LATIN GRAMMAR 
 
 FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 
 
 FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 
 
 BY 
 
 JOSEPH H. ALLEN 
 
 JAMES B. GREENOUGH 
 
 [U1TI7BRSITT! 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 PUBLISHED BY GINN BROTHERS 
 
 3 BEACON STREET 
 
 1872 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 
 
 J. H. ALLEN AND J. B. GREENOUGH, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE : 
 PRESS OF JOHN WILSON AND SON. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 OUR aim has been to prepare, within moderate com- 
 pass, a complete Latin grammar, to be used from the 
 beginning of the study of Latin until the end of a 
 college course. The whole has been composed from 
 our own point of view, and is, in all essentials, a new 
 and independent work. But we have used freely the 
 standard authorities, as well those of the older scho- 
 lastic as of the newer critical and scientific schools. 
 In several points, particularly the topical arrangement 
 of the Syntax, we have followed the outline sketched 
 a few years ago by Professor Allen, of the University 
 of Wisconsin. 
 
 We have endeavored to adapt the scientific (philo- 
 logical) method of inflection by stem and termination 
 to the system used by the Romans themselves and 
 handed down by general custom to our time. While 
 the five Declensions are retained, with the old distinc- 
 tions on which they are founded, at the same time the 
 true philological difference, that of stems, is fully 
 exhibited as the real basis of noun-forms. In the same 
 way the true distinctions of verb-stems are adapted 
 to the existing four Conjugations. We have preferred 
 'this to the " crude-form " system, partly because of 
 the practical difficulty that our lexicons do not give 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 stems, but words ; chiefly, however, from the inherent 
 difficulty of a crude-form system in a language so 
 decayed as the Latin. 
 
 In respect to the actual forms of the language, we 
 have not thought it necessary to go back of Neue's 
 " Formenlehre," upon which we have relied, and which 
 teachers will find digested so far as seems to come 
 within the limits of a work like the present. 
 
 In the Syntax, our design has been to leave no 
 principle untouched which a student needs during his 
 school and college course. "We have attempted to 
 show, as far as possible, the reason and origin of con- 
 structions, for which purpose notes have been inserted 
 where it seemed desirable. Many things in the treat- 
 ment of the Subjunctive, of the Protasis and Apodosis 
 (in which we have followed Professor Goodwin's 
 analysis), of Temporal particles, of the Infinitive and 
 Participles, and much of the matter of the notes, 
 appear for the first time in a school-book, and are the 
 results of the authors' own investigations in Compar- 
 ative Grammar. The Syntax is illustrated by upwards 
 of a thousand examples cited from classical authorities, 
 principally from Cicero ; besides nearly as many brief 
 phrases in illustration of minor points, particularly 
 the use of prepositions and cases. 
 
 In Prosody and Versification we have taken a little 
 wider range than usual, so as to enable the student to 
 read metrically any poetry he will meet in his college 
 course. 
 
 In the typography and mechanical arrangement of 
 the page, we have sought to give every aid that can 
 be rendered in that, way to the easy comprehension of . 
 the subject. The sub-sections in larger type (num- 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 bered 1, 2, 3, &c.) contain of themselves a complete 
 outline, and we think will be found sufficient, with the 
 accompanying paradigms or examples, for a course 
 of elementary study. Details of form or structure, re- 
 quiring to be committed to memory only as they occur 
 in reading, are put in smaller type, marked a, 5, <?, &c. 
 And the points of philology, or special criticism, which 
 appear to throw valuable side-light upon the subject, 
 interesting chiefly to teachers or special students, are 
 contained in the form of Notes, not interfering at all 
 with the treatment in the text. By paying attention 
 to this subordination of topics, teachers will avoid the 
 serious error of crowding upon the student, prema- 
 turely, a mass of details, which might only perplex 
 and obscure his real understanding of the subject. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, April, 1872. 
 
V^^"^-^ S5% 
 ^> 0? THE 
 
 IstogsO 
 
 FOR the convenience of those who may wish to follow out 
 special lines of study in general or comparative grammar, or to 
 consult original sources on the history and development of the 
 Latin, a list of works including the best and most recent author- 
 ities is here subjoined : 
 
 BOPP: Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, etc [Indo-European lan- 
 guages]. 4vols. 3d Ed. Berlin, 1868-70. 
 The original standard work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have 
 
 corrected some erroneous details. English translation (poor), London: 1862. 
 
 The best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel 
 
 Breal. Paris: 1866. 
 
 CORSSEN : Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache. 
 2 vols. 2d Ed. Leipzig, 1868. 
 
 The greatest work on Latin alone, treating the language in reference to its 
 own individual development, particularly as to the sounds (Lautlehre). In. the 
 comparative portion, it needs the correction of other investigators. 
 
 CURTIUS, G. : Grundziige der Griechischen Etymologic. 3d Ed. Leipsic : 
 
 1869. 
 
 Treats of Latin only by comparison; but is one of the most valuable 
 works on the general subject. 
 
 Erlduterungen zu meiner Griechischen Schul-grammatik. 2d Ed. 
 
 Prag. 1870. English translation ("Elucidations"), London: 1870. 
 
 Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of 
 the doctrine of forms. 
 
 DELBRUCK : Das Conjunctiv und Optativ, im Sanskrit und Griechischen. 
 
 Halle: 1871. 
 
 Origin of the Moods treated scientifically; should be read in connection 
 with a notice in N. A. Review, Oct. 1871, and "Analysis of the Latin Subjunc- 
 tive," by J. B. Greenough, Cambridge, 1870. 
 
 Ablativ, Localis, Instrumental im indischen t etc. Berlin, 1867. 
 
 Origin of the various Ablative constructions. 
 
 FERRAR : Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. Lon- 
 don : 1869. Vol. I., including as far as Pronouns. 
 A convenient hand-book in English. 
 
 FICK : Vergleichendes Worterbuch der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen. Got- 
 tingen :' 1870. 
 
 A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo- 
 European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the variouo 
 
 a* 
 
X NOTE. 
 
 languages. It can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book, 
 however, is safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and 
 vowel changes. 
 
 HOFFMANN: Die Construction der Lateinischen Zeitpartikeln. Vienna: 
 1860 (Pamphlet). 
 
 KUHN : See Zeitschrift. 
 
 LUBBERT : Die Syntax von Quom. Breslau : 1870. 
 
 NEUE : Formenlehre der Lateinischen Sprache. 2d Ed. Stuttgart, 1866. 
 Storehouse of all Latin forms, 12^)0 pages, containing the result of late text- 
 ual criticism. The standard work. 
 
 PEILE : Latin and Greek Etymology. 2d Ed. Macmillan : London and 
 Cambridge, 1872. 
 
 ROBY : A Grammar of the Latin Language, from Plautus to Suetonius. 
 Macmillan : London and New York, 1871. Vol. I. 
 
 A thorough treatment of Latin Etymology on the principles of comparative 
 grammar. Some errors have been pointed out in the N. A. Keview, Jan. 1872. 
 
 SCHLEICHER : Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo- 
 Germanischen Sprachen. 2d Ed. Weimar, 1866. 
 
 ScHWEiZER-SiDLER : Elementar- und Formenlehre der Lateinischen 
 
 Sprache, fur Schulen. Halle, 1869. 
 
 The best summary of the results of comparative grammar as applied to 
 Latin in short compass (137 pages). 
 
 WILLIAMS : A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language. 3d Ed. 
 
 Oxford, 1864. 
 
 A very convenient Sanskrit grammar, without some knowledge of which 
 it is difficult to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage. 
 
 Zeitschrift fur vergleichender Sprachforschung . Edited by Dr. A. KUHN. 
 
 Vols. I. to XX. Berlin, 1851-1871, and still continued. 
 
 The best essays on all disputed points of comparative Philology. Indispen- 
 sable to correct theories of individual investigators. Each volume has an 
 Index ; and there is also a general index to the first ten volumes. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 SECTION PAGE 
 
 1. Alphabet 1 
 
 1. Classification ; 2. Early Forms ; 3. Changes ; 4. Com- 
 binations; 5. Syllables. 
 
 2. Pronunciation 5 
 
 3. Quantity 6 
 
 4. Accent 7 
 
 5. Inflection 8 
 
 1. Definition ; 2. Root and Stem ; Inflected parts of 
 speech; 4. Particles. 
 
 6. Gender 9 
 
 1. Natural and Grammatical; 2. Rules; 3. Common 
 Gender; 4. Epicene. 
 
 7. Case 11 
 
 8. Declension 12 
 
 1. Declensions; 2. Rules; 3. Case-Endings. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 9. First Declension . 14 
 
 1. Gender; 2. Case Forms; 3. Greek Nouns. 
 
 10. Second Declension . 15 
 
 1. Nominative; 2. Stems in ro-; 3. Gender; 4. Case 
 Forms ; 5, 6. Nouns in er ; 7. Greek Nouns. 
 
 11. Third Declension 17 
 
 I. Vowel Stems. 1. Stems; 2. Nominative; 3. Case 
 
 Forms ; 4. Greek Nouns. 
 II. Liquid Stems 19 
 
 III. Mute Stems. 1. Labial ; 2. Lingual ; 3. Palatal ; 
 
 4. Peculiar Forms ; 6. Greek Nouns 20 
 
 IV. Rules of Gender. 1. Nominative endings ; 2. Stems; 
 
 3. Classified List 23 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 SECT. PAGE. 
 
 12. Fourth Declension 28 
 
 13. Fifth Declension 29 
 
 14. Irregular Nouns 30 
 
 1. Defective ; 2. Variable. 
 
 15. Proper Names 32 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 16. Inflection - 33 
 
 1. Of the 1st and 2d Declension; 2. Of 3d Declension; 
 3. Consonant Stems, Comparatives. 
 
 17. Comparison 38 
 
 1. Kegular; 2. Irregular; 3. Defective; 4. Adverbs; 
 5. Signification. 
 
 18. Numerals 41 
 
 1. Cardinal and Ordinal ; 2. Distributives ; 3. Numeral 
 Adverbs; 4. Multiplicatives. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 19. Personal and Reflexive 44 
 
 20. Demonstrative 45 
 
 21. Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite 47 
 
 1. Case-Forms ; 2. Compounds. 
 
 22. Correlatives 49 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 23. Structure 50 
 
 24. Moods ... 51 
 
 25. Participles 51 
 
 26. Gerund and Supine 52 
 
 27. Tenses 52 
 
 1. Classification; 2. Meaning; 3. Perfect and Imper- 
 fect; 4. Passive Tenses; 5. Stems. 
 
 28. Verb Forms 54 
 
 1. Personal Endings; 2. Changes of Stem; 3. Verb- 
 Endings. 
 
 29. Esse and its Compounds 57 
 
 30. Conjugation 60 
 
 1. First Conjugation ; 2. Second Conjugation ; 3. Third 
 Conjugation ; 4. Fourth Conjugation ; 5. Principal 
 Parts; 6. Special Forms ; 7. Parallel Forms. 
 
 31. First Conjugation 66 
 
 32. Second Conjugation 68 
 
 33. Third Conjugation 70 
 
 1. Regular ; 2. Verbs in io ; 3. Irregular Conjugation . 72 
 
CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 SECT. PAGE. 
 
 34. Fourth Conjugation 74 
 
 35. Deponent Verbs 75 
 
 1. Conjugation; 2. Semi-Deponents. 
 
 36. Derivative Verbs 77 
 
 37. Irregular Verbs 78 
 
 38. Defective Verbs 81 
 
 39. Impersonal Verbs .'..._ 82 
 
 40. Periphrastic Forms 83 
 
 PARTICLES. 
 
 41. Adverbs 84 
 
 1. Derivation; 2. Classification; 3. Signification. 
 
 42. Prepositions 88 
 
 1. With Cases ; 2. Meaning and Use : Examples ; 3. In 
 Compounds. 
 
 43. Conjunctions 93 
 
 1. Classification; 2. Classified List ; 3. Special Meaning. 
 
 44. Derivation of Words 96 
 
 1. Noun Forms ; 2. Derivation of Verbs ; 3. Compound 
 Words. 
 
 PART II. SYNTAX. 
 
 45. Definitions 101 
 
 1. Sentence; 2. Subject and Predicate ; 3. Modification; 
 4. Phrase; 5. Clause; 6. Connectives; 7. Agree- 
 ment; 8. Government. 
 
 1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 
 
 46. Of Nouns 103 
 
 1. Appositive; 2. Predicate- Nominative. 
 
 47. Of Adjectives 105 
 
 1. Number ; 2. Gender ; 3. As Nouns ; 4. Use of Neu- 
 ter ; 5. Possessives ; 6. As Adverbs ; 7. Compari- 
 son ; 8. Superlatives of Place ; 9. Reciprocals. 
 
 48. Of Relatives 109 
 
 1. Person of Verb; 2. Gender; 3. Antecedent; 4. As 
 Connective ; 5. Adverbs. 
 
 49. Verbs : Rules of Argument 112 
 
 1. Plural with Collectives, &c. ; 2. Nominative Subject. 
 
 2. CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. 
 
 50. Genitive 113 
 
 1. Subjective, 114; 2. Partitive, 115 ; 3. Objective, 117 ; 
 4. After Verbs, 119. 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 SECT. PAGE. 
 
 51. Dative 121 
 
 1. With Transitives, 121; 2. With Intransitives, 122; 
 
 3. Of Possession, 126 ; 4. Of Agency, 127 ; 5. Of 
 Service, 128; 6. Of Nearness, 128; 7. Of Advan- 
 tage, 129; (Ethical Dative, 130). 
 
 52. Accusative 131 
 
 1. General Use (Cognate Accusative, 131); 2. Two Ac- 
 cusatives ; 3. Adverbial ; 4. Special Uses. 
 
 53. Vocative 134 
 
 54. Ablative 134 
 
 1. Of Separation, 135 ; 2. Of Source, 136 ; 3. Of Cause, 
 137; 4. Of Agent, 138; 5. Of Comparison, 138; 
 6. Of Means, 139; 7. Of Quality, 141 ; 8. Of Price, 
 141; 9. Of Specification, 142; 10. Locative, Abla- 
 tive Absolute, 142. 
 
 55. Time and Place 143 
 
 1. Time ; 2. Space ; 3. Place (Locative Form, 145) ; 
 
 4. Way by which. 
 
 56. Use of Prepositions 146 
 
 3. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 
 
 57. Use of Moods . 148 
 
 1. Indicative ; 2. Subjunctive (Independent or Depend- 
 ent ; 3. Hortatory ; 4. Optative ; 5. Concessive ; 
 6. Dubitative); 7. Imperative; 8. Infinitive (Com- 
 plementary, 154 ; With Subject- Accusative, 155 ; 
 Historical, 156). 
 
 58. Use of Tenses . , . . 157 
 
 1.. Indicative ; 2. Present (Conative, 157; Historical, 
 158); 3. Imperfect; 4. Future; 5. Perfect; 6. Plu- 
 perfect ; 7. Future-Perfect ; 8. Epistolary Tenses ; 
 9. Of Subjunctive ; 10. Sequence of Tenses (Primary 
 and Secondary, 162) ; 11. Of Infinitive. 
 
 59. Conditional Sentences 166 
 
 1. Protasis and Apodosis ; 2. Particular and General Con- 
 ditions ; 3. Present and Past Conditions ; 4. Future 
 Conditions; 5. General Conditions. 
 
 60. Implied Conditions 172 
 
 1. Condition Disguised ; 2. Condition Omitted. 
 
 61. Conditional Particles 174 
 
 1. Comparative; 2. Concessive; 3. Provisory; 4. Mean- 
 ing and Use. 
 
 62. Relations of Time 176 
 
 1. Use as in Protasis ; 2. Absolute and Relative Time, 
 (Cum temporal, 178; causal, 180). 
 
 63. Cause or Reason 181 
 
 1. With Indicative ; 2. With Subjunctive. 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 SECT. PAGE. 
 
 64. Purpose (Final Clauses) 182 
 
 1. Relatives or Conjunctions ; 2. Forms. 
 
 65. Consequence or Result (Consecutive- Clauses) . . . . 183 
 
 1. Subjunctive with ut (lie) ; 2. Of Characteristic. 
 
 66. Intermediate Clauses 185 
 
 1. Subjunctive of Citation; 2. Dependent Clauses. 
 
 67. Indirect Discourse 187 
 
 1. Indirect Narrative (Subject- Accusative, Relative Clau- 
 ses, Conditional Sentences, Questions), 188; 2. In- 
 direct Questions, 190; 3. Indirect Commands, 191. 
 
 68. Wishes and Commands 192 
 
 69. Relative Clauses (Classification of) . 193 
 
 70. Substantive Clauses 193 
 
 1. Classification ; 2. Accusative and Infinitive, 194 ; 
 3. Clauses of Purpose, 195; 4. Clauses of Result, 
 197 ; 5. Indicative with quod, 199. 
 
 71. Questions 200 
 
 1. Interrogative Particles ; 2. Double Questions ; 3. Ques- 
 tion and Answer. 
 
 72. Participles 202 
 
 1. Distinctions of Tense; 2. Adjective use; 3. Predi- 
 cate use ; 4. Future Participle ; 5. Gerundive. 
 
 73. Gerund and Gerundive 206 
 
 1. Gerund; 2. Gerundive; 3. Construction of Cases. 
 
 74. Supine 209 
 
 75. General Rules of Syntax 210 
 
 76. Arrangement 212 
 
 1. Normal Order; 2. Emphasis; 3. Structure (Periodic). 
 
 PART III. PROSODY. 
 
 77. Rhythm 215 
 
 78. Rules of Quantity 215 
 
 1. General Rules ; 2. Final Syllables ; 3. Penultimate 
 Syllables (Increment of Nouns and Vebs). 
 
 79. Feet 220' 
 
 80. Scanning 222 
 
 81. Metre 223 
 
 82. Forms of Verse 224 
 
 83. Early Prosody 232 
 
 84. Reckoning of Time 233 
 
 85. Measures of Value 235 
 
 APPENDIX 237 
 
PART FIRST. 
 FORMS OF WORDS (ETYMOLOGY). 
 
 1. ALPHABET. 
 
 THE Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, 
 wanting w. 
 
 NOTE. The letter w is found, however, in many modern Latin 
 words, especially proper names. 
 
 1. Classification. The letters of the alphabet are 
 classified as follows : 
 
 a. VOWELS (litterae vocales, or voice-letters) : a, e, i, o, u, y. 
 The following are Diphthongs (double-vowels) : ae (ae), au, eu, 
 oe (oe), ei, ui. 
 
 6. CONSONANTS (litterae consonantes, i.e., sounding-wiih the 
 vowels) : 
 
 MUTES : Labial surd p sonant b spirant f (v) nasal m 
 Lingual t d ,, n 
 
 Palatal c(k) g h [ng] 
 
 Double Consonants, x (cs), z (ds). 
 
 LIQUIDS: 1, m, n f r. SIBILANTS: surd s, sonant z. 
 
 The letters i (j) and u (v) at the beginning of a syllable be- 
 fore a vowel, also u in quis, suadeo, &c., are SEMI-VOWELS. 
 The consonants f, g, p, z, are never used at the end of a word. 
 
 NOTE. The Aspirate (or breathing) h follows in inflection the 
 rule of palatals ; and was originally, in many words, a harsh guttural 
 (kh), like the Greek \, or the Spanish j. Its later sound was very 
 slight, and in most languages derived from Latin has quite disappeared. 
 Sometimes, as in aheneus (=aeneus], it seems to be used only to 
 separate two vowels. It is not reckoned as a consonant in Prosody. 
 
2 EARLY FORMS. - CHANGES. [ 1:2 >3 
 
 2. Early Forms. The alphabet in the time of Cicero 
 (N. D. ii. 37) consisted of " one and twenty letters." These 
 were, 
 
 a, b, c, b e, f, g, h, i, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, x. 
 
 y and z were added, in words derived from Greek, i and u, 
 when used as consonants (" semi- vowels"), having the sound of 
 y and w, are generally written j and v: as, juvenis for iuuenis. 
 
 a. In early use, c was not distinguished in form or sound from 
 g. After the distinction was made, C was still used, convention- 
 ally, as the initial of names (Gaius, Gnaeus) beginning properly 
 with G. It came, in later use, to take the place of k, which was 
 retained only in abbreviations, or as the initial letter of a few 
 words, as Kalendae, Karthago, in which it is followed by a. 
 
 b. Till after the age of Augustus, u was never, in good use, 
 preceded in the same syllable by u or v. In many words, as in 
 volt, servos, o was written where later custom allows u ; while 
 c was regularly used for qu in such words as cum (for quum), 
 ecus (for equus), relicus (for reliquus), locuntur (for lo- 
 quuntur), and the like; also in cotidie (for quotidie), and 
 a few other words. The old forms quom (for cum) and quor 
 (for cur) are also found. 
 
 c. At the end of a few words, as sed, apud, illud, 
 t was anciently written instead of d. In words ending in -s, 
 final s was often elided (Cic. Orat. 48), as in qualist (qualis-est) ; 
 plenu' fidei (Senect. 1). 
 
 3. Changes. Letters are often changed, according to 
 general laws of inflection (vowel-increase), or to secure an 
 easier or smoother sound (euphonic change) ; or have been 
 altered or lost through long use (phonetic decay). Of such 
 changes are the following : 
 
 a. Vowels arc strengthened in inflection and derivation (vowel- 
 increase)'. as, ago, egi (cf. tell, told)', disco, ddceo (tf.fa(l,fell^; 
 sit, set)-, pendo, pondus; persono, persona; perfidus, jfidus, 
 foedus (cf. bind, band). 
 
 NOTE. The primitive vowel-sound may be assumed to be a, as 
 in father. Starting with this, and gradually contracting the palate, 
 we form in succession the sound of e (a) and i (ee], leading to the 
 semi- vowel j (y). By contracting the lips, we in like manner form 
 the sound of o and u (00), leading to the semi-vowel v (iv). By 
 contracting both palate and lips, we form the French sound of u, 
 in Greek v, and in Latin y. This, which is 
 called the Vowel-Scale, is of great service in 
 tracing the modifications of vowel-sounds. It 
 may be represented thus : i J Y v u 
 
1: 3-] EUPHONIC CHANGES. 3 
 
 b. Vowels are weakened by negligent pronunciation for long 
 periods of time (phonetic decay). Thus, on one side of the scale, 
 a becomes e, then i; or, on the other, becomes o, then u; while 
 u and i meet in the French u (y) : as, agmen, agminis ; facio, 
 conficio, confectum ; salio, exsulto ; sepelio, sepultus ; ebur, 
 eboris ; maxumus, maximus (cf. master, mister, mistress). 
 
 c. Two vowels coming together are contracted into a single 
 sound: as, obit (obiit), cogo (co-ago), nil (nihil), debeo (de- 
 hibeo), coetus (coitus), ingeni (cf. mayhem, maim).' 
 
 d. The semi-vowels j and v are lost before a vowel, contrac- 
 tion sometimes also takiiig place : as, obicit (6bjicit), coiiicit 
 (conjicit), cunctus (conjunctus), rursus (re versus), coiitio 
 (conventio), motum (mbvitum). 
 
 e. Between two vowels, or before m or n, s becomes r: as, 
 genus, generis; maereo, maestus; veternus (vetus-nus), 
 carmen (casmen). 
 
 f. When two consonants come together by derivation, inflec- 
 tion, or composition, an easier pronunciation is secured thus : 
 
 ! The first is entirely assimilated to the second. Thus, a liquid, 
 m, n, or (less frequently) r before another liquid is changed to 
 that liquid [but r is not changed to m or n] : as, collego (con-lego), 
 corrigo (com-rego), illudo (in-ludo), illlco (in loco), intellego (inter-lego), 
 asellus (asin[ii]lus) . So d before 1: as in lapilius (Uipidulus) ; and b 
 (rarely) before a liquid: as, summitto (submitto). 
 
 2. The former is assimilated in kind. Thus : a. A sonant before a 
 surd becomes surd : as, tego, texi (x=cs), tectum ; nubo, nupsi, nuptum ; 
 coquo, coxi, coctum. b. A surd before a sonant becomes sonant, as in 
 segmentum (seco). c. A labial nasal before a dental mute sometimes 
 becomes dental: contendo (com-tendo), jandudum (jam dud urn), quant us 
 (quamtus). d. A dental nasal before a labial sometimes becomes labial : 
 as, impono (in-pono). e. d and t before t sometimes become s (see 4) : 
 as, equester (equet-ter), est (edt). 
 
 3. The former is lost, having probably been first assimilated. 
 Thus : a. d and t are lost before s, but sometimes only assimilated : 
 as, pedes (pedets), vas (vads, vadis), esse (edse, edo). b. c and g are 
 lost before t and s when 1 or r precedes: as, sartus (=sarctus, sar- 
 cio), mulsi (=mulgsi, mulgeo), indultus (=indulgtus, indulgeo). c. c and g" 
 are sometimes lost before m and n : as, examen (exagmen), luna (luc- 
 na), lumen (luc-men). 
 
 4. The second is partially assimilated to the first (as in English 
 wrecked becomes, in pronouncing, reckt) ; in this case both are often 
 changed. Thus, after n and 1 rarely after other letters t be- 
 comes s (the continued sound corresponding to the explosive t) : as, 
 mansus (=mantus, maneo), pulsus (pello), casus (cado), passus (=pattus, 
 pat/or), sparsus (=spargtus, spargo), tensus (tendo, but also tentus) , fixus 
 (figo, but fictus from Jingo), maximus (for mag-timus), lapsus (labor), 
 pasxus (pando). 
 
 NOTE. After m, before s or t, p is inserted for euphony: as, 
 sumo, sumpsi, sumptum. So hiemps for hiems. 
 
4 ASSIMILATION. VARIATIONS. [ 1: 3 
 
 </. Especially the final consonant of prepositions was assimilated 
 to the initial consonant of verbs. 
 
 Thus, ad is assimilated before c, g, p, t ; less regularly before 
 1, r, s, and rarely before m ; while before f, n, q, the form ad is 
 to be preferred; ab is not assimilated, but may take the form a, 
 aii, or abs; in com (con, co), m is retained before b, p, m ; is 
 assimilated before 1, n, r ; is changed to n before c, d, f, g, i, q, 
 s, v ; varies between m and n before p ; is sometimes assimilated 
 (otherwise n) before r andl; and loses the final m in conecto, co- 
 niveo, conitor, conubium ; in usually changes n to m before b, m, 
 p; before 1 the better orthography retains n; ob and sub are 
 assimilated before c, f, g, p, and sometimes before m ; sub also 
 before r; and, in early Latin, b of these prepositions sometimes 
 becomes p before s or t. The inseparable amb loses b before a 
 consonant, and m is sometimes assimilated ; circum loses m before 
 a vowel ; s of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before a conso 
 nant is lost or assimilated ; the d of red and sed is generally losl 
 before a consonant. 
 
 NOTE. In most of these cases the later editions prefer the 
 unaltered forms throughout ; but the changes given above have gooc 
 authority. Others, which are corruptions of the middle ages (as 
 assum for adsum), would better be avoided. 
 
 h. The combinations ci and ti before a vowel are found inter- 
 changed in many words : as in nuntlus or nuncius ; contio or con- 
 do ; but in these cases only one is correct : as, contio, dicio. 
 
 NOTE. The substitution of c for t is an example of phonetic 
 decay, and belongs to a later period of the language. In Italian, z 
 and in Spanish, c, has regularly taken the place of t in such combi 
 nations : as in nazione, nation. The sound of s (assibilation) or of si 
 traceable in them led gradually to the adoption of this as the regulai 
 sound of c before e or i. 
 
 i. The aspirate h is occasionally used to indicate the hare 
 sound of c, as in pulcher for pulcer. Many words are writter 
 sometimes with and sometimes without an initial h: as, arene 
 or harena, ariolor or hariolor, erus or herus. The combina 
 tions ph, th, are found only in words taken from the Greek. 
 
 Jc. The following words are variously spelt in different editions 
 inferior or rejected forms being marked f : 
 
 Adolescens, adulescens ; ancora, f anchora ; annulus, anulus ; arctus 
 artus ; cvecus, coccus ; ccelum, codum ; cceruleus, coeruleus ; causa, caussa 
 ccespes, cespes ; ceteri, f coderi ; ccena, ccena, cena ; condicio, t conditio ; con 
 jnnx, t conjux ; contio, t contio ; dicio, t ditio ; dumtaxat, duntaxat ; epi 
 stola, epistula ; eumdem, eundem ; exsisto, existo (and other compounds 
 of ex before s) ; femina, \fozmina; fenus, fcenus, foenus '; Acres, f hceres 
 hcedus, t hoedus ; hiems(ps), t hyems ; idcirco, t iccirco ; immo, imo ; inclutus 
 t inclytus ; intellego, intelliyo ; lacrima, \\acryma ; litera, littera; litus, flit 
 tus ; lubet, libet ; mceror, moeror; milia, f millia ; multa, mulcta ; t w, ne 
 nequidquam, nequiquam ; numquam, nunquam ; "f nuncio, nuntio ; paulhis 
 paulus ; quicquid, quidquid; religio, relligio ; retuli, rettuli ; silva, t sylva . 
 
1. 2.] ALPHABET. PRONUNCIATION. 5 
 
 solennis, solemnis ; solers, sollers; sulfur, ^sulphur,' tamquam, tanquam ; 
 thesaurus, thensaurus ; thus, tus ; tiro, f tyro ; umquam, unquam ; ungo, 
 unguo ; verto, vorto ; also, the gerund-forms -endus or -undus ; and the 
 superlative -imus or -umus. 
 
 NOTE. Many of the above variations are due to the practice of 
 writing from dictation, or by the ear, by which most MS. copies of 
 the classics were made, a single reader often dictating to numerous 
 copyists, whose spelling was often corrupt, and without authority. 
 
 4. Combinations. Two words are often united in 
 writing, and sometimes in sound. 
 
 a* Conjunctions or other particles are thus connected : as in 
 etenim, jamdiu, siquis, and siquidem. 
 
 So the adverbial combinations quare, quamobrem, &c., as in 
 English nevertheless, notwithstanding. 
 
 b. The verb est, is, is joined with the preceding word, 
 especially in the old poets, or when the two would be united by 
 elision : as, homost, periculumst 
 
 c. Similar contractions are found in vin' (visne), scin' (scis- 
 ne), sis (si vis), sodes (si audes), as in English, don't, won't. 
 
 5. Syllables. In the division of syllables, a single con- 
 sonant between two vowels is to be written with the latter. 
 
 a. This rule is usually extended to double consonants, or any 
 combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word : as, 
 ho-spes, ma-gnus, di-xit. 
 
 b. In compounds, the parts should be separated : as, ab-est, 
 ob-latus. 
 
 NOTE. Custom allows many other departures from the rule. 
 
 c. A syllable preceded by a vowel in the same word is called 
 pure; when preceded by a consonant, impure. 
 
 d. An initial syllable ending, or a final syllable beginning, with 
 a vowel, is called open ; otherwise, it is called close. 
 
 2. PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 1. Roman. The Roman pronunciation of the Vowels 
 was, no doubt, nearly like the Italian ; which, with little 
 variation, is that found in most of the continental languages 
 of Europe. That of some of the Consonants is more uncer- 
 tain. In the system of pronunciation founded on ancient 
 
6 PRONUNCIATION. QUANTITY. [2:2. 3: I, 
 
 use, the long and short vowels are sounded respectively as 
 follows : 
 
 a as in father. a-rt-a~ a as in fast. 
 
 e ,, rein. % ,, met. 
 
 i ,, machine. I ,, pin. 
 
 6 ,, holy. 6 ,, wholly. 
 
 u ,, rude. u ,, full. 
 
 NOTE. It is probable that y (also u in maxumus, &c.) was simi- 
 lar to the French u ; it is usually, however, sounded like i. 
 
 a. The final or unaccented open sound of the vowels is nearly 
 as in the last syllable of comma, yesterday, pity, hollow, cuckoo. 
 
 &. In Diphthongs, each vowel has its proper sound : thus, ae 
 has neaily the sound of ay, auof oi0 t oe of oy, ui of we. 
 
 c* Of consonants, c and g are always hard, as in can, give ; 
 j has the sound of y, v of w, and n before palatals of ng; the 
 combination bs is like ps, ch like k, and ph like f. 
 
 NOTE. The sound of the vowels and diphthongs, as above given, 
 has been generally adopted in this country. In regard to the conso- 
 nants c, g, j, v, there is still considerable difference of usage. 
 
 2. Modern* Modern custom has generally allowed 
 Latin to be pronounced in each country according to the 
 rules of its own language. What is known as the English 
 Method adopts the following: 
 
 a. The vowels and consonants have the same sound as in 
 English. But there are no silent letters (except in scanning verse, 
 by the usage called Elision) ; such words as dies, mare, audiere, 
 pauperiei, having each as many syllables as vowels or diphthongs. 
 
 &. By American custom, final a is pronounced in the Italian 
 way, as in comma. But in the monosyllables a, da, sta, qua, 
 some persons retain the English sound. 
 
 c. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like ee ; au like aw ; 
 eu like ew ; ei and ui like i in kite ; es and (in plural words) os 
 at the end of a word, as in the English disease, morose. 
 
 d. The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and j) 
 before e, i, y, ae, oe, eu ; ch is always hard, as in chasm. 
 
 3. QUANTITY. 
 
 1. Quantity is the relative time occupied in pronouncing a 
 syllable, a long syllable being equal to two short ones. 
 
3: 2. 4.] QUANTITY. ACCENT. 7 
 
 NOTE. The distinction of Quantity was carefully observed 
 by the ancients, but came to be almost wholly disregarded in 
 later times except in the composition of Latin verse. 
 
 2. Some of the most general rules of quantity are the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 a. A vowel before another vowel is short : as in via, nYhil 
 &. A diphthong is long : as in aedes, foedus. 
 
 A syllable formed by contraction is long : as, ml (mini) ; . 
 nil (nihil) ; intrarat (intraverat) ; nemo (ne homo). 
 
 NOTE. In many text-books and old editions, contraction is de- 
 noted by a circumflex : as, mi, intrarat. 
 
 d. A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants, 
 or a double consonant, is long : as in rectus, dCLxit. Sometimes 
 the vowel itself is made long, as before ns in praesens. 
 
 e. A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with 
 1 or r is common, that is, it may be long in verse : as, allcris. 
 
 REMARK. Many final syllables, originally long, are always found 
 short in classic Latin : for example, the stem-vowel a of the first 
 declension. 
 
 NOTE. The sign ("") denotes that a vowel is long; (~) that it is 
 short ; (-) that it is common. 
 
 For particular rules of Quantity, see 78. 
 
 4. ACCENT. 
 
 1. The accent of Latin words never falls on the final 
 syllable, but is confined to one of the two preceding. 
 
 2. The following are general rules of accent : 
 
 a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first 
 syllable: as, e"rant, they were; di'es, day. 
 
 b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the 
 Penult, if that is long: as, ami'cus, friend; if it is short or com- 
 mon, then on the Antepenult : as, dS'minus, a'lacris. 
 
 NOTE. The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult, 
 the last but two. 
 
 c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on 
 the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as, 
 dea'que, amare've, tlbi'ne, ita'que, and so, as distinguished 
 from i'taque, therefore. 
 
8 ACCENT. INFLECTION. [5 : I, 2 
 
 NOTE. The acute accent (') is sometimes used to denote stress of 
 voice ; the grave f ), to mark an adverb or conjunction ; the circumflex 
 (*), the ablative in a, the perfect in ere, or & contracted syllable. 
 
 5. INFLECTION. 
 
 1. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word, tc 
 show its grammatical relations. 
 
 a. Changes of inflection sometimes take place in the body of a 
 word, but oftener in its termination : as, vox, a voice ; vocis, of 
 a voice ; v5co, 1 call ; v6cat, he calls ; vocavit, he has called. 
 
 b* Terminations of inflection had originally an independent 
 meaning, and correspond nearly to the use of prepositions or per- 
 sonal pronouns in English : thus, in v6cat, the termination is 
 equivalent to he or she ; and in vocis, to the preposition of. 
 
 c. Changes of inflection in the body of a verb usually denote 
 relations of time or manner, and correspond to the use of auxiliary 
 verbs in English : thus, in frangit (root frag-), he breaks or is 
 breaking, the form of the word indicates Present time or continued 
 action ; while in fregit, he broke or has broken, it indicates Past time 
 or Completed action. 
 
 2. The body of a word, to which the terminations are 
 attached, is called the STEM. 
 
 a. The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; 
 but, in general, it cannot be used without some termination to 
 express these. Thus the stem voc- denotes voice ; with -s added 
 it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an 
 action ; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a voice. 
 
 &. A still more primitive form, expressing the main idea less 
 definitely, and common also to other words, either in the same or 
 other languages, is called a ROOT. For example, the root STA is 
 found in the Sanskrit tistjidmi, Greek IOTTJJU, Latin sistere and 
 stare, German stehen, and English stand. 
 
 Again, the root of the stem voc- is v6c, which means not to 
 call, or / call, or calling, but merely call : and cannot be used to 
 mean any thing without terminations. With a it becomes v5ca-, 
 the stem of the present vbcamus, we call; with avi- it is the 
 stem of the perfect vbcavi, / called ; with ato- it becomes the 
 stem of the participle vocatos, called ; with ation- it becomes 
 the stem of vocationis, of a calling. With its vowel lengthened 
 it becomes the stem of vox, a voice (that by which we call) ; with 
 alis added it means belonging to a voice ; with iila, a little voice. 
 
5: 3, 4- 6: I.] INFLECTION. GENDER. 9 
 
 NOTE. Thus, in inflected languages, words are built up from 
 Roots, which at a very early time, long before Latin was a distinct 
 language, were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in 
 Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, 
 become Words. The process by which they are modified, in the vari- 
 ous forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building. 
 
 c. The Stem is sometimes the same with the Root: as in 
 due-is, fer-t; but is more frequently formed from the root, 
 either (1) by changing or lengthening its vowel, as in reg-is, 
 duc-o; (2) by the addition or insertion of a consonant, as in 
 tendo, pango; (3) by the addition of a terminal vowel, as in 
 fugis, fuga ; or (4) by derivation and composition, following the 
 laws of development peculiar to the language. 
 
 d. The terminations of inflection are variously modified by 
 combining with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading 
 to the various forms of Declension and Conjugation. 
 
 NOTE. A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open 
 affix ; one beginning with a consonant, a close affix. When a close 
 affix is joined to a consonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic 
 change, as rexi for reg-si, or a vowel appears, as reg-i-bus. But in most 
 cases, what is called a connecting vowel really belongs to the stem, 
 as in voca-mus, regi-mus. 
 
 3. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have in- 
 flections of declension, to denote gender, number, and case; 
 Adjectives and Adverbs, of comparison, to denote degree ; 
 and Verbs of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, num- 
 ber, and person. 
 
 4. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called 
 PARTICLES : these are Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter- 
 jections, with Adverbs of time, place, and manner. 
 
 NOTE. The term Particles is sometimes limited to such words as 
 mini, -ne, an (interrogative], 11011, ne (negative), si (conditional), &c., 
 which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sen- 
 tence. Interjections are not properly to be classed among parts of 
 speech, and differ little from inarticulate sounds. For convenience, 
 a list is given of those in most common use, following the conjunc- 
 tions (p. 95). 
 
 6. GENDER. 
 
 . 
 
 I . The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or gram- 
 matical. 
 
 a. Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object 
 denoted: as, puer, boy ; puella, girl; donum, gift. 
 
 1* ~^ -i^-^-^JSj^S^. 
 
10 GENDER. [6: I, 2. 
 
 b Many masculine nouns have a corresponding feminine form : 
 as, servus, serva, slave; cliens, clienta, client; victor, vic- 
 trix, conqueror. Most designations of persons (as, nauta, sailor, 
 miles, soldier), usually though not necessarily male, are masculine. 
 
 c. Grammatical gender is a like distinction where no sex 
 exists in the object, and is shown by the form of the adjective 
 joined with it: as, lapis magnus (M.), a great stone; manus 
 mea (F.), my hand. 
 
 d. A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belong- 
 ing to a class : as, mancipium tuum, your slave. Names of classes 
 or bodies of persons may be of either gender : as, exercitus (M.), 
 acies (F.), and agmen (N.), army; and the feminine operae, 
 workmen, copiae, troops. 
 
 NOTE. What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the 
 product of the imagination at a rude age, when language was in the 
 course of growth. Thus a River was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a 
 living creature, violent and strong, and so is masculine ; a Month is a 
 guide or divider of tasks, and so is masculine ; and the fable of Atlas 
 shows how similar living attributes were ascribed to Mountains, 
 which, in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the 
 Earth, or a country or city, seems the mother of its progeny ; the Tree 
 shelters and ripens its fruit, as a brooding bird its nest of eggs ; and, 
 to this day, a Ship is always referred to by a feminine pronoun. 
 
 Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and 
 splendor, is masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine ; 
 while, among northern nations, the Sun (perhaps for its comforting 
 warmth) is feminine, and the Moon (the appointer of works and 
 days) masculine. The rules of grammatical gender only repeat and 
 extend these early workings of the fancy. 
 
 2. Names of Male beings, together with Rivers, "Winds, 
 and Mountains are masculine; names of Female beings, 
 Cities, Countries, Plants, of many Animals (especially Birds), 
 and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine. 
 
 NOTE. Most of the above may be recognized by their termina- 
 tions, according to the rules of gender under the several declensions. 
 
 a. Names of Rivers are masculine, except a few, chiefly in a. 
 
 These are Albula, Allia, Druentia, Duria, Garumna, Matrdna, Mo- 
 sella ; also Lethe and Styx. Many are variable. 
 
 NOTE. Names of Months are properly Adjectives, the masculine 
 noun mensis being understood. 
 
 &. Names of Towns, Islands, and Trees in us are feminine ; 
 also, many names of Plants and Gems in us. 
 
 c. Indeclinable nouns, Terms or Phrases used as nouns, and 
 words quoted merely for their forms, are neuter : as, nihil, nothing ; 
 gummi, gum ; scire tuum, your knowing ; triste vale, a sad fare- 
 well ; hoc ipsum diu, this same word diu ; illud ruisse, illud 
 ardere (Plin.), that crash, that blaze. 
 
6:3,4- 7 GENDER. CASE. 11 
 
 3. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, 
 according to the sex of the object. These are said to be of 
 COMMON GENDER: as, exsul, exile; bos, ox or cow. 
 
 NOTE. When a noun signifying a thing without life is both mas- 
 culine and feminine, as, dies, day ; finis, end, it is sometimes said 
 to be of Doubtful Gender. 
 
 4. A few names of animals are always connected with 
 adjectives of the same gender, either masculine or feminine, 
 independent of sex. They are called EPICENE. 
 
 Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, feminine. 
 To denote a male fox we may say, vulpes mascula ; or a female 
 hare, lepus femina. 
 
 7. CASE. 
 
 There are in Latin six Cases, which express the 
 relations of nouns to other words. They are usually 
 put in the following order: 1. Nominative; 2. Gen- 
 itive ; 3. Dative ; 4. Accusative ; 5. Vocative ; 6. Ab- 
 lative. 
 
 1. The NOMINATIVE is the case of the Subject of a propo- 
 sition: as, 
 
 pater meus adest, my father is here. 
 
 2. The GENITIVE (of) is used like the English posses- 
 sive ; also with many adjectives and verbs, especially those of 
 memory or feeling : as, 
 
 patris ejus amicus miseretur mei, his father's friend pities me. 
 
 3. The DATIVE (to or for) is the case of the Indirect 
 Object, and is used to denote the person whose interest is 
 concerned: as, 
 
 dedit mihi cultellum : magno mini usui erat, he gave me a 
 pocket-knife : it was of great service to me. 
 
 4. The ACCUSATIVE (objective) is the case of the Direct 
 Object, and is used after most prepositions : as, 
 
 pater me ad se vocavit et in hortum duxit, [my] father 
 called me to him t and led me into the garden. 
 
12 CASE. DECLENSION. [7. 8: I. 
 
 5. The VOCATIVE is used in address : as, 
 
 hue veni, care mi filiole, come here, my dear little son. 
 
 NOTE. As the Vocative is independent of the other words in a 
 sentence, it is by some grammarians not reckoned as a Case. 
 
 6. The ABLATIVE (by, from, with) is used with many 
 verbs and prepositions, especially to denote separation or 
 instrument: as, 
 
 in horto ludebamus, et cultello me laesit, we were playing in 
 the garden, and he hurt me with a knife. 
 
 NOTE. All, excepting the nominative and vocative, are by the 
 ancient grammarians called " Oblique Cases." 
 
 7. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces 
 of another case (the LOCATIVE), denoting the place where, 
 generally the same in form as the dative ( 55. 3. c.) : as, 
 
 Romae vel Athenis esse velim, I should like to be at Eome 
 or Athens. 
 
 8. DECLENSION. 
 
 1. There are five Declensions, or modes of declining nouns. 
 They are distinguished by the termination of the Genitive 
 Singular, and by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem. 
 
 DECL. 1. Gen. Sing, ae Characteristic & (anciently a) 
 
 2. i(ius) 6 
 
 ,, 3. ,, is ,, X or a Consonant 
 
 4. us (uis) ft 
 
 5. ei e 
 
 a. The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by 
 omitting the case-ending; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for 
 the case-ending the characteristic vowel. 
 
 NOTE. For the division of vowel and consonant-stems in the 
 Third Declension, see 11. 
 
 5. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns 
 (except in the first declension) is formed from the Stem by adding s. 
 
 NOTE 1. Many, however, end in o, or in the liquids 1, n, r, 
 the original s (sometimes with the final letter also) having been lost 
 through phonetic decay. In some (as in films) the stem-vowel is 
 modified before the final s ; and in some, as in ayer, a vowel is 
 inserted in the stem. 
 
8: 2, 3 .] 
 
 DECLENSION. 
 
 13 
 
 NOTE 2. The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old 
 demonstrative sa, which is found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit 
 personal pronoun, in the Greek article, and in the English she. 
 
 2. The following are general Rules of Declension : 
 
 a. The Vocative is always the same with the Nominative, ex- 
 cept in the singular of nouns in us of tftJB second declension. 
 
 NOTE. In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in 
 the (modified) stem-vowel. Most of the words likely to be used in 
 address are of this form ; and, in practice, few other words have a 
 vocative. 
 
 b. In Neuters, the nominative and accusative are always alike, 
 and in the plural end in a. 
 
 c. Except in some neuters, the accusative singular always ends 
 in in, and the accusative plural in s. 
 
 d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the 
 others) the dative singular ends in i. 
 
 ^ e. The dative and ablative plural are always alike. 
 /. The genitive plural always ends in um. 
 
 3. Case-Endings. The original terminations of the 
 Cases, in Latin, were probably the following: 
 
 Sing. M., F. N. Plur. M., F. N. 
 
 Norn, s (or lost) m, - es a 
 
 Gen. os (is) um, rum(sum) 
 
 Dat. i ibus 
 
 Ace. m, em m, - es a 
 
 Abl. eA . ibus 
 
 NOTE. These became so worn by use, and so united with the 
 stem, that they are distinguishable only in consonant-stems. In some 
 instances, one case was substituted for another, or two were merged 
 in one. The combinations are given below as case-endings. The name 
 " stem " is sometimes, conveniently though incorrectly, given to that 
 part of the word as serv. in servus which precedes the case-ending. 
 
 DECL. i. 
 
 ii. 
 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 v. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. a , as, es 
 G. 8B(ai)es 
 
 us, um os, on eus 
 i (ius) o, u ei 
 
 s - (See p. 23.) 
 Is yos, Ss 
 
 tis,u 
 us (uis) 
 
 es 
 ei(e) 
 
 D. 8B(ai) 
 
 6(i) 
 
 ei, eo 
 
 I 
 
 ui(u) 
 
 ei(e) 
 
 A. am an. en 
 
 um on 
 
 ea 
 
 em(im) in, yn & 
 
 um, u 
 
 em 
 
 v. & e 
 
 eV a 
 
 eu 
 
 (as nom.) *, y 
 
 iis, u 
 
 es 
 
 A. a g 
 
 6 
 
 eo 
 
 e(i), i 
 
 u 
 
 e 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. V. SB 
 
 i a 
 
 
 es, a, ia s 
 
 us, ua 
 
 es 
 
 G. arum (um) 
 
 drum (um, 
 
 om) on 
 
 um, ium 
 
 uum 
 
 erum 
 
 D. A. Is (abus) 
 
 is (dbus) 
 
 
 ibus 
 
 ibus(iibus) 
 
 ebus 
 
 A. as 
 
 OS 
 
 
 es (Is), a, ia as 
 
 us, ua 
 
 es 
 
 N.B. Rare forms in parenthesis; Greek forms in italics. 
 
14 NOUNS. FIRST DECLENSION. [9: 1,2,3. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 9, FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends 
 in a. Latin nouns have the Nominative like the stem. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. Stella, a star. stellae, stars. 
 
 Gen. stellae, of a star. stellarum, of stars. 
 
 Dat. stellae, to a star. stellis, to stars. 
 
 Ace. stellam, a star. Stellas, stars. 
 
 Yoc. stella, thou star ! stellae, ye stars ! 
 
 Abl. stella with a star. stellis, with stars. 
 
 1. Gender. Most nouns of the first declension are Feminine. 
 Nearly all the exceptions are such as are masculine from their sig- 
 nification : as, nauta, sailor. Also, Hadria, the Adriatic. 
 
 2. Case Forms. a. The genitive singular anciently ended 
 in ai, which is occasionally found in a few authors : as, aulai. The 
 same ending occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong. 
 
 b. There is also an old genitive in as, found in the word familias 
 used in certain combinations, as, pater (mater, filius, filia) famil- 
 ias, father of a family, *c. 
 
 c. The Locative form for the singular ends in ae, and for the 
 plural in is : as, Romae, Athenis. 
 
 d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in um instead of 
 arum, especially in compounds with -c51a and -gena, signifying 
 dwelling and descent : as, caelicblum, of the heavenly ones. 
 
 e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, 
 liberta, freed-woman, equa, mare, mula, she-mule, end in an older 
 form -abus. But, except when the two sexes (as in wills, &c.) 
 are mentioned together, the form in is is also used. 
 
 3. Greek Nouns. Some Greek nouns (chiefly proper 
 names) end in as, es (M.), and e (F.) in the nominative, and an 
 or en in the accusative ; those in e have the genitive in es 
 (stem a or e) : as, 
 
 comet (XL.). laurel (F.). 
 
 N. cometes (a) daphne JEneas Anchises 
 
 G. cometas daphnes (SB) JEnese Anchlsae 
 
 D. cometaa daphne (ee) JEneaB Anchisse 
 
 Ac. cometen(am) daphnen JEnean (am) Anchisen 
 
 V. cometa daphne JEnea (a) Anchise (a) 
 
 Ab. cometa(e) daphne (a) .^Dnea Anchise (a) 
 
10: i,2, 3 .] 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 15 
 
 NOTE. This form is found only in the singular ; the plural is 
 regular : as, cometce, arum, &c. It includes (besides proper names) 
 about thirty -five words, several being names of plants ; among others 
 the following, those marked t having also regular forms in a: 
 *bule, council^ geometres, geometer ; f gram matice, grammar; harpe, 
 sickle; magice, magic; fmusice, music; fode, ode; pandectes, 
 repertory; f patriarchies, patriarch; t prophetes, prophet ; sophistes, 
 sophist; ttetrarches, tetrarch ; thymele, leader' s-stand ; t tiaras, tiara. 
 
 10. SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends 
 in o (as of vir, viro-, and of servus, servo-). 
 
 NOTE. This form is an original a-stem, to which the a-stem of 
 the first declension is the corresponding feminine. 
 
 1. The Nominative is formed from the Stem by adding s 
 (in neuters m), the characteristic 6 being weakened to u. 
 
 2. In most nouns whose stem ends in ro-, the S is not 
 added, but the is lost, e being inserted before r. 
 
 Thus ager, field (stem agro-), is the same as the Greek <rypos. 
 The exceptions are, hesperus, humerus, juniperus, morus, numerus, uterus. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 Boy. 
 
 Book. 
 
 Slave. 
 
 Gift. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 puer 
 
 liber 
 
 serviis (5s) 
 
 domim 
 
 Gen. 
 
 pueri 
 
 libri 
 
 servi 
 
 doni 
 
 Dat. 
 
 puero 
 
 libro 
 
 servo 
 
 dono 
 
 Ace. 
 
 puerum 
 
 librum 
 
 servum (om) 
 
 donum 
 
 Voc. 
 
 puer 
 
 . liber 
 
 serve 
 
 donum 
 
 Abl. 
 
 puero 
 
 libro 
 
 ser\5 
 
 dono 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 
 Norn. 
 
 pueri 
 
 libri 
 
 servi 
 
 dona 
 
 Gen. 
 
 puerorum 
 
 librorum 
 
 servorum 
 
 donorum 
 
 Dat. 
 
 pueris 
 
 libris 
 
 servis 
 
 donis 
 
 Ace. 
 
 pueros 
 
 libros 
 
 servos 
 
 dona 
 
 Voc. 
 
 pueri 
 
 libri 
 
 servi 
 
 dona 
 
 Abl. 
 
 pueris 
 
 libris 
 
 servis 
 
 donis 
 
 NOTE. The old 
 
 form os, om (for 
 
 us, um), is sometimes used 
 
 after u 
 
 or v : as, servos, servom ( 1. 2. 
 
 6.). 
 
 
 3. Gender. Nouns ending in us (os), er, ir, are Mascu- 
 line (exc. on p. 16) ; those ending in um (on) are Neuter. (But 
 which stems are M. or N. can only be learned from the Dictionary.) 
 
16 SECOND DECLENSION. [10: 4, 5, 6. 
 
 a. But names of towns in us (os) are Feminine : as, Corin- 
 thus. Also, arctus (os), the Polar Bear; alvus, belly ; carba- 
 sus, linen (plural carbasa, sails, N.); c61asr distaff; hiimus, 
 ground ; vaiinus, winnow ing-shovel ; with many names of Plants 
 and Gems. 
 
 b. The following are Neuter : pelagus, sea ; virus, poison ; 
 vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd. Their accusative, as of all neuters, 
 is the same as the nominative. 
 
 4. Case Forms, a. The Locative form for the singular of 
 this declension ends in i: as, humi, on the ground; Corinthi, at 
 Corinth. For the plural, is: as, Philippis, at Philippi. 
 
 b. The genitive of nouns in ius or ium is correctly written 
 with a single i: as, fill, of a son; inge'ni, of genius. 
 
 The same contraction occurs with the gen. sing, and the dat. 
 and abl. plur. of nouns in aius and eius : as, Grais, Pompei. 
 
 c. Proper names in ius lose e in the vocative : as, Vergi'li ; 
 also, filius, son, genius, divine guardian ; and the possessive meus, 
 
 my: as, audi, mi fili, hear, my son. 
 
 d. Greek names in ius have the vocative le; and adjectives 
 derived from proper names as Lacedaemouius also form 
 the vocative in ie. 
 
 e. In the genitive plural, um (or, after v, om) is often found 
 for orum, especially in poets. 
 
 /. Deus, god, has vocative deus ; plural, nominative and voc- 
 ative dei or di (dii) ; dative and ablative deis or dis (diis). 
 
 For the genitive plural deorum, divum or divom (from 
 divus) is often used. 
 
 ^ 5 The following stems in Sro, in which e belongs to the stem, 
 retain e throughout: puer, boy ; gener, son-in-law; socer, father- 
 in-law ; vesper, evening ; with compounds in -fer and -ger : as, 
 lucifer, -fe"ri f light-bringer ; armiger, -geri, armor^bearer. 
 
 a. Vir, man, has the genitive viri ; the adjective satur, sated, 
 has saturi ; vesper has abl. vespere (loc. vesperi). 
 
 b. Liber, a name of Bacchus, also has Liberi ; so, too, the 
 pi ir. liberi, children. 
 
 >^ 6. The following, which insert e, are declined like liber: 
 ager, field; aper, boar; arbiter, judge; auster, south-wind; 
 caper, goat; coluber, snake; conger, sea-eel; culter, knife; 
 faber, smith; fiber, beaver; geometer, geometer ; magister, mas- 
 ter ; minister, servant ; oleaster, wild-olive ; onager (grus), wild- 
 ass; scomber (brus), mackerel. 
 
11, I.] THIRD DECLENSION. 17 
 
 7. Greek Nouns, a. Many Greek names in eus, as Or- 
 pheus (being of the third declension in Greek), have gen. ei 
 or eos, dat. ei; ace. ea; voc. eu; abl. eo. 
 
 b. Many in es, belonging to the third declension, have also a 
 gen. in i: as, Thucydidi 
 
 c. Some Greek names in er have a form in us : as, Teucer, 
 Teucrus. 
 
 d. About twenty words have the Greek ending 6s (M. or r.) 
 or 6n (N.): as, lotos, water-lily; parelion, mock-sun. Among 
 these are the following : 
 
 Barbitos (on), lyre; miltos, cinnabar; mythos, fable ; nomos, 
 district; rhythmos, rhythm; scopes, aim; spodos (F.), dross. 
 
 11. THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 Nouns of the Third Declension are most conveni- 
 ently classed according to their Stems, whether ending 
 in a vowel, a liquid, or a mute. 
 
 I. VOWEL-STEMS. 
 
 1. Vowel-stems of this declension end in i. Thus that of 
 turris is turri- ; and that of mare, mari-. 
 
 a. Nouns of this class are parisyllabic ; that is, the oblique 
 cases of the singular have no more syllables than the nominative. 
 (For exceptions in al, ar, see 2, c.) 
 
 b. A few stems ending in u-, as of grus, sus, were treated as 
 consonant-stems. (See HI. 4, a.) 
 
 2. The Nominative, except in neuters, is formed from the 
 stem by adding S. 
 
 a. About thirty nouns (as nubes) change i to e in the nom- 
 inative (Compare Note, p. 22). 
 
 These are acindces, alces, ccedes, cautes, clades, compdges, contages, 
 crates, fames, feles,Jides, labes, meles, moles, nubes, proles, propdges, sedes, 
 sepes, sordes, strayes, suboles, sudes, tabes, torques, tudes, vates, vehes, vetres. 
 
 b. The nominative of a few stems in ri- does not add s, but loses 
 i, inserting e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter. 
 
 c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the 
 change of i to e. But, when i is preceded by al or ar, the e is 
 lost (except in collar e, mare, navale, tibiale). 
 
 NOTE. This latter class were originally neuters of adjectives in 
 alls, aris ; and, when used as adjectives, retain the e. They are the 
 following : animal, cervical, cubital, puteal, toral, tribunal ; calcar, cochlear, 
 exemplar y lacunar t laquear, lumlnar, palear, pulvlnar, torcular, vectlgal. 
 
18 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 [11, I. 
 
 
 s/ 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 Tower (F.). 
 
 Cloud (F.). 
 
 Sea ( N.). 
 
 Nom. 
 
 turris 
 
 nubes 
 
 mare 
 
 Gen. 
 
 turris 
 
 nubis 
 
 maris 
 
 Dat. 
 
 turri 
 
 nubi 
 
 mari 
 
 Ace. 
 
 turrim (em) 
 
 nubem 
 
 marS 
 
 Voc. 
 
 turris 
 
 nubes 
 
 mare 
 
 Abl. 
 
 turri (e) 
 
 nube 
 
 mari 
 
 Spur (N.). 
 
 calcar 
 
 calcaris 
 
 calcari 
 
 calcar 
 
 calcar 
 
 calcari 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 turres 
 
 nubes 
 
 Gen. 
 
 turrium 
 
 nubium 
 
 Dat. 
 
 turribus 
 
 nubibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 turris (es) 
 
 nubes 
 
 Voe. 
 
 turres 
 
 nubes 
 
 Abl. 
 
 turribus 
 
 nubibus 
 
 maria 
 
 marium 
 
 maribus 
 
 maria 
 
 maria 
 
 maribus 
 
 calcaria 
 
 calcarium 
 
 calcaribus 
 
 calcaria 
 
 calcaria 
 
 calcaribus 
 
 3. Case Forms, a. The regular form of the accusative 
 singular, M. and F., is im (as am, um, em of the other vowel- 
 declensions). But, in most nouns, this was supplanted by the con- 
 sonant-form em ; and it is only retained in the following : 
 
 1. Exclusively (1) in Greek nouns and names of rivers; (2) in 
 burls, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis ; (3) in adverbs in tim (being ace. 
 of nouns in tis), with partim and amussim ; 
 
 2. Along with em infebris,restis, turris, securis, sementis, and (in 
 one or two passages) in many other words. 
 
 &. The regular form of the ablative singular is i (as in the 
 other declensions a, 6, u, e, with loss of the original d). This 
 was also supplanted by e, and retained only 
 
 1. Exclusively (1) in those above having accusative in im; also 
 securis, and the following adjectives used as nouns : cequalis, annalis, 
 aqualis, consular is, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris, tribulis ; (2) in neuters 
 (as above), except baccar, jubar, and sometimes (in verse) mare, rete; 
 
 2. Along with e in avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis (always aqua et 
 igni interdict), imber, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigilis, turris; 
 and the following adjectives used as nouns : affinis, bipennis, canalis, 
 familiaris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, triremis, vocalis. 
 
 3. The ablative of fames, hunger, is always of the Fifth declen- 
 sion. The defective mane, morning, has sometimes abl. mani. 
 
 4. Most names of towns in e as Prceneste, Ccere and the 
 mountain Soracte, have the ablative in e. 
 
11, H.] THIRD DECLENSION. LIQUID STEMS. 19 
 
 c. The regular nominative plural would be is, but this is 
 rarely found. The regular accusative is is common, but not 
 exclusively used in any word. 
 
 d. The regular genitive plural ium is retained by all except 
 the following: 
 
 (1) ambages and volucris (always um) ; (2) vates (commonly urn) ; 
 (3) apis, ccedes, clades, suboles (rarely um) ; (4) cams, juvenis, mensis, had 
 not originally vowel-stems, and retain um ; but mensis has both. 
 
 4. Greek Nouns. A few Greek nouns in is have the ace. 
 im or in, voc. i, abl. i. 
 
 Many in es have forms of the First or Second Declension : as, 
 Achilles, gen. ei or i, dat. i, ace. en, ea, voc. e, abl. i. 
 
 NOTE. Nouns such as urbs, pars, having the genitive plural ium 
 and the accusative (occasionally) is, were originally vowel-stems. 
 
 II. LIQUID STEMS. 
 
 In nouns whose stem ends in a liquid (1, n, r), the nom- 
 inative has no termination, but is the same as the stem, except 
 when modified as follows : 
 
 a. Final n of the stem is dropped in masculines and feminines, 
 except some Greek nouns : as, leon-is, leo ; legion-is, legio. 
 
 b. Stems ending in din-, gin- (mostly feminine) retain in the 
 nominative an original o : as, virgo. Tfyose in in- preceded by 
 any other consonant retain an original e : as, carmen, inis, N. ; 
 cornicen, mis, M. (Exceptions iv. 2, 6.) 
 
 c. Nouns whose stem ends in tr retain in the nominative an 
 original e: as, pater (compare i. 2, b.). 
 
 d. In neuters whose stem ends in er, Sr, fir, the r was originally 
 s, which is retained in the nominative, 6 of the stem being weak- 
 ened into ii: as, opus, eris: corpus, oris. A few masc. and 
 fern, stems also retain s. (Exceptions iv. 2, 6.) 
 
 e. Stems in 11, rr, lose one of these liquids in the nominative. 
 /. The following have gen. plur. ium: glis, mas, ren, mus. 
 
 SING. Consul. PLUR. j SING. -Name. PLUR. 
 
 Nom. consul consules nSmen nomina 
 
 Gen. consulis consulum nomfnis nominum 
 
 Dat. consuli consulibus nomini nominibus 
 
 Ace. consulem consules nomen nomina 
 
 Voc. consul consules nomen nomina 
 
 Abl. consule consulibus nomine nominibus 
 
20 THIRD DECLENSION. - MUTE STEMS. [11,111. 
 
 Honor, M. . Lion, M. Father, M. Tree, F. Maiden, F. Work, N. 
 Sing. 
 
 N. V. h5n6r leo pater arbor virgo opus 
 
 G. honoris leonjs patris arbdris virgmis operis 
 
 D. honor! leoni patri arbor! virgin! operi 
 
 A. honorem leonem patrem arb5rem virginem opus 
 
 A. honore leone patre arb6re virgme opere 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N. A. V. honores leones patres arbSres virgines opera 
 
 G. honorum leonum patrum arbSrum virginum operum 
 
 D. Ab. honoribus leonibus patribus arboribus virginibus operibus 
 
 III. MUTE STEMS. 
 
 Masculine or feminine nouns whose stem ends in a Mute 
 form the nominative by adding s. Neuters have for nomina- 
 tive the simple stem. 
 
 NOTE. If the stem ends in two consonants, the genitive plural 
 generally has ium (n. 8, N.). Some of these, originally i-stems, 
 have also an old nominative in is : as, trabis, urbis. 
 
 1. Labial. If the mute is a labial (b, p), s is simply 
 added to the stem. 
 
 a. Stems in ip- retain in the nominative an original e, the 
 vowel having been weakened in the other cases : as, princeps, ipis. 
 
 &. Most stems in cip- (M.) are compounds of the root cap (in 
 capio) take: as, auceps (avi-ceps), bird-catcher. 
 
 In these the stem sometimes has the form cup-, as aucupis. 
 
 c. The only noun whose stem ends in in is hiemps, winter. 
 (For the insertion of p, see note, foot of p. 3.) 
 
 SING. City, F. PLUR. SING. Chief. PLUR. 
 
 Norn, urbs urbes princeps principes 
 
 Gen. urbis urbium principis princlpum 
 
 Dat. urbi urbibus principi principibus 
 
 Ace. urbem urbes principem principes 
 
 Voc. urbs urbes princeps principes 
 
 Abl. urbe urbibus principe principibus 
 
 2. Lingual. If the mute is a lingual (d, t), it is sup- 
 pressed before s. 
 
 a. Stems in it- (M. or F.) retain in the nominative an original 
 e : as, hospgs, itis. (In a few, as comes, the e is not original.) 
 
 NOTE. The only nominative in't is caput, ttis. 
 
 b. Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending 
 in at- (Greek nouns), drop the final lingual in the nominative : as, 
 cor, cordis; poema, atis. 
 
11,111.] THIRD DECENSION. MUTE STEMS. 21 
 
 SING. Guard. PLUR. SING. Companion. PLUR. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 custos custodes 
 
 comes comltes 
 
 Gen. 
 
 custodis custodum 
 
 comitis comftum 
 
 Dat. 
 
 custodi custodibus 
 
 comiti cormtibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 custodem custodes 
 
 comitem comites 
 
 Voc. 
 
 custos custodes 
 
 comes comftes 
 
 Abl. 
 
 custode custodibus 
 
 comite comitibus 
 
 Sing. 
 N. V. 
 
 Age, F. Heart, M. Stone, M. 
 eetas cor lapis 
 
 Family, F. Head, N. Poem, N. 
 gens caput poema 
 
 G. 
 
 SBtatis cordis lapidis 
 
 gentis capitis poematis 
 
 D. 
 
 setati cordi lapidi 
 
 genti capiti poemati 
 
 A. 
 
 setatem cor lapidem 
 
 gent em caput poema 
 
 A. 
 
 setate(i) corde lapide 
 
 gente capite poemate 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 N. A. V. 
 
 eetates corda lapides 
 
 gentes capita poemata 
 
 G. 
 D. Ab. 
 
 setatum (ium) lapidum 
 setatibus cordibus lapidibus 
 
 gentium capitum poematum 
 gentibus capitibus poematis 
 
 
 
 (or ibus) 
 
 c. Case-forms. Some nouns of lingual stems have forms 
 of the vowel-declension. 
 
 1. Participles used as nouns, and a few others originally i-stems, 
 occasionally have the ablative in i : as, continenti, cetati, parti, sorti. 
 
 2. Stems in tat- (originally i-stems), nt- (participles used as nouns), 
 d or t preceded by a consonant, also dis, lis, and pons, regularly 
 have the genitive plural ium. 
 
 3. Names denoting birth or abode, with stems in at-, it- (originally 
 adjectives), with penates, optimates, regularly have the gen. plur. ium. 
 
 d. Greek neuters (as poema), with nom. sing, in a, frequently 
 end the dat. and abl. plur. in is, and rarely the gen. in orum. 
 
 3. Palatal. If the mute is a palatal (c, g), it unites 
 with s in the nominative, forming x. 
 
 a. Stems in ic- (short i) have nom. in ex, and are chiefly mas- 
 culine ; those in ic- (long i) retain i, and are feminine. 
 
 &. In nix, nivis, snow, the nom. retains a palatal lost in the 
 other cases (original stem snig-, compare ningit) ; supellex 
 (-ectilis) is partly a lingual, partly an i-stem. 
 
 SING. Peak, M. PLUR. SING. Raven, F. PLUR. 
 
 Nom. apex apfces cornix cornices 
 
 Gen. apicis aplcum cormcis cornlcum 
 
 Dat. apici apicibus cornlci cornlcibus 
 
 Ace. apicem apices cornlcem cornices 
 
 Voc. apex apices cornix cornices 
 
 Abl. apice aptcibus cornice cornlcibus 
 
22 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION: MUTE STEMS. [11: in. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Peace, p. 
 
 "King, M. 
 
 Light, P. 
 
 Fruit, p. 
 
 Citadel, P. 
 
 Throat. 
 
 N. 
 
 pax 
 
 rex 
 
 lux 
 
 [frux] 
 
 arx 
 
 
 
 G. 
 
 pacis 
 
 regis 
 
 lucis 
 
 frugis 
 
 arcis 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 paci 
 
 regi 
 
 luci 
 
 frugi 
 
 arci 
 
 
 
 Ac. 
 
 pacem 
 
 regem 
 
 lucem 
 
 frugem 
 
 arcem 
 
 
 
 Ab. 
 
 pace 
 
 rege 
 
 luce 
 
 fruge 
 
 arce 
 
 fauce 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. A. V. 
 
 paces 
 
 reges 
 
 luces 
 
 fruges 
 
 arces 
 
 fauces 
 
 G. 
 
 
 
 regum 
 
 
 
 frugum 
 
 arcium 
 
 faucium 
 
 D. Ab. 
 
 pacibus 
 
 regibus 
 
 lucibus 
 
 frugibus 
 
 arcibus 
 
 faucibus 
 
 c. Case-forms. A few monosyllables, as faux (def.), arx, 
 have gen. plur. ium ; in lux, an abl. luci occurs rarely. 
 
 4. Peculiar Forms. In many nouns the stem is vari- 
 ously modified in the nominative. 
 
 a. The vowel-stems gru-, su-, simply add s, retaining the 
 original u ; grus 'has also a nom. griiis ; sus has in pi. subus. 
 
 b. In bov- (bou-), the diphthong ou becomes 6 (bos, bbvis) ; 
 in nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, is) ; in J6v-(=Zei;f) the diph- 
 thong becomes u in Ju-piter (pater), gen. Jbvis, &c. 
 
 c. In iter, itineris (N.), jecur, jecinoris (N.), the nom. has 
 been formed from a shorter stem ; so that these words show a 
 combination of two distinct forms. 
 
 d. Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (pi. vasa, 
 orum) retains its proper declension. 
 
 NOTE. Of apparent s-stems, as (assis) is an i-stem ; of os, ossis, 
 the original stem is osti- (cf. OO-TCOV and Sanskrit asthi} ; while the 
 others have either (1) passed into r-stems (changed from s) in most of 
 the cases, as honor, oris, corpus, oris (see liquid stems] ; or (2) have 
 broken down into i-stems, as moles (cf. molestus), nubes (Sanskrit 
 nabhas), sedes (cf. <-8os), vis (vires), &c. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Ox, c. 
 
 Snow, P. 
 
 Old Man, 
 
 M. Flesh, p. 
 
 N. 
 
 bos 
 
 nix 
 
 senex 
 
 caro 
 
 G. 
 
 b6vis 
 
 nivis 
 
 senis 
 
 carnis 
 
 D. 
 
 bdvi 
 
 nivi 
 
 seni 
 
 carni 
 
 A. 
 
 bCvem 
 
 nivem 
 
 senem 
 
 carne 
 
 A. 
 
 bQve 
 
 nivS 
 
 sSnS 
 
 came 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. A. 
 
 V. bQves 
 
 nives 
 
 sSnes 
 
 carnes 
 
 G. 
 
 b6um 
 
 
 
 senum 
 
 
 
 D. A. 
 
 bobus 
 
 nivlbus 
 
 senlbus 
 
 carnibu 
 
 
 (bubus) 
 
 
 
 
 Bone, N. 
 
 6s 
 
 ossis 
 
 ossi 
 
 6s 
 
 osse 
 
 Force. P. 
 VIS 
 
 vis 
 
 vim 
 vi 
 
 ossa vires 
 
 ossium virium 
 ossibus viribus 
 
 5. The Locative form for nouns of the Third declension emls, 
 like the dative, in I; sometimes, like the ablative, in e: as, ruri, 
 I/I the country ; Karthagini, at Carthage ; Tibiire (Hor.), at 
 Tibur ; plural in ibus: as, Trallibus, at Tralles. 
 
 6. Greek Nouns. Many nouns, originally Greek, - 
 mostly proper names, retain Greek forms of inflection. 
 
 a. Stems in in- (i long) add s in the nominative, omitting n : 
 as, delphis (but also delphin), Salamis. So Phorcys. 
 
11: IIL, iv.] THIRD DECLENSION: RULES OF GENDER. 23 
 
 b. Most stems in id- (nom. is) often have also the forms of 
 i-stems : as, tigris, idis (idos) or is; ace. idem (Ida) or im; abl. 
 ide or i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have 
 ace. idem (ida), abl. ide, not im and i. These follow the 
 forms in Greek, which depend on the place of the accent. 
 
 c. Stems in 6n- sometimes retain n: as, Agamemnon (or 
 Agamemno), onis, ace. ona. 
 
 d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in on: as, horizon, Xeiio- 
 phon ; but a few are occasionally latinized into on- (nom. o) : as, 
 Draco, onis. 
 
 e. Stems in ant-, ent-, have nom. in as, is : as, adamas, 
 antis ; Simois, entis. So a few in unt- (contr. from cent-) have 
 us : as, Trapezus, untis. Occasionally the Latin form of nom- 
 inative is also found : as, Atlans, elephans. 
 
 /. Case- Forms. Many Greek nouns (especially in the 
 poets) have gen. 6s, ace. a; plur. nom. es, aec. as: as, aer, 
 aether, crater, hero (ois), lampas (adis or ados), lynx (cis 
 or c6s), nais (idos), Orpheus (eos). 
 
 g. A few in ys have ace. yn, voc. y ; abl. ye : as, chelys, 
 yn, y ; Capys, yos, yn, y, ye. 
 
 h. Several feminine names in 6 have gen. sing, us, all the 
 other cases ending in o ; they may also have regular forms : as, 
 Dido; gen. Didonis or Did us; dat. Didoni or Dido, &c. 
 
 IV. RULES OF GENDER. 
 
 1. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns 
 of the third declension, classed according to the termination 
 of the nominative. 
 
 NOTE. Rules of gender are mostly only rules of memory, as 
 there is no necessary connection between the form and gender. In 
 fact, most nouns could originally be inflected in all genders. 
 
 ^ a. Masculine endings are o, or, os, er, es (idis, itis). 
 
 b. Feminine endings are as (atis), es (is), is, ys, x, s (follow- 
 ing a consonant) ; also, do, go, io (abstract and collective) , and 
 us (udis, utis). 
 
 1 c. Neuter endings are a, e, i, y ; c, 1, t ; men (minis) ; ar, 
 ur, us (eris, 6ris). . 
 
 2. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns 
 of the third declension, classed according to their stems. 
 
 NOTE. See the Note above. But the preference of masc. and 
 fern, (especially fern.) for long vowels cannot be accidental (compare 
 long a of 1st declension). Some affixes also prefer one or another 
 gender: as, tor (originally tar), masculine ; ti, feminine ; men (origi- 
 nally man), neuter. 
 
24 THIRD DECLENSION: RULES OF GENDER. [11: iv 
 
 a. Vowel Stems. Stems in i, having a in the nominative 
 are feminine, except those mentioned below (3, a). Those havinj 
 nominative in S, or which drop the e, are neuter. 
 
 &. Liquid Stems. Stems in 1 are masculine, except si] 
 fel, mel, and sometimes sal (N ). Those in mln are neuter, ex 
 cept homo, nemo, flamen (M.). Others in in are masculine 
 except pollen^ unguen (N.). Those in en are masculine. Tho,* 
 in din, gin, ion (abstract and collective) are feminine. Other 
 in on, with cardo, margo, ordo, unio, senio, quaternio, an 
 masculine. Those in r preceded by a short vowel are neufer 
 except nearly 30 given below. Those in r preceded by a lon< 
 vowel are masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, tellus, F. ; crus 
 jus, pus, rus, tus (in which the long vowel is due to contraction), N 
 
 c. Labial Sterns (no neuters). Stems in b and m ar< 
 feminine, except chalybs. Those in p are chiefly masculim 
 
 (exceptions below). 
 
 d. Lingual Stems. Stems in ad, ed, id, nd, ud, aud, ar< 
 feminine, except dromas, pes, quadrupes, obses, praeses 
 lapis (M.). Those in at, ut, are feminine, except patrials (a; 
 Arpinas), with penates and optimates. Those in ed, et, arc 
 masculine, except merces and quies with its compounds. Those 
 in et, it, are m,asculine, except abies, merges, seges, teges (F.) 
 and those which are common from signification. Those in at arc 
 neuter ; those in nt various (see List) ; those in It, rt, feminine 
 (For a few isolated forms, see List.) 
 
 e. Palatal Stems. Stems in c preceded by a consonant 
 or long vowel are feminine, except calx (stone or heel), decunx 
 phoenix, storax, vervex, M. Those in c preceded by a shorl 
 vowel are chiefly masculine (for exceptions, see List) ; those in g, 
 masculine, except frux, lex, phalanx, syrinx (also nix, nivis), 
 
 3. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns of 
 the Third Declension, classed according to their Stems. 
 
 a. Vowel-Stems. 
 
 es, is: about 35 nouns (original s-stems, list p. 17), feminine, 
 
 except tudes, hammer ; vates, prophet ; verres, pig (M.). 
 Is, is: about 100 nouns, chiefly feminine. 
 
