of human ingenuity, and give subsistence to millions 
 of the population. We can do little more than glance at the 
 most prominent. 
 
 Under the head of minerals, we only noticed the preliminary 
 steps of converting ores into metals ; and, in the case of iron, 
 we referred to the additional step of converting it, from its 
 first smelted state, into malleable iron. Vast processes re 
 main behind, and constitute numerous branches of manu 
 facture under the general name of hardware. Several of the 
 

 BRITISH EMPIRE 503 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 articles produced are of a boldness and magnitude almost 
 sublime, and many of them are so small as to be almost 
 microscopic. To the former class belong iron bridges, no 
 longer suspension only, but tubular bridges, one of which, 
 the latest wonder of the age, now spans the Menai Straits ; 
 steam-engines, either lifting up whole rivers from the 
 lowest depths, or ploughing the widest and stormiest oceans ; 
 or, it may be, performing some minute or singularly delicate 
 process, which the most skilful human fingers would vainly 
 
 within a very narrow compass. The two fundamental points 
 are, the extent of our commerce, as indicated by the quantity 
 and value of imports and exports; and the direction of our 
 commerce, as indicated by its apportionment among the dif 
 ferent countries with which it is carried on. These points, 
 and some others of a kindred nature, such as the quantity of 
 shipping employed, are elucidated by the following Tables I 
 IMPORTS into the UNITED KINGDOM in 1849 and 1850. 
 
 animate matter acts as if it were endowed with vitality, not 
 only performing its appointed tasks, but giving distinct and 
 audible warning when, from accidental causes, it becomes in 
 capable of performing them. For minuter articles of hard 
 ware, reference may be made to the countless products of 
 Sheffield and Birmingham, not excluding articles in the pre 
 cious metals plate, jewellery, and watches, made also exten 
 sively in the same towns, but nowhere in the wide world so 
 perfectly as in London. Passing from metals we come to 
 earths, both in the more ordinary forms of pottery, and in the 
 form of porcelain, with its classic shapes and gorgeous colours, 
 and exquisite designs. In the district of the potteries in 
 i Stafford, we see a great national interest, almost created by 
 1 the enterprise and genius of a single man. Among earths, 
 too, at least as to principal constituents, we may include glass, 
 and the numberless forms of beauty and utility which it has 
 been taught to assume. The principal seats of the manufac 
 ture are Newcastle and South Shields ; but should the beau 
 tiful material which it produces become applicable in the 
 erection of structures such as that just completed in London 
 for the World s Fair, it is evident that both in this and other 
 lands the manufacture of glass is only beginning to exist. 
 Another manufacture, almost of equal beauty, and of more im 
 portance to civilization, is that of paper. It is of vast extent, 
 and, in its processes, exhibits some of the highest triumphs 
 which human ingenuity has yet achieved. In connection with 
 it are various manufactures, of which it may be considered as, 
 directly or indirectly, the parent type-founding, printing, 
 books, and with them literature in its various departments, en 
 graving, &c. From these we must descend to less refined em- 
 i ployments, and one of the first which claims attention is the 
 manufacture of leather, including its various subdivisions of 
 tanning, currying, shoe, glove, and harness making, with nu 
 merous minor branches in which leather is employed, as in 
 making trunks, portmanteaus, &c. The list of manufactures 
 would be very incomplete did we not mention hats, soap, and 
 candles ; sugar-refining, and the various chemicals on which 
 our textile manufactures iu particular depend, for accomplish 
 ing their nicer processes, as bleaching, dyeing, &c. Our last 
 head, and it is the only one of whose undue magnitude phil- 
 ! anthropists justly complain, is that of breweries and distiller 
 ies. The former, furnishing the national beverage of England, 
 are there of unparalleled magnitude, but the liquor must be 
 used in great excess before it can be productive of serious 
 mischief. The latter have their greatest extent in Scotland 
 and Ireland. The product, taken undiluted or in excess, is 
 worse than a poison. To its maddening effects, three-fourths 
 of the poverty and crime, at least of Scotland, may be traced. 
 Trade and Commerce. In every country possessing much 
 accumulated capital and a dense population, partly in wealthy, 
 and generally in somewhat comfortable circumstances, the 
 home may safely be presumed to be greater than the externa 
 trade. Its extent, however, cannot easily be ascertained, 
 even in countries where all the districts and towns are hemmed 
 round with officers to levy customs on every article which 
 may be brought into them, and becomes altogether conjec 
 tural in a country like ours, where not a shadow of restraint 
 prevents us from moving about at will, and transporting both 
 our persons and our goods throughout its whole length and 
 breadth. Our foreign trade or commerce, properly so called, 
 is more easily calculated, at least in its leading branches ; 
 but the magnitude to which it has attained is so great, and 
 the strides with which it continues to advance so rapid, that 
 it is impossible to contemplate it without feeling bewildered 
 and overpowered. Fortunately we now possess official in 
 formation on almost every topic of a commercial nature, and by 
 drawing freely on the tables regularly published by the Board 
 of Trade, and using a little discretion in selecting from them, 
 everything of essential importance can be communicated 
 
 Animals, living Horned cattle.. number 
 Sheep and Lambs number 
 Ashes, Pearl and Pot cwts 
 Bacon and Pork. .. . cwts 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 
 
 53,449 
 129,266 
 158,541 
 732,970 
 2,653 
 1,40* 
 368,582 
 149,962 
 
 29,42! 
 
 845,388 
 281,9(19 
 5,338 
 390,147 
 6^,585 
 7,805,385 
 63,315,787 
 3,845,378 
 1,381,008 
 1 267 106 
 
 66,462 
 143,498 
 184,043 
 547,568 
 7,287 
 1,745 
 380,674 
 135,414 
 
 27,183 
 
 664,6 
 331,135 
 7,617 
 347,773 
 78,041 
 4,478,328 
 50,809,521 
 3,754,595 
 1,043,051 
 1,165,856 
 94,078 
 181,419 
 443,306 
 1,286,264 
 868 
 
 3,855,059 
 11,4 1 
 7,448 
 186,010 
 6b,9o3 
 297,176 
 44,315 
 905,966 
 97,561 
 195,060 
 105,761,995 
 136,198 
 1,85:1,578 
 463,693 
 403,501 
 60,415 
 3,573 
 276,313 
 29,801 
 122,391 
 116,926 
 16,263 
 1,048,635 
 591,920 
 80,h57 
 229,614 
 777,941 
 3,261,0(11 
 5,289 
 2,049 
 
 30,334 
 
 17,682 
 
 30,065 
 
 8,531 
 32,778 
 45,930 
 97,706 
 34,066 
 49 
 11,977 
 18,626 
 
 83,332 
 
 21,328 
 448,589 
 98,040 
 20,783 
 65,055 
 126,318 
 1,348,883 
 355,079 
 785,692 
 
 
 Barilla and Alkali tons 
 
 Bark for Tanners or Dyers use...cwts 
 Beef, fresh and salted cwts 
 Bones of Animals, &c., whether ) 
 burnt or not, or as animal >ton 
 charcoal ) 
 Brimstone cwt 
 Butter . . cwts 
 
 Caoutchouc cwts 
 
 
 Clocks value S 
 Cocoa Ibs 
 Coffee... His 
 
 Corn : Wheat qrs 
 Barley qrs 
 Oats . qrs.. 
 
 
 240,556 
 231,366 
 457,933 
 2,224,459 
 11,15,0 
 
 Pease qrs 
 
 Beans qrs 
 
 Buckwheat or Bi^g qrs 
 Malt qrs 
 
 Wheatmeal or Flour.- cwt s . 
 Indian Corn Meal cwts 
 Other Meal cwts 
 
 Cotton Manufactures not made ) pieces 
 up: East India Piece goods ] value 
 Other Articles value 
 Cotton Manufactures, wholly ) , 
 or in part made up .". f val 
 
 cotton Yarn {Star.::::: 
 
 Dyes and Dyeing Stuffs tons 
 
 3,349,839 
 101^84 
 
 60,320 
 178,418 
 45,545 
 246,301 
 40,911 
 
 413,478 
 45,759 
 233,065 
 97,745,849 
 104,710 
 1,806,673 
 496,865 
 361,412 
 44,551 
 3,094 
 209,180 
 32,7-16 
 68,106 
 83,438 
 11,751 
 1,061,893 
 678,952 
 85,243 
 186,373 
 700,171 
 3,656,752 
 4,639 
 1,904 
 
 28,736 
 15,130 
 
 33,762 
 
 13,453 
 29,012 
 47,433 
 51,808 
 29,396 
 1,012 
 7,216 
 15,915 
 
 85,827 
 20,012 
 493,331 
 64,452 
 16,9<i4 
 69,462 
 105,724 
 1,417,867 
 2,682,592 
 976,196 
 
 Embroidery and Needlework value 
 Flax and Tow, or Codilla of) . 
 Hemp and Flax } cwts 
 
 ( chests, boxes. 
 Lemons and Oranges 4 No. (loose).... 
 (at value .... 
 
 Glass Manufactures cwts 
 Glass, 1 of an inch thick sq. feet 
 
 
 Hemp, undressed cwts 
 
 Hides, tanned anduntanned cwts 
 Lace, Thread, &c value 
 
 Leather Manufactures pairs 
 Gloves pairs 
 Other Manufactures ot Leather..value 
 Linen Manufactures: Lawns, ), 
 not French Rvalue 
 Cambrics and French Lawns.pieces 
 Damasks & Damask Diapers .sq. yards 
 Plain Linen & Diaper, &) 
 Manufactures unenum- > value 
 crated, not made up ) 
 Sails and Articles wholly ) , 
 or in part made up f Talue 
 Mahogany tons 
 Metals: Copper Ore & lle<;ulus..toiis 
 Copper, unwrought and part ) , 
 wrought ) 
 Iron, in" bar*, unwrouglit tons 
 Steel, unwrought tons 
 Lead, pig and sheet tons 
 
 
 ^oriubs 00 .^:.. 1 . 1180 . 15 ..! 1 ! 1 : 8 } wt3 
 
 Oil : Train , Blubber, and ) 
 Spermaceti ) l 
 Palm cwts 
 
 Olive tuns 
 
 Oil Seed-cakes tons 
 Opium Ibs 
 
 Quicksilver Ibs 
 
 
 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 504 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 IMPORTS continued. 
 
 1849. 
 
 1850. 
 
 Rice in Husk qrs 
 Saltpetre and Cubic Nitre cwts 
 Seeds: Clover... cwts 
 
 31,828 
 666,794 
 130 254 
 
 37,154 
 629,012 
 94040 
 
 Flaxseed and Linseed qrs 
 
 626,495 
 "9 ISO 
 
 6 8,986 
 
 Tares ... qrs.. 
 
 80623 
 
 27 98 
 
 Silk: Raw. . Ibs . 
 
 4 991 47-2 
 
 49t417 
 
 Waste, Knulis. and Hu<ks cwts 
 Thrown Ibs 
 
 12,757 
 61 1- 770 
 
 15,6 iO 
 409 526 
 
 Silk Manufactures Ibs.. 
 
 754 127 
 
 6 13 396 
 
 Velvet Broad Stuffs. His 
 
 31 97 
 
 "7 674 
 
 Ribbons of Velvet or Silk ) 
 embossed with Velvet \ 1I)S 
 Plush tor making Hats Ibs 
 Silk Manufactures "of India pieces 
 Spices cwts 
 
 61,803 
 
 165,903 
 518,748 
 9,376,679 
 5 306 B- 1 ? 
 
 16,6/5 
 138,909 
 715,739 
 13,914,959 
 4 188639 
 
 
 4 479 549 
 
 
 Geneva proof galls 
 
 471 236 
 
 337 042 
 
 
 6 937 349 
 
 6 "86031 
 
 
 304 39 1 
 
 355 387 
 
 Molasses cwts 
 
 1 062*837 
 
 905 054 
 
 Tallow cwts 
 Tar lasts 
 
 1,465,6-29 
 15 206 
 
 1,241,781 
 1 096 
 
 Tea... Ibs 
 
 
 
 T.mber, Battens, &c hundred 
 Other Timber loads 
 Tobacco: Unmanufactured Ibs 
 Manufactured, and Snuff. Ibs 
 Turpentine, common cwts 
 
 22 
 1,703,609 
 42,098,126 
 1,913,474 
 412042 
 
 34 
 1,749,267 
 33,894,500 
 1,532,829 
 434 621 
 
 Watches value 
 Whale Fins cwts 
 
 80,305 
 8,926 
 
 97,245 
 9,498 
 
 Wine: Cape gallons 
 French gallons.. 
 Other sorts gallons 
 
 264,106 
 466,109 
 7,239,792 
 
 234,781 
 600,512 
 8,432,280 
 
 Total of Wine 
 
 7,970,007 
 
 9,267,573 
 
 Wool, Cotton Ibs.... 
 
 75 113 347 
 
 72 674 483 
 
 Alpaca and the Llama Tribe... .11)3 
 Woollen Manufactures value 
 
 1,055,300 
 
 737,870 
 
 1,652,295 
 
 682,042 
 
 EXPORTS from the UNITED KINGDOM in IS 19 and 1850, with their 
 DECLARED VALUE. 
 
 Alkali.viz., soda, cwts 
 
 Beer and ale, brls.... 
 
 P.utter, cwts ........... 
 
 Candles, Ibs ........... 
 
 Cheese, cwts .......... 
 
 Coals and Culm, tons 
 
 Cordage, cwts .......... 
 
 Cotton manuf., yds... 
 Sewing thread, His. 
 Hosiery, doz. pairs 
 Various ............... 
 
 Cotton yarn, Ibs ....... 
 
 Earthenware, pieces, 
 
 Fish, brls ....... .. ....... 
 
 Glass manuf., cwts.. 
 
 Haberdashery, &c.... 
 
 Hardwares, &c ........ 
 
 Leather,unwrt.,cwt? 
 wrought, Ibs. 
 
 Linen manuf., yds. ., 
 Sewing thread, Ibs, 
 Various ............... 
 
 Linen yarn, Ibs ....... 
 
 Machinery .............. 
 
 Metals, tons ............ 
 
 Oil and seeds, galls.. 
 
 Painters colours, &c. 
 
 Salt, bush ............... 
 
 Silk manuf., Ibx ....... 
 
 S. stockings, doz.pr* 
 Various ............... 
 
 Silk, thrown, Ibs ...... 
 
 Silk, twist & yarn, Ibs 
 
 Soap, cwts .............. 
 
 Stationery ............. 
 
 Sugar, refined, cwts. 
 
 WooUenman.{P- 
 Stockings, doz. pairs 
 Various .............. 
 
 Woollen yarn, cwts. 
 
 689,833 
 
 135,692 
 
 64,831 
 
 2,353,166 
 
 6,759 
 
 2,828,039 
 
 74,169 
 
 ,442,813,645 
 
 4,955,259 
 
 303,507 
 
 1-19,502,281 
 
 61,528,196 
 
 336,400 
 
 268,678 
 
 182,519 
 
 60,659 
 
 2.723..531 
 
 8,347 ,607 
 89.219 
 
 1,478,334,931 
 4jSn,\lQ 
 
 234,163 
 
 131,453,168 
 
 76,952,735 
 
 259,539 
 
 336,614 
 
 16,395 
 
 1,554,107 
 
 111452,395 
 
 2,874,038 
 
 17,264,033 
 
 750,455 
 2,732,720 
 
 18,539,865 
 817,651 
 18,753 
 
 100,869 
 369801 
 101,222 
 
 223,273 
 
 11,200,472 
 
 2,391,184 
 
 51,656,130 
 
 165,615 
 
 105,116 
 
 32,112 
 
 1,649,062 
 
 122,860,623 
 
 3,361,922 
 
 18,559,318 
 
 829,529 
 3,292,166 
 
 15,824,780 
 
 1,184,480 
 
 16,750 
 
 "69,874 
 475,536 
 124,038 
 
 209,235 
 12,000,459 
 
 2,778,724 
 
 63,731,053 
 
 119,873 
 
 123,151 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 1 819. 
 
 
 
 302,052 
 
 418,325 
 
 217,844 
 
 80,644 
 
 21,921 
 
 1,087,122 
 
 135,237 
 
 19,280,129 
 
 428,276 
 
 119,453 
 
 243,188 
 
 6,704,089 
 
 807,395 
 
 428,202 
 
 254,350 
 
 1,192,108 
 
 2,201,315 
 
 j- 501,298 
 
 3,216,366 
 
 269,178 
 
 73^065 
 700,031 
 8,001,459 
 279,407 
 208,289 
 252,991 
 610,126 
 34,488 
 154,037 
 81,150 
 118,532 
 159,6/5 
 314,704 
 373,721 
 
 536,805 
 
 4,012,582 
 
 2,413,625 
 
 86,755 
 
 199,761 
 1,090,223 
 
 Total 58,910,863 65,767,315 
 
 402,129 
 557,894 
 210,871 
 98,108 
 30,604 
 
 1,2-0,3 H 
 155,210 
 21,091,688 
 459,750 
 104,434 
 236,058 
 
 6,380,948 
 999,354 
 337,393 
 308,346 
 
 1,470,384 
 
 2,639,728 
 608,056 
 
 3,609,679 
 330,328 
 17,72s 
 887,295 
 
 1,0437(14 
 
 8,751,120 
 413,020 
 217,803 
 224,073 
 816,907 
 23,683 
 210,155 
 53,175 
 161,631 
 201,374 
 407,334 
 344,134 
 
 623,964 
 
 5,383,062 
 
 2,876,848 
 
 74,482 
 
 250,467 
 1,451,093 
 
 An ACCOUNT of the TOTAL OFFICIAL VALUE of all the IMPORTS into, 
 and of alt KxroRTs from the UNITED KINGDOM, exclusive uj (lie Trade 
 beticeen GREAT BRITAIN aid IRELAND; also the DKCLARKD VALUE 
 of the PRODUCE and MANUFACTLRKS of the UNITED KINGDOM EX 
 PORTED in each of the following 1 ean: 
 
 
 Offlc al Value 
 
 of 1 in ports. 
 
 Officitl Value of Exports. 
 
 Declared 
 Vnlue of the 
 Produce and 
 M:iiifotures 
 of thr United 
 
 bpwtad. 
 
 Produce and 
 
 Miiniititctures 
 01" the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Forr-lcn and 
 Colonial 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Total Exports. 
 
 T,-r. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1820 
 
 32,438,650 
 
 38,395,625 
 
 10,555,912 
 
 48,951,537 
 
 36,424,652 
 
 1821 
 
 30,792,760 
 
 40,831,744 
 
 10,629,689 
 
 61,401,434 
 
 36,059,9:50 
 
 1822 
 
 30,500,094 
 
 41,236,533 
 
 9,227,589 
 
 53,464,122 
 
 30,908,904 
 
 1S23 
 
 35,798,707 
 
 43,804,372 
 
 8,003,904 
 
 62,408,277 
 
 35,458,048 
 
 1824 
 
 37,55 ,935 
 
 48,735,551 
 
 10,204,785 
 
 68,940,336 
 
 38,390,300 
 
 1825 
 
 41,137,482 
 
 47,166,020 
 
 9,109,494 
 
 66,335,514 
 
 38,877,388 
 
 1826 
 
 37,686,113 
 
 40.965,735 
 
 10,076,286 
 
 51,042,022 
 
 31,530,723 
 
 1827 
 
 41,887,774 
 
 52,219,280 
 
 9,S30,728 
 
 62,050,008 
 
 37.182.857 
 
 1828 
 
 45,028,805 
 
 52,797,455 
 
 9,946,545 
 
 62,744,000 
 
 30,814,176 
 
 1.S29 
 
 43,981,317 
 
 60,213,041 
 
 10,622,402 
 
 66,835,444 
 
 35,830,649 
 
 1830 
 
 40,245,241 
 
 61,140,804 
 
 8,550,437 
 
 69,691,302 
 
 38,251,502 
 
 1831 
 
 49,713,889 
 
 60,683,933 
 
 10,745,071 
 
 71,429,004 
 
 37,163,647 
 
 1832 
 
 44,586,741 
 
 65,026,702 
 
 11,644,869 
 
 76,071,572 
 
 36,444,524 
 
 1833 
 
 45,952,551 
 
 0!l,Js<l,339 
 
 9,833,753 
 
 79,823,093 
 
 39,667,347 
 
 1834 
 
 49,362,811 
 
 73,831,550 
 
 11,562,036 
 
 85,393,587 
 
 41,649,191 
 
 1835 
 
 48,911,542 
 
 78,376,732 
 
 12,797,724 
 
 91,174,456 
 
 47,372,270 
 
 1836 
 
 57,230,967 
 
 85,229.837 
 
 12,:91,712 
 
 97,621,549 
 
 53,293,971 
 
 1837 
 
 54,737,301 
 
 72,5-18,047 
 
 13,233,622 
 
 85,781,669 
 
 42,069,245 
 
 1838 
 
 61,208,320 
 
 92,459,281 
 
 12,711,318 
 
 105,170,549 
 
 50,060,970 
 
 1839 
 
 62,004,000 
 
 97,402,726 
 
 12,795,990 
 
 110,198,716 
 
 53,233,580 
 
 18tO 
 
 67,432,904 
 
 102,705,372 
 
 13,774,306 
 
 116,479,678 
 
 51,406,430 
 
 1841 
 
 64,377,962 
 
 102,180,517 
 
 14,723,151 
 
 116,903,608 
 
 51,634,623 
 
 1812 
 
 65,204,729 
 
 100,200,101 
 
 13,584,158 
 
 113,844,259 
 
 47,381,023 
 
 1843 
 
 70,093,353 
 
 117,877,278 
 
 13,956,113 
 
 131,833,391 
 
 50,278,449 
 
 1844 
 
 75,441,555 
 
 131,564,503 
 
 14,397,246 
 
 145,961,749 
 
 58,584,292 
 
 1845 
 
 85,281,958 
 
 134,599,116 
 
 16,280,870 
 
 150,879,986 
 
 60,111,081 
 
 1846 
 
 75,953,875 
 
 132,288,345 
 
 16,296,162 
 
 148,584,507 
 
 57,780,875 
 
 1847 
 
 90,921,866 
 
 126,157,910 
 
 20,036,100 
 
 116,194,079 
 
 58,971,166 
 
 1848 
 
 93,547,134 
 
 132,904,407 
 
 18,308,113 
 
 151,272,520 
 
 53,083,344 
 
 1849 
 
 105,874,607 
 
 164,539,504 
 
 25,561,890 
 
 190,101,394 
 
 68,910,888 
 
 1850 
 
 
 
 
 
 65,756,032 
 
 DECLARED VALUE of BRITISH MANUFACTURED GOODS EXPORTED 
 to the wider-mentioned COUNTRIES in 1846, 1847. 
 
 
 1840. 
 
 IM7. 
 
 BRITISH COLONIES. 
 
 
 480 979 
 
 
 6sg 208 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 310 231 
 
 223 563 
 
 
 28309 
 
 31378 
 
 Australia and New Zealand 
 
 1 441 646 
 
 1 6*4 170 
 
 British North America 
 British West Indies 
 British India and Ceylon.. 
 
 3,308,059 
 2,505,587 
 6 434 456 
 
 3,233,014 
 2,102,577 
 5 470 105 
 
 FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 
 
 715 903 
 
 2 554283 
 
 
 1 1 58 034 
 
 1 059 450 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 1 749 125 
 
 2 570 9S9 
 
 
 1,725,148 
 
 1,844,543 
 
 Holland 
 
 :<,576,4f59 
 
 3,01 7,4 ?3 
 
 
 3391,022 
 6326 210 
 
 23I*,707 
 6 007 366 
 
 
 1 308 933 
 
 1 5(i9 776 
 
 Sumatra and Java 
 
 357,918 
 
 357,870 
 
 African Coast 
 China 
 
 421,620 
 1,791,439 
 2 443 937 
 
 518,420 
 1,503,909 
 1 707 903 
 
 Brazil . 
 
 2 749 333 
 
 :1 ,C.h Mil 
 
 United States 
 
 6,830,460 
 
 10974,161 
 
 
 
 
 SHIPPING employed in the TRADE of the UNITED KINGDOM in 1848. 
 
 
 
 ards. 
 
 Out 
 
 wards. 
 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Ton,. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Ton,. 
 
 British 
 
 21,783 
 
 4,565,533 
 
 21,117 
 
 4,724,02? 
 
 [oreign 
 
 13,100 
 
 1,960,412 
 
 13,645 
 
 2,056,654 
 
 Total 
 
 31,883 
 
 6,525,945 
 
 34,762 
 
 6,780,681 
 
 MERCANTILK SHIPPING belonging to the BRITISH EMPI 
 
 1848. 
 
 United Kingdom.. 
 
 Colonies and) 
 
 Dependencies.. ) 
 
 Total 
 
 24,520 
 
 7,908 
 
 3,249,383 
 638,061 
 
 32,428 I 3,887,447 
 
 1118 151,426 
 13,287 
 
 164,713 
 
 8M7S 
 
 3,400,809 
 651,351 
 
 1,052,160 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 505 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 GOVERNMENT. Under this general head, a variety of im 
 portant particulars are included. The first in order is the 
 Constitution. The British Constitution is the growth, and 
 embodies the wisdom and experience, of ages. No man or 
 set of men first preconceived it in theory, and then proceeded 
 to give it a real existence. It assumed its leading features 
 in times when theories were little thought of, and has become 
 what it now is almost imperceptibly, without premeditated 
 design, so that it may truly be regarded as more the result of 
 providential arrangement than of human invention. A con 
 stitution so formed, is necessarily full of anomalies, which 
 perplex the theorist, and refuse to bend into accordance with 
 his speculative forms. At the same time, the type of govern 
 ment to which it belongs is obvious. It is a limited, hered 
 itary monarchy, in which the executive power is lodged in 
 the Sovereign, but controlled in its exercise by the legislative 
 power, shared in common by three bodies, of which the 
 Sovereign, though the first in dignity, is by no means the 
 most influential member. The second and third of these 
 bodies are the House of Lords and House of Commons, who 
 meet and vote in separate Chambers. With the Sovereign 
 at their head, they form the Legislature or Parliament ; and 
 every enactment, before becoming law, must obtain their 
 separate assent, given first by the House in which it origin 
 ated, and expressed either unanimously or by an open vote ; 
 then in like manner by the other House ; and, finally, by the 
 Sovereign, the date of whose assent is held to be that of the 
 operation of the Act, provided no other date is specially ex 
 pressed. The House of Lords is composed of Lords temporal, 
 that is, peers of blood-royal, British peers, representative 
 peers not British, and of Lords spiritual. Peers of blood- 
 royal sit by courtesy ; British peers, after their first creation, 
 by hereditary right ; representative Peers by election. Peers 
 of the last class are partly Scotch, partly Irish, and are elected 
 by the other peers of their respective countries, who are not 
 British. Scotch peers, 16 in number, are elected for each 
 Parliament ; Irish peers, 28, sit for life. Lords spiritual are 
 archbishops and bishops of the United Church of England 
 and Ireland. All those of England, with exception of four 
 without seats, sit for life. Of those of Ireland, only four (one 
 an archbishop) sit by rotation for a single session. The 
 House of Lords is presided over by the Lord Chancellor, and, 
 in addition to its legislative, performs judicial functions, 
 being, in all civil causes, the Supreme Court of Appeal for 
 the three kingdoms. The third body is the House of Commons. 
 Its members are elected for a single Parliament, which ex 
 pires legally in seven years, and generally sooner. Its 
 members, 658, are arranged as follows : 
 
 .471 
 
 ..105 
 658 
 
 England 40 Counties 141 
 
 2 Universities 4 
 
 186 Cities and Borough*) 323 
 
 V. ales 12 Counties . 15 
 
 57 Cities and Boroughs 14 
 
 Scotland 33 Counties 30 
 
 76 Cities and Boroughs 23 
 
 Ireland 32 Counties 64 
 
 1 University 2 
 
 33 Cities and Boroughs 39 
 
 The qualifications of the electors vary, in min< 
 the different kingdoms ; but the general principle is to givt 
 a vote for county members to every male not under legal 
 incapacity, who within the county either owns houses or 
 lands to the clear value of 10 per annum, or rents them 
 to the amount of 50 per annum ; and a vote for borough 
 members to every like male who owns or occupies houses or 
 lands of the value of 10 per annum, within a certain limit, 
 called the parliamentary burgh, and actually resides within 
 7 m. The number of electors, according to the registrations 
 of 1849-50, is as follows : 
 
 England. Wales. Scotland. Ireland. Total. 
 
 Counties 461,413 36,984 48,456 31,8:52 578,685 
 
 Boroughs 378,384 11,035 41,849 40,234 471,502 
 
 839,797 48,019 90,305 72,066 1,050,187 
 
 The president of the House of Commons is the Speaker, 
 
 one of the members elected by a majority of the others at the 
 
 commencement of each Parliament, and for its whole duration. 
 
 In general, any legislative measure may originate in either 
 
 House; but the House of Commons possesses the exclusive 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 privilege of originating money bills, and voting money a 
 privilege which it guards so jealously, that it will not allow 
 the Lords to make any change on a money clause in any bill, 
 of the most general nature, which the Commons may have 
 passed, and sent up to them. When we are told of the im 
 mense power of the Crown its sole right to levy armies, and 
 fit out navies, to make peace or declare war, to appoint all 
 the high functionaries of the State, and dignitaries of the 
 Church ; when we are further told that the Sovereign is in 
 violable in person, nay, by an undisputed maxim of the Con 
 stitution, can do no wrong we are almost tempted to 
 imagine that our boasted free Constitution is little better than 
 an unmitigated despotism ; but when we look, on the other 
 hand, to the money privilege of the Commons, and to the 
 necessary consequence, that most of the mighty things which 
 the Crown can theoretically do, it cannot do actually without 
 their sanction, the danger to the Constitution, if there is 
 danger, is seen to lie elsewhere. A revolutionary House 
 of Commons would in fact be a revolution accomplished. 
 But there is no danger, and therefore there need be no fear. 
 Reference has been made to the maxim that the Sovereign 
 can do no wrong. The words sound strangely, but their 
 meaning simply is, that the acts of the Government are con 
 sidered to be the acts, not of the Sovereign, but of the Min 
 istry which for the time conducts the Government. This 
 Ministry consists principally of what is called the Cabinet, in 
 which are 1 4 high functionaries. Of these the most important 
 are, the First Lord of the Treasury, who is Prime Minister ; 
 the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Lord Chancellor, and 
 the three Secretaries Home, Foreign, and Colonial. Several 
 other functionaries, though not possessing seats in the Cabinet, 
 are usually regarded as part of the Ministry. It is not with 
 the Sovereign, then, but with ministers, that the responsibility 
 rests ; and hence, for their own safety, when they lose the 
 confidence of Parliament and the country, they have no al 
 ternative but to resign. Other ministers of diiferent prin 
 ciples succeed, and difficulties which might have seemed to 
 threaten a collision between the highest powers of the State, 
 pass off quietly, and are soon forgotten. In this way the 
 Constitution, like some mechanism of exquisite contrivance, 
 possesses within itself a power of re-adjustment, and seems 
 destined if neither overpowered by external violence, nor 
 torn to pieces by internal dissension to be as lasting as the 
 world. 
 
 Intimately connected with the Constitution, or important 
 integral portions of it, are its Ecclesiastical Establishments, of 
 which there are two ; both Protestant, and in doctrine almost 
 identical, but very different in form the one, under the name 
 of the United Church of England and Ireland, being Episcopal, 
 and the other, confined to Scotland, Presbyterian. As these 
 churches will be fully described under the heads of England, 
 Ireland, and Scotland, it would be out of place to do more 
 here than mention, besides the Established churches, those 
 of the Dissenters, who no longer labour under civil disabili 
 ties, and are both numerous and influential. 
 
 After ecclesiastical, our attention is naturally directed to 
 Judicial Establishments, for an account of which we again, 
 and for the same reason, refer to the heads of England, Scot 
 land, and Ireland. Indeed, the only court of justice which 
 can be considered as belonging to all of them alike, is the 
 House of Lords sitting in its judicial capacity, as already men 
 tioned, not to exercise original jurisdiction, but to hear civil 
 causes on appeal. Strictly speaking, this is the only Supreme 
 Court within the British Isles, though the name is usually 
 given to the Court or Courts of each kingdom, whose deci 
 sions are subject to no other review but that of the House of 
 Lords. As it is truly to the whole House that the judicial 
 power belongs, every peer having a seat in it is entitled to 
 judge and vote, but in practice, only those called Law Lords 
 exercise judicial functions. 
 
 From judicial we turn to Military Establishments, usually 
 comprehended under the general head of the 
 
 Army and Navy. The extent of the British Empire neces 
 sarily makes the aggregate military force very considerable ; 
 but there is no European state in which the standing army 
 bears so small a proportion to the whole population. This 
 great privilege is mainly owing to our safety from foreign 
 aggression, and the internal tranquillity which, with one great 
 exception, generally prevails. The total number of troops of 
 
 64 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 506 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 Ihe line at present, including Queen s troops in the pay of the 
 East India Company, is 129,625. To these must be added 
 14,410 artillery, making the whole force 144,035. The 
 number on home service is only 51,947, of whom 30,305 
 are in Great Britain, and 21,642 in Ireland. This of course 
 is the peace establishment, but during the last great Euro 
 pean war, when our very existence as an independent na 
 tion seemed to be threatened, gigantic efforts were made, 
 and no state shared more largely than Great Britain in the 
 glory of saving the liberties of Europe, by putting down an 
 unprincipled tyrant. Wherever British troops have been 
 sent on foreign campaigns, and properly commanded, they 
 have proved unrivalled. Here it is sufficient to name the 
 achievements of Marlborough during the last century, and 
 those of Wellington in the Peninsula and at Waterloo. In 
 many respects, and particularly as a defensive force, the army 
 must yield to the navy. The advantages of our insular posi 
 tion are often talked of, as if the mere fact of living on an island 
 were in itself a source of safety, whereas the safety is not in 
 the position, but in the ability to defend it. In early times, 
 immense fleets, filled with warlike hordes, issued from the 
 frozen loins of the populous North, and poured like a 
 deluge on our shores, which, from their vast extent, and with 
 the feeble means possessed, it was impossible to defend. Our 
 insular position was in those times our greatest weakness, and 
 so must it be again, if we ever lose our decided superiority at 
 sea. The public mind is, happily, alive to this vital consider 
 ation ; and hence, while a large standing army is, for many rea 
 sons, eyed with jealousy, our navy swells every British heart 
 with honest pride, and is confidently appealed to as a suffi 
 cient response to the strange cry which is sometimes heard, 
 proclaiming the defenceless state of Great Britain. A force 
 which is thus honoured and fostered, naturally attracts the 
 best and bravest spirits of the land, and many of the brightest 
 pages in our annals are filled with naval achievements. The 
 principal details respecting the navy are as follows : 
 
 The number of SHIPS and STEAM VKSSEI.S in the British Navy, with the 
 number of guns they nwuat, and the horse-power of their engines, cor 
 rected up to 1850. 
 
 19 First-rates. of 120, 110, and 110 guns, mustering 2,21 6 guns. 
 
 76Second&tl)ird-ratesvaryiii<;troml04to70 6,190 
 
 126 Fourth, fifth, and sixth-rates 55tol8 4,873 
 
 79 Sloops 18to 8 986 
 
 16 Brigs 6to 3 78 
 
 22 Steam-ships and Irigates with 12,222 horse-power and 281 
 
 42 Sloops 13,300 251 
 
 38 Gun-vessels 6,7t8 125 
 
 2 Schooners (screw, with auxiliary ) -, , fl on 
 
 steam power) f l/ " 
 
 Horse-power of steam guard and i Q nft 
 block-ships, classed as fourth-rates ) <3>8UU 
 
 Making a total of 420 vessels, mounting 15,026 guns, of 
 which 1 14 are steamers, propelled by engines of an aggregate 
 power of 36,180 horses. This does not include the fleet of 
 mail steamers at Dover, Pembroke, Holyhead, Liverpool, 
 &c., which are only armed with light six-pounder guns for 
 signals 
 
 Money, Weights, and Measures. Passing from subjects 
 of a warlike nature, we come to economical arrangements, 
 and of these, the first which meets us as forming the basis 
 of the whole, is the currency or money system ; and, in 
 connection with it, the system of weights and measures. In 
 the United Kingdom, 1 Ib. Troy of gold, 11 parts pure, 
 and one alloy, is coined into 46 sovereigns and -j^-ths of 
 a sovereign, in other words, into 46, 14s. Qd. ; thus making 
 the mint or standard price 3, 17s. lOJc?. per oz. The gold 
 coins in use are sovereigns and half-sovereigns, and constitute 
 the only legal tender in all sums above 40s. One Ib. 
 Troy of stiver, containing 11 oz. 2 dwts. pure, and 18 dwts. 
 alloy, is coined into 66s., of which 20s. constitutes the money 
 pound ; thus making the mint price of silver 5s. 6d. per 
 The silver coins in use are five-shilling pieces or crowns, 
 half-crowns, shilling pieces, half-shillings or sixpences, four 
 penny pieces, and threepenny pieces. The only copper coins 
 are pence, each of which is T 5 th of a shilling, and halfpence. 
 They are legal tender to the amount of Is. Coins form a co 
 paratively small part of the circulating medium of the coun 
 try. A far larger part consists of mere representatives of 
 value, in the form of obligations to pay. Of these the most 
 common in use are bank notes, or documents binding the par 
 
 ;ies who issue them to pay the specified sums contained on 
 ;hem, to the bearer on demand. The permission to issue 
 bank notes is now confined to certain existing banks, and to 
 certain definite amounts for each bank. By far the largest 
 circulation is that of the bank of England. In that part of the 
 dngdom, no notes under 5 can be issued. In Scotland and 
 Ireland, they are still issued for 1. 
 
 In weights and measures, we cannot boast of anything so 
 scientifically formed as the system of France. That country 
 laving been thrown into the revolutionary caldron, had no 
 prejudices to consult, and could make any change, however 
 iolent. Our Legislature had a very different task to perform, 
 and therefore, instead of attacking inveterate habits and cus 
 toms with a violence which could only have defeated its own 
 purpose, wisely endeavoured to produce uniformity, by adopt- 
 ig, not the system which it knew to be most philosophical, 
 but that which it believed to be most practicable. In every 
 system, two standard units are essential one of length, and 
 another of weight. The lineal units of the United Kingdom, 
 as fixed by 5 Geo. IV., c. 74, is the Imperial Standard Yard, 
 measured by the distance between the centres of the two 
 points in the gold studs in the straight brass rod, now in the 
 custody of the clerk of the House of Commons, whereon the 
 words and figures, Standard Yard, 1760, are engraved ; and 
 to make the recovery of it easy, in the event of it being lost, 
 t is declared that its length is to that of a pendulum vibrat 
 ing seconds in the latitude of London, as 36 to 39-1393 inches. 
 This standard yard is declared to be the only standard mea 
 sure of extension, whereby all other measures of extension 
 whatsoever, whether the same be lineal, superficial, or solid, 
 shall be derived. 1 The principal subdivisions are the foot = 
 yard, and the inch = -j^tb. foot. The principal multiples 
 are the pole or perch = 5J yards, the furlong = 220 yards, 
 and the mile = 1760. These lineal measures, squared, give 
 superficial measures, of which the principal are the rood = 
 40 sq. perches = 1210 sq. yards, and the acre ^= 160 sq. 
 perches = 4840 sq. yards. The standard unit of weight is 
 the Imperial standard Troy pound, made in 1758, and now in 
 the custody of the clerk of the House of Commons. From 
 this, measures of weight are derived. It is subdivided into 
 12 oz., each oz. into 20 dwts., and each dwt. into 24 grains. 
 To fix the avoirdupois pound, it is declared to be 7000 grains 
 Troy, and subdivided into 16 oz., and each oz. into 16 drams. 
 The multiples avoirdupois are 28 Ib. = 1 qr., 4 qrs. = 1 cwt., 
 and 20 cwt. = 1 ton. The standard measure of capacity is 
 fixed by the standard imperial gallon, containing 10 Ib. avoir 
 dupois of distilled water, at temperature 62 Fah., or 277-274 
 cubic inches. The corn, wine, and ale gallons have respec 
 tively 268-8231, and 262- of these cubic inches. 
 
 Finance. To carry on the affairs of such a wondrous fabric 
 as the British Empire, necessarily requires sums of an amount 
 so immense, that it is scarcely possible to form a very definite 
 conception of them, notwithstanding of the minute accuracy 
 of the series of official blue books in which they regularly 
 appear. The separate amounts of revenue and expenditure 
 under their different heads, as well as the total amount, are 
 given below. This vast revenue is generally raised in accord 
 ance with what are understood to be the soundest principles 
 of political economy ; in other words, the taxes, direct and 
 indirect, and the customs which furnish it, are, with few ex 
 ceptions, collected in the least obnoxious form, fall lightest 
 on articles of primary necessity, or the raw materials of manu 
 facture, and heaviest on articles either of luxury, for which the 
 persons using them must be supposed well able to pay; or of 
 noxious consumption, from the use of which the persons un 
 happily addicted to them, ought, if possible, to be deterred by 
 the high price which they are compelled to pay. Almost all 
 the great heads of revenue furnish facts of the deepest interest, 
 and it is difficult to refrain from making several of them the 
 subject of special remark. Nowhere can we find data better 
 fitted to explain the actual position of the country than in the 
 various sources from which its revenue is obtained ; for ex 
 ample, the direct taxation on property and income, showing 
 the vast amount of wealth which must annually be produced, 
 when 7 d. per pound raises a sum of more than 5,000,000 
 sterling; the inconceivable amount of correspondence, in end 
 less forms of variety, which must be carried on, when a single 
 penny on each letter, after paying all expenses of manage 
 ment, yields a clear surplus of more than 800,000. But our 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 507 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 limits forbid, and nothing more can be done here than to 
 append the following important Tables : 
 
 Net INCOME and EXPENDITURE of the UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 INCOME. 
 
 Customs 
 Excise 
 Stamps 
 Taxes 
 
 Tears ending April 6, 
 
 1846. 1847. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1B49. 
 
 
 
 21,170,860 
 13,932,277 
 6,565,365 
 4,318,903 
 5,317,245 
 812,000 
 100,000 
 60,132 
 
 1850. 
 
 
 
 19,768,393 
 13,296,620 
 7,660,340 
 4,224,039 
 5,084,741 
 791,000 
 130,000 
 118,902 
 
 
 21,086,265 
 13,958,391 
 7,638,765 
 4,257,159 
 5,464,581 
 856,000 
 112,000 
 253,017 
 
 
 
 19,940,296 
 13,276,879 
 7,319,053 
 4,347,571 
 5,459,368 
 932,000 
 61,000 
 115,442 
 
 
 
 20,442,759 
 14,043,064 
 6,843,547 
 4,332,980 
 5,466,248 
 823,000 
 160,000 
 155,028 
 
 Post-office 
 down Lands 
 Small Kevenues 
 
 51,074,035 
 750,859 
 184,430 
 
 53,626,17s 
 667,644 
 179,940 
 
 51,451,609 
 455,021 
 176,127 
 
 52,276,782 
 84,284 
 656,666 
 
 52,266,626 
 "650,292 
 
 Imprests, &c 
 
 Total 
 Excess of Expend 
 
 EXPENDITURE. 
 
 Public Debt 
 Civil List 
 Diplomatic Services 
 Courts of Justice 
 Navy 
 
 52,009,324 
 
 54,473,762 
 
 52,082,757 
 3,092,285 
 
 53,017,732 
 269,378 
 
 52,916,918 
 
 52,009,324 
 
 54,473,762 
 
 55,175,042 
 
 53,287,110 
 
 52,916,918 
 
 28,213,523 
 
 174>65 
 751,810 
 6,968,917 
 6,715,409 
 2,236,507 
 540,937 
 3,634,245 
 646 
 
 25,055,202 
 393,221 
 175,143 
 942,754 
 7.708,294 
 6,534,699 
 2,645,646 
 531,818 
 4,039,794 
 
 "682,000 
 
 28,427,232 
 394,232 
 169,374 
 1,054,973 
 8,157,287 
 7,357,689 
 2,726,698 
 526,788 
 4,285,769 
 
 "975,000 
 1,100,000 
 
 28,489,860 
 395,670 
 165,591 
 1,113,973 
 7,962,397 
 6,743,634 
 3,001,128 
 503,694 
 4,521,243 
 
 "389,920 
 
 28,194,507 
 396,451 
 160,360 
 1,081,462 
 6,711,724 
 6,490,475 
 2,485,387 
 436,933 
 4,421,118 
 
 Army 
 Ordnance 
 Annuities and Pensions. 
 Miscellaneous 
 Opium Compensation . . 
 Irish Distress 
 Kaffir War 
 
 Excess of Income 
 
 49,628,724 
 2,380,600 
 
 52,009,324 
 
 51,708,571 
 2,765,191 
 
 55,175,042 
 
 5,3287,110 
 
 50,378,417 
 2,538,501 
 
 5t-,473,762 
 
 55,175,042153,287,110 
 
 52,916,918 
 
 At the Revolution in 1688, the national debt was 664,263, 
 and the interest and management 39,855. At the commence 
 ment of the last European war, in 1793, it was 239,350,148; 
 and in 1817, shortly after its termination, 840,850,491. It 
 is now 773,168,316, and the interest and management, as 
 seen above, 28,194,507. 
 
 People. Under this general head we include not merely 
 their numbers or population, properly so called, but whatever 
 is peculiar in their condition their origin and language, their 
 literature, religion, and manners everything, in short, which 
 throws light on their social position, and is now usually com 
 prehended under the designation of moral and vital statistics. 
 Some of these topics we can barely glance at, and even the 
 most important of them must be discussed in a few brief 
 sentences. 
 
 In 17 10, the population of England and Wales was 5,066,337; 
 and nearly at the same time, that of Scotland, 1,050,000 ; and 
 that of Ireland, 2,099,094; in all, 7,215,431. 
 
 The census was first actually taken in 1801 in Great Britain, 
 and in 1821 in Ireland, and ever since in both islands decen 
 nially, with the following results : | 
 
 SUMMARY ACCOUNT of the POPULATION O/GEKAT BRITAIN and IREI 
 and NAVY, at the periods at which Censuses have beei 
 
 
 1801. 
 
 1811. 
 
 1021. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1841. 
 
 Population 
 sq.m. 
 
 England 
 Wales 
 
 8,331, 434 
 541,546 
 
 9,53S,827 
 611,788 
 
 11,261,437 
 
 717,438 
 
 13,091,005 
 806,182 
 
 14,995,138 
 911,603 
 
 297-698 
 
 122-774 
 
 Scotland 
 Army, Is avy, &c 
 Islands in the British Seas.. 
 
 1,559,068 
 470,598 
 
 1,805,688 
 640,500 
 
 2,093,456 
 319,300 
 89,508 
 
 2,365,114 
 277,017 
 103,710 
 
 2,620,184 
 193,469 
 124,040 
 
 86-652 
 
 Total 
 Ireland 
 
 10,942,646 
 
 12,59fi,803 
 
 14,481,139 
 
 6,801,827 
 
 16,643,028 
 7,767,401 
 
 18,844,434 
 8,175,124 
 
 251 -449 
 
 Total Population of the) 
 United Kingdom ) 
 
 
 
 21,282,966 
 
 24,410,429 
 
 27,019,558 
 
 221-521 
 
 The decennial period having again expired, another census 
 is on the eve of being taken, and a population of at least 
 29,000,000 is anticipated. The known proportion between 
 births and deaths seems to indicate a greater increase ; but 
 considerable allowance must be made for emigration, which has 
 
 long been carried on, and is daily attracting more attention 
 as a necessary outlet for a constantly increasing population. 
 
 This great population, like that of Europe gener 
 ally, belongs to what is called the Caucasian race, 
 which exhibits the human form in its highest phy 
 sical type, and is so superior to all other races, that 
 in whatever quarter of the globe it fixes its seat, 
 it sooner or later becomes dominant. One of the 
 most celebrated varieties of this race is the Anglo- 
 Saxon ; and to it, though with a considerable in 
 termixture of other Gothic races, the great majority 
 of the inhabitants of Great Britain unquestionably 
 belongs. The Anglo-Saxons, however, were not 
 the original owners of the soil. They found the 
 Celts in possession, and drove them before them 
 into the wildest and most inaccessible parts of 
 Great Britain, particularly the N. and W., where 
 they still remain, and prove their separate origin 
 by one of the most marked of national distinctions 
 a peculiar language. Ireland experienced a 
 different fortune, and, with the exception of the 
 N. province, where an Anglo-Saxon colony was 
 established in comparatively recent times, is almost 
 entirely peopled by Celts. The Celtic language 
 is also, though with considerable variations, the 
 vernacular of the Highlands of Scotland and 
 Wales, the W. of Ireland, and the Isle of Man, 
 but it has not, and does not seem destined ever to 
 have, a literature. The Anglo-Saxon or English, 
 on the contrary, promises soon to be, if it is not 
 already, the most widely spoken of European lan 
 guages, and has proved itself inferior to none as a 
 vehicle of thought. Fitted alike for all the great 
 walks of literature, it can move with the dignified 
 step of history, pursue the mazes of metaphy 
 sics, give utterance meet to the finest bursts of 
 forensic, senatorial, and pulpit eloquence, and, un 
 twining all the cords of harmony, sustain poets and 
 other imaginative minds in their loftiest flights. The long list 
 of distinguished men who occupy the highest niches in the 
 temple of Fame, and embodied their conceptions in the Eng 
 lish tongue, of itself indicates that those who speak it are an 
 intellectual race. Nor is this their greatest praise. As a people 
 they have been thought deficient in softer graces, but are un 
 surpassed in the sterner and sublimer virtues. Nowhere are 
 honour and integrity in higher esteem ; nowhere has philan 
 thropy made more costly sacrifices, or gained more glorious 
 triumphs ; nowhere are the final destinies of man held in higher 
 reverence ; and nowhere are the great truths of Christianity 
 more deeply pondered, more thoroughly understood, more cor 
 dially believed, more sedulously practised. This superiority 
 of character is accompanied, as usual, with superiority of social 
 position ; and when men ask, Where is the greatest amount 
 of national prosperity to be found ? the best informed of every 
 country turn round and point, with one accord, to Great Bri 
 tain. There, vast accumulations of wealth have been made, 
 and vast multitudes of families are living in the daily enjoy 
 ment of the ordinary comforts of life. But all pictures have 
 their darker shades, and our prosperity is by no means without 
 alloy. Gigantic evils raise their heads 
 in many quarters, and threaten to ad 
 vance, in spite of all the efforts that 
 are made to stay them. The popula 
 tion is not merely great in proportion 
 to extent of surface, but is much more 
 crowded together, in dense masses, 
 than that of any other country in Eu 
 rope. France, in addition to its me 
 tropolis, has only three towns with a 
 population exceeding 100,000. The 
 United Kingdom, besides its metro 
 polis, has no fewer than nine. All of 
 these contain immense commercial 
 or manufacturing establishments, in 
 which myriads seek their means of subsistence, and live on 
 from day to day, often from the scantiness of their wages un 
 able, and oftener still, from improvidence or some worse habit, 
 unwilling to make any provision for the future. But all trades 
 are more or less fluctuating. Changes occur in the political 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 world, or markets become glutted, and a sudden revulsion 
 takes place. Want of employment at once dries up the only 
 source from which the first necessaries of life could be ob 
 tained ; disease soon begins to commit its devastations, and 
 the whole fabric of society is shaken to its base. Such things 
 are not of unfrequent occurrence, and threaten results which 
 it is fearful even to contemplate. But apart from these, pau 
 perism has struck its roots deep, and multitudes live solely 
 on the pittance which a legal provision can obtain for them. 
 In regard to many of the poor, such provision, when other 
 means of subsistence fail, is perhaps one of the simplest 
 dictates of justice ; but unhappily the law operates by in 
 flexible rules, and cannot draw any moral distinctions. Po 
 verty in fact is all that it provides for ; and hence, the poor 
 who have become so by unavoidable misfortune, or, it may 
 be, by the practice of a more than ordinary virtue, must stand 
 on the same footing with those who have made themselves 
 poor by the grossest indulgences, or perhaps only pretend po 
 verty in order to procure additional means of continuing them. 
 When such things can be practised (and an effectual preventive 
 still remains to be discovered), pauperism preys on the very 
 vitals of society. A specimen of the state of pauperism in the 
 United Kingdom is given in the following Table for 1846: 
 
 
 
 Total number 
 
 
 
 te 
 
 Rate in the 
 
 Rite 
 
 
 1841. 
 
 InclmliiiK 
 Casual Poor 
 
 per Cent. 
 
 Property Rated 
 
 and Mamten- 
 
 in..-. of the 
 Poo, 
 
 Expenditure 
 for Relief, Ac. 
 
 per Head of 
 Expenditure. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 *. d. 
 
 & S. d. 
 
 England and Wales... 
 
 15,906.741 
 
 1,721,350 
 
 10-8 
 
 67,291,171 
 
 5,298,787 
 
 1 7 
 
 3 1 6| 
 
 Ireland 
 Scotland 
 
 8,175,124 
 2,620,216 
 
 333,019 
 146,370 
 
 4-0 
 55 
 
 13,187,421 
 9,320,784 
 
 667,897 
 433,915 
 
 10-25 
 11-1 
 
 1 14 U 
 2 19 3J 
 
 The same causes which foster pauperism tend to foster crime. 
 Of this, too, there has been a great increase in recent times ; 
 but there is reason to hope that the increase is more apparent 
 than real, and that numerous cases which appear in our 
 criminal calendar, indicate not so much an extension of crime, 
 as superior skill in detecting it. The density of the popula 
 tion, and the consequent difficulty often experienced in find 
 ing employment, has led to extensive emigration, which is 
 carried on partly under the auspices of the Government, and 
 has unquestionably been most beneficial, inasmuch as it both 
 relieves the mother country of a load which might ultimately 
 prove too heavy for it, adds greatly to the comforts of the emi 
 grants themselves, and tends to supply the most serious want 
 which many of our colonies experience a want of labour. 
 The extent and direction of emigration from the United King 
 dom is exhibited in the following Table : 
 
 EXTENT and DIRECTION o/ EMIGRATION //-ant the UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 
 From 
 
 To 
 
 Total. 
 
 England 
 and Wal. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 U. States. 
 
 British 
 America. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Other 
 
 Countries. 
 
 87,611 
 153,898 
 176,883 
 
 3,427 
 8,616 
 11,505 
 
 38.813 
 95,756 
 69,701 
 
 82,839 
 
 142,154 
 188,233 
 
 43,4:i9 
 109,630 
 
 31,065 
 
 2,277 
 4,949 
 23,622 
 
 1896 
 1587 
 5169 
 
 129,851 
 258,270 
 248,089 
 
 One of the most favourable symptoms of British society, 
 is the general attention which the condition of its humbler 
 classes is now attracting. Both in high places, and elsewhere, 
 clear heads and warm hearts are labouring anxiously to 
 ameliorate it. And it is well that, amidst their devisings, 
 sanitary measures are not forgotten. Our climate is emin 
 ently favourable to health ; but for a long time good evidence 
 of the fact was to be found only in the rural districts. Many 
 of our larger towns, with their stagnant atmosphere, their 
 narrow filthy lanes, and damp, sunless, crowded cellars, were 
 the chosen abodes of disease and pestilence. The improve 
 ments which have been effected, and continue to be vigor 
 ously followed up, already furnish one of the most interesting 
 chapters in the comparatively recent but very important 
 science of vital statistics. In the five years ending 1805, the 
 mortality was one in 41-9; in 1810, one in 44-3 ; in 1830, 
 one in 46; in 1840, one in 44-5; and in 1844, one in 46. In 
 London in 1 685, the mortality, according to Macaulay, was 
 one in 23. It is now one in 40. It is plain, however, that 
 much of a sanitary nature is still required in our larger towns, 
 
 since Mr. Farr, one of the highest authorities on the subject, 
 states the difference in the duration of life in town and coun 
 try, at not less than 17 years in favour of the latter the pro 
 portion being 55 years in the country, and only 38 in towns. 
 It is not, however, by physical means, important though 
 they be, but by moral means, that permanent improvements 
 of our social system are chiefly to be effected. The first of 
 these, unquestionably, is education. Taken in its highest 
 sense, it includes the whole course of training, by which a 
 human being is raised to the highest perfection of which his 
 nature is susceptible. Such an education is always of diffi 
 cult attainment ; but it is believed that where it meets with 
 congenial minds, the education pursued in our higher schools 
 and colleges is not surpassed in any country in Europe. 
 The description of these celebrated institutions must be re 
 served for the particular divisions of the empire in which 
 they flourish. Here we can only advert, for a moment, to 
 the humbler education which every citizen ought to receive, 
 because, without it, he is to all intents and purposes not a 
 civilized man, but a savage. For a long time it was sup 
 posed that this education was as widely diffused in Britain as 
 in any other country; but the contrary has been proved, and 
 our place among educated nations is not the first. The fact 
 is somewhat humiliating, 
 but it is hoped will soon 
 cease to be a reality. Cir 
 cumstances have hitherto 
 prevented the establish 
 ment of a national system, 
 and Government has in 
 the meantime adopted one 
 of the most effectual modes 
 of stimulating voluntary 
 
 exertions by rewarding them with additional grants from 
 the Treasury. Education, on a basis so extended that the 
 most scrupulous cannot refuse to receive it, and of a kind so 
 pure and hallowed, that none can receive without being es 
 sentially benefited by it, should be one of the earliest, as it 
 certainly would be one of the noblest achievements of our 
 country. For educational and criminal statistics, see ENGLAND, 
 SCOTLAND, and IRELAND. 
 
 History. Great Britain, for many ages, consisted of two 
 independent, and almost incessantly hostile kingdoms, which 
 became united in 1603, under one sovereign, in the person of 
 James, previously the sixth of the name in Scotland, and 
 thereafter known as James I. With him the history of the 
 British Empire properly begins. His reign has the merit of 
 having been peaceful, but he was ungainly in person, vulgar 
 in manners, and of a cunning, ungenerous, and selfish nature. 
 His learning, which might have shone like a 
 jewel in his crown, only furnished displays 
 of his pedantry, and his highest princely 
 quality was the very equivocal one of en 
 tertaining extravagant notions of his royal 
 prerogative. His son and successor, Charles 
 I., was a man of a very different stamp. In 
 person, he was every inch a king ; and had he 
 lived in less trying times, the many noble 
 qualities, of which he was undoubtedly pos 
 sessed, might have made his reign both prosperous and bril 
 liant. Unhappily, he inherited his father s notions of prero 
 gative notions which, though they had only furnished the 
 father with a topic on which he was perpetually giving utter 
 ance to a kind of blasphemous bombast, became the occasion 
 of fearful calamities to the son, at once terminating his reign 
 and his life by a bloody tragedy. An interregnum succeeded, 
 in which the chief actor performed his part with unrivalled 
 ability; but with a character so enigmatical, that many are still 
 puzzled where to give him a place whether among saints or 
 hypocrites. He had ruled by a military despotism ; but the 
 sceptre, which even he was scarcely able to wield, dropt at 
 once from the hands of his feeble, but respectable son ; and 
 the Restoration of Charles II. was hailed with loud acclama 
 tions. Society now underwent a sudden change, and, as too 
 often happens, passed from a bad to a worse extreme. Under 
 the pretext of discountenancing hypocrisy, licentiousness 
 gained the ascendant ; and nowhere more completely than at 
 court, where the monarch himself was soon found raising 
 sums for his debaucheries, by pawning his kingdom, and 
 
BRITON-FERRY 
 
 BROADHEMPSTON 
 
 stooping to the ineffable infamy of bartering its independence, 
 for a pension from such a swaggerer as Louis XIV. The 
 death of Charles IT. made way for his brother, James II., 
 an intolerable bigot, who at once brought matters to a crisis, 
 and was soon beyond the kingdom an ignominious exile. 
 Then followed the glorious Revolution of 1688, which com 
 pleted the Magna Charta by its Bill of Rights, and placed 
 the Constitution on its immovable basis. William and Mary 
 were succeeded by Anne, whose reign is remarkable chiefly 
 for the Act of Union in 1707, and the band of distinguished 
 writers who flourished in it, and have justly procured for 
 it the name of the Augustan Age of English Literature. 
 George I. and George II. followed, both of them adding to 
 limited intellect the greater disadvantage of being foreigners 
 by descent, language, and manners. The reign of each is 
 marked by a rebellion, which aimed to bring back the House 
 of Stuart. They were succeeded by George III., whose 
 blameless private life has endeared his memory to every 
 right-hearted Briton, and whose long reign, though not free 
 from blemishes, is, on the whole, one of the most illustrious 
 in British annals. A visitation of providence withdrew him 
 from public life, and placed him in a state which, notwith 
 standing of the trappings of majesty which still surrounded 
 it, the very meanest of his subjects could not envy. Mean 
 while his place was occupied by his son as Prince Regent, who 
 afterwards succeeded him, under the name of George IV. 
 He looked a king, but can scarcely be said to have lived one. 
 During his reign, the hope which the nation had entertained 
 of an illustrious female succession, was suddenly and griev 
 ously extinguished. The sceptre of the British Empire was 
 again to be wielded by a female, but, in the meantime, it 
 passed into the hands of William IV., whose reign, not other 
 wise much distinguished, is famous for the Reform Act. 
 The period appointed for a female reign now arrived, and our 
 beloved sovereign, Queen Victoria I., ascended the throne. 
 This reign has hitherto been as illustrious as that of the great 
 Maiden Queen, without being tarnished by any of its darker 
 spots. Many years of it have already elapsed, and many more, 
 we trust, are still to come ; but this much can now be said 
 Never could loyalty to the crown be more justly claimed, 
 and never has it been more cordially and universally paid. 
 (Macaulay s History of England; Porter s Progress of the 
 Nation; M Culloch s British Empire; Baines History of the 
 Cotton Manufacture ; Johnston s Physical Atlas ; Statistical 
 Journal ; Parliamentary Returns ; &c.) 
 
 BRITON-FERRY, par., S. Wales, Glamorgan. P. 718. 
 BRITTANY. See BRETAGNE. 
 BRITWAY, par. Irel. Cork; 4010 ac. Pop. 1212. 
 BRITWELL-SALOME, par. Eng. Oxford ; 730 ac. 
 Pop. 233. 
 
 BRIVES [anc. Briva Lurretia], a tn. France, dep. Cor- 
 reze, 15 m. S.W. Tulle; agreeably situated amidst vineyards 
 and orchards, 1. bank, Correze, surrounded by a fine avenue 
 of elms ; houses substantially built of stone, but the streets 
 narrow, and the public squares indifferent. It has a college 
 and hospital, a court of first resort and of commerce, an agri 
 cultural society and seminary, and in the vicinity an exten 
 sive cotton-mill. Manufactures: woollens, cotton goods, 
 nut-oil, and wax-candles, brandy, and wax refining. Trade : 
 timber, wine, chestnuts, truffles, truffled poultry, wool, cattle, 
 pigs, &c. Coal is worked extensively in the neighbourhood. 
 Pop. 5983. 
 
 BRI VIESCA, a tn. Spain, Old Castile, prov. of, and 20 m. 
 N.E. Burgoa. It stands in a plain, 1. bank, Oca, and is well 
 built ; houses generally of two stories, and streets straight, 
 spacious, clean, and well paved. It has two parish churches, 
 both handsome buildings ; a townhouse, and three hospitals ; 
 is well supplied with water, part of which is furnished by a 
 finely ornamented fountain. The manufactures are of no 
 consequence; but corn-mills are numerous, and there is a 
 considerable trade in grain. Pop. 2064. 
 
 BRIVIO, a walled tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, prov. 
 of, and 17 m. E.S.E. Como, r. bank, Adda; commanded by 
 a castle, and having a handsome parish church, and some 
 chapels. Manufactures: silk and linen fabrics, lace, and 
 paper. Pop. 1930. 
 
 BRIXEN, a tn. Austria, Tyrol, circle, Schwatz, gov. of, 
 and 40 m. S. by E. Innsbruck ; in a narrow valley, near the 
 confluence of the Rienz with the Eisach. The town is regu 
 
 larly built ; but there is little in it deserving of notice, except 
 the cathedral, which has four towers, and a fa$ade of white 
 marble. Brixen is the seat of a bishop, and has an Episcopal 
 palace, a townhouse, prison, hospital, and several convents. 
 Among the educational institutions are a gymnasium, with 
 200 students ; and a normal school. Some silk is manu 
 factured. Pop. 3600. 
 
 BRIXHAM, a market tn., seaport, and par. England, 
 co. Devon. The TOWN is prettily situated on the English 
 Channel, occupying the sides of two hills, a little S. from 
 Berry Head, the S. point of Torbay, and 23 m. S. Exeter ; 
 lat. 50 23 N. ; Ion. 3 30 W. It is divided into two parts, 
 called Upper and Lower Brixham, the former comprising a 
 long straggling street. The generality of the older houses 
 are very indifferent buildings; but some of those of more 
 recent erection are sufficiently respectable. The shops are 
 lighted with gas, but not the streets. There are two churches 
 the parish church, a large ancient structure, in the per 
 pendicular style ; a chapel of ease, and Wesleyan, Indepen 
 dent, and Baptist chapels; also, a chapel belonging to the 
 Plymouth Brethren ; a national and two private schools, 
 several benefit and benevolent societies, and other charities. 
 The trade of Brixham is chiefly in fish, which is carried on 
 to a great extent, London, Bath, and Bristol receiving sup 
 plies from this place. The port possesses also a number of 
 vessels, engaged in the coasting and foreign trade ; those in 
 the latter plying chiefly to the Mediterranean. Brixham is 
 celebrated in history as the place where the Prince of Orange, 
 afterwards William III., landed, November 4, 1688. Pop. 
 (1851), 5627. Area of par. 5210 ac. Pop. (1841), 5684. 
 
 BRIXTON, three pars. Eng. : 1, Par. Devon; 3060 ac. 
 Pop. 823. 2, Par. Isle of Wight; 2700 ac. Pop. 710. 
 3, Brixton-Deverill, par. Wilts; 2690 ac. Pop. 197. 
 
 BRIXTON, a vil. England, co. Surrey, forming an 
 agreeable suburb of London, 3 m. S.S.W. St. Paul s. It con 
 sists of North Brixton, aud Brixton Hill, composed of neat, 
 well-built houses, extending about 2 m. along either side the 
 road from Kennington to Streatham, with numerous handsome 
 detached villas. In the village and district are three Epis 
 copal and three Dissenting places of worship, a house of 
 correction for the county, St. Anne s asylum, an elegant brick 
 edifice, where 200 boys and 100 girls are maintained and edu 
 cated ; Trinity asylum for aged females, and the Reform alms- 
 houses. Pop. 10,175. 
 
 BRIXWORTH, par. Eng. Xorthamp. ; 3410 ac. P. 1202. 
 BRIZINA, or BERIZINA, a vil. Algeria, in the Sahara, 
 256 m. S.W. Algiers; lat. 33 32 N.; Ion. 45 E. It 
 contains about 150 houses, begirt with a wall ; and has a 
 mosque, and schools. The people spin arid weave wool, make 
 tolerable gunpowder, and are good armourers, smiths, farriers, 
 &c. Saltpetre abounds in the environs, while sulphur is ob 
 tained from the Beni Mzab. A good deal of fruit is grown, 
 but not much grain. The neighbouring hills contain exten 
 sive beds of gypsum. 
 
 BROACH. See BAROACH. 
 
 BROAD BAY, a bay, Scotland, N.E. side isl. Lewis, 
 having Keep Head on the N. W. of its entrance, and Champan 
 Head on the S.E. Its length, inland, is about 7 m.; breadth 
 varying from 3 to 4 m.; lat. 58 20 N.; Ion. 6 10 W. 
 
 BROAD SOUND, an extensive bay, N.E. coast, Aus 
 tralia, in lat. (entrance) 22 22 N. ; Ion. 149 30 E. It runs 
 about 50 m. into the land, in a S.S.E. direction, measuring 
 from the parallel given above, and terminating in a point at 
 its S. extremity, where it is encompassed by high, barren 
 hills, with craggy tops. 
 
 BROAD CHALK, par. Eng. Wilts ; 8380 ac. Pop. 775. 
 BROAD-CLIST, par. Eng. Devon ; 10,270 ac. P. 2407. 
 BROADFIELD, par. Eng. Herts; 620 ac. Pop. 6. 
 BROADFORD, a small vil. Scotland, Isle of Skye, 
 15 m. S.W. Portree ; with a church and school-house. A 
 market is held annually. Pop. 80. 
 
 BROADHAVEN, a bay, N.W. coast, Ireland, co. Mayo, 
 extending from Erris Head on the W., to Kid Island on the 
 E., 5J m. The anchorage is good, and the water sufficiently 
 deep ; but in N. winds there is only room for two or three 
 vessels to ride in safety. 
 
 BROADHEMBURY, par. Eng. Devon; 5950 ao. P.851. 
 BROADHEMPSTON, par. Eng. Devon ; 2140 ac. 
 Pop. 747. 
 
BROAU-HINTON 
 
 510 
 
 BKOEK-1N WATERLAND 
 
 BROAD-HINTON, par. Eng. Wilts ; 4670 ac. P. 670. 
 
 BROADMAYNE, par. Eng. Dorset ; 2540 ac. Pop. 490. 
 
 BROADOAK, par. Eng. Cornwall; 3240 ac. Pop. 303. 
 
 BROADSTAIRS, a small seaport and hamlet, England, 
 oo. Kent, Isle of Tlianet, 2 in. N.N.E. Ramsgate ; lat. 
 51 23 N.; Ion. 1 26 E. ; situated on a slope, facing the E. 
 It consists of four principal streets, and a handsome terrace. 
 The thoroughfares are straight and spacious, and though un- 
 paved, are well kept. The houses are in general good ; the 
 larger of brick, the others of flint. Water, obtained from 
 deep wells, is abundant. It contains four chapels one chapel 
 of ease, one Wesleyan, and one Baptist, and an ancient chapel, 
 called the chapel of the Virgin, occupied from time to time 
 by various denominations. There are four principal schools, 
 and several others ; a Dorcas society, and various other chari 
 ties. The town has of late years become a fashionable water 
 ing-place, and is provided with suitable accommodation for 
 visitors, including well furnished lodging-houses, a hotel, 
 news and assembly rooms, public libraries, and hot and cold 
 baths. The only trade of the place is in fish. Pop. 1457. 
 
 BROAD WAS, par. Eng. Worcester ; 1000 ac. Pop. 326. 
 
 BROADWATER, par. Eng. Sussex; 2240 ac. P. 5345. 
 
 BROADWAY, three pars. Eng.: 1, par. Dorset; 1000 
 ac. Pop. 498. 2, par. Somerset; 1830 ac. Pop. 570. 
 3, par. Worcester; -1SOO ac. Pop. 1687. 
 
 BROADWELL, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Gloucester; 
 1 000 ac. Pop. 345. 2, par. Oxford ; 5990 ac. Pop. 1051. 
 
 BROAD-WINDSOR, par. Eng. Dorset ; 7110 ac. Pop. 
 1661. 
 
 BROADWOOD-KELLY, par. Eng. Devon; 2190 ac. 
 Pop. 471. 
 
 BROADWOODWIDGER, par. Eng. Devon ; 7350 ac. 
 Pop. 923. 
 
 BROBURY, par. Eng. Hereford; 440 ac. Pop. 71. 
 
 BROCKDISH, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 1080 ac. Pop. 466. 
 
 BROCKENHURST, par. Eng. Hants; 2980 ac. P. 928. 
 
 BROCKEN, or BLOCKSBERG [Latin, Bructerus Mons], a. 
 mountain, Prussian Saxony, gov. Magdeburg, about 20 m. 
 W.S.W. Halberstadt. It is the culminating point of the 
 Harz Mountains, and 3791 ft. high. The summit and nucleus 
 of the mountain are granite, around which the sedimentary 
 rocks lie, enveloping it like a mantle. An inn, called the 
 Broclcenluius, in which the host constantly resides, occupies 
 its loftiest summit. Close to the inn is a tower of massy 
 timber, 50 ft. high, and about 1 mile from it is a cleft called 
 the ScJineeloch, from which the snow scarcely ever disappears. 
 Owing to the hazes which prevail, the view, which is said to 
 be fine, and very extensive, can seldom be seen to advantage. 
 The mountain is said to be haunted, and is the cradle of nu 
 merous fabulous legends, which are still well known throughout 
 Germany. One cause of their prevalence is a curious natural 
 phenomenon, called the Spectre of the Brocken, occasionally 
 seen at sunset or sunrise, when the mists rise perpendicularly 
 out of the valley opposite to the sun, and at the same time 
 leave the mountain-top clear. Every object reflected from 
 this wall of vapour is magnified. The whole mountain be 
 comes of larger dimensions, the inn is converted into a palace, 
 and human beings appear giants. At the foot of the moun 
 tain the Bode, Use, Ocker, and Holzemme take their rise. 
 
 BROCKFORD-AND-WiTHERiNGSET, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 
 3980 ac. Pop. 1065. 
 
 BROCKHAGEN, a vil. Prussia, prov. Westphalia, gov. 
 of, and 33 m. S.W. Minden. There is a distillery; and a 
 {jood deal of yarn is spun. In the neighbourhood, hops are 
 extensively cultivated. Pop. 2184. 
 
 BROCKHALL, par. Eng. Northampton ; 720 ac. P. 59. 
 
 BROCKHAMPTON, par. Eng. Hereford; 620 ac. P. 132. 
 
 BROCKLESBY, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 3860 ac. Pop. 229. 
 
 BROCKLEY, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Somerset; 910ac. 
 Pop. 171. 2, par. Suffolk; 1080 nc. Pop. 380. 
 
 BROCKTHROP, par. Eng. Gloucester; HOOac. P. 169. 
 
 BROCKV1LLE, a tn. Upper Canada, co. Leeds, l.bank, 
 St. Lawrence, 48 m. E.N.E. Kingston. It is a handsome 
 town, and lies on a limestone bed, which supplies the mate 
 rial of which the houses are built. It has a court-house, 
 .jail, and six churches Presbyterian, Episcopal, Methodist, 
 Baptist, Congregational, and R. Catholic, all built of stone. 
 Tanning, brewing, smithy work, waggon-making, and various 
 other handicrafts, are carried on. Granite is obtained in the 
 
 neighbourhood. The steamboats from Montreal to Kingston 
 call here. Pop. (1852), 3246. 
 
 BROCK WORTH, par. Eng. Gloucester ; 2360 ac. P. 409. 
 
 BROD, or BROOD. 1, A fortified tn. Austria, gov. of 
 same name, military frontier of Sclavonia, 21 m. S.E. Posega, 
 1. bank, Save, opposite the Turkish town of Brod. It carries 
 on an active trade with Bosnia, whence it receives raw hides, 
 
 woollens, and cottons. Pop. 2470. The REGIMENT, or 
 
 DISTRICT of Brod, extends over 576 geo. sq. m., with a pop. 
 
 of 81,200. 2, Brod, or Ungarisch-Brod, a tn. Austria, 
 
 Moravia, gov. Briinn, circle of, and 9 m. E. Hradisch, r. bank, 
 Olsawa. It is walled, has a handsome parish church, a Do 
 minican cloister, which has existed since 1337; and a town- 
 house. It has also manufactures of cloths, and a good trade 
 
 in fruits and hides. Pop. 3369. 3, Brod [Bohemian, 
 
 Cesty Brod], a tn. Bohemia, circle, Kaurzim, cap. lordship 
 of same name ; on the Zembra, and on the Olmiitz and Bo 
 hemian Railway, 19m. E. Prague. It is surrounded with 
 walls, in which are three gates ; and contains two churches 
 and a chapel, one of them a deanery church; with fine old 
 monuments, a townhouse, school, &c. It is well situated for 
 trade, but the inhabitants live chiefly by agriculture and 
 
 weaving. Pop. 1877. 4, Brod (Deutsch), [Bohemian, 
 
 Niemeczky], a tn. Bohemia, circle of, and 22 m. S.S.E. Czaslau, 
 on the Zazawa ; with a gymnasium and custom-house. Pop. 
 
 3938. 5, Brod, a tn. Turkey in Europe, prov. Bosnia, 
 
 r. bank, Save, opposite Brod in Sclavonia, 90 m. N.N.W. 
 Bosna-serai. It is defended by a castle, and is a commercial 
 
 untrepot. Many other places in Central Europe also bear 
 
 the name of BROD. 
 
 BRODSWORTH, par. Eng. York, W. Riding; 3170 ac. 
 Pop. 467. 
 
 BRODY, a tn. Austria, N.E. part of Galicia, gov. of, 
 and 50 m. E.N.E. Lemberg, on the Russian frontier; lat. 
 50 7 N.; lat. 25 18 E. ; situated on a swampy plain. It 
 is ill built and dirty, and the houses mostly of wood. It has 
 been called the German Jerusalem, from the large num 
 ber of resident Jews, who constitute three-fourths of the 
 whole population. It has several squares, three Greek 
 churches, a R. Catholic church, several synagogues, a cham 
 ber of commerce, court of exchange, a convent of the Sisters 
 of Charity, a great many Jewish and other schools and semin 
 aries, a Jewish hospital, a theatre, and a large palace belong 
 ing to the Potocki family. Since 1779, it has been a free 
 commercial town, having its own magistrates and courts of 
 justice, and its imports and exports exempted from all duties. 
 It is the first town in Galicia in commercial importance, and 
 the second in population. The transit trade with Poland, 
 Moldavia, Wallachia, Turkey, and the S. parts of Russia, is 
 very extensive. The imports from the latter have lately 
 increased nearly twofold, but the exports have fallen off in 
 more than the same proportion. The trade of the town is 
 almost exclusively in the hands of the Jews, and consists 
 chiefly in the export of horses, cattle, wax, honey, tallow, 
 hides, leather, isinglass, aniseed, dried fruits, &c., and in the 
 import of wax, honey, tallow, raw hides, wool, caviare, &c., 
 from Russia, and of jewellery, pearls, colonial produce, and 
 manufactured goods, silks, cloths, furs, and particularly hard 
 ware. It has tanneries and linen manufactures ; and its 
 markets are numerously attended, especially that which takes 
 place four weeks after the Leipzig fair, to which large quan 
 tities of goods from the latter are transferred, and are bought 
 up chiefly by Russian merchants. Pop. (1846), 17,789. 
 
 BROEK-iN- WATERLAND, a vil. Holland, prov. N. Hol 
 land, about half-way betwixt Amsterdam and Edam, on a 
 brook, from which it is supposed to take its name, called 
 the Aa or Ee, and placed in the middle of four lakes or meres. 
 Broek, though otherwise an inconsiderable place, is renowned 
 for the devotion of its inhabitants to neatness and cleanliness. 
 The houses are very irregularly placed, some projecting, others 
 retiring, but all built of wood, and painted white or blue, so as 
 to appear as if newly erected. The most sedulous attention is 
 paid to the state of the streets ; no smoking is allowed, as the 
 ashes of the tobacco might defile them. The war with dirt 
 is carried on incessantly, within as well as without. Each 
 house has generally two kitchens, the smaller kept for the 
 purpose of preserving the larger from the. disarrangement and 
 soiling of its utensils. Each house has an apartment also 
 kept for the sole purpose of being cleaned, except on the occ- 
 
BROKEN BAY 
 
 511 
 
 BROOKLAND 
 
 sion of a baptism, marriage, or funeral. Each also has two 
 outer doors, of which one, in consequence of the outer steps 
 to it being removed, is some feet raised above the ground, 
 and is never used by any member of the family but on three 
 occasions, baptism, marriage, and burial. The gardens and 
 flower-plots equally attest the horror in which slovenliness 
 and dirt are held by their owners, and attract many strangers, 
 who come to admire the taste and attention bestowed on them. 
 There is but one church, the Reformed, a highly ornamented, 
 and carefully preserved building, with a high square tower 
 passing into an octagon, a curious painted glass window, and 
 an elaborately carved pulpit. The court-house is on the N. 
 side of the village, and formerly served also for the school ; but 
 being found much too small, a large and handsome school-house 
 was built in 1826, and is attended by 170 scholars. There is 
 also an orphan-house. Pop. of the parish nearly 1200, all 
 Protestants, excepting 30 R. Catholics, and 10 Jews. 
 
 BROKEN BAY, Australia, New S. Wales, between the 
 counties of Northumberland and Cumberland, having the 
 former N., and the latter S.; 18 m. N.E. Port Jackson; lat. 
 34 15 S.; Ion. 151 20 E. 
 
 BROKENBOROUGH, a par. England, Wilts; 2590 ac. 
 Pop. 429. 
 
 BROKEN ISLAND. 1, An isl. China, off the N.W. 
 extremity of isl. Chusan, with which it is connected at low 
 water ; it is about 700 ft. high, and is steep on all sides, ex 
 
 cepting that next the island just named. 2, An isl., S. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, N. coast, Papua; lat. 2 40 S.; Ion. 134 50 E. 
 
 (R.) 3, A group of islands, sometimes called Borongo or Bo- 
 
 longo islands, Bay of Bengal, coast of Aracan ; they are three 
 in number, and are situated immediately to the S. of Aracan 
 river. They are long and narrow, mountainous, woody, and 
 rugged, without any appearance of inhabitants or cultivation ; 
 and the whole coast of Aracan, both to the N. and S. of them, 
 has a similar dreary and repulsive aspect. 
 
 BROMBERG, a tn. Prussia, prov. of, and 69 m. N.E. 
 Posen, cap. gov. and circle of same name, on the Braa, 6 m. 
 W. its confluence with the Vistula. It is well built, has three 
 suburbs, and contains three churches, a monastery, a convent, 
 and several educational and charitable establishments. It 
 has a large sugar-refinery, several tobacco and chicory manu 
 factories, several flour and oil mills, potteries, and limekilns ; 
 also a vinegar-work, several distilleries, and breweries. It 
 has likewise a considerable trade in grain and wine, for which 
 its situation on the Bromberg Canal gives it great advantages. 
 For a short time under Napoleon, Bromberg was restored to 
 the Poles, and formed the capital of a department of the same 
 
 name. The GOVERNMENT, area, 3437 geo. sq. m., consists 
 
 generally of an extensive plain with a double slope, one E., 
 belonging to the basin of the Vistula, and the other S. W., send 
 ing its waters, by the Netze and other streams, into the Oder. 
 The soil is of a middling description, but agriculture, owing 
 more to the industry of the inhabitants than to their natural 
 advantages, has made considerable progress. All the ordi 
 nary crops of grain are raised. The potatoes are excellent. 
 The chief manufactures are woollen, linen, leather, and paper. 
 There are also several saltpetre-works and sugar-refineries. 
 The breweries and distilleries are numerous. Pop. of gov. 
 (1846), 463,969; of circle, 57,520; of tn. 11,282. 
 
 BROMBOROUGH, par. Eng. Chester; 2250 ac. P. 573. 
 
 BROMESWELL, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 3060 ac. Pop. 200. 
 
 BROMFTELD, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Cumberland; 
 12,850 ac. Pop. 2312. 2, par. Salop ; 9330 ac. Pop. 655. 
 
 BROMHAM, two pars. Eng. : 1, par. Bedford ; 1910 ac. 
 Pop. 314. 2, par. Wilts; 3300 ac. Pop. 1558. 
 
 BROMLEY, a small market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Kent. The town lies 10 m. S.S.E. London, on the N. side 
 of the Ravensbourne, in the neighbourhood of the Croydon 
 Canal and Railway, and consists chiefly of a long street of 
 well-built houses, with an alms-house for old people, and a 
 well-endowed hospital for 40 widows of clergymen. In the 
 neighbourhood is the palace of the Bishop of Rochester; 
 area of par. 4630 ac. Pop. 4325. 
 
 BROMLEY, five pars. Eng. : 1, Bromley Abbotts, par. 
 Stafford; 8360 ac. Pop. 1508. 2, Bromley (Great), par. 
 Essex; 3050 ac. Pop. 738. 3, Bromley (Little), par. Essex ; 
 2260 ac. Pop. 426. 4, Bromley (King s), par. Stafford ; 
 3370 ac. Pop. 718. 5, Bromley (St. Leonard s), par. Middle 
 sex; 620 ac. Pop. 6154. 
 
 BROMPTON, a W. suburb of London, co. Middlesex, 
 1 m. W. Hyde Park corner, well built, lighted with gas, and 
 supplied with water. It has a handsome church, in the later 
 English style ; a chapel of ease, a meeting-house for Inde 
 pendents, a school, and an elegant hospital for consumptive 
 patients. The land in the neighbourhood is laid out chiefly 
 as nursery grounds. Pop. 9514. 2, A vil. England, co. 
 York, N. Riding, on a plain, about 2 m. N.N.E. Northaller- 
 ton, near the Great North of England Railway. The houses 
 are chiefly of brick, and very mean. It contains a chapel of 
 ease, in the Gothic style, and one school. The battle of the 
 Standard was fought hero, 1138. Pop. 1535. 
 
 BROMPTON, four pars. England:!, par. York, N. 
 Riding; 10,180 ac. Pop. 1534. 2, Brompton-Patrick, par. 
 York, N. Riding ; 5560 ac. Pop. 1130. 3, Brompton-Balph, 
 par. Somerset ; 2800 ac. Pop. 492. 4, Brompton-Begis, par. 
 Somerset; 8810 ac. Pop. 875. 
 
 BROMSBERROW.par.Eng.Gloucester; 1760ac. P.233. 
 
 BROMSEBRO, a hamlet, Sweden, Ian of, and 27 m. 
 S.S.W. Kalmar, on the Broraseback, here crossed by a bridge, 
 and which here falls into the sea. It lies at the boundary, 
 between the ancient provinces of Bleking and Smaland, and 
 is celebrated for the treaties entered into here by the re 
 presentatives of Sweden and Denmark in 1541, 1641, and 
 1645. 
 
 BEOMWICH (WEST), par. Eng. Stafford; 5380 ac. 
 Pop. 26,121. 
 
 BROMYARD, a small market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Hereford. The town is 13 m. N.E. Hereford, r. bank, Frome, 
 and consists of one principal street, crooked, and indifferently 
 kept ; houses in general tolerably well built, partly of stone, 
 and partly of brick ; ill supplied vrith water. The church is 
 a fine old structure. The other places of worship are an 
 Independent chapel, a Primitive Methodist chapel, and a 
 Quaker meeting-house. There are, in all, 10 schools, of 
 which the most important are the charity school, established 
 by the Goldsmiths Company, a national school for girls, and 
 a British school for boys. Area of par. 9310ac. Pop. 2927, 
 and decreasing. 
 
 BEONDOLO, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. of, and 18 m. 
 S. Venice, on the S. of the Isle of Lido, and the mouth of 
 Bacchiglione. It is fortified, and was once a flourishing town, 
 standing at the mouth of the Adige, which has changed its 
 course, and made a new embouchure a little to the S. Owing 
 to its low situation, Brondolo is very unhealthy. The har 
 bour is capacious, but shallow. Two wooden bridges connect 
 Brondolo with Chioggia. 
 
 BRONGWYN, par., S. Wales, Cardigan. Pop. 377. 
 
 BRONI, a tn. Sardinian States, Piedmont, gov. Alessan 
 dria, 11 m. S.E. Pavia. Near it is the castle of Broni, famous 
 for the victory gained by Prince Eugene over the French in 
 1703. Pop. 2500. 
 
 BRONNITZY, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 30 m. S.E. 
 Moscow, on the Msta. It stands on the site of the ancient 
 Sclavonic town of Kholmograd, often mentioned in Russian 
 chronicles, and famous for a battle fought, in 1614, between 
 the Russians and Swedes. In the neighbourhood is a hill of 
 considerable height, in the shape of a sugar loaf, and crowned 
 by a church, built on the ruins of a heathen temple, which 
 possessed an oracle in such repute, that it was repeatedly 
 consulted in person by the rulers of the North. Pop. about 
 2000. 
 
 BRONTE, a tn. Sicily, Val di Catania, 22 m. N.N.W. 
 Catania, W. base of Mount Etna. It has several churches, 
 convents, and a seminary; manufactures of woollen cloth an>l 
 paper, and some trade in wine, oil, silk, grain, almonds, &c., 
 produced in the neighbouring district. Lord Nelson was 
 created Duke of Bronte in 1799. Pop. 8870. 
 
 BROOANG, or BURENDO PASS, a pass through the 
 Himalaya Mountains, on the course of the Sutlej, 15,095 ft. 
 above the level of the sea; lat. 31 23 N.; Ion. 78 12 E. 
 The country in the neighbourhood is extremely rugged ; and, 
 from the top of the pass, a magnificent view is obtained of the 
 peaks of the Himalaya, towering 6000 or 7000 ft. above. 
 
 BROOK, four pars. Eng. : 1, par. Kent ; 540 ac. Pop. 
 158. 2, par. Hants; 750 ac. Pop. 150. 3, par. Norfolk; 
 2060 ac. Pop. 756. 4, par. Rutland; 1560 ac. Pop. 113. 
 
 BROOK ESBY, par. Eng. Leicester; 640 ac. Pop. 20. 
 
 BROOKLAND, par. Eng. Kent; 1500 ac. Pop. 462. 
 
BROOKLYN 
 
 BKOUGH 
 
 BROOKLYN, a city, U. States, on Long Island, New 
 York, separated from the city of New York by the narrow 
 channel called East Ri ver. It is properly a suburb of that city, 
 and is a place of great business. It is regularly built, the 
 streets straight and wide, and many of the houses of a very 
 superior description. In consequence of its pleasant and health 
 ful situation, it has become a favourite place of residence with 
 many of the merchants of New York, with which it is con 
 nected by four steam ferries, the trip being performed in about 
 five minutes. It contains a jail, a handsome building of free 
 stone ; 30 churches, and the lyceum, a fine granite structure, 
 in which there is a spacious lecture-room ; 1 9 academies, and 
 38 schools. The city library contains 3000 volumes, and has j 
 a spacious reading-room. The U. States navy-yard, covering ; 
 40 acres of ground, is in the E. part of the town, in Wallabout 
 Bay. Connected with this establishment is the U. States 
 naval lyceum, a nourishing institution, with a valuable library 
 and museum. Half a mile E. of the navy- yard is the naval 
 hospital, occupying a commanding eminence, and surrounded 
 by 33 acres of cultivated ground, enclosed by a brick wall. 
 Brooklyn has extensive manufactories of cotton, woollen, 
 glass, oil, carpets, saddles, and harness, chains, cables, and 
 engines, besides five distilleries, and one brewery. Pop. 
 (1830), 12,042; (1840), 36,233; (1845), 59,966; (1850), 96,850. 
 
 BROOKO, or BHUKO, a territory, N.W. Africa, in the 
 S.E. part of Senegambia, between the Boki and Kokoro 
 rivers, two of the head streams of the Senegal. It is of small 
 extent, not exceeding 50 or 60 m. in length, from N.W. to 
 S.E., and about 40 in breadth; and is intersected by lat. 
 1330 N.; and Ion. 10 30 W. 
 
 BROOM (LOCH), a bay, N.W. coast, Scotland, co. Ross, 
 having Priest and Summer Islands at its entrance, and Martin 
 Island at its head. Inland from the head of the bay extends 
 a narrow salt-water lake, at the head of which is the small 
 village of Lochbroom. 
 
 BROOME, three pars. Eng. : 1, par. Worcester; 550 ac. 
 Pop. 129. 2, par. Norfolk; 1470 ac. Pop. 610. 3, par. 
 Suffolk ; 1650 ac. Pop. 328. 
 
 BROOMFIELD, three pars. Eng. : 1, par. Essex; 
 1980 ac. Pop. 820. 2, par. Kent ; 1000 ac. Pop. 146. 
 3, par. Somerset ; 4050 ac. Pop. 497. 
 
 BROOMHILL, par. Eng. Kent; 3580 ac. Pop. 121. 
 
 BROOMSGROVE, or BROMSGROVE, a market tn. and 
 par. England, co. Worcester. The town is pleasantly situated 
 on a plain, 13 m. S.W. Birmingham, on the Birmingham and 
 Bristol Railway, 1. bank, Sal warp, and consists of one principal 
 street, and some diverging lanes, the former stretching along 
 the Birmingham and Worcester turnpike road. It is well 
 paved, abundantly supplied with water, and lighted with gas. 
 The houses are in general well built, and mostly of brick, 
 intermingled with a few ancient wood framed edifices, orna 
 mented with black and white stripes. In the centre of the 
 town is the townhall, a neat and commodious, though unpre 
 tending building. The parish church, on an eminence in the 
 centre of the town, is an ancient and handsome structure, in 
 the decorated English style, with a tower 189 ft. high. The 
 other places of worship are, one Wesleyan chapel, one Baptist, 
 one Independent, and one R. Catholic chapel. Broornsgrove 
 has a grammar and a national school, some alms-houses, and 
 several minor charities, and a literary and scientific institu 
 tion, lately established. Buttons, nails, and hooks are manu 
 factured here to a considerable extent; area of par. 11 ,230 ac. 
 Pop. 10,308. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BROOS, or SZASZVAROS, a market tn . Austria, Transyl 
 vania, country of the Saxons, cap. of Brooser Stuhl, 45 m. W. 
 by N. Hermannstadt, on an affluent of the Maros. It is well 
 built, has a spacious castle, a R. Catholic, and two Reformed 
 churches, and a gymnasium. The inhabitants are mostly 
 
 employed in agricultural pursuits. Pop. 3300. The 
 
 BROOSER STUHL, area, 128 geo. sq. m., is traversed by the 
 Maros, and is, for the most part, fertile in corn and fruit. 
 Pop. 20,400. 
 
 BROQUE (LA), a vil. France, dep. Vosges, 24 m. from 
 St. Die; cotton-spinning is carried on here. Pop. 1350. 
 
 BROSELEY, a market tn. and par. England, co. Salop. 
 The town is 13 m. S.E. Shrewsbury, on the summit of a hill, 
 which rises abruptly from the Severn, and consists chiefly of 
 one long street, straight, and well kept ; but the other parts 
 of the town are extremely irregular. The older houses arc- 
 
 low, and inconvenient, but the modern are generally well 
 built and commodious, principally of brick. It is lighted 
 with gas, but ill supplied with water. In the centre of the 
 town is the townhall, a handsome brick building, with the 
 market-place underneath. The church, which is situated at 
 the N.E. end of the town, is a beautiful structure, of white 
 brick, in the Gothic style. The other places of worship are two 
 Baptist chapels, one Wesleyan, one Primitive Methodist, and 
 one Independent chapel ; and the schools are, a church day 
 free school, and several other day schools. Broseley has long 
 been, and still is, noted for the manufacture of glazed tobacco 
 pipes, tiles, and firebricks. In its vicinity are extensive iron 
 stone and coal mines ; area of par. 1550 ac. Pop. 4829. 
 (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BROSNA, par. Irel. Kerry; 11,960 ac. Pop. 2871. 
 
 BROTERODE, a tn. Hesse-Cassel, about 12 m. S.W. 
 Gotha, with a handsome church, several extensive ironworks, 
 several mills, and an active trade in articles of iron, steel, 
 and wood ; also in tobacco, leather, and wine. Pop. 2359. 
 
 BROTHERS (THE). 1, Two small islands, Bay of 
 Bengal, Andaman group, about 10 m N.E. Little Andaman ; 
 lat. 11 V N.; Ion. 92 41 E. (R.) 2, Two islands, Bay of 
 Bengal, near the N.W. entrance to the Strait of Malacca, off 
 the S. end of the island of Salang or Junkseylon, W. coast, 
 Lower Siam ; they are small, but of considerable height ; lat. 
 7 31 N.; Ion. 98 20 E. (R.) 3, Two small islands, covered 
 with wood, in the Strait of. Malacca, 4 or 5 m. from each 
 other ; the most N. is in lat. 3 24 N.; Ion. 99 49 E. They 
 are also called, respectively, Pulo Pandan or Pandang, and 
 Salanama; the latter is the larger. 4, Three islands, in the 
 Durian or Duryan Strait, at the S.E. entrance to the Malacca 
 Strait; the most S., the largest and highest, is in lat. 32 N. > 
 
 Ion. 103 48 E. 5, Two small islands, Java Sea, on the 
 
 Sumatra coast, near the N.E. entrance to the Strait of Sunda. 
 The most N. is in lat. 5 9 30" S.; Ion. 1065 E. They are near 
 to each other, are covered with trees, and may be seen from a 
 distance of 18 or 20 m. They are united by a reef, said to 
 
 be nearly dry at low water. 6, Four high, small, round 
 
 islands, covered with trees, 6 to 10 m. S.E. Malacca Road. 
 
 7, Two small islands, in the Chinese Sea, off the E. coast 
 
 of China; lat. 23 32 N. ; Ion. 1 17 42 E. (R.) 8, Two islands, 
 China Sea, 70 in. N.W. Cape Camboja, or Cambodia; lat. 
 8 35 N. ; Ion. 106 15 E. (R.) The most W. is a barren rock, 
 and has high breakers on its E. side during blowing weather ; 
 the most E. is a high round islet, with trees on its summit. 
 9, Two islands, China Sea, Galong Bay, island Hainan, S. 
 coast. The E. Brother is in lat. 18 11 3" N. ; Ion. 109 41 
 
 E. (R.) 10, Two small islands, N. Atlantic Ocean, W. coast, 
 
 Africa, Bight of Biafra ; lat. 1 21 1" N. ; Ion. 7 17 5" W. 
 
 (R.) 11, Two small islands, E. coast, China, the Tchin-San 
 
 of the Chinese ; lat. 30 10 N. ; Ion. 122 56 6" E. (R.) 12, 
 
 Two small islands, Arabian Sea, at the entrance to the sea of 
 Bab-el-Mandeb, off the S.W. coast of the island of Socotra, 
 about 110 m. N.E. Ras-Asser, or Cape Guardafui ; lat. 12 7 
 
 N.; Ion 53 17 E. (R.) ; sometimes called Durjy. 13, Two 
 
 small islands, near the head of the Red Sea, off Kossier, in 
 
 Egypt; lat. 26 21 N.; Ion. 34 49 E. 14, Two islands, 
 
 Grecian Archipelago; lat. 35 49 N. ; Ion. 26 29 E. (R.) 
 
 15, Two islands, Hudson s Bay, British N. America; 
 
 lat. 58 42 N. ; Ion. 80 32 W. (R.) 
 
 BROTHERTON, par. Eng. York, W. Riding; 2120 ac. 
 Pop. 1744. 
 
 BROTTON, par. Eng. York, N. Riding ; 3560 ac. P. 468. 
 
 BROU, a tn. France, dep. Eure-et- Loire, 22 m. S.W. 
 Chartres, on the Ozanne. It has manufactures of linens, 
 serges, bombazines, hackles, bricks and tiles, and some trade 
 in wool and grain. Pop. 2047. 
 
 BROUAGE, a maritime tn. France, and fortification of 
 the third class, dep. Charente Inferieure, 4 m. N. Mareunes. 
 Excellent salt is obtained from the extensive marshes around 
 the town, and constitutes the main article of commerce. 
 Brouage was formerly an important town, aryl had 400 
 houses, and was fortified by Cardinal Richelieu ; but the un- 
 healthiness of the place caused it to be abandoned as an official 
 station in 1730, when the public oifices were removed to 
 Marennes. Pop. 250. 
 
 BROUGH, a small market tn. and par. England, co. West 
 morland. The tn. lies 23 m. N.E. Kendal ; on a plain. It 
 consists chiefly of one long, straight street ; houses of stone. 
 
BROUGHAM 
 
 513 
 
 KKUCK 
 
 but very indifferently built; amply supplied with water. It 
 contains a church, a Baptist and Wesleyan chapel ; has no 
 trade, nor manufactures, but lead and coal mines in the 
 vicinity give employment to some of the inhabitants. In the 
 forest of Stainmore, in this neighbourhood, was the cross 
 which marked the boundaries of England and Scotland, 
 erected by William the Conqueror, and Malcolm the Scotch 
 King. Pop. of tn. 899. Area of par. 22,650 ac. ; pop. 1536. 
 
 BROUGHAM, par. Eng. Westmorland ; 6580ac. P. 249. 
 
 BROUGHTON, seventeen pars. Eng.: 1, par. Bucks; 
 1020 ac. Pop. 168. 2, par. Huntingdon; 2950 ac. Pop. 
 363. 3, par. Lancaster; 2570 ac. Pop. 695. 4, par. Lincoln; 
 7880 ac. Pop. 913. 5, par. Northampton ; 2560 ac. Pop. 
 593. 6, par. Oxford; 1950 ac. Pop. 629. 7, par. Salop; 
 1120 ac. Pop. 188. 8, par. Hants; 4500 ac. Pop. 1009. 
 9, Broughton-m-Aredale, par. York, W. Riding; 3950 ac. 
 Pop. 407. 10, Broughton-Astleif, par. Leicester; 1930 ac. 
 Pop. 728. 11, Broughton- Brant, par. Lincoln; 4490 ac. 
 Pop. 650. 12, Broughton Church and Sapperton, par. Derby; 
 2380 ac. Pop. 652. 13, Sroughton-Gi/Tord, par. Wilts; 
 1(540 ac. Pop. 741. 14, Brougliton-Hacl-ett, par. Worcester ; 
 390 ac. Pop. 154. 15, Broughton (Nether), par. Leicester; 
 2 1 10 ac. Pop. 412. 1 6, Broughton- Foggs, par. Oxford ; 360 
 ac. Pop. 151. 17, Broughton-Sulney, par. Notts; 1600 ac. 
 Pop. 371. 
 
 BROUGHTON, GLENHOLM, and KILBUCHO, par. Scot. 
 Peebles ; 20,000 ac. Pop. 764. 
 
 BROUGHTON-IN-FURNESS, a market tn. England, co. 
 Lancaster ; on a gentle declivity, 23 m. N. W. Lancaster, in the 
 form of a square, with a lofty obelisk in the centre. The 
 spinning of woollen yarn was formerly the principal occupa 
 tion of the inhabitants ; but the making of hoops is now their 
 chief employment. In the neighbourhood are several slate 
 quarries, and numerous iron and copper mines. The weekly 
 market is on Wednesday; and fairs are held in April and 
 August, for horned cattle, arid in October for cattle and 
 sheep. The Furness Railway has a station at the town. 
 Fop. 1250. 
 
 BROUGHTON S ARCHIPELAGO, a range of islands, 
 rocky islets, and rocks, N. Pacific, N. of Vancouver s Island, 
 W. coast of N. America ; so called from an Englishman, who 
 discovered them in 1790; lat. 50 33 to 51 N. 
 
 BROUGHTY- FERRY, a marine vil. and watering- 
 place, Scotland, co. Forfar, N. shore of the estuary of the Tay, 
 3 m. E. Dundee; on the Edinburgh and Northern Railway, 
 at the ferry across the Tay, from Ferry-port-on-Craig. It 
 consists of four principal streets, stretching E. and W., and 
 four others crossing them at right angles. They are, with 
 one exception, straight ; and are all clean, but most of them 
 unpaved, or only macadamized, supplied, however, with con 
 venient foot-paths. The houses are of stone, and gener 
 ally well built, while many of those of modern erection are 
 extremely neat and tasteful. Handsome villas, in various 
 styles of architecture, but chiefly Elizabethan, belonging to 
 Dundee merchants and manufacturers, are also numerous. 
 The village is lighted with gas, and tolerably supplied with 
 water. There are four places of worship a chapel of ease, 
 belonging to the Established church; a Free church, with a 
 steeple, erected in 1844; a United Presbyterian, and Epis 
 copal chapels, the former a neat Gothic structure. The 
 schools are one under the auspices of the Established church ; 
 another under that of the Free church ; an infant and two private 
 schools, well attended. The only manufacture carried on 
 here is that of coarse linens, in which about 30 weavers are 
 employed. Nor do the inhabitants desire that any other 
 should be established, it being a condition in many of the feus 
 that no manufacturing works be erected. A great portion of 
 the working population is employed in fishing, for supplying 
 the Dundee market. At the E. extremity of the village, on 
 a rocky eminence projecting into the sea, stands the old castle 
 of Broughty, when or by whom built is unknown. (Local 
 Correspondent.} 
 
 BROUWERSHAVEN, a tn. Holland, prov. Zeeland, 
 about 6 m. N. Zieriksee, N. shore of isl. Schouwen. The 
 five gates of this ancient and much decayed town have been 
 pulled down. The Reformed church is old, and large ; and 
 the market-place adorned with a stone statue of Jacob Cats, 
 the most popular of Dutch poets, and a statesman of some 
 note, who was a native of the town. The inhabitants were 
 VOL. I. 
 
 once largely engaged in the herring-fishery, but are now 
 almost purely agricultural. An old man s, an old woman s, 
 and an orphan-house have all disappeared ; but there is still 
 a school. Pop. 1100. 
 
 BROWNSEA, an isl. England, co. Dorset, near the 
 entrance into Poole harbour, lit m. S. Poole; about 3 m. in 
 circumference, and having on its E. extremity a castle, built 
 in the reign of Elizabeth, for the defence of the port. Pop. 70. 
 
 BROWN S ISLANDS, a chain of low isles, N. Pacific 
 Ocean; the most N. in lat. 11 40 N. ; Ion. 162 15 E. 
 
 BROWNSOVER, par. Eng. Warwick ; 1 130 ac. Pop. 90. 
 
 BROWNSTOWN, par. Irel. Meath; 1199 ac. Pop. 421. 
 
 BROXBURN. 1, par. Eng. Hertford; 4580 ac. Pop. 
 
 2386. 2, A vil. Scotland, co. Linlithgow ; on a stream of 
 
 same name, and on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, 
 11 m. W. Edinburgh. 
 
 BROXHOLME, par. Eng. Lincoln; 1230 ac. Pop. 145. 
 
 BROXTED, or CHAWRETH, par. Eng. Essex; 3110 ac. 
 Pop. 737. 
 
 BROZAS, a tn. Spain, Estremadura, prov. of, and 21 m. 
 W.N.W. Caceres; on the top of a hill nearly 800 ft. high, 
 surmounted by a fortress. It has irregular streets, three 
 squares, two churches (one built of granite), a townhouse, 
 prison, six schools, an hospital, and a cemetery. Manufac 
 tures- linen and woollen cloths, hats, soap, earthenware, and 
 tanned leather ; but chiefly celebrated for its medicinal baths, 
 used in chronic rheumatism, ague, and in scorbutic and cu 
 taneous disorders. A fair is held in April. Pop. 7121. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 BROZZI, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 6 m. 
 W. Florence, r. bank, Arno. It has a church, and townhouse, 
 and manufactures fine stuffs, silk, and hats. Pop. 8712. 
 
 BRSESK, a tn. Poland, dist. Plotzko, on an affluent of 
 the Vistula, 90 m. W.N.W. Warsaw. The Jesuits had once 
 here a fine convent and college. Pop. (chiefly engaged in 
 linen and woollen weaving), 1300. 
 
 BRUAR (THE), a rivulet, Scotland, co. Perth, in the 
 district of Athole; a tributary of the Garry, which it joins 
 19 m. N.W. Dunkeld. Its beautiful falls, and well-wooded 
 banks, are much admired. This stream forms the subject of 
 Burns s poem, The Humble Petition of Bruar Water. 
 
 BRUAY, a vil. France, dep. Nord, 3 m. from Valen 
 ciennes ; with manufactures of glass. Pop. 1506. 
 
 BRUCA (LA), [anc. Portiis Pantasius], a seaport tn. Sicily, 
 dist. of, and 15 m. S.E. Catania; on a promontory, at the 
 mouth of the Porcari. Its harbour, fit only for small vessels, 
 enables it to carry on a little trade. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BRUCE ISLAND, an isl. Red Sea. See JOHN (ST.) 
 
 BRUCIIE, a small river, France, which rises near a 
 hamlet of the same name, in the Vosges, and, after a N.E. 
 course of about 45 m., joins the Rhone and Rhine Canal, of 
 which it is an important feeder. 
 
 BRUCHSAL, a tn. Baden, cap. bail, same name, circle, 
 Middle Rhine; on both sides the Salzbach, 12 m. N.N.E. 
 Carlsruhe, and on the railway between it and Heidelberg. 
 It is walled, and has spacious barracks. The church of 
 St. Peter is interesting, and contains some antique tombs. 
 It has also an admirably regulated hospital, a R. Catholic 
 gymnasium, and other seminaries; and a house of correction 
 for the circle of the Middle Rhine. It is an ancient town ; 
 was the residence of the Prince-bishops of Spires, from A.D. 
 1024, whose antique castle is still standing; and is the seat 
 of the judicial administration of the bailiwick. The grand 
 Duke of Baden, who acquired it in 1803, has a fine palace and 
 grounds here. In the environs are the salt springs of Ubstadt, 
 formerly turned to account, but now neglected. Pop. (ex 
 clusive of garrison), 7386. The BAILIWICK is traversed 
 
 by the Psinz, and contains the towns of Bruchsal and Heidels- 
 heim. Its area is 76 geo. sq. m. ; and its population, of 
 whom four-fifths are R. Catholics, 33,897. 
 
 BRUCK. 1, A tn. Lower Austria, gov. and circle, 
 Vienna, from which it is 22 m. E.S.E.; on the Leitha. It is 
 divided into the old and new towns ; has a church, a chateau, 
 with a noble park and botanic garden attached, belonging to 
 the Counts of Harrach ; a theatre, college, and a cotton- 
 spinning factory. Pop. 2600. 2, A tn. Austria, in Styria, 
 cap. circle of same name, at the confluence of the Mur and 
 Miirz ; with a good transit trade, and gypsum quarries. Pop. 
 
 1500. The CIRCLE, area, 1168 geo. sq. m., is intersected 
 
 65 
 
BRUCKENAU 
 
 514 
 
 BRUGES 
 
 by high hills, at the foot of which lie valleys of considerable 
 extent. It is well wooded and watered, and contains both 
 game (particularly the chamois) and fish in abundance. It is 
 also rich in minerals, particularly iron and copper. The in 
 habitants live chiefly by mining, and the rearing of cattle. 
 Pop. 62,000. - 3, A tn. Prussia, prov. Brandenburg, gov. 
 
 is the town library, of about 8000 vols., and 500 to 600 MSS., 
 most of which belonged to the old abbey of Dunes. Abutting 
 on the townhouse is the chapel of St. Basil, composed of two 
 distinct chapels an upper and a lower; the front being a kind 
 of screen of florid Gothic. Contiguous to this double chapel is 
 the Government-house, and the court-houses. The old parts 
 
 of, and 17 m. S.W. Potsdam; with manufactures of woollens of the latter contain rooms once inhabited by the sovereign 
 
 nd linens; and some breweries. Pop. 1255. - Numerous 
 other places in Germany have the name of BKUCK. 
 
 BRUCKENAU, a vil. Bavaria, on the Sinn, 40 m. N. 
 Wiirzburg, with a castle, in which the royal family often 
 reside during summer. It is also a favourite watering-place, 
 containing saline, alkaline, and chalybeate springs, which are 
 much frequented. Pop. 1850. 
 
 BRUFF, par. Irel. Limerick; 1331 ac. Pop. 2900. 
 
 BRUGELETTE, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, 
 on the Dendre, 14 in. N.W. Mons, with linen manufactures, 
 several limestone quarries, and limekilns. There is a Jesuit 
 college here, with about 300 students. Pop. 1787. 
 
 BRUGES [bridges; Flemish, llnigge], a city, Belgium, 
 cap. prov. W. Flanders, in a plain, 8 m. from the German 
 Ocean, 54 m. N.W. Brussels ; lat. 51 12 N.; Ion. 3 13 E. ; 
 
 Counts of Flanders, and Uukes of Burgundy, 
 
 The cathedral of Bruges, or Church of the Holy Saviour, 
 is said to have been first founded A.u. C46. The first build 
 ing being destroyed by fire in 1358, the present church was 
 raised shortly thereafter. The Church of Our Lady is a 
 sumptuously furnished and richly adorned edifice, finished in 
 1119. The exterior of this churcb, like the preceding, is 
 plain, both being built of brick. The tower and spire of Our 
 Lady s rise to the height of nearly 450 ft., and serve as a 
 landmark to mariners. In side chapels are the fine tomb of 
 Charles the Bold, last Duke of Burgundy, killed January 5, 
 1477, at the battle of Nancy ; and the finer mausoleum of his 
 daughter, the Archduchess Mary, wife of the Emperor Maxi 
 milian (died, 1482), both buried in this church. Some of the 
 paintings in this church are of superior merit, two in par- 
 
 surrounded with a double water line, which includes the canals ticular, by Quellyn and Seghers. The once famous abbey of 
 of Ostend (which traverses the city, and is of great depth), the Dunes, or Downs, is now occupied by the seminary or 
 Ghent, and the Damme or Sluice (Ecluse), all of which here academy for young priests. In several parts of the city may 
 conjoin. The city has 54 bridges, 42 stone and 1 2 wooden, j be seen the buildings of suppressed monasteries, either in a 
 all opening in the middle for the passage of vessels; is of 
 an oval shape, lying S.W. to N.E., and is fully 4 m. in cir 
 cuit. It is surrounded by walls with seven gates, and has 
 more than 200 streets. Many of these, owing to the great 
 decrease of the population in modern times, seem half deserted ; 
 but they have all a venerable look, and bear upon them a 
 strong impress of the Middle Ages. The houses in the lead- 
 
 state of dilapidation or applied to secular purposes. There 
 is still a convent of about 40 British Augustine nuns, who arc 
 much employed in educating ladies of their own persuasion. 
 Their church is small, and of showy circular Roman archi 
 tecture. There is a Protestant chapel in the city for English 
 residents. Besides the theological seminary (pupils, 140; 
 library, 7500 volumes), there are an Episcopal college, partly 
 
 ing, and even some of the retired streets, mostly remain as ! supported by the state ; an athenee or college, for secondary 
 they were originally erected, and in excellent preservation, \ education, with communal and infant schools ; a school for the 
 with lofty fantastic gables and ornate fronts, abounding in | deaf and dumb (opened 1835); a school of surgery and obste- 
 quaint designs. Bruges is the see of a bishop, the seat of j trie practice ; a museum, open to the public, and a botanic 
 assize courts for the province, and was long one of the finest j garden. Bruges has also some scientific and literary associa- 
 cities of Europe. Near the Grande Place, or chief square, ! tions, and an academy of fine arts, with about 400 students, 
 stands the old edifice called Holies (cloth and other halls, or ( The picture-gallery of the museum contains some good early 
 
 paintings, such as a Van Eyck, of 1440 ; also others of later 
 date, but greater beauty, by Porbus, llemling, &c. As early 
 as the year 1358, Bruges had a corporation of painters, archi 
 tects, and sculptors ; the labours of many of whom are still 
 visible on the inner and outer walls of the city they lived in, 
 and loved to adorn. The city likewise possesses many well- 
 endowed charitable foundations, among which is the mendicant 
 j depot for W. and E. Flanders, usually containing 500 to 600 
 
 I inmates. It has also a mont-de-picte, or state pawn-brokery, a 
 well-ordered prison, and a small theatre. The stagnant water 
 i around the city renders Bruges rather unhealthy, notwithstand 
 ing its proximity to the sea ; still many wealthy old-fashioned 
 I Belgian families make it their general residence. The sandy 
 ! nature of the surrounding country makes good water scarce ; 
 | rain water is therefore carefully preserved, and the inhabitants 
 j likewise use the muddy waters of the canals, and the ditches 
 i of the old fortifications. 
 
 The manufactures of Bruges are insignificant to what they 
 | were in former ages. They still, however, include linen of 
 every sort and fineness, damasks, lace, light woollen goods, 
 mixed stuns, c. In a recent year, 21,692 pieces of linen 
 were sold in the cloth-hall. The lace-making employs several 
 thousand women and girls ; for instructing the latter in fine 
 work, schools have been opened. In the city are spinning- 
 factories, dyeworks, bleachfields, calico printing-houses, 
 several fulling, oil, tan, and paper mills, a great number of 
 breweries and distilleries, sugar and salt refineries, soapworks, 
 tanneries, currjers shops, starching -houses, hat factories, 
 roperies, potteries, c., and a building yard for the construc 
 tion and repair of vessels. It was long famed for its tapestries ; 
 markets), a square building, surmounted by a tower 354 ft. i and furnished a part of those that graced the triumphal entry 
 high, in which is a very numerous and sweetly-toned set of \ into London, of Edward III., after the battle of Poitiers, 
 chimes. The precise date of this edifice is unknown. Burnt in 1357. 
 in 1280, and again in 1493, it was extensively repaired, if not j Through the means of canals, Bruges has direct, though 
 
 BRUGES, T,A TOUR DES HJ 
 From Di-leprlen, Albuiv. Pittore.qus 
 
 quite rebuilt, in 1502. A watch has been kept in it for more 
 than three centuries, to give the alarm the moment a fire 
 appears in the city or environs. To the E. of the market-place 
 stands the Hotel de Ville, and a small but beautiful Gothic 
 townhouse, containing sever?! quaint pictures. Adjoining it 
 
 limited, intercourse with several ports of general Europe, and 
 may be considered as one of the Belgian entrepots. Hence 
 it exports the native products of the soil, and goods of its 
 own make ; and imports colonial produce, spices, dyewoods, 
 drugs, wines, and brandy, olive-oil, dried fruits, soda, and 
 
BRITGG 
 
 BUUNN 
 
 potash ; likewise leather, furs, silks, metals, building-timber, 
 cork, and a variety of other articles. The great basin or 
 dock, which is the general receptacle tor all water borne mer 
 chandise, brought in or taken away by means of the several 
 canals, forms a convenient port, having warehouses, &c., 
 adjoining, and accommodation for some scores of vessels at 
 18 ft. draught. In a recent year, the value of the total 
 entries, officially declared, was 864,577 francs (34,580) ; total 
 exports, value 717,815 francs (28,712). The number of 
 vessels arrived in the place was but 1 1 , of 1 640 tons in all. 
 There are four annual fairs held here ; one for every kind of 
 goods, beginning May 3, and continuing 15 days ; with three 
 others for horses, cattle, &c., one immediately after Easter, 
 and the two others July 25, and November Ifi. The State 
 Railway, from the N. coast, at Ostend to Mechlin, and thence 
 all over Belgium, and connected with the Prussian and French 
 lines, passes through a portion of the W. side of Bruges. 
 
 In 837, Bruges was fortified by Count Baldwin of the Iron 
 Arm; and was walled, first in 1053, and again in 1270, when 
 the place was also mostly re-built. It suffered greatly from fire 
 in 1184, 1215, and 1280; in the latter disaster its records 
 perished, and its charters wrenched or bought from its feudal 
 protectors, or rather oppressors. For a time it had thus no 
 acknowledged municipal privileges, which, however, were 
 restored by Count Philip the Handsome, in 1299. Early in 
 the 13th century, Bruges had waxed rich and powerful. In 
 the Hanse league, it took the leading rank as the central mart 
 of middle N. Europe, and was frequented by Lombard mer 
 chants. About that time, such was the extent of its com 
 merce, there were 1 3 foreign consuls or agents permanently 
 resident in the city. The progress of its manufactures was 
 at least as great ; and its cloths, linen, and tapestries, at last 
 came to excel all others for quality and beauty. Under the 
 House of Burgundy, Bruges still increased in riches and 
 power. In 1430, Duke Philip the Good here instituted the 
 order of the Golden Fleece a title meant to bring honour to 
 those of its traders who poured a flood of wealth into his 
 cotfers, through means of the chief manufacture of the locality ; 
 for, through its means, a ducal chief was raised above the gen 
 erality of kings, in wealth and real power. Unhappily, the pride 
 and turbulence of the citizens grew nearly commensurate 
 with their prosperity. In 1 488, they rose in rebellion against 
 Duke Maximilian, and laid hands on his person. The severe 
 measures of repression which ensued, gave the first blow to the 
 city s prosperity, from which time it declined ; and its ruin was 
 afterwards nearly completed by the oppressions and persecu 
 tions endured from the Duke of Alva and other myrmidons 
 of Philip II., King of Spain. In these latter days of trouble, 
 all trade was at a stand ; as a consequence, crowds of the 
 best artizans sought an asylum and occupation in England. 
 From that time we may date the beginning of our own superi 
 ority in manufacturing, as well as producing wool, long the 
 great staple of England. 
 
 The population of Bruges once exceeded 200,000 ; it now 
 scarcely numbers a fourth of that amount, in 1845 being 
 49,764 ; and even this is a considerable increase, compared 
 with what it had been many years before. 
 
 BRUGG, or BUUCK, a par. and vil. Switzerland, can. of, 
 and 10 m. N.E. Aargau, on the Aar, which is here crossed by 
 an ancient bridge, supposed by some to be Iloman. It was 
 an ancient possession of the House of Hapsburg, and is sur 
 rounded by walls with lofty conical towers and gates. Half 
 a mile beyond the walls stands the abbey of Konigsfelden, 
 where many members of the House of Austria are buried ; and 
 a little further off, on a wooded height called Wulpelsberg, 
 are the remains of the cradle of that House the Castle of 
 Hapsburg. The village, abbey, and castle, are all included 
 within the site of the ancient Vindonissa, the most important 
 settlement, and strongest fortress of the Romans in Helvetia. 
 Zimmerman was born here ; and Brugg, from having given 
 birth to him, and several other individuals of talent and learn 
 ing, is sometimes jocularly termed the City of the Prophets. 
 Pop. 800. 
 
 BRUGUIERE (LA). See LABRUGUIEEE. 
 BRt)HL, a tn. Prussia, prov. Rhine, gov. of, and 9 m. 
 S. Cologne, on the railway to Bonn ; on a spur of the Eifclberg. 
 It is surrounded by ancient walls, is well built, and contains 
 two churches, a normal school, and a magnificent palace, 
 begun in 1725 by the Elector Clement Augustus, of Bavaria. 
 
 In the Franciscan convent, a normal school, for the education 
 of R. Catholic schoolmasters, was established in 1825. The 
 town was of more importance formerly than now. Cardinal 
 Mazarin took up his residence in I riihl when banished from 
 France, in 1651. Pop. 2300. 
 
 BRUILLE (ST. AMANU), a tn. France, dep. Nord, 9 m. 
 N.W. Valenciennes, near which are coal mines and brick 
 fields. Pop. 2021. 
 
 BRUIS, par. Irel. Tipperary; 3699 ae. Pop. 1415. 
 
 BRUISYARD, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1330 ac. Pop. 29G. 
 
 BRUMATII, a tn. France, dcp. Bas-Rhin, 10 m. N. by 
 "W. Strasburg, on the Zorn; with cold acidulated springs, 
 madder-grinding, and two annual fairs. It occupies the site 
 of the ancient Brocomayus. Pop. 3701. 
 
 BRUMMEN, a vil. Holland, prov. Gelderland, 13 m. 
 N.N.E. Arnhem. For picturesque beauty, the excellence of 
 its houses, its pleasant society, and the salubrity of its climate, 
 it ranks among the most agreeable villages in Holland. Be 
 sides a Reformed and R. Catholic church, it has a well-attended 
 school, and a branch of the public utility society. Pop. about 
 900. 
 
 BRUMSTEAD, par. Eng. Norfolk; 930 ac. Pop. 110. 
 
 BRUN AI, BRUNI, or BORNEO, a tn. and river. See Bon- 
 NEO PROPER. 
 
 BRUNDALL, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 490 ac. Pop. 52. 
 
 BRUNDISH. par. Eng. Suffolk ; 1380 ac. Pop. 525. 
 
 BRUNECKEN, or BRUNECCO, a tn. Austria, Tyrol, cap. 
 of the Pusterthal, 16 in. N.E. by E. Brixen, on an elevate 1 
 plain on the river Rienz. It comprises a handsome modern 
 church, adorned inside with frescoes, pictures, and monu 
 ments; a townhall, school, convent, nunnery, and prison, 
 formerly the bishop s castle ; with some manufactures of 
 woollen fabrics. Pop. 1800. 
 
 BRUNI, or BORNEO, a tn. and river. See BORNEO PRO 
 PER. 
 
 BRUNI ISLAND, Van Diemen s Land, Hobart Town 
 district, separated from the mainland by D Entrecasteaux 
 Channel ; lat. (S. point or Tasman s Head) 43 32 S. ; Ion. 
 147 2 1 E. (R.) It is of very irregular form ; the main portion 
 is about 22 m. in length, and about 9 in breadth, connected 
 by a narrow isthmus with another portion of this island about 
 14m. in length, with a breadth varying from 3 to 5 m. The 
 length of the whole island in a straight line, from Tasman s 
 Head to Cape Get Out, at the mouth of the river Derwent, 
 is about 34 m. It has several bays, the principal of which is 
 Adventure Bay, discovered by Furneaux in 1773, and visited 
 by Cook in 1777. ^ 
 
 BRUNN [Latin, Hi-ana; Moravian, Brno}, a fortified tn. 
 Austria, Moravia, cap. gov. and circle of same name, 70 in. 
 N. by E. Vienna, on the railway from Vienna to Prague, near 
 the confluence of the Schwarza and the Zwittawa, which almost 
 encircle it. It stands on the slope of a hill, is surrounded 
 with walls which have four gates, and it has 10 suburbs. It 
 is for the most part well built, paved, and lighted, and from 
 its elevated position commands many fine and extensive views. 
 Behind the town is the castle of Spielberg, on a hill of same 
 name, formerly a citadel, but since 1809 converted into a 
 state prison and house of correction, and for eight years 
 the prison-house of Silvio Pellico. Briinn has seven public 
 squares with fountains, six parish churches, a church of 
 Minorites, one of Capuchins, and another belonging to the 
 Augustine monastery, with some fine paintings, and a library 
 attached, founded by Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia ; and many 
 others. The other chief public buildings are St. Peter s 
 Cathedral, the bishop s palace, both built on the Petersberg, a 
 commanding eminence in the W. part of the town ; St. Jacob s 
 Church, a handsome edifice in the Gothic style, with a steeple 
 276 ft. high, dating from 1315; the Landliaus, built in 1737, 
 formerly an Augustine convent, now the place of meeting of 
 the Moravian Estates, containing the Governor s residence and 
 the Governmental offices ; the military palace ; the townhall, 
 built in 1511; the theatre; the splendid mansions of the 
 Dietrichsteins, Liechtensteins, Kaunitzes, and other nobles; 
 and the Jesuits college, a very spacious structure, enclosing 
 seven different courts, now used as a barracks. The chief 
 scientific and literary institutions are a philosophical institute, 
 diocesan theological seminary, royal gymnasium, head normal 
 school, and several other schools ; a national society for the 
 encouragement of agriculture, natural history, and geography, 
 
BRUNNEN 
 
 516 
 
 BRUNSWICK 
 
 with it valuable museum, botanic garden, and public library. 
 Briiim is the centre of Episcopal jurisdiction, the seat of a 
 Protestant consistory, a court of appeal, and of other criminal 
 mid military courts. It has numerous charitable institutions, 
 euch as the general infirmary, lying-in hospital, and lunatic 
 asylum, orphan asylum, society for the suppression of public 
 begging, foundations for pensioning the soldiers of the Briinn 
 burgher guard, and the widows and orphans of teachers; 
 asylums for the blind, the deaf and dumb, and for decayed 
 livery servants. It contains also a bridewell, a workhouse, a 
 fire insurance office, and a provincial bank. The number and 
 extent of its woollen, silk, and cotton manufactories, have 
 obtained for it the name of Austrian Leeds ; its woollens are 
 particularly prized. The other manufactured articles are 
 chiefly silks, ribbons, cottons, yarns, glass, soap, tobacco, dye- 
 stuffs, leather, and vinegar. It surpasses every town in Mo 
 ravia in the extent of its trade, being highly favoured by its 
 central position in regard to Prague, Breslau, Pesth, and 
 Vienna, with all of which it is now connected by railway. 
 Its four annual fairs are much frequented by Austrian manu 
 facturers. Briinn lias several beautiful public walks ; the most 
 attractive are the Augarten, and the Franzensberg gardens, in 
 which is an obelisk 60 ft. high, of Moravian marble, erected 
 in 1818, in honour of the late Emperor, Francis I. 
 
 Briinn is old ; its citadel was blockaded by the Hungarians 
 in 947, and the town itself was besieged by the Swedes in 
 1645, and by the Prussians in 1742. It has been repeatedly 
 destroyed by fire, and as often rebuilt. In 1558, it was visited 
 by the plague, which carried off 4000 of the inhabitants, to 
 whose memory a column has been raised in the great square. 
 Bonaparte had his head quarters in this town before the battle 
 of Austerlitz, December 18u5; and in 1809, the chief defences 
 of Fort Spielberg were demolished by the French. Pop. in 
 1846, exclusive of garrison, 45,189. 
 
 BRUNNEN, a vil. Switzerland, can. of, and 3 m. S.W. 
 Schwytz, picturesquely situated on the banks of Lake Luzern, 
 near the mouth of the Muotta. It has a good transit trade, 
 being both the port of Schwytz, and the depot for goods to 
 and from Italy over the St. Gothard. After the victory of 
 Morgarten, the confederates met here and swore their league. 
 Brunnen suffered much from the French in 1799. 
 
 BRUNSBUTTEL, a tn. Denmark, in the S. Ditmarshes, 
 r. bank, Elbe, about 7 m. from its mouth ; lat. 53 55 N. ; 
 Ion. 9 10 E. Its harbour, which is a little to the E. of the 
 town, has from 3 to 12 ft. water, is well sheltered, and is 
 provided with commodious wharfs. Its export of grain is 
 considerable. Steamers ply regularly between this place and 
 Altona and HamTOrg. There is also a ferry across the Elbe, 
 which is here about 4 m. broad. The river is deep at this 
 point, and the current so violent, that it has swept away the 
 ground on which stood two older towns of the same name, 
 and has caused very expensive erections for the protection of 
 the present Brunsbiittel. The town is extending and improv 
 ing, and owns a considerable number of vessels, mostly of 
 small size. Pop. 1200. 
 
 BRUNSWICK [German, Braunschweig], a duchy, N.W. 
 Germany, forming the twelfth state of the German Confedera 
 tion. It consists of three larger and six smaller divisions, 
 detached from each other, and surrounded by foreign posses 
 sions. The principal division, containing Brunswick, the 
 capital, is of a compact and oval form, with the exception of 
 a narrow stripe towards the N.E. On the N., W., and S.W., 
 it is surrounded by Hanover, and on the S. and E. by Prussian 
 Saxony. The second larger division is a long irregular belt, 
 stretching from E. to W. across S. Hanover, which of course 
 forms its N. and S. boundaries, while on the E. it is bounded 
 by Prussian Saxony, and on the W. by Ilhenish Prussia, 
 Hanover, and Waldeck. To the S.E of this division lies the 
 third, also irregular in shape, traversed by the Harz Moun 
 tains, and surrounded by portions of Prussia, Hanover, and 
 Anhalt. Of the six smaller divisions, Thedinghausen, Boden- 
 berg, Haringen, and Oelsburg, are in Hanover ; and Kalvorde, 
 and a patch of land near the village of Seinsfeld, government 
 of Troves, are in Prussia. The united area of all these divisions 
 is computed at 1134 geo. sq. m., of which nearly one-half is 
 arable land, meadow, and gardens, one-third forest, and one- 
 fourth moorland. The surface is for the most part hilly, 
 particularly the division which is traversed by the Harz. 
 Brunswick Proper has a considerable extent of level land, 
 
 only a few low ridges appearing towards the E. The prin 
 cipal rivers are the Oker, Leine, and Weser, to the basin of 
 which last all the streams belong, with the exception of the 
 Bodi, which falls into the Elbe. The principal mineral pro 
 ducts are gold, silver, antimony, lead, zinc, copper, sulphur, 
 vitriol, and alum. The mines are, in part, worked conjunctly 
 with the Hanoverian Government, and, in part, independently. 
 The duchy produces also marble, alabaster, limestone, and 
 gypsum, potters clay, asbestos, agate, jasper, &c. There are 
 within the territory, likewise, several saltworks of consider 
 able extent. In the Harz Mountains, asphalt and other bitu 
 minous substances are found. Game is not very abundant, 
 though red deer, roebucks, hares, rabbits, and a few wild 
 boars, are occasionally to be met with in the forests. Fresh 
 water fish are rather more plentiful. The chief manufactures 
 are of iron, linen (now, however, much fallen off), and camlets ; 
 dyeing and brewing are also carried on to a considerable 
 extent; and oil and saw mills are numerous on the different 
 large streams. The spinning of yarn forms an important 
 branch of industry all over the duchy. The industrial re 
 sources of the country are carefully and judiciously cultivated 
 by the Government, which extends its protection and patronage 
 also to its educational institutions. The constitution of Bruns 
 wick is a limited monarchy. The legislature is composed 
 of the Duke, an upper chamber consisting of six prelates 
 and the 78 holders of equestrian estates, and a lower chamber 
 composed of six prelates, 19 deputies from towns, and as many 
 representatives of the land-holders who do not possess eques 
 trian rights. The legislature must assemble at least once 
 every three years, for which period the taxes are voted. The 
 Duke appoints three ministers of state, and in each of the six 
 circles into which the state is divided, there is a provincial 
 board to conduct its municipal and local government. The 
 revenue of the duchy is derived from the ducal domains, from 
 land, personal and indirect taxes, from stamps, fees of court, 
 post-office, tolls, and a lottery. In 1849, these amounted col 
 lectively to 234,300, the expenditure being about the same 
 amount. Public debt (1845), 966,652, of which 258,750 
 was for railways. The quota of men which the duchy is bound 
 to furnish to the army of the German Confederation, is 2096. 
 The affairs of this little state are conducted with great pru 
 dence and judgment, and the consequence has been, the secur 
 ing for its population a degree of comfort and independence 
 not equalled in any other part of Germany. Personal bravery, 
 and an open unsuspecting nature, are the distinguishing char 
 acteristics of the Brunswickers. Pop. (1846), 268,943. 
 
 BRUNSWICK. 1, A city, Germany, cap. duchy of same 
 name, and place of residence of the Dukes of Brunswick ; 35 
 m. S.E. Hanover ; lat. 52 16 11" N. ; Ion. 10 31 29" E. (L.) 
 It is divided into six districts, and contains about 100 streets ; 
 most of them clean, and some of them spacious and imposing, 
 though of somewhat antiquated appearance, many of the 
 houses being of wood, and from 300 to 400 years old. The 
 city was formerly fortified, but the ramparts have been 
 levelled, planted with trees, and converted into pleasant pro 
 menades. The principal public buildings are the new palace 
 or schloss, a magnificent structure ; the ancient cathedral of 
 St. Blaize ; the mansion-house, with statues of Guelphic 
 princes in front ; the chapter-house, chancery, house of legis 
 lative assembly, mint, arsenal, ducal exchequer, opera-house, 
 townhall, trades -hall, old Altdorf townhall, and a few others. 
 Besides these, are the following objects of interest an ancient 
 bronze lion of Byzantine workmanship, brought from Con 
 stantinople ; a Gothic fountain of bronze, dated 1408, situated 
 in the Alte Stadt-markt; a cast-iron obelisk, 60 ft. high, 
 erected by the citizens to the memory of their two Dukes 
 who fell at Jena and Quatre-Bras ; and a monument and 
 chapel, erected to the memory of the patriotic Schill, who, 
 with 14 of his companions in arms, was shot here by the 
 French, in 1808, for rising against them. The museum 
 possesses an excellent gallery of paintings, comprising many 
 works of the greatest masters, and a good collection of clas 
 sical antiquities, and works of art. The city contains 10 
 churches, including the cathedral, next to which the most 
 remarkable are St. Andrew s, one of whose steeples is 318 ft. 
 high; St. Catherine s, adorned with paintings by Diebrich, 
 and some magnificent stained glass windows, and the church 
 of St. Martin, in the pointed Gothic style. The educatioi.al 
 institutions are the college, a gymnasium, a seminary for 
 
BRUNSWICK 
 
 517 
 
 BRUSSELS 
 
 teachers, a college of anatomy and surgery, a real schule for 
 practical acquirements, including mechanics, and commer 
 cial and agricultural studies ; and several others. Amongst 
 the charitable institutions, which are numerous, are a general 
 
 Armenian, by a rapid stream, across which there are two 
 
 stone bridg 
 
 h of a single arch. The houses, which are 
 
 THE WOOL MARKET AND ST. ANDREWS CHURCH, BRUNSWICK. 
 From Lanije, Ansichten von Dcutschland. 
 
 and lying-in hospital, a deaf and dumb, and orphan asylums. 
 The principal manufactures of the town are of linen, woollen, 
 hardware, tobacco, chicory, Glauber-salt, mineral colours, 
 china, papier mache, leather, &c. Three railways now meet 
 in Brunswick. The earliest and shortest, completed in 1839, 
 leads to, and terminates in, Harzburg ; the second goes E. to 
 Magdeburg; and the third, N. and N.W. to Hanover. The 
 railways promise to make Brunswick the entrepot of a very 
 extensive trade. Pop. 42,000. 2, A vil. and par. Den 
 mark, Holstein, near Kiel, with which it is connected by a 
 handsome bridge. Pop. 1167. 
 
 BRUNSWICK BAY, Australia, N.W. coast; Ion. 125 
 E. The Prince Regent river, discovered by Capt. Stokes, 
 falls into this bay. 
 
 BRUNSWICK (NEW). See NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 BRUNT1NGTHORPE, par. Eng. Leicester ; 1320 ac. 
 Pop. 423. 
 
 BRUREE, par. Irel. Limerick; 8895 ac. Pop. 3804. 
 
 BRUSA, BURSA, or PKUSA [anc. Prusa ad Olympum], a 
 celebrated city, Turkey in Asia, pash. Anatolia, 62 m. S. by 
 E. Constantinople, beautifully situated on a verdant plain, at 
 the foot of Mount Olympus. Including the suburbs, it extends 
 2 m. E. to W., and half a mile N. to S. The appearance of 
 
 I 
 
 BRUSA.-From T,-xier, Description de I Asie Mil 
 
 Brusa, with its domes and minarets, the fruitful fields by 
 which it is surrounded, diversified by magnificent scenery, 
 and delightful solitudes, is singularly pleasing and pictur 
 esque. It is divided into two quarters, the Turkish and 
 
 for the most part of wood, occupy the face of a declivity, and 
 command a fine view of the plain below. The city is well 
 supplied with fountains, and streams of 
 water run through most of the streets, 
 which are generally narrow, unpaved, and 
 filthy, from the accumulations of mud 
 caused by the water which, if properly 
 managed, should cleanse them. Near the 
 centre of the town, on a perpendicular 
 rock, stands the citadel, occupying the site, 
 it is supposed, of the Acropolis of ancient 
 Prusa. The walls are of Greek construc 
 tion, and of great solidity. Within its 
 walls is a mosque, called Daoud Monasteri, 
 in which is the tomb of Sultan Orkhan, son 
 of Othman, who conquered Brusa in 1326. 
 West of this mosque there is a ruined 
 castle, and two gateways. The principal 
 ornaments of the city are its mosques, of 
 which there are said to be 365, some of 
 them magnificent, especially those of the 
 Sultans Achmet and Osman ; and the 
 Oolah, or great mosque, in the centre of 
 the city. The baths are handsome struc 
 tures, contain a number of apartments, and 
 are well supplied with both hot and cold 
 springs ; the Kalputcha Hammam, situated 
 about 1J m. N.W. the city, is the principal. There is here, 
 also, a circular pool, of 25 ft. diameter, and 4| ft. deep, paved 
 with marble, and lined with coloured tiles, in which swimming 
 is practised. The khans and colleges are numerous and re 
 spectable. The bezestans, large buildings with shops and ware 
 houses, and the bazaars, are filled with silk and cotton stuffs, 
 manufactured for exportation, and of which large quantities 
 are produced, especially of silk ; Brusa silk being much 
 esteemed both in Europe and the East. The cultivation and 
 manufacture of this article is said to employ 30,000 persons. 
 In 1848 there were 354,750 Ibs. of raw silk produced in 
 the city and neighbourhood. Brusa was long capital of 
 Bithynia, and one of the most flourishing towns in the Greek 
 empire of Constantinople. In 1356 it was taken by Orkhan, 
 son of Othman, founder of the Ottoman dynasties; and from 
 that epoch it was the residence of the Turkish sovereigns, 
 until the seat of empire was transferred to Adrianople. 
 Feb. 28, 1855, an earthquake injured or destroyed the chief 
 public buildings, including 80 mosques, and a great part of 
 the town, and killed 100 people. Pop. about 60,000. 
 
 BRUSHFORU,two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Devon; 1220ac. 
 Pop. 144. 2, par. Somerset; 4030 ac. Pop. 340. 
 
 BRUSSELS [Flemish, Brussel; French, Bruxelles], the 
 cap. of Belgium and of prov. S. Brabant, the resid 
 ence of the King, and the seat of Government. It 
 is situate on the small river Senne, about 50 m. S.E. 
 the German Ocean; lat. (observatory) 50 51 11" 
 N. ; Ion. 4 21 55" E. (L.) ; nearly in the centre of 
 the kingdom, in an agreeably diversified and fertile 
 locality, and erected partly on a hill, and partly on 
 flat ground, through the latter of which flow the 
 turbid waters of the Senne, with a tortuous course, 
 forming four islands in its way. Though the highest 
 ground in the city is only about 220 ft. above the 
 sea level, yet the general aspect of the whole, towards 
 the W., is lofty and imposing. The city is about 
 3 m. in circumference, is shaped somewhat like a 
 flat iron, and its walls, which are merely intended 
 for fiscal purposes, the fortifications having been 
 destroyed, enclose nearly 16,000 houses or other 
 buildings, with about 500 streets, lanes, or alleys ; 
 the whole being divided, for municipal government, 
 into eight territorial sections. Between the city 
 and the walls, and intermediate to the suburbs, are 
 the broad promenades and drive, replacing former 
 ramparts, called boulevards; these are nine in num 
 ber, and shaded with double rows of lime-trees. There are 
 14 city gates, none of them note-worthy, except the antique 
 Porte de Hal, a baronial-looking barbacan, erected late in the 
 14th century, which long served, in later days, as a prison, 
 
BRUSSELS 
 
 518 
 
 BRUSSELS 
 
 The Brussels of early Christian times w;is little more than a 
 group of huts on a marshy island (Isle de St. Gery), sur 
 rounded by the Senne. During the Middle Ages, it never 
 had the extent or importance of the great cities of the Low 
 Countries, such as Antwerp, Ghent, or Bruges ; but, in suc 
 ceeding times, it became, as the political capital of the country, 
 nearly as conspicuous in history. It has still much of the 
 courtly air of other days, when the Spanish monarchy threw 
 the mantle of its grandeur over the plainness of Flemish 
 thrift; and even in the commonest quarters of the lower or 
 old town, there are many quaintly ornate buildings, once the 
 mansions of Brabant nobles, but now occupied by very dif 
 ferent tenants. In the high town, the buildings are generally 
 modern, built of brick, and covered with cements. 
 
 Every part of Brussels exhibits a congeries of twisted 
 streets, with exception of a few of those recently formed, 
 mostly near the royal palace. One, the Rue Royale, is really 
 handsome. Several irregular areas, called places or marches, 
 when used as markets, are to be found at intervals through 
 the city, which, however, is, in general, far too closely built. 
 The only exception is in the extra-mural quarters lately I 
 formed, such as the new and regular quarters Leopold and I 
 Louise, beyond the Boulevard du Regent. Among the chief ! 
 places, &c-, are the Place Royale, containing, in one of its j 
 sides, the church of St. Jacques ; Place des Palais, hard by ; I 
 Place du Grand Sablon, with the church of Notre Dame des I 
 Victoires ; the Grande Place or Grand Marche*, in front of 
 the Hotel de Ville, is a remarkable square, forming the finest 
 feature in Brussels, at least in a pictorial point of view ; and 
 containing, besides the beautiful Hotel de Ville, the front of 
 which occupies much of one side, the brood or bread-house 
 (called also Haison du JSoi), and several antique and quaint 
 edifices, most of which were the guild-houses of corporations j 
 of trades during the Middle Ages ; in the open space the ! 
 patriot nobles, Counts Egmont and Horn, were beheaded by i 
 Alva, in 1568; Place des Martyrs, named in memory of those i 
 who fell, on the Belgian side, in the Revolution of 1830 ; Place ! 
 de la Monnaie, so called because the mint, in which money j 
 was struck as early as 1291, forms a portion of one side; 
 the opposite side being formed by the theatre royal, which | 
 is also the opera-house. The two chief open-air places of 
 recreation in Brussels are, the Park, and the Allee Verte. The 
 former, area 17 ac., is on the high E. side of the city, in the 
 court quarters, and is overlooked, on one side, by the royal 
 palace ; on another, by the prince royal s palace, &c. ; on the 
 third, by the legislative palace ; and on the fourth, a rectangle, 
 by the edifices of the Rues Royale, Brabant, Ducale, &c. The 
 Alice Verte, which is outside the boulevards, and laid along 
 the E. bank of the Willebroeck Canal, is a handsome and 
 spacious ride or drive, with rows of fine old elms, and inter 
 vening footways, extending nearly 1J m. 
 
 Among the chief public edifices, the Hotel de Ville merits 
 the first mention. It is a fine sample of Loinbardo-Gothic, 
 erected between 1401 and 1442. The open-work spire, espe 
 cially, is lofty and elegant. Including the tower, it is fully 380 
 ft. high ; and with the figures of St. Michael and the Dragon, a 
 group in copper, gilt, about 400 ft. high. The interior of 
 the townhouse is mostly occupied by plain offices for muni 
 cipal officials ; but one rather small saloon, quaintly decorated, 
 is shown as that where the Emperor Charles V., in October 
 1555, abdicated in favour of Philip II. 
 
 The King s palace is a respectable- looking edifice, separated 
 from the closely contiguous houses, near the Place Royale, j 
 b/ a small garden. At right angles with the King s palace, 
 is that of the heir-apparent, or palace of Brabant, built for the 
 Prince of Orange, the late King of Holland, as a voluntary 
 gift, by the Belgian people. The owner was driven from it, 
 one year after its completion, at the Revolution of 1830, since 
 which time it has remained unoccupied. Opposite to the 
 King s palace, is the palace of the Nation, or of the Belgian 
 legislative chambers an edifice originally built for the 
 council of Brabant, with a Doric facade. Close to the legis 
 lative palace are located the ministers of the Belgic home 
 department, of finance, and foreign affairs ; and, hard by, the 
 Palais du Consiel d Etat. 
 
 The palace of the fine arts, also called the museum, one 
 part of which was founded in 1346, and finished in 1520, and 
 another added in 1749, contains a gallery of paintings (inferior, j 
 as a collection, to the one in Antwerp museum), of sculpture, 
 
 and of natural history; with cabinets of curious antiquities, 
 comparative anatomy, and gallery of ancient armour, library 
 of 120,000 volumes, and about 10,000 MSS. ; the latter form 
 ing the Burgundian library. 
 
 The museum of industry, contiguous to the foregoing, is built 
 on the site of the old botanic garden. One of its main uses 
 is the periodical exhibition of samples of Belgian industry, 
 which takes place every four years. Among the permanent 
 collections kept here, are, first, a depot of models, and con 
 structive machines; second, a depot of plans, &c. ; third, a 
 technological library. A portion of the establishment is 
 called the college, in which gratuitous lectures on science, 
 history, literature, &c., are given daily, during appointed 
 seasons, by state-paid professors. 
 
 A little way from the museums, lower down the city, at 
 the Place de Sablon, is the palace of justice ; where are the 
 head courts of Belgium, law offices, &c. 
 
 Churches. The church of St. Gudule, the cathedral of 
 Brussels, is a large and noble pile, of cruciform shape, situate 
 
 on a slope, between the corner of the park and the botanic 
 garden, formerly called the Moelenberg, or Mill-hill. The 
 central doorway is flanked on either side by a massive square 
 tower ; each 226 ft. high ; these towers are more modern than 
 the general pile, having been added to it in 1518 ; while the 
 body of the edifice was built between 1226 and 1663. It* 
 architecture is of early pointed Gothic, and the material is 
 mostly brick. The interior has the stamp of simple grandeur ; 
 and, to the inside of the. piers of the nave, are attached, on 
 brackets, 14 colossal statues, representing Jesus, the Virgin, 
 and the twelve apostles ; works of Du Quesnoy, and other 
 good artists. The pulpit is a remarkable piece of wooden 
 sculpture, by Verbruggen. The windows have richly coloured 
 glass, by Flors and others j comprising the likeness of the 
 Emperor Charles V., and several other historical personages. 
 
 There are several other Gothic churches in Brussels, of 
 which the most interesting arc the chapel church (eglise de 
 la chapelle), built on a lofty site, and dating from 1140; it 
 contains a fine pulpit, sculptured tombs, and a few good paint 
 ings; the church of the Sablon, built in 1288, has an elegant in 
 terior, with a splendid mausoleum ; the church of St. Nicholas; 
 and the church of St. Catherine, with a fine picture by Crayer. 
 The French, German, and English Protestants, have each 
 their places of worship, and the Jews have a synagogue. 
 
 Institutions Benevolent, Educational, Literary, and Scien 
 tific. Among the benevolent institutions of Brussels, are the 
 hospital of St. Peter, and several other hospitals and places 
 of refuge, the infirmary, philanthropic society, &c. The free 
 university of Brussels was founded in 1834 ; it is a proprietary 
 rather than a state institution, and comprises four faculties- 
 mathematical and physical sciences, belles lettres, law, medi 
 
BRUSSELS 
 
 519 
 
 I3KUSSELS 
 
 cine, with a special school of pharmacy attached. There are 
 about 60 professors and assistant teachers in all. The athenee 
 royal is a secondary institution, founded by the communal ! 
 administration in 1842. It is under state control, and has 25 
 professors or teachers. The total number of students and 
 pupils receiving their education, in the superior and middle 
 class colleges and schools of Brussels, is nearly 4000. A school 
 of geography, in the Flanders suburb, was founded in 1830, \ 
 by M. Vandermaelen, for the public benefit. The extensive i 
 museum of this establishment is an admirable collection for 
 the elucidation of physical sciences, as geology, chemistry, ! 
 anatomy, and natural history in general. In the royal academy 
 of the fine arts, refounded in 1836, gratuitous instruction is 
 given in drawing, painting, sculpture, architecture, and en- j 
 graving. The Belgian royal academy of sciences, letters, 
 and the fine arts, has its seat in Brussels. It comprises three 
 departments, general science, letters, and moral and political 
 knowledge, and the fine arts. The royal school of medicine, 
 founded in 1841, has also its seat here. Its main duties 
 are, to report to the Government on all that concerns the 
 public health, forensic medical science, and the veterinary art. 
 It publishes its transactions periodically. Elementary edu 
 cation is well provided for in the capital, both by the municipal 
 authorities and the state. There are five large communal 
 primary schools, and an extensive model elementary school ! 
 (ecole primaire sup&rieure). The clergy, too, have a number 
 of the children of the city under primary educational training. I 
 The total number of pupils in the authorized primary schools 
 of Brussels, considerably exceed 6000. French is the common 
 medium for instruction in nearly all the foregoing, with the 
 exception of a very few of the lower class schools. Among 
 the societies for the advancement of knowledge, located in 
 Brussels, are the royal society of medical and natural sciences, 
 royal society of horticulture, with a botanic garden, which is 
 one of the most attractive places of resort about Brussels ; i 
 royal floral society, royal council of agriculture, including a 
 farming and agricultural school ; a royal antiquarian society, 
 with a museum, which is open to the public ; Brussels royal 
 academy of the tine arts, with 1 5 professors of painting, draw- j 
 ing, sculpture, and architecture, who are paid by the state, 
 and take no fees. The royal conservatory of music of Brussels 
 lias 28 professors of music, vocal and instrumental ; there are 
 19 elementary teachers besides. The observatory, in the N. E. j 
 quarter of the city, is a well-furnished and somewhat cele 
 brated establishment. 
 
 Government, Health, &c. The municipal administrative 
 body of Brussels, called the regency, is composed of a burgo 
 master, and four shrieval functionaries, named echevins, with a 
 communal council of 26 members. Upon most articles intro 
 duced for consumption in the city a special impost is levied, 
 besides the tax that some of them may have paid to the state. 
 The chief prison is the Carmes, so called from being built, in 
 the S.W. quarter of the city, on a site formerly occupied by a 
 Carmelite convent. It is a two-storied oblong square pile, 
 with nine courts for air or exercise. At Vilvorde, 6 m. dis 
 tant N., is the maison de reclusion, for convicts. The city is 
 lighted with gas, and well supplied with spring water, brought 
 in pipes from Etterbeck, and has several public wells within 
 the walls, and a good many fountains for general use, of which 
 may be specially noticed, the Manneken Pis, with its bronze 
 statuette. The climate is salubrious, but moist; and the 
 weather proverbially fickle. The winters are more severe 
 than those of London. The cemeteries are all outside of the 
 town. 
 
 Manufactures. The first well-reputed product of Brussels 
 was lace, and some of the finer qualities are made there still. 
 Carriage-making was, for a time, a considerable manufacture, 
 but is on the decline. Printing, type- founding, paper and 
 ink-making, and all that is needful -in the manufacture of 
 books, chiefly reprints of contemporary French works, give 
 no small amount of employment. Some printed cottons, 
 velvets, muslins, &c., and light woollen fabrics, are made in 
 and near the city. The minor articles of manufacture in 
 clude china and stone ware, glass of several kinds, hats for j 
 both sexes, furniture, ornamental paper, hosiery, tallow and j 
 wax candles, oil, tobacco, chemicals, colours and varnishes, 
 vinegar, chocolate, glue, horsehair and wire cloths, &c. 
 There are many breweries and distilleries, several sugar and 
 salt refineries, some tanneries and curriers works, several 
 
 dyeworks, bleacheries, and spinneries. A fow carpets am 
 made in Brussels, but most of those of Belgic make, to which 
 it gives name, are really the produce of Tournai. Other 
 products are, bronzed wares, ropes and twine, brushes, corks, 
 nails, swords, cutlery, waxcloths, ribbons, gold and silver 
 lace, knitted articles, gloves, buttons, combs, wadding, writing 
 ink, chicory powder, playing and other cards, &c. There are 
 foundries of iron and brass, steam-engine factories, rolling- 
 mills, &c. Among petty articles of luxury, formed in Brussels 
 to a considerable extent, may be enumerated as the chief 
 gold, silver, and fancy stone trinketry; trimmings of dresses, 
 &c. Brussels is, indeed, the great depot of all useful and 
 tasteful products, in the small thriving kingdom of which it is 
 the centre ; and there is scarcely any trade or calling needful, 
 in a state of advanced civilization, that does not find some 
 who follow it here. 
 
 Trade. Brussels carries on a brisk trade with every other 
 part of Belgium, by means of railways, canals, and rivers. 
 The Senne is not navigable, but the canals of Willebroeck 
 or Antwerp, and Charleroi, serve as water roads. The former 
 begins at Brussels, and terminates at the river liupel, oppo 
 site Boom, the navigation being thus continued to the Scheldt ; 
 the latter connects Brussels with the S., ends at Martignies- 
 sur-Sambre, and is 46 m. long. Trade is further promoted 
 by the N. and S. railroads connecting Brussels with all parts 
 of Belgium, with Prussia, and France. The chief offices of 
 the two Belgian state banks are located in the capital. In 
 Brussels are also a chamber of commerce, and a society of 
 commerce, the aim of which is to forward trading interests 
 under state auspices. A mont-de-pictd \vas established as early 
 as 1818. The profits arising from the interest on pawns, and 
 their sale when forfeited, go to the funds of the hospitals. In 
 a recent year, pawns to the value of 2,000,000 francs (80,000) 
 were taken. 
 
