WORLD GEOGRAPHY ':j^^y^' THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK ■ BOSTON • CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO WORLD GEOGRAPHY ONE -VOLUME EDITION BY RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. Vi PROFKSSOH OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY AND FRANK M. McMURRY, Pii.D. PROFESSOR OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION AT TEACHERS COLLEGE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY WITH MANY COLORED MAPS AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS CHIEFLY PHOTOGRAPHS OF ACTUAL SCENES THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1912 All rights reserved \ 9 O Copyright, 1912, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1912. Xorinaati i^rtgs J. 8. Gushing Co. —Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE Heretofore it has been necessary for pupils desiring to study geography witk a fair degree of thorough- Need of a one-volume H^SS to purchase two ex- complete pensive books, at least, and geograp y study each from cover to cover. This plan involves much useless repetition, since, owing to the nature of the subject, most of the fundamental notions of geography must appear in the first volume as well as in the second. Moreover, a geography treating all topics in a single volume is more useful as a book of reference. The ultimate basis for all study of geography is experience. Hence Home Necessity of Geography should receive Home Geog- careful attention. Yet text- other basal books rarely treat this sub- notions ject at all, and those that do devote but few pages to it. Home experience alone, however, can- not offer a complete basis for the later study of geography, because no one lo- cality presents all the features required. For this reason the best books have contained some definitions and illustra- tions, as of mountain, river, valley, harbor, and factory, and have planned to build the later text upon the ideas these gave as a foundation. But mere definitions do not produce vivid, accu- rate pictures. The average pupil who has pursued geography for a year has little notion of the great importance of soil, of what a mountain or a river really is, of the value of good trade routes, and why a vessel cannot be sure of finding a harbor wherever it may cast anchor, along the coast. Yet such ideas are the proper foundation for the study of geography in the higher grades. The first 185 pages of this volume attempt to supply this foundation by treating, first, such common How this need things as food, clothing, shel- is met ter, soil, hills, valleys, industries, climate, and government, which are part of every child's environment ; secondly, such fea- tures as mountains, rivers, lakes, and the ocean, which, though absent from many localities, must be taught in prep- aration for later study ; and thirdly, country and city contrasted with each other. Definitions and abstract state- ments, however, are not relied upon for giving this knowledge, but detailed de- scriptions and discussions instead. This by no means involves neglect of the child's own environment after the intro- duction of the unfamiliar matter, for throughout the geographies, home ex- periences are used. We believe that this plan gives a fuller guarantee of fitness for advanced study than is now fur- nished by any other common school text. One of the most important features of this volume is the establish- „ . . . . . , . How relation- ment oi a closer relationship ship to man between man and the earth ^^^ been than has usually been at- tempted in geography texts. A large 25780A VI PREFA CE number of the topics, instead of being coldly presented, as so much fact to be learned, both have been approached, and also have received their full treatment, from the viewpoint of maiis interest in them. For example, for typical treatment of a continent turn to Asia (p. 415), and of -a single country, to China (p. 426). Asia is declared to be the largest and most populous of all the continents, and also to have the oldest civilization. Be- sides, it lies next to Europe, the best known continent. Yet, possibly, except Africa, it is the least known of all the continents. Why it should be so little known becomes then a question of real interest ; and the answer, as presented on pages 415-419, involves considera- tion of its surface features, climate, and inhabitants. Likewise in the study of China (pp. 426-433), the former prog- ress of its inhabitants first receives at- tention. This is contrasted with their present backwardness. Then, since the future progress of the Chinese is one of the live questions of the day, the area and population of the country, the variety of its climate, its surface features, resources, manufacturing, and facilities for trans- portation, are all considered with refer- ence to this one problem. Finally, the recent advances of China are discussed and its principal cities located. Thus, as far as possible, each continent and each country has been approached from the point of view of the learner, and the questions raised at the beginning con- trol the presentation that follows. Organization of subject The danger matter, however, is perhaps TzatiZan?''' ^^6 task that has required how avoided the greatest effort by the au- thors. Organization is as great a factor in the mastery of knowledge as in the conduct of business or of politics. The tendencies in geographies are, on the one hand, to list the facts as inde- pendent entities regardless of sequence and perspective. The extreme of this method is found in the treatment of the United States by individual states, in which case the demand for any real organization is ignored. Or, all the continents and countries are treated according to exactly the same outline, i.e. in the order of location, area, sur- face, climate, agriculture, etc. This is sometimes called a scientific organiza- tion ; but the deadly routine that it establishes shows it to be about as psy- chological as it would be to describe the appearance of several persons under the order of head, body, and extremities in each case. And, again, no matter what outline is followed, there is a strong tendency to include many statements that are irrelevant even to the loose headings under which they fall, and that, there- fore, destroy sequence and unity. In order to avoid these tendencies the authors have first fairly drilled them- selves in the fact that good literature is organized around ideas of live in- terest to man ; and that any text what- ever, intended for children, if it is to possess the earmarks of good literature, must be organized on this basis, with most careful attention to sequence and perspective. With this principle in mind, they have set to work to do two things : — First, for each page, more or less, they have fixed upon some central thought that binds firmly together the details underlying it, and secures their unity. PREFACE Vll What this central idea is in each case is clearly shown in the marginal heading ; and by grasping it early, the child is enabled to master a lesson much more quickly and easily than otherwise. In the second place, the authors have selected for the unifying thoughts, not merely scientific abstractions, but ideas likely to- prove of peculiar interest to young students. The treatment of Africa, beginning on page 446, well illustrates this, as well as that of Asia and of China, to which reference has already been made. The unifying thought just mentioned is usually some vital problem, from the point of view of which facts IxlentT/ are selected and arranged, physiography j^ solving • such problems full use is made of the truth that geog- raphy must rest upon a physiographic foundation. The authors believe that, when the physiographic truths about a given region are clearly grasped, most of the other geographic facts easily arrange themselves as links in a causal chain. Thus the many details touching a particular locality are taught in relation to one another, so that they approach the form of a narrative. Physiography has, therefore, been in- troduced freely ; but under two limita- tions. First, only such physical facts are included as are shown really to function in man's relation to the earth. Physiography that is clearly shown to have a real bearing upon man greatly enriches geography; it is the unused physical geography that is a stumbling block. Second, these physical facts are presented in connection ivith their use, not entirely apart from it and in a dif- ferent part of the book. Few teachers will deny that clearness of comprehension, and interest in any sub] ect, are greatly dependent ^g^^ig upon the abundance of care- i. whyabun- fuUy selected details. Good ^ stories, such as that of Robinson Crusoe, reveal this fact very plainly. Accord- ingly, while this volume treats only of the same subjects as other geographies, it contains more detail than any one of them, as is shown by the larger amount of page surface. One very common objection to such detail is that it makes lessons long, and therefore difficult. That may 2. Danger of . abundant de- easily happen, tor unorgan- ^^. ^nd how ized details render a line of avoided thought circuitous and confusing, and more to be dreaded than even a skele- ton outline. But on the other hand, well organized details make a subject not only interesting but simple and easy. It is partly good organization that makes it possible for one to reproduce a long story with ease after a single read- ing ; and it is often largely because of poor organization that even a half page of text is difficult to reproduce. Accordingly, such topics as farm, cat- tle ranch, irrigation, lumber camp, and factory are treated at unu- 3. Examples of sual length in connection unusual detail wdth the section of country in which each is most prominent. For example, lumbering, fishing, and the manufacture of cloth, boots, and shoes receive their most detailed treatment m connection with New England ; the mining of coal and iron ore and the manufacture of iron goods are discussed in connection with the Middle Atlantic States; and gold mining, irrigation, and grazing are natu- rally included under the Western States. Vlll PREFACE The industries and objects thus de- scribed, being fairly typical of industries and objects found elsewhere, are on that account worthy (5f being called types. The study of the United States has furnished occasion for detailed treatment of most geogr&,phic types. Some impor- tant features and occupations, however, are not found in the United States, but to these the authors have given the same careful consideration. For instance, the Brazilian forest is presented as a type of tropical forests (pp. 318-319). Other il- lustrations may be found in the treatment of the linen industry on page 344, and of the silk industry on page 363. A common defect in the teaching of geography is that pupils are allowed to Extent of forget about one country review and while studying others, and comparison ^^le result is that, by the time Australia is reached, most of what previously has been learned about the United States, as well as other coun- tries, has faded from memory. Yet the relation between North America and the other continents is so marked that this defect is quite unnecessary. For ex- ample, most of the industries and basal principles of physiography and climate have received the child's attention when he has completed a general study of the United States. Foreign lands illustrate the same great ideas as our own country, under different conditions. This means that the comprehension of foreign coun- tries may best be gained, if one uses one's previous knowledge of the United States as a basis of comparison. If, then, this old similar knowledge is carefully called to mind when the physiography, climate, and industries of a foreign land are ap- proached, pupils will not only secure a fuller appreciation of that region, but will also freshen their knowledge of the United States. Such review of the United States is a prominent feature of this volume. For example, in approaching the physi- ography of South America (p. 3l0), the physiography and climate of Europe (p. 334), etc., the authors have reproduced at some length the corresponding condi- tions found in our own country. To supplement this kind of review, several sets of questions, which call for still different comparisons with the United States, are included, one series being found at the close of the treatment of each continent. These reviews are likewise rich in motive, inasmuch as they recall leading facts in regard to the United States from varying points of view. It should be kept in mind, also, that each set at the same time reviews another continent from a new point of view. Pages 273-291 present an organized review of North America alone, which includes the principal facts about our continent that every pupil should know on completing the grades. The last section, " Review of the United States and Comparisons with Other Countries," provides for still further review. It has seemed to the authors an anticlimax to close several years" study of geography with the Islands of the Pacific, lands farthest away from us and of least interest. On the other hand, it has been deemed highly impor- tant that, after all the countries of the world have been treated, the closing chapter should show in summary the rank of our own land and its relation to others. PREFACE IX The most difficult part of common school geography is that dealing with the Place of gen- motions of the earth, lati- erai geography tude and longitude, winds, rainfall, ocean currents, and tempera- ture. Yet these subjects are generally placed at the beginning of the advanced book, so that their treatment follows immediately upon Primary Geography. This arrangement requires children to move abruptly from a meager study of the simplest facts to the broadest ab- stractions, which is thoroughly bad. In this volume practically all of this difficult subject matter is delayed till after the middle of the course (p. 292), with the exception of a very brief treat- ment of latitude and longitude on page 92. Whatever facts in regard to winds, rainfall, temperature, etc., are needed in the intensive study of North America have been plainly stated, when wanted, like other concrete facts. After the study of our continent has been completed, and a fair number of concrete data bearing on these matters has been presented, winds and rain, and ocean movements and distribution of temperature, are treated in detail. By this arrangement, the study of these difficult subjects has been postponed at least one year, until so many of the facts that are necessary to their apprecia- tion have been presented concretely that they then may be approached somewhat inductively. The detailed treatment of latitude, longitude, and standard time, and of the revolution of the earth, with its effects, is not included in the main text at all, but is placed in the Appendix. The authors are convinced that the latter topic should not be studied in the elemen- tary school, and that the former should be omitted by many schools. This ar- rangement is one of the most important among the distinguishing features of this volume. The general principles regarding in- dustries, distribution of inhabitants, mu- tual relation of city and country, and dependence of various sections upon one another, contrary to custoni, are also presented in the last part of the volume. One reason is that these principles ap- proach abstractions in their nature, and are, therefore, too difficult to be earlier understood by children. They are, more- over, to a large extent, a summary of what has preceded, and therefore natu- rally come late, where a more inductive approach is possible. The guiding prin- ciple is that comparison of facts (of countries, in this case) should not be undertaken until after the facts them- selves have been studied. While there is no reason why a text- book in geography, more than any other text, should offer sug- _ , , , 1 1 r How the text gestions about methods Ot may teach study, every one knows that proper method children's ways of studying ° ^ " y are often, extremely crude, involving great waste. On this account it seemed advisable to include definite suggestions on this subject, applicable both to this and to other books. These are found on pages 10, 30, 53, 66, and 80. They occupy little space ; but they will have accomplished much, if they are influen- tial in leading children to do the things suggested, and if, in addition, they di- rect the attention of both children and teachers to a more careful consideration of proper methods of study. Also, by the insertion of marginal headings, so carefully worded that they PREFACE usually suggest a single and definite question for the text to answer, it is expected that children will be materi- ally influenced to master their lessons by ^'points" rather than by pages — a very vital factor in the proper method of study. Half-tones from photographs are used whenever possible, and these have been Useofilius- selected with great care trations from collections .of many thousands. In all cases they are in- troduced, not as mere pictures, but as illustrations of topics treated in the text. It is expected that they will be studied, as well as the text. It is be- lieved that the book is as thoroughly illustrated as is desirable for the needs of the student, and the authors have used care not to overillustrate by throw- ing together a heterogeneous mass of pictures unrelated to the text. It is their belief that a geography should not be a picture album. The maps in this book have been made by The Williams Engraving Com- Acknowledg- p^ny, with the exception of ments ^.he relief maps, which were prepared by E. E. Howell, of Washing- ton. Mr. Philip Emerson of the Cobbett School, Lynn, Massachusetts, and Pro- fessor R. H. Whitbeck of the Univer- sity of Wisconsin have aided in various ways in the preparation of this volume. Valuable assistance in gathering statistics and making lists of books of reference has been rendered bv Mr. Irvine Perrine and Miss Kathryn Kyser of Cornell Uni- versity. The sources of the material for the text have been many, of course ; but among them Mills' "International Geography," "The Statesman's Year Book," The United States Census Re- port, and Ratzel's " History of Man- kind " call for special mention. For the illustrations, many of the drawings have been prepared by Mr. C. W. Furlong, the well known artist. In addition, the authors are especially indebted to William Ran of Philadel- phia, from whose extensive collection they have selected a large part of the photographs from which half-tones were made. To other photographers whose pictures have been used — a list far too long to incorporate here — the authors' thanks are due. Special men- tion should also be made of the as- sistance rendered by the Philadelphia Commercial Museum, in supplying a series of world product maps, and in giving permission to reproduce certain photographs. THE AUTHORS TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I. HOME GEOGRAPHY SECTION I. Food, Clothing, and Shelter . 1. Among the People of our own Couii- try 2. Among the Negroes of Central Africa ...... 3. Among the Eskimos 4. Among the People of the Desert II. Land, Wateh, and Air 1. The Laud . . . . 2. Water 3. Air III. IV II. III. Industry, Commerce, and Govkrn ment .... 1. Industry and Commerce 2. Country and City 3. Government Maps .... PART II. WORLD GEOGRAPHY (ieneral Facts about the Earth 1. Form and Size of the Earth Daily Motions of the Earth Zones .... Latitude and Longitude . The Continents The Oceans PART in. NORTH AMERICA General Facts L Divisions of North America 2. Map of North America . United States General Facts . The Northeastern States*. The Southern States The Central States . The Western States . Territories and Dependencies United States . L Alaska .... 2. Cuba and Porto Rico The 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. PAGE 1 3 5 7 10 10 31 54 59 59 67 75 81 86 88 91 92 93 101 101 102 104 104 111 147 174 202 238 238 241 IV. V. VL 3. Panama Canal Zone . . . 244 4. The Hawaiian Islands . . . ^\^^ 5. Other Small Island Possessions . 246 6. The Philippine Islands . . .246 Countries North of thS United States 249 1. Canada and Newfoundland . . 249 2. Greenland 261 Countries South of the United States . . . • . . 263 1. Mexico 263 2. Central America .... 268 3. The West Indies . . . .270 4. The Bermuda Islands . . .272 Review of North America . . 273 1. The United States . . . .273 2. Other Countries of North America 289 3. Relation of the United States to Other Countries .... 290 4. Value of Steam and Electricity in Development of North America 290 IL IH. I. n. IIL IV. V. VL VII. PART IV. GENERAL GEOGRAPHY Winds and Rain ..... 1. Winds 2. Rain Ocean Movements and Distribu- tion of Temperature . 1. Tides . ... 2. Ocean Currents .... 3. Distribution of Temperature The Races of Mankind . . PART V. SOUTH AMERICA General Facts Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay Brazil The Guianas and Venezuela . The Tropical Andean Countries . Chile Islands near the Continents . 292 292 293 299 290 299 303 306 310 316 317 320 321 326 328 XI Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS — LIST OF MAPS PART VI. EUROPE BEOTION I.' General Facts about Europe II. The Great Powers of Europe 1. The British Isles 2. German Empire 3. France 4. Italy. 5. Austria-Hungary 6. Russia III. The Lesser Powers of Europe 1. Norway and Sweden 2. Denmark . The Netherlands Belgium . Spain and Portugal Switzerland Greece Turkey and Balkan Countries 330 337 337 350 360 368 376 381 387 387 391 392 395 398 403 407 410 PART Vir. ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS I. Asia 415 1. General Facts about Asia 2. The Turkish, or Ottoman, Empire 3. Arabia, Persia, and Afghanistan 4. Russia in Asia . . . 5. The Chinese Empire 6. The Japanese Empire and Korea 7. Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula 415 419 423 425 426 433 437 SECTION II. Africa 1. General Facts about Africa 2. Northern Africa 3. Southern Africa 4. Central Africa . 5. Islands near Africa . III. Australia, the East Indies, and Other Islands of the Pacific 1. Australia ..... 2. New Zealand .... 3. The East Indies 4. Islands of the Pacific PAGE 446 446 452 457 460 463 464 464 472 473 475 PART VIII. REVIEW OF UNITED STATES AND COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES APPKNDIX I. Latitude, Longitude, and Standard Time 493 1. Latitude and Longitude . . . 493 2. Standard Time . . . .496 IL Revolution of the Earth and its Effects 498 III. References to Descriptions, in Prose AND Poetry, of Topics treated in this Geography, for Teacher and Pupil 501 IV. Tables of Area, Population, etc. . 511 Index 521 LIST OF MAPS COLORED MAPS 106. 107. 116. 133. 134. 136. 138. 140. 144. 147. 187. 192. 194. 233. 235. 270. Eastern and Western Hemispheres facing The World on Mercator's Projection " The Zones . .... on Claims of France, England, and Spain upon the Central Part of North America, facing 86 86 91 101 " 102 " 103 between 104 and 105 facing 105 1760 North America, Political North America, Physical United States, Political United States, Physical . Northeastern States, Political between 111 and 112 Northeastern States, Physical . facinf/ 113 New York City, Philadelphia, and Balti- more facing 141 Southern States, Political between 147 and 148 Southern States, Physical Central States, Political Central States, Physical Western States, Political facing 148 between 174 and 175 facing 175 between 202 and 203 facing FrOPRK 272. Western States, Physical 318. Alaska " Cuba and Porto Rico with Special Map of the West Indies . . facing United States' Dependencies in the Pacific Canada Mexico and Central America . Forest Map of the United States Mean Annual Rainfall of the States Races of Man . 425. South America, Political 427. South America, Physical 450. Europe, Political 452. Europe, Physical British Isles British Empire German Empire, The Netherlands, and Belgium .... facing 322. 328. 336. 354. 387. 408. 420. 4.59. 476. 479. PAGE 203 238 241 facing 244 <( 249 (( 263 i( 280 United facing 296 on 307 facing 309 <( 310 (t 330 ^^ 331 li 337 a 348 350 TABLE OF CONTENTS — LIST OF MAPS 487. The World, showing Possessions of United States, Germany, Netherlands . 493. Western Europe 517. Central Europe 566. Asia, Political . 568. Asia, Physical . 576. Holy Land 610. Africa, Political Era ice, and The facing 355 360 376 415 416 421 446 FKiURE PAGK 612. Africa, Physical . . . facing 447 634. Australia and Islands of the Pacific, Po- litical facing 464 636. Australia and Islands of the Pacific, Physical .... facing 465 652. Possessions of the Leading Nations of the World facing 476 682. Transportation and Telegraph Lines " 489 BELIEF MAPS FIGURE 135. North America . 139. United States , 145. New England States . 146. Middle Atlantic States 193. Southern States 234. Central States . PAGE 103 105 112 113 148 175 FIGURE 271. Western States 426. South America 451. Europe 567. Eurasia 611. Africa 635. Australia . PAGE 203 309 331 416 447 465 CITY MAPS FIGURE PAGE 182. Buffalo, Rochester, and Albany . . 139 187. New York City, Philadelphia, and Balti- more (Colored) . . . facing 141 188. Boston, Providence, Portland, and Worces- ter 142 221. Baltimore, Washington, and Philadel- phia 165 224. New Orleans, Memphis, Birmingham, and Atlanta 167 259. Chicago and Milwaukee . 263. Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, Cincinnati and Pittsburg .... 267. St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Minne apolis, and St. Paul 303. San Francisco, Portland, Tacoma, and Seattle ..... 349. Montreal and Quebec 193 196 198 226 259 MAPS ILLUSTRATING CLIMATE 405. Wind Belts of the Earth . . . .292 406. Heavy Rainfall, where Prevailing Wester- lies blow over the Rising Coast . . 294 407. Mean Annual Rainfall of the World . 295 408. Mean Annual Rainfall of the United States (Colored) . . . facing 296 409. A Weather Map of the United States . 296 410. A Weather Map of the United States . 296 416. Isothermal Chart of the United States for January 304 FIGURE PAGE 417. Isothermal Chart of the United States for July 304 418. Isothermal Chart of the World for January 305 419. Isothermal Chart of the World for July . 306 430. Rainfall of South America . . .311 456. Rainfall of Europe 335 464. Rainfall of British Isles . . . .340 616. Wind and Rainfall, Africa . . . 4.50 641. Wind and Rainfall, Australia . . . 468 690. Map of the Zones 499 PRODUCT MAPS 201. The Cotton Belt .... 209. Forest Regions of the Southern States 213. Coal Fields of the Southern States . 371. Corn Regions of the United States . 373. Wheat Regions of the United States 153 157 1.59 275 276 375. Cotton-producing States, United States . 277 378. Tobacco-producing States, United States 277 379. Leading Fruit-growing Regions of the United States 278 380. Irrigation in the United States . . 278 TABLE OF CONTENTS — LIST OF MAPS 387. Forest Map of tlie United States (Colored) facing 280 Value of Lumber and Timber Products of the United States . . . .280 Distribution of Fish, North America . 281 Distribution of Deposits of Coal and Iron in the United States .... 281 Mineral Regions of the United States . 282 Leading Manufacturing Districts in the - United States 283 402. Navigable Tnterior Water Routes of the United States . . ' . . .285 Railroads of the United States . . 286 Trunk Line Railroads in Eastern Part of the United States 287 Coal Fields of Europe • . . . 333 Coal Distribution in the British Isles . 342 Geographic Distribution of Indian Corn 478 389. 390. 391. 394. 397. 403. 404. 455. 466. 654. FIGURE PAGB 655. Geographic Distribution of Wheat . . 479 657. Geographic Distribution of Cane and Beet Sugar . . . . . . .479 659. Geographic Distribution of Rice . . 480 660. Geographic Distribution of Coffee . . 480 662. Geographic Distribution of Tea and Cacao 481 663. Geographic Distribution of Sheep and Cattle 481 665. Geographic Distribution of Cotton . . 482 667. Geographic Distribution of Silk . . 483 669. Geographic Distribution of Coal . . 483 671. Geographic Distribution of Rubber and Petroleum 484 672. Geographic Distribution of Iron Ores . 484 674. Geographic Distribution of Gold Ores . 485 676. Geographic Distribution of Silver Ores . 486 678. Geographic Distribution of Manufactures 486 POPULATION MAPS 141. Distribution of Population in the United States, 1790 106 143. Density of Population in North America at the Present Time .... 107 367. Distribution of Population in the United States, 1900 273 428. 457. 572. 614. 640. Density of Population, South America Density of Population, Europe Density of Population, Asia Density of Population, Africa . Density of Population, Australia PAGE 310 336 419 448 468 OTHER MAPS 142. Map to show when and how the United States obtained its Territory . . 106 183. Erie Canal 140 196. Fall Line 150 216. Map to show the Extent of Cotton Manu- facturing in the South . . . .162 368. Distribution of Principal Cities and Towns of the United States .... 274 FIGL'RB PAGB 413. Ocean Currents of the World . . .300 414. Ocean Currents of North America . . 301 539. Portion of The Netherlands below the Sea Level .392 622. The Lower Nile 455 688. Standard Time of the United States . 495 WORLD GEOGRAPHY PART I. HOME GEOGRAPHY SECTION I. FOOD, CLOTHING, AND SHELTER i. Among the People of our Own Country 1. Food In the spring, men begin to work the soil. Those who have small gardens What the break up farmers do the ground with such tools as spades and forks. Those who live on farms turn the soil over with plows drawn by horses. In these ways the soil is loosened and made soft, so that seeds and plants can grow in it. After the plant- ing is done, the weeds must be killed and the soil must be loos- ened again. In places where little rain falls, other ways of watering the plants must be found. Later in the summer, the crops are ready to gather. This is the harvest season, and it is a very busy time for the farmers. They often begin work at sunrise, and do not stop before dark. They raise much more than they need for themselves, and what they do not want they sell. Those of us who live in the city eat at every meal ^^^ ^^^.^^ some of the things that were work is of grown on farms. This shows ^^"® how important to every one of us is the work of farmers. A herd of dairy cows in pasture. One of their most valuable crops is grass. To be sure, we do not eat grass. Yet it helps to give us food. Can you tell how ? If you cannot answer this question, perhaps Fig. 1 will help you. Make a list of the different kinds of food that you eat in one day, and find how many of them come from farms. A very great number of men are kept busy raising animals, grain, and vege- HOME CiEOGRAPlIY tables to furnish food for other people. How would you like that kind of work ? What are some of the pleasant things about it ? Many other people are at work pre- paring the farm crops for food. For ex- Preparing ample, milk is made into our food butter and cheese, oats into oatmeal, and sugar-cane into sugar. Can you tell the story of a loaf of bread ? 2. Clothing Every one must have clothing as well as food. The Indians dressed very Fig. 2. — Picking cotton in a cottonfield in tlie Soutli. TIh; wiiite patches are fluffy cotton out of wliich cotton goods are made. lightly in summer; but in winter they had to wear heavy clothing made out of the skins of animals. We wear much more clothing than the Indians did, both in summer and Materials for in winter, and it is of many more kinds. Most of the materials for our clothing, as well as those for our food, come from the soil. For example, girls' dresses are often made of cotton. Point out such a dress. In some regions cotton is one of the farmers' principal crops. our clothing, and where they come from Fields of cotton (Fig. 2) are as common in the South as cornfields are in the North. Linen handkerchiefs, collars, and cuffs are made of flax. This plant also is raised in large fields, much as wheat and oats are grown. Some of the materials for our cloth- ing come from animals that feed on plants For example, a boy's coat, if not made of cotton, is made of wool, which grows on sheep. Find such a coat. The leather for your shoes came from the hide of some animal, perhaps a cow. Name several things that you wear, and tell, if you can, from what material each has been made. Cotton, wool, and hides are called raw materials. „, , -, , , Work neces- Mujchwork sary to change is usually raw materials into clothing necessary to change raw mate- rials into clothing. For example, cotton and wool must be spun into yarn and woven into cloth. Perhaps you can tell what more must be done to make a dress or coat. What are some of the things that must be done with hides before they become shoes or gloves? The work of preparing our clothing keeps many, many thousands of men and women busy both winter and sum- mer. Do you know any persons who do such work ? Describe some of this work that you have seen. Where was it done ? What clothing have you seen made in your own home? FOOD, CLOTHING, AND SHELTER 3 3. Shelter Shelter, as well as food and cloth- mor, IS Why shel- ^"o' _ ter is very im- necessary portant. We must have houses to protect us against rain ; also, against the heat of summer and the cold of winter. We must have fuel, too, such as coal, or wood, or gas, to warm our houses. The Indians often lived in tents called Materials wigwams used for /jpjo. 3) shelter rpi ^" in our -^ ilGSG cLY^ country pleasant enough in sum- mer, but are very cold in winter. Sometimes the In- dians built much better shelters, in some places using wood, in others, stone or clay. What are some of the materials that we use in building our houses ? Make as full a list of them as you can. Where does the wood for the floors and for other parts of a house come from ? The stone ? Where is the material for brick found ? For nails ? Can you tell where the other materials in your list come from ? Where is coal found ? Most of the men in our country are engaged in some one of these three kinds Fig. 3.— An Indian wigwam, the home of the Indian girl who stands in the foreground of the picture. of work ; that is, in preparing food, or clothing, or shelter. People living in other countries have the same kinds of work to do. But in many other countries the food, clothing, and shelter are very different from ours, for reasons that you will now learn. 