11: iv., 3-] THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OP INFLECTION. 25 
 
 e, is : upwards of 20 nouns, all neuter. 
 
 al, alls; ar, arts: 16, neuter (see list, page 17; and for those 
 
 in ar, aris, see Liquid Stems), 
 er, ris : imber, shower ; linter, boat ; uter, bag ; venter, stom- 
 
 ach^ all M. except linter, which is commonly F. 
 PECULIAR: grus, gruis, crane, F. ; rhus, rhois (ace. rhum), 
 sumach, M. ; sus, suis, hog, c. ; heros, herois, hero, M. ; misy, 
 yos, truffle, F. ; oxys, yos, sorrel, F. ; cinnibari, vermilion ; 
 gummi, gum; sinapi, mustard (indecl.), N. 
 
 b. Liquid Stems. 
 
 1, lis : 9 nouns, masculine, except sil, ochre, and (sometimes) 
 sal, salt, N. 
 
 en, enis: hymen, marriage; ren, kidney ; splen (enis), spleen, M. 
 
 en, mis: 10 nouns, M. except pollen, Jlour ; unguen, oint- 
 ment, N. 
 
 men, minis (verbal): about 30 nouns, neuter; but flamen, 
 priest, M. 
 
 on, onis (Greek) : canon, rule ; daemon, divinity ; gnomon, 
 
 index, M. ; aedon, nightingale; alcyon, kingfisher; ancon, 
 
 corner; sindon, fine linen, F. 
 o, onis : nearly 60 nouns, all masculine. 
 
 io, ionis (material objects, &c.) : about 30 nouns, masculine. 
 io, ionis (abstract and collective) : upwards of 50, feminine. 
 o, inis: homo, man ; turbo, whirlwind, M. ; nemo, no one, c. 
 do, dmis : nearly 50 nouns, feminine excepting cardo, hinge; 
 
 ordo, rank, M. 
 
 go, ginis : about 30 nouns, feminine. 
 ar, aris : baccar, valerian ; jubar, sunbeam ; nectar, nectar, N. ; 
 
 lar, household god ; salar, trout, M. 
 
 gr, ris: accipiter, hawk ; frater, brother; pater, father, M. ; 
 mater, mother. 
 
 er, eris (Greek) : crater, cup ; halter, dumb-bell ; prester, water- 
 spout, M. 
 
 er, eris : acipenser, hawk ; aer, air ; aether, ether ; anser, goose ; 
 
 asser, stake ; aster, star ; cancer, crab ; career, dungeon ; 
 
 later, brick ; passer, sparrow, M. ; mulier, woman, F. ; 
 
 acer, maple ; cadaver, corpse ; cicer, vetch ; papaver, poppy ; 
 
 piper, pepper ; tuber, hump ; uber, udder ; verber, lash, N. 
 is, eris: cinis, ashes; cucumis, cucumber; pulvis, dust; vomis, 
 
 ploughshare, M. 
 5r (os), oris : nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the agent, 
 
 formed upon verb-stems), all masculine, except soror, sister ; 
 
 uxor, wife. 
 
26 THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OF INFLECTION. [11: iv., 3. 
 
 or, 8ris: castor, beaver ; rhetor, rhetorician, M. ; arbor, tree, 
 
 F. ; ador, fine-wheat ; aequor, level; marmor, marble, N. 
 6s, oris: flos, flower ; mos, custom ; ros, dew, M. ; glos, sister- 
 in-law, F. ; os, mouth, N. 
 ur, 6ris: ebur, ivory; femur, thigh; jecur, liver; robur (or), 
 
 strength, N. 
 
 iir, uris: 9 masculine; with fulgur, thunderbolt; murmur, mur- 
 mur ; sulphur, brimstone, N. 
 us, eris: 13 neuter; also, Venus, F. 
 us, oris : 14 nouns, neuter, except lepus, hare, M. 
 us, uris: mus, mouse, M. ; tellus, earth, F. ; crus, leg ; jus, 
 
 right ; pus, fester ; rus, country ; tus, incense, N. 
 PECULIAR: delphin, mis, dolphin; sanguis (en) mis, blood; 
 senex, senis, old man, N. ; caro, carnis, flesh, F, ; aes, aeris, cop- 
 per; far, farris, corn ; fel, fellis, gall; mel, mellis, honey; iter, 
 itineris, journey; jecur, jecinoris (jecoris), liver, N. ; glis,-iris, 
 dormouse, M. 
 
 c. Labial. 
 
 bs, bis : chalybs, steel, M. ; plebs, people ; scrobs, ditch ; 
 
 trabs, beam ; urbs, city, F. (original i-stems). 
 ms, mis: hiemps, winter, F. 
 ps, pis : 15 nouns, masculine, except forceps, pincers ; merops, 
 
 bee-eater ; ops, help ; stips, gift; stirps, stock, F. 
 
 d. Lingual. 
 
 as, adis (Greek) : 14 nouns, feminine, except dromas, drome- 
 dary ; vas, surety, M. 
 
 es, edis : cupes, epicure ; heres, heir ; praes, surety, M. ; 
 merces, pay, F. 
 
 es, edis; pes, foot; quadrupes, quadruped, M. ; compes, 
 fetter, F. 
 
 is, idis: obses, hostage; praeses, chief, c. 
 
 is, idis : nearly 40 nouns, mostly Greek, feminine, except lapis, 
 
 stone, M. 
 
 os, odis : custos, guardian, M. 
 
 6s, otis : nepos, grandson, M. ; cos, whetstone ; dos, dowry, F. 
 us, udis: incus, anvil; palus, marsh; subscus, dovetail; with 
 
 fraus, fraud ; laus, praise ; pecus, udis, sheep, F. 
 
 a, atis (Greek) : nearly 20 nouns, neuter. 
 
 as, atis: about 20 nouns (besides derivatives), feminine; also, 
 anas, atis, duck. 
 
 es, etis: celes, race-horse; lebes, kettle; magnes, magnet, M. ; 
 quies, requies, rest ; inquies, unrest, F. 
 
11: iv., 3-] THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OF INFLECTION. 27 
 
 es, etis: aries, ram; interpres, interpreter; paries, house-wall, 
 
 M. ; abies,^r; seges, crop ; teges, mat, F. 
 
 es, itis : about 20 nouns, masculine (or common from significa- 
 tion) . 
 us, utis: juventus, youth; senectus, old age; servitus, slavery; 
 
 virtus, virtue, F. 
 
 ns, ndis: frons, leaf; glans, acorn; juglans, walnut, F. 
 ns, ntis : nearly 20 (besides many participial nouns) , common, 
 except dens, tooth; fons, fountain; mons, mountain; pons, 
 bridge, M. ; frons, brow; gens, nation; lens, lentile; mens, 
 mind, F. 
 rs, rtis (originally i-steins) : ars, art; cohors, cohort; fors, 
 
 chance ; mors, death ; sors, lot, F. 
 ys, ydis : chelys, tortoise ; chlamys, cloak, F. 
 
 PECULIAR: as, assis, penny, M.; lis, litis, lawsuit; nox, 
 noctis, night; puls, pultis, pottage, F. ; caput, itis, head ; cor, 
 cordis, heart; hepar, ads, liver; os, ossis, bone; vas, vasis, ves- 
 sel, N. ; also, compounds of -pus, -pSdis (M.), Gr. for pes,foot. 
 
 e. Palatal. 
 
 ax, acis : anthrax, coal ; corax, raven ; frax (pl.) dregs ; pan- 
 ax, panacea ; scolopax, woodcock, M. ; fax, torch ; styrax, 
 a gum, F. 
 
 ax, acis: cnodax, pivot; cordax, a dance ; thorax, breastplate, 
 M. ; pax, peace, F. 
 
 ex, icis : upwards of 40 nouns, masculine, except carex, 
 sedge ; forfex, shears ; ilex, holm ; imbrex, tile ; nex (necis), 
 violent death ; pellex, concubine, F. 
 
 ix, icis: about 30 nouns (also, larix, icis, larch), feminine ; 
 besides many in trix, regular feminines of nouns in tpr. 
 
 ox, ocis : celox, cutter, F. 
 
 ux, ucis : dux, leader, c. ; crux, cross; nux, nut, F. 
 
 ux, ucis : balux, gold-dust ; lux, light, F. 
 
 x, cis : arx, tower ; calx, lime ; falx, pruning-knife ; lynx, lynx ; 
 merx (def.), ivare, F. ; calyx, cup; calx, heel, M. 
 
 x, gis: conjux (nx), spouse; grex, herd; remex, rower; rex, 
 king, M. or c. ; frux (def.), fruit ; lex, law; phalanx, pha- 
 lanx, F., with a few rare names of animals. 
 
 Other nouns in x are nix, nivis, mow; nox, noctis, night; su- 
 pellex, ectilis, F. ; onyx, ychis, onyx, M. 
 
 *" of "^ \ 
 
 i v IMP VI f^ ?* T 171 W 1 
 
28 FOURTH DECLENSION. [12: I, 2, 3. 
 
 12. FOURTH DECLENSION. 
 
 The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends 
 in u. (Usually this is weakened to i before -bus). 
 
 1. Masculine and feminine nouns form the nominative by 
 adding s ; neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but 
 with u (long). 
 
 NOTE. The u in neuters is lengthened, probably on account of 
 the loss of m. 
 
 SING. Car(M.) PLUR. SING. Knee (N.) PLUR. 
 
 Nom. currus currus genu genua 
 
 Gen. currus (uis) curruum genu (us) genuum 
 
 Dat. currui (u) curribus genu genibus 
 
 Ace. currum currus genu genua 
 
 Voc. currus currus genu genua 
 
 Abl. curru curribus ' g en ^ ' genibus 
 
 NOTE. The Genitive singular is contracted from the old form in 
 uis. It is sometimes written with a circumflex : as, currus. 
 
 2. Gender* a. Most nouns in us are masculine. The 
 following are feminine : acus, needle ; anus, old woman ; colus, 
 distaff; dSmus, house; idus (pi.), the Ides; manus, hand; 
 nurus, daughter-in-law ; , porticus, gallery ; quinquatrus, feast 
 of Minerva ; socrus, mother-in-law ; tribus, tribe ; with a few 
 names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, specus. 
 
 b. The only neuters are cornu, horn ; genu, knee ; pecu (def.), 
 cattle ; veru, spit. (Some others are mentioned by grammarians, 
 and the form ossua, as from ossu, occurs in inscriptions.) 
 
 3. Case-Forms. a. An original genitive in os is some- 
 times found : as, senatuos ; and an old (but not original) geni- 
 
 in i is used by some writers. 
 
 &. The nominative plural has rarely the form uus. 
 
 C. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into urn. 
 
 d. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural 
 in iibus : artus, partus, portus, tribus, veru ; with dissyllables 
 in -cus, as lacus. 
 
 e. D5mus, house, has also the following forms of the second 
 declension : domi (locative; less frequently domui), at home ; 
 dative (rarely) domo ; ablative domo (rarely domu) ; plural gen. 
 domorum (rarely domuum) ; accusative domes (or domus). 
 
13: I, 2.] FIFTH DECLENSION. 29 
 
 /. Most names of plants, with colus, distaff, have also forms 
 of the second declension. 
 
 4. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb- 
 stems, with the suffix -tus : as, cantus, song, from cano. 
 
 a. The Supines of verbs are the accusative and ablative (or 
 dative, perhaps both) of these nouns. 
 
 #. Many have only the genitive, or the genitive and ablative : 
 as, jussu (meo), by my command ; so injussu (populi), without 
 the people's order. Some only the dative, memoratui, divisui. 
 
 C. The remaining nouns of this declension are the following : 
 
 sestus, heat; arcus, bow; artus, joint; coetus, meeting ; fetus, pro- 
 duce; ftcus,Jig ; gradus, step; incestus, incest; lacus, lake; laurus, 
 laurel; myrtus, myrtle; penus (def.), provision; pinus, pine; portus, 
 port; rictus, gape; senatus, senate; sinus, fold, bay; situs, dust; 
 specus, den; tonitrus, thunder; tumultus, tumult. 
 
 NOTE. Several of these are formed upon verb-stqms not in use, 
 or obsolete. ' * 
 
 13. FIFTH DECLENSION. 
 
 The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends 
 in e, which appears in all the cases. 
 
 1. The nominative is formed from the stem by adding s. 
 
 SING. 77um7(F.)pLUR. SING. Z%(M.) PLUR. Faith (F.) 
 
 Nom. res res dies dies fides 
 
 Gen. rei rerum diei (die) dierum fidei 
 
 Dat. rei rebus diei (die) diebus fidei 
 
 Ace. rem res diem dies fidem 
 
 Voc. res res dies dies fides 
 
 Abl. re rebus die diebus fide 
 
 NOTE. The e is shortened in the genitive and dative singular, 
 when not preceded by i ; viz., in fides, plebes, spes, res. 
 
 2. Gender, All nouns of this declension are feminine, 
 except dies and meridies, M. 
 
 NOTE. Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in 
 phrases indicating a fixed time, or time in general : as, longa dies, 
 a long time ; constituta die, on the set day ; also in the poets : pulcra 
 dies, a fair day. 
 
30 IRREGULAR NOUNS. [13, 14: I. 
 
 3. Case-Forms. The genitive singular anciently ended in 
 es (cf. as of first declension) ; and ei was sometimes contracted 
 into i or e, as in the phrase plebi-scitum, peoples decree (Fr. 
 plebiscite). An old dative in i or e also occurs. 
 
 4. Several nouns of the fifth declension have also forms of the 
 first, of which this is only a variety : as, niateria, -ies, timber ; 
 saevitia, -ies, cruelty. 
 
 NOTE. Nouns in ies (except dies) are original a-stems. The 
 others are probably (excepting res) corrupted s-stems, like moles, 
 moles-tus ; dies, diurnus ; spes, spero. Requies (etis) has also forms of 
 this declension ; with others, as saties (for satietas), &c. 
 
 5. The Locative form of this declension is represented by -e, 
 as in hodie, to-day ; perendie, day-after-to-morrow ; die quarti, 
 the fourth day. 
 
 6. Of about forty nouns of this declension, the only ones com- 
 plete in all their parts are dies and res. Most want the plural, 
 which is, however, found in the nominative, accusative, and voca- 
 tive, in the following: acies, effigies, eluvies, facies, glacies, 
 progenies, series, species, spes. 
 
 14, IRREGULAR NOUNS. 
 
 1. Defective. Many nouns are defective in their forms 
 of declension, either from signification or by accident of use. 
 
 a. Some are found only in the singular (singularia tantum), 
 chiefly abstract nouns: as, pietas, piety; names of materials and 
 things weighed or measured (not counted) : as, aes, copper, far, 
 coin ; and proper names, as Cicero. 
 
 Abstract nouns in the plural may denote repetitions or instances, 
 as paces: names of things measured, &c., kinds or samples, as 
 vina, wines, aera, brazen utensils ; proper names, two or more of 
 the same, as Scipiones. So Galliae, the two Gauls, CastSres, 
 Castor and Pollux, nives, snowflakes, soles, days, Joves, images 
 of Jupiter, palatia, the buildings on the hill. 
 
 b. Some are found only in the Plural (pluralia tantum) : these 
 include (1) many proper names, including those of Festivals and 
 Games ; (2) names of classes : as, majores, ancestors ; liberi, 
 children ; penates, household gods ; (3) the following from sig- 
 nification : arma, weapons ; artus, joints ; divitiae, riches ; excu- 
 biae, night-guard ; insidiae, ambush ; manes, departed spirits ; 
 minae, threats ; moenia, fortifications, and a few others, which 
 are very rare. 
 
14: I, 2.] IRREGULAR NOUNS. 31 
 
 . The following are defective in Case : 
 
 ambage, F. ; astus (. and p.), astu, M. ; cassem, e, M. ; dapis, i, em,e, 
 F. ; dicam, as, F. ; dicionis, i, em, e, F. ; fauce, F. ; foras, is (pi.), F. ; 
 fors, forte, F. ; frugis, i, em, e, F. ; glos, F. ; gratia, as, is, F. ; impetus, 
 urn, u, M. ; injittas, F. ; jut/era, urn, ibus, N. ; lues, em, e, F. ; mane (nom., 
 ace , and abl. ), N. ; nattci, N. ; obice, c. ; opis, em, e, p. , pondo (abl. or 
 milec.), N. ; precem, e, F. ; sentis, em, es, ibus, M. ; sordem, e, p. ; spontis, 
 e, p. ; suppetias, F. ; venui, urn, M. (o, N.) ; vicis, em, e, es, ibus, F. The 
 gen. plur. is also wanting in cor, cos,fax,fcex, lux, nex, os (on's),pax, pr&s, 
 ros, sal, sol, tus, vas, ver ; jura, rura, have only nom. and ace. plur. 
 Plural complete. 
 
 Many nouns of the fourth declension occur only in the dative, or 
 in the ace. and abl. (supines). 
 
 The following neuters are indeclinable : fas, nefas, instar, necesse, 
 nikil, opus, secus. 
 
 Nouns found only in one case are called monoptotes; in two cases, 
 diptotes ; in three cases, triptotes. 
 
 2. Variable. Many nouns vary in their form of declen- 
 sion, their gender, or their signification under different forms. 
 
 a. Some have two or more forms of Declension, and are called 
 heterodites : as, 
 
 Balnea or ce ; carbasus (F.), pi., a (N.) ; colus (1st and 4th), F.; femur, 
 dris or mis; jugerum, i, or abl. e, pi. a, urn, N. ; margarlta, CB (p.), or 
 um, i (N.) ; Muiciber, bri or beris : munus, en's, pi. munia (maenia), orum; 
 pubes, ens ; em, e ; penus, i, or oris ; scevitia, ce ; -ies, iei ; -ittido, inis, F. ; 
 sequester, tri, or tris ; with many found in the 1st and 5th declensions, 
 and n few other rare forms. 
 
 b. Some nouns vary in Gender (heterogeneous) : as, 
 
 caelum (x.), pi. caeli (M.), sky; clipeus (M.), or clipeum (N.), 
 shield; frenum (jn.), pi. freni (M.), rein. 
 
 c. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in the 
 singular or plural : as, 
 
 aedes, is (F.), temple; sedes, ium, house. 
 
 auxilium (N.), help ; auxilia, auxiliaries. 
 
 career (M.), dungeon; carceres, barriers (of a race-course). 
 
 castrum (M.),fort ; castra, camp. 
 
 copia (F.), plenty; cop ise, troops. 
 
 finis (M.), end ; fines, bounds, territories. 
 
 forum, market-place; fori, gang-ways. 
 
 gratia (F.), favor ; gratia?, thanks. 
 
 impedimentum (N.), hinderance ; impedimenta, baggage. 
 
 littera (F.), letter (of alphabet) ; Htterae, epistle. 
 
 locus (M.), place [pi. loca (N.)] ; loci, passages in books. (In early 
 
 writers this is the regular plural.) 
 ludus, sport ; ludi, public games. 
 opera, task; operae, day-laborers ("hands"). 
 
32 PROPER NAMES. [14, 15. 
 
 opis (F. gen.), help; opes, resources, wealth. 
 plaga (F.), region [plaga, blow] ; plagge, snares. 
 rostrum, beak of a ship ; rostra, speaker's platform. 
 sal (M. or N.), salt ; sales, witticisms. 
 tabella, tablet; tabellse, documents. 
 
 sestertius (M.) means the sum of 2 asses, = about 4 cents. 
 sestertium (N.) means the sum of 1000 sestertii, = about $40. 
 decies sestertium means the sum of 1000 sestertia, = $40,000. 
 
 d. Sometimes a noun in combination with an adjective takes a 
 special signification, both parts being regularly inflected : as, jus- 
 jurandum, juris jurandi, oath; respublica, reipublicae, com- 
 monwealth. 
 
 15. PROPER NAMES. 
 
 1. A Roman had regularly three names. Thus, in the 
 name Marcus Tullius Cicero, we have 
 
 Marcus, the prcenomen, or personal name ; 
 
 Tullius, the nmnen; i.e., name of the Gens, or house, whose 
 original head was Tullus ; this name is properly an adjective ; 
 
 Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in its origin 
 a nickname, in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea. 
 
 2. A fourth or fifth name, called the agnomen, was 
 
 sometimes given. 
 
 Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius 
 Cornelius Scipio Africanus jEmilianus ; Africanus from his ex- 
 ploits in Africa; JEmilianus as adopted from the ^Emilian gens. 
 
 3. Women had no personal names, but were known only 
 by that of their gens. 
 
 Thus the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. 
 A younger sister would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, 
 and so on. 
 
 4. The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated : 
 
 A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus. 
 
 C. (G.) Gaius (Caius). M. Marcus. Ser. Servius. 
 Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). M\ Manius. Sex. Sextus. 
 
 D. Decimus. Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius. 
 K. KJBSO. N. Numerius. T. Titus. 
 .App. Appius. P. Publius. Ti. Tiberius. 
 
16: i.] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. 33 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 16. INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 ADJECTIVES and Participles are in general formed 
 and declined like Nouns, differing from nouns only in 
 their use. In accordance with their use, they distin- 
 guish gender by different forms in the same word. 
 They are (1) of the first and second declensions, or 
 (2) of the third declension. 
 
 NOTE. Latin adjectives and participles are either o-stems with 
 the corresponding feminine a-stems (originally a and a), or i-stems. 
 Many, however, were originally stems in u or a consonant, which 
 passed over, in all or most of their cases, into the i-declension, for 
 which Latin had a special fondness. (Compare the endings es and 
 Is of the Third declension with Greek s and as; navis (nom.) with 
 the Greek vavs ; animus with exanimis ; cornu with bicornis ; lingua 
 with bilingms ; cor, corde, corda, with discors, -di, -dia, -dium ; suavis 
 with fjSiis; ferens, -entia, with <f>pa>v, -ovra.) A few, which in other 
 languages are nouns, retain the consonant-form : as, veins = ros, 
 uber = ov0ap. Comparatives also retain the consonant form in most 
 of their cases. 
 
 1. Stems in have the feminine a (originally a). They 
 
 are declined 
 
 like servus (M.), stella (F.), donum (N.): as, 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 SING. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 cariis 
 
 cara 
 
 carum, Dear. 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 cari 
 
 carae 
 
 cari 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 car5 
 
 carae 
 
 caro 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 carum 
 
 caram 
 
 carum 
 
 
 Voc. 
 
 care 
 
 cara 
 
 carum 
 
 
 Abl. 
 
 caro 
 
 cara 
 
 car5 
 
 PLUR. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 cari 
 
 carae 
 
 cara 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 carorum 
 
 cararum 
 
 carorum 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 caris 
 
 caris 
 
 caris 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 caros 
 
 caras 
 
 cara 
 
 
 Voc. 
 
 cari 
 
 carae 
 
 cara 
 
 
 Abl. 
 
 caris 
 
 caris 
 
 caris 
 
 The masc. gen. of adjectives in ius ends in ii, and the 
 vocative in ie ; not in i as in nouns. 
 
 2* 
 
ADJECTIVES I INFLECTION. 
 
 [16: I. 
 
 a. In adjectives of stems ending in ro- preceded by S or a 
 consonant (also satur), the masculine nominative is formed like 
 puer or liber ( 10; : as, 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. miser 
 
 G. miseri 
 
 D. misero 
 
 Ac. miserum 
 
 V. miser 
 
 Ab misero 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N. miseri miserae misera 
 
 G. miserorum miserarum miserprum 
 
 D miseris miseris miseris 
 
 Ac. miserps miseras misera 
 
 V. miseri miseree misera 
 
 Ab. miseris miseris miseris 
 
 ser, wretched. 
 
 Ater, black. 
 
 mis6ra 
 
 miserum 
 
 ater 
 
 atra 
 
 atrum 
 
 miserse 
 
 miseri 
 
 atri 
 
 atrse 
 
 atri 
 
 miserse 
 
 misero 
 
 atro 
 
 atrse 
 
 atro 
 
 mis e ram 
 
 miserum 
 
 atrum 
 
 atram 
 
 atrum 
 
 misera 
 
 miseruin 
 
 ater 
 
 atra 
 
 atrum 
 
 misera 
 
 misero 
 
 atro 
 
 atra 
 
 atro 
 
 atri atrse atra 
 
 atrprum atrarum atrorum 
 atris atris atris 
 atrps atras atra 
 atri atrse atra 
 
 atris atris atris 
 
 Stems in ero, with morigerus, properus, posterus, have the 
 regular nominative in us. 
 
 Like miser are declined asper, rough; gibber, hunched ; lacer, 
 torn; liber, free; prosper (erus) , favoring ; satur (ura, urum), sated; 
 tener, tender ; with compounds of -fer and -ger ; also, usually, dexter, 
 right. In these the e belongs to the stem ; but in dexter it is often 
 syncopated. 
 
 Like ater are declined seger, sick ; creber, dose; faber, skilled; 
 glaber, sleek; integer, whole; ludicer, sportive; macer, lean ; niger, 
 dark; noster, our; piger, sluggish; ruber, red ; sacer, sacred; sinis- 
 ter, left; teter,foul; vafer, shrewd; vester, your. 
 
 The following feminines lack a masculine singular nominative : 
 cetera, infera, postern, supera. They are rarely found in the singular 
 except in certain phrases : as, postero die. A feminine ablative in o 
 is found in a few Greek adjectives, as lectlcd octophoro ( Verr. v. 11.). 
 
 b. The following (o-stems) with their compounds have the 
 genitive singular in lus and the dative in I in all the genders : 
 
 alms (N. aliud), other, rmllus, none, ullus, any( with negatives). 
 
 alter, other (of two). solus, alone, unus, one. 
 
 neuter, -trius, neither, totus, whole, uter, -trius, which (of two). 
 
 I NOTE. The suffix ter, in alter, uter, neuter, is the same as the 
 Greek comparative suffix -Tpo(s). The stem of aliud appears in early 
 Latin and in derivatives as all-, in the forms alls, olid (for aliud), 
 aliter, &c. 
 
 Of these the singular is thus declined : 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 . N. 
 
 N. 
 
 solus 
 
 sola 
 
 solum 
 
 G. 
 
 solms 
 
 solms 
 
 solius 
 
 D. 
 
 soli 
 
 soli 
 
 soli 
 
 A. 
 
 solum 
 
 sol am 
 
 solum 
 
 A. 
 
 solo 
 
 sola 
 
 solo 
 
 N. 
 
 alius 
 
 alia 
 
 aliud 
 
 G. 
 
 alius 
 
 alius 
 
 alius 
 
 D. 
 
 alii 
 
 alii 
 
 alii 
 
 A. 
 
 alium 
 
 aliam 
 
 aliud 
 
 A. 
 
 alio 
 
 alia 
 
 alio 
 
 M. 
 
 p. 
 
 N. 
 
 uter 
 
 utra 
 
 utrum 
 
 utrms 
 
 u trius 
 
 utrius 
 
 utri 
 
 utri 
 
 utri 
 
 utrum 
 
 utram 
 
 utrum 
 
 utro 
 
 utra 
 
 utro 
 
 alter 
 
 altgra 
 
 alterum 
 
 alterius 
 
 alterius 
 
 alterius 
 
 alteri 
 
 alteri 
 
 alteri 
 
 alterum 
 
 alteram 
 
 alterum 
 
 altero 
 
 altera 
 
 altero 
 
16:2.] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. 35 
 
 NOTE. These words, in Greek and Sanskrit, are treated as pro- 
 nouns ; which accords with the pronominal forms of the genitive in 
 ius, the dative in i, and the neuter d in aliud. The i in the geni- 
 tive -ius, though long, may be made short in verse ; and alterius is 
 generally accented on the antepenult. Instead of allus (gen.), alte- 
 rius is more commonly used. In compounds as alteruter some- 
 times both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter. 
 
 2. Stems in i distinguished by being parisyttabic 
 have properly no form for the feminine, and hence are called 
 adjectives of two terminations. In the neuter, i is changed 
 to e. They are declined like turris (ace. em) and mare. 
 
 Sing. M., Y. Light. N. M. Keen. F. N. 
 
 N.V. levis leve acer acris acre 
 
 G. levis levis acris acris acris 
 
 D. levi levi acri acri acri 
 
 Ac. levem leve acrem acrem acre 
 
 Ab. levi levi acri acri acri 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N.V. leves levia acres acres acria 
 
 G. levium levium acrium acrium acrium 
 
 D. levibus levibus acribus acribus acribus 
 
 Ac. leves (is) levia acres (is) acres (is) acria 
 
 Ab. levibus levibus acribus acribus acribus 
 
 a. Several stems in ri- form the masc. nom. in er (as acer, 
 compare 11, i. 2, 6.) . These are the following : 
 
 acer, keen. pedester, on foot. 
 
 alacer, eager. puter, rotten. 
 
 campester, of the plain. saluber, wholesome. 
 
 celeber, famous. Silvester, wooded. 
 
 equester, of horsemen. terrester, of the land. 
 
 paluster, marshy. volucer, winged. 
 
 Also celer, celeris, celere, swift; and, in certain phrases, the 
 names of months in -ber. 
 
 NOTE. This formation is not original ; and hence, in the poets, 
 and in early Latin, either the masculine or feminine form of these 
 adjectives was used for both genders. In others, as illustris, lugiibris, 
 medidcris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form. 
 
 b. Case-Forms. These adjectives, as true i-stems, retain 
 i in the abl. singular, the neut. plural ia, the gen. plur. ium, and 
 often in the ace. plur. is, but never im in the ace. sing. For metri- 
 cal reasons, an abl. in e sometimes occurs in poetry. When celer 
 is used as an adjective, it has the regular gen. plur. in ium ; as a 
 noun, denoting a military rank, it is celerum ; as a proper name, 
 it has the abl. in e. 
 
36 
 
 ADJECTIVES : INFLECTION. 
 
 [16: 3. 
 
 3. The remaining adjectives of the third declension have 
 the form of i-stems in the ablative singular I, the plural 
 neuter ia, and genitive ium. In other cases they follow 
 the rule of consonant-stems. 
 
 a. In adjectives of consonant-stems (except comparatives) the 
 nominative singular is alike for all genders : hence they are called 
 adjectives of one termination. Except of stems in 1 and r, it is 
 formed from the stem by adding s : as, 
 
 Siny. 
 
 M. F. Happy. N. 
 
 M. F. Calling. N. 
 
 N.V. 
 
 felix 
 
 felix 
 
 vocans 
 
 vocans 
 
 Gen. 
 
 felicis 
 
 felicis 
 
 vocantis 
 
 vocantis 
 
 Dat. 
 
 felici 
 
 felici 
 
 vocanti 
 
 vocanti 
 
 Ace. 
 
 felicem 
 
 felix 
 
 vocantem 
 
 vocans 
 
 Abl. 
 
 felice or 
 
 felici 
 
 vocante or 
 
 vocanti 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 
 
 N.V. 
 
 felices 
 
 fellcia 
 
 vocantes 
 
 vocantia 
 
 Gen. 
 
 fellcium 
 
 felicium 
 
 vocantium 
 
 vocantium 
 
 Dat. 
 
 felicibus 
 
 felicibus 
 
 vocantibus 
 
 vocantibus 
 
 Ace. 
 Abl. 
 
 fellces (is) 
 felicibus 
 
 fellcia 
 felicibus 
 
 vocantes (is) 
 vocantibus 
 
 vocantia 
 vocantibus 
 
 Other examples are the following : 
 
 preeceps, headlong 
 preecipitis 
 praecipiti 
 
 prs3cipitem prseceps 
 praecipite 
 
 prsBCipites prsecipitia 
 prsecipitium 
 prsBcipitibus 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 vetus, old 
 vetSris 
 veteri 
 
 veterem vetus 
 vetere (i) 
 
 vetSres vetSra 
 veterum 
 veteribus 
 
 NOTE. The regular feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of 
 cognate languages, would end in ia : this form is found in the abstracts 
 amentia, desidia, socordia, frc., and in proper names, as Florentia 
 (cf. Greek <j>pov<ra). The neuter would regularly have the simple 
 stem (as caput, cor, allec, Greek cj>pov) ; but in all except liquid 
 stems, the masc. form in s has forced itself not only upon the neuter 
 nominative, but upon the accusative also, where it is wholly abnormal. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 N.V. 
 
 iens, going 
 
 par, equal 
 
 Gen. 
 
 euntis 
 
 paris 
 
 Dat. 
 
 eunti 
 
 pari 
 
 Ace. 
 
 euntem iens 
 
 parem par 
 
 Abl. 
 
 eunte (i) 
 
 pari 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 N.A.V. 
 
 euntes euntia 
 
 pares paria 
 
 Gen. 
 
 euntium 
 
 par ium 
 
 D. Ab. 
 
 euntibus 
 
 paribus 
 
 Sing. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 N.V. 
 
 dives, rick 
 
 uber, fertile 
 
 Gen. 
 
 divitis 
 
 ubSris 
 
 Dat. 
 
 diviti 
 
 uberi 
 
 Ace. 
 
 divitem dives 
 
 uberem uber 
 
 Abl! 
 
 divite (i) 
 
 ubere (i) 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 N.A.V. 
 
 divites (ditia) 
 
 uberes ubera 
 
 Gen 
 
 divitum 
 
 ubSrum 
 
 D Ab. 
 
 divitibus 
 
 uberibus 
 
16: 3-] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. 37 
 
 A few of these forms, used as nouns, have a feminine in a : as, 
 clienta, hospita, inhospita, with the appellation Juno Sospita. 
 
 b. The stem of Comparatives properly ended in 8s, which 
 became or in all cases except the neuter singular (N. A. v.), where 
 s is retained, and 8 is changed to ii (compare honor, oris ; cor- 
 pus, oris). Thus they appear to have two terminations. 
 
 Sing. M. F. Dearer. F. M. F. More. N. 
 
 N.V. carior carius <*" plus 
 
 Gen. carioris carioris ^0**" pluris 
 
 Dat. cariSri cariori ^.. pluri 
 
 Ace. cariorem carius plus 
 
 Abl. cariore or cariori plure 
 Plur. 
 
 N.V. cariores cariora phlres plura(ia) 
 
 Gen. cariorum cariorum plurium plurium 
 
 Dat. carioribus carioribus pluribus pluribus 
 
 Ace. cariores cariora plures plura 
 
 Abl. carioribus carioribus pluribus pluribus 
 
 NOTE. The neuter sing, plus is used only as a noun. Its deriva- 
 tive complures, several, has sometimes neut. plur. compluria. All 
 other comparatives are declined like carior. 
 
 c. Case Forms. 1. The ablative singular of these adjec- 
 tives commonly ends in i ; but, when used as nouns, as super- 
 stes, survivor, they have e. Participles in ns used as such, 
 especially in the Ablative Absolute, or as nouns, regularly have 
 e ; but as adjectives, regularly i. (So adjectives in ns as in the 
 phrase, me imprudente.) 
 
 In the following, e is the regular form : codes, compos, deses, dives, 
 hospes, pauper, particeps, prceceps, princeps, superstes, supplex ; also in 
 patrials (see 44), with stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as 
 nouns, and sometimes as adjectives. 
 
 2. The genitive plural ends commonly in ium, and the accusa- 
 tive often in is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined to 
 the i-declension. 
 
 In the following, the gen. plur. ends in um: always in dives, 
 compos, inops, prcepes, supplex, and compounds of pes ; sometimes, in 
 poetry, participles in ns. In vetus (ens), pubes (em), uber (em), which 
 did not become i-stems, the forms e, a, um, are regular ; but uber and 
 vetus rarely have the abl. in i. 
 
 3. Several are declined in more than one form : as, gracilis (us), 
 hilaris (us), inermis (us). A few are indecl. or defective : as, 
 
 damnas (esto, sunto), frugi (dat. of advantage), exspes (only nom.),exlex- 
 (nom. and ace.), mactus (nom. and voc.), nequam (indecl.), pernox (per-, 
 nocta], potis, pote (indecl. or M. F. potis, N. pote), primoris, semineci, &c. 
 
38 ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. [17: i. 
 
 d. Many adjectives, from their signification, are used only in 
 the masculine or feminine, and may be called adjectives of common 
 gender. Such are adolescens, youthful; deses, idis, slothful; 
 inops, opis, poor ; sospes, itis, safe. So senex and juvenis 
 may be called masculine adjectives. 
 
 e. Many nouns may be also used as adjectives (compare 47, 
 3) : as, pedes, a footman or on foot ; especially nouns in tor (M.) 
 and trix (F.), denoting the agent: as, victor exercitus, the con- 
 quering army ; victrix causa, the winning cause. 
 
 f. Certain cases of adjectives are regularly used as Adverbs. 
 These are, the ace. and abl. of the neuter singular : as, multum, 
 multo, much ; the neuter of comparatives (regularly) : as, 
 carius, more dearly ; levins, more lightly ; together with those 
 ending in e for o-stems, and ter for i-stems : as, care, dearly ; 
 leviter, lightly ; acerrime, most eagerly. 
 
 17. COMPARISON. 
 % 
 1. ^Regular Comparison. The Comparative is formed 
 
 by adding, for the nominative, ior (old stem ios), neuter ius, 
 and the Superlative by adding issimus, a, um (old iss- 
 umus), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final 
 vowel : as, 
 
 carus, dear ; carior, dearer ; carissimus, dearest. 
 
 levis, light ; levior, lighter ; levissimus, lightest. 
 
 felix, happy ; felicior, happier ; felicissimus, happiest. 
 
 hebes, dull ; hebetior, duller ; hebetissimus, dullest. 
 
 NOTE. The comparative suffix is the same as the Greek uov, or 
 the Sanskrit iyans. That of the superlative (issimus) is a double 
 form, but what is the combination is not certain; perhaps it stands for 
 ios-timus. (comp. and sup.), or possibly for ist-timus (two superla- 
 tives). Strictly, new stems are thus formed. 
 
 a. Adjectives in er form the superlative by adding -rimus to 
 the nominative (comparative regular) : as, 
 
 miser, miserior, miserrimus ; acer, acrior, acerrimus. 
 
 So vetus, veterrimus (for comparative, vetustior) from the old 
 form veter ; and, rarely, maturrimus (for maturissimus). 
 
 &. The following in lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its 
 vowel : facilis, easy ; difficilis, hard ; similis, like ; dissimilis, 
 unlike ; gracilis, slender ; humilis, love. 
 
 NOTE. The endings -limus and -rimus, the regular superlatives, 
 are formed by assimilation from -timus and -simus. 
 
17: i, 2.] ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. 39 
 
 C Compounds in -dicus (saying), -ficus (doing), -volus 
 (willing), take the forms of corresponding participles in ns, 
 which were anciently used as adjectives : as, 
 
 maledicus, slanderous, maledicentior, maledicentissimus. 
 
 malevolus, spiteful, malevolentior, malevolentissimus. 
 
 d. Adjectives in us preceded by a vowel (except u) rarely 
 have forms of comparison, but are compared by the adverbs 
 magis, more; maxime, most : as, 
 
 idoneus, fit ; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus. 
 Most derivatives in -icus, -idus, -alls, -aris, -ills, -iilus, -undus, 
 -timus, -mus, -ivus, -orus, with compounds, as degeiier, inops, 
 
 are also thus compared. 
 
 e. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : 
 as, patientior, patientissimus ; apertior, apertissimus. 
 
 NOTE. Many adjectives as aureus, golden are from their 
 meaning incapable of comparison ; but each language has its own 
 usage in this respect. Thus niger, black, and candid us, white, are 
 compared ; but not ater or aibus, meaning absolute black or white. 
 
 2. Irregular Comparison. Several adjectives are 
 com pared "from different stems, or contain irregular forms : as, 
 
 bonus, melior, optimus, good, better, best. 
 malus, pejor, pessimus, bad, worse, worst. 
 magnus, major, maximus, great, greater, greatest. 
 parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least. 
 multum, plus (N.), plurimum, much, more, most. 
 multi, plures, plurimi, many, more, most.- 
 nequam (indecl.), nequior, nequissimus, worthless, 
 frugi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissimus, useful, worthy. 
 dexter, dexterior, dextimus, on the right, handy. 
 
 3. Defective Comparison. The following are formed 
 from roots or stems not used as adjectives : 
 
 "cis, citra] citerior, citimus, hither, hithermost. 
 in, intra] interior, intimus, inner, inmost. 
 "prae, pro] prior, primus, former, first. 
 jprope] propior, proximus, nearer, next. 
 ultra] ulterior, ulttmus, farther, farthest. 
 
 a. Of the following the positive forms (originally comparative) 
 are rare, except when used as nouns, generally in the plural : 
 
 [exterus] exterior, extremus (extimus), outer, outmost. 
 
 [inferus] inferior, infimus (Tmus), lower, lowest. 
 
 [posterus] posterior, postremus, latter, last. 
 
 [superus] superior, supremus or summus, higher, highest. 
 The plurals, exteri, foreigners ; poster!, posterity ; superi, the 
 heavenly gods ; inferi, those below, are common. 
 
40 ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. [17:4,5. 
 
 6. From juvenis, youth, senex, old man, are formed the com- 
 paratives junior, younger, senior, older. Instead of the superla- 
 tive, the phrase minimus or maximus natu is used (natu 
 being often understood) : as, 
 
 maximus fratrum, the eldest of the brothers ; but, 
 senior fratrum, the elder of the [two] brothers. 
 
 In the following, one of the forms of comparison is want- 
 ing: 
 
 1. The Positive is wanting in deterior, deterrimus, worse, 
 ivorst; ocior, ocissimus, swifter, swiftest; potior, potissimus, 
 more and most preferable [from potis, able']. 
 
 2. The Comparative is wanting in bellus, pretty ; caesius, gray ; 
 falsus, false ; inclutus (or inclitus), famous ; invictus, unsur- 
 passed ; invitus, reluctant ; novus, new (novissimum agmen, rear 
 guard); pius, pious ; sacer, sacred; vetus, old; and most deriva- 
 tives in His and bilis. 
 
 3. The Superlative is not found in actu5sus, energetic; alacer, 
 eager ; arcanus, secret ; diuturnus, long-continued ; exilis, slender ; 
 ingens, huge ; jejunus, sterile ; longinquus, distant ; opimus, 
 rich ; proclivis, inclined ; satur, sated ; segnis, sluggish ; serus, 
 late; supinus, supine; taciturnus, silent; tempest! vus, season- 
 able; viclnus, neighboring. 
 
 4. Adverbs. Adverbs formed from adjectives are com- 
 pared in like manner : as, 
 
 carus, dear; care, carius, carissime. 
 
 miser, wretched ; misere (iter), miserius, miserrime. 
 
 levis, light ; leviter, levius, levissime. 
 
 audax, bold; audacter, audacius, audacissime. 
 
 bonus, good; bene, melius, optime. 
 
 rn^alus, bad; male, pejus, pessime. 
 
 Also, cjiu, long (in time), diutius diutissime ; potius, rather, 
 potissimum, first-of-all ; saepe, often, saepius ; satis, enough, 
 satins, preferable; secus, othenvise, secius, worse; multum 
 (multo), m&gis, maxime, much, more, most. 
 
 5. Signification. Besides their regular signification, the 
 forms of comparison are used as follows : 
 
 <i. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree 
 of a quality : as, brevior, rather short; audacior, too bold. It 
 is used instead of the superlative where only two are spoken of: 
 as, melior imperatorum, the best^ of the (two) commanders. 
 
 b. The Superlative (of eminence) denotes a very high degree of 
 a quality : as, maximus numerus, a very great number. With 
 quam, it indicates the highest degree : as, quam plurimi, as 
 many as possible; quam maxime potest (quam potest), as 
 much as can be. 
 
17: 5- 18.] NUMERALS. 41 
 
 c. With quisque, the superlative has a peculiar signification : 
 thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means, all the richest; 
 primus quisque, all the first (each in his order). 
 
 d. A high degree of a quality is denoted by such adverbs as 
 admodum, valde, very; or by per or prae in composition: as, 
 permagnus, very great ; praealtus, very high (or deep). 
 
 e. A low degree is indicated by sub in composition : as, sub- 
 rusticus, rather countrified; or by minus, not very; minime, 
 not at all; parum, not enough ; non satis, not much. 
 
 18. NUMERALS. 
 
 1. Cardinal and Ordinal. Cardinal Numbers answer 
 
 to the interrogative quot, how many ; Ordinal Numbers to 
 quotus, which in order, or one of how many. 
 
 CARDINAL. ORDINAL. ROMAN NUMERALS. 
 
 1. unus, una, unum, one. primus, a, um, first. i. 
 
 2. duo, duae, duo, two. secundus (alter), second. n. 
 
 3. tres, tria, three, &>c. tertius, third, &>c. in. 
 
 4. quattuor quartus iv. 
 
 5. quinque quintus v. 
 
 6. sex sextus vi. 
 
 7. septem septimus vu. 
 
 8. octo octavus vm. 
 
 9. novem nonus ix. 
 
 10. decem declmus x. 
 
 11. undecim undecimus xi. 
 
 12. duodecim duodecimus xn. 
 
 13. tredecim tertius decimus xin. 
 
 14. quattuordecim quartus decimus xiv. 
 
 15. quindecim quintus decimus xv. 
 
 1 6. sedecim sextus decimus xvi. 
 
 17. septendecim septimus decimus xvii. 
 
 1 8. duodeviginti(octodecim) duodevicesimus xvm. 
 
 19. undeviginti (novendecim) undevicesimus xix. 
 
 20. viginti vicesTmus (vigesimus) xx. 
 
 21. viginti unus or unus et viginti vicesimus primus, &c. xxi. 
 30. triginta tricesimus xxx. 
 40. quadraginta quadragesimus XL. 
 50. quinquaginta quinquagesimus x. or L. 
 60. sexaginta sexagesimus LX. 
 70. septuaginta septuagesimus LXX. 
 80. octoginta octogesimus LXXX. 
 90. nonaginta nonagesimus xc. 
 
 100. centum centesimus c. 
 
42 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 [18: I. 
 
 ORDINAL. 
 
 ducentesimus 
 
 trecentesimus 
 
 quadringentesimus 
 
 quingentesimus 
 
 sexcentesimus 
 
 septi ngentesimus 
 
 octingentesimus 
 
 nongentesimus 
 
 millesimus 
 
 quinquies millesimus 
 decies millesimus 
 centies millesimus 
 
 ROMAN NUMERALS. 
 CC. 
 
 ccc. 
 cccc. 
 13, or D. 
 
 DC. 
 DCC. 
 DCCC. 
 DCCCC. 
 CI3, or M. 
 133. 
 CC133. 
 
 CARDINAL. 
 
 200. ducenti, ae, a 
 
 300. trecenti 
 
 400. quadringenti 
 
 500. quingenti 
 
 600. sexcenti 
 
 700. septingenti 
 
 800. octingenti 
 
 900. nongenti 
 
 1000. mille 
 
 5000. quinque millia (milia) 
 
 10,000. decem millia (milia) 
 
 100,000. centum millia (milia) 
 
 NOTE. The Ordinals (except secundus, tcrtius, octavus) are formed 
 by means of the same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimus (com- 
 pare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten ; 
 primus is a superlative of pro; the forms in -tiis (quartus, quintus, sex- 
 tus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -TOS 
 and irpwTos, superlative of irpd ; nonus is contracted from novimus; 
 while the others have the regular superlative ending simus. Of the 
 exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor ; and alter is a comparative 
 form (compare -rcpos in Greek). 
 
 a. Unus, una, unum, one, is declined like solus ( 16, i.), 
 gen. unms and dat. uni in all genders. It often has the mean- 
 ing of same, or only. It is used in the plural in this sense, as also 
 to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una castra, 
 one camp. So uni et alteri, one party and the other. 
 
 b. Duo, two (also ambo, both) , is thus declined : 
 
 duo 
 
 duorum 
 
 duobus 
 
 duo 
 
 duobus 
 
 NOTE. This form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which 
 was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages. 
 
 c. Tres, tria, three, is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like 
 the plural of le*vis. The other cardinal numbers, up to centum 
 (100), are indeclinable. The multiples of ten are compounds of 
 the multiple, with a fragment of decem : as, viginti = dui-ginta. 
 
 NOTE. The forms octodecim (18), novendecim (19), are rare, unde- 
 viyinti, duodeviginti, &c., being commonly employed. 
 
 d. The hundreds, up to 1000, and all the ordinals, are o-stems, 
 and are regularly declined like adjectives of the first and second 
 declension. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 duo 
 
 duae 
 
 Gen. 
 
 duorum 
 
 duarum 
 
 Dat. 
 
 duobus 
 
 duabus 
 
 Ace. 
 Abl. 
 
 duos (duo) 
 duobus 
 
 duas 
 duabus 
 
20: 1,2.] 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 45 
 
 /. To the personal (and sometimes to/'the adjective) pronouns 
 enclitics are joined for emphasis : meu to all the pronouns ; -te 
 to tu; -pte to the abl. sing, of the adjectives, and in early Latin 
 to the others : as, vosmetipsos proditis/ you betray your own 
 very selves ; suopte pondere, by its own weight. 
 
 20. DEMONSTRATIVE. 
 
 1. The Demonstrative Pronouns are hie, this; is, ille, 
 iste, that ; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same. 
 
 NOTE. These are combinations of o and i-stems, which are not 
 clearly distinguishable. Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with 
 the demonstrative -ce, which appears in full in early Latin (hice), 
 and when followed by the enclitic -ne (hicine). In most of the cases 
 it is shortened to c, and in many lost; but it is appended for empha- 
 sis to those that do not regularly retain it (hujusce). In early Latin 
 c alone is retained in some of these (horunc). Ille and iste are 
 sometimes found with the same enclitic (illic, istuc). 
 
 a. Ille is a later form of ollus (olle), which is sometimes used 
 by the poets ; a gen. sing, in i, ae, i, occurs in ille and iste. 
 
 6. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, &c., 
 with the entire loss of the first syllable ; and the i of ipse and 
 ille is very often found shortened. 
 
 c. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for pte, from the same 
 root as potis), meaning self. The first part was originally de- 
 clined, as in reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus 
 occurs. Idem is the demonstrative is with the affix -dem. 
 
 2. These demonstratives are used either with nouns as 
 Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns ; and, from their significa- 
 tion, cannot (except ipse) have a vocative. 
 
 This. That. 
 
 Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N. 
 
 Nom. hie haec hoc 
 
 Gen. hujus hujus hujus 
 
 Dat. huic huic huic 
 
 Ace. hunc hanc hoc 
 
 Abl. hoc hac hoc 
 
 Plur. These. 
 
 Nom. hi hae haec 
 
 Gen. horum haruin horum 
 
 Dat. his his his 
 
 Ace. hos has haec 
 
 Abl. his his his 
 
 is ea id 
 
 ejus ejus ejus 
 
 ei ei ei 
 
 eum earn id 
 
 eo ea eo 
 
 Those. 
 
 ii (ei) eae ea 
 
 eorum earum eorum 
 
 eis or iis 
 
 eos eas ea 
 eis or iis 
 
46 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 [20: 2. 
 
 SING. M. 
 
 N. me 
 
 G. illms 
 
 D. illi 
 
 A. ilium 
 
 V. 
 
 A. illo 
 
 That. 
 
 P. 
 
 ilia 
 illius 
 illi 
 illam 
 
 mi 
 
 Those. 
 
 N. 
 
 mud 
 
 illius 
 
 illi 
 
 illud 
 
 illo 
 
 PLUR. 
 
 N. illi illse ilia 
 
 G illprum illarum illprum 
 
 I), illis illis illis 
 
 A. illos iUas iUa 
 
 A! illis 
 
 illis 
 
 iUis 
 
 M. 
 
 ipse 
 ipsius 
 ipsi 
 ipsum 
 ipse 
 ipso 
 
 ipsi 
 ipsorum 
 ipsis 
 ipsos 
 ipsi 
 ipsis 
 
 Self. 
 
 F. 
 
 ipsa 
 ipsius 
 ipsi 
 ipsam 
 ipsa 
 ipso 
 
 Selves. 
 ipsse 
 ipsarum 
 ipsis 
 ipsas 
 ipsse 
 ipsis 
 
 N. 
 
 ipsum 
 ipsius 
 ipsi 
 ipsum 
 ipsum 
 ipso 
 
 ipsa 
 ipsorum 
 ipsis 
 ipsa 
 ipsa 
 ipsis 
 
 The Same. 
 
 SIXG. 
 
 N. idem eadem Idem 
 G. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem 
 D. eidem eidem eidem 
 A. eundem eandem idem 
 A. eodem eadem eodem 
 
 PLUR. 
 
 iidem eaedem eadem 
 eorundem earundem eorundem 
 
 eisdem or iisdem 
 eosdem easdem eadem 
 
 eisdem or iisdem 
 
 a. Hie is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, 
 thought, or on the written page) ; hence called the demonstrative 
 of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; 
 sometimes for " the latter" of two things mentioned. 
 
 b. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, &c.) ; hence called 
 the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to 
 mean "the former"; also (usually following its' noun) of what is 
 famous or well-known ; often /(especially the neuter illud) to mean 
 " the following. 11 \? 
 
 c. Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness ; 
 often of the person addressed, hence called the demonstrative of 
 the second person ; especially of one^ opponent, frequently imply- 
 ing contempt. 
 
 <? Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others, not denoting 
 any special object, but referring to one just mentioned, or to be 
 explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a 
 personal pronoun ; and is often merely a correlative to the relative 
 qui: as, eum quern, one whom; eum consulem qui non du- 
 bitet (Cic.), a consul who will not hesitate. 
 
 e. Ipse, may be used with a personal pronoun, as nos ipsi 
 (nosmetipsi) , we ourselves: or independently (the verb contain- 
 ing the pronoun), as, ipsi adestis, you are yourselves present ; or 
 with a noun, as ipsi fontes (Virg.), the very fountains. 
 
 NOTE. In English, the pronouns himself, &c., are used both inten- 
 sively (as, he will come himself), or reflexively (as, he will kill "himself) : 
 in Latin the former would be translated ipse ; the latter se, or sese. 
 
21: I, 2.] RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. 47 
 
 21. EELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFIN-ITE. 
 
 1. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite pronouns 
 are the same ; viz., qui, quis (who, who ? rcy), with their 
 compounds and derivatives. 
 
 NOTE. The stem has two forms, quo- and qui-. From the latter 
 are formed quis, quid, quern, quibus, qul (abl.), while qui, qu<e, are prob- 
 ably lengthened forms of quo, qua, made by the addition of the 
 demonstrative particle i. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 M. F. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 qui, quis quae 
 
 qu6d, quid 
 
 Gen. 
 
 cujus cujus 
 
 cujus 
 
 Dat. 
 
 cui (quoi) cui 
 
 cui 
 
 Ace. 
 
 quern quani 
 
 quod 
 
 Abl. 
 
 quo (qui) qua 
 
 quo 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 qui quae 
 
 quae (qua) 
 
 Gen. 
 
 quorum quarum 
 
 quorum 
 
 Dat. 
 
 quibus or quis 
 
 (queis) 
 
 Ace. 
 
 quos quas 
 
 quae (qua) 
 
 Abl. 
 
 quibus or quis 
 
 (queis) 
 
 Case Forms, a. The Relative has always qui and quod 
 in the nom. sing. The Interrogative and Indefinite have quis, 
 quid substantive, and qui, quod adjective. But quis and qui are 
 sometimes used for each other. 
 
 b. Old forms for the gen. and dat. are quoius, quoi. A loca- 
 tive cui occurs only in the form cuicuimodi, of whatever sort. 
 
 c. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all 
 genders ; but especially as an adverb (hoio, by which way, in any 
 way)^ and in the combination quicum, as interrogative or in- 
 definite relative. 
 
 cf. A nom. plur. ques (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. 
 The dat. and abl. quis (stem quo-) is old, but not infrequent. 
 
 e. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the 
 ablative, as with the personal pronouns. 
 
 2. The stems quo and qui are variously compounded. 
 
 a. The suffix -cunque (-cumque) added to the relative makes 
 an Indefinite-relative, which is declined as the simple word : as, 
 
 quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever. 
 
 NOTE. This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with 
 any relative: as, qualiscunque, of whatever sort; quandocuiique 
 (quandoque), whenever; ubicuiique, wherever. 
 
48 RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. [21: 2. 
 
 b. The interrogative form doubled also makes an indefinite- 
 relative : as, quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wher- 
 ever). Of quisquis both parts are declined, but the feminine is 
 wanting : as, 
 
 Nom. quisquis (quiqui) quidquid (quicquid) 
 
 Gen. cujuscujus 
 
 Dat. cuicui 
 
 Ace. quemquem quidquid (quicquid) 
 
 Abl. quoquo 
 
 PLUR. !N"om. quiqui Dat., Abl. quibusquibus 
 
 This compound is rare, except in the forms quisquis, quicquid, 
 and quoquo. The case-form quamquam is used as a conjunc- 
 tion, although (lit. however). Quiqui is an early form. 
 
 c Indefinite Compounds are the following : quispiam, any ; 
 quisquam, any-at-all ; quivis, quilibet, any-you-please ; quidam, 
 a, a certain. Of these the first part is inflected like quis, qui, 
 with quid or quod in the neuter. 
 
 NOTE. The form -quam is from the stem quo-, perhaps -piam 
 also ; but if so it must be dialectic (compare Oscan pam for quam). 
 In quivis, quilibet, the second part is a verb (vis, you wish ; libet, 
 it pleases). They have the accusative case-forms quam vis, quamli- 
 bet (however, although), used as adverbs or conjunctions. 
 
 d. In aliquis, any, siquis, if any, nequis, lest any, ecquis, 
 numquis, whether any, the second part is declined like quis, but 
 having qua for quae, except in the nom. plur. feminine. Si quis, 
 ne quis, mini quis, are better written separately. The simple 
 form quis is rare except in these combinations ; and the com- 
 pounds quispiam, aliquis (si quis, if any one ; si aliquis, if 
 some one), are often used in these, being rather more emphatic. 
 
 NOTE. Aliquis is compounded with ali-, old stem of alius, but 
 with weakened meaning. Ecquis is compounded with en. 
 
 e. The enclitic -que added to the indefinite gives a Universal : 
 as, quisque, every one ; ubique, everywhere (so uterque, either of 
 two, or both). Of quisque the first part is declined. In the 
 compound unusquisque, both parts are declined, and sometimes 
 separated by other words. 
 
 /. The relative and interrogative have a possessive adjective 
 cujus (stem cujo-), whose; and a patrial cujas (stem cujat-), 
 of what country. 
 
 g. Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative 
 adjectives from the same stem, and are used as interrogative 
 or relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis. 
 Quam, how, is an accusative of the same stem, corresponding to 
 the case-form tarn, so. 
 
 h. Quisquam, with ullus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, any- 
 where, are chiefly used in negative, interrogative, or conditional 
 sentences, or after quam, than; sine, without ; vix, scarcely. 
 
22.] 
 
 CORRELATIVES. 
 
 22. CORRELATIVES. 
 
 Many adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs are found in several 
 corresponding forms, as, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, 
 and indefinite. These are called CORRELATIVES. Their 
 forms are seen in the following Table: 
 
 DEMONSTR. 
 
 RELAX. 
 
 INTERROG. 
 
 INDEF. REL. 
 
 INDEF. 
 
 is, that 
 
 qui 
 
 quis ? 
 
 quisquis 
 
 aliquis 
 
 tantus, so great 
 
 quantus 
 
 quantus ? 
 
 * 
 
 ali quantus 
 
 tails, such 
 
 qualis 
 
 qualis ? 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 ibi, there 
 
 ubi 
 
 ubi? 
 
 ubiubi 
 
 alicubi 
 
 eo, thither 
 
 quo 
 
 quo ? 
 
 quoquo 
 
 aliquo 
 
 ea, that way 
 
 qua 
 
 qua? 
 
 quaqua 
 
 aliqua 
 
 inde, thence 
 
 unde 
 
 unde ? 
 
 ' * 
 
 alicunde 
 
 turn, then 
 
 quum, cum 
 
 quando ? 
 
 * 
 
 aliquando 
 
 tot, so many 
 
 quot 
 
 quot ? 
 
 quotquot 
 
 aliquot 
 
 toties, so often 
 
 quoties 
 
 quoties ? 
 
 * 
 
 aliquoties 
 
 
 * Compounds with -cumque. 
 
 a. The forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem (originally toti), 
 are indeclinable, and may take any gender, number, or case : as, 
 
 per tot annos, tot proeliis, tot imperatores (Cic.), so many 
 commanders, for so many years, in so many battles. 
 
 b. The correlative of the second member is often to be ren- 
 dered simply as : thus, 
 
 taiittim argenti quantum aeris, as much silver as copper. 
 
 C. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablatives quo 
 or quanto, by how much ; eo or tanto, by so much, used with 
 comparatives (rendered in English the . . the) : as, 
 
 quo magis conatur, eo minus discit, the more he tries the less 
 he learns. 
 
 d. Certain adverbs and conjunctions are often used correla- 
 tively: as, 
 
 et . . . et, both . . . and. 
 
 ut . . . ita (sic) , as (while) . . . so (yet). 
 
 aut (vel) . . . aut (vel), either ... or. 
 
 sive (seu) . . . sive, whether ... or. 
 
 tarn . . . quam, so (as) . . . as. 
 
 cum (turn) . . . turn, both . . . and; not only . . . but also. 
 
 idem . . . qui, the same . . . as. 
 
 NOTE. For the reciprocal use of alius and alter, see Syntax 
 ( 47, 9). 
 
50 VERBS : STRUCTURE. [23 : I, 2, 3. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 23. STRUCTURE. 
 
 1. The forms of a Latin verb are the following : 
 
 a. VOICES : Active and Passive. 
 
 b* MOODS : Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive. 
 c* PARTICIPLES : Active, Present and Future. 
 
 Passive, Perfect and Gerundive. 
 d. VERBAL NOUNS : Gerund and Supine. 
 e* TENSES : Present, Imperfect, Future ; Perfect, Pluperfect, 
 Future-Perfect. 
 
 /. There are also separate terminations of inflection for each 
 of the three Persons, Singular and Plural ( 28). 
 
 NOTE. The Infinitives, Participles, Gerund, and Supine are not 
 strictly parts of the verb, as having no personal terminations, but 
 having the form and (in general) the construction of nouns. They 
 were, however, regarded and used as verbal forms by the Komans. 
 
 2. Special forms for the following tenses are wanting in 
 certain parts of the verb : 
 
 l In the Subjunctive mood, the future and future-perfect. 
 
 NOTE. These are wanting, because the original meaning and 
 most of the uses of this mood are future. In some cases, the future 
 participle with the corresponding tense of esse is used. 
 
 b. In the Passive voice, the perfect, pluperfect, and future-per- 
 fect, which are supplied by corresponding tenses of esse, to be, 
 with the Perfect Participle. 
 
 c. In the Imperative mood only two tenses are found, present 
 and future. In the Infinitive only the present, perfect, and future. 
 
 3. The Active and Passive voices are equivalent to the 
 corresponding English forms, except that the tenses of the 
 passive are used with more exactness. Thus vocatur means, 
 he is [being] called, i.e., some one is now calling him ; voea- 
 tns est, he is called, i.e., the action is now over. 
 
 NOTE. The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning, as, indiii- 
 tur vestem, he puts on his clothes; and many verbs -are active in mean- 
 ing though passive in form. (See 35, " Deponents.") 
 
24, 25.] MOODS PARTICIPLES. 51 
 
 24, MOODS. 
 
 1. The Indicative is used for direct assertion or interroga- 
 tion. 
 
 2. The Subjunctive is used chiefly in commands, condi- 
 tions, and dependent clauses. 
 
 NOTE. The Latin Subjunctive is usually translated, in grammars, 
 by the English potential forms, may, might, could, ivould, &c., to distin- 
 guish it from the Indicative, because the English has no subjunctive 
 in general use. But the subjunctive is used in many cases where we 
 use the indicative ; and we use the potential in many cases where the 
 Latin employs a separate verb. Thus 1 may write (except when it 
 follows ut, in order that] is not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi scri- 
 bere ; / can write is possum scribere ; / would write is scribam, 
 scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem) ; I should write, if, frc., scri- 
 berem si ... or (implying duty) oportet me scribere. A few ex- 
 amples of the use of the subjunctive maybe seen in the following : 
 
 eamus, let us go. ne cunctemur, let us not linger. 
 
 quid marer, why should I delay ? 
 
 si tardior sim iratus sit, if 1 should be too late he would be angry. 
 
 adsum ut videam, I am here to see [that I may see]. 
 
 imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write. 
 
 nescio quid scribam, 1 know not what to write. 
 
 licet eas, you may go; cave cadas, don't fall. 
 
 vereor ne eat, Ifear he will go (vereor ut, 1 fear he will not). 
 
 sunt qui putent, there are some who think. 
 
 si ita esset non manerem, if it were so 1 would not stay. 
 
 quge cum dixisset abiit, when he had said this he went away. 
 
 3. The Imperative is used for exhortation or command ; 
 but its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive. 
 
 4. The Infinitive is used as an indeclinable noun, as the 
 subject or object of another verb ; but often takes the place 
 of one of the other moods. 
 
 NOTE. For the Syntax of the Moods, see 57. 
 
 25, PARTICIPLES. 
 
 1. The Present participle has the same meaning as the 
 English participle in -ing: as, vocans, calling; regentes, 
 those ruling. (For its inflection, see 16, 2.) 
 
 2. The Future participle is rarely used, except with tenses 
 of esse, to be (see 40), or to express purpose : as, urbs 
 est casura, the city is about to fall; venit auditurus, he came 
 to hear. 
 
52 GERUND AND SUPINE - TENSES. [26, 27. 
 
 3. The Perfect participle is used to form certain tenses 
 of the passive, and often has simply an adjective meaning : 
 as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called; tectus, sheltered ; 
 acceptus, acceptable. 
 
 NOTE. There is no perfect active or present passive participle in 
 Latin. The perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally 
 used in an active sense, as secutus, having followed. In other cases 
 some different construction is used : as, cum venisset, having come 
 (when he had come) ; equitatu praemisso, having sent forward the cav- 
 alry (the cavalry having been sent forward) ; duiii verberatur, while 
 being struck (= TUTTTOJI.SVOS). 
 
 For the Syntax of these participles, see 72. 
 
 4. The Gerundive (sometimes called the future passive 
 participle) has, with tenses of esse, the meaning ought or 
 must (see 40) : as, audiendus est, he must be heard. But, 
 in the oblique cases, it is oftener to be translated as if it were 
 an active participle, and governed the word it agrees with : as, 
 ad petendam pacem, to seek peace ( 73). 
 
 26. GERUND AND SUPINE. 
 
 1. The Gerund is the neuter singular of the Gerundive. 
 It is a verbal noun, corresponding to the English participial 
 noun in -ing: as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking. 
 
 2. The Supines are the accusative and ablative (or dative) 
 of a verbal noun of the fourth declension ( 12, 4, a). They 
 are generally translated by the English Infinitive of purpose : 
 as, venit spectatum, he came to see ; mirabile dictu, wonder- 
 ful to tell. 
 
 NOT*:. The Supine in turn is the regular Infinitive in Sanskrit. 
 
 27. TENSES. 
 
 1. The tenses of a Latin verb are of two classes : (1) 
 those denoting incomplete action, the Present, Imperfect, and 
 Future ; (2) those denoting completed action, the Perfect, 
 Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect. 
 
 Those of the former class, together with the Perfect, are 
 also used to denote indefinite action. 
 
27: 2, 3, 4? 5-] TENSES. 53 
 
 2. The Present, Future, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect 
 have the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in Eng- 
 lish, but are distinguished more accurately in their use : as, 
 
 diu aegroto, / have long been [and still am] sick. 
 
 cum venero scribam, when I come [shall have come] I will write. 
 
 3. The Perfect and Imperfect are both used to denote 
 past time, the former usually to tell a simple fact ; the latter, 
 a continued action, or a condition of things. The Imperfect 
 is variously rendered in English : as, 
 
 dicebat, he said, he was saying, or he used to say ; saepe dicebat, 
 he would often say ; dictitabat, he kept saying. 
 
 The Perfect has two separate uses, distinguished as definite and 
 historical, corresponding to the English perfect (compound) 
 and preterite (imperfect) : as, 
 vocavit, he has called (definite) , or he called (historical) . 
 
 NOTE. In Latin, and in the languages derived from Latin (as 
 Italian and French), there are two past tenses, the Perfect or Pret- 
 erite (aorist), which merely states that the fact took place ; and the Im- 
 perfect, which is used for description, or to indicate that the action was 
 in progress. In the Northern languages ( Germanic or Gothic, includ- 
 ing English), the same tense serves for both : as, 
 
 longius prosequi vetuit, quod loci naturam ignorabat, he forbade 
 to follow farther, because he was ignorant of the nature of the ground 
 (B. G. v. 9.). 
 
 4. The tenses of completed action are supplied in the Pas- 
 sive voice by adding the corresponding tenses of incomplete 
 action of esse to the Perfect Participle : as, occisus est, he 
 was slain, or, he has been slain. 
 
 5. The tenses of a Latin verb are formed upon three dif- 
 ferent stems, called the present, the perfect, and the supine 
 
 stems. 
 
 a. The tenses of incomplete action, both active and passive, are 
 formed upon the Present stem. 
 
 b. The tenses of completed, action in the active voice are formed 
 upon the Perfect stem. 
 
 c. The perfect participle, which is used in the tenses of 
 completed action in the passive voice, is formed upon the Supine 
 stem. 
 
 
54 VERB FORMS. [28 : I, 2. 
 
 28. VERB FORMS. 
 
 1. Personal endings. Verbs have terminations for 
 each of the three persons, both singular and plural, active and 
 passive. These terminations are fragments of old pronouns, 
 whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem. 
 
 ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 ^f 1. m mus r mur 
 
 2. s tis ris mini 
 
 3. t nt tur ntur 
 
 a. The present and perfect indicative have lost the m, and end 
 in the modified stem-vowels o and i. Except sum, / am, and 
 inquam, I say. 
 
 &. The second person of the perfect indicative has for the sin- 
 gular sti, and for the plural stis. The third person plural has an 
 ending of verbal origin, erunt. 
 
 C. The Imperative has special terminations : 
 
 ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
 
 Sing. 2. [lost] Plur. 2. te, tote Sing. 2. re PLur. 2. mini 
 3. to 3. nto 3. tor 3. ntor 
 
 NOTE. The Passive is a peculiar Latin middle (or reflexive) 
 form, made by adding se to the forms of the active voice, with some 
 abrasion of their endings (the original form of se, SVA, was not 
 limited to the third person). Thus amor amo-se, amaris = amasise, 
 amatur = amatise. The above view seems the most probable, in spite 
 of some objections. The ending mini in the second person plural 
 of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek 
 
 All Latin words ending in t, except a few in ot, ut, with et, at, 
 sat, are third persons of verbs ; all in nt are third persons plural. 
 In dumtaxat, however, licet, although, and the indefinite pronouns in 
 -libet, the meanings of the verbs are disguised. 
 
 2. Changes of Stem. These terminations appear in all 
 the tenses of the verb ; but the Stem in many parts is variously 
 modified to receive them, sometimes by changes in its form, 
 and sometimes by additions at the end. 
 
 a. The Present indicative and subjunctive, the Imperative, 
 and sometimes the Future, add the personal endings directly to 
 the present stem, with or without change of vowel : as, do, das, 
 dat (stem da-) ; vocem (stem voca-) . 
 
28: 2, 3-] VERB-FORMS. 55 
 
 &, The Perfect indicative also sometimes adds them directly ; 
 but to another form of the root called the perfect stem : as, dedi, 
 dedisti, dedit 
 
 NOTE. The i of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always long 
 (ei, i, e) except before mus, is of doubtful origin. It is treated for 
 convenience as part of the stem, as it is in dedi, steti, where it takes 
 the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes vi (= fui) and si (= Skr. 
 dsa), and in the perfects of consonant-roots, it seems to be, but prob- 
 ably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The s before ti and tis is 
 also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es ; but it 
 may be, like the others, of pronominal origin. 
 
 c. All other true verbal forms are compounded with a suffix 
 originally a verb which contains the personal endings: as, 
 vocav-eram, vocav-ero, voca-bo. The first person of the 
 Perfect,_thus compounded, produces another form of perfect stem: 
 as, voca-vi 
 
 d. The Present Infinitive Active, Present Participle, and 
 Gerundive, add nominal (noun or adjective) suffixes to the present 
 stem: as, vocare, vocans (antis), vocandus. 
 
 e. The Perfect infinitive adds an infinitive (esse) already 
 formed to the perfect stem : as, vocavisse (= vocavi-esse). 
 
 /. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are 
 formed upon what is called a supine stem, which adds t- either to 
 the Present stem or to the Root: as, vocat-, tect- (root teg-). 
 
 NOTE. Strictly, these have no common stem, but are formed 
 with special suffixes (to-, turo-, tu-). As, however, the form to 
 which they are added is the same for each, and as the suffixes all 
 begin with t, it is convenient to give the name supine stem to the form 
 in t. . The participle in to- corresponds to the Greek verbal -TOS ; that 
 in turo- is a development of the noun of agency ending in -tor (as 
 victor, victurus) ; that in tu- is an abstract noun of the fourth 
 declension ( 12, 4, a). 
 
 g. The Present Infinitive Passive is an anomalous form, made 
 by adding -ri or i to the present stem: as, voco, vocari; tego, 
 tegi. (When i is added, the final vowel of the stem disappears.) 
 It was anciently followed by -er. 
 
 h. The Future Infinitive Passive is supplied by the supine in 
 turn with the infinitive passive of eo, to go, used impersonally : as, 
 vocatum iri, to be about to be called. 
 
 NOTE. The construction of this infinitive is different from the 
 others, the form in turn being invariable, and the apparent subject 
 accusative being really the object of the supine taken actively. Few 
 verbs in fact have this form, for which fore ut with the subjunctive 
 is often found. 
 
 3. Verb-Endings. The scheme of Verb-Endings, as 
 they are formed by suffixes or personal endings, is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
56 
 
 VERB-FORMS. 
 
 [28: 
 
 a. Verbal Forms. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. 
 
 [o] m (vowel-change) [or] 
 
 s s ris or re 
 
 t t tur 
 
 HTUS nrus niur 
 
 tis tis mini 
 
 nt nt ntur 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 r (vowel-change) 
 ris or re 
 tur 
 mur 
 mini 
 ntur 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 bam rem bar rer 
 
 bas res baris(re) reris(re) 
 
 bat ret batur retur 
 
 bamus remns bamur remur 
 
 batis retis bamini remini 
 
 bant rent bantur rentur 
 
 FUTURE. 
 bo, or am (vowel-change) bor, or or (vowel-change) 
 
 bis es beris(re) eris(re) 
 bit et bitur etur 
 bimus emus bimtir emur 
 bitis etis bimini <?mini 
 bunt ent buntur cntur 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 erim 
 
 rsum 
 
 sim 
 
 isti 
 
 ^ . tus (ta 
 eris 
 
 -)es 
 
 sis 
 
 it 
 
 erit 
 
 (est 
 
 sit 
 
 imus 
 istis 
 erunt 
 or ere 
 
 erimus 
 erltis b f ae ' 
 Srint ta) 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 c sumus 
 <estis 
 (sunt 
 
 simus 
 sitis 
 sint 
 
 .r Sram 
 
 issem 
 
 reram 
 
 essem 
 
 eras 
 
 isses 
 
 -<eras 
 
 esses 
 
 6rat 
 
 isset 
 
 (erat 
 
 esset 
 
 eramus 
 
 issemus 
 
 f eramus 
 
 essemus 
 
 eratis 
 erant 
 
 issetis ^ 6 ' 
 issent ta > 
 
 < eratis 
 (erant 
 
 essetis 
 essent 
 
29: 
 
 ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 
 
 FUT. PERFECT. 
 
 57 
 
 Sro 
 
 eris 
 
 erit 
 
 erimus 
 
 eritis 
 
 erint 
 
 tum > 
 
 erit 
 
 ta) ( 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 to 
 
 te, tote 
 
 nto 
 
 < erunt 
 
 re 
 tor 
 mini 
 ntor 
 
 b* Nominal Forms. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. re (Pres. stem) ri or i (old rier, ier) 
 
 PERFECT. sse (Perf. stem) tus (a, um) esse 
 
 FUTURE. turus (a, um) esse turn irL 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 PRESENT. ns, ntis 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 FUTURE. turus, a, um 
 
 SUPINE. turn, tu 
 
 tus, a, um 
 
 GERUNDIVE, ndus, a, um 
 
 NOTE. The origin and meaning of some of the above verb-end- 
 ings may be given as follows. The suffix bam is an imperfect of 
 BHU, which appears in fui, futurus, fio, the Greek <|>va>, and English 
 be; rem (for sem) is an optative or subjunctive imperfect of ES, 
 which appears in sum, cl|it, am, &c. ; bo is a future, and vi a 
 perfect, of BHU; si is a perfect of ES, and is kindred with the 
 aorist-ending <ra, though not of the same formation; erim is an 
 optative form of ES corresponding to sim ; ero is the future of es 
 (for es-io). 
 
 29. Esse AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 
 
 The verb esse, to be, is both irregular and defective, having 
 no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future. 
 
 NOTE. The present participle, which should be sens (compare 
 Sanskrit sant), appears in that form in ab-sens, prse-sens ; and as 
 ens (compare wv) in pot-ens. The simple form ens is sometimes 
 found in late or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, 
 in the forms ens, Being ; entia, things which are. 
 
 3* 
 
58 
 
 ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 
 
 [29: I. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS : Present, sum, 1 am. 
 Infinitive, esse, to be. 
 Perfect, fui, / was or have been. 
 Future Participle, futurus, about to be. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 SING. 1. sum, Jam. 
 
 2. es, thou art. 
 
 3. est, Tie (she, it) is. 
 
 PLUR. 1. sumus, we are. 
 