 Inhabitants. Few of the best Bulgian families reside in 
 the capital, probably on account of the expense of living. 
 The trading class is a sober-living, steady, and cautious, per 
 haps rather distrustful race. The working people are an 
 industrious, patient, good-tempered race, but mostly impro 
 vident, and given to constant beer-drinking, and frequent 
 holiday-making. The French language is universally spoken 
 in the mixed society of Brussels, and French literature per 
 fectly appreciated by its citizens. Most of the lower classes, 
 who have had any education, also speak it, more or less cor 
 rectly ; but in their intercourse with each other, the vernacu 
 lar, Flemish or Walloon, is still common. In the markets, 
 however, many of the country dealers can speak no French. 
 The horse races, which take place in the plain of Lacken 
 every year in July and September, when prizes are given by 
 the municipality, have irresistible attractions for all ranks of 
 the inhabitants of Brussels. 
 
 History. The Emperor Otho dated a decree, apud Brusolam, 
 in 976. But the town was not of consequence enough to be 
 fortified till 1041, when Lambert Balderic, Count of Louvain 
 and Brussels, built a wall, with seven gates, around it. A 
 second wall was constructed in 1380, which followed, pretty 
 nearly, the line of the present boulevard. In 1405, it lost 
 1400 of its houses by fire. In 1549, two earthquakes caused 
 it much damage. But it was of small account, till Flanders 
 passed into the hands of princes of the House of Austria , when 
 it became, in 1507, the usual seat of government for the 
 entire Low Countries. At Brussels, the Emperor Charles V. 
 esfablished his vice-royalty ; and here, in an assembly of the 
 States, A.n. 1555, he solemnly divested himself of monarchical 
 power, in favour of his son, Philip II., under whom it endured 
 much, from his minion the Duke of Al va, and from the inquisi 
 tion, here set up. 
 
 Brussels was taken by the French, in 1701, at the beginning 
 of the Succession War. In 1706, it was taken by the Duke of 
 Marlborough ; and by the French, under Marshal Saxe, in 
 1747. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, gave back 
 Brussels to the Austrians. In 1794, General Dumouriez took 
 possession of it for the French republic. 
 
 On the extension and re-constitution of the French territory, 
 Brussels became the chief town of the department of the Dyle. 
 Bonaparte, then first consul, made his ceremonial entry into 
 Brussels, by the Alle e Verte, July 21, 1803. He was rather 
 partial to this city, and bought the chateau of Lacken, as a 
 palace for Josephine ; and, under its roof, he signed his fatal 
 
BRUSTHEM 
 
 520 
 
 BUBWITII 
 
 declaration of war against Russia. The Prussians took pos 
 session of Brussels. February 1, 1814. September 11, 1815, 
 William of Orange-Nassau was inaugurated at Brussels, as 
 King of the Low Countries. It then became one of the two 
 
 1. Palais du Roi. 
 
 2. Palais rte l.v Nflt ; < 
 
 3. Taluisdo J.i-u e. 
 
 4. Palais Jto Aits. 
 5-Musee. 
 
 6. Hotel de Villr. 
 
 7. Cnthedral. 
 
 8. Observatory. 
 
 10 . Hopkal St. jn 
 
 11. Nouvcau HopitalSt. J 
 
 12. Place Royale. 
 
 18, IJnui.le PiaeP. 
 
 14. Place rie 1 Monrai". 
 
 15. Place du Grand Sal.lr.r, 
 
 capitals of the new kingdom, alternating with the Hague, in 
 Holland, as the residence of the court, and the seat of the 
 states (etats gencraux). At length, September 23, 1830, 
 burst out, at Brussels, the revolution which separated Belgium 
 from Holland ; and Prince Leopold, of Saxe-Coburg, elected 
 King of the Belgians, by the national congress, June 4, 1831, 
 made his public entry into Brussels, as the sole capital of his 
 new kingdom. Pop. (1846), 123,874 ; of whom 47,534, speak 
 French or Walloon ; and 74,680, speak Flemish or Dutch. 
 (Meert s Bdgique; Berghaus, Geographisches Jahrbuch; Mur 
 ray s Handbook; Private Information.} 
 
 BRUSTHEM, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. Limburg, 
 10 m. N.W. Tongres ; with an old church, founded in 1449; 
 and a tower, built in 1111. The village is noted for a signal 
 defeat of the Liegeois, by Charles the Bold, in 1467. Pop. 
 about 1000. 
 
 BRUTON, a market tn. and par. England, co. Somerset. 
 The town is 12 % m. E. by S. Glastonbury, agreeably situate 
 at the foot of a steep hill, on the Bri or Bru, from which it 
 derives its name, and which is here crossed by a stone bridge. 
 It consists principally of one well-paved and well-kept street; 
 houses in general neat-looking and respectable ; church, an 
 elegant and spacious structure, in the later English style. It 
 has also two chapels, and an Independent meeting-house, a 
 free grammar-school, founded in 1519; and an hospital for 
 14 aged men, 14 aged women, and 16 boys, who are also 
 educated and apprenticed. Manufactures, formerly exten 
 sive, now confined principally to stockings and machinery. 
 Silk-throwing also affords a good deal of employment. Two 
 fairs annually. Dampier, the celebrated navigator, was born 
 here. Area of par. 3520 ac. Pop. (1841), 2074. 
 
 BRUX, or Biux,aroyal tn. Bohemia, circle, Saatz, 46 m. 
 N.W. Prague, on the Bila, at the foot of the Schlossberg. It 
 is walled, and well built, has several churches and convents, 
 a gymnasium, an hospital, a normal school, a school of indus 
 try for girls, a townhouse, and a manufactory of cotton stuffs. 
 In the neighbourhood are extensive coal mines, and tbo 
 
 springs of Pillna, strongly impregnated, like those of Seidlitz, 
 with Epsom and Glauber salt, and yielding a better mineral 
 water, which is largely exported. The inhabitants trade in 
 corn and fruits. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BRUYERES, a tn. France, dep. Vosges, 14 m. E.N.E. 
 Epinal, on the Arentelle, in the midst of the Vosges Moun 
 tains. It has manufactures of calicoes and cutlery, and a 
 considerable trade in thread, linen, butter, cheese, and cattle. 
 Pop. 2276. 
 
 BRYANSTON, or BLANDFORD- BRYAN, par. Eng. Dor 
 set; 1870 ac. Pop. 144. 
 
 BRYN-CROE8, par., N. Wales, Carnarvon. Pop. 948. 
 
 BRYN-EGLWYS, par., N. Wales, Denbigh; 3000 ac. 
 Pop. 449. 
 
 BRYNGWYN. 1, par., S. Wales, Radnor; 4000 ac. 
 Pop. 281. 2, par. Eng. Monmouth ; 1560 ac. Pop. 306. 
 . BRYN-LLYS, or BRON-LLIS, par., S. Wales, Brecon. 
 Pop. 338. 
 
 BRZEZANY, a tn. Austria, Galicia, cap. circle of same 
 name, gov. of, and 47 m. S.E. Lemberg, on the Zlota-Lipa. 
 It has several churches, a castle, convent, gymnasium, and 
 extensive tanworks. Pop. 5500, of which 1500 are Jews. 
 The CIRCLE, area, 1808 geo. sq. m., is somewhat hilly, 
 well wooded, and watered by the Dniester and its affluents. 
 It abounds in game and honey, and produces good crops of 
 corn, flax, and hemp. Considerable numbers of horses, and 
 neat cattle, are reared. The circle contains three towns, 
 14 market towns, and 390 villages. Pop. (inclusive of 16,000 
 Jews), 175,000. 
 
 BRZEZNITZ, a tn. Bohemia, circle, Prachin, 42 m. 
 S.S.W. Prague, on the Wlzowa or Lomnitz. It has a palace 
 
 and a parish church. Pop. 2000. Two small places in 
 
 Moravia have the same name. 
 
 BRZEZYN, a tn. Poland, gov. Moravia, on the Pilica, 
 61 m. S.W. Warsaw. It has some manufactures of woollen 
 cloth. Pop. 3200. 
 
 BRZOZOW, a tn. Austria, Galicia, circle of, and 14 m. 
 N.W. Sanok, on the Stebnica. It has an ancient castle, a 
 parish church, and cloth manufactures. Pop. 2400. 
 
 BUA [anc. oas], a small isl. in the Adriatic, Austria, 
 Dalmatia, circle, Spalatro, and opposite to the town of Trail, 
 with which it is connected by a mole or bridge. It is a long 
 straggling island, about 10 m. long W. to E., and scarcely 
 1 m. in breadth. Its coast is formed by bold rocks of lime 
 stone, and has no proper harbour, but two promontories form 
 j a bay of a horse-shoe form, in which vessels can ride in safety. 
 Little of its OIK e boasted fertility now remains. The chief 
 products are wine, olives, and almonds. Some asphalt is 
 obtained from a cavern on the N. side. During the later 
 period of the Koman empire, many state offenders and heretics 
 were confined here. Pop. 3349, of whom 1380 live in the 
 principal village, called Bua or Santa-Croce. 
 
 BUACHE ISLAND. See GARDEN ISLAND. 
 
 BUBAK, a vil. Scinde, on the borders of Beloochistan, 
 on the N.E. shore of Lake Manchur, and said to possess a good 
 climate; lat. 26 26 N.; Ion. 66 52 E. Pop. about 5000. 
 
 BUBBENHALL, par. Eng. Warwick; 15S90 ac. P.26 2. 
 
 BUBBIO. See BOBBIO. 
 
 BUBENDORF, a par. and vil. Switzerland, can. Basel- 
 Landschaft, on a small tributary of the Erpez, 10 m. S.E. 
 Basel, in a grassy valley, in the midst of magnificent scenery. 
 It contains an ancient church and handsome parsonage. In 
 its vicinity are saline springs, which bear its name, and at a 
 short distance to the S., a lofty peak is crowned by the old 
 castle of Wildenstein, in which several interesting antiquities 
 are seen. Pop. 1193. 
 
 BUBION, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 35 m. 
 S.E. Granada, on an inclined plane ; with steep, irregular, 
 j though paved streets, two squares, an ancient Gothic church, 
 townhall, prison, endowed school, and several fountains. The 
 inhabitants are principally engaged in agriculture and cattle- 
 rearing. Pop. 2697. 
 
 BUBLITZ, a tn. Prussia, prov. Pomerania, gov. of, and 
 23 in. S.E. Cbslin, in a valley, on the Gozel. It contains a 
 parish church, and has some linen and woollen manufactures. 
 A good many of the inhabitants live by fishing and agricul 
 ture. Pop. 2095. 
 
 BUBW1TH, par. Eng. York, E. Riding; 10,460 ac. 
 Pop. 1370. 
 
BUCCANEER ARCHIPELAGO 
 
 521 
 
 BttCKEBUBG 
 
 BUCCANEER ARCHIPELAGO, a group of islands 
 off the N.W. coast of Australia, between Sunday Strait and 
 Collier Bay; lat. 16 S.; Ion. 123 30 E. 
 
 BUCCARI, a seaport tn. Austria, Croatia, in a bay of 
 the Adriatic, 4 m. E. Fiume. It is finely situated on the 
 shore between two hills, and is a royal free town, with a free 
 harbour. It possesses a strong castle, and a parish church. 
 Pop. 2200. 
 
 BUCCINO, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, on the 
 Botto, here crossed by an ancient bridge of early Roman con 
 struction, 14 m. E. by S. Campagna. It is surrounded by 
 walls, and defended by a strong castle, and contains five parish 
 churches and several convents. In the neighbourhood fine 
 marble is quarried. Pop. 4700. 
 
 BUCELLAS, a vil. Portugal, prov. Estremaclura, 15 m. 
 N. Lisbon, on the Francao, in a district that produces wine 
 of good quality, known by the name of Bucellas. 
 
 BUCHAN, a dist. Scotland, a division of cos. Aberdeen 
 and Banff, stretching along the E. coast, and forming the most 
 E. land of the kingdom. Its limits are not certainly defined, 
 the mouths of the Doveran and the Don having been assigned 
 as its boundaries the one on the N., and the other on the S. 
 More recent opinion has fixed on the river Ythan as its S. 
 limit. The whole district was at one time the property of the 
 Cumines, Earls of Buchan, and is one of the oldest earldoms 
 in Scotland. On Robert Bruce ascending the throne of 
 Scotland, he denuded the Cumines, his most implacable ene 
 mies, of their property, and divided it amongst his friends. 
 The Earls of Buchan have long ceased to have any property 
 in the district. Cap. Peterhead. 
 
 BUCHANAN, par. Scot. Stirling; length, 20m.; breadth, 
 6 m. Pop. 754. 
 
 BUCHANNESS, a promontory or headland, Scotland, 
 coast of Buchan, co. Aberdeen, S. side of the Bay of Peterhead ; 
 lat. 57 9 N. ; Ion. 1 45 E. ; the most E. point of the main 
 land of Great Britain. A lighthouse was erected here in 
 1824, height, 118 ft., built of granite. It exhibits a. flashing 
 light, visible at a distance of 15 or IS in. when the atmos 
 phere is clear. 
 
 BUCHAREST, BUKARESHT, or BOKOREST [the city of 
 enjoyment; Latin, Bucaresta], a city, cap. of Wallachia, in a 
 spacious plain, in which is neither tree nor stone, 1. bank, 
 Dumbovitza, which is crossed by a bridge ; lat. (metropolitan 
 church) 44 25 39" N. ; Ion. 26 5 23" E. (L.) It is irregularly 
 built, the houses generally miserable mud cabins, and the streets 
 mostly unpaved. Where it is otherwise, they are merely 
 boarded over or laid with logs, which half float in the liquid 
 mud beneath. Mingled with this wretchedness, and present 
 ing a strange appearance by contrast, are a number of hand- 
 
 A STREET i.X BUCHAREST After M. DoussauJi. 
 
 some houses, hotels, and churches a population in rags, and 
 nobles tricked out in flaunting dresses and gaudy finery, with 
 a curious and striking intermixture of Eastern and European 
 dresses, which is to be seen, in fullest effect, on the corso or 
 public walk, the great resort of the fashionable of the place. 
 The town contains a palace, the residence of the hospodar or 
 prince, a large old building ; the metropolitan church, both 
 situated in a spacious square in the centre of the town ; 60 
 churches, each having from three to six steeples or towers ; 
 VOL. I. 
 
 a bazaar, several hospitals and infirmaries, 20 monasteries and 
 convents, and about 30 khans or Oriental inns. From the 
 centre of the town rises a tower 60 ft. in height, called the 
 Fire Tower, from which a complete view of the city is com- 
 
 1 manded. The consular residences, of which there are several, 
 are also handsome buildings, especially that of the Austrian 
 
 j consul. The educational and literary institutions consist of 
 
 a college, having 500 students; a lyceum, conducted by 12 
 professors, and a number of public schools, four of which 
 
 ; afford instruction gratis ; a public library, a society for belles 
 
 ; lettres, and another for agriculture. 
 
 There are no extensive manufactures in the town, but it 
 contains a great many artizans, particularly goldsmiths, jewel- 
 
 | lers, and watchmakers. Small quantities of woollen cloths, 
 carpets, brandy, &c., are made. Being situated in a fertile 
 country, its trade, particularly in agricultural produce, is very 
 considerable, exporting yearly large quantities of grain, wool, 
 butter, honey, wax, and tallow, together with large herds of 
 horned cattle and hogs, which are sent chiefly to Germany ; 
 whence are imported, in return, many of the necessaries and 
 luxuries of life. Bucharest has the unenviable reputation of 
 being one of the most dissolute cities in Europe. It is filled 
 with gambling-houses, and other resorts of vice and depravity. 
 Of late years, however, it has improved in civilization, and an 
 earnest and anxious desire for the diffusion of knowledge 
 and education has begun to prevail. It is the seat of the 
 Wallachian Government, and the place of residence of a Greek 
 archbishop. In 1812, a treaty of peace was concluded here 
 between Russia and Turkey, by which the latter yielded up 
 to the former Bessarabia, and a portion of Moldavia; the 
 river Pruth becoming the boundary between the two empires. 
 In 1847, Bucharest suffered severely from fire, which destroyed 
 about a fourth part of the town, including the church and con- 
 ven* of the Franciscans, and the palace of the R. Catholic 
 bishop. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 BUCHARIA (GREAT), a name for BOKHARA, which see. 
 
 BUCHARIA (LITTLE), a former name of a district of Tibet, 
 
 now included in THIAN-CHAN-NAN-LOO, which see. 
 
 BUCHAU, a tn. Wurtemberg, circle, Danube, 9 m. S.E. 
 Riedlingen, S. side of Lake Feder, of which, at one time, it 
 formed an island. It lies in a marshy position, has a fine 
 church, a synagogue, and a castle. Pop. 1 983, of whom 598 
 are Jews. 
 
 BUGHEN, a tn. Baden, circle, Lower Rhine, on the 
 Morrebad, and on the highroad between, and almost equally 
 distant from Heidelberg and Wiirzburg. It stands 1130 ft. 
 above the level of the sea, and has a Gothic church, built in 
 1498, numerous mills, several breweries, and large stone 
 quarries. The inhabitants live chiefly by agriculture and 
 weaving. Pop. 2400. 
 
 BUCHHOLZ [beech-wood], the name of numerous places 
 in Germany. The most important is in Saxony, circle, Zwickau, 
 
 .dist. of, and 8 m. S.E. Griinhain. Great part of the inhabit 
 ants are employed in mining. Pop. 2791. 
 
 BUCHLOWITZ, a market tn. Austria, Moravia, circle, 
 Briinn, at the foot of a mountain chain, 26 m. W.S.W. 01- 
 mu tz. It contains a castle belonging to the lords of Buchlau, 
 a parish church, townhouse, and hospital, and has four fairs 
 and cattle-markets. In the neighbourhood there is a sulphur 
 bath. Pop. 1890. 
 
 BUCHLYVIE, a vil. and burgh of barony, Scotland, co. 
 of, and 13 in. "W. Stirling, on the road to Dumbarton. It has 
 a chapel connected with the Established church, a U. Pres 
 byterian church, and five annual fairs. Pop. 381. 
 
 BUCINE, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 14 m. 
 W. Arezzo, in a valley, on an affluent of the Arno. It is toler 
 ably well built, having a spacious square, and a church, and 
 is overlooked by a castle. Agriculture and cattle-rearing are 
 the chief employments. Pop. 6326. 
 
 BUCKBY (LONG), par. Eng. Northampton; 3900 ac. 
 Pop. 2145. 
 
 BUCKDEN, par. Eng. Huntingdon ; 3590 ac. P. 1209. 
 BUCKEBURG, a tn., W. Germany, cap. of the princi 
 pality of Lippe-Schaunibnrg, on the Aue, and at the foot of 
 the Harrelberg, 6 m. E.S.E. Minden, in Westphalia. It is a 
 walled town with five gates, and is well built, having hand 
 some houses and spacious streets, with a palace in which the 
 prince resides, three churches, and a synagogue ; a gymnasium, 
 a library, a normal school, and an orphan hospital. Pop. 3250, 
 
BUCKENIIAM (NEW) 
 
 522 
 
 BUCKINGHAM 
 
 BUCKENIIAM (\EW), a small tn. and par. England, 
 Co. Norfolk. The town is situated on a plain, 15m. S.W. 
 Norwich, and consists chiefly of two principal streets. Some 
 of the houses are well built, but most of them indifferently. 
 The better description are brick, the others clay lump. Supply 
 of water ample. The town has been recently thoroughly 
 under-drained, and the streets repaired, and put in good order. 
 The church is a fine structure, in the perpendicular style. The 
 other places of worship are three meeting-houses, belonging 
 respectively to the Wesleyans, Ranters, and Free-Gospellers. 
 There are several schools and minor charities, including some 
 
 alms-houses. Area of par. 324 ac. Pop. 7 1 6. Two miles 
 
 from New Buckenham, is the parish of Old Buckenham ; area, 
 5520 ac. Pop. 1255. 
 
 BUCKENHAM, two pars. Em?. Norfolk: 1, 1020 ac. 
 Pop. 60. 2, Buckenham (Little), 630 ac. Pop. 77. 
 
 Bl CKEKELL, par. Eng. Devon; 2120 ac. Pop. 360. 
 
 BUCKFASTLEIGH, a market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Devon ; 3 m. S.W. Ashburton. The town is partly in a valley 
 and partly on a hill, r. bank, Dart. It consists of five streets, 
 somewhat tortuous and not very well kept ; houses strongly 
 built of marl, and slate-roofed. Places of worship : one church, 
 a Wesleyan chapel, and an Independent chapel. The church 
 is a handsome building, in the Anglo-Norman style, with a 
 lofty tower and spire, and elegant stained glass windows. The 
 schools are a British, national, and several juvenile schools. 
 The manufactures are woollens, leather, malt, and paper. 
 The woollen trade employs generally from 1 200 to 1400 hands. 
 A considerable trade in blankets, blanketings, serges, and 
 miners cloth is also carried on. Area of par. 6270 ac. Pop. 
 2576. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BUCKHAVEN, a fishing vil. Scotland, co. Fife, 10 m. 
 S.S.W. Cupar. It consists of an assemblage of mean-looking 
 cottages, scattered without order or arrangement, on the face 
 of a steep ascent rising from the shore, without attempt at the 
 formation of streets, or regularity, or system of any kind. It 
 is, however, lighted with gas, and well supplied with water. | 
 The inhabitants are a peculiar race of people, believed to be 
 the descendants of the crew of a Brabant vessel, wrecked on 
 the coast in the reign of James VI. They were long reckoned . 
 the most ignorant and most uncultivated class of persons in ( 
 Scotland, and were, on this account, made the subject of many 
 humorous effusions, both in prose and verse, but they are now 
 much improved, and not worse, in any respect, than other i 
 similar communities. They are an industrious hard-working | 
 class of men, and with exception of a few weavers, are all 
 employed in sea-fishing. There are upwards of 100 fishing 
 boats, of various dimensions, belonging to the village, manned 
 by from six to eight men each ; the value of which, with their 
 nets, has been estimated at about 20,000. About a quarter 
 of a mile from the village is a U. Presbyterian church. Pop. 
 (1850), estimated at 2000. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BUCKHORN-WESTON, par. Eng. Dorset; 2080 ac. 
 Pop. 460. 
 
 BUCKIE, a considerable fishing vil. Scotland, co. of, and 
 16 m. W. Banff; at the mouth of the Burn of Buckie, between 
 Speymouth and Cullen Bay, 5 m. E. the former. It has been 
 a fishing station for many centuries ; and has a tolerable har 
 bour. About 145 boats, large and small, are employed in 
 the various fisheries. A small manufactory of ropes is carried 
 on here. In the village there is a chapel connected with the 
 Establishment, a Free church, an Episcopal chapel, and a 
 R. Catholic chapel. Buckie is famed for the curing of haddocks. 
 Pop. 2165. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, or BUCKS, an inland co. England; 
 bounded, N. and N.W. by co. Northampton; N.E. and E. 
 by cos. Bedford and Hertford ; S.E. by Middlesex, S.W. by 
 co. Berks, and W. by Oxford ; its length, N. to S., is about 
 45 m.; greatest breadth, E. to W., 23 m. ; area, 472,320 ac., 
 of which 440,000 are supposed to be arable. The vale of 
 Aylesbury, stretching through the centre of the county, and 
 celebrated for its fertility, furnishes rich pasturage for vast 
 numbers of cattle and sheep. The soil in this part of the 
 county is a strong clay loam, varying in depth from 2 ft. of 
 rich staple, to only a few inches incumbent on stiff clay. But 
 though well adapted for grazing, it is not considered suitable 
 for tillage, and the portion, therefore, under the plough, is 
 very small. In this district the tenures are principally from 
 year to year a system which, notwithstanding its obvious 
 
 disadvantages, is looked upon with considerable favour Ly 
 most of the tenants. The average rent of land in the valo 
 is from 25s. to 35s. an acre, the farms averaging from 300 to 
 600 acres. 
 
 Agriculture is altogether in a very backward state in this 
 county, chiefly owing to the reluctance of the landlords to be 
 at any expense in effecting improvements. The order of 
 cropping is not very definite, but generally consists of what 
 is called three crops and a fallow, which begins with bare 
 fallow, then wheat, then beans, pease, and clover, and last, 
 wheat or barley. In working the land, two different descrip 
 tions of ploughs are used one an old-fashioned wooden 
 plough, for winter, and the other, a more modern iron-wheel 
 plough, for summer. The depth of furrow turned up is from 
 4 to 5 inches. In winter, there are seldom fewer than four 
 horses in a plough. The quantity of stock kept on these 
 arable farms is quite inconsiderable. The average rent of 
 arable land is about 30s. an acre. The farm accommodation 
 generally, as to dwellings and out-houses, &c., is of the worst 
 description, the latter being constructed mostly of rough 
 timber, and thatched, with little regard to form or situation. 
 Drainage, too, is much neglected. The labourers employed 
 on grazing farms are from 10 to 14, on farms of from 300 to 
 400 acres; wages, from 9s. to 10s. a week. In the 8. parts 
 are rich dairy farms. The stock of dairy cows, as estimated 
 a few years ago, was about 27,000, of which upwards of 21.000 
 are always productive. Between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000 Ibs., 
 or about 1900 tons of butter, are annually made in this county, 
 the greater part of which is sent, by contract, to London. It 
 is made up into lumps of two Ibs. each, and packed into 
 osier baskets, called flats. Only a few cream cheeses, in sum 
 mer, are made for the Buckingham, Aylesbury, and Wycombe 
 markets. Hogs and ducks are reared in great numbers ; the 
 former more especially on the dairy farms, where they are fed 
 on skim and butter milk. The fattening of cattle is almost 
 wholly confined to the vale of Aylesbury. 
 
 The manufactures of Buckinghamshire are chiefly of 
 thread lace, which furnishes employment to a great number 
 of females and children ; paper, and straw plait. The former, 
 however, has much declined since the rise of the machine lace 
 manufacture of Nottingham. The mineral productions of this 
 county are of no great importance. The county is watered 
 by the Ouse, the Thame, and the Thames ; and is intersected 
 by the Grand Junction Canal, and the London and North 
 western Railway, and by some branches of both. It is divided 
 into eight hundreds, and 202 parishes, and returns three mem 
 bers to the House of Commons; constituency (1850), 5733. 
 It gives the title of Earl to the family of Hobart Hampden. 
 Pop. (1851), 163,723. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, a market tn., parl. bor., and par. Eng. 
 land. The town, cap. of the co. of its own name, is 50 m. 
 N.W. London, on the Bletchley and Buckingham branch of 
 the London and North-western Railway; pleasantly situate 
 on a peninsula formed by the Ouse, which almost encompasses 
 the town, and is here crossed by three stone Vridges. The 
 houses are mostly of brick; the streets straggling and irre 
 gular; paved, and lighted with gas. The townhall and jail 
 [ are large and commodious buildings. The church, erected 
 in 1781, is a spacious structure, with a square tower, sur 
 mounted by an elegant spire ; and there are, besides, places 
 of worship for Independents, Wesleyans, and the Society of 
 Friends ; and a free grammar-school, founded by Edward VI. ; 
 and several alms-houses. The manufacture of lace, formerly 
 carried on here to some extent, of late years has greatly de 
 clined. Malting and tanning are carried on to a considerable 
 extent ; and a good deal of business is done in wool and hops. 
 In the vicinity are several limestone quarries, and one of 
 marble- The borough returns two members to the House of 
 Commons a privilege which it has enjoyed since the timo 
 of Henry VIII. Its municipal government is vested in a 
 mayor, four aldermen, and 12 councillors. Weekly market 
 on Saturday; and one on Monday, exclusively for calves. 
 Numerous fairs, chiefly for horses, cattle, and sheep. Buck 
 ingham gives the title of Duke to the family of Temple. 
 Area of par. 5330 ac. Pop. (1841), 4054. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, a co. Van Diemen s Land, bounded S. 
 by the river Huon, from its source near the Frankland range, 
 to its mouth in D Entrecasteaux Channel. Principal town, 
 Ilobart Town, 
 
BUCKLAND 
 
 523 
 
 BUDDU 
 
 BUCKLAND, 19 pars. Eng.: 1, par. Bucks; 1290 ac. the church of St. Anne s, and the church of the Capuchins. 
 Pop. 537. 2, par. Hertford; 1590 ac. Pop. 435. 3, par. 
 
 Kent; 850 ac. Pop. 1472. 4, par. Kent; 1340 ac. Pop. a memento of the plag 
 
 19. 5, par. Surrey; 2040 ac. Pop. 364. 6, Bucldand-with- \ Itaizenstadt are a R. Catholic church, a Greek church, and 
 Carsiccll, par. Berks ; 4420 ac. Pop. 946. 7, Buckland with- j the mansion of the Greek bishop. The town contains in all 
 Laverton, par. Gloucester; 2270 ac. Pop. 377. 8, Buck- 1 3 churches and a synagogue. There are also an archi-gyir 
 
 In the Neustift stands a column dedicated to the Holy Trinity, 
 a memento of the plague of 1710, 50 ft. high; and in the 
 
 land-Brewer, par. Devon; 3970 ac. Pop. 1103. -9, Buck- 
 land-Denhain, par. Somerset ; 1400 ac. Pop. 516. 10, Buck- 
 land (East], par. Devon; 2340 ac. Pop. 167. 11, Buckland- 
 Filleigh, par. Devon; 4550 ac. Pop. 275. 12, Buckland 
 (St. Mary), par. Somerset; 3120 ac. Pop. 696. 13, Buck- 
 land- Honaclwr urn, par. Devon; 6910 ac. Pop. 1411. 14, 
 
 nasium, four monasteries, two high-schools, and many other 
 schools, including one of design ; cabinets of natural history, 
 a theatre, and public libraries. On the Blocksberg, an adjoin 
 ing hill to the S., stands the new observatory (300 ft. above 
 the level of the Danube), supplied with the best instruments 
 and apparatus. Buda has numerous charitable institutions, 
 
 Buckland-in-the- Moor, par. Devon; 1500 ac. Pop. 114. 15, j hospitals, infirmaries, asylums for orphans, &c., a lazaretto, 
 Buckland- Newton, or Abbas, par. Dorset; 6770 ac. Pop. 914. ! and house of refuge for sailors ; manufactories of silks, velvets, 
 16, Buckland-Ripers, par. Dorset; 1410 ac. Pop. 118. linens, woollens, leather, tobacco, earthenware, a cannon- 
 17, Buckland-Toutsaints, par. Devon ; 1000 ac. Pop. 56. J foundry, and some coppersmiths works, but it is by no means 
 18, Buckland (West), par. Devon; 2290 ac. Pop. 275. ! a manufacturing town, its chief trade being in the fine red 
 19, Buckland (West), par. Somerset; 3500 ac. Pop. 887. wines, produced in the adjacent country, to the amount, in 
 BUCKLEBURY, par. Eng. Berks; 6970 ac. Pop. 1277. favourable seasons, of four and a half million gallons yearly. 
 
 BUCKLESHAM, par. Eng. Suffolk; 2310 ac. Pop. 255. 
 
 BUCK MINSTER, par. Eng. Leicester ; 2080 ac. P. 697. 
 
 BUCKNALL, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 2490 ac. Pop. 303. 
 
 BUCKNELL, par. Eng. Oxford ; 1670 ac. Pop. 287. 
 
 BUCKNILL, par. Eng. Hereford and Salop; 4160ac. 
 Pop. 532. 
 
 BUCKSPORT, a flourishing maritime tn., U. States, 
 Maine, 1. bank, Penobscot river, with two academies, 15 
 schools, and a fine harbour, and considerable shipping. The 
 harbour has sufficient depth of water for vessels of the largest 
 class, and is not much obstructed by ice. Pop. 3015. 
 
 BUCK WORTH, par. Eng. Huntingdon; 2290 ac. P. 100. 
 
 BUCZACZ, or BUTSCHATSCH, a tn. Austria, Galicia, circle 
 of, and 33 m. N.N. W. Zaleszcyry, traversed by the Scret. It 
 contains a parish church, Basilian convent, and a gymnasium. 
 Pop. of which 700 are Jews, 2200. 
 
 BUDA [Sclavonian, Budin; German, Of en], a free city, 
 Hungary, co. Pesth, with the city of which name its connection 
 across the Danube, formerly maintained by a bridge of boats 
 490 yards long, is now perfected by one of the most magnifi 
 cent suspension bridges in Europe; 133 m. E. S.E.Vienna; lat. 
 (new observatory) 47 29 10" N.; Ion. 193 9"E. (L.) It is the 
 residence of the viceroy or palatine, and the seat of govern 
 ment, and metropolis of Hungary. It is built in the form of 
 an amphitheatre, on the Schlossberg, the central part being in 
 cluded in the fortress (Festung) or upper town, surrounded by 
 walls and bastions. It has five suburbs, Wasserstadt, Lands- 
 trasse, Neustift, Taban or Raizenstadt, and Christinastadt. The 
 
 BUDA, as seen from Pesth, iho-A-ing the New Suapo 
 
 fortress is regularly planned and laid out, with numerous 
 handsome edifices and squares ; among other palaces is that of 
 the Viceroy. The other buildings of note in this quarter are 
 the parish church, garrison church, arsenal, townhall, house 
 of assembly for the estates, government-offices, and residences 
 of the public servants of the crown, civil and military ; the 
 oniversity press, and type-foundry. In the Wasserstadt are 
 
 There are here some celebrated hot sulphurous springs (tem 
 perature 118), used as baths successively by the Romans, 
 Turks, and Christians. Of these, three Turkish baths remain, 
 and are much used by the common people. 
 
 Buda is supposed to be named from Buda, a brother of j 
 Attila, who resided in it occasionally, and greatly improved it. 
 0-Buda or Alt Ofen, a little further up the river, is the Sicam- 
 bria of the Romans, and though not at any part in actual con 
 tact with the modern Buda, is undoubtedly its embryo, having 
 been a Roman station of some importance in the early part of 
 the third century. Many Roman antiquities still exist within 
 it, and though not equal to Buda, it contains several hand 
 some buildings, and a considerable population. After many 
 vicissitudes, Buda was taken in 1541 by the Turks, under 
 Sultan the Magnificent, who introduced a garrison into it 
 of 12,000 Janissaries, and reduced a great part of the king 
 dom to the state of a Turkish province. It continued to be 
 the seat of a Pasha until 1686, when it was re-taken by the 
 Austrians, under the Duke of Lorraine and the margrave of 
 Baden. Hither, in 1784, Joseph II. transferred the seat of 
 government. The greatest modern improvement which both 
 Buda and Pesth have received, is the suspension bridge, com 
 pleted in 1849, at an expense of 650,000. Before the bridge 
 was opened to the public, its stability was curiously and most 
 severely tested, by the passage of the whole force of the 
 Hungarians and Imperialists over it, the former hotly pursued 
 by the latter. For nearly two days, the whole platform of 
 the bridge was one dense mass of moving soldiers. Pop. 
 (1846), exclusive of military, 40,500. 
 BUD BROOKE, par. Eng. War 
 wick ; 3050 ac. Pop. 508. 
 
 BUDDEABAD, a strong Ghilji 
 fort, Afghanistan, prov. Lughman ; 
 lat. 34 55 N. ; Ion. 70 14 E. It is 
 a square of 240 ft. each side ; and the 
 walls, which are 25 ft. high, are pro 
 tected by a deep ditch. In this fort 
 
 M., the 63 British captives, who had been 
 
 spared from the massacre on the at 
 tempted retreat from Cabool, were 
 for a short time imprisoned. 
 
 BUDDU, a tn. Guinea, r. bank, 
 ;; |7, Niger, 37 m. N.W. the junction of 
 $.-. the Tchadda, and supposed to be chief 
 
 l^-SSH^RlBfHww town of the native state of Kakanda. 
 The huts are circular, built of clay, 
 and over the summit of the cone of 
 grass which forms the roof is placed 
 an inverted black polished earthen 
 pot, about 1 foot in diameter and 2 ft. 
 deep, intended to prevent the huts 
 
 >nage . from being struck by lightning. The 
 
 people seem idle, and their canoes 
 
 are inferior. The men generally have their heads shaven, 
 leaving two or three circular patches of hair, and the women 
 arrange their hair in small plaits hanging round the ears, and 
 some have the head entirely shaved. A man may have as 
 many wives as he can keep. In the dry season, small-pox, 
 fever, bowel complaint, and sore eyes, are prevalent. Pop. 
 3000 or 4000. (Allen s Niger Expedition.} 
 
mm: 
 
 524 
 
 BUENOS AYRES 
 
 BUDE, a vii. and small seaport, England, co. Cornwall, 
 2 m. W. Stratton. It has of late become a resort for bathing, 
 and the Bude Canal has increased its trade. The harbour, on 
 account of the saiul, is only accessible to small craft. 
 
 BUDEAUX (ST.), par. Eug. Devon ; 2500 ac. Top. 790. 
 
 BUDGE-BUDGE, or BHUJABHUJ, a small tn. Hindoo- 
 stan,prov. Bengal, 1. bank, Hoogly, 10 m. S.W. Calcutta. 
 
 BtJDINGEN, a tn. Hesse- Darmstadt, on the Seemanbach, 
 25 m. N.E. Frankfort, with a palace of the Duke of Isenberg- 
 Biidingen, a church, synagogue, orphan hospital, gymnasium, 
 and industrial school. It has also a paper-mill, a pin manu 
 factory, and stone quarries. Pop. 2850. 
 
 BUD 1 SSI N. See BAUTZEN. 
 
 BUDLEIGH (EAST), par. Eng. Devon ; 2490 nc P. 2319. 
 
 BUDOCK, par. Eng. Cornwall ; 3320 ac. Pop. 1979. 
 
 BtJDOSHEGY, a mountain, Transylvania, belonging to 
 the Carpathians ; lat. 46 12 N. ; Ion. 25 40 E. It is 7340 ft. 
 high, stands completely isolated, being surrounded on all sides 
 by valleys, is of a conical shape, rather steep, and on its lower 
 sides densely wooded. Strong sulphur springs rise at its foot, 
 and throughout it contains numerous caverns which emit sul 
 phurous vapour. This condenses, and is deposited in solid 
 sulphur on the sides. 
 
 BUDOSO, a vil., isl. Sardinia, prov. of, and 40 m. E. 
 Sassari, in the midst of a mountainous but pastoral district. 
 Pop. 2000. 
 
 BUDRAWAR [stronghold of Buddha], a tn. Punjab, 
 delightfully situated in a picturesque and highly cultivated 
 country, on the S. slope of the Himalayas, near 1. bank, 
 Chenab, 5000 ft. above the sea level ; lat. 32 53 N.; Ion. 
 75 28 E. It has a large square fort built of stone, and a 
 well-supplied bazaar. A considerable portion of the inhabit 
 ants are weavers of the celebrated Cashmere shawls, about 
 250 looms being employed in the manufacture. Pop. about 
 2000. 
 
 BUDUKSHAN, BADAKSHAN, or FYZABAD, a tn. Inde 
 pendent Tartary, cap. dist. of same name ; depending on the 
 khanate of Koondooz, r. bank of a river of the same name ; 
 180 m. N.E. Cabool; lat. 36 25 N.; Ion. 71 37 E. It 
 was once capital of an independent sovereignty, and a place of 
 great importance ; celebrated in particular, from early times, 
 for the valuable mines of ruby in its neighbourhood. Since 
 its subjugation by the chief of Koondooz, it has been a prey 
 to a lawless soldiery. In 1832, great part of it was de 
 stroyed by an earthquake ; and scarcely a vestige of its former 
 importance remains. Its walls are levelled, and even its ruins 
 swept away. On a rock, on the opposite bank of the river, 
 the dilapidated walls of a ruined fort are still standing. The 
 district around is remarkably beautiful ; and both naiives and 
 visitors give rapturous descriptions of its romantic vales and 
 rivulets ; its fruits, flowers, and nightingales. The inhabitants, 
 said to have come originally from the city of Balkh, speak 
 Persian ; and were, at one time, so hospitable, that bread was 
 never sold in their country. Their misfortunes, in drying up 
 the sources, have also, iu part, quenched the spirit of hos 
 pitality. 
 
 BUDWE1S, a tn. Bohemia, cap. circle of same name, 
 75 m. S. Prague, on the Moldau, at its junction with the 
 Malsch. It is regularly built, and partly fortified ; and is 
 the see of a bishop, suffragan to Prague. It has a cathedral, 
 founded in 1297, seven churches, a monastery of Piarists, a 
 gymnasium, an extensive custom-house, a handsome town- 
 house, arsenal, a theatre, a diocesan school of theology, a 
 philosophical institute, and several courts of justice. It 
 possesses manufactures of woollens, muslins, damasks, and 
 linseed oil ; dyeworks, saltpetre-works, a beet-root sugar, and 
 a large wool-combing establishment. It has also a consider 
 able trade in leather and shoes, sent to Vienna and Prague ; and 
 in wood, transported along the Moldau. A railway to Linz, 
 completed in 1832, and subsequently carried on to Gmiinden; 
 originally intended only for the transport of salt, now annually 
 conveys a large tonnage in general goods, and numerous pas 
 sengers. Pop. 8135. The CIRCLE of Budweis is the most 
 
 S., and the most elevated part of Bohemia. It is watered by 
 the Moldau, and its tributaries, the Malsch and Luschnitz ; 
 contains extensive forests and pastures, and abounds in game. 
 Cattle and sheep are reared in great numbers ; and large 
 quantities of grain produced ; the mountains supply coals, 
 iron, and other minerals. Manufactures : cottons, woollens, 
 
 paper, glass, and ironware. The canal of Schwarzenberg 
 connects the Moldau with the Danube. The circle contains 
 eight towns, 29 market towns, and 897 villages. Area, 1G65 
 sq. m. Pop. 212,540. 
 
 BUDWORTII, two pars. Eng. Chester:!, Bmlicorth 
 (Great), 36,450 ac. Pop. 17,103. 2, Budwortu (Little), 
 2630 ac. Pop. 599. 
 
 BUENAVENTURA. 1, A tn. Mexico, State Chihua 
 hua; lat. 29 55 N.; Ion. 10G 30 W. ; 140 m. N.W. the 
 city of Chihuahua. It is small, but well built ; and contains 
 about 1500 inhabitants. About 10 m. N.W. from the town, 
 there are very extensive ruins, called Casas Grandes. An 
 area of several square miles is covered with the remains of 
 buildings, which, from their number, are supposed to have 
 contained a population of at least 20,000 or 30,000. Fine 
 earthenware jars have been excavated here, as well as images, 
 
 made of baked earth. 2, A tn. on the coast of Upper or 
 
 New California, in Santa Barbara Channel, opposite isl. Santa 
 Cruz; lat. 34 15 N. ; Ion. 119 5 W. It has a tolerably 
 good roadstead. A great variety of fruits are produced in 
 the vicinity the soil and climate both being favourable to 
 
 their production. The town was founded in 1782. 3, A 
 
 seaport, New Granada, prov. Buenaventura, dep. Cauca, Bay 
 of Choco, on a small island called Kascakral, near the mouth 
 of the Dagua, at the head of a bay or harbour ; lat. 3 50 N. ; 
 Ion. 77 18 W. It is very insignificant as a town, consisting 
 only of a small assemblage of huts, inhabited by negroes and 
 mulattoes ; a small barrack, and a battery, a custom-house, 
 and the residence of the governor ; the latter constructed of 
 straw and bamboo. It has, however, a considerable trade, 
 importing salt, onions, garlic, straw hats, and hammocks ; and 
 exporting rum, sugar, and tobacco. The harbour or bay has 
 a considerable extent and depth of water, a good bottom, and 
 offers ample accommodation and safe anchorage for ships of 
 war. But the climate is unhealthy, and provisions scarce and 
 dear. 4, A river, Mexico. See SACRAMENTO. 
 
 BUEN AVISTA. 1, A vil., isl. Teneriffe; lat. 28 C 16 
 N. ; Ion. 16 58 W. ; on an elevated plain, 925 ft. above the 
 sea ; it is well built, has a spacious square, several wide and 
 straight streets, a parish church, several chapels, and three 
 schools. Manufactures : ribbons, and silk stockings. Ex 
 ports : manufactured goods, wine, and fruits. Imports : 
 wearing apparel, hardware, agricultural implements, &c. Pop. 
 
 2205. 2, A tn. Mexico, prov. Sonora, r. bank, Huaqui, 
 
 about 98 m. from its embouchure in the Gulf of California ; 
 lat. 27 35 N. ; Ion. 110 7 W. 
 
 BUEN AYRE. See BONAIRE. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES, one of the 13 united pro vs. of La 
 Plata, or the Argentine Republic, lying between the rivers 
 Negro on the S., and the Parana on the N. It is bounded, 
 N. by pro vs. Mendoza, San Luis, Cordova, Santa Fe, and 
 Entre Kios, from the last of which it is separated by the 
 Parana, E. by the river La Plata and the Atlantic Ocean, S. 
 by Patagonia, from which it is separated by the river Negro, 
 and W. by the Andes, which separate it from Chili. It ex 
 tends thus from about lat. 33 10 to 40 S., and from Ion. 
 56 33 to about 71 80 W., measuring, N. to S., about 
 540 m., and E. to W. about 750. The coast line, exclusive 
 of minute sinuosities, is about 750 m. The province presents, 
 nearly throughout, one vast level or slightly undulating sur 
 face, known as the pampas of Buenos Ayres, a large portion 
 of which has a fertile soil for arable culture or pasturage; but 
 little of the former is attempted, although grain, fruit, and 
 vegetables thrive well, and with proper industry might be 
 produced in great abundance. The rich pastures of the pam 
 pas are covered with long, tufted, luxuriant grass, intermixed 
 with brilliant flowers, affording an inexhaustible subsistence 
 to several millions of cattle and horses. The S. and less 
 favoured parts are sandy, with patches of saline plants, stunted 
 trees, and numerous salines. Having little slope, the pampas 
 have few running waters, the only streams of any magnitude 
 being the Negro and the Colorado in the S., and the smaller 
 river Salado in the central parts. There are, however, a vast 
 number of salt pools and lakes, of various dimensions, dis 
 persed over the country, the salt in which forms with extra 
 ordinary rapidity in dry weather, and is beautifully white and 
 finely crystallized, requiring no purification before being car 
 ried to market. About 450 m. S.W. by W. from Buenos 
 Ayres, there is a very large salt lake, called Urro Lauqucu 
 
BUENOS AYRES 
 
 525 
 
 BUENOS AYRES 
 
 [bitter lake], about 30 m. long, and 15 broad, from which that 
 city drew its annual supplies of salt, before the port was thrown 
 open to foreigners. 
 
 The climate of the province is generally healthful, being in 
 the S. parts similar to that which prevails in Europe, above 
 lat. 50 N. In the N. districts it is warmer, the thermometer 
 in summer rising to about 90 J . Both regions have sufficient 
 rain for vegetation. The N. winds are unpleasant, resembling 
 the sirocco of Italy, and those from the 8.W. sometimes ex 
 tremely violent, and accompanied by thunder and lightning. 
 The extremes of heat and cold are considerable, and the 
 changes of temperature often sudden and violent-. 
 
 Cattle and agricultural produce form the chief sources of 
 wealth. Hides, horns, hair, tallow, salt beef, peltry, and 
 wool, are the principal exports. Bullocks and horses are the 
 main articles of trade in the country, constituting its legal 
 tender. The former are worth from 20s. to 40s., according 
 to age; wild horses, 8s. or 13s., and if broken to the saddle, 
 10s. or 60s. For commercial statistics, see following article 
 on the city of BUENOS AYRES ; see also PLATA (LA) REPUBLIC 
 OF. Pop. about 200,000. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES [good air], cap. of the above prov., 
 and seat of the general government of the republic ; lat. 
 34 36 29" S. ; Ion. 58 23 34" W. ; S.W. shore of the 
 estuary of the river La Plata, which is here about 30 m. in 
 breadth, and at the distance of about 150 in. from the point 
 where the latter joins the sea. The city stands on a slightly 
 elevated ridge, running parallel with the river, and is built 
 with great regularity and neatness, but is somewhat mono 
 tonous. The streets intersect each other at right angles at 
 
 BUENOS AYRES 
 
 I. Cathedra!. 
 I. University. 
 
 4. I lazi ,le la Victor 
 
 . Plazn iM Comercio. 
 
 . I b. ii At 1:, Intemiencii 
 . l l;,/.:i <ii-l Buen Orclre. 
 . Plaza de Lona. 
 
 
 every 150 yards, and form numerous squares of considerable 
 extent, but of little architectural beauty. They are also 
 broad, spacious, and now pretty well paved, but were formerly 
 all but impassable with mud in wet weather, and with dust in 
 dry. The granite with which the streets are paved, is ob 
 tained from some islands in the river above the town. The 
 houses which are built, the older of sun-dried, the more 
 modern of burnt brick have been greatly improved of late 
 years. Almost every house has a garden before, and another 
 behind ; and many have balconies, with lattice-work for con 
 taining shrubs and flowers. The windows of the houses 
 towards the street, generally two in number, are often without 
 glass, having, instead, an iron grating, called re/a, which gives 
 them a gloomy and prison -like appearance. The floors are gen 
 erally paved with brick, the use of wood in their construction 
 being avoided as much as possible. The principal square or 
 plaza faces the La Plata, and is surrounded by handsome build 
 ings, including the palace of the Viceroy, the townhall, and 
 the cathedral, a structure with a cupola and portico of good 
 workmanship. The other public buildings are the churches 
 of St. Francis and St. John, the latter situated on the skirts 
 of the town, being appropriated exclusively for the use of the 
 Christian Indians ; the Convent of Mercy, and several other 
 convents and nunneries ; two hospitals, one for men and one for 
 
 I women ; an orphan hospital, a foundling hospital, and a college, 
 j possessing a library of 20,000 volumes. Connected with the 
 [ college are a collection of objects of natural history, an obser- 
 i vatory, a mathematical school, a public school, and a school for 
 painting and drawing. Several other literary and scientific 
 institutions have been established since the Revolution, in 
 cluding a society for the promotion of natural philosophy and 
 mathematics, two academies (one of medicine, the other of 
 jurisprudence), a normal school, and an association for the pro 
 motion of agriculture. The town is but indifferently supplied 
 with fresh water, there being no public cisterns, and the wells, 
 though numerous, being all brackish. The only supply is 
 from the river, the water from which is carried about in butts, 
 mounted on bullock carts, and sold at a high price. It is at 
 first hot, muddy, and undrinkable, but after being allowed to 
 settle for 24 hours, it becomes very excellent. Most of the 
 wealthier families have large deep tanks, in which the rain that 
 falls on the flat roofs of the houses is collected. The environs 
 of the city, for a distance of 8 or 10 m., are very beautiful, 
 consisting of a well-cultivated country, interspersed with 
 gardens and groves, and enlivened by numerous country resi 
 dences, called qnintas; every person in competent circum 
 stances having his country seat, with a large and well-stocked 
 garden attached. The trade, and consequently the prosperity 
 of Buenos Ayres, is much impeded by the difficulties of the 
 navigation of the La Plata, and the want of a safe and com 
 modious harbour. Large vessels, drawing 16 or 17 ft. water, 
 cannot approach nearer than from 8 to 10m., and even the 
 lighters employed to unload them are often swamped in 
 crossing the bar between the outer and inner roads. The 
 surf on the beach is also very heavy when it blows fresh. 
 Another danger arises from the pamperos, sudden and violent 
 gusts of wind, which sweep across the pampas from the Andes 
 with tremendous fury. The vessels entered and cleared, in 
 the following years, were : 
 
 Entered. Ckared. 
 
 Vessels. Tons. Ves.els. Tons. 
 
 1841 408 83,091 493 101,858 
 
 1842 421 78,594 385 74,371 
 
 1843 549 105,238 438 84,117 
 
 Buenos Ayres imports cotton, linen, woollen, and silk 
 manufactured goods, hardware, jewellery, earthenware, glass, 
 leather, hats, wines, &c. ; and exports ox and horse hides, 
 sheep, chinchilla, nutria, otter, and other skins, tallow, salted 
 beef, horse hair, horns, wool, &c., the last being greatly on 
 the increase ; but its trade has been much damaged by the un 
 settled state of political matters, and by the long blockade 
 it sustained in recent years. The following Tables convey 
 some idea of the extent and nature of the export trade, repre 
 senting, of course, nearly the total exports of the whole 
 republic of La Plata, which possesses no other seaport of 
 any note : 
 
 Amount of Exports 
 Tutsi Exports. shipped in British Vessels. 
 
 1841 2,626,376 746,029 
 
 1842 1,440,440 218.677 
 
 1843 437,262 
 
 TOTAL QUANTITIES o/ PRINCIPAL ARTICLES EXPORTED in 18i2, 
 1843, and 1844. 
 
 
 1842. 
 
 1843. 
 
 MM. 
 
 Hides Ox number- 
 Cow 
 
 Quantities. 
 1,015,384 
 382 429 
 
 Quantities. 
 1,449,816 
 549 510 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 1,087,794 
 726 351 
 
 Horse 
 Skins Nutria Ibs 
 Chinchilla dozen.... 
 Sheep 
 Goat 
 
 45,817 
 416,878 
 200 
 93,181 
 
 68,214 
 96,585 
 592 
 98,003 
 39 095 
 
 39,984 
 21,258 
 277 
 124,301 
 
 Calf 
 Deer ... 
 
 Otter CWtS 
 
 5,281 
 9,541 
 
 98,003 
 2,504 
 2791 
 
 124,3f,l 
 6,467 
 
 Horse hair 
 Wool 
 
 18,961 
 
 801 584 
 
 23,383 
 111 807 
 
 16,fifi3 
 Io6 347 
 
 Beef 
 
 Taiio- ;;; 
 
 Bones 
 Paring of hides 
 Candles 
 Ostrich Feathers 
 Horns number.. 
 
 122,001 
 80,122 
 55,660 
 9,586 
 
 1,026 ,000 
 
 159,671 
 370.3U1 
 10300 
 4,933 
 1,068 
 1S8 
 1,124,439 
 
 307,344 
 139,317 
 29,340 
 12,618 
 
 1.27M21 
 
 The majority of the inhabitants of Buenos Ayres, who are 
 said to be observant and intelligent, are the descendants of 
 
BUFFALO 
 
 526 
 
 BUGULMA 
 
 Spaniards, who have settled in the country during the last 
 three centuries. The climate is said to be healthy, but vari 
 able, the temperature rising as high as 90 in the shade, and 
 sinking as low as 35 40 , and subject to sudden and violent 
 changes. Deaths in the city estimated at 1 in 32, and in 
 the country at 1 in 40. The town was founded in 1580 by 
 Don Juan de Garay, and in 1776 was made the seat of a vice- 
 royalty, and in 1778 the port was thrown partially open by 
 tiie Spaniards, from which time the city increased rapidly. 
 Pop. about 80,000 or 100,000, of which probably one-fifth 
 are foreigners, chiefly English and French. (Sir W. Parish s 
 Buenos Ayres, <c. ; Nopitsch, Kaufmannische BcTtchete gesam- 
 melt avfeiner Jicise urn die Welt; Purl. Papers.} 
 
 BUFFALO, rivers, lakes, &c. : 1, A river, S. Africa, 
 British Kaffraria, formed by the junction of several streams, 
 and so called from a point about 4 in. below, or S.E. King 
 William s Town ; lat. 32 53 S. ; Ion. 27 30 E. ; and which, 
 after a course of about 25 m., falls into the Indian Ocean at lat. 
 33 7 S.; Ion. 27 45 E. 2, A river, S. Africa, Cape Dis 
 trict, falls into the Atlantic, 1 8 m. N. Cape Town. 3, A vil. 
 in the same dist., 50 m. N.N.E. Cape Town. 4, A river, Cape 
 Colony, dist. Graff Reynet, has its sources in the Snow Moun 
 tains of that territory, about lat. 32 2 S. ; Ion. 24 17 E. ; 
 and after a course of about 60 m., first W., and latterly S. 
 and S.E., falls into Karreeka, in lat. 32 28 S. ; Ion. 23 28 E. 
 
 5, A river, Texas, dist. Harrisburg, formed by several 
 
 streams AY. and S.W. Houston, formrely the cap. of Texas, 
 and to which town it is navigable by steamers from the Bay 
 
 of San Jacinto, communicating with the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 6, A small lake, U. States, N.W. territory; lat. 43 45 N.; 
 Ion. 89 10 W. 7, A lake, Sioux territory, U. States, in lat. 
 (centre) 45 45 N.; Ion. 96 30 W.; about 28 m. in length, 
 and 5 in breadth. In high floods, boats can pass from this 
 
 lake to Big Stone Lake, situated a little S.E. 8, A lake, 
 
 British N. America, dist. Saskatchawan ; lat. 51 45 N. ; Ion. 
 113 W.; about 20 m. in length, and 10 in breadth. 9, A 
 lake, British N. America, dist. English River; lat. 55 40 N. ; 
 Ion. 108 W.; about 30 m. in length; broadest part, 20 m. ; 
 it is connected by small rivers with several other lakes. 
 10, A lake, British N. America, about 100 m. E. of Great 
 Bear Lake, in the territory of the Copper Indians, in lat. 
 (centre) 67 KX N.; Ion. 111 \V.; length, 21 m.; breadth, 
 20m. 
 
 BUFFALO, islands, capes, rocks, &c.:l, An isl., off 
 E. coast, Cochin China; lat. 14 11 N.; Ion. 109 16 E. (R.); 
 it is a convex rock of sloping form, and moderately elevated. 
 
 2, Two or three small islets, Mindoro Sea, centre of the 
 
 Philippine group, a little N.W. of Point Potol, N.W. extre 
 mity of isl. Panay; about lat. 1 1 53 N.; Ion. 121 50 E. 
 
 They are called also the Caravaos. 3, A point or cape. W. 
 
 coast, isl. Sumatra: lat. 3 58 S.; about 2 m. S. of the W. 
 ]K)int of Pulo or Poolo Bay. Coast here generally bold, with 
 
 high mountains inland. 4, A group of detached rugged 
 
 rocks, Bay of Bengal, off the W. coast of Burmah, about 20 in. 
 due N. Cape Negrais; lat. 16 19 to 16 22 30" N. Ion. 94 12 
 E. They extend nearly N. and S., about 3 m., and are about 
 
 3 m. from the shore. 5, A small isl., E. Sea, off the E. 
 
 coast of China, Chusan Archipelago ; lat. 29 42 N. ; Ion. 
 121 15 E. Its E. shore is rocky, and on its W. side are 
 several steep inlets, one of which nearly separates the island 
 in two parts. It rises into three peaks, one of which is 500 ft. 
 high. Fresh provisions and water may be obtained here, but 
 the supply of the latter is not always certain. The island is 
 familiarly known by the name of Buffalo s Nose, from a large 
 perforation near its N. extremity. 
 
 BUFFALO, a city, port of entry, U. States, state of New 
 York, on the outlet of Lake Erie, at the head of the Niagara 
 river, on Buffalo Creek, which constitutes its harbour, 22 m. S. 
 the Falls of Niagara. It is a pleasant and thriving town, the 
 houses in general well-built, and the streets broad and regular. 
 Main street is 2 m. long, and 120 ft. wide. The hotels are 
 numerous and handsome. It contains a court-house, a jail, 
 three banks, 17 churches, a literary and scientific academy, a 
 lyceum, and two theatres. The harbour is spacious and safe, 
 having 12 or 14 ft. water 1 mile from its entrance into the 
 lake, but is not unfrequently choked up with ice. There are 
 50 or 60 steamers, 300 schooners, and other craft, engaged in 
 the commerce between Buffalo and the W., by Lake Erie 
 and the connected lakes. The tonnage, in 1840, was 4916. 
 
 Buffalo is connected with Black Rock and with Niagara Falls 
 
 by railways. Pop. (1840), 18,213; (1845), 29,773. 
 
 BUFFALO is also the name of a number of small rivers, towns, 
 villages. &c., in the U. States. 
 
 BUG, or Boo, two rivers, Russia: 1, A tributary to the 
 Vistula, falling into it on its r. bank, at Modi in, in Poland. It 
 rises near the village of Harbuzow, in Galicia (Austria), and 
 proceeding N. along the E. frontiers of Volhynia and Grodno, 
 which it separates from the kingdom of Poland, reaches Brest- 
 Litov, where, on its r. bank, it receives the Pena, its most im 
 portant affluent. Thence entering the kingdom of Poland 
 first, it proceeds N.W. to Nur, where it receives the Nurtschik. 
 From this point it flows almost due W., and, shortly after re 
 ceiving the Narew, falls into the Vistula, near Modlin, about 
 20 m. N.N.W. Warsaw. It has a course of 434 m., and is 
 
 navigable for nearly 300. 2, [anc. Hyi>anis\, A river 
 
 which rises near the confines of Volhynia, in the N.W. of 
 gov. Podolsk, and proceeds first E., and then S.E., through 
 that gov. to Oliviopol, where it enters gov. Kherson, which it 
 traverses almost centrally from N. to S., and falls into the 
 estuary of the Dnieper, near Kherson. Its chief affluents are 
 the Ingul, Balta, Tchertal, and Solonicha. The chief towns on 
 its banks, besides those mentioned, are Bratslav, Voznesensk, 
 and Nikolaev. It has a course of above 400 m., but its navi 
 gation is greatly obstructed by rocks and sandbanks. 
 
 BUGBROOK, par. Eng. Northampton; 2420 ac. P. 953. 
 
 BUGGENHOUT, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. E. 
 Flanders, and 4 m. E. Termonde, on the railway between that 
 place and Mechlin ; with breweries, vinegar-works, a ropery, 
 and a snuff, a lint, and a corn mill. Pop. 3761. 
 
 BUGIA, or BOUJEIAH. See BOUOIAH. 
 
 BUGIS, a people, Indian Archipelago, chiefly inhabiting 
 Macassar and Boni, in isl. Celebes. They are muscular, 
 middle-sized, and of a light brown colour, some being even 
 fair. Their dress consists of a piece of red or blue striped 
 cotton, which they wrap about their loins, and pass between 
 their legs. They bind their jet black hair very tastefully, in 
 a red or blue cotton handkerchief. They pluck out the hair 
 of their beards, and ornament their arms and legs with brass 
 wire above the wrists and ankles, and to these the children 
 attach bells. They are, to the last degree, sanguinary, re 
 vengeful, crafty, and treacherous, and it is rarely that thoy 
 see an enemy without circumventing him, and depriving him 
 of his life. On the other hand, under good treatment, they 
 have often been found, even as slaves, faithful and obedient. 
 Their weapons are the creese and the assagay, a club of the 
 hardest wood, 8 ft. long. The original country of the Bugis of 
 Wayu, who are the most enterprising navigators of the Indian 
 Islands, is the banks of the great fresh-water lake Tapara- 
 Karaja, in the N. part of the S.W. peninsula of Celebes, and 
 communicating by rivers navigable for the largest native 
 craft, both with the Bay of Boni on the E., and with the sea 
 on the W. The voyage from the shores of the lake begins 
 with the E. monsoon, the prahus trading as they proceed W., 
 until they reach Ithio, or even Malacca and Acheen, when 
 they are prepared to return with the change of the season. 
 They take with them native cotton cloths, gold-dust, nutmegs, 
 Spanish dollars, birds nests, camphor, benzoin or frankin 
 cense, and tortoise-shell ; and return with European broad 
 cloths and cottons, opium, unwrought iron, and tobacco, which 
 they partly sell at the intermediate ports as they sail home 
 wards. This is their most important voyage, but they make 
 many subordinate ones for collecting birds nests, feather:?, 
 tortoise-shell, trepang, &c. 
 
 BUGTHORI E, par. Eng. York, E. Riding; 1990 ac. 
 Pop. 296. 
 
 BUGUE (LE), a tn. France, dep. Dordogne, 23 m. S.E. 
 Perigueux, r. bank, Vezere, near its confluence with the 
 Dordogne. It has blast-furnaces, malleable ironworks, manu 
 factures of nut-oil, serges, bombazines, and woollen goods ; 
 and is the entrepot for the wine and produce of the basin of 
 the Vezere, which are shipped here for Bordeaux. In the 
 vicinity is the extensive grotto of Miremont. Pop. 1240. 
 
 BUGULMA, or BOUGOULMA, a tn. Russia, gov. Oren 
 burg, cap. dist., and on a small river of same name, 130 m. 
 W.S.W. Oufa. It is well and regularly built, and contains 
 two churches. Its trade, which is extensive, is chiefly in 
 cotton and woollen goods, and it has two important annual 
 fairs. Pop. 4700. 
 
BttHL 
 
 527 
 
 BULACAN 
 
 Bt)HL,a tn. Baden, circle, Middle Rhine, on the Biihllot, 
 and on the railway from Carlsruhe to Freiburg, 20 m. N.E. 
 Strasburg, with a considerable stocking factory, and dyeworks 
 both of blue and Turkey red. The weekly market of Biihl 
 is important. At Sasbach, about 3 m. from Biihl, is an 
 obelisk of granite, marking the spot where the celebrated 
 
 Marshal Turenne was killed. Pop. 2800. Numerous 
 
 places in Germany have the name of BUHL. 
 
 BUILUWAS, par. Eng. Salop; 2950 ac. Pop. 273. 
 
 BUILTH, or LLANVAIR-YN-MUALLT, a tn. and par., S. 
 Wales, co. Brecon. The TOWN is 12 m. S.W. New Radnor, 
 delightfully situated on the Wye, here crossed by a bridge 
 of six arches. It consists of two parallel streets, and a few 
 lanes, forming irregular terraces on the side of a declivity ; and 
 has a parish church, and chapels for Baptists, Independents, 
 and Calvinistic and Wesleyan Methodists ; several schools, 
 and the remains of an ancient castle. Weekly market on 
 
 Monday; four cattle-fairs are held annually. In the 
 
 PAKISH are several mineral springs, which are a source of 
 great attraction to visitors. Llewelyn, the last of the native 
 sovereigns of Wales, was slain in the neighbourhood, in an 
 engagement with the English, in 1282. Pop. 1203. 
 
 BUIRONFOSSE, a vil. France, dep. Aisne, 9 m. N.N.W. 
 Yervins, and the centre of a considerable manufacture of 
 sabots. Pop. 1465. 
 
 BUIS (LE), [box-tree], a tn. France, dep. Drome, 48 m. 
 S.S.E. Valence, ori the Ouveze. It is meanly built, but has 
 some fine promenades, and a public market-place, planted with 
 a double row of trees ; silk-mills, oil-works, and tanneries, 
 with trade in wool, cloth, and silk. In the vicinity the box- 
 tree grows in great quantity. Pop. 1928. 
 
 BUITENPOST, a vil. Holland, prov. Friesland, 16 m. 
 E. by N. Leeuwarden. It is a pleasant- looking village, has 
 a Calvinistic church, and a school ; and its inhabitants sub 
 sist chiefly by agriculture and cattle-rearing. Pop. 800. 
 
 BU1TENZORG, a prov., dist., and tn., isl. Java. The 
 PROVINCE or RESIDENCY is bounded, N. by that of Batavia, 
 E. by Krawang, S. by the Preanger Regencies, and W. by 
 Bantam ; and forms an oblong of 747 sq. m., with 900 villages, 
 and 270 hamlets. The S. is mountainous, of which the high 
 est peaks, Sulak and Pangerango, are 8000 ft. above the sea. 
 To its innumerable streams, many canals have been added for 
 the increased irrigation of the soil. The climate is mild, and 
 the higher grounds much resorted to by European invalids. 
 The tiger and rhinoceros abounds in the S. and W. The 
 useful products are, horses, buffaloes, and oxen ; rice, coffee, 
 sugar, edible birds nests, hides, potatoes, and green veget 
 ables for Batavia. The great Java highway crosses the re 
 sidency N. to S. The DISTRICT, still called by the natives 
 
 Bogor, which was changed into Buitenzorg by Sir T. S. 
 Raffles, after the name of a country house, first erected by 
 General Van Imlioff, and enlarged by Marshal Daendels, is 
 proved, by numerous ancient remains, to have been in a highly 
 prosperous condition previous to the civil wars, which con 
 vulsed that part of Java at the first introduction of Mahomet- 
 anism. These made it a wilderness in the strictest sense of 
 the word ; its temples and useful constructions were left in 
 ruins, and tigers, wild boars, and other dangerous animals so 
 multiplied, that prayers were put up at Batavia for the Gover 
 nor-General s safety whenever he ventured into it. Its fine 
 climate and fertility, however, together with its nearness to 
 Batavia, pointed it out, above a century ago, as peculiarly 
 adapted for European residences ; and an express grant was 
 then made of it to Imlioff, and his successors in the govern 
 ment, for that purpose. A plain house was erected by Imlioff 
 himself, and was soon followed by many more, by other 
 functionaries and wealthy persons ; so that a fine village or 
 small town rose, at length, in the bosom of the wilderness, 
 while, at the same time, the cultivation of the ground was 
 
 sedulously resumed. The TOWN is 30 m. S. Batavia, and 
 
 600 ft. above the level of the sea. Among other handsome 
 buildings, the present palace of the Governor-General is par 
 ticularly distinguished. It presents a central pavilion, sur 
 mounted by a dome and two long wings, ornamented with 
 peristyles. Close by there is a large garden, in which all the 
 most useful and curious vegetable productions of the Indian 
 Archipelago are to be found, arranged and tended by a highly 
 scientific botanist. (Van dur Aa; Ilaussman, Voyage en 
 Chine, ct c.) 
 
 BUTTRAGO, a tn. Spain, New Castile, prov. of, and 
 40 m. N. Madrid. It was formerly walled, and has two 
 squares, a parish church, chapel, townhouse, two schools, and 
 an hospital. Pop. 1506. 
 
 BUITTLE, par. Scot. Kirkcudbright; length, 8 m. ; 
 breadth, 3 m. Pop. 1059. 
 
 BUJALANCE, a city, Spain, Andalusia, pror. of, and 
 21 m. E. by N. Cordova, on an elevated plain in a mountain 
 ous district. It has two squares, and numerous wide and 
 paved, though crooked streets ; a parish, and several con- 
 ventical churches; a Latin, and two other schools; and a 
 ladies college ; townhouse, storehouse, two hospitals, a prison, 
 several fountains, and, overlooking the town, an Arab castle, 
 surrounded by an embattled wall and moat, flanked with seven 
 dilapidated towers, in one of which is its portal. Manufac 
 tures : cloth and woollen fabrics, earthenware, and glass. 
 Trade: exporting wheat, oil, and industrial produce, and 
 importing wool. A large cattle-fair is held in August and 
 September. Pop. 8936. 
 
 BUK, or $DCK, a tn. Prussia, cap. circle of same name, 
 gov. of, and 17 m. W.S. W. Posen, with five churches, and 
 considerable manufactures of linen, leather, and shoes. It 
 
 has also several distilleries. Pop. 2298. The CIRCLE, 
 
 area, 268 geo. sq. m., is level, well watered, well wooded, and 
 fertile, producing good crops of corn, flax, hops, and garden- 
 fruits, and rearing great numbers of cattle. Pop. 44,594. 
 
 BUKKEV, an isl. Norway, W. coast, prov. Christian- 
 sand, bail. Stavanger, in the Bukke-Fjord; lat. 59 12 N. ; 
 Ion. 5 22 E. ; with a vil. of same name. The Bukke or 
 Bukken-Fjord, is an arm of the sea, extending about 35 m. 
 inland, with a breadth of 10 to 15 m., and is covered with 
 numerous islets. Its N.E. part is called the Naerstrands- 
 Fjord, and its N. part the Skjolds-Fjord. 
 
 BUKKUR.- 1, A fortress, Scinde, on an isl. of same 
 name, in the Indus ; the channel which divides it from Roree, 
 on the 1. bank of the river, being 1200 ft. wide, and 35 deep; 
 and that which divides it from Sukkur, on the r. bank, being 
 294 ft. wide, and 15 deep; lat. 27 41 N.; Ion. 68 52 E. 
 The island is a limestone rock, 2400 ft. long, 900 wide, and 
 27 high. It is almost covered by the fortress, which has 
 double walls of brick, from 30 to 35 ft. high, with bastions, 
 loop-holes, and a parapet. 2, A tn. Punjab, on a small offset 
 of, and about 3 m. E. the Indus ; lat. 31 39 N.; Ion. 71 7 
 E. ; in a fertile district, and abundantly supplied with cheap 
 provisions. Pop. 5000. 
 
 BUKOWINA, a duchy, Austria, in E. Galicia, and re 
 cently called the circle of Czernowitz, between lat. 47 20 
 and 48 40 N. ; and Ion. 24 45 and 26 20 E. ; greatest 
 length, N. to S., 104 m. ; average breadth, about 65 m. ; area, 
 2944 geo. sq. m. The whole circle is traversed by ramifica 
 tions of the Carpathians, and much of the surface is occupied 
 by swamps and forests. The principal rivers are the Pruth, 
 Dniester, Suczawa, Seret, Moldawa, and Bistritza. The 
 climate is, on the whole, mild and salubrious. The chief 
 mineral production is salt. Gold is found in the sands of 
 the Bistritza. Not much corn is grown, but great attention 
 is paid to the rearing of cattle and bees. The trade, chiefly 
 .n the hands of Jews and Armenians, is confined to horses, 
 horned cattle, hides, wool, wax, and honey. The capital of 
 the circle is Czernowitz. Bukowina was united to Galicia in 
 1777, and from 1786 to 1849 it formed the circle of Czer 
 nowitz. In the latter year it was re-constituted a duchy. 
 Pop. 208,498. 
 
 BULACAN, a prov. and tn. Philippines, isl. Luzon, at 
 the head of the Bay of Manilla. The PROVINCE is the smallest 
 "n the island, but the most productive, the best cultivated, 
 and said to be the healthiest place in the whole archipelago. 
 It is intersected by numerous small rivers, the banks of which 
 are extremely fertile, and are covered with trees ; all these 
 streams fall into Manilla Bay. Gold, iron, the latter said to 
 be of excellent quality, and inexhaustible in quantity; coal, ala 
 baster, limestone, and building stone, are found. Amethysts, 
 topazes, and emeralds, are said to exist ; and good slate is to 
 be obtained, but is not wrought to any extent. The principal 
 agricultural productions are rice, maize, sugar, indigo, and 
 some tobacco. The forests are inhabited by wild boars, oxen, 
 buffaloes, wild horses, and a great variety of birds, including 
 turtle doves. A large portion of the population on the coast 
 is employed in fishing : and of those in the interior, a number 
 
BTTLAMA 
 
 52 R 
 
 BULTI 
 
 eke out a scanty subsistence by washing the auriferous sands i 
 of the rivers. A still greater number are engaged in weaving, 
 and in manufacturing various fabrics.- -The TOWN, cap. 
 of the prov., is about 22 m. N.W. Manilla; lat. 14 J 50 N. ; 
 Ion. 120 50 E. ; and is connected with the latter by an ex 
 cellent road. The streets are spacious, and the houses of 
 wood, with exception of the church, the. residence of the chief 
 magistrate, and the government-house, all of which are of 
 stone. Among the inhabitants are many wealthy sugar-manu 
 facturers ; a great number are also employed in manufacturing 
 various kinds of fabrics, particularly mats or carpets of silk. 
 The environs of Bulacan are extremely picturesque. Pop. 
 if tn. 9803; of the entire prov. 179,000. (Mallat s Philip 
 pines.} 
 
 BULAMA, one of the Bissago Islands, W. coast, Africa, 
 18 m. long, and generally about 9 broad, although, in many 
 places, a good deal more; lat. (W. point) 11 31 18" N.; Ion. 
 15 37 8" W. (c.) The land rises gradually from the shore 
 to the centre of the island, where it attains the height of 1 00 ft. 
 In 1792, an attempt was made by an English company, called 
 the Bulama Association, to establish a colony in this island; 
 but the colonists, about 275 persons, dissipated and unprin 
 cipled, were cut off by disease, except a miserable remnant, 
 who, in 1793, sailed for Sierra Leone. 
 
 BULAVAD1N, a tn. Asiatic Turkey, pash. Anatolia, 
 25 m. E. Afium-Kara-Hissar; lat. 38 44 N. ; Ion. 31 7 E. 
 Pop. 3000. 
 
 BULFORD, par. Eng. Wilts; 41GO ac. Pop. 307. 
 
 BULGARIA [anc. Mcesia Inferior], a prov. Turkey in 
 Europe, between lat. 42 8 and 44 10 N.; and Ion. 22 14 
 and 29 36 E. ; bounded, N. by the Danube, which separates 
 it from Wallachia, the S.E. corner of Moldavia, and Bess 
 arabia ; E. the Black Sea, S. the Balkan Mountains, which 
 separate it from Roumelia and Macedonia ; and W. by Servia ; 
 length, from E. to W. about 320 m. ; average breadth, about 
 100 m.; area, 27,840 geo. sq. in. The whole province may 
 be regarded as consisting of a vast inclined plain, descending 
 N. with more or less abruptness, from the ridges of the Bal 
 kan to the banks of the Danube, and of a smaller and much 
 lower inclined plain which slopes E. to the Black Sea, to the 
 basin of which the whole province belongs, to a small ex 
 tent directly, but by means of the Danube and its tributaries, ! 
 to a much greater extent indirectly. The most important 
 of these tributaries are the Timok, Isker, Vid, Osma, Lorn, 
 and Taban. The interior is only indifferently wooded, but j 
 magnificent forests clothe the lower terraces, and rise almost 
 to the highest summits of the Balkan. The prevailing strata 
 belong to the upper part of the secondary formation, and of 
 course are chiefly cretaceous. The soil is of remarkable 
 fertility, and produces so much more corn and rice than the 
 inhabitants consume, that the Turks regard Bulgaria as their 
 most important granary, and derive from it large supplies of 
 all kinds of agricultural produce, including honey and wax. 
 The minerals are probably of considerable importance, but as 
 yet, the only one which has been worked to any extent is 
 iron. For administrative purposes, Bulgaria is placed under 
 the Beglerbeg of Koumelia, whose residence is in the capital 
 Sophia, and is divided into four sanjaks Sophia, Nicopolis, 
 Silistria, and Widdin. The greater part of the inhabitants 
 belong to the Greek church. They generally understand 
 Turkish, but their vernacular tongue is a dialect of Sclavonic, 
 bearing a considerable resemblance to the Russian. They are 
 more industrious than is usual with the inhabitants of Turkish 
 provinces, and, showing little inclination to break the yoke of 
 their masters, are in return treated by them with tolerable 
 mildness. Pop. 1,800,000. 
 
 BULKINQTON, par. Eng. Warwick; 4600 ac. P. 1831. 
 
 BULK WORTHY, par. Eng. Devon ; 6050 ac. Pop. 196. 
 
 BULLAS, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 33 ni. W. by N. 
 Murcia, on an eminence 1840 ft. above the sea level. It 
 has steep and unpaved streets, two squares, a parish church, 
 townhall, endowed school, prison, storehouse, and extra 
 mural cemetery. Manufactures : linen, and hempen fabrics, 
 earthenware, and brandy. Trade : manufactured goods, 
 grain, &c. Pop. 5145. 
 
 BULLE, a tn. Switzerland, cap. dist. of same name, can. ! 
 of, and 14 in. S. by W. Freiburg. It stands in a fertile valley \ 
 2340 ft. above the sea level. In 1 b05, almost every building, , 
 with exception of the old castle and Capuchin cloister, was | 
 
 burned down. The greater part of the town is now new and 
 regularly built. The parish church, which is very handsome, 
 has a marble chancel, and possesses a fine organ by Moser. 
 Six yearly markets are held here. One in May is the largest 
 in the canton, and at the two in October and November the 
 price of Gruyere cheese, for which Bulle is the great depot, is 
 fixed. Pop. 1432. 
 
 BULLKRS OF BUCHAN, a small fishing vil. Scotland, 
 co. Aberdeen, on a gentle slope terminating on the brink of a 
 high cliff, 22 m. N.N.E. Aberdeen. It consists of two or 
 three rows of houses, straight and running parallel to each 
 other, but hardly deserving the name of streets. The houses 
 are superior to those commonly to be met with in fishing 
 villages, and are kept remarkably clean by their occupants. 
 Water is abundant, but all hard. The male portion of the 
 population are all fishermen, and carry on the trade of white- 
 fishing, in small boats, during 10 months of the year, never 
 going further than 10 or 12 m. from land. They likewise 
 engage to some extent in the herring-fishing. Close by the 
 village is the remarkable natural curiosity called the Bullers 
 of Buchan, consisting of a group of singular rocks and sea- 
 worn caverns. The principal of these chasms or excavations 
 is called the Buller (or Booter) of Buchan. It resembles an 
 immense well, whose perpendicular walls are of the living rock, 
 with the sea rushing violently in through an opening at the 
 bottom, and having an aperture at the ton of about 50 ft. in 
 diameter, from which the visitor contemplates the tumultuous 
 waters below at a depth of 150 ft. Boats enter by the same 
 passage with the tide, affording the curious an opportunity of 
 visiting the interior, which, however alarming the adventure 
 appears, is accomplished without risk. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 BULLES, a vil. and com. France, dep. Oise, 6 m. N.N.w . 
 Clermont, on the Bresche. It was formerly noted for its 
 manufacture of linen, called demi-Hallande, still carried on to 
 a limited extent. The goods were sold chiefly at Beauvais. 
 Pop. 1071. 
 
 BULLEY, par. Eng. Gloucester; 780 ac. Pop. 229. 
 
 BULLINGH AM, par. Eng. Hereford; 1700ac. Pop.412. 
 
 BULLINGTOX, par. Eng. Lincoln; 760 ac. Pop. 52. 
 
 BULLOCK, par. Irel. Dublin; 3331 ac. Pop. 1385. 
 
 BULLOMS (NORTH and SOUTH), two maritime districts, 
 W. Africa, both in the country of the Timmanees. N. Bul- 
 loms is bounded S. by the Sierra Leone, and N. by the Little 
 Sarcies river, intersected centrally by the meridian of 13 W. 
 S. Bulloms is situated S. of the peninsula of Sierra Leone, 
 between lat. 8 9 and the river Kates or 8 28 N.; and Ion. 
 12 15 W., and Yawry Bay. 
 
 BULL S BAY, or BAUOUL BAT, a bay, E. side of New 
 foundland ; lat. 47 25 N. ; Ion. 52 20 W. 
 
 BULLUMGHUR, a tn. and fortress India, prov. of, 
 and 21 in. S. Delhi ; lat. 28 23 N. ; Ion. 77 10 E. The fort 
 has lofty brick walls, a deep ditch, and high mud bastions ; 
 and the town, though small, is tolerably well built, with lofty 
 houses and numerous temples. 
 
 BULMER, two pars. Ens?.: 1, par. Essex; 2880 ac. 
 Pop. 775. 2, par. York, N. Riding; 3800 ac. Pop. 983. 
 
 BULOLA, a tn. and river, Senegambia ; the town 
 stands on the r. bank of a tributary of the Bulola, about 5 m. 
 S. from its junction with the latter, and 60 m. from the sea; 
 
 lat. 1 1 31 N. ; Ion. 14 20 W. The RIVER, the sources of 
 
 which are not well ascertained, traverses the country of the 
 Biaferes, and falls into the Atlantic about lat. 11 30 N., 
 being separated from the embouchure of the Jeba or Rio 
 Grande, by a peninsula about 1 1 m. broad. 
 
 BULPHAN, par. Eng. Essex; 2020 ac. Pop. 254. 
 
 BULSAUR, a seaport, Hindoostan, on the highroad to 
 Bombay, 42 m. S.S.W. Surat; lat. 20 36 N.; Ion. 73 5 E. 
 It carries on a considerable trade in grain and timber. The 
 chief manufactures are of cotton ; rice and sugar-cane are 
 cultivated in the vicinity ; but a large portion of the land is 
 still waste. 
 
 BULTI, BALTEE, BULTISTAN, ISKARDOH, or LITTLE 
 TIBET, the various names of a small state in Central Asia, 
 occupying on the maps the S.W. corner of the Chinese em 
 pire, though not subject to that power, and lying between 
 lat. 34 40 and 35 30 N. ; and Ion. 74 40 and 76 20 E. 
 Greatest length, S.E. to N.W., about 170 m. ; breadth, be 
 tween 50 and 60 m. ; area, 12,000 sq. m. It is enclosed by 
 lofty rugged mountains, rising to a height of 6000 and 8000 ft.. 
 
BULWELL 
 
 529 
 
 HUNZLAU 
 
 rtnd is traversed by the Indus during the earlier course of 
 that river, and has several other inferior, but still consider 
 able streams, numerous mountain torrents, and five pretty 
 large lakes. Little is known of its minerals, but arsenic is 
 met with ; sulphur abounds, and thermal springs are numer 
 ous. As might be expected from the inequalities of its sur 
 face, its climate presents the extremes of heat and cold in 
 accordance as well with its elevations and depressions as 
 with its seasons. In the elevated parts, the cold is intense 
 in winter ; while in the lower districts, the heat in summer 
 ranges from 70 to 90 in the shade at noon. Rain is here 
 almost unknown, but snow falls frequently, and lies to a 
 depth of from 1 to 2 ft. The country is not naturally fertile, 
 but, through the industry of its inhabitants, is made to yield 
 tolerable crops of wheat, barley, millet, buck-wheat, turnips, 
 and a little rice. Fruits of various kinds are abundant, in 
 cluding apricots, peaches, apples, pears, grapes, mulberries, 
 walnuts, and melons. The principal wild animals are a species 
 of sheep with enormous horns, a large kind of goat, musk- 
 deer, marmots, hares, leopards, bears, wolves, and foxes. The 
 chief domestic animals are the grunting ox, which attains 
 the size of our large ox ; the cow, the bzho, a hybrid between 
 the former and the latter ; sheep, and goats. Eagles are fre 
 quently seen, more rarely vultures ; and red-legged partridges, 
 together with another species, as large as a common hen, are 
 plentiful. The rivers abound with trout, but have scarcely 
 any other fish. The inhabitants are of the Mongolian race, 
 are peaceable and well-intentioned ; they labour hard and live 
 poorly ; have a sallow, thin, and care-worn look, and are sel 
 dom long-lived. Their dress is a long, full tunic and cap, 
 generally made of the wool of their sheep and goats. Their 
 religion is Mahometan, and their language Tibetian. Pop. 
 estimated at 75,000. 
 
 BULWELL, par. Eng. Notts ; 1 210 ac. Pop. 3157. 
 
 BULWICK, par. Eng. Northampton ; 1910 ac. Pop. 487. 
 
 BUMLIN, par. Irel. Roscommon ; 6582 ac. Pop. 5257. 
 
 BUMPSTED, two pars. Eng. Essex:!, Bumpsted Hel 
 ton; 2790 ac. Pop. 906. 2, Bumpsted -Steeple; 3460 ac. 
 Pop. 1212. 
 
 BUNARBASHI, a tn. and river, Turkey in Asia, pash. 
 Anatolia. The town is in lat. 39 52 N. ; Ion. 26 15 E. ; 
 46 m. N.W. Adramyti, and is supposed to occupy a part of the 
 
 site of ancient Troy. The RIVER Bunarbashi is formed by 
 
 the junction of several warm springs, and is conjectured to be 
 the Scamander of Pliny. 
 
 BUNBURY, par. Eng. Chester ; 17,600 ac. Pop. 4678. 
 
 BUNDELCUND, a dist. Hindoostan, part of it in the 
 British province of Allahabad, and part under the rule of 
 native chiefs, protected by the British Government. It lies be 
 tween lat. 24 3 and 26 26 N.; and Ion. 77 48 and 81 33 
 E. ; area, 23,817 sq. m. ; and is watered by the Betwah, Desan, 
 and Cane, all affluents of the Jumna, which forms the N. bound 
 ary of Bundelcund. It is hilly ; contains the almost exhausted 
 diamond mines of Panna, and has soil of every variety, and 
 yields almost every grain and plant of India. Principal towns, 
 Bandah, Callinjer, and Jhansi. In 1804, it was occupied by 
 the British; and in 1817, the portion now belonging to the 
 presidency of Bengal was finally given up by the Peishwa, 
 and formed into the two districts of N. and S. Bundelcund. 
 Pop. 2,500,000. 
 
 BUNDER ABBAS. See BENDER- ABBAZ. 
 
 BUNDERPOOCH [monkey s tail], the native name of 
 the loftiest peak of the Jumnowtry, one of the Himalayas ; 
 lat. 31 1 N. ; Ion. 78 33 E.; height, 21,155 ft. 
 
 BUNDLEY, par. Eng. Devon ; 2410 ac. Pop. 342. 
 
 BUNGAY, a market tn. and par. England, co. Suffolk, 
 r. bank, Waveney, 30 m. N.E. Ipswich. It occupies the sides 
 and summit of a gently rising hill, and is neatly and well built ; 
 streets spacious, and well paved, diverging from a moderate- 
 sized area in the centre of the town, forming a market-place, 
 in which is a handsome market-cross. The town is lighted 
 with gas, and well supplied with water. Its churches are, 
 St. Mary s, an elegant structure, with a beautiful steeple; and 
 the Holy Trinity Church, a small ancient building, with a 
 round tower, and an ancient elaborately-carved pulpit. Adjoin 
 ing St. Mary s Church are the picturesque ruins of a Bene 
 dictine nunnery. It also has Independent, Wesleyan, and 
 R. Catholic chapels ; and the Baptists have three separate 
 congregations, but no chapel. The corn-hall is neat and 
 Vor I. 
 
 commodious, attached to which is the public dispensary. 
 There are 23 daily, and five Sabbath schools, and several 
 charities. Petty sessions weekly; market-day, Thursday; and 
 two annual fairs for horses, &c. The principal trade is in 
 corn, coals, flour, lime, and malt, in which a considerable 
 amount of business is done. There is also an extensive 
 printing-office, and stereotype-foundry. Adjoining the town 
 is a very spacious common, on which is a good race-course, 
 where the races are held in September. Area of par. 2090 ac. 
 Pop. 4109. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 BUNGELOW ISLAND, an isl., N. Pacific Ocean, about 
 140 m. N.E. Great Loo Choo Island; lat. 28 25 N.; Ion. 
 130 E. 
 
 BUNKLE and PRESTON, a united par. Scotland, cc. Ber 
 wick. Mean length, 4 J m. ; mean breadth, 3J m. Pop. 748. 
 
 BUNNY, par. Eng. Notts ; 2000 ac. Pop. 360. 
 
 BUNOL, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 27 m. W. by S.Valencia; 
 with remains of ancient fortifications. It has steep streets, 
 two squares, a parish church, two schools, townhall, prison, 
 and public storehouse. Manufactures: cloth, paper, and 
 woollen fabrics. Trade: wine, oil, silk, and maize. Pop. 
 2473. 
 
 BUSOLA, a tn. Spain, isl. Majorca, 10 m. N.E. Palma. 
 It is tolerably well built, and has a parish church, two schools, 
 a townhall, and cemetery. Manufactures: soap, oil, lime, 
 gypsum, and charcoal, which are exported; grain and wine 
 being imported. Pop. 1936. 
 
 BUNPOOR, a small, ill -built tn. Beloochistan, prov. 
 Kohistan ; lat. 27 45 N. ; Ion. 60 5 E. ; on a streamlet, 
 and in a district or desert of same name ; arid and sterile ; 
 
 ; defended by a fort. The DISTRICT of Bunpoor is inhabited 
 
 | by the principal tribe of the Nharoes, who speak mixed 
 Persian and Belooche ; possess about 300 cavalry, and 2500 
 infantry, and support themselves chiefly by predatory inroads 
 into the neighbouring countries, especially Persia. 
 
 BUNRATTY, a tn. and par. Ireland, co. Clare. The 
 town lies r. bank, Ougarne, at its confluence with the Shannon, 
 8 m. W. by N. Limerick ; and has an old castle, erected in 
 1277, now used as a constabulary barrack. The anchorage in 
 Bunratty roads, off one of the numerous islands in the Shannon 
 near this town, is considered the best in the river, and is used 
 by large vessels to discharge their cargoes for Limerick. 
 Five fairs are held annually for cattle, sheep, and pigs. Area 
 of par. 2755 ac. Pop. 1320. 
 
 BUNTING ISLANDS. See BOOSTING. 
 
 BUNTINGFORD, a market tn. England, co. of, and 
 10 m. N.N.E. Hertford, consisting of one long street ; houses 
 generally well built ; water abundant ; business in malt and 
 leather. It has a large commodious church, and places of 
 worship for Friends and Independents, a free grammar-school, 
 alms-houses, and other charities. Pop. 581. 
 
 BUNWELL, par. Eng. Norfolk; 2280 ac. Pop. 1001. 
 
 BUNZLAU [Latin, Boleslavia]. 1, A tn. Prussia, prov. 
 Silesia, gov. of, and 25 m. W. Liegnitz, r. bank, Bober, on 
 the railway between Frankfort and Breslau, surrounded by a 
 double line of walls flanked with bastions, and by a deep 
 ditch. It contains three churches, one Lutheran, and two 
 R. Catholic ; a synagogue, some charitable and educational 
 institutions, several manufactories of woollens, linens, stock 
 ings, and earthenware; and extensive potteries. In the 
 market- place is an iron obelisk to the memory of the Russian 
 general Kutusow, who died here in 1813. Opitz, the father 
 of German poetry, who died in 1639, was born here. Pop. 
 (1846), 6677. The CIRCLE, area, 306 geo. sq. m., is gener 
 ally level and well wooded, but the soil is of a sandy texture, 
 and not very favourable for the production of corn. The 
 chief crops are flax and potatoes. Iron and potter s clay are 
 extensively worked and manufactured. Topazes, agates, 
 chalcedonies, carnelians, and jaspers, are also found. Pop. 
 56,624. 2, Bundau (Jung), [Bohemian, Mlada-Boleslaw], a 
 royal tn. Bohemia, cap. circle of Bunzlau, 31m. N.E. Prague, 
 1. bank, Iser. It is well built of stone, with several churches, 
 a synagogue, a neat townhouse, barracks, an hospital, a court 
 of criminal jurisdiction for the district, a royal gymnasium of 
 j Piarists, and manufactures of cottons, printed calicoes, mus- 
 [ lins, woollens, soap, and leather. It has an old fort, built by 
 Duke Boleslaw (A.D. 973), the reputed founder of the town. 
 Pop. (1844), 5074. The CIRCLE, area, 1642 sq. m., is in 
 tersected by the Iser, and, in the W. and N.W., by offshoots 
 
 67 
 
BUOC1IS 
 
 530 
 
 BURG (DEJ 
 
 of the Kiesengebirge. In general, the country is arid, ex 
 cepting in the watered valleys, which yield large crops of rye, 
 barley, oats, flax, fruit, and hops. In the mountain districts, 
 the manufacture of linens, cottons, woollens, ironware, glass, 
 crystal, and paper, is carried on. The circle contains 16 
 towns, 30 market towns, and 1032 villages. Pop. 413,233. 
 3, Bunzlau (Alt), a tn. Bohemia, circle, Kaurzirn, 15 m. 
 N.W. Prague, near r. bank, Elbe. It has a collegiate school, 
 and a church much resorted to by pilgrims. Pop, 2000. 
 
 BUOCHS, a vil. and par. Switzerland, can. Unterwalden, 
 near S. bank, Lake Luzern, and r. bank, Aa, 8 in. S.E. Luzern. 
 It stands on the slope of the Buochserhorn, and contains a 
 very handsome church, an orphan and a poorhouse ; and is 
 much exposed to inundation. Pop. 1107. 
 
 BUOLICK, par. Irel. Tipperary; 7116 ac. Pop. 2660. 
 
 BUONAB1TACOLO, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. Prin- 
 cipato Citra. 12 in. S. Sala, in a mountainous district, on a 
 tributary of the Sele. Pop. 5475. 
 
 BUONALBERGO, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. Princi- 
 pato Ultra, 7 m. N.W. Ariano. Pop. 3765. 
 
 BUONCONVENTO, or BONCONVENTO, a tn. and com. 
 Tuscany, prov. of, and 16m. S. by E. Sienna, near the con 
 fluence of the Arbia and Ombrone; walled, flanked with 
 towers, and overlooked by the castle of Percenna. The 
 church, an extensive edifice, contains some valuable works 
 of art. Silk is manufactured, good grain grown, and a con 
 siderable number of cattle fed. Pop. 2736. 
 
 BURANO, an isl. and tn. Austrian Italy, gov. of, and 
 6 m. N.E. Venice, lying among the lagoons. The inhabit 
 ants are chiefly employed in fishing ; part, also, in building 
 boats and making lace. Near the town there is an extensive 
 ropework. Pop. 8000. 
 
 BURBAGE, par. Eng. Wilts ; 3530 ac. Pop. 1455. 
 
 BURCOMBE (SOUTH), par. Eng. Wilts ; 3090 ac. P. 402. 
 
 BURCOTT, par. Eng. Oxford; 1550 ac. Pop. 183. 
 
 BURDEKIN, a river, Australia, New S. Wales, be 
 tween lat. 19 and 20 20 S. ; it flows, in a S.E. direction, 
 to lat. 20 15 S., when it suddenly bends round, and, run 
 ning N.E., falls into a bay near Cape Upstart. 
 
 BURDUR, a tn. Asiatic Turkey, pasli. Anatolia, 65 m. 
 S. Anum-Kara-Hissar ; lat. 37 45 N. ; Ion. 30 25 E. In 
 its vicinity is a lake of same name. 
 
 BURDWAN, a tn. Hindoostan, presid. and prov. Bengal, 
 cap. dist. of same name, 1. bank, Dummoodah, 50 m. N.W. 
 Calcutta. The titular rajah of Burdwan resides here, and 
 has a large palace, with spacious gardens, &c. Pop. 540,000. 
 
 The DISTRICT lies between lat. 22 and 24 N. ; and Ion. 
 
 87 20 and 88 25 E.; bounded, N. by Beerbhoom, E. by 
 Nuddea, S. by Midnapore and Hooghly, and W. by Midna- 
 pore and Kamghur ; area, about 2400 sq. m. It is level, and 
 is one of the richest and most productive districts of Hindoo- 
 Stan. The chief river is the Dummoodah, which, for a short 
 time during the rainy season, is not navigable ; the district is 
 well supplied with roads. The chief crops are sugar, indigo, 
 betel, tobacco, cotton, the usual cereal grains of Bengal, and 
 mulberry-trees. Coal of good quality is plentifully obtained, 
 and is preferred, in the Calcutta market, to any other except 
 ing English ; and some is exported to Madras, Singapore, 
 Penang, and Ceylon. Fine iron ore is found near the coal, 
 and abundance of stone. The native zemindars are usually 
 rich ; the more wealthy portion of them reside in Calcutta, 
 leaving their estates to be managed by resident agents. 
 There are few villages in which there is not a school for the 
 rudiments of education. Bard wan was formerly an inde 
 pendent state, and, with the rest of Bengal, was ceded to the 
 British in 1760. Pop. 1,487,300. 
 
 BUREN [anc. Buyren], a tn. Holland, prov. Gelderland, 
 about half way between Tiel and Culenborg. It has three 
 gates, and consists of two streets, crossing each other at right 
 /ingles. The council-house, with a handsome tower, and the 
 Iteformed church, with a very fine spire, are both in the mar 
 ket-place. There are also a II. Catholic church, and a small 
 synagogue ; an orphan-house, of some architectural note ; and 
 a Dutch and French school. The old castle of Buren, where 
 Prince Philip William of Orange was born, in 1554, stands 
 close to the town on the W. Pop. above 1000. 
 
 BUREN, two vils. and a tn. Switzerland : 1, Buren-Oler. 
 u well-built vil., can. of, and 10 m. W. St. Gall, on the Tliur, 
 from whose inundations it lias often suffered. Pop. 1410. 
 
 2, Buren- Nieder, on the same river, a little below the former, 
 and containing a handsome church, and good school. Pop. 
 1090. 3, Buren, a tn., can. of, and 14 m. N.N. W. Bern, cap. 
 dist. of same name, on the Aar. It has a court-house, and a 
 new bridge over the river, and carries on a good general and 
 transit trade. Pop. 1147. 
 
 BUREN, a tn. and circle, Prussia, prov. Westphalia, 
 gov. Minden. The TOWN stands at the confluence of the Alte 
 and the Alme, is walled, contains a handsome church, a normal 
 school, and an asylum for deaf and dumb. The staple trade of 
 
 Buren is linen-weaving. Pop. 1800. The CIRCLE, area. 
 
 195 geo. sq. m., is hilly, almost mountainous, in the S. and 
 S.E. ; flat and covered with extensive moorland wastes, in the 
 N.E. and N. In Salzkotten there is a salt spring, which 
 yields annually 500 tons of salt. In other parts of the circle 
 the linen manufacture is carried on to a great extent, and them 
 are numerous oil-mills, several paper-mills, glassworks, and 
 potash-works. Pop. 34,000. 
 
 BUREN DO PASS. See BROOAXG. 
 
 BURENG, BEUENG, or BRENG. 1, A valley, Cashmere, 
 extending S.E. to N.W., between lat. 33 20 and 33 3W N. ; 
 and Ion. 75 10" and 75 26 E. ; containing numerous subter 
 raneous water-channels, and abounding in springs of great 
 force and volume. 2, A river, flowing N.W. through the 
 above valley. Shortly after the junction of the two streams 
 of which it is composed, a great part of the water suddenly 
 disappears, by an opening in the bed of the river, the re 
 mainder being conveyed, by a canal N.W., towards Islama 
 bad, beyond which it joins Jailum ; lat. 33 42 N. ; Ion. 75 2 
 E. ; whole course, about 40 m. 
 
 BURES (ST. MAKY), par. Eng. Suffolk and Essex ; 4220 ac. 
 Pop. 1596. 
 
 BURESMOUNT, or LITTLE BURES, par. Eng. Essex ; 
 1430 ac. Pop. 282. 
 
 BURFORD. 1 , A market tn. and par.England,co.Oxford. 
 The town is 16 m. W. by N. city of Oxford, on a steep ac 
 clivity, r. bank, streamlet Windrush. It consists of three prin 
 cipal streets, straight and well kept, but badly paved ; houses 
 of stone, and mostly very old. The church is a handsome 
 structure of Saxon architecture, with Norman tower and spire. 
 There are chapels, besides, for Wesleyans, Baptists, and 
 Quakers, a grammar-school, formerly of considerable, but. 
 now of little repute ; and several alms-houses for poor and aged 
 widows. An ancient priory in the vicinity is an object of 
 some interest. Three fairs annually for cattle, horses, sheep, 
 cheese, &c. Area of par. 2170 ac. Pop. 1862 ; of tn. 1644. 
 (Local Correspondent.}?,, par. Salop ; 8370 ac. Pop. 1 031 . 
 
 BURG. 1, A tn. Prussia, prov. Saxony, gov. of, and 12 
 m. N.E. Magdeburg, on the Ille, surrounded by a wall with 
 several gates. It has three churches, a grammar-school, an 
 hospital, and a workhouse, and is the seat of civil and judicial 
 administration for the circle. Its manufactures are extensive, 
 and consist chiefly of woollens, yarns, linen, pottery, steel, and 
 leather. It has also an iron-foundry, dye works, tileworks, 
 numerous mills and distilleries, and likewise a pretty exten 
 sive trade in hops, chicory, tobacco, cattle, and wool, great 
 numbers of sheep being reared in the vicinity. Pop. (1846), 
 14,779. 2, A tn. Denmark, isl. Femern, prov. Schleswig;lat. 
 54 30 N.; Ion. 11 10 E. Its trade and shipping were at 
 one time considerable, but have both been nearly extinguished 
 by the filling up of the harbour, which is now accessible only 
 to boats. The steeple of the church of Burg forms a con 
 spicuous landmark for mariners. The inhabitants live chiefly 
 by agriculture and weaving. Pop. 1800. 3, A tn. Denmark, 
 in the S. Ditmarshes of Holstein, dist. Meldorf, with a very 
 old church. Pop. 1129. 
 
 BURG (DE), or BURGT, a vil. Holland, prov. N. Holland, 
 isl. Texel, 7 m. N. the Heldcr ; the principal village in the 
 island, and so much improved of late years, as to rival, in the 
 beauty of its streets and trees, the neatest villages in Holland. 
 The Reformed church, with its lofty spire, stands in the centre, 
 and around it are 10 streets, and three squares. A handsome 
 new council-house was built in 1840. The 14. Catholics have 
 a neat church, and the Baptists a plainer one. Burg has a 
 French and Dutch, and a Dutch school, and, besides, an insti 
 tution chiefly for poor and infirm persons, who have no direct 
 claim for support on the island, four benevolent boards for 
 aiding the poor, a sub-committee of the society of beneficence, 
 district branches of the Netherlands Bible, missionary, and 
 
BURGAGE 
 
 531 
 
 BURGOS 
 
 tract societies, a savings -bank, and a branch of the public 
 utility society. The inhabitants, generally in a thriving con 
 dition, are occupied in trade or the rearing of cattle. Pop. 
 1100. 
 
 BURGAGE, par. Irel. Wicklow; 1877 ac. Pop. 506. 
 
 BURGAS. See BOOUGAS. 
 
 BURGATE, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1830 ac. Pop. 369. 
 
 BURGAU, several places, Germany. The chief is a tn. 
 Bavaria, circle, Swabia, cap. dist. of same name, 24 in. W. 
 Augsburg, on the Mindel, over which there is here a bridge. 
 It contains a castle and an hospital, and has manufactures of 
 leather and glue, and three annual fairs. Pop. 2063. 
 
 BURGDORF, or BERTHOUD, a tn. Switzerland, can. of, 
 and 12 m. N.E. Bern, r. bank, Emmen, with a townhouse, 
 hospital, several public educational institutions, and a public 
 1 ibrary of 4000 volumes. There are manufactures of ribbons, 
 chocolate, tobacco, and some breweries. Large fairs are also 
 held. In the vicinity are the hot mineral baths of Lochbacl. 
 Pestalozzi laid the foundations of his educational system here, 
 and had a school in the old castle. The town disputes with 
 Basel the honour of having established the first printing-press 
 in Switzerland. Pop. 2417. 
 
 BURGDORF, a tn. and bail. Hanover, dist. Luneburg, 
 on the Aue, 12 m. N.E. Hanover, partly surrounded with a 
 wall and ditch. It has manufactures of cotton and leather, 
 and several distilleries. Pop. of tn. 2322 ; of bail. 45,703. 
 
 BURGEO ISLANDS, a group of islands, British N. 
 America, off E. coast Newfoundland; lat. (S.W. point) 47 33 
 N.; Ion. 57 44 W. (R.) The fishing is extensively prose 
 cuted by the inhabitants of these islands, and, according to 
 the report of Captain Loch, yielded 1,323,000 Ibs. between 
 October 1847 and June 4, 1848. The fish are sent principally 
 to the markets of Spain and Portugal. The fishermen, with 
 very few exceptions, are all Protestants. They have two 
 churches, and a small school-house ; but their dwellings are 
 miserable huts. The settlement, however, appears to be in 
 a flourishing condition, and the people, notwithstanding the 
 discomfort of their dwellings, contented and happy. Pop. 700. 
 (Parl. Papers.) 
 
 BURGESS, par. Irel. Tipperary; 4980 ac. Pop. 2782. 
 
 BURGH, 14 pars. Eng. : 1, par. Suffolk ; 780 ac. Pop. 
 266. 2, Burgh- Apton, par. Norfolk; 1620 ac. Pop. 564. 
 
 3, Burgh-next- Aylesham, par. Norfolk ; 540 ac. Pop. 258. 
 
 4, Burgh-Castle, par. Suffolk ; 1210 ac. Pop. 327. 5, Burgh- 
 with-Grisby, or Burgh-upon-Bane, par. Lincoln ; 1870 ac. Pop. 
 155. 6, Burrjli-MattislMll, par. Norfolk ; 690 ac. Pop. 230. 
 7, Burgh (St. Margaret), par. Norfolk ; 2160 ac. Pop. 506. 
 8, Burgh (St. Peter), or Wheatacre Burgh, par. Norfolk 
 1970 ac. Pop. 312. 9, Burgh (South), par. Norfolk ; 1260 ac 
 Pop. 307. 10, Burgh-upon-the- Sands, par. Cumberland 
 6380 ac. Pop. 1003. 11, Burgh Wattis, par. York, W 
 Riding; 1700 ac. Pop. 2-i5.l2,Burghclere, par. Hants 
 3560 ac. Pop. 845. 13, Burghfield, or Burfield, par. Berks 
 4700 ac. Pop. 1115. 14, Burghill, par. Hereford ; 3170 ac. 
 Pop. 863. 
 
 BURHAM, par. Eng. Kent; 1630 ac. Pop. 380. 
 
 BURGHAUN, a small tn. Hesse-Cassel, prov. of, and 
 11 m. N. Fulda, on the Haun. It is surrounded by a wall 
 and ditch, is a place of great antiquity, and had a church in 
 1093. Its markets are important, and it has a good deal of 
 linen-weaving. Pop. 1362. 
 
 BURGHAUSEN, a tn. Bavaria, on the borders of Austria, 
 27 m. N.N.W. Salzburg, on the Salzbach ; with a palace, six 
 churches, a monastery, an English female institute, and a 
 grammar-school. It has also a powder-mill, a bell-foundry, 
 and some trade in salt and leather. Pop. 2476. 
 
 BURGHEAD BAY, Scotland, co. Moray, S.E. coast of 
 the Moray Frith ; an excellent roadstead ; lat. 57 42 N. ; 
 Ion. 3 35 W. 
 
 BURGH-iN-THE-MARPir, a vil. and par. England, co. 
 Lincoln. The village, 6 m. E. by S. Spilsby, has a com 
 modious parish church, with a lofty tower, and chapels for 
 Baptists and Wesleyans ; an endowed school, and two annual 
 fairs. Area of par. 4240. Pop. 10 ( J5. 
 
 BURGLEN, three vils. and pars. Switzerland:!, Eurg- 
 len, can. Uri, on a small tributary of the Reuss, and the birth 
 place of William Tell. On a height where his house stood 
 is a chapel, painted over with scenes from the patriot s life. 
 Near Tell s chapel is a new and handsome parish church, with 
 
 a subterraneous chapel beneath. Pop. 1215. 2, [supposed 
 anc. Petenisca], can. Bern, r. bank, Zihl, not far from the Lake 
 of Bienne or Biel. A great number of coins and Roman an 
 tiquities have been found in the neighbourhood. Pop. 1926. 
 3, can. Thurgau, r. bank, Thur, 11 m. E. Frauenfeld. It 
 was once a place of some importance, and part of the wallg 
 and ditches by which it was surrounded still remain. A con 
 siderable quantity of fruit is grown in its vicinity. Pop. 1076. 
 
 BURGO (EL), a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 35 m. 
 W. by N. Malaga. It is tolerably built, and contains a parish 
 church, townhall, two schools, prison, and cemetery. The 
 inhabitants are exclusively agricultural, raising grain, wine, 
 oil, fruits, and vegetables ; and rearing sheep, goats, and horned 
 cattle. Pop. 2113. 
 
 BURGO DE-OSMA, a tn. Spain, Old Castile, prov. of, and 
 33 m. S.W. by S. Soria, 1. bank, Usero. It has four squares, 
 a cathedral, episcopal palace, ecclesiastical court-house, semin 
 ary of arts, three endowed schools, foundling and general 
 hospital, townhall, three fountains, and a cemetery. Manu 
 factures: linen, hemp, shoes, leather, and chocolate. Trade: 
 export of wine, fruits, cattle, and industrial and agricultural 
 produce. Pop. 1790. 
 
 BURGOS, a prov. Spain, Old Castile, between lat. 41 32 
 and 43 19 N.; bounded, N. by prov. Santander, E. by 
 Alava, Logrofio, and Soria, S. by Segovia, and W. by Palencia 
 and Valladolid ; area, 7082 sq. m. The surface is very ele 
 vated, and consists of a series of mountain ranges, with inter 
 vening valleys. The mountains belong to the great systems 
 of the Pyrenees, and the Iberian Mountains ; two branches, 
 one from each system, meeting and almost melting imper 
 ceptibly into each other near the centre of the province, on 
 the banks of the Arlanzon. The principal chain is the 
 sierra de Oca. They are generally well wooded with oak, 
 pine, chestnut, beech, and other timber. Gold, silver, iron, 
 lead, copper, quicksilver, sulphur, gypsum, and lignite, are 
 found, but mineral operations are carried on very imperfectly, 
 and to a limited extent. Marble, and good stone for building 
 and pavement, abound. The soil of the valleys usually con 
 sists of a blackish loam, which, though sometimes shallow, is 
 fertile, and produces good grain, fruits, and vegetables ; the 
 higher districts afford excellent pasturage for cattle, sheep, 
 goats, horses, mules, and pigs. The chief rivers are the 
 Ebro, Duero, Arlanzon, Nagarillo, Oca, &c., chiefly affluents 
 of the Ebro. They abound in fish. The climate is cold and 
 damp, liable to sudden changes of temperature. Spring is 
 boisterous and short, and is suddenly succeeded by scorching 
 heat. Snow frequently covers the summits of the loftier hills 
 eight months in the year. Manufactures : linen, woollen, 
 and cotton fabrics, hats, paper, leather, hardware, cutlery, 
 fine delft and coarser earthenware, bricks, tiles, and brandy. 
 Trade is wholly inland, and very insignificant. Education 
 is advancing, numerous schools, benevolent institutions, and 
 scientific associations, having been recently established ; but 
 matters in this respect are still on an unsatisfactory footing. 
 One-half of the villages of the province have no school, and 
 the attendance is only 1 to 6 6 of the population. Crime is 
 comparatively rare. Pop., as given by census in 1844, only 
 171,189; but Madoz, founding on statistical data, maintains 
 that it is 234,022. (Madoz.) 
 
 BURGOS, a city, Spain, Old Castile, cap. prov. of same 
 name ; on a declivity, sloping towards the Arlanzon, here 
 crossed by three stone bridges, 1 1 2 m. N. Madrid. It forms 
 an irregular quadrangle, of which the longer side, E. to W., 
 is about 2 m., and the shorter 1 m. It is walled, but its 
 chief defence is its castle, seated on an adjacent rugged hill, 
 which is wholly enclosed by its works. The houses are in 
 general well built of stone or brick ; but most of the streets 
 are narrow and winding, and badly paved, with large cobbles, 
 fixed in their places by a whitish kind of stone, which gives 
 the whole an appearance of Mosaic. The principal squares 
 are the Plaza Mayor or De la Constitucion, the centre of 
 which is adorned by a statue of Charles III. ; the Plaza de la 
 Libertad, lined with good houses, many of them recent, but 
 some also interesting from their antiquity ; and the Plaza del 
 Mercado, in the centre of which is a beautiful fountain, with 
 a pilaster adorned with gilded stone figures, and surmounted 
 by a lofty obelisk, which terminates in a star of gilded rays. 
 This is only one of 10 fountains from which Burgos derives 
 copious supplies of water. The finest street, in every respect, 
 
BURGOS 
 
 532 
 
 BURLINGTON 
 
 is that called Huertodel Key. All the streets have good side 
 pavement. Places of promenade are numerous ; but the one 
 most frequented, and justly forming the boast of the town, is 
 the Espolon, which is laid out in spacious walks, and has a 
 fine vista opening to the Arlanzon. Burgos, up to the com 
 mencement of the 1 6th century, shared with Toledo the alter 
 nate honour of being the royal residence; and hence, its 
 public buildings, several of which have a greater magnificence 
 than usual in a provincial town, are not so much attestations 
 to its present, as memorials of its former, greatness. The 
 
 DUEGOS, THE CATHEDRAL, &c. From Cbapuy, L Espagno 
 
 most remarkable structure is the cathedral, one of the finest 
 buildings of the kind, not only in Spain, but in Europe. It 
 was commenced in 1221, on the site of a royal palace, which 
 Ferdinand III. gave up for the purpose, but was not finished 
 for several centuries. It is built of white marble, in the form 
 of a Latin cross, and is about 300 ft. long by 200 broad. Its 
 principal entrance, on the W., has a finely decorated facade, 
 and is flanked by two towers, which have a height of 300 ft., 
 and terminate in spires of filigrane-work, exquisitely chiseled. 
 The interior is of corresponding magnificence, is adorned with 
 fine carvings and paintings, and contains numerous interesting 
 monuments, in particular the tombs of Don Fernando, and the 
 Cid, both natives of Burgos, and celebrated throughout Spain 
 for their heroic achievements in the wars with the Moors. 
 Besides the cathedral, there are numerous other churches, 
 some of them of great extent, and considerable pretensions, 
 but generally exhibiting much bad taste either in the style 
 of their architecture, or grotesque finery of .their ornaments. 
 San Lorenzo, one of the largest, has a front of Corinthian 
 pillars, and an interior of a circular form, lighted from above 
 by a handsome dome. None of the other public buildings 
 within the city are deserving of notice. The theatre in use 
 is small and insignificant ; and a new one, commenced on a 
 most magnificent scale, remains unfinished from want of funds. 
 Outside the city is the nunnery of Las Huelgas. The build 
 ings are of mean appearance ; but the endowment was one of 
 the richest in Spain, and all the nuns were of noble descent. 
 The castle, which is situated to the N. of the town, was the 
 palace of the early kings. It is now almost a ruin, but must 
 have been of great strength, if we may judge from its suc 
 cessful resistance to the repeated attempts of the British to 
 take it. The failure of one of them, and the disastrous retreat 
 which ensued, are too well known. The beneficent and edu 
 cational establishments of Burgos are numerous. Among the 
 former may be mentioned the royal, military, and foundling 
 hospitals, savings -bank, and mont-de-jnett, which seems to 
 combine a mutual assurance and loan society for working 
 men; among the latter, the Seminario Conciliar of San Ger- 
 onimo, the Colegio of San Nicolas, and four primary schools, 
 supported by municipal funds. The chief criminal establish 
 ment is a house of correction, called Presidio Peninsular, not 
 only for Burgos, but also Logrono, Pampeluna, and Santona. 
 The manufactures of Burgos are few and unimportant. That 
 of fine woollen cloth, and harness trappings, which once 
 had an European reputation, are all but extinct. The only 
 other articles worth mentioning are paper, hats, linen, and 
 
 silk stuffs. There is a little inland trade, chiefly in agricul 
 tural produce. Burgos is the residence of a captain-general, 
 the seat of an archbishop, and of a high court, whose jurisdic 
 tion extends over the provinces of Alava, Biscay, Burgos, 
 Guipuzcoa, Logrono, Santander, Soria. Before the removal 
 of the court to Madrid, Burgos was in a very flourishing con 
 dition, and contained thrice its present population. Since 
 then it has continued to sink gradually, and exhibits in every 
 quarter indications of decay. The peninsular war, during 
 which the possession of it was repeatedly and keenly contested, 
 added greatly to its disasters. Pop., 
 including the suburb of Vega, on tho 
 opposite side of the Arlanzon, 15,924. 
 BURGSTADT, a tn. Saxony, 
 circle, Leipzig, 7 m. N.N.W. Chem 
 nitz; with a handsome Gothic church, 
 and considerable manufactures of 
 chintz and printed stuffs, and hosiery. 
 It also spins a good deal of flax. Pop. 
 2700. 
 
 BURGSTEIN, or BIRKSTEIN, a 
 tn. Bohemia, circle, Leitmeritz, about 
 48 m. N. Prague. It contains a hand 
 some palace, with gardens, a parish 
 church, an hospital, and a manufac 
 tory of mirrors. In the neighbour 
 hood, on the summit of a remarkable 
 precipice of sandstone, are the re 
 mains of the old castle of Biirgstein. 
 Pop. 1000. 
 
 BURGUNDY [anc. Burgundia; 
 French, Bourgogne], one of the 
 largest and most important of the for 
 mer provinces of France, and now forming cleps. Cote-d Or, 
 Saone-et- Loire, Yonne, part of Ain, and part of Aube. In more 
 ancient times Burgundy was the name of a kingdom, and in 
 cluded several districts in addition to the above province, occu 
 pying the whole basin of the Rhone. Its most ancient inhab 
 itants were the 7Edui, fully described by Casar ; but its name of 
 Burgundy is derived from one of the northern nations, called, in 
 Latin, Burgundi or Burgondiones, who established themselves 
 there in the beginning of the fifth century. At a later period, 
 after the subversion of their kingdom, the province was 
 erected into a dukedom, and long made an important figure in 
 history, under a race of Dukes of Burgundy. The male line 
 having become extinct in 1477, on the death of Charles the 
 Bold, at the siege of Nancy, Louis XL, who had married 
 his daughter, succeeded to the dukedom, which has ever since 
 formed part of France. 
 
 BURHANPORE. See BOORHANPOOR. 
 BURIAS, an isl. Indian Archipelago, Philippines, be 
 tween Masbate and Luzon ; lat. 13 11 N. ; Ion. 123 5 E. (R.) ; 
 area, about 327 sq. m. The coast is rocky, but the island 
 has some good harbours, and excellent anchorage. The in 
 terior is fertile. 
 
 BURITON, par. Eng. Hants ; 6840 ac. Pop. 993. 
 BURKA, a tn. Arabia, E. coast, Oman, 60 m. W.N.W. 
 Muscat, with a fort built by the Portuguese. This fort, 
 which is mounted with cannon, was once the usual summer 
 residence of the Imam, and still has a garrison of about 
 200 men. The inhabitants live chiefly by fishing, and the 
 raising of dates. The bazaar is much frequented by the Be- 
 dawin. The harbour is merely an open roadstead, accessible 
 only by vessels of 30 to 50 tons. Pop. 4000. 
 
 BURKHARDTSDORF, a tn. Saxony, circle, Zwickau, 
 7 m. S. Chemnitz. It has manufactures of hosiery, cotton 
 and linen cloth, and lace ; but the inhabitants depend chiefly 
 on mining. Pop. 1850. 
 
 BURLESCOMBE, par. Eng. Devon ; 4210 ac. Pop. 958. 
 BURLESTONE, par. Eng. Dorset ; 750 ac. Pop. 65. 
 BURLEY, par. Eng. Rutland ; 3390 ac. Pop. 252. 
 BURLINGHAM, three pars. Eng. Norfolk:!, Bur- 
 lingham (St. Andrew], 730 ac. Pop. 214. 2, Burlinrjliam 
 (St. Edmund], 480 ac. Pop. 98. 3, Burlingliam (St. Peter], 
 690 ac. Pop. 91. 
 
 BURLINGTON.l , A city and port of entry, U. States, 
 New Jersey, pleasantly situated, 1. bank, Delaware, 17 m. 
 N.E. Philadelphia; lat. 40 5 10"N.; Ion. 72 52 37" W. 
 It is encircled, on the S. and E., by a small stream, and con- 
 
BURLINGTON 
 
 533 
 
 BURMAH 
 
 nected with the mainland by four bridges and several cause 
 ways. It has six churches, a city hall, lyceum, hank, library, 
 and several schools. The bishop of New Jersey resides here. 
 It has some considerable manufactures, and a pretty exten 
 sive shipping trade. Tonn. (1840), 3851. Pop. 3434. 
 
 2, A township and port of entry, Vermont, beautifully situate 
 on a bay of the same name, Lake Champlain ; lat. 44 28 N. ; 
 Ion. 73 15 W. The village contains many elegant houses, 
 and a handsome public square. It has a court-house, jail, an 
 academy, six churches, two female seminaries, and a univer 
 sity, called the university of Vermont. Pop. (1840), 4271. 
 BURLINGTON, a tn. England. See BRIDLINGTON. 
 BURMAH, THE BIRMAN or BURMAN EMPIRE, or THE 
 KINGDOM OP AVA [Burmese, Myamma, Byam-ma, or Bram- 
 ma; Chinese, Afeen-tee ri], the most W. of the three great 
 states of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, capital, Monchobo, and 
 formerly Ava. Its extent, limits, capabilities, &c., are very 
 imperfectly known, the country never having been fully ex 
 plored by Europeans. It is bounded, N. by Assam ; E. by the 
 Chinese province Yun-nan, by independent Laos and the 
 Tenasserim Provinces ; S. by the Gulf of Martaban ; W. by 
 the Bay of Bengal, Aracan, Chittagong, and Cassay, Kathee, 
 or Munipoor; and it appears to extend from lat. 15 45 to 
 between 26 and 27 N. ; and from Ion. 93 to about 98 40 E. ; 
 estimated area, 184,000 sq. m. According to Dr. Francis 
 Hamilton, In fertility, beauty, and grandeur of scenery, and 
 in the variety, value, and elegance of its natural productions, 
 Burmah is equalled by few (countries) on earth ; and it is 
 occupied by a people of great activity and acuteness, possessed 
 of many qualities agreeable to strangers. The mountains 
 are covered with fine timber, and the valleys with jungle, 
 spots here and there being cleared and cultivated ; but the 
 proportion of cultivated land is small, and the greater part of 
 the country is uninhabited. 
 
 Physical Features. Burmah is composed of a series of 
 longitudinal valleys, sloping N. to S., and flowed through by 
 the Irawadi and its affluent the Kyen-dwen, by the Setang, 
 and the Saluen, which last stream forms the E. boundary. 
 These valleys are formed by spurs of the Himalayas, which 
 lower in height as they proceed S. The most important are 
 the chain of Amoopectoomoo, forming the W. frontier, and 
 terminating S. in Cape Negrais; lat. 16 1 30" N.; Ion. 
 94 12 E., between the Gulf of Martaban and the Bay of 
 Bengal, culminating point, 8202 ft.; and the chain which 
 separates the basin of the Irawadi from that of the Saluen, 
 terminating S. at the Gulf of Martaban, culminating point, 
 Phoongan, 12,434 ft., near lat. 27 N., covered with perpetual 
 snow. From the Gulf of Martaban N. to lat. 17 30 N., 
 Burmah is low, champaign, interspersed with numerous small 
 lakes, and intersected in all directions by branches of the 
 Irawadi and Setang, within the deltas of which all this district 
 is included, forming the most extensive plain in the kingdom. 
 From lat. 17 30 to about 22 N., the country is hilly and 
 elevated, but intersected by numerous fertile and well-wooded 
 valleys; and N. of that parallel it is decidedly mountainous, 
 the highest ranges being N. and N.E. of the capital. 
 
 The sea-coast of Burmah is above 400 m. in length. Its 
 most important portion is along the Gulf of Martaban, which 
 is the termination of the mountain-ranges of the country, the 
 receptacle of all the great streams, and the means of access to 
 all the ports, namely, Rangoon, Martaban, and Bassain. 
 
 The Irawadi, the greatest stream in the empire, rises, as far 
 as known, in the Himalayas, flows S. through Burmah near 
 its E. frontier, till it reaches Bhamo, where it takes a S.W. 
 course to Ava, below which, about lat. 21 35 N., it receives, 
 on its r. bank, its chief affluent, the Kyen-dwen, which, in part 
 of its course, forms the W. frontier line towards Cassay. The 
 Irawadi s course continues from Ava still S.W., till it ap 
 proaches the Aracan frontier, after which it flows S.S.E. and 
 falls, by numerous mouths, into the Gulf of Martaban, These 
 mouths afford admirable means of internal water communica 
 tion, and the main river itself is navigable, at all seasons, for 
 sailing vessels of 200 tons, as far up as Ava, and, during the 
 rains, as far as Bhamo, a distance of about 800 m. from the 
 sea. The other affluents of the Irawadi worth noting are the 
 Bhamo, Lungtchuen, Mukiaung, and Myeenguga, all of which 
 it receives above the confluence of the Kyen-dwen, and all 
 navigable to a greater or less extent. The Setang rises in 
 Lake Gnaungrue, lat. 20 30 N., and is a comparatively small 
 
 stream. Its total course is about 250 m. direct distance to the 
 Gulf of Martaban, which it reaches through a broad estuary, 
 and several small offsets ; but is not very navigable, there 
 being no continuous channel deeper than 4 ft. The Saluen or 
 Thanluyn (which see], is next to the Irawadi in size, and falls 
 into the sea between the ports of Martaban and Moulmein. 
 The lakes of Burmah are numerous, especially in the S. part, 
 as .already stated, but small. The only ones of any consider 
 able size, as far as known, are Nandokando, N. of Ava, above 
 40 m. long by about 12 broad ; and Gnaungrue, already noticed, 
 about 10 m. long by half that breadth. 
 
 Geology and Minerals. The N. and E. part of Burmah, as 
 far S. as about lat. 17 N., appears to be of crystalline 
 schistous formation. From N. of Ava, stretching S.E. into 
 the Tenasserim Provinces, is a band of tertiary formation. 
 Near the junction of the Kyen-dwen with the Irawadi is a 
 patch of the transition series, including the carboniferous for 
 mation ; all the rest of the country S. and W. seems to 
 be composed of alluvium, covering, apparently, limestone in 
 various states ; blue near Ava, and dark, bituminous, and 
 slaty between that city and Paghan ; and near Prome, coarse 
 grained and sandy. The low hills in the delta of the Irawadi 
 are composed of blue limestone, calcareous sandstone, breccia, 
 quartz, and orange-coloured iron ore. In the lower part of 
 the course of the Saluen, are abrupt hills of the finest blue 
 limestone. In these are numerous extensive and magnificent 
 stalactitic caves, many of which, from time immemorial, have 
 been devoted to religious purposes, and are still adorned with 
 countless numbers of images of Guadama, of different sizes 
 and materials, some covered with gold, and some formed 
 merely of burnt clay. The minerals known to exist, and 
 most of which are wrought to a greater or less extent, are 
 gold, silver, tin, iron, antimony, lead, arsenic, and sulphur, all, 
 except the first two, said to be abundant ; besides these, there 
 are limestone ; marble, near Ava, equal to that of Carara, 
 and monopolized by the Government, for the manufacture of 
 images of Guadama ; nitre, natron, salt, and precious stones, 
 including rubies, sapphires, amethysts, garnets, chrysolites, 
 and jasper, most of which are sent to China. Coal is said to 
 be abundant in some quarters, but is not used. Petroleum is 
 obtained to the extent of upwards of 80,000,000 Ibs. annually, 
 a quantity that might be greatly increased ; and is used as an 
 oil for burning all over the country, and also for paying boats, 
 and other purposes ; and in the N. parts of the empire, more 
 especially on the banks of the Kyen-dwen, in the valley of 
 Hukong, on the Assam frontier, are mines of very pure amber. 
 
 Climate. In general healthy where cleared, even in the 
 delta of the Irawadi, excepting during the rainy season, when 
 the swampy parts become unhealthy for foreigners ; but even 
 then the courses of the great rivers and cleared parts remain 
 salubrious. In this district there are two seasons similar to 
 those in Hindoostan, a dry and a wet ; the latter, from April 
 to October, during which 150 to 200 inches of rain fall; and 
 the former, from November to April. N. of the delta, or 
 lat. 18 N., there are three seasons ; cold, from November to 
 February ; hot, from March to June, and rainy the rest of the 
 year. The delta, and all the lower parts of the valley of the 
 Irawadi, are subject to annual inundations, which continue 
 from May to October. Earthquakes are frequent in the S. 
 parts of the country. 
 
 Vegetation. A considerable portion of Burmah lying with 
 in the tropics, and many parts, more especially in the N., 
 being considerably elevated, its vegetation is rich and varied. 
 In marshy places, in the valley of the Irawadi, rice, of ex 
 cellent quality, which constitutes the favourite food of the 
 people, is produced in abundance; and, on the drier grounds, 
 maize and millet are raised. Around Ava, and some of the 
 other larger towns, and in the more elevated spots, wheat and 
 excellent tobacco are grown; besides which, are cultivated 
 kidney and French beans, sesamum, mustard (Sinapis orien- 
 talis), from which is obtained an oil, used instead of butter; 
 black and red pepper, indigo, and sugar to a small extent ; 
 and two kinds of cotton, one red, the other white ; but all 
 the processes of agriculture are performed in a most primitive 
 manner. The lapet, a Burman tea-plant, is grown on the 
 hills of Ava ; but its leaf is used only as a pickle. Turmeric, 
 used chiefly as curry, and various dye-stuffs, are in good 
 variety. Among the fruits may be named the mango, orange, 
 pine-apple, custard-apple, lemon, lime, durian, betel-nut, olive, 
 
r.CK.MAII 
 
 534 
 
 BURMAH 
 
 &c. ; anil among the edible roots, the ginger, cassia, liquorice, 
 arrow-root, yam, batatas, onion, garlic, &c. Timber for ship 
 and house building is abundant, including teak, though not 
 so good as that found in Malabar ; soondry, oak of several 
 kinds, fir, and ebony. Of other useful trees and plants may 
 be noted sandal-wood, sycamore, and Indian fig ; several kinds 
 of palms, the tamarind, aloe, camphor, sappan, catechu, cin 
 namon, laurel, nutmeg, spikenard, bamboo, sago palm, plan 
 tains, and, on the sea-coast, the cocoa-nut. 
 
 Zoology. Elephants are numerous in the lower parts of 
 the country, and commit great devastation among the rice 
 fields, but are never used as beasts of burden. The white 
 elephant, apparently an albino, is also at times found, and is 
 an object of superstitious veneration, but only among the 
 lower classes. The king always possesses one, who is con 
 sidered the second dignitary of state ; and has a regular cabinet 
 of ministers, with numerous attendants and guards. Other 
 animals, more or less prevalent, are rhinoceroses, tigers, 
 leopards, buffaloes, hogs, civets, wild cats, apes, deers, ante 
 lopes, otters, but no jackals or wolves ; perroquets, and other 
 birds of rich plumage ; jungle-fowl, pea-fowl, pheasants, par 
 tridges, quails, geese, ducks, and snipes. Alligators, of two 
 kinds, crocodiles, and sharks, abound in the river mouths ; 
 turtles and tortoises, are very common on the coasts ; the 
 cobra da capello, and other serpents, but not generally ven 
 omous, are numerous ; as are also scorpions, centipedes, 
 lizards, leeches, and destructive insects. The domestic ani 
 mals are oxen and buffaloes, used extensively for agricul 
 tural purposes ; horses small, but vigorous, and only used for 
 the saddle ; pigs, very few sheep and goats, or common fowls. 
 
 Manufactures, Trade and Commerce, Money, Weights, and 
 Measures. The manufactures of Burmah are, as a whole, 
 unimportant and inferior. The females, who are the weavers, 
 make cotton cloths, but not so good as those of Hindoostan 
 and China. Durable, though coarse silks, are also made, and 
 pottery-ware, unglazed and glazed. Of the latter kind, large 
 jars have long been used in India, under the name of Pegu 
 jars. The only steel of consequence is made in the Shan 
 country, chiefly sword blades ; coarse cutlery is made in some 
 of the villages, and clumsy gold and silver jewellery is manu 
 factured in most of the large towns. Boat-building is carried 
 on to some extent at Rangoon ; this branch of business is 
 important, in proportion to the paucity of good roads, and the 
 great number of excellent water-ways. The vessels built are 
 sometimes 200 and 250 tons burden, and admirably adapted 
 for inland navigation. The Burmese excel in gilding, which 
 they make to withstand damp, apparently by means of re 
 peated coats of wood-oil. They understand dyeing, but their 
 colours are generally fugitive ; they make paper, umbrellas, 
 cordage, sandals, and inferior gunpowder ; but are famous as 
 bell-casters. The bells they make are said to be of delight 
 ful tone, but disproportionately thick ; and some of them are 
 of enormous size. One at Mengoon, near Ava, is said to be 
 20 inches thick, 20 ft. high, and 13 ft. 6 inches in diameter; 
 estimated weight, 500,000 Ibs. ; that of the great and useless 
 bell at Moscow being 443,772 Ibs. It is suspended a few 
 inches from the ground, and has no tongue. Little attention 
 seems to be paid to the kind or proportion of the metals used, 
 the materials being supplied by the multitudes who come to 
 witness the casting, during the time the process is going on. 
 An eye-witness describing the casting at Moulmein, March 
 1849, of a bell 7 ft. high, and 4J in circumference, to be used 
 in the service of Guadama, says there were employed 40 
 furnaces, all containing crucibles, holding about 20 Ibs. of 
 metal each. These furnaces were supplied from a heap of 
 charcoal, which, although diminishing, was still kept up by 
 voluntary donations. An uninterrupted stream of men, 
 women, and children, each with an offering, either of gold, 
 silver, copper, or precious stones, were continually feeding 
 the crucibles by casting in their gifts. We ourselves saw, 
 during the short time that we were present, about 70 pre 
 cious stones, consisting of rubies, diamonds, sapphires, and 
 emeralds, thrown into the crucibles, besides large quantities 
 of gold and silver ornaments and coins. An interval of 
 two or three minutes elapsed between the emptying of the 
 crucibles ; and the whole smelting process occupied 14 hours. 
 
 The commercial transactions of the Burmese arc, indivi 
 dually, on a small scale, although the aggregate is consider 
 able. In the lower provinces, the internal traffic is conducted 
 
 chiefly by water conveyance; in the hilly districts, by land 
 communication ; the means of transport, in the latter case, 
 being carts drawn by oxen, and sometimes small horses. 
 The lower provinces supply the higher with rice, salt, pickled 
 and dried fish, and various foreign commodities from the 
 different sea-ports, while the former receive in return petro 
 leum, saltpetre, lime, paper, lacquer ware, cotton and silk 
 fabrics, iron, cutlery, brassware, catechu, palm-sugar, onions, 
 tamarinds, &c. The foreign trade of the Burmese seaward, 
 is almost wholly concentrated in Rangoon (ivhich see). From 
 this point a considerable trade is carried on with Chittagong, 
 Dacca, and Calcutta, in Bengal ; Madras, Masulipatam, on the 
 Coromandel coast ; the Nicobar Islands, and Penang ; and 
 occasionally with Bombay, and the Persian and Arabian Gulfs. 
 The principal articles of export arc teak wood, catechu, stick 
 lac, bees -wax, elephants teeth, raw cotton, orpiment, gold, 
 and silver. Of teak wood, the quantity exported annually 
 is equal to 7500 full-sized trees Calcutta being the principal 
 market for this article. Large quantities of raw cotton, of a 
 superior quality, are sent from Ava, to the city of Dacca, in 
 the province of Bengal, where it is wrought into the fine 
 muslins of that place. 
 
 The principal imports are cotton piece goods, British, 
 Bengal, and Madras; British woollens, iron, steel, quicksilver, 
 copper cordage, borax, sulphur, gunpowder, saltpetre, fire 
 arms, coarse porcelain, English glassware, opium, tobacco, 
 cocoa and areca nuts, sugar, and spirits. The Burmese carry 
 on a pretty extensive traffic besides, through Bhamo, as the 
 entrepot with the Chinese of Yun-nan, from whom they receive 
 copper, orpiment, quicksilver, vermilion, iron pans, brass wire, 
 tin, lead, alum, silver, gold and gold leaf, earthenware, paints, 
 carpets, rhubarb, tea, honey, raw silk, velvets and other 
 wrought silks, spirits, musk, verdigris, dry fruits, paper, fans, 
 umbrellas, shoes, and wearing apparel ; giving in return for 
 these, raw cotton, ornamented feathers, edible birds nests, 
 ivory, rhinoceros and deers horns, sapphires, rubies, &c. 
 The quantity of raw cotton, sold annually to the Chinese 
 merchants, averages about 14,000,000 Ibs. The whole export 
 and import trade with China has been estimated at 400,000 
 to 700,000 sterling. The only coins in circulation are of 
 lead, there being none of either copper, silver, gold, or any 
 other metal. Gold and silver, however, are used as mediums ; 
 but always in the shape of ingots, which must be weighed on 
 every occasion of exchange ; they are also of different degrees 
 of purity, which must also be ascertained by the receiver. 
 The pieces of silver used in trade are generally of a tical 
 weight, or of the value of 2s. 8 T a 9 rf. Gold is reckoned about 
 seventeen times the value of silver. The principal measure 
 of capacity for rice is the basket, 58| Ibs. avoirdupois ; of 
 length, the finger-breadth, hand-breadth, span, and cubit. 
 The weights mostly in use are the tical, about J an ounce 
 avoirdupois; and the viss, equal to 100 ticals, or 3 65 Ibs. 
 
 Religion, Language, Education. Excepting some of the 
 barbarous mountaineers, the inhabitants of Burmah are half 
 civilized, and adhere to the Buddhist religion, worshipping 
 Guadama, one of the incarnations of Buddha, whose images 
 are generally of marble, though sometimes of bronze. The 
 priests are numerous, bound to celibacy, and eat but once a day. 
 There are monasteries, and both monks and nuns or priest 
 esses ; the latter generally old women, though some are young, 
 and at liberty to marry, when they must quit the sisterhood. 
 British and American missionaries, and all religions, are toler 
 ated, but departure from the national religion is prohibited. 
 To the priests is committed, exclusively, the charge of public 
 instruction, and nearly every person learns the first elements. 
 The two principal spoken idioms are Burman and Peguan ; 
 but Pali is the language of religion and literature. 
 
 People, Manners, Customs, Dress. The inhabitants of Bur 
 mah belong to a common stock, the Indo-Chinese, and are 
 divided into several tribes, some say as many as 18. The 
 most important of these are the Burmans, occupying the 
 middle part of the basin of the Irawadi, and the Peguans, its 
 lower basin; the Shans, in the E. and N.E. provinces; the 
 Khyens, spread over the centre of the country; and the 
 Karians, between the Setang and the Saluen. Tartar and 
 Tibetan tribes occupy the N. pirts. Siamese slaves are numer 
 ous, and the mines are wrought by Chinese. The Burmese 
 are short, stout, active, and well-proportioned ; of dark brown 
 colour; black, lank, coarse, abundant hair; said to be hardy, 
 
BUKMAH 
 
 535 
 
 BURNHAM 
 
 docile, industrious, lively, fond of music and poetry, but 
 treacherous, cunning, and avaricious, though hospitable and 
 courteous to strangers, feeding and lodging the traveller 
 gratis. They are good mimics; and they love theatrical 
 amusements, boxing, cock fighting, games of chance, and ath 
 letic exercises. The Burinan marries early, and though 
 polygamy is permitted, has only one wife, whom, with the 
 other females of his family, he compels to do all the work. 
 Divorces by either party are easily arranged, and are exceed 
 ingly common. Among the common people, the principal 
 part of the male dress, called a Pus ho, covers the loins, and 
 reaches half way down the leg. It consists of a double piece 
 of silk, cotton, or a mixed fabric, about ten cubits long, and is 
 loosely wrapped round the body. Over this a frock, of white 
 cotton cloth, in winter quilted, called an in-gee, with sleeves, 
 is worn reaching below the knees, and tied in front. The head 
 is covered with a small square handkerchief, commonly of 
 British book-muslin, or English or Madras printed handker 
 chiefs, worn like a turban, but leaving the upper part of the 
 head bare. The lower classes of women wear only a single 
 petticoat, called a te-mine, more or less open in front, according 
 to the condition of the wearer. Those of the better orders 
 wear also an in-gee or frock, somewhat different in form, and 
 shorter than that of the men. They wear long hair, but no 
 head-dress. Sandals are frequently worn by both sexes ; and 
 umbrellas are in general use, being among the principal in 
 signia of rank or office ; the colour indicating the quality of 
 the possessor. A nobleman s dress consists of a long robe of 
 flowered velvet or satin, reaching the ankles. A mantle or 
 scarf, thrown over this, hangs from the shoulders. On the 
 head is a high velvet or silk cap, plain or embroidered, ac 
 cording to his rank. Females of the higher classes generally 
 wear a loose jacket with tight sleeves. A piece of silk or 
 cloth encircles the waist, and descends to the feet. When 
 they go abroad, a silk sash crosses the bosom, while the ends 
 are thrown over the shoulders. The priests have the head 
 closely shaved and uncovered, and only protected by a small 
 fan of palmyra-leaf. The colour of the dress of the priest 
 hood is yellow, and is held so sacred that it is sacrilege for 
 any one else to wear it. Tatooing, chiefly on the legs and 
 lower parts of the body, is practised by the Burmese and some 
 of the other tribes, and the chewing of betel, and the smoking 
 of tobacco, are universal. The houses are made of timbers or 
 bamboo, and have thatched roofs and doors, and windows of 
 mat ; none are of stone or brick, the use of these materials 
 being prohibited, except for pagodas, &c. Rice, eaten with 
 curry and sauces of stewed melons, vegetables, &c., is the prin 
 cipal food. Oil made from sesarnum seed, and Chili pepper, 
 are greatly used as seasoning. Animal food is eaten by those 
 who can afford it, though the law forbids the taking of life. 
 
 Government, Laws, Revenue, Military Force. The govern 
 ment is despotic; the King is styled Lord of life and proper 
 ty; his office is hereditary, and he rules by a council, called 
 Lut-d hau, composed commonly of four officers, but some 
 times of five or six, which exercises legislative, executive, 
 and judicial functions, acting for the King, whose name never 
 appears. The laws are taken from the celebrated Manu or 
 Menu code, and are, in many respects, distinguished for the 
 wisdom of their provisions ; but the punishments, in general, 
 are cruel. Justice is easily purchased. The only hereditary 
 public officers are the Saubwas, the tributary princes of the 
 conquered provinces. The revenue is derived from a tax 
 upon cultivated land, fisheries, mines, petroleum wells, exports, 
 &c. ; and the King s whole income probably does not exceed 
 25,000. Officers are paid by gifts of public lands, and not 
 in money. There being no military class, and the standing 
 army being small, general levies of men are made in time of 
 war. The troops have no regular pay, but are maintained at 
 the public expense. The main army is infantry, but there is 
 also a small body of cavalry, and a flotilla of boats. Clumsy 
 two-handed swords, named Das, spears, matchlocks, European 
 muskets, &c., are their arms. 
 
 Divisions. Burmah is divided into several provinces, of 
 which the most important are Ava Proper or Mramna Pyee, in 
 the centre of the kingdom ; Pegu or Talainpyee, formerly an 
 independent kingdom, which, with prov. Bassain, occupies 
 the deltas of the Ira wad i and Setang ; Mrelap-shan on the E., 
 and Jo or Yo Pyee on the W. frontier, and the country of the 
 fchan in the N. 
 
 Calendar. The Burman year is divided into 12 months, 
 of 29 and 30 days alternately, rectified by an intercalation 
 every third year. Each month is divided into an increasing 
 and a waning moon. The week is divided into seven days; 
 and time is ko.pt by a kind of clepsydra, consisting of a copper 
 cup perforated at the bottom, and placed in a vase of water. 
 The Burmese have four epochs, but the one in common use 
 commences with A.D. 639. 
 
 History. The Buddhist religion was probably introduced 
 into Burmah about the year B.C. 301. At this period, tho 
 government was permanently fixed at Prome, where it con 
 tinued for 395 years, during which there reigned 24 princes. 
 After this, it was removed, under a new dynasty, to Pugan, 
 where it continued for nearly 12 centuries, during which 
 there reigned 55 princes. In A.D. 1300, the seat of govern 
 ment was established at Panya, where it continued 56 years, 
 under three successive princes. In 1364, it was removed 
 to Ava, where it continued for 369 years, and where, in 
 the 16th century, Europeans first became acquainted with 
 the Burmese. Towards the commencement of the 18th cen 
 tury, the Burmese were conquered by the Peguans, a people 
 whom they had overcome, and kept in subjection for nearly 
 two centuries before. At this period arose Alompra, the 
 founder of the present dynasty. After a reign of eight years, 
 Alompra was succeeded by his son Uparaja, who made Sagaing 
 his capital. Uparaja reigned three years only when he died, 
 and was succeeded by his brother Sembuen, who removed 
 the capital to Ava. In 1776, Sembuen was succeeded by 
 his son Sen-Ku-sa, who, after a reign of five years, was suc 
 ceeded by Paong-Ka cha, who removed the seat of govern 
 ment to Amarapura. After a reign of 38 years, Paong-Ka-cha 
 was succeeded (1819) by Nun-sun, who removed the court 
 once more to Ava ; but that town having been almost entirely 
 destroyed in 1839 by an earthquake, Monchobo has become 
 the seat of government. In 1837, Nun-sun died, and was 
 succeeded by his brother, Ser-a-wa, to the exclusion of the 
 proper heir. 
 
 The first English writer who notices the Burman dominions, 
 is Ralph Fitch, a London merchant, who travelled in India 
 towards the end of the 16th century. He represents the 
 countries, especially the cities, to have been then in a flourish 
 ing condition, and the trade and shipping of the seaport towns 
 to be very extensive. At the close of the 17th century, the 
 Governor of Madras, Mr. N. Higginson, made certain friendly 
 overtures to the King of Ava, which were graciously received; 
 and in 1709, the Burman dominions were visited by Captain 
 Alexander Hamilton, who wrote a New Account of the East 
 Indies. In 1757, the East India Company obtained a site 
 for a factory, and other advantages. Subsequent aggressions 
 on the part of the Burmese, accompanied by insolence to our 
 ambassadors, led to hostilities, which terminated, in 1826, in 
 the curtailment of the Burmese power, and the establishment 
 of British rule in the provinces of Aracan, Ye, Tavoy, Mergui, 
 and part of Martaban. Pop. (1826), 4,230,558, though esti- 
 
 j mated by some at 8,000,000. (Crawford s Embassy to Ava; 
 
 I Dubois de Jancigny, Japan, Indo-Chine, et Ceylan, 1850; 
 
 i Malcom s Travels in S.E. Asia; Journal of the Indian Archi- 
 
 pelago, 1849.) 
 
 BURMARSH, par. Eug. Kent; 1690 ac. Pop. 130. 
 BURMINGTON, par. Eng. Warwick ; 720 ac. Pop. 188. 
 BURNESTON, par. Eng. York, N. Riding ; 6920 ac. 
 Pop. 1494. 
 
 BURNETT, par. Eng. Somerset; 660 ac. Pop. 100. 
 BURNBY, par. Eng. York, E. Riding; 2100ac. P. 110. 
 BURNCHURCH, a par. Ireland, co. Kilkenny; 3364 ac. 
 Pop. 977. 
 
 BURNHAM, several vils. and pars. England: 1, A vil. 
 and par. Bucks ; 6740 ac. ; three annual cattle-fairs are held 
 here. Pop. 2284. 2, A vil. and par. Essex ; 5050 ac. Pop. 
 1735. 3, A par. Somerset ; 4270 ac. Pop. 1469. 4, Burn- 
 ham- Deepdale, a small vil. and par. Norfolk ; 960 ac. Pop. 109. 
 5, Burnham-Norton, a small vil. and par. Norfolk; 1480 ac. 
 Pop. 166. 6, Burnhatn-Overy, a small seaport and par. Nor 
 folk; 1920 ac. ; 1J m. N.E. Burnham-Westgate ; has some 
 trade in corn and oyster-dredging. Pop. 613. 7, Burnl*am- 
 Thorpe, a vil. and par. Norfolk; 2200 ac. Pop. 396. 
 8, Burnliam- Ulph-and-Sutton, a par. Norfolk ; ] 220 ac. Pop. 
 355. 9, fiurnhcf.n-Westgate, a small market in. and par., 
 co. Norfolk. The town lies 37 m. N.N.W. Norwich, on the 
 
BURNLEY 
 
 536 
 
 BURTON 
 
 Burn, within 3 m. of the sea, and has a good harbour. It con- Registered electors, 52. Area of par. 2900 ac. Pop. of par. 
 
 .-ists of one principal street, with several smaller diverging (1841), 2210; of bor., 1959. (Local Correspondent.) 
 from it, and is tolerably well supplied with water. The BURPHAM, par. Eng. Sussex; 3150 ac. Pop. 280. 
 
 church, situated about 1 m. from the village, is a neat Gothic BURR A, three islands, Scotland: 1, Two isls. Shetland, 
 
 structure. There are, besides, several chapels, belonging 
 respectively to Baptists, Irvingites, Methodists, and Antinom- 
 ians. Schools : seven dame schools, one day-school for boys, 
 and two national schools. Considerable quantities of corn, 
 hay, and straw are shipped for London, &c. ; and oysters, the 
 trade in which forms the chief support of the inhabitants, are 
 exported to various quarters, including France, Holland, and 
 Belgium. The chief imports are coals, oil-cake, and timber. 
 Area of par. 2930 ac. Pop. (1841), 1126. (Local Corre 
 spondent.) 
 
 BURNLEY, a market tn. England, co. Lancaster, on a 
 tongue of land formed by the confluence of the Burn and 
 
 W. of Mainland, and separated from it by Cliff Sound ; lat. 
 60 8 N. ; Ion. 1 21 W. The E. island is also called HOUSE, 
 and on its S. side is a peninsula 1 m. long, chiefly consisting 
 of pasture. The coast of both is rocky. 2, An isl. Orkney, 
 separated from S. Ronaldshay by Water Sound ; lat. 58 50 
 N. ; Ion. 2 52 W. It is composed of sandstone and dark- 
 blue slate, is about 4 m. long and 1 m. broad, and inhabited 
 by fishermen. Pop. 532. 
 
 BURRA LAKE, a lake, Australia, New S. Wales, on 
 the N. W. margin of co. Argyle ; lat. 34 18 S.; Ion. 149 45 E. 
 
 BURRIANA, a tn. and port, Spain, Valencia, prov. of, 
 and 8 m. S. Castellon-de-la-Plana, r. bank, Bechi, 1 m. from 
 
 Calder, 21 m. N. Manchester. It comprises six principal! the sea. It is well built, has three squares, a parish church, 
 streets, one or two of which are handsome, and lined with townhouse, two endowed schools, an hospital, prison, and a 
 
 excellent shops ; all are well kept ; houses chiefly of a whitish- 
 
 coloured freestone, which abounds in the vicinity, and well 
 built ; lighted with gas, and abundantly supplied with water 
 from springs in the neighbourhood. An old Saxon cross, 
 which occupies the centre of an area, is an object of some in 
 terest. The church of St. Peter s is an ancient building, with 
 a massive tower and peal of bells ; but has undergone so many 
 alterations, that scarcely any traces of its antiquity remain. 
 Trinity Church and St. James s are both neat edifices the one 
 in the Gothic, and the other hi the Tudor style. There are, 
 besides, a Wesleyan chapel, a large and handsome structure ; 
 
 cemetery, with chapel attached. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 
 engaged in agriculture, though some are likewise employed ir 
 fishing, and the usual industrial occupations of a seaport. 
 Trade: exports fruits, wine, and oil; imports sugar, 
 brandy, salt fish, and iron. Pop. 6203. 
 
 BURRINGTON, three pars. Eng.: 1, par. Hereford; 
 2850 ac. Pop. 236. 2, par. Somerset; 2420 ac. Pop. 
 531. 3, par. Devon; 6100 ac. Pop. 1244. 
 
 BURRISCARRA, par. Irel. Mayo ; 5760 ac. Pop. 1681. 
 BURRISHOOLE, par. Irel. Mayo ; 55,239 ac. It con- 
 
 ., ._, _ _ , tains the town of Newport. Pop. 11,942. 
 
 two Independent, one Association Methodist, one Primitive BURRISNEFARNEY, par. Irel. King s co. and Tip- 
 
 Methodist, and chapels for Particular and General Baptists. ! perary; 4540 ac. Pop. 1073. 
 
