o V u ll a m II i \ 1 REESE LIBRARY OF THK UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class s? V I UNIVE . = 1* ,3 2 ii" *J[ Scientific American Reference Book Compiled by Albert A. Hopkins and A. Russell Bond Munn Sf Company, Publishers Scientific American Offices New York 19O5 c Copyright, 1904, by MUNN & COMPANY All rights reserved PRESS OF ANDREW H. KELLOGG CO. NEW YORK PREFACE. THE Editor of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN receives during the year thousands of inquiries from readers and correspondents covering a wide range of topics. The information sought for, in many cases, can not readily be found in any available reference or text-book. It has been decided, therefore, to prepare a work which shall be comprehensive in character and which shall contain a mass of information not readily procured elsewhere. The very wide range pif -topics covered in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN EEFERENCE BOOK may be inferred by examining the index and table of contents. This work has been made as non- technical as the subjects treated of will admit, and is intended as a ready reference book for the home and the office. It is possible that in some of the tables published in the book certain inconsistencies may be observed. Such a condition of affairs is in some cases in- evitable. In procuring the figures, for example, from different De- partments of the Government, with reference to any subject, it has been found that statistics vary in certain particulars. These variations are due to the different methods of tabulation, or to some different system by means of which the figures have been arrived at. In a number of cases these discrepancies will be noted in the book, but they are not to be regarded as errors. The debt for advice and help has been a heavy one. The com- pilation of this book would have been impossible without the cordial cooperation of government officials, who have been most kind. Our thanks are especially due to the Hon. 0. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor; to the Hon. S. N. D. North, Director of the Census ; Prof. John C. Monaghan, Editor of the Consular Reports; Hon. Eugene Tyler Chamberlain, Commissioner Bureau of Navigation; Dr. Marcus Benjamin, of the Smithsonian Institution ; Major W. D. Beach, IT. S. A., of the General Staff; Rear- Admiral Charles O'Neil, late Chief of Bureau of 130380 Ordnance,, U. S. N". ; Hon. S. I. Kimball, General Superintendent, Life Saving Service; the Director of the Mint,, Capt. Seaton Schroeder, U. S. N" v Chief Intelligence Officer, U. S. N. ; many ex- aminers in the Patent Office; Hon. Willis L. Moore, Chief of the Weather Bureau ; many officials of the Agricultural Department ; Hon. Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner Bureau of Labor ; Hon. George M. Bowers, and Mr. A. B. Alexander, of the Bureau of Fisheries; Prof. Charles Baskerville, Ph.D.; Edward W. Byrn, of Washington; Dr. George F. Kunz, Hon. S. W. Stratton, of the Bureau of Standards, and many others. We are also indebted to the J. B. Lippincott Co. for permission to use diagrams of Geometrical Constructions; to Hazell's Annual, Whittaker's Almanac, and the " Daily Mail Year Book/' A number of our diagrams are from the " Universal-Taschen Atlas " of Prof A. L. Hichmann. Our matter on the " Arctic Regions " is translated from Dr. Hermann Haack's " Geographen-Kalender." For a number of our tables we must thank the excellent pocket books of D. K. Clark and Philip R. Bjorling, and we are also indebted to the Year Book issued by our esteemed English contemporary " Knowledge." It is hoped that this work will save many fruitless searches through works of reference, as the aim of the compilers has been to obtain matter which is not readily available elsewhere. NEW YORK, October 15, 1904. CONTENTS. PART I. CHAPTER I. THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY 1-16 Division into Races. Total Population and Area of the World. Languages of the World. Progress of Discovery. The Distribution of Land and Water. The Cultivation of Land in all Con- tinents. The Polar Regions. The Antarctic. The Area and Population of all Countries. The Great Cities of the World. CHAPTER II. SHIPPING AND YACHTS 17-51 Summary of Shipping. Number and Tonnage of Vessels. Large and Fast Ocean Steamers. Motive Power and Material of Con- struction. Foreign Carrying Trade of the United States. The Panama Route. Dimensions of the Largest Ocean Steamers. The World's Shipping in 1903. The Speeds of Ocean Greyhounds. Record of Passengers Landed. The First Steamboats. The Largest Steamship Owners. Vessels having 10,000 Tons Dis- placement or over. The " Baltic." Comparison of Locomotives with the " Oceanic." The Supplies of the " Deutsch- land." Provisioning a Liner. Steam Turbines and Speed. The Cost of Speed. U. S. Life-saving Service. Disasters involving Loss of Life. Board of Life-saving Appliances. The Lighthouse Establishment. From Cruiser to Racing Machine. CHAPTER III. THE NAVIES OF THE WORLD 53-90 Construction and Classification of Warships. Navies of the World Compared. Relative Strength in Materiel. Relative Order of Warship Strength. Sea Strength of the Principal Naval Powers. Number of Torpedo Vessels and Submarines. Navies of the World in Detail. Regulations of the Naval Academy. List of Ships of the Navy. Submarine Boats. The Torpedo Boat. Torpedoes. The Interior of a Battleship. The Turret of a Battleship. Submarine Mines. Naval Ammunition. Our Naval Guns in the Civil and To-day. Pay of Naval and Marine Corps. War CHAPTER IV. ARMIES OF THE WORLD. . . .91-116 The Army of the United States. Foreign Armies. United States Military Academy. Springfield Magazine Rifle. Sixteen-inch Gun. Foreign Armies. CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. RAILROADS OF THE WORLD. . . .117-136 Railroads of the World. Railway Signals. Railroads of the United States. Street and Electric Railroads. Railway Gauges. Cape to Cairo Railway. Trans-Siberian Railway. CHAPTER VI. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES . . 137-170 Population of Each State. Official Census of the United States by Counties. How Population is Sheltered. Areas of States. Population Living in Cities. Population of Cities of 25,000 or over. Death Rates. Foreign Born Population. Population at Work. Indians. Number of Pensioners. Immigration. Labor's Death Roll. Acnuisition to Territory and Center of Population. CHAPTER VII. EDUCATION, LIBRARIES, PRINTING, AND PUBLISHING 171-184 The Value of an Education. Number of Students in Schools and Colleges. Libraries of the United States. Printing and Publishing. Raw and Finished Products in Printing. Libraries of the World. CHAPTER VIII. TELEGRAPHS, TELEPHONES, SUBMARINE CABLES, WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. AND SIGNALING . . .185-209 Land Lines of the World. Mileage of Lines and Wires. Morse Code. Statistics of Telephone Companies. Telegraphic Time Signals. Standard Time. Variation of Time. Submarine Telegraphs. Wireless Telegraphy. International Code of Signals. Distress Signals. Weather Bureau Stations. Distant Signals. Cyclones. Life-saving Signals. Weather Bureau. CHAPTER IX. PATENTS . . 211-255 Patents in Relation to Manufac- tures. Distinguished Inventors. Progress of Inventions. General Information Regarding Patents. Abstracts of Decisions. Foreign Patents. Patent Laws of the United States. History of the American Patent System. Copyright Law of the United States. CHAPTER X. MANUFACTURES 257-309 Localization of Industries. Comparative Summary of Power. Manufacturing in the United States. Iron and Steel. Merchandise Imported and Exported. Value of Agricultural- Implements. United States Trade in 1903. Summary of Progress. Motive Power Appliances. CONTENTS. vii CHAPTER XL DEPARTMENTS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 311-325 Department of Justice. Civil Service Commission. Department of State. National Academy of Sciences. Department of the Treasury. Interstate Commerce Commission. geSaSme'nf ol Agriculture. Department of Commerce and Labor. Post Office Department. Department of Navy. Department of the Interior. Commissioner of Patents. Board on Geographic Names. International Bureau of American Republics. American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. National Debts. CHAPTER XII. THE POST OFFICE 327-336 The United States Post Office. Number of Post Offices. Government Expenditures. Postal Information. The Postal Service of the World. Suggestions to the Public. CHAPTER XIII. INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND BUREAUS 337-342 Publication Customs The Nobel Prizes. The Pollok Prize. Court of Arbitration. Postal Union. Bureau of Telegraphs. Bureau of Weights and Measures. Union for the Protection of Indus- trial and Literary Property. Bureau for Repression of Slave Trade. Railroad Transporta- Union for Tariffs. Bureau of tion. Bureau of Geodesy. Carnegie " Hero " Commission. Rhodes Scholarships. Carnegie Institution. CHAPTER XIV. MINES AND MINING . . .343-353 Summary of the Mineral Production of the United States. Mines and Quarries. Clay Products. PART II. CHAPTER I. GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS . ..399-412 Geometrical Figures. Geometrical Constructions. The Circle. Formulas for the Circle. CHAPTER II. MACHINE ELEMENTS . ..413-416 CHAPTER III. MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS . ..417-441 Toothed Gear. Friction Gear. Chain Gear. Rope Gear. Clutches. Angle Shaft Couplings and Universal Joints. Ratchet Movements. Escapements. Gearing. Cams and Cam Movements. Miscellaneous Movements. Drafting Devices. Governors. Springs. Belting. Types of Engines. viii CONTENTS. PART III. CHAPTER I. CHEMISTRY 443-452 Prices of French Radium. Points of Chemical Ele- Table of Elements. International Atomic Weights. Common Names of Chemical stances. Specific Gravity. Thermometer Scales. Value of Rare Elements. Radium and Radio-Activity. Sub- Melting Points of ments. Boiling Points of Chemical ments. Heat of Combustion. Si/es of Dry Plates. Ele- CHAPTER II. ASTRONOMY . ..453-464 Astronomical Summary. Astronomical Symbols and Abbrevi- ations. Solar System. Greek Alphabet. Names of the Principal Stars. Magnitudes and Distances of some of the Stars. Star Map of the Heavens. Refractors of the World. PART IV. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. . . .465-500 Linear Measure. Land Measure, Linear. Land Measure, Square. Geographical and Nautical Meas- ure. Cubic Measure. United States Dry Measure. United States Liquid Measure. Apothecaries' Liquid Measure Old Wine and Spirit Measure. Avoirdupois Weight. Troy Weight. Diamond Measure. Household Measures. Foreign Weights and Measures. Decimal System of Weights and Measures. Approximate Equivalent of French and English Measures. Table of Metric Measures. French and English Compound Equivalents. To Reduce Parts to Weight. Mensuration. Circular Measure. Angular Measure. Time. Table of Decimal Equivalents. Bible Weights and Measures. Jewish Money. Roman Money. Time and Watch on Ship. Specific Gravity of Stones. Specific Gravity of Mineral Sub- stances. Specific Gravity of Fuels. Specific Gravity of Woods. Specific Gravity of Animal Sub- stances. Specific Gravity of Vegetable Sub- stances. Specific Gravity of Liquids. Specific Gravity of Gases. Units of Log Measure. Cord Measure. Hardness of Minerals. Heat Its Mechanical Equivalent. Steam Pressure and Temperature. Table of Temperature. Expansion of Solids. Expansion of Liquids. Strength of Materials. Friction. Water. Air. Strength of Ice. Weight of Balls. Pipes. Animal Power. Manual Power. Windmills. Force of Wind. Metals, Weights for Various Dimen- sions. Weight of Castings. Pulling Strength of Men and Ani- mals. Boiler Tubes. To Obtain Index of a Lathe. Nails. Rules on Gearing. Rules for Pulley Speed. Wall Paper. Standard Gauge for Plate. Electrical Engineering. The Ohm. C. G. S. Electrical Standards. Electromagnetic System of Electric Units. Units of Force, Pressure, Work. Power. Resistance. Res'stance of Metals in Standard Ohms. Heat and Electrical Conductivity. Resistance and Weight Tables. Weight per Mile of Copper Wire. Wire Gauges. Weight and Length of Iron and Steel Wire. Electrical Horse-power. Composition of Battery Cells. Table of Height and Weight. Table of Mortality. Compound Interest. Roman Notation. * * * * * * * ******** ******* [******* t ***** FLAG OF THE PRESIDENT. U.S. FLAG. U.S. UNION JACK. REVENUEFLAG. BELGIUM. BRAZIL CHILE. CRETE. CUBA ECUADOR. FRANCE. AUSTRIA -HUNGARY. ARGENTINA. CHINA. COLOMBIA COSTA RICA DENMARK GERMANY GREAT BRITAIN. ROYAL NAVAL RESERVE. (WITH BADGE. : AND COIOWAL GORMEIIT DEPARTMENTS I GREECE. GUATEMALA. HAITI HONDURAS ITALY JAPAN * KONGO. KOREA LIBERIA. MOROCCO. MADAGASCAR, MUSCAT. = NETHERLANDS fci NICARAGUA IN THE MERCHANT FUG THE BADGE IS NEARER THE HOIST. PARAGUAY. PORTUGAL. TURKEY. TRIPOLI, EGYPT. URUGUAY. GENEVA CONVENTION. MEXICO. NORWAY PERSIA. p II PERU. ROUMANIA RUSSIA O SALVADOR SANTO DOMINGO. S I A M SPAIN SWEDEN VENEZUELA CHAPTER I. PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY. DIVISIONS INTO RACES. RACE. Location. Number. Fndo-Germanic or Aryan Europe, Persia, India, etc 545,500,000 Mongolian or Turanian Greater Part of Asia 630,000,000 Semitic or Hamitic North Africa, Arabia 65,000,000 Negro and Bantu Central Africa 150,000,000 Hottentot and Bushman South Africa 150,000 Malay and Polynesian Australia and Polynesia 35,000,000 American Indian North and South America 15,000,000 RACES OF MANKIND. POINTS OF THE COMPASS. TOTAL AREAS AND POPULATION OF THE EARTH. Square Miles. (1) Asia 17,071,999 (2) Europe 3,824,956 (3) Africa 11,506.785 (4) America 15,284,872 (5) Australia and Oceania 3,457,667 (6) Polar Regions 1,656,394 Total 52,802,673 POPULATION. Per Square Kilo. 18.5 40.5 6.2 3.6 0.7 136,759,067 1,547,470 177.808 11.6 Hiibner's Geographisch-Statistische Tabellen. In Per Square Thousands. Square Kilometers. Mile. 44,216,523 820,768 48.0 9,906,647 393,486 102.9 29,802,603 180,321 15.6 39,587,860 146,432 9.5 8,955,369 4,290,065 6,450 1.8 13 0.008 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY Continued. Date. Explorer and Nationality. Discovery or Exploration. A.I). 1513 Balboa (Span.). . . Crosses Isthmus of Panama and discovers Pacific 1516 1517 1519-21 1519-21 Solis (Span.) Sebastian Cabot (Eng.). . . Cortez (Span.) Magellan (Span.). . Ocean. Reaches La Plata. Hudson Strait. C9nquest of Mexico. First to circumnavigate the globe. Passes through 1534 Pizarro (Span ) the Strait of Magellan, crosses the Pacific, and dis- covers the Philippines. Completes the Conquest of Peru 1535 1535-42 1539 about 1540 Diego d'Almagro (Span.). Jacques Cartier (Fr.) Francesco de Ulloa (Span.) Conquers Chili. Gulf of St. Lawrence. Ascends river to Hochelaga (Montreal). Explores Gulf of California. Continent of Australia seen by French sailors 1541 Pizarro and Orellana | (Span ) . . . f Amazon River. 1542 1553 1576 1577-80 Antonio de Mota Ruy Lopez de Villalobos. . (Span.) Pinto (Port.) Sir H. Willoughby (Eng.). Frobisher (Eng.) Sir F. Drake (Eng.). . First reaches Japan. Discovers Pelew Islands, and takes possession of Philippine Islands for Spain. Visits Japan. Novaia Zemlia. Labrador and Baffin Land. Second circumnavigation of the globe, and first saw 1587 1596 J. Davis (Eng.) Barentz and Heemskerk | Cape Horn. Explored W. coast of N. America nearly as far as Vancouver Archipelago. Davis Strait. 1598 1606 1608 1610 1614-17 1616 1618 1642 1643 1645 1660 1673 1725-43 1728 and '41 1764-66 1768-79 1770 1785-88 1789 1792 1795-1806 1799-1804 1801-1804 1803-6 1805-9 1807-8 1819 1825 1819 (Dut.). Mendana (Span.) Quiros (Span.) Torres (Span.) Cham plain (French) H. Hudson (Eng.) Spillbergen (Dut.) W. Baffin (Eng.) LeMaire and Schouten | (Dut.) \ Dirk Hartog (Dut.). G. Thompson (Eng. mer.). Abel Tasman (Dut.) Vries (Dut.) Deshnev (Cossack) French Marquette and Joliet (Fr ) Russians Bering (Dan.) and ( Tishirikov (Rus.). . . . f Byron (Eng.) Capt. Cook (Eng.) James Bruce (Scot.) Liakhov (Russian) La Perouse (French) A. Mackenzie (Scot.) Vancouver (Eng.) Mungo Park (Scot.) Alex, von Humboldt I (Ger.) f Flinders (Eng.) Krusen stern (Rus ) Salt, (Eng.) Klaproth (Ger.) Sir E. Parry (Eng.) Sir J. Franklin J Richardson and Back > (Eng.) } Long(U. S.) Discovers Marquesas Islands. Tahiti (Sagittaria), and other South Sea Islands. Torres Strait. Dutch reach Australia. Discovers Lake Ontario. Hudson Bay and discoveries in N. America. Circumnavigation of the globe. Enters Baffin Bay. Round Cape Horn. West coast of Australia. Sails up Gambia. Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) and New Zealand. Explores E. coast Japan, Saghalien, and Kurile Is. Rounds East Cape of Asia from the Kolyma to the Anadyr. Lake region of the St. Lawrence discovered. Exploration of the Mississippi from the north. Exploration of the coasts of Siberia. Bering Strait and the NW. coast of America. Circumnavigation of the globe Voyages round the world. Hydrographical surveys of the Society Islands, Sandwich Islands, E. coast of Australia, Cook Strait in New Zealand, Antarctic Ocean, NW. coast of America, etc. Sources of the Blue Nile. Discovers New Siberian Islands. North of Japan, Saghalien, etc. Exploration of the Mackenzie River. Vancouver Island circumnavigated. Discovered by Perez, 1774. Exploration of NW. coast of America. Journeys and explorations in the Niger districts. Explorations in South America and "Cosmos." Southern coasts of Australia. Surveys in Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsk, Sagha- lien, etc. Visit to Abyssinia Exploration of the Caucasus. Parry Archipelago. Coppermine and Mackenzie Rivers explored. Exploration of Rocky Mountains, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE UNKNOWN WORLD, 1800. THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY Continued. Date. Explorer and Nationality. Discovery or Exploration. 1819 1823 1823 Win. Smith (Eng.) Wrangel (Rus.) Den ham and Clapperton \ (Eng ) . ( South Orkney Islands and South Shetlands. Visited by Weddell in 1822. Discovers Wrangel Land. Lake Chad. 1825-26 1827-8 1829 1830-32 1830 A. G. Laing (Scot.) Ren:> Caillie (French). . . . Sturt (Eng.) Biscoe (Eng.) Reached Timbuktu from Tripoli. Journey from Kakandy to Timbuktu and Morocco. Descends the Murrumbidgee and discovers the Mur- ray River. Enderby Land and Graham Land. Royal Geographical Society founded in London. 1831 1832 1833-35 1835 Sir J. C. Ross (Eng.). . . Laird and Oldfield (Scot.). Sir G. Back (Eng.) Sir F. Schomburgk (Ger.). Magnetic North Pole. Exploration of the Niger and Benu6. Great Fish River. Explorations in Guiana. THE UNKNOWN WORLD, 1900. The black areas are unexplored. The shaded portion represents the radius of a three weeks' journey from London in 1800 and 1900. Bartholomew' s Atlas. 6 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY Continued. Date. Explorer and Nationality. Discovery or Exploration. 1837 1837-40 1839 1839 1840 1841 1841-73 1844-45 1845 1848 1849-55 1850 1852-4,1861 1856-59 1858 1860 1862 1862-63 1864-66 1867-72 1868-71 1869 1870-1886 1871-75 1872 1872-76 1872-76 1873 1874-75 1876 1876-90 1876 1878-79 1878-89 1878-85 1878-92 1879 1881-85 1885 1886 1887 1893-96 1897 1893-97 1895-96 1896 1896-98 1897 1897 1898-99 1899 1900 1000-02 Wood (Eng.) D'Urville (French) J Balleny (Eng ) Sources of the Oxus. Adelie Land. Reached 66 30' S. lat. Balleny Islands, 60 44' S. lat. Discovers Lake Torrens, S. Australia, and in 1841 journeys from Adelaide to King George's Sound. Remains of ancient Nineveh. Victoria Land, with volcanoes Erebus and Terror. Thirty years' travel in Central South Africa. Crosses Australia, Moreton Bay to Port Essington. Sails on his last voyage never to return. Mt. Kilima Njaro. Sighted Mt. Kenia. Western Sudan and Sahara. Northwest Passage. Explorations in Peru. Basin of Ogowo River, W. Africa Lake Tanganyika Victoria Nyanza. Explores Upper Nile. Discovers Albert Nyanza. 1864. Crossed Australia. Journeys in Central and Eastern Arabia. Journey in W. Sudan by Ghadames, Murzuk, and Wadai to R. Niger. Extensive travel and exploration in China. Exploration of the Jur. Niam-Niam, and Monbuttu countries. Explorations in Lake Chad region and Central Sudan States. Journeys in Mongolia, Tibet, etc. Exploration of N. part of Spitzbergen. Vaigats Is. Franz Josef Land. Explores the depths of the oceans. Traverses Northwest Australia. Crosses Western Australia from East to West. Crosses Equatorial Africa. Explorations in the Ogowe and Gabun region. Congo Basin; Mt. Ruwenzori; Forests on the Aru- wimi, etc. Grant Land. Penetrated as far N. as 83 20' lat. Northeast passage. Journeys through Masai Land, British South Africa, Sokoto, Morocco, etc. Twice crosses Africa. Travels and Surveys in Equatorial Africa. Discovery of Semliki River, etc. Sources of the Niger. Grinnell Land and NE. coast of Greenland. Across Africa from West coast, Congo Basin. Welle-Mobangi, etc. North Greenland. Travels from Pekin to Kashmir. Hviotenland, etc.; reached his "Farthest North" in lat. 86 13' 6" N. Surveys and explorations in Franz Josef Land. Explorations in North Central Asia. Travels in Tonkin and China. Explores region of Lake Rudolf. Travels from Upper Mobangi to Fashoda. Attempt to cross over the North Pole in a balloon, with fatal results. Crosses Western Australia from S. to N. "Belgica," first ship to winter within Antarctic circle. Explorations in Congo and Zambezi headwaters. Reached lat. 78 50' S. via Victoria Land. Reached lat. 86 33' N. via Franz Josef Land. Important Journey in Central Asia. Eyre (Eng.) Triimmer Sir James C. Ross (Eng.). . D. Livingstone (Scot.). . . Leichhardt (Ger.) Sir John Franklin (Eng.). Rehmann and Krapf ( Ger. ) Richardson and Barth j (Eng.-Ger) j Sir R. M'Clure (Irish) SirC. R. Markham (Eng.). Du Chaillu (French) Sir R. Burton (Scot.). . . . Speke and Grant (Brit.). . Sir S. Baker (Eng.) M'Douall Stuart (Scot.). . W. G. Palgrave(Eng-). . . G. Rohlfs (Ger.). . . Richthofen (Ger.) G. Schweinfurth (Ger.). . . G. Nachtigal (Ger.) Prejevalsky (Rus.) . Leigh Smith (Eng.) Payer and Weyprecht 1 (Austrian) \ "Challenger" Expedi- ) tion(Brit.) . . f Ernest Giles Warburton (Irish) Lieut. Cameron (Eng.).. . . De Breeze (French) H. M. Stanley (Eng.) Sir Geo. Nares and | A. H. Markham (Eng.) ( Nordenskjold (Swed.) Thomson (Scot.). . . . Major Serpa Pinto (Port.). Emin Pasha (Ger ) . . Moustier and Zweifel I (Swiss) j Greely (U. S.) Wiesmann (Ger.) Junker (Rus.-Ger.) Peary (U. S.) Capt. Yo unghusband j (Eng.). . . Nansen (Norw.) Jackson (Scot ) Sven Hedin (Swed.) Pr. Henri d'Orleans Donaldson Smith (Scot ).. Capt. Marchand Andre (Swed.). . . . D. Carnegie. De Gerlache (Belgian). . . Major Gibbons . Borchgrevink (Brit. Ex.). Duke of Abruzzi (Ital.). . . Sven Hedin (Swed.) Bartholomew's Atlas. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. STEPPES, HEATHER [CAPABLE DF CULTIVATION BUT FALL TABLELAND LOWLAND. DF THE EARTH'S SURFACE INDIAN OCEAN 14.69% DESERTS ^MOUNTAIN CHAIN ;ANDOTHER UNPROD ^DISTRICTS** POLAR REGIONS 0-82% I STEPPES, PASTURES ETC. PRAIRIES, LLANOS, PAMPAS! " "IIIIISAVANNASIII !|!| STURES AND STEPPES ECAPABLE OF CULTIVATION]] ymjjt. BRUSHLAND UNPROD.; NTAIN CHAI ICE BOUND OISTR PASTURES AND STEPPE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND WATER OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE AND THE DIVISION OF LAND IN FIVE CONTINENTS, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. TOTAL AREAS AND POPULATION OF THE POLAR REGIONS. (1) Under no sovereignty (2) Danish possessions on Greenland. .. . (3) British possessions: Arctic Island in North America. . . South Georgia (4) Russian possessions in the Arctic Ocean (New Siberian Islands). . . . Square Miles. 1,103,554 34,015 502,354 1,573 14,895 Square Kilo- meters. 2,858,210 88,100 1,301,100 4,075 38,580 In Thou- sands. "12" Population. Per Square Mile. 0.00 Per Square Kilo 'o'.Y 0.00 1,656,391 4,290,065 13 0.3 0.1 Hiibner's Geographisch-Statistische Tabellen. MAP OF THE ARCTIC REGIONS, Bartholomew's Atlas. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE POLAR REGIONS. National emulation, more particu- larly since the great success of Nan- sen, seems to have played the chief role in all the recent researches un- dertaken in the vicinity ot" the poles. No fewer than three expeditions were organized in 1902 for the main purpose of reaching the North Pole. Otto Sverdrup, the Norwegian, with Nan- sen's old ship, the ''Fram," started in through Smith Sound; Lieut. Robert E. Peary, of the United States navy, pursued a like course ; while Mr. E. B. Baldwin, also an American, selected Franz Josef Land as his point of de- parture, although Prince Luigi, of Sa- voy, had only just vainly attempted it. The expedition led by Capt. Sver- drup was incontestably the most suc- cessful, says Dr. Herman Haack in his Geographen Kalender. As early as 1898 his expedition was already under way. He spent the first winter north of Cape Sabine, where, by means of extended sledge journeys, he explored the. fiords of Hayes Sound, in the following spring even advancing as far as the west coast of Elles- mereland. Finding the ice condi- tions no more favorable in 1899 than in the previous summer, he abandoned forthwith his former plan and fixed upon Jones Sound as the starting point for his investigations, in the hope of finding on the west coast of Ellesmereland a better and freer water course to the north than the narrow neck of Smith Sound can afford, which is so easily obstructed by the pack ice from the Pole. Sverdrup met with difficulties in Jones Sound also, for he could push no farther forward than Inglefeld had reached in 1852, and so he took up his second winter quarters at the point where the coast of Ellesmereland seemed to bend northward, under north latitude 76 deg. 29 min. and west longitude 84 deg. 24 min. The sledge journeys of the fall of that year established the fact that Ellesmereland extended much farther westward than was supposed, and was separated from North Kent only by the Belcher Channel, a small arm of the sea. In the spring of 1900 Sver- drup continued the exploration of the west coast of Ellesmereland, where he discovered a deep fiord, while his as- sistant, Isachsen, examined a large body of land lying to the west of it. The "Fram" being free from ice in August, the passage through Jones Sound was continued, but the ship was soon fast again in the Belcher Channel near the westernmost point of Ellesmereland, and Sverdrup estab- lished his third winter quarters under latitude 76 deg. 48 min. and longitude 89 deg. The fall of 1900 and the spring of 1901 were devoted to sledge journeys. Sverdrup himself continued his ex- ploration of Ellesmereland, examining anew and more thoroughly the fiord which he discovered the year before, after which he turned northward and succeeded in reaching the most west- erly point occupied by him in the spring of 1899, to which he had then proceeded from Smith Sound. Isachsen proceeded westward and discovered north of North Cornwall two larger islands, exploring their southern coasts till they turned to- ward the north. Under latitude 79 deg. 30 min. and longitude 106 deg., he reached his farthest western limit, from which point neither to the west nor to the north was any land visible, and from the character of the floating ice it was not probable that any land existed in either direction. In July of that year the north coast of North Devon was explored in boats. All attempts to get the "Fram" out of the ice having failed, Sverdrup was compelled to pass a fourth winter in 1901-2 in this region, during which other extended sledge journeys were undertaken. Following the west coast of Ellesmereland, Sverdrup attempted to reach 80 deg. 16 min. N., 85 deg. 33 min. W., the farthest point attained by Lieut. Aldrich, of the English Polar Expedition of 1875-76, on the west coast of Grinnell Land, coming down from the north. He was not success- ful, however, though he penetrated as far north as 80 deg. 37 min., which was but a short distance from the goal. Sledge journeys undertaken by other participants in the expedition resulted in the exploration of the west coast of North Devon. In the beginning of August, 1902, when the "Fram" was again free from ice, Sverdrup started immediately upon his homeward way, reaching Stavanger on the 19th of Sep- tember. The chief result of this ex- pedition was the discovery of large land areas west of Ellesmereland, and since the discovery of Franz Joset Land no such extension of our knowl- 10 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. edge of these regions has been sig- nalized. Lieut. Robert N. Peary, U. S. N., conceived a plan of reaching the North Pole by sledge journeys, accompanied by no one but Esquimaux and his black servant Henson. For this pur- pose it became necessary to establish, well to the south, a point of departure that could be reached every year by a ship, which could supply fresh pro- visions and new outfittings, that were to be pushed toward the north and de- posited in caches along the coast. The weak point of the scheme lay in the fact that the advance to the farthest points already reached required so much time" for so small a sledge crew that further penetration into the unknown must be undertaken at an advanced season of the year, when the stability of the ice made such a movement questionable. The winter of 1898-99 Peary passed at Etah, on the eastern shore of Smith Sound, in order to interest the abo- rigines in his plan, buy dogs, and per- fect other preparations. After his ship, the ''Windward," reached him with fresh supplies in the fall of 1899, he was transported to Cape Sabine, which he had fixed upon as the start- ing point and base of the expedition. Here he passed the winter of 1899- 1900. In the spring of 1900 he under- took a sledge journey straight across Ellesmereland, and in the fall of that year established a line of depots to- ward the north. In the spring of 1901 he made the first energetic move to- ward the Pole, which led him from Grant Land in the direction of Green- land. He passed the most northern point, 83 deg. 24 min., reached by Lockwood in the Greely expedition of 1882, and fixed, under latitude 83 deg. 39 min., the northern extremity of Greenland. He followed the coast to- ward the east until it began to bend decidedly to the southeast in the direc- tion of Independence Bay, thus estab- lishing the insular nature of Green- land. On his return he made a dash for the north and reached 83 deg. 50 min., the highest point thus far attained on the American side of the polar archi- pelago. During the spring of 1902, Peary even exceeded this. Starting from Cape Hekla, the northernmost point of Grant Land, he proceeded over the ice as far as 84 deg. 17 min., while Capt. Markham, in 1876, succeeded only in reaching 83 deg. 20 min. from this side. From the European side, however, Capt. Cagni, of the Italian expedition, starting from Franz Josef Land, attained the advanced position of 86 deg. 34 min. Peary was obliged to make his dash in April, and, as was the case with Markham, he found the ice in a very unsatisfactory condition ; the immense hummocks of compressed drift-ice in- creased the difficulties of travel for both dogs and men. There were no traces, however, of the unchangeable paleocrystic ice mentioned by Mark- ham, for on the return Peary met with numerous open places and channels which caused serious delays. No land was visible to the north of either Greenland or Grant Land. In spite of the unsuccessful termination of his ex- pedition, Peary is still convinced that the best point of departure is from the American side of the archipelago, and, moreover, that, with an early start from Grant Land, the Pole may be reached by sledge. Though Sverdrup and Peary added to our knowledge of the Polar regions, the third expedition fitted out by Mr. Ziegler, an American, and under the direction of Mr. Bald- win, who started from Franz Josef Land for the Pole, was closed without definite results. Several small islands were discovered ; the hut in which Nansen and Johansen lived in 1895-6 was again found ; some scientific events were noted ; meteorological sketches and photographs of the Northern Lights were made, and yet the finality of the expedition was a fiasco. No earnest attempt to reach the Pole was made. Serious friction between Baldwin and Fridtjof, the sailing master of the expedition, is re- sponsible for the unsuccessful termina- tion. Among the most important of the Polar expeditions is that led by Baron Toll, a Russian, for the discovery and exploration of the island either exist- ing or supposed to exist to the north of the New Siberian Islands. Having twice before, in 1886 and 1894, visited the northernmost of these islands, Toll left Europe again in 1900 in the steam- ship "Sarja" upon a similar quest. Upon entering the Sea of Kara, he did not pick up the ship which was bring- ing him coal, and since both the con- dition of the ice and the open sea were favorable to his designs, he preferred not to wait for it. Cape Tscheljuskin, the extreme northern point of Asia, and the intended termination of the first summer's journey, was not reached, but the condition of the ice SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 11 compelled him to put into Colin-Archer haven, at the entrance to the Taimyr Straits, on September 26, where he passed the winter. Failing in two attempts to gain the mouth of the Jenissei by crossing the land, Lieutenant Kolomeizoff finally reached it by following the coast. Dur- ing the spring of 1901, the extent of Taimyr Bay was carefully explored upon sleds, and through the discovery of the hut in which Lapten spent the winter of 1840-1, as well as by reach- ing the most northern station of the Middendorf expedition of 1843, the mouth of the Taimyr River was def- initely fixed. The "Sarja" could not proceed till August 25. Cape Tschel- juskin was safely rounded and the course set for the location where, ac- cording to Toll's observation in 1886, the distant Polarland, seen as early as 1811 by Sannikow, to the north of Kotelny, ought to be. This point was passed without sighting the supposed land, and a few miles before reaching Cape Emma, the southernmost point on Bennett Island, discovered by the "Jeannette" expedition, the ice became so packed that further progress north- ward was impossible. On the return voyage the ship cruised again in the vicinity of the supposed Sannikow land, but without sighting it. On Sep- tember 24, 1901, the "Sarja" froze in at the island of Kotelny, in Nerpitscha Bay, where the expedition passed the winter. Whether or not Sannikow and Toll were deceived as to what they saw cannot yet be determined. It is quite possible that they may have mis- calculated the distance and that the island may lie farther north in a sec- tion not touched even by Nansen's drift in the "Fram" during the long winter night of his journey in 1893-4. Being unable to get coal from the Lena River, the "Sarja" became unfit for long journeys; accordingly Toll re- solved upon sledge journeys to the north, similar to those undertaken from the "Fram" by Nansen. The geologist, Birula, began such a journey May 11, intending to explore the larg- est of the New Siberian Islands. On June 5 Toll followed him, accompanied by the astronomer Seeberg and two Jakuts, but touched only at the north- ernmost point, Cape Wyssoki, which he left on July 13, crossing the ice for Bennett Island. Toll left Lieut. F. Mattheissen in charge of the "Sarja," but August 21 arrived before any earnest effort could be made to proceed to New Siberia and Bennett Land to bring back the sledge parties. About Kotelny and Faddejew the ice was so thick that these islands could be passed neither to the north nor the south, and since the open season was fast drawing to a close, Mattheissen brought the "Sarja" back to the Lena, where he anchored in the bay of Tiksi Septem- ber 8. Being too deep of draft to steam up the river, the "Sarja" was abandoned, and the crew, together with the scientific collection and in- struments, were transferred to Jakutsk on the small steamer "Lena." It was expected that Toll and Bi- rula would return to the mainland at the beginning of winter, but Birula re- turned in 1903, in good health, without having seen Toll. Perhaps the condi- tion of the ice between Bennett Land and New Siberia prevented Toll's re- turn, and it was held that he would at- tempt it again in the spring of 1903. THE GREAT [LAURENTIAN] LAKES. Lakes. Length, Miles. Breadth, Miles. Area, Sq. Miles. Height above Sea, Feet. Superior. ' Huron (with Georgian Bay). 390 400 160 160 31,420 24,000 576f St. Clair Erie .... 25 250 25 60 360 10,000 seef Ontario . . 190 52 7,330 240 Michigan. . . 345 58 25,590 578* Lake Michigan is wholly within the United States and is connected with Lake Huron by the Strait of Mackinaw. Statistical Year Book of Canada. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. ANTARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. Though the quest of the North Pole has monopolized the world's attention for more than a century, it has of late not been entirely without a rival. The British expedition broke the farthest-south record by reaching the latitude of 82 deg. 17 min. Mr. Borch- grevink previously held the record at 78 deg. 51 min. TILE BRITISH EXPEDITION sailed from London in July, 1901, on the Discovery, under command of Capt. Scott, R. N. Fearful lest the currents might destroy the expedition, a rescu- ing party was dispatched in 1902 un- der Lieut. William Colbeck, who took part in the Borchgrevink South Polar expedition. The rescuers on the Morn- MAP OF THE ANTARCTIC REGIONS. Bartholomew's Atlas (with additions.) SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 18 ing left Wellington, December 6, 1902, and returned to the same place March 25, 1U03, bringing reports of the suc- cessful work of the main expedition. The Discovery reached Cape Adare, the northernmost point of Victoria Land, January 9, 1902, and followed the coast south; from Mt. Erebus the ship skirted the wall of ice, discovered by Ross, as far as longitude 1C5 deg. E., where it turned more to the north. Behind the ice wall reared the high- lands covered with glaciers which Ross had sighted. Under 67 deg. N. and 152 deg. 30 min. E. the ship reached its farthest point, whence it returned to Victoria Land to go into winter quarters in MacMurdo Bay, near the volcano Mt. Erebus, in longitude 174 deg. E. Sledge journeys began in September, 1902. The one led by Captain Scott marched for three months, attaining a point under 82 deg. 17 min., which sur- passed Borchgrevink's 78 deg. 50 min. by nearly 3% deg. A second sledge party, commanded by Lieutenant Armi- tage* turned westward of Erebus, and during a march of fifty-two days reached an elevation of 9,000 feet. This is the more noteworthy since all the dogs died, supposedly from spoiled pro- visions. The Morning found the Dis- covery still in winter quarters, and when the rescuers departed the Dis- covery seemed still fast in the ice. Late in 1903 the Morning and the whaler Terra Nova were refitted and started on a second expedition to the relief of the Discovery. The latter was found on February 14 and the three vessels returned to Lyttleton, New Zealand, on April 1, 1904. Among the chief results of the expedition was the discovery that Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are on a small island, and that there is a large land mass lying west and southwest of the ice barrier, with ice plateaus 9,000 feet in height and peaks which reach to 14,000. It was discovered that the ice barrier is afloat, though fed from land, and that high land lies to the southeast of the hitherto unknown extremity of the barrier. THE GERMAN EXPEDITION, which entered the ice-pack south of the Indian Ocean on February 13, 1902, left it on April 9, 1903, and returned from a voyage highly fruitful of scien- tific results, although not comparable with the voyage of the Discovery in sensational experiences. Incidentally it has swept away the Termination Land of Wilkes, passed the winter in the close pack, carried out numerous and important sledge journeys, discov- ered new land (called Kaiser Wilhelm II. Coast), and actually reached land in the solitary peak called the Gauss- berg. Balloons were used successfully during the expedition. The farthest south was 66 deg. 2 min., and the ship was frozen for many months in ice 30 feet thick. THE SWEDISH EXPEDITION, under Captain Otto Nordenskjold, left Europe in October, 1901, and entered the Antarctic regions in February, 1902. The ship returned from the Falkland Islands to Graham's Land in March, 1902, went south again in the southern summer of 1902-1903. With the assistance of the Swedish govern- ment the Norwegian steamer Frithjof was dispatched for the relief of the Antarctic, whose commander, by the way, is Captain Larsen, well known for his Antarctic voyage in the Jason. To the Republic of Argentine, which sent the gunboat Uraguay, belongs the honor of having rescued the Swedish expedition, which was found at Snow Hill on Louis Philippe Land in des- perate straits, their vessel having been crushed by the ice and sunk on Febru- ary. 12, 1903. THE SCOTTISH EXPEDITION, on the Scotia, under the command of Mr. W. S. Bruse (formerly of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition), set sail on November 3, 1902, for what is known as the Weddell quadrant of the Antarctic regions, with the intention of following in the wake of Captain Jas. Weddell, who reached a high southern latitude in open sea. This route was advisedly selected, as the Scottish expedition is devoting its at- tention to oceanographical work. Cap- tain Robertson, the well-known whal- ing skipper, commanded the Scotia. Contrary to expectation, the Scotia wintered in the ice, and no further news of her has yet been received. THE FRENCH EXPEDITION, under the command of Dr. Charcot, sailed from Havre in August, 1903, to explore Alexander Land. The origi- nal plan of the expedition was to ex- plore Nova Zembla, but just then the Swedish expedition was causing a great deal of anxiety, and it was de- cided to direct the expedition toward the South Pole in search of Norden- skjold. The rescue of the Swedish ex- pedition then left Dr. Charcot free to make explorations in Antarctic re- gions. 14 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. AREA AND POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES COMMERCE WITH Revised and Corrected by the Bureau of Area and Population. Countries. Area. Population. Popula- tion per Square Mile. Argentina. . . Sq. Miles. 1,135,840 4,794,000 4 22 Australasia: Commonwealth New Zealand Austria-Hungary Austria ' Hungary 2,972,573 104,751 241,333 2' 115,903 2a 125,430 3,772,000 788,000 45,405,000 2a 26,151,000 2a 19,254,000 1.27 7.52 188.14 225 . 63 153 51 Belgium Bolivia . . 11,373 703,604 6,694,000 1,816,000 588.59 2 5.S Brazil British colonies, n. e. s Bulgaria Canada Central America : Costa Rica 3,219,000 951,333 38,080 3,048,710 23,000 14,334,000 14,434,000 3,744,000 5,457,000 313,000 4.45 15.17 98.33 1.79 13.61 Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua- San Salvador Chile China. 46,774 46,250 49,200 7,225 279,901 1,532,420 504,773 1,647,000 775,000 i 9 500,000 1,007,000 3,051,000 407,253,000 9 4,000,000 35.21 16.76 10.16 139.38 10.90 265 . 76 7 92 Cuba Denmark. . . . 43,000 15,360 1,573,000 2,465.000 36.58 160 48 Ecuador Egypt. . 116,000 383,900 1,204,000 9,734,000 10.38 25 36 Finland France Algeria . . 144,255 207,054 184 474 2,744,000 38,962,000 4,739 000 19.02 188.17 25 69 Tunis 51,000 1,900,000 37 25 French colonies, n e. s 3 375,602 26,427,000 7 83 French East Indies 6 German Empire 461,196 208,830 18,346,000 58,549,000 39.78 280 36 German colonies Greece. .... 1,025,829 25,014 13,543,000 2,434,000 13.20 97 31 Haiti 10 204 1,294 000 126 81 India, British 7 . 1,766,642 294,361,000 166 62 Italy . 110 646 32,475 000 293 50 Japan 147,655 45,862,000 310 60 Formosa. . . . 13,458 2,706,000 201 07 Korea Mexico. . . . 84,400 767,060 9 12,000,000 13,545,000 142.18 17 65 12 563 5,347 000 425 61 Dutch East Indies 736,400 124,130 35,736,000 2,263,000 48.53 18 23 Paraguay Persia . 97,722 628,000 636,000 9 9,500,000 6.51 15 13 Peru 713,859 4,610,000 6.46 Portugal Roumania 36,038 50,700 5,429,000 5,913,000 150.65 116.63 Russia Santo Domingo 8,660,395 18 045 141,000,000 610,000 16.28 33 80 Servia 18,630 2,536,000 136.12 Siam 236,000 194 783 5,000,000 18,618,000 21.19 95 58 172 876 5 199 000 30 07 Switzerland Turkey 15,976 1 115 046 3,356,000 24,932,000 210.07 22 36 United Kingdom United States 121,371 8a 3,025 600 41,961,000 80,372,000 345.73 26.56 Philippine Islands 115,000 7,590,000 66.00 Uruguay 72,210 593,940 959,000 2,445,000 13.28 4 12 Total. . 41,414,336 1,508,659,000 1 Exclusive of intercolonial commerce, but including gold and silver. 2 Including gold 5 French Africa. 6 Includes French possessions in India and French Indo-China, viz., the feudatory States. 8 Included under Sweden. 8a Exclusive of Alaska and Hawaii. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 15 OF THE WORLD, THEIR TOTAL FOREIGN COMMERCE, AND THE UNITED STATES. Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor. Foreign Commerce. Commercf United j with the States. Excess of Exports from Imports into Year. Imports. Exports. Exports ( + ) or United States United States Imports ( ). to. from. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. 1902 99,433,000 173,205,000 + 73,772,000 9,808,529 10,396,873 1902 i 203,644,000 i 213,713,000 + 10,069,000 28,101,784 2 13,845,001 1902 255,121,000 2 66,403,000 + 11,282,000 1902 349,228,000 388,460,000 + 39,232,000 6,672,580 10,093,346 1902 '459,472,666 ' '371,620,660 ' ' - " 87,852,'ddo 43,515,112 17,912,084 1902 5,587,000 11,076,000 + 5,489,000 76,926 1,731 1902 113,288,000 177,323,000 + 64,035,000 11,155,565 71,583,086 1902 475,370,000 280,744,000 - 194,626,000 57,886,757 22,875,024 1902 13,751,000 20,011,000 + 6,260,000 31903 224,814,000 196,161,000 - 28,653,000 i23,472,'416' ' MJMKUIO ' 1902 4,415,000 5,661,000 + 1,246,000 1,697,043 3,291,545 1900 3,018,000 7,134,000 + 4,116,000 1,128,418 . 2,190,145 1902 1,672,000 2,357,000 + 685,000 969,963 1,136,220 1901 2,185,000 3,243,000 + 1,058,000 1,364,518 2,199,313 1902 2,624,000 3,926,000 + 1,302,000 868,329 583,459 1902 48,330,000 67,846,000 + 19,510,000 3,753,222 7,155,839 1902 198,364,000 134,720,000 - 63,644,000 22,698,282 26,182,113 1898 10,695,000 18,487.000 + 7,792,000 2,923,404 3,140,043 31903 58,826,000 77,849,000 + 19,023,000 21,769,572 62,341,942 1902 116,726,000 85,730,000 - 30,996,000 14,812,900 68,494 1902 7,029,000 8,811,000 4- 1,782,000 1,347,850 1,823,166 1902 73,229,000 87,081,000 + 13,852,000 667,577 10,854,628 1902 45,191,000 39,117,000 - 6,074,000 ( 4 ) ( 4 ) 1902 848,026,000 820,671,000 - 27,355,000 70,497,327 87,895,253 1902 64,228.000 60,804,000 - 3,424,000 s 386,758 6 461,102 1901 12,483,000 7,551,000 4,932,000 1901-2 46,808,000 35,806,000 - 11,002,000 2,785,418 1,088,493 1902 41,964,000 40,677,000 1,287,000 62,361 3,873 1902 1,340,178,000 1,113,313,000 - 226,865,000 174,264,495 111,999,904 1901 8,969,000 4,497,000 4,472,000 30,949 11,702 1902 26,034,000 15,466,000 - 10,568,000 369,919 1,229,144 1901 5,500,000 12,760,000 + 7,260,000 1,956,343 1,127,641 1902-3 255,614,000 408,396,000 + 152,782,000 4,866,683 51,831,665 1902 342,718,000 284,177,000 - 58,541,000 33,135,512 33,612,864 1902 135,322,000 127,326,000 7,996,000 21,622,603 40,597,582 1902 5,030,000 6,881,000 + 1,851,000 1902 6,744,000 4,142,000 2,602,000 257,130 31903 1902 74,690,000 867,308,000 88,200,000 732,975,000 4- 13,510,000 - 134,333,000 42,227,786 74,576,164 ' 61,802,902" 20,899,588 1901 86,894,000 98,724,000 + 11,830,000 2,210,963 15,343,948 1902 77,779,000 45,687,000 - 32,092,000 ( 8 ) ( 8 ) 1902 2,270,000 3,787,000 + 1,517,000 14,815 3,890 1902 1902 1902 23,703,000 21,062,000 60.044,000 13,243,000 17,938,000 30,710,000 10,460,000 3,124,000 - 29,334,000 2 t 573,'289' ' 2,915,897 2,826,493 3,229,813 1902 1901 54,686,000 305,614,000 72,340,000 392,215,000 + 18,654,000 + 86,601 ,000 138,635 7,518,177 65 7,262,757 1901 2,987,000 5,224,000 + 2,237,000 1,700,371 3,361,319 1902 8,650,000 13,920,000 91 10^ 000 + 5,270,000 + 5 321 000 33,149 1902 1902 1902 1898-99 1902 1 75^4871000 134,605,000 217,803,000 117,134,000 2,571,416,000 Z 1 , 1 Uo , UUu 161,297,000 105,154,000 168,741,000 59,072,000 1,379,283,000 - 29!45l|oOO - 49,062,000 - 58,062,000 -1,192,133,000 15,976,788 9,530,137 203,357 354,457 523,773,397 8,787,621 4,193,307 19,864,767 2,359,830 180,249,114 3 1903 1902 1898 ' 32^9721000 - 24,565,000 8,560,000 ' 33',122!000 33,656,000 14,900,000 ' 150, 000 + 9,091,000 + 6,340,000 4* ,038,909 1,549,812 2,736,726 11,372,584 2,830,069 6,609,919 i 11,621,366,000 10.266,667,000 -1,354,699,000 1,356,965,925 1,003,224,820 and silver. 2a Not included in total. 3 Year ending June 30 " Included under .Russia. Cochin China, Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia, and Laos. 7 Including area and population ot a Estimated. 16 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. CHAPTER II. SHIPPING AND YACHTS. SUMMARY OF SHIPPING. The growth of our merchant marine is slow, and is in no sense commensu- rate with our phenomenal advance- ment in manufactures and commerce. At the same time, it is a fact worthy of note that the documented tonnage of the United States on June 30, 1903, for the first time in our history exceed- ed 6,000,000 gross tons register, com- prising 24,425 vessels of 6,087,345 gross tons. These figures do not in- clude 1,828 yachts of 74,990 gross tons. The total shipping of the United King- dom for 1902 was 20,258 vessels, of 15,357,052 gross tons (vessels of Brit- ish colonies number 15,533 of 512,268 net tons). On January 1, 1902, the to- tal shipping of the German Empire was 6,024 vessels of 3,503,551 gross tons. The shipping of the United Kingdom and Germany is largely employed in developing foreign trade. The ship- ping of the United States is almost wholly a part of our domestic trans- portation system. On June 30, 1903, 5,141,037 gross tons were engaged in transportation and coastwise trade, 879,264 gross tons were devoted to foreign trade, and 67,044 to fisheries. The distribution of our tonnage on June 30, 1903, was : Atlantic Ocean, 3.157,373 gross tons; Pacific Ocean, 812.179 gross tons; the Great Lakes, 1,902,698 gross tons; Mississippi sys- tem, 215,095 gross tons. Our ship- ping on the Pacific has increased more rapidly than on the Atlantic. In re- gard to motive power, 3,408,088 gross tons were propelled by steam, and 1,- 965,924 gross tons were sailing ves- sels, and 713,333 gross tons of canal- boats and barges were variously pro- pelled. As regards the materials of construction, 2,440,247 gross tons were of iron and steel construction, and 3,- 647,098 gross tons were of wood. The following table shows the geographical distribution, motive power, and ma- terial of construction of American shipping June 30, 1903. American Shipping. Number. Gross Tonnage. GEOGRAPHICAL DIS- TRIBUTION. Atlantic and Gulf coasts . Porto Rico Pacific coast 17,218 59 2,575 3,149,711 7,662 775,859 Hawaiian Islands Northern lakes Western rivers 69 3,110 1,394 36,320 1,902,638 215,095 Total 24,425 6,087,345 POWER AND MATERIAL. Sail: Wood 16,187 2,391,017 184 288,240 Total. . . ... 16,371 2,679,257 Steam: Wood. 6,675 1,256,081 Iron and steel Total 1,379 8,054 2,152,007 3,418,088 Canal boats 695 78,406 Barges 2,840 634,927 Total . 3,535 713,333 CONSTRUCTION DURING THE YEAR 1903. Geographical distribution. Altantic and Gulf coasts . 847 191 244,860 43,336 Northern lakes 123 136,844 Western rivers 150 11,112 Total Power and material. Sail: Wood 1,311 466 436,152 77,795 Steel 4 12,184 Steam : Wood 451 31,674 Iron and steel 100 19 240,107 2,215 Barges: Wood 267 66,249 Steel 4 5,928 Total. . 1,311 436,152 17 18 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. During the years 1902 and 1903, nearly 100,000 tons of large ocean-go- ing steamers have been added to our registered fleet. The subject of the losses of vessels from various causes is a most impor- tant one. During the year ending June 30, 1903, 487 vessels of 107,084 gross tons were reported. The num- ber and rig of vessels lost is shown by the annexed table : nearby countries. The excellent light- house system of the American coast and care in navigation have, however, over- come liability to accident from the na- ture of our trade along the coasts. Collision differs totally from stranding in that, for its prevention, one must look to the navigating officers. The figures show that superior care and in- telligence are possessed by the navi- gating officers of American steamers. Rig. Strancjed. Collision. Fire. Foun- dered. Aban- doned. Total. Steam. . . 21 8 49 28 106 Sail. 153 25 61 107 . . . . . 359 Unrigged 7 3 2 10 22 Total 181 36 112 145 13 487 The very heavy percentage of loss of steamers by fire discloses unsatis- factory attention to duty in the hold or insufficient fire apparatus, or both. The table given includes lost American vessels of all sizes on the rivers and lakes of the country, as well as salt water. For comparison of the relative losses of the merchant shipping of the United States and foreign nations, the most complete figures are those of the "Bureau Veritas." They cover only sea-going steamers of over 100 gross tons and sea-going sail vessels of over 50 net tons. The proportion of for- eign vessels on the ocean is so great and of American vessels so small that the figures do not clearly disclose the relative security of navigation under various flags and laws. Figures show that American sea-going vessels from 1896 to 1903 have been less liable to accident but more liable to total loss than foreign steamers, while American sea-going sail vessels have been more liable both to accident and loss than foreign sea-going sail vessels. The losses of both steamers and sail vessels of all nations are due, of course, more to stranding than to any other cause, as it accounts for 47 per cent, of the losses of American sea-going steamers and 53 per cent, of the losses of American sea-going sail vessels. The losses of foreign steamers are 44 per cent., and tne losses of for- eign sail vessels 46 per cent. There is a special reason why American ves- sels are more liable to stranding than the vessels of other nations which conduct the world's deep-sea trade. American vessels are seldom found in midocean on long voyages. Their course is usually along our own coasts in the domestic trade, or in trade with The third cause of loss and accident in the order followed by the "Bureau Veritas" is fire. The element of di- rect human responsibility in the case of fire is considerably greater than in cases of collision, where fog and the fault of the second party to the colli- sion may produce disaster, and is much greater than in cases of strand- ing, where fog, defective charts, and an inadequately lighted coast add to the perils which stress of weather al- ways creates. Afloat or ashore fire seems usually to be a peril to life and property, to be guarded against only by a higher degree of men's watchful- ness or by better extinguishing ap- pliances. Each vessel is separated usually by the water from every other vessel as buildings ashore are not sepa- rated, so that extra precautions should produce better results with ships than with buildings. The American steam fleet contains a considerable propor- tion of wooden hulls, while foreign steamers are usually steel. Still it is not pleasant to notice that while the loss of 18 per cent, of lost American steamers may be charged to fire, the loss of only 4 per cent, of lost for- eign steamers is charged to this cause ; that while 8 per cent, of damaged American steamers suffered from fire, only 5 per cent, of foreign vessels came from this cause ; that 4 per cent, of lost American sail vessels were burned and only 2 per cent, of lost foreign sail vessels were burned. The only re- lieving feature of these particular fig- ures is that the proportion of accidents from fire to American sail vessels 3 per cent, of the total was the same as to foreign vessels. The situation dis- closed may be corrected. Whether that correction should come from the under- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. writers or from the Government in its legislative or executive branch is not now considered. Collision to a great extent, and fire to a greater extent, -cause loss or acci- dent to vessels mainly through lack of skill and vigilance of the officers and crew. Except where caused by unu- sual storms or waves vessels founder, on the other hand, on account of struc- tural weakness of the hull. This weakness may be inherent and the fault of the builder, or it may be due to age and inadequate repair, the fault of the owner. In rare cases a new ves- sel, splendidly built, may yield to the tempest. The separation of causes of loss by the "Bureau Veritas" into foundered, abandoned, and missing, while proper enough from the point of view of the statistician, is not wholly satisfactory to those required to deal with facts from the point of view of possible remedy. The three classes, foundered, abandoned, and missing, really constitute one class for remedial purposes. That class consists of ves- sels which, on account of defects of the hull, are lost at sea. Most of them founder. Some of them are abandoned by their crews and the ship does not actually go down before their eyes. All of these ultimately go down except the proportion kept afloat by their cargoes, such as lumber-laden schooners. This small proportion con- stitutes the class known as "derelicts." Leaks (defects in a vessel's bottom) cause about 2 per cent, of the accidents to American steamers and to foreign steamers. Leaks, again, cause 20 per cent, of the accidents to American sail vessels, and only 15 per cent, of the accidents to foreign sail vessels. Stress of weather or storms ac- counted for 10 per cent of the acci- dents to American steamers, 13 per cent, of accidents to foreign steamers, 30 per cent, of accidents to American sail vessels, and 35 per cent, of acci- dents to foreign sail vessels. Doubt- less the excellent system of weather reports and storm warning along the American coasts helps to produce this favorable showing for American ves- sels. The principal cause of accidents to American steamers lies in the en- gines and boilers to which 29 per cent, of our steamer accidents are charged, compared with 24 per cent, for for- eign steamers. Collision (31 per cent.) is the principal cause of British steam- er accidents; stranding (31 per cent.) of German accidents. Accidents to engines and boilers may be due to de- fective original construction, to inade- quate repairs, or to faults of the men in charge of them. Generally speak- ing, American machinery holds a high place in the world's esteem, and while positive evidence is not at hand, it still seems probable that American marine engines and boilers are equal to those of foreign make. If that be so then the large proportion of acci- dents from engines and boilers must proceed from one or both of the other two causes mentioned. The returns of the number of men including mas- ters required to man the documented fleet of merchant vessels and yachts of the United States report crews ag- gregating 135,828 men, 88,249 men be- ing engaged on steamers, while the crews of sailing vessels number 45,- 030 men, and unrigged boats require 2,549 men to man them. These fig- ures are only for the crews reported. Returns for 1903 show that 3,086 American steam vessels, including yachts, aggregating 2,994.866 gross tons, are propelled by engines aggre- gating 2,369,202 indicated horsepower. The figures indicate an annual con- sumption of about 10,000,000 long tons of coal for fuel on these steamers, and the employment on board of about 20,- 000 men as firemen and trimmers. The total number of steam vessels (includ- ing motor launches) on June 30, 1903, was 8,801 of 3,459,644 gross tons, so that the figures stated cover 86 per cent, of our steam tonnage, including yachts. In the navy 207 steam vessels of 206,953 tons (displacement) are propelled by engines of 624,745 indi- cated horse-power. Condensed from the Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Navigation. Flag Day. Flag Day is June 14. "Old Glory" was 127 years old on June 14, 1904. NATIONAL SWISS RAILWAYS. Four of the chief railway lines in Switzerland the Central Suisse, the Nord Est, the Union Suisse, and the Jura-Simplon have been nationalized. There only remains the St. Gothard Company. The existing concession will be renounced 1905, and the pur- chase price fixed on the basis of the average returns of the 10 years pre- ceding 1894-1904. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. STATEMENT OF NUMBER AND NET AND GROSS TONNAGE STEAM AND SAILING VESSELS OF OVER 100 TONS, OF THE SEVERAL COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD, AS RECORDED IN LLOYD'S REGISTER FOR 1903-4. OF Steam. Sail. Total. .riag. Num- ber. Net Tons. Gross Tons. Num- ber. Net Tons. Num- ber. Ton- nage. British: United Kingdom 7,530 8,233,721 13,410,894 1,622 1,478,677 9,152 14,889,571 Colonies 1,023 466,732 782,688 959 334 115 1 982 1 116 803 Total American (United States) : Sea Lake 8,553 862 349 8,700,453 810,003 756,470 14,193,582 1,220,995 1,001,072 2,581 2,119 56 1,812,792 1,259,986 129,903 11,134 2,981 405 16,006,374 2,480,981 1,130,975 Total 1,211 1,566,473 2,222,067 2,175 1,389,889 3,386 3,611,956 Argentine Austro-Hungarian. . . 119 267 44,678 348,461 70,862 557,745 99 29 24,918 20,952 218 296 95,780 578,697 Belgian. . 112 103,459 156 559 2 488 114 157,047 Brazilian. . . . Chilean. 228 49 84,110 42,164 132,107 67,186 90 59 22,979 36,572 318 108 155,086 103,758 Chinese. . . Cuban. ... 45 41 38,807 24,703 60,491 38,550 12 2,324 45 53 60,491 40,874 Danish. 385 283 490 483 968 414 97 279 799 581 247 Dutch. ( French. 360 717 387,800 584 180 613,219 1 153 761 98 638 45,626 468 255 458 1 355 658,845 1,622,016 German 1 425 I 720 106 2 794 311 473 488 936 1 898 3 283 247 Greek. . . 199 '205*996 325 895 192 52 304 391 378,199 Italian Japanese Mexican Norwegian. . . 365 544 32 962 448,704 366,232 9,070 570 869 704,109 585,542 15,210 935 229 861 1,042 16 1 256 476,226 141,276 3,678 718 511 1,226 1,586 48 2 218 1,180,335 726,818 18,888 1,653,740 Philippine Islands. . . . 92 27,035 43,138 37 8,261 129 51,399 Portuguese 48 32 642 51 217 152 50 087 200 101,304 Russian 573 354 539 578 343 726 231 305 1 299 809,648 Spanish. . . . 459 461 333 720 822 136 43 625 595 764,447 Swedish. . 750 308 623 502 581 764 218 535 1 514 721,116 Turkish 125 57 970 92 869 216 61 625 341 154,494 Other countries 23,330 15 5,333 47 28,663 Total, including coun- tries not specified. . . . 17,761 16,822,466 27,183,365 12,182 6,459,766 29,943 33,643,131 THE WORLD'S LARGE AND FAST OCEAN STEAMSHIPS. The following table shows the sea- foing screw steamships in the world of 2 knots or upward, and of 2,000 gross tons or more, recorded in Lloyd's Reg- ister on July 1, 1903$ including a few vessels building at that time. While in tonnage these vessels are about one- fourth of the w r orld's sea-going steam tonnage, in efficiency, due to their size and speed, they represent more nearly one-third of the effective ocean-carry- ing power of the world in the general foreign and colonial carrying trade, and probably 85 per cent, of the world's foreign passenger trade. 1 903. Speed. Num- ber. Tons. Twenty knots and over Under 20 and over 19 knots. 20 9 236,114 63,219 Under 19 and over 18 knots. 24 191,454 Under 18 and over 17 knots . 56 378,197 Under 17 and over 16 knots. 80 550,315 Under 16 and over 15 knots. 98 509,479 Under 15 and over 14 knots. 154 766,719 Under 14 and over 13 knots. 379 1,886.602 Under 13 and over 12 knots. 502 2,079,775 Total. . 1,322 6,661,874 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 8 O H <: w a w o 25 HJ xjno. The following table gives the dis- tance from New York to ports named by the routes specified : Countries. 1903. 1902. Tons. 1,619,040 272,350 314,900 91,120 189,930 49,900 34,330 14,560 22,440 20,900 2,740 2,040 200 13,500 35,570 3,820 United Kingdom Germany United States Holland France Tons. 1,409,630 261,003 493,144 71,423 107,431 52,380 61,057 17,301 23,849 37,208 63,726 2,040 72 13,252 35,411 6,631 4,309 2,379 16,000 From Via Pan- ama. Via Suez. Via Cape of Good Hope. New York to Tientsin Shanghai .... Tokyo Manila Melbourne . . . 10,908 10,828 9,692 11,412 9,911 12,914 12,187 13,019 11,435 12,737 15,063 14,446 15,178 13,555 12,206 Italy Norway and Sweden . . Belgium Denmark Austria-Hungary. Russia Spain and Portugal. . . . Greece. . . There are 47 steamships engaged in cable-laying and repairing. Canada Japan (European) China (European) Hongkong ( European ) . Singapore (European). . Other countries The longest submarine telephone cable is on the London-Brussels route. It extends from St. Margaret's Bay to La Panne, a distance of 54 miles. 3,000 10,000 London Statist. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 25 DIMENSIONS OF THE LARGEST FAST OCEAN STEAMERS. The largest and in many respects the highest type of marine architecture is to be found in the modern ocean greyhound, for transatlantic trade. In recent years the rival companies have vied with each other ir the effort to excel, and steamships of larger size, greater speed, and more perfect equip- ment have followed each other, until it would seem that the limit had been reached. In the accompanying table the largest and most recent steamers are placed in comparison with the "Great Eastern." Name of Ship. Date. Length over All. Beam. Depth. Draught. Displace- ment. Maxi- mum Speed. Great Eastern 1858 Feet. 692 Feet. 83 Feet. 57* Feet. 25* Tons. 27,000 Knots. 12 Paris Teutonic Campania St. Paul Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse. Oceanic Deutschland. Baltic 1888 1890 1893 1895 1897 1899 1900 1904 560 585 625 554 649 704 686* 725J 63 57* 65 63 66 68 67* 75 42 42 41* 42 43 49 44 49 26* 26 28 27 29 32* 29 30* 13,000 12,000 19,000 14,000 20,000 28,500 22,000 40,000 20 20 22 21 22.35 20 23.5 20 The following tables show the fast recorded times in which journeys have been made between English ports and SPEEDS OF OCEAN GREYHOUNDS. those of the United States, Canada, India, China, Burmah, Australia, South Africa, aijd the West Indies. Dis- Speed, The Atlantic Record. Line or Company. Timing of Record Run taken between tance, Nauti- cal Miles. Record Run. Knots per Hour. D. H. M. De u t s c h 1 and (16,500). Hamburg - Amer- ican. New York (Sandy Hook) and Plymouth (off Eddystone). 2,982 E. 5 7 38 23.36 Kronprinz Wil- North -German New York (Sandy Hook) 2,978 E.. 5 8 18 23.21 helm (15,000). Kaiser Wilhelm Lloyd. North -German and Plymouth. New York (Sandy Hook) and 3,112 E. 5 11 58 23.58 II. Lloyd. Plymouth (off Eddystone). Lucania( 12,952) Cunard Queenstown (Daunt's Rock) 2,779 W. 5 7 23 21.81 and New York. St. Paul (11,629) Teutonic American White Star Southampton and New York. Queenstown (Daunt's Rock) 3,046 2,778 W. 6 31 W. 5 16 31 21.08 20.34 (10,000). and New York. Minneapolis Atlantic Transport (Off) Dover and New York 3,265 W. 8 2 31 16.80 (13,402). New England Dominion (Sandy Hook). Queenstown (Daunt's Rock) 2,636 W. 6 12 42 16.62 (11,400). and Boston Light. Tunisian Allan Rimouski and Moville (Ire- 2,307 E. 6 5 20 15.5 (10,576). land) via Belle Isle. E. = Sailing eastward. W. = Sailing westward. Daily Mail Year Book, 1904 RECORD OF ATLANTIC PASSENGER SERVICE TO NEW YORK. Year, No. of Pas- Cabin. Steerage. Total. Year. No. of Pas- Cabin. Steerage. Total. sages. sages. 1896 1897 1898 852 901 812 99,223 90,932 80,586 252,350 192,004 219,651 351,573 382,936 300,237 1900 1901 1902 838 887 922 137,852 128,143 139,848 403,491 438,868 574,276 541,343 567,011 714,124 1899 826 107,415 303,762 411,177 Daily Mail Year Book, 1904. 26 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. RETURN OF PASSENGERS LANDED AT NEW YORK BY FIVE PRINCIPAL LINES. 19 32. 19 31. 19 00. Line. Cabin. Steerage. Cabin. Steerage. Cabin. Steerage. North-German Lloyd Hamburg- American White Star Cunard. American 27,767 20,698 18,402 16,308 14,456 110,697 98,988 40,225 23,650 20,658 22,960 20,977 18,167 17,783 12,110 101,384 78,560 30,483 19,943 12 511 26,577 23,657 14,948 20,000 16,435 92,143 72,245 29,370 22,751 16,884 -Daily Mail Year Book, 1904. FIRST STEAMBOATS, PIONEER SAILINGS, AND EARLIEST LINES. 1707. Denis Papin experimented on River Fulda with paddle-wheel steamboat. 1736. Jonathan Hulls patented designs similar to modern paddle boat. 1769. James Watt invented a double-acting side-lever engine. 1783. Marquess of Jouffrey made experi- ments in France. 1785. James Ramsey, in America, propelled a boat with steam through a stern-pipe. 1785 Robert Fitch, in America, propelled a boat with canoe-paddles fixed to a moving beam. 1787. Robert Miller, of Edinburgh, tried primitive manual machinery. 1788. Miller, with Symington, produced a double-hull stern-wheel steamboat. 1802. Charlotte Dundas, the first practical steam tugboat, designed by Symington. 1804. Phoenix, screw-boat designed by Stephens in New York; first steamer to make a sea voyage. 1807. Clermont, first passenger steamer con- tinuously employed; built by Fulton in U. S.A. 1812. Comet, first passenger steamer con- tinuously employed in Europe; built by Miller in Scotland. 1818. Rob Roy, first sea-trading steamer in the world, built at Glasgow. 1819. Savannah, first auxiliary steamer, Saddle wheels, to cross the Atlantic; built in ew York. 1821. Aaron Manby, first steamer (English canal boat) built of iron. 1823. City of Dublin Steam Packet Co. was established. 1824. General Steam Navigation Co. was established at London. 1824. George Thompson & Co. (Aberdeen Line), were established. 1825. Enterprise made the first steam pass- age to India. 1825. William Fawcett, pioneer steamer of the P. & O. S. N. Co. 1830. T. & J. Harrison (Harrison Line) were established at Liverpool. 1832. Elburkah, iron steamer, took a private exploring party up the Niger. 1834. Ltoyd's Register for British and Foreign Shipping established. 1836. Austrian Lloyd Steam Navigation Co. established at Trieste. 1837. Francis B. Ogden, first successful screw tugboat; fitted with Ericsson's pro- peller. 1838. Archimedes, made the Dover-Calais passage under two hours, fitted with Smith's propeller. 1838. R. F. Stockton, built for a tugboat, fitted with Ericsson's propeller, sailed to America ; first iron vessel to cross the Atlantic ; first screw steamer used in America. 1839. Thames, pioneer steamer of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co. 1839. George Smith & Sons (City Line) were established at Glasgow. 1840. Britannia, pioneer steamer of the Cunard Line. 1840. Chile, pioneer steamer of the Pacific Steam Navigation Co. 1845. Great Britain, first iron screw steamer, precursor of modern Atlantic steamer. 1845. Thos. Wilson, Sons & Co., Ltd. (Wil- son Line), established at Hull. 1847. Pacific Mail Steamship Co. established in America. 1849. Houlder Brothers & Co. established at London. 1850. Bullard, King & Co. (Natal Line) es- tablished at London. 1850. Messageries Maritimes de France es- tablished. 1850. Inman (now American) Line, estab- lished at Liverpool. 1851. Tiber, first steamer of the Bibby Line, established 1821 at Liverpool. 1852. Forerunner, pioneer steamer of the African Steamship Co. 1853. Union Steamship Co. was established (now Union-Castle Line.) 1853. Borussia, first steamer of the Ham- burg-American Packet Co., established 1847. 1854. Canadian, first steamer of the Allan Line, established 1820. 1855. British India Steam Navigation Co. was established. 1856. Tempest, first steamer Anchor Line. 1858. Bremen, first Atlantic steamer of the Norddeutscher Lloyd, established 1856. 1858. Great Eastern launched into the Thames. Jan. 31; commenced. May 1, 1854. Whittaker's Almanac. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 28 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. NUMBER OF VESSELS OVER 5,000 TONS EACH, AND PARTICULARS OF LARGEST VESSELS BELONGING TO EACH COUNTRY. Country. No. Ship's Name. Gr. Tons. Speed. Owners. Austria Belgium. . . . Brazil 7 2 1 5 39 139 437 13 8 21 14 9 2 54 751 Austria 7,588 11,899 2,987 5,975 10,100 11,884 19,036 21,035 4,700 12,531 6,025 6,444 4,434 7,297 6,875 5,383 21,000 *u 12* 16 * * 16 21 8* * 15 * 14 * 20 19 * * nder 12 K Austrian Lloyd. Red Star Line. Hamburg S. American SS. Co. S. American Nav. Co. Forende Dampskibs, Copenhagen. Compagnie Gen. Transatlantique. Norddeutscher Lloyd. White Star Line. M. S. Vagliano. Holland-American Line. L. Capuccio & Co. Nippon Yusen Kaisha. McLaren & McLaren. Russian Vol. Fleet Assn. Compania Transatlantica. A. Johnson. Gt. Northern Steamship Co. nots. Vaderland RioGallejos Rancajua United States La Savoie Chile Denmark. . . France Germany. . . Gr. Britain. . Greece Holland. . . . Italy. . , Kaiser Wilhelm II. Cedric Keramiac Noordam 11 Piemonte Aki Maru Japan Norway. . . . Russia Spain Sweden UnitedStates Total. . Afton Moskva. . . Alfonso XII Kronprins Gustaf.. Minnesota (1) Wood Paddle-boats. (2) Iron FROM STEAM PACKET TO STEAM PALACE. (5) Steel Twin-Screw Steamers. (3) Iron Screw Steamers. (4) Steel " Date Name of Steamer. Owners. Remarks. 1833 1838 Royal William. . .(1) Sirius Quebec & HalifaxS.N.Co. -j British and Amer.S.N.Co. . From Pictou (N.S.), 1st to cross the Atlantic. From Cork, 1st departure from U K 1840 1849 Great Western Royal William (2). .. Britannia Atlantic Great Western S.N.Co. . Transatlantic SS. Co Cunard Line Collins " Bristol, 1st built for Atlantic. Liverpool, 1st departure. Liverpool, 1st carriedBritish mails. New York, 1st carried U.S. mails. 1854 Canadian Allan " Glasgow, 1st steamer of Line 1856 Anchor " 1st Borussia Adriatic Hamburg-American Line . Collins Line Hamburg, 1st " Last Sailing of Line 1858 Bremen Norddeutscher Lloyd From Bremen to New York. 1856 1862 Persia (2) Scotia Cunard 1st Cunard iron paddle steamer. Last 1845 1850 1858 1868 Great Britain. . . . (3) City of Glasgow GREAT EASTERN. . .. Italy Great Western S.N.Co. . . . Inman Line East.and Australian SS.Co. National Line 1st Atlantic iron screw steamer. 1st to carry steerage passengers. Paddle wheels and propeller. 1869 1871 City of Brussels. Oceanic (1st) Inman " White Star Line . 1st " steam steering gear. 1st with'midship saloon &c 1873 Pennsylvania American " 1st sailing of Line to Liverpool 1874 Britannic White Star " . 1st to exceed 5 000 tons Great Eastern 1875 City of Berlin 1879 Arizona . Guion. . 1882 1883 Alaska Oregon. . \" "$'''"'[ 1st "ocean greyhound." Sunk outside New York; every one 1 Cunard (2) f saved by N. D. Lloyd ss. Fulda. 1879 Buenos Ayrean. . (4) Allan Line 1881 Servia City of Rome. ...... j Inman (1) Line < 1884 'America J Anchor(2) " f National ... 1st and last express ss of Line. 1886 j Umbria I 1 Etruria j Aller . Cunard " 1st with 20 knots speed. 1888 j City of NewYork(S) I City of Paris. Inman & Internationale 1) ( 1st twin-screw ocean expresses, t 1st to exceed 10 000 tons G E excepted 1889 j Teutonic 1 White Star Line Designed as mercantile cruisers. 1890 1892 1 Majestic f Fiirst Bismarck La Touraine Hamburg- American Line . Compagnie Generale Trans. 1st under 6i days from Southampton. Record Havre to New York, 6f days. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 29 FROM STEAM PACKET TO STEAM PALACE Continued. Date Name of Steamer. Owners. Remarks. 1893 j Campania /_ Cunard Line. . . Lucania: highest day's run 562 knots. 1895 j St. Paul 1 1 American . ] Largest express steamers ever built in 1897 1899 1900 1901 1 St. Louis f KaiserWilhelm d. Gr Oceanic Deutschland CELTIC. . Norddeutscher Lloyd ... . White Star Line Hamburg-American Line. White Star Line. . . . America. Record day's run, 580 knots. [tons. Balanced engines. 1st to exceed 15,000 Fastest ocean steamer in the world. 1st to exceed 20 000 tons 1902 1903 1904 KRONPRINzWlLHELM Kaiser Wilhelm II. . . Baltic Norddeutscher Lloyd. . . . Norddeutscher Lloyd ... . White Star Line Largest express steamer in the world. Largest ss. in the world 726x76x49. * Union Co. of N.Z.'s Rotomohana, 1,763 tons, was first ocean steel ss. 1879. t Martello, 2,432 tons, of Wilson Line, was first Atlantic cargo triple-expansion ss. 1884. j Netting Hill, 3,921 tons, of Twin-screw Cargo Line, came out so engined, 1881. 1862. 1869 1882. 1889. 1894. 1897. 1903. R Unc EDUC r Days, ler 9 fr 8 7 6 I* 1 5* riON OF PASSAGE. Tons, am Q'town.Scotia 3,871 CityofBruss', 3,081 " Alaska 6,400 " City of Paris 10,669 Lucania. . . . 12,950 S'ton. Kaiser Wil- helm der Gr 14,349 " Cherb'gDeutschland 16,502 1838, 1 1845 1858 1871 1881 1893 1899 1904 PROG] st to ext - IESS I> Fee eed 200 300 680 400 500 600 700 725 r LENGTH. t. Great Western Great Britain Great Eastern Oceanic (1). . Servia. Tons. 1,340 2,084 18,918 3,807 7,392 12,952 17,247 23,000 Campania. . . Oceanic (2). . Baltic LARGEST STEAMSHIP OWNERS IN THE WORLD. Owners of over 100,000 gross tons in order of tonnage. LINES. Head OflSce. Total Tonnage. Over * 20 knots KNOTS. Under 12 knots 1 20 1 1 *2 19 1 18 1 2 12 17 *2 4 8 16 15 14 13 12 Hamburg-American . . Norddeutscher Lloyd. Brit. Ind. Steam N.Co. P. & O. Steam N. Co. . Hamburg Bremen 650,000 583,000 432,000 349,000 314,000 281,000 260,000 263,000 248,000 239,000 237,000 236,000 208,000 231,000 203,000 189,000 189,000 180,000 170,000 169,000 160,000 151,000 149,000 138,000 135,000 134,000 130,000 129,000 125,000 124,000 115,000 109,000 108,000 108,000 105,000 105,000 102,000 100.000 1 3 'i 4 5 5 4 2 1 7 21 1 '8 25 11 2 1 3 7 1 "i 2 2 5 2 '(> *7 2 1 7 23 23 11 4 9 13 24 23 25 e 11 12 14 11 4 23 3 3 4 *4 4 *4 4 3 1 3 2 4 10 23 38 9 20 20 1 13 4 7 19 4 13 13 11 21 9 2 *7 ' 1 2 2 5 7 '3 14 25 11 2 '5 15 93 50 11 5 13 12 is 41 11 47 93 75 65 41 24 5 6 13 15 45 3 109 6 18 15 20 9 4 17 5 17 36 38 19 23 51 33 125 122 125 59 49 47 27 55 78 58 72 113 102 107 71 49 37- 25 23 52 45 41 119 19 30 30 32 19 15 35 34 28 40 38 36 23 66 33 London London London Union cast e . . . . White Star A. Holt NipponYusen Kaisha Messageries Maritimes Ellerman Lines, Ltd. . Elder, Dempster &Co.. Wilson Navigazione Gen.Ital. Austrian Lloyd Liverpool Liverpool Tokio Paris 2 3 2 4 10 'i '4 *2 *4 3 .'4 3 1 'e 3 3 1 2 3 '2 1 9 3 *i i 6 J4 1 1 "i Liverpool Liverpool Hull Rome Trieste Clan Harrison Liverpool Philadelphia. . . . Montreal Paris '2 - 2 *4 *2 'i 'i *9 American Canadian Pacific Ry. . Comp. Gene". Trans. . . Hansa Bremen Pacific Steam N.Co. . . For.Damps. Selskab. . Atlantic Trans. Co. . . Copenhagen London Glasgow '2 Allan Glasgow Hamburg Liverpool Hamb'g S. American . Cunard Dominion Line Lamport & Holt Chargeurs Re*unis .... Kosmos Prince 1 2 4 i l 1 '2 Paris Hamburg Newcastle-on-T. West Hartlepool London Hamburg St. Petersburg. . . London '2 R. Ropner & Co Royal Mail S. P. Co. . Deutsch-Australische. Russ.Steam N.&T.Co. Shell 8 3 1 Whittaker's Almanac. 30 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. OCEAN STEAMERS. 16 Knots and over. Number belonging to each Country. Country. 20 knots & above. '5 9 '2 '5 19 knots. 18* kts. 18 knots. 17* knots. 12 8 '2 17 kts. '? 17 '3 12 16 knots. Total. Austria Belgium France. . . . '2 '2 4 1 i i i 15 3 2 1 '3 4 40 4 2 2 2 18 2 1 21 3 13 90* 4 5 8 3 40 Denmark Germany Great Britain. . . Italy. . . Japan Russia . Spain United States. . . 21 9 2 19 22 39 78 190 *P. & O., 21; R. Mail, 11; Union-Castle, 10; White Star, 8; Cunard, 7; Pacific S. N. Co., 7; Orient, 5; Atlantic Transport Co., 3; Dominion, 3; Elder, Dempster, 3; Canadian Pac. Rail., 3: Union of N. Zealand, 3; Allan, 2; Khedivial Mail Co., 2; Anchor, 1; International Nav. Co., 1. N.B. There were on June 30, 1903, only 1,446 ocean steamers in the world capable of a sea- speed of at least 12 knots per hour, of which 751 were British. See article on," Baltic " on page 32. OCEAN STEAMERS. 20 Knots and over. In order of Tonnage. Built in Names. Owners. Gross Tons. Dimen- sions. Spd. Builders. 1902 1899 1900 1901 1897 1893 1893 1897 1900 1900 1895 1895 1888 1889 1890 1889 1890 1884 1884 1898 1898 1898 1898 * Kaiser Wilhelm II Oceanic N.D. Lloyd. . . White Star 19,360 17,274 16,502 14,908 14,349 12,950 } 12,950 F 12,480 11,869 11,864 | 11,629 10,798 10,786 10,147 9,984 8,278 8,128 8,120 7,297 7,270 1,728 678x72x38 685x68x44 662x67x40 640x66x43 627x66x35 601x65x37 581x63x44 563x60x35 535x63x37 527x63x22 565x58x39 528x51x36 501x57x38 487x58x26 300x37x17 23* 21 23* 23 22* 22 22 20 21 20 20 20 20 20 .20 StettinV.Co. Harland&W. Stettin V. Co. Fairfield. Schichau. Owners. Cramp&Sons. Clydebank. Harland&W. Stettin V.Co. Fairfield. Clydebank. Caird & Co. Deutschland Kronprinz Wilhelm Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse Hamburg-American N. D. Lloyd Lucania Kaiser Friedrich F. Schichau Com. Gdn. Trans. . . International Mer- j cantile.Marine. Co. j White Star '.'.'.'.. '.'. N. D. Lloyd. '.'.'.'. '.'. Cunard La Lorraine La Savoie St. Louis St Paul New York Philadelphia (ex Paris) . . . Majestic . * . ...... Teutonic Kaiserin Maria Theresa. . . Etruria . Russ. Voi.Flt.Assoc. P. & O Moskva Smolensk. . . . ... Isis 1 Osiris P * Kaiser Wilhelm II. H. P. 38,000 ; room for 775 1st class, 342 2d class, and 770 3d class pas- sengers and crew of 620. SHORT TRIP STEAMERS (British and Foreign). 20 Knots and over. BRITISH BOATS. *Connaught, Leinster, Munster, Ulster, all 23* knots Empress Queen 22, Pr. of Wales 21, Queen Vict'ia 21 France 21*, Sussex, Tamise, Manche, all 21J,Arundel Brighton (turbine engines) Banshee 21, Cambria, Anglia, Hibernia, Scotia Britannia, Cambria, Westward Ho La Marguerite 20*, Royal Sovereign King Edward (turbine engines), Queen Alexandra. . . Total. FOREIGN BOATS. Belgian Government : 3, 22 kts. ; 3, 21 kts 6 Cie. des Chemins de Fer du Nord of France 2 Zeeland Steamship Co. of Holland 3 Central Railroad Co., New Jersey, U. S 1 Owners. City of Dublin Steam Packet Co. Isle of Man Steam Packet Co. London, B. &. S. C. Railway. London B. & S. C. Railway. London & North-Western Railway. P. A. Campbell, Ltd. Fairfield S. & E. Co., Ltd. John Williamson. Dover Ostend Service. Dover Calais Service. Queensborough Flushing Service. New York The Highlands. Total. 12 * The four fastest short-trip steamers in the world. Whittaker's Almanac. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. r", 32 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE NEW WHITE STAR LINER "BALTIC" -- THE VESSEL IN THE WORLD. LARGEST THE FOUR UPPER DECKS OP THE "BALTIC." The success of the "Oceanic" showed that the most remunerative type of craft for the transatlantic traffic is the vessel of a medium speed, maintained under all varying condi- tions, but of a tremendous tonnage. Although speed may be an important desideratum from one point of view, such a qualification is in reality only appealing to a limited quota of pas- sengers, the bulk of travelers prefer- ring greater comfort and steadiness of the vessel, especially in rough weather. Each of the two vessels built after the "Oceanic" has marked an increase in size and tonnage upon its predecessor. The latest liner, the "Baltic," sur- passes in size anything that has thus far been attempted, though it is by no means the finite, for Messrs. Harland & Wolff have declared their readiness to build a vessel of 50,000 tons. The realization of such a vessel is de- pendent upon the capacity of a dock to accommodate it. The length of the "Baltic" over all is 725 feet 9 inches. This is an in- crease upon the length of the "Celtic" and "Cedric" of 25 feet. The beam is the same, being 75 feet ; the depth, 49 feet. The gross tonnage is 23,000 tons, an increase of about 3,000 tons. The cargo capacity is about 28,000 tons, and the total displacement at the load draft approximates 40,000 tons. The total complement of passengers is 3,000 passengers, and a crew of about 350. The general arrangement of the ship is similar to the other two vessels of this type a continuous shade deck running fore and aft, with three tiers of deckhouses and two promenade decks above same. On the upper promenade deck is the first-class smokeroom and library, and the two houses below contain the deck state- rooms. All the first-class accommo- dation is situated amidships. The vessel is not speedy. In the case of the "Oceanic" a speed of 20 knots can be maintained, but in the subsequent vessels this was reduced to about lG l /> knots. The "Baltic" will approximate the same speed, with a great reserve of power, to enable this rate of traveling to be maintained even under adverse conditions. The "Baltic" is fitted with engines of Harland & Wolff's quadruple-expan- sion type, developing about 13,000 I. H. P. The engines are arranged on the balance principle, which practical- ly does away with all vibration. The twin engines and twin screws afford another element of safety to the ship and passengers, and the possibility of danger is reduced to a minimum. The maiden trip of the "Baltic" was made without incident. Her trip oc- cupied 7 days 13 hours and 37 min- utes. She left Liverpool at 5 P. M. on June 20, 1904, and by 8:21 had passed Rock Light on her way to Queenstown. Her daily runs were : July 1, 312 knots ; July 2, 395 knots ; July 3, 403 knots ; July 4, 417 knots ; July 5, 387 knots ; July 6, 407 knots ; July 7, 414 knots. The engines ran from seventy-eight to eighty revolutions a minute, while the forty-eight furnaces consumed only 235 tons of coal a day. Her engine and fireroom force is comparatively small fourteen engineers, fifteen oil- ers, thirty-six firemen, twenty-six coal passers, two storekeepers, two stew- ards and one winchman making up the three watches. Electricity on Shipboard. Among the later developments of electricity is that on shipboard. The most com- plete installation of this kind is that on the "Kronprinz Wilhelm." Here all the cabins have telephones, in ad- dition to the electric light, and call bells. The first-class cabins and the dining-room are heated by elec- tric stoves. A system of bulkhead telegraphy enables the captain in a moment of danger, caused by collision, to see, while on the bridge, whether all the water-tight doors are closed. There are forty such doors, and each one falls into place. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Copyright, 1904, by Munn & Co THE QUADRUPLE SCREW TURBINE CUNARDERS OF 1906 COMPARED WITH THE PARK ROW BUILDING, TRINITY CHURCH, THE WHITE STAR STEAMSHIP "BALTIC" OF 1871, AND THE FIRST CUNARD STEAMSHIP "BRITANNIA" OF 1840. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. AMERICAN FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES AND THE ENGINES OF THE "OCEANIC" A COMPARISON OF HORSEPOWER. We are told that "Comparisons are odious," and the statement would seem to be based upon a fairly cor- rect estimate of human nature ; but as soon as we get outside of the range of human susceptibilities and apply our comparisons to insensate things, comparisons become not only extreme- ly interesting, but at times a valua- ble means of increasing our general knowledge and our sense of the prop- er relative proportion of things. The pictorial comparison to be found here is based upon one of the mammoth freight , locomotives which are being turned out in considerable numbers just now Jiy the leading loco- motive works of the country. In addi- tion to the usual information as to dimensions and construction, Mr. R. Wells, the superintendent of the Rog- ers Locomotive Works, has favored us with particulars of some novel ex- periments which he carried out to de- termine the exact location of the cen- ter of gravity of this locomotive above the rails. He has also given us particu- lars of its horsepower and freight- hauling capacity on a level road, and it occurs to us that a comparison of the relative power of one of these engines when working up to its maximum indi- cated horsepower with the maximum indicated horsepower of the "Oceanic," the second largest steamship in the world, will be attractive to that sec- tion of our readers that likes to have its facts enlivened occasionally with a touch of the fanciful and curious. The locomotive shown is an extreme- ly powerful Consolidation which was recently built by the Rogers Company for the Illinois Central Railroad for use on one of the divisions of their line where the grades are somewhat heav- ier than on the divisions connecting with it. It was designed to haul trains of a maximum weight of 2,000 tons over grades of 38 feet to the mile. The cylinders are 23 inches in diam- eter, by 30 inches stroke ; the drivers are 57 inches in diameter and they carry 198,000 pounds weight of the locomotive out of a total weight of 218,000 pounds. The boiler, which is of the Belpaire type, is 80 inches in diameter at the smoke-box ; the fire- box measures 42 inches by 132 inches, and there are 4J7 2-inch tubes which are 13 feet 8 inches in length. There are 252 square feet of heating sur- face in the fire-box, and 2,951 square feet in the tubes, making a total heat- ing surface of 8,203 square feet. The tender is exceptionally large, the ca- pacity of the tank being 5,000 gallons, while the coal space has a capacity of 10 tons. The increase in the diameter of lo- comotive boilers which has taken place of late years has necessitated their be- ing carried above the tops of the wheels, with the result that the cen- ter of the boiler is in some recent loco- motives as much as 9 feet above the rails. To the uninitiated these im- mense machines have an exceedingly top-heavy appearance, and it looks as though their stability would be endan- gered, especially when they are run- ning at high speed around a curve. Before sending this engine out of the shops, the Rogers Locomotive Com- pany made an experimental test to determine the exact location of its cen- ter of gravity. The result is certain- ly surprising, for although the top of the boiler is fully 9 feet above the rails, the center of gravity was found to be only 50 % inches above the top of the rails, that is to say, about 6 l / 2 inches below the top of the driving wheels. As a matter of fact, the great bulk of the boiler is very decep- tive to the eye, and one is liable to for- get that the greatest concentration of weight lies in the heavy frame, the wheels, the axles, cranks and running gear, and the heavy saddle and cylinder castings. The test was made by sus- pending the engine on the upper sur- face of two 3-inch steel pins or jour- nals as pivots, the one at the front be- ing located 6 inches in front of the cylinder saddle, and the one at the rear 6 inches back of the boiler, both pivots being, of course, the same distance above the rails and on the vertical cen- ter line of the engine. After several trials, points of suspension were found which were in line with the center of gravity, which, as thus determined, was found to be 50^ inches above the top of the rail. As the bearing points of the drivers on the rails are about 56 inches apart, the base on which the engine runs must be 1.1 times as wide as the height of the center of gravity of the engine above the rails. It is evident from this test that the center of gravity of such a locomotive could be raised still higher without endan- gering the stability of the engine under the ordinary conditions of service. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 35 Copyright, 1CCO, by Munn & Co. A COMPARISON OF MARINE ENGINE AND LOCOMOTIVE POWER. 36 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. A COMPARISON OF MARINE ENGINE AND LOCOMOTIVE HORSEPOWER. In order to secure a basis for com- parison of the power of. a modern freight locomotive with that of a mod- ern steamship, we have chosen the "Oceanic." This truly gigantic ship, which exceeds the "Great Eastern" in length and in displacement, is 704 feet in length, and on a draft of 32 1 /* feet displaces 28,500 tons. As the depth of water in the entrance chan- nels to New York Harbor will not accommodate a vessel drawing that amount, for the purpose of this com- parison we will suppose that the "Oceanic" is drawing 30 feet, at which draft she would displace about 26,000 tons. On this displacement her engines will indicate about 28,000 horsepower when driving the vessel at a speed of 22 land miles an hour. Now, it is estimated that the big Rogers Consolidation could haul about 3,250 tons weight of train at a speed of 22 miles an hour, on the level, and that while doing this work it would in- dicate about 1,7GO horsepower. Here then we have a basis of comparison, and we may apply it in two ways. Either we may ask how many of these- locomotives would have to be crowded into the hold of the "Oceanic," and coupled to her main shafts, in order to drive her through the water at 22 miles an hour, or we may determine how many of these locomotives it would take to haul the "Oceanic" if she were placed upon a movable cradle of the kind designed by Captain Eads for his Tehuantepec Ship Railway. In the first case, we know that when the main shafts of the "Oceanic" are making about 90 turns a minute, the engines are indicating about 28,000 horsepower, which is their maximum capacity. On the other hand, we know that when the drivers of one of these locomotives are making about ]50 turns a minute, and the maxi- mum tractive effort is being exerted at the periphery of the wheels, it is indicating about 1,760 horsepower, which represents its possible maximum indication at that speed. If now the sixteen necessary locomotives (the number being found by dividing the horsepower of the ship by the horse- power of the locomotive) were ar- ranged in two lines, one above each main shaft, and the tractive effort of the drivers transmitted by means of friction wheels to the shafts, the speed of the rotation being reduced by in- termediate gearing, in the ratio of 150 to 90, we should have the conditions shown in the engraving on the pre- vious page, where the locomotives, in double phalanx, are shown grinding merrily away at their unwonted task of driving a modern transatlantic liner. To determine how many Rogers Consolidations it would take to haul the "Oceanic" over a ship railway whose grade is perfectly level, we will neglect the weight of the cradle and assume that its rolling friction is the same as that of a weight of loaded freight cars, equal to that of the ship. The displacement (that is, the weight of the water which the ship displaces at a given draft) on a draft of 30 feet would be about 26,000 tons, and di- viding this amount by 3,250 tons, which is the maximum weight of train which one locomotive can haul at 22 miles an hour, we find that it would take just eight locomotives to haul the "Oceanic" by rail at a speed of 22 miles an hour. This result is par-^ ticularly interesting as showing how quickly the resistance of the water to the motion of the ship increases with the speed. As a matter of fact it increases as the cube of the speed, with the result that, although the "Oceanic" could be moved at a canal- boat speed of 2 1 / miles an hour by less locomotives than it would take to haul it at that speed on land, at a speed of 22 miles an hour it requires just twice the power on the water that it would on the land. The "Oceanic," as she rests upon the ship railway cradle, represents both the dead and the live load ; that is to say, the ship and the cargo. With a view to showing graphically what an enormous mass is represented by her 26,000 tons displacement, attention is drawn to the sketch showing an equivalent weight in loaded box cars of 40,000 pounds capacity, each of which with its load would weigh about thirty long tons. If this weight were made up into two separate trains each train would contain 433 cars and would be about three miles in length. Between Brussels and Charleroi there is a length of nearly 30 miles of canal served by overhead wires. The motor "tractors" run on the rough canal towpath, with plain wheels of hard steel. In another style on the Finow and the Tetlow Canals, the "tractor" runs on a single rail by the pair of wheels on one side, and oh the towpath by a plain pair of wheels on the other side. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 87 Copyright, 3901, by Munn & Co. SUPPLIES OF THE "DEUTSCHLAND." 38 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SUPPLIES OF THE " DEUTSCHLAND." Not by any means the least im- pressive evidence of the huge size to which the modern transatlantic steamship has grown is to be found in the graphic representation, now presented, of the bewildering amount of provisions that have to be taken aboard for a single trip across the ocean. A mere tabulation of the vari- ous kinds of food which go to re- plenish the ship's larder, during the few days which she spends in port, fails to convey any adequate idea of the vast amount of stores taken aboard. Our pictorial representation is, of course, purely imaginary, par- ticularly as regards -the live stock ; the beef, mutton, game, etc., being re- ceived on the ship in the dressed condi- tion, no live stock whatever being car- ried. The drawing was made up from a list of the actual amount of pro- visions carried on a recent eastward trip on the Hamburg-American liner "Deutschland," and the number of live stock which contributed to meet the supplies for one voyage was es- timated from the actual number of cat- tle, sheep, etc., that would be required to make up the total weights in dressed meats. With the exception of the live stock, the provisions are shown in the actual shape in which they would be taken on board. The dimensions of the vessel are : Length, 686 feet; beam, 67 feet, and displacement, 23,000 tons; her highest average speed for the whole trip is 23.36 knots, and she has made the journey from Sandy Hook to the Lizard in five days seven hours and thirty-eight minutes. In considering the question of feeding the passengers on a vessel of this size, the thought is suggested that here are other hun- gry mouths within the hull of the ship besides those to be found in the din- ing saloons of the passengers and the messrooms of the crew ; mouths that are so voracious that they require feeding not merely at the three regular meal hours of the ship, but every hour of the day and night, from the time the moorings are cast off at one port until the vessel is warped alongside at the other. We refer to the 112 fur- naces in which the fuel of the sixteen boilers in the boiler-room is consumed at the rate of 572 tons per day. Now, although the voyage from New York to Hamburg lasts only six or seven days, according to the state of the weather, the bunkers of the ship are constructed to hold a sufficiently large reserve of coal to cover all contin- gencies, her total coal capacity being about 5,000 tons; and at each voyage care is taken to see that they are pretty well filled. The total number of souls on board of the vessel when she has a full pas- senger list is 1,617, made up of 467 first cabin, 300 second cabin, 300 steerage and a crew of 550, the crew compris- ing officers, seamen, stewards and the engine-room force. Sixteen hundred and seventeen souls would constitute the total inhabitants of many an American community that dignifies itself with the name of "city," and it is a fact that the long procession which is shown in our illustration, wending its way through the assembled pro- visions on the quay, by no means rep- resents the length of the line were the passengers and crew strung out along Broadway or any great thoroughfare of that city. If this number of people were to march four deep through Broadway, with a distance of say about a yard between ranks, they would extend for about a quarter of a mile, or say the length of five city blocks. TO feed these people for a period of six days requires, in meat alone, the equivalent of fourteen steers, ten calves, twenty-nine sheep, twenty-six lambs, and nine hogs. If the flocks of chickens, geese and game required to furnish the three tons of poultry and game that are consumed were to join in the procession aboard the vessel, they would constitute a contingent by themselves not less than 1.500 strong. The ship's larder is also stocked with 1,700 pounds of fish, 400 pounds of tongues, sweetbreads, etc., 1,700 dozen eggs and 14 barrels of oysters and clams. The 1,700 dozen eggs packed in cases would cover a considerable area, as shown in our engraving, while the 1,000 brick of ice cream would re- quire 100 tubs to hold them. Of table butter there would be taken on board 1,300 pounds, while the 2,200 quarts of milk would require 64 cans to hold it, and the 300 quarts of cream 8 cans. In the way of vegetables there are shipped on board 175 barrels of pota- toes, 75 barrels of assorted vegetables, 20 crates of tomatoes and table celery, 200 dozen lettuce ; while the require- ments of dessert alone would call for 4 1-4 tons of fresh fruits. For making up into daily supply of bread, biscuits, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 39 40 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. cakes, pies, and the toothsome odds- and-ends of the pastry cook's art, there are taken on board at each trip 90 bar- rels of flour, each weighing 195 pounds, this item alone adding a weight of 8% tons to the cooks' stores. To this also we must add 350 pounds of yeast and GOO pounds of oatmeal and hominy. Under the head of liquids the most important item is the 400 tons of drinking water, whose bulk is ade- quately represented by the circular tank shown in our engraving. This is supplemented by 12,000 quarts of wine and liquors, 15,000 quarts of beer in kegs, besides 3,000 bottles of beer. Last, but not by any means least, is the supply of 40 tons of ice. Of course, it will be understood that, as in the case of the coal, it is not to be supposed that all of this supply will be consumed on the voyage. There must be a margin, and a fairly liberal margin, of every kind of provision. Moreover, the extent to which the larder and cellar are emptied will vary according to the condition of the voy- age. In tempestuous weather, where the trip is a succession of heavy gales, and the dining room tables are liable to be practically deserted for two or three days at a stretch, the consump- tion will be modified considerably. Stormy voyages of this character, after all, occur at infrequent intervals, and as a rule the supplies are pretty well consumed by the time the pas- sage is over. Now, haying dealt with the general food supplies, we will deal with the food supplies of another large liner for a single trip. PROVISIONING THE " KRONPRINZ WILHELM TRANSATLANTIC TRIP. FOR A SINGLE The Book of Genesis does not record the tonnage of the huge vessel which finally stranded on Mount Ararat, af- ter finishing the most wonderful voy- age ever described in the annals of mankind. But it is quite safe to as- sume that the dimensions of the Ark, that old-time floating storehouse, are exceeded in size by the largest of steamships now crossing the Atlantic. Not the least striking evidence of the size of these modern monsters of the deep is afforded by the vast quan- tities of food which must be taken aboard for a single six-day trip across the Atlantic. For the 1,500 passen- gers and the several hundred men con- stituting the crew, carloads of food and whole tanks of liquids are neces- sary. To enumerate in cold type the exact quantities of bread, meat, and vegetables consumed in a weekly trip would give but an inadequate idea of the storing capacity of a modern liner. We have, therefore, prepared a picture which graphically shows by compari- son with the average man the equiva- lent of the meat, poultry, and bread- stuffs, as well as the liquors used. Each kind of food has been concen- trated into a giant unit, compared with which the figure of the average man seems puny. On the "Kronprinz Wilhelm," of the North German Lloyd Line, which steamship we have taken for the pur- pose of instituting our comparisons, some 19,800 pounds of fresh meat and 14,300 pounds of salt beef and mut- ton, in all 34,100 pounds of meat, are eaten during a single trip from New York to Bremen. This enormous quan- tity of meat has been pictured in the form of a single joint of beef, which, if it actually existed, would be some- what less than 10 feet high, 10 feet long, and 5 feet wide. If placed on one end of a scale, it would require about 227 average men in the other end to tip the beam. For a single voyage the "Kronprinz Wilhelm" uses 2,640 pounds of ham, 1,320 pounds of bacon, and 506 pounds of sausage in all, 4,466 pounds. Since most of this is pork, it may well be pictured in the form of a ham. That single ham is equivalent in weight to 374 average hams. It is 7^4 feet high, 3 feet in diameter and 2 feet thick. The poultry eaten by the passen- gers of the steamer during a trip to Bremen or New York weighs 4,840 pounds. Suppose that we show these 4,840 pounds of poultry in the form of a turkey, dressed and ready for the oven. The bird would be a giant 10 feet long, 8 feet broad, and 5 feet high. Sauerkraut, beans, peas, rice, and fresh vegetables are consumed to the amount of 25,320 pounds. Packed for market, these preserved and fresh vege- tables would be contained in 290 bas- kets of the usual form, which piled up make a formidable truncated pyramid- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 41 The quantity of eggs required is no less startling than the quantity of vegetables, for some 25,000 are needed to satisfy the wants of passengers and crew. Eggs are usually packed in cases, 30 dozen to the case. The "Kronprinz Wilhelm," when she leaves New York or Bremen, must therefore take on board 69 of these cases, which have been shown in a great pile, 23 cases high and 3 cases wide. The bakers of the ship find it neces- sary to use 33,000 pounds of flour dur- ing the trip. In other words, 169 bar- rels are stowed away somewhere in the hold of the big ship. Besides the foods already enumerat- ed, 1,980 pounds of fresh fish and 330 pounds of salted fish are eaten during the six-day voyage. The total amount of 2,310 pounds would be equivalent to a single bluefish 20 feet long, 5 feet in greatest diameter, and 1% feet broad. Such a fish compares favor- ably in length, at least, with a good- sized whale. The potatoes required far outweigh any other single article of food con- tained in the storerooms ; for their en- tire weight is 61,600 pounds. If it were possible to grow a single tuber of that weight, it would have a height of 14 feet and a diameter of 7 feet. The butter, too, if packed into a sin- gle tub, would assume large dimen- sions. This single tub would contain 6,600 pounds, and would be 6 feet high. Of dried fruit, 2,640 pounds are eat- en, and of fresh fruit 11,000 pounds, in all 13,640 pounds. If this fruit were all concentrated into a single pear, its height would be 7 feet, and the width at the thickest part 5 feet. Whole lakes of liquids are drunk up by the thirsty passengers and crew. No less than 425 tons of fresh water are required, which occupy 14,175 cu- bic feet and would fill a tank 25 feet in diameter and 30 feet high. The 1,716 gallons of milk used for drinking and cooking would be contained in a can 6 feet 1 inch in diameter and 11% feet high. The gallons and gallons of wines, liquors, and beer consumed should dishearten the most optimistic -temperance advocate. Under the joy- ous title of "beverages" the following items are to be found in the purser's account book : Champagne 850 bottles. Claret 980 bottles. Madeira, sherry, etc.... 135 bottles. Rhine and Moselle wines.1,700 bottles. Rum and cordials 760 bottles. Mineral water 5,250 bottles. Beer in kegs 2,960 gallons. Beer in bottles 600 bottles. Suppose these things to drink were contained in one claret bottle. Some idea of the hugeness of- this bottle may be gained when it is considered that its height would be over 24 feet and its diameter over 6 feet. THE ATLANTIC LINERS. NEW CUNARDERS PASSENGERS CARRIED PRICE OF SPEED ATLANTIC TRUST. THE NEW CUNARDERS. The most notable event in shipping circles during 1903 was the government agreement with the Cunard Company, for the building of two vessels of higher speed than any liners in existence. It is an eminently desirable and satisfac- tory arrangement from the British point of view, and the development of its scientific and technical aspects will be followed with an intensity of in- terest which can perhaps only be par- alleled within living memory by the construction of the "Great Eastern." The reasons for this we shall note di- rectly. CUNARD AGREEMENT. Ten years have elapsed since the "Campania" and "Lucania" made the last British record of 22 knots, since which period five German liners have eclipsed the performance of these ships. It is con- fidently believed that the Cunard Com- pany will be able to exceed the limits imposed by the government terms of a minimum average ocean speed of 24^ knots an hour in moderate weath- er. This will be a knot above the "crack" German vessels. Subject to certain very fair condi- tions, the government will advance a sum not exceeding $3,000.000 for the building of the two new vessels. This will be secured by a charge upon the whole of the company's assets. It is to be advanced in instalments on the inspector certifying the attainment of certain stages of progress in the work, and the sum will have to be repaid in twenty yearly instalments. For the mail service the company will receive $340.000 per annum, with extra payment for mails weighing over 100 tons (or 4,000 cubic feet measure- 42 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. rnent), carried in any one week. The plans for the vessels are not yet made public. THE FAST BOATS. That the new departure will pay seems assured, be- cause statistics show that the fastest boats, notwithstanding their higher rates, attract more passengers than the slower boats do. The latter are just as comfortable, and the cuisine is the same, yet a knot or two more in speed doubles and trebles the first-class pas- sengers, to whom in many cases time is money. Thus, in one week in April, 1903, the "Kaiser Wilhelm II." left New York with 521 first-class, and 355 sec- ond-class passengers, while on the same day a vessel of the American Line left with only 82 first-class and 72 second-class passengers. On one day in May the "Kronprinz Wilhelm" left with 380 first and 187 second class passengers, while on the following day a White Star liner took 149 first and 160 second class. Such significant contrasts might be largely multiplied. "CEDRIC" RECORD. The big fast ships suffer less from rough weather than the smaller, slower ones, and that apart from speed attracts. The sur- geon of the "Cedric," next to the larg- est liner, reported that on her maiden voyage not a single passenger was sea- sick. A wine glass, brimming full, was placed on the edge of a sideboard, and left undisturbed throughout the voyage, but not a drop was spilled, nor did the glass move. THE PRICE OF SPEED. The in- creased price that must be paid for speed is a matter that lies in a nut- shell. The reason is that a slight ad- vance in speed requires an immense increase in engine power and vast coal storage. These increase the displace- ment, which again makes still greater demands on the power required. By the time these are provided for, there is no cargo space left worth mention- ing. There the limit to size for that speed is reached, and to obtain higher rates involves bigger vessels. This, too, explains why improvements in the design of and economical working of engines and boilers is so eagerly sought after with a view to reduce the cubical space required for these in the hull, and is also one reason why steam tur- bines are being put on vessels of in- creasingly large dimensions. COST IN COAL. The Admiralty Committee on "Subsidies to Merchant Cruisers" have issued some tabular statements which show the price of speed in a very graphic way. From one of these we see that while a 20- knot steamer consumes 2,228 tons of coal on a 3,000 mile voyage, a 26-knot one will be expected to consume 6,131 tons ; and that the 19,000 horsepower of the first must give place to the enor- mous total of 68,000 horsepower for the last. The cost again of the vessel is $1,750,000 in the slower ship, and $6.250,000 in the swifter. A heavy price truly to pay for the extra six knots ! But the investment is a good one on passenger liners as the previ- ous paragraph shows. The next table shows these and other points in a striking manner: Speed, in knots Time of voyage (chronom- eter hours) 20 150 21 143 22 136 23 130 24 125 25 120 26 115.5 Prime cost, dollars Indicated horsepower. . . . Length, in feet Displacement tonnage. . . Coal, in tons Steam pressure, pounds per square inch 1,750,000 19,000 600 13,000 2,228 150 2,000,000 22,000 630 15,000 2,456 165 2,350,000 25,500 660 17,300 2,912 181 2,875,000 30,000 690 19,800 3,058 198 4,250,000 40,000 720 22,400 3,900 216 5,000,000 52,000 750 25,400 4,876 234 6,250,000 68,000 780 28,500 6,131 25J Machinery department, number of hands 100 110 125 150 200 260 34^ The following table compiled from Lloyd's gives the number of vessels built in Great Britain, arranged according to size. They vary somewhat from the returns quoted on other pages. Vessels. Sail . . . Steam . Total. . 81 c = 10 34 10 34 53 51) 11 Grand Total. 551) Tonn'ge. 36,384 1,376,327 1,412,711 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 43 STEAM TURBINES AND SPEED. GROWTH OF THE STEAM TURBINE. The steam turbine has been applied to the propulsion of vessels, and is steadily growing in favor. The number of vessels so fitted is not large, but the development is none the iess remarkable when we remember that pleasure, and cross- channel steamers, torpedo-boat de- stroyers, and yachts are now fitted with these engines, while ten years ago not one turbine vessel was in service. EARLY TYPES. The "Turbinia," 1894, was the first of the kind, fol- lowed by the "Viper," 1898, and the "Cobra." The "King Edward," 1901, was the first passenger steamer so fit- ted, followed by the "Queen Alexan- dra," 1902, both for passenger service on the Clyde. CROSS-CHANNEL BOATS. The suc- cess of these vessels was the immediate cause of the application of the steam turbine to the cross-channel services the "Queen" for the Dover-Calais route, and the "Brighton," the New- haven-Dieppe boat. On an unofficial trip made in August, 1903, this vessel maintained a speed of 20 knots. The "Brighton" is 282 feet in length, and accommodates 1,000 passengers. Her engines are rated at 7,000 horsepower. The reversing turbines are fitted to the outside screw shafts, and are ca- pable of moving her astern at about 12 knots. The lubrication of the en- gines is automatic, the oil being sup- plied at a pressure of 6 Ibs. per square inch. The "Queen" has also behaved excellently, running between Dover and Calais within the hour, in a gale of wind. IRISH BOATS. Two steam turbine vessels are being built for the Mid- land Railway service between Eng- land, the Isle of Man, and Belfast. Two others of the same class will be fitted with ordinary reciprocating en- gines, so that relative tests of the two kinds of propulsion will be available under equal conditions. The steamers will be of 20 knots speed, 330 feet long, by 40 feet beam, and 25 feet depth. THREE YACHTS have been fitted with steam turbines. Two torpedo-boat de- stroyers, the "Velox" and the "Eden," and the "Amethyst," third-class cruis- er, are designed for turbine propulsion, the first being in commission, the oth- ers at the time of writing being on order. A COMMISSION has been appointed, at the suggestion of Lord Inverclyde, to investigate the question of the economy of steam turbines and their suitability to the new big Cunarders. The commission comprises representa- tives of the Admiralty, the Cunard Company, Lloyd's, and three shipbuild- ers. At the time of writing no deci- sion has been published. But the fact of such a commission having been ap- pointed testifies to the rapid headway which the turbine is making. But two or three years since, most shipbuilders would have declined even to seriously entertain or to discuss such a proposal. The Allan Line and the Union Steam- ship Co. are building a 17 and an 18- knot turbine vessel respectively. OBJECTIONS. Though the above is not a large list, it must be remember- ed that shipowners and the Admiralty are naturally very cautious in fitting vessels with novel means of propul- sion. The whole history of steam navigation is one of slow but sure ad- vances. The installation of water- tube boilers is another case in point. The great objection to the use of turbines for driving ocean liners is that this form of engine does not reverse. A separate set of engines is employed for reversing, at lower speeds. The captains of big vessels strongly object to this, because they say that even greater power would be desirable for going astern than ahead, in order to avoid sudden collision. LAND TURBINES. On land, Par- sons' turbines are being used exten- sively for driving electric generators, aggregating about 250,000 horsepower, and in sizes up to 5,000 horsepower. Yet the first practical steam turbine was not built until 1884, and that is now in the South Kensington Museum. A recent computation gives the total aggregate power of steam turbines of all types in use, under construction, or ordered, in different parts of the world, at over 500,000 horsepower. ADVANTAGES OF TURBINES. The principal point in favor of a turbine is, that it has no reciprocating mo- tion, like that of the piston of a com- mon engine, and therefore the hull of a vessel is not shaken so much as by reciprocating engines. Turbine en- 44 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. gines weigh much less, and occupy less room than ordinary engines of the same power, so that passenger accom- modation can be increased. Usually three sets of engines are employed, each driving a separate propeller shaft, which again conduces to steadiness of motion. EXPIRATION OF PARSONS' PATENT. Several circumstances have occurred latterly to help on the progress of the steam turbine besides its recent suc- cessful application to steam yachts, Clyde pleasure steamers, and cross- channel services. One of these is the expiration during the year 1903 of the five years' extension of the patent that was granted to the Hon. C. A. Parsons in 1884. A result of this is that several firms now ex- press their intention of going in for the manufacture of Parsons' turbines. Another is that the success of these turbines has acted as a stimulus to other inventors, and the Parsons tur- bine will have to face the rivalry of others, including the De Laval, and another promising one, that of Mr. C. G. Curtis, of New York. It is safe to predict that the old- fashioned steam engines, the big mill type excepted, will gradually give place to the steam turbines, and to the gas and oil engines. Apart from economy and compactness, the turbines are cleaner than any other engines, being self-lubricating and enclosed. Daily Mail Year Book, 1904. UNITED STATES LIFE-SAVING SERVICE. The number of disasters to docu- mented vessels within the scope of the Service was 346 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903. On board these vessels were 3,682 persons, of whom 20 were lost. The estimated value of the vessels was $7,101,605 and that of their cargoes $1,746,610, making the total value of property involved $8,848,215. Of this amount $7,683,- 580 was saved and $1,164,635 lost. The number of vessels totally lost was 57. In addition to the foregoing there were 351 casualties to undocumented craft sailboats, rowboats, etc. car- rying 655 persons, 4 of whom per- ished. The value of property involved in these instances is estimated at $202,935, of which $198,465 was saved and $4,470 lost. The results of disasters to vessels of all descriptions within the scope of the Service, therefore, aggregate as follows : Total number of disasters 697 Total value of property involved . . $9,051,150 Total value of property saved .... * $7,882,045 Total value of property lost $1,169,105 Total number of persons involved . 4,337 Total number of persons lost 24 Total number of shipwrecked per- sons succored at stations * 1,086 Total number of days' succor af- forded ' * 2,414 Number of vessels totally lost 57 The foregoing summary does not in- clude 56 persons not on board of ves- sels who were rescued from various po- sitions of peril. VESSELS ASSISTED. The life-saving crews saved and as- sisted in saving 438 imperiled vessels, valued with their cargoes at $4,598,- 840. Of this number 287, valued with their cargoes at $793.670, were saved without other assistance. In the re- maining instances, 151 in number, the life-saying crews co-operated with wrecking vessels, tugs, and other agencies in saving property estimated at $3,661,875, out of a total of $3,805,- 170 imperiled. Besides this the crews afforded assistance of greater or less importance to 573 other vessels, ren- dering aid, therefore, altogether to 1,011 vessels of all kinds, including small craft. This number is exclu- sive of 218 instances in which vessels running into danger were warned off by station patrolmen. One hundred and ninety-eight of these warnings were given at night by Coston lights. The apportionment of the foregoing statistics to the Atlantic, Lake and Pacific coasts, respectively, is shown in the following table : * It should not be understood that the entire amount represented by these figures was saved by the Service. A considerable portion was saved by salvage companies, wrecking tugs, and other instrumentalities, often working in conjunction with the surf men. It is manifestly im- possible to apportion the relative results accomplished. It is equally impossible to give even an approximate estimate of the number of lives saved by the station crews. It would be pre- posterous to assume that all those on board vessels suffering disaster who escape would have been lost but for the aid of the life-savers; yet the number of persons taken ashore by the life- boats and other appliances by no means indicates the sum total saved by the Service. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 45 APPORTIONMENT TO ATLANTIC, LAKE AND PACIFIC COASTS. Disasters to Vessels. Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Lake coasts.* Pacific coast. Total. Total number of disasters 438 226 33 697 Total value of vessels dollars. . . . Total value of cargoes do Total amount of property involved. . .do Total amount of property saved do Total amount of property lost do Total number of persons on board 3,501,520 973,370 4,474,890 3,636,745 838,145 2 694 2,888,860 720,025 3,608,885 3,360,145 248,740 1 177 910,575 56,800 967,375 885,155 82,220 466 7,300,955 1,750,195 9,051,150 7,882,045 1,169,105 4 337 Total number of persons lost Number of shipwrecked persons succored at stations 20 t970 3 t!02 1 t!4 24 tl 086 Total number of days' succor afforded Number of disasters involving total loss of vessels f2,238 46 t!62 10 tl4 1 t2,414 57 GENERAL SUMMARY Of disasters which have occurred with- in the scope of life-saving operations from November 1, 1871 (date of intro- duction of present system ) , to close of fiscal year ending June 30, 1903.$ Total number of disasters 14,076 Total value of vessels $148,098,035 Total value of cargoes $62,253,644 Total value of property involved . $210,351,679 Total value of property saved. . .$166,253,022 Total value of property lost $44,098,657 Total number of persons involved 102,474 Total number of lives lost || 1,027 Total number of persons succored at stations fl 17,747 Total number of days' succor af- forded 43,006 The Board on Life Saving Appli- ances was constituted by the Secre- tary of the Treasury, January 3, 1882, and meets periodically for the transac- tion of such business as may come be- fore it. Inventors and exhibitors are allowed to appear before the court to explain the methods of construction and set forth the merits claimed for their devices. Committees are then appointed to consider the various de- vices submitted to the Board, and each committee reports upon each device, and the results are published in the Report of the Board on Life Saving Appliances, which is incorporated in the Annual Report of the United States Life Saving Service. THE LIGHTHOUSE ESTABLISHMENT. There are under the control of the Lighthouse Establishment, Oct. 15, 1903, the following named aids to navigation : Light-houses and beacon lights 1,425 Light-vessels in position 45 Light- vessels for relief 8 Gas-lighted buoys in position 119 Fog-signals operated by steam, caloric, or oil engines, about 200 Fog-signals operated by machinery.about 250 Post lights, about 1,875 Day or unlighted beacons, about 550 Whistling buoys in position, about 90 Bell buoys in position, about. ......... 130 Other buoys in position, including pile buoys and stakes in Fifth district and buoys in Alaskan waters 5,500 In the construction, care and main- tenance of these aids to navigation there are employed : Steam tenders 39 Steam launches 7 Sailing tenders 2 Light-keepers, about .' 1,550 Officers and crews of light-vessels and tenders, about 1,225 Laborers in charge of post lights, about. 1,600 * Including the river station at Louisville, Kentucky. t These figures include persons to whom succor was given who were not on board vessels embraced in table of casualties. t It should be observed that the operations of the Service during this period have been limited as follows: Season of 1871-72, to the coasts of Long Island and New Jersey; seasons of 1872-74 to the coasts of Cape Cod, Long Island, and New Jersey; season of 1874-75, to the coasts of New England, Long Island, New Jersey, and the coast from Cape Henry to Cape Hatteras; season of 1875-76, to the coasts of New England, Long Island, New Jersey, the coast from Cape Hen- lopen to Cape Charles, and the coast from Cape Henry to Cape Hatteras ; season of 1876-77 and since, all the foregoing with the addition of the eastern coast of Florida and portions ot the lake coasts. In 1877-78 the Pacific coast was added, and in 1880 the coast of Texas. Including persons rescued not on board vessels. || Eighty-five of these were lost at the disaster to the steamer Metropolis in 1877-78, wnen service was impeded by distance, and 14 others in the same year owing to similar causes. K Including castaways not on board vessels embraced in Tables of Casualties. 46 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. FROM CRUISER TO RACING MACHINE. What might be called the scientific period of yacht designing in this coun- try begins at about the period of the races of "Puritan" against "Genesta," in 1885. The growth to the exaggerat- ed proportions of hull and sail plan shown in our accompanying diagram, is the logical and inevitable outcome a little less than these lengths, their rating will be diminished accordingly. Outside of this restriction you may do just anything you please in modeling your hulls. They may be built of any material ; they may be broad or nar- row, shallow or deep ; light and leak- able as a wicker basket, or tight and GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN CUP DEFENDER FROM CRUISER TO RACING MACHINE. of a rule of measurement altogether too broad and loose in its specifica- tions. The only elements taxed in this rule are length on the water-line when on an even keel, and total sail area. To the competing designers the rule has said, "When your yachts are placed under the measurer's tape, if 90-footers they must not be over 90 feet long on the water-line, or if 70-footers not over 70 feet. If you choose to make them heavy as an ironclad. As to the spread of sail, you may crack on just as much as you please ; always with the under- standing, however, that the more you carry the greater will be your racing measurement." Now at the time of the "Puritan"- "Genesta" races, our yacht designers were beginning to emerge from the rule-of-thumb methods that character- ized the days of the center-board sloop SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 47 and schooner, and were beginning, thanks to the victorious career of one or two imported deep-keel English cut-- ters, to appreciate the value of outside lead as an element of sail-carrying power. Hence, the "Puritan" carried a large proportion of her 48 tons of lead ballast on the keel, and although she was marked by the shoalness of body and limited draft of the prevail- ing centerboard type, she was an ex- tremely able sea boat, fast and com- fortable, a wooden vessel of first-class construction, with a reasonable spread of sail which she was well able to carry in a blow, as was proved in that me- morable race of twenty miles to lee- ward and back in half a gale of wind in which she won by a narrow margin over "Genesta." At the close of her racing career "Puritan" was changed from sloop to schooner rig, and to-day she is doing service as a snug and corn- to carry it ; and like her predecessor she was changed after the cup races to a schooner, and is to-day in service as a successful cruiser. After a lapse of six years the New York Yacht Club was called upon once more to defend the cup, and on this occasion they went to Herreshoff, from whom they ob- tained two yachts, one of which, the "Colonia," was a keel boat, drawing 14 feet of water, built of steel, and car- rying about 11,000 square feet of sail. She was a failure, for the reason that, like the "Navaho, another Herreshoff 90-footer of the same year, she was a poor boat on the wind. The other yacht built for cup de- fense by Herreshoff was the "Vigil- ant," and in her we see the engineer attacking the problem of yacht design from his own particular point of view. Tobin bronze is used for the plating, hollow spars are experimented with, and THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 90-FOOT RACING YACHT. Yachts. Water- line Length. Base of Fore Triangle. Hoist from. Boom t'o Topmast Sheave. Boom. Gaff. Spinna- ker Boom. Total Sail Area. Puritan ft. in. 81 1 ft. in. 62 ft. in. 104 ft. in. 76 6 ft. in. 47 ft. in. 02 sq. ft. 7,370 Mayflower Volunteer Vigilant 85 7 85 10 86 2 67 67 69 111 111 122 80 84 98 50 51 6 57 67 67 69 8,824 9,107 11,312 Defender Columbia Constitution Reliance 88 6f 89 7i 89 9 90 73 3 73 3 78 84 129 5 138 5 142 155 106 107 110 115 64 10 64 10 72 72 73 4 73 4 78 84 12,640 13,211 14,400 16,247 fortable cruiser. "Mayflower," the next cup defender, was an improved "Puritan," with 5 feet more length on the water-line and 8,824 square feet of sail ; she was built of wood, and sub- sequently to her defense of the cup she was turned into a comfortable cruiser. Her sail area is so nearly the same as that of her successor, "Volunteer," that to avoid crowding our drawing her sail- plan does not appear. "Volunteer" was designed by Burgess, the designer of "Puritan" and "Mayflower." She was the first of our large sloops to be built of steel. She was about 5 feet longer on the water-line than "Puritan" and carried a much larger sail-plan, .the boom being 84 feet as against 76 1-2 feet of "Puritan," and the hoist to the topmast sheave being 111 feet as against 104 feet in the earlier boat. "Volunteer" also was a perfectly sound and wholesome vessel. Although her rig was a large one, she was well able high-grade steel wire rope, blocks and other gear of extreme lightness, make their appearance in the spar and sail- plans. As a consequence, although the "Vigilant" was only a few inches longer on the water-line than the "Vol- unteer," she carried over 2,000 square feet more sail. The boom was length- ened out to nigh upon 100 feet, while terboard yachts ; for although she beat "Valkyrie II." in the series of races, she was beaten badly to windward by that boat in a stiff breeze; and subse- quently, during a season in English waters, was beaten eleven times out of eighteen by the deep-keel cutter "Britannia," a sister boat to "Valky- rie II." That season's experience sealed the fate of the centerboard. and when the next challenge came, the Her- reshoffs, entrusted with the contract of 48 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. o- V RACING YACHT FROM 1885 TO 1903. 50 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. building a yacht to beat her, turned out to meet her the deep-keel cutter- sloop "Defender." "Vigilant" was the last of the cup-defenders that was good for anything but cup defense. She has been changed into a yawl, and has proved to be an excellent cruiser under her reduced rig. In "Defender" we see the engineer still at work, reducing scantling and lightening up on con- struction even to the smallest detail. "Defender" was built of manganese bronze in the underbody, and alumi- nium in the topsides and framing. She carried a hollow steel mast, boom and gaff. As a consequence, although she was a smaller boat than "Vigilant," having some 3 feet less beam, so great was the lightening of her weights, and the increase in stability due to lower ballast, that she carried over 1,000 feet more sail than the larger yacht, spreading 12,640 square feet. The main boom reached far over the taffrail, be- ing 106 feet in length over all. The hoist was 7 1-2 feet greater and the forward measurement from mast to end of bowsprit had increased to over 73 feet. When the "Defender" commenced her trials it began to be evident that in the development of the 90-foot racing yacht the limit, not merely of convenience but of actual safety, had been passed. The draft of 19 feet was in itself prohibitive of the use of the boat as a cruiser, since it shut her out from many of the harbors and desir- able anchorages, while the experience of the boat in fresh to moderate breezes was marked, by breakdowns which, on one occasion, came very near to being disastrous. In some races, when the wind breezed up, rivets were sheared off and the climax came when in a bit of a squall the pull of the weather shrouds was so great that the mast came very near punching a hole for itself through the bottom of the boat. Herreshoff evidently had overlooked the fact that, in cutting into the keel until its forward edge was aft of the mast-step, he had left nothing but the light floor-plates and the frail plating to take the enormous downward thrust of the mast. Emergency repairs were at once made by carrying a pair of i/>-jnch by 8-inch steel straps from the toot of the mast up to a junction with the chain-plates at the deck. Trouble was also experienced in keep- ing the bowsprit from coming inboard ; several of the frames of the boat broke at the turn of the garboards ; and from first to last the extreme lightness of the craft was a source of unceasing anxiety to her owners. Four years, later the Bristol yard turned out "Columbia," a yacht that embodied some of those features of hull and sail-plan which experience in the smaller classes had shown to be conducive to high speed. She had a foot more depth, or 20 feet ; her over- hangs, forward and aft, were carried out until on a water-line length of 89 feet 7 1-8 inches she had an over-all length of about 50 per cent more, or 132 feet. Although a 90-footer when at anchor she was a 115-footer when heeled to her sailing lines, the great increase in the overhangs being due to the effort to build the biggest pos- sible boat on the arbitrary so-called 90-foot length. The enlargement of the sail-plan was chiefly in the direc- tion of greater hoist, the distance from main boom to topmast sheave being 1381-2 feet. The disastrous experi- ence with "Defender" showed the ab- solute necessity of using more reliable materials in the hull, which was con- structed of Tobin bronze plating on steel frames. The hull structure proved satisfactory, but the lightening up of the spars and standing rigging had been carried too far, as shown by the fact that in her trial races she car- ried away her mast. Two years later, to meet "Sham- rock II.," Herreshoff brought out the "Constitution," which differed in form from "Columbia" merely by an in- crease of one foot in the beam. The sail-plan was greater than that of "Columbia" by about 1,200 square feet. The hoist had now increased to 142 feet, the boom to 110 feet, and the base of the forward triangle to 78 feet. "Constitution's" appearance is com- parable only to that of "Defender" in the constant succession of breakdowns that have occurred ; but with this dis- tinction, however, that whereas "De- fender's" trouble was in the hull, "Con- stitution's" has been up aloft. At dif- ferent times she has carried away her mainmast, her topmast and her gaff. Of the hull, however, it must be ad- mitted that the system of belt-and-lon- gitudinal framing adopted by Herres- hoff has been eminently successful. Although it is probable that no large amount of weight is saved over the old system of framing, it is certain that weight for weight it is considerably stronger. "Constitution" proved so much of a disappointment that it was really realized that to defend the cup successfully some radical depar- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 51 ture must be taken, and Herreshoff struck out most boldly in the direc- tion of the "scow" type, which had proved so fast in the smaller classes of yachts. On a water-line of 90 feet the new boat has a beam of over 26 feet, a draft of 20 feet, and an over-all length of close upon 150 feet. Although she is a 90-footer at anchor, she is fully a 120-footer when heeled to a breeze ; and to this fact is to be ascribed the astonishing sail-carrying power which she has shown, the area under the New York Yacht Club measurement being 16,247 square feet ; and if changes are made they will be rather in the direction of an increase than a reduction of sail-plan. The growth of sail power in the last fifteen years may be summed up in the state- ment that on an increased water-line length of only 10 feet the "Reliance" of 1903 spreads over twice as much sail as did "Puritan" in 1885. In her we see, unquestionably, the highest possible development under the exist- ing rule, and although the boat is an overgrown monstrosity as a sailing craft, she is certainly a great tribute to her builder, both as a naval archi- tect and as a wonderfully resourceful and ingenious mechanic. She is the biggest, lightest constructed, most pow- erful, and probably the fastest yacht of her water-line length that ever was or ever will be constructed, and she possesses that dual quality, never be- fore found in one and the same yacht, of being relatively just as fast in light as she is in strong winds. CHAPTER III. THE KATIES OF THE WORLD. The subject of the navies of the world is a most important one. Schemes of classification vary, and it is difficult to obtain any figures which agree. The three English authorities are "The Naval Annual," by T. A. Brassey; "The Naval Pocket Book," by Sir W. Laird Clowes, and F. T. Jane's "All the World's Fighting Ships" (Munn & Co., publishers). The latter is filled with illustrations, dia- grams, etc., and has an excellent thumb index, facilitating easy refer- ence. Our comparison of naval strength is based on these three books. In addition, we give the tables of the Hydrographic Office, and for those who care to pursue the matter further, we give an abstract of the section of Hazell's Annual dealing with the sub- ject. With this explanation it is hoped that the dissimilar figures will not be as confusing as they otherwise would be. THE CONSTRUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN WARSHIPS. The modern warship is an ever pop- ular subject with the readers of the il- lustrated press. This is proved by the tenacity with which guns, ships and armor hold their place as conspicuous subjects for the pen and the brush. It is a question, however, in spite of the familiarity of the public with the technical phraseology of the warship, whether the average reader has a very accurate idea of the distinctions be- tween the various classes of ships and between the various elements from the combination of which these ships de- rive their distinctive class character- istics. He is told that the "Indiana" is a battleship, the "Brooklyn" an ar- mored cruiser, the "Columbia" a pro- tected cruiser, and the "Puritan" a monitor. But it is probable that he has only a vague idea as to what quali- ties they are that mark the distinction, or why the distinctions should need to exist at all. With a view to answering these questions in a general way, we have prepared three diagrams and a per- spective drawing which show the con- structive features of the several types of warship to which we have referred above. In diagrams I to III the armor is indicated by full black lines or by shading, the approximate thickness of the armor being shown by the thick- ness of the lines and the depth of the shading. The fine lines represent the unarmored portions of the ordinary plating of the ships. In the end view the armor is shown by full lines and shading and the ordinary ship plating by dotted lines. When the naval architect sits down at his desk to design a warship of a certain size, he knows that there is one element of the vessel which io fixed and unalterable, and that is her displacement. By displacement is meant the actual weight of the ship, which is, of course, exactly equal to the weight of water which she dis- places. This total weight is the cap- ital with which the architect has to work, and he uses his judgment in dis- tributing it among the various ele- ments which go to make up the ship. Part is allotted to the hull, part to the motive power, part to the armor protection, part to the guns, and part to the fuel, stores, furnishing and gen- eral equipment. It is evident that the allotment of weights is a matter of compromise whatever excess is given to one ele- ment must be taken from another ; else, the ship will exceed the given displacement. Among the elements above mentioned there are some, such as weight of hull, provisions, stores, and furnishings, which for a given size of ship will not vary greatly. 53 54 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. ^8 >' EH O O fcf- 1 s I O ffl O SSS 's S PH ir si 8 | SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 55 56 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. There are other elements, such as guns, armor, engines and fuel-supply, which may vary considerably in different ships, according to the type of vessel that is produced. If, for instance, the architect is designing an extremely fast ship of type No. 1, which has a speed of 23 knots, he will have to al- lot such a large amount of weight to the motive power that he will only be able to give the ship very slight armor- protection and a comparatively light battery of guns. If he wishes to pro- duce a fast ship that shall be more heavily armed and armored, he has to besides protecting his water line in the region of the engines and boilers with a belt of steel of the same dimensions. The swift and lightly armed and ar- mored ship is known as a protected cruiser ; the less speedy but more heav- ily armed and armored ship belongs to the armored cruiser type, and the slowest ship, with its capacity for tak- ing and giving the heaviest blows that modern guns can inflict, is known as a battleship. In the construction of a warship the two qualities of attack and de- fense have to be supplied. The offep If. AR*fOR0 CXUfSER-81 KNOTS. III. SATTZSSlflP- 17 KNOTS. COMPARATIVE ARMOR PROTECTION IN PRINCIPAL TYPES OF MODERN WAR VESSELS. be content with less speed, say 20 or 21 knots, as in No. 2, and the weight so saved on the motive power appears in the shape of a side belt of armor at the water line, more complete protec- tion for the guns in the shape of bar- bettes and turrets and considerably heavier armament. If, again, he de- sires to produce a ship capable of con- tending with the most powerful ships in line of battle, as in No. 3, he is content with much lower speed, say 16 or 17 knots an hour, and he in- creases the power of his guns until they weigh over 60 tons apiece, and protects them with great redoubts and turrets of steel 1 1-2 feet thick, sive powers are furnished by the guns, the torpedoes and the ram ; the defen- sive powers are provided by giving the ship a complete double .bottom and an abundance of watertight compart- ments, and by providing it with as much armor plating as it will carry to keep out the shells of the enemy. The greatest danger to which a warship is exposed is that of being sunk either by under-water attack by torpedoes or the ram, or by beinf penetrated at the water line by hea ihell fire. The destructive force Oi. a torpedo is so great that all that can be done is to localize its effects. For this purpose, and also to give greater structural SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 57 strength, the hull below the water line is built double a hull within a hull. The longitudinal and transverse plate framing of the ship is built in between these shells, which are known as the inner and outer bottoms, and the space is thus divided into innumerable wa- tertight compartments or cells. There is a possibility that a blow that would burst in the outer shell might not rup- ture the inner shell ; but if it should, the inflow of water is confined to a lim- ited portion of the hull by dividing the latter by transverse and longitudi- nal walls or bulkheads of plating. A blow that burst in both outer and in- ner shells would only admit water to one of many compartments, and the ship would still have a large reserve of buoyancy. In protecting warships against shell fire it is recognized that there are the battleship this deck is generally flat from side to side amidships for about two-thirds of the ship's length. At the sides it rests upon a wall of vertical armor from 15 to 18 inches in thickness, which extends in the wake of the magazines, engines and boilers. This side armor is usually about 7 1-2 feet in height, 3 feet of it being above and 4 1-2 feet below the water line. At each end of the side armor a trans- verse wall of armor extends clear across the ship. This rectangular wall with its roof of 3-in. steel thus forms a kind of inverted box, snugly sheltered below which are the before mentioned "vitals" of the ship. At each end of this inverted box two huge barbettes, with walls 15 to 17 inches thick, are built up to a few feet above the main deck, and just within and above them revolve a pair of turrets with walls of (All parts above the water lines shown by dotted lines and light shading, might be shot away without destroying the fighting power of the ship.) THE INVULNERABLE, FLOATING FORT, WITHIN THE OUTER WALLS OF A MODERN BATTLESHIP. certain parts of the ship which are of paramount importance, inasmuch as their disablement would leave it at the mercy of the enemy. These are the "vitals" of the ship, and they com- prise the magazines, the boilers, the engines and the steering gear. If a shell penetrated the magazines, it would be liable to result in the blowing up of the whole ship, and if it entered thie boiler, engine or steering rooms, it would probably render the ship un- manageable, in which event she would run the risk of being rammed and sunk by the enemy. In all warships the vitals are cov- ered by a complete protective deck of steel, which varies in thickness from 1 1-2 to 3 inches. The highest part of the deck is generally at a slightly higher level than the water line amid- ships, and it curves down at each end to meet the bow and the stern. In 15 to 17 inch steel. (See perspective view.) The turrets give shelter to the big guns, of which there are a pair in each, and the barbettes protect the turning gear by which the turrets are rotated. There is thus a continuous wall of 15 to 17 inch steel extend- ing from 4 feot below the water line to the roofs of the turrets. With this description in mind the reader will see, on looking at diagram No. III., that before heavy shells can injure the engines, boilers or guns, they must pass through from 15 to 18 inches of solid and, in the case of American battleships, face-hardened Harvey steel. The 6-inch and 8-inch guns are protected by 6 and 8 inches of steel. Now it can readily be understood that all this amount of heavy armor and guns adds greatly to the weight of the ship, and for this reason, in 58 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. spite of her smaller engine power, a firstclass battleship rarely displaces less than 10,000 tons, and in some for- eign navies the displacement runs up to nearly 16,000 tons. This will be understood by reference to the perspec- . tive view, where the armored portions of the ship are indicated by full lines and shading. It will be seen that all that part of the ship lying below the water line is shut in by a continuous roof of steel which is 3 inches in thickness forward and aft of the bulk- heads. Over the central armored cita- del it is 23-4 inches thick. All the plating indicated by dotted lines might be shot away without the "vitals" suf- fering injury or the ship being sunk. The reader will see that it is the bat- tleship's sides and the extra deck and freeboard which they provide which constitute practically the difference be- tween a battleship and a monitor. This brings us to the consideration of the monitor type. Take away from a battleship all that portion which is shown in our drawing in shaded lines above the water line ; lower the bar- bettes until they rise only a few feet above the steel deck, and we have a ship of the general monitor type. The monitor is distinguished by very low freeboard only a few inches in the ex- treme type the absence of a heavy secondary battery and the possession of a main armament of heavy guns. Such a ship labors heavily in bad weather and is not intended for ser- vice at any distance from the coasts. To make a seagoing vessel out of her it would be necessary to add one, or even two decks, placing the guns well up above the water, after which changes she would be no longer a moni- tor, but a seagoing battleship. In the cruiser type the protective deck does not extend across the ship at one level, but curves down to meet the hull at a point several feet below the water line. This sloping portion is made thicker than the flat portion, as in diagram No. II., where the deck is 3 inches thick on the flat and G inches on the slopes. In the case of the armored cruisers, a belt of vertical armor is carried at the water line and in all cruisers the V-shaped space be- tween belt and sloping deck is filled in with coal or with some form of wa- ter-excluding material, such as corn- pith cellulose. In diagram II., which represents the fine armored cruiser "Brooklyn," it will be seen that before it could reach the engine room a shell would have to pass through 3 inches of vertical steel, about feet of coal and 6 inches of inclined armor a to- tal resistance equal to 14 or 15 inches of solid steel. The guns and turning gear are protected by 5 1-2-inch steel turrets and 8-inch barbettes. The bar- bettes, it will oe seen, do not extend continuously down to the armored deck, as in the battleship, for this would require a greater weight of armor than can be allowed. Conse- quently, the architect is only able to furnish the guns wi^h a small armor- plated tube for protecting the ammu- nition in its passage from the maga- zines to the barbettes. In the protected cruiser the side arm- or at the water line disappears alto- gether, and dependence is placed en- tirely upon the sloping sides of the protective deck, the water-excluding cellulose and the 6 or 8 feet of coal which is stowed in the bunkers in the wake of the engines and boilers. The barbettes, turrets and armored am- munition tubes of the armored cruiser disappear, and their place is taken by 'comparatively light shields and casements of 4-inch steel which serve to protect the gun crews. It will be seen from the above de- scription that each class of vessel is only fitted to engage ships of its own type. The protected cruiser "Colum- bia" (No. I.) might, with her light and 4 inch guns, hammer away all day at the "Indiana" (No. III.) without being able to do much more than knock the paint off the latter's 18-inch armor, whereas one well-directed shot from the 13-inch guns of the "Indiana" would be sufficient to sink or disable the "Columbia." The "Brooklyn" would fare better, and at close range her 8-inch guns might happen to pene- trate the belt or turret armor of the "Indiana," but the issue of the duel would never be in doubt for an in- stant. A "Columbia" or a "Brook- lyn" would show its heels to an "In- d'iana" or "Massachusetts," and their great speed would give them the op- tion of refusing or accepting battle with almost any craft that is afloat upon the seas to-day. It should be mentioned, in con- clusion, that the dividing lines in the classification of warships are some- what flexible. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 59 RELATIVE STRENGTH IN MATERIEL: PRINCIPAL NAVIES. A Parliamentary Return dated March 26th, 1903, was issued in May of that year, showing the Fleets of Great Britain, France, Russia, Germany, Italy, the United States of America, and Japan. This return is here brought up to date Dec. 31st, 1903. This refers to the text matter. Hazell's Annual. The figures in the tables show the condition of affairs on Jan. 1, 1904; since this time the Russo-Japanese war shows great changes. The severe losses of the Russians and the slight losses of the Japanese have been taken into account in the tables. The third, fourth and fifth tables are issued by the Office of Naval Intelligence, U. S. N., with modifications, according to newspaper reports, occasioned by the Russo-Japanese War. BUILT. Type. Great Britain. France. Germany. Russia. Italy. United States. Japan. 6 1 2 8 10 7 9 1 17 63 Battleships, 1st class 2nd class 3rd class 49 4 2 2 24 21 51t 32| 10 34 112 85 5 20 9 1 14 10 16 17 1 16 14 247 15 14 4 12 11 2 1 8 10 20 2 32 93 12 2 1 13 6 2 4 3 8 40 150 12 5 5 5 11 14 11 145 1 12 1 15 2 3 12 2 11 20 27 3 Coast defence vessels protected, 1st class . . . 2nd class . . . 3rd class. . . Torpedo vessels Torpedo-boat destroyers Torpedo boats Submarines BUILDING. Type. Great Britain. France. Russia. Germany. Italy. United States. Japan. Battleships 1st class. . . j 7 J6 6 6 (7 " 2nd class 6* 6 16* . 3* 15* 4* Coast defence vessels Cruisers armored . j 13 J 12 3 1 1 11 " protected, 1st class.. . . " " 2nd class. . . 3rd class. . j Scouts j 4* 2 4 3* 4 1 1* 3* J2 12* 2 1* 5 2* 1* 5 6* 2 Torpedo-boat destroyers Torpedo-boats 4* 19 15* 5 4 "" J19 1 4* J18 )25* j 25 6 7 2 6* 1 2* 8 2 1* 4 5 2 18 10* (18* RELATIVE ORDER OF WAR SHIP STRENGTH. AT PRESENT. AS WOULD BE THE CASE WERE VESSELS BUILDING NOW COMPLETED. Nation. Tonnage. Nation. Tonnage. Great Britain. . . 1,516,040 576,108 387,874 346,458 294,405 258,838 243,586 93,913 Great Britain. . 1,867,250 755,757 616,275 505,619 458,432 329,257 253,681 149,833 France Germany United States Germany United States . . . Italy Russia Italy Japan Japan Austria Austria Signifies programme 1903-4 (ordered or projected). ! Including three partially protected. Including one partially protected. Including two vessels purchased from the Argentine for $7,500,000, Dec. dlst, 1903. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. C^ GO -1C to H SB c S : S S bt W 1 fc : 8 S b- s . 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'j CO* b" o" t" 1 b- Oi c 3 "S G * -s 10 rH I cO 3 2 !i S = CN 1 "S. ?l JNITED ' O> 5 C O 2 CO CN * rH 5 !- CO* CO CO ^^: ^, rt lii, N n o fs i 3 3 . -2 ^ n * JH "5 CN CN CN 1C CO CO l| 5 3 O S CD | tit. 2 o *, M ; ; OQ- w ; T ;_O ; T3 2 c c s _r 8 O* . 5 ^ '^ CU . OT 03 O . 03 O . 2 ft 2 C 3 ra f | 4 M H 1 1|| 1 jij i| i;} Totals 1 cS iir "S > ' ! ^ "3 *^ -C oi ^ S C , i cD^ O C^l CcT *^3 ^ ^-T m pq 6 '" ^ 6 > SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. a 2 fi to CO p JM t*. r- < i 1 S ^ 1 K i.t 00 00 00 i-s rl 3 pq ,-H CO s 05 T3 M (N i !.f o> *o 1 o I 1 ^ *o OS N pq H i It s s s s i 3 CO i iO O O ; ; 03 ( 3 1 : : "o f I* H ^ 2 : 1 1 1 JO T3 V .5 3 -M a 'O T3 c3 III H THE NAVIES OF THE WORLD IN DETAIL. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. PERSONNEL. There are 321 executive offi- cers and 158 engineer officers on the active list, and from 5,000 to 6,000 men. The executive officers are divided as follows: 1 vice-admiral, 2 rear-admirals, 3 commodores, 11 captains, 42 commanders, 30 lieutenants, 91 sub-lieu- tenants, 81 midshipmen, and 60 cadets. MATERIEL. The strength in ships built and building on Nov. 30th, 1903 was: Battleships 1 Coast defence vessels 4 Armored cruisers 4 Protected cruisers 5 Torpedo vessels 5 Torpedo-boat destroyeis 3 Torpedo boats 22 BUILDING. *Armored cruisers. . 2 DOCKYARDS. The principal dockyards are situated as follows: San Fernando. Three small docks take cruisers. Puerto Belgrano.; One large dock takes battleships. Buenos Ayres. Very limited accommo- dation. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. PERSONNEL. The number of all ranks in the Austrian Navy.including reserves, islO,841. The officers of the Austrian Navy are distri- buted as follows: 1 admiral, 2 vice-admirals, 17 captains, 27 commanders, 37 lieutenant- commanders, 200 lieutenants, 191 sub-lieu- tenants, and 180 midshipmen. MATERIEL. The strength in ships built, building, and projected on Nov. 30th, 1903, was: BUILT. Battleships, 3rd class 5 Coast defence ships 3 River monitors 4 Armored cruisers 1 Protected cruisers, 2nd class 2 3rd class 4 Torpedo vessels 15 Torpedo boats 37 BUILDING. Battleships, 1st class. Monitors Armored cruisers. . . . Torpedo vessels DOCKYARD. The pr ncipal Government dockyard of Austria-Hungary is situated at Pola. There are three small docks there. * These two vessels are the Bernadino Rivadavia and the Mariano Moreno, which were built in Italy, and were sold (Dec. 31st, 1903) to the Japanese Government. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 63 BRAZIL. PERSONNEL. The personnel of the Brazil- ian navy numbers about 8,500 of all ranks. The executive officers are distributed as fol- lows: 1 admiral, 2 vice-admirals, 10 rear- admirals, 18 captains, 30 commanders, 60 lieutenant-commanders, 175 lieutenants, and 160 sub-lieutenants. MATERIEL. The ships built for the Brazil- ian Navy number in all 63. There are no vessels under construction. BUILT. Coast defence ships 9 Protected cruisers 6 Torpedo vessels 18 Torpedo boats 28 Submarines 2 DOCKYARDS. The only important dock- yard is situated at Rio de Janeiro, where there are three docks to take cruisers, and two smaller ones. Besides this there are naval bases at Para, Bahia, Pernambuco, and Ladario de Matto Grosso. CHILE. PERSONNEL. The numbers of officers and men on the active list are variously stated to be from 6,000 to 8,000. The executive officers are distributed as follows: 1 vice-admiral, 4 rear-admirals, 11 captains, 18 commanders, 16 lieutenant-commanders, 25 lieutenants, and 36 midshipmen. MATERIEL. The strength in ships built and building on Nov. 30th, 1903, was: BUILT. Battleships 2 Armored cruisers 2 Protected cruisers 6 Torpedo vessels 5 Torpedo-boat destroyers 6 Torpedo boats 24 DOCKYARDS. The principal dockyards are situated as follows: Talcahuno. One dock takes any \varship. Valparaiso. Two small floating docks take cruisers. DENMARK: PERSONNEL. The personnel numbers about 4,000 of all ranks. The executive officers are divided as follows: 1 vice-admiral, 2 rear- admirals, 16 captains, 38 commanders, 63 lieutenants, 33 sub-lieutenants, and 23 mid- shipmen. MATERIEL. The strength in ships built and building on Nov. 30th, 1903, was: BUILT. Battleships 4 Coast defence vessels 4 Protected cruisers 5 Torpedo boats 25 BUILDING. Coast defence vessel 1 DOCKYARD. At Copenhagen there are three small docks. FRANCE. PERSONNEL. The number of officers and men on the active list of the French Navy in 1903 was 53,247, and in the Reserve there were 49,346 officers and men. The number of men effective during 1903 was less by 2,940 than the number avail- able during the preceding year. The executive officers of the French Navy are divided as follows: 15 vice-admirals, 30 rear-admirals, 124 captains, 212 commanders, 751 lieutenant-commanders, 574 lieutenants, 146 sub-lieutenants, 100 midshipmen, 183 cadets. MATERIEL. The number of ships built, building, and projected for the French Navy on Nov. 30th, 1903. was: BUILT. Battleships, 1st class 20 2nd class 9 3rd class* 1 Coast defence vessels 14 Armored cruisers 10 Protected cruisers, 1st class 7 2nd class 16 3rd class 17 Unprotected cruisers 1 Torpedo vessels 16 Torpedo-boat destroyers 14 Torpedo boats 247 Submarines 15 BUILDING. Battleships, 1st class 6 Armored cruisers 12 Torpedo-boat destroyers 19 Torpedc-boats 18 Submarines 25 PROJECTED. Armored cruiser* 1 Torpedo-boat destroyers 4 Torpedo boats 25 Submarines 18 DOCKYARDS. The Government dockyards in France are situated as follows: Cherbourg. One dock takes battleships 14,000 tons; seven smaller. Brest. One dock takes battleships; others very small. Lorient. One dock takes battleships 14,000 tons; one takes small cruisers. Rochefort. Three docks, take small vessels Toulon'. Three docks take battleships 14,000 tons; six others take cruisers. GERMANY. PERSONNEL. The number of officers and men on the ac- tive list is 35,685, and on the regular reserve there are 5,114. The total number of able- bodied men liable for service in the Reserve, however, is about 70,000. * This armored cruiser is the Ernest Renan of 13,562 tons. 64 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. The executive officers of the German Navy are divided as follows: 8 vice-admirals, 16 rear-admirals, 58 captains, 125 commanders, 245 lieutenant-commanders, 382 lieutenants, 332 sub-lieutenants, 401 midshipmen, 200 cadets. MATERIEL. The strength of the German Navy in ships built and building on Nov. 30th, 1903, was: BUILT. Battleships, 1st class 14 2nd class 4 3rd class 12 Coast defence ships 11 Armored cruisers 2 Protected cruisers, 1st class 1 2nd class 8 3rd class 10 Unprotected cruisers 20 Torpedo vessels 2 Torpedo-boat destroyers 32 Torpedo boats 93 Submarines ? BUILDING. Battleships, 1st class 6 Armored cruisers 3 Protected cruisers, 3rd class 5 PROJECTED. Armored cruiser* 1 Protected cruisers 2 Torpedo-boat destroyers 6 Torpedo boats Submarine 1 DOCKYARDS. The German dockyards are situated as follows : Kiel. Two docks take any ship. Also two floating docks. Four docks take any ship up to 10,000 tons. Wilhelmshaven. One dock takes any ship; one takes up to 10,000 tons. Three float- ing docks ; two new ones building. GREAT BRITAIN. PERSONNEL. The number of officers, seamen, boys, and marines provided for sea and other services for the year 1903-4 amounts to 127,100, being an increase of 4,600 on the previous year. The strength of the Royal Marines on Jan. 1st, 1903, was 19,579. The passing of the Naval Forces Act during the year will strengthen the Naval Reserves by increasing its numbers, and by authorizing short-service system in the Navy, on condition that those accepting such employment shall complete a term of seven years in the reserve. The Royal Naval Volunteers authorized by the Act of 1902 have commenced enrolment, and Divisions have been formed at London and Glasgow. MATERIEL. The strength of the British Navy in ships built, building, and projected on Nov. 30th, 1903, was: BUILT. Battleships, 1st class 49 2nd class 4 3rd class 2 Coast defence ships 2 Armored crusiers 24 Protected cruisers, 1st class 21 2nd class 51 3rd class 32 Unprotected cruisers 10 Torpedo vessels 34 Torpedo-boat destroyers. 