 2. estis, you are. 
 
 3. sunt, they are. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 sim, / am, may be, &c. (see 
 sis [examples on p. 51). 
 
 sit 
 
 simus 
 
 sitis 
 
 sint 
 
 SING. 1. eram, I was. 
 
 2. eras, thou wast. 
 
 3. erat, he was. 
 
 PLUR. 1. eramus, we were. 
 
 2. eratis, you were. 
 
 3. erant, they were. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 essem, was (would or fSrem 
 esses, might be, fyc.). fores 
 esset k foret 
 
 essemus 
 
 essetis 
 
 esseut 
 
 f5rent 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 SING. 1. ero, I shall be. 
 
 2. eris, thou wilt be. 
 
 3. erit, he will be. 
 
 PLUR. 1. erimus, we shall be. 
 
 2. eritis, you will be. 
 
 3. erunt, they will be. 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 SING. 1. fui, I was (have been). fu6rim, was (have been, may 
 
 fueris [have been) . 
 
 fuerit 
 
 2. fuisti, thou ivast. 
 
 3. fuit, he was. 
 
 PLUR. 1. fulmus, we were. fuerimus 
 
 2. fuistis, you were. fueritis 
 
 3. fuerunt, they were. fuerint 
 
 or fuere. 
 
29: I.] ES8E AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 59 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 SING. 1. fueram, / "had been. fuissem, had been (might or 
 
 2. fueras, thou hadst been, fuisses [would have been) . 
 
 3. fuerat, he had been. fuisset 
 PLUR. 1. fueramus, we had been, fuissemus 
 
 2. fueratis, you had been, fuissetis 
 
 3. fuerant, they had been, fuissent 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 SING. 1. fuero, I shall have been. 
 
 2. fueris, thou wilt have been. 
 
 3. fuerit, he will have been. 
 PLUR. 1. fuerimus, we shall have been. 
 
 2. fueritis, you will have been. 
 
 3. fuerint, they will have been. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 PRESENT, gs, be thou. este, be ye. 
 
 FUTURE, esto, thou shall be. estote, ye shall be. 
 esto, he shall be. sunto, they shall be. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 PEESENT. esse, to be. 
 PERFECT, fuisse, to have been. 
 FUTURE, fbre or futurus esse, to be about to be. 
 FUTURE PARTICIPLE, futurus, a, um, about to be. 
 
 RARE FORMS. Fut. Indie, escit, escunt (strictly inchoative pres., 
 39). Pres. Subj. siem, fuam. 
 
 NOTE. The root of the verb esse is .es-, which in the imperfect 
 is changed to er- (1, 3, e), and in many cases is shortened to s-. 
 Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less 
 distantly related to Latin, may be seen in the following Table ; the 
 " Indo-European " being the primitive or theoretic form, and the form 
 sydm corresponding to the Latin siem, sim : 
 Ind.-Eur. 
 as-mi 
 as-si 
 as-ti 
 as-masi 
 as-tasi 
 as-auti 
 
 The Perfect and Supine stems, fui, futu-, are kindred with the Greek 
 v, was), and with the English be. 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Slavonic. 
 
 Lithuanian. 
 
 as-mi 
 
 sydm (opt.) 
 
 ?|JL|ltt 
 
 yes-mi 
 
 es-mi 
 
 as-i 
 
 syds 
 
 &r<Kt 
 
 yes-si 
 
 es-i 
 
 as-ti 
 
 sydt 
 
 4<rr 
 
 yes-ti 
 
 es-ti 
 
 s-mas 
 
 sydma 
 
 OPU.V 
 
 yes-mu 
 
 es-me 
 
 s-tha 
 
 sydta 
 
 <TT' 
 
 yes-te 
 
 es-te 
 
 s-anti 
 
 syus 
 
 VTlt 
 
 s-unti 
 
 es-ti 
 
 
 
 t Old Form. 
 
 
 
60 
 
 CONJUGATION. 
 
 [29, 30. 
 
 a. The verb esse is compounded, without any change of its 
 inflection, with many prepositions. In the compound prodesse, 
 to profit, pro retains its original d where followed by e: as, 
 prosum, prodes, prodest, prosumus, prodestis, prosunt. 
 
 b. Esse is also compounded with the adjective potis or pote, 
 able, in the verb posse. Its inflection, with that of prodesse, is 
 given in the following : -j 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ. 
 
 possum, / can. possim prosum prosim 
 
 potes, thou canst, possis prodes prosis 
 
 potest, he can. possit prodest prosit 
 
 possumus, we can. possimus prosumus prosimus 
 
 potestis, you can. possitis prodestis prositis 
 
 possunt, they can. possint prosunt prosint 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 poteram possem proderam prodessem 
 
 FUTURE. 
 potero prodero 
 
 PERFECT. 
 potui potuerim profui profuerim 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 potueram potuissem profueram profuissem 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 potuero profuero 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 prodes, prodesto, &c. 
 INFINITIVE. 
 PR. posse PERF. potuisse PR. prodesse PERF. profuisse 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 [potens, powerful.'] profuturus, about to help. 
 
 30. CONJUGATION. 
 
 There are in Latin four principal forms of Present 
 Stems, ending respectively in a, e, e, I. With this dif- 
 ference of stem most of the other differences of conju- 
 gation coincide. 
 
 Yerbs are accordingly classed in four regular 
 conjugations, distinguished by the vowel before re in 
 the Present Infinitive Active, which is the same in 
 each case as those given above. 
 
30: I, 2.] CONJUGATION. 61 
 
 NOTE. This mode of classification was invented by the Roman 
 grammarians, and has been generally adopted by the moderns. In 
 fact, however, the vowels a, e, i (long), found in the First, Second, 
 and Fourth Conjugations, are different corruptions of the form AYA, 
 which in the original language was added to roots in one form of 
 present stems. All other forms of present stems, except a few 
 unmodified, had originally, or received in Latin, a suffix ending 
 in (or consisting of) a short, which was corrupted to e or i short. 
 These are collected in the Third Conjugation. A few roots ending 
 in a vowel were drawn perhaps by vowel-increase into the analogy 
 of the other conjugations; and a lew of the fourth conjugation had 
 IYA instead of AYA. 
 
 1. First Conjugation* Most verbs of the first conju- 
 gation retain the stem- vowel (a) throughout, except in the 
 present indicative, which loses it before 0, and the present sub- 
 junctive, where it is changed to e. 
 
 NOTE. Dare, to give stem originally da retains a short, ex- 
 cept in da and das. The Subjunctive with changed vowel (e) corre- 
 sponds to the Greek and Sanskrit Optative, and is formed by the 
 addition of a tense of i, to go, a-f-i becoming e. 
 
 a. In the Future, the ending -bo, &c., is added to the present 
 stem : as, vocabo. 
 
 b. The Perfect stem adds vi to that of the present: as, 
 vocavi. But 
 
 1. A few verbs, either always or occasionally, add vi not to the 
 present stem, but to the root, v becoming u: as, sono, sonui 
 (see. p. 67). 
 
 2. Two verbs, do, sto, form their perfect stem by reduplication : 
 dedi, steti. 
 
 c. The Supine stem adds t to the present stem ; but verbs that 
 add vi to the root add t in like manner, sometimes with a connect- 
 ing vowel: as, seco, sectus; domo, domitus. 
 
 2. Second Conjugation. Only a few verbs of the sec- 
 ond conjugation retain e throughout. 
 
 a. The Present Indicative has e before o in the first person ; 
 in the Present Subjunctive a (originally a) is inserted after e : as, 
 deleo, deleam. 
 
 NOTE. The a in the present subjunctive is borrowed from the 
 third conjugation. (See next head, 3, e, N.) 
 
 b. The Future (as in the first conjugation) adds -bo, &c., to 
 the present stem : as, delebo. 
 
 c. In a few verbs, the Perfect stem adds vi to the present, as 
 deleo, delevi; but in most this termination is added to the 
 root, as moneo, moiiui (see p. 69). 
 
62 CONJUGATION. [30: 3. 
 
 d. In a few, the root is reduplicated, and in several -si is 
 added to the root, or its vowel is strengthened: as, tondeo, 
 totondi ; maneo, mansi ; lugeo, luxi ; caveo, cavi. 
 
 e. For the Supine stem, those which add -vi to the stem add t 
 also to the stem ; those which add vi to the root add t to the root, 
 with the connecting-vowel i ; those which form the perfect other- 
 wise add t (or its weakened form s) to the root: as, deletus, 
 niomtus, toiisus, mansus, cautus. 
 
 3. Third Conjugation. To the third conjugation be- 
 long those verbs which form the present stem in any other 
 way than by adding a long vowel to the root. 
 
 a. The Present Stem is formed in eight different ways, in all 
 of which e (original a), or else a suffix containing it, is added to 
 the Root. Besides this addition, 
 
 1. The vowel of the root is- lengthened (vowel-increase) : as in 
 duco, fido, nubo (compare ducis, perfidus, proniiba ; also Gr. 
 root Anr-). 
 
 2. The root is reduplicated: as in sisto, bibo, gigno, from the 
 root sta- (in status) , pa- (in pbtus) , gen- (in genus ; compare 
 yiyvofiaLj root ytv-}. 
 
 3. The root is strengthened by the insertion of n (m) before its 
 final consonant : as in findo, frango, cunibo (compare think, 
 thought; fiavdavcj, root fiad-). 
 
 4. Final 1 or r of the root is doubled by assimilation of an 
 added consonant : as in fello, pello (compare ffreAAw, root cre/l-), 
 verro. 
 
 5. The consonant n is added to the root : as in cerno, lino, 
 temiio (compare T//VO>, root rep). 
 
 6. The root adds sc or isc (originally and often still incep- 
 tive) : as in disco (= dicsco, root die), nascor (root gna) , 
 nanciscor (root nac, compare ^aa/cu, evpianu). 
 
 7. The root adds t: as in pecto, plecto, mitto (compare 
 KOTTTCJ). 
 
 8. The root adds i (originally y) in the following: capio, 
 cupio, -cutio, facio, f6dio, fugio, jacio, -licio, pario, quatio 
 (-ciitio), rapio, sapio, -spicio. 
 
 NOTE. Verbal stems in u add merely the vowel e, and are of 
 the third conjugation. The u may be radical, as in suo, pluo, fluo ; 
 or developed from a palatal, as in loquor, stinguo (cf. CTI&) ; or 
 may belong to the noun in denominatives, as statuo (statu-s), acuo 
 (acu-s). Stems in o are lost, as po- (cf. potum) ; or have become 
 of the first conjugation, as boo, boare. 
 
30: 3-] CONJUGATION. 63 
 
 6. The stem-vowel e is weakened to i in several forms of the 
 Present indicative and imperative ; is lengthened to e in the Imper- 
 fect ; and undergoes other changes exhibited in the paradigm. 
 
 c. The Future is formed (without the suffix bo) by vowel- 
 changes to a and e before the personal endings. 
 
 NOTE. The a (properly long) of the future is borrowed from 
 the present subjunctive ; the forms in e have the same origin as the 
 present subjunctive of the first conjugation, and are properly optative. 
 
 d. The Perfect stem is formed in five different ways : 
 
 1. The root is reduplicated : as in cado, cecidi ; curro, 
 ciicurri; disco, didici. 
 
 2. The root-vowel is increased, a becoming e, and i, o, u being 
 simply lengthened : as in capio, cepi ; fodio, fodi ; fiigio, fugi. 
 
 3. The same form appears in the perfect as in the present stem : 
 this is regular with verbs of this conjugation in uo (vo) : as, acuo, 
 acui ; solvo, solvi. 
 
 NOTE. It is probable that in the last two cases the root was 
 originally reduplicated ; but that the reduplication was retained only 
 where vowel-increase did not take place. 
 
 4. The suffix si ' is added to the root : as in carpo, carpsi ; 
 gero, gessi; sumo, sumpsi; dlco, dixi; tego, texi. 
 
 5. The suffix ui (vi) is added to the root : as in colo, colui ; 
 fremo, fremui ; gigno, genui ; rapio, rapui. Before this suffix 
 a long vowel of various origin is often found : as in cupio, cupi- 
 vi ; peto, petivi ; sperno," sprevi. 
 
 NOTE. Both suffixes are combined in the following: necto, 
 nexui ; plecto, plexui. A few verbs vary : as, pango, panxi (pegi 
 Or pepigi) ; vello, velli or vulsi. 
 
 e. The Present Subjunctive changes e to a: as, vehere, vehas. 
 NOTE. This j form with a corresponds to the Greek and Sanskrit 
 
 subjunctive withy Ipng vowel, and proceeds from the addition of 
 another a (short) : Compare t\r\s, vahasi. 
 
 f. The Supine stem is formed by adding to the root t-, which 
 in many cases takes eup^ionically the form s- ( 1, 3, f. 4). 
 
 NOTE. A few roots take a connecting vowel before this affix, 
 and some have both forms. When this is the case, the future parti- 
 ciple and derivative verb take the longer form : as, ortus, 01 Hums ; 
 actus (ago), agito. 
 
 gr. Some verbs of the third conjugation form the other parts 
 upon the (modified) present stem as a root : as, fingo, finxi, fict- 
 (fig) ; jungo, junxi, junct- (jiig). 
 
 h. In verbs which add i to the root in the present stem, this 
 vowel is lost where it would be followed by e or i (except in the 
 future third person singular) : as in capit, caperet, capiet. 
 
64 CONJUGATION. [30: 4, 5. 
 
 4. Fourth Conjugation. Verbs of the fourth conju- 
 gation retain I throughout, except before another vowel. 
 
 a Several forms of the present stem have in addition the final 
 vowels of the third conjugation. In the Imperfect the regular 
 form (retained in ibani, from eo) is often found in early Latin. 
 
 6. The Future does not take bo, but has ia and ie (from the 
 third conjugation) before the personal endings. In early Latin the 
 form in bo (retained in ibo) sometimes occurs. 
 
 The Perfect stem adds vi to the present stem : as, finio, 
 finivi. A few verbs add it to the root, as aperio, aperui; 
 several add si, as sentio, sensi ; and in a few the perfect is the 
 same as the present stem, with or without vowel-increase : as, 
 reperio, reperi; venio, veni. 
 
 d* The Supine stem adds t- to the present : as, finio, finitus. 
 A few add it to the root : as, salio, saltus ; sepelio, sepultus. 
 
 5. Principal farts. The principal parts of a verb, 
 which determine its conjugation throughout, are the follow- 
 ing : 1. Present Indicative (showing the present stem) ; 2. 
 Present Infinitive (the conjugation) ; 3. Perfect (the perfect 
 stem) ; 4. Supine (the supine stem). 
 
 a* The regular forms of conjugation are seen in the follow- 
 ing: 
 
 1. voco, vocare, vocavi, vocatum, call. 
 
 2. deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, destroy. 
 
 3. carpo, carpere, carpsi, carptum, gather. 
 
 4. audio, audire, audivi, auditum, hear. 
 
 In the second conjugation, however, the characteristic e rarely 
 appears in the perfect and supine : thus the type of this conjuga- 
 tion is 
 
 moneo, monere, monui, momtum, warn. 
 
 6. What is called the Synopsis of a verb consists of the first 
 person singular of each tense, with infinitive and participles, given 
 in regular order: as, of amo, I love 
 
 INDIC. amo, amabam, amabo, amavi, amaveram, amavero. 
 
 SUBJ. amem, aniarem, amaverim, amavissem. 
 
 IMP. ama, amato. 
 
 INF. amare, amavisse. 
 
 PART, amans, amaturus, amatus, amandus. 
 
 Notice that in all verbs the Imperf. and Pluperfect Subjunctive 
 may be formed by adding the personal-endings to it-he present and 
 perfect infinitive; and the Imperative Passive (second person) is 
 the same in form with the present infinitive active. 
 
30 : 6, 7-] CONJUGATION. 65 
 
 v 
 
 In many verbs the principal parts take the form of two or 
 more different conjugations : as, 
 
 1, 2. domo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue. 
 
 2, 3. augeo, augere, auxi, auctum, increase. 
 
 3, 4. peto, petere, petlvi, petitum, seek. 
 
 4, 3, vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind. 
 
 In these the conjugation is said to be denoted by the first or 
 present stem. 
 
 a* The compounds of many verbs vary from the forms of the 
 primitive. This variation is seen especially (1) in the change of 
 the vowel of the root, a in open syllables becoming i and in close 
 syllables e, while e becomes i: as, capio, captum, concipio, 
 conceptum ; teneo, contineo ; (2) in the loss of the reduplica- 
 tion : as, concido, concidi. (This is, however, retained in com- 
 pounds of disco, do, posco, sto, and in some of those of curro). 
 
 6. Special Forms. The following special forms are 
 found in the conjugation of many verbs : 
 
 a In tenses formed upon the Perfect stem, v between two 
 vowels is often suppressed, and the second vowel merged in the first 
 (unless a or e follows i or u) : as, amasse = amavisse ; flestis = 
 flevistis ; audieram = audiveram ; uosse = novisse ; noram = 
 noveram. This is especially frequent in verbs of the fourth conju- 
 gation, and is regular in the compounds of eo : as, abiit for abivit. 
 
 6. In many forms s with its vowel is suppressed in like manner 
 when it would be repeated : as, dixti for dixisti. 
 
 c* Four verbs dico, duco, facio, fero with several of their 
 compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making 
 die, due, fac, fer (but effice, confice). The forms dice, duce, 
 face (never fere) occur in early Latin. 
 
 d For the imperative of scio, the future form scito is always 
 used in the singular, and scitote usually in the plural. 
 
 e* The following are ancient forms, rarely found except in 
 poetry : 
 
 1. In the fourth conjugation -ibam, -ibo for -iebam, -iam (fut.) ; 
 
 2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in duim, perduim (re- 
 tained also in religious formulas) ; 
 
 3. In the perf. subj. and fut. perf. -so, -sim: as, faxo, faxim; 
 
 4. In the passive infinitive -ier: as, vocarier for vocari. 
 
 "7. Parallel Forms. Many verbs have more than one 
 set of forms, of which only one is generally found in classic 
 use : as, 
 
 lavo, lavare or lavere, to wasli. 
 
 scateo, scatere or scatere, to gush. 
 
 ludifico, are or ludificor, ari, to mock. 
 
66 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 31. FIRST 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present, / love or am loving. 
 amo, / love. amem 
 
 amas, thou lovest. ames 
 am at, he loves. amet 
 amamus, we love, amemus 
 amatis, you love, ametis 
 amant, they love. 
 
 CONJUGATION. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 I am beloved. 
 
 [31. 
 
 amor 
 
 amaris (re) 
 
 amatur 
 
 amamur 
 
 amammi 
 
 amantur 
 
 ament 
 
 Imperfect, / loved (used to love). 
 amabam, / loved, amarem amabar 
 amabas amares 
 
 amabat amaret 
 
 amabamus amaremus 
 
 amabatis amaretis 
 
 amabant amarent 
 
 Future, / shall love. 
 amabo, / shall love. 
 amabis 
 amabit 
 amabimus 
 amabitis 
 amabunt 
 
 Perfect, / loved (have loved). 
 amavi, I loved, amaverim 
 amaveris 
 amaverit 
 amaverimus 
 amaveritis 
 
 amer 
 
 ameris (re) 
 
 ametur 
 
 amemur 
 
 amemini 
 
 amentur 
 
 I was loved. 
 amarer 
 amareris (re) 
 amaretur 
 
 amabaris (re) 
 
 amabatur 
 
 amabamur amaremur 
 
 amabamini amaremini 
 
 amabantur amarentur 
 
 / shall be loved. 
 amabor 
 amaberis (re) 
 amabitur 
 amabimur 
 amabimmi 
 amabuntur 
 
 / was (have been ) loved. 
 
 amatus sum 
 amatus es 
 amatus est 
 amati sumus 
 amati estis 
 amati sunt 
 
 amatus sim 
 amatus sis 
 amatus sit 
 amati simus 
 amati sitis 
 amati sint 
 
 7 had been loved. 
 
 amatus eram amatus essem 
 amatus eras 
 amatus erat 
 
 amavisti 
 
 amavit 
 
 amavimus 
 
 amavistis 
 
 amaverunt (ere) amaverint 
 
 Pluperfect, / had loved. 
 amaveram, / had amavissem 
 amaveras [loved, amavisses 
 amaverat amavisset 
 
 amaveramus amavissemus amati eramus 
 amaveratis amavissetis amati eratis 
 
 amaverant amavissent amati erant 
 
 Future Perfect, / shall have loved. I shall have been loved. 
 amavero, / shall have loved. amatus ero ^ 
 amaveris 
 amaverit 
 amaverimus 
 amaveritis 
 amaverint 
 
 amatus esses 
 amatus esset 
 amati essemus 
 amati essetis 
 amati essent 
 
 amatus eris 
 amatus erit 
 amati erimus 
 amati eritis 
 amati erunt 
 
31: I, 2.] FIRST CONJUGATION. 67 
 
 ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE. 
 
 PR. ama, love. thou ( amare, be thou loved. 
 
 amate, love ye. amamini, be ye loved. 
 
 FUT. amato, Tie shall love. amator, he shall be loved. 
 
 amatote, ye shall love. 
 
 amanto, they shall love. amantor, they shall be loved. 
 
 Noun and Adjective Forms. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PRES. amare/. to love. amari, tobe loved. 
 
 PERP. amavisse, to have loved. amatus^sse, to have been loved. 
 
 FUT. amaturus esse, to be amatum iri, amatus fore. 
 about to love. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 PRES. amans, loving. 
 
 p ERF . amatus, beloved. 
 
 FUT. amaturus, about to love. 
 
 GERUNDIVE, amandus, a, um, to be loved-^lovely). 
 GERUND. amandum, -di, -do, loving. 
 SUPINES. amatum, amatu, to love. 
 
 1. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, 
 most of them formed directly upon a noun or adjective-stem, 
 to which they generally give the force and meaning of an 
 active verb: as, armo, to arm (anna) ; caeco, to blind 
 (caecus) ; exsulo, to be in exile (exsul). Their conjugation is 
 usually regular, like amo ; though of many only a few parts 
 are found in use. 
 
 2. Those which form their Perfect and Supine stems 
 differently are the following, those marked f having also 
 regular forms ; and those preceded by a hyphen being found 
 only in compounds : 
 
 crepo, crepui, crepit-, resound, plico, plicui, -p\\c\t-,fold. 
 
 cubo, cubui, cubit::, lie down. poto, potavi, fpot-, drink. 
 
 do, dare, de.di, daf^, give. seco, secui, sect-, cut. 
 
 domo, domui, domit-, subdue, sono, sonui, sonit-, sound. 
 
 frico, fricui, f frict-, rub. sto, steti, stat-, stand. 
 
 juyo, juvi, jut-, kelp. tono, tonui, tonit-, thunder. 
 
 mico, micui, glitter. veto, vetui, vztit-, forbid. 
 neco, f necui, f nect-, kill. t 
 
SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 [32. 
 
 32. SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present, I warn. 
 moneo, / warn, moneam 
 mones, you warn, moneas 
 monet, he warns, moneat 
 monemus moneamus 
 
 monetis moneatis 
 
 monent moneant 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 / am warned. 
 
 moneor monear 
 
 moneris (re) monearis (re) 
 monetur moneatur 
 
 monemur 
 monemmi 
 monentur 
 
 moneamur 
 moneammi 
 moneantur 
 Imperfect, / warned (was warning). I was warned. 
 
 monebam monerem monebar monerer 
 
 monebas 
 
 monebat 
 
 monebamus 
 
 monebatis 
 
 monebant 
 
 Future, / shall warn. 
 monebo 
 monebis 
 monebit 
 monebimus 
 
 moneres 
 
 moneret 
 
 moneremus 
 
 moneretis 
 
 monerent 
 
 monebaris (re) monereris (re) 
 monebatur moneretur 
 monebamur moneremur 
 monebamini moneremini 
 monebaiitur monerentur 
 
 / shall be warned. 
 monebor 
 moneberis (re) 
 monebitur 
 monebimur 
 
 monebitis monebimmi 
 
 monebunt monebuntur 
 
 Perfect, / warned (have warned). I was (have 
 
 monui monuerim 
 
 monuisti monueris 
 
 monuit monuerit 
 
 monuimus monuerimus 
 
 monuistis monueritis 
 
 monuerunt (re) monuerint 
 
 Pluperfect, / had warned. 
 monuissem 
 nionuisses 
 monuisset 
 
 T earned. 
 ^unitus sim 
 monitus sis 
 monitus sit 
 moniti simus 
 moniti sitis 
 moniti sint 
 
 monitus eras 
 monitus erat 
 
 monuissemus moniti eramus 
 monuissetis moniti eratis 
 monuissent moniti erant 
 
 monih 1 -' am 
 
 mc v es ' 
 
 monitus est 
 
 moniti sumus 
 
 moniti estis 
 
 moniti sunt 
 
 I had been warned. 
 
 monitus eram monitus essem 
 monitus esses 
 monitus esset 
 moniti essemus 
 moniti essetis 
 
 monue'ram 
 monueras 
 monuerat 
 monueramus 
 " lueratis 
 
 , ^ ;ant monuissent moniti erant moniti esseiit 
 
 Fut. i^erfect, / shall have warned. I shall have been warned. 
 
 monuero monitus ero 
 
 monueris monitus eris 
 
 monuerit monitus erit 
 
 monuerimus moniti erimus 
 
 monueritis moniti eritis 
 
 monuerint moniti erunt 
 
32: 1,2.] SECOND CONJUGATION. 69 
 
 ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE. 
 
 Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 
 
 PR. mone, warn, monete monere monemini 
 
 F. moneto monetote 
 
 mone to monento monetor monentor 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PR. monere PF. monuisse PR. moneri PF. monitus esse 
 F. mqniturus esse F. monitum iri (monitus fore) 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 monens moniturus monitus monendus 
 
 GER. monendum, di, &c. SUP. monitum monitu 
 
 % 
 
 1. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation, 
 most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a cor- 
 responding noun and adjective from the same root, and an 
 inceptive form in -sco : as, caleo, calor, calldus, calesco ; 
 timeo, timor, timldus. 
 
 2. Most verbs of the second conjugation form their per- 
 fect and supine like IfcOneo, The following have evi and 
 etum : deleo, destroy ;' fleo, weep ; neo, spin ; and com- 
 pounds of -"nleo, Jill. The renuy- .er are 
 
 
 
 algeo, alsi. * ^>d moveo, movi, mot-, move. 
 
 ardeo, arsi, ar's-, burn. mulcto, imilsi, muls-. soothe. 
 
 audeo, ausus sum, dart. . ''' mulgeo, si (xi), muls- (mulct-), 
 
 o, auxi, auct-, increase. milk. 
 
 . cavi, caut-, care. niveo, nivi (nixi), iviuk. 
 
 '. c*ens-, value^ paveo, pavi. fear. 
 cico, civi, cit-, excite. pendeo, pependi, hang. 
 
 doceo, docui, doct-, teach. . prandeo, prandi, prans-, dine. 
 
 o, favi, faut-, favor. rideo, risi, ris-, laugh. 
 
 ferveo, fervi (ferbui), glow. sedeo, sedi, sess-, sit. 
 foveo, fovi, fot-, cherish. soleo, solitus sum, be tvont. 
 
 frigeo, frixi, be cold. sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi), suck. 
 
 fulgeo, fulsi, shine. spondeo, spopondi, spons-, to 
 
 gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice. strideo, stridi, w/iiz. [flledp*. 
 hsereo, haesi, haes-, cling. suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge. 
 
 indulgeo, indulsi, indult-, /;/- teneo, tenui, tent-, hold 
 jubeo,jussi,jus-, order, \dulge. tergeo, tersi, ters-, ivi^ . 
 langueo, langui. be faint. tondeo, totondi, tons-, shear. 
 
 liqueo, liqui ^licui), melt. torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist. 
 
 luceo, luxi, ihine. torreo, torrui, tost-, roast. 
 
 lugeo, luxi, luct-, mourn. turgeo, tursi, swell. 
 
 maneo, mar/ si, mans-, wait- urgeo, ursi, urge. 
 misceo, cui. mixt- (mist-), mix. video, vidi, vis-, see. 
 mordeo, mt-mordi, mors-, bite, voveo, vovi, vot-, vow. 
 
70 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 [33. 
 
 33. T^HIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present, I rule. 
 
 rego, I rule. regam 
 
 regis, thou rulest. regas 
 regit, he rules. regat 
 regimus, we rule, regamus 
 regitis, you rule, regatis 
 regunt, they rule, regant 
 
 Imperfect, I ruled (was ruling). 
 regebam, / ruled, regerem 
 regebas regeres 
 
 regebat regeret 
 
 regebamus ^|g|Sj^nus 
 regebatis ^jdpS^eretis 
 regebant regerent, 
 
 Future, / shall rule. 
 regarii, / shall rule. 
 regei 
 reget 
 regemus 
 regetis 
 regent 
 
 Perfect, 'I ruled (have ruled). 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 I am ruled. 
 regar 
 
 regaris (re) 
 regatur 
 regamur 
 regammi 
 regantur 
 
 regor 
 
 regeris (re) 
 
 regltur 
 
 regimur 
 
 regimini 
 
 reguntur 
 
 I was ruled. 
 
 regebar regerer 
 
 regebaris (re) regereris (re) 
 regebatur 
 regebamur 
 regebamini 
 regebantur 
 
 / shall be ruled. 
 
 regeretur 
 regeremur ~ 
 regeremini 
 reerentur 
 
 regeris (re) 
 
 regetur 
 
 regemur 
 
 regemini 
 
 regentur 
 
 I was (have been) ruled. 
 
 rexi, I ruled. 
 
 rexe'rim 
 
 rectus sum 
 
 rectus sim 
 
 r existi 
 
 rexeris 
 
 rectus es 
 
 rectus sis 
 
 rexit 
 
 rexerit 
 
 rectus est 
 
 rectus sit 
 
 r^;Lims 
 
 rexerimus 
 
 recti sumus 
 
 recti simus 
 
 rexistis 
 
 rexeritis 
 
 recti estis 
 
 recti sitis 
 
 rexerunt (re) 
 
 rexerint 
 
 recti sunt 
 
 recti sint 
 
 Pluperfect, / had ruled. 
 rexeram, / had rexissem 
 rexeras [ruled, rexisses 
 rexerat rexisset 
 
 rexeramus 
 
 rexeratis 
 
 rexeraiit 
 
 rexissemus 
 
 rexissetis 
 
 rexissent 
 
 / had been ruled. 
 
 rectus eram rectus essem 
 rectus esses 
 rectus esset 
 recti essemus 
 recti essetis 
 recti essent 
 
 Fut. Perfect, 1 shall have ruled. 
 rexero, / shall have ruled. 
 rexeris 
 rexerit 
 rexerimus 
 rexeritis 
 rexerint 
 
 rectus eras 
 rectus erat 
 recti eramus 
 recti eratis 
 recti erant 
 
 I shall havt^een ruled. 
 rectus ero 
 rectus eris 
 rectus erit 
 recti erimus 
 recti eritis 
 recti erunt 
 
33.] 
 
 THIRD CONJUGATION. 
 
 71 
 
 Sing, 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Plur. Sing. 
 
 PR. 2. rege, rule, reglte regere 
 
 PASSIVE. 
 
 Plur. 
 regimini 
 
 F. 2. regito 
 3. regito 
 
 regitote 
 
 regunto regitor 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PF. rexisse PR. regi 
 
 reguntor 
 
 PR. regere PF. rexisse PR. regi PF. rectus esse 
 
 F. recturus esse 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 regens recturus rectus 
 
 GER. regendum, di, &c. SUP. rectum, rectu 
 
 F. rectum iri (rectus fore) 
 l*egendus 
 
 Verbs in io (present stem) are inflected as follows : 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present, 1 take. 
 capio, / take. capiam 
 capis, thou takest. capias 
 capit, he takes. capiat 
 capimus, we take, capiamus 
 capitis, you take, capiatis 
 capiunt, they take, capiant 
 
 Imperfect, I took (was taking). 
 
 capiebam, / took, caperem 
 
 capiebas caperes 
 
 capiebat caperet 
 
 capiebamus caperemus 
 
 capiebatis caperetis 
 
 capiebant caperent 
 
 Future, 1 shall take. 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 / am taken. 
 
 capior 
 caperis (re) 
 capitur 
 capimur 
 capimmi 
 capiuntur 
 
 capiar 
 capiaris (re) 
 capiatur 
 capiamur 
 capiamini 
 capiantur 
 
 capiebar 
 
 capiebaris (re) 
 
 capiebatur 
 
 capiebamur 
 
 capiebarnini 
 
 capiebantur 
 
 was taken. 
 
 caperer 
 
 capereris (re) 
 
 caperetur 
 
 caperemur 
 
 caperemmi 
 
 caperentur 
 
 / shall be taken. 
 
 capiam capiemus 
 
 capiar capiemur 
 
 capies capietis 
 
 capieris (re) capiemini 
 
 capiet capient 
 
 capietur capientur 
 
 PERF. cepi ceperim 
 
 captus sum captus sim 
 
 PLUP. ceperam cepissem 
 
 captus sim captus essem 
 
 F. P. cepero 
 
 captus ero 
 
 ^ IMPERATIVE, 
 capite capere capimmi 
 4 :o capitote 
 
 capito capiuiito 
 
 capitor capiuntor 
 
 INFIN. capere cepisse 
 
 capi captus esse 
 
 PAUT. capiens capturus 
 
 captus capiendus 
 
72 THIRD CONJUGATION. [33 : I, 2, 3, 
 
 1. The following simple verbs of this conjugation form 
 the perfect and supine stems like rego, by adding s and t 
 to the root. Those marked } take s in the supine: 
 
 ango, choke ; carpo, pluck ; cingo, lind ; J claudo, shut ; 
 clepo, steal; coino, comb: c6quo, cook; demo, take away; 
 dico, say : duco, guide ; J figo, fix ; J flecto, bend ; frigo, fry ; 
 J laedo, hurt ; lingo, lick ; { ludo, play ; nubo, marry ; J pecto, 
 comb; fplaudo, applaud; plecto, twine; promo, bring out; 
 {rado, scrape; rSgo, rule; repo, creep; Jrodo, gnaw; sarpo, 
 prune; scalpo, scrape; scribo, write; serpo, crawl; sumo, take; 
 tego, shelter ; tingo, stain ; traho, drag ; { trudo, thrust ; J vado, 
 go; veho, draw; vivo, live. 
 
 NOTE. In these verbs, h and v are treated as palatals, becom- 
 ing x and ct ; p takes the place of b, and is inserted euphonically 
 after m, before s and t; while d and t are omitted: as in scrips!, 
 sumpsi, flexi, plausi; demo, promo, sumo, are old compounds. 
 
 2. Verbs in io of the third conjugation are conjugated as 
 follows : 
 
 capio, cepi, capt-, take. -licio, -lexi, -lect-, entice. 
 
 cupio, cupivi, cuplt-, desire. pario, peperi, part- (pariturus), 
 -cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, shake. bring forth. 
 
 facio, feci, fact-, make. quatio, , quass-, shake. 
 
 fodio, fodi, foss-, dig. rapio, rapui, rapt-, seize. 
 
 fugio, fugi, fugit-,_/fe0. sapio, sapivi, or sapui, be wise. 
 
 jacio, jeci, jact-, throw. -spicio, -spexi, -spect-. view. 
 
 3. Those otherwise conjugated are the following (see 
 30, 3, a, b). 
 
 ago, egi, act-, drive. cudo, -cudi, -cus-, forge, [down. 
 
 alo, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish. -cumbo [CUB], cubui, cubit-, lie 
 
 arcesso, ivi, arcesslt-, summon, curro, cucurri, curs-, run. 
 
 bibo, bibi, bibit-, drink. depso, depsui, depst-, knead. 
 
 cado, cecidi, cas-,y/7//. disco [DIG], didici(discit-),/e#r#. 
 
 caedo, cecidi, caes-, cut. divido, divisi, divis-, divide. 
 
 cano, cecini, cant-, sing". -do, -didi, -dit- (as in abdo, &c., 
 capesso, capessivi, undertake. with credo, vendo), put [DHA] 
 
 cedo, cessi, cess-, yield. edo, edi, esum, eat ( 37, 5). 
 -cello, -cellui(-culi), -eels-, push, emo, emi, empt-, buy. 
 
 -cendo, -.cendi, -cens-, kindle. facesso, facessi,facessit-,A*?c#/. 
 
 cerno, -crevi, -cret-, decree. fallo, fefelli, fals-, deceive. 
 
 colo, colui, cult-, dwell, till. -fendo, -fendi, -fens-, ward off. 
 
 compesco, compescui, restrain, fero, ferre, tuli, lat-, bear ( 37, 
 
 consulo, lui, consult-, consult. findo [FID], fidi, fiss-, split. [4). 
 
 cresco, crevi, cret-, increase. fido, fisus sum, trust.. 
 
33, 3-] THIRD CONJUGATION. 73 
 
 fingo [FIG], finxi, fact- >f ask ion. premo, pressi, press-, press. 
 fluo, fluxi, flux-,^/fozt>. {break, pungo [PUG], pupugi, punct-, 
 frango [FRAG], fregi, fract-, to prick. 
 
 fremo, fremui, fremit-, roar. qusero, qusesivi, quseslt-, seek. 
 frendo, -fresi, fress-, gnash. quiesco, quievi, quiet-, rest. 
 fundo [FUD], fudi, fus-,/0#r. rudo, rudivi, rudlt-, bray. 
 furo, furui, rage. rumpo [RUP], rupi, rupt-, burst. 
 
 gemo, gemui, gemit-, groan. ruo, rui, rut- (ruit-),///. 
 gero, gessi, gest-, carry. scabo, scabi, scratch. 
 
 gignoJGEN],genui,genit-, &?/. scando, scansi, scans-, climb. 
 ico, ici, ict-, hit. scindo [SCID], scidi, sciss-, tear. 
 
 incesso, incessivi, attack, {voke. scisco, scivi, scit-, decree. 
 lacesso, lacessivi, lacessit-, pro- sero, sevi, sat-, sow. 
 lambo, Iambi, lambit-, lap. sero, serui, sert-, entwine. 
 
 lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), wash sido, sidi (sedi), sess-, settle. 
 
 (reg. of ist conj.). sino, sivi, sit-, permit. 
 
 lego, legi(intellexi),lect-,^w/^/'. sisto [STA], stiti, stat-, stop. 
 lino [LI], levi (livi), lit-, smear, solvo, solvi, solut-,^y, loose. 
 linquo [LIC], -liqui, -lict-, leave, spargo, sparsi, sparr,-, scatter. 
 luo, lui, luit-, wash. sperno, sprevi, spret-, scorn. 
 
 mando, mansi, mans-, chew. sterno, stravi, strat-, strew. 
 mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge. sterto, stertui, snore. 
 meto, messui, mess-, reap. strepo, strepui, strepit-, sound. 
 
 mitto, misi, miss-, send. -stinguo,-stinxi,-stinct-,^;/c^. 
 
 molo, molui, molit-, grind. stringo, strinxi, strict-, bind. 
 necto [NEC], nexi (nexui), nex-, struo, struxi, struct-, build. 
 
 weave. suesco, suevi, suet-, be wont. 
 
 nosco[GNo], novi,not-(cognit-), surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rise. 
 nuo, nui, nuit-, nod. [know, tango [TAG], tetigi, tact-, touch. 
 occulo, occului, occult-, hide. tendo, tetendi (-tendi), tens- 
 pando, pandi, pans- (pass-), (tent-), stretch. 
 
 open. tergo, tersi, ters-, wipe. 
 
 pango [PAG], tpegi (pepigi),tero, trivi, trlt-, rub. 
 
 f pact-, fasten. texo, texui, text-, weave. 
 
 parco, peperci, parcit-, spare. tollo [TOL] (sustuli, sublat-), 
 pasco, pavi, past-,/e<?oT. tremo, tremui, tremble, [raise. 
 
 pello, pepuli, puls-, drive. tundo [TUD], tutudi, tuns-, beat. 
 
 pendo, pependi, pens-, weigh, uro, ussi, ust-, burn. 
 pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on. vello, velli (vulsi), vuls-, pluck. 
 peto, petivi, petit-, seek. verro, verri, vers-, sweep. 
 
 pingo [PIG], pinxi, pict-, paint, verto, verti, vers-, turn. 
 pinso, pinsi, pins-(pinst-, pist-), vinco [vie], vici, vict-, conquer. 
 
 bruise. viso [VID], visi, vis-, visit. 
 
 pono [POS], posui, posit-, put. vivo, vixi, vict-, live. 
 posco, poposci (posciturus,) de- volvo, volvi, volut-, turn. 
 
 mand. vomo, vomui, vomit-, vomit. 
 
 prehendo, di, prehens-, seize. 
 
 Those reduplicated in the perfect wz cado, ccedo, curro, 
 disco, fallo, pango, parco, pello, pendo, posco, pungo, tendo, 
 tundo. 
 
 tundo. 
 
74 
 
 FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 [34. 
 
 audior 
 
 audiar 
 
 audiris (re) 
 
 audiaris (re) 
 
 audltur 
 
 audiatur 
 
 audlmur , 
 
 audiamur 
 
 audimini 
 
 audiamini 
 
 audiuntur 
 
 audiantur 
 
 34. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Present, I hear. I am heard. 
 
 audio, I hear. audiam 
 audis, thouhearest.audias 
 audit, he hears, audiat 
 audimus, we hear, audiamus 
 auditis, you hear, audiatis 
 audiunt, they hear, audiant 
 
 Imperfect, / heard (was hearing). I was heard. 
 
 audiebam audirem audiebar audirer 
 
 audiebas 
 audiebat 
 audiebamus 
 audiebatis 
 audiebant 
 
 Future, / shall hear. 
 audiam, / shall hear. 
 audies 
 audiet t 
 audiemus 
 audietis 
 audient 
 
 Perfect, / hei 
 audivi, / heard. 
 audivisti 
 audivit 
 audivimus 
 audivistis 
 audiveruut (re) 
 
 Pluperfect, I had heard. 
 aucliveram, 1 had audivissem 
 audiveras [heard, audivisses 
 audiverat . audivisset 
 
 audiveramus 
 audiveratis 
 
 audires 
 audiret 
 
 audiebaris (re) 
 audiebatur 
 
 audireris (re) 
 audiretur 
 
 audiremus 
 audiretis 
 audirent 
 
 audiebamur 
 audiebamini 
 audiebaiitur 
 
 audiremur 
 audiremini 
 audirentur 
 
 hear. 1 shall be heard. 
 
 ear. 
 
 audiar 
 audieris (re) 
 audietur 
 
 
 
 audiemur 
 audiemmi 
 audientur 
 
 
 d (have heard). 
 audiverim 
 audiveris 
 audiverit 
 
 I was (have been) heard. 
 auditus sum aiiditus sim 
 auditus es auditus sis 
 auditus est auditus sit 
 
 audiverimus 
 audiveritis 
 audiverint 
 
 auditi sumus 
 auditi estis 
 auditi sunt 
 
 auditi simus 
 auditi sitis 
 auditi sint 
 
 / had been heard. 
 auditus eram auditus essem 
 
 auditus eras 
 auditus erat 
 audivissemus auditi eramus 
 audivissetis auditi eratis 
 
 auditus esses 
 auditus esset 
 auditi essemus 
 auditi essetis 
 auditi essent 
 
 audiverant audivissent auditi erant 
 
 Fut. Perfect, / shall have heard. I shall have been heard. 
 
 audivero, / shall have heard. auditus ero 
 audiveris 
 audiverit 
 audiverimus 
 audiveritis 
 
 audiverint 
 
 auditus eris 
 auditus erit 
 auditi erimus 
 auditi eritis 
 auditi erunt 
 
34: I,2J 35.] FOURTH CONJUGATION. 75 
 
 ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE. 
 
 Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 
 
 PR. 2. audi, hear, audite audire audimini 
 
 F. 2. audito auditote - 
 
 3. audito audiunto - auditor audiuntor 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PR. audire PF. audivisse PR. audiri PF. auditus esse 
 F. auditurus esse F. auditum iri (auditus fore) 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 audiens auditurus auditus audiendus 
 
 GER. audiendum, di, &c. SUP. auditum, auditu 
 
 1 . There are besides a few deponents and regular 
 derivatives in -urio about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a 
 large proportion of them being descriptive verbs : viz., 
 barrio, roar (as an elephant) ; crocio, croak ; cue urio, crow ; 
 dentio, teethe; ebullio, bubble; effutio, drivel; frigutio, stutter; 
 fritinnio, twitter; gannio, yelp; glutio, gulp; gruimio, grunt; 
 hinnio, neigh ; hirrio, snarl ; ligurio, lick ; lipio, scream (as a 
 hawk); lippio, blink; mugio, bellow; muttio, mutter; pavio, 
 trample ; scalpturio, scratch ; scaturio, gush ; singultio, hiccup ; 
 tinnio, tinkle; tussio, cough; vagio, cry. 
 
 2. Those not conjugated regularly, like audio, are the 
 followin :. 
 
 amicio, amixi (amicui), amict-, reperio, reperi, 
 
 clothe. salio, salui, salt-, leap. 
 
 aperio, aperui, apert-, open. . sancio, sanxi, sanct-, sanction. 
 comperio, peri, compert-, find, sarcio, sarsi, sart-,^V?/c>. 
 farcio,farsi (farct-) (-tum),s//^ sehtio, sensi, sens-, feel. 
 fulcio, fulsi, fult-, prop. sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury. 
 
 haurio, hausi, haust-, drain. sepio, sepsi, sept-, hedge in. 
 operio, operui, opert-, cover. venio, veni, vent-, come. 
 raucio, rausi, raus-, be hoarse, vincio, vinxi, vinct-, bind. 
 
 
 35. DEPONENT VERBS. 
 
 1. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive voice, 
 with an active or reflexive signification : as, 
 
 1. miror, mirari, miratus, admire. 
 
 2. vereor, vereri, veritus, fear. 
 . sequor, sequi, secutus, follow. 
 4. p6tior, potiri, potitus, possess. 
 
76 
 
 DEPONENT VERBS. 
 
 [35: i. 
 
 The synopsis of these verbs is given as follows: 
 
 potior 
 potiebar 1 
 potiar 
 potitus sum 
 eram 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PRES. miror vereor sequor 
 
 IMP. mirabar verebar sequebar 
 
 FUT. mirabor verebor sequar 
 
 PERF. miratus sum veritus sum secutus sum 
 PLUP. eram eram eram 
 
 FUT. P. ero ero ero 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRES. mirer verear sequar potiar 
 
 IMP. mirarer vererer sequerer potirer 
 
 PERP. miratus sim veritus sim secutus sim potitus sim 
 PLUP. essem essem essem ,, 6ssem 
 
 IMPERAT. mirare, ator verere, etor sequgre, itor potire, itor 
 
 INPIN. mirari vereri sequi potiri 
 
 PART. PR. mirans verens sequens potiens 
 
 FUT. miraturus veriturus secuturus potiturus 
 
 PERF. miratus veritus secutus potitus 
 
 GER. mirandus verendus sequendus potiendus 
 
 a. These verbs have the participles of both voices : as, mirans, 
 admiring ; miraturus, about to admire ; miratus, having ad- 
 mired ; mirandus, to-be-admired (admirable). 
 
 b. The participle in dus (gerundive) has necessarily a passive 
 meaning, and hence is found only in transitive verbs, or of neuter 
 verbs used impersonally ( 39, c) : as, potienda est tellus, the 
 land must be won ; pugnandum est nobis, we must fight. 
 
 c. Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in their meaning, 
 corresponding to what in Greek is called the middle voice. 
 
 d>* More than half of all deponents are\.of the first conjuga- 
 tion, and all of these are regular. 
 
 e. About twenty verbs of active signification are found in both 
 active and passive forms : as, mereo or mereor, deserve. 
 
 f. Sgme deponents are occasionally used in a passive significa- 
 tion : as, criminor, / accuse or / am accused. 
 
 g. The perfect participle of verbs otherwise deponent is often 
 passive : as, mercatus, bought ; adeptus, obtained. 
 
 h. The following list contains all the irregular deponents : 
 
 adipiscor, i, adeptus, obtain. -miniscor, i, -mentus, think. 
 
 metior, iri, mensus, measure. 
 morior, i (iri), mortuus (rnori- 
 
 turus, moribundus), die. 
 nanciscor, i, nactus (nanctus), 
 
 find. 
 
 nascor, i, natus, be born- 
 nitor, i, nisus (nixus), strive. 
 obliviscor, i, obll tus, jfo/^/. 
 opperior, iri, oppertus, await. 
 
 expergiscor, i, -perrectus, rouse. 
 experior, iri, expertus, try. 
 fateor, eri, fassus, confess. 
 fruor, i, fructus, enjoy. 
 fungor, i, functus, fulfil. 
 gradior, i, gressus, step. 
 irascor, i, iratus, be angry. 
 labor, i, lapsus, fall. 
 loquor, i, locutus, speak. 
 
35: 2; 36.] DERIVATIVE VERBS. 77 
 
 ordior, iri, orsus, begin, [rise, queror, i, questus, complain. 
 orior, i (iri), ortus (oriturus), reor, reri, ratus, think. 
 paciscor, i, pactus, bargain. sequor, i, secutus,y<?//0w. 
 patior, i, passus, suffer. tueor, eri, tuitus (tutus), defend. 
 
 -plector, i, -plexus, clasp. ulciscor, i, ultus, avenge. 
 
 proficiscor, i, profectus, set-out, utor, i, usus, use, employ. 
 
 2. Semi-Deponents. A few verbs, having no perfect 
 stem, form the tenses of completed action like the passive : 
 these are called semi-deponents or neuter passives. They are 
 the following : 
 
 audeo, audere, ausus, dare. 
 fido, fidere, fisus, trust. 
 gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, rejoice. 
 soleo, solere, solitus, be wont. 
 
 a* From audeo there is an old subjunctive ausim. The 
 form sodes (for si audes), an thou wilt, is frequent in the 
 dramatists. 
 
 b. The active forms vapulare, to be flogged, and venire, to 
 be sold (venum ire, go to sale), having a passive meaning, are 
 sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri 
 (fio), to be made, and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile). 
 
 36, DERIVATIVE VERBS. 
 
 Several classes of verbs have derivative meanings corre- 
 sponding to their form. (For their formation, see 44.) 
 
 a. INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES end in -sco, and denote the 
 beginning of an action: as, calesco, / grow warm (caleo) ; 
 vesperascit, it is getting late (vesper). They are of the third 
 conjugation, and have only the Present stem, though often com- 
 pleted by forms of simple verbs. 
 
 &. INTENSIVES or ITERATIVES end in -to or -ito, and denote 
 & forcible or repeated action : as, jactat, he hurls (jacio) ; dic- 
 titabat, he kept saying (dico). They are of the first conjugation. 
 
 NOTE. Iteratives (or Frequentatives), though distinct in meaning 
 from Intensives, are not always distinguished from them in form. 
 
 c. Another form of Intensives (sometimes called MEDITA- 
 TIVES, or verbs of practice) ends in -sso, denoting a certain 
 energy or eagerness of action : as, facessit, he makes haste to 
 do. They are of the third conjugation, with perfect and supine of 
 the fourth : as, lacesso, lacessivi, lacessitum, to provoke. 
 
 d. DIMINUTIVES end in -illo, and denote a feeble or petty 
 action: as, cantillare, to chirp or warble (cano, sing). 
 
78 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 [37: i. 
 
 6. DESIDERATIVES end in urio, expressing longing or wish, 
 and are of the fourth conjugation. Only these three are in com- 
 mon use, emptiirio (emo, buy), esurio (edo, eat), parturio 
 (pario, bring forth). Others occur for comic effect in the 
 dramatists. 
 
 37. IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 [For esse and its compounds, see 29.] 
 Several verbs retain older forms in the tenses of the 
 present stem, or combine two roots in their inflection. 
 These are called Irregular Verbs. 
 
 The most common verbs of this class are \ 
 
 1. V51o, velle, volui, to wish (the supine stem appears in 
 vultus, countenance). 
 
 2. Nolo (non volo), nolle, nolui, to be unwilling. 
 
 3. Malo (mage-volo), malle, malui, to prefer. 
 
 [For the inflection of volo, nolo, malo, see opposite page.] 
 
 4. Fero, ferre, tuii, latum, to bear. 
 
 NOTE. The perfect tuli is for tetuli (which sometimes occurs), 
 from TUL in tollo ; the Supine latum for tlatum (cf. rTirjro^). 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 PRES. 
 
 IMP. 
 FUT. 
 PERF. 
 PLUP. 
 
 INDIG. 
 fero 
 fers 
 fert 
 
 ferimus 
 fertis 
 ferunt 
 ferebam 
 feram 
 tuli 
 tuleram 
 
 F. PERF. tulero 
 
 Sing. 
 
 PRES. fer 
 FUT. ferto 
 ferto 
 
 PEES. 
 ferre 
 
 PRES. 
 ferens 
 
 E- PASSIVE. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 feram 
 feras 
 ferat 
 feramus 
 feratis 
 ferant 
 
 INDIC. 
 
 feror 
 ferris 
 fertur , 
 ferimur 
 ferimiiii 
 feruntur 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 ferar 
 feraris (re) 
 feratur 
 feramur 
 feramini 
 ferantur 
 
 ferrem 
 
 ferebar 
 
 ferrer 
 
 
 ferar 
 
 
 tulerim 
 
 latus sum 
 
 latus sim 
 
 tulissem 
 
 latus eram 
 
 latus essem 
 
 
 latus ero 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 Plur. Sing. 
 
 ferte ferre 
 
 Plur. 
 
 ferimini 
 
 fertote 
 ferunto 
 
 fertor 
 
 feruntor 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PERF. PRES. 
 tulisse ferri 
 
 PERF. 
 latus esse 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 FUT. PKRF. 
 laturus latus 
 
 OER. 
 ferendus 
 
37.] 
 
 VOLO, NOLO, MALO. 
 
 79 
 
 INFLECTION OP volo AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 
 
 VOLO, wW. 
 
 NOLO, will not. 
 
 MAIiO, prefer. 
 
 INDIC. SUBJ. 
 
 INDIC. SUBJ. 
 
 INDIC. SUBJ. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 
 volo velim 
 
 nolo nolim 
 
 malo malim 
 
 vis veils 
 
 nonvis nolis 
 
 mavis malis 
 
 vult velit 
 
 nonvult nolit 
 
 mavult maiit 
 
 vorumus veli'mus 
 
 norumus noli'mus 
 
 marumus mali'mus 
 
 vultis velitis 
 
 nonvultis nolitis 
 
 mavultis malifcis 
 
 volunt velint 
 
 nolunt nolint 
 
 malunt malint 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 
 volebam vellem 
 
 nolebam nollem 
 
 malebam mallem 
 
 volebas velles 
 
 nolebas nolles 
 
 malebas malles 
 
 volebat vellet 
 
 nolebat nollet 
 
 malebat mallet 
 
 volebamus vellemus 
 
 nolebamus nollemus 
 
 malebamus mallemus 
 
 volebatis velletis 
 
 nolebatis nolletis 
 
 malebatis malle.tis 
 
 volebant vellent 
 
 nolebant nollent 
 
 malebant mallent 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 
 volam 
 
 nolam t 
 
 malamf 
 
 voles 
 
 noles 
 
 males 
 
 volet 
 
 nolet 
 
 malet 
 
 volemus 
 
 nolemus 
 
 malemus 
 
 voletis 
 
 noletis 
 
 maletis 
 
 volent 
 
 nolent 
 
 malent 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 
 volui -erim 
 
 nolui -erim 
 
 malui -erim 
 
 voluisti -eris 
 
 noluisti -eris 
 
 maluisti -eris 
 
 voluit -erit 
 
 noluit -erit 
 
 maluit -erit 
 
 voluimus -erimus 
 
 ndluimiis -erimus 
 
 maluimus -erimus 
 
 voluistis -eritis 
 
 noluistis -eritis 
 
 maluistis -eritis 
 
 voluerunt -erint 
 
 noluerunt -erint 
 
 maluerunt -erint 
 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 
 volueram -issem 
 
 nolueram -issem 
 
 malueram -issem 
 
 volueras -isses 
 
 nolueras -isses 
 
 malueras -isses 
 
 voluerat -isset 
 
 noluerat -isset 
 
 maiuerat -isset 
 
 volueramus -issemus 
 
 nolueramus -issemus 
 
 malueramus -issemus 
 
 volueratis -issetis 
 
 nolueratis -issetis 
 
 malueratis -issetis 
 
 voluerant -issent 
 
 noluerant -issent 
 
 maluerant -issent 
 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 
 voluero 
 
 noluero 
 
 maluero 
 
 volueris 
 
 nolueris 
 
 malueris 
 
 voluerit 
 
 noluerit 
 
 maluerit 
 
 voluerimus 
 
 noluerimus 
 
 maluerimus 
 
 volu eritis 
 
 nolueritis 
 
 malaeritis 
 
 voluerint 
 
 noluerint 
 
 maluerint 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 
 PR. 
 
 noli, noli'te, do not. 
 
 
 EUT. 
 
 noli'to, nolito'te, thou 
 
 s/talt not, i/e shall not. 
 
 noli'to^ nolunto, he sliall not^ tliey shall not. 
 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 
 PRES. velle 
 
 nolle 
 
 malle 
 
 PERF. voluisse 
 
 noluisse 
 
 maluisso 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 PRESENT, volens, willing. nolens, unwilling. 
 
 GERUND, volendi, volendo nolendi 
 
 fRare. 
 
80 IRREGULAR VERBS. [37: 5, 6, 7. 
 
 5. Edo, to eat (regular of third conjugation), has also some 
 forms directly from the root without a characteristic vowel : viz. , 
 
 IND. PRES. es, est, estis ; SUBJ. Pres. edim, Imperf. essem ; 
 IMPERAT. es, esto, este ; INFIN. esse ; PASSIVE, estur, essetur ; 
 and, in compounds, comes, comest, comestum, comesum; 
 exest, exesset, exesse. 
 
 6. Eo, ire, ivi, itum, to go (root i, cf. elfii ; the e stands for ei 
 produced by vowel-increase from i). The forms of eo are found 
 in veneo, to be sold (venum eo, go to sale). 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRES. S. eo, is, it earn, eas, eat 
 
 P. imus, itis, emit eamus, eatis, eant 
 
 IMP. ibam, ibas, ibat irem, ires, iret 
 
 ibamus, ibatis, ibaiit iremus, iretis, irent 
 
 FUT. ibo, ibis, ibit 
 
 ibimus, ibitis, ibunt 
 
 PERF. ivi (ii) iverim (ierim) 
 
 PLUP. iveram (ieram) ivissem (issem) 
 
 FUT. P. ivero 
 IMPERAT. i, ite ; itote, eunto 
 
 INFIN. PR. ire PER. ivisse (isse) 
 
 PART. P. iens, euntis F. iturus 
 
 7. Facio, facere, feci, factum, to make, regular, with the 
 peculiar forms fut. perf. faxo, perf. subj. faxim, imperat. fac. It 
 has for its passive 
 
 fio, fieri, factus sum, to fyjmade, or become, 
 
 of which the tenses of the first stem are regular of the fourth con- 
 jugation, but with subj. imperf. fierem. 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRES. S. fio, fis, fit fiam, fias, fiat/ 
 
 P. fimus, fitis, fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant 
 
 IMP. fiebam fierem 
 
 FUT. fiam, fies, &c. 
 
 PERF. factus sum factus sim 
 
 PLUP. factus eram factus essem 
 
 FUT. P. factus ero 
 
 IMPERAT. fi, fite ; fito, fitote, fiunto 
 
 INFIN. PRES. fieri P. factus esse 
 
 PART. PERF. factus faciendus 
 
38: I, 2.] DEFECTIVE VERBS. 81 
 
 Most compounds of facio with prepositions change a to i or e, 
 and form the passive and imperative regularly : as, 
 
 conficio, conficere, confeci, confectum, to finish. 
 Other compounds retain a, and have -fio in the passive : as, 
 
 bene-facio (-fa'cis), -feci, -factum; pass, benefio, to benefit. 
 A few isolated forms of -fio occur with prepositions (see 38, h). 
 
 38, DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 1. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and use only 
 tenses of the Perfect (sometimes with the meaning of the 
 present), in which they are inflected regularly. 
 
 a* Coepi (root CO-AP as in apiscor), I began. Infin. coep- 
 isse; Fut. Part, coepturus. A passive participle coeptus is 
 used with the passive infinitive. For the Present, incipio is used. 
 
 &. Odi, / hate (root 6d- in odium) ; with the participles osus, 
 hating or hated (perosus, utterly hateful), osurus, likely to hate. 
 
 Memiiii, / remember (root MEN, as in mens, reminiscor), 
 with the imperative memento and mementote. 
 
 NOTE. Odi and memiui, having a Perfect form with a present 
 meaning, are called preteritive verbs. 
 
 2. Many verbs have only the Present stem, and in many 
 the simple verb is incomplete, but the parts appear in the 
 compounds. Some occur very commonly, but only in a few 
 forms : as, 
 
 a. Aio (root AGH found in adagium and in nego, which has 
 passed into the first conjugation) : 
 
 IND. PRES. Sing, aio, I say. Plur. 
 
 ais 
 
 ait aiuiit 
 
 IMPERF. aiebam (aibam), aiebas, &c. 
 SUBJ. PRES. aias, aiat, aiant. 
 IMPERAT. ai. PART, aiens. 
 
 6. Inquam, say (used only in quotations, as the English quoth, 
 which is from the same root) : 
 
 IND. PRES. Sing, inquam Plur. inqu&nus 
 
 inquis inquitis 
 
 inquit inqueunt 
 
 IMPERF. inquibat. FUT. inquiet. PERF. inquisti. 
 
 JMPERAT. inque, inquito. 
 
 4* 
 
 
82 IMPERSONAL VERBS. [38: 2; 39. 
 
 Fari, to speak, forms the periphrastic tenses regularly : as, 
 fatus sum, eram, &c. It has also 
 
 IND. PRES. fatur, faiitur. FUT. fabor, fabitur. 
 
 LMPERAT. fare. INFLN. fari. PART, fanti (with the com- 
 pound infans, as noun). 
 
 GERUND, fandus, to be spoken of (with the compounds infan- 
 
 dus, nefandus, abominable). SUPINE, fatu. 
 The compounds affamur, affabimur, praefamiiii, &c., occur. 
 
 d* Quaeso, / ask, beg (an original form of quaero), has 
 quaeso, quaesumus, quaesere, quaesens. 
 
 Ovare, to triumph, has the following : 
 ovat, ovet, ovaret; ovans, ovandi, ovatus, ovaturus. 
 jf. A few are found chiefly in the Imperative : as, 
 salve, salvete, hail! also salvere (from salvus). 
 ave (or have), avete, aveto, hail, or farewell. 
 cedo, cedite (cette), give, tell. 
 apage! begone! (properly a Greek word). 
 
 gr Queo, / can, nequeo, / cannot, are conjugated like eo. 
 They are rarely used except in the Present. 
 IND. PRES. queo, quis, quit, quimus, quitis, queunt. 
 
 IMP. quibam, quibat, quibant. FUT. quibo, quibunt. 
 PERF. quivi, quivit, quiverunt. 
 SUBJ. PRES. queam, &c. IMP. quirem, quire t, quirent. 
 
 PERF. quiverit. PLUP. quissent. 
 INFIN. quire, quivisse (quisse). PART, quiens, queuntis. 
 
 IND. PRES. nequeo (often non queo), nonquis, nequit, ne- 
 
 quimus, nequitis, nequeunt. 
 
 IMP. nequibam, -ibat, -ibant. FUT. nequibunt. 
 PERF. nequivi, nequivisti, nequivit, nequiverunt. 
 SUBJ. PRES. nequeam, &c. IMP. nequirem. 
 PERF. nequiverim. PLUP. nequisset. 
 INFIN. nequire, nequivisse. PART, nequiens. 
 
 h* The following compounds of fio have only the forms confit, 
 it comes to pass ; defit, it lacks; infit, he begins (to speak). 
 
 39. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the 
 third person singular, with the infinitive and gerund. 
 These are called Impersonal Verbs. 
 
 NOTE. With impersonal verbs the word IT is used in English, 
 having usually no representative in Latin, though id, hoc, illud, are 
 often used nearly in the same way. 
 
39, 40.] PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. 83 
 
 Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : 
 
 a* Verbs expressing the operations of nature : as," pluit, it 
 rains ; ningit, it snows ; grandmat, it hails ; fulgurat, it lightens. 
 
 In these, no subject is distinctly thought of; though sometimes 
 the name of a deity is expressed ; and, in poetic use, of other 
 agents also : as, fundae saxa pluunt, the slings rain stones. 
 
 b Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject 
 becomes the object, as if himself affected by the feeling expressed 
 in the verb. Such are, miseret, it grieves ; poenitet, it repents ; 
 piget, it disgusts; pudet, it shames; taedet, it wearies: as, 
 miseret me, / pity (it distresses me) . 
 
 Such verbs often have also a passive form : as, misereor. 
 / pity (am mooed by pity) ; and occasionally other parts : as, 
 libens, licens, poeniturus, poenitendus, pudendus. 
 
 c. By a similar construction, the passive of intransitive verbs 
 is very often used impersonally: as, pugnatur, there is fighting; 
 \ dicitur, it is said ; parcitur mihi, / am spared. 
 
 NOTE. This use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive 
 meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself ( compare the 
 French cela sefait). 
 
 d* Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject : as, 
 libet, it pleases ; licet, it is permitted ; certum est, it is resolved ; 
 constat, it is clear : placet, videtur, it seems good ; decet, it is 
 becoming; delectat, juvat, it delights; oportet, necesse est, 
 it is needful ; praestat, it is better ; interest, refert, it concerns ; 
 vacat, there is leisure; with verbs of happening and the. like. 
 Many of these are also used personally. 
 
 40. PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. 
 
 When the tenses of esse are used with a Participle, this 
 use is called periphrastic conjugation. It is most frequent 
 
 a* With the participle in urus, to express intention, or simple 
 futurity ; this is sometimes necessary in the subjunctive: as, cum 
 venturus sit, since he is about to come. This form is sometimes 
 called thsjirst periphrastic conjugation; and, when used with sim, 
 the future subjunctive. *"^> 
 
 6. With the gerundive to denote duty or propriety : as, vera 
 dicenda sunt, the truth must be told. This form is sometimes 
 called the second periphrastic conjugation. 
 
 C* With the perfect participle, in the regular inflection of the 
 tenses of completed action in passives and deponents. 
 
 NOTE. The participle in tus frequently, and that in ns regularly, 
 is used with esse simply as an adjective : as, sapiens est, he is wise; 
 acceptus est, he is welcome. 
 
84 PARTICLES. [41: I. 
 
 PARTICLES. 
 
 41. ADVERBS. 
 
 What are called PARTICLES that is, all Adverbs, 
 Prepositions, and Conjunctions are real or extinct i 
 case-forms, or else compounds and phrases. 
 
 In classification Particles cannot always be distinguished ; many 
 prepositions and conjunctions being also reckoned among adverbs. 
 
 1. Derivation. The regular adverbs of manner are 
 formed from Adjectives. 
 
 [For the comparison of these adverbs, see 17, 4.] 
 
 a* Adjectives of the first and second declensions change the 
 characteristic vowel of the stem into e (originally an ablative in 
 d) : as, from carus, dear, care, dearly. 
 
 So abunde, saope, prope, from adjectives not in use; as also 
 prod (pro), re- (red-), se-, (sed-). 
 
 b. Adjectives of the third declension add -ter to the stem (most 
 being treated as i-stems) : as, fortiter, bravely; vigilanter, 
 watchfully. 
 
 NOTE. This suffix is of uncertain origin, probably the same as 
 in the Greek -repos, and in alter, uter / and, if so, these are neuter 
 accusatives. 
 
 c. Some adverbs of the former class have both forms : as, 
 dure, duriter; misere, miseriter. (So allter from alius 
 old stem all-.) 
 
 d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often 
 used as an adverb (strictly a cognate accusative, see 52, i, d) : 
 as, multum, muck; actutum, at once; facile, easily; non ( ne 
 unum), not ; iterum (comparative of is), again. 
 
 e. The ablative neuter or (less commonly) feminine is used 
 adverbially: as, false, falsely; cite, quickly; recta (via), 
 straight (straightway) ; contra, on the other hand; qua (parte), 
 where; qui, how; alioqui, otherwise. 
 
41: 1,2.] PARTICLES. 85 
 
 /. A few adverbs are datives of adjectives and pronouns : as, 
 quo, whither; adeo, so; ultra, beyond; citro, this side; retro, 
 lack (compar. of uls, cis, re) ; illoc (illo-ce, weakened to illuc), 
 thither. 
 
 ff Some locative forms are used as adverbs: as, ibi, there; 
 ubi, where, &c. ; peregre, abroad ; hie, here ; interim, mean- 
 while; deinde, then; tamen, yet; and the compounds extrin- 
 secus, outside ; perendie, day after to-morrow. 
 
 h. Several feminine accusatives are used as adverbs : as, 
 statim, on the spot; saltim, with a leap (generally in the form 
 saltern, at least) ; palam, openly ; perperam, wholly otherwise 
 (i.e., changed for the worse); tarn, quam, iiam (which maybe 
 neuters) . 
 
 i. Several plural accusatives, neuter and feminine, are used 
 adverbially, as frustra, vainly; alias, otherwise; foras, out of 
 doors. 
 
 /. Some adverbs are of uncertain formation : (1) those in -tus 
 (usually preceded by i) : as, penitus, funditus, from the bottom 
 (utterly) ; divinitus, providentially, which are ablative in mean- 
 ing ; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do (in quan-do, when ; do-nec, 
 until), dum, perhaps jam (from the same root with dies, 
 diu, &c.). 
 
 1. Many phrases or clauses have grown into adverbs : as, 
 antea, before; postmodo, a little after; denuo (de n6vo), 
 again ; prorsus, utterly ; quotannis, every year ; quamobrem, 
 wherefore; obviam, in the way ; pridem, before the day (i.e., be- 
 fore this time) ; forsan, a chance whether ; forsitan (fors sit an) , 
 perhaps ; scilicet (scire licet), to be sure. 
 
 (For Numeral Adverbs, see 18, 3.) 
 
 2. Classification. Adverbs, other than those directly 
 formed from adjectives, are classified as follows : 
 
 a. Adverbs of Flace. 
 
 ubi, where, quo, -whither, unde, 
 
 whence. qua, by what way. 
 
 hie, here. hue, hither. 
 
 hinc, 
 
 hence. hac, by this way. 
 
 ibi, there. eo, thither. 
 
 inde, 
 
 thence. ea, by the way. 
 
 istic ,, istuc ,, 
 
 istinc 
 
 ista ,, 
 
 illic ,, illuc ,, 
 
 illinc 
 
 ilia (iliac) 
 
 alicubi, somewhere ; 
 
 aliquo 
 
 alicunde aliqua. 
 
 ibidem, in the same place ; 
 
 eodem 
 
 indidem eadem. 
 
 alibi, elsewhere; 
 
 alio 
 
 aliunde alia. 
 
 ubiubi, wherever ; 
 
 quoquo 
 
 undecunque quaqua. 
 
 ubivis, anywhere ; 
 
 quovis 
 
 undique quavis. 
 
 sicubi, if anywhere ; 
 
 siquo 
 
 sicunile siqua. 
 
 necubi, lest anywhere ; 
 
 nequo 
 
 necunde nequa. 
 
86 ADVERBS. [41: 2. 
 
 nusquam, nowhere ; ultro, beyond (or freely) ; citro, to this side; 
 intro, inwardly; porro, further on. 
 
 quorsum (quo versum), to -what end? horsum, this 'way ; pror- 
 sum, forward (prorsus, utterly) ; introrsum, inwardly ; 
 retrorsum, backward ; sursum, upward; deorsum, down- 
 ward ; seorsum, apart; aliorsum, another way. 
 
 b. Adverbs of Time. 
 
 quando? when? cum (quom, quum), when (relat). 
 
 nunc, now ; tune (turn), then; mox, presently. 
 
 primum (primo),}&?/; deinde (postea), next after; postremum, 
 
 (postremo),j6W//y. 
 
 umquam (unquam), ever ; numquam, never ; semper, always. 
 aliquando, some time, at length ; quandoque (quandocumque), 
 
 whenever- 
 
 quotiens (quoties), how often; totiens, aliquotiens. 
 quotidie, every day ; in dies, from day to day. 
 nondum, not yet; necdum, nor yet ; vixdum, scarce yet ; quam 
 
 primum, as soon as possible. 
 
 c. Adverbs of Degree or Cause. 
 
 quam, how, as ; tarn, so ; quam vis, however much. 
 cur, quare, why ; quod, quia, because ; eo, therefore. 
 ita, sic, so ; ut (uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, "however. 
 quamquam (quanquam), although; etiam, quoque, even, also. 
 
 d. Interrogative Particles. 
 
 an, -ne, anne, utrum, num, whether. 
 
 nonne, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all ; (ecquid 
 
 intellegis ? have you any idea /*) 
 
 utrum (num), -ne, whether ; ... an (annon, necne), or. 
 an, -ne ,, 
 
 NOTE. The word whether is not now used in English, except in 
 Indirect Questions (See 71). 
 
 e. Negative Particles. 
 
 lion, not in simple denial; haud (hau, haut), or minime, not 
 
 in contradiction; ne, not in prohibition. 
 ne, lest ; neque, nee, nor ; ne . . . quidem, not even. 
 non modo . . . verum (sed) etiam, not only . . . but also. 
 non modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem, not only NOT . . . but not 
 
 even. 
 
 si minus, if 'not ; quo minus, so as not. 
 quin (relat.), but that; (interrog.) ivhy not? who (what) not? 
 ne (in compos.), not: as, nescio, / know not; nego (ne-aio), 
 
 / say no (aio, / say yes)] nemo (ne homo), no one; ne 
 
 quis, lest any one. 
 
41: 2, 3-] ADVERBS. 87 
 
 REMARK. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative: as, 
 nemo non audiet, even/ one will hear. 
 
 This is especially frequent with compounds of non : as, nonnul- 
 lus (=aliquis), some; nonnihil (=aliquid), something; nonnemo 
 (= aliquot), sundry persons ; nonnumquam (= aliquotiens), some- 
 times; necnon, also. 
 
 On the other hand, nemo non, nulli non, every one; nihil non, 
 every thing ; numquam lion, always, &c. 
 
 3. Signification. The following adverbs require special 
 explanation : 
 
 a. Etiam, also, is stronger than quoque, and usually pre- 
 cedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : as, 
 
 terret etiam nos, ac minatur (Rose. Am. 40), us also he terrifies 
 
 and threatens. 
 hoc quoque maleficium (id.), this crime too. 
 
 b. Nunc, now, means definitely the present time; jam, already, 
 or, with the future, presently ; with negatives, no longer, has 
 reference to the past. Tune, then, is a strengthened form of turn, 
 which is correlative with cum, when: as, 
 
 mine jam confiteris, noiv at length you confess. 
 non est jam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy. 
 quod jam erat institutum, 'which had come to be a practice. 
 nunc quidem deleta est, tune florebat (Lael. 4), notv (Y/s true) 
 
 she [Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory. 
 turn cum regnabat, at the time he reigned. 
 
 c. Certo means certainly ; certe (usually), at any rate : as, 
 
 certo scio, I know for a certainty. 
 
 aut jam urgentis aut certe adventantis senectutis (C. M. i.), of 
 old age, -which is already pressing or at least approaching. 
 
 d. Primum, first (first in order, or for the first time], is 
 usually followed by delude, turn, . . . denique ; primo, at first, 
 by postea (post) or mox, afterwards. (The adjective form is pre- 
 ferred in such phrases as nos primi, we first, &c.) Thus, 
 
 primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, turn de impera- 
 tore deligendo (Manil. 2), first of the kind of ivar, next 
 of its greatness, then of the choice of commander. 
 
 c. Quidem, indeed,, is emphatic, and often has a concessive 
 meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, &c. (see above 
 nunc quidem, &c.). With ne . . . quidem, not even or not 
 either, the emphatic word must stand between : as, 
 
 senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 19), an old man has 
 
 NOT EVEN any thing to hope for. 
 nejugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), NOR was Jugurtha 
 
 quiet EITHER. 
 
88 PREPOSITIONS. * [42: I, 2. 
 
 42. PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. Prepositions are not originally distinguished from 
 adverbs in form or meaning. They are, however, distin- 
 guished in their use, requiring to be followed by some 
 special case of a noun or pronoun. 
 
 a. The following Prepositions require the accusative: 
 
 ad, to. erga, towards. post, after. 
 
 adversus, or extra, outside. praeter, beyond. 
 
 adversum, towards, infra, below. prope, near. 
 
 ante, before. inter, among. propter, on account of. 
 
 apud, atj near. intra, inside. secundum, next to. 
 
 circa, or juxta, near. supra, above. 
 
 circum, around. 6b, on account of. trans, across. 
 
 circiter, about. penes, in the power, ultra, on the further 
 
 cis, citra, this side, per, through. side. 
 
 contra, against. pone, behind. versus, towards. 
 
 & The following require the ablative : 
 
 a, ab, abs, from, by. e, ex, out of. 
 
 absque, but for, without. prae, in comparison with. 
 
 coram, in presence of. pro, in front of, for. 
 
 cum, with. sine, without. 
 
 de, from. tenus, up to, or as far as. 
 
 c The following may take either case, but usually with a dif- 
 ference in meaning : 
 
 in, into, in; sub, under; subter, beneath; super, above. 
 
 In and sub, when followed by the Accusative, signify motion to, 
 when by the Ablative, rest in, a place. 
 
 (For the Syntax of Prepositions, see 56.) 
 