 The schools consist of a free grammar-school, which has BURROUGH, par. Eng. Leicester ; 1190 ac. Pop. 149. 
 
 existed since the Reformation ; four national schools, in a | BURROUGHGREEN, par. Eng. Cambridge ; 2000 ac. 
 
 flourishing condition ; a large infant school, recently built ; 
 Independent and Wesleyan day-schools, two R. Catholic 
 schools, but only one commercial school of importance. A 
 dispensary has recently been established, and there are a 
 mechanics institution, a Wesleyan institution, somewhat re 
 sembling the latter, but more of a religious character ; and 
 the Church of England literary institution, the most flourish 
 ing of the kind in Burnley, and for which a new and spacious 
 building has been lately built, the only important one of the 
 kind in the town. Cotton spinning and weaving, and worsted 
 pinning, are carried on here to a great extent ; the former 
 employing 1680 horse power, and the latter 80 horse power. 
 There are also corn-mills, employing 96 horse power ; a large 
 cloth-printing establishment, and several iron-foundries and 
 machine shops. The Leeds and Liverpool Canal, and the 
 East Lancashire Railway, both pass through the town ; which 
 is also connected, by a branch, with the Lancashire and York 
 shire Railway. Market, every Monday ; six fairs annually. 
 Pop. (1841), 18,735; estimated (1850), at 28,000. (Local 
 Correspondent.) 
 
 BURNSALL, par. Eng. York, W. Riding ; 25,950 ac. 
 Pop. 1484. 
 
 BURNTISLAND, a small seaport and par. Scotland, 
 Fife, N. shore estuary of the Forth. The town is 7 m. 
 N. by W. Edinburgh, in lat. 56 4 N. ; Ion. 3 13 W. ; mostly 
 on level, but partly also on sloping, ground, which rises to a 
 considerable height behind. It consists of one long and 
 spacious street, macadamized, and well kept ; a back street, 
 running parallel to the latter, also tolerably clean ; and a 
 number of diverging lanes and alleys. Some of the older 
 houses in the main street are in the Flemish style, with their 
 gables to the front ; but many of- the more modern are hand 
 some and commodious buildings ; and the town is every year 
 improving as sea-bathing quarters, and is lighted with gas. 
 It has three churches an Established, U. Presbyterian, and 
 Free church the first a large edifice, in the old Dutch 
 style ; a townhall, a modern Gothic structure, with a hand 
 some steeple ; several schools, including burgh school, and 
 Free church school ; two or three benevolent societies, a 
 reading-room, and scientific lecture association. The fisheries 
 are considerable ; shipbuilding and distillation are carried on, 
 the. latter to a great extent. The harbour is capacious, of 
 great depth, and of easy access. Burntisland is the steam 
 boat ferry station on the passage of the Edinburgh and 
 Northern Railway. It unites with Kinghorn, Dysart, and 
 Kirkaldy, in sending a member to the House of Commons. 
 
 Pop. 452. 
 
 BURROW HEAD, Scotland, co. Wigton, S. coast, thn 
 terminating point of the peninsula which separates Wigton 
 Bay from Glenluce Bay; lat. 54 40 N.; Ion. 4 20 W. 
 
 BURRY, par. Irel. Meath ; 3695 ac. Pop. 796. 
 
 BURSLEDON, par. Eng. Hants ; 830 ac. Pop. 548. 
 
 BURSLEM, a tn. and par. England, co. Stafford. The 
 town stands on a slope, on the North Staffordshire Railway, 
 17 m. N. Stafford ; has four principal streets, and a spa 
 cious market-place, all clean and lighted with gas ; houses 
 of brick, and generally well built ; water abundant. Three 
 established churches, four Wesleyan, three New Connection, 
 two Wesleyan Association, two Primitive Methodists, one 
 Baptist, one Independent, and one R. Catholic ; a school con 
 nected with each ; also, an endowed school, called the Burslem 
 Free School. Principal public buildings : butchers shambles, 
 Burslem Sunday-school, and St. Paul s Church, the tower of 
 which is 115 ft. high. There are here a mechanics institute, 
 and public reading-room. Principal manufactures china 
 and earthenware, which are carried on to a great extent. 
 Area of par. 2930 ac. Pop. (1841), 16,091, of which 12,631 
 in Burslem township. 
 
 BURSTALL, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1230 ac. Pop. 223. 
 
 BURSTEAD, two pars. Eng. Essex:!, Bur stead (Great), 
 4420 ac. Pop. 2168. 2, Burstcad (Little), 1320 ac. Pop. 170. 
 
 BURSTOCK, par. Eng. Dorset ; 970 ac. Pop. 307. 
 
 BURSTON, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 1300 ac. Pop. 468. 
 
 BURSTOW, par. Eng. Surrey; 4420 ac. Pop. 863. 
 
 BURSTWICK, par. Eng. York, E. Riding; 5720 ac. 
 Pop. 810. 
 
 BURSTYN, or BunozryN, a market tn. Austria, Galicia, 
 circle of, and 21 m. S.W. Brzezan, on the Lippa. It con 
 tains two churches (a Greek and a R. Catholic), and a hand 
 some palace. Pop. 2000. 
 
 BURT, par. Irel. Donegal; 10,673 ac. Pop. 3857. 
 
 BURTON, twenty-two pars., Eng. and Wales:!, par. 
 Chester ; 2920 ac. Pop. 428. 2, par. Pembroke ; 2700 ac. 
 Pop. 846. 3, Burton or Bodexton, par. Sussex ; 776 ac. Pop. 
 7. 4, Burton- Agnes, par. York, E. Riding ; 6540 ac. Pop. 
 603. 5, Burton-Bishop, or South Burton, par. York, E. Riding, 
 3970 ac. Pop. 532. 6, Burton-Bradstock, par. Dorset; 
 2260 ac. Pop. 1201. 7, Burton- Cherry, par. York, E. 
 Riding; 3180 ac. Pop. 455. 8, Burton- Goggles, par. Lin 
 coln ; 301 ac. Pop. 260. 9, Burton-Dasset, par. Warwick ; 
 5400 ac. Pop. 614. 10, Burton-Fleming, or North Burton, 
 par. York, E. Hiding ; 3590 ac. Pop. 506. 11, Burton (Gate), 
 
BURTON -IN -KENDAL 
 
 537 
 
 BUKYAN (Sr.) 
 
 par. Lincoln; 1160 ac. Pop. 126. 12, Burton-Joyce, par. 
 Notts ; 1940 ac. Pop. 764. 13, Burton-Hastings, par. War 
 wick; 1910 ac. Pop. 276. 14, Burton- Latimer, par. Nor 
 thampton; 2690 ac. Pop. 965. 15, Burton- Lazars, par. 
 Leicester; 2060 ac. Pop. 262. 16, Burton-Leonard, par. 
 York, W. Riding; 1760 ac. Pop. 455. 17, Burton-by- 
 Lincoln, par. Lincoln; 2260 ac. Pop. 206. 18, Burton- Over y, 
 par. Leicester; 1660 ac. Pop. 449. 19, Burton-Pidsey, 
 par. York, E. Hiding; 1980 ac. Pop. 364. 20, Burton- 
 Pedwardine, par. Lincoln; 2580 ac. Pop. 125. 21, Barton 
 (West], par. Notts; 710 ac. Pop. 35. 22, Burton-ujpon- 
 Stather, par. Lincoln ; 3860 ac. Pop. 799. 
 
 BURTON -IN -KENDAL, a small market tn. and par. 
 England, co. Westmorland. The town is 10 m. S. Kendal, 
 well built, and clean, with regular and well-kept streets ; a 
 spacious market-place, a fine old church, grammar school, and 
 several charities ; flax-mills, and well-attended market on 
 Tuesday. Area of par. 9170 ac. Pop. 2387. 
 
 BURTON-UPON-TRENT, a market tn. and par. England, 
 co. Stafford, and partly in co. Derby. The town is plea 
 santly situated 20 m. E. Stafford, in a fertile vale, 1. bank, 
 Trent, which is here crossed by a fine old bridge of 36 arches, 
 1545 ft. long. The streets, several of which are of consider 
 able extent, are well paved, and lighted with gas ; water 
 abundant. The places of worship are three churches, all of 
 them elegant and ornamental structures ; and chapels belong 
 ing to General and Particular Baptists, Independents, and 
 Primitive and Wesleyan Methodists. There are, besides, a 
 free grammar-school for 50 boys, a school for 550 children, 
 several other schools, alms-houses for 1 1 poor women, a dis 
 pensary, a savings -bank, a subscription library, a news-room, 
 and a union workhouse. Malting, rope-making, tanning, and 
 iron-forging are carried on to a considerable extent ; but the 
 chief business consists in the brewing of ale, for which the 
 town has been long celebrated, large quantities being sent, not 
 only to London and other parts of England, but to India and | 
 China. The town is governed by a high steward, deputy- 
 steward, and bailiff appointed by the Marquis of Anglesey. 
 The bailiff, who is a justice of peace, acts also as coroner. 
 There is a weekly market on Thursday, and six fairs are held 
 annually. The Trent is navigable to Gainsborough, a distance 
 of nearly 60 m., from whence there is a branch to this place 
 of the Grand Trunk Canal, between the Trent and Mersey. 
 The Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway has a station 
 about half a mile W. the town. In 1 322, a battle was fought 
 on the bridge at Burton, between Edward II. and the Earl of 
 Lancaster, in which the former obtained a decisive victory. 
 Area of par. 7730 ac. Pop. (1841), 8136. 
 
 BURTSCHEID, or BORCETTE, a tn. Prussia, and pro 
 perly a suburb of Aix-la-Chapelle, with which it is connected 
 by an avenue of trees, being not half a mile distant from it. 
 It contains a townhouse, and three churches (two R. Catholic 
 and one Protestant), and carries on extensive manufactures, 
 particularly of woollens and cassimeres. Its thermal springs, 
 which rise in the hill immediately above the town, are cele 
 brated. Pop. 5200. 
 
 BURUDDA, or JAITWAK, adist. Hindoostan, S.W. coast, 
 Goojerat, principally between parallels 21 and 22 N. It 
 is bounded, N. by the Serteeannee, E. by the Burudda hills, 
 and W. by the sea. It is generally flat, of a light soil, in 
 differently wooded, and in many places the water is brackish. 
 Its chief town is Poorbunder. 
 
 BURUM, or BCERUM, a vil. Holland, prov. Friesland, 
 1 1 m. S.E. Dockum, and communicating with the Lauwer 
 Zee. A large but quiet and sequestered village, surrounded 
 by a fat clay soil, known by the name of Burumerland. It has 
 a handsome Reformed church, and a school. The people live 
 wholly by raising corn, and rearing cattle. Pop. 1500. 
 
 BUR WANNEK, a tn. Hindoostan, Candeish, dist. of same 
 name; lat. 22 4 N. ; Ion. 74 58 E.; surrounded with a 
 double wall. It has an extensive palace, but is generally in 
 a ruinous condition. The district extends along 1. bank, 
 Nerbudda, and is about 65 m. long by 40 broad ; but the 
 greater part of it is covered with jungle. 
 
 BURWARTON, par. Eng. Salop; 1170 ac. Pop. 151. 
 
 BURWASH, or BUKGHERSH, par. Eng. Sussex ; 6840 ac. 
 Pop. 2093. 
 
 BURWELL. 1, A vil. England, co. Cambridge, con 
 taining the united parish of St. Andrew and St. Mary; 4 in. 
 VOL T. 
 
 N.W. by W. Newmarket. It is composed chiefly of one 
 irregular street ; and possesses a handsome Gothic church, 
 the ruins of an ancient castle, several schools, and an Inde 
 pendent chapel ; area of par. 6505 ac. Pop. (1841), 1820. 
 2, par. Eng. Lincoln; 2190 ac. Pop. 174. 
 
 BURWHA, a negro tn. Central Africa, kingdom, Bornou. 
 W. bank, Lake Tchad, 80 m. N.N.W. Kouka; lat. 13 52 
 N.; Ion. 13 58 E. It covers an extent equal to 3 sq. m., 
 and being surrounded by a wall 13 or 14 ft. high, fronted by 
 a dry ditch, may be considered, with reference to the practices 
 of war in that country, a place of some strength. The town 
 is entered by two gates, which are nearly E. and W., and are 
 defended by two mounds of earth, with perpendicular fronts. 
 Each principal hut in the town has a little enclosure, with a 
 cow or two, and some goats and fowls. Pop. about 5000 or 
 6000. 
 
 BURY. 1, A bor., market tn. and par. England, co. 
 Lancaster. The town, which is agreeably situated on rising 
 ground, between the Irwell and Roche, 6 m. E. Bolton, con 
 sists of three principal streets and a commodious market-place. 
 It is abundantly supplied with water, well lighted, and has 
 within the last few years been greatly improved. The parish 
 church, which was rebuilt in 1776, is a substantial structure, 
 with a beautiful tower and spire, which were erected in 1844. 
 There are, besides, three other churches, and chapels for 
 Independents, Primitive and New Connection Methodists, Wes- 
 leyans, Presbyterians, Baptists, Unitarians, and R. Catholics, 
 the last a chaste Gothic building, with an elegant tower. 
 There are several excellent schools, including a free grammar- 
 school, and national schools, to the first of which are attached 
 two exhibitions of from 30 to 35 each, to the colleges of 
 St. John s, Cambridge, and Brasenose, Oxford. There are 
 also three news-rooms, a mechanics institution, a subscription 
 library, a dispensary, and savings -bank. The woollen manu 
 facture, which was introduced here in the reign of Edward III., 
 is still carried on to a great extent, and forms the staple of 
 the place. There are, likewise, numerous factories for spin 
 ning and weaving of cotton, together with iron-foundries and 
 paper-mills; calico bleaching and printing, dyeing and log 
 wood grinding, are also carried on to a great extent. There 
 are stations here belonging to the Liverpool, Wigan, Bolton, 
 and Bury Railway ; the East Lancashire ; and the Bury and 
 Heywood branch of the Manchester and Leeds Railway. By 
 the Reform Act, Bury was constituted a borough, with the 
 privilege of returning one member to the House of Commons. 
 Registered electors (1849), 903. Its local affairs are under 
 the jurisdiction of the county magistrates, who hold petty 
 sessions twice a week. The weekly market is on Saturday, and 
 three fairs are held annually, in March, May, and September. 
 The late Sir Robert Peel was born at Chamber Hall, within 
 the parish, in 1788. Area of par. 22,240 ac. Pop. (1841), 
 62,125; of bor. 24,759. (Local Correspondent.) 2, par. 
 Huntingdon ; 2480 ac. Pop. 359. 3, par. Sussex ; 3340 ac. 
 Pop. (1841), 611. 
 
 BURY ST. EDMUNDS, a tn. England, co. Suffolk, 
 26J m. N.W. Ipswich, on a slope, 1. bank, Bourne or Larke ; 
 streets straight, at right angles, clean, and well lighted ; water 
 abundant; houses (of brick) plain, but generally well built. 
 It has three churches, two of them fine old Gothic edifices ; 
 seven chapels, two Independent, two Baptist, a Wesleyan, a 
 Unitarian, and a R. Catholic ; also, a Friends meeting-house. 
 Other public buildings are an hospital, concert and assembly- 
 rooms, theatre, county-hall, guildhall, King Edward s school, 
 and jail. Public institutions : a free grammar, commercial, 
 and five charity schools ; an asylum for twelve poor persons ; 
 an hospital, admitting upwards of 1000 patients yearly ; 98 
 alms-houses, and several minor charities, mechanics and young 
 men s institutes, archaeological society, and public library. 
 Soap and candle manufactured to a small extent. 
 
 The borough returns two members to the House of Com 
 mons, and its municipal government is vested in a mayor, 
 six aldermen, and 18 councillors. Bury St. Edmunds for 
 merly had one of the largest and wealthiest abbeys in England. 
 Of the many fine remains still existing, the gate, built in 
 1377, 62 ft. high, 50 long, and 41 broad, is one of the best 
 specimens of early Gothic. In part of the abbey grounds is 
 a botanic garden, tastefully laid out. The Eastern Union 
 Railway has a station here. Pop. (1841), 12,538. 
 
 BURYAN (ST.), par. Eng. Cornwall ; 6970ac. Pop. 1911. 
 
BURYTHORPE 
 
 533 
 
 BUSSORAH 
 
 BURYTHORPE, par. Eng. York, E. Kiding; 1020 ac. 
 Pop. 226. 
 
 BUSACHT, a tn. and prov., isl. Sardinia, dist. CagHari. 
 The town lies 1. bank, Tirsi, llm. N.E. Oristans ; between 
 two mountains, in a district which is unhealthy but fertile, 
 yielding good crops of grain, and excellent pasture. Pop. 1562. 
 
 BUSACO [Portuguese, Bussaco], a hill of Portugal, for 
 merly called serra d Aleoba, prov. Beira, 18 m. N. Coimbra. 
 Near its top, in a kind of hollow, stands a Carmelite monastery, 
 commanding a magnificent view, and near which, on September 
 27, 1810, the French army, under General Massena, was re 
 pulsed by the English and Portuguese, under Lord Wellington. 
 
 BUSACQU1NO, or BUSSACHINO, a tn. Sicily, prov. of, 
 and 29 m. S. by W. Palermo. It stands upon a height, con 
 tains eight churches, and some manufactures of linen. Pop. 
 8000. 
 
 BUSCA, a tn. Sardinian states, Piedmont, prov. of, and 
 9 m. N.W. Coni, cap. dist. of same name, 1. bank, Maira, an 
 affluent of the Po, It is well situated at the foot of a hill, and 
 contains two handsome churches and a convent. The wine 
 made in the neighbourhood is excellent. Pop. 7900. 
 
 BUSCOT, par. Eng. Berks; 2910 ac. Pop. 405. 
 
 BUSHBRUY, par. Eng. Stafford; 7610 ac. Pop. 1509. 
 
 BUSHEAB, or SHEIK SHAIB [properly KJioskaub, good 
 water], a low and narrow but well-peopled island, about 18m. 
 long, Persian Gulf, lying about 10 m. from the Persian coast ; 
 lat. (E. point) 26 48 N.; Ion. 53 24 E. (R.) On the E. 
 point is a neat-looking village, surrounded with date-trees, 
 which are generally plentiful. 
 
 BUSHKY, par. Eng. Hertford ; 3130 ac. Pop. 2675. 
 
 BUSH I RE [properly, Abu Shehr the father of cities], 
 the principal seaport of Persia, prov. Ears, 118 m. W.S.W. 
 Shiraz; lat. 29 N.; Ion. 50 50 15" E. (u.) ; on a low sandy 
 point running N.W., on the side of a bay, N.E. coast, Persian 
 Gulf. The town lies on the edge of a desert, is of a trian 
 gular form, having the sea on two sides, and fortified, on the 
 land side, by a high wall, nearly. 1 m. in length, flanked, at 
 every 200 yards, by a round tower, with loop-holes for mus 
 ketry. It has seven mosques, a few hummums or baths, two 
 caravansaries, and an Armenian church. A large palace, 
 built by the late Sheikh, stands about the centre of the town. 
 The houses are flat-roofed, two stories high, and constructed 
 chiefly of clay, or of a soft sandstone obtained from the ruins 
 of Reshire, a decayed town 4 m. to the S. From a distance, 
 Bushire has rather an imposing appearance, the square funnels 
 or wind chimneys, erected on the tops of a few of the prin 
 cipal houses, for conveying air into the interior during the hot 
 weather, appearing like so many minarets or towers ; but, on a 
 near approach, the town is found to be a mean and dirty place ; 
 with streets, as in most Eastern towns, mere narrow and in 
 tricate lanes, from 6 to 8 ft. wide, half choked up with filth 
 or sand, and infested with crowds of mangy dogs. The 
 bazaar is large and well supplied. Fruit, chiefly brought 
 from Shiraz, may be obtained here all the year round. In 
 the hot season, water melons, grapes, peaches, plums, apri 
 cots, &c., are abundant ; as are also oranges, apples, pears, 
 and pomegranates, in the cold season, with several kinds of 
 dried fruits. Bushire is famous for the fineness of its poul 
 try, and the delicate flavour of its mutton. The sheep, prin 
 cipally brought from the interior, are of a small breed, with 
 immense tails. 
 
 Bushire carries on a considerable traffic with India ; its 
 merchants, who are principally Armenians or Persians, sup 
 plying the greater part of Persia with Indian and European 
 goods, for which silk and bullion are the principal returns. 
 From Bombay, Masulipatam, and Bengal, it imports chintzes, 
 woollen cloths, muslins, and piece goods ; with hardware and 
 cutlery, indigo, sugar, rice, pepper, and other spices ; cloves, 
 &c. ; and from Europe, by way of India, English cotton prints, 
 and other goods. Among its exports are Cashmere and Persian 
 shawls, dates, and dried fruits ; tobacco, carpets, pearls, Shiraz 
 wines, grain, and wool ; with various drugs, dye-stuffs, and 
 perfumes. An active trade is carried on with Shiraz by 
 means of caravans. The anchorage is indifferent, but is the 
 best on the coast. It consists of an outer road, exposed to 
 the N.W. winds, and a safe inner road, with 4 fathoms water, 
 muddy bottom, 2 in. from the town. In 1831, the plague 
 carried off more than a third of the inhabitants. Pop. (1835), 
 estimated at 20,000. (Kempthorne s Notes of a Survey on 
 
 (he E. JSJiores of the Persian Gulf, in London Gco.Jour.; 
 Fontanier, Voyage dans I ltule.) 
 
 BUSHLEY, par. Eng. Worcester; 1740 ac. Pop. 334. 
 
 BUSHMAN S RIVER, S. Africa, Cape Colony, rising 
 in the S.of Somerset co., flowing generally S.E., forming the 
 boundary between Uitenhage and Albany, and falling into the 
 Indian Ocean, 28 m. S. Graham s Town ; Ion. 26 37 E. 
 
 BUSHMEN. See BOSJESMANS. 
 
 BUSHMILLS, a market tn. Ireland, co. Antrim, 6 m. 
 N.E. Coleraine ; on a plain, bounded W. by the Bush- Water, 
 celebrated for its fine salmon, and which falls into the sea a 
 little below the town. It is the general place of resort for 
 persons visiting the Giant s Causeway, about 2 m. distant ; 
 and consists of one principal street, well kept ; houses of 
 whinstone; abundantly supplied with water; one Episcopal 
 church, two Presbyterian, in connection with the Irish Gen 
 eral Assembly ; one Covenanting, one Methodist meeting 
 house, and one R. Catholic chapel, all plain buildings ; two 
 schools, one male and one female, under the national board ; 
 two large corn-mills, two distilleries, one flax-mill, and a 
 manufactory of spades, shovels, &c. Pop. 788. 
 
 BUSIGNY, a tn. France, dep. Nord, on the rivulet Riot, 
 and at the foot of hills covered with wood, about 12 m. fron: 
 Cambray. It was once a place of considerable importance, 
 and was defended by a castle and several towers. Its manu 
 factures are merinoes and Cashmere shawls. Pop. 2234. 
 
 BUSK, a tn. Austria, Galicia, gov. of, and 27 m. N.E. 
 Lcmberg, on the Bug. It has several churches, a tannery, 
 and manufactures of paper and iron. The inhabitants live 
 chiefly by fishing in the adjoining lakes. Pop. 2981. 
 
 BUSKERUD, a bail. Norway, prov. Aggershuus ; area, 
 4813 sq. m. It lies N. of Bradsberg, W. of Aggershuus baili 
 wick, and E. of Bergenhuus, and contains the towns of Dram- 
 men and Kongsberg. Pop. (1845), 86,113. 
 
 BUSLINGTHORFE, par. Eng. Lincoln; 1220 ac. P. 50. 
 
 BUSSAIIER, a Sikh state in N. India, under British pro 
 tection, occupying a mountainous tract, bounded on two sides 
 by the Sutlej and Jumna, stretching N. into the Himalayas; 
 cap. Rampoor; lat. 31 28 N. ; Ion. 77 36 E. It contains 
 some fertile well- cultivated tracts, which produce grain and 
 fruits in abundance. The main articles of traffic are sheep, 
 wool, cattle, ghee, opium, tobacco, and musk. Manufac 
 tures : blankets, and woollen cloths for plaids, trousers, &c. 
 Bussaher has, at all times, carried on a considerable trade 
 with Hindoostan and Tibet ; receiving from the former, sugar, 
 cotton cloths, iron and brass ware, and indigo, in return for 
 blankets, opium, tobacco, and turmeric ; and exporting, to the 
 latter, grain, ghee, opium, tobacco, &c., in exchange for wool, 
 salt, Chinese silks, and tea. 
 
 BUSSETO [anc. Buxetum], a tn. Italy, duchy of, and 20 
 m. N.N.W. Parma, r. bank, Ongina, an affluent of the Po. 
 It is tolerably built, surrounded by walls, and contains a col 
 legiate church, in which are some fine pictures ; another parish 
 church, a townhouse, Jesuits college, several schools, a palace, 
 public library, hospital, theatre, and barrack. Manufac 
 tures: silk, woollen, and linen fabrics, earthenware, and wax. 
 Pop. 2200. 
 
 BUSSOLENGO, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, 9 m. 
 W.N.W. Verona, near r. bank, Adige. It is rather well 
 built, contains two churches and six oratories, has some linen 
 manufactures, and is the centre of an important transit trade 
 between E. Lombardy and the Tyrol. Pop. 3000. 
 
 BUSSORAH, BASSORA, BALSORA, BASRA, or BAZRA, a 
 city, Turkey in Asia, pash. Bagdad, and principal port of the 
 Persian Gulf, r. bank, Euphrates or Schatt el Arab [river of 
 the Arabs], 70 m. from its mouth, and 44 below the junction 
 of the Tigris, 270 m. S. E. Bagdad ; lat. 30 27 30" N. ; Ion. 
 47 53 12" E. (R.) It is about 3 m. in length, 1 in breadth, 
 and about 7 in circumference, which, however, includes some 
 corn fields and gardens of date-trees. The town contains 
 about 6000 houses, is ill built, the streets narrow, unpaved, 
 and extremely filthy ; houses mostly constructed of sun-dried 
 bricks, as is also the miserable wall by which the town is 
 surrounded, and in which there are five gates. The only 
 buildings having an appearance of respectability are the Eng 
 lish factory, the residence of the governor, one or two of the 
 principal mosques, and a few of the mansions of the wealthiest 
 inhabitants. Bussorah has a vast number of khans and cof 
 fee-houses, with about 40 mosques ; and is intersected by a 
 
BUSSUM 
 
 539 
 
 BUTE 
 
 canal, which, besides conveying goods to the city, supplies 
 the inhabitants with water for domestic purposes. Other 
 two canals surround the town, forming a ditch to the fortifi 
 cation. The bazaars are wretched structures, but are, in 
 general, spacious and well stocked, particularly with fruits 
 and vegetables. The Euphrates is tidal as far up as Bus- 
 sorah, and is navigable, to this point, for ships of 500 tons 
 burden ; but there is a bar at its mouth, on which there is 
 generally but 12 ft. water, so that only during spring tides can 
 vessels pass drawing more. Its current is about 2 rn. per 
 hour during the flowing, and 3 in. during the ebb tide. A few 
 British ships from India visit Bussorah annually, but the prin 
 cipal trade is carried on by Arabian vessels. The chief articles 
 of import are, muslins, spices, drugs, rice, sugar, indigo, silk, 
 cotton yarn, dye-woods, coffee, &c., from India ; the returns for 
 which are mostly made in the precious metals, Arabian horses, 
 pearls, dates, copper, gall-nuts, raw silk, gold fringe, corals, 
 gums, rose-water, dried fruits, &c. The horses from Bus 
 sorah, of which great numbers are exported to India annu 
 ally, are of extreme beauty, and capable of enduring much 
 fatigue. Besides its shipping trade, Bussorah carries on an 
 extensive traffic with Aleppo and Bagdad, by means of cara 
 vans. The climate is said to be salubrious during winter and 
 spring, but is certainly very unhealthy in summer, when the 
 town is for mouths surrounded by water from the overflow 
 ing of the Euphrates, which, on its retirement, leaves marshes 
 and ponds, from whose stagnant waters the most noxious ex 
 halations arise. 
 
 The country around Bussorah is flat and fertile, more espe 
 cially on the banks of the river ; in many respects, indeed, 
 it resembles Egypt, both in climate, fruitfulness, and in the 
 overflowings of the great river, to which much of its fertility 
 is due. The cultivated grounds yield corn, dates, olives, 
 pomegranates, vegetables, and pot herbs. Fruits of all kinds 
 abound. There are, besides, entire fields of roses grown for 
 the distillation of the attar of roses, and for the manufacture 
 of rose water. Bussorah belongs to the Turks, having been 
 taken by them from the Arabs, in 1787. It is governed by 
 a mutselim or lieutenant, in the name of the pasha of Bagdad. 
 Pop. 60,000. (Chesney s Euphrates Expedition ; Fontanier, 
 Voyage dans Vlnde.} 
 
 BUSSUM, a vil. Holland, prov. N. Holland, 13 m. S.E. 
 Amsterdam, on a dry sandy soil, which cultivation has clothed 
 with useful crops. It has a small II. Catholic church, a Ke- 
 formed chapel, and a school. Owing to the healthiness of the 
 neighbourhood, many handsome lodging-houses have been 
 erected here for strangers. Besides agriculture, the inhabit 
 ants are engaged in the making of ships -biscuit, soap, paint, 
 linen fabrics, such as towelling, pack-sheet, bed-covers, and 
 floor-cloths, and in bleaching. Pop. 740. 
 
 BUSTAR [anc. Wasatairee], a tn. and dist. Hindoostan, 
 in the Deccan, prov. Gundwana. The TOWN is in lat. 19 31 
 N. ; Ion. 82 28 E. ; 300 m. N.E. Hyderabad. The DIS 
 TRICT is difficult of access, and has a very insalubrious climate, 
 and is occupied by a branch of the range of mountains that 
 runs N. and S. parallel to the Bay of Bengal, in the rear of 
 Cuttack and the N. Circars. Teak-wood abounds here, and 
 through the rivers Inderowty and Godavery it is floated down 
 to the Bay of Bengal ; but it is only of size sufficient for the 
 construction of such vessels as navigate the Coromandel coast. 
 Nearly the whole country consists of jungly hills, and of pes 
 tilential morasses ; the remainder is badly cultivated. The 
 natives live almost in a state of nature, and are extremely 
 ignorant and superstitious. 
 
 BUSTARD BAY, a bay, Australia, E. coast ; lat. 24 4 
 S.; Ion. 151 50 E.; discovered by Capt. Cook, in 1770, 
 and named by him from a species of bustard which he found 
 there. The country around is dry and sandy, but the hills 
 are covered with trees, growing separately and without under 
 wood. 
 
 BUSTO-ARSIZIO, a tn. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. 
 of, and 19m. N. W. Milan, cap. dist. of same name, in a fertile 
 plain, which produces much excellent wine. It contains two 
 churches, one of them an octangular edifice, with numerous 
 statues and fine paintings, by Daniel Crespi, a native of the 
 town ; and has manufactures of fustian and dimity. The re 
 mains of ancient buildings found in the neighbourhood, show 
 that Busto was formerly a place of considerable importance. 
 The DISTRICT produces corn, wine, mulberry-trees, and 
 
 fodder, but great part of it is barren heath. Pop. of tn. and 
 com. 10,025 ; of dist. 29,342. 
 
 BUSULUK, or BOUZOULOUK, a tn. Russia, gov. of, and 
 150 m. W.N.W. Orenburg, cap. dist. of same name, 1. bank, 
 Samara. It is fortified, has straight regular streets, and con 
 tains two churches. It manufactures leather, trades in wood, 
 and has an important annual fair. Pop. about 1500. 
 
 _ BUSVAGON, an isl. Indian Archipelago, one of the Cala- 
 mianes, a group of the Philippines, S. side of the Mindoro 
 Strait ; lat. (W. point) 12 8 N. ; Ion. 120 2 E. (R.), separated 
 S. by a narrow strait from the island of Calamianes, and hav 
 ing numerous small islets off its N. coast. It is about 50 m 
 long, E. to W., and about 13 m. broad, mountainous but 
 fertile. Birds, deer, wild hogs, apes, and rats, are very num 
 erous, and commit great devastation on the cultivated lands. 
 
 BUTCHER S ISLAND, a small green isl. India, in the 
 harbour of Bombay, between the islands Caranja and Salsette. 
 
 BUTCOMBE, par. Eng. Somerset ; 2010 ac. Pop. 256. 
 
 BUTE, a co. Scotland, Frith of Clyde, comprising the 
 islands of Bute, Arran, Inchmarnock, and the two Cumbraes 
 (wTucJisec). Pop. 16,608. 
 
 BUTE, an isl. Scotland, W. coast, co. of same name, at 
 the mouth of the Frith of Clyde, the N.W. portion being in 
 dented into the mainland of Cowal, Argyleshire, from which 
 it is separated by a narrow strait called the Kyles of Bute, 
 and the S.E. stretching out into the open Frith, between the 
 peninsula of Cantyre on the W., and the coast of Ayr on the E. 
 Its centre is in about lat. 55 50 N.; Ion. 5 4 W., 40 m. W. 
 Glasgow, and 18 m. S.W. Greenock. Extreme length, about 
 15m.; greatest breadth, 5 m. Its coast line, which, exclusive 
 of minute sinuosities, is about 35 m. in length, is indented by 
 several bays and good natural harbours, the principal of which 
 are the bays of llothesay, Kilchattan, Kamcs or Port Banna- 
 tyne on the E. ; and those of Dungoil, Stravannan, Scalpsie, 
 St. Ninian s, and Ettrick, on the W The island has little 
 of what is called romantic scenery to boast of, but is dis 
 tinguished in many parts for its quiet picturesque beauty; 
 besides commanding, although it does not in itself possess, 
 some of the most magnificent views in Scotland, especially 
 towards the Kyles. It has no remarkable elevations, its 
 highest summit, Kames Hill, being only 875 ft. high ; but it 
 has several pretty little lakes, the principal and most beauti 
 ful of which is Loch Fad, 2| m. long by a quarter in breadth, 
 on the banks of which is the favourite villa of the late cele 
 brated tragedian, Edmund Kean. The other lakes next in 
 extent, are Ascog and Stack. All the three lakes lie within 
 less than half a mile of each other. Bute is naturally and 
 geologically divided into four distinct portions. The Garroch 
 Head, forming the extreme S. portion, is ridgy and hilly, and 
 is composed almost entirely of trap rocks ; proceeding N., the 
 next division, between Kilchattan Bay and Rothesay Bay, on 
 the W., and Scalpsie Bay on the E., is composed, with slight 
 exceptions, of red sandstone ; the third portion, extending from 
 Scalpsie Bay to Ettrick Bay, consists of chlorite slate ; and 
 the fourth and last division, between Ettrick Bay and the 
 Kyles of Bute, of micaceous schist. Lime, coal, and slate, 
 are found in the island, but they are all of inferior quality. 
 The climate of Bute is so remarkable for salubrity, as to have 
 obtained for the island the appellation of the Montpellier of 
 Scotland. It is on this account much resorted to by invalids. 
 Agriculture is in an advanced state, and is yearly improv 
 ing. A complete system of draining has been introduced, and 
 the most approved rotation in crops is observed. The more 
 recently built farm-houses are neat and commodious, and the 
 grounds generally well enclosed, chiefly with thorn hedges. 
 There are 10,541 acres under cultivation. Average yearly 
 rent of land, about 18s. 6d. per acre. Great attention is paid 
 to the dairy, and the cheese made is of excellent quality. The 
 cows are all of the Ayrshire breed. The agricultural interests 
 of the island have been greatly promoted by the Bute farmers 
 society, which grants yearly premiums for the best ploughing, 
 for the best cattle, cheese, butter, seeds, roots, &c., and for 
 the encouragement of cleanliness among the cottagers. The I 
 sea-coast abounds with fish, including salmon, cod, haddock, 
 whitings, &c. The means of education are ample, there being [ 
 many well-conducted schools throughout the island. The j 
 consequence is, that there is scarcely a native inhabitant above 
 15 years of age, who cannot read and write. 
 
 This island was long a favourite resort of the Kings of 
 
BUTEKA 
 
 540 
 
 BUXTON 
 
 Scotland, who resided in their Castle of Rothesay (which see), 
 now a stately and interesting ruin. Bute gives the Scotch 
 title of Earl, and the British title of Marquis, to a branch 
 of the family of Stewart, descended from a younger son of 
 Robert II. Mount Stuart, the family seat, is beautifully 
 situated, 4 in. from Rothesay. The Marquis of Bute is prin 
 cipal proprietor, six-sevenths of the island being his property. 
 Pop. 10.661. 
 
 BUTERA, a tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 21 m. S.S.E. Cal- 
 tanicette, near r. bank, Menfra. Pop. 4081. 
 
 BUTI, a tn. Tuscany, dist of, and 9 m. E. Pisa, in a nar 
 row dell of the same name, formed by a spur from the E. side 
 of Mount Pisano, and traversed by a rapid mountain-torrent, 
 an affluent of Lake Brentina. It is surrounded by a castle, 
 and contains a parish church. The climate is cold and moist, 
 and the ground not favourable to cultivation. Still, by in 
 dustry, it yields excellent olives, from which is obtained the 
 best oil in Tuscany. Pop. 4091. 
 
 BUTLEIGII, par. Eng. Somerset ; 4670 ac. Pop. 872. 
 
 BUTLERS-MARSTON, par. Eng. Warwick ; 1620 ac. 
 Pop. 313. 
 
 BUTLEY, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1690 ac. Pop. 364. 
 
 BUTOW, a tn. Prussia, Pomerania, gov. of, and 50 m. 
 E. Koslin, on the Biitow ; in a valley, surrounded by hills of 
 considerable elevation ; with three churches, woollen and 
 linen manufactures, and a wool fair. A height in the neigh 
 bourhood is crowned with the ruins of an old castle. Pop. 
 2150. 
 
 BUTRINTO, a fortified tn. and bay, Turkey in Europe, 
 Albania, 15 m. S.W. Delvino, opposite the island of Corfu. 
 The town is in lat. 39 44 N. ; Ion. 20 2 E. Shallow 
 water extends all across the head of the bay ; but in the 
 middle, large ships find good anchorage, with 20 fathoms 
 water. The town is fortified, and is the residence of a Greek 
 bishop. In its vicinity are the ruins of the Buthrotum of 
 the ancients. Pop. 2000. 
 
 BUTSCHOWITZ, a market tn. Austria, Moravia, circle 
 of, and 21 m. E.S.E. Briinn, on the Littawa. It contains a 
 large and strong castle, belonging to Prince Liechtenstein, 
 and has woollen and linen manufactures, particularly one of 
 cassimeres. Pop. of tn. 2000. 
 
 BUTTERLEIGH, par. Eng. Devon ; 2520 ac. Pop. 155. 
 
 BUTTERLEY, a hamlet, England, co. Derby, 3 m. S. 
 Alfreton. It is the seat of extensive ironworks. In the 
 neighbourhood is a large reservoir, for supplying the Notting 
 ham Canal. 
 
 BUTTERMERE, par. Eng. Wilts ; 1340 ac. Pop. 130 
 
 BUTTERWICK, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 1370 ac. Pop. 579. 
 
 BUTTES, a vil. and par. Switzerland, can. of, and 19 m. 
 S.W. Neufchatel, in a valley so narrow and hemmed in by 
 mountains, that from part of the village the sun is not visible 
 during three winter months. The Fairies Grotto, in the 
 vicinity, is one of the most remarkable in Switzerland. A 
 great number of the inhabitants are clock and watch makers. 
 Pop. 1000. 
 
 BUTTEVANT, a tn. and par. Ireland, co. Cork. The 
 town stands on the Awbeg, 23 m. N. W. Cork. Having been 
 the seat of a number of opulent monastic communities, it 
 was at one time a place of considerable importance, but 
 has now fallen into utter decay. The houses are of the 
 humblest description, intermingled with the ruins of churches 
 and monasteries. The town contains extensive barracks for 
 infantry, a fever hospital, a dispensary, and two R. Cath 
 olic chapels. A little to the E., is the castle of Buttevant, 
 on a high rock, overhanging the Awbeg. Spenser, the poet, 
 resided in the vicinity ; and there, it is said, wrote the Faery 
 Queen. Buttevant gave the title of Viscount, in the Irish 
 peerage, to the Barrymore family. Fairs are held on March 27, 
 and October 14. Pop. of tn. 1524. Area of par., including 
 Ballybeg, 11,583 ac. Pop. 5042. 
 
 BUTTINGTON, par., N. Wales, Montgomery. Pop. 826. 
 BUTTISHOLZ, a vil. and par. Switzerland, can. of, and 
 lira. N.W. Luzern, on a tributary of the Wigger, and re 
 markable for a mound in its vicinity, called the Englander- 
 hubel or English barrow, from containing the bones of 3000 
 Englishmen, followers of Ingelram de Coucy, son-in-law of 
 Edward III., and Duke of Bedford, who, having a feud with 
 Leopold of Austria, was devastating the Swiss cantons, when 
 the peasants attacked and defeated him. Pop. 1 708. 
 
 BUTTOLPTIS, par. Eng. Sussex ; 910 ac. Pop. 48. 
 
 BUTTON NESS, a prominent headland, Scotland, co. 
 Forfar, N. side the entrance into the Frith of Tay ; lat. 
 56 28 N. ; Ion. 2 40 W. There are two lighthouses here, 
 ivith bright fixed lights, on separate towers. 
 
 BUTTSBURY, par. Eng. Essex ; 1440 ac. Pop. 52 1 . 
 
 BUTTSTADT, a tn. Saxe-Weimar, cap. bail, of same 
 name, llm. N.N.E. Weimar. It contains a handsome church, 
 and five schools; has manufactures of woollens and hosiery ; 
 also a potash-work, and mills; and five large fairs, chiefly 
 
 for horses. Pop. 2164. The BAILIWICK, area, 48 geo. 
 
 sq. m., contains three towns and 20 villages. Pop. 13,500. 
 
 BUTZ, a vil. Switzerland, can. Aargau, 7 m. N. Aarau. 
 Pop. 250, R. Catholics. 
 
 BiJTZOW, a town, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the Mar- 
 now, and in the neighbourhood of a lake. It is walled, and 
 well built. The town church, built in 1229, has some fine 
 wood carvings ; and the Reformed church is the only one of 
 that denomination in the duchy. Biitzow has a paper-mill, 
 worked by steam ; and numerous manufactures linen cloth, 
 soap, and candles, playing cards, straw hats, and shoes. It 
 has also numerous breweries, and a stone quarry. The town 
 owes much of its prosperity to the exiles driven from France 
 by the persecutions of the 17th century. Pop. 3894. 
 
 BUVIESCA, a tn. Spain, Old Castile, prov. of, and 20 
 m. N.N.E. Burgos, in a plain, 1. bank, Oca. It has clean, 
 paved, and spacious streets, two squares, two churches, of 
 which the collegiate one is a beautiful edifice, containing 
 some fine sculptures ; two well-attended schools, a townhall, 
 prison, hospital, public storehouse, two fountains, and a 
 cemetery. Cattle-rearing and agriculture are the chief 
 employments. In 1388, Juan I., at the instance of John of 
 Gaunt, here gave his son the title of Prince of the Asturias. 
 Pop. 2064. (Madoz.) 
 
 BUTZBACH, a vil. Hesse-Darmstadt, gov. Fricdberg, 
 20 m. N.N.W. Frankfort-on-the-Main. It is walled, and has 
 two parish churches, and an old castle, now used as barracks. 
 Its chief manufactures are hosiery, leather, and locks. It has 
 seven annual fairs. Pop. 2300. 
 
 BUXAR (BAGSAIX), a fortified tn. Hindoostan, prov. 
 Bahar, r. bank, Ganges, here 1 m. broad, 60 m. E.N.E. 
 Benares; lat. 25 33 N. ; Ion. 83 57 E. It is rather large ; 
 houses of the usual character in India, mud and thatch, with 
 a few good bungalows, inhabited by Europeans. The small 
 fort is built on an eminence near the river ; and is surrounded 
 by a broad deep ditch. It is kept in good repair, and 
 garrisoned by sepoys. The Mogul chiefs, Shuja ud Dowlah, 
 and Cossim Khan, were encamped here with an army com 
 puted at 40,000 men, when, on October 23, 1764, they were 
 attacked and completely routed, by 856 European, and 6215 
 native troops, under Major Munro. 
 
 BUXHALL, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 2120 ac. Pop. 533. 
 
 BUXTED, par. Eng. Sussex ; 7020 ac. Pop. 1574. 
 
 BUXTEHUDE, a tn. Hanover, duchy of Bremen, dist. 
 Stade, 12 m. S.W. Hamburg, r. bank, Este, about 7 m. above 
 its junction with the Elbe. It has walls, with several gates ; 
 and its houses, though indifferently built, are lofty. It is the 
 seat of a civil and criminal court ; and contains a gymnasium, 
 a handsome parish church, a townhall, and court-house. Its 
 chief manufactures are white iron, soap, candles, wax, starch, 
 chicory, and tobacco. It has also oil and tan mills, and lime 
 kilns ; exports : timber, oak bark, honey, and wax ; and has 
 several annual fairs. Some of the inhabitants are employed 
 in fishing. Pop. 2223. 
 
 BUXTON. 1, A tn. and fashionable watering-place, Eng 
 land, co. of, and 29 m. W.N.W. Derby, in a deep hollow, sur 
 rounded by hills. It has two principal streets, straight, clean, 
 and lighted with gas ; several handsome ranges of houses, and 
 a fine crescent, all of stone ; two churches, and Wesleyan, 
 Independent, and Presbyterian chapels ; two schools (one en 
 dowed), and a bath charity. The accommodation for visitors, 
 who come to drink the waters, and amount to many thousands 
 annually, is very complete ; excellent hotels and lodging- 
 houses, baths, assembly-rooms, and pump-room. Races in 
 June. The vicinity abounds in fine scenery ; and there is a 
 vast stalactitic cavern, called Pool s Hole, adjacent. Public 
 walks, provided by the Duke of Devonshire, 14 acres in ex 
 tent. Pop. (1841), 1569. (Local Correspondent.} 2, par. 
 Norfolk; 1460 ac. Pop 713. 
 
BUZANgAIS 
 
 511 
 
 CABECO DE VIDE 
 
 BUZANGAIS, a tn. France, dep. Indre, 14 m. N.W. 
 Chateauroux, r. bank, Indre, here crossed by five bridges. 
 The town is finely situate on an acclivity, and in a beautiful 
 district ; but its streets are narrow, dark, and crooked, and 
 the houses indifferent. It has manufactures of woollen goods, 
 a worsted, and some extensive flour mills ; and trades in wool 
 and leeches. There are ironworks in the neighbourhood. 
 Pop. 3139. 
 
 BUZEN, a prov. Japan, in N. of isl. Kiusiu, and separated 
 from Niphon by the Strait of Van der Capellen, here scarcely 
 1 m. across. It is bounded, N. by the sea, and at the other 
 points by the provs. of Tsikuzen and Bungo ; is in the form 
 of a fan; lies between lat. 33 23 and 34 N.; Ion. 130 40 
 and 131 23 E.; and comprises 23 islands, all unimportant. 
 The principal mountains are Fikosan, Ohotake, Kwansan, 
 Tensan, Mikunijama, Kawarajama, Firatojama, and Kuratoge. 
 The mountain-chains of three adjacent provinces converge at 
 the S. border of Buzen, thence traversing the province of Bungo, 
 in an E. direction, to the shores of the sea. The principal valley 
 is that of Sakaigawa, besides which there are those of Siwa- 
 gawa, Wogawa, Uigawa, Takesegawa, and Mumajagawa ; the 
 rivers bearing the four last-mentioned names take their rise in 
 Fikosan, and fall into the sea at Nakat s Creek, between the 
 point Hajatomo and Cape Nagasakihana. The cap. of Buzen 
 is Kokura. Dairi, Tanoura, Matsjama, Kancla, Imai, Sita, 
 and Nakat s, are excellent ports. Buzen is extremely fertile ; 
 principal products wheat, barley, buckwheat, silk, wax, 
 and honey. Charcoal is made; copper and antimony are 
 found. At Kokura there is a manufactory of cottons of 
 superior quality ; and a syrup, called ame, is made from 
 wheat. Buzen is divided into eight districts; and has 54 
 towns, villages, and ports. Two of the towns are fortified. 
 
 BUZZARD S BAY, U. States, S. coast, Massachusetts, 
 opposite Barnstable Bay ; lat. 41 25 to 41 42 N. ; Ion. 
 70 33 to 71 10 W. It is 30 m. long, and 7 broad, and 
 separated from Cape Cod Bay by an isthmus only 5 m. across. 
 
 BY AM MARTIN. 1, An isl. Arctic Ocean, one of the 
 N. Georgian group ; lat. 75 N. ; Ion. 104 8 W. (E.) ; be 
 tween Melville and Bathurst Islands. Discovered by Parry, 
 
 1819-20. 2, An isl., S. Pacific Ocean, one of the Low 
 
 Islands; lat. 19 40 S. ; Ion. 140 29 W. (R.) 3, A cape, 
 
 W. coast, Baffin s Bay, near the entrance of Lancaster Sound ; 
 lat. 73 20 N. ; Ion. 78 W. 
 
 BYFIELD, par. Eng. Northampton ; 2760 ac. Pop. 1 079. 
 
 BYFLEET, par. Eng. Surrey; 2060 ac. Pop. 672. 
 
 BYFORD, par. Eng. Hereford; 910 ac. Pop. 236. 
 
 BYGRAVE, par. Eng. Hertford; 1860 ac. Pop. 151. 
 
 BYKHOV, several places, Russia: particularly 1, 
 Bylchov-Staroi, gov. of, and 30 m. S. Mogilev, a little W. of 
 r. bank, Dnieper. It is defended by ancient fortifications, and 
 has several churches, convents, and a synagogue. Pop. 3900. 
 2, Bykhov-Novo, at a short distance from the former. 3, 
 Bykhov, gov. Tchernigov, and not far from Kroloveton. 
 
 BYLAND (OLD), par. Eng. York, N. Riding; 3120 ac. 
 Pop. 185. 
 
 BYLAUGH, par. Eng. Norfolk; 1580 ac. Pop. 85. 
 
 BYRON S ISLAND, a small isl., S. Pacific, about 12 m. 
 in length, abounding in cocoa trees. Discovered by Commo 
 dore Byron in 1765; lat. 1 18 S.; Ion. 177 45 E. (R.) 
 
 BYSKE, a river, Sweden, which falls into the Gulf of 
 Bothnia in lat. 64 57 N., after a direct S.E. course of 1 10 m. 
 At its mouth is the small town of Byskea. 
 
 BYTHAM, two pars. Eng. Lincoln: 1, BiftJtam (Castle], 
 7760 ac. Pop. 855. 2, Eytham (Little], 101 ac. Pop. 31 1. 
 
 BYTHORN, par. Eng. Huntingdon ; 1510 ac. Pop. 322. 
 
 BYTON, par. Eng. Hereford; 1030 ac. Pop. 172. 
 
 BYTOWN, a tn. Upper or W. Canada, dist. town of 
 Dalhousie district, 92 m. N.E. Kingston, r. bank, Ottawa, at 
 the junction of the Rideau Canal with that river; lat. 45 23 
 N. ; Ion. 75 38 W. It is divided into two portions, called 
 Upper and Lower Bytown ; the former, which is situated 
 half a mile higher up the river, and on considerably higher 
 ground, is the most aristocratic, the latter the most business 
 portion of the town. Bytown is rapidly improving in appear 
 ance, and now contains several handsome stone buildings, 
 including the jail and court-house. There are five churches 
 and chapels in the lower town, namely, one Free church, 
 two Methodist, one Baptist, and one R. Catholic. In the 
 upper town there are three, namely, one Episcopal, one 
 Presbyterian, and one Methodist. The town is supported 
 principally by the lumber trade. The scenery about Bytown 
 is, next to Niagara, the finest of the inhabited portion of 
 Canada. The Chaudiere Falls, a short distance above the 
 town, are beautiful. A handsome suspension bridge has been 
 erected across the Ottawa below the Falls, joining Upper anu 
 Lower Canada. Pop. (1849), about 7000. 
 
 BYTURNEY, or VAITURANI, a river, Hindoostan, rising 
 in the mountainous region of Chuta Nagpoor, prov. Bahar, 
 and, after a S.E. course of from 300 to 400 m., and receiving 
 various tributaries, falling into the Bay of Bengal, a little N. 
 Point Palmyras, near Doomrah ; lat. 20 37 N. 
 
 BY WELL, two pars. Eng. Northumberland:!, Byicell 
 (St. Andrew s), 3680 ac. Pop. 452. 2, Bywell (St. Peter s], 
 21,780 ac. Pop. 1512. 
 
 c. 
 
 For ARTICLES not found in C, look K, S, Teh, or Z. 
 
 CAACATY, an Indian vil., state of, and 77 m. E. by S. 
 the tn. of Corrientes, republic of La Plata. It lies in the 
 Maloya marsh, and its houses are low, small, and each fur 
 nished with a gallery on either side. Caacaty means stink 
 ing wood, a name derived from the odour of a wood in the 
 vicinity. Pop. 800. 
 
 CABABURI, a river, Brazil, a tributary of the Rio Negro, 
 formed by the junction of the Mataraca and Baria, which 
 unite at lat. 1 25 N.; Ion. 66 15 W. From this point, 
 the river pursues a S. course for 120 m., and falls into the 
 Rio Negro at lat. 10 S.; Ion. 66 30 W. 
 
 CABAGAN, a tn., isl. Luzon, prov. Cagayan; it is the 
 second largest town in the prov., containing a pop. of 11,185. 
 
 CABALABA, a river, Dutch Guiana, a tributary of the 
 Corentyn, which it joins about lat. 5 N.; Ion. 57 3 W. It 
 is about 100 yards wide at its mouth, but is broader 6 m. 
 higher up. It is extremely winding in its course, and its 
 water is of an ochreous colour. The banks exhibit all the luxu 
 riance of a rich soil, and the wild Arnotto grows plentifully 
 along its margin, with the splendid flowers of the Cassia Caly- 
 antlia towering over them. About 17 m. above its junction 
 with the Corentyn, a cascade occurs of 20 ft. in height, called, 
 
 by the Indians, ItaYe or Itafia Falls. Here blocks of a fine 
 grained whitish sandstone are found, which are used by the 
 Indians as grindstones, and are of excellent quality. The 
 Cabalaba is frequently visited by the Maroons on fishing 
 expeditions. (Schomburgk.) 
 
 CABANES, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. of, and ] 4 m. 
 N. by E. Castellon-de-la-Plana. The streets are well built 
 and regular, and the town possesses a handsome parish church, 
 two schools, a townhall, and a prison. Domestic weaving, 
 distilling brandy, expressing oil, and husbandry, employ the 
 inhabitants. Some trade is carried on in grain, fruits, cattle, 
 &c. Pop. 1916. 
 
 CABAPUANA [called also, erroneously, Campuan, Ee- 
 ritigba, and Muribeca], a river, Brazil, prov. Espirito Santo. 
 It rises in the N. slopes of the sierra de Pico, flows S.E., and 
 falls into the Atlantic in lat. 21 25 S., after a direct course 
 of 80 m., of which about 30 are navigable for canoes. A 
 kind of bay is formed at its mouth, in which there is anchor 
 age in 7 to 8 fathoms water. 
 
 CABECO DE VIDE, a tn. and par. Portugal, prov. Alem- 
 tejo, dist. Portalegre, on a height, 27 m. N.N.W. Evora. It 
 contains a church, two hospitals, and a poorhouse. Pop 1043. 
 
CABELLO 
 
 542 
 
 CABOOL 
 
 CABELLO (PUERTO), a considerable seaport tn. Vene 
 zuela, on the Caribbean Sea ; lat. 10 ; 30 N. ; Ion. 68 8 W. 
 It has a good harbour, and a large trade, but is iu a very 
 unhealthy situation ; and has a pop. of only 3000. 
 
 CABELLOS DA VELHA, a bay, Brazil, prov. Maranhao. 
 It is about 8 m. square, and is interspersed with islands and 
 sandbanks, rendering it difficult of access. It is intersected 
 by lat. 1 40 S. 
 
 CABENDA, or KABINDA, a seaport tn. Africa, Lower 
 Guinea, cap. of the En-Goyo or Angoy territory, on the Allan- ! 
 tic, about 40 m. N. the mouth of the Zaire ; lat. 5 33 S. ; Ion. 
 15 40 E. ; on the side of a hill which is of a conical form, and 
 clothed to the top with fine timber. The anchorage here is 
 good, and there was long a considerable trade in slaves, ivory, 
 wax. and honey. The territory around is fertile, and the 
 whole district is justly regarded as the finest on this coast. 
 
 CABES, or KABES. 1, A tn. and port [anc. Tacapa], N. 
 Africa, regency, Tunis. The town stands at the foot of the 
 mountain called Jebel Hamarra, in a low situation, r. bank, 
 Wad-er-rif; lat. 33 45 N.; Ion. 10 E. It has some export 
 trade in dates and henna, the latter for dyeing. 2, The Gulf 
 of Cabes [Syrtis Minor] , at the head of which the town is 
 situated, lies between the islands of Kerkenna and Jerba. 
 
 CABESA DEL BCEY, a tn. Spain, Estremadura, prov. 
 Badajoz, 20 m. E.S.E. Castuera, on the N. slope of the sierra 
 Pedregoso. It is tolerably built, and possesses two parish 
 churches, several chapels, a townhall, two schools, a small 
 damp prison, hospital, public storehouse, and three fountains. 
 The inhabitants manufacture serge, baize, cloth, linen fabrics, 
 tiles, and bricks ; and carry on some trade in grain, cattle, and 
 manufactured goods. Pop. 5395. 
 
 CABEZAS DE SAN JUAN, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. 
 of, and 24 m. S. by W. Seville, on the slope of a hill. It | 
 has steep, irregular, and ill-paved 
 streets ; two small squares, a parish 
 church, three chapels, two schools, 
 a townhouse, small prison, asylum 
 for destitute poor, and an extensive 
 and substantial storehouse. Limited 
 trade in wine, cattle, and agricul 
 tural produce. Pop. 2421. 
 
 CABEZON DE LA SAL, a tn. 
 Spain, prov. of, and 24 m. W.S.W. 
 Santander, situate in a plain. It has 
 mean streets, two squares, a parish 
 church, townhall, two schools, 
 prison, cemetery, and several foun 
 tains. The inhabitants are engaged 
 in weaving, refining salt, and in 
 husbandry. An annual fair is held 
 on the 16th of April. Pop. 2047. 
 
 Several other small towns in 
 
 Spain have the same name. 
 
 CABEZUELA, a tn. Spain, 
 Estremadura, prov. Caceres, 16m. 
 N.E. Plasencia, 1. bank, Jerte. 
 The streets are clean and paved, 
 and the town possesses a church, 
 townhouse, two schools, and a pri 
 son. The people are chiefly engaged in silk-spinning, express 
 ing oil, and tillage ; they also trade in grain, wine, fruit, and 
 cattle. Pop. 2328. 
 
 CABO DO KOKTE, a cape, Brazilian Guiana ; lat. 1 51 N. ; 
 Ion. 50 10 W. It is the E. point of the marshy island of 
 Coelhos, formed in the delta of the river Araguari. 
 
 CABO FRIO, an ancient tn. and port, Brazil, prov. of, 
 and 80 m. E. Rio de Janeiro, and about 8 m. N.N.W. the 
 cape of same name. It is composed of two parts ; the most 
 inconsiderable, called Passagem, lies on the mainland, while 
 the principal part of the town lies on a kind of island. Be 
 tween the two parts, which are united by a stone bridge, flows 
 a canal, connecting the neighbouring lake Ararauma with 
 the sea. The streets are broad, but crooked ; the principal 
 part of the houses are built of earth ; and tie most note- worthy 
 edifices are the townhall, with the prison underneath, a con 
 vent, a parish, and two other churches. Cabo Frio has a 
 Latin school, one of philosophy, and several other schools ; 
 and its climate is unhealthy, agues being frequent. The bay [ 
 and port are well protected. Coffee, sugar, and building | 
 
 timber, are exported to Rio de Janeiro, whence, in return, 
 are brought jerked beef, salt fish, and general stores. Pop. 
 
 3500. The CAPE is in lat. 23 1 18" S.; Ion. 41 58 15" 
 
 E. (R.) 
 
 CABOOL (KINGDOM OF). See AFGHANISTAN. 
 
 CABOOL, a prov. in the N.E. of Afghanistan, extending 
 N. to S. from the Hindoo Koosh to Ghuznee ; and W. to E. from 
 Bamian to the Khyber Mountains. It is about 200 in. in 
 length, E. to W., and 150 in breadth ; area, about 10,000 sq. m. 
 Its principal towns are Cabool (the capital), Istalif, Ghuziiee, 
 and Jelalabad. 
 
 CABOOL, CAUBUL, or KABOOL, a city, Afghanistan, cap. 
 of the above prov., at the W. extremity of a fine and sp acious 
 plain, on the 1. bank of the Cabool river, immediately above 
 its confluence with the Logurh, GOOO ft. above the sea ; lat. 
 34 3(X N. ; Ion. 69 10 E. The city is about 5 m. in circuit, 
 and is defended merely by a line of weak ramparts, incapable 
 of successfully resisting the attack of an enemy, although for 
 merly surrounded bya strong wall of burnt bricks and mud. Its 
 length, E. to W., is a little upwards of 2 m. ; and its breadth, at 
 the widest part, about 1200 yards. The houses are but slightly 
 and indifferently built, generally of mud and unburnt bricks. 
 They are mostly two or three stories in height, with flat roofs, 
 made of boards, coated with mud, and surrounded by a coarse 
 framework of wood, and having the windows, notwithstanding 
 the severity of the weather in winter, unglazed, and closed 
 merely by lattices or shutters. The houses of the wealthier 
 classes have extensive courts and gardens, ornamented with 
 fountains. Few of the houses of Cabool have chimneys, the 
 centre of the room being held the proper place for the tire, al 
 though in some of the better dwellings there are especial winter 
 apartments, heated by flues. The streets are, in general, ex 
 tremely narrow, in many cases so contracted that two horsemen 
 
 THE B.U.A HTSSAR, rABOOL.-From 8ale Defence of Mulubad. 
 
 cannot pass each other. They are paved with stone, but the 
 pavement is much neglected, and in winter they are rendered 
 almost impassable by the accumulations of snow thrown from 
 the roofs of the houses, and never removed till it dissolves, 
 when a mixture of snow-water and mud keep the streets for 
 a long time in a miserable condition. There are no public 
 buildings of any note in the city; even the places of worship 
 are very ordinary looking buildings, although many are spa 
 cious and commodious. There is but one madrussa or college, 
 and it has neither endowments nor scholars. Serafs or cara 
 vansaries, and baths, are numerous, but the former are in 
 elegant and inconvenient, and the latter disgustingly filthy. 
 There are two principal bazaars, running nearly parallel to 
 each other, one of which is three-quarters of a mile in length. 
 But the most magnificent resort of this kind in Cabool, con 
 structed by Ali Murdan Khan, was destroyed by the British 
 in 1842. It is said to have been one of the most splendid 
 structures of the kind in the East, consisting of a series of 
 covered arcades and open areas, and was highly embellished 
 with paintings, and provided with wells and fountains. Be- 
 
CABOURN 
 
 543 
 
 CACEEES 
 
 fore the shops in the bazaars are a kind of counters, on which 
 the shopman sits with his wares displayed. The manufactures 
 of Cabool are trifling, and are confined chiefly to iron, leather, 
 and the weaving of cotton, and shawls in imitation of Cashmere, 
 the principal support of the town being derived from a consid 
 erable transit trade. The artisans, generally, are but indiffer 
 ently skilled in their trades. In Cabool, the several descriptions 
 of traders and artisans congregate, as is usual in Eastern cities, 
 and together are found the shops of drapers, saddlers, braziers, 
 ironmongers, armourers, bookbinders, venders of shoes, &c. 
 But besides the shopkeepers, or fixed tradesmen, there are 
 vast numbers of itinerant traders who parade the bazaars, 
 and it is probable, says Masson, that the cries of this city 
 equal in variety those of London. Many of them are identical, 
 and the old clothes-man of the British metropolis is perfectly 
 represented by the Moghat of Cabool. Besides the bazaars, 
 there are several market-places in the town. These are the 
 cattle-market on the N. side of the river, where sales of all 
 sorts of animals are effected daily ; the grain-markets, of which 
 there are two, and the fruit-market, into which large quan 
 tities of the finest, the most beautiful, and the most various 
 fruits arc daily poured, to be afterwards dispersed amongst 
 the retail venders of the city. There are likewise markets 
 for wood and charcoal. Water is abundant, the S. part of the 
 city being supplied by a canal from the river, and the other 
 parts by numerous wells. Cabool is divided into districts, 
 and these are subdivided into sections, each well enclosed and 
 accessible only by small gates, which are walled up in time of 
 siege or intestine war, and thus each section becomes a fortress. 
 On the S.E. side of the city, but connected with it by streets 
 and lanes, stands the Bala Ilissar on the acclivity of a hill, a 
 citadel and residence of the Sovereign. It is about half a 
 mile long and a quarter broad, enclosed by lofty stone walls, 
 strengthened at intervals by towers, and the whole surrounded 
 by a broad stagnant moat. Within this circuit is a town con 
 taining nearly 10UO houses, and a good bazaar. The royal 
 palace, which occupies the summit of the hill, has a sombre 
 external appearance, but commands several beautiful views, 
 particularly towards the N., where the distant snowy masses 
 of the Hindoo Koosh terminate the prospect. It is substan 
 tially constructed, and contains several suites of apartments, 
 on a commodious and magnificent scale. In the S. W. quarter 
 of the town is a strongly fortified district, called Chandol, in 
 habited by Kuzzulbaushes, or Persians, to the number of 10,000 
 or 12,000. Pushtoo is the vernacular dialect of Cabool, but 
 is spoken, for the most part, by the lower classes only, the 
 higher orders speaking Persian. The people of Cabool are 
 generally tall, with dark black eyes and marked features. The 
 women are said to have both beauty of face and elegance of 
 form, but they are rarely seen abroad ; and when they do ap 
 pear out of doors, they are so enveloped in a peculiar dress 
 called the boorku, that neither feature nor form are distin 
 guishable. In fine weather the men live much abroad, but 
 in winter all who can afford to remain within doors do so dur 
 ing the whole season. As Cabool stands at an elevation of 
 6396 ft. above the sea, the winters are very severe, setting in 
 at the beginning of October, and continuing to the end of 
 March. In summer, again, the heat is considerable, the ther 
 mometer in the shade at noon being found to range, on differ 
 ent days in August, from 91 to 75. During the summer 
 and autumnal months, but chiefly during the latter, the city 
 is visited every evening by a khak-bad or whirlwind, some 
 what impetuous, but of short duration. 
 
 Attached to the city are several places of burial, the larger 
 without the walls, which, in general, much resemble Euro 
 pean localities of similar character. In summer, from the 
 influx of merchants, and people from all parts of the country, 
 the city is densely inhabited, and the streets and bazaars 
 crowded with strangers. The general appearance of Cabool 
 is by no means particularly attractive ; but this circumstance 
 is in part compensated by the singular beauty of the surround 
 ing scenery, composed of delightful gardens, orchards, and 
 groves. In 1839, Cabool was taken possession of by a British 
 army, which, in 1842, was entirely annihilated by the perfidy 
 of the Afghans, one man only, out of 3849 soldiers and 12,000 
 camp followers, having escaped. It was, however, recap 
 tured in the same year by the British, when the treachery of 
 the Afghans was amply avenged. Pop. about 60,000. 
 CABOURN, par. Eng. Lincoln; 2860 ac. Pop. 166. 
 
 CABRA, or KABRA, a tn., N.W. Africa, Soudan, 5 m. S. 
 Timbuctoo, 1. bank, Niger ; lat. 17 N. ; Ion. 2 58 W. Pop. 
 about 1200. 
 
 CABRA [anc. JEyabrum\, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. 
 of, and 29 m. S.S.E. Cordova, in a valley almost environed 
 by mountains. It has wide, and, with few exceptions, clean 
 and paved streets; a large, irregular, but imposing-look 
 ing square, with four smaller ones ; two large and handsome 
 parish churches, containing tine monuments and pictures ; and 
 numerous conventual churches ; a richly endowed college ; 
 Latin, normal, and many other schools ; an hospital, poor- 
 house, and orphan asylum, united in a Dominican convent ; a 
 theatre, town and court houses, prison, and, on the W., over 
 looking all, an ancient castle and palace of the Dukes of Sessa, 
 within whose ruined walls is an extensive cemetery. Manu 
 factures : linen fabrics, soap, hats, cloth, earthenware, hard 
 ware, lime, and gypsum. There are also brandy distilleries, 
 dyeworks, tanneries, stone and marble works, and oil-mills. 
 Trade : iron, timber, manufactured goods, rice, paper, silk, 
 and potatoes. An annual fair is held for cattle, grain, and 
 general merchandise. Pop. 9576. (Madoz.) 
 
 CABRA DEL SANTO CRiSTO, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. 
 of, and 28 m. S.E. Jaen, on the E. slope of the sierra Cruzada. 
 It possesses a square, several wide, straight, well-paved streets ; 
 a parish church, townhall, two schools, a prison, public store 
 house, and cemetery. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in 
 domestic weaving, expressing oil, and husbandry. Pop. 2000. 
 CABRACH, par. Scot. Banff. Pop. 827. 
 CABRAS, a vil., isl. Sardinia, prov. Busachi, 2 m. W. N. W. 
 Oristano, on a lagoon which furnishes the best fish in the 
 island. Corn, wine, and excellent raisins are produced in 
 the neighbourhood. Pop. 2800. 
 
 CABRERA, an isl. Greece. See KABRERA. 
 CABRERA, an isl. belonging to Spain, in the Mediter 
 ranean, one of the Balearic group, 10 m. S.W. by S. Cape 
 Salinas, in Majorca ; lat. 39 7 30" N. ; Ion. 3 E. ; 3f m. 
 in length, S.W. to N.E., and 2| in breadth. It is mountain 
 ous and rugged ; the hills are covered with pine, box, &c. 
 The only buildings are the old castle, inhabited by a governor, 
 a captain, surgeon, and 14 men, detached from Palina as a 
 garrison, with a few household servants. 
 
 CABRIEL, a river, Spain, which rises near the sources 
 of the Tagus and the Jucar, in the sierra Molina, New Cas 
 tile, and pursuing a circuitous S. course of about 130m.; 
 during which the only tributary, of any consequence, which 
 it receives, is the Moya, on its 1. bank; it joins 1. bank, Jucar, 
 near the borders of Valencia. 
 CABUL. See CABOOL. 
 
 CAgAPEBA, a tn. Brazil, prov. Sao Pedro, 70 m. S.W. 
 Pardo ; with a church and school. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 Indians, engaged in rearing cattle, which they sell in the 
 province of Sao Paulo. Pop., tn. and dist., 3000. 
 
 CACCAMO, atn. Sicily, dist. Termini, 18 m. W. Palermo. 
 Pop. 6394. 
 
 CACCAVONE, a tn. Naples, prov. Sannio, 3 m. S.W. 
 . Agnone. It has tliree churches, and a house of refuge. Good 
 wine is produced in the neighbourhood. Pop. 2247. 
 
 CACCURI, a vil. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra II., dist. 
 of, and 20m. N.W. Cotrone. It stands on a sandy knoll, and 
 contains a handsome collegiate, and two other churches, a 
 Dominican convent, and two monts-de-pUte. llock-salt is 
 mined in the neighbourhood. Pop. 935. 
 
 CACERES, a prov. Spain, Estremadura, cap. Caceres, 
 bounded, N. by prov. Salamanca ; E. by Avila, Toledo, and 
 Ciudad Keal ; S. by Badajoz ; and W. by the kingdom of 
 Portugal; area, 10,917 sq. m. It belongs wholly to the 
 basin of the Tagus ; which river, intersecting the prov. E. to 
 W., divides it into two nearly equal portions, both mountain 
 ous, but that to the N. the more rugged of the two. Slate 
 and granite are the prevailing formations ; and silver, copper, 
 iron, and lead, appear to exist, but are much neglected. The 
 mountains yield pine, oak, beech, chestnut, and other useful 
 timbers ; and the extensive and well-watered plains and 
 valleys are naturally fertile, though little attended to by the 
 agriculturist. The inhabitants, comparatively few in number, 
 are chiefly engaged in rearing merino sheep and swine, for 
 which the rich pastures, and the plentiful supply of mast, 
 renders the province well-adapted. Honey and wax are 
 gathered to a considerable extent, though bee-culture is little 
 
CACERES 
 
 544 
 
 CADAMSTOWN 
 
 pursued, the produce being mainly obtained from wild bees. 
 Manufactures are confined to the principal towns ; and the 
 only trade is in wool and bacon ; much retarded by miserable 
 roads. Education is at a low ebb ; even the schools in the 
 towns being inefficiently conducted. The people are honest, 
 kind-hearted, and, when roused, energetic and persevering. 
 Cortez, and the two Pizarros, were natives of this province. 
 Pop. 264,988. (Madoz.) 
 
 CACERES. 1, Atn. [anc. Castra-Ccecilia], Spain, Estre- 
 madura, cap. of above prov., 24 m. W. by N. Truxillo, on 
 elevated ground. It is divided into two parts, called the old 
 and the new towns. The old town occupies the top of the hill, 
 and is surrounded by a strong wall, defended by towers, and 
 having five gates. The new town is built round the old, and 
 forms the larger and more important portion of the two. The 
 houses are, in general, tolerably well constructed ; the streets 
 steep, and, with few exceptions, narrow, and ill paved. Its 
 principal square is lined with good houses, shops, and public 
 buildings; and in the centre is a handsome paseo or pro 
 menade. There are seven other squares, but all small. The 
 public edifices are four parish churches, a townhouse, session 
 house, four hospitals, two prisons, a theatre, university, nor 
 mal, and several other schools ; besides which, there are a 
 Jesuits college, of great celebrity; some convents, one of 
 which is now used as a barrack ; an episcopal palace, one be 
 longing to the counts of Torre Mayoralgo ; an alcazar or castle 
 of the ancient rulers of Caceres ; and the largest bull-ring in 
 Spain. Linen, cloth, baize, hats, leather, ropes, soap, earthen 
 ware, wine, and oil, are manufactured ; many of the inhabit 
 ants are also engaged in dyeing, washing wool, tillage, and as 
 herdsmen. Considerable trade is carried on in cattle, pigs, 
 delicious bacon, merino-wool, manufactured goods, &c. An 
 annual cattle-fair is held in April. Pop. 12,051. (Madoz.) 
 
 2, Caceres (Nueva), a tn. Philippines, isl. Luzon, cap. of 
 
 prov. S. Camarines ; lat. 13 40 N. ; Ion. 123 22 23" E. It 
 lies on the river Naga, or Santa Cruz, which flows circuitously 
 N., to the Bay of San Miguel, distant from Caceres about 10 
 m. It is the seat of the bishop of the province, is regularly 
 built, and the governor s house is elegant. Pop. 12,000. 
 (Mallat.) 
 
 CACHAO, KE-CHO, or KACHAO, a large city, Anam, 
 cap. Tonquin, r. bank, Song-ca, 90 m. W. the Gulf of Ton- 
 quin, 335 m. N.N.W. Hue; lat. 21 N.; Ion. 105 33 E. 
 The principal streets are broad, and paved with brick or 
 pebbles; in the centre an unpaved passage is left for the 
 elephants and beasts of burden. Most of the houses are of 
 mud or wood ; some of brick and stone ; all are covered with 
 leaves, straw, or reeds. The ancient royal palace was of 
 vast extent, as appears from its ruins. The trade is con 
 siderable; and there were here, formerly, French, Dutch, 
 and English factories. The exports are gold, fine silk stuffs, 
 and lacquered wares, the most beautiful of the E. ; imports: 
 cloths, chintzes, arms, &c. The Song-ca or Tonquin river, 
 was formerly much frequented by European navigators, and 
 was accessible to ships of 500 tons ; but now, the mouth is 
 so much sanded up, that vessels of more than 200 tons cannot 
 enter it. Pop. 100,000. 
 
 CACHAO, or CACHED, a tn. Portuguese Africa, in Sene- 
 gambia, on the river Cachao or St. Domingo, a few miles 
 above its estuary; lat. 12 13 N.; Ion. 16 17 W. It is a 
 military post, a fortified port, and carries on trade in gold-dust, 
 wax, and ivory. It is the principal Portuguese establish 
 ment in Senegambia, and is under the government of the 
 
 Cape de Verde Islands. Pop. 500. The EIVER Cachao is 
 
 one of the mouths of the Jeba or Rio Grande, but receives also, 
 through several small branches, part of the waters of the 
 Casamanza. 
 
 CACHAR, KATSCHAR [anc. Hairumlfi],a. territory, India 
 beyond the Ganges; bounded, N. by the Brahmapootra and by 
 Assam, E. by Munipoor, S. by Silhet and Tiperah, and W. 
 by the principality of Jynteah, between lat. 24 and 27 N., 
 and Ion. 92 and 94 E.; length, N. to S., 140 m.; breadth, 
 E. to W., 100 m. ; area, about 6564 sq. m. It comprehends 
 two divisions Cachar Proper, and Dharmapoor ; the former 
 occupying the S., and the latter the N. part. The country 
 in general is mountainous, and covered with forest trees, bam 
 boos, and jungle, which afford shelter to great numbers of 
 elephants, buffaloes, wild deer, &c. There is a great want of 
 practicable roads ; but this want is to a considerable degree 
 
 compensated by the river Barak, which affords good internal 
 communication during the greater part of the year. From 
 June to November large tracts of the country are inundated, 
 rendering it tedious and difficult to pass from one place to 
 another. The mountain-streams are serviceable for floating 
 down timber, ratans, bamboos, &c. During the S. W. monsoon, 
 which begins in February or March, rain is frequent and 
 heavy, causing a rapid and vigorous vegetation. The climate 
 is unhealthy, owing, in a great measure, to the large surface 
 of stagnant water giving rise to the jungle fever, and to ague 
 and dysentery. The soil is extremely fertile; the chief pro 
 ducts are rice and other grain, sugar, and cotton. A con 
 siderable revenue is derived from salt pits, the produce of 
 which not only satisfies the home consumption, but is to some 
 extent exported. The other exports consist of coarse silk, 
 wax, cotton, timber, and iron ore. The inhabitants are robust, 
 of fairer complexion than the Bengalese, and resembling the 
 Chinese in cast of countenance. The original Hairumbian 
 dialect is now nearly extinct ; the language and written char 
 acter of Bengal having taken its place. 
 
 In 1774, Cachar was invaded by the Burmese army, which, 
 however, was destroyed by the jungle fever; but a second 
 expedition reduced the Rajah to submission, and forced him to 
 become a tributary to the King of Ava. In 1810, the Bur 
 mese placed Marjeet, the Rajah of Munipoor, on the throne, 
 and for five years a civil war for pre-eminence between him 
 and his brothers, Choorjeet and Gumbheer Singh, harassed 
 the province. The latter having been deposed in 1824, a 
 British detachment entered Cachar, and expelled the Burmese, 
 who, by the treaty of Yandaboo, in 1826, gave up all claims 
 in favour of the legitimate Rajah ; but on his death, in 1830, 
 without heirs, it became, in 1832, a constituent part of the 
 British territory. Pop. 70,000. 
 
 CACHIMAYO, a river, Bolivia, an affluent of the Pil- 
 comayo; its sources are in dist. Chayanta, about 80 m. N.W. 
 Chuquisaca, in lat. 19 S. ; Ion. 67 50 W. ; whence, after 
 making a bend N.E., it flows in a S.S.E. direction, joins 
 the Pilcomayo in lat. 21 10 S.; Ion. 63 50 W. ; total 
 length of course, about 340 m. 
 
 CACHOEIKA, numerous tns., vils., pars., &c., Brazil : 
 of which the only two important ones are 1, A large com 
 mercial city, prov. of, and 62 m. N.W. Bahia, on the Para- 
 guassu, which divides the city into two unequal parts. The 
 larger is traversed by two small streams, the Talheiro and 
 Pitanga, across which there are bridges, and which propel 
 several sugar-mills. It has a municipal hall and prison, three 
 churches, a convent of bare-foot Carmelites, and an ornamental 
 fountain. The smaller part of the city, called Suo Felix, is 
 on the r. bank of the river, which is here crossed by a bridge. 
 It has two churches, and is inhabited by the poorer classes. 
 Cachoeira is the depot for the products of a considerable tract 
 round about, and the market where the inhabitants purchase 
 general stores, implements, &c. The principal articles of 
 export are coffee and tobacco. This city is much exposed to 
 inundations; one which took place in December 1839, de 
 stroyed a great many of the houses. Pop. 15,000. 2, A small 
 tn., prov. Sao Pedro, 57 m. N.W. Pardo, 1. bank, Jacuy. Its 
 streets are broad, straight, and of an agreeable aspect. It has 
 a church and school, a municipal hall, and prison. The river 
 is navigable for canoes. Cattle-rearing is the principal occu 
 pation. 
 
 CACONDA (NEW), a tn. Africa, Bcnguela, belonging to 
 the Portuguese possessions, on the Cotape, 170 m. S.E. St. 
 Philip-de-Benguela. It is situated in a hilly district, and 
 used to be regarded as one of the healthiest Portuguese 
 establishments in Guinea. About 50 m. N.W. stands old 
 Caconda on the Caporare. 
 
 CACONGO, or MALLEMBA, a kingdom, Africa, in Lower 
 Guinea, to the S. of Loango. A small part of it lies along 
 the S. Atlantic, in lat. 5 S., and it extends S.E. as far as the 
 river Bell. It widens considerably towards the interior, but 
 its extent is not well known. The surface is generally flat, 
 and the soil fertile. The interior gradually becomes elevated, 
 and the climate is said to be healthy. The chief town is 
 Kinguele. The other towns of any note are Cacongo, and 
 Mallemba, which is on the coast, and was once a great slave 
 market. 
 
 CADAMSTOWN, par. Irel. Kildare; 5033 ac. Pop. 
 1180. 
 
CADAQUES 
 
 545 
 
 CADIZ 
 
 CADAQUES, a tn. and port, Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, 
 and 30 m. N.E. Gerona, extreme E. of the province. It is 
 tolerably well built, and has a church, townhall, three schools, 
 a prison, and public fountain. Manufactures : brandy, soap, 
 paint, potash, wine, and oil. The trade of the port is unim 
 portant. Pop. 2787. (Madoz.) 
 
 CADBURY, three pars. Eng. : 1, par. Devon ; 2620 ac. 
 Pop. 251. 2, (North Cadbury] , par. Somerset; 2630 ac. Pop. 
 254. 3, (South Cadbury}, a small vil. and par. Somerset. In 
 the neighbourhood of the village are the remains of one of 
 the strongest fortifications in England, supposed to be a work 
 of the Romans. Area of par. 800 ac. Pop. 254. 
 
 C ADDER, or C ALDER, a par. Scotland, co. Lanark, N. 
 of Glasgow ; 14 m. in length, and about 4 in breadth. Within 
 a few yards S. of the mansion-housa of Robroyston, in this 
 parish, stood the house in which the celebrated Scotch patriot, 
 Sir William Wallace, is said to have been betrayed to the 
 English, on September 11, 1303. No vestige of the house 
 now remains. Pop. (1841), 4425. 
 
 CADDINGTON, par. Eng. Bedford ; 4500 ac. Pop. 1747. 
 
 CADEBY, par. Eng. Leicester; 2130 ac. Pop. 387. 
 
 CADELEIGH, par. Eng. Devon; 2020 ac. Pop. 403. 
 
 CADENET [unc.Cadctietum], atn. France, dep.Vaucluse, 
 31 m. E.S.E. Avignon, in a fertile district, r. bank, Durance, 
 supposed, from the antiquities found in the vicinity, to have 
 been a Roman station. The baptismal fonts of the parish 
 church are amongst the finest and most ancient of the kind 
 in the kingdom, and the church itself is a remarkable edifice. 
 Cadenet has silk-mills, and some trade in silk. Pop. 2195. 
 
 CADEREITA, a small tn. Mexico, cap. dist. of same 
 name, prov. or state of, and 74 m. N. the city of Mexico, on 
 a small island formed by the Silla and the Santa Lucia. It 
 is agreeably situated ; well supplied with water from a dis 
 tance, by a fine aqueduct ; has a good parish church, and a 
 Franciscan convent. The district contains silver mines, 
 grows a great deal of wheat, maize, French beans, and pulse, 
 and is famous for rts breed of horses and mules. Pop. 3000. 
 
 CADER-IDRIS, a mountain, N. Wales, co. Merioneth, 
 about 3 m. S. Dolgelly; highest peak, 2914 ft. above the sea. 
 
 CADEROUSSE, a tn. France, dep. Vaucluse, 3 m. S.W. 
 Orange, 1. bank, Rhone. It occupies the site of the ancient 
 Vindale, where the Romans had a temple to Jupiter Ammon. 
 It has manufactures of serge, silk-mills, and some trade in 
 silk, grain, wine, &c. Madder is extensively cultivated in 
 the environs. Pop. 1809. 
 
 CADIAR, a vil. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 45 m. 
 S.E. Granada, at the W. base of the sierra Nevada, 1. bank, 
 Cadiar. The streets are well 
 built, and the town possesses two ? 
 squares, a parish church of Doric jj 
 architecture, endowed school, 
 chapter-house, prison, and ceme 
 tery. The inhabitants are en 
 gaged in agriculture, grinding 
 corn, expressing oil, and distil 
 ling brandy. Pop. 2126. 
 
 CADIERE (LA),a tn. France, 
 dep. Var, 10 m. N.W. Toulon ; 
 once a place of great strength, 
 being encircled by three walls, 
 and defended by a large castle 
 flanked with towers, but its for 
 tifications were demolished at the 
 commencement of the 18th cen 
 tury. It has some trade in olive- 
 oil, walnuts, figs, and capers, the 
 last two of excellent quality. 
 Pop. 1240. 
 
 CADILLAC, a tn. France, 
 dep. Gironde, 18 m. S.E. Bor 
 deaux, in a fertile plain, r. bank, Garonne. It is remark 
 able chiefly for the old castle of the Dukes of Epernon, which 
 was long regarded as second only to the royal palaces, and is 
 now used as a female penitentiary. There is here a large 
 prison, in which from 200 to 300 prisoners are usually de 
 tained. The chief manufactures are wine-casks and agricul 
 tural implements. The trade is considerable, Cadillac being 
 the entrepot for the produce, and particularly for the wines 
 of the district. Pop. 1164. 
 Vol.. I. 
 
 CADIZ, a prov. Spain, Andalusia, one of the three pro 
 vinces into which the ancient kingdom of Seville has been 
 divided. It lies between lat. 36 2 and 37 N. ; and Ion. 
 4 7 and 6 22 W.; area, 3905 sq. in.; bounded, N. by 
 provs. Huelva and Seville, E. by Malaga, S. and W. by the 
 Strait of Gibraltar and the Atlantic. The mountains of 
 Ronda traverse a part of it in the E., and ramify in different 
 directions towards the sea. The principal rivers which water 
 and fertilize the province are the Guadalete and the Guadiaro, 
 and their affluents. Both these streams rise N. of Ronda, 
 the former falling into the Atlantic in the Bay of Cadiz, and 
 the latter into the Mediterranean N. of Gibraltar. Timber 
 of various kinds, lime, sulphur, building-stone, and grind 
 stones are obtained from the hilly districts, which also depas 
 ture numerous herds of cattle, flocks of sheep, and some 
 horses. The warm and fertile, and in many places well-cul 
 tivated valleys, yield the usual cereal crops and legumes, 
 olives, fruits of different descriptions, and excellent grapes, 
 from which are made the famed sherry wines of commerce. 
 Formerly the breeding of horses constituted the principal 
 riches of the province, but this branch of business, as well as 
 commerce generally, has greatly fallen off; the latter being 
 limited chiefly to the wines of Jerez and Rota, with legumes, 
 a small quantity of oil, spirits, and home-manufactured goods, 
 chiefly woollens, and salt. Besides those employed in agri 
 culture, a small portion of the inhabitants are engaged in 
 various manufactures, which are carried on to a limited ex 
 tent ; and others of them are engaged in fishing tunnies 
 and sardines, and in preparing salt, which is of good colour 
 and quality. Education is much neglected, only about 20 
 in 100 being able to read and write; but as to crime, Cadi? 
 contrasts favourably with many of the other provinces of 
 Spain. There are many traces in this province of the Pheni- 
 cian colonists; and here, in 711, King Rodrigo lost his life 
 and throne in a battle, the loss of which opened the ports of 
 the country to the Arabs. Off Cape Trafalgar, also in this 
 province, Nelson gained his famous victory over the combined 
 French and Spanish fleets. Pop. 358,44tj. 
 
 CADIZ [anc. Gades], a city and seaport, Spain, cap. of 
 above prov., in the Isle of Leon, off the S.W. coast of Anda 
 lusia; lat. (observatory) 36 32 N.; Ion. 6 17 15" W. (E.) ; 
 60 m. N.W. Gibraltar, and 64 S. Seville. It stands on a 
 narrow tongue of land which projects about 5 m. N.N.W. 
 from the isle ; it is surrounded on three sides by water, and is 
 strongly defended both by nature and art. The entrance 
 to its capacious bay is completely commanded by the forts 
 St. Sebastian, Santa Catalan, and Matagorda ; while ou tho 
 
 other sides, the beach is so precipitous, or so surrounded by 
 sandbanks and sunken reefs, that large vessels cannot ap 
 proach within three -fourths of a mile of the city. Hence a 
 hostile attack by sea may be regarded as almost hopelees. 
 On the land side the only access is along a belt of land, in 
 some places not more than 200 yards wide, and bristling with 
 cannon. The city itself, which is nearly in the form of a 
 square 1 m. each way, is surrounded by walls of great height 
 and thickness, flanked with towers and bastions, and is entered 
 
CADIZ 
 
 546 
 
 CADORE 
 
 byfivegates. It is divided into the four quarters of Santa Cruz, lomeo; several superior schools, also in connection with the 
 
 Kosario, San Antonio, and San Lorenzo, and is built with so 
 much regularity and uniformity, that a stranger, from want 
 of distinguishing features, is very apt to lose his way. The 
 houses are solidly built of freestone, and are generally of three, 
 sometimes of four stories. They have flat roofs, with gutters 
 to carry away, or rather to collect the water in reservoirs 
 prepared for it, as water is scarce, and the inhabitants depend 
 on the rain for their principal supply. The houses in general 
 have handsome fronts, are well arranged internally, and are 
 often surmounted by lofry towers, open to the sea breeze, and 
 commanding line views of the bay. The streets are somewhat 
 narrow, but are remarkably well paved, and are uniformly 
 
 above university; and a school or academy of the fine arts. 
 Besides the Alameda, which is well planted, though not laid 
 out with much taste, the ramparts afford agreeable promenades, 
 commanding a beautiful prospect of the bay and country be 
 yond, and are much frequented in the evenings by the inhab 
 itants, who repair thither to enjoy the luxury of the cool sea 
 breeze. But the absence of trees, to the growth of which the 
 sea air is unfavourable, is greatly felt. The bay, which is 
 formed by the peninsula and the mainland, is spacious, and 
 affords good anchorage. It is divided into the outer and inner 
 bays. The former is exposed to a heavy and dangerous sea 
 during the prevalence of N. W. winds ; the inner is protected 
 
 provided with foot-pavement. The finest streets are the Ancha by an extensive mole, but is accessible to small vessels only. 
 
 The larger ships are obliged to anchor 
 at a distance of three-quarters of a mile 
 from the shore, where there is from 5 to 
 7 fathoms water. Opposite to Cadiz 
 is the town of Santa Maria, the prin 
 cipal depot of the wines of Xeres. 
 La caracca. or the royal dockyard, is 
 situated at the bottom of the inner bay, 
 about 6 m. from the city, and is de 
 fended by the cross-fire of two forts. It 
 contains three spacious basins, and 12 
 docks or slips ; but the whole establish 
 ment is now going to decay. 
 
 The trade of Cadiz is greatly less 
 than it was at one time. The principal 
 part of what remains is with England, 
 and the chief article exported is sherry 
 wine. This state of matters is attri 
 buted to the want of a commercial treaty 
 with England, and to the enormous pro 
 hibitory duties on imports, which have 
 given rise to an extensive system of 
 
 , ni . smuggling, subjecting the Government 
 
 to a great expense in maintaining the 
 
 preventive service, while it derives no benefit from the im 
 portation of articles of foreign manufacture. 
 
 The following Table exhibits the number, tonnage, and 
 value of cargoes of vessels which entered and cleared at the 
 Port of Cadiz, in the years 1841 to 1846: 
 
 - ^ , v- 
 
 
 [spacious], and San Raphael. The public squares are few, 
 and some of them so small as scarcely to deserve the name. 
 The finest not so much from its extent, as the elegance of 
 its buildings is San Antonio, nearly a perfect square, and the 
 great place of resort in mild wintry days, and moderate 
 evenings in spring. It is considerably surpassed in extent 
 by the Plaza de Abastos, or, as it has been named, Plaza cle 
 la Libertad, which was only commenced in 1837. The Plaza 
 de San Juan de Dios, now called Plaza de Isabella II., is of 
 considerable extent, but irregular in its shape. It contains 
 several handsome buildings, particularly the consistory, now 
 chiefly used for municipal and public purposes. Its front, 
 towards the square, consists of a portico, above which rises a 
 row of Ionic columns as high as the roof, which is surmounted 
 by a tower, in three divisions the first square, surrounded 
 by a marble balustrade, the second octagonal, and the third 
 circular, supporting a cupola. One of the most conspicuous 
 objects in Cadiz is the lighthouse of San Sebastian, 172 ft. 
 above the ground, and visible 20 m. oft at sea. The other 
 principal edifices are the old cathedral, now used merely 
 as the parish church of Santa Cruz, and though of small 
 size, one of the most regular buildings in Cadiz; the new 
 cathedral, still unfinished, of larger dimensions than the, 
 other, though small for a cathedral, built wholly of white 
 marble, except the bases of the pillars, which are variegated, 
 and surmounted by a dome, the interior of which is of great 
 beauty; three other churches, several nunneries and convents, 
 particularly the convent of the Capuchins, which is said to 
 possess two of Murillo s finest pictures ; and two theatres, one 
 capable of containing 1400 persons. Among benevolent 
 establishments are the Casa de Misericordia, a magnificent 
 edifice, and a well-arranged and richly- endowed establishment, 
 used partly as an ordinary hospital and alms-house, and partly 
 as a lunatic asylum ; the female hospital, next in importance 
 to the Casa ; the foundling hospital, and the hospital of San 
 Juan de Dios, or general infirmary, which annually receives 
 about 700 patients ; and the house of refuge of San Servando 
 and San German, where destitute, children or young criminals 
 are instructed and reclaimed. The principal educational 
 establishments are the Cadiz medical school, in connection 
 with the university of Seville; the seminary of San liarto- 
 
 1841.. 
 
 m*.. 
 
 1843.. 
 1814. 
 1815 . 
 1846.. 
 
 ...106,58:5.. 
 ...120,020.. 
 ...120,485.. 
 ..155,749 
 ...134,363 . 
 .. IKM9.V. 
 
 of car *r OPS. 
 
 ..506,GU 
 .. 575,851 
 .. 525,872 
 .. 654,469 
 
 .. 562,786 
 
 Cleared. 
 Vessel*. Tons. 
 
 558 101,056.... 
 
 585 109,270.... 
 
 556 107,562.... 
 
 705 143,149.... 
 
 681 mr,;!.V... 
 
 590 124,766.... 
 
 Vulue 
 of cargo*,,. 
 
 1,124,393 
 
 952,914 
 
 1,018,842 
 
 1.303,564 
 
 1,121,807 
 
 . 973 416 
 
 In the year 1847, the total exports of wine were 31,602 
 butts, being a decrease, as compared with 1846, of 1094 butts. 
 Salt is another chief article of export. Of this commodity 
 considerable quantities are exported from Cadiz, in British 
 vessels, to the Newfoundland fishery, and also to the river 
 Plata, and the Brazils ; and large quantities are also shipped 
 on board Russian, Swedish, and Norwegian vessels. The 
 chief imports are staves and tobacco, from America ; hides, 
 cocoa, indigo, cochineal, dyewoods, sugar, and other colonial 
 produce, from Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippine Islands, 
 Mexico, and Columbia ; cod-fish from Newfoundland, and coals 
 from England. 
 
 Cadiz has been often besieged. It was taken in 1596 by 
 Lord Essex, and again attacked by the English in 1628. In 
 1656 it was blockaded by Blake, who captured two rich 
 galleons, and sunk eight others Another English expedition 
 was undertaken against it in 1702, but failed. In 1809 the 
 Cortes took refuge here ; on that occasion the town was 
 blockaded by the French till 1812. In 1823 it surrendered 
 to the French under the Due d Angouleme. Pop. 53,920. 
 (Murray s Handbook of Spain; Willkomm s Zwei Jahre in 
 Spanien; Madoz, Diccio de Espana.} 
 
 CADNEY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 5100 ac. Pop. 438. 
 
 CADORE, or PIEVE-DI-CADORE, a tn. Austrian Italy, 
 gov. Venice, 22 m. N.N.E. Belluno, r. bank, Piave, among 
 high mountains. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in 
 agriculture, cattle-rearing, and mining. It has some trade in 
 wood and iron. In the vicinity, in 1797, the Austrians do- 
 
CADOXTON 
 
 547 
 
 CAEKLEON 
 
 feated the French ; but the place derives its chief interest 
 from being the birthplace of Titian, who was born here in 1477. 
 Pop. 1600. 
 
 CADOXTON, two pars. Wales, Glamorgan : 1, 32,000 
 ac. Pop. 5794. 2, (Juxta Barry), 900 ac. Pop. 242. 
 
 CAEN [anc. Cadomus, Cadetum], a tn. France, cap. dep. 
 Calvados (Normandy), 123 m. N.W. Paris, ina valley, between 
 two extensive meadows, at the confluence of the Orne with 
 the Odon, and 10 m. from the embouchure of the former ; 
 lat. 49 1 1 12" N. ; Ion. 2 1 W. (R.) The streets are broad, 
 regular, and clean ; two of them cross each other at right 
 angles, and extend nearly to the extremities of the town, 
 which is also traversed by a canal supplied by the Odon, and 
 employed to drive the machinery of numerous manufactories. 
 The houses are generally well built, of an excellent freestone 
 which is extensively quarried in the vicinity, and imported 
 into England under the name of Caen-stone. There are four 
 squares, the principal of which, the Place Eoyal, is ornamented 
 with a statue of Louis XIV. The public walks are beautiful, 
 especially the cours, a splendid avenue about a mile in length, 
 1 ined with elm-trees. Some fine promenades also extend along 
 the banks of the new canal. It has numerous fine churches 
 and other buildings, of which the following may be noticed : 
 the cathedral of St. Etienne, one of the finest in Normandy ; 
 the monastic buildings of the Abbaye mix hommes, a large 
 plain edifice, now occupied as the royal college, and contain 
 ing the tomb of William the Conqueror ; the church of the 
 Trinity, in the Norman style ; the Abbaye aux Dames, founded 
 by Matilda, wife of William the Conqueror, and converted into 
 an hospital in 1823; the church of St. Nicholas, now con- 
 
 ^ 
 
 CAEN. APSIS OF THE CHURCH OF ST. PIF.KRK, So. 
 From France Monumcntale et Pittoresque. 
 
 verted into a shot-manufactory, and perhaps the only one in 
 Normandy which presents the French style of the 1 1 th century 
 in all its purity ; no mixture of ornament, and no modern addi 
 tions having defaced the original. One of the finest churches 
 
 in Caen is that of St. Pierre, whose tower, terminated by a 
 spire, is exceedingly elegant, and, as well as part of the nave, 
 and the three porches, was built in 1308. The great porch, 
 finished in 1384, is irregular, but picturesque ; and the apsis is 
 justly regarded as a work of the greatest taste and elegance, 
 and as one of the most curious and the happiest efforts of the 
 revival of the arts in France. Five centuries have not in 
 the smallest injured this beautiful specimen of architecture. 
 Other buildings and institutions arc the hotel of the prefec 
 ture, a handsome building in the Italian style ; the Palais de 
 Justice, the remains of the castle built by William the Con 
 queror ; the Hotel-Dieu ; the Hotel-Valois, where the exchange 
 and chamber of commerce are held ; the public library, with 
 47,000 volumes; museum, cabinet of natural history, botan 
 ical garden, with 3000 species of plants ; custom-house, house 
 of correction, &c. Caen is the seat of the royal court for the 
 departments of Calvados, la Manche, and 1 Orne ; and has a 
 court of first resort, and of commerce, an academy of arts 
 and sciences, and an academic universitarie (the representa 
 tive of the university founded by Henry VI. of England, in 
 1431, and re-modelled at the Revolution), a secondary school 
 of medicine, school of hydrography, societies of medicine, 
 agriculture, and commerce ; deaf and dumb institution, normal 
 school, school of design, and numerous other institutions for 
 the promotion of the arts, sciences, and literature. Indeed, 
 the advantages possessed by Caen, in respect of education, &c., 
 have induced many English families to take up their residence 
 in it. 
 
 The manufactures of Caen are considerable, and consist of 
 hats, lace, cloth, flannels, linen, cotton goods, druggets, Angora 
 and thread gloves, straw hats, shot, porcelain, earthenware, 
 paper-hangings, cutlery, oils, &c. ; there are also some cotton 
 mills, dyeworks, breweries, tanneries, and establishments for 
 bleaching wax ; some shipbuilding is also carried on. From 
 time immemorial, the town has been celebrated for its manu 
 facture of Angora and woollen gloves, with which it supplies 
 most of the country districts of France. In this manufacture, 
 indeed, Caen has no rival ; and immense numbers of Angora 
 rabbits are reared in the neighbourhood, for the purpose of 
 being plucked, which operation they undergo once a year. 
 The fur thus obtained is used without dye, and the gloves are 
 cither gray or white. There is a considerable trade in grain, 
 wine, brandy, cider, clover seed, hemp, cattle, horses of good 
 quality, poultry, butter, fish, salt provisions, iron, steel, hard 
 ware, grindstones, freestone, and paving stones. Six fairs are 
 held annually, and are well attended. 
 
 The port formed by the river is of little importance, on 
 account of the dangers attending the entrance to the Orne, 
 obstructed as it is by sandbanks. At high water, however, 
 vessels of 150 or 200 tons can reach the town. Nothing cer 
 tain is known of the origin of Caen. In 912, when Neustria 
 was ceded to the Normans, it was a place of importance, and 
 increased rapidly under the Norman Dukes. William the 
 Conqueror, and his wife Matilda, adorned it with many edifices. 
 It became the capital of Lower Normandy a distinction which 
 more than once exposed it to the miseries of war. In 1346, it 
 was taken and pillaged by Edward III. of England. It was 
 again taken by the English in 1417, and wrested from them 
 in 1450 by Dunois, who captured the Duke of Somerset and 
 4000 troops, who had retreated to the castle. Malherbe, com 
 monly regarded as the father of French poetry, Huet, the 
 celebrated bishop of Avranches, and Auber, the composer, 
 were born in Caen. Pop. 38,267. 
 
 CAENBY, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 1760 ac. Pop. 185. 
 
 CAERHUN, par., N. Wales, Caernarvon. Pop. 1257. 
 
 CAERLAVEKOCK, a par. Scotland, co. Dumfries, about 
 6 m. in length, and nowhere exceeding 2 in breadth. It con 
 tains the ancient castle of Caerlaverock, a magnificent ruin, 
 celebrated in history, and famous for its warlike associations, 
 and for the many deeds of violence and bloodshed it has wit 
 nessed. Pop. 1297. 
 
 CAERLEON, an anc. tn. England, co. of, and 18 m. 
 S.W. Monmouth, on a gentle eminence, r. bank, Usk, which 
 is here crossed by a handsome stone bridge. It consists prin 
 cipally of two ill-paved streets, houses irregularly built, old 
 and dilapidated ; and has a chapel of ease, and chapels for 
 Baptists, Independents, and Wesleyan Methodists; a free 
 school, and an alms-house for aged widows. In the neigh 
 bourhood are extensive iron and tin works. Caerleon was 
 
CAERMARTHEN 
 
 548 
 
 CAGAYAN 
 
 at one time the metropolis of Wales, and a place of great 
 wealth and importance, being reckoned the third city in Bri 
 tain ; it is now rapidly hastening to decay, and presents but 
 few traces of its ancient grandeur. It was also a principal 
 and permanent Roman station, as many interesting remains 
 sufficiently prove. These consist of a part of a wall by which 
 the town was surrounded, and the site of an amphitheatre ; 
 fragments of Koman armour, stone coffins, coins, and rings, 
 have also been found. Pop. 1174. 
 
 CAERMARTHEN, or CARMARTHEN, a maritime co., 
 S. "\Vales, and the largest of all the Welsh counties, having 
 Cardigan on the N., the Bristol Channel and part of Glamor 
 gan on the S., Pembroke on the W., and Brecknock on the 
 E.; extreme length, 53 in.; breadth, 35; area, 634,360 ac. 
 It is of a mountainous character generally, but not so rugged 
 as some of the other Welsh counties, neither are the moun 
 tains so high. Some of the vales are beautiful and extensive, 
 particularly that of Towy, which is 30 miles in length. The 
 principal river is theTywi or Towy, which rises in Cardigan 
 shire. This river and the Tave are the only navigable streams 
 in the county. A large part of the county is waste ; but the 
 valleys are fertile, and numerous herds of small black cattle 
 are reared on the hills. Agriculture, however, is extremely 
 backward, and drainage altogether neglected. The mineral 
 products of the county are iron, lead, coal, and limestone. 
 There are no manufactures of any consequence. The county 
 returns two members to the House of Commons; constituency 
 (1850), 4969. Pop. 110,632. 
 
 CAERMARTHEN, or CARMARTHEN [Welsh, CaerFnjd- 
 dyri], a tn., S. Wales, cap. of above co., 9 m. from Caerniarthen 
 Bay, Bristol Channel, and 14 m. N.W. Llanelly, on a moderate 
 eminence, r. bank, Towy ; over which there is a spacious 
 bridge of seven arches. It has nine principal streets, toler 
 ably straight, well paved, and lighted with gas ; houses well 
 built, some of stone, and some of brick. The principal build 
 ings are the county-hall; St. Peter s Church, an ancient edifice, 
 containing numerous antique and curious monuments ; St. 
 David s Church, a plain substantial structure, a monument to 
 Sir Thomas Picton, and a well-executed statue of General 
 Nott, a native of the place. Besides the two Established 
 churches, there are two Independent chapels, two Baptist, 
 two Wesleyan, one Unitarian, and two Calvinistic Methodist. 
 Of public and private schools, about 20 in number, the most 
 prominent are the S. Wales training college, Sir Thomas 
 Powell s free grammar-school, Queen Elizabeth s grammar- 
 school, &c. There are also two infirmaries, and a literary 
 and scientific institution. The shipping of the port is con 
 siderable, and it has recently declared an independent customs 
 station. Tin-plate and iron works are carried on to some 
 extent, but the bulk of the inhabitants are employed in such 
 handicraft occupations as are likely to be most in request in an 
 agricultural district. With Llanelly, it returns a member to 
 the House of Commons; constituency (1850), 718. Pop. 
 9526. (Local Correspondent] 
 
 CAERNARVON, or CARNARVON, a maritime co., N. 
 Wales, having Caernarvon Bay, W. ; and co. Denbigh, E. ; 
 the island of Anglesey, and the Irish Sea, N.; and Cardigan 
 Bay, S. Its extreme length, S.W. to N.E., is about 52 m.; 
 extreme breadth, 20 m., although the greater portion of it does 
 not exceed 7 or 8 m. on an average ; area, 348,160 ac. This 
 county is traversed throughout its whole length by lofty 
 mountains, including the Snowdon range, whose highest peak 
 is 3557 ft. above the sea. There are other summits varying from 
 1500 ft. to between 3000 and 4000 ft. Although, however, the 
 most mountainous county in Wales, there are many tracts of low 
 and fertile land, some of it affording rich pasturage, and other 
 parts bearing large crops of barley and oats. Dairy farming, 
 and cattle, horse, and sheep breeding, are, however, the prin 
 cipal occupations of the farmer. The cattle and sheep are of 
 a small breed. Lead and copper ores have been found in the 
 mountainous districts, and some attempts have been made to 
 work them, but with little success. It has been otherwise 
 with the slate quarries in the neighbourhood of Bangor, which 
 have been extensively and profitably worked. Large quanti 
 ties of this slate, which is of the finest quality, are exported. 
 Agriculture, though not BO far behind as in some of the other 
 counties of Wales, is still in an extremely backward state. 
 Farm buildings and cottages are generally in a bad condition, 
 and the implements employed rude and inefficient. It sends 
 
 one member to the House of Commons; constituency (1850), 
 1983. Pop. 87,870. 
 
 CAERNARVON, or CARNARVON, a seaport tn. and par!, 
 bor., N. Wales, S.E. side of Menai Strait, and cap. of above 
 co., 209 m. N.W. London. The ancient walls thrown around 
 it by Edward I., and flanked by round towers, are still 
 pretty entire. Within there are ten narrow, but regular 
 streets ; outside, many new and handsome houses have been 
 built of late years, and some spacious streets formed. The 
 town is well lighted with gas, and is abundantly supplied with 
 water. The magnificent castle or palace of Edward I., and 
 in which Edward II. was born, stands at the W. end of the 
 town, and is still externally entire, though much dilapidated 
 nside. Including its court-yards, &c., it is about 1 m. in 
 circumference. On the N. and W. the sea dashes against the 
 rock on which it stands, adding an appropriate feature to the 
 imposing fortress. The parish church is half a mile from 
 Caernarvon, but there is a commodious chapel of ease in the 
 town, with four dissenting chapels, and several schools. A 
 lumber of wealthy families reside in the neighbourhood, and 
 the town is much frequented in the season by sea-bathers. 
 A beautiful promenade stretches along the Meuai, which 
 is much frequented, particularly in the summer evenings. 
 Caernarvon has no manufactures, but its shipping trade is 
 considerable ; the port admitting vessels of 400 tons. The 
 principal exports are slate and copper ore ; the imports, co 
 lonial produce, Manchester and Birmingham goods, &c. The 
 coasting trade is chiefly confined to Liverpool, Bristol, and 
 Dublin, although occasionally extending to Glasgow, Cork, 
 and Waterford ; constituency (1850), 861. Pop. of bor. 8001. 
 
 CAERPHILLY, a market tn., S. Wales, co. Glamorgan, 
 agreeably situate 6| m. N. by W. Cardiff. It is embosomed 
 among hills, and the scenery in the neighbourhood is pictur 
 esque and grand. The houses are neatly but irregularly built. 
 An ancient castle, contiguous to the town, was one of the most 
 magnificent structures in the kingdom. It has a chapel con 
 nected with the Established church, and places of worship for 
 Baptists, Wesleyans, and Calvinistic Methodists, and an en 
 dowed school for girls. Caerphilly, which appears formerly 
 to have been a place of considerable extent, had been gradually 
 declining till the beginning of the present century, when it 
 began to increase and prosper. The manufacture of woollen 
 cloths, checks, and linsey-woolsey is carried on. Weekly 
 market, Thursday, well supplied with corn and all kinds of 
 provisions ; six fairs are held annually for corn, cattle, cheese, 
 and other articles. Pop. 634. 
 
 CAERWENT, par. Enp. Monmou h ; 1900 ac. Pop. 446. 
 
 CAERWYS, par. Wales, Flint; 1600 ac. Pop. 987. 
 
 C^ESAREA, KAISARIAH, or CAESAKEA PALESTINA, a 
 small haven, Asiatic Turkey, Palestine ; lat. 32 23 N.; Ion. 
 34 44 E.; 55 m. N.N.W. Jerusalem. It was once a place 
 of considerable note, but is now a mass of shapeless ruins, 
 encompassed by a low wall of gray stone, and tenanted only 
 by jackals, snakes, lizards, scorpions, &c. A great extent of 
 ground is covered by the remains of the city, the most con 
 spicuous ruin being that of an old castle, at the end of the 
 ancient mole. Water being good and abundant, coasting 
 vessels often put in here. The ancient city was founded by 
 Herod the Great, B.C. 22; he then raised some magnificent 
 edifices, and caused a semicircular mole to be constructed for 
 its port, which is said to have been one of the most stupen 
 dous works of antiquity, and has been compared, as to design 
 and execution, to the breakwater at Plymouth. Caesarea is 
 the scene of several interesting events mentioned in Scripture. 
 Eusebius, the early church historian, probably a native, was 
 also some time bishop of Caesarea. In A.n. 635, the Saracens 
 captured it, and retained the place till 1101, when it was 
 taken by the Crusaders ; after the latter left, it soon fell into 
 decay. 2, Ccesarea PhiUppi, the same as BAMAB, which see. 
 
 CAFFA. See KAFFA. 
 
 CAFFARELLI ISLANDS, N.W. coast, Australia, Buc 
 caneer Archipelago, at the entrance of King s Sound ; lat. 
 16 3 S. ; Ion. 123 16 E. 
 
 CAFFRAR1A. See KAFFRARIA. 
 CAFFRISTAN. 8ee KAFIRISTAN. 
 CAGAYAN, a prov., isl. Luzon, the largest of the rhilijv 
 pines, occupying its S. extremity. It is mountainous, and 
 contains numerous extensive primitive forests. Cultivation 
 is carried on to some extent, but the scantiness of its popula- 
 
CAGAYAN SOOLOO 
 
 549 
 
 CAHETE 
 
 tion prevents a full development of its capabilities. Its prin 
 cipal vegetable production is tobacco, which is exported in 
 considerable quantities. Cattle and timber, the latter com 
 prising a valuable species of ebony, are the next chief articles 
 of export. Gold, iron, and a red ochre are found in the pro 
 vince, the last in great abundance. The mountains are in 
 habited by numerous and various animals, particularly buf 
 faloes, stags, boars, cattle, and horses. The rivers teem with 
 fish, which form a large portion of the subsistence of the 
 natives. The climate of Cagayan is rendered very unhealthy 
 by dense and tangled forests ; but the practice of cutting down 
 the trees in the vicinity of the villages and towns, has con 
 siderably improved the salubrity of these localities. The 
 inhabitants are generally honest and well disposed, and theft 
 is unknown. The province comprises 21 towns and villages, 
 which contain, together, 58,580 inhabitants. (Mallat.) 
 
 CAGAYAN SOOLOO, three islands, Sooloo Sea ; lat. 
 6 58 6" N.; Ion. 118 28 E. (R.) ; one of which is large, 
 high, and well wooded, and may be discerned at a distance 
 of 23 or 24 m. 
 
 CAGAYANES ISLANDS, three islands, one large and 
 two small, in the Sooloo Sea. The larger is of considerable 
 size, very high, aud covered with trees, and apparently of 
 volcanic origin. The small islands are situated 5 m. S. of 
 the former ; they are of moderate elevation, and are also well 
 clothed with timber. The large island is surrounded by a 
 reef. Its centre is in lat. 9 35 N.; Ion. 121 23 E. (R.) 
 
 CAGGIANO, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, 12 m. 
 N.N.W. La Sala, on a mountain. It has three churches and 
 an hospital. Pop. 4429. 
 
 CAGLI [anc. Callis],a tn. Papal States, at the confluence 
 of the Cantiano and Basso, foot of Mount Petraro, 13 m. S. 
 Urbino. It has a cathedral, four monasteries, four nunneries, 
 and is the seat of the bishopric of Cagli and Pergola. Pop. 
 3000. 
 
 CAGLI ARI (CAPO DI, or DIVISIONS DI), one of the two 
 military divisions of Sardinia, comprising the S. half of the 
 island. It is divided into the six provinces of Cagliari, In- 
 glesias, Isili, Lanusei, Nuoro, and Busachi. The sea-coast 
 from Tortoli on the E. side, to Oristano on the W. side, is 
 flat, with a rich and productive soil, but, from June to De 
 cember, the air is infested by vapours from the numerous 
 marshes and lagoons. The interior, on the contrary, is moun 
 tainous, with a pure and healthy atmosphere ; and snow lies 
 in the higher districts for a considerable portion of the year. 
 
 CAGLIARI (GULF OF), a gulf, S. end of isl. Sardinia, 
 extending from Pula on the W., to Cape Carbonara on the E., 
 nearly 30 m. across. The entrance is easy, and there is an 
 excellent roadstead, with good anchorage, after getting into 
 soundings. 
 
 CAGLIARI [anc. Calaris], a maritime city, Sardinian 
 States, cap. isl. Sardinia, and of the division of Capo-di- 
 Cagliari, situated on a slope on the gulf of same name, S. shore 
 of the island, and backed by exceedingly jagged mountains ; 
 lat. (St. Pancras Church) 39 13 12" N. ; Ion. 9 7 45" E. (R.) 
 It is surrounded by a single wall, defended by some bastions, 
 and a broad but shallow ditch, neither of which are in a state 
 of efficiency. The streets in general are broad, but the houses 
 are very poorly built. The original part of the town, now 
 called the castle, occupies the summit of a hill about 400 ft. 
 above the beach. This portion was built, and regularly for 
 tified, by the Pisans, and a citadel has been added to it by 
 the Piedmontese Government. The Viceroy and principal 
 authorities inhabit this quarter, which contains the cathedral, 
 also built by the Pisans, and partly faced with marble ; the 
 vice-regal palace, the university, three square towers called 
 St. Pancras, the Elephant, and the Eagle, the mausoleum 
 of Martin, King of Sicily, and the residences of the nobility. 
 The next quarter is the Marina, extending from the middle 
 of the castle hill to the sea shore. The Marina is the com 
 mercial quarter of the town, and contains a bonded ware 
 house, an arsenal, and a lazaretto. Here also is the mole. 
 Another quarter, called Stampase, extends W. from the castle, 
 and contains the corn market, and storehouses for grain. The 
 quarter of Villanova extends E., and is the poorest part of 
 the town. Cagliari has a suburb nearly a mile long, called 
 St. Avandino. Besides the cathedral, the town contains 38 
 churches, 21 convents, a seminary, a university, founded 
 1626, and re-established in 1764, with faculties of theology, 
 
 law, medicine, and philosophy, attended by between 200 
 and 300 students ; an agricultural society, a college for nobles, 
 a school of medicine and surgery, a mathematical school, a 
 museum of antiquities, a cabinet of natural history, a library 
 of 18,000 volumes, a mint, a theatre, and several hospitals and 
 other beneficent institutions. The town is badly supplied with 
 water, although an ancient aqueduct remains, which could 
 be restored at a moderate expense. It is reputed healthy, not 
 withstanding the proximity of the extensive marsh of the same 
 name to the W., and the frequency of droughts. Cagliari is 
 the seat of government for the island, and of the high court 
 of appeal for both civil and criminal cases, of an admiralty 
 court, court of first resort, tribunal of commerce, and fiscal 
 court. It is also the residence of an archbishop, who takes 
 the title of Primate of Sardinia. 
 
 Consuls from most of the European states reside here, this 
 being the port through which most of the foreign trade of the 
 island is done. The manufactures of the town are of little im 
 portance. They include cotton, soap, gunpowder, arms, 
 leather, and jewellery. There is also a royal tobacco manu 
 factory. The salt marshes in the neighbourhood afford large 
 quantities of salt, which forms a principal article of trade. 
 The port is one of the best in the Mediterranean, and the road 
 stead has good anchorage ground. Grain, vegetables, salt, 
 oil, wine, cheese, flax, hides, saffron, and rags are exported. 
 
 VKSSELS ENTERED and CLEARED at (fie PORT OF CAGLIADI, 
 
 from 1842 to 1846. 
 Entered. Cleared. 
 
 Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tons. 
 
 ....484 65,854 482 55,603 
 
 ...372 44,287 372 44,147 
 
 ...460 55,755 460 55,755 
 
 ...365 39,888 359 4U.030 
 
 1842., 
 1843.. 
 1844.. 
 1846.. 
 
 The ancient Calaris is supposed to have been founded by 
 the Carthaginians. During the Middle Ages, the Pisans built 
 the castle, with its three square towers. The King of Sar 
 dinia resided here from 1798 to 1814, during which period the 
 French had possession of his continental dominions. Pop. 
 (1845), 30,063. 
 
 CAGNANO, twotns. Naples: 1, In prov. Abruzzo Ultra, 
 5 m. N.W. Aquila. Pop. 5187. 2, In prov. Capitanata, 18 m. 
 N.W. San Sevevo. Pop. 4590. 
 
 CAGNES, a tn. France, dep. Var, on a hill near the coast 
 of the Mediterranean, about 10 m. E. Grasse. Good red wine 
 is grown in the neighbourhood, and forms almost the only 
 article of trade. Pop. 2036. 
 
 CAGSANA, a tn., isl. Luzon, one of the Philippines, 
 prov. Albay, near the S. extremity of the island, the second 
 largest town in the province. Pop. 12,755. 
 
 CAGUA, a tn. Venezuela, prov. Caracas, 1. bank, Araguay, 
 and a little E. of Lake Tacarigua, about 50 m. S.W. the town 
 of Caracas ; lat. 10 18 N. ; Ion. 67 38 W. Pop. 5200. 
 
 CAGUAN, a tn. New Granada, near the sources of a 
 river of same name, in the Llanos of Caguan ; lat. 2 50 N. ; 
 Ion. 74 30 W. It has a church containing an image of San 
 Roque, which is held particularly sacred, and to which numer 
 ous pilgrimages are made. The climate here is warm, and 
 the country around productive in maize, plantains, sugar 
 cane, &c. Gold is also obtained. The river Caguan falls 
 into the Caqueta or Japura, in lat. 17 N. ; Ion. 73 25 W. 
 
 CAHAWBA, a river, U. States, Alabama. It rises in 
 the N. part of that state, whence it flows S. to the town of 
 Cahawba, where it unites with the Coosa river, and forms the 
 Alabama. 
 
 CAHER, two pars. Irel.: 1, par. Kerry; 19,100 ac. 
 Pop. 6135. 2, par. Tipperary; 13,647 ac. Pop. 8801. 
 
 CAHERAGH, par. Irel. Cork; 23,517 ac. Pop. 8375. 
 
 CAHERAVALLY, par. Irel. Limerick; 3833 ac. P.1717. 
 
 CAHERCORNY, par. Irel. Limerick; 1546 ac. P. 522. 
 
 CAHERDUGGAN, par. Irel. Cork; 6131 ac. Pop. 1626. 
 
 CAHERELLY, par. Irel. Limerick; 2719 ac. Pop. 1329. 
 
 CAHERLAG, par. Irel. Cork; 3557 ac. Pop. 1767. 
 
 CAHERNARRY, par. Irel. Limerick; 2478 ac. P. 1388. 
 
 CAHETE, or VILLA DA RAIXHA [New Queen s town], an 
 old tn. Brazil, prov. Minas Geraes, 15 m. S.E. Sahara; lat. 
 19 50 S. ; Ion. 45 10 W. Its streets are broad and straight, 
 and its houses in general well built, though partly of earth. 
 It possesses a fine parish church and two plainer churches, an 
 hospital, and a primary school. Agriculture, cattle-rearing, 
 and mining, are the chief occupations. Pop. 6000. 
 
CAHIR 
 
 550 
 
 CAIRO 
 
 CAIIIR, or CAHER, an inland tn. Ireland, co. Tipperary, 
 on the Suir, about 9 m. W. by N. Clonmel. It is well built, 
 and exceedingly neat and clean ; its general appearance being 
 greatly improved by the Suir, here a clear and beautiful 
 stream, passing through it. The public buildings are all 
 handsome, and, being placed, most of them, in conspicuous 
 situations, have a very fine effect. They include a market- 
 house, bridewell, fever hospital, dispensary, and several schools. 
 About 1 m. from the town is a barrack, capable of accom 
 modating a regiment of cavalry, and which, being generally 
 occupied, adds much to the gaiety and bustle of the place. 
 The old picturesque castle of Cahir, an object of considerable 
 interest, occupies the summit of a rock, which rises over the 
 left bank of the river. A considerable trade is done here in 
 corn, and its various fairs and markets are well attended. ! 
 The mansion of the Earl of Glengall is in the town, its 
 beautiful and finely-wooded domains embracing both sides of 
 the Suir. Pop. 3668. 
 
 CAHIRC1VEEN, a to. Ireland, co. Kerry, 1. bank, Cahir, 
 29 m. W. by S. Killarney, at the foot of a hill, consisting of one 
 main street, with two others at right angles. It has an Estab 
 lished church, and R. Catholic chapel, a Protestant parochial 
 school, and one connected with the National Board of Educa 
 tion, a fever hospital, and dispensary. Charran House, now 
 in ruins, the birthplace of the late Daniel O Connell, is about 
 1 m. from the town. Pop. 1492. 
 
 CAHIRCONLISH, a par. and tn. Ireland, co. Limerick. 
 The town, which is 7 m. S.E. Limerick, has a parish church, 
 dispensary, and a school. Pop. of tn. 562. Area of par. j 
 8173 ac.; pop. 3925. 
 
 CAHLORE, a small principality in N. Hindoostan, on 
 both banks of the Sutlej ; the cap. of which, Belaspoor, is in 
 lat. 31 19 N.; Ion. 76 47 E. 
 
 CAHORS [anc. Cadurcum], a tn. France, cap. dop. Lot, 
 60 m. N. Toulouse, r. bank, Lot; lat. 44 25 59" N.; Ion. 
 1 27 25" E. (c.) It stands on a slope, almost surrounded 
 by the river, and is divided into the upper and lower town. 
 Some old ramparts defend the isthmus on the land side. Most 
 of the streets are narrow, crooked, and steep; some improve 
 ments, however, have recently been made, by the formation 
 of several new streets and quays. There are three bridges 
 across the Lot, one of which, believed to have been built in 
 the 13th century, has a square tower at each end, and one in 
 the centre. The cathedral is a spacious edifice, built appar 
 ently at different periods. The most ancient portion has been 
 attributed to the Romans ; and the cupola above the choir is 
 referred to the beginning of the seventh century. The hotel 
 of the prefecture, formerly the episcopal palace, is a fine 
 structure, forming the principal ornament of the square in 
 which it stands. Among the other public buildings are the 
 ancient seminary, now converted into barracks ; the ancient 
 charter-house, occupying the site of one of the houses of the 
 Knights Templars; the fine cloister of the cathedral, the 
 theatre, public library containing 12,000 volumes; the obelisk 
 to the memory of Fenelon, &c. The town is the seat of a 
 bishopric, tribunals of commerce and of first resort, a royal 
 college, with about 300 pupils ; and a primary normal school 
 for the department. The university, founded by the Pope in 
 1321, was united to that of Toulouse in 1751. The cele 
 brated jurist, Cajas, was a professor, and Fenelon a student 
 here. Manufactures inconsiderable, being limited to some 
 woollen goods, nut and seed oil, and paper. A good trade, 
 however, is carried on in the red wine of the neighbourhood, 
 called vin noir, on account of its dark colour. Brandy is also 
 distilled here ; and coal is wrought in the vicinity. 
 
 Cahors is supposed to have been the capital of the Cadurci 
 before the conquest of Gaul by Caesar. It was afterwards 
 the Divona of the Romans, who adorned it with a theatre, 
 temple, and forum. The Roman roads, of which vestiges 
 remain, have been attributed to Agrippa. The aqueduct, in 
 tended to convey water from the valley of St. Martin de Vern, 
 was about 15 m. in length. Clement Marot, the well-known 
 French poet, contemporary of Francis I., was born here. 
 I op. 10,594. 
 
 CAICOS, CAYOS, or THE KEYS, one of the island groups 
 comprehended under the general name of Bahamas, consist 
 ing of six islands, besides some uninhabited rocks; between 
 lat. 21 and 22 N., and Ion. 71 and 73 W. The largest 
 of them, called the Great Key, is about 30 m. long. When 
 
 seen from the E., they appear like low rocks ; they consist of 
 corals or madrepores, which are covered with a thin layer of 
 sand, intermixed with shells ; are fertile, and produce cotton, 
 grain, &c. 
 
 CA1LAS, or KAILAS MOUNTAINS, a range of mountains 
 in Tibet, Central Asia, situated in about lat. 31 N. ; and 
 stretching N.W. and S.E., almost parallel to the Himalayas. 
 Nothing is known of either its E. or W. limit. Some of 
 its peaks attain a great elevation ; that called Kailas Peak 
 reaching the height of 2 1 ,000 ft. The sources of some of 
 the largest rivers in India, the Brahmapootra, Sutlej, and 
 Indus, are in the vicinity of these mountains. 
 
 CAINHAM, par. Eng. Salop; 3040 ac. Pop. 973. 
 
 CAINO, a com. and vil. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, prov. 
 of, and 9 m. N.N.E. Brescia, in a pleasant valley traversed 
 by the Garza, which here furnishes water power to several 
 paper and spinning mills. Pop. 781. 
 
 CA1PHA, a tn. Syria. See, KAIFFA. 
 
 CAIRA, or CAIKAW, par. Wales, Glamorgan. Pop. 80. 
 
 CAIRIRIS, or JABITACA. 1, A mountain range, Brazil, 
 prov. Pernambuco, running N.W. to S.E., and forming the 
 N. boundary of the basin of the Rio S2o Francisco in this 
 province. Its total length is about 300 m. 2, Cairiris-Novos, 
 a mountain range, Brazil, forming part of the boundary be 
 tween provs. Rio Grande do Norte and Paraiba. 3, Cairiris- 
 Vellws, a similar range, forming part of the boundary between 
 provs. Paraiba and Pernambuco. 
 
 CAIRN, a maritime vil. Scotland, co. of, and 22 m. 
 W.N.W. Wigton, on the E. shore of Loch Ryan. It is a 
 regular place of call for the steamers from Stranraer to Glas 
 gow and Belfast. Pop. 196. 
 
 CAIRNGORM, a mountain, Scotland, S.W. extremity 
 co. Banff, one of the highest summits of the Grampian range ; 
 height, 4050 ft. above the level of the sea. This mountain 
 has been long celebrated for its crystals or topazes, which are 
 now, however, becoming scarce. They are of various colours 
 pink, white, brown, or black. 
 
 CAIRNIE, par. Scot. Aberdeen. Pop. 1638. 
 
 CAIRO, or GRAND CAIRO [Arabic, El-Masr, El-Kdhirah, 
 the victorious capital; French, Le Caire; German, Kairo], 
 cap. Egypt, situate near r. bank, Nile, 15 m. above the com 
 mencement of the delta, 120 m. S.E. Alexandria, and 84 m. 
 W. Suez; lat. 30 2 1" N. ; Ion. 31 15 5" E. (R.) It is 
 almost square, and, after Constantinople, is the largest city in 
 the Ottoman empire, being 3 m. in length, and about 2 broad. 
 It is built partly on the slope, partly at the foot of the last 
 
 THE EN\TK 
 
 I C A 
 
 f.nrfish Mil.v 
 
 s ^assff "]/* 
 
 I KO rXJIL* IWL 
 
 height of the hill range of Mokattam, and is enclosed with 
 antique battlements and stone walls, having several gate 
 ways, and lofty towers at intervals. Within the walls there 
 are about 30,000 inhabited houses, including several palaces, 
 400 mosques, 240 streets, and several public squares, many 
 fountains, and 300 cisterns, or reservoirs; and the city is 
 intersected by a canal communicating with the Nile, and sup 
 plying water to the inhabitants. Cairo is built in old Arabian 
 Saracenic style, without any mixture of Western forms. The 
 houses are lofty, flat-roofed, and have numerous projections, 
 and windows with narrow wooden gratings. No two are 
 
CAIEO 
 
 551 
 
 CAIRO 
 
 alike. No attempt is made at symmetry, yet the whole is 
 most harmonious. Most of these houses are built of air-dried 
 bricks, few are of stone, and none of wood ; and many present 
 in their interior a true picture of Oriental luxury. The nu 
 merous beautiful minarets with which the city is adorned, 
 contribute greatly to heighten the general impression in favour 
 of Cairo. 
 
 The city is divided into several quarters, separated from 
 each other by gates, which are regularly closed at night. The i 
 public streets are merely crooked lanes, few of them being j 
 10 ft. broad. The bye-streets, and those in the interior | 
 quarters, are still narrower ; and, in consequence of the | 
 manner in which the houses are built, each story projecting 
 beyond that immediately below it, two persons may shake 
 hands across the streets from the upper windows. The streets 
 are not paved, but they are kept extremely clean. They are 
 constantly obstructed by caravans of camels, riders on ass- 
 back and horseback, little regarding the pedestrians, who are 
 few in number, and composed wholly of the poorer classes, 
 The chief square of Cairo is the magnificent area El-Esbe- 
 kiah, which is annually inundated by the overflowing of the 
 Nile, and the centre of which is laid out as a garden ; it is 
 surrounded with many of the finest mansions, several of which 
 belong to Government officials, including the palaces of Ali 
 Pasha and Amet Pasha. In this square there is a monument 
 to General Kleber, who was assassinated there on June 14, 
 1800. 
 
 The buildings in the citadel merit first mention, from their 
 prominence, in a general view of the city, no less on account 
 of the interest which attaches to several of them. This 
 fortress, founded A.D. 1176, by Saladin, is built on a calcareous 
 rock, in the S.E. quarter of the city, of which it forms the 
 abrupt termination; within its walls, March 1, 1811, the t 
 massacre of the Mamalukes took place. It contains the 
 mint, an arsenal, the Pasha s marble palace, his new mosque, i 
 &c. To make room for the latter, a lofty antique edifice, j 
 called Youssouf s or Joseph s Hall, was removed in 1829. I 
 The vice-regal palace is small, hut has had some showy addi- j 
 tions made to it of late years. Joseph s Well still remains ; 
 it is dug in the rock, and consists of two parts, the upper and 
 lower well ; and a winding staircase leads to the bottom, a 
 depth of 260 ft. The fortress is further supplied with water 
 from the Nile, by an aqueduct, formed by Saladin. But the 
 most remarkable building of the citadel is its new mosque 
 perhaps one of the most splendid in the world built of 
 Egyptian marble, and really wonderful, considering that it 
 has been got up by native architects and workmen, without 
 any fixed plan, almost without any measurement, and, as it i 
 were, only in imitation of other buildings of the same style. ! 
 Behind the citadel is a fort, upon a rock, called the Jebel el ; 
 Jooshee, the ascent to which is by a long causeway. It was on 
 the site of this fort that Mahomet Ali erected a battery against 
 the citadel, then in possession of Khoorshid Pasha, by which 
 he obtained the surrender of the place. 
 
 The most interesting edifices of Cairo are, undoubtedly, 
 its mosques ; and though many of the 400 it possesses are in 
 ruins, yet the number in repair and in daily use is very great. 
 The oldest mosque, as well as the oldest building in Cairo, is 
 the mosque of Ahmed-ebn-el-Tooloon, generally known as the 
 Jama Tayloon, of unknown date, but evidently anterior to 
 879, and though not remarkable for beauty, it is of high in 
 terest in the history of architecture. The finest mosque is 
 that of Sultan Hassan, immediately below the citadel, and 
 built of blocks obtained from the pyramids. Its porch is 
 lofty and beautifully ornamented, the cornice of its towering 
 walls is rich, and its minarets, and the arches of its spacious 
 courts, are striking. Near the bazaar of the Khan Khaleel, 
 is the mosque of Sultan Kalaoon, to which is attached the 
 Morastan or mad-house, founded by that prince, in A.D. 1287, 
 and the only one in Egypt, till the erection of the new lunatic j 
 asylum by Mahomet Ali, in 1 844. In the mosque is the hand 
 some tomb of the founder, who died, A.D. 1200. Not far from 
 this mosque is that of Sultan Berkook, with his tomb attached. 
 This potentate was the first sultan of the Circassian Mamaluke 
 dynasty, and was renowned for having twice repulsed the 
 Tartars under Tamerlane. Besides those named, the other 
 principal mosques are the Ezher, Hassanin, El Hakem, and 
 those of Sultans El Ghoree, the Sharawee, Moaiiid, and Sitteh 
 Zayneb. The tombs of the Egyptian Caliphs, which occupied 
 
 the site of the bazaar of Khan Khaleel, are all destroyed but 
 that of El Saleh Eiyoob, who died in 1250. Near them are 
 the tombs of Sultan Baybers, Naser Mohammed, Baharite 
 Mamaluke princes, and various others, some of them remark 
 ably elegant. The largest convent of derwishes existing is at 
 Cairo; it was built in 1174; and between the city and Old 
 Cairo is another. There is also an hospital for the sick poor, 
 with 500 beds, 200 of which are for women. 
 
 The principal bazaars of Cairo are the Ghoreah and Khan 
 
 MOSQUE OF SULTAN BEBKOOK, AND FOUNTAIN OF ISMAIL P,\ 
 From Hay s Sketches of Cairo. 
 
 Khaleel ; in the former, cottons, silks, tarbooshes (Fez caps), 
 &c., are sold; in the latter, cloths, dresses, swords, silks, 
 embroideries, &c. ; and in both goods are disposed of by public 
 cry or auction. In the Hamzowee, silks, crape, cloth, &c., 
 and most European tissues, are sold ; the dealers are all 
 nominal Christians. Some of the bazaars are well covered 
 over, and all their passages are kept cool by watering; and 
 each one is confined to certain classes of goods or wares. 
 The same observation applies to the shops. Those of the 
 Svokereeh, for instance, or sugar quarter, are for sugar, 
 almonds, dried fruit, &c. ; the Nahasin, full of coppersmiths ; 
 the Khordukleeh, where hardware, cups, coffee-pots, &c., are 
 sold ; the Suovjah, occupied by sword-mounters ; the Sagha, 
 by gold and silver workers; and the Gohergdeh, by jewellers. 
 The Okalet-el-Gelab or slave market, in the centre of the city, 
 is a large old building, surrounding a large court. The slaves 
 exposed for sale are chiefly from Abyssinia, Nubia, Dongola, 
 and Senaar. Circassians of both sexes are also sold, but these 
 are usually only procured to order. 
 
 Public baths are numerous, but none are remarkable. The 
 largest is the Tumbalee, near the Bab-el-Shareeh. Many of 
 the sibeels or public fountains are curious specimens of the 
 peculiarities of Oriental taste, abounding in great luxuriance 
 of ornament. The most remarkable are those of Tossoom 
 and Ismail Pashas, the sons of Mahomet Ali ; and some others, 
 of older date, in the centre of the town. There are several 
 hotels for strangers from the West, with a number of Frank 
 lodging or boarding-houses, a few of which are specially for 
 British or Americans. 
 
CAIRO 
 
 552 
 
 CAIRO 
 
 The climate of Cairo is esteemed healthy. It is dry, though 
 in winter heavy rain is frequent. At that period, also, the 
 nights are cold. From July to November N. winds prevail, 
 and in general are favourable to the country and the traveller ; 
 but they bring with them from the Mediterranean heavy and 
 cold dews, which lower the temperature suddenly, and render 
 it dangerous to be out at night without being warmly clad. 
 In April and May the hot S. winds prevail, and no de-\v falls. 
 The medium temperature is about 70 25 Fah., varying from 
 95 the maximum, or 86 50 the medium of August, to 52 
 the minimum, or 56 50 the medium of January. It is in 
 order to form a shelter from the great heats of summer, and 
 the cold winds of winter, that the streets are built so crooked 
 and so narrow. 
 
 Besides the usual Moslem festivals (see CONSTANTINOPLE) 
 held in Cairo, it is the scene of two great events, annually 
 the ceremonial departure and return of the Haj or Mecca 
 pilgrims through the Bab-el-Nasr or Gate of Victory, on the 
 
 THE WALLS, CAIRO From Hny s 3 rttchei of Cairo 
 
 E. or desert side of the city; and the opening of the canal at Old 
 Cairo, which is also an annual ceremony of great import. There 
 are few places of amusement. Within the last few years a 
 theatre has been set on foot in the Frank quarter, with amateur 
 actors, who play gratis. A more useful institution, in the 
 same locality, is the library and reading-room of the Egyp 
 tian Society. In 1842, another society for respectable Euro 
 peans, called the Egyptian Literary Association, was founded 
 here. Ibrahim Pasha commenced a public library in 1830; 
 and both he and his father made beginnings towards forming 
 a museum of antiquities, in which, however, little progress 
 has been made. 
 
 In Cairo there are nine cotton-spinning factories, 10 for 
 weaving silk and cotton, 13 for manufacturing cloth, 14 
 calico printing-works, 18 dye works, 15 bleacheries, 16 iron- 
 foundries, &c. In the citadel are a factory of small arms 
 and cannon, the latter bronze, and of small calibre ; an iron 
 rolling-mill, and the mint. 
 
 There were in Cairo, in a recent year, about 24 Moslem 
 foreign merchants; 15 European, but no British, houses; 
 10 Catholic Greeks , and six Schismatics establishments. In 
 the city were 164 corporated bodies for the regulation or 
 advancement of native trades. But the commerce of Cairo is 
 much diminished. It has ceased to be a depot, as it formerly 
 was, for either articles of export or import. Alexandria, from 
 the greater facility which its position affords, has supplanted 
 it in importance. It is still, however, a great market for gums 
 and some other secondary articles. The stocks of goods in 
 Cairo are consumed principally by the inhabitants of the city, 
 the buyers for the interior finding it more advantageous to 
 supply themselves from the warehouses of the importers at 
 Alexandria. At Cairo are resident consuls from France, 
 Sardinia, and the U. States. 
 
 The police of Cairo is superintended by a bash-aga, with 
 an office near the Frank quarter; this functionary decides 
 slight cases summarily, but sends those of a graver character 
 
 before the judicial diicans in the citadel, or submits them 
 for the consideration of the viceroy or his resident deputy. 
 Questions of property, family disputes, and all proper cases 
 of law, come under the jurisdiction of the Mehkemeh or Cadi s 
 court : the operations of this tribunal are ordinarily slow, but 
 may be quickened, it is said, by bribery. No foreigners can 
 legally buy real property in Cairo. Europeans and Americans 
 are judicially subject to the consuls or envoys of their several 
 Governments, and cannot be punished by Turkish law. The 
 Cadi s court used to be held in the decayed buildings of the 
 old Sultan s palace ; but a new legal edifice, with courts and 
 offices, has lately been opened. 
 
 To Mahomet Ali, Egypt owes the introduction of elemen 
 tary and specific education. In Cairo there are three primary 
 schools, with 400 pupils, where reading and writing, and 
 the four rules of arithmetic are taught. There are, besides, 
 several primary schools here and elsewhere, for the soldiery, 
 besides scientific academies for cadets, &c. From 4000 to 
 5000 pupils are educated in the schools of 
 the city mosques. The Church of England 
 Missionary Society has a school connected 
 with the British chapel in Cairo, for young 
 male Orientals ; and another for 100 native 
 girls. 
 
 Omnibuses run to Boulac, and across the 
 ^_ v desert to Suez. In March 1851, the Pasha 
 officially announced his intention of con- 
 ^- structing a railway between Cairo and Alex 
 
 andria an undertaking expected to be pro 
 ceeded with in the same year, and which will 
 afford a much more speedy means of transit 
 than the water-way of the Nile and theMah- 
 moodiah canal connecting those two cities. 
 
 Environs of Cairo. The following general 
 view of the exterior features of the city is 
 given by Dr. Hoffmeister (1846) : Palm- 
 trees and mimosas rise in grand picturesque 
 groups above the city walls. The central 
 part of the background is filled by a wood 
 of palms, stretching into the distance ; near 
 to this, on the right, rise the giant structures 
 of the pyramids of Ghizeh. These supply 
 the place of mountains, which would other 
 wise be wanting to complete the picture, the foreground of which 
 consists of a thick wood of acacia. In the interspace are fields 
 of maize ; in the midst of the plain a small lake, embowered 
 with rows of the Labekacacia. On the horizon the desert may 
 be distinctly perceived, by the yellowish-gray of the atmos 
 phere which hangs over it. The cemeteries or cities of tombs," 
 are situated outside the walls. Among them are the sepulchres 
 of the Mamaluke kings, of the Circassian dynasty (reigned 
 1382-1517), on its E. side, beyond the gate Bab-el-Nasr. To 
 each tomb a mosque is attached. 
 
 The palace and gardens of Shoobra lie about 4 m. to the 
 N. of the city, the road to which, along the banks of the Nile, 
 is shaded with lofty sycamores. This splendid country-seat 
 of Mahomet Ali is begirt with a fine pleasure-garden ; more 
 than 30 Persian wheels are employed in irrigating its grounds. 
 In its immediate vicinity are some other villas ; and adjoining 
 them, a row of extensive manufactories. Between Boulac 
 and Cairo are the fine palace and magnificent gardens of 
 I In ahi in Pasha. 
 
 OLD CAIRO [Musr-el-Ateekeh], called Fostat by the Arabs, 
 is the S. or upper port of Cairo, where all duties on goods 
 destined for the latter are levied and paid. It presents some 
 objects of interest, including an old Roman fortress, and the 
 splendid mosque of Amer. The inhabitants are mostly Copts, 
 and here are several convents of that sect of Oriental Chris 
 tians. Seven antique corn stores, popularly called the gran 
 aries of Joseph, have lately been demolished. The aqueduct 
 which conducts the waters of the Nile to the citadel of Cairo, 
 by a winding course of 2 m., here commences. In the Isle of 
 Roda, opposite Old Cairo, is the famed Mtkkeeds or ancient 
 Nilometer, for measuring the rise of the Nile, upon which 
 the fertility of Egypt depends. Uoulac, already referred to, 
 is the lower port of Cairo. 
 
 The site of the city of Cairo is said to be that of the Babylon 
 of Cambyses, built on the ruined site of the pre-existing 
 Lntopolis of the Egyptians. The present city was founded 
 
CAIRO 
 
 553 
 
 CALABRIA 
 
 lay the Arabs, about A.D. 970 ; and its citadel, as we have 
 seen, was raised by Sultan Saladin, in 1176. From that 
 period till the year 1517, when it was taken by the Turks, it 
 was the capital of the Saracenic Sultans of Egypt. The 
 former governed it by Pashas, these being latterly controlled 
 by the Mamalukes, to whose massacre, followed by the resump 
 tion of rule by the Pasha, we have already adverted. Pop. 
 of Cairo and its suburbs, about 300,000; of which 190,000 
 are Egyptians, 10,000 Copts, 4000 Jews, 5000 Syrians, 5000 
 Greeks, 2000 Armenians, and a varying number of Franks or 
 Europeans. (Quetin, Guide en Orient; Russegger, Reise in 
 Egypten; Wilkinson s Modern Egypt; &c.) 
 
 CAIRO [anc. Crixia], a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, 
 and 10 m. N.W. Savona, 1. bank, Bormida. The French 
 defeated the Austrian army here in 1794. Pop. 4500, 
 
 CAIROAN, or KAJRWAN, a tn. Tunis. See KAIROUAN. 
 
 CAITHNESS, a maritime co. Scotland, occupying the 
 N.E. extremity of that kingdom, bounded, W. by co. Suther 
 land, and by the N. Atlantic Ocean on all other sides. It is 
 about 43 m. long, S.W. to N.E., and about 30 broad ; area, 
 446,080 ac., of which about 100,000 are cultivated and in 
 pasture, the remainder is moor and hill. The general appear 
 ance of the country is flat and uninteresting, having neither 
 trees nor eminences to break the dreary monotony of the 
 scene. It contains no navigable rivers, nor lakes of any con 
 sequence ; the shores are bold and rocky. Until of late years, 
 the dwellings of the tenantry were, in general, extremely 
 poor; but great improvements in this respect, and also in the 
 various branches of agriculture and husbandry, especially in 
 the rearing of cattle, have recently taken place, so that the 
 country already presents a much more cheerful and thriving 
 appearance than it did formerly. The soil, where duly culti 
 vated, is extremely fertile, yielding luxuriant crops ; and the 
 sheep and lambs reared in this county command the highest 
 market prices. On the coasts, herring-fishing is prosecuted 
 with great success, about 120,000 barrels being taken yearly. 
 There are about 700 boats, manned by five men each, all 
 belonging to the county, engaged in this fishery. There are 
 also two considerable salmon -fisheries, one on the river 
 Thurso, another on that of Berriedale. Caithness contains 
 1 parishes. It sends a member to Parliament ; and its prin 
 cipal town, Wick, unites with Kirkwall, Dornoch, Tain, 
 Dingwall, and Cromarty, in choosing a representative ; con 
 stituency (1850), 651. Annual value of real property in 
 1815, 34,469; and in 1842^13, 65,869. Its chief towns 
 are Wick and Thurso, the former being the more important. 
 The natives are of Scandinavian origin, the country having 
 been colonized by that people from the Orkneys, where they 
 had been previously settled. Pop. (1841), 36,343; being 
 less, by nearly 200, than it was 10 years before ; the defi 
 ciency is accounted for by emigration, and the incorporation 
 of small farms. Pop. (18511.38,709. 
 
 CAISTOR. 1, A small market tn. and par. England, co. 
 of, and 21 m. N.E. Lincoln, pleasantly situate on the slope 
 of a hill ; has an Established church, several places of worship 
 for dissenters, and a free grammar-school. It is, however, 
 chiefly noticeable on account of its antiquity, having been a 
 Roman station, as numerous relics, indicative of the presence 
 of that people, are dug up from time to time ; area of par. 
 6490 ac. Pop. 2033. 2, Caistor-next- Yarmouth, par. Eng. 
 near Yarmouth, Norfolk ; 2920 ac. Pop. 909. 3, Caistor- 
 St.-Edmunds, par. Eng. Norfolk; 910 ac. Pop. 147. 
 
 CAJAHIBA, a small isl. Brazil, W. side Bahiade Todos- 
 os-Santos, opposite the mouth of the river Serigi. It is low, 
 cultivated, and has a primary school. 
 
 CAJANO (POGGIO A). See POGGIO A CAJANO. 
 
 CAJARE, a tn. France, dep. Lot, 20 m. E. Cahors, 
 r. bank, Lot ; in a large and fertile valley, surrounded on all 
 sides by hills clothed with vines. The streets are narrow 
 and irregular, and the houses indifferently built, with excep 
 tion of some along the old ramparts, now converted into a 
 promenade. The only buildings of interest are the parish 
 church, built in 1289 ; and the remains of an ancient fort, 
 apparently of a very remote antiquity. Numerous fairs are 
 held here. Pop. 1074. 
 
 CA JAZZO, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Lavoro ; on a 
 
 hill, near the Volturno, 10 m. W.N.W. Capua. It is very 
 
 ancient, is defended by a citadel built by the Lombards, and 
 
 has a handsome cathedral, several churches and convents, a 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 seminary, college, and an hospital. Good wine is produced 
 in the neighbourhood. Pop. 3891. 
 
 CALABAR, a maritime dist. Upper Guinea, W. Africa, 
 intersected by two rivers, called, respectively, Old and 
 New Calabar. The limits of the district are not well as 
 certained, but may be said, generally, to lie between the 
 river Benin or Formosa, and the Rio del Key, with the 
 Kong Mountains in the rear, and thus having the Niger pass 
 ing through its centre. The coast here, a projecting line 
 between the Bights of Benin and Biafra, is uniformly low 
 and flat, unbroken by the slightest elevation, and closely 
 intersected by rivers, most, if not all of which, with ex 
 ception of Old Calabar, being branches of the Niger. Much 
 vegetable matter and silt are discharged at every ebb tide 
 by these mouths, which discolour the ocean with a filthy 
 scum of a brown colour, and give forth a sickening smell, 
 for the distance of several miles. The climate of Calabar is 
 extremely deleterious, and the coast generally inhospitable ; 
 there not being a lighthouse or single harbour of refuge 
 throughout its entire length. Tornadoes are frequent, and 
 of the most violent character, accompanied by vivid light 
 ning, and tremendous peals of thunder, with rains so fierce 
 and heavy that it is impossible to look to windward, or 
 discern anything beyond a few yards distance, while the 
 noise so overcomes the loudest voice, that all orders must be 
 conveyed by messengers. A large portion of the population 
 of this district are slaves, and are employed chiefly in culti 
 vating the provision grounds, or in the various kind of labours 
 connected with the palm-oil trade, in which the chiefs are 
 engaged. Old Calabar or Bongo river is situated about 90 m. 
 nearly due W. from New Calabar. The entrance of its 
 estuary, which is nearly in the centre of the Bight of Biafra, 
 is in lat. 4 35 N. The latter is a considerable expanse of 
 water, about 9 m. in breadth, with a strong current. The 
 traders ascend the river about 30 m. New Calabar enters 
 the Bight of Biafra at lat. 4 30 N.; Ion. 7 7 E. Its course is 
 from the N.W., and its depth, 20 m. from the sea, 6 fathoms. 
 This river is believed, on good grounds, to be one of the 
 numerous terminating branches of the Niger, the power and 
 volume of its current showing that it must be the embouchure 
 of a great river. 
 
 CALABOZO, a tn. Venezuela, prov. of, and 120 m. 
 S.S.W. Caracas, between the rivers Guarico and Urituco, in 
 the midst of the Llanos. It is tolerably well built, and has 
 rather a pleasing appearance. Its church, though not very 
 handsome, is commodious. The principal wealth of the in 
 habitants consists of cattle. The neighbouring ponds abound 
 in electrical eels, which Humboldt describes as being from 
 5 ft. 4 inches to 5 ft. 7 inches in length, and capable of kill 
 ing a horse. Calabozo, formerly only an Indian village, owes 
 its existence, as a town, to the Biscay Company. Pop. 5000. 
 
 CALABRIA, an extensive territory, kingdom of Naples, 
 comprising all the S.W. peninsula in which Italy terminates, 
 from about lat. 40 N. to the Strait of Messina ; area estim 
 ated at 7000 sq. m. It is divided for administrative purposes 
 into three provinces Calabria Citra, the most northerly ; 
 Calabria Ultra I., the most southerly; and Calabria Ultra II., 
 between the two former. The central region is occupied by 
 the great Apennine ridge, wild and black, to which, however, 
 whole colonies, with their cattle, migrate in the summer. The 
 flats near the coast are marshy and unhealthy, and inhabited 
 by herds of buffaloes ; but the valleys at the foot of the moun 
 tains are delightful, and rich with the most luxuriant vegeta 
 tion. The vine, the orange and lemon trees, the fig, the 
 olive, and all the fruits of S. climes, grow there to perfection. 
 The climate was reckoned salubrious in ancient times ; but 
 in some places the accumulation of stagnant water produces 
 disease in the hot season. During the remainder of the year 
 the heavy dews preserve a delightful verdure, increased by 
 numerous springs and streams. Corn, rice, saffron, anise, 
 liquorice, madder, flax, hemp, olives, almonds, and cotton, are 
 raised in abundance. The sugar-cane also comes to perfec 
 tion here. Sheep, horned cattle, and horses, are numerous. 
 Near Reggio, a kind of mussel is found, called Pinna marina, 
 from whose silky byssus or beard a beautiful fabric is manu 
 factured, remarkable for its extreme lightness and warmth. 
 Coral is also fished. The quarries and pits afford alabaster, 
 marble, gypsum, alum, chalk, rock-salt, lapis lazuli, and the 
 fine copper renowned since the time of Homer. 
 