2. Among the Negroes of Central Af- rica Central Africa, the home of the Negroes, is a part of the earth where the people live in a very strange way. Have you The heat and rain in Cen- tral Africa ever thought what a differ- ence it would make with us, if we had summer all the time ? Central Africa is just such a land. Every day in the year is hot. In some parts of Central Africa the air is damp or muggy, too, as it is here on our most unpleasant summer days, and heavy thunderstorms are common. It is one of the rainiest places on the earth. Where there is so much heat and rain, plants grow very rapidly. You have noticed, perhaps, how grass and plants HOME GEOGRAPHY thrive on warm, damp days. Because there is just such weather all the time The vegeta- ^^ *^^^^ P^^^ ^^ Africa, plants tion that grow there in vast 'numbers, grows there Giant trees are found in the forests, and vines, trees, and other plants grow so close together that one cannot make his way through them without cutting a path. Many fruits and vegetables grow wild there ; and since there is no winter in goats, or from wild game, such as the buffalo and antelope. It is also easy to provide clothing in hot countries. One reason is that not much of it is wanted. Figure 4 shows how little clothing is needed in the hot country of Central Africa. Sometimes skins of animals are used ; but the na- tives often use cloth made from the bark and fiber of trees and plants that grow in that land. Since there is no win- ter, one mio;ht think that houses Their shelter Fig. 4. — Negroes of Africa sitting in front of their grass-covered huts that land, there is no season when all the vegetation stops growing and loses its leaves. It is very easy for people to obtain food, clothing, and shelter in such a land. What the Food is plentiful. Bananas people eat or other fruits can be plucked wear from the trees and bushes at any time of year. Or if beans, potatoes, and corn are wanted, one has only to scrape a hole in the soft earth for plant- ing the seeds. There is plenty of meat to be had, too, from cattle, sheep, and would not be needed ; but the heat and rain make shelter of some sort very necessary. Sometimes the people live in trees, or in caves, as the Swiss Family Robinson lived for a time. Sometimes they stick branches of trees into the ground in the form of a circle, fasten the upper ends together, and then cover the sides and top with brush, mud, grass, or straw (Fig. 4). Their huts are always very simple ; they are only one story high and usually have no windows. When a savage Negro first saw one of our houses, he cried out, " This is not a hut ; it is a moun- tain with many caves in it ! " You can see that the Negroes who live in the hot, damp part of Central Africa do not have to work hard for food, clothing, and shelter. Are they fortunate to have such an easy time? Would you like to live in such a country and in such a way ? FOOD, CLOTHING, AND SHELTER 3. Among the Eskimos Far to the north of us is the home of the Eskimos. They have both summer The cold and and winter. But the sum- snow in the mer is so cold that the Far North ground does not thaw ex- cept at the very surface. The winters are bitterly cold. Heavy snows then fall, the ground freezes to a great depth, and thick ice forms on the sea (Fig. 5). In such a country no trees can grow. The Eskimo children have never seen Plants and ^^^es of any kind. Only animals found small plants are found there, ^^^^ such as mosses, grasses, and very low bushes ; and these plants, grow- in fishing and in hunting the seal and walrus ; and now and then they catch some sea birds or a polar bear. They have very little food except the flesh of these animals. Even that is difficult to get, especially in winter when the sea is frozen over with thick ice. These sea animals supply oil for heat and for light in the long, dark winter. The seals have a layer of other uses fat under the skin, which of animals helps to keep them warm. This seal fat, or blubber, is burned in small lamps for both heat and light. But the Eskimos do not do much cooking. They are fond of raw meat and eat it even when it is frozen ! Fig. 5. — Eskimos on sledges drawn by dogs on the frozen Arctic Ocean. ing wild, furnish no food except a few small berries. With so little vegetation, there can be but few wild animals on the land, for they would have nothing to eat. There are a few reindeer, foxes, and wolves, but scarcely any other land animals. What, then, can the Eskimos them- selves find to eat ? Not very many What the things, to be sure. They Eskimos eat have to look to the sea, not to the land, for their food. From one year's end to another, they are engaged In summer the Eskimos go hunting in small canoes, or kayaks, that are easily upset in storms. In winter they often go on long and dangerous journeys over the ice on sleds, or sledges, drawn by dogs (Fig. 5). Can you give reasons why horses are not used in the land of the Eskimo ? The sleds and canoes are not made of wood, like ours. The reason is that no wood grows in that country. The only wood the Eskimos have is that which drifts ashore from distant, forest- 6 HOME GEOGRAPHY covered lands, or from the wrecks of vessels. There is so little of this that pieces of wood are highly prized. An Eskimo will gladly exchange valuable furs for a small amount of wood. Parts of the bodies of animals take the place of wood for many uses. Their bones are used to build the framework of the sledges and kayaks, and their ent that is from the clothing worn by the Negroes of Central Africa! The Eskimo houses are even stranger than their clothing. Although there is plenty of stone for building, -^j^ ^j^^ it hardly pays to build stone Eskimos build houses because the Eskimos snow huts have to move from place to place in order to find food. On this account Fig. (J. — An Eskimo igloo made of blocks of snow. In the upper riglit-hand corner is a little figure show- ing the inside of the igloo. skins are stretched over these frames, in- stead of boards. Bones are also used to make spears, fishhooks, pipes, and even needles ; and skins are made into har- ness for the dogs. The Eskimos need the warmest kind of clothing. Their boots are made of What the the skins of animals, with Eskimos wear the fur on. Their clothes also are made of fur ; and in that cold land they need to wear these furs both in summer and in winter. How differ- whole villages often must be moved many miles. In summer, therefore, the Eskimos live in tents made of skins, which are easily taken down and moved about. In winter they live in huts made of snow. There is always plenty of snow at hand, no matter where the people happen to be ; and in an hour or two they can build an igloo, as the Eskimo snow huts are called. Figure 6 is a picture of one of these igloos. It is about forty feet around the FOOD^ CLOTHING, AND SHELTER :; outside, and is made of bloclcs of snow I piled one on another, till it is high ( How these enough on the inside to allow ( huts are built a man to stand up. The en- trance is through a snow tunnel about ten feet long, and so low that the Eski- mos have to crawl through it on their hands and knees. The purpose of this tunnel is to keep the cold winds out of the hut. When all the persons are inside, the tunnel is tightly closed, so that no draught can enter. A stand is made of snow for the lamp, which gives both light and heat. Low benches of snow, covered with furs, are used for beds. A whole family, and sometimes two families, live in a single hut that is no more than ten or fifteen feet across. You might think that a snow hut would not be very warm ; but the snow The warmth keeps out the cold, and even in such huts when it is stinging cold out- side, the Eskimos in the igloo can keep warm. The heat of their bodies, and of the small blubber lamp, warms the air in the igloo, so that it is often too warm for comfort. Of course, with so many people in a single small room, the air becomes very close. If a family decides to remain in one place a second winter, a new hut has to be built, because the old one melts down during the summer. No wonder that the huts are small ! The Negroes of Central Africa have little work to do at any season to find food, clothing, and shelter. But the Eskimos must work hard for these things even in summer ; and in winter all the people of a village may starve to death. Are people in our own country better or worse off than the Eskimos ? 4. Among the People of the Desert While parts of Central Africa are hot and wet, northern Africa is somewhat cooler, and very dry. In The desert of fact so little rain falls there northern that very few plants can ^^"*^* grow. On that account it is a desert land, called the Desert of Sahara. One might travel hundreds of miles in that desert without seeing a tree, or a house, or even a patch The vegetation of green grass. In such a found there journey, perhaps nothing but sand and rock and a few half-starved plants would be seen (Fig. 7). A little rain falls now and then even in the driest part of the desert, and grass and flowers quickly spring up whenever that happens. To be sure, these soon wither for want of more rain. But a few kinds of plants, like the acacia, are able to live a long time even in such a place. Whenever it rains, these store up water in their roots, or leaves, or stems, and this keeps them alive till the next rain comes. Here and there one finds trees and green grass. For in some places streams flow from the mountains out into the desert, and in other places springs occur. These springs and streams water the desert soil near by, so that grass can grow ; and if the supply of water lasts throughout the year, trees like the date palm can thrive. Such green places in the desert are called oases, and on them are found gardens and villages. The oases are like beautiful islands, many miles apart, in a great ocean of sand and barren rock. People live on the oases year after 8 HOME GEOGRAPHY year. Indeed, good-sized towns have been built upon some of them. The fruit that these families most commonly The food of ^^^ ^® ^^^ date, from the people on date palm tree ; they also the oases xda^% figs and wheat, and keep cattle, camels, sheep, and goats. Some people who live in the desert, however, have no fixed homes. They The nomads spend their time in tending of the desert herds of cattle, sheep, and goats. As soon as these animals have ket, in goatskins. In some places the people drink the melted butter. The nomads can get other food from the people who live on the oases. Can you name something that they could obtain from them ? What food might the nomads give in exchange? Food can also be brought from other countries. Although there How food is are no railroads across that ^^ught from other coun- desert, and no rivers large tries enough for boats, there is a way of Fig. 7. — A barren desert, and some nomads with the tents in which they live. eaten the grass in one place, they must be driven to another. Thus these herders, like the Eskimos, must move about and take their families with them. They spend their lives wandering about with their herds. For this reason they are called nomads, or wanderers (Fig. 7). For food, these nomads of the desert have plenty of meat and milk from their camels, cattle, and goats. They make butter, too ; but it is so warm in the desert that the butter is sent, melted, to mar- The food of the nomads carrying goods from place to place. This is by means of the camel (Fig 8). This animal, often called " the ship of the desert," can carry a heavy load on its back, and can travel a long distance without drinking. Indeed, the camel has in his body a sack which is filled when he drinks, and which holds enough water to last for several days. The camels are driven across the desert in droves, called caravans. The dress of the people of the desert, as we might expect, is very different from that of the Negroes. The days Fig. 8. — a nomad of the desert. FOOD, CLOTHING, AND SHELTER are very warm, for the sky is almost always clear, and the sun shines brightly. The clothing Figure 9 shows the kind of of the people clothing that is worn. The strange covering for the head is called a turban. It protects the head against the sun and the fine sand that is driven about by the winds. Although the weather is hot during the day, it rapidly becomes cool as soon are not suited to the nomads. It would not be worth while to build such houses, when they might be used ^j^ ^j^^ only a few days. Like the nomads live Eskimos in summer, there- '^ ^^^^^ fore, the nomads live in tents (Fig. 7) that can easily be taken down, carried about, and set up again. The skins of animals, or the blankets that the nomads weave, are used as covering for the tents. Fig. 9. — A street in a town on an oasis in Nortliern Africa. Notice the house made of suu-drit-d clay. PS the sun has set, and the nights are quite chilly. Because of the cool nights these people need much more clothing than the Negroes, and they must sleep under heavy blankets. Their herds supply plenty of wool for cloth; and other materials for clothing are brought by the caravans. The people living on the oases remain in one place, building houses of sun-dried mud or clay (Fig. 9). But mud huts We have now learned some facts about the Negroes in Central Africa, the Eskimos, the people of the _^ ,, , ' r r What food, desert, and ourselves, r rom clothing, and what has been said it is plain shelter depend that people do not have their own way fully in choosing what they shall eat and wear, and the kind of houses they shall have. These depend very much upon the amount of heat and rain. 10 HOME GEOGRAPHY About how to study In studying this book it is a good plan to read first a number of pages without stopping, just as you would read any story. For instance, the first 3 pages — up to the part telling about the Negroes — might first be read without pause, for the purpose of finding out what it is all about. Then you might read the same part through a second and a third time, watching each heading that is printed near the margin to see if you are getting its answer. When the part about our country has been studied in this way, the part telling about the Negroes of Central Africa should be studied in a similar way ; and so on through the book. 1. Name some of the things that farmers and gardeners do. 2. How is their work im- . portant? 3. Give examples of -^ .y other kinds of work that are Questions . . , necessary m preparing our food. 4. Out of what materials is our clothing made ? Where do such materials come from ? 5. Tell about the work necessary to change these raw materials into clothing. 6. Why is shelter necessary ? 7. What materials are used for shelter in our country ? 8. Where do these materials come from ? 9. What can you tell about the heat and rain in Central Africa ? 10. What sort of vegetation grows there ? 11. What do the people, who live there, eat and wear ? 12. What kind of shelter have they ? 13. What about the cold and snow in the Far North ? 14. What plants and animals are found there ? 15. What is the food of the Eskimos ? 16. What other uses do they make of animals ? 17. What do the Eskimos wear ? 18. Why do they build huts of snow ? 19. How are such huts built ? 20. Why is it not cold in the igloos ? 21. What about heat and rain in the Desert of Sahara? 22. Describe the vegetation there. 23. What is the food of the people ? 24. What are the oases ? Who live on them ? What kind of houses have they ? 25. What is meant by the nomads of the desert ? 26. What food do they eat? 27. How is food brought to them from other countries ? 28. What kind of clothing is worn by the people of the desert ? 29. Why do the nomads live in tents? 30. Why is there so little plant and animal life in the Far North, and in the Sahara Desert, while there is so much of each in Central Africa? 31. Why do the Eskimos have so few kinds of food, clothing, and shelter, while we have so many ? 1. If you have visited some garden, or farm, in the spring, tell how the ground is prepared for planting. 2. What kinds of work are done later in the season ? Suggestions 3. Make a list of products that ^°^ study at J n ^ home and some gardener or farmer near you ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ is raising. 4. What things that your grocer sells have come from some garden or farm ? 5. Make a list of the many kinds of work that you have seen men doing, and find how many on the list have to do with food, clothing, and shelter. SECTION II. LAND, WATER, AND AIR 1. The Land 1. Soil Heat and rain are very important, as we have seen. But they are not suffi- cient alone to provide people with food, clothing, and shelter. Something else is needed also, and that is the soil, or dirt, in which plants grow. As soon as the warm spring weather comes, thousands and thousandsof men in our own country begin to work the soil, in gardens and on farms (Fig. 10). Indeed, more than one third of all the people in the United States live jhevaiueof on farms. They spend their the soil in lives in raising plants, and °^ country animals that feed on plants, such as cows, sheep, hogs, and chickens. What they do not need for themselves they sell to other people. Our flour, potatoes, and sugar, the cotton for our clothing, and hun- dreds of other soil. things come from the LAND, WATEJi. AND AIR 11 Fig. 10. — Men plowing a field iu which wheat is to be .sown. The dense forests of Central Africa, and the fruits and vegetables of that Its value in land, all spring from its other places goil, warmed by the hot sun and kept moist by the rains. It is the warm soil again, watered by streams and springs, that makes life on the oases of the desert possible. On the other hand, it is the cold in the land of the Eskimos that freezes the soil and prevents the growth of trees and crops. It is the frozen soil that drives the Eskimos to the sea for food. The dirt under your feet may seem hardly worth thinking about ; but it is Why soil is really one of the most im- of so great portant things in the world, importance jf there were no soil, there could be no grass, no flowers, no trees. Without grass and grain there could be no cattle, horses, or sheep ; in fact, few animals, such as are found upon the land, could live ; for what would they eat ? What, then, would you yourself find to eat? There would be no fruits or vege- tables, no bread or butter, milk, or meat. We ourselves could not live if there were no soil. Since the soil is so important, it is worth while to study about it. How it has been formed, how plants make use of it, and what men do to increase its value to plants, — these are all very in- teresting questions that every one should be able to answer. If you have ever made mud pies, or played in the dirt in other ways, per- haps you have sometimes what the soil wondered what the soil is is made of made of. It has not always been dirt or mud. You know that the wood in your desk has not always been a part of the desk ; it used to be a part of a tree, and has a long story to tell abput itself before it was brought to your school. So, also, the soil has a long story to tell about itself. Let us see what that story is. When mud dries upon your hands, and you rub them together, you notice an unpleasant, gritty feeling. This is caused by hard bits of something in the soil. If you rub some of this dirt upon a smooth piece of glass, you can perhaps hear it scratch the glass. This shows that these little bits must be very hard ; for if they were not, they could not scratch anything as hard as glass. They must be even harder than a pin, for you cannot scratch glass with a pin. 12 HOME GEOGRAPHY It will help you to these bits are, if you find out what examine some Fui. 11. — A stump of a tree decaying, or rotting. sand. The grains of sand are tiny bits of rock, large enough to be clearly seen. When they are rubbed against glass, they scratch it, because they are very hard and sharp. Sand is made of rock that has been broken up into fine pieces. Soil is made of rock also ; but the pieces are still finer than sand. The soil that you have seen, such as that in the school yard, or by the side of the walk, or in a flower- pot, came mostly from hard rock. Soil has been made in several ways, which you may learn about How soU is later ; but most of it made from rock hag j^een formed by the decay of rock. You know that the stumps of trees and the boards in sidewalks, after a long time, become so soft that they fall to pieces. Perhaps you have called it "rotting," but that means the same as decaying. The picture (Fig. 11) shows such a stump. Other things, even harder than wood, decay in much the same way, although perhaps more slowly. Bright and shiny nails decay until they become a soft yellow rust. Tin cans and iron pipes rust until holes appear in them and they leak. You may not have thought that stones also decay, but they do. The headstones in old graveyards are often so crumbled that the letters can scarcely be read, and sometimes the stones have fallen to pieces. The decay of rock may also be seen in old stone buildings, bowlders, and rock cliffs. Have you ever noticed this? There are several causes for this decay. All rocks have cracks in them (Fig. 12). Fig. 1'2. — A rock cliff showing the cracks that extend through the rock ; also, at the base of the cliff, a large pile of rock frag- ments that have bee!i loosened by frost, and have fallen down the steep slope. LAND, WATER, AND AIR 13 Usually some of these cracks are so large that they can be plainly seen ; but „., ^ there are many others so What causes -^ the decay small that they cannot be of rock gggjj without a magnifying glass. When it rains, the water steals into the cracks, and by eating into and Fig. 13. — A cut into the earth. In this figure notice the soil on top partly decayed rock lower down, and solid rock below that. rotting the rock, this water very slowly changes it into a powder. The water may also freeze in the cracks and pry the stone apart. Per- haps you have seen iron pipes or water pitchers that have been burst by water freezing in them. This shows that water, when freezing, expands ; it can even break rocks apart. Some of the pieces of rock broken off in this way are very small, others are quite large (Fig. 12). Plants help the water to break up the rock. Their Kairlike roots push into the cracks, and remain there until they grow so large that they pry off pieces. The earthworms that one often sees on a lawn after a heavy rain also help in breaking up the rock. In order to get food, they take soil into their bodies and grind the coarse bits together until these become very fine. Rock changes to soil most rapidly near the surface. This is because the rain. roots of plants, and earthworms can reach it there most easily. For this reason the deeper you dig into soil that Why solid is formed by the decay of be'^^af"^"'^ rocks, the less you will find soil the rock changed (Fig 13) ; and no matter where you live, if you dig deep enough, you will come to solid rock. Figure 14 shows the soil a little less than two feet deep. Some- times there is much more than this, and ^^y ^^ ^o'l _ -, . IS of different men may even dig , .. deep wells without finding rock. But in many places there are only a few inches of soil, and in others there is not enough even to hide the rock. One reason why the soil is deeper in some places than in others is that some kinds of rock decay much more easily than other kinds. Another reason is that in some places the rain washes the bits away as fast as the rocks crumble. This may leave the rock quite bare in one place, and make very deep soil in the places where the broken bits have been brought together Fig. 14. — A cul in the barili, sliuwiii the solid rock. tile soil rt-Klii 14 HOME GEOGRAPHY Having learned how the soil is formed, let us see how plants make use of it. An acorn planted in the soil sprouts and sends up a tiny stem. This grows taller and taller, and sends out one Fig. 15. — A photograph of four weeds, showing the great number of long, hairlike roots. branch after another until the little The use that ^^^® becomes a mighty oak. plants make What a lot of material has of the soil been usecf to make such a tree ! Where has it all come from ? Some of it has been taken out of the air by the leaves, but most of it has been taken from the soil -by the roots. While the stem, branches, and leaves have been growing above ground, the the hairlike roots roots have been growing underground, where we cannot see them. These roots have spread out in all directions (Fig. 15) and have extended deep into the soil, in search of things needed by the tree. Dig up a weed in order to see how its roots have pushed their way in and out through the soil. Eoots have no eyes, to be sure ; but they burrow about, and in their own way find what they need. It is not the large or old roots, The value of however, that do this. It is the work of the young roots, many of which are not much larger than hairs (Fig. 15). If you dig up a weed, or any other plant, very carefully, you will see that it has a great many such hairlike roots. It is these that take the materials from the soil, while the older, larger roots merely pass these material* on to the part of the plant above ground. Every tree, every blade of grass, every weed and vegetable depends upon such tiny roots for its life. One of the things that the roots of plants seek in the soil is water. Plants need water as what plants much as you do ; and a take from plant in a flower-pot will *® ^°^ soon wither and die if it is given no water. Try it, to see for your- self. That is the reason we water our lawns during dry weather in summer. Roots take from the soil other sub- stances called plant food. This plant food is a part of the soil itself, and is as necessary to plants as food is to you. It is carried, in the sap, to all parts of the plant and used to make stems, leaves, flowers, fruit, and seeds, as the blood in your body is used to make bones and flesh. Every blade of grass and every limb of a tree contains some of this LAND, WATER, AND AIR 15 plant food that was once a part of the rocks. When a piece of wood is burned, some of this rock material is left behind in the ashes. Every person, even, has some plant food in his body ; your bones and teeth are partly made of it. But you did not take it directly from the soil ; the plants took it for you, and you received it from them in the bread and other foods that you have eaten. All plants do not need the same kind of food, any more than all animals do. Why many Horses eat hay and grain ; kinds of soil dogs eat meat. So, also, are needed gome plants need one kind of food, others another. These various kinds of plant food are found in the different kinds of soil. There are many different kinds of soil. Sometimes the rock has crumbled into very small bits, making a fine-grained soil ; again the pieces are so large that the soil is coarse. In fact, in some soils the pieces of rock are so large that some of them are pebbles. Then, too, there are many kinds of rock, such as granite, marble, and sandstone ; and when they crumble they make different kinds of soil. In some places the soil has plenty of plant food in it. To raise good crops in such soil, men have to do nothing beyond plowing, planting, and hoeing. Central Africa has a great deal of that kind of soil, and so has the United States. Soil with plenty of plant food in it is said to be rich, or fertile. There is also much soil that has little plant food in it, and that is said to be _, ., ., poor, or sterile. One reason Sterile soil c ^^ -i • i ^ tor sterile soil is that the rock from which the soil has come may What causes different kinds of soil Fertile soil contain little plant food. On that ac- count one farm may be much more sterile than another next to it. Soil that was once fertile may become sterile, because plants are always taking some of the plant food out HowfertUe of it. They must do this in soil may be- order to grow. When weeds *^**™® stenie and trees fall and decay on the spot where they grew, they pay back what they took away. But if plants are carried away from the spot where they grew, there is danger that fertile soil may be made quite sterile. This often happens. Farmers send away their wheat to make flour, and take their corn, hay, and oats to market. Indeed, they have to do this in order to make a living. Some farmers have sent their crops away year after year, without putting anything back in the ground to take the place of what was carried away. The result is that the soil has become really worn -out, or sterile, and the farmers are no longer able to support their families on such land. The wise farmer takes care to put some plant food back upon the soil, to replace what his crops have g^^ ^j^ taken from it. Then he can danger can continue to raise good crops. ^® avoided That which he puts back upon the soil is called a. fertilizer, because it keeps the soil fertile. People in the city often spread fertilizers on their lawns, to feed the grass and thus make it grow. Millions of dollars are spent in the United States every year for fertilizers. If this were not done, the crops would not be nearly so valuable. Then the farmers would suffer ; and since we all depend upon the products which they raise, we would all suffer. Farming is 16 HOME GEOGRAPHY the most important industry not only in our country, but in the whole world. Therefore, what is important to the farmer is important to every one. 1. Why is the soil in our country so valu- able ? 2. What about its value in other places ? 3. Why is the soil one of the most important things in the world ? 4, What is the soil made of ? 5. How has it been made ? 6. What causes rock to crumble ? 7. How does it hap- pen that solid rock is everywhere found be- neath the soil ? 8. Why is the soil of different depths ? 9. What use do plants make of the soil? 10. What is the work done by the hair- Review Questions 2. Plains If the soil that rests on the rock had a smooth and level surface like a floor, it would be unfit for farm- ing. For the water, after a sloping land heavy rain, would then stand is the best in a thin sheet upon the °^ ^^^^^^s ground. This would drown the crops and prove unhealthful for both people and animals. Land with steep slopes is also unfit for farming. The rains wash away much of the dirt on these slopes, until Fig. 1(3. — Farmers cutting wheat ou the broad plains of the West. like roots of plants ? 11. Name two things that plants take from the soil. 12. Why is it im- portant that there should be different kinds of soil ? 13. What causes the different kinds ? 14. What is meant by fertile soil ? 15. By sterile soil ? 16. How may fertile soil be made sterile ? 17, How can such danger be avoided ? 1. Find a place where men are digging a ditch, or a cellar, to see how the dirt looks be- low the surface. 2. Find a bowlder, cliff, or old stone wall, that is crumbling away. 3. Col- lect several different kinds of soil. 4. Find out what trees and vegetables grow best near your home. 5. Visit a greenhouse to find out what kind of soil is used there, and what is done to keep it fertile. 6. Make a drawing of the roots of some weed that has been carefully dug up. Suggestions for study at home and out of doors only a rough, thin soil is left ; sometimes even the bare rock is uncovered. The crops, too, are often washed away from such steep slopes by the heavy rain. It is very difficult, also, to do the work of planting, plowing, and harvesting on a steep hillside. Land that has gentle slopes is better for farming. The water runs off more slowl}^, without washing the soil away or injuring the crops. More of the water soaks into the soil, leaving it in a condition for the farmer to work, or cultivate, easily. Land of this kind, with slopes so gentle that it is nearly level, or slightly rolling, is called a plain. A very large LAND, WATER, AND AIR 17 The extent of plains in the United States part of our country consists of such plains, and this is one reason why the United States is one of the finest farming countries in the world (Fig. 16). If you were to cross our country on the railroad you might travel for two or three days over nearly level plains, with no mountains, and not even any high hills, in sight. On either side of the track you might see one farmhouse after another, each surrounded in summer by fields of waving grain, and by green There are thousands of swatnps in our country, and it is quite common for a farm to have one or more of them upon it. Swamp land cannot be cultivated until it is drained; that is, until the water is made to run off. Drainage of such land, therefore, becomes a very important matter. Swamp soil is usually very fertile. For this reason, when there is no natu- ral slope to carry off the what is done water, men often set to work with swamps to make one. For this purpose they Fig. 17. — Au opeu ditch dug through a swamp iu order to drain oiT tlie water. pastures in which horses, cattle, and sheep were feeding. Now and then the train would pass through a village or a city; but every where else, for hundreds of miles, you would find only fertile farms. In many places, even from a train, one can easily see that there are slopes Theimpor- on this great plain, down tance of slopes which the water runs freely. But in parts of the plain the slopes are so gentle that the surface seems to the eye to be perfectly flat. Yet the fact that the water runs off, proves that even here the land has a slope. Here and there, however, the surface is so level that the water does not all run off, but makes wet places, called swamps. dig ditches with sloping bottoms that allow the water to run away to some lower place. Sometimes the ditches are left open, as in the picture (Fig. 17). More often tiles are laid along the bottom, forming a kind of pipe, and then the earth is thrown back. The water finds its way into these pipes and thus flows away. Such drainage is expensive, but it usu- ally pays well, for it makes good fertile farm land out of land that before was useless. A plam is a nearly level, or gently rolling, part of the land. Definitions A sioamp is wet land from which the water does not run off freely. 18 HOME GBOGRAPBY 1. Why is gently sloping land the best kind for farming? 2. What about the extent of such land in the United States ? 3. Why are slopes of great im- portance? 4, Why are swamps drained ? 5. How is this done ? Review Questions Suggestions 1. Find some ground near your home that seems nearly level. In what direction does it really slope ? 2. Where is the longest slope in your neighbor- hood ? Would you call it a part of a plain ? Why ? 3. Find out whether or not there are any swamps near you. If so, tell how you might plan to drain one of them. 4. Why should a farmer use tile and fill up a ditch, rather than leave it open ? No matter in what direction you look, in a liilly country, the scenery changes. The view from the top, or summit, of a hill that requires only a few minutes to climb, is very different from the view at its base (Fig. 18). Can you explain why? The higher hills, which may require several hours to climb, furnish even finer views. From the summit of such a hill one can see hilltop after hilltop, with valleys between, stretching out for miles in the distance. The valleys wind in and out among the hills, with perhaps a rugged cliff too steep to climb on one Fig. 18. — A view in a liilly country, with a lake in the valley. Here some of the slopes are too steep for farms, and are, therefore, still covered by forests. 3. Hills and Valleys Plains are usually so level that one can see for miles upon them in every The beauty of direction. The surface is so a huiy country flat that, no matter where one looks, one sees the same kind of scenery. It is very different in a region where the slopes are steeper. The higher parts are called hills, and the lower parts, be- tween the hills, are called valleys. side, and a long wooded slope on the other. In the bottom of the valley one can possibly see a brook or a river wind- ing about. If you live among hills, de- scribe some of the walks and views that you have enjoyed. The soil on hills may be deep and fertile; and then, even uses made though it is not so easy to o* ^^s cultivate the ground, the hilly land, like the plains, is used for farms. Many people build their houses upon LAND, WATER, AND AIR 19 hills in order to enjoy the beautiful views and the cool, fresh air there in summer. Do you know of any such house near you ? Another and even more important reason is that it is more healthful to live on high ground. Where the land is low, the slope is often so gentle that the water cannot flow off readily. Houses in such places often have cellars that are damp, and the people living in such houses are in danger of fever, and of other kinds of sickness, caused by this dampness. But from a hillside, the water runs away quickly, so that the ground there soon be- comes dry even after a heavy rain. In large cities, where land is very expensive, people build almost every- where. The low places are carefully drained like swamps on farms; drain pipes, or sewers, being used to carry off the water. The bottoms of valleys, uniike hills, usually have gentle slopes. This fact has had a great influence xheuseofval- upon the roads of every leys for roads country (Fig. 20). For it and railways is easier to travel in a valley than to go up and down across the hills. On that account, when white men first came to this country, and settled among the Fig. lit. — The ruiii.s of castles, built on the crests ot steep hills in the Rhine Valley in Germany. In times past, when war was more common than now, men built great castles, with thick walls, on the summits, or crests, of hills (Fig. 19). From these they could look out over the coun- try for a long distance, and spy approaching enemies in time to prepare for them. Besides this, the steep sides of the hills were difficult for the enemy to climb. Some of the Indians used to build their towns upon the tops of steep hills, in order to be safe from other Indians. For the same reason the early settlers in New England placed their churches and villages upon the hilltops. At present, hills are little needed for protection against enemies. main roads in same thing is still hills, they built their the valleys. The done. Railroads have also been built in the valleys. Trains cannot be drawn up steep slopes, and therefore the railroads must either cut through the hills or else follow the valleys. The latter is much the cheaper plan, so that in a hilly country railroads wind in and out, often making sharp curves in order to follow the valleys (Fig. 20). 