 2. The meaning and use of these prepositions may be 
 seen in the following examples, which include many adverbial 
 phrases : 
 
 A, ab, aivay from (opposite of ad) : ab eo loco, from that 
 place ; a nobis, from our house ; prope ab urbe, near (not far 
 from) the city ; secundus a rege, next the king; liberare ab, to 
 set free from ; occisus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slam by an 
 enemy ; a fronte, in front ; ab hac parte, on this side ; a primo, 
 at first; ab re, afterivards ; dolet ab animo, he grieves at heart ; 
 ab initio ordiri, to begin at the beginning ; stat ab amicis, he 
 stands by his friends ; ab hac contione, after this speech ; ab re 
 
42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 89 
 
 ejus, to his advantage ; servus a manu, an amanuensis', a pedi- 
 bus, a footman. 
 
 NOTE. ab signifies direction from the object, but towards the 
 speaker; compare de and ex. 
 
 Absque, -without: absque argumento, without argument; 
 absque paucis, except a few ; absque me, but for me. 
 
 Ad, to, towards, at (place or time) :-^eo ad patrem, I go to 
 my father ; ad pedes ejus, at his feet ; ad flumen, near the river ; 
 ad ripas, on the banks; ad meridiem, towards the south; ad 
 vesperum, near evening ; ad tempus, at the (fit) time; adiit ad 
 rempublicam, he went into public life'; ad manus, to blows; ad 
 petendam pacem, to seek peace ; ad communem salutem,jfo;' the 
 common safety ; nihil ad Csesarem, nothing in comparison with 
 Ccesar ; ad hunc modum, in this way ; quem ad modum, how, as ; 
 ad nuptias,ybr the wedding; ad auxilium, ybr aid; ad hos ca- 
 sus, for these emergencies ; ad centum, near a hundred ; ad pri- 
 mum nuntium, at the first message ; ad hoc, besides ; ad speciem, 
 in respect to form ; ad praesens, for the moment ; ad verbum, 
 word for ^vord; ad summum, in short, at most; ad ultimum, 
 wholly, finally ; ad unum, to a man. 
 
 Adversus (-sum), opposite, towards, against: adversus mon- 
 tem, over against the mountain; te adversum, to your face ; ad- 
 veYsus eum, in comparison with him ; adversus ea, in reply to 
 this; adversus deos, towards the gods. 
 
 Ante, in front, before (place or time): ante oculos, before 
 his eyes; ante urbem captam, before the city was taken ; ante 
 diem quintum (A.D.V.). Kal , the fifth day before the Calends (third 
 day before the end of the month) ; ante quadriennium, fo#r years 
 before or ago ; ante alios carissimus, dearest of all ; ante tem- 
 pus, too soon; ante omnia, first of all ; ante Ciceronem, before 
 Cicero's time. 
 
 A pud, at or by (rarely of places) : apud forum, in the forum; 
 apud populum, before the people ; apud exercitum, with the 
 army; apud aliquem, at one's house; apud se, at home, or in 
 his senses; apud Ciceronem, in Cicero (in his works); apud 
 antiques, among the ancients. 
 
 Circum (ace.), circa (abl.)> circiter (stem as in circus, circle), 
 about, around: circum axem vertitur, it turns about the 
 axle; circum haec loca, hereabout; circa se habent, they have 
 with them; (of time or number, circa or circiter, not cir- 
 cum) : circa eandem horam, about the same hour ; circiter pas- 
 sus mille, about a mile ; circa bonas artes (late), in reference to 
 good arts ; loca haec circiter, hereabout. 
 
 Cis, citra (abl. of comparative, compare Greek -Tpos), this 
 side of (both motion towards and rest in ; opposite to ultra) : 
 cis Padum, this side the Po ; citra flumen, this side the river ; 
 citra rustici operam, within the labor of a farmer ; citra usum, 
 without regard to use; citra satietatem, not to fulness ; paucos 
 cis dies, within a few days. 
 
90 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2. 
 
 Contra (abl. comp of cum), opposite, against: contra Itali- 
 am, over against Italy ; contra hostem, against the enemy, contra 
 munera, as a set-off to the gifts ; haec contra, this in reply-, 
 contra autem, but on the other hand, adv. ; quod contra, whereas 
 on the other hand, adv. ; non pro me sed contra me, not for but 
 against me ; contra fas, contrary to right. 
 
 Coram, in presence of (only of persons) : coram judicious, 
 before the judges ; Germanico coram (Tac.), usually an adverb. 
 
 Cum, with (together in place or time) : cum fratre, with his 
 brother ; abi cum donis, away with your gifts ; cum malo suo, 
 to his own hurt ; cum labore, with toil ; cum dis volentibus, with 
 favor of the gods ; cum decimo, tenfold ; confligere cum hoste, 
 to fight with the enemy ; cum armis, in arms-, cum imperio, in 
 power; cum pallio, in a cloak ; esse cum telo, to go armed', cum 
 silentio, in silence. 
 
 De, from, away, down from : de domo, out of the house ; de 
 sella, down from his seat ; unus de plebe, one of the people (the 
 whole, from which a part is taken) ; emi domum de Crasso, / 
 bought a house of Crassus (also ab) ; de tuo (de te), out of your 
 property ; qua de re, 'concerning which thing; qua de causa, for 
 which reason; de summo genere, of high birth ; de improviso, 
 of a sudden ; de industria, on purpose ; de integro, anew; de 
 nocte, at night ; de tertia vigilia, just at midnight (starting at 
 the third watch) ; de mense Dec. navigare, Y0 sail in December ; 
 de amicorum sententia, in accordance with the views of friends ; 
 triumphare de, to triumph over ; de schola, of that sect. 
 
 Erga, towards (usually of persons) : erga aedes, opposite 
 the house ; benevolentia erga nos, kindness towards us; malus 
 erga me, spiteful towards me (but more generally used of a favor- 
 able inclination). 
 
 Ex, e, from (the midst, opposed to in), out of: ex urbe, 
 from the city ; ex hoc die, from this day forth ; statua ex acre, 
 a statue of brass ; ex fuga, during flight ; ex consulatu. right 
 after his consulship ; ex acre aiieno, by reason of debt ; ex 
 ejus sententia, after his opinion; ex aequo, justly; ex impro- 
 viso, unexpectedly; ex tua re, to your advantage ; ex voluntate 
 ejus, by his good will; magna ex parte, in a great degree; ex 
 pede Herculem, to know one by a slight token ; felix ex misero, 
 bettering one's condition ; ex Metello consule, beginning with 
 Metellus's consulship ; ex pedibus laborare, to be lame in the feet ; 
 ex equo pugnare, to fight on horseback. 
 
 Extra, outside of (opposed to intra) : extra provinciam, 
 beyond the province y extra causam, beside the case; extra te 
 unum, except you alone (not used of time). 
 
 In, into (ace. opp. to ex), in (abl. of time or place): in 
 urbem ire, to go to town ; in mentem venit, it comes to mind ; amor 
 in (erga or adversus) patrem, love for. his father* ; in aram con- 
 fugit, he Jled to the altar (on the steps or merely to}', in diem, 
 to the set day ; in dies, from day to day ; vi. pedes in longitudi- 
 nem, six feet long; in vi. partes fractus, broken in six parts; 
 
42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 91 
 
 in haec verba jurare, to swear to these words ; in alicujus verba 
 jurare, to take an oath of allegiance to one ; in silvarn deponere, 
 to (carry and) place in the wood ; hunc in modum, in this way ; 
 oratio in Catilinam, a speech against Catiline-, in universum 
 (in planum), on the whole ; in totum, wholly; in reliquum,_/br 
 the rest ; in perpetuum,for ever ; in majus, too much ; in pejus, 
 for the worse; in quantum, so far as; in magnam partem, in 
 great part ; in utramque partem, on either side-, nos in diem 
 vivimus (Tusc. v. n), we live from hand to mouth ; in urbe esse, 
 to be in the city ; in tempore, in season ; in scribendo, while -writ- 
 ing; est mihi in animo, I have it in mind; in collo, on the neck ; 
 inarborGiUptketree; in ancoris (Cses.), at anchor; in altera 
 parte, on the other side ; in sapientibus, among the wise ; in hoc 
 homine, in the case of this man; in bonis artibus (Sail.)? in good 
 behavior. 
 
 Infra, below : infra caelum, under the sky ; infra nos, beneath 
 tts ; infra Homerum, later than Homer ; infra iii. pedes, less than 
 three feet. 
 
 Inter, between (of two limits): inter flumen et montem, 
 between the river and hill (so of time) ; inter noctem, in the 
 course of the night; inter bibendum, while drinking; interest 
 inter, there is a difference between; inter se amant, they love each 
 other ; inter se loquuntur, they talk together ; inter nos, between 
 ourselves ; inter ceteram planitiem, in a district elsewhere level. 
 
 Intra, within (surrounded on all sides) : intra parietes, in- 
 side the house; (of time), intra v. dies, within jive days ; intra 
 legem, inside the law. 
 
 Juxta, hard by (superl. from jungo) : juxta murum, close 
 to the wall ; juxta se, alike with himself; juxta deos, next the 
 gods; juxta vicinitatem (Liv.), by reason of nearness; juxta 
 quam, nearly as ; juxta ac si, about as if. 
 
 Ob, towards (in place) : ob Romam (early), towards Rome; 
 ob oculos, before the eyes; ob earn causam,/0r that reason ; ob 
 rem, to the purpose ; ob hoc, therefore ; quam ob rem, wherefore. 
 
 Penes, with, in possession of (same root as penitus) : est 
 
 penes me, he is with me (at my house) ; non est penes me, it is 
 not in my power. 
 
 Per, through (in any direction) : per urbem ire, to go through 
 the city ; licet per me, you may for all me ; juro per leges, I swear 
 by the laws ; per literas, by letter; perjocum, in jest; per Ion- 
 gum tempus.ybr a long time ; per sotnnum, during sleep. 
 
 Pone, behind (only in space) : pone tergum, behind the back. 
 
 Post, after (space or time) : post iii. dies, after three days ; 
 post tergum, behind the back ; post me, after me (in time). 
 
 Prae, in front: prae se ferre, to carry before him (exhibit or 
 make known}': prae gaudio conticuit, he was silent for joy (used 
 only of an objection or hindrance) ; prae fratre egens est, he is 
 
 or compared to his brother. 
 
 ir 
 
92 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2. 
 
 Praeter, by* on the outside: praeter spem, beyond hope; 
 praeter hoc, besides this; praeter oculos, before the eyes ; nil prae- 
 ter saxa, nothing but stones. 
 
 Pro, in front (facing the same way) : pro populo, in pres- 
 ence of the people ; pro lege, in defence of the law; argentum 
 pro vino, money for TV ine ; pro hac vice, for this once; pro con- 
 sule, in place of consul ; pro viribus, considering his strength. 
 
 Prope, near: prope (propius, proxime) urbem, or ab urbe, 
 near the city ; prope lucein, towards daybreak. 
 
 Propter, near: propter te sedet, he sits next you ; propter 
 quos vivit (Mil. 22), through whose means he lives ; propter me- 
 tum, through fear ; propter frigora (Caes.), by reason of cold. 
 
 Secundum, just behind, following along (part, of sequor) : 
 ite secundum me (Plaut.), go behind me; secundum litus, near 
 the shore; secundum flumen, along the stream; secundum ludos, 
 after the games ; secundum naturam, according to nature ; secun- 
 dum causam nostram, to the advantage of our cause. 
 
 Sine, apart from : urbs sine regibus, a city without kings ; 
 non sine lacrimis, with tears ; sine sanguine, bloodless. 
 
 Sub, under : sub jugum mittere, to send under the yoke ; sub 
 montem succedere, to come close to the hill ; sub noetem, towards 
 night ; sub lucem, near daylight ; sub haec dicta, at these words; 
 
 sub terra, underground ; sub Jove, in the open air ; sub monte, 
 at the foot of a hill; sub castris, near the camp ; sub terra exi- 
 mere (Plaut.), to take from under ground ; subprofectione (Caes.), 
 during the. march; sub eodem tempore, about that time; sub 
 oculis domini, under the master's eye; sub regno, under royal 
 power ; sub lege, liable to the law. 
 
 Subter (rarely with abl.), beneath : subter fastigia tecti, under 
 the house- roof ; subter prsecordia, close to the heart; subter mu- 
 rum, beneath the wall ; subter se, below itself; subter testudine, 
 under the shed (of shields). 
 
 Super, above, over: super tumulum, on the hillock; super 
 ipsum, above him (at table) ; super In dos, beyond the Hindoos ; 
 super cenam loqui, to talk during supper ; super morbum fames 
 etiam, besides sickness famine also; super omnes, above all; 
 
 super cervice (Hor.), over his h-ead ; super arbore sidunt, they 
 perch on a tree; nocte super media (Vir.), about midnight; super 
 tali re, about such an affair ; satis superque, more than enough. 
 
 Supra, on the top: supra terrain, above ground; supra 
 caput (Sail.), imminent; supra Alexandriam, beyond Alexan- 
 dria ; supra hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; supra 
 mille, above a thousand; supra morem, more than usual ; supra 
 quod, besides. 
 
 Tenus, as far as: capulo tenus, up to the hilt ; verbo (nom- 
 ine) tenus, in name, nominally ; aurium tenus, as far as the ears 
 (only); labrorum tenus, along the lips. -.Jlj'J 
 
 Trans, beyond : trans mare, over sea ; trans flumen, beyond 
 the river (rest or motion). 
 
42: 3- 43: I, 2.] CONJUNCTIONS. 93 
 
 Ultra, on the further side : ultra eum, beyond him ; portas 
 ultra, beyond the gates; ultra pueritiam, later than childhood-, 
 ultra eum numerum, more than that number ; ultra fidem, incred- 
 ible ; ultra mod urn, immoderate. 
 
 Versus, turned to (Eng. -ward}: Italiam versus, towards 
 Italy (usually with another prep.) ; modo ad urbem modo in 
 Galliam versus (Sail.), now towards the city, now towards 
 Gaul. 
 
 3. Prepositions are frequently compounded with verbs, 
 retaining their original meaning as Adverbs : as, 
 
 a, ab, away (aufero, bear off) ; ad, towards (affero, bring] ; 
 ante, before; circum, around (urbem circumire = ire circum 
 urbem); con (cum), together; de, down; di or dis (insep.), 
 apart; ex, out, completely ; in, ///, on, against ; inter, between, 
 into, to pieces ; ob, towards, in the way of; per, through, thor- 
 oughly ; re, red (insep.), back, again ; se, sed (insep.), apart; 
 sub, under, near ; super, over, in place of. (For the assimila- 
 tion of the final consonant, see page 4.) 
 
 43. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 1. Classification. Conjunctions are more numerous, 
 and their use is much more accurately distinguished, in Latin 
 than in English. They are divided into two classes, viz. : 
 
 a. Co-ordinate: these include Copulative (AND), Disjunc- 
 tive (OK), Adversative (BUT), Causal (FOR), Illative (THERE- 
 FORE) . 
 
 b. Subordinate : these are Conditional (IF) , including 
 Comparative (AS IF), Concessive (THOUGH, EVEN IF), Tem- 
 poral (WHEN), Causal (BECAUSE, SINCE), Consecutive (so 
 THAT), Final (IN ORDER THAT). 
 
 2. The following list includes most of the conjunctions 
 and conjunctive phrases in common use. 
 
 NOTE. Some of these have been included in the classification of 
 Adverbs, and a list of Interjections has been added. See also list 
 of Correlatives, page 49. 
 
 a. Copulative and Disjunctive. 
 
 et, -que, atque (ac), and. 
 
 etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quinetiam, itidem (item), 
 
 also. 
 
 cum . . . turn ; turn . . . turn, both . . . and; not only . . . but also. 
 qua . . . qua, on one hand, on the other hand. 
 modo . . . modo, now . . . now. 
 aut . . . aut; vel . . . vel (-ve), either . . . or. 
 sivc (seu) . . sive, whether . . . or. 
 
94 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 et . . . et; et . . . -que (atque) ; -que . . . et; -que que (poet.), 
 
 both . . . and. 
 nee (neque) . . . nee (neque) ; neque . . . nee; nee.. . neque (rare), 
 
 neither . . . nor. 
 
 et . . . neque, both . . . and not. 
 nee (neque) . . . -que, neither . . . and. 
 
 b. Adversative. 
 
 sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, but. 
 
 tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verumtamen, but yet-, nevertheless. 
 
 nihilominus, none the less. 
 
 at vero, enimvero, but (for) in truth. 
 
 ceterum, on the other hand, but. 
 
 c. Causal. 
 
 nam, namque, enim, etenim, for. 
 quia, quod, because. 
 
 quoniam, quippe, cum (quom), quando, quandoquidem, siquidem, 
 utpote, since, inasmuch as. 
 
 d. Illative. 
 
 ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcirco, proinde, therefore. 
 propterea (. . . quod), for this reason (. . . that}. 
 quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore, 
 whence. 
 
 e. Comparative. 
 
 ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as. 
 tamquam (tanquam), quasi, utsi, acsi, as if. 
 quam, atque (ac), as, than. 
 
 f. Conditional. 
 
 si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not ; quod si, but if. 
 modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided. 
 dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), provided only not. 
 
 g. Concessive. 
 
 etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, tamenetsi, quamquam, although. 
 quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, however much. 
 licet, ut, cum (quom), though. 
 
 NOTE. A concessive is often followed by an adversative : as, tamen- 
 etsi . . . tamen nihilominus, though . . . yet none the less. 
 
 h. Temporal. 
 
 cum (quom), cum primum, ubi, ut, ut primum, postquam, when. 
 prius . . . quam, ante . . . quam, before (non ante . . . quam, not 
 
 . . . until). 
 
 quando, simulatque (simul ac), simul, as soon as. 
 dum, usque dum, donee, quoad, until. 
 
 i. Final. 
 
 ut (uti), quo, in order that. 
 
 ne, ut ne, lest (in order that not) ; neve (neu), nor. 
 
 quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent). 
 
43: 2, 3-] CONJUNCTIONS. 95 
 
 k. Interjections. 
 
 O, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment). 
 
 io, evae, evoe (of joy). 
 
 heu, eheu, vae, alas ! (of sorrow). 
 
 heus, eho, ehodum, ho ! (of calling). 
 
 eia, euge (of praise). 
 
 proh (of attestation) : as, proh pudor, shame ! 
 
 3. Special Meaning. The following list includes most 
 of the conjunctions whose meaning 6r use requires special 
 notice : 
 
 a. Et, and, connects independent words or clauses; -que 
 (enclitic) combines closely into one connected whole ; atque 
 (sometimes ac before consonants) adds with emphasis. In the 
 second member, and not is expressed by neque or nee. 
 
 Atque (ac), as, is also used after words of comparison and 
 likeness, as idem, the same, simul, as soon, aliter, otherwise. 
 
 b. Sed and verum or vero (more forcible) , but, are used to 
 contradict what precedes, always after negatives ; at, yet, intro- 
 troduces with emphasis a new point, especially in argument (at 
 enim almost always) alluding to a supposed statement on the 
 other side ; autem is used in the same way, especially in tran- 
 sitions, but with less force. 
 
 c. Ant, 07% excludes the alternative ; vel (-ve) gives a choice ; 
 sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions, but is also 
 used with single words, especially two names for the same thing. 
 (But of aut and vel the use is not always clearly distinguished.) 
 
 d. Nam (namque), for, introduces a sufficient reason ; enim, 
 an explanatory circumstance ; etenim (for, you see ; for, you 
 know), something self-evident, or needing no proof. 
 
 e* Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved logically ; itaque, 
 in proofs from the nature of things ; igitur, then (a weak ergo), 
 in passing from one stage of the argument to another, often merely 
 to resume ; idcirco, for this reason, to call attention to a special 
 point. 
 
 / Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact ; quod, either a 
 fact or a statement or allegation ; quoniam, since, has reference 
 to motives. 
 
 </ Quom (cum), when, is always a relative conjunction, often 
 a correlative with turn ; quando is also used as interrogative or 
 indefinite (quando? when? si quando, if ever). 
 
 h> Et . . . et, means simply both . . . and ; cum (less fre- 
 quently turn) . . . turn has also the meaning not only . . . but also, 
 emphasizing the second member. 
 
96 DERIVATION OF WORDS. [43: 3. 44: I. 
 
 t. Autem, enim, vero, always follow one or two words in 
 their clause ; the same is generally true of igitur, and often of 
 tamen. 
 
 & Conjunctions are often doubled, for the sake of emphasis, or 
 to bind a sentence more closely to the preceding : as, at vero, 
 itaque ergo (namque, etenim). The same is true of Relatives, 
 which are equivalent to a conjunction and demonstrative combined : 
 as, qui ubi sit nescio, for where he is I know not. 
 
 44. DERIVATION OF WORDS. 
 
 The ROOT is a primitive element of speech. All 
 roots are monosyllabic, and have a short vowel. 
 STEMS are formed from roots, and are divided into 
 two main groups ; viz., noun-stems (including adjec- 
 tives) and verb-stems. ' 
 
 1. Noun Forms* Derivative Nominal forms include 
 (1) nouns of agency, (2) names of actions, (3) active and 
 passive adjectives. 
 
 NOTE. Examples of roots are ES, be; i,go; STA, stand; CAY, take; 
 DUC, lead; FAC, make; FER, bear; RAP, seize; SED, sit; TEN, stretch 
 (see also pp. 72,73). 
 
 a. Roots and Steins. Roots may be used as stems (1) without 
 change, as in due-is, nec-is ; (2) with vowel-increase, as in luc-is, 
 pac-is; (3) with reduplication, as in furfur, marmor; (4) com- 
 pounded, as in judic-is (jus, dico), con jug-is (con-jugo). But 
 Stems are more commonly formed by means of suffixes added to 
 the root (primary), or to a stem (secondary), either with or without 
 the above changes. 
 
 &. Primary Suffixes. The simplest suffixes are the vowels a 
 (in Latin o, a) , i, u. Other primary suffixes are ta, ti, tu ; na, ni, 
 nu; va, ra, ya, ka, an. 
 
 NOTE. The vowel-suffixes a, i, u, are sometimes regarded as if 
 merely added to the root to fit it for inflection ; but they are, in fact, 
 true pronominal roots, and must be regarded as formative suffixes. 
 The first is found in nouns and adjectives of a- and o-stems, as 
 Indus, vagus, scriba, toga (root TEG) ; i is less common, and in Latin 
 has frequently disappeared, especially in the nominative, as in scobs 
 (scobis, root SCAB) ; u is disguised in most adjectives by an addi- 
 tional i, as in suavls (for suadvis, cf. r/dvc), tennis (root TEN in tendo], 
 and remains alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acns 
 (root AK, sharp, in acer, acies, UKVC), pecu (root PAK, bind, in paciscor). 
 
44: I.] DERIVATION OF WORDS. 97 
 
 The signification of the other primary suffixes is as follows : ta 
 (in the form to-) makes the regular perfect participle, as tectus, tectum; 
 sometimes active, as in potus, pransus; and is found in a few not recog- 
 nized as participles, as putus, altus (alo) ; ti forms abstracts, rarely 
 nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mens ; tu forms abstracts (in- 
 cluding supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as actns, luctus; 
 iia, forming perfect participles in other languages, in Latin makes 
 adjectives of like meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus 
 (=mactus, root MAG), plenus, regnum ; ni, nouns of agency and adjec- 
 tives, as ignis, segnis ; nu, rare, as in mamis, sinus ; ma, various, as 
 in animus, almus, finnus, forma ; va (commonly uo), of active or 
 passive meaning, as iltea/uu*, arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivos (vacuus) ; 
 ra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages), 
 usually passive, as in ager, integer, pleri-qne ( = plenus = -pletus), sella 
 (for sed-la, cf. edpa) ; ya (gerundives in other languages), adjectives 
 and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as 
 eximius, audacia, Florentia, pernicies ; ka, sometimes primary, as in 
 pauci (cf. travpoc; ), locus (for stlocus, cf. Sk. sthara, sthala, Ger. Stelle, 
 Eng. stall) ; an (in, on), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as aspergo, 
 compago (tnis), gero (onis). 
 
 The above, with some compound suffixes given below, belong to the 
 original language, and most of them were not felt as living formations 
 in the literary period. But developed forms of these, with a few other 
 primary suffixes, were used consciously, generally as secondary 
 suffixes. The old primary suffixes thus used are (along witli ta and 
 tu, given above) man, ant, vant, tar, tro, as. (Observe that it is 
 the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix, although the 
 nominative is given for convenience of reference.) 
 
 c. Significant Endings. The principal classes of regular 
 derivate nouns and adjectives, as indicated by their nominative- 
 ending, are the following: 
 
 1. Nouns of Agency (active adjectives or appellatives), end- 
 ing in 
 
 tor (lengthened from tar, M.), trix (trie- = tar -|- ic, F.), added 
 V to the same form of stem that precedes t of the supine (which 
 for convenience maybe called the supine-base), or to noun- 
 stems by analogy : as ductor, victrix, viator. Earlier forma- 
 tions with tar are pater, mater. 
 
 es (-itis), descriptive nouns, as miles, comes. t '' 
 
 2. Names of Actions (passing into abstracts, instruments, 
 results) : 
 
 or (M.), es (-is, F. all from as) : as timor, sedes, decus. 
 
 io (added to pres. stem), tio, tura, tus (to supine base), verbal 
 
 abstracts : as legio, actio\ pictura, cultus (those in tus more 
 
 concrete). *#tfh S~f 
 
 ium (ya) from neuter abstracts (with verb-stems), as gaudium; 
 
 I or from nouns meaning offices or groups: as hospitium, 
 servitium, collegium. 
 6 
 
98 DERIVATION OP WORDS. [44: I. 
 
 men (man), mentum (man + ta), monia, monium (man -(- 
 
 ya), denoting act, means, or result: asflumen, carmen, orna- 
 
 mentum, querimonia, matrimonium. 
 ia, tia, tas, tus, tudo, do, go, feminine abstracts, often passing 
 
 into concretes : as audacia, militia, duritia (ies), bonitas, 
 
 semitus, altitudo, dulcedo, lanugo. 
 brum, cruinf mim, bulum, ciilum, nouns of means, usually from 
 
 verb-stems : as claustrum, lavacrum, vehiculum, turibulum. 
 
 3. Adjective forms, passing frequently into names of per- 
 sons or things : 
 
 ulus (following a vowel, 81us ; following s or r, culus), ellus, 
 illus, DIMINUTIVES (with endings for gender), forming nouns 
 or adjectives, meaning little or tender: as puerculus, puella 
 (puerula), puellula, asellus (asinulus), misellus (miserulus). 
 Rare diminutive forms are eculeus, homuncio. 
 
 ades (F. as), ides, ides (F. is, eis), PATRONYMICS, denoting 
 parentage, &c., as ^Eneades, Priamides, Priameis. 
 
 anus, enus, inus ; as (-atis), ensis ; ius, iacus, acius, GENTILE 
 names,, denoting country with other rare forms several 
 being derived from the same word : as Ores, Creticus, Cretceus, 
 Cressus, Cretensis. 
 
 ax, ulus (rare), vus (uus, ivus), denote tendency or inclination, 
 
 * those in ax being often faulty or aggressive, those in Ivus 
 ^^rather passive : as pugnax, bibulus, protervus, nocuus, captivus. 
 
 aris, aliSjlilisTllis, ulis (all from ra), with inus, orius, and several 
 of the above gentile forms, denote various ideas of relation or 
 possession. Several neuters of derivatives in ills signify 
 place, as ovile; and many of those in alls, aris (usually 
 with loss of e), also become nouns (regular i-stems); those 
 in inus, from names of animals, are often used of flesh. 
 
 eus, inus, aceus, icius, denote material, &c. : as fraxineus. 
 
 osus (old onsus, vant), olens, olentus (root 61 in adolesco), 
 denote full of, or inclined to, as fluctuosus, bellicosus ; so 
 idus (generally verbal) with similar meaning: as cupidus, 
 gelidus ; bundus, cundus, participial, but denoting persist- 
 ence of quality : as ir a cundus. 
 
 a tus, itus, utus (from imaginary verb-stems), denote provided 
 with : as galeatus, aurltus, cornutus. 
 
 ter (-tris), timus (a superl. form) from noun-stems : as campester, 
 maritimus ; ternus, from adverbs of time : as sempiternus, 
 hesternus (from heri, old hesi, cf. yesterday). 
 
 minus, mnus, mna (Gr. -fievog), participles, but no longer sig- 
 nificant as such: as terminus, alumnus, autumnus, lamina, 
 cerumna, femina. 
 
 ndus, the gerund-ending, forms a few words of active meaning, as 
 secundus, rotundus (cf. volvendis annis). 
 
44: 2.] DERIVATION OF WORDS. 99 
 
 2. Derivation of Verbs. Verbs of the third conju- 
 gation, with irregular verbs and vowel-stems da, sta, are 
 primitive. All others are either causative or denominative 
 (formed from nouns). 
 
 NOTE. The consciousness of roots was lost in Latin, so that in 
 forming the parts of verbs only stems are dealt with. Thus moneo, 
 monui (not menui), from root men, as in mens; ccedo, cecldi (not cecldi), 
 from root (cad, as in cddo). For modifications of the root in verb-stems, 
 see 28, 30. The derivative suffix in the regular conjugations is 
 original ya added either to the root, the present stem in a, or the 
 noun-stem. 
 
 a. The following are the regular conjtigational forms : 
 
 1. Verbs of the first conjugation (generally active) may be 
 formed from almost any noun or adjective of the first or second 
 declension, by changing the stem-vowel into the characteristic a. 
 A few add this vowel to the stem, as vigilare, exsulare. 
 
 2. A few verbs of the second conjugation are formed in like 
 manner from noun-stems ; but most add the characteristic e to the 
 root, and are intransitive or neuter in their meaning. 
 
 3. A few u-stems simply add the characteristic of the third 
 conjugation, becoming either active or intransitive, as acuo, fluo. 
 
 4. Most verbs of the fourth conjugation add the characteristic i 
 to the root, as scio, salio; many are formed from i- stems, as 
 sitio, finio, polio (see 34). 
 
 &. The following are regular derivative suffixes : 
 
 sco or isco ( 36, i) inchoative, denoting the "beginning of an 
 action ; they imply a primitive verb-stem, which is sometimes 
 found only in the perfect and supine stems. 
 
 asso, esso, denote attempt to do a thing ; they are of the third 
 conjugation in the present stem, and of the fourth in the per- 
 fect and supine. 
 
 NOTE. These are probably denominative, from nouns originally in 
 as (Latin es or us), but seem as if formed upon verb-roots. 
 
 to, ito (first conjugation) denote frequent action, being added to 
 the actual supine, or to another form of it, with a connecting 
 vowel i, changing u to the characteristic a of the first con- 
 jugation. 
 
 illo (first conjugation) denotes feeble or trifling action like that of 
 some simpler verb, but is formed from some real or supposed 
 diminutive noun. 
 
 urio (fourth conjugation), added to the supine-base, denotes desire 
 to do the act expressed by some simple verb ; but is formed 
 from some noun of agency in tor (sor). Viso is a regular 
 inherited desiderative of an earlier formation. 
 
100 DERIVATION OF WORDS. [44: 3- 
 
 3. Compound Words. In compound words, either 
 (1) the second part is merely added to the first ; (2) the first 
 part modifies the second as an adjective ; (3) the first part is 
 governed by the second as a verb ; or (4) a verb is modified 
 by a preposition or adverb prefixed. In all, only the second 
 part receives inflection. 
 
 NOTE. The Indo-European family had great power of forming 
 compounds with mere stems. This power the Latin for the most part 
 lost, as has English compared with German. Many compounds 
 attempted by poets failed to become established in the language ; but 
 there remain many traces of the old usage. 
 
 The most usual compounds may be classed as follows : 
 
 a. Meanings added : as suovetaurilia, undecim. 
 
 b. Noun with modifying adjective : as latifundium, pceninsula, 
 tergeminus. 
 
 c. Noun and Verb, as armiger, cornicen, manifestus, carnufex, 
 mantele. 
 
 d. Compound adjectives, in which the last word is a noun, the . 
 compound acquiring the meaning of possessed of the property de 
 noted, as alipe*, magnanimus, concors, anceps (having a head 
 both ends), obvius, multiformis, multiplex. 
 
 e. Compounds of facio, with an actual or formerly existing 
 verbal stem in e. These are causative in force, as consuefacio, 
 calefacto. 
 
 /. Adverbs (of manner) and Verb, which have grown together : 
 as benedico, satayo. 
 
 fj. Verbs with Prepositions, usually having their original ad 
 verbial sense: as, ab, away] ex, out. In those with circmr 
 praeter, trans, and sometimes ad and per, the compound retain 
 the force of the preposition. 
 
 h. Verbs with the following inseparable Particles, which no 
 longer appear as prepositions in Latin : amb (am, an), around ; 
 dis, di, asunder (in two) ; por, forward ; red, re, back ; sed, se 
 apart. 
 
PART SECOND. 
 USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX). 
 
 45. DEFINITIONS. 
 
 1. Sentence* A SENTENCE is a form of words which 
 contains either a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, 
 or a Command. 
 
 a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a DECLAR- 
 ATORY SENTENCE : as, puer venit, the boy came. 
 
 &, A sentence in the form of a Question is called an INTER- 
 ROGATIVE SENTENCE : as, venitne puer, did the boy come ? 
 
 c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an 
 EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE: as, quam celeriter venit! how fast 
 he came! 
 
 d. A sentence in the form of a Command is called an IMPERA- 
 TIVE SENTENCE : as, veni, puer, ad me, come to me, boy. 
 
 2. Subject and Predicate. The Subject of a sentence 
 is the person or thing spoken of; the Predicate is that which 
 is stated of the Subject. 
 
 a. The Predicate may be either a neuter verb, a noun or 
 adjective with the Copula (esse, fieri, &c.), or a Transitive verb 
 with its Object. 
 
 b. The verb esse, to be, when it connects an attribute with 
 its subject, is called the Copula ; otherwise, it is cajled the Sub- 
 stantive Verb. 
 
 Thus in the sentence sunt viri fortes, there are brave men, 
 sunt is a substantive verb; in viri sunt fortes, the men are 
 brave, it is a copula. 
 
 c. The Object of a verb is that on which its action is exerted : 
 thus in the sentence pater vocat filium, the father calls his son, 
 pater is subject, and filium object, of vocat. 
 
 d. One or more words, essential to the grammatical complete- 
 ness of a sentence, may be unexpressed : this is called ELLIPSIS, 
 and the sentence is called an elliptical sentence. 
 
102 DEFINITIONS. [45:3,4,5. 
 
 3. Modification. The Subject or Predicate of a sentence 
 may be modified by single words, or by a phrase or clause. 
 The modifying word may itself be modified in the same way. 
 
 a, A single modifying word is generally either an Adjective, 
 an Adverb, an Appositive ( 46), or the oblique case of a Noun. 
 Thus in the sentence puer formosus venit, a handsome boy 
 came, the adjective formosus modifies the subject puer ; in the 
 sentence celeriter venit, he came quickly, the adverb celeriter 
 modifies the predicate venit. 
 
 &. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word 
 to which it belongs : thus in the sentence video pueri patrem, 
 I see the boy's father, the genitive pueri limits patrem. 
 
 4. Phrase. A Phrase is a group of words, without sub- 
 ject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an 
 Adjective or Adverb. 
 
 Thus in the sentence puer erat eximiae formae, he was a 
 boy of remarkable beauty, the words eximiae formae are used 
 for the adjective formosus (or formosissimus), and are called 
 an ADJECTIVE PHRASE ; in the sentence magna celeritate 
 venit, he came with great speed, the words magna celeritate are 
 used for the adverb celeriter (or celerrime) , and are called an 
 ADVERBIAL PHRASE. 
 
 5. Clause. A Clause is a group of words forming part 
 of a sentence, and having a subject and predicate of its own. 
 
 Thus in the sentence puer qui heri venit formosus erat, 
 the boy who came yesterday was handsome, the words qui heri 
 venit are a RELATIVE CLAUSE; in the sentence puer si eras 
 veniat acceptus sit, if the boy should come to-morrow he would 
 be welcome, the words si eras veniat, are a CONDITIONAL 
 CLAUSE. 
 
 a. When a Clause is used as the Subject or Object of a verb, 
 it is called a Substantive Clause (see 70). 
 
 b. When a clause is used to modify the subject or predicate of 
 a sentence, it is called a Subordinate Clause. Subordinate 
 Clauses are Conditional, Temporal, Causal, Consecutive, and 
 Final, like the conjunctions which introduce them ( 43, I, b). 
 
 c. When two or more clauses in the same sentence are inde- 
 pendent of one another, they are said to be Coordinate. 
 
 d. Any clause introduced by a Relative is called a Relative 
 Clause ; when used simply by way of explanation, and not other- 
 wise connected with the form of the sentence, it is called an 
 Intermediate Clause ( 66). 
 
45; 46.] SUBJECT AND PREDICATE: NOUNS. 103 
 
 e. A clause expressing the purpose of an action is called a 
 Final Clause: one expressing its result is called a Consecutive 
 Clause (see ' 64, 65). 
 
 NOTE. In English, a Consecutive clause is introduced by the 
 phrase so that ; a Final clause by the phrase in order that. 
 
 f. A clause containing a condition, introduced by IF or some 
 equivalent ( 59), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence 
 modified by a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence. 
 
 NOTE, -s- Observe that these classes are not exclusive, but that a 
 single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative 
 clause may be subordinate, conditional, or intermediate ; and two 
 subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other. 
 
 6. Connectives. Sentences or coordinate clauses are 
 regularly connected by means of Conjunctions; but fre- 
 quently in Latin very rarely in English sentences are 
 connected by Relatives. 
 
 In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by 
 a conjunction with a demonstrative : as, quo cum venisset, and 
 when he had come there; quae cum ita siut, but since these 
 things are so ( 43, 3, k). 
 
 . 
 
 7. Agreement. A word is said to AGREE with another 
 
 when it is required to be in the same gender, number, case, or 
 person. 
 
 When a word takes the gender or number of some other word 
 implied in that with which it should agree, this use is called 
 SYNESIS, or constructio ad sensum. 
 
 . Government. A word is said to GOVERN another, 
 when it requires the latter to be in a particular case. 
 
 I. Subject and Predicate. 
 
 46. OP NOUNS. 
 
 A noun used to describe another, and meaning the 
 same thing, agrees with it in Case : as, 
 Servius rex, Servius the king. 
 ad urbem Solos, to the city Soli. 
 spes nostra Cicero, Cicero our hope. 
 homo nata fuerat, she had been born human* 
 
104 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [46: I, 2. 
 
 1. When the noun thus used is in the same part of the 
 sentence (subject or predicate) it is called an appositive, and 
 the use is called apposition. 
 
 2. When the noun is used to form a predicate with esse 
 or a verb of similar meaning, it is called a predicate-nom- 
 inative (or accusative as the case may be). 
 
 externus timer, maximum concordise vinculum, jungebat ani- 
 mos (Liv. ii. 39), fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of har- 
 mony, united hearts. [Here both nouns belong to the subject] 
 
 quattuor hie, primum omen, equos vidi (^En. iii. 537), I saw 
 here four horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the 
 predicate] 
 
 Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit (Liv. i. 32), the people 
 made Ancus Marcius king. [Here regem is called the comple- 
 mentary accusative.] 
 
 consules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. i), Ccesar and 
 Servilius are made consuls. [Here consules is predicate-nomi- 
 native after creantur.] 
 
 litteras Grsecas senex didici (Cat. M. 8), I learned Greek when 
 an old man. [Here senex is in apposition with the subject of 
 didici, expressing the time, condition, &c., of the act.] 
 
 Gnseus et Publius Scipiones, the Scipios, Cneius and Publius* 
 [Here the appositive is plural, as referring to more than one 
 subject.] 
 
 gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur (Tusc. i. 45). [Here 
 the appositive is introduced by way of comparison] 
 
 a. The appositive will agree in gender when it can ; sometimes 
 also in number: as, 
 
 Aristseus, olivae inventor (N. D. iii. 18), Aristceus, discoverer of 
 
 the olive. 
 olese Minerva inventrix (G. i. 18), Minerva, inventress of the 
 
 olive. ^ 
 
 quia sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lsel. 19), because 
 
 they follow nature, the best guide. 
 omnium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 4), 
 
 Athens, discoverer of all learning. 
 
 b. A common noun in apposition with a locative is put in the 
 Ablative, with or without the preposition in : as, 
 
 Antiochise, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 3), at A ntioch, once 
 
 a famous city. 
 Albie constiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 2), they halted at 
 
 Alba, a fortified town. 
 
47: I, 2.] ADJECTIVES. 105 
 
 c. The genitive is used in apposition with possessives, taking 
 the gender and number of the implied subject : as, 
 
 in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 34), amid the tears of us all. 
 ex Anniana Milonis domo (Att. iv. 3), out of Annius Mile's 
 house. 
 
 NOTE. The proper appositive is sometimes put in the Genitive. 
 See 50, i, /. 
 
 47. OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and 
 case. This rule applies also to adjective pronouns and 
 participles. 
 
 vir fortis, a brave man. 
 
 cum ducentis militibus, with 200 men. 
 
 consularia munera, the duties of consul. 
 
 hac lege, by this law. 
 
 uno interfecto, one being slain. 
 
 REMARK. The adjective may be either attributive or predi- 
 cate. An attributive adjective simply qualifies the noun without 
 the intervention of a verb ; a predicate adjective is connected 
 with its noun by esse, or a verb of similar meaning, expressed or 
 implied. 
 
 An adjective may also be used in apposition like a noun : as, 
 
 Hortensium vivum amavi (Off. iii. 18), T loved Hortensius 
 'when living. 
 
 1. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural (also, 
 rarely, when they are connected with cum) : as, 
 
 Nisus et Euryalus primi (^En. v. 394), Nisus and Euryalus first. 
 Juba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba a?id Labienus 'were 
 taken. 
 
 2. When nouns are of different genders, an attributive 
 adjective agrees with the nearest : as, 
 
 multae opera? ac laboris, of imich trouble and toil. 
 vita moresque mei, my life and character. 
 
 si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 7), if any 
 thing, if any man, if any time, -was Jit. 
 
 a* A predicate adjective may follow the same rule if the sub- 
 * jects form one connected idea : as, 
 
 factus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 15), a noise of 
 assent 'was made. 
 
106 SUBJECT, AND PREDICATE. [47: 2, 3. 
 
 6. Generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns 
 of different genders mean living beings ; neuter, if things without 
 life: as, 
 
 uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his 'wife and 
 
 children embraced him. 
 labor (M.) voluptasque (F.) societate quadam inter se naturali 
 
 sunt juncta (N.) (id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound 
 
 together by a certain natural alliance. 
 
 Abstract nouns of the same gender may have a neuter adjec- 
 tive : as, 
 
 stultitia et temeritas et injustitia . . . sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. n), 
 
 folly, rashness, and injustice must be shunned. 
 pax et concordia jactata sunt (Tac. Hist. ii. 20), peace and 
 
 harmony -were talked of. 
 
 d. A masculine or femine adjective may belong (by Synesis) to 
 a noun of different gender or number, when the existence of per- 
 sons is implied : as, 
 
 duo milia relicti (Liv. xxxvii. 39), two thousand were left. 
 
 pars certare parati (^En. v. 108), a part ready to contend. 
 
 magna pars raptae (Liv. i. 9), a large part [of the women] 
 were seized. 
 
 colonise aliquot deductse, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), sev- 
 eral colonies -were led out [of men] called Old Latins. 
 
 e. An adjective pronoun agrees in gender with a word in ap- 
 position rather than with its antecedent : as, /, / /^. rf / 
 
 >oW 94lJ, fat ta&0* 
 rerum caput hoc erat, hie fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17), this was the 
 
 head of things, this the source. 
 
 earn sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est 
 consecutus [for id ... quod] (Lael. 5), they explain that 
 [thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained. 
 
 f. Occasionally, an adjective takes the gender of a partitive 
 genitive : as, 
 
 velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin.), the dolphin is 
 the swiftest of creatures. 
 
 3. Adjectives are often used as nouns, the masculine to 
 denote men, and the feminine women : as, 
 omnes, all men, or everybody ; majores, ancestors; veteres, the 
 ancients ; barbari, barbarians ; amicus, a friend. 
 
 instinctu purpuratorum (Curt. iii. 9), at the instigation of the 
 
 courtiers [those clad in purple], 
 iniquus noster (Plane. 2.), our foe. 
 didicit jam dives avarus laudare disertos (Juv. vii. 30), the rich 
 
 miser has now learned to flatter the eloquent. 
 
47:3,4-] ADJECTIVES. 107 
 
 NOTE. The singular of adjectives in this use is more rare; the 
 plural is very frequent, and may be used of any adjective or participle, 
 to denote those in general described by it. 
 
 d. This is especially frequent with possessives : as, 
 
 nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party. 
 
 Sullani, the veterans of Sulla's army. 
 
 suos continebat (B. C. i. 15), he held his men in check. 
 
 & The demonstratives is, ille, &c., used in this way, have 
 nearly the force of personal pronouns. They are often thus used 
 in apposition with a noun, or a clause : as, 
 
 vincula, eaque sempiterna (Cat. iv. 4), chains, and that for 
 
 ever. 
 exspectabam tuas litteras, idque cum multis (Fam. x. 14), /, 
 
 with many others, am expecting your letter. 
 
 c* On the other hand, a noun is sometimes used as an adjective, 
 and may be qualified by an adverb (compare 16, 3, e) : as, 
 
 victor exercitus, the victorious army. 
 
 servum pecus, a servile troop. 
 
 admodum puer, quite a boy. 
 
 magis vir, more of a man. 
 
 fautor inepte (Hor.), a stupid admirer. 
 
 4. A neuter adjective may be used as a noun 
 
 a. In the singular, to denote either a single object or an 
 abstract quality : as, 
 
 rapto vivere, to live by plunder. 
 
 in arido, on dry ground. 
 
 honestum, an honorable act, or honor (as a quality). 
 
 &. In the plural, to signify objects in general having the quality 
 denoted, and hence the abstract idea : as, 
 
 honesta, honorable deeds (in general), or honor (in the ab- 
 stract). 
 
 omnium ignarus, ignorant of all. 
 justis solutis, the due rites being paid. 
 
 In apposition, or as predicate, to a noun of different gen- 
 der: as, 
 
 turpitudo pejus est quam dolor (Tusc. ii. 13), disgrace is worse 
 
 than pain. 
 labor bonum non est (Sen. Ep. 31), toil is no good thing. 
 
 d. In agreement with an infinitive or a substantive clause : as, 
 
 aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri (Lig. 5), 
 it is one tiring to be unwilling that Ccesar should err, another 
 to be unwilling that he should pity. 
 
108 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [47: 5, 6, 7. 
 
 REMARK. The neuter of an adjective is ordinarily used as a 
 noun only in the nominative and accusative : as, 
 
 omnia, all things (everything} ; but, omnium rerum, of all 
 things (omnium is usually of all persons} ; loquitur de 
 omnibus rebus, he talks about everything (de omnibus, 
 about everybody}. 
 
 5. Adjectives denoting source or possession may be used 
 for the genitive : as, 
 
 Pompeiana acies, Pompey's line. 
 
 video herilem filium (Ter.), 1 spy master's son. 
 
 ses alienum, another's money, i.e. DEBT. 
 
 a. Possessives are thus regularly used for the genitive of the 
 personal pronouns : as, 
 
 domus mea, my house ; nostra patria, our country. 
 
 b. A possessive in any case may have a genitive in apposition 
 ( 46, c) : as, 
 
 mea solius causa, for my sake. 
 
 nostra omnium patria, the country of us all. 
 
 An adjective is occasionally thus used for the objective geni- 
 tive ( 50, 3, b) : as, 
 
 metus hostilis (Jug. 41), fear of the enemy. 
 
 feminea in pcena (Virg.), in punishing a -woman. 
 
 periculo invidise meae (Cat. ii. 2), at the risk of odium against 
 
 me. 
 studiosus csedis ferinse (Ov. M. vii. 675), eager to slaughter 
 
 game. 
 
 6. An adjective, with the subject or object, is often used 
 to qualify the act, having the force of an adverb : as, 
 
 primus venit, he came first (-was the first to come}. 
 nullus dubito, I no way doubt. 
 Iseti audire, they -were glad to hear. 
 
 patre invito discessit, he departed against his father's 'wishes. 
 erat Romse frequens (Rose. Am. 6), he was often at .Rome. 
 serus in coelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2), mafst thou return late 
 to heaven. 
 
 7. When two qualities of an object are compared, both 
 adjectives (or adverbs) are in the comparative : as, 
 
 longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer 
 than it was broad (or, rather long than broad). 
 
47; 48.] ADJECTIVES: RELATIVES. 109 
 
 a. But not where magis is used : as, 
 
 clari magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renowned than honor- 
 able. 
 
 6. A comparative with a positive, or even two positives, may 
 be thus connected by quam (a rare and less elegant use) : as, 
 
 vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more fury than good 
 
 heed. 
 claris majoribus quam vetustis (Ann. iv. 61), of a family more 
 
 famous than old. 
 
 8. Superlatives denoting order and succession often desig- 
 nate not what object , but what part of it, is meant : as, 
 
 summus mons, the top of the hill. 
 
 in ultima plataea, at the end of the avenue. So, 
 
 prior actio, the earlier part of an action. 
 
 Also, medius, midst; ceterus, other; reliquus, remaining: as, 
 
 reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisoners. 
 
 in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), on the middle of the hill. 
 
 inter ceteram planitiem (Jug. 92), in a region elsewhere level. 
 
 Similarly, sera uocte, late at night; nos omnes, all of us 
 ( 50, 2). 
 
 9. The expressions alter . . . alter, alius . . . alms (as 
 also the adverbs . derived from them), may be used recipro- 
 cally; or may imply a change of predicate as well as of 
 subject: as, 
 
 hi fratres alter alterum amant, these brothers love each other. 
 alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, one another. 
 alius alia ex navi, out of different ships. 
 
 alius alia vi civitatem auxerunt (Liv. i. 21), they enlarged the 
 State each in his own way. 
 
 For the use of Adjectives as Adverbs, see 16, 3, f. 
 For the ablative used adverbially with Comparatives, see 
 54, 6, e. 
 
 48. OF RELATIVES. 
 
 A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in gender and 
 number ; but its case depends on the construction of 
 the clause in which it stands : as, 
 
 puer qui venit, the boy who came ; liber quern legis, the book 
 you are reading ; via qua ambulat, the way he walks in. 
 
110 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [48: I, 2, 3. 
 
 NOTE. A Relative is properly an adjective pronoun, of which the 
 proper noun (the Antecedent) is usually omitted. The full construc- 
 tion would require a corresponding demonstrative, to which the relative 
 refers. Hence, relatives serve two uses : 1. As Nouns in their own 
 clause ; 2. As Connectives, and are thus often equivalent to a demon- 
 strative and conjunction combined (see 69). The connective force is 
 not original, but is developed from a demonstrative or indefinite 
 meaning; the relative and the antecedent clause being originally 
 co-ordinate. 
 
 1 . A Verb having a relative as its subject takes the person 
 of the expressed or implied antecedent : as, 
 
 adsum qui feci (^En. ix. 427), here am I -who did it. 
 
 &. A relative generally agrees in gender with a noun 
 (appositive) in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent 
 of different gender : as, 
 
 mare etiam quern Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 20), the 
 sea, toO) which y-ou said was 
 
 a. A relative may (rarely) by Attraction agree with its ante- 
 cedent in case: as, 
 
 si aliquid agas eorum quorum consusti (Fam. v. 14), if you do 
 something of what you are used to. 
 
 & A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied 
 antecedent: as, 
 
 quartum genus ... qui premuntur (Cat. ii. 10), a fourth class, 
 
 that are sinking. 
 unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (Jug. 35), one of the number 
 
 [of those] who were ready. 
 conjuravre pauci. . . de qua [conjuratione] dicam (Sail. C. 18), 
 
 a few have conspired . . .of which [conspiracy] I will speak. 
 
 3. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses ; 
 usually only in the one that precedes ; sometimes it is wholly 
 omitted : thus 
 
 a. The noun may be repeated in the relative clause : as, 
 
 loci natura erat haec quern locum nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), 
 the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this. 
 
 b. The noun may appear only in the relative clause : as, 
 
 quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hie versibus 
 (Arch, n), he has touched in verse the things which we did 
 in our consulship. 
 
 urbem quam statuo vestra est (^En. i. 573), yours is the city 
 which I found. 
 
48: 3, 4> 5-J RELATIVES. Ill 
 
 In such cases the demonstrative is or hie usually stands in the 
 antecedent clause : as, 
 
 quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea 
 princeps poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the State 
 which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first 
 to pay the penalty. 
 
 REMARK. In a sentence of this class, the relative clause in 
 Latin usually stands first ; but, in translating, the noun should be 
 transferred, in its proper case, to the antecedent clause, as in the 
 example just quoted. 
 
 c. The antecedent noun may be omitted : as, 
 
 qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] 
 
 who bore the eagle of the tenth legion. 
 qui cognoscerent rnisit (id. i. 21), he sent men to reconnoitre. 
 
 d* A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing 
 with the antecedent may stand in the relative clause : as, 
 
 vasa ea quse pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 27), those 
 most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. 
 
 e. The phrase id quod or quae res is used (instead of quod 
 alone) : to relate to an idea or group of words before expressed as, 
 
 [obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio? an utrique 
 id quod est verius? (Manil. 19), an affront is offered shall I 
 say to Gabinius or Pompey f or which is truer to both ? 
 
 4. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or 
 sentence, where in English a demonstrative must be used : as, 
 
 quae cum ita sint, since these things are so. 
 
 quorum quod simile factum? (Cat. iv. 8), what ever happened 
 
 like this? 
 qui illius in te amor fuit (Fam. iv. 5), such was his love for you. 
 
 5. A Relative Adverb is often equivalent to the relative 
 pronoun with a preposition : as, 
 
 quo (= ad quern), to whom ; unde (= a quo), from whom, &c. : as, 
 
 apud eos quo se contulit (Verr. iv. 18), among those to whom he 
 
 resorted. 
 qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (Rose. Am. 26), one 
 
 who should have slain his own father. 
 
 A similar use is found with the demonstratives eo, inde, &c : as, 
 
 eo imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them [the beasts] he puts the 
 baggage. &X' 
 
112 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [49: I. 
 
 49, VERBS. 
 
 A Verb agrees with its subject-nominative in num- 
 ber and person : as, 
 ego statuo, I resolve ; oratio est habita, the plea was spoken. 
 
 REMARK. The verb in the periphrastic forms sometimes agrees 
 in gender and number with the predicate, or with a noun in 
 apposition: as, 
 
 non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Parad. vi. 3), not every 
 
 error should be called folly. 
 Corinthus lumen Graecise exstinctum est, Corinth the light of 
 
 Greece is put out. 
 deliciae mese Dicearchus disseruit (Tusc. i. 31), my pet Dicear- 
 
 chus discoursed. 
 
 1. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the 
 plural ; also, rarely, when one is in the ablative with cum : 
 
 as, 
 
 pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are 
 dead. 
 
 dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), the gen- 
 eral and several chiefs are taken. 
 
 a. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb will be 
 in the first and the second rather than the third : as, 
 
 si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if 
 you and Tullia are ivell, Cicero and I are 'well. 
 
 b* If the subjects are joined by disjunctives, or if they are con- 
 sidered as a single whole, the verb is singular : as, 
 
 neque fides neque jusjurandum neque ilium misericordiarepres- 
 sit (Ter. Ad.), not faith nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked 
 him. 
 
 Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v.S), the Roman 
 Senate and people understand. 
 
 c. A collective noun also such distributives as quisque, 
 every ; uterque, each may take a plural verb : as, 
 
 pars prsedas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty. 
 suum quisque habeant quod suum est (Plaut Cure.), let every 
 one keep his own. 
 
 This is most common in poetry. 
 
49: 1,2. 50.] CONSTRUCTION OP CASES. 113 
 
 <?. When the action of the verb belongs to the subjects separ- 
 ately, it may agree with one and be understood with the others : as, 
 
 intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), 
 Antony and Casstus, tribunes of the people, interpose. 
 
 &. The Subject of a finite verb is in the nominative. 
 
 DEFIN. A Finite Verb is a verb in any mood except the In- 
 finitive. 
 
 a. The personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless 
 emphatic : thus, 
 
 loquor, I speak; ego loquor, it is I that speak. 
 
 6. An indefinite subject is often omitted : as, 
 
 dicunt (ferunt, perhibent), they say. 
 The verb is sometimes omitted in certain phrases : as, 
 
 quorsum hsec [spectant] ? -what does this aim at ? 
 
 ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you ivtll know a lion by his claw. 
 
 The indicative and infinitive of esse are most frequently omitted. 
 (For the HISTORICAL INFINITIVE, see 57, 8, h.) 
 
 II. Construction of Cases. 
 
 NOTE. The Oblique Cases of nouns express their relations to other 
 words in the sentence. Originally, the family of languages to which 
 Latin belongs had at least seven cases, besides the vocative, all ex- 
 pressing different relations. Of these the Locative and Instrumental 
 cases were lost, and their functions divided among the others. 
 
 The names of the cases, except the Ablative, are of Greejt origin. 
 The name genitive Gr. -ycviK^, from -ycvos refers, originally, to the 
 class to which anything belongs. The dative SOTIKTJ is the case 
 of giving. The name accusative is a mistranslation of alriaTticVj, signi- 
 fying that which is effected or caused (alrta). 
 
 50. GENITIVE. 
 
 A noun used to limit or define another, and not 
 meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive. 
 
 NOTE. This relation is most frequently expressed in English by 
 the preposition OF. The genitive seems originally to have meant 
 that from which something springs; hence, that to which it belongs. From 
 this signification most of its others may be deduced. 
 
114 CONSTRUCTION OP CASES. [50: I. 
 
 1. Subjective Genitive. The Genitive is used to' denote 
 the Author, Owner, Source, and (with an adjective) Measure 
 or Quality: as, 
 
 libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero. 
 Caesaris horti, Ccesar's gardens. 
 culmen tecti, the roof of the hozese. 
 
 For the genitive of possession a possessive adjective is often 
 used, regularly for that of the personal pronouns : as, 
 . liber meus, my book. 
 aliena pericula, other men's dangers. 
 Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla. 
 
 & The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : as, 
 
 Castoris [aedes], the [temple] of Castor. 
 
 Hectoris Andromache, Hector's [wife] Andromache. 
 
 c The genitive is often in the predicate, connected with its 
 noun by a verb, like a predicate appositive : as, 
 
 hsec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's. 
 
 tutelae nostrae [eos] duximus (Liv.), we held them to be in our 
 
 protection. 
 Thrasybuli facta lucri fecit (Nep. viii. i), he made profit of the 
 
 deeds of Thrasybulus. 
 Tyros mare dicionis suae fecit (Curt. iv. 4), Tyre brought the 
 
 sea under her sway. 
 hominum non causarum toti erant (Liv. iii. 36), they belonged 
 
 wholly to the men, not to the cause. 
 
 d* A phrase or clause often stands for the limited noun ; this is 
 most frequent with the genitive of adjectives or abstract nouns : as, 
 
 neque sui judici [erat] decernere (B. C. i. 35), ft was not for 
 
 his judgment to decide. 
 timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 15), // is for the coward to 
 
 wish for death. 
 
 REMARK. The genitive of an adjective (especially of the third 
 declension) is thus used instead of the neuter nominative : as, 
 
 sapientis [not sapiens] est pauca loqui, ft is wise [the part of a 
 wise man] to say little. 
 
 The neuter of possessives is used in the same way : as, 
 
 mentiri non est meum, */ is not for me to lie. 
 humanum \_for hominis] est errare, // is man's to err. 
 
 e A genitive may denote the substance of which a thing con- 
 sists (a modified form of the idea of source) : as, 
 
 talentum auri, a talent of gold. 
 
 flumina lactis, rivers of milk. 
 
 navis auri (compare Part. Gen.), a shipload of gold. 
 
50: I, 2.] GENITIVE. 115 
 
 / A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in 
 apposition: as, 
 
 nomen insanige, the word madness. 
 oppidum Antiochise, the city of Antioch. 
 
 g* The genitive is used to denote quality, but only when the 
 quality is modified by an adjective (usually an indefinite one) : as, 
 
 vir summse virtutis, a man of the highest courage. 
 
 magnse est deliberations, it is an affair of great deliberation. 
 
 magni formica laboris,-/0 ant, [a creature] of great toil. 
 
 So ejus modi, of that sort. 
 
 (Compare the Ablative of Quality, 54, 7.) 
 h* The genitive (of quality), with numerals, is used to define 
 measures of length, depth, &c. : as, 
 
 fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [depth], 
 murus sedecim pedum, a iv all sixteen feet [high], 
 minor nulla eratduum milium amphorum (Fam. xii. i$),none 
 held less than 2000 jars. 
 
 i Certain adjectives of Quantity as magni, pluris, and the 
 like are used in the genitive to express indefinite value. (Also 
 the nouns nihili, flocci, nauci, pili, pensi, terunci, assis, see 
 Ablative of Price, 54, 8.) 
 
 REMARK. The genitive is often followed by the ablatives 
 causa, gratia, for the sake of; ergo, because of; and the inde- 
 clinable instar, like. . 
 
 2. Partitive Genitive* Words denoting a part are fol- 
 lowed by the genitive of the whole to which the part belongs. 
 Partitive words are the following : 
 
 a* Nouns or Pronouns : as, 
 
 pars militum, part of the soldiers. 
 
 quis nostrum, 'which of us? (but nos omnes, all of us). 
 nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left. 
 
 vastatur agri [id] quod . . . (Liv. i. 14), so much of the land is 
 'wasted as, &c. 
 
 b* Numerals, Comparatives, and Superlatives : as, 
 
 alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls. 
 unus tribunorum, one of the tribunes. 
 
 plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest 
 in cavalry of all Gaul. 
 
 Neuter adjectives and pronouns used as nouns : as, 
 tantum spati, so much space. 
 aliquid nummorum, a few pence. 
 id loci (or locorum), that spot of ground. 
 
116 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 2. 
 
 id temporis, at that time. 
 
 plana urbis, the level parts of the town. 
 
 quid novi, 'what news f 
 
 REMARK. Of adjectives of the third declension the genitive 
 is only rarely used in this way : thus, 
 
 nihil novi (gen.), nothing new ; but 
 
 nihil memorabile (nom.), nothing worth mention. 
 
 d* Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place : as, 
 
 satis pecunise, money enough. 
 
 parum oti, not much ease. 
 
 ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we ? 
 
 inde loci, next in order. 
 
 istuc aequi bonique, to that degree of equity and goodness. 
 
 turn temporis, at that point of time. 
 
 eo miseriarum (Sail.)? to that pitch of misery. 
 
 e. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive 
 after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : as, 
 
 sequimur te sancte deorum (/En. iv. 576), we follow thee, O 
 
 holy deity. 
 
 nigrse lanarum (Plin. H. N. viii. 48), black wools. 
 electi juvenum (Liv. xxx. 9), the choice of the young men. 
 
 REMARK. ! Cardinal numbers, with quidam, a certain one, 
 more commonly, other words rarely, take the ablative with e (ex) 
 or de, instead of the genitive : as, 
 
 unus ex tribunis, one of the tribunes. 
 
 minumus ex illis (Jug. n), the youngest of them. 
 
 medius ex tribus (ib.), the midst of the three. 
 
 2. With nouns uterque generally agrees as an adjective ; but 
 with pronouns it always takes a genitive : as, 
 
 uterque consul, both the consuls. 
 uterque nostrum, both of us. 
 
 3. Numbers and words of quantity including the wliole of any- 
 thing as omnes, all; quot, how many take a case in agree- 
 ment, and not the partitive genitive : as, 
 
 nos omnes, all of us. 
 qui omnes, all of whom. 
 
 quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there f 
 cave inimicos qui multi sunt, beware of your enemies, of whom 
 you have many. 
 
 So when no others are thought of, although such exist : as, 
 
 multi milites, many of the soldiers. 
 nemo Romanus, not one Roman. 
 
50: 3-] GENITIVE. 117 
 
 4. Rarely two genitives are used with one noun : as, 
 
 animi multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 13), the mind's 
 traversing of many things. 
 
 3. Objective Genitive. With many nouns and adjec- 
 tives implying action, the genitive is used to denote the object. 
 
 NOTE. This is an extension of the idea of belonging to; as in the 
 phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Ccesar, the hate in a passive sense 
 belongs to Caesar, though in its active sense he is the object of it. 
 
 a. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive 
 of the object : as, 
 
 desiderium oti, longing for rest. 
 
 vacatio militiae, a respite of military service. 
 
 gratia benefici, gratitude for a kindness. 
 
 fug a malorum, refuge from disaster. 
 
 laudator temporis acti, a praiser of the past. 
 
 injuria mulierum Sabinarum (Liv.), the wrong done to the 
 Sabine 'women. 
 
 memoria nostri tua (Fam. xiii. 17), your memory of us. 
 
 consensio divinarum humanarumque rerum (Lael. 6), the har- 
 mony of divine and human things. 
 
 vim suorum pro suo periculo defendebant (B.C. iii. no), they 
 parried the attack on their comrades as if it 'were their own 
 peril. 
 
 Occasionally possessive adjectives are used in the same way (see 
 47, 5, c). 
 
 6. Adjectives requiring an object of reference (relative adjec- 
 tives) govern the genitive. 
 
 These are 1. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, 
 fulness , power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites ; 2. Verbals in 
 ax; 3. Participles in ns when used to denote a disposition and 
 not a particular act, so that they become adjectives : as, 
 
 avidus laudis, greedy of praise. 
 
 fastidiosus literarum, disdaining letters. 
 
 juris peritus, skilled in law. 
 
 habetis ducem memorem vesfri oblitiim sui (Cat. iv. cj), you 
 have a leader who thinks of you and forgets himself. 
 
 plena consiliorum inania verborum (De Or. i. ()}, full of wis- 
 dom, void of words. 
 
 rationis et orationis expertes (Off. i. 16), devoid of reason and 
 speech. 
 
 virtutis compos (id.), possessed of virtue. 
 
 paternorum bonorum exheres (De Or. i. 38), ousted from his 
 father's estate. 
 
 rei capitalis affinis (2 Verr. ii. 43), accessory to a capital crime. 
 
 justum ac tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3), a man just 
 and steadfast to his purpose. 
 
118 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 3. 
 
 si quern tui amantiorem cognovisti (G^. Fr. ix. i), if you have 
 
 known any more fond of you. 
 
 multitude insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to -war. 
 sitiens sanguinis, thirsting for blood. But, 
 Tiberius sitiens sanguinem (Tac.), Tiberius [then] thirsting 
 for blood. 
 
 Some other adjectives of similar meaning occasionally take 
 the genitive ; and the poets and late writers use almost any adjec- 
 tive with a genitive of specification : as, 
 
 callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), skilled in soldiership. 
 
 pecuniae liberates (Sail. C~7), lavish of money. 
 
 virtutum sterile seculum (id. i. 3), a century barren in virtue. 
 
 pauper aquarum (Hor.), scant of water. 
 
 prodigus aeris (id.), a spendthrift of wealth. 
 
 notus animi, of known bravery. 
 
 fessi rerum (Virg.), weary of toil. 
 
 laeta laborum (id.), glad of work. 
 
 modicus voluptatis, moderate in pleasure* 
 
 integer vitae scelerisque purus (Hor.), upright in life, and 
 
 clear of guilt. 
 docilis modorum (id.), teachable in measures. 
 
 REMARK. Animi (strictly a locative, plural animis), is added 
 to adjectives of feeling : as, 
 
 seger animi, sick at heart. 
 confusus animi, disturbed in spirit. 
 
 d A few adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging requir- 
 ing the dative as such take the possessive genitive : these are, 
 aequalis, affinis, communis, finitimus, par, propiiiqims, pro- 
 prius (regularly), similis, viciiius. 
 
 REMARK. One noun limiting another is regularly used in the 
 genitive, and not with a preposition, prepositions being origi- 
 nally adverbs, and requiring a verb. Sometimes, however, one 
 noun has another connected with it by a preposition. This hap- 
 pens with nouns of action, feeling, and motion ; some relations of 
 place to or in which or from which (including origin) \ accompani- 
 ment, &c. : as, - 
 
 odium in Caesarem (or odium Caesaris), hate of Ccesar. 
 
 merita erga me (Cic.), services to me. 
 
 auxilium adversus inimicos (id.), help against enemies. 
 
 reditus in caelum (id.), return to heaven. 
 
 impetus in me (id.), attack on me. 
 
 excessus e vita (id.), departure from life. 
 
 e prcelio nuntius, a messenger from the battle. 
 
 castra ad Bagradam (Caes.), camp near the Bagrada. 
 
 invidia ob scelera (Sail.), odium for his crimes. So, 
 
 domum reditionis spes (id.), the hope of returning home. 
 
50:4-] GENITIVE. 119 
 
 4. Genitive after Verbs. The genitive is used as the 
 object of several classes of Verbs. 
 
 a. Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, and Reminding, take 
 the genitive of the object when they are used of a continued state 
 of mind, but the accusative when used of a single act: as, 
 
 pueritiae memoriam recordari (Arch.i.), to recall the memory 
 
 of childhood. 
 animus meminit praeteritorum (Div. i. 30), the soul remembers 
 
 the past. 
 
 venit mihi in mentem illius diei, I bethought me of that day. 
 obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat.), turn your mind 
 
 from slaughter and conjlagrations. 
 
 bona praeterita non meminerunt (Fin. ii. 20), they do not re- 
 member past blessings. 
 
 memineram Paullum (Cat. M. 2), I remembered Paulus. 
 memini etiam quae nolo (Fin. ii. 33), I remember even 'what I 
 
 would not. 
 
 totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 60), be forgot the 'whole case. 
 REMARK. The above distinction is unimportant as to verbs of 
 reminding, which take the genitive except of neuter pronouns : as, 
 hoc te admoneo, / warn you of this. The accusative is always 
 used of a person or thing remembered by an eye-witness. Recorder 
 is almost always construed with an accusative, or with a phrase or 
 clause. 
 
 & Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting, take the 
 genitive of the charge or penalty : as, 
 
 arguit me furti, he accuses me of theft. 
 
 peculates damnatus (pecuniae publicse damnatus) (Flac. 18), 
 
 condemned for embezzlement. 
 capitis damnatus, condemned to death. 
 
 Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are 
 capitis (damnare capitis, to sentence to deatli) ; 
 majestatis, treason (crime against the dignity of the State); 
 repetundarum, extortion (lit. of an action for claiming back 
 
 money wrongfully taken) ; 
 voti (damnatus or reus voti, bound to the payment of one's 
 
 vow, i.e. successful in one^s effort-). 
 
 REMARK. The crime may be expressed by the ablative with 
 de; the punishment by the ablative alone : as, /^ -2-93 (*-) 
 
 de vi et majestatis damnati (Phil, i.), condemned of assault and 
 
 treason. 
 vitia autem hominum atque fraudes damnis, ignominiis, vin- 
 
 culis, verberibus, exiliis, morte damnantur (De Or. i 43), 
 
 but the vices and crimes of men are punished ivith fines, dism 
 
 honor, chains, scourging, exile, death. 
 
 Bi^t, inter sicarios accusare (defeiidere;, to accuse of murder. 
 
120 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 4. 
 
 c. Many verbs of Emotion take the genitive of the object which 
 excites the feeling (Gen. of source). These are 
 
 1. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseresco: as, 
 miserescite regis (/En., viii. 573), pity the king. 
 
 miserere animi non digna ferentis (id. ii. 144), pity a soul that 
 
 endures unworthy things. 
 But miser or, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative. 
 
 2. The impersonals miseret, piget, poenitet, pudet, taedet 
 (or pertaesum est), which take also the accusative of the person 
 affected ( 39, 2) : as, 
 
 hos homines infamise suze neque pudet neque tsedet (Verr. i. 
 12), these men are neither ashamed nor weary of their dis- 
 honor. 
 
 REMARK. An infinitive or clause may be used with these verbs 
 instead of the genitive of a noun : as, 
 
 me poenitet hsec fecisse, I repent of having done this. 
 Sometimes they are used personally : as, 
 
 nonne te hsec* pudent (Ter. Ad.), do not these things shame 
 
 you ? 
 
 d* The impersonals interest and refert, it concerns, takes the 
 genitive of the person affected, the subject of the verb being a 
 neuter pronoun or a substantive clause : as, 
 
 Clodi intererat Milonem perire (Mil. 21), it ivas the interest of 
 Clodius that Milo should die. 
 
 But instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the possessive is 
 used in the ablative singular feminine : as, 
 
 quid tua id refert? magni (Ter. Ph.), how does that concern 
 you f much. 
 
 refert is seldom used in any other way ; but it takes, rarely, the 
 dativus commodi (Hor. Sat. i. i, 49). The object of interest is 
 sometimes in the accusative with ad: as, 
 
 magni ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. i), it is of 
 consequence to our honor. 
 
 NOTE. The word interest maybe used (1) impersonally with the 
 genitive, as above ; (2) personally with the dative : as, interest exer- 
 citui, he is present with the army; (3) with the accusative and pre- 
 positions : as, interest inter exercitum et castra, he is between or, 
 there is a difference between the army and camp. 
 
 Some verbs of plenty and want govern the genitive (rarely, 
 except egeo and indigeo, need) : as, 
 
 quid est quod defensionis indigeat? (Rose. Am. 12), what is 
 
 there that needs defence f 
 satagit rerum suarum, he has his hands full with his own affairs. 
 
51: I.] DATIVE. 121 
 
 Also, sometimes, potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase 
 potiri rerum, to be master of affairs. But these verbs more 
 commonly take the ablative. 
 
 REMARK. The genitive is also used after the adverbs pridie, 
 the day before; postridie, the day after ; tenus, as far as: as, 
 
 postridie ejus diei (B. G. v. 10), the next day. 
 
 51. DATIVE. 
 
 The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected 
 by the action, which is usually denoted in English by 
 TO or FOR (Indirect Object). 
 
 NOTE. The dative seems to have the primary meaning of towards, 
 and to be closely akin to the Locative. But this meaning is lost in 
 Latin, except in some adverbial forms (eo, illo, &c.) and in the poets. 
 In most of its derived meanings, it denotes an object not merely (like 
 the Accusative) as passively affected by the action, or caused by it ; but 
 as reciprocally sharing in the action, or receiving it actively. Thus, in 
 dedit mihi librum, he gave me a book, or fecit mihi iujuriam, he did 
 me an injury ; it is I that receive the book or feel the wrong. Hence 
 persons, or objects personified, are most likely to be in the dative. 
 So in the Spanish, the dative is used whenever a Person is the object 
 of an action : as, yo veo al hombre, / see the man. 
 
 As this difference between the accusative and dative (direct and 
 indirect object) depends on the view taken by the writer, verbs of 
 similar meaning in different languages, or even in the same, differ, in 
 the case of the object. In English, especially, owing to the loss of its 
 cases, many verbs are construed as transitive, which in Latin require 
 the dative. Thus believe, which in English originally governed the 
 genitive, has become transitive ; while the corresponding verb in 
 Latin, credo (a compound of cred and do (DHA), to place confidence in) 
 takes the dative. 
 
 1. Dative with Transitives. Transitive verbs, whose 
 meaning permits it, take the dative of the indirect object, with 
 the accusative of the direct. 
 
 These are, especially, verbs of Giving, Telling, Sending, and 
 the like : as, 
 
 do tibi librum, I give you a book. 
 
 valetudini tribuamus aliquid (Tusc. i. 118), let us allow some- 
 thing to health. 
 
 illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. 7), this I assure you. 
 
 Pompeio plurimum debebam (id. i. 9), lotvedmuch to Pompey. 
 
 id omne tibi polliceor ac defero (Man. 24), all this I promise 
 you and bestow. Q 
 
122 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: I, 2. 
 
 commendo tibi ejus omnia negotia (Fam. i. i), I put all his 
 
 affairs in your hands. 
 amico munusculum mittere 'id. ix. 12), to send a slight tribute 
 
 to a friend. 
 illi inimico servum rem* ^Deiot. ii.), to him, his enemy, he 
 
 returned a slave. 
 dabis profecto misericordiae quod iracundiae negavisti (id. 14), 
 
 you witt surely grant to mercy 'what you refused to wrath. 
 Karthagini bellum denuntio (Cat. M. 6), / announce war to 
 
 Carthage. 
 curls gaudia misces (Catull. only poet.) , thou minglest joy 
 
 with care. 
 
 a. In the passive, such verbs retain the dative of the indirect 
 object: as, 
 
 hsec nobis nuntiantur, these things are told us. 
 
 b. When the idea of motion is distinctly conveyed, a preposi- 
 tion is used (except by poetic use) : as, 
 
 has litteras ad te mitto, I send you this letter. 
 
 c. A few verbs of this class under a different view of the 
 action may take the accusative of a person, with an ablative of 
 means. 
 
 Such verbs are dono, impertio, induo, exuo, adspergo, 
 inspergo, circumdo, circumfundo, prohibeo, intercludo. 
 
 Thus 
 
 donat coronas suis, he presents wreaths to fits men ; or, 
 
 donat suos coronis, he presents his men with wreaths. 
 
 pomis se induit arbos (G. iv. 143), the tree decks itself with 
 
 fruits. 
 copiis (dat.) armis exutis (B. G. iii.6), the forces being stripped 
 
 of arms. 
 aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. iii. 36), to sprinkle the altar 
 
 with blood. 
 
 2. Dative after Intransitives, Intransitive verbs take 
 the dative of the indirect object only : as, 
 
 cedant arma togae (Phil. i. 8), let arms give way to the gown. 
 quid homini potest turpius usuvenire (Quinct. 15), what 
 
 more shameful can befall a man f 
 respondi maximis criminibus (Phil. i. 14), I have answered the 
 
 heaviest charges. 
 
 ut ita cuique eveniat (id. 46), that it may so turn out to each. 
 manent ingenia senibus (Cat. M. 7), old men keep their pozvers 
 
 of mind. 
 vento et fluctibus loqui (Lucr. iv. 491), to talk to wind and 
 
 wave. 
 