 70 
 
CALABRITTO 
 
 554 
 
 CALAIS 
 
 A melancholy temperament, a concentration of feelings, and 
 a sullen distrust, render the Calabrian formidable when irri 
 tated. Even their women seem endowed with a masculine 
 spirit; their features, harsh though regular, are scowling and 
 wrinkled even in youth, and their uncouth dress leaves them 
 little of that delicacy which is considered elsewhere natural 
 to the sex. They marry early, and soon fade. The men, 
 with their short jackets, close trowsers, leather gaiters, and 
 sandals of undressed skin, tied by thongs, and a rusty conical 
 hat, with narrow brim and trimmed with ribb ins and images 
 of the Virgin, may be seen skulking about behind their olive- 
 trees, or some loose stone wall, as if in wait for some pas 
 senger to fall upon. The peasant labours little, subsisting 
 almost entirely on the spontaneous productions of nature, and 
 his habitation is of the most wretched description. Heredit 
 ary hatred divides most of the families, and an individual 
 never goes abroad unarmed. In the night they barricade 
 their houses. They have little or no idea of social inter 
 course, and seldom visit each other. The language of the 
 people is a corruption of Italian, difficult to be understood, but 
 full of original and pointed expressions. The natives are well 
 formed, muscular, and of a brown complexion, with animated 
 countenances, and eyes full of expression. Like the Sardin 
 ians and Corsicans, they murder without remorse when insti 
 gated by cupidity or revenge. The robber carries religious 
 relics in his bosom, and trusts to them for the success of his 
 nefarious enterprises. The towns in this country are built on 
 steep conical hills, crowned with houses to the very top, the 
 outer or lower buildings being joined together by walls, so as 
 to form <i sort of rampart. They are generally in the lowest 
 state of wretchedness. 
 
 The arts and manufactures of Calabria are in an extremely 
 backward state. There are some silk manufactures at Mon- 
 teleone, and olive-oil is manufactured to a large extent. Silk 
 is produced in tolerable quantity, although of a darker shade 
 than that of the other provinces, from the red mulberry being 
 employed to feed the silk-worms. 
 
 Calabria has long been subject to devastation by earth 
 quakes, 1 years having seldom elapsed, during the last century 
 and a half, without a shock; but the more severe convulsions 
 have always been separated by much wider intervals. The 
 last remarkable visitation of this kind occurred in 1783, when 
 about 40,000 persons perished in the Calabrias and Sicily, and 
 20,000 more, shortly after, by causes resulting from it. By 
 far the greatest number who died at the moment, were buried 
 in the ruins of their houses, but numbers also were ingulfed 
 in the deep fissures into which the earth was rent. It is said 
 that the conduct of the Calabrian peasants on this dreadful 
 occasion was singularly atrocious ; they abandoned the farms 
 and flocked into the towns in great numbers, not to rescue. 
 their countrymen from a lingering death, but to plunder ; and 
 were seen stripping the wounded and half buried, while yet 
 living. Pop. (1844), 1,074,558. 
 
 CALABRITTO, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, on 
 the Sele, 10 m. N.E. Campagna, with several churches, and 
 a convent. Large fairs are held here. Pop. 2420. 
 
 CALACEITE, a tn. Spain, Aragon, prov. Teruel, 28 m. 
 N.N.W. Tortosa, in a plain at the base of a mountain. It 
 is tolerably well built, and possesses a parish church, two 
 endowed schools, a townhall, prison, cemetery, and several 
 fountains. Wine and oil are expressed, and some trade is 
 carried on in grain and cattle. A cattle-fair is held in De 
 cember. Pop. 2404. 
 
 CALAHORRA. 1, [anc. Calagurrix], a city, Spain, Old 
 Castile, prov. of, and 24 m. E.S.E. Logrono, 1. bank, Cidacos, 
 2 m. from its confluence with the Ebro. It has several squares, 
 an ancient cathedral, four churches, four chapels, four schools, 
 an episcopal palace, townhall, hospital, and a large Francis 
 can convent, which now serves the triple purpose of school- 
 house, prison, and theatre. Weaving, expressing oil, and 
 agriculture, are the chief occupations. Annual fair in August. 
 Calahorra is famous for the siege it sustained from Cneus 
 Pompey, B.C. 72, by whom it was taken, after an obstinate 
 resistance, and the most dreadful suffering from famine. Por 
 tions of its ancient walls, towers, and aqueducts, still remain. 
 Pop. 5994. 2, A tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 35 m. 
 E. Granada. It has a parish church, two endowed schools, 
 a townhousc, prison, and a magnificent palace of the Marquis 
 of Cenet, of Doric architecture, built in the 15th century. 
 
 Some little trade is carried on in wine, oil, and grain. In 
 former times, numerous iron mines, and two of silver, were 
 wrought in the adjacent hills, near one of which is a mineral 
 spring. Pop. 1993. 
 
 CALAIS, a seaport tn., and fortified place of the first class, 
 France, dep. Pas-de-Calais, 20 in. N.E. Boulogne, on the strait 
 of, and 27 m. S.E. Dover; lat. 50 57 36" N.; Ion. 151 15" 
 E. (it.) It has a tolerable port, at the junction of several 
 canals, which facilitate communication with Gravelines, Arras, 
 Dunkirk, and St. Omer ; and is the terminus of the railway 
 from Lille, through which it is directly connected with the 
 metropolis. The town is nearly square, is walled, well for 
 tified, and has a citadel on the W. side, and several forts 
 commanding the town, harbour, and approaches. On the land 
 side, the country is flat, and can be laid under water, with the 
 exception of an approach about 200 yards wide, protected by 
 a cross fire. The ramparts are planted with trees, and afford 
 an agreeable promenade. The streets are broad and well 
 paved, the houses substantially built of brick, and the hotels 
 
 general excellent. Still the town has on the whole a dull 
 aspect, and evidentally owes its importance rather to the 
 number of travellers who pass through it, than to any pecu 
 liarly favourable circumstance pertaining to the place itself. 
 The place d armes, near the centre of the town, has some good 
 houses, and here the Hotel de Ville, built in 1740, is situated. 
 The cathedral contains a fine altar-piece in Genoa marble, and 
 above the altar is a magnificent painting of the Assumption, 
 by Vandyke. Other noteworthy objects are, the cours de 
 Ghiise, the column erected to commemorate the landing of 
 Louis XVIII. in 1814; the public library, with 12,000 
 volumes ; theatre ; barracks, containing an enormous water 
 cistern ; and the hotel Dessin, which combines a hotel, theatre, 
 garden, and public baths. The town is so ill supplied with 
 spring water, that the inhabitants are obliged to content them 
 selves with the rain collected in cisterns. Calais is the seat 
 of a tribunal and chamber of commerce, the residence of 
 several foreign consuls, and has an agricultural society, school 
 of design, and school of hydrography. 
 
 The harbour is formed by two moles, which are continued 
 seaward by wooden piers, the whole being about three quar 
 ters of a mile in length. At ebb tide it is nearly dry, and has 
 
 IK BELFBT 
 
 From Voyages dans 1 Ancienne Fran 
 
 not a greater depth than 15 or 18 ft. at high water, according 
 to the wind. A tower in the centre of the town serves as a 
 lighthouse, the light of which is revolving, and is 118 ft. 
 
CALAIS 
 
 555 
 
 CALATAGIRONE 
 
 above the sea level. A stationary tidal light at the red fort, 
 announces when the port is accessible ; good anchorage ground 
 from 2 to 3 m. N. W. the harbour. Calais is well known as 
 one of the principal ports for the debarkation of travellers 
 from England ; there being daily communication with Dover 
 by steamboat, and several times a week with London and 
 Ramsgate. In 1849, the number of travellers that arrived 
 by sea was 35,411, and in 1850 it reached to 53,864. The 
 manufactures of the town, formerly inconsiderable, have risen 
 of late to some importance. The bobbin-net trade employs 
 782 looms, and from 4000 to 5000 artisans. Numerous mills 
 have been erected, steam-engines are multiplying, and the 
 inner ramparts have been removed to make way for the fac 
 tories. There are also some oil and soap works, tanneries, 
 and a salt-refinery. Vessels are built here, and fitted out for 
 the cod, mackerel, and herring fisheries. A considerable trade 
 is carried on in spirits, salt, oil, grain, wine, hemp, wood, coal, 
 &c., and not less than 55 millions of eggs are annually exported 
 to England. 
 
 In 1347, Calais was taken by Edward III. of England, after 
 a siege of 1 1 months. The story of his determining to exe 
 cute six of the principal burgesses, with the heroic Eustache 
 de St. Pierre at their head, and of his sparing their lives at 
 the intercession of his wife, Queen Philippa, is too well known 
 to require repetition. Calais remained in the hands of the 
 English from 1347 to 1558, during which time they improved 
 the town, and strengthened the fortifications. In 1558, it was 
 taken by the Duke of Guise, and was the last relic of the 
 Gallic dominions of the Plantagenets, which at one time com 
 prehended the half of France. Pop. 10,673. 
 
 CALAIS, a tn., U. States, Maine, r. bank, St. Croix, 
 (nearly opposite St. Andrews in New Brunswick), 140 m. N.E. 
 Augusta ; lat. 44 7 N. ; Ion. 69 5 W. It has an upper and 
 lower village, 2 m. apart, connected by a railroad ; 10 schools, 
 and a grist and 20 saw mills, propelled by the falls, which 
 afford excellent water-power. Below the lower falls is a bridge 
 across to the British side of the river. The tide rises here 
 20 ft., and vessels of the largest size can ascend to the lower 
 village. Pop. 2934. 
 
 CALAIS (PAS DE). See PAS-DE-CALAIS. 
 
 CALAMATA, or KALAMATA [Greek, Kalamai] , a seaport, 
 Greece, Morea, cap. gov. Messenia, at the head of the Gulf of 
 Koron. It stands about 1 m. from the sea, 1. bank, Nedon, 
 a torrent which emerges from a rocky gorge in Mount Tay- 
 getum ; and has a small suburb on the other side of the tor 
 rent, with mills and gardens supplied from it, by an artificial 
 channel. It is the seat of the bishopric of Messenia, of a 
 court of first resort, and has a busy trade. Its exports con 
 sist of wool, oil, raw silk, and figs of the first quality ; and 
 is noted for a particular kind of handkerchief, which, from 
 the brilliancy of the colours, and moderate price, is in great 
 demand throughout the Levant. In 1847, the arrivals in the 
 harbour were 1108 vessels ; tonn. 13,024; departures, 1098 ; 
 tonn. 12,430. The town was burnt by Ibrahim Pasha, in 1 825. 
 Almost every house in Calamata contains a chamber for the 
 rearing of silkworms. The pop. consists of 400 families ; of 
 which only six are Turkish. (Leake.) 
 
 CALAMIANES, an island group and prov. Philippines. 
 The group comprises the islands Calamianes, Busvagon (which 
 see), Coron, Linacapan, and Iloe or Yloe; between the islands 
 of Palawan and Mindoro, besides numerous small islets. 
 They lie between lat. 11 25 and 12 20 N. ; and three of 
 them are intersected by meridian 120 E. The island Cala 
 mianes, having Busvagon N., and Linacapan S., is about 36 
 m. long by about 1 7 broad ; hilly, fertile, and abounding in wild 
 animals, such as deer, hogs, and rats, which commit great 
 
 ravages on the crops. The PROVINCE includes the island 
 
 group whence it is named, the N. portion of island Palawan, 
 and several islets adjacent. It is thinly inhabited, and pro 
 duces gold, rice, legumes, excellent wax, honey, fruits, beau 
 tiful pigs, and fowls. It is hilly, well wooded, and fertile ; 
 its coasts yield turtle and pearls ; and, though in general 
 dangerous, yet possesses some good harbours and anchorages. 
 Pop. of prov. 16,028. (Mallat.) 
 
 CALAMO, or KALAMO, one of the smaller of the Ionian 
 Islands, between the S. end of Santa Maura and the coast of 
 Greece, from which it is separated by a narrow channel ; lat. 
 (E. end) 38 16 N. ; Ion. 20 54 E. It is about 7 m. long 
 by 2.J greatest breadth ; partially covered with olives and 
 
 vines, but pasturage indifferent. There is a little harbour 
 earned Geroglimione, on the S.E. side, affording good shelter, 
 where fresh water is to be obtained. 
 
 CALAMOCHA, a tn. Spain, Aragon, prov. of, and 38 m. 
 N. Teruel, in an extensive plain, near r. bank, Jiloca. It 
 has a parish church, chapel, two endowed schools, a townhall, 
 prison, and cemetery ; and some trade in cattle, wine, and 
 grain. Pop. 1400. 
 
 CALAMOTTA, an isl. Austria, Dalmatia, 7 m. W. by N. 
 Ragusa, in the Adriatic. It is highly cultivated, producing 
 excellent wine and oil. With the neighbouring islands, Giu- 
 pan and Mezzo, it was either given or sold to Ragusa, in 1080, 
 by Silvester, king of Dalmatia. Pop. 500. 
 
 CALANDSOOG, a vil. Holland, prov. N. Holland, on 
 the N. Sea, 9 m. S. the Helder. It has a Reformed church 
 and a school. This is the third church two former ones, 
 at considerable distances towards the W., having been swept 
 away by the sea, with a large tract of cultivated ground. Near 
 Calandsoog, the combined British and Russian forces landed, 
 August 27, 1 799, and defeated a Dutch army with great loss! 
 
 CALANAS, a vil. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 20 m. 
 N. Huelva ; with a church, two chapels, a townhouse, school, 
 hospital, and cemetery ; and some trade in grain, flax and 
 cattle. Pop. 1948. 
 
 CALANTAN, or KALANTAN, a principality, Malay pen 
 insula, E. coast, tributary to Siam, with river and town of 
 
 same name. The PRINCIPALITY is bounded, N. and S., by 
 
 the petty states, Sungora and Tringano, from which it is se 
 parated by the rivers Banara and Basot; parallel 6 15 N., 
 which intersects the mouth of the river Calautan, may be 
 taken as the centre line of the territory, which probably ex 
 tends on either side about 30 m. The country is composed 
 of vast plains, and its soil is clay mixed with sand. It is fer 
 tile, and produces rice, coffee, pepper, legumes, sugar-cane, 
 bananas, &c. The principal mineral products are gold and 
 
 tin. The RIVER has a tortuous course, is neither very 
 
 I broad nor very deep ; has beautiful limpid water, and sandy 
 I banks ; well stocked with a great variety of fish, and abounds 
 
 in crocodiles. The TOWN, which lies near the mouth of 
 
 the river, is composed of irregularly built huts, interspersed 
 among groves of cocoa-nut, banana, durian, and other fruit- 
 trees. The houses, both inside and outside, are filthy in the 
 
 extreme. The PORT is small, shallow, and flanked on either 
 
 side by a sand-hill. Pop. of principality estimated at 50,000. 
 (Nouvelles Annales dcs Voyages, &c.) 
 
 CALANTIGA ISLANDS, a group of islands, N.E. coast, 
 Sumatra ; lat. 2 9 to 3 1 30" S. ; Ion. 1 04 5 E. The three 
 principal islands are high, and may be seen 24 m. from the deck. 
 
 CALAP, a small isl., N. Pacific Ocean, Gillolo Passage, 
 W. end, isl. Popa ; lat. 1 15 S. ; Ion. 129 30 E. 
 
 CALAPAN, a tn., N.E. ooast, isl. Mindoro, one of the 
 Philippines ; lat. 13 20 N. ; Ion. 121 10 E. It is a poor 
 place, and badly built ; has two small forts, but no port. The 
 houses are covered with the bark of a species of palm, called 
 Cabonegro, remarkable for its durability. Pop. 2790. 
 
 CALARY, par. Irel. Wicklow ; 19,564 ac. Pop. 2954. 
 
 CALASCIBETTA, or CALATASCIBETTA, a tn. Sicily, 
 prov. of, and 14 m. N.E. Caltanicetta; with numerous caverns 
 and sulphurous springs in its neighbourhood. Pop. 4788. 
 
 CALASPARRA, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 40 m. N.W. 
 Murcia ; with streets badly paved, and having two squares, 
 a parish church, chapel, council-house, four schools, a poor- 
 house, and a public fountain. Weaving, grinding corn and 
 rice, expressing oil, tillage, and tending cattle, occupy the 
 inhabitants, who also trade in cattle. Pop. 5275. 
 
 CALATABELLOTA, a tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 27 m. 
 N.W. Girgenti, near r. bank river of the same name the 
 Crimisus of the Romans. The ancient Tnocala the prin 
 cipal fortress occupied by the insurgents in the war of the 
 slaves was situated in the vicinity of the town. Pop. 4768. 
 
 CALATAFIMI, a tn. Sicily, dist. of, and 21 m. E.S.E. 
 Trapani. It is badly built, has a ruinous castle on the sum 
 mit of a neighbouring hill ; environs well cultivated, and ex 
 tremely fertile. It occupies the site of the ancient Longarium. 
 Pop. 8376. 
 
 CALATAGIRONE, or CALTAGIRONE [anc. Galata Hier- 
 onis], a tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 32 m. S.W. Catania, on the 
 slope of a hill, and with its suburbs occupying a considerable 
 extent of ground. It is reputed one of the wealthiest towns 
 
CALATAVOTURO 
 
 556 
 
 CALCUTTA 
 
 in the island, has spacious and clean streets ; and its municipal 
 regulations are judicious, compared with those of the generality 
 of southern towns. It contains several churches and convents, 
 a royal college, hospital, and orphan asylum ; is the seat of a 
 bishop, and has an academy with four professors. The in 
 habitants are esteemed the best workmen, in Sicily, in the 
 useful arts, and manufacture good pottery-ware and cotton 
 fabrics. Several fairs annually. It was fortified by the 
 Saracens, and taken from them by the Genoese. The famous 
 Roger Guiscard accorded extensive privileges to the town. 
 Pop. 21,700. 
 
 CALATAVOTURO, a tn. Sicily, prov. Palermo, 27 m. 
 N.N.W. Caltanicetta, on the Grande. Jasper is found in the 
 neighbourhood. Pop. 3408. 
 
 CALATRAVA (SANTIAGO DE), a tn. Spain, Andalusia, 
 prov. of, and 20 m. W. by S. Jaen. It is composed of a 
 square, and some ill -made streets; and contains a parish 
 church, small townhall, prison, endowed school, public store 
 house, and cemetery. The people are engaged in tillage and 
 cattle-rearing. In the vicinity is a quarry of white marble, 
 of superior quality. Pop. 1014. 
 
 CALATRAVA LA VIEJA, in Spain, the remains of the 
 ancient city of Calatrava, on the S. bank of the Guadiana, 
 65 m. S.E. Toledo ; known as the Oretum or Oria of the 
 Oretani, under the Romans. In the Middle Ages, it was 
 strongly fortified, and was considered the key of the sierra 
 Morena, the lofty barrier between Castile and Andalusia. The 
 military order of Calatrava was founded here in 1158; the 
 Knights at first retained the Cistertian habit, but afterwards 
 shortened it, to make it more suitable for the field. They 
 subsequently adopted a secular dress for common use, and 
 one for ceremony, consisting of a mantle of white silk, tied 
 with a cordon and tassels. The Knights rendered themselves 
 famous in their contests with the Moors. The institution 
 gradually degenerated, and, in 1485, the grand mastership 
 was united to the crown. About 80 commanderies remain 
 to the order, which was distinguished, in the days of its glory, 
 by the title of the gallant order. 
 
 CALATAYUD [anc. Bilbilis], a city, Spain, Aragon, 
 prov. of, and 45 m. S.W. Saragossa, 1. bank, Jalon, near its 
 junction with the Jiloca. It lies in a plain at the foot of two 
 rocky ridges, the summits of which exhibit remains of several 
 Arab fortifications. The city is divided into two parts, high 
 and low. The former, or old Moorish town, called Moreria, is 
 chiefly inhabited by a poor and miserable race of people, living 
 in caves and hovels. The latter or modern town, contains 
 numerous clean, well-paved streets, and 22 squares, lined with 
 commodious houses, and handsome public buildings. Cala- 
 tayud possesses in all 13 churches ; those of Sta. Maria and St. 
 Sepolcro, are collegiate, and deserve especial notice. Sta. Maria 
 was formerly a grand Arab mosque, built prior to the con 
 quest of the city by Alonzo the Brave, in 1120; it has a lofty 
 octagonal tower. St. Sepolcro, built in 1613, on the site of an 
 earlier edifice bearing date 1 156, is in the Doric style, and con 
 tains many curious relics. Of the remaining churches, two or 
 three are handsome Gothic structures, and that of Santiago was 
 also once a mosque. The other noteworthy public edifices are 
 a spacious guild-hall, with session-house and jail attached, 
 three hospitals, a theatre, barrack, bull-ring, workhouse, col 
 lege, several primary and other schools, an episcopal palace, 
 and extensive and magnificent old castle ; in the environs 
 many agreeable public walks and pleasure-gardens. Manufac 
 tures : linen and hempen fabrics, canvas, ropes, soap, paper, 
 wine, oil, &e. Considerable trade is carried on in cattle, grain, 
 fruit, hemp, and manufactured goods. An annual and well- 
 attended fair for cattle and agricultural produce is held 
 September. Calatayud is the birthplace of the poet Martial, 
 and the painter Vera. Pop. 7125. (Madoz.) 
 CALAURIA. See POROS. 
 CALAVRITRA. See KALAVRYTA. 
 CALAYAN,an isl. Indian Archipelago. See BABUYANES 
 CALBE, or KALBE, a tn. Prussia, gov. of, and 15 m. S 
 Magdeburg, cap. circle of same name, on the Saale ; here 
 crossed by a bridge 1370 ft. in length. It has walls, witl 
 five gates; contains two parish churches, several hospitals 
 and other endowments ; and has manufactures of woollens 
 paper, chicory, oil, and beet-root sugar. The railway between 
 Leipzig and Magdeburg passes the town at the distance o 
 a mile, where there is a station. Pop. 61)00. The CIRCLE, 
 
 area, 161 geo sq. m., is level, and tolerably fertile. Pop. 
 50,175. 
 
 CALBOURNE, par. Eng. Hants ; 5090 ac. Pop. 750. 
 
 C ALGA, a prov. Peru, dep. Cuzco, and N. the city of that 
 name. The surface is broken and uneven, but the tempera 
 ture mild, excepting on the heights, where it is very cold. 
 The soil is extremely fertile, producing in great abundance 
 sugar-canes, wheat, maize, &c., and a great variety of fruits. 
 The sugar made here is the finest in Peru. Three consider 
 able rivers have their sources in and around this province ; 
 these are the Paro or Beni, the Yambari or Paucartambo, and 
 Urubamba. 
 
 CALCAR, a tn. Prussia, gov. Dusseldorf, circle of, and 
 8 m. S.E. Cleves, on an island formed by the little river Ley. 
 It contains two churches (a Protestant and a R. Catholic, tho 
 latter possessing some fine paintings), and a handsome town- 
 house ; has manufactures of cloth, flannel, hosiery, and hats ; 
 a tannery, brewery, potash-work, and some trade in wood anil 
 coal. It has also four cattle and two general markets. Pop. 
 1800. 
 
 CALCASIEU, or CALCASU, a river and lake, U. States, 
 Louisiana. The former rises in lat. 31 25 N., and, after a 
 S.S.W. course of about 110 in., falls into the N. extremity of 
 the lake of the same name, which, again, discharges itself into 
 
 the Gulf of Mexico. TheLAKEisup\vardsof30m.inlength, 
 
 about 10 m. in breadth, and is distant from the sea 9 or 10 m. 
 At the N. end of the lake, and stretching from it N.E., is an 
 extensive prairie, called the Great Calcasieu Prairie. 
 
 CALCEBY, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 430 ac. Pop. 52. 
 
 CALCETHORPE, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 710 ac. Pop. 69. 
 
 CALCI, a vil. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 7 m. E. 
 Pisa, near r. bank, Arno. It is well built, commanded by a 
 castle belonging to the Archbishop of Pisa, and possesses a, 
 handsome parish church, which has a fine marble font and 
 granite pulpit. A considerable quantity of oil is manufactured 
 here. Pop. 2000. 
 
 CALCINAJA, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 
 12 m. E. Pisa, in a plain, r. bank, Arno. It is well built, 
 and possesses a fine church. The vicinity is fertile, and the 
 inhabitants are chiefly engaged in husbandry. Pop. 3222. 
 
 CALCINATE, a vil. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, prov. 
 of, and 10 m. E.S.E. Bergamo, on the post road to Brescia. 
 It is tolerably well built, and possesses a handsome parish 
 church, school, hospital, and poorhouse. The inhabitants are 
 mostly engaged in husbandry and cattle-rearing. Pop. 1806. 
 
 CALCINATO, a tn. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, 
 prov. of, and 12 m. S.E. Brescia, on a gentle declivity, 1. bank, 
 Chiesa. Here the Austrians were defeated by the French, 
 April 19, 1706. Pop. 3693. 
 
 CALCIO, a tn. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, 
 prov. of, and 18 m. S.S.E. Bergamo, r. bank, Oglio, on the 
 highroad from Milan to Brescia. The streets are well made 
 and clean, and the town possesses two handsome churches, an 
 hospital, and a brandy distillery ; woollen, linen, and hempen 
 fabrics, oil, and wine, are manufactured ; and considerable 
 attention is paid to the rearing of silkworms. Calcio was 
 formerly the capital of a small province called Calciana, when 
 its importance and population were much greater than at 
 present. Pop. 2906. 
 
 CALCKEN, a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. E. Flanders, 
 8 m. E. Ghent, 1. bank, Scheldt. It has breweries, bleach- 
 fields, flour, oil, malt, lint, and saw mills, and an annual horse 
 fair. Pop. 4952. 
 
 CALCUTTA [Kallee Ghattah, the ghaut or landing- 
 place of the goddess Kallee; in acts of Parliament, called the 
 Town of Calcutta, and Factory of Fort- William ], a well- 
 known city, Hindoostan, cap. of presid., and prov. Bengal, 
 and seat of the supreme government of British India; lat. 
 22 33 5" N.; Ion. 88 19 7 2" E. (R.), situate on a level 
 tract, 1. or E. bank, Hooghly, a branch of the Ganges, about 
 100 m. from the sea. It is about 4J m. in length, S.E. to 
 N.W., along the course of the river ; and in breadth, E. to W., 
 from 1 to If in. at the broadest part, which is about the 
 centre. At either extremity, the width does not exceed half 
 a mile. Beyond these limits, however, there are numerous 
 suburbs, villages, and detached residences. A spacious way, 
 called Circular Road, encompasses it on the land side, follow 
 ing the line of the ancient entrenchment called the Mahrattn 
 ditch; and marks the boundary of the liberties of the city, and 
 
CALCUTTA 
 
 557 
 
 CALCUTTA 
 
 of the administration of English law. On the W. side, or that 
 next the river, is an extensive quay, or breast-work, about 
 2 m. long, called the Strand, 40 ft. above low-water mark, and 
 having landing-places or rjliauts, at intervals throughout its 
 
 8. Central Hospital. 
 
 la Mission Church. , 
 11. Cathedral. 
 
 ]>. I rmnpul Square. 
 13. HindnostaneeColleirp. 
 and Wellestey Square. 
 
 o 
 
 !6. Machooleh Bazaar St. 
 
 17. Boitacannah and Bo" 
 
 Bazaar Street. 
 
 18. Welksley Strctt. 
 
 entire length. The river, opposite the city, varies in breadth, 
 from about two furlongs at the narrowest part, to about three 
 quarters of a mile at the broadest. The approach to the cap 
 ital of British India, by the Hooghly, is thus described by 
 Davidson : On arriving at Garden lieach, the stranger may 
 begin to imagine, that, not wholly without reason, Calcutta 
 has acquired the title of the "city of palaces." From the 
 lower part of this lieach, on the right, the river bank is laid 
 out in large gardens, each with a handsome mansion in its 
 centre ; and the whole scene speaks of opulence and splendour. 
 On approaching the head of Garden Reach, the stranger all at 
 once beholds Fort William, and the town of Calcutta spread 
 out before him, and a splendid view it is. Should he arrive 
 in the month of November or December, he will behold, per 
 haps, the finest fleet of merchant shipping the world could 
 produce. 
 
 Calcutta is divided into two distinct portions, the one, the 
 N. portion, is occupied by natives ; the other, the S., by Euro 
 peans. In the former, the streets are narrow and dingy, the 
 shops and warehouses mean-looking. The lower parts of the 
 houses contain the bazaars, and the upper the dwelling-houses. 
 This department of the city is crowded with a low and hetero 
 geneous population ; many being half naked, numbers entirely 
 so, while others are bedizened in tawdry and fantastic gar 
 ments; discordant noises of all sorts, and most offensive smells, 
 complete the repulsive character of this portion of Calcutta. 
 It is different with the S. or European portion. Here the 
 streets are spacious ; the houses, most of them detached, large 
 and handsome, built of brick, and stuccoed, which gives them 
 the appearance of marble palaces. 
 
 Chowringhee, which lies E. of the fort, is the fashionable 
 
 and favourite quarter of the town, being apart from the 
 quarter of trade and commerce. The streets there are wide, 
 the houses handsome, and detached in their own grounds. 
 Both the Episcopalian and Presbyterian burying-grounds are 
 in this quarter of the city. The road which bounds Chow 
 ringhee on the W. is about 80 ft. wide, and runs along the E. 
 side of the Maidan or plain, from N. to S. The new theatre, 
 called the Sans Sottci (an elegant Grecian structure), and the 
 Asiatic Society s House (a plain building), are the only public 
 edifices in this quarter. The ornamental character of some 
 of its private houses, with their garden enclosures, is in some 
 degree marred by the incongruous proximity of native huts, 
 and open patches of unoccupied ground, which are, however, 
 diminishing as building extends in this direction. 
 
 The suburbs of Calcutta are extensive; and Garden Reach, 
 about 3 m. S. of the town, is the most striking as to architec 
 tural and park-like features, which are seen and admired from 
 on board the ships, while sailing up the river. The houses 
 are occupied by Europeans. The grounds are extensive, and 
 laid out with fine trees, and parterres of shrubs interspersed 
 with the bright colours of tropical plants, while the scene i.s 
 enlivened by the ships constantly passing up and down. On 
 the opposite bank are the botanical gardens, remarkable for 
 their extent and beauty, and for the noble banyan and other 
 trees which adorn them ; and lower down is seen, on the same 
 side of the river, the elegant Gothic structure of Bishop s 
 College. Allipore and Ballygunge are other suburbs to the 
 E., both healthy; and having also garden houses of Europe 
 ans, but without the river view. East of Calcutta lies the 
 suburb of Entally, chiefly inhabited by Eurasians or half 
 castes, and natives. Further towards the N. are the popu 
 lous suburbs of Sealdah and Simleah, running into other like 
 suburbs, containing the houses of wealthy natives, and the 
 huts of their poorer countrymen ; showing what is so com 
 mon in Eastern cities a commingling of the stately mansions 
 of the wealthy with the wretched hovels of the poor. 
 
 The houses of British residents in Calcutta have the fore 
 court or garden surrounded by a wall ; the dining-room on the 
 ground floor ; the middle story, surrounded by a verandah 
 supported by pillars, occupied with the sitting-rooms of the 
 family; and in the upper stories, the bed-chambers. Bath 
 rooms are universally introduced ; and all the apartments are 
 supplied with a punkah, moving noiselessly by means of a 
 silk cord led into an adjoining apartment. Europeans, early 
 in the morning, take out-of-door exercise, the air being then 
 cool. At nine o clock, after bathing, they take breakfast; 
 when, in the case of a family, they disperse for their several 
 ocations. At the approach of sunset, every one seeks re 
 creation on horseback or in carriages, till eight o clock, when 
 dinner is served ; everything being conducted on the most 
 splendid scale, and including every attainable luxury. The 
 ice used is brought in large blocks from America, and is 
 preserved in ice-houses. In the cooler season, theatricals, 
 concerts, balls, and horse-racing, give a variety to the social 
 itertainments. 
 
 Trades, Bazaars, &c. The want of expensive outward 
 decorations of the shops, and the absence of all show of goods 
 in their windows, must strike a stranger forcibly. But some 
 improvements in these respects are now beginning to be made ; 
 and within, no disappointment will be met with, either as to the 
 quality of the goods, or as to the skilfulness of the European 
 tradesmen, by whom they are manufactured. Everything, in 
 short, may be obtained here, which money can purchase, as 
 readily, and as good in quality as in England. Several English 
 firms have carriage manufactories, and turn out, in a style 
 equal to that of Long- Acre, barouches, phaetons, chariots, and 
 other descriptions of carriages adapted to the climate. The 
 taste for the more elegant and expensive European equipages 
 is extending among the rich natives. The principal trades 
 practised by Europeans are those of hotel-keepers, jewellers 
 and silversmiths, watchmakers, cabinet-makers, carvers and 
 gilders, fancy stationers, dealers in objects of vertu, book 
 sellers and bookbinders, boot and shoemakers, tailors, mantua- 
 makers, milliners, ironmongers, apothecaries, confectioners 
 and pastry cooks, grocers, dealers in oilmen s stores, tea, wine, 
 and spirit dealers, coach-makers, livery-stable keepers and 
 horse-dealers, house-builders, shipbuilders, iron-founders, and 
 lastly undertakers. 
 
 The native shops are in what are called bazaars, being 
 
CALCUTTA 
 
 558 
 
 CALCUTTA 
 
 houses in close narrow streets, in the native town, where the 
 rooms in the different floors are appropriated to the selling of 
 all descriptions of goods. Among these, the principal are 
 Burra b izaar, and the old and new China bazaars. In the 
 two latter, the native shopkeepers sell imported European 
 goods. In the Chitpore Road are found numerous storas of 
 
 native-made furniture (after European models), of mahogany, 
 toon wood (a red wood resembling mahogany), and teak-wood ; 
 but inferior both in elegance and durability to that manu 
 factured in the workshops of European tradesmen, and there 
 fore sold at much lower prices. The natives who practise 
 trades on their own account cannot compete, in finish and 
 exactitude, with the well turned out articles of the European 
 workshops, where natives also labour, but under the direction 
 and guidance of the European head, whose better training, 
 and habit of working by rule, correct their faults and defects. 
 The butcher, poultry, fish, fruit, and vegetable markets are 
 all designated bazaars, and are admirably supplied. The 
 mutton of Bengal is equal to the best Highland mutton ; and 
 the beef of the small Bengalee cow is sweet and delicate. 
 
 Public Buildings. At the S.W. extremity of the city is a 
 large space of verdant, level ground, about If m. in length, 
 and about 1 in breadth, called the Maidan, bounded, E. by 
 the Chowringhee Eoad, and W. by the Ilooghly. In this 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT HOUSE AND TREASURY. CALCUTTA, from the old Courw.-Alter a Drawing by William I rii.sep, Esq. 
 
 plain, about 1 m. from the city, and commanding the river, 
 being separated from it only by the Strand Road and the Wet 
 Ditch, stands Fort-William, one of the largest and most regu 
 lar fortresses in India. It was constructed by Lord Clive, 
 after the battle of Plassey (1757) ; and has cost altogether 
 2,000,000 sterling. It mounts 619 guns, from 12 to 32 
 
 Within its walls are store-rooms, ordnance-yards, powder-ma 
 gazines, barracks, a church, &c. Around the E margin of the 
 Maidan, are a series of walled tanks. At the S. extremity 
 is the grand jail, and the race-ground, of a triangular form, 
 with a course of about 1J in. in length. At the N. side, 
 which is called the Esplanade, is the Government-house, tho 
 place of the Governor-general, a magnificent 
 pile, built by Marquis Wellesley. It has four 
 wings, with a stupendous dome in the centre ; 
 and is surrounded by a colonnade of Ionic 
 pillars. In a line with the Government- house, 
 and fronting the Esplanade, are splendid man 
 sions, with handsome verandahs, supported 
 by lofty columns. This is one of the healthiest 
 localities in the city; it is also a favourite 
 resort of the fashionable world, being the 
 Hyde Park of the Indian capital. Another 
 favourite promenade is the Scrand, where 
 both Europeans and Indians go to enjoy the 
 cool of the evening; and where, on such 
 occasions, is to be seen an imposing display 
 of handsome equipages, with crowds of ladies 
 and gentlemen on horseback, all attended by 
 a horse-keeper to each horse, called a Syce. 
 After the Government-house, the principal 
 edifices worth noticing are the townhall, 
 supreme court, Government treasury, writers 
 buildings, the Metcalfe Hall, the mint, where 
 it is said, 500,000 coins can be struck off in 
 24 hours, and in which nearly 300 workmen, 
 chiefly natives, are employed ; the Hindoo college, the Ma- 
 drussa or Mahometan college, the General Assembly of the 
 Established Church of Scotland s institution, the Free Church 
 of Scotland s institution, the Bengal Club, the theatre, the 
 medical college, the general hospital, the native hospital, the 
 mechanics institute, the orphan- school, the ice-house, the 
 Martiniere, the race-stand, the Asiatic Society s rooms, and 
 the Ghaut, for burning the dead bodies of Hindoos. 
 
 The monuments are, General Sir David Ochterlony s pillar, 
 on the Maidan ; the statue of the Marquis of Wellesley, in an 
 open Grecian building, in Tank Square ; Prinsep s ghaut, S. of 
 the fort; the bronze statue of Lord William Bentinck, in the 
 esplanade; and the bronze statue to Lord Auckland, on the 
 S. of Government-house; the marble statues of the Marquis 
 of Cornwallis, and others, within the townhall ; and to Bishop 
 Heber, and others, in the new and old cathedrals; and the 
 monument between the W. gate of Fort- William and the 
 river, erected by Lord Elleuborough in commemoration of 
 
 the victory gained 
 at Gwalior, dur 
 ing his govern 
 ment. 
 
 The religious 
 edifices are, the 
 new cathedral of 
 St. Paul s, the old 
 cathedral or St. 
 John s Church, 
 the old Mission 
 Church, St. 
 James s Church, 
 St. Thomas s 
 Church or Free- 
 school Church, 
 St. Peter s, with 
 in the fort; all 
 these belong to 
 the Church of 
 England. St. An 
 drew s Kirk, con 
 nected with the Established Church of Scotland ; the Free Kirk, 
 built since the Disruption by voluntary contributions. Three 
 R. Catholic churches, the Greek church, the Armenian church, 
 two Baptist chapels, the Independent Union Chapel, the Hin- 
 doostanee church, the Simleah church, in which a converted, 
 educated, and episcopally ordained Hindoo officiates ; besides 
 
 pounders; will hold, for the purposes of defence, 15,000 men; Mahometan mosques, Hindoo temples, and a Chinese temple, 
 contains 80,000 stand of arms, and is usually garrisoned by one j The churches connected with the English Establishment are 
 European, two native regiments, and a detachment of artillery. | under the Bishop of Culcatta, and Metropolitan of India: and 
 
CALCUTTA 
 
 559 
 
 CALCUTTA 
 
 the archdeacon and clergy are all salaried chaplains of the 
 Company, appointed by the Court of Directors. Calcutta was 
 made a bishop s see in 1814; and on the creation of Madras 
 and Bombay into bishoprics in 1833, the Bishop of Calcutta 
 became Metropolitan of India, Avith jurisdiction over them, 
 but subject himself to the Archbishop of Canterbury. The 
 new cathedral is a splendid Gothic building, on the E. of the 
 Maidan or plain. It was erected by voluntary subscription. 
 The old cathedral was begun in 1784, and was built by volun 
 tary subscriptions also, under the auspices of Warren Hastings, 
 Governor-General. 
 
 St. Andrew s Church was built, soon after the appointment 
 of the first chaplain of the Church of Scotland, in 1814; and 
 two ordained ministers of the Established Church of Scotland 
 now officiate therein. They are, like the ministers of the sister 
 establishment, salaried chaplains of the East India Company. 
 The kirk-session in Calcutta, and that of each of the two other 
 presidencies of Madras and Bombay, are subject to the eccle 
 siastical jurisdiction of the presbytery of Edinburgh. These 
 three kirk-sessions jointly elect and send one minister and 
 one elder, as their representatives, to the General Assembly 
 of the Established Church of Scotland. In 1834, a pres 
 bytery was established at Calcutta by the General Assembly, 
 with power to license and ordain native preachers in connec 
 tion with their literary institution. The Greek church was 
 built in 1781, and the Greeks declare the crown of England 
 the protector of their church. The ministers are taken from 
 Greece by permission of the Patriarch of Constantinople. 
 The Armenian church was built in 1724, but has since been 
 added to. The Armenians were invited, as far back as 1689, 
 by Job Charnock, then Governor, to settle and trade in the 
 Company s factories ; and a written agreement was executed 
 between them, giving them exclusive privileges for trade, 
 and the protection of the company. 
 
 Educational Institutions. The educational institutions, not 
 affording religious instruction, are the college of Fort- 
 William, for the members of the Company s civil service ; the 
 Hindoo college, the Madrussa or Mahometan college, and the 
 Sanscrit college, all supported by Government, and managed 
 through their committee of general instruction. The first 
 two are intended to bestow (through the medium of English) 
 instruction in the sciences and literature of the W. world, 
 apart from any religious instruction. There are several schools, 
 taught by natives, for instruction in English, and in the 
 vernacular languages ; and a native female school has been 
 lately established by Mr. Bethune, member of council. 
 
 The educational institutions affording religious instruction 
 are, Bishop s college, founded, in 1820, by the society for 
 the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts, at the in 
 stance of Bishop Middleton, the first bishop of Calcutta. It 
 has been munificently supported by the Church of England 
 at home. It has a principal and two professors, from the 
 English universities, and is intended for the education of 
 missionaries, catechists, and schoolmasters. 
 
 The General Assembly s institution, established in the year 
 1829: its object is to spread, among the native youth, a know 
 ledge of the evidences and doctrines of the Christian religion, 
 by means of a sound and liberal education, under ordained 
 missionaries of the Established Church of Scotland. It is 
 divided into the normal school, and college department ; and 
 a theological course is now added, to prepare native youths 
 for becoming licensed ordained preachers, under the authority 
 of the Established Church of Scotland. 
 
 The Free Church institution was established, on the Disrup 
 tion, on similar principles, and with similar objects, by the 
 able missionaries, Dr. Duff and the Rev. Wm. Mackay, who 
 raised the other institution to its high place in public estima 
 tion. 
 
 The high school, the free school, the parental academic 
 institution, the Christian instruction society, the infant school 
 society, several ladies societies for native female education, 
 the Christian tract, and book society, and the Armenian 
 philanthropic society, are other institutions of a religious 
 character. St. Xavier s College, and Loretto House, are in 
 stitutions established and conducted by Jesuits; and the latter 
 is an establishment for the education of young ladies, con 
 ducted by nuns of the Ursuline order, who came from England 
 for that purpose. 
 
 The Martimere, founded under the will of General Claude 
 
 Martin, a Frenchman, who had been in the Company s servicej 
 and died at Lucknow, was opened in 1836. The original be 
 quest, with its accumulation of interest, amounted, in 1830, 
 to nearly 100,000. The building cost about 23,000. It 
 provides gratuitous board, &c., and a liberal education, to a 
 certain number of both sexes, on the foundation, of indigent 
 Christian children above the lowest class of the population, 
 without respect to religious denominations. Boys, in better 
 circumstances, are admitted as boarders and day scholars, to 
 receive a superior education, at a fixed monthly fee. A 
 course of religious instruction, and a form of prayers, were, 
 it is worthy of remark, framed by the praiseworthy and united 
 efforts of the Protestant bishop of Calcutta, Dr. Wilson ; the 
 K. Catholic vicar-apostolic, Dr. St. Leger; and the senior 
 minister of the Scotch Church, Dr. Charles, which are used 
 by all in the school, while the children of each denomination 
 receive private religious instruction from their respective 
 pastors. 
 
 The Benevolent Institutions are Government savings -bank, 
 the general hospital, the native hospital, the fever hospital, 
 the police hospital, the Howrah seamen s hospital, the leper 
 asylum, dispensaries, public lunatic asylum, district charitable 
 society, Dwarkanath Tagore s fund for blind poor, Bengal 
 military orphan institution, European female orphan institu 
 tion, the sailor s home, and some others. 
 
 The Religious Societies are numerous. The most import 
 ant are the Church missionary association, the diocesan com 
 mittee of the society for the propagation of the gospel in 
 foreign parts, the diocesan committee of the society for pro 
 moting Christian knowledge, the auxiliary Bible society, the 
 Church missionary association, Christian institution of the 
 London missionary society, the seaman s friend, or Bethel 
 society, and native Christian protection society. 
 
 Tlie Literary and Scientific Institutions are the Asiatic 
 society, the mechanics institution, the public library, the 
 medical and physical society, and the native medical college. 
 The last is a most admirable Government institution, for 
 training the natives to become efficient and skilful surgeons, 
 and medical practitioners. There the highest caste Hindoo, 
 whose religion makes it pollution and sinful, may be seen 
 handling the dead subject, and using the scalpel like a 
 European, without being excluded by his countrymen from 
 the privileges of his caste a wonderful victory gained over 
 their religious prejudices ! There are also the agricultural 
 and horticultural society ; and in connection with them, may 
 be mentioned the beautiful and extensive botanic gardens of 
 the company, a little S. of Calcutta, on the W. bank of the 
 river. 
 
 Commercial Companies and Corporations. The bank of 
 Bengal, the bonded warehouse, and the Assam tea company, 
 are corporations ; branches or agencies of the Agra, and 
 united service bank, the oriental bank, and of the North 
 western bank, are established in Calcutta. There are also 
 the chamber of commerce, the trade association, indigo 
 planter s association, the docking company, the steam-tug 
 company, and several river navigation companies, marine, 
 and life insurance offices, and provident societies. 
 
 The Newspapers published in Calcutta are the Hurkaru, 
 Englishman, Morning Chronicle, Eastern Star, and the 
 Government Gazette; besides several native newspapers, 
 in the vernacular languages. 
 
 Courts of Law. Her Majesty s supreme court of judicature, 
 at Fort- William, was established by charter, 13 Geo. III., 
 in 1774; which vested in it criminal, civil, admiralty, and 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction, subject only to an appeal to Her 
 Majesty in her privy council. It has a chief, and two puisne 
 justices, appointed by the Crown, who must be barristers of 
 a certain standing, at the English or Irish bar ; and either 
 practising in that court, or in the courts at home. It has 
 exclusive criminal jurisdiction (with jury trial), over all the I 
 inhabitants of Calcutta who are placed under the protection 
 of British law. The civil jurisdiction of the court is equally 
 extensive ; but with this reservation, imposed by the statute 
 21 Geo. III., cap. 70; namely, that the court shall admin 
 ister their own respective laws of inheritance, succession, 
 and marriage, and of contract to Hindoos and Mahometans. 
 The entire common law of England, and the statute law 
 then existing, so far as applicable to the state and condi 
 tion of the settlement, were transferred to Calcutta, by 
 
CALCUTTA 
 
 5GO 
 
 CALCUTTA 
 
 virtue of the charter of 13 Geo. I., in 172G; establishing 
 the first legal tribunal, called the mayor s court. Acts of 
 Parliament passed since, do not affect India, unless India 
 be specially mentioned. Beyond the limits of Calcutta, both 
 the criminal and civil jurisdiction of the supreme court, 
 extends over all British-born subjects of Her Majesty, and 
 their lawful descendants, residing within the presidency of 
 Bengal, and the provinces from time to time annexed thereto ; 
 and its civil jurisdiction extends also over native, and all 
 other inhabitants of India, residing within these extended 
 limits, who enter into written contracts with any British-born 
 subject, and agreeing therein, that if dispute should arise, 
 the matters between them should be determined by the 
 supreme court. The practitioners in the supreme court are 
 divided into two distinct branches, as in England, namely, bar 
 risters, called advocates, and attorneys. An insolvent court, 
 connected with the supreme court, was established in 1829. 
 The present insolvent act is the English statute, 11 Viet., 
 cap. 21 ; and, in respect of traders, it has provisions similar to 
 those of the English bankrupt acts. A court for small causes 
 (one of the judges in which is a Hindoo), exercises jurisdic 
 tion, in some respects subject to, and confined within nearly 
 the same local limits as the supreme court. 
 
 The police courts in Calcutta are presided over by paid 
 magistrates justices of the peace who exercise a criminal 
 jurisdiction, auxiliary and subordinate to the criminal juris 
 diction as exercised by Her Majesty s judges in the supreme 
 court. The Calcutta courts of Sudiler Dewaney and Sudder 
 Nizamut, being the chief civil and criminal courts of appeal 
 from the East India Company s local courts, in the provinces 
 of Bengal, established under Government regulations, have 
 no original or other jurisdiction within Calcutta. The Board 
 of Eevenue in Calcutta is invested with certain original and 
 appellate judicial, as well as with ministerial functions, 
 created and defined by the Government revenue regulations, 
 in relation to the Company s revenue courts and officers, and 
 the collection of the territorial revenue within Bengal. 
 
 Factories. The factories in the city and neighbourhood 
 using English machinery are the Government foundry at 
 Cossipore, having beautiful machinery for casting and boring 
 brass ordnance ; the Gloster mills, for making cotton twist ; 
 the sugar manufactory at Seebpore, using vacuum pans and 
 steam machinery; and several corn, flour, and oil mills, and 
 a manufactory for steam boilers, with a foundry attached. 
 The mint has powerful and efficient steam and other ma 
 chinery, for all the purposes of working the metals, and coin 
 ing money. Ship-building was carried on formerly to a con 
 siderable extent, but is now nearly altogether extinct, owing, 
 it is said, to the cheaper cost of construction in this country. 
 The repairing of ships is, however, a considerable and lucra 
 tive business still ; and the Government and private docks 
 are extensive and commodious. 
 
 Commerce. Calcutta is now the great emporium of the 
 East, monopolizing the whole internal trade of Bengal, the 
 nature and extent of which will be found at once fully and 
 concisely exhibited in the following series of Tables: 
 
 IMPORT. EXPORT. 
 
 NJ. Tonnage. No. Tonnage. 
 
 1818-49 ..British vessels ....771 267,2-28 624 259,814 
 
 Foreign vessels... .110 42,321 112 44,568 
 
 Total 881 309,549 736 304,382 
 
 1349-50. ..British vessels 879 285,516 728 309,952 
 
 Foreign vessels ...143 64,122 148 59,869 
 
 Total 
 
 IMPOSTS. 
 H48-49 
 
 p . ( White cotton* 
 
 ru \ Coloured cottons.. 
 """ ( Silk and mixed 
 
 Twist and Yarn ... 
 1849-50 
 
 ( White cottons 
 
 u < Coloured cottons.. 
 Oood9 (s,lk and mixed... 
 Twist and Yarn.... 
 
 ....1022 319,638 
 
 876 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 .1,2-27060. ..Cotton piece goods,) OJOOQ 
 
 . 245,457... country made } ** - 2 -> 
 
 37,352. ..Silk piece goods 314,339 
 
 . 652,355.. .Mixed piece goods. ... 30,619 
 
 1,601,00-2. ..Cotton piece goods, ) - BnQ 
 
 . 275,333... country made \ 7 809 
 
 46,627. ..Silk piece goods 449903 
 
 . 798,742... Mixed piece goods 87,457 
 
 18JR-19 ...... 3-2,2^7 ...... 2.817,518 
 
 1819-50 ...... 35,093 ...... 3,591,4/0 
 
 1.74X.460 ...... 1,617,117 
 
 1.822.805J ..... 1,676,221 
 
 
 EXPORTS O/INDIGO. 
 
 Or which to Oivat llritain, 
 
 1,977,<>77 94,882 .. 1514891 
 
 f 1,675,372 65,7251 1/>46V172 
 
 The Maund weighs 74 Ihs. 10 oz., IO-6OJ dr. avoirdupois. 
 
 PnoonEss/or the fast FIVE YRARS of the EXTERNAL COMMERCE 
 OF BENGAL. 
 
 R,ipe. 
 
 ls ,r_4 fi ( M... 52,817,596 
 ( T ...10,093,701 
 
 1846-17 | T ; ..1<U67>>08 
 1847-48 I 
 
 1040^,9 ( M... 42,750.1*1 
 
 1 T ...14,309,586 
 
 lS.lo.-50 
 ^ 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 Total Rupees. 
 
 \ 62,911,297 = 
 
 [ 64-,733,826 = 
 
 53,981,667 = 
 
 57,059,767 = 
 
 64,971,143 = 
 
 6,291,129 
 6,473,382 
 6,398,166 
 5,705,9/6 
 6,497,114 
 
 T !!;il)840|07 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 Rupees. Tot.ii Rupees. 
 
 1845-46 \$-\ l< y$f} ...104,487,4:18 ^10,448,743 
 
 1846-t7{^;;; 9 igg| ...97,885,142 = 9,788,514 
 
 1847-48 JT 1 - 8 |S} ...86,375,893 = 8,637,589 
 
 IM W,j.::g5gjl{ ...08,545,097 - 9,854,509 
 m-o , n ( M... 105,399,069 
 
 SIS) -109,327,126 = 10,932,712 
 M stands for Merchandise; T stands for Treasure. 
 DUTY LEVIED IN 1849-50, COMPARED WITH 1848-19. 
 
 Duty on Goods imported on foreign bottoms 1848-49 178.841 
 
 1849-50 ... 
 
 Duty on Salt imported on foreign bottoms 1848-49 266,748 
 
 1849-50 940,356 
 
 Duty on Bonded Salt imported on foreign bottoms...l848-49 24,125 
 
 1819-50 42,895 
 
 Total Rupees. 
 
 1818-9 469,715 46,971 
 
 1819-50 1,301,485 130,148 
 
 The principal articles of export are opium, indigo, sugar, 
 saltpetre, rice, raw cotton, raw silk, piece goods, hides, lac, &c. 
 The principal imports metals, piece goods, twist, and yarn, 
 salt, betel-nut, books, glasswares, wines, woods, woollens, &c. 
 
 The banks of the Hooghly, from the entrance of the river 
 for many miles upwards, are low, flat, and covered with 
 jungle. Ships cannot venture to make the river without 
 taking on board a pilot from the pilot schooners of the Com 
 pany stationed in the bay ; and shifting sands, with a rapid 
 stream, meeting a contending tidal rise, make the navigation 
 of the river uncertain and dangerous, and demand the pilot s 
 constant watchfulness and care. Therefore, as early as 1669, 
 the Company (then having a settlement at Hooghly only, 
 28 m. above Calcutta, and up to which large vessels could 
 then sail), obtained permission from the Mogul Emperor to 
 organize an establishment of pilots, and the present efficient 
 body of Europeans forming the Bengal pilot service has been 
 the result. Government and private steam tugs, now plying 
 on the river, considerably lessen the risk of navigation, and 
 lighten the labours of the pilots. The river, abreast of Cal 
 cutta, is about the breadth of the Thames at Gravesend. 
 Ships of 1400 tons burden can sail up and anchor off the 
 city in mid-channel, in 6 or 7 fathoms water, or may lie at 
 moorings within a few feet of the bank. 
 
 Government has sanctioned the construction of a railway 
 from Howrah, opposite Calcutta, to Pundoah, with a branch 
 to the Kanigunge collieries, in the district of Burdwan, in 
 all about 130 m. An electric telegraph has recently been 
 formed between Calcutta and Diamond Harbour, about 50 m. 
 down the Hooghly; and it is intended to carry it down to 
 near the mouth of the river. 
 
 Currency. The coins now coined and current in Calcutta 
 and provinces are the Company s gold mohur, rupee, and pice. 
 The first is equal in value to 16 rupees, which are the silver 
 currency, and one rupee is about the value of 2s. sterling. Each 
 rupee is equal to 16 annas (a nominal coin) ; and each anna is 
 equal to four pice, the copper currency. The bank of Bengal 
 
CALCUTTA 
 
 5G1 
 
 CALCUTTA 
 
 issues notes, which pass current for their respective amounts, 
 and are received at the Government treasury and provisional 
 collectorates as cash, in payment of Government revenue and 
 other dues. 
 
 Climate. The range of the thermometer in Novemher, 
 December, January, and February, denominated the cold 
 season, is from 50 to 75 Fall. ; the N.E. monsoon, then the 
 prevailing wind, is bracing to the European constitution, re 
 laxed by the preceding heats ; and at this season the appetite 
 and strength improve. Balls, and gaiety by night, and boar- 
 hunting with spears, jackal-hunting with hounds, and horse- 
 racing with Arab, English, New S. Wales, and country-bred 
 horses, are the amusements of the mornings during this season. 
 European vegetables for the table are then grown, and are 
 fully equal to those produced in more temperate climates. 
 March brings with it the S.W. monsoon, and hot weather, 
 which increases in temperature during the succeeding month; 
 and in May the thermometer reaches 90-95 in the shade, 
 100-110 in the open air; and the hot atmosphere of that 
 month striking the face, on going out of a house from which 
 the external air has been from sunrise carefully excluded, has 
 been aptly compared to the heat of a blast-furnace. This 
 heat is, however, alleviated by occasional storms, called North 
 westers, which are generally accompanied by thunder and 
 lightning. In June the rainy season commences, much to the 
 relief both of animal and vegetable nature, and continues to 
 the end of September ; but there are very few days that have 
 not some hours free from rain. The interval between the 
 cessation of the rains, and the commencement of the cold 
 weather, is unhealthy, from the moisture in the atmosphere, 
 and a still powerful sun causing a rapid decay of vegetable 
 matter. The climate has been, however, much ameliorated 
 since the original establishment of the factory, by judicious 
 draining, clearing away jungle in the suburbs, and by opening 
 up roads and thoroughfares, and otherwise improving, from 
 time to time, both the native and European quarters of the city. 
 A permanent sanitary commission, with extensive powers, has 
 been lately established by a local act. A stranger going to 
 India, in order that he may be gradually acclimated, should 
 so time his departure from England that he may arrive in the 
 beginning of the cold weather. The sun of Bengal is singu 
 larly prejudicial to Europeans, and at no season is it safe in 
 Calcutta to be in the open air, when the sun is up, without 
 some protection from its rays. Carriages, gigs with leather 
 hoods, or palanquins carried by natives, by means of poles 
 resting on their shoulders, are, therefore, absolutely necessary 
 for Europeans. The proportion of deaths to the population 
 is 3-13 per annum nearly; that of London is about 2-16; the 
 difference being accounted for on the score of climate. 
 
 Population. The population of Calcutta, according to the 
 census of 1837, amounts to 229,714 ; but the apparent popula 
 tion seems much greater, from the crowds of people which 
 pour into the city from the suburbs, during the day, to earn 
 a livelihood, and which, according to the same census, amount 
 to the additional number of 177,000. The inhabitants of 
 Calcutta may, for judicial purposes, be divided and classed 
 into 1. British-born subjects and their legitimate descend 
 ants, about 3138 in number. 2. Hindoos or Gentoos, of 
 Bengal and of the Upper Provinces of Hindoostan, in number 
 about 137,651. 3. Mussulmans or Mahometans, of Bengal 
 and of the Upper Provinces of Hindoostan, in number about 
 58,744. 4. Other natives of Asia, neither Hindoos, Mahome 
 tans, nor Christians such as Parsees, Chinese, Aracanese, 
 Jews, Arabs, and Moguls. 5. Portuguese, Armenian, French, 
 and other Christians of native or foreign extraction ; together 
 with half-castes, or illegitimate children of British subjects by 
 native mothers, and their offspring, numbering about 4746. 
 
 TTie Society English is excellent, being composed of 
 members of council, judges, and heads of departments, and 
 members of offices and boards, employed in the administra 
 tion of the affairs of the Company, civil, and military, and of 
 other officers and servants of the East India Company of both 
 services, and the bishop and clergy; then the judges of the 
 supreme court, the barristers, attorneys, and merchants, who 
 are all independent of the Company. 
 
 Steam Communication with Great Britain. Besides the 
 
 continuous communication kept up by fine passenger and other 
 
 sailing vessels round the Cape of Good Hope, passengers and 
 
 mails are carried once a month, to and from Calcutta, by what 
 
 VOL I. 
 
 is called the overland route, namely, Alexandria, Cairo, and 
 Suez. The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Com 
 pany undertake the mail service, under contract with the 
 Imperial Government ; and, at the same time, carry passengers 
 in the large steamers employed by them, and which leave 
 Southampton on the 20th, and Calcutta on the 8th, of every 
 month. Two other companies are in the field! the one to 
 e called the Eastern Steam Navigation Company, to occupy 
 the same line as the Peninsular and Oriental, but their steamer 
 ;o leave Plymouth on the 1st of the month for Alexandria, in 
 correspondence with one from Calcutta ; the other, the Screw 
 Steam Navigation Company, now carrying a mail to the Cape 
 of Good Hope, intend extending that line to Calcutta. 
 
 Early History. Job Charnock, the agent of the London 
 company, the first English East India Company incorporated 
 by charter of Queen Elizabeth, in 1600, was the founder of 
 Calcutta. The first factory in Bengal of this powerful Com 
 pany was established at Hooghly, 28 m. higher up the river, 
 under a firman of the Mogul Emperor of Hindoostan, Shah 
 Jehan, dated 1644. In the year 1686, the Company s then 
 agent, Mr. Charnock, was with his council and factors driven 
 out of it, by the Nawaub of Bengal, and on December 20, while 
 sailing down the river, he was attracted by the shade afforded 
 by a large tree in the village of Chuttanuttee (the present site 
 of a part of Calcutta), and, accordingly, he and his people 
 landed, and began to entrench themselves there. Finding it 
 inexpedient to remain, they left in February 1687, and did 
 not return until some time after the treaty with the Nawaub, 
 of August 1687, was signed. In October 1688, they again 
 took their departure, and went to Madras. Overtures, how 
 ever, having been made to them by the Nawaub, by the orders 
 of the Emperor, Mr. Charnock, with his council and factors, 
 returned to Chuttanuttee o n August 24, 1690, when the 
 Emperor gave them permission to form a commercial settle 
 ment, but prohibited the erection of any fortifications. Here, 
 then, the settlement was permanently fixed as the head quarters 
 of the Company s commercial establishments in Bengal. One 
 officer and thirty men came from Madras with Mr. Charnock, 
 that being the military establishment originally allowed by 
 the Emperor, to do honour to the principal agents. This 
 period, therefore, may be considered the era of the foundation 
 of Calcutta! Its founder, Charnock, died in 1692, and lies 
 buried in the old cemetry, where St. John s Church, the old 
 cathedral, was afterwards built. The settlement rapidly in 
 creased, being situated on a navigable river, and therefore well 
 adapted for being the emporium of the trade of Hindoostan. 
 In 1695, a grant was made by the Nawaub of Bengal, con 
 firmed by the Emperor Aurengzebe, of the village of Chut 
 tanuttee, together with two other villages called Kalleeghatta, 
 and Govindpore adjoining, reserving an annual rent to be paid 
 by the Company of 1195 rupees. Walls of masonry, with 
 bastions at the angles, were first raised in the same year by 
 the permission of the Nawaub, as a defence to the factory 
 against a rebel Zemindar, or land-holder of Burdwan. Thus 
 originated the fortifications of Calcutta. 
 
 The old fort, called Fort-William in honour of King Wil 
 liam IV., was not begun to be built until the year 1699; 
 and that fort, and the European part of the town, were 
 erected on the site of the village of Kalleeghatta, and hence 
 the name Calcutta. The fort occupied the site of the present 
 import warehouse, extending to about the centre of Tank 
 Square, then called Lall Bagh or the Park. Part of the 
 present native portion of the city on the N. occxrpies Chutta 
 nuttee, while Govindpore has disappeared, and in its place we 
 now see a magnificent maidan or plain, on the S. of the city, 
 in which is placed the new citadel, also called Fort-William, 
 As late as the year 1717, a forest stood immediately in front 
 of the town to the S. on what is now the esplanade. In 
 1720, however, considerable improvements were made in the 
 public buildings, and roads were opened, to contribute to the 
 salubrity of the city. At this period, and for many years 
 after, the maidan or plain, and the site of the present citadel, 
 as well as the space now occupied by Chowringhee, were a 
 complete jungle, interspersed with the huts of natives, patches 
 of rice cultivation, and grazing ground. 
 
 Calcutta, however, has had vicissitudes of fortune. In the 
 year 1757, the town extended about half a mile above and 
 below the old fort, and about 600 yards inland, the houses of 
 the English were in number about 70, and were detached in 
 
 71 
 
CALDARO 
 
 562 
 
 CALEDONIA (NEW) 
 
 separate enclosures. In the same year, Calcutta was cap 
 tured and plundered by the Nawaub of Bengal, Sooraj-oo- 
 dowlah, after a spirited defence; and many of our brave coun 
 trymen, after the ignoble flight of the Governor, were taken 
 prisoners, and died from suffocation in the Black Hole, where 
 they had been placed for safe custody. Colonel Clive (after 
 wards Lord Clive), with about 3000 men, assisted by Admiral 
 Watson, with a fleet of three King s ships, were sent from 
 Madras. They re captured Calcutta in February of the same 
 year ; and Clive, a few days afterwards, attacked and routed 
 the Nawaub in its vicinity. The latter then signed a treaty, 
 dictated to him, by which, among other things, he agreed 
 that the Company should fortify Calcutta in such manner as 
 they should deem proper for its defence; and that money 
 should be coined at Allenagur (Calcutta), in the same man 
 ner as at Moorshedabad. In the year 1758, Meer Jaffier, 
 Nawaub of Bengal, granted a sunnud to the Company for the 
 free tenure of Calcutta. From this date, Calcutta became, 
 virtually, the seat of an independent power. (Davidson s 
 Trade and Travels in the East; Von Orlich s Travels in India; 
 Orme s History of the War in Bengal ; Ive s Voyage; Bolst s 
 Considerations on India Affairs ; Verelst s State of Bengal; 
 Bengal and Agra Guide ; Charters, Acts of Parliament, and 
 Parl. Reports; and Wilkinson s External Commerce of Bengal.) 
 
 CALDARO, or KALTEKN, a tn. and com. Austria, Tyrol, 
 prov. of, and 8 m. S.W. Botzen, near r. bank, Adige. It is 
 tolerably well built, and has a square, a handsome parish 
 church, townhall, hospital, and two convents; and a consider 
 able trade in wine. Pop. 32 1 9. 
 
 CALDAS [hot baths], several tus., vils., and medicinal 
 baths, Spain, of which the most important are 1, Caldas dc 
 Montbuy, a tn, Catalonia, prov. of, and 15 m. N. Barcelona. 
 It has narrow and crooked streets, two squares, a church, 
 endowed school, hospital, several fountains, and a cemetery. 
 Manufactures : linen, woollen, and cotton fabrics, ribbons, 
 serge, lace, and brandy. Pop. 2409. 2, Caldas de Reyes, a 
 tn. Galicia, prov. of, and 12 m. N. Pontevedra; in a plain, at 
 the confluence of the rivers ITumia and Bremana. It has a 
 church, two schools, a townhall, prison, ancient tower, and 
 feudal palace of the Marquis of Bendana. The bathing 
 establishments are two in number, and much frequented. 
 The inhabitants are engaged in weaving, tanning, tillage, and 
 cattle-rearing. Pop. 1177. 
 
 CALDAS, a tn. Brazil, in the S. of prov. Minas Geraes, 
 near the sources of the Rio Pardo, an affluent of the Rio 
 Grande, or Para. It has a church and primary school ; and 
 its inhabitants are engaged in cattle rearing and in mining. 
 Near it are warm sulphurous springs. Pop., tn. and dist., 2000. 
 
 CALDAS DA RAINHA, a tn. and par. Portugal, prov. 
 Estremadura, dist. Alemquer, on the slope of a hill, 58 m. N. 
 Lisbon. It contains a church and an hospital, and has a con 
 siderable annual fair, but deserves notice chiefly for its sulphur 
 baths, which are much frequented. Pop. 1550. 
 
 CALDBECK, par. Eng. Cumberland; 24,280 ac. P. 1553. 
 
 CALDECOT, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 930 ac. Pop. 48. 
 
 CALDECOTE, three pars. Eng. : 1, par. Cambridge; 
 833 ac. Pop. 117. 2, par. Huntingdon ; 740 ac. Pop. 52. 
 3, par. Warwick ; 820 ac. Pop. 93- 
 
 CALDECOTT, two pars. Eng.: 1, par. Hertford; 310 
 ac. Pop. 41. 2, par. Rutland ; 1440 ac. Pop. 260. 
 
 CALDER. 1, Two pars. Scot. Edinburgh: West and 
 Mid Colder ; the former about 10 m. in length, and 5J m. in 
 breadth ; the latter about 7 m. in length, and 3 m. in breadth. 
 Pop. (W. Calder), 1666; (Mid-Calder), 1456. 2, Colder 
 (East), a vil. Scotland, co. of, and 11 m. S.W. Edinburgh, 
 par. Kirknewton. Pop. 419. 3, Calder (North and Sou/h), 
 two small rivers, Scotland, co. Lanark, affluents of the Clyde, 
 which they both join on the r. bank, the first 6 m., and the 
 second 10 m. S.E. Glasgow. 
 
 CALDER, two rivers, England. l,a river co. York, 
 which rises on the E. borders of Lancashire, near Burnley ; 
 pursues an E. course to Wakefield, then, proceeding N., joins 
 the Aire, near the village of Castleford. It is navigable for 
 about 30 m., is connected with a number of canals leading to 
 Rochdale, Todmorden, Halifax, Goole, &c. ; and facilitates the 
 transmission of goods across the kingdom, from Liverpool to 
 Hull thus forming a junction between the E. and W. seas. 
 On its banks are the important towns of Wakefield and Dews- 
 bury ; and numerous iron and coal works, and stone quarries. 
 
 2, A much less important river, which rises near the same 
 source, but flows in an opposite direction, and falls into the 
 Kibble, in Lancashire. 
 
 CALDICOT, par. Eng. Monmouth ; 1850 ac. Pop. 625. 
 
 CALDONAZZO, a vil. and com. Austria, Tyrol, prov. 
 of, and 11 m. S.E. Trent; 2m. S.W. Levico, near S.W. 
 bank, Lake Caldonazzo. Silk is produced, and manufactured 
 to some extent. Pop. 2588. 
 
 CALDY, a small isl. Wales, Caermarthen Bay, W. side, 
 on the coast of Pembrokeshire; lat. (S. point) 51 37 54" N.; 
 Ion. 4 41 0" W. (R.) It is 1J m. long, and half a mile broad. 
 Some part of it is cultivated, and a few families reside on it. 
 The remains of an ancient priory are still visible. 
 
 CALEDON, a market tn. Ireland, co. Tyrone, on the 
 Blackwater, 11 m. S. by W. Dungannon. It is generally 
 well built, has a handsome church, with a spire ; and chapels 
 for Wesleyans and R. Catholics, a free school where 40 poor 
 girls are clothed and educated, and several other schools and 
 charities; and extensive flour-mills in the vicinity. Pop. 1046. 
 
 CALEDONIA (NEW), atract of country, British N. Ame 
 rica, W. of the Rocky Mountains ; included in the Hudson s Bay 
 territory ; between lat. 48 and 57 N.; extending about 500 m. 
 N. to S., and nearly 400 m. E. to W. It is mountainous, and 
 abounds in lakes and rivers the largest of the latter called 
 Frazer s River. The climate is unfavourable to agriculture ; 
 but potatoes, turnips, wheat, and barley, are raised at some 
 of the stations or posts, where also considerable numbers of 
 cattle are reared ; and there are many fertile spots along the 
 rivers. The thermometer sometimes falls 32 below zero ; 
 but the seasons are generally milder than in the same parallel 
 E. of the Rocky Mountains. The summer is never very hot ; 
 although fires can be dispensed with from the end of May 
 till the beginning of September. Snow lies on the ground 
 from November till April or May, and on an average six 
 ft. deep. This part of the country is inhabited by the two 
 great nations of the N. the Takali or Carrier Indians, and 
 he Atnahs or Shouswaps. The Carriers are of extremely 
 filthy habits, and brutal propensities. They live chiefly on 
 salmon, and prefer their meat putrid, burying it for months 
 under ground, till it become a mass of corruption, when it is 
 considered a delicacy. They are quick tempered, but neither 
 sullen nor revengeful ; and are singularly susceptible of 
 ridicule. The Hudson s Bay Company have nine posts or 
 stations in this territory. 
 
 CALEDONIA (NEW), an isl. Australasia, S. Pacific 
 Ocean ; between lat. 20 and 22 30 S., and Ion. 164 5 and 
 167 E. ; length, N.W. to S.E., about 200 m. ; breadth, 30 m. 
 It is surrounded on all sides by coral reefs, connecting nume 
 rous islets, rocks, and banks of sand rendering the naviga 
 tion so intricate and dangerous, that the island can be 
 tpproached by two openings only. Vessels may anchor 
 securely at Port Balade, on the N.E., and at Port St. Vincent, 
 on the S.W. ; the latter having a natural harbour, with 
 anchorage in 10 or 12 fathoms, perfectly secure. Between the 
 small island of Botany and the S. end of New Caledonia, and 
 ithin the coral reefs, a deep, wide ship channel was discovered 
 by Capt. Woodin in 1849, and named by him Woodin s 
 Channel. There are several bays in it, where ships may 
 anchor close to the beach in 15 fathoms or less. Water also 
 is abundant. In physical aspect, the island greatly resembles 
 New S. Wales, consisting, in the interior, of barren rocky 
 mountains, said to rise to the height of 8000 ft., interspersed 
 with fertile valleys ; many of the productions are also similar; 
 but, on the whole, it is less fertile than most other islands of 
 the Pacific. The principal rocks are granite, quartz, mica, 
 steatite, with specular iron, and green amphibole. The sugar 
 cane and banana, cocoa-nut palm, bread-fruit tree, taro, and 
 mangoes, are cultivated ; and sandal-wood is found to some 
 extent ; the inhabitants live mostly on yams and fish. Trepang 
 is fished on the coast. The natives are of a deep black, with 
 curly hair, robust, active, and well-made. Some tribes of 
 them are known to be courteous and friendly to strangers, 
 while others are treacherous, merciless, and cruel man-eaters. 
 In 1849, the station at Balade was attacked, and some of the 
 Europeans killed ; and the same year, the Captain and cook of 
 the ship Mary were murdered, cooked, and eaten. They speak 
 a language distinct from that of the neighbouring islands. New 
 Caledonia was discovered by Cook, in 1774, and is called 
 Balade by the natives. (Rienzi,0ceanie; Naut. Mag., 1850.) 
 
CALEDONIAN CANAL 
 
 5G3 
 
 CALIFORNIA (UPPER OR NEW) 
 
 CALEDONIAN CANAL. See SCOTLAND. 
 
 CALELLA, a maritime tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, 
 and 30 m. N.E. Barcelona, at the foot of a small hill called 
 Roser Its streets are clean and spacious ; and it has two 
 squares, a church, chapel, college, school, townhall, prison, 
 hospital, dock for building vessels, and a cemetery. Manu 
 factures : linen and cotton fabrics, blonde lace, green paint, 
 and ropes. Distilling brandy, fish-curing, ship and boat 
 building, and tillage, are carried on. Pop. 3035. 
 
 CALENZANA, a tn. France, isl. Corsica, 5 m. S.E. 
 Calvi. It stands in a fine valley, open to the sea-breeze, and 
 contains a large and handsome church. A good red wine is 
 produced in the neighbourhood. Pop. 2437. 
 
 CALERA, a vil. Spain, New Castile, prov. Toledo, 8 m. 
 S.W. Talavera, near 1. bank, Tagus. It has two squares, a 
 church, townhall, prison, two schools, a cemetery ; and trade 
 in cattle, grain, and wine. Pop. 2598. 
 
 CALESTANO, a tn. and com. Italy, duchy of, and 20 m. 
 S.S.W. Parma, r. bank, Baganza, at the base of Mount Fragno. 
 It has a church, medical seminary, and primary school ; and 
 in the vicinity are quarries of fine marble. Four annual fairs 
 are held. Pop. 2664. 
 
 CALF OF MAN, an islet. See MAN (!SLE OF). 
 
 CALI, a tn. New Granada, 70 m. N. by E. Popayan ; lat. 
 3" 25 N. ; Ion. 76 30 W. It lies on a W. declivity of the 
 Andes, near the Cauca ; has straight streets, houses of brick, 
 and of whitened earth, two elegant churches, several deserted 
 convents, and one still in use. The inhabitants are wealthy, 
 and chiefly engaged in the transit trade, from the interior to 
 the Pacific. Pop. 4000. 
 
 CALIADEH, a vil. Hindoostan, prov. Malwa, on the 
 Sipra, 5 m. N. Oojein ; with a lofty, heavy, whimsical struc 
 ture, entirely devoid of architectural attractions, called a 
 water-palace, built on an insular eminence in the Sipra. 
 
 CALIANO, a vil. Austria, Tyrol, 10 m. S. Trent, 1. bank 
 Adige. In 1487 the Venetians were here defeated by the 
 Archduke Siegmund, of Austria. 
 
 CALICE DI VARA, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. Pisa. 
 11 m. S. Pontremoli, 1. bank, Usurana, an affluent of the Vara, 
 4 m. S.W. from its confluence with the Magra. It is com 
 manded by a castle, and has a large parish church, and some 
 oil-mills. The neighbourhood is mountainous, and clothed 
 with forests of chestnut, vine, and olive plantations. The 
 low grounds in the vicinity of the river are rich, and yield 
 grain and pasturage for cattle. Pop. 2959. 
 
 CALICOULAN, a tn. Hindoostan, prov. Travancore, 
 116 m. N. Cape Comorin; lat. 9 11 N.; Ion. 76 33 E. 
 
 CALICUT, a maritime tn. and dist. Hindoostan, prov r 
 Malabar. The town, formerly the cap. of the prov., is 43 m. 
 S.E. Tellicherry, and 100 m. S.W. Seringapatam ; lat. 11 
 15 12" N. ; Ion. 75 45 30" E. (R.) It is of considerable 
 extent, but a large portion of it consists of mere huts, the 
 remainder of houses, constructed of teak-wood, or of sun 
 baked bricks there being no buildings of stone. The manu 
 facture of cotton goods was formerly carried on here to a 
 great extent, and furnished a considerable supply to Europe ; 
 but this description of goods is now mostly imported. The 
 exports consist principally of cocoa-nuts, betel-nuts, pepper, 
 ginger, turmeric, teak-wood, sandal-wood, cardamoms, and 
 wax. The anchorage for large ships in the harbour is in five 
 or six fathoms. Calicut was the first Indian port visited 
 by Vasco de Gama, in 1498. The inhabitants are mostly 
 of Arab descent, and profess Mahometanism. The district 
 extends along the sea-coast, and produces great quantities of 
 pepper. 
 
 CALIFORNIA (GULP OF) [Mar Vermeja, Red Sea, Sea 
 of Cortez], a gulf of the Pacific Ocean, W. coast, N. America, 
 formed between the peninsula of Old California on the W., 
 and the Mexican states of Sonora and Sinaloa on the E. 
 It lies between lat. 23 and 32 30 N., and is upwards of 
 700 m. long, with a breadth varying from 150 m. near its 
 entrance, to 45 m. near its centre ; beyond which it again 
 expands to 120 m. Its coast is irregular, forming on both 
 sides numerous small bays or gulfs. Numerous islands are 
 scattered over its surface the largest being Angel de la 
 Guardia, Tiburon, Carmen, Ceraloo or San Catalina, and San 
 Jose. Its chief affluent is the Rio Colorado, falling in at the 
 head of the gulf; and two small streams pour into it from 
 the E. side. This gulf was formerly celebrated for the pearl 
 
 fisheries of the Californian coast, which employed 800 divers. 
 They are now much fallen off. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, UPPER or NEW [Spanish, Alta- Califor 
 nia, or Nueva- California"} , a large region, N. America, for 
 merly a part of the Mexican Confederation, but now included 
 in the possessions of the United States. When under Mexican 
 sway, it extended from lat. 32 to 42 N. ; Ion. 106 to 124 10 
 W. ; and was bounded, N. by Oregon, E. the Rocky Moun 
 tains, S. the Mexican states of Sonora and Old California, and 
 W. the Pacific Ocean; area estimated at 500,000 sq. m. 
 Since coming into the possession of the United States, the E. 
 portion of this region, N. of lat. 37 N., and E. of the Sierra 
 Nevada, has been constituted the Mormon territory of Utah, 
 sometimes also named Deseret ; and the portion S. of lat. 37 
 N., and E. of the river Colorado, has been added to the state 
 of New Mexico, also acquired from the Mexican Confedera 
 tion ; and the sea-board portion, W. of the sierra Nevada, in 
 the N., and of the river Colorado, in the S., now forms the 
 state of California. 
 
 California or Upper California, as thus limited, includes the 
 region between the Pacific Ocean on the W., Oregon on the N. 
 (lat. 42 N.), and a line running thence direct S., in Ion. 120 
 W. to lat. 39 N., and thence S.E. to the Rio Colorado, where 
 it intersects lat. 35 N., and thence along that river to the 
 boundary between Mexico and the U. States; area, 188,981 
 sq. m. The coast is generally rugged and precipitous, and 
 presents few good harbours, for its extent, above 9 of lat. ; 
 the finest, commencing at the S. and going N., are San Diego, 
 San Pedro, Monterey, and San Francisco (which see) ; the 
 last, entered by an inlet 1 m. wide, is the most spacious and 
 important in the state. On the S. part of the coast are a few 
 islands Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, San Catalina, San Clementi 
 or San Salvador, varying from 20 m. to 25 m. long, and San 
 Nicolas, Santa Barbara, San Juan, San Miguel, merely islets. 
 
 California is divided into two districts of unequal size, and 
 of markedly different character, by the sierra Nevada, a ridge 
 of mountains which forms the E. limit of the N. portion of 
 the country, but in the S. traverses it almost centrally. The 
 district E. of this range is little known, but, generally speak 
 ing, it may be described as sandy, sterile, destitute of forest 
 trees, and even of vegetation, except along the banks of the 
 streams, which are few and unimportant ; it measures about 
 500 m. in extreme length, by about 250 m. in extreme 
 breadth. In the N., however, a small portion of this district 
 is well watered, and covered by offsets of the sierra Nevada. 
 The W. district consists of one great, and several smaller 
 valleys, all nearly parallel to the coast, and to each other ; 
 with many minor transverse valleys, formed by spurs of the 
 chief mountain ranges It is bounded on the E. throughout 
 by the sierra Nevada, or snowy range, which, proceeding 
 from Oregon, takes a direction generally S., though some 
 what tortuous, parallel to, and about 150 m. from the coast ; 
 unites, in lat. 34 30 N., with a lower and nearly parallel 
 range to the W., called the coast range ; both afterwards 
 constituting one chain, which lowers down, and forms the 
 peninsula of Old California. In the sierra Nevada are vol 
 canic peaks, some of which are said to be active, rising far 
 above the limits of perpetual snow, to the height of 14,000 ft. 
 and 17,000 ft. ; and its formation, to a considerable extent, 
 is granitic 5 though trap and other igneous rocks occupy 
 much of the upper and lower valley of the Sacramento, as 
 well as a large extent of all the N. part of the country. 
 The coast range a comparatively low ridge of heights 
 originates near the Oregon frontier, takes a S. direction, 
 parallel to, and at an average distance of 50 m. W. from tho 
 sierra Nevada, with which it unites, as above noted, in lat. 
 34 30 N. ; it is formed chiefly of sandstone, with protru 
 sions of trachyte, and other igneous rocks. Between these 
 two ranges lies the great valley of the Sacramento and Joa- 
 quim or Tulares, 500 m. long, and shut in at the N. end by 
 spurs of the Cascade mountains. W. of the coast range are 
 other lower ranges of hills, also generally parallel to the 
 coast, forming valleys, each named from the stream which 
 waters it Buenaventura, San Jose, San Sebastian, Pichoinas, 
 &c. The N. part of the great valley between the two prin 
 cipal ranges is watered by the Sacramento, which flows S., 
 receiving numerous affluents from the sierra Nevada, but 
 none from the coast range ; and near the centre, along with 
 the San Joaquim, bursts through the coast range, and falls 
 
CALIFORNIA (UppEit OR NEW) 
 
 56-1 
 
 CALIFORNIA (UiTEit OR NEW) 
 
 into the bay of San Francisco, at that part of it called the [ 
 bay of Suisoon. It varies in width from 200 to 300 yards, | 
 and is navigable inland for a considerable distance ; steamers 
 at all seasons reaching the mouth of the Butte, about 80 in. 
 direct distance. Its principal tributaries are the Americanos, 
 Feather or 1 lumas, Butte, Yuba, Bear, Pine, Deer, Antelope, 
 Quesnells, and Sycomore rivers. The S. part of the valley j 
 is watered by the San Joaquim, which rises in the sierra | 
 Nevada, flows N., and falls with the Sacramento, as already 
 stated, into the bay of San Francisco ; it is navigable, but 
 how far inland is not known. From the head of the valley it 
 receives the waters of the Lakes Tule, Tulares or Chinlache, 
 and, like the Sacramento, numerous tributaries from the 
 sierra Nevad.i, and none from the coast range. Its principal 
 affluents, some of which are also navigable to a certain extent, 
 are the Merced, Toualumnes, Stanislaus, Calaveros, Muke- 
 lemnes, and Cosemnes. The only other note-worthy stream 
 is the Buenaventura, flowing N. through a valley W, of the 
 coast range, and falling into Monterey Bay. Lake Tule, 
 already named, is the only one of any considerable extent, 
 being about 75 m. long, by about 20 m. broad. It lies near 
 the S. extremity of the great valley, receives numerous 
 streams from the sierra Nevada, and some also from the coast 
 range ; it is surrounded by lowlands, rankly overgrown with 
 bulrushes. There are also a few small lakes near the course 
 of the Sacramento. 
 
 Gold, and other Minerals. From the formation of the 
 country, granite, trap, and sandstone must be plentiful ; excel 
 lent slate abounds in the valley of the San Joaquim; copper 
 exists near San Luis Obispo, about 125 m. S. Monterey; lead 
 of pure quality, and quicksilver, abound in the same locality ; 
 lead and iron, both of them of excellent quality, have been 
 found on the slopes of the sierra Nevada, N. of San Francisco; 
 near San Jose is a quicksilver mine, reputed to be one of the 
 richest in the world; and silver has been found in various 
 quarters. No coal has been discovered, nor is likely to be 
 so ; the geological formation of the country rendering such 
 an event highly improbable. Gold, however, is so plentiful, 
 that little attention has hitherto been paid to all baser mine 
 rals. Indeed, the mines of Peru, Mexico, and the Ural 
 mountains, have all been thrown into the shade by the quan 
 tities of gold found in this favoured region, which, until the 
 later discovery of gold in Australia, justly claimed to be the 
 richest auriferous region in the world. The gold is found 
 in various slates, containing veins of quart/, and in hypogene 
 or primary rocks, that have been protruded through them, in 
 the sierra Nevada, both N. and S. of the junction of the coast 
 range, and in the alluvial deposit of the rivers. On the 
 coast, also, near the Oregon frontier, there has been dis 
 covered what is called a Gold Bluff; on the beach, at its 
 base, the gold is found mixed with black sand, supposed to 
 have been washed down from the bold precipitous bluff by 
 the tremendous swell of the ocean that constantly exists here. 
 The gold-bearing sands are said to stretch along the shore for 
 6 m. ; but the heavy sea will prevent washing on the spot. 
 Specimens of the black sand, brought to San Francisco, 
 yielded $3 14 cents (12s. Id.} to the Ib. The first source, 
 however, above indicated the living rock must be the per 
 manent source of supply; for it is in the nature of auriferous 
 alluvial deposits to be ultimately exhausted a fact of which 
 plenty of evidence is afforded by the gold-washings of Brazil. 
 The want of capital and machinery prevented, for a time, 
 mining operations, properly so called, from being commenced. 
 These wants having now, however, to a considerable extent 
 been supplied, several mining companies have been estab 
 lished; and much gold is now obtained from quartz, which, 
 after being excavated by blasting or otherwise, is crushed in 
 a mill, and the gold separated either by washing or by amal 
 gamation with mercury. The efforts, however, of individual 
 seekers, or small associations destitute of capital, have mainly 
 been directed to the schistous rocks laid bare in ravines by 
 water, and to the alluvial deposits. In the former, gold is 
 often found in considerable masses, imbedded between the 
 layers of the strata, whence it is scooped out by means of a 
 strong knife, or displaced by a crow-bar, or other lever. The 
 seeker in such localities may at times become speedily rich, 
 by finding a few large pieces; but, generally speaking, the 
 supply from such a source is more precarious than from the 
 alluvial deposits. These deposits are found in the great val 
 
 ley along the rivers Sacramento, Joaquim, and their affluents 
 from the sierra Nevada; on the river Klamath and its tribu 
 taries on the Oregon frontier, and probably on many others. 
 They consist of silt, clay, and gravel or shingle; the last often 
 containing numerous large stones, rendering the labour of 
 removing them to get at the clay and small detritus very 
 great. To what extent the great valley is pervaded by the 
 precious metal, is not yet known; but at all events, gold is 
 probably to be found in greater or smaller quantity in all the 
 lower valley of the Sacramento, and as far S. as the head 
 waters of the San Joaquim a total stretch of nearly 300 in. 
 The metal is found in the form of dust, or small grains, in 
 smaller quantity in the surface deposits on the banks, or in 
 the beds of the streams; and in greater abundance in the 
 lower and firmer deposits, and in greatest abundance (at least 
 on the San Joaquim) next the slate on which these deposits 
 frequently rest ; the gold, from its weight, apparently always 
 seeking the lowest stratum. The metal is obtained by wash 
 ing the alluvium, till all the earthy matter is floated off, when 
 the gold is found left at the bottom of the vessel. The 
 seekers stand in the water washing the deposit lifted from the 
 bed of the stream, or they dig pits on the river edge, on a hill 
 slope, or in some other locality deemed suitable, the soil and 
 gravel thrown out requiring afterwards to bo washed. These 
 pits, also called dry diggings, are generally found to increase 
 in value the deeper they are dug, until the slate or rock is 
 reached, on the surface of which the metal is often found in 
 surprising quantity. The digger s labour, however, is often 
 expended in vain, and he frequently finds it difficult to earn 
 as much as will suffice for his daily sustenance. The total 
 amount of gold shipped at San Francisco, September 1, 1849, 
 to December 13, 1850, was $31,060,175, or 6,212,035; be 
 sides, probably, 4,000,000 brought away by passengers. 
 The total amount that has left California, from June 1848, 
 when the gold was discovered, to the end of 1850, may be 
 roughly estimated at 12,000,000. It may not be out of 
 place to add here some instances of extraordinary fortune, on 
 the part of individuals, as reported in the current newspapers 
 of the day. Between the middle and W. forks of Yuba river, 
 a lump of quartz and gold was found, weighing 30 Ibs., con 
 taining, by estimate, 23 Ibs. of pure gold; on one of the 
 affluents of the Joaquim, a block weighing 93 Ibs. was dis 
 covered, one-half of which was stated to be pure metal ; and 
 on another affluent, the Mercedes, a person found a lump of 
 nearly pure metal, weighing 83 Ibs. ; but the largest piece as 
 yet obtained was in the mines of the Mariposa, an affluent of the 
 Joaquim a lump of quartz weighing 700 Ibs., and rich in gold. 
 Gold seeking can only be carried on with advantage during 
 the dry season. The streams are so large, and the ground so 
 saturated with water, during the wet and winter season, that 
 it is next to impossible to do any work. Even after the wet 
 season is past, a time must elapse before operations are 
 seriously commenced in the bed of the larger streams ; for the 
 rivers being snow-fed, increase with the advance of spring, 
 in place of diminishing; consequently, it is not till about 
 June that the real labour of washing can be properly carried 
 on in such places. The result of this state of matters is, that 
 those who have not succeeded well during summer, are subject 
 to great privations from poverty during winter ; no doubt 
 greatly aggravating disease, contracted from exposure and 
 excessive labour. The size of the rivers, however, is no 
 obstacle to the progress of the mining or dry diggings, both 
 requiring a good supply of water to wash the crushed rock of 
 the one, and the excavated heaps of the other. To those so 
 engaged, therefore, the want of rain in winter, which some 
 times occurs, causing many of the rivulets on which they 
 depend for water to dry up, is as great a calamity as too much 
 rain is to those occupied in the river washings ; and the rise of 
 the streams from the melting of the snows which relieves 
 the former, still hinders the work of the latter. Gold searchers 
 often unite in bands, to accomplish a definite object, and then 
 separate. Thus they will form a company in the morning, 
 to wash together all day, and separate again in the evening ; 
 or they will unite to excavate a pit in a given locality, and 
 as soon as it is wrought out, divide the proceeds, and separate. 
 It being obviously impossible to search the beds of the larger 
 streams by ordinary methods, dredging has been tried ; and 
 steam vessels are now occupied on the Yuba, working dredg- 
 i ing machines with considerable success. 
 
CALIFORNIA (UPPER OK NEW) 
 
 565 
 
 CALIFORNIA (UPPER OR NEW) 
 
 Climate. California, being intersected by the isothermal 
 line of 60, has the same mean annual temperature as the N. 
 of Spain and the centre of Italy, and may, generally speaking, 
 be esteemed genial and mild ; and the year may be divided 
 into a dry and a wet season there being no frost, and rarely 
 snow, excepting on the mountains. The wet season begins 
 in November, and continues to the middle of February or the 
 beginning of March, during which time a considerable quan 
 tity of rain usually falls, though in some years this season 
 belies its name, and continues perfectly dry, to the great 
 detriment both of agriculturists and gold seekers. No rain 
 falls during the rest of the year. Though the climate is, 
 generally speaking, mild, still, in many places the changes 
 of temperature are sudden and great; and though in the 
 great valley during the summer fogs are unknown, yet on the 
 coast they are frequent. At San Francisco, the temperature 
 in summer sometimes reaches 110, and in the rainy season 
 it seldom falls below 40 ; the maximum and minimum differ 
 as much as 30 in 24 hours, and a scorching hot day is often 
 followed by a night of bitter cold. The heat in the valleys is 
 frequently oppressive, not being tempered by the sea-breezes ; 
 but, on the other hand, sudden changes, and great extremes 
 of temperature, do not, in these localities, appear to be so 
 frequent or violent as on the coast. On the lower slopes of 
 the sierra Nevada the climate is said to be that of constant 
 spring. 
 
 Vegetation. -N. of lat. 34 30 N. the slopes and valleys of 
 the coast range, the district W. of it to the sea, the valley of 
 the Sacramento where not covered with sand or gravel, and 
 the E. side of the valley of the San Joaquim, will yield heavy 
 crops of wheat and oats ; indeed, the greater part of these dis 
 tricts is annually covered with wild oats. The soil, in one 
 place or another, is also suitable for maize and the other cereals, 
 and for the tuberous plants and legumes usually cultivated 
 in temperate climates. The vegetables grown in the U. States 
 attain here an extraordinary size. The districts above referred 
 to are covered with excellent herbage, on which numerous 
 flocks of wild cattle, deer, &c., depasture ; but the W. side of 
 the valley of the San Joaquim having no permanent water 
 courses, and probably being chiefly composed of sand washed 
 down from the coast range, is destitute of herbage, though 
 covered with a profusion of beautiful flowers of the most varied 
 hues, among which, however, blue is the most prevalent. So 
 destitute of herbage is this district, that the cattle of emigrants 
 employed in transporting their effects to the gold districts of 
 the valley, have frequently been on the point of starvation, 
 while treading down a vigorous vegetation of which they re 
 fused to partake. That part of the valley near lake Tule or 
 Tulares is marshy, and covered with a thick growth of a kind 
 of gigantic bulrush, frequently 15 ft. high, called tule, 
 whence the lake is named. The olives of California are equal 
 to those of Andalusia, and the wine is similar to that of the 
 Canary Islands ; indeed, the fruits are most varied, including 
 apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges, peaches, pomegranates, 
 plantains, bananas, and cocoa-nuts ; the indigo plant also, 
 and the sugar-cane and tobacco, yield abundant returns. 
 The lower parts of the country are interspersed with isolated 
 trees of various kinds. Along the foot of the sierra Nevada 
 are open groves, composed chiefly of white oak (Quercus lon- 
 giglanda, Torr. and Frem.) 5 to 6 ft. in diameter, and 60 to 
 80 ft. high. Higher up are evergreen oaks, cypresses, cedars, 
 and lofty pines, among which Pinus Lambertiana attains a 
 height of upwards of 200 ft., with a circumference of 57 ft. ; 
 its timber is soft, white, and light, and its turpentine of pure 
 amber colour; its cones are 16 inches long, and the seeds are 
 eaten roasted or pounded into cakes. The lofty plateaux, cha 
 racteristic of this range, from which the bare volcanic peaks 
 rise like pyramids, are generally densely covered with timber. 
 From the uncertainty of the rains, and the great droughts of 
 summer, agriculture must always, in California, depend much 
 upon irrigation. 
 
 Zoology. Bears, wolves, foxes, wild-cats, otters, beavers, 
 antelopes, hares, and rabbits, abound. Large herds of wild 
 cattle, horses, deers, and elks, depasture on the grassy slopes 
 and valleys. The oxen are excellent, and the horses small, 
 delicately formed, but capable of long-continued exertion 
 without food or water. Mules, goats, sheep, and swine, are 
 plentiful. The mutton is good, but the wool inferior. Poultry 
 thrive well. Birds generally are scarce ; the most common 
 
 are the turkey, buzzard, quail, and woodpecker ; partridges, 
 geese, ducks, and cranes, are said to be numerous. Snakes, 
 among which the rattlesnake, and lizards of various kinds 
 scorpions, tarentulas, &c., are met with; and mosquitoes are 
 innumerable. 
 
 Towns, Commerce, &c. The principal town and port, but 
 not the capital, is San Francisco, situated on a spit of land at 
 the entrance to the bay of its name. The seat of the legisla 
 ture, and residence of the governor, is Vallejo, or Vallego, a 
 new city on the N. shore of the bay of San Francisco, between 
 the bays of San Pablo and Suisoon. San Jose, a small town 
 about 45 m. S.W. San Francisco, was the old capital. Among 
 the older towns, Monterey, San Diego, Los Angelos, &c., from 
 being unimportant places, have become large cities. Of the 
 more recently-founded places may be named, Napa, Sonoma, 
 and Benicia, on the N. shore of the bay of San Pablo, and 
 Martinez on its S. shore ; New York of the Pacific, Butte, 
 Boston, Sutter, Sacramento, Fremont, Vernon, Yub;i, Nico- 
 laus, &c., on the Sacramento river, and its affluents; and 
 Empire city, Stockton, Stanislas, &c., on the Joaquim and its 
 tributaries. All the recently-formed towns are built chiefly 
 of wood, though erections of brick and stone are becoming 
 more common ; and houses are run up so rapidly, that whole 
 new streets are formed in a few days. Many so-called towns, 
 erected in the vicinity of the diggings, are merely collections 
 of tents. After the discovery of the gold, so many went in 
 search of it, and the produce was so great, that labour and 
 property in the towns arose to enormous prices. Servants 
 were paid $100 to $200 (20 to 40) per month; car-men 
 $6000 (1200) a-year ; a rifle cost 20 ; and clasp and bowie 
 knives 6 to 10; a house, the size of a common English 
 domicile, was rented to the Miners Bank at $75,000 (15,000) ; 
 a shed, 15 ft. by 20, occupied by gamblers, gave 8000 ; but 
 the influx of labour, and more correct ideas of the income 
 from the gold districts, have now brought prices to a more 
 natural level. Manufactured goods, having soon arrived in 
 great plenty, were, at an early period, comparatively cheap ; 
 so much so, indeed, that at one time it was more economical 
 to purchase new shirts than to pay for the old ones being 
 washed. 
 
 Regarding the commerce of the country, little can yet be 
 said. In former times hides and cattle were exported, and 
 will likely be so again. At present gold is almost the only 
 article of export (see p. 564) , in return for manufactured goods, 
 implements of various kinds, provisions, liquors, &c. 
 
 Population. The Spanish Californians, now comparatively 
 a small section of the community, have large, strong frames, 
 strong muscles, and a ruddy fresh complexion. The Indian 
 population, now few and scattered, seems at one time to have 
 been great, as evidenced by the remains of numerous villages 
 in the great valley. The Indians are seldom more than 5 ft. 
 high, of a dark copper colour, with low forehead, black eyes, 
 thick lips, and rough straight hair. They are indolent, igno 
 rant, and cowardly ; though prone enough to murder when 
 they can do so with safety. The main part of the population 
 is Anglo-Saxon, and chiefly from the U. States, though num 
 bers are also from Great Britain and Ireland. Almost every 
 nation has its representative here ; and the population forms 
 a curious mixture of high born and low born, learned and 
 ignorant, in which those accustomed to be highest are some 
 times found to be lowest. Lawyers, ex-professors, physicians, 
 &c., dig cellars, drive ox teams, saw wood, and carry luggage ; 
 while those who have been private soldiers, sailors, cooks, 
 and day-labourers, are at the head of profitable establishments, 
 and often assist in the minor details of government. In 1802, 
 Humboldt estimated the population of Upper California at 
 16,862 ; in 1846-47, Byrant estimated it at 25,000; and at 
 present (1851), it is estimated at 300,000; of which, 60,000 
 are in the town of San Francisco. 
 
 History. Upper California was discovered by the Spa 
 niards ; and its shores were examined by Cabrillo in 1542 ; 
 and in 1578, it was visited by Sir F. Drake, who gave it the 
 name of New Albion. In 1602, Sebastian Visconio touched 
 at Monterey, and proclaimed the neighbouring country to be 
 Spanish territory. The Jesuit mission of San Diego, the 
 first settlement in Upper California, was established in 1769, 
 and before 1803, 18 others had been added, each with its 
 tribe of Indians attached to it, and undar its protection. In 
 1833, these missions were secularized and declared public pro- 
 
CALIFORNIA (LOWER OR OLD) 
 
 CALIFORNIA (LOWER oil OLD) 
 
 perty by the Mexican government; and in 1845, those of San 
 Juan, Carmel, San Francisco, Solano, and San Juan Capis- 
 tiano, were disposed of by public sale; the remainder being 
 subsequently transferred to the U. States. The country suf 
 fered several times from revolution, and the inhabitants more 
 than once declared themselves independent, but as often re 
 joined the confederation. The authority of Mexico over it 
 was very loose for the last 10 or 12 years of its connection 
 with that country. In May 1848, Upper California was ceded 
 by Mexico to the U. States, and about a month afterwards 
 the discovery was made which has in such a remarkable 
 manner altered its fortunes. Gold was previously known 
 well enough to exist in the country, and had, indeed, been 
 wrought to a certain extent by the Mexicans. Hakluyt, who 
 accompanied Drake, and published in 1589, says, There is 
 no part of the earth here to be taken up wherein there is not a 
 reasonable quantitie of gold and sili-er. Still, not until June, 
 1848, did the auriferous deposits of California attract general 
 attention, when they were brought before the world, as one 
 may almost say by accident, by some settlers, who discovered 
 shining particles, and some heavier pieces of yellow metal, 
 in the mud in a mill-course near Coloma, on the Americanos 
 or American Fork, an affluent of the Sacramento. Such a 
 discovery could not be long concealed; the news spread, every 
 other occupation was abandoned, and all hastened to the dig 
 gings, and wages, provisions, and property of various kinds, 
 rose to an enormous price. In course of the following year, 
 multitudes began to arrive from all quarters, Mexico, Peru, 
 Chili, the Sandwich Islands, China, all parts of Europe and 
 the U. States. In 18 months, 100,000 arrived from the 
 U. States alone ; there was almost a continuous line of emi 
 grants across the Eoeky Mountains, the Great Desert, and 
 the sierra Nevada, by which route many thousands arrived, 
 accompanied by immense waggons, drawn by bullocks. Great 
 privations were endured in crossing these trackless regions, 
 from want of food and water for man and beast. Many emi 
 grants and their cattle perished on the way, from hunger and 
 fatigue. Immense numbers likewise arrived by the Isthmus 
 of Panama, and numbers made a voyage of 17,000 m. round 
 Cape Horn. Such a great influx of people was too much for 
 existing means of government ; robbery and murder became 
 frequent ; lynch-law was in many places set up, and the cul 
 prit, after being tried and condemned by a jury selected on 
 the spot, was hung on the nearest tree. In this dilemma the 
 U. States emigrants decided on forming themselves into a 
 state. Representatives, chosen from all parts of the country, 
 met in June 1849, and adopted a constitution similar to that 
 of New York, guaranteeing to citizens the right of trial by 
 jury ; free exercise of religious worship ; the privilege of the 
 writ of habeas corpus; protection from excessive fines or cruel 
 punishments ; exemption from arrest on crime, except on pre 
 sentment or indictment ; freedom of speech ; right of petition ; 
 prohibition of a standing army in time of peace ; representa 
 tion according to population ; abolition of imprisonment for 
 debt ; protection of rights of property, &c. Since this event 
 took place, and in consequence of the measures subsequently 
 adopted, life and property have become much more secure 
 than they were formerly ; though the administration of the 
 law, doubtless from defective organization, being somewhat 
 tardy, it is still not uncommon for the populace to visit great 
 culprits with condign punishment; in the execution of which 
 they have generally exhibited a calmness and dignity of 
 manner strangely at variance with the irregularity of the 
 transaction, and forming certainly not the least remarkable 
 feature in Californian history, and of Californian society. 
 California was admitted as a state of the Union in 1850. 
 (Lieut.-Col. Fremont s Report Lieut. Emeroy s Narrative ; 
 Farnham s Life, Travels^ and Adventures in California; 
 Commissioner King s Report, &c.) 
 
 CALIFORNIA (LOWER or OLD) [Spanish, Baja or Vieja 
 California], a state or dep. of the Mexican Confederation, 
 situated on the W. coast of N. America, and formed of a pen 
 insula, lying N.W. to S.E., about 750 m. long, by 30 to 1 20 m. 
 broad ; and extending from Cape San Lucas, its most S. point; 
 lat. 22 52 N. ; Ion. 109 53 W. (R.), to lat. 32 30 N. ; 
 bounded, N. by Upper or New California, E. by the Gulf of 
 California, and S. and W. by the Pacific Ocean. The peninsula 
 is volcanic, and is traversed throughout its whole length by 
 a continuation of the sierra Nevada, 1000 to nearly 5000 ft. 
 
 high, the culminating peak, Cerro dc la Giganta, being 4900 ft. ; 
 it has two extinct volcanoes, hot springs of water and bitumen ; 
 much of it is heated by subterranean fires, and earthquakes 
 are frequent. This mountain- range is almost bare of verdure, 
 being only sprinkled here and there with a cluster of briars, 
 small shrubs, or dwarf trees. Along the mountain-foot the 
 ground is sandy or stony, and covered with cylindrical cactuses 
 of extraordinary height. Among the ridges and protected 
 hollows, are a few spots with soil, formed generally of de 
 composed lava. Springs of water, few in number, are ordi 
 narily found on bare rock ; for water and soil are seldom 
 met with at the same place. Where, however, this hap 
 pens to be the case, the fertility is immense. The want of 
 water is the bane of Lower California. Only two streams 
 fall from its mountains into the Gulf of California, both near 
 the middle of the peninsula, and only three into the Pacific ; 
 and none of them are large. In the interior are several 
 copious springs, sending forth abundant streams, which un 
 fortunately run along a rocky course, and are absorbed 
 ultimately in the porous arid soil, or are lost in subterranean 
 channels. For about 80 m. N. from Cape San Lucas, the air 
 is mild, being tempered by the sea-breeze ; from this section 
 N. to Loretto, lat. 26 16 N., the heat is excessive; but 
 thence N. the air is cooler. The temperature of summer, on 
 the coast of the Pacific, ranges from 58 to 71; the sky is 
 peculiarly clear, of a deep blue, and perfectly cloudless, ex 
 cepting sometimes at sunset, when streaks of the most beau 
 tiful shades of violet, purple, and green appear. In winter, 
 the rains are severe, but of short duration, and accompanied 
 by tremendous tornadoes of wind, sweeping the soil from 
 every exposed position into the sea, and causing the tiller of 
 the ground to seek a new place in which to ply his vocation. 
 During the rains, the thermometer falls as low as 50. The 
 variety of climate, however, is great ; for when near Cape 
 San Lucas the thermometer stands between 60 and 70, at 
 the head of the Gulf it is down to the freezing point. The 
 few fertile spots of Lower California yield maize, manioc, 
 wheat, beans, pease, and all manner of esculent roots ; excel 
 lent grapes, from which a wine is made, similar to that of 
 the Canaries ; oranges, lemons, limes, citrons, prunes, dates, 
 plantains, pine-apples, &c. The mountains feed a few wild 
 sheep and goats ; and, to a small extent, horses, black cattle, 
 mules, goats, and pigs, are reared. If the land be barren, the 
 sea is stored with fish in incredible abundance and variety ; 
 among them may be named halibut, salmon, turbot, skate, 
 pilchard, large oyster, thornback, mackerel, barbel, bonitos, 
 soles, lobsters, sardines, cod, tunnies, anchovies, and pearl 
 oysters. The pearl oyster is obtained in the gulf, near the S. 
 parts of California, and it was formerly much more exten 
 sively fished than at present ; in fact, the fishing or diving 
 for it has almost been abandoned. The pearls obtained are 
 of a fine water and large, but rather irregular in shape, and 
 not very pleasing to the eye. The quantity obtained in 1831 
 by 15 boats, amounted in value to about 7000. Gold is 
 supposed to abound in Lower California, and a mine wrought 
 near La Paz is said to be rich. The limited exports of the 
 country consist of pearls, gold, dates, wines, grapes, soap, 
 figs, spirits, salt, from an inland lake on the Island of Carmen ; 
 a few goats, and hides. The chief towns are Loretto, the 
 capital; lat. 26 16 N. ; Ion. 112 5 W. ; with a population 
 of 500, though it formerly had 2000; and La Paz, about 
 150 m. S.E. the former, with a population of about 2000. 
 The present population of the country consists chiefly of 
 mongrel breeds of Indians, whites, and negroes. 
 
 Lower California was discovered by llernando de Grixalva 
 in 1534. In 1642, the Jesuits formed establishments in it; 
 they taught the natives the art of cultivating the ground, 
 and raised them greatly in the scale of civilization. In the 
 reign of Philip V., more especially subsequent to 1744, the 
 Spanish establishments in California increased, and became 
 very considerable. In a very few years the Jesuits built 
 16 villages in the interior of the peninsula; but in 1767 they 
 were expelled, and the administration of California was com 
 mitted to monks of the Dominican convents of the city of 
 Mexico, who have not maintained the same career of useful 
 ness as their predecessors. Pop. 8000 ; of whom, probably 
 4000 are Indians. (Humboldt, Essai Politique sur leRoyaume 
 de la Nouvelle-Espagne; Farnham s Life, Travels, and Adven 
 tures in California). 
 
CALIG 
 
 5G7 
 
 CALLINGTON 
 
 CALTG, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. Castellon de la 
 Plana, 7 m. N. Peniscola. It is clean, and tolerably wel 
 built ; has a square, a parish church, chapel, two schools, a 
 spacious townhall and a prison beneath, a poorly- endowe 
 hospital, and a cemetery. Weaving, distilling brandy, ex 
 pressing oil and wine, making bricks, and tillage, employ the 
 inhabitants, who also trade in grain, wine, hemp, manufac 
 tured goods, &c. Pop. 3020. 
 
 CALINGAPATAM, a small seaport tn. Ilindoostan, 
 E. coast, N. Circars, 18 m. N.E. Chicacole; lat. 18 20 N. ; 
 lon.84ll E. 
 
 CALIPUJANG, a harbour, isl. Java, S. coast, inside of 
 isls. Nusa-Kombangan and Nusa Re ; lat. 7 33 S. ; Ion. 
 106 30 E. Though the entrance by either side of the high 
 round island, Nusa Ke, was laid down as safe in the chart, the 
 vessel in which Mr. Earl entered struck on a sunken rock, in 
 the E. channel. The Dutch establishment here, though the 
 largest on the S. coast of Java, is small, and is employed in 
 collecting the revenue on salt and edible birds -nests. 
 
 CALITRI, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra, 15 m. 
 E. St. Angelo-di-Lombardi, on the Ofanto. It stands on a 
 high hill, and has a handsome parish church, with a Benedic 
 tine convent. Cattle and sheep are reared to a large extent 
 in the environs. Pop. 5219. 
 
 CALITUBA, a tn. Ceylon. See CALTUKA. 
 CALIZANO, a tn. Sardinian States, div. of, and 40 m. 
 "VV.S.W. Genoa; to the W. of Mount Calvi, and not far from 
 the source of the Bormida. Pop. 2432. 
 
 CALKE, or CAULK, par. Eng. Derby; 880 ac. Pop. 55. 
 CALLAC, a tn. France, dep. Cotes-du-Nord, 31 m. 
 W.S.W. Brieuc. It has numerous fairs. Pop. 1038. 
 
 CALLAIN, a tn. Malay Peninsula, State Salangore, 
 Strait of Malacca, lat. 3 N. ; Ion. 101 20 E. ; 207 m. 
 N.N.E. Singapore. 
 
 CALLAN, par. Irel. Kilkenny ; 5634 ac. Pop. 6128. 
 CALLAN, a tn. Ireland, co. of, and 10 in. S.W. Kilkenny, 
 on the King s river. It consists chiefly of four streets, that 
 meet in the centre ; the other parts of the town are composed 
 of mean, straggling thoroughfares. The parish church is an 
 old monastic building. The R. Catholic chapel, situated in a 
 commanding position, is a modern edifice. There are, also, a 
 modern Augustinian friary and chapel, a large substantial 
 stone structure ; a national school, a girls daily school, a dis 
 pensary, and a loan fund. A small trade in grain is almost 
 the only business done in Callan. A few persons are em 
 ployed in making flannel, and a considerable number in 
 making brogues or coarse shoes ; but the great majority are 
 cither small traders or agricultural labourers. Pop. 3111. 
 
 CALLANA, or CALANNA, a tn. and mountainous dist. 
 N.W. Africa, in Soudan. The mountains form part of the 
 Bataka range ; a system which branches off in a N.E. direc 
 tion from the mountains of Kong, in about Ion. 2 W., and 
 terminates in the desert of Sahara. The town of Callana is 
 about 450m. S.S.E. Timbuctoo; lat. 11 12 N.; Ion. 2 W. 
 
 CALLANDER, a par. and vil. Scotland, co. Perth. The 
 PARISH is 18 m. long, E. to W., and varying from 1 to 6 m. 
 broad. Its fine mountains and lake scenery have been ren 
 dered classical by Sir Walter Scott s poem of the Lady of the 
 Lake; the mountains Bcnledi, Stuic-a-chroin, and Uamh- 
 mhor, and lochs Katrine, Achray, and Vennacher, being within 
 
 its bounds. The VILLAGE is beautifully situated on the N. 
 
 side of a flat plain, intersected by the river Teith. It consists 
 of a long double row of neat white-washed houses, on either 
 side of the road, and contains a neat Established church, a 
 Free church, and a school. Pop. of vil. 1107 ; of par. 1665. 
 CALLAO, a tn. Peru, dep. of, and 6 m. W. Lima, of 
 which it is the seaport, near the mouth of the Rimac ; lat. 
 12 4 S. ; Ion. 77 13 45" W. (R.) The houses are mean, 
 built of mud, with flat roofs, and are generally only one story. 
 There being no rain, but frequent earthquakes, stone houses 
 are both unnecessary and dangerous. Great improvements 
 have, however, recently been made ; the streets have been 
 widened, a fine mole has been erected, and the whole town 
 has assumed a more respectable appearance. The principal 
 street, which runs parallel to the bay, is paved ; has side 
 walks, and contains some tolerably well-built houses, of two 
 stories. The castle of Callao, which used to be regarded as 
 the key of Lima, has been almost entirely dismantled, and is 
 now used as a custom-house. The market-place occupies a 
 
 square of 1J acres. Omnibuses run several times a day to 
 Lima. Heavy dews at night supply the want of rain. Callao 
 is the emporium of a large and increasing trade ; and its road 
 stead is large, safe, free from rocks, and always smooth. 
 
 VESSELS EMEKKD and CLEAHKD at the POUT OF CALLAO, 
 
 in 1844 to 1847. 
 
 Entered. Cleared. 
 
 Years. Vessels. Tons. Vessels. Tons. 
 
 1844 539 127,110 509 120,908 
 
 1845 577 127,549 563 124678 
 
 1846 686 178,658 667 175,034 
 
 1847 709 205,697 687 199,473 
 
 In 1746, the town was entirely demolished by an earthquake, 
 when only 200 persons, out of 4000, escaped destruction. It 
 has been since rebuilt nearly on its former site, but a little 
 farther from the sea. At low water the ruins of the old town 
 are still visible. November 5, 1820, Lord Cochrane and a 
 party of Chilians cut out the Esmeralda, a large Spanish 40 
 gun frigate, from under the guns of the castle. Pop. 5000. 
 
 CALLAO ISLAND, an isl. Chinese Sea, E. coast, Cochin- 
 China, 9 m. from the mainland ; lat. (S. part) 15 54 N. ; 
 Ion. 108 30 E. It is high, one of its mountains exceeding 
 1400 ft., of irregular form ; about 6 m. in length, and from 
 2 to 3 m. in breadth, having some islets adjoining its S. end, 
 and others projecting W. from its N.W. part. It is inhabited, 
 well cultivated, and the anchorage on the W. side, in 4 or 4 
 fathoms, is safe in all winds. On this side there is a beautiful 
 spot of about 200 ac., covered with neat houses, temples, 
 clusters of trees, and small hillocks, overgrown with shrubs. 
 About 20 m. S.S.E. Callao is a small island, surrounded with 
 rocky islets, called False Callao Island. 
 
 CALLAS, a tn. France, dep. Var, 5 m. N.E. Draguignan, 
 on a low hill, at the foot of the Piol Mountain. It has narrow, 
 crooked, and excessively dirty streets, polluted by the dung- 
 heaps in process of preparation for manuring the olive-yards 
 of the environs. A good deal of oil is made here, and coal is 
 worked in the vicinity. Pop. 1980. 
 
 CALLE (LA), or AL KALAH, a seaport, Algeria, prov. 
 Constantine, 31 m. W. Tabarka; lat. 36 50 N. ; Ion. 8 30 
 E. It is defended by a fort, and is a principal station of the 
 French coral-fishery, lying midway between Tabarka and 
 Bona. The environs are fertile, well wooded, and particu 
 larly rich in cork trees. Wheat, barley, leather, and tobacco 
 are exported. Pop. 400. 
 
 CALLENBEKG, two vils.Saxony, both in circle Zwickau : 
 1, dist. Waldenberg, containing chalk and tile works, and 
 possessing a chalybeate spring. Pop. 1080. 2, dist. Lich- 
 tenstein, containing a handsome church, and possessing some 
 inen manufactures, a mill, and distillery. Pop. 1900. 
 
 CALLIANEE. 1, a large tn. Hindoostan, in the Concan, 
 30 m. N.N.E. Bombay, cap. dist. of same name. A consider 
 able traffic is carried on here in cocoa-nuts, oil, coarse cloths, 
 brass, and earthenware. 2, a mountain-stream in the Concan 
 Ghauts, on which occur numerous beautiful waterfalls, the 
 principal of which is 1400 ft. high. 
 
 CALLIES, a tn. Prussia, gov. Koslin, 58 m. E.S.E. 
 Stettin, on the Great and Little Baberon and Miihlensee. It 
 has walls, with three gates ; contains a castle, and a church ; 
 nd, besides some linen and woollen manufactures, has six 
 yearly markets. Pop. 2641. 
 
 CALLIGRAY, or KILLIGRAT, a small isl. Scotland, 
 Hebrides, Argyleshire, between Harris and N. Uist. It is 
 about 2 m. long, by 1 m. broad. 
 
 CALLINGER, a tn. and fortress, Hindoostan, cap. dist. 
 of same name, prov. of, and 90 m. S.W. Allahabad; lat. 
 24 58 N. ; Ion. 80 25 E. It stands on a lofty hill, the 
 ummit of which is at least 1200 ft. above the plains below. 
 The town, which is of considerable size, stands at the foot of 
 he N. front of the hill ; but the whole summit of the hill, 
 comprehending a plain 5 m. in circuit, is encompassed by an 
 mmense mud rampart of Mahometan construction, and com 
 posed of rough unhewn stones. In the interior are several 
 arge tanks, always filled with water. In 1810, after an un- 
 uccessful attack, it was taken by the British, the garrison 
 laving evacuated during the night. 
 
 CALLINGTON, a tn. and par. England, co. Cornwall. 
 The town, 12 m. N.W. Plymouth, lies low, and is destitute 
 f all attraction ; the houses are irregularly built, and form 
 jut one broad street, running N. and S. It was constituted a 
 jorough in the time of Elizabeth, and returned two members 
 
CALLOO 
 
 568 
 
 CALOSOO 
 
 to Parliament, but was disfranchised by the Reform Act. after (hey have been subjected to some process of manufacture; 
 
 Pop. 1388. Area of par. 2600 ac. Pop. 1C85. 
 
 the wealthier classes dress in cloth or silk, and sceui fully 
 
 CALLOO. a tn. and com. Belgium, prov. E. Flanders, alive to the dignity supposed to be conferred by a showy 
 7 m. W.N.W. Antwerp, 1. bank, Scheldt. Here is the fort j exterior. Their riches consist in the number of their live 
 of Liefkenshoek, facing Fort-Lillo, constructed in 1583, to stock, more especially horses, of which individuals possess to 
 control the passage of the river. The position is strong, as ] the number of 1000 each. The milk of the mares, in addition 
 the whole flat country around can easily be inundated. Calloo j to the spirit distilled from it, as already mentioned, furnishes 
 has some trade in agricultural produce ; it has also a tannery, | the principal summer beverage, but in winter that of the cow 
 
 brewery, rope-walk, and two flour-mills. Pop. 2147. 
 
 is usually substituted for it. The milk of sheep, which, as a 
 
 CALLOSA-DE-ENSARRIA, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. of, | live stock, rank next in number to horses, is chiefly employed 
 
 and 31 m. N.E. Alicante, 1. bank, Guadalest, which is some 
 times called Callosa, 6 m. from the sea; streets generally 
 steep, narrow, and crooked, but clean and well paved. It 
 has a parish church, four chapels, townhall, session-house, 
 prison, hospital, cemetery, public fountain, and a magnificent 
 bath of black marble, obtained from a quarry about 1 m. E. 
 of the town. Hempen shoes are manufactured, and some 
 trade is done in grain, fruits, wine, &c. Pop. 4328. 
 
 CALLOSA-uE-SEGUKA, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. of, 
 and 28 m. S. W. Alicante, near the Segura; with houses 
 
 making butter and cheese. For purposes of transport, the 
 camel and dromedary are frequently employed. The only 
 manufacture which exists in any degree of perfection among 
 the Calmucks, is that of preparing sheep and lamb skins, 
 which form a considerable article of trade, particularly with 
 the Russians, and are often formed into pelisses, which bring 
 a large price. This manufacture is almost entirely performed 
 by the women, on whose shoulders, as usual in savage or 
 half-savage nations, all labours which require careful atten 
 tion and persevering industry are laid. 
 
 well built, chiefly of black marble, several clean, paved, and The Calmucks who acknowledge the authority of the 
 spacious squares, a large and handsome parish church, two Chinese emperor amount to about 50,000, and are governed 
 schools, a townliouse, prison, small hospital, and four con- [ by princes who trace their descent from a brother of the 
 vents, with churches attached. In the neighbourhood is an celebrated Genghis Khan. After coming from the N.W. and 
 
 extensive aqueduct for conveying water from the Segura to 
 the city of Orihuela. Pop. 2904. 
 
 CALLOW, par. Eng. Hereford; 640 ac. Pop. 171. 
 
 CALLUNDBOKG, tn. Denmark. See KALLUNDBORG. 
 
 CALMAK, tn. Sweden. See KALMAR. 
 
 CALMINA, a tn. N.W. Africa, kingdom Dahomey, 10m. 
 
 taking possession of the country around the Koko-noor, where 
 they still have their principal locality, they gave in their ad 
 hesion to the Chinese government, and continued faithful to 
 it till 1723, when they raised the standard of revolt, and 
 made a hostile incursion into the Chinese territory. In the 
 contest which ensued they sustained a signal defeat, and were 
 
 P. Abomey, and about 80 m. from the coast at Whidah ; Lit. ! subjected to an annual tribute of oxen, sheep, horses, and 
 
 7 22 N. ; Ion. 2 22 E. camels, the payment of which is still exacted. A detachment 
 CALMUCKS, KALMUCKS, or ELEUTHES, a remarkable of this tribe, to the number of 25,000, emigrated in 1 759 to 
 
 people of Mongol extraction, found in various parts of central the banks of the Volga, and became subject to Russia. The 
 
 Asia, but occupying more especially the W. part of Mon- Songarian Calmucks about the beginning of the last century, 
 
 golia, extending from Asiatic Russia to China proper. Both after subduing some of their neighbours, engaged in a fierce 
 
 the people and the country are still very imperfectly known, struggle with the Mongolians and Chinese, and were them- 
 
 They are divided into the four principal tribes of Koschots, selves ultimately subdued. The Torgots, who, at a much 
 
 Songars, Torgots, and Derbets, and are subject partly to earlier period than any of the other tribes, had emigrated to 
 
 Russian, and partly to Chinese supremacy, though each is the Volga, having become discontented with their condition, 
 
 governed immediately by its own recognized chief. In cus- returned in a body to their country in 1771, leaving, how- 
 
 toms and physical constitution, they bear a strong resem- ever, a subordinate branch headed by n prince called Dun- 
 
 blance to the Mongolians, having oblique, narrow eyes, with dukov, who, with his followers, made their unreserved 
 
 angles far less salient than those of Europeans ; their black eye- submission to the Czar. This prince at a later period 
 
 brows, small, flat noses, high cheek-bones, round heads, large became a convert to Christianity, and was succeeded by his 
 cars, and remarkably acute senses of smell, sight, and hearing, son-in-law, who, by the command of the emperor, assumed 
 
 so as to make objects perceptible to them at very extraordinary the title of Dundukov Korsakov. Besides the Calmucks 
 
 distances. They are in the highest degree filthy and sensual, already mentioned, there are some who have joined the 
 
 lead a nomadic life, dwelling in movable huts of skin, and Greek church, and been assigned a residence in the town of 
 
 though not destitute of frankness and hospitality, are much Stavropol, gov. Simbirsk. In the same district are some Cal- 
 
 more characterized by a deceitful and thievish disposition, mucks who have embraced Mahometanism. The whole num- 
 
 Their habits unfitting them for agriculture, their chief em- ber within the Russian dominions has been estimated at 56,000. 
 
 ployments are herding and the rearing of cattle. Like most 
 savage nations, they are fond of intoxicating liquors, and 
 have discovered the means of gratifying the propensity, by 
 extracting from mares milk a kind of spirit, which they call 
 Ariki, or Kumiss. The individuals belonging to each sepa 
 rate horde are classed under the heads of people, nobility, and 
 priests. The people are mere slaves: the priests, with a few 
 exceptions, are followers of Buddha: the nobility consist of 
 
 CALNE, a market tn., parl. bor., and par. England, co. 
 
 Wilts, 85 m. W. London. The 
 
 consists principally of 
 
 several grades, some being hereditary chiefs, who take the 
 title of noion, and govern the tribes of which they are th 
 
 one long street lighted with gas, and is, in general, well built, 
 and clean. The parish church is handsome, and the tower, 
 by Inigo Jones, contains a set of fine chimes. There are here 
 places of worship for various religious denominations, a free 
 grammar-school, and some alms-houses. The manufacture of 
 woollen cloth was formerly carried on extensively, but this 
 
 trade has now greatly declined. Calne sent two members to 
 Parliament from the time of Richard II. down to the passing 
 
 head, with little more than a nominal subjection to the khan, j of the Reform Act, which restricted its privilege to one. The 
 
 or head of the whole nation; others governing a subdivision Chippenham station on the Great Western Railway is 6 m. 
 
 of the tribe, in subordination to the noion, and known by the j from the town. Pop. 2483. Area of par. 9670 ac. ; pop. 5128. 
 
 name of dzaissang, or noble, in the proper sense of the term; | CALONI. See KALONI. 
 
 and a third, and still lower grade, exercising authority over 
 a still more minute subdivision, in subordination to both 
 dzaissangs and noions. The authority of this last grade 
 extends to the infliction of punishment, but is by no means 
 
 CALORE, two rivers, Naples: 1, rises on the S. fron 
 tiers of Principato Ultra, near Mount Calvello, and the town 
 of Montella, flows in a tortuous course past Benevento, and 
 joins the Volturno about 15 m. above Capua; whole course, 
 
 of an arbitrary nature, as it must be exercised in conformity i about 60 m. It receives the Ufita and Miscono shortly after 
 to a code of law which is not merely oral, but is said to exist j their junction, the Tanaro, and the Salvato ; and contains ex- 
 in writing in the Mongol tongue. This tongue, or rather a ! ccllent trouts, eels, and crabs. 2, Galore, Tcmgro, or Negro, 
 
 corrupt dialect of it, is in general use among the Calmucks. 
 Their armour consists commonly of a lance and a how. Not 
 a few, however, have learned the use of the musket, and none 
 of the higher classes consider themselves completely armed 
 without a coat of mail. The dress of the lower classes is 
 skins, frequently almost in their natural state, but often also 
 
 which rises in Mount Cervaro, on the S.E. borders of Princi- 
 pato Citra, and running N.N.W. through the valley of Diano, 
 falls into 1. bank Bianco, after a course of nearly 50 m. 
 
 CALOSOO, a vil. Sardinian States, division of, and about 
 22 m. S.W. Alexandria. A good wine is made in its neigh 
 bourhood.. Pop. 1800. 
 
CALPENTYN 
 
 569 CALVISANO 
 
 CALPENTYN, a seaport tn., promontory, and gulf, 
 Ceylon, W. coast. The TOWN, 93 m. N. Colombo, consists 
 of some large houses roofed with tiles, and contains a bazaar, 
 and eight places of worship one belonging to the Protestants, 
 one to the R, Catholics, three to the Gentoos, and three to the 
 Mahometans. There is also a charity school, supported by 
 Government. As usual with the towns and villages of this 
 island, it is thickly interspersed with cocoa-nut trees, which, 
 added to the rich foliage of the sooria, give it a singularly plea 
 sant appearance. Gardens, besides, are attached to each house, 
 in which various sorts of vegetables and fruits are produced, 
 including vines, which here attain great perfection. There are 
 here the ruins of a Dutch fort, built in 1 646, which contained 
 some handsome houses. The harbour is not accessible, in 
 consequence of shoals, to vessels exceeding 100 tons, even at 
 the highest spring tides, so that they are obliged to unload in 
 the Dutch bay at Mutwal, and to send their cargoes to Cal- 
 pentyn in small vessels. The exports from Calpentyn to 
 Madras, and other ports on the Coromandel coast, are cop 
 peras, the dried kernel of the cocoa-nut, cocoa-nut oil, shark s 
 fin, coir rope, honey, bees -wax, ghee, fish oil, wood oil, 
 dammar, moss, chaya roots, and palmyra timber. The im 
 ports consist of cloths, rice, earthenware, hempen thread, 
 spices, minerals, and drugs. There is, besides, a consider 
 able trade with Colombo in copperas, salt-fish, fish roes, dried 
 shrimps, ghee, and deer s horn, in return for Chinaware, 
 
 English cloth, 
 
 iates. jackwood planks, tiles, bricks, 
 
 iron, lead, &c. The fisheries here are considerable, and have 
 greatly increased of late years. Calpentyn was acquired by 
 the Portuguese in 1544, and was held by them till 1640, when 
 it was captured by the Dutch, who remained there till 1795, 
 when it was surrendered to the British, who still retain it. The 
 
 CALVADOS, a dep. France, bounded, N. by the English 
 Channel, along which its rocky shore extends about 60 m., E. 
 by dep. Eure, S. by Orne and La Manche, W. by La Manche. 
 Area, 2145 sq. in. It derives its name from a range of rocks 
 extending about 14 m. along the coast, and which were called 
 Calvados, after a Spanish vessel that was wrecked on them. 
 It comprises the ancient Auge, Bessin, and part of Lieuvin. 
 The department is undulating, picturesque, and possesses rich 
 pastures. Its S. portion is traversed by hills, none of which, 
 however, in any part of the district, attain an elevation ex 
 ceeding 250 ft. ; the culminating point is Mount Pincon. 
 The principal rivers are the Touques, Dives, Orne, and Vire, 
 which are navigable for small vessels. Coal is the only 
 mineral worked to any extent Agriculture is in a more ad 
 vanced state than in many other parts of France, and more 
 than a half of the whole surface is under the plough. Wheat, 
 barley, oats, rye and buckwheat are cultivated, but the pro 
 duce of grain is insufficient for the consumption. Dairies are 
 numerous, and well managed ; and large herds of cattle are 
 brought in from the departments of Finistere, C6tes-du-Nord, 
 &c., to be fattened on the pastures for the markets of Paris, 
 Rouen, and Caen. Horses of the Norman breed are exten 
 sively reared, and held in high estimation. Butter and 
 cheese are made in large quantities. Cider, grown in the 
 department, is the common beverage of the country ; and 
 melons ripen in the open air. The principal manufactures 
 are linen and lace, earthenware, porcelain, hats, cloth, cotton 
 goods, and straw-hats. That of lace, near Caen and Bayeux, 
 employs about 50,000 hands. There are also numerous oil- 
 mills, paper-mills, tanneries, distilleries, &c. The mackerel 
 and herring fishery is carried on along the coast, where lobsters 
 and shell-fish are also obtained. About 25,000,000 of oysters, 
 
 inhabitants are composed of Malabars, Javanese, and Moors, ! procured in the roads of Cancale, are annually laid down in 
 
 and amount in number to about 4500. The PROMONTORY of 
 
 Calpentyn is a longnarrowstripof land, of about 20m. in length, 
 separated from the mainland by the Gulf of Calpentyn, a 
 straight inlet, about 7 m. broad at the widest part. The soil 
 
 excessively sandy, but productive. The GULF affords 
 
 safe anchorage for vessels of considerable size, as far as Calpen 
 tyn. It is plentifully stocked with fish, and a considerable 
 mullet fishery is carried on along its N.W. coast. It abounds 
 also in porpoises, dolphins, turtles, trepang, which is occa 
 sionally collected and exported to the markets of Singapore 
 and Penang, by Chinese merchants ; and in chanks or conch 
 shells. In the neighbourhood of Putlam, which is near the 
 head of the gulf, sea snakes, of a venomous species, exist in 
 great numbers. 
 
 CALPI, a tn. Hindoostan. See KALPY. 
 
 CALRY, par. Irel. Sligo ; 11,511 ac. Pop. 6045. 
 
 CALSTOCK, a par. and tn. England, Cornwall. The 
 inhabitants are chiefly employed in the copper, tin, and lead, 
 mines of the vicinity ; area, 5450 ac. Pop. 2553. 
 
 CALSTONE-WELL1NGTON, par.Eng. Wilts; 1 130 ac. 
 Pop. 31. 
 
 CALTANICETTA, a tn. Sicily, cap. prov. of same 
 name, near the Salso, 62 rn. S.E. Palermo. It is fortified, 
 and has a citadel ; broad and straight streets ; houses well 
 built. In the vicinity are springs of petroleum, and of 
 hydrogen gas, and important sulphur mines, producing an 
 nually about 5500 tons. Caltanicetta is supposed to occupy 
 the site of the Kissa of the Romans. Pop. 1 6,563. 
 
 CALTHORPE, par. Eng. Norfolk , 850 ac. Pop. 214. 
 
 CALTONICA, a tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 15 m. N.W I 
 
 beds at the mouth of the Seulles. The department is divided 
 into six arrondissements, containing 37 cantons. It belongs 
 to the 14th military division of the kingdom. Chief town, 
 Caen. Pop. 498,385. 
 
 CALVELLO, a tn. Naples, prov. Basilicata, 13 m. S. 
 Potenza, on a hill slope. It has a handsome church and two 
 convents. Pop. 6550. 
 
 CALVENTURA ISLANDS, two groups of rocky islets 
 in the Bay of Bengal, off the E. coast of Burmah, distant 
 from each other about 5 or 6 ni. The N.W. group consists 
 of seven black rocks, in lat. 16 55 N.; Ion. 94 14 E. (R.) 
 The S.E. division consists of two high rocky islands, covered 
 with trees and bushes, connected by a reef of rocks with 5 to 
 7 fathoms water upon it. 
 
 CALVERLEIGH, par. Eng. Devon ; 550 ac. Pop. 81. 
 
 CALVERLEY, par. Eng. W. Riding, York ; 8390 ac. 
 Pop. 21,039. 
 
 CALVERT, or KAVEN, a group of small islands, N. 
 Pacific Ocean; lat. (N.W. one), 8 54 N. ; Ion. 170 49 E. 
 
 CALVERTON, two pars, and a vil. England:!, par. 
 Bucks ; 1980 ac. Pop. 493. 2, par. and vil. Notts. The 
 VILLAGE, picturesquely situated in a valley, consists of one 
 street about 1% m. long ; and, besides the parish church, has 
 chapels belonging to the Wesleyans, Baptists, and Ranters. 
 It is gradually increasing. The inhabitants are chiefly em 
 ployed in framework, in its various branches of hosiery, 
 drawers, and gloves. Lee, the inventor of the stocking- 
 frame, was born in the parish. Area, 3320 ac. Pop. (1851), 
 1427. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 CALVI, a seaport tn. France, island Corsica, on a penin- 
 
 Girgenti. The sulphur works in the neighbourhood produce sula in the Gulf of Calvi, on the N.W. coast of the island; 
 
 annually upwards of 1000 tons of sulphur. Salt is also manu 
 factured in the district. Pop. 7060. 
 
 CALTURA, a seaport tn. Ceylon, cap. dist. of same 
 name, 28 m. S.E. Colombo ; lat. 6 35 N. ; Ion. 80 2 E. 
 
 lat. 42 35 12" N.; Ion. 8 43 30" E. (R.) It is a fortified 
 place of the second class, being defended by a strong citadel, 
 
 flanked with five bastions. The 
 
 entrance, on Point Rivelata, is a light 289 ft. high. The 
 
 port 
 ligh 
 
 is good, and at its 
 
 It consists of about 200 tiled houses, and contains a handsome trade of the place is considerable; its chief exports are timber, 
 Wesleyan chapel and school. A great number of native wine, oil, almonds, citrons, oranges, wax, goat skins, and 
 vessels, belonging to the port, trade to Madras and other j wood fuel A good red wine is produced in the adjoining 
 
 places on the coast of Coromandel. Being constantly cooled 
 by the sea breezes, it is very healthful, and is, on this ac 
 count, much resorted to by invalids from Colombo. (Ceylon 
 Gaz.} 
 
 CALUIRE, a tn. France, dep. Rhone, 1 bank, Saone, 
 3 m. N.N.E. Lyons. It has three annual fairs. Pop. 5048. 
 CALUSO, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 12 m. S. 
 Ivrea, with a communal college. Pop. 3000. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 country. Calvi was taken by the English in 1794, after a 
 siege of 51 days. Pop. 1746. 
 
 CALVI A, a tn. Spain, isl. Majorca, 6 m. W. Palma; with 
 a church, school, townhall, and cemetery. Pop. 2007. 
 
 CALVISANO, a tn. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, 
 prov. of, and about 17m. S.E. Brescia, in a beautiful and 
 fertile plain. It is now of small extent, but is said to have 
 
 been at one time a large and populous city. The COMMUNE 
 
 72 
 
CALVISSON 
 
 570 
 
 CAM ARGUE 
 
 is rich in grain and pasture, and contains numerous mulberry 
 plantations. Pop. 3502. 
 
 CALVISSON, a tn. France, dep. Gard, 11 m. S.W. 
 Nismes; with a Protestant church, a brandy distillery, exten 
 sive manufactures of crcain of tartar, and some trade in wine. 
 Pop. 2593. 
 
 CALW, or KALW, an anc. tn. Wiirtemberg, circle, Black 
 Fcrest, cap. bail, of same name, in a deep and well-wooded 
 valley, on both banks of the Nagold, which is crossed by two 
 bridges, and divides it into the upper and lower towns, 20 m. 
 W.S.W. Stuttgart. It has seven churches, a grammar and a 
 commercial school. The town church and townhouse are 
 handsome, particularly the latter, which has a fine hall, with 
 arched roof. It is one of the most industrious towns in the 
 kingdom, and has considerable manufactures of linen, woollen 
 cloths, hosiery, worsted, glue, and leather, also several dye 
 ing establishments. In the vicinity are the ruins of the 
 castle of the former Earls of Calw, the most powerful of 
 the Swabian nobles in the Middle Ages. One of the Earls 
 of Calw became Pope Victor II. Pop. of tn. 4190; of tail. 
 21,872. 
 
 CALY, a river, Hindoostan, which rises in prov. Gurhwal, 
 flows in a S.S.E. direction through Delhi, between the Jumna 
 and the Ganges, parallel to, and, for a great part of its course, 
 at equal distances from, these rivers. Latterly, it bends N.E., 
 and falls into the Ganges on the W. confines of Oude, in lat. 
 2710 N. ; Ion. 79 45 E. 
 
 CALZADA, several tns. and vils. Spain, of which the 
 chief are: 1, Calzada (Santo Domingo de la), a city, Old 
 Castile, prov. of, and 25 m. W. by S. Logrono, in a fertile 
 plain, r. bank, Oja or Glera ; surrounded by ancient stone 
 walls, and a fosse, and entered by seven gates. Its houses 
 are generally well built, and it has well paved and clean 
 streets, four squares, a Gothic cathedral, two churches, Latin 
 and several other endowed schools, a spacious townhouse, 
 session-house, prison, rich hospital, house of mercy, orphan 
 asylum, some convents, and a palace of the Marquis of Ciri- 
 nuela. The weaving of woollen fabrics, cloth, baize, cash 
 mere, and counterpanes, dyeing wool, and agriculture, occupy 
 the people. Trade in grain, fruits, cattle, manufactured goods, 
 rice, wine, oil, and hardware. Pop. 3447. 2, Calzada de 
 Calatrava, a tn. New Castile, prov. of, and 15 m. S. by E. 
 Ciudad-real, in an irrigated plain. The houses are well built, 
 and it has clean, well paved, and regular streets, a parish 
 church, chapel, townhouse, prison, four schools, and a fine 
 fountain. Linen and woollen fabrics, cloth, blonde lace, oil, 
 and wine are made. Pop. 3840. 3, Calzada de Oropesa, a tn. 
 New Castile, prov. Toledo, 28 rn. W. Talavera, having a 
 church, townhall, prison, and school. Pop. 1160. 4, Calzada 
 and Casas de Calzada, a vil. Leon, prov. of, and 42 m. S. 
 Salamanca. Pop. 368. 5, Calzada de don Diego, a vil. 
 Leon, prov. of, and 16 m. S.S.W. Salamanca. Pop. 195. 
 With many others. 
 
 CAM, or GRANTA, a river, England, rising in the N. part 
 of co. Hertford, and, after a N.E. course of 40 m. through 
 Cambridgeshire, falling into the Ouse, 34 m. S. Ely. It has 
 a remarkably sluggish stream, and is navigable to Cambridge, 
 15 m. from its confluence with the Ouse. 
 
 CAM, par. and vil. Eng. Gloucester; 3430ac. Pop. 1851 . 
 
 CAM, par. Irel. Eoscommon ; 12,403 ac. Pop. 3830. 
 
 CAMACHO, a large, and several small lakes, Brazil, 
 prov. Santa Catharina, connected with each other by natural 
 canals, which are navigable for laden canoes. They lie S. of 
 the river Tubar2o, and are commonly named Jaguaruna, 
 Gurupala, and Santa Martha. 
 
 CAMACUAN, or ICABAQUAM, a river, Brazil, prov. 
 Sio-Pedro-do-Rio-Grande, rising in the W. frontier of the 
 province, flowing E. between the serras de Tapes and the 
 serra de Herval, and, after a course of about 150 m., passing 
 numerous falls, and receiving numerous tributaries, it enters 
 the Lake of Pastos by several mouths. It is navigable for 
 canoes for about 20 m. from its mouth, where the first falls 
 occur. 
 
 CAMAJORE [anc. Campus major], a tn. and com. Italy, 
 duchy of, and 16 m. N.W. by W. Lucca, 4 m. E.S.E. Pietra 
 Santa, r. bank of a small tributary of the Lumbrichese. It 
 is well built, and clean ; surrounded by walls, flanked by 
 towers, and protected by a deep fosse. The streets are paral 
 lel, and regularly built, and the town possesses a square, a 
 
 handsome collegiate church, hospital, and numerous other 
 neatly constructed edifices. Pop. 2220. 
 
 CAMAMU, a small, but flourishing tn., Brazil, prov. of, 
 and 100 m. S.W. Bahia, 1. bank, Acarahi, 10 m. above its 
 embouchure in the Bay of Camamu. It has two churches, a 
 townhall, and prison, a Latin and a primary school, and a 
 port, defended by a fort. It trades with Bahia, exporting 
 coffee, cacao, manioc flour, spirits, rice, and building materials. 
 
 Pop. 2000. The BAY is about 10 m. square, receives several 
 
 rivers besides the Acarahi, and has several islands, one of 
 which, named also Camamu, is a rocky islet about 3 m. iu 
 diameter, on which several families live. 
 
 CAM AN A, a tn. Peru, cap. prov. same name, dep. of, and 
 90 m. W. Arequipa, in a fertile plain near the sea. Pop. 
 
 1500. The PROVINCE is about 75 m. N.W. to S.E., and 
 
 about 40 m. broad ; traversed by mountains and valleys, and 
 watered by a number of torrents. The vine is extensively 
 cultivated ; from the fruit of which brandy and vinegar are 
 made. Gold mines are numerous, but yield little profit. 
 The province is peopled by 14 different tribes, named after 
 the valleys which they respectively inhabit. 
 
 CAMAPUAN, a river, Brazil, prov. Mato-Grosso, one 
 of the head streams of the Tacoary, or Taquari, an affluent 
 of the Paraguay. It has a course of about 70 m. 
 
 CAMARAN, an isl. Ked Sea. See KAMARAN. 
 
 CAMARANCA, a river, N.W. Africa, Guinea, which 
 has its sources in the Kong Mountains, near Laing s sources 
 of the Niger ; lat. 9 N. ; Ion. 9 15 W. ; it pursues a S.W. 
 course of about 250 m., and falls into Yawry Bay, on the 
 coast of Sierra Leone. 
 
 CAMARES, or PONT-DE-CAMARES, a tn. France, dep. 
 Aveyron, 62 m. W.N.W. Montpellier, in the form of an 
 amphitheatre, on a rock overhanging the Dourdon. It is 
 poorly and irregularly built, and ill-paved ; but the suburb, 
 which stands on the opposite side of the river, and communi 
 cates with the town by a very ancient bridge, has a much 
 more agreeable appearance. Manufactures : woollen cloth 
 and worsted. About 1 m. from Camares are the saline chaly 
 beate springs of Andabre, where there is a bathing establish 
 ment, much frequented. Pop. 1710. 
 
 CAMARGO, a tolerably well-built vil. Spain, prov. of, 
 and 6 m. S. Santander ; with a church and school. Pop. 2138. 
 
 CAMARGO, a tn. Mexico, dep. Tamaulipas, r. bank, 
 San Juan, near its junction with the Rio Bravo del Norte, 
 90 m. E. by N. Monterey; lat. 26 10 N. ; Ion. 98 30 W. 
 Pop. 2600. 
 
 CAMARGOS, a vil. Brazil, prov. Minas Geraes, 6 m. N. 
 Marianna ; with a church and school, and an agricultural and 
 mining pop. of 1000. 
 
 CAMARGUE (LA), [ Castra Mariana, Camaria instda] , a 
 river isl. France, dep. Bouches-du-Rhone, forming the delta 
 of the Rhone. It is triangular, and is bounded E. by the 
 branches called the Old Rhone and Great Rhone, W. by 
 the Littla Rhone, and S. by the Mediterranean. Area, 250 
 sq. m. ; length, N. to S., 25 m. ; average breadth, 11. It is 
 quite flat, and in climate and soil the latter composed of mud 
 banks, arid sand, or bare gravel beds, alternating with salt 
 marshes and lagoons, raised from 2 to 7 ft. above the sea it 
 assimilates rather to Africa and the borders of the Nile, 
 than to France. Even some of the animals which resort to 
 it the ibis, pelican, and flamingo, belong to the African con 
 tinent. The ground is so impregnated with salt that the 
 water is brackish ; the surface of the soil in summer is covered 
 with a white saline efflorescence, and when the pools are dried 
 up, the salt forms a cake two inches thick. Here, as in the 
 African deserts, the mirage occurs during the heats. The sea 
 is excluded by dykes, and the waters of the Rhone are suc 
 cessfully used in irrigation, to counteract the effects of the 
 salt. The most elevated parts of the soil, principally on the 
 banks of the Rhone, are extremely fertile, and produce large 
 quantities of wheat and red wine, while the lower parts aftbrd 
 an extensive tract of excellent pasturage, on which flocks of 
 sheep and cattle, with large droves of horses, are permitted to 
 roam ; 40,000 lambs are reared annually. The horses are 
 small but nimble, much esteemed for the saddle, and said to 
 be descended from the Arab stock imported by the Saracens. 
 There are several lagoons, the largest of which is that of 
 Valcarres. From these salt and soda are manufactured. The 
 island contains nine communes. 
 
CA MARINES 
 
 571 
 
 CAMBRAI 
 
 CAMARINES (NORTH and SOUTH) i, two pro vs. Philippines, 
 isl. Luzon, both occupying the S.E. limb of the island. The 
 N. province is partly mountainous, but contains also extensive 
 and fertile plains. The mineral products comprise gold, iron, 
 and various kinds of marble. There are several rivers in the 
 province, all of which abound in fish. Most of these streams 
 are crossed by bridges, some of stone and others of bamboo, 
 but they are little required excepting in the rainy season, the 
 river generally being at all other times sufficiently low to be 
 crossed on foot. The level tracts are nearly all under culti 
 vation, and produce rice, but not sufficient to supply the wants 
 of the inhabitants. The climate is oppressive and unhealthy, 
 excepting in the months of January and February, when it is 
 sufficiently agreeable. The inhabitants are remarkable for 
 their honesty and good nature. The S. province is traversed 
 by a chain of mountains that run throughout the whole length 
 of the island, but is, nevertheless, more fertile than the N., 
 producing such quantities of rice as enable its inhabitants to 
 supply the neighbouring territories. In other particulars it 
 resembles the N. province. Formerly the Camarines com 
 posed but one province, having been separated for administra 
 tive purposes. 
 
 CAMBAY, or CAMBAJA, a large seaport tn. Hindoostan, 
 prov. Goojerat, in the Guicowar s dominions, at the head of 
 the gulf of same name, 85 m. N.N. W. Surat, 240 m. N. Bom 
 bay ; lat. 22 17 N. ; Ion. 72 35 30" E. (R.) It was formerly 
 a place of considerable importance, but now much decayed, in 
 consequence of the filling up of deposits brought down by the 
 rivers. Near the town the tides rush in with great violence, and 
 rise from 30 to 40 ft., making it possible for large vessels to 
 come close up at high water, though at ebb they are left dry. It 
 has several mosques and Hindoo temples, and the remains of 
 many more religious structures, erected by the Jains, a sect 
 formerly predominant in this part of India. The surround 
 ing country is fertile, producing abundance of wheat and other 
 grains, oleaginous seeds, indigo, cotton, and excellent tobacco. 
 Formerly, silk and chintz goods, jewellery and indigo, were 
 exported, but the trade of the place is almost entirely limited 
 to shipments of grain to Bombay. The silversmiths here 
 excel in the art of embossing, which they perform by filling 
 the article to be so ornamented with gum-lac, and punching 
 the figures with a small chisel. Beads and other ornaments of 
 carnelian, bloodstone, agate, and other precious stones, are also 
 manufactured with great skill, though sometimes by very simple 
 and primitive processes, such as rolling the stones together 
 in bags for several weeks till they acquire a spherical form. 
 Cambay and its territory prospered under the Moguls, and 
 until the beginning of the present century were governed by 
 a native prince, tributary to the Maharattas, since whose fall 
 his rights have devolved on the British Government, to whom 
 
 the present nabob pays tribute and owns allegiance. 
 
 The GULP of Cambay is about 160 m. in length from N. 
 to S., and at its entrance between Diu Head in Goojerat 
 and Terrapoor Point in Concan, opposite coast, 130 m. 
 wide, but subsequently diminishes to a breadth of about 18 
 or 20 m. 
 
 CAMBELLO, a vil. Indian Archipelago, isl. Ceram, 
 peninsula Hoowamohel, on a slight bend of the shore. 
 Though difficult of approach for ships, it is much frequented 
 by foreigners, being the chief market for cloves. 
 
 CAMBERWELL, ST. GILES, a vil. and par. England, 
 co. Surrey, a suburb of London, S. side of the Thames. The 
 VILLAGE is about 3 m. from Blackfriar s Bridge, and is mostly 
 occupied by shops. In the environs, which are very beau 
 tiful, are a number of elegant villas and mansions, the resid 
 ences mostly of wealthy, and many of them retired, merchants. 
 The new church, completed in 1844, is considered one of the 
 most elegant Gothic structures erected in England since the 
 1 6th century. There are, besides, three other places of worship 
 under the Establishment, and several chapels for Dissenters, a 
 free grammar-school, a green-coat school, with several other 
 endowed schools and minor charities. The S. Metropolitan 
 Cemetery, a large and well laid-out enclosure, is in this parish, 
 which also comprehends the important hamlets of Dulwich 
 and Peckham, and the district of St. George. Area of par. 
 4570 ac. Pop., 1841, 39,868. 
 
 CAMBIL, or CAMBIEL AND HALABAR, a tn. Spain, Anda 
 lusia, prov. of, and 14 m. S. by E. Jaen, between two hills, 
 crowned, respectively, by the ruinous Arab castles after 
 
 which the toAvn is named. The river Villanneva, crossed 
 here by two bridges, divides the town into two equal parts. 
 Its streets are tolerably well kept, and it possesses a square, 
 parish church, endowed school, townhall, prison, store-house, 
 and cemetery. Wine and oil are expressed, and some trade is 
 carried on in grain and cattle. An iron foundry has also been 
 established in a suppressed convent. Pop. 2773. 
 
 CAMBINGr PULO, a small isl. Flores Sea, N.E. entrance 
 of Ombay Passage, between the islands Timor and Ombay, S. 
 peak in lat. 8 18 S. ; Ion. 125 29 E. (R.) It is from 10 to 
 12 m. in length, and of considerable height. 
 
 CAMBODIA, or CAMBOJA, a territory in S.E. Asia. See 
 ANAM and SIAM. 
 