112 Torpedo boats 85 Submarines 5 BUILDING. Battleships, 1st class 7 Armored cruisers 13 Protected cruisers, 2nd class 2 3rd class 4 Scouts 4 Torpedo-boat destroyers 19 Torpedo boats 5 Submarines 4 PROJECTED. Battleships, 1st class 6 Armored cruisers 4 Protected cruisers 3 Scouts 4 Torpedo-boat destroyers 15 Submarines 10 Two of the first-class battleships are those purchased from Chile. DOCKYARDS. The public dockyards in Great Britain are situated as follows: Portsmouth. Six docks take any ship ; three take armored cruisers, 10,000 tons and smaller. Devonport. Two docks take battleships; two smaller. Keyham. One dock takes small battle- ships; three smaller. Chatham. Six docks take battleships (four small ones only) ; four smaller. Sheerness. Five small docks. Pembroke. One dock takes small battle- ships. Haulbowline. Two docks take any ship. ITALY. PERSONNEL. There are 26,948 officers and men on the active list for the current financial year, and the reserve numbers 33,667 officers and men. This latter is, however, of doubtful efficiency, for many of the officers are over sixty-five years of age, and the men have but little training. The executive officers of the Italian Navy are divided as follows: 1 admiral, 7 vice-admirals, 14 rear-admirals, 58 captains, 70 commanders, 75 lieutenant-commanders, 410 lieutenants, 160 sub-lieutenants, 130 midshipmen. MATERIEL. The strength of ships built, building and projected on Nov. 30th, 1903. was: SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 65 BUILT. Battleships, 1st class 12 3rd class 5 Armored cruisers 5 Protected cruisers, 2nd class 5 3rd class 11 Torpedo vessels 14 Torpedo-boat destroyers 11 Torpedo boats 145 Submarines 1 BUILDING. Battleships, 1st class 6 Armored cruisers 1 Submarines 1 PROJECTED. Battleships, 1st class 3 Protected cruisers, 3rd class 1 Torpedo-boat destroyers 2 Torpedo boats 8 Submarines 1 DOCKYARDS. The Government dockyards of Italy are situated as follows: Spezia. One dock takes any ship ; one takes all Italian ships; four smaller. Venice. One dock takes cruisers; one smaller. One building to take any ship. Taranto. One dock takes any ship. JAPAN. PERSONNEL. The number of officers and men available for active service is about 31,000. There is also a small reserve of some 4,000. MATERIEL. The strength in ships built, building, and projected on Nov 30th, 1903, less loss, was: BUILT. Battleships, 1st class 6 2nd class 1 Coast defence ships 2 Armored cruisers 8* Protected cruisers, 2nd class 10 3rd class 7 Unprotected cruisers 9 Torpedo vessels Torpedo-boat destroyers 17 Torpedo boats 63 BUILDING. Protected cruisers, 2nd class 2 3rd class 1 Torpedo-boat destroyers 2 Torpedo boats 18 PROJECTED. Battleships.t 1st class 4 Armored cruisers 6 DOCKYARDS. The Government dockyards in Japan are situated as follows: Yokosuka. One dock takes any ship ; two smaller. Kure. One dock takes cruisers. * Including two vessels, each of 7700 tons displacement and a speed of 20 knots, pur- chased from the Argentine Government for $7,500,000 (Dec. 31st, 1903). t The projected vessels have not been named. NETHERLANDS. PERSONNEL. The total of officers and men enlisted for the navy reaches 11,000, but this figure includes the marine infantry. The executive officers are divided as follows: 1 vice-admiral, 3 rear admirals, 25 captains, 40 commanders, 400 lieutenants and sub-lieu- tenants, and 200 midshipmen. MATERIEL. The strength in ships built, building and projected on Nov. 30th, 1903, BUILT. Battleships, 3rd class 2 Coast defence ships 19 Unprotected cruisers 11 Torpedo vessels 12 Torpedo boats 29 BUILDING. Coast defence ships 2 Torpedo boats 5 PROJECTED. Coast defence ships 3 Torpedo vessels 7 Torpedo boats 2 Submarine (to be purchased) 1 DOCKYARDS. The principal dockyards are situated as follows: Helder. Two docks take cruisers. Hellevoetsluis. One dock takes small battleships. Amsterdam. Two floating docks take cruisers. Rotterdam. Three floating docks take small cruisers. NORWAY. PERSONNEL. The personnel numbers about 2,000, of which 1,000 are permanent, and the remainder yearly conscripts. The executive officers are divided as follows: 1 rear-admiral, 4 captains, 14 commanders, 28 lieutenant- commanders, 37 lieutenants, 30 sub-lieuten- ants. MATERIEL. The strength in ships built and building on Nov. 30th, 1903, was: Coast defence vessels 4 Torpedo vessels 7 Torpedo boats 26 BUILDING. Coast defence vessel 1 Torpedo boats 2 Submarine DOCKYARDS. The principal dockyards of Norway are situated as follows: Horten. One dry dock takes small battle- Christiansand. One dry dock takes small battleships. 66 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PORTUGAL. PERSONNEL. The number of men in the Portuguese Navy is about 5,000, and, in addi- tion, there are 2 vice-admirals, 5 rear-admirals, 16 captains, 25 commanders, 25 lieutenant- commanders, 80 lieutenants, 110 sub-lieu- tenants, 37 midshipmen, and 96 cadets. The age for retirement of a vice-admiral is 70 years, rear-admiral 66 years, and other officers 64 years. MATERIEL. The strength in ships built and building on Nov. 30th, 1903, was: Battleship ........................ 1 Unprotected cruisers ............... 7 Torpedo vessels ................... 14 Torpedo boats ..................... 11 BUILDING. Torpedo vessels ................... 2 DOCKYARD. There are four small docks at Lisbon. RUSSIA. PERSONNEL. There are 2,900 officers on the effective list of the Russian Navy, and the number of men is 61,516. In the Reserve there are about 30,000 of all ranks. The executive officers of the Russian Navy are divided as follows: 1 commander-in- chief (admiral-general), 14 admirals, 24 vice- admirals, 33 rear-admirals, 92 captains, 212 commanders, 850 lieutenants, 400 midshipmen. MATERIEL. The strength of the Russian Navy in ships built, building and projected, on Nov. 30th, 1903, less losses, was: BUILT. Battleships, 1st class 12 2nd class 2 3rd class 1 Coast defence ships 13 Armored cruisers 6 Protected cruisers, 1st class 2 2nd class 4 3rd class Unprotected cruisers 3 Torpedo vessels 8 Torpedo-boat destroyers 40 Torpedo boats 150 Submarines BUILDING. Battleships, 1st class 6 Armored cruisers Protected cruisers, 1st class 2 2nd class 2 Torpedo-boat destroyers 6 Torpedo-boats 7 Submarines 2 PROJECTED. Battleships, 1st class 6 Armored cruisers 3 Protected cruisers, 1st class 2 The projected battleships are the Tchesma, Evstafi, and loann Zlatoust, all of which are re- ported to have been laid down in the Black Sea yards; and the Imperator Pavel, the Andrei Pervosvannui, to be built in the St. Petersburg yards. Of the sixth vessel nothing is yet known, nor have the names of the armored cruisers transpired. The protected cruisers are to be of the Kagul type. [The war with Japan has modified all figures of present strength.] DOCKYARDS. The principal Russian dockyards are situ- ated as follows: Kronstadt. One dock takes any ship ; three smaller. Libau. Two docks take any ship. Sevastopol. Two docks take any ship. SPAIN. PERSONNEL. There are 16,700 of all ranks in the Spanish Navy, and 9,000 marines. All these are conscripts. The officers are divided as follows: 1 admiral, 4 vice-admirals, 11 rear- admirals, 22 captains, 47 commanders, 94 lieutenant-commanders, 131 lieutenants, 340 sub-lieutenants, 165 midshipmen, and 100 cadets. MATERIEL. The strength in ships built and building on Nov. 30th, 1903, was: BUILT. Battleship 1 Armored cruisers 2 Protected cruisers 6 Torpedo vessels 17 Torpedo-boat destroyers 4 Torpedo boats 10 BUILDING. Armored cruisers 2 Protected cruisers. 2 DOCKYARDS. The principal dockyards are situated as follows: Cadiz. Three docks take cruisers. Cartagena. One floating dock takes large cruisers. Bilboa. One dock takes any Spanish ship; two smaller. SWEDEN. PERSONNEL. The personnel of the Swedish Navy in 1903 numbered about 7,500 of all ranks. In addition there are about 20,000 yearly conscripts available, but the majority of these are seldom called upon. The officers are divided as follows: 1 vice-admiral, 4 rear- admirals, 6 commodores, 24 captains, 64 com- manders, 55 lieutenants, 30 sub-lieutenants. MATERIEL. The strength of ships built and building on Nov. 30th was: BUILT. Coast defence vessels 10 Torpedo vessels 14 Torpedo-boat destroyer 1 Torpedo boats 28 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 67 BUILDING. Battleship 1 Armored cruiser 1 Torpedo boats 3 Submarine 1 DOCKYARDS. The principal dockyards in Sweden are situated as follows: - Karlscrona. Three docks take any Swedish ship; three smaller. Stockholm. One dock takes cruisers. TURKEY. PERSONNEL,. There are 31,000 officers and men in the Turkish Navy and 9,000 marines. The officers are divided as follows : 2 admirals, 9 vice-admirals, 16 rear-admirals, 30 captains, 90 commanders, 300 lieutenant-command- ers, 250 lieutenants, 200 sub-lieutenants. MATERIEL. The strength in ships built and building for the Turkish Navy on Nov. 30th, 1903, was: BUILT. Battleships Protected cruiser 1 Torpedo vessels 6 Torpedo-boat destroyers 2 Torpedo boats 25 Submarines 2 BUILDING. Protected cruisers 5 Torpedo-boat destroyers 2 UNITED STATES. ADMINISTRATION. The President of the United States is ex- ofjicio Commander-in-chief of the Navy. As his executive he appoints a Secretary of the Navy, a member of his Cabinet, on a four years' term. He also appoints an Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and these two political officials, who are usually civilians, exercise a general control and supervision of the ten de- partments or bureaus among which the busi- ness is distributed. These departments are very similar to those in the British Admiralty, and they are almost all of them under the direction of naval officers. There are also special boards, mostly departmental, who ad- vise either the Secretary of the Navy or the chiefs of the bureaus on technical points. There is nothing approximating to the head- quarters staff which is found in all naval ad- ministrations, based on the precedent of the organization of land forces. In this respect the naval administration of the United States and Great Britain differ from almost all the rest. With regard to the estimates, the chiefs of the various bureaus prepare and make annually reports which are published, and in these reports they make recommendations with estimates of cost. The Secretary of the Navy also makes an annual report, summariz- ing the reports of his subordinates, with his own recommendations, which are submitted to Congress in the shape of Bills, which, being passed by the House of Representatives and the Senate, and approved by the President, become law. The United States Navy is manned by voluntary enlistment. FINANCE. The proposed estimates for 1904-5 total $102,866,449, those for 1903-4 having been $79,039,331. It is proposed to devote to new construction the sum of $28,826,860. PERSONNEL. The number of officers and men on the effective list of the United States Navy is 29,838, inclusive of 7,000 marines. There is a reserve in course of formation, but it is not yet in working order. The executive officers of the United States Navy are distributed as follows:- 1 admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 21 rear-admirals, 73 captains, 114 commanders, 172 lieutenant-commanders, 350 lieutenants, 100 second-lieutenants, 130 ensigns, 90 naval cadets at sea. MATERIEL. The strength in ships of the United States Navy built, building and projected, is sepa- rately treated. DOCKYARDS. The Government dockyards in the United States are situated as follows: Brooklyn. One dock takes any ship; two smaller. Norfolk, Va. One dock takes any ship ; one smaller. Mare Island, Cal. One dock takes any ship. Boston, Mass. One small dock. League Island, Pa. One large wooden dock, Portsmouth, N. H. One small dock. Hazell's Annual, 1904. THE UNITED On January 1, 1904, there was upon the active list 1 admiral, 27 rear ad- mirals, 80 captains, 120 commanders, 192 lieut.-commanders, 331 lieuten- ants, 24 lieutenants (junior grade), 166 ensigns, 101 midshipmen, 16 med- ical directors, 15 medical inspectors, 86 surgeons, 35 passed assistant surgeons, 68 assistant surgeons, 14 pay directors, 15 pay inspectors, 76 paymasters, 30 passed assistant paymasters, 18 assist- ant paymasters, 23 chaplains, 12 pro- STATES NAVY. fessors of mathematics, 1 secretary to the admiral, 20 naval constructors, 30 assistant naval constructors, 28 civil engineers, 5 assistant civil engineers, 12 chief boatswains, 116 boatswains, 12 chief gunners, 100 gunners, 14 chief carpenters, 73 carpenters, 7 chief sailmakers, 150 warrant machinists, 25 pharmacists, and 16 mates. There were also 649 midshipmen on proba- tion at the Naval Academy at Annap- olis, Md. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE ADMISSION OF CANDIDATES INTO THE NAVAL ACADEMY AS MIDSHIPMEN. NOMINATION. The students of the Naval Academy are styled Midshipmen. Two Mid- shipmen are allowed for each Senator, Representative, and Delegate in Con- gress, two for the District of Colum- bia, and five each year from the United States at large. The appointments from the District of Columbia and five each year at large are made by the President. One Midshipman is al- lowed from Porto Rico, who must be a native of that island. The appoint- ment is made by the President, on the recommendation of the Governor of Porto Rico. The Congressional ap- pointments are equitably distributed, so that in regular course each Senator, Representative, and Delegate in Con- gress may appoint one Midshipman during each Congress. After June 30, 1913, each Senator, Representa- tive, and Delegate in Congress will be allowed to appoint but one Midship- man instead of two. The course for Midshipmen is six years four years at the Academy, when the succeeding appointment is made, and two years at sea, at the expiration of which time the examination for final graduation takes place. Midshipmen who pass the examination for final graduation are appointed to fill vacancies in the lower grades of the Line of the Navy and of the Marine Corps, in the order of merit as determined by the Academ- ic Board of the Naval Academy. "The Secretary of the Navy shall, as soon as practicable after the fifth day of March in each year, notify in writ- ing each Senator, Representative, and Delegate in Congress of any vacancy which may be regarded as existing in the State, District, or Territory which he represents, and the nomination of a candidate to fill such vacancy shall be made upon the recommendation of the Senator, Representative, or Delegate. Such recommendation shall be made by the first day of June of that year, and if not so made the Secretary of the Navy shall fill the vacancy by the ap- pointment of an actual resident of the State, District, or Territory in which the vacancy exists, who shall have been for at least two years immedi- ately preceding his appointment an actual bona fide resident of the State, District, or Territory in which the vacancy exists, and shall have the qualifications otherwise prescribed by law." (Act approved March 4, 1903.) Candidates allowed for Congression- al Districts, for Territories, and for the District of Columbia must be act- ual residents of the Districts or Ter- ritories, respectively, from which they ar^ nominated. All candidates must, at the time of their examination for admission, be between the ages of sixteen and twenty years. A candidate is eligible for ap- pointment on the day he becomes six- teen, and is ineligible on the day he becomes twenty years of age. EXAMINATION. "All candidates for admission into the Academy shall be examined according to such regulations and at such stated times as the Secretary of the Navy may prescribe. Candidates rejected at such examination shall not have the privilege of another examination for admission to the same class unless rec- ommended by the Board of Examin- ers^ (Rev. Stat., Sec. 1515.) When any candidate, who has been nominated upon the recommendation of a Senator, Member, or Delegate of the House of Representatives, is found, upon examination, to be physically or mentally disqualified for admission, the Senator, Member, or Delegate shall be notified to recommend another candi- date, who shall be examined according to the provisions of the preceding sec- tion. Beginning with the year nineteen hundred and four, but two examina- tions for admission of Midshipmen to the Academy will be held each year, as follows : 1. The first examination to be held on the third Tuesday in April, under the supervision of the Civil Service Commission, at points given in a list furnished by the Bureau of Naviga- tion, Navy Department, Washington, D. C., who also furnish sample exam- ination papers. Candidates are exam- ined mentally only at this examination. All those qualifying mentally who are entitled to appointment in order of nomination will be notified by the Su- perintendent of the Naval Academy to report at the Academy for physical ex- amination on or about June 10, and if physically qualified will be appointed. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Candidates nominated for the April examination may be examined at Washington, D. C., if so desired, or at any of the places in any State named in the above schedule. Senators and Representatives are re- quested, when designating their nomi- nees, to give the place at which it is desired they should be examined if nominated for the April examination. 2. The second and last examination will be held at Annapolis, Md., only, on the third Tuesday in June, under the supervision of the Superintendent of the Naval Academy. Candidates are examined mentally at this examin- ation, and all those entitled to appoint- ment will be directed to report for physical examination, as soon as prac- ticable, at the Naval Academy. Alternates are given the privilege of reporting for examination at the same time with the principal. No examination will be held later than the third Tuesday in June. The large number of Midshipmen to be instructed and drilled makes this rule necessary, and it is to the great advantage of the new Midshipmen themselves. The summer months are utilized in preliminary instruction in professional branches and drills, such as handling boats under oars and sails, and in seamanship, gunnery, and infantry drills. These practical exer- cises form most excellent groundwork as a preparation for the academic course. The examination papers used in all examinations are prepared at the Naval Academy and the examination marks made by candidates finally passed upon by the officials of the Academy. Under the law, candidates failing to pass the entrance examination will not be allowed another examination for admission to the same class unless recommended for re-examination by the Board of Examiners. The Civil Service Commission only conducts the examination of candidates whose names have been furnished by the Navy Department. It is requested that all correspondence relative to the nomination and examination of candi- dates be addressed to the Bureau of Navigation, Navy Department. Nominations for examination on the third Tuesday in April should be for- warded to the Bureau ten days prior to the date of examination, as that is the latest date on which arrangements can be made for the. examination. Candidates will be required to enter the Academy immediately after passing the prescribed examination. No leave of absence will be granted to Midshipmen of the fourth class. Candidates will be examined physic- ally at the Naval Academy by a board composed of three medical officers of the Navy. Attention will also be paid to the stature of the candidate, and no one manifestly under size for his age will be received at the Academy. In the case of doubt about the physical con- dition of the candidate, any marked deviation from the usual standard of height or weight will add materially to the consideration for rejection. The height of candidates for admission shall not be less than 5 feet 2 inches between the ages of 16 and 38 years, and not less than 5 feet 4 inches be- tween the ages of 18 and 20 years. Candidates will be examined men- tally in punctuation, spelling, arith- metic, geography, English grammar, United States history, world's history, algebra through quadratic equations, and plane geometry (five books of Chauvenet's Geometry, or an equiva- lent). Deficiency in any one of these subjects may be sufficient to insure the rejection of the candidate. ADMISSION. Candidates who pass the physical and mental examinations will receive appointments as Midshipmen, and be- come students of the Academy. Each Midshipman will be required to sign articles by which he binds himself to serve in the United States Navy eight years (including his time of probation at the Naval Academy), unless sooner discharged. The pay of a Midshipman is $500 a year, commencing at the date of his admission. The cruisers are the light cavalry of the navy. As their name implies, their duty is to cruise the seas, keeping in touch with the enemy's fleets and act- ing as the "eyes" of the line-of-battle ships. They are also intended for the double duty of attacking an enemy's commerce and defending that of the country whose flag they carry. Fleets of merchant vessels or of transport ships will be "convoyed" by cruisers from port to port. 70 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. LIST OF SHIPS OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY. [ABBREVIATIONS. Hull: S., steel; S. W., steel, wood sheathed; I., iron; W., wood. Propulsion: S., screw; T. S., twin screw; Tr. S., triple screw; P., paddle.] FIRST RATE. Name. Dis- place- ment (tons). Type. Hull. I.H.P. Propul- sion. Guns (main bat- tery). 12 500 1st class battleship S 16 000 T S 20 Missouri 12,500 . . do S. 16,000 T.S 20 11 525 do S 11 366 T S 18 Illinois 11,525 do S. 11,366 T.S. 18 Wisconsin. . 11,525 do s 10 000 T S 18 Kearsarge 11,525 do S. 11,954 T.S. 22 Kentucky 11,525 do . . s. 12 318 T S 22 11 340 do s 12 105 T S 18 Indiana 10,288 do s. 9 738 TS 16 Massachusetts Oregon Brooklyn 10,288 10,288 9.215 ....do ....do Armored cruiser. . . s. s. s. 10,403 11,111 18,769 T.S. T.S. T.S. 16 16 20 New York 8,200 . .. .do s. 17,401 T.S. 18 SECOND RATE. Name. Dis- place- ment (tons). Type. Hull. I.H.P. Propul- sion. Guns (main bat- tery). Columbia . . 7,375 Protected cruiser s 18 509 Tr S 11 Minneapolis 7,375 do S. 20,862 Tr.S. 11 Texas 6,315 2d class battleship S. 8,610 TS. 8 Puritan 6,060 Double-turret mon- I. 3,700 T.S. 10 Olympia 5,870 itor. Protected cruiser . . s. 17,313 T.S. 14 Chicago . 5,000 do. ... s. 9,000 T.S. 18 Yankee 6888 Cruiser (converted) I 3 800 s 10 Prairie Buffalo 6,872 6 888 .... do do s 3,800 3 600 S. s 10 6 Dixie 6,145 do s. 3,800 s. 10 Baltimore 4,413 Protected cruiser s 10 064 TS 12 Philadelphia 4,324 . . do. . . s. 8,815 T.S. 12 Newark . . 4,098 do. . . s. 8 869 TS. 12 San Francisco Monterey. . . 4,098 4,084 .... do Barbette turret, low s. s. 9,913 5,244 T.S. T.S. 12 4 4,005 free-board mon- itor. Double-turret mon- I 3 000 TS 6 itor. THIRD RATE. Name. Dis- place- ment (tons). Type. Hull. I.H.P. Propul- sion. Guns (main bat- tery). Ajax *7 500 Collier S. 3 000 S. t2 Glacier *7 000 s 4,000 s Celtic 6 428 do. . . . s. 1,890 S. *6 300 s fl 500 Saturn *6,220 6 206 Collier Cruiser (converted) I. s. 1,500 1,800 s. s. t2 Arethusa Alexander *6,200 6,181 Tank steamer Collier s. s. 1,026 s. s. t2 * Estimated. t Secondary battery. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 71 THIRD RATE Continued. Name. Dis- place- ment (tons). Type. Hull. I.H.P. Propul- sion. Guns (main bat- tery). Iris Brutus Sterling 6,100 *6,000 5,663 Supply and repair ship. Collier . . . do. . . S. S. I. 1,300 1,200 *926 S. S. s t2 t2 Cspsar .... 5,016 do.. . s 1 500 s T4 Nero 4,925 . . .do. .. S. 1,000 s j-4 Nanshan .... *4,827 do. .. s Abarenda Supply . . . 4,670 4,460 ....do.... Supply ship. . s. I ,050 ,069 s. s 4 t2 Marcellus Hannibal *4,400 4,291 couTer y ... p ..::::: . . do I. s. ,200 ,100 s. s 2 f2 Leonidas Solace . . . 4,242 4,700 . . . .do Hospital ship. . . s. s. ,000 3,200 s. s 2 Panther Miantonomoh Amphitrite . . . 4,260 3,990 3,990 Cruiser (converted). Double- turret mon- itor. do I. I. I. 1,426 1,600 s. T.S. T.S. 8 4 6 Terror 3,990 Double-turret mon- I. 1,600 T.S. 4 Albany New Orleans 3,437 3,437 itor. . . . Protected cruiser . . do s.w. s.w. 7,500 7,500 T.S. T.S. 10 10 Arkansas Wyoming 3,214 3,214 Monitor.. . do s. s. 2,400 2,400 T.S. T.S. 6 6 3 714 do s 2,400 T.S. 6 Florida 3,214 do s. 2,400 T.S. 6 Cincinnati Raleigh 3,213 3,213 Protected cruiser . . .. .do. . . s. s. 10,000 10,000 T.S. T.S. 11 11 Cleveland 3 100 do . s.w. 4,700 T.S. 10 Reina Mercedes 3,090 .. .do. .. s. 3,700 S. Atlanta 3,000 do s. 4,000 S. g 3000 s 4,030 s. 8 Hartford 2,790 Cruiser. . . w. 2,000 s. 13 Mayflower 2,690 Cruiser (converted) s. 4,700 T.S. 2 Topeka Katahdin . 2,372 2,155 Gunboat Harbor defence ram I. s. 2,000 5,068 T.S. T.S. 8 4 Detroit Montgomery 2,089 2,089 Unprotected cruiser , . .do s. s. 5,227 5,580 T.S. T.S. 10 10 2,089 do s. 5,451 T.S. 10 Mohican Manila Bennington Concord Yorktown. . ... 1,900 1,800 1,710 1,710 ,710 Cruiser Gunboat ....do ....do do w. I. I. s. s. 1,100 750 3,436 3,405 3,392 S. S. T.S. T.S. T.S 6 2 6 6 6 Dolphin. ,486 Dispatch boat s. 2,253 S. 3 Wilmington Helena ,392 ,392 Light draft gunb't . .... do s. s. 1,894 1,988 T.S. T.S. 8 8 375 Cruiser w. 800 S. 6 Essex ,375 .. .do w. 800 S. 6 Enterprise Nashville. ,375 ,371 ....do Light-draft gunb't . w. s. 800 2,536 s. T.S. 1 8 Castine ,177 177 Gunboat do s. s. 2,199 2,046 T.S. T.S. 8 8 175 do Sails. 6 Don Juan de Austria Isla de Luzon Isla de Cuba. . ,159 ,030 ,030 .. .do ....do ....do s. s. 1,500 2,627 2,627 S. T.S. T.S. 4 6 6 Alert ,020 Cruiser I. 500 S. 3 Ranger Annapolis ,020 ,000 ....do Composite gunboat I. Comp. 500 1,227 S. s. 6 6 Vicksburg Wheeling Marietta Newport Princeton Lawton ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 *4,100 .... do ...do ....do ....do ....do Transport Comp. Comp. Comp. Comp. Comp. S. 1,118 1,081 1,054 1,008 800 3,200 s. T.S. T.S. S. S. S. 6 6 6 6 6 Relief *3,000 Hospital ship S. 2,666 s. * Estimated. t Secondary battery. 72 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. FOURTH RATE. Name. Dis- place- ment (tons.) Type. Hull. I.H.P. Propul- sion. Guns (main bat- tery). Lebanon Justin . 3,375 *3 300 Collier. . . do I. s S. S t4 J2 Southery Pompey. . . *3,100 *3 085 ....do do . I. s s. s fa +2 Zafiro *2,000 Transport s. General Alava . 1 40 do s 770 s t4 Yankton 975 Gunboat (conv't'd). s. 750 s |8 Vesuvius Petrel. . . 0929 892 Dynamite-gun ves- sel. Gunboat s. s 3,795 1 095 T.S. S t3 4 850 s 2 800 TS j-g Fern. . . . 840 Tender w 300 s t3 Bancroft 839 s 1 213 TS 4 Vixen 806 Gunboat conv't'd). s. 1 250 s t4 Gloucester Michigan . . 786 685 . . . .do Cruiser. . . s. I. 2,000 365 s. p no t6 Wasp 630 s 1 800 s t6 Frolic 607 do ... s 550 s f4 Dorothea . 594 do s 1 558 s tio Elcano . . . 560 Gunboat. ... s. 600 T.S Pinta. . 550 do I 310 s t2 Stranger Peoria. . . . *546 488 Gunboat (conv't'd). do I. s s. s B Hist 472 do. . . s. 500 s. TO Eagle. . 434 do s 850 s t6 Hornet Quiros. . . 425 400 ....do Gunboat . . s. Comp 800 208 s. s t 1"2 Villalobos Hawk Siren 400 375 *315 ....do Gunboat (conv't'd). do Comp. S. s 208 1,000 s. s. s t2 B Sylvia. . . *302 do I. s. t6 Callao. . 200 Gunboat s 250 T S t6 Pampanga 200 do I. 250 T.S. t4 Paragua. . . 200 do I 250 T S +4 Samar 200 . do I. 250 T.S. +4 Arayat. . . . 200 do I 260 T S t6 Aileen 192 Gunboat (conv't'd). s. 500 S. t Mindanao . . . 174 Gunboat I 100 TS -j-6 Elfrida Sylph . . . *173 152 Gunboat (conv't'd). do s. s 200 550 S. s t2 !8 Calamianes 150 I 125 T S a Albay 150 do I. 125 TS. a Leyte 150 do I. 125 T.S. 3 Oneida Panay. . . . 150 142 Gunboat (conv't'd). w. 350 125 S. T S t6 +4 Manileno 142 do 125 T.S. t4 Mariveles. . 142 do 125 T S J4 Mindoro. 142 . . do 125 T.S. f4 Restless 137 Gunboat (conv't'd) 500 S. t8 Shearwater Inca Alvarado 122 *120 100 .... do ....do s. w. s '466 137 S. s. s t3 t2 t2 Sandoval 100 do . . s. 137 s. ff Huntress. 82 Comp s. t2 Basco Gardoqui 42 42 Gunboat .... do I. 44 44 s. s. 12 +2 Urdaneta 42 do I. 44 s. t2 * Estimated t Secondary battery. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. TORPEDO VESSELS. Name. Dis- place- ment (tons). Type. Hull. I.H.P. Propul- sion. Guns (main bat- tery). Decatur 420 g 8 000 T 9 Bainbridge Barry 420 420 .... do ! . do S. g 8,000 8 000 T.S. T S *2 *o Dale Chauncey 420 420 ....do do S. g 8,000 8 000 T.S. T S *2 *o Whipple Stewart 433 420 . ...do do S. g 8,300 7 000 T.S. T S *2 *'? Truxtun Worden. 433 433 ....do do I- 8,300 8 300 T.S. T S *2 *> Hopkins Lawrence 408 400 ....do do S. s 7,200 8 400 T.S. T S *2 *2 Hull 408 do s 7 200 T S *2 Macdonough 400 do g 8 400 T S *2 Preble 420 do g 7 000 T S #0 Paul Jones . 420 do g 7*000 T S *2 Perry 420 do g 7 000 T S *2 Bagley 167 g 4200 TS *3 Barney. . . 167 do ... g 4 200 TS *3 Biddle . 167 g 4 200 T S *3 120 do g 1 800 T S *3 Foote 142 g 2*000 TS *3 Gwin 46 do. . . . s. 850 g *2 Mackenzie 65 do s 850 g *2 Somers 145 do g 1 900 T S *3 Gushing. 105 do g 1 720 T S *3 Thornton 165 ... do i: 3 000 T.S. *3 Stockton. 166 .... do s. 3,000 T.S. *3 De Long 165 .... do. . . . s. 3,000 T.S. *3 Wilkes 165 Torpedo b( at s 3 000 TS. *3 Rodgers 142 do g 2000 TS *3 Tingey Bailey 165 235 ....do do s. g 3,000 5 600 T.S. T S *3 *2 Shubrick 166 do i: 3000 T.S. *3 Dupont 165 do 8 3 400 TS *3 Porter Talbot . 165 46i . do. . , do S. s 3,400 850 T.S. s *3 *2 Manly Farragut. . 30 273 . do. . . do s. s 250 5 600 S. TS. *1 *2 Davis Fox.. 132 132 . .do do s. s 1,750 1 750 T.S. T.S. *3 *3 T.A.M. Craven Dahlgren 146 146 . ...do do s. s. 4,200 4 200 T.S. T.S. *2 *2 McKee 65 do s. 850 S. *2 Winslow. 142 do. ... s. 2000 T.S. *3 Morris 105 do s 1 750 T.S. *3 Stiletto. 31 do. .. w. 359 S. *2 Rowan 182 do g 3 200 T.S. *3 Plunger. . 120 Submarine tor. boat. s. 160 S. *1 Porpoise. . . 120 . . do. . . s. 160 S. *1 Shark. . . . 120 do s. 160 s. *1 Adder 120 do s. 160 s. *1 Moccasin. 120 do s. 160 s. *1 Grampus. . 120 ... do s. 160 s. *1 Pike Holland ! 120 73 ....do do s. s. 160 150 s. s. *1 *1 ' Torpedo tubes. 74 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. UNDER CONSTRUCTION. Name. Dis- place- ment (tons). Type. Hull. I.H.-P. Pro- pul- sion. Guns (main bat- tery). Place where building. Connecticut 16,000 1st class S. 16,500 T.S. 24 Navy Yard, New York. battleship Kansas 16,000 ..do S. 16,500 T.S. 24 New York Ship Building Co., Louisiana 16000 do S. 16,500 T.S. 24 Camden, N. J. Newport NBWS Ship Building iincl Dry Dock Co., N'p't News.Va. Minnesota 16,000 do s 16,500 T S 24 Do. Vermont 16,000 ..do S. 16,500 T.S. 24 Fore River S. & E. Co., Quincy, Ma?s. Georgia 15,000 . .do s.w. 18,000 T.S. 24 Bath Iron Works, Bath, Me. Nebraska 15,000 do. . . s w. 18 000 T S. 24 Moran Bros. Co., Seattle, Wash. New Jersey 15,000 ..do s.w. 18,000 T.S. 24 Fore River S. & E. Co., Quincy, Mass. Rhode Island. . . 14,600 ..do s. 18,000 T.S. 24 Do. Virginia 14,600 . .do s. 18,000 T.S. 24 Newport News Ship Building and Dry Dock Co., N'p't News.Va. Idaho . . 13,000 do. . . s. 10 000 T S 22 Contract not yet awarded Mississippi 13,000 ..do s. 10,000 T.S. 22 Do. Ohio. ... . . 12,500 . .do s. 16,000 T.S. 20 Union Iron Works, San Francis- co, Cal. Tennessee 14,500 Armored s. 25,000 T.S. 20 Wm. Cramp & Sons, Philadel- cruiser. phia, Pa. Washington 14,500 ..do s. 25,000 T.S. 20 New York Ship Building Co., Camden, N. J. California 14,000 ..do s.w. 23,000 T.S. 22 Union Iron Works, San Francis- co, Cal. Pennsylvania. . . 14,000 Armored s.w. 23,000 T.S. 22 Wm. Cramp & Sons, Philadel- cruiser. phia, Pa. West Virginia . . . 14,000 ..do s.w. 23,000 T.S. 22 Newport News Ship Building and Dry Dock Co., N'p't News.Va. Colorado 13,600 ..do s. 23,000 T.S. 22 Wm. Cramp & Sons, Philadel- phia, Pa. Maryland 13,600 ..do s. 23,000 T.S. 22 Newport News Ship Building and Dry Dock Co., N'p't News.Va. South Dakota. . . 13,600 do s. 23,000 T.S. 22 Union Iron Works, San Francis- co, Cal. Charleston 9,600 Protected cruiser. s. 21,000 T.S. 14 Newport News Ship Building and Dry Dock Co., N'p't News.Va. Milwaukee 9,600 ..do s. 21,000 T.S. 14 Union Iron Works, San Francis- co, Cal. St. Louis 9,600 ..do s. 21,000 T.S. 14 Neafie & Levy, Philadelphia.Pa. Chattanooga .... 3,100 do. . . . s.w. 4,700 T S 10 Navy Yard, New York. Denver 3,100 ..do s.w. 4,700 T.S. 10 Neafie & Levy, Philadelphia, Pa. Des Moines 3,100 ..do s.w. 4,700 T.S. 10 Fore River S. & E. Co., Quincy, Mass. Galveston 3,100 ..do s.w. 4,700 T.S. 10 Navy Yard, Norfolk. Tacoma 3,100 ..do s.w. 4,700 T.S. 10 Union Iron Works, San Francis- Dubuque 1,085 Gunboat . s.w. 1,050 T.S. 6 co, Cal. Gas Engine and Power Co., and Chas. L. Seabury & Co., con- solidated.Morris Heights.N.Y. Paducah 1,085 ..do s.w. 1,050 T.S. 6 Do. Gunboat No. 16 . . .do s. T.S. Contract not yet awarded. Cumberland. . . . 1,800 Training s. 'o Navy Yard, Boston, Mass. Intrepid 1,800 ship . . do s. 6 Navy Yard, Mare Island, Cal. Boxer 345 Training w. Navy Yard, Portsmouth, N. H. brigantine Stringham (No. 340 Torpedo s. 7,200 T.S. *2 Navy Yard, League Island. 19) boat Goldsborough 247} ..do s. 6,000 T.S. *2 Navy Yard, Puget Sound. (No. 20) Nicholson 174 ..do s. 3,500 T.S. *3 Navy Yard, New York. (No. 30) O'Brien (No. 31) 174 ..do s. 3,500 T.S. *3 Do. Blakely (No. 28) 165 . . do s. 3,000 T.S. *3 Geo. Lawley & Sons, South Bos- ton, Mass. Sotoyomo (No. 9) 225 ..do s. 450 S. Navy Yard, Mare Island, Cal. *Torpedo tubes. UNI\ SCIENTIFIC AM 3RENCB BOOK. SUMMARY OP VESSELS IN THE UNITED STATES NAVY. VESSELS FIT FOR SERVICE, INCLUDING THOSE UNDER REPAIR. 10 1 2 1 4 First-class battleships Second-class battleship Armored cruisers Armored ram Single-turret harbor-defense monitors . . Double-turret monitors 6 Protected cruisers 14 Unprotected cruisers 3 Gunboats 12 Light-draft gunboats 3 Composite gunboats 6 Training ship (Naval Academy), sheathed 1 Special class (Dolphin-Vesuvius) 2 Gunboats under 500 tons 21 Torpedo-boat destroyers 16 Steel torpedo boats 29 Submarine torpedo boats 8 Wooden torpedo boat 1 Iron cruising vessels, steam 5 Wooden cruising vessels, steam 6 Wooden sailing vessels 4 Tugs 39 Auxiliary cruisers 5 Converted yachts 23 Colliers 16 Supply ships and hospital ships 14 Total. . . 252 VESSELS UNDER CONSTRUCTION OR AUTHOR- IZED. First-class battleships 14 Armored cruisers '. g Protected cruisers 9 Gunboat for great Lakes (not begun) ... 1 Composite gunboats 2 Steel torpedo boats Training ships Training brig Tugs Total. 6 2 1 2 45 VESSELS UNFIT FOR SEA SERVICE. Iron single-turret monitors Wooden cruising vessels, steam Wooden sailing vessels. Total. 5 in 8 23 Grand Total ... . . 302 THE " LAKE " SUBMARINE BOAT ON THE SURFACE. 76 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. saqn; | djo x j jo -o N | paads II : BT, ' o SO X! 3 . fi o "M" . ?5Tc fc |$|| B " fi a &a . w ' i IV |l J, 6 a .5 ^ I B So X! J7 03 X* 3 Ss-^'^^CSiitiSfl =3 '5 ^^ jinjifiif i -ai ii "S o d a x x x x^ .^ g^, g.5 GC COO O2CO 3*0 : ^ -a ^2 I .SPo x OH W I I >'*^' Sw c Ifl" c c ii.a s* oo ! ! CO CQ -W P-4J O < -^> ^CN " " Q-^^ = I 1 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 77 ^ * iS P e 3 P4 1 89 25 78 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE TORPEDO BOAT IN MODERN WARFARE. The Russo-Japanese war has proved the wisdom of building torpedo boat destroyers of the dimensions and pow- er that characterize the latest models. With their length of 220 feet, beam of over 20 feet and draft of between 9 and 10 feet, giving a displacement of between 300 and 400 tons, the mod- ern destroyer is a very serviceable sea boat, which was more than could be said for the torpedo boat of an earlier decade. The high freeboard and the provision of a raised turtle-back for- ward, render these boats able to main- tain their high speed in fairly rough water, and in the present operations the flotillas of Japanese destroyers seem to have been perfectly well able to keep the sea iH all weather. Evi- dently the lessons taught by the dis- asters that happened to some of the high-powered British torpedo boat de- stroyers, when they were badly wrenched, and in one case actually bro- ken in two in a heavy seaway, have been laid to heart, and the Japanese destroyers which did such good work around Port Arthur are evidently sea- worthy vessels. A surprising feature of torpedo boat service in the Far Eastern struggle is the wide range of duties which were assigned to the destroyers. Scouting work which ordinarily would be given to cruisers from 3,000 to 6,000 tons displacement was satisfactorily car- ried out by these little 400-ton craft. By reference to the section dia- gram on page 77 the reader can obtain a very complete idea of a torpedo boat interior. Forward in the bow is a collision compartment formed by a bulkhead, located several feet from the bow. Aft of that is the chain locker, and then the torpedoes, of which half a dozen are carried on a vessel of this character. Since the torpedo boat car- ries no armor whatever, the torpedoes, the war-heads, and the magazines are placed below the water-line, where they are safe from any except a plunging shot. The torpedoes are stowed with their war-heads containing the guncot- ton charge unscrewed, the latter being stowed' separately, as shown in the en- graving. Aft of the war-heads is the forward jnagazine and a compartment given up to the general ship's stores. On the deck above are the quarters for the crew, which will number be- tween fifty and sixty men in the larger boats. THE MODERN TORPEDO. Commenting during the late Spanish war upon the efficiency of the torpedo, we said : "Although torpedo warfare has not yet achieved results at all pro- portionate to the amount of thought and skill that have been devoted to it, the failure has probably been due more to a lack of opportunity or of efficient handling than to any defi- ciency in the torpedo itself." The startling events that marked the open- ing of the Russo-Japan war have es- tablished the truth of that statement, for in the hands of an alert, intelligent and daring people, this deadly weapon, in the first half hour of hostilities, so badly crippled two of the finest battle- ships and one of the best cruisers of the Russian navy that they had to be beached, and a blow was struck at the naval prestige of Russia from which that country will take many years to recover. At the same time, the Port Arthur torpedo attack must be judged at its true value; and, therefore, we must not lose sight of the fact that information is finding its way to the public ear which makes it pretty evi- dent that the Russian ships were not looking for, and were totally unpre- pared to receive, a torpedo attack. If this is the case, what has been proved is that if the torpedo boat can get un- molested within easy range, the tor- pedo is fairly sure of its mark and this we all knew well enough before the war began. The Whitehead torpedo is undergo- ing constant development, the latest improvement being the introduction of the gyroscope for the purpose of keep- ing the torpedo more accurately upon its true course. The latest patterns include this device and are generally of larger diameter and greater length than the earlier types. We show on the preceding page an illustration of a Schwartzkopff tor- pedo, which is the type used in the Russian navy. It is merely a modifica- tion of the Whitehead and operates upon the same principles. The torpedo here shown consists of a cigar-shaped body of phosphor-bronze or steel, divided into six separate compartments as follows: (1) The magazine, (2) the secret chamber, (3) the reservoir, (4) the engine compart- ment, (5) the buoyancy compartment, (6) the bevel-gear chamber. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 79 The magazine contains the explosive charge, which consists of a series of disks of wet guncotton packed snugly together. The cartridge primer, k, for exploding the charge, consists of sev- eral cylinders of dry guncotton packed in a tube which passes through per- forations in the guncotton disks, t. The foremost of the six cylinders con- tains a detonating primer consisting of fulminate of mercury. The small pro- peller at the extreme point of the tor- pedo is part of an ingenious safety de- vice for preventing premature explo- sion in handling. When not in use, the firing pin is held in check by a sleeve ; but as soon as the torpedo strikes the water the rotation of the little propellers releases the sleeve and leaves the firing pin ready to strike the detonating primer the moment the tor- pedo meets an obstruction. The "secret chamber" is the most ingenious part of this most ingenious piece of mechanism. Its piston, pen- dulum and springs perform the impor- tant work of regulating the horizontal rudders which keep the torpedo at the proper depth. Immediately in front of the secret chamber is a narrow com- partment perforated on its walls to allow the outside water to enter. The front wall of the secret chamber car- ries a piston, a, which can move in the direction of the axis of the torpedo. The pressure of the water is resisted by three coiled springs, as shown in the longitudinal section. At a certain predetermined depth, according to the tension on the springs, the springs and water pressure will be in equilibrium ; below that depth the piston will be driven in by the water pressure, and above it the springs will push forward the piston. To prevent too sudden os- cillation in this action, the piston is connected to the rod, e, of a swinging pendulum, d. The motion of the pis- ton is communicated by rods, which pass through the hollow stay rods of the air chamber to the horizontal or diving rudders. If the torpedo goes too deep the piston moves back, the pendu- lum swings forward and the rudders are elevated, the reverse movements taking place if the immersion is not sufficient. When a torpedo dives into the water, the first part of its run is made on a wave line which crosses and recrosses the desired and ultimate level of immersion, the piston and the pen- dulum gradually bringing the torpedo to a true course. The reservoir forms the central body of the "fish." It is made of forged cast steel and is tested up to seventy atmospheres. A tuyere at its after end feeds the air to the engine. The torpedo is driven by a three-cylinder engine, with cylinders 120 deg. apart, acting on a common crank. The engine is started by means of a valve which is opened by a lever striking a projecting lug on the launch- ing tube, when the torpedo is fired. The buoyancy chamber is an air- tight compartment, the purpose of which is to afford the proper buoyancy to the torpedo ; it carries a piece of lead ballast, by shifting which the trim can be controlled. The two tubes, / and g, carry the connecting rods for controlling the horizontal diving rud- ders. Next comes the bevel-gear chamber, where is located the gear, I, for caus- ing the propellers, m, to rotate in op- posite directions. The after propeller is keyed to the main shaft ; the forward propeller is keyed to a sleeve which rotates freely upon the main shaft, and the motion is reversed by means of two bevel-wheel gears which turn on a spindle at right angles to the main shaft. The "tail" consists of a stock with vertical vanes, which act as the vertical rudder, and two frames which carry the horizontal rudders. The torpedo is fired from a launch- ing tube by the explosion of a small charge of gunpowder behind it. This compresses the air which surrounds the rear half of the torpedo and thrusts it out of the tube without any serious jar. The range and speed of the torpedoes vary with the size. The weapon here shown is 14 inches in diameter, 15 feet in length, carries 90 pounds of guncot- ton and has a speed of 28 knots for a range of 800 yards. The 18-inch Whitehead torpedo is 16 feet 7 l / 2 inches in length, carries a charge of 220 pounds of guncotton and has a speed of 31 knots for 1,000 yards. 80 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. INTERIOR OF A BATTLESHIP. The story of the complicated char- acter of the interior of a modern bat- tleship is one that has grown some- what stale in the telling, and it is not the fault of the magazine writer and the occasional correspondent of Sun- day supplements, if the general public is not satisfied that a great battleship or cruiser is complicated beyond the power of words to express. In saying that the battleship is com- plicated we must be careful to remem- ber that complication does not imply confusion ; and that in all the practi- vessel, but will leave it to the diagram to tell its own story. The drawing is what is known as an inboard profile; that is to say, it is a vertical, central, longitudinal section through the whole length of the ship. The huge structure of which we thus obtain an interior view, is a little un- der 450 feet in length from the extreme tip of the ram to the end of the rud- der. The foundation of the whole is the keel, which is nothing more nor less than a deep plate girder, 3 feet 6 inches in depth, extending from the in- SECTION OF A 1. Crew's showers. 2. Paints and oils. 3. Cofferdam. 4. Trimming tank. 5. Trimming tank. 6. Seamen's lavatory. 7. Bread and dry provisions. 8. Construction stores. 9. Torpedoes and submarine 10. Stores. 19. Trunk to dynamos. 11. Hold and cable. Tier each 20. Washrooms. side. 21. Officers' galley. 12. Blower room. 22. Firemen's room. 13. Military mast. 23. Boiler room. 14. Conning tower. 24. Firemen's wash room. 15. Pilot house. 25. Trunk to evaporating 16. Chart room. room. 17. Officers' room. 26. Armory. 18. Crew's galley. 27. Evaporator room. cable achievements of engineering, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to find a structure which, in spite of the many parts of which it is made up and the enormous elaboration of detail that it manifests, is really so harmo- niously proportioned, or is better fitted to the ends for which it was designed. There are some subjects of which an illustration will tell more in five min- utes than tongue or pen can explain in an hour ; and in presenting the accom- panying view of the interior of one of the latest battleships of the United States Navy, we shall not attempt to give any elaborate description of the board end of the ram structure to the rudder post. Bisecting it at every 3 feet of its length occurs one of the plate girder frames or ribs, which ex- tend athwartship, and run up to the under edge of the armor shelf, where they are reduced to a depth of say from 18 to 12 inches, the frames extend- ing up the sides of the ship to the level of the upper deck. On the out- side of these frames is riveted the outer plating of the ship, and upon the inside of the frames, extending as high up as the under side of the water-line belt, say 4 or 5 feet below the water- line, is riveted an inner shell of plat- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 81 ing. The space between the outer and inner plating is divided up by the frames into transverse water-tight chambers 3 feet in width, and every one of these spaces is subdivided by seven or eight longitudinal plate gird- ers which are built into the double bottom, as it is called, parallel with the keel and extending, most of them, the entire length from stem to stern. Consequently it will be seen that the space between the outer and inner shells of the ship's bottom is divided into an innumerable number of sep- arate compartments, 'measuring 3 feet in depth by 4 feet in length by about entrance of the fragments of heavy, high-explosive shells, bursting within the ship above the water-line, a steel deck, 2 to 3 inches in thickness, known as the protective deck, extends at about the level of the water-line over the whole of the vitals, and is con- tinued in a gently curving slope to the ram forward and to the stem aft. In the vessel here shown this steel deck is iy 2 inches thick on the flat and 3 inches thick on the slopes. Now, the space below the protective deck is divided up by a large number of transverse, water-tight bulkheads of steel plating, there being nineteen >.3RN BATTLESHIP. 28. General workshop. 29. Warrant officers' pantry. 30. Warrant officers' dining room. 31. Signal tower. 32. Military mast. 33. Crane. 34. Junior officers' stateroom. 35. Blower room. 36. 12-inch handling room. 37. Shaft alley and 6-inch mag- azines. 38. Admiral's office. 39. Junior officers' pantry. 40. Wardroom pantry. 41. Skylight trunk to ward- room. 42. Dining room. 43. Stores. 44. Bread and dry provisions. 45. Ward room, 46. Steering machinery room. 47. Fresh water. 48. Trimming tank. 49. Admiral's cabin. 50. Admiral's stateroom. 51. Admiral's lavatory. 52. Admiral's after-cabin. 53. Cofferdam. 6 feet in width. The plates are se- curely riveted together. Above the inner floor or platform the central portion of the vessel is taken up by the magazines, boiler rooms and engine rooms. These because of their vast importance, are known as the ship's vitals, and great care is taken to provide them against the entrance of heavy projectiles of the enemy, and, as far as may be, against the attack of the still more deadly torpedo. The engines and boilers are so proportioned as to height that they do not extend above the water-line ; and to protect them from plunging shot, or from the of these bulkheads altogether. They extend from the inner shell of the vessel to the under side of the protec- tive deck. They are riveted perfectly water-tight, communication from com- partment to compartment being by wa- ter-tight doors. Forward in the bow are the trimming tanks, used to assist in bringing the vessel to an even keel. Then abaft of the collision bulkhead are bread and dry provision stores, and the construction stores. In the next compartment, which is divided into three decks, we have on the floor of the ship a storeroom for torpedo gear, submarine mines, etc. Above this is 82 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. the under-water torpedo room, and im- mediately below the protective deck are kept the paymaster's stores and life preservers. In the next compartment, below on the platform, are the anchor gear and c'hain lockers, and above this the navigator's stores. Passing through the next bulkhead we come to the vi- tals of the ship proper, with the 6- inch gun magazines on the floor, the 12-inc'h magazines and handling rooms on the deck above, and above this the 14-pounder ammunition and blower rooms. Above the magazines, and rest- ing on the protective deck, is the bar- bette of the forward pair of 12-inch guns, the armor and its relative thick- ness being shown by heavy, black lines ; while in front of the barbette the heavy sloping black line indicates the athwartship sloping bulkhead, placed there to prevent raking projectiles from passing through the entire struc- ture of the ship. Immediately to the rear of the forward barbette is seen the coning tower, with the heavily ar mored tube which protects the tele- phones, electric wires, fuse tubes, etc., that pass from the tower down below the protective deck. In the next com partment, aft of the magazines, are the dynamo rooms ; and then between the next two bulkheads is placed an athwartship coal bunker. A similar athwartship coal bunker extends athwartship on the other side of the boiler rooms ; and it must be under- stood that at the side of the boiler rooms are the wing bunkers which run aft for the whole length of the boiler rooms and engine rooms. The boiler installation on this particular ship is entirely of the water-tube type, and it consists of twenty-four units ar- ranged in six separate water-tight com- partments, three on each side of the center line of the vessel. Aft of the boiler rooms comes the athwartship coal bunker above referred to, and then in two separate water-tight com- partments are the twin-screw engines. Aft of the engines in another com- partment is contained a complete set of magazines similar to that beneath the forward barbette, and above them, resting on the protective deck is the after barbette and turret, with its pair of 12-inch guns. Aft of the maga- zines come more compartments, de- voted to stores. In the next com- partment, down on the platform, are the fresh-water tanks and two trim- ming tanks, and on the deck above, be- low the protective deck are, first, the steering-machinery room, and then the steering-gear room, each being in a separate water-tight compartment. This completes the description of the space below the protective deck. The protective deck is known more generally among seamen as the berth deck. Above that, at a distance of about 8 l /2 feet, comes the main deck, and S l /2 feet above that the upper deck, while amidships, between the two main turrets, is the superstructure, the deck of which is known as the super- structure or boat deck. The berth deck and main deck are devoted to the living accommodations of the officers and crew, the crew being amidships and forward, and the officers aft. The berth deck, as its name would indicate, is largely devoted to the berthing and general living accommodation of the crew. Here are also to be found, in the wake of the forward gun turrets, on one side the sick bay, and on the other side the refrigerating room and ice machine. Aft of that, on the port side, are the sick bay, lavatory, dis- pensary, machinists' quarters, ord- nance workshop and blowers ; while on the starboard side are the petty offi- cers' quarters, the laundry, and the drying-room. Then, in the wake of the boiler-rooms, on each side of the ship, are coal bunkers which add their protection to that of the side armor of the vessel. In the center of the ship are washrooms for the crew and firemen. Aft of the coal bunkers on this deck come the officers' quarters. On both sides of the ship are the staterooms of the junior officers, and the wardroom staterooms, while be- tween them is a large wardroom and dining-room with its pantry. The ex- treme aft portion of the berth deck is taken up by officers' lavatories, etc. On the main deck above, forward, is more berthing accommodation for the crew, also shower baths and lavatories, while amidships are found the various galleys for the crew and the officers, arranged between the basco of the smokestacks, while amidships in the wings of the vessel is more berthing space for the crew. Aft on the main deck the space is given up largely to accommodations for the senior officers and for the admiral, which, by the way, give one an impression more of commodiousness than of rich or ex- travagant furnishing. Forward, above the conning tower, are the pilothouse, chartroom and the room of the com- manding officer. In the particular ship shown, the heavier guns are mounted on the upper deck, two 12- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 83 LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH A UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP SHOWING 12-INCH GUN TURRET, BARBETTE, HANDLING ROOM, AND MAGAZINES. 84 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. inch guns in a turret forward and two aft, and eight 8-inch guns in two ar- niored turrets, two on each broadside amidships. The intermediate battery of twelve 6-inch guns is mounted on the main deck, the guns firing through casemates. On this deck are also eight 3-inch guns, four forward and four aft ; there are also four 3-inch guns, mounted in broadside on the upper deck, within the superstructure. The new method of emplacing guns on our warships, by which it is possible to swing the guns around until their muzzles are flush with the side of the ship, has the good effect of leaving the side of the ship free from projecting objects when the vessel is in harbor, and of leaving the living spaces of the crew but very slightly obstructed. SECTION THROUGH THE TURRET AND BARBETTE OF A MODERN BATTLESHIP. In the foregoing illustration, show- ing the interior of a turret and bar- bette on a modern American battle ship, the section has been carried down through the structure of the ship to the keel. It is taken on a vertical plane in the line of the keel and in- cludes enough of the ship in the fore and aft direction to take in the am- munition and handling rooms, and show the methods of storing the shot and shell and powder and the means for bringing it up to the breech of the gun. Commencing at the bottom of the section we have, first, the outside plating of the ship ; then about four feet above that is the inside plating, or inner bottom, as it is called. This space is divided laterally by the frames of the ship, which run across the bot- tom and up the sides to the shelf, upon which the side armor rests. Upon the double bottom, and between that and the first deck above, is a magazine where the ammunition is stored in racks as shown in the illustration, this particular ammunition being for the rapid-fire guns of six-inch calibre. On the deck above and centrally below the turret,* is located the handling room into which open by water-tight doors the magazines, where are stored the powder charges and the shells for the 12-inch guns above. Two decks above we come to the steel protective deck, 2% to 3 inches in thickness. Upon this deck is erected a great circular structure known as the barbette, whose walls will be from eight to twelve inches in thickness. The bar- bette is actually a circular steel fort, and it is thick enough and its steel protection hard enough, to break up and keep out the heaviest projectiles of the enemy, except when they are fired at close ranges. At about two- thirds of the height of the barbette is a heavy circular track upon which runs a massive turntable. The framing of this turntable extends to a point slightly above the top edge of the bar- bette, and upon it is imposed the mas- sive structure of the turret, which is formed, like the barbette, of heavy steel armor carried upon framing, the form of the turret in plan being ellip- tical. Its front face, which slopes at an angle of about 40 degrees, is pierced with two ports, through which project the two heavy 12-inch guns. The mounting of these guns is car- ried also upon the turntable and re- volves with the turret. From the handling room below a steel elevator track extends up through the barbette and curves back to the rear of the gun ; and upon this there travel two ammu- nition cages which are loaded below upon the handling room floor and carry the projectiles and powder up to the breech of the guns, where it is thrust into the gun by mechanical rammers. THE SUBMARINE MINE. Broadly speaking, there are three different kinds of submarine mines. First, observation mines, which are fired from the shore when a ship is known to be in range; second, auto- matic mines, which are exploded on being struck by a ship, which is the kind with which the Russians claim that the "Petropavlovsk" was sunk ; third, electric-contact mines, which on being struck by a passing vessel give notification to an operator on shore, who fires the mine by the throw of a switch. The accompanying illustrations show a system of electric-contact SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 85 ground mines, laid across a channel, with a battery of rapid-fire guns on shore so placed that they command the whole of the mine field, and render it impossible for the small boats of the enemy to attempt to explode the mines before the big battleships and armored cruisers pass over them. The battery is placed rather low down near the water, and above it is a battery of heavy 8 and 10-inch breech-loading rifles mounted either en barbette, or on disappearing mounts, while above these, carefully masked by shrubbery, is a firing station, which is connected by cables with the mines in the channel. Some- times, by preference, the firing station is placed in a massive concrete casemate, which is built into the struc- ture of the fortification. The sub- marine mines would be laid out in a series of parallel lines, and so. spaced that the mines in each line would cover the spaces left in the adjacent lines, with the result that on whatever course a ship might be steering, she would be certain to strike one or more of the mines before she passes over the field. The ground mine, which, as we have said, is usually a hemispherical metal case, contains several hundred pounds of high explosive, and is held in place on the bed of the river or channel by its own weight, sometimes assisted by heavy hooks cast upon the outer shell. Anchored to the mine, and floating above it, at a depth below water that is less than the draft of the enemy's vessels, is a hollow buoyant sphere in which is placed the electric circuit-closer. The second .engraving of the two herewith shown represents a section through the floating sphere, and shows the details of a type of circuit-closer which has been very widely used. It consists of a horse- shoe magnet, If, M, within which is hung by a coiled wire a ball, B. A silken cord is hung from the top of the magnet, passes down through tha ball, and is attached to an armature, A. When the vessel strikes the buoy, the ball is thrown to one side, draws aside the silken cord and lifts the armature., A. To the poles, N, S, of the magnet are secured two small mag- nets, (7, C, one end of the coii wire be- ing connected to line and the other to a contact point, &. The armature A is secured by a spring to an insulated point, P, from which a wire passes through the firing fuse in the ground mine to earth. The other end of the armature carries a contact point 86 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. which, when the buoy is struck, en- gages with a contact point, 6, which is connected to earth through the inter- posed resistance of a 1,000-ohm resist- ance coil. Our second engraving shows the au- tomatic indicator or shutter, which is placed in the firing station on shore. Now let us follow more closely the operation of blowing up the hostile magnets, 6, 6, and releases the pivoted shutter, 4, ringing the bell and throw- ing the signal battery line L into cir- cuit with the line to the firing battery, F, B. The operator now places the plug, P, in place, and sends the whole force of the main current into the .Jine, and as this has sufficient force to pass the resistance and ignite the fuse, the ground mine is instantly exploded. In GROUND MINE, ELECTRIC-CONTACT, BUOY, AND SHUTTER AT FIRING STATION. ship. The instant the vessel strikes the buoy, the suspended ball, B, swings to one side, draws aside the cord, pulls up armature A, into con- tact with 6, and causes the signal-bat- tery current to pass by way of the 1,000-ohm resistance-coil down through the ground fuse to earth. This cur- rent is too weak to ignite the fuse. At the same time the armature a (in the firing station), is attracted to the the case of an automatic mine of the kind that is claimed to have sunk the "Petropavlovsk," the instant the float- ing sphere or case is struck by the ship, there is an explosion of the charge, which is carried in the float- ing case, if the water is very deep, or in the ground mine at the bottom if the water is sufficiently shallow to bring the mine within striking distance of the ship's bottom. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 87 A GROUP OF NAVY PROJECTILES. The projectiles in use by our navy may be classed as solid shot, shell and shrapnel. Although some excellent solid shot is still manufactured, such as the Johnson fluid compressed shot, solid shot have given place to shell as the standard projectiles of the navy. instant of striking; the latter is set to explode the shell a certain length of time after the shell has left the muzzle of the gun. Shrapnel is the modern form of the old case shot, which consisted of a large number of balls put up in a case or 8-inch 10-inch 12-inch 13-inch 4-inch 5-inch 6-inch GROUP OF COMMON SHELL AT THE WASHINGTON NAVY YARD. Shell is formed with an interior cav- ity of considerable dimensions, in which is placed a charge of powder or high explosive. It is provided with a fuse for the ignition of the charge, which is of the percussion or time- fuse type. The former acts at the envelope, which merely served to hold them together until they left the muz- zle of the gun. In the case of shrap- nel the envelope is made sufficiently strong to bear the shock of discharge, and a time-fuse is provided. The best armor-piercing projectiles 88 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. are now made of chrome steel, the small admixture of chromium serving to impart to the steel a remarkable amount of toughness. The projectiles are cast, forged, and carefully an- nealed and tempered, the hardening being confined to the point or nose. The latter is ogival in form, the point being struck with a radius which is two or three times the diameter of the shell. The point has to be sharply pointed to insure its penetration of the hard face of the armor, but if it is made too fine, it will lack the neces- sary resisting power and will be frac- tured before it can get through. The best proportion of radius is found to lie between two and three times the diameter. There are two kinds of armor-pierc- ing projectiles. The first is made solid, or practically so, a small core being formed to give the best results in the forging process ; the other type is known as semi-armor-piercing. It is formed hollow, with a core of moder- ate dimensions, large enough to hold an explosive charge that will insure the bursting of the thick walls of the projectile. It is made of chrome steel, and requires in its manufacture to be treated with great care to secure the combined hardness and toughness to enable it to pierce solid armor without fracturing and carry its explosive charge intact into the interior of the ship. When such shell is filled with common powder the heat engendered by passing through the armor is de- pended on to explode the shell just within the ship ; no fuse is used. The object at which projectile mak- ers are aiming just now is to make a shell which can carry a charge through the best armor and burst on the inner side of the armor. It is already pos- sible to put solid shot through plate that is as much as one and one-half the diameter of the shot in thickness, and the success of the projectile mak- ers is such as to make it likely that before long a bursting shell can be made to perform the same feat. It will be evident that penetration of the armor belt by a shell will be vastly more destructive to the ship than penetration by solid shot. The damage wrought by the latter will be confined to its direct path, where the zone of destruction of a shell will be almost as extensive, if it is of the larger calibres, as the whole area of the deck on which it strikes. The effects, moreover, will be greatly augmented if a high-explosive, bursting charge be substituted for common powder, al- though the sensitiveness of such charges renders it very difficult to carry them through armor plate and burst them 011 the inside. Excellent results, however, have been achieved in this direction against armor of mod- erate thickness. The group of shells shown in our engraving includes one of each of the sizes used on our warships, from the 4-inch 33-pound shell up to the 13- inch 1,100-pound shell of our largest guns. They are all of the class known as "common shell," and are used against fortifications and earthworks and against the unarmored or lightly armored portions of warships. Thay are usually formed of cast-iron, though sometimes of cast-steel, and the in- terior cavity is large, enabling a big bursting charge to be carried. Unlike the forged chrome steel shell, they are unfit for armor-piercing, not having the necessary strength to carry them through the plates. The particulars of these shells are given in the following table : Diameter. Length. Bursting Charge. 4-in 5 6 8 10 12 13 ch. .. He 1 1 2 3 3 4 ot 4 inc 3 9 6 8 hes. 2 poi 3 4 JO 22 42 70 inds, It will be noticed that the point of the shell is cut off. It is here that the percussion fuse is inserted. The fuse consists of a hollow threaded brass case, which is screwed into a hole bored through into the interior of the shell. Inside the case is a cylindrical lead plunger, in the center of which is a fulminate and a priming charge. When the gun is fired, the plunger moves to the rear of the fuse, and at the moment when the shell strikes an obstruction it flies forward, the ful- minate striking a small anvil on the fuse cap. This ignites the primer, the flame of which enters the shell and explodes it. Turkestan is a general government of Central Asia. It comprises the khan- ates and deserts annexed by Generals Tchernaieff and Kaufmann between 18(>0 and 1875, and now known as the provinces of Samarcand, Ferghana, and Syr Daria. Area about 257,134 square miles, with 3,900,000 inhabi- tants. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 89 OUR NAVY GUNS IN THE CIVIL WAR AND TO-DAY. Naval ordnance has made greater strides in the forty years that have intervened since the Civil AVar than in several centuries preceding. As proof of this it is enough to look at the striking comparison shown in the accompanying cut. The smaller illus- tration represents a Parrott 100 pounder of 1862, superimposed upon a modern 100-pounder, or to be correct, a 6-inch 50-calibre rapid-fire rifle of the year 1900; the lower diagram represents a 15-inch smooth-bore of the Civil War, superimposed upon a 12- inch breech-loading 45-calibre rifle of to-day. The comparison might be car- ried out to greater length throughout all the various calibres that constitute the batteries of naval ships ; but we have chosen to compare the main bat- tery of the monitor with the main bat- tery of the modern battleship, and what might be called the secondary batterv of the frigates of 1862 with the stand- ard secondary battery gun of the bat- tleship of to-day. The heaviest piece carried in the Civil War was the 15-inch smooth- bore. This gun weighed 42,000 pounds ; its length over all was 15 feet 1 inch; its maximum diam- eter at the breech was 4 feet, and with an ordinary charge of 35 pounds of black cannon powder, it fired a spheri- cal shell weighing 350 pounds. Ac- cording to the ordnance regulations, under extraordinary conditions, these guns might be fired 20 rounds "at ironclads at close quarters," using 100 pounds of hexagonal or cubical powder and a solid shot weighing 450 pounds. Under these conditions the most re- spectable muzzle velocity of 1,600 foot- seconds was obtained, with a corre- sponding muzzle energy of 7,997 foot- tons. It would be interesting to know what the powder pressure was under these conditions, for the velocity and energy are something truly remark- able for a cast-iron gun. It is little wonder that only 20 rounds were al- lowed under the severe stresses im- posed by these ballistics. Now, compare these results with the most powerful gun in our navy to-day, namely, the 12-inch 45-calibre rifle, which weighs 53.4 tons, has a total length of 45 feet, and with a charge of 360 pounds of smokeless powder fires an 850-pound shell with a muz- zle velocity of 2,800-foot seconds and a muzzle energy of 46,246 foot-tons. The true basis of comparison of the I I i 5i a P it C O* &~ OQ ** B. si I 90 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. relative efficiency of the two guns is the amount of energy developed per ton of the weight of the gun, and on this basis we find that the old 15-inch smooth-bore gun when fired with 100 pounds of powder developed 427 foot- tons of energy per ton of gun, as against 872 foot-tons of energy de- veloped by the modern 12-inch rifle. ' If we take account of the durability of a gun the advantage will be stronger on the side of the modern piece, for whereas the 15-inch smooth-bore was limited to twenty rounds under the given conditions, the modern 12-inch rifles, judging from the small amount of erosion developed with nitro-cellu- lose powders, should have a useful life of at least half a thousand rounds. Moreover, it must be remembered that the modern elongated shell will hold its velocity much longer than the old spherical shell of the smooth-bore, and, consequently, the respective muzzle ve- locities and energies are no criterion of the respective efficiencies of the guns. The gun of 1862 that answers to the modern secondary battery, 6-inch rifle, is the Parrott muzzle-loading rifle, a cast-iron gun which was strengthened at the breech over the powder cham- ber by shrinking thereon an iron hoop. The bore of the gun was 6.4 inches. It weighed 4.35 tons, was 12 feet 4 inches in length and with a charge of ten pounds of powder it fired a 100- pound shell with an initial velocity of 1,080 foot-seconds and a muzzle energy of 810 foot-tons. Compare this with the modern 6-inch rifle, which weighs 8.5 tons, is 25 feet in length, and with a charge of 40 pounds of smokeless powder fires a 100-pound shell with an initial velocity of 2,900 feet per sec- ond and an initial energy of 5,838 foot- tons. Compared on the basis of energy per ton of gun, we find that the 100-pound- er Parrott muzzle loader developed 18C> foot-tons of energy per ton of gun, whereas the modern 6-inch breech- loading rifle develops 784^ foot-tons of energy per ton of gun. THE PAY OF NAVAL AND MARINE CORPS. An Admiral receives $13,500 wheth- er on sea duty or on shore duty. The first nine Rear-Admirals receive $7,- 500 while on sea duty, and $6,375 on shore duty. The second nine receives $5,500 on sea duty and $4,675 on shore duty. A Brigadier-General Command- ant of Marine Corps, receives $5,500. The Chiefs of the various Naval Bu- reaus receive $5,500. Captains of the Navy receive $3,500 while on sea duty and $2,975 while on shore duty. The Judge Advocate General and Colonels, Marine Corps, line and staff, receive $3,500. Commanders of the Navy re- ceive $3,000 while on sea duty, and $2,550 while on shore duty. Lieut.- Colonels, Marine Corps, line and staff, receive $3,000. Lieut.-Commanders of the Navy while on sea duty receive $2,500, and while on shore duty $2,125. Majors of the Marine Corps, line and staff, receive $2,500. Lieutenants of the Navy receive $1,800 while on sea duty and $1,530 while on shore duty. Captains of the Marine Corps, if they are of the line, receive $1,800, and if they are of the staff, $2,000. Lieu- tenants of the junior grade receive $1,500 while on sea duty and $1.275 while on shore duty. First Lieutenant and leader of the band of the Marine Corps receive $1,500. Ensigns of the Navy receive $1,400 on sea duty and $1,190 on shore duty. Second Lieu-. tenants of the Marine Corps, Chief Boatswains, Chief Gunners, Chief Car- penters and Chief Sailmakers receive $1,400. Midshipmen in other than practice ships receives $950. At the Naval Academy and elsewhere $500. Chaplains receive $2,500 on sea duty, $2,000 on shore, and $1,900 on leave or waiting orders. Professors of Mathe- matics and Civil Engineers receive' $2,400 and $1,500 when on leave of absence or waiting orders. Naval Con- structors receive $3,200, and while on leave of absence or waiting orders, $2,200. Assistant Naval Constructors receive $2,000, and $1,500 while on leave or waiting orders. The warrant officers, boatswains, gunners, carpen- ters, sailmakers, pharmacists and war- rant machinists receive $1,200 while on sea duty and $900 while on shore, $700 on leave of absence or waiting orders. Mates who were in service August 1, 1904, receive $1,200 for sea duty, $900 for shore duty, $700 on leave. Those appointed since receive $900, $700 and $500 respectively. The monthly pay of petty officers and enlisted men is : Chief petty officers, $50 to $70; petty officers, first-class, $36 to $65; petty officers, second-class, $35 to $40 ; third- class petty officers, $30 ; first-class sea- men, $21 to $35 ; second-class seamen. $15 to $30; third-class seamen, $9 to $22. CHAPTER IT. THE ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES. Twice in the history of the world we have had an example of large bod- ies of men who were not producers who disturbed economic conditions by liv- ing at the public, expense. We refer to the enormous monasteries in the middle ages and to the standing armies in Europe to-day. It seems to be es- sential to the maintenance of the in- tegrity of a number of the countries of Europe to keep a large standing army an army which takes some of the best years of the life of its citi- zens, as service is obligatory to all. These armies are supported at an enormous expense by systems of tax- ation which affect the poorest as well as the richest. The question of the standing ar- mies of Europe is a problem which is rapidly increasing in seriousness, and there does not appear as yet to be any solution of the difficulty. For our protection we have to re- ly upon : 1. The Regular Army, which rep- resents and is under the pay of the federal government, and which is offi- cered : 1. By graduates of the United States Military Academy, who at pres- ent are largely in the minority. 2. By the promotion of meritorious enlisted men of the Army. 3. By the appoint- ment of civilians, six of whom are an- nually selected from the best cadet- schools of the country. The last class is at present most largely represented. The officers receive commissions at the hands of the President. 2. The organized militia or Na- tional Guard, which is composed ex- clusively of State troops, and, except when called into the service of the United States, is under the -command of the Governors of the respective States. The officers of higher grade are appointed by the Governors, but the other officers, from Colonel down, are generally selected by ballot by the troops themselves. The National Guard is intended primarily for home defense. 3. The Volunteers, which form a branch of the service only to be found in time of war. They are such as offer their services upon the call of the President, and are officered either by West Point graduates, by officers of the National Guard, or civilian ap- pointees. Under the conditions existing in the late war with Spain, members of the National Guard were not called upon to serve in their capacity as State troops, but were invited to enlist in the volunteer service. The term of enlistment in the regu- lar service is for a period of three years, which term is fixed and not terminable by the ending of the war. In the volunteer service the period of enlistment is two years, but this term may be shortened by the ending of hos- tilities. A certain proportion of the officers of the regular army are graduates of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. By Acts of Congress approved June 6, 1900, June 28, 1902, and March 3, 1903, the Corps of Cadets as now con- stituted consists of one from each Con- gressional district, one from each Ter- ritory, one from the District of Col- umbia, one from Porto Rico, two from each State at large, and forty from the United States, at large, all to be ap- pointed by the President and, with the exception of the forty appointed from the United States at large, to be actual residents of the Congressional or Ter- ritorial districts, or of the District of Columbia, or of the States, respective- ly, from which they are appointed. Un- der these Acts, and under the appor- tionment of Members of Congress ac- cording to the 12th Census, the maxi- mum number of cadets is 522. The total number of graduates from 1802 to 1903, inclusive, is 4,214; 124 members graduated June 15, 1904. Foreign governments can have ca- dets educated at the academy by au- thorization of Congress. 91 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. GROUP OF OFFICERS AND MEN SHOWING UNIFORMS WORN IN UNITED STATES ARMY. 1. Major of Engineers in olive-drab uniform. 2. Captain of Ordnance in olive-drab uniform. 3. Private of Cavalry in olive-drab uniform. 4. First Sergeant of Artillery in olive-drab uniform. ">. Private of Infantry in olive-drab uniform and clothing roll. 6. First Sergeant of Cavalry in olive-drab uniform. 7. Corporal of Post Artillery in olive-drab uniform and overcoat. 8. Post Quartermaster-Sergeant in olive- drab uniform. 9. Trumpeter of Cavalry, mounted, in full- dress uniform. 10. Colonel of Infantry, mounted, in full-dress uniform. 11. Major-General, mounted, in full-dress uniform. 12. Lieutenant-Colonel of Artillery, Aide-de- Camp, mounted, in full-dress uniform. 13. First Sergeant of Infantry, in full-dress uniform. 14. Captain of Cavalry, dismounted, in full- dress uniform. 15. Brigadier-General, dismounted, in dress uniform. 16. Major, Medical Department, dismounted, dress uniform and cape. 17. Corporal of Engineers, full-dress uniform. 18. Private of Cavalry, full-dress uniform. 19. Sergeant of Artillery in full-dress uniform. 20. Post Commissary-Sergeant, dress uniform. 21. Lieutenant of Cadets, U. S. Military Acad- emy, full-dress uniform. 22. Major, Quartermaster's Department, in full-dress uniform. 23. First-class Sergeant, Signal Corps, in full- dress uniform. 24. Captain Coast Artillery, in dress uniform and overcoat. The commander-in-chief is,, ex-officio, of course, the President of the United States. Like the grades of Admiral and Vice- Admiral, the army also has two grades General and Lieutenant-Gen- eral. We have had only four Gen- erals, Washington, Grant, Sherman and Sheridan. A general is supposed to command an army. An army is a large and organized body of soldiers generally composed of infantry, artil- lery and cavalry, completely armed and provided with necessary stores, etc., and the entire force is under the direc- tion of one general, who is called the "general-in-chief." The army is sub- divided as follows ; the grades of rank and commands appropriate to each grade are given. An "army" is divided into two or more corps commanded by a Major- General. A "corps" is "the largest tactical unit of a large army. A corps is usually organized with separate staff, infantry, cavalry, and artillery regiments, as well as auxiliary servi- ces, so that it is really a small army complete in itself. A corps is usually composed of three divisions, each com- manded by a Major-General or a Brig- adier-General. A "corps" is also any body or department of an army which is not detached, but has its own or- ganization and head, as the "Corps of Engineers." Each "division" is com- posed of three brigades, and there may be an independent brigade of cavalry or artillery called the divisional cav- alry or artillery. A "brigade" consists of three regi- ments, though there may be more, and it is commanded by a Brigadier-Gen- eral, and sometimes by a Colonel. A "regiment," which is the administra- tive unit, is commanded by a Colonel, and it is divided into twelve compa- nies, each composed, under the pres- ent law, of a maximum of 150 men for the infantry, 100 men for the cavalry, a total of* 18,920 for the artillery corps, and 150 men for the engineers. A "company" is commanded by a Cap- tain. Two or more companies form a "battalion," and the battalion is commanded by a Major. The relative rank between the offi- cers of the army and navy is as fol- lows : General with Admiral : Lieu- tenant-General with Vice-Admiral ; Major-General with Rear-Admiral ; Brigadier-General with Commodore ; Colonel with Captain ; Lieutenant-Col- onel with Commander ; Major with Lieutenant-Commander; Captain with Lieutenant ; First Lieutenant with Lieutenant (junior grade) ; Second Lieutenant with Ensign. The pay of the officers in active ser- vice is as follows: Lieutenant-Genera 1, $11,000; Major-General, $7,500 ; Brig- adier-General, $5,500 ; Colonel, $3,500 ; Lieutenant-Colonel, $3,000 ; Major. $2,500; Mounted Captain, $2,000; Captain on foot, $1,800; regimental Adjutant, $1,800; regimental Quar- 94 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. termaster, $1,800; First Lieutenant, mounted, $1,600 ; First Lieutenant on foot, $1,500; Second Lieutenant, mounted, $1,500; Second Lieutenant on foot, $1,400. All of the officers from the Colonel down receive addi- tional amounts after five, ten, fifteen and twenty years' service, but there is a limit to this amount ; thus the maxi- mum pay of a Colonel is $4,500 per annum. The pay of a private, wheth- er artillery, cavalry or infantry, is $13 per month for the first and second years, $14 for the third year, $15 for the fourth year, $16 for the fifth year. After five years' continuous service they receive $2 per month extra. For service in the insular possessions 20 per cent, is added to the pay of officers and enlisted men. The present strength of the regular army is about 3,800 officers and 60,000 enlisted men ; 13,000 of them are in the Philippines. This does not include 4,800 scouts, who are paid from the Philippine treasury proper. The policy of the United States in having a small military establishment has led to the organization of a large body of reserves, which are known as the organized militia or "National Guard." According to the latest ac- counts received at the office of the Ad- jutant-General in 1903 there were in the National Guard of the various States and Territories 9,184 commis- sioned officers and 107,422 non-com- missioned officers, privates, musicians, etc., making a total of 116,606. Under the Act of Congress approved January 31, 1903, the militia consists of every able-bodied male citizen of the United States who is more than eight- een and less than forty-five years of age, and is divided into two classes the organized militia or National Guard, and the remainder to be known as the reserve militia. It is entirely optional whether eligible citizens join the National Guard or not, and they elect their own officers, but it is safe to say that this body of reserves is recruited from the best and most patriotic element of the population of the United States. Congress makes an appropriation each year for the sup- port of the militia in the various States, and the States also contribute, help and build armories, as the regi- ments are really intended to defend their own States primarily, although in time of war they furnish an excel- lently drilled body of volunteers. In nearly every city of any great size there is one or more armories, and in the smaller cities and towns there are separate companies which have armo- ries or drill halls. The militia in each State is divided into brigades, regi- ments and companies. Under the act of Congress above named the Presi- dent of the United States has the pow- er to call upon any of the military or- ganizations of the States for national defense, but the troops are usually utilized by the Governor of the State for enforcing the State laws. The experience of the Spanish-Amer- ican war demonstrated the need of what is known in foreign armies as a General Staff Corps. Accordingly, under the Act of Congress approved February 14, 1903, a Chief of Staff was authorized, to take the place of the commanding general of the army, and a General Staff Corps whose du- ties are defined as follows : To prepare plans for the national defense and for the mobilization of the military forces in time of war ; to investigate and re- port upon all questions affecting the efficiency of the army and its state of preparation for military operations ; to render professional aid and assist- ance to the Secretary of War and to general officers and other superior commanders, and to act as their agents in informing and co-ordinating the ac- tion of the different officers who, un- der the terms of the act, are subject to the supervision of the Chief of Staff ; and to perform such other mili- tary duties not otherwise assigned by law, as may from time to time be pre- scribed by the President. Under this act a number of officers were detailed in the General Staff for a period of four years, and the corps was organized into three divisions, each under a superior officer, with the following duties : The first division has charge of army administration, disci- pline, dril^ and equipment ; the sec- ond division is the division of military information, and in addition has charge of military maps, military at- taches and the War Department li- brary : the third division is termed the technical division, and includes the devising of plans for defense and of- fense, the matter of sites for fortifica- tions, the question of military edu- cation, and the Army War College. This article has been revised by Captain C. D. Rhodes, U. S. A., of the General Staff Corps, under the di- rection of Major W. D. Beach, U. S. A., Chief of Staff, Second Division. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 95 INFORMATION RELATIVE TO THE APPOINTMENT AND ADMISSION OF CADETS TO THE UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY. APPOINTMENTS. How Made. Each Congressional District and Territory the District of Columbia and also Porto Rico is en- titled to have one Cadet at the Acade- my. Each State is also entitled to have two Cadets from the State at large, and forty are allowed from the United States at large. The ap- pointment from a Congressional Dis- trict is made upon the recom- mendation of the Congressman from that district, and those from a State. at large upon the recommenda- tions of the Senators of the State. Similarly the appointment from a Ter- ritory is made upon the recommenda- tion of the Delegate in Congress. Each person appointed must be an actual resident of the State, District or Ter- ritory from which the appointment is made. The appointments from the United States at large, from the District of Columbia and from Porto Rico are made by the President of the United States upon his own selection. The appointment of the Cadet from Porto Rico is made by the President on the recommendation of the Resident Com- missioner. Manner of Making Applications. Applications may be made at any time, by letter to the Adjutant Gen- eral, U. S. Army, Washington, D. C., to have the name of the applicant placed upon the register that it may be furnished to the proper Senator, Representative, or Delegate, when a vacancy occurs. The application must exhibit the full name, date of birth, and permanent abode of the applicant, with the number of the Congressional District in which his residence is sit- uated. Date of Appointments. Appoint- ments are required by law to be made one year in advance of the date of ad- mission, except in cases where, by rea- son of death or other cause, a vacancy occurs which cannot be provided for by such appointment in advance. Thes.e- vacancies are filled in time for the next examination. Alternates. For each candidate ap- pointed there may be nominated two alternates. The principal and each al- ternate will receive from the War De- partment a letter of appointment, and must appear for examination at the time and place therein designated- those previously accepted by Academic Board on certificate or mentally quali- fied, appearing for physical examina- tion only. The fitness for admission to the Academy of the principal and the al- ternates will be determined as pre- scribed in paragraphs 19, 20 and 21 Regulations U. S. Military Academy! Should the principal and alternates not qualify for admission under the provisions of paragraph 21, they will still be entitled to appear for the examination prescribed in para- graph 19; but if the principal fails to appear for that examination or, appearing, fails to qualify, then the qualifications of the al- ternates will be considered and if only one has met the requirements he will be admitted ; if both alternates have met the requirements the better quali- fied will be admitted. The alternates, like the principal, should be designated as nearly one year in advance of the date of admis- sion as possible. ADMISSION OF CANDIDATES. The following are extracts from the regulations of the . Military Academy relating to the examination of candi- dates for admission and will be strict- ly adhered to : 19. Candidates selected for appoint- ment, unless accepted under the pro- visions of paragraph 21, shall appear for mental and physical examination before boards of army officers to be convened at such places as the War Department may select, on the first of May, annually, except when that day comes on Sunday, in which case the examination shall commence on the following Tuesday. Candidates who pass successfully will be admitted to the Academy without further examina- tion upon reporting in person to the Superintendent at West Point before 12 o'clock noon on the 15th day of June of the same year. 20. Each candidate before he shall be admitted to the Academy as a Ca- det must show, by the examination provided for in paragraph 19 or by the methods prescribed in paragraph 21, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. that he is well versed in the following prescribed subjects, viz. : Reading, writing, spelling, English grammar, English composition, English litera- ture, arithmetic, algebra through quadratic equations, plane geometry, descriptive geography, and the ele- ments of physical geography, espec- ially tho geography of the United States, United States history, the out- lines of general history, and the gen- eral principles of physiology and hygiene. 21. The Academic Board will con- sider and may accept in lieu of the regular mental entrance examination : 1st. The properly attested exami- nation papers of a candidate who re- ceives his appointment through a pub- lic competitive written examination covering the range of subjects pre- scribed in paragraph 20. 2d. The properly attested certificate of graduation from a public high school or a State normal school in which the .course of study, together with the requirements for entrance, shall coyer the range of subjects pre- scribed in paragraph 20. 3d. A properly attested certificate that the candidate is a regular student of any incorporated college or uni- versity, without condition as to any subject mentioned in paragraph 20. Application for consideration of pa- pers or certificates shall be made by each candidate and alternate immedi- ately after he receives his appoint- ment. No application will be re- ceived after March 15 preceding the regular examination prescribed in paragraph 19. Candidates accepted as qualified mentally under the provisions of this paragraph shall appear for physical ex- amination at the time and place desig- nated in their letters of appointment. Immediately after reporting to the Superintendent for admission, and be- fore receiving his warrant of appoint- ment, the candidate is required to sign an engagement for service in the fol- lowing form, and in the presence of the Superintendent, or of some officer deputed by him : t "I, - , of the State (or Ter- ritory) of , aged - - years months, do hereby engage (with the consent of my parent or guardian) that, from the date of my admission as a Cadet of the United States Mili- tary Academy, I will serve in the Array of the United States for eight years, unless sooner discharged by com- petent authority. "In the presence of ." The candidate is then required to take and subscribe an oath er affirma- tion in the following form : "I. , do solemnly swear that I will support the Constitution of the United States, and bear true alle- giance to the National Government ; that I will maintain and defend the sovereignty of the United States, para- mount to any and all allegiance, sov- ereignty, or fealty I may owe to any State or country whatsoever; and that I will at all times obey the legal or- ders of my superior officers, and the rules and articles governing the Ar- mies of the United States. "Sworn and subscribed, at , this day of - - nineteen hundred and before me. Qualifications. No candidate shall be admitted who is under seventeen, or over twenty-two years of age, or who is deformed, or afflicted with any disease or infirmity which would ren- der him unfit for the military service, or who has, at the time of presenting himself, any disorder of an infectious or immoral character. Accepted can- didates if between seventeen and eighteen years of age should not fall below five feet three inches in height and one hundred pounds in weight ; if between eighteen and nineteen years, five feet three and one-half inches in height and one hundred and five pounds in weight ; if over nineteen, five feet four inches in height and one hundred and ten pounds in weight. Candidates must be unmarried. Each candidate must on reporting at West Point present a certificate showing successful vaccination with- in one year ; or a certificate of two vaccinations, made at least a month apart, within three months. A circular of information as to the physical and mental examination can be had by addressing the Secretary of War, Washington, D. C. ACADEMIC DUTIES. The academic duties and exercises commence on the first of September and continue until the first of June. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 97 Examinations of the several classes are held in December and June, and, at the former, such of the new Cadets as are found proficient in studies and have been correct in conduct are given the particular standing in their class to which their merits entitle them. Af- ter each examination, Cadets found de- ficient in conduct or studies are dis- charged from the Academy, unless the Academic Board for special reasons in each case should otherwise recommend. Similar examinations are held every December and June during the four years comprising the course of study. Military Instruction. From the ter- mination of the examination in June to the end of August the Cadets live in camp, engaged only in military duties and exercises and receiving practical military instruction. Except in extreme cases, Cadets are allowed but one leave of absence dur- ing the four years' course ; as a rule the leave is granted at the end of the first two j'ears' course of study. PAY OF CADETS. The pay of a Cadet is $500 per year and one ration per day, or com- mutation therefor at thirty cents per day. The total is $609.50, to com- mence with his admijision to the Academy. The actual and necessary traveling expenses of candidates from their homes to the Military Academy are credited to their accounts after their admission as Cadets. There is no provision for paying the expenses of candidates who fail to enter and they must be prepared to defray all their own expenses. No Cadet is permitted to receive money, or any other supplies, from his parents, or from any person whomso- ever, without the sanction of the Superintendent. A most rigid observ- ance of this regulation is urged upon all parents and guardians, as its vio- lations would make distinctions be- tween Cadets which it is the especial desire to avoid ; the pay of a Cadet is sufficient, with proper economy, for his support. Each Cadet must keep himself sup- plied with the following mentioned ar- ticles, viz. : Two pairs of uniform shoes: six pairs of uniform white gloves ; two sets of white belts ; *eight white shirts ; *four night shirts : twelve white linen collars; twelve pairs of white linen cuffs ; *eight pairs of socks; *eight pairs of summer draw- ers: *six pairs of winter drawers; *twelve pocket handkerchiefs ; *twelve towels ; two clothes bags, made of tick- ing ; *one clothes brush ; *one hair- brush ; *one tooth brush ; *one comb ; one mattress ; one pillow ; four pillow- cases ; eight sheets, two blankets, and one quilted bed cover ; one chair ; one tumbler ; *one trunk ; one account book ; one wash basin. Candidates are authorized to bring with them the articles marked *. Cadets are required to wear the pre- scribed uniform. All articles of their uniform are of a designated pattern, and are sold to Cadets at West Point at regulated prices. DEPOSIT PRIOR TO ADMISSION. Immediately after being admitted to the Institution, Cadets must be provid- ed with an outfit of uniform, the cost of which will be about $100, which sum must be deposited with the Treas- urer of the Academy before the candi- date is admitted. It is best for a can- didate to take with him no more money than will defray his traveling expenses, and for the parent or guar- dian to send to "The Treasurer of the U. S. Military Academy" the re- quired deposit of $100. This amount is sufficient to equip a new Cadet with uniform and to supply him with all articles and books. PROMOTION AFTER GRADUATION. The attention of applicants and can- didates is called to the following pro- visions of an Act of Congress ap- proved May 17, 1886, to regulate the promotion of graduates of the United States Military Academy : "That when any Cadet of the United States Military Academy has gone through all its classes and received a regular diploma from the Academic- Staff, he may be promoted and com- missioned as a second lieutenant in any arm or corps of the army in which there may be a vacancy and the duties of which he may have been judged competent to perform ; and in case there shall not at the time be a va- cancy in such arm or corps, he may, at the discretion of the President, be promoted and commissioned in it as an additional second lieutenant, with the usual pay and allowances of a second lieutenant, until a vacancy shall hap- pen." SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE NEW SPRINGFIELD MAGAZINE RIFLE. The new Springfield magazine rifle, which has undergone its preliminary tests with very gratifying results, will take the place of the Krag-Jorgensen, which now, for several years, has been doing excellent service in the United. States Army. We present a photo- graph of the gun, which will be known as Springfield Magazine Rifle Model 1902, and also a line-drawing which shows several sectional views of the gun. By means of the carefully let- tered parts a good idea is obtained of the details of the gun. The weapon is supplied with a cleaning rod, which can be partially pulled from its place below the barrel, and held with a catch so as to form a bayonet. The great advantage of the rod bayonet is that it lightens the weight made up of the gun, bayonet and bayonet's scabbard, and, by dispensing with the latter two as separate articles to carry, permits the soldier to carry with him an en- trenching tool of sufficient size and weight to be serviceable. While there is some diversity of opinion as to the value of the rod bayonet, which is con- sidered to be less effective than the type now in use, it still is of value as converting the musket into a pike. Moreover, in view of the growing value of the entrenching tool and the ever- decreasing opportunities for the use of the bayonet, the substitution of an en- trenching tool for the latter is certain- ly in line with the recent development of field operations. The piece is cen- trally fed by means of clips, each of which holds five cartridges; and it will be noticed that the bolt has two lugs instead of one as in the old gun. In a recent report of the Chief of Ord- nance the trials of the piece are spoken of as having given "very satisfactory results." The chief points of difference from the Krag-Jorgensen are this use of two lugs in place of one for holding the bolt against the rearward pressure of the powder the increased strength so obtained being sufficient to allow of an increase of velocity with the same weight of bullet, from 2,000 feet per second in the Krag-Jorgensen to 2,300 feet per second in the new piece, the resulting increase in muzzle energy being from 1,952 foot-pounds to 2,582 foot-pounds. The Krag-Jorgensen is capable of penetrating 45.8 inches of white pine at a distance of 53 feet, whereas the new weapon penetrates 54.7 inches at the same distance. The striking energy at 1,000 yards has been SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 100 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. raised from 390 foot-pounds to 448. Other data regarding the new piece are as follows: The caliber is ().:>(); the rifling is made up of four grooves of a depth of 0.004 inch, the twist being one turn in 10 inches. The bullet weighs 220 grains, which is the same as that of the Krag-Jorgensen, but the powder charge has been raised from 37.6 to 43.3 grains. In spite of the considerable increase in its power the weapon has been greatly reduced in weight ; for while the present service magazine rifle weighs 10.64 pounds, and the Mauser 10.5 pounds, and the German military rifle 11.54 pounds, the new weapon weighs only 9.47 pounds. It follows, as a matter of course, that, with such high velocity and fairly heavy bullet, the trajectory is corre- spondingly flat, the maximum prdinate of the 1,000 yard trajectory being only 20.67 feet as against 25.8 feet for the Krag-Jorgensen, 24.47 for the Mauser and 23.73 for the German military rifle. In addition to those mentioned above there are other improvements, such as housing of the magazine in the stock directly below the chamber, instead of having it project at the side of the gun, and there are many changes of detail which both improve the rifle and cheapen and accelerate its pro- duction. In closing it should be mentioned that the new gun is considerably short- er than any existing rifle, and is only slightly longer than the military car- bine. NEW SPRINGFIELD MAGAZINE RIFLE COMPARED WITH THE KRAG-JORGENSEN, THE MAUSER AND THE GERMAN MILITARY RIFLE. Data. Springfield Magazine Rifle. Service Magazine Rifle. Mauser 7 Mm. Rifle. German Military Rifle. Caliber inch . . 0.30 0.30 0.275 0.311 Rifling: Number of grooves Depth of grooves inch . . Twist, one turn in inches . . Weight of bullet. . . grains 4 0.004 10 220 4 0.004 10 220 4 0.0049 8.66 173 4 0.004 9.45 226.82 Weight of charge . grains 43 3 37 6 38 58 41.2 Weight of complete cartridge grains . . Initial velocity, feet per second Remaining velocity at 1,000 yards Muzzle energy foot-pounds . . Striking energy at 1,000 yards, .foot-pounds. . Penetration in white pine at 53 feet, .inches. . Weight of rifle, including bayonet and scab- bard. . . pounds 451 . 15 2300 958 2581 . 6 447.9 54.7 9.47 438.85 2000 901 1952 396.2 45.8 10.64 385.63 2200 895 1857.4 307.4 50.8 10.5 430.24 2145 906 2135 413 11.54 Weight of rifle, including bayonet, scabbard, and 100 cartridges. . . . pounds 15.91 16.91 16.18 17.68 Capacity of magazine rounds. . Maximum ordinate of 1000 yd. trajectory, feet. . 5 20.67 5 25.8 5 24.47 5 23.73 THE SIXTEEN-INCH GUN. The great 16-inch 126-ton gun. built for the United States at the Water- vliet arsenal, is 49*4 feet long, over 6 feet in diameter at the breech, and it has an extreme range of over twenty miles. Its projectile weighs 2,370 pounds, and costs $865 to fire the gun once. The map on page 102 will give graphic illustration of the range of this gun. If fired at its maximum elevation from the battery at the south end of New York in a northerly direc- tion, its projectile would pass over the city of New York, over Grant's Tomb, Spuyten Duyvil, Riverdale, Mount St. Vincent, Ludlow, Yonkers, and would land near Hastings-on-the-Hudson, nearly twenty miles away, as shown in our map. The extreme height of its trajectory would be 30,516 feet, or nearly six miles. This means that if Pike's Peak, of the Western Hemi- sphere, had piled on top of it Mont Blanc, of the Eastern Hemisphere, this gun would hurl its enormous projectile so high above them both as to still leave space below its curve to build Washington's Monument on top of Mont Blanc, as shown. The model, page 101, was exhibited at St. Loufe. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 101 102 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Hf/GMT Of f>*ffA80tA,S%MltS /SMT-ffffM^fCr/ef Z.31Q POS. POWOCB CHAH61 576 fOS. :'>*. "*,. - - -2O. 978 MILES RANGE OF SIXTEEN-INCH GUN. Height of parabola, 5f miles. Weight of projectile, 2,370 pounds. Powder charge, 576 pounds. RADIUS OF ACTION OF SIXTEEN-INCH GUN. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 103 ^ .-H- . -Tf ioo^ : !-p" : -co i-H-|.oogcO-|--|-iO-|- ; COCOIN r*COt>.fe(N IOO ^0 OOOOO nrcAPOO 440 ^oo OO 460 AO OOOO .0 WHEEL 480 jfln oOOOO ,2 - O42 A \) O O 4COUPLED4TRAILINO 062 A OOO o 082 A OOOO n Q44 (^ OO O O FORNEY 4 COUPLED Ofi4 A OOO no - - 046^ OOOOO PORNEV 4 COUPLED O66^ OOOnnn TOPNEVB COUPLED 242^loOOo comuBux 262 Jin OOO r, PRA.R.E 282 ^lO VJLJVJCJO COUPLED DOUBLE CNO^ft ' 244^o OOoo 264^o OOOn^ . 284^n OOOOo^ 246^0 OOortn 266^0 OOOno^ . 420^0 oOo BICYCLE OR SINGLE 442 ^0 O O ATLANTA 462^ooOOOn MftlPlft Russia 32,130 France 27,285 Austro-Hung'y 23,432 Great Britain and Ireland.. 22,164 Italy 9,881 Spain . 8,447 Sweden 7,242 Belgium 4,047 Switzerland. . 2,443 Total America (Nort mi United States. 198,346 British North America. . . . 18,397 Argentina. . . . 10,479 Total Asia, British India. . 25,515 Siberia and Manchuria. . 5,697 Total Africa British South and Central Africa 5,504 Total Australia and mi Grand Total of Woi miles. AAA^O QQ O A COUPLED DOUBLE rNDtR 464<4ooOOOno . .. 446^0oOOooo 466^00 (JOOnrsn - Encyclopedia Americana. RAILWAY SIGNALS. One blast of the whistle means "stop at once," or what is known as "down brakes"; two blasts of the whistle mean "off brakes"; three blasts of the whistle mean "back up"; a continuous blast means "danger." A semaphore signal at right angles to the post indicates dan- ger ; when the semaphore drops to an angle it is a signal to proceed. A red lantern indicates danger, as does a red flag; a green lantern or a green flag indicates "caution." Lanterns which are swung at right angles across the tracks mean "stop" ; a lantern raised and lowered means "start" ; when lanterns are swung in a circle it means "back the train." Brazil. . . 9,248 Chili 2,896 42,057 miles. Japan. . . 4,093 Dutch Indies.. . 1,392 China 772 14,270 miles. Algiers and Tunis. . . . 3,060 Egypt 2,903 New Zealand, 15,470 es. id's Railroads, 510,470 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE RAILROAD SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES.* If one were called upon to name the field of engineering in which the vast scale upon which things are done in this country is most strikingly shown, he would be safe in pointing to the colossal railroad system of the United States. In respect of the total length of track, the total number of locomo- tives and cars, the veritable army of employees, and the gross value of capital invested, our railway system is so huge that it stands absolutely in a class by itself among the railroad sys- tems of the world. It is equally true that in respect of the character of its track, rolling stock, its general equip- ment, and methods of operation, it is marked by national characteristics which distinguish it far more sharply from the great European and Asiatic roads, than they are distinguished from each other. In attempting to impress upon the mind the magnitude of the properties and the operations represented by the statistics of such huge interests as the railroads of the United States, where the figures run into the millions and billions, it is necessary to translate these figures into concrete terms and refer them to some widely known standard of measurement, whether of distance, weight, or bulk. On the fol- lowing pages, our artist has endeavored and we think very successfully to transform the statistics of our rail- roads into concrete form by taking as a unit of measurement the greatest single constructive work of man, the great Pyramid of Egypt, with whose dimensions every voting American citizen is perfectly familiar, or, if he is not, ought to be. From time immemo- rial the great Pyramid, being one of the original seven wonders of the world, has been a favorite standard of comparison with other great construc- tive works. It measures some 756 feet on the base by 481 feet in height, and contains about 91 y% million cubic feet. Now, before we can use even this well- known standard and be sure that it will convey its full impression to the average reader, we must compare the Pyramid itself with some big and well- known structure, and for this purpose our artist has drawn the Capitol of Washington at the side of the Pyra- mid, both on the same scale. If it were possible to take a shell of the Pyramid, composed merely of the outer ' layer of stone, and place it over the I Capitol, it would practically shut it < out from view, and the apex of the Pyramid would extend 200 feet above the highest point of the Capitol dome. The total length of the railroads in : operation in the United States at the ; close of the fiscal year 1901 was 195,- ! 887 miles, this total not including i track in sidings, etc. If these rail- j roads could be stretched out in one i continuous line, they would ba sufli- j cient to girdle the earth at the equator I more than eight times; or, if started ; from the earth and stretched outward into space, they would reach four- fifths of the distance from the earth to the moon. Steel Rails. Now, to arrive at an estimate of what it has taken in ma- terial to build this length of railroad, let us assume that a fair average size j of rail is one weighing 75 pounds to I the yard. Much of the track in the i Eastern States weighs 80, 90 and 100 pounds to the yard, while most of the track west of the Mississippi weighs 70, GO and in some instances as low as 56 pounds to the yard. On this basis it is an easy calculation to determine that the total weight of these rails is over 25,000,000 tons ; and if the mass were melted and cast in solid pyra- midal form it would contain 105,540,- 000 cubic feet, and would be over 15 per cent larger than the great Pyramid itself. If the rails were cast in one rectangular block, it would form a mass 436 feet square on the base and equal in height to the Wash- ington Monument, which towers 550 feet above its base. Railroad Ties. The railroad ties used in this country vary in size from a tie 8 inches wide, 6 inches deep and 9 feet long to ties as much as 12 inches in width and 8 inches in depth. . A fair average would be a tie 10 inches in width and 7 inches in depth and 9 feet long, and a good average spacing would be 24 inches, center to center of the ties, or say 2,600 to the mile. On this basis we find that, could all these ties be gathered together on the Nile desert and piled one upon an- other into a pyramid of the same pro- portions as that at Gizeh, it would form a mass twenty-four times as great as the Pyramid of the Pharaohs, meas- uring 2,200 feet on its base and reach- ing 1.390 feet into the air. * Reprinted from the "Transportation Number" of the Scientific American, Dec. 13. 1902, therefore the figures and the comparisons are for that year. 122 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Q i*t II SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 123 124 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Rock and Gravel Ballast. After the ties and rails have been laid in the construction of a railroad the ballast cars pass over it and unload their broken rock or gravel, which is tamped beneath and filled around the ties to form a solid but well-drained founda-. tion. On some of our Eastern roads the depth of the ballast will exceed 18 or 20 inches; on the other hand, some of the Western roads have nono at all, although of late years a vast advance has been made in the ballast ing of the more cheaply constructed systems. Assuming an average depth of 12 inches of ballast, we find that if the railroad builders of the United States had concentrated their efforts, as did the Egyptians of old, on a sin- gle structure on the banks of the Nile, they would, in a period of years not much greater than that required to build the Pyramid, have raised a pyra- mid of their own 135 times greater in bulk than the tomb of Cheops. This vast pile would measure 3,900 feet on each side at the base, and would lift its head nearly half a mile into the air, or to be exact, just 2.500 feet. Were the spirit of the great Cheops to return to earth, and attempt to pace off the distance around the base, it would have to step out some 5,000 paces, or say three miles, to make the circuit ; and should it climb to the summit, it would have to make a jour- ney of about three-quarters of a mile. So much for the roadbed and the track. Now let us turn our attention to the equipment. Locomotives. At the close of the fiscal year 1901, there were in service . on the United States railroads 39,729 locomotives. Assuming that the av- erage locomotive fills a block 10 feet wide by 15 feet high by 50 feet long. and that all these locomotives could be brought into review at Gizeh and there piled up into one great block, a loco- motive that would fill that block would be 510 feet in height and 1,700 feet, or, say, a third of a mile, in length, its smokestack towering 29 feet above the summit of the Pyramid. Passenger Cars. There are 35,800 passenger, mail and baggage cars on our railroads, and a typical car repre- senting the space occupied by these would be 500 feet high and 1,950 feet in length, and it would take 3 1-2 great Pyramids to equal it in bulk. Freight Cars. As far as the equip- ment is concerned it is in the extraor- dinary number of the freight cars em- ployed that we get the best idea of the great scale upon which our rail- roads are operated. The total number of cars is 1,409.472. They vary, of course, considerably in size, capacity and type, there being in addition to the familiar box car, the coal cars of va- rious size and type, the freight cars, and a small number of miscellaneous cars for railroad construction and other purposes. A single box car repre- senting the space occupied by all these freight cars would be two-thirds of a mile in length and one-quarter of a mile in height. The Pyramid of Che- ops would reach, about to the floor of the car. Were the Eiffel Tower set alongside of it, it would reach only two-thirds of the distance to its roof, while the whole Brooklyn Bridge, with its anchorages, could be placed bodily inside the car, and if the foundations of its piers rested upon the car floor, the summit of its towers would still reach only half way to the roof of the car. Employees. It requires over one mil- lion employees for the maintenance and operation of our railroads. Of these nearly one-half are engaged upon the track and roadbed, in proportions made up as follows : There are 33,- 817 section foremen, each of whom has ~a stretch of a few miles of track under his charge, and a gang of from five to eight or ten section men, his duties be- ing those of maintaining the track in proper level and line, seeing that the track bolts are kept tight, the joints in good order, and that the roadbed is properly trimmed, graded and drained. The total number of trackmen em- ployed in the section gangs, as they are called, is 239,166. There are also 47,576 switchmen, flagmen and watch- men, who are engaged in switching work at the yards, in guarding the level crossings, and in patrolling the track. There are also over 7,423 men employed on work trains and other work incidental to track maintenance. In addition to these there are 131,722 laborers engaged in construction and repair and maintenance work of va- rious kinds, making a total engaged on track work and general labor con- nected therewith of 459,704 men. Car- rying out our system of comparison with some standard of bulk, we have chosen the Park Row Building, New York, which has a total height of 390 feet. If this army of trackmen and laborers were combined in one typical giant, he would be some 385 feet in height and of proportionate weight and bulk. The next largest item is the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 135 Trackmen and laborers. Machinists and shopmen. Station agents and stationmen. Conductors and brakemen. Enginemen and firemen. Clerks, etc. -g Telegraph g operators. R A ^ General officers. 126 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. machinists, of which there are 34,698, the carpenters, of which there are 48,- 946, and various other shopmen en- gaged in the repair and general main- tenance of the rolling stock to the number of 120,550, making a total number of skilled and unskilled men in the railroad shops of 204,194. The next largest total is that of the sta- tion agents, baggage masters, porters, etc., there being 32,294 station agents and 94,847 baggage masters, porters, etc. Then follow the conductors and brakemen, 32,000 of the former and 84,493 of the latter. There are 92,- 458 enginemen and firemen, 45,292 of the former and 47,166 of the latter. Employed in the general offices of the various railroad companies, in per- forming the vast amount of clerical work required, there are 39,701 clerks, while sheltered under the same roof is a body of men upon whom as much as or more than any other in the whole army of railroad employees falls the responsibility of the safety of trains and passengers the telegraph opera- tors and dispatchers, of whom there are altogether 26,606. The smallest in number, but controlling the whole of this vast organization, are the general officers, presidents, vice-presidents, treasurers, secretaries, etc., of whom there are 4.780. Money Value. Perhaps, after all, the most remarkable figures are -those which show the total value of the rail- road system of the United States, which expressed in figures is 13,308,- 029,032 dollars. If this sum were rep- resented in ten-dollar gold pieces, and these pieces were set on edge, side by side, they would reach more than half way from New York to San Fran- cisco, or 1,700 miles. Or, were this coin melted and run into a single cast- ing, it would form a column 15 feet in diameter and 259 feet in height. ABSTRACT OF STATISTICS OF RAILWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1903. From summaries which appear in the Sixteenth Statistical Report of the Interstate Commerce Commission, pre- pared by its statistician as the com- plete report for the year ending June 30, 1903, this information is obtained : MILEAGE AND CAPITALIZATION OF ROADS. The total single-track railway mile- age in the United States on June 30, 1903, was 207,977.22 miles, having in- creased 5,505.37 miles in the year end- ing on that date. This increase ex- ceeds that of any previous year since 1890. The nineteen states and terri- tories for which an increase in mileage exceeding 100 miles is shown are Ar- kansas, California, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mis- sissippi, Missouri, North Carolina, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, -Wiscon- sin, Indian Territory, New Mexico, and Oklahoma. Most of the railway mileage of the country, excepting that of street lines, is covered by reports rendered to the Commission by the car- riers. For the year under consideration the operated mileage concerning which sub- stantially complete returns were made was 205,313.54 miles, including 5,902.87 miles of line on which trackage privi- leges were exercised. The aggregate length of railway mileage, including tracks of all kinds, was 283,821.52 miles, being classified as follows : Single track, 205,313.54 miles; sec- ond track, 14,681.03 miles; third .track, 1.303.53 miles; fourth track, 963,36 miles ; and yard track and sidings, 61,560.06 miles. Thus it ap- pears that there was an increase of 9.626.16 miles in the aggregate length of all tracks, of which 3,339.13 miles, or 34.69 per cent, were due to the ex- tension of yard track and sidings. The number of railway corporations included in the report was 2,078. Of this number 1,036 maintained operat- ing accounts, 805 being classed as in- dependent operating roads and 231 as subsidiary roads. Of roads operated under lease or some other form of con- tract, 316 received a fixed money rent- al, 150 a contingent money rental, and 275 were operated under conditions not readily classified. In the course of the year railway companies owning 11.074.19 miles of line were reorgan- ized, merged, consolidated, etc. For the year 1902 the corresponding item was 7,385.99 miles. The length of mileage operated by receivers on June 30, 1903, was 1,- 185.45 miles, showing a decrease of 289.87 miles as compared with the previous year. The number of roads in the hands of receivers was the same as at the close of the previous year, 9 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 127 3 I " " 211* ^ -a "3 S oft PQ H 2 J~ 5 -I I 1 <3 aT O- 111' ^ J; = 128 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. roads having been taken from the hands of receivers and a like number having been placed in charge of the courts. EQUIPMENT. On June 30, 1903, there were in the service of the railways 43,871 loco- motives, the increase being 2,646. As classified, these locomotives were : Pas- senger, 10,570; freight, 25,444; switching, 7,058. There were also 799 not assigned to any class. The total number of cars of all classes was 1,753,389, this total hav- ing increased 113,204 during the year. The assignment of this rolling* stock was, to the passenger service, 38.140 cars; to the freight service, 1,653.782 cars; the remaining 61,467 cars being those employed directly by the rail- ways in their own service. Cars used by the railways that were owned by private companies and firms are not included in this statement. The aver- age number of locomotives per 1,000 miles of line was 214, showing an in- crease of 8. The average number of cars per 1,000 miles of line was 8,540, showing an increase of 345 as com- pared with the previous year. The number of passenger-miles per pas- senger locomotive was 1,978,786, show- ing an increase of 70,476 miles. The number of ton-miles per freight loco- motive was 6,807,981, showing an in- crease of 141,482 miles as compared with June 30, 1902. The aggregate number of locomo- tives and cars in the service of the railways was 1,797,260. Of this num- ber 1,462,259 were fitted with train brakes, indicating an increase during the year of 155,414, and 1,770,558 were fitted with automatic couplers, indicating an increase of 122,028. Practically all locomotives and cars in passenger" service had train brakes, and of the 10,570 locomotives in that service, 10 110 were fitted with auto- matic couplers. Only a few cars in passenger service were without auto- matic couplers. With respect to freight equipment it appears that most of the freight locomotives had train brakes and 98 per cent of them auto- matic couplers. Of 1,653.782 cars in freight service on June 30. 1903, 1.- 352,123 had train brakes and 1,632,330 automatic couplers. In this report there have been continued several sum- maries, first presented in the report for 1902, to show the general type of efficiency of locomotives and the ca- pacity of freight cars. In these summaries locomotives are classified under the heads of single-ex- pansion locomotives, four-cylinder com- pound locomotives, and two-cylinder compound or cross-compound locomo- tives. Each of these classes of locomo- tives is further classified according to the number of drivers, and the number of pilot wheels and trailers. Freight cars are first classified as box cars, flat cars, stock cars, coal cars, tank cars, refrigerator cars, and other cars. The cars in these classes are further distributed among the requisite number of subclasses, the lowest of which. Class I, being for cars having capacities in the 10,000 of pounds ; Class II for cars in the 20,- 000 of pounds, the other classes suc- cessively increasing in the same ratio. EMPLOYEES. The number of persons on the pay rolls of the railways in the United States, as returned for June 30, 1903, was 1,312,537, or 639 per 100 miles of line. These figures, when compared with the corresponding ones for the year 1902. show an increase of 123,222 in the number of employees, or 45 per 100 miles of line. The classification of employees includes enginemen, 52,- 993; firemen, 56,041; conductors, 39.- 741, and other trainmen, 104,885. There were 49961 switch tenders, crossing tenders, and watchmen. With regard to the four general divisions of railway employment it appears that general administration required the services of 45,222 employees ; mainte- nance of way and structures, 433,648 employees ; maintenance of equipment, 253,889 employees, and conducting transportation, 576,881 employees. This statement disregards a few em- ployees of which no assignment was made. The usual statement of the average daily compensation of the 18 classes of employees for a series of years is con- tinued in the present report, which shows also the aggregate amount of compensation paid to more than 97 per cent of the number of employees for the year 1903 and more than 99 per rent for the six years preceding. The amount of wages and salaries paid to employees during the year end-ng June 30. 1903, as reported, was $757,321,- 415: but this amount, as compared with the total reported for the year 1902, , is understated for want of re- turns, by $18,000,000 at least. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 129 CAPITALIZATION OF RAILWAY PROPERTY. The par value of the amount of railway capital outstanding on June 30, 1903, was $12,599,990,258, which represents a capitalization of $03,186 per mile for the rail- ways of the United States. Of this capital, $6,155,559,032 existed as stock, of which $4,876,961,012 was common and $1,278,598.020 preferred, and the remaining part, $6,444,431,226, as funded debt, which consisted of mortgage bonds, $5,426,730.154 ; mis- cellaneous obligations, $640,704,135 ; income bonds, $234,016,821, and equip- ment trust obligations, $142,980,116. Current liabilities are not included in railway capital for the reason that this class of indebtedness has to do with the operation rather than with the construction and equipment of a road. Current liabilities for the year amount- ed to $864,552,960, or $4,211 per mile of line. Of the total capital stock outstand- ing, $2,704,821,163, or 43.94 per cent, paid no dividends. The amount of dividends declared during the year was $196.728,176. being equivalent to 5.70 per cent on dividend-paying stock. For the year ending June 30, 1902, the amount of dividends declared was $185,391,655. Of the total amount of stock outstanding, $6,155,559,032, 6.59 per cent paid from 1 to 4 per cent; 13.51 per cent from 4 to 5 per cent ; 10.34 per cent from 5 to 6 per cent ; 11.39 per cent from 6 to 7 per cent, and 9.10 per cent from 7 to 8 per cent. The amount of funded debt (omitting equipment trust obligations) that paid no interest was $272788.421, or 4.33 per cent. Of mortgage bonds, $194,- 295,524, or 3.58 per cent, of miscel- laneous obligations, $7,377,925, or 1.15 per cent, and of income bonds, $71,- 114,972, or 30.39 per cent, paid no in- terest. PUBLIC SERVICE OF RAILWAYS. The number of passengers reported as carried by the railways in the year ending June 30, 1903, was 694.891,535, indicating an increase of 45,013 030 as compared with the year ending June 30. 1902. The passenger-mileage, or the number of passengers carried 1 mile, was 20.915.763,881, having in- creased 1.225,826261. The number of tons of fre'ght re- ported as carried (including freight received from connecting roads and other carriers) was 1,304,394,323, which exceeds the tonnage of the pre- vious year by 104,078,536 tons. The ton-mileage, or the number of tons car- ried 1 mile, was 173222,278,993, the increase being 15,932,908,940. The number of tons carried 1 mile per mile of line was 855,447, which figures in- dicate an increase in the density of freight traffic of 62,096 ton-miles per mile of line. The average revenue per passenger per mile for the year mentioned was 2.006 cents, the average for the pre- ceding year being 1.986 cents. The average revenue per ton per mile was 0.763 cent. This average for the pre- ceding year was 0.757 cent. Earnings per train mile show an increase both for passenger and freight trains. The average cost of running a train 1 mile appears to have increased between 8 and 9 cents. The ratio of operating expenses to earnings, 66.16 per cent, also increased in comparison with the preceding year, when it was 64.66 per cent. A summary of freight traffic, classi- fied on the basis of a commodity classi- fication embracing some thirty-eight items, is continued for the year under review. EARNINGS AND EXPENSES. The gross earnings of the railways in the United States from the operation of 205,313.54 miles of line were, for the year ending June 30, 1903, $1,900,- 846,907, being $174.466,640 greater than for the previous year. Their operating expenses were $1,257,538,- 852, or $141,290,105 more than in 1902. The following figures give gross earnings in detail, with the increase or the decrease of the several items as compared with the previous year : Pas- senger revenue, $421 ,704,592 increase. $28,741,344 ; mail, $41,709,396 in- crease, $1,873,552; express, $38.331,- 964 increase, $4,078,505; other earn- ings from passenger service, $9,821,- 277 increase. $962,508; freight reve- nue, $1,338,020,026 increase, $130,- 791,181 ; other earnings from freight service, $4.467,025 decrease, $379,- 693 ; other earnings from operation, including unclassified items, $46,792,- 627 increase, $8,399,243. Gross earnings from operation per mile of line averaged $9.258, the correspond- ing average for the year 1902 being $633 less. The operating expenses were as- signed to the four general divisions of such expenses ? as follows : Mainte- 130 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. nance of way and structures, $266,421,- 774 ; maintenance of equipment, $240,- 429,742 ; conducting transportation, $702,509,818; general expenses, $47,- 767,947; undistributed, $409,571. Op- erating expenses were $6,125 per mile of line, haying increased $548 per mile in comparison with the preceding year. The statistical report contains an analysis of the operating expenses for the year according to the fifty-three accounts prescribed in the official classification of these expenses, with the percentage of each item of the ex- penses as classified for the years 1897 to 1903. The income from operation, or the net earnings, of the railways amount- ed to $643,308,055. This item, when compared with the net earnings of the year 1902, shows an increase of $33,- 176,535. Net earnings per mile for 1903 averaged $3,133; for 1902, $3,- 048, and for 1901, $2,854. The amount of income obtained from other sources than operation was $205,687,- 480. In this amount are included the following items : Income from lease of road, $109,696,201; dividends on stocks owned, $40,081,725 ; interest on bonds owned, $17,696,586, and miscel- laneous income, $38,212,968. The to- tal income of the railways, $848,995,- 535 that is, the income from opera- tion and from other sources is the amount from which fixed charges and similar items of expenditure are de- ducted to ascertain the sum available for dividends. Deductions of such na- ture totalized $552,619,490, leaving $296,376,045 as the net income for the year available for dividends or surplus. The amount of dividends declared during the year (including $420,400, other payments from net income) was $197,148,576, leaving as the surplus from the operations of the year ending June 30, 1903, $99,227.469, that of the previous year having been $94,855,- 088. The amount stated above for de- ductions from income, $552,619,490, comprises the following items : Salaries and maintenance of organi- zation. $430,427 ; interest accrued on funded debt, $283,953,124; interest on current liabilities, $9,060,645; rents paid for lease of road, $112,230,384; taxes, $57,849,569 ; permanent im- provements charged to income account, $41,948,183; other deductions, $47,- 147,158. It is perhaps appropriate to mention that the foregoing figures for the in- come and expenditures of the railways, being compiled from the annual re- turns of leased roads as well as of op- erating roads, necessarily include du- plications in certain items of income, and also of expenditure, since, in gen- eral, the income of a leased road is the rent paid by the company which op- erates it. RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. The statement of accidents to per- sons in the summaries in the statisti- cal report under consideration are pre- sented under the two general classes of accidents resulting from the move- ment of trains, locomotives, or cars, and of accidents arising from causes other than those resulting from the movement of trains, locomotives, or cars. These classes include all the casualties returned by the carriers in their annual reports to the Commis- sion, whether sustained by passengers, employees, trespassers, or other per- sons, and for a number of reasons they are not in all respects comparable with others in the bulletins that are based on monthly reports. The total number of casualties to persons on the railways for the year ending June 30, 1903, was 86,393, of which 9,840 represented the number of persons killed and 76,553 the num- ber injured. Casualties occurred among three general classes of rail- way employees, as follows : Train- men, 2,070 killed and 25,676 injured; switch tenders, crossing tenders and watchmen, 283 killed, 2,352 injured; other employees, 1,253 killed, 32,453 injured. The casualties to employees coupling and uncoupling cars were, employees killed, 281 ; injured, 3,551. For the year 1902 the corresponding figures were, killed, 167; injured, 2,- 864. The casualties connected with coupling and uncoupling cars are as- signed as follows : Trainmen killed, 211 ; injured, 3,023 ; switch tenders, crossing tenders and watchmen killed, 57 ; injured, 416 ; other employees killed, 13; injured, 112. The casualties due to falling from trains, locomotives, or cars in motion were : Trainmen killed, 440 ; injured, 4,191 ; switch tenders, crossing tenders and watchmen killed, 39 ; injured, 461 ; other employees killed, 72 ; in- jured. 536. The casualties due to jumping on or off trains, locomotives, or cars in motion were : Trainmen killed, 101 ; injured, 3,133 ; switch tenders, crossing tenders and watch- men killed, 15; injured, 279; other employees killed, 82; injured, 508. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 131 The casualties to the same three classes of employees in consequence of collisions and derailments were : Trainmen killed, 648; injured, 4,526; switch tenders, crossing tenders and watchmen killed, 17 ; injured, 137 ; other employees killed, 128 ; injured, 743. The number of passengers killed in the course of the year 1903 was 355, and the number injured 8,231. In the previous year 345 passengers were killed and 6,683 injured. There were 173 passengers killed and 4,584 injured because of collisions and derailments. The total number of persons, other than employees and passengers, killed was 5,879; injured, 7,841. These fig- ures include the casualties to persons classed as trespassing, of whom 5,000 were killed and 5,0 < 9 were injured. The total number of casualties to per- sons other than employees from being struck by trains, locomotives, or cars, were 4.534 killed and 4,029 injured. The casualties of this class were as follows : At highway crossings, pas- sengers killed, 3 ; injured, 7 ; other persons killed, 895 ; injured, 1,474 ; at stations, passengers killed, 24 ; in- jured, 108 ; other persons killed, 390 ; injured, 501 ; at other points along track, passengers killed, 8 ; injured, 14: other persons killed, 3,214; in- jured, 1,925. The ratios of casualties indicate that 1 employee in every 364 was killed, and 1 employee in every 22 was injured. With regard to train- men that is, enginemen, firemen, con- ductors, and other trainmen it ap- pears that 1 trainman was killed for every 123 employed, and 1 was injured for every 10 employed. One passenger was killed for every 1,957,441 carried, and 1 injured for every 84,424 carried. With respect to the number of miles traveled, how- ever, the figures show that 58,917,645 passenger-miles were accomplished for each passenger killed, and 2,541,096 passenger-miles for each passenger in- jured. INTERESTING FACTS CONCERNING RAILWAYS. Differences of Gauge. It is not really known what, if any, principle governed the determination in the first instance of the gauge between the rails of 4 ft. 8 ins., which is the standard railway gauge of the world. It is supposed to have been adopted from the roads of the collieries in the north of England, whose uniform width necessitated the use of wagons having axles of an outside width of 5 feet. v In places these wagons ran on tram- ways, with a flange on the outer edge of the rail. Then came the edge rail, which trans- ferred the flange to the wheel. However, the same width of track was continued, but meas- ured from the inner edge of the rail it gave a gauge of 4 ft. 8$- ins. When Stephenson was selected from these collieries to build the Liv- . erpool and Manchester railway, he brought with him the gauge with which he was familiar. The 4 ft. 8 ins. gauge is the standard one in Europe, with but few exceptions, and in North America, and throughout the world generally, though every country possesses lines of nar- rower gauges. European countries having a different gauge are Ireland, 5 ft. 3 ins., Russia, 5 ft., and Spain, 5 ft. 6 ins. The standard gauge of India is 5 ft. 6 ins., while there are also a number of railways whose mileage amounts to 42 per cent, of the whole, built on the 3 ft. 31 ins. gauge. In New Zealand, Tas- mania, South Africa and the Sudan the stand- ard gauge is 3 ft. 6 ins. Australia has no standard gauge. In New South Wales the gauge is 4 ft. 8 ins., in Queensland 3 ft. 6 ins., and in Victoria, 5 ft. 3 ins. CAPE TO CAIRO RAILWAY. The Cape to Cairo Railway, which was the late Mr. Rhodes's scheme for joining the south and north of Africa, a distance of nearly 5,000 miles, is making rapid progress. North- wards from the Cape the line has been carried forward by the Chartered Company to the Wankie coal-fields^ which are 200 miles north of Buluwayo (or 1,560 miles north from the sea), and some 70 miles south of the Victoria Falls. At the present rate of progress it is expected that the railway will reach the Vic- toria Falls about April, 1905. In the north the railway only runs as far as Khartoum, and in spite of the agreement with Abyssinia per- mitting the making of a line through its terri- tory, no extension south is likely in the present generation. Mr. Rhodes's idea was to fit the main lines with branches to the coast; there will be many of these in time. Two are finished, the Uganda Railway (British) and the Beira-Sal- isbury line (Portuguese); others are planned, such as the Congo-Katanga Railway (Belgian) to Rhodesia and one through German East Africa. The Cape to Cairo telegraph is rapidly approaching completion; it has now reached Central Africa. TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY. The opening of the Trans-Siberian Mail route promises to accelerate the transmission of European letters to and from the north of 132 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. China. A letter posted from Tientsin on the 30th August, 1902, and forwarded by this route, was delivered in Liverpool on the 28th September just 28 days later. The trans- mission of letters via Brindisi or via Van- couver usually takes from 36 to 40 days. Therefore, the Trans-Siberian Railway saves at least a week, which is a matter of great im- portance to commercial houses. Delivery is, however, erratic, and no working arrange- ment has yet been arrived at between the Post Offices of Great Britain and Russia. All that the former does is to forward letters marked "Via Siberia" by the Russian route; all others go by sea. On Sept. 27th, 1903, the mails to the Far East were despatched from Paris (Nord) for the first time via Berlin and Moscow. Moscow is the western terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway, the main line of which extends thence to Dalny, a distance of 5,403 miles. The Manchuria-Dalny section, 1,171 miles, embraces the following important junctions: Harbin, for Vladivostok via Gro- dekovo; Tachitchiao, for Pekin via Inkoo (Newchang), and Nangaline for Port Arthur. The most direct route from London to Mos- cow is via Dover, Ostend, Berlin, Alexan- drowo, Warsaw, and Brest Litewski. The distance is 1,800 miles, and the through jour- ney occupies 67 hours. The Coast terminals of the Trans-Siberian Railway, viz., Dalny, Vladivostok, and Port Arthur, are also ports of call with various steamship companies, whose boats are ar- ranged to connect with the train service gen- erally. Thus, the boats of the East China Railway Company ply between Dalny and Shanghai, Dalny and N?gasaki, and Dalny, Port Arthur, and Chifu, and between Vladi- vostok and Shanghai. The "Oiye" (Japan) Line call at Vladivostok and sail to and from all Japanese ports. The Russian Volunteer fleet has a steamship service between Odessa and Vladivostok, calling at Singapore, Port Arthur, and Nagasaki. The "Nipon. Yusen- Kaisha" Company furnish boats between Kobe, Nagasaki, Fusan, Gensan, and Vladivostok, and between Kobe, Chifu, Dalny, Port Arthur, and Taku. The Hamburg-American Line gives a service between Hongkong and Vladi- vostok. Fares from London, via Dover, Ostend, and Alexandrowo: 1st 2d Class. Class To Dalny $195 $135 To Pekin 200 140 To Port Arthur 200 140 To Vladivostok 185 125 To Shanghai 215 150 To Nagasaki 215 150 Trains are ferried across Lake Baikal, but the railway round the south of the lake is being built. The Manchurian Railway itself is in a very bad condition, owing to poor con- struction. Days and sometimes weeks of de- lay are common. The Siberian main line, now single, is to be doubled. New Trans-Canadian Railway. The Grand Trunk Railway Company has secured the assent of the Dominion Parliament to the construction of a new railroad straight across Canada, from New Brunswick in the east te the Pacific Ocean in the west. The Govern- ment will themselves be the owners of the whole line from New Brunswick to Winnipeg, but the line is to be leased to and worked by the Grand Trunk Pacific. The Grand Trunk Pacific will be restricted in its possession and ownership of the road west of Winnipeg. Sahara Railway. A project which is being much discussed in France is a railway across the Sahara. Three routes have been sug- gested, one from Igli to the Niger, one from Biskra, 214 miles southeast of Algiers, to the west shore of Lake Chad, and the third from Bizerta in Tunis to Lake Chad. M. Paul Bonnard, an expert in African affairs, recom- mends the latter, as it would connect the French possessions in North Africa with the French Congo, and thus become a trans- African railway. Daily Mail Year Book. STREET AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1902. The statistics contained in this sec- tion cover all street and electric rail- ways in the United States that were in operation during any part of the year ending June 30, 1902. The term "street and electric railways" as here used includes all electric railways irre- spective of their length or location, and all street railways irrespective of their motive power. At the census of 1890 the railroads that used motive power other than steam were confiped almost exclusively to urban districts and were properly classed as "street railways," but the application of elec- tricity has enabled these roads to greatly extend their lines in rural dis- tricts, and a large proportion of the trackage is now outside the limits of cities, towns, or villages. That the use of electric power has been the principal factor in the development of these railways during the past feu- years is shown by the table which presents for the years 1890 and 1902, the number of companies and miles of single track in the United States, segregated according to char- acter of motive power which is em- ployed. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 133 NUMBER OF COMPANIES AND MILES OF SINGLE TRACK GROUPED ACCORDING TO MOTIVE POWER: 1890 AND 1902. CHARACTER OF POWER. 1902 1890 PER CENT OF INCREASE. Num- ber of com- pa- nies. Miles of single track. Num- ber of com- pa- nies. Miles of single track. Num- ber of com- pa- nies. Miles of single track. United States 849 *22,589.47 761 8,123.02 11.6 178.1 Electric . 747 67 26 9 f21, 920.07 259.10 240.69 169.61 126 506 55 74 1,261.97 5,661.44 488.31 711.30 492.9 186.8 152.7 J87.8 1,637.0 J95.4 J50.7 J76.2 Animal Cable. . Steam * Includes 12.48 miles of track duplicated in reports of different companies, t Includes 6.06 miles operated by compressed air. | Decrease. At both censuses some companies reported the use of more than one kind of power, and in order to show the total number of companies for each class, they have been counted more than once ; therefore the total given in table above exceeds the actual number of separate companies. The increase in the length of track is confined en- tirely to the roads operated by electric power. The use of electric power was reported by 126 companies in 1890 and 747 in 1902. The single track mileage operated by this power in- creased from 1.261.97 miles in 1890 to 21,920.07 in 1902. A decided de- crease is shown in the number of companies and the trackage for each of the other classes of power. The length of single track, 22,589.47 miles, reported for 1902, consists of 16,651.58 miles of first main track, 5,030.36 miles of second main track, and 907.53 miles of sidings and turn- outs. The second table reproduces the totals for the United States and shows the mileage of each of the dif- ferent classes of track and the per cent which each class forms of the total. SINGLE-TRACK MILEAGE AND PER CENT. WHICH EACH CLASS IS OF TOTAL: 1902. CLASS OF TRACK. Single-track mileage. Per cent of total. Total . .... *22,589.47 1000 First main track .... 16,651.58 73 7 Second main track 5,030.36 907 53 22.3 4 21 302 57 94 3 Other electric power 611.44 606 2.7 CO Animal 529.10 1.1 240 69 ] t Steam 169 61 8 Trackage owned 19,038.33 3 551 14 84.3 15 7 Operated under trackage rights Constructed and opened for operation during the year On private right of way owned by company 560.92 1,549.73 3,424.96 2.5 6.9 15.2 On private right of way not owned by company Located within city limits . . 377.11 113,208.24 1.7 65.8 Located outside city limits 16,855.58 34.2 Equipped with cast welded joints 1,642.68 7.3 * Includes 12.48 miles of track duplicated in reports of different companies. t Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. j Exclusive of the mileage of Massachusetts. 134 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Of the total single-track mileage, 21,914.01 miles, or 97 per cent, were operated by electric power and 416.36 miles, or 1.9 per cent, by other me- chanical traction, while only 259.10 miles, or 1.1 per cent, were operated by animal power, as compared with 69.7 per cent in 1890. Of the total trackage in use by all companies, 84.3 per cent was owned by the operating companies and 15.7 per cent leased. The mileage of track constructed and opened for operation during the year covered by this report was 1,549.73 miles, or*6.9 per cent of the total, but this does not cover all of the track un- der construction*. A number of miles of track were in various stages of com- pletion, but it was impracticable to fix upon any stage of the work at which the trackage could be enume- rated other than that of actual com- pletion. The statistics concerning track located on private right of way refer particularly to rural electric rail- ways, many of which have bought or have had surrendered to them a sepa- rate roadbed, either adjoining or in- dependent of the highway, in the same manner as a steam railroad. It ap- pears from the reports that 3,424.96 miles of single track were on private right of way owned by the company. Occasionally the railway is built on a private right of way not owned by the company, an example of which would be a toll bridge owned by a bridge com- pany, to whom payment for the privi- lege of using it was made. There were 377.11 miles of single track on right of way of this character. The inquiries concerning the loca- tion of track, whether within or with- out city limits, were made with the intention of ascertaining the relative length of track operated in urban and rural districts, respectively. In a num- ber of cases it was impossible to de- termine exactly the trackage that should be assigned to these two sub- divisions. In some instances the track was within or passed through thickly settled communities that were not or- ganized as cities or towns, and there- fore had no legal limits, and it was difficult to obtain the length that should be considered as within the ur- ban district. In the New England states densely populated communities are legally part of the town govern- ment, which includes also rural dis- tricts. Many companies in Massachu- setts reported that it was impractica- ble to make the distinction, and ac- cordingly the trackage for that state has not been included in this classifica- tion. For the United States, exclusive of Massachusetts, 13,208.24 miles of single trackage, or 65.8 per cent of the total, were reported as within urban limits and 6,855.58 miles, or 34.2 per cent, as outside of such limits. The increase in the trackage is due net only to the establishment of new companies, but very largely to the ex- tension of the lines of established com- panies. COMPANIES GROUPED ACCORDING TO LENGTH OF LINE: 1890 AND 1902. 1 902 ] 890 Number of com- panies. Length of line. Number of com- panies. Length of line. Total. . . *817 16 651 58 f691 j5 jig 53 Under 10 miles . . 394 1 957 16 557 2 304 49 10 to 20 miles 219 3 148 94 99 1 353 42 Over 20 to 30 miles Over 30 to 40 miles. . . 76 34 1,878.54 1 197 83 16 7 400.39 251 74 Over 40 to 50 miles 25 1 117 05 4. 178 04 Over 50 to 60 miles Over 60 to 70 miles. . . 16 12 892.86 785 22 2 2 101.57 130 33 Over 70 to 80 miles 7 532 46 1 76 48 Over 80 to 90 miles Over 90 to 100 miles 6 3 515.30 277 12 1 84.42 Over 100 miles 25 4,349.10 2 238.65 ! Operating companies, t Exclusive of 15 lessor companies. } Exclusive of 663.94 miles estimated in 1890. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 135 COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, ALL COMPANIES: 1890 AND 1902. ITKMS. 1902 1890 Per cent of increase. Number of companies 987 706 39 8 Cost of construction and equipment. $2 167 634 077 $389 357 289 456 7 $1 315 572 960 $289 058 133 355 1 Funded debt outstanding $992 709 1 39 $189 177 824 4247 $247 553 999 $90 617 211 173 2 Operating expenditures. . $142,312 597 $62011 185 129 5 Percentage operating expenses of earnings 57.5 68.4 Number of passenger cars. . . .... 60 290 32 505 85 5 Number of fare passengers carried 4 809 554 438 2 023 010 202 137 7 Number of employees* 133,641 70,764 88.9 * Exclusive of salaried officials and clerks. The "length of line" as given in the report means the length of the road- bed, or, in the case of a railway lying entirely within city limits, the length of street occupied. In determining the length of single track, switches and sidings are included, and double track is reckoned as two tracks. The in- crease in the length of line during the period of twelve years amounted to 11,532.05 miles, or 225.3 per cent, as compared with an increase of 14,466.45 miles, or 178.1 per cent, in the length of single track. Single-track roads are characteristic of rural districts, and the fact that the percentage of increase in length of line is greater than in length of single track is due princi- pally to the great development of in- terurban single-track lines since 1890. The average length of line per operating company in 1890 was 7.41 miles as compared with 20.38 miles in 1902. The average operating com- RELATION OF STREET AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS TO POPULATION 1890 AND 1902. GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS. Year. Population.* Total number of fare passen- gers carried. Average number of rides per in- habitant. United States 1902 1890 75,994,575 62,622,250 4,809,554,438 2,023,010,202 63 32 Increase 13,372,325 2,786,544 236 31 North Atlantic 1902 21 046 695 2 618 528 979 124 1890 17,401,545 1,141,187,460 66 Increase 3,645 150 1 477 341 519 58 South Atlantic 1902 10 443 480 332 541 075 32 1890 8,857,920 101,647,174 11 Increase North Central 1902 1,585,560 26 333 004 230,893,901 1 344 000 951 21 51 1890 22,362,279 538,309,887 24 I ncrease 3,970 725 805 691 064 27 South Central . 1902 14 080 047 210 103 861 15 1890 10,972,893 98,005,026 9 Increase ' 3 107 154 112098 835 6 Western. 1902 4 091 349 304 379 572 74 1890 3,027,613 143,860.655 48 Increase 1 .063,736 160,518,917 26 * Population shown for 1902 is that reported at the census of 1900. 136 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. pany in 1902 controlled almost three times the length of line that was con- trolled by the average company in 1890. In 1890 there were only 8 com- panies operating more than 50 miles of line, and in 1902 the number of such companies had increased to 69. Of the total number of companies re- ported for 1890. 94.9 per cent operated less than 20 miles of line each, and their combined length of line amounted to 71.5 per cent of the total in the United States; in 1902 corresponding percentages were 75 and 30.7, respec- tively. Thus, while there are still a large number of companies that op- erate less than 20 miles of track, the portion of the total length of line operated by them is not half as great as in 1890. The extent to which street and elec- tric railways are used, and the in- crease in their use as measured by the average number of rides per inhabi- tant, are shown below. From this table it appears that the most extensive use of street and elec- tric railways is in the North Atlantic states, where the average number of rides per inhabitant in 1902 was 124; the Western states come next with an average of 74. The greatest increase in this respect is shown for the South Atlantic states, where the average was almost three times as great in 1902 as it was in 1890. NUMBER OF OPERATING AND LESSOR COMPANIES BY STATES AND TERRITORIES: 1902. STATES AND TERRITORIES Total. Operat- ing. STATES AND TERRITORIES. Total. Operat- ing. United States 987 817 5 5 17 16 Alabama g 9 5 5 Arizona 2 2 4 4 Arkansas 7 7 New Hampshire 13 7 California. . . . 35 35 30 26 Colorado 9 8 New Mexico. . . . 1 1 Connecticut 27 23 New York. 119 96 Delaware . 3 3 7 7 District of Columbia 8 8 Ohio 67 63 Florida 6 6 Oregon.. 6 6 Georgia 10 10 Pennsylvania 196 98 Idaho 1 1 Rhode Island g g Illinois 58 50 South Carolina 7 7 Indiana. . 27 27 South Dakota 1 1 Iowa Kansas 22 12 22 12 Tennessee Texas 8 17 8 17 Kentucky 12 12 Utah. . . . 3 3 Louisiana Maine 8 20 8 19 Vermont 9 21 9 21 Maryland 12 10 Washington 8 8 Massachusetts 93 75 g g Michigan 24 24 17 17 Minnesota. 5 5 ACCIDENTS. The following state- ment reproduces the totals concerning the number of persons killed and in- jured in the United States for the year Persons. Killed. Injured. Total. . 1,218 47 429 Passengers 265 26,690 Employees 122 3 699 Others 831 17,040 "Others" referred to in this statement, include persons on foot or riding in vehicles other than street cars who were killed or injured in col- lision with street cars. The number of persons reported as killed, 1,218, and injured, 47,429, form only an in- appreciable percentage of the total number of passengers carried. From a Bulletin published by the Census Bureau. CHAPTER VI. POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. The population, of the United States, according to the Twelfth Census, was 75,994,575, divided as follows: 38,- 816,448 males, 37,178,127 females. Of the total, 65,653,299 were native born, and 10,341,276 foreign born. The population is again divided as follows : White, 66,809,196 ; negroes, 8,833,994 ; Indians 237,196, but this figure does not include the population of Indian territory or on Indian reservations ; Chinese, 89,863 ; Japanese, 24,326. POPULATION OF EACH STATE AND TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES. States and Territories. 1790. 1800. 1860. 1880. 1890. 1900. 964 201 1 262 505 1 513 017 1 828 697 32 052 63 592 40 440 59 620 122 931 435,450 802,525 1 128 179 1 311 564 379,994 864 694 1 208 130 1 485 053 34,277 194,327 412 198 539 700 Connecticut 237,946 251,002 460,147 622,700 746,258 908 420 Delaware 59,096 64,273 14093 112,216 75 080 146,608 177,624 168,493 230 392 184,735 278 718 Florida. 140,424 269,493 391 422 528 542 Georgia. . . 82,548 162,686 1,057,286 1,542,180 1,837 353 2 216 331 Idaho 32,610 84 385 161 772 1 711 951 3 077 871 3 826 351 4 821 550 Indiana 5,641 1,350,428 1,978,301 2 192 404 2 516 462 180 182 302 060 Iowa. . . 674,913 1 624 615 1 911 896 2 231 853 Kansas 107 206 996 096 1 427 096 1 470 495 Kentucky Louisiana 73,677 220,955 1,155,684 708 002 1,648,690 939 946 1,858,635 1 1 18 587 2,147,174 1 381 625 Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan. . . 96,540 319,728 378,787 151,719 341,548 422,845 628,279 687,049 1,231,066 749 113 648,936 934,943 1,783,085 1 636 937 661,086 1,042,390 2,238,943 2 093 889 694,466 1,188,044 2,805,346 2 420 982 Minnesota 172,023 780 773 1 301 826 1 751 394 Mississippi. . . . 8 850 791 305 1 131 597 1*289' 600 1 551 270 Missouri 1 182 012 2 168 380 2 fi7Q 1 84 q -\Of\ Kfit; Montana . 39 159 132 159 243 329 Nebraska 28 841 452 402 i n^s'oio 1 (\f\f\ QQO Nevada. . . . 6 857 62 266 45 761 42 335 New Hampshire New Jersey. . . . 141,885 184,139 183,858 211 149 326,073 672 035 346,991 1 131 116 376,530 1 444 933 411,588 1 883 669 New Mexico. . . . 93 516 119 565 ' 153*593 195 310 New York North Carolina. . 340,120 393 751 589,051 478 103 3,880,735 992 622 5,082,871 i *3QQ ^o 5,997,853 1 fi17 Q47 7,268,894 1 893 810 North Dakota 4 337 135 177 182 719 319 146 Ohio 45 365 2 339 511 31 no 062 o 7O CM 4 j57 545 Oklahoma 61 834 398 331 Oregon 52 465 174 768 313 767 413 563 Pennsylvania 434 373 602 365 2 906 21 5 4 oeo oqi a qno 1 i K Rhode Island South Carolina. . . 68,825 24Q 073 69,122 345 591 174,620 703 708 276,531 qqc C77 345,506 11 ci i 40 428,556 1 340 316 South Dakota 328 808 '401*570 Tennessee Texas 35,691 105,602 1,109,801 604 215 1,542,359 1 591 749 1,767,518 2 235 523 2,020,615 3 048 710 Utah 40,273 143,963 207,905 276,749 * Includes 6,394 negroes. t Included in the population of the several States. 137 138 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. POPULATION OF EACH STATE AND TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES Continued. States and Territories. 1790. 1800. 1860 1880. 1890. 1900. 85 425 154,465 315,098 332,286 332,422 343 641 Virginia Washington 747,610 880,200 1,596,318 11,594 1,512,565 75,116 1,655,980 349,390 1,854,184 518 103 618 457 762 794 958 800 Wisconsin. . . . 775,881 1,315,497 1,686,880 2,069,042 20,789 60,705 92 531 Persons on public ships in the service of the United States or sta- tioned broad. . *91 219 Total United States, 3,929,214 5,308,483 31,443,321 50,155,783 62,622,250 75,693,734 Alaska 32,052 63 592 Hawaii 89 990 154001 Indian Territory 180,182 302 060 Indians on Reservations 145 282 (t) Total . . 76.303.387 * Includes 6,394 negroes t Included in the population of the several States. [From Reports of the Census.] The figures of the Bureau of Statis- tics vary somewhat from those of the Census, and their table given farther on is later than the Census figures. The census of the Philippine Islands taken 1904, gives the population as 7,- 035,426, of which 647,740 are classi- fied as wild and uncivilized. Luzon contains 3,798,507 persons; Panay has 743,646 people ; Mindanao is fourth with 499,634 inhabitants; Jolo follows with 44,718 people, of whom only 1,270 are civilized. The population of Manila is 219,028. OFFICIAL CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES, BY COUNTIES, FOR 1900. ALABAMA. AREA, 50,722 SQUARE MILES. Autauga .... Baldwin .... Barbour .... Bibb 17,915 13,194 35,152 18,498 23,119 31,944 25,761 34,874 32,554 21,096 16,522 18,136 27,790 17,099 13,206 20,972 22,341 Conecuh . . . Coosa Covington. . Crenshaw . . . Cullman . . . . Dale . 17,514 . 16,144 . 15,346 . 19,668 . 17,849 . 21,189 54,657 Jackson Jefferson. . . 30,508 140 420 Perry Lamar Lauderdale. . Lawrence . . . Lee Limestone . . . Lowndes. . . . Macon Madison .... Marengo .... Marion Marshall .... Mobile Monroe . 16,084 . 26,559 . 