51: 2.] DATIVE. 123 
 
 nec quereris patri (Juv. 11. 131}, you complain not to a father. 
 non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17), 
 it is not every mans luck to p* ' '*> Corinth. 
 
 a. Most verbs signifying to favor, help, please, serve, trust, 
 and their contraries, also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, 
 engy, threaten, pwrdon, and spare, take the Dative in Latin, 
 though transitive in English. 
 
 These include, among others, the following : adversor, credo, 
 faveo, fido, ignosco, impero, invldeo, irascor, noceo, parco, 
 pareo, placeo, servio, studeo, suadeo (persuadeo) : as, 
 
 cur mihi invides, why do you envy me? 
 
 civitati serviebat, he served the state. 
 
 tibi favemus, we favor you. 
 
 mihi parcit atque ignoscit, he spares and pardons me. 
 
 sontibus opitulari poteram (Fam. iv. 13), / was able to help the 
 
 guilty. 
 
 bonis invident (Sail.), they envy the good. 
 Catoni resistimus (Fam. i. i), ive withstand Cato. 
 non omnjbus servio (id. xvi. 13), / am not a servant to every 
 
 man. 
 cum ceteris turn mihi ipsi displiceo (id. iv. 13), / dissatisfy 
 
 other people and myself too. 
 
 non parcam operse (id. xvi. 13), I will spare no pains. 
 sic mihi persuasi (Cat. M. 21), so I have persuaded myself. 
 huic legioni Csesar confidebat maxime (B. G. i. 40), in this 
 
 legion CcBsar had special confidence. 
 ex quo efficitur hominem naturae obedientem homini nocere 
 
 non posse (Off. iii. 5), whence it appears that a man while 
 
 obeying Nature cannot harm a fellow -man. 
 
 REMARK. ! Some verbs of the same meanings take the ac- 
 cusative : as, juvo, adjuvo, help; laedo, injure; jubeo, order; 
 deficio, fail. 
 
 2. Some take the dative or accusative indifferently : as, adulor, 
 flatter; aemulor, rival; comitor, attend; despero, despair; 
 praestolor, await; medeor, medicor, heal. 
 
 3. Some take the dative or accusative according to their mean- 
 ing: as, 
 
 parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 25), they consult for a party 
 
 of the citizens. 
 
 cum te consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when I had consulted you. 
 metuens pueris (Plant. Am. v. i), anxious for the boys. 
 nec metutint deos (Ter. Hec. v. 2), they fear not even the gods 
 
 (so also timeo.} 
 
 ei caverc volo (Fam. iii. i), I will have a care for him. 
 caveto omnia (id. xi. 21), beware of everything. 
 
124 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 2. 
 
 prospicite patrise (Cat. iv. 2), have regard for the state. 
 
 prospicere sedem senectuti (Liv. iv. 49), to provide a habita- 
 tion/or old age [so also providere^. 
 
 nequeo mihi temperare (Plin. xviii. 6), I cannot control myself. 
 
 rempublicam temperare (Tusc. i. i), to govern the state [so 
 also moderor\. 
 
 See Lexicon, under convenio, cupio, fido (abl.), insisto, 
 maneo, praesto, praeverto, recipio, renuntio, solvo, succedo. 
 
 b. The dative is used after the Impersonals libet, licet ; after 
 verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male; together with 
 the following: gratificor, gratulor, haereo (rarely), jungo, 
 medeor, medicor, misceo (poetic), nubo, permitto, plaudo, 
 probo, studeo, supplico ; and the phrases auctor esse, gratias 
 agere (habere),- morem gerere (morigeror), supplex (dicto 
 audiens) esse: as, 
 
 quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 18), what most pleases me. 
 Di isti Segulio male faciant (id. xi. 21), may the gods send evil 
 
 upon that Segulius. 
 
 mihi ipsi nunquam satisfacio (id. 17), I never satisfy myself. 
 virgo nupsit ei (Div. i. 46), a maiden married him. 
 Pompeio se gratulari putent (id. i. i), they suppose they are 
 
 doing Pompey a service. 
 
 sed tibi morem gessi (id. ii. 18), but I have deferred to you. 
 tibi permitto respondere (N. D. iii. i), I give you leave to 
 
 ansiver. 
 armatus adversario maledixi (Fam. vi. 7), in arms I cursed the 
 
 foe. 
 voluptati aurium morigerari (Or. 48), to humor the lust of the 
 
 ears. 
 habeo senectuti maximam gratiam (Cat. M. 14), I owe old age 
 
 much thanks. 
 maximas tibi gratias ago, I return you the -warmest thanks. 
 
 c. Many verbs of the above classes take an accusative of the 
 thing, with a dative of the person : as, 
 
 cui cum rex crucem minitaretur (Tusc. i. 43), when the king 
 
 threatened him with the cross. 
 invident nobis optimam magistram (id. iii. 2), they grudge us 
 
 our best of teachers [Nature]. 
 frumento exercitui proviso (B. G. v. 44), when the army was 
 
 supplied with corn. 
 puerum [vocare] cui cenam imperaret (Ros. Am. 21), to call a 
 
 boy and order supper of him. 
 imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts ten talents of the 
 
 townspeople. 
 omnia sibi ignoscere (Veil. ii. 30), to pardon one's self every- 
 
51: 2.] DATIVE. 125 
 
 d. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, 
 post, prae, pro, sub, super and some with circum take the 
 dative of the object on account of their acquired meaning (many 
 take also the accusative, being originally transitive) : as, 
 
 neque enim assentior iis (Lsel. 3), for I do not agree -with them. 
 tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), it is a point of skill to 
 
 yield to the -weather. 
 omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed prsefuit (id. i. 6), he 
 
 not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them. 
 pueritiae adulescentia obrepit (Cat. M.), youth steals upon 
 
 childhood. 
 [Archise] antecellere omnibus contigit (Arch. 3), it was his 
 
 good fortune to outvie all. 
 quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 30), so 
 
 far as man's nature is superior to brutes. 
 nos ei succedimus (Fam. vii. 31), we succeed him. 
 criminibus illis pro rege se supponit reum (Deiot. 15), he takes 
 
 those charges upon himself in the king s behalf. 
 nee unquam succumbet inimicis (id. 13), he 'will never bend 
 
 before his foes. 
 illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 13), they put their 
 
 own name to those papers. 
 tibi obtempera (F. ii. 7), restrain yourself . 
 hibernis Labienum prseposuit (Cses.), he set Labienus over 
 
 the -winter-quarters. 
 cur mihi te offers, ac meis commodis officis et obstas (Ros. 
 
 Am. 38), why do you put yourself in my way, to hinder and 
 
 withstand my advantage ? 
 
 So excello: as, 
 
 tu longe aliis excellis (De Or. ii. ^, you far excel others. 
 
 REMARK. 1. Some of the above compounds acquire a transi- 
 tive meaning, and take the accusative : as, aggredior, approach ; 
 adire, go to ; antecedo, anteeo, antegradior, precede (both cases) ; 
 convenio, meet; iiieo, enter; obeo, encounter; offendo, hit; 
 oppugno, oppose ; subeo, go under (take up) : as, 
 
 nos oppugnat (Fam. i. i), he opposes us. 
 
 quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi, who would dare encounter 
 
 a man -well- attended ? 
 munus obire (Lael. 2), to attend to a duty. 
 
 2. The adjective obvius also the adverb obviam with a 
 verb takes the dative : as, 
 
 si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 18), if he was not intend- 
 ing to get in his way. 
 m'hi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16), you came to meet me. 
 
126 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 2,3. 
 
 e. Many compounds of ab, de, ex, with adimo, take the dative 
 (especially of persons) instead of the ablative of separation, 
 the action being more vividly represented as done to the object 
 affected by it : as, 
 
 vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (C. M. 19), force deprives young 
 
 men of life. 
 
 nihil enim tibi detraxit senectus (id. i),for age has robbed you 
 1 of nothing. 
 
 nee mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo (id. 23), nor do / -wish 
 
 this error wrested from me. 
 
 cum extorta mihi veritas esset (Or. 48), 'when the truth had 
 been forced from me. 
 
 REMARK. The distinct idea of place, and, in general, names 
 of things, require the ablative with a preposition ; or both con- 
 structions may be used together : as, 
 
 ilium ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of 
 
 danger. 
 victoriam eripi sibi e manibus, that victory should be wrested 
 
 from his hands. 
 
 f. Intransitive verbs governing the dative can be used in the 
 Passive only impersonally: as, 
 
 cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 12), who could be spared? 
 
 non modo non invidetur illi setati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 
 
 13), that age [youth] is not only not envied, but is even favored. 
 mihi quidem persuader! nunquam potuit (C. M. 22), I for my 
 
 part could never be persuaded. 
 
 resistendum senectuti est (id. n), -we must resist old age. 
 plaudi tibi non solere (Deiot. 12), that you are not ^vont to be 
 
 applauded. 
 tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the time. 
 
 g. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which 
 would strictly require another case with a preposition : as, 
 
 differt sermoni (Hor.), differs from prose [a sermone]. 
 tibi certet (Virg.). may vie with you [tecum]. 
 lateri abdidit ensem (id.), buried the sword in his side [in lateral, 
 solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the noontide from 
 the flock [a pecore]. 
 
 Here the poets regard the acting as done to the thing affected, for 
 greater vividness of expression. 
 
 3. Dative of Possession. The dative is used after esse 
 and similar words to denote the Owner : as, 
 est mihi liber, / have a book. 
 
51: 3, 4-] DATIVE. 127 
 
 REMARK. The Genitive or a possessive with esse emphasizes 
 the possessor; the Dative the fact of possession: as, liber est 
 meus, the book is mine (and no one's else) ; est mihi liber, / have 
 a book (among other things) . This is the usual form to denote 
 simple possession ; habeo, / have, generally signifying hold, often 
 with some secondary meaning : as, 
 
 legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion 'which 
 
 he had 'with him. 
 domitas habere libidines (De Or.), to keep the passions under. 
 
 a. Compounds of esse take the dative (excepting abesse and 
 posse ; for other compounds, see above, 2, d) . 
 
 b. After nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is usu- 
 ally put in the dative by a kind of apposition with the person : as, 
 
 puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), the boy 
 
 *w as called Rgerius from his poverty. 
 cui Africano fuit cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose surname 'was 
 
 Africanus. 
 
 But the name may be in apposition with nomen; or in the genitive 
 ( 50, i,/) : as, 
 
 cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 52), [a fount] called Arethusa. 
 nomen Mercuri est mihi (Plaut. Am.), my name is Mercury. 
 
 4. Dative of Agency. The dative is used, after some 
 passive forms, to denote the agent: viz. 
 
 a. Regularly with the Gerund or Gerundive, to denote the 
 person on whom the necessity rests : as, 
 
 haec vobis provincia est defendenda (Man. 6), this province is 
 
 for you to defend [to be defended by you], 
 mihi est pugnandum, I have to fight [i.e., the need of fighting 
 
 is mine; compare mihi est liber]. 
 
 b. The dative is often used after perfect participles, especially 
 when used in an adjective sense, rarely after other parts of the 
 verb: as, 
 
 mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Rull. i. 8), I have deliber- 
 ated and resolved. 
 
 oratori omnia quaesita esse debent (De Or. iii. 14), an orator 
 should search everything. 
 
 acceptus mihi, acceptable to me. 
 
 c. By the poets and later writers it is used in this way after 
 almost any passive verb : as, 
 
 neque cernitur ulli (^En. i. 440), nor is seen by any. 
 felix est dicta sorori (Fast, iii.), she 'was called happy by her 
 sister. 
 
128 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51:4,5,6. 
 
 REMARK. The dative is regularly used after the passive of 
 video (usually to be rendered seem) : as, 
 
 videtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me. 
 
 5. Dative of Service. The dative is used to denote 
 the purpose or end ; often with another dative of the person 
 or thing affected : as, 
 
 reipublicae cladi sunt (Jug. 85), they are ruin to the State. 
 
 rati sese dis immortalibus curse esse (id. 75), thinking them- 
 selves to be the special care of the gods. 
 
 magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv- 25), // was of great service 
 to our men. 
 
 tertiam aciem nostris subsidio misit (id.), he sent the third line 
 as a relief to our men. 
 
 omnia deerant quae ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. 29), all 
 things -were wanting -which -were of use for repairing the ships. 
 
 REMARK. In this use the dative is nearly equivalent to a noun 
 in apposition with the subject or object of the verb. It is common 
 with the words cordi, a delight (lit. to the heart) ; dono, a gift ; 
 emolumeiito, a gain ; usui, an advantage ; vitio, a fault. The 
 indeclinable adjective frugi is properly a dative of service. 
 
 6. Dative of Nearness, &c. The dative is used after 
 Adjectives and Adverbs, to denote that to which the given 
 quality is directed, or for which it exists. 
 
 Such are especially words of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, 
 inclination, and their opposites : as, 
 
 nihil est tarn naturae aptum (Lsel. 5), nothing is so ftted to 
 
 nature. 
 carus omnibus exspectatusque venies (F. xvi. 7), you iv ill come 
 
 loved and longed for by all. 
 locum divinae naturae aeternitatique contrarium (Cat. M. 21), 
 
 a point opposed to the divine nature and eternity. 
 nihil difficile amanti puto (Or. 10), I think nothing hard to a 
 
 lover. 
 pompse quam pugnae aptius (id. 1$)*, fitter for a procession than 
 
 a battle. 
 consentanetim tempori et personae (id. 22), adapted to the time 
 
 and the party. 
 rebus ipsis par et aequalis oratio (id. 36), a speech equal and 
 
 level 'with the subject. 
 
 Also, in poetic and colloquial use, idem, the same: as, 
 in eadem arm a nobis (Cic.), to the same arms ivit/i us. 
 a Adjectives of Usefulness or Fitness take oftener the accusa- 
 tive with ad, but sometimes the dative : as, 
 
51: 6, 7-] DATIVE. 129 
 
 aptus ad rem militarem, jit for a soldier's duty. 
 locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 20), a place fitter for lying-in^ 
 ad amicitiam idoneus (Lael. 17), apt to friendship. {wait. 
 
 castris idoneum iocum deligit (B. G. vi. 10), he selects a suit- 
 able camping-ground. 
 
 & Adjectives and nouns of inclination may take the accusative 
 with in or erga: as, 
 
 comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), kind to his wife. 
 divina bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 23), the divine goodness 
 to^vards men. 
 
 The following may take also the possessive genitive : 
 aequalis, affinis, amicus, cognatus, communis, consanguin- 
 eus, dispar, familiaris, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, 
 proprius, superstes. 
 
 REMARK. After similis, like, with early writers, the genitive 
 is more usual ; Cicero uses the genitive of persons, and the genitive 
 or dative of things. 
 
 d* The following take the accusative: propior, proximus 
 (sometimes), propius, proximo (more commonly) as if preposi- 
 tions, like prope. 
 
 e* Verbal nouns take (rarely) the dative, like the verbs from 
 which they are derived : as, 
 
 invidia consuli (Sail.), ill-will against the consul. 
 ministri sceleribus (Tac.), servants of crime. 
 obtemperatio legibus (Leg. i. 15), obedience to the laws. 
 sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. iii. 54), an answer to himself. 
 
 7. Dative of Advantage* The dative is often required 
 not by any particular word, but by the general meaning of the 
 sentence (dativus commodi et incommodi). 
 
 NOTE. In these cases there may be only one word in the sen- 
 tence ; but they are distinguished by the fact that the meaning of the 
 verb is complete without the dative, while in the preceding cases it is 
 required to complete the sense of some particular word. 
 
 ttibi aras (PI. Merc. i. i), you plough for yourself . 
 non solum nobis divites esse volumus sed liberis (Off. iii. 15), 
 it is not for ourselves alone but for our children that we 
 would be rich. 
 
 res tuas tibi babe (formula of divorce), keep your goods. 
 laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother [out of regard for 
 me; laudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive]. 
 6* 
 
130 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 7. 
 
 a. The dative of advantage is often used instead of the posses- 
 sive genitive : as, 
 
 iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 20), to block 
 the march of the Carthaginians even -with their bodies. 
 
 se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. vi. 33), he put himself in 
 sight of the sailors. 
 
 versatur mini ante oculos (id. 47), it comes before my eyes. 
 
 fe. The dative of advantage is used in relations of direction, 
 answering to the English as you go in (on the right, in the front, 
 &c.) : as, 
 
 oppidum primum Thessalise venientibus ab Epiro (B. C. iii. 
 
 80), the [first toivn of Thessaly as you come from Epirus. 
 laeva parte sinum intrantibus (Liv. xxxvi. 26), on the left as 
 
 you sail up the gulf. 
 
 The dative of advantage is used, rarely (by a Greek idiom), 
 with the participle of volo or nolo, and similar words : as, 
 
 g ut quibusque bellum invitis aut volentibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), 
 
 as they might receive the 'war reluctantly or gladly. 
 ut militibus labos volentibus esset (Jug. 100), that the soldiers 
 might assttme the task willingly. 
 
 d. Ethical Dative. The dative of the personal pronouns is 
 used to show a certain interest felt by the person referred to 
 (dativus etliicus : compare * ' I'll rhyme you so eight years to- 
 gether. 1 " As you Like it.) : as, 
 
 quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), pray -what is Celsus doing? 
 
 at tibi repente ve'nit mihi Cominius (F. ix. 2), but, look yoti, 
 
 of a sudden comes to me Cominius. 
 hem tibi talentum argenti (PI. Trin. v. i), hark ye, a talent 
 
 of silver. 
 
 quid tibi vis? 'what 'would you have ? 
 avaritia senilis quid sibi velit non intelligo (Cat. M. 18), I do 
 
 not understand 'what an old man's avarice means. 
 
 REMARK. To express FOR meaning instead of, in defence 
 of, in behalf of the ablative with pro must be used, not the 
 dative : as, 
 
 pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2), to die for one's country. 
 pro rege, lege, grege (prov.), for king, la-w, people. 
 ego ibo pro te (PI. Most.), I 'will go instead of you. 
 non pro me sed contra me (De Or. iii. 20), not for me but 
 against me. 
 
52: I.] ACCUSATIVE. 131 
 
 52. ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 The Accusative denotes that which is immediately 
 affected by the action of a verb (Direct Object). 
 
 1. General Use. The Accusative is the case of the 
 direct object of a transitive verb : as, 
 
 legationem suscepit, he undertook the embassy. 
 Caesar vicit Fompeium, Ccesar conquered Pompey. 
 
 REMARK. The Object of a transitive verb in the active voice 
 becomes its Subject in the Passive, and is put in the nomi- 
 native : as, 
 
 legatio suscipitur, the embassy is undertaken. 
 
 Pompeius a Caesare victus est, Pompey was overcome by Ccesar. 
 
 a. Many verbs which express Feeling, apparently intransitive, 
 may take an accusative in Latin : as, 
 
 fidem supplicis erubuit (Virg.), he respected [blushed at] the 
 
 faith of a suppliant. 
 
 flebat mortuos vivosque, he -wept the dead and living. 
 meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest.69), they grieved [at] 
 
 my calamity and sorrow. 
 horreo conscientiam (Fin. i. 16), I shudder at conscience. 
 
 Such verbs may accordingly be used in the passive : as, 
 
 ridetur ab omni conventu (Hor.), he is laughed [at] by the 
 whole assembly. 
 
 b. Cognate Accusative. A neuter verb often takes an ac- 
 cusative of kindred meaning (almost always modified by an adjec- 
 tive, or in some other manner) : as, 
 
 vivere earn vitam (Cic.), to live that kind of life. 
 setatem tertiam vivebat, he -was living his third age. 
 
 Similarly, in such phrases as vincere judicium, to gain one's 
 case at court, and in poetic use : as, 
 
 saltare Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. v. i), to dance the Cyclops. 
 Bacchanalia vivere (Juv. ii. 2), to live in revels. 
 
 c* Verbs of taste, smell, &c., take an accusative of the qual- 
 ity: as, 
 
 vinum redolens (Cic.), smelling of wine. 
 
 herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), the honey tastes of grass. 
 
132 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [52: I, 2. 
 
 d. Verbs of motion, and a few others, compounded with prep- 
 ositions, especially compounds of circum and trans, frequently 
 become transitive, and take the accusative : as, 
 
 mortem obire, to die. 
 
 consulatum ineunt (Livy iii. 6), they assume the consulship. 
 
 neminem conveni (Fam. ix. 14), I met no one. 
 
 tectum subire, to enter [go under] a place of shelter. 
 
 colloquium baud abnuit (Livy xxx. 29), he did not refuse the 
 interview. 
 
 si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island. 
 
 cives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 8), the citizens ivho 
 throng about the senate. 
 
 e* Construct! Praegnans. The accusative is used in certain 
 phrases constructively, the real object of the verb being something 
 understood: as, 
 
 coire societatem, to [go J together and] form an alliance. 
 
 ferire foedus, to strike a treaty [i.e. to sanction by striking 
 down the victim]. 
 
 mare navigare, to sail the sea [i.e. to sail a ship upon the sea]. 
 
 /. The accusative is used after the Impersonals decet, it be- 
 comes ; delectat, juvat, it delights ; oportet, it behooves ; fallit, 
 it deceives ; fugit, praeterit, it escapes: as, 
 
 te non praeteriit (Fam. i. 8), it has not escaped your notice. 
 (For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see 50, 4, c.) 
 2. Two Accusatives. Several classes of verbs, besides 
 the direct object, take another accusative, either in apposition 
 or as a secondary object. 
 
 a. The accusative is used in apposition after verbs of naming, 
 choosing, &c. (See 46.) 
 
 6. A second accusative is sometimes used after transitive verbs 
 compounded with prepositions : as, 
 
 Hiberum copias trajecit (Liv. xxi. 23), he threw his forces 
 
 across the Ebro. 
 But with these verbs the preposition is oftener repeated. 
 
 c* Verbs of asking and teaching govern two accusatives, either 
 of which may be regarded as the direct object of the action : as, 
 hoc vos doceo (Cic.), I teach you this. 
 hoc te vehementer rogo (id.), this I urgently beg of you. 
 
 REMARK. The accusative of the thing may remain, in this 
 construction, after a passive : as, rogatus sententiam ; while the 
 person will be, after verbs of asking, in the ablative with the prep- 
 osition ab or ex: as, hoc a te rogatur. The preposition is 
 
52:3,4-] ACCUSATIVE. 133 
 
 always used, to denote the person after peto, postulo (ab), 
 quaero (ex or de) : as, 
 
 pacem ab Romanis petere (Caes.), to beg peace of the Romans. 
 d. The transitive celo, conceal, and the usually neuter lateo, 
 lie hid, take the accusative of the person : as, 
 
 hoc me celavit, he hid this from me. f '' &*'A* ^"~ ^ 
 latet plerosque (Plin.), it ts hid from most. 
 
 3. Adverbial Accusative. The accusative is used ad- 
 verbially, or for specification. This is found 
 
 a. With many verbs usually intransitive, which take a neuter 
 pronoun or adjective in the accusative: as, 
 quid moror, 'why do I delay f 
 
 pauca milites hortatus (Sail.), having briefly exhorted the men. 
 dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22), sweetly speaking. 
 acerba tuens (yEn. ix. 793), looking cruelly. 
 torvum clamat (id. vii. 599), he cries harshly. 
 idem gloriari, to boast the same thing. 
 NOTE. Many of. these are cognate accusative. 
 b* In a few adverbial phrases, such as id temporis, at that 
 time ; meam vicem, on my part ; quod si, but (as to which) if. 
 
 c* In the so-called synecdochical or Greek accusative, used by 
 the poets to denote the part affected : as, 
 
 caput nectentur (Virg.), their head shall be bound [they shall 
 be bound about the head]. 
 
 The part is strictly in apposition with the whole, and remains (as 
 above) after the passive. 
 
 REMARK. The accusative after passive verbs used reflexively 
 is sometimes wrongly referred to this construction : as, 
 
 inutile ferrum cingitur (Virg.), he girds on the useless steel. 
 
 4. Special Uses. Peculiar uses are the following : 
 
 The accusative is used in Exclamations : as, 
 O fortunatam rempublicam (Cic.)j O fortunate republic I 
 O me mi serum ! Ah -wretched me ! 
 
 5. The subject of the Infinitive Mood is in the accusative. 
 This is especially frequent after verbs of knowing, thinking, and 
 telling (verba sentiendi et declarandi, 67, i). In all cases, 
 the accusative is strictly the Object of the leading verb. 
 
 c* Time how long, and Distance how far, are in the accusative. 
 (See 55.) 
 
 For the Accusative with Prepositions, see 56. 
 
134 CONSTRUCTION OP CASES. [53; 54. 
 
 53. VOCATIVE. 
 
 The Vocative is the form of direct Address : as, 
 
 Tiberine pater, te sancte precor (Liv. ii. 103) , father Tiber ! 
 thee, holy one, I pray. 
 
 NOTE. The Vocative can hardly be called a case, as it properly 
 has no case termination, and forms no part of the sentence. 
 
 a* Sometimes the nominative of a noun is used instead of the 
 vocative, in apposition with the subject of the Imperative : as, 
 audi tu, populus Albanus (id. i'. 24), hear, thou people of Alba. 
 
 &. Sometimes the vocative of an adjective is used instead of the 
 nominative, where the verb is of the second person : as, 
 
 censorem trabeate salutas (Pers.)', robed you salute the censor. 
 So in the phrase, 
 
 macte [= magne, root MAG] virtute esto (Hor.), be enlarged 
 in manliness [bravo, well done]. 
 
 54. ABLATIVE. 
 
 The Ablative is used to denote the relations ex- 
 pressed in English by the prepositions from, in, 
 at, with, by. 
 
 NOTE. The Ablative form contains three distinct cases, the 
 ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM ; the locative, IN ; and 
 the instrumental, WITH or BY. This confusion has arisen partly 
 from phonetic decay, by which the cases have become identical in 
 form, and partly from the development by which they have ap- 
 proached one another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the like 
 forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in e of the fifth 
 declension, and the loss of the original d in the ablative ; and, for the 
 second, the phrases a parte dextra, ON the right. ; quam ob causam, 
 FROM which cause; ad famam, AT (in consequence of) the report. 
 
 The relative of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and 
 comparison ; that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance ; that of WITH or 
 BY, accompaniment, instrunient, means, manner, quality, and price. It is 
 probable that, originally, the idea of accompaniment had a separate case, 
 which became confounded with the instrumental before the Latin was 
 separated from the kindred tongues. 
 
 
54: I.] ABLATIVE. 135 
 
 1. Ablative of Separation* Verbs meaning to remove, 
 set free, be absent) deprive, and want, are followed by the 
 ablative : as, 
 
 levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 19), ive 
 
 are relieved from superstition^ freed from fear of death. 
 oculis se privavit (id. v. 29), he deprived himself of eyes. 
 consilio et auctoritate orbari (Cat. M. 6), to be bereft of counsel 
 
 and authority. 
 
 legibus solutus, relieved from the obligation oflarvs. 
 ea philosophia quse spoliat nos judicio, privat approbatione, 
 
 omnibus orbat sensibus (Acad. ii. 19), that philosophy 'which 
 
 despoils us of judgment ', deprives of approval, bereaves of 
 
 every sense. 
 omni Gallia interdicit Romanos (B. G. i. 46), he [Ariovistus] 
 
 bars the Romans from the 'whole of Gaul. 
 ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Vail. Pat. ii. 45), he is debarred 
 
 the use oj fire and 'water. 
 [cives] calamitate prohibere (Manil. 7), to keep the citizens 
 
 from ruin. 
 
 carere febri (Fam. xvi. 16), to be free from fever. 
 voluptatibus carere (Cat. M. 3), to lack enjoyments. 
 non egeo medicina (Lsel. 3), I want no physic. 
 magno me metu liberabis (Cat. i. 5), you will relieve me of 
 
 great fear. 
 Ephorus calcaribus eget (Quint.), Ephorus needs the spur. 
 
 a. Compounds of a, ab, de, ex, take the ablative when used 
 figuratively ; but in their literal meaning, implying motion, they 
 usually follow the rules of place from which (see 55, 3) : as, 
 
 conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt. 
 
 exsolvere se occupationibus (Fam. vii. i), to get clear of occu- 
 pation. 
 
 prius quam ea cura decederet patribus (Liv. ix. 29), before that 
 anxiety left the fathers. 
 
 desine communibus locis (Ac. ii. 25), quit commonplaces. 
 
 abire magistratu, to leave the office. 
 
 abscedere incepto, to relinquish the undertaking. 
 
 abstinere injuria, to refrain from 'wrong: 
 
 exire aere alieno, to get out of debt. 
 
 b. More rarely, the ablative is used after verbs without a prep- 
 osition to denote the place from which : as, 
 
 cessisset patria (Mil. 25), he -would have left his country. 
 loco movere (Liv. i. 35), to move from its place. 
 patria pellere, to drive out of the country. 
 Gallia arcere (Phil. v. 13), to keep out of Gaul. 
 manu mittere, to emancipate [let go from the hand]. 
 
136 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: I, 2. 
 
 c. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the 
 ablative : as, 
 
 liber cura et angore (Fin. i. 15), free from care and anguish. 
 
 vacuos curis (ib. ii. 14), void of care. 
 
 urbs nuda prsesidio (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence. 
 
 immunis militia (Liv. i. 43), free of military service. 
 
 plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 3), the people deprived of tribunes. 
 
 d. Opus and usus signifying need (with esse) are followed 
 by the ablative (often by the ablative of the perfect participle, with 
 or without a noun) : as, 
 
 magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 2), there is need of magistrates. 
 curatore usus est (id. 4, chiefly ante-classical), there is need 
 
 of a manager. 
 
 properato opus esset (Mil. 19), there were need of haste. 
 ut opu'st facto (Ter. Heaut.), as there is need to do. 
 
 REMARK. The nominative is often used with opus in the 
 predicate : as, 
 
 multi opus sunt boves (Varro R. R. i. 18), there is need of many 
 
 cattle. 
 dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6), we need a chief and 
 
 adviser. 
 
 e. Egeo and indigeo are often followed by the genitive : as, 
 
 ne quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. n), lest any require aid. 
 
 qua? ad consolandum majoris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis 
 virtutis indigent (Fam. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for comfort 
 need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage. 
 
 REMARK. With all words of separation and want, the poets 
 frequently, by a Greek idiom, use the genitive (see 50, 3, c) : as, 
 
 desine mollium tandem querelarum (Hor. Od. ii. 9), cease at 
 
 length from weak complaints. 
 
 abstineto irarum (id. iii. 27), abstain from wrath. 
 operum solutis (id. 17), free from toils. 
 
 2. Ablative of Source* The ablative is used to denote 
 the source from which anything is derived, or the material 
 of which it consists. 
 
 a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the > 
 ablative. Such participles are natus, satus, editus, genitusf 
 ortus : as, 
 
 Jove natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 22), son of Jupiter and Maia. 
 ortus equestri loco (Leg. Agr. i. 9), born of equestrian rank. 
 edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. i), descendant of kings. 
 quo sanguine cretus (^En. ii. 74), born of what blood. 
 
54: 2, 3-] ABLATIVE. 137 
 
 REMARK. A preposition (ab, de, ex) is usually expressed 
 with the name of the mother, and with that of distant ancestors. 
 
 b. Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative : as, 
 
 desideravit C. Felginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis 
 (B. C. iii. 71), he lost C. F. of Placentia, A. G. of Puteoli. 
 
 C. The ablative is used with constare and similar verbs, to 
 denote material (but with other verbs a preposition is generally 
 used, except by the poets) : as, 
 
 animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 8), ive consist of soul and 
 body. 
 
 NOTE. The ablative with consistere and contineri is locative 
 (see below, 10). 
 
 d. The ablative of material is used with facere, fieri, and 
 similar words: as, 
 
 quid hoc homine facias (Verr. ii. 16), What are you going to 
 
 do tvitk this man ? 
 quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), ivhat -will become of my 
 
 dear Tullia ? 
 quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 64), what -will happen to you ? 
 
 3. Ablative of Cause. The ablative (with or without a 
 preposition) is used to express the cause. 
 
 NOTE. The cause, in the Ablative, is considered as source , as is 
 shown by the use of ab, de, ex ; while with ad, ob, the idea of cause 
 arises from nearness. But occasionally it is difficult to distinguish be- 
 tween cause and means (which is instrumental) or circumstance (either 
 locative or instrumental). 
 
 nimio gaudio paene desipiebam (Fam. i. 13), I -was almost a 
 
 fool -with excess of joy. 
 
 negligentia plectimur (Lsel. 22), -we are chastised for negligence. 
 csecus avaritia (Liv. v. 51), blind -with avarice. 
 gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fam. i. 13), tlie 
 
 pilofs skill is praised as service not as skill. 
 
 a. The ablative is used with the adjectives dignus, indignus, 
 and with the verbs dignor, laboro (also with ex), exsilio, 
 exsulto, triumpho, lacrimo, ardeo. 
 
 vir patre, avo, majoribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 10), a man 
 most /worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors. 
 
 doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you 
 suffer with other ills. 
 
 ex aere alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt. 
 
 exsultare lEetiti& ac triumphare gaudio coepit (Clu. 5), she 
 began to exult in gladness, and triumph in joy. 
 
138 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 3, 4> 5- 
 
 & The motive which influences the mind of the person acting 
 is expressed by the ablative alone ; the object exciting the emotion 
 often by ob or propter with the accusative : as, 
 
 non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for 
 booty or through lust of plunder. 
 
 c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used 
 with a genitive preceding, or with a possessive in agreement : as, 
 
 ea causa, on account of this] me& causa, for my sake. 
 
 et ipsorum et reipublicae causa (Manil. 2), for their own sake 
 
 and the republic's. 
 sui purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves. 
 
 With possessives the use of gratia in this sense is rare. 
 
 .4. Ablative of Agent* The voluntary agent after a pas- 
 sive verb is put in the ablative with ab (see 56, 4) : as, 
 
 laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. Sat. i. 2), he is praised 
 by these, blamed by those. 
 
 ab animo tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc.i. 22), what- 
 ever is done by your soul is done by yourself. 
 
 a. This construction is sometimes used after neuter verbs hav- 
 ing a passive sense : as, 
 
 perire ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy. 
 
 6. The agent, considered as instrument or means, is expressed 
 by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or posses- 
 sive : as, 
 
 per Antiochum (Liv.), by means of Antiochus. 
 mea opera (Cic.), by my means. 
 
 So per vim, as well as vi (B. G. i. 14), by force. 
 
 5. Ablative of Comparison. The Comparative degree 
 is followed by the ablative (signifying THAN) : as, 
 
 quis me beatior (Tusc. i. 4), 'who more blest than If 
 
 quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 2), -what more burdened 
 
 than uue two f 
 
 NOTE. Here the object of comparison is the starting-point from 
 which we reckon, as itself possessing the quality in some degree. That 
 this is the true explanation is shown by the ablative in Sanskrit, and 
 the genitive in Greek. 
 
 a. Quam with the same case as the adjective may also be used, 
 and must regularly be used when the adjective is not either nomi- 
 native or accusative. But the poets sometimes use the ablative 
 even then : as, 
 
54: 5, 6.] ABLATIVE. 139 
 
 pane egeo jam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. i. 10), I -want 
 bread better than honey-cakes. 
 
 REMARK. Quam is never used in this construction with rela- 
 tive pronouns having a definite antecedent. 
 
 & Particularly the idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito, 
 dicto, aequo, credibili, and justo, are used instead of a clause : as, 
 
 celerius opinione (Fam. iv. 23), faster than one would think. 
 amnis solito citatior (Liv. xxii. 19), a stream swifter than its 
 wont. 
 
 Plus, minus, amplius, longius, are often used with words 
 of measure or numbe'r without affecting their case (being in a kind 
 of apposition) : as, * *"' '^ ^^U^ 
 
 plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than 700 were taken. 
 
 plus tertia parte interfecta (Cses.), more than a third part being 
 slain. 
 
 spatium non amplius sexcentorum pedum (id.), a space of not 
 more than 600 feet. 
 
 NOTE. Alius is used by the poets with the ablative, perhaps in 
 imitation of the Greek ; but the construction is found also in Sanskrit, 
 and is probably original : as, alium sapienti bonoque (Hor. Ep. i. 16). 
 Under comparatives belong the adverbs antea, antidea, postilla, 
 postea, praeterea, earlier than this, &c. (see 56, 3). 
 
 [For Ablative of Difference, see below, 6, e.~\ 
 
 6. Ablative of Means. The ablative is used to denote 
 accompaniment, means, or instrument : as, 
 
 vultu Milonis perterritus (Mil. 15), scared by the face of Milo. 
 animum appellat novo nomine (Tusc. i. 10), he calls the mind 
 
 by a new name. 
 probabilia conjectura sequens (id. 9), following- probabilities 
 
 by conjecture. 
 
 excultus doctrina (id. 2), thoroughly trained in learning. 
 fidibus canere (id.), to sing to the lyre. 
 Fauno immolare agn& (Hor. Od. i. 4), to sacrifice to Faunus 
 
 with a ewe-lamb. 
 pol pudere quam pigere przestat totidem literis (Plant. Trin. 
 
 345), by Pollux better shame than blame, although the letters 
 
 count the same [lit. with as many letters]. 
 
 a. The ablative of accompaniment regularly takes cum (except 
 sometimes in military phrases, and a few isolated expressions, 
 especially in the early writers) : as, 
 
 cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgressi (B. G. ii. 
 
 19), having crossed the river with the slingers and archers. 
 subsequebatur omnibus copiis (ib.), ne followed close with all 
 his forces. [out. 
 
 \ hoc prsesidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 34), with this convoy he set 
 
140 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 6. 
 
 REMARK. Misceo and jungo, with their compounds, may 
 take the ablative of accompaniment, without cum, or sometimes 
 the dative. 
 
 &. Words of contention, require cum (but often take the dative 
 in poetry) : as, 
 
 armis cum hoste certare (Cic.), to fight -with the enemy in arms. 
 est rnihi tecum certamen (id.), I have a controversy with you. 
 solus tibicertat Amyntas (Eel. v.},Amyntas alone vies with you. 
 
 c. The ablative of means is used with words of filling, abound- 
 ing, and the like : as, 
 
 Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Univ. 3), God has filled 
 
 the world ^vith all good things. 
 
 dialecticis imbutus (Tusc. i. 7), tinctured with logic. 
 circumfusi caligine (id. 19), overspread with darkness. 
 opimus prseda (Verr. i. 50), rich with spoil. 
 vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sext. 10), a life full and 
 
 crowded with delights. 
 Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. Sat. i. 5), Fortim Appii 
 
 crammed with bargemen. 
 
 REMARK. These verbs and adjectives take the genitive in the 
 poets by a Greek idiom : as, 
 
 terra scatet ferarum (Lucr. v. 41), the land abounds in wild 
 
 creatures. 
 explere ultricis flammse (^En. ii. 586), fill with avenging flame. 
 
 Compleo, impleo, and plenus, often take the genitive in prose. 
 
 d* The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with 
 several of their compounds, govern the ablative : as, 
 
 utar vestra benignitate (Cic.), / will avail myself of your 
 
 kindness. 
 Numidae plerumque lacte et ferin&carne vescebantur (Jug. 88), 
 
 the Numidiansfed mostly on milk and game. 
 
 Potior also takes the genitive, as always in the phrase potiri 
 rerum, to get the power. In early Latin, the accusative is 
 sometimes found with these verbs. 
 
 e. The ablative is used with comparatives and words implying 
 comparison, to denote the degree of difference : as, 
 
 duobus milibus plures, more numerous by 2000. 
 
 quinque milibus passuum distat (Liv.), it is five miles distant. 
 
 REMARKS. This use is especially frequent with the ablatives 
 eo . . . quo ; quanto . . . tanto (see 22, c) : as, 
 
 quo minus cupiditatis eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the 
 less greed the more weight. 
 
54: 7, 8.] ABLATIVE. 141 
 
 *7. Ablative of Quality. The ablative is used, with an 
 adjective or limiting genitive, to denote manner and quality: as, 
 
 animo meliore, of better mind. 
 more hominum, after the manner of men. 
 
 non quaere quanta memoria fuisse dicatur (Tusc. i. 24), I do 
 not ask how great a memory he is said to have had. 
 
 O The ablative of description (with adjectives) is always used 
 to denote physical characteristics (other qualities may be in the 
 genitive) : as, 
 
 vultu sereno, of calm face. 
 
 capillo sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hanging locks. 
 
 b* The ablative of manner more commonly takes cum, unless it 
 has a modifying adjective : as, 
 
 minus cum cura (Plaut.), less carefully. 
 
 hoc onus feram studio et industria (Rose. Am. 4), I 'will bear 
 this burden with pains and diligence. 
 
 But words of manner, modo, ratione, via, &c. with such ex- 
 pressions as silentio, in silence, injuria, wrongfully hardly ever 
 have cum. 
 
 8. Ablative of Price. The price of a thing (or that 
 which is given in exchange) is put in the ablative : as, 
 
 agrum vendidit sestertium sex milibus, he sold the field for 
 
 6000 sesterces. 
 exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q^C. iii. 8), he exchanged his 
 
 native land for exile. 
 
 a* Certain genitives of Quantity are used to denote indefinite 
 value. Such genitives are magiii, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris, 
 minoris: as, 
 
 est mihi tanti (Cat. ii- 7), // is worth my -while. 
 mea magni interest, it is of great consequence to me. 
 
 REMARK. With verbs of buying and selling, the ablative of 
 price (magno, &c.) must be used, except the following genitives : 
 tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris. 
 
 & The genitive of certain nouns is used in the same way : as, 
 non flocci faciunt (PI. Trin.), they care not a straw. 
 
 The genitives so used are nihili, nothing ; assis, a farthing ; 
 flocci, a lock of wool, and a few others (see 50, i, i). 
 
 [For the Ablative of Penalty, see 50, 4, b, Rem.] 
 
142 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 9, Ip. 
 
 9. Ablative of Specification. The ablative denotes 
 that in respect to which anything is said to be or be done, or 
 in accordance with which anything happens : as, 
 
 virtute praecedunt (B. G. i. i), they excel in courage. 
 
 incluta bello mcenia (^En. ii. 24), ^v alls famous in -war. 
 
 claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages.), lame of one foot. 
 
 lingua hsesitantes, voce absoni (DeOr. i.), hesitating in speech, 
 harsh in voice. 
 
 tanta caritas patriae est, ut earn non sensu nostro sed salute 
 ipsius metiamur (Tusc. i. 37), such is our love of country, that 
 we measure it not by our own feeling^ but by her oivn welfare. 
 
 10. Locative Ablative. The ablative of the- place 
 where is retained in many figurative expressions : as, 
 
 jure peritus, skilled in law [compare Sanskrit usages]. 
 pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 40), we are in suspense of mind. 
 socius periculis vobiscum adero (Jug. 85), I -will be present 
 
 with you a companion in dangers. 
 premit alto corde dolorem (JEn. i. 209), he keeps down the 
 
 pain deep in his heart. 
 
 conferta. legione (B. G. iv. 33), as they were in close order. 
 pedibus prceliantur (id. 34), they jight on foot. 
 quibus rebus (id. 35), under these circumstances. 
 
 d* The verbs acquiesce, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, 
 nitor, sto, maneo, fido (confido), consisto, contiiieor, with 
 the verbals fretus, contentus, laetus, are followed by the 
 ablative : as, 
 
 spe niti (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope. 
 
 prudentia fidens (Off. i. 33), trusting in prudence. 
 
 Isetari bonis rebus (Lsel. 13), to rejoice in good things. 
 
 REMARK. The above verbs also take the preposition in. 
 
 &. Ablative Absolute. A noun or pronoun, with a parti- 
 ciple, is put in the ablative, to define the time or circumstances of 
 an action (compare 72). An adjective, or another noun, may 
 take the place of the participle. 
 
 vocatis ad se undique mercatoribus (B. G. iv. 20), having called 
 
 to him the traders from all quarters. 
 exigud parte aestatis reliqua (id.), when but a small part of the 
 
 summer was left. 
 M. Messal& et M. Pisone consulibus (id. i. 2), in the consulship 
 
 of Messala and Piso. 
 
 NOTE. In this use the noun is equivalent to the Subject, and the 
 participle to the Predicate, of a subordinate clause ; and so they should 
 
54: 10 ; 55.] TIME AND PLACE. 143 
 
 generally be translated. But, as the copula esse has no participle in 
 Latin, a noun or adjective is often found alone as predicate, while the 
 participle is found, in this construction, in Sanskrit and Greek. The 
 noun originally denotes circumstance, considered as place or time (loca- 
 tive) ; then, being modified by a participle, it becomes fused with it 
 into a single idea, equivalent to that contained in a subordinate clause 
 (compare ab urbe coiidita, lit, from the city built). 
 
 Sometimes a participle or adjective (under the construction 
 of the ablative absolute) is put in agreement with a phrase or 
 clause, or is used adverbially : as, 
 
 incerto quid peterent, since it was uncertain what they sought. 
 auspicate (Tac. H. i. 84), after taking the auspices [the auspices 
 
 having been taken], 
 consulto et cogitato (Off i. 8), on purpose and with reflection 
 
 [the matter having been deliberated and thought on], 
 sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky. 
 
 d* The ablative is often used to denote the place where, of*the 
 time when (see 55, i ; 3,./). 
 
 [For the government of the Ablative by Prepositions, see 56.] 
 
 55. TIME AND PLACE. 
 
 1. Time. Time when (or within which) is put in the 
 Ablative ; time how long the Accusative : as, 
 
 constituta die, on the set day. 
 
 quota bora ? at -what o'clock ? 
 
 tribus proxumis annis (Jug. n), within the last three years. 
 
 dies continues triginta, for a month together. 
 
 paucis post diebus (or paucos post dies), after a few days. 
 
 [Here diebus is the ablative of difference ( 54, 6, e), and 
 
 post an adverb ( 56, 2, d}.~\ 
 
 NOTE. The ablative of time is locative ; the accusative is the same 
 as that of extent of space (see below), heri vespari). 
 
 (t The use of a preposition gives greater precision and clear- 
 ness : as, 
 
 in diebus proximis decem (Sail.), ^vithin the next ten days. 
 ' ludi per decem dies (Cat. iii. 8), games lasting ten days. 
 
 b. The ablative is rarely used to express duration of time : as, 
 
 milites quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the 
 men had sustained the fight five hours. [This use is locative.] 
 
144 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [55: 2, 3. 
 
 2. Space. Extent of space is put in the Accusative : as, 
 
 fossas quindecim pedes latas (B. G. vii. 72), trenches 13 feet 
 broad. 
 
 NOTE. This accusative is the object through or over which the 
 action takes place, and is kindred with the accusative of the end of 
 motion . 
 
 a. Measure is often expressed as a quality by the Genitive 
 ( 50, i, h) : as, 
 
 vallo peduni duodecim (B. G. ii. 30), in a rampart of 12 feet 
 [in height]. 
 
 b. Distance is put in the Accusative (as extent of space), or 
 Ablative (as degree of difference) : as, 
 
 quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant Jive days' 
 
 march. 
 triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G.vi-35), thirty 
 
 miles below that place- 
 tanto spatio secuti (B. G. iv. 35), having followed over so much 
 
 ground. 
 
 3. Place. To express relations of Place, prepositions 
 are necessary, except with the names of Towns and small 
 Islands ; except also with domus, rus, and a tew other words 
 in special relations. 
 
 NOTE. Originally these relations were expressed with all words 
 by the cases alone, the Accusative denoting the end of motion as in 
 a certain sense the object of the action ; and the Ablative (in its proper 
 meaning of separation) denoting the place from which. For the place 
 where there was a special case, the Locative, the form of which was 
 partially retained and partially merged in the Ablative (see Note, 
 p. 134). The Prepositions (originally Adverbs) were added to define 
 more exactly the direction of the motion, and by long usage at length 
 became necessary, except in the cases given above. 
 
 ct* The name of the place from which is in the Ablative : as, 
 
 Rom profectus, having set out from Rome. 
 rure re versus, having returned from the country. 
 
 b. The name of the place to which is in the Accusative : as, 
 
 Rom am red i it, he returned to Rome. 
 rus ibo, I shall go into the country. 
 
 REMARK. The old construction is retained in the phrases 
 exsequias ire, to attend a funeral:! infitias ire, to make denial; 
 pessum ire, to go to ruin ; pessum dare, to undo ; venum dare 
 (vendere), to set to sale ; venum ire, to be set to sale; foras, out 
 of doors ; and the Supine in urn (see 74, i). 
 
55 : 3, 4-] TIME AND PLACE. 145 
 
 c. The name of the place where takes the Locative form, which 
 in the first and second declensions singular is the same as the 
 genitive ; in the plural, and in the third declension, the same as the 
 dative: as, 
 
 Romae, at Rome; Corinthi, at Corinth ; Lanuvi, at Lanuvium ; 
 Karthagini, at Carthage; Athenis, at Athens; Curibus, 
 at Cures. 
 
 REMARK. In names of the third declension the ablative is 
 often found, especially where the metre requires it in poetry : as, 
 
 Tibure vel Gabiis (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), at Tibur or Galii. 
 
 d. The words domi (rarely domui) , at home ; belli, militiae 
 (in contrast to domi) , abroad in military service ; humi, on the 
 ground; ruri, in the country ; foris, out-of-doors; terra marique, 
 by land and sea, are used like names of towns, without a prep- 
 osition; alsoheri, vesperi, infelici arbori (Liv.). 
 
 e. A possessive, or alienus, may be used with domus in this 
 construction ; but when it is modified in any other way, a preposi- 
 tion is generally used : as, 
 
 domi suse (Mil. 7), at his own house. 
 
 in M. Laecae domum (Cat. i. 4), to Lcecd's house. 
 
 f. The ablative is used without a preposition to denote the 
 place where, in many general words as loco, parte regu- 
 larly; frequently with nouns when qualified by adjectives (reg- 
 ularly where totus is used) ; and in poetry in any case: as, 
 
 quibus loco positis (De Or. iii. 38), when these aye put in their 
 
 places. 
 qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. n), on the side where they were 
 
 beaten. 
 
 se oppido tenet (id.), keeps himself within the town. 
 media urbe (Liv. i. 33), in the midst of the city. 
 tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 23), throughout Sicily. 
 litore curvo (^En. iii. 16), on the bending shore. 
 
 REMARK. To denote the neighborhood of a place (to, from, 
 in the neighborhood), prepositions must be used. 
 
 4. The way by which is put in the Ablative (of instru- 
 ment) : as, 
 
 via breviore equites praemisi (Fam. x. 9), / sent forward f he 
 cavalry by a shorter road. 
 
 mari trajecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way of the 
 
146 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [56: I. 
 
 56. USB OP PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1. Prepositions govern either the Accusative or Ablative. 
 
 a. The following govern the Accusative : ad, adversus, ad- 
 versum, ante, apud, circa, or circum, circiter, cis, citra, con- 
 tra, erga, extra, infra, inter, iiitra, juxta, ob, penes, per, 
 pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, 
 trans, ultra, versus. 
 
 b. The following govern the Ablative : a, ab, abs, absque, 
 coram, cum, de, e, ex, prae, pro, sine, tenus. 
 
 c In and sub take the Accusative when they denote motion ; 
 when rest, the Ablative : as; 
 
 in contionem venit (Off. iii. n), he came into the meeting. 
 dixit in contione (ib.), he said in the meeting. 
 sub jugum mittere (Cses.), to send under the yoke. 
 sub mbnte consedit (id.), he halted below the hill. 
 
 REMARK. The verbs of placing, such as pono and its com- 
 pounds (except impono), loco, statuo, &c., though implying 
 motion, take in Latin the construction of the place in which : as, 
 
 qui in sede ac domo collocavit (Parad. iii. 2), who put one 
 into his place and home. 
 
 d. When it means concerning, super takes the Ablative ; other- 
 wise the Accusative (unless in poetry) : as, 
 
 hac super re (Cic.), concerning this thing. 
 super culmina tecti (Virg.), above the house-top. 
 
 e. After subter, the Accusative is used, except sometimes in 
 poetry : as, 
 
 subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle. 
 subter litore (Catull.), below the shore, 
 
 f. In Dates, the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, 
 or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposi- 
 tion ; and the phrase itself may be governed by a preposition : as, 
 
 is dies erat a.d. quintum kalendas AprilTs (B. G. i. 6), that day 
 -was the $th before the calends of April [March 28]. 
 
 in a.d. v. kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 3), to the $th day before the calends 
 of November [Oct. 28]. 
 
 xv. kal. SextilTs, the i$th day before the calends of August 
 (July 18). [Full form, quinto die ante.'} 
 
 g. Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Abla- 
 tive : as, 
 
 Tauro tenus (Mil. 13), as far as Taurus. 
 capulo tenus (JEn. v. 55), up to the hilt. 
 
56: I, 2, 3, 4.] PREPOSITIONS. 147 
 
 REMARK. Terms is found especially with the feminine of the 
 adjective pronouns, in an adverbial sense : as, 
 
 hactenus, hitherto ; quatenus, so far as, &c. 
 Sometimes it takes the Genitive : as, 
 
 Corcyrse tenus (Liv. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra. 
 
 2. Many words may be construed either as Prepositions 
 or as Adverbs : thus 
 
 a. The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, usque 
 also (less frequently) the adjectives propior aod proximus 
 may be followed by the Accusative : as, 
 
 pridie Nonas Junias (Cic.), the day before the Nones of June 
 
 (June 4). 
 postridie ludos (id.), the day after the games. 
 
 b. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may take the Abla- 
 tive : as, 
 
 palam populo (Liv.), in the presence of the people. 
 
 C. The adverb clam may take either case (very rare) : as, 
 
 clam matrem' suam (Plaut), unbeknown to the mother. 
 
 clam mini (id.), 1 in secret from me. 
 
 clam vobis (Caes.), without your knowledge. 
 
 d. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs. 
 This is especially the case with ante and post, in relations of 
 time ; adversus, contra (on the other hand) , circiter, prope, and, 
 in general, those ending in a. Clam and versus are often ex- 
 cluded from the list of Prepositions. 
 
 [For the use of prepositions in Composition, see 42, 3.] 
 
 3. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply comparison 
 are followed, like comparatives, by quam, several words, 
 or even clauses, sometimes coming between : as, 
 
 neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), 
 nor did he let him go until he gave a pledge. 
 
 Such words are ante, prius, post, pridie, postridie. 
 
 4. The ablative, with a or ab, is regularly used after pas- 
 sive verbs to denote the Agent, if a person, or if spoken of as 
 a person ( 54, 4) : as, 
 
 jussus a patre, bidden by his father. 
 
148 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: I, 2. 
 
 REMARK. The ablative of the agent (which requires the prep- 
 osition) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of 
 instrument, which stands by itself: as, 
 
 occisus gladio, slain by a sword ; but, 
 occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy. 
 
 5. The following prepositions sometimes follow their noun : 
 ad, citra, circa, contra, inter, penes, propter, ultra, tenus ; 
 e, de, juxta. 
 
 [For the so-called Dative of the Agent, with the Gerundive, see 
 51, 4, .] . 
 
 III. Syntax of the Verb. 
 
 57. USE OF MOODS. 
 
 (See 24.) 
 
 The MOODS of a Latin Verb are the Indicative, 
 Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. 
 
 NOTE. The Infinitive is not strictly a mood, being only the 
 oblique case of a noun ; but it is most conveniently treated along with 
 the moods. 
 
 1. Indicative. The Indicative is the mood of direct 
 assertions or questions ; and is used when no special construc- 
 tion requires one of the others. 
 
 2, Subjunctive. The Subjunctive is used in special con- 
 structions, both in dependent and independent clauses, viz.: 
 
 a. Independent Clauses. ! In independent clauses, the 
 subjunctive is used to denote an Exhortation or Command (Jior- 
 tatory subjunctive) ; a Wish (optative subjunctive) ; a Concession 
 (concessive subjunctive) ; or a Doubtful Q.uestion (dubitative 
 subjunctive). 
 
 2. It is also used to denote the conclusion of a Conditional 
 sentence (apodosis), which is, grammatically, an independent 
 clause, though logically depending on a condition expressed or 
 implied (see 59, 60). 
 
 6. Dependent Clauses. In dependent clauses, the subjunc- 
 tive is used to denote a Purpose ( 64), or a Result ( 65). It 
 
 x 
 
57:2,3-] USE OF MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 149 
 
 is used, idiomatically, in Temporal Clauses ( 62), in Indirect 
 Discourse ( 67), in Indirect Questions (id.), and in Intermediate 
 Clauses ( 66). 
 
 [For Subjunctive after Particles of Comparison, see 61.] 
 [For the so-called Subjunctive of Cause, see 63.] 
 
 NOTE. The Present Subjunctive contains two distinct forms, 
 the Subjunctive and Optative of the " Indo-European" tongue. Both 
 these forms had originally a future meaning ; and from these future 
 meanings all the uses of this mood in Latin are developed. The 
 subjunctive proper was originally a Present, denoting continued action, 
 which became Future in sense (compare conative present and present 
 for future, 58, 2, b) ; and afterwards, in many uses, Imperative (com- 
 pare future for imperative). The optative contains, in composition, a 
 past tense of the root i (whence eo, elui, go) ; so that it had Sifuturum 
 in prceterito meaning, which developed into a conditional future, and into 
 an expressive of wish and command', and, in Latin, lost its connection 
 with past time. 
 
 The other tenses of the Subjunctive are compounds formed (in 
 Latin alone) to remedy the confusion of optative and subjunctive. 
 Tiie Subjunctive has, therefore, the uses of both the optative and 
 subjunctive of the cognate languages. 
 
 3. Hortatory Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used 
 in the Present less commonly in the Perfect to express 
 a command or exhortation : as, 
 
 hos latrones intern* ciamus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these 
 
 robbers. 
 
 aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 41), let him quaff or quit. 
 caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 34), 
 
 let them shun excess and cherish modesty. 
 
 Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 7), let Epicurus look to this. 
 his quoque de rebus pauca dican'tur (Off. i. 35), of this, too, let 
 
 a few words be said. 
 
 NOTE. The Perfect represents an action as complete in the future; 
 but in most cases it can hardly be distinguished from the Present. 
 
 ct. The Second Person is used only of an indefinite subject, 
 except in prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry : as, 
 
 injurias fortunse, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas 
 (Tusc. v. 41), the -wrongs of fortune, wJiich you cannot bear, 
 you will leave behind by flight. 
 
 nihil ignoveris (Mur. 31), pardon nothing. 
 
 amicus populo Romano sis (Liv. xxvi. 50), be a friend to the 
 Roman people. 
 
150 ' SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 3,4. 
 
 b. In prohibitions , the Perfect is more common than the Pres- 
 ent: as, 
 
 hoc facito : hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 61), thou shall do this : thou 
 
 shalt not do that. 
 
 nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 7), do not say that to me. 
 ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), be not terrified. 
 
 c. The hortatory subjunctive is used sometimes with modo, 
 modo ne, tantum, tantum ne, or ne alone to denote 'a pro- 
 viso : as, 
 
 valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), if only the health be good. 
 aliam condicionem tantummodo sequam (Jug. 79), another 
 
 condition, provided it 'were just. 
 modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided only he 
 
 be not of brutish stock. 
 tantummodo Gnaeus noster ne Italian! relinquat (Qj.F. iii. 9), 
 
 if only Pompey 'will not forsake Italy. 
 manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria 
 
 (Cat. M. 7), old men retain their mind if they only retain their 
 
 zeal and diligence. 
 
 d. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunc- 
 tive denote an obligation in past time, the latter more clearly 
 representing the time for the action as past : as, 
 
 moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post.), he should have died you 'will 
 
 say. 
 
 ne poposcisses (Att. ii. i), you should not have asked. 
 potius diceret (Off. iii. 22), he should rather have said. 
 saltern aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 20), at least he 
 
 should have taken something from the 'weight. 
 
 4. Optative Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used to 
 denote a Wish, the Present, a wish conceived as possible ; 
 the Imperfect, an unaccomplished one in the present; the 
 Pluperfect, one unaccomplished in the past : as, 
 
 ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may I live [as true as I live]. 
 
 ne vivam si scio (id. iv. 16), I 'wish I may not live if I know. 
 
 di te perduint (Deiot.), the gods confound thee ! 
 
 valeant, valeant, cives mei ; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 34), 
 
 farewell [he says], my fellow-citizens ; may they be secure 
 
 from harm. 
 
 a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated : as, 
 
 male di tibi faxint (Plaut. Cure. 131), may the gods do thee a 
 mischief. 
 
57 : 4> 5-] USE OP MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 151 
 
 b. The particles uti (ut), utinam, O si, often precede the 
 
 Subjunctive of wish : as, 
 
 falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), I wish I may be a false 
 prophet. 
 
 ut pereat positum rubigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. i), may the un- 
 used 'weapon perish 'with rust. 
 
 utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q^Fr. i. 3), would you had seen 
 me dead. 
 
 NOTE. In this use, the particle has no effect on the grammatical 
 construction, except that O si is probably a Protasis. 
 
 c. Velim with the present subjunctive, and vellem with the 
 imperfect or pluperfect with their compounds (strictly, con- 
 ditional sentences with the wish in a dependent clause) are often 
 used instead of a proper optative subjunctive : as, 
 
 de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit 
 (Att. iv. 16), about Mendemus I wish it had been truej about 
 the queen I hope it may be. 
 
 nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10), I wish the time never 
 had come. 
 
 5. Concessive Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used 
 to express a concession, either with or without ut, guamvis, 
 quamlibet, and similar words. 
 
 REMARK. In this use, the Present refers to future or indefinite 
 time ; the Imperfect to present or past time, the concession being 
 impliedly untrue ; the Perfect to past time or completed future 
 time ; the Pluperfect to completed action in past time (usually 
 untrue) : as, 
 
 nemo is unquam fuit : ne fuerit (Or. 29), there never was such 
 
 a one you 'will say : granted. 
 quamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 25), amiable 
 
 as he may have been in keeping his friendships. 
 sit Scipio clarus, ornetur African us, erit profecto aliquid loci 
 
 nostrae (Cat. iv. 10), let Scipio be glorious, and Africanus 
 
 honored, yet surely there 'will be some room for our fame. 
 dixerit hoc idem Epicurus . . . non pugnem cum nomine (Fin. 
 
 v. 27), though Epicurus may have said the same, I would not 
 
 contend %vith the man. 
 ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 5), 
 
 granted that pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is 
 
 an evil. 
 fuerit aliis : tibi quando esse coepit (Verr. i. 4r), suppose he was 
 
 [so] to others, when did he begin to be to you ? 
 
152 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 6, J. 
 
 6. The Present, and rarely the Perfect Subjunctive, are 
 used in questions implying doubt, indignation, or an impossi- 
 bility of the thing being done (dubitative subjunctive) : as, 
 
 sed quid faciamus (Att. viii. 23), but what can we do ? 
 
 quid loquar plura (Pis. 32), -why should I say more f 
 
 quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. ii. 16), what are you to do with 
 
 this fellow f 
 cui ego exspectem dum tabellae diribeantur (Pis. 40), what, 
 
 shall I wait till the ballots are counted f 
 quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal 
 
 the flame ? 
 
 The Imperfect denotes the same idea in past time : as, 
 
 an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 2), what, should I not have come ? 
 quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was I to say? 
 
 7. Imperative. The Imperative is used in Commands ; 
 also, by early writers and poets, in Prohibitions : as, 
 
 consulite vobis, prospicite patrise, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 2), 
 have care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve your- 
 selves, [much. 
 
 nimiurn ne crede colori (Eel. ii. 17), trust not complexion over- 
 
 ad me fac venias (Fam. xiv. 4), do come to me. 
 
 d. Prohibitions are regularly (in classical Latin) expressed by 
 ne with the second person singular of the Perfect Subjunctive ; by 
 noli with the Infinitive ; or by cave (colloquially fac ne) with the 
 Present or Perfect Subjunctive : as, 
 
 ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), be not frightened. 
 noli putare (Brut. 33), do not suppose. 
 cave faxis (Ter. Heaut. 187), do not do it. 
 
 fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. n), pray attend to nothing 
 else. 
 
 b. In early Latin, in poetry, and in general prohibitions, the 
 Present Subjunctive is also used : as, 
 
 Albi ne doleas (Hor. Od. i. 33), grieve not, Albius. 
 
 denique isto bono utare dum adsit : cum absit ne requiras (Cat. 
 
 M 10), in short, use this good while present ; when wanting, 
 
 do not regret it. 
 
 REMARK. The third person of the Imperative is antiquated 
 or poetic. 
 
 ollis salus populi suprema lex esto (id.), the safety of the people 
 
 shall be their first law- 
 justa imperia sunto, iisque cives modeste parento (Leg. iii. 3), 
 
 let the commands be just, and let the citizens strictly obey them. 
 
57: 7? 8.] USE OF MOODS: INFINITIVE. 153 
 
 The Future Imperative is used where there is a distinct 
 reference to the future time : viz. 
 
 1. In connection with a, future or future-perfect ; 
 
 2. With adverbs or other expressions of time ; 
 
 3. In general directions, as Precepts, Statutes, Edicts, and 
 Wills: as, 
 
 cum valetudini consulueris, turn consulito navigation! (Fam. 
 xvi. 4), iv hen you have attended to your health, then look to 
 your sailing. 
 
 rei suse ergo ne quis legatusesto (Leg.), no one shall be ambas- 
 sador in his own affair. 
 
 REMARK. The future form of the imperative is regularly used 
 of scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider) : as, 
 
 filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with 
 
 a little boy. 
 sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it, my good 
 
 Tiro. 
 de palla memento, amabo (PI. Asin.), pray, dear, remember 
 
 the gown. 
 
 d. The Future is sometimes used for the imperative ; and quin 
 (why not ?) with the present indicative may have the force of an 
 imperative : as, 
 
 si quid accident novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. %), you -will let 
 
 me know if anything new happens. 
 quin accipis? (Ter. Heaut. iv. 7), here, take it. 
 
 8. Infinitive* The Infinitive denotes the action of the 
 verb as an abstract noun, differing, however, from other 
 abstract nouns in the following points: (1) It admits, in 
 many cases, of the distinction of tense ; (2) It is modified by 
 adverbs and not by adjectives ; (3) It governs the case of its 
 verb ; (4) It is only used in special constructions. 
 
 NOTE. The Infinitive is properly the Dative case of an abstract 
 noun, denoting Purpose, which has developed in Latin, in many cases, 
 into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. Its 
 Subject is, strictly, the Object of some other verb, which has become 
 attached to it: as, jubeo te valere, lit., 1 command you for being well 
 (i.e. that you may be well) ; just as, in Purpose-clauses, the purpose 
 becomes the object of command (compare Purpose Clauses, 64). 
 
 a. Infinitive as Subject. The infinitive, with or without a 
 subject accusative, may be used as the Subject of a verb (or in 
 predicate apposition), and, rarely, as the Object : as, 
 
 7* 
 
154 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8. 
 
 nihil est aliud [hominem] bene et beate vivere. nisi honeste 
 et recte vivere (Parad. i. 6), to live well and happily, is noth- 
 ing else than to live honorably and rightly. 
 
 invidere non cadit in sapientem (Tusc. iii. 10), envy does not 
 belong to a wise man. 
 
 est humanitatis vestrae . . . prohibere (Man. 7), it is for your 
 humanity to hold safe, &c. 
 
 nam istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrirnum puto (Tusc. 
 i. 6), for I think this very thing most wretched, not to be when 
 one has been. 
 
 In this use, the infinitive is found chiefly with esse and impersonal 
 verbs, rarely with others. 
 
 b. The infinitive is used with many Impersonal verbs and ex- 
 pressions, partly as subject and partly as complement (see Note 
 below) : as, 
 
 te abundare oportet praeceptis (Off. i. i), you must abound in 
 
 maxims. 
 id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 7), this may be seen 
 
 first in poets. 
 reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Brut. 59), he found what needed 
 
 to be said. 
 haec praescripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. i. 26), 
 
 one who observes these precepts may live nobly. 
 proponis quam sit turpe me adesse (Att. ix. 2), you make it 
 
 clear how base it is for me to be present. 
 
 c. Complementary Infinitive. The infinitive, without a 
 subject, is used with verbs which require another action of the 
 same subject to complete their meaning. Such are verbs denoting 
 to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin, 
 continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like : as, 
 
 hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 10), this I can say. 
 mitto quaerere (Rose. Am ), I omit to ask. [own presence. 
 
 vereor laudare prsesentem (N. D. i. 21), I fear to praise in ones 
 oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. i), pray make haste to come. 
 
 NOTE. The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these 
 infinitives is admissible or conceivable ; though the same verbs, in 
 other senses, may take an infinitive with a subject. 
 
 d. The infinitive is used optionally with many verbs which also 
 take a subjunctive clause ( 70) : such are those signifying willing- 
 ness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and 
 the like. The subject is usually, though not always, omitted, when 
 it is the same as that of the principal verb : as, 
 
 quos tueri debent deserunt (Off. i. 9), they forsake those whom 
 
 they should protect. 
 ^^Atticos volo imitari (Brut. 82), I wish to imitate the Attics. 
 
57: 8.] USE OF MOODS: INFINITIVE. 155 
 
 student excellere (Off. i. 32), they aim to excel. 
 
 istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rose. Am. 18), he had it 
 
 in mind to deprive him of the inheritance. 
 cupio me esse clementem [= cupio esse clemens] (Cat. i. 2), 
 
 / desire to be merciful. 
 
 Some of these verbs jubeo and veto regularly may take the 
 infinitive with another subject : as, 
 
 signa inferri jubet (Liv. xlii. 59), he orders the standards to 
 be borne forward. 
 
 NOTE. This construction, though in many cases different from 
 the two preceding, shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of 
 the uses is the infinitive strictly Subject or Object ; but its meaning 
 is developed from the original one of purpose. Hence the distinction 
 between the uses is not always clearly marked. 
 
 e. With Subject Accusative. The infinitive, with subject 
 accusative, is regularly used after verbs of knowing, thinking, 
 telling, and the like (verba sentiendi et declarandi, 67, i) : 
 
 as, 
 
 dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the 
 hill is held by the enemy. 
 
 NOTE. The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a 
 finite verb in direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the verb 
 except number and person (see 67). 
 
 REMARK. 1. With verbs which govern the dative, the subject 
 of the action may be in the dative. With licet regularly, and with 
 others rarely, the predicate may also be in the dative : as, 
 
 nemini certare cum eo necesse fuit (Liv. xxi. n), there was 
 
 need for none to strive with him. 
 non libet mi hi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 23), I have no desire 
 
 to bewail life. [gent. 
 
 mihi negligent! esse non licet (Att. i. 17), I must not be negli- 
 non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc, n), // is not 
 
 necessary for all to speak standing. 
 expedit bonas esse vobis (Ter. Heaut. ii. 4), it is for your 
 
 interest to be good. 
 
 So with the dativus commodi : as, 
 
 quid est tarn secundum naturam quam senibus emori (Cat. M. 
 19), what is so according to nature as for old men to die f 
 
 2. When the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predi- 
 cate (except after impersonals) takes the case of the subject : as, 
 
 si esset in iis fides in quibus summa esse debebat (Fam. i. i), 
 if there were faith in those in whom it ought to be greatest. 
 
 So, by a Greek idiom, even in Indirect Discourse : as, 
 
 vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7), a good and 
 wise man says he is prepared^ &c. 
 
156 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8. 
 
 sensit mecjios delapsus in hostes (^Sn. ii. 377), he found himself 
 fallen amongst the foe. 
 
 f. In a few cases, the infinitive retains its original meaning of 
 * purpose: viz. 
 
 1. With habeo, do, ministro, in isolated passages : as, 
 tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i. 5), so muck I have to promise. 
 
 2. After the adjectives paratus, suetus, and their compounds, 
 id quod parati sunt face re (Quin. 2), which they are ready to do. 
 
 3. In poetry and later writers with any verb or adjective : as, 
 
 durus componere versus (Hor. Sat. i. 4), harsh in composing 
 furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15), he rages to find thee. [verse. 
 cantari dignus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sunr. 
 
 REMARK. Rarely, in poetry, the infinitive is used to denote 
 result. 
 
 g. The infinitive, with subject-accusative, may be used in Ex- 
 clamations (compare 52, 4) : as, 
 
 mene incepto desistere victam (^n. i. 37), what ! I desist beaten 
 
 from my purpose? 
 
 te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. i), alas! 
 * lhat you should fall into such grief for me. 
 
 NOTE. This construction is elliptical : that is, the thought is 
 quoted in Indirect Discourse, though no verb of Saying, &c., appears, 
 or perhaps is thought of (compare the French dire que). 
 
 h* Historical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for the 
 tenses of the Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the 
 nominative : as, 
 
 turn Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Cati- 
 line promised abolition of debts [clean ledgers]. 
 
 ego instare ut mihi responderet (Verr. ii. 77), I pressed him to 
 answer. 
 
 This usage is most frequent where many verbs are crowded 
 together in rapid narrative : as, 
 
 pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines servare; 
 ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare; 
 arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque cives permixti; nihil 
 consilio neque imperio agi ; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), 
 a part give way, others press on ; they hold neither to stan- 
 dards nor ranks ; where danger overtook, there each would 
 stand and fight ; weapons, missiles, horses, men, foe and friend^ 
 were mixed; nothing went by counsel or command ; chance 
 . ruled all. 
 
58: i,2.] USE OF TENSES: INDICATIVE. 157 
 
 58. USE OF TENSES. 
 
 The TENSES are the Present, Imperfect, Future 
 (of incomplete action), and the Perfect, Pluperfect, 
 Future Perfect (of completed action). 
 
 1. Tenses of the Indicative. The tenses of the In- 
 dicative denote absolute time ; that is, present, past, or future, 
 in reference to the Speaker. 
 
 2. Present. The Present denotes an action or state, as 
 now existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite witnout reference 
 to time : as, 
 
 agitur salus sociorum (Manil. 2), the safety of our allies is 
 
 at stake. 
 Senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. i. i), 
 
 the Senate knows this, the consul sees, yet this man lives. 
 nihil est victoria dulcius (Verr. vi. 26), nothing is sweeter than 
 
 victory. 
 tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 9), you arrange 
 
 a case, he arrays an army. 
 
 CL. The present, with expressions of duration of time, denotes 
 an action begun in the past but continuing in the present : as, 
 
 patimur jam multos annos (Verr. vi. 48), we suffer now these 
 . many years. 
 
 anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 30), it is now eight 
 years that this case has been in hand. 
 
 & Conative Present. The present sometimes denotes an 
 action not completed at all, but only attempted : as, 
 
 Quintus frater Tusculanum venditat (Att. i. 14), my brother 
 Quintus is trying to sell the place at Tusculum. 
 
 (So the present Infinitive and Participle.) 
 
 The present, especially in colloquial language, is sometimes 
 used for the future: as, 
 
 imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 5), shall we take a seat? 
 
 ecquid me adjuvas? (Clu. 26), won't you give me a little help? 
 
 in jus voco te. non eo. non is? (PI. As. 480), I summon you 
 
 to the court. I won't go. You won't ? 
 si reus condemnatur, desinent homines dicere his judiciis pecu- 
 
 niam plurimum posse (Verr. i. 2), if the prisoner is convicted, 
 
 men will no longer say that money is the chief power in the 
 
 courts. 
 
 (See also under cum, antequam, dum 62.) 
 
158 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58 I 2, 3. 
 
 d* Historical Present. The present in lively narrative is 
 often used for the historical perfect : as, 
 
 affertur nuntius Syracusas ; curritur ad prsetorium ; Cleomenes, 
 quamquam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet; 
 includit se domi (Verr. vi. 35), the news is brought to Syra- 
 cuse ; they run to head-quarters; Cleomenes, though it was 
 night, does not venture to be abroad ; he shuts himself up at 
 home. 
 
 The present is regularly used with dum, while, though re- 
 ferring to past time : as, 
 
 hsec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes jam ad Elori litus per- 
 venerat (id)> while this is going on, Cleomenes meanwhile 
 had come down to the coast at Riorum. 
 
 But when the time referred to is contrasted with some other, the 
 past, tenses must be used : as, 
 
 nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. 
 M. 22), for even when I was with you, you did not see my soul. 
 
 f. The present is regularly used of writers whose works are 
 extant: as, 
 
 Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 7), but Epicurus says such 
 
 things. 
 apud ilium Ulysses lamentatur in vulnere (id. 21), in him 
 
 [Sophocles] Ulysses bewails over his wotind. 
 
 3. Imperfect. The Imperfect denotes an action or con- 
 dition continued or repeated in past time : as, 
 
 hunc audiebant antea (Man. 5), they used to hear him before. 
 Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 30), Socrates 
 
 thought so [habitually] and so he spoke [then]. 
 C. Duiliurn redeuntem a cen& senem saepe videbam (C.M. 13), 
 
 I would often see Duilius, then old, coming home from dinner. 
 
 a. Hence the imperfect is used in descriptions : as, 
 
 erant omnino itinera duo . . . mons altissimus impendebat 
 (B. G. 16), there were in all two ways . . . a very high moun- 
 tain overhung. 
 
 & The imperfect is sometimes used in the sense of a pluperfect 
 and imperfect combined (see above, 2, a) : as, 
 
 copias quas diu comparabant (Fam. i. 13), the forces which 
 they had long been getting ready. 
 
 c The imperfect sometimes denotes an action merely attempted, 
 ^Jbut never accomplished (compare conative present, 2, 6) : as, 
 
58: 3? 4,5-] USE OF TENSES. 159 
 
 in exsilium eiciebam quern jam ingressum esse in bellum vide- 
 
 bam (Cat. ii. 6), was I sending into exile one who I saw had 
 
 already gone into war ? 
 consules sedabant tumultus (Liv. iii. 15), the consuls busied 
 
 themselves to calm the tumult. 
 si licitum esset veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), they were coming if it 
 
 had been allowed. 
 
 d. The imperfect is sometimes used to express a certain sur- 
 prise at the present discovery of a fact already existing : as, 
 
 O tu quoque hie aderas, Phormio (Ter. Ph. v. 6), O, you are 
 
 here too, Phormio. 
 ehem pater mi, tu hie eras? (PI. id. v. 7), what, you here, 
 
 father ? 
 ah miser! quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27), unhappy 
 
 boy, what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never 
 
 knew it]. 
 
 e. The imperfect is often used in narration by the comic poets, 
 where later writers would employ the perfect: as, 
 
 ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hie suam (Trin. 
 