20 HOME GEOGRAPHY Fig. 20. — A road and a railway winding up a mountain valley Where the country is more nearly level, as upon a plain, it is easier to travel in a straight line. But even there both the wagon roads and the railways are often built round small hills, rather than over them. While many people build their houses upon hills, many The use of ^^^^^^ live in the valleys for Valleys. Farmers homes Qf^gj^ ge^^]e ^^ ^^Q valleys, because the best soil is usually found there. The soil is washed into the val- leys by the rains, and is therefore deeper than on the hill slopes. There is also more moisture in the valleys, so that the crops grow better there. Another important reason why people live in valleys is often built there. Rivers large enough for boats are also found in many of the larger valleys. Can you give reasons why people choose to live along such highways of travel ? It is because valleys are such important highways that many of our towns and cities have grown up in them. Some of the largest "cities are found where two or more valleys come together. In such places roads and railways, coming from different direc- tions, meet, and thus make good centers where people may trade, and from which and to which they may ship goods (Fig. 21). When we think of a valley, we usually Roads Jiait roads the fact just mentioned, that the roads MTuI railwavs arP «n ^"'"- -i-— Notice how the roads and railways, following the valleys, meet uue xudUS auu laiiways are so at a central point. Because this is a center, a city has grown up here. LAND, WATER, AND AIR 21 have in mind a small one, across which a person can easily see, for the valleys The size that one commonl}'^ sees are of valleys both narrow and short. But valleys are of all sizes. Many are so narrow that a person can easily Fig. 22. — Trace the divide on the roof of this house. toss a stone across them. Probably there are some of this kind near your home, and if you search you may find one. Other valleys are several miles across, and some are far larger. Indeed, there are some so great that one could not travel their whole length or width, even if he were to spend all day and all night upon a fast train. There is one such in our country, called the Mississippi Valley, which is more than three thousand miles long, and nearly as wide. Valleys as large as this, of course, have very gentle slopes. On that ac- The Missis- count many people living sippi Valley in the Mississippi Valley scarcely realize that they are in a valley. The Mississippi River flows through the lowest part, and the homes of many people are so far from that river that they may never have seen it. The land all about them is so level that it does not seem to form a part of any slope. It is, in fact, a vast plain. Yet, when the rain falls there, it flows on and on, in brooks and rivers, till it reaches the great river, thus proving that the plain is a part of the Mississippi Valley. The slopes of this valley are not all smooth and even. There are smaller valleys of many different sizes within this great valley, and some of them are hundreds of miles long. The more important valleys have names, just as people have : How one for instance, there are Mississippi Valley, the Hud- another son Valley, and the Connecticut Valley. Can you name others? It is impor- tant to have some way of fixing the boundaries of such a valley, so that one can know where it begins and ends, and how much land is included within it. Usually this is easily done. When the rain falls upon the roof of a house (Fig. 22), the water is divided along the highest part, some flowing .1 valley is sepa- ^"^ rated from .^ C E A N >■ Fig. 23.- ■ A map to show the divides bulwceu valleys. Trace the divides. down one side, some down the other. Water falling upon the highest land between two valleys is divided in a similar manner. Because the water 22 HOME GEOGRAPHY parts, or divides, at the highest place between two valleys, this place is called a divide, or water parting, or sometimes a loatershed. The dotted lines in the picture (Fig. 23) show some divides. Notice how irregular the lines are. A divide sometimes stands out as sharply as on the roof of a house. In other places it is difficult to find, because the land is so nearly level. Can you point out such a place in Figure 23 ? Since the divides are the boundaries of the valleys, it is easy to determine slowly made. Let us see how this has been done. When it rains slightly, the water soaks into the soil and disappears ; but when there is a heavy rain, not all of the water sinks into the ground. Some begins to flow away. One little stream, perhaps less than an inch wide, begins at one point ; another joins it ; soon several of them unite ; and after a little while a good-sized brook or creek is formed. Have you not seen this flowing water Fig. 24. — Little valleys cut in the soil by the rains. how far it is across any valley. How would you do it ? The divides on the two sides of the Mississippi Valley are many hundreds of miles apart. But there are, no doubt, some valleys near your home whose divides are not one hundred feet apart. See whether you can find one ; and if you do, try to trace its divides. People sometimes speak of the " ever- lasting hills," but they are not everlast- How hills and ^^S- ^he hills and valleys valleys have that you have seen were not been made always there, and will not remain forever. They have all been in the school yard, in the roads, or on the sides of hills ? If you have, you have surely noticed that the water did not flow off without taking some- thing with it. It was muddy. This means that soil had become mixed with the water and was being borne away by it. Every heavy rain bears along much soil, cutting little channels, washing out roads, and perhaps even destroying the beds of railways, so that trains must stop running for a time. During such a rain little channels, or valleys, are carved in the soil, leaving tiny hills and ridges between (Fig. 24). LAND, WATER, AND AIR 23 No doubt you have seen these formed many times. If not, you can easily make them by pouring water from a sprinkler upon a pile of loose dirt. In most places there are many heavy rains every year, and in a lifetime their number is very large. During many hundreds of years, then, the water could wash away an enormous amount of soil and rock. This soil the large streams and rivers carry away to the sea. It is by such very simple means that even deep valleys have been formed, with- the hills between them. It has all been done in much the same way as the rain water cuts the tiny channels in the soil of the school yard. What a change water must have made in the surface of the earth during the thousands of years that have passed ! No doubt there were hills and valleys in the very beginning; but every year these have been slowly changing, so that they are now very different from what they once were. After many more years they will be very different from what they are now, for they are even now slowly changing. This is the way in which most hills and valleys have been formed. Some of the very largest valleys, however, like the Mississippi, have not been made entirely by running water. They have been partly caused by the sinking or the rising of the land. We shall learn more about this when we study about mountains. _,-... A valley is the low land be- Dennitions , , . , , , , , tween higher lands, as between hills or mountains. A divide (also called water-parting or water- shed) is the place between two valleys where the rain water parts, or divides, that on one side flowing into one valley, that on the other flowing into the neighboring valley. 1. Why does a hilly country look more at- tractive than a plain ? 2. Of what use are hills ? 3. Show how valleys are of use for roads and railways. 4. Why are they of use for homes ? 5. What about the size of valleys ? 6. Tell about the Mis- sissippi Valley. 7. How is one ®^®y valley separated from another? 8. How have hills and valleys been made? 1. Where is the highest hill near your home ? 2. What views do you most enjoy in your neighborhood ? Describe them. 3. Find pictures of castles, show- Suggestions ing their location on hills. 4. Find the divide, or watershed, of some valley near you. Trace it as far as you can. 5. Watch the water carry- ing off soil after a rain. 6. Find a washout after a heavy rain. 7. Show that streets and roads are so made that they have a watershed. Why is that done ? 8. Do you know any roads or railways that follow valleys and wind about among the hills ? If so, tell about them. 9. Make a drawing showing the appearance of a hilly country. 4. Mountains Hills are seldom more than a few hundred feet high ; but in some parts of the world the slopes rise thousands of feet. Such high places are called moun- tains. You may never have seen mountains, but you have certainly seen something that looks quite like them. Appearance of Often, on a summer evening, mountains the sun sets behind great banks of clouds that reach far up into the sky. Some of them have rough, steep sides and great rugged peaks ; others have more gentle slopes and rounder tops. Often there are many of them together, and they appear so real that it seems as if one might climb their sides, if he could only reach them. This is very much as snow-covered mountains appear in the distance. In fact, in a mountainous country one must often look carefully to tell whether he sees real mountains or clouds only. 24 HOME GEOGRAPHY Fig. 25. — A view in a region of low mountains, with forests covering the lower slopes. The mountains in Figure 25 are much like hills, except that they are larger. The size of They are two or three thou- mountains gaud feet in height. Some mountains are so low, and their slopes ^ a?**S^^; 4^> " ^ "^:^^--9' ' ''M^ ^<: Fig. 2(J.- Snow-covered mountain peaks in the Alps, many thousands of feet high. SO gentle, that one can easily climb to their tops. Such mountains are often called hills ; but many mountains are from two to three miles in height. The tops, or jyeaks, of these may rise far above the clouds, and are often wholly hidden by them. Usually where there is one mountain peak, there are others in sight (Fig. 26). They often extend in lines, forming what is called a mountain chain, or a moun- tain range, which may be hundreds of miles in length. Besides peaks, there are many deep valleys and steep slopes in such a mountain chain. Perhaps you know that it is colder on the summit of a hiarh hill than at rr., , o The tempera- its base. When ture on moun- going to the top ***"^ of the Washington Monu- ment, which is five hundred and fifty feet high, if one LAND, WATER, AND AIR 25 has a ■ thermometer one finds that it is about two degrees cooler at the top Fig. 27. -A mountain on whpse summit snow has just fallen, while no snow fell at its hase. than at the base. One might not notice any difference in temperature when climbing low hills, but it is easily noticed on high ones. If your home is near such a hill, you can prove this. People who live among high hills observe that it often snows upon their summits (Fig. 27), while it rains in the valleys below. How can you explain this? Many mountains rise so high that it is much colder at the summit than at the base. In fact, it is so cold on very high mountains that the snow never quite melts away. No rain ever falls there ; but it snows instead, in both summer and winter, and it is far too cold for trees to grow. Such mountains, therefore, are always white with a thick blanket of snow. Even in hot Central Africa some of the mountains rise so high that they are always covered with snow. On these peaks it is as cold as in the land of the Eskimos, although the Negroes, living at the base of the mountains, need hardly any clothing. Because of the cool climate and beau- tiful scenery, many people spend part of the summer among the mountains. Even the lower mountains, which are covered with _,, , The use of woods all the way mountains to the top, and as summer , . resorts have no snow m summer, are so much cooler than the lowland that they often attract thousands of visitors during hot weather. Railroads now lead to many of the mountains, and sometimes even go across them. Following a valley, such a road rises higher and higher until it comes to what is called a mountain pass (Fig. 28). Fig. 28.- • A railroad train crossing a pass in the lofty, snow-covered Alps. 26 HOME GEOGRAPHY This is nothing more than a valley be- tween two mountain peaks. Then, after crossing the pass, the railroad leads down a valley on the other side. Or, quite often, if the way to the pass is too steep, a railroad winds about, in many curves, until it can climb no higher; then it tunnels directly through the hard mountain rock. Some of the tunnels in mountains are several miles long, and have several thousand feet of rock directly overhead. There are often good roads in the mountains, and some of the visitors amuse themselves by driving. There are also paths in different directions, leading to points of interest ; and many people spend a part of their time in mountain climbing. This sport, however, is often difficult Whymoun- and sometimes dangerous, tain climbing It may not seem hard to and even ' climb to the top of a moun- dangerous tain, but it usually is. In the first place, a long distance must be traveled. Most mountains are so steep that one would grow very tired climbing directly up their slopes; there- fore, a much longer, zigzag path is fol- lowed. In addition to this, there may be some steep cliffs, or precipices (Fig. 29), that could not be climbed even if one wished to do so; and it is necessary to travel round these, to find a place where the slope is less steep. For these reasons it may be neces- sary to walk ten miles, or even more, climbing uphill all the time, in order to reach the top of a mountain only a mile high. One would need to stop often to rest. There is danger, at some points, in climbing very high mountains. Que may lose his way, or, since the patli is often wet and rocky, with per- haps a steep precipice close to it, one's foot may slip, causing him to fall upon the rocks far beneath. Or great masses of stone and snow may suddenly come crashing down the mountain side, destroying everything in their path. The dangers to be met in climbing high mountains are shown in the following description. Fig. 29. — Steep rock precipices, up whose face one cannot climb. Many people cross the ocean to visit the Alps mountains in Swit- The climbing zerland. Mont Blanc, one °^i^^°°*^ of the best-known peaks in Switzerland the Alps, is nearly three miles in height. It is so difficult and dangerous to climb this mountain that persons wishing to do so must employ guides, to show them the way and help them over the difficult places. The round trip usually takes two nights and three days ; and as there is no place to obtain food^ it is necessary LAND, WATEli, AND AIR 27 to carry it. Overcoats and blankets also are needed ; for even though the journey be made in the hottest summer weather, it is bitterly cold upon the mountain top. Suppose that we are making such a journey. We start early in the morning, so as to have a long day. Each of us carries a few light articles, but the guides and jjorters take most, for they are strong and used to climbing. At first we walk along a pleasant path in a beautiful wood; a house is now and then passed, and a green field perhaps; but soon there are no more houses and fields, and we meet no people. The trees be- come smaller and smaller, until the line is reached above which it is so cold that no trees can grow. This is called the tree line, or timber line. From this point on, no plants larger than bushes are seen, and after a while even these disappear. Meantime the soil and grass have become more scarce, while here and there banks of snow are found in the shady hollows. Soon we have climbed to the snow line. This is the line above which snow is found all the year round. Now, no matter in what direction we look, rocks and snow are every- where to be seen, and the snow is often hundreds of feet deep. What a wonderful view is before us ! It re- pays us for all the hard climb. We look down upon the woods through which we have just passed, and over them to the deep valleys, with green fields, pretty houses, and villages far below us. Beyond are seen other steep mountains upon the opposite side of the valley. A guide takes his place in front of us, and often tells us to stop while he goes ahead to examine the way. It may be that the snow has bridged over and hidden a deep and narrow chasm, and if we were to step upon this snow bridge, we might break through and fall a hundred feet or more. Sometimes the guides lift us over a danger- ous place ; and when it is steep or slippery, they fasten all the members of the party to- gether with ropes, so that if one falls, the others may hold him (Fig. 30). As we advance higher and higher, it is often necessary to take a narrow path on the steep side of the mountain. On the right we can look hundreds of feet almost straight downward ; on the left are huge' stones and masses of snow almost directly overhead. The snow sometimes slips, forming snow slides, or avalanches, which are very dangerous. They come tearing down the sides of the moun- tains with a terrible roar, at times burying whole villages beneath them. You have seen the same thing, on a much smaller scale, when Fig. 30.- Mouutain climbers, fastened together by ropes, on the way to the top of Mont Blanc. snow has slid from the roofs of houses on warm winter days. After one night spent in a little house about halfway up the mountain side (Fig. 31), and after much hard work on the next day, we reach the summit. Here, in spite of our heavy wraps, we are all shivering; for upon high mountain tops there are fierce winds which seem to go through even the thickest clothing. On this barren mountain top there are no birds, no trees, no grass, — nothing but snow and rock (Fig. 32). But if it is a clear day and there are no clouds clinging to the mountain sides below us, we may be able to look down into the beautiful green valleys only a few miles away. There the birds are singing, flow- 28 HOME GEOGRAPHY Fig. 31. — Rest house on the slopes of Mont Bhinc, above the snow line. ers are blossoming, and men working in the fields find it too warm. Perhaps you already know that the other uses rocks inside the mountains of mountains sometimes contain gold and silver. Iron, lead, and other metals are also obtained there. The metal in rings, watches, and silver coins, and even the iron parts of your school desk, may have come from the rocks of some mountain. Rock that contains metal is called ore; and it may look so much like common rock that you might not note the differ- ence. You might have a very valuable gold ore in your hand and not know that it contained any gold. In order to get the metal out of the ore, much work is necessary. Many men in mountainous countries are employed in mining ore and in getting the metal out of it (Fig. 33). The trees in the mountain forests are also valuable. The most common kinds are evergreens, such as the pine, hem- lock, and spruce. These are green even through the winter, and can live on the cold mountain sides as far upas the timber line (Fig. 34). The land upon a moun- Fiu. 32. — The summit of Mont Bhiuc, always covered with a deep coat of snow. LAND, WATER, AND AIR 29 tain side is usually too steep and rocky for farms; but even where there can be no farms, trees may grow, covering the mountains for miles and miles with dense forests. These trees may be cut down and sawed into lumber, from finally reaches towns and cities where people need it to drink and for other purposes. Do you know of any city that gets its water sup- ply from such a river ? You have learned that most hills have been slowly made by running water, that cuts out „ How moun- V alleys and tains have leaves high been made places between. Most mountain ranges have 7iot been made in this way. They are really parts of the land that have been slowly raised, until some portions are much higher than the surrounding country. When moun- tains are thus raised, the Fig. 33. — In these buildings metal is obtained from the ore that is mined in the mountain rocks far below the surface. which all sorts of wooden articles are made. Pos- sibly the very seat in which you are sitting was once part of a tree that grew on the side of a mountain. Mountains are of further use because of the water they supply. We have already seen that there is much ice and snow upon some of them ; and that upon the higher mountains there is so much that it never melts away, no matter how hot the summer may be. During hot weather, many streams in the plains dry up ; but at such times the ice and snow of the mountains melt all the faster. Then the streams which flow forth from these moun- tains are even more swollen than usual. This water may run along for many miles, until it Fig. 34.- The forest-covered slopes of lofty mountains, that shut in a inonntain valley. Point out the timber line. rocks are bent, broken, and folded in a very irregular way (Fig. 35). You can imitate this folding of the moun- tain rocks by bending, or crumpling, a number of sheets of paper. When the rocks of mountains are folded, the crum- 30 HOME GEOGRAPHY pling extends for a great distance, some- times even for thousands of miles. Such a region of folded rocks, a hundred miles or more wide, and perhaps a thousand miles or more long, is called a moimtain system. Of course running water cuts valleys in a mountain region as well as in a hilly country. In fact, most of the val- leys and many of the peaks and ridges in mountains have been carved out by running water. The land is slowly raised by folding, and then valleys are Definitions Fig. 35. — Beds of rock, in the mountains, that have been bent up in an arch when the mountains were raised. About how to study cut into it by the water that flows down the slopes. * / While it is well, first, to read even several pages of the text without pause, as before stated, it is neces- sary in further study to stop here and there to think over what has been read. For this purpose some stopping places are better than others. Probably the best stopping place, for every page or two, is found at the end of the answer to each question that is suggested in the headings at the side of the page. At this point, each time, the thought turns to an- other topic, and it is therefore a good place to make a stop. One can then look back over what he has just read, or think it through with- out looking at the book. In preparing for recitation it is not necessary to try to remember the exact words of the book. In fact, it is much better to tell in one's own words what has been learned, just as a person does in writing a letter. A mountain is high land, where masses of rock have been pushed up above the level of the surrounding country. A mountain j)eak is a high part of a mountain. / It is a sort of large hill in the mountains. A mountain range is a long, rather narrow belt of mountain country. A mountain chain is a group of mountain ranges, one beside the other, and often nearly in a line. A mountain system is an even larger group of mountains, often including two or more mountain chains. A precipice is a steep rock cliff, often found in a moun- tainous country. An avalanche is a great mass of snow, ice, or rock falling down a mountain side. The timber line (or tree line) is the line above which no trees grow. The snow line is a line above which snow remains all the year round. A mountain pass is a gap, usually a valley, across the crest of a mountain range. 1. Describe the appearance 2. What about the tempera- Review Questions of mountains. ture on mountains? 3. Why are mountains of use as summer resorts ? 4. Why is mountain climbing difficult and sometimes dangerous? 5. Tell about the climbing of Mont Blanc. 6. State other uses of mountains. 7. How have mountains been made ? 8. What is meant by a plain ? Swamp? Valley ? Divide ? Mountain ? Mountain peak ? Mountain range ? Mountain chain ? Mountain system ? Precipice ? Avalanche ? Timber line ? Snow line ? Mountain pass ? 1. If you have made a visit to the mountains, describe to the class what you saw. 2. Watch for clouds that resemble moun- tains. 3. Make a collection of "^ges ions pictures of mountains. Note the timber line, the snow line, and other points of interest. 4. Rep- LAND, WATER, ANT) AT 11 81 resent a mountain by the use of sand, stones, twigs, and chalk dust. Show the forests and the timber line ; the snow line ; precipices. 5. Ask some one who has climbed a mountain to tell you about it. 6. Write a story relating the adventures you might expect in climbing a mountain. 7. Describe some of the views you would expect to enjoy. 2. Water 1. Rivers We have seen how very important valleys are; and we have also learned that they have been formed by the work of running water. We shall next study the running water that has carved out the valleys, and that makes the rivers. Every heavy rain causes the water to collect here and there, and to flow down How rivers fhe slopes. At first only begin tiny rills are formed, but these unite to make little streams and brooks. The brooks and small streams, in turn, unite to form rivers. Thus rain alone may cause a river ; but as soon as all the rain water runs off, such a river would become quite dry if there were not water from some other source. Rivers usually have a more regular supply of water. Some of them, as we have seen, start in the high mountains, where the snows never entirely melt away. Others have their beginnings, or sources, in lakes and swamps. It should be remembered, too, that there is a great deal of water in the ground, for some of it sinks into the earth during every rain. It is this water that men find when they dig wells. The underground water trickles slowly through the soil, and through crevices in the rocks (Fig. 36), often bubbling forth as a spring, weeks after it has fallen as rain somewhere else. Many rivers have their sources in such springs, and most large rivers receive water along their courses from hundreds and even thousands of them. Let us take a journey from the source of a river to its lower end, or mouth, and M 1^ 'i' P '-"i^^^l p '^^H^^^H u!r''^% Bill B J HL^*"^sih'«r^ ^^EI^^^^^^^^^^9!@H Fig. 36. — Icicles formed in winter where water from underground slowly oozes out from cracks in the rock. see how it changes. Our river has its source in a small spring in How a river the mountains, where the changes and clear, cold water bubbles IZZ^^eV^ out of the ground at the i. its upper base of a rock cliff. For a p^ short distance it flows through a grassy meadow (Fig. 37), and is so narrow that you can easily step across it. The water is so clear that you can see the speckled trout swimming about in a deep hole near one side, or hank. A smaller branch, or tributary, enters the brook from another small valley, and makes it somewhat larger and deeper. ^^ HOME GEOGRAPHY Soon the brook leaves the meadow and begins to tumble down a steeper slope. Here it changes greatly. In some places it is narrow and deep ; in others, broad and shallow ; here it flows swiftly, there slowly. We put a toy boat lear its smin'e. Fig. .'58. — Here the water, shut in by steep ledge to ledge, each time forming a walls, leaps from waterfall. upon the water. It floats along quietly for a time, and then, com- ing to a swift part of the current, called a rapid, it is whirled along roughly and upset. We rescue it and set it right again, but soon it comes to a place where the water falls several feet from the top of a ledge (Fig. 38). In tumbling over this ivaterfall the boat is again upset, and dashed against the rocks. As the water rushes along, beat- ing itself into foam, it is here and there joined by other tributaries, some very small, others nearly as large as the brook itself. Thus the stream gradually grows broader and deeper. Often the water must rush around, or leap over, large bowlders that lie directly in its path ; and often it falls directly downward for many feet with a roar. The stream is now in a deep gorge, with the rocky cliffs extending high on each side, and shutting it in like walls (Fig. 38). It seems quite helpless, with the great, hard rocks all about it. Yet it is really getting the bet- ter of this rock, for pieces of stone are often loosened and made to fall LAND, wateh, and aim 33 Fig. 39. — The stream, shut in by towering cliffs. The large bowlders in its bed have fallen from these cliffs. from the steep cliffs into the water. Then the torrent hurls them against one an- other, and grinds them against the bottom, or bed, of the stream until they are worn into smooth, round pebbles. These pebbles are borne on downstream, and are slowly ground up into grains of sand and bits of clay. The bed of the stream and the rock cliffs by its side are ground away at the same time. It is this grinding that has made the gorge so deep and caused its sides to rise so steep and so high. The scenery here is wild and grand, with towering cliffs on either side (Fig. 39). Now it is too difficult to follow the stream, and we leave it, to join it again many miles below. Here the river has left the mountains and flows in a broad valley through a hilly country. Some of the 2. its middle slopes are steep and covered p*^ with forests ; others, more gentle, are cleared of trees and dotted with farms, farmhouses, and barns. The current is not so swift now, although there are still some rapids and falls ; and instead of rocky cliffs the banks are low (Fig. 40). In fact, in some places these are not much higher than the water. Here and there a tributary, itself almost a river, pours its flood into our stream. It has now been many days since this water left the mountains. The river has become so deep that we- cannot touch Fig. 40. — The river is now large, and its banks are low and bordered by farm land. u HOME GEOGRAPHY its bed with a long pole, and so wide that bridges are needed to cross it (Fig. 41). We can now drift along easily in a boat, watching the men at work in the fields, and the towns and villages that we pass. At one point, however, the current grows swifter, and finally the water tumbles in a great fall. We must leave now the current is so gentle that it can carry only the finest bits of rock mud. These bits are so tiny that, if you were to place some of the muddy water in a glass, it would take hours for all of them to settle and leave the water clear. At last we are approaching the river mouth, toward which the water has been IIIIIM* Mr Fig. 41. — Here the river is so broad that a very long bridge is needed to cross it. 3. Its lower course the river at this point and pass around the fall. Here is a large city with many mills and factories. From this point on, the stream is so broad and deep that large steamboats can travel upon it; it has now become a great river. It is still several hundred miles to the river mouth, and since other rivers, both large and small, continue to join it, it steadily grows deeper and broader. The banks be- come . lower, and they are occupied by many towns and cities, with farms between. In this part of its course there are no rapids and falls. Indeed, the current has greatly changed. In the mountains the water rushed rapidly and noisily on- ward, dragging along bowlders and peb- bles ; in its middle part it flowed fast enough to carry only sand and mud j but steadily flowing for weeks. The river is now a full mile in width, and moving very slowly. It never dries up, because there is always a supply of water from its thousands of springs, and it drains so great a country that rain is nearly always falling into some of its hundreds of tributaries. Not only river boats, bat ships from the ocean are now passing up and down the river. Now the water divides into several streams, each flowing into the ocean along a separate course (Fig. 43). Each ^ of these pours its fresh water into the salt water of the sea, and be- yond their mouths no land is to be seen, — nothing but water everywhere (Fig. 42.) Other rivers may differ from How other this one in many ways. Instead rivers differ of having their sources in springs ^^^"^ ^^'^ o°® among the mountains, they may start from LAND, WATER, AND AIR 35 swamps or lakes. They may have low, soft banks near their sources, instead of high rocky ones, and they may have no rapids or falls. Instead of emptying directly into the ocean, they may enter other rivers as tributaries, or is drained by a single main stream is called a river basin. Thus all the land drained by the Mississippi River and its tributaries forms the Mississippi Fig. 42. — Mouth of a large river where it pours its water into the ocean. The meaning of river system and river basin they may pour their waters into lakes. But, in spite of such differences, other rivers are much like this one in most respects. If there is a river near you, how does it resemble the one described ? How does it differ from it ? We have seen that from its source to its mouth a river may re- ceive water from hundreds of tribu- taries. Thus the rain that falls in places even hundreds of miles apart may at last be brought together in a single main stream. Such a main stream, with all of its tributaries, is called a river system (Fig. 43). For instance, we speak of the Mississippi River System, meaning the Mississippi River and all its tributaries. All the country that river basin IS your Fig. 43. — Map of a river system. Point out the source; the mouth; the main stream ; several tributaries. Basin. In what home located ? Very great quantities of soil are carried away by rivers, and much rock is ground up what rivers and carried do with their ofe by them, sediment This load of bils of rock that rivers carry is called sediment. Some of it comes from the pebbles that are rolled about in the stream bed, and some comes from the stream bed itself. What be- corties of it all ? If you have seen a sidewalk, or a field, flooded with water, you perhaps remember that a thin layer of sand or fine mud was left when the flood disappeared . The sand and mud were 1. Flood plains 36 HOME GEOGRAPHY borne along by the current, until they reached a place where the water did not move swiftly enough to carry them any farther. Then they slowly settled. Fig. M. — A river which has overflowed its banks in time of flood The tree is completely surrounded by the flood. After heavy rains, or when the snow melts rapidly, rivers often rise so high that they overflow their banks (Fig. 44). At such times the water spreads out in a thin, slowly moving sheet, on both sides of the main current. Then, as just described, this slowly moving water allows a thin layer of mud to settle. Each flood adds another layer, making the land a little higher, until, after many years, it is built above the usual level of the river. Such land is gener- ally a level plain ; and, since it is made by river floods, it is called d^ flood plain. This is one of the ways in which plains are made. Near small streams such plains are generally narrow strips of land (Fig. 45) between the stream and the hills that rise at some distance oh either side. But in large valleys, like the Mississippi, the flood plains are many miles in width. Flood plains make the best kind of farm land. The soil is very fertile ; the surface is so level that it can easily be cultivated ; and, being so near the water, it has plenty of moisture for the roots of plants. Not all the sediment that a river carries is used to build flood plains along its 1 1 nr 1 ^ •, 2. Deltas banks. Much ot it is drifted on to the river mouth, where it enters a lake or the ocean. Here the water is usually quiet, so that even the finest mud sinks to the bottom. At first only enough sediment is collected to form low, swampy land. But, like the flood plains, this is slowly built higher and higher, by a layer of mud from each flood, until it becomes high enough to make dry land. Fig. 45. — A narrow flood plain bordering a small stream, which in time of flood overflows the plain. Such plains at the mouths of rivers form what are called deltas (Fig. 46). Many rivers have deltas so wide that one cannot see across them, and the great quantity of sediment from which LAND, WAT£:r, AND AIR they are made has come from fields, hills, and mountains, perhaps hundreds of miles away. Such delta lands, like flood plains, are very fertile and make excellent farms. of While rivers drain the land, and thus keep it healthful, they also Their value bring the much-needed water for the water to plants, animals, and man. ^^^^ supply We have already Rivers are importance in T,, , other The value of rivers for W a y S drainage 1^^^',^^^ carving out val- leys and building flood plains and deltas. Each river is really a great open ditch for draining the surrounding land. Its work in drainage is always of value to the farmers who live in the valley through which it flows ; but its impor- tance is most plainly seen when heavy rains fall, or when the snow melts rapidly. Fig. 40. — The delta of a river. learned, m our study of the Sa- hara Desert, how necessary water is to plants. In desert countries men lead water from the streams many miles, through ditches or pipes, and let it spread out over the thirsty soil, so that plants can thrive (Fig. 47). This is called irrigation, and in many places, including a large part of our own coun- try, no crops can be raised without it. Again, many animals and people de- Ixland Fig. 47. — A large ditch, in western United States, in which