20,124 31,826 22,387 35,651 23,126 43,702 38,315 14,494 23,289 62,740 23 666 Pike. . . Randolph Russell St. Clair Shelby Blount Bullock Butler Calhoun . . . Chambers . . Cherokee. . . Chilton .... Choctaw . . . Clarke Clay Cleburne. . . Coffee Colbert Dallas Dekalb .... Elmore .... Escambia . . Etowah. . . . Fayette. . . . Franklin . . . Geneva .... Greene Hale . 23,558 . 26,099 . 11,320 . 27,361 . 14,132 . 16,511 . 19,096 . 24,182 . 31,011 Sumter Talladega Tallapoosa . . . Tuscaloosa . . . Walker Washington . . Wilcox Winston ,. 1 Montgomery . . 72,047 28 820 Henry . 36,147 Total. . 31,783 24,402 29,172 21,647 27,083 19,425 23,684 32,710 35,773 29,675 36,147 25,162 11,134 35,631 9,554 1,828,697 Apache Cochise Coconino. . . . Gila Total. . 8,297 9,251 5,514 4,973 ARIZONA. AREA, 113,916 SQUARE MILES. Graham . . . Maricopa. . Mohaye. . . Navajo . . . 14,162 20,457 3,426 8,829 Pima Final . .. 14,689 7,779 Santa Cruz . Yavapai . . . . . 4,545 .. 13,799 Yuma 4,145 San Carlos In- dian Reserv'n. 3,065 122,931 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 139 140 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Arkansas 12,973 19,734 9,298 31,611 16,396 9,651 8,539 18,848 14,528 21,289 15,886 9,628 11,620 22,077 19,772 19,505 21,270 14,529 11,051 AREA Dallas Desha Drew Faulkner. . . . Franklin .... Fulton. . . Garland Grant Greene Hempstead. . Hot Spring . . Howard Independence Izard Jackson Jefferson. . . . Johnson .... Lafayette . . . Lawrence . . . ARKA 52,198 11,518 11,511 19,451 20,780 17,395 12,917 . 18,773 7,671 16,979 24,101 12,748 14,076 . 22,557 . 13,506 . 18,383 . 40,972 . 17,448 . 10,594 . 16,491 NSAS. SQUARE MILES. Lee Lincoln Little River . . Logan Lonoke Madison Marion Miller Mississippi . . . Monroe Montgomery. . Nevada Newton Ouachita Perry Phillips . . 19,409 13,389 13,731 20,563 22,544 19,864 11,377 17,558 16,384 16,816 9,444 16,609 12,538 20,892 7,294 26,561 10,301 7,025 18,352 Pope Prairie Pulaski Randolph . . St. Francis Saline .... Scott Searcy. . . . Sebastian . Sevier .... Sharp .... Stone Union . 21,715 . . 11,875 . . 63,179 . . 17,156 . . 17,157 . . 13,122 .. 13,183 . . 11,988 .. 36.935 . . 16,339 .. 12,199 . . 8,100 22 495 Ashley Baxter Benton Boone Bradley. Calhoun Carroll Chicot Clark Clay Cleburne Cleveland .... Columbia .... Conway Craighead. . . . Crawford Crittenden . . . Cross Van Buren . Washington White . . Woodruff . . Yell . . 11,220 . . 34,256 .. 24,864 . . 16,304 . . 22,750 1 311 564 Pike Poinsett Polk Total. Alameda. . . . Alpine Amador Butte Calaveras . . . Colusa 130,197 509 11,116 17,117 11,200 7,364 18,046 2,408 8,986 37,862 5,150 27,104 4,377 16,480 9,871 AREA, Lake CALIFC 188,981 6,017 4,511 170,298 6,364 15,702 4,720 20,465 9,215 5,076 2,167 19,380 16,451 17,789 19,696 15,786 3RNIA. SQUARE MILES. Plumas 4,657 17,897 45,915 6,633 27,929 35,090 342,782 35,452 16,637 12,094 18,934 60,216 21,512 Shasta. . . . 17 318 Lassen Los Angeles . Madera Marin Mariposa. . . . Mendocino . . Merced Modoc Mono Monterey . . . Napa Nevada Orange Placer Riverside .... Sacramento . . San Benito . . . San Bernar- dino San Diego. . . . San Francisco. San Joaquin. . San Luis Obis- po . Sierra Siskiyou . . . Solano Sonoma. . . . Stanislaus. . S utter . . 4,017 .. 16,962 . . 24,143 .. 38,480 . . 9,550 5885 Contra Costa . Del Norte Eldorado Fresno Glenn Humboldt .... Inyo Kern Kings Total. Tehama. . . . Trinity . . 10,996 4 383 Tulare Tuolumne. . Ventura. . . . Yolo Yuba . . 18,375 .. 11,166 . . 14,367 . . 13,618 8 620 San Mateo . . . Santa Barbara Santa Clara . . Santa Cruz . . . .1,485,053 1,690 4,080 3 661 Arapahoe .... Archuleta .... Baca Bent 153,017 2,117 759 3,049 21,544 7,085 501 7,082 8,794 4,632 2,937 5,487 1,134 3,120 3,008 AREA, Elbert COLO! 104,500 3 101 IADO. SQUARE MILES. Las Animas . . Lincoln Logan 21,840 926 3,292 9,267 1,913 3,058 4,535 3,268 11,522 4,731 2,998 1,583 7,020 3,766 34,448 Rio Blanco . Rio Grande. Routt El Paso Fremont .... Garfield Gilpin Grand . 31,602 . 15,636 . 5,835 . 6,690 741 Mesa Mineral Montezuma . . Montrose Morgan Otero Ouray Park . Saguache . . San Juan. . . San Miguel . Sedgwick . . Summit. . . 3,853 2,342 5,379 971 2,744 Boulder Chaffee Cheyenne .... Clear Creek. . . Conejos Costilla Gunnison . . . Hinsdale. . . . Huerfano . . . Jefferson. . . . Kiowa Kit Carson . . Lake La Plata 5,331 1,609 8,395 9,306 701 1,580 18,054 7 016 Teller Washington Weld . 29,002 1,241 16 808 Custer Delta. Phillips Pitkin Prowers 1 729 Dolores . . 539,700 Douglas Eagle Larimer . 12,168 Pueblo Total Fairfield Hartford. . 184,203 195,415 AREA Litchfield . . . Middlesex. . . CONNE( , 4,674 s . 63,672 . 41,760 7TICUT. aUARE MILES. New Haven . . New London. . 269,163 82,758 Tolland. . . Windham . . . 24,523 .. 46,861 ons 2** Total Kent . . DELAWARE. AREA, 2,120 SQUARE MILES. 32,762 | Newcastle. . . . 109,697 | Sussex. . . . 42,276 . . 184,735 Total . . SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 141 nt* 1*0 VE A R , 4JO 1030 '040 IOSO IUO >70 IMO I|O 19 90 OS / INCREASE OF POPULATION UNITED STATES PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF EUROPE PROM 1800T01900. M as ao M to as 30 IS 1 14 / as / / / x rs ^x x y / ,x / ,y / / ^ 3 45 *2 7 2 S y /O 1^ ^, ^ .'''' ^ ^r.^ '' _^ ^X 1^-- ""^ x< 3! **-* &* ^... / ^^^ ^..- ^~~ ^ ^r^ * -" - -7^ ry.^ ""^ iii ^>^ ^_....^ - -/ /^ IS | t*** rr-.^--- ^ / S PAI.N. ^^ ^ Y ,^ ^- ^^ ^> sw EDEJN_ ANON kiS^- >-o-o-o-o- -o-o-o-o- D-O O O O 100 1*0 uuo io i*w iso ieo teVo IMO iao iwo YEAR 142 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. AREA, 60 SQUARE MILES. The District . . Alachua Baker Bradford Brevard Calhoun Citrus Clay. . Columbia . . . Dade De Soto Duval Escambia .... Total 32,245 4,516 10,295 5,158 5,132 5,391 5,635 17,094 4,955 8,047 39,733 28,313 AREA, Franklin Gadsden Hamilton Hernando. . . . Hillsboro Holmes Jackson Jefferson Lafayette Lake . . . FLOE 59,268 4,890 15,294 11,881 3,638 36,013 7,762 23,377 16,195 4,987 7,467 3,071 19,887 IDA. SQUARE MILES. Levy Liberty Madison 8,603 2,956 15,446 4,663 24,403 18,006 9,654 11,374 3,444 6,054 12,472 11,641 St. John . . . Santa Rosa. Sumter .... Suwanee . . . Taylor Volusia .... Wakulla . . Walton .... Washingon. 9,165 . . 10,293 . . 6,187 . . 14,554 . . 3,999 . . 10,003 . . 5,149 . . 9,346 . 10,154 . .528,542 . . 53,735 .. 7,515 . . 5,499 . . 19,252 . 17,619 . 15,856 . 26,212 . 12,197 7,912 . 20,419 . 9,846 . 10,083 . 19,023 . 31,076 . 4,748 . 24,002 8 716 Manatee Marion Monroe Nassau Orange Osceola Pasco . . , Lee Leon Polk Putnam Appling Baker Baldwin Banks 12,336 6,704 17,768 10,545 20,823 19,440 50,473 AREA, Dekalb Dodge Dooly Dougherty . . . Douglas Early Echols Effingham Elbert GEOR 58,000 s 21,112 13,975 26,567 13,679 8,745 14,828 3,209 8,334 19,729 21,279 11,214 10,114 33,113 11,550 17,700 117,363 10,198 4,516 14,317 14,119 16,542 25,585 13,604 20,752 18,277 11,922 18,009 14,492 11,177 18,602 22,641 13,645 24,039 15,033 18,212 GIA. QUARE MILES. Johnson Jones Laurens Lee .- 11,409 13,358 25,908 10,344 13,093 7,156 20,036 7,433 9,804 6,537 . 14,093 13,224 10,080 23.339 6,319 6,763 14,767 20,682 16,359 15,813 8,623 29,836 16,734 8,602 17,881 12,969 8,641 8,100 18,761 17,856 18,489 13,436 4,701 6,285 16,847 Richmond. . Rockdale. . . Schley Screven. . . . Spalding. . . Stewart. . . . Sumter Talbot Taliaferro. . . Tattnall. . . . Taylor Telfair Terrell Thomas. . . . Towns Troup Twiggs Bartow Berrien Bibb Liberty Lincoln. . . . Lowndes. . . . Lumpkin McDuffie Mclntosh Macon Madison Marion Meri wether. , . Miller Broods Bryan Bulloch Burke Butts Calhoun Camden Campbell .... Carroll Catoosa Charlton Chatham Chattahoochee Chattooga. . . . Cherokee Clarke Clay Clayton Clinch Cobb Coffee 18,606 6,122 21,377 30,165 12,805 9,274 7,669 9,518 26,576 5,823 3,592 71,239 5,790 12,952 15,243 17,708 8,568 9,598 8,732 24,664 16,169 13,636 10,653 24,980 10,368 4,578 5,442 29,454 Emanuel Fannin . Fayette Floyd Forsyth Franklin Fulton Milton Gilmer Glascock Glynn Gordon Greene Gwinnett . . . . Habersham. . . Hall Hancock Haralson Harris Hart . . Heard Henry Mitchell Monroe Montgomery. . Morgan Union Upson Walker Walton Ware Warren Washington. Wayne Webster. . . . White 8,481 . 13,670 . . 15,661 . 20,942 . . 13,761 . . 11,463 . . 28,227 . 9,449 . 6,618 5 912 Murray Muscogee Newton Oconee Oglethorpe. . . Paulding Pickens. . . Pierce Pike Polk Whitfield. . . Wilcox . . . . 14,509 11 097 Colquitt Columbia .... Coweta Crawford Dade Wilkes Wilkinson. . Worth . . 20,866 . 11,440 18 664 Houston Irwin Jackson Pulaski Putnam Quitman Rabun Randolph 2,216,331 . 3,804 .. 11,950 . 6,882 ..161.772 Dawson Decatur Total. . . . Jasper Jefferson Ada. . 11,559 11,702 7,051 10,447 4,900 4,174 AREA, Canyon Cassia IDA 86,294 g 7,497 3,951 2,049 2,286 12,821 9,121 HO. QUARE MILES. Kootenai Latah Lemhi Lincoln 10,216 13,451 3,446 1,784 13,748 8,933 Owyhee. . . . Shoshone. . . Washington. Bannock Bear Lake .... Bingham Elaine Boise Total . . Custer Elmore Fremont Idaho Nez Perces. . . . Oneida SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 143 144 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Adams Alexander. . . . Bond 67,058 19,384 16,078 15,791 11,557 41,112 8,917 18,963 17,222 47,622 32,790 24,033 19,553 19,824 34,146 838,735 19,240 16,124 31,756 18,972 19,097 28,196 28,273 10,345 20,465 28,065 AREA, Ford Franklin. . . . Fulton ILLI1 55,405 i 18,359 19,675 46,201 15,836 23,402 24,136 20,197 32,215 7,448 10,836 40,049 38,014 33,871 20,160 28,133 14,612 24,533 15,667 78,792 37,154 11,467 43,612 34,504 87,776 16,523 29,894 fOIS. JQUARE MILES. Livingston. . . . Logan McDonough. . . McHenry McLean Macon Macoupin Madison 42,0351 Randolph. . . 28,680 [Richland. . . 28,412 Rock Island . 29,759 St. Clair 67,843 Saline 44,003 Sangamon. . 42,256 Schuyler. . . . 64,694 Scott 30,446 1 Shelby 16,370 'Stark 17,491 iStephenson. 13,110 Tazewell. . . . 14,336 Union 20,945 Vermilion. . . 13,847 Wabash 30,836 Warren. . . . 35,006 Washington. 15,224 Wayne. . . 29,129 White 88,608 Whiteside. . . 19,830 Will 17,706 Williamson. . 31,595 Winnebago. . 13,585 Woodford. . . 14,554 4,746 . 28,001 . 16,391 . 55,249 . 86,685 . 21,685 . 71,593 . 16,129 . 10,455 . 32,126 . 10,186 . 34,933 . 33,221 . 22,610 . 65,635 . 12,583 . 23,163 . 19,526 . 27,626 . 25,386 . 34,710 . 74,764 . 27,796 . 47,845 . 21,822 4,821,550 20 148 Boone Brown Bureau Calhoun Carroll Gallatin Greene Grundy Hamilton Hancock Hardin Henderson. . . . Henry Iroquois Jackson Cass Champaign. . . Christian Clark Clay Marshall Mason Massac Menard Mercer Monroe Montgomery . . Morgan Moultrie Ogle Clinton Coles Cook 1 Crawford . . . Cumberland. Dekalb. ..... Dewitt Jasper Jefferson Jersey Jo Daviess. . . . Kane Kankakee. . . . Kendall Knox Lake Lasalle Lawrence Lee Peoria Perry Piatt Pike Douglas Dupage Edgar Edwards. . . . Effingham. . . Fayette Total Pope Pulaski Putnam 22,232 77,270 24,594 13,123 17,213 26,321 9,727 19,953 34,545 31,835 34,285 28,202 13,476 29,914 22,194 19,518 25,711 49,624 20,357 45,052 13,495 30,118 21,446 AREA, Franklin Fulton Gibson INDI 33,809 16,388 17,453 30,099 54,693 28,530 29,914 19,189 21,702 21,292 25,088 28,575 28,901 26,633 14,292 26,818 22,913 15,757 20,223 32,746 29,109 15,284 37,892 38,386 ANA. SQUARE MILES. Lawrence Madison Marion Marshall Martin Miami Monroe Montgomery. . Morgan Newton Noble Ohio Orange Owen Parke Perry Pike Porter Posey Pulaski Putnam Randolph. . . Ripley 25,729 70,470 197,227 25,119 14,711 28,344 20,873 29,388 20,457 10,448 23,533 4,724 16,854 15,149 23,000 18,778 20,486 19,175 22,333 14,033 21,478 28,653 19,881 Rush Allen Bartholomew . Benton Blackford. . . . Boone Brown Carroll Cass Clark Clay Clinton Crawford Daviess Dearborn Decatur St. Joseph. . Scott Shelby Spencer. . . . Starke Steuben .... Sullivan. . . . Switzerland. Tippecanoe. Tipton Union Vanderburg. Vermilion . . Vigo Wabash. ... Warren .... Warrick Washington. Wayne . 58,881 . 8,307 . 26,491 . 22,407 . 10,431 . 15,219 . 26,005 . 11,840 . 38,659 . 19,116 . 6,748 . 71,769 . 15,252 . 62,035 . 28,235 . 11,371 . 22,329 . 19,409 . 38,970 . 23,449 . 19,138 17 328 Grant Greene Hamilton Hancock Harrison Hendricks. . . . Henry Howard Huntington. . Jackson Jasper Jay . . . Jefferson Jennings Johnson Knox Kosciusko. . . . Lagrange Lake Laporte. Dekalb Delaware. . . . Dubois Elkhart Fayette Floyd Fountain. . . . Total. . . . Wells White. . Whitley 2,516,492 . 17,820 . 13,757 . 18,729 . 19,514 . 13,752 . 22,794 . 25,597 . 20,022 . 14,512 . 12,667 . 12,327 . 19.544 Adair Adams Allamakee. . . . Appanoose. . . . Audubon Benton Blackhawk. . . Boone Bremer Buchanan. . . . Buena Vista. . Butler. . . 16,192 13,601 18,711 25,927 13,626 25,177 32,399 28,200 16,305 21,427 16,975 17,955 AREA, Calhoun. . icn 50,914 18,569 20,319 21,274 19,371 20,672 16,570 17,037 12,440 13,401 27,750 43,832 21.685 NA. SQUARE MILES. Dallas 23,058 15,620 18,115 19,185 35,989 7,995 56,403 9,936 29,845 17,754 14,996 18.546 Greene Grundy. . . . Guthrie. . . . Hamilton. .. Hancock. . . Hardin. . . . Harrison. . . Carroll Cass Cedar Cerro Gordo. . Cherokee Chickasaw. . . Clarke Clay Davis Decatur Des Moines. . Dickinson. . . Dubuque. . . . Emmet Fayette Floyd Franklin Howard. . . . Humboldt. . Ida Iowa. . . Clayton Clinton Crawford . . Fremont. . SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 145 IOWA Continued. Jackson 23 615 Mahaska. . . . Marion Marshall Mills Mitchell Monona Monroe Montgomery . Muscatine. . . O'Brien Osceola Page Palo Alto 34,273 24,159 29,991 16,764 14,916 17,980 17,985 17,803 28,242 16,985 8,725 24,187 14,354 Plymouth. . . Pocahontas. . Polk Pottawattamie Poweshiek . . . Ringgold. . . . Sac Scott Shelby Sioux Story Tama Taylor 22,209 15,339 82,624 54,336 19,414 15,325 17,639 51,558 17,932 23,337 23,159 24,585 18,784 Union Van Buren. . . . Wapello Warren Washington. . . Wayne Webster Jasper Jefferson. . . . 26,976 . 17,437 24 817 Jones Keokuk. . . . Kossuth. . . . Lee . 21,954 . 24,979 . 22,720 39 719 Winnebago. . . Winneshiek. . Woodbury. . . . Worth Wright. . Linn Louisa Lucas Lyon Madison. . . . Total. . . 55,392 . 13,516 . 16,126 . 13,165 . 17,710 ..2 19,928 17,354 35,426 20,376 20,718 17,491 31,757 12,725 23,731 54,610 10,887 18,227 2,231,853 Allen Anderson Atchison Barber Barton Bourbon Brown Butler 19,507 13,938 28,606 6,594 13,784 24,712 22,369 23,363 8,246 11,804 42,694 2,640 1,701 15,833 18,071 16,643 1,619 30,156 38,809 9,234 21,816 15,079 25,096 3,682 11,443 8,626 9,626 AREA, Finney Ford KAN 78,418 f 3,469 5,497 21,354 10,744 2,441 5,173 422 1,264 493 16,196 1,426 10,310 17,591 457 2,032 17,171 17,533 19,420 18,104 1,107 10,663 2,365 27,387 1,563 40,940 9,886 16,689 SAS. SQUARE MILES. Logan 1,962 25,074 21,421 20,676 24,355 1,581 21,641 14,647 29,039 11,967 304 20,376 19,254 4,535 11,325 23,659 11,844 11,182 5,084 14,442 18,470 7,085 5,241 29,027 18,248 14,745 13,828 Rooks Rush Russell Franklin Geary McPherson. . . Marion Marshall Meade Miami Mitchell Montgomery. . Morris Morton Nemaha Saline Scott Sedgwick Seward. . Gove Graham Grant Gray Greeley Greenwood. . . Hamilton Harper Harvey Haskell Hodgeman. . . . Jackson Jefferson. . . . Jewell Johnson Kearny Kingman Kiowa Labette Shawnee Sheridan Sherman Smith Stafford Stanton Stevens Sumner Thomas Trego Wabaunsee. . . Wallace Washington. . . Wichita Wilson Woodson Wyandotte. . . . .1 Chase Chautauqua. . Cherokee Cheyenne Clark Clay Cloud Neosho Ness Norton Osage Osborne Ottawa Pawnee Phillips Pottawatomie Pratt Rawlins. Reno Republic Rice Coffey Comanche. . . . Cowley Crawford Decatur Dickinson. . . . Doniphan. . . . Douglas Edwards Elk Ellis Ellsworth Total. . Lane Leavenworth. . Lincoln Linn. . . . 7,960 6,134 8,489 17,076 1,098 44,037 822 53,727 3,819 3,341 16,384 9,829 37 620 25,631 4,112 2,722 12,813 1,178 21,963 1,197 15,621 10,022 73,227 1,470,495 Adair. . . . Allen Anderson. Ballard. Barren . Bath. . . Bell. . . . Boone. Bourbon. . . . Boyd Boyle Bracken Breathitt. . . Breckinridge . Bullitt Butler Caldwell Galloway. . . . Campbell Carlisle Carroll Carter. . . AREA, 14,888 Casey 14,657 Christian 10,051 Clark 10,761 23,197 Clay Clinton 14,734 Crittenden. . . . 15,701 Cumberland. . 11,170 Daviess 18,069 Edmonson. . . . 18,834 Elliott 13317 Estill. . . 12,137 Fayette 14,322 Fleming 20,534 Floyd. 9,602 Franklin 15,896 Fulton 14,510 Gallatin 17,633 Garrard. . . . . 54,223 Grant 10,195 Graves 9,825 Grayson 20.228 Green. . KENTUCKY. 37,680 SQUARE MILES. 15,144 Greenup 37,962 Hancock 16,694 Hardin 15,364 Harlan 7,871 Harrison 15,191 Hart 8,962 Henderson. . . . 38,667 10,080 Henry Hickmari 10,387 Hopkins 11,669 Jackson 42,071 Jefferson 17,074 Jessamine. . . . 15,552 Johnson 20,852 Kenton 11,546 Knott 5,163 Knox 12,042 Larue 13,239 Laurel. . 33,204 Lawrence 19,878 12.255 Lee Leslie. . . 15,432 1 Letcher. 8,914 1 Lewis.. 22,937 1 Lincoln. . . . 9,838 18,570 18,390 32,907 14,620 Livingston. . . Logan Lyon McCracken.. . McLean. . 11,745 Madison. 30,995 Magoffin. 10,561 Marion. 232,549 Marshall. . 11,925 Martin 13,730 Mason 63.591 Meade 8,704 Menifee 17,372 Mercer 10,764 Metcalf 17.592 Monroe 19,612) Montgomery. 7,988! Morgan 6,753 i Muhlenberg. 9,172 17,868 17,059 11,354 25,994 9,319 28,733 12,448 25,607 12,006 16,290 13,692 5,780 20,446 10,533 6,818 14,426 9,978 13,053 12,034 12,792 20,741 146 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. KENTUCKY Continued. Nelson Nicholas Ohio Oldham 16,587 11,952 27,287 7,078 17,553 6,874 14,947 8,276 Pike 22 686IShelhv. . 18,340 . 11,624 . 7,406 11 075 Warren. . . . Washington. Wayne Webster Whitley.... Wolfe . . . . . 29,970 . . 14,182 . . 14,892 . . 20,097 . . 25,015 8 764 Powell Pulaski . 6,443 . 31,293 Simpson Spencer Taylor . Robertson . . . Rockcastle. . . Rowan . 4,900 . 12,416 8 277 Owen Owsley Pendleton. . . . Perry Total. . Todd Trigg. . . . . 17,371 14073 Russell Scott . 9,695 . 18,076 Trimble 7 272 Woodford. . . . 13,134 .2.147,174 Union . 21,326 LOUISIANA. Acadia 23,483 24,142 21,620 29,701 17,588 24,153 44,499 30,428 6,917 3,952 16,351 23,029 13,559 25,063 31,153 AREA, East Carroll. . . East Feliciana. Franklin Grant Iberia 41,255 i 11,373 20,443 8,890 12,902 29,015 27,006 9,119 15,321 22,825 28,882 15,898 8,100 12,322 16,634 33,216 287,104 SQUARE MILES. Ouachita Plaquemines. . Pointe Coupee. Rapides Red River Richland. 20,947 13,039 25,777 39,578 11,548 11,116 15,421 5,031 9,072 8,479 20,197 12,330 52,906 18,940 34,145 St. Tammany. Tangipahoa. . . Tensas Terrebonne. . . Union Vermilion. . . . Vernon Washington.. . Webster West Baton Rouge West Carroll. . West Feliciana Winn Ascension. . . . Assumption . Avoyelles. . . Bienville. . . . Bossier Caddo Calcasieu. . . Caldwell. . . . Cameron. . . . Catahoula. . . ' Claiborne. . . . Concordia. . . De Soto East Baton Rouge. . . Total. . Iberville Jackson Jefferson. Sabine St. Bernard. . . St. Charles St. Helena St. James St. John the Baptist St. Landry . . . St. Martin. . . . St. Mary Lafayette. . . . Lafourche. . . . Lincoln Livingston. . . . Morehouse. . . . Natchitoches. . Orleans. ..1. 13,335 17,625 19,070 24,464 18,521 20,705 10,327 9,628 15,125 10,285 3,685 15,994 9,648 381,625 MAINE. AREA, 31,766 SQUARE MILES. Androscoggin . 54,242 Aroostook. . . . 60,744 Cumberland. . .100,689 Franklin 18,444 Hancock 37,241 Kennebec 59,117 Knox 30,406 Lincoln 19,669 Oxford 32,238 Somerset. . . Penobscot. . . . 76,246 Waldo 33,849 24,185 Piscataquis. . . 16,949 Washington.. . 45,232 Sagadahoc 20,330 York 64,885 Total 694,466 MARYLAND. AREA, 11,124 SQUARE MILES. Allegany 53,694 AnneArundel. 40,018 Baltimore. ... 90,755 Baltimore City 508,957 Calvert 10,223 Caroline 16,248 Carroll 33 860 Harford Howard Kent. 28,269 16,715 18,786 30,451 29,898 18,364 St. Mary . . . Somerset. . . Talbot Washington. Wicomico. . . Worcester. . . 18,136 . 25,923 . 20,342 . 45,133 . 22,852 . . 20,865 1.190,050 Cecil Charles. . . 24,662 18,316 Dorchester. . . Frederick. . . . Garrfit,t,. . . 27,962 . 51,920 . 17,701 Montgomery. . Prince George . Queen Anne . . Total. . MASSACHUSETTS. AREA, 7,800 SQUARE MILES. Barnstable. Berkshire . Bristol Dukes , 27,826 95,667 252,029 4,561 357,030 Franklin 41,209 Hampden 175,603 Hampshire . . . 58,820 Middlesex. . . . 565,696 Nantucket. . . . 3,006 Norfolk 151,539 Plymouth. . . . 113,985 Suffolk 611,417 Worcester. . . . 346,958 Total 2,805,346 Alcona 5,691 Alger 5,868 Allegan 38,812 Alpena 18,254 Antrim 16,568 Arenac , 9,821 Baraga 4,320 Barry 22,514 AREA, Bay Benzie. / Berrien Branch MICH] 56,243 E 62,378 9,685 49,165 27,811 49,315 20,876 13,956 15,516 GAN. QUARE MILES. Chippewa. . . Clare Clinton Crawford . . . Delta Dickinson. . . Eaton. . 21,338 8,360 25,136 2,943 23,881 17,890 31,668 15.931 Genesee 41,804 Gladwin. . . 6 564 Gogebic 16,738 Grand Traverse 20,479 Gratiot 29,889 Hillsdale 29 865 Calhoun Cass Charlevoix. . . . Cheboygan. . Houghton. . . . 66,063 Huron. . .34.162 Emmet. . . SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 147 148 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Ingham 39,818 34,329 10,246 8,990 22,784 48,222 44,310 7,133 129,714 3,217 4,957 27,641 10,556 MICJ Lenawee HIGAN 48,406 19,664 2,983 7,703 33,244 27,856 41,239 18,885 20,693 27,046 14,439 9,308 32,754 Continued. Montcalm. . . . Montmorency . Muskegon. . . . Newaygo Oakland. . . 32,754 3,234 37,036 17,673 44,792 16,644 7,765 6,197 17,859 1,468 6,175 39,667 8,821 Roscommon. Saginaw. . . . St. Clair St. Joseph. . Sanilac 1,787 . 81,222 . . 55,228 . . 23,889 35 055 Ionia Livingston . . . Irno Isabella Jackson Kalamazoo. . Kalkaska. . . . Kent Mackinac Macomb Manistee Manitou Mason Oceana Schoolcraft. Shiawassee. . Tuscola. . . . Van Buren. . Washtenaw. Wayne. . . . 7,889 . 33,866 . . 35,890 . . 33,274 . . 47,731 . . 348,793 Ogemaw Ontonagon . . . Osceola Oscoda Otsego Mecosta Menominee. . . Midland Missaukee. . . . Monroe Keweenaw. . . Lake. . . Lapeer Ottawa Presque Isle Wexford. . . 16 845 Leelanau .... .2,420,982 Total. . MINNESOTA. AREA, 95,274 SQUARE MILES. Aitkin . . . 6 743 Freeborn. . . . 21,838 Morrison 22,891 Sibley 16 862 Anoka Becker . . . 11,313 14,375 Goodhue Grant 31,137 8,935 Mower Murray. . . 22,335 11,911 Stearns 44,464 Steele 16 524 Beltrami 11 030 Hennepin .... 228,340 Nicollet. . 14 774 Stevens 8 721 9912 Houston. 15400 Nobles 14 932 Swift 13 503 Bigstone 8 731 Hubbard 6,578 Norman 15,045 Todd. 22*214 Blue Earth 32 263 Isanti . . . 11 675 Olmsted 23 119 Traverse 7 573 Brown 19,787 Itasca. 4,573 Ottertail 45,375 Wabasha 18 924 Carlton 10017 Jackson . . . 14,793 Pine. . 11 546 Wadena 7 921 17 544 Kanabec 4 614 Pipestone 9 264 Waseca 14760 Cass Chippewa Chisago. . . 7,777 12,499 13 248 Kandiyohi. . . . Kittson Lac qui Parle . 18,416 7,889 14,289 Polk Pope Ramsey 35,429 12,577 170 554 Washington..! 27^808 Watonwan 11,496 Wilkin 8 080 Clay 17 942 Lake 4 654 Red Lake 12 195 Winona 35 686 Cook. . . 810 Lesueur. . . . 20,234 Redwood 17,261 Wright. . . 29 157 Cottonwood 12 069 Lincoln . 8,966 Renville. . 23 693 White Earth In- Crow Wing . . . 14,250 Lyon. . , 14,591 Rice. . 26.080 dian Reserva- Dakota. 21 733 McLeod. 19,595 Rock 9 668 tion. 3 486 Dodge 13,340 Marshall 15,698 Roseau 6,994 Yellow Medicinel4,602 Douglas 17,964 Martin. ...-.., 16,936 St. Louis 82,932 Faribault. . . 22055 Meeker. . . 17,753 Scott. . . . 15,147 Fillmore . 28 238 Millelacs 8 066 7281 Total. . ..1.751,394 MISSISSIPPI. AREA, 47,156 SQUARE MILES. Adams ... . 30,111 14,987 20,708 26,248 10,510 35,427 16,512 22,116 19,892 13,036 20,787 17,741 19,563 26,293 34,395 13,076 24,751 13,678 6,795 Grenada Hancock. . . Harrison. . . . Hinds 14,112 11,886 21,002 52,577 36,828 10,400 13,544 16,513 15,394 21,292 17,846 20,492 22,110 38,150 15,103 17,360 21,956 23,834 21,552 Lowndes Madison Marion. . . . 29,095 32,493 13,501 27,674 31,216 16,536 12,726 19,708 30,846 20,183 29,027 6,697 14,682 27,545 18,274 15,788 5,435 20,955 14,316 Sharkey 12 178 Alcorn Simpson. . . . Smith Sunflower . . Tallahatchie Tate . 12,800 . 13,055 . 16,084 . 19,600 . 20,618 . 12,983 . 10,124 . 16,479 . 16,522 . 40,912 . 49,216 12 539 Amite Attala. Marshall Holmes Issaquena. . . Itawamba. . . Jackson Jasper Jefferson. . . . Jones Kemper Lafayette. . . . Lauderdale. . Lawrence. . . . Leake. . . Monroe Montgomery. . Neshoba Newton Noxubee Oktibbeha Panola Pearl River. . . Perry Pike Pantotoc Prentiss Bolivar Calhoun Carroll Chickasaw. . . Choctaw Clai borne. . . . Clarke . . Tippah Tishomingo. Tunica Union Warren Washington. Wayne Clay Coahoma. . . . Copiah Covington. . . . De Soto Webster. , .. . 13,619 Wilkinson. . . . 21,453 14 124 Lee Yalobusha. . Yazoo .. 19,742 . 43,948 1,551,270 Franklin Leflore Lincoln . . . Rankin Scott Greene Total. . SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 149 21,728 17,332 16,501 21,160 25,532 18,253 30,141 16,556 14,650 28,642 121,838 16,769 16,656 25,984 13,113 24,315 26,455 6,706 23,636 16,923 26,826 16,939 15,383 18,903 17,363 20,578 22,532 12,959 18,125 AREA, Dallas MISS 67,380 13,903 21,325 14,418 12,986 16,802 21,706 30,581 12,298 20,554 52,713 17,832 24,398 28,054 9,985 17,083 18,337 21,834 8,716 195,193 84,018 25,712 27,843 13,479 16,523 31,679 31,662 16,724 18,352 25,503 OURI. SQUARE MILES. Livingston. . . . McDonald. . . . 22,302 13,574 33,018 9,975 9,616 26,331 14,706 15,187 11,837 15,931 19,716 16,571 12,175 11,280 27,001 32,938 13,906 14,096 12,145 12,115 15,134 32,438 14,194 25,744 16,193 23,255 10,394 16,688 12,287 Randolph . . . Ray 24,442 24,805 8,161 13,186 24,474 17,907 10,359 24,051 50,040 575,238 33,703 10,840 13,232 13,092 11,247 16,167 24,669 9,892 20,282 10,127 22,192 31,619 9,919 14,263 15,309 16,640 9,832 17,519 ,106,665 5,080 4,355 6,212 3S- 2,660 243,339 9,604 19,614 2,809 18,252 9,080 22,085 2,552 15,690 6,033 6,550 2,055 6,959 14,325 628 8,756 7,339 13,086 9,862 11,619 1,362 18,205 068,539 Andrew Daviess. . . Dekalb . Dent Madison. . . Barry . . Douglas Maries Marion. . . . St. Charles St. Clair Ste.Genevieve St. Francois.. St. Louis St. Louis City. Saline Schuyler Scotland. . . . Barton Bates Benton Dunklin Franklin Gasconade. . . . Gentry. . . Mercer Miller...... . Mississippi. . . Moniteau. . . . Monroe Montgomery. . Morgan New Madrid . . Newton Nod away Bellinger. . . Boone Buchanan. . . Butler Greene Grundy. . Harrison Henry Caldwell Callaway. . . . Camden Hickory Holt Howard Scott Shannon. ... Cape Girardeau Carroll Carter Cass. . Shelby Stoddard . . Howell Iron. . Oregon. . . Osage Ozark Pemiscot Stone Jackson Jasper Cedar Taney Texas Vernon Warren Washington. . . Wayne Chariton. . . . Christian Clark Clay Johnson Knox Laclede Pettis Phelps Pike. . .. Clinton Cole Lafayette Platte Lawrence Lewis Polk Webster Cooper Pulaski Putnam Rails. Worth Crawford Lincoln Linn Wright Dade .... 3 Total Beaverhead. . . Broadwater. . . Carbon 5,615 2,641 7,533 25,777 10,966 7,891 2,443 AREA, Deerlodge. . . . Fergus Flathead MON1 143,776 17,393 6,937 9,375 9,553 4,328 5,330 ce!9,171 "ANA. SQUARE MILES. 7,695 2,526 13,964 7,341 7,822 47,635 3,086 Teton Meagher Missoula Park Ravalli Silverbow Sweet Grass.. . Valley Yellowstone. . Crow Indian R< ervation. . .. Cascade Gallatin . . Choteau Granite Custer Dawson Lewis andClarl Total .... Adams 18,840 11,344 1,114 603 11,689 5,572 7,332 3,470 20,254 13,040 15,703 21,330 12,467 2,559 6,541 5,570 15,735 11,211 14,584 19,758 6,286 6,215 12,214 AREA, Deuel Dixon NEBR 75,995 2,630 10,535 22,298 140,590 2,434 15,087 9,455 8,781 12,373 30,051 2,127 5,301 763 5,691 17,206 13,330 9,370 2,708 4,409 12,224 432 10,343 15,196 ASKA. SQUARE MILES. Johnson Kearney. 11,197 9,866 1,951 3,076 758 14,343 64,835 11,416 960 1,305 517 16,976 9,255 8,222 14,952 12,414 22,288 11,770 1,702 10,772 8,445 17,747 10,542 Redwillow. . . . Richardson. . . Rock Antelope Banner Dodge Douglas Dundy Fillmore Franklin. . . . Keith Keyapaha. . . . Kimball. Blaine Boone Saline Sarpy Boxbutte Knox Lancaster. . .. Saunders Scotts Bluff. . . Seward Boyd Brown Frontier Buffalo Furnas Logan. . . Sheridan . Burt Gage Garfield Sherman Sioux Stanton Thayer. . . Butler. McPherson . . . Madison Merrick. Cass Gosper Grant Cedar Chase. . Thomas Thurston . Cherry Cheyenne Clay Hall Hamilton Harlan Nemaha Nuckolls Otoe Valley Washington. . . Wayne Webster Colfax Pawnee Cuming Custer Hitchcock. . . . Holt Phelps Wheeler Dakota. Pierce York Dawes Dawson Howard Jefferson Platte ..1 Polk Total. . . . 150 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Churchill 830 1,534 5,688 1,972 NEVADA. ABEA, 122,090 SQUARE MILES. Eureka 1,954 T/vnn 2,268 1,140 2,893 3,673 Washoe. . . White Pine. 9,141 . 1,961 42 335 Humboldt 4,463 Lander .... 1,534 Nye Elko Ormsby. . . Esmeralda . . . Total . . . Lincoln 3 284 Belknap . 19,526 16,895 31,321 NEW HA ABEA, 9,280 6 Coos 29,468 Graf ton 40,844 Hillsboro 112 640 VfPSHIRE. QUARE MILES. Merrimack . . . Rockingham . . Strafford 52,430 51,118 39,337 Sullivan 18 009 Carroll 411 588 Cheshire Total . . . Atlantic Bergen Burlington . . . Camden Cape May .... Cumberland . . Total. . . . 46,402 78,441 58,241 107,643 13,201 51,193 NEW J AREA, 3,320 i Essex 359,053 Gloucester ... 31,905 Hudson 386,048 Hunterdon . . . 34,507 Mercer 95,365 Middlesex. . . . 79,762 ERSEY. iQUARE MILES. Monmouth . . . Morris 82,057 65,156 19,747 155,202 25,530 32,948 Sussex . 24 134 Union 99 353 Ocean Passaic Warren . . 37,781 .1,883,669 12 195 Salem Somerset. Bernalillo .... Chaves Colfax Donna Ana. . . Eddy Total 28,630 4,773 10,150 10,187 3,229 NEW & AREA, 121,201 Grant 12,883 [EXICO. SQUARE MILES. Rio Arriba . . . San Juan San Miguel . . . Santa Fe Sierra 13,777 4,828 22,053 14,658 3,158 Socorro Guadalupe . . . 5,429 Lincoln 4,953 Taos Union Valencia . . . . . 10,889 . . 4,528 .. 13,895 195 310 Mora 10,304 Otero 4,791 Albany . . . 165,571 41,501 69,149 65,643 66,234 88,314 54,063 36,568 47,430 43,211 27,576 46,413 81,670 433,686 30,707 42,853 NEW AREA, 47,800 Fulton. . . . 42,842 YORK. SQUARE MILES. Onondaga. . . Ontario Orange Orleans Oswego .... Otsego Putnam .... Queens Rensselaer . . Richmond . . Rockland . . . St. Lawrence Saratoga. . . . Schenectady . Schoharie . . . Schuyler. . . . 168,735 49,605 103,859 30,164 70,881 48,939 13,787 152,999 121,697 67,021 38,298 89,083 61,089 46,852 26,854 15,811 Seneca . 28 114 Allegany. . . Broome. . . . Cattaraugus Cayuga .... Chautauqua Chemung . . Chenango . . Clinton .... Columbia . . Cortland . . . Delaware . . Dutchess. . . Erie Genesee 34,561 Greene 31,478 Hamilton . . . 4,947 Herkimer . . . 51,049 Jefferson. . . . 76,748 Kings . 1 166 582 Steuben . . . Suffolk .... Sullivan . . . Tioga . 82,822 . 77,582 . 32,306 27,951 Tompkins. . Ulster . 33,830 88422 Lewis 27,427 Livingston . . 37,059 Madison 40,545 Monroe 217,854 Montgomery 47,488 Nassau 55,448 New York. . . 2,050,600 Niagara 74,961 Oneida . 132 800 Warren. . . Washington Wayne .... Westchester Wyoming . . Yates 29,943 . 45,624 . 48,660 . 183,375 . 30,413 . 20,318 7,268,012 . 26,233 . . 26,591 . . 35,261 . . 25,116 . . 27,903 . . 10,413 . . 4,343 .. 23,263 . . 12,038 Essex Franklin. . . . Total Alamance .... Alexander. . . . Alleghany. . . . Anson 25,665 10,960 7,759 21,870 19,581 26,404 20,538 17,677 12,657 44,288 NORTH C AREA, 50,704 Burke 17,699 Cabarrus. ... 22,456 Caldwell .... 15,694 Camden 5,474 Carteret . ... 11,811 Caswell 15,028 AROLINA. SQUARE MILES. Clay 4,532 25,078 21,274 24,160 29,249 6,529 4,757 23,403 12,115 22,405 Durham . . . Edgecombe . Forsyth. . . Franklin . . Gaston . . . Gates Graham . . . Granville. . Greene Cleveland . . Columbus . . Craven .... Cumberland Currituck . . Dare Davidson . . Davie Ashe Beaufort Bertie Bladen Brunswick . . . Buncombe . . Catawba . ... 22,133 Chatham. ... 23,912 Cherokee. . . . 11,860 Chowan. . . 10,258 Dulpin. . Guilford . . . 39,074 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 151 Rio&rande RIVERS OF THE WORLD. 152 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Halifax 30,793 15,988 16,222 14,104 14,294 9,278 29,064 11,853 32,250 8,226 18,639 15,498 12,567 12,104 NORTH Madison Martin Mecklenburg . Mitchell Montgomery. . Moore Nash New Hanover . Northampton . Onslow Orange Pamlico Pasquotank . . Fender CAROL 20,644 15,383 55,268 15,221 14,197 23,622 25,478 25,785 21,150 11,940 14,690 8,045 13,660 13,381 I N A Continued. Perquimans . . 10,091 Swain Person 16,685 Transylvania . Pitt 30.889 1 Tvrrell. . 8,401 6,620 4,980 27,156 16,684 .54,626 19,151 10,608 13,417 31,356 26,872 23,596 14,083 11,464 893,810 6,491 13,107 20,288 7,961 8,310 1,530 2,208 319,146 29,246 23,713 32,525 44,289 40,940 34,311 40,981 41,163 24,625 94,747 71,715 46,591 53,751 22,342 30,394 15,330 25,584 48,245 87,870 24,953 51,555 21,125 157,545 34,975 7,469 12,873 389,245 Harnett Hay wood . . . Henderson . . Hertford. . . . Hyde Polk Randolph .... Richmond. . . . Robeson Kockingham. . Rowan Rutherford. . . Sampson Stanly Stokes. . 7,004 Union 28 232 Vance 28 408 Wake Iredell Jackson Johnston. . . . 40,371 Warren 33,163 Washington . . 31,066 Watauga 25 101 Wayne Jones Lenoir Lincoln McDowell . . . Macon Total 26,380 Wilkes 15,220 Wilson 19,866 Yadkin 25,515 Yancey 1 Surry Barnes Benson Billings Bottineau. . . Burleigh Cass Cavalier Dickey Eddy Emmons Foster Total 13,159 8,320 975 7,532 6,081 28,625 12,580 6,061 3,330 4,349 3,770 N AREA, Grand Forks. . Griggs Kidder Lamoure. . . . Logan McHenry. Mclntosh. . . McLean Mercer Morton Nelson ORTH 72,000 i 24,459 4,744 1,754 6,048 1,624 5,25$ 4,818 4,791 1,778 8,069 7,316 DAKOTA. SQUARE MILES. Oliver Pembina. . . . Pierce Ramsey ,Ransom 990[Towner . . 17,869 Traill 4,765|Walsh 9,198 Ward 6,919lWells 17,387 Williams 7,995iStanding Rock 6,039 Indian Res- 7,621 ervation. . . . 5,888 9,143 Richland. . . . Rolette Sargent Stark Steele Stutsman. . . . Adams Allen Ashland Ashtabula. . Athens Auglaize. . . . Belmont. . . . Brown Butler Carroll Champaign. . Clark Clermont .... Clinton Columbiana. . Coshocton. . . Crawford .... Cuyahoga. . . . Darke Defiance Delaware 26,328 47,976 21,184 51,448 38,730 31,192 60,875 28,237 56,870 16,811 26,642 58,939 31,610 24,202 68,590 29,337 33,915 439,120 42,532 26,387 26,401 37,650 AREA, Fairfield OH 39,964 34,259 21,725 164,460 22,801 27,918 14,744 31,613 34,425 409,479 41,993 31,187 20,486 27,282 30,982 24,398 19,511 32,330 34,248 44,357 27,768 21,680 39,534 IO. SQUARE MILES. Licking Logan Lorain Lucas 47,070 Portage 30,420 Preble 54,857 Putnam 153,559 Richland 20,590 Ross 70,134fSandusky 28,678 SScioto 21,958 Seneca 28,620 Shelby 28,021 Stark 43,105 Summit 27,031 Trumbull 130,146lTuscarawas. . . 17 905| Union Fayette Franklin. . . . Fulton Gallia Geauga. Madison Mahoning. . . . Marion Medina Meigs Mercer Miami Greene Guernsey .... Hamilton Hancock Hardin Harrison Henry . Monroe Montgomery. Morgan Morrow Muskingum. . Noble Highland Hocking 17,879 Van Wert 53,185 Vinton 19,466 Warren Huron. Jackson Ottawa Paulding 22,213 Washington. . . 27,528 Wayne 31,841 Williams 27,016 Wood Jefferson Knox Lake Lawrence Perry Pickaway. . . . Pike Erie Total. . . . Beaver Blaine 18,172 Wyandot 4 3,051 10,658 15,981 16,388 12,264 2,173 8,819 AREA, Garfield OKLA 2,950 e 22,076 17,273 17,922 22,530 18,501 27,007 26,538 HOMA. QUARE MILES. Noble 14,015 Woods. . 25,854 Woodward 12,366 Indian Reser- 20 909 vation Grant Greer Kay Oklahoma. . . . Pawnee Payne. Canadian. . . . Cleveland. . . . Ouster Kingfisher. . . Lincoln Logan Pottawatomie Roger Mills. . . Washita 26,412 6,190 15,001 Day Dewey Total . . SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 153 Baker Benton Clackamas. . . Clatsop Columbia. . . . Coos Crook Curry Douglas Total 15,597 6,706 19,658 12,765 6,237 10,324 3,964 1,868 14,565 ORE AREA, 102,606 Gilliam 3,201 Grant 5,948 Harney 2 598 GON. SQUARE MILES. Linn Malheur Marion Morrow Multomah. . . . Polk Sherman Tillamook. . . . TTmatilla 18,603 4,203 27,713 4,151 103,167 9,923 3,477 4,471 18,049 Union Wallowa Wasco Washington. . . Wheeler. . 16,070 5,538 13,199 14,467 2,443 13,420 413,536 293,697 8,766 30,621 172,927 17,304 49,461 12,134 40,043 49,086 17,592 49,648 38,946 92,181 30,171 160,175 17,152 116,413 302,115 24,154 428,556 23,634 59,663 19,375 45,589 18,966 65,560 51,237 25,501 31,685 41,684 340,316 5,610 2,988 12,216 4,644 9,487 1,349 1,715 13,175 11,153 3,839 12,649 16,043 401,570 Jackson 13,698 Josephine 7,517 Klamath 3,970 Lake 2,847 Lane 19,604 Lincoln. . . . 3,575 Yamhill Adams Allegheny Armstrong. . . . Beaver Bedford Berks Blair Bradford Bucks . 34,496 775,058 52,551 56,432 39,468 159,615 85,099 59,403 71,190 56,962 104,837 7,048 44,510 42,894 95,695 34,283 80,614 PENNSY AREA, 46,000 Clinton 29,197 Columbia 39,896 Crawford 63,343 Cumberland . . 50,344 Dauphin. . 114 443 LVANIA. SQUARE MILES. Lackawanna. . Lancaster. . . . Lawrence Lebanon Lehigh 193,831 159 241 57,042 53,827 93,893 257,121 75,663 51,343 57,387 23,160 21,161 138,995 15,526 99,687 90,911 26,263 Philadelphia. 1, Pike Potter Schuylkill. . . . Snyder Somerset. . . . Sullivan Susquehanna. Tioga Union. . Delaware 94,762 Elk 32,903 Luzerne Lycoming. . . . McKean Mercer Mifflin Monroe Montgomery. . Montour Northampton. Northumber- land Perry Erie. 98,473 Fayette 110,412 Forest 11,039 Franklin 54,902 Fulton 9,924 Greene 28,281 Huntingdon . . 34,650 Indiana 42,556 Jefferson 59,113 Juniata 16,054 Butler Cambria Cameron Carbon Center Chester Clarion Venango. . . Warren Washington. . Wayne Westmoreland. Wyoming York. Clearfield Total. . . . 6 Bristol Kent 13,144 29,976 RHODE AREA, 1,306 f Newport 32,599 ISLAND. 1QUARE MILES. Providence . . . 328,683 Washington. . . Total . . Abbeville. . . . Aiken Anderson. . . . Bamberg. . . . Barnwell. . . . Beaufort 33,400 39,032 55,728 17,296 35,504 35,495 30,454 88,006 21,359 28,616 SOUTH C AREA, 29,385 Chesterfield. . . 20,401 Clarendon. . . . 28,184 Colleton 33,452 Darlington. . . . 32,388 Dorchester 16,294 Edgefield 25 478 A.ROLINA. SQUARE MILES. Greenwood. . . Hampton Horry 28,343 23,738 23,364 24,696 24,311 37,382 27,264 35,181 27,639 30,182 Oconee Orangeburg. . . Pickens Richland Saluda Spartanburg. . Sumter Union Williamsburg . York Kershaw Lancaster . . . Laurens Lexington. . . . Marion 1 Marlboro | Newberry. . . . Berkeley. . . . Charleston. . . Cherokee. . . . Chester Total. . . . Fairfield 29,425 Florence 28,474 Georgetown. . . 22,846 Greenville. . . . 53,490 1 Aurora 4,011 8,081 10,379 12,561 15,286 5,401 1,790 2,907 4,527 . 8,498 6,942 9,316 8,770 . 2,728 SOUTH AREA, 78,932 Davison 7,483 Day 12,254 Deuel 6,656 Douglas 5,012 Edmunds 4,916 Fall River. . . . 3,541 Faulk 3,547 Grant 9,103 Gregory 2,211 Hamlin 5,945 Hand 4,525 Hanson 4,947 Hughes. 3 684 DAKOTA. SQUARE MILES. Hyde Jerauld Kingsbury. . . . Lake . 1,492 2,798 9,866 9,137 17,897 12,161 2,632 8,689 6,327 5,942 4,907 5,864 23,926 8,326 Pennington. . . Potter Roberts Sanborn Beadle. Bonhomme. . Brookings. . . Brown Lawrence Lincoln Spink Stanley Sully Turner Union Walworth. . . . Yankton Indian Reser- vation Brule Buffalo Butte McCook McPherson . Marshall Meade Miner Minnehaha . Moody Campbell. . . . Charles Mix. . Clark Clay Coddington. . Custer Hutchinson. . . 11,897 Total .. 154 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Anderson . . . Bedford Benton .- 17,634 . 23,845 . 11,888 AREA, Fentress Franklin Gibson Giles . TENNI 45,500 6,106 20,392 39,408 33,035 2SSEE. SQUARE MILES. Lake Lauderdale. . . Lawrence Lewis 7,368 21,971 15,402 4,455 26,304 10,838 19,163 17,760 12,881 36,333 17,281 18,763 42,703 7,491 18,585 36,017 5,706 9,587 28,286 13,353 8,800 5,366 11,357 16,890 Rhea .... 14 318 Roane Robertson. . Rutherford. Scott Sequatchie . Sevier Shelby Smith . . 22,738 . 25,029 . 33,543 . 11,077 . 3,326 . 22,021 . 153,557 19026 Bledsoe Blount . 6,626 . 19,206 . 15,759 Grainger Greene Grundy 15,512 30,596 7,802 12,728 61,695 11,147 22,976 19,246 24,267 25,189 18,117 24,208 16,367 6,476 13,398 15,039 5,407 18,590 10,589 74,302 Lincoln Loudon McMinn McNairy Bradley Campbell . . . Cannon . 17,317 . 12,121 Hamblen Hamilton .... Hancock Hardeman . . . Hardin Hawkins Haywood .... Henderson . . . Henry Hickman. . . . Houston ... . Humphreys . . Jackson James Jefferson. . . . Johnson ... . Knox Carroll Carter Cheatham. . . Chester Claiborne . . . Clay Cocke Coffee Crockett Cumberland . Davidson . . . Decatur Dekalb . 24,250 . 16,688 . 10,112 . 9,896 . 20,696 . 8,421 . 19,153 . 15,574 . 15,867 . 8,311 . 122,815 . 10,439 16 460 Madison Marion Marshall Stewart. . . . Sullivan . . 15,224 24 935 Sumner. . . . Tipton . 26,072 29 273 Meigs Monroe Montgomery. . Moore Trousdale . . Unicoi. . . 6,004 5851 Union Van Buren . Warren Washington Wayne . . 12,894 3,126 16,410 . 22,604 12,936 . 32,546 14 157 Morgan Obion . Overton Perry. . Weakley . . . White . Dickson Dyer Fayette Total . 18,635 . 23,776 . 29,701 Pickett Polk Putnam ...... Williamson. Wilson . . 26,429 . . 27,078 .2,020,616 Anderson . . , . 28,015 87 AREA, Collingsworth . Colorado Comal Comanche. . . . Concho Cooke Coryell . TE: 237,504 1,233 22,203 7,008 23,009 1,427 27,494 21,308 1,002 51 1,591 788 146 82,726 37 843 15,249 28,318 21,311 1,151 1,106 2,756 8,483 18,971 381 3,108 50,059 24,886 29,966 33,342 51,793 36,542 3,708 2,020 1,568 16,538 8,674 18,910 4,200 55 44,116 185 8,229 AS. SQUARE MILES. Glasscock . . Goliad Gonzales Gray Grayson Gregg . 286 8,310 28,882 480 63,661 12,343 26,106 21,385 1,680 1,670 13,520 167 3,634 5,049 63,786 31,878 377 2,637 14,142 815 19,970 6,837 41,355 44 9,146 27,950 25,452 2,528 47,295 303 848 10,224 6,094 7,138 1,150 14,239 33,819 7,053 8,681 33,376 4,103 899 Kerr 4 980 Kimble . . 2,503 Angelina. . . . . 13,481 King Kinney .... Knox Lamar 490 . . 2,447 . . 2,322 48 627 1,716 Archer Armstrong . . Atascosa. . . . Austin Bailey Bandera Bastrop Baylor Bee 2,508 . 1,205 . 7,143 . 20,676 4 . 5,332 . 26,845 3,052 . 7,720 . 45,535 . 69,422 . 4,703 776 . 17,390 . 26,676 . 14,861 . 18,859 . 2,356 1,253 Grimes Guadalupe . . . Hale Hall. Hamilton .... Hansford .... Hardeman . . . Hardin Harris Lamb 31 Cottle Crane Crockett Crosby Dallam Lampasas. . Lasalle . . . 8,625 2 303 Lavaca .... Lee Leon . . 28,121 . . 14,595 . . 18,072 Dallas Dawson Deaf Smith. . . Delta Denton Dewitt Dickens Liberty Limestone . . Lipscomb . . Live Oak. . . Llano Loving. . . . . . 8,102 . . 32,573 790 . . 2 268 . . 7 ; 301 33 Bell Bexar Blanco Borden Bosque Bowie Brazoria Brazos Brewster. . . . Briscoe Harrison Hartley Haskell Hays Hemphill .... Henderson . . . Hidalgo Lubbock. . . Lynn 293 17 Dimmit Donley McCulloch . . McLennan. . McMullen. . . Madison. . . . Marion . . 3,960 . . 59,772 . . 1,024 . . 10,432 . . 10,754 332 Duval Eastland Ector Edwards Ellis Hill Hockley Hood Hopkins Houston Brown. . . . . 16,019 Burleson. . . . Burnet Caldwell Calhoun . . . . Callahan . 18,367 . 10,528 . 21,765 . 2,395 8 768 Martin . El Paso Erath Falls Mason Matagorda. . Maverick. . . . . 5,573 . . 6,097 4,066 Howard Hunt . Cameron. . . . . 16,095 9 146 Fannin Fayette Hutchinson . . Iron Jack Medina Menard. . . . Midland Milam Mills. . . . . 7,783 . . 2,011 . . 1,741 . . 39,666 7,851 Carson Cass 469 . 22,841 400 . 3,046 . 25,154 . 2,138 . 9,231 25 . 3,430 . 10,077 . 50,087 Fisher Floyd Foard Jackson Jasper Jeff Davis Jefferson Johnson Jones Castro Chambers . . . Cherokee. . . . Childress. . . . Clay Cochran . . . . Coke Coleman . . . Collin. . Fort Bend. . . . Franklin Mitchell .... Montague. . Montgomery Moore Morris .... . . 2,855 . 24,800 . . 17,067 209 8,220 Freestone Frio. . Gaines Galveston. . . . Garza Gillespie Karnes Kaufman .... Kendall Kent Motley Nacogdoches Navarro. . . . 1,257 . . 24.663 . . 43,374 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 155 Possessions etc} 310,000,000 POPULATION OF THE WORLD. 156 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Newton. . . Nolan Nueces. ... * 7,282 2,611 10,439 267 349 5,905 12,291 21,404 25,823 34 2,360 14,447 1,820 3,673 6,127 963 29,893 1,847 1,641 Tl Roberts Robertson .... Rockwall Runnels Rusk Sabine San Augustine. San Jacinto. . . San Patricio. . San Saba Schleicher. . . . Scurry. . Shackelford. . . Shelby Sherman Smith Somervell. . . . Starr Stephens EXAS 620 31,480 8,531 5,379 26,099 6,394 8,434 10,277 2,372 7,569 515 4,151 2,468 20,452 104 37,370 3,498 11,469 6,466 Continued. Sterling Stonewall Sutton Swisher Tarrant Taylor Terry 1,127 2,183 1,727 1,227 52,376 10,499 48 1,750 12,292 6,804 47,386 10,976 11,899 16,266 48 4,647 5,263 25,481 13,678 Walker Waller Ward Washington. . . Webb Wharton Wheeler Wichita Wilbarger. . . . Williamson. . . Wilson Winkler Wise Wood Yoakum Young Zapata Zavalla ..... 3 15,813 14,246 1,451 32,931 21,851 16,942 636 5,806 5,759 38,072 13,961 60 27,116 21,048 26 6,540 4,760 792 ,048,710 6,458 32,456 4,736 4,612 1,907 25,239 276,749 26,660 32,225 343,641 11,192 11,112 14,609 8,843 7,088 37,332 24,187 33,527 18,031 22,694 20,253 17,121 22,848 14,307 8,097 8,469 12,082 23,384 8,837 15,524 33.574 9,243 19,653 20,437 7,482 854,184 Ochiltree Oldham Orange Palo Pinto. . . . Panola Parker Farmer Pecos Polk Throckmorton Titus Tom Green . . . Travis . . . Trinity Tyler Upshur Upton Uvalde Valverde Van Zandt. . . . Victoria Potter Presidio Rains Randall Red River. . . . Reeves Refugio Total Beaver Boxelder Cache 3,613 10,009 18,139 5,004 7,996 4,657 3,400 AREA, Grand Iron. . UT 84,476 1,149 3,546 10,082 1,811 5,678 2,045 1,954 AH. SQUARE MILES. Rich 1,946 77,725 1,023 16,313 8,451 9,439 7,361 Uinta. . Salt Lake San Juan Sanpete Sevier Summit Tooele Utah. Juab Wasatch Washington. . . Wayne Weber Carbon Davis Kane Millard Morgan Piute Emery Garfield Total Addison Bennington. . . Caledonia Chittenden . . . Total .... Accomac Albemarle. . . . Alexandria . . . Alleghany. . . . Amelia . . 21,912 21,705 24,381 39,600 AREA, Essex Franklin Grand Isle. . . . Lamoille VERU 10,212 8,056 30,198 4,462 12,289 1ONT. SQUARE MILES. Orange Orleans Rutland Washington.. . 19,313 22,024 44,209 36,607 Windham. . . . Windsor 32,570 34,920 20,959 16,330 9,037 17,864 9,662 39,659 5,595 30,356 5,497 17,161 18,217 9,692 15,266 42,147 16,709 19,303 5,040 15,343 28,519 7,927 4,293 14,123 8,996 ARK A, Dickenson .... Dinwiddie. . . . Elizabeth City. Essex VIRG 38,352 7,747 15,374 19,460 9,701 18,580 23,374 15,388 9,050 25,953 18,400 10,793 12,832 9,519 16,853 6,214 9,758 37,197 17,618 115,112 19,265 . 5,647 13,102 5,732 i 9,265 6,918 INIA. SQUARE MILES. King William Lancaster. . . . Lee 8,380 8,949 19,856 21,948 16,517 11,705 10,216 8,239 26,551 8,220 19,196 23,078 16,075 4,865 114,831 13,770 d 9,846 12,366 12,571 13,794 15,403 63,414 6,824 15,045 7,752 Princess Anne . Prince William Pulaski Rappahannock Richmond .... Roanoke Rockbridge. . . Rockingham. . Russell Scott Shenandoah. . . Smyth Southampton . Spottsylvania . Stafford Surry Sussex Tazewell Warren Warwick Washington. . . Westmoreland Wise Loudoun Louisa Lunenburg . . . Madison Mathews Mecklenburg. . Middlesex. . . . Montgomery. . Nansemond. . . Nelson. ...... New Kent. . . . Norfolk Northampton . Northumberlan Nottoway. . . . Orange Page Fairfax Fauquier. .... Floyd Amherst Appomattox. . Augusta Bath Bedford Bland Botetourt .... Brunswick. . . . Buchanan. . . . Buckingham. . Campbell Caroline Carroll Charles City . . Charlotte Chesterfield. . . Clarke Craig Culpeper Cumberland . . Total. . Fluvanna Franklin Frederick Giles Gloucester. . . . Goochland. . . . Grayson Greene Greenesville. . . Halifax Hanover Henrico Henry Highland Isle of Wight, . James City. . . King and Quee King George . . Patrick Pittsylvania . . Powhatan. . . . Prince Edward Prince George . Wythe. . York ..1 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 157 WASHINGTON. 69,994 SQUARE MILES. Adams Asotin Chehalis. . . . . 4,840 . 3,366 . 15,124 Ferry Franklin . . Garfield. . . . . 4,562 486 . . 3,918 Lewis Lincoln ... . Mason . 15,157 . 11,969 3,810 Snohomish . . Spokane .... Stevens 23,950 57,542 10,543 Chelan Clallam Clarke Columbia . . Cowlitz .... Douglas. . . . . 3,931 . 5,603 . 13,419 . 7,128 . 7,877 ; 4,926 Island Jefferson. . King Kitsap. . . . Kittitas. . . Klickitat. . . . 1,870 . . 5,712 . . 110,053 . . 6,767 . . 9,704 . . 6,407 Okanogan. . Pacific Pierce San Juan. . . Skagit Skamania . . 4,689 5,983 55,515 2,928 14,272 1,688 Thurston .... Wahkiakum . Wallawalla. . Whatcom . . . Whitman . . . Yakima 9,927 . 2,819 18,680 24,116 25,360 13,462 Total . . .518.103 WEST VIRGINIA. AREA, 23,000 SQUARE MILES. Barbour Berkeley 14,198 19,469 8,194 18,904 7,219 29,252 10,266 8,248 13,689 31,987 11,762 7,275 20,683 11,806 Hancock . . Hardy Harrison Jackson Jefferson Kanawha .... Lewis 6,693 8,449 27,690 22,987 15,935 54,696 16,980 15,434 6,955 18,747 32,430 26,444 24,142 23,023 Mineral Mingo Monongalia. . Monroe Morgan 12,883 11,359 19,049 13,130 7,294 11,403 48,024 9,167 9,345 8,572 22,727 Ritchie Roane . 18,901 19 852 Boone Braxton Brooke Cabell Calhoun .... Clay Doddridge . . Fayette Gilmer Grant Greenbrier . . . Hampshire . . . Total Summers. . . Taylor. . 16,265 14978 Tucker . . Tyler Upshur .... Wayne .... Webster . . . Wetzel Wirt . . . 13,433 . 18,252 . 14,696 . 23,619 . 8,862 . 22,880 . 10,284 . 34,452 . 8,380 . . 958,800 . 33,006 Nicholas .... Ohio Pendleton . . Pleasants . . . Pocahontas. . Preston Lincoln Logan McDowell .... Marion Marshall Mason Mercer Putnam Raleigh Randolph . . . 17,330 12,436 17,670 Wood ' Wyoming . . Adams Ashland .... Barron Bayfield .... Brown Buffalo Burnett Calumet .... Chippewa Clark Columbia . . . . Crawford Dane Dodge Door Douglas 9,141 20,176 23,677 14,392 46,359 16,765 7,478 17,078 33,037 25,848 31,121 17,286 69,435 46,631 17,583 36,335 25,043 31,692 AREA, Florence Fond du Lac. . Forest Grant Green . WISCC 53,924 3,197 47,589 1,396 38,881 22,719 15,797 23,114 6,616 17,466 34,789 20,629 21,707 17,212 42,997 20,959 12,553 16,269 42,261 )NSIN. SQUARE MILES. Marathon . . . Marinette . . . Marquette. . . Milwaukee . . Monroe Oconto Oneida Outagamie . . Ozaukee .... Pepin Pierce Polk Portage Price Racine Richland. . . . Rock St. Croix 43,256 30,822 10,509 330,017 28,103 20,874 8,875 46,247 16,363 7,905 23,943 17,801 29,483 9,106 45,644 19,483 51,203 26,830 Sauk Sawyer . . . Shawano. . Sheboygan Taylor. . . . Trempealeau Vernon .... Vilas Walworth. . Washburn. . Washington Waukesha. . Waupaca . . Waushara. . Winnebago. Wood . 3,593 . 27,475 . 50,345 . 11,262 . 23,114 . 28,351 . 4,929 . 29,259 . 5,521 . 23,589 . 35,229 . 31,615 . 15,972 . 58,225 . 25,865 2.069.042 Green Lake. . . Iowa Iron Jackson Jefferson Juneau Kenosha Kewaunee .... La Crosse .... Lafayette .... Langlade Lincoln Manitowoc . . . Dunn Eau Claire .... Total. . WYOMING. AREA, 97,883 SQUARE MILES. Albany 13,084 Bighorn 4,328 Carbon . Converse Total 9,589 3,337 Crook . . . 3,137 Fremont . 5,357 Johnson 2,361 Laramie . 20,181 Natrona . . . Sheridan. . . Sweetwater . Uinta . 1,785 5,122 8,455 12,223 Weston 3,203 Yellowstone Park . 369 ... . . .92,531 HOW THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES ARE SHELTERED. In the Census year 1900 there were 14,430,145 dwellings, accommodating 16,187,715 families. Of this number 611,435 dwellings accommodated one person each, 10,158,932 sheltered two to six persons, 2,999,687 accommo- dated seven to ten persons each, a ad 660,091 eleven persons and over. 158 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. AREA AND POPULATION OF STATE: 1900. State or Territory Land sur- face in square miles, 1900. Rank in popu- la- tion, 1900. Population 1900. State or Territory Land sur- face in square miles, 1900. Rank in popu- la- tion, 1900. Population 1900. United States. . 3,567,563 76,303,387 Michigan 57,430 9 2,420,982 79 205 19 1 7^1 .Q4 Continental U. S 2,970,230 75,994,575 Mississippi Missouri 46,340 68,735 1 4= 01 o 20 5 44 1,551,270 3,106,665 243 32Q N.Atlantic div S.Atlantic div. 162,103 268,620 21,046,695 10 443 480 Nebraska Nevada. 76,840 109 740 27 52 1,066,300 42 335 N.Central div . S.Central div. . Western div.. . Alabama 753,550 610,215 1,175,742 51 540 18 26,333,004 14,080,047 4,091,349 1 828 697 New Hampshire New Jersey .... New Mexico .... New York North Carolina 9,005 7,525 122,460 47,620 48 580 36 16 45 1 15 411,588 1,883,669 195,310 7,268,894 1 893 810 Arizona Arkansas California . . . 112,920 53,045 156 172 49 25 21 122,931 1,311,564 1 485 053 North Dakota. . Ohio 70,195 40,760 38 830 41 4 38 319,146 4,157,545 398 331 Colorado Connecticut. . . . Delaware District of Co- lumbia. 103,645 4,845 1,960 60 31 29 46 42 539,700 908,420 184,735 278 718 Oregon Pennsylvania. . . Rhode Island. .. South Carolina. . South Dakota 94,560 44,985 1,053 30,170 76 850 35 2 34 24 37 413,536 6,302,115 428,556 1,340,316 401 570 Florida 54 240 32 528 542 Tennessee 41 750 14 2 020 616 Georgia Idaho 58,980 84,290 11 47 2,216,331 161,772 Texas Utah 262,290 82,190 6 43 3,048,710 276,749 Illinois . . . 56000 3 4 821 550 Vermont 9 135 40 343 641 Indiana 35,910 8 2,516,462 Virginia 40,125 17 1,854,184 Indian Territory Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana 31,000 55,475 81,700 40,000 45 420 39 10 22 12 23 392,060 2,231,853 1,470,495 2,147,174 1 381,625 Washington West Virginia . . Wisconsin Wyoming Alaska . . . 66,880 24,645 54,450 97,575 590,884 33 28 13 50 51 518,103 958,800 2,069,042 92,531 63,592 Maine Maryland Massachusetts. . 29,895 9,860 8,040 30 26 7 694,466 1,188,044 2,805,346 Hawaii Military and naval 6,449 48 154,001 91,219 POPULATION LIVING IN CITIES WITHIN SPECIFIED LIMITS OF SIZE AND IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS: 1900. POPULATION. Divisions. Total. In cities of In country districts. At least 100,000. 25,000 to 100,000. 8,000 to 25,000. 4,000 to 8,000. 2,500 to 4,000. United States. . Continental U. S. . . . N. Atlantic div. S. Atlantic div. N. Central div. S. Central div. Western div. . . 76,212,168 14,208,347 5,549,271 5,286,375 3,380,193 2,214,1?6 45,573,246 75,994,575 14,208,347 5,509,965 5,273,887 3,380,193 2,211,019 45,411,164 21,046,695 10,443,480 26,333,004 14,080,047 4,091,349 7,533,280 787,675 4,714,117 594,155 579,120 2,565,416 514,853 1,383,767 591,870 454,059 2,226,013 475,098 1,957,622 371,306 243,848 1,289,027 271,894 1,287,707 339,324 192,241 738,911 183,112 805,714 291,598 191,684 6,694,048 8,210,848 16,184,077 11,891,794 2,430,397 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 159 POPULATION OF CITIES HAVING AT LEAST 25,000 INHABITANTS IN 1900. Cities. Rank in popu- la- tion. Popula- tion. Cities. Rank in Popu- la- tion. Popula- tion. 87 42,728 Houston, Tex 85 44,633 Albany N Y 40 94 151 21 169 164 Allegheny Pa 27 129 896 Jackson, Miss. . . 161 25 180 114 35 416 Jacksonville, Fla 143 28 429 Altoona Pa 97 38 973 Jersey City, N. J 17 206 433 Atlanta Ga 43 89 872 Johnstown, Pa. . . 112 35936 Atlantic City N J 149 27 838 Joliet, 111 138 29 353 135 30 345 Joplin, Mo. . 155 26 023 94 39 441 Kansas City, Kans. 76 51 418 6 508 957 Kansas City, Mo 22 163 752 Bay City Mich 151 27 628 Knoxville, Tenn 126 32 637 Bayonne N J 125 32722 LaCrosse, Wis 141 28,895 93 39 647 Lancaster, Pa 90 41 459 100 38 415 Lawrence, Mass 57 62 559 5 560 892 Lexington, Ky 153 26369 54 70 996 Lincoln, Nebr . 91 40 169 Brockton, Mass 92 40,063 Little Rock, Ark 101 38,307 Buffalo N Y g 352 387 Los Angeles, Cal 36 102,479 30 470 Louisville Ky 18 204 731 41 91 886 Lowell, Mass. . . 39 94 969 52 75 935 Lynn, Mass 55 68,513 Canton Ohio 132 30 667 McKeesport, Pa 116 34,227 Cedar Rapids, Iowa Charleston S C 159 68 25,656 55807 Maiden, Mass Manchester, N. H. 121 65 33,664 56,987 136 30 154 Memphis, Tenn 37 102,320 Chelsea Mass 118 34072 Milwaukee, Wis. . 14 285,315 Chester Pa 119 33 988 i Minneapolis, Minn 19 202,718 Chicago 111 2 1 698 575 Mobile, Ala. . . . . 99 38,469 10 325 902 Montgomery, Ala 134 30346 7 381 768 i Nashville, Tenn. . . 47 80,865 Columbus, Ohio 28 158 125,560 25 802 Newark, N. J.. New Bedford, Mass ' 16 58 246,070 62,442 Covington Ky. 86 42 938 New Britain, Conn 157 25,998 Dallas Tex 88 42 638 Newcastle, Pa 144 28 339 Davenport Iowa 115 35 254 New Haven, Conn 31 108,027 Dayton, Ohio 45 85 333 New Orleans, La 12 287,104 Denver, Colo ... 25 133 859 Newport, Ky 145 28,301 Des Moines Iowa 59 62 139 Newton, Mass. . 123 33 587 Detroit Mich 13 285 704 New York NY* 1 3 437 202 Dubuque, Iowa 108 36 297 Norfolk, Va 80 46 624 Duluth Minn 72 52 969 Oakland, Cal 56 66960 Easton, Pa. . . 160 25 238 Omaha Nebr 35 102 555 East St. Louis, 111. . . 137 29,655 Oshkosh, Wis. 146 28 284 Elizabeth, N. J. . 74 52 130 Passaic N J 150 27 777 Elmira, N. Y 113 35,672 Paterson, N. J. . . . 32 105 171 Erie, Pa 73 52733 Pawtucket, R I 96 39 231 Evansville, Ind . 64 59007 Peoria 111 67 56 100 Fall River, Mass 33 104 863 Philadelphia, Pa 3 1 293 697 Fitchburg, Mass 128 31,531 Pittsburg, Pa 11 321,616 Fort Wayne, Tnd 83 45,115 Portland, Me. 78 50,145 Fort Worth, Tex Galveston, Tex 152 103 26,688 37,789 Portland, Oreg Providence, R. I 42 20 90,426 175,597 Gloucester, Mass. . . 154 26 121 Pueblo, Col 148 28 157 Grand Rapids, Mich 44 87,565 Quincy, 111 109 36,252 Harrisburp, Pa 77 50,167 Racine, Wis ... 140 29,102 Hartford, Conn 49 79 850 Reading Pa 50 78 961 Haverhill, Mass. . . 105 37 175 ' 46 85050 Hoboken, N. J 63 59 364 Rochester N Y 24 162 608 Holyoke, Mass. . . . 82 45*712 Rockford, 111 130 31 051 Honolulu, Hawaii 95 39,306 Sacramento, Cal 139 29,282 * The estimated population of the area now embraced in New York city was 2,507,414 in 1890 and 1,911,698 in 1880. Increase 1890 to 1900, 929,788; 1880 to 1890, 595,716. Per cent, of increase 1890 to 1900, 37-1; 1880 to 1890, 31.2. 160 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. POPULATION OF CITIES HAVING AT LEAST 25,000 INHABITANTS IN 1900 Continued. Cities. Rank in Popu- la- tion. Popula- tion. Cities. Rank in Popu- la- tion. Popula- tion. Saginaw, Mich. . . 89 42,345 Syracuse N Y 30 108 374 St. Joseph, Mo St. Louis, Mo 34 4 102,979 575,238 Tacoma, Wash Taunton, Mass 104 131 37,714 31 036 St. Paul, Minn Salem, Mass Salt Lake City Utah. 23 111 70 163,065 35,956 53,531 Terre Haute, Ind Toledo, Ohio Topeka Kans 107 26 122 36,673 131,822 33 608 San Antonio, Tex San Francisco, Gal. . . . 71 9 53,321 342,782 Trenton, N. J Troy, N. Y . 53 62 73,307 60 651 Savannah, Ga Schenectady, N. Y Scranton Pa 69 127 38 54,244 31,682 102 026 Utica, N. Y Washington, D. C Waterbury Conn 66 15 81 56,383 278,718 45 859 Seattle, Wash Sioux City, Iowa 48 124 80,671 33 111 Wheeling, W. Va Wilkesbarre Pa 98 75 38,878 51 721 Somerville, Mass. . South Bend, Ind South Omaha, Nebr 61 110 156 61,643 35,999 26,001 Williamsport, Pa Wilmington, Del. , Woonsocket, R. I 142 51 147 28,757 76,508 28,204 Spokane, Wash Springfield III 106 117 36,848 34 159 Worcester, Mass Yonkers N Y 29 79 118,421 47 931 Springfield, Mass Springfield Ohio . . 60 102 62,059 38 253 York, Pa Youngstown Ohio 120 84 33,708 44 885 Superior, Wis 129 31,091 DEATH RATES FROM CERTAIN CAUSES, FOR THE REGISTRATION AREA, 1900. Cause. Death rate per 100,000. 191 9 Cause. Diseases of the stomach** Death rate per 100,000. 20 Consumption* Heart Disease t 190.5 134 Diseases of the brain 18 6 Peritonitis 17 5 Diarrheal diseasesj Diseases of the kidneysll 85.1 83 7 Unknown causes 16.8 Measles Railroad accidents 13.2 13 2 66 6 Cancer 60.0 Whooping cough Suicide Scarlet fever 12.7 11.8 115 Old age Bronchitis 54.0 48.3 47 8 Hydrocephalus Drowning 11.0 11 Debility and atrophy Inflammation of the brain and gitis Diphtheria 45.5 menin- 41.8 35.4 Septicemia 10.0 9 9 Appendicitis. Croup Diabetes. Burns and scalds 9.8 9.4 8 8 Typhoid fever Premature birth 33.8 33.7 33 1 Malarial fever Cerebro-spinal fever Dropsy Rheumatism 8.8 7.1 6.9 6.8 3 8 Paralysis Inanition 32.8 27 . 3 23.9 22.7 Influenza Diseases of the liver^I * Including general tuberculosis, t Including pericarditis. J Including cholera morbus, colitis, diarrhea, dysentery, and enteritis- !l Including Bright's disease. Including general paralysis of the insane. ^[ Including jaundice, and inflammation and abscess of the liver. ** Including gastritis. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 161 FOREIGN BORN POPULATION CLASSIFIED BY PRINCIPAL COUN- TRIES OF BIRTH: 1900. Country of Birth. Austria Bohemia Canada (English) Canada (French) China Denmark England France Germany Holland Hungary Ireland. . 275 907 Country of Birth. Italy 484 027 156,891 Mexico . . . 103 393 784 741 Norway. 336 388 395,066 81,534 153 805 Poland Russia Scotland 383,407 . . - 423,726 233 524 840,513 104,197 Sweden Switzerland 572,014 115,593 2,663,418 104 931 Wales Other countries 93,586 273 442 145 714 1.615i459 Total. . . . 10.341.276 POPULATION AT LEAST 10 YEARS OF AGE ENGAGED IN GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS, CLASSIFIED BY SEX AND SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS: 1900. Occupation. Total. Male. Female. All occupations 29,074,117 23,754,205 5,319,912 Agricultural pursuits 10,381,765 9,404,429 977,336 Agricultural laborers 4,410,877 10 875 3,747,668 9 983 663,209 892 Farmers planters and overseers 5,674,875 5,347,169 307 706 61,788 58 928 2 860 Lumbermen and raftsmen . 72,020 71,920 100 84 988 83056 1 932 Turpentine farmers and laborers 24,737 36075 24,456 35 962 281 113 Other agricultural pursuits 5,530 5,287 243 Professional service 1,258,739 828,163 430 576 Actors, professional showmen, etc Architects designers draftsmen, etc 34,760 29 524 27,903 28 483 6,857 1 041 Artists and teachers of art 24,873 13,852 11,021 Clergymen Dentists 111,638 29 644 108,265 28 858 3,373 786 Electricians Engineers (civil, etc.) and surveyors 50,717 43,239 50,308 43,155 409 84 Journalists 30,038 1 14 460 27,845 113 450 2,193 1 010 Literary and scientific persons Musicians and teachers of music 19,066 92 174 13,082 39815 5,984 52359 Officials (government)* 86,607 78,488 8,119 Physicians and surgeons Teachers and profesSors in colleges, etc Other professional service 132,002 446,133 13,864 124,615 118,519 11,525 7,387 327,614 2,339 Domestic and personal service 5,580,657 3,485 208 2,095 449 Barbers and hairdressers . 131 116 125 542 5 574 Bartenders Boarding and lodging house keepers 88,817 71 281 88,377 11 826 440 59 455 Hotel keepers 54797 46 264 8,533 Housekeepers and stewards Janitors and sextons . 155,153 56 577 8,224 48 544 146,929 8 033 Laborers (not specified) Launderers and laundresses 2,629,262 385 965 2,505,287 50 683 123,975 335 282 Nurses and midwives Restaurant keepers Saloon keepers 120,956 33,844 83 746 12,265 28,999 81 660 108,691 4,845 2086 Servants and waiters Soldiers, sailors, and marines (United States) 1,560,721 43 235 276,958 43235 1,283,763 Watchmen, policemen, firemen, etc Other domestic and personal service 130,590 34,597 129,711 27,633 879 6,964 * Includes officers of United States Army and Navy. 162 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. POPULATION AT LEAST 10 YEARS OF AGE ENGAGED IN GAINFUL OCCUPA- TIONS, CLASSIFIED BY SEX AND SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS: 1900 Cord inued. Occupation. Total. Male. Female. Trade and transportation 4,766,964 4,263,617 503 347 Agents. . . . 241 162 230 606 10 556 Bankers and brokers 73,277 72,984 293 Boatmen and sailors . . . 78 406 78 253 153 Bookkeepers and accountants Clerks and copyists 254,880 630 127 180,727 544 881 74,153 85 246 Commercial travelers 92,919 91 973 946 Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc. 538 933 538 029 904 Foremen and overseers 55 450 54 032 1 418 Hostlers. 64 929 64 850 79 Hucksters and peddlers 76 649 73 734 2 915 Livery stable keepers. 33 656 33 466 190 Merchants and dealers (except wholesale) Merchants and dealers (wholesale) 790,886 42 293 756,802 42 032 34,084 261 Messengers and errand and office boys 71,622 64 959 6 663 Officials of banks and companies . 74 072 72 801 1 271 Packers and shippers. . Porters and helpers (in stores, etc.) 59,545 54 191 39,557 53 625 19,988 566 Salesmen and saleswomen Steam railroad employees 611,139 582 150 461,909 580 462 149,230 1 688 Stenographers and typewriters 112,364 68 919 26,246 68 873 86,118 46 Telegraph and telephone linemen 14,757 14J57 Telegraph and telephone operators 75 015 52 459 22 556 Undertakers Other persons in trade and transportation 16,189 53,434 15,866 49,734 323 3,700 Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. . 7 085 992 5 772 788 1 313 204 Building trades. Carpenters and joiners 600 252 599 707 545 Masons (brick and stone) . . 160 805 160 638 167 Painters, glaziers, and varnishers 277 541 275 782 1 759 Paper hangers. 21 990 21 749 241 Plasterers 35 694 35 649 45 Plumbers and gas and steam fitters 97 785 97 659 126 Roofers and slaters 9 067 9065 2 Mechanics (not otherwise specified). . 9 392 9 351 41 Chemicals and allied products. Oil well and oil works employees 24 626 24 573 53 Other chemical workers 14 814 12 035 2 77Q Clay, glass, and stone products. Brick and tile makers etc 49 933 49 455 478 Glass workers 49 998 47 377 2 621 Marble and stone cutters. 54 460 54 317 143 Potters 16 140 13 200 2 940 Fishing and mining. Fishermen and oystermen 68 177 67 715 46 9 Miners and quarrymen . 563 866 562 501 1 365 Food and kindred products. Bakers Butchers 79,188 113 956 74,860 113 578 4,328 q-ro Butter and cheese makers 19 241 18 593 648 Confectioners 31 194 21 980 9 214 Millers 40 548 40 362 186 Other food preparers 28 782 23 640 5 142 Iron and steel and their products. Blacksmiths ... 226 477 226 284 193 Iron and steel workers 290 611 <>87 241 o qyn Machinists 283 145 282 574 571 Steam boiler makers 33 046 33 038 Stove, furnace, and grate makers. . . 12 473 12 430 43 Tool and cutlery makers 28 122 27 376 746 Wheelwrights 13 505 13 495 10 Wire workers . . 18.487 16.701 1.786 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 163 POPULATION AT LEAST 10 YEARS OF AGE ENGAGED IN GAINFUL OCCUPA- TIONS, CLASSIFIED BY SEX AND SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS: 1900 Continued. Occupation. Total. Male. Female. Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. (Continued). Leather and its finished products. Boot and shoe makers and repairers . 208 912 169 393 39 519 Harness and saddle makers and repairers 40,101 39 506 595 Leather curriers and tanners Trunk and leather-case makers etc 42,671 7 051 40,917 5 472 1,754 f " i 579 Liquors and beverages. Bottlers and soda water makers etc 10 519 9 725 794 Brewers and maltsters 20962 20 687 275 Distillers and rectifiers 3 144 3 114 30 Lumber and its remanufactures. Cabinetmakers 35 619 35 552 67 Coopers 37 200 37 087 113 Saw and planing mill employees "... 161,624 161 251 373 Other woodworkers 111,273 104 468 6 805 Metals and metal products other than iron and steel. Brass workers 26 760 25 870 890 Clock and watch makers and repairers 24,120 19 305 4 gis Gold and silver workers Tinplate and tinware makers 26,112 70 505 19,732 68 730 6,380 1 775 Other metal workers 56 602 54 282 2 320 Paper and printing. Bookbinders 30 278 14 646 15 632 Box makers (paper) 21 098 3 796 17 302 Engravers 11 151 10 698 453 Paper and pulp mill operatives. 36 328 26 904 9 424 Printers, lithographers, and pressmen 155 147 139 166 15 981 Textiles. Bleachery and dye works operatives 22 278 20 493 1 785 Carpet factory operatives . . . 19 388 10 371 9 017 Cotton mill operatives Hosiery and knitting mill operatives. 246,004 47 120 125,788 12 630 120,216 34 490 Silk mill operatives 54 460 22023 32 437 Woolen mill operatives 73 196 42 566 30 630 Other textile mill operatives 104 619 53 437 51 182 Dressmakers 346 884 2 090 344 794 Hat and cap makers. 22 733 15 110 7623 Milliners 87 859 1 739 86 120 Seamstresses 150 942 4837 146 105 Shirt, collar, and cuff makers .... 39432 8 491 30 941 Tailors and tailoresses 229 649 160 714 68 Q35 Other textile workers Miscellaneous industries. Broom and brush makers Charcoal, coke, and lime burners Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) Glove makers 29,967 10,220 14,448 223,495 12 271 8,925 8,643 14,405 223,318 4 503 21,042 1,577 43 177 7 768 Manufacturers and officials, etc 243 082 239 649 3 433 Model and pattern makers . 15 073 14 869 204 Photographers ? 26941 23*361 3 580 Rubber factory operatives . 21 866 14 492 7 374 Tobacco and cigar factory operatives 131 452 87 955 43 497 Upholsterers 30 821 28 663 2 158 Other miscellaneous industries 471,300 380,490 90,810 From Reports of the Twelfth Census. The annals of the Pasteur Institute state that during the year 1902 the number of per- sons under treatment for hydrophobia in Paris was 1,106, of whom only three died, one cf whom had not completed the treatment when he succumbed to hydrophobia; so that in reality there were only two deaths. Of the 1,106 persons under treatment, nine were English, two Spaniards, two Russians, and one each Greek, Dutch, and Swiss making 16 foreigners to 1,089 French. The diminu- tion in the number of French patients, as compared with several preceding years, is ex- plained by the opening of anti-rabic institutes at LJls, Marseilles, Montpellier, Lyons, and Bordeaux, to one or other of which persons residing in the neighborhood of those towns have been sent instead of going to Paris. 164 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. INDIANS. In 1902 the area of Indiaii reser- vations in the United States was 75,- 148,643 acres or 117,420 square miles, and the population in 1900 was 270,- 544, but in 1903 the number had dwindled to 263,233. Indian Territory is occupied by 76,886 Indian inhabi- tants, while 43,746 live in Arizona and 13,799 in Oklahoma, and 19,477 in South Dakota. The census gives the Indian population in Indian Territory in 1900 as 302,060, and the Indian population elsewhere is included in the census of the States. DIVISION OF POPULATION BY COLOR. COMPARISON OF POPULATION BY OCCUPATIONS. FOREIGN FCMALCS WHITE MALES- CO Lt ! FEMALES RED NUMBER OF PENSIONERS ON THE ROLLS, FIRST PAYMENTS, AND AMOUNTS OF DISBURSEMENTS FOR PENSIONS FROM 1861 TO 1903. Year ending Number o ' pensioners or the rolls. Total Cost, mainte- nance, and June 30 Invalids. Widows, etc. Total. disbursements. expenses. 1861 . . 1865 1868 1870 1875 1880 1890 1900 1903 4,337 35,880 75,957 87,521 122,989 145,410 415,654 752,510 729,356 4,299 50,106 93,686 111,165 111,832 105,392 122,290 241,019 267,189 8,636 85,986 169,643 198,686 234,821 250,802 537,944 993,529 996,545 $1,072,461.55 8,525,153.11 24,010,981.99 27,780,811.81 29,683,116.63 57,240,540.14 106,493,890.19 138,462,130.65 137,759,653.71 $553,026! 34 600,997.86 982,695.35 935,027 . 28 3,526,382.13 3,841,706.74 3,993,216.79 The following amounts have been paid to soldiers, their widows, minor children, and dependent relatives on account of military and naval service during the wars in which the United States has been engaged: Revolutionary war (estimated) $70,000,000 . 00 War of 1812 (on account of service, without regard to disability) 45,186,197 . 22 Indian wars (on account of service, without regard to disability) 6,234,414 . 55 War with Mexico (on account of service, without regard to disability) 33,483,309 . 91 War of the rebellion 2,878,240,400. 17 Warwith Spain 5,479,268.31 Actual total disbursements in pensions . . . $3,038,623,590. 16 Statistical Abstract of the United States. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 165 IMMIGRATION. NUMBER AND NATIONALITY OF IMMIGRANTS ARRIVED IN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1889, 1899, AND 1903. Countries. 1889. 1899. 1903. Countries. 1889. 1899. 1903. Austria-Hungary : Bohemia Hungary Other Austria (except Poland) Total Belgium Denmark France Germany Gibraltar G reece Italy, continental . Sicily and Sar- dinia 3,085 10,967 20,122 62,491 '206,611 Azores 1,967 4 12 Greenland, Iceland and the Faroe Islands Europe not speci- fied 6 5 34,174 2,562 8,699 5,918 99,538 13 158 24,848 459 62,491 1,101 2,690 1,694 17,476 2,333 t 77,419 206,011 3,450 7,158 5,578 40,086 ' '14,090 230,622 Total Europe. British North America Mexico Central America . . Bermuda. . 434,790 297,349 814,507 t 88 21 4,923 427 t5,459 1,322 161 159 1,058 528 678 West Indies and Miquelon South America . . . Total America China Japan Other. Asia Total Asia . . . Total Oceania. . Total Africa All other countries Total immigrants 2,585 89 4,316 8,170 589 11,023 Malta Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Roumania Russia (except Poland) Finland 6,460 13,390 4,922 57 893 31,889 2,027 526 35,415 7,070 252 68,503 65,557 18,296 1,181 153,537 1,029 6,705 2,054 1,606 j- 60,982 385 12,797 1,326 132 10,402 31,673 1,724 1,324 45,123 3,998 24,461 9,317 9,310 136,093 2,080 46,028 3,983 3,290 26,219 35,310 6,143 1,275 68,947 118 640 967 1,660 2,844 4,468 2,209 19,968 7,789 1,725 8,972 29,966 Spain Sweden . 2,196 187 70 'si 1,027 1,349 176 25 Switzerland Turkey in Europe* United Kingdom: England 444,427 311,715 857,046 Ireland Scotland Wales. * Includes Servia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro, t Immigrants from British North America and Mexico not reported. Statistical Abstract of United States. Total United Kingdom. . LABOR'S DEATH ROLL. No less than 4,513 lives were lost in 1902 while in the ordinary pursuit of their calling in the United Kingdom. 112,133 persons were injured in the same period. The per- centage of deaths from different causes in coal mining was ( 1 ) On the surf ace, 11.3; (2) Miscellaneous underground, 28.3; (3) In the shafts, 9.9; (4) By falls of ground, 44.1; (5) By explosions, 6.4. Number Employed According to Latest Returns. Killed. Injured. 1898. 1902. 1898. 1902. Factories 3,929,213 855,603 97,108 230,161 575,834 1 li i ! I* i J I 575 941 134 1,139 522 2 837 1,053 119 1,397 468 9 1 129 42 89 17 62 290 49,290 4,408 1,434 2,354 12,826 135 217 4,070 2,507 616 153 1,491 132 77,118 3,999 1,190 2,228 13,735 224 355 4,906 4,235 2,412 123 1,451 157 Mines Quarries. . . Shipping (Merchant Vessels) Railway service. . Workshops Laundries Docks, wharves, and quays 89 16 45 20 56 271 Warehouses Buildings Railway service (contractors' servants). . . . Under notice of Accidents Act, 1894 Shipping (Fishing vessels, etc.) Total 3,810 4,513 79,633 112,133 "Daily Mail" Year Book. 166 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 980'e VIN3H09 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 16? A1V1I 168 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. s?%, I ! 4 . /' ^ttl^ o\ A- : X., f v -'-';.' J~ ,_._ MEXICO OKLAH ANNJEXED 1845 ACCESSIONS OF TERRITORY AND TH1 if with date shows center ol SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 169 iifr^tt^-^ ILLINOIS jIND/AtfA CENTER OF POPULATION, 1790-1900. population at different periods. 170 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. TERRITORIAL EXPANSION. There have been sixteen additions to the original territory of the Union, in- cluding Alaska, the Hawaiian, Philip- pine and Samoan Islands and Guam, in the Pacific, and Porto Rico, in the West Indies ; and the Panama strip ; and the total area of the United States, including the noncontiguous territory, is now fully five times that of the orig- inal thirteen colonies. The additions to the territory of the United States subsequent to the peace treaty with Great Britain of 1783, are shown by the following table, prepared by the General Land Office of the In- terior Department : ADDITIONS TO THE TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1800 TO 1904. Territorial Division. Year. Area added. Purchase price. 1803 Square miles. 875,025 Dollars. 15 000 000 Florida 1819 70,107 *6,489,768 Texas 1845 389,795 Oregon Territory 1846 288,689 Mexican cession 1848 1850 523,802 (t) t!8,250,000 10 000 000 Gadsden purchase 1853 1867 36,211 599 446 10,000,000 7 200 000 1897 6 740 Porto Rico . . 1898 3 600 1898 175 Philippine Islands 1899 1899 143,000 73 20,000,000 Additional Philippines Panama Canal . 1901 1903 68 100,000 40 000 000 Panama Canal strip 1904 10,000,000 Total 2 936 731 137 039 768 * Includes interest payment. t Of which $3,250,000 was in payment of claims of American citizens against Mexico. j Area purchased from Texas amounting to 123,784 square miles is not included in the column of area added, because it became a part of the area of the United States with the admission of Texas. AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. The following table, published by the United States Census Office, shows the gross area and population of the United States at each of the decennial censuses from 1790 to 1900, exclusive of all noncontiguous territory. Year. Area. Population. Year. Area. Population. 1790 Square miles. 827,844 3,929,214 1850 . Square miles. 2,980,959 23 191,876 1800 827,844 5 308,483 1860 3 025 600 31 443 321 1810 . 1820 1830 1,999,775 2,059,043 2 059 043 7,239,881 9,633,822 12 866 020 1870 1880 1890 3,025,600 3,025,600 3 025 600 38,558,371 50,155,783 62 622 250 1840 2,059,043 17,069,453 1900 3,025,600 75,994,575 CHAPTER VII. EDUCATION, LIBRARIES, PRINTING AND PUBLISHING. THE VALUE OF AN EDUCATION. In the annual report of the United States Commissioner of Education appears a sheet of statistics showing to what extent higher education, af- fects success in life. Particularly it shows the pre-eminence of the A.B. degree man among the successful, and the iuconspicuousness of the self-edu- cated. The standard of success to which the educational statistics are applied is that which constitutes eligibility to the ranks of the 10,000 or so persons included in "Who's Who in America" that is, according to the editors, "the most notable in all departments of usefulness and reputable endeavor." These men have all reported the scope and method of their education. The United States Bureau of Edu- cation divides the 14,794,403 males over 80 years old in the United States according to the last census into four educational classes, as follows : Class I. Without education 1,757,023 Class II. With only com- mon school training or trained outside of organ- ized schools 12,054,335 Class III. With regular high school training add- ed 657,432 Class IV. With college or higher education added. . 325,613 Omitting those few who are under 30 years old, says this report, the statements from 10,704 notables show that they include : Without educa- tion, none : self-taught, 24 ; home taught, 27S ; with common school training only, 1,066; with high school Professor Ramsay, of University College, London, in a letter to the "Times," points out the remarkable part which Technical Education plays in German trade. "A German company employs no fewer than 70 chemists ; it is one which manufactures no product of which it sells less than one hundred tons a year. training, 1,627; with college training, 7,709, of whom 6,129 were graduates. That is: From 1800 to 1870 the uneducated boy in the United States failed en- tirely to become so notable in any de- partment of usefulness and reputable endeavor as to attract the attention of the "W T ho's Who" editors, and that only 24 self-taught men succeeded. A boy with only a common school education had, in round numbers, one chance in 9,000. A high school training increased this chance nearly twenty-two times. College education added gave the young man about ten times the chance of a high school boy and 200 times the chance of the boy whose training stopped with the common school. The A.B. graduate was pre-emi- nently successful, and the self-educa- ted man was inconspicuous. "From the nature of the case," con- cludes the compiler, "it cannot be claimed that these classifications are exact, but they are based upon the fullest statistics ever obtained, and the necessary estimates have been made by government experts. It is also doubt- less true that other circumstances con- tributed to the success of these trained men, but after all reasonable allow- ances are made the figures force the conclusion that the more school train- ing the American boy of that period had, the greater were his chances of distinction. "It is unnecessary to extend this inquiry to woman," he says, in conclu- sion. "Education is practically her only door to eminence." Of the seventy chemists required, 20 are employed in analyzing the raw ma- terials and intermediate and finished products : 25 are engaged in superin- tending the processes of manufacture, and the remaining 25 are exclusively employed in scientific work to improve the present processes of manufacture." Daily Mail Year Book. 171 172 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. r i C 9 l fit a-s-s 3SPt J .SIS-SI-C H M w g c "^ '"" COOOO 1-1 C5lO "OSes' ( ,n ^ is ii ^^ OQ 3 tf$ O* CC O era 12 c Bill Ife J C ^ g.2- !M O C<1 CC 0000 innnn ^ ^ ^-coco CO ' OO -~, ^ s "S C C8 M * |l ic >> ^^ Q) t-t 00 * C 5 C 5 C ^ C ? C ? g o3 ~-2 .S I a .sg s, s S IS ^ s PH i* ! CO CO CO -^ CO S || S IIP 1 l! sib S: t^- -^ GO ^ OO 1 > J 1 -a a 2 g* ^b w 1C CO (M T^ CO (M * r^lMOS S S J * w S o a 93- | co gS III" I 1 ! s^ **< CO (M 00 (M (M ir-irqooflco ^H r-1 O i-H ft > -2 55-d =5 I s ja s T3 'S 'S o ^ .5*0 , s.s'| Jll^ fcC^-S rw jit M ^ Qg " C -w s * 2 . (M - CO co' CO CO g - a .-s 1 L!l i i a" S" o& i D H 17,460,000 111 1 P|| 1 S 8 iisl 3ic g lM .111 T3 6 'S i COOOCOOO> f Ot-cOO I ^s"^ ijs i M og^7 J 1 -0 g 2 S-3 ^ z X OOiO OOO ^3 ^ S ^os T3 W 3 3 / "- 1 O 4> i-G < K 13 81s ^ E !! >-O ff ai CO ggggg 1 1 S 1 -| S ~ S s ^"-3 1 1 s 'S-a S M B c fi 1 PU s co" ^CO O5 O i-H O t Ilia 1S^3? | $* 141.11 ^ 1 w CO I ill ll-S 111 Si ! HP I Mi! S ft -6 i^ OXMt^COCO t^ <*< C^OOIM 03 -c^ 1 1 "8 *J t-> & % W..S "B j -< fl g^a P| M-Q.^ fL, *O P S OO CO CO 0000 & S M e -- . * - g | G i ?flititii| t i 1 Elemen- tary. g i CO* CM * OOi-H COMCOCO" Ml l5 M 8 si2'S|g ^iili s i|4ill Division. The United States. . N. Atlantic Division. S. Atlantic Division.. S. Central Division. . N. Central Division , Western Division . . . t 5^451 5 8 3^1 ii-Sl-8i3i.lt fji c 5 ! E| K]i"|3fj HmNiiiti I|g|.lS|lllll -3.W M ^ t0 t- on ^ T3 C ^ "S g'S w o c^ 174 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. POPULATION, ENROLLMENT, AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE, NUMBER, AND SEX OF TEACHERS. Division. Estimated Total Popula- tion in 1902. Pupils En- rolled in the Ele- mentary and Sec- ondary Common Schools. Per Cent, of the Popu- lation En- rolled Average Dailv Attend- ance. Number of Teachers. Male. Female. Total. 439,596 The United States. .... North Atlantic Division . South Atlantic Division. . South Central Division. . North Central Division. . 78,544 816 15,925,887 20.28 10,999,273 122,392 317,204 21,802,750 10,696,435 14,715,700 26,912,400 3,733,683 2,279,290 3,156,590 5,866,396 17.12 21.31 21.45 21.80 20.15 2,741,360 1,445,797 2,097,819 4,101,022 613,275 18,069 19,567 30,652 48,152 5,952 90,003 31,818 34,848 139,691 20,844 108,072 51,385 65,500 187,843 26,796 Western Division 4,417,531 889,928 AVERAGE NUMBER OF DAYS TAUGHT, SALARIES OF TEACHERS, VALUE OF SCHOOL PROPERTY, AND STATE AND LOCAL TAXATION, 1901-2. Division. Aver- age Num- ber of Days the Schools were Kept. Average Monthly Sal- aries of Teachers. Value of Public School Prop- erty. Raised from State Taxes. Raised from Local Taxes. Raised from Other Sources, State and Local, etc. Males. Fe- males. The United States. . North Atlantic Div . S. Atlantic Div S. Central Division. . N. Central Division.. Western Division. . . 145 $49.05 $39.77 $601,571,307 $38,330,589 $170,779.586 $29,742,141 177.3 115.8 100.6 156.5 143.9 59.01 30.50 44.28 50.85 65.90 40.17 28.60 36.88 39.60 53.73 243,150,033 25,109,903 29,875,383 250,303,396 53,132,592 12,831,775 5,148,670 6,398,383 8,374,009 5,577,752 69,984,121 7,842,256 6,869,991 74,215,693 11,867,525 10,847,513 1,150,494 1,147,567 14,781,748 1,814,819 STATISTICS OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1901-2. ENROLLMENT, AVERAGE ATTENDANCE, LENGTH OF SCHOOL TERM, NUMBER OF TEACHERS, AND EXPENDITURES IN CITIES OF 8,000 INHABITANTS AND OVER. Division. Num- ber of City School Sys- terns. Enroll- ment in Public Day Schools. Average Daily Attend- ance. Aver- age Length of School Term. Numl Teacht Super Male. aer of rs and risors. Fe- male. Expendi- ture for Supervi- sion and Teaching. United States.. . N. Atlantic Div. . S. Atlantic Div. . S. Central Div. . . N. Central Div. . Western Div. . . . 580 4,174,812 3,159,441 187.3 9,461 86,308 $66,561,505 242 44 51 205 38 2,046,001 292,143 223,538 1,371,398 241,732 1,537,500 205,948 167,816 1,066,804 181,373 188.4 181.7 181.5 187.6 186.5 4,343 809 628 3,135 546 42,626 5,492 4,149 28,909 5,132 35,543,105 3,436,613 2,483,299 20,729,416 4,369,072 Expendi- ture for all Purposes ( Payment of Loans and Bonds Excepted). $111,159,665 59,950,666 5,398,312 3,539,463 35,112,492 7,158,732 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 175 STATISTICS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, 1901-2. INSTRUCTORS AND STUDENTS IN PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS AND IN PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES. Division. Num- ber. Public High Schools. Num- ber. Private Secondary Schools. Secondary Teachers. Secondary Students. Secondary Teachers. Secondary Students. Male. Fe- male. Male. 226,914 Fe- male. Male. Fe- male. Male. 51,536 Fe- male. United States.. . N. Atlantic Div. . S. Atlantic Div. . S. Central Div. . . N. Central Div.. . Western Div. . . . 6,292 10,958 11,457 323,697 1,835 4,073 j 5,830 53,154 1,476 436 702 3,333 345 2,960 691 1,037 5,535 735 4,333 568 755 5,084 717 75,888 11,024 16.450 109,736 13,816 105,143 16,937 24,004 156,714 20,899 650 350 364 343 128 1,885 629 589 704 266 2,529 852 735 .1,295 419 20,900 9,098 9,805 8,680 3,053 18,893 9,610 9,541 11,248 3,862 STATISTICS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, 1901-2. INSTRUCTORS AND STUDENTS IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE NORMAL SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES. Division. Num- ber. Public Normal Schools. 'Num- ber. Private Normal Schools. Teachers of Normal Students. Students in Normal Course. Teachers of Normal Students. Students in Normal Course. Male. Fe- male. Male. Fe- male. Male. 445 Fe- male. Male. Fe- male. United States 173 1,024 1,463 12,209 37,194 109 345 7,484 8,181 N. Atlantic Div.. . . S. Atlantic Div. . . . S. Central Division N. Central Division Western Division . . 62 25 24 40 22 325 124 132 315 128 661 197 110 366 129 3,255 1,013 1,868 5,341 732 13,987 3,070 3,393 13,566 3,178 7 28 27 46 1 60 53 83 245 4 88 79 64 107 7 307 603 1,129 5,431 14 961 955 1,148 5,054 63 INSTRUCTORS AND STUDENTS IN COEDUCATIONAL COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES AND IN COLLEGES FOR MEN ONLY, 1901-2. Division. Num- ber of Insti- tu- tions. Professors and Instructors. Students. Preparatory. Collegiate. Resident Graduate. Total Income. Male. Fe- male. Male. Fe- male. Male. Fe- male. 21,051 Male. 3,895 Fe- male. United States. N. Atlan. Div. S. Atlan. Div. S. Central Div N. Central Div Western Div. . 464 9,329 1,907 164 169 305 1,085 184 32,094 14,508 62,430 1,456 $25,112,169 85 73 77 190 39 3,000 1,050 878 3,583 818 6,408 3,465 5,761 13,871 2,589 960 1,532 3,026 7,188 1,802 22,903 6,629 6,467 21,993 4,438 2,62 1,081 2,472 12,043 2,826 1,696 452 155 1,376 216 444 36 69 700 207 9,382,226 2,115,295 2,172,238 . 8,944,906 2,497,504 176 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. INSTRUCTORS AND STUDENTS IN SCHOOLS OF TECHNOLOGY AND INSTITUTIONS CONFERRING ONLY THE B. S. DEGREE, 1901-2. Division. Num- ber of In- stitu- tions. Professors and Instructors. Students. Total Income. Preparatory. Collegiate Resident Graduate. Male. Fe- male. Male. Fe- male. *" US;. Male. Fe- male. United States . N. Atlan. Div. S. Atlan. Div. . S. Cent. Div .. N. Cent. Div. . Western Div. . 43 i 1,292 132 3,058 673 11,667 1,148 141 54 $4,796,613 10 8 5 11 9 385 250 112 362 183 13 4 74 41 267 291 804 1023 673 8 129 230 306 3,022 2,255 1,258 4,115 1,017 91 1 57 683 316 22 30 25 51 13 5 4 37 8 1,645,180 796,580 425,642 1,275,480 653,731 INSTRUCTORS AND STUDENTS IN COLLEGES AND SEMINARIES FOR WOMEN WHICH CONFER DEGREES, 1901-2. Division. Number of Insti- tutions. Professor^ and Instructors. Female Students. Total Income. Male. Female. Prepar- atory. Collegi- ate. Gradu- ate. United States North Atlantic Div. . . . South Atlantic Div. . . . South Central Div North Central Div Western Division 131 670 1,767 7,610 16.534 326 $3,954,462 19 45 46 19 2 295 203 107 57 8 459 517 472 269 50 1,281 2,006 2,675 1,423 225 5,376 5,236 4,377 1,493 52 157 77 65 26 1 1,888,799 906,852 646,048 467,763 47,000 SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS FOR 1901-2. Division. Theological. Law. Medical. Schools. In- struct- ors. Stu- dents. Schools. In- struct- ors. Stu- dents. Schools. In- struct- ors. Stu- dents. United States N. Atlantic Division. . . S Atlantic Division S. Central Division .... N. Central Division Western Division 148 1,034 448 128 75 357 26 *7,343 2,915 903 534 2,910 81 102 18 21 17 39 7 1,155 t!3,912 154 5,029 26,821 52 19 14 58 5 275 159 126 537 58 4,598 2,138 796 5,851 529 26 23 26 67 12 1,136 574 544 2,412 363 6,514 3,609 4,905 10,693 1,100 * 108 of these were women. 1 165 of these were women. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 177 GENERAL SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF PROFESSIONAL AND ALLIED SCHOOLS FOR 1901-2. Class. Schools. Instruct- ors. Students. Graduates. Theological 148 1,034 7,343 1,656 Law 102 154 1,155 5,029 13,912 26,821 3,524 5,069 Dental. . 56 1,197 8,420 2,288 Pharmaceutical. .'. . 59 590 4,427 1,379 H 174 576 141 Nurse training 545 13,252 4,015 Total. Medical schools included above: Regular Homeopathic 1,075 123 20 9,179 4,084 649 74,751 24,447 1 551 18,072 4,576 342 Eclectic and physio-medical 11 296 823 151 Total 154 5,029 26,821 5,069 ENROLLMENT IN SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN 1901-2. City evening schools (estimated) 207,162 Business schools 137,247 Schools for defectives 28,827 Reform schools 35,247 Government Indian schools 24,120 Indian schools (five civilized tribes) 13,864 Schools in Alaska supported by the Government 1,741 Schools in Alaska supported by incorporated municipalities (partly estimated) 1,700 Orphan asylums and other benevolent institutions 15,000 Private kindergartens 105,932 Miscellaneous (including schools of music, oratory, elocution, cookery, and various special arts 50,000 Total. . 620,840 SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES OF 1,000 VOLUMES AND OVER IN 1900. VOLUMES AND PAMPHLETS ADDED AND BOOKS ISSUED. Division. Periodicals. Volumes Added During the Year. Pamphlets Added During the Year. Books Issued for Home Use. Books Issued for Use in Library. Libraries Re- porting. Num- ber. Libraries Re- porting. Num- ber. Libraries Re- porting. Num- ber. Libraries Re- porting. Num- ber. Libraries Re- porting. Num- ber. United States . . N. Atlantic Div. S.Atlantic Div. . S. Central Div.. N Central Div. . Western Div. . . 3,036 209,412 3,684 2,156,992 1,455 549,326 2,405 48,410,128 783 9,609,632 1,352 245 191 1,010 238 118,731 19,639 6,034 51,258 13,750 1,787 265 202 1,161 269 1,128,035 175,323 73,320 630,959 194,305 580 122 118 508 127 269,322 67,117 29,914 139,820 43,153 1,347 117 75 711 155 27,105,291 1,726,203 420.470 15,358,076 3,800,088 3S6 48 44 243 62 3,979,467 802,769 165,555 3,754,728 907,113 178 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES OF 1,000 VOLUMES AND OVER IN 1900. SOURCES OF SUPPORT. CLASSIFICATION. Own or Rent Buildings. Supported by Taxation or by Corporation. Free or Subscrip- tion. Circulating or Reference. Division. i i . ^ Q. .9 o ^j PM g a H o 6 i a; f>P 1 1 j | 1 I fc ^ CQ i i United States 1,040 592 3,751 2,375 2,870 138 2,734 1,735 914 447 1,148 3,788 N. Atlan. Div. 612 286 1,575 1,029 1,329 115 1,417 701 355 251 459 1,763 S. Atlan. Div. 54 23 344 113 302 6 88 233 100 21 128 272 S. Cent. Div. . 44 19 311 94 269 11 85 191 98 14 124 236 N. Cent. Div. 293 203 1,232 931 793 4 946 486 296 141 341 1,246 Western Div. 37 61 289 208 177 2 198 124 65 20 96 271 SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES OF 1,000 VOLUMES AND OVER IN 1900. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF LIBRARIES. ii h > ^ "g O q . .2 . "c || "cr 3 Division. "3 6 i 1 $ s| _w '5 -2 1 o I ci 1 Q a> D o 0) g J2 1 2 "*-! o3 c i 'C 8 A o 3 3 H V i O 3 S 1 T! O fl 1 X O S United States 1,979 1,725 689 53 162 120 (13 3,5 43 65 82 19 15 160 S3 63 ii'ie N. Atlan. Div. 1,172 696 117 23 74 57 31 2 34 53 3 2 107 41 3!) 5 ill S. Atlan. Div. 67 120 112 11) 17 13 8 2S 5 8 8 4 2 10 8 5 i S. Cent. Div. . 50 137 133 8 8 6 3 1 8 3 4 4 2 5 i N. Cent. Div.. 576 634 276 12 37 38 17 3 18 22 13 4 5 28 25 15 2 3 West. Div. . . . 114 138 51 26 6 4 1 6 3 4 4 4 10 S 4 2 2 SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES OF 1,000 VOLUMES AND OVER IN 1900. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SIZE. Number of Volumes to a Library. Division. 500,000 and over. 300,000 to 499,999. 100,000 to 299,999. 50,000 to 99,999. 25,000 to 49,999. 10,000 to 24,999. 5,000 to 9,999. 1,000 to 4,999. United States . . 4 3 47 90 193 526 866 3,654 N. Atlantic Div. S Atlantic Div 3 1 2 24 5 53 11 100 23 242 60 429 73 1,620 248 S. Central Div. . N. Central Div. . Western Div.... " 'l " 1 13 4 3 18 5 11 46 13 26 162 36 46 262 56 287 1,226 273 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 179 180 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF PUBLIC, SOCIETY, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES OF 1,000 VOLUMES AND OVER IN 1900. DISTRIBUTION OF LIBRARIES AND VOLUMES. Division. Libraries. Volumes. Population, Census of 1900. Number of People per Library. Books per 100 of Pop- ulation. United States North Atlantic Div South Atlantic Div. . . . South Central Div North Central Div. . . . Western Division 5,383 44,591,851 75,997,687 14,118 59 2,473 421 374 1,728 387 23,410,577 5,303,237 1,886,731 11,211,710 2,779,596 21,045,748 10,445,486 14,079,861 26,335,243 4,091,349 8,510 24,811 37,647 15,240 10,572 111 51 13 43 68 From Reports of the Bureau of Education. tJ.539.973 Volumes tdded 1835 to 1900. 7,074. H$ Volumes added 1890 to 1895. 6.576.444 Volumes- added 1885 to 1890 .689,706 Volume* edded 1880 to /88S. THE RELATION OF LIBRARIES TO POPULATION. ( 1,223.7/5 Volumes added 1875 to 1880. ( 11.487.778 Volumes in 1875. IN 5,383 LIBRARIES THERE WERE IN 1900, 44,591,851 VOLUMES. PRINTING AND PUBLISHING. There were 18,226 publications re- ported to the census authorities, while 3,046 publications failed to report. This would give a remarkable total of 21,272 periodicals, and the aggregate circulation of those reporting was 114,- 229,33-1 per issue, while the aggregate number of copies issued during the census year was 8,168,148,749. The average capital of those en- gaged in the printing business is $12,- 574 ; the average value of their prod- ucts is $14,569. These figures compared with those of a previous decade show that in a period of ten years an in- creased capital is required to produce the same or even a smaller value of products ; this is largely caused by an SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 181 182 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. increase in wages and a decrease in working hours. In 1850 a compositor in New York received $9 per week ; ordinary job compositors now receive $19.50 per week, and operators on ma- chines from $24 to $27, depending on the time of day or night they take their shift. In the opinion of many large operators, the number of wage earners has actually increased rather than diminished. The introduction of machine composition has been of decid- ed benefit to the employee, offering a new field for endeavor. There are few unemployed men in the printing trade, as is shown by the fact that when in 1900 the Typographical Union was Character of publication : News, politics, and family read- ing 14,867 Religion 952 Agriculture, horticulture, dairy- ing, and stock-raising 307 Commerce, finance, insurance, railroads, and trade 710 General literature, including magazines 239 Medicine arid surgery Ill Law 62 Science and mechanics G6 Fraternal organizations 200 Education and history 259 Society, art, music and fashion 88 Miscellaneous 365 DIAGRAM SHOWING CLASSIFICATION OF PAPERS. PROPORTION WHICH ADVERTISING, SUB- SCRIPTION AND SALES, AND BOOK AND JOB PRINTING FORM OF THE TOTAL VALUE OF ALL PRODUCTS. called upon to supply 150 men for a special job of city printing, only 100 could be obtained, and these with diffi- culty. A classified list of periodicals is giv- en below, showing how the list is di- vided : Period of issue: Daily 2,226 Tri-weekly 62 Semi-weekly 637 Weekly 12,979 Monthly 1,817 Quarterly 237 All other classes 268 Total 18,226 Out of the 18,226 publications, 2,226 are dailies, with a circulation of 15,102,156; 62 are tri-weekly, with a circulation of 228,610; 637 are semi- weekly, with a circulation of 2,832,- 868 ; 12,979 papers are issued weekly, with a circulation of 39,852,052. There are 1,817 monthly publications, whose circulation is 39,519,897. The quarterly publications are mostly de- voted to special subjects, and only number 237, but their circulation is very respectable, as they issue 11,217- 422 per number. Semi-monthly, semi- annual and yearly publications num- ber 268, and have a circulation of 5,- 541,329. Out of 18,226 publications, 17,194 were printed in English. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 183 J f>/>0 -I y eoe- t B 184 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. In 1900, cities of 201,000 inhabi- tants and over contained 79 per cent of the separate job-printing establish- ments of the country, and 97.7 per cent of the total job product ema- nated from them. Ayer's Newspaper Directory for 1904 gives later figures, viz. : Daily, 2,457 ; tri-weekly, 50 ; semi-weekly, 034; weekly, 1G,J)35 ; fortnightly, 65; semi-monthly, 285; monthly. 2,698; bi- monthly, 53 ; quarterly, 192 ; miscel- laneous, 10. Total, 23,385. QUANTITY AND COST OF PAPER USED. Kinds. Pounds Cost. News Book and periodical. Job printing Total . . Our figures show the quantity and cost of paper used and the average cost per pound in 1900. In this table is presented a division of the paper used in 1900, according to the several classes of products which, combined, produced the total News Book and periodical Job printing 956,335,921 202,196,263 74,510,064 1,233,142,248 $22,197,0.0 9,356,490 6,270,306 $37,823,856 Average cost per pound. cents. 2.3 4.5 8.4 value of products of newspaper and periodical establishments. About one and a quarter billions of pounds was used during the year in which the cen- sus was undertaken. This large quan- tity was utilized in the following pro- portions : Per cent. 77.6 16.4 6.0 LIBRARIES OF THE WORLD. The following is a list of the principal Libraries of the world: Library. City. Bibliotheque nationale Paris British Museum London Imper. publicnaja biblioteka St. Petersburg. . . . Konigliche bibliothek Berlin Library of Congress Washington Kon. Hof- u. Staatsbibliothek Munich K. u. k. Hofbibliothek Vienna Universitats- u. landesbibliothek Strasburg Public Library Boston Publicnyj i Rumjancovskij musej Moscow Public Library Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundation. . New York City. . . . Biblioteca nacional Madrid Bodleian Library Oxford K. k. Universitats-bibliothek Vienna Harvard University Library Cambridge (U. S.) . Cambridge University Library Cambridge (Eng. ). Det store kongelige bibliothek Copenhagen Universitilts-bibliothek Gottingen Universiteit bibliotheek Amsterdam Kon. bibliotheek The Hague No. of Vols. . 2,602,000 2,003,000 . 1,329,000 1,200,000 . 1,000,000 1,000,000 900,000 814,000 , 812,260 800,000 , 787,700 , 600,000 600,000 596,526 575,889 550,000 550,000 506,814 500,000 500,000 THE RAPID EXTENSION IN THE GATHERING OF NEWS. In 1886 the New York World re- ported the battle of Majuba Hill in six lines, but so rapid was the extension of news gathering that, fourteen years later, events in the same quarter of the globe were reported to the great American dailies by cable as fully as though close at hand. The destruction of St. Pierre, Martinique, in 1902, by an eruption of Mont Pelee, may be mentioned as an illustration of this tendency. The cablegrams which detailed that great disaster reached American news- papers by way of Brazil, the Azores and Great Britain, costing the recipi- ents from $2 to $4 per word, with fees for precedence. CHAPTER VIII. TELEGRAPHS, TELEPHONES, SUBMARINE CABLES, WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY, AND SIGNALING. LAND LINES OF THE WORLD. Below are given such particulars as we have been able to obtain of the land lines of tele- graphs throughout the world, corrected up to December 31, 1903: Countries. Length of Lines in Miles. Length of Conductors in Miles. Pneu- matic Tubes (Yds.). Aerial. Under- ground. Total. Aerial. Under- ground. Total. African Transcont'ntal Tel. Co. . Austria 1,595 21,523 6 4,041 1,795 1,762 14,677 120 312 55,055 599 4,765 3,263 18,286 9,900 2,756 5,481 8,018 1,519 7,473 14,000 1,200 "lOi" "9" 1,595 21,627 6 4,050 1,795 1,762 14,677 120 312 55,055 599 4,765 3,264 18,286 9,902 2,784 5,481 8,029 1,519 7,473 14,000 1,200 835 3,818 5,474 2.070 2,538 59,154 4,461 171 7,626 81,781 44,791 5,718 4,008 23,069 698 693 24,370 16,381 1,595 69,404 21,318 3,807' 27,670 126 1,234 181,883 4J65' 6,835 34,794 44,685 13,025 5,481 28,763 2,721 13,344 i,'350 1,579 ' ' '253 1,595 70,983 21,571 3,807' 27,670 126 1,234 181,883 4,765 83,406 ' '3,352 Belgium Bolivia Bosnia-Herzegovina Brazil . British East Africa British Guiana British India (India Office). ,. . British North Borneo "i" British South Africa Bulgaria Canada Gt. N.-West. Tel. Co. . Canadian Pacific Telegraphs . Western Union Tel. Co Government Tel. Service. . . . Cape Colony Ceylon Chile China ' ' 57 44 2, 190 6,835 34,794 44,742 13,069 5,481 30,953 2,721 13,344 2 28 ' ii' 1,350 Costa Rica Denmark 835 3,811 5,459 2,070 2,538 55,157 4,445 171 7,587 77,828 43,023 5,717 3,779 23,036 698 (593 24,370 16,374 j- 15 ' '3,997' 16 39 3,953 1,768 1 229 33 7' 12,538 8,070 10,755 196,657 10,417 171 13,422 276,684 305,366 8,590 15,397 117,154 1,392 2,079 94,225 78,264 472 41 13,010 8,111 Dutch Indies Ecuador Egypt France, Continent and Corsica. . Algeria French Guiana (Cayenne) French Indo-China (Cochin- China, Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, and Laos) Germany Great Britain and Ireland Greece ' 'ia',858 166 68 27,116 104,012 1 761 2,498 ' ' '680 10,755 210,515 10,583 171 13,490 303,800 409,378 8,591 16,158 119,652 1,392 2,079 94,225 78,944 ' 288,828 ' 180,204 114,400 ' ' 1,004 Holland Hungary Indo-European Persian Gulf System (Mekran Coast) Indo-European Teheran, Bu- shire Line Italy 1 Japan 1 Exclusive of 20.148 nautical miles of river cables and 39.031 miles of conductors. 185 186 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. LAND LINES OF THE WORLD Continued. Countries. Length of Lines in Miles. Length of Conductors in Miles. Pneu- matic Tubes (Yds.). Aerial. Under- ground. Total. Aerial. Under- ground. Total. Luxemburg Malay States (Federated) Mauritius. . . 259 969 141 20,258 1,722 12,441 14,430 7,749, 1,694 259 969 141 20,258 1,722 12,441 14,525 7,749 1,694 1,074 5,479 2,716 5,298 10,269 3,448 76,676 1,512 1,689 5,783 2,233 24,847 3,052 5,704 3,965 1,778 1,403 24,831 246 590 27,497 184,888 4,002 2,588 6,066 508 460 316 31,454 4,678 53,'67l' 22,672 2,326 2,306 11,402 2,820 11,669 20,806 7,388 177,148 2,038 3,863 18,467 4,496 48,749 3,451 17,609 12,912 2,803 2,537 39,519 246 1,762 192,566 1,050,186 9,894 3,795 9,118 508 1,429 316 31,454 4,678 58,'617' 22,672 2,326 2,306 11,402 2,820 11,669 20,806 7,429 177,575 2,049 3,863 18,467 4,496 "95" Natal Netherlands East India New South Wales New Zealand Nicaragua 41946' ' 44 North American Tel. Co 1,074 5,479 2 Peru 2,716 Portugal Queensland . 5,298 10,269 ' ' '41 427 11 Roumania Russia Senegal 3,439 76,484 1,501 1,689 5,783 2,233 24,481 3,052 5,699 3,907 1,778 9 192 11 366' ' '5' 58 Servia South Australia Southern Rhodesia. Spain Sudan Provinces Sweden Switzerland 323 49,072 3,451 60 1,745 6 5 17,669 14,657 2,809 2,542 39,519 246 1,762 200,395 1,065,397 9,932 3,795 9,118 Tasmania Tunis Turkey 1,398 24,831 246 950 27,344 184,636 4,001 2,588 6,066 5 Uganda Protectorate State Rly. Telegraphs . United States of America: Commercial Cable Co 3 Western Union Company. . . . Victoria Postal Department . . Rly. Department. . . . Western Australia Total . . 153 252 . 1 4,900 ' '3,697 7,829 15,211 38 922.342 11.367 933.709 3.387.716 184.438 3.572.154 679.835 1 Inclusive of 535 miles of lines and 569 miles of conductors belonging to the Peruvian Corporation. 2 Exclusive of 811 miles of miscellaneous subaqueous cables and 2,320 miles of conductors. 3 Exclusive of 404.6 nautical miles of cable in Gulf of Mexico. Electrical Trades Directory. MILEAGE OF LINES AND WIRES, NUMBER OF OFFICES, AND TRAFFIC OF THE WESTERN UNION TELEGRAPH COMPANY. Year Ending June 30 Miles of Line. Miles of Wire. Num- ber of Offices. Number of Messages Sent. Receipts. Expenses. Profits. Average per Message. Toll. Cents. 104.7 38.9 31.2 30.1 31.4 Cost. 1868... J878... H888... 1898.. . 1903... 50,183 81,002 171,375 189,847 196,517 97,594 206,202 616,248 874,420 1,089,212 3,219 8,014 17,241 22,210 23,120 6,404,595 23,918,894 51,463,955 62,173,749 *69,790,866 Dollars. 7,004,560 9,861,355 19,711,164 23,915,733 29,167,687 Dollars. 4,362,849 6,309,813 14,640,592 17,825,582 20,953,215 Dollars. 2,641,711 3,551,543 5,070,572 6,090,151 8,214,472 Cents. 63.4 25.0 23.2 24.7 25.6 * Not including messages (probably 10,000,000) sent over leased wires or under railroad contracts. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 187 The greatly increased mileage since 1880 is principally due to the fact that in 1881 the Western Union Telegraph Company absorbed by purchase all the lines of the American Union and the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Corn- cable companies, operating eight At- lantic cables, and guarantees 5 per cent annual dividends on the stock of the American Telegraph and Cable Com- pany ; amount $14,000,000. Besides the above, there are new THE MORSE TELEGRAPH CODE. (Used in the United States.) A -- B ---- C -- - D --- E- F --- G * -- H ---- / -- J ---- K I - M -- N -- 0- < P ---- - ---- -. -- S -- - r - U --- V W --- X ---- Y----Z----- & - - - / ---- Z ----- 3 ----- * ----- 5-~ -- 6 ------ 7 / ----- 9 ---- o - PERIOD ------ COMMA- --- COLON (K.O.) -- - - SEMICOLON ----- INTERROGATE - T, - H ~- __***'>> --- ~ PARENTHESIS ----- OR A T BEGINNING (P. N.) ---- - -- Ofl AT END (P.Y.) ----- -- QUOTATION- -^- - OR A T BEGINNING (<). N)- ^ OK AT END (o..J.) QUOTATION WITHIN QUOTATION (Q.X.)~ DASH (o. X.) - (JHOERLIHE _ _ - _ OR AT~eeHiN/tiO (l/.X.J- - -^ OR AT END (u.J-) -^ HYPHEN(H.X.) ---- -- - - DOLLAR SIGN(S.X.) --- ---- DECIMAL POINT THE INTERNATIONAL TELEGRAPH CODE. (The Cable Code.) tSlctcptect at London -f9C3 d --- e. e- ---- / ---- ff --- * ---- i j ---- ft __ /.. __ _ _ jn ^ n n o- - if- -p - - a/ -- r 8 I u <^ i< - - - -ts- -ur X y~~~ ~ ~~ ~~" z "~~ ~"" ~ / ----- ----- 3 ----- -? ----- S ----- 6 ----- 7 ----- / ----- 9 ----- O ----- Bar for fraction -- -- -- rcmoo -- -- -- SEMICOLON COMMA ^ COLON tNTCRROGATIQN Q UAL EXCLAMATION ^ HYPHEN GR DASH ^ PAKE N THE SIS ^^ ^^ QUOTATION ----- ..- UNOCRLINC. ------ ERROR -------- CftOSS-' INVITATION TO TRANSMIT --- WAIT ----- tTAort Code used only in repetitions and in text written entirely infiyur *- - Z --- J ---- * ----- S ----- ----- 7 ---- f --- 9 panics, the former having previously in operation over 12,000 miles of line and the latter 8.706 miles. Capital stock of the Western Union, $100,000,- 000. The Western Union has exclusive contracts with several international lines of telegraph which have complied with the United States telegraph act of 1866, and are operating wires with or without connection with railway companies in many parts of the coun- try. Statistical Abstract of the United States. 183 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. MILEAGE OF LINES AND WIRES, NUMBER OF OFFICES, AND MESSAGES SENT, OF THE POSTAL TELEGRAPH CABLE COMPANY. Miles of Poles and Miles of Year. Cable Operated Poles and Cable Miles of Wires. Offices. Messages. but not Owned. Owned. 1335 2,811 23,587 260 1,428,090 1897 16,011 21,098 178,438 9,875 13,628,064 1903 21,319 27,482 276,245 19,977 21,600,577 The aggregate mileage of telegraph lines which carry varying numbers of wires, according to the business re- quirements of the localities through which they run, in the United States open for public business exceeds 210,- 000 miles, besides railways, Govern- ment, private and telephonic lines ; the length of the latter not being ascer- tainable. STATISTICS OF THE AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH COMPANY AND OPERATING COMPANIES ASSOCIATED WITH IT ON JANUARY 1, FROM 1897 TO 1903. Data. 1897. 1900. 1903. Exchanges 967 1,239 1,514 832 1,187 1,861 Miles of wire: 286,632 509,036 1 1,109,017 On buildings Underground 12,594 234,801 15,087 489,250 1,328,685 Submarine. Total miles of exchange service wire Total circuits 2,818 536,845 264,645 3,404 1,016,777 422,620 6,048 2,443,750 742,654 Total employees Total subscribers Length of wire operated miles. . Instruments in hands of licensees under rental at 14,425 325,244 805,711 772 627 25,741 632,946 1,518,609 1,580,101 50,350 1,277,983 3,281,662 3 150,320 Daily exchange connections " . . 2,630,071 Q O 5,173,803 8 2 9,322,951 7.3 Received in rentals of telephones. . .dollars 1,597,959 2,427,038 Dividends paid stockholders. ' ' 3,682,949 4,078,601 Capital 89 100 500 Gross earnings ' ' 5,130,845 9,534,499 Net earnings 4,169,675 5,486,058 1 Information not collected separately. TELEGRAPHIC TIME SIGNALS SENT OUT AT NOON DAILY, EXCEPT SUNDAYS AND HOLIDAYS, BY THE U. S. NAVAL OBSERVATORY. The time service of the U. S. Naval Observatory has continued regularly to send out daily telegraphic time signals at noon, seventy-fifth meridian time, with an average error for the year of only Os 15. The widespread impor- tance of this service is shown by the fact that it furnishes absolute standard time not only for navigators at all the principal seaports, but for the entire country except the Pacific Coast, which gets a similar signal from the Naval SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 189 Observatory at the Mare Island Yard. Moreover, all of this invaluable ser- | . e g I vice is rendered to the country at no 1 * 55 S 1 expense whatever to the Government, A 4 inasmuch as it is merely incidental to is * ..: ..: ..: the work and facilities required for a $ " the rating of chronometers for naval "1 $ 1 | 'D | vessels. \ To illustrate the wide distribution "5 1> Ii I I c j 3 of this time signal, it is of interest to 'w'f N ', 1 record the fact that it goes out daily v ... . -- --" J ^ over the wires of the Western Union *8^ * * " H O P-i Telegraph Company, the Postal Tele- "ii * 11 graph Company, the American Tele- b 8 S- ! ^ phone and Telegraph Company, the "'. ti P| electrical department of the District of 4 9 t n H Columbia, and the National Electric 6 % t _ Supply Company. There are now 18 a v m _ 1^ Government time-balls and some 40,- A , a2 i* 000 public and private clocks corrected JL i . 3 9 < daily by naval time signals. If- ^5 g The entire series of noon signals |S . i| ^ sent out daily over the wires is shown p\ I . rrTot-kVi i/-io HIT ir^ +Vr* o r* r r\ rvi r\ o \-\\ r i r\ cr A i o !** Q d lr^ 02 gl t this last long interval, or 10-second 111 J O break, those who are in charge of time alls ^P 02 balls and of clocks that are corrected Hi f { w electrically at noon throw their local III *! g lines into circuit so that the noon sig- |1| p H nal drops the time balls and corrects f Q the clocks. *i t E| This series of noon signals is sent p 1 J 13 S continuously over the wires all over J * V II ^ the United States for an interval of 1p9 is o five minutes immediately preceding &N a a noon. For the country east of the 'w jo 9 -- - -- -5 c i Rocky Mountains the signals are sent Hi el HH H out by the Observatory at Washing- ton and end at noon of the 75th meri- if! I] dian, standard time, corresponding to &* 11 a. m. of the 90th meridian and 10 * i "3 i a. m. of the 105th meridian. For the 111 J|M country west of the Rocky Mountains Ifl i) ** they are sent out by the Observatory at ill j|| the Mare Island Navy Yard, Califor- v^ M f* nia, and end at noon of the 120th meri- dian, the standard time meridian of the Pacific Coast. The transmitting clock 190 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. that sends out the signals is corrected very accurately, shortly before noon, from the mean of three standard clocks that are rated by star sights with a meridian transit instrument. The noon signal is seldom in error to an amount greater than one or two tenths of a second, although a tenth more may be added by the relays in use on long telegraph lines. Electric trans- mission over a continuous wire is practically instantaneous. For time signals at other times than noon, simi- lar signals can be sent out by telegraph or telephone from the same clock that sends out the noon signal. STANDARD TIME The desirability of using a uniform standard of time, independent of local time, was recognized at a very early date. The differences of local time arise from the use of solar motion as a time-measurer. We call the time noon when the sun is opposite the meridian of the place where we are living, and in consequence of he sun's motion from east to west, the more easterly of two places will have the earlier time, the difference in hours being ex- actly l-15th of the longitudinal differ- ence in degrees. In other words, 15 degrees of longitude correspond to a time difference of one hour. Peculiar difficulties were encountered in this country on account of its vast longi- tudinal extent, and the inconvenience became very serious with the exten- sion of the railroad and telegraph sys- tems. The movement which resulted in the adaption of the present time system may be said to have originated in a report on the subject by the Ameri- can Meteorological Society, which was submitted at a meeting of the General Time Convention held on Oct. 13, 1881, proposing a single standard for the whole country and suggesting the hour theory as an alternative proposi- tion. The matter was referred to the secretary, Mr. W. T. Allen, and com- munications were invited from parties interested. The proposal to fix one standard of time for the whole country was supported by many competent au- thorities ; but, although there was much to recommend it from a scien- tific point of view, it was found to be impracticable on account of the many discrepancies which would occur be- tween time by the clock and solar time. The system which found most favor, and was finally adopted, pro- posed the division of the country into four time sections, each of 15 degrees longitude (7% degrees or 30 minutes on each side of the meridian), com- mencing with the 75th meridian. In- side each of these sections time was to be uniform, the time of each section differing from that next to it by ex- actly one hour. A scheme was drawn up in accordance with these principles, and at a meeting of the convention held in April, 1883, the following- reso- lutions were adopted : (1.) That all roads now using Bos- ton, New York, Philadelphia, Balti- more, Toronto, Hamilton, or Wash- ington time as standard, based upon meridians east of those points or ad- jacent thereto, shall be governed by the 75th meridian or Eastern time (4 min- utes slower than New York time.) (2.) That all roads now using Co- lumbus, Savannah, Atlanta, Cincin- nati, Louisville, Indianapolis, Chicago, Jefferson City, St. Paul, or Kansas City time, or standards based upon meridians adjacent thereto, shall be run by the 90th meridian time, to be called Central time, one hour slower than Eastern time and 9 minutes slow- er than Chicago time. (3.) That west of the above-named sections the roads shall be run by the 105th and the 120th meridian times respectively, two and three hours slower than Eastern time. (4.) That all changes from one hour standard to another shall be made at the termini of roads or at the ends of divisions. The advantages of this method of reckoning time are obvious. Every town, instead of regulating its business by its own local time, uses the time of the nearest of the standard meridians, and the difference in time in actual use in any two cities will be an exact num- ber of hours, instead of a number of hours, minutes and seconds. A trav- eler, therefore, wishing to reset his watch, need only change the hour, without paying any attention to the minutes. Having proceeded, e. g., from New York to any town within the Central time zone, he has simply to set his watch one hour slow of New York time, and need not compare it with any of the local clocks. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 191 192 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. n, Ger- and in ow tzerland, Italy, Denmar behind Paris time (see 5 minutes slower than B * 3e e *3U| l^fll : 2- si g'Jtf? -* a 3 g oJ'oj oj 2 w fi5l| H Sl.2||^ 6 os#SB Slflpl ^ sliJi-s ftn , 0) e 5 C SSlSUi StijiSj B I ll^ls fe "o o S-"M o it! Ml ^, g 05C 3 fl 1 1^1 1 ATI R N ll an, n tim n Eas Paris e bet w n Belgium, Holl Mid-Europea t of Turkey, o stations pho conds differe ain, a, on art ch se Brit rvi nd Fre 20. a, at tes Trains in y, Austri mania, Bu Outside cl e is only 4 (a* I dS :~i IM - (eozt) pooi) uoiunjv rH 0(M OIOOOPOOOC ooost~-> -^rt< CO "f CS CO CC r-i(M COCO.-K cS :::::::::: 5SS : : 3 ::::::::::: 9011.1, utjad -oang ^133 ^H ^ ^H^H POOD I dec :Icco : :?5S : SSSc^" 5 SS^s* :^? :5c :* :quadoQ j ^ ;^;cqeq ; ;^ocq oc^o^^ (eoni pooi) | g< ;S^g ; d2 :z:z:2 : (auxiipooD gtj ; ; ;ooo . occocg^ IsadBpng (9UH1 poo]) ' (90111 g'O ;<00 2 . - pooi)aujag N ._M -irect Spanish Telegraph Company. 2. Halifax and Bermuda Cable Company. 3. Spanish National Submarine Telegraph Company. 4. West African Telegraph Company. 5. Black Sea Telegraph Company. 6. Great Northern Telegraph Company. 7. Eastern Telegraph Company. 8. Eastern and South African Telegraph Company. 9. Eastern Extension, Australasia, and China Telegraph Company. 10. Anglo-American Telegraph Company. 11. Direct United States Cable Company. 12. Compagnie Francaise des Cables Te"l<5- graphiques. 13. Western Union Telegraph Company. 14. The Commercial Cable Company. 15. Brazilian Submarine Telegraph Com- pany. 16. African Direct Telegraph Company. 17. Cuba Submarine Telegraph Company. 18. West India and Panama Telegraph Company. 19. Deutsche See-Telegraphen-Gesellschaft 20. Western and Brazil Telegraph Com- pany. 21. River Plate Telegraph Company. 22. Mexican Telegraph Company. 23. Central and South American Telegraph Company. 24. West Coast of America Telegraph Com- pany. A pa 27. United States and Hayti Telegraph and . 25. South American Cable Company. 26. Europe and Azores Telegraph Company. Cable Company. 28. Direct West India Cable Company. 29. The Pacific Commercial Cable Com- pany. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. Wireless telegraphy is, in theory, closely allied to heliography, or signal- ing with flashes of light. The light used, however, is produced electrically and is invisible to the naked eye, owing to the fact that it is made up of very long waves, called Hertzian waves, which vibrate too slowly to affect the retina. The eye can only discern waves which make from 4,000 billions to 7,000 billions vibrations per min- ute. However, the Hertzian ray re- sembles light in that it can be reflected by a metallic plate and can be refract- ed by a prism of pitch, can be brought to a focus with a pitch lens, and may be polarized. Owing to the great length of the Hertzian waves, almost all substances are transparent to them. The Hertzian w^ves were discovered by Professor Heinrich Hertz, a young German philosopher, during his ex- periments with the spark discharge of Leyden jars and of the Ruhmkorff coil in 1886 and 1887. He found that when a spark leaped the gap between the terminals, electric oscillations took place in these termi- nals which set up magnetic waves in the surrounding space, capable in turn of setting up similar oscillations in any adjacent conductor lying at an angle to them. The waves were detect- ed by using a "resonator," which was merely a circle or a rectangle of cop- per wire formed with a gap in one side. When the induction coil was in opera- tion and the resonator was held near the coil, a tiny stream of sparks would leap across the resonator gap. To bet- ter understand this phenomenon take as a crude example two vertical rods 200 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. in a pool of water and on each a float free to slide vertically on the rod. Now, if one of these floats be moved up and down upon its rod, it produces A TYPICAL WIRELESS TELEGRAPH STATION. waves in the water just as the electric oscillation produces waves in the ether. These spread out in all directions and on reaching the other float cause it to oscillate up and down, just as the magnetic waves produce electric os- cillations in the resonator. Without going into a detailed his- tory of the development of wireless telegraphy from Hertz's experiments, it may be stated that the essential differ- ence between the apparatus used by Hertz in his experiments and the sev- eral systems now commonly in use lies in the receiver. The transmitter is practically the same. A vertical wire called the antenna is connected to one terminal of the coil, and the other ter- minal is connected with the earth, the purpose being to increase the electrical capacity of the terminal rods and pro- duce larger waves. Instead of produc- ing the oscillations by means of an in- duction coil, they are now ordinarily produced by a dynamo and a step-up transformer except for telegraphing over short distances. But even with these changes we would not be able to telegraph over any appreciable distance if dependent upon the Hertz resonator for receiving a message, for, owing to the fact that the waves spread out in all directions from the transmitting antenna, the receiving antenna is acted upon by a very small proportion of the power expended by the transmitter, and this proportion decreases very rap- idly as the distance between the trans- mitter and the receiver increases. In order then to detect the rays at long distances, a very sensitive instrument called the "coherer" has been invent- ed. The coherer in its usual form consists of a glass tube with two metal pistons fitted therein between which a quantity of nickel filings is placed. The latter forms an imperfect electri- cal contact between the pistons, and takes the place of the spark gap in the receiving antenna. When the os- cillations are set up in the antenna by the Hertzian waves, due to their high pressure or voltage, they break through the imperfect contact of the coherer, causing the filings therein to cohere or string together and thus produce a much better electric path through the coherer. The action is microscopic and cannot be detected with the naked eye. However, the coherer, aside from being a part of the antenna circuit, is also made a part of a local battery cir- cuit, which contains a telegraph re- ceiver, and whenever the electric os- cillations open a good path through the filings for the local circuit, the telegraph instrument will be energized by the local battery only. In order to break this path after the oscillations SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 201 have ceased, or, in other words, to cause the filings to decohere, they are constantly jarred apart by means of the "tapper," which is in reality an electric bell with the gong removed and the clapper striking the coherer tube instead. Carbon granules may be substituted for metallic filings, and in this case no tapper is necessary, the coherer being self-restoring. In transmitting messages a tele- graph key in the primary circuit of the induction coil is operated according to the usual Morse code, and this causes sparks to leap the spark gap at corre- sponding intervals. These signals will then be transmitted by the Hertzian waves to the receiving station, where they will be recorded by the telegraph SPARK GAP INDUC TION COIL TRANSMITTING KEY GROUND TRANSMITTER. receiver. The coherer is not by any means the only wave detector in use. Every wireless telegraph company has one or more different types of detect- ors, but for the most part they are all based on the principle of the imperfect contact. Marconi's "magnetic detect- or" is a notable exception. The pres- ent efforts of inventors in the field of wireless telegraphy are directed mainly to the development of a system which will not allow one equipment to inter- fere with or suffer interference from any other equipment. This is essential in order to prevent unauthorized per- sons from intercepting and reading the messages. They aim to effect this re- sult by synchronizing or tuning the transmitting and receiving stations so that they will give oscillations and re- spond to oscillations of a certain pe- riodicity only. Up to the present time these efforts have met with only par- tial success. PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS OF WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. The best known systems of wireless telegraphy in the United States are the Marconi, the De Forest and the Fes- senden systems, and one or two sys- COHERER LOCAL CIRCUIT BATTERY TELEPHONE GROUND^ RECEIVER. terns used by the Government. In England, aside from the Marconi sys- tem, are the Lodge-Muirhead and the Orling-Armstrong systems. The Slaby- Arco and the Braun-Siemens-Halske systems are used in Germany. In France, Branley, Rochefort, Tissot and Captain Ferrie have made impor- tant developments, and in Russia Po- poff early invented a system very simi- lar to that of Marconi. THE MARCONI SYSTEM. The Marconi system, developed by Signor Guglielmo Marconi, a young 202 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Italian inventor, is the pioneer sys- tem of Hertzian wave telegraphy. In 1896 Marconi accepted an invitation from the British Telegraph Depart- ment to make experiments with his system in England. In the spring of 1899 the first wireless message was transmitted across the English channel. On November 15, 1899, the first daily newspaper ever published on an At- lantic liner was issued on the steamer St. Paul, containing news transmitted from shore by wireless telegraphy. In 1900 the system was adopted by the British Admiralty and installed on their battleships and cruisers. On De- cember 12, 1901, Marconi succeeded in sending the signal for the letter "S" across the Atlantic from Poldhu, Corn- wall, to St. John's, Newfoundland. But his experiments were interrupted by a cable company which owned a monopoly of all telegraph communica- tions with Newfoundland. In March, 1902, Marconi crossed the Atlantic on the "Philadelphia," which had been equipped with his instruments, and was able to receive intelligible mes- sages at a distance of 1,551 miles from the Poldhu station. In October of the same year Marconi sailed from Eng- land to Nova Scotia, and received messages from his Poldhu sta.tion throughout the voyage. On January 18, 1903, the first wireless message from the United States to England was sent by President Roosevelt to King Edward. In March, 1903, the Marconi Company undertook to fur- nish the London "Times" with daily wireless despatches from the United States, but they were discontinued after a couple of despatches had been sent. The Italian Government, in 1903, voted $160,000 for the erection of a Marconi station" in Italy to com- municate with this country. STATIONS EQUIPPED WITH MARCONI APPARATUS. Country. Location. Operated by Belgium Nieuport Bel Mai Ita Bri Noi Mai Llo Br Ma Ita Ma Ma Pri gian Gover -coni W. T. ian Goven tish Goverr th German -coni W. T. ds ish Goven coni W. T ian Goven rconi W. T rconi W. T vate nment Co. of Canada iment iment Lloyd S. S. t Co. Co., Lim ted iment % Co., Limited iment Co., Limited Co., Limited Table Head, Cape Breton Pekin China -j Tientsin Borkum Isle Borkum Riff Caister f Great Britain and Ire- land (List incom- plete) Fraserburgh Frinton ... Haven, Poole Harbor Holyhead Poldhu Withernsea Fastnet Rock Malin Head Inishtrahull Holland Culver Cliff Dover. . Plymouth Portland Portsmouth. Roches Point Scilly Islands Amsterdam Darignano Italy (List incomplete) Montenegro United States Maddalena . Palmaria Pisa. Punta di Bela Rome San Vito Bari Antivari Great Neck, Long Island SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 203 On the preceding page is a list of stations equipped with Marconi ap- paratus and operated under arrange- ment with stations owned and con- trolled by Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America and affiliated Marconi companies. There are also wireless telegraph stations equipped with Marconi appa- ratus and operated by the British Gov- ernment at Bermuda, Gibraltar and Malta. The following is a list of wireless telegraph offices on shore owned and controlled by Marconi Wireless Tele- graph Company of America and af- filiated Marconi companies: Babylon. . Long Island, New York, U. S. A. Belle Isle Gulf of St. Lawrence.Canada. Chateau Bay . . . Canadian Labrador. Crookhaven . .. . County Cork, Ireland. Fame Point Province Quebec, Canada. Heath Point Province Quebec, Canada. Liverpool Lancashire, England. Lizard Point. . . .Cornwall, England. New York City. .Pier 14, North River, New York City, U. S. A. Niton Isle of Wight, England. North Foreland. Kent, England. Rosslare County Wexford, Ireland. Sagaponack Long Island, New York, U. S. A. Siasconset Nantucket Island, Massa- chusetts, U. S. A. South Wellfleet. .Cape Cod, Massachusetts, U. S. A. The following points are in course of construction : Canso Nova Scotia. Cape Race Newfoundland. Point Amour. . .Canadian Labrador. Sable Island. . . .Canada. The following is a list of Transat- lantic liners equipped with Marconi apparatus : ALLAN LINE. Bavarian, Parisian, Tunisian. AMERICAN LINE. New York, Philadel- phia, St. Louis, St. Paul. ATLANTIC TRANSPORT LINE. Minneapolis, Minnehaha, Minnetonka. COMPAGNIE GENERALE TRANSATLANTIQUE. La Bretagne, La Champagne, La Lorraine, La Savoie, La Touraine. CUNARD LINE. Aurania, Campania, Car- pathia, Etruria, Ivernia, Lucania, Pannonia, Saxonia, Umbria. HAMBURG-AMERICAN LINE. Auguste Vic- toria, Bliicher, Deutschland, Fiirst Bis- marck, Moltke. HOLLAND-AMERICAN LINE.* Amsterdam, Maasdam, Noordam, Potsdam, Rhyndam, Rotterdam, Statendam. ITALIAN ROYAL MAIL LINE. Lombardia, Sardegna. NORTH GERMAN LLOYD LINE. Grosser Kurfurst, Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, Kaiser Wilhelm IT, Kaiserin Maria Theresia, Kron- prinz Wilhelm. RED STAR LINE. Finland, Kroonland, Vaderland, Zeeland. *In course of equipment. All commissioned ships of British and Italian Royal Navies are equipped with the Marconi apparatus. THE DE FOREST SYSTEM. The American De Forest Wireless Telegraph Company has developed from the inventions of Dr. Lee de For- est, a young Yale graduate. His system differs from that of Marconi chiefly in the receiver. At first an instrument called the "anti-coherer," or "respond- er," was used in place of the coherer. The action of this instrument was just the reverse of the coherer, that is, a good path was normally provided for the local circuit, but this path was broken by the electric oscillations in the antenna. The anti-coherer was later replaced by another instrument, which acts electrolytically to a large extent. This instrument, like the co- herer, normally offers a resistance to the current in the local circuit, but this resistance is broken down by the elec- tric oscillations in the antenna. An- other difference between the systems lies in the fact that the De Forest com- pany uses a telephone receiver in the local circuit instead of the telegraph receiver for receiving the signals. Sig- nals by the De Forest system can be transmitted at the rate of twenty-five to thirty words per minute. The De Forest Company has established a score of stations along the Atlantic coast, and several along the Great Lakes. Late in 1903 the De Forest Company entered into a contract with the London "Times" to furnish news of the Russo-Japanese war. The steamer "Haimun" was equipped wfth wireless telegraph apparatus, and ren- dered valuable service in reporting naval operations and engagements. These reports were sent by wireless telegraphy to Wei-hai-Wei and thence by cable to London. In July, 1904, the United States Government closed a contract with the De Forest Com- pany for a series of stations in the West Indies and Panama. These, it is stated, are to form links in a chain of De Forest stations which will con- nect New England with Japan, China and the Philippines. The chain is to follow the Atlantic coast to Key West, and thence run via Porto Rico to Panama. From Panama it will follow the Pacific coast to Seattle, thence via the Aleutian Islands to Japan, Wei- hai-Wei, China and the Philippines, re- turning to San Francisco through Guam and Hawaii. Under the terms 204 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. of the contract, commercial messages are to be interchangeable between all stations equipped with the De Forest system, whether operated by the Gov- ernment or the De Forest Company. The following is a list of wireless telegraph stations, equipped with De Forest apparatus, and now complete and in operation for the transmission of wireless messages : Station. Buffalo Cape Hatteras Chicago Cleveland Dallas Fort Worth Havana Highlands of Navesink. . . Key West New York Providence Quogue Louisiana Purchase Ex- position Tower (and 9 other stations) Springfield Toronto. . , Washington Block Island. Point Judith Bocas del Toro Port Limon Cape Nome St. Michael's Four stations Farraione Islands (4 sta- tions) Wei-hai-wei. . Location. New York North Carolina Illinois (3 stations) Ohio Texas Texas Cuba New Jersey Florida New York City, 42 Broadway Rhode Island Long Island, N. Y St. Louis, Mo Illinois Canada District of Columbia Rhode Island Panama. . . . Costa Rica. . Alaska. . Operated by De Forest Company Artillery Districts. Pacific Coast China. . . . Providence Journal Company United Fruit Company Signal Corps, U. S. Army U. S. Weather Bureau London Times. The following steamers are equipped with De Forest apparatus: Steamer. Location. Operated by Str. Wolvin ' Haimun Tug Savage . . . Great Lakes . . . China Sea. .'-... . . . North Atlantic ports U. S. Steel Corporation London Times B. & 0. Ry. The following De Forest stations have been erected or are in course of erection: Station. Location. Operated by Atlantic City New Jersey E L E e Fo ( S. C aster est Com overnnK n Telegrs oany jnt Lph and Cable Co. Baltimore Boston. . . Maryland Massachusetts Washington New Jersey Michigan Missouri. . . Cape Flattery Cape May Detroit. Kansas City Lewes Mobile Delaware Alabama New York Newburgh New Haven Port Huron. Poughkeepsie Seattle Sedalia Connecticut Michigan New York Washington Missouri Cuba Panama. . : Florida West Coast Guantanamo Panama Pensacola Porto Rico Azores Islands (5 stations) . Steamers. Six vessels of the United States Navy. FLAGS AND PENNANTS TO BE USED IN THE INTERNATIONAL CODE. w 'CODE FLAG " AND 'ANSWERING PENNANT.' When used as the "Code Flag " it is to be hoisted under the ensign. When used as the "An- swering Pennant" it is to be hoisted at the masthead or where beat seen. To open communication by the old Code, show the ensign with the pennant under it SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 205 INTERNATIONAL WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY CONFERENCE. On account of the rival systems in use in this country and the different coun- tries of Europe, it was decided to hold an international conference, at which rules could be formulated to control them. The conference met at Berlin in August, 1903. The following rules were adopted, applying to the exchange of messages between vessels at sea and coast stations : Any fixed station whose field of ac- tion extends to the sea is styled a coast station. Coast stations are bound to receive and transmit telegrams originating from or intended for vessels at sea without any distinction of wireless telegraph system used by the latter. Contracting parties shall publish any technical information likely to fa- cilitate or expedite communication be- tween coast stations and ships at sea. The wireless station must, unless it should be absolutely impossible, accept in preference requests for help that may come from vessels. The service of wireless telegraph sta- tions must be organized as far as prac- ticable so as not to interfere with the service of other stations. The protocol was signed by the United States, Germany, Austria, Spain, France and Russia. Great Britain and Italy were unable to sign. The general feeling of the conference was decidedly against monopolization of the wireless telegraph business by any one company. NEW INTERNATIONAL CODE OF SIGNALS. The new International Code of Sig- nals came into use on January 1, 1901. and its distinguishing sign will hence- forward be the code pennant hoisted in the ordinary way. Illustrations of the new signals are given in the plate, together with rules for signals of distress in the text. It is not now necessary to tie the fly of the Code Pennant to the hal- yards, as was previously required when beginning to signal. When hoisted under the ensign, it denotes a signal taken from the International Code. When hoisted by itself at the mast- head it is the Answering Pennant. Communication may then be com- menced, and any message following in this page, or found under the heading "Danger or Distress" in the Interna- tional Code Signal Book, may be ex- changed, strictly following the Inter- national Commercial Code and the in- structions given above. The International Code Signal de- scribed above, asking to open com- munication, should be shown in every case of distress by the shore sta- tion, for it may be that the vessel has the International Code, but, until see- ing this signal, will not know that she can use it. SIGNALS ADOPTED FROM AND TO MERCIAL CODE SIGNAL BOOK Q f In distress ; want immediate assistance. Q r We are coming to your assistance. E I Do not attempt to land in your own Y ( boats. BE FOUND IN INTERNATIONAL COM- OF 1899, REFERRED TO ABOVE. Damaged rudder; can not steer. TJ j T) \ f Engines broken down; I am disabled. J I j-) ! You are standing into danger. V ) z j- Heavy weather coming; look sharp. F I J E V D f Tl ) I V F J Bar is impassable. Cast oft. Make fast to W Slack away. TC ) rj, r Shift your berth. Your berth is not safe. TC * p j- Hold on until high water. "K" ) f Remain by the ship. g j- Abandon the vessel as fast as possible. K Landing is impossible. P i Look out for rocket line (or, line). K I Endeavor to send a line by boat (cask, A f kite, raft, etc.). C I No assistance can be rendered ; do the X ) best you can for yourselves. K I Lookout will be kept on the beach all G j night. 206 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. INTERNATIONAL COMMERCIAL CODE SIGNALS Continued. j Lights, or Fires will be kept at the best f place for coming on shore. j- Keep a light burning. ) Do not abandon the vessel until the tide j has ebbed. j- 1 am on fire. I I am sinking (or, on fire) ; send all avail- f able boats to save passengers and crew. j-Want assistance; mutiny. j- Want immediate medical assistance. I Want a boat immediately (if more than j one, number to folloiv). I Want a tug (if more than one, number to f follow). I must abandon the vessel. r Want a pilot. > What is name of ship or Signal Station f in sight? I Repeat ship's name; your flags were not f made out. (Signal not understood, though the flags i" are distinguished. I can not make out the flags (or, signals). Assent Yes. Negative No. DISTRESS SIGNALS. (Article 31 of International Rules.) When a vessel is in distress and requires assistance from other vessels or from the shore the following shall be the signals to be used or displayed by her, either together or separately, namely: In the daytime (1) A. gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about a minute (2) The International Code signal of dis- tress indicated by N C. (3) The distance signal, consisting of a square flag, having either above or below it a ball or anything resembling a ball. (4) The distant signal, consisting of a cone, point upward, haying either above it or below it a ball or anything resembling a ball. (5) A continuous sounding with any fog- signal apparatus. At night (1) A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about a minute. (2) Flames on the vessel (as from a burn- ing tar barrel, oil barrel, and so forth). (3) Rockets or shells throwing stars of any color or description, fired one at a time, at short intervals. (4) A continuous sounding with any fog- signal apparatus. LIST OF WEATHER BUREAU STATIONS ON THE UNITED STATES SEACOAST TELEGRAPHIC LINES. ATLANTIC COAST. Nantucket, Massachusetts. Narragar-sett Pier, Rhode Island. Block Island, Rhode Island. Norfolk, Virginia. Cape Henry, Virginia. Currituck Inlet, North Carolina. Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Hatteras, North Carolina. Sand Key, Florida. PACIFIC COAST. Tatoosh Island, Washington. Neah Bay, Washington. East Clallam, Washington. Twin Rivers, Washington. Port Crescent, Washington. North Head, Washington. Point Reyes Light, California. San Francisco, California. Southeast Farallone, California. LAKE HURON. Thunder Bay Island, Michigan. Middle Island, Michigan. Alpena, Michigan. Of the above stations the following, and also Juoiter, Florida, are supplied with Inter- national Code Signals, and communication can be had therewith for the purpose of ob- taining information concerning the approach of storms, weather conditions in general, and for the purpose of sending telegrams to points on commercial lines. Nantucket, Massachusetts. Block Island, Rhode Island. Cape Henry, Virginia. Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Sand Key, Florida. Tatoosh Island, Washington. Hatteras, North Carolina. Neah Bay, Washington. Point Reyes Light, California. Southeast Farallone, California. Any message signaled by the International Code, as adopted or used by England, France, America, Denmark, Holland, Sweden, and Norway, Russia, Greece, Italy, Germany, Austria, Spain, Portugal, and Brazil, re- ceived at these telegraphic signal stations, will bs transmitted and delivered to the ad- dress on payment at the station of the tele- graVii; cha-ge. All messages received from or aid'-essed to the War, Navy, Treasury, State, Interior, or other official department at Washington, are telegraphed without charge over the Weather Bureau lines. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 207 SPECIAL DISTANT SIGNALS. Made by a single hoist followed by the STOP signal. numerically for reading off a signal. Arranged 1* a >>* 60 C 55 =3 % 8 -2 eg 5 o|- fegl . sill al, or hoist re conspicu- >n. nguish your le nearer, or ant Signals. i -1 irricane, or, sxpected. 1 ;lared, or, ommenced ? 1 Is 1 1 1 torpedoes ; mined. : torpedo i B ^ SV g &8 0< S K -ga | SII3 op, Bring- nearer; I thing im communic speat sign it in a mo ous positi< m !!! 3 k fclone, Hi Typhoon < war de< Has war c ar is decla has comm s2 V S si gl fl .5 .2 >. S M * S C 00 pq pQ H I 1.1 1 g 1 1" o3 33-^ ^a x:'-5 o3 o3 C- I & i! 3g '"3 3 Q.M CQ O H tf Q Sg 5j5 S S co LS 03 HJ ,-i fc ^ 5^S -Co3 Sho st J1 II P W >H B 208 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. IV N' 32 Enemy is closing with you, or, You are closing with the enemy. 42 Keep a good look-out, as it is reported that enemy's men-of-war are going about disguised as merchantmen. 412 Proceed on your voyage. The information relative to the In- ternational Code is taken from the thirty-fifth annual list of the merchant vessels of the United States and is published by the Bureau of Naviga- tion, Department of Commerce and Labor. THE FOLLOWING DISTANT SIGNALS MADE WITH FLAG AND BALL, OR PENNANT AND BALL, HAVE THE SPECIAL SIGNIFICATION INDICATED BENEATH THEM. tr- I". r ir You are running into Fire, or, Leak; want im- Short of provisions. Aground; want immedi- danger. mediate assistance. Starving. ate assistance. SEMAPHORES. There are many semaphores established on the French, Italian, Portuguese, and some on the Spanish and Austrian coasts, where only the international Code of Signals is now used. Where practicable these semaphores have means of communicating by telegraoh with ea?h other and with the chief metropolitan lines and foreign stations. Passing ships are able to exchange commu- nication with the semaphores, and when re- quired their messages are forwarded to their destination according to the fixed tariff. On the coasts of Great Britain there are signal stations which offer the same facilities to passing vessels. BOAT SIGNALS. The Symbols for Boat Signals are 1. Two square flags, or handkerchiefs, or pieces of cloth. 2. Two long strips of cloth, or parts of a plank, or pieces of wood longer than broad. 3. Two balls or hats, or round bundles, or buckets. With these any of the Distance Signals can be made holding the Symbol at arm's length: and the Signal is to be made from right to left and read from left to right, thus : Equivalent to Ball above Pen- nant, or, "You are running into danger." In making Boat Signals it is important to use only the proper means to attract atten- tion, and to avoid those that may occasion confusion or misinterpretation. CYCLONES. [Pilot Chart, Hydrographic Office.] "RULE 1. // the squalls freshen without any shift of wind, you are on or near the storm track: heave to on the starboard tack and watch for some indications of a shift, observ- ing the low clouds particularly; if the barom- eter fall decidedly (say half an inch) without any shift, and if wind and sea permit, run off with the wind on the starboard quarter and keep your compass course. "RULE 2. // the wind shift to the right, you are to the right of the storm track, put the ship on the starboard tack and make as much headway as possible until obliged to lie-to (starboard tack). "RULE 3. // the wind shift to the left, you are to the left of the storm track: bring the wind on the starboard quarter and keep your compass course if obliged to lie-to, do so on the port tack. "GENERAL RULES, GOOD FOR ALL NORTH- ERN HEMISPHERE STORMS. In scudding always keep the wind well on the starboard quarter, in order to run out of the storm. Always lie- to on the coming-up tack. Use oil to prevent heavy seas from breaking on board." LIFE-SAVING SIGNALS. The following signals recommended by the late International Marine Conference for adoption by all institutions for saving life from wrecked vessels, have been adopted by the Life-saving Service of the United States. 1. Upon the discovery of a wreck by night, the life-saving force will burn a red pyro- technic light or a red rocket to signify, "You are seen; assistance will be given as soon as possible." 2. A red flag waved on shore by day, or a red light, red rocket, or red Roman candle displayed by night, will signify, "Haul away." 3. A white flag waved on shore by day, or a SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 209 white light slowly swung back and forth, or a white rocket or white Roman candle fired by night, will signify, "Slack away." 4. Two flags, a white and a red, waved at the same time on shore by day, or two lights, a white and a red, slowly swung at the same time, or a blue pyrotechnic light burned by night, will signify, "Do not attempt to land in your own boats; it is impossible." 5. A man on shore beckoning by day, or two torches burning near together by night, will signify, ' 'This is the best place to land." THE WEATHER BUREAU. The Weather Bureau furnishes, when practicable, for the benefit of all interests dependent upon weather con- ditions, the "Forecasts" which are pre- pared daily at the Central Office in Washington, D. C., and certain des- ignated stations. These forecasts are telegraphed to stations of the Weather Bureau, railway officials, postmasters and many others, to be communicated to the public by means of flags or steam whistles. The flags adopted for this purpose are five in number, and of the forms and colors indicated below : No. 1. White Flag. Clear or fair weather. EXPLANATION OF WEATHER FLAGS. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Blue Flag. White and Blue Black Triangular Flag. Rain or Snow. Local Rain or Snow. I Temperature. No. 5. White Flag with black square in center. Cold Wave. When number 4 is placed above number 1, 2 or 3 it indicates warmer ; when below, colder ; when not dis- played, the temperature is expected to remain about stationary. During the late spring and early fall the cold- wave flag is also used to indicate an- ticipated frosts. EXPLANATION OF WHISTLE SIGNALS. A warning blast of from fifteen to twenty seconds duration is sounded to attract attention. After this warning the longer blasts (of from four to six seconds duration) refer to weather, and shorter blasts (of from one to three seconds duration) refer to tem- perature ; those for weather are sound- ed first. Blasts. Indicate. One long Fair weather. Two long Rain or snow. Three long Local rain or snow. One short Lower temperature. Two short. . Higher temperature. Three short Cold wave. By repeating each combination a few times, with intervals of ten sec- onds, liability to error in reading the signals may be avoided. As far as practicable the forecast messages will be telegraphed at the ex- pense of the Weather Bureau ; but if this is impracticable, they will be furnished at the regular commercial rates and sent "collect." In no case will the forecasts be sent to a second address in any place except at the ex- pense of the applicant. Persons desiring to display the flags or sound the whistle signals for the benefit of the public should communi- cate with the Weather Bureau offi- cials in charge of the climate and crop service of their respective States, the central stations of which are as fol- lows : Montgomery, Ala. ; Phoenix, Ariz. ; Little Rock, Ark. ; San Francisco, Cal. ; Denver, Colo. ; Jacksonville, Fla. ; Atlanta, Ga. ; Boise, Idaho ; Springfield, 111. ; Indianapolis, Ind. ; Des Moines, Iowa ; Topeka, Kan. ; Louisville, Ky. ; New Orleans, La. ; Baltimore, Md. (for Delaware and Maryland) ; Boston, Mass, (for New England ) ; Lansing, Mich. ; Minneapo- lis, Minn. ; Vicksburg, Miss. ; Colum- bia, Mo. ; Helena, Mont. ; Lincoln, Nebr. ; Carson City, Nev. ; New Brunswick, N. J. ; Santa Fe, N. Mex. ; Ithaca, N. Y. ; Raleigh, N. C. ; Bis- marck, N. Dak. ; Columbus, Ohio ; Oklahoma, Okla. (for Oklahoma and Indian Territories) ; Portland, Oreg. ; Philadelphia, Pa.; Columbia, S. C. ; Huron, S. Dak. ; Nas'hville, Tenn. ; Galveston, Tex.; Salt Lake City, Utah; Richmond, Va. ; Seattle, Wash. ; Parkersburg, W. Va. ; Mil- waukee, Wis. ; Cheyenne, Wyo. WILLIS L. MOORE, Chief U. S. Weather Bureau. CHAPTER IX. PATENTS, TRADE MARKS, COPYRIGHTS. PATENTS IN RELATION TO MANUFACTURES. The value of our patent system is eloquently outlined by Senator Platt, of Connecticut. In speaking on a bill for the reorganization of the Patent Office, he said : "To my mind, the passage of the act of 183G creating the Patent Office marks the most important epoch in the history of our development I think the most important event in the his- tory of our Government from the Con- stitution until the Civil War. The es- tablishment of the Patent Office marked the commencement of that marvelous development of the re- sources of the country which is the ad- miration and wonder of the world, a development which challenges all his- tory for a parallel ; and it is not too much to say that this unexampled progress has been not only dependent upon, but has been coincident with, the growth and development of the patent system of this country. Words fail in attempt-ng to portray the advance- ment of this country for the last fifty years. We have had fifty years of progress, fifty years of inventions ap- plied to the every-day wants of life, fifty years of patent encouragement, and fifty years of a development in wealth, resources, grandeur, culture, power which is little short of miracu- lous. Population, production, business, wealth, comfort, culture, power, gran- deur, these have all kept step with the expansion of the inventive genius of the country ; and this progress has been made possible only by the inven- tions of its citizens. All history con- firms us in the conclusion that it is the development by the mechanical arts of the industries of a country which brings to it greatness and power and glory. No purely agricultural, pas- toral people ever achieved any high standing among the nations of the earth. It is only when the brain evolves and the cunning hand fashions labor-saving machines that a nation begins to throb with new energy and life and expands with a new growth. It is only when thought wrings from nature her untold secret treasures that solid wealth and strength are accumu- lated by a people." When the Japanese Government was considering the establishment of a pat- ent system, they sent a commissioner to the United States and he spent several months in Washington, every facility bemg given him by the Com- missioner of Patents. One of the ex- aminers said : "I would like to know why it is that the people of Japan desire to have a patent system." "I will tell you," said Mr. Taka- hashi. "You know it is only since Commodore Perry, in 1854, opened the ports of Japan to foreign commerce that the Japanese have been trying to become a great nation, like other na- tions of the earth, and we have looked about us to see what nations are the greatest, so that we could be like them ; and we said, 'There is the United States, not much more than a hundred years old, and America was not discovered by Columbus yet four hundred years ago' ; and we said, 'What is it that makes the United States such a great nation?' And we investigated, and we found it was pat- ents, and we will have patents." The examiner, in reporting this in- terview, added : "Not in all history is there an instance of such unbiased testimony to the value and worth of the patent system as practiced in the United States." The demonstration thus given the commercial world during the last half century of the effect of beneficent patent laws has led to their modifica- tion in all the chief industrial coun- tries, and the salient feature of our system a preliminary examination as to novelty and patentability prior to the grant of a patent has in late years been incorporated into the pat- ent systems of many foreign countries, as, for instance, Austria, Canada, Den- 211 212 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. mark, Germany. Japan, Norway, Rus- sia, Sweden, and Switzerland. The discoverer of new products of value in the arts and the inventor of new processes, or improved machines, adds to public wealth, and his right to the product of his brain is now recog- nized by the laws of all civilized na- tions. The word "patent" had its origin in royal grants to favored sub- jects of monopolies in trade or manu- facture ; but now the word is used in a restricted sense to cover improve- ments in inventions. A few patents for inventions were granted by the provincial governments of the Ameri- can colonies and by the legislatures of the States, prior to the adoption of the PRINCIPAL FIELDS OF INVENTIVE ENDEAVOR. Federal Constitution. On the 5th of September, 1787, it was proposed to incorporate in a constitution a patent and copyright clause. The germinat- ing principle of this clause of the Constitution has vitalized the nation, expanded its powers beyond the wild- est dreams of its fathers, and from it more than from any other cause, has grown the magnificent manufacturing and industrial development which we to-day present to the world. In the early days the granting of a patent was quite an event in the his- tory of the State Department, where the clerical part of the work was then performed. It would be interesting to see Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of War, and the Attorney-General, criti- cally examining the application and scrutinizing each point carefully and rigorously. The first year the major ity of the applications failed to pass the ordeal, and only three patents were granted. In those days evu'y step in the issuing of a patent was taken with great care and caution, Mr. Jefferson always seeking to impress upon tho minds of his officers and the public that the granting of a patent was a matter of no ordinary importance. Prior to 1836 there was no critical examination of the state of the art preliminary to the allowance of a patent application. Since the act of 1836 there have been various enact- ments modifying and improving the law in matters of detail. In 1861 the term for a patent was increased from fourteen to seventeen years, and in 1870 the patent law was revised, con- solidated and amended ; but in its sa- lient features the patent system of to- day is that of the law of 1836. The subject of patents is admirably treat- ed by Mr. Story B. Ladd, of the Cen- sus Office, and we are indebted to Bulletin No. 242 for most interesting matter herewith presented. The growth of the number of pat- ents granted in the United States to citizens of foreign countries, is a strik- ing feature, and shows the high es- teem in which this country is held by the world at large as a field for the exploitation of invention. The per cent, of patents to foreign inventors has more than doubled during each period of twenty years since 1860. The majority of these foreign pat- entees are citizens of the great manu- facturing countries ; four-fifths of them are from England, France, Ger- many, and Canada ; the number from the latter country being largely aug- mented by reason of her proximity to the United States. The patents to foreign inventors, 1890-1900, were dis- tributed as follows : Country. Number of Patents. Per Cent. Canada England. . 3,135 7,436 .14.0 32 France 2,163 9.0 Germany All other countries 5,788 4,561 25.0 20.0 100.0 This marked growth in the number of patents to aliens is explained by the very liberal features of our patent system. Foreigners stand here on an equal footing with citizens of this country, and they are neither sub- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 213 jected to restrictions in the matter of annuities or taxes payable after the grant of a patent, nor required to work an invention in this country to maintain it in force, as is the case in most foreign countries. Moreover, the thorough examination made by our Patent Office as to the novelty of an invention prior to the allowance of an application for a pat- ent an examination that includes not only the patents and literature of our own country bearing on the art or in- dustry to which the invention relates, but the patents of all patent-granting countries and the technical literature of the world and the care exercised in criticising the framing of the claims have come to be recognized as of great value in the case of inventions of merit, and hence the majority of for- eign inventors patenting in this coun- try take advantage of this feature of our patent system, and secure the ac- tion of the Patent Office on an appli- cation for a patent before perfecting their patents in their own and other foreign countries, taking due precau- tion to have their patents in the dif ferent countries so issued as to se- cure the maximum term in each, so far as possible. This practice holds now in the case of probably nine-tenths of the alien inventions patented in this country. The working of an invention has never been required under our patent laws, though in most foreign coun- tries, with the exception of Great Brit- ain, an invention must be put into commercial use in the country within a specified period or the pat- ent may be declared void. In the case of patents for fine chemicals and like products, which require a high order of technical knowledge and ability for their inception, and skilled workmen for their manufacture, the effect of this requirement, that the industry must be established w r ithin the country, has been most salutary in building up chemical industries within the home country, to some extent at the ex- pense of other countries where the working of a patent is not obligatory. This shows most strongly in the case of carbon dyes and in the patents for chemicals of the class known as car- bon compounds, which includes nu- merous pharmaceutical and medicinal compounds of recent origin, aldehydes, alcohols, phenols, ethers, etc., and many synthetic compounds, as vanil- lin, artificial musk, etc. There are many extensive industries which are entirely the creation of pat- ents, and can be readily differentiated from the great mass of manufactures ; for example, certain industries based upon chemical inventions and discov- eries, as oleomargarine, which now em- ploys $3,023,040 of capital, and sup- plies products to the value of $12,499,- 812 ; glucose, which uses $41,011,345 of capital, and gives products to the value of $21,693,656; wood pulp, which, starting with the ground-wood pulp patent of Voulter, in 1858, and following with the soda fiber and sul- phite fiber processes, is now the chief material employed in paper manufac- ture, with products aggregating $18,- 497,701 ; high explosives, which, start- ing with the nitroglycerin patent of Nobel, in 1865, now includes dynamite, the pyroxylin explosives, and smoke- less powder, with products aggregating $11,233,396; while the electrical indus- tries, which now touch all fields of in- dustrial activity, power and transpor- tation, lighting and heating, electro- chemical processes, telegraphy and telephony, employ directly and indi rectly capital extending into the bil- lions, and are the creation of patents. The rubber industry was insignifi- cant prior to the discovery by Charles Goodyear of the process of vulcaniza- tion, while now the products in the shape of rubber and elastic goods and rubber boots and shoes amount to $93, 716,849. Bicycles and tricycles em- ploy $29,783,659 of capital, with prod- ucts valued at $31,915,908. Manu- factured ice employs $38,204,054 of capital, with a return in products of $13,874,513. Phonographs and graphophones, starting in 1877, now show the use of $3,348,282 of capital, and products to the value of $2,246,274. Photography, including the manufacture of materi- als and apparatus as well as the prac- tice of the art all the outcome of in- vention is now represented by 7,706 establishments, with a combined capi- tal of $18,711 339, and products to the value of $31,038,107. The manufac- ture of sewing machines employs $18,- 739,450 of capital, and supplies prod- ucts to the value of $18,314,490. The manufacture of typewriters and sup- plies, within three decades, has be- come an industry that employs $8.- 400,431 of capital, and gives products to the value of $6,932,029. These are but examples of what may be consid- ered as patent-created industries. If we attempt to enumerate the in- dustries which, existing prior to the 214 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. period of patent growth, have been revolutionized by inventions, a cata- logue of all of the old industries is virtually required. The returns for the manufacture of agricultural im- plements for the present census show 715 establishments, with a capi- tal of $157,707,951, giving employ- ment to 46,852 wage-earners, who re- a patented improvement which has produced a new or better article, or cheapened the cost of manufacture. The great iron and steel industry as it exists to-day is the product of countless inventions which permeate every branch thereof, and include many revolutionizing inventions, as, for example, the Bessemer process. ceive $2,450,880 in wages, and manu- factured products to the value of $101,- 207,428 ; and, in the entire range of agricultural implements and machines now manufactured, every one, from hoe or spade to combined harvester and thrasher, has been, e'ther in the implement or machine itself, or in the process of manufacture, the subject of The blast furnaces, rolling mills and forges and bloomeries. reported at the present census comprise 608 establish- ments, with a capital of $573,391.663, employing 222,490 wage-earners, with $120,820,276 paid in wages, and sup- plying products to the value of $803,- 968273. A prohibition of the use of the patented inventions of the last halt' SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 215 century would stop every one of these establishments. The same may likewise be said of the textile industry, the manufactures of leather, of lumber, chemicals, etc., and the railway system in its entirety, from the rail to the top of the smoke- stack, and from the pilot to the rear train light or signal, is an aggregation of American inventions. Without attempting to touch upon the industries which have been revo- lutionized or expanded by patents, the summaries which follow aim to show the growth of patents which have gen- erally sprung from industries. The closing decades of the nine- teenth century have witnessed the most extraordinary development of manufactures and commerce known in our history. Industrial demand and invention go hand in hand. They act and react, being interdependent. Any change in industrial conditions creat- ing a new demand is at once met by the invention of the means for supply- ing it, and through new inventions new industrial demands are every year be- ing created. Thus through the process of evolution the industrial field is steadily expanding, and a study of the inventions for any decade will point out the lines of industrial growth for the succeeding decade. The following figures give an idea of the development of American inven- tions during the past fifty-four years : NUMBER OF PATENTS FOR INVENTIONS ISSUED DURING EACH CALENDAR YEAR, AND NUMBER OF LIVE PATENTS AT THE BEGINNING OF EACH CALENDAR YEAR. Year. Number of Patents Issued Dur- ing the Year. Number of Live Patents. Year. Number of Patents Issued Dur- ing the Year. Number of Live Patents. 