 CAMBODIA, CAMBOJA, or PONTAIPRET, a tn. Siam, the 
 anc. cap. of territory of same name, on both sides of the Mekon ; 
 lat. 12 4 N. ; Ion. 105 4 E. It is now greatly decayed, 
 but the ruins of its royal palace and pagodas attest its ancient 
 greatness. The Dutch had a factory here in the 1 7th century. 
 
 CAMBODIA, or CAMBOJA POINT. The most S.E. point 
 of Siam ; lat. 8 40 N. ; Ion. 104 55 E. ; at the entrance N. 
 side of the Gulf of Siam. S.E. from the point a shoal flat 
 stretches out a great way from the coast. 
 
 CAMBODIA, or CAMBOJA, RIVER. See MEKON. 
 
 CAMBORNE (Sx. MARTIN), amarket tn. and par. England, 
 co. Cornwall, 11 m. N.W. Falmouth. The town, which 
 stands prettily on the slope of a gently rising hill, and is neatly 
 built, contains a handsome granite church, and various dis 
 senting chapels, with a number of daily and Sunday schools. 
 Being situated in the midst of one of the richest mining dis 
 tricts in the county, and in the immediate vicinity of some 
 of its most productive tin and copper mines, it has risen of late 
 years from insignificance to be a place of wealth and import 
 ance. The West Cornwall Railway has a station here ; area 
 of par. 6900 ac. Pop., par. and tn., 10,061. 
 
 CAMBOORIE, or KAMBURI, a tn. Siam, 120 m. N.N.W. 
 Bangkok, at the confluence of the See-sa-wat and May-man- 
 noi rivers, and for the most part along the bank of the former. 
 It is a straggling place, comprising one long street, with 
 several smaller diverging from it, and having in all about 
 500 houses, but no bazaar. It is surrounded by a wall, in 
 which are eight gates. A brick fort constructed here is said 
 to contain 20 guns. 
 
 CAMBRAI, or CAMBRAY, a tn. France, dep. Nord, 33 m. 
 S. by E. Lille, r. bank, Scheldt, a branch of which traverses 
 the town. It is generally well built, is surrounded by walls 
 flanked with ancient round towers, and defended by a strong 
 citadel. The Place d armes, at one end of which stands the 
 Hotel de Ville, is of great extent ; and the esplanade is one 
 of the finest in French Flanders. The Revolution of 1793 
 stripped Cambrai of all its principal ornaments, leaving only 
 two out of 12 churches. The beautiful cathedral, and the 
 tomb of its archbishop, the celebrated Fenelon, were razed to 
 the ground. A new monument to the memory of the latter, 
 by the sculptor David, was inaugurated, in 1825, in the pre 
 sent cathedral, a modern church of indifferent architecture. 
 Cambrai is the seat of an archbishopric, tribunal of commerce, 
 court of first resort, diocesan seminary, communal college, 
 societe d emulation, and school of design. It has a theatre, 
 military hospital, mont-de-piete, and a public library, with 
 about 30,000 volumes, aud 1000 MSS. 
 
 The town has long been celebrated for its manufacture of 
 the fine linens called, from the place, cambrics ; its other manu 
 factures are cotton goods, net, linen, and cotton yarn, starch, 
 black soap, potato flower, and beet sugar. There are also 
 some oil-mills, tanneries, salt refineries, bleaching grounds, 
 and several breweries. It carries on a considerable trade in 
 grain, oil seeds, wool, flax, cattle, agricultural produce, and 
 coal. The St. Quentin canal begins here, and joins the Oise 
 at Chauny. 
 
 Cambrai is the Camaramm of the Romans, by whom it was 
 fortified. It is celebrated for the famous League against the 
 republic of Venice, entered into here in 1508, and for a treaty 
 of peace between Charles V. and Francis I., signed here in 
 1529. Louis XIV. took Cambrai from the Spaniards, in 1667, 
 and it was finally confirmed to France by the treaty of Nij- 
 megen. On June 24, 1815, it was taken by a detachment of 
 the British army, under Sir Charles Colville, and thereafter, 
 ! to 1818, was one of the principal stations of the army of oecu- 
 i pation. Pop. 18,308. 
 
CAMBBEBIS 
 
 572 
 
 CAMBRIDGE 
 
 CAMBRESIS [Latin, Camcraceiwium] , an anc. dist. France, 
 about 25 m. long by 10 broad, which was once a dependency 
 of ancient Flanders, and now forms the greater part of arrond. 
 Cambrai, dep. Nord. It was ceded to Louis XIV., in 1678, 
 by the treaty of Nijmegen. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, an inland co. England, having co. Lin 
 coln N., cos. Northampton, Huntingdon, and Bedford N.W., cos. 
 Hertford and Essex S., Suffolk E., and Norfolk N.E. ; greatest 
 
 house, a spacious and handsome structure. There arc, alto 
 gether, 14 parish churches in the town, and seven places of 
 worship for different religious bodies; one for Independents, 
 three for Methodists Wesleyan and Primitive, and throe 
 for Baptists. With exception of St. Sepulchre s, and probably 
 St. Mary s the Greater, there are none of the churches in any 
 way remarkable as specimens of architecture. The former, 
 called, from its shape, the round church, 
 
 tion of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. 
 
 
 
 ras built in imitii- 
 En 1843, it was re- 
 
 length, about 50 m. ; greatest breadth, about 25 m. ; area, 
 548,480 ac. The surface is, in general, flat, although 
 somewhat elevated towards the S., where grassy 
 downs depasture numerous sheep and cattle. About 
 a third part of the county is under tillage, the re 
 mainder being divided between pasture and waste. 
 That part of the county about one-half of the whole 
 N. of the Ouse belongs to the isle of Ely, and is 
 wholly within the Bedford Level (which see). It is 
 6ne land, intersected by numerous canals, with wind 
 mills for lifting the water into channels high enough 
 to carry it off, and grows heavy crops of oats, wheat, 
 flax, hemp, and cole for sheep-feeding, and possesses 
 excellent pastures. The soil of the S. part of the ^ 
 
 county is chalky, with some parts clayey, loamy, and 
 gravelly. N.E. and E. of the town of Cambridge is ,["3 
 the most level chalk tract in England. The more 
 elevated tracts yield all kinds of corn, especially bar 
 ley, and also turnips. In the fens a considerable num 
 ber of cattle and long-wooled sheep are grazed ; and 
 in the S. part of the county, particularly on the rich 
 meadows on the banks of the Cam, dairy husbandry 
 is prosecuted extensively and successfully. The but 
 ter produced here is in great demand in London, 
 where it is sold under the name of Cambridge, and 
 also of Epping, butter. Cambridgeshire is famous, 
 also, for a peculiarly rich and fine-flavoured description of stored, at considerable cost, under the auspices of the Camden 
 
 ST. SKVULCHRE S CHUKCH, CAMBRIDGE. From a Prii.t by 
 
 cream cheese, made at Cottenham. A vast number of calves 
 are reared here, also, for the London market. Agriculture is, 
 however, on the whole, in a backward state in this county; the 
 farm-houses poor, and the cottages miserable. There are no 
 manufactures, excepting a little coarse potteryware ; but some 
 of the towns do a good deal of business in corn and oil. The 
 minerals are unimportant. The principal rivers are the Ouse, 
 which crosses the county near its centre, W. to N.E., is navig 
 able throughout the whole of that part of its course; the Cam, 
 or Granta, flowing S.W. to N.E., and falling into the Ouse, 
 and navigable as far up as Cambridge ; and the Nene, or Nen, 
 which crosses the N. part of the county S.W. to N.E., and is also 
 navigable. Besides its rivers, the county has several navig 
 able canals ; and internal communication is further facilitated 
 by numerous good roads, and the main-line of the Eastern 
 Counties Railway, and several branches. The principal 
 towns are Cambridge, Ely, and Wisbeach. It is divided into 
 18 hundreds, which, together, contain 162 parishes. The 
 whole county returns seven representatives to parliament ; 
 three county members, two for the town of Cambridge, and . 
 two for the universities. Pop. (1851), 185,405 (of which 
 92,699 were males, and 92.706 females). 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, a parl. bor. and market tn. England, co. 
 Cambridge, 50 m. N.N.E. London, on a level tract of ground 
 on both sides of the Cam, but the greater portion on the r. 
 bank of that river, which is crossed by a neat cast-iron and 
 several other public bridges, besides which, each college con 
 tiguous to the river has a private one. It is about 3 m. in 
 length, E. to W., and about 1 J in breadth; is wanting in ele- j 
 gance, and, as a town, has, with exception of its celebrated 
 university, few points of interest, and fewer of beauty. The 
 streets, formerly narrow, winding, and irregular, are now 
 much altered and improved, and are well paved and well 
 lighted. The principal market place, recently much improved, 
 is centrically situated, and consists of two spacious oblong 
 squares, in one of which is a conduit, supplied by water from 
 an aqueduct, at a distance of 3 m., erected for the benefit of the 
 town, in 1614, by Hobson, livery stabler, who gave rise to 
 the well-known proverb of Hobson s choice, by adhering to 
 a rule of letting his horses by rotation only, thus leaving the 
 hirer no alternative but to take the one whose turn it was to 
 go out. At the S. end of the market-place stands the guild 
 hall, which contains several large rooms for public purposes ; 
 and near the N.W. extremity of the town is the county court- 
 
 Society. St. Mary s church is adorned with a massive and 
 lofty tower, crowned with four turrets. But it is to its uni 
 versity that Cambridge owes the interest which it excites. 
 The buildings of this illustrious institution extend along the 
 greater portion of the W. part of the town, between it and the 
 Cam, to both of which they run nearly parallel. They con 
 sist of the senate-house, the university library, and schools, 
 
 rfl 
 
 INITV OOLLEGK. CAMBMDBB. 
 
 x s Memorials of CambriilKe. 
 
 the former containing about 170,000 volumes; the university 
 or Pitt press, the Fitzwilliam museum, the anatomical mu 
 seum, and the observatory, most of them remarkable for archi 
 tectural elegance. The colleges are 17 in number, called, 
 
CAMBRIDGE 
 
 573 
 
 CAMDEN 
 
 respectively, St. Peter s, Clare Hall, Pembroke, Gonville and 
 Caius, Trinity Hall, Corpus Christi, King s, Queen s, St. 
 Catherine s Hall, , esus, Christ s, St. John s, Magdalene, Trin 
 ity, Emmanuel, Sidney Sussex, and Downing the most re 
 cent, all of them magnificent structures. The greater number 
 of the colleges are contiguous to each other, chiefly along the 
 Cam river, but there are several in different parts of the 
 town. The origin of this learned foundation is involved in 
 obscurity, but is supposed to date from the seventh century, 
 and to have been founded by Sigebert, a king of the East 
 Angles. It did not, however, assume the regular corporate 
 form of a university till about the 13th century, when the first 
 college was erected by Henry III. In 1333, King Edward 
 III. granted the university some important privileges ; and, in 
 1430, Pope Martin V. invested it with exclusive ecclesiastical 
 and spiritual jurisdiction over its own scholars. In the reign 
 of Elizabeth, further privileges and rights were bestowed on it, 
 all preceding grants were confirmed, and the university de 
 clared to be incorporated by the name of the chancellor, mas 
 ters, and scholars. The present university comprises, as 
 already mentioned, 17 colleges. Each college is a body corpo 
 rate, and bound by its own statutes, but under the control of 
 the general laws of the university. Each furnishes members 
 for the executive and legislative government of the univer 
 sity. The place of assembly is the senate-house. All per 
 sons who are masters of arts, or doctors in divinity, civil law, 
 or physic, having their names upon the college boards, holding 
 any university office, or being resident in the town of Cam 
 bridge, have votes in this assembly. The annual income of 
 the university is about 5500, arising from various sources, 
 including the produce of fees at matriculations, for degrees, 
 &c., and the profits of the university press, but chiefly from 
 the proceeds of the rectory of Burwell. The public profes 
 sors are paid, some from the university chest, some by the 
 Government, and others from estates left for that purpose. 
 The degrees conferred by the university are those of doctors 
 in divinity, civil law, and medicine, and also in the science of 
 music; that of master of arts, and the degree of bachelor, in 
 each of the foregoing. The academical year consists of three 
 terms, Michaelmas, Lent, and Easter. The languages, arts, 
 sciences, &c., taught, are Arabic, anatomy, astronomy, and 
 geometry, botany, casuistry, chemistry, divinity, laws of 
 England, geology, Greek, Hebrew, modern history, civil law, 
 mathematics, medicine, mineralogy, music, natural philoso 
 phy, physic, besides various endowed lectureships. The 
 botanical garden, on the S.E. side of the town, occupies 
 between three and four acres. The anatomical school con 
 tains a large collection of valuable preparations. On an em 
 inence, at the distance of 1 m. from the college walks, on the 
 road to Madingley, stands the observatory, which cost 19,000. 
 The Fitzwilliam museum, bequeathed to the university by 
 Lord Viscount Fitzwilliam, is a magnificent structure, of the 
 Corinthian order, and contains a noble collection of books, 
 paintings, drawings, &c. The university sends two members 
 to the House of Commons, the privilege having been granted 
 by James I. The right of election is vested in the members 
 of the senate, in number (in 1845) 3204. The vice-chancellor 
 is the returning officer. The principal charitable institution 
 is Addenbrooke s hospital, situated at the S. entrance to the 
 town. The annual cost of its maintenance is about 2600. 
 There are, besides, several alms-houses, minor charities, and 
 free schools. The markets in Cambridge are well supplied 
 with avery kind of provision, but from the very great con 
 sumption of the university, the articles are comparatively 
 dear. 
 
 The weekly market-day is Saturday. There are two fairs 
 annually, one in June, the other in September ; the former 
 continued for a week, the latter, which is called Sturbridge 
 Fair, for 14 days; but both are now much curtailed. The 
 principal articles brought to sale on these occasions are horses, 
 cattle, timber, pottery, leather, cheese, hops, wool, and hard 
 ware. There are no manufactures in the town, but a consid 
 erable trade is carried on with the port of Lynn in corn, coal, 
 timber, oil, and iron. No dramatic performances are allowed 
 in C imbridge, but there is a theatre in the adjoining village 
 of Harnwell, which is occasionally opened ; great musical 
 festivals, however, are often celebrated in the town, where 
 there is a permanent musical society on a great scale. Cam 
 bridge is a town of great antiquity ; in Doomsday book, 
 
 where it is described as an important place, it is called Grente- 
 brige, from one of the names of the fiver ; the present name, 
 derived from the modern name of the river Cam, being com 
 paratively recent. In 871, it was burnt by the Danes, and 
 again in 1010. Subsequently to this, it was the scene, at 
 various periods, of events which have become matter of his 
 tory, including several royal visits, and some military expe 
 riences in the time of Cromwell. Of the ancient castle built 
 by William the Conqueror on the site of a Roman station, 
 and some years used as the county jail, only the gateway now 
 remains. Pop., (1841) 24,453, (1851) 27,803; increase 18 
 per cent. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, a tn. IL States, Massachusetts, on 
 Charles s river, 3 m. N.W. Boston. It is the seat of Har 
 vard University, the oldest and best endowed literary insti 
 tution in the U. States, possessing a library which contains 
 upwards of 50,000 volumes ; an excellent philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus, cabinet of minerals, anatomical museum, 
 and botanic garden. A law school, theological seminary, and 
 medical school, are attached to the institution. The average 
 attendance of students is 246. Besides the university build 
 ings, which are extensive and commodious, though irregularly 
 built, Cambridge contains an arsenal, 16 churches, two banks, 
 rope factories, and numerous lumber yards. Many of the 
 private mansions are elegant and spacious. Pop. of township, 
 
 8409. Several other towns of the U. States have the same 
 
 name. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE GULF. N.W. Australia, between Capes 
 Dussejour and Domett; lat. 14 45 S. It is about 20 m. 
 wide at its entrance, and runs about 75 m. inland. 
 
 CAMBRILS, a tn. and port, Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, 
 and 12 m. W.S.W. Tarragona, on a hill-slope, and surrounded 
 by decayed walls. It has a parish church, chapel, townhall, 
 custom-house, two schools, an hospital, a cemetery, cavalry 
 barracks, and prison. Wine, brandy, bricks, and tiles, are 
 manufactured, and fishing is carried on. Only small vessels 
 visit the port. Pop. 2254. 
 
 CAMBUSLANG, a vil. and par. Scotland, co. Lanark. 
 The VILLAGE lies on a rising ground, 4 m. S.E. Glasgow, aiid 
 is a station on the Hamilton railway. It has an Established 
 church and school, and is inhabited chiefly by weavers and 
 miners; but is chiefly noted for the Cambuslang work, a 
 remarkable revival in religion, which took place in 1742, 
 
 under the ministration of the Rev. Mr. M Culloch. The 
 
 PARISH is about 3 m. square, and abounds in freestone, coal, 
 and limestone. Pop. (1841), 3022 ; (1851), 3306. 
 
 CAMBUSNETHAN, par. Scot. Lanark; 12 m. by 3. 
 Pop. (1841), 5803; (1851), 8611. 
 
 CAMBYNA, an isl. Flores Sea, S. coast of the S.E. 
 peninsula of Celebes. Centre peak in about lat. 5 21 S. ; 
 Ion. 121 57 E. It is about 24 m. long, S.W. to N.E., 
 about 20 broad, and rises steep and rugged from its W. ex 
 tremity. It is inhabited and cultivated. 
 
 CAMDEN: 1, A city and river port, U. States, New Jer 
 sey, 1. bank, Delaware, opposite Philadelphia, and 29 m. S.W. 
 Trenton. It has six churches, an academy, three schools, 
 three printing-offices, and several factories. A railway leads 
 to New York, and another to Woodbury, and communication 
 with Philadelphia is maintained by three ferries. Pop. 3371. 
 2, A vil. U. States, S. Carolina, 25 m. N.E. Columbia, 
 1. bank, Wateree, which is passed by a bridge 1J m. S.W. 
 the village. It has four churches, an academy, court-house, 
 jail, and other public buildings. In the neighbourhood is an 
 extensive cotton factory. A battle was fought here, in 1 780, 
 between General Gates and Lord Cornwallis ; and another, 
 in 1781, between General Greene and Lord Rawdon. Pop. 
 1000. 
 
 CAMDEN, a maritime eo. New S. Wales, 65 m. in 
 length, and 41 in breadth; area, 1,400,320 ac. The surface 
 presents a continuous succession of hill and dale, with large 
 tracts unsurpassed in fertility ; of these, the principal are the 
 Cow Pastures, so called from the large herd of cattle found 
 there, the produce of a few runaway animals that had escaped 
 soon after the foundation of the colony. The beautiful and 
 picturesque region of Illawarra or the Five Islands, is in this 
 county ; it comprises 150,000 ac., and extends, N. and S., 
 18 m. along the coast. There are some fine lakes in the 
 county, the scenery around which is very beautiful. Camdeti 
 returns one member to the Legislative Council. The county 
 
CAMDEN-TOWN 
 
 571 
 
 CAMONICA 
 
 town is Berrima. The stock has been estimated at 5598 
 horses, 33,433 head of horned cattle, 3510 pigs, and 35,117 
 sheep. Pop. 8323. 
 
 CAMDEN-TOWN, an extensive suburb of London, par. 
 St. Pancras, co. Middlesex, 3 m. N.W. St. Paul s. The 
 houses, which are in general of recent erection, are regular and 
 substantial buildings ; while in the upper part, the crescent, 
 terrace, and other ranges, have a handsome appearance, and 
 command a pleasing, though limited view of the Hampstead 
 and Highgate hills. Camden-Town is intersected by the j 
 North-western Railway, which has a station here of immense ! 
 extent. Besides the chapel, a handsome brick edifice, erected j 
 in 1828, there are two churches, and places of worship for 
 Independents and Wesleyans. There are also a veterinary 
 college, a museum, an infirmary, a range of alms-houses 
 for decayed journeymen tailors, and an orphan working- 
 school. 
 
 CAMEL, two pars. Eng. Somerset:!, Queen Camel; 
 2280 ac. Pop. 739. 2, West Camel; 2100 ac. Pop. 334. 
 CAMELEY, par. Eng. Somerset; 1630 ac. Pop. 643. 
 CAMELFOKD, a small market tn. and bor. England, co. 
 Cornwall, on the Camel, 28 m. N.W. Plymouth. The streets 
 are spacious and well paved ; but the houses are, in general, 
 very indifferent. It has a townhall. erected by the Duke of 
 Bedford; a free-school, and a Wesleyan Methodist chapel. 
 The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture. It was 
 disfranchised by the Reform Act. Previous to that period, 
 it sent two members to the House of Commons, and had done 
 so from the time of Edward VI. Pop. 705. 
 
 CAMELON, a vil. Scotland, co. Stirling, 1 m. N.W. 
 Falkirk, on the line of the Forth and Clyde Canal. Nail 
 making is the chief employment. Pop., 1841, 1340. 
 
 CAMEN, a tn. Prussia, Westphalia, gov. Arensberg, 
 25 m. S. Munster, on the Seseke . It contains two churches, 
 a Protestant and a R. Catholic. The inhabitants live by 
 agriculture and the ordinary handicrafts. Pop. 2383. 
 
 CAMEN Z, a tn. Saxony, circle, Bautzen, 1. bank, White 
 Elster, 20 m. N.E. Dresden. It contains several churches, 
 one of them the Marienkirche, in the Gothic style, particu 
 larly handsome, and richly adorned ; a library, a grammar- 
 school, and several charitable endowments; and has consider 
 able manufactures of earthenware, tobacco, and starch, several 
 dyeworks and tanneries, numerous mills, a, weekly .and two 
 yearly markets. It was almost wholly destroyed by fire 
 in 1842. Lessing, the poet, was born here, June 22, 1729. 
 An hospital was dedicated to his memory in 1826. Pop. 
 4000. 
 
 CAMERI, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 4 m. 
 N.N.E. Novara, near the Tessin. It has several churches, 
 and manufactures linen. Pop 3000. 
 
 CAMEKINO t anc - Camerinum], a tn. Papal States, 
 86 m. N.N.E. Rome; seat of an archbishopric, and of a dis 
 trict court. The town stands on a hill, and contains some 
 good public buildings, among which are the archiepiscopal 
 palace, a handsome edifice, surrounded with pillars ; the 
 cathedral, a spacious structure; and the church of Omanzia, 
 which contains some fine pictures by the great masters. In 
 the principal square there is a bronze statue of Pope Sixtus V. 
 There are also 12 monasteries, seven convents, and a univer 
 sity, founded in 1727. Silk is both produced and manufactured 
 in the town, and forms an article of commerce. Pop. 5000. 
 CAMEltON, par. Scot. Fife; 4 m. square. Pop. 1167. 
 CAMEROON S, MOUNTAIN and RIVER. The MOUNTAIN 
 of Cameroons occupies the N.E. angle of the Bight of Biafra, 
 W. Africa ; lat. 4 15 N. ; Ion. 9 7 E. Its base is 20 m. in 
 diameter, and its loftiest peak is 13,000 ft. high; it is covered 
 nearly to the summit with trees of luxuriant growth, and 
 seems to form the commencement of a range of volcanic hills 
 stretching N.E., and uniting with the Mountains of the Moon, 
 at lat. 6 N. ; Ion. 12 20 E. At a short distance S.S.E. 
 from the Cameroons Mountain is the estuary of the Cameroons 
 river, which is the receptacle also of several other streams. 
 It is a fine river, having an average breadth, before it reaches 
 the estuary, of about 400 yards, with a depth in the dry season 
 varying from 2 to 20 ft. The r. bank of the stream is low 
 and swampy for several miles towards the base of the moun 
 tain, covered in most parts with mangroves, and intersected 
 by numerous creeks, while the 1. bank rises at once from the 
 waterside to the height of about 50 ft. There are several 
 
 large and thriving towns on the river, through which an 
 extensive trade is carried on in ivory and palm-oil. The 
 latter is of a superior quality, and the former generally very 
 large, and also of excellent kind. The supply of ivory is 
 said to be inexhaustible, 60 tons having been procured in one 
 season. It is here all taken from dead elephants, who, in 
 search of water, have perished in a vast morass about 200 m. 
 inland S.E. from Cameroons. 
 
 CAMERTON,a par. and vil. England, co. Somerset. The 
 VILLAGE lies in a valley 8 m. W. Bath, and is intersected by 
 the Somersetshire coal canal. The inhabitants are mostly 
 employed in the colleries. 2030 ac. Pop. 1647. 
 
 CAMETA, a tn. Brazil, prov. Para, 1. bank, Tocantins, 
 near its mouth, 80 m. S.E. Belem. It has two churches and 
 an hospital ; and is a depot for goods brought down the 
 Tocantins and other streams, and a place of resort for vessels 
 ascending these streams. It is a populous, flourishing town, 
 whose inhabitants are devoted to agriculture, commerce, and 
 navigation. Pop., including its district, which is extensive 
 and fertile, 20,000. 
 
 CAMIGUIN ISLANDS:!, One of the Babuyanes 
 islands off the N. coast of Luzon ; lat. 18 54 N. ; Ion. 
 121 53 E. (R.) ; from 7 to 9 m. long, high and hilly. Tho 
 S. part is formed of a high mountain, formerly a volcano, 
 visible at 60 m. distance. The shore is lined with coral 
 rocks, and on the E. and N. sides the land is low close to the 
 sea. On the W. side of the island, S. of its centre, is the 
 port of San Pio Quinto, formed by a concavity in the land, 
 about 3 m. wide, and 1^ inland, sheltered from the sea by an 
 island of the same name, which lies in the middle of the 
 entrance. It is the only place amongst these islands where 
 
 a large ship can be considered at all safe. 2, One of the 
 
 smallest of the Philippines, on the N.W. coast of Mindanao; 
 lat. 8 59 N. ; Ion. 124 20 E. (R.) It is high, having a 
 knob on its centre that may be seen 60 m. off. 
 
 CAMINHA, a tn. and par. Portugal, prov. Minho, dist. 
 Moncao, on a tongue of land, 1. bank, and near the embouchure 
 of the Minho, 30 m. N.W. Braga ; lat. 41 52 42" N. ; Ion. 
 8 45 W. (R.) It is strongly fortified, but being commanded 
 by a neighbovring hill could not be successfully defended. 
 It contains two churches, three monasteries, two hospitals, 
 and a poorhouse. The harbour is spacious, but is encum 
 bered by a bar, which renders it inaccessible to any but small 
 vessels. The inhabitants depend chiefly on fishing and salt 
 making. Pop. 1272. 
 
 CAM I SANO, two tns. Austrian Italy:!, A tn., gov. 
 Venice, prov. Vicenza, cap. dist. of same name, 11 m. N.W. 
 Padua. It has a parish and a subsidiary church, and an hos 
 pital. Pop. 2800. 2, A tn. and com., gov. Milan, prov. 
 Lodi, dist. of, and 6 m. N.N.E. Crema. Pop. 881. 
 
 CAMLIN, par. Irel. Antrim; 6417 ac. Pop. 2157. 
 
 CAMMERINGHAM.par.Eng.Lincoln; 4450 ac. P. 139. 
 
 CAMMIN, or KAHMIN, a tn. Prussia, prov. Pomerania. 
 cap. circle of same name, on the Divenow, 5 m. from its 
 mouth on the shores of the Baltic, 38 m. N.N.E. Stettin. It 
 is surrounded with walls, with three gates, and has three 
 suburbs, a cathedral, built in 1124, two other churches, four 
 poorhouses, and a spacious market-place. The inhabitants 
 live chiefly by agriculture and fishing. Cammin is of Wendish 
 origin, and was formerly the seat of a bishopric, which was 
 
 suppressed in 1648. Pop. 3176. The CIRCLE, area, 478 
 
 geo. sq. m., with exception of the downs along the shores of 
 the Baltic, is flat, and the soil a sandy loam. Pop. 34,636. 
 
 CAMMORTON, par. Eng. Cumberland; 2880 ac. P. 941. 
 
 CAMOLIN, a small tn. Ireland, co. of, and 21 m. N. 
 Wexford, r bank, Bann ; consisting of one long regular 
 street of stone houses on one side, and mud cabins on the 
 other. Besides the parish church, it has a R. Catholic chapel, 
 and a Methodist meeting-house. Pop. 561. 
 
 CAMONICA, or VALLE CAMONICA, a valley, Austrian 
 Italy prov. Bergamo, formed by two branches of a ramification 
 | of the Rhsetian Alps, and stretching about 50 m. from N.N.E. 
 I to S.S. W. along both branches of the Ollio, and as far as the 
 Lake of Iseo. It lies in one of the chief lines of communica 
 tion between Italy and the Tyrol, is in general well cultivated, 
 and abounds in iron, gives indication both of copper and lead, 
 and has quarries of finely variegated marble, gypsum, and 
 slate. The inhabitants, iiow about 50,000, were anciently 
 called Camuni. 
 
CAMORTA 
 
 575 
 
 CAM PEACHY 
 
 CAMORTA, CAR MORTA, or NICAVARI, one of the 
 Nicobar islands, Gulf of Bengal ; lat 8 2 N. ; Ion. 93 40 E. ; 
 length, N. to S. 16 m.; breadth, 2 to 5 m. It is separated 
 by a narrow channel from Noncowry, and along with that 
 island forms Noncowry harbour, which is very capacious, 
 and fit to shelter a large fleet from the winds. Camorta is 
 lofty near the harbour, particularly on the W. side, where the 
 principal village stands, at the foot of a precipice ; but towards 
 the N. and the centre it is flat, and contains a rich soil, which 
 not only affords good pasturage but spontaneously grows 
 yams, pine apples, plantains, guavas, and sugar-canes. Near 
 the S.W. point is a lagoon, which extends far into the island. 
 In the forests are several sorts of poon trees fit for masts. 
 Camorta, notwithstanding its fertility, is thinly inhabited. 
 
 CAMPAGNA, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, 18 m. 
 E.N.E. Salerno, surrounded by high mountains. It is the 
 seat of a bishopric, and contains a superb cathedral, three 
 parish churches, several convents, a college, an hospital, and 
 a mont-de-piete ; and has some trade, and a large fair, held 
 August 1. Pop. 8192. 
 
 CAMPAGNA-m-RoMA, an extensive dist. Papal States, 
 nearly corresponding with the ancient Latium, and with the 
 modern deleg. Frosinone, and S.E. part of the comarca of 
 Home. It stretches S.W. along the shores of the Mediter 
 ranean, from the banks of the Tiber to Terracina, on the 
 frontiers of Naples, and backwards to offsets of the Apennines ; 
 greatest length, about 60 m. ; average length, 40 m. It is a 
 low undulating tract, almost nowhere 200 ft. above the level 
 of the sea ; of a gloomy and desolate appearance, abounding 
 with swamps, which exhale pestilential malaria, and give the 
 unhappy inhabitants exposed to them a frightful and disgust 
 ing appearance, exhibiting all the united symptoms of dropsy, 
 jaundice, and ague. Great part of this district must, in all 
 ages, have been unhealthy ; but there cannot be a doubt that 
 the desolation now extends over parts of the country once 
 well cultivated and densely peopled. 
 
 CAMPAGNATICO, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, 
 and 15 m. N.E. Grosseto, on the summit and side of a hill 
 840 ft. above the sea, near r. bank, Ombrone ; tolerably well 
 built, defended by a castle ; has an ancient parish church, muni 
 cipal buildings, and several oil and wine presses. Pop. 994. 
 
 CAMPAGNOLA, a vil. Italy, duchy, Modena, prov. of, 
 and 12 m. N.N.E. Reggio. Pop. 2000. 
 
 CAMPAN, a tn. France, dep. Hautes Pyrene es, 16 m. 
 S.S.E. Tarbes, 1. bank, Adour, in the beautiful valley to I 
 which it gives its name. The houses, mostly built of the 
 marble found in the vicinity, are remarkably neat and clean. 
 One street stretches along the river, and another along the : 
 road to Bigorre. In the place or square is a handsome foun 
 tain, with marble basins. Woollen stuffs and paper are 
 manufactured. In the vicinity is a remarkable stalactite 
 grotto, and green marble of a fine quality is obtained. Pop. 
 3442. 
 
 CAMPANA, an isl. S. Pacific Ocean, off the W. coast of ! 
 Patagonia ; S. extremity, in lat. 49 10 S.; Ion. 76 W. It 
 is about 50 m. in length, N. to S., and 10 in breadth. 
 
 CAMPANA (LA), a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 32 m. N.E. by E. Seville, 1. bank, Madre-Vieja, an affluent 
 of the Guadalquiver. It has two squares, a parish church, 
 two endowed schools, a townhall, insecure and unhealthy 
 prison, public storehouse, cemetery, and several fountains. 
 The inhabitants are engaged in weaving, brick-making, ex 
 pressing oil, cultivating grain, and rearing cattle. Pop. 5380. 
 
 CAMPANARIO, a tn. Spain, Estremadura, prov. of, 
 and 62 m. E. by S. Badajos, 8 m. N.N.W. Castuera; with 
 narrow, ill-built, and neglected streets ; a parish church, 
 chapel of ease, two endowed schools, a town-house, and prison, 
 and a deserted hospital. Manufactures: linen fabrics, es 
 parto ropes, wine, and oil. Trade: grain, wool, and esparto. 
 Pop. 5406. 
 
 CAMPANET, a tn. Spain, isl. Majorca, 22 m. N.E. 
 Palma, on a rising ground ; with well-built houses, a square, 
 a parish church, townhouse, prison, two schools, and a ceme 
 tery. Pop. 2188. 
 
 CAMPANHA, a city, Brazil, prov. Minas Geraes, 230 m. 
 N.W. Rio-de-Janeiro ; lat. 21 45 S. ; Ion. 46 50 W. The 
 principal streets run N. and S., and others cross them at right 
 angles ; houses chiefly of earth, and generally surrounded by 
 gardens, contrasting curiously with the arid bare hills by 
 
 which the town is encircled, cut up by the excavations whence 
 the gold has been taken. It has a townhouse and prison, 
 five churches, an hospital, a Latin and a primary school, and 
 a theatre. In the vicinity are several thermal springs. Pop., 
 engaged in agriculture and mining, 3000. 
 
 CAMPBELL ISLAND, a mountainous isl., S. Pacific, 
 30 m. in circumference, 120 m. S. Auckland Islands; lat. 
 (S. harbour) 52 34 24" S.; Ion. 169 12 42" E. (R.) ; dis 
 covered, in 1810, by Frederick Hazelburgh, in the brig Per 
 severance. It has several good harbours, of which two on 
 the E. side are the best. Perseverance harbour, the more 
 S. of these two, runs about 4 m. inland; the upper part land 
 locked, with good anchorage for 100 ships to lie in safety; 
 and wood and water in abundance ; rise and fall of tides, at 
 neap, 43 inches. This island, like the Auckland group, is of 
 volcanic formation ; and subject to sudden and violent squalls, 
 the prostrate condition of the trees sufficiently indicating the 
 prevailing power of the westerly storms. Its iron-bound 
 coast, and rocky mountains, whose summits appear to the eye 
 bare of vegetation, give it the aspect of a very desolate and 
 unproductive rock ; and it is not until the quiet harbours are 
 opened that any green hue, save a few grassy spots, is seen. 
 In these narrow bays, a belt of brushwood, composed of trees 
 in a very stunted state, form a verdant line close to the 
 beach. (Hooker.) There are neither quadrupeds nor land- 
 birds; but the albatross is plentiful, and seals are found on 
 its coasts. (Ross s Antarctic Expedition.) 
 
 CAMPBELTON. 1, A seaport tn., royal bor., and par. 
 Scotland, co. Argyle. The TOWN stands on a loch or bay of 
 same name; lat. 55 23 30" N.; Ion 5 35 30" W.; extend 
 ing along the curved shore in the form of a crescent, the 
 principal part, however, being on the S.W. side. It has two 
 Established, one U. Presbyterian, and two Free churches, 
 with Independent, Episcopal, and R. Catholic chapels, several 
 week-dayand Sabbath schools, and a ragged school, established 
 1850. It has also an athenseum, and a handsome new jail. 
 In the centre of the main street is an ancient stone cross or 
 obelisk of the 12th century, supposed to have been brought 
 from lona. The town is well supplied with water, by gravi 
 tation, brought a distance of 1J m. ; and well lighted with 
 gas. The mill-wright business is carried on to a considerable 
 extent ; and there is a brass and iron foundry. The herring- 
 fishery is prosecuted with activity, and so also is the white- 
 fishing ; but the distillation of malt-whisky is the staple business 
 of the place, there being 24 distilleries in the town and its 
 immediate vicinity. The spirit is of superior quality, and 
 brings a high price in the market; about 1,000,000 gallons 
 are sent, annually, to Glasgow alone. There are good quays 
 on either side of the harbour. The number of vessels regis 
 tered at the port, in 1849, was 20 ; tonn. 1 1 54. Regular com - 
 munication, by steam-vessels, is maintained with Glasgow and 
 Ayr. The principal imports are barley, yeast, coals, timber, 
 iron, and general merchandise ; the exports are whisky, malt, 
 black cattle, sheep, and horses, turnips, beans, butter, cheese, 
 and fish, and, formerly, potatoes. It unites with Oban, In- 
 verary, Irvine, and Ayr, in sending a member to the House of 
 Commons. Pop. (1841), including the village of Dalintober, 
 
 which joins the town, 6790; (1851), 6829. The BAY or 
 
 LOCH, as it is called, is about 2 m. in length, and about 1 m. 
 in breadth, with a depth of 3 to 15 fathoms water. It is, at 
 once, one of the most beautiful and secure harbours in the W. 
 
 of Scotland, being land-locked by Davar Island. The 
 
 PARISH, extending across all the peninsula, is about 1 1 m. by 9. 
 
 Pop. (1841), 9634; (1851), 9330. 2, A borough tn. New 
 
 S. Wales, co. Cumberland, 25 m. S.W. Sydney. Pop. 541. 
 
 CAMPDEN-CHiPPiNG, a market tn. and par. England, 
 co. Gloucester, 16 m. N.E. Cheltenham. The town lies in a 
 fertile dell, surrounded by richly-wooded hills on all sides but 
 the S.E. ; and consists chiefly of one street, about 1 m. long ; 
 houses in general ancient, many of them, in the Elizabethan 
 style. There are a parish church, and meeting-houses for 
 Wesleyans and Baptists ; a free grammar-school, founded in 
 1487; a school for girls, and a national school for boys; and 
 almshouses, endowed by the first Viscount Campden. The 
 inhabitants are chiefly agriculturists. Area of par. 4660 ac. 
 Pop. 2087. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 CAMPEACHY, cr CAMPECHB, a seaport tn. Central 
 America, state of Yucatan, cap. dep. of same name ; lat. 
 19 50 N. ; Ion. 90 33 W. (R.) ; W. coast, peninsula of 
 
CAMPEGINE 
 
 576 CAMPO-MAIOR-DE-QUIXER\MOBIM. 
 
 Yucatan, on a Lay of its own name, and strongly fortified. It 
 is wholly built of hewn calcareous stone ; but the streets are 
 narrow, irregular, ill-paved, and dirty. Most of the private 
 houses are only of one story, but the public buildings on the 
 square are of two stories, and are tastefully ornamented and 
 painted. It contains six churches, and six convents, the walls 
 of one of which bear the marks of the injury sustained by a 
 siege in 1840. It has also a college, with six professors ; and 
 a theatre, one of the most beautiful edifices in the town. The 
 principal suburbs, each of which has its own church, are San 
 Roman to the S., and Guadaloupe and San Francisco to the N. 
 The market is well furnished with fruit, vegetables, and fish; 
 but provisions are much dearer here than in the other parts 
 of the State. The town derives its chief importance from 
 the exportation of logwood, termed Campeachy-wood, and 
 wax. The wood (Hmnatoyijlon Campechianum] is cut down 
 in several places, but especially on the banks of the Rio 
 Champoton, S. of the town ; and the wax is procured from 
 the wild stingless bees which are found in the country to the E. 
 The other products are salt, rice, and sugar ; marble of good 
 quality is found. The only important manufacture is that of 
 cigars. The harbour is capacious, but shallow, and vessels 
 drawing more than 6 ft. must anchor 3 in. from the shore. 
 Notwithstanding of this disadvantage, vessels measuring 100 
 feet of keel are built here, and launched by ingenious con 
 trivances. The climate is healthy; and though the heat at 
 noon is extreme, yet the land-breeze in the morning, and the 
 sea-breeze in the evening, render the atmosphere at those 
 periods exceedingly agreeable. During the rainy season, 
 agues prevail. Campeachy stands on a series of subterranean 
 caverns, excavated by the ancient Mayas. In the neighbour 
 hood are numerous interesting ruins. Pop. 18,006. 
 
 CAMPEGINE, a tn., duchy, Modena, dist. of, and about 
 8 m. W. Reggio, near the frontiers of Parma, r. bank, Enza. 
 It is remarkable from the number of fountains which it con 
 tains. Pop. about 2000. 
 
 CAMPERDUIN, or CAMPERDOWN, sandy hills or downs, 
 Holland, prov. N. Holland, between the N. sea and the small 
 village of Camp, off which the British, under Admiral Dun 
 can, gained a hard-won victory over the Dutch, under De 
 Winter, October 11, 1797. 
 
 CAMPL 1, a dist., Italy, Tuscany, in the Val d Arno, 
 below Florence, containing several villages of the same name, 
 the inhabitants of which are almost entirely employed in pre 
 paring the fine Tuscan straw ; and, in consequence of the de 
 mand for their staple, have, in recent times, rapidly increased. 
 Pop. 9782. 2, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Otranto, 9 m. 
 W.N.W. Lecce ; with a handsome collegiate church. Pop. 
 4101. 
 
 CAMPIGLIA-m-MAREMMA, a tn. and com. Tuscany, 
 prov. of, and 34 m. N.W. Grosseto, 18 m. S. by E. Cecina; 
 surrounded by walls, entered by four gates, and defended by a 
 fortress. It has two churches, a large hospital, and municipal 
 buildings ; two annual fairs are held in May and August. Pop. 
 3057. 
 
 CAMPILLO, numerous tns. and vils. Spain, of which 
 the chief are: 1, Campillo de Altobuey, a tn. New Castile, 
 prov. of, and 35 m. S.E. by S. Cuenca ; with level, clean, and 
 well-paved streets: a parish church, four conventual churches, 
 two schools, a townhall, prison, and storehouse. Manufac 
 tures : leather, oil, and wine, shoes, and sieves. An annual 
 fair is held in September. Pop. 3149. 2, Campillo de 
 Arenas, a tn. Andalusia, prov. of, and 16 m. S. by W. Jaen, 
 having a church, townhouse, school, and prison. Pop. 1121. 
 3, Campillo de Llerena, a tn. Estremadura, prov. Badajos, 
 24 m. E.N.E. Llerena; possessing a church, townhall, and 
 prison, two schools, a storehouse, and agricultural pop. of 
 1002. 4, Campillo de la Jara, a vil. New Castile, prov. of, 
 and 58 m. S.W. by W. Toledo. Pop. 1012. 5, Campillo 
 de lianas, a vil. New Castile, prov. of, and 29 m. N. by W. 
 Guadalajara. Pop. 515. 6, Campillo, a vil., prov. of, and 
 28 m. N. by E. Leon. Pop. 416. (Madoz.) 
 
 CAMPILLOS, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 35 m. N.W. by N. Malaga; in a plain, near the source of the 
 brook liiricon. It has wide and paved streets, three squares, 
 a large Doric parish church, a chapel, townhouse, prison, four 
 schools, a poorhouse, extensive storehouse, fine fountain, and 
 spacious cemetery. Manufactures : woollen fabrics, leather, 
 oil, &c. Trade : wool, grain, fruits, cattle, and gypsum, the 
 
 quarry in the neighbourhood. Pop. 
 
 last extracted from 
 4410. 
 
 CAMPINA-GRANDE, a tn. Brazil, prov. of, and 75 m. 
 W.N.W. Paraiba. The greater number of its houses are of 
 earth, except the new ones, and the townhall. It has a church 
 and two schools; and, along with its district, suffers from a 
 defective supply of water, which has, on various occasions, 
 caused considerable emigrations. Pop. tn. and dist. 5000. 
 
 CAMPINAS, a city, Brazil, prov. of, and 70 m. N. S3o 
 Paulo, in a fertile sugar district, in which are numerous sugar- 
 mills and distilleries the products from which are exported 
 on mules to Santos. Pop. tn. and dist. GOOO. 
 
 CAMPINE [Flemish, Kempen or Kempenland], an ex 
 tensive arid and sandy tract, forming part of the provinces of 
 Antwerp and Limburg, together with n narrow portion of 
 Brabant, in Belgium, and continued into Holland. The 
 greatest industry has been employed to reclaim it, but about 
 300,000 ac. still remain waste. See BELGIUM. 
 
 CAMPIO FORMIO, or CAMPO FORMIDO, a market tn. 
 Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, prov. Friuli, dist. Udina, 66" m. 
 N.E. Venice. It has a parish church, and numerous mills 
 along the canal of Roja, and is famous for the peace of 1797, 
 between Austria and France, which bears its name. Pop. 1650. 
 
 CAMPLI, a tn. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Ultra I., 5 m. 
 N. Teramo. It has a cathedral, three churches, an abbey, 
 several convents, an hospital, and a mont de-pitte. Pop. 
 7125. 
 
 CAMPO. 1, A vil. Tuscany, S.W. coast, isl. Elba ; on a 
 gulf of same name, 7 m. S.W. Porto Ferrajo. It contains a 
 
 parish church. Pop. 1700. The name CAMPO is given to 
 
 a considerable district of the S.W. part of the island, com 
 mencing at Ancona. 2, A vil. and com. Naples, prov. 
 
 Calabria Ultra I., dist. of, and 7 m. N.N.W. Reggio. The 
 chief employment is the rearing of silk-worms. Pop. 1942. 
 
 CAMPO, numerous tns. and vils. Spain: 1, Campo de 
 Criptana, a tn. New Castile, prov. of, and 22 m. N.E. Ciudad- 
 Real, in an extensive plain, at the foot of a small ridge or 
 sierra; with well-built houses, clean, wide, and paved streets, a 
 principal and six smaller squares, a spacious Gothic church, 
 Latin and three endowed schools, an hospital, townhouse, 
 police-court, prison, public storehouse, and cemetery. Weav 
 ing, dyeing, expressing oil and wine, and husbandry, employ 
 the people. Pop. 5230. 2, Campo, a tn. Estremadura, prov. 
 Caceres, 12 m. N. Coria; with a church, townhall, three 
 schools, a prison, and cemetery. Manufactures : linen fabrics, 
 cloth, soap, oil, and wine. Pop. 2629. 3, Campo (Sta 
 Maria del], a tn. New Castile, prov. of, and 38 m. S. by W. 
 Cuenca ; possessing a church, townhouse, two endowed schools, 
 and a prison. Pop. 1519. 4, Campo (Sta Maria del), a tn. 
 Old Castile, prov. of, and 21 m. S.W. Burgos; having a 
 church, townhall, Latin and two other schools, hospital, 
 orphan asylum, prison, and cemetery. Pop. 991. 5, Campo, 
 a vil. Valencia, prov. of, and 30 m. N. by W. Alicante. Pop. 
 1473. 6, Campo Frio, a vil. Andalusia, prov. of, and 40 m. 
 N.N.E. Huelva. Pop. 828. (Madoz.) 
 
 CAMPO- LARGO, n tn. Brazil, prov. Bahia, 1. bank, 
 Rio Grande, about 90 m. above its junction with the Sao 
 Francisco ; lat. 12 50 S. ; Ion. 45 10 W. ; with a church, 
 townhouse, prison, and primary school. Pop. tn. and dist. 
 chiefly labourers, 3000. 
 
 CAMPO-MAIOR, a tn. Brazil, prov. Piauhi, 152 m. 
 S.S.W. Parnaiba, on the Surubim, near a lake abounding in 
 fish. It has two churches, a school, and resident magistrates. 
 Its district is large, watered by the river Longa, and the 
 streams Surubim and Martahoau. Pop., engaged in agricul 
 ture and cattle-rearing, 5000. 
 
 CAMPO- MAIOR-DE-QUIXERAMOBIM, a tn. Brazil, in 
 terior of prov. Ceara, 180 m. S.S.W. Forte or Ceara; lat. 
 6 10 S. ; Ion. 39 20 W. ; r. bank, Quixeramobim an 
 affluent of the Jaguaribe. Like all others in the interior of 
 this province, it is a poor town ; but still, both its trade and 
 I population are increasing. It has a beautiful church, a town- 
 house, prison, a primary and a Latin school. Its territory is 
 traversed by rivers and rivulets that dry up annually; the 
 lower grounds are not arable, but the higher ones are i ertile. 
 In the warm and the rainy season, the inhabitants descend to 
 the level country, and feed numerous herds of cattle, which 
 find a ready market in Pernambuco. Pop. tn. and dist. 
 8000. 
 
CAMPO- MAYOR 
 
 577 
 
 CANADA 
 
 CAMPO-MAYOR, a fortified tn. Portugal, prov. Alem- 
 tejo, on the Spanish frontiers, dist. of, and 12 m. N.N.E. 
 Elvas, and 15 ra. N.W. Badajos. The streets are narrow 
 and dirty ; it has a church, two convents, an hospital, and a 
 workhouse. In 1723 the gunpowder magazine accidentally 
 blew up, destroying a great part of the town and castle, and 
 killing many of the inhabitants. It was taken by the Spaniards 
 in 1801. Pop. 4618. Several other small places in Por 
 tugal have the name of CAMPO. 
 
 CAMPO SAN PIETRO, or CAMPO SAMPIEERO, a tn. 
 Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, deleg. of, and 12 m. N.N.E. 
 Padua, r. bank, Musone. It has manufactures of linen, and 
 several tanneries. Pop. 2400. 
 
 CAMPO SANTO, a tn., duchy, Modena, gov. of, and 
 15 m. N.N.E. the town of Modena, 1. bank, Panaro. It has 
 an annual fair of three days. A fierce battle was fought here, 
 between the Spaniards and Austrians, in 1743. Pop. 2000. 
 
 CAMPOS, a tn. Spain, isl. Majorca, 22 m. E.S.E. Palma, 
 6 m. from the sea. The houses are generally well built ; and 
 the town contains a square, parish church, handsome chapel, 
 two schools, a townhouse, and cemetery. Manufactures : 
 linen fabrics, brandy, wine, oil, and refined salt. Trade : 
 fruit, brandy, and salt. There are thermal springs and baths 
 
 in the environs. Pop. 2796. Several other places in 
 
 Spain have the same name. 
 
 CAMPOS-Dos- GOITACAZES, or SAO SALVADOR-DOS- 
 CAMPOS, a city, Brazil, prov. Itio-de-Janeiro, on a plain, 
 r. bank, Parahiba, 20m. W. Sao-Joao-da- Praia ; lat. 21 40 S.; 
 Ion. 41 30 W. It contains 1 500 houses, chiefly of earth, only 
 the principal streets are paved, but all are lighted with lamps. 
 It has a townhall, prison, several churches, a primary and 
 a Latin school ; and a school of mathematics, philosophy, 
 rhetoric, and French. The port only admits small vessels ; 
 and, during the rains, when the river is swollen, many small 
 coasters arrive. An active trade with Rio -de -Janeiro is 
 carried on in sugar, coffee, brandy, building materials, &c. 
 The district is extensive ; sugar is the chief crop, though 
 rice, millet, beans, and mandioc, are also raised ; and a con 
 siderable number of cattle and horses reared. Pop. tn., 4000, 
 dist. 40,000. 
 
 CAMPOS- NO VOS, a vil. Brazil, prov. Rio-de-Janeiro, 
 dist. of, and 20 m. N. Cabo Frio. A small place, in a ruinous 
 condition. 
 
 CAMPOBASSO, a tn. Naples, cap. prov. Sannio, on a 
 hill-slope, 52 m. N.E. Naples. It is fortified, and is the seat 
 of criminal and civil courts ; has a collegiate church, four 
 parish churches, several convents, two colleges, an hospital, 
 and an almshouse. The cutlery manufactured here is said to 
 be the best in Naples. The town is favourably placed for 
 business, on the road from the capital to the Adriatic. Two 
 fairs are held annually. Pop. 8330. 
 
 CAMPOBELLO, a fertile isl. New Brunswick, at the 
 mouth of Passamaquoddy Bay; lat. 44 57 N.; Ion. 66 55 
 W. (R.) ; with a light on its N. point 60 ft. high, separated on 
 the S.W. from Lubec by a strait, called the Narrows. This 
 island is about 9 m. long, and from 1 to 3 broad ; is for the 
 most part in a state of cultivation, has several fine harbours, 
 particularly that of Harbour de Lute ; produces timber, and 
 carries on a considerable trade in fish and gypsum. 
 
 CAMPOBELLO, a ta. Sicily, Val di Trapani, dist. Maz- 
 zara. Pop. 2985. 
 
 CAMPOLIETO, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Molise or 
 Sannio, dist. of, and 9 m. N.E. Campobasso. It occupies 
 two small hills, and makes a very good wine. Pop. 2410. 
 
 CAMPOSANO, a vil. Naples, prov. Terra di Lavoro, 
 dist. of, and 2 m. N. Nola. The chief employment is the 
 rearing of silk-worms. In August there is an annual fair, 
 which lasts three days. Pop. 1495. 
 
 CAMPSALL, par. and vil. Eng. York, W. Riding ; houses 
 of stone; 9390 ac. Pop. 2149. 
 
 CAMPSEY-ASH, par. Eng. Suffolk; 1900 ac. Pop. 374. 
 
 CAMPSIE, a vil. and par. Scotland, co. Stirling. The 
 VILLAGE is 10m. N. Glasgow, picturesquely situated at the 
 base of the Campsie fells, hills of moderate elevation. Near 
 the village are the Kirkton glen, and Fin glen, much visited 
 from Glasgow and the surrounding country, for their pic 
 turesque beauty. The PARISH, 7 m. by 6 m., is rich in 
 
 coal and alum, and has extensive printfields, bleachfields, 
 and chemical works. Pop. 6402; (1851), 6918. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 CAMPTON, par. Eng. Bedford ; 1 120 ac. Pop. 1390. 
 
 CAMROSE, par. Wales, Pembroke. Pop. 1210. 
 
 CAMSINGMOON, a seaport, China, prov. Kwang-tong 
 or Canton, about half-way between Macao and Bocca Tigris ; 
 on a small island, called Keeow, 35 m. N. Hong-kong ; lat. 
 22 30 N.; Ion. 113 40 E. It has a tolerable harbour, 
 which used to be much resorted to by opium vessels, and now 
 serves as a convenient depot. Since 1844, a considerable 
 native trading town has sprung up about it. There is a 
 European hotel in the place. Pop. about 5000. 
 
 CAMTOOS RIVER, a river, Cape of Good Hope, S.E. 
 coast, dist. Uitenhage ; one of the largest rivers in the colony. 
 Ft is formed by the junction of the Salt and Karrepka rivers, 
 which unite at lat. 33 5 S. ; Ion. 22 35 E. From this 
 point it flows in a S.S.E. direction, and falls into St. Francis 
 Bay, in lat. 34 S. ; Ion. 25 7 E. ; entire course, about 105 m.; 
 its largest tributary is the Kouga, which joins it about 30 m. 
 from its embouchure. It is about 220 yards wide a little 
 above its mouth, its waters beautifully clear, and its 1. bank 
 is here skirted by a chain of wooded hills. The Camtoos was, 
 at a former period, the E. limit of the colony. 
 
 CAMUS, par. Irel. Tyrone ; 7506 ac. Pop. 6039. 
 
 CANADA, an extensive territory, N. America, belonging 
 to the British, formerly divided into two provinces, called, 
 respectively, Upper and Lower, or Western and Eastern, 
 Canada, separated by the Ottawa ; but now politically united, 
 though still differing in laws, customs, and manners. 
 
 The entire territory presents an approximation to the form 
 of an equilateral triangle, the base of which may be con 
 sidered as being represented by the 50th parallel of N. lat., 
 and the apex by Point Pelee the termination of a long pen 
 insula which projects into Lake Erie ; lat. 41 47 N. Tho 
 extreme E. point is generally deemed to be Cape Gaspe in 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; Ion. 64" 10 W. (R.) The W. 
 limit is undetermined, but is supposed to extend to about lou, 
 90 or 90 30 W. 
 
 The E. side of the triangle to which the general outline of 
 the territory has been assimilated, and which comprises Lower 
 or E. Canada, and the peninsular portion of W. Canada, is 
 formed by the N. shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario, and the 
 river St. Lawrence, to about Ion. 70 W., after which the 
 State of Maine and New Brunswick mark its S.E. limit. The 
 W. side, again, comprising Upper or W. Canada, is formed 
 by the N. shores of Lakes Superior and Huron. The length 
 of the former, from S.W. to N.E., is about 600 m., breadth 
 about 300 m. ; length of the latter, from S.E. to N.W., about 
 750 m. ; breadth, between 200 and 300 m., exclusive of the 
 peninsular portion, which terminates in Lake Erie, and which 
 is 280 m. in length, with an average breadth of between 40 
 and 50 m. The entire length of the territory, that is, of both 
 Canadas, from E. to W. or from Cape Gaspe to Ion. 90 30 W., 
 is from 1200 to 1300 m., and its average breadth, from N. to 
 S., between 200 and 300 m. It is but proper to add, that, as 
 the boundaries of Canada are not precisely determined on any 
 side but the S., various limits will be found assigned to it by 
 various authorities in all other directions. 
 
 Upper Canada, though by no means so level as it has been 
 represented, is characterized by a general evenness of surface 
 there being few great elevations, with exception of a table 
 ridge of considerable height, which stretches S.E. and N.W., 
 forming a water-shed between Lakes Superior and Huron, to 
 which it runs parallel at a distance of about 70 m., and the 
 S. portion of Hudson s Bay, called St. James s Bay. A similar 
 water-shed traverses Lower Canada also, as is indicated by 
 the opposite courses of its rivers a series of which flow 
 S.S.E. towards the St. Lawrence, while another pours into 
 St. James s Bay both emanating from a common centre. The 
 existence of this water-shed has, however, been doubted ; and 
 it has been alleged as not improbable, that the rivers here, as 
 in other parts of N. America, have their origin in Jakes which 
 lie in a plain of a nearly level surface, and are situate at nearly 
 the same elevation above the level of the sea. 
 
 Upper Canada, though much more fertile than Lower 
 Canada, is inferior to it as regards romantic and picturesque 
 scenery. The physical features of the latter, generally, are 
 varied and grand, consisting of boundless forests, magnificent 
 rivers and lakes, extensive prairies, bold, rocky heights, and 
 foaming cataracts, diversified by cultivated fields, pretty 
 villages and settlements, some of them stretching up along 
 
 73 
 
CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 mountains , fertile islands, with neat white cottages, rich pas 
 tures, and well-fed flocks. This beautiful appearance, how 
 ever, changes to a very different character in winter. After 
 a heavy fall of snow, succeeded by rain and a partial thaw, 
 a strong frost coats the trees and all their branches with trans 
 parent ice, often an inch thick, weighing on them so heavily, 
 that in a tempest whole forests are laid prostrate, with tremen 
 dous noise and uproar. Nothing, however, can be imagined 
 more brilliant and beautiful than the effect of sunshine in a 
 calm day, on the frozen boughs, where every particle of the 
 icy crystals sparkles, and nature seems decked in diamonds. 
 
 Mountains, Hirers, and Lakes. The mountains of Canada 
 are confined entirely to Lower or E. Canada, the elevations 
 in the W. province not attaining that dignity. The principal 
 ranges stretch from S.W. to N.E., and lie nearly parallel to 
 each other. They consist of the Green Mountains, so called 
 from the pine forests that cover their slopes, which, from the 
 latitude of Quebec, follow nearly the course of the St. Law 
 rence, on the S. side of which they are situated, and terminate 
 on the gulf of the same name, between the Bay of Chaleur and 
 Gaspe Point. On the N. side of the river is a corresponding 
 range, which forms undulating ridges of about 1000 ft. in 
 elevation, the Mealy Mountains, stretching from about lat. 
 75 C W., to Sandwich Bay, computed to be about 1500 ft. high, 
 and always covered with snow, and the Wotchish Mountains, 
 a short range of crescent form, between the Gulf of St. Law 
 rence and Hudson s Bay. The rocky masses connected with 
 the mountain chains that line the St. Lawrence river, advance 
 in many places close to the stream, forming precipitous cliffs, 
 frequently 200 and 300 ft. high. The rivers of Canada, as 
 elsewhere remarked, N. of the St. Lawrence, and the lakes, 
 nearly all flow either N. or S., as they originate in the N. or 
 S. slopes of the water-shed, by which both provinces are 
 traversed, the one from N.W to S.E., the other from S.W. 
 to N.E. As this elevated ground approaches nearer to the 
 lakes, and to the St. Lawrence, than to Hudson s Bay, it 
 follows that the rivers which flow towards the latter have a 
 much longer course, and, generally, a much greater volume 
 of water, than those that fall into the former. 
 
 The principal rivers in Lower Canada are the St. Lawrence, 
 which issues from the N.E. end of Lake Ontario, and which, 
 after passing lat. 45 N., is wholly within the province of 
 Lower Canada, forming, previously to its reaching that point, 
 the boundary line between Upper Canada and the State of 
 New York ; the Ottawa, which forms the boundary between 
 Lower and Upper Canada, issues from Lake Temiscaming ; 
 lat. 47 18 N. ; Ion. 79 35 W. ; although its remotest sources 
 are said to be 100 m. further N. It falls into the St. Law 
 rence at Montreal, after a course probably of 350 to 400 m. ; 
 and is now navigable for about 90 m. from its embouchure ; 
 its scenery, particularly during the latter part of its course, 
 is singularly picturesque and beautiful, enhanced by magni 
 ficent cataracts, and numerous richly-wooded islands. The 
 Seguenay, which issues from Lake St. John ; lat. 48 15 N., 
 also falls into the St. Lawrence, near Tadousac, after a course 
 of about 1 00 m. The St. Maurice, or Three Rivers, originates 
 in some small lakes, in lat. 47 N., and joins the St. Lawrence 
 about 70 m. above Quebec ; its whole course is about 180 m., 
 of which 110 or 115 m. are navigable by boats, from the 
 mouth upwards ; its banks are generally high, in some places 
 from 200 to 1000 ft., and covered with large groups of majestic 
 trees, and it has a great, variety of falls and cascades, and is 
 adorned with a number of beautiful islands. Other rivers of 
 less note, though still of considerable size, but too numerous 
 to be particularized here, debouch on the N. shores of the 
 St. Lawrence, below the Seguenay. The same, or nearly the 
 same, may be said of the S. side of the estuary, where the 
 principal rivers are the Richelieu, Chaudiere, and the St. 
 Francis ; all tributaries, also, of the St. Lawrence, joining it 
 from the S. The Richelieu flows from the N. extremity of 
 Lake Champlain, in the State of New York, and joins the 
 St. Lawrence at the head of Lake St. Peter. It is navigable 
 for boats for 80 m. The banks of the Chaudiere, like those 
 of most of the rivers in Lower Canada, are high and steep, 
 and thickly clothed with wood, which, in many places, over 
 hang its foaming rapids with the most picturesque effect. The 
 St. Francis flows through a country of great beauty, diver 
 sified by hill and dale, forest and meadow, river and lake. 
 
 The principal rivers of Upper Canada occur in the penin 
 
 sular portion which projects into Lake Erie. These are the 
 Thames and the Ouse ; the former originates in the district 
 of London, by the union of several streams, about lat. 43 N. : 
 Ion. 81 15 W., and falls into Lake St. Clair, after a S. and 
 S.W. course of about 80 m. It is navigable for large vessels 
 to Chatham, 18 m. up, and for boats nearly to its source. The 
 Ouse rises in the Home district, about lat. 44 N. ; Ion. 80 lO 
 W., and, after a S. and S.E. course of about 100 m., falls into 
 the N.E. corner of Lake Erie. Numberless streams of smaller 
 size, and of which the Trent is the principal, drain the Can 
 adian sides of Lakes Ontario and Erie. The chief rivers that 
 flow towards Hudson s Bay are the Albany, Moose, Harricanna, 
 and Rupert. 
 
 The lakes of Canada are extremely numerous the entire 
 surface being thickly dotted with sheets of water, of various 
 dimensions, interwoven with a net-work of connecting streams. 
 The larger are Lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, 
 none of which, however, belong exclusively to Canada, being 
 equally within the territory of the United States ; their N. 
 and S. shores forming, respectively, the N. and S. boundaries 
 of these countries. (For more full details regarding the lakes 
 and rivers of Canada, see the several Articles wider their re 
 spective names.} 
 
 Geolotjy, Mineralogy, &c. The N; parts of Canada, so far 
 as known, appear to be of crystalline formation ; while along 
 the banks of the St. Lawrence, and the N. shores of the lakes, 
 the primary stratifications prevail, including limestone in a 
 great variety of states. The banks of the St. Lawrence arc, 
 in several places, composed of schist, in a decaying or moulder 
 ing condition ; and in every quarter granite is found, more or 
 less inclined, but never parallel to the horizon. In the Gaspe 
 district the most E. part of Canada numerous and beautiful 
 specimens of quartz have been obtained, including a great 
 variety of carnelian, agate, opal, and jasper ; indications of 
 coal have also been traced. The limestone formation extends 
 over 30,000 sq. m. ; the dip is moderate, and the strata of 
 limestone generally undisturbed. In the extensive region of 
 the Ottawa, the limestone is invariably highly crystalline, 
 and sometimes very coarse-grained in its structure ; at other 
 times its texture is so fine as to form statuary marble. Fossil 
 organic remains are numerous. Along the shores of the estuary 
 and Gulf of St. Lawrence, horizontal banks of recent shells 
 appear at various heights, from 10 to 100 ft. above high water 
 mark, and inland beeches of sand and shingle, with similar 
 shells, as also elevated limestone rocks, scooped out by the 
 waves, and showing lines of lithodomous perforations all 
 indicating the successive upheaving of the land, since the sea 
 was inhabited by the existing species of testacea. Earthquakes 
 have been frequent in Canada, and some of them of consider 
 able violence. The most tremendous on record commenced 
 on the evening of February 5, 1663, and is said to have con 
 tinued at intervals for six months, extending from Quebec 
 to the river Seguenay, a distance of about 120 m. Other 
 accounts say that it extended more than 600 m. in length, 
 and about 300 m. in breadth agitating a surface of 180,000 
 sq. m. Earthquakes of a less violent character, but offeree 
 sufficient at times to split walls and throw down chimneys, 
 are very frtquent on the shore of the estuary of the St. Law 
 rence. One of these occurred in December 1 7 9 1 , in St. Paul s 
 Bay, about 55 m. N.E. Quebec, and the inhabitants say that 
 about every 25 years, a violent earthquake returns, which 
 lasts 40 days. 
 
 Iron of the best quality has been found in great abundance 
 in Canada ; silver in small quantities, and lead, tin, and copper, 
 occur in several places. The latter seems to abound most on 
 Lake Superior, where one mine alone (Cliffe mine), yielded, in 
 1848, 1000 tons. Marble, of many beautiful varieties, litho 
 graphic stone, and gypsum, are also found in the W. province. 
 
 Climate. If latitude alone determined the temperature of 
 the atmosphere, the climate of the Canadas would resemble 
 that of Central and S. Europe ; but, through the operation of 
 the numerous disturbing influences by which temperature is 
 affected, it is nearly the same with the climates of Norway, 
 Sweden, St. Petersburg, and the S. parts of Iceland the iso 
 thermal line diverging far to the N. of the parallels of latitude 
 that connect it with the old Continent. Both the heat of 
 summer and the cold of winter are much greater than in the 
 corresponding latitudes of Europe the thermometer ranging 
 between 102 above, and 36 below, the zero of Fall. ; but, in 
 
CANADA 
 
 579 
 
 CANADA 
 
 the districts adjoining the great lakes on its S. border, the 
 climate is much milder, and more equable, than that of places 
 more remote a natural consequence of the presence of great 
 expanses of water. The prevailing winds in the Canadas are 
 the N.E., N. W., and S. VV. the last being the most frequent. 
 The azure of the Canadian skies is remarkable for its purity 
 and transparency, while fogs are almost unknown. In Lower 
 Canada the winter commences about the latter end of Novem 
 ber, and lasts until the end of April, when agricultural opera 
 tions are resumed ; during this period the frost is generally 
 intense, with N. winds, and a clear atmosphere. In Upper 
 Canada the winter is considerably shorter, and the sledge, or 
 sleighing season, which, in Lower Canada, generally continues 
 for five months together, scarcely lasts two in the upper pro 
 vince. The average depth of snow that falls in the course 
 of the winter is about 30 inches, but is frequently accumu 
 lated to far greater depths during snow storms and drifts. 
 Generally speaking, the climate of Upper or W. Canada is 
 much milder than that of Lower or E. Canada owing chiefly 
 to its being nearer the great lakes. Here, spring is at least 
 a month or six weeks earlier than in Quebec and Montreal ; 
 and the extremes and sudden variations of temperature are 
 much less intense. Indeed, winters in some localities in 
 Upper Canada sometimes pass away with scarcely any snow 
 at all, and with a very moderate degree of cold circumstances 
 which never occur in the lower province. The sudden and 
 great fluctuations of temperature to which the climate of the 
 Canadas is subject, form one of its most remarkable charac 
 teristics, a change of 30 in 24 hours, or less, being frequent ; 
 while it is rare that the weather continues the same for more 
 than three or four days at a time. Notwithstanding this, no 
 climate in the world is more salubrious, or more conducive 
 to longevity contagious disorders or fatal epidemics being 
 almost unknown ; while, from the greater dryness of the 
 climate, persons suffer far less from coughs and colds than 
 they do in England. From the same cause, the surface of 
 the country, in the latter part of the summer and autumn, has 
 not that beautiful verdant appearance which is so attractive 
 in a moist climate, like that of England ; but this want is 
 amply compensated by the magnificence and splendour of the 
 various tints of the forest, at the close of the summer season. 
 The climate, up to 50 N. lat., is singularly favourable to 
 the growth of most of the cereals, particularly wheat, oats, 
 maize, and barley ; although, in the lower province, the field 
 labours of the farmer are interrupted for five months in the 
 year, but in the upper for a considerably shorter period. 
 
 Vegetable Productions, Agriculture, &c. In Lower Canada, 
 as in all cold countries, vegetation is necessarily rapid, the 
 foliage of the forest being often unfolded in great luxuriance 
 in the course of a fortnight. In Upper Canada, where the 
 suddenness of the transition from winter to summer is not so 
 great, the budding and blowing are rather more gradual than 
 in the Lower province. The greater portion of both pro 
 vinces is covered by forests consisting chiefly of white and 
 red pine, the former of which frequently attains the height 
 of 100 ft. to the first branch, and occasionally 200 ft. Im 
 mense quantities of this timber are annually sent to England. 
 The other kinds of timber are ash, of various species, black 
 and white birch, beech, elm, hickory, sugar-maple, birds eye 
 or curled-maple, butternut tree, black walnut, wild cherry 
 tree (Laurus cerasus), bass-wood or lime tree ; on rich moist 
 ground, the white sycamore and button-wood tree ; in the 
 marshes, alder, spotted alder, willow, and varieties of thorn ; 
 and in the swamps, red and white cedar, and tamarack. 
 There are, besides, spruce fir, Scotch fir, larch, black oak, 
 and several other varieties. Of shrubs, there are many kinds, 
 amongst which is the shumach. Flowers of great beauty and 
 variety abound the woods in summer being crowded with 
 them ; they comprise many kinds now cultivated in English 
 gardens, such as the scarlet lobelia, blue lupin, purple gentian, 
 columbine, scarlet and other honeysuckles, and a host of 
 others. Amongst the wild fruits are the wild cherry, wild 
 grapes, black and red currants, gooseberries, raspberries, 
 cranberries, large quantities of which are exported ; plums, 
 strawberries, nuts, &c. ; many of these, however, are inferior to 
 the cultivated fruits of the same species. Nearly all the 
 vegetables and fruits of England thrive in the Canadas, par 
 ticularly in the W. province, under proper cultivation. In 
 the S. parts, peaches and apples are produced in such abund 
 
 ance, that the former have been sold for a quarter of a dollar 
 per bushel, and the latter for three half-pence. Pumpkins 
 and squashes grow in the open fields to an enormous size, 
 often attaining the weight of 50 or 80 Ibs. 
 
 The extent of occupied land in Western or Upper Canada, in 
 1848, was 8,613,591 ac., of which 1,780,152 ac. were under 
 tillage, and 766,768 in pasture, the remainder uncultivable, 
 or in a state of nature, with exception of a portion appropri 
 ated to gardens, town plots, &c. Of the ground under the 
 plough, there were 593,695 ac. in wheat, 38,542 rye, 29,324 
 barley, 285,571 oats, 82,516 pease, 51,997 maize, 26,653 buck 
 wheat, and 56,796 potatoes ; making altogether 1,165,094 ac. 
 under crop. The live stock amounted, in the same year , to 
 565,845 horned cattle, 151,389 horses, 833,807 sheep, 484,2 11 
 hogs. Dairy produce : 3,380,406 Ibs. butter, and 668,357 
 Ibs. cheese. 
 
 The returns for Eastern or Lower Canada are neither so 
 recent nor so satisfactory as those for the Western Province. 
 The returns for 1844 (there having been none for 1848), gives 
 2,802,317 ac. as under cultivation; but the whole produce 
 in grain amounted only to 11,445,727 bushels, and in potatoes 
 to 9,918,869 bushels. Of the grain,- 942,835 bushels only 
 were wheat, while in 1831 this crop amounted to 3,404,756 
 bushels, showing a decrease of 2,461,921 bushels. Live 
 stock in the same year: horned cattle, 469,851; horses, 
 146,726; sheep, 602,821; swine, 197,935. W T heat is the 
 chief article cultivated by the Canadian farmer, but in the 
 Lower Province there is not sufficient of even that crop raised 
 as maintain the population, the deficiency being made up by 
 importation from Upper Canada. Farming, until within a 
 comparatively recent period, was in a very backward state in 
 the Canadas. Bouchette, who wrote nearly 20 years since 
 (1832), says The improvements that have been introduced 
 in the European systems of agriculture are unknown in 
 Canada, or, at least, have never been adopted ; and the Canadian 
 farmer is still seen guiding the old-fashioned plough used by 
 his forefathers. The scientific rotation of crops is unknown 
 to him, and he steadily pursues the system handed down to 
 him by his ancestors. All this, however, is now much 
 changed, especially in Upper Canada. Within the last few 
 years, agriculture has begun to keep pace with the improve 
 ments introduced into Eagland and Scotland. The emigra 
 tion into the country of scientific agriculturists, with the 
 establishment of agricultural societies, have been mainly 
 instrumental in effecting this great change ; stock of a dif 
 ferent and better description has been imported, and much 
 land that was previously considered by the old proprietors 
 worn out, has been improved and brought back, by means of 
 judicious treatment, to its old capabilities. In order to 
 give an impetus to the progress of improvement in agricul 
 ture in Upper Canada, Government holds out every encour 
 agement, including pecuniary aid, to the formation of agri 
 cultural societies in that province. The most usual period 
 for sowing in spring is April, reaping commencing about the 
 middle of August ; but the time of both operations is liable 
 to fluctuations, being dependent on the mildness or rigour of 
 the weather. Though in general sowing in Canada is later 
 than in the N. parts of Britain ; the harvest is earlier gathered, 
 in consequence of the greater warmth of the climate in summer. 
 The other agricultural productions of Canada, besides those 
 already mentioned, are hemp, flax, tobacco, and maple sugar. 
 Of the first three, very small quantities only are produced; 
 but of the last, the quantity is very considerable, amounting 
 on an average to upwards of 4,000,000 Ibs. annually. The 
 quantity of wool produced in 1848 amounted to 2,339,756 
 Ibs., the average fleece being 2 Ibs. 
 
 Animals. Bears, wolves, beavers, foxes, racoons, otters, 
 martens, minks, and musk-rats are to be met with in Canada, 
 but the first three are exceedingly rare, and all the others are 
 rapidly diminishing in numbers. The lynx and wild cat were 
 also formerly tenants of the territory, but have now gone 
 further N. Deer were at one period plentiful, but are also be 
 coming scarce. Squirrels of different colours and species are 
 extremely abundant, and are eagerly sought after, being con 
 sidered excellent eating. Wild swans, wild turkeys, wood 
 cocks, and snipes are occasionally met with; pigeons are 
 plentiful in spring and autumn ; ducks of many varieties, and 
 wild geese also abound. Among the smaller feathered tribe 
 are many beautiful birds jays, woodpeckers, and blackbirds 
 
CANADA 
 
 CANADA 
 
 of numerous and beautiful varieties ; two species of humming 
 birds, one of a golden green, the other having a crimson throat. 
 Some of these, however, are summer birds only, migrating 
 in autumn. Besides these, there are eagles, kites, hawks, 
 horned owls, herons, bitterns, and crows. Snakes are numer 
 ous, but the venomous kinds are not so plentiful as in the 
 U. States. Amongst the latter are the rattlesnake, adder, 
 and the copper head. Wild bees are numerous. In the 
 lakes and rivers the principal fish are the sturgeon, which is 
 frequently taken of from 80 to 100 Ibs. weight; the lake or 
 salmon trout, which attains a weight of from 10 to 50 Ibs. ; the 
 white fish, the most delicious fish in the lakes, pike, pickerel, 
 bass, markelonge or masquenonge, also a fine fish, sometimes 
 
 weighing 50 lb" ; cat-fish, suckers, perch, eels, speckled trout, 
 and lake herrings, a flabby and indifferent fish. 
 
 Commerce, Trade, and Manufactures. Timber forms the 
 principal article of export, extending to many millions of feet 
 annually. Large quantities of barrelled beef and pork, flour, 
 barley, oatmeal, wheat, butter, pease, pot and pearl ashes, furs, 
 wool, staves, and lumber, are also exported. In this last trade, 
 the lumber trade, as it is called, a vast amount of capital is 
 invested, in erecting saw-mills, log-ponds, &c. The total ex 
 ports from Canada in the year 1853, amounted to 5,950,325, 
 16s.; the imports to 7,995,359. The principal imports by 
 sea consist of wines, spirits, molasses, coffee, tea, tobacco, 
 salt, refined and muscovado sugars. 
 
 i,xpo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ChMU. 
 
 Total Valu,-.. 
 
 Griatliritnin. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 British America. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Other Region 
 
 
 3 d. 
 
 i. d. 
 
 * d 
 
 s d. 
 
 & 3. d. 
 
 S d 
 
 Produce of the Mine 
 
 27,339 3 2 
 
 8,440 
 
 
 
 18,899 3 2 
 
 
 Produce of the Sen 
 
 85,000 13 & 
 
 8,801 15 
 
 
 15,072 14 4 
 
 18,355 12 5 
 
 42,770 11 11 
 
 Produce of the 1 orest 
 Animals aud their Produce. ... 
 
 2,355,255 2 2 
 342,621 7 
 
 1 632,125 12 1 
 38,991 3 7 
 
 4,445 16 11 
 
 6,466 5 2 
 41,926 19 3 
 
 652,541 4 a 
 201,713 4 2 
 
 9,673 3 7 
 
 Vegetable Food 
 Other Agricultural Products 
 
 4,995,0 J4 15 9 
 26,618 17 11 
 
 502,160 4 8 
 3,061 
 
 
 273,068 16 7 
 124 
 
 1,219,801 14 6 
 23,433 17 11 
 
 400 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 35,106 9 
 
 887 10 
 
 380 
 
 6,891 5 8 
 
 26,957 13 4 
 
 
 Other articles 
 
 15,823 11 3 
 
 1,707 4 
 
 220 
 
 1,566 6 11 
 
 11,330 4 
 
 
 Total 
 
 4882,869 19 11 
 
 2,246,164 9 4 
 
 5,045 16 11 
 
 315,116 7 11 
 
 2,234,095 10 3 
 
 52,447 15 6 
 
 To the item of manufactures exported, we are warranted 
 to add the ships, &c., built during the year, on foreign (chiefly 
 British) account. Their total tonnage was 49,615, and if we 
 assume their average price to have been 12, 10s. per ton, 
 then an additional value accrues of 620,187, 10s. Further, 
 to the value of exports from inland ports, add 20 per cent. 
 = 447,263, 5s., and we have the grand total, 5,950,325. 
 15s. In 1852 it was 3,826,091 ; in 1851, 3,452,651. 
 Official returns of the commerce of the six principal ports 
 f Canada, in two recent years : 
 
 KXPOKTS. IMPORTS. 
 
 1850. 1853. !8iO. 1853 
 
 Quebec 1,297,523 ..23,443,4(7 Quebec .. .. 191,139. ..1,141,591 
 
 Montreal... 436,193... 883,722 Montreal... 1,726,356... 3,381,539 
 
 Toronto.... 67,557... 221,490 Toronto 634.722... 1,605,056 
 
 Hamilton... 88,222... 206,719 Hamilton... 395,782... 886,377 
 
 Dalhousie... 79,528... 182,188 Kingston... 87,662... 212,348 
 
 St. John s... 303,959... 161,109 Stanley 33,849... 131,066 
 
 In 1853 the total number of vessels registered as belonging 
 to Canada was sailing vessels, 694; aggregate tonnage, 
 81,809 : steamers, 91 ; aggregate tonnage, 9,353. 
 
 Cider and ale are brewed, and whisky distilled in arreat quan 
 tities in Upper Canada. Maple sugar," flannels, and linens, are 
 also manufactured to a great extent by the peasantry. The 
 first amounted, in 1847, to 6,463,845 Ibs., of which by far the 
 greater portion was produced in Upper Canada. The inland 
 trade of Canada will, doubtless, be much improved when the 
 various lines of railway now in contemplation, and for some 
 of which charters have been already obtained, shall have been 
 completed. In the meantime it is conducted chiefly by its 
 numerous canals, some of which are stupendous achievements. 
 The principal are the Rideau and Welland Canals. The first 
 is 135 m. long, extending from Lake Ontario, at Kingston, to 
 the Ottawa at Chaudiere, and is large enough to receive 
 vessels of 120 tons burthen. The Welland Canal, which has 
 been recently enlarged, unites Lakes Erie and Ontario. It is 
 45 ft. wide at the bottom, and 10 ft. deep. The other more 
 noticeable canals are the Cornwall Canal, 12 m. long, avoids 
 some of the most violent rapids of the St. Lawrence ; the 
 Beauharnois Canal, about the same length, unites the Lakes St. 
 Francis and St. Louis ; the Lachine Canal, extends from Lake 
 St. Louis to Montreal ; the Chambly Canal, uniting Lake 
 Champlain with the Richelieu River, and a number of others 
 of lesser note, many of them short cuts to avoid the rapids of I 
 rivers. Both the internal and external trade of the Canadas 
 are likely to be greatly benefited by the railway from Halifax, 
 Nova Scotia, to Quebec, which has at last (1851) been sanc 
 tioned by Government, and a guarantee given of a fixed 
 interest on the outlay required for its construction. This 
 important line will give the Canadas the advantage, all winter, 
 of an open seaport, of which they have hitherto been desti 
 tute, from the freezing of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 People, Manners, Customs, <tc. The Upper Province, or 
 
 Canada W., is settled principally by emigrants, and the 
 descendants of emigrants, from Great Britain and Ireland. 
 There are also large numbers of U. States loyalists, or persons 
 who fought on the side of Great Britain during the American 
 war, a mixture of all nations, and their descendants ; and in 
 particular locr.lities there are large settlements of Pennsyl- 
 vanian Dutch ; and there are also many Americans scattered 
 over the country. The Irish have rather a majority in the 
 province, and next to them the English. In Lower or E. 
 Canada, the majority of the inhabitants Qiabitans) are of 
 French origin, mostly descendants of settlers from Normandy, 
 established in the colony previously to 1759, and to whom 
 they still bear in many particulars a close resemblance. They 
 are civil, polite, and hospitable, but illiterate, litigious, want 
 ing in energy, and obstinately attached to old habits and 
 usages, to the exclusion of all improvement. They are all in 
 comfortable circumstances, being mostly proprietors of land, 
 and living on the produce of their own properties. Theii 
 houses are sometimes built of stone, but generally of wood, 
 and only one story high. The walls outside are white-washed, 
 which imparts to them, particularly in summer, when almost 
 everything else is green, a lively and cleanly appearance. 
 Each contains a large kitchen, one good sitting-room, and as 
 many sleeping apartments as may be thought necessary. 
 Some of the houses have verandahs, and a small orchard and 
 garden are often attached. The sitting-room or parlour, and 
 bed-rooms, are lined with smoothly planed boards, and painted 
 blue, red, green, yellow, &c. Till recently the chief clothing 
 of the population was wholly of their own manufacture, but 
 the cheapness of English goods has induced a partial use of 
 the latter. Canadian cloth is, however, still almost univer 
 sally used; and the gray capote of the habitant is the character 
 istic costume of the country. The capote is a large coat reach 
 ing to the knee, bound round the waist by a sash of the gayest 
 colours. This, with a straw-hat in summer, a "bonnet rouge or 
 a fur cap in winter, and a pair of mocassins, complete the 
 dress of the French Canadian. The women are clothed nearly 
 after the fashion of French females in a similar condition of 
 life. The habitans of the poorer classes are generally tall and 
 thin, with small, dark, lively eyes, aquiline noses, and thin 
 lips. Those who are much exposed to the air are as dark as 
 Indians. The women, when young, are handsome brunettes. 
 The enjoyments of the people, as in all R. Catholic countries, 
 are connected with their religious ceremonies. On Sundays, 
 accordingly, after service, the day is devoted to festivity. 
 The easy and comfortable condition of the population, gener 
 ally, enables the Jiabitaiis to spend more time in pleasure and 
 recreation than perhaps any other people. It is owing to 
 this that the greater part of them cease from serious labour 
 during the winter, and devote that season to visiting and 
 merry-making. Unfortunately, deep-rooted feelings of es 
 trangement, amounting to positive aversion, subsist between 
 
CANADA 
 
 581 
 
 CANADIAN KIVER 
 
 the French and English Canadians, arising, chiefly, from na 
 tional prejudices, which have already led, and will, probably, 
 again lead to the most unhappy consequences. The Indians, 
 who were the aboriginal inhabitants of the Canadas, are 
 now nearly exterminated. A few reduced tribes, however, 
 still occupy portions of the country. In Upper Canada 
 they are met with on Lakes Superior and Huron, and thence 
 towards the N. boundaries. In Lower Canada some of 
 them occupy a reserved space on Lake St. Francis (an 
 expansion of the St Lawrence, 10 m. above Montreal) 
 and others reside in villages throughout the country; all 
 leading a life of misery and starvation. They are described 
 as contesting for the carcases of the most worthless animals, 
 after the latter have been stripped of their skins by the 
 Canadian hunter. It has been further stated, that the num 
 ber of the unfortunate Indians who die of hunger and want 
 would be yet more considerable, if the humanity of the ser 
 vants of the Company of the Posts did not frequently supply 
 their wants. Amongst the tribes in this unhappy condition 
 are the Hurons, the most intelligent, the bravest, the noblest, 
 and once the most powerful of the North American Indians. 
 
 Government and Revenue. The province of Canada, as men 
 tioned in the beginning of this article, formerly consisted of 
 two provinces, which were united under one legislature, in 
 1840, with the view, chiefly, of extinguishing the dominancy 
 of the French party, whose greater political influence had 
 hitherto been extremely detrimental to the general interests 
 of the colony; an effect, however, which does not seem to have 
 been accomplished by the measure. The form of the existing 
 Government is popular, being in imitation of that of the 
 United Kingdom. The executive power is wielded by the 
 Governor-general, who is appointed by the Crown, and is 
 assisted in his administration of affairs by an executive coun 
 cil, the members of which are appointed by the Governor, and 
 the tenure of their offices depends upon their receiving the 
 support of the Provincial Parliament of United Canada. The 
 members, of the executive council, must hold seats in either 
 branch of the Provincial Parliament. The Provincial House 
 is called the legislative council, the members of which are 
 summoned by the Queen, and hold their seats for life, unless 
 forfeited by crime. The Legislative House consists of 84 
 members elected by the people. In counties, a 40s. sterling 
 freehold confers a vote, and in cities and towns the payment 
 of a yearly rent of 10 sterling. The forms of procedure in 
 the Provincial Parliament are identical with those of the 
 Imperial Parliament. Bills passed by both houses of the 
 Provincial Parliament, must receive the Queen s assent before 
 they acquire the force of law, and this the Governor is author 
 ized to grant in her Majesty s name, or to reserve the bills for 
 the signification of the Queen s pleasure thereon. The gross 
 revenue of United Canada, for 1849, was 513,431. Gross 
 expenditure for the same year, 450,913. The entire public 
 debt of Canada amounts to 5,208,640, of which 4,506,267 
 has been expended on public works. 
 
 Religion, Education, &c. The prevailing religion in Eastern 
 or Lower Canada is that of the Eomish Church. In Western 
 or Upper Canada, the English Church predominates. In the 
 following Table will be found a recent, and, it is believed, 
 correct, classification and enumeration of the various religious 
 bodies in the United provinces : 
 
 i CKNSUS. 1852. 
 
 Church of England 
 
 Church of Rome 
 
 Methodists 
 
 Presbyterian^ 
 
 Baptists 
 
 Lutheran * 
 
 223 190 
 
 167495 
 
 .................... 207,656 
 
 201,148 
 45,353 
 12,089 
 
 er spec 
 specifie 
 
 Persons of unspecified belief. 
 
 , 
 35,740 
 
 Immigration to Canada. The entries of emigrants from 
 Europe become official only for 1831; since that time a regis 
 ter of them has been carefully kept. The following are the 
 returns for recent years. There were, in 
 
 1840 ......................................................... 21,190 
 
 1841 ......................................................... 28,937 
 
 1842 ......................................................... 41,37* 
 
 1843 ......................................................... 20,142 
 
 1814 ........................................................ 25,375 
 
 1845 ....................................................... 32376 
 
 1816 ......................................................... 32,736 
 
 1847. 
 1848. 
 1819. 
 1850. 
 1851 . 
 1852. 
 1853. 
 
 ..90,150 
 ..27,939 
 
 "ssi-m 
 
 !.88,899 
 
 ,.41,076 
 ..39,176 
 ,.36,fi99 
 
 It has been ascertained that about half of those who thus 
 arrived in Canada, passed on to various parts of the U. States ; 
 most if not all of that moiety having merely taken the round 
 about way to the latter for the sake of getting a cheap pass 
 age in overcrowded ships. 
 
 Price of Land. All crown-lands, with few exceptions, are 
 sold at 8s. currency, per acre. The price of cultivated land 
 differs in the different districts, varying from about 1, 13s. to 
 10, 8s. per acre, including buildings. Smith, in his Canadian 
 Gazetteer, an apparently meritorious work, published at 
 Toronto, recommends that emigrants to Canada should not 
 purchase land till they have been sufficiently long in the 
 country to know its value, otherwise they are certain to pay 
 at least one-third more for it than after they have been in the 
 country for some time. No person, he adds, should purchase 
 more land than he is able to pay for immediately, and, above 
 all things, he should avoid purchasing land on long credits. 
 
 History. Canada has its name from the Iroquois word 
 lanata, signifying a collection of huts, and which the early 
 European discoverers mistook for the name of the country. 
 It is said to have been first discovered by Sebastian Cabot, 
 in 1497 ; but the first settlement made by Europeans was 
 in 1541, at St. Croix s harbour, by Jacques Cartier, a French 
 navigator, who sailed up the St. Lawrence, to which he gave 
 its present name. In 1608, a permanent settlement was made 
 by the French upon the present site of Quebec, Canada being 
 then called New France. From this period, till 1759, the 
 French continued to occupy the country, though much har- 
 rassed by various tribes of Indians, particularly the Mohawks ; 
 but in the year just named, an English army, under General 
 Wolfe, captured Quebec ; and by Septembers, 1760, all other 
 places within the government of Canada were surrendered to 
 the British, and the French power in that quarter of the world 
 entirely annihilated. In 1774, by an Act of the British Par 
 liament, a legislative council of 23 members was appointed 
 to assist the Governor. Seventeen years after, Canada was 
 divided into two separate provinces, to be called the provinces 
 of Upper and Lower Canada ; and the first parliament of the 
 former met at Niagara on September 17, 1792. In 1820, dis 
 sensions, chiefly of a political and financial character, began to 
 arise between the House of Assembly and the Executive 
 Government in Lower Canada, which went on from year to 
 year increasing in intensity and malignity, deepened by the 
 national prejudices of the French and English colonists, the 
 former considering themselves as having interests different 
 from those of the latter, till a crisis arrived. The spirit of 
 anarchy and discontent extended to Upper Canada, where it 
 began to manifest itself in 1834, the causes being substantially 
 the same with those of Lower Canada. At length matters 
 were brought to an issue in the latter country by the arrest, 
 in 1837, of two popular leaders, who were rescued. Warrants 
 were issued for the arrest of others ; the peasantry in the 
 districts of Chambly and of Grand Brule rose in arms, and 
 were defeated by the military. Similar scenes were enacted 
 at the same time in Upper Canada, where considerable ex 
 asperation prevailed against the Government. The insurrec 
 tion here, however, was also suppressed, but not before martial 
 law had been proclaimed. The result of these proceedings was 
 the re-uniting of the provinces, which took place in 1840, under 
 the name of the United Provinces of Canada, and the changing 
 their respective designations from Upper and Lower Canada, 
 to Canada East and Canada West. The present governor 
 1855), is the Earl of Elgin, who was appointed in 1846. 
 Pop. of Upper Canada in 1852, by census, 952,004; Lower 
 Canada (1848), about 770,000. (Couchette, Lyell s Geology; 
 Scobie s Canadian Almanac ; Smith s Gazetteer of Canada 
 West; Parl. Papers.} 
 
 CANADA CREEK, a river, U. States, New York, the 
 largest branch of the Mohawk river, 60 m. long. It has 
 several picturesque rapids and cascades. 
 
 CANADIAN RIVER, a river, U. States, the principal 
 affluent of the Arkansas, and formed by the union of the N. 
 and S. Canadian Forks. The N. Canadian Fork rises in 
 
CANADIAN CHANNEL 
 
 582 
 
 CANARIES 
 
 Texas. N. of Santa Fe, flows S.E., enters the Indian territory, 
 where, in lat. 35 22 N. ; Ion. 99 37 W., it receives the S. 
 Canadian Fork on its r. bank. It continues to flow S.E. to 
 lat. 34 30 N. ; Ion. 97 13 W., when it bends N.E., and 
 ultimately falls into the Arkansas, in lat. 35 27 N. ; Ion. 95 
 W., after a course of about 1000 m. It is navigable for about 
 120 m., and its waters are muddy. The S. Canadian Fork 
 rises also in Texas. It is formed of numerous considerable 
 streams, which, rising in sierra Obscura, unite their waters 
 in lat. 34 55 N. ; Ion. 102 5 W.; whence the river flows 
 N.E., and unites with the N. Fork, as already stated; whole 
 course, to head of longest affluent, upwards of 300 in. 
 
 CANADIAN, or NORTH CHANNEL, one of the two pas 
 sages (N. and S.), into which the estuary of the St. Lawrence 
 is divided by the Isle of Anticosti ; it is about 30 m. in breadth, 
 and contains numerous islands on the N. or Canadian side, 
 the principal of which are the Mingan Islands, having passages 
 between, and places of good anchorage. 
 
 CANALE, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 7 m. 
 N.N.W. Alba. Some mineral springs are found in the neigh 
 bourhood, which afford a neutral salt, much employed by the 
 druggists of Piedmont. Pop. 3500. 
 
 CANALS, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 36 m. S. by W. 
 Valencia, on an elevated plain, at the confluence of the rivers 
 Canolas and Santos. It has wide, straight streets, well-built 
 houses, several squares, a parish church, townhouse, two 
 schools, a prison, and cemetery. Manufactures: glass and 
 delft, from materials found in the neighbourhood, linen fabrics, 
 paper, and copper vessels, and ropes, bridle-reins, &c., from 
 the fibre of the American aloe. Trade : manufactured goods, 
 wine, oil, and corn. Pop. 2150. 
 
 CANAMINA, a tn. Dahomey, about 12 m. S. Abomey. 
 It is scattered over a great srea, and contains a house set 
 apart by the King for the accommodation of white men. 
 The surrounding country is level, and cultivated. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 CANANDA1GUA, a vil. and lake, U. States, New York. 
 The former is beautifully situate at the N. end of the lake, 
 230 m. N.N.W. New York; it is neatly built, is surrounded 
 by a rich agricultural country, and contains a population of 
 
 2790. The LAKE is about 15 m. long, and abounds with 
 
 fish ; its waters are remarkably clear, and its banks highly 
 cultivated. 
 
 CANANEA, a maritime tn. Brazil, prov. Sao-Paulo, 
 
 tricts, S. by prov. Malabar, and W. by the Indian Ocean ; 
 length, along the coast, N. to S., 180 m. ; mean breadth, 
 40 m. ; area, 7380 sq. m. It is divided into two districts, 
 the one N., the other S. of lat. 13 40 N. The surface is 
 generally rocky and uneven, the W. ghauts, or branches of 
 them, traversing it throughout its whole extent. The soil 
 on the high ground is red and gravelly, and near the sea 
 sandy. The valleys are fertile, but the labour and expense 
 of cultivating the land are great, owing to the irregularity of 
 its surface, which renders it necessary to level the fields pre 
 viously to ploughing them. Even after the land has been 
 levelled and brought under cultivation, if it be neglected for 
 a year or two, .t is broken up by numerous deep gullies, 
 formed by the torrents which fall during the monsoon. The 
 chief production is rice, for the cultivation of which the 
 climate, with its heavy rains, is peculiarly favourable, and 
 the lands along the rivers, or arms of the sea, are well adapted. 
 The finer sort of land yields two, and sometimes three, annual 
 crops of this grain ; the inferior, one crop of rice, and another 
 of some coarser grain. Manure is scarce, and the incessant 
 wet, and want of good pasture, has greatly deteriorated and 
 stunted the breed of cattle. Cocoa-nuts, betel, and pepper 
 are cultivated, but not extensively. The greater part of the 
 lands are private property, and are leased by tenants who pay 
 as rent from one-fourth to one-half of the gross produce. The 
 proprietor seldom raises the rent, or removes the tenant. 
 Some sugar is manufactured from the palms ; and salt is made 
 on the coast. The chief exports are rice, betel-nut, black 
 pepper, ginger, sandal-wood, turmeric, cocoa-nuts, oil, and 
 raw silk ; imports, cloth, cotton, thread, blankets, tobacco, 
 and black cattle. The chief towns are, in the N. division, 
 Batticollah ; and in the S. division, Mangalore. 
 
 Canara is inhabited by many different tribes ; the Jains are 
 more numerous here than in any of the adjacent districts, and 
 some of their ancient temples are still pretty entire. The 
 interior is inhabited by Nairs, Bunts, and Soodras, who are 
 the chief proprietors of the land ; the people on the sea-coast 
 are principally Mahometans ; and about a sixth part of the en 
 tire population are Brahmins. There are upwards of 50,000 
 R. Catholics in the province, mostly descendants of the Por 
 tuguese, Dutch, Danish, and other colonists. This province, 
 which had been previously ruled by Hindoos, was, in 1763, 
 subdued by Hyder All, Rajah of Mysore. On the death of 
 
 agreeably situate on an island, bay of same name; lat. 25 S.; his son, Tippoo, in 1799, it passed into the hands of the 
 Ion. 48 5 W. It has a church, custom-house, and several British, where it has since remained in the enjoyment of 
 
 boat-building yards. Its port admits small vessels, of which 
 numbers come for the excellent rice grown in the district 
 much of which is exported to Santos. Coffee and vanilla are 
 
 uninterrupted peace. Pop., 1831, 707,571. 
 
 CANARIES (ISLANDS OF), [anc. Fortunate Insults], a 
 
 prov. Spain, comprising a group of seven large, and six 
 also grown. Pop. 2000. The BAY, formerly called Tara- I smaller islands in the Atlantic, off the N.W. coast of Africa, 
 pande, is formed between a mountainous 
 peninsula S., and two islands N.; and mea 
 sures about 12 m. N. to S., by 10 m. E. 
 to W. Its entrance, about 2 m. wide, is 
 obstructed by sandbanks, through which 
 there is a channel for small vessels. 
 
 CANANORE (CANURA), a seaport tn. 
 Ilindoostan, prov. Malabar, presid. Mad 
 ras, 44 m. N. W. Calicut; lat. 11 51 12" 
 N.; Ion. 75 20 45"E. (R.) It trades with 
 Arabia, Bengal, Sumatra, and Surat, 
 whence it imports horses, puce goods, 
 almonds, sugar, silk, opium, camphor, 
 and benzoin ; and to which it exports pep 
 per, cardamoms, sandal-wood, shark fins, 
 and coir-cordage. It is the capital of the 
 district of Cherical, an elevated and un 
 even tract, extending tor about 2 m. in 
 land from the fort. The territory is now 
 subordinate to the British. Cananore is 
 the chief military station of the British in 
 Malabar. Abreast of Cananore Point, on 
 which a fort is built, vessels anchor in 5 
 fathoms water. 
 
 CANARA, a maritime prov. Ilindoo 
 stan, presid. Madras, comprehending the 
 countries of Tulava, Haiga, and some 
 parts of Malabar and the Hindoo Kankana ; between lat. 12 between lat. 27 49 and 29 46 N. ; Ion. 13 20 and 18 13 
 
 and 15 N., and Ion. 74 and 76 E. ; bounded, N. by Beja- 
 
 The large islands are Gran Canaria or Grand Canary, 
 
 poor and Goa, E. by Mysore and the Balaghaut ceded die- Fuerteventura or Fuertaventura, Gomera, Lanzarote, Pahna, 
 
 I i 
 
CANARIES 
 
 CANDEISH 
 
 Tenerife, and Hierro, or Ferro, containing, collectively, an 
 area of 3400 sq. m. The smaller are Roque del Este, Roque 
 del Oeste, Alegranza, Graciosa, Montanaclara, and Lobos. 
 These islands are volcanic, and from their position from E. 
 to W., their contiguity to each other, and proximity to the 
 African continent, form probably a continuation of the great 
 mountain system of N. Africa. Alegranza is the most N., 
 Lanzarote and Roque del Este the most E., and Hierro the 
 most S.W. of the group. All are rugged and mountainous, 
 frequently presenting precipitous cliffs to the sea, though in 
 other parts having fertile valleys and verdant slopes, and all 
 of them cut up by deep ravines, though the height of the 
 interior of the islands, and the steepness of the declivity to 
 the coasts, prevent the formation of rivers. The principal 
 mountains are the Peak of Tenerife, 12,182 ft. above the sea 
 level; El Cumbre, in Gran Canaria, 5842 ft.; Handia,inFuerte- 
 ventura, 2800 ft. ; and Montana Blanca, in Lanzarote, 2000 ft. 
 Besides the well-known volcano of Tenerife, there are several 
 others, one of which broke out in Lanzarote in 1824, and still 
 continues active. The climate is hot, but generally healthy, 
 being attempered by N. and W. breezes, and by the eleva 
 tion of the ground. The S. and S.E. winds produce various 
 maladies, and often bring destructive visitations of locusts. 
 The vegetation of the Canaries is exceedingly varied, owing 
 to their position near the tropics, and their great elevation. 
 Near the sea, palms and other tropical plants nourish ; higher 
 up, cereals of various kinds, the vine, &c., are cultivated; 
 above these the laurel grows ; and higher still, pine trees, and 
 white broom (Cytisus fragrans), occupy the still more lofty 
 slopes. There is a great scarcity of water in some seasons of 
 the year, from the absence of rivers, properly so called, the 
 numerous water courses which cut up the islands in all direc 
 tions being sometimes swelled to torrents, and at others dry. 
 The agricultural produce of these islands, in 1842, consisted 
 of grain, 150,000 qrs. ; wine, 50,000 pipes ; brandy, 2992 
 pipes; barilla, 13,500 tons ; potatoes, 500,000 barrels; besides 
 these articles, exquisite fruits of all kinds, including oranges, 
 lemons, dates, guavas, &c., and various vegetables, are grown ; 
 honey, silk, cotton, archil, and cochineal are produced, and the 
 sugar-cane flourishes wild, but is not cultivated. All kinds 
 of domestic animals abound, though sheep and goats only are 
 indigenous. The camel has also been introduced, but does 
 not thrive in the climate. The canary bird is still plentiful, 
 though differing in colour and appearance from those now 
 bred in England. There is no scarcity of game, and these 
 islands are happily free from ravenous beasts and noxious 
 reptiles. The Canaries have few manufactures ; silk, cotton, 
 linen, and woollen fabrics are woven, though not extensively; 
 and the inhabitants make felt and straw-hats, the latter in 
 much request amongst the English sailors. The exports are- 
 wine, brandy, silk, barilla, cotton, honey, archil, cochineal, 
 &c. ; and the imports hardware, glass, earthenware, oil, 
 soap, candles, haberdashery, perfumery, and other manufac 
 tured goods from England, France, America, and other states. 
 The chief ports of the Canaries are Santa Cruz, in Tenerife ; 
 Talma, in Canaria ; Lanzarote and Ortova ; but though there 
 is a great depth of water between the islands, yet the group 
 has no secure harbours, all being open roadsteads and unsafe, 
 except in the fine season. Gran Canaria has safer ground for 
 anchorage than any other, and Las Palrnas Bay, at its N. side, 
 affords a secure position from all winds save the E., which is 
 seldom violent. In 1842, 111 vessels, tonn. 14,103, entered 
 these ports. The fisheries on the African coast occupy so 
 many of the inhabitants, that it is reported Spain might, 
 on emergency, obtain 2000 able seamen from them, without 
 impoverishing the trade. 
 
 The Canaries were first discovered by a Spanish vessel, 
 driven thither by stress of weather, about 1330. The inhabi 
 tants now are chiefly of European origin, though some still 
 claim to be of the stock of the aborigines named Guanches, 
 who, from intermarriage, have disappeared. They are in 
 general well formed, athletic, and brave. The Guanches 
 believed in one God, and in a future state of rewards and 
 punishments ; embalmed their dead, and deposited them in 
 an erect position in mountain caverns, somewhat resembling 
 the catacombs of Egypt. Some of these mummies have been 
 found in a state so desiccated as to weigh very few pounds. 
 The inhabitants are now rigid R. Catholics, and generally as 
 ignorant as bigotted. The three larger islands on the E. 
 
 form one bishopric, and the four W. a second, both suffragan 
 
 to the Archbishop of Seville. Pop., 1849, 257,7 19 (Madoz j 
 
 Tariff, &c.) 
 
 CANARY (GREAT) [Spanish, Gran Canaria}, a Spanish 
 isl., N. Atlantic, W. coast, Africa, the second largest of the 
 Canaries, near the centre of the group; lat. (N.W. point) 
 28 9 36" N. ; Ion. 15 43 12" W. It is nearly round, 
 about 40 m. in diameter; and is an enormous volcanic mass, 
 whose highest peak, El Cumbre, near the centre, is 6630 ft. 
 high, and covered with snow a great part of the year. Its 
 coasts are fringed with breakers, and unapproachable, except 
 ing at the N.E. side, near the peninsula of Isleta, which forms 
 the Bay of Palmas, the finest anchorage in the group. Being 
 well-watered by numerous rivulets, it is the most fertile of 
 all the Canaries, and exports some, wine, brandy, salt, silk, 
 archil, and excellent cheese. The chief town is Palmas. Pop. 
 
 CANASTRA, a mountain range, Brazil, prov. Minus 
 Geraes, stretching S.E. from the S. termination of the serra 
 Mata Gorda, which forms part of the boundary between provs. 
 Goyaz and Minas Geraes. The Sao- Francisco, one of the 
 largest rivers in Brazil, rises in the N. slopes of this range. 
 
 CA^AVARAL-DE-ALG ONETAR, a vil. Spain, Estrema- 
 dura, prov. of, and 23 m. N. by E. Caceres, S. slope of a 
 continuation of the sierra de Guadalupe; possessing a church, 
 townhall, prison, and school. Pop. 2355. (Madoz.) 
 
 CANA- VERDE, a tn. Brazil, prov. Minas-Geraes, 12 m. 
 from Tamandua, with a church ; inhabitants engaged in agricul 
 ture and cattle-rearing. Pop. 3000. 
 
 CANCALE, a tn. France, dep. Ille-et-Vilaine, 8 m. E.N.E. 
 St. Malo, on the Bay of Cancale. It is divided into two 
 parts Cancale, pleasantly situate on an eminence, and La 
 Houle, a suburb close to the shore, where the fishermen 
 reside. The former is well built, and has a pretty church. 
 The BAY of Cancale affords good anchorage ground, in 
 5 to 6 fathoms water, with a mud bottom. A reef of rocks 
 protects it on the outside. It is celebrated for its oysters, of 
 which some hundred millions are taken annually, without 
 producing any apparent diminution of their numbers. Most 
 of the oysters consumed in France are obtained here, au:l 
 many are exported. Pop. 2682. 
 
 CANCAO, KANG-KAO, or HATIAN, a seaport tn. Siam, 
 gulf of that name, at the mouth of the Cancao river ; lat. 
 10 15 N. ; Ion. 105 E. It was formerly a Chinese colony, 
 and had a considerable trade, a portion of which it still retains. 
 
 CANCELLARA, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. Basilicata, 
 dist. of, and 8 m. N.E. Potenza. It is situate in a fine valley, 
 and has an old handsome church. Pop. 3110. 
 
 CANCUN, an isl., Mexican Confederation, state Yucatan, 
 near the mouth of the Bullina. Its S. end, which forms a 
 very narrow channel with the mainland, is in lat. 21 N. ; 
 Ion. 86 47 W. It is a narrow strip of land, composed of 
 sand-hills, is about 8 m. long, by broad , and has some small 
 wells, which are used by fishermen. 
 
 CANDAHAR. See KANDAHAR. 
 
 CANDEISH, or KHANDEISH, an anc. prov. and British 
 collectorate, nearly co-extensive, Hindoostan, presid. Bombay, 
 in the Deccan, between lat. 20 and 22 N. ; Ion. 73 and 77 
 E. It is separated N. from Malwa by the Nerbudda ; and is 
 bounded, E. by Gundwana and Berar, S. by Berar and 
 Aurungabad, and W. by Goojerat ; length, E. to W., 210 m. ; 
 average breadth, about 80 m. The country, which is nearly 
 surrounded by mountains, and watered by the Nerbudda, the 
 Tuptee, or Tapty, and other considerable streams, is extremely 
 fertile ; and as its surface is studded in many places with 
 detached hills, having rocky perpendicular sides and level 
 summits, its military strength is naturally very great. The 
 chief products are grain, indigo, and cotton, by which last a 
 tenth of the whole land under cultivation was occupied, ex 
 tending annually, on an average, the 12 years ending in 1846, 
 to 104,549 beegas, or 53,580 ac. It is understood that the 
 production of cotton might be greatly increased. One great 
 obstacle to its extension is the want of good roads. Candeish is 
 one of the original Mahratta provinces, and at one time contained 
 a number of fortresses, strong both by nature and art Early in 
 the 15th century, it was governed by independent sovereigns 
 claiming descent from the Khalif Omar, and resident at 
 Asseerghur, their capital ; but towards the close of that century 
 it. was thoroughly subdued and annexed to the Mogul empire. 
 
CANDELA 
 
 584 
 
 CANFU 
 
 Its decline may be dated from 1802, when it was ravaged by 
 Jeswunt Rao Holcar; next year it was depopulated by famine, 
 and afterwards more slowly, but more effectually, ruined by 
 the rapacity of the Peshwa s servants ; as also by the predatory 
 incursions of the Bheels, Findarries, and various insurgent 
 bodies of Arabs, who had established themselves in the 
 strongholds. In 1818, Candeish was ceded to the British; 
 after which the Arabs were expelled, and the Bheels and other 
 predatory hordes put down. Nearly a half of the villages 
 were at this time abandoned to the tigers, with which the 
 province swarmed ; and impenetrable jungle occupied the 
 land once covered with luxuriant harvests. Prosperity was, 
 however, ultimately restored to Candeish, under the effective 
 administration of General Briggs, who, besides other remedial 
 measures, put a price on the head of the tigers, and that soon 
 reduced their numbers. In four years prior to the General s 
 arrival, they had carried off 350 men, and 24,000 head of 
 cattle. The chief towns are Boorhanpoor, Asseerghur, Hindia, 
 Nundoorbar, and Gaulna. Pop. 480,000. 
 
 CANDELA, a tn. Naples, prov. Capitanata, 12 m. S.E. 
 Bovino. It has four churches, and an hospital. The environs 
 produce good fruit, and wine of fair quality. Pop. 3850. 
 
 CANDELARIA. 1, A rocky islet and reefs, S. Pacific, 
 Solomon group ; lat. 6 16 S. ; Ion. 159 20 E., discovered 
 
 by Montana, in 1567. 2, A bay, Central America, N.E. 
 
 coast isthmus of Panama, W. Choco Bay, at the mouth of 
 the Atrato; lat. 8 10 N. ; Ion. 77 W. 
 
 CANDELARIO, a tn. Spain, Leon, prov. of, and 40 m. 
 S. Salamanca, on a slope of the sierra de Bejar. The houses 
 are, in general, well built, the streets steep and narrow, 
 though well paved, the principal square is spacious, and con 
 tains the townhouse and municipal offices ; there are, besides, 
 two smaller squares, both mean and insignificant ; a chapel, 
 two schools, a prison, and cemetery; and, in the most elevated 
 part of the town, the parish church, a large and elegant Ionic 
 structure. Manufactures : linen fabrics, paper, buttons for 
 the army, wine, and oil ; trade : cattle and agricultural 
 produce. Pop. 2089. 
 
 CANDELEDA, a tn. Spain, Old Castile, prov. of, and 
 42 m. S.W. by S. Avila, at the point of junction with New 
 Castile and Estremadura, at the foot of the sierra de Gredos. 
 It has badly-paved streets, three squares, in the principal of 
 which is the townhall. It likewise has a parish church, 
 prison, hospital, two schools, a storehouse, cemetery, and an 
 old castle of the Counts de Miranda, which has been partly 
 demolished, and the materials used in other buildings. The 
 inhabitants are chiefly employed in weaving, making hats, 
 and bricks, expressing oil, and in husbandry. Pop. 4730. 
 (Madoz.) 
 
 CANDIA, an isl. See CRETE. 
 
 CANDIA, a city, cap. isl. Crete or Candia, N. shore of 
 the island, about 90 m. from its W., and about 70 m. from 
 its E. extremity; lat. (Minaret), 35 21 N. ; Ion. 25 8 15 
 E. (R.) The streets are wide, regular, and clean, and orna 
 mented with trees ; the houses, in general, well built, mostly 
 of one story in height. It is defended by high walls of Ven 
 tian construction, with deep ditches and outworks, all kept 
 in good order ; and contains a number of mosques, a Greek 
 cathedral, and several churches ; with a R. Catholic monas 
 tery and its chapel. It is the residence of a Pasha, and of a 
 Greek archbishop. The harbour is now so choked up with 
 mud, that vessels drawing more than 8 ft. water cannot enter. 
 The chief manufacture is soap, in the preparation of whic" 
 much of the oil produced in the island is employed. There 
 are also manufactures of silk and cotton, and several brandy 
 distilleries. In 1846, the exports, consisting of honey, 
 cheese, oil, silk, soap, wax, wool, fruits, &c., amounted in value 
 to 46,261 ; and the imports of the same year amounted to 
 70,804. Candia was founded by the Arabs, by whom ii 
 was called Khandali, signifying an entrenchment. Pop 
 12,000; of which 9,000 are Mahometans. 
 
 CANDIA-oi-LoMELUNA, a tn., Sardinian States, prov 
 Lomellina, 10 m. S.W. Mortara, near 1. bank, Sesia. Pop 
 1400. 
 
 CANDLESBY, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 850 ac. Pop. 247 
 
 CANDOVER, three pars. Eng. Hants:!, Candmm 
 
 (Ei-own), 230 ac. Pop. 313. 2, Candover (Chilton), 2190 ac. 
 
 Pop. 103. 3, Candover (Preston), 3430 ac. Pop. 481. 
 
 CANDY, a city, Ceylon. See KANDY. 
 
 CANDYAN provinces. See KANDYAN. 
 CANE, or KEN, a river, Hindoostan, Bundelcund, formed 
 y two head streams, which rise on the S. limit of that terri 
 tory ; and, flowing N., unite lat. 24 38 N., from which point 
 t holds on its N. course, until it falls into the Jumna, lat. 
 25 45 N., after a course of about 100 in. It is too rocky 
 o be rendered navigable, but contains fine fish and beautiful 
 Peebles. 
 
 CANE ISLANDS, or KALIB ROCKS, two rocky isls. 
 Mediterranean, off N. coast Tunis, N.W. Africa; lat. 37 37 
 N. ; Ion. 10 30 E., 5J m. from Cape Zibib ; they are dan 
 gerous, and have several rocks under water about them, but 
 there is a good channel between them and the shore, having 
 Vom 10 to 23 fathoms water. 
 
 CANEA, or KHANIA [anc. Cydonia}, a seaport, and tho 
 principal commercial tn. isl. Crete or Candia, cap. prov. of 
 same name, N. shore of isl., E. side Gulf of Khania ; lat. 
 (Castle), 35 28 42" N. ; Ion. 24 E. (n.) The town is 
 urrounded by strong walls and deep ditches, but both aro 
 neglected ; streets spacious and well paved ; houses high, 
 and old looking. It has several mosques and Greek churches, 
 and a Capuchin monastery. The harbour, which had become 
 so choked up as to be nearly useless, has been recently much 
 mproved, and now admits vessels of 300 tons. At the ex 
 tremity of the mole by which the harbour is formed, there is 
 a lighthouse, and opposite to it a small fort for the protection 
 of the port. It is the principal mart for the commerce of the 
 island, and carries on a considerable trade with France, 
 Trieste, Venice, &c. Its chief exports are wax, soap, oil, 
 silks, fruits, wool, and provisions, which amounted, in 1846, 
 to 189,500; the imports for the same year being 181,950. 
 It is the residence of the provincial governor, the seat of the 
 provincial council, and of a Greek bishopric ; it is also the 
 residence of several European consuls. Canea is believed 
 to stand on the site of the ancient Cydonia, of which, how 
 ever, no vestige now remains. The country around is 
 remarkable for its beauty being covered with olives, corn 
 fields, gardens, and vineyards, watered by rivulets overhung 
 with roses and myrtles. Pop. 8000 ; of which about 5000 
 are Mahometans. 
 
 CANEGHEM, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. W. Flan 
 ders, 15 m. N.E. Courtray. A considerable linen manu 
 facture, and a trade in all kinds of grain, butter, poultry, and 
 cattle, is carried on. Pop. 2013. 
 
 CANEL, a tn., W. Africa, Senegambia, kingdom Futa 
 Toro, 1. bank, Guilulu ; lat. 15 30 N. ; Ion. 13 18 W. 
 
 CANELAS, a tn. Mexican Confederation, state of, and 
 110 m. N.W. Durango, S.W. slope of the sierra Madre. 
 Although the climate is delightful, the inhabitants, who are 
 employed in the mines, are very subject to goitre. 
 
 CANELLI, a tn., Sardinian States, prov. of, and 14 m. 
 S.E. Asti, near 1. bank, Belbo. It contains two churches 
 and a convent. Limestone quarries are worked in the neigh 
 bourhood. Pop. 3500. 
 
 CA5JETE, three tns. Spain:!, Canete-la-real, a tn. 
 Andalusia, prov. Malaga, 18 m. N. by E. Ronda, N. side of 
 the sierra Sabora ; with houses tolerably well built, two 
 squares, a Doric parish church, town and courthouses, a 
 prison, two well-attended schools, an hospital, storehouse, 
 cemetery, and several fine fountains. Inhabitants mostly 
 employed in agriculture, and as muleteers. Pop. 3574. 2, 
 Canete-de-las torres, a tn. Andalusia, prov. of, and 25 m. E. 
 Cordova ; having a church, castle, townhall, prison, and two 
 schools. Pop. I960. 3, Canete, a walled tn. New Castile, 
 prov. of, and 30 m. E. Cuenca; with ill-built houses, church, 
 chapel, townhall, prison, hospital, college, school, and store 
 house. People engaged in weaving, shoemaking, and hus 
 bandry. Pop. 1216. (Madoz.) 
 
 CANEWDON, par. Eng. Essex ; 2800 ac. Pop. 723. 
 
 CAN FIELD, two pars. Eng. Essex:!, Canfield [Great], 
 3070 ac. Pop. 496. 2, Canfield (Little], 1510 ac. Pop. 258. 
 
 CANFOO, a tn. W. Africa, Soudan, territory lloussa, 
 r. bank of a head stream of the Yeou, 40 m. S. Kano, and 
 300 m. S.S.W. Kouka; lat. 11 15 N. ; Ion. 9 E. 
 
 CANFORD-MAGNA, par. Eng. Dorset; 7880 ac. Pop. 
 968. 
 
 CANFU, or CANFOO, called KANPU by the Chinese, an 
 anc. tn. and seaport China, prov. Che-kiang, at the head of a 
 considerable bay, 32 m. S.W. Chapoo. It was originally 
 
CANGOZIMA 
 
 585 
 
 CANOMA 
 
 the port of Hangchau, and is described, in the 9th century, by 
 two Arabian travellers, as the port of China, where all ship 
 ping centred. It is now deserted, in consequence of the 
 stream which runs past it having become clicked with sand. 
 The trade which it formerly possessed is now engrossed by 
 Canton and Chapoo. 
 
 CANGOZIMA, or KANGOZIJIA, a tn. and seaport, Japan, 
 S. extremity of the isl. of Kiusiu; lat. 31 37 N. ; Ion. 130 29 
 E., situate at the head of the Bay of Cangozima, which runs 
 about 38 m. inland, with a breadth varying from 6 to 12 m. 
 On a high rock, at the mouth of the harbour, there is a square 
 built lighthouse. The harbour is protected by a bulwark and 
 stone rampart, at the extremity of which is a guard-house. 
 It is considered an important station. 
 
 CANGUCU, atn. Brazil, prov. Sao-Pedro-do-Rio-Grande, 
 80 m. S. Pardo, on a river of same name ; with a church, and, 
 including its district, a pop. of about 5000. 
 
 CANIAPUSCAW, or KOKSOAK, a river, British America, 
 Labrador, issuing from a lake of same name, running N. by 
 W., and, after receiving two considerable tributaries, falling 
 
 into Ungava or S. bay, Hudson s Strait, in lat. 59 N. The 
 
 LAKE of same name, of very irregular shape, is about 60 m. 
 long, with a breadth varying from 8 ni. to 35 m. Its N. end 
 i.s in lat. 54 45 N. ; Ion. 07 W. 
 
 CANICATTI, a tn. Sicily, prov. Girgenti, 15 m. S.W. 
 Caltanicetta ; well built, and most of the inhabitants engaged 
 in agriculture. Pop. 16,455. 
 
 CANILES, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. Granada, 4 m. 
 S. Baza. It has badly-paved streets, tolerably well-built 
 houses, three squares, a parish church, chapel of ease, town- 
 hall, courthouse, prison, school, and cemetery. Manufac 
 tures : earthenware, bricks, tiles, and saltpetre, oil, and 
 wine. Agriculture is the main employment. Pop. 3947. 
 (Mudoz.) 
 
 CANILLAS-DE-AcEiTUNo: A tn. Spain, Andalusia, 
 prov. of, and 22 m. E.N.E. Malaga, picturesquely situate 
 on the N.E. slope of the sierra Tejeda, 1900 ft. above the 
 valley below. It is irregularly built, and possesses a parish 
 church, townhall, and convent. Pop. 2250. 2, Canillasde- 
 Albaida, a small tn. contiguous to the above, having a church, 
 
 two chapels, and a cemetery. Pop. 1 1 08. Several other 
 
 small places in Spain have the same name. 
 
 CANINDE, a river, Brazil, prov. Piauhi. It rises in 
 the serra of Dous-Irmaos, in the S.E. of the province, about 
 lat. 8 32 S. ; Ion. 41 33 W., flows N.W. 120 m. ; and, at 
 Oeiras, receives the united streams of the Riachao and Itahim, 
 on its r. bank ; 50 m. N.W. Oeiras, it unites with the Piauhi, 
 which joins its 1. bank, from which point the joint stream 
 flows 20 m. N.W., and falls into the Parnaiba, after a total 
 course, direct distance, of 200 m. Its banks are generally 
 flat, and present excellent pasture ; and near Oeiras are some 
 iron mines. 
 
 CANINO, a tn. Papal States, deleg. of, and 19 m. W.N. W. 
 Viterbo. It has some iron-works and mineral baths ; and the 
 beautiful palace of Lucien Bonaparte, prince of Canino. 
 
 CANISBAY, par. Scot. Caithness ; 50 sq. m. Pop. 2437. 
 
 CANISTER ISLANDS, three isls., Bay of Bengal, 
 Tenasserini coast, and called, respectively, the Great, Little, 
 and W. Canister. The first and second are about 10m. apart, 
 and the third, 35 m. S.S.W. from Little Cannister, in lat. 
 12 41 15" N. ; Ion. 97 46 E. It is a high, steep, small, 
 round island, as is also Little Canister, which is further 
 covered with trees. Great Canister is high, irregular, and 
 of considerable size. (Horsburgh.) 
 
 CANJAYAR, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 24 
 m. N.W. Almeria, on the E. boundaries of the Alpujarras, 
 between the sierras de Gador and Nevada ; with lofty houses, 
 narrow and steep streets, and an ancient church, whose lofty 
 tower was destroyed by an earthquake in 1804. Pop. 2200. 
 
 CANN, or SHASTON-ST.-RUJIBOLD, par. Eng. Dorset ; 
 910 ac. Pop. 523. 
 
 CANNA, an isl. Scotland, co. Inverness, one of the 
 Hebrides, in the group forming the par. of Small Isles, 9 m. 
 S. Skye. It is 5 m. long, by 1 m. broad, and is remarkably 
 fertile, producing good crops of barley and potatoes. On its 
 pasture black cattle are reared, of which a great many are 
 annually sent to the S. markets. It has a sheltered, commo 
 dious, and much-frequented harbour. 
 
 CANNAWAY, par. Irel. Cork; 5225 ac. Pop. 1547. 
 VOL. I. 
 
 CANNE, a vil. Naples, prov. Terra di Bari, near the 
 Ofanto, 8 m. S.W. Barletta; occupying the site of the ancient 
 CanncE, celebrated for the famous victory gained by Hannibal 
 over the Romans, 216 B.C. The field of battle is still dis 
 tinguished by the name il campo di sangue, the field of blood. 
 The ancient Cannae was destroyed the year before the battle ; 
 but afterwards re-built, and made a bishop s see, in the 
 early times of Christianity. It seems to have been abandoned 
 iu the Middle Ages for the places on the sea-coast. 
 
 CANNES, a seaport tn., France, dep. Var., 7 m. S.E. 
 Grasse, on the Mediterranean ; lat. (S. tower), 43 32 45" N. ; 
 Ion. 7 1 E. (u.) It is picturesquely situate at the bottom 
 of a beautiful bay, on the slope of a hill projecting into 
 the sea ; well built, has a Gothic castle and an old church. 
 There being no proper harbour, vessels anchor in a bight 
 opposite the quay. Perfumes are manufactured here, and 
 oil barrels made, and some trade is done in anchovies, sardines, 
 ine, olive oil, oranges, citrons, fruit, grain, and the other 
 productions of the district. Napoleon landed here, March 1, 
 1815, on his return from Elba. Pop. 3642. 
 
 CANNETELLO, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Calabria 
 Ultra I., 8 m. N. Reggio, on the strait of Messina. It was 
 almost destroyed by an earthquake in 1783. Chief employ 
 ment, fishing. Pop., including two small places, Pezzo and 
 Piale, 2230. 
 
 CANNETCv 1, A tn. and com. Austrian Italy, prov. 
 of, and 20 m. W. Mantua, 1. bank, Oglio, near its confluence 
 with the Chiesa; a very ancient place, and the scene of 
 several engagements in the Middle Ages. Pop. 2922.- 2, A 
 tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Bari, 9 m. S. Bari. Almonds, 
 anise, and cummin, are cultivated in the vicinity. Pop. 2192. 
 
 CANNINGS- BISHOP S, a par. and vil. England, co. 
 Wilts, 3 m. N.E. Devizes. The VILLAGE consists of one prin 
 cipal street, tolerably straight, and kept in good order ; though 
 the houses, some of brick, and others of stone, are but in-- 
 differently built. The church, 600 years old, in the Norman 
 Gothic style, is the only building of any interest, except a 
 national school, founded in 1830. The inhabitants are mostly 
 employed in agriculture. Area of par. 10,290 ac. Pop. 3843. 
 
 CANNINGTON, a vil. and par. England, Somerset, 3 m. 
 N.W. by W. Bridgewater. The VILLAGE consists of one prin 
 cipal street, well kept ; the houses, partly of stone and partly 
 of brick, are well built. An abundant supply of good water, 
 from a brook which, running past the end of the village, drives 
 two mills. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agricul 
 ture. The Bridgewater station of the Great Western Rail 
 way is 4 m. from the village. Area of par. 3970 ac. Pop. 1349. 
 
 CANNOCK, par. Eng. Stafford ; 11,970 ac. Pop. 285 ?. 
 
 CANNOUCHEE, a river, U. States, Georgia, after a 
 S.E. course of 140 m., falling into the great Ogeechee, of 
 which it is the most W. and largest affluent. It is navigable 
 50 m. to Cedar creek. 
 
 CANNSTADT, a tn. Wiirtemberg, circle, Neckar, cap. 
 bail, of same name, in a beautiful and fertile country on the 
 Neckar, 4 m. N.E. Stuttgart. It consists of the inner town, 
 which has a double wall, with three gates, and of three suburbs. 
 Its principal buildingsare the theatre, an orthopaedic institution, 
 and a bridge over the river. It is the entrepot for the traffic 
 on the Neckar being accessible to barges of 30 tons ; and 
 has manufactures of woollens, cottons, tobacco, vinegar, &c., 
 with some considerable dyeing establishments. In the vicinity 
 are a number of mineral springs, saline and sulphureous ; with 
 baths and pleasure grounds forming a favourite resort of 
 the inhabitants of Stuttgart. Roman remains, consisting of 
 vases, coins, &c., have been found in the neighbourhood. 
 Close by are the royal seats of Bellevue and Rosenstein. 
 Cannstadt is connected by a railway with Heilbronn and Carls- 
 ruhe. In 1 796, a battle was fought near the town, between 
 the archduke Charles, of Austria, and General Moreau. Pop, 
 of tn. 4465, almost all Protestants; of bail. 23,076. 
 
 CANOBBIO, a tn., Sardinian States, Piedmont, W. side 
 Lake Maggiore, 17 m. S.W. Bellinzona. It was once for 
 tified, and the ruins of its castle still remain. Its very hand 
 some church was built by Bramante, and contains some good 
 pictures and fine frescoes, chiefly by Gaudentio Ferrari. 
 Canobbio has long been famous for its tanneries. Pop. 2000. 
 
 CANOMA, a river, Brazil, prov. Para, an affluent of the 
 Madeira, which it joins on the r. bank ; lat. 3 58 S., after a 
 N.W. course of upwards of 200 m. direct distance ; and, pass- 
 
CANON 
 
 586 
 
 CANTERBURY 
 
 ing through Lake Cauoma, about 35 in. long, by 1 2 m. broad. 
 This lake lias two outlets, the Canoma W., and the Furo or 
 Abacaxis N.E. 
 
 CANON, two pars. Eng. Hereford : 1, (Frame), 1040 ac. 
 Pop. 115. 2. (Pion or PI/OH}, 3730 ac. Pop. 681. 
 
 CANONB1E, par. and vil. Scot. Dumfries. Pop. 3032. 
 
 CANON BY-CROSS, par. Eng. Cumberland; 2400 ac. 
 Pop. 5731. 
 
 CANOSA [anc. Canusum], a tn. Naples, prov. Terra-di- 
 Bari, 13 m. S.W. Barletta, on the site of the ancient citadel 
 of the ancient town. It has two churches, of which the 
 cathedral, built in the 6th century, is highly ornamented, and 
 contains the tomb of Bohemond, prince of Antioeh. The 
 ancient city was one of the most considerable in this part of 
 Italy. The ruins of an amphitheatre, aqueduct, columns, and 
 tombs, attest its grandeur and extent. It was the refuge of 
 the wreck of the Roman army, after the battle of Cannae ; and 
 was successively ravaged by Goths, Saracens, and Northmen. 
 Pop. 8080. 
 
 CANOUGE, a tn. India. See KANOUGE. 
 
 CANOURGUE (L.\), a tn. and com. France, dep. Lozere, 
 m. S.W. Marvejols, on the Urugue, near its confluence with 
 the Lot ; from time immemorial the centre of the manufac 
 ture of serges and other woollen goods, known by the name 
 of Cadis-clc-la-Canourgue. It also produces calicoes, and has 
 some trade in grain and cattle. Pop. 1910. 
 
 CANSO CAPE, a headland, British N. America, forming 
 the N.E. point of Nova Scotia; lat. 45 18 N. ; Ion. 61 W. 
 
 CANSO (GuT OF), a strait, British N. America, dividing 
 Cape Breton from Nova Scotia, and forming a secure and 
 much-frequented passage from the Atlantic into the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence ; it is about 21m. long, and varying from 1 m. 
 to 1 m. broad ; lat. (N. W. entrance fixed light), 45 40 N. ; 
 Ion. 01 28 W. (R.) 
 
 CANTA, a prov. Peru, bounded, N. by Caxatambo, 
 E. by Pasco, S. by Huarochiri, and W. by Chancay, about 
 105 m. E. to W., by 72 m. N. to S. ; intersected by the 
 Andes. The Carabaya, the Pasamayo, and other streams, 
 take their rise in the province, which, although generally 
 uneven, has some deep canals, on the sides of which, and in 
 other small spots, potatoes, fruits, and vegetables, are raised. 
 Cattle are numerous, and wild goats, and a peculiar species 
 of sheep, likewise abound. Some silver mines, formerly very 
 productive, are now filled with water. The capital town of 
 the same name lies E. the Andes, 75 m. N.N.E. Lima. Its 
 jurisdiction extends over 62 other towns. Pop. of prov. 
 12,150. 
 
 CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS, Spain, forming a W. 
 continuation of the system of the Pyrenees, with which they 
 are connected by the sierra d Aralar. Commencing with the 
 sierra on the frontiers of Guipuzcoa and Navarre, they stretch 
 W. for about 140 m., scarcely deviating from the parallel of 
 43 N., and terminate near the source of the Ebro, a little 
 \V. of Reynosa ; Ion. 4 W. In their different parts they 
 take the name of sierra de Salinas, sierra tie San Salvador, 
 and sierra Angaiia. They are imperfectly known, but the 
 mountains of Reynosa are rugged and precipitous, and covered 
 with majestic forests ; and from those of Santander, snow never 
 entirely disappears. The culminating point of the sierra 
 d Aralar is 7032 ft. 
 
 CANTAGALLO, a tn. Brazil, prov. of, and 85 m. N.E. 
 Rio de Janeiro, in an exhausted gold district. It has a cir 
 cular market-place, in which stands the church, between two 
 parallel streets. The greater part of the inhabitants, how 
 ever, live out of the town, to which they come on Sundays 
 and feast days to assist in Divine service, and then retire. 
 The town, likewise, has a primary school, a townhouse, with 
 that usual appurtenance a prison. The gold being nearly 
 wrought out in the neighbourhood, the inhabitants have turned 
 to agriculture. The products of the district are sent on 
 mules to the ports on the Rio Macacu, whence they are ex 
 ported to Rio de Janeiro. Pop. of tn., 4000 ; of dist. 12,000. 
 
 CANTAL, a dep. France ; bounded, N. by dep. Correze 
 and Puy-de-D6me, E. by deps. Lozere and Haute Loire, S. 
 by Lozere and Aveyron, W. by Lot and Correze ; between 
 lat. 44 38 and 45 28 N. ; Ion. 2 5 and 3 20 E. Area, 
 2 2 15 sq. m., cap. Aurillac. This department, formerly part 
 of Upper Auvergne, is named from its highest mountain, 
 Mans Celtorum of the ancients. It is one of the poorest and 
 
 least productive districts of France the greater part of it 
 being occupied by mountains, attaining an elevation of 5000 
 and 6000 ft., and high lands, furnishing only timber, archil, and 
 pasture. The mountains are of volcanic origin ; and the 
 quantity of lava emitted has been so great, as apparently to 
 have filled up many of the original valleys, and converted 
 them into table land. It is watered by numerous rivers, the 
 principal of which are the Dordogne, Cere, and Lot. Climate 
 rather severe near the mountains. Agriculture, though the 
 chief stay of the inhabitants, is in a backward state. The 
 principal crops are rye, buckwheat, potatoes, and chestnuts 
 the last to a large extent and some hemp and flax. Of 
 wheat and oats, the produce is insufficient for the consumption. 
 Cattle, sheep, horses, and mules, are reared in large numbers ; 
 and on the refuse of the dairies, numerous pigs are fed. The 
 horses are of good quality, and for the improvement of their 
 breed, races have been established by the Government at Auril 
 lac. The fat cattle from this department are much esteemed, 
 and are sent to all parts of the country. Large quantities of 
 cheese are made, and sold principally in the S. of France, 
 under the name of Auvergne cheeses. Bees are numerous. 
 There are quarries of granite, grindstones, slates, and lime 
 stone ; but the minerals, as a whole, are unimportant. Hot 
 mineral springs are abundant those of Chaudes-Aigues being 
 the most frequented. The manufactures are trifling; and 
 consist, principally, of parchment, glue, leather, coarse wool 
 lens and linens, common lace, some hardware, paper, and 
 glass. Large numbers of the inhabitants, apparently from 
 want of winter employment, have, from time immemorial, 
 emigrated annually to Spain, or to other parts of France. 
 Aurillac is the great market for young mules, Maurs for 
 chestnuts, and Roquebrou for fat pigs, &c. Horses, cattle, 
 cheese, leather, honey, wax, wood, and archil, are exported, 
 in exchange for grain, wine, oil, salt, iron, copper, cloth, &c. 
 (, antal is divided into four arrondissements, containing 21 
 cantons, and 265 communes. Pop. (1846), 260,497. 
 
 CANTAL1CE, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Abruzzo 
 Ultra II., 5 m. N. Citta Ducale, on a steep rock a little W. 
 of Mount Terminello; with four churches and two convents. 
 Pop. 2277. 
 
 CANTALUPO, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. Sannio or 
 Molise, dist. Isernia, 13m. W.S.W. Campobasso. Many of the 
 inhabitants perished by an earthquake in 1805. It has two 
 annual fairs, and produces a good deal of wine. The French 
 here defeated the Neapolitans in 1 798. Pop. 2290. 
 
 CANTELEU, a tn. France, dep. Seine-Inferieure, 4 m. 
 W. Rouen, near r. bank, Seine, on a hill partly covered by 
 the forest of Roumare, and crowned by the fine park of the 
 old chateau of Cantcleu. Indianas and cotton yarn are made 
 here, and there are some dye-works. Excellent cider is 
 produced in the district. Pop. 1113. 
 
 CANTERBURY, a city, co. Kent, metropolitan see of 
 all England, and county in itself, having a separate jurisdic 
 tion, 55 m. E. by S. London ; beautifully situated in a fertile 
 vale, surrounded by gentle eminences, which supply numer 
 ous streams of excellent water. The principal thoroughfare 
 is wide, the houses well built, and the streets, in general, well 
 paved, and lighted with gas. It extends about ^ m. E. to W., 
 and rather more N. to S., with four suburbs at the four car 
 dinal points. From all points Canterbury presents a pictur 
 esque appearance, its antique features contrasiing finely with 
 the sylvan scenery around. The most remarkable object in 
 the city is the cathedral, one of the finest ecclesiastical struc 
 tures in England. The original building, of which no part 
 now remains, was of great antiquity, the distinction having 
 been claimed for it of being the first Christian church in the 
 kingdom. The present edifice, 514 ft. in length, E. to W., 
 and 71 in greatest breadth, has been built in different ages 
 (the oldest part dating 1184), and presents, in consequence, 
 various styles of architecture, but retains, altogether, an im 
 posing appearance ; the great tower, 235 ft. in height, being 
 one of the most beautiful specimens of the pointed style of 
 architecture ; one of the towers at the W. end has been re 
 cently built of Caen stone, of which material nearly the whole 
 of the edifice is constructed. The cathedral derives additional 
 interest from having been the scene of the murder of the cele 
 brated Thomas-Jt-Becket, who was slain at the foot of one 
 of its altars, in 1171 ; and whose shrine was the object of an 
 annual pilgrimage, celebrated by Chaucer, and admirably 
 
CANTERBURY 
 
 5*7 
 
 CANTON 
 
 illustrated in modern times by Stothard. St. Augustine s mon 
 astery, in by-gone times a rival in grandeur to the cathedral, 
 lias been lately converted into a church missionary college. 
 The N. gate is particularly handsome, and is a fine specimen 
 
 
 CAXTKRDUHY CATI1F.DHAL, West Front 
 
 of the decorated style of architecture. St. Margaret s church 
 lias been lately restored in excellent taste ; and the church 
 dedicated to St. Martin, which stands on a hill at some dis 
 tance from the city, and is believed to be one of the oldest 
 existing Christian churches, has also been lately restored. 
 There are, besides, numerous chapels and places of worship 
 for various religious sects, including a Jews synagogue. 
 Other public buildings are the guildhall, an imposing Ionic 
 structure, the corn-exchange, fish-market, and a theatre. In 
 addition to the royal grammar-school, founded by Henry VIII. , 
 there are numerous private schools, a mechanics institution, 
 museum and library, an hospital, dispensary, and numerous 
 other charitable institutions. Canterbury was formerly noted 
 for its silk manufactures, now supplanted by a superior kind 
 of damask linen, for which it has become celebrated ; its 
 other manufactures are worsted, vellum, and parchment ; it 
 is also famous for its brawn. There are several extensive 
 breweries and malting establishments in the town ; and the 
 principal articles of trade are wool, corn, and hops, in the 
 cultivation of the last of which the greater portion of the 
 labouring class are employed. Canterbury has returned two 
 members to the House of Commons since the 23d of Edward I.; 
 registered electors (1850), 1940. It is governed by a mayor, 
 six aldermen, and 1 8 councillors. The South-eastern Railway 
 has a station here. Lord Tenterden, the well known Chief- 
 Justice of England, and several other distinguished individuals, 
 were natives of Canterbury. Pop. (1841), 15,435; (1851), 
 18,747. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 CANTERBURY. 1, A vil. New S. Wales, co. Cumber 
 land, 5 m. from Sydney, on Cook s River. Here is the esta 
 blishment of the Australasian Sugar Company. Pop. 218. 
 
 2, A settlement, New Zealand, middle isl.*E. coast, Port Cooper 
 district, Bank s Peninsula. This settlement was organized 
 by a committee of Episcopalians, and is calculated to comprise 
 an area of 2,400,000 ac., of which 635,000 acres are woodland, 
 hill, and mountain, the remainder being fertile level ground, 
 yielding abundant crops of grain, potatoes, fruits, and vege 
 tables. 
 
 CANTIANO, a tn. Papal States, 19 m. S. Urbino, on a 
 small stream of its own name. It is fortified and defended by 
 a castle, and is said to be built on the ruins of an episcopal 
 city called Luccolo. Pop. 2500. 
 
 CANTILLANA, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 17 m. N.E. by N. Seville, r. bank, Guadalquiver, on an emi 
 nence commanding the surrounding plain. It has tolerably 
 
 well-made streets, a large square, parish church, chapel of 
 case, townhouse, small prison, seven schools, an hospital, and 
 cemetery. Earthenware, soap, brandy, oil, and wine, are 
 made, and some trade done in fruit, grain, cattle, &c. P. 4385. 
 
 CANTLEY, two pars. Ens?. : 1, Norfolk; 2970 ac. Pop. 
 210. 2, W. Riding, York ; 51GO ac. Pop. G51. 
 
 CANTON [Chinese, Kwanychaufou broad city], a large 
 city, China, the fourth as regards population in the empire, 
 and the second, probably, as regards wealth, prov. Quangtong, 
 of which Canton is a corruption, 1. bank, Chou-Kiang, or Pearl 
 River; lat. 23 7 N. ; Ion. 113 14 30" E. ; about 45 m. 
 above the mouth of the Bocca Tigris or the Bogue. It 
 stretches, for about 4 m., along the low banks of the Chou- 
 Kiang, which is here about the breadth of the Thames at 
 London Bridge, at the foot of, and partly ascending, a range 
 of hills, called the White Cloud Hills, from which its general 
 appearance is by no means inviting, presenting merely an ex 
 panse of reddish roofs, relieved only by a few large trees, 
 some high red poles used as flag-staffs, and two or three pa 
 godas. The approach to it, however, by the river, is striking 
 and impressive. From Whampoa to Canton the banks are 
 enlivened by villages and pagodas, the stream becomes more 
 and more crowded with boats and vessels, and the noise and 
 bustle attendant upon an intricate navigation gradually in 
 creases, until the visitor finds himself in the midst of innum 
 erable war-junks and merchant proas, with thousands of fan 
 cifully painted and gay streamers floating in the breeze. 
 Everything, in short, indicates an approach to a great trading 
 city, and produces a degree of excitement and interest, from 
 its novelty, of which few other scenes are capable. 
 
 The city proper, or that part of Canton which is surrounded 
 by a wall, is built nearly in the form of a square, and is divided 
 by a wall, running from E. to W., into two unequal parts. 
 The northern part, which is much the larger, is called the Old 
 City, the southern is called the New. The portion of Canton 
 enclosed by walls is about 6 m. in circumference ; the entire 
 city, including the suburbs, or that part of it without the 
 walls, is about 10 m. The walls themselves are composed 
 partly of stone, and partly of bricks ; the former is chiefly 
 coarse sandstone, and forms the foundation, and the lower part 
 of the walls, and the arches of the gates ; the latter are small 
 and of a soft texture. The walls are from 25 to 40 ft. high, 
 and from 20 to 25 ft. thick, having an esplanade on the inside, 
 and a line of battlements, with embrasures, at intervals of a 
 few feet, on the top, all around the city. The gates are 16 in 
 number, 12 outer and 4 inner ; one of the former is 12 ft. high 
 and 15 wide. They are all shut at night, and strictly guarded 
 both night and day. The streets of Canton are very numer 
 ous, being estimated at upwards of 600, although many of 
 them are mere alleys or lanes. Some of the principal have 
 such names as Golden Street, Golden Flower Street, Dragon 
 Street, Martial Dragon Street, New Green Pea Street, &c. 
 They are generally short, slightly curved, and varying in 
 width from 6 to 16 ft., the average breadth, however, not ex 
 ceeding 8 ft. Some, again, are so narrow, that a man may 
 stand, and with his arms extended, touch the houses on either 
 side, while elbows and angles of almost every name, formed 
 by the blind corners of buildings, oppose the progress of the 
 wanderer, and perplex him with their multiplicity. Nor are 
 there any public squares or open areas containing fountains 
 and shrubbery as in Europe, to compensate the oppressive 
 density and straitness which everywhere prevails. The 
 streets, however, are, upon the whole, very well kept, and are 
 tolerably clean. The houses are generally small and low, sel 
 dom exceeding one story in height. The dwellings of the 
 poorest class, who live in the extreme parts of the suburbs, 
 along the banks of the river and its creeks, are mere mud 
 hovels, having but one single apartment, low, dark, and 
 dirty ; those along the water are all built upon piles driven 
 into the ground. The houses of the better classes are rather 
 more spacious, and more cleanly, and are built of brick ; they 
 stand close upon the street, and have usually but a single en 
 trance, which is closed by a bamboo screen suspended from 
 the top of the opening ; the windows are small, and rarely 
 supplied with glass, in the place of which, paper, mica, and 
 the interior laminae of oyster-shells are used. In this de 
 scription of dwellings there are generally three apartments, 
 one of which is used as a common eating-room. The houses 
 of persons of wealth and consequence, again, are large ami 
 
CANTON 
 
 583 
 
 CANTON 
 
 commodious, and are surrounded by a wall 12 or 14 ft. high, 
 which fronts the street, and completely screens the buildings 
 within. The interior is decorated with carved work, varnished 
 and gilded, and hung with scrolls covered with writing, or 
 representations of landscapes, flowers, birds, &c. In the 
 densest parts of the city, the roofs of the houses are covered 
 with a loose frame work, on which fire-wood is piled, clothes 
 washed and dried, and meals cooked ; it also affords a loung 
 ing and sleeping place in summer, but in case of fire, which 
 is of frequent occurrence, these lumbered roofs tend to increase 
 the calamity. Chinese wood and mason work is showy and 
 unsubstantial, requiring constant repairs, and, therefore, both 
 gardens and houses, when neglected, soon fall into a ruinous 
 condition ; but when new, they present a pretty appearance. 
 A house of six apartments, and capable of accommodating 1 
 or 12 persons, rents about 20 per annum. Houses are let 
 on short leases, and the rent collected quarterly in advance. 
 The shops in Canton are, in many instances, equal to those in 
 some European cities, considering the difference of climate. 
 They are commodious, well stocked with goods, and are asso 
 ciated together very much according to their respective trades. 
 Neat and gaudily painted signs and names give a gay appear 
 ance to the narrow streets ; in most cases there are no windows 
 in front, but the whole is thrown open by day and closed at 
 night. At the end of the counter, which is of granite, there 
 is a niche, containing a tablet inscribed to Plutns or Mammon, 
 where incense is burned every day, to invoke a profitable busi 
 ness. In the busy parts of Canton, every house is a shop ; 
 but theri are two streets, China Street, and New China 
 
 N T RW CHINA STREET, CANTON. 
 
 Street, which are especially the resort of foreigners, and 
 where the productions of almost every part of the globe are 
 to be found. This part of the city being much frequented by 
 seamen, every artifice is used by the Chinese retailers to attract 
 their attention ; each .of them having an English name for 
 himself printed on the outside of his shop, besides a num 
 ber of advertisements composed for them by the sailors in 
 their own peculiar idiom. Amongst numerous attractive 
 announcements of this kind, the following occurs in China 
 Street. It is written in letters of gold on a lacquered board, 
 which hangs in front of the shop The Sailor s Coffee Shop, 
 Chan Lung, No. 10, New China Street, where all kinds of 
 silks and teas are sold, and goods of every description for sea 
 men. Sailors ! you are invited to try this shop, where you 
 will find honest dealing, and where you can have ready-made 
 coffee and tea, but no sanshoo. * Eating shops are very 
 
 * Literally, thrire fired ; a coarse spirit made from rice. Common 
 liquor is once distilled, but wlicn wanted for foreign vi-itors, who like it 
 fiery, it is thrice distilled, and tobacco, oil, cubebs, ainsecd, and other 
 itinmlnnts arc added. 
 
 numerous in the suburbs ; they contain an immense number 
 of made dishes, and are decorated with enormous fat pigs, 
 varnished over, and pendent from different parts of the shop, 
 together with varnished ducks and geese. The yearly rent 
 of the best shops is from 30 to 40. 
 
 Public buildings, consisting of pavilions, halls, and re 
 ligious edifices, are numerous, but, as specimens of archi 
 tecture, unworthy of special notice, although some of them 
 are not altogether destitute of elegance. There are, also, a 
 vast number of temples dens of infamy and vice, in which 
 the priests and nuns are said to amount to 3000. The pago 
 das elsewhere alluded to, and of which there are but two, are 
 conspicuous objects ; one, called the Kwang tali, or Plain Pa 
 goda, is about 10 centuries old ; it shoots up in an angular taper 
 ing tower, to the height of 160 ft. ; the other is an octagonal 
 pagoda of nine stories, 170 ft. high, and 13 centuries old. There 
 are several prisons in the city, one of which is capable of 
 holding 1000 prisoners. There is also a foundling hospital, 
 the children in which, when grown up, are sold, and not un- 
 frequently for the worst conceivable purposes ; but the charit 
 able institutions are few in number, and miserably kept. 
 The foreign factories, or hongs, as they are called by the 
 Chinese, in the \V. suburbs, are the most showy in point 
 of architectural display of any buildings in Canton. Their 
 river frontage is between 700 and 800 ft. in length. They 
 are built of brick stuccoed, with granite foundations ; some of 
 them are three stories high, but most of them only two. The 
 rents paid for these factories vary from 240 to 600 per 
 annum for each establishment. The space occupied by tho 
 factories is crossed by a narrow alley, 
 called Hog Lane, unmatched in Europe 
 for filth and the depravity of its inhabit 
 ants, who decoy sailors, drug them, and 
 then rob and ill-use them. The atrocities 
 of this pandemonium have been a cause 
 of disagreement between the British and 
 Chinese governments. 
 
 The trades and manufactures at Canton 
 are all, more or less, connected with the 
 foreign commerce. Many of the silk 
 t abrics exported are woven at Fuhshan 
 or Fatshan, a large town about 10 m. W. 
 from the city ; fire-crackers, paper, mat- 
 eails, cotton cloth, and other articles, are 
 also made there for exportation. The 
 number of persons engaged in weaving 
 cloth in Canton is about 50,000, including 
 the embroiderers ; about 7000 barbers, 
 and 4200 shoemakers. The barbers are 
 a favoured class, there being strict regu 
 lations for their protection. Those who 
 work in stone, brass, and iron, are numer 
 ous, and each trade or calling is united 
 into guilds for mutual protection and sup 
 port. The printing and book trade, also, 
 is very considerable. 
 
 Canton is one of the five ports of China, 
 
 Mom! e fit which, according to the treaty with the 
 
 Chinese, of August 29, 1842, British sub 
 jects are permitted to trade. By far the largest article of 
 export is tea. The other chief exports consist of silver, silks, 
 and chinaware. The imports consist of woollen goods, cotton, 
 cotton yarn, long cloths, and various other articles of British 
 manufacture. A contraband trade in opium is still, it is be 
 lieved, carried on in the Canton river. 
 
 TOTAL NUMBER O/VESSKI.S, with tlieir TONNAGE, ENTERED and 
 CLEARED at CANTON, in 1840, 1847, and 1848. 
 
 Entered. Cleared. 
 
 Vessels. Tonnajte. Vessels. Tonnage. 
 
 184(5 304 130,170 5:97 126,755 
 
 1847 . . . 812 125,926 310 122,975 
 
 1848 261 110,242 257 108,401 
 
 BRITISH VESSELS ENTERED and CLEARED, in 184? and 1818. 
 
 Entered. Cleared. Imports. Kxports. 
 
 Vessds. Tonn. Vessels. Tonn. Value. Value. 
 
 184? 2->l 88,876 218 8l,?f>7 2,OH5,5bl 3,.|0(;.420 
 
 1848 171 72,345 176 73,975 1,334,147 1.76C.CGI 
 
 QUANTITY of TEA EXPORTED in 1847 and 1848. 
 tta. 
 