water is led from a river to be used in watering crops by irrigation. If it were not for rivers, this water could not run off so quickly. People in towns and cities along a river bank also owe a special debt to the river, because it quickly carries away all sewage. pend upon rivers for water to drink. Even whole cities often obtain their drinking water from rivers. Find out where your own water supply comes from, if you do not already know. 38 HOME GEOGRAPIJV for manufac turing Fi(i. 48. — All old-fashioned water wheel used to liirni h power for grinding grain into flour in a grist mill. The water of rivers is also used for turning water wheels (Fig. 48). You Their use have, perhaps, noticed how windmills work. The wind turns a large wheel which may be so connected with other wheels that it can pump water, or turn a saw for sawing wood, or grind corn. Steam is also used for power ; for example, to turn the wheels of a rail- way engine so that it can drag the heavy cars along. River water is made to do work in much the same man- ner. Where there is a swift current, or where there are waterfalls, such as the Niagara Falls, it is often easy to run some of the water off to one side through a ditch or pipe. The water, racing rapidly along, or falling with great force, strikes a wheel (Fig. 48) and makes it whirl round. This wheel, being connected with others, causes them to turn also, much as one wheel in a clock causes others to move. Thus machinery is set in motion by which logs are sawed into lumber, grain is ground into flour, cotton is made into cloth, and many other kinds of work are done. The power obtained by such use of water is called icater power; and the buildings in which such manufacturing is carried on are called factories, or mills (Fig. 49). The water in most rivers does not flow fast enough to strike a wheel with much force. Water power is foimd mainly in rivers with swift currents, and especially near rapids and falls. In such places mills have been built (Fig. 49), and many cities have sprung up. We found one such city on our journey down the river, described on page 34. Fig. 40. — A large mill beside a waterfall that snpplies the power for rnniiiiig the machinery in the mill. LAND, WATER, ANT) AIR 39 There is one other way in which rivers are very valuable. It has always Their use for been difficult to find an easy navigation means for carrying goods from one place to another. In some places there are no roads, and even where there are roads, they are often hilly, rough, and muddy. Yet most of the things that we use, such as sugar, flour, oil, meat, coal, lumber, and clothing, must be carried long distances, sometimes thousands of miles. Even if the roads were ex- cellent, it would take a great deal of distance into a country. For example, one can travel by boat for thousands of miles up the Mississippi River and its tributaries. For these reasons, carrying goods by boat upon rivers, or river navigation, is a very important business. Indeed, it is so important that broad ditches, called cmials, have been dug in many places (Fig. 51) so that boats may go still farther. Sometimes these canals extend around rapids or waterfalls for the use of river boats. In other places canals have been built many miles across the Fig. 50. — A large steamboat on the Mississippi River. time, and cost much money, to haul these materials in wagons. To ship them by railway takes less time, but is expensive. ' A broad, deep river is really one of the finest highways in the world. To be sure, no wagons or cars can be drawn over it, but boats are easily moved upon it. A' large river boat can carry as much as scores of wagons or cars (Fig. 50), and many boats can go up and down at the same time, so that a large river is equal to several railroads. Besides, such a river may lead a long land, so as to connect one river with another. Before the time of railways, — which is no longer ago than when your great- grandfathers were boys, — goods were carried by boat more commonly than now. Even to-day, when there are so many good wagon roads and railways, it is cheaper to carry many things on boats than in cars. It is easy to see, then, why many people have chosen to build their homes near rivers. A farmer prefers to live near a good wagon road, or near the 40 HOME GEOGRAPHY railway station, so that he may easily send his crops to market; and for the same reason, people have always liked to live near a river, which is a good The mouth of a river is its lowet' end. It is usually the part where its waters empty into a larger body of water, such as another river, a lake, or the ocean. A flood plain is the plain along the banks of Fig. 51 highway, or ivaterw'ay. It is partly on this account that many of the large cities of the world stand on the banks of large rivers. Do you know of any such cities ? Definitions A river source, is the place where a river starts. A spring is water flowing forth from the ground. A river hank is the land that borders a river. Each river has two banks. A river channel is the part of a valley that a river occupies. A river bed is the bottom of the channel over which the water flows. A rajyid is a part of a river where the water flows very swiftly. A waterfall is a part of a river where the slope of the bed is so steep that the water falls nearly straight down. A river system is a main stream with all its tributaries. A river basin is the land drained by a river and its tributaries. The divide surrounding it forms its boundary. A tributanj to a river is another stream that flows into it, around rapid.s in a river. a river that has been built up by the sediment that settles during floods. A delta is the plain formed at the mouth of a river by sediment that the current can carry no farther. 1. How do rivers begin ? 2. Describe the upper part of a river. 3. Describe its middle ' part. 4. What is the condition in its lower course ? 5. How may other rivers differ from the one described ? 6. What is meant by a river system? By a river basin? 7. Where are flood plains found, and how are they formed ? 8. Where and how are the deltas of rivers formed? 9. How are rivers important for drainage? 10. How are they of value for supplying water? 11. For manufacturing? 12. For navigation ? Review Questions 13. What is a river source River bank ? lliver Rapid ? Waterfall ? basin? Tributary? River plain?' Delta? A spring ? channel ? River bed ? River system ? River mouth ? Flood 1. Why are the rocks in ally smooth and round ? 2 by " up a river " ? By " down a river " ? By « right bank " ? By "left bank"? 3. Find a spring river beds usu- What is meant Suggestions Why is its LAND, WATER, AND AIR 41 water cool ? 4 Find a flood plain. 5. What are the causes of river floods ? 6. Do you know of a city that gets its water from a river or a lake? If so, how is the water brought to the city and distributed to the houses ? 7. Make a water wheel, and arrange for a stream of water to turn it. 8. Make a collection of pictures of rivers, and notice as many facts as you can about them. 9. Make a drawing of a river, showing its source, mouth, tributaries, and flood plains. 2. Ponds and Lakes If you build a dam of sticks and mud _^^p across a small brook, the water soon fills the little basin that you make. In this way you can make a small pond (Fig. 52). order to make ponds or small manufacturing, often become too low to furnish the amount of water needed. By means of the dam a large basin is How ponds and lakes are formed In lakes, men often build dams of earth, wood, or stone, across much larger Fig. 52. • A boy making a small pond by building a dam in a roadside gutter. formed ; and when the river is high, enough water may be collected in it to Fig. So. — A dam built across a stream in order to make a laki- lor storini; water. streams (Fig. 53). They do this because the rivers that supply towns and cities with drinking water^ or with power for last through a dry season. If you have seen such a pond or lake, describe it to the class, 42 HOME GEOGRAPHY Many ponds and lakes have been formed in a similar way. That is, the water has collected behind dams that have been formed across streams. This is true even of the large lakes, some of which are two or three hundred miles long and fifty miles or more wide. Usu- ally, however, these dams have not been built by men. Some of the dams have been made by beavers (Fig. 54). There used to be a great many bea- vers in our country, and some are left still. Since they prefer quiet, shallow ponds in which been widened by the forming of a dam. The stream flows into this Names for body of water at one end. pa^s of a lake This end is really a little higher than the other, and is called the head of the lake. The water flows out at the lower end, which is called the foot of the lake. The stream that flows into a lake is called the i7ilet, and that which flows out is called the outlet. Some lakes have no outlet, because there is so little water flowing in that the basin cannot fill and overflow. The water in such lakes be- FiG. 54. — A clam of sticks placed by beavers in a swift stream, in order to make tlie pond in wliicli they live. to live, they gnaw down small trees and make dams with the sticks. Then they build their houses in the ponds thus formed. In other places, as among mountains, where the sides of the river valleys are steep, great avalanches of rock and earth have fallen, and blocked, or dammed up, a stream. These are some of the simplest ways in which dams have been made across valleys, to form ponds and lakes. In your later study of geography you will learn about other ways in Avhich ponds and lakes have been made. From what has been said, it is clear that a pond or lake is usually nothing more than part of a stream that has comes salt. Perhaps you have heard of the Great Salt Lake, in Utah. Its water why some is so salt that no one could drink lakes become it, even if he were dying of thirst, salt The reason why such lakes become salt is as follows. There is some salt in all water, even in that which we drink, although so little that we do not notice it. When water flows into a lake, the salt is carried with it. If there is no outlet, the water cannot flow out, but it escapes, be- cause every day some of it dries away ; that is, it is changed into vapor and carried away in the air. The Salt cannot pass off in this manner. It remains, therefore, and slowly collects, un- til the water of the lake becomes salt. You have heard of the Sea of Galilee, and of the Dead Sea ; both of them are in Palestine. LAND, WATER, AND AIR 43 The Sea of Galilee is a fresh-water lake, with the Jordan River for its outlet. This fresh- water river finally empties into the Dead Sea, a lake that has no outlet. The air in that desert country is -^o dry that fully as much water passes off from this lake in vapor as enters from the river. On that account the Dead Sea cannot overflow, and it has become one of the saltest lakes on the earth. It is so salt that fishes cannot live in it, and that is the reason it is called the Dead Sea. tant waterways. Upon the Great Lakes, in the northern part of the Upited States, hundreds of vessels are engaged in carry- ing passengers, and also grain, coal, lum- ber, and countless other products. For these reasons many people have settled on the shores of large lakes, and as a result many towns and cities have been built there. Do you know of any such ? Fig. 53. — The result of a morning's fishing from a canoe in a lalte in Canada. Like rivers, ponds and lakes are of use to men in many ways. They help The uses of ^^ keep the ground moist ponds and near their shores ; they fur- lakes j^-gj^ water to cities, to fac- tories, and to farmers for irrigation. Besides this, many valuable food fish are caught in lakes ; and in cold coun- tries much ice, for use in summer, is cut from their surfaces. Again, lakes, like rivers, are impor- Another reason why lakes are impor- tant is because their shores are often very beautiful ; and the air near them is usually cool in summer. Because of this, many persons go to lakes as they do to mountains, to spend their summer vacations. There they can enjoy hunt- ing, fishing (Fig. 55), canoeing, and bathing, as well as walks along the beaches and in the woods along the shores. 44 HOME GEOGRAPHY 1. How are ponds and lakes formed ? 2. Give names for the parts of a lake. 3. Why do some lakes be- come salt? 4. What are some of the uses of ponds and lakes ? 1. Find a pond or small lake and examine the dam that caused it. 2. What dangers do you see from lakes, when the dams made by men have not been well built ? 3. Find out more about beavers. 4. What is meant by '' up a lake " ? By " down a lake " ? Review Questions you go far enough, you will come to the ocean. If you wished to go to the home of the nomads of the desert, or of the Ne- groes of Central Africa, you would have to travel across the ocean ; and even if you went on a fast steamer, it would be many days before you arrived there. Most of the time you would be out of sight of land, with nothing but the level Fig. 5(i. — The vast uceaii, with uo laud in sight. Tlic sailboats are tishing vessels. 3. The Ocean The great rivers, starting as tiny brooks, grow into larger and still larger The size of streams, until, after days the ocean and perhaps weeks, they discharge their waters into the sea or ocean. No doubt much of the rain that falls near your home finally reaches the sea in this way, and if you could float along upon it in a boat, you, too, would in time reach the ocean. We can see across most lakes, and can sail across even the largest in a day or two ; but the ocean is far larger. One can sail upon it, in the same di- rection, for many days w^ithout com- ing to land (Fig. 56). In,deed, the ocean is so large that it surrounds all the land on which people live, and no matter in what direction you travel, if ocean about you. Every day would be somewhat warmer than the day before, until finally you reached the hot country of Africa. To reach the land of the Eskimos you would also go by ship on the ocean, and travel for days upon it. On this jour- ney every day would be a little cooler than the day before, and finally you would come to a region where it is so cold that there is ice on the sea even in summer. If your home is not near the ocean, you might have to make a journey of one or two, or even three or four, days to reach it. It might be necessary to go up hills and across valleys, to pass around lakes, and possibly even to cross great ranges of mountains. You would be surprised to find how much land there is, and how many farms, villages. LAND, WATER, AND AIR 45 towns, and cities there are. Find out how long it would take to reach the ocean from your home Although there is so much land, there is far more water. In fact, there is all must have water, the ocean is of value to all living things on the land. It is in supplying water for rain that the ocean is of greatest importance. There are other ways in which the Fig. 57. — A mackerel. They are usually from one to one and a half feet long. nearly three times as much water as land. The ocean is so immense that the great rivers in all parts of the earth pour their water into it. Their mouths may be thousands of miles apart, yet the sea stretches far enough to reach them all. The water of the ocean is too salt to drink, but river water is fresh. Since there are many thousands of rivers entering. the sea, you might suppose that their water would make the ocean less salt. It does do so near the mouths of great rivers, but soon the fresh water becomes mixed with and swallowed up in the salt water; for the ocean is so large that all the river water that enters it is not enough to make it fresh. Plants, animals, and men all owe much to the ocean, for without it very ,, , .^, little rain would fall. Mois- Value of the . ... ocean in fur- ture IS always rising into the nishing water ^[j, f j-qhi the ocean, and being carried about by the winds. When it falls from the clouds, we have rain. Even rain that falls thousands of miles inland comes largely from the ocean. Since plants, animals, and men ocean is of value. One of these is in supplying food. You know yaiue of the (p. 5) that almost all the ocean as a food that the Eskimos eat, ^?"'"'^ °^ ^"^'^ such as seal, walrus, and fish, comes from the sea. Fish from the ocean, or saltwater fish, as they are called, are a very important food for others besides the Eskimos ; and many men make their living by going out in boats and catch- ing them. Great numbers of fish are sometimes found close to the land ; but often they are caught far out in the sea, so that the fishermen must remain out of sight of the land for days at a time (Fig. 56). Besides hooks and lines, long nets are often used, and so many fish are sometimes caught in these nets that the boats are filled with them. No doubt some of the mackerel (Fig. 57) or herring that you have eaten have been caught in this way Halibut also come from the sea, and so do codfish (Fig. 58), which may be seen in almost any grocery 46 HOME GEOGRAPHY store. Picture 56 shows a fishing vessel that is used in catching salt-water fish. makes the seashore a pleasant place to spend the summer. Fig. 58. —A codfish. They are often three or four feet long The ocean water is cooler than the Value of the ocean land in summer, and for as a pleasure resort that reason the breezes that blow from the ocean are cool This The views at the seashore also attract people. The silvery sheet of water, stretching out as far as the eye can reach, is often dotted with white sails. . Sometimes its color is green, again it is blue ; when the clouds hang over it, it is dark Fig. 5simj$~$>^?$?^moK .,sx>.>sx-^s. . .-.\ .^\n-»-^s^x-:? Fig. 62. • A picture to show how deep a large steamer sinks into the water. are so many ships, the ocean is so large that a person upon one of them may sail for days without even seeing another ship. Ocean navigation is, therefore, a very are great steamers, costing several mil- lions of dollars. Some of these travel at the rate of twenty miles or more an hour; others are sailing vessels pushed along by the wind, going fast when the wind blows hard, and hardly moving at all when it is calm. Many of the ships used on the ocean are far larger than vessels upon lakes, and they sink deeper into the water. The largest, when loaded, reach down thirty feet or more below the surface. One of the difficulties that ships meet is in loading and unloading the goods that they Difficulties carry. ^^ agons can be and dangers driven alongside a rail- ^°^ vessels way car and be quickly filled or emptied. But a large ship sinks down into the water so many feet (Fig. 62) that it is difficult for it to find a place where it can come close to shore. If it should strike the bottom, it might be wrecked. Besides this, a boat cannot load and unload where there are large waves. LAND, WATER, AND AIR 49 Fig. 63. — The greai storm waves on the open ocean. Again, upon both lakes and the ocean, vessels meet with dangers of many kinds. Storms are often severe, and the waves are so high that sometimes they sweep over, and for a moment almost cover up, even the very large vessels (Fig. 63) . When far out from land, large, well- built ships are not in serious danger in such weather, but smaller vessels, es- pecially those that are old or poorly built, may be destroyed. When approaching land, however, sailors of all vessels must be careful. The shores of large lakes and the ocean are often quite irregular, and the depth of the water may change in a very short space. In some places there are dangerous shallows, in others hidden rocks, or reefs, that lie near the surface (Fig. 64). There are also currents that may float a vessel out of its course ; and fogs are often so dense that a person can see only a short distance ahead. In a fog it is very easy to lose one's way at sea. In addition to all this, strong winds and high waves may drive a ship in the wrong direction, in spite of all that can be done to prevent it. Not all these difficulties and dangers can be overcome, but much How such is done to make shipping ^^'^anjers both easy and safe. The ir- are met regular shape of the coast itself lielps ■ ■'^^ St:- IKm "^ "■ ^—jC^"^ «** HiB Wt^Z ■ mn^- ^.. . .- ^-4 Fig. (!4. — The wreck of an ocean steamer that ran aground in shallow water during a storm. 60 HOME GEOGRAPHY toward this end. Very often the land partly surrounds a body of water, as in Fig. 68, forming what is called a hay. Some of these bays are very large, being even hundreds of miles long, but many ignore are quite small. Many of the small bays have an the vessels. Thus a convenient and safe way is found for handling goods that are carried on ships. Harbors are so important that men some- times make them on coasts where there are no good natural ones. This is very expen- sive work, but it pays. Walls of rock are built in such a way as nearly to inclose a body of water, much as the water of a bay is inclosed by land. Such a wall is called a breakwater (Fig. 66), because it breaks the force of the waves and prevents them from entering the space behind. It often happens that harbors are not as deep as they need to be. The vessels now used are much larger and sink deeper into the water than those formerly used. On that account many harbors that were once deep enough are now too shallow. All the time, too, the waves and tides are bringing Fig. 65. — Rio Janeiro harbor. opening large enough for vessels to enter easily, but small enough to shut out most of the fierce waves. If the water is deep, as is often the case, such a small bay makes a fine harbor (Fig. 65) ; that is, a place where vessels may be pro- tected from storms and waves. For the purpose of load- ing and unloading ships, piers of wood or stone, called wharves, are built from the shores of the harbor out into the deep water. Even large vessels can be firmly fastened, or moored, to. these wharves, and wagons or cars can be drawn out on them close to the side of Fig. 66. — Breakwaters built at Chicago to form a harbor where ships may be safe from the waves. sediment that settles in the harbors, slowly filling them up. Vast sums of money have to be spent, there- fore, in deepening harbors. The loose sand and mud are scraped out by dredges ; but when the bottom is solid rock, it has to be blasted out. This work is of so great importance to so many people, that the United States govern- LAND, WATER, AND AIR 51 111 a Milan if a cape. ment spends millions of dollars every year in doing it. So long as a ship lies in a good harbor, it is safe from most dangers. 2. Lighthouses ^'^^ when it is outside, on and lightships itg ^yaj from one harbor to another, dangers are ever present. Did you ever stop to think how a vessel finds its way on the great ocean ? While a ship is out of sight of land, its officers must guide it by the position of the sun or of certain stars, using the compass and other instruments. But during storms and foggy weather, the winds and currents may cause even a large steamship to drift far out of its course. Then as a ship approaches land, the chief help is from the ligJit- Jiouses (Fig. 67), which are built in many places along the coast. Often the land ex- tends out into the water, forming what is called a poi7it or a cajje; or if large and almost sur- rounded by water, a pen- insula (Fig. 68). Light- houses are placed far out on such points or capes or peninsulas, or on islands near the mainland, so that their lights may be seen a long distance over the water. They are also built in other places, wherever the danger requires. In some places there are dangerous shallows, or shoals, where it is impossible to build a lighthouse. In that case, ships with lights on their masts, called lightships (Fig. 69), are securely anchored near by to give warning to sailors. When the captain sees the light of a lighthouse or lightship, he knows that he is nearing land and must be very careful. How can he tell which light he sees when there are so many light- Fig. 68. — Find here and describe a liarbor : a bay ; a point ; a cape ; a i)eniusula ; an island ; an isthmus; a strait. 52 HOME GEOGRAPHY houses? That is not difficult, for the lights are not all alike. Some are white, others red ; some give a steady light, others turn round and, as they turn, send out flash after flash. There are many different kinds of lights, and the maps, or charts, that every ship carries, tells the captain where each is placed. He also knows the special kind of light- house to be found at the entrance to the harbor for which he is bound. In case of heavy fog, when the lights can- not be seen, powerful horns and whistles are Fig. 69. — A lightship on which men live, keeping the light on the mast burning at night, and the fog whistle blowing in foggy weather. blown for a warning. The lighthouses and lightships are well provided with these, and they are blown every few seconds, or minutes, according to the need. When sailors approach the coast during foggy weather, they always listen for the sound of the foghorn. By such helps as these a vessel finds its way to the entrance of its own port. What a lone- some life those people who live in the light- houses and lightships must lead, attending to the lamps and giving warning in the fogs ! But how important their work is in saving ships from destruction on the wave-beaten coasts ! The entrance, or channel, to a harbor is often narrow, and some- times on each side there are reefs and shoals on which a vessel 3. Buoys might be wrecked. It is necessary, therefore, that the channel be clearly marked. This is done by placing hol- low iron buoys here and there. These float on the surface, but are anchored firmly in their places. They are guide- posts to the sailor, pointing out the way. Dangerous rocks and shoals are also marked by buoys; and many of these are so made that they send out a shrill whistle, or ring a bell every time they are moved by the waves. On this account they are called whistling Imoys or hell huoys. Have you ever seen any of these on the water? It is so important that no mis- take be made in entering a har- bor that men, called pilots, make a busi- ness of guiding, or piloting, ships into harbors. They go out in small boats, often out of sight of land, to watch for an approaching vessel. And when they see one, they sail toward it as fast as they can. In stormy weather it is ex- citing to see a pilot come up in his little boat, tossed about by the huge waves, and clamber up the side of the ship. It seems a wonder that he is not washed into the sea, and that his small boat is not dashed to pieces against the side of the big vessel. In spite of all the care that is taken to guide ships safely into harbors, now and then one is 4. Pilots wrecked on the coast, especially 5. Life-saving in foggy and stormy weather (Fig. stations' 64). Then, of course, the lives of sailors and passengers are in danger. Hence it is important that some means be provided for saving shipwrecked people. This is done through life-saviiig stations. Here and there along the coast such stations are found, where several men keep a sharp lookout for ship- wrecks, and when one occurs, go to the rescue. At such times they boldly launch their life- boats through the surf and perform many acts of bravery. Land, water, and air 53 Fig. 70. — Ships at the wharves iu New York harbor. A harbor is also called a port, and a city on an ocean harbor is called a sea- Why seaports P^^^^' Seaports often grow often become to be great cities. New York large cities Q-^y j^ ^^ example ; it is the largest in North America, and the second in size in the world. Philadelphia is an- other example ; Boston and San Fran- cisco are also seaports. Can you name any others? The fact that each of these great cities is located on a good harbor is one important reason for its size. The ocean connects a good harbor with all parts of the world, and if the country back of the seaport is fertile and thickly settled with people, the port becomes a gateway for travel and for the shipping of goods. To such a port vessels may come by hundreds (Fig. 70), bringing goods that are wanted, taking others away, and carrying passengers back and forth. Hundreds of vessels may be seen in New York harbor at all times, and every year many thousands of them enter that port alone. When studying the lesson, it is important to know that the sentences in the text are not all to be remembered alike, for they are not all of the same value. Neither are the paragraphs all of the same value, nor the pages. On the con- trary, in any text there are always some sen- tences, paragraphs, and pages that are far more important than others, and one of the princi- pal things to do in studying a lesson is to dis- cover what the most important parts are. For instance, on pages 44 and 45, telling about About how to study 54 HOME GEOGRAPHY Definitions the size of the ocean, there are more than a score of sentences, and seven different paragraphs. What are the most valnable parts ? They are not the first paragraph, nor the last, for both of these could be omitted and the main thought would remain fairly clear. But look at the sec- ond and the sixth paragraphs. These two con- tain the principal fact. Read them to see what it is. The other paragraphs are less important, aiming merely to help make this main thought plain. They can be remembered most easily, too, by thinking of the most important fact. In all study of the text, it is best to find the most important statement as quickly as possi- ble, and then think of the others along with it, in order to hold it the more firmly. To test this, pick out the one or two main sentences in the paragraph about the value of the ocean in furnishing water for raing. Do the same with other parts of the text. An island is a body of land entirely surrounded by water. A peninsula is a body of land almost sur- rounded by water ; the word means " almost an island." A cape is a small body of land extending out into the water. A hay is a large body of water partly inclosed by land. A harbor is a small body of water so shut in by land, or by breakwaters, that vessels enter- ing it are protected from winds and waves. 1. Give proofs that the ocean is very large. 2. How is the ocean of value in furnishing water for rains ? 3. Of what Review value is it in furnishing food ? ^ ' 4. What is its value as a pleasure resort ? 5. How is it valuable for navigation ? 6. What difficulties and dangers do vessels meet on the ocean ? 7. State the main facts about harbors. 8. About lighthouses and light- ships. 9. About buoys. 10. Pilots. 11. Life- saving stations. 12. Why do seaports often become large cities ? 13. What is an island ? A peninsula ? A cape ? A bay ? A harbor ? 1. What might be the effect, if there were much less ocean and much more land ? 2. Ex- amine pictures of bluefish, her- ring, and halibut in the dictionary, and make a drawing of each. Find the real fish at some fish market or elsewhere. 3. In what direction would you go to reach the ocean Suggestions at the nearest point ? Find out how far it is. 4. Have some one tell you about a voyage across the ocean. 5. Have some one tell you about a visit to a summer resort on the seashore. 6. Read the description of the storms on the ocean, found in the story of Robinson Crusoe. 7. Do you know of any views that are made more beautiful by the presence of water ? If so, where are they ? Describe them, 8. Which is probably the most important use of the ocean ? Why ? 9. Which is probably its least important use ? Why ? 10. Make a draw- ing illusti'ating island, peninsula, cape, bay, and harbor. 