1850 1851 1S52 884 757 890 6,987 7,769 8 099 1877 1878 1879 12,920 12,345 12,133 155,200 168,011 177,737 1353 1854 1855 846 1,759 1 892 8,474 8,928 10 251 1880 1881 1882 12926 15,548 18,135 186,408 195,325 206,043 1856 1857 2,315 2,686 11,673 13 518 1883 1884 21,196 19,147 218,041 230,360 1858 1850 1860. . . 3,467 4,165 4,363 15,714 18,714 22,435 1885 1886 1887. . 23,331 21,797 20,429 237,204 247,991 256.831 1861 1862. 1863.. . 3,010 3,221 3,781 26,252 28,795 31,428 1888 1889 1890 19,585 23,360 25,322 265,103 273,001 284 161 1864 1865. . 4,638 6,099 34,244 38,034 1891 1892 22,328 22,661 297,867 307,965 1866. . . 8,874 43,415 1893 22,768 317,335 1867 1868. . . 12,301 12,544 51,433 62 929 1894 1895 19,875 20 883 325,931 332 886 1861.. 12,957 73,824 1896 21,867 341,424 1870 1871. 12,157 11,687 85,005 94 910 1897 189S 22,098 20 404 351,158 360 330 1872. . . 1873 1874 1875 12,200 11,616 12,230 13 291 104,022 112,937 120,551 128 547 1839 1900 1901 1902 23,296 24,660 25,558 27 136 365,186 370,347 373,811 380 222 1876. . . 14,172 141,157 1903! '. ' 31,046 393,276 The theory of the patent law is sim- ple. The country is enr.ched by inven- tions and offers for them a small premium : this premium is a seventeen years' monopoly of their fruit no more, no less. Having purchased the invention for this insignificant price, the purchase is consummated by the publication in the patent records of the details of the invent ; on so that he who runs may read. The whole thing is a strictly business transaction, and 216 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. this character is emphasized by the fact that the inventor is required to pay for the clerical and expert labor required to put his invention into shape for issuing. His patent fees are designed to cover this expense, and do so, with a considerable margin to spare. Thus the people of the United States are perpetually being enriched by the work of inventors, at absolutely no cost to themselves. The inventor does not work for love nor for glory alone, but in the hopes of a return for his labor. Glory, and love of his species, are elements actuat- ing his work, and in many cases he invents because he cannot help himself, because his genius is a hard task mas- ter and keeps him at work. But none the less, the great incitement to inven- tion is the hope of obtaining a valua- ble patent, and without this induce- ment inventions would be few and far between, and America would, without the patent system, be far in arrears of the rest of the world, instead of leading it, as it does to-day. The few pregnant sentences of the patent stat- utes, sentences the force of whose every word has been laboriously ad- judicated by our highest tribunal, the Supreme Court of the United States, are responsible for America's most characteristic element of prosperity, the work of her inventors, to whom be- longs the credit. DISTINGUISHED AMERICAN INVENTORS. Benjamin Franklin ; b. Boston, 1706; d. 1790; at 12, printer's appren- tice, fond of useful reading ; 27 to 40, teaches himself Latin, etc., makes va- rious useful improvements ; at 40, studies electricity ; 1752, brings elec- tricity from clouds by kite, and invents the lightning rod. Eli Whitney, inventor of the cotton- gin ; b. Westborough, Mass., 1765 ; d. 1825 ;_ went to Georgia 1792 as teach- er ; 1(93, invents the cotton-gin, prior to which a full day's work of one per- son was to clean by hand one pound of cotton ; one machine performs the labor of five thousand persons; 1800, founds Whitneyville, makes firearms, by the interchangeable system for the parts. Robert Fulton: b. Little Britain, Pa., 1765 ; d. 1825 ; artist painter ; in- vents steamboat 1793 ; invents subma- rine torpedoes 1797 to 1801 ; builds steamboat in France 1803 ; launches passenger boat Clermont at N. Y. 1807, and steams to Albany; 1812, builds steam ferryboats ; 1814, builds first steam war vessel. Jethro Wood, inventor of the mod- ern cast-iron plough ; b. White Creek, N. Y., 1774; d. 1834: patented the plough 1814 ; previously the plough was a stick of wood plated with iron ; lawsuits against infringers consumed his means ; Secretary Seward said : "No man has benefited the country pecuniarily more than Jethro Wood, and no man has been as inadequately rewarded." Thomas Blanchard ; b. 1788, Sutton, Mass. ; d. 1864 ; invented tack machine 1806 ; builds successful steam carriage 1825 ; builds the stern-wheel boat for shallow waters, now in common use on Western rivers ; 1843, patents the lathe for turning irregular forms, now in common use all over the world for turning lasts, spokes, axe-handles, gun-stocks, hat-blocks, tackle-blocks, etc. Ross Winans, of Baltimore ; b. 1798, N. J. ; author of many inventions re- lating to railways ; first patent, 1828 ; he designed and patented the pivoted, double truck, long passenger cars now in common use. His genius also as- sisted the development of railways in Russia. Cyrus H. McCormick. inventor of harvesting machines : b. Walnut Grove, Va., 1809; in 1851 he exhibited his in- vention at the World's Fair, London, with practical success. The mowing of one acre was one man's day's work ; a boy with a mowing machine now cuts 10 acres a day. Mr. McCormick's patents made him a millionaire. Charles Goodyear, inventor and pat- entee of the simple mixture of rubber and sulphur, the basis of the present great rubber industries throughout the world ; b. New Haven, Conn., 1800 ; in 1839, by the accidental mixture of a bit of rubber and sulphur on a red-hot stove, he discovered the process of vul- canization. The Goodyear patents proved immensely profitable. Samuel F. B. Morse, inventor and patentee of electric telegraph ; b. Charlestown, Mass., 1791; d. 1872; artist painter; exhibited first drawings of telegraph 1832; half-mile wire in operation 1835; caveat 1837; Congress appropriated $30,000 and in 1844 first telegraph line from Washington to Baltimore was opened ; after long con- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 217 tests the courts sustained his patents and he realized from them a large for- tune. Elias Howe, inventor of the modern sewing machine ; b. Spencer, Mass., 1819 ; d. 1867 ; machinist ; sewing ma- chine patented 1846 ; from that time to 1854 his priority was contested and he suffered from poverty, when a deci- sion of the courts in his favor brought him large royalties, and he realized several millions from his patent. James B. Eads ; b. 1820 ; author and constructor of the great steel bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis, 1867, and the jetties below New Orleans, 1876. His remarkable energy was shown in 1861 when he built and de- livered complete to the Government, all within sixty-five days, seven iron-plat- ed steamers, 600 tons each ; subse- quently other steamers. Some of the most brilliant successes of the Union arms were due to his extraordinary rapidity in constructing these vessels. Prof. Joseph Henry ; b. Albany, N. Y., 1799 ; d. 1878 ; in 1828 invented the present form of the electro-magnet which laid the foundation for practi- cally the entire electrical art and is probably the most important single contribution thereto. In 1831 he dem- onstrated the practicability of the elec- tric current to effect mechanical move- ments and operate signals at a distant point, which was the beginning of the electro-magnetic telegraph ; he devised a system of circuits and batteries, which contained the principle of the relay and local circuit, and also in- vented one of the earliest electro-mag- netic engines. He made many scien- tific researches in electricity and gen- eral physics and left many valuable papers thereon. In 1026 he was a professor in the Albany Academy ; was Professor of Natural Philosophy at the College of New Jersey in 1832, and in 1846 was chosen secretary of the Smithsonian Institution at "Washing- ton, where he remained until his death. Prof. Henry was probably the greatest of American physicists. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, the in- ventor of the telephone; b. 1847 at Edinburgh, Scotland, moved to Can- ada 1872 and afterward to Boston ; heie he became widely known as an in- structor in phonetics and as an au- thority in teaching the deaf and dumb ; in 1873 he began the study of the transmission of musical tones by tele- graph ; in 1876 he invented and pat- ented the speaking telephone, which has become one of the marvels of the nineteenth century and one of the greatest commercial enterprises of the world ; in 1880 the French Govern- ment awarded him the Volta prize of $10,000 and he has subsequently re- ceived the ribbon of the Legion of Honor from France and many honor- ary degrees, both at home and abroad ; Dr. Bell still continues his scientific work at his home in Washington and has made valuable contributions to the phonograph and aerial navigation. [Prof. Bell is now generally known as Dr. Bell, out of respect for his honorary degree.] Thomas A. Edison ; b. 1847, at Mi- lan, Ohio ; from a poor boy in a coun- try village, with a limited education, he has become the most fertile inventor the world has ever known ; his most important inventions are the phono- graph in 1877, the incandescent elec- tric lamp, 1878; the quadruplex tele- graph, 1874-1878; the electric pen, 1876; magnetic ore separator, 1880, and the three-wire electric circuit, 1883; his first patent was an electric vote-recording machine, taken in 1869, since which time more than 700 pat- ents have been granted him ; early in life Edison started to run a newspaper, but his genius lay in the field of elec- tricity, where as an expert telegrapher he began his great reputation ; his numerous inventions have brought him great wealth ; a fine villa in Llew- ellyn Park, at Orange, N. J., is his home, and his extensive laboratory near by is still the scene of his con- stant work ; he is the world's most persevering inventor. Captain John Ericsson; b. 1803 in Sweden ; d. in New York, 1889 ; at 10 years of age, designed a sawmill and a pumping engine ; made and patented many inventions in England in early life ; in 1829 entered a locomotive in competition with Stephenson's Rocket ; in 1836 patented in England his double-screw propeller arid shortly after came to the United States and incorporated it in a steamer; in 1861, built for the United States Govern- ment the turret ironclad Monitor ; was the inventor of the hot-air engine which bears his name ; also a torpedo boat which was designed to discharge a torpedo by means of compressed air beneath the water ; he was an indefati- gable worker and made many other in- ventions ; his diary, kept daily for 40 years, comprehended 14,000 pages. Charles F. Brush ; b. near Cleveland. Ohio, 1849; prominently identified with the development of the dynamo, 218 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. the arc light and the storage battery, in which fields he made many impor- tant inventions ; in 1880 the Brush Company put its electric lights into New York City and has since extended its installations into most of the cities and towns of the United States ; in 1881, at the Paris Electrical Exposi- tion, he received the ribbon of the Le- gion of Honor. George Westinghouse, Jr. ; b. at Central Bridge, N. Y., 1846; while still a boy he modeled and built a steam engine ; his first profitable inven- tion was a railroad frog ; his most no- table inventions, however, were in railroad airbrakes, the first patents for which were taken out in 1872 ; the system now known by his name has grown to almost universal adoption and constitutes a great labor saving and life saving adjunct to railroad transportation ; Mr. Westinghouse, whose home is at Pittsburg. was one of the earliest to develop and use nat- ural gas from deep wells ; in late years he has made and patented many in- vent'ons in electrical machinery for the development of power and light, and has commercially developed the same on a large scale. Ottmar Mergenthaler ; b. 1854, at Wiirtemberg, Germany ; d. 1899 ; in- ventor of the linotype machine ; his early training as a watch and clock maker well fitted him for the painstak- ing and complicated work of his life, which was to make a machine which would mold the type and set it up in one operation ; in 1872 Mergenthaler came to Baltimore and entered a ma- chine shop, in which he subsequently became a partner; the first linotype machine was built in 1886 and put to use in the composing room of the New York Tribune ; to-day all large news- paper and publishing houses are equipped with great batteries of these machines, costing over $3,000 each, and each performing the work of five compositors. The first recorded patent granted by the United States Government bears date July 31, 1790, issued to Samuel Hopkins, for making pot and pearl ashes. Two other patents were grant- ed in that year. In the following year, 1791, thirty-three patents were grant- ed. Among them were six patents to James Rumsay and one to John Fitch for inventions relating to steam en- gines and steam vessels. For the sin- gle year of 1876 the number of pat- ents and caveats applied for was al- most 20,000. PROGRESS OF INVENTIONS. Below is given in chronological or- der a list of important inventions be- ginning with the 16th century, with the title of -the invention, the year it was made, the name of the inventor and his nativity : Inventions. Date. Inventor. Nativity. Discoveries of electrical phenomena Won the title of "founder of the science of electricity." Screw printing-press Spirally grooved rifle barrel Iron furnaces. ... J 1560 11603 1620 1620 1621 William Gilbert Blaew Koster England Germany England The u^e of steam 1630 Lord Dudley England The first authentic reference in English liter- ature to the use of steam in the arts. Bay Psalm Book, first book published in the Colonies. . . . . . * 1640 David Ramseye England Mass. Barometer Steam engine, atmospheric pressure Machine for generating electricity. . . 1643 1663 1681-6 Torricelli Thomas Newcomen Otto von Guericke Italy England Germany First paper mill in America First steam engine with a piston 1690 1690 William Rittenhouse Denys Papin Penna. Frauce The manufacture of nlate glass established . . First to discover difference between electric 1695 { 1696 I 1736 Stephen Gray France England The first practical application of the steam engine 1702 Thomas Savery England First newspaper in America, "Boston News Letter". 1704 John Campbell Mass. First to produce electric spark . . j 1708 Dr, J. Wall England 1 1716 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 219 PROGRESS OF INVENTIONS Continued. Inventions Date. - Inventor. Nativity. 1709 J 1718 1 1772 1725 (1727 1 1772 1731 1733-9 1733 1743 1745 1750 1752 1763 1767 1769 1773 1774 1775 1777 1779 1782 1783 1783-4 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1790 1790 1791 1792 1794 1796 1800 1800 1801 1801 1801 1801 1802 1802 1802 1803 1803 1804 1804 1804 1805 1805 1803 1807 1807 1807 1803 1808 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1812 1814 Fahrenheit John Cantor Benjamin Franklin Martin de Planta William Ged Cisternay du Fay John Kay Platt & Keen Kleist Abraham Darby Benjamin Franklin James Hargreaves Richard Arkwright Samuel Crampton Jeremiah Wilkinson Miller Branchard & Magurier James Watt J. E. & J. M. Montgolfier Henry Cort James Small James Cartwright John Fitch Oliver Evans Andrew Meikle Wm. Nicholson Samuel Bentham Wm. Murdoch Eli Whitney Alois Senef elder Louis Robert Volta Richard Trevithick M. J. Brunei M. J. Jacquard Richard Scott William Symington Wedgwood & Davy J. Bramah William Horrocks Wise Richard Trevithick John Stevens Lucas John Edwards Luigi Brugnatelli Jeandeau Robert Fulton A. J. Forsvth F. A. Winsor Newberry Sir Humphry Davy John Stevens Sommering Frederick Koenig Thornton & Hall J. B. Ritter Zamboni Frederick Koenig Danzig England Utd. States France Scotland France England England Germany England Utd States England England England England Utd. States England France Scotland France England Scotland England Utd. States Utd. States England England England England England Utd. States Germany France Italy England England France England England England England England England England Utd. States England England Italy France Utd. States Scotland England England England Utd. States Germany Germany Utd. States Germany Italy Germany Electrometer, the well-known pith ball Electrical glass plate machine Stereotyping . . . First to discover that electricity is of two kinds. Flying shuttle in weaving Rotary 3-color printing-press (multi-color). . . . Electric or Leyden Jar Substitution of coke for coal in melting iron . . . Lightning conductor Spinning jenny . Pianoforte, nlayed in public in England in .... Drawing rolls in a spinning machine The introduction of the "Hollander" or beat- ing engine for pulping rags in the manufac- ture of paper . . . Cut nails Embryo bicycle . Steam engine, the basis of the modern engine . . Gas balloon. . . Puddling iron Plow, with cast-iron mold board, and wrought- and cast-iron shares Power loom First steamboat in the United States Steam road wagon (first automobile). Grain threshing machine Hobby horse, forerunner of bicycle Rotary steam power printing-press, the first idea of Wood planing machine . Gas first used as an illuminant Cotton gin. . Art of lithogranhy Machine for making continuous webs of paper. Electric battery discovered . . Steam coach Wood mortising machine Pattern loom First fire-proof safe Steamboat on the Clyde, "Charlotte Dundas". First photographic experiments Planing machine The application of steam to the loom Steel pen Steam locomotive on rails. . Application of twin-screw propellers in steam navigation. . . . Process of making malleable-iron castings First life preserver Electro-plating. ... Knitting machine, the latch needle in the .... Steamboat navigation on the Hudson River. . . Percussion or detonating compound First street gas lighting in England Band wood saw. Voltaic arc First steamboat to make & trip to sea, the ' 'Phoenix". . Multi-wire telegraphy. . Revolving cylinder printing-press. . Bree^h-l^ar'ing shotgun Storage battery Dry pile (prototype of dry battery) . . First practical steam rotary printing-press, paper printed on both sides 220 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PROGRESS OF INVENTIONS Continued. Inventions. Date. Inventor. Nativity. Firsst locomotive in United States First circular wood saw made in this country . . Heliography 1814 1814 1814 1814 1815 1815 1816 1816 1817 1819 1819 1819 1820 1820 1821 1822 1822 1822 1823 1823 1823 1825 1825 1825 1826 1826 1827 1827 1827 1827 1827 1828 1828 1828 1828 1828 1829 1829 1829 1830 1831 1831 1832 1832 1832 1832 1832 1832 1833 1833 1834 1834 1834 1835 1836 1836 1836 j 1836 1 1841 1837 George Stephenson Benjamin Cummings Jos. N. Niepce Sir David Brewster Sir Humphry Davy S. Clegg Brunei. Baron von Drais George Clymer Laennec H. C. Oersted Thomas Blanchard Andre Ampere Bohenberg Michael Faraday Schweigger P. Force Charles Babbage. Prof. Seebeck Michael Faraday Ibbetson Joseph Aspdin Sturgeon Barlow George S. Ohm John Walker Friedrich Wohler George S. Ohm Cowper & Applegarth J. B. Neilson William Woodworth Joseph Henry Sequin John Thorp Samuel Rust A. C. Becquerel Brathwaite & Ericsson Michael Faraday G. J. Guthrie Prof. S. F. B. Morse Saxton Wm. Sturgeon Justus von Liebig M. W. Baldwin Sir Henry James George Stephenson Obed Hussey Cyrus H. McCormick M. H. Jacobi Runge H. Burden J. P. Daniell Edmund Davy Samuel Colt John Ericsson Henry Craufurd England Utd. States France England England England England Germany Utd. 'States France Germany Utd. States France Germany England Germany Utd. States England England England England England England England Germany Utd. States Germany Germany England Scotland Utd. States Utd. States France England Utd. States France England England Scotland Utd. States Utd. States England Germany Utd. States England England Utd. States Utd. States Russia Germany Utd. States England England Utd. States Utd. States England Kaleidoscope. . Dry gas meter Knitting machine. . . . ' ' Draisine " bicycle 1 'Columbian " press, elbowed pulling bar, num- ber of impressions per hour, 50 Stethoscope. . . Electro-magnetism discovered . Lathe for turning irregular wood forms The theory of electro-dynamics first propounded Electroscope The conversion of the electric current into me- chanical motion Galvanometer. . Calculating machine Discovery of thermo-electricity. . Liquefaction and solidification of gas Water gas r discovery of Portland cement Electro-magnet First passenger railway, opened between Stock- ton and Darlington, England Electrical spur wheel First railroad in United States, near Quincy, The law of galvanic circuits formulated Friction matches The reduction of aluminum Law of electrical resistance Improved rotary printing-press, London Times, 5,000 impressions per hour Hot air blast for iron furnaces. . Wood planing machine Spool electro-magnet , Tubular locomotive boiler Spinning ring frame. . . . The "Washington" printing-press, lever mo- tion and knuckle joint for a screw, number of impressions per hour, 200 First steam locomotive in United States, ' ' Stourbridge Lion" Double fluid galvanic battery First portable steam fire engine . Magneto-electric induction Chloroform First conception of electric telegraph First magneto-electric machines Rotary electric motor . . . Chloral-hydrate Locomotive, "Old Ironsides," built Link-motion for locomotives Adoption of steam whistle for locomotives. . . . Reciprocating saw-tooth cutter within double guard fingers for reapers ' 'McCormick" reaper Rotary electric motor . , . Carbolic acid discovered Horseshoe machine Constant electric battery Acetylene gas discovered The revolver; a device "for combining a num- ber of long barrels so as to rotate upon a spin- dle by the act of cocking the hammer " The ealvani/ing of iron. . . SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 221 PROGRESS OF INVENTIONS Continued. Inventions. Date. Inventor. Nativity. Indicator-telegraph Photographic carbon printing Babbitt metal 1837 1838 1839 Cooke & Wheatstone Mungo Ponton Isaac Babbitt England France Utd. States Vulcanization of rubber The first boat electrically propelled. . 1839 1839 Charles Goodyear Jacobi Utd. States Germany Daguerreotype 1839 Louis Daguerre K ranee (First to produce a direct photographic posi- tive in the camera by means of highly polished silver surfaced plate exposed to the vapors of iodine and subsequent development with mer- cury vapor.) Making photo-prints from paper negatives (First production of positive proofs from negatives.) Photographic portraits (Daguerreotype process. ) First incandescent electric lamp 1839 1839 1840 Fox Talbot Profs. Draper & Morse Grove England Utd. States England Celestial photography Artesian well Pneumatic caissons 1840 1840 1841 Draper M Triger Utd. States Paris France Pianoforte automatically played Water gas, utilization of 1842 1842 M. Seytre Selligne France France Steam hammer Typewriting machine p'irst telegram sent The use of nitrous oxide gas as an anaesthetic . . The electric arc light (gas retort carbon in a vacuum) First telegraphic message, Washington, Balti- 1842 1843 1844 1844 1844 1844 James Nasmyth Charles Thurber Prof. S. F B. Morse Dr. Horace Wells Leon Foucault Prof S F B Morse Scotland Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States France Utd. States Automatic adjustment of electric arc light car- bons. . . . 1845 Thomas Wright England Double cylinder printing-press. Pneumatic tire. Sewing machine 1845 1845 1846 R. Hoe & Co. R. W. Thompson Elias Howe Utd. States England Utd. States Printing telegraph 1846 House Utd. States Suez canal started. . . . 1846 De Lesseps France 1846 Utd. States Electric cautery, .... 1846 Crusell Russia Artificial limbs. . . 1846 Gun cotton First pianoforte keyboard player. . 1846 1846 Schi'mbein Germany France Chloroform in surgery Nitro-glycerine Time-lock 1847 1847 1847 Dr. Simpson Sobrero Savage Scotland Utd. States Hoe's lightning press, capable of printing 20,000 impressions per hour. . . 1847 Richard M. Hoe Utd. States Match-making machinery 1848 A. L. Dennison Utd. States Breech gun-lock, interrupted thread Magazine gun Steam pressure gauge Lenticular stereoscope Latch needle for knitting machine " 'Corliss " engine 1849 1849 1849 1849 1849 1849 Chambers Walter Hunt. Bourdon Sir David Brewster J. T. Hibbert G. H. Corliss Utd. States Utd. States France England Utd. States Utd. States Printing-press, curved plates secured to a ro- tating cylinder 1849 Jacob Worms France Mercerized cotton Collodion process in photography. . . . 1850 1850 John Mercer Scott Archer England England American maphine-made watches. 1850 Utd. States Electric locomotive Self-raker for harvesters Breech-loading rifle. ... 1851 1851 1851 Dr Page W. H. Seymour Utd. States Utd. States Utd States Icemaking machine Ophthalmoscope The Ruhmkorff coil Fire-alarm telegraph . . 1851 1851 1851 1852 J. Gorrie Helmholtz Ruhmkorff Utd. States Germany Germany Utd States Reticulated screen for half-tone photographic printing Soda process of making pulp from wood Laws of magneto-electric induction Laws of electro-statics. . . . 1852 1853 1853 1853 Fox Talbot Watt & Burgess Michael Faraday Michael Faraday England Utd. States England England 222 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PROGRESS OF INVENTIONS Continued. Inventions. Date. Inventor. Nativity. 1853 Michael Faraday Duplex telegraph Photographic roll films. . . . 1853 1854 Gintl Melhuish Austria England Diamond rock drill 1854 1854 Herman A B Wilson Utd. States Utd States Magazine firearm 1854 Smith & Wesson Utd State* Fat decomposed by water or steam at high tem- perature, since largely used in soap making. . Safety matches Iron-clad floating batteries first used in Cri- 1854 1855 1855 R. A. Tilghman Lundstrom Utd. States Sweden Cocaine. - 1855 Gaedeke Process of making steel, blowing air through molten pig iron 1855 Sir Henry Bessemer Dryplate photography .. 1855 Dr. J. M Taupenot Bicycle Sleeoing car . . . . 1855 1856 Ernst Michaux Woodruff France Utd States Aniline dyes Printing machine for the blind (contains ele- ments of the present typewriting machine) . . Regenerative furnace Refining engine in paper pulp making. . . . 1856 1856 1856 1856 Perkins Alfred E. Beach Wm. Siemens T. Kingsland England Utd. States England Utd States Coal-oil first sold in the United States First sea-going iron-clad war vessel, the "Glorie" 1857 1857 Messrs. Stout & Hand Utd. States Ground wood pulp Inclined elevator and platform in the reaper. . . Cable car Breech-loading ordnance. . . . 1858 1858 1858 1858 Henry Voelter J. S Marsh E. A. Gardner Wright & Gould Germany Utd. States Utd. States Utd States 1858 Giffard First Atlantic cable 1858 Cyrus Field Utd States Great Eastern launched 1859 1860 Gaston Plante" 1860 Philip Reis Ammonia absorption ice machine Improved stereotyping process Shoe-sewing machine 1860 1861 1861 F P. E. Carre Charles Craske George McKay France Utd. States Utd States Dnven well, a tube with a pointed perforated 1861 Col N W Green Utd States Passenger elevator Barbed-wire fence introduced . . 1861 1861 E. G. Otis Utd. States Utd States Calcium carbide produced. . 1862 Frederich Woehler Germany Revolving turret for floating battery 1862 1862 Theodore Timby Utd. States Utd States Catling gun Smokeless gunpowder 1862 1863 Dr. R. J. Catling J. F. E. Schultze Utd. States Prussia Pneumatic nianoforte player (regarded as first to strike keys by pneumatic pockets). . . . 1863 M Fourneaux Explosive gelatine 1864 A. Nobel France Rubber dental plate. . 1864 J. A. Cummings Utd States 1864 Jacob Behel Utd States Process of making fine steel. . 1865 Martin Utd States Antiseptic surgery 1865 Sir Joseph Lister Web-feeding printing-press 1865 William Bullock Utd. States Automatic shell ejector for revolver 1865 W. C. Dodge Utd States Open-hearth steel process. 1866 Siem ens-Martin Compressed air rock drill 1866 C. Burleigh. Utd. States Torpedo. . 1866 Whitehead Utd. States Dynamo electric machine Sulphite process for making paper pulp from wood. . . 1866 1867 Wilde Tilghmau England Utd States Dynamo electric machine Disappearing gun carriage First practical typewriting machine. . 1866 1868 1868 Siemens Moncrief C. L. Sholes Germany Englnnd Utd. States Dynamite Oleomargarine 186S 1868 A. Nobel H. Mece France France Water heater for steam fire engine , . 1868 W. A Brickell Utd States Sulky plow Railway air-brake Tunnel shield (operated by hydraulic power). . A curved spring tooth harrow 1868 1869 1869 1869 B. Slusser George Westinghouse Alfred E. Beach David L. Carver Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 223 PROGRESS OF INVENTIONS Continued. Inventions. Date. Inventor. Nativity. France Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States England Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States England Utd. States Utd. States England LTtd. States Utd. States England Utd. States Utd. States England Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Switzerland Utd. States Russia Utd. States Utd. States Coplay, Pa. Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States England Germany Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States France Germany Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Germany France Germany Germany France Utd. States Ge-many Utd. States Utd. States England Germany Dynamo-electric machine "... Celluloid Rebounding gun-lock. 1870 1870 1870 1871 1871 1871 1871 1871 18.72 1872 1872 1873 1873 1873 1873 1873 1873 1874 1874 1875 1875 1875 1875 1875 1876 1876 1876 1876 1876 1877 1877 1877 1877 1878 1878 1878 1879 1879 1879 1879 1879 1880 1880 1880 1880 1880 1881 1882 1881 1882 1882 1884 1884 1884 1884 1884 1884 1884 1885 1885 Gramme J. W. & Isaac Hyatt L. Hailer Goodyear R. L. Maddox Hoe & Tucker S. D. Locke S. Ingersoll J. Lyall Clerk Maxwell George Westinghouse E. H. Janney Willis T. A. Edison M. L. Gorham Charles Bennett Locke & Wood Glidden & Vaughan Sir William Thompson D. Brov^n T. S. C. Lowe F. Wegmann Geo. T. Smith R. P. Pictet Alex. G. Bell Paul Jablochkoff Russell D. C. Prescott T. A. Edison N. A. Otto T. A. Edison Emil Berliner T. A. Edison Mallon Gaily J. F. Appleby Sir Wm. Crookes Siemens W. Foy Lee Blake Greener Camille A. Faure Eberth & Koch Sternberg Reece Schmaele Wm. Schmid Robert Koch Louis Pasteur Robert Koch Loeffler Nicolaier Kuno Ottmar Mergenthaler George W. Marble Schultz Cowles Carl Welsbach The Goodyear welt shoe-sewing machine Photographic gelatino-bromide emulsion (basis of present rapid photography) Continuous web printing-press Grain binder. . . Compressed air rock drill Positive motion weaving loom. . . . Theory that light is an electric phenomenon. . . Automatic air brake Automatic car coupler. . . The photographic platinotype process (Prints by this process are permanent.) Twine binder for harvesters. . . '. Gelatino-bromide photographic emulsion (sen- sitiveness to light greatly increased by the application of heat). . Self-binding reaper Barbed-wire machine Si->hon recorder for submarine telegraphs Store cash carrier Illuminating water gas. . . Roller flour mills Middlings purifier for flour. . . . Ice-making machine Sneaking telephone Ele 'trie candle. . . . (The first step towards the division of the electric current for lighting.) Continuous machine for making tobacco cigar- ettes Steam faed saw mills. The first Portland cement plant in U. S Phonograph. . . . Ga^ engine Carbon microphone Telephone transmitter of variable resistance. . Carbon filament for electric lamp. . . . ( Beginning of the incandescent vacuum elec- tric light.) Rotary disk cultivator Decided advance in the "expression" of self- playing pianofortes Automatic grain binder. . . . Cathode rays discovered Electric railway Steam plow Magazine rifle. . . Hammerless gun . . . Storage battery or accumulator Typhoid bacillus isolated Pneumonia bacillus isolated. Button-hole machine Improvement in "expression" of self-playing pianofortes. . . Hand photographic camera for plates Tuberculosis bacillus isolated Hydrophobia bacillus isolated. . . Cholera bacillus isolated Diphtheria bacillus isolated Lockjaw bacillus isolated. . . . Antipyrene. Linotype machine The rear-driven chain safety bicycle. . . Chrome tanning of leather. . Process of reducing aluminum Gas burner 224 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PROGRESS OF INVENTIONS Continued. Inventions. Date. Inventor. i Nativity. Hydraulic dredge First electric railway in United States, Hamp- den and Baltimore, Md Contact device for overhead electric trolley. . . Graphophone 1885 1885 1885 1886 1886 1886 1887 1887 1887 1887 1888 1888 1888 1888 1889 1889 1889 1890 1890 1890 1890 1891 1891 1891 1891 1891 1891 1892 1893 1893 1893 1893 1895 1895 1895 1895 1896 1896 1896 1897 1900 1901 1901 1901 1902 1902 1903 1903 Bowers C. J. Van Depoele Bell & Tainter Elihu Thompson Matteson D. C. Prescott McArthur & Forrest Nicola Tesla Carl A. Von Welsbach Harvey Eastman & Walker H. DeChardonnet Heinrich Hertz Schneider Chas. M. Hall W. Stephens Ottmar Mergenthaler Krag-Jorgensen Edouard Branly C. A. Parsons G. F. Russell Brown Emile Berliner Northrup J. J. A. Trillat Kimball T. A. Edison E. G. Acheson Thos. L. Willson Carl Linde Prof. W. C. Roentgen Thomas L. Willson G. Marconi Henri Becquerel Niels R. Finsen Walter Nernst Peter Cooper Hewitt M. Santos-Dumont Deering Harvester Co Denny & Brothers Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Austria Utd. States Utd. States France Germany Coplay, Pa. Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Germany Utd. States England England Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States France Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Utd. States Germany Utd. States Germany Utd. States Italy France Denmark Germany Utd. States France Utd. States England Utd. States Germany Electric welding Combined harvester and thresher. Band wood saw Cyanide process of obtaining gold and silver. . System of polyphase electric currents . Incandescent gas light (The formation of a cone-shaped interwoven mantle of thread coated with a refractory rare earth and rendering the same incandescent by the heat rays of a Bunsen gas burner regardless of how the gas is produced.) Process of annealing armor plate "Kodak" snap-shot camera (Constructed to use a continuous sensitized ribbon film.) Process of making artificial silk. . . . Hertzian waves or electric-wave radiation .... First rotary cement kilns in U. S Nickel steel. . . Process for making aluminum Electric plow. . . Improved linotype machine Bicycles equipped with pneumatic tires Krag-Jorgensen magazine rifle "Coherer" for receiving electric waves Rotary steam turbine Cement-lined paper-pulp digester Round bale cotton press. Microphone Power loom. Commercial application of formic-aldehyde. . . Shoe-last lathe, for different lengths.* Kinetoscope Process for making carborundum. . . . Calcium carbide produced in electric furnace. . Process for liquefying air Electric locomotive, B. & O. Bell Tunnel X-rays Acetylene gas from calcium carbide System of wireless telegraphy Foundation laid of science of radio-activity, i.e., emanation of penetrating rays from lumi- nescent bodies Use of ultra-violet rays in treating diseases. . . Nernst electric light (Method of rendering a clay compound ca- pable of conducting electricity and thence be- coming brilliantly incandescent without a vacuum.) Mercury vapor electric light (An artificial light composed strictly of the ultra-blue violet rays of the spectrum obtained by passing an electric current through a partial vacuum tube filled with mercury vapor, the latter acting tis a conductor. Possesses re- markable actinic power for photographic pur- poses.) Air-ship Automobile mower The first passenger steam turbine ship, "Ed- ward VI I. " The first oil-burning steamship built in the United States, "Nevada" English Pacific cable, Canada- Australia American Pacific cable Berlin-Zossen Road, 130* miles an hour Encyclopedia Americana. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 225 GENERAL INFORMATION REGARDING PATENTS. WHAT is A PATENT? The term imtcnt or letters patent is derived from litterae patentes, signifying that which is open or disclosed in contradistinc- tion to lettre de cache, that which is sealed or secret. This term is the keynote of the whole principle upon which the patent system is built up, namely, disclosure. The disclosure must be honest, absolute and unre- served. The penalty for mental crook- edness or for ignorance in giving out fully and freely the nature of the in- vention is severe and direct and is nothing less than forfeiture of the pat- ent itself. The reason for this is per- fectly logical and arises from the very meaning, spirit and nature of the re- lationship existing between the pat- entee and the government. The term of a patent is 17 years. During this term of 17 years the patentee obtains a monopoly under which he secures ex- clusive right of manufacture, use and sale. The patent itself, however, is in the nature of a contract between the patentee and the government, presu- mably for their mutual benefit. The government grants to the inventor the exclusive right of manufacture and sale for 17 years on condition that the inventor shall disclose fully the nature of his invention or discovery, and shall allow the public the unrestricted use of the invention after this term has expired. If he fail in making full dis- closure, he has not lived up to the terms of the implied contract and the patent thereby becomes null and void. It sometimes happens that an inventor discloses freely part of the invention, but cunningly conceals some essential step in the process, but -if the case is tested within the courts and the real facts are brought to light, the patent will be declared invalid. At the end of the term of 17 years the patent be- comes public property, and the article may be freely manufactured by any one. It can never thereafter, as in so many cases in the Middle Ages, be- come a lost art. WHO MAY OBTAIN A PATENT? In order to secure a valid patent, the ap- plicant must declare upon oath that he believes himself to be the true, original and first inventor or discoverer of the art, machine, manufacture, composi- tion or improvement for which he so- licits a patent; that he does not know and does not believe that the same was ever before known or used ; and that the invention has not been in public use or on sale in the United States for more than two years before the appli- cation was tiled, and that the inven- tion has not been described in any printed publication for more than two years prior to the filing of the appli- cation. Any one who can subscribe to the above conditions may apply for a patent, irrespective of race, color, age, or nationality. Minors and women and even convicts may apply for pat- ents under our law. The rights even of a dead man in an invention are not lost, for an application may be filed in his name by his executor or adminis- trator, and the rights of his heirs thereby safeguarded. The patent in this case would issue to the executor or administrator and would become subject to the administration of the estate like any other property left by the deceased. Even the rights of an insane person may not be lost, as the application may be filed by his legal guardian. If foreign patents for the same invention have been previously issued, having been filed more than 12 months before the filing of the United States application, the patent would be refused. The applicant must state his nationality. It often happens that two or more individuals have jointly worked upon the invention, and in this case the several inventors should joint- ly apply for the patent. Should they not so apply, the patent when issued would be invalid. If they are merely partners, however, and not co-invent- ors, they should not apply jointly for a patent, as the inventor alone is en- titled to file the application. He may, however, assign a share in the patent to his partner, coupled with the re- quest that the patent should issue to them jointly. It is of the greatest im- portance that these distinctions should be clearly understood ; otherwise, the patent may be rendered invalid. WHAT MAY BE PATENTED? Any new and useful art, machine, manufac- ture or compos'tion of matter, or any new and useful improvements thereon. The thing invented must be new and useful. These are conditions precedent to the granting of a patent. Of these two conditions by far the more import- ant is the former, and it is concerning the interpretation of this word "new" and its bearing upon the invention that the principal work and labor in- volved in passing an application safely through the Patent Office is involved. When the invention has been worked 226 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. out by the inventor and he is pre- pared to file his application, his attor- ney prepares the n^es.ary takers, as Srovided for by law, namjiy : An ath, a Petition, a Specific Uion con- s'sting of a description of the inven- tion and concluding w th c aims which specifically set forth what the inventor claims to be the novel features of the invention, and drawings which are pre- pared and filed wi.h the ca^e, and in due course the application is ready for examination in the Patent Office. The question of whether the invention is new is then considered, and the bur- den of proof that the invention is not new rests upon the Patent Office. The examination consists in searching through the files of the Patent Office among the patents that have been al- ready issued, and through si ch litera- ture as may bear upon the subject. If any reference is discovered that an- ticipates the invention, as defined by the claims of the specification, the av- plicant is informed of the fact, and he is allowed to amend his pa. ers and narrow the claims so as to avoid the prior patents, if possible. If his at- torney considers the position of the Patent Office untenable, he may pre- sent arguments to show wherein he be- lieves that the inventor is entitled to a patent. It is thus seen that the ques- tion of whether an invention is new is one of fact, and one of the greatest importance, and upon the showing that the inventor is able to make during the prosecution of the case, depends largely the future success of the pat- ent. The evidence adduced in proving that the invention is not new must be tangible and accessible. A patent would not be refused or overturned on a mere mental concept. There must be some evidence of a substantial char- acter that serves to show that the earlier idea was reduced to practice or at least that there was such a de- script'on or drawinsr made, as would be sufficient for one skilled in the art to reduce the invention to practice. If it has not been actually reduced to prac- tice, it must be a concrete not an ab- stract idea. It is essential that the application for a patent should be filed before the invention has been in public use or on sale for a period of two years. If the inventor has publicly used or sold his invention for a period of two years, it becomes nuHic property and he can- not regain the right to obtain a pat- ent. He may. however, make models and experiment with his invention for a much longer period, provided he does not disclose his invention to the pub- lic or put it into actual use or on sale for a period of two years. The word "useful" is not one which usually gives either the Patent Office or the inventor a great deal of trouble, as any degree of utility, however insignifi- cant, will serve to entitle the invent- or to a patent. It has often hap- pened that an invention which ap- pears, at the time the patent is ap- plied for, to have no special utility, in later years, owing to new discoveries or improvements in the arts, is found to possess the greatest merit and value. Unless an invention is posi- tively meretricious, therefore, it is difficult to assume that it either has no utility or never will have any. Pat- ents are granted for "any new and useful art, machine, manufacture or composition of matter, or any improve- ment thereon." It is seen from the terms of the statute that almost any creature of the inventive faculty of man becomes a proper subject for a patent. The exceptions are very few. Patents will not be granted, for ex- ample, for any invention that offends the law of nature. Under this cate- gory may be mentioned perpetual mo- tion machines. In case an application of this character is presented, the Commissioner politely informs % the applicant that the matter cannot be considered until a working model demonstrating the principle of the in- vention has been deposited in the Pat- ent Office. Inventions of an immoral nature will not be considered. Medi- cines and specifics are not now proper subjects for letters patent, unless some important new discovery is involved. PATENTED ARTICLES MUST BE MARKED. Articles manufactured and sold under a patent- must be so marked that the public shall have notice that the article is a patented one. This notice consists of the word "Patented." together witli the date when the patent was issued or the Serial Number of the patent. Damages in an infringement suit cannot be recovered unless the defendant has received such notice that .the article is patented. The term of a United States patent is 17 years. This term cannot be extended excent by special Act of Congress. It is many years pince a bill seeking an ex- tension of the term of a patent has been passed bv Congress. APPEALS. If an appl : cation for a patent has been reiecfed, the at)r>licant may appeal from the Primary Examin- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 227 er to the Board of Examiners-in-Chief. He may further carry the appeal to the Commissioner of Patents, and in case he is not satisfied with the lat- ter decision, he may carry the appeal finally to the Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia. INTERFERENCE. If two or more in- dividuals shall have invented the same thing at or about the same time, inter- ference proceedings may be instituted to determine which applicant is the original or first inventor. Interference proceedings are instituted between ap- plicants whose applications are pend- ing or between a pending application and a patent already issued, provided the latter patent has not been issued for more than two years prior to the filing of the conflicting application. The proceedings are conducted before the Examiner of Interferences. Ap- peal may be taken from the Examiner of Interferences to the Board of Ex- aminers-in-Chief, and from the Board of Examiners-in-Chief to the Commis- sioner, and thence to the Court of Ap- peals of the District of Columbia. Not all the cla'ms for a patent are neces- sarily involved, only such as cover the particular feature of the invention which is declared to be in interference. The unsuccessful applicant by elimi- nating the claims or claim in contro- versy may procure allowance of the other cla'ms not objected to, and have the patent issued. In determining the question of priority of invention, wit- nesses are examined and the proceed- ings are conducted much in the same manner as in a suit at law. The first step in the proceeding cons : sts in filing with the Commissioner a Preliminary Statement made under oath, giving the date at which the invention was first conceived and reduced to some tangi- ble form, such as the making of draw- ings, the construction of a model, or the disclosing of the invention to an- other. The object of the subsequent examination and cross-examination is to substantiate the date of invention as claimed by the applicants respec- tively, and to establish the priority of invention. INFRINGEMENT. In case of an ac- tion for the infringement of a patent, the importance of the question of nov- elty appears from the special pleadings which the defendant may enter, which are as follows : 1. That for the purpose of deceiving the public the description and specifi- cation filed by the patentee in the Pat- ent Office was made to contain less than the whole truth relative to his invention or discovery, or more than is necessary to produce the desired effect ; or, 2. That he had surreptitiously or unjustly obtained the patent for that which was in fact invented by another, who was using reasonable diligence in adapting and perfecting the same; or, 3. That it had been patented or de- scribed in some printed publication prior to his supposed invention or dis- covery thereof ; or, 4. That he was not the original and first inventor or discoverer of any material and substantial part of the thing patented ; or, 5. That it has been in public use or on sale in this country for more than two years before his application for a patent, or had been abandoned to the public. Damages for infringement of a pat- ent may be recovered by action on the case in the name of the patentee or his assignee. The courts having juris- dict ; on over such cases have the power (1) to grant injunctions against the violation of any right secured by the patent; (2) to allow the recovery of damages sustained by the complain- ant through such infringement. In such a case the defendant is compelled to furnish an accounting showing the amount of the articles manufactured and sold and the profits derived from such sale. DESIGN PATENTS. Design patents are issued for any new or original de- sign, whether it be a work of art, statue, bas-relief, design for prints or fabrics, or for any new design or shape or ornament in any article of manufacture. The scope of the de- sign patent was formerly very broad, but recent decisions and enactments have greatly restricted its availability and a design patent cannot now be ob- tained unless it possesses some inher- ent artistic quality. Mere utility is not sufficient to entitle a new design to letters patent. The terms of design patents are 3 1-2, 7 or 14 years. CAVEATS. Any one who has made a new invention or discovery, which is not yet completed or perfected, may file in the Patent Office a caveat, de- scrilvng his invention, said caveat serving as notice to the Patent Office that the caveator is in possession of a certain invention partly developed, for which later he proposes to file an ap- plication for a patent. The caveat is filed by the Commission in the secret archives of the Patent Office, and is SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. operative for a term of one year. The term may he prolonged from year to year by the payment of a small fee. The caveat should not be confounded with a patent, for it gives the inventor no real protection or monopoly. It simply entitles him to notice in case another inventor files an application for the same invention. In this event the caveator is entitled to three months' grace within which to file his patent application, whereupon an in- terference will be declared between the two inventions. ASSIGNMENTS. A patent or any in- terest therein may be sold or assigned like any other piece of property. An inventor may sell or assign his in- terest or a part interest in his inven- tion, either before the application is filed or while the application is still pending. Under these circumstances the patent may be issued to the as- signee or to the inventor and assignee jointly. The patent, if already issued, may be assigned by the owner whether he be the inventor or assignee. The conveyance is effected by an instru- ment in writing stating the conditions under which the patent is assigned, and the assignment should be recorded in the Patent Office. Enc. Americana. ABSTRACTS OF DECISIONS. Where an inventor has completed his invention, if he neither applies for a patent nor puts it to practical use, a subsequent inventor who promptly applies is entitled to the patent, and the first one is deemed to have aban- doned his rights. Pattee v. Russell, 3 O. G., 181 ; Ex parte Carre, 5 O. G., 30; Johnson v. Root, 1 Fisher, 351. As between two rival inventors, the test of priority is the diligence of the one first to conceive it. If he has been diligent in perfecting it, he is entitled to receive the patent. If he has been negligent, the patent is awarded to his opponent. Robinson on Patents. Sec. 375. The construction and use in public of a working machine, whether the in- ventor has or has not abandoned it, excludes the grant of a patent to a subsequent inventor. An abandon- ment in such case inures to the bene- fit of the public and not to the bene- fit of a subsequent inventor. Young v. Van Duser, 16 O. G., 95. A mere aggregation or combination of old devices is not patentable when the elements are unchanged in func- tion and effect. They are patentable when, "by the action of the elements upon each other, or by their joint ac- tion on their common object, they per- form additional functions and accom- plish additional effects." Robinson on Patents, Sec. 154. A change of shape enabling an in- strument to perform new functions is invention. Wilson v. Coon, 18 Blatch. 532; Collar Co. v. White, 7 O. G., 690, 877. A patent which is simply for a meth- od of transacting business or keeping accounts is not valid. U. S. Credit System Co. v. American Indemnity Co., 63 O. G., 318. The law requires that manufactur- ers of patented articles give notice to the public that the goods are patented by marking thereon the date of the patent or giving equivalent notice. When this law is not complied with, only nominal damages can be recov- ered. Wilson v. Singer Mfg. Co., 4 Bann. & A. 637; McCourt v. Brodie, 5 Fisher, 384. To prevent fraudulent impositions on the public it is forbidden that un- patented articles be stamped "Pat- ented," and where this is done with intention to deceive, a penalty of one hundred dollars and costs for each article so stamped is provided. Any person may bring action against such offenders. Walker v. Hawxhurst, 5 Blatch. 494; Tompkins v. Butterfield, 25 Fed. Rep. 556. A patentee is bound by the limita- tions imposed on his patent, whether they are voluntary or enforced by the Patent Office, and if he accepts claims not covering his entire invention he abandons the remainder. Toepfer v. Goetz, 41 O. G., 933. Claims should be construed, if pos- sible, to sustain the patentee's right to all he has invented. Ransom v. Mayor of N. Y. (1856), Fisher, 252. The assignor of a patented invention is estopped from denying the validity of his own patent or his own title to the interest transferred. He cannot become the owner of an older patent and hold it against his assignee. Rob- inson on Patents, Sec. 787, and notes. Any assignment which does not con- vey to the assignee the entire and un- qualified monopoly which the patentee holds in the territory specified, or an undivided interest in the entire mo- nopoly, is a mere license. Sanford v. Messer, 2 O. G., 470. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 229 FOREIGN PATENTS. CANADA, DOMINION OF. The laws of Canada follow somewhat closely the practice in the United States. The term of a patent is 18 years. The gen- eral practice, however, is to divide the fees, making payment only for a term of six years at one time. Applications are subjected to examination as to novelty and usefulness, as in the United States. The application must be filed in Canada not later than dur- ing the year following the issue of the United States or other foreign patent. If the inventor neglects to file his ap- plication within the 12 months, the invention becomes public property. It is not permissible to import the pat-, euted article into the Dominion after 12 months from the date of the Cana- dian patent. Within two years from said date the manufacture and sale of the article under the patent must have been begun. These exactions may be relaxed under certain conditions. GREAT BRITAIN. The term of the patent is 14 years. . After January, 1905, an examination will be made in Great Britain to ascertain whether the invention has been disclosed in the specifications of British patents grant- ed within fifty years of the filing of the British application. While this will be the extent of the examination by the Patent Office, it will be sufficient to invalidate a British patent to show in court that the invention was published, or was in public use, in Great Brit- ain before the priority of the British application. In Great Britain the true inventor should apply for the patent in his own name ; but if the invention has been conceived in a foreign country, the first introducer may obtain the pat- ent whether he be the true inventor or not. Under these circumstances, there- fore, a foreign assignee may apply for the patent in his own name without the true inventor being known. After the fourth year there are annual taxes, gradually increasing in amount. The patent becomes void if the tax is not paid. No time is set within which the manufacture of the invention must be commenced, but after three years if the manufacture has not been begun, the patentee may be compelled to grant li- censes, or the patent may be declared invalid. FRANCE. The term of a patent is 15 years. There is no examination as to novelty, and the patent is granted to the first applicant, whether or not he be the true inventor. The life of the patent depends upon the payment of annual taxes. The patent must be worked in France within three years of the filing of the application. If these conditions are not complied with, the patent becomes public property. GERMANY. The term of a patent is 15 years. The patent is issued to the first applicant, but if he is not the true inventor he should, before filing the application, obtain the written consent of the inventor. The application is subjected to a rigid examination. The patent is subject to an annual progres- sive tax, and must be worked within a period of three years. AUSTRIA. The term of a patent is 15 years. The practice is somewhat similar to the practice in Germany, although the examination is generally not so exacting. The patent is subject to an annual tax and it must be worked within a period of three years. HUNGARY. The term of a patent is 15 years. The laws are similar to those of Germany. There is a progres- sive annual tax and the patent must be worked within a period of three years. BELGIUM. The term of a patent is 20 years. The first applicant obtains the patent whether or not he is the true inventor. There is a small an- nual tax, and the patent should be worked within three years or within one year of the working elsewhere. ITALY. The term of a patent is 15 years. The patent is granted to the first applicant. The patent is subject to an annual tax, and the working must take place within three years. RUSSIA. The term of the patent is 15 years. The patent is subject to the payment of annual taxes and must be worked within five years. SPAIN. The term of the patent is 20 years, subject to the payment of an- nual taxes. It must be worked within three years. The patent is issued to the first applicant, whether or not he be the true inventor. SWITZERLAND. The term of the patent is 15 years, subject to an an- nual tax. Working must take place within three years. Only the true in- ventor or his assignee can obtain a patent. NORWAY. Term of patent is 15 years, subject to a small annual tax. The patent must be worked within three years. The application must be filed in the name of the true inventor or his legal representative. Applica- 230 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. tion must be filed within six months of the publication of any prior patent. SWEDEN. Term of patent is 15 years, subject to payment of an an- nual tax. The conditions are very similar to the laws of Norway, but the application should be filed before the issuing of a prior foreign patent. DENMARK. -The laws are similar to those of Sweden. PORTUGAL. The term varies from 1 to 15 years, the fees payable depend- ing upon the term of the patent. HOLLAND has no patent laws. AUSTRALASIA. The Australasia patent protects an invention in Vic- toria, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania and West- ern Australia, but not in New Zealand, which has its own patent laws. The term of the Australia patent is 14 years, a tax being due before the ex- piration of the seventh year. When the patent is not worked the patentee may be required to give license for a reasonable consideration. NEW ZEALAND. The term of the patent is 14 years, taxes being due be- fore the end of the fourth and sev- enth years. There are no require- ments as to working. BRITISH INDIA. The patent is granted for 14 years, and closely fol- lows the British practice. The appli- cation should be filed within one year of the issue of the patent in any other country. PORTO Rico. It is possible to pro- cure protection for industrial property by registering a certified copy of the United States patent with the Civil Governor and complying with the other legal formalities. PHILIPPINES. The modus operand! is the same as that just described as applying to Porto Rico. CUBA. Since Cuba has become an independent republic it has established a patent system. The term of the pat- ent is 17 years. Working should be established within one year. No taxes after the issue of the patent. MEXICO. The term is 20 years. There are no taxes after the issue of the patent. SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Patents are issued by all the South American republics. The principal countries in which patent protection is sought are Brazil, in which the laws are quite favorable to foreigners, Chile and Argentina. Patents are also fre- quently secured in Venezuela, Peru. Ecuador, Colombia and Paraguay, but only for certain classes of invention, owing to the expense involved in pro- curing the patents. SOUTH AFRICA. Patents are obtain- able in four important states, Cape Colony, Transvaal. Congo Free State and Orange Free State. JAPAN has recently enacted a sys- tem of patent laws on a liberal basis. CHINA has no patent laws nor pat- ent office. The conditions under which foreign- ers may file applications in the coun- tries having patent laws vary great- ly, and no attempt has been made to specify under what conditions ap- plications may be filed. In most coun- tries, however, the issuance of a prior foreign patent will either defeat the is- suance of the patent subsequently ap- plied for in another country, or will render the patent invalid even if it is issued. Great care should be taken, therefore, to avoid having a foreign patent issue at such a time as to en- danger the life of the patent at home. The many dangers and difficulties which have arisen from the differing laws and the varying practice in dif- ferent countries have led to the es- tablishment of rectifying provisions which lessen these various disparities and rendering them innocuous. Encyclopedia Americana. PATENT LAWS OF THE UNITED STATES. [The Constitutional Provision. The Congress shall have power * * * to promote the progress of Science and Useful Arts, by securing for limit- ed Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.] STATUTES. ORGANIZATION OF THE PATENT OFFICE. TITLE XI. Rev. Stat., p. 80: Sec. 475. There shall be in the De- partment of the Interior an office known as the Patent Office, where all records, books, models, drawings, speci- fications, and other papers and things pertaining to patents shall be safely kept and preserved. Sec. 47(>. There shall be in the Patent Office a Commissioner of Pat- ents, one Assistant Commissioner, and three examiners-in-chief. who shall be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. All other officers, clerks, and employees authorized by law for the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 231 Office shall be appointed by the Sec- retary of the Interior, upon the nomi- nation of the Commissioner of Pat- ents. COURTS. Sec. 629. The circuit, courts shall have original jurisdiction * of all suits at law or in equity arising under the patent copyright laws of the United States. TITLE XIII, Rev. Stat, p. 169: Sec. 893. Copies of the specifica- tions and drawings of foreign letters patent certified. as provided in the pre- ceding section, shall be prima facie evidence of the fact of the granting of such letters patent, and of the date and contents thereof. Sec. 894. The printed copies of specifications and drawings of patents, which the Commissioner of Patents is authorized to print for gratuitous dis- tribution, and to deposit in the capi- tols of the Slates and Territories, and in the clerks' offices of the district courts, shall, when certified by him and authenticated by the seal of his office, be received in all courts as evi- dence of all matters therein contained. Sec. 1537. No patented article connected with marine engines shall hereafter be purchased or used in con- nection with any steam vessels of war until the same shall have been sub- mitted to a competent board of naval engineers, and recommended by such board, in writing, for purchase and use. TITLE XVII, Rev. Stat., p. 292: Sec. 1673. No royalty shall be paid by the United States to any one of its officers or employees for the use of any patent for the system, or any part theeof, mentioned in the preceding section, nor for any such patent in which said officers or employees may be directly or indirectly interested. PATENTS. TITLE LX, .Rev. Stat., 1878, chap. 1, p. 945: Sec. 4883. All patents shall be is- sued in the name of the United States of America, under the seal of the Pat- ent Office, and shall be signed by the Commissioner of Patents, and they shall be recorded, together with the specifications, in the Patent Office in books to be kept for that purpose. Sec. 4884. Every patent shall con- tain a short title or description of the invention or discovery, correctly indicating its nature and design, and a grant to the patentee, his heirs or as- signs, for the term of seventeen years, of the exclusive right to make, use, and vend the invention or discovery throughout the United States and the Territories thereof, referring to the specification for the particulars there- of. A copy of the specification and drawings shall be annexed to the pat- ent and be a part thereof. Sec. 4885. Every patent shall bear date as of a day not later than six months from the time at which it was passed and allowed and notice thereof was sent to the applicant or his agent ; and if the final fee is not paid within that period the patent shall be with- held. Sec. 4886. Any person who has in- vented or discovered any new and use- ful art, machine, manufacture, or com- position of matter, or any new and useful improvements thereof, not known or used by others in this coun- try, before his invention or discovery thereof, and not patented or described in any printed publication in this or any foreign country, before his in- vention or discovery thereof, or more than two years prior to his applica- tion, and not in public use or on sale in this country for more than two years prior to his application, unless the same is proved to have been aban- doned, may, upon payment of the fees required by law, and other due pro- ceeding had, obtain a patent therefor. The Secretary of the Interior and the Commissioner of Patents are au- thorized to grant any officer of the Government, except officers and em- ployees of the Patent Office, a patent for any invention of the classes men- tioned in section 4886 of the Revised Statutes when such invention is used or to be used in the public service, without the payment of any fee: Provided, That the applicant in his application shall state that the in- vention described therein, if patented, may be used by the Government, or any of its officers or employees in prose- cution of work for the Government, or by any other person in the United Spates, without the payment to him of any royalty thereon, which stipula- tion shall be 'included in the patent. Sec. 4887. No person otherwise en- titled thereto shall be debarred from receiving a patent for his invention or discovery, nor shall any patent be de- clared invalid by reason of its having been first patented or caused to be patented by the inventor or his legal representatives or assigns in a foreign 232 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. country, unless the application for said foreign patent was filed more than twelve months, in cases within the pro- visions of section 4880 of the Revised Statutes, and four months in cases of designs, prior to the filing of the application in this country, in which case no patent shall be granted in this country. An application for patent for an in- vention or discovery or for a design filed in this country by any person who has previously regularly filed an application for a patent for the same invention, discovery, or design in a foreign country which, by treaty, con- vention, or law, affords similar privi- leges to citizens of the United States shall have the same force and effect as the same application would have if filed in this country on the date on which the application for patent for the same invention, discovery, or de- sign was first filed in such foreign country, provided the application in this country is filed within twelve months in cases within the provisions of section 488(3 of the Revised Stat- utes, and within four months in cases of designs, from the earliest date on which any such foreign application was filed. But no patent shall be granted on an application for patent for an invention or discovery or a de- sign which had been patented or de- scribed in a printed publication in this or any foreign country more than two years before the date of the ac- tual filing of the application in this country, or which had been in public use or on sale in this country for more than two years prior to such filing. Sec. 4888. Before any inventor or discoverer shall receive a patent for his invention or discovery, he shall make application therefor, in writing, to the Commissioner of Patents, and shall file in the Patent Office a writ- ten description of the same, and of the manner and process of making, constructing, compounding, and using it, in such full, clear, concise, and ex- act terms as to enable any person skilled in the art or science to which it appertains, or with which it is most nearly connected, to make, construct, compound, and use the same : and in case of a machine, he shall explain the principle thereof, and the best mode in which he has contemplated applying that principle, so as to dis- tinguish it from other inventions ; and he shall particularly point out and distinctly claim the part, improvement, or combination which he claims as his invention or discovery. The specifica- tion and claim shall be signed by the inventor and attested by two wit- nesses. Sec. 4889. When the nature of the case admits of drawings, the applicant shall furnish one copy signed by the inventor or his attorney in fact, and attested by two witnesses, which shall be filed in the Patent Office ; and a copy of the drawing, to be furnished by the Patent Office, shall be attached to the patent as a part of the specifi- cation. Sec. 4890. When the invention or discovery is of a composition of mat- ter, the applicant, if required by the Commissioner, shall furnish specimens of ingredients and of the composition, sufficient in quantity for the purpose of experiment. Sec. 4891. In all cases which ad- mit of representation by model, the applicant, if required by^the Commis- sioner, shall furnish a model of con- venient size to exhibit advantageously the several parts of his invention or discovery. Sec. 4892. The applicant shall make oath that he does verily believe himself to be the original and first in- ventor or discoverer of the art, ma- chine, manufacture, composition, or improvement for which he solicits a patent ; that he does not know and does not believe that the same was ever before known or used ; and shall state of what country he is a citizen. Such oath may be made before any person within the United States au- thorized by law to administer oaths, or, when the applicant resides in a forengn country, before any minister, charge d'affaires, consul, or commer- cial agent holding commission under the Government of the United States, or before any notary public, judge, or magistrate having an official seal and authorized to administer oaths in the foreign country in which the applicant may be, whose authority shall be proved by certificate of a diplomatic or consular officer of the United States. Sec. 4893. On the filing of any such application and the payment of the fees required by law, the Commis- sioner of Patents shall cause an exam- ination to be made of the alleged new invention or discovery ; and if on such examination it shall appear that the claimant is justly entitled to a patent under the law, and that the same is sufficiently useful and important, the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 233 Commissioner shall issue a patent therefor. Sec. 4894. All applications for pat- ents shall be completed and prepared for examination within one year after the filing of the application, and in de- fault thereof, or upon failure of the applicant to prosecute the same with- in one year after any action therein, of which notice shall have been given to the applicant, they shall be regarded as abandoned by the parties thereto, unless it be shown to the satisfaction of the Commissioner of Patents that such delay was unavoidable. Sec. 4895. Patents may be granted and issued or reissued to the assignee of the inventor or discoverer ; but the assignment must first be entered of record in the Patent Office. And in all cases of an application by an as- signee for the issue of a patent, the application shall be made and the specification sworn to by the inventor or discoverer ; and in all cases of an application for a reissue of any patent, the application must be made and the corrected specification signed by the inventor or discoverer, if he is living, unless the patent was is- sued and the assignment made before the eighth day of July, 1870. Sec. 4896. When any person, hav- ing made any new invention or dis- covery for which a patent might have been granted, dies before a patent is granted, the right of applying for and obtaining the patent shall devolve on his executor or administrator, in trust for the heirs at law of the deceased, in case he shall have died intestate ; or if he shall have left a will disposing of the same, then in trust for his de- visees, in as full manner and on the same terms and conditions as the same might have been claimed or enjoyed by him in his lifetime ; and when the application is made by such legal rep- resentatives, the oath or affirmation required to be made shall be so varied in form that it can be made by them. The executor or administrator duly au- thorized under the law of any foreign country to administer upon the estate of the deceased inventor shall, in case the said inventor was not domiciled in the United States at the time of his death, have the right to apply for and obtain the patent. The authority of such foreign executor or administrator shall be proved by certificate of a diplomatic or consular officer of the United States. Sec. 4897. Any person who has an interest in an invention or discovery, whether as inventor, discoverer, or as- signee, for which a patent was order- ed to issue upon the payment of the final fee, but who fails to make pay- ment thereof within six months from the time at which it was passed and allowed, and notice thereof was sent to the applicant or his agent, shall have a right to make an application for a patent for such invention or dis- covery the same as in the case of an original application. But such second application must be made within two years after the allowance of the ori- ginal application. But no person shall be held responsible in damages for the manufacture or use of any article or thing for which a patent was ordered to issue under such re- newed application prior to the issue of the patent. And upon the hear- ing of renewed applications pre- ferred under -this section, abandon- ment shall be considered as a question of fact. Sec. 4898. Every patent or any in- terest therein shall be assignable in law by an instrument in writing, and the patentee or his assigns or legal representatives may in like manner grant and convey an exclusive right under his patent to the whole or any specified part of the United States. An assignment, grant, or conveyance shall be void as against any subse- quent purchaser for mortgagee or a valuable consideration, without notice, unless it is recorded in the Patent Office within three months from the date thereof. If any such assignment, grant, or conveyance of any patent shall be ac- knowledged before any notary public of the several States or Territories or the District of Columbia, or any com- missioner of the United States Circuit Court, or before any secretary of le- gation or consular officer authorized to administer oaths or perform nota- rial acts under section 1750 of the Revised Statutes, the certificate of such acknowledgment, under the hand and official seal of such notary or oth- er officer, shall be prima facie evidence of the execution of such assignment, grant or conveyance. Sec. 4899. Every person who pur- chases of the inventor or discoverer, or, with his knowledge and consent, constructs any newly invented or dis- covered machine, or other patentable article, prior to the application by the inventor or discoverer for a patent, or who sells or uses one so constructed, shall have the right to use, and vend 234 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. l_- _ ^- - . __ .. r . _ _ _ ^- _ -I ~7?ccl lllp!h <3tozx&e' Cell/ ^^^^^^^ JfaSif^y Zto;/t&Z0rt' ^\\\\\\\\\ Sneeze** "BT 3 f *U3G> 5wti&l/ Afol07-&encn2Zor* (OD ] f ) P ZJ?an#tni%er: -x x-x-x x 1 7?ote JB ///////AjXD CONVENTIONAL SIGNS USED IN U. S. PATENT OFFICE DRAWINGS. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 235 to others to be used, the specific thing so made or purchased, without liability therefor. Sec. 4900. It shall be the duty of all patentees, and their assigns and legal representatives, and of all per- sons making or vending any patented article for or under them, to give suffi- cient notice to the public that the same is patented either by fixing thereon the word "patented," together with the day and year the patent was granted ; or when, from the character of the ar- ticle, this cannot be done, by fixing to it, or to the package wherein one or more of them is inclosed, a label con- ta ning the like notice; and in any suit for infringement, by the party failing so to mark, no damages shall be recovered by the plaintiff, except on proof that the defendant was duly notified of the infringement, and con- tinued, after such notice, to make, use, or vend the article so patented. Sec. 4901. Every person who, in any manner, marks upon anything made, used, or sold by him for which he has not obtained a patent, the name or any imitation of the name of any persons who has obtained a pat- ent therefor, without the consent of such patentee, or his assigns or legal representatives ; or Who, in any manner-, marks upon or affixes to any such patented article the word "patent" or "patentee," or the words "letters patent," or any word of like import, with intent to imi- tate or counterfeit the mark or device of the patentee, without having the license or consent of such patentee or his assigns or legal representatives; or Who, in any manner, marks upon or affixes to any unpatented article the word "patent" or any word importing that the same is patented, for the pur- pose of deceiving the public, shall be liable, for every such offense, to a penalty of not less than one hundred dollars, with costs; one-half of said penalty to the person who shall sue for the same, and the other to the use of the United States, to be recovered by suit in any district court of the United States, within whose jurisdic- t'on such offense may have been com- mitted. Sec. 4902. Any person who makes any new invention or discovery and desires further time to mature the fame may. on pavment of the fees re- quired by law, file in the Patent Office a caveat setting forth the design there- of and of its distinguishing charac- teristics and praying protection of his right until he shall have matured his invention. Such caveat shall be filed in the confidential archives of the office and preserved in secrecy, and shall be operative for the term of one year from the filing thereof; and if appli- cation is made within the year by any other persons for a patent with which such caveat would in any manner in- terfere th*e Commissioner shall deposit the description, specification, drawings, and model of such application in like manner in the confidential archives of the office, and give notice thereof by mail to the person by whom the ca- veat was filed. If such person desires to avail himself of his caveat he shall tile his description, specifications, drawings, and model within three months from the time of placing the notice in the post-office in Washington, with the usual time required for trans- mitting it to the caveator added there- to, which time shall be indorsed on the notice. Sec. 4903. Whenever, on examina- tion, any claim for a patent is re- jected, the Commissioner shall notify the applicant thereof, giving him brief- ly the reasons for such rejection, to- gether with such information and ref- erences as may be useful in judging of the propriety of renewing his applica- tion or of altering his specification ; and if, after receiving such notice, the applicant persists in. his claim for a patent, with or without alter- ing his specifications, the Commission- er shall order a re-examination of the case. Sec. 4904. Whenever an applica- tion is made for a patent which, in the opinion of the Commissioner, would interfere with any pending ap- plication, or with any unexpired pat- ent, he shall give notice thereof to the applicants, or applicant and patentee, as the case may be, and shall direct the primary examiner to proceed to deter- mine the question of priority of inven- tion. And the Commissioner may is- sue a patent to the party who is ad- judged the prior inventor, unless the adverse party appeals from the deci- sion of the primary examiner, or of the board of examiners-in-chief, as the case may be, within such time, not less than tw r enty days, as the Commissioner shall prescribe. Sec. 4905. The Commissioner of Patents may establish rules for taking affidavits and depositions reauired in cases pending in the Patent Office, and such affidavits and depositions may be 236 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. taken before any officer authorized by law to take depositions to be used in the courts of the United States or of the State where the officer resides. Sec. 4906. The clerk of any court of the United States, for any district or Territory wherein testimony is to be taken for use in any contested case pending in the Patent Office, shall, upon the application of any party thereto, or of his agent or attorney, issue a subpoena for any witness re- siding or being within such district or Territory, commanding him to appear and testify before any officer in such district or Territory authorized to take depositions and affidavits, at any time and place in the subpoena stated. But no witness shall be required to attend at any place more than forty miles from the place where the subpoena is served upon him. Sec. 4907. Every witness duly sub- poenaed and in attendance shall be al- lowed the same fees as are allowed to witnesses attending the courts of the United States. Sec. 4908. Whenever any witness, after being duly served with such sub- poena, neglects or refuses to appear, or after appearing refuses to testify, the judge of the court whose clerk is- sued the subpoena may, on proof of such neglect or refusal, enforce obedi- ence to the process, or punish the dis- obedience, as in other like cases. But no witness shall be deemed guilty of contempt for disobeying such subpoena, unless his fees and traveling expenses in going to, returning from, and one day's attendance at the place of exam- ination, are paid or tendered him at the time of the service of the subpoena ; nor for refusing to disclose any secret invention or discovery made or owned by himself. Sec. 4909. Every applicant for a patent or for the reissue of a patent, any of the claims of which have been twice rejected, and every party to an interference, may appeal from the de- cision of the primary examiner, or of the examiner in charge of interferences in such case, to the board of examin- ers-in-chief ; having once paid the fee for such appeal. Sec. 4910. If such party is dissat- isfied with the decision of the examin- ers-in-chief, he may, on payment of the fee prescribed, appeal to the Com- missioner in person. Sec. 4911. If such party, except a party to an interference, is dissatis- fied with the decision of the Commis- sioner, he may appeal to the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, sitting in bane. Sec. 4912. When an appeal is taken to the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, the appellant shall give notice thereof to the Com- missioner, and file in the Patent Office within such time as the Commissioner shall appoint, his reasons of appeal, specifically set forth in writing. Sec. 4913. The court shall, before hearing such appeal, give notice to the Commissioner of the time and place of the hearing, and on receiving such no- tice the Commissioner shall give no- tice of such time and place in such manner as the court may prescribe, to all parties who appear to be interested therein. The party appealing shall lay before the court certified copies of all the original papers and evidence in the case, and the Commissioner shall furnish the court with the grounds of his decision, fully set forth in writing, touching all the points involved by the reasons of appeal. And at the request of any party interested, or of the court, the Commissioner and the exam- iners may be examined under oath, in explanation of the principles of the thing for which a patent is demanded. Sec. 4914. The court, on petition, shall hear and determine such appeal, and revise the .decision appealed from in a summary way, on the evidence produced before the Commissioner, at such early and convenient time as the court may appoint ; and the revision shall be confined to the points set forth in the reasons of appeal. After hearing the case the court shall return to the Commissioner a certificate of its proceedings and decision, which shall be entered of record in the Patent Office, and shall govern the further proceedings in the case. But no opin- ion or decision of the court in any such case shall preclude any person interested from the right to contest the validity of such patent in any court wherein the same may be called in question. Sec. 4915. Whenever a patent on application is refused, either by the Commissioner of Patents or by the Supreme Court of the District of Co- lumbia upon appeal from the Com- missioner, the applicant may have remedy by bill in equity ; and the court having cognizance thereof, on notice to adverse parties and other due proceedings had, may adjudge that such applicant is entitled, according to law, to receive a patent for his inven- tion, as specified in his claim, or for SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 2B7 any part thereof, as the facts in the case may appear. And such adjudica- tion, if it be in favor of the right of the applicant, shall authorize the Commis- sioner to issue such patent on the ap- plicant filing in the Patent Office a copy of the adjudication, and other- wise complying with the requirements of law. In all cases where there is no opposing party, a copy of the bill shall be served on the Commissioner ; and all the expenses of the proceeding shall be paid by the applicant, whether the final decision is in his favor or not. R. S., U. S., Sup., Vol. 2, c. 74, Feb. 9, 1893. Be it enacted, etc., That there shall be, and there is hereby, established in the District of Colum- bia a court, to be known as the court of appeals of the District of Colum- bia. Sec. 0. That the said court of ap- peals shall establish a term of the court during each and every month in each year excepting the months of July and August. Sec. 8. That any final judgment or decree of the said court of appeals may be re-examined and affirmed, re- versed, or modified by the Supreme Court of the United States, upon writ of error or appeal, in all causes in which the matter in dispute, exclusive of costs, shall exceed the sum of five thousand dollars, in the same manner and under the same regulations as heretofore provided for in cases of writs of error on judgment or appeals from decrees rendered in the supreme court of the District of Columbia ; And also in cases, without regard to the sum or value of the matter in dis- pute, wherein is involved the validity of any patent or copyright, or in which is drawn in question the validity of a treaty or statute of or an authority exercised under the United States. Be it enacted 6i/ the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled. That in any case heretofore made final in the court of appeals of the District of Columbia it shall be competent for the Supreme Court to require, by certiorari or otherwise, any such case to be certified to the Supreme Court for its review and de- termination, with the same power and authority in the case as if it had been carried by appeal or writ of error to the Supreme Court. Sec. 9. That the determination of appeals from the decision of the Com- missioner of Patents, now vested in the general term of the supreme court of the District of Columbia, in pur- suance of the provisions of section 780 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, relating to the District of Co- lumbia, shall hereafter be and the same is hereby vested in the court of ap- peals created by this act ; And in addition, any party ag- grieved by a decision of the Commis- sioner of Patents in any interference case may appeal therefrom to said court of appeals. TITLE LX, Rev. Stat., 1878, p. 950 : Sec. 4916. Whenever any patent is inoperative or invalid, by reason of a defective or insufficient specification, or by reason of the patentee claiming as his own invention or discovery more than he had a right to claim as new, if the error has arisen by inad- vertence, accident, or mistake, and without any fraudulent or deceptive intention, the Commissioner shall, on the surrender of such patent and the payment of the duty required by law, cause a new patent for the same inven- tion, and in accordance with the cor- rected specification, to be issued to the patentee, or. in case of his death or of an assignment of the whole or any undivided part of the original patent, then to his executors, administrators, or assigns, for the unexpired part of the term of the original patent. Such surrender shall take effect upon the is- sue of the amended patent. The Com- missioner may, in his discretion, cause several patents to be issued for dis- tinct and separate parts of the thing patented, upon demand of the appli- cant, and upon payment of the re- quired fee for a reissue for each of such reissued letters patent. The specifications and claim in every such case shall be subject to revision and restriction in the same manner as ori- ginal applications are. Every patent so reissued, together with the cor- rected specifications, shall have the same effect and operation in law, on the trial of all actions for causes thereafter arising, as if the same had been originally filed in such correct- ed form ; but no new matter shall be introduced into the specification, nor in case of a machine patent shall the model or drawings be amended, except each by the other ; but when there is neither model nor drawing, amend- ments may be made upon proof satis- factory to the Commissioner that such new matter or amendment was a part of the original invention, and was omitted from the specification by inad- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. vertence, accident, or mistake, as aforesaid. Sec. 4917. Whenever, through in- advertence, accident, or mistake, and without any fraudulent or deceptive intention, a patentee has claimed more than that of which he was the original or first inventor or discoverer, his pat- ent shall be valid for all that part which is truly and justly his own, pro- vided the same is a material or sub- stantial part of the thing patented ; and any such patentee, his heirs or as- signs, whether of the whole or any sectional interest therein, may, on pay- ment of the fee required by law, make disclaimer of such parts of the thing patented as he shall not choose to claim or to hold by virtue of the pat- ent or assignment, stating therein the extent of his interest in such patent. Such disclaimer shall be in writing, attested by one or more witnesses, and recorded in the patent office ; and it shall thereafter be considered as part of the original specification to the ex- tent of the interest possessed by the claimant and by those claiming under him after the record thereof. But no such disclaimer shall affect any action pending at the time of its being filed, except so far as may relate to the question of unreasonable neglect or delay in filing it. Sec. 4918. Whenever there are in- terfering patents, any person interest- ed in any one of them, or in the work- ing of the invention claimed under either of them, may have relief against the interfering patentee, and all par- ties interested under him, by suit in equity against the owners of the in- terfering patent ; and the court, on notice to adverse parties, and other due proceedings had according to the course of equity, may adjudge and de- clare either of the patents . void in whole or in part, or inoperative, or in- valid in any particular part of the United States, according to the inter- est of the parties in the patent or the invention patented. But no such judgment or adjudication shall affect the right of any person except the par- ties to the suit and those deriving title under them subsequent to the rendition of such judgment. Sec. 4919. Damages for the in- fringement of any patent may be re- covered by action on the case, in the name of the party interested either as patentee, assignee, or grantee. And whenever in any such action a verdict is rendered for the plaintiff, the court may enter judgment thereon for any sum above the amount found by the verdict as the actual damages sustain- ed, according to the circumstances of the case, not exceeding three times the amount of such verdict, together with the costs. Sec. 4920. In any action for in- fringement the defendant may plead the general issue, and, having given notice in writing to the plaintiff or his attorney thirty days before, may prove on trial any one or more of the fol- lowing special matters : First. That for the purpose of de- ceiving the public the description and specification filed by the patentee in the Patent Office was made to contain less than the whole truth relative to his invention or discovery, or more than is necessary to produce the de- sired effect ; or, Second. That he had surrepti- tiously or unjustly obtained the patent for that which was in fact invented by another, who was using reasonable diligence in adapting and perfecting the same ; or, Third. That it has been patented or described in some printed publica- tion prior to his supposed invention or discovery thereof, or more than two years prior to his application for a patent therefor ; or, Fourth. That he was not the ori- ginal and first inventor or discoverer of any material and substantial part of the thing patented ; or, Fifth. That it had been in public use or on sale in this country for more than two years before his application for a patent, or had been abandoned to the public. And in notices as to proof of previ- ous invention, knowledge, or use of the thing patented, the defendant shall state the names of the patentees and the dates of their patents, and when granted, and the names and residences of the persons alleged to have invented or to have had the prior knowledge of the thing patented, and where and by whom it had been used ; and if any one or more of the special matters alleged shall be found for the defendant, judg- ment shall be rendered for him with costs. And the like defenses may be pleaded in any suit in equity for re- lief against an alleged infringement ; and proofs of the same may be given upon like notice in the answer of the defendant, and with the like effect. Sec. 4921. The several courts vest- ed with jurisdiction of cases arising under the patent laws shall have pow- er to grant injunctions according to SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 239 the course and principles of courts of equity, to prevent the violation of any right secured by patent, on such terms as the court may deem reasonable ; and upon a decree being rendered in any such case for an infringement the com- plainant shall be entitled to recover, in addition to the profits to be accounted for by the defendant, the damages the complainant has sustained thereby ; and the court shall assess the same or cause the same to be assessed under its direction. And the court shall have the same power to increase such dam- ages, in its discretion, as is given to increase the damages found by ver- dicts in actions in the nature of ac- tions of trespass upon the case. But in any suit or action brought for the infringement of any patent there shall be no recovery of profits or damages for any infringement com- mitted more than six years before the filing of the bill of complaint or the issuing of the writ in such suit or action, and this provision shall apply to existing causes of action. Sec. 4022. Whenever, through in- advertence, accident, or mistake, and without any wilful default or intent to defraud or mislead the public, a pat- entee has. in his specification, claimed to be the original and first inventor or discoverer of any material or substan- tial part of the thing patented, of which he was not the original and first inventor or discoverer, every such pat- entee, his executors, administrators, and assigns, whether of the whole or any sectional interest in the patent, may maintain a suit at law or in equity, for the infringement of any part thereof, which was bona fide his own. if it is a material and substan- tial part of the thing patented, and definitely distinguishable from the parts claimed without right, notwith- standing the specifications may em- brace more than that of which the patentee was the first inventor or dis- coverer. But in every such case in which a judgment or decree shall be rendered for the plaintiff, no costs shall be recovered unless the proper disclaimer has been entered at the Patent Office before the commence- ment of the suit. But no patentee shall be entitled to the benefits of this section if he has unreasonably neg- lected or delayed to enter a dis- claimer. Sec. 4923. Whenever it appears that a patentee, at the time of making his application for the patent, believed himself to be the original and first in- ventor or discoverer of the thing pat- ented, the same shall not be held to be void on account of the invention or discovery, or any part thereof, having been known or used in a foreign coun- try, before his invention or discovery thereof, if it had not been patented or described in a printed publication. DESIGNS. Sec. 4929. Any person who has in- vented any new, original, and orna- mental design for an article of manu- facture, not know 7 n or used by others in this country before his invention thereof, and not patented or described in any printed publication in this or any foreign country before his inven- tion thereof, or more than two years prior to his application, and not in public use or on sale in this country for more than two years prior to his application, unless the same is proved to have been abandoned, may, upon payment of the fees required by law and other due proceedings had. the same as in cases of invention or dis- coveries covered by section 4886, ob- tain a patent therefor. Sec. 4930. The Commissioner may dispense with models of designs when I the design can be sufficiently repre- | sented by drawings or photographs. Sec. 4931. Patents for designs may I be granted for the term of three years I and six months, or for seven years, or for fourteen years, as the applicant I may, in his application, elect. Sec. 4932. Patentees of designs is- sued prior to the second day of March. 1861, shall be entitled to extension of their respective patents for the term of seven years, in the same manner and under the same restrictions as are provided for the extension of patents for inventions or discoveries issued rior to the second day of March. Sec. 4933. All the regulations and provisions which apply to obtaining or protecting patents for inventions or discoveries not inconsistent with the provisions of this Title, shall apply to patents for designs. CHAPTER 105. AN ACT TO AMEND THE LAW RELATING TO PATENTS, TRADE-MARKS, AND COPYRIGHTS. Be it enacted, etc., That hereafter, during the term of letters patent for a design, it shall be unlawful for any person other than the owner of said letters patent, without the license of such owner, to apply the design se- 240 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. cured by such letters patent, or any colorable imitation thereof, to any article of manufacture for the pur- pose of sale, or to sell or expose for sale any article of manufacture to which such design or colorable imita- tion shall, without the license of the owner, have been applied, knowing that the same has been so applied. Any person violating the provisions, or either of them, of this section, shall be liable in the amount of two hundred and fifty dollars ; and in case the total profit made by him from the manufac- ture or sale, as aforesaid, of the arti- cle or articles to which the design, or colorable imitation thereof, has been applied, exceeds the sum of two hun- dred and fifty dollars, he shall be fur- ther liable for the excess of such prof- it over and above the sum of two hun- dred and fifty dollars; and the full amount of such liability may be re- covered by the owner of the letters patent, to his own use, in any circuit court of the United States having ju- risdiction of the parties, either by ac- tion at law or upon a bill in equity for an injunction to restrain such in- fringement. Sec. 2. That nothing in this act contained shall prevent, lessen, im- peach, or avoid any remedy at law or in equity which any owner of letters patent for a design, aggrieved by the infringement of the same, might have had if this act had not been passed ; but such owner shall not twice re- cover the profit made from the in- fringement. FEES. Sec. 4934. The following shall be the rates for patent fees : On filing each original application for a patent, except in design cases, $15.00. On issuing each original patent, except in design cases, $20.00. In design cases : For three years and six months : $10.00; for seven years. $15.00; for fourteen years, $30.00. On filing each caveat, $10.00. On every application for the reissue of a patent, $30.00. On filing each disclaimer, $10.00. On an appeal for the first time from the primary examiners to the examiners- in-chief, $10.00. On every appeal from .the examiners-in-chief to the Commissioner, $20.00. For certified copies of patents and other papers, in- cluding certified printed copies, 10 cents per hundred words. For record- ing every assignment, agreement, pow- er of attorney, or other paper, of three hundred w r ords or under, $1.00 ; of over three hundred and under one thousand words, $2.00 ; of over one thousand words, $3.00. For copies of drawings, the reasonable cost of making them. Sec. 4935. Patent fees may be paid to the Commissioner of Patents, or to the Treasurer, or any of the assistant treasurers of the United States, or to any of the designated depositaries, na- tional banks, or receivers of public money, designated by the Secretary of the Treasury for that purpose ; and such officer shall give the depositor a receipt or certificate of deposit there- for. All money received at the Patent Office, for any purpose, or from any source whatever, shall be paid into the Treasury as received, without any de- duction whatever. Sec. 493G. The Treasurer of the United States is authorized to pay back any sum or sums of money to any person who has through mis- take paid the same into the Treas- ury, or to any receiver or deposi- tary, to the credit of the Treas- ury, as for fees accruing at the Patent Office, upon a certificate thereof being made to the Treasurer by the Com- missioner of Patents. PATENT RIGHTS VEST IN ASSIGNEE IN BANKRUPTCY. Sec. 5040. .All property conveyed by the bankrupt in fraud of his credit- ors ; all rights in equity, choses in action, patent rights, and copyrights ; all debts due him, or any person for his use, and all liens and securities therefor ; and all his rights of action for property or estate, real or personal, and for any cause of action which he had against any person arising from contract or from the unlawful taking or detention, or injury to the property of the bankrupt ; and all his rights of redeeming such property or estate ; to- gether with the like right, title, power, and authority to sell, manage, dispose of. sue for, and recover or defend the same, as the bankrupt might have had if no assignment had been made, shall, in virtue of the adjudication of bank- ruptcy and the appointment of his as- signee, but subject to the exceptions stated in the preceding section, be at once vested is [in] such assignee. Sec. 70. Title to Property. The trustee of the estate of a bank- rupt, upon his appointment and qualification, and his successor or successors, if he shall have one or more, upon his or their appoint- ment and qualification, shall in turn be vested by operation of law with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 241 title of the bankrupt, as of the date he was adjudged a bankrupt, except in so far as it is to property which is exempt, to all (1) documents relating to his property; (2) interests in pat- ents, patent rights, copyrights, and trade-marks. LABELS. CHAPTER 301. AN ACT TO AMEND THE LAW RELATING TO PATENTS, TRADE-MARKS, AND COPYRIGHTS. Be it enacted, etc. [Section 1], That no person shall maintain an action for the infringement of his copyright un- less he shall give notice thereof by in- serting in the several copies of every edition published, on the title page or the page immediately following it, if it be a book ; or if a map, chart, musical composition, print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design intended to be perfected and completed as a work of the fine arts, by inscrib- ing upon some visible portion thereof, or of the substance on which the same shall be mounted, the following words, viz. : "Entered according to act of Congress, in the year , by A. B., in the office of the Librarian of Con- gress, at Washington" ; or, at his op- tion, the word "Copyright," together with the year the copyright was en- tered, and the name of the party whom it was taken out, thus: "Copy- right. 18, by A. B." Sec. 2. That for recording and cer- tifying any instrument of writing for the assignment of a copyright, the Librarian qf Congress shall receive from the persons to whom the service is rendered, $1.00 ; and for every copy of an assignment, $1.00; said fee to cover, in either case, a certificate of the record, under seal of the Libra- rian of Congress ; and all fees so re- ceived shall be paid into the Treasury of the United States. Sec. 3. That in the construction of this act, the words "engraving," "cut," and "print." shall be applied only to pictorial illustrations or works con- nected with the fine arts, and no prints or labels designed to be used for any other articles of manufacture shall be entered under the copyright law, but may be registered in the Patent Office. And the Commission- er of Patents is hereby charged with the supervision and control of the entry or registry of such prints or labels, in conformity with the regulations provided by law as to copyright of prints, except that there shall be paid for recording the title of any print or label not a trade-mark, $6.00, which shall cover the expense of furnishing a copy of the record un- der the seal of Commissioner of Pat- ents, to the party entering the same. Sec. 4. That all laws and parts of laws inconsistent with the foregoing provisions be, and the same are here- by repealed. Sec. 5. That this act shall take ef- fect on and after the. first day of Au- gust, 1874. TRADE-MARKS. [The Constitutional Provision. The Congress shall have power * * * (3) to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes. Art. I, sec. 8.] THE STATUTE OF 1876. CHAPTER 274. AN ACT TO PUN- ISH THE COUNTERFEITING OF TRADE- MARK GOODS AND THE SALE OR DEALING IN OF COUNTERFEIT TRADE- MARK GOODS. Be it enacted, etc. [Section 1], That every person who shall, with intent to defraud, deal in or sell, or keep or offer for sale, or cause or procure the sale of, any goods of substantially the same descriptive properties as those referred to in the registration of any trade-mark, pursuant to the statutes of the United States, to which, or to the package in which the same are put up, is fraudulently affixed said trade-mark, or any colorable imitation thereof, cal- culated to deceive the public, knowing the same to be counterfeit or not the genuine goods referred to in said regis- tration, shall, on conviction thereof, be punished by fine not exceeding $1,000 dollars, or imprisonment not more than two years, or both such fine and imprisonment. Sec. 2. That every person who fraudulently affixes, or causes or pro- cures to be fraudulently affixed, any trade-mark registered pursuant to the statutes of the United States, or any colorable imitation thereof, calculated to deceive the public, to any goods, of substantially the same descriptive | properties as those referred to in said registration, or to the package in which they are put up, knowing the same to be counterfeit, or not the genuine goods, referred to in said regis- tration, shall, on conviction thereof, be punished as prescribed in the first section of this act. Sec. 3. That every person who fraudulently fills, or causes or pro- 242 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. cures to be fraudulently filled, any package to which is affixed any trade- mark, registered pursuant to the stat- utes of the United States, or any col- orable imitation thereof, calculated to deceive the public, with any goods of substantially the same descriptive properties as those referred to in said registration, knowing the same to be counterfeit, or not the genuine goods referred to in said registration, shall, on conviction thereof, be punished as prescribed in the first section of this act. Sec. 4. That any person or per- sons who shall, with intent to defraud any person or persons, knowingly and wilfully cast, engrave, or manufacture, or have in his, her, or their possession, or buy, sell, offer for sale, or deal in, any die or dies, plate or plates, brand or brands, engraving or engravings, on wood, stone, metal, or other substance, moulds, or any false representation, likeness, copy, or colorable imitation of any die plate, brand, engraving, or mould of any private label, brand, stamp, wrapper, engraving on paper or other substance, or trade-mark, reg- istered pursuant to the statutes of the United States, shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished as prescribed in the first section of this act. Sec. 5. That any person or persons who shall, with intent to defraud any person or persons, knowingly and wil- fully make, forge, or counterfeit, or have in his, her, or their possession, or buy, sell, offer for sale or deal in, any representation, likeness, similitude, copy, or colorable imitation of any pri- vate label, brand, stamp, wrapper, en- graving, mould, or trade-mark, regis- tered pursuant to the statutes of the United States, shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished as prescribed in the first section of this act. Sec. G. That any person who shall, with intent to injure or defraud the owner of any trade-mark, or any other person lawfully entitled to use or pro- tect the same, buy, sell, offer for sale, deal in or have in his possession any used or empty box, envelope, wrapper, case, bottle, or other package to which is affixed, so that the same may be obliterated without substantial injury ta such box or other thing aforesaid, any trade-mark, registered pursuant to the statutes of the United States, not so defaced, erased, obliterated, and de- stroyed as to prevent its fraudulent use, shall, on conviction thereof, be punished as prescribed in the first sec- tion of this act. Sec. 7. That if the owner of any trade-mark, registered pursuant to the statutes of the United States, or his agent, make oath, in writing, that he has reason to believe, and does believe, that any counterfeit dies, plates, brands, engravings on wood, stone, metal, or other substance, or moulds of his said registered trade-mark, are in the possession of any person, with in- tent to use the same for the purpose of deception and fraud, or make such paths that any counterfeits or colorable imitations of his said trade-mark, label, brand, stamp, wrapper, engravings on paper or other substance, or empty box, envelope, wrapper, case, bottle, or other package, to which is affixed said registered^ trade-mark not so defaced, erased, obliterated, and destroyed as to prevent its fraudulent use, are in the possession of any person, with in- tent to use the same for the purpose of deception and fraud, then the sev- eral judges of the circuit and district courts of the United States, and the commissioners of the circuit courts may, within their respective jurisdic- j tions, proceed under the law relating to search-warrants, and may issue a search-warrant authorizing and direct- ing the marshal of the United States for the proper district to search for and seize all said counterfeit dies, plates, brands, engravings on wood, stone, metal, or other substance, moulds, and said counterfeit trade- marks, colorable imitations thereof, labels, brands, stamps, wrappers, en- gravings on paper, or other substance, and said empty boxes, envelopes, wrap- pers, cases, bottles, or other packages that can be found ; and upon satisfac- tory proof being made that said coun- terfeit dies, plates, brands, engravings on wood, stone, metal, or other sub- stance, moulds, counterfeit trade- marks, colorable imitations thereof, labels, brands, stamps, wrappers, en- gravings on paper or other substance, empty boxes, envelopes, wrappers, cases, bottles, or other packages, are to be used by the holder or owner for the purposes of deception and fraud, that any of said judges shall have full power to order all said counterfeit dies, plates, brands, engravings on wood, stone, metal, or other substance, moulds, counterfeit trade-marks, col- orable imitations thereof, labels, brands, stamps, wrappers, engravings on paper or other substance, empty boxes, envelopes, wrappers, cases, bot- tles, or other packages, to be publicly destroyed. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 243 See. 8. That any person who shall, with intent to defraud any person or persons, knowingly and wilfully aid or abet in the violation of any of the provisions of this act, shall, upon con- viction thereof, be punished by a fine not exceeding five hundred dollars, or imprisonment not more than one year, or both such fine and imprisonment. [August 14, 1876.] THE STATUTE OF 1881. CHAPTER 138. AN ACT TO AU- THORIZE THE REGISTRATION OF TRADE-MARKS AND PROTECT THE SAME. Be it enacted, etc. [Section 1], That owners of trade-marks used in com- merce with foreign nations or with the Indian tribes, provided such owners shall be domiciled in the United States or located in any foreign country, or tribes, which, by treaty, convention, or law, affords similar privileges to citi- zens of the United States, may obtain registration of such trade-marks by complying with the following require- ments : First. By causing to be recorded in the Patent Office a statement specify- ing name, domicile, location, and citi- zenship of the party applying; the class of merchandise, and the particu- lar description of goods comprised in such class to which the particular trade-mark has been appropriated ; a description of the trade-mark itself, with facsimiles thereof, and a state- ment of the mode in which the same is applied and affixed to goods, and the length of time during which the trade- mark has been used. Second. By paying into the Treas- ury of the United States the sum of $25.00. and complying with such regu- lations as may be prescribed by the Commissioner of Patents. Sec. 2. That the application pre- scribed in the foregoing section must, in order to create any right whatever in favor of the party filing it. be ac- companied by a written declaration verified by the person, or by a member of a firm, or by an officer of a cor- poration applying, to the effect that such party has at the time a right to the use of the trade-mark sought to be registered, and that no other person, firm, or corporation has the right to such use, either in the identical form or in any such near resemblance there- to as might be calculated to deceive ; that such trade-mark is used in com- merce with foreign nations or Indian tribes, as above indicated ; and that the description and facsimiles presented for registry truly represent the trade- mark sought to be registered. Sec. 3. That the time of the re- ceipt of any such application shall be noted and recorded. But no alleged trade-mark shall be registered unless the same appear to be lawfully used as such by the applicant in foreign commerce or commerce with Indian tribes, as above mentioned, or is with- in the provision of a treaty, conven- tion, or declaration with a foreign power; nor which is merely the name of the applteant ; nor which is identi- cal with a registered or known trade- mark owned by another, and appro- priate to the same class of merchan- dise, or which so nearly resembles some other person's lawful trade-mark as to be likely to cause confusion or mistake in the mind of the public, or to deceive purchasers. In an applica- tion for registration the Commissioner of Patents shall decide the presumptive lawfulness of claim to the alleged trade-mark ; and in any dispute be- tween an applicant and a previous registrant, or between applicants, he shall follow, so far as the same may be j applicable, the practice of courts of equity of the United States in analo- gous cases. Sec. 4. That certificates of regis- try of trade-marks shall be issued in the name of the United States of America, under the seal of the De- partment of the Interior, and shall be signed by the Commissioner of Pat- ents, and a record thereof, together with printed copies of the specifica- tions, shall be kept in books for that purpose. Copies of trade-marks and of statements and declarations filed therewith and certificates of registry so signed .and sealed shall be evidence in any suit in which such trade-marks shall be brought in controversy. Sec. 5. That a certificate of regis- try shall remain in force for thirty years from its date, except in cases where the trade-mark is claimed for nnd applied to articles not manufac- tured in this country, and in which it receives protection under the laws of a foreign country for a shorter period, in which case it shall cease to have any force in this country by virtue of this act at the time that such trade- mark ceases to be exclusive property elsewhere. At any time during the six months prior to the expiration of the term of thirty years such registra- tion may be renewed on the same terms and for a like period. 244 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Sec. 0. That applicants for regis- tration under this act shall be credited for any fee or part of a fee hereto- fore paid into the Treasury of the United States with intent to procure protection for the same trade-mark. Sec. 7. That registration of a trade-mark shall be prima facie evi- dence of ownership. Any person who shall reproduce, counterfeit, copy, or colorably imitate any trade-mark regis- tered under this act and affix the same to merchandise of substantially the same descriptive properties as those described in the registration shall be liable to an action on the case for damages for the wrongful use of said trade-mark at the suit of the owner thereof ; and the party aggrieved shall also have his remedy according to the course of equity to enjoin the wrong- ful use of such trade-mark used in foreign commerce or commerce with Indian tribes, as aforesaid, and to re- cover compensation therefor in any court having jurisdiction over the per- son guilty of such wrongful act ; and courts of the United States shall have original and appellate jurisdiction in such cases without regard to the amount in controversy. Sec. 8. That no action or suit shall be maintained under the provisions of this act in any case when the trade- mark is used in any unlawful business or upon any article injurious in itself, or which mark has been used with the design of deceiving the public in the purchase of merchandise, or under any certificate of registry fraudulently ob- tained. Sec. 9. That any person who shall procure the registry of a trade-mark, or of himself as the owner of a trade- mark, or an entry respecting a trade- mark, in the office of the Commission- er of Patents, by a false or fraudulent representation or declaration, orally or in writing, or by any fraudulent means, shall be liable to pay any dam- ages sustained in consequence thereof to the injured party, to be recovered in an action on the case. Sec. 10. That nothing in this act shall prevent, lessen, impeach, or avoid any remedy at law or in equity which any party aggrieved by any wrongful use of any trade-mark might have had if the provisions of this act had not been passed. Sec. 11. That nothing in this act shall be construed as unfavorably af- fecting a claim to a trade-mark after the term of registration shall have ex- pired ; nor to give cognizance to any court of the United States in an action or suit between citizens of the same State, unless the trade-mark in controversy is used on goods intended to be transported to a foreign country, or in lawful commercial intercourse with an Indian tribe. Sec. 12. That the Commissioner of Patents is authorized to make rules and regulations and prescribe forms for the transfer of the right to use trade-marks and for recording such transfers in his office. Sec. 13. That citizens and residents of this country wishing the protection of trade-marks in any foreign coun- try the laws of which require registra- tion here as a condition precedent to getting such protection there may reg- ister their trade-marks for that pur- pose as is above allowed to foreigners, and have certificate thereof from the Patent Office. Approved, March 3, 1881. CHAPTER 393. AN ACT RELATING TO THE REGISTRATION OF TRADE- MARKS. Be it enacted, etc, That nothing contained in the law entitled "An act to authorize the registration of trade- marks and protect the same," approved March 3, 1881, shall prevent the regis- try of any lawful trade-mark rightful- ly used by the applicant in foreign commerce or commerce with Indian tribes at the time of the passage of said act. Approved, August 5, 1882. Sec. 2496. No watches, watch- cases, watch-movements, or parts of watch-movements, or any other arti- cles of foreign manufacture, which shall copy or simulate the name or trade-mark of any domestic manufac- ture [manufacturer], shall be admitted to entry at the custom-houses of the United States, unless such domestic manufacturer is the importer of the same. And in order to aid the officers of the customs in enforcing this pro- hibition, any domestic manufacturer who has adopted trade-marks may re- quire his name and residence and a de- scription of his trade-marks to be re- corded in books, which shall be kept for that purpose in the Department of the Treasury, under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe, and may furnish to the De- partment facsimiles of such trade- marks ; and thereupon the Secretary of the Treasury shall cause one or more copies of the same to be trans- mitted to each collector or other prop- er officer of the customs. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 245 HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PATENT SYSTEM. The century just closed stands out pre-eminently as the century of in- vention. It is therefore a fitting time briefly to refer to the origin, estab- lishment, and development of our pat- ent system, to call to mind the debt the United States owes to inventors, and at the same time to point out the ad- vantages that have followed the far- seeing wisdom of the framers of the Federal Constitution in incorporating in that instrument paragraph 8 of section 8 of Article I. of the Consti- tution, which gave to Congress the power "To promote the progress of science and the useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and invent- ors the exclusive rights to their re- spective writings and discoveries." One hundred years ago the population of the United States was less than 6,000,000, and there was not a single city within our borders having a popu- lation of 75,000. The population of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston was less than the present population of Minneapolis. The lat- ter city and its sister city of St. Paul, Chicago, Omaha, and Kansas City were unknown. Not a steam pro- pelled vessel was in use, nor was there a mile of railroad in the United States. The electric telegraph and telephone were unknown. Our exports con- sisted of agricultural products. There was scarcely any well-developed line of manufacture, and our wants in that line were supplied by imports. It had been the policy of England to suppress manufacturing in its colonies. In 1634 a law was passed in Virginia for the encouragement of textile manu- factures, but it was promptly annulled by England. In 1731 she enacted a law prohibiting the carriage of woolen goods and hats from one colony to an- other. In 1750 a woollen hat factory in Massachusetts was declared to be a nuisance and suppressed. No carpets were made in the colonies until after 1776, except rag carpets. In 1800 carpets were in this country a luxury. Even up to 1850 there was not a power loom for carpet making in the United States. What is true in the textile art is equally true of most of the other arts. Though the country was an agricul- tural one, little progress had been made in the manufacture of agricul- tural implements. It was not until 1819 that an iron plow was produced in this country. The reaper appeared in 1833 and a successful thresher not until 1850. Up to the time of the Civil War there is no question but that the country continued to be an agricultural one. It is true that dur- ing the first sixty years of the last century our manufactures steadily and rapidly increased in kind and in extent, but our population increased even more rapidly, so that we consumed what we manufactured and were still largely dependent upon the import of manufactured articles. But in the last few years a great reversal, not only in sentiment but in conditions, has occurred ; the commercial relations of the United States with the great trading nations of the world have rap- idly changed, so that the excess of im- ports of manufactured articles has turned into an excess of exports of such articles. One need not look far for the cause of this. It lies in the economy of manufacture arising from the use of labor-saving devices, mainly the inven- tion of our own people, which has en- abled us to compete in many lines of manufacture, notwithstanding the higher scale of wages paid in this country, with similar articles manufac- tured by any or all nations. To em- ploy these devices to the best advan- tage requires the intelligence of the American workmen, and the result is due to the combination of witty inven- tions and thinking men. Witless men behind witty machines would be of no use. To the patent system more than to any other cause are we indebted for the industrial revolution of the cen- tury. President Washington realized the importance of formulating a law to stimulate inventions, and in his first annual message to Congress, in 1790, said : "I can not forbear intimating to you the expediency of giving effectual encouragement as well to the intro- duction of new and useful inventions from abroad as to the exertion of skill and genius in producing them at home." Congress was quick to act, and on April 10, 1790, the first law upon the subject was enacted. It constituted the Secretary of State, the Secretary of War, and the Attorney-General a board to consider all applications for patents. Owing to the fires that have destroyed the early records of the Patent Office, some question has arisen 246 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. as to the number of patents issued under this act ; but from the best in- formation obtainable I place the num- ber at fifty-seven. The first patent issued was to Samuel Hopkins, July 31, 1790, for making pot and pearl ashes. The act of 1793 superseded the act of 1790, and remained in force as amended from time to time until the act of 1836 was passed. The act of 1793 was the only act ever passed in this country which provided for the is- suance of Letters Patent without the requirement of an examination into the novelty and utility of the inven- tion for which the patent was sought. The act of 1836, with modifications, remained in force until the revision of the patent laws in 1870. This revi- sion was largely a consolidation of the statutes then in force. Under the revision of the statutes of the United States in 1874 the act of 1870 was repealed ; but the revision substantially re-enacted the provisions of the act of 1870. Under the acts of 1790 and 1793 Letters Patent were granted for a term of fourteen years. There was no provision for extension ; but while the act of 1793 was in force Congress ex- tended some thirteen patents. The act of 1836 provided that Let- ters Patent should be granted for a term of fourteen years, and provision was made for an extension for a term of seven years upon due application and upon a proper showing. Until 1848 petitions for extensions were passed upon by a board consisting of the Secretary of State, the Commis- sioner of Patents, and the Solicitor of the Treasury. After that time power was vested solely in the Commissioner of Patents. The patent act of March 2, 1861 (section 16), provided that all patents thereafter granted should remain in force for a term of seventeen years from the date of issue, and the ex- tension of such patents was pro- hibited. The consolidated patent act of 1870, while providing that patents should be granted for a term of seventeen years, also provided that patents granted prior to March 2, 1861, might, upon | due application and a proper showing, be extended by the Commissioner of Patents for a term of seven years from the expiration of the first term. Bv the revision of the patent laws in 1874 the prohibition against the ex- tension of patents was dropped, and since that time Congress has had the power to extend Letters Patent. Con- gress extended five patents granted un- der the act of 1836, and in nine in- stances authorized patentees to apply to the Commissioner of Patents for ex- tension of their patents. So far as I have been able to discover, no patent granted for a term of seventeen years has been extended by Congress. It was not until 1842 that the statute was passed authorizing the grant of patents for designs. Under that act design patents were granted for seven years. Subsequently provi- sions were made for granting them for terms of three and one-half, seven, and fourteen years, at the election of the applicant. By the act of March 2, 1861, the Board of Examiners-in-Chief was es- tablished. Prior to that time, and during the incumbency of Commission- er Holt, temporary boards of examin- ers to decide appeals had been appoint- ed by him, and later on he created a permanent board of three examiners who were to decide on appeal rejected cases and submit their decisions to him for approval. The act of 1870 made the first pro- vision for an Assistant Commissioner and an Examiner of Interferences. Another provision in that act was the power given the Commissioner, sub- ject to the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, to establish regula- tions for the conduct of proceedings in the Office. On January 1, 1898, an act passed March 3, 1897, went into force. Some of the provisions of this act were that applications for patents should be completed and prepared for examination within one year after the filing of the application and that the applicant should prosecute the same within one year after an action there- on or it should be regarded as aban- doned (prior to that time two years was the limit) ; that an inventor should be debarred from receiving a patent if his invention had been first patented by him or his legal represen- tatives or assigns in a foreign coun- try, provided the application for the foreign patent had been filed more than seven months prior to the fil'ng of the application in this country, and that if the invention for which a pat- ent was applied for had been patented or described in any printed publication in th ! s or any foreign country for more than two years prior to the ap- plication a patent could not issue. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 247 The first provision for affording ac- commodations for the Patent Office was in 1810, when Congress authorized the purchase of a building for the General Post-office and for the office of the Keeper of Patents. The build- ing purchased was known as "Blod- gett's Hotel," and stood on the site now occupied by the south front of the building until recently occupied by the Post-office Department, and now used by several bureaus of the Interior Department. The east end of this building was used for the records, mod- els, etc., of the Patent Office. This building was destroyed by fire Decem- ber 13, 1836. On July 4, 183G, an act was passed appropriating $108 000 for the erection of a suitable building for the accommodation of the Patent Office, and within that month the erection of the building was begun. It was the present south front of the Patent Office, excluding the south ends of the east and west wings. The base- ment (which is now the first or ground iloor) was to be used for storage and analogous purposes, the first or por- tico floor for office rooms, and the sec- ond floor was to be one large hall with galleries on either side, and to have a vaulted roof. This hall was to be used for exhibition purposes, for the display of models of patented and un- patented inventions, and also as a na- tional gallery of the industrial arts and manufactures. During the erection of the Patent Office building temporary quarters were provided in the City Hall. In the spring of 1840 the building was completed and the Office moved into it. The sum of $422.011.65 was expend- ed on this building. The patented models were then classified and ex- hibited in suitable glass cases, while the national gallery was arranged for exhibition of models and specimens. By the act of March 3, 1849, the Interior Department was established and the Patent Office attached thereto. This same act appropriated $50,000 out of the patent fund to begin the east or Seventh street wing, which was completed in 1852 at a cost of $600,- 000, $250,000 of which was taken from the revenue of the Patent Office. In 1852 the plans for the entire build- ing, as it now stands, were prepared. The west wing was completed in 1856 and cost $750.000. Work on the north or G street wing was begun the same year. In 18(57 th ; s wing was finished at a cost of $575.000. The entire building cost $2,347,011.65. Since July 28, 1836, 667,173 pat- ents for inventions, and since 1842 34,018 patents for designs have been issued by this office. Many of these patents are for minor improvements, but among them may be found a very large number covering the most re- markable and valuable inventions, which have added untold sums to the world's wealth, revolutionized the old arts,, created new ones, brought old- time luxuries within the reach of all, and made life doubly worth living. These contributions have come from men and women, white and colored. To many inventors more than a hun- dred patents have been issued. The following are some of the inventors who have received more than that number between 1872 and 1900, both years inclusive: Thomas A. Edison 742 Francis H. Richards 619 Elihu Thomson 444 Charles E. Scribner 374 Luther C. Crowell 293 Edward Weston 280 Rudolph M. Hunter 276 Charles J. Van Depoele (de- ceased) 245 George Westinghouse 239 John W. Hyatt 209 Freeborn F. Raymond, 2d 182 Sydney H. Short 178 Rudolf Eickemeyer (deceased) . . 171 Milo G. Kellogg 159 Walter Scott 156 Arthur J. Moxham 150 Cyrus W. Saladee 148 Louis Goddu 146 Hiram S. Maxim 146 George D. Burton 144 Lewis H. Nash 142 Edwin Norton 141 Abbot Augustus Low 137 Philip Dlehl 137 James C. Anderson 135 Edward J. Brooks 133 Elmer A. Sperry . 132 Peter K. Dederick 128 Hosea W. Libbey 127 James F. McElroy 121 William N. Whiteley 121 Horace Wyman 118 Frank Rhind 117 Louis K. Johnson 114 Warren H. Taylor 112 James M. Dodge Ill George H. Reynolds 110 Talbot C. Dexter 109 James H. Northrop 102 From 1790 to March 1, 1895, some 5,535 patents were granted to worn- 248 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. en. It is a fair estimate that out of every 1,000 patents one is granted to a woman. As a rule women take out but one patent, although there are many exceptions. While the majority of patents granted them are for im- provements in wearing apparel and in articles for household use, they have invented and received patents for add- ing machines, windmills, horseshoes, agricultural implements, and fire es- capes. To some 165 colored inventors about 400 patents have been issued. Twen- ty-eight patents have been issued to one and to another 22. So far as the records show, Henry Blair, of Mary- land, was the first colored patentee. In 1834 he received a patent for a corn planter, and in 1836 one for a cotton planter. The character of their inventions follows lines suggested by their employment. Employed in the field and in the house, improvements in agricultural implements and arti- cles of domestic use predominate. The sphere of their inventive effort has widened with the added opportunities afforded them to engage in mechanical vocations. They have made contribu- tions to the electric arts and steam engineering, and many improvements in railway appliances and paper-bag machines. Before the Civil War the master of a slave living in Mississippi made application for a patent, but the Attorney-General held in an opinion reported in vol. 9, Attorney-General's Opinions, page 171, that an invention of a slave, though it be new and use- ful, could not be patented. In May, 1802. President Jefferson appointed Dr. William Thornton as a clerk at $1,400 per year, to have charge of the issuance of patents. He took the title of Superintendent, and continued to act in that capacity un- til his death, March 28, 1828. He was succeeded by Dr. William P. Jones, who acted until his removal in the early part of President Jackson's administration. John D. Craig fol- lowed Dr. Jones, and in 1834 he was succeeded by B. F. Pickett, who served but a brief period. The last Superin- tendent was Henry L. Ellsworth, who became the first Commissioner under the act of 1836. and served until 1845. j The other Commissioners under that j act were : Edmund Burke. May 4, 1845. Thomas Ewbank, May 9, 1849. Silas H. Hodges, November 8, 1852. Charles Mason, May 16, 1853. Joseph Holt, September 10, 1857. William I). Bishop, May 27, 1859. Philip F. Thomas, February 16, 1860. D. P. Holloway, March 28, 1861. T. C. Theaker, August 17, 1865. Elisha Foote, July 29, 1868. Samuel S. Fisher. April 26, 1869. Commissioner Fisher continued as Commissioner for a short time under the act of 1870. Other Commission- ers under that act have been : M. D. Leggett, January 16, 1871. John M. Thacher, November 4, 1874. R. H. Duell, October 1, 1875. Ellis Spear, January 30, 1877. H. E. Paine, November 1, 1878. E. M. Marble, May 7, 1880. Benjamin Butterworth, November 1, 1883. M. V. Montgomery, March 23, 3885. B. J. Hall, April 12, 1887. C. E. Mitchell, April 1, 1889. William E. Simonds, August 1, 1891. John S. Seymour. March 31, 1893. Benjamin Butterworth, April 7, 1897. Charles H. Duell, February 3, 1898. F. I. Allen, April 11, 1901. Commissioner Fisher was the first to publish his decisions and to have the copies of the specifications and drawings made by photo-lithography. He also instituted the practice of re- quiring competitive examinations for entrance to and promotions in the examining force of the office. Beginning in 1843 and annually thereafter the Patent Office reports were published, which, until 1853, con- tained merely an alphabetical index of the names of the inventors, a list of the expired patents, and the claims of the patents granted during the week. In 1853 and afterward small engraved copies of a portion of the drawings were added to the reports to explain the claims. The act of 1870 authorized the Com- missioner to print copies of the claims of the current issues of patents and of such laws, decisions, and rules as were necessary for the information of the public. In conformity with this provision there was published weekly a list giving the numbers, titles, and claims of the patents issued during the week immediately preceding, to- gether with the names and residences of the patentees. This list was first published under the name of The Official Gazette of the United States Patent Office, on January 3, 1872. In July, 1872, portions of the draw- ings were introduced to illustrate the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 249 claims in the patented cases. The Official Gazette has now become one of the most valuable and important of Government publications. Each Sena-- tor and Representative is authorized to designate eight public libraries to re- ceive this publication free. One copy is also furnished free to each member of Congress. It is also sent all over the world in exchange for similar pub- lications by other Governments, and its paid subscription list is constantly increasing. The American patent system is known and spoken of as the "exam- ination system," in contradistinction to the English system, which has been mainly followed by other nations. The examination system is the ideal system, provided the examination can be made with sufficient care to mini- mize the likelihood of the issue of pat- ents for inventions not of a patentable nature. The field of search, however, yearly increases, and it becomes more and more difficult through lack of time to make a perfect examination. Some- thing more than two million domestic and foreign patents have been issued while the number of scientific publi- cations has enormously increased. It is only by means of a perfect classifi- cation that this great mass of matter can be so divided as to be convenient- ly accessible for use in the examination of any individual case. Of our patent system it has been well said : "It is generally recognized by the most profound students of our insti- tutions, both at home and abroad, that no one thing has contributed more to the pre-eminence of this country in the industrial arts and in manufactures than the encouragement given by our Constitution and laws to inventors and to investors in patent property." The system is by no means perfect ; but it is generally acknowledged that the patent laws of the United States are more libaral than those of any oth- er country, and that the examination, imperfect though at times it be, gives a value to a United States patent not possessed by a patent issued by a coun- try not having an examination system. It is undoubtedly true that the prac- tice before the Patent Office lacks sta- bility and uniformity by reason of the frequent changes of Commissioners, which prevents the establishment of definite policies. The salaries paid to the Commissioner and Assistant Com- missioner, to the examiners in chief, and to the examiners of the various grades are inadequate. It is also true that too many appeals are permitted, and interference proceedings are ren- dered onerous and complicated by the number of motions and appeals pro- vided by the laws and rules. The most serious defect, however, follows from the power to keep applications in the Office for indefinite times through delays in amending the same. The act of March 3, 1897, was intended to prevent or check this evil ; but it has failed of its purpose. At the present time about 75 per cent of the patents granted are issued within one year after being filed, and were it not for the fact that applications are unduly delayed at least 90 per cent would issue within that time. The rights of the public would be protected and very seldom would an injustice be done to an inventor if provision was incorpo- rated into the patent laws providing that unless an application became in- volved in an interference it should not be permitted to remain in the Patent Office more than three years without abridging its life of seventeen years. The records of the Office show that there were pending in 1900, 4,829 applications, filed prior to Janu- ary 1, 1898. Three of these ap- plications were filed in 1880, one in 1881. four in 1882, three in 1884, three in 1885, thirteen in 1886, seven in 1887, thirteen in 1888, nine- teen in 18S9, twenty-three in 1890. forty-five in 1891, sixty-four in 1892, one hundred and three in 1893, one hundred and fifty-four in 1894, three hundred and sixty-eight in 1895, nine hundred and ninety-two in 1896, and three thousand and eleven in 1897. It will be seen, therefore, that an application may be kept alive indefi- nitely, if it be desired. While the list above given embraces only such appli- cations as were filed under the law as it existed prior to January 1, 1898, yet ten years later a similar list will undoubtedly be given, provided the statutes are not amended, for the only difference lies in the fact that amend- ments now have to be made within a year after the official action instead of two years under the prior act. A law which permits this should be cor- rected. It should continue to be the policy of the government of a nation whose inventors have given to the world the cotton-gin and the reaper, the sewing machine and the typewriter, the elec- tric telegraph and telephone, the ro- tary web perfecting printing press and 250 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. the linotype, the incandescent lamp and the phonograph, and thousands of other inventions that have revolution- ized every industrial art, to encourage invention in every lawful way and to provide that, so far as may be neces- sary, the money paid to the Govern- ment by inventors be used for their benefit. The wisdom of the policy has been demonstrated. The world owes as much to invent- ors as to statesmen or warriors. To. them the United States is the greatest debtor, so much have they advanced American manufactures. Their labor- saving machinery does work that it would take millions of men using hand implements to perform. In this cen- tury the debt will be piled still higher, for inventors never rest. Abstract of report for 1900. C. H. DUELL, Commissioner of Patents. THE COPYRIGHT LAW OF THE UNITED STATES. CONSTITUTION, 1787. Art. 1, Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power * * * To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by Securing for Limited Times to Au- thors and Inventors the Exclusive Right to their Respective Writings and Discoveries. ACTS OF CONGRESS. Sec. 4948. All records and other things relating to copyrights and re- quired by law to be preserved, shall be under the control of the Librarian of Congress, and kept and preserved in the Library of Congress. [The Appropriation Act approved February 19, 1897, provides for the appointment of a "Register of Copy- rights, who shall, on and after July 1, 1897, under the direction and super- vision of the Librarian of Congress, perform all the duties relating to copy- rights, and shall make weekly deposits with the Secretary of the Treasury, and make monthly reports to the Sec- retary of the Treasury, and to the Librarian of Congress, and shall, on and after July 1, 1897, give bond to the Librarian of Congress, in the sum of $20,000, with approved sureties, for the faithful discharge of his duties."] Sec. 4949. The seal provided for the office of the Librarian of Congress shall be the seal thereof, and by it all records and papers issued from the office, and to be used in evidence shall be authenticated. Sec. 4950. The Appropriation Act, approved February 19, 1897, provides : "The Librarian of Congress shall on and after July 1, 1897. give bond, pay- able to the United States, in the sum of $20,000, with sureties approved by the Secretary of the Treasury, for the faithful discharge of his duties ac- cording to law." Sec. 4951. The Librarian of Con- gress shall make an annual report to Congress of the number and descrip- tion of copyright publications for which entries have been made during the year. Sec. 4952. The author, inventor, designer, or proprietor of any book, map, chart, dramatic or musical com- position, engraving, cut, print, or photograph or negative thereof, or of a painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, and of models or designs in- tended to be perfected as works of the fine arts, and the executors, adminis- trators, or assigns of any such person shall, upon complying with the provi- | sions of this chapter, have the sole liberty of printing, reprinting, pub- lishing, completing, copying, executing, finishing, and vending the same ; and, in the case of dramatic composition, of publicly performing or representing it, or causing it to be performed or repre^ sented by others ; and authors or their assigns shall have exclusive right to dramatize and translate any of their works for which copyright shall have been obtained under the laws of the United States. In the construction of this act the words "engraving," "cut," and "print," shall be applied only to pictorial illus- trations or works connected with the fine arts, and no prints or labels de- signed to be used for any other articles of manufacture shall be entered under the copyright law, but may be regis- tered in the Patent Office. And the Commissioner of Patents is hereby charged with the supervision and con- trol of the entry or registry of such prints or labels, in conformity with the regulations provided by law as to copyright of prints, except that there shall be paid for recording the title of any print or label, not a trade-mark. $(>.00, which shall cover the expense of furnishing a copy of the record, under the seal of the Commissioner of Pat- ents, to the party entering the same. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 251 Sec. 4053. Copyrights shall be granted for the term of twenty-eight years from the time of recording the title thereof, in the manner hereinaf- ter directed. Sec. 4954. The author, inventor, or designer, if he be still living, />r his widow or children, if he be dead, shall have the same exclusive right contin- ued for the further term of fourteen years, upon recording the title of the work or description of the article so secured a second time, and complying with all other regulations in regard to original copyrights, within six months before the expiration of the first term. And such person shall, within two months from the date of said renewal, cause a copy of the record thereof to be published in one or more newspa- pers, printed in the United States, for the space of four weeks. Sec. 4955. Copyrights shall be as- signable in law by any instrument of writing, and such assignment shall be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within sixty days after its execution ; in default of which it shall be void as against any subsequent pur- chaser or mortgagee for a valuable consideration, without notice. Sec. 495G. No person shall be en- titled to a copyright unless he shall, op or before the day of publication, in this or any foreign country, deliver at the office of the Librarian of Congress, or deposit in the mail within the United States, addressed to the Libra- rian of Congress, at Washington, D. C., a printed copy of the title of the book, map, chart, dramatic or musical com- position, engraving, cut, print, photo- graph, or chromo, or a description of the painting, drawing, statue, statuary, or a model or design, for a work of the fine arts, for which he desires a copyright ; nor unless he shall also, not later than the day of the publi- cation thereof, in this or any foreign country, deliver at the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C., or deposit in the mail within the United States, addressed to the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C., two copies of such copyright book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, engraving, chromo, cut, print or photograph, or in case of a painting, drawing, statue, statuary, model or design for a work of the fine arts, a photograph of the same : Pro- vided. That in the case of a book, pho- tograph, chromo, or lithograph, the two copies of the same required to be delivered or deposited as above, shall be printed from type set within the limits of the United States, or from plates made therefrom, or from nega- tives, or drawings on stone made with- in the lim.ts of the United States, or from transfers made therefrom. Dur- ing the existence of such copyright the importation into the United States of I any brook, chromo, lithograph, or pho- i tograph, so copyrighted, or any edition | or editions thereof, or any plates of j the same not made from type set, nega- tives, or drawings on stone made with- in the limits of the United States, shall be, and is hereby prohibited, except in the cases specified in paragraphs 512 to 516, inclusive, in Section 2 of the act entitled An act to reduce the revenue and equalize the duties on im- ports arid for other purposes, approved October 1, 1890; and except in the case of persons purchasing for use and not for sale, who import subject to the duty thereon, not more than two cop- ies of such books at any one time ; and, except in the case of newspapers and magazines, not containing in whole or in part matter copyrighted under the provisions of this act, un- authorized by the author, which are hereby exempted from prohibition of importation ; Provided, nevertheless, That in the case of books in foreign languages, of which only translations in English are copyrighted, the prohibition of impor- tation shall apply only to the trans- lation of the same, and the importation of the books in the original language shall be permitted. Sec. 4957. The Librarian of Con- gress shall record the name of such copyright book, or other article, forth- with in a book to be kept for that pur- pose, in the words following : "Lib- rary of Congress, to wit : Be it re- membered that on the day. of , A. B.. of , hath deposited in this office the title of a book (map, chart, or otherwise, as the case may be, or description of the article), the title or description of which is in the following words, to wit: (here insert the title or description), the right whereof he claims as author (origina- tor, or proprietor, as the case may be), in conformity with the laws of the United States respecting copyrights. C. D., Librarian of Congress." And he shall give a cony of the t'tle or description under the seal of the Li- brarian of Congress, to the proprietor, whenever he shall require it. Sec. 4958. The Librarian of Con- gress shall receive from the persons to 252 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN- REFERENCE BOOK. whom the services designated are ren- dered, the following fees: 1. For re- cording the title or description of any copyright book or other article, 50 cents. 2. For every copy under seal of such record actually given to the person claiming the copyright, or his assigns, 50 cents. [3. For recording and certifying any instrument of writ- ing for the assignment of a copyright, $1.00. 