 1847 72,932,531 
 
 1848 36.209,30i) 
 
CANTON 
 
 589 
 
 CANTON 
 
 Canton has, besides, a flourishing marine trade to Teentsin 
 and Shanghae. All its manufactures, its abundance of sugar, 
 its accumulated stores of cotton, indigo, cassia, aniseed, and 
 a variety of smaller articles, fill hundreds of junks bound 
 for the N. ; and its annual exports are not below 8,000,000 
 dollars (1,716,666). In return for these articles, the junks 
 bring back considerable sums of bullion, drugs from Shantung 
 and Leoutung ; felt, fruits, such as dates, pears, and grapes ; 
 and mutton. This is one of the most profitable branches of 
 commerce which the city possesses. The anchorage ground 
 for foreign shipping is at Whampoa, about 10 in. below the 
 city, beyond which no large vessel can proceed : it is in lat. 
 23 6 30" N., and is formed on the S. side by two high 
 islands, called by Europeans, Danes and French Islands. 
 The harbour is safe, with a moderate tide, and from 5 to 6 
 fathoms water, with soft mud bottom ; but there is scarcely 
 room for two large ships to moor abreast, whicli occasions the 
 lower part of the shipping to be moored opposite the entrance 
 of Junk Kiver, when there are many arrivals. 
 
 Canton has also an extensive inland trade. It obtains from 
 the province of which it is the capital, Quangtong, silks, rice, 
 fish, salt, fruits, vegetables, and various kinds of fancy wood, 
 silver, iron, pearls, cassia, and betel-nut. From 
 Fookein, black teas, camphor, sugar, indigo, 
 tobacco, paper, lacquered ware, grass cloth, min 
 erals, woollen and cotton cloths of various kinds. 
 From Chekeang, silks, paper, fans, wines, dates, 
 golden-flowered hams, and a most expensive tea, 
 called Iwng-tsing-cha. From Ganhwuy and Kang- 
 soo, green teas, and silks, whicli obtain excellent 
 prices. From Chihle, dates, ginseng, raisins, 
 skins, wines, venison, drugs and tobacco ; re 
 turned in cloths, clocks, watches, and other arti 
 cles of foreign import. From Shanse, skins, 
 wines, ardent spirits, and musk. From Shense, 
 brass, iron, precious stones, and drugs; returning 
 cotton and woollen cloths, books, and wines; the 
 trade with this province is very extensive. From 
 Kansuh, gold, quicksilver, musk, and tobacco. 
 From Szechuen, gold, iron, tin, musk, and a great 
 quantity of drugs. Yunnan supplies the shops 
 of Canton with iron, brass, peacock s feathers, and 
 receives cotton and woollen cloths, books, and 
 tobacco. Similar commodities to those above 
 enumerated, are sent from various other provinces 
 in great quantities, and similar returns to those 
 named made from Canton. A considerable por 
 tion of this merchandise, as well as visitors, are 
 conveyed into the city by canals, of which there 
 are several. 
 
 The scenes which the streets of Canton present, 
 are to a stranger exceedingly amusing and inter 
 esting. There are no wheel-carriages in use ; but 
 their absence is amply compensated by the nimble 
 sedan-bearers, one class of which are called by 
 the Chinese, horses without tails. These are 
 the bearers of men of wealth, who generally 
 appear abroad in sedan-chairs, taking up nearly 
 the whole breadth of the narrow street, to the 
 great annoyance of the foot-passengers, whom 
 they constantly jostle. Recovered from such a shock, a 
 coolee or porter, bearing a burden, knocks him against the 
 wall, with a sort of grunt, while he is shuffled in an opposite 
 direction by a second. Peculiarly curious to English eyes 
 are the number and variety of live stock which are exposed 
 for sale in these narrow streets puppy dogs, yelping in bam 
 boo cages, kittens mewing, rats squeaking, fowls chucking, 
 ducks quacking, geese cackling, and pigs grunting. Fish 
 swimming, and earth-worms, slugs, &c., variously disposed, 
 are exhibited in tubs and earthen pans. A barber close by 
 twangs his iron tweezers to call his customers near him ; 
 another operates upon a patient customer, seated on a tripod 
 stand plaiting his tail, cleaning his ears, shaving his head 
 and face, extracting all long and superfluous hair from his 
 eyelashes, eyebrows, and nose, and finishing off by a good 
 thumping of his back, and cracking his joints. Hard by is 
 an itinerant vender of cooked food, with an enormous reed 
 umbrella, dispensing rice, fat pork, and stews, swimming in 
 oil and soy, which he serves out in small bowls and basins to 
 
 his hungry customers, who devour the mess with an epicure s 
 gout. Beside this merchant is seated a brother itinerant, tha 
 vender of sweatmeats. A little further on stands a bookseller, 
 exposing his library, the contents of two boxes, which he 
 hawks about. In his vicinity is a fortune-teller, in the act of 
 unfolding the future to an anxious dupe ; and a doctor, decor 
 ated with a string of human teeth around his neck, extending 
 below his waist, while his box of drugs hangs before him. 
 Then an aged woman may be seen, with feet three inches 
 long, seated under an umbrella, mending old clothes, while a 
 passer-by wanting a button sewed on, repairs to her, and re 
 munerates her with a cash. Not far distant a leprous beggar 
 exhibits his disgusting sores, and rattles two pieces of bamboo 
 to attract attention. Suppose the air filled with the noises, 
 cries, and vociferations of these various venders, and of the 
 constantly-changing throng of human beings, and some slight 
 conception may be formed of Canton on approaching to Hog 
 Lane. 
 
 But the river presents scenes perhaps still more curious 
 and interesting to the stranger than the streets. The pro 
 digious number of boats, amounting at one time to 84,000, 
 with which the surface is crowded, is the first thing that. 
 
 strikes the eye. A large number of these as many, it ia 
 said, as 40,000, containing a population of 200,000 are fixed 
 residences, and most of them moored stem and stern in rows. 
 
 FAMILY-BOAT. From a Drawing by Dr. Bland, B.N. 
 
 The inhabitants are called tmlia or boat people, and form a 
 class in some respects beneath the other portions of the com 
 munity, and have many customs peculiar to themselves. 
 
CANTON 
 
 590 
 
 CANTON 
 
 Millions are born, and live and die in these floating: dwellings, 
 without ever hav ng put foot on dry land ; while their ances 
 tors before them, for many generations, were all amphibious 
 like themselves. The dwelling or family-boats are of various 
 sizes, the better sort being from 60 to 80 ft. long, and about 
 15 ft. wide. A superstructure of considerable height, and 
 covered with an arched roof, occupies nearly the whole of the 
 interior of the boat. This structure is divided within into 
 several apartments, appropriated to different domestic pur 
 poses, all of which are kept much more clean than those in 
 the houses of corresponding classes on shore. This kind of 
 boat is furnished with stern-sculls, that move upon a pivot, 
 and easily propel the boat among a crowd. The smaller 
 boats of this description are not above 25 ft. long, and contain 
 only one room, covered with movable mats. But by far the 
 handsomest of the boats on the Canton river are the hwa tine/ 
 or flower-boats. The form of these is very graceful, and their 
 
 FLOWER BOJ 
 
 i Drawing \,y Dr. Bland, R.N 
 
 raised cabins and awnings fancifully carved and painted. As 
 they are let to parties of pleasure for excursions on the river, 
 considerable expense is bestowed upon beautifying and fur 
 nishing them. 
 
 The people of Canton have some personal peculiarities; 
 amongst the most striking of which is a great variety of com 
 plexion, the general flatness of face, and uniformity of features, 
 and especially the strange formation of the eye, with the lid 
 in many cases so small as to appear unadapted to its natural 
 functions. With exception of the occiput, the heads of the 
 men are shaved ; while in that region, if its luxuriance will 
 admit, it is permitted to grow until it reaches the heels. 
 The girls wear the long plait, according to the fashion of the 
 men, but do not shave the other parts of the head. After 
 marriage, the hair is braided and decked with a profusion of 
 flowers and jewels, answering to the rank or means of the 
 possessor. The ordinary style of dress differs but little in 
 both sexes. It consists of loose pantaloons, and an over 
 garment or robe, with long dangling sleeves, and which varies 
 in length from the knee to the ground. Their girdles fre 
 quently answer the purpose of purses. The stocking has no 
 reference to the shape or size of the limb, and the shoe has a 
 thick clumsy sole turning up in front, and destitute of elasticity 
 to aid the step. Beggars, most of whom in Canton are blind, 
 are a numerous and privileged class, and a source of great 
 annoyance to passengers. The people of Canton have ac 
 quired an infamous celebrity for profligacy and corruption, 
 and are usually considered about the worst specimen of the 
 nation that can be presented ; and this the more intelligent 
 amongst themselves readily allow, although claiming at the 
 same time for the higher classes more enterprise, more en 
 larged views, and more general information, than is to be 
 found amongst similar classes in most of the other large cities 
 of China. A retiring Viceroy thus wound up a detail of his 
 experiences in the government of Canton : Deceit and false 
 hood prevail everywhere in this city in all ranks, and in all 
 places. There is no truth in man, nor honesty in woman ! 
 I have endeavoured in vain to correct these evils it has 
 been labour lost. I am sick at heart, and wish to depart 
 from such scenes of vice and habitual falsehood. A chief 
 criminal judge of the city corroborates the testimony of the 
 Viceroy. In an official proclamation by him, prohibiting the 
 putting away of wives for slight causes, he says, For vile 
 practices of this, and every kind, there is no place so bad as 
 Canton. Canton has long been the favourite retreat of all 
 the most turbulent and worst portion of the Chinese; and it is 
 
 said that there is an organized band of 20,000 robbers in and 
 around the city. The polico of Canton is well regulated, 
 but is rendered worse than inefficient by the national failing 
 the venality and rapacity of its officers, who share with the 
 thieves in the proceeds of their robberies, and liberate offend 
 ers whom they have seized, for a bribe. They are said, also, 
 to be in the habit of arresting rich individuals under false 
 accusations, and confining them in private houses, where they 
 subject them to every kind of ill-treatment, to induce them 
 to pay for their liberation. Gambling is one of the prevailing 
 vices, and its consequence an extraordinary amount of suicide, 
 a large portion of which is perpetrated by women. Education 
 is in so low a state, that it is believed that not more than 
 one-half of the male adult population of Canton can read. 
 The education of girls is wholly and systematically neglected, 
 there being scarcely a school for females in the city, public 
 opinion and immemorial usage being against the educating of 
 girls. 
 
 The prices of the principal kinds of provisions in Canton 
 depend very much on the seasons, but nearly as much on the 
 amount of the extortions of the local officers ; they are, how 
 ever, in general high. As an article of food, puppies and 
 kittens are highly esteemed ; those intended for the table 
 being fed on rice. Kats, mice, and snails are also among 
 the delicacies, but are scarce in the market. As the articles 
 exposed for sale in the streets are chiefly adapted to the 
 necessities of the day, the extremes to which the principle of 
 accommodation is carried are remarkable. Poultry and fish are 
 dissected into very minute portions. A quarter of a fowl, the 
 head and neck, and frequently the entrails alone, are all to 
 which the means of the buyer extend. Vegetables are ex 
 posed to sale in the streets in the greatest profusion. 
 
 The coins in common use are taels, mace, candareens, and 
 cash, equivalent in English money, respectively, to five 
 shillings, sixpence, one penny, and the seventh of a farthing. 
 The weights or measures are peculs and catties ; the pecul 
 is equal to 133 Ibs., and 1 Ib. avoirdupois is equal to three- 
 fourths of a catty. 
 
 The climate of Canton is, upon the whole, salubrious. 
 Foreigners residing there generally enjoy good health, if they 
 ab -stain from ardent spirits, and avoid exposure to the sun. 
 The heat, however, in summer is sometimes very great, the 
 thermometer occasionally reaching from 90 to 100 Fall, in 
 the shade ; but the average of the whole year is 72. In July 
 and August the average is from 80 to 88, and in January 
 and February from 50 to 60. A fall of snow occurred in 
 Canton in February 1835, to the astonishment and no small 
 alarm of the inhabitants, who hardly knew what name to give 
 it. Ice, however, sometimes forms in shallow vessels, a line 
 or two in thickness. Woollen clothes are worn, and fires aro 
 comfortable, during January and February, but the Chinese 
 do not warm their houses. 
 
 Canton is the oldest city in the S. of China, and since tha 
 foundation has undergone many changes. The Chinese his 
 torians say they are able to trace their city for 2000 years, 
 when it was called Nan-Wooching the martial city of the 
 South, and was surrounded by a stockade made of bamboo 
 and mud. One of its earliest names, and which is still used 
 in its books, was Yang-Chiug, the city of rams. In May 
 1840, Canton was taken by the British, and ransomed by the 
 Chinese for $6,000,000. It has been frequently devastated 
 by fires, there being no other city where conflagrations have 
 been more extensive, more destructive, and more frequent 
 than in Canton, and it is said that they have not always been 
 accidental. Amongst the latest of these disastrous fires was 
 one which occurred in October 1843, when 1000 Chinese 
 buildings, and several foreign hongs or factories, were de.s- 
 troyed ; and another in December 1844, when a large theatre 
 was consumed, and 2300 persons, men, women, and children, 
 perished. But the most destructive fire of recent times in 
 Canton, occurred in 1822, when between 13,000 and 14,000 
 houses, with nearly all the European factories, were destroyed, 
 and many lives lost. Another alarming conflagration took 
 place in November 1835, which threatened the destruction 
 of the entire city, but was fortunately arrested by the walls, 
 but not before an enormous loss of property had been sus 
 tained ; the fire on this occasion appeared to be about 1 m. 
 in breadth, and was in the most populous part of the city. 
 Pop. supposed to be considerably above 1,000,000. (Middle 
 
CANTORIA 
 
 591 
 
 CAPE HAYTIEN 
 
 Kingdom; Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. ; Martin s China; Parl. 
 Papers, &c.) 
 
 CANTORIA, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 36 m. 
 N. by E. Almeria, 1. bank, Almanzora. In general it is 
 well built ; the streets clean, wide, and level, but unpaved ; 
 its two squares are spacious, and adorned with handsome 
 houses and public buildings ; a chapel, which supplies the 
 place of a parish church, occupying the N. angle of the smaller 
 square. The town has, besides, a townhall, prison, cemetery, 
 and three primary schools. Manufactures : linen and wool 
 len fabrics, saltpetre, oil, and wine. Trade in poultry, cattle, 
 barilla, and manufactured goods. Pop. 4500. 
 
 CANTREFF, par. Wales, Brecon ; 1867 ac. Pop. 223. 
 
 CANTU, or CANTURIO, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, 
 prov. of, and 5 m. S.E. Como. It is well built, surrounded by 
 walls, entered by six gates, and possesses a parish church, with 
 a remarkably fine tower, formerly used as a beacon, a townhall, 
 school, hospital, theatre, &c. In the vicinity are some iron 
 works, which have existed since the 10th century. P. 5518. 
 
 CANTYRE, CANTIRE. See KINTYRE. 
 
 CANUMA, a lake, Brazil, prov. Para, 1. bank. Amazon; 
 lat. (N. end), 2 30 S. ; Ion. 58 45 W. ; about 30 m. long 
 by 10 m. broad. It pours its waters into the Urubu or 
 Barururu an affluent of the Amazon ; its banks are inhabited 
 by a few Indians ; and at its N. end is the village of Conceicao. 
 
 CANWICK, par. Eng. Lincoln; 17,560 ac. Pop. 13,896. 
 
 CANY, a tn. France, dep. Seine-Inferieure, 21 m. W.S. W. 
 Dieppe, in a green and wooded valley, 1. bank, Durdent, 5 m. 
 from its mouth. This thriving little town has several cotton 
 and oil mills, driven by water; and a considerable trade in 
 linen, oil seeds, oil, flax, yarn, and cattle. Pop. 1261. 
 
 CANZO, a vil. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, deleg. 
 of, and 10 m. N.E. Como, on the side of a steep and bare hill, 
 called, from its shape, the Horns of Canzo. It contains a 
 parish church ; and boasts of having given birth to two saints 
 of the Roman calendar. Most of the inhabitants are employed 
 in re aring silkworms and spinning silk. Pop. 1630. 
 
 CAORiSO, a vil. and com. N. Italy, duchy Parma, 10 m. 
 E. Piacenza, on the highroad at the confluence of the Chia- 
 venna and Zeno affluents of the Po. It is well built, and 
 has a church, surgical and elementary schools ; and an annual 
 cattle fair, and one for grain and general merchandize. The 
 inhabitants are engaged in raising grain, fruits, wine, and 
 oil; and in rearing cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry. Pop. 3078. 
 
 CAP AND BUTTON ISLES, two small isls. Indian Archi 
 pelago, strait of Sunda ; the one in lat. 5 58 S. ; Ion. 105 48 
 E. ; the other in lat. 5 49 S. ; Ion. 105 48 E. They appear 
 to be of volcanic formation, and one of them contains two 
 caverns, in which are found edible birds nests. 
 
 CAPACCIO, or CAPACCIO-NUOVO [anc. Caput Aqueum], 
 a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, 15 m. S. Campagna, 4 m. 
 from the sea; the seat of a bishop, and having two handsome 
 parish churches and a convent. The cathedral is 2 m. distant, 
 at Capaccio Vecchio, formerly an episcopal town, but destroyed 
 in the 13th century, by the Emperor Frederick II. The in 
 habitants then removed to San Pietro, and named it Capaccio- 
 Nuovo. Pop. 2000. 
 
 CAPANNOLI, a vil. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 
 16m. S.E. Pisa, 6 m. S. Pontedera, on a hill near the Era. 
 It is tolerably well built, has a parish church and a castle, 
 and manufactures of oil, wine, and silk. Pop. 1177. 
 
 CAPANNORI, a tn. and com. Italy, duchy of, and 5 m. 
 E. Lucca, 5 m. W.S.W. Pescia, in a fertile plain. It has a 
 parish church, and some oil and wine presses. Pop. 2100. 
 
 CAPE BRETON, a large island, British N. America, 
 between lat. 45 30 and 47 2 N., and Ion. 59 47 and 
 61 35 W. ; extreme length, N. to S., 100 m. ; extreme 
 breadth, 85 m.; area, exclusive of the great inland gulfs, 
 about 3100 sq. m. It is separated on the S. from Nova 
 Scotia by the Gut of Canso, and, along with Newfoundland, 
 from which it is about 60 ni. distant, forms the E. entrance 
 to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is of an irregular triangular 
 shape, and, along the W. coast, is of dangerous access, pos 
 sessing no harbour but that of Port Hood, near the Gut of 
 Canso, and being lined throughout with precipitous iron-faced 
 cliffs. Its other shores, though rugged, are indented with 
 numerous harbours and bays. An inlet, called Bras d Or, 
 which is entered by two narrow passages, spreads into nu 
 merous bays and arms, and, almost intersecting the island from 
 
 N.E. to S.W., forms two great natural divisions ; both rugged, 
 but not properly mountainous, the highest point in the former 
 not exceeding 1800 ft., and that of the latter scarcely reaching 
 700 ft. The geology of the island is imperfectly known. Its 
 short distance from Nova Scotia has led some to imagine that 
 it was at one time united to the continent, and has been dis 
 severed by some violent convulsion ; but this conjecture is 
 not supported by any striking resemblance in the structure 
 of the opposite coasts. Primitive rocks, particularly granite, 
 prevail to the S.E. of Bras d Or, and are also supposed to form 
 the nucleus of the highlands towards the N. W. ; but through 
 out the whole island the carboniferous formation appears, and 
 contains extensive fields of excellent coal. Iron-ore, also, 
 abounls; and specimens have been obtained indicating the 
 existence of copper, lead, and other valuable minerals. Higher 
 in the series vast beds of gypsum are found. Salt springs 
 exist on the coast. There is no navigable river, but the fresh 
 water lakes are both numerous and of considerable extent. 
 The largest, Lake Marguerite, in the N., is about 40 m. in 
 circuit. The climate is changeable, but not so rigorous as 
 on the continent. Originally, the whole island was one great 
 forest, but considerable tracts have been cleared. About 
 90,000 ac. are under culture, and produce the ordinary cereals, 
 and pulse, maize, potatoes, and turnips. The quantity of 
 corn raised is not equal to the home consumption. Cape 
 Breton derives its chief importance from the working of its . 
 coal mines, and the fisheries carried on in the adjoining seas. 
 Its exports, consisting principally of timber, fish, and coal, 
 amounted in value, in 1844, to 70,872 ; imports, 24,323. 
 The ships in the same year were entered, 535 (37,574 tons) ; 
 and cleared, 631 (40,263 tons). The shipping belonging to 
 the island was 19,662 tons. Cape Breton, which is adminis 
 tratively attached to the province of Nova Scotia, is divided 
 into three counties, and sends two members to the House of 
 Assembly. It is visited by the packets from England ; and 
 its internal communications have recently been improved by 
 the establishment of a steamer, which plies regularly on the 
 Bras d Or. The island was first colonized by the French in 
 1712, and taken by the British in 1758. Pop. about 35,000. 
 
 CAPE CLEAR, a high promontory, S. extremity of 
 Clear Island, and forming the most S. point of Ireland, about 
 7 m. S.E. Baltimore, co. Cork. Its great height, 400 ft. 
 above the sea, and prominent position, have rendered it a 
 familiar landmark to mariners. Adjoining the (Jape is a 
 lighthouse, which exhibits a bright revolving light, of 21 
 lamps, seven becoming visible every two minutes. The 
 lantern is elevated 455 ft. above the sea, and may be seen, in 
 clear weather, from a distance of upwards of 30 m. It is 
 
 situated in lat. 51 26 N.; Ion. 9 29 W. (R.) The ISLAND 
 
 of Clear is about 3J m. long, by about 1 m. broad. It is 
 wild and romantic, steep and inaccessible cliffs rising up in 
 all directions from the sea, while the greater part of the sur 
 face is merely rough, rocky pasture. The inhabitants are in 
 a primitive state. The women manufacture a coarse kind of 
 frieze, for clothing ; the men, who have the reputation of being 
 expert and resolute seamen, are wholly employed in fishing. 
 Pop. ofisl. (1841), 1052. 
 
 CAPE COAST CASTLE, a tn. and fort, Gold Coast, 
 Africa, Gulf of Guinea, cap. of the British possessions on the 
 Gold Coast; lat. (light on fort) 5 5 24" N.; Ion. 1 13 38" 
 W. (R.) The fortress, which is large, and well built, stands 
 on a rock close to the sea, and projects, in bold relief, from 
 the surrounding dark, green forests. With exception of a 
 few houses for Europeans, the town consists of straggling 
 lines of mud huts, with clusters of palm-trees, and an occa 
 sional tamarind attached. It is a principal mart for native 
 barter ; and some individuals who have been educated at the 
 Government school in the fort, now import, on their own 
 credit, goods to the amount of 20,000 and 30,000 annually. 
 A judicial assessor, appointed by Her Majesty, holds open 
 court in the town three days a week, for native cases. Great 
 good has resulted from the establishment of this court by in 
 spiring confidence in British protection, and the fear of justice. 
 Climate unhealthy; mean temperature 78. The principal 
 exports are gold-dust, ivory, and palm-oil. Pop. estimated 
 at 10,000. See GOLD COAST. 
 
 CAPE HAYTIEN, a seaport tn. N. side isl. Hayti, 
 called by the Spaniards Guarico, and afterwards by the 
 French Cape Frangois, named also Cape Henri/, and Port 
 
CAPE HORN 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE 
 
 flealet, nearly 90 m. N. Port-au-Prince or Port Rcpublicain; 
 Lit. 19 46 42" N. ; Ion. 72 11 45" W. (R.) It stands on 
 the N. side of a bay half encircled by lofty hills, and, under 
 French dominion, was considered one of the handsomest and 
 most flourishing cities in the W. Indies. Half of it is in 
 ruins, the effect of the Revolutionary wars. This gives it a 
 melancholy aspect, but it still may be described as a handsome 
 town, regularly built. The streets are wide and well paved, 
 and the houses principally of stone; several of the squares and 
 markets are spacious and handsome, and adorned with fountains 
 yielding an abundant supply of good water. The cathedral, 
 which has been rebuilt by public subscription, is an elegant 
 structure ; the military hospital, a noble edifice, with large 
 well-ventilated apartments, has also been restored, and other 
 improvements have been made. The under part of many of 
 the houses is occupied as stores, warehouses, and stables, the 
 upper part only being used for residence. The entrance 
 to the harbour is difficult, but the anchorage is safe. Cape 
 Haytien, as well as Port-au-Prince, was occasionally the seat 
 of government, and it continued so under Christophe and 
 Toussaint. The trade, chiefly carried on with the U. States, 
 is still very considerable. Pop., in 1789, 18,500; does not 
 now exceed 9000. 
 
 CAPE HORN, or HOORN, usually considered the S. ex 
 tremity of S. America, does not really belong to that conti 
 nent, but is the most S. point of Hermit s Island, one of the 
 Tierra del Fuego group ; lat. 55 59 S. ; Ion. 67 16 W. (R.) 
 This promontory is a lofty, dark, precipitous headland, from 
 500 to 600 ft. high, running far into the sea. When Sir J. 
 C. Ross passed it, in September 1842, there was some snow 
 on its summit, and its sides were clothed with a brownish 
 coloured vegetation. The strong gales from the W. render 
 the doubling of the Cape from the E. a matter of some danger 
 and difficulty. But the improvements in modern navigation 
 have greatly diminished both. Gales from the W. blow dur 
 ing the summer nearly without interruption, but only near 
 the Cape ; a few degrees farther S. they are more variable. 
 During the winter E. winds are more frequent, but the navi 
 gation is then rendered dangerous by the icebergs which ap 
 proach the Cape, and are found even farther N. The Cape 
 was first doubled in 1616, by the navigator Schouten, a 
 native of Hoorn, in Holland, who named it after the town in 
 which he was born, the word having been since altered to 
 Horn. 
 
 CAPE MOUNT, W. Africa. See MOI*T (CAPE). 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE [Portuguese, C,ibo de Boa Es- 
 peran$a; Dutch, Kaap de Gocde Hoop], or CAPE PEAK, a 
 celebrated promontory, S. Africa, at the S. extremity of the 
 Table Mountain, having Table Bay on the E., and the Atlantic 
 on the W., 31 m. S. Cape Town; lat. 34 2 S.; Ion. 18 29 
 E. (R.), and forming a bold promontory, rising nearly 1000 ft. 
 above the sea. This cape, celebrated in the annals of navi 
 gation, was discovered, in the year 1486, by the Portuguese 
 navigator Bartholomew Diaz, who, not being able to double 
 it, and having encountered much bad weather in its neigh 
 bourhood, gave it the name of Cabo dos Tormentos or Cape of 
 Tempests. John II., King of Portugal, considering this 
 point as the goal of that gradual circumnavigation of the 
 African continent, which had long engaged the attention of 
 the Portuguese, gave it, instead, the title of Cabo de Boa 
 Esperanto.. Shortly after, Nov. 20, 1497, Vasco de Gama 
 succeeded in doubling the Cape, and was the first European 
 who by this route reached the Indian Ocean. 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, or CAPE COLONY, an exten 
 sive territory belonging to Great Britain, forming the S. ex 
 tremity of Africa, between lat. 28 15 and 34 50 S., and 
 Ion. 16 20 and 27 30 E. On the W. it is bounded by the 
 Atlantic, and S. and E. by the Indian Ocean. Its boundaries, 
 landward, have varied much at different periods, and could 
 scarcely be said to be defined till 1847, when, by a proclama 
 tion of the Governor, Sir H. Smith, they were declared to be 
 on the N., the Gariep or Orange River; N.E., a branch 
 of the same river, called the Nu Gariep ; and E., the rivers 
 Krai, Klaas Smits, Zwart Kei, and Plaats, the Katberg moun 
 tains, the rivers Chumie and Keiskamma ; greatest length, 
 W. to E., 520 m. ; greatest breadth, N. to S., 430 m. ; area, 
 about 170,000 sq. m. Cape Colony consists of a W. and an 
 E. province, and, for administrative purposes, has been 
 formed into divisions. These have, of course, increased with 
 
 the accessions of territory which the colony has made at 
 different times. Their number, previously 13, has recently 
 been increased to 15, by the two new divisions of Victoria and 
 Albert, chiefly situated along the E. frontier, and formed out 
 of a tract generally known by the name of the Ceded Terri 
 tory. In addition to this, there is a large unappropriated 
 tract lying between the former N. boundary of the colony 
 and its new boundary of Orange River. It has never been 
 properly explored, but is supposed to have an extent of nearly 
 50,000 sq. m. According to the report of the Surveyor- 
 General, it is, for the most part, as barren a desert as is to 
 be found on the earth s crust. From this sweeping assertion 
 may probably be excepted the country in the immediate 
 vicinity of the Gariep or Orange River, which is said to occupy 
 a climate more equable than some portions of the colony farther 
 S., to be tolerably fertile, and to depasture large herds of 
 cattle. 
 
 Physical Features. The coast-line of the colony has an ex 
 tent of about 1200 m. The N. W. portion, lying considerably 
 out of the tract which is usually navigated, is imperfectly 
 known, but is understood to consist of sandy plains, generally 
 covered with shrubby plants. To the S.W. and S. it loses 
 this character, and though seldom forming what may be called 
 a bold and rocky coast, presents an almost uninterrupted 
 series of headlands and indentations. The former occasion 
 ally stretch out into lofty promontories, the principal of 
 which are the celebrated Cape of Good Hope, forming the 
 extremity of the isolated mountain mass, of which Table 
 Mount is the culminating point, and Cape Agulhas, the most 
 S. point of Africa. The latter are often scooped out into capa 
 cious bays, which have ample depth of water, but lying ex 
 posed in some direction or other, are very imperfect road 
 steads. The chief of these bays are, on the W., St. Helen s 
 Bay, Saldanha Bay, and Table Bay; and on the S., False 
 Bay, with its important arm called Simon s Bay, St. Sebas 
 tian s Bay, Mossel Bay, the Camtoos, and Algoa Bay. Among 
 these, complete shelter is afforded only by Saldanha Bay, 
 which possesses all the essentials of an excellent harbour; and 
 Simon s Bay, which has been selected for the arsenal and 
 chief naval station of the colony. The interior of the coun 
 try may be described as consisting generally of a succession 
 of plateaux and mountain ranges, which rise above each other, 
 and increase in elevation as they recede from the coast, each 
 range forming the boundary of a lower and the abutment of 
 the next higher plateau ; and again lowering down consider 
 ably towards the Gariep or Orange River. Beginning in 
 the W., the first mountain range is the Bokkeveld, which lies 
 about 40 m. inland, and stretches from N. to S., in a direction 
 nearly parallel with the W. coast, till it reaches the neigh 
 bourhood of the town of Worcester, lat. 33 40 S. Almost 
 parallel to this range, but about 100 m. farther inland, is the 
 Roggeveld. Between these ranges lies an extensive elevated 
 plateau, which, according to its proximity to either range, 
 takes the name of the Bokkeveld, or of the Roggeveld Karroo. 
 In like manner several mountain ranges run parallel with the 
 S. coast. The first and lowest stretches from W. to E., with 
 out interruption, for about 200 m., leaving a belt along the 
 coast which seldom exceeds 20 m. This range of hills con 
 nects with the Bokkeveld, and properly forms one of its 
 branches, takes, in the different localities through which 
 it passes, the names of tne Zwellendam, the Outeniqua, and 
 the Zitzikamme mountains. Behind it, and at a distance 
 varying from 15 to 30 m., is a second range, connected like 
 wise with the Bokkeveld, so as to form another of its branches, 
 and known by the name of the Zwarte or Black Mountains. 
 Between these two E. ranges lie the plateaux of Kannaland 
 and Long Kloof. About 70 m. behind the Black Mountains 
 is the last great E. range, which links with the Roggeveld, 
 near lat. 32 10 S., and takes, in succession, the names of the 
 Klein Roggeveld, the Nieuwreld, and the Sneeuw or Snowy- 
 Mountains, the last forming the highest mountain chain in S. 
 Africa, and attaining a height which has been variously esti 
 mated, but probably is not less than 10,000 ft. The large 
 space between this range and the Black Mountains is occu 
 pied by a plateau, called the Great Karroo. On the W. it 
 connects with the Bokkeveld and the Roggeveld Karroos, and 
 on the E. with a similar tract called Caiideboo, and thus the 
 whole of these united Karoos may be regarded as one im 
 mense plateau, raised, on an average, 3000 ft. above the level 
 
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE 
 
 593 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE 
 
 of the sea, surrounded on all sides by mountain ranges, and 
 stretching continuously, though with varying width, for 
 500 m. The geological structure of the mountains appears 
 to be very uniform. They have a nucleus of granite, which 
 sometimes comes to the surface, and forms the predominating 
 rock, but much more frequently the granite is over-lain by 
 enormous masses of sandstone, easily distinguished by the 
 numerous pebbles of quartz which are imbedded in it. The 
 mountain summit, when composed of granite, is usually round 
 and smooth, but when composed of the quartzoze sandstone is 
 often perfectly flat, and assumes the form of which Table 
 Mount is a well-known specimen. The thickness of this stra 
 tum, in some localities, is not less than 2000 ft., and may then 
 be seen forming steep mural faces resembling masonry, or ex 
 hibiting a series of salient angles and indentations, as sharp, 
 regular, and well defined, as if they had been chiseled. With 
 the granite are often associated primitive schists, the decompo 
 sition of which seems to have furnished the chief ingredients 
 of the thin barren clay which forms the characteristic cover 
 ing of the Karroos. In some places, particularly towards the 
 S. coast, more recent formations appear, and limestone is fre 
 quently seen piercing the surface. 
 
 Hirers. Notwithstanding of its lofty mountain ranges and 
 elevated plateaux, Cape Colony has scarcely any navigable 
 river?. Elephant, or Olifant s River, which falls into the 
 Atlantic in the W. of Clanwilliam division, is affected by the 
 tide, and is navigable for boats for 30 m., but, like almost all 
 the oilier rivers of the colony, is encumbered at its mouth by 
 a bar, over which no ordinary sailing vessel can float. On 
 the S. coast, the Breede, which empties itself into St. Sebas 
 tian s Bay, in Zwellendam division, admits vessels of 200 tons 
 into the port of Beaufort which stands at its mouth, but, im 
 mediately thereafter, becomes navigable only by small craft. 
 To judge by the map, one might be apt to suppose that the 
 colony was remarkably well supplied with water. Streams 
 are there seen traversing it in all directions, some of them ap 
 parently receiving numerous tributaries, and running a course 
 of several hundred miles ; and the fact is, that at the season 
 when rains prevail, many of them are swollen into rivers of 
 great width, and of a depth which wonld float the largest 
 vessel in safety. But the fall of these rivers is as rapid as 
 their rise had been, and the rains have no sooner ceased than 
 they either disappear altogether, or sink down into deep 
 chasms, and occupy a shallow rocky bed, overhung on both 
 sides by lofty precipices of the prevailing sandstone. They 
 thus not only become useless as a means of internal traffic, 
 but cannot even be made available for purposes of irrigation. 
 
 Climate. The temperature of the colony varies much in 
 different localities, but its general average may be stated at 
 07 20 at Cape Town, that of the coldest month being 57, 
 and that of the hottest 79 Fall. The extremes, however, 
 have a much wider range; for Bunbury states, that, in 
 1838, during his visit to the Cape, the thermometer, on Jan. 
 25, stood, in the shade, at 94, and on the 28th at 90. 
 In the mountainous districts, snow covers the highest sum 
 mits during half the year, and the temperature, cooled down 
 by the blasts which descend from them, often falls below 
 freezing. The alternations of heat and cold are frequently 
 great, as well as sudden. The S.E. wind sometimes begins 
 to blow with all the characteristics of a simoom. At first 
 it is almost stifflingly hot, and, gradually gathering strength, 
 carries along with it an impalpable sand, which penetrates 
 everywhere. The whole atmosphere is dimmed, and the 
 trees gather a coating which makes them look as if they 
 had been painted with red ochre. Shortly, however, the 
 breeze cools, its violence abates, and the air regains its wonted 
 clearness. This wind, disagreeable though it be, is regarded 
 as not prejudicial to health, and the statistics of the colony 
 certainly go to prove that there are few climates in which, 
 under ordinary circumstances, human life is more likely to 
 run its fullest course. Less rain falls in the interior, and on 
 the W. coast of Cape Colony, than in any other part of the 
 world, excepting rainless districts. It approximates in this 
 respect to Patagonia, and the E. coast of the S. American 
 peninsula. 
 
 Vegetation. The vegetation of the Cape is of a peculiar 
 and distinctive character. To this, however, there are some 
 curious exceptions in the case of particular plants, where a 
 connection manifests itself between the botany of this part of 
 
 VOL. T. 
 
 the world and that of very remote countries. Such occurs 
 with the alder, and also with the bramble, one of the nine 
 species of which that are enumerated by Ecklon and Zeyher 
 as growing at the Cape appears to be the common English 
 bramble or blackberry. There are also links of connection, 
 as far as regards the similarity of some peculiar genera, with 
 the botany of Australia, and that of S. America. Yet, no- 
 j where else are genera and species confined within narrower 
 j limits than here, without any apparent cause for a disper 
 sion so arbitrary. In many respects, the vegetation in the 
 I E. districts of the colony differs widely from that on the W., 
 although several plants are common to both. Wheat is the 
 grain most extensively cultivated at the Cape, but other 
 cereals are also grown. With the exception of the silver-tree 
 or Witteboom (Leucadendron argentevm), none of the indi 
 genous trees in the vicinity of Cape Town, attain any consi 
 derable size. The one named, grows to the height of from 
 30 to 40 ft., and is very conspicuous from the brilliant silky 
 whiteness of its leaves. Its timber, however, like that of all 
 the other trees of the colony, such as they are, is useless, 
 being soft and brittle, but its bark is said to be astringent, 
 and to contain a considerable quantity of tannin. The native 
 station of this tree, which now forms groves at the back of the 
 Table Mountain, is at the foot of the E. side of the same moun 
 tain ; even at present it is almost entirely confined to the 
 peninsula of the Cape. But the characteristic vegetation of 
 the colony consists in its Ericas or heaths, Stapelise or carrion 
 flowers, and Proteacese ; of the first, there are about 400 spe 
 cies, and of the last 200, all exceedingly beautiful, but having 
 a range so limited, that none are to be seen N. of the mountains 
 which bound the Great Karroo, while by far the greatest num 
 ber grow within 100 m. of Cape Town; the Protea Cynaroides, j 
 bearing a flower the size of a man s hat, is found on Table j 
 Mountain ; as for the singular and fleshy Stapelias, resembl 
 ing a star-fish, about 100 species are mentioned, but they are 
 almost entirely confined to the dry and sandy regions of the 
 W. coast, where they cover a tract of many degrees of lati 
 tude in extent. A great portion of the E. frontier of the 
 colony and the adjacent districts are covered with extensive 
 thickets of a strong succulent and thorny vegetation, called, 
 by the natives, the bush. The most common plants of the 
 bush are aloes, of many species, all exceedingly fleshy, and 
 some beautiful ; the great red-flowering arborescent aloe, and 
 some others, make a conspicuous, though by no means grace 
 ful, figure in the E. part of the colony, where they grow irre 
 gularly scattered over the parched and naked faces of the hills 
 Other characteristic plants of the E. districts are the spek- 
 boom (pork tree, Portulacariaafra], Scholia speciosa, Calitris 
 or cedar, two or three species of Podocarpus or yellow-wood, 
 and the great succulent Euphorbias, which grow into trees 
 40 ft. high, branching like a candelabrum, entirely leafless, 
 prickly, and with a very acrid juice ; the Euphorbia melofbrmis, 
 3 ft. in diameter, lies on the ground, to which it is attached by 
 slender fibrous roots, and is confined to the mountains of Graaf 
 Reynet, where also is found the extraordinary Testudinaria or 
 Hottentot s bread. The Enccphalartos, of which there are 
 15 species, all having the appearance of dwarf-palms, but 
 without any similarity of structure, scarcely occur in the Cape 
 Colony, properly so called, but extend over the mountains of 
 Kaffraria, Tambookn, and Dclagoa Bay, almost to the tropics. 
 The brilliant Strelitzias are almost peculiar to the districts of 
 George and Swellendam. Throughout are found various spe 
 cies of Acacia ; many beautiful ones of Oxalis ; innumerable 
 species of Ixia, Gladiolus, Tritonia, Watsonia, Hesperanthera, 
 and other handsome IridacesB, known by the name of Cape 
 bulbs ; nor ought we to omit the endless varieties of Pelargo 
 nium or Cape geranium, Gnaphalium, Xeranthemum, Dios- 
 ma, Mesembryanthemum or fig-marigold, shrubby Bora- 
 ginacea?, and curious, if not large or showy, blossomed Orchi- 
 daceae. Such is an outline of the magnificent flora of S. Africa, 
 from which the botanist has drawn more largely, and the 
 gardens and green-houses of Europe have derived a greater 
 variety of beautiful plants, than from any other quarter of the 
 world. From their presence here, and almost nowhere else, 
 Schouw has characterized this region as that of the Stapelias 
 and Mesembryanthemums. 
 
 Zoology. The animals indigenous to this colony are almost 
 endlessly varied, from the most unwieldy bulks to the most 
 delicate and graceful forms. Among quadrupeds may be 
 
 75 
 
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE 
 
 59 1 
 
 CAPE RIVER 
 
 enumerated the giraffe, elephant, rhinoceros, the hippopota 
 mus, now much less frequently seen than formerly ; the lion, 
 panther, hyena, jackal, wolf, wild boar, quagga, buffalo, ante 
 lope, springbok, monkey, porcupine, ant-eater, &c. Among 
 birds are the ostrich, eagle, vulture, pelican, flamingo, crane, 
 guinea fowl, turtle dove, and smaller species in great variety. 
 The reptiles include, among their number, the largest and most 
 venomous of their class, including the boa constrictor, and the 
 cobra da capello. In the surrounding seas, and along the 
 coasts, whales and seals exist in such numbers, as to make 
 the capture of them an important occupation, while both there 
 and in the rivers there is no deficiency of smaller fish. 
 
 Aborigines. The original inhabitants of the peninsula of S. 
 Africa consist of two distinct negro races the Hottentot and 
 the Kafir, which are again subdivided into 10 or 12 differ 
 ent tribes. The Hottentots occupy the N. portion of the 
 peninsula, and the Kafirs the N.E. The first are a mild and 
 timid people, with some talent, but no energy. They make 
 excellent shepherds and herdsmen, and are faithful and 
 honest. When young, they are clean limbed, and well pro 
 portioned ; complexion, a clear olive ; cheek-bones high and 
 prominent ; teeth small and exquisitely enamelled. The Kafirs 
 are a remarkably handsome race, tall, stout, beautifully formed 
 and graceful in their movements, cheerful and contented ex 
 pression of countenance, complexion verging towards black. 
 The offshoots of these two great families are the Korannas or 
 Koras, the Bojesmans or Bushmen, Namaquas, Damaras, 
 Griquas, Bechuanas, Mantatas , and Zoolahs. 
 
 Agriculture. The temperature is such as ought to favour 
 the growth of all the ordinary cereals, and the first colonists 
 who settled in the country expected to find the principal 
 source of their wealth in the cultivation of them. The extent 
 of territory allotted to them corresponded to this view, and 
 they settled down in farms which never would have been im 
 agined of sufficient size, had they not expected to make almost 
 every acre of them arable. Some of the tracts were appar 
 ently fertile enough to countenance this idea, but three-fourths 
 of the country were obviously of a very different description, 
 and the consequence was, that the colony threatened, for a 
 time, to become a complete failure. Even where the soil was 
 well adapted for the growth of wheat and the other cerealia, 
 the climate often proved most unpropitious. Long-continued 
 droughts destroyed the corn in the blade, and mildew destroyed 
 it in the ear. At last a better system began to prevail. Ag 
 riculture, formerly deemed paramount, became only of secon 
 dary importance. Extensive tracts which never could have 
 yielded a profitable return under the plough, were seen to 
 be capable of supporting numerous flocks and herds, and the 
 attention of the colonists was generally turned to pasture. 
 The native breed of cattle has been supplanted by better 
 breeds, or improved by crosses with them, so that the cattle 
 of Cape Colony would not suffer by a comparison with those 
 
 were exported ; in 1851, 5,661,218 Ibs. ; while the wine had 
 decreased in the same period, from 740,000 to 460,540 gallons. 
 The whale fishery, which was formerly pursued with success, 
 has also declined. The total declared value of the exports 
 from the whole colony, for the year ending January 5, 1852, 
 was 651,377. The value of imports, as declared for the 
 same time, was 1,583,218. The colonial produce exported, 
 in 1 851-2, was of the declared value of 483,941 ; and it con 
 sisted principally of wool, skins, hides, wine, flour, meal, 
 salted fish, ostrich-feathers, aloes, horses, beef, pork, butter, 
 oil, &c. 
 
 Gocernment, Religion, Education, &c. The government of 
 the Cape is vested in a governor, nominated by the Crown, and 
 assisted by an executive council, composed of the commander 
 of the forces, the chief justice, auditor-general, treasurer, and 
 accountant-general. Each province is administered by a 
 lieutenant-governor, and each district by a civil commissioner, 
 subordinate to whom are magistrates, superintending tracts of 
 country 15 or 20 m. in circuit. Justice is administered by a 
 supreme court of judicature, presided over by a chief justice 
 and three puisne judges, a high sheriff and deputy sheriff for 
 each district, a court of vice-admiralty, police, and matrimo 
 nial courts, &c. The revenue of the colony has generally 
 exceeded the expenditure, but the estimates for 1849 would 
 show a different result, though not to any great extent. The 
 revenue for that year has been calculated at 213,424, the 
 expenditure at 2 10, 000. The Dutch and English Reformed, 
 Lutheran, R. Catholic, and Presbyterian churches in the Cape, 
 are all entirely, or in part, supported by the Government. 
 From returns for 1846, it appears that there were 115 con 
 gregations belonging to the two provinces, of which 32 belonged 
 to the Dutch Reformed church, 13 to the English Episcopa 
 lians, 8 to different Presbyterian denominations, 4 to the R. 
 Catholic church, 21 to the Wesleyan church, 23 to the Inde 
 pendents, 5 Moravian, and 9 Lutheran, Sunday and evening 
 schools are attached to each. There are also numerous mis 
 sionary schools, and Bell s Lancasterian and other free schools 
 in each district. In numerous localities throughout the 
 colony, missionary exertions are carried on, by various deno 
 minations of Christians, for the evangelization of the native 
 population. 
 
 History. The Cape of Good Hope was discovered, in 1486, 
 by Bartholomew Diaz. In 1620, two commanders of the 
 English East India Company took possession of the country 
 in the name of King James ; but no settlement was then 
 formed. In 1650, it was colonized by the Dutch Govern 
 ment, and remained in their possession for 156 years. In 
 1795, it was taken possession of by a British armament, but 
 restored to the Dutch in 1802. In 1806, it was again taken 
 by the British, and confirmed to them at the general peace, in 
 1814. Almost ever since this period, a succession of hostili 
 ties has occurred between the colonists and the Kafirs on the 
 
 of many of the better improved districts of Europe, while the j E. and N.E. frontiers of the colony, the latter revenging the 
 Cape sheep, remarkable only for the poriderousness of their i encroachments of the former on their territories by pluuder- 
 
 tails, have been very generally supplanted by finer European 
 breeds, and more especially by merinoes, which thrive admir 
 ably, and promise soon to make wool the great staple of the 
 colony. Grain, particularly wheat, is still grown to a consid 
 erable extent in the lower districts, and in ordinary years, 
 crops, both abundant and of good quality, are obtained. In 
 
 ing their cattle, and otherwise disturbing them in their pos 
 sessions. When these aggressions become altogether intoler 
 able, and threaten the ruin of the colony, a regular military 
 force is sent against the Kafirs, which ultimately succeeds, 
 though not without much trouble, and often considerable loss 
 of life, in driving back the enemy, and for a time, but for a 
 
 the same districts, and also in Cape division, considerable time only, putting an end to their marauding incursions, 
 attention is paid to the culture of the vine, which grows freely, After a short interval of quietness, the Kafirs recommence 
 but, in general, is more remarkable for the quantity than for their aggressions, and the same results, as in previous in- 
 the quality of its produce. It is well known in commerce by j stances, follow, to be in turn succeeded by similar proceed 
 
 the name of Cape wine, but is not in much repute, and is un 
 derstood to be extensively employed in adulterating some of 
 the foreign white wines, especially Madeira. The only wine 
 of the colony which has obtained a high reputation is the lus 
 cious red wine, which grows in a very limited district S. of 
 Cape Town, and is called Constantia, after the celebrated 
 vineyards near the town of that name, where alone it is 
 produced. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. The former are necessarily 
 limited to a few articles of primary necessity, the colonists 
 supplying themselves with the ordinary manufactures from 
 the mother country, of a better quality, and at a cheaper rate 
 than they could hope to produce them. 
 
 The exports of wool from the colony are increasing rapidly, 
 those of wine decreasing. In 1827, only 44,441 Ibs. of wool 
 
 ings. The latest Kafir war, broke out in December, JBftO, 
 and did not terminate till after fully 18 months active hostili 
 ties. In 1851, a representative constitution was granted to 
 the colony, with a liberal free-tenancy suffrage ; every owner 
 of a tenement valued at 25, or more, having a vote for members 
 both of the legislative council and house of assembly. Pop. 
 in 1850, Western division, 114,886; Eastern, 170,393; total, 
 285,279. (Bunbury, A Residence at the Cape of Good Hope ; 
 Cape of Good Hope Almanac; Past and Present State of her 
 Majesty s Colonies; Kant. Magazine; Mrs. Somerville s Phy 
 sical Geography, &c.) 
 
 CAPE RIVER, or VAUNKS, a river, Central America, 
 Nicaragua and Mosquito country, rising near the city of 
 Segovia, flowing E. by N. for nearly 300 m., and, after re 
 ceiving several tributaries, falling into the Caribbean Sea at 
 
CAPE TOWN 
 
 595 
 
 CAPE VERB ISLANDS 
 
 Cape Gracias a Dios. It passes through a rich and fertile 
 country, has some important towns on its banks, and is navi 
 gable for a considerable distance from the sea. The upper 
 part of its course is obstructed by falls. 
 
 CAPE TOWN, a tn. S. Africa, cap. of Cape Colony, on 
 the lower or S. side of Table Bay, at the N. foot of Table 
 Mountain, 31 m. N. the promontory of the Cape of Good Hope 
 The view of the town and its vicinity from the bay anchorage is 
 
 Soimdingt VL- 1 c 
 
 CAPE 
 
 JJfTt 
 
 TABLE BAY. 
 
 Scale of Mile.?. 
 
 
 very striking. Behind rise the perpendicular sides of Table 
 Mountain, while, on either hand, are the barren crags of the 
 Lion s Head and Devil s Peak ; the former usually capped 
 with a cloud. It is regularly built, lighted with gas, the 
 streets, many of them wide, but most of them unpaved, cross 
 at right angles, while the houses, with their little stoops, 
 (porches) and gable fronts, exhibit many traces of their Dutch 
 origin. Rows of oak, poplar, and pine trees, line the sides of 
 the principal avenues ; and the shops are well supplied with 
 
 large, well built, contain an infirmary, &c., and have a largo 
 area in front as a parade-ground. Another important Govern 
 ment establishment is the observatory, well known by the la 
 bours of Sir J. Herschell. At noon, daily, a ball is dropped here 
 as at Greenwich, to indicate true time to mariners. The botani 
 cal garden of the Baron von Ludwig contains a fine collection 
 of plants. In the town are English, Dutch, Lutheran, Presby 
 terian, Independent, Methodist, and R. Catholic churches ; the 
 burgher senate-house, the chief court-houses, several free and 
 other schools ; a theatre, a spacious market place, a commer 
 cial exchange, with a fine commercial hall, and a public lib 
 rary of about 30,000 volumes. Provisions, fruit, and veget 
 ables, are abundant and cheap. Water is supplied from 
 Government tanks in the dry season. The police here is 
 well organized, on a military footing. Crimes of a flagrant 
 kind are rare. The town is divided into 12 districts, and 
 each district into four wards, over each of which there is a 
 commissioner and four wardmasters, chosen by the people ; 
 these, together, appraise town property and assess the local 
 taxes. Within the town, also, is held the supreme court of 
 justice of the colony. 
 
 Cape Town is defended, on the r. side, inland, by a regular 
 citadel ; on the 1., towards the sea, by Amsterdam Battery, 
 and some other works. To the port, at which is the custom 
 house, large vessels cannot come ; but the anchorage in the 
 bay is commodious, and usually safe. Two quays, extending 
 from the beach into the bay, enable lighters to take in and 
 discharge cargoes at all times of the tide. Great efforts are 
 made both by the Government and the municipality to render 
 Table Bay a safe harbour. It is now visited annually by a 
 large number of vessels ; still the casualties do not amount to 
 a third per cent. From 1824 to 1848, it was visited by 9615 
 vessels, of which only 28 were lost or seriously injured. The 
 numbers, 1841-1848, were as follows: 
 
 Tonnag.. 
 ..191,922 
 ..158,413 
 ..162,706 
 ..164,417 
 
 by the great 
 
 184-5... 
 1846... 
 
 1847... 
 1848... 
 
 Vessels. 
 ....680... 
 
 ....550... 
 
 CAPE TOWN AND TABLE MOUNT.-From near Amsterdam B 
 
 European goods. Government-house is a commodious edifice. 
 The grounds are planted with fine old oaks, and partly formed 
 into a public walk. The Government offices are here, and in 
 the precincts is the S. African college. The barracks are 
 
 Vessels. Tonnage. 
 
 1841 433 133,963 
 
 1842 478 128,224 
 
 1843 405 112,870 
 
 1844 539 159,802 1848 560. 
 
 The increase of vessels, in 1845, was cans 
 numbers that year employed in the guano trade. 
 
 The walks near the town are pretty, and neatly kept. One 
 of them, which leads along to the top of the hill overlooking 
 the town and bay, and giving a view of the sandy plain and 
 distant mountains, with Green Point (where is a light-house), 
 and Robbin s Island in the distance, is peculiarly picturesque. 
 The drives around are pleasant, especially that to Green Point, 
 2 m. W. The climate of the whole locality is considered salu 
 brious ; and the place is much frequented by Indian residents 
 on leave of absence, whose pay (if holding 
 official situations) is here usually con 
 tinued to them. Cape Town was founded 
 by the Dutch in 1 650. Pop. 22,543. 
 
 CAPE VERD, the most W. promon 
 tory and point of Africa, in Senegambia, 
 between the mouth of the Senegal on the 
 N., and that of the Gambia on the S. ; 
 lat. 14 32 6" N. ; Ion. 17 34 W. (R.) 
 It was discovered by the Portuguese, 
 Denis Fernandez, in 1445. 
 
 CAPE VERD ISLANDS [Portu- 
 s^ V guese, Ilhas do Cabo Verde, Illias- Verdes], 
 
 an isl. group, N. Atlantic, W. coast of 
 Africa, consisting of 10 principal and 
 several smaller isles, belonging to Por 
 tugal, between lat. 14 43 , and 17 13 
 N.; and Ion. 22 28 , and 25 27 W. 
 They take their name from Cape Verd, 
 which is about 320 m. E. of them, and 
 is said to be so called from the verdure 
 _____ i= ^_ f a group of enormous baobab trees 
 
 which crowns its summit. The largest 
 and most important is Santiago; the 
 ,ttery. others are Fogo, Brava, Mayo, St. Ari- 
 
 tonio, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, St. Nico 
 las, Sal, and Boavista. All the islands are evidently vol 
 canic ; most of them are rugged and lofty, but some have 
 sheltered bays, with good anchorage. The most elevated 
 is Fogo, on which there is a volcano, which, after 50 years 
 
CAPE VEKD ISLANDS 
 
 596 
 
 CAPELLADAS 
 
 quiescence, recently became active, and the peak of which 
 has a height of 9157 ft. The island is fertile, and produces 
 great quantities of maize, bean?, and various kinds of fruits. 
 The group, however, taken as a whole, docs not deserve this 
 
 all the crops. The Cape Verds were discovered by the 
 
 Portuguese in 1149, and shortly after colonized 
 40,000. 
 
 Pop. about 
 
 character ; the surface is for the most part stoney, and often 
 barren. Rain seldom falls ; water is scarce, and generally, 
 too, of indifferent quality, while the climate is decidedly 
 unhealthy, intense heat prevailing from November to July, 
 and storms and fogs during the remainder of the year. The 
 largest of the islands is Santiago. It is 32 m. long and 15 
 broad, and though possessing a few fertile spots, is generally 
 mountainous and sterile. Its town, Porto Praya, has an ex 
 cellent harbour, though inferior to that of Porto Grande in 
 St. Vincent, which is the best in the whole group. The 
 chief products are maize, rice, and haricots, bananas, guavas, 
 lemons, oranges, pine apples, cocoa nuts, figs, and melons. The 
 vine yields two crops a year, and good wine might be made, 
 but the Government prohibits it. Coffee has been success 
 fully introduced ; the cotton and indigo plants are indigenous, 
 and both they and the sugar cane are partially cultivated. 
 Orchil, once monopolized and then set free, has again been 
 monopolized by the Government, on the ground that the de 
 terioration produced by the free traders had diminished the 
 quantity exported, and seriously affected the revenue, which, 
 from orchil alone, has in some years reached 24,000. The 
 principal trees are the palm, tamarind, and baobab ; the chief 
 domestic animals are goats, asses, and poultry. Monkeys, 
 wild cats, and pigeons abound, but there are no serpents or 
 venomous reptiles. Numerous turtles frequent the coasts, 
 and whales are captured in the neighbouring seas. On the 
 shores of all the islands amber is found. The chief manufac 
 ture is salt ; the others are linen, leather, soap, and earthen 
 ware. In 1842, the number of vessels entered was 78 
 (7446 tons), and cleared 76(7446 tons). Of these, 32 Portu 
 guese entered, and 32 cleared ; 28 British entered, and 26 
 cleared. The natives are indolent but inoffensive, and speak 
 a Portuguese jargon, called Lingua Creoula. These islands, 
 with some possessions on the coast, form the Portuguese pro 
 vince of Cape Verd, of which the capital, formerly Porto 
 Praya, is now Mindello, in St. Vincent. In 1850, the island 
 of San Nicolas was visited by measles and hooping cough, 
 which, in four months, carried off 700, in a population of 
 4500, and scarcely an individual escaped the malady ; and 
 in September, of the same year, a hurricane, in three or 
 four hours, destroyed about 400 houses, and swept away 
 
 CAPE WEATIT, the N.W. extremity of Scotland, en. 
 Sutherland. There is a light-house on 
 it, bearing a revolving light, 400 ft. 
 above the level of the sea, showing a 
 bright and red light alternately; lat. 
 58 38 N.; Ion. 4 58 30" W. (K.) 
 
 CAPE YORK, the terminating 
 point of the N.E. coast of Australia, 
 having the Gulf of Carpentaria on the 
 W., and the S. Pacific Ocean on the E.; 
 lat. 10 38 S. ; Ion. 142 33 E. ; separ 
 ated by Torres Strait from Papua, from 
 which it is distant about 100 m. It is 
 generally high and rocky, with occa 
 sional grassy flats between the ridges 
 and the sea ; in other places, the pre 
 cipices come down to the beach. A 
 shallow recess at the extremity of the 
 Cape, which has been called Evan s 
 Bay, lat. 10 45 S. ; Ion. 142 38 E., 
 was visited by the surveying expedition 
 commanded by Captain Blackwood, and 
 a very full account given of it by Mr. 
 Jukes, naturalist to the expedition, who 
 considers it, as regards climate, one of 
 the comparatively favoured spots of Au 
 stralia, frequent showers falling there 
 throughout the whole year, and thus 
 permitting the existence of permanent 
 fresh waterpools, and green grass dur 
 ing even the driest season. Garden 
 ground and grass land, to a consider 
 able extent, is also obtainable, with 
 situations for houses easily defensible, 
 and exposed to the full draught of a 
 refreshing sea-breeze. Wood and water abound, and the 
 anchorage is safe. But the place has other advantages 
 of a most important kind, according to Mr. Jukes. In cases 
 of accident to vessels in Torres Strait, where accidents are 
 frequent, from the intricate and dangerous nature of the 
 navigation, Cape York, were it made the site of a station, 
 would afford a ready place of refuge to those who might 
 escape in boats. Its rocky elevations, besides, render it a 
 conspicuous object from the sea. In a military point of view, 
 also, it would be important, in respect of affording protection, 
 in case of war, to our commerce between the S. Pacific and 
 Indian Oceans; and in the event of steam communication 
 being established between India and New S. Wales, by way 
 of Torres Strait, Cape York would necessarily become one of 
 the coaling stations. Mr. Jukes describes the natives he met 
 with here as quiet and friendly, but of very low intelligence. 
 They had the thin-legged, spare, lanky form, of all the Austra 
 lian people. Their hair, however, was like that of Europeans, 
 and worn either straight, or waving in broad open curls. 
 Houseless and homeless, without any kind of cultivation, and 
 destitute of fruits and vegetables, they pass their lives either 
 in the search for food, or in listless indolence. These Austra 
 lians, says Mr. Jukes, sat listlessly looking at us, standing 
 where we told them, fetching anything or doing anything 
 we ordered them, with great docility indeed, but with com 
 plete want of interest and curiosity. On our shooting a kite 
 or two, they instantly seized them, plucked off some of the 
 feathers, and then warming the body a little at the fire, tore 
 it open and eat it, entrails and all. - (Jukes s Narrative of the 
 Surveying Voyage of H. M.S. Fly, in 1842-1846.) 
 
 CAPEL, four pars. Eng. : 1, Surrey; 4990 ac. Pop. 
 983. 2, (le Feme) Kent; 1490 ac. Pop. 247. 3, (Sf.Andreic) 
 Suffolk ; 2400 ac. Pop. 222. 4, (St. Mary] Suffolk ; 1210 ac. 
 Pop. 608. 
 
 CAPELLADAS, a tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, and 
 34 m. W.N.W. Barcelona, in a fertile plain. It contains a 
 parish church, chapel, seven schools, a townhall, prison, hos 
 pital, cemetery, and some public baths. The inhabitants arc 
 chiefly employed in weaving coarse cloth, cotton and woollen 
 fabrics, paper making, distilling brandy, and in agriculture. 
 Pop. 2798. 
 
CAPELLE 
 
 597 
 
 CAPPAGH WHITE 
 
 CAPELLE properly, GREVELDUIN CAPELLE, a vii. 
 Holland, prov. N. Brabant, 12 m. W.S.W. Hertogenbosch ; 
 with a handsome church, school, aud two annual markets. 
 Pop. 1160. 
 
 CAPELLE-OP-DEN-YssEL, a vil. Holland, prov. S. Hol 
 land, 4 m. E. by N. Rotterdam. It has a church with a 
 fine tower, a school, a branch of the Public Utility Society, 
 and a literary association. Pop., including surrounding 
 hamlets, 1050. 
 
 CAPESTANG [anc. Caput Starjni], a tn. France, dep. 
 Herault, 9 in. W. Beziers, on the Canal du Midi, and near the 
 N. bank of an extensive lagoon, to which it gives its name. 
 It is surrounded by walls flanked with towers, both in a 
 ruinous condition. The church contains some Gothic sculp 
 tures, and within the town are the remains of a lloman bridge. 
 Pop. 1831. 
 
 CAPESTERRE (LA). 1, Le Mariyot, a tn. W. Indies, 
 isl. Guadeloupe, 9 in. E.N.E. La Basse-Terre, at the, S.E. angle 
 of the island and at the mouth of the Riviere-aux-Peres. It 
 is the capital of the most fertile and salubrious district of the 
 colony. Coffee, cacao, aud sugar, are cultivated around it. 
 
 2, A tn. W. Indies, S.E. coast isl. Marie-Galante, cap. of a 
 district. 
 
 CAPESTRANO, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. Abruzzo, 
 Ultra II., 23 m. S.E. Aquila. It is situated on a hill, on 
 which there is a castle, contains two handsome churches and 
 a convent, and has two annual fairs. Pop. 2408. 
 
 CAPIBARI, atn. and several streams, Brazil. 1, A tn., 
 prov. of, and 120 m. W. Sao-Paulo, on a stream of its own 
 name, an affluent of the Tiete. It has a church and school ; 
 and the building of canoes, and the distilling of brandy, are 
 carried on. Pop. 2000. 2, A river, prov. Sao-Paulo, falling 
 into the Tiete" on its 1. bank, 22 m. below Porto-Feliz. It 
 traverses the town of its own name, and its banks are covered 
 with timber suited for building canoes of the largest size. 
 
 3, A river, prov. Santa-Catharina, falling into the Tubarao, 
 about 10m. from the sea. It is navigable for about 30 m. 
 4, A river, prov. Sao-Paulo, a tributary of the Ivahy, an 
 affluent of the Parana. 
 
 CAPIBARIBE, a river, Brazil, prov. Pernambuco, ris 
 ing in lat. 7 50 S. ; Ion. 37 45 W. ; flowing E. and S., and 
 falling by two mouths into the Bay of Recife. It is navigable 
 for canoes and flat-bottomed boats a considerable way inland. 
 Total course about 200 m., exclusive of windings. 
 
 CAPISTRELLO, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Abruzzo 
 Ultra II., 5 m. S.S.W. Avezzano, 3 m. W. LakeFucino. It 
 contains two churches and an hospital. Pop. 1300. 
 
 CAPITANATA, a prov. Naples, on the Adriatic, com 
 prising the small group of Tremiti and the islet of Pianosa, 
 bounded N. aud E. by the Adriatic, S. by provs. Bari and 
 Basilicata, and W. by Principato Ultra and Sannio: area, 
 3173 sq. m. W. and N. it is intersected by spurs of the Ap- 
 penines, one of which terminates in the wooded promontory 
 of Gargano. S. and E. extends a vast sandy plain, called the 
 Tavoliere di Puglia, on the excellent pastures of which more 
 than a million and a half of sheep are annually wintered. 
 The coast is generally low, and has no good port. The pro 
 vince is well watered by the Candelaro and its affluents, the 
 Cervera, and the Carapella, all flowing to the Adriatic. 
 Wheat, though cultivated only in the valleys, is superabund 
 ant ; legumes, fruit, and liquorice, are plentiful ; the wines 
 produced are in general good, especially those of San Gio 
 vanni, Viesti, and Manfredonia ; and likewise the olive oil 
 of Gargano ; tobacco and manna are also cultivated. The 
 principal riches of the province, however, consist in fine large 
 cattle, esteemed horses, and sheep, the last yielding excellent 
 wool. Goats and pigs are reared in large numbers. Marine 
 salt is gathered in the lagoons, and good potter s clay, lime 
 stone, and alabaster are obtained. There is little fishing, and 
 no manufactures. Trade in grain, fruits, liquorice, honey, 
 and wood ; horses, cattle, wool, cheese, and hides. Its capital 
 is Foggia ; ports, Viesti, Manfredonia, and Rodi. The pro 
 vince is divided into three districts, Foggia, Bovino, and San 
 Severo, comprising 28 circondario, aud 62 comune. Pop. 
 294,055. 
 
 CAPIVARI, a tn. Brazil, prov. Rio -de -Janeiro, near 
 Cabo Frio, with two churches, and inhabitants engaged in 
 agriculture, and in felling and preparing timber for the mar 
 ket at Rio-de Janeiro. Pop., tn. and dist, 3000. 
 
 CAPIZ. 1, A prov. Philippines isl. Panay, N. coast, and 
 including several small adjacent islands, is about 80m. E. to W., 
 by 57 N. to S. It is undulating, and its lower grounds are 
 flooded in the wet season, rendering it fertile in rice. It has 
 several rivers, some of which are filled with crocodiles. 
 None of them appear to be navigable, but all are well wooded. 
 The coasts are dangerous at certain seasons, but they have 
 two excellent safe harbours, that of Bataan and that of Capiz, 
 both capable of admitting vessels of medium size. Gold and 
 silver are found in the province. 2, A tn., cap. of above prov., 
 on a plain near the sea, and surrounded by the rivers Panay, 
 Panitan, and Ivisan, with some houses of stone, and the re 
 mainder ofnipapalm. It is defended by a fortletand a small 
 garrison. In the rainy seasons it is sometimes inundated. 
 The inhabitants are laborious, and fond of commerce and 
 fishing. Pop. 11,145. 
 
 CAPIZZI [anc. Capitum }, a tn. Sicily, prov. Messina, 
 10 m. S.E. Mistretta. Marble, petroleum, asphaltum, and 
 iron pyrites are found in the neighbourhood. Pop. 3488. 
 
 CAPLE, par. Eng. Kent ; 1630 ac. Pop. 516. 
 
 CAPO-Di-SEPKA, and CAPO -DI-SOTTA [called also CAPO- 
 DI-SASSARI, and CAPO-DI-CAGLIARI], the two govs. into which 
 isl. Sardinia is divided ; the former the N., and the latter the S. 
 
 CAPO D ISTRIA [anc. jErjida], a seaport tn. Austria, 
 Illyria, gov. of, and 9 m. S.S.W. Trieste, on a small rocky 
 island, Gulf of Trieste ; lat. (church) 45 32 42" N. ; Ion. 
 13 44 15" E. (R.) It is connected with the mainland by a 
 causeway of about J m. long. It is defended by an old fort, 
 now going to decay. Ruined walls, falling houses, and dark 
 narrow streets, give it a very gloomy appearance. It con 
 tains a cathedral, a lofty edifice, faced in the Venetian style 
 with marble, and containing some fine paintings, sculptures, 
 and arabesques ; several other churches, a liandsome Gothic 
 townhouse, a corn exchange, and theatre. It is the seat of a 
 bishopric, and has six monasteries and two nunneries, a gym 
 nasium, two superior schools, several hospitals, and a peni 
 tentiary. The town is very inadequately supplied with water 
 by an aqueduct, and from rain cisterns. There are manufac 
 tures of soap, candles, leather, and sea salt, about 18,000 
 bushels of the latter being manufactured yearly; and a con 
 siderable trade, besides, in wine, oil, and fish, the fisheries 
 being pretty extensive. The harbour is capacious, but is 
 resorted to by fishing boats only. After the 10th century, Capo 
 d Istria belonged alternately to the Venetians and Genoese, 
 and was made by the former, in 1478, the capital of Istria. 
 Pop. 6300. 
 
 CAPODRISI, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Terra di La- 
 voro, 3 m. S.W. Caserta. It contains a handsome church, 
 adorned with pictures and statues, and a charitable endow 
 nient. Pop. 2415. 
 
 CAPOONACAUGANY, a river, Upper Canada, rising 
 in some lakes N. side the ridge of hills running parallel to 
 Lake Superior. It flows N., joins the Necaugany, and sub 
 sequently falls into the Albany, lat. 51 5 N. ; Ion. 85 30 
 W., about 200 m. W. by S., the entrance of the latter into 
 St. James s Bay. 
 
 CAPOSELE, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Citra, 12 m. 
 N.N.E. Campagna, near the source of the Sele. Pop. 4480. 
 
 CAPPADOC1A, an anc. prov. Asia Minor, now included 
 in Asiatic Turkey ; bounded, N. by Pontus, E. by the Eu 
 phrates and Armenia Minor, S. by Mount Taurus, and W. by 
 Phrygia and Galatia, between lat. 37 16 and 39 28 N. ; 
 Ion. 32 50 18" and 39 E. It is mountainous and well watered, 
 and was celebrated for the production of excellent wheat, as 
 well as for its fine pasture, and its superior breed of horses, 
 asses, and sheep. It was subdued by the Persians under 
 Cyrus ; and after the time of Alexander the Great, it was 
 governed by kings of its own, till A.D. 17, when Tiberius re 
 duced it to the form of a Roman province. Christianity was 
 early propagated in Cappadocia, as we learn by the address of 
 the first general epistle of the apostle Peter. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Abruzzo 
 Ultra II., 8 m. W.S.W. Avezzano, a little N.W. of the hill 
 in which the Liri rises. Pop. 1771. 
 
 CAPPAGH, 2 pars. Ireland. 1, Limerick ; 1268 ac. 
 Pop. 755. 2, Tyrone; 37,671 ac. Pop. 13,330. 
 
 CAPPAGHWH1TE, a vil. Ireland, co. of, and 7 m. N. 
 Tipperary. It is a constabulary police station, and has five 
 annual fairs. Pop. 1046. 
 
CA1TANACUSIIY 
 
 593 
 
 CAKABOBO 
 
 CAPPANACUSHY, a group of islets and an old castle, 
 Ireland, co. Kerry. The islets are situated 3 m. W. Ken- 
 mare, at the head of the estuary of the river of same name ; 
 and the remains of the castle are on the mainland opposite. 
 
 CAPPEL, a vil. Switzerland, can. of, and 10 m. S.S.W. 
 Zurich. It contains an old Cistercian convent, founded in 
 1 185 ; a poorhouse, once the prefecture ; a presbytery, school- 
 house, &c., and a simple monument, erected, in 1838, in 
 memory of Zwingle, the eminent reformer, killed Oct. 12, 
 1530, in a contest between the troops of the R. Catholic and 
 Protestant cantons, which took place near Cappel. P. 578. 
 
 CAPPELN. See KAPPELN. 
 
 CAPPOGE, par. Irel., Louth ; 1284 ac. Pop. 568. 
 
 CAPRAIA, orCAPRAJA [anc. ^Egilium],&nis\. Sardinian 
 Ptates, Mediterranean, 22 m. N.W. Elba; lat. (castle, E. side) 
 44 2 36" N. ; Ion. 9 50 45" E. (R.) It is of volcanic origin, 
 about 12 m. in circumference, mountainous, and of difficult ap 
 proach, except on the E. side, where the town of Capraja is 
 situate. The port here is safe, and defended by a fort. Wine 
 is the only produce of the island. Most of the inhabitants 
 are fishermen. Wild goats now, as formerly, abound in it. 
 Pop. 2500. 
 
 CAPRARA. See TREMITI ISLANDS. 
 
 CAPRAROLA, a tn. Papal States, deleg. of, and 9 m. 
 S.E. Viterbo, containing a celebrated castle, built on the 
 slopes of Mount Ciniino, said to be the masterpiece of the 
 architect Vignola, and to be unrivalled, at least in Italy, as a 
 specimen of the fortified domestic architecture of the 16th cen 
 tury. It was built for Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, nephew 
 of Pope Paul III., and is richly decorated with frescoes and 
 arabasques, each room being devoted to some incident in the 
 history of the Farnese family, or to some allegorical subject. 
 
 CAPRERA, a small isl. N.E. the island of Sardinia, and 
 separated from it by a narrow strait. It is 6 m. long N. to 
 S., and nearly 2 m. broad. It is fertile, and produces both 
 corn and good pasture. 
 
 CAPRI [anc. Caprece], an isl. belonging to Naples, Me 
 diterranean, 3J m. E. Cape Campanella, which separates the 
 Gulf of Naples from the Gulf of Salerno ; lat. (S. point) 40 32 
 N. ; Ion. 14 11 45" E. (R.) It is about 9 m. in circumfer 
 ence, and is surrounded by perpendicular cliffs, which afford 
 only one landing-place. The island consists of two mountains 
 of limestone, remarkable for their picturesque shape ; and 
 between them lies a well-cultivated valley, which yields grain, 
 the choicest grapes, olives, and other fruit. The inhabit 
 ants are occupied in the production of oil and wine, in fishing, 
 and in catching quails, which come in immense numbers from 
 Africa to the shores of Italy. Rows of nets are placed across 
 the breaks in the woods and chasms in the rocks, to intercept 
 these birds in their annual flights, and the quantity taken is 
 almost incredible. The climate is remarkably fine, and a re 
 sidence in Capri is recommended in cases of chronic-bron 
 chitis. The island is supposed to have been originally 
 peopled by a tribe from the Epirus. The Emperor Augustus 
 resided here during his illness ; and Tiberius made this place 
 the scene of his debaucheries during the last ten years of his j a favourite place of resort of the Romans, on account of its 
 
 Inside this ridge, on which is a belt of small trees, is a sandy 
 plain covered with a short scrubby vegetation, a foot or two in 
 height. Between the trees on the ridge, and in some other spots, 
 there is a thin layer of vegetable soil. The island abounds 
 with sea fowl and other aquatic birds, especially black noddies, 
 with whose nests the trees are laden. Most of the islands arc. 
 encompassed by coral reefs, with lagoons inside, in which 
 sharks and turtle swim about in great numbers, the former 
 of immense size and strength. Turtle is so abundant, that 
 one night, says Mr. Jukes, Lieut., now Commander, Shad- 
 well, being on one of the islands observing star altitudes, 
 was actually obliged to place sentries round him, to prevent 
 the turtle from running over his artificial horizon as it lay on 
 the ground. They were chiefly green turtle, and the kind 
 called loggerheads. ( Voy. H.M.S. Fly, 1842 to 1846.) 
 
 CAPRINO, two tns. Austrian Italy. 1, A tn., gov. Ve 
 nice, prov. of, and 16m. N.E. Verona, cap. dist. of same name, 
 on the small river Ri, a tributary of the Adige, and surrounded 
 by hills. It contains a parish and a subsidiary church, three 
 chapels, and a record office for the district. Pop. 3500. 
 2, Atn.,gov. Milan, prov. of, and 10 in. W. N.W. Bergamo,near 
 1. bank, Adda. It is well built and clean, and comprises a 
 spacious church, townhall, public library, and convent. Hard 
 ware, and weaving silken and woollen fabrics, is carried on. 
 Pop. 1419. 
 
 CAPRYCKE,atn.andcom Belgium, prov. E. Flanders, 
 12 m. N.N.W. Ghent, with a tannery, three breweries, two 
 roperies, and manufactures of wooden pumps and clogs. 
 There is also some trade in agricultural produce, wood, 
 cattle, and linen. Pop. 3859. 
 
 CAPSALI, a seaport tn. Ionian Islands, cap. of Cerigo, 
 near S. side of the island, upon the slope of a mountain. It 
 has a commodious harbour, defended by a fort. Pop. 5000. 
 
 CAPUA [anc. Capoa and Capua], a city, Naples, prov. 
 Terra di Lavoro, in a plain 18 m. N. Naples, 1. bank, Vol- 
 turno, which is crossed by a handsome bridge. It is the 
 seat of an archbishopric, is well fortified, has a strong citadel, 
 and is reckoned one of the keys of the kingdom, being the prin 
 cipal fortress that covers the approach to Naples. It has 
 two magnificent gates, three principal streets, two handsome 
 squares, and three public fountains. The town is dirty, but 
 the houses are well built. The principal public buildings are 
 the cathedral, with a cupola, supported by 18 columns ; the 
 church of the Annunciation ; the governor s palace, and the 
 townhall. There are also 18 parish churches, several con 
 vents for both sexes, a seminary, a college, military school, 
 extensive barracks, four hospitals, and a handsome theatre. 
 A noted fair is held here annually on Dec. 26. 
 
 The ancient city was situated 2^ m. S.E. from the modern 
 town, which was built from its ruins by the Lombards in the 
 9th century. The site is now occupied by a considerable 
 town, called Santa-Maria-di-Capoa. The ancient Capua, one 
 of the finest and most agreeable cities of Italy, was of such 
 extent, as to be compared to Rome and Carthage. Hannibal 
 wintered at ancient Capua after the battle of Cannae. It was 
 
 life. He is said to have built 12 villas in different parts of 
 the island, but, after his death, they were destroyed by order 
 of the senate. Numerous ruins and fragments of ancient 
 monuments still remain, among which is a temple cut in the 
 side of a hill, said to have been dedicated by Augustus to his 
 mother; besides portions of aqueducts, baths, and palaces. 
 The island contains two towns, Capri and Anacapri. Capri 
 is the seat of a bishop. It is built on the acclivity of a hill, 
 and contains a cathedral, and some other churches. Pop. 
 about 1800. (See ANACAPRI.) Pop. of isl., 3301. 
 
 CAPRIATA, a vil. Sardinian States, Piedmont, div. 
 Genoa, prov. of, and 7 m. S.W. Novi, r. bank, Orba. P. 2365. 
 
 CAPRICORN (CAPE), Australia, N.E. coast, about 30 m. 
 N. Port Curtis; lat. 23 18 S. ; Ion. 151 43 E. (R.) 
 
 CAPRICORN (GROUP), an assemblage of islets and reefs, 
 N.E. coast Australia, having 152 meridian and the tropic 
 of Capricorn passing through them, whence their name. They 
 are all much alike in their geological characteristics, and 
 general features. One of them, called First Bunker s Island, 
 about a quarter of a mile in diameter, is composed of coarse 
 fragments of worn corals and shells, bleached by the weather. 
 At the back of it a ridge of the same materials, 4 or 5 ft. 
 
 high, and as many yards across, completely encircle the island. | bia. Pop. 96,967. 
 
 agreeable situation and its healthy climate ; and many exist 
 ing ruins attest its ancient splendour. Pop. 8100. 
 
 CAPUL, isl. Indian Archipelago, one of the Philippines 
 off the N.W. coast Samar ; lat. 12 31 N. ; Ion. 124 9 E. 
 
 CAPURSO, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. of and 7 in. 
 S.S.E. Bari; in a plain, and celebrated for its almonds. Pop. 
 3160. 
 
 CAPUTH, par. Scot., Perth ; 16,000 ac. Pop. 2317. 
 
 CARA, a small isl. Scotland, co. Argyle, at the S. side of 
 Gigha, with which it forms a parish. See GIGHA. 
 
 CARABANCHEL ALTO Y BAJO, two vils. Spain, New 
 Castile, prov. of, and 3 m. S. Madrid, each possessing a church, 
 schools, town and session houses, and being adorned with vil 
 las, gardens, fountains, &c., belonging to the nobility of Mad 
 rid. United pop. 1804. 
 
 CARABOBO, a prov. Venezuela, bounded by Coro and 
 the Caribbean Sea N., Caracas E., Varinas S., and Truxillo 
 W. ; area, 8148 sq. m. Its principal productions comprise 
 coffee, wheat, tobacco, indigo, and cotton. Valencia is the 
 capital, 30 m. S.W. from which is the village of Carabobo, 
 whence the province is named, and where a decisive battle 
 was fought in 1821, which secured the independence of Colum- 
 
CARACA 
 
 599 
 
 CARBONARA 
 
 CARACA, a mountain range, Brazil, prov. Minas-Geraes, 
 N. of the city of Mariauna. It is a portion of the Cordillera 
 of Mantiqueira, being one of its highest ranges ; and liquorice, 
 ialap, sarsaparilla, and other medicinal plants, grow naturally 
 on it. 
 
 CARACAS, a group of six small uninhabited isls. Carib 
 bean Sea, coast of Venezuela, a little W. Cuniana. 
 
 CARACAS, SANTI AGO-DE- LEON-DE-CARACAS, a tn. S. Ame 
 rica, cap. of Republic and of the dep. Venezuela, and of prov. 
 Caracas, 3000 ft. above the level of the sea, 11 m. S.S.E. La 
 Guayra, from which it is separated by a chain of mountains, 
 whose highest point on the road is 5160 ft. ; lat. 10 30 N. ; 
 Ion. 66 54 W. (K.) The river Guayra bounds it on the S., 
 and is everywhere fordable near the town, excepting after 
 heavy rains, when it runs with great rapidity, but subsides 
 almost as suddenly as it rises. Three other streams pass close 
 to the town, namely, the Arauco, across which is a handsome 
 bridge ; the Caroata, which separates one part of the city from 
 the rest, and across which is another bridge ; and the Catucho. 
 The town is well and regularly built, the streets being in 
 general about 100 yards apart, and intersecting each other at 
 right angles. They are almost all furnished with fountains. 
 The houses are solidly built of brick or earth, faced with 
 stucco, often richly decorated. Many of them have terraced 
 roofs. There are several squares, the chief of which is the 
 Plaza Mayor or Great Square, where the market for fruits, 
 vegetables, fish, &c., is held ; the E. side is principally occu 
 pied by the cathedral, a clumsy structure, which was much 
 damaged by an earthquake in 1826 ; the S. by the college ; 
 and the W. by the public prison. The chief public build 
 ings are the churches, of which there are seven, all solidly 
 built, and in the interior richly ornamented ; and the con 
 vents, of which there are five three for monks and two for 
 nuns. The most splendid church is that of Alta Gracia. 
 From the Catucho the town is well supplied with water, which 
 is dispensed to the inhabitants in public fountains, as well as 
 in pipes and reservoirs. Caracas is the seat of an archbishop, 
 and has a university, founded in 1778, and three hospitals. 
 Its trade is considerable, and consists of the products of the 
 adjacent fertile valleys. For its exports, see LA GUAYRA. 
 The climate is healthful, but earthquakes are common, that of 
 1812 destroyed nearly all the houses, and upwards of 10,000 
 of the inhabitants ; and though the town has been rebuilt, the 
 houses are inferior to what they were before that dreadful 
 visitation. The city, founded in 1567, by Diego Losada, 
 was formerly the capital of the Captain-generalship of the 
 Caracas, and is the birthplace of Bolivar. Pop. about 
 50,000. The PROVINCE lies between lat. 7 38 and 10 26 
 N., and Ion. 65 30 and 68 W. ; bounded, N. by the Ca 
 ribbean Sea, W. Carabobo and Varinas, S. Achaguas, and 
 Venezuela and Guiana, and E. Barcelona; area, 45,264 geo. 
 sq. m. The surface is partly mountainous and partly flat ; 
 the former towards the sea coast, where several deep inden 
 tations occur, and form good harbours and roadsteads ; the 
 latter towards the interior, and particularly towards the S., 
 where the country stretches out into vast plains. The most 
 important vegetable production of the province is cacao, the 
 quality being the best of all that is brought to the Euro 
 pean market ; but all the usual tropical crops are grown in 
 perfection, among which may be specified coffee and indigo. 
 The province is divided into 16 cantons, of which that of Ca- 
 raccas, containing the capital, though not the largest, is the 
 most fertile and best peopled. Pop. 242,888. 
 
 CARACOL, BABAHOGO, or OXIBA, a river, New Granada, 
 prov. Guayaquil, rising on the N. side of the mountain Car- 
 guairazo, about 85 m. S. by W. Quito, and after a S.S.W. 
 course of 90 m., for the greater part of which it is navigable, 
 falling into Lake Sambovamban, 25 m. N. Guayaquil. 
 
 CARAGLIO, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 7 m. 
 W. Coni, on the Grana. Spun silk and silk fabrics are manu 
 factured here. Pop. 6000. 
 
 CARAMAN, and CARAMANIA. See KARAMAN and KA- 
 RAMANIA. 
 
 CARAMAN, a tn. France, dep. Haute Garonne, 16 m. 
 E.S.E. Toulouse. It has numerous fairs. Pop. 1381. 
 
 CARAMNASSA, a river, Hindoostan, which separates 
 the prov. of Bahar from that of Allahabad. It rises in a 
 hilly disa-ict, about 55 m. S.S.E. Benares ; lat. 24 40 N. ; 
 Ion. 83 40 E. ; bends round to a N.N.E. direction, and falb 
 
 into the Ganges 10 in. above Buxar. Its whole course is 
 about 75 m. 
 
 CARANG ASSEM, a tn. Indian Archipelago, isl. Bali, 
 on the strait of Lombok; lat. 8 42 S. ; Ion. 116 34 E. (R.) 
 Ships may here obtain water, bullocks, hogs, and poultry. 
 The country around is fertile and well cultivated. 
 
 CARANGAM1TE, a large, shallow, salt-water lake, S. 
 Australia, dist. Portland Bay, about 50 m. W. the town of 
 Geelong. It is upwards of 90 m. in circumference, but to the 
 S. it is so shallow, as to be crossed by the natives for a dis 
 tance of 15 m. ; it is deeper to the N. 
 
 CARANJA, an isl. W. coast, Hindoostan, between Bom 
 bay and the mainland; lat. 18 53 N. ; Ion. 73 E. It is 
 4 m. long and 2 broad, and is low and woody, excepting two 
 remarkable hills, called Great and Little Caranja Hills, the 
 former near the S. part of the island, the latter on the N. 
 Great Caranja is very conspicuous, being of a tabular form, 
 with a steep declivity at each end. 
 
 CARANO, a small vil. Austria, Tyrol, prov. of, and 21 m. 
 N.E. Trent, r. bank, Aviso, in the vicinity of which are calcare 
 ous and saline springs ; temperature 38 to 40, clear, and 
 of an earthy flavour, and said to be efficacious in cutaneous 
 affections. Pop. 804. 
 
 CARATE, a tn. Austrian Italy, prov. of, and 15 m. N. 
 Milan, E. slope of a hill, r. bank, Adda, here crossed by a 
 wooden bridge. It was formerly fortified, and in its vicinity 
 several engagements have taken place. Silken, woollen, and 
 linen fabrics are woven. Pop. 2282. 
 
 CARAVACA, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 43 m. W. by N. 
 Murcia, on the side of a hill crowned by an ancient castle, 1. 
 bank, Caravaca, here crossed by a stone bridge. The houses 
 are generally commodious, well constructed, and in many 
 cases adorned with iron balconies. Most of the larger streets 
 are wide, paved, and clean ; there are five squares, the prin 
 cipal of which contains the Government-house, head inn, 
 prison, and townliall, the last a spacious and handsome struc 
 ture, with an elegant balcony and a central arch, forming an 
 entrance from thu square into the principal street, and into the 
 edifice itself. The parish church, a fine specimen of the Ionic 
 style, completed in 1600, has a lofty tower of hewn stone ; its 
 interior is tastefully decorated, and contains numerous monu 
 mental and pictorial works of considerable merit. There are, 
 besides, several conventual churches and a variety of chapels. 
 The remaining public buildings are two hospitals, a theatre, 
 cemetery, and numerous schools. Manufactures: linen, 
 woollen, and hempen fabrics, paper, soap, earthenware, cop 
 per vessels, leather, brandy, oil, and wine. There are also 
 extensive chemical and dye works, and flour-mills. Trade: 
 in cattle, grain, and manufactured goods. A yearly fair is 
 held for general merchandize. Pop. 26,572. (Madoz.) 
 
 CARAVAGG1O, a tn. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. 
 Milan, prov. Bergamo, 24 m. E. Milan, on the Gera d Adda, 
 between the Adda and Serio. It was surrounded by walls, 
 and defended by a strong castle. These have been recently 
 demolished, but the deep fosse, filled with water, still remains, 
 and six bridges over it give access to the town, which has 
 several churches, an hospital, and a mont-de-piete. In the prin 
 cipal church are some good paintings by Campi ; and near the 
 town is the sanctuary of the Madonna, built, in 1575, from 
 the designs of Pellegrino Tibaldi, picturesquely situated and 
 adorned \\ith some fine paintings. This town is famous for 
 being the birth-place of the two great painters, both called 
 da Caravaggio, Polidoro Caldara, the scholar of Raphael, 
 and Michael Angelo Merigi. The commune is fertile. It 
 produces all kinds of grain in abundance, and is scattered over 
 with mulberry trees. Its melons are large and of excellent 
 quality, and yield a considerable revenue to the peasantry, 
 who cultivate them on their own account, renting ground for 
 the purpose. Pop. 6203. 
 
 CARAVELLAS, a maritime tn. Brazil, prov. Bahia, on 
 a bay of same name, into which flows the river Caravellas ; 
 lat. 17 42 S. ; Ion. 39 15 W. It is agreeably situate on 
 a rising ground, and three of its streets run parallel to the 
 shore. It has two churches, a Latin and a primary school ; 
 and it exports manioc flour, coffee, and fish ; the former two 
 cultivated extensively in the district. Pop., tn. and dist. 
 5000. 
 
 CARBONARA, a tn. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra, 
 17 m. E.N.E. St. Angelo de Lombard!. p O p. 2886. 
 
CARBON NE 
 
 CARDIGAN 
 
 CAR BONNE, a tn. France, dep. Haute Garonne, 24 m. j The cloth manufacture has long l)ecn an important branch of 
 S.S.W. Toulouse, agreeably situate 1. bank, Garonne, not far industry ; the wool being spun, dyed, and woven here. The 
 from where it receives the Arize. It has some woollen manu- large fine-woollen cloth manufactories, of which there are seve 
 f -ictures, a fulling-mill, dye-works, brick and tile works. Its ral, give employment to 7000 persons. The cloth is exported 
 trade is in oil and wool. Pop. 1328. chiefly to the Levant, Barbary, and S. America, where it is cs- 
 
 CARBROOKE, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 3020 ao. Fop. 807. i teemed for its brilliant dyes. There are also distilleries, tannc- 
 CARBURY, par. Irel. Kildare; 4797 ac. Pop. 754. j ries, manufactories of paper, soap, woollen coverlets, stockings, 
 
 linens, and nails. A good trade is also done in wine, grain, flour, 
 fruits, brandy, leather, and hardware. In the time of Caesar, 
 Carcassonne was a place of considerable note, and held a high 
 rank among the Narbonnese towns. The Visigoths fortified 
 it, and built some of the existing walls and towers. In 1209, 
 
 , par. Ire] 
 
 CARCABUEY, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 34 
 m. S.E. by S. Cordova. It has narrow and irregular streets, 
 a square, which contains the townhouse and prison, a church, 
 store-house, and endowed school. The inhabitants arc occu 
 pied in weaving and husbandry. Some little trade is also 
 done in grain, wine, oil, and cattle. Pop. 3396. (Madoz.) 
 
 CARCAGENTE, or CARCAXENTE, a tn. Spain, prov. of 
 and 28 m. S. by W. Valencia, in a fertile and beautiful plain 
 r. bank, Jucar. The houses are well built and spacious 
 forming wide and clean streets. The principal square is 
 large, lined with handsome dwellings and shops, and contains 
 a spacious and elegant modern townhouse and prison. There 
 are likewise a parish church, several chapels, two convents, 
 an hospital, almshousc, cemetery, some primary schools, and 
 an extensive palace of the Marquis of Calzada. In the en 
 virons are delightful promenades and gardens. Trade: in 
 grain, fruits, and silk. Pop. 7280. 
 
 CARCASSONNE, a city, France, cap. dep. Aude, inter 
 sected by the Aude, and on a branch of the Canal du Midi, 
 53 m. S. Toulouse ; lat. 43 12 55" N. ; Ion. 2 21 9" E. (L.) 
 It consists of two parts, on the opposite sides of the river, 
 which is here crossed by a bridge of 10 arches, the New Town 
 in a plain, 1. bank, and the Old Town on a hill, r. bank. 
 The former is surrounded by double walls, and has a castle. 
 A portion of the inner line of ramparts and towers is attri 
 buted to the Visigoths, and the rest, including the castle, 
 seems to be of the llth or 12th century. The streets are 
 narrow, dirty, and desolate, the houses falling to ruin, and 
 those that are inhabited, tenanted only by the poorest class. 
 It contains the church of St. Lazarus, formerly the cathedral, 
 within which, near the high altar, may be seen the tomb of 
 Simon de Montfort, who led the infamous crusades against the 
 Albigenses, 400 of whom were here burnt alive. The modern 
 town forms & striking contrast to the old city. It is cheer 
 ful, flourishing, and industrious, consisting chiefly of modern 
 houses in streets at right angles with each other, surrounded | town. 
 
 Ly boulevards occupying the site of the old ramparts. It has 
 several squares planted with trees, and furnished with marble 
 fountains. The modern cathedral and the church of St. Vincent 
 are not remarkable. The other public buildings are the Hotel 
 de la Prefecture, the prison, the halle or market, and the pub 
 lic library, containing 6000 volumes, derived principally from 
 the old convents. This town is the seat of a bishopric, tri 
 bunals of first resort, and commerce, and has a communal 
 college, primary normal school, and theological seminary. 
 
 t sustained a memorable siege by the army of fanatics who 
 had been sent to extirpate the Albigenses. Want of water 
 compelled the latter to capitulate, when scenes of miserable 
 atrocity followed. Pop. 15,380. 
 
 CARCELEN, a tn. Spain, Murcia, prov. of, and 24 m. 
 E.N.E. Albacete, at the foot of a hill. The streets are nar 
 row and steep, and the only square contains the townhouse, 
 prison, and a ruined tower. The town also possesses a church, 
 poorhouse, cemetery, and two schools. Manufactures : 
 woollen and linen fabrics, oil, and a little wine. There are 
 marble quarries in the vicinity. An annual fair is held in 
 August. Pop. 2019. 
 
 CAR-COLSTON, par. Eng. Notts; 1200 ac. Pop. 276- 
 CARCES, a tn. France, dep. Var, agreeably situate at the 
 confluence of the Issole and Argens, 16m. W.S.W.Draguignan 
 It has silk manufactures, tanneries, and distilleries. Pop. 2 101. 
 CARDIFF [Welsh, Caerdydd], a parl. bor. and seaport, 
 S. \Vales. cap. Glamorganshire, 1. bank, Taff, over which 
 there is a handsome bridge of three arches, leading to Swan 
 sea, 3 m. S.E. Llandaff; lat. (custom house) 51 28 36" N. ; 
 Ion. 3 10 W. (R.) The principal streets are well built, 
 paved, and lighted with gas, and contain some good houses 
 and shops : but those parts of the town inhabited by the poorer 
 class have a mean appearance. On the N. side is an ancient 
 castle, in a tower of which Eobert, Duke of Normandy, was 
 confined for 28 years, and had his eyes put out by his brother 
 Henry I. This castle has been modernized by its proprietor, 
 the Marquis of Bute, who converted a part of it into a dwell 
 ing-house. The church of St. John has a lofty and elegant 
 spire, forming a fine feature in the general aspect of the 
 Besides two established churches, there are places of 
 worship belonging to Wesleyans, Baptists, Independ 
 ents, Calvinistic Methodists, and K. Catholics, with 
 an infirmary, free school, and a number of other schools 
 and charities. The other public buildings are a county 
 jail, guildhall, and theatre. The town is governed by 
 a mayor, six aldermen, and 18 councillors ; and, con 
 jointly with Cowbridge and Llantrissent, the borough 
 returns a member to the House of Commons. There arc 
 no manufactures in Cardiff, the inhabitants depending 
 almost exclusively on the shipping, and on the coal and 
 iron-works in the neighbourhood. The accommodation 
 for shipping being formerly deficient, the Marquis of 
 Bute greatly extended it by constructing a canal and 
 two spacious docks. The commerce is steadily on the 
 increase, and is already very considerable. In 1848, 
 there were shipped for exportation: iron, 225,81 J 
 tons ; coals, 659,800 tons; and 121 ,224 tons of iron ore 
 were imported. Besides iron and coals, considerable 
 quantities of tin are exported from Cardiff, also oats, 
 barley, butter, and poultry. The Taff Vale and Aber 
 dare Railway has a station here. Pop. (1840) 10,077. 
 (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 CARDIGAN, or CARDIGANSHIRE, a maritime co. 
 S.Wales, having N. cos. Merioneth and Montgomery, 
 E. cos. Radnor and Brecknock ; S. Cacrmarthen and 
 Pembroke; and W., Cardigan Bay. Extreme length, 
 N.E. to S.W., about 43 m.; extreme breadth, E. to 
 W., about 20 m. ; area, 432,000 ac. The surface of this 
 county, like that of nearly all the other Welsh counties, is 
 mountainous and barren, with the frequent occurrence of 
 beautiful and fertile valleys. The mountains are, in gen 
 eral, destitute of wood, and present a bleak appearance; 
 some of them attain a considerable height ; the loftiest, Plin- 
 limmon, reaching an elevation of 2463 ft. The soil of tho 
 rlevated parts is chiefly a light loam, intermixed with sand. 
 The valleys of the lower districts have a brown mould, 
 
CARDIGAN 
 
 601 
 
 CARIATI 
 
 which is extremely favourable to the growth of grass? crops. 
 In other parts, the soil is a stiff argillaceous earth, and very 
 Bterile. Its geological formation is chiefly a hard slate of the 
 transition series. Near the sea coast are some productive 
 tracts, yielding good crops of wheat, barley, turnips, and po 
 tatoes, and in the hilly districts rye is cultivated, but barley 
 and oats are the principal crop. The science of agriculture 
 has made little progress here, and does not seem to be im 
 proving. Dairy husbandry, however, is well attended to. 
 The breed of cattle, horses, and sheep, is small, but the latter 
 is of superior quality, and all are hardy. Pigs and poultry 
 are reared in considerable quantity, and eggs abundant. The 
 mineral productions are silver, lead, and copper; great quan 
 tities of these metals were obtained here during the 1.7th cen 
 tury, but the mines have since much declined in value, and 
 many of them, particularly those of copper, have been alto 
 gether abandoned. Slates are still quarried, but they are of 
 an inferior quality. There being no coal in the county, turf 
 is the universal fuel. There are no manufactures, unless it be 
 the weaving of small quantities of flannel and coarse woollen 
 stuffs. Gloves also are made in the neighbourhood of Aberyst" 
 with and Tregaron, which, with Lampeter and Cardigan, are 
 its chief towns, the last being the county town. The county 
 sends one member to the House of Commons; registered 
 electors (1850) 2294. Exports: oats, butter, and slates ; im 
 ports: culm, limestone, and deals. Pop. (1851), 70,796. 
 
 CARDIGAN, a seaport tn. and parl. bor., Wales, cap. of 
 Cardiganshire, on an eminence on the r. bank of the Teify, here 
 crossed by an ancient stone bridge of seven arches, between 
 4 and 5 m. from its embouchure in St. George s Channel, 
 200 m. W.N.W. London. The town consists of two princi 
 pal streets, with a number of narrow irregular lanes and alleys, 
 formed by mean-looking houses. The church, upwards of 
 200 years old, is a venerable structure, with windows in the 
 florid pointed style. The townhall and county jail are also 
 handsome buildings. Its ancient castle, the ruins of which 
 occupy a low cliff at the foot of the bridge, is famous in Welsh 
 story ; two circular bastions are now all that remains of it. 
 There are places of worship here for various dissenters, a free 
 grammar school, two or three charity schools, and several 
 schools of other descriptions. The harbour is obstructed by 
 a bar, which renders the entrance dangerous in rough weather, 
 and, consequently, seriously affects the trade of the port, 
 which, however, in coasting, is still considerable, though in 
 foreign very trifling. In spring-tides, vessels of 300 to 400 
 tons can come up to the town, but the general trade is con 
 fined to vessels of from 15 to 100 tons. Upwards of 10,000 
 tons of shipping, employing above 1000 seamen, belong to 
 the port. Cardigan, conjointly with Aberyst with, Lampeter, 
 and Adpar, returns one member to the House of Commons. 
 Pop. (1841) 2925; (1851), 3012. 
 
 CARDINGTON, two pars. Eug. 1, Bedford; 5050 ac. 
 Pop. 1466. 2, Salop. ; 6500 ac. Pop. 691. 
 
 CARDINHAM, par. Eng. Cornwall ; 8550 ac. P. 802. 
 
 CARDIOTISSA, a small isl. Grecian Archipelago, be 
 longing to kingdom of Greece, about half way between Sikyrio 
 and Polycandro; lat. 36 38 N.; Ion. 25 E. It has a few 
 inhabitants, and a chapel dedicated to the Virgin. 
 
 CARDISTON, par. Eng. Salop ; 1980 ac. Pop. 372. 
 
 CARDITO, a vil. Naples, 6 m. N. the city of Naples. 
 Silk-worms are extensively reared in the vicinity. Pop. 
 2730. 
 
 CARDIVA, or KARETIVOE. 1, An isl. Indian Ocean, 
 Gulf of Manaar, N. W. coast Ceylon, S. end, in about lat. 8 26 
 N. It is about 10m. long and 1 broad, and is mostly low, 
 with sandy patches in some parts, and bushes or trees in others. 
 2, An isl. Indian Ocean, one of the Maldives; lat. 4 58 
 N. ; Ion. 73 26 E. (R.) It is nearly 2 m. long, a little more 
 than m. broad, and is covered with high cocoa-nut trees. 
 This island gives its name to the channel in which it lies. 
 
 CARDONA, a tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. of, and 45 m. 
 N.W. Barcelona, r. bank, Gardener, here crossed by a bridge. 
 It stands on a declivity, is surrounded by walls entered by six 
 gates, and is commanded by a strong castle crowning the sum 
 mit of an adjacent hill. Its streets, with the exception of 
 two, are steep, but, in general, well paved and clean. There 
 are two squares, both planted with trees, and one of them con 
 taining the large, handsome, and ancient parish church ; there 
 are also several chapels, a town-house, prison, hospital, small 
 
 VOL. T. 
 
 theatre, cemetery, two convents, and a variety of schools. 
 Manufactures: linen, woollen, and hempen fabrics, and 
 paper, wine, and oil. Trade: grain, fruits, cattle, and salt. 
 About 1 m. from the town is the remarkable mass of salt 
 loticed in the article BARCELONA. Pop. 2366. 
 
 CARDROSS, a par. Scotland, co. Dumbarton, r. bank, 
 Clyde, remarkable only as having been the closing scene of the 
 illustrious career of the victor of Bannockburn and the re 
 storer of the Scottish monarchy, Robert Bruce. About 1 m. 
 from Dumbarton, on the road to the village or hamlet of Car- 
 dross, that monarch built a castle, forming the surrounding 
 lands into a park. Here he sought relaxation in the chase, 
 and here he died, June 7, 1329, his remains being carried to 
 Dunfermline, where they were interred. No vestige of the 
 castle now remains, but the eminence on which it stood retains 
 the name of the Castle-hill. Pop. 4416. 
 
 CAREBY, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 1590 ac. Pop. 73. 
 
 CARENAGE (THE), or PORT CASTRIES, a tn. and port, 
 W. Indies, isl. St. Lucia. It is the capital of the island, stands 
 at the head of a deep irregularly formed harbour, surrounded 
 by hills, on the N.W. coast; lat. 14N.; Ion. 61 1 W. (R.) 
 The PORT has deep water, with good anchorage, and shelter 
 from all winds. lied mullet, and various other sorts of fish, 
 may be caught here in abundance by hook and line. 
 
 CARENTAN [anc. Carentonum Unellorum], a maritime 
 tn. France, dep. Manche, 14 m. N.N.W. St. L6, in the midst 
 of unhealthy marshes, 1. bank, Taute; lat. 49 18 24" N. ; 
 Ion. 1 14 30" W. (R.) It is built with tolerable regularity, 
 but the houses, in general, are indifferent. It has a castle and 
 fortifications ; contains a handsome church, surmounted by a 
 spire ; manufactures some lace and cotton goods ; and has a 
 trade in cattle, horses, hemp, flax, cider, butter, and honey. 
 Small coasting vessels come up to the town. Pop. 2559. 
 
 CARESTON, par. Scot. Forfar ; 3 m. by 1 m. Pop. 218. 
 
 CARGILL, par. Scot. Perth ; 6 m. by 4 m. Pop. 1642. 
 
 CARGIN, par. Irel., Galway ; 3609 ac. Pop. 1369. 
 
 CARHAIX [anc. Caretum], a tn. France, dep. Finistere, 
 on the Illiers, 44 m. E. by S. Brest. It stands on a high hill, 
 and forms the central point of Finistere. Six main roads, 
 leading to Brest, Quimper, Chateaulin, Vannes, St. Brieuc, 
 and Morlaix, meet here. The parish church is said to date 
 from the 6th century ; and the town abounds in old houses, 
 with projecting cornices and carved timber work. There are 
 some tanneries and paper works. Hats, linen, and drapery, 
 are also manufactured. Pop. 1827. 
 
 CARH AM, par.Eng. Northumberland; 11, 470 ac. P. 1282. 
 
 CARHAMPTON, par. Eng. Somerset ; 6460 ac. P. 682. 
 
 CARHUAMAYO, a tn. Peru, 16 m. S. Pasco; lat. 
 11 5 S. ; Ion. 75 45 W. ; a little E. of Lake Chinchayco- 
 cha, and 13,087 ft. above the level of the sea. 
 
 CARIACO, or SAN FELIPE DE AUSTRIA, a seaport tn. 
 Venezuela, prov. of, and 40 m. E. by N. Cumana, at the head 
 of the gulf, and near the mouth of river of same name, on an 
 extensive fertile plain, covered with plantations ; lat. 10 30 
 N. ; Ion. 63 40 W. The climate is hot and unhealthy. 
 Cotton, cacao, coffee, and sugar, are raised, the first of which 
 is of excellent quality. Intermittent fevers prevail. A good 
 deal of English rum used to be smuggled in here. Pop. 7000. 
 
 The GULF, near the mouth of which lies Cumana, is 
 
 about 38 m. long by 5 to 10 m. broad, lying nearly E. to W. 
 There is good anchorage in all parts of it, the deepest water 
 being 40 fathoms. On either side the land presents an amphi 
 theatre adorned with the most beautiful and varied vegeta 
 tion. Near the entrance are some mud banks, frequented by 
 innumerable sea fowl. 
 
 CARIACO, or CARRIACO, one of the Windward Islands, 
 Grenadine group, between St. Vincent and Grenada, 40 m. S. 
 the former, and 20 N. the latter; lat. 12 30 N. ; Ion. 62? 30 
 W. It is the largest of the Grenadines, being about 21 m. in 
 circumference, but of irregular form. It has two bays on its 
 N. side, and contains a town named Hillsborough. 
 
 CARIATI [anc. Paternum], a seaport tn. Naples, prov. 
 Calabria Citra, 16 m. S.E. Rossano, on a high promontory 
 washed by the Ionian Sea. It is surrounded by ruinous walls, 
 and has a dilapidated castle. It is the seat of a bishopric, 
 and contains a cathedral, four other churches, a diocesan 
 seminary, and a house of refuge. Silk worms are extensively 
 reared, and the best manna of Calabria is produced in the vici 
 nity. The coasts abound with fish. Pop. 2144. 
 
 7S 
 
CARIBBEAN SEA 
 
 CARLEE 
 
 CARIBBEAN, or CARRIBBEAN SEA, that portion of the 
 N. Atlantic Oce.au, lying between the Caribbee, or Leeward 
 and Windward Islands on the E., Guatimala on the W., the 
 islands of Hayti or St. Domingo and Cuba on the N., and 
 New Granada and Venezuela on the S. It communicates 
 with the Gulf of Mexico by a passage of about 120 in. in 
 width, between Cape Catoche in Yucatan, and Cape St. An- 
 tonia, the most W. point of Cuba. Its S. shores are generally 
 high and rocky, and contain some gulfs of considerable extent. 
 Being but little encumbered with rocks or islands, its naviga 
 tion is, for the most part, clear and open. 
 
 CAR1BEES, or LESSER ANTILLES, usually divided into 
 tlie Windward and Leeward Islands ; a section of the West 
 India Islands (which see). 
 
 CARIFE, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Principato Ultra, 
 10 in. S.S.E. Ariano. It contains a collegiate church, high 
 school, convent, hospital, and alms-house. Pop. 2558. 
 
 CARIGNAXO [anc. Cariniacum], atn. Sardinian States, 
 prov. of, and 11 m. S. Turin, 1. bank, Po, here crossed by a 
 wooden bridge. It is surrounded by old walls, and has a 
 handsome square ornamented with arcades, a fine church, four 
 convents, a college, two hospitals, some silk spinning-mills, 
 and a sugar refinery. Preserved lemon peal, of excellent 
 quality, is prepared here. From this town is named a branch 
 of the house of Savoy. In 1544, the French dismantled the 
 fortifications, but spared the castle. Silk is produced to a 
 large extent in the vicinity. Pop. 8000. 
 
 CARIMATA, or KRAMATA. 1, An uninhabited isl. In 
 dian Archipelago, off S.W. coast Borneo ; lat. 1" 37 S. ; Ion. 
 108 51 E. (R.) ; about 12 m. long. It is lofty, one of its 
 peaks being 2986 ft. high, well wooded, and was formerly a 
 great resort of pirates. 2, Carimata, or Billiton Passage, the 
 passage bounded E. by Carimata and the islands adjacent to the 
 S.W. part of Borneo, and W. by Billiton. It is also called the 
 Outer Channel, and is taken by ships from the Malacca Strait, 
 bound by the E. passage to China or the Moluccas after October, 
 when the N. W. monsoon prevails S. of the equator. 3, Cari 
 mata Sea, a name at times given to that part of the China Sea 
 lying between Borneo, Cambodia, and the Malacca peninsula, 
 
 CARIMON JAVA, a small isl. Indian Archipelago, 20 
 m. in circumference ; lat. 5 50 S. ; Ion. 110 34 E. It is 
 high and woody, with an elevated hill in the centre. Adjoin 
 ing it are several small islands, some of which abound with 
 deer, and among which ships may anchor in 20 to 24 fathoms, 
 and obtain wood and water. The Dutch formerly had an es 
 tablishment on the island, to prevent piracy. 
 
 CARIMONS, two isls. Strait of Malacca, called Little 
 Carimon and Great Carimon; lat. 1 8 N. ; Ion. 103 30 E. 
 Little Carimon is about 2 m. long by 1 broad. It is high 
 and rocky, peaked in the centre, and covered with trees. 
 Great Carimon, separated from the S.W. side of Little Cari 
 mon by a narrow passage, is about 9 m. long. Near its N. 
 end are two lofty peaks, but, with exception of these, it con 
 sists of low level land. Off its N.E. point vessels can anchor 
 in G to 8 fathoms. It is occasionally frequented by Malay and 
 Buggis proas. 
 
 CARINENA, a tn. Spain, Aragon, prov. of, and 30 in. 
 S.S.W. Saragossa, on the high road from that city to Daroca. 
 It has several squares, a townhouse, church, chapel, prison, 
 hospital, cemetery, and three primary schools. Some little 
 trade is done in cattle, grain, fruits, and oil. Pop. 1995. 
 
 CARINHENHA,atn. Brazil, prov. Bahia, on the frontier 
 of prov. Minas Geraes, at the junction of the river of same 
 name with the Kio San Francisco. It has a church and an 
 extensive district. Pop. 2000. The RIVER Carinhenha rises 
 in prov. Gozaz, in the serra Tabatinga, flows E., forming the 
 boundary line between provs. Bahia and Minas Geraes, and 
 falls into the Rio San Francisco; lat. 14 30 S. ; Ion. 44 42 
 W. Total course about 1GO in., exclusive of windings. 
 
 CARIN1, a tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 11 m. W.N.W. Pa 
 lermo, beautifully situated on river of same name, near its 
 embouchure. It has a Gothic castle, with several churches 
 and convents. Near it are the ruins of the ancient Eyccara. 
 Fishing is the chief employment. Pop. 7000. 
 
 CARINOLA, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Lavoro, 19 m. 
 W.N.W. Caserto, at the foot of Mount Callicola, in an un 
 healthy district. It was formerly an Episcopal town, and has 
 a handsome cathedral, a parish church, an extensive seminary, 
 and a Franciscan convent. The surrounding district pro 
 
 duces wine of good quality. The town is said to occupy tho 
 site of the Foro Claudia, built by the Lombards in 1058. 
 Pop. 6420. 
 
 CARINTHIA [German, Karnthen], a duchy, Austria, 
 kingdom Illyria, between lat. 46 24 and 47 7 N., and Ion. 1 2 
 35 and 15 10 E., bounded, N. by Salzburg and Styria, E. by 
 Styria, S. by Carniola, and W. by Italy and Tyrol. Area, 30 1 5 
 geo. sq. in. It is extremely mountainous, generally sterile, 
 and one of the most thinly populated provinces of Austria. 
 The arable land does not exceed 290,000 acres, but there 
 are some fertile valleys, and a considerable extent of rich 
 pasture land. It has several rivers and lakes. Of the for 
 mer, the principal is the Drave, and of the latter the Kla- 
 genfurtcr or Worth See, the Ossiacher See, and the Millstat- 
 ter See. All of them abound with fish. The country does 
 not yield corn enough for the consumption of the inhabitants, 
 who import the deficiency from Hungary. The grains most 
 extensively cultivated are rye and oats. Some wine is pro 
 duced in Lower Carinthia, but it is of inferior quality. 
 Horned cattle, sheep, and horses, are raised in considerable 
 numbers, but the mines of Carinthia are the main sources 
 of its wealth. The chief of these are iron, lead, and calamine. 
 Various kinds of precious stones are met with. Its operative 
 industry is chiefly confined to the working its metallic ores, 
 though there are several manufactories of woollens, cottons, 
 silk stuffs, &c., most of which are in Klagenfurt. 
 
 Carinthia formed part of the empire of Charlemagne, and 
 afterwards belonged to the Dukes of Friuli. It subsequently 
 passed through various hands, and finally became an append 
 age of the Austrian crown in 1321. In 1809, it was annexed 
 to the empire of Napoleon, but was restored to Austria in 
 1814. In the year after, it was formed into the circles of Kla 
 genfurt and Villach. It has its own diet, composed of four 
 estates the dignitaries of the church, the aristocracy, tho 
 equestrian order, and the representatives of towns and places 
 with markets but its internal administration is subordinate to 
 the Government authorities of Laibach. The principal towns 
 are Klagenfurt, the capital, and seat of the criminal and other 
 judicial courts, and Villach. The inhabitants are represented 
 as indolent and superstitious, and mostly R. Catholics. Pop. 
 454,785. 
 
 CAR1PE, or CARIBE, a tn. Venezuela, prov. of, and 40 
 m. S.E. Cumana, in a fertile valley of same name. In the 
 valley is a cavern, the opening into which is 85 ft. broad, and 
 77 ft. high, which dimensions it preserves to the distance of 
 1548 ft. inwards. Pop., tn. and valley, about 5000. 
 
 CARISBROOKE, a vil. and par. England, co. Hants. 
 The VILLAGE is pleasantly situated at the foot of a hill near 
 the centre of the Isle of Wight, l m. S.W. Newport. It was 
 formerly a place of considerable importance, having been a 
 market town and the capital of the island till superseded by 
 Newport. The parish church is a fine ancient structure, with 
 a tower containing a peal of eight musical bells ; and there 
 are, besides, places of worship belonging to Independents, 
 Methodists, and other dissenting bodies. The inhabitants 
 are principally employed in agriculture. Carisbrooke owed 
 its former importance to its proximity to the castle of the 
 same name, on the top of a considerable eminence overlook 
 ing the village, and now a heap of ruins. It is of high anti 
 quity, and is supposed to have been a fortress anterior to the 
 Roman invasion. The latest additions are said to have been 
 made to it in the time of Elizabeth. Here Charles I. was 
 confined for 13 months previously to his trial and execution. 
 The castle and grounds occupy a space of about 20 ac. The 
 exterior forms a pleasant promenade of more than 1 m. in ex 
 tent. Besides objects of historical interest and curiosity, the 
 castle contains the official residence of the governor of the 
 island, a respectable mansion, with two spacious ball-rooms. 
 A short distance N.E. of Carisbrooke is a neat row of houses, 
 called the New Village. Area of par. 88SO ac. Pop. 5013. 
 
 CARLBY, par. Eng. Lincoln; 1020 ac. Pop. 21(5. 
 
 CARLEE, or CARLI, a small vil. Hindoostan, prov. Au- 
 rungabad, 50 in. S.E. Bombay, near which are some remark 
 able cave temples. The interior of the principal cave is 126 
 ft. long and 46 broad, and is supported by 21 columns, the 
 capitals of which are of singular and beautiful workmanship, 
 ! each consisting of a large cap resembling a bell, finely carved, 
 and surmounted by two elephants, with their trunks enter- 
 twined, and each carrying two male and one female figure. 
 
CAELENTINI 
 
 CARLISLE 
 
 On several of the columns are inscriptions, from one of which of the modern houses are handsome, and, being built on a 
 it would seem that this temple was built A.D. 176. It is | plan, are gradually imparting an appearance of uniformity to 
 semicircular at its termination, and is supposed to have been the city. The cathedral, which is situate on elevated ground, 
 the work of Buddhists. near the centre of the town, is one of the principal objects of 
 
 CARLENTINI, a tn. Sicily, Val-di-Noto, 20 m. N.W. interest. It is of Saxon origin, but has received many addi- 
 Syracuse ; built by Charles V. for the head quarters of the tions and embellishments throughout successive generations ; 
 Sicilian army, and destroyed by the earthquake of 1693. It some parts of the building are beautiful, and the whole has a 
 
 a place of little importance. Pop. 2502. 
 
 CARLET, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 18 m. S.W. by S. 
 Valencia, r. bank, Magio. The streets are clean, wide, and 
 lined with regularly and well-built houses. The town has 
 six squares, a parish church, two chapels, a convent, spacious 
 townhouse, prison, cemetery, and two schools. Manufactures : 
 soap, brandy, oil, and wine, which with grain, salt-fish, fruits, 
 and cattle, constitute the sole traffic of the place. Pop. 3884. 
 
 CARLETON, several places, England:!, Carleton, St. 
 Peter, par. Norfolk ; 930 ac. Pop. 96. 2, Carleton Fore- 
 Hoc, par. Norfolk ; 700 ac. Pop. 151. 3, A township and 
 vil. W. Riding, York. The VILLAGE is situate on a gentle 
 eminence 2 m. S.W. Skipton, consists of four streets, straight, 
 and kept in good condition ; greater part of the houses well 
 
 built of stone, and slated. Its church 
 
 small Norman 
 
 structure, and it has several free schools and other charities. 
 The inhabitants are principally employed in the cotton manu 
 facture. Pop. of the township, 1242. 
 
 CARL1 IS GFORD, a seaport tn. and par. Ireland,co. Louth. 
 The TOWN is beautifully situate S.W. side of Carlingford Lough 
 or Bay, at the base of an extensive range of mountains, which 
 terminates at this point, 9 m. E.N.E. Dundalk. It has rather 
 a poor and desolate appearance. The lough is about 10 m. 
 long inland, and about 2 broad. Near the mouth is a bar 
 with only 9 ft. water at low tides, but on which the tide rises 
 18 ft. Once inside the bar, the lough may be navigated for 
 6 m. by vessels of the largest size at all times ; at high tide, 
 vessels of 18 ft. draught may proceed 2 m. farther to Warren 
 Point, and by those drawing 14 ft. to 4 m. farther, to Fath- 
 am, where is the entrance of the canal, which has a depth 
 of 11 ft. to the town of Newry. On Block-House Island, at 
 the entrance to the bay, is a fixed light, 101 ft. high; lat. 
 54 1 12" N. ; Ion. 6 4 45" W. The bay being well stocked 
 with oysters, dredging for them constitutes the chief occupa 
 tion of the inhabitants. The only trade of Carlingford con 
 sists in exporting a little corn and provisions to Dublin. 
 Pop. 1110. Area of par., 20,050 ac. Pop. 12,588. 
 
 CARLISLE, an anc. city and inland port, England, co. 
 
 Cumberland, 262 m 
 
 anc. city 
 
 . N.N.W. 
 
 London, about 8 m. from the 
 
 Scottish border, pleasantly situate on a gentle eminence, at 
 the confluence of the Eden, Caldew, and Pcteril, the first 
 
 ENTRANCE TO OAHI.1SLU CA&XLB. Fiom a i>nnvin|( by W. J. l!lackl<x-k. 
 
 here crossed by a handsome stone bridge of five large, and the 
 same number of smaller arches ; the Caldew is crossed by two 
 bridges, and the Peteril by one. The town is somewhat irreg 
 ularly built, but its principal streets are spacious, well-paved, 
 well-lighted ; and it is amply supplied with water. A number 
 
 venerable and imposing appearance; the E. window, which is 
 48 ft. high, by 30 broad, and partially filled with painted glass, 
 is one of the finest specimens of the kind in England. In the 
 N. aisle are interred the remains of the celebrated Dr. Paley. 
 The castle, another object of interest from its historical asso 
 ciations, is situate on a slight eminence overlooking the 
 Eden, at the N.W. angle of the city; it commands a fine 
 view, and is still maintained as a garrison-fortress, being the- 
 only remnant of the ancient military character of the city, 
 the old walls and bulwarks having now almost entirely disap 
 peared. Amongst the literary and educational institutions of 
 Carlisle are an academy for the encouragement of the fiua 
 arts, a literary and philosophical institution, with a museum 
 and theatre for lectures, a grammar school, several national 
 and Sunday schools, two subscription libraries, and two news 
 rooms ; likewise three reading rooms, with libraries attached, 
 for the use of the working classes. Its church accommoda 
 tion, besides the cathedral, consists of the parish churches of 
 St. Mary and St. Cuthbert, with their chapels of ease, Trinity 
 church and Christ church, and 12 places of worship for 
 various religious denominations. It is the seat of a bishopric, 
 founded by Henry I., and exercises ecclesiastical jurisdiction 
 over 93 parishes. The dignitaries, besides the bishop, are a 
 dean, four prebendaries, and eight minor canons. The chari 
 table institutions are numerous, and well supported, and in 
 clude a commodious infirmary, fever hospital, and dispensary. 
 The buildings appropriated to corporate purposes are the 
 townhall, guildhall, and council-chamber. The courts of 
 justice, where the assizes are held, and the county jail, are 
 situate at the S. entrance of the city, and were erected after 
 a design by R. Smirke, R. A., at a cost exceeding 100,000. 
 In the area, in i ront of the courts, a fine marble statue of the 
 late Earl of Lonsdale, by M. L. Watson, is erected Many 
 of the public edifices are exceedingly handsome. Carlisle 
 is the seat of various, and of some extensive, manufactures, 
 of which cotton is the principal, embracing the weaving of 
 cheeks and ginghams, calico-printing, and the manufacture of 
 cotton twist. The making of hats is also carried on to a large 
 extent. Carlisle has long been famed for its manufacture of 
 whips and fish-hooks ; there are, besides, a woollen manufac 
 tory, several dyeworks, tanneries, iron-foundries, breweries, 
 marble-works, and an extensive biscuit manu 
 factory, which employs upwards of 200 hands. 
 It has a considerable coasting trade, by means 
 of its canal, which extends from the town to 
 Bowness, on the Solway Firth, a distance of 
 about 1 1 m., and is navigable for vessels of 
 from 80 to 100 tons burthen. The gross amount 
 of customs duty received at the port for 1845 
 j ^ was 33,235, being an increase of nearly 4000 
 on the preceding year; in 1848, the receipts 
 |w. had increased to 48,962 ; and in 1849, they 
 were 41,071. The station of the Lancaster 
 and Carlisle Railway Company (in connection 
 -*""-_ with the London and North Western) is situ- 
 , ate near the courts, and is a handsome, orna 
 mental building, with a portico supported by 
 a range of pillars, and is likewise jointly occu 
 pied by the Caledonian, Glasgow, Dumfries, 
 and South Western, Maryport, Carlisle, and 
 Whitehaven Junction Railway Companies. 
 The Newcastle Railway Station is in London 
 Road. 
 
 Carlisle was originally a Roman station, and 
 then called Luguvallum, albreviated by tho 
 Saxons to Luel, to which v.as put the prefix 
 Caer, or city, thus making Caerluel, whenco 
 Carlisle. It was destroyed by the Danes in the 9th century, 
 and subsequently restored by William Rufus, who built 
 its castle. From this period it was a frequent object of 
 attack in the long -protracted wars between England and 
 Scotland, and suffered severely on irany of these occasions. 
 
CARLISLE 
 
 604 
 
 CARLSBAD 
 
 Having declared for Charles I., it was subjected to severe 
 privations during the civil wars of that period also. In 1745, 
 it surrendered to Prince Charles, but was retaken by the Duke 
 of Cumberland, when a number of the officers who formed the 
 garrison were executed as traitors, and their Leads exposed 
 on the gates and walls of the city. It gives the title of Earl 
 to a branch of the Howard family. Returns two members 
 to Parliament: constituency (1851), 1050. Pop. (1770), 
 when taken by the late Dr. Heysham, 7677 ; (1841), 23,012 ; 
 (1851), 26,583. 
 
 CARLISLE, a tn. U. States, Pennsylvania, cap. co. 
 Cumberland, 15 m. W. by S. Harrisburg, neatly and regu 
 larly built, chiefly with brick or stone, and has a college, with 
 a library containing 11,000 vols., nine churches, a courthouse, 
 and county offices, a market-house, a bank, young ladies semi 
 nary, an academy, and 16 schools. The Cumberland Valley 
 railroad, from Harrisburg to Chambersburg, passes through 
 it. Half a mile from the town are the U. States barracks, 
 built in 1777, capable of holding 2000 men, and provided 
 with a cavalry school. It has six tanneries, three distilleries, 
 three printing offices, two breweries, and carries on a con 
 siderable trade. Pop. 4351. 
 
 CARLISLE (NEW), a maritime vil., Lower Canada, Gaspe* 
 district, N. side Bay of Chalcur. It is regularly laid out, and 
 carries on the fishing. 
 
 CARLO, a small isl., Russia, Gulf of Bothina, 18 m. W. 
 Uleaborg, in Finland ; lat. (W. point beacon) 65 2 N. ; Ion. 
 24 33 E. (R.) 
 
 CARLOBAGO, or CARLOPAOO, a tn. Austria, Croatia, 
 circle, Thither Save, on the E. of the strait which separates 
 the island of Pago from the mainland. It is fortified, and 
 contains a R. Catholic parish church, and a cloister. Pop. 960. 
 
 CARLOFORTE, a tn. Sardinian States, isl. San Pietro, 
 near the S.W. coast of isl. Sardinia. It is defended by walls, 
 and the port is commanded by a castle, on a neighbouring 
 height. There are extensive saltworks in the vicinity, and 
 the coral and anchovy fishery are carried on by the inhabit 
 ants. Pop. 2500. 
 
 CARLOS (SAx) : 1, A to. Venezuela, prov. Carobobo, 
 130 m. S.W. Caracas, on the Aguine. It is large, handsome, 
 and well laid out, and, before the wars of independence, was 
 one of the most opulent cities of the Captain-generalship of 
 the Caracas. The surrounding savannahs have large planta 
 tions of indigo, coffee and cotton ; and rear vast numbers of 
 oxen, horses, and mules. Pop. 5000. 2, A tn. Chili, cap. 
 prov. and on the N.E. coast of isl. Chiloe. It is fortified, 
 has an excellent harbour, and is the principal entrepot of the 
 
 island, exporting planks, hams, and woollen stuffs. 3, A 
 
 port, N.W. coast, E. Falkland Island, near the N. entrance to 
 Falkland Sound, with anchorage for large vessels, and where 
 fuel and water may be obtained ; lat. (Fanning Head, S.W. 
 summit) 51 27 12" S.; Ion. 59 7 15" W. A river of same 
 name flows in at the head of the sea-arm forming the port. 
 
 CARLOS (SAN), a tn. Spain. See CARRACA. 
 
 CARLOTA, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 17 m. 
 S.W. from Cor.lova. The principal streets are lined with 
 trees, and the houses, many of which are detached, are, in 
 general, tolerably well built. The town has two squares, an 
 old palace, now serving the double purpose of townhouse and 
 theatre ; a parish church, three chapels, three schools, a pri 
 son, barracks, and cemetery, five distilleries, four soap-works, 
 seven oil-mills, and a number of wine-presses. A small trade 
 is done in cattle and grain. Pop. 3252. 
 
 CARLO W, an inland co. Ireland, prov. Leinster, having 
 W. and S.W. co. Kilkenny, N. Queen s co., Kildare, and Wick- 
 low, and E., and S.E. cos. Wicklow and Wexford ; extreme 
 length, N. to S., 29 m.; extreme breadth, at the N. end, about 
 16 m. ; at the S. extremity it terminates in a point, gradually 
 diminishing from 5 m. to less than a quarter of a mile. Area, 
 221,342 ac.; of which 84,059 are arable, 31,249 uncultivated, 
 and 4927 plantations, 505 under water. The surface gener 
 ally consists of gentle undulations, excepting in the S., where 
 it rises into a mountainous ridge, whose highest summit is 
 2604 ft. above the sea. Although this part of the county 
 presents a sufficiently cheerless and barren aspect, there are 
 others in which are numerous broad and fertile valleys, and 
 where the hills are cultivated to their summits. Dairy 
 husbandry is carried to a greater extent in this county than 
 perhaps in any other in Ireland. The principal produce is 
 
 butter, of a superior quality ; very little cheese being made, 
 and that only for domestic consumption. Wheat, barley, oats, 
 turnips, and potatoes are successfully cultivated, and are tho 
 principal crops, but flax, hemp, rape, vetches, &c., are also 
 grown, though to a limited extent. Agriculture is in a com 
 paratively advanced state here, being much more so than in 
 any of the adjoining counties, while the implements employed 
 are of the most approved kind ; and the staple trade is in 
 agricultural and dairy produce, of which large quantities are 
 exported. Carlow is divided into seven baronies Carlow, 
 Forth, Idrone, E. and W. Rathvilly, and St. Mullin s, Lower 
 and Upper ; contains 47 parishes, and sends three members 
 to the House of Commons two for the county, and one for 
 the borough of Carlow. Pop. (1841), 68.075. 
 
 CARLO W, a parl. bor. and cap. of above co., pleasantly 
 situate on 1. bank, Barrow, 34 m. S.W. Dublin, with which 
 it is connected by a railway. It has a neat and cleanly ap 
 pearance, and has upwards of 14 respectable streets, of which 
 the two principal intersect each other at right angles, and it is 
 increasing in size. A bridge of four arches leads over the 
 Barrow to the suburban village of Graigue, in Queen s County. 
 The principal public buildings are the parish church, an old 
 edifice, with a handsome modern spire ; the R. Catholic cathe 
 dral church, an elegant structure ; and the R. Catholic college, 
 a plain, but spacious building. There are also barracks, a 
 lunatic asylum, a handsome courthouse, a jail, and an infir 
 mary, with numerous charity schools and charitable institu 
 tions. Carlow is the principal mart for the agricultural pro 
 duce of the surrounding country, and carries on an extensive 
 trade in corn, flour, and butter, having communication by 
 the Barrow with the ports of Ross and Waterford, and with 
 Dublin, both by a canal and by railway. There are in tho 
 town some extensive flour-mills, a large malting establish 
 ment, two breweries, and a distillery. It sends one member 
 to the House of Commons. On a rising ground on the S. side 
 of the town, where a small stream, called the Burren, falls 
 into the Barrow, stand the ruins of the ancient castle of Carlow, 
 formerly a place of great strength, and still presenting a very 
 imposing appearance. Pop. of tn. (1841), 8734; of bor. 10,409. 
 
 CARLOWITZ, or KARLOWITZ, a tn. Austria, Sclavonia, 
 circle of, and 7 m. S.E. Peterwardeiu, r. bank, Danube, well 
 built, but much scattered, stretching along the banks of tho 
 river like a large village, rather than a town. The best part 
 is that which joins the archiepiscopal palace. It contains one 
 Greek cathedral, two other Greek churches, a R. Catholic 
 church, a gymnasium, a Greek theological seminary, and 
 lyceum, a German upper school, a national school, and an hos 
 pital. It is the seat of the Greek Metropolitan Archbishop, 
 the head of the church of the dissenting Greeks in the Austrian 
 dominions. The palace of the archbishop contains a valuable 
 library. Carlowitz is a free community, and is governed by 
 civil magistrates, consisting of an equal number of R. Catholiu 
 and Greek members. Though within the military frontier, 
 yet its inhabitants are exempted from duty, that they may 
 devote themselves to trade and manufactures. An excellent 
 wine is produced on the hilly district between Camenitz and 
 Carlowitz. Sturgeon is caught in great quantities in the 
 Danube, close by the town. Peace was concluded here be 
 tween Austria and the Turks in 1699 ; and here, too, Prince 
 Eugene defeated the latter in 1716. Carlowitz is a station 
 for the steam-boats navigating the Danube. Pop. 5600. 
 
 CARLSBAD, or KARLSBAD, a tn. Bohemia, circle, Ell- 
 bogen, 70 m. W.N.W. Prague, in a romantic narrow valley, 
 on the small river Tepl, near its junction with the Eger. Some 
 of the houses are built, tier above tier, in recesses cut out of the 
 rocky and precipitous sides of the valley. The Tepl is crossed 
 by six bridges, some of them mere pathways; and along its 
 banks are the two most spacious streets. A monument of 
 Charles IV., which stands in the market-place, the high church, 
 an hospital, and a granite bridge of one arch across the Tepl, 
 are the only objects in the town worth noticing. Carlsbad is 
 the most celebrated watering-place in Germany, and its springs 
 the hottest in Europe. They were known in the seventh cen 
 tury; but were lost sight of till 1347, when, according to a 
 tradition of the country, they were rediscovered by Charles 
 IV., whose attention was drawn to the spot, while hunting, 
 by the cries of one of his hounds that had fallen into a hot 
 spring when pursuing a stag. He subsequently established 
 regular baths here, to which he gave his name, and bestowed 
 
CARLSBURG 
 
 605 
 
 CARLSRUHE 
 
 on the borough certain rights and privileges, which it still 
 retains. Carlsbad is believed to stand over an immense sub 
 terranean reservoir of boiling water, the depth and extent of 
 which is unknown, although several attempts have been made 
 to ascertain these points. Holes are bored in the ground in 
 different parts of the town to allow the ascending vapours to 
 escape, as, without such precaution, serious explosions would 
 occur. These holes must be cleared out every three months, 
 as they are continually filling up with encrustations of lime 
 deposited by the waters. Substances immersed in the Sprudel 
 Spring get coated with this lime, which is so hard that it 
 admits of being polished. This spring is covered with a solid 
 mass of masonry, to prevent accidents from the expansive 
 force of the steam below, which forces up the water in jets of 
 
 2 and 3 ft. high. Its temperature is from 165 to 168 Fah. 
 The Hygeia Spring has the same degree of heat. The other 
 springs are the Bernherds, 145 to 157; the Neubrunnen 
 144; the Michlbrunnen, 133; the Marketbrunnen, 135; 
 the Theresienbrunnen, 131; the Schlossbrunnen, which dis 
 appeared in 1809, and reappeared in 1823, 121; the Spital- 
 well, 135; and the Felsenbrunnen, used for shower-baths, 
 97 Fah. It has been calculated that the whole of the springs 
 yield 1 ,925,180 gallons of water per day, of which the Sprudel 
 and Hygeia alone supply 1,669,300 gallons. The principal 
 chemical ingredients of the two latter springs are carbonate 
 of soda, sulphate of soda (Glauber salts), chlorine, and sodium. 
 They are chiefly efficacious in the removal of complaints of 
 the liver, kidneys, &c. A salt, known by the name of Sal Caro- 
 liniense, is produced from the waters of these springs by eva 
 poration. There are here some thriving manufactories of 
 articles in steel and brass, of needles, and lacquered ware; and 
 around the town a number of pleasant walks, and some elevated 
 points, from which extensive views are obtained. Carlsbad 
 was the favourite residence of Goethe, Hoffman, and Werner. 
 The permanent population is about 3000, to which about 
 4000 strangers are added in the summer season. 
 
 CARLSBURG, or KARLSBURG, a fortified tn., Austria, 
 Transylvania, co. Weissenberg, r. bank, Maros, 33 m. N.W. 
 Hermanstadt ; lat. 40 50" N. ; Ion. 23 34 29" E. (L.) It 
 consists of an upper and lower town, the former built on a hill, 
 and the latter in a valley. A bridge, 210 paces in length, crosses 
 the Maros from the lower town. The citadel, built by Charles 
 IV., is surrounded by a wall with seven bastions. The prin 
 cipal gate is finely sculptured. The town contains two R. Cath 
 olic churches, one of them the cathedral church of the bishop 
 of Transylvania, possessing a number of ancient monuments; 
 a Lutheran church, two synagogues, two monasteries, the 
 residence of the bishop of Transylvania, a canon s college, 
 containing the archives of the province; the royal mint, where 
 the gold and silver obtained from the mines of Transylvania 
 is purified and coined ; the observatory, in which is a good 
 collection of instruments ; and an excellent library, an arsenal, 
 barracks, &c. There are also a theological college, a R. Cath 
 olic gymnasium, a normal school, and an hospital. The 
 manufactures of the place are insignificant, with exception of 
 saltpetre, which is considerable. The Jews here enjoy, under 
 the special protection of the bishop, a perfect equality of civil 
 rights with the other citizens, a privilege denied them in every 
 other part of Transylvania. Half a mile from Carlsburg, on 
 the Maros, is the Maros Porto, the chief shipping place for the 
 Transylvanian rock-salt. Carlsburg occupies the site of the 
 ancient Apulum. Several Roman antiquities have been found 
 in it. Pop. 12,300. 
 
 CARLSCRONA, or KARLSCKONA [Charles s crown], a 
 seaport tn., Sweden, cap. Ian or co. of same name, on the 
 rugged isl. Trottsb, and some smaller isolated rocks, but con 
 nected with the contiguous mainland by several long bridges ; 
 lat. 56 9 42" N. ; Ion. 15 35 30" E. (R.) It is well built, 
 and has uncommonly broad, though sometimes hilly, streets, 
 three churches, a townhall, freemasons house, and school- 
 house ; but it suffers from want of good water for domestic 
 use, which has to be brought from Syckeby, distant about 
 
 3 m. The trade has much fallen off, though sugar refining, 
 and the manufacture of tobacco, are still carried on. The 
 harbour, in which the Swedish navy is stationed, is one of 
 the best in Europe ; it has three entrances, of which only one 
 is suitable for the larger war vessels ; and there are two 
 docks, the old and the new ; a royiil shipbuilding yard, ar 
 tillery park, arsenal, anchor forge, and a -model room, con 
 
 taining models of various kinds of vessels, several of which 
 were prepared by the hand of the well-known Chapman, of 
 whom there is here a marble bust. The entrance to the har 
 bour is defended by the two forts Drottningskar and Kongs- 
 holm. The town was made the Swedish marine station and 
 arsenal by Charles XL, in 1680; it thenceforth took his 
 name. The admiralty offices, however, are still located at 
 
 Stockholm. Pop. 12,456. The LAN, or COUNTY, also 
 
 called Bleldnge, is the smallest in Sweden; area, 1193 sq. m. 
 It is bounded, N. by Wexio and Kalmar, W. by Christian- 
 stad, and E. and S. by the Baltic. It is hilly, but not 
 mountainous, gneiss and granite are the prevailing forma 
 tions ; between the hills are fertile valleys, and a strip of low 
 land runs along the coast. In some parts the soil is sandy, 
 in others clayey ; but, generally, it is fertile, yielding potatoes 
 and rye plentifully. Oats, pease, and wheat are also culti 
 vated ; and, in some localities, buckwheat. Cattle are reared 
 to some extent ; and garden culture is attended to by the pea 
 sants. Wood is still plentiful, consisting chiefly of oak, beech, 
 fir, and birch ; and the fisheries afford a considerable amount 
 of employment. Several islands belong to the Ian, and some 
 of them are thickly wooded. Pop. 77,659. 
 
 CARLSHAMN [Charles s haven] , a seaport tn., Sweden, 
 Ian of, and 27 m. W. Carlscrona, at the mouth of the Mie-A ; 
 lat. 56 10 18" N.; Ion. ]4 52 E. (R.) It lies at the end of 
 a beautiful valley, is prettily and regularly built, and its square 
 market-place, planted on all sides with trees, has a fine ap 
 pearance. It has two churches, an elegant townhouse, a good 
 harbour, and an active trade. Wood, of various kinds, with 
 oak and beech staves, constitute the chief exports. The 
 manufactures are: sail-cloth, sacking, hats, tobacco, leather; 
 and there are dyeworks, soap boileries, and a shipbuilding 
 yard. Pop. 4408. 
 
 CARLSHOFF, an isl. N. Pacific; lat. 15 40 N.; Ion. 
 145 38 W. (R.) It is about 8 m. in circumference, has a 
 lake in the centre, and was discovered by Roggewein, the 
 Dutch navigator, in 1728. 
 
 CARLSRUHE, or KARLSRUHE [Charles s rest], a city, 
 cap. grand duchy of Baden, on a fine plain, 4 m. E. 1. bank, 
 Rhine; lat. (Schloss) 49 50" N.; Ion. 8 24 44" E. (L.) 
 It is in the form of a wheel, of which the ducal palace is the 
 
 1. Grand-ducal Palace. 
 
 2. Garden o! do. 
 
 3. Library and Mus. ot >> at 
 
 4. Theatre. 
 
 5. Botanic Garden. 
 
 6. Grand-ducal M.-WS. 
 
 7. Seminary lor Teachers. 
 
 8. General Post-office. 
 
 10. Polytechnic Institution. 
 
 ... _udwi? sTbor. 
 IS. >tuhlb^rcer Tlior. 
 m. Durlac her Thor. 
 
 centre or nave, from which 32 openings radiate. These were 
 originally, and many still are, mere avenues leading to the 
 ducal residence, but more than a third of them are now lined 
 with buildings, and converted into streets, which gives the 
 town the wheel or fan-like form by which it is characterized. 
 The streets are wide, well paved, well lighted, and furnished 
 with foot-paths. The houses are built in a variety of styles, 
 and many of them exceedingly handsome. Carlsruhe is, in 
 part, walled, and has seven gates, one of which, the Ettlinger, 
 is a beautiful specimen of architecture. There are five prin 
 cipal squares, in one of which, the market-place, is a monu 
 ment of red sandstone, erected in memory of the founder of 
 
CARLSTAD 
 
 CABMOE 
 
 tlie city, who lies buried beneath. The grand ducal palace, 
 or Schloss, is built in the old French style, and consists of a 
 main-building or centre, and two wings. Extending from these 
 are, on one side, the orangery and hot-houses ; on the other, 
 the stables and riding-school. From the turret of the palace, 
 called the Jileithurm, a fine view of the town and surrounding 
 country is obtained. Among the more remarkable public 
 buildings are the Protestant and R. Catholic churches, built 
 by Weinbrenner ; the synagogue, the palace of the Dowager 
 Margravine of Baden, and the polytechnic school, in the style 
 of the Middle Ages. The Protestant church, founded in 1807, 
 is built in the pure Roman style. The R. Catholic church is 
 adorned with a handsome portico, supported by eight Tonic 
 columns, and lighted by a cupola 100 ft. high, and of the 
 same width. The synagogue is in the Oriental style. Be 
 sides the two palaces mentioned, there are several others, 
 belonging to the nobility, deserving of notice. There are 
 also the townhall, the lyceum, the mint, and the house of the 
 Legislative Assembly, post-office, infantry and cavalry bar 
 racks, arsenal, cannon and bell-foundry, and several hospitals, 
 one of which was founded by Stultz, the celebrated London 
 tailor, who endowed it with 100,000 florins (8500). The 
 theatre, another handsome structure, was destroyed by fire in 
 1847, when many lives were lost. Connected with the ducal 
 palace are a library, consisting of 80,000 volumes, and con 
 taining, also, many valuable MSS., a cabinet of coins, and 
 a museum of natural history, including a great variety of 
 fossil remains. There is also a public library, containing 
 90,000 volumes, and a botanic garden. There are numerous 
 elementary schools, Protestant, R. Catholic, and Jewish. 
 The more special schools are the polytechnic, veterinary, 
 military, evangelical, normal, and music. The manufac 
 tures are: chemical stuffs, machinery, including locomotives, 
 tobacco, playing cards, jewellery, carpets, cloth, mustard, and 
 carriages ; and a considerable transit trade is carried on by 
 means of the Rhine, and of the railways which connect the city 
 with Frankfort-on-the-Main, with France, Switzerland, &c. 
 Carlsruhe is a modern city, its foundation having been laid 
 in 1715, by Charles William, Margrave of Baden, in a locality 
 that served as a hunting rendezvous. Pop. 22,619 ; of whom 
 14,538 are Protestants, and 8081 R. Catholics. 
 
 CARLSTAD, a tn. Sweden, Ian of same name, N. shores 
 of Lake Wenern, on an isl. formed by the two mouths of the 
 Klar, and connected with the mainland by a bridge across 
 either stream, one of which is the largest and most beautiful 
 stone bridge in the kingdom. It is beautifully situate, regularly 
 built, is the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral, gymnasium, 
 townhouse, freemasons hall, theatre, and small harbour. Pop. 
 
 3108. The LAN, bounded, N. and W. by Norway, N.E. by 
 
 Falu Ian.. E. by Orebro, S. by Marienstad, and \V. by Weners- 
 borg ; area, 6868 s-q. m., consists of several valleys, generally 
 lying N.W. to S.E., and has numerous streams and lakes. 
 Though hilly, it is not mountainous, its highest points being 
 barely 1000 ft. high. Oats and rye, and, to a less extent, 
 other kinds of grain, are cultivated, and cattle reared, and 
 iron is exported from the numerous mines of the country. 
 Pop. 189,611. 
 
 CARLSTADT [anc. Carolostadiuni\,a. tn. Austria,Croatia, 
 circle, Hither Save, co. and 34 m. S.W. Agram, agreeably 
 sittiate in a perfectly level and richly-cultivated plain, near 
 the junction of the Kulpa, Korana, and Dobra. It is sur 
 rounded with walls, flanked with bastions, and consists of the 
 town proper and the citadel, together with the suburb of Du- 
 bovacz, which is entirely built of wooden houses, the proprie 
 tors having been allowed to erect them on the understanding 
 that, in the event of an enemy appearing, they are to be burnt 
 or torn down at a moment s notice. Carlstadt, though not a 
 place of great strength, used to be considered as the bulwark 
 of Croatia against that angle of the Ottoman empire which is 
 called the Trockene Grenze, or Dry Frontier. It is tolerably 
 well built, and contains five R. Catholic churches, and a 
 Greek non- united church, a Franciscan cloister, barracks, 
 and armoury for 30,000 stand of arms, a gymnasium, a head 
 and a girls school, and a civil and military hospital. It has 
 almost no manufactures, but its transit trade is considerable. 
 Pop. 6000. 
 
 CARLTON, 18 pars. Eng.: 1, par. Bedford; 1530 ac. 
 Pop. 444. 2, par. Suffolk; 2070 ac. Pop. 133. 3, par. 
 York, N. Riding ; 830 ac. Pop. 259. 4, par. York, W. 
 
 Riding; 2390 ac. Pop. 1242. 5, Carl ton -Castle, par. 
 Lincoln; 500 ac. Pop. 52. 6, Carlton- Cohillc, par. Suf 
 folk ; 21 30 ac. Pop. 785. 7, Carlton- Cum- Willunjham, par. 
 Cambridge; 2200 ac. Pop. 424. 8, Carlton-Ciirlicu, par. 
 Leicester; 2970 ac. Pop. 208. 9, Carlton (East), par. Nor 
 folk ; 1140 ac. Pop. 310. 10, Carlton (East), par. Nor 
 thampton; 1420 ac. Pop. 68. 11, Carlton (Great), par. 
 Lincoln ; 2190 ac. Pop. 352. 12, Carlton (Little), par. Lin 
 coln ; 940 ac. Pop. 136. 13, Carlton-le-Moorland, par. 
 Lincoln; 2610 ac. Pop. 331. 14, Carlton in-Lwdriclu; 
 par. Nottingham ; 3980 ac. Pop. 1 047. 15, Carlton (Nortlt\ 
 par. Lincoln; 1940 ac. Pop. 178. 16, Carlton-Ifode, par. 
 Norfolk; 2680 ac. Pop. 938. 1.7, Carlton- Scroop, par. Lin 
 coln ; 1 460 ac. Pop. 2 19. 18, Carlton (South), par. Lincoln ; 
 2040 ac. Pop. 166. 
 
 CARLUKE.par. Scot. Lanark; 8m. by4J. P.(1851),6283. 
 
 CARMAGNOLA, a tn. Sardinian istafes, prov. of, and 
 15 m. S.S.E. Turin, 2 m. from 1. bank, Po. It has two 
 suburbs ; and streets tolerably well laid out, some of them, 
 and also the public square, having arcades covering the foot 
 path. It also has five churches, four convents, and an hospital ; 
 a good trade in silk, hemp, linen, grain, and cattle; and annual 
 fairs well frequented. In 1691 and 1796, it was taken by 
 the French. Pop. 3500. 
 
 CARMARTHEN, co. and tn. Wales. Sec CAERMAUTHEN. 
 
 CARMAUX, or CARMEAUX, a vil. France, dep. Tarn, 
 
 1. bank, Cerou, 9 m. N. Alby. In its vicinity coal is wrought. 
 Pop. 1951. 
 
 CARMAVY-G RANGE, par. Irel. Antrim; 789 ac. P. 307. 
 
 CARMEL, or KUKMUL: 1, An anc. ruined tn. Asiatic 
 Turkey, Palestine, about 7 m. from Hebron, and believed to 
 be the place mentioned in Scripture, 1 Sam. xv. 12; xxv. 2. 
 The ruins, scattered about the head, and along the sides of a 
 valley among the mountains of Judah, indicate a town onto 
 of considerable extent ; the most remai-kable ruin is that of a 
 quadrangular castle, occupying a knoll i-n the midst of tho 
 town. 2, Carmel (Mount), a range of hills, Asiatic Turkey, 
 Palestine, extending N.W. from the plain of Esdraelon, ending 
 in the only great promontory upon the coast of Palestine, and 
 forming the Bay of Acre. These hills form a curve of about 
 6 m., and vary in height, from 1500 to 1800 ft. At their S. 
 foot runs the brook Kishon; and, a little farther N., the river 
 Belus. The whole range is of compact limestone ; and con 
 tains hundreds of caves. Upon the summit of Carmel is a 
 convent, which gave name to the monks of that name ia 
 Europe. It was destroyed, in 1821, by Abdallah Pasha; 
 but, by the aid of contributions from Europe, has been re 
 built. 3, Cape Carmel, a promontory, Palestine, S. side of 
 the Bay of Acre, and the termination of Mount Carmel ; lat. 
 32 51 12" N.; Ion. 34 57 45" E. (R.) 
 
 CARMEN, a tn. and two islands, America: 1, A tn. La 
 Plata, prov. Buenos Ayres, near the confines of Patagonia, on 
 the side of a steep sandstone bank, 1. bank, Rio Negro, 16 m. 
 from its embouchure in the S. Atlantic; lat. 41 4 S. ; Ion. 
 62 50 W. The streets are very irregular, and the houses 
 are, for the most, mere huts of one story, built of mud and 
 bricks. The most conspicuous edifice in the place is a ruinou.i 
 mud fort, defended by seven old, and almost useless pieces of 
 artillery. This fort was erected by Francisco Viedma, at 
 the formation of the settlement, in 1779, and was intended as 
 a military station for the protection of the Spanish settlements 
 on the W. coast of S. America. The soil in the neighbour 
 hood of the town is fertile, and produces wheat, barley, Indian 
 corn, and various kinds of fruits and vegetables. Sheep, horses, 
 cattle, and goats are also abundant. Pop. about 1230. 
 
 2, An isl. Gulf of California; lat. (E. point) 26 10 N. ; Ion. 
 111 2 W. (R.) It contains an inland lake, from which a 
 
 considerable quantity of salt is annually obtained. 3, An 
 
 isl. Gulf of Mexico, Yucatan, at the entrance of the lagoon of 
 Terminos; lat. (W. end) 18 38 24" N.; Ion. 91 50 42" 
 W. (R.) 
 
 CARMTCIIAEL, par. Scot. Lanark; 18 sq. m. Pop., 
 (1851), 805. 
 
 CARMIGNANO, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 
 13 m. W. Florence, E. side of Mount Albano. It contains a 
 parish church, and several other public edifices. Pop. 1544. 
 
