BANCROFT LIBRARY < THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA f * m if: m m m THK GRKAT SALT LAKE PRKSKNT AISm 1'AST. 13 West from, 6rre(;fuich. i \ II. Map of the Great Suit Lakr. III. Flock of Young Pelicans, Hat Island. IV. Gulls on Hat Island. Photograph by Johnson. V. Saltair Pavilion: bird's-eye view. VI. Side View of Salmir I';i\ ilion. (Suit Lake and Los Angeles Kailway.) X. Inland Crystal Salt Co.'s Works. (Salt Lake and Los Angeles Railway.) XI. Coarse Salt. Inland Crystal Salt Co. f s Ponds. (On line of Salt Lake and Los Angeles Railu ;iy. i XII. XIII. Brine Shrimp, Artemia fertilis (Verril) ; or Artemia gracilis; from the Great Salt Lake. XII, male; XIII, female. From photomicrographs by J. E. Talmage. XIV. Map of theUrciit Hasin and its Lakes: Copied from U. S. G. S., Monograph I: IMatcII. XV. Map of Lake Bonneville. Copied from Gilbert's map; U. S. G. S., Monograph I. XVI. Shore Lines on Oquirrh Mountains, West Salt Lake Valley, XVII. Shore Lines of Lake Bonneville; north mil of D.niirrh Mountains. After sketch by Holmes (U. S. G. S., Monojfrsipl' 1 : >''"te I.) XVIII. Bonneville and Intermediate Embankments, near Wellsville, Utah, showing contrast between littoral and sub-aerial topography. (After Gilbert, U. S. G. S., Monograph I; Fig. 21.) XIX. View on Salt Lake Desert, showing sediments. (After Gilbert, see U. S. G. ; mountains half buried by lake i., Monograph I: PL XXXVI.) XX. Ripple Marks in Argillaceous Sandstone. Shore of Lake Bonneville. XXI. Section of Moraine, Mouth of Little Cottonwood Canyon, Suit Lake Valley. XXII. Glaciated Stone, from Little Cottonwood Moraine. THE GREAT SALT LAKE PAST. BY JAMES . TALMAGE, PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF UTAH. THB DKSKRKT Nicws, SAI.T LAKE Omr, UTAH. 1900. G--J T3 COPYRIGHT, 1900, BY J. E. TALMAGE. BANCROFT ;RY In some parts the following pages are reprints of articles that have appeared over the writer's signature in local and scientific periodicals ; in other portions they are little more than a compilation of facts already of record. Perhaps sufficient excuse for the present publi- cation may be found in the fact that reliable informa- tion regarding the Great Salt Lake is of difficult access to the general reader, inasmuch as it is mostly con- tained in the valuable though ponderous tomes of the national surveys. The popular writings on the subject, with some exceptions, have been criticized as extrava- gant and untrustworthy. The truth regarding Utah's Dead Sea is sufficiently impressive without recourse to fabulous embellishment, even if such were in any sense justifiable. The writer has drawn freely on the valuable records of investigators, and acknowledgment of authorities has been made in place. J. E. T. SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH, July, 1900, CONTENTS. PAGE. I. Introductory 21 II. Descriptive 26 III. The Lake as a Pleasure and Health Resort. ... 33 IV. Statistical and General 43 V. The Lake Water 55 VI. Life in the Lake 67 VII. Economic Importance of the Lake 77 VIII. The Great Basin 87 IX. The Ancient Lake Lake Bonneville . 96 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. PRESENT AND PAST. I INTRODUCTORY. The record of fact and tradition concerning the Great Salt Lake, as written by the hand of man, dates back a little more than two centuries; but a history of times far more remote may be read from Nature's manu- script, inscribed on the stony pages of ancient shores and in the sediment which formed the floor of the lake of by-gone days. Though generally designated by the adjective "Great," the Salt Lake, as we shall presently see, is but a shrunken remnant of a vastly larger water body, which once existed as a veritable inland -sea, completely filling the valley in the lowest portion of which the modern lake rests, and extending beyond the northern and western boundaries of the present State of Utah. To this ancient sea the name "Lake Bonneville" has been applied. But the geological past of the ".Dead Sea of Ameri- 22 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. ca" may well be left for later consideration; we can the better interpret such after an examination of existing conditions. It is, therefore, the lake of present and his- toric times to which attention is first invited. Long prior to the time at which white men first trod the shores of this briny sea, strange stories of its existence and of the marvelous properties of its waters had found their way into civilized lands. In 1689 Baron La Hontan, a French traveler and explorer of note, gathered from the Indian tribes of the Mississippi val- ley their traditions of a great salt sea lying amid the solitude of the western mountains; and these stories, doubtless embellished by additions from his own imagi- nation, the traveler sought to perpetuate. His narra- tive was first published in English in 1735. No facts of value were given by La Hontan concerning the lake; indeed there is room for doubt as to whether the water- body about which the Indians had talked to him was the Great Salt Lake. In 1776 Padre Escalante, a Spanish official exploring for routes of travel, crossed the south-eastern rim of the Great Basin region, and followed the Timpanogos or Provo River (by him named Purisima) down to its termination in Utah Lake. From the Indian tribes of what is now Utah Valley he learned of a lake many leagues in extent, with waters extremely noxious and salty, lying in the valley northward. Escalante appears to have contented himself with this hear-say informa- INTRODUCTORY. 23 tion, for there is no record of his having reached the shores of Great Salt Lake. Perhaps the truth regarding the first white man's visit to the lake may never he known. There have been many rival claimants for the honor of having dis- covered the briny waters, and historians have failed in their efforts to decide the question of priority. There are many accounts of occasional visits to the lake or its vicinity by traders and trappers between 1820 and 1833; among such venturesome travelers may be named Miller of the Astor company; Provost (after who Provo City has been named), and Bridger, for whom some strongly claim the honors of discovery. Hubert Howe Bancroft, the voluminous writer on Pacific Coast history, is one who accords this credit to Colonel James Bridger. Bridger is said to have de- scended Bear River to its mouth in the lake, the jour- ney having been undertaken to settle a wager as to the course of the river named. Between 1831 and 1833 Captain Bonneville, a Frenchman in the service of the United States as an army officer, while traveling on leave, explored portions of the lake shores and wrote short descriptions, mostly geographical, which have proved of value. Several years later an account of Bonneville's explorations was given publicity by Washington Irving, whose book, "Adventures of Captain Bonneville," is well known. An attempt was made to attach Bonneville's name to 24 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. the salty lake, but without success. As already stated, the designation "Lake Bonneville" has now been ap- plied to the ancient sea which preceded the Salt Lake of today. In 1843 John C. Fremont,, then Brevet-Captain U.S. A., sighted the lake from an elevation in Weber County now known as Little or Low Mountain, and considered himself the first discoverer of this mountain-sea. He likened himself to Bilboa discovering the Pacific. Fremont reached the lake and rowed upon its waters; but history denies him the distinction of having been first to discover or to navigate the lake. Fremont's visit was made in the course of a government expedi- tion to the Rocky Mountains; and his report* is re- garded as the earliest authentic record of the physical conditions of the region. His party included the re- nowned hunter and scout, Kit Carson, and tradition has it that a rude boat consisting of a tree-trunk hollowed- out Indian fashion, which was found on the shores of the lake after the settlement of the region by the Mor- mon people, was the identical craft used by Kit Carson. The boat in question is now to be seen at the Deseret Museum, Salt Lake City. There is much doubt as to the truth of the story, however, for more authentic ac- counts say that the explorations of Fremont and Carson * "Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in the year 1842, and to Oregon and North California in the years 1843-44," by Brevet-Capt. J. C. Fremont. Washington, 1845. INTRODUCTORY. 