4. For every copy of an as- signment, $1.00.] All fees so received shall be paid into the treasury of the United States : Provided, That the charge for recording the title or de- scription of any article entered for copyright, the production of a person not a citizen or resident of the United States, shall be $1.00, to be paid as above into the treasury of the United States, to defray the expenses of lists of copyrighted articles as hereinafter provided for. And it is hereby made the duty of the Librarian of Congress to furnish to the Secretary of the Treasury copies of the entries of titles of all books and other articles wherein the copyright has been completed by the deposit of two copies of such book printed from type set within the limits of the United States, in accordance with the provi- sions of this act, and by the deposit of two copies of such other article made or produced in the United States ; and the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby directed to prepare and print, at intervals of not more than a week, catalogues of such title- entries for distribution to the collect- ors of customs of the United States, and to the postmasters of all post- offices receiving foreign mails, and such weekly lists, as they are issued, shall be furnished to all parties desir- ing them, at a sum not exceeding five dollars per annum, and the Secretary and the Postmaster-General are here- by empowered and required to make and enforce such rules and regulations as shall prevent the importation into the United States, except upon the conditions above specified, of all arti- cles prohibited by this act. Sec. 4959. The proprietor of every copyright book or other article shall deliver at the office of the Librarian of Congress, or deposit in the mail, ad- dressed to the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.. a copy of every subsequent edition wherein any sub- stantial changes shall be made : Pro- vided, however. That the alterations, revisions, and additions made to books by foreign authors, heretofore pub- lished, of which new editions shall ap- pear subsequently to the taking ef- fect of this act, shall be held and deemed capable of being copyrighted as above provided for in this act, un- less they form a part of the series in course of publication at the time this act shall take effect. Sec. 4960. For every failure on the part of the proprietor of any copy- right to deliver, or deposit in the mail, either of the published copies, or de- scription, or photograph, required by sections 4956 and 4959, the proprietor of the copyright shall be liable to a penalty of $25.00, to be recovered by the Librarian of Congress, in the name of the United States, in an action in the nature of an action of debt, in any district court of the United States within the jurisdiction of which the delinquent may reside or be found. The following act in relation to the deposit of copies was approved March 3, 1893 : "That any author, inventor, designer, or proprietor of any book, or other article entitled to copyright, who has heretofore failed to deliver in the office of the Librarian of Congress, or in the mail addressed to the Librarian of Congress, two complete copies of such book, or description or photo- graph of such article, within the time limited by title 60, chapter 3, of the Revised Statutes, relating to copy- rights, and the acts in amendment thereof, and has complied with all oth- er provisions thereof, who has, before the first day of March, 1893, delivered at the office of the Librarian of Con- gress, or deposited in the mail ad- dressed to the Librarian of Congress two complete printed copies of such book, or description or photograph of such article, shall be entitled to all the rights and privileges of said title sixty, chapter three, of the Revised Statutes and the acts in amendment thereof. Sec. 4961. The postmaster to whom such copyright book, title, or other ar- ticle is delivered, shall, if requested, give a receipt therefor ; and when so delivered he shall mail it to its des- tination. Sec. 4962. No person shall main- tain an action for the infringement of his copyright unless he shall give no- tice thereof by inserting in the several copies of every edition published, on the title-page, or the page immediately following, if it be a book ; or if a map, chart, musical composition, print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, draw- SCIENTIFIC A RENCE BOOK. 253 ing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design intended to be per- fected and completed as a work of the fine arts, by inscribing upon some visible portion thereof, or of the sub- stance on which the same shall be mounted, the following words, viz. : "Entered according to act of Congress, in the year , by A. B., in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Wash- ington" ; or, at his option, the word "Copyright," together with the year the copyright was entered, and the name of the party by whom it was taken out, thus : "Copyright, 18 , by A. B." That manufacturers of designs for moulded decorative articles, tiles, plaques, or articles of pottery or metal subject to copyright may put the copy- right mark prescribed by Section 4902 of the Revised Statutes, and acts addi- tional thereto, upon the back or bot- tom of such articles, or in such other place upon them as it has heretofore been usual for manufacturers of such articles to employ for the placing of manufacturers, merchants, and trade- marks thereon. Sec. 4963. Every person who shall insert or impress such notice, or words of the same purport, in or upon any book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, print, cut, engraving or photograph, or other article, whether such article be subject to copyright or otherwise, for which he has not ob- tained a copyright, or shall knowingly issue or sell any article bearing a no- tice of a United States copyright which has not been copyrighted in this country ; or shall import any book, photograph, chromo, or lithograph or other article bearing such notice of copyright or words of the same purport, which is not copyrighted in this country, shall be liable to a penalty of $100, recov- erable one-half for the person who shall sue for such penalty, and one-half to the use of the United States ; and the importation into the United States of any book, chromo, lithograph, or photograph, or other article bearing such notice of copyright, when there is no existing copyright thereon in the United States, is prohibited ; and the circuit courts of the United States sit- ting in equity are hereby authorized to enjoin the issuing, publishing, or sell- ing of any article marked or imported in violation of the United States copy- right laws, at the suit of any person complaining of such violation : Pro- , vided. That this act shall not apply to any importation of or sale of such goods or articles brought into the United States prior to the passage hereof. Sec. 4904. Every person who, after the recording of the title of any book and the depositing of two copies of such book as provided by this act, shall, contrary to the provisions of this act, within the term limited, and without the consent of the proprietor of the copyright first obtained in writ- ing, signed in presence of two or more witnesses, print, publish, dramatize, translate, or import, or, knowing the same to be so printed, published, dram- atized, translated, or imported, shall sell or expose to sale any copy of such book, shall forfeit every copy thereof to such proprietor, and shall also for- feit and pay such damages as may be recovered in a civil action by such proprietor in any court of competent jurisdiction. Sec. 4905. If any person, after the recording of the title of any map, chart, dramatic or musical composi- tion, print, cut, engraving, or photo- graph, or chromo, or of the descrip- tion of any painting, drawing, statue, statuary, or model or design intended to be perfected and executed as a work of the fine arts, as provided by this act, shall, within the term limited, contrary to the provisions of this act, and without the consent of the proprie- tor of the copyright first obtained in writing, signed in presence of two or more witnesses, engrave, etch, work, copy, print, publish, dramatize, trans- late, or import, either in whole or in part, or by varying the main design, with intent to evade the law, or know- ing the same to be so printed, pub- lished, dramatized, translated, or im- ported, shall sell or expose to sale any copy of such map, or other article, as aforesaid, he shall forfeit to the pro- prietor all the plates on which the same shall be copied, and every sheet thereof, either copied or printed, and shall further forfeit $1.00 for every sheet of the same found in his posses- sion, either printing, printed, copied, published, imported, or exposed for sale ; and in case of a painting, statue, or statuary, he shall forfeit $10.00 for every copy of the same in his posses- sion, or by him sold or exposed for sale : Provided, however, That in case of any such infringement of the copy- right of a photograph made from any object not a work of fine arts, the sum to be recovered in any action brought under the provisions of this section 254 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. shall be not less than $100, iior more than $5,000, and: Provided, further, That in case of any such infringement of the copyright of a painting, draw- ing, statue, engraving, etching, print, or model or design for a work of the fine arts, or of a photograph of a work of the fine arts, the sum to be recov- ered in any action brought through the provisions of this section shall be not less than $250, and not more than $10,000. One-half of all the foregoing penalties shall go to the proprietors of the copyright and the other half to the use of the United States. Sec. 4966. Any person publicly per- forming or representing any dramatic or musical composition for which a copyright has been obtained, without the consent of the proprietor of said dramatic or musical composition, or his heirs or assigns, shall be liable for damages therefor, such damages in all cases to be assessed at such sum, not less than $100 for the first, and $50 for every subsequent performance, as to the court shall appear to be just. If the unlawful performance and rep- resentation be wilful and for profit such person or persons shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction be imprisoned for a period not exceed- ing one year. Any injunction that may be granted upon hearing after notice to the defendant by any circuit court in the United States, or by a judge thereof, restraining and enjoin- ing the performance or representation of any such dramatic or musical 'com- position may be served on the parties against whom such injunction may be f ranted anywhere in the United tates. and shall be operative and may be enforced by proceedings to punish for contempt or otherwise by any other circuit court or judge in the United States ; but the defendants in said ac- tion, or any or either of them, may make a motion in any other circuit in which he or they may be engaged in performing or representing said drama- tic or musical composition to dissolve or set aside the said injunction upon such reasonable notice to the plaintiff as the circuit court or the judge be- fore whom said motion shall be made shall deem proper ; service of said mo- tion to be made on the plaintiff in person or on his attorneys in the ac- tion. The circuit courts or judges thereof shall have jurisdiction to en- force said injunction and to hear and determine a motion to dissolve the same, as herein provided, as fully as if the action were pending or brought in the circuit in which said motion is made. The clerk of the court, or judge granting the injunction, shall, when required so to do by the court hearing the application to dissolve or enforce said injunction, transmit without de- lay to said court a certified copy of all the papers on which the said injunc- tion was granted that are on file in his office. Sec. 4907. Every person who shall print or publish any manuscript what- ever, without the consent of the au- thor or proprietor first obtained shall be liable to the author or proprietor for all damages occasioned by such injury. Sec. 4968. No action shall be main- tained in any case of forfeiture or penalty under the copyright laws, un- less the same is commenced within two years after the cause of action has arisen. Sec. 4969. In all actions arising under the laws respecting copyrights the defendant may plead the general issue, and give the special matter in evidence. Sec. 4970. The circuit courts, and district courts having the jurisdiction of circuit courts, shall have power, upon bill in equity, filed by any party aggrieved, to grant injunctions to pre- vent the violation of any right secured by the laws respecting copyrights, ac- cording to the course and principles of courts of equity, on such terms as the court may deem reasonable. Sec. 4971. [Revised Statutes, title 13, THE JUDICIARY, provides as follows : Chap. 7 (sec. 629). The circuit courts shall have original jurisdiction as follows: * * * Ninth. Of all suits at law or in equity arising under the patent or copyright laws of the United States. A writ of error may be allowed to re- view any final judgment at law, and an appeal shall be allowed from any final decree in equity hereinafter men- tioned, without regard to the sum or value in dispute : First. Any final judgment at law or final decree in equity of any circuit court, or of any district court acting as a circuit court, or of the supreme court of the District of Columbia, or of any Ter- ritory, in any case touching patent rights or copyrights. (Rev. Stat., 1878, p. 130.) Chap. 12 (sec. 711). The jurisdiction vested in the courts of the United States in the cases and proceedings hereafter mentioned, shall be exclusive of the courts of the sev- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 255 eral States : * * * Fifth. Of all cases arising under the patent-right or copyright laws of the United States. (Rev. Stat., 1878, pp. 134, 135.) Chap. 18 (sec, 972). In all recoveries under the copyright laws, either for damages, forfeiture, or penalties, full costs shall be allowed thereon. (Rev. Stat., 1878, p. 183.)] The act approved March 3, 1891 (51st Congress, 1st session, chap. 565: 26 Statutes at Large, pp. 1106-1110), in addition to the amendments, noted above, of sections 4952, 4954, 4956, 4958, 4959, 4963. 4964, 4965, and 4967, provides further as follows : "That for the purpose of this act each volume of a book in two or more volumes, when such volumes are pub- lished separately, and the first one shall not have been issued before this act shall take effect, and each num- ber of a periodical shall be considered an independent publication, subject to the form of copyrighting as above." (Sec. 11.) "That this act shall go into effect on the first day of July, 1891." (Sec. 12.) "That this act shall only apply to a citizen or subject of a foreign state or nation when such foreign state or nation permits to citizens of the United States of America the benefit of copyright on substantially the same basis as its own citizens ; or when such foreign state or nation is a party to an international agreement which provides for reciprocity in the grant- ing of copyright, by the terms of which agreement the United States of Amer- ica may at its pleasure become a party to such agreement. The existence of either of the conditions aforesaid shall be determined by the President of the United States, by proclamation made from time to time as the purposes of this act may require." (Sec. 13.) [An Act providing for the public printing and binding and the distribu- tion of public documents (January 12, 1895, 53d Congress, 3d session, chap. 23, sec. 52: 28 Statutes at Large, p. 608). provides as follows: The Pub- lic Printer shall sell, under such regu- lations as the Joint Committee on Printing may prescribe, to any person or persons who may apply, additional or duplicate stereotype or electrotype plates from which any Government publication is printed, at a price not to exceed the cost of composition, the metal and making to the Government and 10 per centum added : Provided, That the full amount of the price shall be paid when the order is filed : And provided, further, That no publication reprinted from such stereotype or elec- trotype plates and no other Govern- ment publication shall be copyrighted.] CHAPTER X. MANUFACTURES, EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. LOCALIZATION OF SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES, BY STATES: 1900. Industry. Value of Products in Continental United States. State. Value of Products in the State Named. Per Cent of Conti- nental United States in the State Named. Collars and cuffs $15,769,132 New York $15,703,541 99.6 Plated and britannia ware Oysters, canning and preserving Leather gloves and mittens 12,608,770 3,670,134 16,721,234 Connecticut Maryland New York 9,538,397 2,417,331 10,854,221 75.7 65.9 64.9 Clocks 7,157,856 Connecticut 4,545,047 63 5 Coke 35,585,445 3,927,867 Pennsylvania. . . . Ohio . 22,282,358 2,407,655 62.6 61 3 Whips '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'..'. 2,734,471 Massachusetts. . . 1,651,221 60.4 Liquors, vinous. Brassware Iron and steel Carpets and rugs, other than rag Corsets 6,547,310 17,140,075 803,968,273 48,192,351 14,878,116 California Connecticut Pennsylvania. . . . Pennsylvania . . . Connecticut 3,937,871 9,269,159 434,445,200 23,113,058 6,846,946 60.1 54.1 54.0 48.0 46.0 Boots and shoes, factory product. . . . Agricultural implements. 231,028,580 101,207,428 Massachusetts. . . Illinois 117,115,243 42,033,796 44.9 41 5 Slaughtering and meat packing, whole- 698 206 548 279 842 835 40 1 Turpentine and rosin. 20,344,888 Georgia. . . 8 110,468 39 9 Cotton, ginning Liquors, distilled Glass 14,748,270 96,798,443 56,539,712 Texas Illinois Pennsylvania. . . . 5,886,923 38,208,076 22,001,130 39.9 39.5 38.9 Hosiery and knit goods Silk and silk goods. . . 95,482,566 107 256,258 New York New Jersey. 35,886,048 39 966,662 37.6 37 3 Silverware. . . . 10,569,121 Rhode Island.. 3,834,408 36 3 Salt 7,966,897 New York. . 2,698,691 33 9 Cotton goods. . . . 339,200 320 Massachusetts 111 125 175 32 8 Jewelry. . 46 501 181 Rhode Island 13 320 620 28 6 Leather, tanned, curried, and finished. Fur hats. . 204,038,127 27,811,187 Pennsylvania. . . . Connecticut 55,615,009 7 546 882 27.3 27 2 Pottery, terra cotta, and fire-clay products 44,263,386 Ohio. . 11,851 225 26 8 Paper and wood pulp 127,326,162 New York 26,715,628 21.0 Twelfth Census. 258 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. MANUFACTURING IN THE UNITED STATES - Wag e-earners. Class. of Estab- lish- ments. Capital. tors and Firm Members Average Number. Total Wages Total 640,056 $9,858,205,501 708,623 5,370,814 $2,323,055,634 Hand trades 215,814 392,442,255 242,154 559,130 288,118,421 Governmental establishments .... Educational, eleemosynary, and penal institutions. . . 138 381 Establishments with a product of less than $500 All other establishments 127,346 296,377 44,371,111 9,421,392,135 136,054 330,415 64,671 4,747,013 2,117,466 2,032,819,747 Statistics for governmental establishments, educational, eleemosynary, and penal insti- MANUFACTURING IN THE UNITED STATES [Twelfth Census, Date of Census. Items. 1900. 1 1890. 1880. Number of establishments Capital Salaried officials, clerks, etc., number . . . Salaries 512,276 $9,831,486,500 397,092 $404,112,794 355,405 $6,525,050,759 2 461,001 2 $391,984,660 253,852 $2,790,272,606 ( 3 ) ( 3 ) Wage-earners, average number Total wages Men, at least 16 years of age Wages . . 5,314,539 $2,327,295,545 4,114,348 $2,019,954,204 4,251,535 $1,891,209,696 3,326,964 $1,659,215,858 2,732,595 $947,953,795 2,019,035 (3) Women, at least 16 years of age Wages Children under 16 years. . . 1,031,608 $281,679,649 168,583 803,686 $215,367,976 120,885 531,639 ( 3 ) 181,921 Wages Miscellaneous expenses $25,661,692 $1,027,865,277 $7 346 358 979 $16,625,862 $631,219,783 $5 162,013,878 ( 3 ) ( 5 ) $3 396 823,549 Value of products, incl. custom work, etc, $13,010,036,514 $9,372,378,843 $5,309.579,191 1 Includes, for comparative, purposes, 85 governmental establishments in the District of Columbia having products valued at $9,887,355, the statistics for such establishments for 1890 not being separable. 2 Includes proprietors and firm members, with their salaries; number only reported in 1900, but not included in this table. 3 Not reported separately. 4 Decrease. 5 Not reported. NOTE. Exact comparisons between the censuses shown in this table are difficult and sometimes impossible on account of changes which have taken place from census to census in the form of inquiries contained in the schedules, in the industries canvassed, and in the methods of compilation. Comparisons between the censuses of 1890 and 1900 are more exact than has ever before been the case; but even between these two censuses there are certain important differences in the forms of inquiry, or the methods of handling the statistics in compilation, to which careful attention should be paid. 1. Capital. It cannot be assumed that any true comparability exists between the sta- tistics on this subject elicited prior to 1890. At the census of 1880 the question read: ' 'Capital (real and personal) invested in the business." At the census of 1890 live capital, i.e., cash on hand, bills receivable, unsettled ledger accounts, raw materials, stock in process of manufac- ture, finished products on hand, and other sundries, was for the first time included as a separate and distinct item of capital, and the capital invested in realty was divided between land, buildings, and machinery. The form of this inquiry at the census of 1890 and 1900 was so similar that comparison may be safely made. 2. Salaried Officials. No comparison of the statistics of the number and salaries or salaried officials of any character can be made between the reports of any censuses. Not until the census of 1890 did the census begin to differentiate sharply between salaried officials, i.e., SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 259 SUMMARY FOR ALL ESTABLISHMENTS: 1900. C 'ost of Materials Used. Miscellaneous Expenses. Total. Purchased in Raw State. Purchased in Partially Man-' ufactured Form. Fuel, Freight, etc. Value of Prod- ucts, Including Custom Work and Repairing. $1,030,110,125 124,623,253 $7,363,132,083 482,736,991 6,917,518 3,690,916 $2,391,668,276 8,851,162 60,576 1,037,343 $4,648,561,271 462,510,619 6,607,447 2,365,089 $322,902,536 11,375,210 249,495 288,484 $13,058,562,917 1,183,615,478 22,010,391 6,640,692 2,524,681 902,962,191 8,895,774 6,860,890,884 1,431,529 2,380,287,666 7,437.420 4,169,640,696 26,825 310,962,522 29,762,675 11,816,533,681 tutions, and establishments with a product of less than $500, are included in Table only. COMPARATIVE SUMMARY: 1850 TO 1900. Vols.VII.andVIII. Date of Census. Per Cent of Increase. 1870. 1860. 1850. 1890 to 1900. 1880 to 1890. 1870 to 1880. 1860 to 1870. 1850 to 1860. 252,148 $2,118,208,769 ( 3 ) ( 3 ) 2,053,996 $775,584,343 1,615,598 ( 3 ) 323,770 ( 3 ) 114,628 ( 3 ) ( 5 ) $2,488,427,242 $4,232,325,442 $1,009 1 $378 1 $1,031 $1,885 140,433 .855,715 I 3 ) , 3 ) 311,246 878,966 040,349 3) 270,897 3 '] 605,092 861,676 123,025 $533,245,351 ( 3 ) ( 3 ) 957,059 $236,755,464 731,137 ( 3 ) 225,922 ( 3 ) ( 3 ) ( 3 ) ( 5 ) $555,123,822 $1,019,106,616 44.1 50.7 4 13. 9 3.1 25.0 23.1 23.7 21.7 28.4 30.8 39.5 54.3 62.8 42.3 38.8 40.0 133.8 0.7 31.7 79.6 109.8 14.1 89.4 55 '.6' 99.5 64.8 "33.6" 22.2 25.0 56.6 104.7 55.3 37.0 60.0 42.3 51.2 64.2 19.5 19.9 433.6 58.7 52 '.6 74.5 36.5 ' 26.9 141.2 ' 124.4 "85.8" 85.1 employees engaged at a fixed compensation per annum, and the wage-earning class, i.e., em- ployees paid by the hour, the day, the week, or the piece, for work performed and only fof such work. Prior to 1890 such salaried officials, if returned at all, were returned with the wage-earners proper. At the census of 1890 the number and salaries of proprietors and firm members actively engaged in the business, or in supervision, were reported, combined with clerks and other officials. Where proprietors and firm members were reported without sala- ries, the amount that would ordinarily be paid for similar services was estimated. At the census of 1900 the number of proprietors and firm members actively engaged in industry or in supervision was ascertained, but no salaries were reported for this class, salaries, as a matter of fact, being rarely paid in such cases, proprietors and firm members depending upon the earnings of the business for their compensation. 3. Employees and Wages. At the censuses of 1850 and 1860 the inquiries regarding em- ployees and wages called for "the average number of hands employed: male, female," "the average monthly cost of male labor," and "the average monthly cost of female labor." At the census of 1870 the average number of hands employed was called for. divided between "males above 16 years, females above 15 years, and children and youth," and the "total amount paid in wages during the year" was first called for. The inquiries at the census of 1880 were like those of 1870, though more extended for some of the selected industries. At the census of 1890 the average number of persons employed during the entire year was called for, and also the average number employed at stated weekly rates of pay, and the average number was computed for the actual time the establishments were reported as being in operation. At the census of 1900 the greatest and least numbers of employees were reported and al-o the average number employed during each month of the year. The average number of wage-earners (men, women, and children) employed during the entire year was computed in the Census Office by using 12, the number of calendar months, as a divisor into the total of the average numbers reported for each month. This difference in the method of ascertain- 260 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. ing the average number of wage-earners during the entire year resulted in a variation in the average number as between the two censuses. Furthermore, the schedules for 1890 included in the wage-earning class "overseers, and foremen or superintendents (not general superintendents or managers)," while the census of 1900 separates from the wage-earning class such salaried employees as general superintendents, clerks, and salesmen. It is probable that this change in the form of the question has resulted in eliminating from the wage-earners, as reported by the present census, many high-salaried employees included in 1890. 4. Miscellaneous Expenses. This item was not shown at any census prior to that of 1890. Comparison between the totals reported can safely be made between the last two censuses. 5. Materials. The same statement is true regarding the materials used in manufactures. With the exception of the schedules on which a few selected industries were reported at the census of 1880, the question concerning materials was as follows: "Value of materials used (including mill supplies and fuel)." At the census of 1890 the schedule contained separate questions as to the kind, quantity, and cost of the principal materials, and the cost of "mill supplies," "fuel," and "all other materials." The amounts paid for rent of power and heat were also included under this head in 1890. It is probable that some of the items included the cost of materials at the census of 1880 were included in "miscellaneous expenses" at the inquiries of 1890 and 1900. 6. Products. These statistics are comparable beginning with the census of 1870. COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, BY SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES: [Twelfth Census, Vol. VII. page 3, and Vol. VIII. page 18.] 1900. Num- Wag e-earners. Value of Prod- ber of Cost of Industry. Estab- lish- ments. Capital. Average Num- ber Total Wages. Materials Used. Custom Work and Repair- ing. Total 512,191 $9,813,834,390 5,306,143 $2,320,938,168 $7,343,627,875 $13,000,149,159 Agricultural im- plements 715 157,707,951 46,582 22,450,880 43,944,628 101,207,428 Ammunition 33 6,719,081 5,231 2,560,954 7,436,748 13,027,635 Artificial feathers and flowers 227 3,633,869 5,333 1,561,763 2,765,151 6,297,805 Artificial limbs. . . 87 290,104 249 146,620 126,062 749,854 Artists' materials.. 21 376,736 200 79,267 249,107 497,046 Awnings, tents, and sails 858 4,342,728 4,400 2,038,613 6,480,685 11,728,843 Axle grease Babbitt metal and 29 577,195 127 55,238 360,411 718,114 solder 51 3,115,568 535 294,584 7,998,369 9,191,409 Bags, other than paper 78 7,696,732 4,039 1,133,128 16,849,311 20,123,486 Bags, paper 63 6,900,291 2,029 683,783 4,659,001 7,359,975 Baking and yeast powders 191 8,337,723 1,938 717,000 7,126,967 14,568,380 Baskets, & rattan and willow ware. 550 2,989,568 4,396 1,280,511 1,398,374 3,851,244 Bells 23 1,038,305 663 307,991 602,856' 1,247,730 Belting and hose, leather 105 7,410,219 1,667 913,937 7,500,413 10,623,177 Belting and hose, linen 7 526,059 254 64,102 452,430 717,137 Belting and hose, rubber 18 5,493,885 1,771 918,191 4,075,702 6,169,044 Bicycle and tricy- cle repairing. . . . 6,328 6,760,070 5,749 2,505,974 5,224,886 13,766,033 Bicycles and tri- cycles 312 29,783,659 17,525 8,189,817 16,792,051 31,915,908 Billiard tables and materials 75 884,9'01 455 278,218 730,046 1,650,868 Blacking 121 2,718,504 1,250 424,174 2,186,809 4,504,965 Blacksm i t h i n g and wheel wrighting Bluing 51,771 65 54,976,341 415,119 36,193 220 17,974,264 79,380 24,701,632 244,970 85,971,630 575,804 Bone, ivory, and lamp black 15 782,247 85 46,107 105,712 359,787 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 261 COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, BY SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES: 1900 Continued. Num- Wage-earners. Value of Prod- ber of Cost of ucts, Including Industry. Estab- lish- Capital. Average Num- Total Wages. Materials Used. Custom Work and Repair- ments. ber ing. Bookbinding and blank-book making 954 $12,744,628 15,971 $6,671,666 $7,702,543 $20,790,858 Boot and shoe cut stock 342 7,003,080 6,155 2,230,691 17,800,282 23,242,892 Boot and shoe findings 186 3,277,958 2,993 1,127,784 4,627,048 7,145,820 Boot and shoe uppers 132 273,796 256 125,627 401,680 700,225 Boots and shoes, custom work and repairing. . 23,560 9,262,134 9,698 4,128,361 8,288,664 26,550,678 Boots and shoes, factory product Boots and shoes, 1,600 101,795,233 142,922 59,175,883 169,604,054 261,028,580 rubber 22 33,667,533 14,391 6,426,579 22,682,543 41,089,819 Bottling 2,064 16,620,152 7,680 3,589,447 28,087,823 41,640,672 Boxes, cigar 315 3,288,272 4,609 1,439,599 3,061,193 5,856,915 Boxes, fancy and paper 729 14,979,305 27,653 8,151,625 11,765,424 27,316,317 Boxes, wooden packing 896 21,952,757 22,034 7,827,955 22,807,627 38,216,384 Brass 10 503,367 162 98,796 1,152,635 1,419,817 Brass and copper, rolled 19 15,629,766 6,759 3,512,781 30,000,632 37,536,325 Brass castings and brass finishing. . 442 21,925,039 11,964 6,070,762 18,871,141 30,343,044 Brassware 204 12,194,715 7,668 3,550,074 9,830,319 17,140,075 Bread and other ; bakery products 14,917 81,049,553 60,271 27,893,170 95,221,915 175,657,348 Brick and tile. . . . 5,423 82,086,438 61,979 21,883,333 11,006,148 51,270,476 Bridges 196 16,768,948 12,181 6,711,260 16,258,561 30,151,624 Bronze castings. . . 21 881,769 621 372,797 1,339,722 2,229,329 Brooms and brushes 1,526 9,616,780 10,349 3,788,046 9,546,854 18,490,847 Butter, rework'g .. 10 255,525 148 67,747 1,345,418 2,114,935 Buttons 238 4,212,568 8,685 2,826,238 2,803,246 7,695,910 Calcium lights. . . . 19 95,114 55 24,418 34,982 118,666 Cardboard 5 1,168,495 626 264,427 705,527 1,270,416 Card cutting and designing 43 337,642 325 135,139 312,760 618,488 Carpentering 21,315 71,327,047 123,985 71,049,737 142,419,410 316,101,758 Carpets and rugs, other than rag. . 133 44,449,299 28,411 11,121,383 27,228,719 48,192,351 Carpets, rag 1,014 975,190 1,504 492,656 681,311 1,993,756 Carpets, wood. . . . 31 412,357 608 362,112 418,343 1,056,702 Carriage and wagon materials 588 19,085,775 15,387 5,987,267 13,048,608 25,027,173 Carriages and sleds, children's. 77 2,906,472 2,726 1,090,296 1,996,070 4,289,695 Carriages and wagons 7,632 118,187,838 62,540 29,814,911 56,676,073 121,537,276 Cars and general shop construc'n and repairs by steam railroad companies 1,295 119,473,042 173,595 96,006,570 109,472,353 218,113,658 Cars, railroad and street, and re- pairs, not in- cluding estab- lishments oper- ated by steam railroad com- panies 193 106,721,188 44,063 23,342,763 70,046,354 107,186,359 Celluloid and cel- luloid goods (1890) Charcoal 1 18 3,158,487 811,225 939 1,786 447,120 431,381 856,180 405,339 2,575,736 1,133,638 262 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, BY SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES: 1900 Continued. Num- Wag e-earners. Value of Prod- ber of Cost of nets Including? Industry. Estab- Capital. Average Materials Custom Work lish- ments. Num- ber. Total Wages. Used. . and Repair- ing. Cheese, butter, and condensed milk 9,355 $36,508,015 12,865 $6,170,670 $109,151,205 $131,199,277 CliGrnic&ls 459 89,091,430 19 054 9,401,467 34,564,137 62 676 730 China decorating . 169 372,017 360 148,004 261,819 '6931800 Chocolate and co- coa products. . . 24 6,890,732 1,314 525,875 6,876,682 9,666,192 Cleansing and pol- ishing prepara- tions 154 943,328 508 209,438 965,242 2,193,019 Clocks . 46 8,792,653 6,037 2,650,703 3,028,606 7,157,856 Cloth, sponging and refinishing. . 46 288,894 534 268,191 17,490 566,000 Clothing, horse. . . 26 653,545 575 176,687 847,846 1,305,164 Clothing, men's ... 28,014 173,034,543 191,043 79,434,932 197,742,067 415,256,391 Clothing, women's dressmaking . . 14,479 13,815,221 45,595 14,352,453 16,503,754 48,356,034 Clothing, wom'n's, factory product. 2.701 48,431,544 83,739 32,586,101 84,704,592 159,339,539 Coffee and spice, roasting and grinding. ..... 458 28,436,897 6,387 2,486,759 55,112,203 69,527,108 Coffins, burial cases, and un- dertakers' goods 217 13,585,162 6,840 3,077,481 6,945,348 13,952,308 Coke 241 36,502,679 16,999 7,085,736 19,665,532 35,585,445 Collars and cuffs, paper (1890). . . 3 237,764 82 35,125 223,077 301,093 Combs 34 832,791 1,399 572,467 951,514 1,976,129 Confectionery. . . . Cooperage. ...... 4,297 2,146 35,155,361 22,568,873 33,583 22,938 10,867,687 9,200,303 45,534,153 23,299,312 81,290,543 40,576,462 Copper, smelting and refining ... Cordage and twine 47 105 53,063,395 29,275,470 11,324 13,114 8,529,021 4,113,112 122,174,129 26,632,006 165,131,670 37,849,651 Cordials & syrups 39 1,153,006 362 116,917 1,505,096 2,107,132 Cork, cutting 62 2,683,683 2,340 687,796 2,403,829 4,392,364 Corsets 216 7,481,048 12,729 3,791.509 6,555,467 14,878,116 Cotton, compress- ing 111 8,323,558 2,742 738,288 353,910 2,629,590 Cotton, ginning .. . 11,369 23,228,130 14,135 1,930,039 3,912,303 14,748,270 Cotton goods .... 1,055 467,240,157 302,861 86,689,752 176,551,527 339,200,320 Cotton waste ... 26 2,560,759 1,116 336,827 4,950,490 5.8S0.024 Crucibles 11 1,843,616 671 250,654 1,673,290 2,607,308 Cutlery and edge tools 309 16,532,383 12,069 5,673,619 5,116,042 14,881,478 Dentistry .Mechan ical (1890) .... 3,214 4,019,637 1,486 768,401 1,475,255 7,864,299 Dentists' materi'ls 68 2,112,236 1,017 508,603 2,109,231 3,721,150 Druggists' prepa- rations, not in- eluding pre- scriptions Drug grinding .... Dyeing and clean- ing 250 26 1,810 16,320,120 2,837,911 4,673,211 5,766 644 5,424 2,041,061 291,823 2,271,066 11,022,417 3,315,228 1,434,292 23,192,785 4,308,144 7,567,358 Dyeing and finish- ing textiles 298 60,643,104 29,776 12,726,316 17,958,137 44,963,331 Dye stuffs and ex- tracts. . . 77 7,839,034 1,647 787,942 4,745,912 7,350,748 Electrical appara- tusand supplies. 580 83,130,943 40,890 20,190,344 48,916,440 91,348,889 Electrical con- struction and repairs 1,162 5,438,087 5,949 3,312,126 7,673,507 15,907,420 Electroplating. . . . Emery wheels . . . 422 34 1,460,692 1,489,527 2,275 546 1,036,750 303,091 836,726 508,753 3,007,455 1,381,675 Enameling and. enameled goods. 129 9,184,178 7,675 2,259,003 5,466,971 9,978,509 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, BY SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES: 1900 Continued. Industry. Num- ber of Estab- lish- ments. Capital. Wage-earners. Cost of Materials Used. Value of Prod- ucts, Including Custom Work and Repair- ing. Average Num- ber. Total Wages. Engravers' ma- terials 12 $104,741 79 $46,064 $143,270 $289,339 Engraving and die-sinking 414 790,461 1,034 572,874 225,637 1,683,690 Engraving, steel, including plate printing. 286 5,061,520 : 3,299 2,006,824 1,206,462 5,068,558 Engraving, wood. 145 231,817 337 206,537 63,272 616,166 Envelopes Explosives ... 51 97 5,612,509 19,465,846 2,984 4,502 1,150,463 2,383,756 3,665,275 10,334,974 6,299,330 17,125,418 Fancy articles, not elsewhere spec- . ified 392 5,081,806 5,718 1,921,578 I 4,061,400 9,046,342 Felt goods 36 7,125,276 2,688 1,024,835 3,801,028 6,461,691 Fertilizers 422 60,685,753 11,581 4,185,289 28,958,473 44,657,385 Files 86 3,857,647 3,160 1,277,199 1,166,414 3,403,906 Firearms. . ...... 32 6,916,231 4,482 2,542,366 1,305,421 5,444,659 Fire extinguish- ers, chemical. . . 17 136,933 64 32,828 70,874 217,833 Fireworks 46 1,086,133 1,638 506,990 627,761 1,785,271 Fish, canning and preserving 312 36 352 16,310,987 666,033 3,319,716 11,318 509 1,254 2,986,996 148,933 478,975 11,644,118 547,165 3,294,380 18,432,613 1,038,052 6,314,552 Flags and banners Flavoring extracts- Flax dressed 4 71,496 211 46,000 91.032 ! 158.650 Flouring and grist mill products . . 25,258 218,714,104 37,073 17,703,418 475,826,345 560,719,063 Food preparations 644 20,998,102 8,154 3,051,718 23,675,165 38,457,651 Foundry and ma- chine shop prod- ucts 9,324 665,038,245 350,327 182,232,009 286,357,107 644,990,999 Foundry supplies. 30 981,817 278 135,877 628,160 1,128,856 Fruits and vege- tables, canning and preserving. . Fur goods 1,808 994 27,743,067 13,373,867 36,401 8,588 8,050,793 4,273,192 37,524,297 15,113,365 56,668,313 27,735,264 Furnishing goods, men's 470 20,163,222 30,216 9,680,077 23,404,969 43,902,162 Furniture, includ- ing cabinetmak- mg, repairing, & upholstering . . , Furs, dressed 7,972 92 117,982,091 ! 100,018 798,030 ; 835 42,638,810 478,190 65,499,877 519,699 153,168,309 1,400,455 Galvanizing 28 1,775,770 535 229,406 1,677,584 2,470,703 Gas and lamp fix- tures 223 10,009,239 7,642 3,504,301 5,013,597 12,577,806 Gas and oil stoves 35 3,766,065 2,471 1,138,442 2,501,568 4,579,700 Gas, illuminating and heating .. . . 877 567,000,506 22,459 12,436,296 20,605,356 75,716,693 Gas machines and meters 114 4,605,624 2,167 1,185,959 1,943,769 4,392,730 Glass .... 355 61,423,903 52,818 27,084,710 16,731,009 56,539,712 Glass, cutting, staining, and or- " namenting .... 417 4,013,534 4,931 2,403,591 3,540,097 8,776,006 Gloves and mit- % tens 394 9,089,809 14,345 4,182,518 9,483,130 16,926,156 Glucose 8 41,011,345 3,288 1,755,179 15,773,233 21,693,656 Glue 61 6,144,407 1,618 685,096 3,767,023 5,389,006 Gold and silver, leaf and foil. . . . 93 1,086,854 1,163 498,692 1,604,013 2,666,224 Gold and silver, reducing and re- fining, not from the ore 57 1,944,124 219 141,400 10,932,361 11,811,537 Graphite and graphite refin- * ing 11 411,128 137 64,376 216,560 429,173 264 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, BY SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES: 1900 Conti Num- Wage-earners. Value of Prod- ber of Cost of not * TnpluHincr Industry. Estab- Capital. Average Materials Custom Work lish- ments. Num- ber. Total Wages. Used. and Repair- ing. Grease and tallow. 289 $7,080,692 ! 2,046 $1,069,683 $8,761,857 $11,969,821 Grindstones . 25 903 348 ! 11 67 407,153 263 811 1,088 909 Hairwork 397 1,009,908 1,101 375,156 6731004 1J952J92 Hammocks . 13 308,254 339 101,626 242 950 480 114 Hand knit goods. . 86 205,488 304 75,870 124,009 352^226 Hand stamps 268 1,203,910 1,052 490,036 522,659 1,937,628 Hardware 381 39,311,745 26,463 11,422,758 14,605,244 35,846,656 Hardware, sad- dlery 80 3,335,274 2,940 1,217,202 1 fion IRS 4,149 489 Hat and cap ma- terials 70 1,744,419 1,371 434,148 2,797,756 3,849,116 Hats and caps, not including wool 1 hats 816 25,095,798 31,425 14,144,552 | 24,421,052 49,205,667 Hones and whet- stones 18 216,836 189 72,879 64 278 196 323 Hooks and eyes. . . 9 1,882,394 300 127,518 255^427 499^543 H orseshoes , fac- tory product. . . 6 344,151 167 90,527 172,237 387,619 Hosiery and knit goods. 921 81,860,604 83,387 24,358,627 51,071,859 95,482,566 House furnishing goods, not else- where specified . 210 10,638,248 5,212' 1,837,552 9,198,803 14,280,575 Ice, manufact'd .. 775 38,019,507 6,880 3,402,745 j 3,312,393 13,780,978 Ink 104 3,821,514 787 412,140 i 2,109,142 4,372,707 Instruments, pro- fessional and scientific Iron and steel. . . . 265 668 4,491,627 2,786 573,391,663 222,490 1,433,715 120,820,276 1,385,292 522,398,932 4,896,631 803,968,273 Iron and steel, bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets. . 72 10,799,692 7,660 2,991,857 8,071,071 13,978,382 Iron and steel, doors and shut- ters 13 261,958 117 85,683 115,718 319,629 Iron and steel, forgings 91 9,677,193 4,688 2,559,433 5,213,550 10,439,742 Iron and steel, nails and spikes, cut and wrought, including wire nails '. 102 10,751,359 4,477 2,042,250 8,561,571 14,777,299 Iron and steel, pipe, wrought. . 19 18,343,977 5,536 2,495,898 15,523,858 21,292,043 Ironwork, archi- tectural and or- namental 672 33,062,409 20,646 11,111,226 31,140,636 53,508,179 Ivory and bone work 70 939,714 1,334 529,051 930,224 1,873,357 Japanning 38 117,639 160 75,453 55,305 215,506 Jewelry 908 28,120,939 20,676 10,746,375 22,356,067 46,501,181 Jewelry and in- * strument cases. . 63 547,753 819 322,566 435,717 1,156,977 Jute and jute goods 18 7,027,293 4,506 1,181,790 3,015,362 5,383,797 Kaolin and other earth grinding. . Kindling wood. . . 145 85 12,212,341 1,775,272 2,094 1,525 820,678 566,635 1,651,335 735,844 3,722,151 1,784,690 Labels and tags. . . 47 848,115 754 289,273 387,517 1,104,652 Lamps and re- flectors Lapidary work. . . 156 60 6,375,474 3,087,390 4,725 498 2,076,980 3,497,236 498,715 4,655,765 8,341,374 5,786,281 Lard, refined 19 1,335,759 499 237,930 7,496,845 8,630,901 Lasts. . . 65 1,484,966 1,131 649,654 526,670 1 879 742 Lead, bar, pipe, and sheet 34 3,949,330 605 321,598 6,279,497 7,477,824 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 265 COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, BY SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES: 1900 Continued. Num- Wage-earners. lvalue of Prod- ber of Cost of 'llf.ts. Tnp.hidinor Industry. Estab- lish- ments. Capital. Average Num- ber. Total Wages. Materials Used. Custom Work and Repair- ing. Lead, smelting and refining .... 39 $72,148,933 8,319 $5,088,684 $144,195,163 $175,466,304 Leather board . . . 3 49,500 71 24,350 49,451 108,734 Leather goods .. .. 313 5,467,294 6,253 2,256,280 6,162,148 11,717,401 Leather, tanned, curried, and fin- ished 1,306 173,977,421 52,109 22,591,091 155,000,004 204,038,127 Lime and cement . 1,000 48,833,730 19,107 7,749,815 11,041,577 28,689,135 Linen goods 18 5,688,999 3,283 1,036,839 2,550,517 4,368,159 Liquors, distilled. 967 32,551,604 3,722 1,733,218 15,147,784 96,798,443 Liquors, malt. . . . 1,509 415,284,468 39,532 25,826,211 51,674,928 237,269,713 Liquors, vinous. . . 359 9,838,015 1,163 446,055 3,689,330 6,547,310 Lit ho graphing and engraving. . 263 22,676,142 12,994 6,882,168 7 886,045 22,240,679 Lock and gun- smithing 2,103 2,250,300 1,553 769,351 929,700 3,703,127 Looking-glass and picture frames . . 1,629 7,747,382 7,712 3,370,072 6,887,331 15,570,293 Lumber and tim- ber products . . . 33,010 611,429,574 283,179 104,563,603 317,832,865 566,621,755 Lumber, planing mill products, including sash, doors, and blinds 4,204 119,271,631 73,627 32,685,210 99,927,707 168,343,003 Malt 146 39,288,102 1,990 1,182,513 14,816,741 19,373,600 Mantels, slate, marble, and marbleized 36 811,995 449 291,050 487,965 1,153,540 Marble and stone work 6,070 67,509,533 54.370 28,663,241 30,443,297 85,101,591 Masonry, brick and stone 8,333 48,070,239 93,568 53,152,258 87,280,964 203,593,634 Matches 22 3,893,000 ! 2,047 612,715 3,420,740 6,005,937 Mats and matting 9 994,155 1,197 237,282 516,137 1,165,330 Mattresses and spring beds. 797 8,298,772 7,959 3,213,268 10,444,009 18,463,704 Millinery and lace goods 591 10,764,813 16,871 5,817,855 15,654,295 29,469,406 Millinery, custom work * 16,151 27,740,386 33,298 9 570 536 36 455 043 70,363,752 Millstones 3 49,238 37 20,957 30,995 75,922 Mineral and soda waters 2,816 20,518,708 8,985 4,169,113 8,801,467 23,874,429 Mirrors . 103 3,184,426 2,555 1,231,689 4,995,671 8,004,301 Models and pat- terns 532 2,250,484 2,608 1,565,728 825,111 3,836,518 Mucilage & paste. 117 1,265,426 480 205,082 1,657,342 2,629,299 Musical i n s t r u- ments and ma- terials, not spec- ified 229 3,896,101 2,405 1,232,039 1,205,337 3,394,734 Musical i n s t r u- ments, organs, and materials. . . 129 5,011,987 3,435 - 1,720,727 2,220,165 5,691,504 Musical instru- ments, pianos and materials. . . 261 38,790,494 17,869 9,818,996 15,147,520 35,324,090 Needles and pins. . 43 3,235,158 2,353 939,846 972,570 2,738,439 Nets and seines. . . 19 1,160,782 748 222,146 865,908 1,476,022 Oakum 7 416,199 171 51,343 283,862 440,237 Oil, castor 3 539,221 49 29,068 293,408 395,400 Oil, cotton seed and cake 369 34,451,461 11,007 3,143,459 45,165,823 58,726,632 Oil, essential 7C 612,657 199 69,100 596,112 850,093 Oil. lard. 7 369,773 78 42,205 971,647 1,221,841 Oil, linseed 48 15,460,512 1,328 693,311 24,395,775 27,184,331 Oil, not elsewhere .specified 193 9,441,984 1,353 679,730 9,807,859 17,089,799 266 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, BY SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES: 1900 Continued. Num- ber of Wag e-earners. Cost of Value of Prod- Industry. Estab- lish- ments. Capital. Average Num- ber. Total Wages. Materials Used. Custom Work and Repair- ing. Oil, resin 8 $284,110 90 $53,596 $535,320 $738,680 Oilcloth, enamel'd 9 1,702,904 512 300,878 2,696,412 3,595,515 Oilcloth, floor. . . . 18 7,176,198 2,718 1,327,235 4,853,260 7,807,105 Oleomargarine. . . Optical goods. . . . 24 350 3,023,646 5,567,809 1,084 4,341 534,444 1,935,219 7,639,501 3,233,430 12,499,812 7,790,970 Ordnance and ord- nance stores .... 4 3,468,713 989 615,280 802,706 2,239,797 Oysters, canning and preserving .. 39 1,240,696 2,779 630,016 2,608,757 3,670,134 Painting and pa- per hanging. . . . 16,939 27,217,086 59,191 34,822,819 26,304,784 88,396,852 Paints 419 42,501,782 8,151 3,929,787 33,799,386 50 874 995 Paper and wood Pulp - 763 167,507,713 49,646 20,746,426 70,530,236 127,326,162 Paper goods, not elsewhere spec- ified 190 ' 11,370,585 6,117 2,242,702 9,819,820 16,785,269 Paper hangings. . . 51 8,889,794 4,172 2,074,138 6,072,809 10,663,209 Paper patterns. . . 16 256,075 836 262,559 124,854 563,653 Patent medicines and compounds. 2,026 37,209,793 11,809 4,407,988 18,185,513 59,611,335 Paving and pav- ing materials. . . 1.729 37,888,412 34,090 14,570,408 20,152,477 40,447,719 Pencils lead . 7 2,227,406 2,162 683,281 1,030,917 2,222,270 Pens, fountain and stylographic. . . . 23 590,629 318 141,012 351,932 906,454 Pens, gold 22 496,246 378 229,679 312,537 799,078 Pens, steel 3 357,460 473 138,433 52,466 294,340 Perfumery and cosmetics 266 3,499,168 1,768 569,286 3,136,853 7,095,713 Petroleum refining 67 95,327,892 12,199 0,717,087 102,859,341 123,929,384 Phonographs and graphophones .. 11 3,348,282 1,267 608,490 827,529 2,246,274 Photographic ap- paratus 48 1,849,724 1,961 779,890 595,925 2,026,063 Photographic ma- terials 105 3,668,026 1,483 662,958 2,782,285 5,773,325 Photography Photolithograph - 7,553 13,193,589 8,911 4,013,018 6,841,853 23,238,719 ing and photo- engraving 204 1,999,921 2,698 1,756,578 728,743 4,226,106 Pickles, preserves, and sauces . . 474 10,656,854 6,812 2 161 962 12 422 432 21,507,046 Pipes, tobacco. . . . 98 1,111,144 1,585 737J647 1,106,299 2, '471, '908 Plated and britan- nia ware 66 16,486,471 6,392 3,088,224 5,875,312 12,608,770 Plumbers' s u p - plies . . 174 13,598,528 8,024 3,930,594 7 289,867 14,771,185 Plumbing.and gas and steam fitti'g 11,876 47,111,264 53,916 31,873,866 65,334,689 131,852,567 Pocketbooks 68 991,876 1,653 588,595 1,278,226 2,495,188 Pottery, terra cot- ta, and fire-clay products 1,000 65,951,885 43,714 17,691,737 11,915,236 44,263,386 Printing and pub- lishing 22,312 292,517,072 162,992 84,249,954 86,856,290 347,055 050 Printing materials 70 905,603 560 232,799 406,357 1,088,432 Pulp, from fiber other than wood 3 479,158 121 28,462 42,204 103,204 Pulp goods 22 2,316,985 691 283,835 646,639 1,267,013 Pumps, not in- cluding steam pumps. 130 1,260,710 632 247,193 637 768 1 341 713 Refrigerators 95 4,782,110 3,329 1,287,488 2,476,518 5,317!880 Regalia and so- c i e t y banners and emblems. . . 120 1,795,858 1,586 476,580 1,608,415 3,077,945 Registers, car fare 5 104,408 52 25,775 17,403 80,865 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 267 COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, BY SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES: 1900 Continued. Industry. Num- ber of Estab- lish- ments. Capital. Wage-earners. Cost of materials Used. Value of Prod- ucts, Including Custom Work and Repair- ing. Average Num- ber. Total Wages. i Registers, cash .. . Rice, cleaning and polishing Roofing and roof- ing materials. . . Rubber and elas- tic goods Rules, ivory and 13 80 2,162 202 11 12,934 35 159 & 86 33 7 39C 58 1,116 986 105 102 483 44 59 1,134 61 558 30 144 48 139 124 113 227 97 92 140 4 30 832 219 147 57 $5,137,965 2,601,352 17,594,162 39,304,853 202,724 43,354,136 5,479,879 27,123,364 1,372,307 8,508,487 6,307,576 7,931,457 1,333,341 331,433 18,739,459 77,362,701 20,312,412 5,272,929 1,152,898 81,082,201 1,999,921 12,142,008 190,706,927 5,200,523 38,068,334 4,202,452 2,018,737 4,684,278 13,954,176 11,671,567 4,494,507 18,233,173 2,691,304 532,528 2,389,215 25,070 20,141,719 184,245,519 2,487,494 366,077 6,650,047 2,015 651 15,362 20,405 213 24,123 2,033 4,774 274 3,215 2,775 3,527 2,653 310 10,635 46,781 38,492 1,926 1,363 65,416 1,437 4,376 69,441 983 9,487 963 2,230 2,102 10,002 2,655 3,032 9,252 1,147 418 2,408 54 1,970 14.262 1.539 180 3,671 $1,223,966 265,585 6,996,810 8,082,738 66,732 10,725,647 1,017,237 1,911,140 144,183 1,692,757 1,436,839 1,423,838 1,065,180 154,036 6,213,938 24,839.163 11,425,101 748,948 708,211 20.982,194 803,662 2,639,480 33,923,253 532,068 3,754,767 549,939 810,943 1,061,006 3,730,241 1,099,696 958,471 4,982,857 525,332 206,231 1,458,977 14,381 1,092,207 6,945,811 620,801 91,140 1,889,917 $903,834 7,575,522 14,624,759 33,485,694 72,657 33,127,926 1,689,148 3,335,922 681,240 2,600,217 1,533,379 1,720,455 1,533,880 220,537 7,809,796 33,486,772 23,662,317 4,875,192 1,057,666 62,406,665 1,229,158 4,554,487 686,860,891 5,899,935 33,143,230 997,436 1,802,903 3,024,656 7,333,028 5,806,422 2,128,445 10,219,506 1,546,398 140,711 766,603 12,933 4,803,796 222,503,741 1,291,580 177,038 26,728,150 $5,594,500 8,723,726 29,916,592 52,627,030 207,757 62,630,902 3,927,867 7,966,897 1,175,895 6,443,748 5,239,788 4,658,467 2,815,142 710,123 18,314,419 74,578,158 49,022,845 6,730,974 2,467,901 107,256,258 2,936,462 10,569,121 790,252,586 7,784,695 53,231,017 3,015,493 3,633,396 5,690,499 14,546,191 9,232,984 5,065,869 22,084,860 3,493,710 673,784 3,772,025 36,985 7,323,857 240,969,905 3,932,358 513,112 31,892,011 Saddlery and har- ness . . Safes and vaults. . Salt Sand and emery paper and cloth . Saws Scales and bal- ances Screws Sewing machine Sewing machine Sewing machines and attachments Shipbuilding Shirts Shoddy . . Show cases Silk and silk goods Silversmithing. . . Silverware Slaughtering and meat packing, not including re- tail butchering . Smelting and re- fining, not from the ore Soap and candles . Soda water ap- paratus . . Sporting goods . . . Springs, steel, car and carriage. . . . Stamped ware .... Starch Stationery goods, not elsewhere specified Steam fittings and heating appara- tus Steam packing . . . Stencils and brands Stereotyping and electrotyoing. . . Straw goods, not elsewhere speci- ' fied Sugar and molas- ses, beet Sugar and molas- ses, refining. . . . Surgical applianc's Taxidermy Tin and terneplate 268 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. COMPARATIVE SUMMARY, BY SPECIFIED INDUSTRIES: 1900 Continued. Num- Wag g-earners. Value of prod- Industry. ber of Estab- lish- ments. Capital. Average Num- ber. Total Wages. Cost of Materials Used. ucts, Including Custom Work and Repair- ing. Tinfoil 15 $2,094,327 582 $227,774 $1,074,192 $1,593,169 Tinsmithing, cop- persm i t hi n g, and sheet-iron working 12,466 55,703,509 45,575 22,155,039 50,329,282 100,310,720 Tobacco, chewing, smoking, and snuff 437 43,856,570 29,161 7,109,821 35,038,287 103,754,362 Tobacco, cigars and cigarettes. . 14,539 67,706,493 103,462 40,925,596 57,946,020 160,223,152 Tobacco, stem- ming and re- handling 276 12,526,808 9,654 1,817,067 14,198,349 19,099,032 Tools, not else- where specified. 448 13,690,047 7,615 3,781,763 4,657,200 13,360,920 Toys and games . . 170 3,289,445 3,330 1,123,593 1,668,199 4,024,999 Trunks and valises 391 7,046,649 7,084 2,834,892 6,045,387 12,693,225 Turpentine and rosin 1,503 11,847,495 41,864 8,393,483 6,186,492 20,344,888 Type founding. . . 22 2,269,370 1,424 803,470 863,689 2,842,384 Typewriter r e - pairing 85 134,123 185 116,220 110,603 367,176 Typewriters and supplies 47 8,400,431 4,340 2,403,604 1,402,170 6,932,029 Umbrellas and canes 261 4,677,917 5,695 1,889,673 8,457,167 13,855,908 Upholstering ma- terials . . 270 7 593 598 5 098 1 715 073 5,881,621 10 048 164 Varnish 181 17,550,892 1^46 995,803 10,939,131 18,687,240 Vault lights and ventilators 14 120,750 138 81,184 140,719 338,111 Vinegar and cider. 1,152 6,187,728 1,801 720,316 3,272,565 6,454,524 Washing machi'es and clothes wringers 118 2,404,569 1,509 548,707 2,174,762 3,735,243 Watch and clock materials 20 367,291 331 152,234 105,549 345,347 Watch cases 30 8,119,292 3,907 1,924,847 4,393,647 7,783,960 Watch, clock, and jewelry repair- ing 12 229 12,741,973 8 380 4,683,086 4,432,108 20,235,039 Watches 13 14,235,191 6,880 3,586,723 1,291,318 6,822,611 Whalebone and rattan 3 56 200 14 7,856 98 875 135 000 Wheelbarrows. .. . 15 513,467 321 127,398 180,036 454,441 Whips. 60 1,893,703 1,287 478,176 1,278,324 2,734,471 Windmills 68 4,308,666 2,045 940,474 2,172,098 4,354,312 Window shades. . . 207 5,507,842 2,012 871,532 6,046,062 8,868,259 Wire 29 4,242,173 1,603 859,645 7,014,319 9,421,238 Wirework, includ- ing wire rope and cable 597 16,374,629 9,255 3,934,525 10,858,229 19,942,882 Wood, preserving. 21 1,229,746 478 205,105 1,825,355 2,395,748 Wood, turned and carved 1,171 10,278,418 11,569 4,375,345 5,835,492 14,338,503 Wooden ware, not elsewhere speci- fied 104 3,824 512 3,206 1,073,303 1 468 383 3,585 542 Wool hats 24 2,050,802 2,108 937,855 21042^202 3,591,940 Wool pulling 31 944,715 475 247,950 53,975 531,287 Wool scouring 25 1,061,123 720 338,606 193,826 889,809 Woolen goods .... Worsted goods. . . 1,035 186 124,386,262 132,168,110 68,893 57,008 24,757,006 20,092,738 71,011,956 77,075,222 118,430,158 120,314,344 Zinc, smelting and refining .... 31 14,141,810 4,869 2,355,921 13,286,058 18,188,498 All other indus- tries 4 447,959 132 58,661 299,339 503,449 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 269 INDUSTRY GROUPS RANKED BY CAPITAL, NUMBER OF WAGE- EARNERS, WAGES, AND GROSS AND NET VALUE OF PRODUCTS: 1900. [Twelfth Census, Vol. VII, page clxiv, and Vol. VIII, page 18.] Number Average Industry Group. of Estab- lishments. Rank. Capital. Rank. Number of Wage- Rank. earners. Total 512,191 $9,813,834,390 5,306,143 Food and kindred products. . . . Textiles 61,266 30,048 2 4 937,686,610 1,366,604,058 5 2 311,717 1,029,910 7 1 Iron and steel and their prod- ucts 13,896 11 1,528,979,076 1 733,968 2 Lumber and its remanufact'res. 47,054 3 945,934,565 4 546,872 4 Leather and its finished prod- ucts 16,989 7 343,600,513 13 238,202 10 Paper and printing Liquors and beverages. Chemicals and allied products. . Clay, glass, and stone products. 26,747 7,861 5,443 14,809 6 13 14 10 557,610,887 534,101,049 498,282,219 350,902,367 6 7 8 12 297,551 63,072 101,489 244,987 8 14 13 9 Metals and metal products, other than iron and steel. . . . 16,305 8 410,646,057 9 190,757 11 Tobacco 15,252 9 124,089,871 14 142,277 12 Vehicles for land transportati'n Shipbuilding 10,112 1,116 12 15 396,671,441 77,362,701 10 15 316,157 46,781 6 15 Miscellaneous industries 29,479 5 1,348,920,721 3 483,273 5 Hand trades 215,814 1 392,442,255 i 11 559,130 3 Value of Products. Industry Group. Wages. Rank. Gross. Rank. Net. Rank. Total . $2,320,938,168 $13,000,149,159 $8,367,997,844 Food and kindred products. 128,667,428 8 2,273,880,874 1 1,750,811,817 1 Textiles 341,734,399 2 1,637,484,484 3 1,081,961,248 2 Iron and steel and their products. . . 381,875,499 1 1,793,490,908 2 983,821,918 3 Lumber and its remanu- factures 212,124,780 4 1,030,695,350 5 547,227,860 6 Leather and its finished products 99,759,885 10 583,731,046 9 329,614,996 11 Paper and printing. . 140,092,453 36,946,557 7 14 606,317,768 425,504,167 8 12 419,798,101 349,157,618 7 10 Liquors and beverages Chemicals and allied prod- ucts 43,850,282 13 552,797,877 10 372,538,857 8 Clay, glass, and stone prod- ucts 109,022,582 9 293,564,235 13 245,447,118 14 Metals and metal products, other than iron and steel . 96,749,051 11 748,795,464 7 371,154,446 9 Tobacco 49 852 484 12 283 076 546 14 264 052 573 12 Vehicles for land transpor- tation . , 164 559 022 6 508 524 510 11 250 622 377 13 Shipbuilding 24,839,163 15 74,578,158 15 42,492,518 15 Miscellaneous industries. . . 202,746,162 5 1,004,092,294 6 638,191,538 5 Hand trades. . 288,118,421 3 1.183.615.478 4 721.104.85S 4 270 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. BANK OF INDUSTRIES WITH PRODUCTS [Twelfth Census, Vol. VII, page Industry. Number of Estab- lish- ments. Rank. Capital. Rank. Iron and steel 668 41 $573,391,663 3 Slaughtering and meat packing, not including retail butchering 1,134 31 190,706,927 10 9,324 15 665,058,245 1 Lumber and timber products Flouring and grist mill products Clothing, men's Printing and publishing Cotton manufactures Carpentering Woolen manufactures Boots and shoes, factory product Sugar and molasses, refining Liquors, malt 33,010 25,258 28,014 22,312 1,055 21,315 1,414 1,600 832 1,509 2 4 3 5 33 6 28 26 37 27 611,429,574 218,714,104 173,034,543 292,517,072 467,240,157 71,327,047 310,179,749 101,795,233 184,245,519 415,284,468 2 9 13 8 5 31 7 21 11 6 Cars and general shop construction and repairs by steam railroad companies Leather, tanned, curried, and finished Masonry brick and stone 1,295 1,306 8,333 14,917 30 29 16 9 119,473,042 173,977,421 48,070,239 81,049,553 16 12 39 28 Lead, smelting and refining Lumber, planing mill products, including sash, doors, and blinds, 39 4,204 55 22 72,148,933 119,271,631 30 17 Copper smelting and refining . 47 54 53,063,395 37 14,539 10 67,706,493 32 Clothing, women's, factory product Furniture, including cabinetmaking, repairing, and upholstering .' Plumbing, and gas and steam fitting 2,701 7,972 11,876 9,355 23 17 13 14 48,431,544 117,982,091 47,111,264 36,508,015 38 19 40 47 763 38 167,507,713 14 67 53 95,327,892 22 Carriages and wagons Silk and silk goods Cars, railroad and street, and repairs, not including es- tablishments operated by steam railroad companies. . Tobacco, chewing, smoking, and snuff Agricultural implements Tinsmithing, coppersmithing, and sheet-iron working . . Liquors, distilled. < 7,632 483 193 437 715 12,466 967 18 44 52 47 39 12 34 118,187,838 81,082,201 106,721,188 43,856,570 157,707,951 55,703,509 32,551,604 18 27 20 41 15 35 51 921 35 81,860,604 26 580 42 83,130,943 24 Painting and paper hanging. Blacksmithing and wheelwrighting Marble and stone work Confectionery 16,939 51,771 6,070 4,297 877 7 1 19 21 36 27,217,086 54,976,341 67,509,533 35,155,361 567 000 506 55 36 33 48 4 Shipbuilding 1,116 32 77,362,701 29 16,151 8 27,740,386 54 Coffee and spice, roasting and grinding 458 459 46 45 28,436,897 89,091,430 52 23 12,934 11 43 354 136 42 Patent medicines and compounds Oil, cottonseed and cake Fruits and vegetables, canning and preserving Glass Ironwork, architectural and ornamental Soap and candles. Rubber and elastic goods Brick and tile Paints. . 2,026 369 1,808 355 672 558 262 5,423 419 24 49 25 50 40 43 51 20 48 37,209,793 34,451,461 27,743,067 61,423,903 33,062,409 38,068,334 39,304,853 82,086,438 42,501,782 46 49 53 34 50 45 44 25 43 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 271 VALUED AT OVER $50,000,000: 1900. clxiii, and Vol. VIII, page 18.] Average Number of Wage- earners. Rank. Wages. Rank. Value of Products. Net, Rank. Gross. Rank. 222,490 4 $120,820,276 2 $432,687,119 3 $803,968,273 1 69,441 17 33,923,253 15 684,119,221 1 790,252,586 2 350,327 1 182,232,009 1 377,812,876 4 644,990,999 3 283,179 3 104,563,603 3 307,838,590 5 566,621,755 4 37,073 34 17,703,418 35 540,052,649 2 560,719,063 5 191,043 5 79,434,932 7 220,140,823 8 415,256,391 6 162,992 7 84,249,954 6 264,859,062 7 347,055,050 7 302,861 2 86,689,752 5 296,633,150 6 339,200,320 8 123,985 10 71,049,737 8 176,611,706 12 316,101,758 9 159,108 8 57,933,817 10 218,637,292 9 296,990,484 10 142,922 9 59,175,883 9 93,701,767 19 261,028,580 11 14,262 45 6,945,811 46 49,216,847 40 240,969,905 12 39,532 33 25,826,211 23 202,582,268 10 237,269,713 13 173,595 6 96,006,570 4 111,622,240 16 218,113,658 14 52,109 26 22,591,091 27 186,389,057 11 204,038,127 15 93,568 13 53,152,258 11 125,356,555 14 203,593,634 16 60,271 21 27,893,170 21 89,262,303 23 175,657,348 17 8,319 52 5,088,684 49 97,425,341 18 175,466,304 18 73,627 16 32,685,210 16 74,205,166 28 168,343,003 19 11,324 49 8,529,021 42 76,502,702 26 165,131,670 20 103,462 11 40,925,596 13 152,300,012 13 160,223,152 21 83,739 14 32,586,101 17 75,315,179 27 159,339,539 22 100,018 12 42,638,810 12 91,151,488 22 153,168,309 23 53,916 24 31,873,866 18 68,035,688 30 131,852,567 24 12,865 46 6,170,670 48 124,008,573 15 131,199,277 25 49,646 27 20,746,426 32 77,954,480 25 127,326,162 26 12,199 47 6,717,087 47 107,512,092 17 123,929,384 27 62,540 19 29,814,911 19 67,172,479 ai 121,537,276 28 65,416 18 20,982,194 31 86,483,994 24 107,256,258 29 44,063 31 23,342,763 26 39,326,856 47 107,186,359 30 29,161 39 7,109,821 45 92,915,542 20 103,754,362 31 46,582 29 22,450,880 28 60,535,599 36 101,207,428 32 45,575 30 22,155,039 29 51,638,038 38 100,310,720 33 3,722 55 1,733,218 55 91,451,293 21 96,798,443 34 83,387 15 24,358,627 25 54,544,999 37 95,482,566 35 40,890 32 20,190,344 33 44,583,830 41 91,348,889 36 59,191 22 34,822,819 14 62,541,861 35 88,396,852 37 36,193 36 17,974,264 34 63,764,914 34 85,971,630 38 54,370 23 28,663,241 20 69,097,079 29 85,101,591 39 33,583 37 10,867,687 38 44,179,706 42 81,290,543 40 22,459 41 12,436,296 36 64,276,431 33 75,716,693 41 46,781 28 24,839,163 24 42,492,518 46 74,578,158 42 33,298 38 9,570,536 40 34,529,813 51 70,363,752 43 6,387 54 2,486,759 54 64,741,832 32 69,527,108 44 19,054 44 9,401,467 41 36,918,124 48 62,676,730 45 24,123 40 10,725,647 39 30,677,173 52 62,630,902 46 11,809 48 4,407,988 50 43,819,968 44 59,611,335 47 11,007 50 3,143,459 53 43,196,446 45 58,726,632 48 36,401 35 8,050,793 44 36,668,635 49 56,668,313 49 52,818 25 27,084,710 22 43,905,999 43 56,539,712 50 20,646 42 11,111,226 37 23,398,179 54 53,508,179 51 9,487 51 3,754,767 52 24,228,062 53 53,231,017 52 20,405 43 8,082,738 43 35,278,808 50 52,627,030 53 61,979 20 21,883,333 30 50,312,022 39 51,270,476 54 8,151 53 ! 3,929,787 51 18,545,525 55 50,874,995 55 272 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. ESTABLISHMENTS AND PRODUCTS CLASSIFIED BY CHARACTER OF ORGANIZATION, BY GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES: 1900.* [Twelfth Census, Vol. VII, pages Ixvi and 503.] Industry Group. Total. . . Food and kindred products Textiles Iron and steel and their products Lumber and its remanufactures Leather and its finished products Paper and printing Liquors and beverages Chemicals and allied products Clay, glass, and stone products Metals and metal products, other than iron and steel Tobacco Vehicles for land transportation Shipbuilding Miscellaneous industries Hand trades. . , Character of Organization. Total. Individual. Number of Estab- lishments. Value of Products. Number of Estab- lishments. Value of Products. 512,191 $13,000,149,159 372,692 $2,674,426,373 61,266 2,273,880,874 42,569 444,230,465 30,048 1,637,484,484 18,701 262,342,066 13,896 1,793,490,908 5,717 107,343,147 47,054 1,030,695,350 28,463 265,781,468 16,989 583,731,046 12,906 26,747 606,317,768 16,392 127,116,593' 7,861 425,504,167 5,063 69,353,112 5,443 552,797,877 2,085 14,809 293,564,235 8,761 "'69,147,764' 16,305 748,795,464 10,666 15,252 283,076 546 12,803 '7"9,9i9,99i ' 10,112 508,524,510 5,750 43,223,011 1,116 74,578,158 748 12,592,136 29,479 1,004,092,294 18,545 173,848,128 215,814 1,183,615,478 183,523 777,274,319 Industry Group. Character of Organization. Firm and Limited Partnership. Incorporated Com- pany. Cooperative and Miscellaneous. Num- ber of Estab- lish- ments. Value of Products. Num- ber of Estab- lish- ments. Value of Products. Num- ber of Estab- lish- ments. Value of Products. Total Food and kindred products. . . . Textiles Iron and steel and their prod- ucts Lumber and its remanufact'res. Leather and its finished prod- ucts 96,701 11,905 8,084 3,329 13,893 2,990 $2,565,242,473 394,387,619 547,349,114 177,415,968 256,014,803 208,571,042 106,830,193 eO.Ysi J25 66,327,320 88,143,271 74,456,334 6,4141398' 188,153,370 305,612,005 40,705 4,994 3,245 4,843 4,670 1,091 4,490 1,333 2,205 2,132 1,470 358 2,282 151 4,750 2,691 $7,729,520,548 1,410,298,055 827,705,447 1,508,493,141 508,341,338 257,808,524 368,923,042 305,129,467 450,008,084 157,336,458 578,172,577 128,478,983 430,731,303 55,571,624 641,875,764 100,646,741 2,093 1,798 18 7 28 183 2 1 25 2 6 1 ' ' 16' 10 $30,959,765 24,964,735 87,857 238,652 557,741 ' 3,453,946 Paper and printing Liquors and beverages Chemicals and allied products. . Clay, glass, and stone products. Metal and metal products, other than iron and steel. . . . Tobacco. . . . 5,682 1,463 1,152 3,891 4,167 2,085 2,079 217 6,174 29,590 752,693 221,238 Vehicles for land transportati'n Shipbuilding Miscellaneous industries Hand trades 215,032 82,413 *In this table values have been omitted wherever they disclosed the products of individual establishments. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 273 ESTABLISHMENTS CLASSIFIED BY NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES, NOT INCLUDING PROPRIETORS AND FIRM MEMBERS: 1900. [Twelfth Census, Vol. VII, pages Ixxiii and 582.J Industry Group. Total Num- ber of Estab- lish- ments. Number of Establishments Reporting. No. Em- ploy- ees. Under 5. 232,716 5 to 20. 112,120 8,129 9,722 4,349 20,039 1,644 7,962 2,070 1,689 6,121 3,542 3,004 3,080 361 8,026 2 32,382 21 to 50. 32,403 1,888 3,458 2,186 4,814 857 2,139 569 806 2,186 951 672 829 152 3,123 37,773 51 to 100. 11,658 101 to 250. 251 to 500. 501 to 1000. Over 1000. Total 512,191 110,509 8,475 2,804 1,063 443 Food and kindred prod- ucts Textiles Iron and steel and their 61,266 30,048 13,896 47,054 16,989 26,747 7,861 5,443 14,809 16,305 15,252 10,112 1,116 29,479 215,814 14,611 1,300 783 2,069 5,028 2,400 671 643 1,022 2,950 3,637 1,183 198 5,191 68,823 34,759 11,036 3,102 16,836 8,163 12,628 4,185 1,607 3,876 8,029 7,273 3,772 211 10,403 1 106,836 912 1,828 1,395 1,892 560 874 228 390 857 386 309 467 83 1,477 696 1,620 1,244 1,128 472 565 103 224 562 291 233 416 56 865 161 669 513 218 196 143 27 64 134 85 85 229 29 251 81 295 221 51 50 30 6 10 42 51 28 88 17 93 -~2g 120 103 7 19 6 2 10 9 20 11 48 9 50 Lumber and its reman u- factures Leather and its finished products Paper and printing Liquors and beverages. . . Chemicals and allied products Clay, glass, and stone products Metals and -metal prod- ucts, other than iron and steel Tobacco. . . Vehicles for land trans- portation. . Shipbuilding Miscellaneous industries . Hand trades 1 Includes establishments with 1 to 5 employees. 2 Includes establishments with 6 to 20 employees. 3 Includes establishments with over 20 employees. AMERICAN IRRIGATION. There are in the United States some 500,000,000 acres in what is known as the Arid Belt. These are not avail- able for agriculture until they have been irrigated. "It is now estimated that at least 15,000,000 acres will be added to the available domain of the country during the first ten years" following the enactment of a new law, "while the authorities in charge of the work insist that under its operations it will be possible to bring into actual cultivation and use some years earlier than had been anticipated the 100,000 square miles included in the original estimate." The new law referred to "repealed the previous enactment permitting single individuals to take up land to the amount of 160 acres under the Homestead timber culture and pre- emption systems, making 480 acres in all." It provided, among other things, that 160 acres should be the maximum. London "Times," October 31, 1903. POPULATION OF EUROPE. The population of Europe has been carefully estimated at recent dates by MM. Levasseur and Bodio with these results : YEAR. POPULATION. 1900 401,098 000 1886 346,700,000 1880 331,000,000 1878 325,700.000 1860 289,000,000 Daily Mail Year Book. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. COST OF MATERIALS USED IN EACH OF THE FIFTEEN GROUPS OF INDUSTRIES: 1900. [Twelfth Census, Vol. VII. page cxxxvii.] Industry Group. Cost of Materials Used. Per Cent of Cost of Materials to Gross Value of Products. Per Cent of Cost of Materials Purchased in Raw State of Net Value of Prod- ucts. Purchased in Raw State. Purchased in Partially Manufac- tured Form. Fuel, Freight, etc. Purchased in Partial- ly Manu- factured Form. Purchased in Raw State. Total $2,389,138,828 $4,632.151,315 $322,337,732 35 6 18.4 28.6 Food and kindred products Textiles Iron and steel and their products. . . . Lumber and its re- manufactures. . . . Leather and its fin- ished products. . . . Paper and printing. . Liquor and bever- ages 1,279,450,388 314,089,230 74,781,646 64,502,232 134,809,625 11,396,844 37,340,408 154,470,332 18,971,906 98,737,311 86,709,511 1,342,802 523,069,057 555,523,236 809.668,990 483,467,490 254,116,050 186,519,667 76,346,549 180,259,020 48,117,117 377,641,018 19,023,973 257,902,133 32,085,640 365,900.756 462,510,619 35,148,815 26,372,330 102,747,734 13,440,897 6,625,557 16,241,912 8.531,116 21,422,432 27,526,258 20,601,039 1,449,172 8,966,610 1,401,132 20,487,518 11,375,210 23.0 33.9 45.1 46.9 43.5 30.8 17.9 32.6 16.4 50.4 6.7 50.7 43.0 36.4 39.1 56.3 19.2 4.2 6.3 23.1 1.9 8.8 27.9 6.5 13.2 30.6 0.3 73.0 29.0 7.6 11.8 40.9 2.7 10.7 41.5 7.7 26.6 32.8 0.5 Chemicals and al ied products Clay, glass, and stone products. . . . Metals and metal products, other than iron and steel Tobacco . Vehicles for land transportation. . . Shipbuilding Miscellaneous in- dustries 103,685,431 8,851,162 10.3 0.7 16.2 1.2 Hand trades . TOURISTS IN SWITZERLAND. The following figures with regard to tourists in Switzerland have been compiled by Herr Freuler, of Zurich. Money paid annually by visitors to hotel proprietors between $15,000,000 and $20,000,000 ; paid to railway com- panies, etc., $3.375,000; gross profit is estimated at $12,375,000, from which $8,000 has to be taken for de- preciation and improvements. The capital outlay is estimated at $120,- 000,000. There are some 1,896 hotels and pensions, etc., with 104,800 beds; 945 are only open in the season, 951 are open all the year, 22,000 people find .egular employment in these hotels, and 5,000 irregularly, with wages totaling 9 to 11 million francs and gratuities amounting to 3 1-2 to 4 million francs. " Daily Mail " Year Book. JURA TUNNEL. The Grand Council of the Canton of Berne, in the year 1903, agreed to grant a subvention for the construc- tion of the projected Jura Tunnel for a line between Soleure and Munster, which will give access to the proposed tunnel through the Bernese Alps for communication with the Simplon Tun- nel. An agreement has also been ar- rived at between the Federal Council and the Simplon Tunnel Company by which the latter will receive an in- creased amount for the construction of the Simplon Tunnel, but will not be liberated from its obligation to con- struct a second tunnel. The company agrees to transfer the tunnel to the Federal Government. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 275 iS^ii Jj to .s rt< iO C^l r>- I>J t^ r-l O5 ,H ^H CO 00 1C o i OO 00 OO OO CO !> CO 1^ CO IO ^H 'f ; ic 10 co -* oo -H '-i'-i'O 05 ^H O 5 i .? irTco i-T- O !>. 00 C^l ^J { CO CO * I i * ^ C O CN CO OO '-O CO fc I -' ' .iO (N>O OOO aj 10 ^H Tt^ 04 ^ ' l-i CO lO CO rf (M t CC (M CO "5 ^-co- o I SJ p,' I - i-l 00 . i Q "'^eqcoco COU35~^ "60CO~ >-l CO CN IO O: t>- (MCO-HOOCOCN lU^^O^OOOOCO oooooco cor*- oo c: o o S "8 S -43 1880. 1890. 1900. DIVISION OF INDUSTRIES. SEGMENTS ARE BASED ON PRODUCTION IN THE CENSUS YEAR 1890. 276 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SUMMARY OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE DURING THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1903. (Bureau of Statistics). Articles. Quantities. Values. AGRICULTURAL, IMPLEMENTS: Mowers and reapers, and parts of Plows and cultivators, and parts of. Dollars. 10,326,641 3 169 961 All other, and parts of 7,510,020 Total Aluminum, and manufactures of 21,006,622 133,256 ANIMALS: Cattle gogs Horses . . . No. . . No. No 402,178 4,031 34,007 29,848,936 40,923 3 152 159 Mules Sheep No... No 4,294 176,961 521,725 1 067 860 All other, including fowls. . . 149 590 Total Art works : Paintings and statuary Asbestos, and manufactures of Asphaltum, and manufactures of 34,781,193 512,558 133,427 104 586 Babbitt metal 44 635 Bark, and extract of, for tanning. . . . 239 ygg Beeswax Ibs 70 811 21 337 Billiard balls 4 228 Bird skins. BLACKING : ^ Stove polish % All other 650 198,152 511 136 Clones, hoofs, horns, and horn tips, strips, and waste. 193 817 Books, maps, engravings, etchings, and other pcinted Brass, and manufactures of matter 4,442,653 2 000 432 BREADSTUFFS : Barley 8 429 141 4 662 544 Bread and biscuit Ibs 11,104,575 589 536 Buckwheat Corn Corn meal Oats Oatmeal .... bush. . . . . . . bush. . . . ...bbls... . . . . bush. . . Ibs 117,953 74,833,237 451,506 4,613,809 67,823,935 75,713 40,540,637 1,382,127 1,850,728 1 839 106 Rye. . 5 422 731 3143 Qlfl Rye flour Wheat Wheat flour Preparations of, for table food ....bbls.. . . bush. . ....bbls.. 3,757 114,181,420 19,716,484 12,818 87,795,104 73,756,404 2 667 409 All other, for animal feed Bran, middlings, and mill feed Dried grains and malt sprouts All other .... tons. . .... tons. . 49,513 73,104 945,053 1,320,065 661 131 Total ..:. 221 242 285 BRICKS: Building o 7oe Fire 403 598 Total 429 908 Bristles 515 Broom corn 211 253 Brooms and brushes. . . . 283 994 Candles. . . Ibs fi 323 554 Z-IA 7S3 Carbon 44.494 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 277 SUMMARY OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE Continued. Articles. Quantities. Values. CARRIAGES, CARS, OTHER VEHICLES, Automobiles, and parts of ......... Cars, passenger and freight, and pa For steam railways For other railways Cycles, and parts of All other carriages and parts of ... Total AND PARTS OF: "ts of Dollars. 1,207,065 2,687,303 915,273 2,132,629 3,556,925 10,499,195 249,488 419,361 37,238 5,118 27,242 219,568 60,376 397,965 736,137 619,645 796,008 987,067 3,407,696 320,122 352,537 5,800,480 bbls.. . 271,272 Chalk, crayons, etc Charcoal CHEMICALS, DRUGS, DYES, AND MEDICINES: Ashes, pot and pearl Baking powder Copper, sulphate of . . Ibs. . . Ibs... Ibs... "."".". '.'.'. Ibs'. '. '. 1,193,258 1,178,540 18,101,320 "isi.oss" 59,449,811 Dyes and dyestuffs Ginseng Lime acetate of. . Roots, herbs, and barks, not elsewhere specified Washing powders or mixtures, etc. Ibs. '"6,322,357" All other. Total 13,697,601 84,084 4,402 149,897 1,091,724 1,041,805 Cider galls... 598,119 CLAYS: Fire All other CLOCKS AND WATCHES: Clocks, and parts of Watches, and parts of Total COAL AND COKE: Coal- Anthracite Bituminous 2,133,529 tons. . . tons. . . 1,388,653 5,210,322 6,732,571 14,473,927 Total coal Coke 6,598,975 21,206,498 tons. 380,038 4,834 1,912,459 15,531 213,476 3,295,968 89,899 41 2,650 927,417 Coal tar. . . . bbls Cocoa, ground or prepared, and choc< COFFEE: Raw or green. . )late . . ...Ibs... Ibs 29,233,837 535,108 Roasted or prepared COINS, UNITED STATES: Copper Nickel COPPER AND MANUFACTURES OF: Ore 12,868 Ingots, bars, plates, and old All other manufactures of Ibs... 297,056,122 37,354,061 2,313,135 Total, not including ore Copper residue. 39,667,196 Ibs 522,280 42,385 33,844 Cork, manufactures of 278 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SUMMARY OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE Continued. Articles. Quantities. Values. COTTON, AND MANUFACTURES OF: Unmanufactured Sea Island ( bales. 51,688 20,205,080 6,886,591 3,522,837,942 6,938,279 3,543,043,022 Dollars. \ 4,038,370 j- 312, 142, 059 j- 316, 180,429 Upland and other 1 1bs. . . . . . . j bales. . . 1 1bs. . . . . . < bales. . . ) Ibs. . . . Ibs Total unmanufactured Waste 26,098,947 884,842 Manufactures of Cloths- Colored yds 169,511,667 325,867,530 8,443,148 16,909,436 Uncolored yds. . . Total cloths 495,379,197 25,352,584 2,600,136 1,294,064 2,969,520 32,216,304 1,698 401,761 519,159 63,900 583,059 325,571 48,108 19,975 9,654 1,389 216,345 141,257 6,344,224 380,077 387,840 935,587 3,331,101 636,420 Wearing apparel . Waste cop and mill Ibs. 22,997,428 All other EARTHEN, STONE, AND CHINA WARE: Earthen and stone ware . Total JVjrg doz. . . 1,517,189 EMERY, AND MANUFACTURES OF: Manufactures of Cloth Paper Wheels Feathers FERTILIZERS: tons. 817,503 16,677 '9,1 19,620' All other . . tons. . . FIBRES, VEGETABLE, AND TEXTILE GRASSES, MANUFACTURES OF: Bags Ibs. Total 5,290,948 60,692 148,557 33,632 23,020 7,360 74,346 4,350,791 869,352 105,228 39,278 FISH: Ibs.. . 1,568,753 3,043,497 1,202,680 467,525 524 19,167 50,353,334 Dried! smoked, or cured Ibs. Ibs. . . Ibs... . . bbls. . . bbls... All other Pickled All nthpr Salmon .. .....Ibs... All other, fresh or cured. . . ... ...... Caviare. . . SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 279 SUMMARY OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE Continued. Articles. Quantities. Values. FISH (Continued). Shellfish Dollars. 630,935 All other 296 307 All other fish and fish products. . 77,776 Total 6,717,274 Flowers cut . 5,290 38,579 FRUITS AND NUTS: Fruits 39,646,297 2,378,635 Apples, green or ripe bbls. . . Apricots dried . Ibs. . . 1,656,129 9,190,081 4,381,801 713,887 465 397 Prunes Ibs. . . 66,385,215 3,512,507 4,280,028 284,530 All other green, ripe, or dried Preserved Canned 4,215,034 1,739,571 All other 66,757 Nuts. . 299,558 Total. . . 18,057,677 ^124 856 Furs and fur skins. . . . 6,188,115 Ginger ale doz. qts. 1,501 1 911 GLASS AND GLASSWARE: Window glass All other. . 59,519 2,091,180 Total. . . 2,150,699 Glucose or grape sugar. . . ... Ibs. . . 126,239,981 2,460,022 Glue Ibs. 2,569,164 253 768 Goldbeaters' skins Graphite 1 140 12*246 Grasses, dried (Pampas plumes, etc.) 15,294 Grease, grease scraps, and all soap stock GUNPOWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES: 1,112,490 2,926,565 151 658 2 302 852 Total 2,454,510 Hair, and manufactures of 616 133 50 974 828 483 Hides and skins, other than furs. . Ibs. 12,859 549 1 224 409 Honey 64 220 Hops Ibs.. . Household and personal effects. . . 7,794,705 1,909,951 2 652 783 Ice tons 19 626 41 073 INDIA RUBBER, MANUFACTURES OF: India rubber, reclaimed 93 265 India rubber, scrap and old. . . 404 586 Belting, hose, and packing 819,985 Boots and shoes pairs. . . All other. . . 2,307,401 1,056,491 2 299 875 Total 4 674 202 INK: Printers'. ... . . 220 544 All other. , . 138.103 280 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SUMMARY OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE Continued. Articles. INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES: Electrical appliances, including telegraph and telephone in- struments All other. . . Quantities. IRON AND STEEL, AND MANUFACTURES OF: Iron ore tons. . . .tons.. . ... tons. . . ... tons. . . Ibs... Ibs... Ibs... . . .tons.. . Ibs... . . .tons. . . . . tons. . . Pig iron Ferro-manganese All other Scrap and old, fit only for reman ufacture Bar Iron Bars or rods of steel Wire rods All other Billets, ingots, and blooms Hoop, band, and scroll Rails for railways Iron Steel Sheets and plates Iron Ibs. . . Steel Ibs... Tin plates, terne plates, and taggers tin Ibs. . . Structural iron and steel . . tons. . . Wire Ibs... Builders' hardware, saws, and tools Locks, hinges, and other builders' hardware Saws Tools, not elsewhere specified. Car wheels No. . . Castings, not elsewhere specified Cutlery- Table All other Firearms > Machinery, machines, and parts of Cash registers No. . . Electrical machinery '. Laundry machinery Metal working machinery Printing presses, and parts of Pumps and pumping machinery Sewing machines, and parts of. Shoe machinery Steam engines, and parts of Fire No. . . Locomotive No. . . Stationary No. . . Boilers, and parts of engines Typewriting machines, and parts of All other Nails and spikes Cut . . Ibs. . . Wire Ibs. . . All other, including tacks Ibs. . . Pipes and fittings Safes No. . . Scales and balances Stoves, ranges, and parts of All other manufactures of iron and steel Total, not including ore Ivory, manufactures of, and scrap Jewelers' ashes and sweepings JEWELRY, AND OTHER MANUFACTURES OF GOLD AND SILVER: Jewelry All other manufactures of gold and silver Lamps, chandeliers, and all other devices for illuminating purposes. 77,220 18,198 6,043 40,583,205 71,360,171 30,447,664 2,127 3,740,234 81 22,896 6,491,690 31,680,206 1,555,146 32,952 224,153,085 22,106 16,786 10 289 1,459 16,129,436 62,997,105 5,556,014 2,933 939,797 353,224 1,133,290 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 281 SUMMARY OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE Continued. Articles. Quantities. Values. LEAD, AND MANUFACTURES OF: Dollars. Pigs, bars, and old Ibs. . . 308,807 15,527 Type Ibs. . . 407,647 137,875 All other manufactures of 299,300 LEATHER, AND MANUFACTURES OF: Sole leather Ibs,. . 37,428,437 6,920,467 Upper leather Kid, glazed ! 1,995,200 Patent or enameled 122,782 Splits, buff, grain, and all other upper i 13,493,499 All other leather i 982,251 Manufactures of Boots and shoes pairs. . . I 4,197,566 6,665,017 Harness and saddles 373,677 All other 1,064,496 Total 31,617,389 Lime. . . . .bbls.. . 39,658 32,694 Malt bush. . . 347,147 252,801 MARBLE AND STONE, AND MANUFACTURES OF: Unmanufactured 194,879 Manufactures of Roofing slate 628,612 All other 641,753 Total 1,465,244 Matches. . 56,330 Metal polish i 32,274 Mica | 4,615 Mineral specimens i 10,306 Moss and seaweeds I 46,499 Mucilage 12,563 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: Organs No. . . 15,986 1,137,713 Pianofortes No. . . 2,019 419,029 All other, and parts of 1,824,767 Total i 3,381,509 Natural history specimens 13,119 NAVAL STORES: Rosin bbls. . . i 2,396,498 4,817,052 Tar bbls. . . ' 18,622 50,802 Turpentine and pitch bbls . . 15,972 36,379 Turpentine, spirits of . . galls. . . 16,378,787 8,014,322 Total 12,918,708 NICKEL: Oxide and matte Ibs. . . i 2,997,400 864,221 Manufactures of '. 97,787 Notions, not elsewhere specified 186,653 Nursery stock . . 158,959 Oakum 26,740 OIL CAKE AND OIL-CAKE MEAL: Corn-oil cake Ibs. . . 8,093,222 95,568 Cotton-seed Ibs. . . 1 100,392,988 12,732,497 Flaxseed or linseed Ibs. . . | 570.908.149 7,011,214 Total ! 1,679,394,359 19,839,279 OILCLOTHS: For floors 56,902 All other i . . . 164,515 282 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SUMMARY OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE Continued. Articles. Quantities. Values. OILS: Animal Fish galls 1,293,393 356,658 19,092 221,669 Dollars. 377,551 306,334 13,174 159,505 Lard Whale. . . galls... galls. All other galls... Total animal 1,890,812 856,564 Mineral, crude, including all natural oils, gravity Mineral, refined or manufactured Naphthas, including all lighter products ( Illuminating Lubricating, and heavy paraffin Residuum, including tar, and all other, bodies have been distilled Total refined or manufactured Vegetable- Corn. . . . without regard to galls... }f distillation. galls. . . galls... galls. . . from which the light bbls... 134,892,170 6,329,899 13,139,228 699,807,201 93,318,257 542,893 1,225,661 47,078,931 12,052,927 566,115 60,923,634 1,467,493 14,211,244 98,116 34,943 252,770 169,796 galls. 3,788,035 35,642,994 182,330 13,033 Cotton seed Linseed galls. . . galls. . Volatile or essential Peppermint All other Ibs... All other vegetable Total vegetable 16,234,362 PAINTS, PIGMENTS, AND COLORS: Carbon black, gas black, and lamp black. . . . 299,587 Ibs 11 091,960 446 786 All other 1,604,564 Total PAPER, AND MANUFACTURES OF: Paper hangings 2,350,937 256,243 Printing paper Writing paper and envelopes All other ..Ibs... 97,880,037 2,613,117 901,700 3,408,954 Total . . 7,180,014 Paraffin and paraffin wax Paste. . ..Ibs... 201,325,210 9,411,294 5,631 Pencils Pens and penholders 186,363 66,317 Perfumery and cosmetics. . . 390 502 Photographic materials Plaster, builders'. . . 758,320 50,427 Plaster of Paris Plated ware Platinum and manufactures of, and scrap 21,459 662,708 15,786 PROVISIONS, COMPRISING MEAT AND DAIRY PRODUCTS: Meat products Beef products Ibs. 76,307,114 7 916,928 Beef, fresh Beef salted or pickled. . . . ..Ibs... Ibs. 254,795,963 52,801,220 25,013,323 3,814,671 Ibs 1,126 032 102,184 Tallow Hog products Bacon . ..Ibs... . .Ibs.. . 27,368,924 207,336,000 1,623,852 22,178,525 Ibs. 214,183,365 25,712,633 Pork, canned . . Ibs. . . 13,590,897 1,369,687 Pork, fresh Pork salted or pickled. ..Ibs... Ibs. 20,966,113 95,287,374 2,035,491 9,959,762 Lard. . ..Ibs... 490,755,821 50,854,504 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SUMMARY OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE Continued. Articles. Quantities. Values. PROVISIONS, COMPRISING MEAT, ETC. Continued. Lard compounds, and substitutes for (cottolene, lardine, etc.) Ibs.. . 46,130,004 6,144,020 126,010,339 7,645,652 Dollars. 3,607,542 532,476 11,981,888 798,273 1,079,056 585,088 1,964,524 1,831,940 2,101,785 1,604,327 2,250,229 921,026 Mutton Ibs Oleo and oleomargarine Oleo, the oil. . . . Ibs Oleomargarine, imitation butter. . Poultry and game. . Ibs... Sausage and sausage meats . Sausage casings Ibs... 5,264,648 All other meat products Canned All other Dairy products Butter Ibs 8,896,166 18,987,178 Cheese Ibs. Milk Total. . . 179,839,714 762,201 3,976 89,710 27,048 122,589 Quicksilver . Ibs. 1,415,464 Quills crude and prepared. . Rags and paper stock Rice Rice bran meal and polish Ibs... Ibs 532,092 19,218,356 Roofing felt and paper Root beer 104,280 834 70,296 73,956 1,549,687 532,732 5,698,492 853,829 581,773 238,770 doz qts 949 16,446,380 Salt .... .Ibs.. Sand SEEDS: Clover ..Ibs... 15,522,527 51,622,370 4,128,130 18,289,917 Cotton. Ibs... bush. Flaxseed or linseed Timothy. ... .... Ibs... Other grass se^ds All other. . Total 9,455,283 94,766 57,406 412,415 19,968 573,588 1,879,189 2,452,777 44,915 36,787 1,082,982 95,758 Shells Shoe findings. ... ... SILK: Waste Ibs... 149,400 SOAP: All other . Ibs. . 46,590,354 Total. . . Spermaceti and spermaceti wax Ibs. 197,966 Spices SPIRITS, WINES, AND MALT LIQUORS: Malt liquors In bottles doz qts 759,027 400,072 In other coverings Total malt liquors galls... 1,178,740 Spirits, distilled Alcohol Wood. . . proof galls. 833,629 120,697 18,117 1,096,719 452,892 23,510 19,213 1,458,393 All other, including pure, neutral, Brandy or cologne spirits proof galls. . . proof galls. Rum proof galls. . . 284 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SUMMARY OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE Continued. Articles. SPIRITS, ETC. Continued. Whisky- Bourbon Rye All other. . . Quantities. ^ proof galls. .".proof galls. proof galls. Total spirits, distilled Wine- In bottles doz. qts. . In other coverings galls. . Total wines. Total spirits, wines, and malt liquors Sponges . .Ibs. . Starch Ibs. . Stereotype and electrotype plates Straw Straw and palm leaf, manufactures of SUGAR, MOLASSES, AND CONFECTIONERY: Molasses galls. . Sirup galls. '. Sugar Brown Ibs. . Refined Ibs. . Total 104,236 48,014 2,390,808 5,232 678,150 95,159 27,759,599 3,413,387 12,265,295 99,101 10,421,055 Candy and confectionery. 535,412 Teasels 34,258 Teeth, artificial 4,715 Theatrical effects, etc. . . 41,656 TINS: Matte and scrap. . . 6,611 Manufactures of. . . 656,096 TOBACCO, AND MANUFACTURES OF: Unm anuf actured Leaf Ibs 357,496,342 34,972,033 Stems and trimmings Ibs... 10,687,742 | 278,860 Total unmanufactured 368,184,084 > 35,250,893 Manufactures of Cigars M 1,966 46 962 Cigarettes. M 1 456 452 2 281 531 Plug Ibs 7,335,640 1,683 152 All other 1 182 151 Total manufactures. . 5 193 796 Toys Tripoli 281,591 20 262 Trunks, valises, and traveling bags Varnish Vegetables: Beans and pease. . . . ..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.galls..'.' 188,875 660,553 667,475 232 841 530 875 Onions. . . 145 509 116 624 Potatoes Vegetables, canned bush. . . 843,075 552,533 597,759 All other, including pickles and sauces. . . 745 697 Total KA<1 AQO VESSELS SOLD ABROAD: Steamers No 123 196 164 Sailing vessels No Total.. . 123 196.164 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 285 SUMMARY OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE Continued. Articles. Quantities. Vinegar galls. . . 103,417 Vulcanized fiber ; Wax, shoemakers' Whalebone Ibs. . . [ 113,204 White metal WOOD, AND MANUFACTURES OF: Timber and unmanufactured wood Sawed M feet 530,659 Hewn cubic feet. . . 3,291,498 Logs, and other Lumber Boards, deals, and planks M feet. . . 1,065,771 Joists and scantling M feet. . . 46,894 Shingles M. . . 38,211 Shocks- Box All other No. . . 566,205 Staves No. . . 55,879,010 Heading All other Total unmanufactured Manufactures of Doors, sash, and blinds Furniture, not elsewhere specified ! Hogsheads and barrels, empty ; Trimmings, moldings, and other house finishings Wooden ware Wood pulp Ibs. . . 22,464,472 All other j Total manufactures 1 Total wood, and manufactures of ! WOOL, AND MANUFACTURES OF: Wool, raw Ibs. . . _ 518,919 Manufactures of Carpets , yds. . . 69,337 Dress goods yds. . . 7,719 Flannels and blankets Wearing apparel All other Total manufactures Yeast ZINC, AND MANUFACTURES OF: Unmanufactured Dross Ore tons. . . 48,731 Manufactures of Pigs, bars, plates, and sheets Ibs. . . I 3,539,071 All other ' Total manufactures 285,673 All other articles 150,315 Total value of exports of domestic merchandise 1,392,231,302 Carried in cars and other land vehicles 129,189,875 CARRIED IN AMERICAN VESSELS: Steam Sailing CARRIED IN FOREIGN VESSELS: Steam 1,114,951,632 Sailing 59,730,133 286 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. MERCHANDISE IMPORTED AND EXPORTED, AND THE ANNUAL EXCESS OF IMPORTS OR OF EXPORTS, 1860 TO 1903 SPECIE VALUES. Year end- Exports. Total Ex- Excess of Excess of ing June 30 Domestic. Foreign. Total. Imports. ports and Imports. over Imports. over Exports. 1860 1861 1862 Dollars. 316,242,423 204,899,616 179,644,024 Dollars. 17,333,634 14,654,217 11,026,477 Dollars. 333,576,057 219,553,833 190,670,501 Dollars. 353,616,119 289,310,542 189,356,677 Dollars. 687,192,176 508,864,375 380,027,178 Dollars. 1. 3 1 3,824 Dollars. 20,040,662 69,756,709 1863 186,003,912 17,960,535 203,964,447 243,335,815 447,300,262 39 371 368 1864 1865 1866 143,504,027 136,940,248 337,518,102 15,333,961 29,089,055 11,341,420 158,337,988 166,029,303 348,859,522 316,447,283 238,745,580 434,812,066 475,285,271 404,774,883 783,671,588 157,609,295 72,716,277 85,952,544 1867 1868 279,786,809 269,389,900 14,719,332 12,562,999 294,506,141 281,952,899 395,761,096 357,436,440 690,267,237 639,389,339 101,254,955 75 483 541 1869 1870 275,166,697 376,616,473 10,951,000 16,155,295 286,117,697 392,771,768 417,506,379 435,958,408 703,624,076 828,730,176 131,388,682 43 186 640 1871 1872 428,398,908 428,487,131 14,421 S 270 15,690,455 442,820,178 444,177,586 520,223,684 626,595,077 963,043,862 ,070,772,663 77,403,506 182,417 491 1873 1874 505,033,439 569,433,421 17,446,483 16,849,619 522,479,922 586,283,040 642,136,210 567,406,342 ,164,616,132 ,153,689,382 18,876,698 119,656,288 1875 499,284,100 14,158,611 513,442,711 533,005,436 ,046,448,147 19,562,725 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 525,582,247 589,670,224 680,709,268 698,340,790 823,946,353 883,925,947 733,239,732 804,223,632 14,802,424 12,804,996 14,156,498 12,098,651 11,692,305 18,451,399 17.302,525 19,615,770 540,384,671 602,475,220 694,865,766 710,439,441 835,638,658 902,377,346 750,542,257 823,839,402 460,741,190 451,323,126 437,051,532 445,777,775 667,954,746 642,664,628 724,639,574 723,180,914 ,001,125,861 ,053,798,346 ,131,917,298 ,156,217,216 ,503,593,404 ,545,041,974 ,475,181,831 ,547,020,316 79,643,481 151,152,094 257,814,234 264,661,666 167,683,912 259,712,718 25,902,683 100,658,488 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 724,964,852 726,682,946 665,964,529 703,022,923 683,862,104 15,548,757 15,506,809 13,560,301 10,160,288 12,092,403 740,510,609 742,189,755 679,524,830 716,183,211 695,954,507 667,697,693 577,527,329 635,436,136 692,319,768 723,957,114 ,408,211,302 ,319,717,084 ,314,960,966 ,408,502,979 ,419,911,621 72,815,916 164,662,426 44,088,694 23,863,443 28,002,607 1889 730,282,609 12,118,766 742,401,375 745,131,652 ,487,533,027 2,730,277 1890 845,293,828 12,534,856 857,828,684 789,310,409 ,647,139,093 68,5i8,275 1891 1892 872,270,283 1,015,732,011 12,210,327 14,546,137 884,480,810 1,030,278,148 844,C16,196 827,402,462 ,729,397,006 ,857,680,610 39,564,614 202,875,686 1893 831,030,785 16,634,409 847,665,194 866,400,922 ,714 066,116 18,735,728 1894 1895 869,204,937 793,392,599 22,935,635 14,145,566 892,140,572 807,538,165 654,994,622 731,969,965 ,547,135,194 1,539,508,130 237,145,950 75,568,200 1896 1897 863,200,487 ,032,007,603 19,406,451 18,985,953 882,606,938 ,050,993,556 779,724,674 764,730,412 1,662,331,612 1,815,723,968 102,882,264 286,263,144 1898 1899 ,210,291,913 ,203,931,222 21,190,417 23,092,080 ,201,482,330 ,227,023,302 616,049,654 697,148,489 1,847,531,984 1,924,171,791 615,432,676 529,874,813 1900 ,370,763,571 23,719,511 ,394,483,082 849,941,184 2 244 424 266 544 541,898 1901 1902 1903 ,460,462,806 ,355,481,861 ,392,231,302 27,302,185 26,237,540 27,910,377 ,487,764,991 ,381,719,401 1,420,141,679 823,172,165 903,320,948 1,025,719,237 2,310,937,156 2,285,040,349 2,445,860,916 664,592,826 478,398,453 394,422,442 Statistical Abstract of the United States. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 287 UNITED STATES TRADE - IN 1903. INCREASED TRADE WITH CANADA TRADE WITH GREAT BRITAIN AND THE EMPIRE. By Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of the United States Bureau of Statistics. The commerce of the United States in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, has been the largest in the history of the country. This is true both of in- ternal and foreign commerce. In the case of foreign commerce it is easily shown from the official figures of the imports and exports of the year. In the case of internal commerce, conclu- sions can be drawn from certain great facts of production, transportation, and importation for manufacturing purposes. The total foreign commerce of the year amounted to practically 2 1-2 bil- lions of dollars, and the internal com- merce to fully twenty billions of dol- lars. As already indicated, the measure- ment of the internal commerce of the country is not easy, but there are cer- tain great factors of production, trans- portation, and the activity of the man- ufacturing industry, which make pos- sible a fair statement of the internal commerce. The Census states the value of the great products of the country, such as manufactures, agricultural products, the products of the forests, the fisher- ies, etc. ; and by taking these great fac- tors as a basis and calculating for but a single transaction in each of them, we get a grand total of 20 billions of dol- lars value, a sum practically equal to the international commerce of the world. The last census showed the gross value of manufactures in 1900 to be 13 billions of dollars; the value of the agricultural products, nearly 4 bil- lions ; products of the mines, a billion dollars ; and adding to these the prod- ucts of the forests, fisheries and mis- cellaneous, and the cost of transporta- tion to the consumer, it becomes ap- parent that a single transaction in each article would bring the total up to 20 billions of dollars. And all of the records of production and transporta- tion for 1903 show that its activities were even greater than those of the census year. Every factory was busy ; the railroads, even though equipped with additional carrying facilities, were working up to the limit of their capacity, and the reports of the Bu- reau of Statistics from the great lake- carrying trade showed a larger busi- ness than in any preceding year. This record of the freight movement on the Great Lakes is an important index to the activities of the country, both in production and manufacturing. The section of the country fronting on Lake Superior is a great producer of wheat and of iron ore and copper. So the record of movements of freight through the canals connecting Supe- rior with the lower lakes is an impor- tant indication of the demand of the great manufacturing section for iron and copper, and of the supply which that great region has of agricultural products for distribution to the world. The records of the Bureau of Statis- tics for the month of June and the portion of the navigation year ending with June shows a greater movement of freight through these canals than in any preceding year. That the iron furnaces and works of the country vyere working up to their highest capacity is shown by the fact that despite the high prices which pre- vailed, the consumers of the country were compelled to turn to foreign countries to obtain a part of the iron and steel which they required ; the im- ports of iron and steel being greater in 1903 than in many years. The pig iron produced in the United States in the calendar year 1902 amounted to 17,821,307 gross tons. This makes the pig-iron production of the United States in 1902 larger than that of any two other countries of the world. The pig-iron production of 1902 is double that of 1896. and more than three times that of 1886. Yet, despite this unparalleled pro- duction, the importations of iron and steel were greater in value in the fiscal year 1903 than in any year since 1891, and with that single exception, greater than in any year since 1883. The above facts regarding the production and importation of iron and steel are stated somewhat in detail because of the general belief that, in the United States at least, the consumption of iron and steel is a reliable index of the business activity of the country. If SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. this be true, it may be safely asserted that the business of the year 1903 has exceeded in value that of any of its predecessors. LABOR. Another indication of the general activity was the difficulty re- ported everywhere in obtaining labor. This was especially noticeable during the harvest season. The crop was abundant, and the demand for labor far in excess of the supply, so much so that reports from the West showed that in some cases farmers flagged railroad trains and after stop- ping them passed through the trains soliciting the passengers to step off and accept employment in the harvest field. Curiously these incidents were reported especially from the State of Kansas, which a few years ago was the scene of the greatest discontent because of the crop shortage, heavy farm indebtedness, and general con- ditions of financial depression. But the same general reports of difficulty of obtaining labor, especially in the agricultural districts, came from all parts of the country- IMMIGRATION. One effect of the prosperity and general demand for la- bor in the United States in the past few years is noticeable in the in- creased immigration. The number of immigrants entering the United States in 1903 was larger than in any pre- ceding year. The total number of im- migrants entering the United States in the fiscal year ending June 30. 1903, was 857,056. This was 25 per cent, in excess of any preceding year, practi- cally twice as many as in 1900, and about four times as many as in 1898. The attractions in the United States seem to have resulted in a marked in- crease in the immigration from the United Kingdom, though the largest increase is from the countries of south- ern Europe and Russia. The arrivals from England in the fiscal year 1903 were 26,219 against 13,571 in 1902; those from Scotland. 6,153 against 2,560 in 1902; and those from Ire- land, 35,300 against 29,138 in 1902. From Germany the number was 40,- 086 against 28,304 in the preceding year. The largest increase, however, was from Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. The number from Italy was 230622, against 178.375 in the pre- ceding year ; from Austria-Hungary, 206,011 ~ against 171,889 in the pre- ceding year ; and from Russia, 136,093 against 107,347 in 1902. The reviews of the statistics of im- migration which this unprecedented flood of arrivals has suggested show that the total number of immigrants arriving in the United States since 1800 is over 21 millions, and the num- ber of persons of foreign birth now residing in the country, over 10 mil- lions. Notwithstanding the demand for labor in the agricultural sections, however, the bulk of this large im- migration remains in the cities. There is a great demand for labor in the manufacturing towns and cities, and they absorb a large proportion of the arrivals, while the mining regions also draw largely upon the new arrivals. This is especially true of the people from southern Europe and Russia, the chief additions to the agricultural pop- ulation being those from Norway, Sweden, and Germany. The foreign commerce of the year 1903, as already indicated, was the largest in the history of the country. This statement, however, relates to the commerce as a whole, combining im- ports and exports under that term. In imports the figures of the year were the largest in the history of the country, but in exports the figures were slightly below the high record of 1900. The total imports were $1,025,- 000,000, and the total exports $1,420,- 000,000. These figures, it will be ob- served, are stated in round millions, because they are more readily assim- ilated in this form. This increase of imports and de- crease of exports was doubtless due in both cases to the general prosperity and business activity already noted. IMPORTS. The increase in imports was chiefly in material for use in manufacturing, though there was a very considerable increase in importation of finished manufactures. This is quite natural in a time of business prosper- ity, when money is plentiful. The in- crease in importations of manufac- tures ready for consumption amounted to about 28 million dollars compared with the preceding year, and of dia- monds and other precious stones, about 7 millions. In manufacturing mate- rial, however, the importations showed the greatest growth. In raw material for use in manufacturing the importa- tions of the year were 48 million dol- lars in excess of the preceding year, and in partly manufactured material for use in manufacturing, the increase was 23 millions, making the total in- crease in manufacturing materials im- ported over 70 million dollars as com- pared with the preceding year. The increase in partly manufactured SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 289 materials was chiefly in pig-iron, plates and bars of iron, etc. The increase in raw materials was chiefly in raw silk, fibres, tin chemicals, india-rubber, and other articles of this character. EXPORTS. In exports the reduction was doubtless due to the unusual home demand both for foodstuffs and manu- factures. Exports of iron and steel were 25 million dollars below those of 1900, and those of agricultural prod- ucts were 70 millions below those of 1901. Yet the iron and steel manu- facturing establishments of the coun- try were turning out more of their products than ever before, and the ag- ricultural production of 1903 was quite up to the usual total in most of the great staples. TJ. S. COLONIAL TRADE. One inter- esting development of the year 1903, and one which attracted some atten- tion because of its novelty, was the announcement that the commerce be- tween the United States and its non- contiguous territory amounted to 100 million dollars in 1903. This was the first time that the country had a clear view of the value of its com- merce with the colonies, or noncon- tiguous territory, as they are general- ly designated. Soon after the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands and Porto Rico, they were made customs districts of the United States, and as there was no kw authorizing the collection of the statistics of commerce between the customs districts, the persons engaged in that commerce refused to furnish statements of the value of their ship- ments to and from the islands. As a result the country was without any information regarding the value or growth in this commerce. The Bureau of Statistics, seeing the importance of some system by which this commerce could be measured, pre- pared a bill, which was passed by Con- gress, authorizing the collection of these statistics in the same manner as those of the commerce with foreign commerce. As a result, the country has now, for the first time since the annexation, a record of the commerce between the United States and all of its noncontiguous territorv. This shows a grand total of 100 million dollars. Of this grand total of 100 millions, about 37 millions was merchandise shiDped to the territory in question, 58 millions merchandise received from it, and nearly 5 millions gold bullion produced in Alaska territory. The ter- ritories included in this statement are Alaska, Porto Rico, the Hawaiian Islands, and the Philippines. It is a novel experience for the people of the United States, and they find it espec- ially interesting to observe their own territory furnishing them a market for 37 million dollars' worth of merchan- dise, while their sales to the same ter- ritory in 1893 were less than 8 million dollars. U. S. A. AND GREAT BRITAIN. The development of the commerce of 1903, with reference to the United Kingdom and British territory in general, was of marked interest. The exports to the United Kingdom fell 24 million dollars, while the imports from that country increased 26 millions. This is especially interesting because of the fact that to practically all other Euro- pean countries the exports increased. The total exports to all Europe were 1,039 million dollars against 1,008 mil- lions in 1902, but those to the United Kingdom were 524 millions against 548 millions in 1902. To Germany there was an increase of 20 millions ; to Russia an increase of 6 millions ; to France 6 millions, and to Netherlands 3 millions. The chief falling off in the exports to the United Kingdom was in cotton and wheat. The falling off in cotton amounted to 4 millions, and that of vheat 19 millions, though the latter was offset in part by an increase of 3 millions in flour. Of the 20 millions increase in im- ports from the United Kingdom about 4 millions was in coal, chiefly due to the coal strike in the early part of the year, and the remainder, manufactures of various sorts, especially iron and steel, of which the total imports ex- ceeded those of last year by 24 mil- lion dollars. U. S. A. AND BRITISH COLONIES. To practically all other parts of the British Empire the exports of the year showed an increase. Canada, despite the decrease in duty on products of Great Britain and the Colonies, made in 1897, 1898 and 1900. which was ex- pected to place the United States at a great disadvantage, increased her tak- ings of the products of the United States, 12 millions, the total exports to Canada in the fiscal year being 123 million dollars. The imports from Canada also increased, being 55 mil- lions against 48 millions in 1903. RESULTS OF CANADA'S TARIFF. The first reduction in the Canadian tar- iff on products of the United King- dom and most of the Colonies occurred 290 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. in April, 1897, a reduction of 12% per cent, in the tariff on merchandise from the United Kingdom and her Colonies, while there was no reduction on mer- chandise from the United States. On June 30th, 1898, another reduction of 12% per cent occurred, and in 1900 the reduction was made 33 1-3 per cent. Yet, comparing the imports for consumption in 1902 with those of 1896, as shown by the Canadian Sta- tistical Year Book, the imports from the United Kingdom have increased 16 million dollars and those from the United States, 62 million dollars, while the figures of the United States for 1903 show further increase of about 13 millions in exports to Can- ada. CANADA'S TRADE WITH THE U. S. A. AND GREAT BRITAIN. In 1882, ac- cording to the Canadian Statistical Year Book above quoted, the imports of Canada from Great Britain were 50 millions, and those from the Uni- ted States 48 millions. In 1902, 20 years later, those from Great Britain were 49 millions, and those from the United States 120 millions, notwith- standing the fact that the tariff on products from Great Britain had been reduced one-third as against those from the United States. Comparing 1902 with 1882, there is a slight reduction in the imports from the United Kingdom and an increase of about 150 per cent in those from the United States. Of the 123 million dollars' worth of exports from the United States to Canada in 1903, about 20 millions were manufactures of iron and steel ; 6 millions coal ; 8 millions wheat, flour and corn ; 4 mil- lions agricultural implements ; 3 mil- lions cotton manufactures; and the bulk of the remainder miscellaneous manufactures. The convenience of buying from the salesman who brings the samples to the door of the purchaser and orders whatever is wanted by telephone across the border with the assurance that the goods will be delivered the next day, if desired, apparently more than balances the difference of 33 1-3 per cent in duty. U. S. A. TRADE WITH THE BRITISH EMPIRE. In general terms it may be said that the commerce between the United States and the British Empire in 1903 was over a billion dollars, of which 746 millions was exports and 325 millions imports. Of the 746 mil- lions of exports to British territory 524 millions was to the United King- dom ; 123 millions to Canada ; 33 mil- lions to British Africa ; 32 millions to Australasia and New Zealand ; 10 millions to the British West Indies ; and 8 millions to Hongkong. Of the 325 millions of imports from the Brit- ish Empire, 191 millions was from the United Kingdom ; 55 millions from Canada ; 50 millions from India ; 13 millions from the West Indies ; and 7 millions from Hongkong. ANALYSIS OF COMMERCE, 1893-1903. The following tables present an analysis of the commerce of the United States from 1893 to 1903 : ANALYSIS OF THE TRADE OF THE U.S.A. Imports into the United States. (According to Continents.) [In millions of dollars.] Europe. N. America. S. America. Asia. Oceania. Africa. Year. Mills. Per Mills. Per Mills. Per Mills. Per Mills. Per Mills. Per Dolls. Cent. Dolls. Cent. Dolls. Cent. Dolls. Cent. Dolls. Cent. Dolls. Cent 1893 458 52.91 183 21.21 102 11.80 87 10.11 25 3.00 9 .97 1894 295 45.05 166 25.49 100 15.29 66 10.10 21 3.28 3 .79 1895 383 52.41 133 18.29 112 15.32 77 10.61 17 2.39 5 .98 1896 418 53.69 126 16.27 108 13.96 "89 11.49 24 3.16 11 .43 1897 430 56.26 105 13.85 107 14.04 87 11.41 24 3.19 9 .25 1898 305 40.66 91 14.83 92 14.95 92 15.03 26 4.36 7 .17 1899 353 50.76 112 16.09 86 12.42 107 15.36 26 3.87 10 .50 1900 440 51.84 130 15.30 93 11.02 139 16.45 34 4.07 11 .32 1901 429 52.19 145 17.63 110 13.41 117 14.30 11 1.38 8 .09 1902 475 52.61 151 16.73 119 13.26 129 14.35 14 1.57 13 .48 1903 550 53.63 188 18.42 107 10.47 145 14.21 21 2.05 12 .22 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 291 Exports from the U. S. A. (According to Continents). Europe. I N. America. S. America. Asia. Oceania. Africa. Year. Mills. Per Mills. Per Mills. Per Mills. Per Mills. Per Mills. Per Dolls. Cent. Dolls. Cent. Dolls. Cent. Dolls. Cent. Dolls. Cent. Dolls. Cent. 1893 661 78.10 119 14.13 32 3.85 16 1.91 11 1.32 5 .69 1894 700 78.57 119 13.42 33 3.72 20 2.34 11 1.34 4 .61 1895 627 77.76 108 13.45 33 4.15 17 2.15 13 1.62 6 .87 1896 673 76.26 116 13.21 36 4.11 25 2.90 17 1.95 13 .57 1897 813 77.39 124 11.89 33 3.21 39 3.74 22 2.16 16 .61 1898 973 79.07 139 11.35 33 2.75 44 3.63 22 1.78 17 .42 1899 936 76.33 157 12.87 35 2.91 48 3.94 29 2.43 18 .52 1900 1,040 74.60 187 13.45 38 2.79 64 4.66 43 3.11 19 .79 1901 1,136 76.39 196 13.21 44 2.98 49 3.34 35 2.36 25 .72 1902 1,008 72.96 203 14.75 38 2.76 63 4.63 34 2.48 33 2.4 ,;i Q j olr -i.; j Imports. . . Dollars Dollars .... Philadelphia -j Exportg Dollars . . TUitimr Imports. . . Dollars Baltimore Exports. . . Dollars XT r i Imports. . . Dollars .... New Orleans Exports Dollars a v , J Imports. Dollars .... San Francisco -j Ex orts Dollars FARM STATISTICS: Farms 1,449,073 Persons engaged in agriculture Number. Value of farms and farm property. . . Dollars 3,967,343,580 Value of farm products Dollars FARM ANIMALS: Total value Cattle. . , ... Dollars.... 544,180,516 17,778,907 Horses. .. Number. . . 4,336,719 Sheep Number 21,773,220 Mules 559,331 Swine Number. 30,354,213 PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL COMMODITIES: Wool Pounds , 52,516,959 Wheat.. . Bushels 100,485,944 Corn Bushels 592 071,104 Cotton Bales 155,556 2,333,718 Cane-sugar Tons 110,526 PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL MINERALS: Precious metals Gold . Dollars 50 000 000 Silver Dollars 50,000 Coal 6 . Tons 3 358,899 Petroleum Gallons. . Pig iron. ... Tons 563,755 1 Hawaiian Islands not included since 1900. 2 Includes "All other Spanish possessions." 3 Includes "All other countries." 4 Gold values. 5 Does not include value of products fed to live stock. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 305 AREA, POPULATION, AND MATERIAL INDUSTRIES Continued. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 1903. 16,742,100 21,651,459 23,190,220 38,752,648 38,945,763 41,137,872 4.18 4.09 2.77 4.52 2.79 2.90 11,067,921 10,972,064 11,645,703 19,696,820 64,913,807 58,359,016 2.77 2.07 1.39 2.30 4.66 4.11 5,373,497 4,334,991 2 6,846,698 16,460,269 43,391,275 37,468,512 1.34 0.82 0.82 1.92 3.11 2.64 3,227,760 33,414,768 2 5,084,466 4,613,702 19,469,849 38,436,853 0.84 0.64 0.61 0.54 1.79 2.71 228,164,855 153,237,077 149,317,368 124,948,948 104,304,940 123,666,832 134,001,399 309,140,510 503,494,913 623,740,100 701,223,735 835,844,210 362,166,254 462,377,587 652,812,281 748,689,048 805,528,675 959,511,042 63.0 33.1 22.9 16.7 12.9 12.9 15,142,465 40,621,361 44,412,509 66,208,195 362,166,254 462,377,587 667,954,746 789,310,409 849,941,184 1,025,719,237 279,082,902 199,732,324 109,029,209 77,502,138 90,779,252 - 91,028,200 121,039,394 329,786,978 720,770,521 747,376,644 1,193,220,689 1,190,262,178 400,122,296 529,519,302 829,799,730 824,878,782 1,283,999,941 1,281,290,378 70.0 37.7 13.1 9.4 7.1 7.1 5,838,928 32,949,902 110,483,141 138,851,301 400,122,296 529,519,302 835,638,658 857,828,684 1,394,483,082 1,420,141,679 39,333,684 47,484,060 68,503,136 62,876,666 72,195,939 86,310,586 12,747,945 14,126,429 59,238,241 71,201,944 112,195,555 88,126,444 231,310,086 281,048,813 459,937,153 516,426,693 537,237,282 618,705,662 80,047,978 196,614,746 392,560,090 349,051,791 518,834,471 505,829,694 14,611,934 14,483,211 35,944,500 53,936,315 51,866,002 59,995,431 5,526,967 16,927,610 49,649,693 37,410,683 78,406,031 73,531,968 9,781,205 19,512,468 19,945,989 13,140,203 19,045,279 27,803,167 8,940,100 14,510,733 76,253,566 73,983,693 115,530,378 81,704,497 20,636,316 14,377,471 10,611,353 14,658,163 17,490,811 28,880,744 108,164,812 107,586,952 90,442,019 108,126,891 115,858,764 149,072,519 7,367,016 15,982,549 35,221,751 48,751,223 47,869,628 36,454,283 4,868,090 13,991,781 32,358,929 36,876,091 40,368,288 33,502,616 2,044,077 2,659,985 4,008,907 4,564,641 5,739,657 5,922,471 7,713,875 8,565,926 10,438,219 7,980,493,060 4 8,944,857,749 12,180,501,538 16,082,267,689 20,514,001,838 4 1,958,030,927 2,212,540,927 2,460,107,454 * 3,764,177,706 1,089,329,915 1,524,960,149 1,576,917,556 2,418,766,028 2,228,123,134 3,102,515,540 25,616,019 25,484,100 33,258,000 52,801,907 43,902,414 61,764,433 6,249,174 8,248,800 11,201,800 14,213,837 13,537,524 16,557,373 22,471,275 40,853,000 40,765,900 44,336,072 41,883,065 63,964,876 1,151,148 1,179,500 1,729,500 2,331,027 2,086,027 2,728,088 33,512,867 26,751,400 34,034,100 51,602,780 37,079,356 46,922,624 60,264,913 162,000,000 232,500,000 276,000,000 288,636,621 287,450,000 173,104,924 235,884,700 498,549,868 399,262,000 522,229,505 637,821,835 838,792,740 1,094,255,000 1,717,434,543 1,489,970,000 2,105,102,516 2,244,176,925 4,861,292 3,114,592 5,761,252 7,311,322 9,433,416 10,727,559 119,040 46,800 92,802 136,503 149,191 293,397 46,000,000 50,000,000 36,000,000 32,845,000 79,171,000 74,425,340 150,000 16,000,000 39,200,000 70,485,714 74,533,495 73,076,106 18,513,123 32,863,000 63,822,830 140,866,931 240,789,309 7 21,000,000 220,951,290 1,104,017,166 1,924,552,224 2,661,233,568 821,223 1,665,179 3,835,191 9,202,703 13,789,242 18,0091252 6 Pennsylvania anthracite shipments only from 1820 to 1867; entire coal product from 1868 to 1902. 7 In addition to this it is estimated that 10,000,000 barrels ran to waste in and prior to 1862 for want of a market. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SUMMARY OF PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES IN ITS Area, Population, and Industries. In 1800. 1850. Production of Principal Minerals Continued. Steel . . Tons Copper Tons 650 Total value all mineral production in U. S. . . . MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES OP THE U. S.: Manufacturing establishments * Dollars Number. 123,025 Number. 957,059 Wa^es and salaries paid l Dollars .... 236,755,464 Value of products * Dollars .... 1,019,106,616 MANUFACTURES OF IRON AND STEEL: 1 Establishments Number. Dollars Value of products Imports . . Dollars.... Dollars .... 20,145,067 Exports Dollars 52,144 1,953,702 TIN PLATES: Imports Pounds. . Lbs , net MANUFACTURES OF COTTON : 3 Number 1 094 Wages and salaries paid *. . . . Dollars Value of products 1 Exports. Dollars.... Dollars . 61,869,184 4,734,424 Imports Dollars 20,108,719 COTTON MOVEMENT: Domestic cotton taken by United States mills Bales 595,000 Exports of domestic cotton Pounds. . . . 635,381,607 Raw cotton imported 4 239 987 269 114 MANUFACTURES OF WOOL: 3 Establishments l 1 675 Wages and salaries paid *. . . . Dollars Value of products '. . . . Dollars 48,608 779 Imports Raw wool imported. . . Dollars Pounds. . 19,620,619 18,695,294 MANUFACTURES OF SILK: Establishments 1 . Number. 67 Wages and salaries paid l Value of products l Imports 1 Dollars Dollars... . Dollars ' 'l',869,476 17 639 624 Raw silk imported Imports of nriidft ri^b^r Pounds. . . . Pounds . SUGAR: Pounds. . . . 218,430,764 Average cost per pound in foreign countries. . . Dollars Cents. . 7,555,603 3.46 Wholesale prices of granulated, at New York Cents. Tons 239 409 Consumption per capita COFFEE : Imports Pounds. . . . Pounds. . . . 23.1 145,272,687 Average import price per pound at New York. . . Consumption per capita 6 . TEA: Imports \ Cents Pounds. . . . Pounds. . . . Dollars 7.6 5.60 29,872,654 4,719,232 Average import price per pound at New York. Cents 14.1 Consumption per capita 6 RAILWAYS : In operation Pounds. . . . Miles. ..... 1.22 9,021 Passengers carried Freight carried one mile . . . Number. . . Tons 1 No official figures in other than census years. 2 1891, last six months. 3 Does not include hosiery and knit goods. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 307 AREA, POPULATION, AND MATERIAL INDUSTRIES Continued. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 1903. 68,750 1,247,335 4,277,071 10,188,329 7,200 12,600 218,598,994 27,000 369,319,000 115,966 619,648,925 270,588 1,063,620,548 140.433 1 311,246 252,148 2,053,996 253,852 2,732,595 355,415 4,712,622 512,734 5,719,137 378,878,966 1,885,861,676 775,584,343 4,232,325,442 808 947,953,795 5,369,579,191 1,005 2,283,216,529 9,372,437,283 719 2,735,*430,848 13,039,279,566 725 40 514,981 55,476,785 95,736,192 134,739,004 '26,158/235 5,870,114 207,208,696 40,273,682 13,483,163 150,932,768 296,557,685 71,266,699 14,716,524 379,902,880 478,687,519 41,679,591 25,542,208 680,060,925 2 2,236,743 835,759,034 20,478,728 121,913,548 147,963,804 677,969,600 5i,617i3i2 . 96,642,467 109,913,293 1,091 956 756 905 1,055 23,940,108 115,681,774 39,044,132 177,489,739 45,614,419 192,090,110 69,489,272 267,981,724 94,039,951 339,200,320 10,934,796 33,215,541 979,000 1,767,686,338 191,806,555 2,005,529 1,476 11,699,630 3,787,282 23,380,053 857,000 958,558,523 . 227,074,624 1,698,133 3,208 35,928,150 9,981,418 29,929,366 1,795,000 1,822,061,114 211,535,905 3,547,792 2,330 40,687,612 9,999,277 29,918,055 2,325,000 2,471,799,853 250,968,792 8,606,049 1,693 58,397,470 24,003,087 41,296,239 3,644,000 3,100,583,188 241,832,737 67,398,521 1,414 64,389,312 32,216,304 52,462,755 3,924,000 3,543,043,022 316,180,429 74,874,426 73,454,000 199,257,262 238,085,686 270,527,511 296,990,484 43,141,988 ( 4 ) 139 1,050,224 34,490,668 49,230,199 86 1,942,286 33,911,093 128,131,747 382 9,146,705 56,582,432 105,431,285 472 17,762,441 16,164,446 155,928,455 483 20,982,194 19,546,385 177,137,796 6,607,771 12,210 662 41,033,045 87,298,454 107,256,258 32,726,134 23,904,048 583,589 32,188,690 2,562,236 38,686,374 7,347,909 30,894,373 13,043,714 35,963,552 15 270 600 ^. 9,624 098 16 826 099 33 842 374 49 377 138 55 010 571 694,838,197 31,078,970 4.38 428/785 30.5 202,144,733 21,883,797 10.8 5.79 31,696,657 8,915,327 26.3 0.84 30,626 1,196,773,569 56,923,745 4.95 13.51 607,834 35.3 235,256,574 24,234,879 10.3 6.00 47,408,481 13,863,273 29.4 1.10 52,922 1,829,291,684 80,087,720 4.18 9.80 956,784 42.9 446,850,727 60,360,769 13.5 8.78 72,162,936 19,782,631 27.4 1.39 93,262 2,934,011,560 96,094,532 3.28 6.27 1,476,377 52.8 499,159,120 78,267,432 16.0 7.83 83,886,829 12,317,493 15.0 1.33 166,703 4,018,086,530 100,250,974 2.49 5.32 2,219,847 65.2 787,991,911 52,467,943 6.7 9.81 84,845,107 10,558,110 12.4 1.09 194,334 54,216,108,106 72,088,973 1.71 4.64 2,549,643 71.1 915,086,380 59,200,749 6.5 10.79 108,574,905 15,659,229 14.5 1.30 520 439 082 584,695 935 79 192 985 125 141 162 109 413 4 Quantity not stated 5 Does not include sugar from Hawaii and Porto Rico. 6 Consumption per capita based on net imports. 308 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SUMMARY OF PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES IN ITS Area, Population, and Industries. In 1800. . 1850. Railways Continued. Freight rates per ton per mile. - . , Cents. . Passenger cars - . . Number Freight cars *. Number. AMERICAN VESSELS: Built. , Engaged in foreign trade. . Tons Tons 100,261 669 921 279,255 1 585 711 Engaged in domestic trade Engaged in commerce of Great Lakes. Tons Tons 301,919 1,949,743 108,266 Vessels passing through the Sault Ste. Marie Canal . FREIGHT RATES ON WHEAT, CHICAGO TO NEW YORK : Lake and canal l Lake and rail. . ... Tonnage. .. Cts. per bu. Cts. per bu. All rail Cts per bu CONSUMPTION OF WINES AND LIQUORS: Wines- Consumption Consumption per capita. Gallons. . . . Gallons. . 6,315,871 0.27 Malt liquors Consumption. Gallons . 36,563,009 Consumption per capita Distilled spirits Consumption Gallons. . . . Gallons 1.58 51,833 473 Consumption per capita Total consumption of wines and liquors. . . Total consumption per capita PRICES OF STAPLE COMMODITIES: 3 Pig iron, No. 1, foundry, per ton Steel rails, standard sections, per ton Middling cotton, per pound 4 . . Standard sheetings, per yard. . Standard prints, per yard. Gallons. .. . Proof galls. Proof galls . Dollars Dollars. . . . Cents Cents. . . . Cents 2.23 94,712,353 4.08 20.88 ' 'l2.34 7.87 10.62 Washed Ohio fleece wool, July 1 Fine .. Cents. 45 Medium \ 37 Coarse. . COMMERCIAL FAILURES: Reported. Amount of liabilities. Cents. . . Number. . . Dollars 30 POST-OFFICE STATISTICS: Post-offices. . . Number. 903 18,417 Receipts of Post-office Department Dollars 280,804 5,499,985 Telegraph messages sent 6 Newspapers and periodicals published . . Number. , . Number '2,526 PUBLIC SCHOOLS: Pupils enrolled. . Number. Average daily attendance Number Dollars Total expenditures Dollars STUDENTS IN COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND SCHOOLS OF TECHNOLOGY: Men Number Women. . . . Number. . Total . . Number. Patents issued Immigrants arrived Number. . . Number. . . 993 310,004 1 Including canal tolls under 1882, but not Buffalo transfer charges. 2 For domestic consumption; local rate for exports only 9.08 cents in 1900. 3 At Philadelphia. 4 Net prices. s Western Union to 1885; includes Postal Telegraph 1885 to date. Figures from 1870 to date; from Rowell's Newspaper Directory. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 309 AREA, POPULATION, AND MATERIAL INDUSTRIES Continued. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 1903. 93 75 12,788 21,664 26,786 544,185 1,099,205 1,350,258 214,797 2,546,237 2,807,631 467,774 403,657 24.83 276,953 1,516,800 2,729,707 684,704 690,826 17.11 22.0 157,409 1,352,810 2,715,224 605,102 1,734,890 12.27 15.7 294,122 946,695 3,477,802 1,063,063 8,454,435 5.85 8.5 393,790 826,694 4,338,145 1,565,587 22,315,834 4.42 5.05 436,152 888.776 5,198,569 1,902,698 27,736,444 5.44 6 17 11,059,141 0.35 101,346,669 3.22 89,968,651 2.86 202,374,461 6.44 22.75 33.3 12,225,067 0.32 204,756,156 5.31 79,895,708 2.07 296,876,931 7.70 33.25 106.75 19.9 28,329,541 0.56 414,220,165 8.26 63,526,694 1.27 506,076,400 10.09 28.50 67.50 14.31 28,956,981 0.46 855,792,335 13.67 87,829,562 1.40 972,578,878 15.53 18.40 31.75 2 9.98 30,427,491 0.40 1,221,500,160 16.01 97,248,382 1.27 1,349,176,033 17.68 19.98 32.29 11.33 39,413,201 0.49 1,449,879,952 18.04 117,252,148 1.46 1,606,545,301 19.99 19.92 28 00 11.00 8.73 9.50 55 50 40 3,676 79,807,000 28,498 8,518,067 '4,05i 23.98 14.58 12.41 46 45 43 3,546 88,242,000 28,492 19,772,221 9,157,646 6 5,871 6,871,522 11.51 8.51 7.41 46 48 42' 4,735 65,752,000 42,989 33,315,479 29,215,509 9,723 6,867,505 11.07 7.00 6.00 33 37 29 10,907 189,856,964 62,401 60,882,097 63,258,762 16,948 12,722,581 9.25 6.05 5.00 3H 27* 10,774 138,495,673 76,688 102,354,579 79,696,227 20,806 15,503,110 11.18 6.25 5.00 31* $ 12,069 155,444,185 74,169 134,224,443 91,391,443 20,485 4,077,347 37,832,566 6,144,143 55,942,972 8,153,635 91,836,484 10,632,772 137,687,746 63,396,666 78,094,687 140 506 715 214,964,618 44 926 72,159 10 761 26 764 7 38,227 55,687 98,923 4,778 s 150,237 13,333 9 387,203 13,947 457,257 26,292 455,302 26,499 448,572 31,699 857,046 ' Figures for the year 1880 are for the calendar year preceding the fiscal year, and include non-resident graduates; figures of later years are exclusive of non-resident grad- uate students. 8 Calendar year. 9 Years ending June 30 to date. 310 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. COMPARISON OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE WITH EASTERN UNITED STATES Booklover's Magazine. CHAPTER XI. THE DEPARTMENTS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, The following is a brief resume of the work carried on by the Depart- ments of the Government service, and in many cases the individual bureaus and divisions are noted. Information germane to the work of the bureaus, etc., is cheerfully given. THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. The Attorney-General is the head of the Department of Justice and the chief law officer of the Government. He represents the United States in matters involving legal questions ; he gives his advice and opinion, when they are required by the President or by the heads of the other Executive Departments, on questions of law aris- ing in the administration of their re- spective Departments ; he exercises a general superintendence and direction over United States attorneys and mar- shals in all judicial districts in the States and Territories ; and he pro- vides special counsel for the United States whenever required by any De- partment of the Government. THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE. The Secretary of State is charged, under the direction of the Presi- dent, with the duties appertain- ing to correspondence with the public ministers and the consuls of the United States, and with the representatives of foreign powers accredited to the United States ; and to negotiations of whatever character relating to the foreign affairs of the United States. He is also the medium of correspondence between the Presi- dent and the chief executives of the several States of the United States; he has the custody of the Great Seal of the United States, and countersigns and affixes such seal to all executive proclamations, to various commissions, and to warrants for the extradition of fugitives from justice. He is regard- ed as the first in rank among the mem- ^ers of the Cabinet. The Secretary of State is also the custodian of the treaties made with foreign States, and of the laws of the United States. He grants and issues passports, and exequaturs to foreign consuls in the United States are is- sued through his office. He publishes the laws and resolutions of Congress, amendments to the Constitution, and proclamations declaring the admission of new States into the Union. He is also charged with certain annual re- ports to Congress relating to commer- cial information received from diplo- matic and consular officers of the United States. THE DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY. The Secretary of the Treasury is charged by law with the management of the national finances. He prepares plans for the improvement of the rev- enue and for the support of the public credit ; superintends the collection of the revenue, and directs the forms of keeping and rendering public accounts and of making returns ; grants war- rants for all moneys drawls, from the Treasury in pursuance of appropria- tions made by law, and for the pay- ment of moneys into the Treasury ; and annually submits to Congress es- timates of the probable revenues and disbursements of the Government. He also controls the construction of pub- lic buildings ; the coinage and printing of money ; the administration of the Life-Saving, Revenue-Cutter, and the Public Health and Marine-Hospital branches of the public service, and fur- nishes generally such information as may be required by either branch of Congress on all matters pertaining to the foregoing. 311 312 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE DEPARTMENT OF WAR. The Secretary of War is head of the War Department, and performs such duties as are required of him by law or may be enjoined upon him by the President concerning the military ser- vice. He is charged by law with the supervision of all estimates of appro- priations for the expenses of the De- partment, including the military es- tablishment ; of all purchases of army supplies : of all expenditures for the support, transportation, and mainte- nance of the Army, and of such expen- ditures of a civil nature as may be placed by Congress under his direction. He also has supervision of the United States Military Academy at West Point and of military education in the Army, of the Board of Ordnance and Fortification, of the various battle- field commissions, and of the publica- tion of the official Records of the War of the Rebellion. He has charge of all matters relating to national defense and seacoast fortifications, army ord- nance, river and harbor improvements, the prevention of obstruction to navi- gation, and the establishment of har- bor lines, and all plans and locations of bridges authorized by Congress to be constructed over the navigable waters of the United States require his ap- proval. He also has charge of the es- tablishment or abandonment of mili- tary posts, and of all matters relating to leases, revocable licenses, and all other privileges upon lands under the control of the War Department. THE GENERAL STAFF. The General Staff Corps was organ- ized under the provisions of an act of Congress approved February 14, 1903. Its principal duties are to prepare plans for the national defense and for the mobilization of the military forces in time of war ; to investigate and re- port upon all questions affecting the efficiency of the Army and its state of preparation for military operations ; to render professional aid and assist- ance to the Secretary of War and to general officers and other superior commanders and to act as their agents in informing and co-ordinating the ac- tion of all the different officers who are subject to the supervision of the Chief of Staff, and to perform such other military duties not otherwise assigned by law as may be from time to time prescribed by the President. The Chief of Staff, under direction of the President, or of the Secretary of War under the direction of the President, has supervision of all troops of the ^ line and of the Adjutant-Gen- eral's, Inspector-General's, Judge-Ad- vocate-General's, Quartermaster's, Sub- sistence, Medical, Pay, and Ord- nance Departments, the Corps of En- gineers and the Signal Corps, and per- forms such other military duties not otherwise assigned by law as may be assigned to him by the President. Du- ties formerly prescribed by statute for the Commanding General of the Army as a member of the Board of Ord- nance and Fortification and of the Board of Commissioners of the Sol- diers' Home are performed by the Chief of Staff or some other officer des- ignated by the President. SOME OF THE MILITARY BUREAUS. The chiefs of the military bureaus of the War Department are officers of the Regular Army of the United States and part of the military establishment, viz. : The Adjutant-General's Depart- ment is the bureau of orders and rec- ords of the Army. Orders and instruc- tions emanating from the War De- partment and all regulations are issued by the Secretary of War through the Chief of Staff, and are communicated to troops and individuals in the mili- tary service through the Adjutant- General. His office is the repository for the records of the War Depart- ment which relate to the personnel of the permanent military establishment and militia in the service of the United States, to the military history of every commissioned officer and soldier there- of, and to the movements and oper- ation of troops. The records of all ap- pointments, promotions, resignations, deaths, and other casualties in the Army, the preparation and distribu- tion of commissions, and the compila- tion and issue of the Army Register and of information concerning exami- nations for appointment and promo- tions pertain to the Adjutant-General's Office. The Adjutant-General is charged, under the direction of the Secretary of War, with the manage- ment of the recruiting service, the communication of instructions to offi- cers detailed to visit encampments of militia, and the digesting, arranging, and preserving of their reports ; also SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 313 the preparation of the annual returns of the militia required by law to be submitted to Congress. The Quartermaster-General, aided by his assistants, provides transporta- tion for the Army ; also clothing and equipage, horses, mules, and wagons, vessels, forage, stationery, and other miscellaneous quartermaster stores and property for the Army, and of clothing and equipage for the mi- litia ; constructs necessary buildings, wharves, roads, and bridges at military posts, and repairs the same ; furnishes water, heating and light- ing apparatus ; pays guides, spies, and interpreters, and is in charge of na- tional cemeteries. The Chief of Engineers commands the Corps of Engineers, which is charged with all duties relating to construction and repair of fortifica- tions, whether permanent or tempo- rary; with all works of defense; with all military roads and bridges, and with such surveys as may be required for these objects, or the movement of armies in the field. It is also charged with the river and harbor improve- ments, with military and geographical explorations and surveys, with the survey of the lakes, and with any other engineering work specially assigned to the corps by acts of Congress or orders of the Secretary of War. The Chief of Ordnance commands the Ordnance Department, the duties of which consist in providing, preserv- ing, distributing, and accounting for every description of artillery, small arms, and all the munitions of war which may be required for the for- tresses of the country, the armies in the field, and for the whole body of the militia of the Union. In these duties are comprised those of determining the general principles of construction and of prescribing in detail the models and forms of all military weapons employ- ed in war. They comprise also the duty of prescribing the regulations for the proof and inspection of all these weapons, for maintaining uniformity and economy in their fabrication, for insuring their good quality, and for their preservation and distribution. The Chief Signal Officer is charged with the supervision of all military signal duties, and of books, papers, and devices connected therewith, including telegraph and telephone apparatus and the necessary meteorological instru- ments for use on target ranges and other military uses ; the construction, repair, and operation of military tele- graph lines, and the duty of collecting and transmitting information for the Army by telegraph or otherwise, and all other duties usually pertaining to military signaling. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Secretary of Agriculture is charged with the supervision of all public business relating to the agricul- tural industry. He appoints all the officers and employees of the Depart- ment, with the exception of the Assist- ant Secretary and the Chief of the Weather Bureau, who are appointed by the President, and directs the man- agement of all the bureaus, divisions, and offices embraced in the Depart- ment. He exercises advisory super- vision over agricultural experiment stations deriving support from the Na- tional Treasury. He controls the im- port and export of cattle, including cattle-carrying vessels, and directs in- terstate quarantine when rendered nec- essary by contagious cattle diseases. His duties and powers include the preservation, distribution, and intro- duction of birds and animals, game birds and other wild birds and ani- mals in the United States, and the protection of wild game animals and wild birds in the district of Alaska. He is charged generally with carrying out the chief purpose of the Depart- ment, which is "to acquire and diffuse among the people of the United States useful information on subjects con- nected with agriculture, in the most comprehensive sense of that word, and to procure, propagate, and distribute among the people new and valuable seeds and plants." THE WEATHER BUREAU. The Chief of the Weather Bureau, under the direction of the Secretary of Agriculture, has charge of the fore- casting of weather ; the issue of storm warnings ; the display of weather and flood signals for the benefit of agricul- ture, commerce, and navigation ; the gauging and reporting of rivers ; the maintenance and operation of seacoast telegraph lines, and the collection and transmission of marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and navi- gation ; the reporting of temperature 314 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. and rain-fall conditions for the cotton interests ; the display of frost and cold- wave signals ; the distribution of me- teorological information in the inter- ests of agriculture and commerce, and the taking of such meteorological observations as may be necessary to establish and record the climatic conditions of the United States or as are essential for the proper execu- tion of the foregoing duties. THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. The Bureau of Animal Industry makes investigations as to the exist- ence of dangerous communicable dis- eases of live stock ; superintends the measures for their extirpation, and makes original investigations as to the nature and prevention of such dis- eases. It inspects live stock and their products slaughtered for food consump- tion ; has charge of the inspection of import and export animals, of the in- spection of vessels for the transporta- tion of export animals, and of the quarantine stations for imported neat cattle, other ruminants, and swine ; generally supervises the interstate movement of animals and reports on the condition and means of improving the animal industries of the country. It makes special investigations in re- gard to dairy subjects, inspects and certifies dairy products for export, and supervises the manufacture and inter- state commerce of renovated butter. BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY. The Bureau of Chemistry makes in- vestigations of fertilizers, and agricul- tural products, and such analyses as pertain in general to the interests of agriculture. It investigates the com- position and adulteration of foods and the composition of field products in re- lation to their nutritive value and to the constituents which they derive from the soil, fertilizers, and the air. It inspects imported food products and excludes from entry those injurious to health. It inspects food products ex- ported to foreign countries where phy- sical and chemical tests are required for such products. It co-operates with the chemists of the agricultural experiment stations in all matters per- taining to the relations of chemistry to agricultural interests. It also co- operates with the other scientific di- visions of the Department in all mat- ters relating to chemistry, and con- ducts investigations of a chemical na- ture for other Departments of the Gov- ernment at the request of their respect- ive Secretaries. BUREAU OF STATISTICS. The statistician collects information as to crop production and the numbers and status of farm animals, through a corps of county and township corre- spondents, traveling agents, and other agencies, and obtains similar informa- tion from foreign countries through special agents, assisted by consular, agricultural, and commercial authori- ties. He records, tabulates, and co- ordinates statistics of agricultural pro- duction, distribution, and consumption, the authorized data of governments, institutes, societies, boards of trade, and individual experts; and issues a monthly crop report for the informa- tion of producers and consumers. DIVISION OF FOREIGN MARKETS. The division of foreign markets has for its object the extension of the ag- ricultural export trade of the United States. It investigates the require- ments of foreign markets, studies the conditions of demand and supply as disclosed by the records of production, importation, and exportation, inquires into the obstacles confronting trade ex- tension, and disseminates through printed reports and otherwise the in- formation collected. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. The Office of Experiment Stations represents the Department in its re- lations to the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, which are now in operation in all the States and Terri- tories, and directly manages the ex- periment stations in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico. It seeks to promote the interests of agricultural education and investigation throughout the Uni- ted States. It collects and dissemi- nates general information regarding the colleges and stations, and publishes accounts of agricultural investigations at home and abroad. It also indicates lines of inquiry, aids in the conduct of co-operative experiments, reports upon the expenditures and work of the sta- tions, and in general furnishes them with such advice and assistance as will best promote the purposes for which they were established. It is also charged with investigations on the nu- tritive value and economy of human SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 315 foods and on irrigation and agricul- tural engineering, which are largely conducted in co-operation with the col- leges and stations. DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY. The entomologist obtains and dis- seminates information regarding inju- rious insects ; investigates insects sent him in order to give appropriate reme- dies ; conducts investigations of this character in different parts of the country, and mounts and arranges specimens for illustrative and museum purposes. DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. The division of biological survey studies the geographic distribution of animals and plants, and maps the na- tural life zones of the country ; it also investigates the economic relations of birds and mammals, recommends meas- ures for the preservation of beneficial and the destruction of injurious spe- cies, and has been charged with carry- ing into effect the provisions of the Federal law for the importation and protection of birds, contained in the act of Congress of May 25, 1900. BUREAU OF FORESTRY. The Bureau of Forestry gives prac- tical assistance to farmers, lumber- men, and others in the conservative handling of forest lands ; investigates methods and trees for planting in the treeless West, and gives practical as- sistance to tree planters ; studies com- mercially valuable trees to determine their special uses in forestry ; tests the strength and durability of construction timbers and railroad ties ; investigates forest fires, grazing, and other forest problems ; and makes plans for practi- cal forestry in the national forest re- serves at the request of the Secretary of the Interior. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. The Bureau of Plant Industry stud- ies plant life in all its relations to ag- riculture. It includes vegetable patho- logical and physiological investigations, botanical investigations and experi- ments, pomological investigations, grass and forage plant investigations, experimental gardens and grounds, the Arlington experimental farm, Con- gressional seed distribution, seed and plant introduction, and tea-culture ex- periments. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIO- LOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. These investigations have for their objects the study of diseases of agri- cultural crops and economic plants, nutrition of plants, rotation of crops, and the general application of the prin- ciples of pathology and physiology to agriculture, the problems of crop im- provement, and the production of bet- ter varieties of agricultural plants and of crops resistant to disease by means of breeding and selection. BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EX- PERIMENTS. This office investigates botanical problems, including the purity and value of seeds ; methods of controlling the spread of weeds and preventing their introduction into this country ; the injurious effects and antidotes in the case of poisonous plants ; the na- tive plant resources of the country, and other phases of economic botany. GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGA- TIONS. This office studies the natural his- tory, geographical distribution, and uses of grasses and forage plants, as well as their adaptation to special soils and climates ; introduces prom- ising foreign varieties, and investigates the methods of cultivation of native and foreign sorts. POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. This branch of the Bureau collects and distributes information in regard to the fruit interests of the United States ; investigates the habits and pe- culiar qualities of fruits; their adapt- ability to various soils and climates, and conditions of culture. It studies the methods of harvesting, handling, and storing fruits, with a view to im- proving our own markets and extend- ing them into foreign countries. EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS. This branch is charged with the care and ornamentation of the parks surrounding the Department build- ings; with the duties connected with the conservatories and gardens, and with the testing and propagating of economic plants. It carries on inves- tigations for the purpose of determin- ing the best methods of improving the 316 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. culture of plants under glass, and other lines of invastigation connected with intensive horticulture. CONCESSIONAL SEED DISTRIBUTION. This office is charged with the pur- chase and distribution of valuable seed. The seeds are distributed in al- lotments to Senators, Representatives, Delegates in Congress, and the agri- cultural experiment stations, and also by the Secretary of Agriculture, as provided for by the law. SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION. This work has for its object the se- curing from all parts of the world of seeds and plants of new and valuable agricultural crops adapted to different parts of the United States. ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM. The experiment farm is designed ul- timately to become an adjunct to all branches of the Department. It will carry on investigations in the testing of agricultural crops, fruits, and vege- tables. TEA CULTURE EXPERIMENTS. This branch of the Bureau has for its object the study of tea with a view to producing it in this country. Ex- periments are conducted in tea cul- ture, and methods of growing, curing, and handling the tea are being worked out. The work is carried on at Sum- merville, S. C., and at Pierce, Texas. BUREAU OF SOILS. The Bureau of Soils has for its ob- ject the investigation of soils in their relation to crops, the mapping of soils, the investigation, mapping, and re- clamation of alkali lands, and investi- gations of the growth, curing, and fer- mentation of tobacco. OFFICE OF PUBLIC-ROAD INQUIRIES. The Office of Public-Road Inquiries collects information concerning the systems of road management through- out the United States, conducts and promotes investigations and experi- ments regarding the best methods of road making and road-making ma- terials, and prepares publications on this subject. DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS. The division of publications edits all publications of the Department, in- cluding Farmers' Bulletins and other agricultural reports ordered printed by the Congress, with the exception of those issued by the Weather Bureau. It supervises all printing, binding, and illustration work of the Department. It directs the distribution of publica- tions with the exception of those turn- ed over by law to the Superintendent of Documents for sale at the price fixed -by- him; issues, in the form of press notices, official information of in- terest to agriculturists, and distributes to agricultural and other periodicals and writers synopses of Department publications. THE POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT. The Postmaster-General has the di- rection and management of the Post- office Department. He appoints all officers and employees of the Depart- ment, except the four Assistant Post- masters-General, who are appointed by the President, by and with the ad- vice and consent of the Senate ; ap- points all postmasters whose compen- sation does not exceed $1,000 ; makes postal treaties with foreign Govern- ments, by and with the advice and con- sent of the President, awards and ex- ecutes contracts, and directs the man- agement of the domestic and foreign mail service. THE DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY. The Secretary of the Navy performs such duties as the President of the United States, who is Commander in Chief, may assign him, and has the general superintendence of construc- tion, manning, armament, equipment, and employment of vessels of war. BUREAU OF NAVIGATION. The duties of the Bureau of Navi- gation comprise all that relates to the promulgation,- record, and enforcement of the Secretary's orders to the fleets and to the officers of the Navy, except such orders as pertain to the Office of the Secretary ; the education of officers and men, including the Naval A^ade- my and technical schools for officers (Vx-ept the War College and Torpedo School), the apprentice establishment, and schools for the technical education of enlisted men, and to the supervision SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 317 and control of the Naval Home, Phila- delphia ; the enlistment and discharge ' of all enlisted persons, including ap- pointed petty officers for general and special service. It controls all rendez- vous and receiving ships, and provides transportation for all enlisted persons and appointed petty officers ; estab- lishes the complement of the crews of all vessels in commission ; keeps the records of service of all squadrons, ships, officers, and men, and prepares the annual Naval Register for publica- tion ; has under its direction the prep- aration, revision, and enforcement of all tactics, drill books, signal codes, ci- pher codes, and the uniform regula- tions. BUREAU OF YARDS AND DOCKS. The duties of the Bureau of Yards i and Docks comprise all that relates to ] the planning, construction, and main- tenance of all docks (including dry docks), wharves, slips, piers, quay walls, and buildings of all kinds, for whatever purpose needed, within the | limits of the navy-yards, but not of hospitals and magazines outside of those limits, nor of buildings for which ' it does not estimate. It repairs and furnishes all buildings, stores and of- fices in the several navy-yards, and is charged with the purchase, sale, and transfer of -ill land and buildings con- nected with the navy -yards; has un- der its sole control the general admin- istration of the navy-yards ; provides and has sole control of all landings, derricks, shears, cranes, sewers, dredg- ing, railway tracks, cars, and wheels, trucks, grading, paving, walks, shade trees, inclosure walls and fences, ditch- ing, reservoirs, cisterns, fire engines, and apparatus, all watchmen, and all things necessary, including labor, for the cleaning of the yards and the pro- tection of the public property. BUREAU OF EQUIPMENT. The duties of the Bureau of Equip- ment comprise all that relates to the equipment of all vessels with rigging, sails, anchors, yeomen's stores, furni- ture not provided by other bureaus, navigation stores and supplies of all kinds, including nautical and navigat- ing instruments and books, stationery, and blank books for commanding and navigating officers ashore and afloat, binnacles, flags, signal lights, running lights, and standing lights on board vessels, ^including all electrical ap- paratus for lighting purposes and searchlights, logs, leads, lines, and glasses, log books, ships' libraries, il- luminating oil for all purposes, except that used in the engineer department of steamers, and fuel for steamers, the ropewalks, and the shops for making anchors and cables, rigging, sails, gal- leys, and cooking utensils, the Naval Observatory, Nautical Almanac, com- pass offices, and pilotage. It has un- der its control the Hydrographic Office, the collection of foreign sur- veys, publication and supply charts, sailing directions, and nautical works, and the dissemination of nautical and hydrographic information to the Navy and mercantile marine. BUREAU OF ORDNANCE. The duties of the Bureau of Ord- nance comprise all that relates to the torpedo station, naval proving grounds, and magazines on shore ; to the manu- facture of offensive and defensive arms and apparatus (including torpedoes), all ammunition and war explosives ; procures all machinery, apparatus, equipment, material, and supplies re- quired by or for use with the above ; recommends the armament to be car- ried by vessels of the Navy : the ma- terial, kind, and quality of the armor ; the interior dimensions of revolving turrets and their requirements as re- gards rotation. It fixes, within the carrying power of vessels as deter- mined by the Bureau of Construction and Repair, the location and command of the armament, and distributes the thickness of the armor; inspects the installation of the permanent fixtures of the armament and its accessories on board ship, and the methods of stor- ing, handling, and transporting am- munition and torpedoes ; designs and constructs turret ammunition hoists ; determines the requirements of all am- munition hoists, and the method of construction of armories and ammuni- tion rooms on board ship, and in con- junction with the Bureau of Construc- tion and Repair, determines upon their location and that of ammunition hoists. It installs the armament and its accessories which are not perma- nently attached to any portion of the structure of the hull, excepting tur- ret guns, turret mounts, and ammu- nition hoists, etc. ; has cognizance of all electrically operated ammunition hoists, rammers, and gun-elevating gear which are in turrets, of electric range finders, of electric training and elevating gear for gun mounts not in turrets, of electrically operated air 318 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. compressors for charging torpedoes, and of all battle-order and range trans- mitters and indicators ; designs inter- nal arrangements of buildings at navy- yards where ordnance work is per- formed ; designs, erects, and maintains all shops and buildings constructed for its own purpose outside the lim- its of navy-yards. It is charged with the purchase, sale, and transfer of all land and buildings in connec- tion therewith, except at navy-yards, and with the preservation of public property under its control. It deter- mines upon and procures all the tools, stores, stationery, blank books, forms, material, means, and appliances of every kind required in its shops, in- cluding fuel and transportation. It superintends all work done under it, and estimates for and defrays from its own funds the cost necessary to carry out. its duties as above defined. BUREAU OF CONSTRUCTION AND RE- PAIR. The duties of the Bureau of Con- struction and Repair comprise the re- sponsibility for the structural strength and stability of all ships built for the Navy; all that relates to designing, building, fitting, and repairing the hulls of ships, turrets, spars, capstans, windlasses, steering gear, and venti- lating apparatus, and, after consul- tation with the Bureau of Ordnance, and according to the requirements thereof as determined by that Bureau, the designing, construction, and in- stallation of independent ammunition hoists, and the installation of the permanent fixtures of all other am- munition hoists and their appurte- nances ; placing and securing armor after the material, quality, and distribution of thickness have been de- termined by the Bureau of Ordnance : placing and securing on board ship, to the satisfaction of the Bureau of Ord- nance, the permanent fixtures of the armament and its accessories as manu- factured and supplied by that Bureau ; installing the turret guns, turret mounts, and ammunition hoists, and such other mounts as require simultaneous structural work in connection with installation or re- moval : care and preservation of ships in ordinary, and requisitioning for or manufacturing all the equipage and supplies for ships prescribed by the authorized allowance lists. The Bureau of Construction and Repair also, after conference with the Bureau of Ordnance, designs the arrangements for centering the turrets, the character of the roller paths and their supports, and furnishes the Bureau every oppor- tunity to inspect the installation on board of all permanent fixtures of the armament and accessories supplied by said Bureau. It has cognizance of all electric turret-turning machinery and of all electrically operated ammunition hoists (except turret hoists), the same to conform 10 the requirements of the Bureau of Ordnance as to power, speed, and control. It also has cog- nizance of stationary electrically oper- ated fans or blowers for hull ventila- tion, boat cranes, deck winches, cap- stans, steering engines and telemotors therefor, and hand pumps not in the engine or fire rooms, and of electric launches and other boats supplied with electric motive power. It has charge of the docking of ships, and also de- signs the slips and the various build- ings and shops, so far as their internal arrangements are concerned, where its work is executed, and is charged with the operating and cleaning of dry docks, BUREAU OF STEAM ENGINEERING. The duties of the Bureau of Steam Engineering comprise all that relates to the designing, building, fitting out, repairing, and engineering of the steam machinery used for the propulsion of naval vessels, and will also include steam pumps, steam heaters and con- nections, and the steam machinery necessary for actuating the apparatus by which turrets are turned. MARINE CORPS. The Commandant of the Marine Corps is responsible to the Secretary of the Navy for the general efficiency and discipline of the corps ; makes such distribution of officers and men for duty at the several shore stations as shall appear to him to be most ad- vantageous for the interests of the ser- vice : .furnishes guards for vessels of the Navy, according to the authorized scale of allowance ; under the direction of the Secretary of the Navy, issues orders for the movement of officers and troops, and such other orders and in- structions for their guidance as may be necessary ; and has charge and ex- ercises general supervision and con- trol of the recruiting service of the corps, and of the necessary ^expenses thereof, including the establishment of recruiting offices. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 319 THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. The Secretary of the Interior is charged with the supervision of pub- lic business relating to Patents for In- ventions ; Pensions and Bounty Lands : the Public Lands and Surveys ; the In- dians ; Education; railroads; the Geo- logical Survey ; the Hot. Springs Res- ervation, Arkansas ; Yellowstone Na- tional Park, Wyoming, and the Yose- mite, Sequoia, and General Grant parks, California ; forest reservations ; distribution of appropriations for agri- cultural and mechanical colleges in the States and Territories; the custody and distribution of certain public docu- ments ; and supervision of certain hos- pitals and eleemosynary institutions iu the District of Columbia. He also ex- ercises certain powers and duties in re- lation to the Territories of the United States. COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS. The Commissioner of Patents is charged with the administration of the patent la\ys, and supervises all mat- ters relating to the issue of letters patent for new and useful inventions, discoveries, and improvements thereon, and also the registration of trade- marks, prints, and labels. He is by statute made the tribunal of last re- sort in the Patent Office, and has ap- pellate jurisdiction in the trial of in- terference cases, of the patentability of inventions, and of registration of trade-marks. He is aided by an assistant Commissioner, chief clerk, three examiners in chief, an examiner of interferences, and thirty-nine prin- cipal examiners. COMMISSIONER OF PENSIONS. The Commissioner of Pensions su- pervises the examination and adjudica- tion of all claims arising under laws passed by Congress granting bounty land or pension on account of service in the Army or Navy during the Revo- lutionary War and all subsequent wars in which the United States has been engaged. He is aided by two Deputy Commissioners and the chief clerk of the Bureau, each of whom has super- vision over business arising in divi- sions of the Bureau assigned, under or- der of the Commissioner, to his imme- diate charge. COMMISSIONER OF THE GENERAL LAND OFFICE. The Commissioner of the General Land Office is charged with the survey, management, and sale of the public do- main, and the issuing of titles there- for, whether derived from confirma- tions of grants made by former govern- ments, by sales, donations, or grants for schools, railroads, military boun- ties, or public improvements. He is aided by an Assistant Commissioner and chief clerk. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. The duties of the Commissioner of Education are to collect such statis- tics and facts as shall show the condi- tion and progress of education in the several States and Territories, and to diffuse such information respecting the organization and management of schools and school systems and meth- ods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in the establish- ment and maintenance of efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of education throughout the country. DIRECTOR OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. The Director of the Geological Sur- vey has charge of the classification of public lauds and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, find products of the national domain, and tha survey of forest reserves, in- cluding the preparation of topographic and geologic maps ; also the measure- ment of streams and determination of the water supply of the United States, including the investigation of under- ground waters and artesian wells ; and also the reclamation of arid lands, including the engineering operations to be carried on by the use of the recla- mation fund created by act of June 17, 1902. from proceeds of sales of public lands. THE BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES. That uniform usage in regard to geo- graphic nomenclature and orthography shall obtain throughout the Executive Departments of the Government, and particularly upon maps and charts is- sued by the various Departments and Bureaus, this Board is constituted. To it shall be referred all unsettled questions concerning geographic names which arise in the Departments, and the decisions of the Board are to be accepted by the Departments as the standard authority in such matters. Organized September 4, 1890. 