 CARMOE, or KARMOE, an isl., S.W. coast, Norway, 
 bail. Stavanger, at the mouth of the Bukke-fiord ; lat. (S. end) 
 59 10 N.; Ion. 5 10 E.; separated from the mainland by 
 
CARMONA 
 
 607 
 
 CARNDONAG1I 
 
 a strait about 2 in. wide. It is 20 in. long, by about G broad, 
 and is well cultivated ; cattle-rearing and fishing are also 
 carried on. Harald Harfarger died here A.D. 936. Pop. 6000. 
 CARMONA [ane. Carmo], a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 
 20 in. E.N.E. Seville, cap. dist. of same name, E. extremity 
 of an elevated ridge, overlooking a rich and extensive plain, 
 covered with olive trees. It is surrounded with walls, and is, 
 in general, clean and well-built, containing a number of good 
 houses, and several handsome mansions, belonging to some 
 of the nobility, who, though usually resident in Seville, spend 
 part of the year here ; it has, besides, two principal squares, 
 one of which is well planted, and is partly formed by a hand 
 some church of Gothic architecture, with a lofty tower; while 
 the other is used as the market-place, and partly formed by 
 
 ~~"- ~ -^:.- : - 
 
 THB MARKET PLACE, CAKMONA From Uobera s Spanish Sketches. 
 
 several of the most important public edifices. One of the 
 most conspicuous objects in the town is an old Moorish castle, 
 still in tolerable preservation, flanked with massy towers, 
 faced with tin, and blackened by age. The other principal 
 edifices, in addition to those already mentioned, are six parish 
 churches, all in Gothic, or semi-Gothic style, and more or 
 less handsome ; the consistorial buildings, occupying the old 
 Jesuit college of San Teodomiro ; several well-endowed hos 
 pitals, and educational establishments, two ancient Roman 
 gates, particularly the one called the Gate of Cordova; and a 
 handsome theatre, of recent construction. The manufactures 
 consist of ordinary woollen cloth, coarse frieze, hats, leather, 
 earthenware, tiles for roofing and pavement, soap, &c. There 
 are also several flour, and numerous oil-mills, and an important 
 fair, chiefly for cattle, which lasts three days. Pop. 15,121. 
 
 CARMUNNOCK, par. and vil. Scot. Lanark; 6 m. by 
 4 m. Pop. (1851), 710. 
 
 CARMYLIE, par. Scot. Fwfar; 12sq. m. P. (1851), 1240. 
 
 CARN, two pars. Irel.:l,Wexford; 1963 ac. Pop. 914. 
 2, Kildare ; 1457 ac. Pop. 499. 
 
 CARNABY, par. Eng. York, E. Riding, 1950ac. P. 185. 
 
 CARNAC, a vil. France, dep. Morbihan, 15 m. S.E. 
 Lorient, on a height near the coast. It contains a handsome 
 church, enriched by the votive offerings of pilgrims who an 
 nually visit it in great numbers. The great druidical monu 
 ment of Carnac, the most extensive in France, is situate about 
 tliree-quarters of a mile from this village, and is traversed by 
 the road from Auruy. In the midst of a wide heath stand 
 about 10,000 rude blocks of gray granite, set on end, angular, 
 showing no marks of polish, and covered over with long moss, 
 indicating the great length of time they must have stood in 
 their present position. They are in the form of obelisks, with 
 the vertex reversed, none of them exceeding 18 ft. high, and 
 r.re arranged in 11 lines, forming 10 avenues, with a curved 
 row of 18 stones at one end. There are many gaps in the 
 stony lines, as every house and wall in the vicinity seems to 
 have been built from this ready quarry. The origin of this 
 remarkable monument is unknown. Pop. 2600. 
 
 CARNAGH, par. Irel. Wexford; 2106 ac. Pop. 352. 
 
 CARNALWAY, par. Irel. Kildare; 3841 ac. Pop. 1 J81. 
 
 CARNARVON, co. and tn. AVales. See CAERNARVON. 
 
 CARNARVON, a co. W. Australia, the most N.E. in 
 
 the colony; lat. 31 S.; about 65 m. in extreme length, E. 
 
 to W., and about 45 in breadth. In its centre are several 
 
 granite hills, called Highclere Hills ; 0*1 the S. are some low 
 
 wooded hills, and extensive tracts of grassy country. There 
 
 is also a pretty large lake of fresh water in the county, called 
 
 Lake Brown, which is dry in October. 
 
 CARNARVON, or CAERNARVON BAY, a large inlet of 
 St. George s Channel, W. coast, Wales, counties Caernarvon 
 and Anglesey, extending 34 m. from near Ilolyhead on the 
 N., to Braichy Pwll on the S. 
 
 CARNATIC, an extensive mari 
 time prov. S. Hindoostan, extending 
 along the Coromandel coast, from Cape 
 Comorin to the river Gondegam, or 
 between lat. 8 and 16 N.; and Ion. 
 77 and 81 E. ; length, S. to N., about 
 550m.; average breadth, about 90 m.; 
 intersected, S.W. to N.E., by a ridge 
 of mountains called the Ghauts, the 
 culminating peak of which, as far as yet 
 ascertained, is Mount Permaul, 7364ft. 
 high, the loftiest known summit S. of 
 the Himalayas. It is divided into S., 
 Central, and N. Carnatic. The first 
 extends from Cape Comorin to the 
 river Colleroon, about 260 m. ; the 
 second, from the Colleroon to the river 
 Pennar, about 220 m. ; the third, from 
 the Pennar to the river Gondegam, 
 about 70 m. Madras is situate near 
 the centre of Central Carnatic. The 
 general division of the country is into 
 high and low lands, or Upper and 
 Lower Carnatic ; in the first, all kinds 
 of grain are cultivated; in the last, 
 rice. The soil is fertile in the well- 
 watered valleys, but poor on the high 
 
 grounds. Sugar and indigo are cultivated in small quantities. 
 The cotton chiefly raised is the common dwarf kind. Few trees 
 grow here spontaneously, and none will thrive, under any 
 treatment, near Madras, around which the soil is very poor, 
 consisting of a heavy, sterile, salt loam, and there are other 
 tracts equally barren. The climate of the Lower Carnatic, or 
 country between the ghauts and the sea, is the hottest in India. 
 On the coast, this excessive heat is tempered by the sea-breeze; 
 but 10 or 12 m. inland, its intensity is rather increased than 
 lessened by it, in consequence of its passing over the heated 
 intervening tract. When the sea-breeze fails, which it some 
 times does for several days together, the heat on the coast 
 becomes intolerable, the thermometer rising to 1 30 in the 
 shade. In May, June, and July, showers are frequent, which 
 have the effect of cooling the air, and promoting vegetation. 
 The principal rivers are the Pennar, the Palaur, the Colleroon, 
 and the Vaygaroo, all of which have their sources in the table 
 land above the ghauts, and discharge themselves into the Bay 
 of Bengal. The majority of the inhabitants of the Carnatic 
 are Hindoos, the Mahometans being thinly scattered over the 
 country. A large portion of the land is rented by Brahmins, 
 but these seldom labour with their own hand, employing 
 slaves of the inferior Sudra castes to cultivate their farms. 
 There are a few Mahometan farmers who possess slaves ; but 
 the most numerous class of agriculturists are Sudras, who are 
 looked down upon by the Brahmins as an inferior race, and, in 
 towns, are not permitted to dwell in the same street with the 
 latter. Few provinces of India can exhibit so many large 
 temples, and other evidences of former wealth and civiliza 
 tion, as the Carnatic. Its forts and fortresses were also ex 
 ceedingly numerous, but these are now falling rapidly into 
 decay. The Carnatic was conquered by the British in 1783, 
 but was notfinally ceded to us till 1801 . Pop. about 7,000,000. 
 CARNBEE, par. Scot. Fife; 5 m. by 4 m. Pop. 1043. 
 CARNCASTLE, par. Irel. Antrim ; 9726 ac. Pop. 2079. 
 CARNDONAGH, a small tn. Ireland, co. Donegal, 19 m. 
 N. Londonderry. It has several places of worship, a few 
 schools, and a number of large and well-built houses. P. 653 
 
CAKNEW 
 
 008 
 
 CAROLINA (NORTH) 
 
 CARNEW, par. Irel. Wexford; 8115 ac. Pop. 7205. 
 CARNGIWEH, par. Wales, Carnarvon. Pop. 119. 
 CARN1COBAR, an isl. Bay of Bengal, the most N. of 
 the Nicobar group, about SO m S. by E. the Little Andaman ; 
 lat. (centre) 9 10 N. ; Ion. 92 54 E. ; about 6 m. N. to S., 
 and 5 broad, very little elevated above the sea, except at the 
 W. side. The middle of the island is covered with long, rich 
 grass, where multitudes of hogs are bred ; near the coast are 
 fruit trees of various kinds, particularly orange, citron, lemon, 
 and lime trees ; plantains, yams, and sweet potatoes may be 
 also procured, but cocoa-nuts are in the greatest abundance, 
 and on these all the animals are fed, there being no sort of 
 grain grown on the island. The inhabitants are hospitable 
 and inoffensive. 
 
 CARNIERES, a vil. and com. Belgium, prov. Hainaut, 
 1 1 m. W. Charleroy, r. bank, Haine. Here are several coal 
 mines and iron-works; including 60 nailers forges, employing 
 300 people. Pop. 2557. 
 
 CARNIOLA [German, Kraut], a duchy of Austria, form 
 ing three circles in gov. Laibach, kingdom Illyria, namely, 
 circles Laibach, Neustiidt, and Adelsberg, between lat. 45 10 
 and 46 20 N.; and Ion. 13 50 and 16 25 E.; having 
 Carinthia and Styria N. and E., Croatia and Lombardy S. and 
 W. ; area, 2903 geo. sq. m. It is covered with lofty moun 
 tains, some of which are about 10,000 ft. high, and, generally 
 speaking, is one of the most unfertile regions of the empire. 
 Some districts, however, produce considerable quantities of 
 wheat, barley, wine, and, in the S., fruits of various kinds, and 
 excellent flax. Bees are numerous in S. Carniola, and silk 
 worms are reared. It has many small lakes, but few rivers 
 of any importance. The largest is the Kulpa. There are 
 some iron, lead, and quicksilver mines, the latter exceedingly 
 rich. It abounds in clays and valuable stones, and in coal 
 and marble. There are considerable manufactures of iron, 
 fine linen, lace, woollen cloth, flannel, worsted stockings, 
 leather, wooden articles, &c. Its chief exports are steel- 
 wares, quicksilver, hats, linens, glasswares, wax, wine, flour, 
 &c. ; principal imports salt, oil, fruit, coffee, sugar, tobacco, 
 cloths, cattle, &c. Carniola was made a duchy in the 12th 
 century, under the dominion of the counts of Tyrol, who be 
 came extinct in 1 335, and were succeeded by the Earls of 
 Goerz. After the treaty of Vienna, in 1809, it was ceded to 
 France, and incorporated in the kingdom of Illyria. In 1814, 
 it came again into the possession of Austria. Capital Laibach. 
 The inhabitants are industrious and temperate, and all E. 
 Catholics. Pop. 427,000. 
 
 CARNMONEY, par. Irel. Antrim ; 8937 ac. Pop. 6128. 
 CARNO, par. Wales, Montgomery; 5000 ac. Pop. 995. 
 CARNOCK, par. Scot. Fife ; 2260 ac. Pop. 1270. 
 CARNOUL, CURNOUL, or KURNOOL, a fortified tn. Hin- 
 doostan, presid. Madras, prov. Balaghaut, cap. ancient princi 
 pality of same name, r. bank, Toombuddra, 250 m. N.W. 
 Madras; lat. 15 49 58" N.; Ion. 78 6 19" E. (L.) The fort 
 is well defended on three sides by the rivers Henday and Toom 
 buddra, the latter here 765 to 875 yds. broad, while the W. side 
 is strongly fortified. The interior is almost entirely covered 
 with stone and mud houses. Towards the S. of the fort is 
 the pettah, or suburbs, which are of considerable extent. 
 Pop. 4000. 
 
 CARNSORE POINT, a headland, Ireland, co. Wexford, 
 forming the S.E. extremity of the island ; lat. 52 10 18" N. ; 
 Ion. 6 21 42" W. (R.) 
 
 CARNTEEL,par.andtn.Irel.Tyrone; 13,432 ac. P. 7903. 
 CARNWATH, a vil. and par. Scotland, co. Lanark, 
 27 m. S.E. Glasgow. The VILLAGE, 7 m. N.E. Lanark, con 
 tains several handsome houses, and has of late years greatly 
 improved ; and has a parish, a Free, and a U. Presbyterian 
 
 church. The PARISH, 12 m. by 8 m., abounds in valuable 
 
 minerals ; lime, coal, and iron, being wrought to a great ex 
 tent. There are also extensive iron-works. See LANARK 
 SHIRE. Pop. (1851), 3553. 
 
 CAROLINA, a tn. New Granada, prov. Antioquia; lat. 
 6 45 N. Pop. 1572. 
 
 CAROLINA (LA),atn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 36m. 
 N.N.E. Jaen, on a slope of the sierra Morena. The streets 
 generally lie at right angles, and are noted for cleanliness and 
 uniformity. There are two squares, and a bull-ring ; a parish 
 church, townhouse, prison, two schools, a cemetery, and some 
 handsome fountains. Manufactures: linen and woollen 
 
 fabrics, oil, nnd a little wine. This town is the capital of the 
 German colonies, formed in the reign of Charles III. Tho 
 settlers received a grant of land, and various other advantages; 
 even yet, the district is distinguished by the superior industry 
 and activity of its inhabitants. Pop. 1739. (Madoz.) 
 
 CAROLINA (NORTH), one of the southern U. States, be 
 tween lat. 33 50 and 36 30 N. ; and Ion. 75 45 and 84 
 W. ; bounded, N. by Virginia, W. Tennesee, S. South Caro 
 lina, and E. the Atlantic ; length, E. to W., 430 m.; breadth, 
 180; area, 48,000 sq. m. A ridge of sand runs along the 
 whole coast of this state, and is partially separated from it by 
 arms of the sea of greater or less extent. The passages into 
 them are shallow and dangerous, and the only one through 
 which vessels can pass is Occacock inlet, formed by Capes 
 Hatteras and Lookout, off which, particularly the former, 
 disastrous shipwrecks arc of frequent occurrence. The sur 
 face, for 60 or 80 in. from the coast, is a dead flat, covered 
 with swamps and marshes, through which muddy streams pur 
 sue a sluggish course. The chief natural product is the pitch 
 pine, which attains a great size. The soil is generally poor 
 and sandy; but in many of the swamps along the margins of 
 the rivers, rice of fine quality is raised. The climate of this 
 part of the district is very unhealthy. Farther inland for 
 about 40 m., though the soil continues sandy, the surface loses 
 its monotonous appearance, and becomes undulating, after 
 which it gradually ascends, becomes more fertile, and assumes 
 the form of a table land, being 1800 ft. above the sea, and 
 forms the base of a portion of the Alleghany Mountains. 
 The principal summits are Grandfather Mountain, 5556 ft. 
 high ; Roan Mountain, 6038 ft. ; and Black Mountain, 6476 ft., 
 the greatest height in the U States E. of the Rocky Moun 
 tains. The soil of this elevated district, particularly its W. 
 slopes, is generally fertile ; and, when not brought under cul 
 tivation, is occupied by magnificent trees of oak, walnut, lime, 
 and cherry. The climate here is pure and salubrious. Winter 
 is occasionally severe. The principal minerals of N. Carolina 
 are gold and iron. The former, which is found both in grains 
 and in masses, and lumps, along both sides of the Blue Uidge, 
 was at one time obtained in such quantities, as to have pro 
 cured for that district the name of the gold region of the 
 U. States. The produce has progressively declined ; and, 
 being now eclipsed by that of California, will probably cease to 
 be sought after. Iron, of excellent quality, abounds, and traces 
 of both lead and coal have been discovered. The principal 
 rivers are the Chowan, Cape Fear, Pamlico, Roanoke, Neuse, 
 Yadkin, and Catawba. They are admirably fitted for internal 
 communication, but, owing to the sluggishness of the latter 
 part of their course, are encumbered at their mouths with 
 bars, which unfit them for the navigation of large vessels. 
 They are well supplied with fish ; but near the coast are in 
 fested with enormous alligators. The chief wild quadrupeds 
 are the wild cat and the wolf; among wild birds, the first 
 place belongs to the turkey; the worst reptile is the rattle 
 snake. The chief agricultural products are Indian corn, rice, 
 wheat, oats, tobacco, and cotton. The cane grows luxuriantly, 
 but comparatively little sugar is made, the greater part being 
 consumed green by cattle, particularly hogs, which in N. 
 Carolina far out-number every other class of domestic animals. 
 Neither the trade nor manufactures of this state are of much 
 importance. The latter are chiefly cotton yarn, ironware, 
 earthenware, soap, leather, and flour. The former, in conse 
 quence of the want of harbours, is chiefly conducted through the 
 neighbouring states. The chief exports are rice, cotton, and the 
 products yielded by the pitch pine, namely, pitch, tar, turpen 
 tine, and timber. The exports, in 1847, amounted to 56,983 ; 
 imports, 28,476. N. Carolina is one of the slave-holding 
 states, and exhibits in its condition not a few of the baneful 
 effects of that nefarious practice. Its internal improvements 
 contrast unfavourably with those of some of the N. states, 
 and neither religion nor education can be said to be flourishing. 
 The most numerous religious denominations are the Metho 
 dists, Baptists, and Presbyterians ; but the whole number of 
 their communicants falls short of that of the white persons, 
 above 20 years of age, who can neither read nor write. The 
 Legislature consists of a Senate of 50, and a House of Com 
 mons of 120 members, both elected biennially, the former 
 only by freemen possessing a freehold qualification of 50 acres 
 of land, who vote in districts regulated by the amount of state 
 taxes paid ; the latter by all free white men of 21 years of 
 
CAROLINA (Soura) 
 
 609 
 
 CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS 
 
 age, who have been inhabitants of the state for the previous 
 12 months, and who vote in counties regulated by population. 
 The governor is also elected by the latter class of voters, but 
 the judges of the supreme court are chosen by a joint ballot 
 of both houses, and hold their office ad vitam aut culpam, 
 The seat of Legislature is Raleigh. Top. 753,419 ; of whom 
 245,817 are slaves. 
 
 CAROLINA (SOUTH), one of the southern U. States, 
 between lat. 32 2 and 35 10 N.; and Ion. 78 24 and 
 83 30 W. ; bounded, N. and N.E. by N. Carolina, N.W., 
 W., S.W., and S. by Georgia, S.E. by the Atlantic; length, 
 S.E. to N.W., 200 m. ; breadth, 125; area, 25,000 sq. m. 
 In shape it is an irregular triangle, of which the vertex is in 
 the N.W., while the base is washed by the sea, and lined by 
 a chain of fine islands which furnish the famous sea island 
 cotton. The natural division of this state is into the lower, 
 middle, and upper country. The first stretches from the sea 
 for 80 to 100 m. inland, and is covered with extensive forests 
 of pitch pine, interspersed with swamps and marshes. Along 
 its rivers and creeks are rich alluvial tracts, on which fine 
 crops of cotton and Indian corn are grown. The swamps form 
 fine rice plantations. The lower country terminates with a 
 range of low sand hills, of a curious undulating appearance, 
 which continue for 60 or 70 m., and forms the middle country. 
 Between these hills some tolerable land occurs, but the greater 
 part of it is mere waste, unfit for cultivation. The upper 
 country, beginning with what is called the Ridge, which rises 
 suddenly, and with some degree of abruptness, attains a con 
 siderable elevation, and forms a fine tract of hill and dale, 
 abundantly watered with streams of pure water. It termin 
 ates in the Alleghany ranges, which pass through the state, 
 and throw out several branches with lofty peaks. The highest 
 is Table Mountain, which is 4000 ft. above the sea level. 
 The upper country is salubrious, beautiful, and generally fer 
 tile. The minerals of this state include gold, iron, and some 
 load, also marble, various ochres, potter s-clay, and fuller s 
 earth. The principal rivers are the 1 edee, the Santee, formed 
 l:y the junction of the "Wateree and Congaree, the Edisto, and 
 the Savannah, a noble stream, which, during its whole course, 
 proceeding from N.W. to S.E., forms the boundary between 
 this state and Georgia. The staple productions are cotton 
 and rice. Indigo was at one time extensively cultivated, but 
 cotton, being found more profitable, has superseded it. Great 
 quantities of Indian corn are raised. The other ordinary 
 agricultural crops are wheat, oats, and potatoes. The chief 
 manufactures are cotton-twist and leather, but neither is of 
 much importance. Almost the only exports are the staples 
 of rice and cotton, already mentioned. The total exports, in 
 1847, amounted to 2,086,303; imports, 226,303. The 
 largest and most commercial town of the state is Charleston ; 
 but its harbour is encumbered by a dangerous sand bar. The 
 capital is Colombia. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 
 45 members, elected by districts for four years, one-half re 
 newed every second year; and a House of Representatives of 
 124 members, apportioned among the districts according to 
 the number of whites and taxation, and elected for two years. 
 The governor is elected for two years by both houses jointly; 
 the supreme judges are chosen by the same bodies, and hold 
 office ad vitam aut cidfam. Top. 594,398; of whom 327,038 
 are slaves. 
 
 CAROLINE ISLANDS, or NEW PHILIPPINES [Spanish, 
 Carolines, Fclipinas-Nuevas}, a large archipelago, N. 1 acific 
 Ocean, between lat. 3 and 12 N., and Ion. 132 and 172 E. 
 It contains at least 50 groups, while the individual islets which 
 stud its surface are almost incalculable. Many of them are 
 mere coral reefs little elevated above the ocean, but the prin 
 cipal groups beginning at the W. and proceeding E., are the 
 Pelew Islands, Yap or Gouap. Dangerous Matelotes, L lie, 
 llaweis, Enderby, Hogoleu or Kong, Pmpcrrey, Onalan, T?a- 
 dick, Piscadores or Wallis, Radack Chain, Chatham, and Mar- 
 bhalls. The most important vegetable productions are palms, 
 bread-fruit trees, and bananas. The inhabitants belong to 
 different races, and have made very different degrees of pro 
 gress in civilization. In the central groups they are of a 
 handsome physical type, active, and industrious, and have 
 some commerce. On the E. generally, and on the "W., with 
 the exception of the Pelew Islands, the inhabitants, though 
 apparently of the same stock, are far less advanced. The 
 archipelago was first discovered by the Spaniards in 1543. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 The expedition of Duperrcy and d Urville, and the visit of 
 Captain Hall, particularly to the Pclew, have furnished much 
 
 The 
 
 Captain Ha 
 
 interesting information with regard to them ; but the most 
 recent, and also perhaps most important, accounts have been 
 furnished by the Russian navigator Liitke. Many of the 
 groups, however, have not yet been visited, and ninny more 
 are very imperfectly known. 
 
 CAROM B, a tn. France, flep. Vaucluse, 5 m. N.E. Car- 
 pentras, in a fertile district. It contains an old castle, and is 
 surrounded by walls and ditches, which give it the appearance 
 of a fortress, though it is said not to be strong. In the neigh 
 bourhood a narrow ravine has been dammed up, so as to re 
 tain the waters of a rivulet, and form an extensive lake, which 
 is employed for the purpose of irrigation. Pop. 2100. 
 
 CARONIA, a vil. and com. Sicily, prov. Messina, dist. 
 of, and 8 m. N. Mistretta, and nearly 2 m. S. from the coast. 
 The inhabitants arc chiefly employed in the Bosco di Caronia, 
 a forest a few miles S. of the village, and the most extensive 
 in Sicily. Pop. 1810. 
 
 CARONY, a river, Venezuela, clep. Orinoco, rising in the 
 sierra Pacaraima, on the confines of Brazil, flowing generally 
 N., receiving the Acaman and Paragua, and, after a course of 
 between 300 and 400 m., falling into the Orinoco 80 m. E. 
 Angostura. It is rendered wholly unnavigable by numerous 
 cataracts, one of which, 15 ft. high, is near its mouth; and 
 such is the rapidity of its current, that, for a considerable 
 distance after entering the Orinoco, its waters can easily be 
 distinguished from those of that river. 
 
 GABON -YS-CLAWDD, a par. Wales, co. Cardigan. 
 Pop. 2572. 
 
 CAROOR, a tn. Ilindoostan, Carr.atic, 77 m. W.N.W. 
 Tanjore, 1. bank, Amaravati, 6 m. W. its confluence with the 
 Caviri; lat. 11 N. ; Ion. 78 8 E. ; in a fertile district, and 
 defended by a fort, now in a ruinous condition. It contains 
 a famous Hindoo temple, and about 1000 houses, and was for 
 merly a place of great commercial importance. 
 
 CARORA, or CAROEO, a tn. and dist. Venezuela, prov. 
 of, and 100m. S.W. Coro, about 50m. E. of Lake Maracaybo, 
 on the Tocuyo; lat. 10 13 N. ; Ion. 70 26 W. It is 
 tolerably well built, and contains a handsome parish church, 
 a Franciscan convent, and a hermitage. The climate, though 
 hot, is salubrious ; but the soil is dry and sterile. The dis 
 trict is famous for its aromatic balsams, resins, and gums, and 
 a kind of wild cochineal, the gathering of which once formed 
 the chief occupation of the inhabitants. The breeding and 
 rearing of useful domestic animals is much attended to. 
 Manufactures : leather and shoes, cloth, ropes, and very 
 handsome hammocks, from the fibre of the Agave fcetida. 
 Trade: in these articles and other products of industry, with 
 Coro, Maracaybo, and Cartagena. Before the wars of inde 
 pendence, the pop. was 9000. 
 
 CAROTTO, a vil. Naples, prov. Naples, 5 m. S.\V. Cas- 
 tel-a Mare. It has two churches, and a marine school founded 
 by Ferdinand IV. The silkworm is extensively reared in 
 the district. Pop. 3500. 
 
 CAROUGE,a tn. and par. Switzerland, can. of, and about 
 1 m. S. Geneva, surrounded by fine villas, orchards, and mea 
 dows. It contains a handsome R. Catholic, and, immediately 
 adjoining, a Protestant church, manufactures, a fine pottery, 
 and has several tanneries and an extensive cotton factory. 
 Pop. 4367. 
 
 CARO VIGNO, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. Terra d Ot- 
 ranto, 17 m. W.N.W. Brindisi. It stands on a hill, and con 
 tains a church, two convents, and an hospital. Pop. 3576. 
 
 CARPANETO, a tn. and com. Italy, duchy Parma, 13 m. 
 S.E. Piacenza, between the Vezzino and Chero. It contains 
 a medical and two elementary schools. Good grain and wine 
 of very fine quality are produced here. Pop. 5134. 
 
 CARPATHIAN, or KARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS [German, 
 Karpathcn; anc. Carjmtus, 7 atra Tatri], a range of mountains, 
 Europe, chiefly in Austria, which, commencing at New 
 Orsova, on the Turkish frontier of the Banat of Austria, 
 where the bed of the Danul e is all that separates it from 
 Mount Haemus, proceeds first N.E. and then E. to the 
 frontiers of Moldavia, where it trends, first N.W., then AV-, 
 and, finally, S.AV., as far as Presburg, enclosing the plains of 
 Hungary, and forming a semicircular belt, nearly 800 m. long 
 by 250 broad. The Carpathian chain may be divided into 
 two great sections, the E. and the "VV. Carpathians, the for- 
 
CARPENEDOLO 
 
 610 
 
 CARKA LOUGH 
 
 mer curving from the mouth of the Nera, which falls into the 
 Danube 41 m. E. Belgrade, to the source of the Theiss, and 
 forming the boundary between Austria and the principalities 
 of Wallachia and Moldavia; the latter, proceeding from the 
 sources of the Theiss and the Priith, and terminating on the 
 banks of the Danube W. of Presburg, and forming the bound 
 ary between Hungary and Galicia. The principal mountains 
 of the E. group are the Dumoskenye and Szemenik. near the 
 sources of the Nera and Ttmes in the Banat ; the Kozstara, 
 Pojana, and Pietru, near the sources of the Schyl in Transyl 
 vania; the Szurul E. of the pass of the Kothenthurm ; the 
 chain of Fagaras, S. of the town of that name ; the Vurvusz- 
 Illy, E. of the pass of Tertzburg, the Vurvu-Kapri and Kotz- 
 mardi, the Lakotz and Niagul, the Becze-Vapa, the Lokavas, 
 mounts Stroumoura, Pietra, Gallatz, Pietrozza, and Husky. 
 The W. Carpathians, at first lower than the mountains of. 
 Transylvania, rise to the W. of the Poprad, and form the re 
 markable group of Tatra, separated by the little river Arva, 
 from another group called Baszkid, whose principal summits 
 are Zsylecz, Jalovec, and Czerkow. This group unites with 
 a chain which form the W. limits of the Carpathians, and pre 
 sents a series of heights, the chief of which are the Javorina 
 and the Weterling or Weiss-Gebirg. The greatest heights 
 of the E. Carpathians are Ruska-Poyana, 9909 ft. ; Garlu- 
 vipi, 9587 ft.; Buthest, in Transylvania, near Kronstadt, 
 8C95ft.; Buthest, in Wallachia, 6812 ft.; Eetirzath, 8502 
 ft. ; and Lentschitz, 8456 ft. The greatest heights of the W. 
 Carpathians are in the Tatra range, namely, the Kriwan, 8029 
 ft.; the Viszoka, 8312 ft.; the Csabi, same height ; and in the 
 mountains of Lomnitz, the Eisthalerspitze, 8521 ft.; theGrii- 
 neseespitze, 8203 ft. ; the Hundsdorferspitze, 8318 ft. ; and the 
 peak of Lomnitz, 8462 ft. The principal intersections of the 
 mountains, forming the most remarkable and most frequented 
 passes, are those of Teregova, leading from Orsova to Temes 
 war; of Vulkar, forming the valley in which the Schyl flows ; 
 and of the Rothenthurm, in a gorge formed by the Aluta, at the 
 foot of Mount Szurul. The outer bend of the Carpathians is 
 much steeper than that which descends towards the valleys of 
 Transylvania and Hungary. The mountain branch which, 
 stretching N.W. towards Lutowisko and Ustrzyki, separates 
 the basin of the Dniester from that of the Saan, also forms the 
 line of separation between the basin of the Baltic and that of 
 the Black Sea. From this line, as far as Jublunkau in Mora 
 via, all the streams, from the N. slope, fall into the Vistula ; 
 thereafter, all the streams from both sides of the Carpathians 
 belong to the Danube. The only important rivers which actu 
 ally rise in the chain are the Vistula, the Dniester, and the 
 Theiss. The E. part of the Carpathian chain, from Orsova 
 to the source of the Burcza, near Kronstadt, is entirely com 
 posed of primitive rocks. These are succeeded by grey- 
 wacke, which extends to the sources of the Theiss, and is 
 only interrupted by a primitive group between the pass of 
 Borgo and the source of the Viso. A great chain of trachyte 
 appears on the frontiers of the Bukowina, and stretches to 
 the point where the Aluta begins to flow S.W. To the W. 
 of this chain, on approaching the plains, an extensive tract 
 of sandstone, belonging to the coal formation begins to ap 
 pear, and covers the greater part of Transylvania. Ter 
 tiary formations surround the vast plains of Hungary, which 
 consist of a rich alluvium, and must once have been the bed 
 of a lake. Basalt frequently occurs, but no distinct traces 
 of extinct volcanoes have been found. The Carpathian range 
 is rich in minerals, including gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, 
 and iron. Salt occurs in beds, which have sometimes a 
 thickness of 600 or 700 ft., and are apparently inexhaustible. 
 Vegetation also is vigorous. On the plateaux, corn and fruit 
 are grown, to the height of 1500 ft. Higher up, the mountain 
 gteeps are covered with forests of pine, some of them as high 
 as 5500 ft. About 6000 ft. seems to be the vegetable limit. 
 Above it a few lichens may be found, but, in general, nothing 
 is seen but bare steep rocks, many of them in the form 
 conical peaks. (Orographie de V Europe; &c.) 
 
 CARPENEDOLO, a tn. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. 
 Milan, prov. of, and 21 m. S.E. Brescia, near 1. bank, Chiese. 
 It contains four churches, and two hospitals, and has manufac 
 tures of silk. Besides a monthly market, it has a fair, which 
 lasts two days. Pop. 4977. 
 
 CARPENETTO, a vil. Sardinian States, Piedmont div. 
 Alessandria, 6 m. E. Aciui. Pop. 1500. 
 
 CARPENTARIA (Gur.F OF), an immense gulf in N. 
 Australia, between Cape York, and Cape Wessel the N. point 
 of the Wessel islands, and Cape Arnhein on the mainland. It 
 "s about 400 m. in width, and about 460 in length, taking the 
 coast line of York peninsula, which forms the E. side of the 
 gulf. The land on the E. and S. is so low for a space of 600 
 m., that no part of the coast is higher then a ship s mast head. 
 The W. shore of the gulf is rather higher. 
 
 CARPENTRAS (anc. Carpmtoracte), a city, France, dep. 
 Vaucluse, 14 m. N.E. Avignon, 1. bank, Auzon, in a rich and 
 fertile district at the foot of Mont Ventoux. It is surrounded 
 by walls in good repair, flanked with towers, and has four 
 rates exactly opposite each other. The streets are rather 
 larrow, but most of the houses are well built, and almost all 
 ire supplied with water from the fountains in the public 
 squares. Outside of the walls is a broad esplanade, planted 
 with trees. The principal public buildings are the cathedral, 
 a Gothic edifice with a spire of the age of Charlemagne ; the 
 Porte d orunge, a very perfect gate surmounted by a high tower ; 
 the palace of justice, formerly the episcopal palace, close by 
 which is a Roman triumphal arch ; the hospital, erected in 
 1751 ; public wash-houses, theatre, markets, new prisons, and 
 public library, containing 22,000 volumes, 2000 MSS., 6000 
 medals, and various antiquities. The aqueduct, a massivo 
 structure, which crosses the valley of the Auzon by 48 arches, 
 and supplies the fountains of the town, was finished in 1734. 
 Carpentras is the seat of the assize court for the department, 
 of a court of first resort, communal college, and society of 
 rural economy. There are here brandy, spirit of wine, and 
 :nce distilleries, manufactories of nitric acid, glue, verdi 
 gris, cotton, and silk yarn. There are also madder mills, 
 tanneries, and dye works. Carpentras is the entrepot for the 
 productions of the district; and the weekly markets for the 
 disposal of them are among the most considerable in the S. of 
 France. A considerable trade is likewise carried on in olive 
 oil, fruit, almonds, madder, clover, lucerne seed, wax, honey, 
 &c. The Romans embellished Carpentras with many edifices, 
 of which the successive ravages of the Goths, Vandal?, Lom 
 bards, and Saracens, have left few traces. In 1313, Popo 
 Clement V. fixed his residence here, and made it the seat of 
 the Pontifical See, an honour that cost the town dear, as at 
 his decease the cardinals were so long in appointing his succes 
 sor, that the people, worn out with their endless disputes and 
 consultations, set fire to the college where they had assembled, 
 and the flames spreading, consumed a large portion of tlio 
 town. The present walls were built by Pope Innocent VI. 
 50 years after that event. The bishopric, founded in the 
 third century, was suppressed by the concordat of 1801. 
 Pop. 7691. 
 
 CARPI, a tn. Italy, duchy Modcna, canal of same name, 
 8 m. N. Modena ; seat of a bishopric, suffragan to Bologna. 
 It is surrounded by walls, defended by a citadel, and has 
 a cathedral, a seminary, and manufactures straw hats and spun 
 silk. Two fairs are held annually ; but the trade is trifling. 
 The neighbourhood produces rice, wheat, hemp, and flax. 
 Pop. 6500. 
 
 CARPING, a tn. Naples, prov. Capitanata, 22 m. N.E. 
 St. Severo, near Lake Varano. It has three churches. P. 606 1 . 
 CARPIO, three tns. Spain. 1, A tn. Andalusia, prov. 
 of, and 17 m. E.N.E. Cordova, 1. bank, Guadalquiver, on a 
 declivity, on the summit of which stands a castle. It is tol 
 erably well built, and possesses a parish church, townhouse, 
 ladies seminary, two primary schools, a prison, and several 
 convents, brick and lime kilns, and oil-mills. Some trade is 
 carried on in cattle, grain, fruits, &c. Pop. 2696. 2, Cur- 
 pio-el-Tajo, a tn. New Castile, prov. of, and 24 m. W. by S. 
 Toledo, in a hilly locality; houses indifferently built, and 
 streets irregular. It has a church, townhall, prison, ceme 
 tery, and three schools. Serge, glass, and oil, are manufac 
 tured. Pop. 2497. 3, Carpio (ET), a tn. Leon, prov. of, and 
 35 m. S.W. by S. Valladolid, r. bank, Trabancos; houses 
 poorly built. The town contains a church, a palace of tho 
 counts of Carpio, and a primary school. Pop. 659. Several 
 other places in Spain have the same name. 
 
 CAl. RA LOUGH, a small lake, Ireland, co. Kerry, 
 
 3 m. S. Castlemaine harbour, about 3 m. long, by 1 at its 
 
 greatest breadth ; abounds in trout and salmon, and exhibits 
 
 scenery little inferior to that of the far-famed lakes of Kil- 
 
 1 larney. 
 
CARRACA (LA) 
 
 Cll 
 
 CARRICKFERGUS 
 
 CARRACA (LA), a tn. Spain, Andalusia, dep. of, and 4 m. 
 E.S.E. Cadiz. It is the chief naval arsenal of the govern 
 ment, and ^ne of the most complete in Europe. It stands in 
 the channel E. of the Isle of Leon ; and has been completely 
 isolated from the mainland by artificial means. Its situation 
 is so low and swampy that the buildings have been erected 
 upon piles. It is defended by four batteries ; and, in addition 
 to the extensive buildings connected with the establishment, 
 contains a handsome parish church. A little S. of Carraca, 
 and between it and San Fernando, on the N.E. of the Isle of 
 Leon, a new town, to be called San Carlos, was commenced 
 in 1776, on a very magnificent scale; but few buildings of 
 any consequence have been completed. 
 
 CARRAGH, par. Irel. Kildare; 3734 ac. Pop 921. 
 
 CARRAN, par. Irel. Clare; 14,461 ac. Pop. 1144. 
 
 CARRAN-TUAL, a mountain, Ireland, co. Kerry, rising 
 3410 ft. above the level of the sea being the highest summit 
 of that remarkable range called Macgillicuddy s Keeks. 
 
 CARRANCA, a tn. Brazil, prov. Minas Geraes, between 
 Baependi and Sao-Joao-del-Rei, with a church and an agricul 
 tural pop., dist. included, of 4000. 
 
 CARRARA, a tn. Italy, duchy Modena, 3 m. N.W. 
 Massa, 1. bank, Avenza, 3^ m. above its entrance into the 
 Mediterranean. It has a cathedral, begun in imitation of 
 that at Pisa, but unfinished ; several churches, a convent, an 
 academy of sculpture, and numerous workshops for sawing, 
 cutting, and polishing marble, for which water power is em 
 ployed. There are also flour, oil, powder, and paper mills. 
 Carrara is the seat of a district court, and forms part of the 
 episcopal see of Massa and Carrara. The marble quarries 
 from which this town derives its whole importance, occupy 
 three or four descending ridges which unite in a lofty moun 
 tain called Monte Sagro. For upwards of 2000 years, the 
 marbles have continued to be exported, and still there re 
 main stores apparently inexhaustible. They are of various 
 shades; but the kind most prized is the transparent white 
 kind, used for statuary, of which, however, the quantity ob 
 tained is small, in comparison with that of the inferior kinds. 
 Pop. 5063. 
 
 CARREIRA ISLES, a small island group, Spain, off E. 
 coast Galicia, prov. Coruna, 22 m. N.W. Vigo. They form 
 part of the parish of San Paya de Carreira, which lies on the 
 mainland along the bay of Arosa, and has a large and well- 
 built parish church. Pop. 1241 
 
 CARRETAO, a tn. Brazil, prov. of, and 120 m. E.N.E. 
 Goyaz, with a church, and an extensive and fertile district. 
 The inhabitants, however, are chiefly devoted to mining ; 
 though those who follow cattle-rearing are the richest. 
 
 CARRICAL, or KAUICAL, a tn. Hindoostan, in the Car- 
 natic, coast of Coromandel, 152 m. S. Madras; lat. 10 55 N.; 
 Ion. 79 53 E. It was formerly a place of importance and 
 strongly fortified, but is now wholly dismantled. 
 
 CARRICK, a dist. Scot. co. Ayr (which see). 
 
 CARRICK, four pars. Irel. : 1, Kildare ; 5157 ac. Pop. 
 552. 2, Westmeath ; 2957 ac. Pop. 532. 3, Tipperary; 
 2426 ac. Pop. 9165. 4, Wexford; 3009 ac. Pop. 1251. 
 
 CARRICK-A-REDE, an insulated basaltic rock, Ireland, 
 co. Antrim, about 4 m. N.W. Ballycastle, separated from 
 the mainland by a chasm 60 ft. wide, and more than 80 ft. 
 deep. Here is a valuable salmon fishing station, as the fish 
 can easily be intercepted at this place in their retreat to the 
 rivers. A communication is maintained with the mainland 
 by means of a rude bridge ot ropes thrown across the chasm, 
 and allowed to remain during the fishing season. 
 
 CARRICK-ON-SHANNON, atn. Ireland, co. Leitrim, 85 m. 
 N.W. Dublin, 1. bank, Shannon, over which is a bridge to a 
 straggling suburb in the county of Roscommon. The town 
 consists, principally, of two streets, intersecting each other at 
 right angles ; is badly paved, and has a handsome church with 
 a spire, a R. Catholic chapel, two Methodist meeting-houses, 
 and parochial schools ; a county courthouse, bridewell, jail, 
 and the county infirmary, with dispensary attached. Being 
 the capital of the county, the assizes are held here, as are the 
 general and petty sessions. It is the chief market for grain 
 and provisions in Leitrim, and carries on an extensive trade 
 in butter and provisions with Dublin and Newry. It has also 
 some trade in coarse linen, druggets, frieze, coarse flannel, 
 and yarn. The prosperity of the place has been greatly in 
 creased by recent improvements on the Shannon, which have 
 
 rendered that river navigable to Lough Allen, about 8 in. N. 
 of the town. Pop. (1841), 1984. 
 
 CARRICK-ON-Suiu, a tn. Ireland, co. Tipperary, 85 m. 
 S.W. Dublin, on a plain, 1. bank, Suir, which is navigable, 
 up to the town, for ships of 200 tons burthen. Carrick-beg, 
 a suburb, stands on the r. bank of the river. The town con 
 sists of four streets, three of which are of a good width, and 
 a number of lanes; houses mostly of stone, and well built, 
 though of unequal heights; water abundant. The public 
 buildings, exclusive of the churches, are a courthouse, bride 
 well and barrack, an old castle or monastery, built by the 
 Earl of Ormond, in 1260, for Franciscan friars ; and an an 
 cient abbey in Carrick-beg, founded in the year 1336. This last 
 antique structure presents a curious achitectural peculiarity. 
 The tower is considerably broader than the body of the wall, 
 on which it is supported by an inverted pyramid, commencing 
 
 CARRICK-HEG ABBEY as existing in 1827. From ft Sketch by Rev. W. HilL 
 
 on two stones, one projecting from either side. Resting on 
 these projections, the tower rises to a height of 34 ft. 3 inches ; 
 and thus balanced, for there is no central base, it has stood, 
 
 harmed, the tempests of ages. The churches are the parish 
 church and a R. Catholic chapel, both large, but neither of 
 them particularly handsome. There are a parish school, 
 inder the Church Educational Society ; a school kept by the 
 nonks, and one or two private schools. The town was for 
 merly celebrated for the manufacture of coarse broad-cloth, 
 for the use of the army. It still manufactures ratteen, a 
 coarse woollen fabric, but the trade is now very much re 
 duced. A considerable export trade, in corn, butter, bacon, 
 and live stock, is carried on. Pop. (1841), 8369. 
 
 CARRICKBAGGOT, par. Irel. Louth ; 826 ac. P. 302. 
 CARRICKFERGUS, a pad. bor. and seaport, and par. 
 Ireland, co. Antrim. The TOWN lies N. side of Belfast Lough, 
 11 m. N.E. Belfast, with which it is connected by railway. 
 It extends nearly 1 m. along the shore, and consists of the 
 town within the walls, and two suburbs, called the Scotch 
 and Irish quarters. On the N. and W. sides of the town, 
 some portions of the old wall are still entire. The houses 
 are mostly built of stone, roofed with slate, and have, many 
 of them, a substantial and respectable appearance, especially 
 those built within the last 40 years. The parish church, an 
 old, patched, ungainly building, is surmounted by a fine 
 modern spire. There are, also, a R. Catholic chapel, and 
 places of worship for various dissenting congregations ; with 
 
 merous charities, and a dispensary. The ancient castle of 
 Carrickfergus, an object of considerable interest, is perched 
 on a rocky peninsula projecting into the sea, and is still main 
 tained as a fortress, having a number of guns on the walls, 
 and being garrisoned by one or two companies of foot. The 
 trade of the town was at one time considerable, but has been 
 nearly extinguished by the rivalry of Belfast, to which it 
 has now become subordinate ; the registry of vessels, and the 
 custom s duties, being included in the returns of the latter 
 port. The small importations still taking place here consist 
 of coals, iron, timber, bark, salt, slates, &c. ; the exports, of 
 
CARRICKMACROFS 
 
 612 
 
 CARTAGENA 
 
 black cattle and grain. The spinning of cotton and linen 
 yarn is carried on to some extent, and there are a large dis 
 tillery, and some extensive tanneries. A good many persons 
 are employed, also, in weaving cotton goods for the Belfast 
 and Glasgow manufacturers. But the chief dependence of 
 the town is on the influx of visitors during the summer 
 season, when it is much frequented by bathers, and on the 
 fishery in the bay, which affords employment to a large por 
 tion of the inhabitants, and is very productive. King William 
 landed at Carriekfergus castle 16 days previously to the battle 
 of the Boyne ; and in 17GO it surrendered to a French squad 
 ron under Thurot, who was soon after killed, having been 
 attacked by some English ships under Commodore Elliot. 
 In 1778, the celebrated Paul Jones captured the Drake sloop 
 of-war in the bay, but made no attempt on t! e town. Pop. 
 (1841), 3885. Area of par., 16,700 ac. Pop. 93V 9. 
 
 CARRICKMACRO88, a tn. and par. Ireland, co. Mon 
 agban. The TOWN, 46 m. N. W. Dublin, consists of one lonp 
 street, with several smaller ones branching from it. It has r. 
 clean, respectable appearance, and contains several good shops. 
 The parish church is a handsome building, with an elegant 
 steeple. There are here a grammar-school, two national, and 
 various other schools ; a dispensary, a mendicity society, a 
 savings -bank, and a bridewell. A considerable retail trade it 
 carried on with the surrounding country ; and soap, candles, 
 brogues, and coarse hats are manufactured in the town. There 
 is also a lanyard, a brewery, and a distillery. P. (1841), 1997. 
 Area of par., 16,072 ac. P. 13,444. (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 CAKK1DEN, par. Scot. Linlithgow; 424sq.m. P. 1208. 
 
 CARRIGAHOLT, a maritime vil. Ireland, co. Clare, on 
 Lay of same name, estuary of the Shannon, 10 m. W.Kilrush. 
 It has a pier, at which agricultural produce is shipped, am; 
 is frequented by fishing craft. Here are the ruins of ar, 
 ancient castle, on the verge of a cliff overhanging the sea. 
 Pop. 426. 
 
 CARRIGALINE, par. Irel. Cork; 14,590 ac. P. 7489. 
 
 CARRIGALLEN, or CLINCORICK, a vil. and par. Ireland, 
 co. Leitrim. The VILLAGE, 19m. E.N.E. Carriek-on-Shannon, 
 is a constabulary police station ; has petty sessions every alter 
 nate Saturday ; a weekly market, and several fairs. Pop. 473. 
 Area of par. 18,104 ac. Pop. 4400. 
 
 CARRIGDOWNANE, par. Irel. Cork; 797 ac. P. 245. 
 
 CARRIGLEAMLEARY. par. Irel. Cork; 3320 ac. 
 Pop. 1256. 
 
 CARRIGP ARSON, par. Irel. Limerick; 1449 ac. P.5G8. 
 
 CARRIGROHANE, par. Irel. Cork; 2658 ac. P. 2279. 
 
 CARRIGROHANEBEG, par. Irel. Cork; 2061 ac. P.641 . 
 
 CARRIGTOHILL, a vil. and par. Ireland, co. Cork. 
 The former, 18 m. W. by S. Youghal, is chiefly one long 
 irregular street, and is a constabulary police station, and has 
 several fairs. Pop. 632. Area of par. 10,319 ac. Pop. 
 (1841), 397(3. 
 
 CARR1GUE, or CARRIGUFOYLE, a small isl. Ireland, 
 co. Kerry, in the Shannon, 1 m. N.W. Ballylongford. It 
 is about 1 J m. in circumference; has a battery, and bomb 
 proof barrack for 20 men, and is a coast-guard station. The 
 castle of Carrigufoyle, belonging to the O Connors, offered 
 a determined resistance to Cromwell, and was one of the last 
 taken by him. 
 
 CARR1L, a tn. Spain, Galicia, prov. of, and 10 m. 
 N.N.W. Pontevedra, near the mouth of the Ulla ; houses, in 
 general, badly built. The town has a parish church, custom 
 house, primary school, and several marine storehouses. The 
 average value of exports is about 56,000 ; imports, 35,000. 
 Pop. 1100. 
 
 CARRINGTON, par. Scot. Edinburgh; 3J m. by 2 m. 
 Pop. 616. 
 
 CARRION, a river, Spain. Leon, prov. Palencia. It 
 rises in the mountains of the Asturias, flows S., and, passing 
 Saldana, Carrion-de los-Condes, and Palencia, falls into the 
 Pisuerga, 22 m. N.E. Valladolid, after a course of 75 m. 
 exclusive of windings. 
 
 CARR1ON-DE-CALATRAVA, a tn. Spain, New Castile, 
 prov. of, and 7 m. N.E. Ciudad-real, near 1. bank, Guadiana. 
 It is indifferently built, and possesses a large and highly- 
 decorated parish church, a chapel, convent, storehouse, prison, 
 cemetery, and four primary schools. Wine and oil are ex 
 pressed here, and some trade is prosecuted in grain, cattle, 
 wool, and oil. Pop. 3130. 
 
 CARRION-DE-Los-coxr>ES, a tn. Spain, Leon, prov. of, 
 and 22 m. X. Palencia, 1. bank, Carrion. Most of its streets 
 are narrow, ill paved, and dirty , and it has three squares, 
 the principal containing the townhouse, public storehouse, 
 and other offices. Its remaining public buildings are nine 
 churches, several chapels, convents, and schools, a prison, 
 hospital, and cemetery. In the environs, along the banks ( f 
 the river, are many pleasant public walks, ornamented with 
 trees and fountains. The inhabitants are engaged in tanning, 
 dyeing, expressing wine and oil, and in husbandry. Trade: 
 cattle, grain, fruits, wool, &c. A large and well-attended 
 cattle fair is held in September. Pop. 3132. 
 
 CARRON, a vil. Scotland, co. Stirling, celebrated for its 
 extensive iron foundries, about 2 m. N.E. Falkirk. The 
 RIVER of same name is a small stream, rising in an extensive 
 meadow called the Carron bog, near the centre of the county, 
 and after an E. course of about 17 m., falling into the Forth 
 at Grangemouth. This stream is supposed by some anti 
 quaries to have been the boundary of the Roman conquests 
 in Britain ; and several memorable battles have been fought 
 on its banks. In its course it supplies water to several print- 
 fields and the great reservoir of the Carron works, and drives 
 some paper-mills. 
 
 CARRONSHORE, a vil. Scotland, co. Stirling, 2 m. 
 below Carron works, partly in the parish of Larbert, anj 
 partly in that of Bothkennar. Pop. 838. 
 
 CARROWMORE, a lake, Ireland, co.Mayo, 3J m. N.V.". 
 Tulloghaan Bay, and 1^ m. N.E. Broadhaven Bay. It con 
 tains several islets ; its waters flow by the rivulet Munhiu 
 into the Avonmore, and through it into Tulloghaan Bay. 
 
 CARRU, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 9 m. N.N.E. 
 Mondoni. Pop. 3800. 
 
 CARSH ALTON, or CASEHORTOX, par. Eng. Surrey; 
 2680 ac. Pop. 2228. 
 
 CARSINGTON, par. Eng. Derby; 1080 ac. Pop. 235. 
 
 CARSPHAIRN, par. Scot. Kirkcudbright; 88 sq. in. 
 Pop. 790. 
 
 CARSTAIRS,par.Scot.Lanark;ll,840ac. P.(1851),106G. 
 
 CART, two streams, Scotland, co. Renfrew. 1, The White 
 Cart rises in Carrot Moss, S.W. Eaglesham, flows N.W. and 
 passing Cathcart and Pollockshaws receives the Levern, 
 passes through Paisley, and falls into the Clyde 6^ m. below 
 Glasgow, after a course of 20 m. 2, The Black Cart, a small 
 unimportant stream, issues from Castle Semple Loch, 5J m. 
 S.W. Paisley, flows N.E. and falls into the White Cart, about 
 a mile above its confluence with the Clyde. 
 
 CARTAGENA, or CARTHAGENA [anc. Carthago Nova], a 
 tn. and seaport, Spain, prov. of, and 31 m. S.S.E. Murcia, 
 cap. dist. of same name ; lat. (mole light) 37 36 N. ; Ion. 
 56 W. (R.), about 17 m. W. Cape de Palos. Its harbour, 
 one of the largest and safest in the Mediterranean, has depth 
 of water for the largest vessels, is sheltered from all winds 
 by lofty hills, and guarded from the sea by the island of 
 Escombrera, which forms a complete natural breakwater. It 
 stretches N. and is narrowest at its mouth, where it is defended 
 by the castle of Galeras, occupying one of the heights on the 
 W., and the castle of St. Julian, occupying one of those on the 
 E. The town, situate at the N. end of the harbour, is sur 
 rounded by a lofty wall, flanked with bastions. The space 
 enclosed is much larger than the actual population requires, 
 and everything about the place bears strong evidence of ex 
 tensive, rapid, and comparatively recent decay. The princi 
 pal streets are spacious and regular, and many of the houses, 
 though of simple architecture, well built, and provided with 
 balconies. The most important squares are the Merced or 
 Market-place, the largest of all, lined throughout with elegant 
 buildings, and adorned with a fine fountain, furnishing tl:e 
 purest water so copiously as to supply the greater part of the 
 inhabitants ; and the Monjas, of less dimensions than the former, 
 but occupying both a more centrical and airy situation. The 
 Alameda, in the N.W., near the Madrid gate, is well planted, 
 and affords both a healthy and picturesque promenade. The 
 principal edifices are the cathedral, possessing little architec 
 tural merit, and now, since the bishop s see has been removed 
 to Murcia, converted into a simple parish church, the old castle 
 (Castello Antiguo) supposed co date from the foundation of tho 
 city by the Carthaginians, the barracks, arsenal, presidio or 
 convict establishment, the military hospital, and hospital du 
 Caridad, the artillery park, the observatory, the convents of 
 
CARTAGENA 
 
 613 
 
 CARTAMA 
 
 St. Augustine and Monjas, and several other convents and 
 churches. When Spain possessed her colonies, and was in a 
 flourishing condition, Cartagena was one of her most important 
 naval stations, and carried on a very extensive commerce, but 
 
 1. Royal Hnspitul (Hospital Real). 
 
 2. Ancient Castle (Castillo Antiguo). 
 S. Ttrlesia Mnvor Atigua, 
 
 4. Conven .o dV Santo Angustm. 
 
 5. do. de Monjas. 
 
 a Mnvor. 
 
 ery liiirnick 
 
 Dverything has since gone to decay, and the town can hardly 
 be said to have either trade or manufactures. The latter 
 consists chiefly of red lead, earthenware, cordage, esparto, 
 mats, and glass. The mines, chiefly argentiferous lead, ex 
 tensively wrought in the neighbourhood, give employment 
 to several smelting furnaces and foundries. The chief articles 
 of export are barilla, grain, and esparto. In addition to other 
 causes of decay, Cartagena has suffered greatly by its un- 
 healthiness. Repeated epidemics have raged within it, and 
 carried off the inhabitants by thousands. Pop. including 
 suburbs, 33,593. 
 
 CARTAGENA or CAETHAGENA, a seaport tn. New Gra 
 nada, cap. prov. of same name, on a small sandy peninsula, 
 connected with the continent by an artificial neck of land ; 
 lat. (dome) 10 25 36" N.; Ion. 75 34 W. (R.) On an island, 
 communicating with the city by means of a wooden bridge, is 
 a large suburb, called Xiximaui. Both the former and latter 
 
 CARTAGENA, SOUTH AMEKKA. - From n Drawing by Lieu Bellairs, R X. 
 
 are surrounded by strong fortifications of freestone, and at a 
 short distance from the city, on the mainland, is an eminence 
 about 150 ft. high, on which is built a strong fort commanding 
 the fortifications. This eminence communicates on the E. 
 with a range of more elevated hills, terminating in a summit 
 550 ft. above the sea, on which stands the Augustine monas 
 
 tery of Nuestra Senhora de la Popa. The height of La Popa 
 is not fortified, says Capt. Cochrane, which is unaccountable, 
 as it has several times caused the fall of Cartagena without 
 a single shot almost being tired. 
 
 The port is magnificent, and is the only one on the coast fit 
 for the repair of vessels. It also possesses excellent building 
 docks. The bay, which is land-locked, and has smooth water, 
 extends N. to S. 7 m., and affords excellent anchorage. 
 There were two entrances to the port the Boca Grande, 
 close to the town ; and the Boca Ckica (narrow mouth), many 
 miles farther S. ; but the better to defend the approach, the 
 former has been blocked up by sinking old vessels in it, i: 
 consequence of which, ships are compelled to go round by 
 Boca Chica, a circuit of 30 m., to gain the usual roadstead for 
 frigates, which is 3 or 4 m. from the town. The Boca CMca 
 is defended by two strong castles. The entrance to the port 
 is rendered somewhat difficult by shallows. The town and 
 suburbs are well laid out and well built. The houses are 
 generally of stone, two stories high, with balconies and lattices 
 of wood, which, in this climate, has the durability of iron; and 
 the streets, though not very spacious, are straight, and well 
 paved. Among the public buildings are numerous churches 
 and convents, some of them of great magnificence ; a general 
 and a military hospital, a townhall, a theatre, a circus, and a 
 college, with an average attendance of 200 students. Tli3 
 spring water is bad, and the inhabitants are in consequence 
 obliged to obtain supplies from immense cisterns, constructed 
 for the purpose of collecting rain water. The weather, espe 
 cially during the rainy season, is excessively hot, and thus both 
 heat and damp combine to render the climate, particularly 
 from May to November, most insalubrious. Leprosy is com 
 mon, and yellow fever often makes fearful ravages. In recent 
 years, owing partly to greater attention to cleanliness, morta 
 lity is said to have decreased. The chief manufactures arc 
 ropes and sail-cloths. The trade of Cartagena, at one tima 
 j considerable, has declined very much, in consequence of tha 
 rivalship of the ports of Santa Martha and Savanilla. Tha 
 export trade is now almost confined to specie and bullion, 
 I conveyed by the steamers of the Koyal Mail Steam-packet 
 Company to England. In 1845, the arrivals and departures 
 of vessels were 39, tonn. 5541 ; value of cargoes imported, 
 56,786; exported, 13,488. In 1846, the vessels numbered 
 42, tonn. 6502; cargoes imported, 62,708; exported, 48,712. 
 A canal of 80 m., to connect the bay of Cartagena with tho 
 river Magdalena, is now in progress, and it is anticipated that 
 on its completion the trade of Cartagena will revive. Pop. 
 about 10,000. 
 
 CART AGO. 1, Atn. Central America, cap. of Costa- 
 Rica, r. bank, of a river of its own name. It was formerly a 
 place of considerable commercial importance, and had a popu 
 lation of about 37,000. It then contained 3000 houses and 
 eight churches, but it was so utterly ruined by an earthquake 
 on September 2, 1841, that only one church and 100 houses 
 were left standing. Near the town is Mount Cartago, rising 
 11,480 ft. above the sea level, 
 and presenting indications of 
 having at one time been an ac 
 tive volcano. 2, A tn. New 
 Granada, prov. Popayan, intha 
 valley of the Cauca, on the 
 Viega. The streets are broad 
 and straight, and it has a 
 spacious and handsome square, 
 a cathedral, and two parish 
 churches, and a well- conducted 
 Laneasterian school. Its trade 
 is principally in dried beef, live 
 pigs, fruits, coffee, superior 
 cacao, and tobacco. The sugar 
 cane thrives well here. Min 
 erals of various kinds abound, 
 and the hills contain nitre. 
 Cartago is the entrepot for the 
 The climate is hot, but dry and 
 
 trade of Santa-Fe-cle-Bogota. 
 healthy. Pop. 5500. 
 
 CARTAMA, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 14 in. 
 W. Malaga, at the base of a hill, called Ma Virgen, crowned 
 with the ruined walls of an ancient fortress. It has wide and 
 paved streets, a square, which contains the church ; a chapel, 
 
CARTAYA 
 
 614 
 
 CASAMANZA 
 
 school, and several fountains. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 employed in asrrieulture, cattle- rearing, and expressing oil. 
 Top. 2863. (Madoz.) 
 
 CARTAYA, a tn. and port, Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, 
 and 9 m. W.N.W. Huelva, 1. bank, Piedra. Its houses are 
 irregularly built, and it has a large square, in which is situate 
 the townhall, now ruinous. It also has two churches, a 
 prison, school, hospital, public granary, now used as a session- 
 house ; custom house, and an old Moorish castle, now converted 
 into a cemetery; docks for ship and boat building, and a 
 marine storehouse. In 1843, 57 vessels entered and sailed 
 from the port, tonn. 2907- The bulk of the people are fisher 
 men. Pop. 4097. 
 
 CAKTERET, an isl. S. Pacific, Solomon Archipelago; 
 lat. 8 50 S.; Ion. 160 48 E. It bears the name of the 
 English navigator who discovered it in 1767. 
 
 CARTHAGE, the anc. cap. of a famous country of 
 same name, N. Africa, the site of which is believed to be a 
 few miles N. the city of Tunis, on the N. part of a small 
 peninsula; lat. 36 55 N.; Ion. 10 E. About 30 years after 
 the destruction of Carthage city (B.C. 161), the Romans at 
 tempted to establish a colony on its site, which did not pros 
 per ; but a second, under the name of Colonia Carthago, rose 
 into importance, and became the first city of Roman Africa. 
 In 439, the Vandals, under Genseric, seized it. It was retaken 
 by Belisarius in 553, but was finally destroyed by the Saracens 
 in 698. The few ruins that now exist belong to the Roman 
 city. Not a trace remains of the Carthaginian metropolis. 
 In 1841 , a monument was set up in the locality by the French, 
 in memory of their King Louis IX. (better known as St. 
 Louis), who died of the plague, May 25, 1270, while besieging 
 the neighbouring city of Tunis. 
 
 CARTHAGE (CAPE), N. Africa, gnlf of Tunis; lat. 
 36 52 24" N.; Ion. 10 C 20 15" E. (u.) The cape is on the 
 W. side of the gulf, about 10 m. E. from the city. A light 
 house has been erected on this promontory with a revolving 
 light, performing a revolution every three minutes. 
 
 CARTHAGENA. See CARTAGENA. 
 
 CARTMEL, a vil. and par. England, co. Lancaster. The 
 VILLAGE is 11 m. S.W. Kendal, in a valley surrounded by lofty 
 and picturesque hills, consists of two principal streets, well 
 kept, and is abundantly supplied with water. The church is 
 a fine old cruciform structure, formerly a priory, founded in 
 1188. There is an ancient endowed grammar-school, with 
 some small parochial charitable institutions. People chiefly 
 employed in agriculture. Area of par. 22,960 ac. Pop. 4927. 
 (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 CARUPAISO, a seaport tn. and dist. Venezuela, prov. of, 
 and 57 m. N.E. Cumana, within a few miles of Cariaco; lat. 
 10 40 N.; Ion. 63 22 W.; agreeably situate at the opening 
 of two fine valleys. The place is said to be healthy, and the 
 inhabitants are of a gay and lively temper, fond of dancing. 
 A battery, seated on an eminence, defends the port. It has 
 some traffic in horses and mules ; and in 1847, the arrivals at 
 the port were 22 vessels, tonn. 789; departures, 67, tonn. 1186. 
 Pop. 5000. 
 
 CARVIN, a tn. France, dep. Pas-de-Calais, 14 m. E. 
 Bethune, 16 m. N.E. Arras; with manufactures of starch, 
 leather, earthenware, beet sugar, and potato flour. Pop. 4038. 
 
 CARWAR, a seaport tn. Hindoostan, prov. Canara, 50 m. 
 S.S.E. Goa; lat. 14 50 N. ; Ion. 74 11 E. This was for 
 merly a noted seat of European commerce, the English East 
 India Company having had a factory here so early as 16G3, 
 but durina: Tippoo s reign it fell into utter decay. 
 
 CARYSFORT, a small vil. Ireland, co. Wicklow, and 
 5 m. S.W. Rathdrum, formerly a parl. bor., returning two 
 members to the Irish House of Commons. It has a free 
 school, founded by Charles I., which is numerously attended. 
 
 CARYTENA, a vil. Greece, nome Arcadia, 17 m. W. 
 Tripolitza, near the Carbonaro. It has an old castle, repaired 
 by, and for years the residence of, the celebrated chief Colo- 
 cotroni. Pop. 1000. 
 
 CASACALENDA, a tn. Naples, prov. Sannio, 18 m. 
 N.E. Campobasso, at the foot of a hill. It has three churches, 
 one of which is in the good Tuscan style ; and a convent. 
 Silk-worms are reared in the neighbourhood, and the district 
 produces wine and fruit of good quality. Pop. 5190. 
 
 CASALANGUIDA, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Abruzzo 
 Citra, dist. of, and 1 1 m. S.W. Vasto. Pop. 2306. 
 
 CASALBORGONE, a vil. Sardinian States, prov. of, 
 and 14 m. N.E. Turin. Pop. 2000. 
 
 CASALBUTTANO, a tn. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. 
 Milan, prov. of, and 8 m. N.N.W. Cremona, on a navigable 
 canal, between the mountains of Brescia and the Ollio. It 
 contains a parish church, and four oratories; has manufac 
 tures of linen and cotton, and numerous silk-mills, one of the 
 largest silk houses of Italy having its establishment here. 
 Pop. 3903. 
 
 CASALDUNI, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Sannio, dist, 
 of, and 19 m. S. Campobasso. It has an annual fair. P. 3300. 
 
 CASALE [anc. Bodincogamits], a tn. Sardinian States, 
 cap. prov. Casale, division of, and 18 m. N.N.W. Alessandria, 
 r. bank, Po. The citadel, founded in 1590, by Duke Vicenzo, 
 was one of the strongest in Italy. The castle, or palace, is 
 still standing; but the ramparts have been converted into pro 
 menades, and the defences are now insignificant. The cathe 
 dral is said to have been founded in 742. There are several 
 other churches, a seminary, several convents, two hospitals, 
 an orphan hospital, college, public library, theatre ; corn 
 magazine, several silk spinning- mills, a parade, and public 
 garden. The trade of the town is inconsiderable. Casale is 
 the seat of a bishopric, and district court of justice. It was 
 the capital of the ancient marquisate or duchy of Montferrat. 
 In 1640, the Due d Harcourt defeated the Spaniards here. 
 Casale was taken and retaken several times by the French and 
 Austrians, and it formed, for a time, part of the department 
 
 of Marengo in the French Republic. Pop. 21,000. The 
 
 PROVINCE, area, 2224 sq. m., is hilly to the S. and W. Its 
 products are : grain, fruit, hemp, silk, and wine. It is divided 
 into 15 mandamento, and 73 comune. Pop. 112,000. 
 
 CASAL-MAGGIORE, a tn. Austrian Italy, prov. of, and 
 22 m. E.S.E. Cremona, 1. bank, Po, from the inundations of 
 which it is with difficulty protected by strong embankments, 
 It is the seat of several courts and public offices, and has 
 several churches, an abbey, barracks, and a custom-house, 
 various schools and charitable institutions, a mont-de-picte, and 
 a theatre. Its manufactures consist of earthenware, glass, 
 and cream of tartar, some tanneries, and brandy distilleries ; 
 and it has markets twice a week, and an annual fair, which 
 lasts seven days. Inhabitants chiefly engaged in agriculture, 
 particularly in cultivating the vine. Pop. 4106. 
 
 CASALNO VO, two tns. Naples : 1, A tn. prov. Calabria 
 Ultra, 9 m. N.W. Nicastro, near 1. bank, Savuto. Pop. 1610. 
 2, A tn. prov. Principato Citra, 14 m. N.E. Policastro, 
 r. bank, Sele. Pop. 2500. 
 
 CASALNUOVO, three tns. Naples : 1, A tn. prov. Cala 
 bria Citra, 8 m. N.E. Cassano. Pop. 6600. 2, A tn. prov. 
 Calabria Ultra, 31 m. N.E. Eeggio, almost entirely destroyed 
 by the earthquake of 1783. The neighbourhood produces 
 silk. Pop. 8241. 3, A tn., prov. of, and 6 m. N.E. Naples. 
 Pop. 3120. 
 
 CASAL-PUSTERLENGO, a tn. and com. Austrian 
 Italy, gov. Milan, prov. of, and 13 m. S.E. Lodi, 1. bank, 
 Brembiolo. It is the seat of several public offices; contains 
 a parish church and sanctuary; has manufactures of linen and 
 silk goods, and earthenware ; and carries on a considerable 
 trade, particularly in Parmesan cheese, which is here made in 
 great quantities, and of the best quality. There are limekilns 
 in the neighbourhood. Pop. 5601. 
 
 CASALTRIM1TA, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Capi- 
 tanata, dist. of, and 30 m. E.S.E. Foggia, and about 1 m. S. 
 Lake Salpi. There are salt-works in the neighbourhood 
 belonging to the crown. Pop. 3785. 
 
 CASALVECCHIO. 1, A vil. and com. Naples, prov. 
 Capitanata, dist. of, and 15 m. S.W. Sansevero. Great quan 
 tities of olives are raised in the neighbourhood. Pop., greater 
 
 part Albanese or Arnaouts, 1020. 2, A tn. and com. Sicily, 
 
 prov. of, and 30 m. S.S.W. Messina, dist. of Castroreale. 
 Pop. 3633. 
 
 CASAMANZA, a river, Senegambia, between Cacheo 
 and Gambia. Falls into the Atlantic ; lat. 12 34 N. ; Ion. 
 16 50 W. Source unknown. Off the entrance of the river 
 there are only 4 or 5 fathoms water at the distance of 8 or 
 9 m. from the land. There is a French factory at its em 
 bouchure ; another, called Berrin, 30 m. higher up ; and a 
 third, Zinginchor, belonging to the Portuguese, 9 m. above 
 the latter. The river is navigated by large schooners to a 
 considerable distance beyond the farthest settlement. 
 
CASAMASSIMA 
 
 615 
 
 CASHAN 
 
 CASAMASSIMA, a tn. Naples, prov. of, and 14 ra. S.S.E. 
 Bari. It has several churches, a convent, and two abbeys. 
 The district produces wine and almonds of good quality. 
 Pop. 4230. 
 
 CASAMICCIOLA, a tn. Naples, prov. Naples, isl. Is- 
 chia, at the foot of Mount Epomeo, near the sea coast. It 
 produces earthenware, and has some hot baths, which are 
 much frequented ; and a custom-house. Good wine is pro 
 duced in the neighbourhood. Pop. 3133. 
 
 CASANARE. 1, A prov. New Grenada, dep. Boyaca; 
 extending from the E. slope of the Andes to the Orinoco. It 
 is very mountainous on the W. ; but the remainder is an 
 immense plain, covered with forests and marshes, traversed 
 by numerous rivers, rich in fine meadows, but little cultivated. 
 The banks of the Orinoco is the only part inhabited. Pop. 
 12,000. 2, A river in the above prov., rising in the moun 
 tains of Chita, and, after an E. course of about 180 m. through 
 immense plains, nearly under the parallel of 6 N., falling 
 into the Meta, a little E. the confluence of the Chire; lat. 
 5 58 N. It is navigable for small craft throughout the year. 
 3, A tn. on the above river; lat. 5 56 N.; Ion. 71 50 W. 
 It has a good harbour, and 900 inhabitants, chiefly Indians. 
 
 CASANDRINO, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. of and 
 5 m. N. city Naples. The chief employment is rearing silk 
 worms. Pop. 2195. 
 
 CASARANO, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Otranto, llm. 
 N.N.E. Gallipoli. It contains an hospital, orphan asylum, 
 and two convents ; and has an annual fair. Pop. 2748. 
 
 CASAR-DE-CACERES, a vil. Spain, Estremaclura, prov. of, 
 and 8 m. N. by W. Caceres ; with a Gothic church, townhall, 
 prison, hospital, several schools, a public storehouse, and 
 three fountains. Manufactures : linen and woollen fabrics, 
 shoes and boots, oil and wine. Pop. 6025. 
 
 CASARICHE, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 52 m. 
 E. Seville, r. bank, Yeguas. The houses are well built ; the 
 streets spacious. It has a small square, a church, chapel, 
 chapter-house, prison, and two schools. Inhabitants occupied 
 in burning charcoal, distilling brandy, expressing oil, and 
 in husbandry ; and in trading in grain, fruits, and cattle. 
 Pop. 2125. 
 
 CASAS, several tns. Spain. Those noteworthy are : 
 1, Casas-de-Ves, a tn. New Castile, prov. of, and 32 m. N.E. 
 Albacete, on the borders of Valencia, r. bank, Gabriel. It 
 has wide and regular streets lined with substantial houses, and 
 an extensive square containing a handsome townhall ; it also 
 has a parish church, two schools, a prison, storehouse, and 
 cemetery. Inhabitants engaged in weaving, currying, and 
 husbandry ; and in trading in grain, fruits, cotton, wool, and 
 silk. Pop. 3385. 2, Casas-Ibafiez, a tn. New Castile, 4 m. 
 N. the former, possessing a church, townhall, prison, store 
 house, cemetery, and two schools. Inhabitants employed in 
 domestic weaving and tillage. Pop. 2891. 3, Casas-de- Mil- 
 Ian, a vil. Estremadura, prov. of, and 20 m. N. by E. Caceres, 
 r. bank, Tagns. It possesses a square, church, townhouse, 
 school, prison, and cemetery. Woollen and silken fabrics are 
 manufactured here, and some trade is done in grain, fruit, and 
 pigs. Pop. 1817. (Madoz.) 
 
 CASAS-GRANDES, a tn. Mexican Confederation, state 
 Chihuahua, 35 m. S. Llanos, apparently, at one period, a 
 place of considerable extent and importance, as the country, 
 for some distance around it, is covered with the ruins of 
 buildings capable of accommodating about 30,000 inhabitants. 
 The ruins are of various kinds, comprising aqueducts, and 
 other works. In the immediate neighbourhood of the town 
 the soil is extremely fertile, and the verdure perpetual. Its 
 present inhabitants, of very indifferent character, amount to 
 about 300. 
 
 CASATE-NUOVO, a vil. and com. Austrian Italy, prov. 
 of, and 18 m. N. by E. Milan ; with a church and small con 
 vent. Pop. 2400. 
 
 CASBIN, or KAZVIN, a city, Persia, prov. Irak, 90 m. 
 N.N.W. Teheran; lat. 36 6 N. ; Ion. 49 E. ; on a plain, 
 and described by Southgate as the best-looking town he had 
 seen in Persia. Many of its buildings are of kiln-burnt bricks, 
 which gives them a livelier and more agreeable aspect than 
 when built of those that are sun-dried. There are several 
 spacious and well- constructed bazaars, 48 caravansaries, and 
 24 mosques, some of which are very elegant structures. 
 Deserted and ruined houses are singularly numerous in the 
 
 town, and its prosperity, generally, is much impeded by the 
 scarcity of water. There are no manufactures of any conse 
 quence ; but it has a great transit trade with Hamadan, Kesht, 
 j Teheran, and Tabriz. Pop., nearly all Mahometans, about 
 j 40,000. 
 
 CASCADE, or PRESIDENT MOUNTAINS, a mountain-range, 
 U. States, Oregon, running parallel to, and about 80 to 100 m. 
 E. from the coast. It may be said to commence with Mount 
 Baker, near the frontier of British N. America, lat. 49 N., 
 and to terminate S. with Mount Shasti, which closes up the 
 head of the valley of the Sacramento in California; total 
 I length, about 550 m. N. it is separated by Eraser s river 
 from the mountains of New Georgia, and S. by the Sacramento 
 from the sierra Nevada. Besides Mount Baker, its highest 
 peaks are Mounts Jefferson, Hood, St. Helena, and llaiuer, 
 some of which are 12,000 to 14,000 ft. high. 
 
 CASCAES, a small seaport tn. Portugal, prov. Estrema 
 dura, about 6 m. N.W. the mouth of the Tagus, and 18 m. 
 S. W. Lisbon, defended by two forts. It contains two churches, 
 carries on some trade with the W. Indies, and has some manu 
 factures of woollen stuffs. There are thermal springs in the 
 vicinity. Cascaes is the birthplace of a pilot named Alphonso 
 Sanches, who is alleged, by the Portuguese, to have been 
 driven out to sea by a violent tempest, to have reached N. 
 America, returned with three or four companions, sole sur 
 vivors of the voyage, by way of Madeira, and to have left a 
 journal, which fell into the hands of Columbus, then residing 
 there, and furnished him with hints which ultimately led to 
 his celebrated discovery. Pop. 2080. 
 
 CASCANTE, a city, Spain, Navarre, 52 m. S. Pamplona, 
 7 m. S.S.W. Tudela, 1. bank, Queilcs. Its houses are toler- 
 bly well built, and it has a spacious square, two churches, 
 several chapels, two endowed schools, a townhouse, prison, 
 and cemetery. In the environs is a public walk, adorned 
 with trees. Manufactures : linen fabrics, saltpetre, brandy, 
 oil, and wine. Trade: grain, fruits, cattle, and colonial 
 produce. Pop. 2244. 
 
 CASCIA, a tn. Papal States, deleg. of, and 12 m. E. 
 Spoleto. Pop. 3200. 
 
 CASClANA-DEi-BAGNi, a vil. Tuscany, prov. of, and 
 16m. S.E. Pisa, on a hill in the Val d Era. It has a parish 
 church, and baths, which take their rise in a hill of marine 
 tufa in the vicinity. Pop. 1152. 
 
 CASCIANO, numerous small places, Tuscany, none of 
 them deserving notice, except a vil., prov. of, and 9 m. S.S.W. 
 Florence, on the Ema, in the vale of Arno. It contains a 
 parish church, and manufactures coarse woollens, artificial 
 flowers, and straw-bonnets. A good wine is raised in the 
 neighbourhood. Pop. 1800. 
 
 CASCINA, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 9 m. 
 E.S.E. Pisa, 1. bank, Arno. It is of a quadrangular form, 
 surrounded by walls, and has a parish church, and a castle, 
 some silk manufactories, oil-mills, and wine presses. Pop. 
 2588. 
 
 CASCOB, par. Eng. Hereford. Pop. 171. 
 
 CASCO BAY, U. States, Maine, extending 20 m. at its 
 entrance between Cape Elizabeth and Cape Small Point; con 
 taining 300 small, but generally very productive, islands. It 
 includes several smaller bays, and receives various rivers. 
 
 CASELLE, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 8 m. 
 N.N.W. Turin, on a branch of the Stura. It has two churches, 
 a convent, an hospital, and manufactories of Indiannas, silk, 
 and paper, besides several fulling-mills. Pop. 3500. 
 
 CASERT A, or CASERTA NUOVA, a tn. Naples, cap. prov. 
 Terra di Lavoro, in an agreeable plain, 7 m. E.S.E. Capua. 
 It contains a royal palace, commenced, in 1752, by Charles 
 III. of Spain, a large, elegant, and profusely ornamented 
 structure, to which is attached gardens adorned with num 
 erous statues, ancient aiid modern. The park, of great ex 
 tent, is regularly planted and supplied with water from 
 Mount Taburno, by an aqueduct 22 m. in length. The town 
 has several churches, a convent of noble ladies, an hospital, 
 military school, handsome public square, and spacious bar 
 racks for the troops. In some buildings attached to the palace 
 a silk manufactory has been established, and the products, 
 some of which are embroidered, are reckoned equal to the 
 best stuffs made in Europe. The district produces excellent 
 fruit, and wine of superior quality. Pop. 5000. 
 
 CASHAN. See KASIIAN. 
 
CASIIEEN 
 
 616 
 
 CASHMERE 
 
 CASHEEN: 1, A bay, Ireland, co. Gal way, W. side 
 isl. Uaromna, 8.J m. N. the Arran isls. It is easy of access, 
 and well sheltered. 2, A river, Ireland, co. Kerry, formed 
 by the confluence of the Feale, the Geale, and the Brick, 5.J m. 
 AV. Listowel, and, after a sh >rt N. course, falling into the 
 Shannon. 
 
 CASHEL, a city and parl. bor. Ireland, co. Tipperary, 
 83 m. S.W. Dublin. It consists of one principal street, from 
 which several others diverge irregularly, and has, on the 
 whole, a mean and poverty-stricken appearance, although 
 in some parts the houses are good, and one or two of the 
 streets look clean and respectable. The supply of water is 
 scanty, and in the summer season altogether inadequate. 
 The cathedral and K. Catholic chapel are both modern build 
 ings, and both spacious. The archbishop s palace is a large 
 and handsome mansion, with extensive gardens attached, and 
 a library containing 9000 volumes. There are also here a 
 convent of nuns, and a Methodist meeting-house, an infirmary, 
 market, and court-houses, a bridewell, and handsome infantry 
 barracks, and some interesting ruins of Ilore Abbey or Grey 
 Friars, the Dominican Abbey, and those on the celebrated 
 rock of Cashel. This remarkable rock rises abruptly from a 
 plain, close by the city which it overlooks ; on its summit are 
 a series of splendid ruins, consisting of Cormac M Cullinan s 
 chapel, built in the ninth century, a round tower 56 ft. in cir 
 cumference, and 90 ft. in height, of unknown date, but sup 
 posed to be the most ancient building on the rock ; a cathe 
 dral, castle, and monastery, all built about the 12th century, 
 
 CASHEL, from the North From Burtlett s Scenerj find Antiquities of Ireland, 
 
 and presenting such a variety of ecclesiastical architecture, as 
 to render them the most remarkable and interesting ruins in 
 Irsland, an interest not a little increased by their singular 
 an 1 conspicuous position. There are no manufactures of any 
 c msequence in the town. It returns one member to the 
 House of Commons; constituency (1850), 141. Pop. (1841), 
 7036. 
 
 CASHEL AND ISLANDS, par. Irel. Longford; 22,151 ac. 
 IVip. 5559. 
 
 CASHGAR, K ASCHGAR, or K ACHKAR, a tn. and dist. of the 
 n-Loo, of which 
 TOWN of Cashgar 
 
 is situated on a river of same name, 1 40 m. N.W. Yarkand ; 
 lit. 39 28 N. ; Ion. 73 57 E. It is the most W. place of 
 note in the Chinese empire, and is strongly garrisoned with 
 troops. In the middle of the town is a large square, from 
 which four bazaars branch off towards the gates. It has 
 considerable manufactures of jade, gold silk, cotton, gold and 
 Eilver cloths, and carpets ; and is also an important trading 
 locality, the several routes which centre in it making it the 
 emporium for the commerce of Central Asia. It came into 
 Chinese possession by conquest nearly a century ago. Cash- 
 gar is said to have been a commercial city before the Christian 
 era, and was once capital of an independent kingdom. Pop. 
 variously estimated, from 20,000 to 40,000, but some autho 
 rities make it as high as 80,000. 
 
 Chinese empire, dependency of Thian-shan-na 
 Cashgar forms the most W. portion. The T 
 
 CASHMERE, or KASHMIR, a country in N.W. Ilindoo- 
 stan, Punjab dominions. It consists of an extensive valley of 
 an irregular oval form, lying N. W. and S. F. 5500 ft. to 6000 ft. 
 above the sea, and surrounded on all sides b . lofty mountains, 
 secondary ranges of the Himalayas. As laid down on Arrow- 
 smith s Map of the Punjab, Kashmir, &c., it is comprised be 
 tween lat. 33 27 and 34 37 N., and Ion. 74 30 and 76 14 
 E. ; area estimated at 4500 sq. m. The alluvial plain in the 
 bottom of the valley is estimated at 75 m. long, by 40 m. 
 broad. The mountain range which encloses the valley is, on 
 the N., called the Durawur and Kuhiama Mountains ; N.E., 
 the Haramtik and Sonamurg Mountains; E., the snowy Pan- 
 jal ; S., the Futi Panjal and Panjal of P.anihal ; and W., the 
 Pir Panjal. Excepting for a fifth part of the circumference 
 S.W. of the capital Serinagur, their summits appear to be 
 covered with perpetual snow. The highest peak seems to be 
 the Pir Panjal, 15,000 ft. high, on the S.W. boundary of the 
 valley; and on the N.E. the llaramuk is 13,000 ft. The 
 mountains generally appear to be of basaltic formation, pre 
 senting at times beautiful amygdaloidal trap; in the N.W. 
 schistous rocks, penetrated by quartz veins, rise to the height 
 of 500 or 1000 ft.; and N.W. of these gypsum appears. 
 Primary rocks are rare, and though granite blocks are some 
 times met with, that rock has not been found in situ. 
 Pebbly conglomerate, sandstone, and clay, overspread large 
 spaces on the lower slopes of the mountains. Earthquakes 
 occur. In 1828, about 200 shocks were felt, and in June of 
 that year, 1200 houses were destroyed, and 1000 persons 
 killed in Serinagur. Some have supposed the val 
 ley to have formed the crater of a volcano ; at all 
 events, it has evidently once been the bed of a sea, 
 as is shown by the great beds of limestone, con 
 taining marine fossils. Iron has been found abun 
 dantly, embedded in the limestone ; lead is worked, 
 and copper is known to exist in the valley. Plum 
 bago abounds in the Pir Panjal ; excellent limestone 
 exists in inexhaustible quantities, some of it in the 
 form of fine black marble. The valley is entered by 
 numerous passes, 11 of which are said to be practi 
 cable for horses, but none of them for wheeled car 
 riages. The most important are the Baramula and 
 Punch, on the W. frontier, the latter 8500 ft. high; 
 Banihal on the S., 9690ft. ; and Nabog on the E., 
 all practicable at all seasons of the year. The Pir 
 Panjal Pass is 12,500 ft. high ; and the Bundipur, 
 leading to Iskardo, is 11,271 ft. Cashmere is 
 watered by the Jailum or Behut, which, rising in 
 the mountains of the S.E. frontier, flows N.W. 
 through the centre of the valley, receiving numer 
 ous streams from both sides, and expands into lake 
 Wuller, which is also the recipient of several other 
 streams. From the S.W. end of this lake the river 
 emerges, pursues a W. by S. course, and leaves the 
 valley, of which it is the sole drain, by the Baramula Pass. 
 The channel of the Jailum is very winding, and the river is 
 navigable for boats of considerable burden, from near Isla 
 mabad to its exit from the valley. The principal lakes are 
 the Dal or City Lnke, close by the capital, 6 m. long by 4 
 broad ; the Manasa Bui, small, but said to be deep ; and the 
 Great Wuller Lake, which is merely a shallow expansion of 
 the Jailum, 20 m. long by 9 broad. Besides these, which are 
 on the r. bank, the smaller lakes, Opun and Wusikara, are on 
 the 1. bank, and there are numerous small pieces of water in 
 the mountains. The whole of the valley is thus most per 
 fectly watered, and admirably supplied with the means of 
 irrigation. 
 
 The climate, though subject to extremes of temperature, is, 
 on the whole, salubrious. In consequence of the great eleva 
 tion of Cashmere, the cold of winter is rather severe. Night 
 frosts set in about the middle of November, and early in De 
 cember snow begins to fall, covering the ground to a depth 
 of 2 ft., and clothing the surrounding mountains in a dazz 
 ling whiteness, but the Jailum is seldom frozen over. The 
 hottest season is from the middle of July to the middle of 
 August, when a peculiar stillness, for which the air of Cash 
 mere is remarkable, renders the heat greater to the sense than 
 it really is, the thermometer ranging, at noon, from 80 to 
 85 in the shade. fiain falls plentifully in spring and the be 
 ginning of summer. The soil is, in general, exceedingly fertile. 
 
CASHMERE 
 
 617 
 
 CASPIAN SEA 
 
 Rice is the principal crop, the returns being from 30 to 40 fold, 
 and in favourable seasons, as high as 50 or 60. Wheat, bar 
 ley, millet, and maize, are also cultivated, but are a precari 
 ous crop, in consequence of the scanty rains in summer. 
 Buckwheat is extensively cultivated. Cucumbers and melons 
 are raised in small artificial floating gardens on the City Lake. 
 Tobacco is also cultivated, but to a very limited extent ; cot 
 ton more largely. Great quantities of saffron, of excellent 
 quality, is grown, and most of it exported. Grapes are cul 
 tivated, but with indifferent success. Esculent vegetables are 
 produced in great variety and abundance, including kidney- 
 bean, turnip, cabbage, beet-root, radish, capiscum, &c. 
 Amongst the natural productions, the most valuable is the 
 Sinyliara or water- nut, the seed of Trapa bispinosa, on which 
 a large portion of the poorer inhabitants almost wholly sub 
 sist. It grows in the Wulur Lake, from which about 60,000 
 tons are annually taken. The nuts are eaten raw, boiled, 
 roasted, or ground into flour, and made into gruel, and, though 
 insipid, are extremely nutritious. The principal fruits are 
 apples, pears, plums, cherries, aprierots, &c. Amongst the 
 finest trees of Cashmere are the deodar or Himalayan cedar 
 (Cedrus deodara), the chunar (Platanus orientalis), the poplar, 
 and the lime, all of which abound, and attain a great size and 
 luxuriance, and the wild chestnut-tree, growing to a size far 
 exceeding that of the European variety, some measuring 
 100 ft. from the ground to the parting of the branches. 
 Maple, willow, and white thorn, are common, and on the 
 steep declivities of the mountains, birch, alder, and various 
 kinds of pine. Flowers of various kinds, and of surpassing 
 beauty, grow everywhere in vast profusion, especially roses, 
 which are carefully cultivated for the sake of the attar ex 
 tracted from them. 
 
 The wild animals are bears, brown and black ; a sort of 
 leopard, of a white colour with small black spots ; jackals, 
 foxes, otters, stags, gazelles, the ibex, wild goats, musk, and 
 other species of deer, squirrels and marmots, but no hares. 
 Birds of prey are numerous, including various species of vul 
 tures, one of them said to be the largest in the world, and so 
 unwieldy, that it is often killed before it can rise from the 
 ground ; the other kinds are eagles, hawks, and falcons. There 
 are also various kinds, and vast numbers of geese, ducks, 
 divers, baldcoots, snipes, woodcocks, and small pelicans ; pea 
 cocks, pheasants, and partridges. The smaller kinds of birds 
 are numerous, including the bulbul or nightingale, which, 
 however, is a distinct species from the European one, to which 
 it is also greatly inferior in song ; venomous reptiles, rare. 
 The waters abound in fish, including a species called shiruh, 
 which often attains the weight of 24 Ibs., is firm in the flesh, 
 and of fine flavour. The horses are small, and altogether of 
 an inferior description, though said by Iliigel to be lively, 
 hardy, and tractable. Black cattle, sheep, and goats, are nu 
 merous ; the breed of the black cattle is small, but they give 
 abundance of milk ; the mutton is said to be well flavoured. 
 
 Cashmere has been long celebrated for its shawls. The 
 wool used in their manufacture is of two kinds, one obtained 
 from the tame, the other from the wild goat, wild sheep, and 
 other wild animals. It is the fine down growing next to the 
 skin alone that is taken, the long hairs being all picked out 
 by the hand. Three weavers are employed on an embroidered 
 shawl, of an ordinary pattern, for three months ; but a very 
 rich pair will occupy a shop for 18 months. They are dyed 
 in the yarn, and carefully washed with rice flour instead of 
 soap, after the weaving has been finished. The embroidered 
 border of the finest shawl is generally made separately, and 
 joined skilfully by sewing to the field or middle part, which 
 sometimes consists of as many as 15 different pieces, neatly 
 joined. The first cost of a pair of fine shawls has been esti 
 mated at 200, that is, for labour, materials, dyeing, duty, and 
 other charges. The demand for the shawls of Cashmere has, 
 from various causes, greatly fallen off of late years, and is still 
 on the wane. Cashmere has long been nearly as famous for 
 its gun and pistol barrels as for its shawls. The artizans 
 employ extraordinary pains in fabricating them, and pro 
 duce work of singular beauty and excellence. Paper, and 
 leather for saddlery, are also manufactured, both of superior 
 quality; the paper is said to be the finest made in India. 
 Lacquered ware, of the most beautiful description and nicest 
 workmanship, is likewise amongst the products of Cashmere ; 
 and the lapidaries excel in taste and skill those of Europe ; 
 
 VOL. 1. 
 
 the attar of roses made in the valley is considered superior to 
 any other. 
 
 The total amount of the exports of Cashmere has been es 
 timated at 400,000, and the imports at 50,000. Of the 
 former, the principal articles are woollens and rice ; of the 
 latter, shawl wool. 
 
 The greater part of the population are Mahometans. In 
 physical qualities, the natives of Cashmere excel all other 
 branches of the great Indian nation, being tall, robust, and 
 handsomely formed. In disposition they are lively, witty, 
 and good humoured, but addicted to all the vices common to 
 the other tribes of India. They are selfish, intriguing, dis 
 honest, and false. The language is a dialect of Sanscrit, con 
 taining a large admixture of Persian, in which the records 
 and correspondence of Government are written. The pro 
 nunciation of the natives is broad, coarse, and uncouth. The 
 dress of both sexes consists of a long loose wrapper and trow- 
 sers, the former of woollen cloth. In cold weather both sexes 
 carry a little wicker basket, containing a small iron or earth 
 enware vessel holding lighted charcoal, and called a kangri, 
 which they apply to such parts of the body as require to be 
 warmed. Cashmere contains 10 towns, and 2200 villages; 
 the chief towns are Cashmere or Serinagur, the capital ; Chu- 
 pinian, Islamabad, and Pampur. In 1586, Cashmere was 
 subjugated by the Emperor Akbar, and was incorporated in 
 his empire. The Afghans vanquished it in 1752, and it re 
 mained under their sway till 1819, when it was conquered by 
 the Sikhs, and since that time it has continued under the 
 dominion of the Maharajah of the Punjab. Pop. about 
 200,000, to which number it has been reduced in 20 years 
 from 800,000, by earthquakes, pestilence, and famine. 
 (Hiigel, Vigne, Moorcroft, &c.) 
 
 CASHMERE, tn. See SERINAGUR. 
 
 CASHNA, a tn. Nigritia. See KASIIXA. 
 
 CASKETS, a dangerous group of rocks, English Channel, 
 about 7 m. W. Alderney, on the highest of which is a light 
 house ; lat. 49 43 24" N. ; Ion. 2 22 30" W. (R.) The 
 Victor;/, a ship of 110 guns, foundered off these rocks in 1744. 
 
 CASOLE, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 18 m. 
 W. by N. Siena, on an elevated plain. It is surrounded by 
 walls, commanded by a fortress, and contains a fine collegiate 
 church, and a handsome palace. Pop. 1293. 
 
 CASOLI, a tn. Naples, prov, Abruzzo Citra, 10 m. S.W. 
 Lanciano, with several churches, and two normal schools. 
 Pop. 5858. 
 
 CASORATE, a tn. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, 
 prov. of, and 11 m. N.W. Pavia. It is tolerably well built, 
 and contains a church, in which some fine pictures and frescoes 
 are preserved. In 1239, the Milanese, commanded by Lod- 
 rizio Visconti, gained a decisive victory here over the Ger 
 mans, under the Margrave d Augsburg. Pop. 4300. 
 
 CASORIA, a tn. Naples, 6 m. N.N.E. Naples. It has 
 four fine churches, and is the residence of a district judge. 
 Silk is produced in the neighbourhood. Pietro Martino, the 
 painter, was born here. Pop. 7924. 
 
 CASPE, a tn. Spain, Aragon, prov. Saragossa, 12 m. 
 N.N.E. Alcaniz, 1. bank, Guatlalupe, near its confluence with 
 the Ebro, on several small hills and in the intervening val 
 leys. It has paved streets, one principal and nine smaller 
 squares, a handsome Gothic collegiate and two other churches, 
 several chapels, three schools, a townhall and prison in a 
 suppressed convent ; an hospital, and several public fountains. 
 Manufactures : wine, oil, and soap, and some trade is also 
 carried on in grain and cattle. Two annual fairs are held. 
 Pop. 7500. 
 
 CASPIAN SEA [anc. Mare Caspium, or ITi/rcanmm], 
 a large inland sea, lying for the most part between Europe 
 and Asia, more precisely between lat. 36 55 and 47 30 N. ; 
 and Ion. 46 48 and 55 25 E. Greatest length from N. to 
 S., 730m.; greatest breadth S. part about lat. 45 N., 270 
 m. ; narrowest part between Cape Apsheron in Europe, and 
 Cape Tarta in Asia, 150 m. Bounded N. and W. by Russia 
 and Persia, E. by the Kirghez steppe and Khiva, and S. by 
 Persia. Area 140,000 sq. m., draining, in Europe alone, an 
 extent of 850,000 sq. m. Although, at some points, the Cas 
 pian attains a considerable depth, Hanway having in one place 
 found no bottom at 480 fathoms, it is remarkable for its shal- 
 lowness generally, especially alongst its shores, where it 
 seldom exceeds 3 ft. for a distance of 100 yards from the 
 
CASPIAN SEA 
 
 618 
 
 CASS 
 
 land. Its E. and W. coasts, particularly the former, are 
 deeply indented with bays and gulfs, while the S. shores are 
 almost unbroken. The principal bays on the Asiatic side are 
 Kmba Hay, Mersa Bay, Dead Bay, Black Lake Bay, Mangish- 
 Jak Gulf, Beklirlishal Bay, KenderlinskGulf. Khara Bughaz 
 Gulf, and Balkan Bay. On the opposite, or European side, 
 occur the gulfs of Zizil Agatch and Kuina, with several less 
 marked indentations. The only one on the S. coast is Aster- 
 abad Bay, if the inlet of Enzeli, which has only four feet water, 
 be excluded. 
 
 The Caspian contains numerous islands, but not many of 
 any great extent. The largest are on the Asiatic side, the 
 greatest number on the European, particularly about the 
 mouths of the Volga, and along the coasts to the N.E. and 
 S.W. of them, where they lie closely crowded together in 
 countless numbers, most of them, however, being mere islets. 
 
 The waters of the Caspian are salt, but not nearly so much 
 so as those of the ocean. It has no tides, and no outlets, its 
 superfluous waters being carried off solely by evaporation. 
 In the region of the Volga, including the territory from that 
 river, S.E. to the Emba, and S.W. to the 1. bank of the 
 Sulak, the whole seabord is composed of recent alluvium, 
 deposited by the several streams. From S. of the Sulak to 
 Apsheron, the coast is of upper tertiary formation, broken into 
 at some points by carboniferous strata. iS. from Apsheron, 
 and round the S. extremity of the sea, the coast is low and 
 sandy backed at some distance by lofty hills. The E. and 
 S.E. coasts have generally a cretaceous subsoil, overspread 
 by moving sand, and are generally flat; Cape Karagan, 
 formed by mountains of the same name, being an exception. 
 
 Sturgeons and sterlets are caught in the Caspian in great 
 quantities; and there are also salmon-trout, perch (Perca 
 asper], Silurus glanis, two kinds of carp, and porpoises. Seals 
 abound in the upper coasts, and tortoises between the mouths 
 of the Volga and the Ural. The molluscs are few, said to 
 be only four Cardium rusticum, Cardium triquetrum, Mya 
 cdentula, and Jlytilus polymorphus. The chief fishery for 
 sturgeon is at and near Astrakhan ; in and about the river 
 Emba it comprehends 310 m. of coast, from the mouth of the 
 Ural to the gulf called Mertvoi-koultouk. The island of 
 Tchetchenzc, near the gulf of Agrakhan, and not far from the 
 cape of that name, contains a large establishment for smoking, 
 drying, and salting fish. In the surrounding waters the fish 
 ing is continued all the year. It is not so in the N. region, 
 where the first or caviar season, as it is called, occurs between 
 March and May, when the Volga, Ural, &c., are getting 
 cleared of ice. The second season occurs in July, when the 
 I sturgeon descends the rivers ; and the third, or open sea fish- 
 i ing, goes on from September to November. During the 
 winter, the N. fishermen often venture on the ice many miles 
 from land, in quest of sturgeon, silures, and seals. But, in 
 general, it is reckoned unfair to kill seals before the 13th of 
 April. Besides the foregoing, there are fisheries between 
 Salian, Siphitouriusk, and Astrabad. Many thousand persons 
 are employed in the Russian upper Caspian fisheries ; and the 
 annual amount of caviar or female roes obtained may be 
 taken at 800,000 Ibs., besides 20,000 Ibs. of isinglass, the 
 produce of upwards of 700,000 sturgeons, of various kinds, 
 large and small. The number of seals annually taken is 
 nearly 100,000. 
 
 The only ports at all worthy the name, on or near the 
 Caspian, are Astrakhan, Bakou, Salian, and Astrabad. The 
 navigation is at all times difficult, and often perilous. Steam- 
 packets on it have recently been established. The Russian 
 fleet in the Caspian consists of 1 3 vessels, of which four are 
 brigs, and two are steamers. 
 
 The basin of the Caspian is most extensive on the N. and 
 "W., from which it receives the Ural, the Volga, the Terek, 
 the Kur, and numerous other streams of less note. By means of 
 a canal cut near Tver in Russia, between the head streams of 
 the Volga, and the rivers Tvertza and Schlina, water com 
 munication is established between the Caspian and the Baltic. 
 S. the basin of the sea is limited by the Elburz mountains, 
 and E. the sandy wastes of Khiva send to it only short streams, 
 and of no great volume ; though on this side it evidently at one 
 time received the Oxus or Amoo, now an affluent of the sea 
 of Aral. Indeed, the Caspian and Lake Aral were, doubt 
 less, at one period united. They are apparently on the same 
 level; and, though the plateau of Ust-L rt (see ARAL) might 
 
 at first sight appear to present an insuperable obstacle to the 
 idea of a junction ever having existed, yet S. of that plateau, 
 and in the course which the Oxus probably followed, is a 
 low tract leading into the head of what at one time was the 
 estuary of the Oxus, but now is a sandy waste, E. and S. of 
 Kara-Bughaz gulf, which formed its termination. Both lakes 
 belong to the great depression of W. Asia a depression at 
 one time supposed to be much greater than it U believed to be 
 now ; though whether a rise in the land has taken place, it is 
 difficult to determine. The exact amount of the depression 
 bus not yet been satisfactorily settled the most trustworthy 
 data we possess being at variance. The last two levelling:) 
 between the Caspian and the Black Sea, both trigonometrical, 
 were executed, the one in 1837, by Messrs. Fuss, Sabler, and 
 Sawitch, under the auspices of the Academic Imperiale de St. 
 Petersburg; and the other in 1838-9, by M. Hommaire de 
 Hell. According to the former measurement, the Caspian is 
 81-4 ft. below the level of the Black Sea; but, according to 
 the latter, it is only 11-6 metres, about 38:} ft. Should the lat 
 ter measurement be ultimately found to be correct, what has 
 hitherto been supposed to be the depression of W. Asia, may 
 turn out to be actually above the level of the ocean. The 
 sanding up of streams lessening the accession of water, and 
 contracting the shores, with the great evaporation constantly 
 going on, in addition to other causes in operation, are gradu 
 ally reducing the size of this inland sea. It has been supposed 
 to increase and decrease in size, at certain times ; but this 
 phenomena is now believed to be explained by tiie fact, that 
 strong winds beating for any length of time upon the flat 
 shore, sometimes drive the waters up over a great extent of 
 land. M. Hommaire de Hell alleges that a rise of even 10 ft. 
 would flood the steppes of the Kuma for a vast distance be 
 yond the route between Astrakhan and the Terek, and sub 
 merge every post house and military station on the line. It 
 may consequently be taken for granted that no such rise haa 
 taken place, at all events since the beginning of last century, 
 when the first Russian settlements in these regions were 
 established, otherwise we should have had authentic records 
 of such a visitation. 
 
 The notices of early commerce upon or by way of the 
 Caspian, are few and uncertain. Even for several centuries 
 after the Christian era, its authentic trading records are nearly 
 a blank. The chief portion of the commerce between W. 
 Europe and India was carried on partly by its waters, about 
 the middle of the 13th century, Astrakhan, on the upper 
 Caspian, and Soldaia, nearly in the same latitude, on the Black 
 Sea, forming the chief entrepots till 1280, when the latter 
 was superseded, through the exertions of the Genoese, for 
 their own establishment at Kaffa ; which then became the 
 transit station for the Asiatic-European trade, and so con 
 tinued till 1453, when the Turks, having seized Constan 
 tinople, and barred the Bosphorus, the accustomed trade was 
 forced into other channels, and the Caspian deserted, except by 
 the few vessels which carried on a small local trade between 
 Muscovy, Persia, and Central Asia. 
 
 About 1560, an English trading company endeavoured to 
 open up connections, by way of the Caspian, with Persia and 
 Turcomania, but with no good results. From that time till 
 late in the 17th century, the annals of navigation give few 
 notices of this sea. At the latter period Peter the Great, 
 
 Sartly in the hope of diverting the Indian trade into the 
 irection of his S. dominions, caused the coasts of the Caspian 
 to be explored by Dutch navigators in his pay. His inten 
 tion was, as one means to his end, to found trading stations 
 on ground ceded by treaty or taken by force, on the Persian 
 seabord. But this he delayed to do; and when he died, his 
 project lay dormant, and the Russians made no encroachment 
 beyond what Peter had already effected, till the reign of 
 Catherine II., whose conquests in its S. region were not 
 secured till our own times. (Hommaire de Hell, Steppes de 
 la mer Caspienne; Zimmerman, Denkschrift iiber den untern 
 Laufdcs Oxus, etc.) 
 
 CASS, several places, U. States: 1, co. Indiana; area, 
 415 sq. m. The general face of the country is level, and 
 abounds with springs of excellent water. Pop. 5480. 2, co, 
 Georgia. Pop. 9390, of which 1195 are slaves. 3, co. 
 Michigan; area, 528 sq. m. The surface gently undulating, 
 and the soil of superior quality. Pop. 5710. 4, co. Illinois; 
 area, 256 sq. in. Top. 29S1 5, A river, Michigan, an 
 
CASSAEA 
 
 619 
 
 CASSEL 
 
 affluent of the Sagina, which falls into ?agana Bay, on Lake 
 Huron. 6, A lake, formed by an expansion of the upper Mis 
 sissippi, in the N.W. or Huron territory; lat. 47 30 N. ; 
 Ion. 95 W., 130 m. N.W. Lake Superior. 
 
 CASSABA, two tns. Asiatic Turkey:!, A tn., pash. 
 Anatolia, 30 m. N.E. Smyrna, on the caravan route from the 
 interior of the country to that city; lat. 38 31 N.; Ion. 
 27 40 E. ; contains two handsome mosques and a bazaar; 
 streets dirty and ill kept ; has some cotton manufactures, and 
 is celebrated for pears and melons. 2, A tn., pash. Kara- 
 mania, sanjak of, and 52 m. S.S.E. Koniyeh, at the base of 
 the Allah Dagh mountains; lat. 37 12 N.; Ion. 33 9 E. 
 It was formerly a place of some importance, but has fallen 
 into decay. 
 
 CAS8ANGE, a territory of W. Africa, N. Angola, near 
 lat. 10 S., and intersected by Ion. 20 E. It is inhabited by 
 warlike nomades, who have occasionally threatened the Por 
 tuguese settlements in their neighbourhood. 
 
 CASSANO, three tns. Naples:!, A tn., prov. Calabria 
 Oitva, 32 m. N.N.E. Cosenza; on a plain. It is the seat of 
 a bishopric, and has a cathedral, four convents, a seminary, 
 an hospital, and an old and almost inaccessible castle. The 
 district produces cotton, liquorice, grain, fruit, silk, and soda ; 
 and the inhabitants manufacture maccaroni, leather, and table- 
 linen. In the vicinity are hot sulphurous springs, and plaster 
 nnd stone quarries. Pop. 6000. 2, A tn., prov. Principato 
 Ultra, 8 m. S.W. St. Angelo de Lombard!, on a hill, washed 
 by the Galore. It has a handsome church, an hospital, two 
 charitable institutions, and a paper manufactory. Pop. 4629. 
 3, A tn., prov. Bari, 12 m. N.E. Altamura; with a parish 
 church, a convent, hospital, three charitable institutions, and 
 two manufactories of copper utensils. Pop. 4713. 
 
 CASSANO-D 1 ADDA, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. of, and 
 16 m. N.E. Milan; pleasantly situated on a hill, r. bank, 
 Adda. It is very old, and built mostly of bricks. A bridge 
 of 800 paces connects it with the opposite bank of the river. 
 There are here numerous silk-mills. Cassano is famous for 
 the victory gained here on August 16, 1705, by the French, 
 under the Duke of Vendome, over the Imperials under Prince 
 Eugene ; and for the defeat sustained on April 
 25, 1799, by the French under Moreau, from 
 the Austrians and Russians under Suwarow. 
 
 Pop. 1125. Two other places in Lombarily 
 
 have the name of CASSAXO. 
 
 CASSAY, or KATHEE, a prov. India, be 
 yond the Ganges, between lat. 23 3W and 
 25 20 N., and Ion. 93 and 95 E., bounded N. 
 by Assam, E. and S. Burmah, and W. Cachar. 
 It conlains an extensive valley, 30 m. long by 
 10 I road, covered with grass, jungle, and 
 swamps ; but the country generally is moun 
 tainous, having elevations of from 4000 to 
 upwards of 8000 ft. Some parts of the lowtr 
 districts are fertile, yielding good crops of 
 rice, tobacco, indigo, cotton, sugar, opium, and 
 mustard. It is celebrated, also, for its breed 
 of horses. Numerous rivers, some of them of 
 considerable size, intersect the province; the 
 largest are the Barak, Impal Toorool, and 
 Kyen-dwen, the last two affluents of the Ira- 
 wadi. Cassay is an independent province, and is 
 governed by a hereditary Rajah. The principal 
 town is Muneepoor or Munipoor, which name 
 is sometimes applied also to the entire province. 
 It was formerly tributary to Burmah, but at 
 the conclusion of the war between that state 
 and the E. India Company Cassay obtained its freedom. 
 
 CASSEL [anc. Castellum Menajnorum], a tn. France, 
 dep. Nord ; on an isolated, conical hill, in the middle of a rich 
 and extensive plain, 16 m. S. Dunkirk, on the railway thence 
 to Lille. The streets are clean, and provided with fountains; 
 the houses well built of brick, and in general having gardens 
 attached. Lace, linen, hats, stockings, soap, and pottery, are 
 manufactured here. There are also several oil-mills, bleach- 
 fields, breweries, and tanneries, and a considerable trade in 
 agricultural produce. This town is of great antiquity, and 
 
 two of them attributed to the Romans. The view from 
 Mount Cassel is one of the mo?t extensive in Europe. Jt 
 extends over the plains of Flanders, and as far as the whita 
 cliff s of England, and takes in 32 towns and 100 villages. 
 This hill was one of the principal signal stations of the great 
 trigonometrical survey for measuring an arc of the meridian. 
 Pop. 2839. 
 
 CASSEL, or KASSEL [anc. Castellum Cattorum], a tn. 
 Germany, prov. Lower Hesse, cap. of Hesse Cassel, and of 
 circle of same name ; beautifully situated on both banks of 
 the Fulda, 91 m. N.N.E. Frankfort-on-the-Main. It is 
 divided into the Altstadt or Old Town, the Upper Neustadt 
 or Upper New Town, the Lower Neustadt or Lower Ne\r 
 Town ; with the Wilhelmshb he and Frankfort suburb, 1. bank 
 of the river, and Leipzig suburb, r. bank. The two portions 
 of the town are connected by a stone bridge of three arche?, 
 across the Fulda, 258 ft. in length. The old town lies low 
 down close to the river banks, and consists of narrow and 
 dirty streets ; while the new part, built upon an elevation 
 formerly occupied by a fortress, is airy and agreeable; tho 
 streets spacious and well laid out, and the houses handsome. 
 The Upper New Town contains a number of squares, in tho 
 principal of which, the Friedrich s Platz, the largest in any 
 town in Germany, stands the Elector s palace, an indifferent 
 structure; and next to it, the museum, the handsomest build 
 ing in the town, containing a library with 100,000 volumes, 
 and many valuable MSS. Within the same edifice are a collec 
 tion of antiquities, many of them rare objects of art and verity 
 including some interesting Roman remains found in Hessa 
 Cassel ; coins, prints, and models, and a picture gallery, con 
 taining 1400 pictures, among which are some by Rubens, 
 Rembrandt, Vandyke, Terburg, &c. This square is lined 
 on three sides by a double row of lime trees, and in the centre 
 is a colossal marble statue of Frederick II. The other more 
 noticeable public areas are King s Platz, in the form of a 
 crescent, and remarkable for possessing a sixfold echo ; 
 Charles s Platz, in which is a statue of the Landgrave Charles ; 
 and William s Square. In the Old town are the old townhall, 
 the Government buildings, the Stadtau, appropriated to public 
 
 is said to have been the capital of a district in the time 
 Julius Caesar. In 1071 it was surrounded by thick walls 
 
 bastions, of which there are few remains, except three gates, 
 
 ST. MAHTIN-S CHURCH AND GOVERNMENT-PLACE. CASSEL. 
 From Lan 8 e, AnaichU-n von Deutschland. 
 
 amusements; St. Martin s church, with the catacombs be 
 neath it, in which the remains of the Sovereigns of Hesse 
 Cassel are deposited ; the Lutheran, the Brethren s, and the 
 garrison churches; a synagogue, an orphan hospital and 
 asylum, an arsenal, foundry for cannon, and a house of cor 
 rection. In the Upper New Town there are, besides the 
 buildings spoken of above, the mint, a cadet academy, lyceum, 
 a normal and civic school, a theatre, the New Town and 
 It. Catholic churches, an hospital, and an infirmary. .Tha 
 Lower New Town contains an ancient fortress, now used as a 
 of state-prison; the Lower New Town church, a Protestant 
 .nd orphan asylum, infirmary, lying-in hospital, house of correc 
 tion, and common prison. In the Leipzig suburb are an 
 
UASSEX 
 
 620 
 
 CASTEL- FRANCO 
 
 hospital and infirmary ; in the Frankfort suburb a house of 
 industry; and in the Wilhelmshohe suburb a large hospital. 
 Casscl has, altogether, eight churches seven Lutheran, and 
 one synagogue, with a Jewish theoretical and practical school. 
 It has also academies for painting, sculpture, &c., an observa 
 tory, and several associations for the promotion of trade, 
 agriculture, and manufactures. Its trade is inconsiderable, 
 but is improving. It has manufactures of cottons, silk, and 
 woollen fabrics, kid gloves, leather, hats, carpets, porcelain, 
 musical instruments, dyes, playing cards, soap, gold and silver 
 lace, earthenware, lacquered wares, linen, damask, starch, 
 hardware, &c. Cassel is partly walled, and has 11 large and 
 small gates. It has two fairs, and a wool-market, annually. 
 There are many fine walks and public gardens in the vicinity; 
 amongst the latter are the gardens of Wilhelmshohe, in which 
 is situated the Elector s summer palace. Cassel is connected 
 by railway with Leipzig and Frankfort-on-the-Main. Pop. 
 of tn. 32,516; of circle, G6,479. 
 
 CASSEN, or KASSAN, a tn., E. Africa, territory Dertat, 
 a mountainous and woody country lying immediately S. of 
 Kubia, and W. of the S.W. portion of Abyssinia, 1. bank, 
 Tumat. 
 
 CASSINE, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 14 m. 
 S.W. Alessandria, near 1. bank, Bormida. It has three 
 churches and three convents. Pop. 3500. 
 
 CASSINGTON, par. Eng. Oxford ; 2990 ac. Pop. 381. 
 
 CASSIQUIAR1, or CASSIQUIARE, a deep, rapid river, 
 S. America, Venezuela, forming the S. bifurcation of the 
 Orinoco, by which that river has navigable communication 
 with the Rio Negro. It leaves the Orinoco in lat. 3 10 N. ; 
 Ion. 66 20 W., about 20 m. W. Esmerelda, and, after a S.W. 
 course of 128 m., falls into the Rio Nogro near San Carlos, in 
 lat. 2 5 N. ; Ion. 67 40 W. It is 100 yards broad where it 
 leaves the Orinoco, and about 600 yards at its junction with 
 the Rio Negro ; flows 566 ft. per second, and, between Es 
 merelda and San Carlos, falls 320 ft. By means of this river, 
 water communication is established for canoes over an im 
 niense tract of S. America, it being practicable to sail from 
 the interior of Brazil to the Caraccas in Venezuela, through 
 the Amazon, the Orinoco, and their affluents. 
 
 CASSIS, a seaport tn. France, dep. Bouches-du-Rhone, 
 9m. S. E. Marseille, on the Mediterranean; lat. 43 12 48" N.; 
 Ion. 5 32 E. (it.) The houses are neat and elegant ; in the 
 square is a handsome fountain. The port, defended by a long 
 mole, affords good shelter, but is of difficult access in bad 
 weather. Left of the entrance is a fixed light, 92 ft. above 
 sea-level, and visible at 7 m. distance. Several batteries pro 
 tect the harbour and roadstead, and there are building-yards 
 for small vessels. The vicinity produces olives, figs, capers, 
 highly-esteemed Muscatel wine, and pomegranates, in which 
 a good coasting trade is carried ou. Lime and building stone 
 are also exported. Coral is fished in the vicinity. Abbe 
 Barthelemy, author of the Voyage d AnacJiarsis, was born here. 
 Pop. 1506. 
 
 CASTAGNA, a tn. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Ultra I., 15 m. 
 N.W. Civita di-Penne, on the Maone, with important fairs. 
 Pop. 1255. 
 
 CASTAGXARO, a vil. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, 6 m. 
 S.E. Verona, r. bank, Adige, at the head of the canal of its 
 name, which unites with the Canal Bianco. Pop. I 800. 
 
 CASTALLA, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. of, and 24 m. 
 N.W. Alicante, at the base of a conical and isolated hill, sur 
 mounted by an ancient and decayed castle. It is divided into 
 two portions, the old and new. The former occupies the 
 upper part of the hill, contiguous to the castle, and is com 
 posed of narrow, steep, and inconvenient streets and lanes. 
 The modern erections are situate at the foot of the slope, and 
 consist of four squares, and clean, wide, and well-paved streets. 
 The whole contains two churches, several convents, a large 
 and handsome townhall, a court-house, two schools, a prison, 
 hospital, cemetery, and two public fountains. Wine and oil 
 are manufactured ; trade inconsiderable. Pop. 3032. 
 
 CASTAMBL L, CASTAMBOOL, or KASTAJIUM, a tn. Asia 
 tic Turkey, pash. Anatolia, 100 in. N.N.E. Angora; lat. 
 41 21 N. ; Ion. 33 50 E. ; in a valley, on the W. bounded 
 by hills, on a spur of which stands the ruins of an ancient 
 castle. The houses are of two stories, in general ill built of 
 wood; the streets are narrow and dirty, and a deep kennel, 
 into which all the filth of the town is collected, runs through 
 
 its very centre. It has no public buildings deserving of 
 notice, but has numerous mosques and baths, a Greek church, 
 and tolerable new barracks. The chief manufacture is printed 
 cottons, for which there are said to be 32 printing houses, 
 having from four to eight presses each ; also 22 dyeing-houses, 
 of which six are for red, and 16 for blue, dyes. The chief 
 trade is in wool, that of the neighbourhood being considered 
 little inferior to the celebrated wool of Angora. Pop. esti 
 mated by Ainsworth at 48,000. (Loiul. Geo. Jour.) 
 
 CASTAXO, or CASTENO, a vil. and com. Austrian Italy, 
 prov. of, and 18 m. \V.N. W. Milan, in a pleasant and fertile 
 plain, between the Ticino and the Grand Canal. It contains 
 a parish and two auxiliary churches. Pop. 2069. 
 
 CASTEL, a fortified tn. Hesse-Darmstadt, r. bank, Rhine, 
 opposite Mentz, with which it is connected by a bridge of 
 boats ; and a station on the Taunus Railway from Frankfort 
 to Wiesbaden. Around it the vine is cultivated. Pop. 2500. 
 
 CASTEL-A-MAKE [castle by the sea] : 1, A seaport tn. 
 Naples, prov. of, on the gulf of, and 17 in. S.E. the city of 
 Naples; lat. 40 41 30" N. ; Ion. 14 28 15" E. (R.) It is 
 fortified, has a small mole, like a hook, running out N.E., is 
 the seat of a bishopric, contains a royal palace, a cathedral, 
 five churches, several convents, a military hospital, good bar 
 racks, and a tolerable dockyard ; has several manufactories of 
 linen, silk, and cotton fabrics, besides tanneries; has a N. 
 exposure, and is much frequented during summer, chiefly on 
 account of its hot baths. The environs are celebrated for their 
 beauty and fertility, but in autumn the situation is damp, 
 chill, and disagreeable. Castel-a-mare occupies the site of 
 the ancient Stiibice, destroyed by Sylla during the civil wars. 
 It was overwhelmed, with llerculaneum and Pompeii, by an 
 eruption of Vesuvius, A.D. 79; and it was here that the elder 
 Pliny met his death, by approaching too near to the burning 
 mountain, when in a state of violent commotion. The modern 
 town was afterwards built from the ruins of Stabiae. Pop. 
 18,452. 2, A seaport tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 20 m. E. 
 Trapaui, on the gulf of same name ; lat. 38 1 N. ; Ion. 12 
 53 E. It lies low, in a fertile district, and is dirty. Wine, 
 fruit, grain, manna, oil, flax, sumach, and anchovies are ex 
 ported in considerable quantities. Pop. 8034. The GULF 
 
 is about 15 m. E. to W., at its mouth, contracting, in a semi 
 circular manner, on either side, to about 6 m. ; it is about 
 14 m. N. to S. It has deep water and good anchorage near 
 its shores, but is not safe in N. winds, to which it is much 
 exposed. 
 
 CASTEL -AKQUATO, a tn. and com. Duchy Parma, 
 and 19 m. S.E. Piacenza, 1. bank, Larda, here crossed by a 
 brick bridge. It contains a fine Gothic church, a handsome 
 townhall, an hospital, cavalry barracks, medical and other 
 schools, a public promenade, adorned with a central fountain ; 
 and the ancient and vast castle from which the town derives 
 its name. The environs are hilly, picturesque, and abound 
 with forests, vineyards, and olive plantations. Silk-worms 
 are reared, and much silk manufactured here. Pop. 4393. 
 
 CASTEL-BALno, a vil. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. 
 Venice, 28 m. S.W. Padua, 1. bank, Adige. It contains a 
 parish church and three oratories. Pop. 1980. 
 
 CASTEL-DEL-riAxo, a tn. and com. Tuscany, cap. prov. 
 of, and 28 m. N.E. Grosscto, W. side of Mount Amiala. 
 It is well built, and possesses a large square, two churches, 
 and two fine fountains, and is the seat of a central criminal 
 court. Pop. 2555. 
 
 CASTEL-m-FKANCi, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Prin- 
 cipata Ultra, 7 m. W. S. Angelo de Lombard!, r. bank, Calore. 
 Pop. 2105. 
 
 CASTEL-Di-SANGRO, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. Abruzzo 
 Ultra II., 21 m. S.S.E. Sulmona, on the side of a hill, bathed 
 by the Sangro. It contains three handsome churches, two 
 convents, an hospital, and almshouse. Manufactures carpets, 
 and has two annual fairs. Pop. 3090. 
 
 CASTEL-FiouENTiNO, a tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, 
 and 18 m. S.W. Florence, on a rising ground, near r. bank, 
 Elsa, here crossed by a stone bridge. It is well built, de 
 fended by a castle, and has two fine churches, one of which is 
 collegiate. Pop. 2943. 
 
 CASTEL-FKANCo, several places, Italy, particularly: 
 1, A tn. Papal States, deleg. Bologna, and 8 m. E. Modena. 
 It is a frontier station and custom-house of the States, and is 
 supposed to occupy the site of the Forum Gallorum, famous 
 
CASTEL-GANDOLFO 
 
 621 
 
 CASTELLETTO 
 
 for the victory which Hirtius and Pansa gained over Mark 
 Antony. In the neighbourhood is a fort, built, on a com 
 manding position, by Pope Urban VIII., but now falling to 
 ruin. 2, A tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, prov. Treviso, 
 in an extensive plain, watered by the Murone, 25 m. N.W. 
 Venice. It is the seat of several public offices, contains three 
 parish and two auxiliary churches, a handsome palace, poor- 
 house, &c., and has some linen and woollen manufactures. 
 Pop. 6500. 3, A vil. and com. Naples, prov. Capitanata, 12 
 in. W.N.W. Bovino. In the neighbourhood, flints and gyp 
 sum are quarried. Pop. 3092. 4, Castcl-franco-di-8otte, a 
 tn. grand duchy Tuscany, prov. of, and 26 m. W. Florence, 
 r. bank, Arno. It has manufactures of hemp, flax, and earth 
 enware. Pop. 3077. 
 
 CASTEL-GANDOLFO, a vil. Papal States, 11 m. S.E. 
 Koine, on a hill, near W. shore, Lake Albano. It is remark 
 able for the fine views which it commands ; and contains the 
 Pope s summer residence, which forms a conspicuous object 
 from any part of the lake below. It stands on a volcanic 
 peak, 1350 ft. above the Mediterranean, and 450 ft. above the 
 lake. Pop. 1000. 
 
 CASTEL-GOFFREDO, a tn. and com. Austrian Italy, 
 gov. Venice, prov. of, and 19m. N.W. Mantua. It is walled, 
 contains three handsome churches, and has some silk-mills 
 and manufactures. Pop. 3463. 
 
 CAbTEL-GOMBERTO, a vil. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, 
 prov. of, and 8 m. N. Vicenza, near the Brogliano. It con- 
 taius a parish church and three oratories, and has an annual 
 fair. Pop. 2100. 
 
 CASTEL-GRANDE, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. Basi- 
 licata, 15m. S.S.W. Melfi. It has several important fairs. 
 Pop. 3363. 
 
 CASTEL-GUGLiELMO, & sinistra and a destra, two vils. 
 Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, 12 m. W.S.W. Rovigo. They 
 form a parish; and have a parish church, three oratories, and 
 an old castle. Pop. 2500. 
 
 CASTEL-JALOUX [anc. Castrum Gelosium], a tn. France, 
 dep. Lot-et-Garonne, 1. bank, Avance, 28 m. W.N.W. 
 Agen ; a neat place, well built, and agreeably situate in one 
 of the oases of the sandy desert of the Landes. Manufac 
 tures : coarse cloth, paper, and glass ; and has tanneries, blast 
 furnaces, iron and copper works, and a saw-mill. Trade: in 
 grain, wine, wax, honey, tar, resin, large quantities of chest 
 nuts, oak bark, cork, and leeches. There is a mineral spring 
 here. The castle, built by the Seigneurs d Albret, to which 
 the town owes its name, is in ruins. Pop. 1643. 
 
 CASTEL-LEOXE [formerly Castd-Manfrcdi\, a walled tn. 
 Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, prov. of, and 12 m. N.W. by N. 
 Cremona, near the Oglio. It is irregularly built, surrounded 
 by old walls, and has a fine church. Pop. 5712. 
 
 CASTEL-Nuovo, or Novo, a tn. and com. Austria, Dal- 
 matia, circle of, and 13 m. W.N.W. Cattaro. It stands near 
 the entrance to the Gulf of Cattaro, and is surrounded by walls 
 which have suffered much from repeated sieges and earth 
 quakes. It contains two churches, a K. Catholic and a Greek ; 
 a lazaretto, and custom-house. The chief manufacture is in 
 articles of brass. The country around is beautiful and fer 
 tile. The pop. of the tn. is small, but that of the com. is 7019, 
 of whom 6447 belong to the Greek church. 
 
 CASTEL-Nuovo, numerous places, Italy, particularly: 
 1, A tn. and com. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Citra, 3 m. S.S.W. 
 Lanciano. Pop. 4134. 2, A tn. and com. Naples, prov. Capi 
 tanata, 14 HI. W.S. W. Sansevero. It stands on a rising ground, 
 and contains three churches, an hospital, and almshouse. Pop. 
 3460. 3, Castelnuovo-d Asti, a tn. Sardinian States, Pied 
 mont, prov. of, and 15 m. N.W. Asti. Gypsum is quarried 
 hi the neighbourhood, and prepared for plaster. Pop. 2700. 
 4, Castelnuovo-di-Ceva, a tn. Sardinian States, Piedmont, 
 division of, and 22 m. E. Coni. Pop. 2500. 5, Castdnuovo- 
 di-JUagra, a tn. Sardinian States, Piedmont, prov. of, and 1 1 m. 
 E. Spezzia, in a valley of its own name. Pop. 2626. 6, 
 Castelnuovo-di-Sotto, a tn. Duchy Modena, on a canal of same 
 name, 9 m. N.N.W. Keggio. Pop. 2000. 
 
 CASTEL-SAN-GiovANNi [anc. Castnim S. Joannis de 
 Olubia], a tn. Italy, duchy Parma, 12 m. \V. Piacenza on the 
 Emilia ; well built, surrounded by ruinous walls, and defended 
 by an ancient castle ; has a handsome collegiate church, town- 
 hall, hospital, theatre; medical, veterinary, and several other 
 seminaries; a market-house, and public promenade. Wine 
 
 and oil are produced, and cattle are reared in the vicinity; 
 and a well-attended fair is held in August. Pop. 3000. 
 
 CASTEL-SAN-PiETKO, a tn. Papal States, 14 m. S.E. 
 Bologna, near 1. bank, Silaro. It contains a fortress, built 
 early in the 13th century. Pop. 3000. 
 
 CASTEL-SAKDO [formerly, Castel-Aragonese], a tn. and 
 seaport, N. coast, isl. Sardinia, division of, and 20 m. N.E. 
 Sassari. It stands on the summit of a steep and almost iso 
 lated rock, is surrounded by old walls and bastions, and is 
 meanly built; has extremely steep streets, a cathedral, and a 
 convent. The environs are fertile in corn and wine. Pop. 
 2042. 
 
 CASTEL-SARRASiN [anc. Castnim, Saraccmim], a tn. 
 France, dep. Tarn et-Garonne, 12 m. W. Montauban, in a 
 fertile plain, on the Azine, about 1 m. from r. bank, Garonne. 
 It is neat, well built, and was formerly encompassed by walls 
 and ditches, now converted into promenades. Portions of 
 the rampart and the Gothic portal of the parish church are 
 the only remains of the ancient edifices. It is the seat of a 
 court of first resort, has a communal college, and manufactures 
 of serges, linen, and hats, besides tanneries and dye-works. 
 Trade grain, oil, saffron, &c. Pop. 3420. 
 
 CASTEL-TEiiMiNi [anc. Camiciance Aquae], a tn. Sicily, 
 prov. of, and 17 m. N.N.W. Girgenti, near r. bank, Pla 
 tani. In the neighbourhood a large quantity of sulphur 
 is annually obtained. Pop., including that of Fontana Fredda, 
 5590. 
 
 CASTEL-VETRANO, a tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 27 m. 
 S.E. Trapani, on a rocky hill. It was originally well built, 
 but has been falling to decay for years. It contains several 
 churches and convents. The white wine produced in the 
 neighbourhood is esteemed the best in Sicily. Articles of 
 coral and alabaster are manufactured here. Pop. 12,328. 
 
 CASTELBUOXO, a tn. Sicily, prov. Palermo, 9 m. 
 S.S.E. Cefalu. In the vicinity are mineral springs. Pop. 
 7000. 
 
 CASTELL-LLYcmvR, or LOUGHOR, a bor. and par. S. 
 Wales, eo. Glamorgan, the former pleasantly situate between 
 the Loughor and the Llyw, 6J m. W. by N. Swansea. It has 
 a neat church, a Methodist chapel, and a well-attended school. 
 With Swansea, Aberavon, Kenvig, and Neath, it returns a 
 member to the House of Commons. The parish abounds in 
 excellent coal. Pop. 854. 
 
 CASTELLABATE, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Prin- 
 cipato Citra, 15 m. W. Vallo, on a hill S. of the Gulf of 
 Salerno, not far from Point Licosa. It contains several 
 churches and an almshouse, spins a good deal of cotton, and 
 carries on an active fishery in the gulf. Pop. 2260. 
 
 CASTELLAMOKTE, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, 
 and 9 m. S.W. Ivrea, on a hill, near 1. bank, Molosna. It 
 has a castle and a large market-place ; manufactures of 
 earthenware crucibles ; and trade in wine, cattle, butter, and 
 cheese. Pop. 5200. 
 
 CASTELLANA, a tn. Naples, prov. of, and 25 m. S.E. 
 Bari, with a church and three convents. Pop. 7176. 
 
 CASTELLANE [anc. Castdlum Sollmensium], a tn. 
 France, dep. Basses- Alpes, 23 m. S.E. Digne, r. bank, Verdon, 
 here crossed by a bridge of a single arch. It is tolerably well 
 built, but the streets are narrow and dirty. The old fortifica 
 tions (a wall, flanked with towers) are now in ruins. There 
 are numerous saline springs in the vicinity. Coarse woollen 
 cloth is made, wax bleached, and some trade done in dried 
 fruits, particularly in esteemed prunes. Pop. 1454. 
 
 CASTELLANETA, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di-Otranto, 
 18 m. N.W. Tarentum. It is the seat of a bishopric, and has 
 a cathedral, five convents, several charitable institutions, and 
 an hospital. Cotton is extensively grown in the vicinity. 
 Pop. 5453. 
 
 CASTELLARO, a tn. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. 
 Venice, prov. of, and 9 m. N.E. Mantua. It has a beautiful 
 palace of the Duke of Mantua, and an annual fair in August. 
 Pop. 2071. 
 
 CASTELLAZZO, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 
 4 m. S. Alessandria, between the Bormida and the Orba. It 
 has four churches, five convents, and some trade in the pro 
 ducts of the country around. Pop. 5000. 
 
 CASTELLETTO-sopRA-TiciNO, a tn. Sardinian States, 
 prov. of, and 19 m. N. Novara, r. bank, Ticino. It contains 
 a church and a convent. Pop. 3030. 
 
CA8TELLINA-DEL-CHIANTI 
 
 622 
 
 CABTELNAUDAKY 
 
 CASTELLlNA-PEL-CHiANTi, a tn. and com. Tuscany, 
 prov. of, and 12 m. N. by W. Sienna, on a hill-tcp, \V. 
 of Mount Chianti ; tolerably well built ; has walls, entered by 
 two gates, is commanded by a castle, and has a handsome 
 parish church. Pop. 824. 
 
 CASTELLO 13ARONIA, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. 
 Principato Ultra, 9 m. S.S.E. Ariano. It contains a castle 
 and two churches, and manufactures a few coarse woollens. 
 In the neighbourhood are sulphurous and chalybeate springs. 
 Pop. 1439. 
 
 CASTELLO-DE-viDE, a tn. Portugal, prov. Beira-Baixa, 
 cap. dist. of same name, on a height, 9 m. N. Portalegre. 
 It is surrounded by ancient walls, and defended by a strong 
 castle, contains three churches, and has considerable manu 
 factures of woollen cloth. A great number of swine are 
 annually killed here. In the vicinity are no fewer than 300 
 springs. Pop. 5941. 
 
 CASTELLO-BRANCO, a tn. Portugal, cap. prov. Beira- 
 Baixa, and the see of a bishop, on a height, near 1. bank, Laca 
 or Vereza, 56 m. S.E. Coimbra. It is surrounded by walls, 
 flanked with seven towers, and is defended by an old castle ; 
 but the streets are steep, and the houses indifferently built. It 
 contains the bishop s palace, which is surrounded by fine gar 
 dens ; two churches, two monasteries outside the walls, two 
 hospitals, and a richly-endowed poorhouse. Pop. 6760. 
 
 CAfeTELLON-DE-LA-PLANA, a prov. Spain, one of three 
 into which the ancient kingdom of Valencia was subdivided 
 in 1833 ; between lat. 39 38 and 40 47 N., and Ion. 
 35 E. and 1 25 W. ; area, 2804 sq. m. ; bounded, N. 
 by provs. Teruel and Tarragona, E. by the Mediterranean 
 Sea, S. by Valencia, and W. by Teruel. On the N. and W. 
 it is extremely rugged and mountainous, with a sharp, bracing 
 climate, exposed to the boisterous N. and N.W. winds; while 
 to the S. and E. it abounds with rich valleys and fertile plains, 
 and enjoys a soft atmosphere, the oppressive summer heats 
 attempered by refreshing sea breezes, and sheltered in winter 
 from the piercing blast by the adjacent hills. The mountain- 
 ranges are chiefly of sandstone, their more elevated summits 
 capped with snow during the greater part of the year, the 
 culminating point being Penagolosa, 6000 ft. above sea-level ; 
 their lower slopes generally covered with pine, oak, beech, 
 holly, and other hardy trees and shrubs. Iron, copper, co 
 balt, quicksilver, lead, vermilion, silver, and other metallic 
 substances are found and mined in various localities; and 
 several quarries of marble, granite, &c., are wrought. The 
 plains and valleys are generally well cultivated for Spain, and 
 produce grain, fruits, and vegetables, of all classes, of good 
 quality, and in great abundance. They are watered by the 
 rivers Mijares, Monleon, Bergantes, Cenia, Cervol, and nume 
 rous smaller streams ; and, in some districts, irrigation is suc 
 cessfully practised. Mineral springs are numerous. The 
 inhabitants till the ground, rear cattle, fish, manufacture linen, 
 woollen, hempen, and cotton fabrics, paper, soap, earthenware, 
 hardware, esparto mats, work in iron and copper foundries, 
 distil brandy, and express oil and wine to some extent. Edu 
 cation is much neglected ; there are numerous schools in the 
 towns, but the great proportion of the people are lamentably 
 ignorant. They are generally robust and hardy in consti 
 tution, and temperate in their habits, but, though fond of 
 amusement, sullen and vindictive in disposition. Pop. 247,741. 
 
 CASTELL01S 7 -DE-LA -PLANA [anc. Castalio], a city and 
 port, Spain, cap. of above prov., 40 m. N.N.E. Valencia, 
 in an extensive and fertile plain, irrigated by the Mijares, 
 whose waters, through the medium of an ancient aqueduct, 
 cut for a considerable distance through solid limestone rock, 
 are conveyed 5 in. into the town, affording a copious .supply 
 to the inhabitants, and dispensing life and verdure in the 
 vicinity. This great work was probably the construction of 
 James the Conqueror, King of Aragon, about 1240. The 
 defences of the city were strengthened and increased, by the 
 addition of batteries and a fosse, in 1837, but the works are 
 now falling to decay for want of repair. The houses are in 
 general well built and commodious, and the streets wide, 
 straight, clean, and, though unpaved, many of the more im 
 portant have good footpaths. It has nine squares, a town 
 and courthouses, and parish church, wherein are some good 
 paintings, monuments, statues, &c. ; two chapels of ease, Latin, 
 normal, and primary schools, an hospital, poorhouse, theatre, 
 barracks, orphan-asylum, bull-ring, two prisons, a cemetery, 
 
 several convents, and a spacious and handsome episcopal 
 palace. Manufactures: linen, woollen, and hempen fabrics, 
 especially sail-cloth, also ropes, paper, soap, vermicelli, glass, 
 earthenware, bricks, tiles, fire-arms, brandy, wine, oil, &c. 
 Much attention is paid to the rearing of silk-worms. Im 
 ports: sugar, coffee, alcohol, cotton, hides, vinegar, and salt 
 fish ; annual value, about 18,000. Exports: hemp, grain, 
 fruits, and manufactured goods ; annual value under 15,000. 
 The vessels frequenting the port are numerous, but small ; the 
 average annual tonn. being 16,952. Castellon was taken 
 from the Saracens, in 1233, by James I. of Aragon, and sub 
 sequently given by him to the monastery of San Vincente of 
 Valencia. Francisco Ribalta, the painter, and his son, Juan 
 Eibalta, also an artist, were born here. Pop. 16,952. 
 
 CAteTELLON-DE-AMi UitiAS, atn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. 
 of, and 20 m. N.E. Geror.a, on a small hill r. bank, Muga. 
 The houses are small and inconvenient, and the streets nar 
 row and mean. It contains, however, a magnificent church, 
 several convents, a townhall, college, prison, several schools, 
 a theatre, hospital, and public promenade ornamented with 
 an avenue of trees and a fine fountain. The inhabitants are 
 chiefly engaged in husbandry, cattle-rearing, and fishing. Pop. 
 2821. 
 
 CASTELLON-DE JATIVA, or VILLAMJEVA-DE- CASTEL 
 LON, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 30 m. S. by W. Valencia, in a 
 plain, r. bank, Albayda. The town is surrounded by a wall, 
 and entered by four gates. The houses are, in general, capa 
 cious and well built, forming a principal street, several diverg 
 ing lanes, and four small squares. It also has two churches, 
 two chapels, a townhouse, prison, poorhouse, cemetery, and 
 two primary schools. Manufactures : oil, earthenware, tiles, 
 and bricks ; but the chief employment is rearing silk-worms. 
 Pop. 1999. 
 
 CASTELLONE. 1, A tn. and com. Naples, prov. Terra 
 di Lavoro, 4 m. N. Gaeta, on the old Appian Way, and near 
 the centre of the Gulf of Gaeta. It contains a church and 
 two convents; and in the neighbourhood is a tomb, said to be 
 erected to Cicero near the spot where he was slain. Pop. 
 3940. 2, A vil. and com. Naples, prov. Terra di Lavoro, 
 25 m. N.N.W. Piedimonte, in a mountainous district, near the 
 sources of the Volturno. Pop. 1466. 
 
 CASTELLUCCHIO, several places, Italy : 1, Atn. Aus 
 trian Italy, gov. Venice, prov. of, and 7 m. W. Mantua, on 
 the Vaso Osone. It contains a parish church, a chapel, and 
 two mills. Pop. 2000. 2, A tn. and com. Naples [anc. Aqua 
 HorranaJ], prov. Sannio, 9 m. W.N.W. Larino. It contains 
 a collegiate church, an hospital, and two alms houses. Pop. 
 2757. 3, A tn. and com. Naples, prov. Terra di Lavoro, 
 6 m. S. W. Sora, pleasantly situate on a hill. Pop. 1229. 
 4, CanteUuccio Inftriore, and Castdluccio Svperiore, two vils. 
 and com. Naples, prov. Basilicata, both in dist., and about 
 15 m. S.E. Lagonegvo. P. of former, 2993 ; of latter, 2483. 
 
 CASTELMOKON, a tn. France, dep. Lot-et Garonne, r. 
 bank, Lot, about 17 m. S.E. Marmande. It has a Calvin- 
 istic consistorial church, and some trade in flour. Pop. 1013. 
 
 CASTELNAU, several small tns. France. The most 
 populous is Castelnau-de-Montratier, dtp. Lot, 14 m. S.S.W. 
 Cahors. Pop. 1111. 
 
 CASTELNAUDAPvY [anc. Castelhim Arri or Sotoma- 
 0w], a tn. France, dep. Aude, 21 m. W.N.W. Carcassone, in 
 the form of an amphitheatre, on an eminence near the Canal 
 du Midi. It is indifferently built, and the church of St. 
 Michael, and the general hospital, a well-endowed establish 
 ment, are the only noteworthy buildings. To the S. the canal 
 forms a basin 1300 yards in circumference, surrounded by 
 good quays, wan houses, and yards for building vessels em 
 ployed on the canal. Above this basin is the public pro 
 menade. The nuaiuiactures consist of coarse cloth, earthen 
 ware, pottery, and bricks. There are also distilleries, tan 
 neries, and corn-mills. Lime and gypsum are found in the 
 environs. The grain and flour market is one of the largest 
 in the S. of France, and some trade is carried on in timber, 
 iron, copper, &c. It has a tribunal of commerce and of first 
 resort, an exchange, agricultural and polytechnic societies, 
 and a communal college. 
 
 Castelnaudary was formerly the capital of the county of 
 same name, and strongly fortified. In 1237 the inquisitors 
 visited it, and not only condemned the living to the flames, 
 but exhumed the dead, and made their remains figure in the 
 
CASTELORIZO 
 
 623 
 
 CASTILE (OLD) 
 
 autos-da-fe. In 1355, it was almost totally destroyed by the 
 Priiice of Wales. In 1632, the famous comLat between the 
 troops of Louis XIII. and those of Gaston of Orleans took 
 place below its walls. The Duke de Montmorency, who com 
 manded the latter, was wounded, taken prisoner, and shortly 
 ai ter executed at Toulouse. Pop. 8215. 
 
 CASTELORIZO, or KASTELOIUZO, an isl. and seaport 
 tn. Turkey in Asia, pash. Anatolia; lat. 36 5 N.; Ion. 
 
 29 1 4 E. The ISLAND, the largest and loftiest on the coast, 
 
 is entirely barren, and ill supplied with water. The town and 
 harbour are on the N.E. side. The harbour, though small, 
 is snug; and merchant vessels can moor within 100 yards of 
 
 the town. The TOWN, which consists of 500 or 600 houses 
 
 scattered over the face of the rock, is governed by a Turkish 
 Aga, but most of its inhabitants are Greeks. A little corn 
 is collected here for exportation ; and several small vessels are 
 constantly employed in conveying fire-wood from this part of 
 the country to Egypt. It is also a favourite place of resort 
 for merchant vessels, both going to and returning from Syria 
 and Cyprus. Pop. 3000. 
 
 CASTELROTTO, or CASTELRUT, a vil. and com. Aus 
 tria, Tyrol, prov. of, and 14 m. N.E. Botzen, on a mountain 
 near 1. bank, Eisach. The district is mountainous, and atfords 
 good herbage for the numerous flocks. Pop. 3322. 
 
 CASTELVETERE, several places Naples, particularly 
 1, Castdvetere, supposed anc. Caulon, a tn. and com., prov. 
 Calabria Ultra I., 12 m. N.E. Gerace. It contains five 
 churches and a castle, but was partly destroyed by the earth 
 quake of 1783. In the neighbourhood much wine is pro 
 duced, and many silk-worms are reared. Pop. 5117. 2, Tn. 
 and com., prov. Sannio, 17 m. S.E. Campobasso. It has a 
 collegiate church and an hospital. Pop. 3294. 
 
 CASTENEDOLO, a vil. and com. Austrian Italy, gov. 
 Milan, prov. of, and 6 m. S.E. Brescia. It occupies a height 
 on the road between Brescia and Mantua, is well built, and 
 contains a parish church, and several chapels and sanctuaries. 
 The district around produces good crops of corn, has fine pas 
 tures, and mulberry plantations. Pop. 2999. 
 
 CASTERTON, two pars. Eng. Kutland: 1, (Great}; 
 1590 ac. Pop. 376. 2, (Little) ; 1450 ac. Pop. 132. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, numerous places, Italy, particularly 
 1, Yil. and com. Naples, prov. Calabria Citra, 5 m. N.N.E. 
 Cosenza. Pop. 1200. 2, Tn. and com. Naples, prov. Cala 
 bria Ultra II., 8 m. W.N.W. Nicastro, near the Adriatic. 
 Pop. 3300. 3, Two vils. and com. Naples, prov. Abruzzo 
 Ultra I., both in dist. Penne, from which the one, Castif/lione 
 della Fescara, is S. 13 m., pop. 1815; and the other Casti- 
 glione-Messcr-Ilaimondo, 6 m. N.N.\V., pop. 2262. In the 
 neighbourhood of the former is the fine royal abbey San Cle- 
 mente de Casauria. 4, Castiylione-Messcr-Marino, a tn. and 
 com. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Citra, 20 m. S.W. Vasto. It 
 stands in the midst of mountains, and has five churches and 
 a convent. Pop. 3485. 5, A vil. and com. Sicily, prov. of, 
 and 30 m. N. Catania, and on the N.E. side of Mount Etna. 
 Pop. 2847. 6, Catitir/Uone del Stiviere, a small city, Austrian 
 Italy, gov. Venice, prov. of, and 22 m. N.W. Mantua, 17 m. 
 S.E. Brescia. It is well built, surrounded by walls, de 
 fended by an ancient castle, and contains a large square 
 adorned with a central fountain, three churches, and a town- 
 hall. A well-attended annual fair is held in June. The 
 French obtained here a decisive victory over the Austrians on 
 August 5, 1796, which gave to Marshal Agereau his title of 
 Due de Castiglione. Pop. 5051. 7, A vil. Austrian Italy, 
 gov. Milan, prov. Bergamo, 6 m. N.E. Clusone. Pop. 1582. 
 8, A vil. Austrian Italy, gov. Milan, prov. Como, 4 m. 
 N. Tradate. Pop. 1300. 9, A vil. Austrian Italy, prov. 
 of, and 3 m. W. Sondrio, r. bank, Adda. Pop. 1154. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE-FioREXTiKO [anc. Arrctium fidens], a 
 tn. and com. Tuscany, prov. of, and 9 m. S.S.E. Arezzo. 
 It is tolerably well built, and has a large square, a handsome 
 collegiate church, a chapel, municipal buildings, hospital, 
 orphan asylum, and college. Pop. 4932. 
 
 _ CASTILBLANCO, a tn. Spain, Estremadura, prov. Ba- 
 dajos, 15 m. E.S.E. Logrosan, on an eminence, near r. bank, 
 Guadiana. Its houses are indifferently built ; streets, though 
 paved, irregular ; and its townhall, prison, and storehouse, 
 with other buildings, were burnt by the Carlists in 1837. It 
 has, however, a parish church, chapel, cemetery, and two 
 schools. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in domestic 
 
 weaving, husbandry, and in rearing cattle and pigs. Pop. 
 
 1700. Several other small places in Spain bear the same 
 
 name. 
 
 CASTILE (NEW), [Spanish, Castillo. La Nuevd], an an 
 cient prov. Spain, corresponding to the old kingdom of Toledo, 
 and occupying nearly the centre of the peninsula ; bounded, N. 
 by Old Castile, W. Estremadura, S. Andalusia and Murcia, 
 and E. Valencia and Aragon ; greatest length, E. to W. 
 240 m. ; average breadth, about 155 m. ; area, 42,904 sq. m. 
 It is traversed from E. to \V. by three lofty mountain chains, 
 nearly parallel to each other the mountains of Toledo and 
 sierra Molina stretching almost across its centre, the sierra 
 Guadarama forming its N., and the sierra Morena forming its 
 S. frontier. Between these chains, which form the great 
 water-sheds of the province, lie two extensive plains or pla 
 teaux, with a general inclination to the E. ; that to the N. of 
 the central chain belonging to the basin of the Tagus, by 
 which, or its affluents, all its waters are received; and that to 
 the S. belonging to the basin of Guadiana, except a small 
 portion of the E., which is separated from this basin by a 
 transverse ridge, and, sloping S.E., sends its waters to the Me 
 diterranean. These plains, from being very poorly wooded, 
 have in winter a bleak, and in summer often an arid appear 
 ance. They are chiefly devoted to the raising of grain, and 
 must, m many districts, be of great fertility, since notwith 
 standing the miserable system of agriculture pursued, the 
 produce more than equals the consumption. The other prin 
 cipal crops are hemp and saffron. Many of the lower slopes 
 are clothed with vineyards, from which much wine of good 
 quality is obtained. In the higher mountain valleys the pas 
 tures are excellent, and feed vast numbers of mules, cattle, 
 sheep, goats, and swine. A mountain product of considerable 
 importance is the esparto, of which a variety of articles, and 
 particularly the famous mats so named are made. The moun 
 tains are also rich in minerals, of which it may be sufficient 
 here to mention the quicksilver mines of Almaden, which 
 were long, and probably must still be regarded as the richest 
 in the world. Manufactures, which at one period had attained 
 a high degree of prosperity, are greatly decayed, and the 
 whole province is miserably deficient in regard to all the great 
 branches of industry. The inhabitants have a grave, reflect 
 ive cast of countenance, and have often distinguished them 
 selves by a peculiar aptitude for scientific acquirement. They 
 are, however, generally indolent in their habits, and live on 
 from day to day as their fathers did before them, seldom 
 attempting to better their condition, and at the same time in 
 dulging a self-complacency, which to a stranger borders very 
 much on the ridiculous. It must be admitted, on the other 
 hand, that unlike most people in the world, they are really 
 better than they seem, and possess in a higher degree the 
 valuable qualities of civility, generosity, and probity. This 
 ancient province now forms the five provinces of Madrid, 
 Ciudad-Keal, Cuenca, Guadalajara, and Toledo. P. 1,490,799. 
 
 CASTILE (OLD), [Spanish, Castdla La Vieja], an anc. 
 prov. Spain ; bounded, N. by the Bay of Biscay, N.E. Biscayand 
 Navarre, E. Aragon, S. New Castile, and \V. Leon; greatest 
 length, N.E. to S.W., 210 m. ; breadth, 170 m. ; area 26,768 
 sq. m. It is traversed by three mountain chains the sierra 
 de Guadarama, which takes an E.N.E. direction, separating 
 this province from that of New Castile, and on reaching the 
 E. frontier links in with the sierra de Deza, which turns to 
 the N. and separates Old Castile from Aragon ; a central 
 chain, apparently a continuation W. of the sierra de Deza; 
 and tlie Cantabrian Mountains in the N., at no great distance 
 from, and almost parallel with, the coast. Numerous minor 
 ramifications penetrate between these chains and diversify the 
 surface, but the greater part of this space consists of exten 
 sive, well-watered, and generally fertile plains. The largest 
 of them, to the S. of the central chain, belongs to the basin of 
 the Douro, which, flowing across it E. to W., drains it either 
 directly or by numerous affluents. Even a considerable part 
 of the plains N. of the central chain sends its waters to the 
 Douro. The remaining portion belongs to the basin of the 
 Ebro. Besides these two large basins, a smaller one in the 
 S.E. of the province belongs to the Tagus; and another, 
 equally small, in the province of Santander, and to the N. of 
 the Cantabrian Mountains, sends its waters directly to the sea. 
 The far greater part of the arable land of this province is de 
 voted to the culture of grain, particularly wheat, which is 
 
CASTILLO 
 
 624 
 
 CASTLE -MARTYR 
 
 raised in such abundance as to furnish a large surplus for the 
 supply of other provinces, and entitles this one to be regarded 
 as the principal granary of Spain. In addition to cereals, the 
 principal crops are flax and madder. The vine thrives well, 
 and much excellent wine might be produced, but the inhabi 
 tants, either blind to their interests, or too indolent to pur 
 sue them, pay little regard to this most lucrative branch of 
 rural economy, and produce only a little wine of very indif 
 ferent quality. The pastures, both of the mountflfns and the 
 plain?, are excellent. The former are depastured in summer, 
 and the latter in winter. In this way an ample supply of 
 food is obtained throughout the year, and immense flocks of 
 sheep are fed. The wool thus produced was long famous 
 throughout Europe, and though it is said to be rivalled by 
 that of Saxony, and still more recently by that of our own 
 Australia, the wool of this province still forms one of its prin 
 cipal sources of revenue. The minerals of Old Castile re 
 main yet to be perfectly explored. There can scarcely be a 
 doubt that they might be made of great value, but at present 
 they are scarcely of any economical importance. Old Cas 
 tile now forms the provinces of Santander, Burgos, Logroiio, 
 Soria, Segovia, and Avila. Pop. 1,427,477. 
 