25 on the waters of the lake were accomplished in rubber boats. In 1849 and 1850 Captain Howard Stansbury, U. S. A., under government commission made a, fairly thor- ough survey of the lake and the region contiguous. His report contained valuable data concerning the lake~ area, the depth, density, and composition of the water, and the extent of the shore line.* Since the advent of the Mormon pioneers in 1847, and during the phenomenally rapid settlement of the region and the development of its varied resources, re- liable observations have been recorded, both by resi- dents and by competent investigators operating under private or government auspices. To Grove Karl Gilbert much praise is due for his elaborate and masterly study of the Great Salt Lake, particularly in relation to its past history. His work, "Lake Bonneville,"f is and will ever be a classic in the geological literature of America. * "Exploration and Survey of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah," etc., by Howard Stansbury, Capt. Corps Topographical En- gineers, U. S. A. Philadelphia, 1852. t Monographs of the United States Geological Survey, Vol.1: "Lake Bonneville" by Grover Karl Gilbert; Washington, Government Printing Office, 1890. II. DESCRIPTIVE. The Great Salt Lake today is an object of very gener- al interest, attracting as it does the attention of scientist, lay-scholar, and curiosity-seeker alike. In the popu- lar mind it holds a place as one of the strongest natural brines known, and as the site of attractive bathing re- sorts. To the chemist this remarkable body of water represents a practically inexhaustible reservoir of valu- able material awaiting the potent influences of manu- facturing industry. To the geologist it appeals as the dwarfed remains of an ancient sea, with the fossil evi- dence of its past history preserved in the deposits and sculpturing of its abandoned shores, and in the sedi- ments of its desiccated floor. The events characterizing its principal epochs may be determined with a fair measure of accuracy, and the story of its fluctuations recounts the succession of mar- velous climatic changes through which the region of the Great Basin has passed. As is generally known, the Great Salt Lake is the largest inland water body existing within the United States west of the Mississippi valley. It lies in the north central part of the State of Utah, between the parallels 111.8 degrees and 113.2 degrees longitude west from Greenwich, or 34.7 degrees and 36.1 degrees DESCRIPTIVE. 27 west from Washington, and between 40.7 degrees and 41.8 degrees north latitude. Owing to the frequent and great fluctuations in vol- ume incident to climatic variations and other conditions of change, its area is inconstant, and the recorded sur- veys of the water surface show great discrepancies. In general terms its present dimensions have been recorded as follows: Average length, 75 miles; greatest width, 50 miles; extent of surface, 2,125 square miles. The altitude of the lake surface is 4,210 feet above sea-level; and this fact alone is promise sufficient of many interesting results to the investigator, for at such a height the general conditions are unusual. The remarkable clearness of the atmosphere throughout the lake region appeals with force to the visitor, whose persistent underestimating of distance may be either amusing or annoying. From any convenient point of vantage the observer may survey the lake as a glassy continuation of the valley floor, with mountain-walled back grounds, which are broken on the central part of the western shore where the Great Salt Lake Desert and the lake itself have a margin in common. ISLANDS OF THE LAKE. Rising from the water surface are precipitous is- lands, appearing in their true character of mountain peaks and ranges, the lower part of their masses being submerged . Of these water-girt mountain bodies, Ante- 28 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. lope and Stansbury islands are the largest; and the others are Carrington, Fremont, Gunnison, Dolphin, Mud, and Hat or Egg islands, and Strong's Knob. The islands appear as continuations of the mountain ranges which diversify the contiguous land area, and an exami- nation of their structure confirms this inference. At present, communication between main-land and islands is effected by boat; though at low water periods, Antelope and Stansbury islands have been accessible by fording. Limited areas of the larger islands are un- der cultivation, and the regions have long been utilized as pasture lands. Some discoveries of mineralized de- posits have been reported from the lake-washed moun- tains but thus far no profitable mining for metals has been accomplished. The tiny hill whose summit rises from the briny waters as a rocky knoll, known as Hat or Egg island, is the principal rookery of the feathered frequenters of the lake. There congregate during the breeding season thousands of pelicans and gulls, and when they depart they are accompanied by the new generation of their kind, in uncounted numbers. A visit to this isle of nests at the proper time reveals the spectacle of great flocks of half-fledged pelicans, awaiting the arrival of their fisher-parents, or ravenously devouring the scaly contents of the parental pouches. The fish thus sup- plied are caught by the old birds at the mouths of the fresh water streams which feed the lake reservoir. ISLANDS, RIVERS. 29 On the islands, which for ages have been monopo- lized by the birds as a nesting-ground, great deposits of guano have accumulated; and this material is now util- ized as a valuable fertilizer. The rivers which feed the lake all enter it on the eastern side; they depend upon the supplies furnished by the Wasatch and Uintah mountains. Of these streams the most important are the Jordan, which brings down from the south the surplus waters of Utah Lake, the Weber, and the Bear. Beside these there are several small streams locally designated as creeks, which deliver a moderate contribution during high-water seasons. Gen- erally, however, the lower portions of the creek-beds are dry, the water having been diverted at higher levels for irrigation purposes. From the west no streams reach the lake, the few that rise on this side losing themselves in the desert plain, or disappearing entirely through evap- oration. The scenic glories for which the lake region is most- ly famed depend not alone on mountain heights, or valley floor, neither on water expanse nor island cameos; not on one nor two nor all of these combined, pleasing though the combination be; these are but the canvas on which Nature paints with a richness beyond the colors of purely earthly origin. ? Tis when the sun- 30 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. beams fall aslant in the freshening dawn, or when the orb of day is sinking in the west, that the landscape and the water blaze forth with tints and shades which the artist strives in vain to catch and imitate. A description of such a scene is a fit theme for the poet; the picture ought to be attempted by the master- hand alone. But the poet frail as the rest of us may substitute his witchery of rhythm and rhyme for the actual harmonies of the desert scene; and the painter may intrude his ideal into the picture. The truth here declared in Nature's language and colors calls for no embellishments. I trust rather the scien- tific observer, whose love for the beautiful, while no whit less than that professed and held by his brothers, poet and painter, is kept within the bounds of truthful decorum. Let us call to our service the words of Prof. Eussell, whose geological researches in these and contiguous parts have afforded him abundant opportunity for ob- servation.* "The scenery about this great lake of the Mormon land and in the encircling mountains is unusually fine,in spite of the aridity and the generally scant vegetation of the region. The sensation of great breadth that the lake inspires, together with the picturesque islands diversifying its surface, and the utter desolation of its * "Lakes of North America" by Israel C. Russell, Professor of Geol- ogy, University of Michigan; Boston, Ginn & Co., 1895. pp. 78-79. SCENIC BEAUTIES. 