320 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. (Incorporated by Act of Congress March 3, 18G3.) Section 3 of the act of incorporation provides : "That the National Academy of Sciences shall hold an annual meet- ing at such place in the United States as may be designated, and the academy shall, whenever called upon by any de- partment of the Government, investi- gate, examine, experiment, and report upon any subject of science or art, the actual expense of such investiga- tions, examinations, experiments, and reports to be paid from appropriations which may be made for the purpose ; but the academy shall receive no com- pensation whatever for any services to the Government of the United States." In accordance with this provision, the academy which includes about one hundred members has made many investigations and reports, at the re- quest of the legislative and executive branches of the Government. The an- nual reports are published by Congress as House and Senate documents. Two meetings are held each year. The an- nual meeting is held " in April, at Washington ; the other in November, at such place as may be determined by the council. THE CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION. The purpose of the civil-service act (approved January 16, 1883), as de- clared in its title, is "to regulate and improve the civil service of the United States." It provides for the appoint- ment of three Commissioners, not more than two of whom shall be adherents of the same political party, and makes it the duty of the Commission to aid the President, as he may request, in preparing suitable rules for carrying the act into effect. The act requires that the rules shall provide, among other things, for open competitive ex- aminations for testing the fitness of applicants for the public service, the filling of classified positions by selec- tions from among those passing with highest grades, an apportionment of appointments in the Departments at Washington among the States and Territories, a period of probation be- fore absolute appointment, and the prohibition of the use of official au- thority +o coerce the political action of any person or body. The act also provides for investigations touching the enforcement of the rules promul- gated, and forbids, under penalty of fine or imprisonment, or both, the so- licitation by any person in the service of the United States of contributions to be used for political purposes from persons in such service, or the collec- tion of such contributions by any per- son in a Government building. THE CLASSIFIED SERVICE. It is estimated that in 1902 there were 235,854 positions in the executive civil service, of which 20,931 were in the executive offices at Washington and 214,923 were outside. About 120,- 000 positions are classified subject to competitive examination under the civ- il service rules. Persons merely em- ployed as laborers or workmen and persons nominated for confirmation by the Senate are exempted from the re- quirements of classification. Within these limits certain classes of positions are excepted from examination, among them being employees at postoffices not having free delivery, Indians, attor- neys, pension examining surgeons, deputy collectors of internal revenue, office deputy marshals, and a few em- ployees whose duties are of an impor- tant confidential or fiduciary nature. EXAMINATIONS. Examinations are held in every State and Territory twice a year. Full information respecting these examina- tions is to be found in a manual issued by the Commission in January and July of each year, for free distribu- tion. The examinations range in scope from technical, professional, or scientific subjects to those based wholly upon the age, physical condition, ex- perience, and character as a workman of the applicant, and in some cases do not require ability to read or write. To insure practical tests of fitness 654 different kinds of examinations were held during the year ended June 30, 1902, each of which involved different tests and more than half of which contained no educational tests, but consisted of certificates of employers or fellow workmen. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1903. 86,787 per- sons were examined, 64,439 passed, and 26,343 were appointed. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 321 THE FILLING OF VACANCIES. A vacancy is filled from among the three persons of the sex called for standing highest on the appropriate register, the order being determined by the relative rating, except that the names of persons preferred under sec- tion 1754, Revised Statutes, come be- fore all others. Until the rating of all papers of an examination is com- pleted the identity of no applicant is known. A vacancy may also be filled by promotion, reduction, transfer, or reinstatement. MILITARY PREFERENCE. Persons discharged from the mili- tary or naval service by reason of dis- ability resulting from wounds or sick- ness incurred in the line of duty and who receive a rating of at least 65 are certified first for appointment. All others are required to obtain a rating of 70 or more to become eligible. The rule barring reinstatement after a sep- aration of one year does not apply to any person honorably discharged after service in the civil war or the war with Spain, or his widow, or an army nurse of either war, THE PHILIPPINE CIVIL SERVICE. Appointments to the insular civil service of the Philippines are made un- der an act passed by the Philippine Commission and rules promulgated by the Governor of the islands. The mu- nicipal service of Manila is also classi- fied and subject to the provisions of the act and rules, which are similar to the United States act and rules. The United States Commission, under an Executive order, assists the Philippine Board by conducting examinations in the United States for the Philippine service and in all other practicable ways. These examinations are held only for positions for which compe- tent natives cannot be found, the na- tives being preferred for appointment. The United States rules permit the transfer of jlassified employees who have served for three yea^s from the Philippine service to the Federal ser- vice. THE CIVIL SERVICE IN PORTO RICO AND HAWAII. The Federal positions in Porto Rico and Hawaii by act of Congress fall within the scope of the civil service act and are filled in the same ways as com- petitive positions in the United States. ic competitive system . does not ex- tend to the insular and municipal po- sitions of the islands. 'n UNCLASSIFIED LABORERS. Appointments of unclassified labor- ers in the Departments at Washing- ton under Executive order are required to be made in accordance with regu- lations to be approved by the heads of the several Departments and the Civil Service Commission. Such regula- tions have been adopted by several of the Departments, and the positions of laborers are being filled by the ap- pointment of those applicants who are rated highest in age, physical condi- tion, and industry and adaptability. The system is outside the civil service act and rules. THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION. This Commission, appointed under "An act to regulate commerce," ap- proved February 4, 1887, has authori- ty to inquire into the management of the business of all common carriers who are subject to the provisions of the act. These are all which are "en- gaged in the transportation of pas- sengers or property wholly by railroad, or partly by railroad and partly by wa- ter when both are used, under a com- mon control, management, or arrange- ment, for a continuous carriage or shipment, from one State or Territory of the United States or the District of Columbia to any other State or Ter- ritory of the United States or the Dis- trict of Columbia, or from any place in the United States to an adjacent foreign country, or from any place in the United States through a foreign country to any other place in the Uni- ted States, and also in the transporta- tion in like manner of property shipped from any place in the United States to a foreign country and carried from such place to a port of transshipment, or shipped from a foreign country to any place in the United States and carried to such place from a port of entry either in the United States or an adjacent foreign country." It has jurisdiction to inquire into and report upon the reasonableness of rates on in- terstate traffic, to decide questions of unjust discrimination and of undue preference, to prescribe the publicity to be given to joint tariffs, and to in- 822 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. stitute and carry on proceedings for the enforcement of the provisions of the law. It has power to call for re- ports, to require the attendance of witnesses and the production of books and papers, to hear complaints of a violation of the act made against any such carrier, and to determine what reparation shall be made to a party wronged ; to institute inquiries on its own motion or at the request of State railroad commissions, and to report thereon ; and it is required to make an annual report, which shall be trans- mitted to Congress. The act of March 2, 1893, known as the "Safety Appliance Act," provides that within specified periods railroad cars used in interstate commerce must be equipped with automatic couplers and standard height of drawbars for freight cars, and have grab irons or handholds on the ends and sides of each car. A further provision of this act is that locomotive engines used in moving interstate traffic shall be fitted with a power driving wheel brake and appli- ances for operating the train brake system, and a sufficient number of cars in the train shall be equipped with power or train brakes. The act di- rects the Commission to lodge with the proper district attorneys information of such violations as may come to its kno\yledge. The Commission is au- thorized, from time to time, upon full hearing and for good cause, to extend the period within which any common carrier shall comply with the provi- sions of the statute. The act of March 2, 1903, amended this act so as to make its provisions apply to Terri- tories and the District of Columbia, to all cases when couplers of whatever de- sign are brought together, and to all locomotives, cars, and other equipment of any railroad engaged in interstate traffic, except logging cars and cars used upon street railways, and also to power or train brakes used in railway operation. The act of March 3, 1901, "requiring common carriers engaged in interstate commerce to make reports of all acci- dents to the Interstate Commerce Commission," makes it the duty of such carrier monthly to report, under path, all collisions and derailments of its trains and accidents to its passen- gers, and to its employees while on duty in its service, and to state the nature and causes thereof. The act prescribes that a fine shall be imposed against any such earner failing to make the report so required. THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR. The Secretary of Commerce and La- bor is charged with the work of pro- moting the commerce of the United States, and its mining, manufacturing, shipping, fishery, transportation, and labor interests. His duties also com- prise the investigation of the organiza- tion and management of corporations (excepting railroads) engaged in inter- state commerce ; the gathering and publication of information regarding labor interests and labor controversies in this and other countries ; the ad- ministration of the Light House Ser- vice, and the aid and protection to shipping thereby ; the taking of the census, and the collection and publi- cation of statistical information con- nected therewith ; the making of coast and geodetic surveys ; the collecting of statistics relating to foreign and do- mestic commerce : the inspection of steamboats, and the enforcement of laws relating thereto for the protec- tion of life and property ; the super- vision of the fisheries as administered by the Federal Government ; the supervision and control of the Alaskan fur seal, salmon, and other fisheries; the jurisdiction over merchant vessels, their registry, licensing, measurement, entry, clearance, transfers, movement of their cargoes and passengers, and laws relating thereto, and to seamen of the United States ; the supervision of the immigration of aliens, and the en- forcement of the laws relating thereto, and to the exclusion of Chinese; the custody, construction, maintenance, and application of standards of weights and measurements ; and the gathering and supplying of informa- tion regarding industries and markets for the fostering of manufacturing. He has power to call upon other De- partments for statistical data obtained by them. It is his further duty to make such special investigations and furnish such information 10 the President or Con- gress as may be required by them on the foregoing subject-matters and to make annual reports to Congress upon the work of said Department. injREA.TJ OF LABOR. The Bureau of Labor is charged with the duty of acquiring and diffus- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 323 ing among the people of the United States useful information on subjects connected with labor in the most gen- eral and comprehensive sense of that word, and especially upon its relations to capital, the hours of labor, the earnings of laboring men and women, and the means of promoting their ma- terial, social, intellectual, and moral prosperity. It is especially charged to investi- gate the causes of and facts relating to all controversies and disputes be- tween employers and employees as they may occur, and which may happen to interfere with the welfare of the people of the several States. LIGHT-HOUSE BOARD. The Light-House Board has charge, under the superintendence of the Sec- retary of Commerce and Labor, of all administrative duties relating to the construction and maintenance of light- houses, light vessels, light-house de- pots, beacons, fog signals, buoys, and their appendages, and has charge of all records and property appertaining to the Light-House Establishment. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. The Bureau of the Census is charged with the duty of taking the periodical censuses of the United States and of collecting such special statistics as are required by Congress, including the collection in 1905 of the statistics of manufacturing establishments conduct- ed under the factory system, and the collection annually of statistics of births and deaths in registration areas, statistics of the cotton production of the country as returned by the ginners, and (by transfer from the Bureau of Labor) statistics of cities of 30,000 or more inhabitants. Under the procla- mation of the President dated Septem- ber 30, 1902, the Bureau is charged with the compilation and tabulation of the returns of the Philippine census, taken as of March 2, 1903, under the direction of the Philippine Commis- COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. The Coast and Geodetic Survey is charged with the survey of the coasts of the United States and coasts un- der the jurisdiction thereof and the publication of charts covering said coasts. This includes base measure, triangulation, topography, and hydro- graphy along said coasts; the survey of rivers to the head of tide-water or ship navigation ; deep sea soundings, temperature, and current observations along said coasts and throughout the Gulf and Japan streams ; magnetic ob- servations and researches, and the pub- lication of maps showing the va- riations of terrestrial magnetism ; gravity research ; determination of heights; the determination of geo- graphic positions by astronomic obser- vations for latitude, longitude, and azimuth, and by triangulation, to fur- nish reference points for State sur- veys. The results obtained are pub- lished in annual reports, with profes- sional papers and discussions of results as appendices ; charts upon various scales, including sailing charts, general charts of the coast, and harbor charts ; tide tables issued annually, in advance ; Coast Pilots, with sailing directions covering the navigable waters ; No- tices to Mariners, issued monthly and containing current information neces- sary for safe navigation ; catalogues of charts and publications, and such other special publications as may be required to carry out the organic law governing the Survey. BUREAU OF STATISTICS. The Bureau of Statistics collects and publishes the statistics of our for- eign commerce, embracing tables show- ing the imports and exports, respect- ively, by countries and customs dis- tricts ; the transit trade inward and outward by countries and by customs districts ; imported commodities ware- housed, withdrawn from, and remain- ing in warehouse ; the imports of mer- chandise entered for consumption, showing quantity, value, rates of duty, and amounts of duty collected on each article or class of articles ; thp inward and outward movement of tonnage in our foreign trade and the countries whence entered and for which cleared, distinguishing the nationalities of the foreign vessels. The Bureau also col- lects and publishes information in re- gard to the leading commercial move- ments in our internal commerce, among which are the commerce of the Great Lakes ; the commercial move- ments in our internal commerce, among which are the commerce of the Great Lakes: the commercial move- ments at interior centers, at Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific seaports ; shipments of coal and coke ; ocean freight rates, 324 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. etc. The Bureau also publishes daily and monthly the reports received from United States consuls and special re- ports on various subjects supplied by consuls on special request ; also, an- nually, the declared exports from for- eign countries to the United States furnished by consuls, and the annual report laid before Congress entitled "Commercial Relations of the United States." STEAMBOAT-INSPECTION SERVICE. The Steamboat-Inspection Seryice is charged with the duty of inspecting steam vessels, the licensing of the offi- cers of vessels, and the administration of the laws relating to such vessels and their officers for the protection of life and property. The Supervising Inspector-General and the supervising inspectors consti- tute a board that meets annually at Washington, and establishes regula- tions for carrying out the provisions of the steamboat-inspection laws. BUREAU OF FISHERIES. The work of the Bureau of Fisheries comprises (1) the propagation of use- ful food fishes, including lobsters, oys- ters, and other shellfish, and their dis- tribution to suitable waters; (2) the inquiry into the causes of decrease of food fishes in the lakes, rivers, and coast waters of the United States, the study of the waters of the coast and interior in the interest of fish-culture, and the investigation of the fishing grounds of the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pa- cific coasts, with the view of determin- ing their food resources and the devel- opment of the commercial fisheries ; (3) the collection and compilation of the statistics of the fisheries and the study of their methods and relations. BUREAU OF NAVIGATION. The Bureau of Navigation is charged with general superintendence of the commercial marine and mer- chant seamen of the United States, ex- cept so far as supervision is lodged with other officers of the Government. It is specially charged with the de- cision of all questions relating to the issue of registers, enrollments, and li- censes of vessels and the filing of those documents, with the supervision of laws relating to the admeasurement, letters, and numbers of vessels, and with the final decision of questions concerning the collection and refund of tonnage taxes. It is empowered to change the names 'of vessels, prepares jmnually a list of vessels of the United States, and reports annually to the Secretary of Commerce and Labor the operations of the laws relative to navi- gation. BUREAU OF IMMIGRATION. The Bureau of Immigration is charged with the administration of the laws relating to immigration and of the Chinese exclusion laws. It super- vises all expenditures under the appro- priations for "Expenses of regulating immigration" and the "Enforcement of the Chinese exclusion act." It causes alleged violations of the immigration, Chinese exclusion, and alien contract- labor laws to be investigated, and when^ prosecution is deemed advisable submits evidence for that purpose to the proper United States district at- torney. BUREAU OF STANDARDS. The functions of the Bureau of Standards are as follows : The custody of the standards; the comparison of the standards used in scientific investi- gations, engineering, manufacturing, commerce,, and educational institu- tions with the standards adopted or recognized by the Government ; the construction, when necessary, of stand- ards, their multiples and subdivisions ; the testing and calibration of standard measuring apparatus ; the solution of problems which arise in connection with standards ; the 'determination of physical constants and properties of materials, when such data are of great importance to scientific or manufac- turing interests and are not to be ob- tained of sufficient accuracy elsewhere. The Bureau is authorized to exercise its functions for the Government of the United States, for any State or municipal government within the Uni- ted States, or for any scientific society, educational institution, firm, corpora- tion, or individual within the United States engaged in manufacturing or other pursuits requiring the use of standards or standard measuring in- struments. For all comparisons, cali- brations, tests, or investigations, ex- cept those performed for the Govern- ment of the United States or State governments, a reasonable fee will be charged. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 325 THE INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS. The International Bureau of the American Republics was established under the recommendation of the In- ternational American Conference in 1890 for the purpose of maintaining closer relations between the several Re- publics of the Western Hemisphere. It was reorganized by the Interna- tional American Conference of 1901 and its scope widened by imposing many new and important duties. A prominent feature of the new arrange- ment was the foundation of the Co- lumbus Memorial Library. The Inter- national Bureau corresponds, through the diplomatic representatives of the several Governments in Washington, with the executive departments of these governments, and is required to furnish such information as it pos- sesses or can obtain to any of the Re- publics making requests. It is the custodian of the archives of the Inter- national American Conferences, and is especially charged with the perform- ance of duties imposed upon it by these conferences. The International Bureau is sustained by contributions from the American Republics in pro- portion to their population. It pub- lishes a monthly bulletin containing the latest official information respect- ing the resources, commerce, and gen- eral features of the American Repub- lics, as well as maps and geographical sketches of these countries, which pub- lications are considered public docu- ments and as such are carried free in the mails of all the Republics. Con- gressional Directory. THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. Any person may become a member of the association upon recommenda- tion in writing by two members or fel- lows, and election by the council, or by the special committee of the council resident in Washington and empow- ered to pass upon applications when- ever received. The admission fee for members is five dollars, payable in advance. The annual dues for members and fellows are three dollars, payable in advance. The fiscal year of the association be- gins January 1st, and members and fellows .are entitled to all publica- tions issued, and to the privileges of all meetings held during the year for which they have paid dues. Fellows are elected by the council from such of the members as are pro- fessionally engaged in science. The election of fellows is by ballot and a majority vote of the members of the council at a designated meeting of the council. On the election of any mem- ber as a fellow, an additional fee of two dollars shall be paid. Any member or fellow who shall pay the sum of fifty dollars to the association, at any one time, shall be- come a life member, and as such shall be exempt from all further assess- ments, and shall be entitled to the proceedings of the association. All money thus received shall be invested as a permanent fund, the income of which, during the life of the mem- ber, shall form a part of the general fund of the association ; but, after his death, shall be used only to assist in original research, unless otherwise di- rected by unanimous vote of the council. Any person paying to the associa- tion the sum of one thousand dollars shall be classed as a patron, and shall be entitled to all the privileges of a member and to all its publications. 326 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SWITZERLAND OENMAf SERVIA SWEDEN& GREECE MEXICO Copyright, 1904, by Munn & Co. NATIONAL DEBTS OF THE WORLD. CHAPTER XII. POST OFFICE. POSTAL INFORMATION. Revised by the New York Post Office. There are four classes of mail mat- ter: First-Class Matter All written matter, such as letters, postal cards, " post cards " and all matter in writ- ing, whether pen-written or typewrit- ten, and all matter sealed from inspec- tion, constitutes " First-class Matter," and is mailable at two cents an ounce, or fraction thereof. Letters, etc., may be sent to Canada, Cuba, the " Canal Zone " at Panama, Guam, Tutuila (Samoa), Shanghai (China), Mexico, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philip- pines. Postal cards are one cent each. Local or " drop " letters are two cents an ounce or fraction thereof, when mailed at letter carrier offices, or at offices where Rural Delivery Service has been established, addressed to patrons thereof who may be served by rural carriers, and one cent for each ounce or fraction thereof at offices where free delivery by carrier is not established or at rural-delivery offices when addressed to patrons who cannot be served by the carriers. Note There is no "drop" rate on third or fourth-class matter : the post- age on which is uniform whether ad- dressed for local delivery or transmis- sion in the mails. The following articles are included in first-class matter : Assessment no- tices, autograph albums, blank books, with written entries, bank checks, blank forms filled out in writing, re- ceipts, visiting cards bearing written name, communications entirely in print with the exception of name of sender, diplomas, drawings or plans containing written words, letters or figures, envelopes bearing written ad- dresses, imitations or reproductions of hand or typewritten matter not mailed at the postoffice in a minimum num- ber of twenty perfectly identical cop- ies to separate addresses, legal and other blanks, old letters sent singly or in bulk, all sealed matter, stenographic or shorthand notes, and unsealed written communications. Second -Class Matter This division includes newspapers and other periodi- cals, which are issued as often as four times a year. The rate of postage on second-class matter when sent by the publisher thereof and from the office of publication to subscribers or as sample copies, or when sent from a news agency to actual subscribers or to other news agents for sale, is one cent a pound or fraction thereof, ex- cept when deposited in a letter carrier office for delivery by letter carriers, or mailed free within the county of publi- cation. Publishers to obtain this rate must have their periodicals entered at their local post-office. Third-Class latter Embraces all printed matter generally. The rate of postage is one cent for each two ounces or fractional part thereof sent to a single address, to be fully prepaid by ordinary postage stamps affixed there- to. The following named articles are among those subject to third-class rate of postage : Almanacs, printed archi- tectural designs, blueprints, books (printed), bulbs, calendars printed on paper, cards printed on paper, Christ- mas cards, catalogues, check and re- ceipt books (blank), circulars, press clippings, school copy books, printed engravings, samples of grain, imita- tion of hand or typewritten matter when mailed at the postoffice window in a minimum number of twenty iden- tical copies separately addressed, printed labels, legal blanks, lithographs, maps, music books, photographs, plants, printed tags, roots, seeds, sheet music. Fourth - Class Matter Embraces merchandise, samples, and in general all articles not included in the first, 327 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. second or third class. The rate of postage is one cent an ounce or frac- tion thereof sent to a single address, to be prepaid by ordinary stamps affixed. The following are among articles included in fourth-class mat- ter : Albums, photograph and auto- graph (blank), artificial flowers, bill- heads, blank books, blotters, botanical specimens, celluloid calendars, blank cards, celluloid, dried fruit, dried plants, electrotypes, geological speci- mens, maps printed on cloth, merchan- dise samples, merchandise sealed, metals, napkins, oil paintings, samples of cloth, samples of flour, soap wrap- pers, stationery. Prohibited Articles. Many articles are excluded from the foreign mails, the regulations being different in the case of each country. Inquiries should be made of the postmaster. Many articles are also excluded from domestic mails when they are liable to destroy, efface, or injure the contents of the mail bags or the persons of those engaged in the postal service. When in doubt consult your postmaster. Withdrawal of Letters from the Mail. It is not generally known that a letter can be withdrawn from the mail. For good and sufficient reasons and satisfactory identification a post- master may telegraph to a postmaster in another city, asking him to with- draw the letter, a description of which is telegraphed. Special care is then given in assorting letters, and when the letter is found it is returned to the postmaster of the city where it was mailed, who delivers it to the person mailing it on presentation of proper proof of ownership. All expenses must be borne by the person withdraw- ing a letter from the mail. A deposit of $5 must be left with the post- master when the application is made. It is also possible to withdraw a for- POSTAL SERVICE Domestic. Number of letters. Number of post cards. 3 Printed matter. 4 Commer- cial papers. 5 Postage prepaid. 1 Not prepaid. 2 Argentine Republic . Australasia Austria . . 159,385,020 211,254,801 440,675,600 101,644,321 787,467 222,394,627 3,739,812 24,768,283 1,820,831 6,489,631 74,223,431 781,080 12,060,000 820,708,041 1,557,679,710 2,579,500,000 118,121,668 198,064,428 205,076,343 37,963,823 80,455,526 30,695,300 22,561,727 11,751,558 300,822,581 122,590,854 76,920,350 92,583,216 3,732,031,938 3,350,544 See Col. 1 See Col. 1 4,180 400 427,856 4,226 28,462,364 186,854 448609 18,296 99,418 65,883 300,000 3,016,145 30,259,540 See Col. 1 1,446,906 4,670,035 See Col. 1 743,508 540,113 202,600 83,762 1,121,401 5,476,878 '296,513 330,260 139,151,837 31,189 3,588,504 2,705,126 264,989,700 59,804,004 24,170 227,062,615 6,042,720 462,694 69,726 1,916,326 4,764,940 14,475 590,000 64,442,350 1,062,679,460 488,900,000 85,193,768 77,454,468 483,021,736 1,087,300 54,492,724 4,199,700 9,543,240 14,057,882 97,701,412 13,681,624 37,739,367 48,631,989 740,087,805 167,407 152,515,894 43,064,753 55221,700 257,568,220 340.629 59,367,511 8,955,534 948,864 1,328,214 902,500 4,354,662 459,867 9,400,000 1,130,475,202 957,361,710 175,400,000 36,897,440 385,375,075 156,514,420 70,766,739 164,793,766 4,321,200 24,145,500 24,908,318 80,444,160 194,884,182 11,363,997 41,226,016 3,306,582,333 14,442,140 See Col. 4 38,227.430 'i, 797,1 98 10,900 See Col. 4 90,304 4,964 366,104 1,050,300 80,666 43,811,675 8,460,270 809,800,000 9,341,668 3,286,535 See Col. 4 Belgium Bolivia British India Bulgaria Chili Costa Rica Cuba Denmark Dominican Republic Egypt France . : Germany. Great Britain Hungary Italy Japan Mexico Netherlands Norway Portugal Roumania Russia Spain. Sweden Switzerland United States of America Uruguay . . 57,300 477,787 207,451 4,190,274 99,985 194,078 362,642 * Figures cover both SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 329 eign letter from the mail, and in that case the deposit is $25. Any unex- pended balance is, of course, returned. FEES FOR MONEY ORDERS. Payable in the United States (which includes Guam, Hawaii, Porto Rico and Tutuila, Samoa) ; also for Orders payable in Canada, Cuba, Newfound- land, the United States Postal Agency at Shanghai (China), the Philippine Islands, Barbados, Grenada, Saint Lucia, and St. Vincent. For Orders for sums not exceeding $2.50, 3 cents. Over $2.50 and not exceeding $5.00, 5 cents. Over $5.00 and not exceeding $10.00, 8 cents. Over $10.00 and not exceeding $20.00. 10 cents. Over $20.00 and not exceeding $30.00, 12 cents. Over $30.00 and not exceeding $40.00, 15 cents. Over $40.00 and not exceeding $50.00, 18 cents. Over $50.00 and not exceeding $00.00, 20 cents. Over $60.00 and not exceeding $75.00, 25 cents. Over $75.00 and not exceeding $100.00, 30 cents. NOTE. The maximum amount for which a single Money Order may be issued is $100. When a larger sum is to be sent additional Orders must be obtained. Any number of Orders may be drawn on any Money Order office ; but, if Orders are drawn in excess of $200 on any one day upon an office of the 4th class, notice of the fact by letter (or Form 6037) is to be prompt- ly sent the Department by the issuing Postmaster so that provision may be made for payment. OF THE WORLD. Samples of merchan- dise. Total of pre- ceding columns, adding free matter, etc. Ordinary Packages. Money orders. Number of Letter Boxes. Number of Employ- ees. Number. Value in Dollars. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 See Col. 4 319,119,054 2,130,321 2,519 6,163 See Col. 5 333,558,972 1,099,384 ' '2,165,616 16,761,631 7,878 15,492 14,449,000 836,380,800 25,751,600 25,833,578 237,803,784 30,996 58,888* 4,782,544 453,433,761 3,412,268 1,525,197 36,898,771 8,500 7,371 1,623 1,231,264 18,373 457 921 See Col. 4 554,156,454 1,621,646 13,640,140 86,551,999 51,347 60,174* 50,830 22,226,790 110,371 225,243 4,207,871 2,412 1,781* 58,404 58,805,378 584,986 329,282 3,598,348 1,130 2,175 6,736 3,844,132 63,482 162 215 121,360 11,893,177 10,624 64,710 2,076,036 1,111 767 293,720 83,761,851 2,685,320 2,616,660 17,938,179 10,531 7,011 8,139 1 329 444 112 132 110,000 25,150,000 200,500 503,500 12,584,000 1,317 1,590 51,024,069 2,113,656,692 44,638,979 43,473,736 304,135,418 68,156 81,659* 46,997,370 3,781,632,920 183,994,828 159,117,020 2,390,185,643 126,481 241,967* See Col. 5 4,053,600,000 87,014,292 104,201,954 357,210,065 58,873 183,595* 2,170,864 290,196,722 9,316,406 15,857,701 157,812,182 11,237 22,582* 10,021,951 747,040,295 9,243,969 15,295,051 200,800,478 23,760 30,925* 2,781,546 882,765,664 9,519,910 9,203,258 47,752,424 51,058 57,965* 664,662! 120,887,017 251,556 920,824 41,811,849 1,142 10,477 1,802,204 311,406,621 4,537,142 4,159,398 24,616,865 4,583 8,364 164,400 43,830.800 334,500 289,722 6,050,873 4,070 3,673 697,515 60,208,773 253,806 296,410 4,082,509 6,097 6,525* 369,845 43,643,104 133,514 860,694 5,951,183 4,903 6,886* 3,510,005 591,932,272 2,495,802 16,916,041 377,446,238 21,065 57,962* 915,180 350,692,763 8,979 5,293 623,510 132,704,875 983,668 "3,078,112 24,764,948 5,648 8,246 385,545 198,682,821 18,045,172 6,472,827 133,719,746 10,349 12,324 84,798,683 8,002,652,596 40,474,327 325,925,666 129,335 239,652 32,116 18,801,025 9,800 38,174 4,204,775 1,016 1,582 post office and telegraph officials. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 1- 0)1-4*0 rH i ' rHOqO3_COlO_--H(M rHM" CO" sr-i O5rHC^lO05OrH^C5OCOOOOb- |< COO500O^COCO(NOI>.(MOO5O5 .'< Tf"co"(N io"oo"o"Tt<"Tjrai'co"co"o"co"t>r io"< ^OCOOKM O3 iO -t OlrH t>O OOCO * COIN OiO {>* coo r-Trn" io"oo"co" ' co"odb- ; CO _; (M CO CO 1> O5 CO IO OO >O GO rH |> CO "t>Tco~ od gco"rH"io"rH K T)?'co"co"co"'o"r>ro5 Tji'co" (CO-* CO O> CO rH (M -*i rJ ^ ^ t^ CI t^ rfH O ^C 00 ^ ^ ) Ci ] o c^ c^ ] Tt* ^ t-- co ___; oo o CD I ^H co co 07 ^o ooo 11 " s CO t^t 00 CO I O5^_J GOOOt>CO'OrHCO_rH(Nt-.O -*O t~-r-i (McOOO CO O3iOCOOcO-i-H _ < OGC3- -. .... ..... . 89rH"co"rH"(M''(N" c3s" rH* co" o" t>T co" co" 9 as" co" o~ *" o" co CD" oo'oT OOS COM . Tf TfOOrH -00 OOMT}lO>COTj- O t*- * iO * CO CO Ol Oi i CO (N 00 O "^ O5 OOOO ^P rH O5 >O rH CO OrHrH l -t'lo"^"^ rn" r-Tt-T cOrn'o*' ! -* co"co'co"l> CO'TJH" CO"-*" co'o" ' ^O 00 rH CO ^ O 00 1^- '-H o^ t^- ^O O ;oOO5COCOO5O500t^lMC *O * f ^f CO rH 00 O rH O CO rH rH O I s * 00 O5 i-HOOiOrH(MiO OiMiOCOGOIM^O' i^Ot>-rHTtiCO COt^ 00 t^COCM -rHOO rH 10 CO CM t-~ CM t- CO CO CM rH CM rH CO t> 00 >.fOO4 00 1-* OOO i>4 1C t>- O5 CO O O O OSOilOrH -t^iOi-H CCO-^ 1 00 OS i-i CM CO o CCrHCO'CbrHTtHOCOCCrHlOC-iLOlO^t* ^COrHlOCSCMCOOSrHiOCOlC COO t>OCOO'CrHiC'O-^ l CO^CMCMCM'<* < COCOOOSCOOOCOOCOCOrHCM O5CO i ES^ "" 5 'oo*Srt t^_- o co_oo_oo_co_oo_o !>* P CM" oo co" co"i> CO"IO"CO"CM"O"O"CO" OCJ TtlCO t^-O CCCM OOt^-O flPfljTfiC O CO^f OOO 03 fll - - fl - - )rH C0( )rH CM CC( ( rH t>.CMOOrH OS CM CO CN TfCM JrHCOrHlOCOOOCOrHt^ COCO fStftfafSr ;itfrf ^ v "* IrHCOt^' (M ^ i H(M 'C O gco^cM'^t^ yio'r-T -co" co" -Or-Tc IOIOCQIOX t-CO^JH XCOOO O5 CO * CM Tt* CO CM CO * O CM CO t^ CO I CO CM -^ CM CM CM CM CM rH CO rH rf< Tf CM O rH 00 ^ ^ "5 CO O rH CM CO CO 1't^f OSrHTfl CMCM COOO5 iOOOOrH C5O CM OOCO t "go'ic" : : ( rHCN rH H OCOOS rt M>OOOrHOt^OrHO jco-u-^co't^r^iccMosco^ot )os c o ^ oo co as o * rH -rj* as oo i II" 'G5^i 'OrHOO ^. [OOO3COOCOOO 8s: rco'oc'icco" io"o" Jt^COCM CO ^f C ^: I Sj rlna rrn'of co"co" co"co"co" c r^ic"^"c"co"co"co">c"co"cM"rH"cM" COCMrHCMCM r-l CM rH rH CM iJ : l- : " : a .^ os - C 'K : : ^S ::>>-:>,:: HKiJdA1jfi I 81-iMgl -^ j :s a s KftJ-d 8fc |il - J s-s I a|l||:|^l|| oS |||| |-il|| gig S'llll 2 332 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. '01 IBfldJU 3NI1N39W SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 333 SUGGESTION TO THE PUBLIC ON POSTAL SUBJECTS. How TO DIRECT AND MAIL LETTERS. Mail matter should be addressed legibly and com- pletely, giving the name of the postoffice, county and State, and the postoffice box of the person addressed, if he has one; if to a city having a free delivery, the street and number should be added. To secure return to the sender in case of misdirection or insuffi- cient payment of postage, his name should be written or printed upon the upper left-hand corner of all mail matter; it will then be re- turned to the sender, if not called for at its destination, without going to the Dead Letter Office, and, if a letter, it will be returned free. Dispatch is hastened by mailing early, especially when large numbers of letters, news- papers or circulars are mailed at once. When a number of letters or circulars are mailed together, addressed to the same desti- nation, it is well to tie them in bundles with the addresses facing the same side. On letters for places in foreign countries, especially Canada and England, in which many post- offices have the same name as offices in the United States, the name of the country as well as postoffice should be given in full. Letters addressed, for instance, merely to "London/ 1 without adding "England," are frequently sent to London, Canada, and vice versa, thereby causing delay, and often serious loss. Letters addressed to Burlington, N. S. (Nova Scotia), often go to Burlington, New York, on account of the resemblance between S and Y when carelessly written. AVOID THIN* ENVELOPES. Thin envelopes, or those made of weak or poor, unsubtantial paper, should not be used, especially for large packages. Being often handled, and sub- jected to pressure and friction in the mail bags, such envelopes are frequently torn open or burst, without fault of those who handle them. It is best to use Stamped Envelopes wherever it is convenient and practicable to do so. REGISTERED VALUABLE MATTER. All val- uable matter should be registered. Registry fee is eight cents, which, with full postage, must be prepaid, and name and address of sender must be given on the outside of envel- ope or wrapper. Money should ba sent by a money order or registered letter; otherwise it is liable to be lost. THE CONVENIENCE OF LETTER BOXES. Patrons in cities where letter carriers are employed are advised to provide letter boxes at places or private residences, thereby saving much delay in the delivery of mail matter. AFFIX STAMPS FIRMLY. Postage stamps should be placed upon the upper right-hand corner of the address side of all the mail matter, care being taken that they are securely affixed. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. A subscriber to a newspaper or periodical who changes his residence and postoffice should at once notify the publisher, and have the publication sent to his new address. Publishers and news agents mailing second-class matter in quantities, will facili- tate its distribution, and often hasten its dispatch, by separating such matter by States and Territories and the larger cities. HOTEL MATTER. That is, matter addressed for delivery at hotels, should be returned to the postoffice as soon as it is evident that it will not be claimed. Proprietors of hotels, officers of clubs and boards of trade, or ex- changes, should not hold unclaimed letters longer than ten days, except at the request of the person addressed, and should re-direct them for forwarding, if the present address is known; otherwise they should be returned to the postoffice. Letters addressed to persons temporarily sojourning in a city where the Free Delivery System is in operation should be marked "Transient" or "General Delivery," if not addressed to a street and number or some other designated place of delivery. Post Office Guide. THE UNITED STATES POST OFFICE. POSTAL REVENUE IN DETAIL FOR YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1903. The postal revenue from all sources was as follows: Sales of stamps, stamped en- velopes, newspaper wrap- pers, and postal cards $123,511,549.70 Second-class postage (pound rates) paid in money 5,095,379 . 62 Box rents 3,065,675.06 Revenue from money-order business 2,239,908. 24 Letter postage paid in money, principally balances due from foreign postal admin- istrations Miscellaneous receipts Fines and penalties Receipts from unclaimed dead letters Total receipts. .-. . $186,426.83 58,105.94 46,476.04 20,921.81 $134,224,443.24 334 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. EXPENDITURES IN DETAIL. The expenditures of the postal service for the year are shown, by items, in the following statement: Transportation of mails on railroads $36,195,116. 18 Compensation to postmasters 21,631 ,724 . 04 Free-delivery service 19,337,986.00 Compensation of clerks in post-offices 17,140,651 .11 Railway mail service 11,228,845.75 Rural free delivery 8,011,635.48 Transportation of the mails on star routes 6,561,819.35 Railway post-office car ser- vice 5,033,464 . 22 Transportation of foreign mails 2,427,160.36 Rent, light, and fuel for first, second, and third-class post-offices 2,360,968 . 91 Compensation to assistant postmasters at first and second-class post-offices . . 1,622,730. 12 Mail-messenger service 1,091,259.98 Transportation of mails regulation, screen, or other wagon service 828,707 . 93 Manufacture of stamped en- velopes 724,787 . 37 Transportation of mails on steamboats 634,957 . 08 Mail depredations and post- office inspectors . 543,976.55 Transportation of the mails, electric and cable cars. . .. 440,420.41 Manufacture of postage stamps 336,437 . 10 Mail bags and catchers 274,219 . 71 Miscellaneous items at first and second class offices . . . 256,620 . 98 Canceling machines 195,803 . 46 Manufacture of postal cards . $188,865 . 98 Balance due foreign coun- tries 153,539.82 Registered package, tag, official, and dead-letter en- velopes 150,754 . 82 Pneumatic-tube service . ... 142,867.04 Payment of money orders more than one year old. .. 141,390.68 Wrapping twine 132,635.47 Transportation of the mails, special facilities 122,347. 18 Blanks, blank books, etc., for money-order service . . 112,179.20 Stationery for postal service. 68,760 . 66 Postal laws and regulations . 51,826 . 48 Printing facing slips, slide labels, etc 46,862 . 47 Postmarking and rating stamps 42,572 . 95 Mail locks and keys 42,534 . 33 Wrapping paper 39,835.04 Expenditures under 24 smaller items of appropri- ation 138,316,264.21 175,202.06 Total expenditures for the year 138,491,466.27 Add expenditures during the year on account of previous years 293,021 . 70 Total expenditures dur- ing the year 138,784,487 . 97 Excess of expenditures over receipts 4,560,044.73 Receipts $134,224,443.24 MONEY ORDER BUSINESS. Number of money-order of- fices in operation, 1902 . . . Number of money-order of- fices in operation, 1903 . . . Number of domestic money orders issued, 1903 31,680 34,547 45,941,681 Amount of domestic orders issued, 1903 $353,627,648.03 Amount of orders paid and repaid, 1903 353,173,320 . 52 Excess of receipts over ex- penses, paid from the pro- ceeds, 1903 1,904,887.63 NUMBER OF POST OFFICES, EXTENT OF POST-ROUTES, AND REVENUE AND EXPENDITURES OF THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT, INCLUDING AMOUNTS PAID FOR TRANSPORTATION OF THE MAIL, 1877, 1887, 1897, AND 1903. Year ending June 30 Post- offices. Extent of post- routes. Revenue of the Depart- ment. Expended for transporta- tion of Total expendi- ture of the Department. Domestic mail. Foreign mail. 1877 . . 1887 1897 Number. 37,345 55,157 71,022 74,169 Miles. 292,820 373,142 470,032 06,268 Dollars. 27,531,585 48,837,610 82,665,463 134,224,443 Dollars. 18,774,235 27,892,646 48,028,094 62,606,015 Dollars. 448,896 402,523 1.890,099 2,580,700 Dollars. 33,486,322 53.006,194 94,077,242 138,784,488 1903 From the Annual Reports of the Postmaster-General. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 335 RAILROAD MILEAGE UPON WHICH MAIL WAS CARRIED, ANNUAL COST AND AVERAGE COST PER MILE OF RAILROAD MAIL TRANSPORTATION, AND EXPENDITURE FOR RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE EMPLOYEES. Year ending June 30. Total rail- roads in operation in United . States Dec. 31. Railroads upon which mail was carried. Annual trans- ntation lail by railroads. Railroad mail trans- portation. Railway Mail Service. Annual cost of. Average annual cost per mile. Number of em- ployees. Annual expendi- ture. 1877... 1887. . . 1897 . . . 1903... Miles. 79,082 149,214 184,591 Miles. 74,546 130,949 173,475 192,852 Miles. 85,358,710 169,689,866 273,190,356 333,491,684 Dollars. 8,053,936 18,056,272 33,876,521 41,886,848 Dollars. .1060 .1064 .1240 .1256 2,500 4,851 7,602 10,418 Dollars. 2,484,846 4,694,562 7,782,547 11,250,042 Prepared in the Office of the Postmaster-General. Copyright. 1901. by Munn & Co. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF SOME INTERESTING STATISTICS OF THE U. S. POSTAL SERVICE, BASED ON FIGURES FOR 1901. 336 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. CHAPTER XIII. INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND BUREAUS, THE NOBEL PRIZES. The Nobel Foundation is based upon the last will and testament of Dr. Al- fred Bornhard Nobel, engineer and in- ventor of dynamite, dated November 27, 1895, the stipulations of which, respecting this fund, are as follows : "The rest of my fortune, that is, the capital realized by my executors, is to constitute a fund, the interest of which is to be distributed annually as a prize to those who have in the course of the previous year rendered the greatest ser- vices to humanity. The amount is to be divided into five equal parts, one of which is to be awarded to the person who has made the most important dis- covery in the domain of physical sci- ence ; another part to the one who has made the most valuable discovery in chemistry or brought about the great- est improvement ; the third to the au- thor of the most important discovery in the field of physiology or medicine ; the fourth to the one who has pro- duced the most remarkable literary work of an idealist tendency, and finally the fifth to the person who has done the best or the most in the cause of the fraternity of nations, for the suppression or the reduction of standing armies as well as for the for- mation and propagation of peace con- gresses. The prizes will be awarded for physics and chemistry by the Swedish Academy of Sciences ; for works in physiology or medicine by the Caroline Institute of Stockholm ; for literature by the Stockholm Academy, and finally for the service in the cause of peace by a Committee of five mem- bers of the Norwegian Storthing. It is my express desire that the benefits of the foundation are to be open to all nationalities and sexes and that the prize be awarded to the one most wor- thy, whether Scandinavian or not." Each prize will amount to about $40,000, and the corporation will desig- nate a "Comite Nobel" composed of three or five members for each sec- tion, with headquarters at Christiania, Norway. The Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, awards the Physics and Chemistry Prizes ; the Caroline Medi- cal Institute, Stockholm, awards the Prize for Physiology or Medicine ; the Swedish Academy in Stockholm awards the Literature Prize; and the Peace Prize is awarded by a Commit- tee of five persons elected by the Nor- wegian Storthing. No consideration is paid to the nationality of the candi- dates, but it is essential that every candidate shall be proposed in writing by some qualified representative of sci- ence, literature, etc., in the chief coun- tries of the civilized world, such pro- posals to reach the Committee before the first of February in each year, the awards being made on the following 10th of December. Nobel Institutes are to be established in each of the five departments, to carry out scientific in- vestigations as to the value of the dis- coveries and improvements, and to pro- mote the other objects of the Founda- tion. The first distribution of prizes took place in 1901, the awards being : Peace, MM. Dunant and Passy ; Medicine, Dr. Behring, of Marburg ; Chemistry. Prof. J. H. van 't Hoff, Berlin ; Phy- sics, Prof. Rontgen ; and Literature, M. Sully Prudhomme. The 1902 Prizes were awarded as follows : Literature, Prof. Theodor Mommsen, of Berlin ; Peace, MM. Du- commun and Gobat (Switzerland) ; Medicine, Major Ronald Ross, of the School of Tropical Medicine, Liver- pool : Chemistry, Prof. Emil Fischer, of Berlin; Physics, divided between Profs. Lorentz and Zeemann, of Holland. The 1903 Prizes were awarded thus : Peace, Mr. W. R. Cromer, M. P. ; Lit- erature, M. Bjornson ; Medicine, Prof. Finsen. of Copenhagen ; Physics, Prof. Becquerel, of Paris, and Mme. Curie, of Paris ; Chemistry, Prof. Arrhenius, of Stockholm. All information can be obtained from Nobelstiftelsen, Stockholm, or as to the Peace Prize, from the Comite" Nobel Norvegien, Victoria Terrasse, 7, III., Christiania. 337 338 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE ANTHONY POLLOK PRIZE. No doubt many inventors are won- dering what disposition has been made of the Anthony Pollok Prize. Com- mun. cations which have been received by the editor from Paris state that, owing to the unsatisfactory results of the former competition, the founders of the prize were undecided as to what should be done. Before taking any steps it was thought advisable to make an investigation. The Inter- maritime Association in Paris sent out letters to the leading maritime asso- ciations, chambers of commerce and boards of trade of the principal mari- time cities of the world, asking for advice as to the best methods to be pursued in order to obta.n more satis- factory results in a possible future competition. Many replies were re- ceived and a large number of sugges- tions made. A report containing the various rec- ommendations and suggested changes was submitted by the Intel-maritime Association but a short time ago. The founders of the Anthony Pollok Prize intend shortly to pass upon the report and adopt resolutions for the final disposition of the prize. INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND BUREAUS. Feeling that a large majority of our readers may not have access to the sources of information from which the following data are drawn, we take the liberty of presenting them with the most interesting facts concerning the origin and composition of some of the International Institutions and Bu- reaus in which the United States as a power, and we as a people, are in- terested. I. THE PERMANENT COURT OF ARBITRA- TION. This court, more popularly known as The Hague Tribunal, was consti- tuted by virtue of the convention for the pacific regulation of international questions, concluded at The Hague, July 29, 1899. (Office, Prinsegracht 71, The Hague.) Administrative Council. President : The Minister for Foreign Affairs for Holland. Members: The diplomatic representatives of all the signatory powers accredited to The Hague. Members of the Permanent Court of Arbitration. Since the individuals themselves are constantly changing by ill health or death, we shall content ourselves by giving the signatory pow- ers alone, letting it suffice to say that these powers appoint their most dis- tinguished men, preferably lawyers, to the position. They are: Austria-Hun- gary, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Holland, Italy, Japan, Lux- emburg, Mexico, Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Seryia, Spain, Sweden and Norway, Switzerland, and the United States. II. THE UNIVERSAL INTERNATIONAL POSTAL UNION. The Universal Postal Union, found- ed by the Congress at Bern in 1874, constitutes a single territory for the reciprocal exchange of correspondence between the Postal Departments of the nations present at the Congress. Its scope has been further enlarged and developed by succeeding conven- tions and conferences at Bern (1876), Paris (1880). Lisbon (1885), Vienna (1891), and AVashington (1897) ; to- day it comprises all the states and all the colonies having organized pos- tal systems, including nearly the whole world. To the chief convention of the Union, regulating the exchange of letters, postal cards, printed matter, official papers and samples have from time to time been added, special ar- rangements concluded between the most of the members having for their object the international interchange of letters and packages possessing a declared value, postal money orders, postal packages and collections, to- gether with a passport service and a department for the subscription to journals and other publications. A central office, created by the Con- gress at Bern, has its seat in that city and is known under the name of The International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union. It performs its labors under the supervision of the Swiss Postoffice Department. The ordinary annual expenses of this office were first fixed at 75,000 francs, later advanced to 100.000 and finally increased to 125,000 francs, by the Congress of Vi- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 339 enna. The funds are provisionally ad- vanced by the Swiss Government, which is reimbursed by all the con- tracting parties in proportion to their importance. This bureau is charged with col- lecting, co-ordinating, publishing and distributing information of whatever nature appertaining to internation- al postal affairs. Its duties are al- so to issue, upon the demand of any one of the members of the Union, a note upon questions in litigation, to examine into the demands for the modification of the acts of the Con- gress, to give notice of any adopted changes, and in general, to proceed with the studies and labors with which it is seized in the interest of the pos- tal union. It prepares a table of gen- eral statistics for each year; it edits a special journal "L'Union postale" in the German, French, and English lan- guages ; it prepares the work of the Congresses or Conferences, publishes and keeps up to date a dictionary of all the postoffices in the world, and at- tends to the balancing and liquidation of the accounts between the various postal administrations which have de- clared their willingness to make use of it as an intermediary. The total amount of the liquidations in 1902 reached the considerable sum of 49,- 113,785.57 francs ($9,822,757.11). Throughout the territory controlled by the Union, 24.061,000,000 pieces were exchanged in 1901 ; of these 51 000,000 were letters and packages having a de- clared value of 45,283,000,000 francs ($9,056,600,000) ; 460,000,000 postal orders were sent, amounting to 24,- 147,000,000 francs ($4,829,800,000) ; moreover, 2,275,000000 journals were delivered through the postal bureau for subscriptions to such publications. III. INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF TELE- GRAPHS. This bureau is a central organ in- stituted in 1868 by the International Telegraphic Conference at Vienna and placed by it under the high direction of the superior authorities of the Swiss Confederation. Its object is to form a permanent bond between the tele- graphic services of the different states which compose the Union, to facilitate the uniform application of the ar- rangements they have resolved upon, to collect and redistribute documents and information of mutual utility, to car- ry on such work and publications as are of interest to the service, notably to prepare work for the Conferences and publish their acts. This bureau has its seat in Bern, and its expenses are temporarily advanced by the Swiss Confederation, which is later reim- bursed by the members of the Union, of whom there at present 47, covering a superficial area of 62,100,000 square kilometers, (23,970,000 square miles), and comprising within its circuits a population of 866,000,000 souls. * The recent Conference at London in 1903 simplified the matters of tar- iff and accounting very greatly. The participants in the benefits of this treaty are now : The whole of Europe, British India, the Dutch Indies, Cey- lon, the Portuguese colonies in Asia, Siam, French Cochin-China, Pers a, Japan, Asiatic Russia, and Asiatic Turkey, Egypt, Tunis, Cape Colony, Natal, East African colonies, and the British protectorate of Uganda, Portu- guese East and West Africa, Madagas- car, Algiers and Senegal, the Repub- lics of Argentine, Brazil and Uruguay, the Australian Confederation, com- prising South and West Australia, New South Wales, Queensland, Tas- mania, Victoria, New Zealand and New Caledonia. Besides the countries above mentioned, the following are in- timately connected with the general system which encircles the globe : China, the Philippines, British Ameri- ca, the United States, almost all the Greater and Lesser Antilles, . Central and South America, Morocco at Tan- gier, the Azores, Island of Madeira, the Canaries and Cape Verde Islands, as well as those of Ascension and St. Helena, the Eastern and Western coasts of Africa, together with the isl- ands of Seychelles, Maurice, Rodri- guez. Cocos, and so forth. It is estimated that the number of dispatches forwarded in 1901 by the countries above named amounted to more than 400,000,000. IV. INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. By virtue of the Metric Convention signed at Paris, May 20, 1875, the States of Germany, Argentine Repub- lic, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Den- mark, Spain, United States, France, Italy, Peru. Portugal, Russia. Swe- den and Norway, Switzerland, and Venezuela, engaged to found and sus- tain, at common expense, an Interna- 1 tional Bureau of Weights and Meaa- 340 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. ures, of which the seat should be at Sevres, near Paris. It is furthermore stipulated in that Convention, that the Bureau should perform its labors un- der the surveillance of an international committee, itself subject to a general Conference of weights and measures composed of all the delegates from the contracting States. This convention became operative from the first of Jan- uary, 1876. V. INTERNATIONAL UNIONS FOB THE PROTECTION OF INDUSTRIAL, LITER- ARY AND ARTISTIC PROPERTIES. The Union for the Protection of In- dustrial Property was founded at Paris, March 20, 1883, by a conven- tion to which 19 States were parties. They were Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hol- land, Italy, Jai-an, Mexico, Norway and Sweden, Portugal, Servia, Spain, Santo Domingo, Switzerland, Tunis, and the United States. The object of the union is to assure the procec- tion of inventions, designs and models of an industrial character, trademarks, firm names and indications of origin. This convention was completed and modified by an additional act signed at Brussels, December 14, 1900. Moreover, on April 14, 1891. agree- ments were signed at Madrid con- stituting restrictive unions, viz. : 1. International registration of manu- facturing and trademarks and the pro- tection of these marks in all the con- tracting countries by the single regis- tration at an International Bureau. The parties to this agreement were Bel- gium, Brazil, France, Holland, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, and Tunis. 2. The suppression of false indications of origin : Brazil. France, Great Britain, Portugal, Spain, Swit- zerland, and Tunis. The arrange- ment of 1891, concerning the interna- tional registration of Marks, was completed and modified by an addi- tional act signed at Brussels, Decem- ber 14, 1900. The Union for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Propertv, found- ed at Bern. September 9, 1886, com- prised fourteen states : Belgium, Den- mark, France, Great Britain. Ger- many, Haiti, Italy. Japan, Luxemburg, Monaco. Norway, Spain, Switzerland, and Tijnis. The object of this un ; on is to assure effective protection to authors for their literary works, and to enable artists to enjoy the same security in their artistic productions throughout the whole territory covered by the union. This convention was completed and modified by an additional act and an interpretative declaration signed at Paris, May 4, 1896. Both of these unions are represented by a separate International Bureau established at Bern, and placed under the same direc- torate. VI. BUREAU FOR THE REPRESSION OF THE SLAVE TRADE ON THE AFRICAN COAST. This bureau was instituted in the execution of the General Act of the Conference of Brussels of the 2d of July, 1890, and attached to the De- partment for Foreign Affairs of Bel- gium. Article 81. The Powers will com- municate to the greatest extent possi- ble and with the least possible delay : 1. The text of the existing laws and administrative regulations or edicts for the application of the clauses of the present General Act. 2. Statistical information concern- ing the slave trade; slaves taken and freed ; the traffic in arms and am- munition, and also in spirits. Article 82. The exchange of these documents and circulars v/ill be cen- tralized in a special bureau attached to the Department of Foreign Affairs at Brussels. Article 84. The documents and circulars shall be collected and peri- odically published, and forwarded to all the signatory powers. Article 85. The expenses of run- ning the bureau, of correspondence, of translation and printing, shall be met by all the signatory powers, and re- covered by the L.-partment of Foreign Affairs at Brussels. VII. INTERNATIONAL FNTON FOR THE PUBLICATION OF CUSTOMS TARIFFS. The International Union for the Publication of Customs Tariffs was founded by an international convention, July 5, 1890, and concluded between fifty-two states and semi-independent colonies. The object of the union is to publish as promptly and as correctly as possible all the tariffs of the world in five languages, viz., English French, German. Italian, and Spanish. The bureau has its seat at Brussels, and is under the direct control of the Gov- ernment of Belgium. The members SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 341 of the bureau are delegates from the principal countries whose language is used in the publications. VIII. INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF RAIL- ROAD TRANSPORTATION. On October 14, 1890, an interna- tional convention upon the transpor- tation of merchandise by railroad was concluded at Bern, between Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxemburg, Holland, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Switzerland. Denmark and Rou- mania came in later. The object of this convention was to regulate the law governing interna- tional transportation between the di- rectorates of the railways and the shippers. To facilitate the execution of this convention an international railway transportation bureau was in- stituted at Bern. IX. CENTRAL BUREAU OF INTERNATION- AL GEODESY ESTABLISHED UPON THE TELEGRAPHBERG, NEAR POTSDAM. This central oureau has existed since 1866. After the creation of the Prus- sian Geodetic Institute it was united with the latter in 1869. The object of the Geodetic Institute is to culti- vate geodesy by scientific researches, to execute the astronomical and physi- cal determination's which, joined with the geodetic determinations, may serve in the exploration of the surface of the earth, more particularly within Prussian territory. The labors of the institute for the present bear more particularly upon the astronomical determinations of the vertical in longitude and latitude, as well as upon astronomical data upon as many points of the geodetic system as possible ; moreover, upon the de- termination of zenithal distances for convenient points, also upon the deter- mination of the density and force of gravitation ; it devotes its attention, furthermore, to researches upon the mean level and variations in the sea- level ; to the examining into the re- fraction of luminous rays by the at- mosphere ; finally, it is occupied with all theoretical and experimental re- searches which contribute to the ex- amination of the surface and the geodesy of the country. The Geodetic Institute is placed under the immediate supervision of the Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs, Public Instruction, and Medical Af- fairs of Prussia. The Academy of Sciences is the consulting organ of the Minister in all the important affairs of the Insti- tute. Conformably to the conventions agreed upon between the contracting parties, the Institute performs the functions of a Central Bureau for in- ternational geodesy. The director of the bureau is at the same time director of the Institute. Almanach de Gotha. Mr. Andrew Carnegie gave $5,000,- 000 for a fund to be known as the "Carnegie Hero Fund Commission," the interest being devoted to the re- ward of those who perform heroic acts. CARNEGIE HERO COMMISSION. The fund became operative April 15, 1904, and no applications on account of heroic acts performed prior to that date will be considered. The head- quarters of the fund are in Pittsburg. RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS. By his will, Mr. Cecil Rhodes, in his desire to encourage and foster an ap- preciation of the advantages which will result from the union of the Eng- lish-speaking people throughout the world, and to encourage in students from the United States of America an attachment to the country from which they have sprunsr, without withdraw- ing their sympathies from the land of their adoption or birth, directs his trustees to establish sixty colonial scholarships for male students of $1,- 500 each a year for three years at the University of Oxford, these colonial scholarships being spread over most of the colonies, twenty-four being al- lotted to South Africa. Two Oxford scholarships are to be allotted to each of the existing States and Territories of the United States of America 104 in all. By a codicil executed in South Africa, Mr. Rhodes, after stating that the German Em- peror had made instruction in English compulsory in German schools, estab- lishes fifteen scholarships for students of German birth (five in each of the first three years after his death), of $1,250 each, tenable for three vears. to be nominated by the German Emperor, for "a good understanding between 342 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. England, Germany, and the United States of America will secure the peace of the world, and educational relationships form the strongest tie." So that the students who shall be elected to the scholarships shall not be merely bookworms, regard is to be had, not only to their "literary and scholastic attainments," but also to their "fondness of and success in man- ly outdoor sports, qual.ties of man- hood, truth, courage, devotion to duty, sympathy for and protection of the weak, kindliness, unselfishness, and fellowship," moral force of character and instincts of leadership. "No stu- dent shall be qualified or disqualified for election to a scholarship on ac- count of his race or religious opin- ions." The scholars are to be distrib- uted among all the colleges of the University of Oxford, and there is to be an annual dinner of past and pres- ent scholars and trustees. Dr. G. R. Parkin, Principal of the Uppe.r Canada School, Toronto, was appointed organizing agent for the trustees. "Daily Mail" Year Book. THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION. This institution was founded by Mr. Andrew Carnegie for the promotion of original research in science, litera- ture and art. He set aside $10,100,- 000 for the purpose. The interest is used to conduct, endow and assist in- vest gation in any department of science, literature, or art and to this end co-operate with governments, uni- versities, colleges, technical schools, learned soc'eties, and individuals. The headquarters of the institution are in Washington. Prof. D. C. Gilman is the President, and Mr. Charles D. Walcott is the Secretary. Many grants have already been made, and the investigations have been impor- tant. CHAPTER XIV. MIXES AXD MIXING. SUMMARY OF THE MINERAL PRODUCTION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1902. GENERAL REMARKS. In 1902, for the third time, the total value of the commercial mineral pro- duction of the United States exceed- ed the enormous sum of $1,000,000,- 000. The exact figures for 1902 were $1,260,039,415 as compared with $1,08(5,584,851 in 1901, with $1,063,- 678,053 in 1900, and with $972,208,- 008 in 1899, a gain of 1902 over 1901 of $174,0(54,414, or 16.02 per cent; a gain of 1902 over 1900 of $196,961,- 362, or 18.52 per cent ; and a gain of 1902 over 1899 of $288,431,407, or 29.67 per cent. Although this gain is not so great either actually or propor- tionally as was the gain in 1899, when the gain over 1898 was $273,601,810, or 39.17 per cent, it is sufficient to be worthy of note. The notable gains and losses of the last two decades are as follows : The largest actual gain was that of 1899 over 1898, $273,601,810, or 39.17 per cent ; next, that of 1902 over 1901, $174,053,760. or 16.02 per cent; then the gain of 1895 over 1894. which was $94,215,822, or 17.88 per cent; then that of 1900 over 1899, $91,468,340, or 9.41 per cent ; and the gain of 1887 over 1886, $74,927,880, or 16.81 per cent. In other years than those men- tioned between 1880 and 1898 the gains were not noteworthy, and in some of the years, notably in 1884. the production decreased $40,451,968, or nearly 9 per cent. During the indus- trial depression of 1892-1895 the pro- duction would have been expected to decline, as it did, going from $648,- 895,031 in 1892 to $574,464.724 in 1893, and to $527,079.225 in 1894, and then rising to $621,295,047 in 1895, and not reaching the output of 1892 until 1898. As heretofore, iron and coal are the most important of our mineral prod- ucts. The value of the iron in 1902 was $372,775,000; the value of coal $367,032,069. Nearly all the impor- tant metals increased in both output and value ; and among the less im- portant metals, platinum, as com- pared with 1901. lost in both quantity and value even more than it gained in 1901 as compared with 1900, the pro- duction in 1902 being 94 ounces, val- ued at $l,oi4, as compared with 1,408 ounces, valued at $27,526, in 1901, with -^00 ounces in 1900, and with 300 ounces in 1899. The fuels increased from $442,410,904 in 1901 to $469,- 078.647 in 1902, a gain of $26,667,743, or 6 per cent. Every variety of fuel increased in value except anthracite coal, which showed a decrease in quan- tity of 23,301.850 long tons and in value of $36,330,434. The average price of anthracite coal per long ton at the mine was $2.35, as against $2.05 in 1901 the highest figure then ob- tained since 1888 as compared with $1.85 in 1900, and with $1.80 in 1899; and the average price per ton for bitu- minous coal at the mine was $1.125, as compared with $1.047 in 1901. The increase in value of the bituminous coal output over 1901 was $54,436,- 434. The gain of $174,064,414 in the to- tal value of pur mineral production is due to the increase in both metallic and nonmetallic products, the metal- lic products showing an increase from $518.266,259 in 1901 to $642.258,58 1 in 1902, a gain of $123,992,325, and the nonmetallic products showing an increase from $567,318,592 in 1901 to $617,380,831' in 1902, a gain of $50,- 072,089. To these products should be added estimated unspecified products, including building, molding and other sands reported to this office, the rare mineral molybdenum, and other -min- eral products, valued at $1,000,000, making the total mineral production for 1902 $1,260,639,415. The manufacture of arsenious oxide, noted for the first time in the United 343 344 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. States in the report for 1901, was con- tinued in increased proportions in 1902. METALS. Iron and Steel. Twenty-two States made pig-iron in 1902, as against 21 in 1899 and 1900, and 20 in 1901. The total production of pig-iron in 1902 was 17,821,307 long tons, against 15,- 878,354 tons in 1901, 13,789,242 tons in 1900, 13,620,703 tons in 1899, 11,- 773,934 tons in 1898, and 9,652,680 tons in 1897. The production of 1902 shows an increase of 1,942,953 long tons, or 12.2 per cent, in quantity over the production of 1901, and in increase in value from $242,174,000 to $372,775,000, amounting to $130,601,- 000, or about 54 per cent. The aver- age price per long ton of pig-iron in- creased from $15.25 in* 1901 to $20.90 in 1902. The average prices per long ton in recent years have been as fol- lows : 1900, $18.85; 1899, $18: 1897, $9.85; 1896, $10.47; 1895, $11.14; 1894, $9.76. Iron Ores. The production of iron ores in 1902 amounted to 35,554,135 long tons, as compared with 28,887,479 long tons, in 1901, a gain of 6,666,- 656 long tons, or 23 per cent. The value at the mines of the ore mined in 1902 was $65,412,950. As in the four previous years, the production of iron ores in 1902 in the United States has never been equaled by any other coun- try. There were mined also in 1902, 13.275 long tons of manganiferous iron ore, valued at $52,371, which were used in the production of spiegel- eisen. Gold. The production of gold in 1902, as reported by the Bureau of the Mint, was 3,870,000 fine ounces, val- ued at $80,000.000. Silver. The production of silver in 1902, as reported by the Bureau of the Mint, was 55,500,000 fine ounces; coining value, $71,757,575; commercial value, $29,415,000. Manganese Ores. The production of manganese ores increased from 11.- 995 long tons, valued at $116.722, in 1901, to 16,477 long tons, valued at- $177,911, in 1902, an increase in quantity of 4,472 tons and in value of $61,189. The avprage price per ton was $10.74 in 1902. as comnared with $9.73 in 1901 and with $8.52 in 1900. Copper. The copper mining indus- try suffered dnring 1902 from the re- action which followed the unsuccessful attempt in 1901 to maintain the metal at an artificial level. The production. however, increased from 602,072,519 pounds in 1901 to 659,508,6*4 pounds in 1902, an increase of 57,436,125 pounds, or about 9 per cent, in quan- tity, but decreased in value from $87,- 300,575 in 1901 to $76,568,954 in 1902, a decrease of $10,731,561, or about 12 per cent. Unless unforeseen events cause widespread or long stop- page at the mines, the production of copper in the United States will be considerably larger in 1903 than it has ever been. Lead. The production of lead has been almost exactly the same for the last three years, viz., 270,000 short tons in 1902, 270,700 short tons in 1901 and 270,824 short tons in 1900. The value of the production in 1902 was $22,140,000, as compared with $23,280,200 in 1901, and with $23,- 564,688 in 1900. Zinc. The production of zinc in 1902 showed a continued increase in quantity as compared with 1901 and 1900, the production being 156,927 short tons in 1902, as compared with 140,822 short tons in 1901 and with 123,ooo short tons in 1900. The value of the zinc production in 1902 was $14,625,596, as compared with $11,- 265,760 in 1901 and with $10,654,196 in 1900. Aluminum. The production of aluminum during 1902 was 7,300,000 pounds, valued at $2,284,590, as com- pared with 7,150,000 pounds, valued at $2,238,000 in 1901, and with 7,150,000 pounds, valued at $1,920,000 in 1900. Platinum. The production of plati- num from domestic ores in the United States during 1902 was 94 ounces, valued at $1,814, as compared with 1,408 ounces, valued at $27,526 in 1901. Quicksilver. The production of quicksilver during 1902 amounted to 34,291 flasks of 76V 2 pounds net, as compared with 29,727 flasks in 1901 and with 28,317 flasks in 1900. The value of the quicksilver produced in 1902 was $1,467,848. as compared with $1,382,365 in 1901 and with $1,302,586 in 1900. California re- ported 28,972 flasks in 1902, as com- pared with 26,720 flasks in 1901 : and Texas reported 5,319 flasks in 1902, as against 2.932 flasks in 1901. In addition, the census reports 10.427 tons of crude or cinnabar, valued at $67.242, mined in California, and 1.300 tons of cinnabar, valued at $1,500, mined in Texas in 1902, but not roasted or treated, a total of 11,- 727 short tons of cinnabar, valued at SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 345 $82,242. The total production of both quicksilver and cinnabar in 1902 was therefore valued at $1,550,090. Lithium. The production of lithi- um minerals in 1902 was 1,245 short tons, valued at $25,750 ^at the railroad, a decrease of 505 tons in amount and of $17.- 450 in value as compared with the production of 1901, which was 1,750 tons, valued at $43,200. As far as can be ascertained the greater part of the lithium minerals mined during 1902 was not shipped. Although the price of these minerals was lower in 1902 than in 1901 for the same grade of mineral, there was apparently no increase in the home demand. There is, however, an increase in the demand for these minerals from foreign chem- ical manufacturers. Nickel The production of metallic nickel in 1902 was 5,748 pounds, val- ued at $2,701, as compared with 6,700 pounds, valued at $3,551 in 1901. Antimony. No antimony was ob- tained from domestic ores during 1902. The antimony obtained from the smelt- ing of foreign imported ores amounted to G57 short tons, valued at $129,120, and the antimony obtained from hard lead produced from foreign and domes- tic lead ores was 2,904 short tons, valued at $505,240, a total production for 1902 of 3,5G1 short tons, valued at $034,506, as compared with 2.039 short tons, valued at $539,902, in 1901. The estimated total amount of anti- mony available for consumption in 1902 was 0,255 short tons, including 2,094 short tons of imported antimony reg- ulus, as compared with 4,475 short tons, including 1,837 short tons of im- ported antimony regulus in 1901, and with 0,053 short tons, including 1,827 short tons of imported antimony regu- lus in 1900. Bismuth. No bismuth ores were produced in the United States during 1902. The marketed output in 1901 was 318.6 short tons. The ore con- tained gold and silver, for which the producers were paid. As nearly as can be ascertained, the value of the output in 1901 was $80 per ton, not including charges for transportation or treatment. Molybdenum. The production of molybdenum in 1902 was approxi- mately the same as that of 1901, but none of the product was shipped in 1902. The value of these molybdenum ores is very erratic, the highest price hitherto quoted being $1,500 per ton, and the lowest $100. Tungsten. The production of tung- sten during 1902 was 184 short tons of crude ore, of which no more than a few tons were sold. This does not repre- sent the amount of tungsten ore sold in 1902, for 76 tons of concentrated ore, mined in 1901, were sold in 1902. In 1901 the production amounted to 179 tons of concentrated ore, valued at $27,720. The larger part of the production of 1902 was from Colo- rado. Uranium and Vanadium. There was a marked increase in the produc- tion of uranium and vanadium min- erals in 1902, which, as reported to the Survey, amounted to 3,810 short tons, valued at $48.125, or $12.62 per ton. This, of course, represents the crude ore. In 1901 the production was 375 tons of crude ore. FUELS. Coal. For the first time in the his- tory of the United States the produc- tion of coal reached a total of over 300,000,000 short tons, showing an actual output of 301,590,439 tons of 2,000 pounds, valued at $367,032,069. Of this total the output of anthracite coal amounted to 36,940.710 long tons (equivalent to 41,373,595 short tons), which, as compared with the produc- tion of 60,242,560 long tons in 1901, was a decrease of 23,301,850 long tons, or about 39 per cent. This decrease, as is well known, was due entirely to the suspension of operations by the strike in the anthracite region from May 10 to October 23, a little over five months. But for the strike the output for the year would probably have been over 65,000,000 long tons. The value at the mines of the anthra- cite coal in 1902 was $76,173,586, as against $112,504,020 in 1901, a loss of about 32.3 per cent. The average value of the marketed coal sold during the year at the mines was $2.35 pr long ton, the value in 1901 having been $2.05. The output of bituminous coal (which includes semi-anthracite and all semi-bituminous and lignite coals) amounted in 1902 to 260,216,844 short tons, valued at $290.858,483, as against 225,828,1 '9 short tons, valued at $230,422.049 in 1901. The increase in the production of bituminous coal was, therefore, 34.388.695 tons in quantity and $54,436.434 in value. Out of 30 States and Territories pro- ducing coal in 1902, seven California, Michigan, New Mexico, Oregon, Penn- sylvania, Texas and Washington had smaller outputs than in 1901, 346 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. The production of bituminous coal in Pennsylvania in 1902 exceeded that of 1901 by 15,755,874 short tons, but was not sufficient to overcome the great loss in anthracite production. The States in which the more impor- tant increases occurred with the cor- responding gains are as follows : Illi- nois, 5,547,751 short tons ; Colorado, 2,314,412 short tons; Ohio, 2,444,577 short tons ; Indiana, 2,268,371 short tons; Alabama, 1,490,865 short tons; Kentucky, 1,193,176 short tons. Coke. The coke production of the United States in 1902 exceeded that of any year in our history. The pro- duction, which includes the output from 1,663 retort or by-product ovens, amounted to 25,401,730 short tons, as compared with 21,795,883 short tons in 1901, and with 20,533,348 short tons in 1900. The increase in 1902 over 1901 amounted to 3,605,847 short tons, or 16.5 per cent. Large as this in- crease was, it was considerably less than it would have been had the trans- portation facilities been commensurate with the demand for coke and with the productive capacity of the ovens. The increase in the value of coke was even more noteworthy. The average price per ton at the ovens was the highest recorded in a period of twenty-three years, and the total value reached the high figure of $63,339,167, an increase over 1901 of $18,893,244, or 42.5 per cent. The value of the coal used in the manufacture of coke in 1902 ex- ceeded that of 1901 by $7,932,563, from which it appears that the value of the coke product increased $10,970,- 681 over and above the increased value of the coal used in its production. In 1901 the highest price obtained for Connellsville furnace coke was $4.25. In September and October of 1902, while the contract coke was nominally quoted at $3 per ton, consumers were paying from $10 to $12 per ton for prompt delivery, and $15 was reported as paid for this fuel at one time. With the termination of the anthracite strike in the latter part of October prices for coke quickly declined, but in December of 1902 fnmace coke for prompt deliv- ery was still commanding $5 and $6 per ton, and contracts for delivery in the first six months of 1903 were made at from ^3.75 to $4 per ton. Gas, Coke, Tar and Ammonia. The aggregate value of all the products ob- tained from the distillation of coal in gas works or retort ovens in 1902 was $43,869,440. About two-thirds of this amount, or $29,342,881, was repre- sented by the value of the gas pro- duced. The value of the coke produced was $11,267,608, and the tar was worth, at the works, $1,873,966. The total quantity of ammoniacal liquor sold was 49,490,609 gallons, contain- ing 14,683,374 pounds NHs, and was worth at the works $1,065,300. In addition to this there was an actual production of 11,276,502 pounds of sulphate, which sold for $319,685. Petroleum. The total production of crude petroleum in the United States in 1902 was 88,766,916 barrels, as against 69,389.194 barrels in 1901, an increase of 19,377,722 barrels, or 27.92 per cent, over the production of 1901 and of 39.52 per cent over that of 1900. The greatest portion of the increase in 1902 came from Texas and California, the gain over 1901 being 13,690,000 barrels, or 311.6 per cent, for Texas, and 5,197,938 barrels, or 59.16 per cent, for California. The increase in Indiana in 1902 over 1901 was 1,723,- 810 barrels, or about 30 per cent. Louisiana produced for the first time in 1902, the production being 548,617 barrels. The increase over 1901 in the production of Kansas was 152,598 bar- rels, or about 85 per cent. Kentucky and Tennessee increased their produc- tion in 1902 by 48,072 barrels, or nearly 35.02 per cent. Indian Terri- tory increased 37,000 barrels and Wy- oming 853 barrels as compared with 1901. The largest decrease in produc- tion in 1902 as compared with 1901 was in West Virginia, where it amounted to 663,781 barrels, or about 4.5 per cent, and Ohio in 62 fields showed a decrease of 633,852 barrels, or nearly 3 per cent. The decrease in Pennsylvania was 561,888 barrels, or about 7 per cent ; in Colorado, 63,619 barrels, or about 13.81 per cent. The percentages of production for fields show a remarkable change from 1900 to 1902. In 1900 the percentages were : Appalachian field, 57.05; Lima-Indi- ana field, 34.20; all other fields, 8.75. In 1902 the respective percentages were: Appalachian field. 36,07 ; Lima- Indiana field, 26.31; all other fields, about 37.62. The value of crude pe- troleum produced during 1902 was $71,178,910, or 80.19 cents per bar- rel, as compared with $66,417.335, or 95.7 per barrel, in 1901 a decrease of 15.51 cents per barrel, or 16 per cent, in 1902. Natural Gas. The value of the nat- ural gas produced in 1902 increased to $30.867,668, as compared with $27,- 067,500 in 1901, with $23,698,674 in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 1900, and with $20,074,873 in 1899 a gain of 13 per cent in 1902 over 1901. STRUCTURAL MATERIALS. Stone. The value of all kinds of building stone produced in the United States during 1902 amounted to $61,- 559,099, as compared with $55,615,- 926 in 1901, with $44,321,345 in 1900, and with $44,090,670 in 1899. Clay Products. The activity in all branches of the clay-working indus- tries noted in 1899, 1900 and 1901, continued during 1902. The value of all clay products as reported to the office of the Geological Survey in 1902 was $122,169,531, as compared with $110,211.587 in 1901, and with $96,- 212,345 in 1900. The brick and tile products in 1902 were valued at $98,- 042,078, as compared with $87,747,727 in 1901 and with $76,413,775 in 1900. The pottery products were valued in 1902 at $24.127.453, as compared with $22,463,860 in 1901 and with $19,798,- 570 in 1900. The clay mined and sold by those not manufacturing the product them- selves in 1902 was valued at $2,061,- 072, as compared with $2,576,932 in 1901 and with $1,840,377 in 1900. Cement. The total production of hydraulic cement in the United States in 1902 was 25,753,504 barrels, valued at $25,366,380, as compared with 20,- 068,737 barrels, valued at $15,786,789, in 1901, and with 17,231,150 barrels, valued at $13,283,581, in 1900. The Portland cement production in 1902 was 17,230,644 barrels, valued at $20,- 864,078. as compared with 12,711,225 barrels, valued at $12,532,360, in 1901, and with 8,482,020 barrels, valued at $9,280,525, in 1900, an increase, as compared with 1900, in quantity of about 100 per cent, and in value of over 50 per cent. The number of plants using Portland cement increased from 50 in 1900 to 56 in 1901, and to 65 in 1902. The production of natural rock cement in 1902 was 8,- 041,305 barrels, valued at $4,076,630, as compared with 7.084.823 barrels, valued at $3,056,278, in 1901, and with 8,383.519 barrels, valued at $3,728,848, in 1900. The production of slag ce- ment amounted to 478.555 barrels, val- ued at $425.672, in 1902, as compared with 272.689 barrels, valued at $198,- 151, in 1901, and with 365.611 bar- rels, valued at $274,208, in 1900. ABRASIVE MATERIALS. Carborundum.^-There was a slight decrease in the quantity of carborun- dum 3,741,500 pounds produced in 1902, as compared with. 3,838,175 pounds in 1901 due in part to lack of a sufficient supply of raw materials, a result of the anthracite coal strike. The value of the carborundum varies from 8 to 10 cents per pound. Corundum and Emery. The com- bined production of corundum and em- ery in 1902 amounted to 4,251 short tons, valued at $104,605, as compared with 4,305 short tons, valued at $146,- 040, in 1901, a decrease of 54 tons in quantity and of $41,435 in value. Crushed Steel The production of crushed steel in 1902 was 735,000 pounds, as compared with 690,000 pounds in 1901, and the product is quoted at S 1 /^ cents per pound free on board at Pittsburg. Crystalline Quartz. In 1902 the production of crystalline quartz includ- ed under abrasives amounted to 15,104 short tons, valued at $84,335, as com- pared with 14,050 short tons, valued at $41,500, in 1901. This large varia- tion in value is due to the fact that in 1902 the value reported was in some cases that of the quartz after it had been crushed or ground. The actual value of the crude quartz produced in 1902 was $-13,085. Garnet. The production of abrasive garnet in the United States during 1902 amounted to 3,926 short tons, valued at $132,820, as compared with 4,444 short tons, valued at $158,100, in 1901, and with 3,185 short tons, valued at $123,475, in 1900. As re- ported to the Survey the prices varied from $20 to $60 a ton, the highest price being obtained for the North Carolina garnet. The average value per ton of the production in 1902 was $35.10, as compared with $35.57 per ton in 1901 and with $38.77 in 1900. Grindstones. The total value of all kinds of grindstones produced during 1902 was $667.431, as compared with $580,703, in 1901, an increase of $86,- 728. The production of 1900, valued at $710,026, still remains the largest on record for any year. It should be remembered, however, that the price per ton has decreased from $15 to from $8 to $10, and that therefore the ton- nage of grindstones used has corre- spondingly increased within the last few years. The imports for 1902 amounted in value to $76,906, as com- pared with $88.871 in 1901 and with $92.581 in 1900. Infusorial Earth and Tripoli. In 1902 the production of infusorial earth and tripoli amounted to 5,665 short 348 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. tons, valued at $53,244, including 175 short tons mined as a by-product and valued at $1,430, an increase of 1,045 tons in quantity and of $294 in value, as compared with the production of 4,020 tons, valued at $52,950, in 1901. Millstones and Buhrstones. The value of the production of millstones and buhrstones in 1902 was $59,808, an increase of $2,G29 over the value of 1901. which was $57,179. The value for 1902 was almost twice the value of the production of 1900, which amount- ed to $32.858. From 1886 to 1894 there was a very large decrease from $140,000 to $13,887 in the production of buhrstones. Since 1894 there has been a gradual increase in the produc- tion. Oilstones and Whetstones. There was a decided increase in the domestic commercial production of oilstones and whetstones during 1902, the value of which amounted to $221,762, as com- pared with $158,300 in 1901, an in- crease in 1902 of $63,462. Until 1902, the year of maximum production was 1809, when the value of the output amounted to $208.283. The crude pro- drction of oilstones and whetstones in 1902, as reported by the census, was valr.ed at $113.968. Pumice. The volcanic ash deposits in Nebraska were worked to some ex- tent in 1902, the product being used in the manufacture of certain soaps and scouring powders. The production of pumice amounted to 700 short tons, valued at $2,750. CHEMICAL MATERIALS. Arscnious Oxide. The domestic pro- duction of arsenious oxide (white ar- senic) in 1902 was 1,353 short tons, valued at $81,180, as compared with 300 short tons, valued at $18,000, in 1901. The entire product was made by the Puget Sound Reduction Com- pany at Everett, Wash., which began the manufacture of this important substance in 1901. The largely in- creased output in 1902 is a sign of the success of the new industry. Borax. The reported returns for 1902 gave an aggregate commercial production of crude borax of> 2,600 short tons, valued at $91,000, of re- fined borax and boric acid, amounting to 17,404 short tons, valued at $2,447,- 614, of which rt was stated that 862 short tons, valued at $155,000, were boric acid. This gives a total produc- tion for 1902 of 20.004 short tons, val- ued at $2.538,614. The production during 1901 was 17,887 short tons of crude borax and 5,344 short tons of refined borax, with a total value of $1,012,118. Bromine. The production of bro- mine in 1902, including the amount of bromine contained in potassium bro- mide, amounted to 513,890 pounds, val- ued at $128,472, as compared with 522,043 pounds, valued at $154,- 572, in 1901, a decrease for the year of 38,153 pounds in quan- tity and of $26,100 in value. The price per pound during 1902 averaged 25 cents, as compared with 28 cents in 1901 and with 29 cents in 1900. There has been practically no change in the bromine industry in the United States in 1902. Fluorspar. There was a large in- crease in the production of fluorspar in 1902 over that of 1901, due partly to its increased use for metallurgic pur- noses. The total production in 1902 was 48,018 short tons, valued at $271,- 832, as compared with 19,586 tons, val- ued at $113,803. in 1901. This increase in production was not due to any one State, but there was a large increase in production in both Illinois and Kentucky, and also an increase in Arizona. The average price of crude fluorspar was reported as $5.19 per ton, as compared with $5 in 1901, and the average price of ground fluorspar was $9.98 per ton, as compared with $9.22 in 1901. In addition to this pro- duction there were 800 short tons, val- ued at $3,850, mined but not marketed in 1902. Gypsum. The production of gyp- sum, particularly for the manufacture of calcined plaster, continues to show a remarkable gain. The output of crude gypsum in 1902 was 816,478 short tons, valued in its first market- able condition at $2,089.341. as com- pared with 633,791 short tons, valued at $1,506,641, in 1001, and with 595,- 462 short tons, valued at $1,627,203. in 1900. The production in 1899 was 486,235 short tons, and in 1898 it was 291,638 short tons. The greatly in- creased production of the last four years is attributable to the largely in- creased use of plaster of paris in the large modern buildings and in the man- ufacture of staff for temporary build- ings. Marls. The production of marls in the United States in 1902 was 12,439 short tons, valued at $12,741. Phosphate Rock. The total com- mercial production of phosphate rock reported to the Survey in 1902 amounted to 1,490,314 long tons, val- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 349 ued at $4,693,444, as compared with 1,483,723 long tons, valued at $5,316,- 403, in 1901, an increase in quantity of 6,591 tons and a decrease in value of $622,959. The total quantity of phosphate rock reported as mined dur- ing 1902 was 1,548,720 long tons, val- ued at $4.922,943, as compared with 1,440,408 long tons in 1901. Salt. The salt product includes salt in the form of brine used in large quantities for the manufacture of soda ash, sodium bicarbonate, caustic soda and other sodium salts. The domestic production of salt in 1902 amounted to 23,849,221 barrels of 280 pounds net, valued at $5,668,636, as compared with 20,556,661 barrels, valued at $6.- 617,449, in 1901, and with 20,869,342 barrels, valued at $6,944,603, in 1900. Sulphur and Pyrite. The domestic production of sulphur and of pyrite for the manufacture of sulphuric acid amounted in 1902 to 207,874 long tons, valued at $947,089, as compared with a combined production of 241,691 long tons, valued at $1,257,879, in 1901. The production of sulphur was from Louisiana, Nevada and Utah, named in the order of the importance of their outputs. Oregon and Idaho re- ported no production in 1902. The greater part of the output of pyrite was derived from Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, Colorado and Massa- chusetts, named in the order of pro- duction. PIGMENTS. Barytes. The production of crude barytes in 1902 was considerably in excess of that of the year before, amounting to 61,668 short tons, valued at $203,154, as compared with 49,- 070 tons, valued at $157,844, in 1901. This is an increase of 12,598 tons in quantity and of $45,310 in value. Cobalt Oxide. The domestic pro- duction of cobalt oxide in 1902 was 3,730 pounds, valued at $6,714, as compared with 13.360 pounds, valued at $24,048, in 1901, a decrease in quantity of 9,630 pounds. All the co- balt oxide was obtained as a by-prod- uct in smelting lead ores at Mine La- motte, Mo. Mineral Paints. The Commercial production of mineral paints in 1902 amounted to 73,049 short tons, valued at $944,332, as compared with 61,- 460 short tons, valued at $789.962, in 1901. The production of crude min- eral paints in 1902 is reported as 35.- 479 short tons, valued at $360.885. in- cluding 4,500 tons, valued at $18,000, of ocher and metallic paint reported as mined but not marketed in 1902. Zinc White. The production of zinc white in 1902 amounted to 52,645 snort tons, valued at $4,016,499, as compared with 46,500 short tons, val- ued at $3,720,000 in 1901. MISCELLANEOUS. Asbestos. The commercial produc- tion of asbestos in the United States in 1902 was chiefly from the mines at Sail Mountain, White County, Geor- gia, with smaller quantities from Hills- dale, Berkshire County, Massachu- setts. This production was 1,005 short tons, valued at $16,200, an in- crease of 258 tons in quantity and of $2,702 in value over the production of 1901, which was 747 short tons, val- ued at $13,498. The production in 1900 was 1,054 short tons, valued at $16,310. In addition there were re- ported as produced but not marketed in 1902 1,500 short tons of crude as- bestos, valued at $30,000. Asphaltum. Under this title are in- cluded the various bitumens or hydro- carbons not discussed under the head- ing "Petroleum" in the volume on Mineral Resources. The commercial production of asphaltum in 1902 was 105,458 short tons, valued at $765,048, as compared with 63,134 short tons, valued at $555,335, in 1901 a large increase, amounting in quantity to 42,- 324 short tons and in value to $209,- 713. The production of crude asphal- tum in 1902 is reported as 66,238 short tons, valued at $236,728. Bauxite. In 1902 the production of bauxite increased to 29,222 long tons, valued at $128,206, as compared with 18,905 long tons, valued at $79,914, in 1901. Georgia yielded the greater bulk of the product, the remainder be- ing supplied by Alabama and Arkan- sas. Chromic Iron Ore. California was the one State to produce any chro- mite during 1902, the quantity being 315 long tons, valued at $4,567, a de- crease of 53 tons in quantity and of $1,223 in value, as compared with the production of 1901, which was 368 long tons, valued at $5,790. Feldspar. The production of feld- spar in 1902 was 45,287 short tons, valued at $250,42 *, as against 34,741 short tons, valued at $220,422, in 1901. Fibrous Talc. This variety of talc or soapstone occurs in but one local- ity in the United States Gonverneur, St. Lawrence County, New York. It 350 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. is used principally as makeweight in the manufacture of paper. In 1902 the production was 71,100 short tons, valued at $015,350, an increase of $131,750 in value and of only 1,900 tons in quantity, as compared with the production of 69,200 short tons, valued at $483,600, in 1901. Flint. The production of flint in 1902 was 36,365 short tons, valued at $144,209, as compared with 34,420 short tons, valued at $149,297, in 1901. Fuller's Earth. As reported for the Survey, the production of fuller's earth in 1902 showed a decrease in quantity and an increase in value, be- ing 11,492 short tons, valued at $98,- 144, as compared with 14,112 short tons, valued at $96,835, in 1901. The maximum production of fuller's earth was obtained in 1897, when the pro- duction was 17,113 short tons. Glass Sand. The production of glass sand in 1902 was 943,135 short tons, valued at $807,797; the produc- tion of engine, furnace, building, mold- ing and other sands, mined incidental- ly, was 904,776 short tons, valued at $615,817 a total production of 1,847,- 901 short tons of sand, valued at $1,- 423,614. Graphite. The commercial produc- tion of crystalline graphite during 1902 amounted to 3,936,824 pounds, valued at $126,14i, as compared with 3,967,612 pounds, valued at $135,914, in 1901, and with 5,507,855 pounds, valued at $178,761, in 1900. The com- mercial production of amorphous graphite in 1902 was 4,739 short tons, valued at $55,964, as compared with 809 short tons, valued at $31,800, in 1901. The decline in value was due to a proportionate increase in the pro- duction of the lower grades. Consid- erable development and exploratory work was done during the year in Montana, Wyoming, North Carolina and New Mexico. In addition, 30,000 pounds of refined graphite, valued at $1,800, and 20,716 short tons of crude graphite, valued at $43.600, were re- ported as produced but not marketed in 1902. This gives a total production of 3,966,824 pounds of refined graphite and of 25,455 short tons of amorphous graphite, with a total value of $227,- 508, as produced in 1902. The produc- tion of artificial graphite was 2,358,- 828 pounds, valued at $110,700, the average price being 4.69 cents per pound, as compa-ed w'th 2.500.000, valued at $119.000, in 1901. the aver- age price being 4.75 cents per pound. Limestone for Iron Flux. The quantity of limestone used for fluxing in blast furnaces in 1902 was 11,878,- 675 long tons, valued at $5,271,252, as compared with 8,540,168 long tons, valued at $4.659,836, in 1901, and with 7,495,435 long tons, valued at $3,687,- 394, in 1900. Magnesite. The production of mag- nesite in the United States continues to be limited to California, and during the year 1902 the commercial produc- tion reported was 3,466 short tons, valued at $21,362 a large decrease as compared with the production in 1901, which was 13,172 short tons, valued at $43,057. Of the 1902 production, 380 tons, valued at $1,723, were sold in 1902, but were mined previously. Mica. The production of mica in 1902 was as follows : 373,266 pounds of plate or sheet mica, valued at $83,- 843; 1,028 short tons of scrap mica, valued at $13,081, and 372 short tons of rough mica, valued at $21,925 a total value of $118,849. Mineral Waters. The total produc- tion of mineral waters for 1902 was 64,859,-151 gallons, valued at $8,793,- 761, as compared with 55,771,181 gal- lons, valued at $7,586,962, in 1901 a gain in quantity of 9,088,263 gallons and in value of $1,206,799. Monasite. The production of mona- zite is confined exclusively to North Carolina and South Carolina, by far the larger quantity being obtained -from the former State, and in 1902 this amounted to 802,000 pounds, val- ued at $64,160, as compared with 748,- 736 pounds, valued at $59,262, in 1901 an increase in quantity of 53,264 pounds and in value of $4,898. The price per pound received by the miners for the monazite produced in 1902 va- ried from 2.5 to 8 cents, according to the percentage of thoria. Precious Stones. The value of the gems and precious stones found in the United States in 1902 was $328,450, as compared with $289.050 in 1901, with $233.170 in 1900, and with $185,- 770 in 1899. There has been a great advance in the lapidary industry in the United States since 1894. The fact that larger establishments have been formed, which are able to purchase the rough diamonds in greater quantities, has placed our American diamond cut- ters in a position equal to that held by the cutters of Amsterdam. Ant- werp and Paris. The cutting of our nntivp eems has also grown to the pro- portions of an industry, notably in the case of the beryls and the amethyst found in North Carolina and Connecti- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 351 out ; the turquoise from New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada and California ; the fine-colored and deep-blue sapphires found in Montana ; the colored tour- malines of San Joaquin County, Cali- fornia ; the chrysoprase mine of Visa- lia, Tulare County, California ; the garnets of Arizona and New Mexico, and the pale-purple garnets of North Carolina. Rutile. The production of rutile in 1902 was less than in 1901. Soanstone. Exclusive of the pro- duction of fibrous talc from Gouver- neur, New York, the production of talc and soapstone in 1902 amounted to 26,854 short tons, valued at $525,157, as compared with 28,643 tons, valued at $424,888, in 1901 a decrease of 1,789 tons in quantity and an increase of $100,269 in value. The output for 1900 was .27,943 short tons, valued at $383,541, and for 1899 it was 24.765 short tons, valued at $330,805. Min- eral Resources of the United States. MINERAL PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR THE CALENDAR YEAR 1902. 1902. Product. Quantity. Value. METALLIC. Pig iron (spot value) long tons. 17,821,307 $372,775 000 Silver, coining value. Gold, coining value Copper, value at New York City Lead, value at New York City Zinc, value at New York City Quicksilver, value at San Francisco. . . .... fine ounces. . . do. Ibs.. . short tons. . . do. flasks. 55,500,000 3,870,000 659,508,644 270,000 156,927 1 34,291 71,757,575 80,000,000 76,568,954 22,140,000 14,625,596 1,467 848 Aluminum, value at Pittsburg Ibs 7 300 000 2 284 590 Antimony, value at San Francisco Nickel, value at Philadelphia short tons. . . Ibs' 3,561 5,748 634,506 2 701 Tin do. None. Platinum, value (crude) at San Francisco. troy ounces 94 1 814 Total value of metallic products. . . $642 258 584 NON-METALLIC (SPOT VALUES). Bituminous coal . . short tons. . 260,216,844 $290,858,483 Pennsylvania anthracite. . . . long tons 36,940,710 76,173 586 Natural gas Petroleum Brick clay. . . . .' ,' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .'b' bis'. ; ; 2 ' 88,766,916' 30,867,668 71,178,910 15 000 000 Cement Stone Corundum and emery. . bbls... 25,753,504 4 251 25,366,380 64,559,099 104 605 Crystalline quartz Garnet for abrasive purposes Grindstones do. do. 15,104 3,926 a 84,335 132,820 667 431 Infusorial earth and tripoli. 5 665 53 244 Millstones 59 808 Oilstones, etc 3 221 762 Arsenious oxide . . 1 353 81 180 Borax (refined) Borax (crude). . . . do. do 4 17,404 2 600 2,447,614 91 000 Bromine ... . Ibs. 513,890 128,472 Fluorspar Gypsum short tons. . . do s 48,018 816 478 271,832 2 089 341 Lithium. . . do. 1,245 25 750 Marls do. 12,439 12,741 1 In addition the census reports 11,727 short tons of cinnabar, valued at $82,242, as mined but not marketed in 1902. 2 In addition the census reports 508,386 barrels of petroleum, valued at $218,829, as pro- duced but not marketed in 1902. 3 Value of crude production as reported by the census: Crystalline quartz, $43,085; oil- stones, $113,968. 4 Production in 1902, as reported by the census, 19,142 short tons, valued at $2,383,614. 5 In addition the census reports 800 short tons of fluorspar, valued at $3,850, as mined but not marketed in 1902, 352 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. MINERAL PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR THE CALENDAR YEAR 1902. Continued. Product. Quantity. Value. Phosphate rock e i 49Q 314 Pyrite Salt do. bbh 297,874 23 849 221 947,089 Sulphur Barytes (crude) . . short tons. . . do 61 668 ( 7 ) 9flO 1 ft Cobalt oxide Mineral paints Zinc white Asbestos. . Ibs... . .short tons.. . . . do. do 3,730 8 73,049 52,645 9 i 005 6,714 944,332 4,016,499 Asphaltum Bauxite Chromic iron ore Clay (all other than brick) Feldspar Fibrous talc. do. . . . long tons. . . do. . . short tons. . . do. do 10 105,458 29,222 315 1,455,357 45,287 71 100 765,048 128,206 4,567 2,061,072 250,424 fi1 ^ 350 Flint Fuller's earth Glass sand Graphite (crystalline) Graphite (amorphous) Limestone for iron flux Magnesite Manganese ore. Mica (sheet) do. do. do. Ibs... . . short tons. . . . . long tons. . . . .short tons. . . . . long tons. . . Ibs 36,365 11,492 943,135 11 3,936,824 4,739 11,878,675 12 3,466 16,477 373 266 144,209 98,144 807,797 [ 182,108 5,271,252 21,362 177,911 o-} 040 Mica (scrap) Mineral waters Monazite Ozocerite (refined) . . short tons. . . gallons sold. . . Ibs... do. 1,400 64,859,451 802,000 35,006 8,793,761 64,160 Precious stones 328 450 Pumice stone 700 2 750 Rutile Soapstone Uranium and vanadium Ibs... . . short tons. . . do. (12) 26,854 3,810 525,157 48,125 Total value of non-metallic mineral products. . . Total value of metallic products Estimated value of mineral products unspecified $617,380,831 642,258,584 1 000 000 Grand total 1,260,639,415 1902. 6 The total quantity of phosphate rock mined in 1902 was 1,548,720 long tons, valued at $4,922,943. 7 Included under pyrite. 8 Production of crude material of mineral paints was 35,479 short tons, valued at $360,885. 9 In addition, 1500 short tons of crude a?bestos, valued at $30,000, are reported by the cen- sus as mined but not marketed in 1902. 10 The production of the crude material is reported by the census as 66,238 short tons, valued at $236,728. 11 In addition, graphite to the value of $45,400 is reported as mined but not marketed in 1902. 12 The magnesite actually mined in 1902 is reported as 3,086 short tons, valued at $19,639. 13 Included under estimated unspecified products. SPEEDS FOR GRINDING AND POLISHING, ETC. Speed of Ft. per Min. Large grindstones for polishing. . . 2,000 Emery disks 2,500 to 3,000 Polishing large articles. , 750 Tool grinders 650 Circular saws for hot iron 20,000 Disintegrators 10,000 Plate-bending rolls 4 Millstones 17000 Sack tackle . 50 DEPRECIATION OF MACHINERY, ETC. ANNUM ON FIRST COST. Machinery, etc. Depre- cia- tion. Wear and Tear. Total. Engines Boilers Machines Millwork and gearing. . Bands and belts 11 .??.. 3 % 3 % 3 % 2*% 45 % 6 % 10 % 8 % 5i% 45 % SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 353 Number of mines, quarries, or wells. . . MINES AND QUARRIES. DETAILED SUMMARY, UNITED STATES: 1902. Wage-earners Continued : 151,516 Miners- Number of operators 46,858 Salaried officials, clerks, etc: Total number 38,128 Total salaries $39,020,552 General officers Number 4,591 Salaries $8,218,541 Superintendents, managers, foremen, surveyors, etc Number 15,538 Salaries $16,666,416 Foremen, below ground* Number 6,863 $6,208,307 11,136 Salaries Clerks- Number Salaries $7,927;288 Wage-earners : Aggregate average number. . . 581,728 Aggregate wages $369,959,960 Above ground Total average number . . . 221,505 Total wages $125,086,530 Engineers, firemen, and other mechan- ics Average number. . . . Wages Miners, or quarrymen and stonecutters Average number. . . . Wages Boys, under 16 years Average number. . . . Wages All other wage-earn- ers Average number. . . . Wages $45,297;516 Below ground Total average number . . 360,223 Total wages $244,873,430 60,859 $44,478,246 67,129 $33,971,290 6,219 $1,339,478 87,298 Average number. .. . 257,301 Wages $184,674,193 Miners' helpers Average number. . . . 18,736 Wages $11,496,910 Boys, under 16 years Average number. . . . 5,638 Wages $1,548,889 All other wage-earners Average number. ... 78,548 Wages $47,153.438 Contract work : Amount paid $20,677,938 Number of employees 21,183 Miscellaneous expenses, total. .. $71,771,713 Royalties and rent of mine and mining plant $34,530,713 Rent of offices, taxes, insur- ance, interest, and other sundries $37,241,000 Cost of supplies and materials. . $123,814,967 Product, value $796,826,417 Power : Total horsepower Owned Engines Steam, number Horsepower Gas, or gasoline, num- ber Horsepower Water wheels, number. . . Horsepower Other power, number . . . Horsepower Rented Electric, horsepower. . . . Other kind, horsepower. . Electric motors owned, num- ber Horsepower Supplied to other establish- ments, horsepower 2,867,562 64,179 2,432,963 13,506 259,695 980 60,897 1,162 84,546 23,556 5,905 2,893 130,494 2,852 * Foremen here reported should be added to the number of wage-earners below ground in order to ascertain the actual number employed below ground. Census Bulletin. CLAY PRODUCTS OF THE In 1902 there were produced 8,475,- 067 thousands of common brick. The value of this product was $48,885,869, and the average price per thousand was $5.77. The quantity of front brick produced was 458,391 thousands, valued at $5,318,008. The average price per thousand was $11.00. Of vitrified paving brick the amount pro- duced was 617,192 thousands, valued at $5,744,530, the average price per thousand being $9.31. The value of fancy or ornamental brick was $806,- 453. The value of fire brick was $11,- 970,511. The value of stove lining was $630.924. The value of drain tile was $3,506,787. The value of sewer pipe was $7,174,892. The value of orna- mental terra cotta was $3,526,906. The value of the clay products used in UNITED STATES IN 1902. fire-proofing was $3,175,593. The value of tile other than drain tile was $3,622,863. The value of adobes, aquarium ornaments, boiler and loco- motive brick and tile, burnt-clay bal- last, carboy stoppers, chemical brick and tile ; chimney blocks, pipe and tops ; clay furnaces, retorts, and set- tings ; conduits for underground wires, crucibles, curbing block, fire-clay in- sulators, fire mortar, flue lining, fur- nace brick and tile, gas logs, glass- house supplies, grave markers, ground fire brick, muffles, oven tile, paving block, porous cups, saggers, stone pumps, wall coping, web tile sewer, and well brick was $3,678,742. The value of the pottery produced was $24,127,453. making a grand total of all clay products of $122,169,531. U. S. Geological Survey. 354 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PRODUCTION OF GAS. Q H +sT3 "H |j :Ks | m The total quantity of gas sold for lighting and heating, as reported to the Census in 1900 by 877 gas establishments from which returns fepu x OUS-'f were received, was 67,093,553,471 cubic feet. ^ P-I ^ i The total quantity of gas manufactured by H 1 companies as a by-product and disposed of was 1,171,942,697 cubic feet. A combination W | HI! 1 o of this latter quantity with the quantity re- ported for gas companies shows that, in 1900, Q S a . i ) T f\ 4-V. -f 4-1* ,3 J 1 L ^T_ O be J-jengtn 01 tne seconds pendulum at tne sea-level for the geographical latitude d>, 1, k Z = 0.99102m + 0.00510m sin 2 a). F ooow oootoo OOOOO5O5 BARBED WIRE. A pound of barbed wire should measure 1 6 feet, and an acre of ground will require 50$ Ib. per line of fencing. CHAPTER XV. FARMS AND FOOD. DIVISION OF THE UNITED STATES AS TO LAND. Farms. According to the Census of ]900 there are 5,737,372 farms hav- ing 414,498,487 acres of improved land and 424.093,287 acres of unimproved land. The value of all farm property was $20,439,901,164. The value of the land with improvements, including buildings, was $16,614,647,491. The value of implements and machinery was $749,775,970. The value of the live stock was $3,075,477,703. The average number of acres to a farm was 146.2 acres. The total value of the product of all the farms was $4,717,069,973, and was divided as follows : Animal products, $1,718,365,561; crops, $2,998,704,612. Of the latter, $974,940,616 was fed to the live stock. The value of all live stock on farms and ranges was $2,- 979,197,586 ; poultry, $85,756,503 ; bees, $10,178,087. i860 1900 THE POULTRY INDUSTRY. Chickens form an essential part of the stock upon many farms. The Twelfth Census shows that there were 5.737,372 farms in the United States in 1900, and it is safe to say that those which did not have chickens among the stock were very few indeed. The Census also shows that there were 250,681,593 fowls (chickens, turkeys, geese, and ducks) in the United States. This gives an average of forty-two to every farm. The value of all fowls on farms in 1900 was $85,794,996, pro- ducing for market in one year poultry worth $136,891.877 and eggs worth $144,286,370, a total value of $281.- 178,547. The investment has yielded an income of 40 per cent. In seeking for the cause of the great success at- tending poultry raising, one must not overlook the great amount of work done by the mechanical incubator, which is not only as fully successful as the hen, but works on a large scale. 355 356 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. DAIRY FARMS. The Twelfth Census reports that in the year 1900 there were 5,737372 farms in the United States, and of these 4,514,210 had dairy cows. Where a farm was found upon which at least 40 per cent, of the value of annual products was from dairy products, it was classified as a dairy farm. The total quantity of milk produced on farms in this country, during the year 1899, was 7,266,392,074 gallons, or, in round numbers, 02,500,000,000 pounds. 150 300 PRODUCTION OF BUTTER in hundreds of millions of pounds. 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1900 1890 1880 1870 1860 1850 FACTORY PRODUCT FARM PRODUCTION OF CHEESE in hundreds of millions , of pounds. 300 MINERAL CONSTITUENTS ABSORBED OR REMOVED FROM AN ACRE OF SOIL BY THE FOLLOWING CROPS: Minerals. Wheat, 25 Bushels. Barley, 40 Bushels. Turnips, 20 Tons. Hay, li Tons. Potassium Lbs. 29.6 Lbs. 17.5 Lbs. 47.1 Xbs. 38.2 Sodium Lime. Magnesium Oxide of Iron Phosphoric Acid . 12^9 10.6 2.6 20.6 5.2 17. 9.2 2.1 25.8 8.2 29.9 19.7 7.1 46.3 12. 44.5 7.1 .6 15 1 Sulphuric Acid 10.6 2.7 13.3 9.2 Chlorine . . 2. 16. 3.6 4.1 118 1 129.5 247 8 78.2 2 4 Total. . 210.00 213.00 423.00 209.00 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 357 NUMBER AND VALUE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS: 1900. Domestic Animals. Age in Years. Total. On Farms and Ranges. Not on Farms or Ranges. Number. Value. Number. Value. Num- ber. Estimated Value. All domestic an- imals. Dollars. 3,193,856,459 Dollars. 2,979,197,586 Dollars. 214,658,873 41,102,637 AH neat cattle. . . Calves Steers Steers Steers Under 1. . 1 & und'r 2 2 & und'r 3 3 and over 1 and over 1 & und'r 2 2 and over 2 and over 69,335,832 1,516,307,270 67,719,410 1,475,204,633 1,616,422 15,577,728 7,008,656 5,244,011 3,179,069 1,328,741 7,254,000 18,108,666 11,634,961 21,203,901 139,638,829 131,392,522 152,871,930 113,123,532 45,831,378 122,874,299 537,496,120 273,078,660 1,050,526,967 15,315,582 6,953,113 5,193,006 3,073,267 1,315,132 7,174,483 17,135,633 11,559,194 18,267,020 137,290,001 130,352,202 151,386,664 109,366,503 45,362,004 121,528,076 508,616,501 271,302,682 896,513,217 262,146 55,543 51,005 105,802 13,609 79,517 973,033 75,767 2,936,881 2,348,828 1,040,320 1,485,266 3,757,029 469,374 1,346,223 28,879,619 1,775,978 154,013,750 Bulls Heifers Cows kept for milk. ..... Cows not kept for milk. . . . All horses Colts Horses Horses All mules. .... Mule colts Mules. . Under 1. . 1 & und'r 2 2 and over Under 1. . 1 & und'r 2 2 and over All ages. . Under 1 . . 1 and over 1 and over All ages All ages 1,347,919 1,476,627 18,379,355 3,438,523 26,548,413 49,313,762 974,664,792 207,274,557 1,314,829 1,446,225 15,505,966 3,264,615 25,896,871 48,298,639 822,317,707 196,222,053 33,090 30,402 2,873,389 173,908 651,542 1,015,123 152,347,085 11,052,504 234,784 283,829 2,919,910 110,012 61,735,014 6,286,385 11,937,495 189,050,677 6,776,583 170,881,743 231,628 279,501 2,753,486 94,165 61,503,713 6,201,899 11,755,416 178,264,738 5,811,184 170,203,119 3,156 4,328 166,424 15,847 231,301 84,486 182,079 10,785,939 965,399 678,624 Mules. . Asses and burros All sheep Lambs Sheep (ewes) . Sheep (rams and wethers). Swine Goats 21,702,447 31,997,274 8,035,293 64,686,155 1,948.952 42,116,628 101,732,728 27,032,387 238,686,872 3,402,467 21,650,746 31,857,652 7,995,315 62,868,041 1,870,599 42,016,328 101,288,730 26,898,061 231,978,031 3,265,349 51,701 139,622 39,978 1,818,114 78,353 100,300 443,998 134,326 6,708,841 137,118 From Reports of the Census. QUANTITY AND VALUE OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS OF FARMS: 1899. Product. Unit of Measure. Quantity. Value. Total Wool Mohair and goat hair. Milk Butter Pound do. Gallon 276,567,584 961,328 i 7,265,804,304 1 071 626 056 I $1,718,365,561 $45,670,053 267,864 472 276 783 Cheese do. 16,372,318 1 293 662 433 i 144 240 541 Poultry 136,830,152 Honsy . Pound 61 099 290 ) Wax do 1 763 595 f 6,656,611 Animals sold 722,614,328 Animals slaughtered. . . 189,809,229 Includes all milk produced. From Reports of the Census. 358 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. ACREAGE, QUANTITY, AND VALUE OF FARM CROPS IN 1899. From Reports of the Census. Crop. Acres. Unit of Measure. Quantity. Value. Total. . . . $2 998 704 412 Corn 94,913,673 Bushel 2 666 324 370 $828 192 388 Wheat. . . 52 588 574 do 658 534 252 369 945 320 Oats 29 539 698 do 943 389 375 217 098 584 Barley. . . 4,470 196 do 119 634 877 41 631 762 Rye Buckwheat. . 2,054,292 807,060 do. do 25,568,625 11 233 515 12,290,540 5 747 853 Broom corn . 178 584 90 947 370 3 588 414 Rice 342,214 do 250 280 227 6 329 562 Kaffir corn Flaxseed Clover seed. 266,513 2,110,517 Bushel do. 5,169,113 19,979,492 1 349 209 1,367,040 19,624,901 5 359 578 Grass seed do. 3 515 869 2 868 839 Hay and forage Cottonseed. . 61,691,069 Ton do. 84,010,915 1 4,566,100 484,254,703 46,950 575 Cotton Tobacco Hemp Honey 24,275,101 1,101,460 16,042 Bale Pound do. do 9,534,707 868,112,865 11,750,030 61 196 160 323,758,171 56,987,902 546,338 Hops Peanuts 55,613 516 654 do. Bushel 49,209,704 11 964 109 4,081,929 7 270 515 Peppermint. , Dry beans 8,591 453 841 Pound Bushel 187,427 5 064 490 143,618 7 633 636 Castor beans 25,738 do. 143,388 134,084 Dry pease. . . 968,370 do. 9 440,210 7,908 966 Potatoes Sweet potatoes 2,938,778 537,312 do. do. 273,318,167 42,517,412 98,380,110 19,869,840 Onions 47,981 do. 11,790,974 6,637,413 Chicory Milk 3,069 Pound Gallons 21,495,870 7 266 392 674 73,627 Miscellaneous vegetables. Maple sugar 2,114,149 Pound 11,928,770 113,644,398 1 074 260 Gallon 2 056 611 1 562 451 Sugar-cane. . (a) Cane sold (6) Cane kept for seed 386,986 Ton do. do. 2 4,202,202 1,126,076 1,453,447 '3,88i,758 5,018,469 (c) Sugar made. Pound 159 454 814 6 558 944 (rf) Molasses made Gallon 6,312,809 788,990 (e) Sirup made do. 12,293,032 4 293 475 293 152 Ton s 291 703 815 019 Sorghum sirup. - . Gallon 16,972 783 5,288 OS3 Sugar beets . 110 170 Ton 793 353 3 323 40 Small fruits. . . . . 309,770 25,029,757 Grapes Cental 13 009 841 4 14 090 234 Orchard products Subtropical fruits. . Bushel 212,365,600 * 83,750,961 8,227,838 Nuts 1,949,931 Forest products. . 109,864,774 Flowers and plants 9,307 18,758,864 Miscellaneous seeds 10,106 826,019 Nursery products. . . 59,492 10,123,873 Willows 521 36,523 Miscellaneous 23,793 6 1,120,343 1 Not including 166,861 tons sold with fiber before ginning. 2 Comprising all cane grown, whether sold as cane, kept for seed, or used in the manu- facture of sugar, molasses, and sirup. 3 Sold as cane. 4 Including value of raisins, wine, etc. 5 Including value of cider, vinegar* etc. 6 The greater part of this value was derived from products for which no acreage was reported. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 359 360 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. FRUIT PRODUCTS. (Abstracted from the United States Census Reports.) Product. Unit of Measure. Quantity. Value. Fruits (orchard) Bushels 212 366 646 $83 751 840 Apples Apricots. Bushels Bushels 175,397,626 2 642 128 Cherries Bushels 2,873,499 Peaches, etc. . Bushels 15 433 623 Pears Plums, etc Unclassified Cider Bushels Bushels Bushels Barrels 6,625,417 8,764,032 630,321 1,754 927 Cider vinegar Fruits (small) Blackberries Currants Gooseberries Raspberries Strawberries Unclassified Fruits (sub-tropical) Barrels Quarts Quarts Quarts Quarts Quarts Quarts Quarts 392,497 431,628,520 62,189,885 18,592,695 9,320,530 76,628,107 257,437,523 7,459,780 '25,030,877' 8 549 863 Bananas Bunches 141,653 Citrons Figs Guava Lemons Limes Olives Boxes Pounds Pounds Boxes Boxes Pounds 90 13,016,274 1,677,165 876,978 24,375 5 053 637 Oranges Persimmons Boxes Pounds 6,171,259 136,030 2 980 240 Pomeloes Unclassified Boxes Pounds 30,791 2 969 239 Olive oil Coffee. . Gallons Pounds 8,643 2 297 000 246 isi STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL CROPS. Crop. Year. Acreage. Unit. Average Yield per Acre. Production. Corn Wheat Oats 1903 1903 1903 88,091,993 49,464,967 27,638,126 Bushel 25.5 12.9 28.4 2,244,176,925 637,821,835 784,094,199 Barley Rye Buckwheat Potatoes Hay. . 1903 1903 1903 1903 1903 4,993,137 1,906,894 804,393 2,916,855 39,933,759 Ton 26.4 15.4 17.7 84.7 1 54 131,861,391 29,363,416 14,243,644 247,127,880 61,305 940 Cotton Tobacco Flaxseed Suear, beet and cane . . . 1902-1903 1903 1903 1903-1904 27,114,103 1,037,735 3,233,239 Bale Pound Bushel Lone ton ' '786'. 3' 8.4 10,725,422 815,972,425 27,300,510 423.135 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 361 STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL CROPS Continued. Crop. Year. Unit. Average Farm Price. Farm Value. Exports, Bushels.* Corn Wheat Oats Barley Rye 1903 1903 1903 1903 1903 Bushel 42. 5c. 69. 5 c. 34. Ic. 45. 6 c. 54. 5 c. $952,868,801 443,024,826 267,661,665 60,166,313 15,993,871 76,639,261 202,906,273 8,381,805 56,462 5,445,273 Buckwheat Potatoes Hay Cotton Tobacco Flaxseed 1903 1903 1903 1902-1903 1903 1903 Ton Bale Pound Bushel 60. 7 c. 61. 4 c. $9.08 ' ' Q'.S'C.' ' 81. 7c. 8,650,733 15,638,094 556,376,880 458,051,005 55,514,627 22,291,557 843,075 2 50,974 a 7,086,086 Sugar, beet and cane 1903-1904 Long ton 1 Does not necessarily mean the crop year ; in all cases one year and generally two years behind. 2 Tons instead of bushels. 3 1902-1903. STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL ANIMALS. Animals. Year. Number. Value. Horses 1904 16,736,059 $1,136,940,298 Mules 1904 2,757,916 217,532,916 Cows. 1904 17,419,817 508,841,489 Other cattle Sheep 1904 1904 43,629,438 51,630,144 712,178,134 133 530,099 Hogs. 1904 47 009 367 289 224 627 CUTS OF MEAT. The method of dividing up the car- casses of slaughtered animals varies considerably in different localities. In order that there may be no confusion on this account the character of the cuts of beef, veal, pork and mutton is shown in the diagrams given on page 362. THE FUNCTIONS AND USES OF FOODS. BY C. F. LANGWORTHY, PH. D. Office of Experiment Stations. In this article a number of the terms used in discussing food are de- fined and some of the principles of nutrition are briefly stated. The average composition of a number of the more common American foods is quoted as well as the commonly accepted dietary stand- ards. With the aid of such data, the nutritive value of any given diet may be computed and its comparative value ascertained. Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, wheat, etc., consist of: Refuse. As the bones of meat and fish, shells of shellfish, skins of pota- toes, bran of wheat, etc. Edible Portion. As the flesh of meat and fish, the white and yolk of eggs, wheat flour, etc. The edible por- tion consists of water and nutritive ingredients, or nutrients. The nutri- tive ingredients are protein, fats, car- bohydrates and mineral matters. The water, refuse, and salt of salt- ed meat and fish are called non-nutri- ents. In comparing the values of dif- ferent food materials for nourishment they are left out of account. USE OF NUTRIENTS. Food is used in the body to build and repair tissue and to furnish en- ergy. The manner in which the valu- able constituents are utilized in the body may be expressed in tabular form as follows : 362 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Protein White (albumen) of eggs, curd (casein) of milk, lean meat, gluten of wheat, etc. Fats Fat of meat, butter, olive oil, oils of corn and wheat, etc. Carbohydrates Sugar, starch, etc. Mineral matters (ash) Phosphates of lime, potash, soda, etc. Forms tissue (muscles, -, tendon, and probably fat). Form fatty tissue. Transformed into fat. Aid in forming bone, assist in digestion, etc. All serve as fuel and yield energy in form of heat and muscular strength. The Fuel Value of Food. Heat and muscular power are forms of force or energy. The energy is developed as the food is consumed in the body. The unit commonly used in this measure- ment is the calorie, the amount of heat which would raise the temperature of a pound of water 4 deg. Fahrenheit. Instead of this unit some unit of mechanical energy might be used for DIAGRAM OF CUTS OF MUTTON. instance, the foot-ton, which repre- sents the force required to raise one ton one foot. One calorie is equal to very nearly 1.53 foot-tons. The following general estimate has been made for the average amount of potential energy in 1 pound of each of the classes of nutrients : Calories. In 1 pound of protein 1,860 In 1 pound of fats 4,220 In 1 pound of carbohydrates.. 1,860 In other words, when we com- pare the nutrients in respect to their fuel values, their capacities for yielding heat and mechanical power, DIAGRAM OF CUTS OF VEAL. a pound of protein of lean meat or al- bumen of egg is just about equivalent to a pound of sugar or starch, and a little over two pounds of either would DIAGRAM OF CUTS OF PORK. be required to equal a pound of the fat of meat or butter or the body fat. Within recent years analyses of a large number of samples of foods have been made in this country. In the tables on pages 364-3G7 the results of a number of these analyses are given : DIAGRAM OF CUTS OF BEEF. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 363 364 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FOOD PRODUCTS. Food Materials (as purchased). Ref- use. Water. Pro- tein. Fat. Car- bohy- drates. Ash. Fuel Value per Lb. ANIMAL, FOOD. Beef, fresh: Per Ct. 17.3 19.1 5.5 13.3 12.7 12.8 31.2 20.1 "8'.5' 19.0 38.3 17.4 20.6 16.3 8.4 6.0 4.7 Per Ct. 54.0 53.8 56.1 52.9 52.4 54.0 45.3 45.3 64.8 62.5 46.9 43.2 57.0 49.5 52.0 49.2 58.9 53.7 51.8 51.8 52.5 63.4 63.3 54.2 56.2 39.0 51.9 46.8 41.6 43.3 x 45.5 50.3 48.5 45.1 40.8 44.9 66.5 35.8 30.7 7.9 18.4 55.2 22.2 57.2 88.6 92.9 84.5 90.0 43.7 47.1 38.5 42.4 58.5 61.9 40.4 50.7 35.2 71.2 40.2 Per Ct. 15.8 15.3 18.6 16.4 19.1 16.5 14.2 14.4 19.4 19.2 15.2 13.2 16.5 14.4 16.1 14.3 11.9 26.4 25.5 26.3 15.7 18.3 20.1 15.1 16.2 13.8 15.4 13.7 12.3 13.0 15.4 16.0 15.1 14.3 13.2 12.0 18.9 14.5 12.6 1.9 9.5 18.2 27.9 19.6 2.1 4.4 4.6 1.8 12.8 13.7 13.4 16.1 11.1 15.3 10.2 12.8 9.4 20.9 19.0 Per Ct. 12.5 11.1 19.9 16.9 17.9 16.1 9.2 20.0 15.5 9.2 18.6 5.2 8.4 15.1 15.4 23.8 19.2 6.9 22.5 18.7 8.2 5.8 7.5 6.0 6.6 36.9 14.5 17.1 24.5 24.0 19.1 19.7 18.6 29.7 26.0 29.8 13.0 33.2 33.0 86.2 59.4 19.7 40.4 18.6 2.8 .4 4.3 1.1 1.4 12.3 29.8 18.4 .2 4.4 4.2 .7 4.8 3.8 .4 Per Ct. Per Ct. 0.7 .8 .8 .9 .8 .9 .7 .7 .9 1.0 .8 .6 .9 .7 .8 4.6 4.3 8.9 1.3 4.0 .8 1.0 1.0 '.8 .6 :? .8 .9 .7 .8 .8 M 4.2 5.0 3.9 4.5 3.8 7.3 3.4 1.5 1.2 1.1 1.5 .7 .7 .7 .8 .8 .9 .7 .9 .7 1.5 18.5 Calo- ries. 820 755 1,185 1,020 1,110 985 650 1,110 1,015 745 1,065 465 660 905 950 1,271 1,030 780 1,425 1,280 635 585 690 535 580 1,815 900 975 1,265 1,255 1,090 1,130 1,065 1,520 1,340 1,480 900 1,670 1,625 3,670 2,685 1,170 2,225 1,170 250 120 370 185 295 775 1,505 1,075 215 470 365 265 380 600 315 Chuck ribs . Flank Loin Sirloin steak Neck Ribs Rib rolls Round Rump Shank, fore Shoulder and clod Beef, corned, canned, pickled, and dried: Tongue, pickled Dried, salted, and smoked Canned boiled beef Veal: Breast Leg 23.3 11.7 3.4 24.5 20.7 9.9 17.7 22.1 21.2 19.3 19.1 13.8 18.0 10.3 19.3 12.4 12.2 18.9 Leg cutlets Hind quarter Mutton: Flank Leg, hind Shoulder Fore quarter Hind quarter, without tallow Lamb: Breast Pork, fresh: * Flank Shoulder Tenderloin Pork, salted, cured, and pickled: Ham, smoked Shoulder, smoked " i .' i ' 5.0 1.1 5.5 5.6 "2." 6" 8.7 3.3 3.9 Sausage : Farmer Soups : Beef Meat stew Poultry: 41.6 25.9 17.6 22.7 29.9 17.7 44.7 35.1 50.1 Fowls Fish: Halibut, steaks or sections Mackerel whole Perch, yellow, dressed Shad whole Shad roe Fish, salt: Cod... 24.9 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 365 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FOOD PRODUCTS Continued. Food Materials (as purchased). Ref- use. Water. Pro- tein. Fat. Car- bohy- drates. Ash. Fuel Value per Lb. Fish, canned: Salmon. . Per Ct. 14.2 Per Ct. 56.8 PerCt. 19.5 Per Ct. 7.5 PerCt. Per Ct, 2 Calo- ries. 680 1 5 53 6 23 7 12 1 5 3 950 Shellfish: Oysters ' ' solids ' ' 88 3 6 1 3 3 3 1 1 230 Clams 80.8 10.6 1.1 5.2 2.3 340 Crabs 52 4 36 7 7 9 9 .6 1 5 195 Lobsters Eggs' Hens' eggs. . . 61.7 2 11.2 30.7 65.5 5.9 11 9 .7 9 3 .2 .8 9 140 635 Dairy products, etc. : Butter 11 1 85.0 3 3,605 Whole milk 87.0 3.3 4.0 5.0 .7 325 Skim milk Buttermilk 90.5 91.0 3.4 3.0 .3 .5 5.1 4.8 .7 .7 170 165 Condensed milk Cream 26.9 74 8.8 2 5 8.3 18 5 54.1 4.5 1.9 5 1,520 910 Cheese, Cheddar 27.4 27.7 36.8 4.1 4.0 2,145 Cheese, full cream . . . 34.2 25 9 33 7 2.4 3 8 1,950 VEGETABLE FOOD. Flour, meal, etc.: Entire-wheat flour Graham flour 11.4 11.3 13.8 13.3 1.9 2.2 71.9 71.4 1.0 1.8 ,675 ,670 Wheat flour, patent roller process High-grade and medium. . . 12 11 4 1 75.1 5 650 12 14 1 9 71 2 9 665 Macaroni. . 78 4 3 1 5 15.8 1 3 415 Crushed wheat 10 1 11 1 1 7 75 5 1 6 685 Buckwheat flour. . 13 6 6 4 1 2 77.9 9 620 Corn meal . . 12 5 9 2 1 9 75 4 1 655 Oatmeal. . . 7.3 16 1 7 2 67.5 1 9 1 860 Rice. . . 12 3 8 3 79 4 1 630 Tapioca Starch. 11.4 .4 88.0 90.0 .1 1,650 1 675 Bread, pastry, etc.: White bread. ... 35 3 9 2 1 3 53.1 1 1 1 215 Brown bread 43 6 5 4 1 8 47 1 2 1 1 050 Graham bread. . . . 35 7 8 9 1 8 52.1 1 5 1,210 Whole-wheat bread. . 38 4 9 7 9 49 7 1 3 140 Rye bread Cake 35.7 19 9 9.0 6 3 .6 9 53.2 63.3 1.5 1 5 ,180 675 Cream crackers Oyster crackers. 6.8 4 8 9.7 11 3 12.1 10 5 69.7 70.5 1.7 2 9 ,990 965 Soda crackers. . 5 9 9 8 9 1 73 1 2 1 925 Sugars, etc.: Molasses. . . 25 1 2 4 69 3 3 2 290 Candy 96.0 ,785 Honey 3 18 2 4 81 2 2 520 Sugar, granulated. 100 800 Maple sirup 71.4 ,330 Vegetables: 4 Beans, dried 12 6 22 5 1 8 59.6 3 5 1,605 Beans, Lima, shelled 68 5 7 1 7 22 1 7 570 Beans, string. . . 7 83 2 1 3 6 9 7 180 Beets. . . . 20 70 1 3 1 7 7 9 170 Cabbage Celery Corn, green (sweet), edible portion Cucumbers Lettuce . 15.0 20.0 'is. '6' 15 77.7 75.6 75.4 81.1 80 5 l.,4 .9 3.1 .7 1 .2 .1 1.1 .2 2 4.8 2.6 19.7 2.6 2 5 .9 .8 .7 .4 g 125 70 470 70 75 Mushrooms. . . 88 1 3 5 4 6 8 1 2 210 Onions Parsnips. . . 10.0 20 78.9 66 4 1.4 1 3 .3 4 8.9 10 8 .5 1 i 205 240 Peas (Pisum sa'ivum), dried 9.5 24.6 1.0 62.0 2.9 1,655 Refuse, oil. 2 Refuse, shell. 3 Contained on an average cane sugar 2.8 and reducing sugar 71.1 per cent. The reducing sugar was composed of about equal amounts of glucose (dextrose) and fruit sugar (levulose). 4 Such vegetables as potatoes, squash, beets, etc., have a certain amount of inedible material, skin, seeds, etc. The amount varies with the method of preparing the vegetables, and cannot be accurately estimated. The figures given for refuse of vegetables, fruits, etc., are assumed to represent approximately the amount of refuse in these foods as ordinarily prepared. 366 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FOOD PRODUCTS Continued. Food Materials (as purchased). Ref- use. Water. Pro- tein. Per Ct. 7.0 21.4 1.8 .4 1.4 2.1 .7 .9 .9 3.6 2.8 1.2 .3 .8 1.0 .7 .3 .6 .5 .8 1 Fat. Car- bohy- drates. Ash. Fuel Value K Vegetables ( Continued) : Peas (Pisum sativum), shelled PerCt. PerCt. 74.6 13.0 62.6 56.6 55.2 92.3 44.2 94.3 62.7 85.3 76.1 94.0 63.3 48.9 58.0 62.5 44.8 63.4 76.0 66.1 85 8 PerCt. 0.5 1.4 .1 .4 .6 .3 .2 .4 .1 .2 1.2 .2 .3 .4 1.2 .5 ".'i' .4 .7 PerCt. 16.9 60.8 14.7 2.2 21.9 3.2 4.5 3.9 5.7 9.8 19.0 4.0 10.8 14.3 14.4 5.9 4.6 8.5 12.7 31.5 12.6 7.0 2.7 66.1 17.3 70.6 74.2 9.5 7.8 3.5 .5 35.4 56.4 14.3 31.5 6.2 4.3 6.2 18.5 10.2 3.0 6.8 68.5 30.3 37.7 1.4 PerCt. 1.0 3.4 .8 .4 .9 2.1 .4 .5 .6 1.1 .9 .6 .3 .6 .4 .4 .3 .4 .4 .9 .6 .6 .1 2.0 .4 1.2 2.4 1.1 2.1 2.0 .4 1.1 1.7 .9 1.3 1.1 .8 .7 1.5 1.7 .5 .6 3.1 2.2 7.2 .2 Calo- ries. 465 1,590 310 65 640 110 105 105 125 255 455 105 220 300 335 145 90 170 260 630 255 175 60 1,350 340 1,450 1,475 1,660 1,820 1,655 430 945 ,425 ,413 3,125 ,575 ,265 ,620 ,935 1,905 805 ,375 ,455 2,860 2,320 30 Cowpeas, dried. Potatoes 20.0 40.0 20.0 Rhubarb Sweet potatoes Spinach. . . 50.0 Tomatoes. . Turnips 30.0 Vegetables, canned: Peas (Pisum sativum), green . . Corn, green Tomatoes. . Fruits, berries, etc., fresh: 1 Apples. . . 25.0 35.0 25.0 30.0 50.0 27.0 10.0 Bananas Grapes. . L/emons Muskmelons Pears. ... Persimmons, edible portion. . . Strawberries. . . 5.0 59.4 85.9 37.5 28.1 81.4 13.8 18.8 2.7 2.3 2.6 .6 37.8 4.5 7.2 3.5 1.8 1.4 1.4 6.9 2.0 .6 1.0 13.1 5.9 4.6 98.2 .9 .2 1.6 .9 1.9 4.3 11.5 13.0 8.6 3.8 5.2 8.1 2.9 6.3 7.5 5.8 5.2 19.5 8.7 7.2 6.9 2.3 12.9 21.6 .2 .6 .1 2.2 ' '2.'5" .3 30.2 34.0 33.7 8.3 4.5 5.3 25.9 57.4 31.3 25.5 33.3 29.1 36.8 14.6 26.6 3.0 48.7 28.9 Fruits, dried: Apricots. . . 'io.'o' Dates . Figs. Nuts: Almonds Beechnuts. . 45.0 40.8 49.6 86.4 16.0 24.0 2 48. 8 ' 52 .' 1 ' 62.2 53.2 24.5 40.6 74.1 58.1 10.0 Brazil nuts Butternuts. Chestnuts, fresh. . Cocoanuts . . Cocoanut, prepared Filberts Hickory nuts Pecans, polished. ... Peanuts PiSon (Pinus edulis) Walnuts, California, black Walnuts, California, soft-shell Raisins. . . . . Miscellaneous: Chocolate. . Cereal coffee, infusion (1 part boiled in 20 parts water) 3 1 Fruits contain a certain proportion of inedible materials, as skin, seeds, etc., which are properly classed as refuse. In some fruits, as oranges and prunes, the amount rejected in eating is practically the same as refuse. In others, as apples and pears, more or less of the edible material is ordinarily rejected with the skin and seeds and other inedible portions. The edible material which is thus thrown away, and should properly be classed with the waste, is here classed with the refuse. The figures for refuse here given represent, as nearly as can be ascertained, the quantities ordinarily rejected. 2 Milk and shell. 3 The average of five analyses of cereal coffee grain is: Water 6.2, protein 13.3, fat 3.4, carbohydrates 72.6, and ash 4.5 per cent. Only a portion of the nutrients, however, enter into the infusion. The average in the table represents the available nutrients in the beverage In- fusions of genuine coffee and of tea like the above contain practically no nutrients. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 367 Dietary studies have been made in considerable numbers in different coun- tries. The results of such studies and experiments to determine the amount DIETARY STANDARDS. of food required by men engaged in different occupations have resulted in the adoption of dietary standards. Some of these follow : STANDARDS FOR DAILY DIETARIES. Nutrients. Character of Work to be Performed. Protein. Fat. Carbohy- drates. Fuel. Value. European : Man at moderate work Pound. 0.26 Pound. 0.12 Pounds. 1.10 Calories. 3,055 .32 .22 99 3,370 American : Man without muscular work .20 3,000 Man with light muscular work .22 3,000 Man with moderate muscular work. . .28 3,500 Man with hard muscular work .39 4,500 The table of composition of food ma- terials shows the amount of water, protein, fat, carbohydrates and ash content and the total fuel value per pound for each kind of food named. The protein, fat and carbohydrates all furnish energy. In addition to fur- nishing energy, protein forms tissue. Since protein and energy are the essen- tial features of food, dietary stand- ards may be expressed in their simplest form in terms of protein and energy alone. Observation has shown that as a rule a woman requires less food than a man, and the amount required by chil- dren is still less, varying with the age. It is customary to assign cer- tain factors which shall represent the amount of nutrients required by chil- dren of different ages and by women as compared with adult man. The va- rious factors which have been adopted are as follows : FACTORS USED IN CALCULATING MEALS CONSUMED IN DIETARY STUDIES. One meal of woman equivalent to 0.8 meal of man at moderate muscular la- bor. One meal of boy 14 to 16 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.8 meal of man. One meal of girl 14 to 16 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.7 meal of man. One meal of child 10 to 13 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.6 meal of man. One meal of child 6 to 9 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.5 meal of man. One meal of child 2 to 5 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.4 meal of man. One meal of child under 2 years of age equivalent to 0.3 meal of man. These factors are based in part upon experimental data and in part upon arbitrary assumptions. They are sub- ject to revision when experimental evi- dence shall warrant more definite con- clusions. The plan followed in making dietary studies is, briefly, as follows : Exact account is taken of all the food ma- terials (1) at the beginning of the study, (2) purchased during its prog- ress, and (3) remaining at the end. The difference between the third and the sum of the first and second is taken as representing the amount used. From the figures thus obtained for the total quantities of the different food ma- terials the amounts of the different nu- trients and the energy furnished by them are calculated. Deducting from these values the nutrients and energy found in the kitchen and table refuse, the amounts actually consumed are ob- tained. Account is also taken of the meals eaten by different members of the family or groups studied and by visitors, if there are any. From the total food eaten by all the persons dur- ing the entire period the amount eaten per man per day may be calculated. In making these calculations due ac- count is taken of the fact that, as stat- ed above, women and children eat less than men performing the same amount of work. 368 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. I <3 fe 6 ! Q OQ g I g & p H >> g H fc H i a ! Pi CO II Is p ll II CM -CO ICI : : i : :~ O . . .OS .t-^COCM . CN C i-l ... .CO .iCCMCM .* . . . .1C . 1C O >C . O 1-1 .OS . . . .O .CO^HCO .ICO .* '* 'Co-* - oocooc-- O --I -^ ^ . O-< .>OiO .'tH^ t^^O'-ico .000 .OI>^ ."^-i. TooOcOCOiO -O5CO -iO*O -GO^H" ffl>'-iO i-i -C .CO-* CM '. CO t^- fcC \ *C C O * .CMCOCO -i-^CJ-* cb"i-T -ICCMCO CO . ,i-( OS -^ 00C i-l CM . .CNI^OSOOCOOS .OCOCMOs .OscOiCcO-HcO .CO^HC_. . . 1C CM CO C CO CM .O-C OS i-l CM * OS COCOOS' josco .r--* I-H . -*-*oo g" : : -s QD i-H t^. Tf C) C> OO O T* i-H . < !-H ; ;^Hiooooocooico . .- .^' . T- * O 1 I l> " Oi iC O ^ C. . -t^cO -^CCCOOCOiO . . . -r-H OSCC^Oii-H / . OS -COO^O 00 *O< CD - .THOC0110 .o . -^ . . oo ^o -^ 10 os 10 1^- 05 o . . *o o o t-- . < irT of fcc'of i * o o o GO os 01 oo d < .0 . -OCO OOCO^HICCO -00 O < : S5 : 1C 'i-H" 11 .T3 fl -5S : CT3 *< :^t-?5 .CNOS . .CO .--H lO 7<|lO t^CO -T-H l^OIMC-l' CO 1 t i-H i I gland 1902. New Stat 2 :Sco- :5S?g :cSgi ^ .OCOO5 .COOt^iC . -r^ --' i*oc; .00 . - -co .co . . .ft . .T 'r-H 'CO 1 : 1 : 1 2 :SS :5S :S :cSJ co -iooi s- il li TJ a ,2 bS! 1 g'sl ^i: If 372 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. *-lt?8JY UJOQ UJOQ ui UJ03 'aeg ui uaog ;0 -o 'IBOQ 18UUT53 snoutran^tg paag : : ooo : : :::::: ujoo-uioojg (M (M O . . H OiCO -OO - CClCO -O5O -C 5OO C^ -OOO 3COCO -O .cpoco )t^OOO -OOOO -00t--000000 -OOOOOOt^ -00 -000000 * *** "^ ^ ^J* ^** ' ^ ^ -^f ^f ^f . f^* -*f Tf -^ . Tt< . ^fl ^ Tf .^fi .-t- . .; . _ / ,- ___ . . . C^l -(MC^ -O -QCOfMOl -U5 ^< * 10 * OO C^l O OO O t^ 00 -OOCOOO -OOOOOOC : g I * pq 2- J O 02 m OtfO 22 8 SS S .-J f 1 Ji ! ii C020O s I E Ip^l s^Sfil 374 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. -papaj paag paag SOTJO s^ag UOIUQ cooococo -coco -cococococo -cocococo .cocfc O -*O iO iC .kOiO^O *O fcO sauaaqu'BjQ paag uo^ 'JB8JV SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 375 cococo -co -co -co (MCOCO -CO -CO -CO o -o * 10 . .10 Tf co ** -co -co ..44 -Tf< ob -co .8 . . .pi *oo c^ o i->- 03 1-~ -t-- * ^2 1 C^l C*< cocococo co -co co -co x 9 p o -oo o -o -o Q -00 -OOOO OO -00 -00 I g ' 4 * "-- -_..-. -x a ^ 3 % ' '* * 1 -:::-::::: ::::::::::: ': ': ': |c^o g % :::::::: :g : : : :g :::::::: \z ^ j r _ o __ .... ii coco -co -C -00 -CO .. ooo o ::: : :g : : o . . o -o . .0 -CO 1C .10 CO -co -coco -O :8! punojQ | | : : >>ca -.-a? _* c^ SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 377 i8 i i oo oo .oSoS 0.0 . .-f . . OQ S "R ^^^^i5^ ' ' ' '!$ '^^5! ' '^ '^!^ u,5 i.010 ' 1 i .a ! . -!0 -0 -CO -50>0 I s ^1 fo^Th -CO . II f (M M .... ::::: a, ^ 11 & 1i ::::::::: :g ::::: :g : : : : : : : :g : 3^0 CO t 00 j :::::::: : : : : : : : :g : : : : : : : : : ? J ig : i : i ::::: i : i i i i ij w w S igg igSJ iggg i 1 9 B ::::::::::::::::: : ::::: to" PQ 9 tf lev, ! . -o .1 W PH 10 ->0 . .10 "S SS ^ Isl 03 jj - 3 8 ^ IE & fc ::::::::: '.^^ :::::::: : : : :^ : O W 010 p '.'.'.'.. ^ M aM C"O " ^,^, :^ ::::::::::::::: :^ : : M : : : : * lls ^ n n .n IIS 02 i i :g :g i i :g :g :::: II t H w SS :S i :S :S i^5 : :S i^SS i- i i- i W ....cs.-o coio : i q << i i i"" i i i i i i i i i i" i i i i? i i :3 : i | j 00000 -oo -ooooo -o -oo -ooooo -oo .ooooo - -o -soo SS i :S i | -o o .10 CO I -^ O : : M ::::::::::::::::::: 8 i i : i i i i i i i- i i i i i i i - i i- i i i S g|^ f ^ o o> ^ . . '. OMM rH M :::::: ::: :::: ^ ':: '. a"S ; till 378 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Copyright, 1904, by Muiiu & Co. COMPARISON OF CANNED GOODS PUT UP IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1900. CANS, TIN. Size of sheet for from 1 to 100 gallons. For For 25 gal. 30X56 in. gal. 10X20 in. ' 10X28 " 12X40 " 14X40 " 20X42 " 30X42 " This includes all the laps, seams, etc. Is sufficiently correct for all practical purposes. 40 50 75 100 36X63 " 40 X 70 " 40X84 " 40X98 " WIRE, to ARcertain Amount Required for Cable. For the length of a wire in a strand, add to a given length as many times the cir- cumference of the strand as there are twists in the given length, for the outside wires; and proportionately for the inner row. The centre wire is supposed to be straight. Pro- ceed in the same way for the strands. The excess of wire in each strand added to the excess of the strands over the length of the cable will give the whole length of wire used. CHAPTER XVI. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. CENTRAL ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER STATIONS, UNITED STATES: 1902. ITEMS. Total. Private sta- tions. Municipal stations. Number of stations. 3 620 2 805 815 Condensed statement income and expenses : Earnings from operation, total Arc lighting $84,186,605 $25 481 045 $77,349,749 $22 091 800 $6,836,856 $3 389 245 Incandescent lighting $44,657,102 $4l]297|484 $3 359 618 All other electric service $14 048 458 $13 960 465 $87 993 Income from all other sources ' Gross income $1,514,000 $85 700 605 $1,385,751 $78 735 500 $128,249 $6 965 105 Expenses, total $68 081 375 $62 835 388 $5 245 987 Salaries and wages Supplies, materials, and fuel Rents, taxes, insurance, and miscellaneous Interest on bonds $20,646,692 $22,915,932 $11,895,206 $12,623,545 $18,766,970 $20,493,641 $11,456,037 $12 118,740 $1,879,722 $2,422,291 $439,169 $504 805 Analysis of income. Aggregate . . $85 700 605 $78 735 500 $6 965 105 Arc lighting, total Commercial or other private Public $25,481,045 $8,460,320 $17 020 725 $22,091,800 $8,220,154 $13 871 646 $3,389,245 $240,166 $3 149 079 Incandescent lighting, total Commercial or other private Public. . . $44,657,102 $41,907,853 $2 749,249 $41,297,484 $39,039,557 $2,257,927 $3,359,618 $2,868,296 $491 322 Motor service $9 910 217 $9 839 677 $70 540 Electric railway service Electric heating $2,304,515 $39 213 $2,301,343 $39 155 $3,172 $58 Charging automobiles All other electric service All other sources Analysis of supplies, materials, and fuel : Aggregate cost $30,056 $1,764,457 $,1,514,000 $22 915 932 $29,959 $1,750,331 $1,385,751 $20 493 641 $97 $14,126 $128,249 $2 422 291 Meters Number . 27 632 25739 1 893 Cost $416 994 $390 569 $26 425 Motors Number 60 9 572 30 Cost Transformers Number $30,099 13 288 $29,202 7 843 $897 5 445 Cost ... $365 028 $326 407 $38 621 Incandescent lamps Number 8 839 905 8 399 571 440 334 Cost $1 507 249 $1 426 224 $81 025 Incandescent lamp fittings, sockets, etc., cost. . Carbons for arc lamps Number . $177,236 94 686 596 $154,517 82 156 930 $22,719 12 529 666 Cost Globes for arc lamps Number $1,051,386 485 073 $900,788 428 979 $150,598 56 094 Cost .... $170 929 $150 509 $20 420 Arc lamp repairs, cost Poles or other supports, cost Wire and cable cost $244,537 $346,587 $1 152 915 $212,231 $319,617 $1 081 380 $32,306 $26,970 $71 535 Mill supplies (oil, waste, etc.), cost . $712'797 $617 911 $94 886 All other materials cost $1 853 544 $1 747 896 $105 648 Power purchased, cost Freight paid, not included in other items 379 $2,130,759 $1,120,363 $2,007,193 $939,512 $123,566 $180,851 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. CENTRAL ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER STATIONS, UNITED STATES, 1902 Continued. ITEMS. Total. Private sta- tions. Municipal stations. Analysis of supplies, materials, and fuel Contin'd . Fuel, cost I $11 635 509 $10 189 685 $1 445 824 Coal- Tons 4 817 597 4 249 137 568 460 Cost $9 943 125 $8 749*394 $1 193 731 Crude petroleum, cost. . $721 838 $700 136 $21 702 Natural gas, cost Manufactured gas, cost. $254,269 $28 654 $220,460 $20 135 $33,809 $8 519 All other fuel, cost Average number of employees, total salaries, wages: Salaried officials and clerks Average number, total. . $687,623 6 996 $499,560 6 046 $188,063 950 Salaries, total $5,663,580 $5 206 199 $457 381 General officers Average number Salaries. . . . 1,587 $1 501 522 1,416 $1 465 471 171 $36 051 Other officers, managers, superintend- ents, etc. Average number Salaries Clerks- Average number Salaries 2,393 $2,445,227 3,016 $1 716 831 1,875 $2,088,298 2,755 $1 652 430 518 $356,929 261 $64 401 Wage-earners Average number, total. . 23 330 20 863 2 467 Wages, total $14,983,112 $13,560 771 $1 422 341 Foremen Average number Wages 1,000 1953 738 943 $910 972 57 $42 766 Inspectors Average number Wages 571 $415,904 546 $397,983 25 $17 921 Engineers Average number Wages 4,587 $3 259 870 3,743 $2 721 127 844 $538 743 Firemen Average number Wages Dynamo and switchboard men Average number 3,456 $1,963,465 1 978 2,951 $1,717,149 1 872 505 $246,316 106 Wages $1,351 676 $1 286 065 $65 611 Linemen Average number Wages 4,217 $2 710 841 3,868 $2 510 269 349 $200 572 Mechanics Average number Wages 1,057 $796 355 1,009 $768 694 48 $27 661 Lamp trimmers Average number 2 637 2 318 319 Wages $1,654 462 $1,460 046 $194 416 All other employees Average number 3 827 3 613 214 Wages Analysis of miscellaneous expenses: Total $1,876,801 $11 895 206 $1,788,466 $11 456 037 $88,335 $439 169 Rent of stations, supports, conduits, etc . . Rent of offices Taxes Injuries and damages Insurance. $1,011,691 $275,007 $2,665,005 $248,304 $893 567 $1,001,504 $270,446 $2,654,885 $246,545 $827 926 $10,187 $4,561 $10,120 $1,759 $65 641 Ordinary repairs of buildings and mach'y . . All other $2,701,747 $4 099 885 $2,480,217 $3 974 514 $221,530 $125 371 Electric line construction: Aggregate miles Mains. . . 107,263 63 93 352 95 13 910 68 Feeders 17 880 51 16 452 28 1 428 23 Lighting and stationary motor service, miles Mains, total Feeders, total 107,184.13 17,760.26 93,273.45 16,332.03 13,910.68 1,428.23 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 381 CENTRAL ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER STATIONS, UNITED STATES, 1902 Continued. ITEMS. Total. Private sta- tions. Municipal stations. Electric line construction Continued : U nderground 5 847.71 5,408.55 439 16 Feeders 2,276.55 2,262.02 14.53 Overhead- Mains 101,304.26 87,833.63 13,470 63 Feeders 15 472 34 14 061 50 1 410 84 Submarine Mains 32 16 31 27 89 Feeders Electric railway car service owned by lighting companies, miles Mains 11.37 79 50 8.51 79 50 2.86 Feeders 120.25 120.25 Power and generating equipment : Steam engines Number, total 5,930 4,870 1,060 Horsepower total 1,379 941 1,232 923 147 018 500 horsepower and under Number 5,451 4,407 1,044 Horsepower 849,336 715,418 133,918 Over 500 and under 1,000 horsepower Number . 278 266 12 193 570 184 670 8 900 1,000 horsepower and over Number 201 197 4 Horsepower 337,035 332,835 4,200 Water wheels Number, total 1,390 1,308 82 Horsepower total . . 438,472 427,254 11,218 500 horsepower and under Number . . . 1,187 1,107 80 Horsepower 173,903 164,325 9,578 Over 500 and under 1,000 horsepower Number 90 89 1 Horsepower 1,000 horsepower and over Number 57,816 113 57,176 112 640 1 Horsepower . . . 206 753 205 753 1,000 Gas engines Number. . .... 165 147 18 12 181 11 224 957 Auxiliary steam engines - Number 365 329 36 Horsepower Dynamos Number, total 14,454 12,484 13,619 10,662 835 1,822 Horsepower total 1,624 980 1,472,996 151,984 Direct current, constant voltage Number. . 3 823 3,405 418 Horsepower Direct current> constant amperage Number 442,446 3,539 418,913 2,957 23,533 582 Horsepower Alternating and polyphase current Number 195,531 5,122 157,768 4,300 37,763 822 Horsepower . ... 987,003 896,315 90,688 Boosters Number . . . 193 184 9 17 911 17 735 176 Rotaries 132 131 1 Horsepower Storage battery cells in main plants 63,817 6 881 63,683 5 981 134 900 Horsepower 16,355 16.335 20 Substation plants: 552 950 551 467 1 483 Storage battery cells Number 8 388 8,388 Horsepower 25,284 25,284 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. CENTRAL ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER STATIONS, UNITED STATES, 1902 Continued. ITEMS. Total. Private sta- tions. Municipal stations. Substation plants Continued: Transformers Number 2 525 4Qf) Horsepower 420 667 419 368 1 9QQ Rotary converters Number 163 162 1 Horsepower . 85 556 QC K.A(\ in Miscellaneous Number 140 1 OC Horsepower . . 21 443 21 9fiQ Transformers on circuits for consumers: Number 207 151 1 7Q 081 Horsepower 922 774 822 668 i on i OR Meters on consumers' circuits, total. 582 689 526 01 1 cc 78 Mechanical 575 004 518 428 56 576 Chemical 7 685 7 583 *102 Output of stations: Kilowatt hours Total for year 2 507 051 115 2 311 146 676 195 904 439 Average per day 6 960 783 6 413 012 ^47 771 Horsepower hours of current Total for year 3 341 943 090 3 083 212 074 258 731 016 Average per day 9 294 456 8 566 231 '728*925 Analysis of service : Arc lighting number of lamps in service Aggregate 385 698 334 903 50 795 Commercial or other private, total . . . Open 173,973 42 988 168,180 41 622 5*793 1 366 Inclosed. 130 985 126 558 4*427 Direct current . . . 104*176 101 849 2*327 Open 38 120 36 856 1 264 Inclosed Alternating current 66,056 67 538 64,993 64 085 1*063 Q 453 Open Inclosed. 3,733 63 805 3,631 60 454 102 3 351 All other Open. . 2,259 1 135 2,246 1 135 ' 13 Inclosed 1 124 1 111 13 Public, total 211 725 166 723 45 002 Open 138 684 108 082 30*602 Inclosed 73 041 58 641 14 400 Direct current 154 749 119 520 35*229 Open Inclosed. . 125,298 29 451 96,659 22 861 28*639 6 590 Alternating current 48 063 38 316 9*747 Open 4 630 2 681 1*949 Inclosed. 43,433 35 635 7*798 All other 8 913 8 887 26 Open. . 8 756 8 742 14 Inclosed Incandescent lighting lamps in service Aggregate 157 18 194 044 145 16 616 593 12 1 577 451 Commercial or other private, total. . 16-candlepower. . . 17,738,384 15 261 067 16,243,853 13 890 281 1,494,531 1 370 786 32-candlepower All other candlepower Public, total 16-candlepower. . . 514,679 1,962,638 455,660 296 776 484,246 1,869,326 372,740 235 842 ' 30*433 93,312 82,920 60 934 32-candlepower 59,988 47 063 12*925 All other candlepower 98 896 89 835 9061 Motors in service Stationary Number 101 064 qq ino 1 962 Horsepower 624 686 619 283 5*403 Railway car number of cars served . 2 379 2 370 * g Character of ownership: When installed Individual 1 041 Qfi4 77 Corporation 1 921 1 828 93 Municipal. . 658 fa fi45 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. CENTRAL ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER STATIONS, UNITED STATES, 1902 Continued. ITEMS. Total. Private sta- tions. Municipal stations. Character of ownership Continued: In 1902 Individual . 756 756 Corporation 2,049 2,049 Municipal 815 815 Character of service : Arc lighting Commercial or other private 2,020 1,667 353 Public 2,522 1,810 712 Incandescent lighting Commercial or other private. . . 3,484 2,752 732 Public 2491 1 889 602 Motor power 1 093 975 118 Electric railway All other 159 161 157 152 2 9 Stocks and bonds issued, total par value Capital stock : Authorized, total $639,125,363 $435,178,372 $627,515,875 $435,178,372 $11,609,488 Issued total $372 951 952 $372,951 952 $6 189 837 $6 189 837 Common Authorized $407 807 934 $407,807 934 Issued $349 080 281 $349 080 281 $5 560 341 $5 560 341 Preferred Authorized. $27 370 438 $27 370 438 Issued $23 871 671 $23 871 671 Dividends . $629 496 $629 496 Bonds: Authorized. . . . $320 743 376 $308 117 894 $12 625 482 Outstanding $266 173 411 $254' 563 *923 $11,609488 Interest $12 623 545 $12 118 740 $504 805 Cost of construction and equipment : To date. $504 740 352 $482 719 879 $22 020 473 During the year $41,792,447 $40,050,613 $1,741,834 COMPARATIVE VELOCITIES, PER SECOND. Snail (0.0394 inch), 1 millimeter. Pedestrian (39.37 inches) 1 meter = 1.09 ya. Horse, walking, 1.2 meters =1.31 yards. Pedestrian, quick walk, 2 meters = 2. 19 ya. Horse, trotting, 3.5 meters = 3.82 yards. Mild wind, 4 meters = 4.37 yards. Horse, galloping, 4.5 meters = 4.91 yards. Steamer, ordinary, 5 meters = 5.47 yards. Sail-boat, 8 meters =8.75 yards. Ocean steamer, 10 meters = 10.93 yards. Skater, 12 meters = 13.08 yards. Freight train, 12 meters = 13.08 yards. Gale, 17 meters = 18.53 yards. Passenger train, 18 meters = 19.62 yards. Carrier pigeon, 18 meters = 19. 62 yards. Bicycle, racing, 20 meters = 21. 87 yards. Race horse, 25 meters = 27.05 yards. Express train, 26 meters = 28. 14 yards. Swallow, 45 meters = 49.05 yards. Sound, 330 meters = 360. 70 yards. Rifle-ball (breech-loader), 430 meters = 468.70 yards. Cannon ball, 450 meters = 490.50 yards. Axial revolution of the earth at equator, 450 meters = 490.50 yards. Revolutions of the earth around the sun, 30 kilometers = 18.64 miles. Light, 300,000 kilometers = 186,400 miles. Electricity, 400,000 kilometers = 248,500 mi. Census Reports. TABLE OF ELEVATIONS OF OBJECTS ABOVE SEA LEVEL, WITH THEIR CORRESPONDING DISTANCES OF VISIBILITY. Height, in Feet. Distance, in Nauti- cal Miles. Height, in Feet. Distance, in Nauti- cal Miles. 5 10 15 20 25 2.555 3.614 4.426 5.111 5.714 50 100 250 500 1,000 8.081 11.428 18.070 25 . 555 36.140 Distances corresponding to heights not in- cluded in the above_table may be found by the formula D = ? V/ /J, in which tf = the ele- vation, or height, in feet, of the object above sea-level, and Z) = the corresponding distance of visibility, in nautical miles. The formula is based on the mean curvature of the earth and is corrected for ordinary atmospheric refraction. The distance of visibility of a light may be augmented by abnormal atmospheric re- fraction, which usually increases with the height of the barometer and a falling tem- perature. 384 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. HOW TO READ The dial marked "1 THOUSAND" in the accompanying illustration is divi- ded into hundreds ; the dial marked "10 THOUSAND" is divided into thou- sands; that marked "100 THOUSAND" into ten-thousands, and that marked "1 MILLION" into hundred-thousands. When 1,000 cubic feet of gas have been consumed, the pointer on the dial marked "1 THOUSAND" will have made a complete rotation and the fact will be indicated by the pointer of the next dial at the left, which will point to the figure 1. When 10,000 cubic feet of gas have been consumed, the point- er on the "10 THOUSAND" dial will point to 1, and so on. In reading a gas meter, put down the hundreds first, then the thousands, and so on, always counting the figure just under, or A GAS METER. which has just been passed by, the pointer. In the illustration about half a hundred is indicated on the "1 THOUSAND" dial, three thousands is indicated on the next dial, two ten- thousands on the next dial, and one one-hundred-thousands on the "1 MIL- LION" dial. The reading will be 123,- 050. The dial marked "TEN FEET" is called the units dial. It is used for testing the meter to discover whether it is in working order or not. Each mark represents a cubic foot and the com- plete circle 10 cubic feet. If the pointer moves when no gas is burning, it indicates a leak. If it does not move when the gas is burning, or if its motion is unsteady, it indicates a de- rangement in the mechanism and shows that the meter requires attention. CUBIC GAS METER INDICATOR DIALS. PAPER CURRENCY OF EACH DENOMINATION OUTSTANDING MAY 31, 1904. [Prepared by Treasurer's Office.] Denomination. United States Notes. Treasury Notes of 1890. National- bank Notes. Gold Cer- tificates. Silver Cer- tificates. Total. One dollar Dollars 1,923,494 Dollars. 636,992 Dollars. 345,145 Dollars. Dollars. 79,851,727 Dollars. 82,757 358 Two dollars 1,472,334 486,068 165,282 45,045,050 47 168 734 Five dollars 12,278,660 3,189,330 62,602,840 281,708,442 359,779 272 Ten dollars 243,517,011 5,679,520 188,067,250 39,648,331 476 912 112 Twenty dollars Fifty dollars 36,775,242 5,906,875 2,488,590 47,500 140,632,200 17,427,600 172,387,164 34,727,905 18,658,620 5,095,810 370,941,816 63,205 690 One hundred dollars Five hundred dollars One thousand dollars Fivethousand dollars 11,200,900 9,748,500 24,838,000 10,000 510,000 435,000' 36,591,500 95,500 24,000 51,145,300 14,236,000 56,908,500 49,590,000 1,493,020 50,000 111,000 100,940,720 24,130,000 82,316,500 49,600,000 Ten thousand dollars 10,000 110 980,000 110,990 000 Fractional parts .... 37,248 37,248 Total Unknown, destroyed 347,681,016 1,000,000 13,473,000 445,988,565 489,974,869 471,662,000 1,768,779,450 1,000,000 Net....' 346,681,016 13,473,000 445,988,565 489,974,869 471,662,000 1,767,779,450 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 385 AMOUNTS OF GOLD AND SILVER COIN AND CERTIFICATES, UNITED STATES NOTES, AND NATIONAL BANK NOTES IN CIRCULATION AND IN THE TREASURY MAY 1 AND JUNE 1, 1904, RESPECTIVELY. [NOTE. Population of the United States, June 1, 1904, estimated at 81,752,000; circula- tion per capita, $30.69.] Classification. General Stock of Money in the United States, June 1, 1904. Held in Treas- ury as Assets of Gov't., 1 June 1, 1904. Money in Circulation, June 1, 1904. Gold coin (including bullion in Treasury).. . . Gold certificates 2 Dollars. 1,313,120,868 Dollars. 217,592,391 Dollars. 644,894,548 450,633,929 Standard silver dollars Silver certificates 2 559,422,410 22,659,857 72,605,727 464,156,826 Subsidiary silver Treasury note" of 1890 . . 106,614,930 13,473,000 12,035,831 98,576 94,579,099 13,374,424 United States notes Currency certificates, act of June 8, 1872 2 . . . 346,681,016 9,376,636 337,304,380 National-bank notes 445,988,565 14,257,581 431,730,984 Total 2,785,300,789 276,020,872 2,509,279,917 1 This statement of money held in the Treasury as assets of the Government does not in- clude deposits of public money in national-bank depositaries to the credit of the Treasurer of the United States, and amounting to $106,849,757.45. 2 For redemption of outstanding certificates an exact equivalent in amount of the appro- priate kinds of money is held in the Treasury, and is not included in the account of money held as assets of the Government. PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES. Classification. May 31, 1904. Interest-bearing debt. . . Dollars. 