 956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted 
 
 his property. 
 praesagibat animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (Aul. 
 
 222), my mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went 
 
 in vain. 
 
 The Imperfect Indicative in Apodosis, contrary to fact, regularly 
 refers to present time (see 59, 3, d). 
 
 4. Future. The Future denotes an action or condition 
 bat will occur hereafter. 
 
 [For Future instead of the Imperative, see 57, 7, d.~\ 
 
 5. Perfect. The Perfect definite denotes an action as 
 now completed ; the Perfect historical, as having taken place 
 indefinitely, in past time : as, 
 
 ? ut ego feci, qui Grsecas litteras senex didici (C. M. 8), as I have 
 
 done, who have learned Greek in my old age. 
 , tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, infeunte vere suscepit, 
 
 media aestate confecit (Man. 12), so great a war he made 
 
 ready for at the end of winter, undertook in early spring, and 
 
 finished by midsummer. 
 
 ' [For the difference between the Perfect and Imperfect in nor- 
 Ration, see Note, page 53.] 
 
 - 
 
160 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 5,6. 
 
 a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that 
 something no longer exists : as, 
 
 fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. i. i), there -was 
 
 once such virtue in this commonwealth. 
 fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (yEn. ii. 325), we were Trojans, Ilium 
 
 did exist. 
 habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 36), he had, he has no longer. 
 
 b. The perfect is sometimes used of indefinite time in connec- 
 tion with a general present : as, 
 
 qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti 
 sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 31), they -who have always 
 been in fetters of the body, even when released move more 
 slowly. 
 
 c* The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially 
 with negations : as, 
 
 qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 
 
 412), he who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many 
 
 thing's. 
 non seris acervus et auri deduxit corpore febres (id. Ep. i. 2), 
 
 the pile of brass and gold removes not the fever from the 
 
 frame. 
 
 d* The perfect is often used in expressions containing or im- 
 plying a negation, where in affirmation the imperfect would be pre- 
 ferred: as, 
 
 dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 38), Hortensius 
 t spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in 
 
 the comparison : compare the use of quisquam, ullus. &c. 
 
 (foot of p. 48), and the French ne after comparatives and 
 
 superlatives.] 
 
 [For Perfect in apodosis of future conditions, see 59, 4, e ; 
 for Perfect after ubi, &c., 62, 2, a.] 
 
 REMARK. The Perfect and Pluperfect of a few verbs are 
 equivalent to the Present and Imperfect of kindred verbs (novi, 
 / know; coepi, / begin; memini, / remember; cognoveram, 
 I knew ; venerat (= aderat), he was at hand (see 36, i) : as, 
 
 qui dies sestus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which 
 
 day generally makes the highest tides. 
 cujus splendor obsolevit (Quinc. v. 18), whose splendor is now 
 
 out of date. 
 
 6. Pluperfect. The Pluperfect is used to denote an 
 action completed in time past ; sometimes, also, repeated in 
 indefinite time : as, 
 
58: 7- I0 USE OF TENSES. 161 
 
 neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. 
 
 iii. 7), for iv hen he had given a thing in charge he did not 
 
 look on it as already done. 
 quse si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, turn 
 
 fert alacritatem (Tusc. iv. 15), if it [desire] ever has gained 
 
 'what it had desired, then it produces joy. 
 
 ?. Future Perfect. The Future Perfect denotes an 
 action as completed in the future : as, 
 
 ut sementem feceris ita metes (Or. ii. 65), as you sotv, so shall 
 you reap. 
 
 REMARK. The Future Perfect is used (as above) with much 
 greater exactness in Latin than in English, and may even be used 
 instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Latins for repre- 
 senting an action as completed : as, 
 quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 24), 'what has 
 
 been found out I will see presently. 
 
 ego certe meum officium pnestitero (B. G. iv. 25), / at least 
 shall have done my duty. 
 
 . Epistolary Tenses. In Letters, the perfect (his- 
 torical) or imperfect may be used for the present, and the plu- 
 perfect for past tenses, as if the letter were dated at the time 
 it is supposed to be received: as, 
 
 neque tamen, cum hsec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneri- 
 bus premerere (Fam. v. 12), nor -while I -write this am I 
 ignorant under what burdens you are -weighed. 
 
 ad tuas omnes [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10), / 
 [have] answered all your letters yesterday. 
 
 9. Tenses of the Subjunctive. The tenses of the Sub- 
 junctive denote Absolute time only in independent clauses. 
 In these the Present always refers to future time ; the Imper- 
 fect to either past or present ; the Perfect to either future or 
 past ; the Pluperfect always to past. 
 
 In dependent clauses, the tenses of the Subjunctive denote 
 Relative time, not with reference to the speaker, but to the 
 action of some other verb. 
 
 10. Sequence of Tenses. The forms which denote 
 absolute time may be used in any connection. But those 
 denoting relative time follow special rules for the Sequence 
 of Tenses. For this purpose, tenses are divided into two 
 classes: viz., 
 
1G2 SYNTAX OP THE VERB. [58: IO. 
 
 1. Primary, including the Present, both Futures, and Perfect 
 (definite) ; 
 
 2. Secondary, including the Imperfect, Perfect (historical), 
 and Pluperfect^ 
 
 RUL E. In compound sentences, a Primary tense in the 
 leading clause is followed by a Primary tense in the dependent 
 clause ; and a Secondary tense is followed by a Secondary : as, 
 
 scribit lit nos moneat, he writes to warn us. 
 
 scribet ut nos moneat, he will write tg warn us. 
 
 scripsit ut nos moneat, he has written to warn us. 
 
 scribe (scribito) ut nos moneas, write that you may warn us. 
 
 scripsit ut nos moneret, he wrote to warn us. 
 
 scribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten. 
 
 scripsit quasi oblitus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten. 
 
 REMARK. The Rule appears in the following Diagram : 
 
 TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 Primary. 
 
 1. Action not complete (time rela- > PRESENT 
 
 tively present or future). 
 
 Secondary. 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 2. Action complete (time relatively > PERFECT . PLU P ERFE CT. 
 
 past). I 
 
 In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, consider (1) 
 whether the leading verb is primary or secondary ; (2) whether the 
 dependent verb is required to denote complete action (i.e. rela- 
 tively past), or incomplete (relatively present or future)". By tak- 
 ing the corresponding tense, as given above, the correct usage 
 will generally be found. 
 
 Notice that the FUTURE PERFECT denotes relatively completed 
 action, and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the PER- 
 FECT or PLUPERFECT. 
 
 a. The perfect definite is properly a primary tense ; but as its 
 action is (at least) commenced in past time, it is more commonly 
 followed by secondary tenses : as, 
 
 ut satis esset praesidi provisum est (Cat. ii. 12), provision has 
 
 been made that there should be ample guard. 
 adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis 
 
 (Verr. i. i), / have brought a man in ivhose person you can 
 
 make satisfaction to foreign nations. 
 
 b. The perfect subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past 
 action (either as Perfect definite or historical) depending on a verb 
 in a primary tense : as, 
 
58: 10.] USE OF TENSES. 163 
 
 ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor 
 (Or. 4), it may be understood from his letters how constant a 
 hearer he -was of Plato. 
 
 c. In clauses of Result, the perfect subjunctive is very often 
 (the present rarely) used after secondary tenses : as, 
 
 Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam 
 flagrantius studium viderim (Brut. 88), Hortensius was so hot 
 'with desire of speaking" that I never saw a more burning 
 ardor in any man. 
 
 Siciliam Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea 
 restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Verr. i. 4), 
 for three years [Verres] so racked and ruined Sicily, that she 
 can in no way be restored to her former state* 
 
 REMARK. This construction gives more emphasis to the fact 
 stated as a result ; while the regular one gives more prominence 
 to the main clause. The perfect, thus used, can stand only for a 
 perfect indicative, not an imperfect ; and, in general, the perfect is 
 often represented by the perfect subjunctive, contrary to the 
 general rule : as, 
 
 Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut ilia plurima in sua pa- 
 tria et sacrifieta et fana contemneret; ita non timidus a'd 
 mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin. ii. 
 20), Thorius ivas so little superstitious that he despised [con- 
 tern nebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country, so 
 little timorous about death that he ivas killed [interfectus est] 
 in battle, in defence of the state. 
 
 Zeno nullo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis incident [compare 
 5, d~] ; sed contra qui omnia in una virtute poneret (Acad. i. 
 10), Zeno was noway one to cut the sinews of virtue ; but one, 
 on the contrary, who made everything depend on virtue alone. 
 
 d. A general truth after a past tense follows the connection 
 of tenses in Latin (though not usually in English) : as, 
 
 ex his quae tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q^C. 
 
 iii. 9), from what she [Fortune] had bestowed on him, he re- 
 flected how inconstant she is. 
 ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet, apparuit 
 
 (Liv. xxxiii. 37), here it appeared what power anger has to 
 
 goad the mind. 
 
 e. The historical present, or the present with dum, may be 
 followed by either primary or secondary tenses, but more com- 
 monly by secondary : as, 
 
 rogat ut curet quod dixisset (Qj-rinct- 5), he asks him to attend to 
 
 the thing he had spoken of. 
 castella communit quo facilius prohiberi possent (B. G. i. 8), 
 
 he strengthens the forts that they might be more easily kept 
 
 off. 
 
164 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: IO, II. 
 
 /. When the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are used in 
 protasis and apodosis, they may stand after any tense : as, 
 
 quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines, &c. (Fin. ii. 15), 
 because it is such that even if men -were ignorant. 
 
 {/ The imperfect subjunctive, in protasis or apodosis, even 
 when it refers to present time, is regularly followed by secondary 
 tenses : as, 
 
 si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem 
 exciperes (Tusc. i. 5), if you called only those 'wretched who 
 must die, you 'would except no one. 
 
 h* After the present, when a past tense appears to be in the 
 writers thought, secondary tenses sometimes follow by a kind of 
 Synesis: as, 
 
 sed tamen ut scires haec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that 
 
 you may know, 1 'write thus [as if Epistolary Imperfect], 
 cujus przecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed 
 Delphico deo tribueretur (Leg. i. 22), such is the force of this 
 precept, that it -was ascribed not to any man, but to the Del- 
 phic god [the precept was an old one]. 
 
 11. Infinitive. The tenses of the Infinitive are present, 
 past, or future, relatively to the time of the verb on which 
 they depend : as, 
 
 nostros non esse inferiores intellexit (B. G. ii. 8), he ascertained 
 
 that our men ivere not inferior. 
 quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse (^En. i. 15), 
 
 which Jtmb, 'tis said, cherished above all lands. 
 sperant se maximum fructum esse captures (Lael. 21), they hope 
 
 they shall receive the greatest advantage. 
 
 a. The present infinitive, after a verb in the past, must often 
 be rendered by the perfect infinitive in English : as, 
 
 scire potuit (Milo, 17), he might have known. 
 
 qui videbatur omnino mori non debuisse (Arch. 8), who seemed 
 [one that] ought not to have died at all. 
 
 REMARK. This is most frequent with verbs of necessity, pro- 
 priety, and possibility (potui, debui, oportuit) ; and occurs 
 because the tenses of the corresponding verbs in English have lost 
 their original past signification (compare " one whom he ought 
 [owed] a grudge unto," A.D. 1597). 
 
 6. Memini and a few other verbs, stating what the speaker 
 has personally witnessed, fake the present infinitive : as, 
 
 memini Catonem mecum disserere (Lael. 3), I remember Cato's 
 
 discoursing with me (So dicere aiebat, De Or. ii. 3.) 
 Compare Greek present infinitive for imperfect (G. 203, N. i). 
 
 REMARK. The infinitive posse is used also in the sense of a 
 future. 
 
58: II.] USE OF TENSES. 165 
 
 c. Except in Indirect Discourse the present infinitive only is 
 generally used, with no distinct reference to time : as, 
 
 est adulescentis majores natu vereri (Off. i. 34), it is the duty 
 of the young to reverence their elders. 
 
 de quibus dicere aggrediar (Off. ii. i), of which I -will under- 
 take to speak. 
 
 d. After verbs of wishing, necessity, and the like, the perfect 
 passive infinitive is often used instead of the present : as, 
 
 domestica cura te levatum [esse] volo (Q^.F. iii. 9), 1 wish you 
 
 relieved of household care. 
 liberis consultum volumus propter ipsos (Fin. iii. 17), we wish 
 
 regard paid to children on their own account. 
 quod jampridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 2), which ought 
 
 to have been done long ago. 
 
 REMARK. In early Latin, and in poetry, the perfect active is 
 also used, and even after other verbs than those of wishing : as, 
 
 commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing. 
 edixerunt ne quis quid fugse caus& vendidisse neve emisse 
 
 vellet (Liv. xxxix. 17), they [the old laws] declared that none 
 
 should sell or buy to escape obligation. 
 baud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (id. xxii. 59), 
 
 / would not by crushing another exalt myself. 
 sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), there are those who 
 
 would not touch. 
 nollem dixisse (Verr. v. 20), I would not say. 
 
 e. The perfect infinitive is used, especially by poets, to denote 
 a completed action after verbs of feeling ; also with satis est 
 (habeo), melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases 
 where this distinction is important : as, 
 
 quisse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept 
 
 quiet. 
 non poenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fain. xvi. 21), 
 
 I was not sorry to have made a respite of writing. 
 pudet me . . . non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), I am ashamed not to 
 
 have shown. 
 surit quoscurriculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse juvat (Hor. 
 
 Od. i. i), there are those who delight, &c. 
 majus dedecus est parta amittere quam omnino non paravisse 
 
 (Jug. 31), it is more discredit to have lost one's gains than 
 
 never to have gained at all. 
 nil ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), if I go 
 
 wrong, I cannot have done it in ignorance. 
 
 f. Thp future infinitive is often expressed by fore or futu- 
 rum esse ut ( 70, 4) : as, 
 
 spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i.), I hope that will be 
 our happy lot. 
 
166 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [59: I. 
 
 59. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 
 
 A Conditional Sentence (or Clause) is one beginning 
 with IF, or some equivalent. 
 
 1. Protasis and Apodosis. In a conditional sentence, 
 the clause containing the condition is called the Protasis ; and 
 that containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis : as, 
 
 si qui exire volunt [PROTASIS], conivere possum [APODOSIS] 
 (Cat. i-i. 12), if any -wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut. 
 
 a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional 
 particles si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless. But a clause in- 
 troduced by an Indefinite Relative (as quisquis, whoever}, a 
 Relative or Concessive Conjunction (cum, since, quamvis, al- 
 though), a Participle, or an Imperative, is treated as a conditional 
 clause : as, 
 
 qusecunque causa vos hue attulisset, laetarer (De Or. ii. 4), 
 / should be glad, 'whatever cause had brought you here [i.e. if 
 any other, as well as the one which did]. 
 
 philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia 
 possit degere (Cat. M. i), philosophy, -which IF any one obeys, 
 he -will be able to spend his ivhole life 'without vexation. 
 
 virtutem qui adeptus erit ubicunque erit gentium a nobis dili- 
 getur (N. D. i. 44), if any one shall have attained virtue, &c. 
 
 [For Implied Conditions, see 60.] 
 
 NOTE. The Indefinite Relative, whoever, whatever, whenever, may be 
 regarded as a conditional expression, equivalent to if any one, if at ant/ 
 time, &c., as is seen in the analogy of the Greek 6f av, OTO.V, and in the 
 structure of relative as compared with conditional clauses. In the 
 Statutes of Massachusetts, for instance, the phrase "Whoever shall" 
 has been substituted for the old form " IF any person shall," &c. 
 
 b The Apodosis, being the main clause, depends in form on 
 the grammatical structure of the sentence, which may require a 
 Participle, Infinitive, or Phrase : as, 
 
 quod si prseterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sol& decima 
 
 legione iturum (B. G. i. 40), but if no one else -would follow, 
 
 he 'would go ivith the tenth legion alone. 
 si quos adversum prcelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id.), 
 
 if the loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find. 
 sepultura quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari jussisset (Q^ C. 
 
 viii. 2), intending also to deprive him of burial, unless the 
 
 king had ordered him to be interred. 
 
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 167 
 
 2. Particular and General Conditions. The sup- 
 position contained in a Protasis may be either particular or 
 general. 
 
 a. A Particular supposition refers to a definite act (or a definite 
 series of acts) occurring at some definite time : as, 
 
 si hsec condicio consulates data est . . . feram libenter (Cat. 
 iv. i), if this condition has been imposed on the consulship, 
 I iv ill bear it willingly. 
 
 b. A General supposition refers to any one of a class of acts, 
 which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time : as, 
 
 si vero habet aliquod tamquam pabulum studi atque doctrinse, 
 nihil est otiosa senectute jucundius (Cat. M. 14), indeed, if 
 it have some sustenance (as it were) of study and learning, 
 nothing is more cheerful than an old age of leisure. 
 NOTE. These two classes of conditions are distinguished logically ; 
 and in most languages are also distinguished grammatically, but only 
 as to Present and Past Conditions. In Latin, in particular conditions, 
 present or past tenses of the Indicative are regularly used in Prota- 
 sis, where no opinion is intimated of its truth or falsity ; and the 
 Apodosis may take any form of the verb which can be used in an in- 
 dependent sentence. In general conditions, also, referring to Present or 
 Past time, the Indicative is for the most part used both in Protasis 
 and Apodosis. (Compare Goodwin's Greek Grammar, 220.) 
 
 c. Classification. The principal forms of Conditional Sen- 
 tences may be exhibited as follows : 
 
 1. PRESENT OR PAST CONDITIONS. 
 
 (a) Simple statement ( si .f d *st bene est, if he is [now] hare, 
 (nothing implied { . * " S?V 
 
 as to fulfilment): / S1 ade r rat (ffmt) bene erat, ,/ he 
 \ was [then] here, it was well. 
 
 (6) Supposition con- ( si , aaew !f t bene esset, if lie were [now] 
 trarvtofactfcondi < here, it would be well. 
 tioii not fulfilled): ) adfuisset bene fuisset, if he had 
 
 \ [then] been here , it would have been well. 
 
 2. FUTURE CONDITIONS. 
 
 (a) More vivid (prob- f si aderit bene erit, if lie is [shall be] 
 
 able): \ here, it will be welL 
 
 (b) Less vivid (improb- ( si adsit bene sit, if he should [hereafter] 
 
 able) : ( be here, it would be well. 
 
 3. GENERAL SUPPOSITIONS. 
 
 (a) Indefinite subject: j si 1> OC d ' as bene est - V ' one sa V s this < 
 ( it is well. 
 
 i Repeated Action : j si h c *iceret bene , erat (rare) */ 
 ( [whenever] tie said this, it was well. 
 
168 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [59: 3. 
 
 3. Present and Past Conditions. A present or past 
 condition may be simply stated, implying nothing as to its 
 fulfilment ; or it may be stated so as to imply 'that it is not or 
 was not fulfilled. 
 
 a. In the statement of a condition whose falsity is NOT implied, 
 the present and past tenses of the Indicative are used in Protasis ; 
 the apodosis expressing simply what is, was, or will be, the result 
 of the fulfilment (G. 221) : as, 
 
 si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the 
 
 army are well, it is 'well. 
 si justitia vacat, in vitio est (Off. i. 19), if justice be wanting, 
 
 it [bravery] 'is in fault. 
 
 si placet . . . videamus (Cat. M. 5), if you please, let us see. 
 fuerit hoc censoris, si judicabat (Div. i. 16), grant that it was 
 
 the censor's duty if he judged, &c. 
 quicquid jurarunt ventus et unda rapit (Prop. ii. 28), whatever 
 
 they have sworn [i.e. if they have sworn anything], the winds 
 
 and waves sweep away. 
 
 b. In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the Im- 
 perfect and Pluperfect subjunctive are used. the imperfect 
 referring to present time, the pluperfect to past (G. 222) : as, 
 
 quse si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus 
 (Cat. M. n), if I could not [now] follow this [an active life], 
 yet my couch would afford me pleasure. 
 
 nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem (id. 4), unless you had 
 lost it, I should not have recovered it. 
 
 si me urn consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres, 
 nos liberi essemus, respublica non tot duces et exercitus 
 amisisset (Phil. ii. 15), if my judgment and authority had 
 prevailed [as they did not], you would this day be a beggar, 
 we should be free, and the republic would not hfive lost so 
 many leaders and armies. ! 
 
 NOTE. The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not in- 
 herent in the Subjunctive; but comes from the transfer of a future \ 
 condition to past time. Thus the time for the happening of the condi-i 
 tion has, at the time of writing, already passed ; so that, if the con- 
 dition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So forms 
 implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in 
 apodoeis in this construction (see c, below). 
 
 c. In many cases the imperfect refers to past time, both in pro- 
 tasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action 
 is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist : as, 
 
 hie si mentis esset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 21). 
 if he were of sane mind would he have dared to lead out tht 
 army ? 
 
59: 3-] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 169 
 
 non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris 
 pateret (Verr. ii. i), [the power of Carthage] -would not 
 have fallen, unless that station had been open to our fleets. 
 
 d. The past tenses of the indicative in Apodosis (after a sub- 
 junctive in Protasis) may be used to express what ought to have 
 been done, or is intended, or is already begun : as, 
 
 si Romae privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus 
 
 (Manil. 17), if ke [Pompey]wre at this time a private citizen 
 
 in Rome, yet he ought to be appointed. 
 quod esse caput debebat, si probari posset (Fin. iv. 9), -what 
 
 ought to be the main point if it could be proved. 
 si licitum esset matres veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), the mothers 
 
 iv ere coming if it had been allowed. 
 in amplexus filias ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Ann. xvi. 
 
 32), he -was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the 
 
 lictors had opposed. 
 
 REMARK. In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in 
 time to the imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect 
 indicative to the pluperfect subjunctive (the tenses of the subjunc- 
 tive may, however, be used as well ; see Note, above) : as, 
 satius erat (esset), it were better. 
 
 e. This use is regular with all verbs and expressions denoting 
 . the necessity ', propriety ', desirableness, duty, possibility, of an action 
 
 ' including the two periphrastic conjugations (see page 83) 
 where it is implied that what was necessary, &c., has not been done. 
 It is sometimes carried still further in poetry : as, - 
 
 nam nos decebat lugere (Tusc. i. 47), it -would befit us to mourn. 
 si non alium jactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), *"/ 
 -were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor. 
 
 NOTE. Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of 
 Futurity. Compare note under 6. 
 
 e* So the participle in urus with fui is equivalent to a. plu- 
 perfect subjunctive. Hence, when the Apodosis is itself a dependent 
 clause, requiring the subjunctive, a pluperfect subjunctive may be 
 [; represented by the Future Participle with the subjunctive of esse 
 I (compare apodosis in Indirect Discourse, 67, I, c) : as, 
 
 quid enim futurum fuit [= fuisset], si ... (Liv. ii. i), what 
 would have happened, if, &c. 
 
 neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si ... (ib.), and 
 
 no doubt he would have done it, if, &c. 
 
 . ex quo intellegi potest quam acuti natura sint, qui ha?c 
 sine doctrina credituri fuerint (Tusc. i. 21), hence it may be 
 understood how keen they are by nature, who, without instruc- 
 tion, would have believed this. [Here the condition is con- 
 tained in the words sine doc.tr -ind.~\ 
 
 8 
 
170 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [59: 4. 
 
 adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem raptnri fueriiit, ni incerta 
 noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the 
 conspiracy, that they would have seized upon Otho, had they 
 not feared the hazards of the night [in the direct discourse, 
 rapuissent ni timuissent \. 
 
 4. Future Conditions* A Future condition may either 
 make a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis 
 expressing what will be the result ; or the supposition may be 
 less distinct and vivid, the apodosis expressing what would be 
 the result in the case supposed. 
 
 a. If the condition is stated vividly, so as to he conceived as 
 actually about to take place, the Future Indicative is used in both 
 protasis and apodosis (G. 223) : as, 
 
 sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 6), ive shall be healed if ive 
 -wish. 
 
 quod si legere aut audire voletis . . . reperietis (Cat. M. 6), 
 if you 'will read or hear, you .'will find. 
 
 b The Present -subjunctive expresses a future condition less 
 vividly, or as less probable, than when the future indicative is 
 used (G. 224) : as, 
 
 hsec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. 
 i. 8), if thy country should thus speak with thee, ought she not 
 to prevail f 
 
 quod si quis deus mini largiatur . . . valde recusem (Cat. M.23), 
 but if some god -were to grant me this, I should earnestly 
 refuse. 
 
 REMARK. The present subjunctive sometimes stands in prota- 
 sis with the future in apodosis. 
 
 If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that 
 of the apodosis begins, the future perfect is substituted for the 
 future, and the perfect subjunctive for the present : as, 
 
 sin, cum potuero, non venero, turn erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2), 
 
 but if I do not come ivhen I can, he ivill be unfriendly. 
 si non feceris, ignoscam (Fam. v. 19), if you do not do it, I ivill 
 excuse you. 
 
 REMARK. This is a very common construction in Latin, owing 
 to the tendency of the language to represent an action as com- 
 pleted, rather than as in progress. 
 
 d. Any form denoting future time may stand in the apodosis 
 of a future condition (so the participles in dus and rus, and verbs 
 of necessity, possibility, and the like) : as, 
 
 non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Verr. v. 41), I cannot 
 accuse him if I should desire. 
 
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. % 171 
 
 alius finis constituendus est si prius quid maxime reprehendere 
 Scipio solitus sit dixero (Lael. i6J, another limit must be set if 
 I shall first state what Scipio was most wont to blame. 
 
 Rarely the perfect is used (rhetorically) in apodosis with a 
 present or even future in protasis, representing the conclusion as 
 already accomplished : as, 
 
 si hoc bene fixum in. animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this 
 is -well fixed in your minds, you have conquered. 
 
 si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall 
 have kept the same spirit, we have conquered. 
 
 f. Frequently the present subjunctive of a future condition 
 becomes imperfect by the sequence of tenses or some other cause 
 (retaining the same force relatively to past time) : as, 
 
 non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii. 44), -was not able unless he 
 wished. * 
 
 Caesar si pet^rs^. . . non quicquam proficeret (Hor. Sat. i. 2), 
 if even Ccesar W^r^ to ask he would gain nothing. [Here 
 the construction is not contrary to fact, but is simply si" 
 petat non proficiat, thrown into past time.] 
 
 tumulus apparuit ... si luce palam iretur hostis prseventurus 
 erat (Liv. xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they should go 
 openly by light the enemy would preVwit. [Independent of 
 apparuit, this would be, si eatur, prahjenturus est, for prce- 
 veniat.] V 
 
 5. General Conditions* General conditions are distin- 
 guished in Latin in only two cases : viz,, 
 
 a. Indefinite Subject. The subjunctive is used in the second 
 person singular, to denote the act of an indefinite subject (you = 
 any one) . Here the present Indicative of a general truth may 
 stand in the apodosis (G. 225) : as, 
 
 mens prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas conteritur; nisi exer- 
 ceas, rubiginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very 
 like iron : if you use it, it wears away j if you don't use it, it 
 gathers rust. 
 
 virtutem necessario gloria, etianisi tu id non agas, consequitur 
 (Tusc. i. 38), glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is 
 not one's aim. 
 
 si prohibita impune transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque 
 pudor est (Ann. iii. 54), if you once overstep the bounds with 
 impunity, there is no fear nor shame any more. 
 
 si cederes placabilis (Tac. Ann.), \Jie was~\ easily appeased if 
 one yielded. 
 
 b. Repeated Action. In later writers (not in Cicero), the 
 Imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used in protasis, with the 
 
172 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [60: I. 
 
 imperfect indicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary 
 action: as, 
 
 accusatores, si facultas incideret, pcenis adficiebantur (Ann. 
 vi. 30), the accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were 
 visited -with punishment. 
 
 quemcunque lictor prehendisset, tribunus mitti jubebat (Liv. 
 . iii. n), whomever the lictor had seized, the tribune ordered 
 to be let go. 
 
 c* In all other cases, General Suppositions including those 
 introduced by Indefinite Relatives take the indicative. 
 
 60. IMPLIED CONDITIONS. 
 
 In many sentences properly conditional, the sub- 
 ordinate member is not expressed as a conditional 
 clause ; but is stated in some other form of words, or 
 is implied in the nature of the thought. 
 
 1. Condition Disguised. The condition is often con- 
 tained in some other form of words than a regular Protasis, 
 in the same clause or sentence. 
 
 a. The condition may be contained in a relative, participial, or 
 other qualifying clause : as, 
 
 facile me paterer vel ipso quaerente, vel apud Cassianos judices 
 
 pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rose. Am. 30), / -would readily 
 
 allow myself to speak for Roscius, IF he, &c. 
 non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 42), 
 
 it would not have come into my mind, unless [I had been] 
 
 admonished [= nisi admonitus essem]. 
 . nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 
 
 54), there is no other people that would not have been crushed 
 
 by such a 'weight of disaster [i.e. IF it had been any other 
 
 people], 
 nemo unquam, sine magna spe immortalitatis, se pro patri& 
 
 offerret ad mortem (Tusc. i. 15), no one, -without great hope 
 
 of immortality, would ever expose himself to death for his 
 
 country. 
 quid hunc paucorum annorum accessio juvare potuisset (Lael. 
 
 3), what good could the addition of a few years have done 
 
 him ? [if he had had them.] 
 
 & The condition may be contained in a wish, or expressed as 
 a command, by the imperative or hortatory subjunctive : as, 
 utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 
 3), I wish I had been [chief] : he would not now be troubling 
 us [i.e. if I had been]. 
 
60: 1,2.] IMPLIED CONDITIONS. 173 
 
 roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 25), for ask Aristo^ and 
 
 he -would deny. 
 tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 13), remove 
 
 this notion, and you will have done a-way grief. 
 naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10), 
 
 drive out nature -with a pitchfork, still she 'will ever return. 
 manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria 
 
 (Cat. M. 7), old men keep their mental powers* only let them 
 
 keep their zeal and diligence. 
 
 NOTE. This usage is probably the origin of the use of the sub- 
 junctive in Protasis; the subjunctive being used first, as in 57, 3, 
 while the conditional particle is a form of an indefinite pronoun. 
 
 c* Rarely, the condition is stated in an independent clause : as, 
 rides: majore cachinno concutitur (Juv. iii. 100), you laugh: 
 
 he shakes -with louder laughter. 
 de paupertate agitur : multi patientes pauperes commemor- 
 
 antur (Tusc. iii. 24), we speak of poverty : many patient poor 
 
 are mentioned. 
 
 2. Condition Omitted* The condition is often wholly 
 omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument. 
 
 REMAKK. Under this head belong all the apparently inde- 
 pendent uses of the subjunctive not mentioned in 57, 2. In this 
 use the perfect subjunctive is especially common, in the same sense 
 as the present, referring to the immediate future ; the imperfect to 
 past time (not to present, as in 57, 3). 
 
 a. Potential Subjunctive. The present and perfect sub- 
 junctive (often with forsitan or the like) are used to denote an 
 action as possible; also, the second person singular of all the 
 tenses, denoting an indefinite subject : as, 
 
 hie quaerat quispiam (N. D. ii. 53), here some one may ask. 
 ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Off. iii. 6), as one may perhaps say. 
 forsitan haec illi mirentur (Verr. v. 56), they may perchance 
 
 marvel at these things. 
 
 turn in lecto quoque videres susurros (Hor. Sat. ii. 8), then on 
 each couch you might see 'whisperings. 
 
 b The subjunctive is used in cautious, modest, or hypothetical 
 statement (conjunctivus modestice) : as, 
 
 pace tua dixerim (Mil. 38), I -would say by your leave. 
 '. baud sciam an (De Or. i. 60), / should incline to think. 
 
 tu velim sic existimes (Fam. xii. 6), I would like you to think so. 
 vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 7), I -wish Anthony -were 
 here [here vellem implies an impossible wish in present 
 time]. 
 
 ' haec erant fere quse tibi nota esse vellem (Fam. xii. 5), this is 
 about what I want you to know [here vellem is simply vclim 
 transferred to past time on account of erat, by connection 
 of tenses, and does not imply an impossible wish]. 
 
174 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [60:2. 61. 
 
 c. The Indicative of verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and 
 the like, may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either 
 future or contrary to fact : as, 
 
 longum est [sit] ea dicere, sed ... (in Pison. 10), it -would be 
 
 tedious to tell, &c. 
 illud erat aptius, aequum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. i), it 'would 
 
 be more fitting to yield each one his rights. 
 ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 40), 'would it 
 
 have been a great matter to 'wait for himself? 
 quanto melius fuerat (Off. iii. 25), how much better it would 
 
 have been. 
 quod contra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M.), 
 
 whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by 
 
 him. 
 nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus 
 
 (Tusc. i. 48), for it were fitting to mourn the house where a 
 
 man has been born [but we do not], 
 nunc est bibendum . . . nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvinar deorum 
 
 tempus erat dapibus sodales (Hor. Od. i. 37), i.e. it would be 
 
 time [if it were for us to do it, but it is a public act]. 
 
 REMARK. Notice that, in this construction, the imperfect in- 
 dicative refers to present time ; the pluperfect to simply past time, 
 like the perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now] , but 
 is not ; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not. 
 
 d The omission of the protasis often gives rise to mixed con- 
 structions : as, 
 
 peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Cat. ii. i), may I 
 perish if it would not be better. [Here the protasis and 
 apodosis come under 59, 3, d. Optimum erat is itself an 
 apodosis with the protasis omitted.] 
 
 quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphaera 
 quidem eosdem motus Archimedes sine divino ingenio potu- 
 isset imitari (Tusc. i. 25). [Here the protasis of potuisset is 
 in sine divino ingenio .] 
 
 61. CONDITIONAL PARTICLES. 
 
 Certain Particles implying a Condition are fol- 
 lowed by the Subjunctive, but upon several different 
 principles. 
 
 1. Comparative ^Particles. The particles of compari- 
 son tamquam, quasi, quam si, acsi, utsi, velutsi, 
 yeluti, and poetic ceu introduce conditional clauses, of 
 
,;, 
 
 : I, 2, 3.] CONDITIONAL PARTICLES. 175 
 
 which the conclusion is omitted or implied; and take the 
 subjunctive. 
 
 REMARK. Contrary to the English idiom, the present and 
 perfect subjunctive are regularly used with these particles, except 
 where the connection of tenses requires secondary tenses : as, 
 
 tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia -was closed. 
 
 tamquam si claudus sim (Plaut. Asin. 2), fust as if I were lame. 
 
 quasi vero non specie visa judicentur (Acad. ii. 18), as if for- 
 sooth visible things -were not judged by their appearance. 
 
 velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as if he were there present. 
 
 similiter facis ac si me roges (N. S. iii. 3), you do exactly as if 
 you asked me. 
 
 asque ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), as much as if it 
 were my own business. 
 
 ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (^En. ii. 438), as if there were 
 no fighting elsewhere. 
 
 magis quam si domi esses (Att. vi. 4), more than if you were 
 at home. 
 
 ac si ampullam perdidisset (Fin. iv. 12), as if he had lost the 
 bottle. 
 
 
 Concessive Particles. The particles of concession 
 although, granting that sometimes take the subjunctive, 
 but under various constructions : viz., 
 
 Quamvis and ut (except in later writers) take the hortatory 
 subjunctive ( 57, 2) ; licet is a verb, and is followed by an 
 object-clause ( 70, 3); etsi has the same constructions as si 
 ( 59) ; cum has a special construction ( 62, i) ; quanquam 
 takes the indicative (59, 3, a) : as, 
 
 quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen . . . (Or. 23), however incap- 
 able themselves of speaking, yet, &c. 
 
 ut neminem ali aliam rogasset (Mil. 17), even if I had asked 
 no other. 
 
 licet ornnes in me terrores periculaque impendeant (Rose. Am. 
 n), though all terrors and perils should menace me. 
 
 etsi abest maturitas (Fam. vi. 18), though ripeness of age is 
 wanting. 
 
 etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis (Sull. 32), even if you had taken 
 away nothing else. 
 
 
 3. A Proviso, introduced by mo do, dum, dummodo, re- 
 quires the Subjunctive: as, 
 
 valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), provided the health is good. 
 modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided it [plea- 
 sure] be not after the manner of cattle. 
 
176 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [61: 4. 62. 
 
 oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 28), let them hate, if only they fear. 
 dum de patris morte qustreretur (Rose. Am. 41), let the inquiry 
 
 only be of a father's death. 
 dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. 5), provided 
 
 only the city wall is between us. 
 
 NOTE. The Subjunctive with modo is a hortatory Subjunctive ; 
 with dum and dummodo, a development from the Subjunctive in 
 temporal clauses. 
 
 4. The use of some of the more common Conditional 
 Particles may be stated as follows: 
 
 a. Si is used for affirmative, nisi and si non for negative con- 
 ditions. With nisi, the negative belongs rather to the Apodosis, 
 i.e. the conclusion is true except in the case supposed ; with 
 si non, the Protasis is negative, i.e. the conclusion is limited to 
 the case supposed. (The difference is often only one of emphasis.) 
 Nisi is never used if the clause has a concessive force. Ni is an 
 old form, reappearing in poets and later writers, and in a few con- 
 ventional phrases. Sometimes nisi si occurs. 
 
 6. Nisi vero and nisi forte sometimes nisi alone regu- 
 larly introduce an objection, or exception, ironically, and take the 
 Indicative. 
 
 c. Sive . . . sive (seu) introduce conditions in the form of an 
 alternative. They have no peculiar construction, but may be used 
 with any kind of condition, or with different kinds in the two 
 branches, often also without a verb. 
 
 cf. Of the concessive particles, the compounds of si are used 
 in all the forms of protasis ; quanquam regularly introduces only 
 conceded facts, and hence takes the Indicative ; quamvis, quan- 
 tum vis, quamlibet, ut, cum, and libet, take idiomatic construc- 
 tions corresponding to their original meaning. Later writers, 
 however, frequently use all these particles like the compounds of 
 si, connecting them with the Indicative or Subjunctive according 
 to the nature of the condition. Even Cicero occasionally uses 
 quanquam with the Subjunctive. 
 
 62. RELATIONS OP TIME. 
 
 Temporal clauses are introduced by particles which 
 are almost all of relative origin ; and are construed 
 like other relative clauses, except where they have 
 developed into special constructions. 
 

 62: I, 2.] RELATIONS OF TIME. 177 
 
 Temporal Particles are the following : ubi, ut (ut primum, 
 ut semel), simul atque (sirnul ac or simul alone), cum 
 (quom), antequam, priusquam, postquam (posteaquam), 
 dum, donee, quoad, quamdiu, quando. 
 
 1. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone 
 or compounded with -cunque, are used as indefinite rela- 
 tives, and have the constructions of Protasis ( 59) : as, 
 
 cum rosam viderat, turn inciperc ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 10), 
 whenever he had seen a rose, he thought Spring was begun 
 [general condition]. 
 
 cum id malum esse negas (Tusc. ii. 12), ivhen you [the indi- 
 vidual disputant] deny it to be an evil. 
 
 cum videas eos . . . dolore non frangi (id. 27), ivken you see 
 [indefinite subject] that those are not broken by pain, &c. 
 
 quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem 
 (Phil. v. 18), -which I would surely not venture to do, as long 
 as no force compelled me [supposition contrary to fact]. 
 
 id ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum emittebat (Liv. i. 32), 
 ivhen he had said this, he [used to\-cast the spear into their 
 territories [repeated action]. 
 
 REMARK. So est cum, fuit cum, &c., are used in general 
 expressions like est qui, sunt qui ( 65). 
 
 2. Temporal clauses of absolute time take the Indicative ; 
 those of relative time, the Subjunctive. 
 
 (For the definition of absolute and relative time, see 58, I, 9.) 
 
 NOTE. This distinction is not made in other languages, but it 
 may be made clear in the two following expressions : 1. When was 
 the great fire in London ? Ans. When Charles II. was king (absolute 
 time). 2. When Charles II. was king (relative time), a great fire broke 
 out in London. In the first case the reign of Charles is referred Jo as 
 an absolute fixed date, known to the hearer; while in the second the 
 time is not so fixed, but is given as relative to the event narrated by the 
 main verb, which alone denotes absolute time. In this construction, the 
 Subjunctive describes the time by its characteristics (as in 65, 2), and 
 thus is a branch of the Subjunctive of result. Hence this qualitative 
 character of the temporal clause often reappears and occasions the 
 Subjunctive, where the idea of relative time would not naturally be 
 expected : as, turn, cum HABERET hcec respublica Luscinos, &c. . . . et turn, 
 cum EH ANT G 'atones, &c. Here the former clause describes the char- 
 acter of the age by its men (at a time when there were such men) ; in 
 the latter, the individual men are present to the mind (at the time of 
 the Catos, &c.). 
 
 a. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut 
 primum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac or simul alone), 
 introduce clauses of absolute time, and take the Indicative (usually 
 the narrative tenses, the perfect and the historical present) : as, 
 
178 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2. 
 
 milites postquam victoriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis 
 fecre (Sail. Cat. n), when the armies had 'won the victory, 
 they left nothing to the vanquished. 
 
 Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excess-it (B. C. 
 iii. 94), ^vhen Pompey sa^v his cavalry beaten, he left the army. 
 
 REMARK. ! Those particles may also take the imperfect, 
 denoting a continued state of things, and the pluperfect, denoting 
 the result of an action completed, in the Indicative : as, 
 
 postquam instructi utrimque stabant, duces in medium pro- 
 cedunt (Liv. i. 23), ^vhen they stood in array on both sides, 
 the generals advance into the midst. 
 
 P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Div. in 
 Csec. 21), -when Africanus had been [i.e. had the dignity of 
 having been] twice consul and cetisor. 
 
 postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perficiendi 
 dabatur, ad Pompeium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), w/ie?i this 
 seemed too hard, and no means of effecting it were given, they 
 passed over to Pompey. 
 
 post diem quintum quam barbari iterum male pugnaverant 
 (= victi sunt), legati a Boccho veniunt (Jug. no), the Jifth 
 day after the barbarians 'were beaten the second time, envoys 
 came from Bocchus. 
 
 2. Rarely these particles denote relative time, and take the 
 Subjunctive : as, 
 
 posteaquam maximas aedificasset ornassetque classes (Manil. 
 4), having built and equipped mighty fleets. 
 
 b. Cum (quom), TEMPORAL, meaning when, introduces both 
 absolute and relative time, and takes either mood, the Indica- 
 tive of the present and perfect, the Subjunctive of the imperfect 
 and pluperfect: as, 
 
 cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servi (Rose. Am. 
 
 61), when Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. 
 nempe eo [lituo] regiones direxit turn cum urbem condidit 
 (Div. i. 17), he traced with it the quarters [of the sky] at the 
 time he founded the city. 
 cum servili bello premeretur (Manil. n), -when she [Italy] was 
 
 under the load of the Servile war. 
 inde cum se in Italiam recepisset (id. 12), when he had returned 
 
 thence to Italy. 
 
 cum incendisses cupiditatem meam . . . turn discedis a nobis 
 (Fam. xv. 21), while you had inflamed my eager ?iess, yet you 
 withdrew from us. 
 
 NOTE. The Present takes the Indicative because present time is 
 generally, from its very nature, defined in the mind ; and it is only 
 when the circumstances are described as causal or adversative (see 
 below, 65, 2, e) that the Subjunctive is used. The Perfect takes 
 the Indicative as the tense of narrative, as with postquam, &c. The 
 Imperfect and Pluperfect are, from their nature, fitter to denote rela- 
 tive time. 
 
62: 2.] RELATIONS OP TIME. 179 
 
 REMARK. ! But the imperfect and pluperfect may denote 
 absolute time, and then are in the Indicative : as, 
 
 res cum haec scribebam erat in extremum adducta discrimen 
 (Fam. xii. 6), at the time I write [epistolary] the affair -was 
 brought into great hazard. 
 
 quern quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo 
 (Cat. iii. 7), when -was about forcing him [conative im- 
 perfect] from the city, I looked forward to this. 
 
 fulgentes gladios hostium videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum 
 irruebant (Tusc. ii. 24), the Decii saw the flashing swords of 
 the enemy when they rushed upon their line. 
 
 turn cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 7), 
 at that time, when many had lost great fortunes in Asia. 
 
 2. When the clauses are inverted, so that the real temporal 
 clause becomes the main clause, and vice versa, the Indicative 
 must be used : as, 
 
 dies nondum decem intercesserant, cum ille alter filius infans 
 necatur (Clu. 9), ten days had not yet passed, when the other 
 infant son was killed. 
 
 hoc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familiae repente in 
 publicum procurrerunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing 
 to do this by night, when the women suddenly ran out into the 
 streets. 
 
 3. With Future tenses, there is no distinction of absolute or 
 relative time ; and hence the Indicative is used : as, 
 
 non dubitabo dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode 
 facere potero (Fam. xiii. i), I shall not hesitate to take pains 
 to see you, when I can do it conveniently. 
 
 longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), that long time 
 when I shall be no more. 
 
 In the other tenses, the distinction is of late origin : hence in 
 Plautus quom always takes the Indicative except where the Sub- 
 junctive is used for other reasons. 
 
 c. In narration aiitequam and priusquam also, in late writ- 
 ers, dum and donee have the same construction as cum: as, 
 
 antequam tuas legi litteras (Att. ii. 7), before I read your letter. 
 nee ante finis fuit quam concessere (Liv. viii. 13), there was no 
 
 end until they yielded [regular with non ante quam, &c.]. 
 antequam homines nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, 
 
 in Macedonian! perrexi (Plane. 41), before those evil men 
 
 could learn of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia. 
 nee obstitit falsis donee tempore ac spatio vanescerent (Tac. 
 
 Ann ii. 82), nor did he contradict the falsehoods till they died 
 
 out through lapse of time. 
 
 REMARK. In reference to future time, these particles take tfye 
 present and future perfect indicative ; rarely the future indica- 
 tive and present subjunctive : as, 
 
180 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2. 
 
 prius quam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca 
 
 dicam (Phil. ii. i), before I reply to the rest, I -will say a 
 
 little of friendship. 
 non defatigabor ante quam illorum ancipites vias percepero 
 
 (De Or. iii. 36), I shall not iveary till I have traced out their 
 
 doubtful -ways. 
 
 In a few cases the subjunctive of protasis seems to be used : as, 
 
 priusquam incipias consulto et ubi consulueris mature facto 
 opus est (Sail. Cat. i), before beginning you need reflection, 
 and after reflecting, prompt action. 
 
 tempestas minatur antequam surgat (Sen. Ep. 103), the storm 
 threatens before it rises. [Compare 59, 5, a.~] 
 
 d Dum, donee, and quoad, implying purpose, take the sub- 
 junctive ( 64) ; otherwise, except in later writers, the indica- 
 tive. Dum and dummodo, provided, take the subjunctive : as, 
 
 dum hsec geruntur (B. G. i. 46), while this was going on. 
 
 donee rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31), there was silence 
 until he returned. 
 
 dum res maneant, verba fingant (Fin. v. 29), so long as the facts 
 remain, let them fashion words. 
 
 hoc feci dum licuit, intermisi quoad non licuit (Phil. iii. 13), 
 / did this so long as it was allowed, I discontinued so long as 
 it was not. 
 
 dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum elegans (Brut. 82), pro- 
 vided it be polished, rejined, elegant. 
 
 REMARK. With all temporal particles, the Subjunctive is often 
 found, depending on other principles of construction. 
 
 e* Cum CAUSAL, meaning since, while, or although takes 
 the subjunctive (often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, prae- 
 sertim): as, 
 
 cum solitude . . . insidiarum et metus plena sit (Fin. i. 20), 
 
 since solitude is full of treachery and fear. 
 cum primi ordines .'. . concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqui 
 
 resistebant (B. G. vii. 62), though the jirst ranks had fallen, 
 
 still the others resisted vigorously- 
 nee reprehendo : quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionem non 
 
 fugerim (Att. x. 3), I do not blame it: since I myself did not 
 
 escape that blame. 
 
 But frequently in the sense of quod, on the ground that, it takes 
 the Indicative : as, 
 
 gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. xi 14), 
 I congratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella. 
 
 NOTE. This causal relation is merely a variation of the idea of 
 time, where the attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause. 
 
63: I, 2.] CAUSE OR REASON. 181 
 
 /. Cum . . . turn, signifying both . . . and, usually take the 
 Indicative ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, 
 it may have the Subjunctive : as, 
 
 cum multa non probo, turn illud in primis (Fin. i. 6), -while 
 there are many things I do not approve, there is this in chief. 
 
 cum res tota ficta sit pueriliter, turn ne efficit quidem quod vult 
 (ib.), while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not 
 even make his point. 
 
 63. CAUSE OR REASON. 
 
 Causal clauses may take the Indicative or Subjunc- 
 tive according to their construction ; the idea of Cause 
 being contained not in the mood itself, but in the form 
 of the argument, or the connecting particles. 
 
 1. The Causal Particles quod, quia, quoniam, quando 
 and in early Latin cum (causal) take the Indicative: as, 
 
 quia postrema sedificata est (Verr. iv. 53), because it was built 
 
 last. 
 utinam ilium diem videam, cum tibi agam gratias quod me 
 
 vivere coegisti (Att. iii. 3), O that I may see the day when I 
 
 may thank you that you have forced me to live. 
 quoniam de utilitate jam diximus, de efficiendi ratione dicamus 
 
 (Or. Part. 26), since we have now spoken of [its] advantage, 
 
 let us speak of the method of effecting it. 
 quando ita vis di bene vortant (Trin. 573), since you so wish, 
 
 may the gods bless the undertaking. 
 quom tua res distrahitur utinam te redisse salvam videam 
 
 (id. 617), since your 1 property is torn in pieces, oh, that I 
 
 may see you returned safely ! 
 
 2. Clauses introduced by these particles, like any other 
 dependent clause, take the Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse 
 (see 67, i). 
 
 a. A relative clause of characteristic, with its verb, in the sub- 
 junctive, may have the force of a causal sentence (see 65, 2). 
 
 & The particle cum, when used in a causal sense, idiomatically 
 takes the Subjunctive ( 62, 2, e). 
 
182 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [64: I. 
 
 64. PURPOSE. 
 
 * 
 
 1. FINAL CLAUSES, or those expressing purpose, take the 
 Subjunctive after relatives (qui = ut is), or the conjunction 
 Ut (uti), in order that (negatively lit lie or ne, lest) : as, 
 
 ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 
 
 4), they brought Cincinnatus from the plotigh, that he might 
 
 be dictator. 
 scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 56), he 'wrote 
 
 speeches for other men to deliver. 
 huic ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum reliquisti 
 
 (Quinct. 22), you have left him no ground even to make a 
 
 stand against you. 
 
 nihil habeo quod scribam, I have nothing to 'write. 
 habebam quo confugerem (Fam. iv. 6), / had [a retreat] 
 
 'whither I might Jlee. 
 
 ut ne sit impune (Mil. 12), that it be not 'with impunity. 
 ne qua ejus adventus procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that 
 
 no sign of his arrival may be made at a distance. 
 
 REMARK. Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correl- 
 ative in the main clause : as, 
 
 legum idcirco omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus 
 (Clu. 53), for this reason ive are subject to the laws, that ive 
 may be free. 
 
 ea causa . . . ne, for this reason, lest, &c. 
 
 NOTE. As ut (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut 
 is the same as that of relatives. That with ne is perhaps, in origin, 
 a hortatory subjunctive. 
 
 a* The ablative quo (= ut eo) is used as a conjunction in final 
 clauses, especially with comparatives : as, 
 
 libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 3), he 
 availed himself of liberty, that he* might bluster 'with more 
 impunity. 
 
 Compare quominus ( ut eo minus), after verbs of hinder- 
 ing ( 65, i, a). 
 
 & The Principal clause, upon which a final clause depends, is 
 often to be supplied from the context : as, 
 
 ac ne longum sit ... jussimus (Cat. iii. 5), and, not to be 
 tedious, we ordered, &c. [strictly, " not to be tedious, I say."] 
 
 sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus, . . . (Tusc. v.22), but to return 
 to Dionysius, &c. 
 
 satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 5), it 'was 
 the act of one rash enough, not to say daring. 
 
64: 2. 65.] CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT. 183 
 
 REMARK. To this principle belongs nedum, still less, not to 
 mention that, with which the verb itself is often omitted : as, 
 
 nedum . . . salvi esse possimus (Clu. 35), much less could -we 
 
 be safe. 
 nedum isti . . . non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et 
 
 flagitii (Leg. Ag. ii. 35), far more will they hunt up at once 
 
 some sort of crime and scandal. 
 nedum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy 
 
 at sea, and on a journey. 
 
 Final clauses easily become the object of verbs of wishing, 
 commanding, &c. (see 68). 
 
 2. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in 
 various ways ; but never (except rarely in poetry) by the 
 simple Infinitive, as in English. The sentence, they came to 
 seek peace, may be rendered 
 
 (1) venerunt ut pacem peterent . . . [final clause with ut] ; 
 
 (2) qui pacem peterent [final clause with Relative] ; 
 
 (3) ad petendum pacem (rare) [gerund with ad]; 
 
 (4) ad petendam pacem [gerundive with ad] ; 
 
 1 (5) pacem petendi causa* [gerund with causa]; 
 
 (6) pacis petendae causa [gerundive with causa] ; 
 
 (7) pacem petituri [future participle (not in Cicero)] ; 
 
 (8) pacem petitum [former supine]. 
 
 * Or gratia. 
 
 65o CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT. 
 
 1. CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES, or those expressing result, 
 take the Subjunctive after relatives or the conjunction ut, so 
 that (negatively, ut non) : as, 
 
 nemo est tarn senex, qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat. 
 
 M. 7)5 no one is so old as not to think he can live a year. 
 nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quae noceat nemini 
 
 (Tusc. iii. 8), for innocence is such a quality of mind as to do 
 
 harm to no one. 
 sunt alise causae quae plane emciant (Top. 15), there are other 
 
 causes, such as to bring to pass. 
 
 REMARK. A negative result is expressed by ut non. Some- 
 times, when the result is regarded as intended (though not a pur- 
 pose), ut ne or ne is used : as, 
 
 [librum] ita corrigas ne mihi noceat (Fam. vi. 7), correct the 
 book so that it may not hurt me. 
 
184 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [65: 1,2. 
 
 hoc est ita utile ut ne plane illudamur ab accusatoribus (Rose. 
 Am. 20), this is so useful, that tve are not utterly mocked by 
 the accusers {i.e., only on this condition]. 
 
 The subjunctive with quominus (= ut eo minus) may be 
 used, to express a result, after verbs of hindering : as, 
 
 nee aetas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat. 
 M. 17), nor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in 
 tilling the ground. 
 
 & A clause of result is introduced by quin after general 
 negatives, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae, quod) non; 
 also after clauses denoting hindrance, resistance, doubt, and sus- 
 pension of effort (when these clauses are also negative) : as, 
 
 non dubitoquin, I do not doubt that [dubito an, 7 'doubt -whether]* 
 aegre (vix) abstinui quin, I hardly refrained from, &c. 
 nihil impedit quin . . ., there is nothing to prevent, &c. 
 abesse non potest quin (Or. 70), /'/ cannot be but that. 
 nihil est illorum quin [=quod non] ego illi dixerim (Plaut. 
 Bac. iii. 9), there is nothing of this that I have not told him. 
 
 REMARK. The above clauses of result easily pass into Substan- 
 tive Clauses, for which see 70. 
 
 2. A relative clause of Result is often used to indicate a 
 characteristic of the antecedent, even where the idea of result 
 can be no longer perceived. This is especially common 
 where the antecedent is otherwise undefined : as, 
 
 neque enim tu is es, qui qui sis nescias (Fam. v. 12), for you 
 
 are not such a one, as not to know ivho you are. 
 multa dicunt quae vix intelligant (Fin. iv. i), they say many 
 
 things such as they hardly understand. 
 paci quse nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est consulen- 
 
 dum (Off. i. n), we must always aim at a peace which shall 
 
 have no plots. 
 unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 
 
 15), there was nothing left, from which an embankment could 
 
 be put together. 
 
 NOTE. These cases of result are to be distinguished from the In- 
 definite Relative in protasis ( 59, i). 
 
 Such relative clauses of characteristic are used in several 
 idiomatic constructions : viz., 
 
 After general expressions of existence and non-existence, 
 including questions implying a negative : as, 
 
 erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. xvi. 29), there were 
 some who pitied Helvidius. 
 
65: 2. 66.] INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 185 
 
 quis est qui id non maximis e'fferat laudibus (LseU 7), who is 
 
 there that does not extol it with the highest praises f 
 sunt alia? causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 15), there are other 
 causes which clearly effect, &c. 
 
 b* After unus and solus : as, 
 
 nil admirari prope res est una solaque qua? possit facere et 
 servare beatum (Hor. Ep. i.t>), to 'wonder at nothing is almost 
 the sole and only thing that can make and keep one happy. 
 
 c. After comparatives followed by quam : as, 
 
 majores arbores csedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. 
 
 xxviii. 5), they cut larger trees than -what a soldier could 
 
 carry. 
 Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem 
 
 (Brut. 18), the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent 
 
 nature. 
 
 d. In expressions of restriction or proviso, introduced by 
 Relatives : as, 
 
 quod sciam, so far as I know. 
 
 Catonis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 17), the 
 speeches of Cato^ at least such as I have discovered. 
 
 servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servitutis 
 (Cat. iv. 8), there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable con- 
 dition of slavery. 
 
 e. When the quality indicated is connected with the action of 
 the main clause, either as Cause on account of which (since) , or as 
 Hindrance in spite of which (although): as, 
 
 O virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 69), oh, guileless 
 man, who hides nothing from us ! 
 
 egomet qui sero Grsecas litteras attigissem tamen compjures 
 Athenis dies sum commoratus (De Or. 18), I myself , though 
 I began Greek literature late, yet, dec. [lit., a man who~]. 
 
 /. Dignus, indignus, aptus, idoneus, take a clause of result 
 with a relative (rarely with ut) ; in the poets the Infinitive : as, 
 
 idoneus qui impetret (Manil. \Q>), fit to obtain. 
 
 dignum notari (Hor. Sat. i. 3), worthy to be stigmatized. 
 
 66. INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 
 
 A Relative or other subordinate clause takes the 
 Subjunctive, when it expresses the thought of some 
 other person than the speaker or writer, or when it is 
 an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalent 
 Infinitive. 
 
186 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [66: I, 2. 
 
 1. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses to 
 express the thought of some other person 
 
 tt. In subordinate clauses in Indirect Discourse (see 67) . 
 & When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, 
 a command, or a question expressed indirectly, though not indirect 
 discourse proper : as, 
 
 animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 6), an animal feels 
 
 'what it is that is fit. 
 
 hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet 
 ac pungat, ut evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 2), he begs you to 
 pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day 
 and night. [Here the relative clause is not a part of the 
 Purpose expressed in evellatis^ but is an assertion made by 
 the subject of postulat.'} 
 
 When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb 
 of saying, or some modifier of it : as, 
 
 nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer iis minatur (Verr. iii.67), 
 
 he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. 
 
 [Here the main clause, "that he will inflict punishment," is 
 
 contained in minatur.~\ 
 prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni 
 
 (id. iv. 14), the forbidding to take away unless he came to 
 
 terms gave force to the bargain. 
 
 d. With a reason or an explanatory fact introduced by a rela- 
 tive or by quod (rarely quia) :*as, 
 
 Favonius mihi quod defendissem leviter succensuit (Att. iii. i), 
 
 Favonius gently chided me for my defence. 
 Psetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit 
 
 (id.), Pcetus presented me all the books his father had left. 
 REMARK.. Under this head, even what the speaker himself 
 thought under other circumstances may have the subjunctive. So 
 also with quod, even the verb of saying may take the subjunctive. 
 To this use also belong non quia, non quod, introducing a reason 
 expressly to deny it. Non quo, non quin, introduce a result clause, 
 but with nearly the same meaning as non quod : as, 
 
 pugiles ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia . . . (Tusc. ii. 
 
 23), boxers groan not -with pain, but, &c. 
 non quia philosophia , . . percipi non posset (id. i. i), not that 
 
 philosophy cannot be found, &c. 
 non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Verr. ii. 9), not that this is 
 
 necessary. 
 
 NOTE. This usage probably originates in apodosis, the condition 
 being the supposed truth of the speaker, the main subject. 
 
 2. A clause depending upon another subjunctive clause 
 (or equivalent Infinitive) will also take the subjunctive if it 
 is regarded as an integral part of that clause : as, 
 
66: 2. 67.] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 187 
 
 non ptignabo quominus utrum velis eligas (Div. C. 18), I 'will 
 not oppose your taking 'which you will. 
 
 imperat, dum.res adjudicetur, hominem ut asservent : cum 
 judicatum sit, ad se adducant (Verr. iv. 22), he orders them 
 'while the affair is under judgment '; to keep the man ; 'when he 
 is judged-, to bring him to him. 
 
 etenim quis tarn dissolute animo est, qui haec cum videat, 
 tacere ac neglegere possit (Rose. Am. n) , for -who is so reck- 
 less of spirit, that when he sees these things, he can keep silent 
 and pass them by ? 
 
 si tibi hoc Siculi dicerent, nonne id dicerent quod cuivis pro- 
 bare deberent (Div. C. 6), if the Sicilians said this to 
 you, -would they not say a thing -which they must prove to 
 everybody ? 
 
 mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in prceliis 
 interfecti (Or. 44), *'/ is the custom at Athens for those to be 
 publicly eulogized -who have been slain in battle. 
 
 NOTE. The subjunctive in this use is either a Protasis or Apodosis, 
 and partakes of the nature of the clause on which it depends, or 
 at least of its original nature. In all cases except purpose and result, 
 this is clearly seen. In these, the case is undoubtedly the same ; as 
 the Purpose has, of course, a future sense, and the Result is a branch 
 of apodosis. (See "Essay on the Latin Subjunctive/' page 27.) 
 
 It is often difficult to distinguish between this construction and the 
 preceding. Tims, in imperat ut ea fiant quce opus essent, essent may 
 stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse (under i, 6) ; or 
 it may stand for erunt, and will then be Protasis (under 2). 
 
 
 67. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 
 
 A Direct Quotation is one which gives the exact 
 words of the original speaker or writer. An Indirect 
 Quotation is one which adapts the original words to 
 the construction of the sentence in which they are 
 quoted. 
 
 REMARK. The term INDIRECT DISCOURSE (oratio obliqua) 
 is used to designate all clauses even single clauses in a sentence 
 of different construction which indirectly express the word or 
 thought of any person other than the speaker or writer, or even 
 his own under other circumstances. But it is more strictly used 
 to include those cases only in which the form of Indirect Quotation 
 is given to some complete proposition or citation, which may be 
 extended to a narrative or address of any length, as found in the 
 Speeches of Caesar and Livy, the form being dependent on some 
 word of saying, &c., with which it is introduced. 
 
 The term DIRECT DISCOURSE (oratio recta) includes all other, 
 forms of expression, whether narration, question, excla, 
 command. 
 
188 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: I. 
 
 1. Indirect Narrative. In a Declaratory Sentence in- 
 indirect discourse, the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and 
 its subject in the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take 
 the Subjunctive : as, 
 
 esse nonnullos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), 
 there are some, whose influence most prevails. [In direct dis- 
 course, sunt nonnulli . . . valet.~\ 
 
 nisi jurasset, scetus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. i. 
 47), he thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take 
 the oath [direct, nisijuravero,faciam\. 
 
 Stoici negant quidquam esse bonum, nisi quod honestum sit 
 (Fin. ii. 21), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what 
 is right. [The verb nego is used in preference to dice with 
 a negative.] 
 
 a. Subject- Accusative. The subject of the infinitive in 
 Indirect Discourse must regularly be expressed, even though it is 
 wanting in the Direct : as, 
 
 orator sum, I am an orator ; [dicit] se esse oratorem, [he says] 
 he is an orator. 
 
 But rarely, it is omitted, when it would be easily understood : as, 
 
 ignoscere imprudentia dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned 
 their rashness. 
 
 rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum : dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv. 
 12), / asked -whether they [the curtains] had come to Agri- 
 gentum : he answered that they had. 
 
 REMARK. After a relative, or quani (than), where the verb 
 would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, 
 and its subject is attracted into the accusative : as, 
 
 te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat. 
 M. i), I suspect that you are disturbed by the same things as /. 
 
 fr. Relative Clauses. A subordinate clause merely explana- 
 tory, and containing statements which are regarded as true inde- 
 pendently of the quotation, takes the Indicative. It often depends 
 merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he will use the in- 
 dicative or subjunctive : as, 
 
 quis neget hsec omnia quae videmus deorum potestate admm- 
 istrari (Cat. iii. 9), who can deny that all these things we see 
 are ruled by the power of the gods ? 
 
 cujus ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 9), 
 by whose genius he thought that those deeds which he had done 
 could be celebrated. [Here the fact expressed by quce gesserat, 
 though not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard to 
 the quotation : qua gessisset would mean, what Marius 
 thought he had done.] 
 
67: I.} INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 189 
 
 REMARK. Some clauses introduced by relatives are really 
 independent, and take the accusative and infinitive. Rarely, also, 
 subordinate clauses take this construction. The infinitive con- 
 struction is regularly continued after a comparative with quam : as, 
 Marcellus requisivisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern cum 
 audisset interfectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 58), Mar- 
 cellus is said to have sought for Archimedes, and when he 
 heard that he was slain, to have been greatly distressed. 
 unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse par- 
 tem, ex quo [= et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. 19), 
 the philosophers say that each one of us is a part of the uni- 
 verse, from which this naturally follows. 
 
 quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habi- 
 turum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii. 
 J 3) [be says] as in case the hostage is not given up he will 
 consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return 
 her unharmed to her friends. 
 
 addit se priiis occisum iri ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii. 
 20), he adds that he himself will be killed by him, before 1 
 shall be injured. 
 
 The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam. 
 (see 70). WT^^- 
 
 Conditional Sentences. In a conditional se^mce, the 
 Indicative in APODOSIS is in any case representejl^By the \ 
 spending tense of the Infinitiye. The Subjunctive is represen 
 by the Future Participle with fuisse for the pluperfect, and the 
 Future Infinitive for the other tenses (compare the use of the par- 
 ticiple in urus with fui for the pluperfect subjunctive). The 
 PROTASIS, as a dependent clause, is in all cases Subjunctive : as, 
 se non defuturum [esse] pollicetur, si audacter dicere velint 
 (B. C. i. i), he promises not to fail, if they iv ill speak their 
 minds boldly [non dee'ro si voletis]. 
 
 NOTE. The future infinitive, representing the imperfect subjunc- 
 tive in Protasis, is for some reason very rare, and only four or five 
 examples occur in classic authors. On the contrary, the form with 
 fuisse is quite common. 
 
 d , Questions. A Question coming immediately after a verb 
 of asking or the like is treated as an Indirect Question (see 
 below, 2) ; but questions generally rhetorical coming in 
 course of a long indirect discourse are treated like Declaratory 
 Sentences : as, 
 
 num etiam recentium injuriarum memoriam fse] deponere 
 posse (B. G. i. 14], could he lay aside the memory of recent 
 wrongs? [num possum?] 
 
 quern signum daturum fugientibus? quern ausurum Alexandro 
 succedere (Q^C. iii. 5), who will give the signal on the re- 
 treat ? who will dare to succeed Alexander ? 
 
190 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: 2. 
 
 REMARK. Generally real questions, expecting an answer 
 (chiefly in the second person), take the subjunctive. Questions 
 asked by the dubitative subjunctive must retain the subjunctive 
 (see 2, b) : as, 
 
 quid sibi vellent (B. G. i. 44), 'what did they -want? [quid 
 vultis?] 
 
 2. Indirect Questions. An Indirect Question takes its 
 verb in the Subjunctive: as, 
 
 quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 6), / will explain '-what I 
 
 think [direct, quid sentio~\. 
 id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 7), he consulted -whether it could 
 
 be done [direct, potestne~\. 
 quarn sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 31), 
 
 all could understand how bold you are. 
 doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 12), it is of no 
 
 account 'whether I suffer or not. 
 incerti quidnam esset (Jug. 49), uncertain what it 'was. 
 
 REMARK. An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause, 
 introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, or particle), 
 depending immediately on a verb, or on any expression implying 
 uncertainty or doubt. 
 
 In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin- 
 guished from interrogative, as in the third example given above. 
 
 The Future Indicative is represented in indirect questions 
 by the participle in urus with the subjunctive of esse, rarely by 
 the simple subjunctive : as, 
 
 prospicio qui cdncursus futuri sint (Div. in CZEC.), I foresee 
 
 'what throngs there will be [erunt]. 
 quid sit futurum eras, fuge quserere (Hor. Od. i. 9), forbear to 
 
 ask what will be on the morrow [erit, or futurum est]. 
 
 & The Dubitative Subjunctive referring to future time remains 
 unchanged except in tense : as, 
 
 [quaeritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, an Carthaginiensibus 
 
 reddatur (De Inv. i. 12), [the question is] shall Carthage be 
 
 destroy ed* or restored to the Carthaginians. 
 nee quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat 
 
 (Liv. xxii. 7), nor is any one assured what he shall hope or 
 
 fear. [Here the participle with sit could not be used.] 
 incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), since it was 
 
 doubtful [abl. abs ] what they should seek or shun. 
 
 c. The Subject of an indirect question is often, in colloquial 
 usage and in poetry, attracted into the main clause as Object 
 (accusative of anticipation) : as, 
 
 n6sti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10), you know 
 how slow Marcellus is. In like manner, 
 
67: 2, 3-] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 191 
 
 potestne igitur earum rerum quare futurae sint ulla esse prse- 
 sensio (Div. ii. 5), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as 
 to those things, -why they will occur ? 
 
 REMARK. In some cases the Object becomes Subject by a 
 change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and inter- 
 rogative construction is the result : as, 
 
 quidam saspe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves 
 
 (Lael. 17), it is often seen, in a trifling matter of money, how 
 
 unprincipled some people are. 
 quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt 
 
 (Leg. Ag. i. 2), it has been shown by me in what way they 
 
 attacked Pompey. 
 
 d. In early Latin and poetry, questions which elsewhere would 
 have the Subjunctive as indirect often have the Indicative : as, 
 
 non reputat quid laboris est (Amph. 172), he does not consider 
 
 what a task it is. 
 vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato R.R 6), 
 
 in what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus. 
 
 NOTE. These cases are usually considered Direct questions ; but 
 they occur (as above) where the question cannot be translated as 
 direct without distortion of the meaning. 
 
 A few expressions properly interrogative are used idiomati- 
 cally as indefinites, and do not take a subjunctive : such are nescio 
 quis, &c., mirum (or nimirum) quam or quantum, immane 
 quantum, &c. : as, 
 
 qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc. 
 
 iii. 6), who greatly extol that painlessness (whatever it is). 
 mirum quantum profuit (Liv. ii. i), it helped marvellously. 
 
 / Occasionally, a virtual indirect question is introduced by si 
 in the sense of whether (like ifm English) : as, 
 
 circumfunduntur hostes, si quern aditum reperire possent 
 (B. G. vi. 37), the enemy pour round [to see] if they can find 
 entrance 
 
 visam si domi est (Heaut. 118), I will go see if he is at home. 
 
 3. Indirect Commands. All Imperative forms of speech 
 I take the Subjunctive in indirect discourse : as, 
 
 i reminisceretur veteris incommodi populi Romani (B. G. 13), 
 remember [said he] the ancient disaster, &c. [reminiscere]. 
 
 I ne committeret ut (ib.), do not [said he] bring it about [ne 
 commiseris]. 
 
 \ finem orandi faciat (id. 20), let him make an end of entreaty 
 [fac]. 
 
192 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 
 
 [68. 
 
 The following example may serve to illustrate some of the fore- 
 going principles in a connected address : 
 
 Indirect Discourse. Direct Discourse. 
 
 Si pacem populus Ronianus 
 cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn 
 partem ituros atque~ ibi futuros 
 Helvetiosf\\\A eos Caesar con- 
 stituisset atque esse voluisset : 
 sin bello persequi perseveraret, 
 reminisceretur et veteris incom- 
 modi populi Romani, et pris- 
 tinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod 
 improviso unum pagum ador- 
 tus esset, cum ii qui flumen 
 transissent suis auxilium ferre 
 non possent) ne ob earn rem aut 
 suce magno opere virtuti tribue- 
 ret, aut ipsos dcspiceret : se ita 
 a patribus majoribusque suis 
 didicisse* ut magis virtute quam 
 dolo contenderent, aut insidiis 
 niterentur. Quare ne commit- 
 teret, ut is locus ubi constitissent 
 ex calamitate populi Romani et 
 internecione exercitus nomen 
 caperet, aut memoriam pro- 
 deret. B. G.4. 13. 
 
 Si pacem populus Romanus 
 cum Helvetiis faciet, in earn 
 partem ibunt atque sy ibi erunt, 
 Helvetii, ubi eos Caesar constit- 
 eritfSitque esse voluerit: sin 
 bello persequi perseverabit, 
 reminiscere [inquit] et veteris 
 incommodi populi Romani, et 
 pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. 
 Quod improviso unum pagum 
 adortus es, cum ii qui flumen 
 transierant suis auxilium ferre 
 non possent, ne ob earn rem 
 aut tuae magno opere virtuti 
 tribueris, aut nos despexeris : 
 nos ita a patribus majoribusque 
 nostris didicimus, ut magis vir- 
 tute quam dolo contendamus, 
 aut insidiis nitamur. Quare, 
 ne commiseris, ut hie locus ubi 
 constitimus ex calamitate populi 
 Romani et internecione exerci- 
 tus nomen capiat, aut memo- 
 riam prodat. 
 
 68. WISHES AND COMMANDS. 
 
 1. WISHES are expressed by the Subjunctive, often 
 strengthened by the particles ut, utinam, si (early Latin), 
 qui ; the primary tenses being used in reference to future 
 time, the secondary to express a hopeless wish, the imper- 
 fect in present time, the pluperfect in past (see 57, 4). 
 
 REMARK. A periphrasis with velim, vellem, &c., is some- 
 times used (57, 4, c). 
 
 2. COMMANDS are expressed by the Imperative or Sub- 
 junctive ( 57, 3, 7) ; PROHIBITIONS by the Subjunctive, or 
 by a periphrasis with noli or cave ( 57, 7, a). The object 
 of the command is given in a purpose-clause ( 70, 3) with 
 ut or ne, except after jubeo and veto ( 70, 2). 
 
 3. Indirectly quoted, all these forms of speech take the 
 Subjunctive (see 67, 3). 
 
69. 70.] CLAUSES. 
 
 9. RELATIVE CLAUSES. 
 
 Wb 
 
 1. A simple relative, merely introducing a descriptive fact, 
 takes the Indicative. 
 
 2. The Subjunctive appears more or less frequently in 
 many relative clauses (which have been already treated). 
 These relatives always either (1) are general relatives of 
 Protasis ; or (2) express some logical connection between the 
 relative and antecedent, or (3) have no effect at all upon the 
 construction* These constructions are 
 
 ! General or Future Conditions in Protasis ( 59, 60, 61). 
 
 2. a. Final Clauses ( 64). 
 
 &. Consecutive Clauses ( 65). 
 
 c* Relatives of Characteristic ( 65, 2). 
 
 d* Relatives implying Cause or Hindrance ( 65, 2, e). 
 
 Temporal Clauses of relative time (62, 2). 
 
 3. a. Intermediate Clauses ( 66). 
 
 &. Clauses in Indirect Discourse ( 67) . 
 
 70. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 
 
 A Substantive Clause is one which, like a noun, 
 is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition 
 with a subject or object. 
 
 REMARK. The Infinitive with the Accusative, though not 
 strictly a Clause, is equivalent to one, and may be treated as 
 such. 
 
 When a substantive clause is used as Subject, the verb to which 
 it is subject is called Impersonal ( 39), and its sign, in English, 
 is IT ; when it is used as Object, it generally follows some verb 
 of knowing, fyc. ( 67, i) or of wishing or effecting, and its sign, 
 in English, is THAT, or TO (Infinitive). 
 
 1. Classification. Substantive Clauses are of four 
 kinds: 1. The Accusative with the Infinitive, denoting an 
 idea as thought, or spoken ( 67, i) ; 2. Indirect Questions 
 (67, 2) ; 3. The Subjunctive with ut, ne, quo, quin, or 
 
 9 
 
194 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 1,2. 
 
 quominus, denoting purpose or result; 4. The Indicative 
 with quod, denoting a fact. But the Infinitive alone may 
 take the place of either 1 or 3. 
 
 2. Accusative and Infinitive. The Accusative with 
 the Infinitive is used as the Object 1. Of all verbs and 
 expressions of knowing, thinking, and telling (Indirect Dis- 
 course, 67, i) ; 2. Of jubeo and veto, and rarely of other 
 verbs of commanding, requesting, admonishing, and the like ; 
 3. Sometimes of verbs of wishing: as, 
 
 dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. I. 22), he says that the 
 
 height is held by the enemy. 
 negat ullos patere portus (Liv. xxviii. 43), he says that no ports 
 
 are open. 
 Labienum jugum mentis adscendere jubet (id. 21), he orders 
 
 Labiemis to ascend the ridge of the hill. 
 judicem esse me non doctorem volo (Ov. 33), I -wish to be a 
 
 judge, not a teacher. 
 
 a* ' After Passives. If the main verb is changed to the pas- 
 sive, either (1) the Subject of the infinitive (like other objects of 
 active verbs) becomes nominative, and the infinitive is retained ; or 
 (2) the passive is used impersonally, and the clause retained 
 as its Object. With verbs of saying, &c,, the former construction 
 is more common, especially in the tenses of incomplete action ; 
 with jubeo and veto it is always used : as, 
 
 primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 13), they first 
 
 are related to have joined words 'with a certain skill. 
 jussus es renuntiari consul (Phil. ii. 32), you -were under orders 
 
 to be declared consul. 
 in lautumias Syracusanas deduci imperantur (Verr. v. 27), 
 
 they are ordered to be taken to the stone-pits of Syracuse. 
 hie accusare non est situs (Sest. 44), he -was not allowed to 
 
 accuse. 
 praedicari de se ac nominari volunt (Arch. 10), they -wish to be 
 
 talked of and known by name. [Here the passive is used 
 
 impersonally.] 
 voluntaria morte interisse creditus est (Tac. H. iv. 67), he was 
 
 thought to have perished by voluntary death. 
 nuntiatur piratarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 24), it is 
 
 told that the ships of the pirates are in port. 
 