 CASTILLO, several tns. and vils. Spain ; the most im 
 portant are 1, Castilto-de- Locubin, a tn. Andalusia, prov. 
 of, and 25 m. S.W. Jaen, on the N. side of the sierra Alca- 
 muiia. Most of the streets are narrow, ill paved, and steep. 
 In the public square are the remains of an Arab fortress, called 
 Villeta. There are a handsome parish church, with a highly 
 decorated Corinthian portal ; five chapels, two schools, a 
 townhouse, hospital, prison, store-house, cemetery, and some 
 convents. Manufactures: linen, woollen, and hempen fab 
 rics; vinegar, wine, and oil. In the environs several quar 
 ries of jasper, limestone, and millstone are wrought. An 
 annual cattle fair is held in September. Pop. 3971 .2, Cas- 
 tillo-de-las-Gvardas, a tn. Andalusia, prov. of, and 30 m. 
 N.W. Seville, on an elevated site, commanded, except on the 
 N., by loftier hills. Nearly all the streets are paved, steep, 
 and lined with tolerably well-built houses. Its townhall and 
 prison are of recent construction ; it also possesses two churches 
 and two primary schools. The inhabitants, mostly engaged 
 in weaving and husbandry, carry on a small trade in grain, 
 wine, oil, honey, and coal. In the neighbouring hills are 
 abandoned mines of copper, lead, and silver. Pop. 2287. 
 3, Castillo-de- Garci-Ahtftoz, a tn. New Castile, prov. of, and 
 27 m. S.S.W. Cuenca, on a declivity overlooked by a ruinous 
 castle belonging to the Marquis of Villena. It possesses a 
 parish church, two convents, and does some little trade in 
 cereals and oil. Pop. 1185. 
 
 CASTILLON [anc. Castillo], a tn. France, dep. Gironde, 
 r. bank, Dordogne, 26 m. AV. Bordeaux. Nails, cordage, 
 barrels, bricks, tiles, cotton, and woollen yarn, are made here, 
 and there is some trade in wool. In the environs are the re 
 mains of the Chateau de Montaigne, where the celebrated 
 essayist of that name died, Sep. 13, 1592. In 1541, the 
 English, under Talbot, were defeated by the French before 
 
 the walls of Castillon. Pop. 2700. CASTILLON is the 
 
 name of several other small towns and villages in France. 
 
 CASTIIsE, a seaport vil. U. States, Maine, E. side of 
 Penobscot Bay, opposite Belfast, 75 m. E. Augusta. It has 
 nn excellent and commodious harbour, accessible to ships of 
 the heaviest burthen at all seasons of the year ; considerable 
 trade in timber, coasting, and the fisheries. It was in pos 
 session of the British during the war with America. Pop. 
 (1840), 1188. 
 
 CASTLE, numerous pars. England: 1, Cambridge; 
 2613 ac. Pop. 854. 2, Castle (Carrock), Cumberland; 
 3G40 ac. Pop. 351. 3, Castle (Church], Stafford; 3460 ac. 
 Pop. 1484. 4, Castle (Comic), Wilts; 1770 ac. Pop. 6CO. 
 5, Castle (Eaton], Wilts; 2020 ac. Pop. 312. 6, Cattle 
 (Eden), Durham; 1630 ac. Pop. 558. 7, Castle (Fron-c), 
 Hereford; 1320 ac. Pop. 183. 8, Castle (Morton), Wor 
 cester; 3780 ac. Pop. 855. 9, Castle (Rising), Norfolk; 
 2330 ac. Pop. 358. 10, Castle (Sovcrly), Cumberland; 
 7940 ac. Pop. 1007. 11, Castle (Thorpe), Bucks; 1380ac. 
 Pop. 365. 
 
 CASTLE, numerous pars. Ireland : 1 , Castl boy, Down ; 
 l"58ac. Pop. 775. 2, Casthbrack, Queen s co. ; 9276 ac. 
 Pop. 1924. 3, Castleconor, Sligo; 16,678 ac. Pop. 5136. 
 4, Castlcdtrmot, par. and tn. Kildare; 7498 ac. Pop. 3090. 
 
 5, Castleilillon, Kildare; 1133ac. Pop. 147. 6, Caflle- 
 Kills, Wexford; 5603 ac. Pop. 1871. 7, Castleharen, Cork ; 
 10,542 ae. Pop. 6056. 8, Castkinch, Kilkenny; 2367 ac. 
 Pop. 492. 9, Castle-Island, par. and tn. Kerry; 29,633 ac. 
 Pop. 5950. 10, Castlejordan, Meath and King s co.; 17,372 
 ac. Pop. 4079. 11, Castl, knock, Dublin; 7124 ac. Pop. 
 4063. 1.2, Cat tl lost, Westmeath; 9457 ac. Pop. 2058. 
 13, Castldyons, Cork; 12,718 ac. Pop. 5536. 14, Castle- 
 macadam, Wicklow; 10,843 ac. Pop. 5633. 15, Castle- 
 magner, Cork; 7830 ac. Pop. 3007. 16, Castlemore, Kos- 
 common; 8914 ac. Pop. 3532. 17, Castlerahan, Cavan; 
 10,315 ac. Pop. 7589. 18, Castlerickard, Meath; 3434 ac. 
 Pop. 551. 19, Castkterra, Cavan; 9981 ac. Pop. 6813. 
 20, Castletoum(l), Louth ; 2611 ac. Pop. 1043. (2), Limer 
 ick ; 1 777 ac. Pop. 919. (3), Meath ; 4068 ac. Pop. 1075. 
 2 1 , Castlctownarra, Tipperary ; 9274 ac. Pop. 4292. 22, 
 Castletoivndelvin, par. and tn. W. Meath; 18,282 ac. Pop. 
 4588. 23, Castletoirn-Kindalen, Westmeath; 11,399 ac. 
 Pop. 4290. 24, CastUtomily, King s co. ; 1803 ac. Pop. 
 371. 25, Castlercntry, Cork; 4754 ac. Pop. 3476. 
 
 CASTLE-ACRE, a vil. and par. England, co. Norfolk, 
 about 3 m. N. Swafl ham. The VILLAGE, which stands on a 
 bold acclivity, has three main streets, unpaved and irregular, 
 while the houses are almost entirely cottages of flint or brick. 
 There is a fine parish church of the time of Edward IV., and 
 four chapels belonging to Baptists, Wesleyan, and Primitive 
 Methodists. The population is entirely agricultural. Area 
 of par. 32 1 ac. Pop. 1 495. 
 
 CASTLE-BELL1KGHAM, a small tn. Ireland, co. 
 Louth, agreeably situate on the Glyde, 4J m. N. Dunleer. 
 It has a handsome parish church, a school, a dispensary; and 
 the inhabitants are engaged in linen weaving, and in an 
 extensive brewery, which is here. Pop. 665. 
 
 CASTLE BLAKENEY, or KILLASOLAN, par. Irel., co. 
 Gal way; 11,482 ac. Pop. 4496. 
 
 CASTLE-BLANEY, a market tn. Ireland, co. Mona- 
 ghan, on a gentle eminence, about 10 m. N. Carrickmacross. 
 It consists of four principal streets, straight, clean, and well 
 kept; and the houses, which are mostly of stone, are well 
 built and slated ; good supply of water. The residence of 
 Lord Blayney adjoins the town. The market-house, townhall, 
 council-house, and statirn of the Dundalk and Enniskilkn 
 Kail way, are the chief buildings. Here are an Episcopal church, 
 with an elegant spire, a E. Catholic chapel, a Methodist, two 
 Presbyterian meeting-houses, and three schools. Near the town 
 are two extensive flax-mills, but the people are chiefly em 
 ployed in agriculture. Pop. 2134. 
 
 CASTLE BYTHE, or CASTLE HIGH, par. W T ales, Pem 
 broke. Pop. 266. 
 
 CASTLE CAEREINION, par. Wales, Montgomery; 
 5984 ac. Pop. 805. 
 
 CASTLE-CARY,rar. Eng. Somerset; 3640 ac. P. 1942. 
 
 CASTLE DOUGLAS [formerly, Carlinwark}, a market 
 tn. Scotland, co. Kirkcudbright, 18 m. S.W. Dumfries. It 
 is mostly of recent erection, and is built on a regular plan, on 
 a gentle declivity, terminating in a lake called Carlinwark 
 Loch ; houses, in general, handsome and substantial ; streets 
 wide and spacious, crossing each other at right angles. It 
 was erected into a burgh of barony in 1792 ; and has a hand 
 some modern townhouse, with a tower. It is the great mart 
 for all the produce of the county ; weekly market on Monday, 
 at which great numbers of black cattle and sheep are sold, 
 besides large quantities of all kinds of agricultural produce. 
 Pop. (1841), 1847. 
 
 CASTLE-FINN, a small market tn. Ireland, co. Donegal, 
 about 5 m. W.S.W. Strabane. It lies on the Fimi, which is 
 navigable to the town. Pop. 567. 
 
 CASTLE- GREGORY, a small wretched-looking tn., co. 
 Kerry, \ m. from S. shore, Tralee Bay, 12 m. W. Tralee. 
 It has a K. Catholic chapel, a national, and a parochial school. 
 The people are principally employed in agricultural labour, 
 and in fishing at certain periods of the year, in neither of 
 which occupations, however, can they boast of any skill. 
 Pop. 504. 
 
 CASTLE M^ RTIN, par. Wales, Pembroke. Pop. 408. 
 
 CASTLE -MARTYR, a post tn. Ireland, co. of, and 
 18 m. E. Cork on the Maine, here crossed by a bridge. It 
 consists of one spacious street, of large, well-built, and white 
 washed houses, which give the town a cheerful and agreeable 
 
CASTLE POLLAKD 
 
 CASTRES 
 
 appearance. It has a church, dispensary, fever-hospital, and 
 other charities. It returned two members to the Irish House 
 of Commons till the Union. There are two fairs annually, 
 and petty sessions every alternate Wednesday. Pop. 1397. 
 
 CASTLE POLLARD, a tn. Ireland, co. Westmeath, 
 12 m. N. by E. Mullingar, beautifully situate in a fertile 
 valley, having, S.W., Lough Derveragh, and S.E., Lough 
 Lane. It consists of several well-built, cleanly-kept, and 
 handsome streets, having in the centre a square, in which is 
 situate the market-house. It has a handsome church, R. 
 Catholic chapel, parochial school, savings -bauk, dispensary, 
 and fever -hospital ; and four annual fairs. Pop. (1841), 1310. 
 
 CASTLE-WELLAN, a market tn. Ireland, co. Down, 
 agreeably situate 10 m. S.W. Dowupatrick. It is well 
 built, and the houses, generally, are neat and comfortable. 
 It has chapels for R. Catholics, Presbyterians, and W esleyan 
 Methodists, a free school, and infantry barracks. The linen 
 manufacture, in all its branches of flax-dressing, spinning, 
 and weaving is carried on. There are also extensive bleach- 
 fields in the neighbourhood. Pop. 806. 
 
 CASTLEBAR, a tn. Ireland, co. Mayo, N. extremity of 
 lake of same name, 126 m. W. by N. Dublin. It consists of 
 one principal street, nearly 1 m. in length, spacious and irre 
 gular, though tolerably well built, from which several smaller 
 streets and lanes diverge, and has also a sort of square a 
 green area around which are many handsome houses. The 
 parish church is an elegant structure in the later English 
 style, with a lofty square embattled tower ; the R. Catholic 
 chapel is large and well proportioned ; and there are a Wes- 
 leyan Methodist meeting-house, some schools, an infirmary, 
 two dispensaries, and a barrack for artillery and infantry. 
 The court-house and new county jail are both extensive and 
 well arranged, the latter having a castellated front, and con 
 taining 140 cells. The assizes for the county are held here, 
 and also the quarter sessions in January and October, besides 
 petty sessions every Saturday. Linen, and linen yarn, are 
 manufactured here to a considerable extent ; as are also to 
 bacco, snuff, soap, and candle. There are likewise a brewery 
 and a tannery in the town ; but the general trade is in grain 
 and other agricultural produce. Castlebar was taken by a 
 French force which landed in Killalla Bay, in 1798, but was 
 evacuated shortly after, on the approach of Lord Cornwallis. 
 Pop. (1841), 5137. 
 
 CASTLECARY, a hamlet, Scotland, co. of, and 9 m. S. 
 by W. Stirling, and one of the stations on the Edinburgh and 
 Glasgow Railway. Near it are the remains of a Roman fort, 
 covering six acres of ground, and vaulted underneath. 
 
 CASTLECOMER, a tn. and par. Ireland, co. Kilkenny. 
 The town lies on the Deen, 54 m. S.E. Dublin, and consists of 
 one spacious main street, beautified by a row of trees on either 
 side, and several smaller streets and lanes ; is regularly 
 built, and has a cleanly and respectable appearance. It has 
 a commodious parish church ; a R. Catholic chapel, and near 
 it a convent, a small Wesleyan meeting-house, a court 
 house, a dispensary, small infantry barracks, and various 
 schools. The chief dependence of the place is on the col 
 lieries in the neighbourhood, which have been worked for 
 more than a century, producing the peculiar kind of mineral 
 known by the name of Kilkenny coal, which, containing no 
 bitumen, burns without flame or smoke, and yields a strong 
 heat. A great proportion of the coal is conveyed to Dublin 
 by the river Nore and Barrow, and by the Grand Canal. The 
 town was attacked by the rebels in 1798, and great part of it 
 destroyed by fire. Pop. (1841), 1765. Area of par. 21,592 
 fte. Pop. 13,535. 
 
 CASTLEFORU, a vil. and par. England, York, W. Rid 
 ing. The VILLAGE, 21 m. S.W. York, on the York and N, 
 Midland Railway, is built on an acclivity, consists of two main 
 streets, one of them crooked and not well kept, and the houses, 
 principally of brick, are but indifferently built ; a great de 
 ficiency of water. Besides the parish church, a fine Gothic 
 structure, there are two chapels belonging to the Wesleyan and 
 Primitive Methodists, with a national and other schools. The 
 male population are chiefly employed in glass-works and pot 
 teries. Area of par. 2040 ac. Pop. 1850. 
 
 CASTLEREAGH, a market tn. Ireland, co. of, and 15 
 in. W.N.W. Roscommon, on the Suck, which runs through 
 the centre of the town. The houses are all of limestone, 
 rough cast, and many of them are well built. It has a court- 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 house, school-house, Protestant church, and R. Catholic 
 chapel, and three schools for males, females, and infants. 
 There are no manufactures, but a large amount of general 
 trade is carried on. The people, who are chiefly employed 
 in agriculture, are moral and industrious. P. (1841) 1233. 
 
 CASTLETON, par. and vil. England, co. Derby. The 
 VILLAGE, 13m. W. by S. Sheffield, is situate at the bottom 
 of a rugged eminence, on which stands the ancient castle 
 called Peak Castle, erected by William Peveril, natural son 
 of the Conqueror. The houses are chiefly of stone. It con 
 tains the parish church, a fine specimen of the early pointed 
 style ; a Wesleyan chapel, and a free grammar-school. The 
 inhabitants are mostly employed in mining ; but many derive 
 a subsistence from the manufacture of ornamental articles 
 from spar, and from strangers visiting the remarkable natural 
 curiosities in the neigbourhood, the most extraordinary of 
 which is the Peak Cavern, or Devil s Cave, consisting of a 
 series of subterranean chambers, which can be explored only 
 by torch light. The entrance to this cavern is in the face of 
 a precipitous limestone rock, at the height of 50 ft. from the 
 ground, and is 46 ft. high, by 120 wide. The whole depth of 
 the excavation inwards, from the outward opening is 2300 ft. 
 The Peveril of the Peak of Sir Walter Scott s novel of that 
 name, was the supposed founder of the original castles at 
 Castleton. Area of par., 10,000 ac. Pop. 1500. 
 
 CASTLETON, par. Eng. Dorset ; 30 ac. Pop. 113. 
 
 CASTLETON OF BRAEMAR, a vil. Scotland, co. of, 
 and 50 m. W. by S. Aberdeen, a little above the confluence 
 of the Clunie with the Dee. It has a chapel of ease connected 
 with the Established church, a Free church, and a R. Catholic 
 chapel. Pop. 245. 
 
 CASTLETOWN, a tn., cap. of Isle of Man, at its S. 
 extremity, W. shore of bay of its name. It is intersected by 
 a small stream, over which are a draw-bridge for foot passen 
 gers, and a stone bridge for carriages. The castle of Rushen, 
 which stands on the r. bank of the river, and was originally 
 the principal fortress of the island, is a large quadrangular 
 building, surrounded by a lofty wall and fosse, and defended 
 by a glacis of stone. The keep, which is still entire, is the only 
 prison in the island. The market-place consists of a spacious 
 area, near the castle wall ; and a market- house was erected in 
 1830. It has a handsome chapel, and places of worship for 
 Primitive Methodists, Wesleyans, and R. Catholics. King 
 William s college, founded in 1830, the buildings of which 
 were very handsome, was consumed by fire in 1 844. In the 
 town and its vicinity are several breweries, tanneries, lime 
 kilns, and corn-mills. Pop. 2283. 
 
 CASTLETOWN, par. Scot. Roxburgh/, 18 m. by 12 m. 
 Pop. 2135. 
 
 CASTLETOWN ROCHE, a tn. and : ,par. Ireland, co, 
 Cork. The TOWN, on the Awbeg, 7 m. W.N.W. Ferrnoy. 
 consists of one principal street, mostly composed of miserable 
 thatched cabins. It is well supplied with water ; and has a 
 handsome Episcopal church, with a tower and spire ; a R. 
 Catholic chapel, a national school, and one under the Church 
 Education Society, a dispensary, and two large flour-mills. 
 The inhabitants are agriculturists, and very poor. The cele 
 brated Edmund Burke was born in the neighbourhood. Area 
 of par. 6485 ac. Pop. 3476; of tn. 1063. 
 
 CASTON, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 1680 ac. Pop. 513. 
 
 CASTOR, a vil. and par. England, co. Northampton. 
 The VILLAGE, 4 m. W. Peterborough, on a branch of the 
 London and North-western Railway, consists of one irregular, 
 but well-kept, street, and some side ones, and is almost united 
 to Ailsworth, another village, consisting of a single street. 
 The houses in general are of a respectable description. The 
 parish church is a handsome cruciform structure, with an 
 elegant Norman tower, surmounted by a spire. There are, 
 besides, two chapels of ease, and an Independent chapel, and 
 a free school. Inhabitants chiefly agriculturists. Castor is 
 the Durobrivce of Antoninus, and remains of many buildings, 
 as baths and villas with tessellated pavements, have been 
 found here. Area of par. 7020 ac. Pop. 1313 ; of vil. 716. 
 (Local Correspondent.} 
 
 CASTRES [anc. Castrum Alllensium], a tn. France, dep. 
 Tarn, 23 m. S.S.E. Albi, on the Agout, which divides it into 
 two parts Castres Proper, N. side, and Villegoudon, S. side 
 the river, which is crossed by two stone bridges. The streets 
 are narrow and winding. The public buildings are the Hotel 
 
 79 
 
CASTRICUM 
 
 CASTROVILLAR1 
 
 de Ville, formerly the Episcopal palace, which contains a 
 public library with 7000 volumes, and has a garden laid out 
 on the plan of the Tuilleries; three churches, one of them 
 Protestant; two hospitals, a theatre, cavalry barracks, &c. 
 There are several fine promenades, and a handsome square. 
 The manufactures of the town are in a thriving condition. 
 They consist of fine cloths, coarse cloth for the troops, flan 
 nels, blankets, and other woollen goods, linen, glue, and black 
 soap. There are, also, bleaching-grounds, dyeworks, tanneries, 
 paper-mills, forges, and brass foundries. A considerable trade 
 is carried on in the above articles, and in silk, cotton, liqueurs, 
 and confectionary. Castres has a tribunal of first resort, and 
 of commerce, an agricultural society, communal college, and 
 two seminaries. The bishopric of which this was once the 
 seat was suppressed at the revolution of 1793. Kapin the 
 historian was a native of Castres. Pop. 13,590. 
 
 CASTRICUM, vil. Holland. See KASTRICUM. 
 
 CASTRIES (BAY OF), a bay, China, Manchooria, Gulf of 
 Tartary, between Manchooria and isl. Sagalin ; lat. 51 28 N.; 
 Ion. 141E. (R.) 
 
 CASTRIES (PORT). See CARENAGE. 
 
 CASTRO [anc. Mytilene}. I, A seaport town, Asiatic 
 Turkey, isl. Mytilene, off W. coast, cap. of the island ; lat. 
 39 6 N.; Ion. 26 35 E.; situate on a point of land which 
 forms two small ports or harbours, and surrounded by a 
 double wall, flanked with towers, and defended by a castle ; 
 streets narrow and dirty. Small vessels are built here. The 
 ruins of the ancient town of Mytilene are scattered over a 
 considerable space of ground to the W. of the present town. 
 Pop. upwards of 6000. 2, A seaport tn. Naples, prov. of, 
 and 10 m. S. W. Otranto. It is the seat of a bishopric, and has 
 a cathedral and an old castle. The district produces grain, 
 wine, fruit, and cotton ; and fish are plentiful on the coast. 
 In the 1 6th century the town was sacked by the Turks, who 
 carried off the women and children as slaves, and since then, 
 it has frequently suffered from visitations of the Corsairs from 
 Barbary. The port admits only small vessels. Pop. 7780. 
 3, A tn. and seaport, Chili, E. coast, isl. Chiloe, head of a 
 fine bay of same name. Its port is good and it does some 
 trade. It was founded in 1560 by Don-Lopez-Garcia, then 
 Viceroy of Peru. Pop. 3500. 
 
 CASTRO, several places, Portugal: 1, Castro Daire, a 
 tn. and par., prov. Beira-Alta, 18 m. S.S.W. Lamego, with a 
 church and an hospital. Pop. 2400. 2, Castro Laboreiro, 
 a tn. and par., prov. Minho, 32 m. N.E. Ponte-do-Lima ; on 
 an elevated plateau, in a mountainous district, near the fron 
 tiers of Spain. It contains an old ruined castle, and owing to 
 its great height, and total want of shelter by trees, is considered 
 the coldest place in Portugal. Pop. 1500. 3, Castro JHarim, 
 a tn., prov. Algarve, in the S.E. corner of the kingdom; on 
 the Guadiana, and near its embouchure, 15m. N.E. Tavira, 
 on the Spanish frontier. It was once fortified, but the forti 
 fications are now in ruins. The inhabitants are employed 
 chiefly in fishing and smuggling. There are salt springs in 
 the neighbourhood. Pop. 2260. 4, Castro Ferde, a tn. and 
 par., prov. Algarve, r. bank, Corbes, 26 m. S.W. Beja. It 
 contains a collegiate church, infirmary, and hospital. Pop. 
 2695. 
 
 CASTRO-CoNTRioo, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 40 m. S.W. 
 by W. Leon, r. bank, Eria, tolerably well built, and has a 
 parish church, chapel, and two primary schools ; inhabitants 
 mostly engaged in weaving and agriculture. Pop. 1494. 
 
 CASTRO-DEL-Rio, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 
 16 m. S.E. by S. Cordova, on a declivity, r. bank, Guadajyz. 
 The more ancient part of the town is surrounded by a dila 
 pidated wall, flanked with towers, and entered by one gate, 
 which was defended by an Arab castle, now also ruinous. 
 The modern portion is outside the walls and extends along 
 the foot of the hill on its N. side. Most of the streets are 
 wide and regular, lined with well built houses and handsome 
 public edifices. Its parish church is spacious, has three naves 
 iind a lofty tower containing a clock and peal of six bells, 
 the decorations of the interior are tasteful, and have been 
 renovated. Here are two colleges, several primary schools, 
 some convents with churches attached, and an economic 
 society. The remaining public buildings comprise six chapels, 
 two hospitals, a capacious townhall, prison, storehouse, and 
 cemetery. Manufactures : linen, woollen, and hempen fabrics, 
 earthenware, tiles, bricks, lime, brandy, wine, oil, and vinegar. 
 
 Trade: wheat, cattle, oil, honey, &c. An annual fair in 
 September. Pop. 9092. 
 
 CASTRO -GIOVANNI [anc. Enna], a tn. Sicily, prov. 
 Caltanisetta, 13 m. N.N.W. Piazza, near the centre of the 
 island ; on a high table-land, formed by the union of the three 
 chains of mountains extending in different directions from 
 this point. Its height above sea level is more than 4000 ft. 
 The plateau on which it stands is still remarkable for fertility ; 
 while in ancient times it was adorned with the groves anil 
 temples of Ceres, the presiding goddess of the locality, who 
 is said to have been a native of Enna. Her most sacred 
 temple was erected on the spot occupied by the modern town, 
 but all traces of it have disappeared. An old castle still 
 remains, probably built by the Northmen, who occupied Sicily 
 in the Middle Ages. Castro-Giovanni is miserably poor, and 
 appears to be going still further to decay. Sulphur is ob 
 tained in the district to the annual amount of 46,875 cwts. 
 During the first servile war, Enna was the head quarters of 
 the slaves who held out against the power of Rome for some 
 years, and fought three successful battles with her armies ; 
 but were at last subdued, and the town was taken by the 
 consul Hupilius. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 CASTRO-Novo, a tn. Sicily, prov. Palermo, 22 m. 
 S.S.W. Termini. Marble is found in the environs. Pop. 5800. 
 
 CASTIlO-Nuovo, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. Basilicata, 
 22 m. E.N.E. Lagonegro. It has an annual fair. Pop. 2885. 
 
 CASTRO- PIGNANO, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Sannio, 
 5 m. N.W. Campobasso, near 1. bank, Biferno. It contains 
 four churches and a convent, and has a paper-mill. P. 2758. 
 CASTRO-L RDiAJ.ES, a tn. and port, Spain, prov. of, and 
 24 rn. E. by S. Santander, in a plain, at the N.E. base of the 
 sierra de Pando. The town is defended by a wall on the 
 land side, and by numerous batteries, and is commanded by 
 an ancient and strong castle. The houses, particularly the 
 modern portion of them, are well constructed, and the princi 
 pal streets well paved and clean. In its principal square 
 stands the town-hall, a spacious structure of hewn stone. The 
 parish church is ancient; and there are also a convent, chapel, 
 nautical, mathematical, and several primary schools, and a 
 short distance from the town is an hospital. There is a dock, 
 and near it a handsome public fountain. Manufactures : 
 linen fabrics, sails, ropes, leather, fishing-nets, tiles, bricks, 
 &c. A great portion of the inhabitants are occupied in fish 
 ing, and salting fish, and in the docks. The trade of the port 
 is very limited, consisting chiefly of iron, wine, brandy, salt- 
 fish, and hides. Pop. 3110. 
 
 CASTROJER1Z, a tn. Spain, Old Castile, prov. of, and 
 17 m. W. by S. Burgos, at the S. base of a hill, crowned by 
 a castle built by Julius Caesar. It has wide, clean, and paved 
 streets, which are supplied with footpaths ; and the houses 
 are generally well built. It has a capacious market square, 
 containing the townhouse, prison, one of the churches, and 
 an extensive portico, supported by pillars of hewn stone, and 
 forming an agreeable promenade in wet weather. It has a 
 fine collegiate and several other churches, seven convents, a 
 Latin, grammar, and some primary schools, seven hospitals, 
 and a cemetery. Manufactures : linen and woollen fabrics, 
 glass, earthenware, bricks, stucco, hats, wine, &c. Trade: 
 grain, fruits, honey, and cattle. Pop. 2420. 
 
 CASTROFOL, a tn. and port, Spain, Asturias, prov. of, 
 and 58 m. W.N.W. Oviedo; on a declivity, at mouth of the 
 Eo. The houses in general are indifferently built, and the 
 streets, though clean, are irregular, and badly paved. The 
 town possesses three squares, a parish church, and capacious 
 townhouse, built on the site of an ancient palace, formerly 
 belonging to the Bishop of Oviedo, and serving the combined 
 purpose of guildhall, police-court, and prison. The other 
 town edifices are two chapels, a custom-house, and school. 
 Weaving, fishing, and husbandry are the chief occupations. 
 Pop. 1246. 
 
 CASTROREALE, a tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 22 m. 
 W.S.W. Messina, on the Castro. Good wine and oil are pro 
 duced in the neighbourhood ; and there is a chalybeate spring 
 a short distance from the town. Pop. 3462. 
 
 CASTRO VI LLAR1, a tn. Naples, prov. Calabria Citrn, 
 34 m. N. Coscnza, 1. bank, Coscilello. It is well built, par 
 tially fortified, and has three churches, several convents, and 
 an hospital. It has also a tolerable trade in wine, cotton, 
 manna, silk, and fruit. Pop. 7100. 
 
CASTROV1REINA 
 
 627 
 
 CATAMARCA 
 
 CASTROVIREIXA, a prov. and vil. Peru, dep. Ayacu- 
 cho ; bounded, N. by Angeraez, E. by Cangallo, S. by Lucauas, 
 and W. by Lima ; length, 66 in. ; breadth, 75 in. It is hi gen 
 eral hilly and barren, with a cold climate; but souie places 
 produce corn and potatoes. The warmer valleys produce 
 fruits, and abundance of pasture for cattle and sheep. The 
 VILLAGE is a very small place, situate on a mountain, where 
 the cold is excessive. Pop. of prov. 14,000. 
 
 CASTUERA, a tn. Spain, Estremadura, prov. of, and 
 67 m. E. by S. Badajos, near r. bank, Guadalefra. Most of 
 its streets are straight, clean, and well paved. It has two 
 squares, lined with substantial houses ; the principal one con 
 tains the townhall, prisons, and spacious modern parish church. 
 Here are also several chapels, three schools, and an extensive 
 cemetery. The inhabitants are engaged in weaving, making 
 earthenware, tiles, bricks, shoes, &c. Trade is carried on in 
 cattle, wool, wine, grain, and oil. Pop. 5578. 
 
 CAT KAYS, a group of islets, Great Bahama Bank, the 
 largest about 70 m. S.S. W. the nearest point of Great Bahama 
 Island, and 10 m. from the Bernini Islands. It has a light 
 house, erected by the British Government, the base of which 
 is 25 ft. above high water, with a tower 55 ft. in height. The 
 light revolves once in every minute. The tower stands in 
 lat. 25 34 30" N.; Ion. 79 18 24" W. 
 
 CATALDO (ST.), a tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 5 m. W.S. W. 
 Caltanisetta. The sulphur works in the environs produce 
 annually about 37,500 cwt. Pop. 7879. 
 
 CATALINA (SANTA). 1, An isl., N. Pacific Ocean, off 
 the coast of Upper California, from which it is separated by the 
 channel of Santa Barbara, here about 18 in. wide. It is about 
 
 45 m. in circumference. 2, A small isl. Caribbean Sea, 
 
 93 m. E. the Mosquito coast, and a little N. Old Providence 
 
 Island. 3, A small fort, Portugal, prov. Beira, 28J in. 
 
 W.S.W. Coimbra; on the r. bank, and at the mouth of the 
 
 Mondego. 4, A harbour, E. coast, isl. Newfoundland, in 
 
 N. Trinity Bay, and 1 1 m. S. Cape Bonavista ; lat. 48 35 N. ; 
 
 Ion. 53 W. 5, A cape, W. coast, Central America, state 
 
 of, and 70 m. S.S.W. Nicaragua; lat. 10 35 N. 
 
 CATALONIA [Spanish, Cataluna], a principality and 
 old prov., Spain, forming the N.E. corner of the Peninsula, 
 between lat. 40 30 and 42 51 N., and Ion. 15 and 
 3 21 E.; bounded, N. by France, E. and S. by the Mediter 
 ranean, S. by Valencia, and W. by Aragon ; greatest length, 
 1 85 m. ; greatest breadth, 1 30 m. ; but being of a triangular form, 
 it diminishes S. ward to a breadth of about 22 or 23 m. ; area, 
 12,111 sq. m. It is extremely mountainous, the province being 
 covered by numerous offsets of the Pyrenees, which separate 
 it from France, and which generally have a S. direction ; and it 
 is traversed S.W. to N.E. by the Sierra de la Llena, which is 
 separated by the Ebro on the S. from the mountains traversing 
 the N. part of Valencia and the S. of Aragon, and which in 
 the N. near Cardona unites with one of the offsets of the 
 Pyrenees, and thus forms a watershed through the centre of 
 the province. All the higher mountains of Catalonia are 
 perpetually covered with snow, and the lower hills with 
 wood ; the valleys are verdant, and generally watered by a 
 rivulet. The principal rivers are the Ebro, the Llobregat, 
 and the Ter, all of which fall into the Mediterranean. In the 
 N. part of the province are a number of extinct volcanoes ; 
 and near the centre is a remarkable mass of rock-salt, called 
 the Mountain of Cardona (see BARCELONA). Marbles and 
 minerals are found in the mountains, with jaspers and alabas 
 ters, the finest at Tortosa and Cervera. Iron abounds in the 
 Pyrenees, which contain also copper, zinc, and manganese. 
 There are lead mines in various districts, and coal is obtained 
 at Kipoll and Tortosa. The coast, which stretches from S.W. 
 to N.E., and N. about 190 m., is generally bold and rocky. 
 The principal ports are Tarragona, Barcelona, Mataro, and 
 Rosas. Catalonia is said to be the best cultivated province 
 of Spain ; but, although its inhabitants are remarkable for 
 their industry, and for the pains which they take to extract 
 produce from the soil, the province does not supply one-third 
 of its grain consumption, the deficiency, both in corn and 
 cattle, being furnished chiefly by Aragon. Irrigation is 
 carefully attended to, water being in many cases drawn from 
 wells for that purpose. The soil is light, and the cereals pro 
 duced are wheat, rye, maize, barley, oats, and millet. Hemp, 
 flax, saffron, madder, woad, anise, and liquorice, are also 
 grown. Fruits abound ; oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, almonds, 
 
 apples, pears, cherries, quinces, medlars, apricots, peaches, 
 walnuts, chestnuts, and filberts; the last, known by the 
 name of Barcelona nuts, are exported in great quantities. The 
 wines of Catalonia are strong and rough, and are largely used 
 in adulterating those of Oporto. Some of them, however, 
 are very good ; those of Tarragona, when matured by age, 
 excellent. Timber is plentiful in Catalonia, including the 
 cork tree, which abounds in the forests, and the bark forms a 
 principal article of export. The coasts swarm with fish, the 
 taking of which occupies a great number of persons, and pro 
 duces excellent sailors, the Catalonians being reckoned the 
 best seamen of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Catalonia manufactures silk and woollen goods to a con 
 siderable extent. The cotton manufacture commenced in 1 769, 
 but has progressed slowly, notwithstanding the efforts of a 
 society which was formed in Barcelona in 1780 for its encou 
 ragement. Linen, paper, hats, cordage, soap, glass, sheet-iron, 
 and shoes are also manufactured in the province. The dis 
 tillation of brandy is carried on to a great extent. Smuggling 
 is universal : Everybody smuggles, especially the custom 
 house officers, commissioners, and preventive guards. The 
 plea of protecting the infant manufactures of the country, by 
 heavy duties, against foreign wares, is the official cloak under 
 which prohibited goods are clandestinely introduced. The 
 English import into Spain about a million and a half in value, 
 and take at least double in wine, oil, fruit, and other Spanish 
 produce. (Murray s Handbook of Spain) 
 
 The people of Catalonia are of a different race from the rest 
 of Spain, and the traces of their distinct origin are visible, 
 not only in their language, but in their manners, their dress, 
 and their superior activity and intelligence. In person, the 
 Catalonian is strong and sinewy, patient under fatigue and 
 privation, brave, daring, and obstinate ; not very cour 
 teous or hospitable to strangers, and extremely rude in 
 his manners. The lower orders are brutal. The men wear 
 long loose cloth, or plush trowsers, of dark colours, a gay 
 silken sash, a short jacket, which, in fine weather, they hang 
 over their shoulders. In winter, they wear a sort of capote, 
 which supplants the Spanish capa. A red or purple cap com 
 pletes their costume. The women are described as being 
 neither handsome nor amiable. Their ordinary dress is a 
 tight boddice, with a handkerchief, or a serge manto on the 
 head. They wear ear-rings so large and heavy as to require 
 to be supported by threads hung over the ears. The entire 
 aspect of Catalonia presents a striking contrast to the other 
 provinces of Spain. Here all is activity, and the traces of a 
 laborious and never-ceasing industry are visible everywhere. 
 The houses and cottages have a snug, comfortable appearance 
 externally, a character which the interior fully maintains, 
 being neat, clean, and well-furnished. Fences are more 
 general, and better kept ; and every one is busily employed 
 in some profitable pursuit or other. Education, however, is 
 miserably neglected, and the bulk of the people being without 
 the means of instruction, are in a state of deplorable igno 
 rance. Their better condition is thus owing entirely to their 
 superior energy of character, and in no degree to superior 
 knowledge. 
 
 Catalonia was anciently under the dominion of the Romans, 
 who were afterwards dispossessed by the Goths, and they 
 again by the Moors. It was finally reconquered by the 
 Spaniards, when it was divided into departments, and governed 
 by deputed counts. The national liberties were secured by 
 a code of Usages, and the people were represented by local 
 parliaments. In 1040, the sovereignty became hereditary. 
 In 1137, the province was united to Aragon, by the marriage 
 of Eamon Berenguer IV., with Petronila, the heiress of the 
 former. Turbulent, and impatient of restraint, the subse 
 quent history of the Catalonians presents but a series of re 
 bellions, which finally terminated in their subjugation by 
 Philip V., who, after the capture of Barcelona in 1714, sup 
 pressed their ancient cortes, and curtailed their liberties and 
 privileges, having previously laid the country waste by fire 
 and sword. 
 
 The principal towns are Barcelona, Tarragona, Gerona, 
 Lerida, Reus, Manresa, Tortosa, &c. Pop. 1,283,734. 
 CATAMANDOO, cap. Nepaul. See KHATAMANUOO. 
 CATAMARCA, a dep. or state, Republic of La Plata, of 
 uncertain dimensions, but lying between the parallels of 25 
 and 29 S., and the meridians of 66 and 69 W. It is 
 
CATANDUANES 
 
 G28 
 
 CATANZAKO 
 
 bounded, W. by the Andes, which separate it from the N. 
 provinces of Chili ; and on the other sides by the departments 
 Cordova, Rioja, Salta, and Tucuman. It is extremely fer 
 tile, producing abundance of corn and pasture, supplying the 
 surrounding departments with cotton of excellent quality, and 
 sending great quantities of red pepper to Buenos Ayres. Its 
 capital, of same name, is in lat. 27 30 S. ; Ion. 68 W. Pop. 
 of dep. estimated at 35,000; of which number thetn. contains 
 4000. 
 
 CATANDUANES, an isl. Indian Archipelago, one of 
 the Philippines, off S.E. coast Luzon ; lat. (N.E. point) 
 14 13 N.; Ion. 124 10 E.; about 44 in. long, and 20 broad. 
 It is fertile, well cultivated, and watered by several rivers; 
 the principal of which is called the Catadangan. The sands 
 of the streams are auriferous. The inhabitants are indus 
 trious, make good sailors, and excel in boatbuilding, disposing 
 of their boats to the people of the neighbouring islands. The 
 women are of the same stature as the men, and envelope them 
 selves in a long loose mantle when they go abroad, making 
 on such occasions, also, a great display of jewellery. 
 
 CATANIA, a prov. Sicily, bounded, N. by prov. Messina, 
 E. by the Mediterranean, S. by Syracuse, W. by Caltanisetta, 
 and N. W. by Palermo ; length, N. to S., about 45 m. ; breadth, 
 33 m. The province is partly intersected by spurs of the 
 Neptunian range ; but its principal mountain is Mount Etna, 
 in its N.E. part. The S. part of the province is formed by the 
 plains of Catania, esteemed the most fertile district in Sicily, 
 and traversed N.W. to S.E. by the Giaretta or Simettus, the 
 largest river in the province. Grain, wine, oil, fruit, hemp, 
 and flax are produced ; amber is found in large quantities on the 
 banks of the Giaretta, and excellent marble is obtained from 
 the hills; all of which, with soda, cheese, shumac, cantharides, 
 manna, and silk, form articles of commerce. The province 
 is divided into the three districts of Catania, Calatagirone, and 
 Nicosa, which are subdivided into 26 circondario, and again 
 into 65 comune. Pop. about 300,000. 
 
 CATANIA, a tn. E. coast isl. Sicily, cap. above prov., 
 17 m. S.S.E. the crater of Mount Etna, 31 m. N.N.W. Syra 
 cuse, on the gulf of its name ; lat. (Mole) 37 28 18" N. ; Ion. 
 15 5 12" E. (R.) This ancient and celebrated city was 
 almost totally destroyed by the earthquake of 1693, and on 
 three several occasions it suffered severely from volcanic 
 eruptions ; but it has been rebuilt in a style greatly superior 
 to the generality of Italian cities. It is nobly situate on the 
 roots of Etna, its despoiler and its benefactor. Overwhelmed 
 as it has often been by torrents of liquid tire, it has risen, like 
 the phoenix, more splendid from its ashes. The very sub 
 stance which once ravaged its plains, has, by its own decom 
 position, covered them with soil fertile as the fabled garden 
 
 II IK 3QUARKOF TH 
 
 of the Hespcrides; and on all sides the material of destruction 
 is turned to the purposes of ornament and utility. The streets 
 are paved with lava ; houses, palaces, and churches are built 
 of lava ; of lava they form ornamental chimney pieces, tables, 
 
 and a variety of toys ; whilst a natural mole of lava defends the 
 shipping from the fury of the tempest. The plan of the city is 
 superb, and no one is permitted to deviate from it. (Hughes.) 
 The two principal streets are long and broad, and intersected 
 at right angles by the streets of the second class. The squares 
 are spacious and regular, and, like the streets, paved with 
 lava. One of them contains an antique statue of an elephant 
 bearing an obelisk. The houses, in general, are well built, 
 and most of the public edifices have an air of grandeur ob 
 servable in but a few Sicilian towns. The palace of the 
 senate is esteemed a model of architecture. The cathedral is 
 also a fine building. It was founded in 1094, by Count Roger, 
 and rebuilt after being partially destroyed by the earthquake 
 of 1693. There are 49 churches, 19 monasteries, and 11 
 convents; among which, the Benedictine monastery of St. 
 Nicholas has long been celebrated for its riches, and for the 
 splendour of its various buildings. There are also several hos 
 pitals, a foundling hospital, a mmit-de-piete, a handsome theatre, 
 several public libraries, and some interesting museums. The 
 university, founded by Alphonso of Aragon in 1445, is an 
 extensive establishment, numerously attended, and enjoying 
 great privileges. Catania is the seat of a bishopric, a court 
 of appeal, a high court of justiciary, and a civil tribunal. 
 ! The principal authorities of the province reside here. The 
 j inhabitants are said to be distinguished for their urbanity, and 
 ; for the courtesy they manifest towards strangers. They were 
 ! enlightened enough to introduce the culture of the potato, 
 when a strong prejudice existed against it in the country, and 
 they had the merit of introducing inoculation as early as 
 1742. The manufacture of silk forms the principal branch 
 of industry carried on in the town. Several thousand indi 
 viduals are engaged, also, in manufacturing the amber found 
 on the banks of the Giaretta. The snow of Mount Etna is 
 : another source of wealth, and is exported to a large extent. 
 The climate is salubrious, and suitable for the culture of 
 wheat, grapes, fruit, &c. Grain, potatoes, olives, figs, 
 almonds, silk, wine, oil, soda, manna, cantharides, lava, snow, 
 and the manufactured products of the town, among which are 
 articles in coral, agate, and lava, are exported. Catania is 
 supposed to have been founded by the Phoenicians. It was 
 occupied by the Romans under the name of Cutana, and by 
 them it was adorned with edifices of great magnificence, most 
 of which, however, have been destroyed by earthquakes, 
 and by the lava from Mount Etna. The ruins of the amphi 
 theatre, which was more extensive than the Colosseum at 
 Rome, or than any other edifice of the same kind now known 
 to exist, are still to be seen, as also the remains of the theatre, 
 baths, aqueducts, sepulchral chambers, hippodrome, and several 
 temples. Besides being destroyed by the earthquake of 1693, 
 the town again suffered from a 
 similar calamity in 1783 and 1818; 
 and, so late as 1846, an earth 
 quake rent many of its houses. 
 Its population is said to have 
 Diminished upwards of 1 1,000 be- 
 A (ween the years 1832 and 1839. 
 At the latter period it was esti 
 mated at 36,000. The GULF, 
 
 commencing N. at La Trizza, ex 
 tends S. to Santa Croce 17 m., 
 forms a semicircle, of which a 
 line drawn between the points 
 above named, would be the chord. 
 The gulf forms a dentation on the 
 coast about 10m. deep. 
 
 CATANZAKO [anc. Cata- 
 cium], a tn. Naples, cap. prov. 
 Calabria Ultra II., on a moun 
 tain, 5m. from the Gulf of Squil- 
 iace. It contains a citadel, 11 
 churches, a cathedral, several con 
 vents, a seminary, a royal aca 
 demy of sciences, a lyceum, three 
 hospitals, and a wealthy mont de 
 plete. Silk, velvet, cloth, and 
 
 other tissues aro manufactured. Some trade is done in 
 wheat, wine, oil, and agricultural produce. The inhabitants 
 bear a high character for affability and industry; and the 
 women are esteemed the handsomest in Calabria. The towi 
 
CATAPULICHE 
 
 629 
 
 CATSKILL 
 
 is the sea! of a bishopric, and of one of the four great civil 
 courts of the kingdom, a high court of justiciary, and a dis 
 trict civil court. It suffered severely from the earthquake of 
 1783. Pop. 13,598. 
 
 CATAPULICHE, a river, S. America, rising on the E. 
 side of the Chilian Andes, ahout lat. 39 15 S. ; and, after a 
 course of 58 m., almost due S., through the S.W. extremity 
 of La Plata, falling into the Rio Negro about lat. 40 3 S. 
 
 CATARKOJA, a vil. Spain, prov. of, and 6 m. S. Valen 
 cia, r. bank, Torrente. Its houses are generally spacious, 
 and commodiously arranged for an agricultural population. It 
 has three squares, a good-looking townhouse, and several other 
 special buildings, including a large storehouse, a church, and 
 two schools. Pop., almost exclusively agricultural, 3580. 
 
 CATAWBA, WATEREE, or SANTEE, a river, U. States, 
 rising in N. Carolina, in the Blue Mountains, near Morganton, 
 running E. and then S. into S. Carolina, where it is known 
 for some distance as the Wateree, till, after the confluence of 
 (he Broad River, when it takes the name of Santee, runs E. 
 by S., and, after a course of 270 m., falls by two mouths into 
 (lie sea, between Charleston and Georgetown. 
 
 CATBALOGAN, a tn. Philippines, cap. of isl. and prov. 
 Samar, W. coast; lat. 11 52 N. ; Ion. 124 50 E. ; in a 
 small bay which has about 5 fathoms water. It is regularly 
 built, the houses generally of nipa palm, with a small num 
 ber of stone. It has also a church and a townhouse. P. 6328. 
 
 CATEAU (LE), or CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, a tn. France, 
 dep. Nord, 15 m. E.S.E. Cambray, r. bank, Selle. It was 
 formerly fortified, and had a feudal castle, but is now an in 
 dustrious little manufacturing town, producing cotton and 
 woollen yarn, merinoes, cambric, shawls, starch, black soap, 
 and earthenware. It has also tanneries, several breweries, 
 distilleries, a salt refinery, brass and iron foundries, and tan- 
 mills. A considerable trade is done in the above articles, and 
 in the agricultural produce of the district. It has a communal 
 college. The treaty between France and Spain, known in di 
 plomatic history as the Treaty of Gateau- Cambresis, was signed 
 here in 1565. Pop. 7571. 
 
 C ATEL (THE) , or Sx.M ART J>E CASTRO, par. , isl. Guernsey. 
 Pop. 2038. 
 
 CATEKHAM, par. Eng. Surrey; 2610 ac. Pop. 477. 
 
 CATERINA-SANTA, & tn. and com. Sicily, prov. of, and 
 8 m. N.N.W. Caltanisetta, near r. bank, Salso. It is a forti 
 fied place of the fifth class, and has a manufactory of fine 
 earthenware. Fine agates and jaspers are found in the neigh 
 bourhood. Pop. 5700. 
 
 CATERLI, a maritime tn. Asiatic Turkey, on the sea 
 of Marmara, 175 m. N.N.E. Smyrna; lat. 40 38 N. ; Ion. 
 29 5 E. 
 
 CATESBY, par. Eng. Notts; 1990 ac. Pop. 105. 
 
 CATFIELD, par. Eng. Norfolk; 2400 ac. Pop. 655. 
 
 CATHARINA (SANTA), a small maritime prov., isl., and 
 bay, Brazil. The PROVINCE, in the S. of the empire, is bounded, 
 N. by prov. Sao-Paulo, E. by the Atlantic, S. and W. by Rio- 
 Grande -do- S2o- Pedro, from which it is separated by the 
 mountain-ridge of Santa Catharina, the commencement of the 
 Brazilian coast range, and including the isl. of same name, and 
 several smaller ones on the coast ; length, N. to S., 240 m. ; 
 breadth, E. to W., 120 to 60 m.; area, 31,746 sq. m. It is 
 composed of a series of valleys, running W. to E., formed by 
 spurs of the boundary mountain-range, and flowed through 
 by numerous streams, of which Rio-S2o-Francisco, Aracary, 
 Tapecu, Tijuca, Tubar2o, &c., may be named, all falling into 
 the Atlantic. The soil, though in the lower lands some 
 times sandy, is remarkably fertile ; the climate mild, and the 
 seasons regular. Sugar, rice, mandioca, millet, beans, onions 
 of immense size, and garlic, are the chief cultivated products, 
 considerable quantities of which are exported to Rio-de- 
 Janeiro. The indigo and cochineal plant grow spontaneously, 
 and wheat and lint give good returns. The province is well 
 wooded, producing excellent timber both for the joiner and 
 cabinet-maker. The Indians claim the supremacy over some 
 of the forests, which are likewise frequented by ounces, coatis, 
 monkeys, pigs, and other animals. Birds are numerous, in 
 cluding several varieties of humming birds ; and the lakes 
 and rivers are frequented by innumerable geese and other 
 water-fowl. Some of the rivers are beatable for a short dis 
 tance from the sea ; and many might be rendered much 
 more serviceable than they now are for the purposes of inland 
 
 transit, were they freed from obstacles easily removable. The 
 Legislative Assembly is composed of 20 members. Pop. 
 
 90,000. The ISLAND, 3 m.to 7 m. from the coast, is 37 m. 
 
 N. to S., and about 10 m. E. to W. ; lat. (S. end) 27 47 S. ; 
 Ion. 48 40 W. It is fortified, and is of irregular figure, hilly, 
 and has on its coasts numerous islets, some of which are also 
 fortified. On its E. coast is no secure port, but between the 
 island and the mainland is a commodious sheltered bay. Its 
 soil is fertile ; the higher grounds yielding coffee, wheat, mil 
 let, and European fruits ; and the lower grounds yield rice. 
 Ipecacuanha grows spontaneously, and bananas, oranges, 
 melons, &c., flourish; and the garden fruits are esteemed the 
 best in Brazil. But little attention is paid to cultivation ; 
 commerce there is almost none ; and the people are in a poor 
 
 condition. Pop. 12,000. The BAY, formed between the 
 
 island and the mainland, is separated into two divisions by 
 projecting spits of land. It is sheltered from every wind ex 
 cept the N.E., and its depth varies from 3 ft. to 30 fathoms. 
 Wood, water, and provisions, are to be obtained on it. 
 
 CATHCART, a par. and two vils. Scotland, co. Renfrew. 
 The VILLAGES of Old and New Cathcart, adjoining each other, 
 are nearly 3 m. S. Glasgow, near the river Cart, and have a 
 pop., respectively, of 174 and 280. The PARISH is 5 m. by 1. 
 Pop., vils. inclusive, 2349; (1851), 2920. 
 
 CATHEDINE, par. Wales, Brecon; 1567 ac. Pop. 175. 
 
 CATHERINE, or CATHERINES, several isls.: 1, A 
 group of three small low islands, S. Pacific Ocean, Gillolo 
 
 Passage; lat. 39 S. ; Ion. 129 11 E. 2, Catherines 
 
 (St.), an isl., U. States, Georgia, off the mouth of the New 
 port River, between St. Catherine s Sound on the N., and 
 
 Sapelo Sound on the S. It is 10 m. long and 5 broad. 
 
 3, Several small islets off the extreme S. point of Boothia 
 Felix ; lat. 69 20 37" N. ; Ion. 94 31 55" W. 
 
 CATHERINE (ST.), two pars. England : 1, Glouces 
 ter; 200 ac. Pop. 1615. 2, Somerset; 750 ac. Pop. 159. 
 
 CATHER1NGTON, par. Eng. Southampton, Hants; 
 3540 ac. Pop. 1003. 
 
 CATHEKSTON-LEWSTON, par. Eng. Dorset; 90 ac. P. 36. 
 
 CATMORE, par. Eng. Berks ; 680 ac. Pop. 96. 
 
 CATOCHE (CAPE), a headland, Central America, form 
 ing the N.E. extremity of the peninsula of Yucatan; lat. 
 21 36 N. ; Ion. 87 6 W. (R.) This is the first place on the 
 American continent at which the Spaniards landed, and within 
 6 m. of which, according to the authority of Bernal Dias, they 
 saw a large town, which they named Grand Cairo. 
 
 CATORCE, a tn. Mexican Confederation, state of, and 
 120 m. N. San-Luis-de-Potosi. In the neighbourhood are 
 extensive silver mines, formerly the richest in Mexico. 
 
 CATRAL, a tn. Spain, Valencia, prov. of, and 23 m. 
 S.W. by W. Alicante, in a large and fertile plain, slightly 
 elevated on the E. It is regularly built, and has a church, 
 townhouse, prison, two schools, a poorhouse, and cemetery 
 Trade: in wines, oil, grain, and hemp. Pop. 2268. 
 
 CATRIMANI, or CARITAMINI, a river, Brazil, prov. 
 Para, rising in a mountain range which forms a continua 
 tion of the sierra Carumani, about lat. 2 N. ; and after a 
 S.E. course of about 100 m., falling into the Rio Branco, 
 near Carmo, in lat. 28 N. ; Ion. 62 8 W. Its bed is 
 much impeded by rocks and cataracts ; and at about 60 m. 
 from its mouth is a settlement of Panishana Indians. 
 
 CATRINE, a vil. Scotland, co. of, and 10 m. E. Ayr. 
 It is regularly laid out, with a large square in the centre, and 
 streets diverging from it to the E., S. and W., which again 
 are crossed by others at right angles. The inhabitants are 
 chiefly employed in cotton spinning, which is here extensively 
 carried on. Pop. 2700. 
 
 CATSFIELD, par. Eng. Sussex ; 2430 ac. Pop. 589. 
 
 CATSKILL MOUNTAINS, a mountain range, U. 
 States, New York, commencing near the Hudson, and bending 
 N.W. in the form of a crescent towards the Mohawk. Round 
 Top, the highest summit, is 3804 ft. above sea level. These 
 mountains, which are precipitous on the E. and gently slop 
 ing towards the W., are inhabited by bears, wolves, and other 
 wild animals. 
 
 CATSKILL, a tn. U. States, New York, 34 m. S. Al 
 bany, pleasantly built on both sides the creek near its junc 
 tion with the Hudson. It contains the county buildings, five 
 churches, 19 schools, two banks, grist and saw-mills, two 
 paper-mills, one brewery, an extensive sash factory, several 
 
CATTARO 
 
 CAUCASUS 
 
 docks, and various mechanic establishments. It is a place of 
 considerable trade, and exports large quantities of sole leather, 
 grain, flour, butter, brick, hay, timber, flax-seed, pot and pearl 
 ashes, beef, tallow, hides, &c. Pop. 2800. 
 
 CATTARO, a seaport tn. Austria, Dalmatia, S.E. ex 
 tremity, gulf of same name, 38m. S.E.Ragusa; lat 42 25 24" 
 N. ; Ion. 18 46 30" E. (R.) It lies at the foot of steep lime 
 stone rocks, strongly fortified, and surmounted by a castle 
 connected with the town by means of a zig-zag path. It is 
 also surrounded with walls entered by three gates, and de 
 fended by towers. The buildings are in the Venetian style, 
 and the streets narrow, irregular, and dark. It is the seat of 
 a R. Catholic bishop, and the cathedral is a well-built edifice 
 of hewn stone. There is likewise a Greek church. Cattaro 
 is the seat of courts of justice, and the residence of a military 
 Governor. Its harbour is spacious but little frequented, the 
 export trade being inconsiderable. Outside the E. gate is 
 the market, frequented by the Montenegrins, who cross the 
 mountain ridge, bringing butter, eggs, cheese, potatoes, dried 
 fish, smoked meat, sheep, oxen, pigs, vegetables, wax, honey; 
 tallow, hides, wool, tortoise shells, fowls, Indian corn, ice, 
 i rait, Turkish and Montenegrin tobacco, charcoal, &c. The 
 climate is oppressively hot in summer, and excessively wet in 
 winter. Cattaro stands on the site of the Roman Ascrivium. 
 It was founded in the sixth century, and was formerly capital 
 of a republic of same name. In 1563, and in 1677, it was nearly 
 destroyed by earthquakes. Pop. 4000. (Paton s Highlands 
 and Islands of the Adriatic; Wilkinson s Dalmatia and Mon 
 tenegro.} The GULF is an extensive and peculiarly formed 
 
 harbour in the Adriatic, and well defended both by nature 
 and art. It is composed of three basins or lakes connected by 
 narrow channels, under half a mile wide, while the outer en 
 trance to the first basin is only about 1 m. wide, lessening 
 to under a mile. The first basin, of irregular form, is about 
 3 m. long by about 2 m. broad ; the second somewhat tri 
 angular in shape, is about 6 m. by 5 m. in its greatest extent ; 
 and the third about 8 m. by 3 m. greatest dimensions, forms 
 two smaller basins, from tile most S. of which proceeds a 
 long narrow arm, at the extreme end of which lies the town 
 of Cattaro. The entrance to the gulf is somewhat difficult. 
 
 CATTEGAT. See KATTEGAT. 
 
 CATTERICK, a vil. and par. England, York, N. Riding. 
 The VILLAGE, which stands on a plain near the Swale, consists 
 of one street well kept ; houses mostly of brick, of a respectable 
 appearance ; ample supply of good water. It has a parish 
 church, an old Gothic structure ; a Methodist chapel, an aca 
 demy, and an endowed school. The people are almost wholly 
 employed in agriculture. The Catterick Bridge Station of 
 the York, Newcastle, and Berwick Railway is about 1 m. from 
 the village. Area of par. 21,680 ac. Pop. 2965. (Local 
 Correspondent.} 
 
 CATTHORPE, par. Eng. Leicester ; 520 ac. Pop. 1 67. 
 
 CATTISTOCK, par. Eng. Dorset; 2620 ac. Pop. 549. 
 
 CATTOLICA, a tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 14 m. N.W. 
 Girgenti, near an affluent of the Platani. To the N. of the 
 town both sulphur and rock salt are extensively worked. 
 Pop. 7060. 
 
 CATTON, two pars. England : 1 , Norfolk ; 760 ac. Pop. 
 050. 2, York, E. Riding; 8150 ac. Pop. 1078. 
 
 CATWICK (GREAT), an isl. China Sea. 128 m. E. Cape 
 St. James, off the coast of Cochin-China ; lat. 10 6 N. ; Ion. 
 10852 E. (R.) 
 
 CATWICK, par. Eng. York, E. Hiding; IGSOac. P. 191. 
 
 CATWORTH (GREAT) par. Eng. Huntingdon ; 2090 ac. 
 Pop. 637. 
 
 CAUAMBE, or GAUME, a river, Brazil, prov. Para, fall 
 ing into the Rio Branco, from the W. at San Isabel ; lat. 
 253 N.; Ion. 61 10 W. 
 
 CAUB. See KAUB. 
 
 CAUB, atn. Nassau, bail. St. Goarshausen, r. bank, Rhine, 
 22 m. W. by N. Mentz, and at the foot of a steep slate hill. 
 It has a church, and its inhabitants live by cultivating the 
 vine, traffic on the Rhine, and by trading and working the ex 
 cellent slates of the vicinity. To the Pfalz castle, a stronghold 
 on a rock in the river opposite the towrr, the ladies of the 
 Electors Palatine of the Rhine used to go to be confined. A 
 toll is still levied at this castle for Nassau, a remnant of the 
 exactions that were formerly made upon all the traffic on the 
 river passing this castle. Pop. 1502. 
 
 C AITT L. -S ,,. CACOOL. . 
 
 CAUCA, an old dep. New Granada, bounded by the 
 deps. Isthmus, Magdalena, and Cundinamarca, by the republic 
 of Ecuador, and by the Caribbean Sea, and the Pacific. Area 
 estimated at 68,300 sq. m. Pop. 193,000; divided into the 
 four provinces of Popayan, Choco, Buenaventura, and Pasto. 
 
 CAUCA, a river, New Granada, which rises in that part 
 of the Andes called Paramo-de-Guanacas, waters the provinces 
 of Popayan, Antioquia, and Cartagena, and after a course of 
 about 600 m. S. to N. between the central and W. Cordillera 
 of the Andes, falls into the Magdalena, between the small 
 towns of Pinto and Tacaloa, in lat. 9 25 N. Of its numerous 
 tributaries the Nechi which joins it on the right is the largest, 
 and of the towns on its bunks the most considerable are Cali, 
 
 Toro, and Antioquia. The VALLEY of the Cauca is one of 
 
 the richest, most fertile, and most populous districts in S. 
 America. It consists of two plateaux of very different eleva 
 tion and temperature. The soil is deep, the pastures rich, and 
 the lands well cultivated. Cattle of a superior description are 
 reared in great numbers ; and the fields and farm-houses pre 
 sent an appearance of opulence and comfort. On all sides, 
 the earth, tinged with red and yellow, indicates the presence of 
 gold, many mines of which precious metal are found here, all 
 situate in the upper part of the valley. 
 
 CAUCASUS, a gov. Russia, bounded, N. by govs. Don 
 Cossacks and Astrakhan, E. Caspian Sea, S. Circassia, and 
 E. Cossacks of the Black Sea; greatest length, N.W. to S.E. 
 about 380 m.; greatest breadth, N. to S. 170 m. It is tra 
 versed N. to. S. near its centre, by a low ramification of the 
 Caucasus Mountains, but with this exception, the surface is 
 flat, consisting generally of an alluvion, which towards the 
 E. appears to be of very recent formation. It is not traversed 
 by any river of importance (the Kuma, since the lower part 
 of its course was lost in the sand, no longer deserves the name), 
 but is watered on part of its N. frontier by the Maritsch, and 
 on the S. by the Kuban and Terek. The climate is in general 
 very mild, and there are some fertile tracks particularly in 
 the neighbourhood of the Terek, but great part of the alluvial 
 flats is covered with salt pools and marshes, which make the 
 soil when they prevail, altogether unfit for cultivation. The 
 injury is, in some measure, compensated by the large quan 
 tities of excellent salt which is obtained from them. Some 
 of the steppes yield tolerable pasture, on which numerous 
 herds of cattle are reared. The chief products of the soil are 
 corn, including maize, and wine. The mulberry thrives well, 
 and considerable attention has recently been paid to the rear 
 ing of silk-worms. Bees also are carefully attended to, and 
 the honey and wax obtained from them, forms a considerable 
 article of export. Owing to the neighbourhood of the war 
 like mountaineers of the Caucasus, a considerable army is 
 always maintained within the government, and most of its 
 towns are fortified. The cap. is Georgievsk. Pop. 526,400. 
 
 CAUCASUS, an extensive and lofty range of mountains, 
 the centre chain of which stretches N.W. to S.E. for about 
 700 m. between the Black Sea and the Caspian, and there 
 forms the boundary between Europe and Asia. From the 
 central chain numerous branches are thrown off. One of them 
 to the N. proceeds through the government of Caucasus into 
 Astrakhan, and onward to the banks of the Volga, while the 
 branches to the S. traverse the greater part of the government 
 of Georgia, and in the S. of that government, link on with the 
 mountains of Ararat. The highest point in the range is 
 Mount Elburz, which stands near the middle of the central 
 chain, and has an altitude of about 18,000 ft. The next 
 highest is Mount Kasbek, 16,000 ft., across which is the 
 celebrated Eng Pass, which gives Russsia her only carriage 
 communication with her Trans- Caucasian domains. The N. 
 side of the range is much more abrupt than the S. Great 
 part of the mountains still remains to be geologically examined, 
 but an admirable section is furnished by the Eng Pass, and 
 has been fully described, particularly by Wagner, who not 
 only travelled over it, but resided several months among the 
 mountains of Kasbek, and ascended them to the limit of per 
 petual snow. According to him, stratified rocks appear at 
 the bottom of the mountains, and rise to a considerable height 
 on their sides. These rocks consist chiefly of thick beds of 
 limestone, conglomerate, and clay slate. Higher up are seen 
 immense crystalline masses composed of granite, sienite, ser 
 pentine, and gabronite. These masses, though higher in posi- 
 
CAUCASUS 
 
 631 
 
 CAUKA 
 
 tion, are evidently lower in the geological series than the 
 stratified rocks, which in many places have been upheaved 
 by them, and in consequence have a considerable dip. Highest 
 of all is trachytic porphyry, which forms the great body of 
 
 MOUNT KLBEOU3. 
 
 Her I rmte Gffguire ( 
 
 all the principal summits of the central range. That this 
 trachyte is the most recent of all the rocks is proved by the 
 fact, that in many places it is seen piercing them, and throw 
 ing them into the wildest confusion. Judging from the com 
 position and general appearance of these great trachytic masses, 
 irumboldt and other celebrated geologists are of opinion that 
 the Caucasus, and all the loftiest summits of the great moun 
 tain-ranges of both hemispheres, were upheaved contempor 
 aneously, and within a comparatively recent period. The 
 limit of perpetual snow in the Caucasus is 11,000 ft., and 
 hence, as some of the mountains rise from 5000 to nearly 
 7000 ft. above this, there is an extensive range for glaciers. 
 It would seem, however, that the supply of moisture which 
 (he atmosphere affords, is far less than might have been anti 
 cipated. Scarcely a sinple lake of any extent is to be found 
 in the Caucasus, and the scenery thus remains destitute of 
 that which constitutes one of the most magnificent features 
 in the Alps of Switzerland. In height and magnitude, Mont 
 Blanc must yield to many mountains of the Caucasus, but in 
 all the other essentials of sublimity, it still remains unrivalled. 
 Numerous cascades tumble down the N. steeps of the Cau 
 casus, but none of them are remarkable either for volume or 
 height, and the only rivers of any consequence which are fed 
 by them are the Terek, Kuban, and Kur. The minerals of the 
 Caucasus, so far as may be judged from the very imperfect 
 examination of them which has been made, are not of great 
 value. It was at one time supposed that gold abounded, but 
 a worthless material of the same colour, called cat gold, ap 
 pears to have been mistaken for it. The only mineral which 
 has yet been ascertained to exist in such quantities as to make 
 it capable of being worked to profit is lead. Vegetation is 
 very vigorous. Magnificent forest trees clothe the higher 
 mountain slopes almost to an incredible height ; lower down 
 all the finer fruit trees of the climate are found growing in 
 wild luxuriance ; while lower still, where human labour can 
 be made available, almost any degree of culture, however 
 imperfect, is rewarded with an abundant crop. The ordinary 
 cereals grow 7000 ft. above sea level, while valuable shrubs, 
 plants, and flowers, in almost endless variety, deck the valleys 
 and lower plains. Animal is not less vigorous than vegetable 
 life, and the forests abound with almost every species of game 
 among quadrupeds, wolves, boars, jackals, deer, goats, and 
 hares among birds, pheasants, and partridges. A large 
 species of wild cattle, called aurochs, roam at large, and the 
 hares of the Caucasus have been famed from the remotest 
 antiquity. The inhabitants include a great variety of tribes, 
 the principal of which are the Tcherkesscs or Circassians, 
 Georgians, Ossetes, Lesghians, and Abkases. Evidently de 
 
 rived from a variety of stocks, and speaking a variety of 
 languages, they are all distinguished by one noble quality 
 an almost inextinguishable love of freedom, and in bodily 
 constitutiou are at once so robustly and so elegantly framed, 
 that what is known as the Cau 
 casian race is universally acknow 
 ledged to be the finest physical 
 type of man. (Wagner s Kaiika- 
 sus; Koch s Karte Von dem Kau- 
 kasischen Isthmus, t&c.) 
 
 CAUCASUS (INDIAN). See 
 HINDOO COOSH. 
 
 CAUDEBEC, a seaport tn. 
 France, dep. Seine-Inferieure, 18 
 m. N.W. Rouen, r. bank, Seine, 
 ^^^Egj-^ at the embouchure of the Caude- 
 bec. Though commodious, and 
 i avourably situate between Rouen 
 and Havre, the port is little fre- 
 
 jSBjfijjPflf^ quented. The town has old walls 
 
 ^ffijjg^ 3-^{?r; and ruined fortifications, a parish 
 
 ll^s- church, built in the 15th century, 
 
 remarkable for the elegance and 
 delicacy of its architecture; and 
 manufactures of sailcloth, starch, 
 leather, and soap ; cotton mills, 
 bleacheries, and tanneries; with 
 a considerable trade in ship bis 
 cuit, grain, fruit, poultry, &c. 
 Prior to the emigration of the 
 Protestants, after the revocation 
 
 of the Edict of Nantes, Caudebec was famed for its manufac 
 ture of hats. Pop. 2332. 
 
 CAUDEROM, a pretty little vil. France, dep. Gironde, 
 about 2 m. from Bordeaux, surrounded by numerous country 
 scats, and much frequented on holidays by the inhabitants of 
 Bordeaux. Pop. 1485. 
 
 CAUDETE, a tn. Spain, New Castile, prov. of, and 50 m. 
 
 N.E. Albacete. It has three squares, a townhouse, prison, 
 
 and several fountains, a parish church, Carmelite convent, and 
 
 a hermitage, used as a chapel for the cemetry. Agriculture 
 
 and distilling brandy are the main occupations. Pop. 5502. 
 
 CAUDRY, a vil. France, dep. Nord, 8 m. from Cambrai; 
 
 with manufactures of tulle. Pop. 3310. 
 
 CAUFIRISTAN. See KAFIEISTAN. 
 
 CAULABAGH, or KALLABAGH, a tn. Punjab, in tho 
 
 Salt Eange, 68 m. S.E. Peshawur ; lat. 33 12 N.; Ion. 71 35 
 
 E. ; built on terraces cut out of the declivity of a hill close by 
 
 the Indus, which is here about 400 yds. wide, deep and rapid. 
 
 In the vicinity are huge masses of rock salt, in which, and in 
 
 alum, the inhabitants carry on an extensive trade with tho 
 
 neighbouring provinces. 
 
 CAULDON, par. Eng. Stafford ; 1570 ac. Pop. 326. 
 CAUMONT, several vils. France:!, dep. Calvados, 
 23 m. S.W. Caen; with some trade in poultry. Pop. 910. 
 2, dep. Eure, 21 m. from Pont-Audemer, near 1. bank, 
 Seine; with stone quarries, wool-spinning, and trade in apples. 
 Pop. 930. 3, dep. Lot-et-Garonne, 4 m. S. Marinande, on a 
 height overlooking the Garonne, and formerly an important 
 fortification. Pop. 1664. 4, dep. Vaucluse, 18 m. from 
 Avignon, beautifully situate in a fertile district on the Durance, 
 surrounded by walls, and commanded by a castle. The rear 
 ing of silk-worms, and some trade in olive-oil, and excellent 
 dried fruits, are carried on. Pop. 3914. 
 
 CAUNDLE, four pars. Eng. Dorset : 1 , Caundle (Bishop), 
 2050 ac. Pop. 365. 2, Caundle (J/ars/0 , 440 ac. Pop. 77. 
 3, Caundle (Purse], 1610ac. Pop. 183. 4, Caundle (Stour- 
 ton), 2680 ac. Pop. 394. 
 
 CAUNES (LES), a tn. France, dep. Aude, 13 m. N.E. 
 Carcassonne, 1. bank, Argent-Double. It has a fine church, 
 formerly belonging to the Benedictine abbey, founded in 791, 
 and suppressed at the Revolution of 1793. Cloth and brandy 
 are made here, and in the vicinity are extensive marble quar 
 ries. Pop. 2040. 
 
 CAUNTON, par. Eng. Nottingham; 3130. Pop. 539. 
 
 CAURA, a considerable river, Venezuelan Guaiana, 
 
 formed by the junction of the Yurani, Erevato, Mareguare 
 
 and their tributaries, which take their rise in the sierra Pari- 
 
 ma, near the centre of the territory. The Caura is formeJ 
 
CAUSSADE 
 
 CAVANAS 
 
 about lat. 6 35 N., from which it flows N., but with a very 
 devious course, till it falls into the Oriiioco, at lat. 7 40 N. ; 
 Ion. 66 15 W. Its whole length is about 150 m. 
 
 CAUSSADE, a tn. France, dep. Tarn-et-Garonne, 13 m. 
 N.E. Montauban. It is agreeably situate, and the suburbs 
 by which the old town is surrounded are well built. Its only 
 noteworthy buildings are the Hotel de Ville, and the parish 
 church. Manufactures : coarse linen, and woollen goods, 
 sugar, and tanneries. Trade : grain, saffron, spirits, prunes, 
 cattle, wool, and agricultural produce. Pop. 2400. 
 
 CAUTEN, or IMPERIAL, a river, Chili, Araucania T has its 
 sources on the W. slopes of the Andes, in about lat. 38 44 S., 
 from which it flows nearly due W., and falls into the S. Pacific 
 Ocean at lat. 38 48 S. ; showing but a slight difference of 
 parallel between its source and embouchure. Its whole course 
 is about 180 m. It has six or eight large tributaries, some 
 of them not much, if at all, inferior in size to itself. There 
 is a town of the same name situated on its r. bank, and near 
 where it is joined by the Paracahum, lat. 38 45 S. 
 
 CAUTO, a river, Cuba, near the E. extremity of the 
 island. It has its sources in the sierra de Cobre, near Cauta, 
 about lat. 20 20 N., from which it flows in a N.W. direction 
 for about 45 m., when it bends round to the S.W., and, lat. 20" 
 30 N., falls into the bay of Buena Esperanza ; total course 70 m. 
 
 CAUX (PAYS DE) [anc. Pagus Caletensis], a dist. France, 
 formerly a dependency of prov. Normandy, cap. Caudebec. 
 It comprehends the greater part of dep. Seine-Inferieure, com 
 prising, in particular, arrond. Havre, almost the whole of 
 arronds. Dieppe and Yvetot, and part of arrond. Neufehatel. 
 
 CAVA, a small isl. Scotland, one of the Orkney group, 
 co. Caithness ; lat. 58 55 N. ; Ion. 3 8 W. It is upwards 
 of 3 m. in circumference, and produces good crops of oats and 
 bere. Pop. 21. 
 
 CAVA, a tn. Naples, prov. Prineipato Citra, agreeably 
 situate in the valley of Fenestra, 3 m. N.W. Salerno. It is 
 the seat of a bishop, suffragan to the Pope, and contains a 
 cathedral, three other churches, a convent, a house of refuge, 
 an hospital, and a seminary. Silk, cotton, and linen are 
 manufactured here, and in the numerous small villages that 
 surround the town. The district is extremely unproductive, 
 but the inhabitants have become wealthy by their industry 
 and commerce. About 1 m. from Cava is the magnificent 
 Benedictine convent of the Trinity, which formerly contained 
 an excellent library, now transferred to Naples. This library, 
 with its archives, was considered the richest in the kingdom. 
 Pop. 13,095. 
 
 CAVABO, or CABADO, a river, Portugal, which rises in 
 the sierra de Gerez, on the frontiers of Galicia, a little N. 
 Montalegre, flows S.W., passes Barcellos, and falls into the 
 sea at Esponende, after a course of 65 m., of which about 6 m. 
 are navigable. 
 
 CAVAGLTA, a tn. Sardinian States, Piedmont, division 
 of, and 30 m. N.E. Turin. Pop. 2600. 
 
 CAVAILLON [anc. Cabdlid], a tn. France, dep. Vau- 
 cluse, 14 m. S.E. Avignon, r. bank, Durance, near the em 
 bouchure of the Coulon. It is agreeably situate, but ill built, 
 with narrow, dirty streets. The only public building of note 
 is the Hotel de Ville. The surrounding district is one vast 
 garden, producing excellent fruit ; in particular, much es 
 teemed melons and peaches. There are numerous silk, 
 madder, and oil-mills ; also manufactures of vermicelli, and 
 of brazen utensils. A considerable trade is carried on in silk, 
 olive-oil, almonds, fruit, madder, &c. A large silk market is 
 held weekly. In the vicinity is a remarkable cavern, in 
 which 4000 sheep are penned during summer. The Eomans 
 had an important colony here, and erected many edifices, of 
 which almost the only remains are some tombs, and the frag 
 ment of a triumphal arch. Pop. 3914. 
 
 CAVALCANTE, a tn. Brazil, prov. of, and 305 m. N.E. 
 Goyaz, near 1. bank, Parannan, with three churches and a 
 school. The gold mines in the vicinity, formerly rich, are 
 now abandoned as exhausted, and the inhabitants are chiefly 
 engaged in agriculture and cattle-rearing ; the produce is sold 
 in the maritime provinces. Cavalcante is a centre point for 
 travellers and carriers between Mato-Grosso, Goyaz, arid 
 Minas-Geraes. 
 
 CAVALESE, a tn. and com. Tyrol, prov. of, and 22 m. 
 N.E. Trent, r. bank, Avizzio ; well built, and has a fine parish 
 church adovned with marble pillars. Pop. 2143. 
 
 CAVALHO, a small isl. W. coast, Africa ; lat. (N. end) 
 1 1 1 30" N. ; Ion. 15 41 15" W. It is 1 m. long and m. 
 broad, of volcanic origin ; produces in abundance a species of 
 plum, supposed to be anti-scorbutic ; and its coasts swarm with 
 a kind of fish, called cavalho, from which it probably derives 
 its name. 
 
 CAVALIERE (CAPE), a broad headland, S. coast, Asi 
 atic Turkey, on the Mediterranean ; lat. 36 7 30" N. ; Ion. 
 33 43 42" E. (B.) It resembles an island, and exhibits cliffs 
 of white marble rising up perpendicularly from the sea to the 
 height of 738 ft., and connected to the main by a low narrow 
 isthmus, which forms a small bay on each side. 
 
 CAVALLER-MAGGIORE, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. 
 of, and 10 m. N.E. Saluces, near 1. bank, Maira. It has two 
 churches and four convents. Pop. 5200. 
 
 CAVALLY, a tn., point, and river, W. Africa, Guinea 
 Coast, E. of Cape Palmas. The TOWN stands on the point of 
 the same name ; lat. 4 21 12" N. ; Ion. 7 35 35" W. ; with 
 
 three villages a little to the E. The POINT, which may be 
 
 distinguished from the adjacent sandy shore by its black rocky 
 appearance, is encompassed by reefs, extending \ m. to sea 
 ward. The EIVEE, a little E. from the town, issues between 
 
 two low sandy points with a bar before it, which is not always 
 passable by boats. 
 
 CAVAN, an inland co. Ireland, prov. Ulster, baring, N. 
 Fermanagh, N. and E. Monaghan, S. Meath, Westmeath, and 
 Longford, and W. Leitrim. Extreme length, 51 m. ; extreme 
 breadth, 28 m., although throughout one half its length it 
 does not exceed an average of 6 to 8 m. Area, 477,360 ac., of 
 which 375,473 are arable, 71,918 uncultivated, and 7325 in 
 plantations. The surface is broken, extremely irregular, and 
 in the N. rises into mountainous elevations, while to the N.W. 
 the prospect is bleak and dreary ; the soil is generally light and 
 poor, except along the courses of the streams. Coal, iron, 
 copper, and lead appear to exist, and there are numerous 
 mineral springs, of which that at Swanlinbar is the most cele 
 brated. The lakes are numerous but small, and some of them 
 picturesque with well wooded margins. Agriculture is in a 
 backward state in this county ; draining and irrigation are 
 wholly unknown, the fences are mere ridges of earth, and the 
 ploughing slovenly and inefficient. The chief crops are oats, 
 potatoes, and turnips, but in some districts flax also is grown 
 in considerable quantities, while wheat has become.in many 
 places a more common crop than formerly. The principal 
 manufacture is that of linen, which forms the chief depend 
 ence of many of the inhabitants, almost every family carry 
 ing it on to a greater or less extent. Bleach-greens are con 
 sequently numerous, and although several have ceased opera 
 tions, there are still a good many of these establishments 
 actively employed. The number of national schools in Sept., 
 1848, was 158, attended by 16,211 children. Principal towns, 
 Cavan, the capital, Cootehill, and Balturbet. The county is 
 divided into eight baronies Castlerahan, Clonker, Clanma- 
 hon, Loughtee, Lower and Upper Tullygarvey, Tullyhaw, 
 and Tullyhunco, and contains 36 parishes. It sends two 
 members to the House of Commons; constituency (1850), 
 684. Pop. (1851), 174,071. 
 
 CAVAN, a tn. Ireland, co. Cavan, 57 m. N.W. Dublin, 
 in one of the richest parts of the county. In the principal 
 street are some good houses, but, on the whole, the town has 
 but an indifferent appearance, a large portion of it being com 
 posed of mean-looking buildings and mere cabins, though it is 
 said to be improving. The parish church is a neat structure, 
 with a slender spire. The other public buildings are a R. 
 Catholic chapel, a Presbyterian and a Methodist meeting 
 house, an endowed school founded by Charles I. , municipal 
 and county offices, jail, union workhouse, a courthouse, an 
 infirmary a plain building ,- and a fever hospital. It has also 
 several Sunday and parochial schools, supported by subscrip 
 tion. The trade is inconsiderable ; it includes the manufac 
 ture of a little linen, and a retail business with the surround 
 ing country. Oats and butter are the staple articles of sale. 
 The assizes for the county, general sessions at Hilary and 
 midsummer, and petty sessions every week, are held here. 
 Pop. (1841), 3749. 
 
 CAVANAS, a port or harbour, Cuba, on the N.W. coasl 
 of that island, 38 m. S.W. Havanna; lat. 23 5 N. ; Ion. 
 82 55 W. It is a fine deep bay, having its entrance between 
 two extensive reefs. Within there is room enough for several 
 
CAVARZERE-DE8TRO-E-8INISTBO 
 
 633 
 
 C AWN POOR 
 
 hundred sail of ships. It is protected by a battery of five 
 guns, with a martello tower of one gun in its centre, walled 
 in at the back, with loop holes facing the harbour. 
 
 CAVARZERE-DESTRO-E-siNiSTRO, a vil. Austrian Italy, 
 gov. of, and 25 m. S.S.W. Venice, traversed by the Adige, 
 which divides it into two parts. It contains a parish and 
 three auxiliary churches, and has a considerable trade in 
 cattle, corn, hay, wood, and silk. Pop. 7000. 
 
 CAVASO, a market tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, prov. 
 of, and 20 m. N.W. Treviso. It contains a parish church, 
 and several chapels and oratories ; and has manufactures of 
 woollen and linen cloth, and hats, dye-works, and fulling- 
 mills. Pop. 2500. 
 
 CAVE, two tns. and two pars. England, E. Riding, York: 
 1, Cave (North), the town, situate on a plain, consists of 
 two principal, regular, and well-kept streets ; houses in the 
 modern style, and built of brick. Amply supplied with ex 
 cellent water. It has a parish church, and a Methodist and 
 a Friends meeting-house, and two schools. Area of par. 
 63GO ac. Pop. 1217. 2, Cave (South), the town, 2 m. from 
 N. Cave, stands at the foot of a hill called Mount Airy ; and 
 has a parish church, and an Independent and a Methodist 
 meeting-house, and two schools. Good supply of excellent 
 water. In the neighbourhood is Cave Castle, an old Gothic 
 edifice. People chiefly agriculturists. Area of par. 7480 ac. 
 Pop. 1852. (Local Correspondent.) 
 
 CAVENDISH, par. Eng. Suffolk ; 3450 ac. Pop. 1353. 
 CAVENHAM, par. Eng. Suffolk; 2630 ac. Pop. 277. 
 CAVERS, par. Scot. Roxburgh, 24 m. by 8. Pop. 1709. 
 CAVERSFIELD, par. Eng. Bucks; 1200 ac. Pop. 178. 
 CAVERSHAM, par. Eng. Oxford ; 5100 ac. Pop. 1642. 
 CAVERSWALL, par. Eng. Stafford; 5380ac. Pop. 1505. 
 CAVERY, a river, Hindoostan, to the waters of which 
 Mysore and the Carnatic owe much of their agricultural 
 wealth. It rises from several head streams in Coorg and 
 Mysore, near the coast of Malabar, and between lat. 11 37 
 and 13 20 N., flows E. through Mysore, Coimbatoor, and 
 the Lower Carnatic, and after a winding E. course of about 
 450 m., falls into the Bay of Bengal, by numerous mouths, in 
 the province of Tanjore, the plains of which are fertilized by 
 its S. branches. In N. Coimbatoor the Cavery forms an 
 island, called Sivana Samudra, near to which are two magni 
 ficent cataracts. The cataract of Gargana Chuki occurs in the 
 N. Channel, where the water falls over a perpendicular rock 
 200 ft. high ; the S. cataract, called Birra Chuki, has a fall of 
 100 ft. in 10 or 12 streams. The Cavery is filled by the 
 monsoon rains in May and July, but is not navigable except 
 ing by small boats. 
 
 CAVERYPAUK, a tn. Hindoostan, Carnatic, 57 m. 
 W.S.W. Madras; lat. 12 53 N. ; Ion. 79 31 E. 
 It is meanly built, and the adjoining fort, at one 
 time a place of some strength, is now in ruins. 
 A victory was gained here by the British over the 
 French and their allies, in 1754. Near the town 
 is an immense water-tank, 8 m. long by 3 broad , 
 which fertilizes a large tract of country, and is, 
 perhaps, the finest work constructed in S. India 
 for the purpose of irrigation. The tank is faced 
 on the inside with large stones, and supported by 
 a mound of earth 30 ft. high. 
 
 CAVI,atn. Papal States, 28m. E.S.E. Rome. 
 It stands in a beautiful district, and is finely built 
 on a tufa rock on the slopes of Mount Mcntorella. 
 Near it is a fine modern bridge of seven arches, 
 built over a deep torrent, one of the tributaries 
 of the lacco. Cavi was built by the Colonna as 
 eirly as the llth century, and is memorable for 
 tie peace signed here, in 1557, between the Duke 
 of Alba and the Caraffeschi. Pop. 2000. 
 
 CAVIANA, an isl. Brazil, prov. Para, in the MUSQU: 
 
 mouth of the Amazon, N. the isl. of Marajo, on 
 the equator. It is of irregular form, measures 50 m. N.W. 
 to S.E., and about 20 m. broad. It is well wooded. 
 
 CAVITE, a tn. and prov. isl. Luzon, one of the Philip 
 pines. The TOWN is situated at the extremity of a point of 
 land which projects, in a N.E. direction, into the Bay of Ma 
 nilla, E. coast; lat. 14 29 30" N.; Ion. 120 50 E. (R.) ; 
 about llm. S.W. Manilla. It is capital of the province, is 
 well fortified, and is tl.e place of residence of the governor. 
 VOT-. I. 
 
 It contains a church, barrack, convent, and hospital ; houses 
 nearly all of stone. A manufactory of cigars, lately estab 
 lished, has added considerably to the commercial importance 
 of the town. Cavite" has a reputation for salubrity, and is 
 much resorted to on this account by invalids from Manilla. 
 Its docks and arsenals were at one time famous, but have 
 
 been long going to decay. The PROVINCE is situated partly 
 
 on the Bay of Manilla, which, with the province of Tondo, 
 bounds it on the N., the Lac de Bay on the E., the province 
 of Batangas on the S., and the sea on the "W. It is advan 
 tageously situate, but is not very fertile, although much more 
 could be made of it by a more industrious people than that by 
 which it is inhabited, who are extremely indolent, and so vici 
 ously disposed, that it is said more criminals come from this pro 
 vince than from any other in the island. The chief produc 
 tions are rice, sugar, indigo, and coffee, some of the latter it 
 is said equalling, if not surpassing, that of Mocha. A great 
 variety of fruits likewise are grown, including mangoes, dates, 
 bananas, water-melons, oranges, and lemons. There is also 
 some traffic in cattle, sheep, and swine. Fish is another 
 principal source of subsistence. Cavite" is celebrated for its 
 pastry and confections. Pop. of prov. 84,495. 
 
 CAVOR, or CAVOUR, a tn. Sardinian States, Piedmont, 
 div. Turin, prov. of, and 7 m. S.S.E. Pinerolo. It stands in 
 a fertile plain at the foot of the Alps, contains a communal 
 college ; and has manufactures of linen ; tanneries, silk-mills, 
 some trade in corn, and two annual fairs. It suffered much 
 by an earthquake in 1808. Marble and slates are quarried 
 in the neighbourhood, Pop. 6000. 
 
 CAWDOR, a par. Scotland, 4 in. square, chiefly in co. 
 Nairn, but partly in co. Inverness, remarkable only for con 
 taining the remains of the castle in which, as tradition asserts, 
 though on more than doubtful ground, King Duncan was 
 murdered, an event immortalized by Shakespeare. The pre 
 sent castle, a fine specimen of ancient fortalice, was built in 
 the 15th century, rendering it impossible it could be the same 
 in which the Scottish monarch was assassinated, that tragedy 
 having taken place in the llth century, or about 400 years 
 before. Macbeth s second title was TJtane of Cawdor. P. 1212. 
 
 CAWKWELL, par. Eng. Lincoln ; 540 ac. Pop. 47. 
 
 CAWNPOOR, or CAUNPORE, a tn. and dist. Hindoostan, 
 presid. Bengal, N.W. provs. The TOWN, r. bank, Ganges, 
 which is here about a mile in breadth, is 115 m. N.W. Alla 
 habad ; lat. 26 30 N. ; Ion. 80 12 E. It is of considerable 
 extent, but is, on the whole, mean-looking and dirty, with 
 exception of the chowk or principal street, which is composed 
 of well-built brick houses, two or three stories high, with 
 balconies in front. Hardly any of its temples or mosques 
 are worth noticing, with exception of one small musjid, an 
 
 elegant little structure, ornamented with three egg-shaped 
 domes, a large one in the centre, and a smaller on each side, 
 nnd having a tall and graceful minaret at either end. Saddlery, 
 harness, gloves, and jewellery are manufactured here to some 
 extent. Cawnpoor is one of the most important military 
 stations in India. The cantonments extend along the r. bank 
 of the Ganges for nearly 7 m., comprising many hundrec. 
 bungalows, the barracks for the troops, and the bazaars, the 
 
CAWOOD 
 
 G34 
 
 CAYENNE 
 
 whole presenting a very imposing appearance. Several of 
 the bungalows are most picturesquely situate on the lofty 
 banks of the river, which here rise to a height of 1 00 ft. ; they 
 are fitted up luxuriously, and have extensive gardens, in which 
 tamarinds, mangoes, bananas, neemes, acacias, and fig-trees 
 overshadow a rich expanse of flowers, of the most brilliant 
 colours and grateful perfume. The bungalows are mostly built 
 of cucha or sun-baked bricks, and roofed with tiles or thatch ; 
 the latter, however, is preferred, on account of its keeping the 
 apartments much cooler, the tiles becoming so heated by the 
 sun as to render the house inside like an oven. Within the 
 cantonments are a handsome suit of assembly-rooms, sup 
 ported by voluntary subscription; and a commodious and 
 elegant theatre, a public drive, called the Course, a fashionable 
 resort after sunset ; a race-course, and several club-rooms. 
 There are here, also, a Protestant church, a R. Catholic 
 chapel, and schools for the children of the soldiers. Cawnpoor 
 is well supplied with every description of goods, both Euro 
 pean and native, which are to be had on very moderate terms. 
 In May and June the thermometer ranges from 98 to 104; 
 and in the winter months falls as low as 42 at night, but in 
 the day stands at 70. During at least half the year, the 
 roads through and about the cantonment are ankle-deep in 
 dust, which, when a N.W. wind blows, is whirled into the 
 air in dense clouds, so thick, that frequently an object cannot 
 be seen half a dozen yards off; totally obscuring the sun, and 
 penetrating into every room in the house, notwithstanding 
 the precaution of instantly closing every door and window. 
 About 2 m. N.E. stands the old town of Cawnpoor, where 
 there is a long range of handsome ghauts, adorned with a few 
 temples, and terminated by the palace of the Rajah, a striking 
 and picturesque object, but now falling into ruin. The military 
 force quartered at Cawnpoor usually amounts to 8000 men, of 
 
 various arms. The DISTRICT, composed of cessions to the 
 
 British Government by the Nabob of Oude, is bounded, E. by 
 the Ganges, and on the other sides by the districts of Etawah, 
 Futtehpoor, and Bundelcund ; area, 2650 sq. m. ; flat, but 
 productive in wheat, barley, maize, rice, sugar-cane, cotton, 
 grain, Indian millet, and indigo. Potatoes, pease, cauliflower, 
 and many other vegetables grow in the gardens, but the former 
 are insipid. 
 
 CAWOOD, a par. and vil. England, York, W. Riding. 
 The village, situate on the Ouse, about 9J m. S. York, is 
 remarkable only for having been long the residence of the 
 archbishops of York, who had here a magnificent palace ; and 
 for having been the place of retirement of Cardinal Wolsey 
 after his fall, and where he was arrested by the Earl of Nor 
 thumberland on a charge of high treason. Area of par. 
 2840 ac. Pop. 1108. 
 
 CAWSTON, par. Eng. Norfolk ; 4430 ac. Pop. 1130. 
 
 CAWTHORNE, par. Eng. York, W. Riding; 3440 ac. 
 Pop. 1437. 
 
 CAWTHORPE (LITTLE), par. Eng. Lincoln; 780 ac. 
 Pop. 197. 
 
 CAXA DE MUERTOS [the coffin, or dead-chest], a small 
 i.sl. Caribbean Sea, off the S. coast, Porto Rico, about 6 m. 
 from the shore ; lat. 17 50 N. ; Ion. 66 31 W. (R.) It has 
 a very conspicuous and remarkable appearance, much resem 
 bling a coffin ; whence its name. The shore towards Porto 
 Rico is flat and sandy; on the S. side it is high and stoney. 
 There is no fresh water on it, nor trees of any kind, but for 
 fuel. Fish and turtle abound here, the latter laying their 
 eggs in the sandy bays. 
 
 CAXAMARCA, a tn. Peru, dep. Libertad, cap. prov. of 
 same name, 80 in. N.E. Truxillo; lat. 7 7 S.; Ion. 78 31 
 W.; in a valley, E. face of the Andes, on a small river of its 
 own name, a tributary of the Maraiion. The streets are 
 broad and straight; the houses, built of earth, are tiled and 
 whitewashed ; churches numerous, and being built of richly- 
 cut stone, and ornamented with cupolas and spires, have a 
 very elegant appearance. Manufactures : woollens, linens, 
 cottons, sword-blades, daggers, and other articles of steel, and 
 of the precious metals. A considerable trade is carried on 
 with places on the coast, to which Caxamarca furnishes its 
 own manufactures, and whence in return it receives those of 
 Europe. In the environs are some thermal springs and baths, 
 used by the Incas, and still much resorted to. Here are the 
 ruins of the ancient palace of Atahnalpa, the last Emperor of 
 Peru, in the prison chapel of which he was assassinated by 
 
 the Spaniards. Pop. 7000. The PROVINCE, area, 21G5 
 
 sq. m., is traversed by the chain of the W. Cordillera, in which 
 rise a great number of rivers, all affluents of the Maranon. 
 The people are employed in agriculture, the rearing of cattle, 
 the manufacture of coarse cloths, the working of mines, and 
 washing for gold. Pop. 85,000. 
 
 CAXAMAKQUILLA, a tn. in N. Peru, prov. Pataz, dep. 
 of, and 100 m. E.N.E. Truxillo. Pop. 8000. 
 
 CAXATAMBO, a tn. Peru, in dep. Junin, cap. prov. of 
 same name, 140 m. N.N.E. Lima; W. the foot of the Cordil 
 leras, in a fertile valley, traversed by one of the arms of the 
 Barranca. The spinning of woollen yarn, and trade, occupy 
 
 the inhabitants. Pop. 3000. The PROVINCE, area, 1494 
 
 sq. m., is mountainous, has a rigorous climate, and is one of 
 the poorest and most barren in Peru. From the traces of 
 ancient cultivation, the remains of aqueducts, and the vast 
 ruins of towns and villages, it would appear that before the 
 arrival of the Spaniards this country was in a very flourishing 
 condition. The sides of the mountains still afford good pasture, 
 and feed some oxen and sheep. Preparation of wool of superior 
 quality, which is exported to Lima, and to the neighbouring 
 provinces, is one of the chief occupations, A considerable 
 trade is also carried on in vitriol, sulphur, and salt. Pop. 
 25,000. 
 
 CAXIAS, or ALPEAS ALTOS, a tn. of considerable extent, 
 Brazil, prov. of, and 172 m. S.S.E. Maranhuo, r. bank, Itapi- 
 cura, navigable up to the town. It has two churches, and is 
 a depot for the products of the province, and consequently has 
 a considerable transit trade. Its inhabitants are chiefly en 
 gaged in agriculture and cattle-rearing. 
 
 CAXO, or CASO, an isl. Grecian Archipelago; lat. (S.W. 
 point) 35 19 N.; Ion. 26 50 E. (R.) ; 13 m. long, and 5 or 
 6 m. broad; surface uneven, and rocky. At its N. side is a 
 little bay, where there is a village, consisting of about 100 
 houses, occupied by Greek fishermen. There is but one 
 practicable landing-place on the island. The natives culti 
 vate a little corn and grapes, making wine from the latter for 
 their own consumption. Off the N. side of the island, and at 
 the distance of 3 or 4 m. from it, there is a small islet, sur 
 rounded by others of less size, called Caxo or Caso Poulo. 
 
 CAXOEIRA. See CACHOEIRA. 
 
 CAXTON, par. Eng. Cambridge; 2,000 ac. Pop. 558. 
 
 CAYAMBE URCU, a lofty moutnain, Ecuador, in the 
 Columbian Andes, directly under the terrestrial equator; Ion. 
 78 10 W.; 45 m. N.E. by E. Quito. It is of a beautiful 
 conical form, and rises to a height of 19,535 ft. From its 
 geographical position, and great elevation, it forms one of the 
 most remarkable landmarks on the face of our globe ; summit 
 covered with perpetual snow. 
 
 CAYCOS, or CAICOS, a group of isls., islets, and rocks, 
 Caribbean Sea, between lat. 21 and 22 N.; Ion. 71 20 and 
 72 30 W. The Grand Caycos, which is the largest, is about 
 30 m. long, by 3 or 4 m. wide, and has several good 
 harbours. 
 
 CAYENNE, a seaport tn. and cap. French Guiana, on the 
 N.W. part of isl. of same name ; lat. 4 56 5" N. ; Ion. 52 20 
 W. (R.) It consists of an old and a new town ; the former a 
 miserable place, with steep and narrow streets; badly paved, 
 and irregularly built, surrounded by walls, with high bastions 
 and a ditch. But, in the new town, the streets are wide and 
 clean, and the houses good. There are here, also, large ware 
 houses for storing merchandise, and a handsome church. In 
 the old town are the Government-house, and an ancient 
 Jesuits college. The harbour is shallow, but not objection 
 able otherwise. It is protected by a fort and several batteries. 
 The produce of the country is exported from Cayenne, chiefly 
 to France, and, in 1841, amounted to 214,600; imports in 
 
 the same year, to 197,400. Pop. 5000. The ISLANP is 
 
 separated from the continent of S. America by a narrow 
 channel; on each side runs a river; that to the N., near the 
 mouth of which the town is situated, is called the river Cay 
 enne ; while that to the S. is called the Oya or Oyak. It is 
 about 18 m. long, N. to S., and between 10 and 12 m. broad. 
 On the N.W. part of the island there are some hills and ele 
 vated grounds, but in the S. it is low and swampy, and in the 
 rainy season mostly inundated. The plantations of French 
 Guiana are mostly on this island, at the mouth of the Cayenne. 
 The chief productions are sugar, cotton, annotto, cloves, coffee, 
 pepper, maize, &c. 
 
CAYES 
 
 G35 
 
 CEAEA 
 
 CAYES, a tn. and port, isl. Hayti, S. coast. The former 
 is in lat. 18 10 N. ; Ion. 73 36 W. Tlie harbour is exposed 
 to S. and S.E. gales, and, during a hurricane, there is little 
 chance of escaping shipwreck. A considerable trade in sugar, 
 indigo, cotton, and coffee, is carried on. Before the Kevolu- 
 tion, it had a pop. of 12,000, but being, in 1831, partly de 
 stroyed by a hurricane, it now has only 3000. 
 
 CAYEUX [anc. Cadocum}, a tn. France, dep. Somme, 
 16 m. W.N.W. Abbeville, near the mouth of the Somme. 
 It presents a singular aspect, the houses being built of straw 
 and clay, and standing without order or regularity on the 
 shore, almost swallowed by the dark and overhanging cliffs, 
 without tree or shrub to relieve their rugged and gloomy 
 appearance. The manufacture of hardware, fishing, and salt 
 ing fis.li, employ the population 2372. 
 
 CAYLUS, a tn. France, dep Tarn-et-Garonne, 26 m. 
 N.E. Montauban; agreeably situate on the Bonnette; with an 
 old castle on a rock in the middle of the town. It has a con 
 siderable trade in grain. Pop. 1437. 
 
 CAYMAN ISLANDS, three isls., W. Indies, N.W. of 
 Jamaica, to the Government of which they are appendages, 
 and from which the nearest is 140 m. distant, and the largest, 
 the Grand Cayman, about 200 m. They are situate between 
 lat. 19 10 and 19 45 N., and Ion. 79 30 and 81 35 W. 
 Grand Cayman, which is the only one inhabited, is about 
 20 m. long, and about 7 to 10 m. broad ; and is covered with 
 cocoa-nut trees. On the W. side is George Town, a large 
 village ; but the other parts are thinly peopled. The climate 
 is healthy ; there are no cattle or sheep ; and water is scarce. 
 The chief occupation of the natives is in catching turtle for 
 the markets of Jamaica and other islands. 
 
 CAYMITES, two small isls., W. Indies, off the W. coast, 
 Ilayti, called the Grand and the little Caymites; lat. (N.E. 
 point, Grand Caymites) 18 39 N.; Ion. 73 40 W. (E.) A 
 bay, formed by the larger isl. and the main, affords safe ai:d 
 commodious anchorage. 
 
 CAYM1TO, or CHOVI;EFA, a river, New Grfinada, prov. 
 Isthmus, and falling into the Pacific about 10 m. W. Panama. 
 It is formed by the junction of numerous small streams, rising 
 in different parts of the W. Cordillera. Near its mouth it is very 
 deep ; and as it is not impeded by a bar, the tide rushes in 
 and out with great rapidity, rendering the anchorage for ship 
 ping very exposed and insecure. 
 
 CAYO VEEDE, or GREEN KAY, an islet, Bahama, 
 group ; lat. 22 N. ; Ion. 75 10 W. It is of moderate height, 
 and slopes towards the N.W. 
 
 CAYOE, or KAYOK, a maritime state N.W. Africa, be 
 tween the mouth of the Senegal and Cape Verd; bounded, 
 N. by Wallo, E. by Burb-Joloff, S. by Baol, and W. by the 
 Atlantic. It produces cotton, indigo, millet, gums, cattle, 
 camels, horses, strong asses, swine, partridges, &c. It has 
 several streams running E. to W. ; its cap. is Macaye, on the 
 Condamel, in lat. 15 10 N. ; Ion. 16 30 W. The inhabitants 
 are Joloffs and Mahometans. Pop. loO,000. 
 
 CAYBU, a tn. Brazil, prov. of, and 62 m. S.W. Bahia ; 
 en a river islet of its name, formed by the Tinhare and Tu- 
 piacu, llm. from the sea. Its principal street is paved, and 
 lias some good houses. Cayru has a church, a Latin and a 
 primary school, a Franciscan convent, and it is the seat of a 
 council for preserving the forests. Pop. 800. 
 
 CAYSTEE, or KUCHUCK-MENDER [little Mender], 
 river, Asiatic Turkey, pash. Anatolia, rises in the Buz-dagh 
 mountain, sanjak, Aidin ; lat. 38 16 N.; Ion. 28 20 E. 
 From this point it flows in a general S.W. direction, and falls 
 into the bay of Scala-nova, in the Grecian Archipelago, lat. 
 37 53 N.; Ion. 27 22 E. It flows, during a part of its 
 course, through a rich and fertile, but indifferently cultivated 
 valley. 
 
 CA YTON, par. Eng. York, N. hiding, 2430 ac. Pop. 572. 
 CAZALLA-DE-LA-siERBA, a tn. Spain, Andalusia, prov. 
 of, and 36 m. N. by E. Seville, on a declivity of the sierra 
 Morena. Its streets are clean, paved, and well arranged ; and 
 it has two squares, in the principal of which are the ancient 
 church, townhall, and public storehouse. Cazalla has also three 
 chapels, four schools, a prison, two hospitals, several convents, 
 and two extensive aqueducts, of brick. The inhabitants are 
 engaged in tanning, weaving, distilling brandy, expressing oil 
 and wine, and in tillage; but their chief occupation is smelting 
 metals, casting cannon, and manufacturing iron utensils 
 
 machinery, and agricultural and industrial implements. The 
 nountains in the vicinity are clothed with timber, and con- 
 in mines of iron, copper, silver, sulphur, and antimony, and 
 several quarries of beautiful variegated marble. The place 
 s of high antiquity, and several Arabic and Roman remains 
 still exist. Pop. 6552. (Madoz.) 
 
 CAZEMBE, a state, Africa. See KAZEMRE. 
 
 CAZEEES, a tn. France, dep. Haute Garonne, 32 m. 
 S.W. Toulouse, 1. bank, Garonne. It is tolerably well built, 
 and has hat manufactories, tanneries, and dyeworks, with a 
 ;rade in cattle. The Garonne begins here to be navigable. 
 Pop. 2318. 
 
 CAZES-MOKDENAPD, a vil. France, dep. Tarn-et-Garonne, 
 21 m. from Moissac. Pop. 1125. 
 
 CAZOELA, a city, Spain, Andalusia, prov. of, and 41 m. 
 E. Jaen, N. slope of the sierra Cazorla. It is well built, in 
 (lie form of an amphitheatre, and possesses numerous regular, 
 though steep, streets, and two spacious squares, one of which 
 is adorned with a fine central fountain. The town and court 
 houses are large, and well constructed, and have a tower. 
 The other public edifices are a parish church, chapel of ease, 
 Latin, and several primary schools, an hospital, prison, theatre, 
 storehouse, cemetery, and various convents. In the environs, 
 watered by the Vega, are many delightful gardens and public 
 walks, planted with fruit-trees, and adorned with shrubs and 
 flowers. Manufactures : leather, soap, earthenware, bricks, 
 tiles, wine, and oil. Trade : fruits, grain, cattle, and colonial 
 produce. Cazorla is a place of great antiquity, and was for 
 merly far more important and populous than at present. It 
 figured conspicuously in the Moorish contests of the 13th cen 
 tury, was, after repeated attempts, taken, and partly burnt, 
 by the French in 1811; and subsequently distinguished in 
 the late Carlist contest in 1837. The city is defended by two 
 castles, both in good preservation, and one of them erected by 
 the Arabs. Pop. 7383. (Madoz.) 
 
 CAZOULS-LES-BEZiERS, an anc. tn. France, dep. Herault, 
 7 m. from Beziers, in a fertile district, abounding with wine, 
 and having a brandy distillery, tannery, and the ruins of an 
 old feudal fortalice. Pop. 1964. 
 
 CEA. 1, A small river, Spain, which rises in the N.E. 
 of Leon, and first runs almost due S. till it passes Sahagun, 
 when it gradually trends W., and falls into 1. bank, Esla, 
 about 4 m. N.E. Benavente, after a course of about 60 m. 
 It is a shallow stream, not navigable, but much used for 
 irrigation. It is liable to floodings, which have often done 
 considerable damage. 2, A vil. and par. Spain, prov. of, and 
 32 m. E.S.E. Leon, 1. bank of above river. It contains an 
 old castle, a prison, two churches, and a well-endowed primary 
 
 school. Pop. 1201. 3, A tn. and par. Portugal, prov. 
 
 Beira-Baixa, on the slope of the sierra d Estrella, about 50m. 
 E. Coimbra. It contains a church, hospital, and infirmary. 
 Pop. 2072. 
 
 CEAEA, or YiLLA-no-FOETE, a tn. Brazil. See FOR- 
 
 TALEZA. 
 
 CEAEA, a prov. Brazil, N. coast, bounded, N. by the 
 Atlantic, E. by prov. Rio-Grande-do-Norte, S. by Pernam- 
 buco, and W. by Piauhi ; area, 66,387 sq. m. The surface 
 is very much diversified, though, upon the whole, it may be 
 characterized as more flat than mountainous. It has a general 
 slope N. towards the Atlantic, from which it gradually ascends 
 in the form of an amphitheatre, till it reaches the mountains 
 of Aracati, Canavieras, Ceara, Mandahu, Boritama, and 
 Ilibrapaba, which, linking on to each other, form a chain 
 stretching E. to W., presenting summits so conspicuous, as 
 to form important landmaiks to mariners on Hearing the coast. 
 The principal rivers following the direction of the general 
 slope, flow almost due N., in courses which are nearly parallel 
 to each other. The most important is the Jaguaribe, in the 
 E.; next to it are the Ceara, Mandahu, and Camucim. The 
 high lands are fertile ; the lower valleys are sandy, sterile, 
 and occasionally covered with lakes, which are strongly im 
 pregnated with alum and nitre. The amphitheatre whidi 
 rises behind the coast is well wooded, particularly with palms 
 of various kinds. The province generally abounds in medi 
 cinal plants, balsams, gums, and resins. In the interior are 
 extensive forests, furnishing inexhaustible supplies of timber, 
 and well supplied with all kinds of game. The minerals 
 include gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, alum-stone, salt, salt 
 petre, and rock-crystal. The progress of the seasons is ex- 
 
CKP.A/AT 
 
 CELAYA 
 
 tremely irregular. The climate, however, is on the whole 
 salubrious, the heat, which would otherwise be insupportable, 
 iwrticularly in the plains and valleys, being greatly tempered 
 
 is capable of receiving only a small number of vessels, and 
 the commerce is trifling ; but the sea fishery is prosecuted 
 with activity. On a neighbouring hill, may be seen the ruius 
 
 by a sea-breeze by day, and a land-breeze 
 at night. When these breezes fail, the air 
 becomes very unhealthy; and the province 
 has been repeatedly scourged by pestilence. 
 Ceara is divided into 25 town districts, 
 which take the names of the different towns 
 in the neighbourhood ; but the political or 
 administrative division is into ten COM- 
 areas, which appoint eight deputies to the 
 general legislative assembly, and four sena 
 tors and 28 deputies to the provincial as 
 sembly. Pop. 190,000. 
 
 CEBAZAT [anc. Sabasiacum], a tn. 
 France, dep. Puy-de Dome, 4 m. N. Cler 
 mont-Ferrand, on the rivulet Badat, in a 
 rich fruit district. The inhabitants are en 
 gaged in tillage and cattle-rearing, and ex 
 port fruits and vegetables to Paris. Two 
 annual fairs are held in May and August. 
 Pop. 2060. 
 
 CEBREROS, a tn. Spain, Old Castile, 
 prov. of, and 30 m. S.E. Avila, on a rising 
 ground, 1. bank, Alberche, crossed in the 
 vicinity by a handsome stone bridge of four 
 arches. Its streets are, in general, wide, 
 and paved ; and the principal square is large, and lined with ! of a castle built by the Saracens. The town is the seat of a 
 
 fine houses, possessing porticoes. The town also has three j bishopric. Pop. 8940. The DISTRICT of Cefalu is divided 
 
 smaller squares, a capacious and magnificent church, several ! into six cantons. 
 
 CKPALU. from 
 
 chapels, a prison, storehouse, cemetery, and three primary 
 schools. On a hill to the N., stands an ancient watch-tower, 
 now much dilapidated, and used as a telegraph. The inhabit 
 ants are engaged in weaving, tanning, expressing wine and oil, 
 and in husbandry. Pop. 2744. 
 
 CEBU, an isl. and tn. Philippines. See ZEBU. 
 
 CECINA, a river and vil. Tuscany. The RIVER rises 
 
 CEFFNLLYS, or KEVENLEECE, par. Wales, Radnor. 
 Pop. 379. 
 
 CEGAMA, a tn. Spain, Biscay, prov. Guipuzcoa, 14 m. 
 S. by W. Tolosa, at the N. base of the Pyrenees ; houses mostly 
 well" built, forming one principal street, with a central square ; 
 a large portion of them, however, are detached. The town 
 possesses a church, six chapels, a townhouse, prison, Latin, 
 
 about 28 m. S.W. Siena; flows N.W., and then S.W. through I music, and two primary schools, two cemeteries, and, in th 
 the marshes of Pisa and Volterra, and falls into the Mediter- environs, a sulphureous spring. Manufactures: woollen 
 
 ranean, 21 m. S.S.W. Leghorn. - The VILLAGE stands at 
 the mouth of the river; has a copper foundry ; and near it is 
 
 a grand ducal villa. Pop. 400. 
 
 CECLAVIN, a tn. Spain, Estremadura, pro 
 
 of, and 
 
 29 m. N.W. Caceres, 10 m. N.E. Alcantara, on a small hill. 
 The houses in general are well built ; streets clean and well 
 paved; and in a spacious square stands a tower, containing the 
 town clock. It likewise has a parish church, hospital, town- 
 hall, prison, storehouse, convent, and four primary schools. 
 In the vicinity are sulphureous springs, much esteemed as 
 baths. Linen and woollen fabrics, hardware, soap, wax- 
 candles, earthenware, wine, and oil are manufactured; and 
 some trade is carried on in cattle, grain, fruits, and wine. 
 An annual fair is held in June. Pop. 4656. 
 
 CEDAR KAYS, three small isls. U. States, Gulf of 
 Mexico, W. coast, Florida, and W. side of Yacasausa Bay; 
 lat. 29 8 N. ; Ion. 82 57 W. 
 
 CEDAR MOUNTAINS, a mountain range, S. Africa, 
 Cape Colony, extending from lat. 31 57 to 32 24 S., and 
 nearly along the meridian of 19 E. They are of primitive forma 
 tion, and have a remarkably picturesque appearance, with peaks 
 varying from 1600 to 5000 ft. above the level of the sea. In 
 the higher parts an ash-coloured quartzose sandstone appears 
 to predominate ; while the secondary range, at a height of 
 2000 ft., contains many marine fossils. Fine cedar trees, of 
 gigantic size, formerly covered these mountains, and still do 
 so to a considerable extent ; occupying ravines in the higher 
 parts of the range, even at an elevation of 3000 ft. At a 
 height of from 300 to 1000 ft. above the valley, are many 
 Bojjesman caves, varying from 30 to 40 ft. in depth, and con 
 taining numerous well-executed drawings in red ochre by that 
 primitive people. In the valleys between the hills is an ex 
 ceedingly fertile, dark-coloured, vegetable mould, on which 
 corn, tobacco, and wine are raised ; whilst the supply of 
 water, more or less chalybeate, is constant and abundant. 
 
 CEFALU [anc. Cephalcedis], a seaport tn. and dist. Sicily, 
 prov. Palermo, at the foot of a rock, 39 m. E.S.E. Palermo; 
 lat. 38 N. ; Ion. 14 4 E. It is surrounded by an old 
 wall, and has a cathedral, with several churches. The port 
 
 stuffs, linen, ropes, pottery, machinery, nails, bolts, agricul 
 tural implements, and every description of hardware. The 
 Carlist general, Don Tomas Zumalacarregui, was brought by 
 is son to Cegama in 1835, after having been wounded at the 
 
 siege of Bilbao, and died here eight days afterwards. 
 
 Hi 
 
 body was interred in the church. Pop. 2123. 
 
 CEGLIE, a tn. Naples, prov. Terra di Otranto, 25 m. 
 W. Brindisi, on a hill. It contains several churches. P. 1930. 
 
 CEHEGIN, a tn. Spain, prov. of, and 39 m. W.N.W. 
 Murcia, 4 m. E. Caravaca, on a declivity facing the S. It 
 has numerous spacious streets, and two squares, lined with 
 substantial houses, and neat public buildings; comprising a 
 parish church, three chapels, town and courthouses, a prison, 
 hospital, theatre, cemetery, and several schools. Manufac 
 tures : paper, cloth, soap, potteryware, brandy, wine, and 
 oil. Trade: grain, wool, hemp, silk, wax, cotton, &c. In 
 the neighbourhood, various quarries of jasper and variegated 
 marble are wrought. Pop. 10,354. (Madoz.) 
 
 CEICER-DE-TERRE, and CEICER-DE-MER, two small isls. 
 China Sea, off the S.E. coast of Cochin China. The first, 
 called by the natives Hon Cau, is in lat. 11 13 N. ; Ion. 
 108 48 E. It is rocky and barren, with exception of a little 
 grass or green moss on the flat part. The second, Ceicer-de- 
 Mer, is 41 m. S.E. the former; lat. (centre) 10 32 30" N. ; 
 Ion. 108 53 E. It is 4 or 5 m. long, and about 1 broad; 
 of easy access on the W., well-cultivated, and inhabited prin 
 cipally by fishermen, who pay annual tribute in salt fish and 
 bird s-nests to the King of Cochin China. 
 
 CEIDIO, par. Wales, Carnarvon. Pop. (1841), 138. 
 
 CELANO, a tn. Naples, prov. Abruzzo Ultra II., N. side 
 
 of Lake Cclano or Fucino, 6 m. E.N.E. Avezzano. 
 
 It has 
 
 several churches, and a paper manufactory; and two annual 
 fairs. Pop. 3868. 
 
 CELAYA, or ZELAYA, a tn. Mexican Confederation, state 
 Guanaxuto, 130 m. N.W. Mexico, and 6020 ft. above the 
 level of the sea, on r. bank, Rio-Grande-de-Santiago, over 
 which is here a handsome bridge. It has numerous churches, 
 among which, the Carmelite church is an imposing structure 
 of mixed architecture, with Corinthian and Ionic columns; 
 
CELBRIDGE 
 
 637 
 
 CELEBES 
 
 interior sombre and gloomy, but enriched with a great quan 
 tity of gold and silver ornaments. There is also a large 
 collecturia or storehouse. Manufactures : saddles, bridles, 
 and other articles of leather. Grain of all kinds grows 
 abundantly ; and horses and mules are bred in considerable 
 numbers in the environs. Pop. 7000. 
 
 CELBRIDGE, a market tn. Ireland, co. Kildare, 3J m. 
 N.E. Maynooth, pleasantly situate, 1. bank, Liffey; houses in ! 
 general well built; supply of water plentiful. The church j 
 is a handsome edifice, with a tower and spire. There is also j 
 a free school, a dispensary, and a fever hospital. Woollen 
 cloth was formerly manufactured here to a considerable ex 
 tent ; and adjoining the town there is an extensive cotton 
 factory ; petty sessions are held every Monday. Pop. 1289. 
 CELEBES [called, by the natives, Negri-Orang-Boogis, 
 and also, Tanali-Boogis or Tanah-Manykesser, contracted into 
 Macassar], one of the larger isl. Indian Archipelago, between 
 Borneo on the "W., and the Moluccas on the E., extending 
 from lat. 1 45 N. to 5 52 S., and from Ion. 118 45 to 
 125 17 E. ; area, 71,791 sq. m. Celebes is properly the 
 name of the E. part only, and Macassar of the W. From its 
 singular shape it has been compared to a tarantula, or to two 
 horse- shoes joined at the fore parts. It mainly consists of 
 four large peninsulas, stretching to the E. and S., and separ 
 ated by three deep gulfs. Of these peninsulas, that of 
 Menado on the N. sweeps N., then E., and, lastly, N.E., for 
 400 m., with a breadth varying from 12 to 60 m.; that of 
 Bulante, on the E., is 160 m. long, and from 30 to 95 m. 
 broad; the S.E. peninsula lias much the same length and 
 breadth as the latter ; and that of Macassar, on the S. W., forms 
 a pretty regular paralellogram, 200 in. long, and 65 m. broad. 
 They are all formed by chains of mountains running from a 
 common central territory, 150 m. long, and 105 m. broad. 
 The gulf of Tomini or Gorontalo, on the N.E., is 240 m. 
 long, and widens from 55 m. at its mouth, to 100 m. at its 
 farther extremity, which is marked on the latest maps as 
 very little known ; that of Tomaiki or Tolo, on the E., 
 lias, on the contrary, a wide mouth, and narrow upper end ; 
 and that of Macassar, or Boni, on the S., washes the E. 
 side of Macassar for 200 m., and varies in breadth from 35 to 
 80 in. To these must be added, the bays of Menado, Amoo- 
 rang, Kwandang, and Tontoli, on the N. ; of Palos and Parre- 
 Parre, on the W. ; of Balante, Talowa, Nipa-nipa, and Staring, 
 on the E. ; and many more or less considerable, in the gulf of 
 Boni. 
 
 General Aspect. Celebes is high and mountainous chiefly 
 in the centre and the N., where there are several active vol 
 canoes. The absence of extensive deltas, and the intervention 
 of broad, grassy plains between the forests, distinguish it 
 from the other larger islands of the Indian Archipelago. All 
 that is most majestic and lovely in these, is thought to be 
 concentrated in Celebes. It abounds in the most picturesque 
 and varied scenery, and the most beautiful and magnificent 
 tropical vegetation. 
 
 Climate. Though cut by the equator, and wholly under 
 the torrid zone, Celebes is thought remarkably healthy, the 
 natives often enjoying a vigorous old age, and Europeans 
 living longer than anywhere else in the E. Its extreme heats 
 are tempered by the sea-breezes, by monthly rains, and by 
 the N. winds that prevail for part of the year. The E. mon 
 soon lasts from May to November, and the "W. during the 
 remaining months. 
 
 Geology. The soil generally consists of a bed of vegetable 
 mould from 10 to 20 ft. thick, on decomposing basalt. Gold 
 is found in all the valleys of the N. peninsula, which is often 
 convulsed by earthquakes ; and abounds in sulphur. Copper 
 of good quality occurs at various points, and in Macassar, tin, 
 also, as pure as that of Banka. Diamonds are sometimes 
 found almost at the surface of the ground, and precious stones 
 are carried down in the sand of the torrents. 
 
 Mountains, Lakes, andJiwers. Lampoo-Batang is reckoned 
 the highest mountain in Celebes, being above 7000 ft. high. 
 Near Menado, Mount Klobat, and the summits called the Two 
 Sisters, stand conspicuous. The largest lake is supposed to 
 be one in the central part of the island, as yet unvisited by 
 Europeans, and said, by the natives, to be surrounded with 
 villages. That of Tondano, in the N. peninsula, is 2000 ft. 
 above the level of the sea. But the most important of all is 
 that of Tapara-Karajn, or Labaya, in the S.W. It commu 
 
 nicates W. by navigable streams with the sea, and E. with 
 the Gulf of Boni; and is the original seat of an early native 
 civilization, which has sent its ramifications over the whole 
 archipelago. The largest river, the Cliinrana, flows from that 
 lake, and is navigable for European vessels for some distance, 
 and by the native prahus as far as the lake. The Boli enters 
 the sea at Boli, on the N. On the S. coast, there are many 
 rivers navigable for some miles from the sea. 
 
 Zoology. The island is entirely destitute of the large car 
 nivorous animals, and pachyderms. None of the cat kind, 
 from the tiger downwards, haunts its forests ; nor has it the 
 elephant, the rhinoceros, or the tapir. Deer and wild hogs 
 abound, together with the Babyroussa, and herds of anti- 
 opes. Pouched animals, unknown in the Sunda islands, here 
 first occur ; also a singular ruminating animal ( Cervus de- 
 pressicornis), the supi-Jiootan of the Malays, and the anooang of 
 the natives. It holds both of the ox and the deer, and haunts 
 the most solitary places of the S. of the island The monkeys 
 are of various kinds, and both numerous and dangerous. The 
 white monkey is particularly mischievous. The Tarsius spec 
 trum hides itself in the moist woods of the plains, but when 
 pursued, leaps from bush to bush like a frog; and though 
 most inoffensive, is held in superstitious awe by the natives, 
 who attribute magical qualities to its large, round, prominent 
 eyes. Here, too, are found the cameleon, and the flying- 
 dragon, one of the saurian tribe, with wings attached to the 
 base of its thighs, forming a sort of parachute, to facilitate 
 its leaps from branch to branch. Monkeys, moles, rats, field- 
 lice, and scorpions, are kept down by the numerous snakes 
 of the island, from the enormous tiger-python (Boa castanea], 
 30 ft. long, but not venomous, to the small but deadly cobra- 
 la-capella, more dreaded than the crocodile. Among domesti 
 cated animals are found small but vigorous horses, buffaloes, 
 goats, sheep resembling those of the Cape of Good Hope, and 
 pigs. Many of the birds of Celebes differ totally from those 
 of the Sunda isles. Some seem to occur nowhere else ; and 
 others, though found in the Sundas, have peculiarities not 
 found there. Green is here the prevailing hue of the parrot 
 tribes, while bright red and scarlet predominate in the 
 Moluccas. Beautifully-coloured pigeons, not yet scientifically 
 described, abound in the woods. Celebes is the first island 
 in the Archipelago in which that singular gallinaceous fowl, 
 the Mcgapodius, is found (see AUSTRALIA, p. 260), as also a 
 new kind of Maleo (Hegaccplialus). The seas swarm with 
 fish, so that 300 different kinds are sometimes offered for sale 
 at the Macassar market. The shores are frequented from 
 time to time by the Dugon (Halicore dugon]. The trepang 
 fishery, and the catching of turtle, occupy thousands of the 
 Orang-Badjo race. 
 
 Botany. Naturalists have visited only four points of 
 Celebes ; but as almost every plant or animal taken by them 
 was more or less new, a rich harvest may be expected from 
 future researches. Dense woods clothe the mountain sides ; 
 and in these are found the oak, the teak, the cedar, the upas 
 both Antiaris toxicaria and Strychnos tieute the one a tree, 
 sometimes 100 ft. high, the other a climber, but both yielding 
 powerful poisons ; together with countless other trees, useful 
 or precious, the clove and nutmeg trees, the sago, and other 
 palms, which supply the natives with coverings for their 
 houses, clothing, cordage, household vessels, oils, and intoxi- 
 cat ing drink. To these may be added the pepper-vine, the sweet- 
 smelling sandal wood, and that which, when fresh cut, yields 
 a red dye. The sacred waranguin sometimes presents, in a 
 single tree, the appearance of a forest. The bamboo attains 
 the height of 40 ft. ; while its trunk, though hollow, is hard 
 enough to serve for house supports and rafters ; the natives 
 use its tender shoots for stews or salad, or extract common 
 vinegar from them. Add to these the mango, the banana, 
 the silk cotton-tree (Bombax ceiba), the badeau, from which the 
 famed Macassar oil is extracted; sumach or fustic-wood, 
 ebony, the betel-nut tree, and ginger plant. Among plants 
 requiring more careful cultivation, there are the coffee-tree, 
 indigo, the cacao, sugar-cane, the manioc root, benzoin, and 
 tobacco. Mountain rice, of which there are three varieties, 
 is that chiefly cultivated, and also maize. In the gardens, 
 cabbages, turnips, and other European pot-herbs, are cultivated. 
 
 Inhabitants. The oldest are doubtless the Alfoories of the 
 interior, that being the name generally applied to the moun 
 tain tribes that have been driven inwards in many of the 
 
CELEBES 
 
 G38 
 
 CENIS (MONT) 
 
 islands by invaders of their coasts. Those of Celebes are of 
 middle f-tature, fairer in complexion than the Malays, and 
 milder and more intelligent than the Alfoories of other islands. 
 They believe in the agency of evil spirits, and the Polynesian 
 taboo prevails among them. But by far the finest race in 
 Celebes, and indeed in the whole archipelago, are the Boogis, 
 supposed to have come originally from Borneo. Like the 
 Dyaks, they are a remarkably handsome race, physically re 
 sembling the Polynesians far more than the Malays ; to which 
 last, also, they are far superior in point of honesty, energy 
 of character, and general conduct. The bare word of these 
 modern Phoenicians is more to be trusted than the most solemn 
 oaths of the natives of Bengal ; their commercial enterprise 
 is unequalled, every soul, male or female, from the prince to 
 the peasant, being more or less engaged in trade, and the 
 most arduous voyages being undertaken by them in vessels 
 ill adapted to brave the perils of the ocean. They are the 
 chief, and almost the sole carriers of the archipelago ; and 
 annually visit even the N. coast of Australia with from 80 
 to 100 prahus, in order to collect cargoes of trepang. The 
 Macassars are also a fine people, and supply the Dutch with 
 their bravest and most faithful soldiers. The Celebians, gen 
 erally, are fond of active exercise, particularly on horseback ; 
 and, as their country abounds in open grassy glades, they are 
 much addicted to hunting the doer. They bring up their 
 children in a sort of Spartan fashion, rubbing their limbs 
 with oil and water to strengthen them, and sending them to 
 their friends, at five years of age, to prevent their being 
 spoiled by the endearments of home. After some years 
 attendance at school, the boys are taught handicrafts, and the 
 girls, who are educated by their mothers, learn silk and cot 
 ton weaving. Among those in easy circumstances, some of 
 the women learn to read and write a very rare practice in 
 the East. 
 
 Languages. The languages and literature of Celebes differ 
 essentially from those of the countries to the \V. The letters 
 of its alphabet are, in form, as unlike the Javanese as the 
 latter are unlike the Arabic or Roman. The three great lan 
 guages of the island, not reckoning the dialects of the savage 
 tribes, are those of the Boogis, the Macassars, and of Mand- 
 har. The ancient Boogis is the language of science and 
 religion, and is thought, by some, to be the mother tongue 
 of the three. The modern Boogis is the most cultivated and 
 copious ; the Macassar is simpler, and its literature more 
 scanty ; both are distinguished for a soft and vocalic pronun 
 ciation. The Boogis have a considerable body of literature, 
 consisting both of native tales, founded on national legends, 
 and of translations of Malay and Javanese romances, and of 
 works on law and religion from the Arabic. 
 
 Religion. The Alfoories have their own vague supersti 
 tions. The more civilized inhabitants profess Mahometanism ; 
 but, previous to the introduction of that faith, the Hindoos 
 had brought their religion to the island, and the natives say 
 that there are fine Hindoo monuments in the interior that 
 have not yet been visited by Europeans. 
 
 Government. Several independent nations inhabit Celebes, 
 and their governments are more regular than their otherwise 
 low degree of civilization would lead one to infer. The chiefs 
 are elective. Constitutional principles are said to exist in full 
 force among them. Some chiefs reign by right of inherit 
 ance, but, with the concurrence of inferior chiefs representing 
 the general interests of the country. The most usual form 
 of government is the federal and republican, combined with 
 the monarchical and elective principle. The native princes 
 so far recognize the authority of the Dutch, who have had a 
 footing in Celebes ever since they expelled the Portuguese 
 in 1660, with the exception of the four years occupation by 
 the British. Much public respect is paid to women, and they 
 occasionally reign as queens. 
 
 History. The native annals reach back, with any certainty, 
 to only about 400 years, and exhibit a history full of wild 
 energy, unsettlement, and warfare. In 1512, when the Portu 
 guese first visited the island, they found but few Mahometans 
 in it ; and it was not until a century afterwards that Moslemism 
 was generally adopted. The Macassars first conquered the 
 Boogis, and compelled them to become followers of Mahoinet ; 
 afterwards the latter revolted, were aided by the Dutch, and 
 subdued the Macassars in turn. But even with the aid of 
 their European allies, they failed in establishing a firm gov 
 
 ernment ; and the system of mo nopoly, now wisely abandoned, 
 but long forced by the Dutch on all the native chiefs, proved, 
 in every way, destructive to the progress of the population. 
 
 Population. Variously estimated, but, by the latest con 
 jectures, thought to be about 2,000,000. (Van der Aa; 
 Temminck; Raffles; Crawford; Earl s Eastern Seas; Wilks s 
 U. States Exploring Expedition, c.) 
 
 CELENZA, the name of two places, Naples : 1, A vil. 
 and com., prov. Abruzzo Citra, dist. of, and 16 m. S.S.W. 
 Vasto. Pop. 1853. 2, A tn. and com., prov. Capitanata, 
 dist. of, and 22 m. W.S.W. Sansevero It contains three 
 convents, and has an annual fair. Pop. 3840. 
 
 CELLAN, par. Wales, Cardigan. Pop. 475. 
 
 CELLE, a tn. Hanover, at the confluence of the river 
 Aue with the Aller, in the midst of a sandy plain, 23 m. N.E. 
 Hanover. It is well built and well paved, and contains seven 
 churches, a gymnasium, a library, a lying-in hospital, a medi 
 cal school, a workhouse, and a penitentiary. It has also a 
 royal palace with a fine chapel. In what is called the French 
 garden, is an indifferent monument to Matilda, Queen of Den 
 mark, sister of George III., who died here. The old parish 
 church contains tbe burial vault of the house of Brunswick- 
 Liineburg. Its inhabitants are noted for their industry ; they 
 manufacture excellent linen, flannel, hats, tobacco, &c., and 
 carry on a considerable trade with Bremen and other places, 
 by the Aller, which here becomes navigable. By railway, 
 it communicates with Hamburg, Hanover, and all parts of 
 Germany. The royal family of England is descended from 
 one of the dukes of Celle. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 CELLE11FELD. See ZBLLERPELD. 
 
 CELLIO, a vil. Sardinian States, Piedmont, prov. Va- 
 lesia, 55 m. S.E. Vallora. Pop. 2300. 
 
 CELORICO-DA-BEiiiA, a tn. Portugal, prov. Beira-Alta, 
 in a fertile district, 1. bank, Mondego, 11 m. W.N.W. Guarda. 
 It is divided into three parishes, each of which has a church, 
 one of them collegiate, and contains some ancient remains. 
 Pop. 1831. 
 
 GEM BRA, a tn. and com. Austria, Tyrol, prov. of, and 
 9 m. N.E. by N. Trent, r. bank, Avisio. Pop. 1513. 
 
 CEMMES, a vil. and par. Wales, co. Montgomery, 6 m. 
 N.E. Machynlleth. The VILLAGE, romantically situate on 
 the Dovey, contains a handsome church, chapels for Inde 
 pendents and Calvinistic Methodists ; a day school, and Sunday 
 schools belonging to each of these religious denomination.-), 
 and several charities. There are three annual fairs. Pop. 
 (1841), 935. 
 
 CENEDA, a tn. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, prov. of, 
 and 22 m. N. Treviso, on the Macliio. It is defended by a 
 citadel, is the seat of a bishopric, and of the district govern 
 ment, and has a cathedral and several other churches. It 
 has a theological seminary, and a gymnasium ; five paper- 
 mills, a bell foundry, some tanneries, and dyeing establish 
 ments, with manufactures of cotton and woollen cloths and 
 felts. There are mineral springs in the vicinity. Pop. 4500. 
 
 CENIA (LA) [anc. Sicana], a tn. Spain, Catalonia, prov. 
 of, and 56 m. S.W. Tarragona, 12 m. S.W. Tortosa, 1. bank, 
 Cenia. It is well built, and has a square, adorned with a 
 central fountain ; a parish church, townhall, prison, and two 
 schools. Employments paper, wine, and oil-making, and 
 husbandry. Pop. 2043. 
 
 CENIS (MONT), or MONTE CENISIO, a mountain and pass, 
 Cottian Alps, Sardinian States, between Piedmont and Savoy, 
 and forming part of the watershed between the valleys of the 
 Arc and the Doire. The culminating point of the moun 
 tain is 2224 ft. above Lans-le-bourg, in the former valley, 
 and 6773 ft. above the sea level. Its strata consist of alter 
 nate beds of schist, limestone, and gypsum. Basalt, serpent 
 ine, and, it is said, quartz, also occur. Its principal summits, 
 Ronche, Roche Michel, and Roche Melon, are usually sur 
 rounded by clouds, and covered with snow. Between the 
 first two summits on the E., and little Mount Cenis on the 
 W., is a plateau covered with meadows and pastures, and 
 partly occupied by a Lake, which contains excellent trouts, 
 and discharges itself by a mountain torrent, which rushes 
 down towards Susa, and forms a succession of fine cascades. 
 The vegetation of the mountain is particularly rich in rarer 
 Alpine plants, and is much resorted to by botanists. Tha 
 pass has been practicable from the earliest times, but the 
 road was very bad, and exposed to avalanches. The present 
 
CENON-LA-BASTIDE 
 
 630 
 
 CERAM 
 
 admirable road, one of the safest and most frequented over the 
 Alps, was finished in 1810, at an expense of 300,000, under 
 the orders of Bonaparte. 
 
 CENON-LA-BASTiDE, a vil. France, dep. Gironde, 2 m. 
 from Bordeaux. Pop. 2541. 
 
 CENTALLO, a tn. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 7 m. 
 N.N.E. Coni, near r. bank, Grana. It lias a castle, the for 
 mer residence of the Marquises of Snsa. Pop. 5000. 
 
 CENTO, a tn. Papal States, 13 m. N. Bologna, E. bank, 
 canal of Cento, and near the river Reno. It is surrounded 
 by a rampart and ditch, and contains several churches, con 
 vents, and a cathedral. The celebrated painter, G. F. Bar 
 bieri, commonly called Guercino, who founded a school of 
 art in 1 616, was a native of this place. Pop. 4000. 
 
 CENTORBI [anc. Centuripas], a tn. Sicily, prov. of, and 
 17 m. W.N.W. Catania, on a rock. It has only one street, 
 a church, and a convent -, but numerous ruins exist in the 
 vicinity, where also is found a stone that dissolves in water 
 like soap. Pop. 4455. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. See AMERICA, p. 124. 
 
 CEOS, isl. Greece. See ZEA. 
 
 CEPHALONIA, or KEPHALONIA, an isl. Mediterranean, 
 and one of the largest constituting the Ionian Republic, W. 
 coast, Greece, opposite the Gulf of Patras, between lat. 38 4 
 and 38 29 N.; and Ion. 20 21 and 20 49 E. Greatest 
 length, 32 m.; breadth, varying from 5 to 12 m.; area about 
 348 sq. m. It is separated from Ithaca on the \V., by a strait 
 about 2 m. broad, and stretching the whole length of the lat 
 ter island, which lies parallel to its N. extremity. Cephalonia 
 is generally mountainous. A calcareous ridge traverses the 
 Island N.W. to S.E., the highest summit of which, called 
 Orios Ainos, is about 5000 ft. above sea level. This lofty 
 peak was anciently crowned by a temple of Jupiter, of which 
 no trace remains, the mountain being now entirely covered 
 with wood. The only plain in the island of any extent, is in 
 the S.W. near Argostoli ; it is about 6 m. in length, and is 
 chiefly planted with vines. There are other fertile spots 
 throughout the island, but the soil is in general extremely 
 thin. The coast line is very irregular and deeply marked 
 with indentations, the principal of which are the bays of 
 Samos, Zola, and Argostoli; the last extends about 7 or 
 8 m. inland, has good anchorage, and is almost completely 
 land-locked, having but a narrow opening of 1 or 2 m. wide, 
 with a range inside of nearly 10 m. of generally deep water. 
 The climate is mild, but subject to sudden 
 changes of temperature, and to violent storms ; 
 earthquakes also are frequent. The principal 
 produce of the island is currants, of which 
 large quantities are exported annually. The 
 other products are wheat, corn, olive oil. 
 wine, cotton, flax, and salt, with various 
 kinds of fruits, including oranges, lemons, 
 figs, carobs, and melons. The manufactures 
 of the island are inconsiderable, consisting 
 of cottons, and of carpets of mixed wool and 
 goafs-hair, with some potteries, and distil 
 leries of liqueurs. The inhabitants are in 
 telligent, industrious, and enterprising, but .-. ,-~X 
 are charged with being loquacious and ver- ; 
 
 bose. Great numbers of them are brought 
 up to the medical profession, and afterwards 
 emigrate for practice to various parts of the 
 continent, especially to Turkey, where there 
 is hardly a town without a practitioner from 
 Cephalonia. 
 
 The greater part of the population are of 
 the Greek church, the others are of the Latin 
 church, and have a R. Catholic bishop, and 
 several convents of Franciscans. There are VIIJ 
 
 11 free schools on the island which are sup 
 ported by the Government, and 78 private schools. 
 
 Cephalonia was known anciently, by various names ; being 
 called Samos by Homer in the Odyssey, and Tetrapolis by 
 Thucydides. In 189, B.C., the island came under the Roman 
 dominion, and so remained till after the division of the empire, 
 when it became subject to the Byzantines till the 12th century, 
 filling afterwards, successively, to the Normans, Venetians, 
 Turks, and again to the Venetians, who retained possession of 
 it till 1797, when it was taken by the French, who were, in 
 
 turn, driven out by the Russians in 1799. Cephalonia was 
 then made part of the new State of the Seven Islands under 
 the protection of Russia. By the peace of Tilsit in 1809, the 
 French again obtained possession of it, but were soon after 
 driven out by the English, under whose protection it now re 
 mains. The island is divided into four districts, and sends 
 seven members to the Legislative Assembly, and one to the 
 Senate. The principal towns are Argostoli, and Lixuri ; there 
 are, besides, however, several large villages, amongst which 
 are Kalata and Zola, both on the N.W. coast of the island. 
 Pop. (1851), 69,054. 
 
 CEPPALONI, a vil. and com. Naples, prov. Principato 
 Ultra, dist. Avellino, and 5 m. S. Benevento. It Las an 
 annual fair. Pop. 2818. 
 
 CEPRANO, a tn. Papal States, 11 m. S.E. Frosinone, on 
 the frontiers of Naples, and near r. bank, Liri. Pop. 3000. 
 
 CERAM, called also CEIRAM and ZERAM, and SIKANO by 
 the natives, an isl. Indian Archipelago, the second largest of 
 the Moluccas, lies between Booroo on the W., and Papua on 
 the E., and immediately N. Amboina. It stretches from lat. 
 2 47 to 3 50 S.; and Ion. 127 51 to 123 56 E. ; area, 
 estimated at 10,500 sq. m. As the object of the Dutch, until 
 of late years, was not to increase the peculiar products of the 
 Spice Islands, but to sell small quantities at exorbitant profits, 
 their agents in Ceram have been content to know no more of 
 the island than was required for the extirpation of clove and 
 nutmeg trees, and otherwise enforcing the monopoly pre 
 scribed by the Bongay contract of 1676. Ceram, accordingly, 
 is still very imperfectly known. It is traversed from end to 
 end by mountain ranges, rising from a table-land of consider 
 able elevation, and sending down innumerable streams to tho 
 sea. The mountains vary from 6000 to 8000 ft. in height, 
 and that called Noosaheli rises to 9750 ft. But little is known 
 of their formation, nor is it certain that there are any volcanoes 
 among them. As the mountain -range inclines to tho, N.. 
 the largest rivers flow S. The vegetation of Ceram is luxu 
 riant and gigantic; the sago-palm, in particular, is more 
 abundant here than in any other of the adjoining islands, to 
 which, consequently, supplies of sago are exported. It grows 
 100 ft. high, and, instead of 400 Ibs. as at Amboina, a single 
 tree will sometimes yield 1200 Ibs. of starch. Clove and 
 nutmeg-trees grow wild in the woods, which abound, likewise, 
 in magnificent forest trees, but none have been found, as yet, 
 adapted for shipbuilding. Near the E. end, N. side, is the 
 
 village of Waroo, on tbe bay of same name; about lat. 3 25 S.; 
 Ion. 130 40 E. The bay affords good anchorage and water, 
 and other refreshments may be procured in it. 
 
 The coasts are peopled by a Malay race of bold and enter 
 prising fishermen and traffickers, who carry the produce of 
 their fisheries, in large prahus, called Jcora-kora, with from 30 
 to 60 rowers each, to the Sunda islands and Singapore. The 
 interior is peopled by the Alfoories or Halafoorahs, identical, 
 apparently, with those mountaineers of Celebes and the Philip- 
 
CEUAM-LAUT ISLES 
 
 6-10 
 
 CEK1GO 
 
 pines. Though the past policy of Holland has retarded the 
 cultivation of the land in Geram, her Christian missions have 
 not only made numerous converts along the coasts, but have 
 extended a softening influence even among the idolaters of 
 the interior. It is doubted whether the cutting off of heads, 
 for the mere purpose of giving eclat to a marriage or other 
 festivity, now exists in Ceram ; and a Dutchman did there 
 in 1846, what a Spaniard durst not venture to do in Luzon. 
 A sub-resident, Mr. Scherius, passed through their mountain- 
 retreats, and though he found human skulls used both as pri 
 vate and public ornaments, the atrocious custom of procuring 
 them from living victims was apparently abandoned. After 
 three days travelling, Mr. S. reached the elevated and almost 
 inaccessible table-lands of those barbarous aborigines, and, 
 even amid such hideous tokens of old customs, found them 
 a simple, honest, and peaceable people, living happily with 
 each other, and in habitual respect for their own patriarchal 
 government. The travellers were received without the least 
 apparent distrust at the native village, which consisted of 
 spacious cabins placed at some distance from each other, at a 
 cheerful and picturesque spot. The insides of the huts were 
 clean and simple ; the furniture consisted of a few coarse uten 
 sils, two muskets, of English manufacture, and three large 
 sabres ; five human skulls, suspended across the roof, left no 
 doubt of the tribe being Alfoories. It numbered about 500 
 souls, of whom 100 could bear arms, and had about 70 muskets 
 among them. The women engage in field-work ; the men do 
 so only when fresh ground has to be cleared. The chief article 
 of culture is maize ; and the surplus supply of that, and several 
 other vegetable productions, is exchanged at the small towns 
 along the shore for arms, powder and shot, articles of dress, 
 and fermented drinks. The men, when not engaged in war, 
 hunt the wild boar and deer, large serpents, &c. The Alfoories 
 of the S. of Ceram have an open expression, projecting feat 
 ures, large eyes, a well-proportioned nose, large but not pro 
 minent lips, and long frizzled hair. They are generally mild 
 in disposition, serviceable, and faithful ; and, being both brave 
 and obedient, make good soldiers. The other inhabitants of 
 Ceram are subject to several chiefs, who again are subject 
 those of the W. part to the Dutch resident at Amboina, and 
 those of the E. to the resident at Banda. A part of the centre 
 of the island is nominally governed by a prince called the 
 Sultan of Ceram, a personage whose piratical propensities 
 have led, at last, to his deportation to Java. The local princes 
 meet the Eutch residents once in two years, to have their dis 
 putes settled by a court composed of 24 rajahs, and at which 
 the resident presides. Sir Edward Belcher happened to be 
 at Amboina at the time of its meeting there, and was surprised 
 to find that most of the rajahs had adopted the European dress 
 and manners. 
 
 The aborigines of Ceram are mostly idolaters, and the coast 
 population, generally speaking, Mahometans ; though, of 620 
 souls in the village of Makarike, where Mr. Scherius landed, 
 438 were Christians, 11 only Mahometans, and 171 idolaters. 
 But the Christians were suffering from neglect. Notwith 
 standing its superabundant, fertility, Ceram is very thinly 
 peopled. This is attributed to the frequent dissensions of the 
 Malays among themselves, the attacks of the Alfoories from 
 the land side and of pirates at sea, and the ravages of the 
 small-pox. The present pop. is roughly estimated at 226,000. 
 (Van der Aa; Temminck; Moniteurdes Indes), 
 
 CERAM-LAUT ISLES, a cluster of small islands, Indian 
 Archipelago, lying off the E. end of island Ceram, from which 
 they are separated by the island and strait of Keffing. The 
 chief island is about 5 m. long, mountainous, and uninhabited ; 
 lat. 3 48 S. t Ion. 131 E. (R.) 
 
 CERAM I, a tn. Sicily, prov. Catania, 7 m. N.E. Nicosia. 
 Silver, copper, salt, sulphur, and slate are found in the dis 
 trict. Pop. 3667. 
 
 CERANO, a vil. Sardinian States, Piedmont, prov. of, and 
 8m. E.S.E. Novara, on the Mora. It has silk-mills. P. 3600. 
 
 CERANS-Foui.LETOURTE, a vil. France, dep. Sarthe, 
 13 m. from La Fleche. Pop. 1233. 
 
 CERCADO, a prov. Peru, having Lima, the cap. of the 
 country, about its centre on the coast. It is 39 m. long by 
 24 m. broad ; is watered by the Rimac and Lurin. Although 
 very little rain falls here even in winter, the territory is 
 extremely fertile, and produces various fruits and plants in 
 great abundance. The climate is mild, but unhealthy ; and 
 
 the country, though not subject to high winds, is frequently 
 visited by earthquakes. 
 
 CERCHIARA, a tn. and com. Naples, prov. Calabria 
 Citra, 9 m. E.N.E. Castrovillari. It contains two churches 
 and a foundling-hospital. Pop. 2080. 
 
 CERDAGNE, or CERDANA [Latin, Cardania or Cere- 
 tania] , an anc. dist. occupying both sides of the Pyrenees, and 
 partly in France, and partly in Spain. The French portion 
 was a dependency of the former prov. Roussillon, and had 
 Mont Louis for its capital. It now forms part of Pyrenees- 
 Orientales ; the Spanish portion, of which Puy Cerda was 
 the capital, is included in the modern provinces Barcelona, 
 Gcrona, and Lerida. 
 
 CERE, a small river, France, which rises in the Plomb 
 de Cantal, dep. Cantal, and, after a circuitous W. course of 
 about 60 m., joins 1. bank, Dordogne, a little below Bretenoux, 
 dep. Lot. No part of it is navigable. 
 
 CERE (ST.), a tn. France, dep. Lot, 17 m. N.N.W. 
 Figeac, on an island formed by the Baue. N. of the town 
 is a remarkable conical hill, the summit of which, about 
 600 ft. above the river, is surrounded by a rampart 8 ft. 
 thick, entered by a single gate. There are also two iso 
 lated square towers on it the principal of which is 134 ft. 
 high, and 98 ft. on each face. The origin of this fortress is 
 unknown. The town produces good hats, and has a consider 
 able linen trade. Pop. 2918. 
 
 CEREA, a vil. and par. Austrian Italy, gov. Venice, 
 prov. of. and 19 m. S.S.E. Verona, between the Tartano and 
 Menago. It contains a parish and two auxiliary churches, 
 numerous oratories, and four mills. The Austrians defeated 
 the French here in 1798. Pop. 2800. 
 
 CERES, par. Scot. Fife ; 8 m. by 4 m. P. (1851), 2836 
 
 CERES, a vil. Sardinian States, Piedmont, prov. of, and 
 22 m. N.W. Turin, near the confluence of two branches of 
 the Stura. Pop. 2000. 
 
 CERET, a tn. France, dep. Pyrene es-Orientales, 15 m. 
 S.S.W. Perpignan, r. bank, Tech, 4 m. from the Spanish 
 frontier. The river is here crossed by a bridge of a single 
 arch of 147 ft. span the highest and widest structure of the 
 kind in France. Ceret is surrounded by walls, flanked with 
 towers, outside of which is a promenade planted with trees. 
 The streets are narrow, but the suburbs are agreeable. Corks, 
 leather, and brazen utensils, are made here ; and there is somo 
 trade in grain, oil, cork, &c. In 1660, the plenipotentiaries 
 of France and Spain met here to fix the boundaries of the 
 two kingdoms. Pop. 2868. 
 
 CERIANA, a vil. Sardinian States, prov. of, and 27 m. 
 E.N.E. Nice. Pop. 2000. 
 
 CERIGNOLA, a tn. Naples, prov. Capitanata, 24 m. 
 S.E. Foggia. It has a college, several convents, and an 
 hospital. The inhabitants manufacture linen ; and the dis 
 trict produces large quantities of almonds and cotton. In 
 1503, the Spaniards here defeated the French, when tho 
 Duke de Nemours, who commanded the latter, was slain. 
 Pop. 10,350. 
 
 CERIGO, or KERIGO [anc. Cythera], one of the Ionian 
 Islands, S. of the Morea of Greece, about 12 in. from Cape 
 Malea, or St. Angelo; S.E. the entry of the Gulf of La- 
 conia, lat. (N. point) 36 23 N. ; Ion. 22 57 15" E. (it.) This 
 island, between 50 and 60 m. in circumference, is hilly, and 
 its shores steep and dangerous, from currents and sudden 
 gusts of wind; the safest anchorage is at San Nikolo, on the 
 E. coast. The climate is very mild and salubrious. The 
 island has little wood on it, but some good pasturage, with a 
 few fertile valleys, yielding small crops of grain, vines, olives, 
 &c. Some fine honey is produced, and part of it exported. 
 On the island there is a convict station. Cerigo forms, with 
 Cerigotto, one of the administrative provinces of the Ionian 
 Islands. It contains two towns, including the capital, Capsalo 
 on the S. coast, and 29 villages. The people are of Greek 
 origin, and are all of the Greek church. The island sends a 
 representative to the Republican Assembly ; and, conjointly 
 with Ithaca and Paxo, one senator. Cerigo was celebrated 
 in ancient times for the worship of Venus; and near the 
 fortress of San Nikolo are some ruins of the ancient city of 
 Cythera and its temples. Cerigo was long subject to the 
 Lacedemonians; and belonged, in turn, to Macedon, Egypt, 
 Rome, and Venice ; in later times, it has shared the fortunes 
 of the other Ionian Islands. Pop. (1851), 12.655. 
 
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