895,157,430 00 Debt on which interest has ceased since maturity 2,109,950.26 Debt bearing no interest 391,321,769.38 Aggregate of interest and non-interest bearing debt Certificates and Treasury notes offset by an equal amount of cash in the 1.288,589,149.64 975 109 869 00 Aggregate of debt, including certificates and Treasury notes 2,263,699,018.64 GOLD BARS, VALUE $100 TO $8,000 EACH. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. -g 2^ S-t! o * - * S M-g X s.s*a p 3| i^ I gj pq oo o ca P5 ^ SOD -Z3 IH CO O ^ S & s aa Z^ a* so _ 5 :2 08 >-H TJ< iO O O C3 (O O O 1-1 OS IN iO ^H o c o o 3QQC5O O U ^ : < < SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 387 i* . i 1 " a - s, he ac G 2 " S>T.T. ^S?.^ 1 ^ "^T. ."! ~ - T.'gT.?". 7.177. n7.r. >?.T.^?. ^?. " g 1 1 ^ "O "d ^ "O T3 "O -T3 73"C^3T3T;T;T3l3 'da>TJT3'3T3T3?T3"C^"T3"3"3"3"S'T3 a> O F o'o cc "o'o'o lO 'o'o"o"o'o'o r o"o"o "o ft 'o "o "o "o "3 -^ "o "o ^ "o "o "o "o 'o "o Wxi OO OOO OOOOOOOOO O OOOOOoQOO OOOOOO '3 -** ^ i i a>J M c3 OCN cooo4* cioecSa635oosort o^cor^ooooo^H oscoo-^coo -,-< _: 3g .^3 * OS M^O5 i-i i-i CM X i-i OS X I-H TJH O ^ '*OMO^t*OO'O I-H CM r-H O 1-1 .Jj ^ ( ^ ^n3 ^ ! ] Z ti ^ & : :g : Ml : -g ::::::::::::: g | oo ||1 ^|^l|ll g : c || |||g gig L : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ^ 3 g a c3 I'o T) n o i : : : : : ::::::::::: :::::::: :::::: " 02 >2 222 222222"2222 !> 222" >2'2"22 2222'2 T3 "o 3 0*0 'o "o "o "3 "o 'o 'o "o "o 'o -^ 'o "o 'o -^ 'o "o "3 "o "3 "3 "3 "3 o "3 02O OOO OOOOOOOOOO02 OOO02OOOO OOOOOO : . : : :a"M ::::::: -s^ .:;*-*:; -o . . ... a +S e ' -. .5 . ^ IH . C ...;.. g c . ; . g-g . ^w >~ 8 1 : S-^ ^|2g :J : C : -2S 1|s : '|s C S|^S H cj S o3 ft 03 g g-g -.- g ^ JH.H 5 t C^IJ^Sl .S^^^!M ig S S M ! 2 S3 '5^13 g-^d -SSoSfe^oS li'Sl C I 00 flWW SSOOOHMW^JS"! ^Z^^^PHPHtf cw272HP^ t the average ma Straits Settlement ount, current at 1 388 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF GOLD AND SILVER FOR THE CALENDAR YEAR 1902. Fine oz. of gold, $20.671834 -f; fine oz. silver, $1.292929+, coining rate in U. S. silver dollars. Country G old. ! 1 Silver. Ounces (fine). Value. Ounces (fine). Coining Value. Commercial Value. North America: United States 3 870 000 $80 000 000 CK K.f)() ooo Mexico. . . 491 156 10 153 100 60 176 604 Canada Africa 1,003,355 1 887 773 20,741,200 39 023 700 4,303,774 5,564,500 2,281,000 Australasia Europe : Russia Austria-Hungary Germany Norway Sweden . 3,946,374 1,090,053 105,037 3,023 97 3 023 81,578,800 22,533,400 2 171,300 62,500 2,000 62 500 8,026,037 158,679 1,881,132 5,722,641 206,413 4fi 99fi 'lO,377,lb6' 205,200 2,432,200 7,399,000 266,900 '4,253,806 84,100 997,000 3,033,000 109,400 Italy. . . . 257 5 300 964 339 1 94fi 00 C1 1 1 A A Spain 494 10 200 q yon ion Portugal. . 63 1 300 3 773 4 QOO AAA Greece 1 090 188 1 409 500 577 800 Turkey. . . . 1 480 30 600 480 566 fi91 ^00 0X4 yAA Finland France. . . 63 1,300 8,679 384 339 11,200 496 900 4,600 03 700 Great Britain South America: Argentina. . . . Bolivia 5,626 1,451 228 116,300 30,000 4 700 173,208 37,720 12 992 641 223,900 48,800 1 6 7QS fiOO 91,800 20,000 6 886 100 Chile Colombia 27,825 122,031 575,200 2,522,600 3,566,792 1 776 604 4,611,600 2 297 000 1,890,400 941 600 Ecuador. . . . 9 675 200 000 7 736 10 oon 4 1 00 Brazil 96,488 1,994,600 Venezuela Guiana (British) 20,985 87,491 433,800 1,808,600 1,887 2,400 1,000 Guiana (Dutch) Guiana (French) Peru Uruguay. . 15,577 117,077 112,525 2 796 322,000 2,420,200 2,326,100 57 800 "'4,264,528' 755 's'.sisjbo' 1 000 '2,260,266 400 Central America. . . . Asia: Japan China 96,842 62,259 422,401 2,001,900 1,287,000 8,731,800 971,320 390,567 1,255,800 505,000 514,800 207,000 Korea. 169,313 3,500,000 India (British) ! 463,824 9,588,100 East Indies (British) 49,686 1,027,100 East Indies (Dutch) ! 27,312 564,600 118,302 152,900 62,700 Total 14,313,660 295,889,600 1 166,955,639 215,861,800 88,486,500 'GOLD BRICKS," SPURIOUS IMITATIONS, UNWARY. SOLD TO THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. COMPARATIVE VALUES OF ENGLISH AND UNITED STATES MONEY. 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 I 9 0.20 |10 0.22 111 0.24 0.49 0.73 0.97 1.22 1.46 1.71 1.95 2.19 2.44 2.68 2.92 3.17 3.41 3.65 3.90 4.14 4.38 4.63 4.87 9.74 14.61 19.48 24.35 29.22 34.09 38.96 43.83 48.87 HEIGHT OF BUILDINGS. Total height Building. from sidewalk, ft. Park Row Building, New York . American Surety Bldg., N. Y.. St. Paul Building, New York. . . Manhattan Life Bldg., N. Y Bowling Green Bldg., N. Y Pulitzer (World) Bldg., N. Y. . . Broad-Exchange Bldg., N. Y. . Wall St. Exchange Bldg., N. Y. 42 Broadway Bldg., New York. . Whitehall Bldg., New York 386 312 313 348 224 309 280 341 260 257 DIMENSIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL DOMES. Diana. Height, ft. ft. Pantheon, Rome 142 143 Cathedral, Florence 139 310 St. Peter's, Rome 139 330 Capitol, Washington, D. C. . . 135J- 287 St. Sophia, Constantinople. . . 115 201 Baths of Caracalla, (Ancient) Rome 112 116 St. Paul's, London 112 215 TUNNELS OF THE WORLD. Miles. Under. New York Subway (1904)* 23 City. London Metropolitan 13 City. Simplon, Switzerland 12 Mountain. St. Gothard 9 Mountain. Paris Underground (incom- plete) Mount Cenis, Switzerland. . . B. & O. Tunnel, Baltimore . . 7 Arlberg, Austria 6 "Tube" London 6 Hoosac Tunnel, Mass 4i Berlin, Underground 4^ Liverpool-Birkenhead 4^ 8$ City. 7\ Mountain. City. Mountain. City. Mountain. City. City and Mersey River. City. Boston, Mass., Subway * Other subways, tunnels, and spurs are progress. STRIKING THE IMPRESSION ON A GOLD PIECE AT THE MINT. 390 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. HEIGHT OF COLUMNS, SPIRES AND TOWERS. Feet. Eiffel Tower, Paris 1,000 Washington Monument, Washington, D.C. 555 Pyramid of Cheops 520 St. Peter's, Rome 518 Cologne Cathedral. . 501 Strasburg 486 Cathedral, Antwerp 476 St. Stephen's, Vienna, 465 Cathedral, Salisbury 450 Milan Cathedral 360 Cathedral, Cremona 397 St. Peter's, Rome 391 Cathedral, Florence 352 St. Paul's, London 366 Hotel des Invalides, Paris 344 Bunker Hill Monum't,Charlestown,Mass. 221 Leaning Tower of Pisa 179 Alexander Column, St. Petersburg 175 LENGTH OF A Name. Firth of Tay, Scotland Forth, Scotland THE WEIGHT OF BELLS. East River, New York. '. '. Brooklyn, New York Manhattan, New York. . . . Blackwell's Island, New York Washington Bridge, New York. . . . High Bridge, New York '. Niagara, below Falls, New York Niagara Freiburg, Germany Clifton, England Buda-Pest, Hungary Pounds Kremlin, Moscow 432,000 Amarapoora, Burmah 260.000 Pekin 130,000 St. Ivan's, Moscow , 127,800 Novgorod 62,000 Sacred Heart, Paris 55, 1 16 Sens 43,000 Vienna 40 200 Olmutz, Bohemia 40,000 Rouen 40.000 Erfurt 30,800 Westminster, "Big Ben" 30,300 Houses of Parliament, London 30,000 Notre Dame, Paris 28,600 Montreal 28,500 Cologne 25,000 City Hall, N. Y 22,500 FEW CELEBRATED BRIDGES. Length ft. Type. Girder. Cantilever. Suspension. Suspension. Suspension. Cantilever. Composite. Stone. Suspension. Niagara Cantilever. Niagara Suspension. Suspension. Avon. Suspension. Danube. 10,779 8,296 200 5,989 9,900 7,450 2,300 1,460 1,040 910 880 702 666 Spanning. Firth of Tay. Firth of Forth. East River. East River. East River. East River. Harlem River. Harlem River. River. River. $50,000 IN GOLD BARS AT THE U. S. MINT IN PHILADELPHIA. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 391 BALLOONS. In aerostation, a bag or hollow pear- shaped vessel, made of varnished silk or other light material, and inflated with some gas or vapor lighter than the air, as hydrogen, carbureted hy- drogen, heated air, etc., so as to rise find float in the atmosphere. When filled with gas it is called by way of distinction an AIR-BALLOON (aerostat, etc., Fr. ; luftball, luft-schiff, etc., Ger.) ; when with heated air a FIRE- BALLOON or MONTGOLFIER B. (balloon a feu, etc., Fr. ) . In the early days of aerostation, and indeed for some years afterwards, bal- loons were inflated with hydrogen gas, obtained by the action of sulphuric acid and water on iron filings or small fragments of iron ; but this method of filling them ultimately gave place to the cheaper and more convenient sup- ply afforded by the gas-light compa- nies. Of late years, the coal-gas fur- nished by the gas-works has been gen- erally, if not solely, used for the infla- tion of balloons. The principles of ballooning may be referred to the well-known difference in the specific gravity of bodies, and to the physical properties of the atmos- phere. Pure hydrogen, weighed at the bottom of the sea, is about 16 times lighter than common air ; but when prepared on the large scale, and con- taining water and other impurities, it is only from 7 to 11 times lighter than the atmosphere. A globe of atmos- pheric air 1 foot in diameter, under like circumstances, weighs 1-25 Ib. ; a similar globe of hydrogen (reckoning it only as 6 times lighter than common air), will, therefore, have an ascen- sional force of 1-30 Ib. Now the weight of the body of air which a bal- loon displaces must exceed the gross weight of the balloon and all its ap- pendages, in order for the latter to ascend in the atmosphere. The dif- ference of the two weights expresses the ascensional force. The aerostatic power of balloons is proportional to their dimensions, in the ratio of the cubes of their diameters. Thus, it ap- pears that a balloon of 60 feet diame- ter filled with common hydrogen will ascend with a weight of nearly 7,000 Ibs., besides the gas case ; whilst one of only l 1 /^ feet in diameter will barely float, owing to the less propor- tionate volume of gas to the weight of the case containing it. In round num- bers the buoyancy of a balloon may be reckoned as equal to 1 oz. for every cubic foot of hydrogen it contains, less the weight of the case and appen- dages. The carbureted hydrogen sup- plied by the gas-works is much heavier than hydrogen gas, and consequently much less buoyant, for which due al- lowance must be made. That which possesses the least illuminating power- is the lightest, and consequently the best adapted for aerostation. The fabric of which the cases of air-balloons are made is strong thin silk, covered with an elastic varnish of drying oil or india-rubber, or, what is better, a solution of india-rubber in either chloroform or bisulphide of car- bon : the netting is of strong light silk or flaxen cord ; and the car, of basket- work. Fire-balloons, on the small scale, are generally made of silver- paper, and are inflated with the fumes of burning alcohol by means of a sponge dipped in that liquid, and suspended just within the mouth of the apparatus. The following table will prove use- ful to the amateur aeronaut or bal- loonist : TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE DIAMETERS, SURFACES, AND CAPACI- TIES OF SPHERES. Diameters. Surfaces. Cubical content 1 3.141 .523 2 12.567 4.188 3 28.274 14.137 4 50.265 33.51 5 78.54 65.45 10 314.159 523.6 15 706.9 1767.1 20 1256.6 4189 25 1963.5 8181 30 2827 14137 40 5026 33510 Owing to the increasing rarity of the atmosphere as we ascend from the earth's surface, balloon cases are made very much larger than is required to contain the necessary quantity of gas, to allow for its expansion as it rises into a rarer medium. A cubical foot of gas measured at the level of the sea, occupies a space of two feet at an ele- vation of % l /2 miles. Cooley's Cyclo- pedia. 392 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. AERIAL NAVIGATION. No motive power machine suffi- ciently light and powerful to lift itself from the ground and maintain itself in the air for any considerable time has yet been invented. Aerial navigation is therefore at present limited to the use of balloons filled with light gas or hot air. Common coal gas is found to be the cheapest and most generally available gas for ballooning. 1,000 cubic feet of coal gas will lift 35 pounds weight. But hydrogen is the best gas for the purpose. 1,000 cubic feet of hydrogen gas will lift from 60 to 70 pounds. It is the lightest of all substances. It is fifteen times lighter than air, and over eleven thousand times lighter than water. One of the cheapest ways to make hydrogen for bp.lloons is to dissolve zinc in sulphuric acid ; the latter is composed of sul- phur and hydrogen. When the acid is poured on zinc, the sulphur unites with the metal and sets free the hy- drogen, which bubbles up, and is con- ducted in a pipe to the balloon. Vari- i ous efforts to propel and steer balloons have been made, by means of pro- pellers turned by hand ; also by the use of the electrical storage battery- Balloons are generally made of cotton cloth or silk, varnished with linseed oil, and dissolved rubber is sometimes mixed with the oil. HOW TO HARNESS A HORSE. Every one should know how to har- ness a horse, and our second engraving shows the harness placed on a horse with the buckles unfastened and an English collar. The first engraving shows the harness fastened to the shaft and a Dutch collar in place of the Eng- lish collar. If a Dutch collar is used, slip this over the horse's head, then put on the rest of the harness. If an English collar is used, reverse the col- lar so that the wide part will be up- permost, and force it over the horse's head, slipping it over the ears, then at the narrow part of the horse's neck turn the collar around so that the nar- row part will be uppermost and slip it back on to the horse's shoulders. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 393 If the hames are too tight to allow the collar to slip over the ears, unfasten the hames, and after the collar is on, buckle them once more in front. Next, put on the saddle and breeching, slip- ping the crupper over the horse's tail by doubling the hair of the tail with the right hand and slipping the crupper over the bunch thus formed, drawing out the hair completely through the crupper. Fasten the in- ner belly band, first passing it through the loop of the collar strap No. 15 or the martingale, and then pushing the saddle forward as far as the crupper will allow it to go. The time has now arrived to bridle the horse. The halter being removed, the horse's head is taken by the fore- lock with three fingers of the right hand, leaving the forefinger and thumb free, and holding the bridle in the left hand. Pass the head piece of the bridle to the thumb and forefinger of the right hand and slip the bit into the horse's mouth with the left hand, which is then raised to assist the right hand in pulling the head piece back over the horse's ears. Should there be any difficulty in making the horse open his mouth, the bit should be held to his teeth while dangling from the right hand, and then with the thumb and second finger of the left hand press the gums of the horse's mouth at the junction of the lips gently against the teeth. This will quickly force any horse to open his mouth. When the bit is in place, the throat strap is buckled. If a curb bit is used, the A HORSE HARNESSED WITH THE BUCKLES UNFASTENED. 1, is the brow band; 2, nose band; 3, blinders; 4, head band; 5 and 6, throat strap; 7, bit; 8 and 9, reins; 10, hame fastener; 11, check rein; 12, collar; 13, terrets; 14 and 15, collar straps; 16, martingale; 17 and 18, traces; 19, inner bellyband; 20, outer bellyband; 21, part of inner bellyband; 22, shaft loops; 23, saddle; 24, check-rein hook; 25, saddle terrets; 26, crupper strap; 27, breeching sjtr?ip; 28 and 29, crupper; 30, breeching; 31 -32, and 33, hold-back straps. 394 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. curb chain must be twisted until it becomes flat, and then hooked, pass- ing under the jaw of the horse to the curb chain hook in the opposite side of the bit. The reins are now buckled in the slots at the curb next below the bit ring. Lift up the shafts above the horse's back, then draw up the car- riage, slipping the ends of the shafts through the shaft tugs on the sides of the saddle. The traces are then run through the loop at the side of the shafts and secured to the trace hooks on each side of the whiffletree. After the traces are taut, fasten the breech- ing or hold-back straps. PASSPORTS. Passports are granted and issued by the Secretary of State and by diplo- matic representatives of the United States and foreign countries, or by United States Consuls. The fee is $1, and the necessary blank and full information as to the procedure re- quired will be sent on request. Ad- dress the Secretary of State, Wash- ington, D. C. ACCIDENTS IN FACTORIES. The Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the State of New York for 1899 gives some inter- esting figures. In April, May, June, 1899, the figures (New York State) are as follows : ACCIDENTS IN APRIL, MAY, JUNE, 1899. INDUSTRIES. FIRMS REPORTING. Establish- ments in which ac- cid'ts oc- curred. INJURIES. Establish- ments. Employ- ees Jun.30 Employ- ees injured in this period. Propor- tionate number in one year. Per ann'm in each 1,000 employed. Stone and clay products Metals, machinery, apparatus Wood 277 1,321 536 343 163 105 576 327 514 474 26 269 19,764 123,467 31,482 31,169 13,164 8,201 38.293 59,709 65,220 45,600 7,043 9,313 39 260 84 20 32 27 58 53 16 66 11 25 75 817 145 25 145 87 88 135 22 178 69 61 300 3,268 580 100 580 348 352 540 88 712 276 244 15.18 26.47 18.42 3.21 44.06 42.43 9.19 9.04 1.35 15.61 37.28 26.20 Leather, rubber, pear!, etc ... Chemicals, oils, explosives. . . Pulp, paper, etc Textiles Ctothing, millinery, launder- Food tobacco, liquors Distribution of water, gas, Building industry Total.. 4,931 452,425 691 1,847 7,388 16.33 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. CAUSE OR AGENT OF ACCIDENTS IN NEW YORK. Machinery. Engines, power transmission, belts, etc. . 46 Lifting apparatus 50 NATURE OF INJURIES. Fatal 29 Non-fatal: Internal . 29 Circular saws 102 135 319 652 110 26 115 374 197 54 71 193 1,792 55 622 556 128 42 1,348 27 161 282 29 Head and face, except the eye 191 Presses and stamping machines Other machines and machine tools Total Machinery Arms and hands 336 Fingers 638 Legs and feet 381 Other parts of the body or several parts at once 197 Not reported. .... 35 Hand tools (saws, axes, etc.) Explosives of all kinds Hot liquids, steam, acids, etc Fall of objects, collapse of structures, etc. Fall of the person ... . Total . . 1 847 FATAL ACCIDENTS IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS. Period. Rate per 1,000 Railroad brakemen. ... 1900-02 15.8 Gloucester fishermen ... 1892-00 13.2 Gunpowder manufacture . . . .-00 10.5 Railroad switchmen and Loading, unloading, etc., by hand Vehicles and animals All other Grand Total Cause not reported PERIOD OF DISABILITY. Not over one week : Less than one day 45 One day 85 From 2 to 7 days 492 Railroad firemen 1900 02 7 2 From one week to one month: Over 1 to 2 weeks 292 Railroad engineers 1900-02 6.8 Dynamite manufacturers ....-00 6.7 Railroad conductors ... 1900-02 6.1 Anthracite coal miners 1892-01 5 . 6 Bituminous mine labor- ers 1892-01 4 7 Over 2 to 3 weeks 169 Over 3 to 4 weeks 95 Over 1 month to 2 months Over 2 months (but less than '3 Anthracite mine labor- ers 1892-01 4.6 TY>t al Lead and zinc miners of Missouri 1892-01 3.3 Total days lost. . 19,980 Metal miners of Colorado 1896-01 3 . 2 Copper miners of Mon- tana 1891-00 2 8 Average days lost per capita . . 15 Still disabled at time of report (June 30) Anthracite fire-bosses. . 1892-01 2 . 5 Paid firemen in cities. . . 1885-00 2 . 5 Bituminous coal miners. 1892-01 2 . 2 It is shown by this table that railroad brake- men have the highest fatal accident figure, No time lost (i.e. less than one hour) . Time lost not reported Fatal accidents Total . . 1.847 ina and Minina Journal. ANNUAL FIRE LOSSES IN THE UNITED STATES FOR FOURTEEN YEARS 1890-1903 CHRONICLE FIRE TABLES. Years. Aggregate Property Loss. Aggregate Insurance Loss. Years: Aggregate Property Loss. Aggregate Insurance Loss. 1890 1891 1892 $108,993,792 143,764,967 151,516,098 $65,015,465 90,576,918 93,511,936 1897 1898 1899. . $116,354,575 130,593,905 153,597,830 $66,722,145 73,796,080 92,683,715 1893 1894. 167,544,370 140,006,484 105,994,577 89,574,699 1900 1901. 160,929 805 165,817,810 95,403,650 100 798 645 1895 142,110,233 84,689,030 1902. . 161,078,040 94,460,525 1896 118,737,420 73,903,800 1903 145,302,155 Total property loss in the United States in 14 years $3,371,912,031 Total insurance loss in the United States in 14 years 1,988,644,949 Total property loss, United States and Canada, Jan. 1, 1904, to Sept. 1, 1904 194,172,850 396 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF FIRE. BY CHIEF EDWARD F. CROKER OF THE NEW YORK FIRE DEPARTMENT. In case of fire immediately send alarm from the nearest alarm box; wait at alarm box until the arrival of the firemen so as to notify them as to the location of the fire. Occupants of premises should endeavor to ex- tinguish fire, if possible, previous to the arrival of the firemen, but do not delay an instant in sending in alarm. Keep cellars and closets under stair- ways entirely free from rubbish. Al- ways endeavor to keep perfectly cool until the arrival of the Department ; do not jump, as the firemen will save you, and are very prompt in reaching the scene of a fire once the alarm is turned in. Keep small chemical fire extinguishers on each floor in all build- ings. In case of fire, endeavor to keep all doors shut, thereby avoiding draughts and preventing the rapid ex- tending of fire. THE COST OF LIVING. July 1. Bread- stuffs. Meats. Dairy and Garden. Other Food. Clothing. Metals. Miscella- neous. Total. 1860 20 . 530 8.973 12 . 662 8.894 22.439 25.851 15.842 115.191 1861 15.749 7.485 10.813 7.653 21.147 22.500 16.573 101.920 1862 . 18.057 7.150 13.406 10.987 28.413 23.207 17.290 118.510 1863 26.154 10.115 13.530 16.359 45 . 679 37.079 24.264 173.180 1864 1865 45.616 25.404 15.685 16.112 26.053 18.049 27.303 21.057 73.485 49.307 59.192 38.956 31 . 653 25.551 278.987 194.436 1866 . 31.471 17.153 23.472 20.821 45.377 41 . 762 27.922 207.978 1867 36 537 14 278 18.418 20.167 38.169 35.426 25.529 188.524 1868 . . 38.416 13.210 23.614 19.720 35.694 27.385 24 . 786 182.825 1869 29 116 13 181 18.121 16.347 35.309 28 . 355 24.201 164.630 1870 . . 1871 . 25.322 24 809 14.161 12.177 16.112 20.799 13.308 13.823 31 . 480 30.624 26.612 27.371 21.786 21.907 148.781 151.510 1872 1873 . 22.171 20 460 11.055 10.114 16.019 15.629 14.845 13.625 32.427 29.411 32.643 32 . 298 21.319 21.552 150.479 143.089 1874 1875 . . . 25.657 24 848 11.560 13.287 19 . 142 14.918 13.678 14.418 27.260 25.318 25.254 23.515 19.582 18.398 143.133 134.702 1876 18.777 10.726 15.912 12.914 21.747 20.452 15.951 116.479 1877 .... 21.812 10.036 11.790 13.321 21 . 850 15.578 15.160 109.547 1878 15 672 8 181 10.608 11.346 19.836 15.789 14.836 96.268 1879 17.054 8.239 10.253 9.884 20.420 15.149 16.286 97.285 1880 . . 17 461 9 230 12.594 11.539 21.984 18.708 17.139 108.655 1881 20.369 11.381 11.311 11.663 20.982 19.295 16.900 111.901 1882 25 494 13 740 14.685 11.627 21 . 202 19.832 16.650 123.230 1883 19.018 11.210 12.250 10.726 20.209 18.071 15.764 107.248 1884 . . 17 871 11.172 11.369 9.323 19.014 16.272 14.685 99 . 706 1885 1886 .... 16.370 15 311 9.205 8.906 10.872 10.241 8.712 8.570 17.740 18.063 14.132 14.466 13.666 13.669 90.697 89 . 226 1887 15 156 8 667 11.188 9.252 18.174 16.035 15.153 93.624 1888 . . 16.984 9.416 11.849 9.917 17.447 15.366 14.155 95.134 1889 14 351 8 244 9.695 10.912 17.107 14.782 14.600 89.691 1890 1891 14.867 19 782 8.036 9.217 10.711 12.455 9.749 9.339 17.264 16.501 15.506 15.107 15.416 13.691 91 . 549 96.092 1892 17.426 8.700 10.403 8.733 15.648 14.827 14.252 90.105 1893 1894 14.963 15 115 10.135 9 389 11.710 10 394 9.188 8.478 15.871 13.860 14.030 12.015 14.716 14.041 90.613 83.292 1895 .... 14.765 8.622 9.874 8.689 15.315 11.021 13.233 81.519 1896 10 504 7 058 7.872 8.529 13.602 13.232 13.520 74.317 1897 1898 10.587 12 783 7.529 7.694 8.714 9 437 7.887 8.826 13.808 14.663 11.642 11.843 12.288 12.522 72.455 77.768 1899 13.483 7.988 10.974 9.157 15.021 15.635 12.969 85.227 1900 1901 1902 1903 14.898 14.904 20.534 17 473 8.906 9.430 11.628 9 269 10.901 11.030 12.557 13 083 9.482 9.086 8.748 9 186 16.324 15.098 15.533 17.136 14.834 15.344 16.084 16.544 16.070 16.617 16.826 16.765 91.415 91 . 509 101.910 99.456 1904 18.244 9.033 10 . 648 10.406 16.514 15.428 16.919 97.192 NOTE. Breadstuffs include many quotations of wheat, corn, oats, rye, and barley, be- sides beans and peas; meats include live hogs, beef, sheep, and many provisions, lard, tallow, etc.; dairy and garden products include eggs, vegetables and fruits; other foods include fish, liquors, condiments, sugar, rice, tobacco, etc.; clothing, includes the raw material of each industry, and many quotations of woolen, cotton and other textile goods, as well as hides, leather, boots and shoes ; metals include various quotations of pig iron, and partially manu- factured and finished products, as well as minor metals, coal, and petroleum. The mis- cellaneous class embraces many grades of hard and soft lumber, lath, brick, lime, glass, turpen- tine, hemp, linseed-oil, paints, fertilizers, and drugs. Dun's Review. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 397 03 t~ TRILL o* SHAKE fa* HOLD, OK'PAUSE ^ REPEAT'. STACCATO MARKS, ff TIE X"-X ^7/1 CAPO Xt.C. fiL SEGNO D.S. $: SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Key of C. Key of G. Key of I). Key of A. Key of F. Key of B Flat. RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD. Roman Catholics 216,000,000 Protestants 137,000,000 Greek, Armenian and Abyssinian Churches. . Total of Christians 448,000,000 Buddhists and Brahmins 672,000,000 Mohammedans 200,000,000 Jews 7,000,000 Other creeds 125,000,000 Total non-Christiana 1,004,000,000 THE CHRISTIAN ADVOCATE'S TABLE OF DENOMINATIONS. Summary for 1903. Denominations. Ministers. Churches. Communi- cants. Adventists (6 bodies). . . . 1,556 2,377 89,470 Baptists (13 bodies) .- Brethren (River) (3 bodies) Brethren (Plymouth) (4 bodies) 35,829 151 51,492 108 314 4,725,775 3,605 6,661 Catholics (8 bodies) 13,422 11,185 9,891,869 Catholic Apostolic. 95 10 1,491 Chinese Temples 47 Christadelphians Christian Connection Christian Catholics (Dowie) Christian Missionary Association Christian Scientists Church of God (Winebrennarian) Church of the New Jerusalem Communistic Societies (6 bodies) Congregationalists Disciples of Christ .... ' ' 1,348 104 10 1,118 460 143 ' '6,213 6,567 63 1,340 110 13 559 580 144 22 5,891 11,157 1,277 101,597 40,000 754 60,283 38,000 7,969 3,084 659,704 1,235,798 Dunkards (4 bodies) 3,231 1,171 115,194 Evangelical (2 bodies). . 1,415 2,642 162,998 1,354 1,093 116,555 Friends of the Temple 4 100 4 155 340 20.000 German Evangelical Synod Jews (2 bodies) 945 301 1,213 570 209,791 143,000 Latter-Day Saints (2 bodies) Lutherans (22 bodies) Swedish Evangelical Miss. Covenant Mennonites (12 bodies) Methodists (17 bodies) 1,525 7,343 291 1,138 39,634 1,324 12,275 307 673 57,572 342,072 1,715,910 33,400 59,892 6,192,494 Moravians Presbyterians (12 bodies) 127 12,393 115 15,452 16,095 1,661,522 5,150 6,867 782 543 Reformed (3 bodies) . 1,919 2,491 390,578 Salvation Army 2,361 696 25,009 Schwenkfeldians Social Brethren Society for Ethical Culture 3 17 4 20 4 306 913 1 500 Soiritualists Theosoohical Society 334 70 45,030 1,900 United Brethren (2 bodies). . . 2,368 4,861 280,114 Unitarians 540 452 71,000 Universalists 734 786 53,538 Independent Congregations Grand total in 1903. . 54 149,963 156 196,719 14,126 29,323,158 Grand total in 1902.. . 147,732 194,072 28,840,699 PART II. CHAPTER I. GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS. GEOMETRICAL FIGURES. 1. ACUTE ANGLE. An acute angle is less than a right angle, or less than 90 degrees. 2. ALTERNATE ANGLES. The internal an- gles made by two lines with a third, on oppo- site sides of it. If the two lines are parallel, the alternate angles are equal. If the par- allels AD, CD, be cut by the line EF, the angles AGH, GHD, as also the angles BGH and GHC, are called alternate angles. 3. ARC. Any part of the circumference of a circle or other curve; a segment of a circle. 4. 5, 6, and 7. CONIC SECTIONS. Formed by the intersections of cones and planes. The conic sections are the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola. If the section be taken parallel to the base of the cone its outline will form a perfect circle. If the section be taken parallel to one side of the cone it will in outline have the form of a parabola (6). If the section be taken parallel to the axis of the cone its outline will have the form of a hyperbola (7). Any other section through the cone will in outline have the form of an ellipse (5). 8. CHORD. A right line marking the ex- tremities of the arc of a circle. 9. CIPCLE. 1. In geometry, a plane figure, comprehended by a single curve line, called its circumference, every part of which is equally distant from a point called the center. Of course all lines drawn from the center to the circumference, or periphery, are equal to each other. 2. In popular use, the line that com- prehends the figure, the plane or surface com- prehended, and the whole body or solid matter of a round substance, are denominated a cir- cle; a ring; an orb; the earth. 10. CURVE. A curve line is one which may be cut by a right line in more points than one. A curve line is that which is neither a straight line nor composed of straight lines. 11. CUBE. A regular, solid body with six equal square sides. 12. CYLINDER. A solid body supposed to be generated by the rotation of a parallelo- gram round one of its sides ; or a long, circular body, of uniform diameter, and its extremi- ties forming equal parallel circles. 13. DIAGONAL. The line extending from one angle to another of a quadrilateral or multilateral figure, and dividing it into two parts. 14. DIAGRAM. A figure, draught, or scheme delineated for the purpose of demon- strating the properties of any figure, as a square, triangle, circle, etc. 1 5. DIAMETER. A right line passing through the center of a circle, or other curvilinear fig- ure, terminated by the curve, and dividing the figure symmetrically into two equal parts. 16. ELLIPSE. In conic sections, a figure formed by the intersection of a plane and cone when the plane passes obliquely through the opposite sides of the cone. 17. EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE. A triangle having all three sides equal. 18. HEXAGON. A plane figure of six sides and six angles. If the sides and angles are equal, it is a regular hexagon. The cells of honey-comb are hexagons, arid it is remark- able that bees instinctively form their cells of this figure, which fills any given space without any interstice or loss of room. 19. HYPOTHENUSE. The subtense or longest side of a right-angled triangle, or the line that subtends the right angle. 20. RECTANGULAR TRIANGLE. If one of the angles of a triangle is a right angle, the triangle is rectangular. 21. RIGHT ANGLE. A right angle is one formed by a right line falling on another per- pendicularly, or an angle of 90 degrees, mak- ing the quarter of a circle. 22. ISOSCELES TRIANGLE. If two of the sides only are equal in a triangle it is an isos- celes or equicrural triangle. 23. OBLIQUE LINE. An oblique line is one that, falling on another, makes oblique angles with it. 24. OBTUSE ANGLE. An angle greater than a right angle, or containing more than 90 degrees. 25. SCALENE TRIANGLE. One in which all the three sides are unequal. 26. SECANT. The secant of a circle is a line drawn from the circumference on one side to a point without the circumference on the other. 27. OVAL. A body or figure in the shape of an egg, or of an ellipse. 28. PARALLELOGRAM.- 1. In geometry, a right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose oppo- site sides are parallel, and consequently equal. 2. In common use, this word is applied to quadrilateral figures of more length than breadth, 29. SECTOR. A part of a circle compre- hended between two radii and the included arc; or a mixed triangle, formed by two radii and the arc of a circle. 30. PARALLELOPIPED. A regular solid com- prehended under six parallelograms, the op- posite ones of which are similar, parallel, and equal to each other; or it is a prism whose base is a parallelogram. It is always triple to a pyramid of the same base and height. Or a 400 f SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. \ LJ SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 401 O \c rj A 56 402 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. parallelepiped is a solid figure bounded by six faces, parallel to each other, two and two. 31. PARALLEL LINES. One line is parallel to another, when the lines are at an equal dis- tance apart throughout the whole length. 32. SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE. That part of the circle contained between a chord and an arc of that circle, or so much of the circle as is cut off by the chord. The segment of a sphere is a part cut off by a plane. 33. PENTAGON. A plane figure having five angles, and consequently five sides. 34. PERPENDICULAR. In geometry, a line falling at right angles on another line, or mak- ing equal angles with it on each side. Thus if the straight line AD, falling on the straight line BC, make the angles BAD, DAC equal to one another, AD is called a perpendicular to BC. 35. QUADRANGLE. A plane figure having four angles, and consequently four sides. 36. RECTANGLE. A four-sided figure hav- ing only right angles. A right-angled paral- lelogram. 37. QUADRANT. The quarter of a circle or of the circumference of a circle. 38. QUADRILATERAL. Having four sides, and consequently four angles. 39. TANGENT. In the figure, let AH be a straight line drawn touching the circle ADE at A, one extremity of the arc AB, and meet- ing the diameter IB produced, which passes through the other extremity B to the point H ; then A H is the tangent of the arc AB, or of the angle ACB, of which AB is the measure. 40. RADIUS. A right line drawn or extend- ing from the center of a circle to the periphery ; the semidiameter of the circle. In trigonom- etry, the radius is equal to the sine of 90 de- grees. 41. TRAPEZIUM. A plane figure contained under four right lines, of which no two are parallel. 42. TRAPEZOID. A plane, four-sided figure, having two of the opposite sides parallel to each other. 43. REFLECTION. In the figure, let A B represent a smooth polished surface, or mirror, and suppose a ray of light proceeding in the direction LP to impinge on the surface at P, and to be reflected from it in the direction PR. Fr.om P draw PQ perpendicular to AB, then the angle LPQ is called the angle of incidence, and QPR the angle of reflection. 44. SUPERFICIES, A superficies consists of length and breadth; as, the superficies of a plate or of a sphere. Superficies is recti- linear, curvilinear, plane, convex, or concave. 45. RHOMBOID. A figure having some re- semblance to a rhomb; or a quadrilateral figure whose opposite sides and angles are equal, but which is neither equilateral nor equiangular. 46. SEMICIRCLE. The half of a circle; the part of a circle comprehended between its diameter and half of its circumference. 47. SQUARE. A rectilinear figure having four equal sides and four right angles. 48. RECTILINEAR TRIANGLE. One in which the three lines or sides are all right lines, as distinguished from curvilinear triangle. 49. RHOMB. RHOMBUS. An oblique-angled, equilateral parallelogram, or a quadrilateral figure whose sides are equal and the opposite sides parallel, but the angles unequal, two of the angles being obtuse and two acute. 50. SINE. In the circle ACH, let AOH be a diameter, and let CE be perpendicular there- to; then shall CE be the sine of the arc CH, or of the angle COH, and of its supplement CO A. The sine of a quadrant, or of a right angle, is equal to the radius. The sine of any arc is half the chord of twice that arc. 51. ACUTE-ANGLED TRIANGLE. One hav- i ng all three of its angles acute. 52. AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE. One hav- ing all the three sides equal. 53. POLYGON. A plane figure of many an- gles, and consequently of many sides; par- ticularly, one whose perimeter consists of more than four sides. 54. OBTUSANGULAR TRIANGLE. If one of the angles of a triangle is obtuse, the triangle is called obtusangular or amblygonous. 55. CURVILINEAR AND SPHERICAL TRIAN- GLES. If the three sides of a triangle are all curves, the triangle is said to be curvilinear. If the sides are all arcs of great circles of the sphere, the triangle is said to be spherical. 56. MIXTILINEAR TRIANGLE. If some of the sides of a triangle are right and others curve, the triangle is said to be mixtilinear. GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS/ 1. To divide a given line A B into two equal parts; and to erect a perpendicular through the middle. With the end A and B as centers, draw the dotted circle arcs with a radius greater than half the line. Through the crossings of the arcs draw the perpendicular C D.which divides the line into two equal parts. 2. From a given point C on the line A B, erect a perpendicular C D. With C as a center, draw the dotted circle arcs at A and B equal distances from C. With A and B as centers, draw the dotted circle arcs at D. From the crossing D draw the required perpendicular D C. 3. From a given point C at a distance from the line A B, draw a perpendicular to the line. With C as a center, draw the dotted circle arc so that it cuts the line at A and B. With A and B as centers, draw the dotted cross arcs at D with equal radii. Draw the required per- pendicular through C and crossing D. 4. At the end of A to a given line A B, erect a perpendicular A C. With the point D as a center at a distance from the line, and with A D as radius, draw the dotted circle arc so that it cuts the line at E through E and Z>, draw the diameter E C; then join C and A, which will be the required perpendicular. * Copyright, 1895, by J. B. Lippincott Co. Published by special permission of, and arrange- ment with Messrs. J. B. Lippincott Co. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 403 5. Through a given point C at a distance from the line A B, draw a line C D parallel to A B. With C as a center, draw the dotted arc ED, with E as a center, draw through C the dotted arc F. C. With the radius F C and E as a center, draw the cross arc at D. Join C with the cross at D, which will be the required parallel line. On a given line A B and at the point B, con- struct an angle equal to the angle C D E. With D as a center, draw the dotted arc C E; and with the same radius and B as a ce ter, draw the arc G F; then make G F equal to C E; then join B F, which will form the required angle, F B G = C D E. Divide the angle A C B into two equal parts. With C as a center, draw the dotted arc D E; with D and E as centers, draw the cross arcs at F with equal radii. Join C F, which divides the angle into the required parts. Angles A CF = FCB = ^(A C B). 8. Divide an angle into two equal parts, when the lines do not extend to a meeting point. Draw the lines C D and C E parallel, and at equal distances from the lines A B and F G. With C as a center, draw the dotted arc B G; and with B and G as centers, draw the cross arcs H. Join C H, which divides the angle into the required equal parts. 9. To construct a parallelogram, with the given sides A and B and angle C. Draw the base line D E, and make the angle F D E = C; lines D E = B and D F = A; com- plete the parallelogram by cross arcs at G, and the problem is thus solved. 10. To divide the line A B in the same propor- tion of parts as A C. Join C and B, and through the given divi- sions 1, 2, and 3 draw lines parallel with C B, which solves the problem. 11. To find the center of a circle which will pass through three given points A, B, and C. With B as a center, draw the arc D E F G; and with the same radius and A as a center, draw the cross arcs D and F; also with C as a center, draw the cross arcs E and G. Join D and F, and also E and G, and the crossing o is the required center of the circle. 12. To construct a square upon a given line A B. With A B as radius and A and B as centers, draw the circle arcsA E D and B E C. Divide the arc B E in two equal parts at F, and with E F as radius, and E as center, draw the circle C F D. Join A and C B and D, C and D, which completes the required square. 13. Through a given point A in a circumference, draw a tangent to the circle. Through a given point A and center C, draw the line B C. With A as a center, draw the circle arcs B and C; with B and C as cen- ters, draw the cross arcs D and E; then join D and E, which is the required tangent. 14. From a given point A outside of a circum- ference, draw a tangent to the circle. Join A and C, and upon A C as a diameter draw the half circle ABC, which cuts the given circle at B. Join A and B, which is the re- quired tangent. 15. To draw a circle with a given radius R, that will tangent the circle A B C at C. Through the given point C, draw the diam- eter A C extended beyond D; from C set off the given radius R to D; then D is the center of the required circle, which tangents the given circle at C. 16. To draw a circle with a given radius R, that will tangent two given circles. Join the centers A and B of the given circles Add the given radius R to each of the radii of the given circle, and draw the cross arcs C, which is the center of the circle required to tangent the other two. 17. To draw a tangent to two circles of different diameters. Join the centers C and c of the given circles, and extend the line to D; draw the radii A C and a c parallel with one another. Join A a, and extend the line to D. On C D as a diam- eter, draw the half circle C e D; on c D as a I diameter, draw the half circle c f D; then the crossings e and / are the tangenting points of the circles. 18. To draw a tangent between tw9 circles. Join the centers C and c of the given circles ; draw the dotted circle arcs, and join the cross- ing m, n, which line cuts the center line at a. With a C as a diameter, draw the half circle a f C; and with a c as a diameter, draw the half circle c e a; then the crossings e and / are the tangenting points of the circles. 19. With a given radius r, draw a circle that will tangent the given line A B and the given circle C D. Add the given radius r to the radius R of the circle, and draw the arc c d. Draw the line c e parallel with and at a distance r from the line A B. Then the crossing c is the center of the required circle that will tangent the given line and circle. 20. To find the center and radius of a circle that will tangent the given circle A B at C, and the line D E. Through the given point C, draw the tangent G F; bisect the angle F G E; then o is the center of the required circle that will tangent A B at C, and the line D E. 21. To find the center and radius of a circle that 404 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. will tangent the given line A B at C, and the circle D E. Through the point C, draw the line E F at right angles to A B; set off from C the radius r of the given circle. Join G and F. With G and F as centers draw the arc crosses m and n. Join m n, and where it crosses the line E F is the center for the required circles. 22. To find the center and radius of a circle that will tangent the given line A B at C, and the circle D E. From C, erect the perpendicular C G; set off the given radius r from C to H. With H as a center and r as radius, draw the cross arcs on the circle. Through the cross arcs draw the line / G; then G is the center of the circle arc F I C, which tangents the line at C and the circle at F. 23. Between two given lines, draw two circles that will tangent themselves and the lines. Draw the center line A B between the given lines; assume D to be the tangenting point of the circles; draw D C at right angles to A B. With C as center and C D as radius, draw the circle E D F. From E, draw E m at right angles to E F; and from F draw F m at right angles to F E ; then m and n are the centers for the required circles. 24. Draw a circle that, will tangent two given lines A B and C D inclined to one another and the one tangenting point E being given. Draw the center line G F. From E, draw E F at right angles to A B; then F is the center of the circle required. 25. Draw a circle that will tangent two lines and go through a given point C on the line F C, which bisects the angle of the lines. Through C draw A B at right angles to C F; bisect the angles DAB and E B A, and the crossing on C F is the center of the required circle. 26. To draw a cyma, or two circle arcs that will tangent themselves, and two parallel lines at given points A and B. Join A and B; divide A B into four equal parts and erect perpendiculars. Draw A m at right angles from A, and B n at right angles from B; then m and n are the centers of the circle arcs of the required cyma. 27. To draw a talon, or two circle arcs, that will tangent themselves, and meet two parallel lines at right angles in the given points A and B. Join A and B; divide A B into four equal parts and erect perpendiculars; then m and n are the centers of the circle arcs of the required talon. 28. To plot out a circle arc without recourse to its center, but its chord A B and height h being given. With the chord as radius, and A and B as centers, draw the dotted circle arcs A C and B D. Through the point draw the lines A Go and B O o. Make the arcs C o = A o and D o = B o. Divide these a,rcs into any desired number of equal parts, and number them as shown on the illustration. Join A and B with the divisions, and the crossings of equal num- bers are points in the circle arc. 29. To find the center and radius of a circle that will tangent the three sides of a triangle. Bisect two of the angles in the triangle, and the crossing C is the center of the required circle. 30. To inscribe an equilateral triangle in a circle. With the radius of the circle and center C draw the arc D F E; with the same radius, and D and E as centers, set off the points A and B. Join A and B, B and C, C and A, which will be the required triangle. 31. To inscribe a square in a given circle. Draw the diameter A B, and through the center erect the perpendicular C D, and com- plete the square as shown in the illustration. 32. To describe a square about a given circle. Draw the diameters A B and C D at right angles to one another; with the radius of the circle, and A, B, C, and D as centers, draw the four dotted half circles which cross one another in the corners of the square, and thus com- plete the problem. 33. To inscribe a pentagon in a given circle. Draw the diameter A B, and from the center C erect the perpendicular C D. Bisect the radius A C at E; with E as center, and D E as radius, draw the arc D E, and the straight line D F is the length of the side of the penta- gon. 34. To construct a pentagon on a given line A B. From B erect B C perpendicular to and half the length of A B; join A and C prolonged to D; with C as a center and C B as radius, draw the arc B D; then the chord B B is the radius of the circle circumscribing the pentagon. With A and B as centers, and B D as radius, draw the cross O in the center. 35. To construct a pentagon on a given line A B without resort to its center. From B erect B o perpendicular and equal to A B; with C as center and C o as radius, draw the arc D o; then A D is the diagonal of the pentagon. With A D as radius and A as cen- ter, draw the arc D E; and with E as center and A B as radius, finish the cross E, and thus complete the pentagon. 36. To construct a hexagon in a given circle. The radius of the circle is equal to the side of the hexagon. 37. To construct a Heptagon. The appotem a in a hexagon is the length of the side of the heptagon. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 405 c A 406 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. Set off A B equal to the radius of the circle; draw a from the center C at right angles to A B; then a is the required side of the hep- tagon. To construct an octagon on the given line A B. Prolong A B to C. With B as center and A B as radius, draw the circle A F D E C; from B, draw B I at right angles to A B; divide the angles A B D and D B C each into two equal parts; then B E is one side of the octagon. With A and E as centers, draw the arcs H K E and A K I, which determine the points H aiid 7, and thus complete the octagon as shown in the illustration. 39. To cut off the corners of a square, so as to make of it a regular octagon. With the corners as centers, draw circle arcs through the center of the square to the side, which determines the cut-off. 40. The area of a regular polygon is equal to the area of a triangle whose base is equal to the sum of all the sides, and the height a equal to the appotem of the polygon. The reason of this is that the area of two or more triangles ABC and ADC having a common or equal base b and equal height h are alike. To construct any regular polygon on a given line A B without resort to its center. Extend A B to C and, with B as center, draw the half circle A D B. Divide the half circle into as many parts as the number of sides in the polygon, and complete the con- struction as shown on the illustration. 42. To construct an isometric ellipse by com- pasess and six circle arcs. Divide O A and O B each into three equal parts; draw the quadrant A C. From C, draw the line C c through the point 1. Through the points 2 draw d e at an angle of 45 with the major axis. Then 2 is the center for the ends of the ellipse ; e is the cen ter for the arc d c; and C is the center for the arc c /. 43. To construct a Hyperbola by plotting, Having given the transverse axis B C, vertexes A a, and foci / /'. Set off any desired number of parts on the axis below the focus, and num- ber them 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. Take the distance a 1 as radius, and, with /' as center, strike the cross 1 with /' 1 =a 1. With the distance A 1, and the focus / as center, strike the cross 1 with the radius F 1 = A 1 , and the cross 1 is a point in the hyperbola. 44. To draw an Hyperbola by a pencil and a string, Having given the transverse axis B C, foci /' and /, and the vertexes A and a. Take a rule and fix it to a string at e; fix the other end of the string at the focus /. The length of the string should be such that when the rule R is in the position /'C'.the loop of the string should reach to A; then move the rule on the focus /', and a pencil at P, stretching string, will trace the hyperbola. 45. To construct a Parabola by plotting, Having given the axis, vertex, and focus of the parabola. Divide the transverse axis into any desired number of parts 1, 2, 3, etc., and draw ordinates through the divisions ; take the distance A 1, and set it off on the 1st ordinate from the focus / to a, so that A 1 = / a. Repeat the same operation with the other ordinates that is, set off the distance A 5 from / to e, so that .4. 5 = / e; and so the parabola is con- structed. 46. To draw a Parabola with a pencil and a string, Having given the two axes, vertex, and focus of the parabola. Take a square c d e, and fix to it a string at c; fix the other end of the string at the focus /. The length of the string should be such that when the square is in the position of the axis A /, the string should reach to the vertex A. Move the square along B B, and the pencil P will describe the parabola. 47. Shield's anti-friction curve. R represents the radius of the shaft, and C 1, 2, 3, etc., is the center line of the shaft. From o, set off the small distance o a; and set off a l=jR. Set off the same small distance from a to b, and make b 2 = R. Continue in the same way with the other points, and the anti-friction curve is thus constructed. 48. Isometric Perspective. This kind of perspective admits of scale measurements the same as any ordinary draw- ing, and gives a clear representation of the object. It is easily learned. All horizontal rectangular lines are drawn at an angle of 30. All circles are ellipses of proportion, as shown in No. 42, on the following page. 49. To construct an ellipse. With a as a center, draw two concentric cir- cles with diameters equal to the long and short axes of the desired ellipse. Draw from o any number of radii, A, B, etc. Draw a line B b' parallel to n and b b' parallel to m, then b is a point in the desired ellipse. 50. To draw an ellipse with a string. Having given the two axes, set off from c half the great axis at a and b, which are the two focuses of the ellipse. Take an endless string as long as the three sides in the tri- angle a b c, fix two pins or nails in the focuses, one in a and one in b, lay the string around a and b, stretch it with a pencil d, which then will describe the desired ellipse. 51. To draw an ellipse by circle arcs. Divide the long axis into three equal parts, draw the two circles, and where they intersect one another are the centers for the tangent arcs of the ellipse as shown by the figure. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 407 A C 408 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 52. To draw an ellipse by circle arcs. Given the two axes, set off the short axis from A to b, divide 6 into three equal parts, set off two of these parts from o towards c and c which are the centers for the ends of the ellipse. Make equilateral triangles on c c, when e e will be the centers for the sides of the ellipse. If the long axis is more than twice the short one, this construction will not make a good ellipse. 53. To construct an ellipse. Given the two axes, set off half the long axis from c to / /, which will be the two focuses in the ellipse. Divide the long axis into any mimber of parts, say a to be a division point. Take A a as radius and / as center and describe a circle arc about b, take a B as radius and / as center describe another circle arc about fc.then the intersection b is a point in the ellipse, and so the whole ellipse can be constructed. 54. To draw on ellipse that -trill tangent two parallel lines in A and B. Draw a semicircle on A B, draw ordinates in the circle at right angle to A B, the corre- sponding and equal ordinates for the ellipse to be drawn parallel to the lines, and thus the elliptic curve is obtained as shown by the figure. To construct a cycloid. The circumference C = 3.14 D. Divide the rolling circle and base line C into a number of equal parts, draw through the division point the ordinates and abscissas, make a a' = l d, b b' = 2'e, c c = 3 /, then a b' and c' are points in the cycloid. In the Epicycloid and Hypo- cycloid the abscissas are circles and the ordi- nates are radii to one common center. 56. Evolute of a circle. Given the pitch p, the angle v, and radius r. Divide the angle v into a number of equal parts, draw the radii and tangents for each part, divide the pitch p into an equal number of equal parts, then the first tangent will be one part, second two parts, third three parts, etc., and so the Evolute is traced. To construct a spiral with compasses and four centers. Given the pitch of the spiral, construct a square about the center, with the four sides together equal to the pitch. Prolong the sides in one direction as shown by the figure, the corners are the centers for each arc of the external angles. 58. To construct a Parabola. Given the vertex A, axis x, and a point P. Draw A B at right angle to x, and B P parallel to x, divide A B and B P into an equal num- ber of equal parts. From the vertex A draw lines to the divisions on B P, from the divi- sions on A B draw the ordinates parallel to x, the corresponding intersections are points in the parabola. 59. To construct a Parabola. Given the axis of ordinate B, and vertex A . Take A as a center and describe a semicircie from B which gives the focus of the parabola at /. Draw any ordinate y at right angle to the abscissa A r, take a as radius and the focus / as a center, then intersect the ordinate y, by a circle-arc in P which will be a point in the parabola. In the same manner the whole Parabola is constructed. 60. To draw an arithmetic spiral. Given the pitch p and angle v, divide them into an equal number of equal parts, say 6; make 01=0 1,02= 02, 03 = 03, 04 = 04, 05 = 05, and 6 = the pitch p; then join the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, which will form the spiral required. THE CIRCLE. Notation of Letters. rf = diameter of the circle. r = radius of the circle. p = periphery or circumference. a = area of a circle or part thereof. b = length of a circle arc. c = chord of a segment, length of. h = height of a segment. * = side of a rectangular polygon v = center angle. w = polygon angle. All measures must be expressed by the same unit. FORMULAS FOR THE CIRCLE. Periphery or Circumference. = 2x r = 6.28r. = 2 V IT a = 3.54 \' 2a 4a Diameter and Radius. d- '- - -"-. x 3.14 p p 2n 6.28 / =1.128 V a = i/ = 0.564 Va. K Area of the Circle, red* a = = 0.785<* 2 4 a = Jr r 2 =3.14r 2 . SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 409 410 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 4* 12.56 pr pd K = 3. 141 59265358979323846264338327950288 4197169399 2^ = 6.283185 3* = 9. 424778 4* =12. 566370 5* =15.707963 6* = 18.849556 7* = 21.991 148 8^ = 25.132741 9^ = 28.274334 ^ = 0.785398 is - 1.047197 ^ = 1.570796 1^ = 0.392699 i* = 0.523599 T V = 0.261799 * = 2.094394 3 | 5 7r = 0.008726 1 - = 0.318310 - = 0.636619 - = 0.954929 -=1.273239 6 -=1.909859 TC 8 -=2.546478 12 = 3.819718 360 =114.5915 ^2=9.869650 4/jr = 1.772453 /I - = 0.564189 I 61. -=1.253314 2 |/ - = 0.797884 Log. * = 0.497 14987 The periphery of a Circle is commonly ex- pressed by the Greek letter r = 3.14 when the diameter rf=l or the unit. For any other value of the diameter d, we will denote the periphery by the letter p, r radius, and a area of the circle. The periphery of a circle is equal to 3 14-100 times its diameter. c = chord. 62. 180 0.0175rv, 1806 6 ' = = 57.296-. ;rr r w =180 , 2 v = 2(180 w). 64. 65. 66. J |/a 2 - 26 a + 6 + c 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. B*=DC, A +B +C = 180, A'=A, (a 6)2= (a + 6) (a 6)=a2 62. a : 6 = c : d, ad*=bc, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 411 A / 88 \93 412 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 75. 77. 78. a : 6 = e : d, ad = bc. a : c = c : b, A : B = a : b. a x = x : a x, 7^i 80. 81. 82. 02 d2. 26 62 d = 83. 84. 85. 86. 26 a : 6 = /i : c, ac a/i A = = , 6 c c 2 eft <*= = . 6 a a : c = d : (6 d), a : r = 6 : d, ad = bc. a : t = t : b, (a 6), 87. 88. 89. 90. aR r)2, / 52 4/ r2 -- 4 Z = 2r r 772 P=4/ -- 7:2 ^2 r 2 91. 92. To ^nrf -Krypton . . Fe Kr 55.9 81 8 55.5 81 2 Titanium Tungsten Ti W 48.1 184 47.7 182.6 La 138 9 137 9 Uranium TT 238 5 236 7 Lead Pb Ti 206.9 7 03 205.35 6 98 Vanadium Xenon. . V XP 51.2 128 50.8 127 Magnesium Mg Mn 24.36 55 24.18 54 6 Ytterbium Yttrium. . . Yb Yt 173.0 89.0 171.7 88.3 Mercury Hff 200.0 198.5 Zinc 7,n 65.4 64.9 Molybdenum Mo 96.0 95.3 Zirconium Zr 90.6 89.9 REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE ON ATOMIC WEIGHTS. The International Committee on Atomic Weights has the honor to of- fer the following report : In the table of atomic weights for 1904 only two changes from 1903 are recommended. The atomic weight of caesium has been slightly modified to accord with the recent determinations by Richards and Archibald, and that of cerium in conformity with the meas- urements by Brainier. The value for lanthanum is still in controversy, and any change here would therefore be premature. The same consideration may also be urged with regard to iodine. Ladenburg has shown that the accepted number for iodine is probably too low, but other investigations upon the subject are known to be in prog- ress, and until they have been com- pleted it would be unwise to propose any alteration. Many of the atomic weights given in the table are well known to be more or less uncertain. This is especially true with respect to the rarer elements, such as gallium, indium, columbium, tantalum, etc. But some of the com- moner elements also stand in need of revision, and we venture to call atten- tion to a few of these. Among the metals, the atomic weights of mercury, tin, bismuth and antimony should be redetermined, for the reason that the existing data are not sufficiently con- cordant. Palladium also, on account SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 445 of discrepancies between different ob- servers, and possibly vanadium, for which the data are too few, deserve at- tention. Among the non-metals, phos- phorus has been peculiarly neglected ; and our knowledge of the atomic weight of silicon rests upon a single ratio. In the latter case, confirmatory data are much to be desired. Upon any of these elements new investiga- tions would be most serviceable. There is one other point to which we may properly call attention. Many of the ratios from which atomic weights, 'have been calculated, were measured in vessels of glass, by pro- cesses involving the use of strong acids. In such cases the solubility of the glass becomes an important consideration, even when no transfer of material from one vessel to another has oc- curred. A slight conversion of sili- cate into chloride would cause an in- crease of weight during the operation, and so introduce an error into the de- termination. Such errors are doubt- less very small, and still they ought not to be neglected. Now that vessels of pure silica, the so-called quartz- glass, are available for use, they might well replace ordinary glass in all pro- cesses for the determination of atomic weights. An investigation into the relative availability of the two kinds of glass is most desirable. (Signed) F. W. CLARKE, T. E. THORPE, KARL SEUBERT, HENRI MOISSAN, Committee. CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES AND THEIR COMMON NAMES. Common Names. Alum Aqua fortis Aqua regia Calomel Carbolic acid Caustic potash. Caustic soda Chalk Copperas Corrosive sublimate Cream of tartar. . . Epsom salts .Fire damp Glauber's salt Grape sugar Goulard water. . . . Iron pyrites Jewelers' putty. . . Laughing gas Lime Lunar caustic Mosaic gold Muriatic acid Plaster of Paris. . . Chemical Names. .Sulphate of aluminum and potassium .Nitric acid . Nitro-hydrochloric acid .Mercurous chloride . Phenol .Potassium hydrate . Sodium hydrate .Calcium carbonate . Sulphate of iron . Mercuric chloride . Bitartrate of potassium . Magnesium sulphate . Light carbureted hy- drogen, methane . Sodium sulphate . Glucose . Basic acetate of lead . Sulphide of iron . Oxide of tin . Nitrous oxide .Calcium oxide . Silver nitrate . Bisulphide of tin .Hydrochloric acid .Calcium sulphate Realgar Sulphide of arsenic Red lead Oxide of lead Rochelle salt Sodium potassium tar- trate Sal ammoniac ...... Ammonium chloride Salt, common Sodium chloride Salt of tartar (potash) Potassium < arbonate Saltpetre Potassium nitrate Salts of lemon Oxalic acid Slaked lime Calcium hydrate Soda, washing Sodium carbonate Soda, baking Sodium bicarbonate Soda Sodium carbonate Spirits of hartshorn. .Ammonia, solution of Spirits of salt Hydrochloric acid Sugar of lead Lead acetate Tartar emetic Potaesium antimony tartrate Verdigris Basic acetate of copper Vermilion Sulphide of mercury Vinegar Dilute acetic acid Vitriol, blue Copper sulphate green Ferrous sulphate oil of Sulphuric acid white Zinc sulphate Volatile alkali. .... .Ammonia Knowledge Year Book. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. To Convert Degrees Baume into Specific Gravity. (1) For liquids heavier than water : Subtract the de- gree of Baume from 145 and divide into 145. The quotient is the specific gravity. (2) For liquids lighter than water: Add the degree of Baume to 130 and divide it into 140. The quotient is the specific gravity. To Convert Specific Gravity into De- grees Baume. (1) For liquids heavier than water : Divide the speci- fic gravity into 145 and subtract from 145. The remainder is the degree of Baume. (2) For liquids lighter than water: Divide the specific gravity into 140 and subtract 130 from the quotient. The remainder will be the degree of Baume. COMPARISON OF DEGREES TWADDELL AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. In order to change degrees Twad- dell into specific gravity, multiply by 5, add 1,000 and divide by 1,000. Example : Change 168 deg. Twad- dell into specific gravity. 446 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 168X5 840 1,000 1,000)1,840 1.84, specific gravity. To change specific gravity into de- grees Twaddell, multiply by 1,000, subtract 1,000 and divide by 5. Example : Change 1.84 specific gravity to degrees Twaddell. 1.84X1,000 1,840 1,000 5)840 168 Tw. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Determination of Specific Gravity : Solids: (1) Solids heavier than, and insoluble in water: a. By weighing in air and water. (weight in air) Sp.gr. = (loss of weight in water) 6. By Nicholson's hydrometer. Let tci be the weight required to sink the instrument to the mark on the stem ; to take the specific gravity of any solid substance, place a portion of it weigh- ing less than in in the upper pan, with such additional weight, say ws, as will cause the instrument to sink to the zero mark. The weight of the substance is then w\ ics. Next trans- fer the substance to the lower pan, and again adjust with weight w* to the zero mark. c. By the specific gravity bottle (applicable to powders). Weigh the flask filled to the mark with water, then place the substance, of known weight, in the flask, fill to the mark with water, and weigh again. g = weight of substance in air '~wt. in air + wt. of flask and water wt. of flask filled with substance and water. (2) Solids lighter than and insolu- ble in water. The solid is weighed by a piece of lead and weighed in wa- ter. (weight of substance in air) bp. gr. - (wt of i ead jn water) -(wt. of lead and substance in water) + (wt. of sub- stance in air) (3) Solids heavier than and soluble in water. Proceed as in 1 a, using instead of water some liquid without action on the solid. (weight of bulk of liquid equal to sub- stance) = (weight of substance in air) (weight of substance in liquid). (wt. of bulk of liquid ( wt. of bulk of water equa i to su bstance ) equal to substance ) = ; j-p r-rs; - (sp. gr. of liquid) Sp. gr. = (weight of substance in air) (weight of bulk of water equal to substance) Liquids: (1) By the hydrometer. (2) By the specific gravity bottle. Weigh the bottle filled to the mark with water, and again when filled to the mark with liquid. (weight of liquid and bottle) Sp. gr. = (weight of bottle) (weight of water and bottle) (weight of bottle) Tables of Specific Gravity will be found under Weights and Measures. THERMOMETER SCALES. Much annoyance is caused by the great difference of thermometer scales in use in the different civilized coun- tries. The scale of Reaumur prevails in Germany. As is well known, he di- vides the space between the freezing and boiling points into 80 deg. France uses that of Celsius, who graduated his scale on the decimal system. The most peculiar scale of all, however, is that of Fahrenheit, a renowned Ger- man physicist, who in 1714 or 1715, composed his scale, having ascertained that water can be cooled under the freezing point, without congealing. He therefore did not take the congealing point of water, but composed a mix- ture of equal parts of snow and sal ammoniac, about 14 deg. R. The conversion of any one of these scales to another is very simple, and easily made. To change a temperature as given by Fahrenheit's scale into the same as given by the centigrade scale subtract 32 deg. from Fahrenheit's de- grees, and multiply the remainder by 5-9. The product will be the tem- perature in centigrade degrees. To change from Fahrenheit's to Reaumur's scale, subtract 32 deg. from Fahrenheit's degrees, and multiply the remainder by 4-9. The product will be the temperature in Reaumur's de- grees. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 447 COMPARATIVE SCALES OF THERMOMETER. c. R. F. C. R. F. C. R. F. -30 -24.0 -22.0 14 11.2 57.2 58 46.4 136.4 -29 -23.2 -20.2 15 12.0 59.0 59 47.2 138.2 -28 -22.4 -18.4 16 12.8 60.8 60 48.0 140.0 -27 -21.6 -16.6 17 13.6 62.6 61 48.8 141.8 -26 -20.8 -14.8 18 14.4 64.4 62 49.6 143.6 -25 -20.0 -13.0 19 15.2 66.2 63 50.4 145.4 -24 -19.2 -11.2 20 16.0 68.0 64 51.2 147.2 -23 -18.4 -9.4 21 16.8 69.8 65 52.0 149.0 -22 -17.6 -7.6 22 17.6 71.6 66 52.8 150.8 -21 -16.8 -5.8 23 18.4 73.4 67 53.6 152.6 -20 -16.0 -4.0 24 19.2 75.2 68 54.4 154.4 -19 -15.2 -2.2 25 20.0 77.0 69 55.2 156.2 -18 -14.4 -0.4 26 20.8 78.8 70 56.0 158.0 -17 -13.6 1.4 27 21.6 80.6 71 56.8 159.8 -16 -12.8 3.2 28 22.4 82.4 72 57.6 161.6 -15 -12.0 5.0 29 23.2 84.2 73 58.4 163.4 -14 -11.2 6.8 30 24.0 86.0 74 59.2 165.2 -13 -10.4 8.6 31 24.8 87.8 75 60.0 167.0 -12 -9.6 10.4 32 25.6 89.6 76 60.8 168.8 -11 -8.8 12.2 33 26.4 91.4 77 61.6 170.6 -10 -8.0 14.0 34 27.2 93.2 78 62.4 172.4 -9 -7.2 15.8 35 28.0 95.0 79 63.2 174.2 -8 -6.4 17.6 36 28.8 96.8 80 64.0 176.0 -7 -5.6 19.4 37 29.6 98.6 81 64.8 177.8 -6 -4.8 21.2 38 30.4 100.4 82 65.6 179.6 -4.0 23.0 39 31.2 102.2 83 66.4 181.4 A -3.2 24.8 40 32.0 104.0 84 67.2 183.2 -3 -2.4 26.6 41 32.8 105.8 85 68.0 185.0 -2 -1.6 28.4 42 33.6 107.6 86 68.8 186.8 -1 -0.8 30.2 43 34.4 109.4 87 69.6 188.6 0.0 32.0 44 35.2 111.2 88 70.4 190.4 1 0.8 33.8 45 36.0 113.0 89 71.2 192.2 2 1.6 35.6 46 36.8 114.8 90 72.0 194.0 3 ' 2.4 37.4 47 37.6 116.6 91 72.8 195.8 4 3.2 39.2 48 38.4 118.4 92 73.6 197.6 5 4.0 41.0 49 39.2 120.2 93 74.4 199.4 6 4.8 42.8 50 40.0 122.0 94 75.2 201.2 7 5.6 44.6 51 40.8 123.8 95 76.0 203.0 8 6.4 46.4 52 41.6 125.6 96 76.8 204.8 9 7.2 48.2 53 42.4 127.4 97 77.6 206.6 10 8.0 50.0 54 43.2 129.2 98 78.4 208.4 11 8.8 51.8 55 44.0 131.5 99 79.2 210.2 12 9.6 53.6 56 44.8 132.8 100 80.0 212.0 13 10.4 55.4 57 45.6 134.6 To change the temperature as given by the centigrade scale into the same as given by Fahrenheit, multiply the centigrade degrees by 9-5 and add 32 deg. to the product. The sum will be the temperature by Fahrenheit's scale. To change from Reaumur's to Fahr- enheit's scale, multiply the degrees on Reaumur's scale by 9-4 and add 32 deg. to the product. The sum will be the temperature by Fahrenheit's scale. For those who wish to save them- selves the trouble we have calculated the preceding comparative table. VALUE OF RARE ELEMENTS. Elements. Quantity. Value. Boron nitrate (New York) Ib $1 50 Boron, pure crystals (Germany) Boron, amorphous, pure (Germany) Boron, powder (Moissari) (Germany) . 10 grams kilo. 13.09 119.00 142 80 Caesium nitrate crystals (Germany) Caesium oxide hydrated (Germany) Calcium metal, (Germany) 100 grams 1 gram 11.90 13.09 4.28 Cerium metal, fused (Germany) * 2.02 448 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. VALUE OF RARE ELEMENTS. Continued. Elements. Quantity. Value. Cerium metal, powder (Germany) I 1 gram SI . 67 Cerium nitrate (New York) Ib. 10 . 00 Didymium metal, fused (Germany) 1 gram 5. 47 Didymium metal powder (Germany) | 4.71 Didymium nitrate (New York) ! Ib. 35. 00 Erbium metal (Germany) 1 gram 3 . 09 Erbium nitrate (New York) Ib. 40 00 Germanium metal, fused (Germany) j 1 gram 59. 50 Germanium metal, powder (Germany) I 57 12 Glucinum metal, crystals (Germany) 9 . 04 Glucinum metal, fused in balls (Germany) 35.70 Glucinum metal, powder (Germany) 5 . 95 Glucinum nitrate (New York) Ib. 20 . 00 Iridium metal, fused (Germany) j 10 grams 10.71 Iridium metal, powder (Germany . 9. 52 Lanthanum metal, powder (Germany) 1 gram 4 . 28 Lanthanum metal, in balls (Germany) 9.04 Lanthanum nitrate (New York) Ib. 30 . 00 Lithium metal, pure (Germany) i 1 gram 0.71 Lithium metal, chem. pure (Germany) 2 . 38 Lithium carbonate (New York) Ib. 1 . 50 Lithium nitrate (New York) I oz. .60 Magnalium metal, ingot (Germany) kilo. 3 . 57 Magnalium metal, sheet (Germany) 7.14 Magnesium metal, ingot (Germany) 4 . 28 Magnesium metal, ribbon, wire, sheet (Germany) 7.62 Magnesium metal, sticks (Germany) I 5. 47 Magnesium metal, cubes (Germany) . 5.00 Magnesium metal, powder (Germany) 3.81 @ 5.00 Manganese metal, pure fused (Germany) 3.81 Manganese metal, com'l (94 @, 97#) (Germany) 1 . 25 Molybdenum metal, pure (Germany) 17 . 85 Molybdenum metal, com'l, fused (Germany) 6.66 Molybdenum metal, pure, fused (Germany) 100 grams 9 . 52 Molybdenum metal, powder (Germany) I kilo. 4 .05 Niobium metal, pure (Germany) I 1 gram 4.71 Osmium metal (Germany) 10 grams 17 . 14 Palladium metal (Germany) 8 . 57 Platinum (New York) I oz. 18 . 50 Polonium j j Speculative.* Potassium metal in balls (Germany) kilo. 16 . 60 Radium- See Kadi um, p. 449f Rhodium metal (Germany) 10 grams j 26 . 18 Rubidium metal pure (Germany) j 1 gram 4.76 Ruthenium metal, powder (Germany) j Ruthenium metal, sponge (Germany) Selenium metal (Germany) kilo. 16. 66 Silicium metal, com'l, fused (Germany) 9. 52 Sodium metal (New York) Ib. . 50 Strontium metal (Germany) 1 gram 6.19 Strontium nitrate (New York) Ib. . 08 Tantalum metal, pure (Germany) i 1 gram, j 3 . 57 Tellurium metal, chem. pure sticks (Germany) : . kilo. 106. 10 Tellurium metal, chem. pure powder (Germany) ; 107. 10 Thallium metal (Germany) 23 . 80 Thorium nitrate (New York) Ib 4 . 50 Titanium metal, pure (Germany) kilo. Uranium metal (Germany) 1 90 . 40 Uranium nitrate (New York) j oz. . 25 Wolfram metal, powder for s-tefl makes (Germany) kilo. Yttrium metal (Germany) 1 gram 3 . 33 Zirconium metal (Germany) kilo. 95. 20 Zirconium nitrate (New York) Ib. 8 00 *The value of polonium is purely speculative. Minute quantities have been sold at very- high prices. It is worth 75 cents a gram on bismuth and platinum plates. The quantity of polonium is of course very minute. t The supply is so small that any price can be asked. $3,500,000 is the current ' ' newspaper " estimate per pound. See Radium , page 449. ">le furnished by the Engineering and Mining Journal.] SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 449 RADIUM AND RADIO-ACTIVITY. The marvels of radium may be said to have been more or less foreshadowed by the discovery of the Roentgen rays. It was immediately determined that the emanations of a Crookes tube were not ethereal undulations such as ordinary light, but that they consisted of actual material particles of matter highly charged with electricity. Natu- rally the attempt \vas made to discover whether the phenomena of phosphores- cent substances were not akin to those of the Crookes tube. The leading spirit in this movement was Professor Henri Becquerel, who selected the metal uranium as the subject of his experiments. He accidentally discov- ered that the so-called phosphorescent attributes of uranium were not due to the absorption of sunlight, but that the substance was spontaneously active, and that the light which came from radium was a new kind of emanation entirely different from the X-rays. To these new radiations the name "Bec- querel Rays" was given. Uranium is obtained from pitch- blende, an .ore more or less widely dis- tributed about the world, but found chiefly in Bohemia and in Cornwall. Madame Curie, who, at the time Bec- querel was making his investigations, was a senior student at the Municipal School of Physics and Technical Chem- istry in Paris, had selected "Radio- Activity" a name which she coined as the subject of her Doctor's thesis. Naturally it w r as necessary for her to study uranium and similar minerals with some care. She found that, after having extracted all the uranium con- tained in her specimen of pitchblende, there still remained in the residue a substance far more active than ura- nium. After isolating this unknown radiant substance and analyzing it, she found that it contained two new elements. The one she christened "po- lonium," after Poland, the land of her birth ; the other she named "radium." Several tons of pitchblende must be treated and concentrated before a few grains of radium are obtained. But those few grains are worth more than any precious gem or metal in the world. Indeed they have almost any value which their fortunate possessor may choose to give them. There are probably not two pounds of pure ra- dium in existence; but at the present market price they would be worth each about three and one-half million dol- lars. There is more gold in sea water than radium in pitchblende; and that is why its price is so high. The properties of radium will prob- ably necessitate a decided revision in some time-honored chemical theories ; for radium refuses to conform to our long-established atomic theories, and behaves in a most inexplicable fash- ion. In the first place the radio-activ- ity of the element has been found to consist of three distinct sets of ema- nations, w^hich have been respectively christened the Alpha, the Beta, and the Gamma rays, for want of better names. The Alpha rays are not, like ordi- nary light, ethereal pulsations, but ac- tual material particles hurled off at a speed of about 20,000 miles per sec- ond from the parent mass. They are highly charged with positive electric- ity. Their speed is about 40,000 times greater than that of a rifle bullet. The Beta rays, which consist of par- ticles of matter, corpuscles of elec- tricity or "electrons" as the modern physicist calls them, move still more swiftly. Each of the Beta particles (very much smaller in size than the Alpha particles) travels at the rate of about 100,000 miles a second. They are the fastest moving objects known in the universe ; for their speed is three hundred times faster than that of the swiftest star. Such is their ve- locity that it takes a foot of solid iron to stop them. The Gamma rays are probably Roentgen rays, if one may judge by the similarity of the properties of the two. Like the Beta rays, the Gamma emanations have remarkable penetrat- ing properties. But of the three kinds of rays discharged by radium, the Gamma rays are the most difficult to detect and the least perfectly under- stood. Professor Curie, Madame Curia's husband, has discovered that radium constantly maintains a temperature of about five or six degrees above the surrounding atmosphere. For some time this startling phenomenon baffled physicists. Here was a substance con- stantly giving off heat wnthout being apparently consumed, and without anything to make it hot. It is now thought that this strange property can be explained by assuming that the par- ticles collide with one another, and that the heat generated by the impact (a heat that must be very marked when it is considered how enormous 450 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. is the energy of a particle moving at the rate of many thousand miles a sec- ond) is sufficient to explain the heat generated by radium. The fact that radium is a spontane- ous source of thermal energy is in it- self a fact sufficiently startling. Sir William Ramsay, however, has dis- covered still other startling properties of this startling substance. He col- lected the material particles which are shot from the substance, analyzed them, and found that after a few days they changed into helium, a gas which was first discovered burning in the sun. This seems dangerously like the trans- mutation of one element into an- other, the problem on the solution of which the medieval alchemist had worked for centuries. After ages of labor seventy-odd bits of pri- mordial matter had been wrung from the earth, so simple and so un- changeable in their nature that they were deemed elements. And now one of them proves to be nothing but the product of another. Can we ever be certain again that the rest are not also likely to change? Is it any wonder that our chemistry needs revision? The atomic weight of radium has been ascertained by Madame Curi6 to be 225 ; that of helium is 2.2. In other words, every atom of radium breaks np into about 100 parts of helium. What becomes of the old teaching that atoms are indivisible particles of mat- ter? Some of the more advanced thinkers have abandoned the atom and adopted the ^"electron" as the ultimate unit. The atom is certainly quite in- adequate to account for the properties of radium. Atoms may be said to be composed of electrons moving, like miniature solar systems, with incon- ceivable rapidity in well-defined orbits. Sometimes a little planet of that sys- tem becomes unstable, darts off with terrific speed like a comet, and thus gives rise to the phenomena of radium, of uranium, and of every other radio- active substance. Has radium any practical value? it may be asked. So far it is more of a scientific curiosity than anything else. Still, it is not without some use. It is an excellent detector of false dia- monds ; for it causes the real gem to glow with wonderful brilliancy, while the paste imitation is left compara- tively lusterless. Then, again, radium kills bacteria and even very small ani- mals. The modern physician has used the substance with some success in treating certain diseases, among them cancer and lupus. Living tissues of the body are strangely affected by short exposures to the substance. Sores are produced, like burns, which heal only after weeks have elapsed. An electroscope has also been invented, the underlying principle of which is dependent upon the properties of ra- dium. PRICES OF FRENCH RADIUM, JULY, 1904. Form. Activity. Price per Gramme. Price per Ounce. Price per Milligram. Dollars Dollars Dollars 50 4 125 .004 100 8 250 .008 500 30 910 .040 1,000 60 1,820 .080 5,000 240 7,280 .40 10,000 500 15,050 .80 20,000 1,000 30,100 1.60 50,000 2,000 60,200 4.00 100,000 4,000 120,400 8.00 500,000 1,800,000 20,000 80,000 602,000 2,408 000 40.00 144.00 Table furnished by Dr. George F. Kunz. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 451 MELTING POINTS OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. The melting points of chemical elements are, in many cases, somewhat uncertain, owing to the different results obtained by different observers. This table gives the probable average value. Substance. Melting Point, Degrees C. Substance. Melting Point Degrees C. Aluminum Antimony Bismuth 625 435 268 1 Magnesium Manganese Mercury 775 1900 -39 04 Bromine Cadmium -7.27 318 Nickel Osmium 1500 2500 Caesium Chlorine, liquid Cobalt 26.5 -102 1650 Nitrogen Palladium Phosphorus -208 1600 44 25 Copper Gallium 1100 30.15 Platinum Potassium 1900 60 Germanium Gold 900 1080 Rhodium Rubidium . 2000 38.5 Indium Iodine Iridium Iron, pure white pig . . 176 112 2225 1635 1075 Ruthenium Selenium Silver Sodium Sulphur . 1800 217 950 97.6 115.1 ' ' gray pig Steel. . . 1200 1360 Tellurium Thallium. 470 289 cast. . 1375 Tin 230 Lead Lithium 326 180 Zinc 415 BOILING POINTS OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. Substance. Boiling Point, Degrees C. Substance. Boiling Point Degrees C. Antimony Arsenic. 1535 449 Oxygen Ozone. . -183 106 Bismuth Bromine. 1413 62 08 Phosphorus Potassium 288 695 Cadmium 779 675 Chlorine Iodine. . . -33.6 over 200 Sodium Sulphur 825 448 1 Lead. Magnesium. . about 1,525 1100 Thallium Tin 1700 about 1,550 Mercury . 357 Zinc 958 Nitrogen -194.4 HEAT OF COMBUSTION. Heat of combustion of some common organic compounds. Products of combustion, CO 2 or SO 2 and water, which is assumed to be in a state of vapor. Substance. Therms per Gramme of Substance. Substance. Therms per Gramme of Substance. Acetylene. . . . 11,923 Gas- Alcohols: Amyl. . . 8,958 Methane Naphthalene. 13,063 9,618-9,793 Ethyl. . 7,183 Gunpowder. . 720-750 Methyl Benzene. . . 5,307 9,977 Oils: Lard. . . 9 200-9 400 Coals: Bituminous Anthracite 7,400-8,500 7,800 6,900 Olive Petroleum, American crude. . refined . 9,328-9,442 11,094 11,045 10 800 Coke Carbon disulphide. . 7,000 3 244 Woods: Beech with 129 per cent H^O 4 168 Dynamite, 75 per cent Gas: Coal gas. . . 1,290 5,800-11 000 Birch " 11.83" " Oak ' " 13.3 " " Pine " 12 17" " 4,207 3,990 4 422 Illuminating 5,200-5,500 452 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SIZES OF DRY PLATES. 3i X 4 inches 8X10 inches 4 X5 ' 10X12 4JX5} ' 11X14 4iX6* ' 14X17 4fX6 16X20 5 X7 ' 17X20 5 X8 ' 18X22 6}X8 ' 20X24 SIZES IN FRANCE AND GERMANY. 6X 9 cm 2.5X 3. 6 inches 9 X12 .... 3.6X 4.7 AIR. The following data are useful in cal- culations relating to air: 1. To find the quantity of nitrogen by vol- ume corresponding to 1 volume of oxygen, multiply by 3.770992. 2. To find the quantity of oxygen by vol- ume corresponding to 1 volume of nitrogen, multiply by 0.265182. 3. To find the quantity of nitrogen by weight corresponding to 1 part by weight of oxygen, multiply by 3.313022. 4. To find the quantity of oxygen by weight corresponding to 1 part by weight of nitrogen, multiply by 0.301839. 5. To find the quantity of nitrogen by vol- ume corresponding to 1 part by weight of oxy- gen, multiply by 2.6365411. 6. To find the quantity of oxygen by vol- ume corresDonding to 1 part by weight of nitrogen, multiply by 0.2730071. 7. To find the quantity of nitrogen by weight corresponding to 1 part by volume of oxygen, multiply by 3.6629154. 8. To find the quantity of oxygen by weight corresponding to 1 part by volume of nitrogen, multiply by 0.3792848. To TEST AIR FOR SEWER GAS. Saturate unglazed paper with a solution of 1 oz. of pure lead acetate in half a pint of rain water; let it partially dry, then expose in the room sus- pected of containing sewer gas. The presence of the latter in any considerable quantity soon darkens or blackens the test paper. 12 X15 4.7X 5.9 13 X18 5. IX 7.0 12 X20 4.7X7.8 es 15 X21 5. 9 X 8.2 15 X22 5.9X 8.0 18 X24 7. OX 9.4 21 X29 8.2X10.6 24 X30 9.4X11.8 27 X33 10.6X12.0 27 X35 10.6X13.7 30 X40 11.8X15.7 40 X50 15.7X19.6 50 X60 19.6X23.6 SIZES IN ITALY. 9X12 cm 3.6X 4. 7 inch 12X16 4.7X 6.3 12X18 4.7X 7.0 13X18 5. IX 7.0 12X20 4.7X 7.8 18X24 . 7 OX 9.4 21X29 8.2X10.6 24X30 9.4X11.8 27X33 10.6X12.9 30X36 11.8X14.1 40X50 15.7X19.6 50X60 19.6X23.6 CHAPTER II. ASTRONOMY. THE TELESCOPE. Telescopes are of two kinds, namely, refracting and reflecting tele- scopes. The refracting telescope consists of an object-glass which forms an image of the object, and an eye-glass by which the image is viewed. The reflecting telescope consists of a concave mirror which receives light from the distant object, and reflects it so that the rays converge to a focus and form an image, the image being viewed by an eye-glass. The terrestrial telescope consists of two tele- scopes like the preceding which are called astronomical telescopes, and give an inverted image the second inverting the inverted image of the first, and so giving an upright image. Eye-pieces generally have two lenses, and have names according to the posi- tion of the focus. Ramsden's eye-piece has two lenses, the focus being just beyond the field lens. It is called a positive eye-piece, and it can be used as a magnifying glass. Huyghens' eye-piece also has two lenses, the focus being between the two. It is called a negative eye-piece, and cannot be used as a magnifying glass. These compound eye- pieces enable us to get rid of spherical and chromatic aberration. The achromatic ob- ject-glass is made by joining together two lenses, one of flint glass and the other of crown glass. The dispersion is made equal and opposite, but the bending powers are unequal. A lens is equivalent to a number of prisms placed base to base, the outer prisms having a greater angle to cause the rays to bend more, so that all the rays may come to one point, called the focus. The magnifying power of a telescope is found by dividing the focal length of the object-glass by the focal length of the eye-piece. THE EQUATORIAL TELESCOPE. The equa- torial is an ordinary telescope, mounted in such a way that it can easily be directed to any part of the heavens. The polar axis is parallel to the earth's axis, that is to say, it is inclined at an angle equal to the latitude of the place, at Washington about 39, at London about 51. The telescope can be moved round the polar axis in a plane which is parallel to the earth's equator, and this motion is said to be motion in right ascen- sion. The telescope can also be moved up and down in a plane at right ancles to the earth's equator, and this motion is called motion in declination. Whatever part of the skies an object is in, the equatorial can be directed to it, and the object can be kept constantly in view, because there is a kind of clock which drives the instrument round at the same speed at which the earth is turning round. THE TRANSIT INSTRUMENT. The transit instrument is a telescope mounted on a hori- zontal axis, so as to be capable of moving in the meridian only. It is used to determine the exact moment at which celestial bodies cross the meridian, that is, when they are in a true north or south position. It is also used for determining the declination of celestial objects, that is, how far in angular measures these bodies are from the celestial equator. THE SIDEREAL CLOCK. Th3 sidereal clock is similar to an ordinary clock, but it is regulated to keep accurate time with the apparent diurnal movements of the stars, instead of with the mean sun. It shows the* same time as clocks and watches only once in a year, namely, at the Vernal Equinox, about the 21st of March. It gains about four min- utes each day on the ordinary clock, and in a year it gains a whole day, so that there are 36G sidereal days and only 365 solar days in one year. The sidereal noon occurs when the first point of Aries passes the meridian, and the hours are reckoned from to 24. The time by the sidereal clock at which a celestial body crosses the meridian is equal to the right ascension of that particular ob- ject. Conversely, if the exact right ascen- sion of a star be known, the error of the clock can be determined by observing a transit of the star. THE CHRONOGRAPH. The chronograph consists of a cylinder covefed with paper, and made to rotate uniformly by clockwork. It is connected electrically with the sidereal clock, which, as it ticks, makes dots on the paper at equal distances by means of a re- cording pen, and these dots represent sec- onds. Fractions of a second are recorded by the observer touching a key, which causes a second pen to make a dot on the cylinder as it turns round. This dot would come be- tween two second dots, and the distance is measured from these. In this manner the Tita or .TT&TT of a second can be estimated. The small fractions of a second obtained by the chronograph are necessary in fixing the right ascension and declination by the tran- sit instrument. THE MICROMETER. The micrometer is used for measuring small arcs. It consists of two wires, which can be brought together or separated at pleasure by means of a screw. An equatorial star appears to move through about 15 in one hour, 1 in four minutes, 15' in one minute, or 15" of arc in one second of time. The distance that the wire moves for one turn of the screw is found by allowing a star to pass from one wire to 453 454 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. the other, and then allowing 15" of arc for every second of time taken in so doing. The diameter of the moon, the sun, or a planet can be estimated in angular measure by the micrometer, and then, knowing the distance of these objects, their size can be calculated from a knowledge of the relation that exists between the radius of a circle' and its cir- cumference. THE THEODOLITE. The theodolite is used for measuring horizontal and vertical angles, that is, altitude and azimuth. It consists of a small telescope, which can be moved up and down, and the inclination is shown by a graduated circle, called the alti- tude circle. The telescope can also be twisted around a vertical axis, and the angu- lar distances of objects from the north point of the horizon measured, that is, azimuth. THE SEXTANT. The sextant is chiefly employed on board ship for observing the altitude of the sun, lunar distances, etc., in the determination of latitude and longitude. It consists of a telescope, through which the observer looks. Opposite to the telescope is a mirror, half silvered and half plain, so that he can see directly through the plain part to an object, and he can bring a second object to coincide with the first by means of a sec- ond mirror attached to the movable arm, which reflects its light on to the silvered part of the first mirror, and from thence through the telescope. The reading on the sextant then gives the angular distance between the two objects. VERNIERS. Verniers are divided scales, with their divisions a little smaller than those on the main scale to which they are attached. If a length equal to nine divisions of the main scale be divided into ten parts, then each of these latter will be T V less than the former. In general, n divisions of the vernier are equal to n - 1 divisions of the scale, which enables us to read to the nth part of a divi- sion, whatever that may be. If the divi- sions on the main scale were tenths of an inch we could get hundredths by dividing a length equal to nine of them into ten parts, then the difference between the lengths of these would be T V of ^ of an inch, that is, T ijj. ANGULAR MEASUREMENT. The measure- ment of the distances of the sun, moon, and planets depends upon our knowledge of the properties of triangles. Our knowledge of the size of the earth and other bodies in space depends upon angular measurement. Our knowledge of the mass, volume, and density of the sun, moon, and planets, and even the masses and distances of some of the stars, depends upon our ability to measure angles. MEASUREMENT OF TIME. An ancient method of measuring time was by the gno- mon, an upright stick in the ground which cast a shadow of the sun, the length and position of which varied according to the time of day, hence the sun-dial. Other methods consisted in chanting psalms, burn- ing candles, and dropping water or sand from one vessel to another, hence clepsydra and hour-glass, etc. Clocks came into use in England in the fourteenth century; but in- stead of a pendulum a vibrating horizontal bar was employed DeWyck's clock. Gali- leo discovered the pendulum, which sug- gested itself to him by observing a swinging lamp in the Cathedral of Pisa. Huyghens found that the vibrations of a pendulum were not equal for any length of swing; hence the introduction of the cycloidal pen- dulum. Hooke's anchor escapement was the next advance, which allowed of a smaller arc of swing and eliminated a certain amount of friction, but it is not used in the best clocks because of the recoil. Graham over- came the recoil just mentioned by using pal- lets whose surfaces were arcs of circles, hence dead-beat escapement. The chronometer es- capement has a balance-wheel in place of a pendulum, which thus admits of a more compact arrangement than is possible in a clock with a pendulum; moreover, it will work in any position. ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH. The altitude of a celestial object, as a star, is its angular height above the horizon, and its comple- ment or that which is required to make it equal to a right angle is called the zenith distance. The azimuth of a celestial object is its angular distance from the north point of the horizon. It is found by drawing an imaginary arc from the zenith point through the object till it cuts the horizon, and then measuring the angular distance between this point and the north point. THE SPHERE OF OBSERVATION. The ap- pearance of the starry sphere presents dif- ferent aspects, depending upon the locality of the observer. At Washington the north pole is elevated about 39 above the horizon, at London about 5H above the horizon; this elevation of the pole always being equal to the latitude of the place of observation. The celestial equator being 90 distant from the pole, will cut the horizon of London at an angle of 38^, and that of Washington at about 51, the northern side in each case being depressed below, and the southern side elevated above, the horizon. PARALLAX. The moon's place, when looked at through a telescope from London and some distant place, as Cape Town, seems to change that is, the telescopes contain an angle. This contained angle is less when the sun is viewed in the same way, but when stars are looked at similarly the angle disap- pears altogether that is, stars have no par- allax, while the sun, moon, and planets have parallax, or angular displacement caused by change of position. ROTUNDITY OF THE EARTH. The concave heavens; the disappearance of a ship at sea; the extension of the horizon as we ascend high elevations; the frequent circumnaviga- tion of the globe; the earth's shadow cast by the sun upon the moon during an eclipse; the spherical form of the sun, moon, and planets all confirm our belief that the earth is globular in form. MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. The size of the earth is found by observing a star in the exact zenith of any place, then traveling along a direct north line, till the star has declined 1 from the zenith, and measuring the distance traversed. This distance would be the length of 1 in miles, and 360 times that length would give the circumfer- ence of the earth. DEMONSTRATION OF EARTH'S ROTATION. A heavy body set in motion tends to retain its original plane of motion. Foucault's pendulum consists of a heavy ball at the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 455 end of a long wire, supported by a steel pivot on an agate plane. The ball, when set swinging, seems to change its direction of swing across a graduated circle on a table beneath it, but, as we know that the pendu- lum tends to keep to the same plane of mo- tion, and that there is so little to prevent it from doing so, we conclude it is the earth which is turning on its axis and carrying the table with it. The gyroscope is essentially the same as the pendulum, a heavy rotating disk taking the place of the swinging bob of the pendulum. The rotating disk is sup- ported inside a horizontal ring, this ring being in its turn supported by knife edges resting on steel plates in the circumference of a vertical ring, and this vertical ring is supported by a torsionless thread, so that all th parts are nicely counterpoised and are free to move. A pointer attached to the vertical ring is found to move over a gradu- ated scale at the same rate as the pendulum changed its plane of motion ; hence, we con- clude that it is the earth which moves, be- cause we know that the rotating disc holds to its initial plane of motion. The rotation of the earth on its axis furnishes us with an in- valuable unit of lime. REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH IN ITS ORBIT. The stars which are seen nearest to the sun after sunset at different times of the year are not the same, but belong to different signs of the zodiac. This change of position of the sun with respect to the stars takes place at the rate of about 1 a day, so that the whole heavens appear to revolve once in a year independent of their diurnal revolu- tion. This is due to the real revolution of the earth in its orbit. The stars appear to describe little ellipses in the course of a year, but, as a matter of fact, it is the light com- ing from the stars that is displaced by the motion of the earth in its orbit, the form of this orbit being elliptical, so that the star's position is changed in such a way as to pro- ject an ellipse similar to that which the earth traces out. This phenomenon is known as the aberration of light, and was dis- covered by Bradley. VELOCITY OF LIGHT. Fizeau determined the velocity of light by reflecting a spot of light from a mirror at one station to a second mirror at a distant station. The light was brought to a focus at the required points by means of lenses. A toothed wheel whose revolutions could be registered was so placed that its teeth revolved in the focus, and the spot of light could be seen between two teeth. It was possible to turn the wheel so quickly that the spot of light was stopped by a tooth coming up before it could pass through. The distance between the sta- tions being known, and the rate at which the wheel turned, the velocity of light could be found. Foucault's method consisted of a rapidly rotating mirror, on which a beam of light was admitted through a slit. It was then reflected on to a lens, after which it was brought to a focus on a concave mirror at some distance. It was found possible to turn the mirror so quickly that it moved through a small angle before the spot of light returned. The distance between the mirrors, the rate of rotation of the mirror, and the amount of displacement being known, the velocity of light could be esti- mated. The velocity of light and the aberra- tion angle being known the sun's distance can be found. (1) The ratio of the velocity of light and the earth in its orbit as determined by ob- servation is as 10,089 : 1. (2) The earth completes its orbit in 365 days. (3) Light would do the same journey in 365* , 1^089 days " (4) Knowing the time it would take to complete the revolution we can find how long it would take to cross the diameter, and therefore the radius. (5) We multiply the number of seconds taken by light to cross the radius of the earth's orbit by the velocity of light, and it gives us 92,628,000 miles as the sun's dis- tance. THE SUN NOT ALWAYS AT THE SAME DIS- TANCE FROM THE EARTH. In the Nautical Almanac the sun's apparent diameter is given for every day in the year. The ap- parent diameter was 32'35.2"on January 3rd, 1904, and on July 4th of the same year it was only 31'30.7". This proves the sun is farther away from us in summer than in winter. PERIHELION AND APHELION. When the earth is nearest to the sun it is said to be in Perihelion, and when farthest from the sun it is said to be in Aphelion. THE EARTH MOVES WITH VARYING VE- LOCITY IN ITS ORBIT. This is ascertained by measuring the sun's longitude for two successive days at different times of the year, by which means it is found in December to move over 61'10.0" within a period of twenty-four hours, while in June it only moves over 57'10.8" in the same time. KEPLER'S LAW OF EQUAL AREAS. Kepler found that the line joining the center of the sun with the center of the earth moved over equal areas in equal times, that is, the greater distance of the earth from the sun in June compensated for the smaller arc of motion in longitude, so that lines drawn from the sun to the extremities of the arcs moved over make equal triangles. How THE INCLINATION OF THE ECLIPTIC TO THE PLANE OF THE EARTH'S EQUATOR is DETERMINED. The elevation of the sun above the horizon is measured by the shadow cast by the gnomon, or the north polar distance is ascertained by the transit instrument for each day in the year. In either case the sun will be found to oscillate backwards and forwards over an arc of about 47, half of which arc is the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator. NODES. The two points where the plane of the ecliptic crosses the plane of the celestial equator or equinoctial are called nodes, that point at which the sun appears to come up from below the equator being called the as- cending node, and that at which the sun ap- pears to descend from above the same plane being called the descending node. THE FIRST POINT OF ARIES. The ascend- ing node above referred to is the first point of Aries. It is universally used by astronomers for fixing the longitudinal and right ascen- sion of celestial bodies. THE SIDEREAL, SOLAR, AND MEAN SOLAR DAY. The sidereal day is the interval which elapses between two successive appearances of the same star on the meridian. The solar 456 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. day is the interval which elapses between two successive appearances of the sun on the meri- dian, but these are not of the same length. The mean solar day is the interval of time obtained by adding all the solar days in a year together, and then dividing by the num- ber of days in a year. EQUATION OF TIME. The inequality of the solar days arises from two causes, namely, the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator, and the unequal velocity of the earth in its orbit. The equation of time is the algebraic sum of these two variables that is to say, sometimes they both cause the sun to come too soon to the meridian; at other times one causes the sun to come up too soon and the other too late. In the former case the sum of the two correc- tions, and in the latter case the difference of the two corrections, is the equation of time, and so on. THE SEASONS. The seasons are the result of the revolution of the earth in its orbit and the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator. The sun on this account attains different heights above the horizon, giving different len'gths of day and night. By reason of its giving to the earth more heat in the day than it loses by radiation in the night, and vice versa, we have summer or winter as the case may be. THE YEAR. The ordinary or tropical year is the period which elapses between two suc- cessive appearances of the sun at the vernal equinox. The anomalistic year is the period which elapses between two successive returns of the sun to his perigean point. The .sidereal year is the time which elapses between two successive appearances of the same star on the meridian at the same time of day. PRECESSION AND NUTATION. The sun and moon attract the protuberant portion of the earth's equator more on that side nearest to them than on that side farthest away, and in this way the differential attraction tends to tilt the axis a little, so that it describes a cir- cle in about 25,800 years. The moon's differ- ential attraction is greater than that of the sun. On account of the moon continually changing its relation to the earth's equator, it causes the axis of the earth to describe a circle with a wavy circumference, to which effect the term nutation, or nodding of the earth's axis, is applied. ASTRONOMICAL SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS. The Sun. Degrees. Minutes of Arc. " Seconds of Arc. N. North. S. South. E. East. W. West. or The Moon. Mercury. Venus. The Earth. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. Uranus. Neptune. Conjunction. Quadrature. Opposition. Ascending 0. T Aries Taurus 30 60 II. II Gemini. . III. 3 Cancer 90 IV. Q Leo 120 V. IIP Virgo 150 VI. ^ Libra 180 VII. HI Scorpio 210 Node. VIII. Sagittarius .240 t3 Descending IX. \fr Capricornus . 270 Node. X. ts. Aquarius. . . 300 h Hours. XL K Pisces 330 m Minutes of Time. s Seconds of Time. LATITUDE, LONGITUDE, RIGHT ASCENSION, AND DECLINATION. Terrestrial latitude is Country. Latitude. Length of De- gree in Feet. Observer. Sweden. . . Denmark. . England . India .... Peru Cape of Good Hope Of// N. 66 20 10 N. 54 813.7 N. 52 35 45' N. 123220.8 S. 131 0.4 S. 33 18 30 365,744 365,087 364,971 362,956 362.790 364,713 Maupertuis Schumacher Roy Lambton Lacondamine Lacaille measured from the equator to the poles, north and south. Terrestrial longitude is, in Eng- land, measured from the meridian of Green- wich, but other countries use their own meri- dians. Right ascension is measured from the first point of Aries. Declination is meas- ured from the celestial equator. Celestial longitude is measured from the first point of Aries. Celestial latitude is measured from the ecliptic. VARIATION IN THE LENGTH OF DEGREES OF LATITUDE. MEASUREMENT OF THE SIZE OF THE SUN AND PLANETS. The ratio between the radius of a circle and its circumference is always the same, no matter how large or small the circle may be. Thus, an arc of 57.2958 on any cir- cle is equal in length to the radius of that circle; and if this be reduced to seconds of arc, we get 206,265" as the number of seconds in a length of arc equal to radius. The mean angular diameter of the sun, as measured by the micrometer, is a little over 32' of arc. We may consider the sun to form part of the circumference of a circle, with its distance from the earth as radius. There are 1920" in 32', and =108 nearly; hence the dis- tance of the earth from the sun is 108 times the diameter of the sun, whatever that may be. But we know the distance of the sun to be 92,885,000 miles; so that the diameter of the sun must be '- = 860,000 miles. The same method applies to the planets and their satellites as well as to the sun. The angular diameter of the body being measured in seconds of arc, it bears the same ratio to 206,265 (the number of seconds in a length of arc equal to radius) that the diameter in miles bears to the distance in miles ; or, calling the actual diameter d, and the real distance D, , DX angular diameter ^ we have rf = -- - -- . For ex- ample the moon, in round numbers, is 240,- 000 miles distant, and its angular diameter is a little over 31'; hence, by the formula, its diameter is . 240,000 XI 860 206,265 2164 miles. DENSITY OF THE EARTH. Experiment. Mean Density. Observer. Schehallien Attraction of leaden ball Ditto, repeated Harton coal-pit Probable value. . . 5.01 5.48 5.66 6.56 5.53 Maskelyne Cavendish Baily Airy SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 457 To FIND THE PERIOD OF A PLANET. The synodic period may be readily observed, and from it the actual time occupied by a planet in completing its revolution round the sun can be calculated. For example, the synodic period of Mercury is 115.9 days; this means that the earth and the planet being in a line with the sun at any time, the latter has pro- gressed in its orbit so quickly as to complete an entire revolution and again overtake the earth during the period of 115.9 days. Now 360 the earth moves ^^-^ = 0.9856 in a day, and in the entire period 115.9X0. 9856 = 114.2. But the planet has moved 360 + 114.2 = 474.2 in the same time, hence the period of the planet is to that of the earth as 114.2 : 474.2, that is, 114 ^ 7 ^ 65 ' 25 = 88 days nearly. SHOOTING STARS. The names of the prin- cipal meteor swarms and the dates of their appearance are as follows : Name. Date. Comet having same Orbit. Andromedes . Lyrids Leonids Perseids 23 November 20 April 15 November 11 August. . . Biela's Comet I. 1861 Tempel's, 1866 Comet III. 1863 The number of stars in the northern hemt- sphere in Argelander's catalogue is 324,000. The number of known variables is 111, and the suspected variables 381. Roughly, then, there is one variable in every 660 of the known stars. According to Duner, about 1 in 7 of the third type stars is variable. To FIND THE TIME OF SUNRISE AND SUN- SET BY MEANS OF THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. The time of sunrise or sunset may be found for any day by elevating the north or south pole equal to the sun's declination north or south for any given day. The place being under the brass meridian, the hour circle should be set at XII., and then the place should be rotated first to the eastern horizon and then to the western and the times on the hour circle noted, the former being the time of rising, and the latter that of setting of the sun. Twice the time of setting of the sun gives the length of the day, and twice the time of rising gives the length of the night. Example: 20th January, 1890, sun rose, 8.15; set, 3.45. 2 X 3. 45 = 7^ = length of day. 2 X 8. 15 = 16* = length of night. The months and days of the months are all marked on the ecliptic, so that the sun's place for any day is determined by finding the day on the ecliptic and noting the part of the sign of the zodiac corresponding to that day, and if the globe be turned till this part of the ecliptic comes to the meridian, the latter will indicate the declination of the sun. Note. The Analemma is a convenient pro- jection of the ecliptic on which the sun's dec- lination may be readily found, as it is noted for every day in the year. NUMERICAL FACTS RELATING TO THE SUN. Solar Parallax (equatorial horizontal), 8.80" 0.02". Mean distance of the sun from the earth, 92,885,000 miles; 149,480,000 kil- ometers. Variation of the distance of the sun from the earth between January and June, 3,100,000 miles; 4,950,000 kilometers. Linear value of 1" on the sun's surface, 450.3 miles; 724.7 kilometers. Mean angular semi- diameter of the sun, 16' 02.0". Sun's linear diameter, 866,400 miles; 1,394,300 kilometers. (This may, perhaps, be variable to the extent of several hundred miles.) Ratio of the sun's diameter to the earth's, 109.3. Surface of the sun compared with the earth, 11,940. Vol- ume, or cubic contents, of the sun compared with the earth, 1,305,000. Mass, or quantity of matter, of the sun compared with the earth, 330,000 3000. Mean density of the sun com- pared with the earth, 0.253. Mean density of the sun compared with water, 1.406. Force of gravity on the sun's surface compared with that on the earth, 27.6. Distance a body would fall in one second, 444.4 feet; 135.5 meters. Inclination of the sun's axis to the ecliptic, 7 15'. Longitude of its ascending node, 74. Date when the sun is at the node, June 4, 5. Mean time of the sun's rotation (Carrington), 25.38 days. Time of rotation of the sun's equator, 25 days. Time of rotation at latitude 20, 25.75 days. Time of rotation at latitude 30, 26.5 days. Time of rotation at latitude 45, 27.5 days. (These last four numbers are somewhat doubtful, the formulae of various authorities giving results differing by several hours in some cases.) Linear velocity of the sun's rotation at his equator, 1.261 miles per second; 2.028 kilometers per second. Total quantity of sunlight, 1,575,- 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 candles. In- tensity of the sunlight at the surface of the sun, 190,000 that of a candle flame; 5300 times that of metal in a Bessemer converter; 146 times that of a calcium light; 3.4 times that of an electric arc. Brightness of a point on the sun's limb compared with that of a point near the center of the disk, 25 per cent. Heat received per minute from the sun upon a square meter, perpendicularly exposed to the solar radiation, at the upper surface of the earth's atmosphere (the solar constant), 25 calories. Heat radiation at the surface of the sun, per square meter per minute, 1,117,- 000 calories. Thickness of a shell of ice which would be melted from the surface of the sun per minute, 48 feet, or 14f meters. Mechanical equivalent of the solar radiation at the sun's surface, continuously acting, 109,000 horse power per square meter; or, 10,000 (nearly) per square foot. Effective temperature of the solar surface (according to Rossetti), about 10,000 C., or 18,000 F. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. According to this theory, all the members of our solar system once existed in a state of highl heated gas- eous or nebulous matter, which extended far beyond the orbit of our most remote planet, Neptune. This matter was supposed to have received a motion of rotation, and, as it cooled, became more and more condensed, the central portion leaving a ring of protuberant matter in the equatorial region, which, after becoming detached, would continue to revolve in the same direction as the parent mass, something after the fashion of Saturn's ring. This de- tached ring, it was presumed, would break up, and collecting into a globular mass retain its motion of rotation, and take up an additional motion of revolution around its primary. The detached planets formed in this way would, by a similar process, throw off their satellites, which, after long ages of cooling, have assumed their present state. 458 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. SOME ELEMENTS OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM. Name. Mean Dis- tance from Earth in Millions of Miles. Sidereal Period of Revolution Round Sun Time of Axial Rotation. Real Diameter in Miles. Volume = 1. Density 0=1. The Sun Mercury. .. $ 92.9 56 9 D. ' ' 88 ' H. M. 60748 *24 5* 866,400 3 030 1,300,000 056 0.25 85 (?) Venus. 9 25 7 225 *23 21 7 700 920 89 Earth 365 23 56 7 918 1 000 1 00 Mars. . . v of 48 6 687 24 37$ 4 230 152 71 Jupiter. . 1| Saturn >? Uranus $ Neptune tj? 390.4 793.2 1,689.0 2,698.8 4,333 10,759 30,687 60,181 955$ 1014* 930(?) 86,500 73,000 31,900 34,800 1,309 760 59 85 0.24 0.13 0.22 0.20 Sun .... Mercury Venus . . Earth . . Mars . . . Jupiter . Saturn. . Uranus . Neptune THE SOLAR SYSTEM. Mean distance from sun in miles. 35,750,000 66,750,000 92,333,333 141,000,000 480,000,000 881,000,000 1,771,000,000 2,775,000,000 Mean diameter in miles. 860,000 2,992 7,660 7,918 4,211 86,000 70,500 31,700 34,500 Satel- lites. "6" 1 2 5 8 4 1 GREEK ALPHABET. The different stars of the several constellations are usually indicated by the letters of the Greek alphabet. For convenience of reference, the alphabet is here given. A a Alpha. H r, Eta. N v Nu. T T Tau. B /3 Beta. Theta. H Xi. Y v Upsilon. r y Gamma. I i Iota. O o Omicron. * 4> Phi. A 5 Delta. K K Kappa. n IT Pi. X x Chi. E e Epsilon. A A Lambda P p Rho. * $ Psi. Z Zeta. M n Mu. 2 s Sigma. fl w Omega. NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL STARS. The following table exhibits the names of all the Stars of the First Three Magnitudes to fhich Astronomers have given names, at least all those whose names are in common use- a Andromedi a Aquarii Water Bearer. Aquilae Eagle. Arietis Ram. Andromeda. . Alpherat z. Mirach Mizar. .Almach. . Sadalmelik. Sadalsund. . Skat. . Altair. Alshain . Tarazed. .Hamal. . Sheratan. Mesartim. Aurigse Charioteer Capella. Menkalinan. Bootis Herdsman Arcturus. " Nekkar. ' Izar, Mizar, Mirach. Muphrid. Canis Majoris Great Dog.Sirius. " . .Mirzam. ..Adara. Canis Minoris Little Dog . Procyon. Gomeisa. Canum Venaticorum Hunting Dogs a 2 Capricorn! Sea Goat. . . S " a Cassiopeiae Cassiopeia. . Cephei Cepheus Cor Caroli. . Secunda Giedi. . Deneb Algiedi. . Schedar. .Chaph. . Alderamin. .Alphirk. . Errai. Ceti Whale Menkar. Diphda. C " o a Columbse Dove a Coronae Borealis Crown a Corvi Crow a Crateris Cup. a Cygni Swan. . Baten Kaitos Mira. . Phact. . Alphecca. Alchiba. Algores. Alkes. Arided, Deneb Adige. * The periods of rotation of Mercury and Venus are possibly equal to their periods of revo- lution. N.B. The numbers in the third column refer to the mean distances at inferior conjunction for the inferior planets at opposition for the superior planets. - Knowledge Diary and Scientific Handbook. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 459 NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL STARS.^Continued. ft Cygni Swrn Albireo. Draconis Dragon. Thuban. 8 Orionis Orion Mintaka. e . Alnilam. ft ' ' Alwaid a Pegasi Pegasus . Markab 7- " Etanin. ft Eridani River Eridanus Cursa ft ' Scheat. f " . Algenib. f " Zaurac. Geminorum Twins Castor. ft ' ' Pollux e " Enif . " Homan. a Persei Perseus . . . Mirfak f " . Alhena. 8 Wesat. e Mebsuta. a Herculis Hercules Ras Algethi. ft " Algol, a Piscis Australis Southern Fish Fomalhaut. e Sagittarii Archer. . Kaus Australis ft " Korneforos. a Hydrse Sea Serpent. . AlFard,Cor Hydrse. Leonis Lion Regulus, Cor Leonis. ft ' Deneb Aleet, Denedola, Deneb. f ' ' Algeiba. a Scorpionis Scorpion Antares, Cor Scorpionis. Serpentis Serpent Unukalhai. Tauri Bull Aldebaran. B ' Nath 8 " Zosma. n Leporis Wolf Arneb. a Librae Scales Zuben el Genubi. ft " . Zuben el Chamali r) ' Alcyone (Pleiad). Ursse Majoris Great Bear.Dubhe. f) ' Merak. r < . . Phecda. r " Zuben Hakrabi. Lyras Lyre Vega. ft " Sheliak. 7- ' Sulaphat. n Ophiuchi Serpent Bearer. Ras Alhague. ft " Cebalrai. a Orionis Orion Betelgeux. e Alioth. C Mizar. r; ' Alkaid, Benetnasch. i Talitha. a Ursae Minoris Little Bear. Polaris. ft Kochab. a Virginis Virgin. . . .Spica Azimech, Spica. B " Rigel r " . .Bellatrix. e " . . Vindemiatrix MAGNITUDES AND DISTANCES OF SOME OF THE STARS. POLARIS (ALPHA URS*: MINORIS), THE NORTH STAR. The parallax is 0".075 + 0".015, according to Pritchard (1888). This parallax repre- sents 2,318,000 times the distance of the Earth from the Sun, or, in other words, Polaris is distant 210,000,000,000,000 of miles. Estimating the velocity of light as 187,500 miles per second, the light from Polaris would take thirty-six years to reach the Earth. An express train traveling a mile a minute would have to run without stop- ping for 479,000,000 years in order to tra- verse this distance. ARCTURUS. The parallax, as determined by Elkin in 1888, is 0".0180".022, and by Peters, in 1842-43, as 0".127 + 0".073. The average 0".094 would make the distance of Arcturus from us to be 2,194,100 times the distance from the Earth to the Sun, or 200,000,000,000.- 000 of miles; and taking the velocity of light as 187,500 miles, it would require thirty-four years and six months for the light to reach us. This was the polar star of our Earth 14,000 years ago, and will again be the polar star in about 12,000 years. The parallax of Vega, which is 0".15, represents 1,375,000 times the distance of the Earth from the Sun, or 12,000,- 000,000.000 of miles. It takes twenty years and eight months for the light from Vega to reach us. estimating the velocity of light as 187,500 miles a second. ALTAIR. The parallax, according to Elkin (1887), is 0".1990".047. Taking the average between the parallax of Struve, 0".181iO".094, and that of Elkin as 0". 19, the distance would be 1,086,000 times the distance of the Earth from the Sun, or 100,000,000,000,000 miles. It would require a little over seventeen years for the light of this star to reach us. SIRITJS, THE DOG STAR. The parallax is 0".2660".047, according to Elkin (1888). Taking the average parallax of several observers as 0".33, it would repre- sent 625,000 times the distance of the Earth from the Sun, or 58,000,000,000,000 of miles. The light of this star would require nine years and ten months to reach us. It is supposed the diameter of Sirius is about twenty times that of the Sun, and the volume of Sirius is possibly 7,000 times greater than our Sun. DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE STAR MAP. Traced in dot and dash lines on the accom- panying star map are a series of ellipses. From the points where these ellipses come nearest to the edge of the map, arrows project radially to the names of the months which are printed around the map. Each ellipse marks the extent of the heavens visible at nine o'clock p.m. of the first day of that month toward which its arrow points. To avoid confusion, the best plan is to cut in a piece of stiff paper an oval opening of the exact size of one of the ellipses, and to place this over the map, so as to expose to view only that portion of the map which represents the visible heavens at the 460 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. time of the observation. The map should be held with the arrow pointing toward the South, then contrary to custom in geograph- ical maps the East will lie on the left-hand side and the West on the right-hand side. This is due to the fact that the heavens are viewed looking upward, whereas the map is viewed looking downward. In locating stars and constellations it is best to hold the map overhead, when the actual points of the com- pass and those marked on the map will bear the true relation to each other. Now, suppose the night be the first of December and the hour nine p.m.; cover up the entire map except. that included within the ellipse whose arrow points to December. Then when the map is held overhead with the arrow pointing south it will be possible to pick out the stars visible at that hour and date. As time passes the ellipse must be slowly moved eastward around the Pole Star as a center at the rate of nearly 1 5 degrees per hour, so that two hours later, that is at 11 p.m., the visible heavens would correspond with that portion enclosed by the ellipse marked for the first of January. Owing to the fact that this eastward move- ment is not exactly 15 degrees per hour, the ellipse for the second day of December will Copyright, 1904, by Munn & Co. STAR MAP OF THE HEAVENS. Stars of the first magnitude are indicated by an eight-point star, those of the second magni- tude by a six-point star, third magnitude stars by five-point stars, fourth magnitude star.s by four-point stars, and fifth magnitude stars by dots. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 461 fall about one decree to the east of the posi- tion on the first of December at nine o'clock, so that at the end of thirty days it would move into coincidence with the ellipse traced for January 1st. The following descriptions of the heavens apply to the stars visible at nine o'clock on the first days of the months, but it will be evident that the same description would apply for the stars visible at eight o'clock on the fifteenth of that same month, or for ten o'clock on the 15th and 11 o'clock on the first of the preceding month. JANUARY. The Great Bear, Ursa Major, is now rising well above the horizon, in the northeast, the Pointers about midway be- tween north and northeast. The Dragon, Draco, lies due north, curving round under the Little Bear, its head close to the horizon. Low down in the northwest is a part of the Swan, Cygnus. Higher up we see King Cepheus, his wife, Cassiopeia, and their daughter, Andromeda, the Seated Lady and Chained Lady respectively, with the Rescuer, Perseus, nearly overhead. The Winged Horse is setting, his head close by the western horizon, and near the Jar of the Water Bearer, Aquarius. In the southwest is the Whale, and close by the constellation Pisces, or the Fishes; above them the Ram, Aries, between which and Andromeda the Triangle can be seen. In the south the River, Eridanus, makes now its best show. Its leading bril- liant, Achernar, is, however, never seen in the United States. In the southwest the Great Dog with the splendid Sirius ("which bright- liest shines when laved of ocean's wave") shows resplendently. Above is Orion, now standing upright, treading on the Hare, Lepus, and facing the Bull, Taurus, now at its highest. The Dove, Columba, below the Hare is a modern and not very interesting con- stellation. The Little Dog, Cam's Minor, is on the east of Orion. In the east the Sea Serpent, Hydra, is rising, and due east a little higher we find Cancer, the Crab; above are the Twins, Gemini, and above them the Charioteer, Auriga, with the bright Capella, nearly over- head. The Lion is rising in the northeast, his heart star, Regulus, being low down a little north of east. FEBRUARY. The Great Bear, Ursa Major, with its Dipper and Pointers, occupies the northeasterly midheaven. The Dragon, Draco, curves round the Little Bear toward the Pointers. In the northwest, fairly high up, we find Cassiopeia, the Seated Lady, and on her right, lower down, the inconspicuous con- stellation Cepheus. Andromeda, the Chained Lady, is on Cassiopeia's left. Above An- dromeda is Perseus, the Rescuing Knight and above him the Charioteer, Auriga, nearly overhead. On the left of Andromeda is Aries, the Ram, the small constellation the Triangle lying between them. Toward the southwest, the Whale, Cetus, is beginning to set. The River, Eridanus, occupies the lower part of the southwesterly sky, and extends also to the midheavens in that direction. The Dove, Columba, lies toward the south, and is at its best, which is not saying much. Above is the Hare, Lepus, on which Orion treads. The giant now presents his noblest aspect prince of all the constellations, as he is. He faces the Bull, Taurus, known by the Pleiades and the bright Aldebaran. Close by the poor Hare, on the left, leaps Canis Major, the Greater Dog, with the bright Sirius, which "bickers into green and emerald." The stern of the Star-Ship, Argo, is nearing the south. Very high in the southeast we find the Twins, Gemini, with the twin stars, Castor and Pollux, and below them the Little Dog, Canis Minor. The Sea Serpent, Hydra, is rearing its tall neck above the eastern horizon (by south), as if aiming either for the Little Dog or for the Crab, Cancer, now high up in the east, with its pretty Beehive cluster showing well in clear weather. The Lion, Leo, is due east, the Sickle being easily recog- nized. MARCH. The Great Bear, Ursa Major, with its Dipper and Pointers, is now high up in the northeastern sky. The Dragon, Draco, extends from between the Bears to the hori- zon, east of north, where its head with its two bright eyes can be seen. Cepheus is low- down, somewhat to the west of north; his Queen, Cassiopeia, the Seated Lady, beside him. Andromeda, the Chained Lady, is in the northwest, low down in fact, partly set; the Triangle, and next the Ram, Aries, beside her, toward the west. Above them is Perseiis, the Rescuing Knight; and above him, some- what to the west, the Charioteer, Auriga. The Bull, Taurus, with the Pleiades and the bright Aldebaran, is in the midheaven, due west; Gemini, the Twins, higher, and toward the S9uthwest. Orion, below them, is already slanting toward his grave, low down in the west ; beneath him the Hare, and in the south- west a part of the River, Eridanus. Due south is a part of the Star Ship, Argo beside which, low down, is the foolish Dove, Columba, while above leaps the Great Dog, Canis Major, with the splendid Sirius, chief of all the stars in the sky, marking his mouth. High up, a little west of north, is the Little Dog, Canis Minor, and higher, a little east of north, the Crab, Cancer, the dark constella- tion, as it was called of old, with the pretty cluster, Prcesepe, or the Beehive. The Sea Serpent, Hydra, is rearing his long neck high above the horizon, bearing, absurdly enough, on his back Noah's Cup, Crater, and Noah's Raven, or (>ow, Corvus. Nearly due east, the Virgin, Virgo, has risen. The Lion, Leo, occupies the midspace above. East of the Great Bear lies Hevelius's feolish constella- tion, the Hunting Dogs, uanes Venatici. Lastly, in the northeast, the Herdsman, Bootes, with the orange-yellow brilliant Arcturus, is rising, though at present, para- doxical as it may seem, he lies on his back. APRIL. The Great Bear, Ursa Major, is now nearing the point overhead, the Pointers, aiming almost directly downward toward the Pole Star. Cepheus lies north, low down; Cassiopeia on his left. Perseus is nearing the horizon, the Charioteer, Auriga, on his left, but higher. Setting toward the west we see the Bull, Taurus, with the Pleiades and the ruddy Aldebaran. Orion is almost prone in his descent toward his western grave. The Twins, Gemini, are due west, in the mid- heavens; the Little Dog, Canis Minor, beside them on their left; the Crab, Cancer, above; the Greater Dog, Canis Major below, chasing the Hare, Lepus, below the horizon. Just behind the Dog the poop of the Great Ship, Argo, is also setting. The Sea Serpent, Hydra, now shows his full length, rearing 462 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. his head high in the south. Observe the darkness of the region around his heart. Alfard, the Solitary One. The Cup, Crater, and Crow, Corvus, stand on his back. The Sickle in the Lion, Leo, now stands with handle upright, due south. Below the tail stars of the Lion we see the Virgin, Virgo. The Herdsman, Bootes, still on his back pur- sues in that striking and effective position the Great Bear. Below the shoulder stars of the Herdsman we see the Crown, Corona Borealis, near which, on the right, low down and due ea>t, the head of the Serpent, Ser- pens, is rising. MAY. The Great Bear, Ursa Major, is now at its highest and nearly overhead, the Point- ers aiming downward from high up, slightly west of due north. Below the Little Bear we find Cepheus low down to the east of north, and Cassiopeia low down to the west of north. Perseus, the Rescuer, is setting in the north- west. The Charioteer, Auriga, with the bright Capella, is nearing the northwestern horizon, followed by the Twins, Gemini, in the west. Further west and higher we find the Crab, Cancer, below which is the Little Dog, Cam's Minor. The southwestern sky is very barren of bright stars, Alfard, the heart of the Sea Serpent, Hydra, shining alone in a great blank space. Above the Sea Serpent's head we see the Sickle in the Lion, Leo, himself stretching his tail to due south, very high up. In the south, lower down, we find the Crow, Corvus, and the Cup, Crater, on the Serpent's back; the Virgin, Virgo, extending in the mid- heavens from southeast to south, between the Lion's tail and the Crow. In the same direc- tion, but low down, we find the head and body of the Centaur, Centaurus, supposed to have typified the patriarchal Noah. In the southeast the Scorpion is just beginning to appear, and between the head of Scorpio and the Virgin's robes we see the stars of the Scales, Libra. Due east, low down, is the Serpent Bearer, Ophiuchus, on his back 'tis the customary attitude of heavenly bodies when rising. The Serpent, Serpens, held by him is seen curving upward toward the Crown, Corona Borealis. The Serpent's head is due west, and above it we see the bright Arcturus, chief brilliant of the Herdsman, Bootes. In the northeast is Hercules, his head close to the head of the Serpent Bearer. Beneath his feet is the Lyre, Lyra, with the brilliant Vega; and the Swan, Cygnus, has already half risen above the northeastern horizon. Lastly, the Dragon, Draco, curves from between the Pointers and the Pole, round the Guardians, toward Cepheus, and then retorts its head- with gleaming eyes, and 7-, toward the heel of Hercules. JUNE. The Great Bear, Ursa Major, occu- pies all the upper sky from west to north, except a small space occupied by the Hunting Dogs, Canes Venatici. Due south, low down, lies Cassiopeia, while above, somewhat toward the east, we find the inconspicuous constellation Cepheus. Low down in the northwest lie the Charioteer, Auriga, and the head stars of the Twins, Gemini, farther west. The Crab, Cancer, is nearly due west, the Sea Serpent, Hydra, holding his head almost exactly to the west point. Above is the Sickle in the Lion, its blade curved down- ward, and the tail of the Lion, Leo, lies above, toward the south of west. On the Serpent's back we find the Cup, Crater, and the Crow, Corvus, in the southwest and to the south of southwest respectively. Above these con- stellations the Virgin, Virgo, occupies the midheavens. Above the Virgin we see the Herdsman, Bootes, his head and shoulders nearly overhead. Low down in the south is the Centaur, Centaurus, bearing on his spear the Wolf, Lupus, as an offering for the Altar, Ara, which, however, is invisible in these latitudes. Above the Wolf we see the Scales, Libra, while the Scorpion, Scorpio, one of the few constellations which can at once be recog- nized by its shape, is rising balefully in the southeast. Te Serpent Bearer, Ophiuchus, bears the Serpent, Serpens, in the midheavens toward the southeast, the Crown, Corona Borealis, being high up in the east, close by the Serpent's head. Low down in the east is the Eagle, Aquila, with the fine steel blue star Altair, the Swan on the left about northeast, and above it the Lyre, Lyra, with the still more brilliant steel blue star Vega. Hercules occupies the space between the Lyre on the one side and the Crown and the Serpent's head on the other. He is high up, due east. JULY. The Great Bear, Ursa Major, is in the midheavens toward the northwest, the Pointers not far from the horizontal position. The Dragon, Draco, curls over the Little Bear, curving upward on the east, to where its head, high up in the northeast, is marked by the gleaming eyes, /? and 7-. Low down in the West the Lion, Leo, is setting. The point of the "Sickle in the Lion" is turned to the horizon; the handle is nearly horizonatal. The Crow, Corvus, is low down in the south- west, the Cup, Crater, beside it, partly set, on the right. Above is Virgo, the Virgin. Still higher in the southwest in fact, with head close to the point overhead is the Herdsman, Bootes, the Crown, Corona Borealis, near his southern shoulder marking what was once the Herdsman's uplifted arm. Low down between the south and southwest we find the head and shoulders of the Centaur, Centaurus, who holds the Wolf, Lupus, due south. In the midsky, toward the southeast, we find the Serpent Holder, Ophiuchus. Below the Serpent Holder we find the Scorpion, Scorpio, now fully risen, and showing truly scorpionic form. Beside the Scorpion is the Archer, Sagittarius, low down in the southeast. Above, near the point overhead, is the kneeling Hercules. Due east, we see part of the Winged Horse, Pegasus: above that, the little Dolphin, Delphinus: and higher, the Swan, Cygnus, and the Lyre, Lyra, with the beau- tiful bluish-white star Vega. Lastly, low down, between north and northeast, we find the Seated Lady, Cassiopeia: and above, somewhat eastwardly, the inconspicuous con- stellation Cepheus, Cassiopeia's royal husband. AUGUST. The Great Bear, Ursa Major, is now in the northwest, his paws near the hori- zon. The Dragon, Draco, curves round from between the Pointers and the Pole, above the Little Bear toward the east, then upward to near the point overhead, its head, with the bright stars /? and r, being highest. The Herdsman, Bootes, occupies the midheavens in the west, the Crown, Corona Borealis, higher up, and due west Hercules, between the Crown and the point overhead. Low down, extending from the west to near the south- west, we find the Virgin, Virgo, the bright SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 463 Spica near its setting place. In the southeast are the Scales, Libra, and, farther to the left, extending from the Scales to low down near the south, we find the Scorpion, Scorpio, one of the finest of the constellations, Antares, the rival of Mars (as the name means), marking its heart. Above the Scorpion and the Scales are the Serpent Holder, Serpentarius or Ophiuchus, and the Serpent, Serpens, extend- ing right across him to near the Crown, after which the Serpent seems reaching. A little east of due south, low down, we find the Archer, Sagittarius: in the southeast, low down, the Sea Goat, Capricornus: and farther east, and lower down, the Water Bearer, Aquarius. Above the Sea Goat is the Eagle, Aquila, with the bright bluish-white star Altair; on its left, the pretty little Dolphin, Delphinus, and above the Dolphin, nearly overhead, the Lyre, Lyra, with the bluish- white star Vega (even brighter than Altair) nearly overhead. Below the Lyre we see the Swan, Cygnus, due east ; and below the Swan the Winged Horse, Pegasus, upside down, as usual. In the northeast, Andromeda, the Chained Lady, is rising. Between the north and northeast is Cassiopeia, the Seated Lady, and above her, her husband, King Cepheus. SEPTEMBER. The Great Bear, Ursa Major, is low down, between northwest and north, the Pointers directed slantingly upward toward the Pole. Between the Great Bear and the Little Bear run the stars of the Dragon, Draco, round the Little Bear toward the north, thence toward the northwest, where we see the head of the Dragon high up, his two bright eyes, directed toward Hercules, which occupies the western mid- heaven. Above Hercules is the Lyre, Lyra, with the bright steel-blue star Vega high up toward the point overhead. Right overhead is the Swan, Cygnus. Near the west stands the Herdsman, rather slanting forward, however, with the Crown, Corona Borealis, on his left, almost due west. The long winding Serpent, Serpens, runs from near the Crown, where we see its head, due west to farther south than southwest, high up, on the western side of the Serpent Holder, Serpentarius or Ophiuchus, now standing upright in the southwest. Low down creeps the Scorpion, Scorpio, its heart Antares, rival of Mars, in the southwest, the erd of its tail between south and southwest. Above, and south of the Scorpion's tail, we see the Archer, Sagittarius. Due south and high up is the Eagle, Aquila, the bright steel-blue Altair marking its body. On the left, or east, of the Eagle lies the neat little Dolphin, Delphinus. Midway between the Dolphin and the horizon is the tip of the tail of the Sea Goat, Capri cornus, whose head lies nearly due south. On the southern horizon is the head of the Indian, Indus; and low down in the southeast lies Fomalhaut, the chief brilliant of the Southern Fish, Piscis Australis. Above lies the Water Bearer, Aquarius, in the south- western midheaven. Due east, fairly high, is the "Square of Pegasus," the head of the Winged Horse, Pegasus, lying close by the Water Pitcher of Aquarius. The Fishes, Pisces, are low down in the east. On the left of Pisces we see the Ram, Aries, low down; above it, the Triangle; and above that, the Chained Lady, Andromeda. Low down in the northeast is the Rescuing Knight, Perseus; above whom is Cassiopeia; and on her left, higher up, the inconspicuous constellation Cepheus. OCTOBER. Low down between north and northwest we find the seven stars of the Dipper, the Pointers on the right nearly due north. They direct us to the Pole Star. Be- tween the Pointers and the Pole Star we find the tip of the Dragon's tail, and sweep round the Little Bear with the Dragon's long train of third magnitude stars, till we come, after a bend, to the Dragon'b head, with the' two bright eyes, and r. These two stars are almost exactly midway between the horizon and the point overhead, and nearly north- west. King Cepheus not a very conspic- uous constellation lies between the point overhead and the Little Bear. Low down in the northwest we find the head of the Herds- man, Bootes. The Crown, Corona Borealis, which no one can mistake, lies on his left, and close by is the setting head of the Serpent. Above these three groups we see Hercules the Kneeler. Above the head of Hercules we find the Lyre, with the bright star Vega; and above that the Swan. Passing south- ward, we see the Serpent Holder, Serpentarius or Ophiuchus, beyond whom lies the Serpent's tail, a most inconvenient arrangement, as the Serpent is divided into two parts. Almost exactly southeast, and low down, are the stars of the Archer, Sagittarius; while above, in the mid-sky, we see the Eagle, Aquila, with the bright Altair. Note the neat little constella- tion, the Dolphin, Delphinus, close by. Due south is the Crane,Grus; above it, the Southern Fish, with the bright star Fomalhaut; above that, the Sea Goat, Capricornus, and on the left of this the Water Bearer, Aquarius;. Toward the east, high up, is the Winged Horse, Pegasus; he is upside down just now. Below lies the Whale, Cetus, or, rather, the Sea Monster. The Fishes, Pisces, may be seen between the Whale and Pegasus. Few constellations have suffered more than Pisces by the breaking up of star groups. The fishes themselves are now lost in Andromeda and Pegasus. Note how, on the left of Pisces the Ram, Aries, "bears aloft" Andromeda, the Chained Lady, as Milton set Aries doing long since. The Triangle serves only as a saddle. Between Andromeda and her father, Cepheus, we find her mother, Cassiopeia, or, rather, Cassiopeia's Chair. Perseus, the Rescuer, lies below. NOVEMBER. The Dipper lies low, the Pointers a little east of north. Between the Pointers and Pole Star lies the tip of the Dragon's tail. Low down in the northwest, Hercules is setting. Above is the Lyre, with the bright steel-blue Vega ; and above that the stars of the Swan, Cygnus, which has some- times been called the Northern Cross. Nearly due west we find the Eagle, Aquila. Above the Eagle is the pretty little constellation the Dolphin, Delphinus. In the southwest, rather low, is the Sea Goat, Capricornus; above, and to the south of him, the Water Bearer, Aquarius. The head of the Winged Horse, Pegasus, now upside down (in fact, he is seldom otherwise), is just above this group. Much attention need not be directed to the lowly Phoenix, low in the southern horizon. The River, Eridanus, is coming well into view; and the great Sea Monster, Cetus, now shows finely. The Fishes, Pisces, 464 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. are above; the Ram, Aries, above them, and eastward, lying toward the southeast ; then the Triangle, Triangula (or the Triangles, accord- ing to modern maps), and the Chained Lady, Andromeda, too nearly overhead to be very pleasantly observed. The grand giant, Orion, is rising in the east; above him, the Bull, Taurus, with the Pleiades. Low down in the northeast the Twins, Gemini, are rising ; above is the Charioteer, Auriga, and above him the Rescuing Knight, Perseus, "of fair- haired Danae born." DECEMBER. The Great Bear, Ursa Major, is beginning to rise above the northeast by north horizon. The end of the Dipper's handle is hidden. The stars of the Dragon wind round below the Little Bear toward the west, the head of the Dragon with the gleam- ing eyes ("oblique retorted that askant cast gleaming fire") being low down, a little north of northwest. Above is King Cepheus, and above him his queen, the Seated Lady, Cassiopeia, their daughter, the Chained Lady, Andromeda, being nearly overhead. Low down in the northwest we see the Lyre, Lyra, with the bright Vega, and close by toward the west the Swan, Cygnus, or Northern Cross. The Eagle is setting in the west, and the little Dolphin nears the western horizon. Toward the southwest by west we see the Water Bearer, Aquarius, with his Pitcher, close by which is the head of the Winged Horse, Pegasus. In the south, low down, is the absurd Phcenix; above, the Sea Monster, or Whale, Ce.tus; above him, the Fishes, Pisces; above them, the Ram, Aries; while nearly overhea 1 lies the Triangle. The River Eridanus. occupies the southeasterly sky, the Dove and Great Dog, Columba and Canis Major, rising in the southeast. The glorious Orion has now come well into position, though not yet so upright as we could wish a knightly hunter to be. He treads on the Hare, Lepus, and faces the Bull, Taurus, above. Due east we find the Crab, Cancer, and Little Dog, Canis Minor, low down; the Twins, Gemini, higher; above them the Charioteer, Auriga, with the bright Capella, and Perseus, the Rescuer, nearing the point overhead. R. A. Procter's Star Maps. Copyright, 1903, by Munn & Co. THE LARGE REFRACTORS OF THE WORLD. Institution. Aperture in Inches. Focal Length in Feet. Date of Erection. Yerkes Observatory, Wisconsin, U. S. A Lick Observatory, California, U. S. A 40.0 36 62.0 57 8 1897 1888 Lick Observatory, California, U. S. A. . . . 33.0 49.2 National Observatory, Meudon. . 32 5 53 1891 Astrophysical Observatory, Potsdam Bischoffsheim Observatory, Nice 31.1 30 3 39.4 52 6 1889 Imperial Observatory, Poulkova .... 30.0 42.0 1882 National Observatory, Paris. . . 28 9 Royal Observatory, Greenwich 28.0 28.0 1894 Imperial Observatory, Vienna. . 27 34.0 1894 Royal Observatory, Greenwich Naval Observatory, Washington. . . 26.0 26.0 26.0 32.5 1897 1871 Leander McCormick Observatory, Virginia, U. S. A Cambridge University Observatory. 26.0 25.0 32.5 1874 1868 National University, Meudon. ... 24 4 52 2 1891 Harvard College, Cambridge, U. S. A Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope 24.0 24.0 11.3 22.6 1894 1897 Lowell Observatory, Mexico National Observatory, Paris. . . 24.0 23 6 31.0 59 1895 1889 Halstead Observatory, Princeton, U. S. A Etna. . 23.0 21 8 32.0 1881 Buckingham Observatory M. Porro, Private Observatory,' Italy. . . . 21.2 20 5 Chamberlin Observatory, Colorado, U. S. A Manila Observatory, Philippines Astrophysical Observatory, Potsdam 20.0 20.0 19.7 28.0 "\\'z" 1891 1892 Imperial Observatory, Strassburg Milan Observatory, Italy 19.1 19 1 23.0 23.0 1880 North- Western Observatory, Illinois, U. S. A Dearborn Observatory. . . 18.5 18 5 27.0 1863 National Observatory La Plata 18 1 29 5 1890 Lowell Observatory, Mexico Flower Observatory, Philadelphia, U. S. A. . . . 18.0 18 26.3 1894 1896 Vander Zee Observatory Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope 18.0 18.0 "22!6" 1897 Knowledge Diary and Scientific Handbook. PART IT. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. LINEAR MEASURE. 3 barleycorns, or. . . "| MHo n i e n s t s ? r orV::::::hin<=h.) 1,000 mils (mi.) j 3 inches 1 palm 4 inches 1 hand 9 inches 1 span 12 inches 1 foot (ft.) 18 inches 1 cubit 3 feet 1 yard (yd.) 2 feet 1 military pace 5 feet 1 geometrical pace 2 yards 1 fathom 5 yards 1 rod, pole, or perch 66 feet, or. 4 rods 1 Gunter 's chain 8 furlongs, or f 1,760 yards, or 5-1 mile 5,280 feet \ 3 miles 1 league The hand is used to measure horses ' height. The military pace is the length of the ordinary step of a man. One thousand geometrical paces were reckoned to a mile. LAND MEASURE (LINEAR). 7.92 inches 1 link 100 links, or 1 22 yards r or.'. ' ' I* cliain ( c h-) 4 poles .' . .'.I'.'.';'...'.'.) 10 chains 1 furlong (fur.) 80 chains, or. ... . . ) 8 furlongs -i mile LAND MEASURE (SQUARE). 144 sq. inches. . . 1 square foot (sq. ft.) 9 square feet. . 1 square yard (sq. yd.) 30i sq. yards ... 1 sq. pole, rod, or perch 16 sq. poles. ... 1 square chain (sq. ch.) 40 sq. poles, or , , l,210sq. yards.. I 1 sq ' rood 4 roods, or . . 1 10 sq. chs., or . | 160 sq. poles, or } 1 acre * 4,840 sq. yds., or. | 43,560 sq. ft ..... J 640 acres, or. .. ( 1 ., 3,097,600 sq. yds .... \ l sq ' mile 30 acres ........ 1 yard of land 100 acres ........ 1 hide of land 40 hides ........ 1 barony CUBIC MEASURE. 1,728 cubic inches ...... 1 cubic foot 27 cubic feet. ....... 1 cubic or solid yard * The side of a square having an area of an acre is equal to 69.57 linear yards. GEOGRAPHICAL AND NAUTICAL MEASURE. 6086.44 feet, or ] 1000 fathoms, or. ... {=1 nautical mile" 10 cables, or i or knot 1.1528 statute miles. . . I 60 nautical miles, or I _, i 67.168 statute miles. . . ( "" 360 degrees. . =1 circumfer- ence of the earth at the equator league =3 nautic'l miles 1 cable's length . . . = 120 fathoms DRY MEASURE, U. S. Cu. In. 2 pints 1 quart (qt.) /= 67.20 4 quarts 1 gallon (gal.) = 268.80 2 gallons, or t -. , _ ^07 n 8 quarts f i peck 5d/.bU 4 pecks 1 struck bushel = 2150.42 LIQUID MEASURE, U. S. 4 gills 2 pints. 4 quarts. . . 63 gallons. . 2 hogsheads 2 pipes pint (O.) quart (qt.) gallon (gal.) hogshead (hhd.) pipe or butt tun Cu. In. = 28.875 = 57.75 = 231. APOTHECARIES' LIQUID MEASURE. Apothecaries' or Wine Measure is used by pharmacists of this country. Its denomina- tions are gallon, pint, fluid ounce, fluid drachm, and minim, as follows: Cong. O. F. Oz. F. Dr. Minims. 1 = g = 128 = 1,024 = 61,440 1 = 16 = 128 = 7,680 1 = 8 = 480 1 = 60 1 The Imperial Standard Measure is used by British pharmacists. Its denominations and their relative value are: Gal. Quarts. Pints. F. Oz. F. Dr. Minims 1 = 4 = 8 = 160 = 1,280 = 76,800 1 = 2= 40 = 320 = 19,200 1 = 20 = 160 = 9,600 1 = 8 = 480 1 = 60 The relative value of United States Apothe- caries ' and British Imperial Measures is as follows: , Imperial Measure. , U.S. Apothe- oj *i ^ G caries' O P 'H Measure. b ^ S 1 Gallon = .83311 Gallon, or 6 13 2 22.85 1 Pint = .83311 Pint, or 16 5 17.86 1 Fl. Oz. = 1.04139 Fl. Oz., or 1 19.86 1 Fl. Dr. = 1.04139 Fl. Dr., or 1 2.48 1 Minim =1.04139 Minim, or 1.04 465 466 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. OLD WINE AND SPIRIT MEASURE. Imperial Gals. Troy. Avoirdupois. Oz. Dr. 1 pound equals 13 2.65 4 gills or quarterns. 1 pint 2 pints 1 quart 1 ounce equals 1 1.55 1 dwt. equals . 0.877 4 quarts (231 cu. in.)l gallon = .8333 10 gallons 1 anchor = 8.333 18 gallons 1 bunlet = 15 Troy. Apothecaries'. Lb. Oz. Dr. Scr. Gr. 3H gallons 1 barrel = 26.25 42 gallons 1 tierce = 35 63 gallons, or 1 -, r. u j co e 1 ounce equals 1 1 dwt. equals 1 4 2 barSS. . . . : : r 1 h 8 shead - * 2 - 5 ?USe s ad s r :::::['p^eo n =7o Apothecaries'. Avoirdupois. Oz. Dr. 126 gallons, or 1 ounce equals . 1 1.55 1 drachm equals. . 2 19 1 puncheons ) butt IgCSSi.-: :.::}'* - 2I Apothecaries' Weight is the officinal 1 scruple equals 0.73 Apothecaries'. Troy. Lb. Oz. Dwt. Gr. 1 pound equals 1000 standard of the United States Pharmacopoeia. In buying and selling medicines not ordered 1 ounce equals 1 -0 1 drachm equals. . 2 12 by prescriptions avoirdupois weight is used. Lb. Oz. Dr. Scr. Gr. 1 = 12 = 96 = 288 = 5760 1 g = 24 = 480 1 = 3 = 60 1 = 20 1 scruple equals 20 Avoirdupois. Troy. Lb. Oz. Dwt. Gr. 1 long ton equals 2722 2 13 8 1 cwt. equals 136 1 6 16 1 quarter equals. 34 6 16 Avoirdupois Weight. Used for weighing 1 pound equals 1 2 11 16 1 ounce equals . 18 5}^ apothecaries' weight are employed. Gross or Long Ton. Cwt. Qr. Lb. Oz. Dr. 1 '= 20 = 80 = 2,240 = 35,840 = 573,440 1 = 4 = 112 = 1,792 = 28,672 1 drachm equals 1 3% Avoirdupois. Troy. Lb. Oz. Dwt. Gr. 1 short ton equals 2430 6 13 8 1 cwt. equals 121 6 6 16 1 quarter equals. 30 4 11 16 1 = 28 = 448 = 7,168 1 = 16 = 256 1 = 16 Short or Net Ton. Cwt. Qr. Lb. Oz. Dr. 1 = 20 = 80 = 2,000 = 32,000 = 512,000 1=4= 100 = 1,600 = 25,600 1 = 25 = 400 = 6,400 1 = 16 = 256 1 = 16 Avoirdupois. Apothecaries'. Lb. Oz. Dr. Scr. Gr. 1 pound equals 1 2 4 2 1 ounce equals 0070 17H 1 drachm equals. ... 1 7% DIAMOND MEASURE. 16 parts =1 grain = 0.8 troy grains. 4 grains = 1 carat = 3.2 troy grains. HOUSEHOLD MEASURES. Nothing is more The "short" ton of 2,000 Ibs. is used com- monly in the United States. The British or "long" ton, used to some extent in the United States, contains 2,240 Ibs., corresponding to a cwt. of 112 and a quarter of 28 Ibs. Troy Weight. Used by jewelers and at the mints, in the exchange of the precious metals. Lb. 1 Oz. 12 1 7000 troy grains = Dwt. Gr. 240 = 5760 20 = 480 1 = 24 _ 1 Ib. avoirdupois. 175 troy pounds = 144 Ib. avoirdupois. 175 troy ounces = 192 oz. avoirdupois. 437 troy grains = 1 oz. avoirdupois. 1 troy pound =.8228+ Ib. avoirdupois. The common standard of weight by which the relative values of these systems are com- pared is the grain, which for this purpose may be regarded as the unit of weight. The pound troy and that of apothecaries' weight have each five thousand seven hundred and sixty grains; the pound avoirdupois has seven thousand grains. The relative proportions and values of these several systems are as follows : vague and inaccurate than such expressions as: "A cupful, a wineglass." An attempt has been made to reduce these measures to some scale. In these liquid measures, the glass is supposed to be filled inch from the top. A "wineglass" is very apt to be a claret glass. If the diameter is 2f inches and the depth 2\ inches from rim to bottom, the glass will hold 3 fl. oz. = 105 cubic centimeters. A sherry glass is also a common wine glass and is flar- ing. If its top is 2i inches in diameter it should hold 1 fl. oz., or 45 cubic centimeters, A liquor glass, usually called a whiskey glass, varies greatly, but if 3 inches high and 2i inches in diameter and slightly flaring it holds 4 fl. oz., or 120 cubic centimeters. A centimeters. A "liqueur" glass having a diameter of 1 inches, 2i inches deep, flaring sides, holds $ of a fluid ounce, or 20 cubic cen- timeters. A straight-sided soda glass, 6f inches high by 2$ inches in diameter, holds 10 fl. oz., or 300 cubic centimeters. A T 3 g liter stein, 2$ inches in diameter and 3 inches deep, holds 10 fl. oz., or 300 cubic centimeters as ordinarily filled- SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 467 120 drops water = teaspoon oz. dessert-spoc tablespoon cup = 1 ph =*lb . . =1 o m it z. . r i* 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 9 eg tips buckwheat flour = coffee = tea ... 11 > 60 ' ' thick fluid 60 " " " = rice = lard. = 16 tablespoons = butter = graham flour = rye flour = 1 cup 1 ' ' water 4 tablespoons flour corn meal ; = rolled oats = powdered sugar 2 tablespoons butter 3 teaspoons soda 4 baking powder. . .. =1 =* brown " = raisins '"-ii 2 " confectioners' sugar. . 2.]r " wheat flour 3V " whole- wheat flour. . . =1 =1 . . =1 currants bread crumbs = gs. . . . . = FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The following table embraces only such weights and measures as are given from time to time in CONSULAR REPORTS and in COMMERCIAL RELATIONS: Foreign weights and measures, with American equivalents. Denominations. Where Used. American Equivalents. Portugal. . . 4.422 gallons. Ardeb Egypt 7 6907 bushels Are . . Metric. . . 0.02471 acre. Arobe Arratel or libra Arroba (dry) Do. ... Paraguay Portugal Argentine Republic Brazil .... 25 pounds. 1.011 pounds. 25.3175 pounds. 32.38 pounds. Do Cuba . . . 25.3664 pounds Do Do Portugal Spain. . . . 32.38 pounds. 25.36 pounds. Do Arroba (liquid) Arshine Arshine (square) Artel Venezuela Cuba, Spain, and Venezuela Russia Do Morocco 25.4024 pounds. 4.263 gallons. 28 inches. 5.44 square feet. 1.12 pounds. Baril Barrel Argentine Republic and Mexico . . . Malta (customs). . 20.0787 gallons. 11.4 gallons. Do Batman or tabriz. . Spain (raisins) Persia 100 pounds. 6.49 pounds. Berkovets Bongkal Bouw. . . . Russia India Sumatra. . . . 361.12 pounds. 832 grains. 7 096 5 square meters. Bu Butt (wine). . Japan Spain 0.1 inch. 140 gallons. Caffiso Candy Do. . . . Malta India (Bombay) India (Madras) 5.4 gallons. 529 pounds. 500 pounds. Cantar Do. ... Morocco Syria (Damascus). . . 113 pounds. 575 pounds. Do Turkey. . 124.7036 pounds. Malta Carga . . . Mexico and Salvador. Catty Do. 1 . . China Japan. 1.333i (1J) pounds. 1 31 pounds. Do. . . Java Siam and Malacca Do 2 12 pounds Centaro. . Central America 4 2631 gallons. Centner Do. . Bremen and Brunswick Darmstadt. . . . 117.5 pounds. 110 24 pounds. Do. ... Denmark and Norway 110 11 pounds. Do Do. . Nuremberg Prussia 112.43 pounds. 113 44 pounds. Do. . Sweden . Do Do Vienna Zollverein 123.5 pounds. 110.24 pounds. 1 More frequently called "kin." pounds avoirdupois. Among merchants in the treaty ports it equals 1.33$ 468 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Continued. Denominations. Where Used. American Equivalents. Centner. Chetvert. Chih. Double or metric Russia China. . . 220.46 pounds. 5.7748 bushels. 14 inches Coyan Do Cuadra Sarawak Siam (Koyan) Argentine Republic. 3,098 pounds 2,667 pounds. 4.2 acres. Do. . . Paraguay 78.9 yards. Do Do. ... Paraguay (square) Uruguay. . . 8.077 square feet. Nearly 2 acres. Cubic meter. . . . ; Cwt. (hundredweight).. . . Metric. British. . 35.3 cubic feet. 1 12 pounds. Dessiatirie Russia 2 6997 acres Do . . Spain 1.599 bushels. Drachme Greece Half ounce. Fanega (dry) Do Central America Chile 1.5745 bushels. 2.575 bushels. Do Do Cuba Mexico. . 1.599 bushels. 1.54728 bushels. Do Do Do Morocco Uruguay (double) Uruguay (single). Strike fanega, 70 pounds ; full fanega, 1 18 pounds. 7.776 bushels. 3.888 bushels. Do Fanega (liquid) Feddan. Frail (raisins). Frasco. . Venezuela Spain Egypt Spain. . . , . . Argentine Republic. . . 1.599 bushels. 16 gallons. .03 acres. 50 pounds. 2.5096 quarts. Do Mexico. . 2.5 quarts. Frasila Fuder Funt Garnice Zanzibar Luxemburg .... Russia ... Russian Poland.. . 35 pounds. 264. 17 gallons. 0.9028 pound. 0.88 gallon. Metric. . . 15.432 grains. Hectare Do. . . 2.471 acres. Hectoliter. Dry Do. . , 2.838 bushels. Do. . . 26.417 gallons. Joch Ken Austria-Hungary Japan. 1.422 acres. 6 feet. Kilogram (kilo) Kilometer . Metric Do - 2.2046 pounds. 0.621376 mile. Klafter Russia 216 cubic feet. Koku Japan 4.9629 bushels. Russia. 3.5 bushels Kwan. . Japan 8.28 pounds. Last. . . Belgium and Holland. 85.134 bushels. Do Do. England (dry malt) Germany. . . 82.52 bushels. 2 metric tons (4,480 pounds). Do Do. . . Prussia Russian Poland. . . 112.29 bushels. Ill bushels. Do League (land) Li Spain (salt) Paraguay China. . 4,760 pounds. 4,633 acres. 2,115 feet. Libra (pound) Do Do Argentine Republic Central America Chile .0127 pounds. .043 pounds. .014 pounds. Do Do Cuba Mexico. .0161 pounds. .01465 pounds. Do Peru . . .0143 pounds. Do . Portugal. . . .01 1 pounds. Do Spain . . . .0144 pounds. Do Do Liter. . Uruguay Venezuela Metric .0143 pounds. .0161 pounds. 1.0567 quarts. Livre (pound). Greece 1.1 pounds. Do Guiana 1.0791 pounds. Load England (timber) Square, 50 cubic feet; un- hewn, 40 cubic feet; inch planks, 600 superficial feet. If acres Do ., Nicaragua and Salvador. . 1.727 acres. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 469 FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Continued. Denominations. Where Used. American Equivalents. Marc. Bolivia 0.507 pound. Maund India. . 82f pounds Meter Metric 39.37 inches. Mil . Denmark. . 4.68 miles Do Milla . Denmark (geographical) Nicaragua and Honduras 4.61 miles. 1.1493 miles Morgen . . Prussia 0.63 acre. Oke Egypt 2.7225 pounds Do Greece. 2 84 pounds Do . . Hungary. . . . 3.0817 pounds Do Do Pic . Turkey Hungary and Wallachia Egypt. . . 2.82838 pounds. 2.5 pints. 2H inches Picul . . Borneo and Celebes 135.64 pounds. Do Do China, Japan, and Sumatra. ..... Java 133^ pounds. 135.1 pounds. Do. , Pie. . . Philippine Islands Argentine Republic. . . 137.9 pounds. 0.9478 foot. Do Spain. . . . 0.91407 foot. Pik Pood Pund (pound) Turkey Russia Denmark and Sweden. . . 27.9 inches. 36.112 pounds. 1.102 pounds. Quarter. . . Great Britain. 8.252 bushels. Do Quintal Do Do Do London (coal) . . ; Argentine Republic Brazil Castile, 1 Chile, Mexico, and Peru. . Greece. 36 bushels. 101.42 pounds. 130.06 pounds. 101.41 pounds. 123.2 pounds. Do Newfoundland (fish) 112 pounds. Do Paraguay. . 100 pounds. Do. . . Syria. . . 125 pounds Do Metric 220 46 pounds Rottle. . Palestine . 6 pounds. Do Sagene. . . Syria -. Russia. 5f pounds. 7 feet. Salm Se Malta Japan. . . 490 pounds. 0.02451 acre Seer. . . India. . Shaku Japan. . 11.9305 inches. Sho. . . Do. . . 1 6 quarts Standard (St. Petersburg). . Stone Lumber measure. . . . British. . . . 165 cubic feet. 14 pounds Suerte Uruguay Sun. . . . Japan. . . 1.193 inches Tael Tan To Cochin China Japan Do 590.75 grains (troy). 0.25 acre. 2 pecks Ton Tonde (cereals) Space measure Denmark. . . 40 cubic feet. 3.94783 bushels. Tondeland Do. ... 1 36 acres Tsubo Japan. Tsun. China Tunna Tunnland Sweden Sweden 4.5 bushels. 1 22 acres Vara. Argentine Republic 34 1208 inches Do. Do. . . Central America Chile and Peru 32.87 inches. 33 367 inches Do Cuba 33 384 inches Do Curacao 33.375 inches. Do. . . Mexico Do . , Do Spain. 914117 yard Do. . Venezuela. . 33 384 inches Vedro Vergees Russia Isle of Jersey. . . 2.707 gallons. Verst Vlocka Russia. . Russian Poland 0.663 mile. 41.98 acres. 1 Although the metric weights are used officially in Spain, the Castile quintal is employed in commerce in the Peninsula and colonies, save in Catalonia: the Catalan quintal equals 91.71 pounds. 470 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. DECIMAL SYSTEM WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. A meter is one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. SOUTH The metric system, formed on the meter as the unit of length, has four other leading units, all connected with and dependent upon this. The are, the unit of surface, is the square of ten meters. The liter, the unit of capacity, is the cube of a tenth part of the meter. The stere, the unit of solidity, has the capacity of a cubic meter. The gram, the unit of weight, is the weight of that quantity of dis- tilled water at its maximum density which fills the cube of a hundredth part of the meter. Each unit has its decimal multiple and sub- multiple, that is, weights and measures ten times larger or ten times smaller than the principal unit. The prefixes denoting the multiples are derived from the Greek, and aredeca, ten; hecto, hundred; kilo, thousand; and myria, ten thousand. Those denoting sub-multiples are taken from the Latin, and are deci, ten; centi, hundred; milli, thousand. Relative Value. Length. Surface. Capacity. Solidity. Weight. 10,000 . , Myriameter 1 000 Kilometer Kiloliter Kilogram 100. . . . 10 Unit 0.1 0.01 0.001 Hectometer Decameter Meter Decimeter Centimeter Millimeter Hectare 'Are Deciare Centiare Hectoliter- Decaliter Liter Deciliter Centiliter Milliliter Dekastere Stere Decistere Hectogram Decagram Gram Decigram Centigram Milligram APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS OF THE FRENCH (METRIC) AND ENGLISH MEASURES. I yard I 1 meters _ To convert meters into yards 1 meter= 1.1 yd. ; 3.3 ft j 1 meter, by the Standards Commission 1 meter, by the Act of 1878 1 foot 1 inch 1 mile 1 kilometer 1 chain (22 yards) 5 furlongs (1,100 yards) 1 square yard 1 square meter. < 1 square inch 1 square mile (640 acres) 1 acre (4840 square yards) 1 cubic yard 1 cubic meter 1 cubic meter 1 cubic meter of water 1 kilogram 1,000 kilograms \ 1 metric ton I 1 long hundredweight 1 United States hundredweight 11 meter. 