3. The Air Resting upon the solid earth is the air, or, as it is often called, the atynos- phere. It surrounds the Extent of the earth completely, much as atmosphere a cover surrounds a ball, and it extends upwards many miles above our heads. This air cannot be seen, though we can see birds, and sometimes balloons, floating about in it, much as fish float in water. We know that air is all about us, because we can feel it striking against our faces and hands whenever the wind blows ; and when it blows very hard, the air may move with force enough to over- turn trees and even houses. The air is of the greatest importance to all plants, animals, and people. It is even more important than the heat xj^gj^^ q^.. and the soil, about which we tance of have already learned. Plants ^'" *° ^^® and animals cannot live without it ; and we ourselves cannot live more than a few minutes, if we do not have it to breathe. Drowning means nothing more than sinking under the water, where there is no air to breathe. The air is of great use to us in still another way. Without it there could be no fire ; for wood, coal, and gas can- LAND, WATER, AND AIR 55 not burn without air. So without the air we could have no light from oil or gas, no fire for cooking or heating, and no steam for running factories and engines. Fig. 71. — A sailing vessel driven through the water by the wind blowing against the sails. The movements of the air, which we call winds, are of great importance, for The work of ^^6 winds do work of many the winds kinds. For example, they drive sailing vessels through the water (Fig. 71), and they turn windmills, which are often used to pump water from wells. They also remove smoke, dust, and foul air from crowded cities. Far more important than this is the work the winds do in carrying water from place to place over the earth. The air takes up water from the ocean in the form of vapor, which we cannot see, and the winds bear it about, sometimes a few miles, sometimes hundreds and even thousands of miles. The winds carry the vapor in all directions, and often hold it for many days before letting it fall. It requires an enormous amount of water to keep the soil damp, the lakes full, and the rivers flowing ; far, far more is needed than all the wasrons, boats, and trains in the whole world could haul. But the winds do that vast work very easily, and much of the time very quietly. Thus it is by the help of the winds that the rocks are made wet and changed to soil, that plants are able to grow, and that animals and people are furnished with water to drink. What causes the air to move, and do such a mighty work ? Heat has much to do with it. If The cause you watch smoke in a of winds room where there is a lighted lamp, you will see that it moves toward the lamp, and then, being heated, rises abote it (Fig. 72). In the same manner the air in a room moves toward a hot stove, and then, being heated, rises above it. This is why in winter, when there is a hot fire, the air near the ceiling of a room is much warmer than that near the floor and at some distance from the stove. «>- Fig. 72. — Smoke of a burning match rising above a lighted lamp. The reason for this upward movement of the air is first, that air is made lighter when it is warmed; and second, that the cokier air all 56 HOME GEOGRAPIfY around, being heavier, crowds in and pushes the warm, lighter air upward. The warm air is forced upward just as a light cork that is sunk in water is forced to the surface by the heavier water all about it. The movements of the atmosphere that surrounds the earth are quite like those of the air of the heated room. If the atmosphere is warmed in one place, cool, heavier air " blows " in and pushes it up. That causes wind, first toward the warmer place, and then upward. For example, people on the seashore often enjoy a cool sea breeze on hot sum- mer days. This is because the hot sun warms the land more than the water ; then the cooler air from over the sea blows in toward this warmer place. It is these cool sea breezes that greatly help to make the seashore a pleasant summer resort. Such differences in the warmth of the air are the main cause of winds every- where. Winds that blow even hundreds of miles in one direction are caused in much the same way as the very gentle draughts about a lamp or a stove. What wonderful results follow from the fadt that there are always some places warmer than others ! Water is always rising from the ocean's surface, as well as from rivers and lakes. How the air ^^ isbct, enough water to fill is able to thousands and thousands of take up water b^rj-eig jg leaving the ocean every minute and floating away in the atmosphere ; and at all times there is enough water in the air to fill many large lakes. What causes so much water to rise into the air ? And why can we not see it there ? You have no doubt watched a kettle of water boil, and have seen that "steam" rises from it. Perhaps you know, too, that if it boils long enough, all the water will boil away, leaving the kettle quite dry. All the water in the kettle has then passed into the air, where it cannot be seen. The reason for this is that heat has changed the water, which is a liquid, into a gas, which, like air, has no color and cannot be seen. This gas is called ivater vapor, and it is so light that it floats about in the air. That explains how the air is able to " take up " water and carry it about without our being able to* see it. It is not necessary, however, to boil water in order to change it to vapor. All over the earth, wherever there is water, vapor is rising into the air every minute. You can prove this for your- self by noticing that muddy streets and wet clothes soon become dry, even in winter. Or you can place a shallow pan of water on a table and observe, after some days, how much of it is gone. People say that the water has evapo- rated, which means simply that it has changed to vapor. It is in „,^ ^ . ° . ^ What causes this way that so vast an the air to amount of water is always gi^^ back f ,1 . , this water rismg irom the ocean mto the atmosphere. Perhaps after many days, and after traveling hundreds ot" miles from the ocean, the air gives back some of its water vapor in the form of rain. What causes it to do this ? Have you ever noticed a glass, or a pitcher of ice water, " sweat " (Fig. 73) on a hot summer day ? The water that collects on the outside of a glass of cold water has not leaked through, for there are no holes in the glass. What has really happened is that the air around LAND, WATER, AND AIR 57 the cold glass has been cooled by it, and this has caused the vapor in the air to collect in drops on the cold surface of the glass. Drops would gather, or con- dense, just the same on any cold glass, even if no water were in it. The windowpanes of a kitchen are often covered with drops of water from vapor, which rises from the kettles and is condensed into a liquid again on coming close to the cold glass. The vapor in your breath will be condensed in the same way when you breathe against a cold windowpane. From these facts you see that when air loaded with vapor is cooled, some of the vapor gas is changed back to liquid Fig. 73. — Drops of water that have gathered ou the outside of a cold glass on a hot sum- mer day. winds that blow against moun- tains are often chilled so that the vapor is condensed, forming clouds (Fig. 74) and rain. This proves clearly that mountains are an important help in caus- ing rain. Indeed, the mountains are usually the rainiest parts of a country. Vapor may also be condensed into clouds and rain when a cold wind blows against a warm, damp one. Again, on hot summer days, the warm air near the earth often becomes so light that it rises high above the earth to a place where the air is cold; and then the vapor is condensed into raindrops. The summer thundershowers, which often come on hot afternoons, are caused in this way. Such days are usually sultry, and " muggy " air is really air with much water vapor in it. There are several different forms that the vapor in the air takes when it Fig. 74. — Clouds that have formed on the mountain sides as the damp winds are chilled by the cold mountains. water. Heat will cause water to change into vapor, and cold will change it back again. There are several ways in which winds may be cooled. You know that mountains are colder than the lower lands (p. 25). Therefore, changes to water. For example, when you breathe into the air on a cold, frosty morning, your breath forms The forms into a little cloud, or fog. The which vapor cold air has made the. vapor ^s condensed in your breath change to tiny drops of 68 HOME GEOGRAPHY water, so small that you cannot see a single one, though hundreds of them to- gether make a thin mist. You have, no doubt, seen fogs in valleys, on lakes, or over the ocean. These are always made We have learned that water may be either a liquid or a gas. We know, too, that it may also be a solid, for ice is the solid form of water. When vapor condenses at a tempera- ture below 32°, or the freezing point, it takes the solid form. Then either snoiv or hail is Fig. 75. — A view from a niouutaiii top, looking down on tlie clouds. of tiny drops of water condensed from vapor in the air. Most clouds are also made of tiny fog and mist particles. These particles, too, are caused by the cooling of the air, as when winds blow against mountain slopes. When climbing a mountain one may pass through such a cloud, and it then seems to be no more than a fog or a mist. Viewed from below, however, it is seen to be a cloud ; and if you go high enough, you may even climb above it. Then, looking down on its upper surface, you can see clearly that it is a cloud (Fig. 75). The raindrop which falls from the clouds is another form of condensed vapor. Raindrops commence as tiny mist or fog particles, but as they grow in size, they become so heavy that they can no longer float. They must then fall to the earth. formed, instead of rain. Have you ever ex- amined the beautiful snow crystals, or snoiv- Jlakes, as we call them (Fig. 76) ? Drops of water often collect at night on the cold ground, on grass, and on leaves. This we call flew. The dew gathers because the ground Fig. 70. — Photograph of snow crystals, showing their beautiful, starlike forms. and plants cool quickly after the sun sets. These in turn chill the air next to them, until some of the vapor in it changes to liquid water. If the temperature is below the freezing point, frost is formed instead of dew. Our weather depends very much upon our INDUSTBV, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 59 winds. Winds from certain directions, as from the ocean, are likely to bring rain, while others bring none. You would Meaning of ^jj^j ^^ interesting to observe this weather rec- ^^^, yourself. If you should keep to keep one ^ record, every day, of the direc- tion of the wind and the kind of weather it brings, you would soon learn which of your winds cause rain, and which cause fair weather. You might also notice the clouds, and look at the thermometer each day, to see what the temperature is. By this means you can learn something about the weather near your home. A record of this kind, which is called a weather record, might be kept some- what as follows : ^ — Date Time of DAY DiEKCTION OF WIND Kind op WEATHER Tempeu- ATURE March 10 8 A.M. Southeast Cloudy 5.5° March 10 G P.M. Calm Gentle rain 60° March 11 8 A.M. Strong west wind Clear 30° ^ Some teachers may consider it profitable to in- troduce at this point an elementary stiidy of the daily weather maps, at least to the extent of read- ing the predictions, and noticing how nearly correct they are. 1. What is the extent of the atmosphere ? How do we know that there is air all about us ? 2. Of what importance is air to life ? 3. What work do Review Questions the winds do? 4. State the cause of winds. 5. How is the air able to take up water ? 6. What causes the air to give this water back ? 7. Into what forms is the vapor in the air condensed ? 8. What do you understand by a weather record ? How would you keep one ? 9. Tell what happens to a raindrop from the time it leaves the ocean to the time it returns to it. Suggestions 1. Name other ways, besides those mentioned in the text, in which air is important. 2. Why does smoke go up chimneys ? 3. Make a drawing, showing how a hot stove causes a movement, or circulation, of air in a room. 4. How many examples of evapo- ration can you observe about you ? 5. What examples of the condensing of vapor can you find? 6. Why do clouds often surround mountain tops ? 7. What winds usually bring your rain ? 8. Where have they probably ob- tained their vapor ? How far is that from you ? 9. Prove that air is a real substance by thrusting an open bottle upside down into a pail of water. SECTION III. INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 1. Industry and Commerce In your study about the Eskimos you found that they live in a very simple How the Es- Way. If an Eskimo needs kimo supplies a house, he'builds it. If he his wants wants food, he catches a fish or kills a seal. If he needs clothing, he takes a sealskin and makes it. If he wishes to have a sledge, or a boat, he makes that. Thus, he depends entirely upon himself for his food, clothing, and shelter. The Eskimo does not think of going to a store to buy anything, for such a thing as a store is unknown to him. He has no money, because he has no use for it ; there is nothing he can buy with it. He has never seen a horse and wagon, nor a railroad train, nor a city ; nor does he know anything about post offices or the telephone or the telegraph. Not many hundred years ago there were no stores in this coun- „ , . rn, How our early try where w^e live. I hen, settlers sup- like the Eskimo, every man plied their had to depend largely or wholly upon himself for his food, cloth- ing, and shelter. Our first white settlers came from 60 BOME GEOGRAPHY Europe, and they made their homes along the eastern coast, because that 1. Location was the first land they came of homes ^q after crossing the Atlantic Ocean. Soon people, called j)ioneers, began to push into the wild country farther west. Often several families settled together, many miles away from other people ; but sometimes a family went off alone and made a home, ten or fifteen miles from the nearest neighbor. Fig. 77. — The log liouse of a pioneer. Most of the United States was first settled by such families as these. Usually the first thing they had to do was to cut down trees in order to make 2. House and TOOm for a hoUSC and gar- furniture den. The house was built of logs, and mud was used to stop up the cracks (Fig. 77). The house often had no floor except the earth, and only a single room. The beds were made of posts driven into the ground and joined together with crosspieces. The chairs were three-legged stools, and the table was part of a log supported upon four legs. Wheat was raised for bread ; and corn, which often took the place of wheat, was made into corn bread. 3. Food Tea was often made from roots found in the forest, and most of the meat was obtained by shooting wild game. " Many families kept sheep, and the wool was made into yarn, blankets, and cloth. If a boy needed a *• clothing new suit of clothes, his mother might weave the cloth, cut it out, and sew the parts together. Such a suit was called homespun. Or, if there were no sheep, the clothing might be made out of the skins of animals. Many boys wore trousers made from deerskin, and used moccasins for shoes, when they did not go barefoot. There were no schools, and whatever the children learned from 5. schools books was gen- *°** ^^^^ erally taught by the mother. There was little time for reading during the day, and the only light at night was that which came from the burning wood in the great fireplace. Ink was made from some colored root, such as brier root, and pens were cut from quills. There were few books, however, and there was little time for reading or writing. As a rule, ^ach man raised more of some things, such as wool, wheat, or hogs, than his own family needed, ^^^^l^l^^"^ There were other articles that he had to buy, such as powder, sugar, salt, pepper, and coffee. Sometimes a pioneer stayed at home and bought nothing, or he waited till some trader INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 61 came along and then exchanged skins for the things that he wanted. More likely, however, he made a journey, once or twice a year, to the nearest town, which was perhaps a hundred miles distant. He then took with him the prod- ucts of the farm and exchanged them for such articles as he needed. These trips had to be few, not only on account of the distance, but because the roads were rough and muddy. It might take two weeks to haul a load of grain to town and bring back the things he wanted. The journey sometimes was danger- ous also, for in those days savage Indians often lurked in the forest. The lives that such pioneers lived were, in many ways, as 7. independ- independent as ence of such life that- of the SwisS Family Robinson, or of Robin- son Crusoe. Of course, when a man started out into the wilderness, he took some articles with him, such as a gun, with powder and bullets, some clothing, and some blankets. But when he reached his new home, he found himself with no one but his own family to look to for help. Then, like Crusoe, he was forced to rely upon himself. In spite of the trips to the cities, most of the things that a family used had to be obtained by the family itself, and each member had many kinds of work to do. In some parts of the world, where there are few settlers, people still live in this manner. Our country was settled so rapidly that each family soon had neighbors. A 8. Dependence number of people would on others, later ^yuM their hoLises near together, so as to form a little village. and one of them would start a general store. Then the families living some distance away would come to this center to trade, bringing their farm products and the skins of animals, and taking back other articles. As the number of people in such a place grew larger, each man did fewer Ininan's " Tlie Old Santa Fp Trail," by courtesy of tliu publishers, Crane & Company. Fig. 78. — A pioneer and his pony. kinds of work. Perhaps one of them built a sawmill, and sawed lumber for the others when they needed it. An- other spent part of his time at car- pentry work for his neighbors. A third built a gristmill, and ground grain into flour. A fourth made shoes a part of the time, or served as a doctor, or taught school, along with other work. A few of the men might spend all 62 HOME GEOGRAPHY their time at one kind of work. For 'example, the blacksmith might be kept busy shoeing horses, and repairing wagons, while tlie storekeeper did noth- ing but buy and sell goods. Now and then the storekeeper would make trips to the nearest city, to buy such supplies as he thought his neighbors would re- quire, like matches, boots, shovels, axes, calico, and drugs. These he would keep in his store for sale. Sometimes he received money for them, but more often he took eggs, meat, wool, and grain for his pay. These he would send to the nearest large city for sale. Hence it was no longer necessary for each farmer himself to go to a dis- tant town or city, for he could usually get what he wanted from the store. He could also sell his products to the store- keeper, and with the money received pay the blacksmith, or doctor, or teacher. Thus each man came to do fewer things for himself, and to depend more and more upon others for many things. Each year more people came to this country, and the villages grew to be Howourwants towns and cities with many are suppUed mills and factories. Then people began to live as we now do. That is, not a few men only, but every man began to do only one, or at most, very few kinds of work. At present some men do nothing but farm ; others, nothing but dig coal or iron ore from the mines. Some spend all their time at fishing ; others spend it in making cloth, or needles, or shoes. The work that one man does may be of a very simple kind. For example, he may only drive a team, or make screws, or saw shingles, or tie up sacks of flour, or put in the heads of barrels. With the money received for such work he buys the many things he wants, and these articles have been made by hundreds, perhaps thousands, of other people. Think how many men have had a share in the work of preparing the food that you have on your table each day, or the shoes that you wear, or the house in which you live ! How different our ways are from those of the pioneers ! As a rule, each town or city is espe- cially interested in one, or, at most, a few kinds of business. For ^ , Special kinds example, a town near the of work for forest is likely to have an each town important lumber industry. °^ " ^ Another, in the midst of mountains, may have mining for its special work. A third, near great wheat fields, may have immense flour mills. The articles that these cities produce are sent away in all directions ; and other things, that the people need, are brought to them from the hundreds of places in which they are produced. In what kinds of w^ork is your town chiefly interested ? What are some of the arti- cles that are brought to it ? When each man does only one kind of work, and depends upon others for most of the things that he Highways needs, good roadways, or i. xheirim- highicays, become of very portance great importance. This is especially true when goods have to be carried long distances, as in a large country like ours. If we live in the East, and the best wheat is raised more than a thousand miles away, in Dakota, it is of little use to us unless it can be brought to us. If ■ the best shoes are made in New England, they are of little value to the people of the South, unless they can be easily INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 68 Fig. 79. — A pack traiu carrying supplies up a mountain trail in western United States. shipped there. It is of the highest importance, therefore, that we have good highways leading in all directions. When a country has not advanced very far, the highways are usually poor. For example, the 2. Trails , n . i • routes of travel m some of the regions of Africa are merely paths that have been made by goats and barefooted people, and are less than a foot wide. The Indians in this country, like- wise, had only narrow paths, or trails. often used the trails made by the Wagons could not be drawn over these, and goods could be carried only on the backs of men, or of horses. A number of horses carry- ing packs formed a pack train and these trains may still be seen in some places (Fig. 79). The pioneers at first had only trails, and one of their hardest tasks was to cut roads through the dense forests. Trees had to be cut down, stumps and stones removed, steep places leveled, and swampy places filled in. Streams had to be crossed by wading across, or fording (I*ig. 80) them in places where the water was shallow. This was often difficult, and even dangerous, especially when the streams were swollen after heavy rains ; and bridges were built as soon as the people were able. Many of our country roads are still very poor. They are rough or steep in places, , , ^ 4. Our roads and at some seasons of the year the mud is so deep that it is difficult for a team of horses to draw even an empty wagon. Fig. 80. — Horses and wagon fording a swift mountain stream. They bison. 3. Roads of pioneers Our roads are being rapidly im- proved, however, and some of the states are spending large sums of money each year in making them smooth, hard, and level. Perhaps you have seen some of this work and can tell how it is done. In cities there is so much hauling of heavy loads that the streets must be paved. For this purpose bricks are often used, or paving stones, which are larger than bricks ; and sometimes asphalt, or blocks of wood are used. But the most common pavement, especially in the coun- try, is called macadam, after the Scotchman 64 HOME GEOGRAPHY who invented it. It consists of broken stones, scattered to a depth of from six to ten inches, and pressed together as closely as possible. What kinds of pavement, if any, are to be found in your neighborhood ? You have already learned that lakes and rivers are important for travel and , „. for the transportation of 5. Rivers, ^ lakes, and goods. When the pioneers canals ^^^^^^ settling the Mississippi Valley, it was the custom to carry many of their goods down the Ohio and Mis- FiG. 81.- ■Freight yard of a railway, showing a large number of freight cars* loaded with foal and other freight. sissippi rivers, a thousand miles or more, to New Orleans for sale. In many parts of our country the rivers were at that time the best routes of travel. These icaterways are still generally the cheapest, and every year the government spends great sums of money in keeping them clear of logs, stones, and mud, so that they may be in good condition for boats. Where there are waterfalls or rapids in rivers, canals have sometimes been built so that boats may pass around them. Canals have also been made to connect lakes and rivers with one an- other. Much money has thus been spent in improving the natural waterways of the United S'tates. In our country railroad trains have largely taken the place of wagons, and also of river boats, as carriers for long distances. This is because trains are so much faster than wagons or boats. Even on the finest of roads, wagons can seldom be drawn more than forty miles a day. Boats can travel somewhat faster; but trains can go from five hundred to one thousand miles per day. Moreover, they carry both passengers and freight far more cheaply than these could be taken in wagons. As we ourselves travel on passenger trains, we are apt to think that the chief business of railways is to carry people ; but that is not usually the case. Their main busi- ness is to carry freight, such as grain, cattle, groceries, coal, oil, and machinery (Fig. 81). For this reason on most rail- ways there are many more freight trains than passenger trains ; and there are many more cars in each freight train. The fast passenger trains also carry express packages, newspapers, and let- ters. Before railways were built, the mail was carried in stage coaches, or on horseback. Now many passenger trains have one or two cars that are used for this purpose alone; and most of our mail is carried in this way. INDUSTBy^, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 65 7. The ocean The ocean is the greatest highway of all, connecting us with the most distant countries, as well as joining different parts of our own land (Fig. 82). Before the invention of the steam engine, the ocean was so difficult to cross that it kept the people of different countries apart. Sailing vessels were then the only ships in use, and they are very slow. The inven- tion of the steam engine made steam- ships, as well as locomotives, possible. Now thousands of steam- ships carry passengers, freight, and mail rapidly by water, just as trains do by land. Thus people have im- proved upon the trail, the stagecoach, and the sail- ing vessel, until all parts of the civilized world are brought into close touch with one another. The people of the United States are busy The great producing occupations many things, and sending them from place to place. Although each man does only one kind, or, at most, very few kinds of work, there are scores of different kinds all together. Most of these, however, are included under seven great occupations. They are (1) agriculture, including farm- ing, gardening, and the grazing of cattle, sheep, and horses; {2) fishing ; (3) lum- bering ; (4) mining ; (5) manufacturing ; (6) trade, or buying and selling; and (7) transportation, or the carrying of goods. 1. The first The greatest of these in- five of these dustHes is agriculture, about which you have already studied in the first and second sections of this book. One man out of every three in the United States is engaged in agriculture of some kind. Fishing is far less important. Still, along the shores of the lakes and the ocean, there are thousands of men who spend all their time at this work. Lumbering is not carried on in as many places as it used to be, because many of the forests have been cut down. Yet, every house you see is built partly Fig. 82 of wood on the inside, and many are made of wood on the outside as well. Besides this, wood is used for many other purposes, as for making furniture and paper. From this you can under- stand that great numbers of men must be engaged in cutting down trees and sawing them into lumber. Mining is a great industry, employing hundreds of thousands of men. There are many kinds of mines, the most im- portant of which are coal, iron, copper, gold, silver, and lead mines. Quarrying, or taking ont stone from the earth, may be considered a part of mining. 66 HOME GEOGRAPHY Manufacturing is a still more impor- tant industry than mining. Note how many things about you have been care- fully made somewhere. This book that you are reading is one example. The desk, at which you sit in school, much of your food, and your clothes are other examples. These Jive occupations serve mainly to supply food, clothing, and shelter. They are often called the five great in- dustries, and you will again and again find them mentioned in your later study of geography. These five, however, merely produce articles. The first four produce the raw materials, or raw prod- ucts ; the fifth changes, or manufac- tures, these raw products into articles ready for use. There are thousands of people en- gaged in shipping the raw products and 2 The other iQanuf acturcd articles, as we two great have just sccu in our study occupations £ u" t, Ti! j.i 01 highways, it there were not, these articles would be of little use. Nor would they be of much use if there were not other thousands of people buy- ing and selling them in stores, so that we can get them when we wish. There are, therefore, the two other occupations of (1) trade, or buying and selling ; and (2) transportation. These two together are called commerce. The commerce within our country is called home, or domestic commerce. The commerce between the United States and other countries is called foreign com- merce. In your study of geography, you will find that domestic and foreign commerce are very important. No doubt you can think of some occupations, such as teaching, that do not belong either under commerce, or under any one of the five great in- dustries. However, the seven great occupations cover the kinds of work that most men do ; and they are the chief kinds that need to be stud- ied iu geography. It takes much practice to discover the most important thought of a page About how quickly. Yet, one can get his to study lessons more easily by learning to do that. Here is an example. The first page of this chapter tells how the Eskimo supplies his wants. The main thought here is found at the end of the first paragraph, in the words, " He depends entirely upon himself for his food, clothing, and shelter." The rest of the two paragraphs merely makes this central thought clear by giving ex- amples, as follows : he builds his own house, finds his own food, makes his own clothing; there are no stores where he can buy anything ; he has no money to buy things with, for he has no use for money ; he has never seen a city ; nor even a horse and wagon, nor a train ; and he knows nothing about telephoning, or tele- graphing, or writing for what he wants. Here are man}"- facts, and it is difficult to remember them until one finds the leading thought that binds all the others together. Then it becomes easy to remember most of them. Since lessons are more easily mastered by getting the leading fact quickly, stop often, after reading a paragraph, to see whether you can state its principal thought. Do this in a few words; if possible, in a single sentence. Then add as many other statements as you remember which explain the chief thought. Practice getting your lessons in this way. 1. How does the Eskimo supply his wants ? 2. Tell about the location of the homes of the early settlers. 3. About their houses and furniture. 4. Their ^®^®Y food. 5. Their clothing. 6. Their '^"^^^^'^^ schools and study. 7. Why were journeys nec- essary ? 8. How was their life an independent one ? 9. State how people later became more dependent. 10. How are our own wants sup- plied ? 11. "What about special kinds of work for each town or city ? 12. Explain the im- portance of highways. 13. Tell about trails. 14. The roads of the pioneers. 15. Our roads. 16. Show the importance of rivers, lakes, and canals as highways. 17. Of railroads. 18. Of the ocean. 19. Name the great occupations. INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 67 20. Describe the first Jive. 21. Describe the other two. 1. What articles would you expect to find in a general store in a village ? 2. How are de- partment stores in large cities Suggestions uke such general stores ? 3. The last syllable in the names of many towns and cities is ford, as Hartford, Stamford, Eockford. What does that fact suggest to you ? 4. Find out more about the ways in which money is spent on rivers to make them more useful for navigation. 5. Write a story describing an early pioneer's journey to the nearest large town. 6. What men do you know who are engaged in some one of the seven great occupa- tions? 7. Make a list of articles that you use which were brought from a distance, on the railroad or by water. Which of these belong to domestic commerce ? Which to foreign com- merce? 8. Is there any one of the seven great occupations that we could somewhat easily do without? If so, name it, and give your reasons. 9. How can good roads and waterways help to prevent famine ? 2. Country and City The kinds of work that people do cause some to live in the country, Kinds of work o^^ers in the city. The in country farmer, for instance, lives and m city ^^ ^^^ country because he must have a great deal of land in order to raise his crops. The lumber- man must live where there are forests. Persons engaged in the five other leading occupations usually live in towns and cities. Miners, for example, mnst have their homes near the entrance to the mines where they work ; and the workers in a single mine, together with their families, often make a large town. Men who work at manufacturing must live near the factory. A single factory may employ several thousand men ; and since there are often many large facto- ries near one another, many thousands of people may thus be brought together. These people, together with those engaged in commerce and other kinds of work, form great cities, sometimes containing hundreds of thousands of persons. Cities are usually located at some point where the shipping of goods is easy, as on a river, a large lake, an ocean harbor, or a railway center. Life in the great cities is so different from that in the country, that it will be interesting to see what some r^.^ Tce o' The country 01 the dinerences are. bmce life in the country is very simple, and since more than half of all the people in the United States live there, we will study country life first. A farmer needs land enough for a house, a barn, and other buildings ; for a garden and an orchard ; , _,. & ' 1 . The space and for fields in which vari- needed by ous kinds of crops can be * "^^'^ raised. This means that he must have a large tract of land. Figure 83 shows a plan of a farm in the state of Ohio. It includes 160 p E D F B H G c O Fig. 83. — Plan of a farm in Ohio. acres, which is the amount of land in many farms in that section. One side of this farm is half a mile long ; and 68 HOME GEOGRAPHY Fig. 84. — A farmer's liou.se and barn. from this you can easily tell the entire distance around it. The house and yard, shown by the letter IT, are close to the road that runs along one side of the farm. The barnyard and barn, lettered B, are on the left. G is the garden, and is the orchard. The rest of the land is divided into fields, D con- taining corn, JS oats, F grass, and P pasture. At K there is a small wood lot, from which firewood is obtained. Can you tell about how long and wide some of these fields are ? The house is of two stories and a Fig. 85. — A farmer's children playing in. the haylield. half, and is built of wood (Fig. 84). Close to it is a woodshed in which piles of wood are kept for burning. On many farms, where wood is scarce, coal is used instead. The barn is only a short distance from the house, and is larger than the house. In it are kept the horses, cows, and other farm animals, and the wag- ons, plows, and other farm imple- ments. Much hay and grain is stored there, to be sold later, or to be fed to the animals in winter, when they can- not graze in the pasture. In one corner of the orchard (at c) is a hen- house in wliich from one hundred to two hundred hens are usually kept ; and near the henhouse is a pen for a few pigs. Besides these animals, there are some turkeys, ducks, and geese. Vegetables and strawberries are INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 09 raised in the garden, and there are also small patches of raspberry, blackberry, currant, and gooseberry bushes. Besides apple trees in the orchard, there are pear, plum, and peach trees. All together make a good many kinds of fruit that are raised on the farm. The yard about the house is large, and the grass is kept closely cut. There are several elm and maple trees in the yard, as well as some flowering bushes and flower beds, which the farmer's wife cares for with much pride. Most of the other farms near this one are of about the same size, though some are larger and others smaller. What can you say, therefore, as to how far apart houses in the country usually are ? Near the house is a well ( W), from which the 2. The farm- farmer obtains er's water, his Water. On light, and heat ^j^j^ f^^^^ ^^^ water is pumped by a windmill into a tank, from which some is piped to the house, and some to the barnyard for the animals ; but on many farms the water is pumped by hand. At night, light is sup- plied by lamps that burn oil. This house is heated by stoves placed in several of the rooms, though some farmhouses are heated by furnaces. Although there are not many children on each farm, it is important that they 3. Schools in go to school. All the chil- the country (jj-en who Hve near enough together to attend one school may not number more than twenty-five or thirty, and even thon some may have to walk several miles. On fine days such a walk is pleasant enough, but since there are no sidewalks, it is not so pleasant in rainy weather, and the walk is very difficult when there is much snow. Be- cause of the distance, children living far away from the school usually take their lunches along, and remain at school all day. Since there are so few pupils, the build- ing is generally small, with only one room (Fig. 86). There is but one teacher, and children of all ages, from six to nine- FiG. 86. A group of school children in front of a country schoolhouse. teen or twenty years, study and recite in the same room, and to the same teacher. You might think that such a school could not be very good, yet some of our best-known men and women have at- tended such a country school. Perhaps you can name one of our Presidents, or some other great man, who once went to a country school. In a great city, as man}' as twenty thousand persons are some- xhe city times found living within a i. The space space no larger than the "amtiyL\ single farm just described, large city The buildings, therefore, must cover 70 HOME GEOGRAPHY almost all the ground, leaving little or no room for yards and lawns. In some of the larger cities the build- ings have from four to fifteen or twenty stories, and some- times even more than that. In such a building a single family occupies only a small part of one floor, called a flat or apart- ment, which has from two or three to eight or ten rooms. Other families live in other flats on the same floor, and in the stories above and below. Thus several hun- dred persons may have their homes in a single large building. The factories, stores, office build- ings, and other places where the city people work, are also very large. Hundreds, and even thousands, of per- sons may work in a single one of them. Some of the office buildings in New York City are over thirty stories high (Fig. 87). There are, it is true, houses of two and three stories in the large cities, just as in the country. However, since the land on which such a house stands is often worth several times as much as Copyriglit, IIXK), liy .Mosos King, New York. Fig. 87. — The Singer Building in New York, one of Uie highest buildings In the world. It is 612 feet high, has 41 stories, and there are offices even in the lofty tower. a large farm, not many families can afford to have such houses. With land so costly, a small barn for a horse or cow, or a garden and a chicken house, are not to be thought of. It is difficult even to take tare of a pet dog, or a cat, in a crowded city. Usually there can be no yard, and the street is the only place where the children may play (Fig. 88). It would be im- possible to have wells enough to furnish 2. water, water ^^^ for all city the people in a city. Besides that, the water might not be fit to drink. In- stead of coming from a great number of wells, therefore, the water is brought to the city in large pipes, from some distant source such as a lake or a river. It is then led in smaller pipes through each street and into each house. When one wants water, all that he needs to do is to turn a faucet, and the water flows freely ; and there is enough to supply all, although thou- sands may want it at the same time. INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 71 3. Food in the city Lamps for light cause much trouble even in the country. In the city, where there are so many people in one building, and where the buildings are so close to one another, lamps may be dangerous. Why ? Gas and electricity usually take their place. For heat, furnaces are commonly used. They burn coal, and heat the houses by means of either