31 shores, give it a hold on the fancy and waken one's sense of the artistically beautiful in a way that is un- rivaled by any other lake of the arid region. The un- usually clear air of Utah, especially after the winter rains, renders distant mountains remarkably sharp and distinct, particularly when the sun is low in the sky and a strong side-light brings the sharp serrate crests into bold relief and reveals a richness of sculpturing that was before unseen. At such times the colors on the broad deserts and amid the purple hills and mountains are more wonderful than artists have ever painted, and exceed anything of the kind witnessed by the dweller of regions where the atmosphere is moist and the native tints of the rock concealed by vegetation. The hills of New England when arrayed in all the gorgeous pano- ply of autumnal foliage are not more striking than the desert ranges of Utali when ablaze with the reflected glories of the sunset sky. The rich native colors of the naked rocks are then kindled into glowing fires, and each canyon and rocky gorge is filled with liquid pur- ple, beside which even the imperial dyes would be dull and lusterlese. "At such times the glories of the hills are mirrored in the dense waters of the lake, their duplicate forms appearing in sharp relief on the paler tints of the reflected sky. As the sun sinks behind the far- off mountains, range after range fades through innumer- able shades of purple and violet until only their highest 32 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. battlements catch the fading glory. The lingering twilight brings softer and more mysterious beauties. Eanges and peaks that were concealed by the glare of the noon-day sun start into life. Forms that were be- fore unnoticed people the distant plain like a shadowy encampment. At last each remote mountain crest ap- pears as a delicate silhouette, in which all details are lost, drawn in the softest of violet tints on the fading yellow of the sky. "To one who only beholds the desert land bordering Great Salt Lake in the full glare of the unclouded sum- mer sun, when the peculiar desert haze shrouds the land- scape and the strange mirage distorts the outline of the hills, the scenery will no doubt be uninteresting and per- haps even repellent. But let him wait until the cool breath from the mountains steals out on the plain and the light becomes less intense, and a transformation will be witnessed that will fill his heart with wonder." III. THE LAKE AS A PLEASURE AND HEALTH RESORT. The peculiar advantages and attractions of the Great Salt Lake for bathing purposes were known to the earli- est white explorers; and even prior to their visits, the Indians, who are not famous for their love of ablutions, had discovered the difference between a dip in fresh water and a bath in this natural brine. The aborigines who dwelt near the shores of Utah lake forty miles to the south, specifically known as the Timpanogotzis,informed Padre Escalante of the strange properties of the water. The Padre writes, "The other lake with which this one communicates is, as they informed us, many leagues in extent; and its waters are noxious and extremely salt, so that the Timpanogotzis asserted to us that when any one rubbed a part of his body with it he would feel an itching sensation in the moistened part."* The peculiarity of the lake water as a medium for the bath lies in its rich content of dissolved mineral matter,and in the consequent high degree of density. Dr. L. D. Gale reported a specific gravity of 1.17 on a sam- ple collected in 1850; with the rise of the lake and the corresponding dilution of the brine, the specific gravity * Translation from the original manuscript- journal of Padre Esca- lante, describing his journeyings from Santa Fe to Utah Lake, etc., in 1776; by Philip Harry; published in Capt. Simpson's Report, 1876; p. 494. 34 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. fell to 1.111 in 1869 (Prof. 0. D. Allen), and to 1.102 in 1873 (Bassett); then the density increased as the lake waters became more concentrated, reaching 1.1225 in 1885, 1.261 in 1888, and 1.679 in 1892. In December 1894, the density was 1.1538, and in May 1895, 1.1583; in June 1900, it was 1.1576. These data will be pre- sented in greater detail on a subsequent page. It is seen that the Salt Lake brine is among the most concentrated and therefore the densest of natural waters; indeed it is surpassed in point of density by but one large water body the Dead Sea. As would be surmised of a liquid possessing so high a specific gravity, the Salt Lake water is extremely buoy- ant, and this fact the bather soon demonstrates to his fullest satisfaction. It is a physical impossibility for the human body to remain submerged, and the skilful swim- mer may float without effort, rather upon than in the brine. One of the earliest accounts of bathing in the- lake is that given by Captain Howard Stansbury in his official report; an abstract therefrom is presented here- with, with the simple comment that the multiplied ex- periences of many confirm his statements as to general properties and effects of the water, and show the cir- cumstances of the individual experience described to be consistent and probable: "We frequently enjoyed the luxury of bathing in the LAKE BATHING. 35 water of the lake. No one without witnessing it can form any idea of the buoyant properties of this singular water. A man may float, stretched at full length, upon his back, having his head and neck, both his legs to the knee, and both arms to the elbow, entirely out of the water. If a sitting position be assumed, with the arms extended to preserve the equilibrium, the shoulders will remain above the surface. The water is nevertheless ex- tremely difficult to swim in, on account of the constant tendency of the lower extremities to rise above it. The brine, too, is so strong, that the least particle of it get- ting into the eyes produces the most acute pain; and if acidentally swallowed, strangulation must ensue. I doubt whether the most expert swimmer could long pre- serve himself from drowning if exposed to a rough sea. "Upon one occasion a man of our party fell over- board, and although a good swimmer, the sudden im- mersion caused him to take in some mouthfuls of water before rising to the surface. The effect was a most violent paroxysm of strangling and vomiting, and the man was unfit for duty for a day or two afterward. He would inevitably have been drowned had he not received immediate assistance. After bathing it is necessary to wash the skin with fresh water, to prevent the deposit of salt arising from evaporation of the brine. Yet a bath in this water is delightfully refreshing and invigor- ating."* '* Exploration and Survey of the Valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah," by Howard Stansbury, 1852, p. 212. 36 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. The force of waves on the lake is astounding to one who has had experience in troubled waters of ordinary density alone. Even a moderate disturbance gives to the shore breakers prodigious power, and affords the bather the exciting experience of heavy surf-fighting. Storms on the open lake are serious happenings to the small boats that navigate its surface, even though the at- mospheric disturbance may be that of but an insignifi- cant squall at sea. As will be readily understood, boats for service on the lake must be of special construction, affording proper displacement in the dense water. A craft that would sink to the water line in sea-water would ride so high on the lake brine as to be top-heavy and unsafe. The natural attractions of the lake as a pleasure re- sort have been recognized from the time of the first set- tlement of the valley. Long prior to the erection of bath houses and pavilion piers, the shores were fre- quented by pleasure-seekers with whom boating and bathing were favorite sports. At the present time there are a number of resorts at different places along the shore, but of these two only are of considerable propor- tions. These in the order of their establishment are Gar- field Beach and Saltair Beach resorts. They are both situated at the southern extremity of the lake, within easy access by rail from Salt Lake City. SALTAIR. 