12 yards. Add Ath. 3 ft. 3| inches (^th less). 40 inches (1.6 per cent less). = 39.38203 inches. = 39.37079 inches. 3 decimeters (more exactly 3.048). 25 millimeters (more exactly 25.4). 1.6 or If kilometers (more exactly 1.60931) of a mile. 20 meters (more exactly 20.1165). 1 kilometer (more exactly 1.0058). f square meter (more exactly .8361). lOf square feet. square yards. square centimeters (more exactly 6.45). hectares (0.4 per cent less). 4000 square meters (1.2 per cent more). f cubic meter (2 per cent more). H cubic yards (1? per cent less). 35^ cubic feet (.05 per cent less). 1 long ton nearly. 2.2 pounds fully. 1 long ton nearly. 51 kilograms nearly. 45^ kilograms nearly . 6 260 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 471 G CS ' Q) "In Q? Ill: i Jjfc 1 !^ S 3 all' a s a s " 1 ^ CO !=!! I-- 1 '"O -C bfi rof ,^r~OO"5 CC^flMOCOt- ;opocj* coo ig^c^i ^^fccoeo . OQ . _ . . . OCO^HOOOO O<>JOCOO CCi-H s^ -fl ^3 ^"g .... o - b-- 3- - - - >N c- - r^a o 1 5 II II II al 11:1 'Silll |g O^Pn PQ OOP^OP-i WoQ 50 00 ^ OiT3 - -3 - a 3 G 3 5jJ... .'~! o '. .-1C- II II II II II II II II II II II II II II 5< COiO t- II II II -fj w ^ w *-* u o ao a TJ m o' j *: S S |: ||g 2: *-^^ 1 1 l I ^ ^ ^ 472 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. FRENCH AND ENGLISH COMPOUND EQUIVALENTS. 1 kilogram per linear meter | - 6 J2 pound per linear foot. ) 2.016 pounds per yard. 1,000 kilograms (1 ton) per meter .300 long ton per foot ; i short ton per foot. 1 kilogram per kilometer 3.548 pounds per mile. 1,000 kilograms (1 ton) per kilometer \ 1.584 long tons per mile; 1.774 short tons per mile. 1 kilogram per square millimeter J 1422.32 pounds per square inch; .635 long ton I per square inch; .711 short ton per sq. in. kilogram per square centimeter 14.2232 pounds per square inch. kilogram per square decimeter 20.481 pounds per square foot. kilogram per square meter 1.843 pounds per square yard. ,000 kilograms (1 ton) per square meter 8229 long ton, .922 short ton, per square yard. kilogram per ton' J 2>24 P unds P er lon S ton > 2 pounds per short kilogram per ton per kilometer 3.6042 pounds per long ton per mile. liter of water at 4 C. per ton per kilometer. .4325 U. S. gal. at 62 F. per long ton per mile. gram per square millimeter 1.422 pounds per square inch. gram per square centimeter 01422 pound per square inch. kilogram per cubic meter j .1686 pound per cubic yard. I .0624 pound per cubic foot. ,000 kilograms (1 ton) per cubic meter \ ;f | &^^<^*' cubic meter per kilogram 16.019 cubic feet per pound. cubic meter per ton. .. . . j EgfSjatff&E; cubic meter per kilometer 2.105 cubic yards per mile. cubic meter per linear meter 1.196 cubic yards per linear yard. cubic meter per square meter 3.281 cubic feet per square foot. 1 cubic meter per hectare \% ^ gT*? 1 kilogrammeter 7.233 foot-pounds. 1 kilogrammeter * = - 00323 foot-ton (long) = .00362 foot-ton 1 ton-meter 3 foot-tons (long); 3.36 (short). 1 cheval vapeur.or cheval (75kXm per second). .9863 horse-power. 1 kilogram per cheval 2.235 pounds per horse-power. 1 square meter per cheval 10.913 square feet per horse-power. 1 cubic meter per cheval 35.806 cubic feet per horse-power. 1 calorie, or French unit of heat 3.968 British heat-units. French mechanical equivalent of heat (423.55k j. 3Q63 5 foot . pounds> 1 calorie per square meter 369 heat-unit per square foot. 1 calorie per kilogram 1.800 heat-units per pound. ENGLISH AND FRENCH. 1 pound per linear foot 1.488 kilograms per linear meter. 1 pound per yard 496 kilogram per meter. 1 long ton per foot 33.32 kilograms (3 tons approx.) per meter. 1 long ton per yard 1111 kilograms ( 1^ tons approx.) per meter. 1 pound per mile. 2818 kilogram per kilometer. 1 long ton per mile 6313 ton per kilometer. 1 pound per long ton 4464 kilogram per ton. 1 pound per long ton per mile 2774 kilogram per tori per kilometer. , .0703077 kilogram per square centimeter. 1 pound per square inch I .7031 gram per square millimeter. I 5.170 centimeters of mercury at C. 1 atmosphere (14.7 pounds per square inch). .. l 1.0335 kilograms per square centimeter. 1,000 pounds per square inch 703077 kilogram per square millimeter. 2,000 pounds per square inch 1.406154 kilograms per square millimeter. 1 long ton per square inch 1.575 kilograms per square millimeter. 1 pound per square foot 4.883 kilograms per square meter. 1,000 pounds per square foot 4882.517 kilograms per square meter. 1 ton per square foot 10.936 tons per square meter. 1,000 pounds per square yard 542.500 kilograms per square meter. 1 ton per square yard 1.215 tons per square meter. 1 pound per cubic yard 5933 kilogram per cubic meter. 1 pound per cubic foot 16.020 kilograms per cubic meter. 1 ton per cubic yard 1.329 tons per cubic meter. 1 cubic yard per pound 1.6855 cubic meters per kilogram. cubic yard per ton 7525 cubic meter per ton. cubic yard per mile 4750 cubic meter per kilometer. cubic yard per linear yard 836 cubic meter per linear meter. cubic foot per square foot 3048 cubic meter per square meter. cubic meter per acre 2.471 cubic meters per hectare. cubic yard per acre 1.889 cubic meters per hectare. foot-pound 1382 kilogrammeter. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 473 FRENCH AND ENGLISH foot-ton (long) horse-power pound per horse-power square foot per horse-power cubic foot per horse-power. . . British unit of heat, or heat-unit . .. . British mechanical equivalent of one unit (772 foot-pounds) 1 British heat-unit per square foot. . . . 1 British heat-unit per pound COMPOUND EQUIVALENTS Continued. .3097 ton-meter. 1.0139 cheval. 447 kilogram per cheval. 0916 square meter per cheval. 0279 cubic meter per cheval. 252 calorie. heat- j. 1Q6 7 kilogrammeters. 2.713 calories per square meter. f calorie per kilogram. D. K. Clark, Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book. To REDUCE PARTS BY VOLUME, OR MEAS- URE TO PARTS BY WEIGHT. Multiply the parts by volume, or measure, by the specific gravity of the different substances: the re- sult will be parts by weight. MENSURATION. SURFACES. PARALLELOGRAM. Area equals base mul- tiplied by height. TRIANGLE. Base and height given. Mul- tiply base by height and divide by two. When three sides are given. From the half sum of the three sides subtract each side sep- arately; multiply the half sum and the three remainders together. The area is the square root of the product thus obtained. TRAPEZIUM (a figure with two sides parallel and two sides not parallel ). To find the area multiply the sum of the two parallel sides by the distance between them and divide by two. SQ/-ARE OR RHOMBUS (an oblique paral- lelogram with four equal sides). Area equals half the product of the diagonals. IRREGULAR POLYGON. The area may be found by dividing it into a series of triangles and trapeziums, and finding the sum of the areas thus obtained. REGULAR POLYGON. Area equals number of sides multiplied by length of one side and by the radius of the inscribed circle divided by two. CIRCLE. Circumference equals diameter multiplied by 3.1410, or approximately by 3|. Area equals diameter squared multiplied by .7854. SECTOR OF CIRCLE. Multiply the length of the arc by the radius and divide by two. SEGMENT OF CIRCLE. Find the area of the sector having the same arc. Also find area of triangle formed by the radial sides and the chord. The area equals the sum or differ- ence of these according as the segment is greater or less than a semicircle. ANNULUS. Multiply the sum of the diame- ters by their difference and by .7854. SQUARE EQ TT AL TO A CIRCLE. Side of square equals diameter multiplied by .8862. INSCRIBED SQUARE. Side of square equals diameter multiplied by .7071. ELLIPSE. Area equals the product of the two axes by .7854. SOLIDS. CUBE. Surface equals length of one edge squared and multiplied by six. Contents equals length of one edge cubed. CYLINDERS AND PRISMS. Surface equals perimeter of one end multiplied by height plus twice the area of one end. Contents equals area of base multiplied by height. This last also applies to oblique cylinders and prisms. CONE OR PYRAMID. Surface equals cir- cumference of base multiplied by slant height divided by two, plus the area of the base. Contents equals area of base multiplied by one-third perpendicular height. This last applies whether the cones and pyramids be right or oblique. FRUSTUM OF CONE OR PYRAMID. Con- tents : To the sum of the area of the two ends add the square root of their product and multiply the quantity thus obtained by one- third the perpendicular height. SPHERE. Area equals square of diameter multiplied by 3.1416 or 3}; i.e., it is equal to four times the area of one of its great circles, or to the convex surface of its circumscribing cylinder. Surfaces of spheres vary as the squares of their diameters. Contents equal the cube of the diameter multiplied by .5236, i.e., equals area of surface multiplied by diam- eter and divided by six. Contents of spheres vary as the cubes of the diameter. SEGMENT OF SPHERE. Contents: From three times the diameter of the sphere sub- tract twice the height of the segment, multi- ply the difference by the square of the height and by .5236; or, another rule: Add -the square of the height to three times the square of the radius of the base and multiply the sum by the height and by .5236. ZONE OF SPHERE. To the sum of the squares of the radii of the two ends add one- third the square of the height, multiply the sum by the height and by 1.5708. CONE, SPHERE, AND CYLINDER. The con- tents of a cone, sphere, and cylinder of same diameter and height are in the ratio of 1 to 2 to 3. Practical Engineer's Electrical Pocket Book and Diary. CIRCULAR MEASURE. Diameter of a Circle X 3. 141 6 gives Circum- ference. Diameter Squared X .7854 gives Area of Circle. Diameter Squared X 3. 1416 gives Surface of Sphere. Diameter Cubed X .5236 gives Solidity of Sphere. One Degree of Circumference X 57.3 gives Radius. Diameter of Cylinder X 3.1416, and product by its length, gives the Surface. Diameter Squared X .7854, and product by the length, gives Solid Contents. A Circular Acre is 235.504 feet, a Circular Rood 117.752 feet, in diameter. The Circum- ference of the globe is about 24,855 miles, and the Diameter about 7,900 miles. Whittakfr's A Imanac. 474 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. ANGULAR MEASURE. There is perfect unanimity as to the stand- ard angle (i.e., the right angle) and practi- cal unanimity as to its subdivision, for the subdivision into grades, etc., once favored by the French, is now abandoned. 1 minute of angle or arc = 60 seconds. 1 degree " 90 degrees ' ' Radian " " Length of arc of 1 Length of arc of 1' = 60 minutes. = 1 right angle or i of circum- ference. = arc same length as radius. = 57.295779513082. = 0.017453292520. = 0.000290888209. = 0.015707963268. TIME. The unit of time measurement is the same among all nations. Practically it is } s 6 4oo of the mean solar day, but really it is a perfectly arbitrary unit, as the length of the mean solar day is not constant for any two periods of time. There is no constant natural unit of time. 1 minute =60 seconds. 1 hour =60 minutes, 3GOO sec- onds. 1 day =24 hours, 1440 minutes, 86,400 seconds. 1 sidereal day =86164.1 seconds. 1 sidereal month =27.321661 mean solar days (average). 1 lunar month =29.530589 mean solar days (average). 1 anomalistic month = 27.544600 mean solar days (average). 1 tropical month =27.321582 mean solar days (average). 1 nodical month =27.212222 mean solar days (average). Mean solar year =365 d. 5 h. 48 m. 46.045 s. with annual varia- tion of 0.00539. The change in the length of the mean side- real day, i.e.. of the time of the earth's rota- tion upon its axis, amounts to 0.01252 s. in 2400 mean solar years. Physical Tables, TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF FRACTIONS OF AN INCH. 015635 03125 046875 0625 078125 09375 109375 125 140625 15625 171875 1875 203125 21875 234375 25 265625 28125 296875 3125 328125 34375 359375 375 390625 40625 421875 4375 453125 46875 484375 50 515625 53125 546875 '5625 578125 59375 609475 625 640625 65625 671875 6875 703125 71875 734375 75 765625 78125 796875 8125 828125 84375 859375 '875 921875 9375 953125 96875 984375 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF THE BIBLE. A gerah 10 gerahs = 1 bekah. 2 bekahs = 1 shekel. 60 shekels = 1 maneh WEIGHTS. Avoirdupois. Lbs. Oz. Drs. 0.439 = 4.39 = 8.78 = 2 14.628 = 50 manehs = 1 talent 102 13 11.428 Troy. Lbs. Oz. Dwt. Gr. 12 0050 10 2600 125 MEASURES. Long Measure. Ft. In. A digit, or finger (Jer. lii. 21) 4 digits = palm (Exod. xxv. 25) 0.912 3.648 3 palms = span (Exod. xxviii. 16) 10.944 2 spans = cubit (Gen. vi. 15) 1 9.888 4 cubits = fathom (Acts xxvii. 28) 7 3.552 1.5 fathoms = reed (Ezek. xl. 3, 5) 10 11.328 13.3 reeds = 1 line (Ezek. xl. 3) 145 11.04 Land Measure. Eng. miles. Paces. Ft. A cubit 1.824 400 cubits = 1 furlong (Luke xxiv. 13) ... 145 4.6 5 furlongs = 1 sabbath day's journey (John xi. 18; Acts i. 12). . . 727 3.0 10 furlongs = 1 mile (Matt. v. 41) .... 1 399 1.0 24 miles = 1 day's journey ... 33 76 4.0 Liquid Measure. Gals. Pts. A caph 0.625 1.3 caphs log (Lev. xiv. 10) 0.833 4 logs = cab 3.333 3 cabs = hin (Exod. xxx. 24) 1 2 2 hins = seah 2 4 3 seahs = bath, or ephah (1 Kings vii. 26; John ii. 6) 7 4.5 10 ephahs kor, or homer (Isa. v. 10; Ezek. xiv. 14) 75 5.25 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 475 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF THE BIBLE Continued. Dry Measure. Pecks. Gals. Pts. Agachal 0.1416 20 gachals = 1 cab (2 Kings vi. 25; Rev. vi. 6) 2.8333 1.8 cabs =1 omer (Exod. xvi. 36) 5.1 3.3 omers = 1 seah (Matt. xiii. 33) 1 1 3 seahs = 1 ephah (Ezek. xlv. 11) 3 3 5 ephahs = 1 letech (Hosea iii. 2) 16 2 letechs = 1 kor, or homer (Num. xL 32; Hos. iii. 2) 32 N.B. The above Table will explain many texts in the Bible. Take, for instance, Isa. v. 10- "Yea, ten acres of vineyard shall yield one bath, and the seed of an homer shall yield an ephah." This curse upon the covet- ous man was, that 10 acres of vines should produce only 7 gallons of wine, i.e., one acre should yield less that 3 quarts; and that 32 pecks of seed should only bring a crop of 3 pecks, or, in other words, that the harvest reaped should produce but one-tenth of the seed sown. TIME. The Natural Day was from sun-rise to sun-set. The Natural Night was from sun-set to sun-rise. The Civil Day was from sun-set one evening to sun-set the next; for, "the Evening and the Morning were the first day." NIGHT (Ancient). First Watch (Lam. ii. 19) till midnight. Middle Watch (Judg. vii. 19) till 3 a.m. Morning Watch (Exod. xiv. 24) till 6 a.m. NIGHT (New Testament). First Watch, evening = 6 to 9 p.m. Second Watch, midnight = 9 to 12 p.m. Third Watch, cock-crow = 12 to 3 a.m. Fourth Watch, morning = 3 to 6a.m. JEWISH With its value in English and American money; Jewish. A gerah (Exod. xxx. 13) 10 gerahs = 1 bekah (Exod. xxxviii. 26) 2 bekahs =1 shekel (Exod. xxx. 13; Isa. vii. 50 shekels = 1 maneh 60 manehs = 1 kikkar (talent) A gold shekel A kikkar of gold N.B. A shekel would probably purchase nearly ten times as much as the same nominal amount will now. Remember that one Ro- man penny (8d.) was a good day's wages for a laborer. The Hebrew maneh, according to 1 Kings x. 17, compared with 2 Chron. ix. 16, contained 100 shekels; though according to one inter- pretation of Ezek. xlv. 12, it contained 60, but more probably 50. The passage reads thus: "Twenty shekels, five and twenty shekels fifteen shekels shall be your maneh." This is variously interpreted, (1) 20 + 25+15 DAY (Ancient). Morning till about 10 a.m. Heat of day till about 2 p.m. Cool of day till about 6 p.m. DAY (New Testament). Third hour = 6 to 9 a.m. Sixth hour = 9 to 12 midday. Ninth hour =12 to 3pm. Twelfth hour = 3 to 6 p.m. MONEY. the American dollar being taken as equal to 4s. Id. English. American. s. d. Dols. Cents. 1 1.36 = 23) 3.37 = 0.75 = 9 = 6 = 27 1,642 8 ^26,280 2.73 27.37 54.74 37.50 50 76 ... = .... = .... = = 5 = 342 = 1 =-5,475 = 60. (2) 20, 25, 15 are different coins in gold, silver, and copper, bearing the same name. It is well to remark the meaning of these names: Shekel = simply weight: Bekah = split, i.e., the shekel divided into two: Gerah = a grain, as in our weights, a grain and a barley-corn, the original standard weight: Maneh = appointed, equivalent to sterling, a specific sum: Kikkar = a round mass of metal, i.e., a weight or coin. Hebrew names of weights and coins are not found in the New Testament: mna in Luke xix. 13 is Greek, though possibly identical with the Hebrew maneh. ROMAN MONEY. Roman. English. d. A "farthing," quadrans (Matt. v. 26) = nearly 0.125 A "farthing," as = 4 quadrantes (Matt. x. 29) = nearly 0.5 A "penny," denarius = \6 asses (Matt. xxii. 19) = nearly. , 8.50 [The Roman sestertius = 2 asses, is not named in the Bible.] American. Cents. 0.25 1 17 N.B. Here we learn that NAAMAN'S offering to Elisha of 6,000 pieces (shekels) of gold amounted to more than 10,000 = 48,000 dollars. The DEBTOR (Matt, xviii. 24) who had been forgiven 10,000 talents, i.e., 3,000,000 = 14,- 400,000 dollars, refused to forgive his fel- low-servant 100 pence, i.e., 3 10s. 10d = 17 dollars. JUDAS sold our Lord for 30 pieces of silver, i.e., 3 10s. Sd. = 16 dollars 96 cents, the legal value of a slave, if he were killed by a beast. JOSEPH was sold by his brethren for 20 pieces, i.e. 2 Is. = 11 dollars 28 cents. Oxford University Bible. 476 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. TIME AND WATCH ON BOARD SHIP. WATCH. For purposes of discipline, and to divide the work fairly, the crew is mus- tered in two divisions: the Starboard (right side, looking forward) and the Port (left). The day commences at noon, and is thus divided: Afternoon Watch First Dog Second Dog First Middle Morning Forenoon noon to 4 p.m. 4 p.m. to 6 p.m. 6 p.m. to 8 p.m. 8 p.m. to midnight. 12 p.m. to 4 a.m. 4 a.m. to 8 a.m. 8 a.m. to noon. This makes seven WATCHES, which enables the crew to keep them alternately, as the Watch which is on duty in the forenoon one day has the afternoon next day, and the men who have only four hours' rest one night have eight hours the next. This is the reason for haying Dog Watches, which are made by di- viding the hours between 4 p.m. and 8 p.m. into two Watches. TIME. Time is kept by means of "Bells," although there is but one bell on the ship, and to strike the clapper properly against the bell requires some skill. First, two strokes of the clapper at the in- terval of a second, then an interval of two seconds; then two more strokes with a sec- ond's interval apart, then a rest of two sec- onds, thus: BELL, ONE SECOND; B., TWO SECS. ; B. s. ; B. ss;B. s.; B. ss.; B. 1 Bell is struck at 12.30, and again at 4.30, 6.30, 8.30 p.m.; 12.30, 4.30, and 8.30 a.m. 2 Bells at i (struck with an interval of a second between each B. s, B.), the same again at 5, 7, and 9 p.m.; i, 5, and 9 a.m. 3 Bells at 1.30 (B. s, B. ss, B.), 5.30, 7.30, and 9.30 p.m.; 1.30, 5.30, and 9.30 a.m. 4 Bells at 2 (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B.), 6 and 10 p.m.; 2, 6, and 10 a.m. 5 Bells at 2.30 (B. s, B ss, B. s, B. ss, B.) and 10.30 p.m.; 2.30, 6.30, and 10.30 a.m. 6 Bells at 3 (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ss, B. s, B.) and ii p.m.; 3, 7, and n a.m. 7 Bells at 3.30 (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ss, B.) and 11.30 p.m.; 3.30, 7.30, and 11.30 a.m. 8 Bells (B. s, B. ss, B. s, B. ss, B. s. B. ss, B. s, B.) every 4 hours, at noon, at 4 p.m., 8 p.m., midnight, 4 a.m., and 8 a.m. Whittaker's Almanac. STONES: SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WEIGHT AND VOLUME. STONES. Specific. Gravity. Weight of one Cubic Foot. Cubic Feet per Ton. Alabaster, calcareous gypseous Barytes Water = 1. 2.76 2.31 4.45 Pounds. 172.1 144.0 277.5 Cubic Ft. 13.0 15.6 8.07 Basalt. Chalk, air-dried. . 2.45-3.00 2 78 152.8-187.1 155 14.7-12.0 14 5 Diamond Flint. 3.50 2.59 164 is 7 Felspar Gneiss Granite . . 2.60 2.69 2 50-2 74 162.1 168 156-171 13.8 13.3 14 4-13 1 Graphite Jasper. . . . 2.20 2.72 137.2 169 7 16.3 13 2 Limestone Marble: African. . . 1.86-2.53 2 80 116-158 174 6 19.3-14.2 12 8 British 2 71 169 13 3 Carrara Egyptian green Florentine. . . . French. . . 2.72 2.67 2.52 2 65 169.6 166.5 157.1 165 2 13.2 13.5 14.3 13 6 Mica 2.93 183 12.2 Oolitic stones 1.89-2 60 118-162 19 0-13.8 Ores: Spicular or red iron ore Magnetic iron ore. 5.21 5 09 327.4 317 6 6.84 7 05 3 92 244 6 9 16 Spathic iron ore Quartz . . 3.83 2 61-2 71 238.8 162 8-169 9.38 13 8-13 3 Sandstone Serpentine Slate 2.04-2.70 2.81 2 60-2 85 127-168 175.2 162 1-177 7 17.6-13.3 12.8 13 8-12 6 Talc, steatite. . . 2.70 168,4 13.3 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 477 MINERAL SUBSTANCES, VARIOUS: SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WEIGHT, AND VOLUME. Sl'BSTANCES. Specific Gravity. Weight of One Cubic Foot. Cubic Feet per Ton Alum Ballast (brick rubbish and gravel) Brick Water = 1. 1.72 1.80 1.90-2.40 Pounds. 107.2 112 124.7-135 3 Cubic Ft. 20.9 20.0 18 1-16 Brickwork 1.76-1.84 .99 110 61.7 20.4-18 36 3 Clay Coal: Anthracite 1.92 1.37-1.59 119.7 85.4-99.1 18.7 26.2-22.6 Bituminous , . . . : Earth argillaceous* 1.20-1.31 74.8-81.7 93-137 30-28.1 16-24 Dry, loose Dry, shaken Moist, loose Packed Glass: Flint Green 1.15-1.29 1.32-1.48 1.06-1.22 1.44-1.60 2.90 2.70 72-80 82-92 66-76 90-100 187.0 168.4 31.1-28 27.3-24.3 34.0-29.5 24.8-22.4 12.0 13 3 Plate Thick flooring Crown Gunpowder, heaped Ice, melting Marl Masonry: Ashlar granite Limestone, hard semi-hard soft r.... ' ' Sandstone 2.70 2.53 2.50 1.75-1.84 .922 1.60-1.90 2.37 2.70 2.42 2.34 2 61 168.4 158.0 155.9 109.1-114.7 57.5 99.8-118.5 147.5 168.5 151.9 145.6 162 5 13.3 14.2 144 20.5-19.5 39 22.4-18.9 15.2 11.4 14.8 15.4 13 2 Rubble, dry mortar. . . . 2.21 2 47 138 154 16.2 14 6 Mortar, hardened Mud: Dry, close 1.65 1.28-1 93 103 80-110 21.7 28 0-20 4 Wet, moderately pressed. . 1 93-2 09 110-130 20 4-17 2 Wet, fluid. 1 67-1 92 104 120 21 518 7 Phosphorus. . . 1 77 110 4 20 3 Plaster Portland cement. . . 1.87-2.47 1 25 1 51 98 78 94 22.9 28 7 23 8 Potash . . 2 10 131 17 1 Sand. . 1 44-1 87 90-117 24 9 19 1 1 ' saturated with water Salt, common 4 rock. . . . 1.89-2.07 .1.92 2 10-2 26 118-129 119.7 131 140 7 19-17.4 18.7 17 1 15 9 Sulphur. . . 2 00 124 7 18 Tiles 2 00 124 7 18 478 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. FUELS, ETC.: SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WEIGHT, AND BULK. FUELS. Specific Weight Cubic of One Foot. Volume of One Ton, Solid. Heaped. Heaped. COALS. Anthracite, American . . . Water = 1. 1.30-1.84 Lbs. 93 5 Lbs. 54 Cub. Ft. Bituminous coal, American COKE. Coke, generally American . . . 127 84.0 40-50 50.0 30.0 32.1 70-80 69 8 Graphite . 2.33 145 3 LIGNITE AND ASPHALT. Perfect lignite 1.29 Imperfect lignite Bituminous lignite 1.15 1.18 1.06 WOOD CHARCOAL. ^4s made, heaped. Oak and beech Heaped. .24-. 25 15-15.6 Birch. .22-.2S 13.7-14.3 Pine .20-.21 12.5-13.1 Average Gunpowder, loose . . .225 .90 14 shaken " solid 1.00 1.55-1. 80 WOODS: SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT. WOOD. Specific Gravity. Weight of One Cubic Foot. Ash . v Water = 1. .84 .70 .79 .31-.40 .7S-.85 .82 .66 .T2-.74 1.04 .49-.S7 .24 .66 1.13 .076 .55-. 67 .76 .72 .74 .48-. 70 .50-.64 .53 .49 .46 .66 .65-1.33 .56-1.06 .56-1.06 .6S-.73 .67 .89 .87 .39 .32-. 51 .48 .80 .59 .58 .49 Pounds. 52.4 43.7 45.5 19.5-24.9 46.8-50.3 51.1 41.2 44.9-46.1 64.8 30.6-35.5 15.0 41.2 70.5 4.74 34.3 47.5 44.9 46.1 29.9-43.7 31.2-39.9 34.3 30.6 28.7 41.2 40.5-82.9 34.9 34.9 40.5 41.8 55.5 54.2 24.3 20.0-31.8 29.9 50.0 36.8 42.4 30.6 ' ' with 20 per cent, moisture Apple tree. . . Bamboo Beech. . 1 with 20 per cent, moisture ' cut one year Birch . Boxwood Cfdar of Lebanon. . . . Cork Cypress, cut one year. . Ebony. Elder pith Elm . ' * with 20 per cent, moisture. . . . . Fir Norway Pine. ' Larch. . ' White Pine, Scotch with 20 per cent, moisture ' Yellow Pine, American . ' " " English. Lignum- Vitse Mahogany, Cuba . . 4 ' Honduras Maple 20 per cent, moisture Mulberry Oak, American. . . Poplar " White ' ' 20 per cent, moisture Rock-Elm Sycamore Walnut Willow. . . SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. ANIMAL SUBSTANCES: SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT. (Claudel.) SUBSTANCE. Specific Gravity. Weight of One Cu. Ft. Pearls Coral . Water = 1. 2.72 2.69 Pounds. 169.6 167.7 Ivory. . 1 82-1 92 114-119 7 Bone Wool. . . . 1.80-2.00 1 61 112.2-124.7 100 4 Tendon Cartilage Human Bodv. 1.12 1.09 1 07 69.8 68.0 66 7 Nerve Beeswax 1.04 96 64.9 59 9 Lard Spermaceti White of Whalebone Butter .95 .94 .94 .94 59.3 58.8 58.7 58 7 Pork Fat 94 58 7 Tallow Beef Fat. .92 92 57.5 57 5 Mutton Fat. . 92 57 4 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES: Cotton 1 95 121 6 Flax. ... 1 79 111 6 Starch. . , Sugar. . . .... 1.53 1 1 005 95.4 Gutta-percha . 97 60 5 India-rubber Grain: Wheat, California .93 Weight of One Cu. Ft., loosely filled. 49 58.0 Weight of OneCu. Ft., closely filled. 53 Peas Indian Corn 50 43* 54 47 LIQUIDS: SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT. LIQUIDS AT 32 F. Specific Gravity. Weight of One Cubic Foot. Weight of One Gallon. Mercury. . Water =1. 13 596 Pounds. 848 7 Pounds. IOC A Sulphuric Acid, maximum concentration 1 84 114 9 18 4 Nitrous Acid. . 1 55 96 8 ICC Chloroform Nitric acid, of commerce. . . 1.53 1 22 95.5 76 2 15.3 10 9 Acetic acid, maximum concentration. . Milk 1.08 1 03 67.4 64 3 10.8 10 3 Sea Water, ordinary Pure Water, at 39 F Wine, Red '....'.'.'.'. Oil, Linseed. . . . 1.026 1.000 .99 94 64.05 62.425 62.0 58 7 10.3 10.0112 9.9 9 A " Rapeseed. . .92 57 4 9 2 " Whale. . . 92 57 4 q o " Olive " Turpentine Tar Petroleum. . . . .915 .87 1.00 88 57.1 54.3 62.4 54 9 9.15 8.7 10.0 _ O^^ Naphtha 85 53 1 C Ether, Nitric. 1 11 69 3 nl Sulphurous *. 1 08 67 4 10 8 Nitrous 89 55 6 o q Acetic. .89 55 6 8 9 Hydrochloric .87 54 3 8 7 Sulphuric. . . 74 44 9 7 2 Alcohol, proof spirit . . 92 57 4 q o ' ' pure .79 49 3 7 9 Benzine 85 53 1 o c Proof Spirit. . . .80 49.9 s.n 480 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. GASES AND VAPORS: SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WEIGHT, AND VOLUME. GASES at 32 F., and under one Atmosphere of Pressure. Specific Gravity. Weight of One Cubic Foot. Volume of One Pound Weight. Mercury. Air 1. 6 9740 Pounds. Ounces. 563 9 008 Cub. Ft. Chloroform 5 3000 428 6 846 2 ^37 Turpentine. . . . 4 6978 378 6 042 o 07 Acetic Ether. 3 0400 24*5 3 Q97 Benzine 2 6943 217 3 480 4 ^QK Sulphuric Ether. . . 2 5860 20Q ^ 34.0 Chlorine Sulphurous Acid. . . . 2.4400 2 2470 .197 3.152 1814 2 902 5.077 C C1 Alcohol Carbonic Acid 1.6130 1 5290 .1302 2.083 12344 975 7.679 8101 Oxygen. . 1 1056 089253 428 Air 1 0000 OS0798 ^Qlfi 11 * Nitrogen. Carbonic Oxide .9701 9674 .078596 .258 0781 9^0 12.723 Olefiant Gas. . 9847 0795 27^ 1 o con Ammoniacal Gas Light Carbureted Hydrogen . . . Coal Gas Hydrogen .5894 .5527 .4381 .0692 .04758 7.613 .04462 .7139 .03536 .5658 .005592 .0895 21.017 22.412 28.279 178.83 WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF BODIES. (Tod.) BODIES. Weight of One Cubic Foot. Weight of One Cubic Inch. Cubic Inches in One Pound. METALS. Antimony, cast Oz. 6,702 7,190 7,207 7,291 7,299 7,471 7,788 7,811 7,816 7.833 7,965 8,279 8,395 8,544 8,666 8,784 8,788 8,878 8,915 9,822 10,510 10,534 10,744 11,000 11,352 11,800 13,568 14,000 15,709 17,647 19,258 19,316 19,500 20,336 21,041 22,069 23,000 Lb. 418.8750 449.3750 450.4375 455.6875 456.1875 466.9375 486.7500 488.1875 488.5000 489.5625 497.8125 517.4375 524.6875 534.0000 541.6250 549.0000 549.2500 554.8750 557.1875 613.8750 656.8750 658.3750 671.5000 687.5000 709.5000 737.5000 848.0000 875.0000 981.8125 1,102.9375 ,203.6250 ,210.0625 ,218.7500 ,271.0000 ,315.0625 ,379,3125 ,437.5000 Oz. 3.8748 4.1608 4.1707 4.2193 4.2239 4.3234 4.5069 4.5202 4.5231 4.5329 4.6093 4.7910 4.8582 4.9444 5.0150 5.0833 5.0856 5.1377 5.1591 5.6840 6.0821 6.0960 6.2175 6.3657 6.3694 6.8287 7.8518 8.1018 9.0908 10.2123 11.1446 11.2042 11.2847 11.7685 12.1765 12.7714 13.3101 Cub. In. 3.8866 3.8431 3.8364 3.7920 3.7878 3.7007 3.5500 3.5396 3.5373 3.5296 3.4792 3.3395 3.2933 3.2359 3.1903 3.1476 3.1461 3.1140 3.0959 2.8149 2.6306 2.6246 2.5733 2.5134 2.4355 2.5134 2.0377 .9748 .7600 .6124 .4356 .4280 .4178 .3595 .3140 .2528 .2021 Iron, cast . . Tin, cast ' hardened. Pewter Iron, bar . . Cobalt, cast Steel, hard. . . . 4 soft meteoric Iron, hammered Nickel, cast Brass, cast wire Nickel, hammered Gun-metal. . . . Copper, cast wire ' ' coin. . . . Bismuth, cast Silver, hammered coin pure, cast Rhodium. . Lead, cast Palladium. ... Mercury (quicksilver) common pure Gold, trinket 4 ' coin 4 ' pure, cast ... ' hammered Platinum, pure hammered wire laminated. . . . Iridium, hammered Clark's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 481 SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Tables showing a comparison of the degrees of Baumi', Cartier, and Beck's Areometers, with specific gravity degrees. For Liquids Lighter than Water. For Liquids Heavier than Water. Degrees of r* -* RonV Degrees of Baume. Beck. Baume, Cartier, Ba,umc. C/flrtiGr. jjecK. Beck!' Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr. Beck. Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr. Sp. Gr. 1.000 1.0000 1 007 fifiXQ 1.0000 i 2 . \}\)i .014 . uuoy .0119 1 0.9941 3 .020 .0180 2 0.9883 4 .028 .0241 3 0.9826 5 .034 .0303 4 9770 6 .041 .0366 5 0.9714 7 .049 .0429 6 0.9659 8 .057 .0494 7 9604 9 .064 0559 8 0.9550 10 .072 .0625 9 9497 11 .080 0692 10 1.000 0.9444 12 088 .0759 11 0.993 i '. 666 " 0.9392 13 .096 .0828 12 0.986 992 0.9340 14 .104 .0897 13 0.979 985 0.9289 15 .113 .0968 14 0.973 0.977 0.9239 16 .121 .1039 15 0.967 0.969 0.9189 17 130 .1111 16 0.960 0.962 0.9139 18 .138 .1184 17 0.954 0.955 0.9090 19 .147 .1258 18 0.948 0.948 0.9042 20 .157 1333 19 0.942 0.941 0.8994 21 .166 .1409 20 0.935 0.934 0.8947 22 .176 .1486 21 0.929 0.927 0.8900 23 .185 .1565 22 0.924 0.920 0.8854 24 .195 .1644 23 0.918 0.914 0.8808 25 .205 .1724 24 0.912 0.908 0.8762 26 .215 .1806 25 0.906 0.901 0.8717 27 .225 .1888 26 0.901 0.895 0.8673 28 .235 .1972 27 0.895 0.889 0.8629 29 .245 .2057 28 0.889 0.883 0.8585 30 .256 .2143 29 0.884 0.877 0.8542 31 .267 .2230 30 0.879 0.871 0.8500 32 .278 .2319 31 0.873 0.865 0.8457 33 .289 .2409 32 0.868 0.859 0.8415 34 .300 .2500 33 0.863 0.853 0.8374 35 .312 .2593 34 0.858 0.848 0.8333 36 .324 .2680 35 0.853 0.842 0.8292 37 .337 .2782 36 0.848 0.837 0.8252 38 .349 .2879 37 0.843 0.831 0.8212 39 .361 .2977 38 0.838 0.826 0.8173 40 .375 .3077 39 0.833 0.820 0.8133 41 .388 .3178 40 0.829 0.815 0.8095 42 .401 .3281 41 0.824 0.810 . 8061 43 .414 .3386 42 0.819 0.805 0.8018 44 .428 .3492 43 0.815 0.800 0.7981 45 .442 .3600 44 0.810 7944 46 456 .3710 45 0.806 0.7907 47 .470 .3821 46 0.801 7871 48 .485 3934 47 0.797 0.7834 49 .500 .4050 48 0.792 0.7799 50 .515 .4167 49 0.788 7763 51 531 4286 50 0.784 0.7727 52 .546 .4407 51 0.781 0.7692 53 .562 .4530 52 0.776 7658 54 578 4655 53 0.771 0.7623 55 .596 .4783 54 0.769 0.7589 56 .615 .4912 55 0.763 7556 57 634 5044 56 0.759 0.7522 58 .653 .5179 57 0.755 0.7489 59 .671 .5315 58 0.751 0.7456 60 .690 .5454 59 0.748 0.7423 61 .709 .5596 60 0.744 0.7391 62 .729 .5741 61 0.740 0.7359 63 .750 .5888 62 0.736 0.7328 64 .771 .6038 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. UNITS OF LOG MEASURE. In the United States and Canada logs are most commonly measured in board feet. Firewood and wood cut into short bolts, such as small pulpwood, excelsior wood, etc., are usually measured in cords. In the Adiron- dack Mountains the 19-inch standard, or, as it is often called, "the market," is a common unit of log measure. In some localities a log 22 inches in diameter at the small end and 13 feet long is used as a standard log and is the unit for buying and selling timber. In other sections standards are used which are based on logs 12 feet long and respectively 21, 22, and 24 inches in diameter at the small end inside the bark. In some cases logs are measured in cubic feet. This is common with long spar tim- ber and with long logs to be cut or hewn square. In many localities timber is sold by the log or tree, and in some sections standing timber is sold for a specified amount per acre or other unit of land measure. Piles and mine props are usually sold by the piece or by the linear foot. Logs are occasionally sold by the ton. BOARD MEASURE. The unit of board measure is the board foot, which is the contents of a board 1 foot square and 1 inch thick. The number of board feet which can be sawed from logs of different diameters and lengths is shown in log rules. Logs are usually measured at the small end inside the bark, because the removal of the slabs reduces the logs to the dimensions of the small end. This is the custom in measuring short logs by all the rules which are used, except in certain cases. Some of the rules, for example the Doyle and the Par- tridge rules, were intended by their origina- tors to be used for an average diameter, but most persons who use them take the diameter at the small end, except in case of long tim- ber. In measuring long logs which are to be cut into short logs before being sawed into boards, the diameter is usually not taken at the small end alone. Thus in using the Maine Rule, long logs are sealed as two logs. The diameter at the small end inside the bark is measured and is taken as the diameter of the uppermost log. The diameter at the small end of the lower log is estimated by the log-sealer. Another method of measur- ing long logs, often used with the Doyle Rule, is to take the diameters at both ends inside the bark, average them, and use this average as the diameter of the log. Still another method in use is to take the diameter inside the bark, one-third the distance from the small end of the log. Logs are usually cut from 2 to 6 inches longer than the standard lengths of boards, to allow for bruising in handling. This addi- tional length is disregarded in scalTng. Log rules give the number of board feet in logs which are straight and sound. If logs are unsound or otherwise defective, a certain allowance must be made by the sealer. The determination of the amount in board feet which should be deducted for unsoundness or defects in a given log requires great skill on the part of the sealer, and, as it is a matter of judgment in each case, no definite directions can be given. CORD MEASURE. Firewood, small pulpwood, and material cut into short sticks for excelsior, etc., is usu- ally measured by the cord. A cord is 128 cubic feet of stacked wood. The wood is usually cut into 4-foot lengths, in which case a cord is a stack 4 feet high and 8 feet long. Sometimes, however, pulpwood is cut 5 feet long, and a stack of it 4 feet high and 8 feet long is considered 1 cord. In this case the cord contains 160 cubic feet of stacked wood. In localities where firewood is cut in 5-foot lengths a cord makes a stack 4 feet high and 6 feet long, and contains 130 cubic feet of stacked wood. Where it is desirable to use shorter lengths for special purposes, the sticks are often cut H, 2, and even 3 feet long. A stack of such wood, 4 feet high and 8 feet long, is considered 1 cord, but the price is always made to conform to the shortness of the measure. A cord foot is one-eighth of a cord. A cord foot is a stack of 4-foot wood 4 feet high and 1 foot long. Farmers frequently speak of a foot of cord wood, meaning a cord foot. By the expression "surface foot" is meant the number of square feet measured on the side of a stack. In some localities, particularly in New England, cord wood is measured by means of calipers. Instead of stacking the wood and computing the cords in the ordinary way, the average diameter of each log is determined with calipers and the number of cords ob- tained by consulting a table which gives the amount of wood in logs of different diameters and lengths, expressed in so-called cylindrical feet. A cylindrical foot is one one-hundred and twenty-eighth of a cord. A better term would be "stacked cubic foot," as it repre- sents a cubic foot of stacked wood, as opposed to a cubic foot of solid wood. The number of cylindrical or stacked cubic feet in a log is computed by squaring the average diameter of the log in inches, multiplying by the length of the log in feet, and dividing the result by 144. Some tables give the results in feet and inches (cylindrical or stacked cubic, not linear feet). A special caliper rule for measuring cord wood has been made by Mr. John Humphrey, of Keene, N. H. Instead of considering a cylindrical or stacked cubic foot equivalent to one one-hundred and twenty-eighth of a cord, he has assumed it to be equivalent to one one- hundredth of a cord. In either case the cylindrical or stacked cubic foot is a purely arbitrary unit arid the final results in cords are the same. The number of cylindrical or stacked cubic feet in the different logs is determined by means of calipers and reference to a table, or by means of the calipers alone if the results are inscribed directly upon them. The total number of cylindrical or stacked cubic feet is then divided by 128. CONVERSION OF CORD MEASURE INTO CUBIC MEASURE. Dealers in wood frequently wish to convert cord measure into cubic measure, and vice versa. The converting factor used depends primarily on the form of the wood. If the wood is split, there is more solid contents in a stacked wrd than if the wood is in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 483 round sticks. There is more wood in a given stack if the sticks are smooth and straight than if they are rough and crooked. The converting factor depends, further, on the character of the stacking. If the wood is skillfully stacked there is more solid contents than when the work is poorly done. It has been found in Europe through a series of care- ful measurements that a stack of wood may be reduced to solid cubic measure by multi- plying the number of cubic feet by the follow- ing factors: For split firewood For small round firewood 0.7 6 Thus, a cord of split firewood is equivalent to 128 cubic feet multiplied by 0.7, which equals 89.6 cubic feet. To convert a given number of cords into solid cubic feet, multi- ply by 128 and then multiply the product by 0.7 or 0.6, according as the wood is split or consists of small round sticks; or multiply directly by 89.6. To convert a given number of solid cubic feet into cords, divide by 128 and then divide the result by 0.7 or 0.6, according to the form of the wood; or divide directly by 89.6. If the stacking is very poor or if the wood is rough and crooked, the figures must be modi- No rule can be given for converting cord measure into board measure. Lumbermen assign to a cord of wood values varying from 500 to 1,000 board feet. So much depends upon the quality of the wood, the purpose for which it is to be used, the method of piling, etc., that no constant converting factor can be given. Bark is piled in stacks and measured in the same way as firewood. CONVERSION OF CUBIC MEASURE INTO BOARD MEASURE. The ratio between the number of board feet and cubic feet in logs depends on the species of tree, on the size of the logs, and on the method of scaling. The ratio for standing trees depends, further, on the minimum size of the merchantable log. For example, the ratio would be different, if 4 logs were cut from a tree, from the result if only 3 logs were taken. Satisfactory figures can, therefore, be obtained only by comparing the scales of logs and trees actually measured in the woods. Such tables are now being prepared by the Bureau of Forestry for different species in different regions. MEASUREMENT OF SAWED LUMBER- BOARD MEASURE. The superficial measure of inch boards is obtained by multiplying the width in inches by the length in feet and dividing by 12. Ta- bles showing the contents of boards of differ- ent widths and lengths are published in prac- tically every lumberman's ready reckoner, of which there are many on the market. The contents of boards thicker than 1 inch are obtained by multiplying the width in inches by the thickness in inches and the product by the length in feet, and then divid- ing by 12. The Woodman's Handbook. HARDNESS OF MINERALS: 2. Rock Salt j Scratched by finger nail. 3.' Calcite I! ApTtite [ Scratched by a knife blade. 6. OrthoclaseJ 7. Quartz } 8. Topaz ! May be roughly distin- 9. Corundum f guished by a file. 10. Diamond J HEAT ITS MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT. HEAT is a peculiar motion of the particles of matter which prevents their contact. Heat and mechanical power are convertible forms of energy. The energy of the heat that raises one pound of water 1 F. will lift a weight of 778 Ibs. one foot. The power of a weight of 778 Ibs. descending one foot, if applied to a small paddle wheel turning in one pound of water, will, by friction, raise the temperature of the water 1 F. A heat-unit is the amount of heat that raises a pound of water 1 F., or that lifts a weight of 778 Ibs. one foot. The mechanical equivalent of a heat-unit is the power of a weight of 778 Ibs. descending one foot, or of a one-pound weight descending 778 feet. Hence, 778 foot-pounds = 1 heat-unit. 1 heat-unit = 778 foot-pounds. A galvanic battery that produces an elec- trical current capable of heating one pound of water 1 F., will yield magnetic force suffi- cient to raise a weight of 778 Ibs. one foot high. Thus heat, electricity, magnetism, and chemical force are brought into numerical correlation with mechanical power. The illustrious philosopher, Dr. J. P. Joule, of Manchester, England, first measured accu- rately the mechanical equivalent of heat, A.D. 1845. Heat of Metals. A metal is an element possessing a luster, and the higher oxides of which only are acid-forming compounds. Metals have the following properties: A spe- cific gravity usually greater than one. The specific heat is less than unity, and this heat varies inversely as the atomic weight of that element. The conductivity of the metals is greater than that of either the non-metals or their compounds. The influence of heat upon metals is very varied; some melt at a low temperature, others require a red heat, a strong red, or a white heat respectively, to melt them. The following table, by Pouillet, will explain the temperatures corresponding to different colors: Heat Color. Corresponds to Incipient red heat 525 C. 977 F. Dull red 700 1,292 Incipient cherry red. . . 800 1,472 Cherry red 900 1,652 Clear cherry red ,000 1,832 Deep orange ,100 2,012 Clear orange ,200 2,192 White ,300 2,372 Bright white ,400 2,552 Dazzling white. . . ,500 2,732 484 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. STEAM PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE. Pressure in Lbs. per Sq. In. Corresponding Temperature, Fahrenheit. Pressure in Lbs. per Sq. In. Corresponding Temperature, Fahrenheit. Pressure in Lbs. per Sq. In. Corresponding Temperature, Fahrenheit. 10 192.4 65 301.3 140 357.9 15 212.8 70 306.4 150 363.4 20 228.5 75 311.2 160 368.7 25 241.0 80 315.8 170 373.6 30 251.6 85 320.1 180 378.4 35 260.9 90 324.3 190 382.9 40 269.1 95 328.2 200 387.3 45 276.4 100 332.0 210 391.5 50 283.2 110 339.2 220 395.5 55 289.3 120 345.8 230 399.4 60 295.6 130 352.1 240 403.1 Degree of Fahr. 2,786. TABLE OF TEMPERATURE. Degree of Fahr. 1,947. 1,873. 1,750. 1,000. 941. 773. 644. 640.. 630.. 617., 600., 518., 442. 380.. 356.. 315.. 302. 257. 256.. 221.. 218 216 214 213 or (213.5) 212. . . Cast iron melts (Daniell). Copper melts (Daniell). Gold melts. Silver melts (Daniell). Brass (containing 25% of zinc) melts (Daniell). Iron, bright cherry red (Foil- let). Red heat, visible in daylight (Daniell). Zinc begins to burn (Daniell). Zinc melts (Daniell). Mercury boils (Daniell), 662 (Graham). Sulphuric acid boils (Ma- grignac), 620 (Graham). Whale oil boils (Graham). Pure lead melts (Rudberg). Linseed oil boils. Bismuth melts (Gmelin). Tin melts (Crichton). Arsenious acid volatilizes. Metallic arsenic sublimes. Oil of turpentine boils (Kaure). Etherification ends. Saturated sol. of sal ammo- niac boils (Taylor). Saturated sol. of acetate of soda boils. Sulohur melts (Miller), 226 (Fownes). Saturated sol. of nitre boils. Saturated sol. of salt boils (Paris Codex). Saturated sol. of alum, carb. soda, and sulph. zinc, boil. Saturated sol. of chlorate and prussiate potash, boil. Saturated sol. of sulph. iron, sulph. copper, nitrate of lead, boil. Saturated sol. of acetate lead, sulph. and bitar- trate potash, boil. Water begins to boil in glass. Water boils in metal, barom- eter at 30. 211 Alloy of 5 bismuth, 3 tin, 2 lead, melts. 201 Alloy of 8 bismuth, 5 lead, 3 tin, melts (Kane). 207. . . Sodium melts (Regnault). 185 Nitric acid 1.52 begins to boil. 180 (about). . Starch forms a gelatinous compound with water. 176 Rectified spirit boils, benzol distils. 173 Alcohol (sp. gr. .796 to .800) boils. 151 Beeswax melts (Kane), 142 150 (Lepage). Pyroxylic spirit boils (Scan- Ian). 145 White of egg begins to coag- ulate. 141.8 Chloroform, and ammonia of .945, boil. 132 Acetone (pyroacetic spirit) boils (Kane). 122 Mutton suet and styracin melt. 116 Bisulphuret of carbon boils (Graham). 115 Pure tallow melts (Lepage), 92 (Thomson). 112 Spermaceti and stearin of lard melt. 111.. . Phosphorus melts (Miller). 98 Temperature of the blood. 95 Ether (.720) boils. 95 Carbolic acid crystals be- come an oily liquid. 88 Acetous fermentation ceases, water boils in vacuo. 77 Vinous ferm. ends, acetous ferm. begins. 64.4. . . 59 Oil of anise liquefies. Gay Lussac's Alcoometre graduated at. 55.. . Sirups to be kept at. 30 (about). .. Olive oil becomes partially solid. 32... Water freezes. 5 Cold produced by snow 2 parts and salt 1 part. -37.9 Mercury freezes. Coolcy. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 485 LINEAR EXPANSION OF SOLIDS AT ORDINARY TEMPERATURES. Substance. ForlFahr. For 1 Cent. Substance. ForlFahr. For 1 Cent. Aluminium (cast).. . . Antimony (cryst.) . .. Brass, cast " English plate, sheet Brick best stock. . Length = 1. .00001234 .00000627 .00000957 .00001052 .00001040 00000310 Length = 1. .00002221 .00001129 .00001722 .00001894 .00001872 .00000550 Masonry, of brick in cement mortar: stretchers Mercury (cubic ex- pansion) Nickel. Length = 1. .00000256 .00009984 .00000695 Length = 1. .00000460 .00017971 .00001251 Bronze (Baily's). . . . Copper, 17. . Osmium Palladium, pure. . . .00000317 .00000556 .00000570 .00001000 Tin 2 . (.00000986 .00001774 Pewter 00001129 00002033 Zinc, 1 Plaster, white .00000922 .00001660 00000975 00001755 Platinum. .00000479 00000863 Cement, Roman, dry. Cement, Portland (mixed), pure Cement, Portland, mortar, with sand.. Concrete: cement .00000797 .00000594 .00000656 00000795 .00001435 .00001070 .00001180 00001430 Platinum, 90 per cent. Iridium, 10 per cent hammered and an- nealed Platinum, 85 per cent ) )- .00000476 .00000857 Copper. . .00000887 .00001596 Iridium, 15 per I- .00000453 .00000815 Ebonite 00004278 00007700 cent \ Glass, English flint. . French flint. . . white, free from lead. . . blown thermometer .. hard .00000451 .00000484 .00000492 .00000498 .00000499 .00000397 .00000812 .00000872 .00000886 .00000896 .00000897 .00000714 Porcelain Quartz, parallel to major axis, t to 40 C Quartz, perpendicu- lar to major axis, t to 40 C .00000200 .00000434 .00000788 .00000360 .00000781 .00001419 Granite, gray, dry. . . red "... Gold, pure Iridium, pure. . . .00000438 .00000498 .00000786 .00000356 .00000789 .00000897 .00001415 00000641 Quartz, cubic expan- sion at 16 C Silver, pure Slate. . . .00001924 .00001079 .C0000577 .00003463 .00001943 00001038 Iron, wrought ' Swedish. . . . .00000648 .00000636 .00001166 00001145 Steel, cast ' tempered. . .00000636 .00000689 .00001144 .00001240 4 ' cast 00000556 00001001 ' ' soft 00000626 00001126 00000652 00001174 Lead Marble, moist dry white Sicil- ian, dry. . . Marble, black Galway Carrara Masonry, of brick in .00001571 .00000663 .00000363 .00000786 .00000308 .00000471 .00002828 .00001193 .00000654 .00001415 .00000554 .00000848 Stone (sandstone), Rauville Stone (sandstone), Caen Tin Wedgwood ware Wood, pine Zinc .00000417 .00000494 .00001163 .00000489 .00000276 00001407 .00000750 .00000890 .00002094 .00000881 .00000496 00002532 cement mortar: headers. . .00000494 .00000890 Zinc, 8 Tin, 1. . . [ .00001496 .00002692 Clark's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book. EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS. The cubical expansion, or expansion of vol- ume, of water, from 32 F. to 212 F. and up- wards, is given in the following Table. The rate of expansion increases with the tempera- ture. The expansion for the range of tem- perature from 32 to 212 is .0466, or fully 4* per cent, of the volume at 32 ; or an average of .000259 per degree, or ^ part of the vol- ume at 32 F. Expansion of Liquids from 32 to 212 F. Volume at 32 = 1. Liquid. Volume at 212. Alcohol .1100 Nitric acid Olive oil. . . .1100 0800 Turpentine Sea water Water. . . .0700 .0500 0466 Mercury. . . . 1.018 Expan- FRICTTON. The ratio obtained by dividing the entire force of friction by the normal pres- sure is called the coefficient of friction. The unit or coefficient of friction is the friction due to a normal pressure of one pound: Iron on oak . 62 Cast iron on oak . 49 Oak on oak, fibres parallel . 48 Oak on oak, greased 0. 10 Cast iron on cast iron 0. 15 Wrought iron on wrought iron. . . 0. 14 Brass on iron 0. 16 Brass on brass . 20 Wrought iron on cast iron 0. 19 Cast iron on elm 0. 19 Soft limestone on the same 0.64 Hard limestone on the same. ... . 38 Leather belts on wooden pulleys . . 47 Leather belts on cast-iron pulleys . 28 Cast iron on cast iron, greased. . . 0. 10 Pivots or axes of wrought or cast iron, on brass or cast-iron pillows: First, when constantly supplied with oil . . 05 Second, when greased from time to time . . 08 Third, without any application 0. 15 486 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. METALS. Name of Metal. Aluminum wire Brass wire, hard drawn Bronze,phosphor,hard drawn silicon Copper wire, hard drawn. . . Gold * wire Iron, f cast ' wire, hard drawn annealed Lead, cast or drawn Palladium * Platinum * wire Silver * wire Steel, mild, hard drawn " hard " " Tin, cast or drawn Zinc, cast ' ' drawn. . Tensile Strength in Pounds per Sq. In. 30,000-40,000 50,000-150,000 110,000-140,000 95,000-115,000 60,000-70,000 38,000-41,000 13,000-29,000 80,000-120,000 50,000-60,000 2,000-3,300 39,000 50,000 42,000 100,000-200,000 150,000-330,000 4,000-5,000 7,000-13,000 22,000-30,000 STONES AND BRICKS. Name of Substance. Basalt Brick, soft " hard vitrified. . . . Granite Limestone: Marble Sandstone Slate. . . Resistance to Crushing in Pounds per Sq. In. 18,000-27,000 300-1,500 1,500-5,000 9,000-26,000 17,000-26,000 4,000-9,000 9,000-22,000 4,500-8,000 11,000-30,000 TIMBER. Name of Wood Tensile Strength in Pounds per Sq. In. Resistance to Crushing in Pounds per Sq. In. Ash. . Beech 11,000-21,000 11,000-18,000 6,000-9,000 9 000-10 000 Birch Chestnut Elm Hackberry. . .. Hickory Maple Mulberry Oak, burr. . . " red.. . . ' water. . * white. - . Poplar Walnut 12,000-18,000 10,000-13,000 12,000-18,000 10,000-16,000 15,000-25,000 8,000-12,000 8,000-14,000 15,000-20,000 13,000-18,000 12,000-16,000 20,000-25,000 10,000-15,000 8,000-14,000 5,000-7,000 4,000-6,000 6,000-10,000 7',00(M2',6do 6,000-8,000 7',odo-'ib',6do 5,000-7,000 4,000-6,000 6,000-9,000 5,000-8,000 4,000-8,000 * On the authority of Wertheim. t The crushing strength of cast iron is from 5.5 to 6.5 times the tensile strength. NOTES. According to Boys, quartz fibers have a tensile strength of between 116,000 and 167,000 pounds per square inch. Leather belting of single thickness bears from 400 to 1,600 pounds per inch of its breadth. Smithsonian Tables. WATER. 1 U. S. gallon equals 231 cubic inches; .1337 cubic foot; 8.333 pounds of water at 62 F. 3.786 liters. 1 cubic inch of water at 62 F. equals .03608 pound; .5773 ounce; 252.6 grains; .004326 U. S. gallon; .01638 liter. 1 cubic foot of water at 62 F. equals 62.355 pounds; 997.68 ounces (about 1000); .557 cwt. (of 112 pounds); .0278 long ton 7.4805 U. S. gallons; 28.315 liters; .02832 cubic meter. 1 cylindrical inch of water at 62 F. equals .02833 pound; .4533 ounce; .7854 cubic inch. 1 cylindrical foot of water at 62 F. equals 48.973 pounds (about 50); 783.57 ounces; .437 cwt. (of 112 pounds); .0219 long ton; 5.8758 U. S. gallons; 22.2380 liters; .02224 cubic meter. 1 cubic yard of water equals 1,684.8 pounds; 15.043 cwt, (of 112 pounds), or 15 cwt. 4.8 pounds; .7645 cubic meter. 1 liter of water equals 2.2046 pounds at 62 F.; .2641 U. S. gallon; 61.025 cubic inches; .0353 cubic foot. 1 cubic meter of water equals 1 metric ton, or 1,000 kilograms at 39.1 F. or 4 C. ; 2,204.62 pounds at 39.1 F. or 4 C.; 2,203.7 pounds at 62.4 pounds per cubic foot; 1 ton of 2,240 pounds, nearly; 1 tun of 4 hogsheads, or 2, ICO pounds, nearly; 264.2 U. S. gallons; 1.308 cubic yards; 35.3156 cubic feet; 1,000 liters. The weight of fresh water is commonly assumed, in ordinary calculations, to be 62.4 pounds per cubic foot, which is the weight at 52.3 F. It is frequently taken as 62^ pounds or 1,000 ounces per cubic foot. The volumes of given weights of water, at the rate of 62.4 pounds per cubic foot, are as follows: 1 ton (long), 35.90 cubic feet (about 36); 1 cwt. (of 112 pounds), 1.795 cubic feet; 1 pound, .016 cubic feet or 27.692 cubic inches; 1 ounce, 1.731 cubic inches; 1 metric ton, at 39.1 F. or 4 C., 35.3156 cubic feet; 1 kilo- gram, at 39.1 F. or 4 C., .0353 cubic feet or 61.025 cubic inches; 1 metric ton, at 52.3 F. (62.4 pounds per cubic foot), 35.330 cubic feet. A pipe 1 yard in length holds about as many pounds of water at ordinary tempera- tures as the square of its diameter in inches (about two per cent. more). A column of water at 62 F., 1 foot high, is equivalent to a pressure of .433 pound or 6.928 ounces per square inch of base; or to 62.355 pounds per square foot. A column of water 1 inch high is equivalent to a pressure of .5773 ounce or .03608 pound per square inch; or to 5.196 pounds per square foot. A column of water 100 feet high is equiva- lent to 43 pounds per square inch; or 2.786 tons per square foot. A column of water 1 mile deep, weighing 62.4 pounds per cubic foot, is equivalent to a pressure of about 1 ton per square inch. 1 pound per square inch is equivalent to a column of water at 62 F. 2.31 feet or 27.72 inches high. SEA WATER. 1 cubic foot at 62 F., 64 pounds; 1 cubic yard, 15 cwt., nearly (8 pounds less); 1 cubic meter, 1 long ton, fully (20 pounds more); 1 ton, 35 cubic feet. Ratio of weight of fresh water to that of sea water, 39 to 40, or 1 to 1.028. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 487 ICE AND SNOW. 1 cubic foot of ice at 32 F., 57.50 pounds; 1 pound of ice at 32 F., .0174 cubic foot, or 30.067 cubic inches; specific density of ice, .922; that of water at 62 F. being 1. AIR. 1 cubic foot, at 14.7 Ibs. per square inch or 1 atmosphere, equals .080728 Ib. at 32 F. 1.29 ounce at 32 F.; 565.1 grains at 32 F. .076097 Ib. at 62 F.; 1.217 ounce at 62 F. 532.7 grains at 62 F. 1 liter, under 1 atmosphere, equals 1.293 grams at 32 F. ; 19.955 grains at 32 F. 1 Ib. of air at 62 F. equals 13.141 cubic feet. The weights of equal volumes of mercury, water, and air, at 62 F. under 1 atmosphere, are as 11,140.56, 819.4, and 1. 1 atmosphere of pressure equals 14.7 Ibs. per square inch; 2,116.4 Ibs. per square foot; 1.0335 kilograms per square centi- meter; 29.922 inches of mercury at 32 F. ; 76 centimeters of mercury at 32 F. ; 30 inches of mercury at 62 F.; 33.947 feet of water at 62 F.; 10.347 meters of water at 62 F. 1 Ib. per square inch equals 2.035 inches of mercury at 32 F. ; 51.7 millimeters of mercury at 32 F. ; 2.04 inches of mercury at 62 F. ; 2.31 feet of water at 62 F.; 27.72 inches of water at 62 F. 1 ounce per square inch equals 1.732 inches of water at 62 F. 1 Ib. per square foot equals .1925 inch of water at 62 F. ; .01417 inch of mercury at 62 J F. STRENGTH OF ICE. Ice 2 in. thick will bear infantry. Ice 4 in. thick will bear cavalry or light guns. Ice 6 in. thick will bear heavy field guns. Ice 8 in. thick will bear 24-pounder guns on sledges ; weight not over 1 ,000 Ibs. to a square foot. WEIGHT OF BALLS. When D = diameter of ball in inches ; W = weight of ball in Ibs.. ; C = aconstant = 733 for cast iron; = 464 for lead; = 595 for copper; = 635 for brass. W = D S XC; When C = a constant = 0. 1364 for cast iron ; = 0.2155 for lead; = 0.168 for copper; = 0.1574 for brass. Weight of cast-iron balls. To find nominal horse-power of boiler required for direct-acting steam-pumps. NHp = D 2 - the last figure When NHP = nominal horse-power; D = diameter of steam cylinder in inches. PIPES. Usual inclination of pipes. 1 in. in 12ft. = minimum fall for house drains ; 1 " 16 " = minimum fall for land drains ; 1 " " 40" = minimum fall for sub-drains for houses; 1 " 100 " = minimum fall for main drains for houses; 150 ' ' =fall of mountain torrents ; 1 " 230 " = " " rivers and rapid cur- rents ; 1 ' 280 ' ' = fall of strong currents ; 1 " 340 " = " " ordinary rivers with good current; 1 " ; 440 " =fall of winding rivers subject to inundations with slow current ; 1 ' 480 " =fall of water channels, sup- ply pipes to reservoirs and small canals; 570 " =fall of large canals; 1 " " 1,000 " = very slow current, approach- ing to stagnant water. Discharge through pipes. Discharge in 24 hours divided by 1,440 = discharge per min.; discharge in cubic feet per minute X 9, 000 = imperial gallons per day of 24 hours; discharge in cubic feet per min- ute X 1 1 ,000 = U. S. gallons per day of 24 hours ; discharge in cubic feet per second X 2. 2 = cubic yards per minute ; discharge in cubic feet per second X 6.24 =imperial gallons per second; discharge in cubic feet per second X 7.48 = U. S. gallons per second; discharge in cubic feet per second X 1 33 = cubic yards per hour; discharge in cubic feet per second X 375 = im- perial gallons per minute; discharge in cubic feet per second X 450 = U. S. gallons per min- ute; discharge in cubic feet per second X 2,400 = long tons per day of 24 hours ; discharge in cubic feet per second X 2, 700 = short tons per day of 24 hours ; velocity in feet per second X 0.68=mile per hour; velocity in feet per sec- ond X 60= feet per minute; velocity in feet per second X 20 = yards per minute; pressure head of water in feet = pressure of water in Ibs. per square foot X 0.016; pressure of water in Ibs. per square foot = head in feet X 62.32. ANIMAL POWER HORSE. A horse walking in a circle at a speed of 176 feet per minute will raise with a common deep -well pump 4 h. per day 1,653 gals, per min. ; 1 ft. high. 5 " " " 1,480 " " " " " 6 " " " 1,350 " " " " " " 8 " " " 1,160 " " " " " " 10 " " " 1,040 " " " " " " Tractive force of a horse when working 8 hours a day on a well-made road and walking at a rate of 2 miles per hour, 150 Ibs. Tractive force of a horse when working a lift or horse-run with intervals of rest between each movement, the day's work not to exceed 6 hours, 300 Ibs. Tractive force of a horse when working in a circle of 30 feet diameter in working a mill for 8 hours per day at a pace of 2 miles per hour, 100 Ibs. A horse can exert a force horizontally at a dead pull, 400 Ibs. A horse can carry on his back a distance of 20 miles per day on a well-made road, without overexertion, from 250 to 300 Ibs. 488 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. The horse-power adopted as a unit in esti- mating the force of a steam-engine = 33,000 Ibs. raised 1 foot high in 1 minute, an amount of force which few horses could perform for any length of time. MANUAL POWER. Duration of work = l day of 8 to 10 hours. Mean Veloc- Lbs. Raised Description of Work Effect in ity in Feet 1 Foot High Lbs. per Minute. per Minute. Lifting weights by hand breast high . 40 25 1,000 Raising water from a well by a bucket and rope 30 35 1,050 Lifting a weight by a rope and over- head tackle 40 30 1,200 Working a hand pump 30 60 1,800 Drawing a canal boat 12 160 1,920 Working a ship's capstan. Turning the crank of a winch 25 . 15 100 200 2,500 3,000 Rowing a boat 40 80 3,200 The efforts in the above table, although ex- tending over 8 or 10 hours, exclusive of meal- times, per day, are not altogether continuous, but include the usual intervals of rest or diminished exertion peculiar to each class of work. WINDMILLS. To find the horse-power of a wind-engine. 1,100,000' When HP = effective horse-power; A =area 9f sails in square feet; V = velocity of the wind in feet per second. To find the area of sails required for a given horse-power. HPX 1.100,000 V 2 The best effect is obtained when the total surface of the sails presented to the wind does not cover more than a quarter of the surface of the whole disk described by the radial arms or whips. To find the force of wind. P = 0.002288 F2; P = 0.00422 V! 2 ; P = 0.0023 F2 x s i n x. W'hen P = pressure in Ibs. per square foot ; V = velocity in feet per second ; V i = velocity in miles per hour ; X = angle of incidence of direction of the wind with the plane of the surface when it is oblique. To find the angle of the sails. When a Bangle of the sail with the plane of motion at any part of the sail ; D = distance of any part of the sail from the axis in feet ; R = total radius of sail in feet. To find angle of shaft with horizon, a = 8 degrees on level ground ; = 15 degrees on high ground. To find breadth of whip. B =MoW; D B l = tri-Hlr. When W = length of whip in feet; Wi = width of sail in feet ; B = breadth of whip at axis in feet; D = depth of whip at axis in feet ; B\ = breadth of whip at tip in feet; DI = depth of whip at tip in feet ; Divided by the whip in the proportion of 5 to 3, the narrow portion being nearest to the wind. -^ = \W j) n = }W. When W n = width of sail at axis; >n = distance of sail from axis. Cross-bars from 16 to 18 inches apart. Velocity of tip of sails = 2.6 V, nearly. In examining the ratio between the velocity of the wind and the number of revolutions of the wheel-shaft Mr. Smeaton obtained the result in table below, for Dutch sails, in their common position, when the radius of the wheel was 30 feet: Ratio between Number of Rev- olutions of Velocity of Wheel-shaft Wind in an Hour. per Minute. 2 miles 4 " 5 " Velocity of the Wind and Revolu- tions of Wheel- shaft. 0.666 0.800 0.833 The most efficient angle Part of Radius which is Angle with Divided in Six the Axis. Parts. 1 2 a 4 B 6 72 71 72 74 77i 83 Angle of Weather. 18 19 18 middle 16 Supposing the radius of the sail to be 30 feet, then the sail will commence at ith, or 5 feet from the axis, where the angle of incli- nation will be 72, at iths or 10 feet from the axis will be 71, and so on. In order to utilize the maximum effect of wind, therefore, it is necessary to load the wind-engine so that the number of revolutions of the wheel is proportional to the velocity of the wind. To find proper number of revolutions of a wind-mill. 3.16XF if t/ = 16, N LXsin U' 11.5 V When N = number of revolutions of wheel per minute ; V = velocity of the wind in feet per second ; L = Vi= radius of center of percussion in feet; R = extreme radius of wheel in feet ; #!= inner radius of wheel in feet; f/ = mean angle of sails to the plane of motion. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 489 FORCE OF WIND WHEN BLOWING PERPENDICULARLY UPON A SURFACE OF ONE SQUARE FOOT. Velocity of Wind. Perpendicular Force on One Square Foot in Lbs. Description. Miles per Hour. Feet per Minute. Feet per Second. 1 88 1.47 .005 Hardly perceptible 2 176 2.93 .020 Just perceptible 3 264 4.40 .044 it it 4 352 5.87 .079 Gentle breeze 5 440 7.33 .123 it it 10 880 14.67 .492 Pleasant 15 1,320 22.00 1.107 * * 20 1,760 29.30 1.968 Brisk gale 25 2,200 36.60 3.075 30 2,640 44.00 4.428 High wind 35 3,080 51.30 6.027 11 1 1 40 45 3,520 3,960 58.60 66.00 7.872 9.963 Very high wind 50 4,400 73.30 12.300 Storm 60 5,280 88.00 17.712 Great storm 70 6,160 102.7 24.108 i> it 80 7,040 117.3 31 . 488 Hurricane 100 8,800 146.6 49 . 200 Whittaker's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book. METALS: WEIGHTS FOR VARIOUS DIMENSIONS. Metal. Specific Weight. Weight of One Cubic Foot. Weight of One Square Foot. Weight of One Linear Foot 1 In. Sq. Weight of One Cubic Inch. 1 Inch Thick. ilnch Thick. 1*6 Inch Thick. Wrought Iron = 1. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Aluminum, wrought .348 167 13.92 1.74 1.39 1.160 .097 cast. .333 160 13.33 1.67 1.33 1 111 .092 Antimony .879 418 34.83 4.35 3.48 2.902 .242 Bismuth. .285 617 51.42 6.42 5.14 4.283 .357 Brass, cast .052 505 42.08 5.26 4.21 3.507 .292 sheet .098 527 43.92 5.49 4.39 3.652 .304 yellow .079 518 43.17 5.40 4.32 3.597 .298 Muntz metal .062 511 42.58 5.32 4.26 3.549 ,296 wire .110 533 44.42 5.55 4.44 3.701 .308 Bn nze, gun-metal .106 531 44.25 5.54 4.43 3.688 .307 mill bearings. . . . .133 544 45.33 5.66 4.53 3.780 .315 small bells .004 482 40.17 5.04 4.02 3.347 .279 speculum metal. . .969 465 38.75 4.84 3.88 3.299 .269 Copper, sheet .114 549 45.75 5.72 4.58 3.813 .318 hammered .158 556 46.33 5.79 4.63 3.861 .322 wire. . . . 154 554 46.17 5 77 4 62 3.778 .315 Gold .500 1200 100.00 12.50 10.00 8.333 .694 Iron, cast .937 450 37.50 4.69 3.75 3.125 .260 wrought. . . . 000 480 40 00 5 00 4 00 3 333 .278 Lead, sheet .483 712 59.33 7.41 5.93 4.944 .412 Manganese .040 499 41.58 5.20 4.16 3.465 .289 Mercury .769 849 70.75 8.84 7.07 5.896 .491 Nickel, hammered .127 541 45.08 5.64 4.51 3.757 .313 cast. 1 075 516 43 00 5 37 4.30 3.583 .299 Platinum. . . 2.796 1342 111.83 13.97 11.18 9.320 .777 Silver 1.365 655 54.58 6.82 5.46 4.549 .379 Steel. . 1 020 490 40.83 5 12 4 10 3 403 .284 Tin .962 462 38.50 4.81 3.85 3.208 .268 Zinc, sheet .935 449 37.42 4.67 3.74 3.118 .260 cast .892 428 35.67 4.46 3.57 2.972 .248 Clark's Mechanical Engineer's Pocket Book. 490 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PROPORTIONATE WEIGHT OF CASTING TO WEIGHT OF WOOD PATTERN. A Pattern Weighing One Pound, Made of (less weight of core prints) Cast Iron. Brass. Copper. Bronze. Bell Metal. Zinc. Pine or fir will weigh in Lbs. 14 Lbs. 15 8 Lbs. 16 7 Lbs. 16 3 Lbs. 17 1 Lbs. 13 5 Oak Beech 9 9 7 10.1 10 9 10.4 11 4 10.3 11 3 10.9 11 9 8.6 9 1 Linden Pear 13.4 10 2 15.1 11 5 16.7 11 9 15.5 11 8 16.3 12 4 12.9 9 8 Birch Alder Mahogany Brass 10 6 12.8 11.7 0.84 11.9 14.3 13.2 0.95 12.3 14.9 13.7 0.99 12.2 14.7 13.5 0.98 12.9 15.5 14.2 1.0 10.2 12.2 11.2 0.81 PULLING STRENGTH OF MEN AND ANIMALS. Compiled from a test made by Barnum & Bailey's Circus. Number. Description. Weight of Each in Lbs. Total Pull in Lbs. Pull per Unit. Pull per Pound of Weight. 2 Horses. 1,600 3,750 1,875 1.1721bs. 50 Men . . 150 8,750 175 1 166 " 100 Men. . . .... 150 12,000 120 0.8 6 Horses. 1,800 8,875 1,479 0.822 " 2 1,800 2,750 1,375 764 " 1 Elephant 12,000 8,750 8,750 0.729 " Copyright, 1904, by Munn & Co. ELEPHANT, WEIGHING 12,000 POUNDS, ABOUT TO MAKE A PULL OF 8,750 POUNDS. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 491 BOILER TUBES. The following table gives the draught area and heating surface of the various-sized boiler tubes and flues: External Diameter. Draught Area in Square Inches. Draught Area in Square Feet. Outside Heating Surface in Feet per Foot of Tube in Length. Number of Tubes in One Square Foot of Draught Area. f.. .1636 i 1963 i .:::::::::;::: H. . .575 968 .0040 0067 .2618 3272 250.0 149 3 ,:::::::: 1.389 1 911 . 00964 0133 .3927 4581 103.7 75 2 2 2 573 0179 5236 55 9 2$. 3.333 4 083 .0231 0284 .5891 6545 43.3 35 2 3 '.'.'.'.'.'/.'.'.'.'/.','. 3i 3* 3! 5.027 6.070 7.116 8.347 9 676 .0349 .0422 .0494 .0580 0672 .7200 .7854 .8508 .9163 9818 28.7 23.7 20.2 17.2 14 9 4 . 4*.. 10.93 14 05 .0759 0996 1 . 0472 1 1781 13.2 10 2 5*..:::.:.::..:. 6 7 17.35 25.25 34 94 .1205 .1753 2426 1 . 3090 1.5708 1 8326 8.3 5.7 4 1 8 9 . 46.20 58 63 .3208 4072 2.0944 2 3562 3.1 2 5 10 72.23 .5016 2.6180 2.0 TO OBTAIN INDEX OF A LATHE. How TO OBTAIN THE INDEX OF AN ENGINE LATHE. If you will note what thread the lathe will cut when two given gears are in place, you can easily construct a table that will show you just what thread any two gears will cause the lathe to cut. Suppose that two sixty-threes cause 12 threads to the inch. Then place 12 in the space A in the diagram below. Stud. ! i 1 28 33 35 42 495663 70 77 S4 91 9s 105 112 28 33 35 42 49 b ^ 56 a ( ' a 63 B A D DH ' 70 E c M 77 d 84 91 98 105 I 112 > 63 70 A E f Direct Proportion. Also, 56 63 : : A : B I T 70 : 63 :: A : D ( Inverse proportion. The spaces may all be filled except a, b, c, d, etc., which it is useless to fill, as only your 63 gear is duplicated. A half -day's time will be sufficient for a good mathematician to fill out the table. NAILS, MEMORANDA CONCERNING. This table will show at a glance the length of the various sizes, and the number of nails in a pound. They are rated from "3-penny" up to "20-penny." The first column gives the name, the second the length in inches, and the third the number per pound: 3-penny, 1 in. long, SSZperlb. 4-penny, H in. long, 353 per Ib. 5-penny, ij in. long, 232 per Ib. 6-penny, 2 in. long, 167 per Ib. 7-penny, 24; in. long, 141 per Ib. 8-penny, 2* in. long, 101 per Ib. 10-penny, 2$ n. long, 98 per Ib. 12-penny, 3 n. long, 54 per Ib. 20-penny, 3^ n. long, 34 per Ib. Spikes, 4 n. long, 16perlb. Spikes, 4 n. long, 12 per Ib. Spikes, 5 n. long, 10 per Ib. Spikes, 6 n. long, 7 per Ib. Spikes, 7 in. long, 5 per Ib. From this table an estimate of quantity and suitable sizes for any job can be easily made. The relative adhesion of nails in the same wood, driven transversely and longitudinally, is as 100 to 78, or about 4 to 3 in dry elm, and 2 to 3 in deal. HORSE-POWER, VERY ROUGH WAY OF ESTI- MATING. The power of a steam engine is calculated by multiplying together the area of the piston in inches, the mean steam pres- sure in pounds per square inch, the length of stroke in feet, and the number of strokes per minute, and dividing the product by 33,000. Or, multiply the square of the diameter of the cylinder in inches by 0.7854, and this product by the mean engine pressure, and the last product by the piston travel in feet per minute. Divide the last product by 33,000 for the indicated horse-power. In 492 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. T V in 12 i in 12 the absence of logarithmic formulae or ex- pansion table, multiply the boiler pressure for i cut-off by 0.91; for cut-off by 0.85, 1 cut-off by 0.75, & cut-off by 0.68. This will give the mean engine pressure per square inch near enough for ordinary practice, for steam pressures between 60 and 100 Ibs., always remembering that the piston travel is twice the stroke multiplied by the number of revolutions per minute. CASTINGS, CONTRACTION OF. By Messrs. Bowen & Co., brass founders, London. Inch. Ins. of length. In thin brass castings In thick " In zinc castings In lead, according to purity. In copper ' In tin, In silver, In cast iron, according to purity, small castings. . . . In cast steel, according to purity, pipes The above values fluctuate with the form of pattern, amount of ramming, and tempera- ture of metal when poured. Green sand cast- ings contract less than loam or dry sand cast- ings. GEARING, SIMPLE RULES ON. The follow- ing rules will apply to both bevel and spur gears. When the term pitch is used, it always signifies diametrical, not circular pitch. For illustrations we will use gears having 64 teeth and 8 pitch. To Find Pilch Diameter. Divide the num- ber of teeth by the pitch: 64-5-8 = 8 in. pitch diameter. To Find Number of Teeth. Multiply the pitch diameter by the pitch: 8 in. X 8 = 64, number of teeth. To Find the Pitch. Divide the number of teeth by the pitch diameter: 64-5-8 in. =8, pitch. To Find Outside Diameter of Spur Wheels. Add 2 to the number of teeth and divide by the pitch: 64+ 2 = 66n-8 = 8i in. O. D. To Find Circular Pitch. Divide the deci- mal 3.1416 by the diametrical pitch: 3.1416 H- 8 = 0.3927 in. To Find the Distance between the Centers of Two Spur Gears. Divide half the sum of the teeth of both gears by the pitch: 64+ 64 = 128 -H 2 = 64 -5- 8 = 8 in. centers. PULLEYS, RULES FOR CALCULATING THE SPEED OF. The diameter of the driven being given, to find its number of revolutions Rule. Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions, and divide the product by the diameter of the driven ; the quotient will be the number of revolutions of the driven. Ex. Twenty-four in. diameter of driver X150, number of revolutions, =3,600-5-12 in. diameter of driven = 300. The diameter and revolutions of the driver being given, to find the diameter of the driven, that shall make any given number of revolutions in the same time. Rule. Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions, and divide the product by the number of required revolu- tions of the driven; the quotient will be its diameter. Ex. Diameter of driver (as before) 24 in. X revolutions 150 = 3,600. Number of revo- lutions of driven required = 300. Then 3,600 -i- 300 = 12 in. The rules following are but changes of the same, and will be readily understood from the foregoing examples. To ascertain the size of the driver: Rule. Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions you wish to make, and divide the product by the required revolutions of the driver; the quotient will be the size of the driver. To ascertain the size of pulleys for given speed : Rule. Multiply all the diameters of the drivers together and all the diameters of the driven together; divide the drivers by the driven; the answer multiply by the known revolutions of main shaft. PAPER, WALL. The following table from the New York Newsdealer shows how many rolls of wall-paper are required to cover a room of -the dimensions indicated by the fig- ures in the left-hand column, also the number of yards of border necessary Size of Room. 7X9 . . :i fi a 8 _ 1 Number of | Doors. _ Number of Windows. **! 1 6 ^ f] 11 7X9 9 1 7 11 7X9 7X9 , 8X 10 10 12 g 1 1 1 8 10 7 11 11 12 8X10 8X 10 ... 9 10 1 1 8 9 12 12 8X 10 12 1 11 12 9X 11. ... 8 1 3 14 9X 11 g 1 10 14 9X11 9X 11 10 12 1 1 11 13 14 14 10X12 10X12 10X12 8 9 10 1 1 1 9 10 11 15 15 15 10X12 11X12 11X12 11X12 11X12 12X13 12 X 13 12 8 9 10 12 8 g 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 13 8 9 10 13 8 10 15 16 16 16 16 17 17 12X13 12X13 12X15 or 13X14. . . 12 X 15 or 13X14. .. 12X15 or 13X14. . . 12X15 or 13X14. . . 13X15 13X15 13X15 13X15 . 10 12 8 9 10 12 8 9 10 12 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 n 14 10 11 12 15 10 11 13 16 17 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 19 14X16 14X16 14X16 14X18 14X 18 ... 9 10 12 9 10 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 14 17 13 15 20 20 20 22 22 14X18 15X16 15X17 12 10 12 2 2 2 2 2 2 19 15 19 22 21 22 Deduct one-half roll of paper for each or- dinary door or window extra size 4X7 feet. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 493 UNITED STATES STANDARD GAUGE. For Sheet and Plate Iron and Steel. Number of Gauge. Thickness. Weight. Number of Gauge. Approximate Thickness in Fractions of an Inch. Approximate Thickness in Decimal Parts of an Inch. Weight per Square Foot in Ounces Avoirdupois. Weight per Square Foot in Pounds Avoirdupois. 0000000 1-2 .5 320 20. 0000000 000000 15-32 . 46875 300 18.75 000000 00000 7-16 .4375 280 17.5 00000 0000 13-32 . 40625 260 16.25 0000 000 3-8 .375 240 15. 000 00 11-32 . 34375 220 13.75 00 5-16 .3125 200 12.5 1 9-32 .28125 180 11.25 1 2 17-64 . 265625 170 10.625 2 3 1-4 .25 160 10. 3 4 15-64 .234375 150 9.375 4 5 7-32 .21875 140 8.75 5 6 13-64 .203125 130 8.125 6 7 3-16 .1875 120 7.5 7 8 11-64 .171875 110 6.875 8 9 5-32 . 15625 100 6.25 9 10 9-64 . 140625 90 5.625 10 11 1-8 .125 80 5. 11 12 7-64 . 109375 70 4.375 12 13 3-32 .09375 60 3.75 13 14 5-64 .078125 50 3.125 14 15 9-128 .0703125 45 2.8125 15 16 1-16 .0625 40 2.5 16 17 9-160 .05625 36 2.25 17 18 1-20 .05 32 2.00 18 19 7-160 .04375 28 1.75 19 20 3-80 .0375 24 1.5 20 21 11-320 . 034375 22 1.375 21 22 1-32 .03125 20 1.25 22 23 9-320 .028125 18 1.125 23 24 1-40 .025 16 1. 24 25 7-320 .021875 14 .875 25 26 3-160 .01875 12 .75 26 27 11-640 .0171875 11 .6875 27 28 1-64 .015625 10 .625 28 29 9-640 .0140625 9 .5625 29 30 1-80 .0125 8 .5 30 31 7-640 .0109375 7 .4375 SI 32 13-1280 .01015625 6 . 40625 32 33 3-320 . 009375 6 .375 33 34 11-1280 .00859375 5i . 34375 34 35 5-640 .0078125 5 .3125 35 36 9-1280 .00703125 H .28125 36 37 17-2560 . 006640625 H . 265625 37 38 1-160 . 00625 4 .25 38 ELECTRICAL UNITS OF MEASUREMENT. The three most commonly used units are: I. The unit of current, called the Ampere; II. The unit of potential, called the Volt; III. The unit of resistance, called the Ohm. For some purposes these quantities are sub- divided, thus in telegraphy the practical unit of current is the milli-ampere, i.e., one-thou- sandth of an ampere. In some cases it is con- venient to use multiples; insulation resist- ances are often expressed in terms of meg- ohms, i.e., a million ohms. The most com- monly used multiples are the following: 1 Megohm =10 6 ohms =1 million ohms, 1 Microhm = 10- 6 ohm = ] millionth of an ohm, 1 Kilowatt = 10 s watts = 1 ,000 watts, 1 Micro-ampere = 10- 6 ampere = 1 millionth of an ampere. ENGINEERING. OHM'S LAW. For steady currents the three quantities current, potential, and re- sistance are connected together by the rela- tion discovered by Dr. Ohm, and called Ohm's Law. This law is stated thus where C = current (amperes); ^ E = difference of potential (volts) ; R = resistance opposing the current (ohms). All the units in scientific work are defined in terms of the fundamental units, which are Unit of length = 1 centimeter. ' ' mass = 1 gram. ' ' time = 1 second. These are spoken of as the C.G.S. units, and in the actual determination of 494 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. ohm attempts have been made to obtain the scientific value as closely as possible. The first unit used as a standard was the British Association or B.A. unit coil. Messrs. Sie- mens also introduced a standard ohm, but both of these units differed from the true ohm as well as from each other. In order to avoid the consequent confusion, an interna- tional congress was held at Paris in 1893 to decide upon the standard values to be adopted. C.G.S. ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. THE OHM is represented by the resistance offered by a column of mercury at the tem- perature of melting ice 14.4521 grams in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area, and of a length of 106.3 centimeters. THE AMPERE is represented by the unvary- ing electric current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, deposits silver at the rate of 0.001118 of a gram per second. THE VOLT is the electrical pressure which, if steadily applied to a conductor whose re- sistance is 1 ohm, will produce a current of 1 ampere, and which is represented by 0.6974, or T|J of the electrical pressure between the poles of the voltaic cell, known as Clark's cell, at a temperature of 15 C. (59 F.). As in many of the older books and early papers dealing with electrical matters the older system of units is used, the following table will be useful for ascertaining the rela- tive values of the quantities expressed : System. True Ohm. Legal Ohm. B.A. Ohm. Sie- mens Ohm. True Ohm Legal Ohm .... B.A. Ohm Siemens Ohm.. 1.0000 0.9975 0.9863 0.9408 1.0025 1.0000 0.9889 0.9434 1.0138 1.0113 1 . 0000 0.9540 1 . 0630 1.0600 1 . 0482 1.0000 UNIT OF QUANTITY. The quantity of elec- tricity that flows per second past a cross-sec- tion of a conductor carrying a current of one ampere is a Coulomb. The practical unit is the quantity that flows per hour, and is measured in ampere- hours. UNIT OP CAPACITY: THE FARAD. The capacity of two conductors insulated from each other is the number of coulombs of elec- tricity required to be given to one conductor, the other being supposed at zero potential, to produce a difference of pressure of 1 volt be- tween the two. The unit of capacity is called a "farad," and two conductors ar- ranged in a form known as a condenser of 1 farad capacity would be raised to a difference of pressure of 1 volt by a charge of 1 coulomb of electricity. The practical unit used, how- ever, has a capacity one-millionth of a farad i.e., a microfarad. JOULE. When a power of one watt is being developed, the work done per second is some- times called a "Joule." Hence, one joule equals 0.7375 foot-lb., and 1 watt-second = 1 joule. 1 watt-minute =60 joules. 1 horse-power hour = 1,980,000 foot-lbs. 1 horse-power hour = 2,685,600 joules. (W. E. Ayrton.} WATT. A "watt" is the power developed in a circuit when one ampere flows through it, and when the potential difference at its ter- minals is one volt ; hence the number of watts developed in any circuit equals the product of the current in amperes flowing through it into the potential difference at its terminals in volts. Therefore 1 watt is the power developed when 44.25 foot-lbs. of work are done per minute. 1 watt is the power developed when 0.7375 foot-lb. of work is done per second. 1 watt equals rigth of a horse-power. (W. E. Ayrton.') CALORIE. The amount of heat required to raise 1 kilogram of water 1 C. is the unit of heat employed on the Continent. 1 calorie = 4,200 joules = 42 X 10 9 ergs. 1 joule = 0.000238 calories. INDUCTION: THE HENRY. The induction in a circuit when the difference of electrical pressure induced in the circuit is 1 volt, while the inducing current varies at the rate of 1 ampere per second, is called a "Henry." THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC SYSTEM OF ELECTRIC UNITS. UNIT OP CURRENT. That current which, flowing in a conductor 1 centimeter long, and of 1 centimeter radius, produces at the center of the arc a magnetic field of unit strength. This unit is ten times the ampere. UNIT OF POTENTIAL. Unit difference of potential exists between the ends of a con- ductor, when the expenditure of 1 erg per second will cause unit current to flow. This E.M.F. is equal to one hundred- millionth of a volt. Note. The erg = work done by a force of 1 dyne through a distance of one centimeter = 0.001019 gramme cent = 0.00000007386 foot- lb. (London). UNIT OF RESISTANCE is that resistance which requires unit difference of potential to cause unit current to flow. This resistance is 1,000-millionth of an ohm. For ready reference the units most fre- quently used in practice are tabulated below, together with their value in C.G.S. absolute units. Electrical Quantity. Name of Unit. Dimensions of Unit. Value in C.G.S. Units. Resistance. . . Ohm L7 7 -* LIMIT"* L\MVT~* L2MT~ 2 L -1 T 2 Z>M7 ; -3 10 9 C.C 10" 1 108 10 7 10~ 9 10- 10 7 10> 10 9 X36 10 12 X3 J.S. un 5 its. Current Electrical pressure Energy Capacity Capacity Ampere Volt Joule Farad Microfarad Watt Kilowatt. . Power Work Work Watt-hour Kilowatt-hour. . . . SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 495 UNITS OF FORCE, PRESSURE, WORK, POWER. FORCE. 1 dyne = that force which acting on 1 gramme for 1 second gives it a velocity of 1 centimeter per second (being absolute unit of force in the C.G.S. system, independent of local variations of gravity). 1 gram weight = at Paris, 980 dynes; at London, 981 dynes; at Glasgow, 982 dynes. 1 pound weight = 453.6 grams weight; = at Paris, 444,528 dynes; at London, 444,987 dynes. PRESSURE. 1 pound per square inch = 0.0703 kilogram per square centimeter. 1 kilogram per square centimeter = 14.2 Ibs. per square inch. 1 atmosphere = 30 in. of mercury = nearly 70 centimeters of mercury = nearly 15 Ibs. per square inch = nearly 1,000,000 dynes per square centimeter. The following will serve to illustrate the magnitude of some of these units: 10 ft. of pure copper wire 0.01 in. diameter is almost exactly equal to 1 ohm. The current usea in an ordinary incandes- cent lamp of 16 candle-power is about 0.6 ampere. The electrical pressure of the terminals of the cell usually used for electric bells (Le- clanche) is about 1.4 volt. 1 watt = about 44 f oot-lbs. per minute. 746 watts = 1 horse-power. 1 kilowatt = about 1 horse-power. An easy way to convert watts into the equivalent horse-power is to mark off three places and add one-third: Thus, What is the equivalent horse-power of 27,000 watts? Set off three decimal places. Add one-third 27.000 9.000 And the horse-power required = 36 Find the equivalent number of watts of 48 electrical horse-power ? Multiply the horse-power by 1,000, thus 48X1,000 =48,000 Subtract one-quarter, * 8 ^ = 12,000 And the required number of watts = 36,000 RESISTANCE. CONDUCTORS. Nearly all substances as they occur in nature conduct electricity i.e., if the substance is joined to a source of elec- trical energy, a magnetic field is created around it. Roughly, three groups of con- ductors may be formed, but of very varying degree: 1st, good conductors, pure metals, and alloys of metals; 2d, at a long interval, solutions of electrolytes i.e., solutions ca- pable of being decomposed by the passage of an electric current through them; and 3d, very bad conductors, such as India rubber, ebonite, shellac, sulphur, glass, slate, mar- ble, stoneware, mica, dry wood and paper, animal fibers (silk, wool, furs), petroleum oil, paraffin wax, ozqkerit, pitch, bitumen, etc. Usually, in practical work, the first class is spoken of as conductors, and the third class as insulators. RESISTANCE. The resistance of a con- ductor is (a) Directly proportional to its length; (6) Inversely proportional to its cross-sec- tional area; (c) Directly proportional to its specific resistance; (rf) and usually increases with its temperature. SPECIFIC RESISTANCE. The specific re- sistance of a substance is usually stated as the resistance between the faces of a cube of the substance, 1 centimeter in length and 1 square centimeter in cross-sectional area. The law of resistance may be stated thus, neglecting the effect of temperature: B-4 where fl = the resistance in ohms; / =the length of conductor; s = the cross-sectional area of the conductor ; p = the specific resistance of the material. RESISTANCE OF METALS AND ALLOYS (CHEMICALLY PURE) AT 32 F. IN STANDARD OHMS. Metal. Specific Resistance Cubic Cen- timeter Microhms. Resistance per Relative Resist- ance. Foot, i^ff Inch Diameter. Meter, 1 Millimeter Diameter. Silver, annealed 1.5006 1 . 6298 1.61966 1 . 73054 2.0531 2 . 0896 2.9055 5.6127 9.0352 9.6933 19.584 20.886 24.329 75 96 Ohms. 9.0283 9 . 8028 10.2063 10.4117 12.3522 12.5692 17.4825 33.7614 54.3517 58.308 117.79 125.62 146.36 447 . 50 570.84 Ohms. 0.01911 0.02074 0.02160 0.02204 0.02614 0.0266 0.037 0.071 0.115 0.123 0.249 0.266 0.310 0.95 1.208 .000 .686 .130 .153 .369 .393 1.935 3.741 6.022 6.460 13.05 13.92 16.21 49.7 62.73 hard-drawn Copper, annealed . hard-drawn Gold, annealed * ' hard-drawn Aluminum, annealed Zinc, pressed Platinum, annealed Iron, annealed Lead, pressed German silver, hard or annealed Platinum, silver alloy (2 parts silver and 1 part platinum), hard or annealed Manganese steel Mercury. . . 490 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE VARIA- TION IN RESISTANCE AT ABOUT 20 C. (68 F.) HEAT AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY. Metal or Alloy. (a) Per 1C. & 1F. Substances. Heat Conductiv- ity. Electrical Conductiv- ity. Platinum Silver ( 1 pt. Plati- num to 2 pts. Silver), hard or annealed German Silver, hard or an- nealed Mercury Bismuth, pressed. . 0.031 0.044 0.072 0.354 0.365 0.365 0.365 0.377 0.387 0.428 0.5 0.017 0.024 0.040 0.197 0.203 0.203 0.203 0.209 0.215 0.238 0.278 Silver Copper Gold . 100.0 73.6 53.2 23.6 19.9 14.5 12.0 11.9 8.5 6.4 6.3 1.8 100.0 73.3 58.5 21.5 22.6 is.'e 10.7 10.3 ' Y.9 Brass Zinc Tin Steel Iron Lead Platinum . . . Gold annealed . Zinc, pressed Tin, Silver, annealed. Lead, pressed . . Palladium Bismuth Copper, annealed Iron (about) Practical Engineer's Electrical Pocket-Book and Diary. RESISTANCE AND WEIGHT TABLE. American gauge for cotton and silk-covered and bare copper wire. The resistances are calculated for pure copper wire. The number of feet to the pound is only approximate for insulated wire. Feet per Pound. Resistance, Naked Copper. No. Diameter. Cotton Covered. Silk Covered. Naked. Ohms per 1,000 Feet. Ohms per Mile. Feet per Ohm. Ohms per Pound. 8 .12849 20 .6259 3.3 1600 .0125 9 .11443 25 .7892 4.1 1272 .0197 10 10189 32 .8441 4.4 1185 .0270 11 .09074 40 1.254 6.4 798 . .0501 12 .08081 ' ' '42 ' ' ' ' '46 ' ' 50 1.580 8.3 633 .079 13 .07196 55 60 64 1.995 10.4 504 .127 14 . 06408 68 75 80 2.504 13.2 400 .200 15 . 05707 87 95 101 3.172 16.7 316 .320 16 .05082 110 120 128 4.001 23 230 .512 17 . 04525 140 150 161 5.04 26 198 .811 18 .0403 175 190 203 6.36 33 157 1.29 19 . 03539 220 240 256 8.25 43 121 2.11 20 .03196 280 305 324 10.12 53 99 3.27 21 . 02846 360 390 408 12.76 68 76.5 5.20 22- . 02535 450 490 514 16.25 85 61.8 8.35 23 . 02257 560 615 649 20.30 108 48.9 13.3 24 .0201 715 775 818 25.60 135 39.0 20.9 25 .0179 910 990 1,030 32.2 170 31.0 33.2 26 01594 1,165 1,265 1,300 40.7 214 24.6 52.9 27 .01419 1,445 1,570 1,640 51.3 270 19.5 84.2 28 01264 1,810 1,970 2,070 64.8 343 15.4 134 29 .01126 2,280 2,480 2,617 81.6 432 12.2 213 30 .01002 2,805 3,050 3,287 103 538 9.8 338 31 . 00893 3,605 3,920 4,144 130 685 7.7 539 32 . 00795 4,535 4,930 5,227 164 865 6.1 856 33 . 00708 6,200 6,590 206 1033 4.9 1357 34 0063 7,830 8,330 260 1389 3.8 2166 35 00561 9,830 10,460 328 1820 2.9 3521 36 .005 12,420 13,210 414 2200 2.4 5469 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 497 WEIGHT IN POUNDS PER MILE OP' COPPER WIRE. Num- ber. Roeb- ling. Bir- ming- ham. Brown & Sharpe. English Legal Stand- ard. Num- ber. Roeb- ling. Bir- ming- ham Brown & Sharpe. English Legal Stand- ard. 0000 2,466 3,286 3,375 2,555 14 102 110 65 102 000 2,092 2,884 2,677 2,210 15 83 83 52 83 00 1,750 2,305 2,123 ,933 16 64 68 41 65 1,504 1,846 1,684 1,682 17 47 53| f 33 50 1 1,278 1,437 1,335 ,437 18 35 38 26 37 2 1,104 1,287 1,058 ' ,216 19 27 28 20| 26 3 950 1,071 839 ,012 20 19 19^ 16 20i 4 808 904 665 860 21 16 16- 13 161 5 684 773 528 718 22 12 12i m 6 588 657 418 588 23 10 10- xl Qi 7 500 517 332 495 24 8 1\ n 8 419 435 263 409 25 6 61 5i ef 9 350 350 209 332 26 5 5 4 5 10 291 287 166 263 27 4J 4 3} 4 11 230 230 131 215 28 4 3| 8 3* 12 176 190 104 173 29 3} | 2> 2 3 13 135 144 83 135 30 3^ 21 If a$ WIRE GAUGES, IN DECIMAL PARTS TABLE INDICATING SIZE, WEIGHT, OF AN INCH. AND LENGTH OF IRON AND STEEL Num- Bir- Eng- Old WIRE. ber of Brown ming- lish Eng- Wire Roeb- & ham Legal lish, Gauge. ling. Sharpe. or Stubs. Stand- ard. or Lon- don. Gauge Num- Diam- eter, Wight of 100 V^Af Wight of One Milo Feet in 2000 Area, Square 000000 0.46 0.464 bers. Ins. -T G6t. Lbs. Mile, Lbs. Lbs. Ins. 00000 0.43 0.432 0000 0.393 ' 6.46' '6.454' 0.4 6.454' ' 000 0.362 0.40964 0.425 0.372 0.425 3-0 .362 34.73 1834 5,759 .102921 00 0.331 0.3648 0.380 0.348 0.38 2-0 .331 29.04 1533 6,886 .086049 0.307 0.32495 0.340 0.324 0.34 1-0 .307 25.00 1318 8,000 .074023 1 0.283 0.2893 0.3 0.3 0.3 1 .283 21.23 1121 9,425 .062901 2 0.263 0.25763 0.284 0.276 0.284 2 .263 18.34 968 10,905 .054325 3 0.244 0.22942 0.259 0.252 0.259 3 .244 15.78 833 12,674 .046759 4 0.225 0.20431 0.238 0.232 0.238 4 .225 13.39 707 14,936 .039760 5 0.207 0.18194 0.22 0.212 0.22 5 .207 11.35 599 17,621 .033653 6 0.192 0.16202 0.203 0.192 0.203 6 J92 9.73 514 20,555 .028952 7 0.177 0.14428 0.18 0.176 0.18 7 .177 8.30 439 24,906 024605 8 0.162 0.12849 0.165 0.16 0.165 8 .162 6.96 367 28,734 .020612 9 0.148 0.11443 0.148 0.144 .148 9 .148 5.80 306 34,483 .017203 10 0.135 0.10189 0.134 0.128 0.134 10 .135 4.83 255 41 ,408 .014313 11 0.12 0.09074 0.12 0.116 0.12 11 .120 3.82 202 52,356 .011309 12 0.105 0.08081 0.109 0.104 0.109 12 .105 2.92 154 68,493 .008659 13 0.092 0.07196 0.095 0.092 0.095 13 .092 2.24 118 89,286 .006647 14 0.08 0.064081 0.083 0.08 0.083 14 .080 1.69 89 118,343 .005026 15 0.072 0.05706 0.072 0.072 0.072 15 .072 1.37 72 145,985 .004071 16 0.063 0.05082 0.065 0.064 '0.065 16 .063 1.05 55 190,476 .003117 17 0.054 0.04525 0.058 0.056 0.058 17 .054 0.77 41 259,740 .002290 18 0.047 0.0403 0.049 0.048 0.049 18 .047 0.58 31 344,827 .001734 19 0.041 0.03589 0.042 0.04 0.04 19 .041 0.45 24 444,444 .001320 20 0.035 0.03196 0.035 0.036 0.035 20 .035 0.32 17 625,000 .000962 21 0.032 0.02846 0.032 0.032 jO.0315 21 .032 0.27 14 740,741 .000804 22 0.028 0.02534 0.028 0.028 0.0295 22 .028 0.21 11 952,381 .000615 23 0.025 0.02257 0.025 0.024 0.027 23 .025 0.175 9.24 .000491 24 0.023 0.0201 0.022 0.022 10.025 24 .023 0.140 7.39 .000415 25 0.02 0.0179 0.02 0.02 0.023 25 .020 0.116 6.124 .000314 26 0.018 0.01594 0.018 0.018 0.0205 26 .018 0.093 4.91 .000254 27 0.017 0.01419 0.016 0.01640.01875 27 .017 0.083 4.382 .000227 28 0.016 0.01264 0.014 0.0148|0.0165 28 .016 0.074 3.907 .000201 29 0.015 0.01125 0.013 0.01360.0155 29 .015 0.061 3.22 .000176 30 0.014 0.01002 0.012 0.0124:0.01375 30 .014 0.054 2.851 .000154 31 0.0135 0.00893 0.010 0.01160.01225 31 .0135 0.050 2.64 .000143 32 i 0.013 0.007951 0.009 0.01080.01125 32 .013 0.046 2.428 .C00132 33 0.011 0.00708 1 0.008 0.01 0.01025 33 .011 0.037 1.953 .000095 34 0.01 0.0063 0.007 0.00920.0095 34 .010 0.030 1.584 '.'.'.'.'.. .000078 35 0.0095 0.00561 0.005 ! 0.00840.009 35 .0095 0.025 1.32 .000071 36 0.009 0.005 i 0.004 1 0.0076J0.0075 36 .009 0.021 1.161 .000064 498 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. ELECTRICAL HORSE-POWER. EXC Calculated from 746 * E.M.F. in Volts. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 0.06 0.13 0.20 0.28 0.33 0.40 0.47 0.53 0.60 0.67 0.73 0.80 0.87 0.93 1.0 0.13 0.28 0.40 0.53 0.67 0.80 0.93 1.07 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.9 2.0 0.28 0.53 0.80 1.07 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.7 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.7 4.0 0.40 0.80 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6 6.0 0.53 1.07 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.2 3.7 4.2 4.8 5.3 5.9 6.4 6.9 7.5 8.0 0.67 1.30 2.0 2.6 3.3 4.0 4.6 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.4 8.0 8.7 9.4 10.0 0.80 1.6 2.4 3.2 4.0 4.8 5.6 6.4 7.2 8.0 8.8 9.6 10.4 11.2 12.0 0.93 1.9 2.8 3.7 4.6 5.6 6.5 7.5 8.4 9.4 10.3 11.2 12.3 13.1 14.0 1.07 2.1 3.2 4.2 5.4 6.4 7.5 8.5 9.6 10.7 11.8 12.8 13.9 15.0 16.0 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6.0 7.2 8.4 9.6 10.8 12.0 13.2 14.4 15.6 16.9 18.0 1.3 2.7 4.0 5.3 6.7 8.0 9.4 10.7 12.0 13.4 14.7 16.0 17.4 18.7 20.0 1.4 2.9 4.4 5.9 7.4 8.8 10.3 11.8 13.2 14.7 16.2 17.6 19.1 20.6 22.0 1.5 3.2 4.8 6.4 8.0 9.6 11.2 12.8 14.4 16.0 17.6 19.2 20.9 22.5 24.0 1.6 3.5 5.2 6.9 8.7 10.4 12.3 13.9 15.6 17.4 19,1 20.9 22.6 24.4 26.0 1.9 3.7 5.6 7.5 9.4 11.2 13.1 15.0 16.9 18.7 20.6 22.5 24.4 26.2 28.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 E.H.P. on current line, under E.M.F. COMPOSITION AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE OF BATTERY CELLS. Name. Electrodes. Solutions. E.M.F. Clark. Pure mercury and The mercury is covered with a 1.434 at 15 C. at any pure zinc. paste of mercurous sulphate temp t C. it is and a saturated solution of zinc sulphate, in which is placed the 1.434[1-.0008-15)]. rod of zinc. Daniell. Copper and zinc. The zinc is immersed in a solu- tion of zinc sulphate, and the Depends upon the den- sities of the solutions; copper in a solution of copper it varies from 1.07 to sulphate. 1.14 volts. Groves. Platinum and zinc. The platinum is immersed in a About 1.93 volts. strong nitric acid, and the zinc in dilute sulphuric acid. Bunsen. Carbon and zinc. The carbon in nitric acid, and About 1.74 volts. the zinc in dilute sulphuric acid. Leclanche. Carbon and zinc.. The carbon is packed in a porous About 1.47 volts; but is pot with peroxide of manga- quickly reduced if nese and broken gas carbon. used to send a strong The zinc is immersed in solu- current. tion of sal ammoniac. Potash - bichro- mate. Carbon and zinc. The best solution is 1 Ib. of potas- sium-bichromate, 2 Ibs. strong sulphuric acid sp. gr. 1.836, and 12 Ibs. water, in which both About 2 volts; but is quickly reduced if em- ployed to send a strong current. electrodes are immersed, the zinc being withdrawn when the cell is not in use. Practical Engineers' Electrical Pocket Book. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 499 STANDARD TABLE OF HEIGHT AND WEIGHT. Weight. Maximum. Standard. Minimum. 4 fe 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 G 6 6 6 et 10 inc 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 hes 150 160 167 174 181 188 195 200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250 255 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 83 87 92 96 100 104 108 112 115 120 125 130 135 140 ' 145 150 155 160 165 ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::'::::::::::::::::::::: -Table furnished by F. L. Hoffman, Insurance Statistician. THE AMERICAN EXPERIENCE TABLE OF MORTALITY. Age. Expectation of Life in Years. Number Dying in Each 1,000. Age. Expectation of Life in Years. Number Dying in Each 1,000. 20 42.20 7.81 60 14.10 26.69 21 41.53 7.86 61 13.47 28.88 22 40.85 7.91 62 12.86 31.29 23 40.17 7.96 63 12.26 33.94 24 39.49 8.01 64 11.67 36.87 25 38.81 8.07 65 11.10 40.13 26 38.12 ' 8.13 66 10.54 43.71 27 37.43 8.20 67 10.00 47.65 28 36.73 8.26 68 9.47 52.00 29 36.03 8.35 69 8.97 56.76 30 35.33 8.43 70 8.48 61.99 31 34.63 8.51 71 8.00 67.67 32 33.92 8.61 72 7.55 73.73 33 33.21 8.72 73 7.11 80.18 34 32.50 8.83 74 6.68 87.03 35 31.78 8.95 75 6.27 94.37 36 31.07 9.09 76 5.88 102.31 37 30.35 9.23 77 5.49 111.06 38 29.62 9.41 78 5.11 120.83 39 28.90 9.59 79 4.74 131.73 40 28.18 9.79 80 4.39 144 47 41 27.45 10.01 81 4.05 158.61 42 26.72 10.25 82 3.71 174.30 43 26.00 10.52 83 3.39 191 . 56 44 25.27 10.83 84 3.08 211.36 45 24.54 11.16 85 2.77 235.55 46 23.81 11.56 86 2.47 265.68 47 23.08 12.00 87 2.18 303.02 48 22.36 12.51 88 1.91 346.69 49 21.63 13.11 89 1.66 395.86 50 20.91 13.78 90 1.42 454.55 51 20.20 14.54 91 1.19 532.47 52 19.49 15.39 92 .98 634.26 53 18.79 16.33 93 .80 734.18 54 18.09 17.40 94 .64 857.14 55 17.40 18.57 95 .50 1000.00 56 16.72 19.89 57 16.05 21.34 58 15.39 22.94 59 14.74 24.72 500 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. THE AMOUNT OF ONE DOLLAR AT COMPOUND INTEREST. End of Year. 3 Per Cent. Per Cent. 4 Per Cent. Per Cent. 5 Per Cent. 6 Per Cent. 7 Per Cent. 1 $1.03 $1.04 $1.04 $1.05 $1.05 $1.06 $1.07 2 .06 .07 1.08 1.09 1.10 .12 .14 3 .09 .11 1.12 1.14 1.16 .19 .23 4 .13 .15 1.17 1.19 1.22 .26 .31 5 .16 .19 1.22 1.25 1.28 .34 .40 6 .19 .23 1.27 1.30 1.34 .42 .50 7 .23 .27 1.32 .36 1.41 .50 .61 8 .27 .32 1.37 .42 1.48 .59 1.72 9 .30 .36 1.42 .49 1.55 .69 1.84 10 .34 .41 1.48 .55 1.63 .79 1.97 11 .38 .46 1.54 .62 1.71 1.90 2.10 12 .43 .51 1.60 .70 1.80 2.01 2.25 13 .47 .56 1.67 .77 1.89 2.13 2.41 14 .51 .62 1.73 .85 1.98 2.26 2.58 15 .56 .68 1.80 .94 2.08 2.40 2.76 16 .60 .73 1.87 2.02 2.18 2.54 2.95 17 .65 .79 1.95 2.11 2.29 2.69 3.16 18 .70 .86 2.03 2.21 2.41 2.85 3.38 19 .75 .92 2.11 2.31 2.53 3.03 3.62 20 1.81 .99 2.19 2.41 2.65 3.21 3.87 21 1.86 2.06 2.28 2.52 2.79 3.40 4.14 22 1.92 2.13 2.37 2.63 2.93 3.60 4.43 23 1.97 2.21 2.46 2.75 3.07 3.82 4.74 24 2.03 2.28 2.56 2.88 3.23 4.05 5.07 25 2.09 2.36 2.67 3.01 3.39 4.29 5.43 26 2.16 2.45 2.77 3.14 3.56 4.55 5.81 27 2.22 2.53 2.88 3.28 3.73 4.82 6.21 28 2 29 2.62 3.00 3.43 3.92 5.11 6.65 29 2 36 2.71 3.12 3.58 4.12 5.42 7.11 30 2.43 2.81 3.24 3.75 4.32 5.74 7.61 31 2.50 2.91 3.37 3.91 4.54 6.09 8.15 32 2.58 3.01 3.51 4.09 4.76 6.45 8.72 33 2.65 3.11 3.65 4.27 5.00 6.84 9.33 34 2.73 3.22 3.79 4.47 5.25 7.25 9.98 35 2.81 3.33 3.95 4.67 5.52 7.69 10.68 36 2.90 3.45 4.10 4.88 5.79 8.15 11.42 37 2.99 3.57 4.27 5.10 6.08 8.64 12.22 38 3.07 3.70 4.44 5.33 6.39 9.15 13.08 39 3.17 3 83 4.62 5.57 6.70 9.70 13.99 40 3 26 3.96 4.80 5.82 7.04 10 29 14.97 41 3.36 4.10 4.99 6.08 7.39 10.90 16.02 42 3 46 4.24 5.19 6.35 7.76 11.56 17.14 43 3.56 4.39 5.40 6.64 8.15 12.25 18.34 44 3 67 4.54 5.62 6.94 8.56 12.99 19.63 45 3.78 4.70 5.84 7.25 8.99 13.76 21.00 46 3.90 4.87 6.07 7.57 9.43 14.59 22.47 47 4 01 5.04 6.32 7.92 9.91 15.47 24.05 48 4.13 5.21 6.57 8.27 10.40 16.39 25.73 49 4 26 5.40 6.83 8.64 10.92 17.38 27.53 50 4.38 5.58 7.11 9.03 11.47 18.42 29.46 1 = 1. 2 = 11. 3 = 111. 4 = IV. 5 = V. 6=VI. 7 = VII. 9 = IX. 10 = X. 20 = XX. 30 = XXX. 40 = XL. 50 = L. 60 = LX. 70 = LXX. 80 = LXXX. ROMAN NOTATION. 90 = XC. 100 = C 500 = D, orLo. 1,000 = M, or CO. 2,000 = MM, or II 5,000 = V, or LOO. 6,000 = VI, orMMM. 10,000 = X, or COO- 50,000 = L, or LOOO. 60,000 = LX, or MMMO. 100,000 = C^ or COOO- 1, 000,000 = M, or COOOO- 2,000,000 = MM, or MMOOO- A line over a number increases it 1,000 times. IKDEX. PAGE Abbreviations, Astro- nomical 456 Abrasive Materials, Production of 347 Academy, Naval ; Regu- tions Governing Ad- mission to 68, 69 Academy of Sciences, National 320 Accidents, British 165 Accidents, Cause of. ...395 Accidents in Factories.. 394 Accidents, Fatal 395 Accidents at Sea 18 Acetylene Gas Discov- ered (1836) 220 Actors, Professional Showmen, etc 161 Aerial Navigation 392 Agents 162 Agricultural i m p 1 e - ments 260 Agricultural i m p 1 e - ments, Exports of... 276 Agricultural i m p 1 e - ments, Value of Ex- ports 299 Agricultural Laborers. . 161 Agriculture, Depart- partment of 313 Air 487 Air Brake (1869) 222 Air, Data 452 Air Ship Perfected (1901) 224 Air to Test for Sewer Gas 452 Alabama, Population of.138 Alaska 170 Alewives 368 Alligator Hides 369 Alphabet, Cable 198 Alphabet, Greek 458 Altair 459 Altitude and Azimuth. .454 Aluminum, Production of 344 American Experience Table of Mortality.. 499 American Locomotive (the) Seventy-one Years' Growth of 127 American Republics, In- ternational Bureau of 325 A PAGE Ammonia, Production of 346 Ammunition 260 Analemma 457 Angle, to Bisect 403 Angle Shaft Coupling.. .422 Angles 399 Angular Lever 413 Angular Measure 474 Angular Measurement. .454 Animal Industry, Bureau of 314 Animal Power, Horse. .487 Animal Products 357 Animal Substances, Specific Gravity and Weight 479 Animals, Domestic, Number and Value. .357 Animals, Exports of... 276 Animals, Farm 304 Animals, Farm, Slaughtered 357 Animals, Farm, Sold. .357 Animals, Men and, Pull- ing Strength of 490 Animals, Principal Sta- tistics of 361 Annapolis, Regulations Governing Admission into 68, 69 Anthony Pollok Prize.. 338 Antarctic Explorations. 12 Antifriction Curve 406 Antimony, Production of 345 Antipyrene (1884) 223 Antiseptic Surgery (1865) 222 Aphelion and Perihe- lion 455 Apples Legal Weight.. 372 Apples, Production 360 Apothecaries' Liquid Measure 465 Apothecaries' Measure, U. S. and Imperial Measure Compared.. .465 Apricots, Production. . .360 April, Heavens in 461 Arbitration, Permanent Court of 338 Arc Lamps, Number . . . 382 Arc, to Plot Out 404 Architects, Designers, Draftsmen, etc 161 PAGE Arcturus 459 Area of Countries of the World 143 Area and Population. . 14 Area and Population of States (1900) 158 Area and Population of the U. S 170 Areas, Equal, Kepler's Law of 455 Aries, First Point of. .455 Arizona, Population of.138 Arkansas, Population of 140 Armies of the Leading Powers 103 Armies of the W r orld ; Peace and War Foot- ing 105 Armor Protection of Modern War Vessels.. 56 Army of the United States, The 91 Arsenious Oxide, Pro- duction of 348 Artesian Well (1840).. 221 Artificial Feathers and Flowers 260 Artificial Limbs 260 Artistic Properties, In- ternational Unions for Protection of 340 Artists' Materials 260 Artists and Teachers of Art 161 Asbestos, Production of.349 Asphaltum, Production of 349 Asses, Number and Value 357 Assignments 228 Association for Ad- vancement of Science.325 Astronomical Symbols and Abbreviations. . .456 Astronomy 453 Atomic Weights, Inter- national 444 Attendance, School. .. .174 August, Heavens in. . . .462 Austria, Patents in. . . .229 Avoirdupois Weight 466 Awnings, Tents, and Sails 260 Axle Grease 260 Azimuth, Altitude and..454 Babbitt Metal Discov- covered (1839) 221 Babbitt Metal and Sol- der 260 Bags, Paper 260 Bags, other than Pa- per 260 Bakers , . . 162 Baking and Yeast Pow- ders 200 Ball-bearing Devices. . .436 Ball and Socket Joints.. 422 Balls, Weight of 487 Balloon. Gas, Invented (1783) 219 Balloons 391 501 "Baltic." The 31 Bananas, Production. . .360 Band Saw (1887) .... .224 Bank Deposits 300 Bank Clearings 300 Bankers and Brokers.. 162 Banks. National 300 Barbed Wire 354 502 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PAGE Barbed Wire Fencing (1861) 222 Barbers and Hairdress- ers 161 Barbette 83 Barbette of Battleship, Section Through .... 84 Barley, Legal Weight . . 372 Barley, Statistics 360 Barometer' (1643) 218 Bartenders 161 Barytes, Production of.. 349 Baskets and Rattan and . Willow Ware 260 Bass, Black 368 Bass, Sea 368 Bass, Strawberry 368 Bass, Striped 368 Battery Cells, Compo- sition and E. M. F. .498 Battery, First (1812).. 219 Battery, Storage, In- vented 1812 219 Battleship 56 Battleshio, Details of .. 57 Battleship, Interior of 80, 81 Battleship, Section of, 80, 81 Bauxite, Production of.349 Beans, Castor, Statis- tics 358 Beans, Dry, Statistics. .358 Beans, Legal Weight . . . 372 Beets, Legal Weight . . . 372 Beets, Sugar, Statis- tics 358 Bell, Alex. G 217 Bell-Crank Lever 413 Bells 260 Bells, Weight of 390 Belting and hose, Leather 260 Belting and Hose, Linen 260 Belting and Hose, Rub- ber 260 Belting, Speed of 439 Belting, Transmission of Power by 439 Bible, Weights and Measures of 474 Bicycle Invented (1855) 223 Bicycle, Safety (1884). 223 Bicycle and Tricycle Re- pairing 260 Bicycles and Tricycles.. 260 INDEX Continued. PAGE Billiard Tables and Ma- terials 260 Biological Survey, U. S. Division of 315 Bismuth, Production of.345 Black Bass 368 Blackberries, Produc- tion 360 Blacking 260 Blacksmithing and Wheelwrighting 260 Blacksmiths 162 Blanchard, T 216 Bleachery and Dye Works Operatives 163 Bluefish 368 Bluing 260 Board Measure 482 Board Measure, Conver- sion of Cubic Meas- ure into 483 Boarding and Lodging- house Keepers 161 Boat Signals 208 Boatmen and Sailors.. 162 Boats, Cross-Channel.. 43 Boats, Fast 42 Boats, Irish 43 Boiler Tubes 491 Boilers, Steam 293 Boiling Points of Chem- ical Elements 451 Bone, Ivory and Lamp- black 260 Bookbinders 163 Bookbinding and Blank- book making 261 Bookkeepers and Ac- countants 162 Boot and Shoe Cut Stock 261 Boot and Shoe Find- ings 261 Boot and Shoe Uppers.. 261 Boot and Shoemakers and Repairers 163 Boots and Shoes, Cus- tom Work and Re- pairing 261 Boots and Shoes, Fac- tory Product 261 Boots and Shoes, Rub- ber 261 Borax, Production of. ..348 Botanical Investiga- tions 315 Bottlers and Soda Water Makers, etc.. 163 Bottling 261 Box Makers (Paper).. 163 Boxes, Cigar. . 261 PAGE Boxes, Fancy and Paper 261 Boxes, Wooden and Packing 261 Brake, Car (1872) 223 Bran, Legal Weight. . . . 372 Brass 261 Brass Castings and Brass Finishing 261 Brass and Copper, Rolled 231 Brass Workers 163 Brassware 261 Bread and other Bakery Products 261 Breadstuffs. Exports of.276 Brewers and Maltsters.. 163 Brick and Tile 261 Brick and Tilemakers, etc 162 Bricks and Stones, Strength of 483 Bridges 261 Bridges, Length of 390 Bromine, Production of.348 Bronze Castings 261 Broom and Brush- makers 1 63 Broom Corn, Statistics.. 358 Brooms and Brushes. . .261 Brush, C. F 217 Bu kwheat, Legal Weight 372 Buckwheat, Statistics. .360 Buhrstones, Production of 348 Buildings, Height of. . .389 Bulls, Number and Value 357 Bureau of International Geodosy 341 Bureau, International, of Railroad Trans- portation 341 Bureau for Repression of Slave Trade 340 Bureau of Telegraphs, International 339 Bureau of Weights and Measures. Interna- tional . 339 Bureaus. International. Institutions and 337 Burros, Number and Value 357 Butchers 162 Butter and Cheese- makers 162 Butter, Production of. .357 Butter, Reworking 261 Buttons 261 C. G. S. Electrical Standards 494 Cabinetmakers 163 Cable, Alphabet 198 Cable, Wire Required for 378 Cables. Submarine 193 Caissons, Invented (1841) 221 Calcium Carbide (1893). 224 Calcium Lights 261 Calculating Machine (1822) 220 California, Population of 140 Calorie 494 Calves. Number and Value 357 Cams and Cam Move- ments 430 Canada, Patents in. . . .229 Cane, Sorghum, Statis- tics 358 Cane, Sugar, Production of 304 Cane, Sugar. Btatistlca.358 Cannon Ball, Velocitv of '.383 Cans. Size of Tin for. .378 Car Brake (1872) 223 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 503 PAGE Car Coupler (1873). . .223 Carbide, Calcium (1893) 224 Carbolic Acid, Discov- ered (1834) 220 Carborundum (1893 ) . . . 224 Carborundum, Produc- tion of 347 Card Cutting and De- signing 201 Cardboard 261 Carnegie Hero Commis- sion 341 Carnegie Institution. . .342 Carp, German 368 Carpentering 261 Carpenters and Joiners.162 Carpet Factory Opera- tives 163 Carpets, Rag 261 Carpets and Rugs, other than Rag 261 Carpets, Wool 261 Carriage and Wagon Materials 261 Carriages 298 Carriages, Exports of. .277 Carriages and Sleds, Children's 261 Carriages and Wagons. 261 Carrots, Legal Weight.. 372 Cars and General Shop Construction and Re- pairs by Steam Rail- road Companies. .. .261 Cars, Railroad and Sti-eet, and Repairs, not including Estab- lishments operated by Steam Railroad Com- panies 261 Cash Carrier (1875).. . .223 Casting. Proportionate Weight of. to Weight of Wood Pattern 490 Castings, Contraction of 492 Castor Beans, Statis- tics 358 Catfish 368 Cathode Rays (1879).. 223 Cattle, Number and Value 357 Caveats 227 Celluloid (1870) 223 Celluloid and Celluloid Goods 261 Cement. Portland (1825) 220 Cement, Production of.. 347 Census, Bureau of 323 Center of Circle, to find. 4^3 Chain Gear 420 Charcoal 231 Charcoal. Coke and Lime Burners 163 Charcoal, Legal Weight. 372 Cheese. Butter and Condensed Milk 262 Cheese. Production of. .357 Chemical Elements, Boiling Points of . , , ,451 INDEX Continued. PAGE Chemical Elements, Melting Point of 451 Chemical Materials, Pro- duction of 348 Chemical Workers 162 Chemicals 262 Jhemicals and Allied Products 269 Chemicals, Common Names of 445 Chemistry 443 Chemistry. Bureau of.. 314 Cherries, Production. . .360 Chickens 355 Chicory, Statistics 358 China Decorating 262 " Chinese Windlass ".. .413 Chloroform (1847) 221 Chloroform Discovered (1831) 220 Chocolate and Cocoa Products 262 Chord 399 Chromic Iron Ore, Pro- duction of 349 Chronograph, The 453 Cider, Production 360 Cider Vinegar, Produc- tion 360 Circle, Area 408 Circle, Circumference. .408 Circle, Circumference and Area 473 Circle, Diameter 408 Circle, Formulas for. .408 Circle, The 408 Circle, to Find Center of 403 Circular Measure 473 Cities, Population of Greatest 16 Citrons, Production 360 Civil Service, Classified.320 Civil Service Commis- sion 320 Civil Service Examina- tions 320 Clams 369 Clay. Glass and Stone Products 269 Clay Products 347 Clay Products in 1902. .353 Cleansing and Polishing Preparations 262 Clergymen 161 Clerks and Copyists 162 Clock, Sidereal 453 Clocks 262 Clock and Watchmak- ers and Repairers. . .163 Cloth. Sponging and Refinishing 262 Clothing, Horse 262 Clothing, Men's 262 Clothing. Women's Dressmaking 262 Clothing. Women's, Fac- tory Product 262 Clover, Legal Weight.. 372 Clover Seed, Statistics.. 358 Clutches 420 Coal, Cost in. on Liners 42 Coal, Legal Weight 372 PAGE Coal, Production of.304, 345 Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey 323 Cobalt, Oxide, Produc- tion of 349 Cod 368 Code, International .... 205 Code, Morse 187 Coffee, Imports 306 Coffee, Production 360 Coffee and Spice, Roast- ing and Grinding 262 Coffins, Burial Cases, and Undertakers' Goods 262 Coherer (1891) 224 Coinage of U. S 300 Coins, Foreign, Value of 386 Coke 262 Coke, Legal Weight... 372 Coke, Production of... 346 Collars and Cuffs, Pa- per (1890) 262 Colleges, Number of Students in 172 Colleges, Students in Institutions and.176, 308 Colorado, Population of.140 Colts. Number and Value 357 " Columbia" 49 Columns, Height of 390 Combs 262 Commerce Commission, Interstate 321 Commerce and Labor, Department of 322 Commerce of Principal Customs Districts. . .304 Commerce, Transporta- tion of 304 Commercial Travelers. . 162 Committee, I n t e r n a- tional, on Atomic Weights, Report of. .444 Compass, Points of . . . 1 Composition and E. M. F. of Battery Cells. .498 Compound Equivalents, French and English. 471 Compound Interest .... 500 Conductivity, Electrical, and Heat 496 Conductors. Electrical.. 495 Cone, Surface and Con- tents 473 Confectioners 1 62 Confectionery ...262 Conic Sections 399 Connecticut, Population of 140 Construction and Re- pair. Bureau of 318 Cooperage 262 Coopers 163 Copper, Production of, 306, 344 Copper, Smelting and Refining 262 Copper Wire, Weight per Mile of 497 Copyrights 250 504 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PAGE Cord Measure 482 Cord Measure, Conver- sion into Cubic Meas- ure 482 Cordage and Twine 262 Cordials and Syrups. . .262 Cork, Cutting 262 Corliss Engine (1849).. 221 Corn, Broom, Statistics.358 Corn, Kaffir, Statistics.. 358 Corn, Legal Weight 372 Corn Meal, Legal Weight 372 Corn, Production of... 304 Corn, Statistics 360 Corsets 262 Corundum, Production of 347 Cost of Living 396 Cotton, Compressing. . .262 Cotton, Exports of 278 Cotton Gin Invented (1794) 219 Cotton. Ginning 262 Cotton Goods 262 Cotton. Manufactures of 306 Cotton, Middling. Prices of , 308 Cotton Mill Operatives. 163 Cotton Movement 306 Cotton, Production of. .304 INDEX Continued. PAGE Cotton Seed, Legal Weight 372 Cotton Seed, Statistics.358 Cotton, Statistics 360 Cotton Waste 262 Coulomb, Unit of Quan- tity 494 Coupler, Car (1873) . . .223 Couplings, Angle 422 Court of Arbitration, Permanent 338 Cows. Number and Value 361 Crabs 369 -Cranberries, Legal Weight 374 Crappie 368 Crops, Census Statis- tics 358 Crops, Minerals Ab- sorbed by 356 Crops. Principal, Sta- tistics of 360 Cross-Channel Boats... 43 Crucibles 262 Cruiser, Armored 56 Cruiser, Protected. .... 56 Cruiser to Racing Ma- chine, From 46 Crushed Steel, Produc- tion of 347 PAGE Crystalline Quartz, Pro- duction of 347 Cube, Surface and Con- tents 473 Cubic Measure 465 Cubic Measure, Con- version into Board Measure 483 " Cunarders." The New. with illustration. .33, 41 Currants, Production . .360 Currency in Circulation. 385 Currency, Paper 384 Current. Unit of 493 Curve, Shield's. Anti- friction 406 Customary Measures to Metric 471 Customs. Receipts from. 336 Customs Tariffs. Inter- national Publication of 340 Cutlery and Edge Tools.262 Cuts of Meat 361 Cyanide Process (1887) 224 Cycloid, to Construct. .408 Cyclones 208 Cylinder. Surface and Contents 473 Cyma, to Draw 404 Daguerreotype Discov- ered (1839) 221 Dairy Farms 356 Dairymen and Dairy- women 161 Date Line, Interna- tional 199 Day. Siderial, Solar, and Mean Solar 455 Death Rates 160 Debt, Public, of IT. S..385 December, Heavens in. .464 Decimal Equivalents and Fractions of Inch... 474 Decimal System, Weights and Meas- ures 470 Decisions. Patent 228 Declination 456 De Forest System 203 " Defender " 49 Defending Harbor Chan- nel, Method of 85 Delaware, Population of 140 Denominations, Table of 398 Density of the Earth. .456 Dentistry, Mechanical. .262 Dentists' 161 Dentists' Materials 262 Department of Agricul- ture 313 Department of Com- merce and Labor .... 322 Departments of Federal Government 311 Department of Interior. 31 9 Department of Justice. 311 Department of Navy. . .316 Department, Post Of- fice 316 Department of Treas- ury 311 Department of War... 312 Depreciation of Ma- chinery 352 Design Patents 227 Designs 239 Destroyer. Torpedo Boat, Sectional Dia- gram of 77 " Deutschland," S u p - plies of 38 Diamond M. sure 466 Dietaries, Standards for 367 Dietarv Standards. .. .367 Differential Gear 428 Dimensions of Earth. . .354 Directions for Using Star Map 459 Discovery. Progress of. 1 2. 3 Distance. Sun from Earth, not always same 455 Distilled Spirits, Con- sumption of . . , 308 Distilled Spirits, Quan- tity Consumed 397 Distillers and Rectifiers.163 Distress Signals 206 District of Columbia, Population of 142 Divisions, Land, of U. S 355 Docks and Yards, Bureau of 317 Dog Star, Sirius 459 Domes, Dimensions of.. 389 Domestic Animals, Num- ber and Value 357 Drafting Devices 438 Drawing, Signs for 234 Draymen, Hackmen, Teamsters, etc 162 Dressmakers 163 Drill. Rock (1854) ... .222 Drug Grinding 262 Druggists' P r e p a r a- tions. not including Prescriptions 262 Dry Measure 465 Dry Plates, Sizes of... 45? Dye Stuffs and E x - tracts 262 Dyeing and Cleaning. .262 Dyeing and Finishing Textiles 262 Dynamite (1868) 222 Dynamo (1866) 222 Dynamos, Number of.. 381 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 505 PAGE Eads, J. B 217 Earth, Density of 456 Earth, Dimensions of . . 354 Earth, Fuller's, Pro- duction of 350 Earth. Infusorial, Pro- duction of 347 Earth, Magnitude of. . .454 Earth Moves with Varying Velocity .... 455 Earth, Revolution of, in its Orbit 455 Earth, Rotundity of. . .454 Earth from Sun not al- ways same Distance. .455 Earth, Velocity of 383 Earth's Rotation, Dem- onstration of 454 Ecliptic, Inclination of, How Determined. .. .455 Edison, T. A 217 Education 171 Education, C o m m i s - sioner of 319 Education, Value of... 171 Eels 368 Eggs 355 Eggs, Production of... 357 Electric Light and Power Stations 379 Electric Locomotive (1851) 221 Electric Motors in Mines and Quarries. .353 Electric Power Output.. 382 Electric Units. Electro- Magnetic System. .. .494 Electric Welding (1886) 224 Electrical Apparatus and Supplies 262 INDEX Continued. E PAGE Electrical Construction and Repairs 262 Electrical Engineering.. 493 Electrical Horse-Power.498 Electrical Resistance of Metals and Alloys. . .495 Electrical Standards, C. G. S 494 Electrical Units of Measurement 493 Electricians 161 Electricity, Velocity of.. 383 Electro-Magnet (1825). .220 Electro-Magnetic Sys- tem of Units 494 E 1 e c t r o-Magnetism (1819) 220 Electro-Motive Force of Battery Cells 498 Electroplating (1805). .219 Electroplating 262 Electrolysis (1853). .. .222 Elements, Rare, Value of 447 Elements, Table of . . . .443 Elevator (1861) 222 Ellipse 399 Ellipse, Area of 473 Ellipse, to Construct 406, 408 Emery, Production of.. 347 Emery Wheels 262 Employees, Number of.. 273 Enameling and Enam- eled Goods 262 Engine, Corliss (1849). .221 Engineers (Civil, etc.) and Surveyors 161 Engineers and Firemen (not Locomotive) .. .163 PAGE Engines, Steam 293 English Money, Value of 389 Engravers 163 Engravers' Materials. . .263 Engraving and Die-sink- ing 263 Engraving, Steel, in- cluding Plate Print- ing 263 Engraving, Wood 263 Entomology, U. S. Di- vision of 315 Envelopes 263 Equation of Time 456 Equatorial Telescope. .453 Equipment, Bureau of. .317 Equivalent, Mechanical, of Heat 483 Equivalents, French and English Com- pound 472 Ericsson, Capt. John. .217 Escapements 424 Establishments and Products 272 Europe. Population of. .273 Expansion of Liquids. .485 Expansion ' of Solids, Linear 485 Expansion, Territorial. .170 Expenditures of U. S. Government 300 Experimental Gardens.. .315 Experiment Stations, U. S. Office of 314 Explorations, Antarctic. 12 Explosives 263 Exports 276,302 Exports, Merchandise .. 275 Factories, Accidents in. .394 Failures, Commercial. . .308 Fancy Articles, not else- where specified .263 Farad Unit of Ca- pacity 494 Farm Animals 304 Farm Crops, Census Statistics 358 Farm Implements, Value of 299 Farm Statistics 304 Farmers, Planters and Overseers 161 Farms 355 Farms, Dairy .'356 Farms and Food 355 February, Heavens in. .461 Feldspar, Production of.349 Felt Goods 263 Fertilizers 263 Fibrous Talc, Produc- tion of 349 Figs. Production 360 Files 263 Films. Photographic (1854) 222 Fire Alarm Telegraph (1852) 221 Fire Extinguishers. Chemical 263 Fire Losses, Annual... 395 Fire, What To Do 396 Firearms 263 Fireworks 263 First Point of Aries. . .455 Fish, Canning and Pre- serving 263 Fish, Exports of 278 Fish Oil 369 Fisheries, Bureau of. .324 Fisheries, Products of. 368 Fishermen and Oyster- men 162 Flag Day 19 Flags and Banners. .. .263 Flavoring Extracts. . . .263 Flax, Dressed 263 Flaxseed, Legal Weight.374 Flaxseed. Statistics 360 Fleece- Wool, Prices of. .308 Flint. Production of... 350 Florida, Population of.. 142 Flounders 368 Flowering and Grist Mill Products 263 Flowers, Statistics 358 Fluorspar, Production of 348 Flux, Limestone, Pro- duction of 350 Food, Farms and 355 Food, Fuel Value of. . .362 Food and Kindred Products 269 Food Preparations 263 Food Products, Com- position of 364 Foods, Functions and Uses 361 Forage Plant, Investi- gations, Grass and. .315 Force, Unit of 495 Force of Wind 489 Foreign Coins, Value of 386 Foreign Markets, U. S. Division of 314 Foreign Patents 229 Foreign Weights and Measures 467 506 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PAGE Foremen and Over- seers 162 Forest Products, Statis- tics 358 Forestry, Bureau of... 315 Formulas for the Circle 408 Foundry and Machine Shop Products 263 Foundry Supplies 263 Fractions of Inch and Decimal Equivalents.. 474 France, Patents in 220 Franklin, Ben 216 Freight Cars, Total Number of 119 Freight Rates on Wheat . ..308 INDEX Continued. PAGE French and English Compound Equiva- lents 472 Friction 485 Friction Clutches 420 Friction Gear 418 Frogs 369 Fruit Products 360 Fruits, Orchard, Statis- tics 360 Fruits, Small, Statis- tics 360 Fruits. Subtropical. Sta- tistics '. 360 Fruits and Vegetables. Canning and Preserv- ing 263 Frustum of Cone or Pyramid, Contents. . .473 PAGE Fuel Value of Food 362 Fuels, Production of. . .345 Fuels, etc., Specific Gravity, Weight and Bulk 478 Fuller's Earth, Produc- tion of 350 Fulton, Robert 216 Fur Goods 263 Fur Seal Pelts 369 Furnishing Goods. Men's 263 Furniture, including, Cabinetmaking, Re- pairing and Uphol- stering 263 Furs, Dressed 2(>:i "Galatea" 48 Galvanizing 263 Galvanizing Invented (1837) 220 Galvanometer ( 1822 ) . . 220 Gardeners, Florists, Nurserymen, etc.... 161 Gardens, Experimental. .315 Garnet, Production of. .347 Gas Engine (1877) 223 Gas Engines 293 Gas First Used (1792). 219 Gas. Illuminating and Heating 263 Gas and Lamp Fixtures 263 Gas Machines and Meters 263 Gas Meter, How to Read 384 Gas and Oil Stoves 263 Gas, Production of, 346, 354 Gas, Sewer, to Test Air for 452 Gas. Water (1823) 220 Gases and Vapors. Spe- cific Gravity, Weight and Volume 480 Gatling Gun (1862). ..222 Gauge. U. S.. Standard.493 Gauges, Wire 497 Gear, Chain 420 Gear, Differential 428 Gear, Friction 418 Gear, Mangle 428 Gear, Rope 420 Gear, Toothed 417 Gear. Variable Speed. ..418 Gearing 426 G Gearing, Simple Rules on 492 General Staff of War Department 312 " Genesta " 48 Geodesy, International Bureau of 341 Geodetic Survey, Coast and 323 Geographic Names, Board on 319 Geographical and Nau- tical Measure 465 Geological Survey, Di- rector of .319 Geometrical Construc- tions 402 Geometrical Figures. . .399 Georgia, Population of.. 142 German Carp 368 Germany. Patents in. . .229 Glass, Cutting, Stain- ing and Ornamenting.263 Glass. Sand, Produc- tion of 350 Glass Workers 162 Glove Makers 163 Gloves and Mittens. . .263 Glucose . . 263 Glue 263 Goat Hair, Production of 35? Goats, Number and Value 357 Gold, Imports and Ex- ports 302 Gold, Production of, 304, 344 Gold and Silver, Leaf and Foil.. ..263 Gold and Silver, Reduc- ing and Refining, not from the Ore 263 Gold and Silver Work- ers 163 Gold, World's Produc- tion of 388 Goodyear, C 216 Gooseberries, Produc- tion 360 Governors 438 Grapes. Statistics 358 Graphite and Graphite Refining 263 Graphite. Production of.350 Graphophone (1886)... 224 Grass and Forage Plant Investigations. 315 Grass Seed, Legal Weight 374 Grass Seed. Statistics. .358 Gravity, Specific 445 Grease and Tallow. .. .264 Great Britain, Patents in 229 "Great Eastern." The. 27 " Great Eastern" Launched ( 1859 ) 222 Greek Alphabet 458 Grinding, Speeds of . . .352 Grindstones 264 Guava, Production of.. 360 Gun Cotton (3846) 221 Gun, Magazine, I n - vented (1849) 221 Guns, in the Civil War and To-day, Our Navy 89, 90 Gypsum, Production of..348 Haddock ; ..368 Hairwork 264 Hake 368 Halibut 368 Hammocks 264 Hand Knit Goods.. ..264 H Hand Stamps 264 Hand Trades 269 Harbor Channel, Meth- od of Defending 85 Hardness of Minerals. .483 Hardware 264 Hardware, Saddlery .. .264 Harness and Saddle- makers and Repair- ers 163 Harveyized Armor Plate U888) 224 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 507 PACE Hat and Cap Makers.. 163 Hat and Cap Materials.2G4 Hats and Caps, not in- cluding Wool Hats. .264 Hawaii, Civil Service in 321 Hay, Statistics 360 Heat of Combustion. . .451 Heat and Electrical Conductivity 496 Heat, Mechanical Equiv- alent of 483 Heat of Metals 483 Heavens, Star Map of.. 460 Heifers, Number and Value 357 Height and Weight, Standard Table of. . .499 Hemp. Statistics 358 Henry, Jos 217 Henry, Unit of Induc- tion 494 Heptagon, to Construct.404 INDEX Continued. PAGE Hero Commission, Car- negie 341 Herring 368 Hertzian Waves (1888). 224 Hewitt Lamp (1900) . .224 Hexagon to Construc- tion in Circle 404 Hides, Alligator 369 Hog-s. Number and Value 361 Hones and Whetstones.. 264 Honey, Production of.. 357 Honey, Statistics 358 Hooks and Eyes 264 Hops, Statistics 358 Horse, Animal Power. .487 Horse, How to Harness.392 Horse-Power 487 Horse-Power, Electrical. 498 Horse-Power. Rough Way to Estimate. . . .491 Horse, Velocity of 383 PAGE Horses, Number and Value : 361 Horseshoes, Factory Products 264 Hosiery and Knit Goods.264 Hosiery and Knitting Mill Operatives 163 Hostlers 162 Hotel Keepers 161 House Furnishing Goods 264 Household Measures. . .466 Housekeepers and Stew- ards 161 How the Population of the United States is Sheltered 157 Howe, Elias 217 Hucksters and Peddlers.162 Hydrogen,Lifting Power of 392 Hyperbola, to Construct.406 Hypothenuse 399 Idaho, Population of... 142 Ice, Manufactured 264 Ice-making Machine (1875) 223 Ice and Snow 487 Ice, Strength of 487 Illinois, Population of.. 144 Immigrants Arrived.. . .308 Immigration 165 Immigration, Bureau of.324 Immigration, Number and Nationality ....165 Imports 302 Imports and Exports.. 286 Imoorts and Merchan- dise 292 Incandescent Gas Light (1887) 224 Incandescent Lamps. . .382 Inch, Fractions of, and Decimal Equivalents.. 474 Inclination of Ecliptic, How Determined. .. .455 Inclined Plane 416 Increase of Population in the United States and the Principal Countries of Europe from 1800 to 1900. . .141 Index of Lathe, To Obtain 491 Indian, Service Expen- ditures 336 Indiana, Population of.. 144 Indians 164 Induction. The Henry. .494 Industrial Properties, International Union for Protection of 340 Industries, Division of.. 275 Industries, Localization of 257 Industries, Manufac- turing, of U. S 306 Industries, Rank of... 270 Industry, Animal Bureau of 314 Industry, Plant, Bureau of 315 Information Relative to Admission of Cadets to West Point 94 Infringement 227 Infusorial Earth, Pro- duction of 347 Injector (1858) 222 Inu 264 Institution, Carnegie. . .342 Ins titutions and Bureaus, I n t e r n a- tional 337 Instruments, P r o f e s - sional and Scientific. 264 Interest Compound. .. .500 Interference 227 Interior, Department of.319 Internal Revenue, Re- ceipts from 336 International Atomic Weights 444 International Bureau of American Republics. . 325 International Bureau of Geodesy 341 International Bureau of Railroad Transpor- tation 341 International Bureau of Telegraphs 339 International Bureau of Weights and Meas- ures 339 International Code of Signals 205 International Institu- tions and Bureaus. . .337 International Postal Union 338 International Racing Yacht, Development of 48, 49 International Telegraph Code .. .187 International Union for Protecting Industrial, Literary, and Artis- tic Properties . . .340 International Union for Publishing Customs Tariffs 340 Interstate Commerce Commission 321 Inventors, D i s t i n - guished American. . .216 Inventions, Progress of.218 Irish Boats 43 Iron, Manufactures of.. 306 Iron Ore, Chromic Pro- duction of 349 Iron Ores, Production of 344 Iron, Production of. . .344 Iron and Steel 264 Iron and Steel, Bolts. Nuts, Washers, and Rivets 264 Iron and Steel, Doors and Shutters 264 Iron and Steel, Forg- ings 264 Iron and Steel. Nails and Spikes, Cut and Wrought. including Wire Nails 264 Iron and Steel, Pipe, Wrought 264 Iron and Steel Produc- tion 294 Iron and Steel and their Products 269 Iron and Steel Workers 162 Ironwork, Architectural and Ornamental 264 Irrigation, American. . .273 Isometric Perspective. .406 Ivory and Bone Work . . 264 508 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PAGE Janitors and Sextons.. .161 January, Heavens in.. 461 Japanning 264 Jenny, Spinning (1763). 219 Jewelry ..264 INDEX Continued. J PAGE Jewelry and Instrument Cases 264 Jewish Money 475 Joints, Universal 422 Joule . ..494 PAGE Journalists 161 July, Heavens in 462 June, Heavens in 462 Jura Tunnel 274 Justice. Department of.. 311 Jute and Jute Goods. ..264 Kaffir Corn, Statistics. .358 Kansas, Population of.. 145 Kaolin and other Earth Grinding 264 Kepler's Law of Equal Areas 455 Kindling Wood 264 Kinetoscope ( 1893 ) 224 First (isfe) .220 Kodak (1888) 224 Krag-Jorgensen Rifle. . . 100 Labels 241 Labels and Tags 264 Labor, Bureau of 322 Laborers 161 Labor's Death Roll.... 165 "Lake," Submarine Boat 75 Lakes, Great 11 Lambs, Number and Value 357 Lamp, Miner's (1815).. 220 Lamps and Reflectors. .264 Land, Divisions of U. S.355 Land Lines of the World 185 Land Measure 465 Land Office, Commi's- sioner 319 Land Turbines 43 Land and Water 7 Languages of the World 2 Lapidary Work 264 Lard, Refined 264 Lasts 264 Lathe, To Obtain Index of 491 Latitude, Longitude Right Ascension and Declination 456 Latitude, Variation in Length of Degrees. . .456 Launderers and Laun- dresses 161 Law of Equal Areas, Kepler's 455 Laws, Patent 230 Lawyers 161 Lead, Bar, Pipe, and Sheet 264 Lead, Production of... 344 Lead, Smelting and Refining 265 Leather Board 265 Leather Curriers and Tanners 163 Leather and its Fin- ished Products 269 Leather Goods 265 Leather, Tanned, Cur- ried and Reh'nished. .265 Legal Weights per Bushel 372 Lemons, Production. .. .360 Letters, How to Direct and Mail 333 Lever Angular or Bell Crank 413 Lever, Common 413 Levers, Compound 413 Libraries. IT. S 178 Libraries of the World. 184 Life Preserver, First (1805) 219 Life-Saving Service, U. S 44 Life-Saving Signals 208 Light Stations, Electric.379 Light, Velocity of.. 383. 455 Lighthouse Board 323 Lighthouse Establish- ment, The 45 Limbs, Artificial (1846) 221 Lime and Cement 265 Lime, Legal Weight . . . 374 Limes. Production 360 Limestone for Flux, Production of 350 Line to Divide Propor- tionately 403 Linear Expansion of Solids 485 Linear Measure 465 Linen Goods 265 Liners, Atlantic 41 Linotype (1884) 223 Liquid Air (1895) 224 Liquid Measure 465 Liquids, Expansion of.. 485 Liquids. Specific Grav- ity and Weight 479 Liouors and Beverages.. 269 Liquors, Distilled 265 Liquors, Malt 265 Liquors, Malt, C o n - sumption of 308 Liquors, Quantity Con- sumed 397 Liquors. Vinous 265 Literary Properties, In- ternational Union for Protection of 340 Literary and Scientific Persons 161 Lithium, Production of.345 Lithographing and En- graving 265 Lithography, Invented (1796) 219 Livery Stable Keepers.. 162 Living. Cost of 396 Lobsters 369 Lock and Gunsmithing..265 Lock, Time (1847) ... .221 Locomotive, First (1804) 219 Locomotive. First in U. S. (1814) 220 Locomotives, Compari- son with Steamships. 34 Log Measure, Units of. .482 Longitude 456 Lookingglass and Pic- ture Frames 265 Loom. Positive Motion (1872) 223 Louisiana, Population of 146 Lumber, Planing Mill Products, including Sash, Doors and Blinds 265 Lumber and its Reman- ufactures 269 Lumber, Sawed, Meas- urement of 483 Lumber and Timber- Products 265 Lumbermen and Rafts- men 161 McCormick. C. H 216 Machine Elements 413 Machinery, Depreciation of 352 Machinery. Exports of. .280 Machinists 162 Mackerel 368 Mackerel, Spanish 368 M Magazines 182 Magnesite, Production of 350 Magnitude of the Earth. 454 Magnitudes and Dis- tances of Stars 459 Mail, Carriage of 335 Mail Transportation, Railroad Mileage of. .335 Maine, Population of.. 146 Malt 265 Malt, Legal Weight 374 Malt Liquors, Consump- tion of 308 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 509 PAGE Malt Liquors, Quantity Consumed 397 Manganese Ores, Pro- duction of 344 Mangle Gears 428 Mantels, Slate, Marble and Marbleized 265 Manual Power 488 Manufacturers and of- ficials, etc 163 Manufacturing Indus- tries of U. S 306 Map, U. S 168 Maple Sirup. Statistics.358 Maple Sugar, Statistics.358 Marble and Stone Cut- ters 162 Marble and Stone Work.265 March, Heavens in.... 461 Marconi System 201 Marine Corps 318 Markets, Foreign, U. S. Division of 314 Marls, Production of. . .348 Maryland, Population of 146 Masonry, Brick and Stone 265 Masons (Brick and Stone) 162 Massachusetts, Popula- tion of 146 Match Machinery (1848) 221 Matches 265 Matches, Friction (1827) 220 Materials. Cost of 274 Mats and Matting 265 Mattresses and Spring Beds 265 May, Heavens in 462 " Mayflower " 48 Mean Solar Day 455 Measurement, Angular. .454 Measurement of Time. .454 Meat. Cuts of 361 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 483 Mechanical Movements.. 417 Mechanics 162 Melting Points of Chemical Elements. . .451 Men and Animals. Pull- ing Strength of 490 Menhaden 368 Mensuration 473 Mercerized Cotton (1850) 221 Merchandise. Imported and Exported 286 Merchant Marine 21 Mergenthaler, 218 INDEX Continued. PAGE Messengers, Errand, and Office Boys 162 Metal and Metal Prod- ucts, other than Iron and Steel 269 Metal-W o r k i n g Ma- chinery 294 Metallic Products in 1902 351 Metals and Alloys, Re- sistance of 495 Metals, Heat of 483 Metals, Strength of 486 Metals, Weight and Volume 480 Metals, Weights for Various Dimensions. .489 Metric Measures 471 Metric Measures, Ap- proximate Equiva- lents 470 Metric Measures to Customary 471 Mica, Production of. ..350 Michigan, Population of.146 Micrometer, The 453 Microphone (1891) 224 Middlings, P u r i fi e r (1875) 223 Midshipmen, Regula- tions Governing Ad- mission of 68, 69 Military Bureaus 312 Milk, Production of . . . .357 Milk. Statistics 358 Millers 162 Millet, Legal Weight.. 374 Milliners 163 Millinery, Custom Work, 265 Millinery and Lace goods 265 Millstones 265 Millstones, Production of 348 Mine, Ground 86 Mine, The Submarine. . 84 Mineral Paints, Pro- duction of . . 349 Mineral Products in 1902 351 Mineral Production of U. S 343 Mineral and Soda Waters 265 Mineral Substances, Specific Gravity, Weight and Volume.. .477 Mineral Waters, Pro- duction of 350 Minerals Absorbed by Crops 356 Minerals, Hardness of. .483 Miners and Quarry men. 162 PAGE Mines 343 Mines, Summary 353 Mining 343 Minnesota, Population of 148 Mirrors 265 Miscellaneous Indus- tries 269 Miscellaneous Informa- tion 379 Miscellaneous Move- ments 432 Mississippi, Population of ....... 148 Missouri, Population of.149 Model of the 16-inch Gun, Exhibited at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904 101 Model and Pattern- makers 163 Models and Patterns. . .265 Mohair, Production of.. .357 Molybdenum, Produc- tion of 345 Monazite, Production of.350 Money Circulation in U. S 300 Money. Jewish 475 Money Order Business. .334 Money Orders, Fees for 329 Money, Roman 475 Monitor (1862) 222 Montana, Population of.149 Morse, S. F. B 216 Morse Telegraph Code.. 187 Mortality. American Ex- perience Table of . . . .499 Motive Power Appli- ances 292 Motor, Electric, I n - vented (1834) 220 Mowers and Reapers, Value of Exports. . . .299 Mucilage and Paste. . .265 Mules, Number and Value 361 Mullet 368 Musical Instruments and Materials, not specified 265 Musical Instruments, Organs and Materi- als 265 Musical Instruments, Pianos and Materials.265 Musical Signs 397 Musicians and Teachers of Music 161 Mussel Shells ...369 Nails, Memorandum Concerning 491 Names, Common, of Chemicals 445 Names of Principal Stars 458 National Banks 300 Natural Gas, Produc- tion of 346 Nautical and G e o - graphical Measure. . .465 Naval Academy. Regu- lations Governing Ad- mission into 68, 69 Naval and Marine Corps, The Pay of. . . 90 Naval Powers, Sea Strength of the Prin- cinal 60, 61 Navies. Relative Order of Warship Strength. 59 510 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PAGE Navies, Relative Strength in Material. 59 Navies of the World ... 53 Navies of World Com- pared 55 Navies of World, Dia- gram Showing Rela- tive Size of 55 Navies of World, Dia- gram Showing Rela- tive Strength of 54 Navies of World, Rela^ tive Strength of. .... 54 Navigation, Aerial 392 Navigation, Commercial Bureau of 324 Navigation, Naval Bureau of 310 Navy, Department of. ..316 Navy Projectiles 87 Navy, The United States 67 Navy, United States, List of Ships of... 70, 71 72, 73. 74, 75 Navy, United States, Summary 75 INDEX Continued. PAGE Nebraska, Population of 140 Nebular Hypothesis. . . .457 Needles and Pins 2(55 Nernst Lamp (1897) . .224 Nets and Seines 265 Nevada. Population of.. 150 New Hampshire, Pop- ulation of 150 New Jersey, Population of 150 New Mexico, Population of 150 New Springfield Maga- zine Rifle Compared with Krag-Jorgensen, Mauser and German Military Rifle 100 New York, Population of 150 News, Gathering of . . . .184 Newspapers 182 Newspapers and Peri- odicals Published 308 Nickel, Production of.. 345 PAGE Nickel, Steel (1889)... 224 Nobel Prizes 337 Nodes 455 Non-Metallic Produc- tion in 1902 351 Normal Schools 175 North Carolina, Popula- tion of 150 North Dakota, Popula- tion of 152 North Star 459 Notation. Roman 500 Notes, Musical 307 November, Heavens in.. 463 Number of Operating and Lessor Compa- nies by States and Territories, 1902 136 Nursery Products, Sta- tistics 358 Nurses and Midwives. .161 Nutation and Preces- sion 456 Nutrients, Use of 361 Nuts, Statistics 358 Oakum 265 Oats, Statistics 360 Observation, Sphere of.. 454 Ocean Steamers, Sup- plies of 38 "Oceanic," The 27 Octagon, to Construct. .406 October, Heavens in... 463 Officials of Banks and Companies 162 Otncials, Government. .161 Ohio, Population of... 152 Ohm's Law 493 Oil, Castor 265 Oil, Cotton Seed and Cake 265 Oil, Essential 265 Oil, Fish 369 Oil, Lard 265 Oil, Linseed 265 Oil, Olive, Statistics. . .360 Oil, Resin 266 Oil Well and Oil Works Employees 162 Oil, Whale 369 Oilcloth, Enameled 266 Oilcloth, Exports of. . .281 Oilcloth, Floor 266 Oilstones, Production of 348 Oklahoma, Population of 152 Oleomargarine (1868).. 222 Oleomargarine 266 Olive Oil, Production .. 360 Olives, Production 360 Onions, Legal Weight . . 374 Onions, Statistics 358 Optical Goods 266 Oranges, Production. . .360 Orchard Products, Sta- tistics 360 Ordnance, Bureau of. . .317 Ordnance and O r d - nance Stores 266 Oregon, Population of. .153 Oyster Shells 369 Oysters 369 Oysters, Canning and Preserving 266 Packers and Shippers. .162 Painters, Glaziers and Varnishers 162 Painting and Paper- hanging 266 Paints 266 Paints. Mineral, Pro- duction of 349 Panama Canal 24 Panama Strip 170 Paper 184 Paper Currency 384 Paper, Exports of 282 Paper Goods, not else- where specified 266 Paperhangers 162 Paperhangings 266 Paper Mill, First (1690) 218 Paper Patterns 266 Paper and Printing 269 Paper and Pulp Mill Operatives 163 Paper and Wood Pulp.. 266 Papers, News 182 Parabola, to Construct, 406, 408 Parallax 454 Parallax, Solar 457 Parallelogram 309 Parallelogram, Area of.473 Parallelogram, to Con- struct 403 Parallelepiped 399 Parts by Volume to Re- duce Parts by Weight.473 Passenger Cars, Total Number of 119 Passengers Landed.... 26 Passengers, Transatlan- tic 25 Passports 394 Pathological and Physi- o 1 o g i c al Investiga- tions of Vegetables. .315 Patent Medicines and Compounds 266 Patent Laws 230 Patent System, History of 245 Patents 211 Patents, Commissioner of 310 Patents, Design 227 Patents, General Infor- mation on 225 Patents Issued 308 Patents Issued Each Year 215 Patents, Number of... 215 Patents, Number of Live 215 Pattern, Weight of, and Weight of Casting. . .490 Paving and Paving Ma- terials 266 Pay of Naval and Ma- rine Corps. The 90 Peaches, Legal Weight.. 374 Peaches, Production . . . 360 Peanuts, Legal Weight. 376 Peanuts, Statistics 358 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 511 PAGE Pears, Legal Weight. .376 Pears, Production . . . Peas, Dry, Statistics. Peas. Legal Weight . . Pelts of Fur Seal .360 .358 .376 .369 Pencils, Lead 266 Pennsylvania, Popula- tion of 153 Pens, Fountain and Stylographic 266 Pens, Gold 266 Pens, Steel 266 Pensioners 164 Pensioners, Number of, and Amount of Dis- bursement 164 Pensions, C o m m i s - sioners of 319 Pentagon 402 Pentagon, to Inscribe in Circle 404 Peppermint, Statistics. .358 Perch, Pike 368 Perch, White 368 Perch, Yellow 368 Perfumery and Cos- metics 266 Perihelion and Aphe- lion 455 Period of Planet, to Find . 457 Periodicals, Newspa- pers, and 308 Permanent Court of Arbitration 338 Persimmons, Produc- tion 360 Perspective, Isometric. . 406 Petroleum, Crude, Pro- duction of 354 Petroleum, Production of 304 Petroleum, Production of 346 Petroleum, Refining. .. .266 Philippine Civil Ser- vice 321 Philippine Islands 170 Phonograph ( 1877 ) 223 Phonographs 298 Phonographs and Graphophones 266 Phosphate Rock, Pro- duction of 348 Photo Prints Discov- ered (1871) 221 Photographers 163 Photographic Appara- tus 266 Photographic Mate- rials 266 Photography 266 Photography, Dry Plate (1855) 222 Photolithographing and photoengraving 266 Physicians and Sur- geons Iftl Pickerel 368 Pickles, Preserves and Sauces 266 Pig Iron, Prices of 308 INDEX Continued. PAGE Pig Iron, Production of 304 Pigeon, Carrier, Ve- locity of 383 Pigments, Production of 349 Pike, Perch 368 Pike and Pickerel 368 Pin Wheel, Variable. . .418 Pineapples, Production. 360 Pinion, Cam Toothed.. 418 Pipes 487 Pipes. Tobacco 266 Planet, to Find Period of 457 Planetary System, Some Elements of 458 Planets, Measurement of Size 456 Plant Industry, Bureau of 315 Plant and Seed, Intro- duction 316 Plants, Statistics 358 Plasterers 162 Plated and Britannia- ware 266 Plates, Dry, Sizes of... .452 Platinum, Production of 344 Plow, Electric (1890).. 224 Plow, Invention of (1784) 219 Plow, Steam (1879)... 223 Plows, Value of Ex- ports 299 Plumbers and Gas and Steamfitters 162 Plumbers' Supplies 266 Plumbing and Gas and Steamfitting 266 Plums, Production 360 Pocketbooks 266 Polar Regions 8, 9 "Polaris" 459 Polishing, Speeds of... 352 Polygon 402 Polygon, Area of.. 406, 473 Polygon, to Construct. .406 Polyphase Currents (1887) 224 Pomological Investiga- tions 315 Population of Cities having at least 25,- 000 Inhabitants in 1900 159 Population of the Earth Population of Europe. .273 Population, Foreign Born 161 Population Living in Cities within specified limits of size and in Country Districts. 1900 158 Population of United States 300 Population of the World 155 Porters and Helpers (in stores, etc.) 162 PAGE Porto Rico 170 Porto Rico, Civil Ser- vice in 321 Postal Expenditures. . .334 Postal Information. .. .327 Postal Revenue 333 Postal Service, Compar- ison of 332 Postal Service ofWorld.329 Postal Statistics 335 Postal Subjects 333 Postal Subjects, Sug- gestions on 333 Postal Telegraph Co. . .188 Postal Union, Universal International 338 Post Office 327 Post Office Department. 316 Post Office, Expendi- tures of 334 Post Offices, Number. . .308 Post Offices, Number of.334 Post Office, Receipts . . . 308 Post Office, Statistics. .308 Post Routes 334 Post Routes, Extent of.. 334 Potatoes, Legal Weight.376 Potatoes, Statistics 360 Potatoes, Sweet, Statis- tics 358 Potential, Unit of 494 Potters 162 Pottery, Terra Gotta and Fire-clay Prod- ucts 266 Poultry Industry 355 Poultry, Production of.. 357 Power, Animal, Horse. .487 Power, Manual 488 Power in Mines and Quarries 353 Power, Summary of... 293 Power, Transmission of, by Belting 439 Precession and Nuta- tion 456 Precious Stones, Pro- duction of 350 Press, Washington (1829) 220 Pressure, Unit of 495 Prices of Staple Com- modities 308 Printers, Lithographers and Pressmen 163 Printing Materials 266 Printing Press (1620). .218 Printing and Publish- ing 180, 266 Prism, Surface and Con- tents 473 Prize, Anthony Pollok...338 Prizes. Nobel 337 Progress of Discovery, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 Progress of U. S 300 Projectiles, A Group of Navy 87 Protection of Indus- trial. Literary and Artistic Properties, International 340 512 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PAGE Provisioning an Ocean Liner 40 Public Debt, Statement of U. S 300,301 Public Debt of the U. S.385 Public Road Inquiries, Office of 316 Publications, U. S. Di- vision of 316 Pulleys 413 Quadrangle 402 Quadrilateral 402 INDEX Continued. PAGE Pulleys, Rope 420 Pulleys, Rules for Cal- culating Speed of. . .492 Pulling Strength of Men and Animals 490 Pulp Goods 266 Pulp, from Fiber, other than Wood 266 Pulp, Wood (1858)... 222 Q Quarries and Mines, Summary 353 PAGE Pumice, Production of. .348 Pumps, not including Steam Pumps 2G6 Pupils in Schools and Colleges 172 " Puritan " 48 Pyramid, Surface and Contents 473 Pyrite, Production of.. 349 Quicksilver, P r o d u c- tion of. . . .344 Races of Mankind 1 Racing Machine, from Cruiser to 46 Racing Yacht, Develop- ment of the 90-foot . . 47 Rack and Pinion 417 Radio- Activity (1896). .224 Radio-Activity, Radium and 449 Radium, Prices of 450 Radium and Radio-Ac- tivity 449 Railroad Equipment in U. S., Comparisons Showing Bulk of 123 Railroad. First in U. S. (1826) 220 Railroad. Mileage of Mail Transportation.. 335 Railroad System of the United States.. .122, 123 Railroad Systems of the United States 121 Railroad Track in U. S., Comparisons Show- ing Bulk of 122 Railroad Transporta- t i o n, International Bureau of 341 Railroads, Swiss 19 Railroads in U. S., Com- p a r i s o n s .Showing Length of 122 Railroads (the United States), the Em- ployees and the Money Value of 125 Railway, Electric (1879) 223 Railway, First (1825). .220 Railways in U. S . .306 Railways of the World, Compared 118 Range of Sixteen-inch Gun 102 R Rank of Industries 270 Rare Elements, Value of.447 Raspberries, Production.360 Ratchet Movements 422 Ray, Roentgen (1895). 224 Reaper, Invented (1834) 220 Reapers and Mowers. . .299 Receipts and Expendi- tures of Federal Gov- ernment 336 Receipts of U. S. Gov- ernment 300 Reflection 402 Refractors, Large, of World 464 Refrigerators 266 Regalia and Society Banners and Em- blems 266 Registers, Carfare 266 Registers, Cash 267 " Reliance" 49 Religions of World 398 Repair, Construction and, Bureau of 318 Report of Committee on Atomic Weights 444 Repression of Slave Trade, Bureau of . . . .340 Resistance, A p p r o x i- mate Percentage of Variation in 496 Resistance, Electrical. .495 Resistance of Metals and Alloys 495 Resistance Specific 495 Resistance and Weight Table 496 Resistance. Unit of 494 Restaurant Keepers. .. .161 Revolution of Earth in its Orbit 455 Revolver, Invented (1836) . ..220 Rhomb. Rhombus 402 Rhomboid 402 Rhombus. Area of 473 Rhodes Scholarships. . .341 Rhode Island, Popula- tion of 153 Rice, Cleaning and Polishing 267 Rice, Legal Weight 376 Rice, Statistics 358 Rifle Ball, Velocity of.. 383 R i fl e , Breech-Loading (1851) 221 Rifle. Details of New Springfield M a g a - zine 99 Rifle. The New Spring- field Magazine 98 Right Ascension 456 Rock Drill (1854) . . . 222 Roentgen Rays (1895). 224 Roller Mills (1875). . .223 Roman Money 475 Roman Notation 500 Roofers and Slaters.. . .162 Roofing and Roofing Materials 267 Rope Gear 420 Rotation, Earth's Demonstration of 454 Rotundity of the Earth 454 Rubber. Crude. Imports of 306 Rubber and Elastic Goods 267 Rubber, Exports of 279 Rubber Factory Opera- tives 163 Rules, Geometrical 402 Rules, Ivory and Wood. .267 Rutile, Production of.. 351 Rye, Legal Weight. .. .376 Rye, Statistics 360 Saddlery and Harness. .267 Safe. First (1801) ... .219 Safes and Vaults 267 Salt, Production of 349 Salesmen and Sales- women 162 Salmon 368 Saloonkeepers 161 S Salt 267 Salt, Legal Weight 376 Salt. Production of 349 Sand and Emery Paper and Cloth 267 Sand, Glass, Production of 350 Saw. Band (1808) 219 Saw, Band (1887) 224 Saw. Circular, First (1814) 220 Saw. Circular, Invented (1777) 219 Saw and Planing Mill Employees 163 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 513 PAGE Sawed Lumber, Meas- urement of 483 Saws 267 Scales and Balances. . .267 Scallops 369 Scholarships. Rhodes. ..341 Schools, Normal 175 Schools, Number of Students in 172 Schools, Professional. . .176 Schools, Public 308 Schools, Public and Private 172 Science, Association for Advancement of 325 Sciences, National Academv of 320 Screws 267 Sea Bass 368 Sea Water 486 Seal Pelts 369 Seamstresses 163 Seasons, The 456 Seed, Clover, Statis- tics 358 Seed Distribution, Con- gressional 316 Seed, Grass. Statistics.. 358 Seed and Plant Intro- duction 316 Seeds, Miscellaneous, Statistics 358 Semaphores . 208 September, Heavens in.. 463 Servants and Waiters. .161 Sewer Gas, to Test Air for 452 Sewing Machine Cases.. .267 Sewing Machine Re- pairing 267 Sewing Machines and Attachments 267 Sextant, The 454 Shad 368 Shaft Couplings, Angle.422 " Shamrock I." 49 " Shamrock II." 49 " Shamrock III." 49 Sheep, Number and Value 361 Shells, Mussel 369 Shells, Oyster 369 Ship. Time and Watch on 476 Shipbuilding 267 Shipping and Yachts... 17 Shirt, Collar and Cuff Makers 163 Shirts 267 Shoddy 267 Shooting Stars 457 Shotgun. Breechloading (1811) 219 Show Cases 267 Shrimp and Prawn .369 Sidereal Clock 453 Sidereal, Solar, and Mean Solar Day .455 Signals, Boat 208 Signals, Distant.. . .207 Signals, Distress.. .206 Signals. International.. 205 Signals, Time 188 INDEX Continued. PAGE Signals, Whistle 209 Silk, Artificial (1888).. 224 Silk, Manufacturers of.. 306 Silk Mill Operatives... 163 Silk and Silk Goods 267 Silver, Imports and Exports 302 Silver, Production of, 304, 344 Silversmithing 267 Silverware 267 Sine 402 Siphon Recorder (1874) 223 Sirius, the Dog Star. . .459 Sirup, Maple, Statis- tics 358 Sirup Sorghum, Statis- tics 358 Sixteen-Iuch Gun 100 Sixteen-Inch Gun, Ra- dius of Action of 102 Size, Weight and Length of Iron and Steel Wire 497 Sizes of Dry Plates. . . .452 Size of Sun and Planets, Measurement 456 Skins, Otter 369 Slaughtering and Meat Packing, not includ- ing Retail Butchering.267 Slave Trade, Bureau for Repression of . . . .340 Sleeping Car, Invented (1856) 222 Smelt 368 Smelting and Refining, not from the ore .... 267 Snail, Velocity of 383 Snappers 368 Snow, Ice and 487 Soap and Candles 267 Soapstone,Production of351 Soda Water Apparatus.267 Soils, Bureau of 316 Solar Day 455 Solids, Mensuration... .473 Solar Parallax 457 Solar System 458 Soldiers, Sailors and Marines 161 Sorghum Cane, Statis- tics 358 Sorghum Sirup, Statis- tics 358 Solids, Linear Expan- sion of 485 Sound, Velocity of 383 South Carolina, Popula- tion of 153 South Dakota, Popula- tion of 153 Spanish Mackerel 369 Specific Gravity. . .445. 481 Specific Gravity of Animal Substances. .479 Specific Gravity of Fuels, etc 478 Specific Gravity of Gases and Vapors.. -480 Specific Gravity of Liquids 479 PAGE Specific Gravity of Mineral Substances. .477 Specific Gravity of Stones 476 Specific Gravity of Wood 478 Speeds for Grinding. . .352 Speeds for Polishing.. .352 Speed, The Price of, in Liners 42 Speed, Steam Turbines, and 43 Sphere, Area and Con- tents 473 Sphere of Observation. .454 Spheres, Diameters and Capacities 391 Spiral, Arithmetic, to Draw 408 Spires, Height of 390 Spirits, Distilled, Con- sumption of 308 Spirits, Distilled, Quan- tity Consumed 397 Sponges 369 Sporting Goods 267 Spot, Fish 369 Springfield Magazine Rifle, Details of the New 99 Springfield Magazine Rifle, The New 98 Springs 439 Springs, Steel, Car and Carriage 267 Sprocket Wheels 420 Square, to Construct. . .403 Square, to Describe about Circle 404 Square, Equal to Circle.473 Square, to Inscribe in Circle 404 Square, Inscribed in Circle 473 Squid 369 Stamped Ware 267 Standards. Bureau of.. 324 Standard Time 190 Star Map, Directions for Using 459 Starch 267 Stars, Magnitudes and Distances 459 Stars, Names of 458 Stars, Shooting 457 State. Department of. .311 Stationery Goods, not elsewhere specified. .267 Statistics, Bureau of, 314, 323 Steam Boilermakers. . .162 Steam Engine (1690) . .218 Steam Engine, Invented (1782) 219 Steam Engineering, Bureau of 318 Steam Fittings and Heating Apparatus. .267 Steam Hammer, In- vented (1842) 221 Steam Packet to Steam Palace 28 514 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PAGE Steam Packing 267 Steam Pressure and Temperature 484 Steam Railroad Em- ployees 162 Steam Turbines and Speed 43 Steam, Use of (1630) . .218 Steamboat, First (1808) 219 Steamboat Inspection Service 324 Steamboats, Fast 26 Steamboats, First (1802) 219 Steamers, Fast 25, 30 Steamers, Speed of. ... 25 Steamship Owners, Largest 29 Steamships, Comparison with Locomotives. ... 34 Steamships, Large and Fast 20 Steel, Production of, 306, 344 Steel, Manufacture of. .306 Steel Rails, Prices of.. 308 Steers, Number and Value 357 Stencils and Brands... 267 Stenographers and Typewriters 162 Stethoscope (1819) 220 Stereotyping and elec- trotyping 267 Stereotyping, Invented (1731) 219 INDEX Continued. PAGE Stock Raisers, Herders, and Drovers 161 Stone, Building, Pro- Submarines. Number of. 62 duction of 347 Stones and Bricks, Strength of 486 Stones, Precious, Pro- duction of 350 Stones, Specific Gravity, Weight and Volume. .476 Storage Batteries, Num- ber 381 Storage Battery, In- vented (1812) 219 Stove, Furnace and Grate Makers 162 Straw Goods, not else- where specified 267 Strawberries, Produc- tion 360 Street Railway Em- ployees 162 Strength of Ice 487 Strength of Materials. .486 Strength, Pulling, of Men and Animals. . .490 Striped Bass 369 Structural Materials, Production of 347 Students in Colleges. . .308 Students in Schools and Colleges 172 Sturgeon 369 Submarine Boat, " The Lake " 75 Submarine Boats 76 Submarine Mine, The.. 84 PAGE Submarine Telegraphs. . 193 Subtropical Fruits, Sta- tistics 360 Suckers 369 Suez Canal Started (1846) 221 Suez Route 24 Sugar Cane, Statistics. .358 Sugar Beets, Statistics.358 Sugar, Imports ::>; Sugar, Maple 358 Sugar and Molasses. Beet 267 Sugar and Molasses, Refining 267 Sulphur, Production of.. 349 Sunfish 369 Sun. Measurement of Size 456 Sun, Not Always Same Distance from Earth. 455 Sun, Numerical Facts Relating to 457 Superficies 402 Surfaces, Mensuration. .473 Surgical Appliances. .. .267 Sweet Potatoes, Legal Weight 376 Sweet Potatoes, Statis- tics 358 Swine, Number and Value 357 Swiss Railroads 19 Switzerland, Tourists in 274 Swordfish 369 Symbols, Astronomical. .456 Tailors and Tailoresses.163 Talc, Fibrous, Produc- tion of 349 Talking Machines 298 Talon, to Draw 404 Tangent 402 Tangent, to Draw 403 Tar, Production of.... 346 Taxidermy 267 Tea Culture Experi- ments 316 Tea. Imports 306 Teachers and Profess- ors in Colleges, etc.. 161 Teachers, U. S 174 Technology, Schools. . . 176 Telegram. First (1844). 221 Telegraph Code 187 Telegraph Companies. .188 Telegraph Messages Sent 308 Telegraph, Quadruplex (1873) 223 Telegraph, Printing (1846) 221 Telegraph and Tele- phone Linemen 162 Telegraph and Tele- phone Operators 162 T Telegraphs, I n t e r n a- tional Bureau of.... 339 Telegraphs, Submarine.. 193 Telegraphs, World 185 Telegraphy, Wireless. . . 199 Telephone Companies. .188 Telephone, Invented (1876) 223 Telescope, The 453 Telescope, Equatorial. .453 Temperature, Table of. . 484 Tennessee, Population of 154 Terrapin and Turtle. . .369 Textiles 269 Theodolite, The 454 Thermometer, Compara- tive Scales of 447 Thermometer, Invented (1709) 219 Thermometer Scales... 446 " Thistle " 48 Timber, Strength of... 486 Time 474 Time, Bible 475 Time, Equation of 456 Time, Measurement of. .454 Time Signals 188 Time, Standard 190 Time, Variation of 192 Time and Watch on Board Ship 476 Tin Plates 306 Tin, Size for Cans 378 Tin and Terne Plate. . .267 Tinfoil 268 Tinplate and Tinware Makers 163 Tinsmithing, Copper- smithing and Sheet- iron Working 268 Tire, Pneumatic (1845). 221 Tobacco 269 Tobacco, Chewing, Smoking, and Snuff. .268 Tobacco, Cigars and Cigarettes 268 Tobacco and Cigar Fac- tory Operatives 1 63 Tobacco, Exports of 284 Tobacco, Statistics 360 Tobacco, Stemming and Rehandling 268 Tomatoes, Legal Weight 376 Tonnage of Vessels. ... 20 Tool and Cutlery Makers . , . . 162 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. 515 PAGE Tools, not elsewhere Specified 268 Torpedo Boat Destroyer, Sectional Diagram of. 77 Torpedo, The Modern, 78, 79 Torpedo Boat in Mod- ern Warfare 78 Torpedo, Schwartz- kopff. Longitudinal Section of 77 Torpedo Vessels, List of United States 73 Torpedo Vessels, Num- ber of 62 Towers, Height of 390 Toys and Games 268 Trade, United States.. 287 Trademarks 241 Transatlantic Passen- gers 25 Transit Instrument. . . .453 Transmission of Power by Belting 439 Transportation of For- eign Commerce 304 Transportation, Rail- road. International Bureau of 341 Trapezium 402 INDEX Continued. PAGE Trapezium, Area of . . . .473 Trapezoid 402 Treasury, Department of 311 Triangle, Curvilinear and Spherical 402 Triangle, to Inscribe in Circle 404 Triangle, Equilateral. . .399 Triangle, Isosceles 399 Triangle, Mensuration. 473 Triangle, Mixtilinear. .402 Triangle, Obtusangular.402 Triangle, Rectangular. .399 Triangle, Rectilinear. . .402 Triangle, Scalene 399 Tripoli, Production of. .347 Trout, Lake 370 Troy, Weight 466 Trunk and Leather Case Makers, etc 163 Trunks and Valises 268 Trust, Atlantic 41 Tunesten, Production of 345 Tunnel, Jura 274 Tunnel Shield (1869).. 222 Tunnels of the World. .389 Turbine Commission... 43 PAGE Turbine, Early Types of 43 Turbine, Expiration of Parsons' Patent 44 Turbine, Growth of Steam 43 Turbine, Parsons' (1891) 224 Turbines, Advantages of 43 Turbines, Land 43 Turbines, Objections to. 43 Turbines, Steam 43 Turkestan, Area and Population of 88 Turnips, Legal Weight.. 376 Turpentine Farmers and Laborers 161 Turpentine and Rosin. .268 Turret 83 Turrets of Battleship, Section Through .... 84 Turtle 368 Type Founding 268 Types of Engines 441 Typewriter, Invented (1843) 221 Typewriters and Sup- plies ..268 Typewriting Repairing.. 268 Umbrellas and Canes. .268 Undertakers 162 Uniforms Worn in United States Army, 92, 93 United States, The Army of the 91 United States Battle- ship, Longitudinal Section Through.... 83 United States Life-Sav- ing Service . 44 United States Life-Sav- ing Service Disasters 44 United States Life-Sav- ing Service Disasters, Apportionment of to Atlantic, Lake and Pacific Coasts 45 United States Life-Sav- ing- Service, General Summary 45 United States Life-Sav- ing Service, Vessels Assisted 44 United States Navy, The 67 United States Navy, List of Ships of. .70, 71. 72, 73, 74, 75 United States Navy, Summary 75 United States Stand- ard Gauge 493 Units of Measurement, Electrical 493 Universal International Postal Union 338 Universal Joints 422 Universities 175 Upholsterers 163 Upholstering Materials.. 268 Uranium, Production of 345 Utah,. Population of... 156 "Valkyrie II." 48 " Valkyrie III." 49 Value of Foreign Coins.386 Value of RareElements.447 Values of English and U. S. Money 389 Vanadium, Production of 345 Vapors and Gas?s, Spe- cific Gravity, Weight and Volume 480 Variable Speed Gears.. .418 Variation in Degrees of Latitude 456 Varnish 268 Vault Lights and Venti- lators 268 Vega 459 Vegetable. Pathological and Physiological In- vestigations 315 Vegetables, Miscella- neous Statistics 358 Vehicles for Land Transportation 209 Velocities, Comparative.383 Velocity of Earth Va- ries 455 Velocity of Light 455 Vermont, Population of . .,156 Verniers 454 Vessels, American 308 Vessels Built in Great Britain, Number of . . 42 Vessels, Tonnage of. ... 20 " Vigilant " 48 Vinegar and Cider 268 Vinegar, Cider, Produc- tion 360 Virginia. Population of.156 Visibility of Objects at Sea 383 Volume. Parts by, to Reduce to Parts by Weight 473 " Volunteer" 48 516 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN REFERENCE BOOK. PAGE Wage Earners, Mines and Quarries 353 Wagons 298 Wall Paper 492 War, Department of. . .312 War Vessels, Campara- tive Armor Protection of 56 Warships, Construction and Classification of Modern 53 Washing Machines and Clothes Wringers 268 Washington, Population of 157 Watch on Board Ship. . Watch Cases 268 Watch, Clock and Jew- elry Repairing 268 Watch and Clock Ma- terials 268 Watches 268 Watchmen, Policemen, Firemen, etc 161 Water 486 Waters, Mineral, Pro- duction of 350 Waterwheels 293 Watt 494 Wax, Production of . . . .357 Wealth of U. S 300 Weather Bureau . . 209, 313 Weather Bureau Sta- tions 206 Wedge 416 Weight of Animal Sub- stances 479 Weight of Balls 487 Weight and Bulk of Fuels, etc 478 Weight of Casting and Weight of Wood Pat- tern 490 Weight, Height and, Standard Table of. . .499 Weight of Liquids 479 Weight per Mile of Copper Wire 497 Weight and Volume of Gases and Vapors. . .480 Weight and Volume of Metals 480 I NDEX Continued. W PAGE Weight and Volume of Mineral Substances. .477 Weight and Volume, Stones 476 Weight of Woods 478 Weights, Atomic, In- ternational 444 Weights, Legal, per Bushel 372 Weights and Measures. 465 Weights and Measures of the Bible 474 Weights and Measures, Decimal System 470 Weights and Measures, Foreign 467 Weights and Measures, International Bureau of 339 Weights of Metals for Various Dimensions. .489 Welding, Electric (1886) 224 W e 1 s b a c h Burner (1885) 223 West Virginia, Popula- tion of 157 Western Union Com- pany 186 Westinghouse, George. .218 Whale Oil 368 Whalebone 368 Whalebone and Rattan.. 268 Wheat, Freight Rates on 308 Wheat, Legal Weight . . 376 Wheat, Production of . .304 Wheat. Statistics 360 Wheel and Axle 413 Wheelbarrows 268 Wheels, Chain ..420 Wheels, Friction 418 Wheels, Sprocket 420 Wheelwrights 162 Whetstones, Production of 348 Whips 268 Whitefish 369 Whitney, Eli 216 Willows, Statistics 358 Winans, Ross 216 PAGE Wind, Force of 489 Windmills, 268, 488 Window Shades 268 Wine and Spirit Meas- ure 466 Wines, Consumption of.308 Wines, Quantity Con- sumed 397 Wire 268 Wire, Barbed 354 Wire, Copper, Weight per Mile of 497 Wire Gauges in Decimal Parts of Inch 497 Wire, Iron and Steel, Size, Weight and Length 497 Wire Required for Cable 378 Wire Workers 162 Wireless Telegraphy .. .199 Wireless Telegraphy, Invented 1896.. . 224 Wirework, including Wire Rope and Cable.268 Wisconsin, Population of 157 Wood, J 216 W r ood Choppers 161 Wood, Preserving 268 Wood Pulp (1858) 222 W T ood, Specific Gravity and Weight 478 Wood, Turned and Carved 268 Wooden ware, not else- where specified 268 Wool, Exports of 285 Wool, Fleece, Prices of.. 308 Wool Hats 268 Wool, Manufactures of.306 Wool, Production of, 304, 357 Wool Pulling 268 Wool Scouring 268 Woolen Goods 268 W T oolen Mill Operatives.163 Worm Gear 417 Worsted Goods 268 Wyoming, Population of . ..157 X-Rays (1895) .224 Yacht, Development of the 90-foot Racing. .. 41 Yachts. Shipping and. . 17 I Yards and Docks, Year, The 456 Bureau of 317 Zero of Thermometers. . 447 I Ziju^-Saieliijig and Re- I Zinc, White, Production Zinc, Production of 344>^ : fining ?>*. . 268 | of 349 To the Users of this Book How did you come to know, what you do know, about the many wonderful things mentioned in this book? You likely did not see them occur ; you likely did not hear them described, but you most likely saw the story told on the printed page. It is probable that every fact mentioned herein has appeared in some paper or magazine. This means simply that the way people primarily get their information is through the papers and periodicals. Some of the facts in this book are better known and more used than others because they have been better advertised. Others, just as important and just as welcome to the public, are likely to lie buried in books of reference until some one takes advantage of current literature to spread abroad the information. 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