steam, or hot water, or hot air. In the larger buildings, furnaces big enough to heat a great number of rooms at once are placed in the basement, and, by means of pipes, steam is car- ried to each room. The farmer himself raises much of the food that his family needs, such as vegeta- bles, fruit, meat, and often the grain for flour. Other things that he uses he buys at the village store. In a great city, on the other hand, little or no food is produced, so that the problem of feed- ing the hundreds of thou- sands of people who live there is a very serious one. Trains, ships, and wagons, loaded with all sorts of food, are all the time moving to- ward a large city. For ex- ample, milk is brought every day in special milk trains that start perhaps one or two hundred miles away. At each station they take on cans filled with milk from surrounding farms, and in this way many cars are filled by the time the city is reached. Most of the city people buy food at the stores in very small quantities, because they have no room in which to keep large amounts. For instance, they may buy three or four pounds of sugar at a time, or a small bag of flour, or two quarts of potatoes. The farmer, on the other hand, has whole barrels of potatoes, apples, and turnips stored in his cellar, and often buys sugar and flour by the barrel. From all this you can see how the city depends upon the country for food. Fig. 88. Copyright, lOW), by Detroit Photographic Co A crowded street in the Ea.st Side of New York City. If anything should prevent food from reaching a city for a few weeks, the people would starve. Even when a heavy snowstorm blocks the freight trains for a day or two, there is suffer- ing in the larger cities. The people are so crowded in a great city that there are often children enough in one block to fill a large 4. schools school. Sometimes a thou- in the city sand, and even two or three thousand 72 HOME GEOGRAPHY children, go to school in one building. The schoolhouse may have from twenty- five to seventy-five large rooms in it, Fig. 89. — A large city school in New York. with a teacher for every room. Scores of such schools may be found in a single city (Fig. 89). The children usually need to walk only a few minutes to reach their school, and at noon they go home for luncheon. Land is so valuable that these children, unlike those in the country, very often have no school playground. They must play in the street, dodg- ing horses, wagons, and street cars as best they can. People in the country walk short distances to visit one Transporta- another, or to tion in country work. They have andincity horses, which they can use for hauling goods or for driving. The roads are never crowded (Fig. 90), and where they are well made, it is a pleasure to drive over them. Transportation in a large city is a very different matter. In spite of the fact that each building holds so many people, many persons live too far from their places of work to walk there. Street cars, therefore, carry many of them. In the largest cities the dis- tances are often too great even for riding on street cars, for they go slowly and cannot carry half of the people, even though they run only a minute apart. This is especially true in the mornings, when tens of thousands of persons start for their places of work at about • the same time, and in the evenings, when they return home. In great cities, therefore, like New York, Chicago, and Boston, railroads are built above the streets. These are Fi<; ilO. — Driving on a country road. called elevated railroads (Fig. 91). They carry great numbers of passengers, the trains running every few minutes ; yet INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 7h the elevated trains, like the street cars, are often greatly overcrowded. To meet the needs of transporta- tion further, in New York, Boston, and some other cities, electric rail- roads, called subways, have been built in tunnels dug iinderground (Fig. 92). They even run under rivers, and they carry thousands of passengers every day. Thus it happens that in some parts of New York there may be an electric car in the street, a train directly overhead, and another train directly underground, all filled with people, and rushing along as fast as they can in the same direction. In the near future, many more tunnels for carrying passengers and freight will have to be built in the great cities. This will be necessary, because even now some of the streets are so crowded with street cars, wagons, carriages, and automobiles, that these can scarcely move at all (Fig. 93) ; and foot passengers find it difficult and even dangerous to cross the streets. A person who likes the trees and the green grass, who loves to watch the birds, Attractions of and wlio linds pleasure in *^f "^t^^ ^^^ gathering wild flowers, grow- 1. The country i^g fruits and vegetables. mm by Detroit Photographic Co. Fig. 92. Copyri),'ht, 1!KH, by Detroit Photci;;raphic Co An underground railway, or subway, in New York. Fig. 91. — An elevated railway in New York City. should live in the country, hlo should any one who likes to skate and coast, to hunt and fish, to keep cats, dogs, and other pets, and to take long walks in the quiet woods and fields. There is plenty of room there for all such pleasures. In the great cities, on the other hand, there are children who have never seen a bird, ex- cept perhaps the English sparrow, nor a cow, nor a pasture, nor a field of grain. It is true that life in the country seems lonesome to many. But it is much less lonesome now than it used to be, since the postman now carries mail to the farmer's door every day, and the farmer is able to have the telephone in his house, just as people have in the city. Then, too, the country roads are being improved every year, so that it is now easier and more pleasant to drive over them, and to visit neighbors. In many parts of the country, also, there are electric car lines, running through the farming region on their way from one town to another. i 74 HOME GEOGRAPHY Although families in the country live far apart, they are usually much better acquainted than those who live close to- gether in the city. It is common, in a large city, for families that have lived for years in the same building, with only a brick wall a foot thick between them, not to know one another by name, nor to speak when they meet. A farmer might be much better acquainted with a neighbor living ten miles away. Many 2. The city Fig. 93. — A street in New York City, crowded with carts and wagons. people in the city, as well as some in the country, lead lonesome lives. Large cities also have many attrac- tions. Beautiful parks are set aside here and there, where children are allowed to play, and where people can enjoy the birds, flowers, and trees, and watch the squirrels frisking about. There are gardens, where wild animals from' all parts of , the world are kept, and thousands of children visit these gardens each week, often taking their lunches so as to remain all day. There are great natural history mu- seums, containing stuffed animals of many kinds ; and art museums, filled with statues and pictures. There are concerts, fine churches, and large stores. A single store sometimes employs a thousand clerks, and contains almost everything that a person can want. On the whole, there are many more kinds of pleasure in the city than in the country ; but the country offers greater attractions to those who like to live out of doors, and who want quiet. These facts explain why many city people flock to the country in summer. It is a treat for them to get away from the noise, the bad air, and the crowding of the city. It is also clear why country people like to visit the city ; for there are always many new and interesting sights for them there. Which do you prefer for a home, and why ? Many people live in towns and villages (Fig. 94). Here the houses are Life in towns usually from one ^^'^ villages to three stories in height, placed far enough apart to allow good light all around. A man can have a lawn and a garden if he wishes them, and also a barn where he can keep horses and cows. If the town is large enough to require street cars, these are seldom crowded, and the streets are wide enough to meet all needs. Such foods as milk, eggs, and potatoes are easily obtained from the sur- rounding farms, and the open country can be reached, from any point in the town, by a few minutes' walk (Fig. 94). INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 75 Fig. 1)4. — A village nestled in ;i valley among the hills of New England. Unless a town is quite small, it sup- plies itself with water and light in the same way as these are supplied in cities ; but in most respects towns and villages resemble the country more than they do the large city. 1. Which great occupations must be carried on in the country ? 2. Which ones in towns and cities ? 3. Explain why- farmers need a large amount of land. 4. How do they get their water, light, and heat ? 5. Tell about schools in the country, 6. What about the space used by a family in a large city ? 7. How are the water, light, and heat obtained in such a city ? 8. What about food in the city ? 9. What do you know about the schools there ? 10. How is transportation provided in country and in city ? 11. What are some of the attractions of the country ? 12. Of the city ? 13. Tell about life in towns and villages. 1. Boys and girls living in the country usu- ally have much work to do helping their fathers Review Questions and mothers. Make a list of things that they have to do. 2. Is it an advantage or a disad- vantage for city children that they have little work of this kind to do ? 3. Make a drawing of some farm that you know, showing the buildings upon it, and how it is divided up. 4. Make a collection of pictures of buildings and streets in the city. 5. Write a composition telling whether you pre- fer to live in the city or country, and give your reasons. 6. If your home is in a city or large town, find out about the lighting system ; the transportation; the parks; the museums; the protection against tires. 3. Government Every boy and girl has heard men talk about voting, and has leaning of noticed how interested they voting and often become as election day °^ elections draws near. Do you know what is meant by voting and by election? 76 BOMS GEOGRAPHY Suppose that all the members of your class, or of your school, wished to form a club, and to choose one of your number president. How would you go about it ? Probably the names of two or three children, who seemed best fitted for the place, would first be suggested. Then each of you would write the name of the one you preferred upon a slip of paper, and drop it into a box. After that, all the slips, or votes, would be counted, and the boy or girl who received the greatest number of votes would be elected. In such a case you would be voting, and having an election at school. When you dropped the name of the one you preferred into the box, you would cast a vote ; and the election would be nothing more than the choosing of some one for the position. Quite possibly some of you would become just as much inter- ested in such an election as men do in their elections. Men hold their elections in much the same way. Ask your father, or some man old enough to vote, to tell you exactly what he does when he votes. People hold elections and vote on all sorts of questions ; but usually when one Matters that ^W^"^^ of noting and of elec- elections tions he means the choosing decide ^ of officers for our government. We do not hold elections to decide how a farmer shall manage his farm, for it is best that he should do that about as he pleases. He builds fences, puts in certain crops, sells his grain, or feeds it to his stock, as seems to him best. So, also, the miller builds a large or a small mill, uses old or new machinery, grinds much or little corn, and makes repairs as he chooses. In each of these cases one man owns and uses the property. There are many things, however, that no one person owns, and in which a large number of people are about equally interested. That is true, for instance, of roads. Many people drive or walk over them, but no one person owns them. The people together have to decide, or vote, where and how they shall be built and repaired, and who shall do the work. That is, they hold elections to make laws about the roads, and choose officers to carry out such laws. The schools, likewise, are not owned by any one person, but are of great interest to everybody. So questions about the schools are also voted upon at elections. What shall be done with thieves and disorderly persons? This is another question of great interest to everybody. Laws must be made to control such peo- ple, and officers must be selected to carry out such laws. There are many other questions that interest large numbers of people. Can you not name some of them ? Ask your father, or some friend, to tell you some of the questions that will be voted on at the next election. Elections, therefore, deal with matters of general interest. They provide for laws on such matters, and for the selec- tion of officers to enforce them. Some of the matters that are voted on at elections concern only those pei'- sons who live in a small sec- Questions to tion, as in a small town or J^ voted upon •n T-i • 1 "y small Village, h or instance, the groups of kind of streets that you shall people have, and the men who shall take care of them, are questions of no especial in- terest to people in other towns or cities, but they interest all the voters in your section. INDUSTET, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 77 It is also very important that you have a good school building, with a large yard, and good teachers. People living at a distance have little interest in your school, but those who live near you are very much interested in it. The ])eople to vote on such a question, there- fore, would be those who have a special interest in it. Thus there are many matters that are mainly of interest to the persons living in one neighborhood. They are called local questions, and are voted upon only by the few voters in that section. Ask some one to tell you of other local ques- tions. There are some matters that are of interest to the people in a much larger section. For example, a rail- concern the way company might charge people of a too much for passengers and whole state r • i , t ^ i ireight. In such cases, laws may need to be passed, forcing them to charge lower rates. Since a railway may be hundreds of miles long, the people of a single town or city could do very little with such a company. In that case it would be necessary for men, living per- haps hundreds of miles apart, to unite in some way to make laws. Again, it is important that there be buildings in which blind people may be cared for ; others in which the deaf and dumb may be educated ; and still others in which insane people may be kept. There must also be strong prisons where criminals may be sent. There are not many such persons in any one small sec- tion, and it would prove very expensive and difficult to take proper care of only a few of each kind. Therefore, all the people in a large section, called a state, unite to make proper laws, and provide buildings and officers for the care of such people. What is the name of your state ? The voters of a state cannot, of course, all come together at one place to discuss such matters. Even if all „ , . How laws are could make the journey at made and offi- a time agreed upon, there ^^rs chosen for a state would be SO many thousands that it would not be possible for all to hear those who spoke, and little business could be done. Besides, new laws are needed every year, and the voters would have to spend too much time on such work. For these reasons it is the custom for one man to be elected to represent many others in the making of laws. Where there are great numbers of people, he may represent many thousands, and vote in place of them all. Suppose, for instance, that there are a million persons living in one state, and that one man is elected to represent every ten thousand. There will then be one hundred such men chosen, and it will be their duty to come together and make laws for the whole million. Such men, being elected to represent others, are called representatives ; and because they legislate (which means "make laws"), the whole body is called the legislature. Find out who is the representative to the state legislature from your district; also who is your state senator. The city where the legislature meets is called the capital (which means "' head city ") of the state. The capital is often located near the center of the state, and it usually has a fine, large building, called the state capitol. It is here that the representatives hold their meetings. 78 HOME GEOGRAPHY Fig. 95. — The beautiful capitol building at Washington. The chief officer of the state, who is elected to see that the state laws are carried out, or enforced, is called the governor. Who is your governor ? He is elected by voters in all parts of the state, while each representative is elected by a small section of tlie state. There are also other state officers, such as a state treasurer, a state superintendent of schools, and judges. Some of these officers are elected by the people ; others are appointed by the governor. In large cities, laws are made through repre- sentatives, just as in states, and for the same reasons. The representatives chosen to make the laws in cities are usually called aldermen or councilors ; and the highest officer, elected to carry out, or execute, the laws, is called the mayor. All these officers are chosen by the voters at elections. If your home is in a city, learn the name of your mayor and that of your alderman or coun- cilor. Find out what some of their duties are. How laws are made and offi- cers selected for cities The building in which these representatives meet, and in which the mayor has his office, is called the city hall. While the city is governed in some matters by its own laws and officers, the same as any small town, it also forms part of the state and elects representatives to the state legislature. In our country there are forty-six states, and there are some questions that no one state can decide ^ . , Questions that alone, because the others are concern the equally interested in them, people of the T71 • , •, 111 United States Jbor instance, it would be a great hindrance to trade and travel if each state made its own money, for different states might then have differ- ent coins. In that case, every time a traveler passed from one state to an- other, he might be obliged to take the time and trouble to exchange his money for a new kind. Again, in case of war, the country would be weak if each state acted ^lone. INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, AND GOVERNMENT 79 Perhaps you can give some of the rea- sons why. Mail is another matter that Fig. 9(5. — President Taft. concerns all the states, and there are others besides. Can you mention some ? So it is clear that we need a United States Government as well as state, city, and town govern- ments. The reason for call- ing it the United States Gov- ernment is also plain, for the states have really united, in order to have one central government for many im- portant matters. If the people in a single How laws are State Cannot made and offi- meet in a body cers chosen for , , '^ the United to make laws, States certainly the people of the entire United States cannot do so. Therefore, repre- sentatives are elected, and sent to one place, from all the states of the Union. Here they consider questions of interest to the whole nation. The place where they meet is Wash- INGTOTS", and this city is, on that account, the cajntal of the United States, or the national capital. At Washington there is a magnificent capitol building (Fig. 95) in which the meetings are held ; and there are many other fine government buildings there. The representatives from the forty-six states of the Union form what is known as Congress. This corresponds to the legislatures of the state, for the congress- men make laws for the nation, as the legislators do for the state. The mem- bers of Congress are called senators and reijresentatives. The chief executive officer of the United States, corresponding to the mayor of a city, and the governor of a state, is called the President (Fig. 96). He lives in Washington, and his residence is called the Executive Mansion, or White House, since it is white in color (Fig. 97). Who Fig. 97. — The White House, where the President lives. 80 HOME GEOGRAPHY is now President of the United States ? Who was the first President? What do you know about each ? Besides these officers, who are elected by the people, there are a great many others who are appointed by the Presi- dent to carry on the gov- ernment work. Many live in Washington, but some, such as post- masters, live in other places. We have seen that our representatives, and other officers^ are elected by votes that are , cast for them. Be- cause the people thus have the power to make their own laws, our government is called a democracy. The first part of this word means "people," and the last part "government," so that the whole word means "government by the people." Because the people do not really make the laws them- selves, but elect repre- sentatives to do that for them, ours is often called a representative govern- ment, or a republic. It is often said that our form of government makes us " free and equal." People Other forms of government Fig. 98. — General Geo President of the rge Washington, first United States. Why our gov- ernment is called a democ racy and a re- public Fig. To. — The Washington Monument, erecud in Wasliingioii in memory of our first President. are by no means so free and equal in all countries. Under some governments, in Europe and in Asia, the people have very little to say about the laws that govern them. Nor do the laws protect, them all equally ; for some of the high officers do quite freely what they wish, while others dare not do this. Many are compelled to obey their rulers blindly, just as little children are ex- pected to obey their parents. Such a government is not a democracy, or a republic ; it is a despotism, or an absolute monarchy. This means that the ruler is a despot, or a monarch, having complete power to do what he chooses. For in- stance, he may even jjut men to death without any trial, a power that the laws of our country do not allow. In some countries that have kings, how- ever, the people have much power. For example, there is a king in England, but the English people are quite as free as we are. In studying a lesson it is not best to spend all of your time with your book in hand. After carefully read- ing the text through two or three times, you might se- lect some topic that you think would prove interesting to your mother, or to some of your friends, or that they could tell you more about. Then, during the meal hour, or at some other time when others present About how to study MAPS 81 have nothing special to talk about, bring np this topic. Tell what you have read, and ask the others some questions about it. Talking over a part of a lesson in such a way- is one of the very best ways of studying it, and it is also one of the best ways of pleasing your parents. 1. What do you understand by voting, and by elections f 2. What kind of questions do elections decide ? 3. Give ex- amples of local questions, or questions that are voted upon by small groups of people. 4. Give examples of questions that concern the people of a whole state. 5. How are laws made for a whole state, and who are some of the officers elected for the state ? 6. How are laws made for large cities, and who are some of the officers elected for cities ? Review Questions 7. Give examples of questions that concern the people of the United States. 8. How are laws made, and who are some of the officers chosen for the United States ? 9. Why is our government called a democracy ? Why a republic ? 10. Tell about other forms of government. Suggestions 1. Name some officers that you know about, and find out whether they represent the local, state, or national government. 2. What officers look after your school, and how are they chosen ? 3. What is the capital of your state, and where is it ? 4. In what respect are the town hall, city hall, state capitol building, and United States capitol alike in their use ? 5. Why should the capital of a state be near the center of the state, if possible ? 6. What does U. S. stand for ? SECTION IV. MAPS It is often important to represent a country upon a map, so as to tell at a glance what its shape is, and where its mountains, rivers, and cities are. Such a drawing can be made of any place, no matter how large or small it may be. Suppose, for instance, we desire to make a map, or drawing, of a school- How a map of room (Fig. 100). The room a schoolroom we have chosen is thirty-two can be drawn f ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ thirty-two feet wide. It would not be easy to find a piece of paper as large as that ; but it is not necessary to have so large a piece in order to make the drawing. A small piece will do just as well, if we let one inch on the paper stand for several feet in the room. In this case let one inch stand for sixteen feet. Since the room is thirty-two feet on each side, the drawing will be just two inches long and two inches wide. To place the desks and aisles properly, we shall need to use a ruler with the inches divided into sixteenths ; for one foot in the room represents one sixteenth of an inch on the ruler. The ends of the room are on the north and south, and the sides on the east and west. Fig. 100. — Photograph of a schoolroom. The teacher's desk is three and one half feet in front of the north wall. There is a row of desks about four feet from the west wall. The desks are just two feet long, with eight in a row one and one fourth feet apart. There are seven rows, and the aisles between them are each one and one fourth feet wide. The piano is on the west side of the teacher's desk. 82 BOMS GEOGRAPHY Here is a map of the schoolroom (Fig. 101). Measure each part to see whether it has been drawn correctly, using a foot rule that shows the sixteenths of inches. How large is tlie teacher's desk ? The piano ? i:zi a czi □ cj czi czi [1:3 CZI LZI LZl mi CJ □! z\ □□□□□□□ □□□□□□□ nzi □ □ □ mi □ CD □ mi □ □ □ Lzi □ mi mi mi mi mi mi mi mD mjm] mi mi □ □ SOUTH I I I I ' I ' I I 12 14 1« SCALE OF FtET: 1 INCH--1« FEET Olt/^,OF AN lNCH«>t FOOT Fib. 101. — Map of a schoolroom. When a person draws in this way, letting a certain distance on the paper stand for a greater distance, he is said to use a scale, or to make a map according to a scale. In the schoolroom just described (Fig. 101) the scale is one inch to sixteen feet. Meaning of drawing " ac cording to a scale " represents must be still greater, because the yard is much larger than the room. Here one inch represents one hundred and forty feet. According to that scale, find out how large the yard and the school building are (Fig. 103). WEST jy-w^Ksj, /^ mjk 5lt^ 55 70 105 140 l_J I I L Scale in feet: I inch equals 14U I'eet. Fig. lO.*?. — Map of a school yard. Find how far the trees are from each other ; from the nearest fence ; from the building. All maps are drawn according to a scale, just as these two are. It makes no difference whether they represent a school yard, a state, the United States, or even the entire earth ; all are drawn to a scale. In Part II of this book there is a map of North America (Fig. 134) ; to what scale is it drawn ? Look at some other maps to find out their scales. Can you not make a map of your own school- Maps that you Fig. 102. — Picture of the schoolhouse and yard represented in the map (Fig. 103). In the next drawing, that of the school yard (Fig. 102), the number of feet which an inch room ? What scale will you use ? You might put in your own desk, "'■J'^^^ '"**'■ ^ 14. -i. 4-1 4-1, A/ rnighi draw but omit the others. You might also draw a map of your school yard. If you prefer to do so, find its size by stepping, or pacing, the distance, mak- ing each of your steps about two feet long. Measure the building in the same way. After having finished these two maps, you might draw a third one, including in it not only the school yard, but also a few of the streets and houses near by. The scale for this third map might perhaps be one in,ch for every five hundred steps. MAPS 83 Flo. 104. — A small compass. Maps are much used to show the locations of places and the direction Ways of find- ^^ ^^^ P^^^^ ^^^™ another, ing directions To use them properly, a out of doors person must first under- stand what is meant by north, south, east, and west. Probably you already know that. One of the easiest ways to find direction is by a compass (Fig. 104). A compass is a piece of steel, called a needle, which easily swings around, and always points to the north. This needle is a magnet, like the horseshoe magnets that you have seen. It points northward because some force within the earth draws it in that direction. No one knows certainly just what this force is, but it is called magnetism. Another way to tell direction is by the stars. When the stars are shining, one can tell which direction is north by the help of the Great Dip- per. The two stars on the outer side of the Dipper point toward the North Star. This star can easily be found, and it is always north of us. One can also find direction by the help of the sun. At noon it stands exactly south of us ; and twice each year, about the 21st of March and the 21st of September, it rises exactly in the east, and sets exactly in the west. Where does it rise in winter ? In summer? When you face the east, which direction is on your right? Which on your left ? Answer the same questions when facing the west ; the south. Northeast (N.E.) means halfway between north and east; southeast (S.E.) halfway be- tween south and east. What do northwest and southwest mean ? Point north, east, west, south, southwest, northeast, northwest. Walk a few feet in each of these directions. What is the direction from your desk to the teacher's desk ? To the desk of one of your schoolmates ? To the door ? What direction is your home from the school- house ? From certain other houses ? In what directions do some of the streets extend ? Now let us tell directions on the map. Lay your drawing of the schoolroom upon your desk so that the Directions line representing the north °^ ^ ™ap side of the room is on the north side. Also place yourself so that you face directly north as you look at the map. North on the map now is also north in the room, and the other directions cor- respond with those in the room. In which direction, on the map, is the door from your desk ? From the teacher's desk ? Place your map of the school yard in the same position, and give the directions. You see that the north side of this map is the side farthest from you. The east side is on your right, the south side is nearest to you, and the west side is on your left. When a map is lying before us, the directions on it are usually the same as these. Of course it is not always convenient to have a map lying flat. This is es- pecially true in the schoolroom, where the large maps must be hung up, so that the whole class may see them. Let us hang up one of these maps, taking particular pains to place it upon the north ivalL Which direction on the map is north now ? You see, of course, that the north side must be the upper side, east is on the right, south is the lower side, and west is on the left. You should drill yourself on these facts. Give directions from one place to another while the map is hanging up. Put up the map of the school yard, and 84 HOME GEOGRAPHY Fig. 105. — To illustrate the meaning of a map. The left-hand figures show the country as if you were looking down upon it ; the right-hand figures represent the same country by maps. Tell what you see in each of these. it looks. So, when you look at a map, you should think about the country, how it looks, and how far apart the places are. There is more than one kind of map. Figure 134 Two kinds (in Part II), of «iaps for example, is a map of North America. This shows the shape of the continent, the positions of the moun- tains, the large rivers, and the principal cities. It does not show the height of the moun- tains, nor of the hills and valleys, but repre- sents the whole con- tinent as entirely flat. Such a map may be called 2ijiat niaj). Figure 111, however, is a different kind of map. It shows how the continent might appear if you looked down upon it from some point far above. On this map the plains appear level, as they should, while the any others that you may have, and tell the directions from place to place. ^ It is clear now what a map is. It is a drawing that tells certain things about a country, just as a letter may be some writing telling what a place is like. When you read such a letter, you think of the place and have some idea of how ' After the children are quite at home in using the map when it is hung on the north wall, hang it on the other sides of the room and. have them give the directions. This is very easy work if properly graded ; but careless work at this point, in regard to directions on the map, often so confuses cliildren that they never fully recover from their confusion. At the proper time, but much later than this, show that toward the top of the map is not always north. See Figure 566. MAPS mountains stand out in relief. You can easily see where the mountains, plains, and valleys are. Such a map as this is called a relief map, because it gives you some idea of the heiglit of diiSerent portions of the land, or of the 7'elief} In Figure 105 you can 1 Some teachers will find it useful to introduce the study of contour maps of the home region at this point. Such a study is not difficult, and will serve many useful purposes. A limited amount of model- ing in sand may also be introduced; but the most important thing to do at this stage is to have the children understand the meaning of maps, so that these may be properly used in the class work. The best results from geography study cannot be gained without a knowledge and constant use of maps; and much use of the globe should be made, the moment children begin the study of continents and countries. easily see the difference between these two kinds of maps. There are other kinds of maps, which you will learn about later. 1. How can a map of a schoolroom be drawn ? 2. What is meant by drawing "according to a scale " ? 3. Tell how you have drawn some map of our own. ^^^^^ 4. What are some of the ways of ^ finding directions out of doors ? 5. What are the directions on a map ? 6. What two kinds of maps do you know ? 1. Examine a compass. 2. Find the Great Dipper and the North Star. 3. Show how you can tell the north direction by your shadow at 12 o'clock, noon. The east direction. The west. 4. Using sand, make a relief map of some piece of land that has some slopes. PART 11. WORLD GEOGRAPHY SECTION I. GENERAL FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH 1. FoKM AND Size of the Earth Hundreds of years ago, before Amer- ica was discovered, men thought that the The form earth was flat. It cer- of the earth tainly seemed flat to them, just as it does to us. A few learned men, however, beheved that the earth was a round ball, and that if a person traveled straight on in one direction, he would, in time, return to the place from which he started. You can see how this would be if you move your finger straight around on the outside of an orange, until it comes back to the starting point. At that time men used to go to a land called India, for spices, silks, and jewels. To reach India from Spain they traveled thousands of miles eastward. Christopher Colum- bus (Fig. 108) was one of the men who believed that the earth was round. So he thought he could reach India just as well by going westward across the ocean. He also thought that the distance would be much less. He therefore went to the king of Spain and asked him for ships and men to make the journey. The king refused the request of Co- lumbus because the plan seemed foolish. but Queen Isabella came to his aid. At last, on Aug. 3, 1492, he sailed west- ward from Spain out into the open Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 109). Almost Fio. 108. — Christopher Columbus. every one thought that he was going on a voyage from which he would never return ; but after a journey of several weeks, and many adventures, he discov- ered land on October 12 (Fig. 110). 