37 In this part, the lake shore and bottom, free from rocky irregularities and mud, is covered with a peculiar and uniform deposit of "oolitic sand," which forms an ideal bathing floor. Firm to a moderate degree, it is yet conveniently soft and elastic, affording to the wader and to all who desire to keep within the limits of shallow water the advantages of a prepared bottom. SALTAIE. The Saltair Beach resort is a monumental testimoni- al to the enterprising energy of Utah capitalists. The pavilion is situated thirteen miles due west from Salt Lake City, and may be reached by a twenty minute ride on the Salt Lake and Los Angeles railroad. The rail- way here runs over a recently desiccated portion of the old lake bottom, which preserves many features of actual desolation, and affords an illustration of what the entire valley was in the geological yesterday. Saline pools and playas appear as the shore is approached, and vege- tation dies away, save occasional patches of wild sage, (Artemisia tridentata), greasewood (Sarcolatus vermi- cularis)) and rabbit brush (Lynosyris). The train runs on a pile-supported track 4,000 feet into the lake before the pavilion is reached. The build- ings form a symmetrical group, with a large central structure connected with a semicircular extension at each end curving toward the lake. The architecture is af- THE GREAT SALT LAKE. ter the Moorish style, and the general effect is as beauti- ful as the structure is substantial and serviceable. The pavilion was erected in 1893 at a cost of a quarter of a million dollars. In length the buildings extend over 1,115 feet, with a maximum width of 335 feet. The top of the main tower is 130 feet above the water sur- face. Part of the lower floor serves as a lunch and refreshment pavilion; the area thus utilized is 151 by 252 feet. The upper floor in the main building is used as a ball room; its dimensions are 140x250 feet. The dancing floor is domed by a roof constructed after the plan of that covering the famed Salt Lake City Taber- nacle, and the proportions of the two vast assembly rooms are nearly the same. On the semi-circular sweeps which flank the central pavilion 620 bath-rooms are provided. The bathing appointments are of the best, and the many flights of stairs leading to the water reach the bottom at points giving a range of depth from fifteen inches to four feet. Deeper water may be reached at some distance outward. During the bathing season the observed temperature of the water ranges from 50 degrees to 86 degrees F. At night the pavilion is brilliantly illuminated by means of electric lamps. There are 1,250 incandescent lights and 40 ordinary arc lights, with one arc light of 2,000 candle power surmounting the main tower. As would be naturally expected, a resort of such at- SALTAIR. 39 tractiveness is secure in the matter of patronage. The records show an annual total of over 160,000 visitors. The buildings are supported on 2,500 piles each 10 inches in square cross-section, and driven 14 feet into the lake bottom. Owing to the peculiar nature of the formation, the piles are of unusual stability. To a depth of a few inches the bottom consists of loose or slightly compacted oolitic sand; for two feet or more beneath this is a layer of sand cemented by calcareous matter; then with a thickness of seven or eight feet comes a layer of sodium sulphate: the mirabilite of the miner- alogist and the glauber salts of commerce doubtless precipitated from the lake water during an earlier stage of its history. In the work of pile-driving it was found to be prac- tically impossible to penetrate this layer of "soda," even with the best steel-pointed instruments. A method at once simple and efficient was adopted. Through pipes, steam under moderate pressure was conveyed to the sodium sulphate bed; the substance dissolved at once, and the driving of piles became easy. Concerning the stability of the piles when driven, Mr. C. W. Miller, manager for the Saltair Beach Company, writes, "After the piling has been allowed to set for twenty-four hours, it is impossible to drive it even a quarter of an inch, though you might hammer the piling until you wore it down/' This bed of mirabilite extends for an undeter- mined though certainly a very considerable area inland, 40 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. for wherever canals have been cut to a sufficient depth in connection with the salt ponds inshore, the substance has been encountered as a continuous layer, though of varying thickness. GARFIELD. The present Garfield Beach resort may be regarded as a development of years, the stages of which were marked by the successful operation of many minor es- tablishments. As early as 1876 a small pavilion and about a hundred bath-rooms were erected at Lake Point a little less than two miles beyond the site of the existing pavilion, on the line of the Utah and Nevada railway. This enterprise was carried on under railway auspices, at the instance of Hon. W. W. Eiter. In 1885 Captain Thomas Douris built a pier, and provided bathing and boating facilities near the present location of Garfield pavilion. A year or so later the railway company constructed bath-rooms at Black Rock. But all of these temporary acommodations were superceded in 1887 by the construction of the commodious pavilion now in service. This comprises two hundred bath- rooms, and ample provisions for promenades and halls. Its original cost was over $70,000, to which may be add- ed nearly half as much more for subsequent improve- ments. The attendance of pleasure-seekers at the Beach has reached a total of 84,000 in a single year. The resort is on the line of the Utah and Nevada road, GARFIELD. 41 which now is operated as a branch of the Oregon Short Line railway. In driving the piles for Garfield pavilion a layer of sodium sulphate, locally known as "soda," was struck, as already described in connection with the work at Salt- air. As the simple method of using steam in penetra- ting the soda layer was not suggested, steel-shod piles had to be used; and even with such the work was not ac- complished without difficulty and high cost. Attempts have been made to procure a supply of artesian water at Garfield and at Saltair. Pipes have been driven on shore, and into the lake bottom. Good flows are generally struck at a depth of from 100 to 150 feet, but the water is always salty or brackish. All the potable water used at the resorts named is con- veyed from a distance. Beside boating and bathing, the lake offers attrac- tions to the lover of the gun. Wild duck and other water fowl congregate in the brackish water near the mouths of inflowing streams, and on many of the lake islands. The lake is steadily growing in popularity and favor as a pleasure and health resort. Situated in close prox- imity to the high roads of trans-continental travel, it is visited every year by multitudes. From the east it is reached by the Union Pacific and the Rio Grande West- 42 THE GREAT gALT LAKE. ern railways, and from the weat by the Southern Pacific line. The general purity of the atmosphere, the exhilar- ating effect of the lake-breezes, the benefits of altitude, and the pleasing climate unite in making the lake region a natural sanitarium. Lovers of pleasure and health- seekers flock to this mountain-girt lake in rapidly in- creasing numbers every year. IV. STATISTICAL AND GENERAL. It is well known that an enclosed water body, such as a lake devoid of an outlet, is particularly sensitive to climatic changes. Such a lake rises and falls as evaporation increases or diminishes in relation to sup- ply by precipitation. The variations in volume as shown by the shore-records of the Great Salt Lake are unusually large. The fluctuations in surface area are even greater than would be expected from a study of the variable re- lations between supply and loss; and this fact is ex- plained by the very gradual inclination of the shores. The entire valley is remarkable for its flatness, as any observer may see for himself if he will climb one of the hills in the vicinity of Salt Lake City; but even more striking is the small increase of water depth as one passes from the lake-shore outward. A slight rise in the lake level results therefore in a great increase of water surface. As was pointed out by Stansbury, a rise of but a few feet would enable the lake to reclaim a large part of its former domain over what is now the Great Salt Lake Desert, The writer has conversed with residents of towns near the shore who remember when the water's edge was in places two miles beyond its present line; and the 44 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. same people are able to point out the ruins of farm fences a mile inland from the present margin, marking the location of fields which were destroyed by the rising waters, and which are now left dry and barren. We have of ready access two reliable maps of the lake, by comparison of which recent variations in the water area may be demonstrated. The earlier of these is Stansbury's map, based on work done in 1849 and 1850, at which time the lake stood at the lowest level observed by man ; and the later map is that prepared under the direction of Clarence King in connection with the field work of the Fortieth Parallel Survey, dated 1869, when the water was approaching the highest stage of recent times. According to the first of these the lake covered 1,750 square miles; the second survey showed an area of 2,170 square miles. As would be inferred from the foregoing facts, the average depth of the lake is subject to small and slow variations only. On the whole the lake is extremely shallow. In 1850 the greatest depth found was but 36 feet, and the average but 13 feet. Later, the lake rose 10 feet, with a consequent increase of water area through the submergence of the flat shore-borders, but with an increase of average depth not exceeding 5 feet. The maximum depth observed at the highest stage was 49 feet. The average depth of Salt Lake today is prob- ably not more than 15 feet. The fact that the lake is a closed water body with no FLUCTUATIONS IN VOLUME. 