 & The poets extend the use of the passive to verbs which are 
 not properly verba sentiendi: as, 
 
 colligor dominse placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), it is gathered 
 [from this memorial] that I pleased my mistress. 
 

 70: 2, 3-] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 195 
 
 c. Such indirect discourse may depend on any word implying 
 speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of saying, &c. : as, 
 
 eos redire jubet: se in tempore adfuturum esse (Liv. xxiv. 13), 
 he orders them to return [promising] that he will be at hand 
 in season. 
 
 orantes ut urbibus saltern jam enim agros deploratos esse 
 opem senatus ferret (id. xvi. 6), praying- that the senate 
 'would bring aid to the cities for the fields [they said] were 
 already given up as lost. 
 
 d. Verbs of promising, expecting, threatening, swearing, and 
 the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, 
 contrary to the English idiom ( 67, I, a) ; but sometimes a simple 
 complementary infinitive : as, 
 
 me spero liberatum [esse] metu (Tusc. ii. 27), / trust I have 
 
 been freed from fear. 
 minatur sese abire (Asin. iii. 3), he threatens to go away. 
 
 [Direct, abeo, I am going away, ,] 
 ex quibus sperant se maximum fructum esse captures (Lsel. 21), 
 
 from which they hope to gain the utmost advantage. 
 quern inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondeo (Mur. 
 
 41), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of 
 
 enemies. 
 dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusc. v. 27), pain 
 
 threatens to wear down fortitude. 
 
 pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hos- 
 tages [compare Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs.] 
 
 3. Clauses of Purpose. The clause with ut (nega- 
 tive lie), developed from PURPOSE, is used as the Object of 
 all verbs denoting an action directed towards the future. 
 Such are 
 
 a. Verbs of commanding, asking, admonishing, urging, and 
 in general those denoting an influence upon some one ( 64). 
 These verbs rarely take the Infinitive (except jubeo and veto, 
 which take it regularly) : as, 
 
 his uti conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 2), he ordered them to 
 
 search. 
 monent ut omnes suspiciones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to 
 
 avoid all suspicion. 
 
 b. Verbs of wishing and the like. These take also the simple 
 Infinitive ; more commonly when the subject remains the same, less 
 -commonly when it is different (see 2, above) : as, 
 
 cupio ut impetret (Capt. i. 2), I wish he may get it. 
 cum nostri perspici cuperent (B. G. iii. 21), when our men 
 wished it to be seen. 
 
196 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 3. 
 
 mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 6), I would rather you 
 
 feared Cerberus. 
 quos non tarn ulcisci studeo quam sanare (Cat. ii. 8), whom I 
 
 do not care so much to punish as to cure. 
 
 c. Verbs of permission, concession, and necessity. These take 
 also the Infinitive : as, 
 
 permisit ut partes faceret (De Or. ii. 90), permitted him to 
 make divisions. 
 
 vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow 
 wine to be imported. 
 
 nullo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), he suffered him- 
 self to be tangled in no business. 
 
 sint enim oportet si miseri sunt (Tusc. i 6), they must exist, if 
 they are wretched. 
 
 REMARK. The clause with licet (usually without ut) is 
 regularly used to express a concession in the sense of although. 
 
 d. Verbs of determining, resolving, bargaining, which also 
 take the Infinitive. Those of decreeing often take the participle 
 in dus, on the principle of indirect discourse : as, 
 
 edicto ne quis injussu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded 
 that none should fight without orders. 
 
 pacto ut victorem res sequeretur (id. xxviii. 21), having bar- 
 gained that the property should belong to the victor. 
 
 Regulus captivos reddendos non censuit (Off. i. 13), Regulus 
 voted that the captives should be returned. [He said, in giv- 
 ing his opinion, captivi non reddendi sunt.~\ 
 
 e. Verbs of caution and effort. Those denoting an effort to 
 hinder may also take quominus or ne : as, 
 
 cura et provide ut nequid ei desit (Att. ii. 3), take care and see 
 
 that he lacks nothing. 
 non deterret sapientem mors quominus . . . (Tusc. i. 38), death 
 
 does not deter the wise man from, &c. 
 ne facerem impedivit (Fat. i. i}, prevented me from doing. 
 
 /. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with ne affirmative 
 and ne non or ut negative : as, 
 
 ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared he 
 
 should offend the mind, &c. 
 vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 9), I fear I cannot 
 
 grant you. 
 baud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet 
 
 (Tusc. v. 40), there is no danger of his not thinking death 
 
 desirable. 
 
 REMARK. The particle ut or ne is often omitted, generally 
 after verbs of wishing, necessity, permission ; with cave, die, fac ; 
 and in indirect discourse, frequently after verbs of commanding 
 and the like. 
 
70: 4-] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 197 
 
 gr. With any verbs of the above classes, the poets may use the 
 Infinitive : as, 
 
 hortamur fari (&n. ii. 74), we exhort [him] to speak. 
 
 4. Clauses of Result. The clause with lit (negative 
 ut non, &c.), developed from RESULT, is used as the Object 
 of verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort : as, 
 
 commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), he made 
 it possible that supplies could be bought. [Lit., he effected 
 that, &c.] 
 
 a. The substantive clause becomes the Subject of such verbs 
 in the passive ; and hence is further used as the subject of verbs 
 denoting it happens, it remains, it follows, and the like ; and even 
 of the simple esse in the same sense, and other phrases : as, 
 
 sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 32), the next thing is to show, &c. 
 accidit ut esset plena luna (B. G. iv. 29), it chanced to be full 
 
 moon. 
 
 accedit ut conturber (Deiot. i), besides this I am troubled. 
 reliquum est quarta virtus ut sit ipsa frugalitas (id.), it remains 
 
 that the fourth virtue is thrift. 
 quando fuit ut quod licet non liceret (Gael. 20), 'when was it 
 
 that 'what is now allowed was not allowed ? 
 
 b. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows 
 quam, after a comparative : as, 
 
 perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. i. 22), he 
 endured all, rather than betray, &c. 
 
 c. A result clause with ut is often used elliptically, in ex- 
 clamations, with or without -ne (compare 57, 8, g) : as, 
 
 quanquam quid loquor? te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. <)-,yet 
 
 why do I ask i that anything should bend you ! 
 egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 18), what, I interrupt you f ' 
 
 REMARK. The infinitive, in exclamations, usually refers to 
 something actually occurring ; the subjunctive to something con- 
 templated. 
 
 d. The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the 
 case], besides a subject-clause (substantive) with ut, regularly 
 takes another ut-clause (of result) depending on tantum : as, 
 
 tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac mor- 
 osi simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 
 29), so far from admiring our o^vn matters, we are difficult 
 and captious to that degree, that not Demosthenes himself 
 satisfies us. [Here the first ut-clause depends directly on 
 abest j the second on tantum ; and the third on usque eo.~\ 
 
198 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 4. 
 
 e. The expressions facere ut, committere ut, often form a 
 periphrasis for the simple verb (compare fore ut for the future 
 infinitive) : as, 
 
 invitus feci ut Flamininum e senatu eicerem (Cat. M. 12), it 
 was -with reluctance that I expelled, &c. 
 
 /, Rargly, a thought or idea is considered as a result, and 
 takes the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infini- 
 tive (in this case a demonstrative usually precedes) : as, 
 
 altera est res, ut . . . (Off. i. 20), the second point is that, &c. 
 
 praeclarum illud est, ut eos . . . amemus (Tusc. iii. 29), this is 
 a noble thing, that we should love, &c. 
 
 quae est igitur amentia, ut . . . -what folly is there then in de- 
 manding, &c. 
 
 (/, Verbs and other expressions which imply hindering and the 
 like, may take quin when the main verb is negative, formally or 
 virtually: as, 
 
 facere non possum quin . . . (Att. xii. 27), I cannot avoid, &c. 
 
 nihil praetermisi quin scribam . . . (Q^ F. iii. 3), / have left 
 nothing undone to write. 
 
 ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2), that I might be hin- 
 dered by nothing from, &c. 
 
 non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin (Sail. Ep. Mith. 
 17), no human or divine laws prevent, but that, &c. 
 
 REMARK. This usage is found especially with the phrase non 
 dubito and similar expressions making a kind of indirect dis- 
 course : as, 
 
 non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2), he did not doubt 
 that we believed him. 
 
 illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20), do not 
 doubt that I will do all. 
 
 quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 27), who is ignorant that, &c. ? 
 
 neque ambigitur quin Brutus pessimo publico id facturus fue- 
 rit si priorum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Livy, ii. i), 
 nor is there any question that Brutus, if he had wrested the 
 kingdom from any one of the former kings, would have done it 
 with the worst results to the state [direct discourse, fecisset\. 
 
 h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of 
 saying as well as of commanding or effecting and the like, and 
 may be construed accordingly : as, 
 
 sequitur illico esse causas immutabiles (Fat. 12), it follows 
 directly that there are unalterable causes. [The regular 
 construction with sequor used of a logical sequence.] 
 
 laudem sapientise statuo esse maximam (Div. v. 13), / hold 
 that the glory of wisdom is the greatest. 
 
70: 5-] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 199 
 
 statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittantur (B. G. xii. 21), 
 they resolve that 10,000 men shall be sent. 
 
 res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself -warned 
 that it was time [monere ut, -warn to do something}. 
 
 fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. i. 27), suppose that I am per- 
 suaded of that [facere ut, accomplish thaf\. 
 
 hoc volunt persuadere non interire anitnos (B. G. vi. 13), they 
 -wish to convince that souls do not perish. 
 
 huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. iii. 18), persuades 
 him to pass over to the enemy. 
 
 NOTE. The infinitive, with a subject, in this construction is in- 
 direct discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive 
 sometimes found with these verbs. 
 
 5. Indicative with quod. The clause in the Indicative 
 with quod is used (more commonly as Subject) when the 
 statement is regarded as a fact : as, 
 
 alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium 
 conferunt (Off. i. j6), it is another fault, that some bestow too 
 much zeal-, &c. [Here ut with the subjunctive could be 
 used, meaning that they should, or the accusative and infin- 
 itive, meaning to more abstractly; quod makes it a fact that 
 men do, &c.] 
 
 inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal 
 agit aliquid (Ac. ii. 12), there is this chief difference, &c., 
 that an animal has an aim. 
 
 quod rediit nobis mirabiie videtur (Off. iii. 31), that he [Reg- 
 ulus] returned seems wonderful to us. [Redisse would mean 
 he should have returned.] 
 
 a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod appears as 
 an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English 
 WHEREAS : as, 
 
 quod de domo scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of 
 the house. 
 
 quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis 
 pra3claris operibus laetari (Att. i. 5), as to your congratulat- 
 ing me on our condition, no wonder you are pleased with your 
 pwn noble works. 
 
 b. Verbs of feeling and its expression take either quod (quia) 
 or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : as, 
 
 quod scribis .. .gaudeo(Q 1 F. iii. i). I am glad that you write. 
 quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. Am. 47), I greatly 
 
 rejoice that this is finished. 
 facio libenter quod earn non possum praeterire (Leg. i. 24). / 
 
 am glad that I cannot pass it by. 
 
 RKMARK. Rarely, an apparent substantive clause, with miror 
 
 and similar expressions, is introduced by si (really a Protasis) : as, 
 
 miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael. 15), I should 
 
 wonder if he could ever have a friend. 
 
200 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [71 : I, 2. 
 
 71. QUESTIONS. 
 
 Questions are introduced by Interrogative Pronouns, 
 Adverbs, or Particles, and are not distinguished by 
 the order of words, as in English. 
 
 The Interrogative Particles are, an, utrum, num, and the 
 enclitic -ne (see page 86). For other interrogative words, see 
 list, page 49. 
 
 1. Interrogative f articles. The enclitic -ne is used 
 in questions asked for information merely ; nonne, when the 
 answer yes, and num when the answer no, is expected or im- 
 plied: as, 
 
 meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. i. 3), do you remember 
 
 my saying in the senate f 
 nonne animadvertis quam multi salvi pervenerint (N. D. iii. 
 
 37), do you not observe how many have come through safe ? 
 num dubium est (Rose. Am. 37), there is no doubt, is there f 
 
 REMARK. The interrogative particle is sometimes omitted: 
 as, 
 
 patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. i), do you not see that 
 your plans are manifest ? 
 
 a. In Indirect Questions, num loses its peculiar force : as, 
 
 qusero num aliter evenirent (Fat. 3). / ask whether they 
 would turn out differently. 
 
 b. The form of Indirect questions is the same as that of Direct ; 
 the difference being only in the verb, which regularly takes the 
 subjunctive ( 71, 2). 
 
 REMARK. In English, indirect questions are introduced by 
 interrogatives, or by the particle whether. 
 
 c. The enclitic -ne is often added to interrogative words when 
 not required : as, utrumne, numne, anne. 
 
 d. The expressions nescio an, dubito an, and the like, incline 
 to the Affirmative, / don't know but. 
 
 2. Double Questions. In Double or Alternative Ques- 
 tions, utrum or -ne, whether, stands in the first member ; an, 
 anne, or ; annon, necne, or not, in the second : as, 
 
 utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), don't you 
 know ? or do you think nothing of it ? 
 
71:2,3-] QUESTIONS. 201 
 
 quaere servosne an liberos (Rose. Am. 27). / ask -whether 
 slaves or free. [Here servos aut liberos would mean, were 
 there any, either slaves or free.] 
 
 REMARK. In direct questions, annon is more frequently 
 found in the alternative ; in indirect, necne. 
 
 a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem- 
 ber ; when -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second : as, 
 
 Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio (Manil. 19), shall I say to Ga- 
 
 binius or to Pompey f 
 sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 18), are these your words 
 
 or not ? 
 
 b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied ; and an 
 (anne) alone asks a question usually with indignation or sur- 
 prise : as, 
 
 an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 7), -what I do you think those 
 men wretched? 
 
 c* The second member may be omitted, when utrum asks a 
 question to which there is no alternative : as, 
 
 utrum in clarissimis est civibus is quem. . . . (Place. 19), is he 
 among the noblest citizens, whom, &c. 
 
 d. The following exhibits the various forms of alternative 
 questions : 
 
 utrum ... an 
 
 ... an (anne) 
 
 -ne ... an 
 
 
 3. Question and Answer. As there is no word in 
 Latin meaning simply yes or no, in answering a question the 
 verb is generally repeated : as, 
 
 valetne, is he well f valet, yes (he is well). 
 
 eratne tecum, was he with you ? non erat, no (he was not). 
 
 a. An intensive or negative particle is sometimes used in 
 answer to a direct question : thus immo (nay but) , vero (in 
 truth) , or etiani (even so) may have the meaning of yes ; and non 
 (not), or minime (least-of-all) , of no. 
 
 b. In the answer to an alternative question, one < member of 
 the alternative must be repeated : as, 
 
 tune an frater erat, was it you or your brother ? 
 ego [eram], it was I. 
 
 NOTE. Tune aut pater would mean, was it either of you? 
 
202 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: I. 
 
 72. PARTICIPLES. 
 
 The Participle expresses the action of the verb in 
 the form of an adjective ; but has a partial distinction 
 of tense, and generally governs the case of its verb. 
 
 1. Distinctions of Tense. The Present participle de- 
 notes the action as not completed; the Perfect as completed ; 
 the Future as still to take place. 
 
 a* Present. The Present participle has several of the irregu- 
 lar uses of the present indicative (compare 58, 2) : as, 
 
 quaerenti mihi jamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem 
 
 (Fam. iv. 13), though 1 had long soztght, no certain thing came 
 
 to my mind (cf. ib. a}. 
 C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 4), he 
 
 resisted Flaminius while attempting to divide, &c. (cf. ). 
 iens in Pompeianum bene mane hsec scripsi (Att. iv. 9), / 
 
 'write this when about going- to my place at Pompeii (cf. c). 
 
 Hence it is used in late writers to denote purpose. 
 
 b. Perfect. The Perfect participle of a few deponent verbs 
 is used nearly in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly, 
 ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, fisus, ausus, secutus, and 
 occasionally others, especially in later writers : as, 
 
 cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, 
 
 he showed, &c. 
 
 iratus dixisti (Mur. Tp),you spoke in a passion. 
 oblitus auspicia (Phil. i. 13), forgetting the auspices. 
 insidias veritus (B. G. ii. n), fearing ambuscade. 
 imperio potitus (Liv. xxi. 2), holding the command. 
 ad pugnam congressi (id. iv. 10), meeting in fight. 
 rem incredibilem rati (Sail. C. 48), thinking it incredible. 
 
 c. The present participle, wanting in the Passive, is usually 
 supplied by a clause with dum or cum ; rarely by the participle 
 in dus: as, 
 
 Die, hospes, Spartse, nos te hie vidisse jacentes, 
 Dum sanctis patrise legibus obsequimur. 
 
 Tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that -we lie here obedient to our 
 country's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a transla- 
 tion of the Greek nettiontvoi.'] 
 
 crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set 
 on fire [compare note under 73]. 
 
72 2, 3-] PARTICIPLES. 203 
 
 2. Adjective use. The present and perfect participles 
 are used sometimes as attributes, nearly like adjectives : as, 
 
 cum antiquissimam sententiam turn comprobatam (Div. i. 5), 
 
 a view at once most ancient and approved. 
 signa nunquam fere ementientia (id. 9), signs hardly ever 
 
 deceitful. 
 auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. 15), they use forced auspices. 
 
 a. Thus they are used, like adjectives, as nouns : as, 
 
 sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Leg. i. 13), the self- 
 indulgent, and slaves to the body. 
 
 recte facta paria esse debent (Par. iii. i), right deeds ought to 
 be like in value. 
 
 male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 27), ill got, ill spent. 
 
 consuetude valentis (De Or. ii. 44), the habit of a man in health. 
 
 b. So, also, they are connected with nouns by esse and simi- 
 lar verbs : as, 
 
 videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et 
 moliens (Cat. M. 8), you see how busy old age is, always 
 aiming and trying at something. 
 
 Gallia est omnis divisa (B. G. i. i), all Gaul is divided. 
 
 locus qui nunc saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now 
 enclosed. 
 
 c. From this adjective use arise the compound tenses of the 
 passive, the participle of completed action with the incomplete 
 tenses of esse developing the idea of past time : as, 
 
 interfectus est, he was (or has been} billed, lit., he is having- 
 beeri- killed [i.e., already slain]. 
 
 cL. In the best writers (as Cicero) this participle, when used 
 with the tenses of completed action, retains its proper force ; but 
 in later writers the two sets of tenses (as, amatus sum or fui) 
 are often used indiscriminately : as, 
 
 [leges] cum quce latse sunt turn vero quce promulgate fuerunt 
 (Sest. 25), the laws, both those which -were proposed, and 
 those which were published. [The proposal of the laws was 
 a single act: hence latce sunt is a pure perfect. The publish- 
 ing, or posting, was a continued state, which is indicated by 
 promulgates, and fuerunt is the pure perfect.] - 
 
 arma quse fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. 
 i. 34)5 the arms which had been fastened on the walls were 
 found upon the ground. [Compare occupati sunt et fuerunt 
 (Off. i. 17) : the difference between this and the preceding 
 is, that occupatus can be used only as an adjective.] 
 
 3. Predicate use. The Present and Perfect participles 
 are often used as a predicate, where in English a clause 
 
204 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: 3. 
 
 would be used to express time, cause, occasion, condition, 
 concession, characteristic, manner, circumstance: as, 
 
 vereor ne turpe sit dicere incipientem (Mil. i), I fear it maybe 
 
 a dishonor [to me] 'when beginning to speak. 
 salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 7), you have restored 
 
 a safety -which we did not hope. 
 nemo ei neganti non credidisset (Mil. 19), no one -would have 
 
 disbelieved him 'when he denied. 
 
 REMARK. This use is especially frequent in the Ablative Ab- 
 solute (see 54, 10, 6 and Note). A co-ordinate clause is some- 
 times compressed into a perfect participle ; and a participle with 
 a negative expresses the same idea which in English is given by 
 without: as, 
 
 imprudentibus nostris (B. G. v. 15), while our men were not 
 
 looking. 
 miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 5), it is -wretched 
 
 to vex one's self without effecting anything. 
 instructos ordines in locum aequuin deducit (Sail. C. 59), he 
 
 draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground. 
 ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), that he might carry 
 them over and put them to death. 
 
 a. A noun and passive participle are often so united that the 
 participle and not the noun contains the main idea (compare the 
 participle in indirect discourse in Greek : G. 280) : as, 
 
 ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city 
 
 was built or building. 
 
 illi libertatem civium Romanorum imminutam non tulerunt; 
 vos vitam ereptam negligetis (Manil. 5), they did not endure 
 the infringement of the citizen^ liberty ; will you disregard 
 the destruction of their life ? 
 
 So with opus : as, 
 opus est viatico facto (Plaut. Trin.), there is need of laying in 
 
 provision. 
 
 maturato opus est (Livy viii. 13), there is no need of haste. 
 [Here there is no noun, as the verb is used impersonally.] 
 
 &. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) 
 is almost the same in meaning as a perfect active : as, 
 
 fidem quern habent spectatam jam et diu cognitam (Div. C. 4), 
 my fidelity, which they have proved and long known. 
 
 (Hence the perfect with have in modern languages.) 
 
 C. The perfect participle, with verbs of effecting, effort, or 
 the like (also with volo where esse may be understood, cf. 70, 
 3, 6), expresses more forcibly the idea of the verb : as, 
 
 proefectos suos multi missos fecerunt (Verr. iv. 58), many dis- 
 charged their officers. 
 
72: 4, S-] PARTICIPLES. 205 
 
 hie transactum reddet omne (Capt. 345), he -will get it all done. 
 me excusatum volo (Verr. i. 40), I 'wish to be excused. 
 
 d. The present participle is sometimes nearly equivalent to an 
 infinitive, but expresses the action more vividly (after facio, in- 
 duco, and the like, used of authors, and after verbs of sense) : as, 
 
 Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. n), Xenophon 
 represents Socrates disputing. 
 
 4. Future Participle. The Future Participle (except 
 futurus and venturus) is rarely used in simple agreement 
 with a noun, except by later writers. 
 
 a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse in a peri- 
 phrastic conjugation (see 40, a) : as, 
 
 morere, Diagora, non enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. 
 46), die, for you are not likely to go to heaven. 
 
 conclave illud ubi erat mansurus si ... (Div. 1^15), that cham- 
 ber 'where he 'would have staid if, &c. 
 
 sperat adolescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 19), the young man 
 hopes to live long ( 67, i). 
 
 neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 20), 
 and seemed unlikely ever to seek the consulship. 
 
 By later writers it is also used in simple agreement to express 
 likelihood or purpose, or even an apodosis : as, 
 
 cum leo regem invasurus incurreret (Q C. viii. i), -when a 
 
 lion rushed on to attack the king. 
 
 rediit belli casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. xvii. 62), he re- 
 turned to try the chances of war anew. 
 
 ausus est rem plus famae habituram (Liv. ii. 10), he dared a 
 thing 'which 'would have more repute. 
 
 [See also examples in 59, i, 5.] 
 
 6. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often 
 equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive ( 59, 3, e). 
 
 5. Gerundive. The Gerundive, in its participial or ad- 
 jective use, denotes necessity or propriety. 
 
 a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and per- 
 fect participles, in simple agreement with a noun : as, 
 
 fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 38), a brave man, and 
 'worthy to be preserved. 
 
 & The most frequent use of the gerundive is with esse in a 
 second periphrastic conjugation ( 40, 6) : as, 
 
 non agitanda res erit (Verr. vi. 70), -will not the thing have to 
 be agitated? 
 
206 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [73: I, 2i 
 
 REMARK. The gerundive in this construction is passive in 
 meaning. But in early Latin, and occasionally elsewhere, it is 
 used impersonally, governing the accusative ; and it is regularly so 
 used with utor, fruor, &c., governing the ablative (sometimes 
 called the nominative of the gerund) : as, 
 
 via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 2), the way we 
 
 have to enter. 
 agitandumst vigilias (Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard. 
 
 [Compare Greek verbal in -reog, G. 281.] 
 
 It is also used to denote purpose after verbs signifying to 
 give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand: as, 
 redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 
 21), the contractor 'who had undertaken to make that column 
 [the regular construction with this class of verbs]. 
 sedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 50), he had the 
 
 temple of Castor to take care of. 
 naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. vi. 56), 
 
 he took care that the ships and cargoes should be kept. 
 For the Gerundive after verbs of decreeing, see 70, 3, d. 
 For the ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE, see 54, 10, 6. 
 
 73. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 
 
 1. Gerund* The Gerund is a verbal noun, retaining the 
 government of the verb, and modified by adverbs, but in 
 grammatical construction following the same rules as nouns. 
 
 REMARK. The use of the Gerund, in the oblique cases, cor- 
 responds to the use of the Infinitive as Subject ( 57, 8, a) , its 
 nominative form being found only in the impersonal use of the 
 participle in dus: as, 
 
 ars bene disserendi et vera ae falsa dijudicandi (De Or. ii. 38), 
 the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and 
 false. [Here the Verbal nouns discoursing and distinguish- 
 ing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the 
 infinitive disserere and dijtidicare.^\ 
 
 juveni parandum. seni utendum est (Sen. Ep. 36), it is for the 
 young to get, for the old to enjoy (compare 51, 3, 4). 
 
 2. Gerundive. When the gerund would have an object 
 in the accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead, 
 agreeing with the noun, and in the case which the gerund 
 would have had : as, 
 
 paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to 
 undergo all dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, 
 which is itself governed by ad: the construction with the 
 gerund wouW be, ad subeundum, &c. ; ad governing the 
 gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative pericula.~\ 
 
73: 2, 3-] GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 207 
 
 exercendae memorise gratia (Off. i. if), for the sake of training 
 the memory. [Here the gerund construction would be, exer- 
 cendi memoriam.~\ 
 
 REMARK. The verbs utor, fruor, &c. ( 54, 6, d), are 
 treated like verbs governing the Accusative, as they do in early 
 Latin : as, 
 
 expetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 8), riches 
 
 are sought for the enjoyment of pleasure. 
 
 NOTE. The gerundive construction is probably the original one. 
 The Participle in dus seems to have had a present passive force as in 
 secundus (from sequor), rotundus, volvendis, annis (Virg.), flaminandi 
 (Tac.), from which the idea of necessity was developed through that 
 of futurity, as in the development of the subjunctive. Consilium urbis 
 delendaz would thus have meant a plan of a city being destroyed [in 
 process of destruction], then about to be destroyed, then to be de- 
 stroyed, then a plan of destroying the city, the two words becoming 
 fused together as in ab urbe conditd. The gerund is simply an imper- 
 sonal use of the participle, in its original present sense, retaining the 
 case of its verb, as in agitandum est vigilias ; quid opus est facto ? 
 
 3* Construction. The Gerund (if of transitive verbs, 
 with a noun in government) and the Gerundive (with a noun 
 in agreement) are used, in the oblique cases, in the construc- 
 tions of nouns, as follows : 
 
 a. Genitive. The Genitive is used after nouns or adjectives 
 in the constructions of the objective genitive ( 50, 3) ; more 
 rarely in the predicate after esse, or as a genitive of quality : as, 
 
 neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. 
 iv. 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for 
 taking arms [objective genitive after spatio~\. 
 ne conservandse quidam patrise causa (Off. i. 45), not even in 
 
 order to save the country. 
 
 vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 20), it is the best end of life. 
 non tam commutandarum rerum quam evertendarum cupidos 
 (id. ii. i), desirous not so much of changing as of destroying 
 the state. 
 
 quae res evertendae reipublicas solent esse (Verr. iii. 53), which 
 
 things generally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth. 
 
 cognoscendse antiquitatis (Ann. ii. 59), to study old times. 
 
 [Here gratia is, by a rare construction, omitted.] 
 The genitive of the Gerund is, in a few cases, used (like a noun) 
 with the genitive of an object agreeing neither in gender nor 
 number : as, 
 
 ejus videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec.), eager to see her. fC-Cof** f 
 reiciendi trium judicum potestas (Inv. ii. 2), the power of 
 
 challenging three jurors. 
 
 REMARK. In the genitive, the construction of the gerund and 
 gerundive are about equally common. 
 
208 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [73: 3. 
 
 b. Dative. The Dative is used after the adjectives (and 
 rarely nouns) which are followed by the dative of nouns ( 51, 6) ; 
 also, in a few expressions after verbs : as, 
 
 prseesse agro colendo (Rose. Am. 18), to take charge of tillage. 
 
 esse solvendo, to be able to pay. 
 
 genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a 
 
 sort of armor suited to the defence of the body. 
 reliqua tempora demetiendis fructibus et percipiendis accom- 
 modata sunt (Cat. M. 19), the other seasons are fitted to reap 
 and gather in the harvest. 
 diem prsestituit operi faciendo (Verr. ii. 56), he appointed a day 
 
 for doing the work. 
 
 It is also used in certain phrases belonging to the civil law, after 
 nouns meaning officers, offices, elections* &c. : as, 
 
 comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 17), elections for nomin- 
 ating consuls. 
 triumvirum coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for 
 
 leading out colonies. 
 
 Accusative. The Accusative is used after the prepositions 
 ad, inter, circa, ob (rarely in and ante) ; most frequently after 
 ad, denoting purpose (compare 72, 4) : as, 
 
 vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam 
 (Cat. i. 2), you live, not to put off, btit to confirm your daring. 
 inter agendum (Eel. ix. 24), iv/iile driving. 
 me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 10), you call me to ivrite. 
 d* Ablative. The Ablative is used to express means or in- 
 strument ; also manner (often by later writers, in a sense equiv- 
 alent to the present participle) ; after comparatives ; and after the 
 prepositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro and cum: as, 
 multa pollicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large 
 
 promises. 
 
 his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 7), by reading these very things. 
 nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. 
 
 i. 15), no duty is more important than gratitude. 
 in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 6), to be employed in affairs. 
 Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 34), equal to any man in 
 
 speaking Latin. 
 nullis virtutis praeceptis tradendis (Off. i. 2), 'without giving 
 
 any precepts of virtue. 
 obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv. 
 
 i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude. 
 REMARK. The gerund is occasionally found in apposition with 
 a noun : as, 
 
 ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Livy, xxi. 
 3), for the most ividely different things obeying and com- 
 manding. 
 
 NOTE. From the ablative of manner comes the Italian and Spanish 
 form of the participle, the true participle form becoming an adjective. 
 
74 : i, 2.] SUPINE. 209 
 
 74, SUPINE. 
 
 The Supine is a verbal noun, having no distinction 
 of tense or person, and is limited to two uses. 
 
 NOTE. The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension. 
 The form in um is the accusative of the end of motion. The form 
 in u is probably dative of purpose, though possibly ablative. 
 
 1. Former Supine. The Supine in um is used after 
 verbs of motion to express the purpose of the motion; it 
 governs the case of its verb, and is modified by adverbs : as, 
 
 quid est, imusne sessum? etsi admonitum venimus te, non 
 flagitatum (De Or. lii. 5), how now, shall we be seated? 
 though we have come to remind not to entreat you. 
 
 nuptum collocasse (B. G. i. 18), to establish in marriage. 
 
 venerunt questum injurias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain 
 of wrongs. 
 
 REMARK. The supine in um is used especially after eo; and 
 with the passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive 
 (see 55, 3, 6, Rem.) : as, 
 
 fure cives qui rempublicam perditum irent (Sail. C. 36), there 
 were citizens who went about to ruin the republic. 
 
 non Graiis servitum matribus ibo (^En. ii. 786), I shall not go 
 in slavery to the Grecian dames. 
 
 si scisset se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 9), if he [Pompey] had 
 known that he was going to be murdered. 
 
 2. Latter Supine. The Supine in u is used only after 
 a few adjectives, and the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to de- 
 note that in respect to which the quality is asserted : as, 
 
 O rem non modo visu fcedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 25), 
 
 a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of! 
 quserunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 27), they ask what is 
 
 best to do. 
 humanum factu aut inceptu (Andr. 236), a human thing to do 
 
 or undertake. 
 
 si hoc fas est dictu (Tusc. v. 13), if this is lawful to say. 
 So rarely with verbs : as, 
 
 pudet dictu (Agric. 32), it is shame to tell. 
 
 REMARK.- The supine in u is found especially with such 
 adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and 
 those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, 
 difficilis, jucundus, the construction of ad with the gerund is 
 more common. The Infinitive is often used in the same significa- 
 tion, by the poets, with all these adjectives. 
 
 
 
210 GENERAL RULES OP SYNTAX. [75. 
 
 75. GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 
 
 1. Nouns meaning the same thing agree in case ( 46) . 
 
 2. Adjectives agree with Nouns in gender, number, and case (47). 
 
 3. Possessive Adjectives are used for the genitive, and in any 
 
 case may have a genitive in agreement (47, 5). 
 
 4. Relatives agree with their antecedents in gender and number ; 
 
 their case depending on the construction of their clause (48). 
 
 5. A Verb agrees with its Subject in number and person (49). 
 
 6. Two or more singular subjects also collective nouns, with 
 
 quisque and uterque may take a plural verb (49, i). 
 
 7. The Subject of a finite verb is in the NOMINATIVE (49, 2). 
 
 8. A Noun used to limit or define another is in the GENITIVE (50). 
 
 9. The Genitive is used to denote the author, owner, source, and 
 
 (with adjectives) measure or quality (50, i). 
 
 10. Words denoting a part are followed by the genitive of the 
 
 whole to which the part belongs (50, 2). 
 
 11. Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the genitive to 
 
 express indefinite Value (50, i, i). _ 
 
 12. Many words of memory and feeling, knowledge or ignorance, 
 
 fulness and want, also verbals and participles used as ad- 
 jectives, govern the genitive (50, 3). 
 
 13. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the gen- 
 
 itive of the charge or penalty (50, 4, b). 
 
 14. The DATIVE is the case of the Indirect Object (51). 
 
 15. Words of likeness, fitness, nearness, service, or help are fol- 
 
 lowed by the dative (51, 5, 6). 
 
 16. Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, serve, trust, and their 
 
 contraries, also to believe, persuade, command, obey, envy, 
 threaten, pardon, and spare, govern the dative (51, 2, a}. 
 
 17. The Dative is used after esse, to be, to denote the Owner (51, 3). 
 
 18. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, 
 
 post, pise, pro, sub, super, govern the Dative (51, 2, d). 
 
 19. Verbs of giving, telling, sending, and the like and some- 
 
 times of comparing and taking away govern the accu- 
 sative and dative (51, i). 
 
 20. The dative is used to denote the purpose or end ; often with 
 
 another dative of the person or thing affected (51, 5). 
 
 21. The ACCUSATIVE is the case of the Direct Object (52). 
 
 22. The subject of the Infinitive mood is in the accusative (52, 4, b). 
 
 23. Time how long and Distance how far are in the accusative. 
 
 24. The accusative is used adverbially, or for specification (52, 3). 
 
 25. Verbs of naming, choosing, asking, and teaching govern two 
 
 accusatives (52, 2). 
 
75.] GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 211 
 
 26. The ABLATIVE is used of cause, manner, means, instrument, 
 
 quality, specification, and price (54). 
 
 27. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is in the ablative 
 
 with ab (54, 4). 
 
 28. Words denoting separation and plenty or want also opus 
 
 and usus signifying need govern the ablative (54, i). 
 
 29. Participles denoting birth or origin govern the ablative (54, 2, a). 
 
 30. The adjectives dignus, indignus, with many verbals, as 
 
 contentus, fretus, laetus, praeditus, govern the abla- 
 tive (54, 3, a; 10, a). 
 
 31. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and 
 
 their compounds, govern the ablative (54, 6, d). 
 
 32. Comparatives may tg,ke the ablative instead of quam, than. 
 
 33. Degree of Difference is put in the ablative (54, 6, e). 
 
 34. Time at or within which is put in the ablative (55, i). 
 
 35. Ablative Absolute. A Subject and Predicate in the ablative 
 
 are used to define the time or circumstances of an action. 
 
 36. The name of the Town where is in form like the Genitive of 
 
 singular names in us, a, um, otherwise Dative or Ablative ; 
 that tvhither in the Accusative, and whence in the Ablative. 
 
 So of domus, rus (also humi, belli, militia}, and many names of Islands. 
 
 37. With other words (including names of Countries) Prepositions 
 
 are used to denote where, whither, or whence. 
 
 38. The Infinitive is used like a neuter noun, as the Subject or 
 
 Object, or to complete the action of a verb (57, 8, a). 
 
 39. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative, is regularly used after 
 
 verbs of knowing, thinking, telling, and the like (57, 8, e). 
 
 40. Historical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for 
 
 tenses of the indicative in narration (57, 8, h). 
 
 41. The Gerund, governing the case of its verb, or the Gerundive in 
 
 agreement with a noun, has the construction of a verbal noun. 
 
 42. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion ; the Supine 
 
 in u after adjectives. 
 
 43. The Subjunctive is used independently to denote a wish, com- 
 
 mand, or concession (57, 2). 
 
 44. Relatives or Conjunctions implying purpose or result, also 
 
 relative clauses of characteristic, require the Subjunctive. 
 
 45. Indirect Questions take a verb in the subjunctive (67, 2). 
 
 46. The Subjunctive present and perfect are used in future condi- 
 
 tions ; the imperfect and pluperfect in those contrary to fact. 
 
 47. Dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse, or in a subjunctive 
 
 construction, take the subjunctive. 
 
 48. In the sequence of Tenses, primary tenses are followed by 
 
 primary, and secondary by secondary (58, 10). 
 
212 ARRANGEMENT. [76:1,2. 
 
 76. ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 In Latin the words do not follow the order of con- 
 struction, yet they have a regular arrangement. This, 
 however, is constantly modified for emphasis, harmony, 
 and clearness. 
 
 1. Normal Order. Regularly the subject stands first, 
 followed by its modifiers ; the verb last, preceded by the words 
 which depend upon it : as, 
 
 civis Romanus sum (not sum civis Romanus). 
 
 voluptates blandissimae dominae majores partes animi a vir- 
 
 tute detorquent (Off. ii. 10). 
 
 a* A predicate nominative, as the most important part of the 
 predicate, is often placed after the copula : as, 
 qui Athenis est mortuus (id. 24). 
 hsec ad judicandum sunt facillima (id. iii. 6). 
 &. The forms of esse meaning there is, &c. 9 often come first 
 in the sentence : as, 
 
 sunt qusedam officia quae aliis magis quam aliis debeantur 
 (Off. i. 18). 
 
 c. A numeral adjective, or one essential to the meaning of the 
 phrase, goes before its noun; one simply descriptive commonly 
 follows : as, 
 
 omnes homines decet. 
 
 est viri magni rebus agitatis punire sontes (Off. i. 24). 
 
 omnis actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentia (id. 29). 
 
 cum aliqua perturbatione (id. i. 38). 
 
 Lselius et sapiens et amicitiae gloria excellens (Lael. i). 
 
 d* A Demonstrative pronoun precedes the noun, Relatives stand 
 first in their sentence or clause, Adverbs stand directly before the 
 word they qualify. 
 
 2. Emphasis. Inversion of the above order gives em- 
 phasis. 
 
 a. Particularly the verb comes first and the subject last. This 
 makes either or both emphatic : as, 
 
 dicebat idem C. Curio (Off. ii. 17). 
 
 & Any word closely connected with the preceding sentence 
 comes first, and with the following last : as, 
 
 ac duabus iis personis quas supra dixi tertia adjungitur (Off. 
 i. 32). 
 
76:2,3-] ARRANGEMENT. 213 
 
 objecit [Cato] ut probrum M. Nobiliori quod is in provinciam 
 
 poetas duxisset; duxerat autem consul ille in JEtoliam ut 
 
 scimus Ennium (Tusc. i. 2). 
 maxime perturbantur officia in amicitiis ; quibus et non tri- 
 
 buere quod recte possis, et tribuere quod non sit aequum, 
 
 contra officium est (Off. iii. 10). 
 
 A word or phrase inserted between the parts of compound 
 tenses becomes emphatic : as, 
 
 ille reprehensus a multis est (N. D. ii. 38). 
 
 d. A modifier of a noun and adjective or participle is often 
 placed between them. So in the gerundive construction : as, 
 
 de communi hominum memoria (Tusc. i. 24). 
 
 de uno imperatore contra praedones constituendo (Manil. 17). 
 
 e. Sometimes a noun and its attribute are separated as far as 
 possible, so as to include less important words : as, 
 
 objurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessariae (Off. 
 i. 38). 
 
 /. One pair of ideas is set off against another, either in the 
 same order or in exactly the opposite order. The latter, which 
 is very common, is called chiasmus from the Greek X on account 
 of the cross arrangement. Thus, 
 
 , rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. iii. 3, 31). 
 pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur (B. G. vi. 16). 
 leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos 
 
 (Fin. iii. 3). 
 non igitur utilitatem amicitia, sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta 
 
 est (Lael. 14). [Here the arrangement of cases only is 
 
 chiastic, that of ideas is regular.] 
 
 g. Different forms of the same word are often placed together, 
 also words from the same root. 
 
 h* A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by 
 which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the 
 other. This is often joined with chiasmus : as, 
 
 et superjecto pavidse natarunt aequore damae (H. Od. i. 2, n). 
 arma nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus (id. ii. i, 5). 
 
 3. Special Rules. 
 
 a. Prepositions regularly precede their nouns (except terms 
 and versus), but they are often placed between a noun and ad- 
 jective : as, 
 
 quern ad modum ; quam ob rem ; magno cum metu ; omnibus 
 cum copiis; nulla in re. 
 
 
214 ARRANGEMENT. [76 : 3, 4. 
 
 b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence, or clause; 
 eiiim, autem, vero, quoque, never first, but usually second, 
 sometimes third if the second word is emphatic ; quidem never 
 first, but after the emphatic word : ne . . . quidem include the 
 emphatic word or words. 
 
 c. Inquam, inquit, &c., credo, opinor, quaeso, used par- 
 enthetically, always follow one or more words* 
 
 d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if 
 it belongs to no one word, it begins the sentence. 
 
 4. Structure. Latin expresses the relation of words to 
 each other by inflection, rather than by position, like modern 
 languages. Hence its structure not only admits of great 
 variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favor- 
 able to that form of sentence which is called a Period. In a 
 period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and 
 is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word, which 
 usually expresses the main action or motive. 
 
 An English sentence does not often admit this form of 
 structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and 
 beauty, by many of the early writers of English prose ; but 
 its effect is better seen in poetry, in such a passage as the 
 following : 
 
 " High on a throne of royal state, which far 
 Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, 
 Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand 
 Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
 Satan exalted sat." 
 
 Paradise Lost, Book II. 1-5. 
 
PAET THIRD. 
 RULES OF VERSE (PROSODY). 
 
 77. RHYTHM. 
 
 1. The Poetry of the ancients was not composed, like 
 modern poetry, according to accent and rhyme; but was 
 measured, like music, by the length of the syllables, or vowel 
 sounds. The measured flow of verse is called Rhythm. 
 
 2. Each syllable is considered as either long or short, 
 In Quantity or length (not in Quality or sound, as we speak 
 of the long or short vowel-sounds in English) ; a long syllable 
 JDeing reckoned in length equal to two short ones (see p. 3). 
 
 REMARK. The quantity of radical or stem-syllables as of 
 hort a in pater or of long a in mater can be learned only 
 >y observation or practice, unless determined by the general rules 
 if Quantity. Most of the rules of Prosody are only arbitrary 
 ules for the purposes of memory ; the syllables being long or 
 hort because the ancients pronounced them so. In those cases 
 yhich cannot be conveniently grouped, the quantity is shown by 
 he actual practice of the ancients, and is said to be determined by 
 he authority of the Poets, the principal means we have of learn- 
 ig it. In some inscriptions, however, the long vowels are distin- 
 uished in various ways by marks over the letters, or by doubling. 
 
 Owing to the practice of Roman poets of borrowing very 
 irgely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous 
 {reek words, especially proper names, make an important part 
 f Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accord- 
 ,nce with the Greek and not the Latin laws of quantity. Where 
 liese vary in any important point, they will be noticed in the rules 
 iven below. 
 
 78. RULES OF QUANTITY. 
 1. General Rules. 
 
 a* A vowel before another vowel is short : as, via, traho. 
 
 REMARK. The aspirate h, as in the example above, is not 
 eckoned as a Consonant in the rules of prosody (See 1, I, Note). 
 
216 PROSODY. [78: I, 2. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 1. In the genitive form ius ( 16, I, 6), i is 
 
 long. It is, however, sometimes made short in verse. 
 
 2. In the fifth declension (genitive and dative singular), e is 
 long between two vowels : as, diei; but is short after a consonant, 
 as in fidei. 
 
 3. In fio ( 37, 4), i is long except when followed by er: as, 
 flo, fiebam, fiam, fieri, fierem. 
 
 4. In the terminations aius and eius, a and e are long : as in 
 Caius, Pompeius ; also in the verb aio, and genitives in ai. 
 
 5. In many Greek proper names, the vowel in Latin represents 
 a long vowel or diphthong, and is consequently long : as, Troes, 
 Thalia, heroas. But many Greek words are more or less Latin- 
 ized in this respect as Academia, chorea. 
 
 6. A Diphthong is long : as, foedus, cui, caelum, delude. 
 
 EXCEPTION. The preposition prae in compounds is generally 
 short before a vowel (as in praeustis, ^En. vii. 524) . 
 
 c. A vowel formed by contraction (cram) is long : as i in nil 
 (for niMl) ; currus (genitive for curruis). But not where the 
 vowels are united by synceresis, as in parietibus (par-yetibus) . 
 
 d . A syllable in which a short vowel comes before two con- 
 sonants or a double consonant also before the letter j is long: 
 as, magnus, rex, pejor, it ventis ocior, (but adhuc). But 
 if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r, the syllable 
 is common, that is, it may be either long or short in verse : as, 
 allcris, pltribus, refluo. 
 
 REMARK. Sometimes the y or v resulting from synaeresis 
 has the effect of a consonant : as, fluviorum rex (G. i. 482). 
 
 e. In early Latin s at the end of words was not sounded, and 
 hence does not make position with another consonant. In many 
 other cases in the comic poets two consonants do not make posi- 
 tion, especially in pronouns and particles : as, ille, iste, nempe. 
 
 REMARK. A short syllable, made long under this rule, is said 
 to be long by Position: as, in docetne. In docesne, the same 
 syllable is long by the general rule (2, h, below). The rules of 
 Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels. 
 
 %. Final Syllables. 
 
 a. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long : as, me, 
 tu, hi, ne. 
 
 The attached particles -ne', -que, -ve, -eg, ptS, and re- (rgd-) 
 are short ; se- is long : as, secedit, exercitumque reducit. 
 
78: 2.] RULES OF QUANTITY. 217 
 
 b. Nouns of one syllable are long : as, sol, os (oris), bos, vis. 
 EXCEPTIONS. c6r, fel, mel, 5s (ossis), vir. 
 
 c. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the 
 ablative singular of the first declension ; in all other words it is 
 long: as, ea Stella (nominative), cum ea Stella; frustra, 
 voca (imperative), postea, triginta; also, qua (plural). 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. eia, ita, quia, puta (suppose); and, in late 
 use, triginta, &c. 
 
 d. Final e is short, except (1) in nouns of the fifth declen- 
 sion; (2) in adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and 
 second declension, with others of like form ; (3) in the impera- 
 tive singular of the second conjugation : as. nubS, ducite, fide, 
 fame ( 11, 6, 3), quare (qua re), hodie (hoc die), mone, 
 monete, saepe, saepissime. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. bene, male; fere, ferme; also (rarely), cave, 
 habe, tace, vale, vide; inferng, superne. 
 
 e. Final i is long : as in turri, fill, audi. But it is common in 
 mini, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubij and short in nisi, quasi, ciii (when 
 making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives, as Alexi 
 
 /" Final o is common; but long in datives and ablatives; also, 
 usually, in verbs. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. citS, mod6, ilic6, profecto, dummodo, 
 immo, eg6, du6, oct6. 
 
 g* Final u is long ; final y is short . 
 
 h* Final as, es, os, are long; final is, us, ys are short: as, 
 nefas, rupes, servos, honos; hostis, amicus, Tethys. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. as is short in Greek plural accusatives, as 
 lampadas ; and in anas. 
 
 es is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) increasing 
 short: as miles (itis), obses (idis), except abies, aries, 
 paries, pes ; in the present of esse (es, ades) ; in the preposition 
 penes ; and in the plural of Greek nouns. 
 
 os is short in compos, impos ; in some Greek endings, as 
 barbit8s ; also o for later u in the second declension, as servos 
 (nominative) . 
 
 is in plural cases is long, as in bonis, omnis (accusative 
 plural) ; in sis, vis, velis, mails, nolis ; in gratis, foris (prop- 
 erly plurals) ; in the second person singular of the fourth conjuga- 
 tion, as audis (where it is the stem-vowel) ; and sometimes in 
 the forms in -eris (perfect subjunctive), where it was originally 
 long. 10 
 
218 PROSODY. [78 : 2, 3. 
 
 us is long in the genitive singular and nominative and accusa- 
 tive plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns of the third 
 declension having u long in the stem: as virtus (utis), incus 
 (udis). 
 
 i. Of other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except 
 c, are short : as, ad, ac, istuc, am at, amatur. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. donee, fac, nee, sometimes hie ; en, non, 
 quln, sin; eras, plus; cur, par. 
 
 3. Penultimate Syllables. 
 
 a. Increment* A Noun is said to increase, when in 
 any case it has more syllables than in the nominative 
 singular. 
 
 Thus Stella is said to increase long in stellarum ; and corpus 
 to increase short in corporis. 
 
 NOTE. The rules of increment are purely arbitrary, as the 
 syllables are long or short according to the proper quantity of the 
 stem or the formative terminations. The quantity of noun stems 
 appears in the schedule of the third declension ( 11, iv. 3), and that 
 of terminations, under the various inflections where it is better to learn 
 them. 
 
 A Verb is said to increase, when in any part it has more 
 syllables than in the stem (inclusive of the final vowel). 
 
 Thus amo is said to increase long in amatis; and rego to 
 increase short in regitis. 
 
 The final syllable of an inflected word is called the termi- 
 nation ; that immediately preceding is called the increment. 
 
 Thus, in the examples given above, the penultimate syllable is 
 called the increment. In itmeribus, amaveritis, the syllables 
 marked are called the first, second, and third increments of the 
 noun or verb. 
 
 b. Nouns. In the increment of Nouns and Adjectives, a 
 and o are generally long; e, i, u, y, generally short (see list, 
 pp. 25-27) : as, aetatis, honoris, servorum ; operis, carmmis, 
 murmuris, pecudis, chlamydis. Exceptions are : 
 
 a: baccar (aris), hepar (atis), jubar (aris), lar (laris), mas 
 (maris), nectar (aris), par (paris), sal (salis), vas (vadis), daps 
 (dapis), fax, anthrax (acis). 
 
 6 : neuters of third declension (except 6s, oris) ; arbor (oris), 
 scrobs (scrobis), ops (opis). 
 
78: 3-] RULES OF QUANTITY. 219 
 
 e: increments of fifth declension; heres (edis), lex (legis), 
 locuples (etis), merces (edis), plebs (plebis), quies (etis), rex 
 (regis), ver (veris). 
 
 i: most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, felicis, radicis (except 
 filix, nix, strix); dis (ditis), glis (gllris), lis (litis), vis (vires), 
 Quirites, Sammtes. 
 
 u: forms from nouns in us: as, paludis, telluris, virtutis ; 
 also lux (lucis), frux (frugis). 
 
 c. Verbs. In the increment of Verbs (see Tables of Inflec- 
 tion, pp. 66-74), the characteristic vowels are as follows : 
 
 Of the first conjugation a : as, amare, amatur. 
 Of the second conjugation e : as, monere, monetur. 
 Of the third conjugation e, i: as, regere, regitur. 
 Of the fourth conjugation i: as, audire, auditor. 
 Exc. do and its compounds have a: as, dare, circumdabat. 
 In other increments 
 
 a is always long : as, monearis, regamus. 
 
 e is long in tense-endings : as, regebam, audiebar. But it is 
 short before ram, rim, ro ; in the future personal endings -beris, 
 bere; and sometimes in the perfect -erunt (as steteruntque 
 comae, ^En. ii. 774). 
 
 i is long in forms after the analogy of the fourth conjugation : 
 as, petlvi, lacessitus (in others short : as, monitus) ; also in 
 the subjunctive present of esse and velle, and (rarely) in the 
 endings -rimus, -ritis ; but short in the future forms amabitis, &c. 
 
 o is found only in imperatives, and is always long. 
 
 u is short in sumus, volumus, quaesiimus; in the supine 
 and its derivatives it is long : as, soluturus. 
 
 d. Perfects and supines of two syllables lengthen the stem- 
 syllable : as, jiivo, juvi, jutum; video, vidi, visum; fiigio, 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. -r- bibi, dedi (do), fidi (findo), scidi (scindo), 
 steti (sto), stiti (sisto), tiili (fero); citum (cieo), datum (do), 
 itum (eo), litum (lino), quitum (queo), ratum (reor), 
 riitum (ruo), satum (sero), situm (sino), statum (sto or 
 sisto). In some compounds of sto, statum is found long, as 
 prostatum. 
 
 e. Reduplicated perfects shorten both syllables : as, cecidi 
 (cado) , didici (disco) , cecini (cano) ; but cecidi from 
 caedo, pepedi from pedo. 
 
220 PROSODY. [78. 79. 
 
 /. Forms from the same STEM retain the original quantity : as, 
 amo, amavisti, genus, generis. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 1. bos, lar, mas, par, pes, sal, vas also 
 arbos (not arbbr) have a long vowel in the nominative from 
 short stems. 
 
 2. Nouns in or, genitive oris, have the vowel shortened before 
 the final r : as, hon6r. (But this shortening is comparatively late, 
 so that in Plautus and some inscriptions these nominatives are 
 often found long.) 
 
 3. Many verb-fbrms with original long vowel shorten it before 
 final t: as, am^t, diceret (compare amemus), audit, fit. (The 
 final syllable in t of the perfect seems to have, been originally 
 long, but to have been shortened under this rule.) 
 
 g. Forms from the same ROOT often vary in quantity from 
 vowel-increase (see 1, 3, a; 5, 2 ; 44, i, a) ; as, dico (cf. mal- 
 edicus) , duco (duels) , fldo (perfidus) , vocis (v6co) , legio 
 (lego). 
 
 /*. COMPOUNDS retain the quantity of the words which com- 
 pose them: as, occido (calo), occido (caedo), iniquus 
 (aequus) . Greek words compounded with irpo have o short, as 
 prbpheta, prologus. Some Latin compounds of pro have o 
 short, as prbficiscor, prdfiteor. Compounds with ne vary : as, 
 nefas, iiego, nequeo, iiequis, nequam. So dejero and pejero 
 from juro. 
 
 [For the quantity of Penultimate Syllables in regular Deriva- 
 tives, see 44, pages 97-99.] 
 
 79. FEET. 
 
 1. The most natural division of musical time is into inter- 
 vals, consisting of either two or three equal parts, making 
 what is called double or triple time ; but the ancients also 
 distinguished five equal parts. These intervals are in music 
 called Measures ; in prosody, they are called Feet. 
 
 2. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse con 
 sist either of two or three syllables ; and may be represented 
 by musical notation, as follows : 
 
79.] FEET. 221 
 
 a. OF Two SYLLABLES. 
 
 L I- I C 5 I ^rto C ~) : as bonus. 
 o ' r w \ 
 
 2. -i I |* J | Trochee or Choree (" w ) : as, cariis. 
 3- - I C P I I am ^ us C ~) : as bbnos. 
 
 Q I Ir I I 
 
 4. J- | Spondee (" ~) : as, caros. 
 
 5. OF THREE SYLLABLES. 
 
 L T i r * 5 1 Dactyi ( " ~ ^ : as> d5taut 
 
 2. 4- I * J * | Anapcest f w ") : as, dfcmmos. 
 
 J |* * | Amphibrach ( ) : as, amiciis. 
 
 4- - I C C C I Tribrach (" w w ) : as, h6minfe. 
 
 o ' ^ ^ ^ ' 
 
 5. -4- f r I Molossus (" " ") : as, fugerunt (rare). 
 Of three syllables, but more than three units of time. 
 
 6. I Amphimacer or Cretic ("""): as, eggrant. 
 
 7. | p f f | Bwchius ( --- ) : as, regebant. 
 
 OF FOUR SYLLABLES. 
 
 1. Choriambus (trochee, iambus) : as, detulerant. 
 
 2. Greater Ionic (spondee, pyrrhic) : as, dejecerat. 
 
 3. Lesser Ionic (pyrrhic, spondee) : as, rStulissent. 
 
 4. The first, second, third, or fourth Epitritus has a short 
 syllable in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three long 
 syllables. 
 
 5. The first, second, third, or fourth Pceon has a long syllable 
 in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three short syllables. 
 
 6. The Proceleusmatic consists of four short syllables, as 6per- 
 ibiis. 
 
 NOTE. Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, 
 or chant ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or music, often 
 to be accompanied by measured movements or dance. But in read- 
 ing, it is not usual, though it is better, to keep the sjk;t measure of 
 time; and often accent is substituted for rhythm, as ^(Pnglish poetry. 
 
222 PROSODY. [79: 2-5. 80: i. 
 
 d. In general, feet of the same time can be substituted for 
 each other, and two short syllables may stand for a long one. In 
 the latter case, the long syllable is said to be resolved. 
 
 Thus the Spondee may take the place of the dactyl or anapaest, 
 the Tribrach of the trochee or iambus ; the Proceleusmatic, or a 
 Dactyl standing for an anapaest, is the resolution of a spondee. 
 
 When a long syllable having the ictus is resolved, the ictus 
 properly belongs to both the short syllables ; but the accent to 
 indicate it is placed on the first : as, 
 
 Nunc experiar | sitite aceto | tibi cor acn? in | pdctore. 
 
 BACCH. 405. 
 
 3. Arsis and TJiesis. The accented syllable of each 
 foot is called the Arsis ; and the unaccented part the Thesis. 
 
 NOTE. The name Arsis meant originally the raising of the foot 
 in beating time (" upward beat"), and Thesis the putting down 
 ("downward beat"); but these terms came, in later use, to signify 
 respectively the raising and depression of the voice. ( See Mar. Viet. 
 Chap, ix.) 
 
 4. Ictus. Accent, in prosody, is called Ictus, that is, 
 the beat of the foot, as in a dance or march. 
 
 5. Ccesura. The end of a word interrupting a foot is 
 called Caesura; and when this coincides with a rhetorical 
 break in the sense, it is called the Cassura of the verse. 
 
 NOTE. 'The position of the principal Caesura is important, as 
 affecting the melody or rhythm. See description of verses below. 
 
 80. SCANNING. 
 
 1. Verse. A single line in poetry, or a series of feet set 
 in metrical order, is called a Verse (i.e. a turning back). 
 
 To divide the verse, in reading, into its appropriate feet, 
 according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called 
 Scanning or Scansion (i.e. climbing, or advance by steps). 
 
 A verse lacking a syllable at the beginning is called Acephalous 
 (headless) ; lacking a syllable at the end, it is called Catalectic 
 (stopped) ; complete, Acatalectic. Sometimes a verse appears to 
 have a superfluous syllable, and is then called Hypercatalectic. 
 
 The word Verse (versus, a turning) is opposed to Prose (pror- 
 sus or pro-^^us, straight ahead). 
 
80: 2-5. 81.] SCANNING: METRE. 223 
 
 2. Elision. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end 
 of a word (unless an interjection) sometimes even at the 
 end of a verse is dropped, when the next word begins with 
 a vowel or with h. This is called Synalocpha (smearing), or 
 Elision (bruising) ; or, at the end of a verse, Synapheia 
 (binding). 
 
 A final m, with the preceding vowel, is dropped in like manner : 
 this is called Ecthlipsis. (Hence a final syllable in m is said to 
 have no quantity of its own ; its vowel, in any case, being either 
 elided, or else made long by position.) Thus in the verse : 
 
 Monstrum horrendum informs ingens cui lumen ademptum. 
 
 . iii. 658. 
 
 NOTE. The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French 
 poetry, and is sometimes adopted in English, particularly in the older 
 poets : as, 
 
 T* inveigle and invite th' unwary sense. Comus, 538. 
 
 In early Latin poetry, a syllable ending in s was often elided, even 
 before a consonant : as, 
 
 Senio confectu' quiescit. Ennius (quoted in Cat. M. 5). 
 
 3. Hiatus. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word 
 ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by 
 a pause. This is called Hiatus (gaping). &-&. 6 
 
 4. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes length- 
 ened before a pause : it is then said to be long by Caesura. 
 (This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears 
 being caused by the retention of an original long quantity.) 
 Nostrorum obruimur, oriturque miserrima caedes. ^En. ii. 411. 
 
 5. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long 
 or short (except in some forms of Anapaestic and Ionic verse). 
 
 81. METRE. 
 
 1. Metre is the regular combination of feet in verse, and 
 is named from its most frequent and ruling foot : as, Dactylic, 
 Iambic, Trochaic, Anapaestic, Choriambic. ^ 
 
224 PROSODY. [81. 82: i. 
 
 NOTE. The ruling foot, so called, always consists of a combina- 
 tion of long and short syllables, and is therefore never a pyrrhic or 
 spondee. 
 
 The shorter feet (Iambus, Trochee) are counted not by single feet, 
 but by pairs (dipodies), so that six Iambi make a trimeter, &c. 
 
 2. A Verse consists of a given number of feet arranged 
 metrically. It is named from the number of feet (or pairs) 
 it contains, as Hexameter, Trimeter. 
 
 3. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of 
 verses ranged in a fixed order. It is often called from the 
 name of some poet, as Sapphic, Alcaic, Horatian. 
 
 82. FORMS OP VERSE. 
 
 1. Dactylic. The most common forms of dactylic verse 
 are the Hexameter and Pentameter. 
 
 a. Hexameter. The Hexameter, called also Heroic verse, is 
 used in narrative and pastoral poetry. It consists of six feet, of 
 which the last is always incomplete (a trochee or spondee), the 
 fifth generally a dactyle, and the rest indifferently dactyles or 
 spondees. The fifth foot is rarely a spondee, in which case the 
 verse is called spondaic. The principal Caesura falls after the 
 arsis (sometimes in the thesis) of the third foot or after the arsis 
 of the fourth. In the last case there should be another in the third. 
 
 The introductory verses of the .ZEneid, divided according to 
 the foregoing rules, will be as follows, the principal Caesura in 
 each verse being marked by double lines : 
 
 arma vi|rumqu'ca|n6 || Tro|jae qui | primus ab | oris 
 I tali jam fa|to profu|gus || La|vmzaque | venft 
 Htora, | multe ilk | et terjris || jac|tatus et j alto 
 vi supe|rum saejvae || mem6|rem Ju|noms 6b | Tram ; 
 multa quo|qu et beljlo pasjsus || dum | conderet | urbem, 
 mfer|retque de|6s Lati|o, || genus | unde La|tmum, 
 Alba|nlque pa|tres, || at|qu^ altae | mcenifa | Romae. 
 
 Another form of caesura is seen in the following : 
 
 Hoc facJ|ens vi|vam meli|us || sic | dulcts a|micis. 
 
 HOK. SAT. I. 4, 135. 
 
82: I ? 2.] FORMS OF VERSE. 225 
 
 The Hexameter verse has been illustrated in English thus : 
 
 " Strongly it | bears us a (long, || in | swelling and | limitless | billows, 
 Nothing be | fore and | nothing be | hind, || but the | sky and the | ocean." 
 
 &. Pentameter. The Pentameter consists of five feet, and is 
 used alternately with the hexameter to form the Elegiac stanza. 
 It must be scanned as two half- verses, of which the latter always 
 has two dactyls, and each ends in a long syllable or half-foot. 
 There is no caesura ; but the first half-verse must always end with 
 a word : as, 
 
 cum subit | IllT|us tris|tissrnia | noctis i|mago 
 
 qua mini | supre|mum || tempus tn | urbe fu|ft, 
 cum repe|to nocjtem qua | tot mflrf | cara re|liqui, 
 labitur | ex 6cu|lls || nunc quoque | gutta me|is. 
 jam prope | lux ade|rat, qua | me dls|cedere | Caesar 
 f mibus | extre|mae || jusserat | AusonT|ae. 
 
 Ov. TKIST. I. EL. 3, 1-6. 
 
 The Elegiac Stanza has been illustrated thus : 
 
 "In the hex|ameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column, 
 In the pent|ameter | still || falling in | melody | back." 
 
 c. Rarely, other dactylic verses, or half- verses, combined with 
 trochees or iambs, are used by the lyric poets : viz., 
 
 Dactylic pentameter : 
 
 arbon|busque co|mae. HOB. OD. IV. 7. 
 
 Dactylic tetrameter : 
 
 eras In | gens ite|rabfmus | aequor. OD. I. 7. 
 
 Archilochian heptameter : 
 
 solvitur | acris hi|emps, gra|ta vfce | veris | et Fa|voni. 
 
 OD. I. 4. 
 
 %. Iambic. The most common forms of Iambic verse 
 are the Trimeter (Senarius), and Tetrameter (Septenarius or 
 Octonarius). 
 
 a. Trimeter. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of 
 
 dramatic dialogue. . It consists of three measures, each containing 
 
 a double iambus. In the first half-measure (odd places), the 
 
 Spondee or its equivalents (anapaest or dactyl) may be regularly 
 
 10* 
 
226 PROSODY. [82: 2. 
 
 substituted. In the comic poets, these substitutions may be made 
 in any foot except the last : as, 
 
 O lucis al|me rector || et | caeli decus ! 
 
 qui alterna cur|ru spatfa || flam|mifero ambiens, 
 
 illustre lae|tis || exseris | terns caput. 
 
 HERC. FUR. 592-94. 
 
 homo sum: huma|m || nihil a m^ ali|enum puto. 
 vel me mone|r^ hoc || vel perc6n|tari puta. 
 
 HEAUT. 77, 78. 
 
 REMARK. The choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee 
 for the last Iambus : as, 
 
 sed non vlde|mus manticae | quod in tergo est. 
 
 CATULL. XXII. 21. 
 
 b. Tetrameter. The Iambic Tetrameter catalectic (Septen- 
 arius) consists of seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions 
 as the above. It is used in more lively dialogue : as, 
 nam Idclro? arces|sor, nuptias | quod m/ adpara|rT senstt. 
 quibus quidem quam facile potuerat | quiesci si hie | quiesset ! 
 
 ANDRIA, 690-91. 
 
 The iambic tetrameter acatalectic (Octonarius) consists of eight 
 full iambic feet with the same substitutions. It is also used in 
 lively dialogue : as, 
 
 hocinesthuma|num facto aut | In'cepta? hocTnest6f|fMumpaMs ? 
 
 quid illud est ? pro | deum f Idem, | quid est, si hoc non con - 
 
 tumeliast ? ANDRIA, 236-7. 
 
 c Dimeter. The Iambic Dimeter consists of either four 
 (acatalectic) or three and a half (catalectic) iambic feet. The 
 former is used in combination with a longer verse, and the latter 
 only in choruses : as, 
 
 beatus il|le qui procul | negotfls, 
 
 ut prisca gens | mortallum, 
 paterna ru|ra bubus ex|ercet suls, 
 
 solutus 6m|m fenore ; 
 nequ^ excita|tur classico | miles truci, 
 
 neque horret i|ratum mare ; 
 forumque vi|tat, et super ba civium 
 
 potenti6|rum limina. 
 
 HOR. EPOD. II. 1-8. 
 
82: 3> 4, 5-] FORMS OF VERSE. 227 
 
 quonam cruenlta Maenas, 
 praeceps am5|re saevo, 
 rapftur quod Im|potenti 
 
 facmus parat | furore ? 
 
 MEDEA, 850-53. 
 
 3. Trochaic. The most common form of Trochaic verse 
 is the Tetrameter catalectic (Septenarius), consisting of seven 
 complete feet with an additional syllable. Strictly, the spon- 
 dee and its resolutions can be substituted only in the even 
 places ; but the comic poets allow the substitution in every 
 foot but the last : as, 
 
 ftid^ habetpeta|s^wacvestitum: | tarn consimillst | atqu^ego. 
 sura, pes, sta|tura, tonsus, | ocull, nasum, | vel labra, 
 malae, mentum, |. barba, collus : | totus ! quid ver|bis opust ? 
 si tergum cllcatricosum, | n/hil hoc similist | similifus. 
 
 AMPHITR. 443-46. 
 
 4. Anapcestic. Anapaestic verses of various lengths are 
 found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleus- 
 matic may be substituted for the anapaest : as, 
 
 hfc homost | omnium homl|num prae|dfpu6s 
 voluptajtibus gau|d/Tsqu^ an|tepotens. 
 Ita c6m|moda quae | cupt<? e|venlunt, 
 quod ago | subit, ad secue | sequitur : 
 ita gau|d/is gau|dulm sup|peditat. 
 
 TRIN. 1115-19. 
 
 Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric 
 poets, in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or 
 parts of lines : as, 
 
 non ebur ne|qu* aureum [dimeter] 
 mea rem|det in domo | lacunar. 
 
 HOR. OD. II. 18. 
 
 5. Bacchic. The Bacchius occurs in dramatic poets 
 either in verses of two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetram- 
 eter). The long syllables may be resolved into short ones, 
 and the molossus substituted : as, 
 
 multas res | sfrmta In | meo cor de vorso, 
 multum In co|glftand6 | dolors Injdiplscor, 
 
228 PROSODY. [82:6,7, 
 
 egomet me | coqu0 et ma|cer0 et de|fetigo : 
 magister | mihi exer|cltor ani|nius nunc est. 
 
 TKIN. 223-26. 
 
 6. Cretic. Cretic feet (Amphimacer) occur in the same 
 manner as the Bacchius, with the same substitutions. The 
 last foot is usually incomplete : as, 
 
 amor aml|cus mihi | ne fuas | unquam. 
 his ego | de artibus | gratfam | facio. 
 nil eg<? Is|tos moror | faeceos | mores. 
 
 TRIN. 267, 293, 297. 
 
 V. Choriambic. Choriambic feet are regularly preceded 
 by a spondee or trochee, called a basis, and are followed by a 
 close, consisting of one or more syllables (see below). 
 
 a. The First or Lesser Asclepiadic verse consists of two 
 choriambs preceded by a trochee (in Horace a spondee) , and fol- 
 lowed by an iambus (8, d). 
 
 b. The Second or Greater Asclepiadic has three choriambs 
 with the same basis and close (8, 7i) : as, 
 
 nee fac|ta impia fal|lacum hommum | caelicolis | placent. 
 
 CATULL. XXX. 4. 
 
 C. The Glyconic consists of one choriambus, with the same 
 basis and close (8, e). 
 
 d* The Pherecratic consists of one choriambus, with the same 
 basis, and one long syllable for close (8, g) . 
 
 e. The Greater Sapphic consists of two choriambs, preceded 
 by a trochaic dipody (epitritus secundus), and followed by a 
 bacchius (8, c) : as, 
 
 Saepe trans fi|nem jaculo | nobilis ex pedlto. 
 
 HOR. OD. I. 8. 
 
 /. The Lesser Sapphic consists of one choriambus, with the 
 same basis and close (8, b) : as, 
 
 inter auda|ces lupus er|rat agnos. 
 
 HOR. OD. III. 18, 13. 
 
 g. The Adonic consists of one choriambus, followed by a long 
 syllable (8, b). 
 
82: 8.] FORMS OF VERSE. 229 
 
 h. The Phalaecian consists of a basis, a choriambus, an 
 iambus, and bacchius: as, 
 
 diser|tiss]fme R6|muli | nepotum 
 
 quot sunt | quotque fue|re Mar|ce Tulli. 
 
 CATUL. XLIX. 1, 2. 
 
 ! The lesser Ionic verse consists of pairs of the foot of the 
 same name. 
 
 Je. Rarely other forms of choriambic verse occur: as, for 
 example 
 
 Aristophanic : 
 
 temperat o|ra frems. 
 
 HOR. OD. I. 8, 7. 
 
 Tetrameter : 
 
 obstipuit; | pectore nil | sistere con|sni quit. 
 
 ADELPHI, 613. 
 
 8. Stanzas. The principal forms of lyric stanza, or 
 strophe, are the following: 
 
 a* ALCAIC STROPHE, consisting of four verses : the first two 
 (greater Alcaic) having each a spondee (or trochee), bacchius 
 and two dactyls ; the third a spondee, bacchius, and two trochees, 
 and the fourth into two dactyls and two trochees : as, 
 justutn ac | tenacem | prop6si|ti vfrum 
 non cl\v\um ardor | prava julbentfum, 
 non vuljtus mstan|tis ty|ranm, 
 
 mente quajtit solijda nejqu^ auster. 
 
 HOK. OD. III. 3. 
 
 b. LESSER SAPPHIC, consisting of three Lesser Sapphic verses, 
 and one Adonic (see above, 7,/, g) : as, 
 
 jam satis ter|ris nMs at|que dlrae 
 grandMs mi | sit pater et | rubente 
 dextera sa|cras jacula|tus arces 
 
 terruit ur|bem. 
 
 Id. OD. I. 2, 1-4. 
 
 c. GREATER SAPPHIC, consisting of a choriambic dimeter 
 (7, ft), and a greater Sapphic (7, e) : as, 
 
 Lydifa die | per omnes 
 te deos 6|ro Sybariri | cur properas | amando. 
 
 HOB. OD. I. 8. 
 
230 PROSODY. [82: 8. 
 
 d. LESSER ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of single lines (mono- 
 strophon), of lesser asclepiadics (7, a) : as, 
 
 Maecejnas jitavis | edite re|gibiis 
 
 O et | prcesidi##z et | dulce decus | meum. 
 
 Id. 1. 1. 
 
 e. SECOND ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of one Glyconic (7, e), 
 and one lesser Asclepiadic : as. 
 
 Romae | prlncipis ur|bmm 
 digna|tur suboles | Inter ama| biles 
 
 vatum | ponere me | chores ; 
 et jam | dente minus | mordeor in vido. 
 
 Id. OD. IV. 3, 13-16. 
 
 / THIRD ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of three lesser Asclepia- 
 dics and one Glyconic : as, 
 
 audls | quo strepitu | janua quo | nemus 
 inter | pulchra satum | tecta remu |giat 
 ventis | et positas | ut glaciet | nives 
 puro | numine Ju|piter. 
 
 Id. OD. III. 10, 5-8. 
 
 g* FOURTH ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of two lesser Asclepia- 
 dics, one Pherecratic (7, d), and one Glyconic: as, 
 
 hie bel|lum lacrim6|s&*/2 hie miseram | famem 
 pestem|qu a popub et | prlncipe Cae|sar^ in 
 
 Persas | atque Britan|nos 
 vestra | motus aget | prece. 
 
 Id. OD. III. 21, 13-16. 
 
 h. GREATER ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of single- lines of 
 greater asclepiadics : as, 
 
 tu ne | quaesiens | sclre nefas | quern mihi quern | tibif. 
 
 OD. I. 11,18; IV. 10. 
 
 i. The above forms include upwards of a hundred of the Odes 
 of Horace. In the eighteen not included, he employs twelve 
 different kinds of stanzas, most of which are combinations of the 
 verses already given. They may be briefly indicated as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 1. Hexameter, followed by the last four feet of an hexame- 
 ter. OD. I. 7, 28; EPOD. 12. 
 
82: 8.] FORMS OF VERSE. 231 
 
 2. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Dimeter. EPOD. 14, 15. 
 
 3. Iambic Trimeter alone. EPOD. 17. 
 
 4. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Trimeter. EPOD. 16. 
 
 5. Verse of four Lesser Ionics. OD. III. 12. 
 
 6. Hexameter with Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) : 
 
 diffu|gere nf|ves rede | unt jam | gramina | campis 
 arbori|busque co|mae. OD. IV. 7. 
 
 7. Iambic Trimeter ; Dactylic Penthemim ; Iambic Dimeter. ' 
 EPOD. 11. 
 
 8. Hexameter ; Iambic Dimeter ; Dactylic Penthemim. ED. 13. 
 
 9. Archilochian Heptameter ; Iambic Trimeter catalectic : as, 
 solvftur | acris hi | ems gra|ta vice | veris | et Fa|v6ni 
 
 trahunt|que sic|cas ma chinas | cari|nas. OD. I. 4. 
 
 10. Trochaic Dimeter and Iambic Trimeter, each imperfect : as, 
 
 non | ebur | nequ^ aulreum 
 mea | remldet in | domo | lacu|nar. OD. II. 18. 
 
 Jc. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above- 
 mentioned verses. 
 
 1. Four Glyconics with one Pherecratic: as, 
 
 Dia|nae sumus in | fide 
 puelll^ et pueri m|tegn : 
 Diainam, puen m|tegri 
 
 puel|laeque cana|mus. CATULL. 34. 
 
 2. Sapphics, in series of single lines, closing with an 
 Adonic : as, 
 
 An magis diri tremuere Manes 
 Herculem ? et visum canis inferorum 
 fugit abruptis trepidus catenis ? 
 fallimur : laete venit, ecce, vultu, 
 quern tulit Posas ; humerisque tela 
 gestat, et notas populis pharetras 
 
 Herculis heres. 
 