86 POLE S. FIG. 106. The Eastern and Western Hemispheres. UN.SV, OF GENERAL FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH 87 Thinking he had reached India, Colum- bus called the natives Indians; but, in- FiG. 109. — A copy of the Santa Maria, one of the ships that Columbus had on his first voyage to America. stead of India, he had discovered some islands in the West Indies, on the coast of our own continent of North America. He did not know that a continent and a large ocean still lay between him and India. After Columbus had returned to Europe in safety, other men dared to explore the Neiv World, as it was called, to distinguish it from the Old World, where all white men then lived. One of these explorers, named Magellan, started to sail entirely around tlie earth. He was killed when he reached the Philippine Islands, but his men went on with the ships and completed the voyage. This was in the year 1520, and it was the first time that any one ever sailed entirely around the earth, bince then many people have made the journey, in various directions, and the earth has been studied so carefully that every one now knows that it is round. The great round earth is a huge ball, or sphere, called the globe. The reason why it does not appear round ^^^ ^^^ to you is that you see so little earth does not of it at a time. If you see "^^^^ ""^""^ very little of an orange, for example, it will not look round. To prove this, place a piece of paper with a small hole in it, upon an orange, so that none of the surface of the orange is seen, except- ing that which shows through the hole. You will then observe that this part of the orange appears to be flat, not round. If we could get far enough away from Fig. 110. — Columbus taking possession of the newly discovered land in America. the earth to see a large part of it at once, we could easily observe that it is WORLD GEOGRAPHY round (Fig. 111). We know that the moon is round, because we look at it NORTH POLE SOUTH POLE Fig. 111. — A map of half the earth as it might appear if seen from a great distance above it. from a great distance ; and the earth has the same shape as the moon. The size of Our globe is very large ; the earth it is much larger than the moon. A lofty mountain seems to us very high, but even the highest mountain peaks are only a very small part of the great earth; when com- pared to the whole earth, they are no larger than a speck of dust compared to an apple. The loftiest moun- tains are rarely more than three or four miles high, but the Tig. 112), or the Fig. 112. — Figure of the earth cut in two, to show tlie diameter — a line passing through the center of the earth. diameter of the earth distance from one side to the other, through the center, is nearly eight thou- sand miles. The distance around the earth, on the outside, called the circumference, is about twenty-five thousand miles. This distance, as you may see, is a little more than three times the diameter. The circumference of any sphere is always a little more than three times its diameter. How can you prove this with an orange ? 2. Daily Motion of the Earth It does not seem to us that the earth is moving, but the ground on which you stand is really moving faster ^j^^ ^ .. than any passenger train that motion of you ever saw. The whole *^® ^^^^ earth is whirling around like a top, at a tremendous rate. This motion is called rotation. Since the earth turns com- pletely around, or makes one complete rotation, every twenty-four hours, this motion is called its daily rotation. It is this daily rotation How rotation that causes day and night, causes day A lamp can light only one ^^^ night half of a ball at a time, as you know (Fig. 113). The sun is a kind of lamp for the earth ball, for all the light of our day comes from the sun. The sun, then, can light only one half of the great earth at a time. This being the case, if our globe stood perfectly still, it would always be day on the side facing the sun, and night on the other side. Since the earth rotates, the part that is getting the light is always changing. Thus, while the sun is always setting for some people, it is always rising for others. When it is noon where you live, it is midnight at the point opposite you, on the other side of the earth. GENERAL FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH 89 earth is Neither and sun This is why there is a period of day- light, and a period of darkness, at the place where you Uve. These two peri- ods together must last twenty-four hours, l^ecause the earth makes one complete rotation in that time. The daily rotation also causes sunrise and sunset. Our earth seems to be standing still, while each day the sun seems to rise in the east, How this -I , ± motion causes ^o pass over US, and to set sunrise and in the west. Yet we have just seen that the not standing still by any means, does the sun really " rise " '' set." The reason that the i-ieems to rise in the east is that the ■arth is always rotating toward the east. We first get the light of the sun from the east because the earth is turning in that direction. The sun seems to set in the west because, as the earth continues to rotate, we see the sun last in the west. Although men speak of the sun " rising " in the east and " setting " in the west, most men really know better. They express their thoughts in that way, simply because it is the easiest way. It would be difficult to think of any better way. Can you ? Hundreds of years ago, however, all people thought that the earth stood still ; that the sun really rose ; and that after moving across the heavens, it really set in the west. Our use of the words smo-ise and sunset has come down to us from that time. Since the earth is rotating with so great speed, why can we not notice it? The answer is simple. Everything on the earth is moving with it, in- cluding ourselves. On that account there are no objects near by for us to rush past ; yet the only way of seeing that we are moving, would be to observe that we were passing the objects about us. Why are we nofall hurled away from the earth ? When the string breaks by which a stone is being whirled around, the stone flies off. Why, then, do not we, and other objects, such as the water in the ocean, fly away into space ? The reason is that the earth draics everything toward it, and holds it there. If you push^ a book from why rotation your desk, it falls to the does not hurl floor ; and when you spring ^^ ^^^^ upward into the air you quickly return to the ground. All objects are drawn Fig. 113. — Ihe light from the cuiiilie lights only hall of the apple that the boy is holding, just as the sun lights only half of the earth. downward because the earth is pulling upon them. It attracts them much as a horseshoe magnet attracts a piece of iron. This force, w^hich draws all ob- jects to the earth, is called gravity, and you see how very important it is. You have perhaps watched a wheel spin about on a rod or pin, the rod or pin holding it in place and j^g^nin f carrying its weight. The earth axis and poles spins around in much the °^ *^® ^^^^ same way ; but no rod is necessary to hold it in place. What a mighty rod it would have to be, if there were one ! A spinning top does not turn around a rod, either. It turns around a line running 90 WORLD GEOGRAPHY through its center, which is called its axis (Fig. 114). The earth also rotates around, or as we say, on its axis. Fig. 114. — A drawing of the earth, cut in two, to show the position of the axis extending from pole to pole through the center of the earth. The axis of the earth is really noth- ing that you can see. It can be repre- sented, however, by a straight line that runs through the center of the earth, and extends to the surface in both di- rections. Such a line is called the axis of the earth (Fig. 114), and the two ends of the line are called the poles of the earth. One end of the axis is the north pole, and the other the south pole. You can understand this better by running a long, slender stick, or needle, through the center of an apple. The stick represents the axis, and the places where its two ends appear at the surface represent the two poles of the earth. You can then spin the apple very much as the earth spins around on the line called its axis (Fig. 114). If you were to go directly north from the place where you live, you Would pass through the land of the Eskimos ; and if you could go on, you would, in time, come to the north pole. Or, if you should travel due south, and went far enough, you would come to the south pole. Many men have tried to cross the icy sea that surround the north pole ; but, until 190i no one had been able to get quite as far as th pole. In that year Commander Peary, afte many trials, at last reached the north pole ; bu so far no one has yet reached the south pole. course. Commander Peary did not find anythin, at the pole to mark the place. He was able t tell that he was there by the position of the sue Had he been there during the night he wouL have found the north star, toward which th earth's axis points, almost directly over his head Midway between the poles we thinl of another line around the earth, on th outside (Fig. 115). This Meaning of is called the equator, because equator all parts of it are equally distant fron each of the poles. The distance arounc the earth was given on page 88. What then, is the length of the equator ? As the earth spins on its axis, all points oi the surface must go with it, just as every par of the skin of an apple turns with the apple Since the earth makes one complete turn eacl day, a man at the equator travels twenty-fiv( thousand miles in twenty-four hours. What ; North Pole South Poic •^. ^^' Fig. 115. — A drawing ot lli;it luill' of the sphere that in eludes the New World, — to show the position of th( poles and the equator. whirling motion that is ! It is at the rate oi over one thousand miles an hour, while the fast est trains travel little more than sixty miles ai hour ! GENERAL FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH 91 3. The Zones The hottest part of the earth is near the equator. The reason for this is that the sun, at midday, is directly over the heads of the people who live in that region. You know that the sun's rays feel warmer at noon than in the early evening, because the sun is more nearly overhead at noon. For much The zones and their boundaries 1. The torrid zone Fig. 116. — A map of the zones. The colors suggest sharp differences between the zones on the two sides of the boundaries; but you should remember that the changes are really very gradual. the same reason the sun seems warmer in summer than in winter, because in summer it rises higher in the heavens. At the equator, however, and for many miles to the north and south of it, the sun is high in the heavens both in sum- mer and winter. Thus there is a wide belt, extending all the way around the earth, that never has any winter ; it is hot there every day in the year, as it is in summer at our home. The northern boundary of this hot belt is called the Tropic of Cajicer (Fig. 116); it is about fifteen hundred miles north of the equator. The southern boundary, which is likewise fifteen hundred miles from the equator, is called the Tropic of Capricorn. In all the vast space be- tween these two lines, or tropics, the sun is straight overhead during a part of the year; and it is never, on any day, very far from that. Point out these two tropics on Figure 116. How wide is this belt? Over all this vast region the heat is intense, or torrid, and for that reason this is called the torrid zone. It is also called the tropical zone, or the tropical belt, be- cause it is bounded by the two tropics. People who live within the torrid zone wear only the very lightest clothing. We have seen that this is true of the Negroes of Central Af- rica, whose homes lie within this belt. Point out Central Africa on Figure 106. Does any part of North America lie within the torrid zone ? AYalk toward that zone. North of the torrid zone, the sun, even at noon, never stands directly overhead ; and the greater the distance g ^j^^ ^^^ from the equator, the greater temperate is the slant at which the sun's rays shine upon the earth. Exactly the same is true as one goes south of the tor- rid zone. There is a belt, then, on each side of the broad torrid zone, where it is neither very hot nor very cold. The climate there is called temperate, and in these belts the summers are warm and the winters cold. The belt north of the torrid zone is called the north temperate zone. It extends all the way from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle (Fig. 116). How much of the United States lies within this zone ? \ .Z" 92 WORLD GEOGRAPHY Here, at noon, even in summer, you find your shadow pointing north, for the sun is south of you. Notice the direction and length of your shadow at midday, and the position of the sun at that time. Do you know whether your shadow is longer in summer than in winter, or shorter ? Which must it be, since the sun stands higher in the heavens in summer than in winter ? The belt south of the torrid zone is called the south temperate zone, as you might suppose. It extends from the Fig. 117. — A. ship in tlie ice tliat covers tlie sea in the cold, or frigid zone Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. People living there find their shadows at noon always pointing south, since the sun is north of them. Their seasons, also, are just the opposite of ours ; when we have summer, they have winter ; and when we have winter, they have summer. Near the poles the rays of the sun reach the earth at a still greater slant, 3. The two much as they do with us frigid zones early in the morning, or late in the afternoon. Even in the middle of the day the sun lies low in the sky, near the horizon, and the shadows are very long. Therefore, the climate there is very cold, or frigid ; the ground never thaws out; and the ice never entirely disappears from the sea (Fig. 117). In- deed, there is never any warm summer near the poles, just as there is never any winter near the equator. The two regions around the poles are called the frigid zones. That about the north pole is called the north frigid zone, and the other, the south frigid zone. Since they surround the poles, they are also sometimes called the polar zones. The north frigid zone is the home of the Eskimos, but there are no people living in the south frigid zone. Since the equator is midway between the poles, it divides the earth, or sphere, into two equal parts, called hemispheres (/iem?*= half). The half of the earth north of the equator is called the northern hemisphere and that south of it the southern hemisphere. In which of these hemispheres is the United States ? The earth may also be divided into halves by a circle running north and south through both poles. Tlie western half, in which the New World lies, is called the western hemi- sphere. The eastern half, containing the Old World, is called the eastern hemisphere. You will find these two hemispheres represented in Figure 106. In which of them is your home ? 4. Latitude and Longitude If we learn that a certain place is in the torrid zone, or in one of the other zones, we know something How places about its location ; yet we do are located not know very much about °^ *^® ^^^^ it, because each zone is so wide and long. The hemi- spheres GENERAL FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH 93 To help locate places more exactly ►ther circles than those already men- Finding tioned are used upon maps lieir latitude and globcs. Some of these ircles extend east and west, on each side )f the equator, as you can see in Figure LOG. The distance between them is measured, not by miles, but by degrees. Bach of which is equal to almost seventy I miles. How many degrees are there from one of these circles to the next, in Figure 106? „, . About how many miles is that ? We can thus quickly learn how far any place that is on or near one of these circles is from the equator. For ex- ample, how many degrees north of the equator is New York City? (Fig. 138) Chicago? How many miles would that be ? Instead, how- ever, of saying that a place is a certain number of degrees north or south of the equator, we say that it is in so many degrees Jiorth latitude or soitth latitude. Latitude means simply the distance north or south of the equator. Places north of the equator are in north latitude and those south of it, in south latitude. The circles running east and west, which are drawn to show the latitude of places, are called circles of latitude. By their help, find the latitude of New Orleans ; of Boston. Other circles, extending north and south, from pole to pole, help to locate places in an east and west direction. A line that extends through England is agreed upon as the starting 2. Finding point in measuring. Places their longitude east of this line are said to be so many degrees in east longitude ; places west of it, so many degrees in west longitude. Longitude, as you see, means simply the distance east or west of this prin- cipal line ; and these circles are called circles of longitude. In what longitude is New York City ? Give both the lati- tude and the longitude of Chi- cago. Locate other places in the same way, for example, your own home. 5. TriE CoNTi- On page 45 you learned that there about IS Fig. 118. — A map to show the land in the northern hemi- sphere that nearly surrounds the north pole. The five three times conti- as much "®°*^ water as land upon the surface of the earth. By examining the globe you can see that most of the land is in the northern hemisphere. It almost sur- rounds the north pole, as you can see from the globe, or from Figure 118. In this figure two great masses of land are shown, one called Eurasia and the other North America. Besides these, there are three other great divi- sions of land — South America, Africa, and Australia. Point these out on the globe. Thus there are five great divi- 94 WORLD GEOGRAPHY sions of land upon the earth, and each of them is called a continent. The continent of North America is the one on which you live. Notice its form, KT _.,- . . which is clearly shown in North America tti- n r. t. • and South rigure 119. It is quite America broad near the north pole, andlumatf*''* ^^^ tapers down almost to a point just north of the equator. This gives it the shape of a triangle. Make a drawing of it. Ato/-//' Fofe Fig. 119. — The continenis oi Xnith and South America. What part of this continent is in the frigid zone? In the torrid zone? In the temperate zone ? South America also has the form of a triangle. Draw its outline by using only three straight lines. Which of the American continents seems to have the more irregular coast line ? Which, there- fore, has the greater number of bays, capes, and peninsulas ? In what zones does South America lie? Point to parts of both. North America and South America where there is never any snow. Point to a part of North America where there is always snow. Where must the Eskimo girl, Agoonack, on of the Seven Little Sisters, have lived (Fie 120)? How would the climate change if you were to travel from the northern part of North America to the southern tip of South America? What differences would you expect to find in the plants ? In the clothing of the people ? Write a story about such a journey. These two continents to- gether are called the two Ameri- cas. They form what is known as the N e lo World, which Columbus dis- covered. Fig. 120. — An Eskimo boy, dressed in furs, althougli tlie picture was taken in August- You can see by the map that the two Amer- icas are connected by a long, narrow neck of land, called an istJimns. This is the Isthinus of Panama. Any 2. The Isth- vessel that happens to be on one ™"^ °^ ^""" . side of these continents, and Jh^*two°°°**^*'°*' that must reach the other side, has to pass all the way around South America. If this isthmus were not in the way, a ship might sail directly between the two continents. To save so long a journey, the United States government, with the help of many thousands of men, is now digging a channel, or canal, across this isthmus. When finished, it will be broad enough and deep enough to let ocean vessels pass through. Then ships going from the eastern to the western coast of our country will save a journey of thousands of miles. The Old World, which includes Eurasia and Africa, contains much more land GENERAL FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH 95 Eurasia SOUTH Fig. 121. — A map of Eurasia and Africa. than does the New World (Fig. 121). The largest mass, which is almost entirely surrounded l)y water, is called Eurasia. You will notice that it is connected with Africa by a narrow isthmus. This isthmus, called the Isthmus of Suez, already has a ship canal through it. Thus vessels may go from one ocean to the other \vithout having to travel all the way around Africa, as they used to do. The northern part of Eurasia lies in the north frigid zone, on the opposite side of the north pole from North America (Fig. 118). The continent extends a great distance east and west, as you see. Find for yourself how far south it reaches, and through what zones it extends. The eastern and larger part of the conti- nent is called Asia. Read in the " Seven Little Sisters " about Pen-se, the Chinese girl, whose home was in Asia (Fig. 122). 1 . Asia The western part of Eurasia is called Europe. Long ago, before Columbus made his voy- age to the New World, the most highly civilized people lived in Europe. The homes of Jeannette and Louise, two of the Seven Little Sisters, were in that country. If you have read the story, can you tell something about each of them ? Europe is usually considered one conti- nent, and Asia another; but, as you can see from Figure 106, they are more closely united to each f^.tJ^^e other than any other two £urasia continents are. For this reason Europe and Asia are often classed together as one continent, and this is called Eurasia. The name is made of "Eur" from Europe, and " Asia." This makes the largest continent on the globe. You see that it is very irregular, even more so than North America. Point toward this continent. Walk toward it. Which is probably its warmest part ? Fig. 122. —Chinese children. 96 WORLD GEOGRAPHY South of Europe is the continent of Africa. Draw its outline and compare it with that of South Amer- ica. Is its coast Hue reg- ular or irregular ? In what zones does it lie ? The Desert of Sahara, where the nomads live, is in the northern part of Africa (Fig. 123). been in his way, he might have reached India and the East Indies ? None of the East Indies is large enough to be called a continent. Just south of them, however, is an island, called Australia, so large that it is generally classed as a continent. It is the smallest of the continents, and is the ]^ u;. 123. — Children of the desert. It is on this continent that the Negroes have their home; and here lived Gemila, the child of the desert, and Manenko, the little dark girl (Fig, 124), two of the Seven Little Sisters. The Negroes of our country are descendants of people who were brought from Africa many years ago. Look on a globe to see in what direction you would have to travel if you were going to Africa. Could you reach Africa by going in any other direction ? The many large islands south and southeast of Asia are called the East The East Indies ; and the central one Indies and of the peninsulas on the Australia south side of Asia is called India. In Figure 107, find this penin- sula and three islands. It was this part of the world that Columbus hoped to reach when he sailed westward from Europe on his wonderful voyage. Can you show on a 3;lobe that, if the New World had not Fig. 124. — Negro school children and teacher in -Africa. only one that lies wholly in the southern hemisphere. Find Australia on the globe ; also in Figure 106. Is the northern part or the southern part the hotter ? Why should you expect any difference in temperature between north and south ? 6. The Oceans The ocean water forms only one body of water; but for long distances some parts are largely separated from others by the continents. These separate parts are given different names. The parts of the ocean that are of most importance to us are those that lie to the east and west of xhe Atlantic the United States. That on Ocean the east, between North America and Europe, is called the Atlantic Ocean GENERAL FACTS ABOUT THE EABTH 97 (Fig.125). This is the water that must l)e crossed in going to Europe ; and it was this ocean that Columbus crossed. Many things that we use are brought to us across the Atlantic from the Old World, and we send many of our products across this ocean to Europe. On Figure 125 observe that the Atlantic Ocean extends far to the south, between South America and Africa, as well as far to the north. In what part must the water be warmest ? In what parts is it cold, and perhaps covered with ice ? On the globe, find which continents border this ocean. The part of the ocean lying west of North America is called the The Pacific Pacific Ocean (Fig. 126). Ocean What continents border NORTH POLE of the earth's surface. Walk toward it. In what zones does it lie ? NORTH POLE Fig. 126. SOUTH POLE Map of a part of the great Pacific Ocean. Fig. 125.- SOUTH POLE -Map of the Atlantic Ocean. it (Fig. 107) ? It is the largest of the oceans, and covers more than one third Not so many products are brought across the Pacific Ocean for our use as across the Atlantic. Yet Japan, China, and the Phil- ippine Islands are on its farther side, as you can see on the map. We ship some articles to these countries, and they send some to us. Many Chinese and Japanese have come across this ocean to the United States. Where might they land ? On Figure 106 you will find a third great body of water, called the The Indian Indian Ocean (Figs. 121 Ocean and 127). What conti- nents border it ? Notice that it lies directly south of India, the penin- sula in Asia which Columbus was seeking (p. 86). In what zones does this ocean lie ? There are two other oceans, making five in all. One of these is the Arctic Ocean, which extends around the north pole, and is almost shut in by Eurasia 98 WORLD GEOGRAPHY NOKTH POLE SOUTH POLE Fig. 127. — The Indian Ocean and the western part of the Pacific Ocean. and North America (Fig. 118). The Arctic Notice that it is con- Ocean nected with the Pacific Ocean by only a very narrow body of water, or strait, called Bering Strait (Fig. 107). North America and Asia come close together at that point. . The Arctic Ocean has a freer connection with the Atlantic on the east. Huge masses of ice, called icebergs (Fig. 128), often float down from the Arctic into the Atlantic Ocean. Sometimes there are so many that they are dangerous to vessels sailing between North America and Europe. Figure 129 shows the Antarctic Ocean, which surroiuids the south pole., There is a great mass The Antarctic of land around that pole Ocean called Antarctica. It is large enough to be called a continent ; but, since no Fig. 128. — Large numbers of icebergs floating in the water of the Arctic Ocean. Fig. 129. — Map of the Antarctic Ocean, whicli surrounds Antarctica. one lives upon it, and since it is covered with snow and ice all the year through, very little is known about it. This ice-covered land is surrounded by the Antarctic Ocean, on whicli there is al- ways much floating ice. Ob- serve that this ocean is not separated from the three great oceans by land, as the Arctic is. Are the Arctic and Antarctic oceans of more, GENERAL FACTS ABOUT THE EARTH 99 or less, importance to us than the other oceans ? Why ? The water in the ocean occupies great hollows on the surface of the earth. The depth The depth of this water of the ocean varies greatly, though on the average it is a little over two miles deep. In many places, however, the ocean is more than four miles deep ; and in one place, in the Pacific Ocean, the depth is nearly six miles. If the highest mountain in the world could be placed in the water at this point, its peak would not rise above the level of the sea. Beneath the oceans there is solid rock, just as there is beneath the soil of th-e land. This rock is covered with a coat of mud mals, most of them smaller than the head of a pin. They have lived near the surface of the sea, and upon dying, their shells have slowly dropped to the bottom. Some of the chalk used in schools was once just such mud, before it was raised to form layers of chalk on the dry land. The bed of the ocean lies so deep below the surface of the water that it is as dark there' as our darkest night. Yet fishes are living in these Fig. 130. — A fish caught on the hottom of the deep ocean, where no sunlight ever reaches. dark ocean depths (Fig. 130). As there is no sunlight, they have little use for eyes, and some of them have no eyes. Others see by means of the light that they themselves make, called phosphorescent light. This is like the light that the firefly gives out at night. The bottom of the ocean is, for the most part, a level plain. In many Tie islands places, however, there are in the ocean islands- rising from the sea floor, as a glance at the map will show. Many of these islands are portions of mountain chains. They are like the mountains on the continents, with only the highest peaks rising above the water. Other islands are the peaks of volcanoes. These have been made of melted rock, or lava, that has flowed up from inside the earth. Still others are what are known as coral islands. These have been formed in the following interesting way : — Some of the tiny creatures that live in the ocean are called coral ptolyps. They build hard, Fig. 131. — Coral growing in the sea. limy coral (Fig. 131), such as you have no doubt seen ; it is as hard as rock. Where the ocean water is warm, as in the torrid zone, these animals live in immense numbers, mil- lions of them around a single island. Each polyp helps ta build the coral, which is a sort of house in which it lives. When it chooses to do so, the polyp can draw itself into the little cave that forms its home. ' It can thus escape enemies that might devour it. At other times the polyp stretches out be- yond the surface of the hard coral, spreading out like a fully blossomed flower. The polyps differ greatly in color, being white, pink, purple, red, yellow, brown, and of other colors. It is a truly beautiful sight to see them spread out in the water, giving the appearance of a flower garden in the sea. When these coral animals die, the hard, stony homes that they have built, remain. 100 WORLD GEOGRAPHY Then other polyps build upon these remains, and this continues until the polyps have built the coral up to the surface of the water. It is in this way that coral islands are formed (Fig. 132), '" * ^'" ^' M ^mmm '•**' >> 1 .mi^^K ^^^^^^^H ,*^ Mi^#^ HHMHII^H m 9 I^^^yHj B R«9^'cr><^'%'*'L\ 3\2#i'^C5'fe'r^ i'?\Ft.Do,n^a^ Sd. Kj \ '*^ CoH ^Hjii^jjf.a" " Texaxk?fetN'^»^')sJ *^V/ 1 /"'^ Waco\ 1 I -f\ ^^ \^ / k** Orleans C.San B\i^ N^ ^ ^^^^ {^V^r San\An^nioV V \ Isi^Galveston 'i •" JUweiae-PP'-"- \ i «, #* U L F f\ ^ ^ X I V ^ UNITED STATES — 4 EASTEEX PART Cities toUhover 1,000,000 ^CW YOrk Cities u-ith 500,000 to 1,000,000 BoS.ton Citiawith 200.000 (o 600,000 Buffalo Other Places Denver CapitaU with less tlum 200.000 DOVER j ^^^^ Scale of Sliles I M. I ^M ir • ■ 60 100 200 300 400 500 Lonzitude IK)' 85^ Greenwich FIG. 138. Iff ip**"^^^^^^ G ii N ^/3 ,g ^ ^ S 6 I S S J I s.^** -.X" ^*»~ %'j^^klS v^.'- ^^^s^ * as >t.^*-^ '^^-^.^H^^i^r 106 NORTH AMERICA Fig. 141. — Distribution of population in the United States in ITiK). ware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Find each of these states on the map. Figure 138. How many of them do not border on the ocean? What a small part of the United States they now form ! Our flag still has its thirteen red and white stripes, to remind us of these thirteen original states. At first there were only thirteen stars in the blue field of the flag. But a star has been added for each new state, until now there are many more. Count the stars in the flag to ^ee how many states there are now. In Figure 141 observe how little of the country east of the Mississippi Eiver was settled by white people in 1790. Note the principal cities at that time. Explain the meaning of the star. boundary to the mouth of the Rio Grande. Find the width of our country in an east-west direction, from New York to &'an Francisco. The United States contains about 3,000,000 square miles, and is not quite so large as Canada. How does it compare with Mexico in size ? As we have seen, the states that formed our Union after the War of Independ- ence were thirteen in number. These were New Hampshire, Massachu- setts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela- To form the many new states, several great sections of land have 2. states of T Til , T (f , the Mississippi been added, at dinerent vaiiey times, to the original thirteen states (Fig. 142). At the close of the War of Independ- Steps in the growth of the United States 1 . The thirteen original states Fig. 142. — Map to show when and how the United States obtained its territory. GENERAL FACTS 107 eiice, all the land east of the Mississippi River belonged to the Union, except Florida and a narrow strip along the coast west of Florida. For many years, however, the part between the Appa- lachian Mountains and the Mississij^pi [liver was not made into states. In- deed, it was a wilderness, about which very little was known, because the Appalachian Mountains were like a great wall, shutting people out of the Missis- sippi Valley. Trappers and traders first forced their way into this valley. Among these were David Crockett and Daniel Boone, who had many thrilling adventures with the Indians, some of which you may have read about. Then, when it was learned what an attractive region this was, settlers rapidly followed, and states were soon formed. Name some of these states. Pioneers quickly pushed across the Mississippi River, over the Great Plains, as far as the Rocky Mountains. Nearly _ all the vast region between the Mis- sissippi River and the Rocky Mountains, except Texas, was bought from France in the year 1803. Name some of the states that have been formed from it. Florida, together with a narrow strip of land along the Gulf of Mexico, w^as 3. Florida bought froui Spain in 1819. and Texas Tcxas, which had once been a part of Mexico, obtained its inde- pendence from that country ; and later it entered the Union. The highlands of western United States are much broader and more 4. states west difficult to cross than the of the Rocky Appalachian Mountains, and Mountains j- ^ .. p tor a long tune lew men were daring enough to try to reach the Pacific coast. When rich gold deposits were discovered near the west coast, however, many thousands started in haste for that region. Partly by pur- chase, and partly by war with Mexico, our country had already obtained pos- session of this western land ; and, as it became rapidly settled, states were formed from it. Name some of them. At the close of the War of Inde- pendence, in 1783, there were only about three million white persons our growth living in the United States, i^i population Now we have over ninety millions, or Fig. 143. — Density of population in North America at the present time. more than are found in all the other countries of North and South America together. Our country has more in- habitants than France, or Germany, or any European nation except Russia. It should be remembered, too, that those countries are very old, and had been settled for centuries when America was 108 NORTH AMERICA discovered. Dating the birth of our nation from 1776, how old is it? Ob- serve how thickly the United States is now settled, as shown in Figure 143. One reason for this rapid growth in population is the fact that our country is situated in the temperate Reasons for i • i this growth zone. 1 he great heat m the 1. Our tem- torrid zone makes it difficult P«'^t"^« to work and unhealthful to live there. On the other hand, the ex- treme cold of the frigid zone makes it difficult to get a living, no matter how hard one works. In the temperate zone, we find neither of these drawbacks. There is not too much heat for comfort or health, and yet there is plenty for the growth of plants. Our country is so large that there may be much difference in temperature between one part and another. In southern Florida, there is never any frost or snow, and such crops as bananas and pineapples can be grown, as in the torrid zone. Cotton, sugar cane, rice, and oranges, which require a warm climate, are cultivated iu our Southern States. Farther north we can produce the more hardy crops, such as wheat and oats, that thrive in a cooler climate. There are few countries that have such variety of temperature as ours. Over a large part of the United States there is plenty of rain for farming and gardening. In several of the Western States, however, there is so little rain that no crops can be grown without irrigation. In fact, some parts of the West are true deserts, with farming only on the oases, as in the Sahara. In spite of their dryness, large portions of these sections are useful for grazing; and the western part of the United States is one of the most im- portant regions in the world for raising sheep and cattle. Thus the differences in rainfall, as well as in temperature, helf to give us a variety of products. Fertile soil, as well as heat and rain is necessary in order that people ma^ have food, clothing, and „ _ ' °'. . 