45 out-flowing stream, would indicate the certainty of variations in its volume, unless indeed the improbable chance of a constant balance between the supply fur- nished by precipitation, and the loss through evapora- tion were realized. A body of water provided with a channel of ready discharge may maintain a tolerably constant level, the outlet acting as a regulator and per- mitting the escape of the surplus water; but the level of a lake entirely enclosed will depend, as stated, upon the relation between the supply and the loss through evapor- ation. For an undetermined period prior to 1850 or there- abouts, the Salt Lake had been steadily diminishing in volume. For ten or fifteen years after the time named the water oscillated with a tendency to rise; then it rose rapidly and reached its maximum height in the course of this increase of volume about 1872 or 1874. Al- though it is now sinking year by year, it has not yet reached its low level of 1850. Antelope Island, one of the land bodies of the lake, is connected by a bar with the delta of the Jordan Eiver; this bar is now under water at a depth of 3 to 8 feet. Fremont records that on August 13, 1845, he rode across the bar to Antelope Island, the water being in no part more than 3 feet in depth.* There is a well-defined and regularly recurring an- nual oscillation of the lake, marked by a higher water * Fremont's "Memoirs" I, p. 431. 46 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. level in May and June, and a low stage in the late sum- mer months; but beside this, oscillations of wider dur- ation are known to occur. A combination of evidence from many sources points to the following facts; they are presented in Gilbert's words: "From 1847 to 1850 the bar was very dry during the low stage of each winter, and in summer covered by not more than 20 inches of water. Then began a rise which continued until 1855 or 1856. At that time a horseman could with difficulty ford in winter, but all communication was by boat in summer. Then the water fell for a series of years, until in 1860 and 1861 the bar was again dry in winter. The spring of 1862 was marked by an unusual fall of rain and snow, whereby the streams were greatly flooded and the lake surface was raised several feet. In subsequent years the rise continued, until in 1865 the ford became impassable. According to Mr. Miller, the rise was somewhat rapid until 1868, from which date until the establishment of the guages, there occurred only minor fluctuations."* A bar connecting Stansbury Island with the main- land was dry in 1850. Since the rise of the lake in or about 1865, the bar has never been entirely above water, though at present it is fordable during the entire year. The islands have been used as herd grounds by the in- habitants of Salt Lake Valley, the cattle being trans- *'-Lake Bonneville," p. 240; "Lands of the Arid Regions," oh. iv. ARIDITY OF THE REGION. 47 ferred from the shore or back during the low water periods. The Stansbury bar is 7 feet higher than the bar running to Antelope Island. These fluctuations, while surprisingly great when placed in comparison with ordinary lake oscillations., are trifling as compared with the great variations in volume which marked the stages of Bonneville history. We observe current changes actually in progress, while the variations of earlier times we can but picture in imagi- nation. The aridity of the Great Basin is due to the very small precipitation of moisture and to the great evap- oration resulting from the high temperature. Humid air currents traveling eastward from the Pacific suffer a condensation of their vapor before reaching the Basin; when they arrive their condition is changed to that of drying winds. An estimate of the energy of the evaporation process may be made as follows: The preparation of salt from the lake water constitutes at present an important in- dustry. In the process of manufacture, the lake brine is pumped into elevated conduits through which it is conveyed to large ponds; in the ponds it evaporates without artifical heat. The pond area, the pump dis- charge per hour, and the length of time during which the pumps have to be operated in order to keep the 48 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. water at the same level in the ponds, may all be deter- mined. From the official reports of one of the salt companies, it is learned that their ponds cover 971 acres; that the pumps discharge 14,000 gallons of water per minute, and that when the ponds have been filled, it is necessary to operate the pumps to their full capacity from ten to twelve hours daily during the summer months in order to maintain the level. Making allow- ance at the start, as a guard against over-estimate, let us assume that the evaporating surface of the ponds is 1,000 acres in area. At the rate of 14,000 gallons per minute, 8,400,000 gallons would be delivered in ten hours. This represents the loss by evaporation per day of 24 hours. Considering the lake surface to be 2,125 square miles the usually accepted area the rate of evaporation shown above would indicate a daily removal from the lake of 11,424,000,000 gallons of water, or 342,720,000,000 gallons per month of 30 days. The weight of the water so lifted is 95,447,916 tons per day or 2,863, 437,500 tons per month. The same high rate of evaporation continues through at least three months of the year. The estimate here indulged in is founded on the unproved supposition that the rate of loss is the same over the deep parts of the lake body as from the shallow pond waters; it is evident indeed that such cannot be the case; but even if the numbers would more nearly represent the truth when halved, quartered, or divided by ten, the result is sufficiently astounding. INCREASE OF WATER-SUPPLY 49 As is now generally known, there has been a notable increase in the water supply of the Salt Lake valley, and indeed of the entire Basin .Region, within the period of human occupancy. The supply keeps ahead of the demands of the growing population. By way of ex- ample, I cite the following items of traditional history, for which information I am indebted to the Historian's Office, Salt Lake City: Between 1850 and 1860 the site of the present town of Kaysville was first occupied for habitation. For years after the time of first settle- ment, a dozen families composed the entire population, and the settlers were loath to welcome additions to their numbers, owing to scarcity of water. The tiny creek on the banks of which the diminutive and scattered vil- lage had been established, scarcely furnished water enough for the irrigation of the few small farms owned by the settlers. Kaysville now is a thriving little town with a population of over 1,800. Similar conditions have prevailed in the history of other towns on the lake margin. Forty-five years ago ten families composed the population of Farmington and fourteen that of Bounti- ful. These places are at present prosperous towns, the first with over a thousand inhabitants, the second sup- porting over 2,500 souls. The prevailing pursuit of the people is agriculture, and water is needed for every farm. Yet there is enough and to spare, and additions to the farming population are regarded as desirable. To account for this remarkable increase in the water 50 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. supply, numerous theories have been proposed, most of them meeting with temporary favor, soon to be lost. Of such theories three are generally current; these are called respectively, the volcanic theory, the climatic theory, and the theory of human agencies.