 HERC. (ET. 1600-6. 
 
 3. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number 
 (HERC. FUR. 830-874, 875-894). 
 
232 PROSODY. [83. 
 
 83. EARLY PROSODY. 
 
 The prosody of the earlier Latin poets differs in several 
 respects from that of the later. 
 
 NOTE. Before the language was used in literature, it had become 
 very much changed by the loss of final consonants and shortening of 
 final syllables under the influence of accent, which was originally 
 free in its position, but in Latin became limited to the penult and 
 ante-penult. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar 
 and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages. 
 In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the 
 early poets. 
 
 a. At the end of words s was only feebly sounded, so that it 
 does not make position with a following consonant, and is some- 
 times cut off before a vowel. (This usage continues in all poets 
 till Cicero's time : see 1, 2, 6 ; 80, 2, note. 
 
 & The last syllable of any word of two syllables may be made 
 short if the first is short. (This effect remained in a few words 
 like puta, cave, vale, vide.) Thus : 
 
 abest (Cist. ii. 1, 12) ; apud test (Trin. 196); soror dictast(Enn. 
 157) ; bonas (Stich. 99) ; domi deaeque (Pseud. 37) ; domif (Mil. 194). 
 
 c. The same effect is produced when a short monosyllable pre- 
 cedes a long syllable : as, 
 
 id est profecto (Merc. 372), erit et tfb/ exoptatum (Mil. 1011), 
 si qmdem hercle (Asin. 414), quid est sz hoc (Andria, 237). 
 
 d In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. Such 
 are, flle, iste, inde, unde, nempe, esse (?). (Scholars are not 
 yet agreed upon the principle in this irregularity, or its extent.) 
 
 Thus : 
 
 ecquis his in aedibust (Bacch. 581). 
 
 In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preced- 
 ing it in a word of more than three syllables : as in senectuti, 
 Syracusae. 
 
 /. At the beginning of a verse, many syllables long by position 
 stand for short ones : as, 
 
 Idne tu (Pseud. 442) ; estne consimilis (Epid. v. I. 1 8). 
 
 g. The original long quantity of many final syllables is re- 
 tained. Thus : 
 
83. 84.] FORMS OF VERSE. 233 
 
 1. Final a of the first declension is often long : as, 
 
 ne epistula quidem ulla sit in aedibus (Asin. 762). 
 Pol hodi*? altera jam bis detonsa certost. 
 
 2. Final a of the neuter plural is sometimes long (though there 
 seems no. etymological reason for it): as, 
 
 Nunc et amico prosperab<? et genio meo multa bona faciam 
 (Pers. 263). 
 
 3. So also nouns in -or with long stem, either with original r 
 or original s : as, 
 
 m6do quom dicte in me mgerebas ddium non uxor eram 
 (Asin. 927). 
 
 ita m/ in pecton? dtque corde facit amor ince'ndium (Merc. 590). 
 atque quanto nox fuisti longior hoc prdxuma (Amph. 548). 
 
 4. So in nouns with vowel lengthened originally by loss of a 
 consonant: as, miles, superstates. 
 
 5.' So all verb-endings in r and t, where the vowel is elsewhere 
 long in inflection : as, 
 
 rdgredior audisse me (Capt. 1023) ; Atque ut qui fueris et qui 
 nunc (Capt. 248) ; me nominat haec (Epid. iv. i, 8) ; faciat ut sem- 
 per (Pcen. ii. 42) ; mfuscabat, amabo (Cretics, Cist. i. i, 21) ; qui 
 amet (Merc. 1021) ; ut fit in bello capitur alter filius (Capt. 25) ; 
 tibi sit ad me revisas (True. ii. 4, 79). 
 
 /t. The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially at a pause in the 
 sense, or when there is a change of the speaker. (The extent of 
 this license is still a question among scholars, but in the present 
 state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.) 
 
 84. RECKONING OF TIME. 
 
 1. Date of Year. . The year was dated, in earlier times, 
 by the names of the Consuls ; but was afterwards reckoned 
 from the building of the City (ab urbe condita, or anno urbis 
 condita), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period 
 corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce 
 Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the 
 city is to be subtracted from 754: e.g. A.u.c. 691 (the year 
 of Cicero's consulship) = B.C. 63. 
 
234 RECKONING OF TIME. [84. 
 
 2. The Roman Year. Before Caesar's reform of the 
 Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days: 
 March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31 
 days, February having 28, and each of the remainder 29 ; 
 with an Intercalary month, on alternate years, inserted after 
 February 23, at the discretion of the Pontifices. The "Ju- 
 lian year," by the reformed calendar, had 365 days, divided 
 as at present- Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. 
 kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month : 
 hence the year was called Bissextilis. The* month Quintilis 
 received the name Julius (July), in honor of Julius Csesar ; 
 and Sextilis of Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. 
 
 The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adop- 
 tion of the Gregorian Calendar (A.D. 1582), which omits leap-year 
 once in every century. 
 
 3. The Month. Dates, according to the Roman Calen- 
 dar, are reckoned as follows : 
 
 a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends), 
 from calare, to call, that being the day on which the pontiffs 
 publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata, which 
 they did, originally, from actual observation. 
 
 &, Sixteen days before the Calends, that is, on the fifteenth 
 day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the 
 other months, were the Idus (Ides), the day of Full Moon. 
 
 c. Eight days (the ninth by the Roman reckoning) before the 
 Ides, that is, on the seventh day of March, May, July, and Octo- 
 ber, but the fifth of the other months, were the Nonae (JVones, 
 or ninths) . 
 
 d. From the three points thus determined the days of the 
 month were reckoned backwards (the point of departure being, 
 by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning), giving the following 
 rule for determining the date : 
 
 If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days 
 in the month preceding, if Nones or Ides, add one to that of 
 the day on which they fall, and from the number thus ascer- 
 tained subtract the given date: thus, viii. Kal. Feb. (33 8) = 
 Jan. 25; iv. Non. Mar. (8 4) Mar. 4; iv. Id. Sept. 
 (14 4) Sept. 10. 
 
84. 85.] 
 
 MEASURES OF VALUE. 
 
 235 
 
 e* The days 
 
 of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as 
 
 thus ascertained, are given in the following Table : 
 
 January. 
 
 February. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 i. KAL. JAN. 
 
 KAL. FEB. 
 
 KAL. MARTIJE 
 
 KAL. APRILES 
 
 2. iv. Non. Jan. 
 
 iv. Non. Feb. 
 
 vi. Non. Mart. 
 
 iv. Non. Apr. 
 
 _ in. 
 
 in- 
 
 v. ,, 
 
 HI. 
 
 4- prid. 
 5. NON. JAN. 
 
 prid. ,, 
 NON. FEB. 
 
 IV- 
 
 in. 
 
 prid ,, 
 NON. APRILES. 
 
 6- vni. Id. Jan. 
 
 7- VII. , 
 
 vin. Id. Feb. 
 
 VII. 
 
 prid. ,, ,, 
 NON. MARTI^E 
 
 viii. Id. Apr. 
 
 VII. 
 
 / ' 
 
 
 viii. Id. Mart. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Q. V. , , 
 
 v. ,, ,, 
 
 VII. 
 
 v. 
 
 10. IV. 
 
 iv. 
 
 VI. 
 
 IV. 
 
 II. III. 
 
 III- i, 11 
 
 v. 
 
 III. 
 
 12. prid 
 13. IDUS JAN 
 
 Frid. ,, ,, 
 DUS FEB. 
 
 IV. 
 
 in. 
 
 IDUS APRILES. 
 
 14. xix. Kal. Feb. 
 
 xvi. Kal. Martias 
 
 prid. 
 
 xvin. Kal. Maias 
 
 15. xvin. , 
 
 XV. ,, 
 
 IDUS MARTIJE. 
 
 XVII. 
 
 16. xvii. , ,, 
 
 XIV. 
 
 xvn. Kal. Aprilis 
 
 XVI. 
 
 17. xv<. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 XVI 
 
 XV. 
 
 18. xv. 
 
 TO. XIV. ,, 
 
 XII. 
 XI. ,, ,. 
 
 xv. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 20. XIII. 
 
 X. , 
 
 XIII. , 
 
 XII ,, 
 XI. 
 
 22 XI. 
 
 VIII. , 
 
 XI. , 
 
 x. ,, , 
 
 x. 
 
 IX. 
 
 
 
 
 
 25. viii. ,, 
 
 
 
 
 27. vi. 
 
 "I- M 
 
 vi. 
 
 
 28. v. 
 29. iv. ,, 
 
 [prid. Kal. Mart. 
 
 iv. 
 
 "I. > > 
 
 30. HI. 
 
 in leap-year, the 
 
 III. J 
 
 prid. ,. 
 
 31. prid. 
 (So Aug., Dec.) 
 
 vi. Kal. (2^th) being 
 counted twice.] 
 
 prid. ,, So June, Sept., Nov. 
 (So May, July, Oct.) 
 
 NOTE. Observe that a date before the Julian Eeform (B.C. 46) 
 is to be found not by the above, but by taking the earlier reckoning 
 of the number of days in the month. 
 
 85. MEASURES OF VALUE. 
 
 1. The Money of the Romans was in early times wholly of 
 copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound, but 
 actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into twelve 
 unciae. In the third century B.C. the As was reduced by degrees 
 to one-twelfth of its original value. At the same time silver coins 
 w^re introduced ; the Denarius = 10 Asses, and the Sestertius or 
 sesterce (semis-tertius, or half-third, represented by IIS or IIS = 
 duo et semis) = 2^ Asses. 
 
 2. The Sestertius, being probably introduced at a time when it 
 was equal in value to the original AS, came to be used as the unit 
 of value : hence nummus, coin, was used as equivalent to Sester- 
 tius. Afterwards, by the reductions in the standard, four asses 
 became equal to a sesterce. Gold was introduced later, the 
 aureus being equal to 100 sesterces. 
 
236 MEASURES OF VALUE. [85. 
 
 The value of these coins is seen in the following Table : 
 
 2<| asses = i sestertius or nummus (HS), value about 4 cents. 
 10 asses or 4 sestertii = i denarius ... ,, 16 ,, 
 looo sestertii = i sestertium ,, ,, $40.00. 
 
 3. The Sestertium (probably the genitive plural of sestertius) 
 was a sum of money, not a coin ; the word is inflected regularly 
 as a neuter noun: thus, tria sestertia = $l20.00. When com- 
 bined with a numeral adverb, hundreds of thousands (centena 
 milia) are to be understood : thus decies sestertium (decies HS) = 
 $40,000. In the statement of large sums the noun is often 
 omitted: thus sexagies (Rose. Am. 11) signifies, sexagies [centena 
 milia] sestertium (6,000,000 sesterces) = $240,000. 
 
 4. In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above 
 the number indicates thousands ; lines at the sides also, hundred- 
 thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 sestertii ; HS. DC. = 600,000 ses- 
 tertii, or 600 sestertia; HS. [DC] = 60,000,000 sestertii. 
 
 5. MEASURES OF LENGTH. 
 
 12 uncise {inches) = i Roman Foot (pes, 11.65 English inches). 
 i Feet= i Cubit. 2^ Feet= i Degree or Step (gradus). 
 5 Feet = i Pace (fassus). 1000 Paces (mille passuum) = i Mile. 
 
 The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The Ju- 
 gerum, or unit, of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) 
 feet long and 120 broad ; a little less than f of an English acre. 
 
 6. MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 
 
 12 uncise (ounces') = one pound (libra, about! Ib. avoirdupois). 
 For fractional parts of the pound, see Lexicon, art. as. The 
 Talent was a Greek weight = 60 librae. 
 
 7. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
 
 12 cyathi = i sextarius (nearly a pint). 
 
 16 sextarii = i modius (peck). 
 
 6 sextarii = i congius (3 quarts, liquid measure). 
 
 8 congii = i amphora (6 gallons). 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LATIN was originally the language of the plain of Latium, lying 
 south of the Tiber, the first territory occupied and governed by the 
 Romans. This language, together with the Greek, Sanskrit, Zend 
 (old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic, 
 are shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common 
 stock, a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the in- 
 terior of Asia, whence the different branches, by successive migra- 
 tions, peopled Europe and Southern Asia. 
 
 The name Indo-European (or Aryan) is given to the whole 
 group of languages, as well as to the original language from which 
 the branches sprang. By an extended comparison of the cor- 
 responding roots, stems, and forms, as they appear in the different 
 branches, the original ("Indo-European") root, stem, or form can 
 in very many cases be determined; and this is used as a model, 
 or type, to which the variations may be referred. A few of these 
 forms are given in the grammar for comparison (see, especially, 
 p. 59). A few are here added for further illustration : 
 
 1. Case Forms (Stem VAK, voice). 
 
 
 Indo-Eur. 
 
 Sanskr. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 SING. Norn. 
 
 vaks 
 
 vaks 
 
 ty 
 
 vox 
 
 Gen. 
 
 vakas 
 
 vachas 
 
 6ir6s 
 
 vocis 
 
 Dat. 
 
 vakai 
 
 vache 
 
 6irl 
 
 voci 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Vakam 
 
 vacham 
 
 6ira 
 
 vocem 
 
 Abl. 
 Loc. 
 
 vakat 
 vaki 
 
 vachas 
 vachi 
 
 (gen. or dat.) 
 (dat.) 
 
 voce(d) 
 (dat.) 
 
 Instr. 
 
 vaka 
 
 vacha 
 
 (dat.) 
 
 (abl.) 
 
 PLUR. Nom. 
 
 vakas 
 
 vachas 
 
 fores 
 
 voces 
 
 Gen. 
 
 vakam 
 
 vacham 
 
 dw&v 
 
 ocum 
 
 Dat. 
 
 vakbhyams 
 
 vagbhyas 
 
 6\//l 
 
 vocibus 
 
 Ace. 
 
 vakams 
 
 vachas 
 
 forces 
 
 voces 
 
 Abl. 
 
 vakbhyams 
 
 (as dat.) 
 
 (gen. or dat.) 
 
 vocibus 
 
 Loc. 
 
 vaksvas 
 
 vaksu 
 
 (dat.) 
 
 
 Instr. 
 
 vakbhis 
 
 vagbhis 
 
 (dat.) 
 
 (abl.) 
 
 (For Verb-Forms, see p. 59.) 
 
238 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 2. Cardinal Numbers. 
 
 
 Indo-Eur. 
 
 Sanskr. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 dva 
 
 [eka] 
 dva 
 
 [*] 
 
 dto 
 
 3 
 
 tri 
 
 tri 
 
 r/oets 
 
 4 
 
 kvatvar 
 
 chatur 
 
 (Y^crcrc 
 
 5 
 
 kvankva 
 
 panchan 
 
 jrtvre 
 
 6 
 
 ksvaks 
 
 shash 
 
 % 
 
 7 
 
 saptam 
 
 saptan 
 
 7TT& 
 
 8 
 
 aktam 
 
 ashtun 
 
 OKT& 
 
 9 
 
 navam 
 
 navan 
 
 tvvta 
 
 10 
 
 dakam 
 
 dasan 
 
 dtKCL 
 
 12 
 
 dvadakam 
 
 dva-dasan 
 
 dddcicc 
 
 13 
 
 tridakam 
 
 trayo-dasan 
 
 TplffKCL 
 
 20 
 
 dvidakanta 
 
 vinsati 
 
 elVoo-t 
 
 30 
 
 tridakanta 
 
 trinsati 
 
 TpldKO 
 
 100 
 
 kantam 
 
 satam 
 
 Kar6i> 
 
 Latin. 
 
 [unus] 
 
 duo 
 
 tres 
 
 quattuor 
 
 quinque 
 
 sex 
 
 septem 
 
 octo 
 
 novem 
 
 decem 
 
 duodecim 
 
 tredecim 
 
 viginti 
 
 triginta 
 
 centum 
 
 Latin. 
 
 pater 
 
 iriater 
 
 socer 
 
 imrus 
 
 frater 
 
 soror 
 
 potis 
 
 domus 
 
 sedes 
 
 vetus (old) 
 
 ager 
 
 bos 
 
 ovis 
 
 sus 
 
 jugum 
 
 rota (wheel) 
 
 medius 
 
 suavis 
 
 The immigrants who peopled the Italian peninsula also divided 
 into several branches, and the language of each branch had its own 
 development, until they were finally crowded out by the dominant 
 Latin. Fragments of some of these dialects have- been preserved, 
 in monumental remains, or as cited by Roman antiquarians, though 
 no literature now exists in them ; and other fragments were prob- 
 ably incorporated in that popular or rustic dialect which formed 
 the basis of the modern Italian. The most important of these 
 ancient languages of Italy not including Etruscan, which was 
 
 * Clansman. 
 
 3. 
 
 Familiar and Household Words. 
 
 
 Indo-Eur. 
 
 Sanskr. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Father. 
 
 patar- 
 
 pitri- 
 
 TTCLTrjp 
 
 Mother. 
 
 matar- 
 
 matri- 
 
 V'Tfr'np 
 
 Father-in-law. 
 
 evakura- 
 
 cvaiira- 
 
 CKVpOS 
 
 Daughter-in-law. 
 
 snusha- 
 
 snusha- 
 
 VVOS 
 
 Brother. 
 
 bhratar- 
 
 bhratri- 
 
 fppdTTJp 
 
 Sister. 
 
 svasar- (?) 
 
 svasar- 
 
 [dde\(prj 
 
 Master. 
 
 pati- 
 
 pati- 
 
 TTOffLS 
 
 House. 
 
 dama- 
 
 dama- 
 
 do/uios 
 
 Seat. 
 
 sadas- 
 
 sadas- 
 
 Zdos 
 
 Year. 
 
 vatas- 
 
 vatsa- 
 
 ZTOS 
 
 Field. 
 
 agra- 
 
 ajra- 
 
 dypds 
 
 Ox, Cow. 
 
 gau- 
 
 go- 
 
 (3ovs 
 
 Sheep (Ewe). 
 
 avi- 
 
 avi- 
 
 &LS 
 
 Swine (Sow). 
 
 su- 
 
 su- 
 
 6s, o-tfs 
 
 Yoke. 
 
 yuga- 
 
 yuga- 
 
 wybv 
 
 Wagon. 
 
 rata- 
 
 rata- 
 
 [ctyaa^a] 
 
 Middle. 
 
 madhya- 
 
 madhya- 
 
 /JL^ffOS 
 
 Sweet. 
 
 svadu- 
 
 svadu- 
 
 7)5lJS 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 239 
 
 of uncertain origin were the Oscan of Campania, and the Um- 
 brian of the northern districts. Some of their forms as compared 
 with the Latin may be seen in the following : 
 
 aragetud 
 
 censtur 
 censazet 
 contrud, N. 
 
 Latin. Oscan. 
 
 accinere 
 
 alteri(loc.) alttrei 
 argento 
 avibus 
 censor 
 censebit 
 contra, F. 
 cornlcem 
 dextra 
 dicere 
 dixerit 
 iuodecim 
 extra 
 facito 
 fecerit 
 iertote 
 fratribus 
 ibi 
 
 mperator 
 nter 
 iceto 
 magistro 
 medius 
 mugiatur 
 multare 
 
 Umbrian. 
 arkane 
 
 deicum 
 dicust 
 
 ehtrad 
 factud 
 fefacust 
 
 curnaco 
 destrn 
 (cf. venum-do) 
 
 desenduf 
 
 fertuta 
 fratrus 
 
 embratur 
 
 anter 
 
 licitud 
 
 anter 
 
 moltaum 
 
 mestra 
 
 mefa 
 
 mugatu 
 
 Latin, 
 neque 
 per 
 portet 
 quadrupedibus 
 
 Oscan. 
 nep 
 perum 
 
 quatuor 
 
 quinque 
 
 qui, quis 
 
 quid 
 
 quod 
 
 cui 
 
 quom 
 
 rectori 
 
 siquis 
 
 stet 
 
 subvoco 
 
 sum 
 
 est 
 
 sit 
 
 fuerit 
 
 fuerunt 
 
 fuat 
 
 tertium 
 
 ubi 
 
 uterque 
 
 utrique 
 
 petora 
 
 pomtis 
 
 pis 
 
 pid 
 
 pod 
 
 piei 
 
 regaturei 
 stai e t(stai e et) 
 
 sum 
 
 i e st 
 
 set 
 
 fust 
 
 fufans 
 
 fuid 
 
 Umbrian. 
 
 portaia 
 
 peturpursus 
 
 petur 
 
 pis 
 
 pod 
 
 pone, pune 
 
 svepis 
 
 subocau 
 
 fust 
 
 fuia 
 tertim 
 
 puturus pid 
 putrespe 
 
 puf 
 puterei 
 
 Fragments of early Latin are preserved in inscriptions dating 
 back to the third century before the Christian era ; and some Laws 
 ure attributed to a much earlier date, to Romulus (B. c. 750) and 
 !Numa (B. c. 700) ; and especially to the Decemvirs (Twelve Tables, 
 5. c. 450) ; but in their present form no authentic dates can be as- 
 signed to them. Some of these are usually given in a supplement 
 to the Lexicon. (See also Cic. de Legibus, especially ii. 8, iii. 3, 4.) 
 
 Latin did not exist as a literary language, in any compositions 
 known to us, until about B. c. 200. At that time it was already 
 strongly influenced by the writings of the Greeks, which were the 
 :-hief objects of literary study and admiration. The most popular 
 [lays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations from 
 (freek, introducing freely, however, the popular dialect and the 
 slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners 
 t'aey belong as much to Athens as to Rome. And the natural 
 growth of a genuine Roman literature seems to have been thus 
 
240 APPENDIX. 
 
 very considerably checked or suppressed. Orations, rhetorical 
 works, letters, and histories, dealing with the practical affairs 
 and passions of politics, seem to be nearly all that sprang direct 
 from the native soil. The Latin poets of the Empire were mostly 
 court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious class ; satires and 
 epistles alone keep the flavor of Roman manners, and exhibit the 
 familiar features of Italian life. 
 
 In its use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as 
 the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part 
 of Europe ; as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philos- 
 ophers during the Middle Age, and in some countries to a much 
 later period ; as the official language of the Church and Court of 
 Rome, down to the present day ; as, until recently, the common 
 language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of com- 
 munication among many learned classes and societies ; and as the 
 universal language of Science, especially of the descriptive sciences, 
 so that many hundreds of Latin terms, or derivative forms, must be 
 known familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of 
 the facts of the natural world, or be able to recount them intelli- 
 gibly to men of science. In some of these uses it may still be 
 regarded as a living language ; while, conventionally, it retains its 
 place as the foundation of a liberal education. 
 
 During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not 
 only in its literary or urban form, but in several local dialects, 
 known by the collective name of lingua rustica, far simpler in the 
 forms of inflection than the classic Latin. This, it is probable, was 
 the basis of modern Italian, which has preserved many of the 
 ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection, as orto (Tiortus), 
 genie (gens). In the colonies longest occupied by the Romans, 
 Latin often in its ruder and more popular form grew into the 
 language of the common people. Hence the modern languages 
 called "Romance" or "Romanic"; viz., Italian, Spanish, Portu- 
 guese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern 
 Spain, the Provencal or Troubadour language of the South of 
 France, the " Rouman " or Walachian of the lower Danube (Rou- 
 mania), and the " Roumansch " of some districts of Switzerland. 
 
 A comparison of words in several of these tongues with Latin 
 will serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which 
 reference has been made in the body of this Grammar, as well as 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 241 
 
 the degree in which the substance of the language has remained 
 unchanged. Thus, in the verb to be the general tense-system has 
 been preserved from the Latin in all these languages, together 
 with both of the stems on which it is built, and the personal 
 endings, somewhat abraded, which can be traced throughout. The 
 following exhibit the verb-forms with considerably less alteration 
 than is found in the other Romanic tongues : 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 Portuguese. 
 
 French. 
 
 Provencal. 
 
 sum 
 
 sono 
 
 soy 
 
 s6u 
 
 suis 
 
 son (sui) 
 
 es 
 
 sei 
 
 eres 
 
 es 
 
 es 
 
 ses (est) 
 
 est 
 
 e 
 
 es 
 
 he 
 
 est 
 
 es (ez) 
 
 sumus 
 
 siamo 
 
 somos 
 
 s6mos 
 
 sommes 
 
 sem (em) 
 
 estis 
 
 siete 
 
 sois 
 
 sois 
 
 etes 
 
 etz (es) 
 
 sunt 
 
 sono 
 
 son 
 
 sao 
 
 sont 
 
 sont (son) 
 
 eram 
 
 era 
 
 era 
 
 era 
 
 etais 
 
 era 
 
 eras 
 
 eri 
 
 eras 
 
 eras 
 
 etais 
 
 eras 
 
 erat 
 
 era 
 
 era 
 
 era 
 
 etait 
 
 era 
 
 eramus 
 
 eravamo 
 
 eramos 
 
 eramos 
 
 etions 
 
 eram 
 
 eratis 
 
 eravate 
 
 erais 
 
 fcreis 
 
 etiez 
 
 eratz 
 
 erant 
 
 erano 
 
 eran 
 
 erao 
 
 etaient 
 
 eran 
 
 fui 
 
 foi 
 
 fui 
 
 fui 
 
 fus 
 
 fui 
 
 fuisti 
 
 fosti 
 
 fuiste 
 
 foste 
 
 fus 
 
 fust 
 
 fuit 
 
 fu 
 
 fue 
 
 f6i 
 
 fut 
 
 fo (fon) 
 
 fuimus 
 
 fummo 
 
 fuimos 
 
 fomos 
 
 fumes 
 
 fom 
 
 fuistis 
 
 foste 
 
 fuisteis 
 
 fostos 
 
 fates 
 
 fotz 
 
 fuerunt 
 
 fiirono 
 
 fueron 
 
 forao 
 
 furent 
 
 foren 
 
 sim 
 
 sia 
 
 sea 
 
 seja 
 
 sois 
 
 sia 
 
 sis 
 
 sii 
 
 seas 
 
 sejas 
 
 sois 
 
 sias 
 
 sit 
 
 sia 
 
 sea 
 
 seja 
 
 soit 
 
 sia 
 
 simus 
 
 siamo 
 
 seamos 
 
 sejamos 
 
 soyons 
 
 siam 
 
 sitis 
 
 siate 
 
 seais 
 
 sejais 
 
 soyez 
 
 siatz 
 
 sint 
 
 siano 
 
 sean 
 
 sejao 
 
 soient 
 
 sian 
 
 fuissem 
 
 fossi 
 
 fuese 
 
 fdsse 
 
 fusse 
 
 fos 
 
 fuisses 
 
 fossi 
 
 fueses 
 
 fosses 
 
 fusses 
 
 fosses 
 
 fuisset 
 
 fosse 
 
 fuese 
 
 fosse 
 
 fut ^ 
 
 fossa (fos) 
 
 fuissemus 
 
 fossimo 
 
 fuesemos 
 
 fOssemos 
 
 fussions 
 
 fossem 
 
 fuissetis 
 
 foste 
 
 fueseis 
 
 fdsseis 
 
 fussiez 
 
 fossetz 
 
 fuissent 
 
 fossene 
 
 fuesen 
 
 fOssem 
 
 fussent 
 
 fossen 
 
 es 
 
 sii 
 
 se 
 
 se 
 
 sois 
 
 sias 
 
 esto 
 
 sia 
 
 sea 
 
 seja 
 
 soit 
 
 sia 
 
 este 
 
 siate 
 
 sed 
 
 sede 
 
 soyez 
 
 siatz 
 
 sunto 
 
 siano 
 
 sean 
 
 sejao 
 
 soient 
 
 sian 
 
 esse 
 
 essere 
 
 ser 
 
 ser 
 
 etre 
 
 esser 
 
 [sens] 
 
 essendo 
 
 siendo 
 
 sendo 
 
 etant 
 
 essent 
 
PRINCIPAL ROMAN WRITERS. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 T. Maccius Plautus, Comedies 254-184 
 
 Q.. Ennius, Annals, Satires, &c. (Fragments) . . . 239-169 
 
 M. Porcius Cato, Husbandry, Antiquities, &c. . . . 234-149 
 
 M. Pacuvius, Tragedies (Fragments) 220-130 
 
 P. Terentius Afer (Terence), Comedies 195-159 
 
 L. Attius, Tragedies (Fragments) 170-75 
 
 C. Lucilius, Satires (Fragments) 148-103 
 
 M. Terentius Varro, Husbandry, Antiquities, &c. . . 116-28 
 
 M. Tullius Cicero, Orations, Letters, Dialogues . . 106-43 
 
 C. Julius Caesar, Commentaries . 100-44 
 
 T. Lucretius Carus, Poem "De Rerum Natura " . . 95-52 
 
 C. Valerius Catullus, Miscellaneous Poems .... 87-47 
 
 C. Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Histories .... 86-34 
 
 Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders . . <?. /<^0- 
 
 P. Vergilius Maro, Eclogues, Georgics, sEneid . . -70-19 
 
 Q^ Horatius Flaccus, Satires, Odes, Epistles . . . 65-8 
 
 Albius Tibullus, Elegies 54-J3 
 
 Sex. Aurelius Propertius, Elegies 5 I-I 5 
 
 T. Livius Patavinus (Livy), Roman History 59-A. D. 17 
 
 P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid), Metamorphoses, Fasti, &c. . . . 43- A. D. 18 
 
 Phaedrus, Fables - ^ I 
 
 Valerius Maximus, Anecdotes, &c -31 
 
 C. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History I 9~3 I 
 
 Pomponius Mela, Husbandry & Geography .... -co 
 
 A. Persius Flaccus, Satires A.D. 34-62 
 
 L. Annseus Seneca, Philos. Letters, &c. ; Tragedies ./?. <?. 3 Q)-6$ . 
 M. Annaaus Lucanus, Historical Poem " Pharsalia" . 
 
 Q^ Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander 
 
 C. Plinius Secundus (J^linj), Nat. Hist., &c. . . . 
 
 C. Valerius Flaccus, HelPv ic Poem, " Argonautica" . -88 
 
 P. Papinius Statius, Heroic Poems, " Thebais,"&c. . 61-96 
 
 C. Silius Italicus, Heroic Poem, " Punica" .... 25-100 
 
 D. Junius Juvenalis (Juvenal), Satires 40-120 
 
 L. Annaeus Florus, Hist. Abridgment -120 
 
 M. Valerius Martialis (Martial), Epigrams .... 43-104 
 
 M. Fabius Quintilianus, Rhetoric 40-118 
 
 C. Cornelius Tacitus, Annals, History, &c 60-118 
 
 C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus (Pliny Junior) Letters 61-115 
 
 C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Biographies 70- 
 
 Apuleius, Philos. Writings, " Metamorphoses " &c. . no- 
 
 A. Gellius, Miscellanies, " Noctes Atticae " . . . . about -i 80 
 
 f Q^ Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Apologist . . 160-240 
 
 fM. Minucius Felix, Apol. Dialogue about -250 
 
 fFirmianus Lactantius, Theology 250-325 
 
 fD. Magnus Ausonius, Miscellaneous Poems . . 
 
 Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History 
 
 Claudius Claudianus, Poems, Panegyrics, &c. . . . 
 
 f Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems . . 348~4 10 
 
 t Aurelius Augustinus, Confessions, Discourses, &c. . 354-430 
 
 Anicius Manlius Boethius, Philos. Dialogues . . . 47~5 2 J Z C'~ 
 t Christian writers. 
 
C. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 NOTE. The Figures refer to pages; the Letters to the upper, middle, or 
 lower part of the page. 
 
 AB, preposition 88 c, with agent, after 
 passives 138 b. 
 
 Abbreviations of prsenomens 32. 
 
 Ablative 12 a, ending 13 b, in -ABUS 
 14 c, in I 18 b, 35 c, 37 c, in is (3d 
 decl. ) 21 b, in -UBUS 28 c, neuter used 
 adverbially 84 c, EO and QUO 49 c, 
 after prepositions 88, with AB or DE 
 for partitive gen. 116 b, of crime or 
 punishment 119 c;^with dat. after 
 verbs 122 b, with PRO ipr defence &c. 
 130 c, syntax of 134-143, of separa- 
 tion 135 a, of place from which 135 c, 
 of source 136 c, of material 137 b, 
 of cause 137 b, with adjectives &c. 
 137 c, of agent 138 b, after compara- 
 tives 138 c, after PLUS &c. 139 a, of 
 means 139 b, of accompaniment 139 
 c, after UTOR &c. 140 b, of degree of 
 difference 140 c, of quality 141 a, of 
 
 a, of time 143 b, time how-long 143 c, 
 of distance 144 a, place from which 
 144 c, for locative 145 a, place where 
 145^;, way by u^/ich 145 c, w,ith prep- 
 ositions 145 a, with AB for agent 147 
 c, distinguished from abl. of instru- 
 ment 148 a. 
 
 ABSCJUE 89 a. 
 
 Abstract nouns in pltir. 30 c, with 
 neut. adj. 106 a. expressed by neut. 
 adj. 107 c. 
 
 AC see ATQUE; AC si with subj. 174 c. 
 
 Accent 7 c. 
 
 Accompaniment abl. of 139 c. 
 
 Accusative 11 c, endings 13 a, in IM 
 18 b, 35 c, in is 19 a, 37 c, neut. used 
 as adv. 83 c (gen. 85 a), after prep. 
 88, 145 a, with verbs of remembering 
 &c. 119 a, with impers. 120, 132 b, 
 with dat. 123 c, 124 c, after com- 
 pounds of preps. 125 c, after AD for 
 dat. 128 c, after adj. 129 c, construc- 
 tion of 131, as div. obj. 131 a, with 
 verbs of feeling 131 b, cognate 131 c, 
 verbs of taste &c. 131 c, after com- 
 pounds 132 a, constructive 132 a, 
 two ace. 132 b, adverbial 133 a, syn- 
 ecdochical 133 b, in exclamations 
 133 c, as subj. of infin. 133 c, of dura- 
 tion 133 c, 143 c, of space 133 c, 144 a, 
 
 of distance 133 c, 144 a, place whither 
 144 c, in ind. disc. 188 a, of anticipa- 
 tion 190 c, in subst. clauses 194 a, 
 after passives 194 b, after verbs 01 
 promising &c. 195 a. 
 
 Action, nouns of 96 b, 97 c, governing 
 genitive 117 a. 
 
 AD 88 b, following noun 148 a. 
 
 Adjectives 33, of two termin. 35 a, of 
 one termin. 36 a, of common gender 
 38 a, used as adv. 38 a, deriv. of 96 
 b, 98 a, compound 100 b, modifying 
 102 a, adj. phrase 102 b, agreement 
 of 105, in appos. 105 b, in agr. with 
 appos. 106 b, with part. 106 c, used 
 as nouns 106 c, neuter 107 b, used 
 for gen. 108 a, 114 a, qualifying act 
 108 c, for obj. gen. 108 b, in rel. 
 clause 111 b, neut. used partitively 
 115 c, relat. gov. gen. 117 c, of feel- 
 ing with ANIMI 118 b, gov. gen. and 
 dat. 118 c, 129 a, followed by dat. or 
 ace. with AD 128 c, dat. or ace. 129 b, 
 of want with abl. 136 a, DIGNUS &c. 
 with abl. 137 c. 
 
 ADMODUM 41 a. 
 
 Adverbs 9 c,-84, compar. of 40 b, com- 
 
 * pound 100 c, numeral 43 c, correl. 
 49 c, classif. of 85, 86, modifying 102 
 a, phrase 102 b, qualifying noun 
 107. b, rel; or dem. equiv. to pron. 
 Ill c, partitive use 116 a, formed 
 with TENUS 147 a, used as prepos. 
 147 b, followed by QUAM 147 c. 
 
 Adverbial phrase 102 b, accus. 133 b, 
 in abl. absolute 143 a. 
 
 Adversative conjunctions 94 a. 
 
 ADVERSUS 89 b, as adverb 147 b. 
 
 Affix, close and open 96. 
 
 Agency, nouns of 96 b, 97 c, govern- 
 ing gen. 117 a. 
 
 Agent 138 b, abl. with AB 147 c. 
 
 Agnomen 32 b. 
 
 Agreement 103 b, nouns in for part, 
 gen. 116 c. 
 
 Aio 81 c. 
 
 Alcaic strophe, 
 
 ALIENUS W^th DOMUS 145 b. 
 
 ALi- (stem of ALIUS) 48 b. 
 ALIUS infl. of 34 c, with abl. 139 b. 
 Alphabet, classitication of 1 b. 
 AM BO, infl. 42 b. 
 AMPLIUS, constr. of 139 a. 
 
246 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 AN, ANNE, ANNON, interrog. parti- 
 cles 200 c. 
 
 ANTE 89 b, om. in dates 146 c, as adv. 
 147 b, followed by QUAM 147 c, AN- 
 TE DIEM 146 c. 
 
 Antecedent of relative 110 a, implied 
 
 110 b, in both clauses 110 c, omitted 
 
 111 a. 
 Antepenult 7 c. 
 
 ANTEQUAM with relat. clauses 179 c. 
 
 Aorist 53 b. 
 
 APAGE 82 b. 
 
 Apodosis 166 a, c. 
 
 Appositive 102 a, 104 a, adjectives 
 
 105 b, neut. adj. 107 c, in periphr. 
 
 form 112 a, expr. by gen. 115 a, with 
 
 NOMEN EST, 127 a, after verbs of 
 
 naming 132 c. 
 APUD 89 c. 
 
 APT us followed byrel. andsubj. 185 c. 
 Arsis and Thesis 222 b. 
 AS, the unit of value 235 c. 
 Asclepiadic verse 230. 
 Asking, verbs of, with two ace. 132 c. 
 Aspirate 1 c, 115 c. 
 Assimilation of consonants 36, in 
 
 prepos. 4 a. 
 
 AT 95 b, AT VERO 96 a. 
 ATQUE 95 a. 
 
 Attraction of Relative 110. 
 Attributive adj. 105 b. 
 AUDEO 77 a. 
 AUSIM 77 b. 
 
 AUT 95 b, in questions 201 c. 
 AUTEM 95 b, position, 96 a. 
 AVE 82 b. 
 
 BELLI (locative) 145 a. 
 Birth, place of in abl. 137 a. 
 BOS, decl. of 22 b, c. 
 
 C and G 2 a, for QIT 2 b, interchanged 
 with T 4 b, pronunciation of 6 a. 
 
 Caesura 222 b. 
 
 Calendar, Roman 235 a. 
 
 Cardinal numbers 41 b, declined 42 b. 
 
 CARO, decl. 25 c. 
 
 Cases 11 b, endings 13 b, forms (see 
 declensions) construction of 113 b. 
 
 Catalectic verse. / 
 
 CAUSA with gen. 115 b, 138 a. ' 
 
 Causal conjunctions 94 b, clauses 102 c, 
 with subjunct. 181 b. 
 
 Causative verbs 99 a. 
 
 Cause, with subjunctive 185 b. 
 
 CAVE in prohibitions 192 c. 
 
 -CE enclitic 45 b. 
 
 CELO with two accusatives 133 a. 
 
 CEDO (defective) 82 b. 
 
 CERTE and CERTO 87 b. 
 
 CEU with subjunct. 174 c. 
 
 Choliambic verse 226 b. 
 
 Choi-iambic verse 228 b. 
 
 CIRCA, CIRCITER, CTRCUM, CIS 89 C. 
 
 ciRCiTER as adv. 147 b. 
 
 Cities, gender of 10 c. 
 
 CITRA 89 c, following noun 148 a. 
 
 CLAM as prepos. 147 b. 
 
 Clauses 102 b, adv. use 84 b, with 
 neut. in appos. 107 c, limited by 
 gen. 114 b, with impersonals 120 a, 
 dependent, in seq. of tenses 162 a. 
 
 Close syllables 5 c, affixes 9 b, in. com- 
 pounds 65 a. 
 
 Commands in subjunct. 149 c, impera- 
 tive 51 b, 152 b. 
 
 CCEPI 81 b. 
 
 Cognomen 32 b. 
 
 Collective nouns with plur. verbs 112 c. 
 
 Combinations of consonants 5 a, 192 c. 
 
 Commands, indirect 191 c. 
 
 Common gender 11 a, of adj. 38 a. 
 
 Comparative conjunctions 94 b. 
 
 Comparatives, declensions 37 a, use 
 40 c, partitive 115 c. 
 
 Comparison, forms of 38 b, irregular 
 39 b, defective 39 c, of adverbs 40 b, 
 in appos. 104 b, of qualities, 108 c. 
 
 Complementary ace. 104 b, intin. 154 b. 
 
 Complete action, tenses of 53 c, 159 c, 
 favorite use 170 c. 
 
 Compounds of verbs 65 .a, of FACIO 
 80 a, of FIO 81 c, of NON 86 a, stems 
 96 b, words 100 a, of preps, govern- 
 ing ace. 132 a, with two ace. 132 c, 
 with abl. 135 b, quantity of 220 b. 
 
 Conditional conjunctions 94b, clauses 
 W2. b, 103 a, 166, classified 167 c. 
 
 C6nTiitions, partic. and gen. 167, pres- 
 ent and past 168, future 170 a, gen- 
 eral 171 c, implied 172 b, omitted 
 17.3 b, in indirect <lis<*7Tursc/89b. 
 
 Conjugation 9b, 60, the four regular 
 66-75. " 
 
 Conjunctions 92, correlative 49 c, class- 
 es of 93. 
 
 Connectives 103 b. 
 
 Consecutive clauses 102 c, 103 a, sub- 
 junctive 183 c. 
 
 Consonants 1 b, stems 12 c, 36 a. 
 
 Constructio prcegnans 132 a. 
 
 CONTRA 90 a, as adv. 147 b, following 
 noun 148 a. 
 
 Contraction 3 a, shown by circumflex, 
 7 a. 
 
 Co-ordinate clause 102 c. 
 
 Correlatives 49. 
 
 Countries, gender of 10 c. 
 
 Crime, expressed by ablative 119 c. 
 
 CUM (prep.) 90 a, as enclitic 44 c, 47 c. 
 
 CUM (conj.) 95 c, with subjunct. 176 c, 
 178 c, as indef. relat. 177 a, causal 
 w. subj, 180 c, 181 c, like QUOD with 
 indie. 180 c, CUM TUM with indie. 
 181 a, causal with indicative 181, for 
 pres. pass. part. 202 c. 
 
 Dactylic Verse 224 b. 
 
 Dative 11 c, ending 13 b, in -ABUS 14 c, 
 in is (3d deck) 21 b, -UBUS 28 c, in I 
 34 b, construction 121, with trans- 
 itives 121 c, after verbs of motion 
 (poet.) 122 b, with abl. id., after in- 
 trans. 122 c, 123, with ace. 123 c, 124 c, 
 after impersonals 124 b, after com- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 247 
 
 pounds 125, 126, in poetry 126 c, of 
 possession id., after comp. of ESSE 
 127 a, with NOMEN EST id., of 
 agency 127 b, after participles and 
 passives id., of service 128 a, of 
 nearness 128 b, after nouns 129 b, of 
 advantage 129 c, used for gen. 130 a, 
 for direction id., of volens &c. 130 b, 
 ethical id., with infinitive of verbs 
 governing dative 155 b. 
 
 Declaratory sentence 101. 
 
 Declension 12 c, general rules 13 a. 
 
 Defective nouns, 29, 30, adj. 37, tenses 
 50 b, verbs 81. ' 
 
 -DEM, enclitic 45 b. 
 
 Denominative verbs 99 a, c. 
 
 Deponents 75 c, semi-deponents 77 a. 
 
 Derivation 96-100. 
 
 Derivative verbs 77 b, 99. 
 
 DiGxys with abl. 137 c, with QUI and 
 siibj.'185c. 
 
 Diphthongs 1 b, 6 a, long 7 a. 
 
 Diptotes 31 a. 
 
 Distance (ace. ) 133 c (ace. or abl. ) 144 a. 
 
 Distributives 43 b. 
 
 DO MI (loc.) 145 a. 
 
 DONEC with subjunctive 180 b. 
 
 Doubtful gender 11 a. 
 
 Dual 42 b. 
 
 DUBITO 184 b, 198 b, 200 c. 
 
 BUM with pres. 158 a, id. followed by 
 secondary ten8es*"163 c, (provided) 
 with subj. 175 c, 180 b, (until) with 
 subj. 180 b, for pass. part. 202 c. 
 
 DUMMODO with subj. 175 c, 180 b. 
 
 Early forms, alphabet 2, prosody. 
 
 EDO 80 a. 
 
 EGEO with gen. 120 c, 136 b. 
 
 Ellipsis 101 c. 
 
 Emphasis as dependent on arrange- 
 ment 212 c. 
 
 Enclitics, intensive 45 a, CUM 44 c. 
 
 ENIM 95 b, 96 a. x 
 
 Epicene nouns 11 a. 
 
 Epistolary tenses 161 b. 
 
 ESCIT, 59 c. 
 
 ESSE 57 c, comparative forms 59 c, 
 compounds 60, omitted 113 b, com- 
 pounds with dative 127 a. 
 
 ET . . . ET 95 c. 
 
 ETIAM 87 a, in answers 201 c. 
 
 E-fsi 175 b, -*- > . 
 
 Etymology 1-100. Vi 
 
 Euphonic changes 2 c, 3b. 
 
 EX 90 c, following noun 148 a, com- 
 pounds of, with dative 126 a. 
 
 Exclamations (accus.) 133 c. 
 
 Exclamatory sentences 101 b, accus- 
 ative with infinitive 156 b. 
 
 FA cio 80 c, compounds 100 c, facio ut 
 
 in periphr. 198 a. 
 FAIU 82 a. 
 Feeling, nouns of, with genitive 117 a, 
 
 verbs of, with ace. 131 b. 
 
 ( 
 Feminine forms lacking masc. 34 b, 
 
 abl. in o 34b,_m -A of adj. of 3d 
 
 decl. 37 a, abl. afcl^. 85 a. 
 Festivals, names oft-plural 30 c. 
 FERO 78 b. 
 
 Fillitt|^/verbs of, with abl. or genitive 
 
 Final clauses 102 c, 103 a, 182, 195. 
 
 Finite verb 113 a. 
 
 FIO 80 c, defective comp. 82 c. 
 
 Foot (in prosody) 220 e, classif. 221. 
 
 FORE UT for fut. inf. pass. 55 c, 165 c. 
 
 FORIS (loc. form) 145 a. 
 
 Frequentative verbs 77 c, 99 c. 
 
 FRUOR and FUNGOR with abl. 140 b. 
 
 Future tense 53 a, endings 54 c, 61 b, c, 
 of subj. 83 c, for imperative 153 b, 
 syntax 159 b, has no relative time 
 179 b, infin. expr. by FORE UT 165 c, 
 participle 202 a. 
 
 Future Perfect 53 a, syntax 161 a, 
 used for future id., how repr. in 
 subjunctive 162 b, in protasis 170 c. 
 
 Future infin. pass. (sup. with IRI) 55 c. 
 
 Games, names of, plural 30 c. 
 
 GAUDEO 77 a. 
 
 Gender 9c, grammatical 10 a, of ap- 
 position 104 c, of adjective 105 c. 
 
 General truth in seq. of tenses, 163 c. 
 
 Genitive 11 c, plural ending 13 b, in 
 AI and AS 14 b, in IUM 19 a, c, in 
 lus 34 b, in appos. with possessive 
 105 a, 108 b, construction 113 c, sub- 
 jective 114 a, in pred. b, with phrase 
 id., of adj. for neuter noun 114 c, of 
 substance id., for noun in apposition 
 115 a, of quality and measure id., 
 of value id. b, partitive id., after adj. 
 for noun 116 b, two gen. with one 
 noun 117 a, objective 117 a, of speci- 
 fication 118 a, after verbs 119 a, (of 
 remembering &c. 119 a, of accus- 
 ing &c. b, of emotion 120 a, imper- 
 sonals 120, of plenty and want 120 c, 
 136 b, 140 b, with POTIOR 121 a, 127 a, 
 of price 141 c. 
 
 Gentiles, names of, 8 b. 
 
 Gerund 50 a, 52 b, syntax 206 c. 
 
 Gerundive 52 a, ending 55 b, periphr. 
 forhi 83 c, with dative of agent 127 c, 
 syntax 205 c, 206, origin 207 a. 
 
 Glyconic verse 228 b. 
 
 Government 103 c. 
 
 GRATIA with gen. 11 5 b, 138 a. 
 
 Greek accus. (synecd.) 133 b. 
 
 H (aspirate) 1 c, used with c 4 c, 
 omitted 4 c, not reckoned in posi- 
 tion, 215 c. 
 
 HABEO, imperative 153 b, with perf. 
 part. 204 c. 
 
 Heteroclites 31 b. 
 
 Heterogeneous nouns 31 c. 
 
248 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Hexameter verse. 
 
 HIC 45, 46. 
 
 Hindrance, subject of 185 b. 
 
 HUMI (loc.) 145 c. 
 
 I in perf. 55 a, added to root 62 c, lost 
 
 in 3d conj. 63 c, suffix 96 c. 
 Iambic verse. 
 ID QUOD, lllb. 
 
 IDCIRCO 95 C. 
 
 IDEM 46, deriv. 45 b. 
 
 IDONEUS with QUI and subj. 185 c. 
 
 -IER in intin. pass. 65 c. 
 
 IGITUR 95 c, position 96 a. 
 
 ILLE 45, 46. 
 
 -JM in present subjunctive 65 c. 
 
 IMMO 201 c. 
 
 Imperative 51 b, termin. 54 b, a weak- 
 ened 63 a, drops termin. 65 a, sen- 
 tence 101 a, in commands 152 b, 3d 
 person antiq. 152 c, future 153 a, 
 equiv. to condition 172 c. 
 
 Imperfect 53 a, lengthens vowel 63 a, 
 of subj. 64 c, of hortat. subj. 150 b, 
 optat. subj. 150 c, concess. subj. 151 c, 
 syntax 158 b, in descriptions 158 c, 
 for pi up. id., of surprise 159 a, for 
 perf. 159 b, in epist. style 161 b, subj. 
 in unfulfilled cond. 168 b, in temp, 
 clauses 178 a, 179 a, subjunctive re- 
 ferring to present time 164 a. 
 
 Impersonal verbs 82, with gen. 120 a, 
 used personally 120 b, with dative 
 124 b, passive of verbs governing 
 dative 126 b, with ace. 132 b, with 
 inlin. 154 b, with subst. clause 193 c. 
 
 Impure syllable 5c. 
 
 IN 90 c, construction of 87 b, 146 a. 
 
 Inceptive forms 62 c, verbs (inchoa- 
 tive) 77 b, 99 c. 
 
 Incomplete tenses 53 c. 
 
 Increment 218. 
 
 Indeclinable nouns 31 a, gender 10 c, 
 adjective 37 c, 49 c. 
 
 Indefinite subj. omitted 113 a, rela- 
 tive, equiv. to condition 166 c. 
 
 Indicative 51 a, 61, 63, syntax 148 b, 
 tenses of 157, in cond. clauses 167 b, 
 168 a, in apod, of unfulf. cond. 169 a, 
 in fut. cond. 170 a, in apod, of im- 
 plied condition 174 a, absolute time 
 177 b, in inverted clauses 179 a, with 
 CUM 180 c, in causal clauses 181 b, 
 with QUOD in subst. clauses 199 b. 
 
 INDIGEO with genitive 120 c, 136 b. 
 
 INDIGNUS, with relative and subjunc. 
 185 c, with ablative 137 c. 
 
 Indirect discourse 187 c, subj. of infin. 
 om. 155 c, subjunct. in subord. clause 
 1K() a, example 192. 
 
 Infinitive 51 b, endings 55 b, c, pass, in 
 -IER 65 c, syntax 153 c, as subj. id., 
 with impers. 154 b, complementary 
 154 b, for subst. clause 154 c, with 
 subj. ace. 155b, of purpose and re- 
 sult 156 a, in exclam. 156 b, 197 c, 
 historical 156 c, tenses 161 b, only 
 used in present 165 a, with ace. in 
 
 subst. clauses 194 a, with ace. after 
 passives 194 b, after verbs of wish- 
 ing 195 c, verbs of permission 196 a, 
 of determining 196 b, used by poets 
 197 a. 
 
 Inflection 8 a. 
 
 INQUAM 81 c. 
 
 INSTAR with gen. 115b. 
 
 Intensive verbs 77 c, 99 c. 
 
 INTEREST 120 b. 
 
 Interjections 9 c, 95 a. 
 
 Intermediate clauses 102 c, with sub- 
 junctive 185c. 
 
 Interrogative particles 9c, 86 b, 200 a, 
 omitted 200 b, 201 a, sentences 101 b. 
 
 IPSE (IPSUS) 45, 46c. 
 
 Irregular nouns 30 b, verbs 78. 
 
 is 45, 46 c. 
 
 Islands, gender of, 10 c. 
 
 ISTE 45, 46. 
 
 ITAQUE 95, accent 7 c (ergo, 96 a). 
 
 ITER, declined 22 b. 
 
 JAM 87 b. 
 
 JECUR, decl. 22 b. 
 
 JUBEO, constr. 155 a, 194 a. 
 
 JUCUNDUS, constr. of 209 c. 
 
 JUNGO with abl. 140 a. 
 
 j UPPITER, decl. 22 b. 
 
 JUXTA 91 b, following noun 148 a. 
 
 L doubled (3d conj.) 62 b. 
 
 Labial stems 20 b, gender of 24 b, 26 b. 
 
 LATEO with acc. 133 a. 
 
 -LIBET 48 a. 
 
 LICET with dat. of pred. 1&J, with 
 
 subj. 175 b, 176 c, 190 a. 
 Lingual stems 20 c, gender 24 b, 26 b. 
 Liquid stems 19 b, gender 24 a, 25. 
 Locative case 12 b, as adverb 85 a, in 
 
 appos. 104 c, for place 145 a. 
 LOCO without prep. 145 c. 
 LONGIUS, constr. of, 139 a. 
 
 MAGIS in compar. 39 a, 109 a. 
 
 MALO 79 b. 
 
 Masculine adj. 38 a. 
 
 Material, gen. of, 114 c, abl. 137 b. 
 
 MAXIME, in comp. 39 a. 
 
 Means, abl. of, 139 b. 
 
 Measure, gen. of, 115 a, 144 a. 
 
 Meditative verbs 78 c, 99 c. 
 
 MEMINI 81 b, imperative form, 153 b. 
 
 -MET, enclitic, 45 a. 
 
 Metre 223 c. 
 
 MILITIvE (lOC.) 145 a. 
 
 MILLE, decl. and constr. 43 a. 
 MINIME 41 a, in answers 201 c. 
 MINORIS (of value) 141 c. 
 MINUS 41 a, constr. of 139 a. 
 
 MIRUM QUAM 191 b. 
 
 MISCEO with abl. 140 a. 'XJ. * I 2* H 
 
 MISERET 83 a, 120 a. 
 Modification of subj. or pred. 102 a. , 
 MODO with hort. subj. 150 a, 175c. 
 Monoptotes 31 a. ^ 
 
INDEX. 
 
 249 
 
 Months, gender of 10 c, in -BER 35 c, 
 construction 146 c, division 234 b. 
 
 Moods 50 a, 51, syntax of. 148 b. 
 
 JN'otion, preps, with ace. 122 b, verbs 
 fCf (comp.) with ace. 132 a. 
 
 Motive with OB or PROPTER 138 a. 
 
 Mountains, gender of, 10 c. 
 
 Multiplication 43 b. 
 
 Multiplicatives 43 c. 
 
 Mute stems 20 a. 
 
 N of stem lost 19 b, inserted in 3d 
 
 conj. 62 b. 
 
 NAM, NAMQUE 35 b, 96 a. 
 Names of men and women 32. 
 NE with hort. subj. 150 a, in final 
 
 clauses 182 a, in consec. 183 c, with 
 
 verbs of caution 196 b, of fearing 
 
 196 c, omitted id. 
 -NE (enclitic) 200 a, with me 45 b, 
 
 added to interrog. words 200 c, in 
 
 double questions id. _/ 
 
 NECNE 200 c. 
 NEDUM 183 a. 
 Negative particles 9 c, 86 c, two equal 
 
 to affirmative 87 a. 
 NEGO for DICO NON 188 a. 
 
 NEQUEO 82 b. 
 
 NE . . . QUIDEM 87 C, 214 a. 
 
 NESCIO AN 200 C, NESCIO QUIS 191 b. 
 
 Neuter passives 77 a. 
 
 Neuters, like cases 13 a, in AL and AR 
 17 c, of adj. in s 36 e, ace. as adv. 
 84 c, of adj. with abstr. nouns 106 a, 
 as noun 107 b, partitive use 115 c. 
 
 Neuter verbs, with agent 138 b. 
 
 Neutral passives 77 b. 
 
 NI, NISI 176 b, 166 b. 
 
 NIX, decl. 22 c. 
 
 NOLO 79 b, NOLI 192 c. 
 
 NOMEN 32 b, with dative 127 a. 
 
 Nominative lib, formed from stems 
 12 c, in adj. 36 a, as subj. of verb 
 113 a, used for voc. 134 a, with opus 
 136 b. 
 
 NONNE 200 a. 
 
 Nouns 14-32, used as adj. 38 a, 107 b, 
 verbal 50 a, irreg. 30 b, derived 96 a, 
 compound 100 b, agreement of 103 c, 
 in relative clause llOc, understood 
 with gen. 114 a, governing dat. 129 c. 
 
 NUM 200 a. 
 
 Number of appositive 104 c, of adj. 
 105 b, of verb 112 b. 
 
 Numerals 41 b, partitive use 115 c. 
 
 N umeral adverbs 43 c. 
 
 NUNC 86 b. 
 
 O si with subjunct. of wish 151 a. 
 
 o for u after u 2b, in verb-stems 62 c. 
 
 Object 101 c, indir. 121 b, direct 131 a. 
 
 Oblique cases 12 a. 
 
 oi$vii:,s with dative 125 c. 
 
 ODI 81 b. 
 
 Open syllables 5 c, pron. 6 a, affix 9 b, 
 
 in compounds 65 a. 
 OPERA with gen. 138 b. 
 
 OPUS with abl. 136 a, with perf. part. 
 
 204 c. 
 
 Oratio O6/igita,see Indirect Discourse, 
 ^rder of words 212. 
 Ordinal numbers 41 b, how formed, 
 
 42 b, declined 42 c. 
 OS for us 15 c. 
 os, ossis, decl. 22 c. 
 
 P inserted before M 3c, 20 b, 72 b. 
 
 PALAM 147 b. <i 
 
 Palatal 1 b, stems 21 c, gender 2415^" 
 27 b, verbs 62 c. 
 
 Parisyllabic nouns 17 b, adj. 35 a. 
 
 PARTE, without prepos. 145 c. 
 
 Participial clause, equiv. to condition 
 172 b. 
 
 Participles 50 a, 51 c, abl. in i 20 b; 
 37 b, compared 39 a, future of pur- 
 pose 51 c, 205 b, "perfect as adj. 25 a, 
 82 c, with habeo 204 c, active 52 a, 
 periphr. use 53 c, 83 b, ending 55 b, 
 pres. of ESSE 57 c, of deponents 76 b, 
 51 a, present as adj. 83 c, in NS with 
 
 ^gen. 17 c, with dative of agent 127 c, 
 of source with abl. 136 c, in URUS 
 with FUI plup. subj. 169 c, in RUS 
 or BUS in future apod. 170 c, syntax 
 202, adj. and pred. 203. 
 
 Particles 9 c, 84-96, in compounds 
 100 c, conditional, with subj. 174 c, 
 interrogative 200 a. 
 
 Partitive genitive 115 b. 
 
 PARUM 41 a. 
 
 Passive voice 50 c, reflex, use id. 83 b, 
 with ace. 133 b, tennin. 54 b, intin. 
 in IER 65 c, participles of deponents 
 76 c, of impersonate 83 b, followed 
 by dative 122 a, of agent 127 c, sub- 
 ject 131 a, of verbs of feeling 131 b, 
 of asking, &c., with ace. 132 c, of 
 saying, &c., with accusative and 
 infinitive 194 b. 
 
 Patronymics 98 b. 
 
 Peculiar forms, 3d decl. 22 a, genders 
 25 a, 26 a, 27 b. 
 
 PENES 91 c, following noun 148 a. 
 
 Penult 7 c, quantity of 218-220. 
 
 PER 91 c, in compos. 41 a, for agent 
 138 b. 
 
 Perfect tense, meaning, 53 b, endings 
 54 b, 55 a, syncop. 65 b, subjunct. in 
 prohib. 150 a, 152 b, of sub. anti- 
 quated 150 c, concess. subj. 151 c, in 
 quest. 152 a, syntax 159 c, implies 
 discontin. 160 a, in negatives 160 b, 
 for pres. in epist. style 161 b, fol- 
 lowed by imp. subj. 162 c, subj. for 
 past act. after primary tenses 162 c, 
 used for sec. tenses in result 163 a, 
 with fut. prot. 117 a, infin. for pres. 
 165 a, after verbs of feeling 165 c, 
 participle in pass, tenses 52 a, of 
 depon. id. syntax 202 b. 
 
 Period 214 b. 
 
 Personal endings 54 a. 
 
 Persons of verbs 54 a, 112 b, with relat. 
 110 a, 2d in subjunct. 149 c, 171 c, 3d 
 of imperative antiquated 152 c. 
 
250 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PERTJESUM EST 120 a. 
 
 FKTO with prepos. 133 a. 
 
 Pherecratic verse 228 c. 
 
 Phonetic decay 2c, 3 a. 
 
 Phrases, gender 10 c,as adv. 85 b, modi- 
 fying 102 b, limited by gen. 114 b. . 
 
 PIGET 120 a. 
 
 Place, relations of 144 b, abl. of 142 b, 
 143 b, whence 144 c, whither id., 
 where 145, verbs of, constr. 146 b. 
 
 Plants, gender of, 10 c, 2d and 4th 
 decl. 29 a. 
 
 Plautus, use of QUAL with indie. 
 
 179 b, prosodial forms 23 b. 
 Pluperfect 53 a, of subjunctive, how 
 
 formed 64 c, use 150 b, opt. subj . 150 c, 
 cone. subj. 151 c, syntax 160; for 
 imp. in epist. style 161 b, of subj. in 
 false cond. 168 b, in. temp, clauses 
 178 a, 179 a. 
 
 Plural ace. used as adv. 85 b. 
 
 Pluralia tantum 30 c, with distrib. 43 b. 
 
 PLURIS, gen. of value 141 c. 
 
 PLUS, decl. of 37 b, constr. 139 a. 
 
 PCEXITET 120 a. 
 
 POXE 91 C. 
 
 Position in prosody 216 c. 
 
 Possessives in appos. with gen. 105 a, 
 108 a, as nouns 107 a, for gen. 108 b, 
 114 a, neuter 114 c, abl. with REFERT 
 &c. 138 a, with DOMI 145 b. 
 
 POSSUM 60 b, infin. as future 164c. 
 
 POST 91 c, with QUAM 147 c. 
 
 POSTQUAM with temp, clauses 177,c* 
 
 POSTULO with prep. 133 a. 
 
 POSTIMDIE with gen. 121 a, with ace. 
 147 b, with QUAM 147 c. 
 
 Potential mood 51.a. 
 
 POTJOR with gen. 121 a, with abl. 140 b. 
 
 PiwK 91 c, in comp. 41 a. 
 
 Prtt'iiomen 32 b. 
 
 PR.T SERTIM, strengthening CUM 
 
 180 c. 
 PRyETER 92 a. 
 
 Predicate 101 c, nom. 104 a, adj. 105 b, 
 gender 106 a, after inftn. 155 c. * 
 
 Prepositions, assimil. 4 a, cla^sif. and 
 meaning 88-93, in comp. 93 a, 100 c, 
 comp. with dative 125, 126, with ace. 
 125 c, 132 a, c, with verbs of asking 
 132 c, after words of origin 137 a, of 
 time 143 c, of place 142 c, 144 b, for 
 neighborhood 145 c, constr. 146, as 
 adv. 147 b, followed by QUAM 147 c, 
 following noun 148 a. 
 
 Present stem 53 c. 
 
 Present tense 53 a, endings 54 c, vowel 
 61, 62 b, of subjunct. 150-152, syntax 
 157 b, curative 157 c, for future id., 
 historical 158 a, with BUM 158 a, 
 hist, followed by sec. tenses 163 c, 
 inh'n. after past verb 164 b, of mem- 
 ory 164 c, participle 202 a, supplied 
 in passive 52 a, 202 c. 
 
 Preteritive verbs 81 b, 160 c. 
 
 Price, abl. or gen. 141 c. 
 
 PKIIHK with genitive 121 a, with ace. 
 1471), with QUAM 147 c. 
 
 PRIMO and PRIMUM 87 c. 
 
 Principal parts of verbs 64 b, com- 
 bined 65 a. 
 
 PRIUS with QUAM 147 c. 
 
 PRIUSQUAM in relative clause 
 
 PRO 92 a, for 130 c. 
 
 PROCUL, with abl. 147 b. 
 
 Prohibitions, subj. with NE 149 
 ular constr. 152 b. 
 
 Pronouns 44, old forms 44 b, gen, in i 
 
 44 c, omitted 113a, reflexive 44 b, 4<ii;, 
 possessive 44 b, 47 b, 105 c, 
 
 48 c, reciprocal 44 c, 109 c, der, 
 
 45 a, as nouns 107 a, as anti 
 
 111 a, intensive 46 c, relative 47, 
 109 c, agreement 110, as connective 
 111 c, interrog. and indef. 47. 
 
 Pronunciation, 5, 6. 
 
 PROPE 92 a, with ace. 147 b, as adv. id. 
 
 Proper names 32 b, in plural 30 c. 
 
 PROPTER 92 a, follow ing noun 148 a. 
 
 PROSUM 60 a. 
 
 Protasis 166 a (see Condition). 
 
 -PTE (-pse), encl. 45 a. 
 
 PUDET 120 a. 
 
 Punishment, abl. of, 119 c. 
 
 Pure syllable 5c. 
 
 Purpose, iritinitive of, 156 a, UT 182 a, 
 ways of expressing 183 b. 
 
 QUJE RES lllb. 
 
 QUyEso 82 a. 
 
 Quality, genitive of, 115 a. 
 
 -QUAM (-pan) 48 a. 
 
 QUAM with superl. 40 c, etym. 48 c, 
 in comparisons 109 a, 138 c, after 
 prep. 147 c, followed by subj. 185 a, 
 by infinitive 188 b, by result clause 
 197 b. 
 
 QUAM si with subj. 174 c. 
 
 QUAMLIBET, QUANQUAM, QUAMVIS, 
 
 48 a, 151 b, 174 b, 176 c. 
 QUANDO 95 c, as indef. rel. 177 a, with 
 
 ind. 181 b. 
 
 QUANTI, gen. of value 141 c. 
 Quantity 6c, notes of 215-220. 
 QUANTUM vis with subj. 176 c. 
 QUASI with subj. 174 c. 
 -QUE (end.), forming universals 48 c. 
 QUEO 82 b. 
 Questions 200, indirect 190 a, 200 b, in 
 
 ind. disc. 189 c, indie, in 191 b. 
 QUI adverbial 47 b. 
 QUIA 95 c, with ind. 181 b, with subj. 
 
 186 b. 
 
 QUIDEM 87 c, 214 a. 
 QUIN with subj. 104 a, NON QUIN 186 a, 
 
 in subst. clause 198 b. 
 QUIPPE with CUM 180 c. 
 QUISQUAM with neg. 48 c. 
 QUISQUE with superl. 4ta, with plur. 
 
 verb 112 c. <*, 
 
 QUO in final clauses 182*, NON QUO 
 
 186 c. 
 
 QUOAD, until, with subj. 180 b. 
 QUOD 95 c, with ind. 181 b, with subj. 
 
 186 b, in subst'. clause 199 b, as ace. 
 
 of specif. 199 b, with verbs of feel- 
 ing 199 c. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 251 
 
 QUOM 95 C. 
 
 Q i < ) M i N us with subjunc. 184 a, after 
 
 verbs of caution, &c. 196 b. 
 QUONIAM 95 c, with indie. 181 b. 
 
 QUOQUE 87 a. 
 
 R doubled in third conjugation 62 b. 
 
 HE APSE 45. 
 
 Reduplication 61 b, 62 a, b, 63 b, lost 
 
 in compounds 65 a, 96 b, quantity 
 
 219 c. 
 
 REFERT 120b. 
 
 Reflexive pronouns 44 b, verbs 76 b, 
 50 c, with ace. 133J>^ 
 
 Relative pronourrrff, clauses 102 b, 
 classif. of 193, equiv. to condition 
 1124^, 166 c, of purpose 182 a, 195, of 
 result 183 c, 197, of characteristic 
 184 b. 
 
 Result, infin. of, 156 a, perf. subj. 163 a, 
 subjunctive 183 c, 197 a, elliptical 
 197 b. 
 
 Rhythm 215, 
 
 Rivers, gender 10 c. 
 
 Root 8 c, 96, of ESSE 59 c, of third con- 
 jugation 62 b. 
 
 RURI, RURE, 145 a. 
 
 RUS, constr. of 144 b. 
 
 S elided 2 b, 232 a, becomes R 3 a, 19 b, 
 termin. of nom. 12 c, 13a, in perf. 
 stem 62 a, 63 b, 64 b, syncop. 65 b. 
 
 SE added 62 c. 
 
 SALVE S2b. 
 
 SATIS, KON SATIS 41 a. 
 
 SCIN' 5b. 
 
 scio, imperative forjafes c, 153 b. 
 
 SECUNDUM 92 b. /^ 
 
 SED 951). 
 SEMI-DEPONENTS 77 a. 
 
 SEMI-VOWELS Ic, i and u 2 a. 
 SEXEX, lecl. 22 c. 
 
 Separation, with dat. 126 a, abl. 134 a. 
 Sequence of tenses 161 c. 
 Sesterces 101 b. 
 Sestertius 32 a, 236. 
 SELT (see SIVE). 
 
 si 166 b, whether 191 c, SI NON 176 b, 
 MIROR si 199 c. 
 
 SI KM 59 C. ' 
 
 Signs of quantity 76, of accent 8 a. 
 -SIM in perf. subj. 65 c. 
 SIMUL with abl. 147 b. 
 
 SIMUL ATQUE 177 C. 
 
 SIX 16(1 b. 
 
 SI\E 92 b. 
 
 Sin gutctrid fantum 30 c. 
 
 sis '(si vis) 5b. 
 
 six K '.r> i. J76b. 
 
 -so in future perfect 65 c. 
 
 ,soi>i:s (si AIDES) 56, 77b. 
 
 SOLKO 77 a. 
 
 Son s with sulj. 185 a. 
 
 Sp'i<-p. acc. <>f. !;:;<, 144.1. 
 Ipecification, acc. of, i:t:)a, abl. 142 a. 
 Spoiling, various, 4 c. 
 Stem s<;, %, of nouns 12 c, 96 b. incor- 
 rect use 13 c, of adj. 33 b, of verbs 
 
 53 c, 60 c, changes 54 c, vowel 61, 
 present 64 b, third conj. 62 b, in u 
 62 c, perf. 64 b, third conj. 63 b, su- 
 pine 64 b, quantity of 220 a. 
 
 SUB in compos. 41 a, constr. 87 b, 146 a. 
 
 Subject 101 c, of verb 113 a, of passive 
 ma, of intin. 133 c. 
 
 Subjunctive 51 a, present (vowel- 
 change) 61 a, 63 c, inserts E 61 c, 
 syntax 148 c, hortat. 149 b, as con- 
 dition 172 c, optat. 150 c, concess. 
 
 151 b, 175 b, dubit. 152 a, in proliib. 
 
 152 b, tenses 161 c, in false condition 
 164 a, 168 b, in fut. coiid. 170 b, pres. 
 becomes iinperf. 171 b, third person 
 for indef. subjunc. 171 c, repeated 
 action id., potential 173 b, cautious 
 173 c, with comi .""and coinpar. par- 
 ticles 174 c, relative time 177 b, after 
 CUM 178 c, of protasis after ANTE- 
 QUAM &c. 180 a, after BUM, b, of 
 cause 181 b, 185 c, in hid. disc. 181 c, 
 186 a, in final clauses 182 a, after 
 NEDUM 183 a, of result 183 c, after 
 QUIX and QUOMINUS 184 a, of char- 
 acteristic 184 b, after_ uxus and 
 SOLUS 185 a, after QUAM id., of re- 
 striction 185 b, after DIGNUS &c. 
 185 c, in intermed, clauses id., after 
 UT in subb^, clauses 195 c, 197 a, 
 after verbs of commanding 195 c, 
 of happening 197 ?,, after QUAM 
 197 b, in exclamation?. 197 c, in in- 
 direct questions 190, 200 '>. 
 
 Subordinate clauses 102 c. 
 
 Substantive clauses 102 c, syntax 193. 
 
 SUPER, SUPRA 92 c. 
 
 SUBTER 92 b, constr. 87 b, 146 b. 
 
 Superlative of eminence 40 c, of parti- 
 ciple 109 b, used partitively 115 c. 
 
 Supine 29 a, 50 a, 52 b, stem 53 c, 55 b, 
 acc. of place whither 144 c, syntax 
 209. 
 
 Syllables, division of 5 b, pure, open 
 &c. 5c. 
 
 Synesis 103 b, of adj. 106 b, verbs 112 c, 
 of secondary tenses 166 a. 
 
 Synopsis 64 c. 
 
 Syntax 101-214, general rules 210, 211. 
 
 T for D 2b, intercl. with c 4b, end- 
 ing 54 c, 61 b, 62 a, c. 
 
 T^DET 120 a. 
 
 TAMEN, position 96 a. 
 
 TAMQUAM with subj. 174 c. 
 
 TANTI, gen. of value 141 c. 
 
 TANTUM as correl. 49 b, with hort. 
 subj. 150 a. 
 
 TA'XTUM A BEST UT 197 C. 
 
 TK, end i tic 45 c. 
 
 Teaching, verbs of 2, acc. 133 c. 
 
 Temporal conjunctions 94 c, clauses 
 102 c, 176c. 
 
 -TKR, sutiix 34 c. 
 
 Tenses 50 a, 52 c, syntax 157, sequence 
 151 c. 
 
 TENUS 92 c, construction 146 c, follow- 
 ing noun 148 a. 
 
252 
 
 INDEX- 
 
 T-5RRA MARIQUE 145 a. 
 
 Time, absolute and relative, 157 a, 
 161 c, how long (ace.) 133 c, 143 b, 
 when (abl.) 143 b. 
 
 Towns, gender 10 c, in us, fern. 16 a, 
 in E 18 c, names of, constr. 144 b.. 
 
 TRANS 92 c. 
 
 Trees, gender 10 c. 
 
 TRES 42 C. 
 
 Triptotes 31 a. 
 
 Trochaic verse 227 a. 
 
 TUM, TUNC, 87 b, with CUM 95 c, 181 a. 
 
 U stems (verbs) 62 c, 64 a, 96 c. 
 
 UBI as indef. rel. 177 a, c. 
 
 ULLUS with neg. 48 $. 
 
 ULTRA 93 a, following noun 148 a. 
 
 UNQUAM with neg. 48 c. 
 
 UNUS 42 b, with rel. and subj. 185 a. 
 
 USQUAM with neg. 48 c. 
 
 USQUE with ace. 147 b. 
 
 us us with abl. 136 a. 
 
 UT with concess. subj. 151 b, 175 b, 
 176 c, as indef. rel. 177 a, UT CUM 
 180 c, in final clauses 182 a, consec. 
 do. 183 c, subst. do. 195 b, 197 a. with 
 verbs of fearing 196 c, oinitti"li<i. 
 
 UTERQUE with plur. veri> 11;; c, with 
 nouns and pronouns 116 c. 
 
 UTI, rTJL\AM. with subj. of wish 151a, 
 
 . f c. 
 
 .ii.j. 174 c. 
 . used alone 201 b. 
 
 =.;a, syncop. 65 b. 
 \ ..UK 41 a. 
 
 Value, genitive of 115 b. 
 VAPULO 77 b. 
 Variable nouns 31 b, adj. 37 c. 
 
 -VE, VEL, 95 b. 
 
 VELIM, VELLEM, with subj. 151 a. 
 
 VELUTl, VELUTSI 174 C. 
 
 VENEO 77 b, 80 a. 
 
 Verbs 50-83, forms 54, 56, endings 55 c, 
 special forms and parallel 65 b, de- 
 ponent 75 c, irreg. 78, defect. 81, 
 impers. 82, deriv. of 99, compound 
 100 b, syntax 112, 113, 148-209, 
 omitted 113 b, of remembering &c. 
 119 a, of accusing &c. 119 b, of 
 emotion with gen. 120 a, of plenty, 
 
 . &c. 120 c. 
 
 Verbals in AX 98 b, with gen. 117 c. 
 
 VERO 96 a, in answers 201 c. 
 
 Verse 222 c, forms of 224-231. 
 
 VERSUS 93 a, as adv. 147 b. 
 
 VERUM 95 b. 
 
 VESCOR with abl. 140 b. 
 
 VETO, constr. of 155 a, 194 a. 
 
 VIM 5b, vis 48 a. 
 
 Vocative 12 a, 13 a, of nouns in lus 
 16 b, construction 134, of adj. for 
 nom. 134Jb. 
 
 Voices 50 a. 
 
 VOLO 79. 
 
 Vowels 1 b, strengthened 62 a, weak- 
 
 Vowel change in verbs 56, in future 
 63 a, subj. 53 c, in compounds 65 a. 
 
 Vowel increase 2 c, 61 a, 62 b, 63 b, 96 b. 
 
 Vowel scale 2 c. 
 
 Vowel stems 12 c, 17 b, 19 a, 20 a, gen- 
 der of 24. 
 
 Winds, gender 10 c. 
 Wishes and commands 192. 
 Women, names of, 32 c. 
 
 Y in root of third conj. 62 c. 
 
 E ft R A T A. 
 
 Page 9, paragraph 3, omit the third line. 
 143 ; Note, erase the last two words. 
 
 WpiS^ 
 
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