* The volcanic theory supposes the increase to be merely an apparent rise in the lake volume, and this is ascribed to erogenic disturbances whereby the lake bot- tom has been deformed, and the water caused to recede from some parts and to overflow others. The hypothesis is untenable in the light of the fact that the elevation of lake level is real, indicating an actual increase in the water volume. The water has risen along the entire shore line. On the islands and along the mainland margin old storm lines are now submerged, and every- where the shore has been transferred inland. Independ- ent observation confirms the belief that the rising of the lake is due to an increase in the water supply of the entire hydrographic basin, for the streams have all grown in volume to a degree commensurate with the lake growth. The water body not only rose with com- parative rapidity above a height which for an indefinite period had marked its maximum limit, but it main- tained its higher level for more than a decade; and such a condition is not explicable on the supposition of a simple deformation of the bed. With reference to the general and actual rising of the water in opposition to * '-Lands of the Arid Regions," p. 67. INCREASE OF WATER-SUPPLY. 51 any supposed increase which is apparent only, I quote from the "Lands of the Arid Begions," page 67: "The farmers of the eastern and southern margins have lost pastures and meadows by submergence. At the north, Bear River Bay has advanced several miles upon the land. At the west, a boat has recently sailed a number of miles across tracts that were traversed by Captain Stansbury' s land parties. That officer has de- scribed and mapped Strong's Knob and Stansbury Island as peninsulas, but they have since become islands. An- telope Island is no longer accessible by ford, and Egg Island, the nesting ground of the gulls and pelicans, has become a reef. Springs that supplied Captain Stansbury with fresh water near Promontory Point are now submerged and inaccessible; and other springs have been covered on the shores of Antelope, Stansbury, and Fremont Islands." The climatic theory refers the phenomenon of in- crease to a permanent change in the conditions control- ling precipitation and evaporation within the drainage basin. While the recorded observations of rainfall are few, an actual increase in precipitation is indicated. An increase of less than ten per cent would probably ac- count for the observed phenomena, and the influence of climatic change appears to be a probable explanation, in part at least, of the greater supply. Major Powell has advocated the claim of the theory of human agency. By the cultivation of the land, and 52 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. the deforesting of the hill slopes, man favors the rapid removal of the precipitated moisture through the in- crease of stream volume. Well covered soil retains the moisture whether it fall as rain or as snow, and in time returns it to the atmosphere through the medium of evaporation. The more completely the precipitated water is so held, the less reaches the lake, through stream discharge; and conversely, as the streams are aug- mented the lake rises. Considering the theory of cli- matic change and that of human agency as the two hy- potheses most worthy of credence, the writer of chap- ter iv of "Lands of the Arid Regions," says: "On the whole, it may be most wise to hold the ques- tion an open one whether the water supply of the lake has been increased by a climatic change or by human agency. So far as we now know, neither theory is in- consistent with the facts, and it is possible that the truth includes both. The former appeals to a cause that may perhaps be adequate, but is not independently known to exist. The latter appeals to causes known to exist, but quantitatively undetermined. It is gratifying to turn to the economic bearings of the question, for the theories best sustained by facts are those most flattering to the agricultural future of the Arid Region. If the filling of the streams and the rising of the lake were due to a transient extreme of climate, that extreme would be followed by the return to a mean condition, or per- haps by an oscillation in the opposite direction, and a INCREASE OP WATER-SUPPLY. 53 large share of the fields now productive would be stricken by drought and returned to the desert. If the increase of water supply is due to a progressive change of climate forming part of a long cycle, it is practically per- manent, and future changes are more likely to be in the same advantageous direction than in the opposite. The lands now reclaimed are assured for years to come, and there is every encouragement for the work of utiliz- ing the existing streams to the utmost. And finally, if the increase of water supply is due to the changes wrought by the industries of the white man, the pros- pect is even better." As has been stated, the lake is now steadily decreas- ing in volume. This cannot be regarded as evidence of a turn in the series of climatic changes toward a state of increasing aridity, nor as proof of less potent human influences. As population grows, the area of land brought under cultivation enlarges very rapidly, and many of the streams, which but a few years ago made important contributions to the lake volume, now send but an insignificant tribute; and in other instances the stream channels below the uplands are entirely dry dur- ing the greater part of the year. There is little ground for doubt that in the near future even the flood season contributions of water will be practically cut off, for the increasing demands of the growing irrigation system 54 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. will compel the construction of artificial reservoirs in the upper stream regions, and thus the water will be stored for subsequent distribution upon the land. The geological evidence of a former desiccation of the lake is conclusive, and the industrial energy of man is assuredly contributing in a very effective manner to the process of present shrinkage; but that the desiccation shall again reach completion in the near future is by no means certain. As the lake surface diminishes, the area exposed to solar evaporation is lessened, and a level may be reached at which the loss by evaporation will be more nearly met by the stream supply. V. THE LAKE WATER. The variation in volume and the consequent oscilla- tions in level characterizing a lake without outlet, and the particularly striking example of such afforded by the Great Salt Lake have been already referred to. As shown by geological investigation, the lake has shrunk, from a level approximately 600 feet above the present surface to its existing volume, by desiccation alone. Thus through long ages the solid matter leached from rock and soil and carried into the lake by streams has been undergoing concentration, until the water has reached its present condition of unusual density. Analyses of samples of lake water collected at times of high and low level show great variations in dissolved solids, and these variations are of course approximately commensurate with the fluctuations in volume. The first recorded determination of the solids dis- solved in the lake water is that of Dr. L. D. Gale, pub- lished in Stansbury's report. Gale's results together with those of later examinations are presented here.* * For compilation of analyses of Salt Lake water with a discussion of the same, see Monograph I., U. 8. Geological Survey, "Lake Bonne- ville," by G. K. Gilbert, pp. 252-254. THE GREAT SALT LAKE. Solid contents and specific gravity of water taken from the Great Salt Lake: Total Solidt. Per cent by Grains per Date of Collection. 1850 Specif G-ranty. ....1.170 weight. 22.282 litre o? sample. 260 69 Authority. L D Gale 1869 (summer) 1.111 149934 166 57 O D Allen August, 1873 December 1885 ....1.102 1 1225 13.42 16 7162 147.88 187 65 H. Bassett. J E Talmage 1 1 9 61 June 1889 1 148 >i >i 11 August, 1889 August, 1892 ....1.1569 ....1.156 19.5576 20.51 226.263 238.12 E. Waller. September, 1892 . 1893 ....1.1679 21.47 20 05 250.75 J. E. Talmage. J T Kingsbury December, 1894.. May, 1895 ....1.1538 1.1583 21.16 21.39 244.144 247.760 J. E. Talmage. June 1900 1 1576 2090 241 98 H N McCoy and* Thomas Hadley. The difference existing between the writer's results from the sample collected September 1892, and those obtained by Waller on a sample taken during the pre- ceding month, is greater than would be expected from the progressive concentration during so short an inter- val. It is more likely due to an actual difference between the samples, they probably having been taken from dif- ferent parts of the lake. The statements most commonly current regarding the solid contents of the lake water are based on the earliest examination by Gale. In 1889f the present writer protested against this excessive estimate of aver- age composition, as at that time the lake was and for * Specific gravity determined by Dr. McCoy; total solids by Mr. Hadley. t "The Waters of the Great Salt Lake," by J. E. Talmage, Sci- ence (New York), December, 188d; vol xiv,, pp. 444446. THE LAKE WATER. 57 many years preceding had been at a relatively high level and of corresponding dilution. The opinion was then expressed that "it would be more correct to quote the average contents of the Salt Lake water at six- teen per cent solid matters, than at twenty-two per cent" as was at that time most commonly done. It was pointed out however that the lake was then under- going a process of rapid shrinkage, and the inference is plain that the proportion of total solids was corres- pondingly increasing. At the present time (June, 1900) the water has not yet reached the degree of rich- ness chronicled by Dr. Gale. It would appear safe to say that the average of solid matter dissolved is about twenty-one per cent by weight at present. Inasmuch as solids dissolved in natural water are frequently expressed in terms of grains per gallon, it may be interesting to transform some of the foregoing readings into the more common expressions. Let it be remembered that 10 grains of solid matter to the imperial gallon is the equivalent of .014 per cent by weight. The mean of the writers analyses quoted above of samples taken in December 1885, (16.7162 per cent solids) and in August 1889, (19.5576 per cent) is 18.1369 per cent; this corresponds to 11,777.64 grains per gallon. For convenience of comparison these re- sults are given below in connection with the re- 58 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. suits of analyses of other waters, potable and mineral, from Utah and other places. The gallon here referred to is the imperial gallon, containing 277.27 cubic inches; such a measure of pure water at the temperature of 62 degrees F. weighs 10 pounds avoirdupois, or 70,000 grams.' Source. Total Solids expressed in grains per gallon. Authority. River Loka, Sweden 0.05 Wells. Boston, U. S., Waterworks 1.22 Johnston. Loch Katrine, Scotland 2.3 Wanklyn. Schuylkill River at Philadelphia 4.26 Johnston. Detroit River, Michigan 5.72 " Ohio River at Cincinnati 6.74 Loire at Orleans 9.38 Danube, near Vienna 9.87 " Lake Geneva 10.64 " River Rhine at Basel 11.8 Wanklyn. Thames at London 18.5 " Average of 12 artesian wells, Provo, Utah 18.6 J. E. Talmage. Salt Lake City supply 16.92 Spring water, Provo, Utah 23.3 " Formation Springs, Idaho 27.8 Octagon Spring, at Soda Springs, Idaho 126.66 Well water, Gunnison, Utah 148.01 "Ninety per cent Spring," at Soda Springs. Idaho 198.41 Warm Springs, Spanish Fork Canyon, Utah 413.72 Atlantic Ocean 2,688,00 Wanklyn. Salt Lake 11,777.64 J. E. Talmage. Dead Sea 17,064.42 As comparisons between the Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea are common, the two lakes representing the highest known condition of natural concentration in large water bodies, the content of solid matter in the * See "Domestic Science," by J. E. Talmage, second edition, p. 200 201; George Q. Cannon & Sons' Co., Salt Lake City, 1892. THE LAKE WATEft. 5 Dead Sea water is of interest in the present connection. It must be remembered, however, that great discrep- ancy exists among published accounts of the compo- sition of this water. Bernan gives 14,025.48 grains per gallon; Captain Lynch collected a sample at a depth of 1,110 feet, and found it to contain 18,902 grains per gallon. The amount given in the foregoing statement, (17,064.42 grains per gallon) was determined by the author in a sample taken from the Dead Sea in April 1886, by Dr. J. M. Tanner. The composition of the solid matter existing in the lake water is a subject of importance. Some results. of analyses are here given: Analyses of Salt Lake water , acids and bases theoretically combined; expressed in percentage of weight of samples: Sodium chloride Gale. Allen. 1850. 1869. .. 20.20 11.86 Bassett. 1873. 8.85 1.09 1.19 0.20 V.89 0.20 Talmage. 1885. 1889. 13.586 15.743 1.421 1.050 1.129 2.011 0.148 0.279 0.432 0.474 Sodium sulphate . .. 1.83 0.93 Magnesium chloride.. 0.25 1.49 Calcium sulphate 0.09 Potassium sulphate 0.53 Excess of chlorine Total ............................. 22.28 14.99 13.42 16.716 19.557 Allen reports traces of boric and phosphoric acids. Lithiais also present in quantities sufficient to give the spectroscopic effect with little difficulty. 60 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. In the analyses given on the authority of the writer, the data represent in most instances averages of several determinations. One of the most comprehensive of the analyses pub- lished is that by E. Waller, giving the results of ex- amination on a sample collected August 9, 1892.* The report is as follows: Analysis of a sample of the water of Great Salt Lake collected August 9, 1892. [Expressed in grams per litre; Specific Gravity, 1.156] Elements and Radicals. Probable Combination. Sodium 75.825 Potassium 3.925 Lithium 0.021 Magnesium 4.844 Calcium 2.424 Chlorine 128.278 Sulphur trioxide 12.522 Oxygen in sulphates 2.494 Ferric oxide and ( nnoi aluminium oxide f aw * Silica 0.018 Boron oxide Trace Bromine Faint trace Sodium chloride NaCl 192.860 Potassium sulphate K 2 SO 4 .... 8.756 Lithium sulphate, Li 2 SO 4 0.166 Magnesium chloride, Mg C1 2 . . 15.044 Magnesium sulphate, Mg SO 4 5.216 Calcium sulphate, Ca SO 4 8.240 Ferric and aluminium oxides Fe 2 O 3 + A1 2 O 3 -0.004 -L' t/2 ^3 "..I g **! ? ) Silica, SiO 2 0,018 Surplus sulphur trioxide, SO 3 0.051 Total 230.355 Total solids by evaporation.. .238. 12 Total solids [duplicate] 237.925 The most striking discrepancy between the results of Waller's analysis and those recorded in the table on page 59, is the absence of sodium sulphate in the list of probable combinations presented by Waller, and the presence of this substance in every other analysis herein recorded. As is generally understood, an ultimate * See "Sctool of Mines Quarterly" (Columbia College, New York,) vol. 14, 1892. p. 58. Quoted with approving comment by I. C. Russell in "Lakes of North America," Boston, 1895, p. 81. THE LAKE WATER. 61 chemical analysis gives the proportions of elements and radicals present; the combinations of these into definite salts, etc., is attended with some uncertainty as to ac- curacy. Waller has evidently combined all the sodium with chlorine, as sodium chloride or common " salt, which certainly is the most abundant substance in the solid residue yielded by the lake water. Nevertheless sodium sulphate is known to exist in the lake brine, for, as shall be hereafter shown, a copious precipitation of the sulphate occurs whenever the water falls to a certain critical degree of low temperature. It is safe to say that many thousands of tons of the substance are deposited, some of it thrown by wave action upon the shores, in the course of every cold winter. And that an abundant deposition of sodium sulphate has taken place during a prior period of lake history has been already affirmed on the conclusive evidence afforded by the thick bed of the substance encountered in the driv- ing of piles at Saltair and Garfield and in the cutting of canals on the neighboring shore lands. (See pp. 39, 41) Gilbert estimates the quantity of sodium sulphate con- tained in the lake water at thirty millions of tons.* The source of the solid matter contained in natural waters is found to be the rock and soil through which the water passes, either by downward percolation and flow, or by upward passage under pressure. If such rocks * "Lake Bonneville," Monograph I, U. S. G. S., 1890; p. 253. 62 THE GREAT SALT LAKH. supply alkaline chlorides in excess, the evaporation of the water so charged will yield salt; if alkaline carbon- ates be the principal substances dissolved out from the rocks, alkaline residues will result from evaporation. It is evident that the streams supplying Great Salt Lake have traversed salt-bearing formations. The composition of the waters flowing into the lake presents itself as a subject of interest in this connection. The streams from the Wasatch and Uintah mountains, which constitute the greater part of the lake supply, while carrying in solution nearly double the quantity of dissolved solids usually present in river water, (due rather to the unusual evaporation from their surface incident to the arid conditions than to more active solution from the rocks) give nevertheless no indication of mineral contents to the taste or other senses. An- alyses of the principal waters supplying the lake give an average of about 0.2446 part of dissolved mineral solids per thousand. Beside the rivers and creeks from the adjacent mountains, the lake has other sources of supply from fissure springs, which open at points on the shore or on the bottom. Few of these springs are markedly saline, and but one is known to be excessively so. Their con- tent of salt is probably derived from the former sedi- ments of the region. THE LAKE WATER. 63 It is estimated that the combined waters from sur- face streams and springs would probably contain less than double the percentage of solids held by the surface streams alone. Prof. Russell's assumption* is, that on the evidence now within reach, the combined spring and stream waters supplying the lake contain about 0.3 part solid matter in a thousand, or three one- hundredths of one per cent. Such a proportion of mineral matter, even if wholly common salt, would not reveal itself to the taste; and it is safe therefore to con- clude that but for the concentrating effect of evapor- ation the lake would belong to the category of fresh- water bodies. The enormous quantity of saline matter held in this lake of brine affords a striking example of the effect of concentration long continued. As stated, few of the inflowing streams are rich in salt. The Malad river is an exception; in its lower part this stream becomes brackish from the contributions of saline springs. The evaporation, which has been in uninterrupted progress for ages past, has produced a nearly saturated brine. Along the lake margins, in partly-isolated areas, the shallow water has already begun to deposit salt; but in the open lake the water yet holds its salt in perma- nent solution. Russell records that in 1880 the water * "Lakes of North America, p." 82, 64 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. between Stansbury Island and the mainland was floored by a glistening pavement of salt, strong enough to sup- port a horse and rider over the greater part of the area. It is evident that the Salt Lake, while approaching a degree of concentration equal to that of 1850, has not yet become a thoroughly saturated brine. Neverthe- less, at low temperatures an abundant precipitation of sodium sulphate occurs, as already stated. During the winter season, as the temperature sinks below a critical point, somewhere near the freezing point of fresh water, the sulphate separates from the water in the crystallized form as Mirabilite. As the separation takes place, the lake water becomes opalescent. Much of the precipitate is heaped upon the shore by wave action; and under particularly favorable conditions the shore deposit is over a foot in depth. When the water is warmed to the critical point of temperature, the crys- talline substance is rapidly re-dissolved. Clusters of large and perfectly formed crystals may be found during cold weather on the posts supporting the bath houses, and on other stationary solid objects submerged in the lake. The analytical data given show that the lake water is a concentrated brine, with sodium chloride greatly predominating, and with magnesium chloride and sodium sulphate existing also in large proportions. Most of the saline lakes of the Great Basin hold alka- line and earthy carbonates in solution, and the absence THE LAKE WATEE. 60 of such from the Salt Lake water has been a subject of much comment. In this respect the Salt Lake com- pares closely with the Dead Sea, though widely differ- ing in other respects, notably in the predominance of sodium over magnesium salts. The sulphates delivered to the lake by the contributing streams remain in solu- tion, except, as specified, at low temperatures. Calcium carbonate, however, is precipitated as soon as the stream- water which carries it reaches its briny receptacle. A similar phenomenon is observed in the calareous sedi- ments at the mouths of many rivers. The calcium carbonate which analysis proves to ex- ist in no inconsiderable quantity in most of the inflow- ing streams, and which diligent search has thus far failed to reveal in the lake water, is accounted for by the accumulation of calcareous particles along portions of the shore, particularly at the southern extremity. This material, commonly known as oolitic sand, is found in spherules, ranging between the size of No. 10 and No. 8 shot. By wave action it is drifted upon the shore and in some places it constitutes dunes several yards in depth. The fact that it is confined to the shore suggests the possibility of the rounded form being the result of rolling. The globular bodies possess a concentric structure, and in many cases a nucleus of silica is detectable. Dr. A. Eothpletz has advanced the theory that the ooliths of the Salt Lake are a product of the algae which exist along the shores. He claims 66 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. that the stones are generally covered with colonies of G-laeocapsa and Gloeothecae, which organisms are known to excrete calcium carbonate; and he holds that most of the marine ooliths, at least those characterized by concentric and radial structure, are the products of lime-excreting schizophytes.* Kothpletz's views have not been generally approved. While the oolitic sand is the only abundant shore accumulation of calcium carbonate, it is probable that a marly deposit is form- ing with other lake sediments in the deeper parts. * Botaniscfces Centralblatt, 1892, p. 35. VI. LIFE IN THE LAKE.* The popular literature of the day persists in assert- ing that no living thing exists or can exist in the dense brine of the Great Salt Lake. There is little excuse for the perpetuation of such an error; yet cyclopedias and school geographies and magazines continue to re- iterate the false statements. It is readily seen that the conditions prevailing in the lake are not favorable to the existence of the ordinary aquatic forms of life; and that cases of adaptation to life in the brine would natur- ally be rare. Of animals but few species have been found in the lake, but of these few two are represented by swarming numbers. Among the animal forms already reported as common to the lake, the writer has confirmed the presence of four: (1) Artemia fertilis, Verril; (2) the larvae of one of the Tipulidae, probably Chironomus oceanicus, Packard; (3) a species of Corixa, probably Corixa decolor, Uhler; (4) larvae and pupae of a fly, Ephydra gracilis, Packard. The larvae of the Ephydra are found in abundance amongst the algae that strew the shores or appear as surface patches in the shallow parts; while the mature * A portion of the matter presented under this sub-title has already appeared as an article by the writer in "The American Monthly Micro- scopical Journal," vol. 13, pp. 284-286. 68 THE GREAT SALT LAKE. insects, as small black flies, swarm along the shores where conditions have proved favorable for their develop- ment. The larvae of the tipula may be taken anywhere near shore during the warm months; and the pupa cases of both species are often washed ashore in great num- bois, where they undergo decomposition with disagree- able emanations. Of the lake animals, the Artemia fertilis (or Arteniia gracilis) commonly known as the brine shrimp, exists in greatest numbers. They are tiny crustaceans, sel- dom exceeding one-third inch extreme length. They may be found in the lake at all seasons, though they are most numerous between May and October. I have taken them in the midst of winter, when the tempera- ture of the water was far below freezing point; it will be remembered that the concentrated brine of the lake never freezes. The females greatly preponderate; in fact, during the colder months it is almost impossible to find a male. In the latter part of the summer r,h