3. Our soil shelter. Few countries in the world have as much deep, rich soi as our own. There are many kinds too, so that many kinds of crops can b( raised. On the whole, the climate and soil o; our country are so favorable, and s( varied, that the United States produces almost all the crops necessary for food clothing, and shelter. The mineral products, from the rock; beneath the soil, are also of great value In our western mountains 4. ourmin- are gold, silver, lead, and ^""^^ copper mines of untold richness. Enor mous amounts of copper and iron or( are mined in the states that borde] Lake Superior. Coal, too, is abundani in many of our states, so that there i( plenty of fuel for manufacturing thes( various metals into useful articles. Ii addition, we have valuable building stom of many kinds, and clays, salt, and othei useful mineral products. Indeed, th( rich supply of minerals found in th( United States is one of the chief rea sons for our remarkable growth as £ nation. It is of great advantage that we liav( so many different kinds of land in oui country. There are the 5. our plains coastal plains, that lie be- and mountains tween the Appalachian Mountains anc the sea. Here the land is so level anc fertile that farming is easy. Far largei than these are the central plains. through which the Mississippi River anC its tributaries flow. This level countr\ GENERAL FACTS 109 makes one of the finest farming sections in the world. There are also many smaller plains, and much gently rolling and hilly land suited to agriculture. The higher hills, mountains, and plateaus are valuable in a different way. They cause the moisture in the air to be condensed into rain and snow, which keep the rivers filled with water. In addition, they are the source of valu- able minerals, and they are often cov- ered with forests, which supply us with the lumber that we need for so many purposes. The minerals and other raw products have to be transported from the mines „ _ to the factories, and then 6. Our con- ' veniencesfor the manufactured articles transportation j^^g^ \^q distributed far and wide over the country. It is important, therefore, tliat there be abundant means for shipping goods. The railroads now do much to supply this need, but our natural highways, or waterways, have met it well from the beginning. First of all, note (Fig. 134) how the Mississippi River and its tribu- taries make it possible for boats to reach the ocean even from the heart of the country. Trace some of the larger of these rivers, and write their names. The Great Lakes on the north are other important w^aterways on which vessels may travel for many hundreds of miles. How many such lakes are there ? There are also many smaller rivers and lakes of importance for trans- portation. Can you name some of them, and point them out on the map ? It is necessary to send some goods to foreign lands, and to bring others from foreign countries to our shores. Here again the United States is fortunate. One of our coasts faces Europe, and is well supplied with excellent harbors. Trace this coast line, to see how irregu- lar it is, thus making fine harbors possible. Our Southern coast, too, has some ex- cellent harbors, from w^hich ships can easily sail to Europe, the West Indies, Mexico, and the countries of South America. Vessels can also go from port to port along our coast, carrying goods from one place to another. Our Western coast faces Asia, where there are enormous numbers of Chinese, Japanese, and other people. This coast likewise has some excellent harbors, from which steamship lines now run to many ports on the Pacific and Indian oceans. No other country has so favorable a situation for trade with all parts of the world as ours. In fact, no other large country has a seacoast, with an abun- dance of good harbors, on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. There have been still other powerful attractions that have drawn foreigners to our country. One of these has been the free land. Any one 7. qut who has cared to come here free land and live for a few years could obtain a good-sized farm to live upon. That has been a help indeed to many a man. So many people have been attracted to this country from other lands, that al- most all the free farm land has now been taken up. Even where there was no land to be given away, it has often been possible to buy it at a very low price, — only a few dollars an acre, — which even a poor man, with energy, could hope to pay. Millions of our people have come 110 NORTH AMERICA to the United States, attracted by the free or cheap farm lands. In some countries of Europe many of the people are still very ignorant. In the 8. Our free United States, on the other education hand, an effort is made to give every one an education. One of the first things our forefathers did was to establish schools, and now there are schools, colleges, and universities throughout all the land. Most of this education is free, and any one can ob- tain it. Our excellent system of educa- tion is one of the chief cauvses of our rapid advance, for educated people can do things which ignorant people cannot do. Another great attraction to many per- sons has been our free government. In 9. Our free somc couutries the rulers do government ^^^ \^^ ^\-^q people share in the making of laws. They seize private property; they arrest men and throw them into prison, or drive them from the coun- try, or put them to death, without trial. After the War of Independence, our forefathers established a government called a democracy. In this, the people elect some men to make laws, and otliers to execute them. That is the kind of government we still have. All the officers are really servants of the people, and not masters; and most of them are paid by the people for their work. The object of the government is to help every one, as far as possible, and not to worry or oppress any one. Millions of men have died fighting against a despotic form of government ; and it is no wonder that other millions have braved great hardships to reach a land where they were free from it. There is, perhaps, no country on the earth where an honest man, with ability and energy, can prosper more easily than in tlie United States. These are some of the more impor- tant reasons why our population has increased so rapidly. Aside ,^^,^,„,, from the people who have to the been born in this country, ^^^^^^ States millions have come from Europe and Asia ; and they still come in almost every ship that carries passengers. Such people are called immigrants, and most of them land at New York. From that city they scatter in all directions, and settle in every part of the country. These immigrants have greatly helped to develop our nation, and to make the United States one of the great powers of the world. They have been eager to come here, and most of them have been eager to stay, for they have learned to love this land. You probably know some immigrants yourself, for they are all about you. Ask some of them why they came here, and whether this country is as good to live in as the one they left. Our country is so large that it is necessary to divide it into sections, in order to study it in proper detail. Ac- cordingly, the states have ^^^^^^^^^ been grouped into four sec- studying the tions, of which the first is United states the Northeastern Group. The others, in their order, are the South- ern States, the Central States, and the Western States. As you study each of these sections, a very important point to notice is the scale upon which each map is j^^p^j^ance of drawn. For example, in Fig- watching the ure 144, an inch represents scale of maps about seventy-five miles. According to that scale, how long is the state of Connecticut ? Find what the scale is on the map, THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 111 Figure 138. Using that scale, find the distance from New York to Buffalo. From Philadelphia to Boston, by way of New York. When studying a map, whether in this book, on the wall, or in an atlas, it is always important to observe its scale first. 1. What is the size of the United States ? How does it compare in size with other coun- tries ? 2. Name the first thirteen Review states of our Union, and locate Questions ^^^^^^ ^ ^^j^^^ ^^.^^^ sections of land have been added to these, to make the number of states that we now have ? 4. Tell about our growth in population. 5. Show that our temperature is one reason for so great a population. 6. How is our rainfall a second reason, and our soil a third ? 7. How are our minerals a fourth reason ? 8. Show that our plains and mountains are a fifth reason. 9. How have our conveniences for transportation helped our growth ? 10. How has our free land helped ? 11. Our free education ? 12. Our free govern- ment ? 13. Tell about the immigrants to the United States. 14. Why is it important to watch the scale of any map used ? 1. Read the life of Daniel Boone or David Crockett. 2. Find out what steps a man has had to take, in order to get possession of free land in this country. 3. Learn what is done with the im- migrants when they land at Ellis Island in New York Harbor. 4. Do you see any dangers to this country in allowing all people to come here from other countries who desire to come ? 2. The Northeastern States 1. Name these states. Write the names. 2. Which has no seacoast ? 3. Which state extends farthest east and north ? Which farthest south ? Which farthest west ? 4. What natural boundaries do you find between them ? 5. Which of them border on Canada ? On the Atlantic Ocean ? 6. What two large lakes form part of the boun- dary on the West ? 7. What mountain system crosses these states ? 8. Which states are most mountainous ? 9. Name and trace the Suggestions Map study course of the chief rivers. 10. What do you observe about the direction in which the prin- cipal rivers flow ? 11. Name and locate three lakes ; three bays ; three capes and three islands. 12. To which state does Long Island belong? 13. Find New York City. Using the scale, about how far is it from New York City to Boston ? To Philadelphia ? 14. Walk toward New York City. 15. In what direction would one have to sail from New England, in order to reach England ? Of the nine states in this group the six farthest northeast are called J)^ew England. What are their The area of names? What are the these states names of the other three ? On the map of the United States (Fig. 138) you can see what a small part of our country these states make. All of them together are much smaller than Texas, yet they form nearly one fifth of our whole number of states. Which is the smallest of these states ? It is the smallest state in the Union. One of the New England States is about as large as the other five together. Which one is it ? Even this, however, is much smaller than New York, the largest of the Northeastern States. A large part of the surface of these states is hilly or mountainous. Near the coast the hills are low, character of and much of New Jersey is their surface a plain ; but the land rises gradually toward the interior until the mountains are reached. West of the mountains, in New York and Pennsylvania, the country is a low, hilly plateau with some plains, especially along the shores of lakes Erie and Ontario. ' The mountains have different names. In Pennsylvania are the Appalachian Mountains which extend southward into the gouthern States. North of the 112 NORTH AMERICA Fig. 146. — The New England States. NORTHEASTERN STATES (WESTERN SECTION) Scale of Miles «««» u/JOl ouer 1,000,000 NEW YORK Cilie» mth 000,000 to 1,000,000 PittSbUTg citten urith 100,000 to 000,000 Rochester «(iMim(A 25,000 10 100,000_.. AubuPD Smaller places Oswego Capitals with lees (Aait-26,000 DOVER Jfatinnal Capitalt @ State Capitals ® Other Cities o FIG. 144. FIG. 144. Fig. 140. — Relief map of Middle Atlantic States. 114 NORTH AMERICA Fig. 148. — A view of the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Appalachian Mountains are the Catskill and Adirondack Mountains in New York. Fig. 149. — A view of Niagara Falls. Find the Green Mountains and the White Mountains in New England. Mount Washington in the White Mountains is the high- est peak in all these States, being a little over a mile high. In this hilly and mountain- ous land there are many lakes, as you can see by the map; and many waterfalls, the largest being Niagara Falls, the grandest waterfall in the world. Much of the surface is very rough and rocky, with bold cliffs and the soil strewn with stones. The coast of this entire section is very irregular, with many capes, penin- character sulas, bays, sounds, of the coast, and harbors. This with reason irregularity of coast line is due to the fact that the land has been lowered, and the ocean has entered the valleys forming bays and harbors, while the higher parts have remained above the sea as THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 115 >apes and peninsulas. This sinking of lie land has therefore been very import- uit, for it has made safe places where ^ 1 ^/ itil'Sffifr^ lEp-*^ sm ^Mjsm - ..;^^^Sg| ^^^^^M .^^d^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l ^H (4) Method q marketing Fig. ]()0. — One of the marble quarries near Rutlaiifl, Vt. The stone is quarried out in the deep pit on the right, and the blocks are hoisted to the surface by the derricks. Some of the Gloucester fishing vessels, however, go as far as Greenland and Iceland for halibut and codfish. Halibut are very large, some weighing more than a man, and they are often {2)Met?iodof caught upon single lines. catching Codfisli may be caught in the same manner, though a trmvl (Fig. 159) is more commonly used for cod than for halibut. The trawl consists of a number of hooks hanging from a single long line, all lowered into the water together and left there for hours. The fish swallow the bait on the hooks, and in this way many are caught at one time. This kind of fishing is dangerous, because tTie men must venture out in small, flat-bot- tomed boats, called dories, to take the fish off the trawls. While they are busy fishing, i storm may arise, or a heavy fog come up, an( prevent their return to the vessel. They are then left in open boats ^^) ^^t^ff^r o •' ^ such fishing far out upon the ocean. Every year dozens of Gloucester fishermen are los in this manner. Codfish are sold either fresh or salt ; bu most of the halibut are soL fresh, though some are smoked. In or- der to salt, or cure, the codfish, they are split opei and cleaned, soaked in barrels c brine, and then dried upon th wharf. Very often the bones ar removed, the skin stripped of and the flesh torn into shred and packed into boxes as bon( less cod. Either the salted c boneless cod may be seen in a most any grocery, and much of i comes from Gloucester. Traps, or weirs, also, are se for fish. They are placed alon the shore, and many kinds of fisl such as shad, salmon, and basf swim into them and are the unable to find their way oui Another kind of fish that is caught on the New England f^^dT^*^ **"" coast is the herring, which is smoked and canned in large quantities ;i Eastport, Me. Lobster fishing also is carried on, especiall on the coast of Maine. A lobster trap, mad of wood and weighted with stone, is lowere to the bottom of the sea, Avhere the lobste lives, crawling around among the rocks an seaweed. A fish-head for bait is inside th trap, and the lobster crawls in to get it ; but h is so stupid that he is rarely able to find hi way out. Clams are found along many parts of th New England coast. Some of them live burie in the mud flats which are exposed to view a low tide. At such times boys and men di these shellfish out, much as a farmer digs pot? toes. Another kind of shellfish on the Ne^ England coast is the scallop; and still anothe is the oyster, which thrives in the shallow wat€ of the bays south of Cape Cod. THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 123 Quarrying and mining in these states Quarrying and employ a great number of mining. men. Note how many kinds of mineral products are found here. More than half the granite used in the en- tire country is obtained from the Northeastern 1. Stones and States. The greatest quantity clay comes from Maine, Massachusetts, and Vermont. One of the oldest stone quarries in the country is at Quixcy, near Boston. There are other quarries in and near Glouces- ter, Mass. ; Barre, Vt. ; Concord, IST.H. ; and at several points along the coast of Maine. it was fortunate for the early settlers that salt springs were found in central New York. To these springs the wild animals and the Indians had long been in the habit of going for the salt they needed. The white men found the salt springs so valuable that the production of salt soon became an important indus- try at that point, and it caused the beginning of the city of Syracuse. The salt water of these springs flowed from a great bed of salt that lies underground, be- ■ ^^mmi, ;■ ■^v'il^Si ^j'^l?* Fig. 161. —A view in the oil fields of western Pennsylvania. Each of these small towers, or derricks, stands over an oil well. The derricks were used in boring the wells. Marble is found in several places, especially near Rutland, Vt. Here are quarries of fine white marble that is much used for monuments. Slate, used for roofs of houses, for writing slates, and for other purposes, is found in several of these states, especially in Pennsyl- vania and Averment. There is much sandstone that is good for building ; there is clay, for making bricks, drainpipes, flowerpots, and tiles ; and there is limestone for the manufac- ture of lime and of Portland cement. Pennsyl- vania leads all our states in the value of its building stone. Salt is ar.other very important prod- uct of this region. Since this is the one mineral that everybody must have. neath a large part of central New York. By boring down through the soil and some layers of rock, the salt bed itself can be reached. Many such borings have been made, and much salt is now obtained through them. New York produces more salt than any other state. Two fuels, oil and natural gas, are found in western New York 3. petroleum and Pennsylvania. Fetro- and natural gas leum, as the oil is generally called, means " rock oil," — a name which sug- gests its origin. The oil and gas have been formed by the decay of remains of animals and plants that lived a, 1 • 4. Coal m rennsylvama. There is good proof that the coal used in our stoves and furnaces has been THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 125 made from plants. Roots of plants may still be seen in the old soil, now changed (1) How coal to rock, that lies beneath hasbeenformed ^\^q ^oal bcds ; and stems of plants, and even trunks of trees (Fig. 163) changed to coal are found in the coal beds. Besides, with a micro- scope, or at times even with the naked eye, one can see that coal is made of bits of plants pressed closely together. Sometimes the full form of a fern or leaf, called a fossil, may be seen (Fig. 164). The plants of which the coal is made grew many ages ago in great swamps. When they died, they fell into water, making thick beds of plant remains, like those that are forming in swamps to-day. If it could then have been dug up and dried, it would have made good fuel. In- deed, in Ireland, Norway, and other cool, moist lands, it is now the custom to dig such woody matter out of the swamps and dry it forburning (Fig. 469). Such fuel, called jjeat, is much used for cooking and heating in those coimtries. These ancient swamps were later covered up by layers of sand, clay, and (2) The kinds othcr substances, now hard- 0/ coal ejje(j i^to rock. The plant remains themselves have also been changed by pressure until they have become a kind of rock, or mineral coal. Some of the poorer coals, known as lignite, are little more than peat beds partly changed to coal. Other beds, having had far more pres- sure upon them, have been changed to harder coal. One of them is called soft, or hituminous, coal. Another, called anthracite, has had even greater pressure. It has been so greatly changed that it is as hard as some rocks, and is known as hard coal. About half the coal of the United States comes from Pennsylvania. This state, also, produces both 1 • J c 1 u • r (3) The amount kmds of coal, bemg one of and kinds of the very few regions in the <^^"^ *" -P^'"*- , , , , , ., . sylvania world where anthracite is found in abundance. Wilkesbarre and ScRANTOx, in eastern Pennsylvania, owe their importance largely to the anthracite mined near them. Great Fig. 164. — The print of a fern in a rock that was formed during the Goal Period. quantities of soft, or bituminous, coal are mined about Pittsburg. Pennsyl- vania is the only one of the Northeastern States that has important coal fields. In some places the coal is found close to the surface, while in many others it is several hundred feet beneath (4) Method of the surface. Where the coal '"^""'^ Hes far down in the earth, deep shafts must be s\mk to reach it. From the sides of such a shaft, tunnels (Fig. 165) are dug into the coal beds, and from these the coal is removed. Some of the coal beds are only two or three feet thick, l)ut others are several times as thick as this. 126 NOBTH AMERICA Fig. 165. — A drawing to illustrate how coal is mined. There is a shaft going straight down, then tunnels extend off from it into the different coal beds. Usually there are several beds of coal, with thick layers of rock between, and the shaft ex- tends downward through them all, with tunnels reaching out into each bed (Fig. 165). In a large mine one may travel through miles and miles of tunnels. Since it is very dark so far underground, the tunnels are sometimes lighted by electricity ; but the workmen often furnish their own light by means ol lamps fastened to their caps. The miners drill holes in th( coal beds with drills run by steaii or compressed air (Fig. 166), anc break the coal out by blasting the larger lumps are then broker up with picks. After this ii done, the coal is placed in cars drawn to the shaft by mules, oi by electricity, and then hoisted t( the surface. The mules are kep' underground for months, bein^ fed and allowed to sleep ii stables cut out of solid coal. Soft coal is sold in the forn in which it reaches the surface but anthracite must first be sorted into different piles, each containing lumps of a single size. This work is done in great buildings, called coed breakers which stand close by the mouth of the shafts The coal is hoisted to the top of the breaker where the larger lumps are broken up. It thei passes down through the building and is sepa rated into different sizes by means of sievei and various kinds of machinery. (6) Hoio anthra cite coal is prepared for market Fig. 166. — Miners working far underground in a bituminous coal mine near Pittsburg. The machine in front is drilling a hole in the thick coal seam that forms the wall on the right. THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 127 There is much rock mixed with the coal, and this must be picked out. Some of this work is done by machinery ; but much of it is I lone by boys, called breaker boys, who sit on low wooden benches, as the coal passes by, watching carefully for pieces of rock. These they pick out and throw away. You can imagine how black the boys become before their day's work is done. Both the hard and the soft coal are used not only for heating houses and for cooking, but also in making 1 6) Uses of coal , , . . steam to use m runnmg locomotives, steamboats, and the ma- almost side by side. Both coal and iron are easily sent to all the cities of these states for use in the factories. This is very important, since iron is the most useful of all metals. In appearance, iron ore is sometimes a hard, black mineral ; sometimes a soft, loose, yellowish or reddish brown earth. It is not iron ancJ- ZfoTow at all, any more than ivheat /«/■'««/ ""'^ ' . . , , mined IS flour ; it IS only iron ore, a mineral out of which, by much work, iron may be made. Fig. 167. — Coke ovens near Pittsburg. Each of the small doors leads to an oven where the coal is burned and changed to coke. chinery of factories. Much coal is used also in smelting iron and other metals, and in the manufacture of gas for light- ing. Coal is, indeed, the most useful of all minerals. Without it our country could not have prospered as it has. Iron ore is mined in large quantities in Pennsylvania, and also in New Jersey and New York. Thus both the raw material and the fuel for manufactur- ing it into useful articles are found 5. Iron ore (1) Where found, and why important Like coal, the iron ore in the earth was pre- pared long ago, though in a very different manner, as follows: Small quantities of iron exist in many minerals and rocks. Indeed, the red and yellow colors of soils, and of some rocks, are due to it. As water slowly works its way through the soil and rocks, it dissolves the iron, much as it would dissolve salt or sugar if those substances w^ere there. Where the conditions have been favorable, the water has brought quantities of the iron to one point, and there deposited it. This has formed beds, or veins, of iron ore, and it is these that are now being mined. 130 NORTH AMERICA Some of these articles are made partly or wholly of other metals than iron, such as copper, gold, and silver. Worcester, west of Boston, manu- factures wire and other iron goods. New Haven is noted for hardware and firearms. Carriages, sewing machines, and other articles are made at Bridge- port. Firearms, cars, and bicycles are made at Springfield, and at Hart- ford, which is situated at the head of steamboat navigation on the Connecticut Manufactories making four other arti- cles from mineral products are especiall}' worthy of note in these states. One of these arti- ture of glass, cles is qlass, which is made po^e^y, brick, 1^ and cement at and near Pittsburg, where natural gas furnishes cheap fuel. Pittsburg is the greatest center in the country for the manufac- ture of plate glass. Clay suited to the manufacture oi pottery is found in a number of places: (1) Glass Fig. 171. — The Waltham Watch Factory at night. This is hut one of the many large factories of New England. River. Fitchburg is also engaged in metal manufacturing. Near Boston, at Waltham, the Amer- ican Watch Company has an immense factory (Fig. 171), where 3100 watches are made every day. About 4300 per- sons, more than half of whom are women, are employed in this factory, receiving about $200,000 a month in wages. Great numbers of clocks and watches are made in Waterbury, and much cutlery at Meriden, Conn. Some of the cities where cotton and woolen goods are manufactured, such as Fall River, Lowell, and New Bedford, also manu- facture goods of iron and other metals. but much clay for pottery is imported. A high grade of pottery is {^2) Pottery made at Trenton, N.J., <^rid bricks where this industry has become very important. So many bricks are used for building, that brickyards are found in the neigh- borhood of nearly all cities. Bricks are made of clay. This is first pressed into the brick shape when damp, then dried, and finally baked. In this process some of the grains melt, so that when cooled again, they cling together like stone. The clays near Philadelphia, and the great clay beds of the Hudson Valley, above New York City, supply an abun- THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 131 (3) Cement dance of brick for these and neighboring cities. Portland cement has become of great importance within the last few- years. It is made in many places, especially in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New York. To make it, limestone is ground fine and mixed with coal dust. The two are then placed in a furnace, where the burning coal dust gives out so much heat that the limestone melts. It comes out of the furnace as a kind of clinker, which is then ground into fine powder. This cement has the valuable property of becoming hard like rock, or setting, when water is added. It is used for sidewalks, for buildings, dams, bridges, and many other purposes, taking the place of wood, stone, and iron. There are about 400 cotton mills in New England alone, making such articles ^ ^ ^., as sheets, towels, stockings, 4. Textile ' ' . ^ manufacturing undcrwcar, thread, strmg, (1) Extent and Jiandkerchicfs, and gingham variety of cot- ' i * ton and ivooien and calico dress goods. As manufacturing ^^^^ ^^ ^200 pcrsous maybe employed in a single mill, perhaps three quarters of the number being women. One of these mills may use from 60,000 to 70,000 pounds of cotton per day. Most of the cotton used grows in our warm Southern States. It is sent to the factories in bales, each weighing about 500 pounds, and is (2) Method made into cloth in the following of cotton manner : First, the dirt, small manufacture sticks, and other foreign matter are removed. Then the cotton fibers, of vari- ous lengths, are combed out straight and well mixed with one another. After that they are pressed into thin, gauze-like sheets. These are gradually drawn out and twisted into threads, and then wound upon spindles and taken to the looms for weaving. All this work is done by machinery. The cotton cloth is made by machinery which weaves the threads together. In an ordinary piece of calico there may be as many as 1200 threads, side by side, and others crossing them. Stripes and other patterns are made by coloring the threads differently, and then, before the weaviiig begins, carefully arranging them according to some' design. The manufacture of woolen goods is another very important industry in New England. After being sheared from the sheep, the wool is washed and freed from burs, sticks, and dirt. It is then ^g^ ^^^^^^ untangled and combed out of wool . • 1 , (•, 1 • 1 'l ' manufacture straight, alter which it is twisted into yarn, much as cotton is twisted into thread. The yarn is woven into cloth for men's suits and overcoats, and also for cloaks, skirts, underwear, blankets, stockings, carpets, and dozens of other articles. Most, if not all, of the garments that you are wearing are made either of wool or of cotton, or of the two mixed together. The following cities are engaged ex- tensively in the manufacture of either cotton or woolen cloth, or . , , . Tj^ . -r, (4) Chief cities both ; m Maine, UIDDEFORD, ewjaged in LEWisToisr, Auburn", and Augusta; in New Hamp- shire, Manchester, Nashua, and Dover; in Massachusetts, Lowell and Lawreistce on the Merrimac River ; PiTTSFiELD in western Massachusetts, and Fall River, New Bedford, and Taunton in the southern part ; in Rhode Island, Pawtucket, Woonsocket, and Providence which is the second city in size in New England. One of the larg- est cotton factories in the world is at Manchester, N.H. In New York, New Jersey, and Penn- sylvania there is also much manufacture of cotton and woolen goods. For in- teztile manu- facture 132 NORTH AMERICA stance, YoNKERS in New York is noted for its manufacture of carpets and hats ; New York City and Philadelphia for cloth- ing ; Philadelphia for carpets ; Troy for collars and cuffs; Utica for cotton goods ; and Jamestown for plush goods. Locate each of these cities on the map. Boot and shoe making is carried on iu a number of cities, though the most important are Lynn, Ha- 5. Leather manufacturing (1) Cities engaged in it, and articles made verhill, and Brockton in cities. Massachusetts, and Bing- HAMTON and Rochester in New York. Locate these Besides boots and shoes, leather Fig. 172. — Workmen in a shoe factory iu Lynn is made into many other articles, such as bookbindings, harnesses, pocketbooks, and bicycle saddles. Can you name articles made of leather ? Leather is made from the hides of animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, (2) How leather horses, and hogs. After ts prepared ^]^q J^^jj. -g rcmOVCd, the hides are taken to tanneries, where they ■are soaked in tannic acid to make them wear well. Some of the tanneries are situated near foi ests, where there are many hemlock or oa' trees whose bark produces the tannic acic Others, like those in and about Salem, Mass are far away from the forests. To these, bot the hides and the bark must be brought a Ion distance. In other tanneries chemicals are use in place of the tannic acid from hemlock or oa bark. In a single tannery near Boston, wher sheepskins are tanned, from 30,000 to 40,00 skins are prepared each week. After being tanned, the leather is take: to the shoe factories (Fig. 172) and cu up, one machine cutting out ^3^ ^^^ ^^^^^ soles of a certain size, a and shoes are second tops, a third tongues, *"" ^ etc.; these parts are the: sewed or nailed togethei and the shoes are soo: finished. As in the cas of cotton and woolen mam facturing, nearly all th work is done by machinerj each person caring for on or more machines, and pei forming the same simpl task day after day. Every city in these state is engaged in g ^^^^^^^_ the inanufac- tures from the . (■ 1 1 forests ture 01 lumber, or of other materials fo building, or for furniture. Bangor in Maine is especially notei for its manufacture of lumber. Log from the forest are easily (^ cr/^fe/ cen- floated down the Penobscot ters for such -r»' i T> 11 manufactures River to Bangor; and here they are cut up into lumber, whicl ocean vessels carry to other points The same is true of Portland. On th wharves of this city are quantities o boards ready to be shipped away, to b made into boxes, barrels, doors, an( THE NOETHEASTEBN STATES 133 lundreds of other articles. Water- viLLE, Augusta, and Bath, in Maine; WiLLiAMSPORT, Penn., and Watertown, N.Y., are engaged extensively in manu- facturing articles of wood. Another important use of the forests is in making paper, for much of the paper commonly seen, (2) Paper / ^ ' ^ such as newspaper and wrapping paper, is now made of wood. Short logs, after having the bark re- moved, are placed in a steel frame and forced against an enormous grind- stone. The wood pulp thus ground off is carried away by water, run through a sieve, deposited on a wide belt, and pressed into thin sheets between rol- lers. When dry, it is paper. Wood pulp is made also by the use of chemicals. We do not often think, when reading the news or wrapping a package, that the paper in our hands may once have been part of a live tree, perhaps in the woods of Maine. Paper mills are found at Bangor, Waterville, and a number of smaller places in Maine ; and at Watertown and other points in New York. However, HoLYOKE, the greatest paper-making city in New England, is situated not in the forest region, but in the midst of busy cities in Massachusetts. There the pulp is generally made of rags, which produce a finer grade of paper acid ; maple sugar and sirup Fig. 173. — Falls in the Genesee River at Rochester, used for power in the flour mills aud'other factories at Rochester. than wood. The neighboring cities fur- nish the necessary rags. The forest trees supply other valuable prod- ucts besides lumber and wood pulp. One of these is tannic acid, used in tan- ning leather; it is made from the ^^^ Tannic bark of the hemlock and other trees. Another product is maple sirup and maple sugar. Among the trees in the forests of these states is the sugar maj)le. Its sap, unlike that of most trees, is sweet ; and if a hole is bored through the bark in early spring, when the sap is moving rapidly through the tree, it will ooze forth as a watery liquid. This is then boiled to drive off some of the water, thus making maple sirup and maple sugar. Although these are the principal kinds of 7. other manufac- ^^"^f °^ manu- turingcar- facturing ried on in the Northeastern States, there are many others that have not been mentioned. For instance, auto- mobiles, farm machinery, wagons, rubber goods, silk goods, chocolate, and many other articles are manufactured in large quantities in these states. One very im- portant industry is grinding grain into flour, which is done in scores of places. Rochester, N.Y., for example, has .many flour mills, as well as other factories, run by the water power furnished by the falls of the Genesee River (Fig. 173). 134 NOBTH AMERICA The way in which manufacturing is now carried on is very different from the old way. In the olden days, all the wool for cloth, for instance, was obtained from sheep that were raised near by. It was brought to the house, and was first made into yarn by means of a spinning 8. Great changes in methods of manufacture (1) The old 10 ay of manufacturing Fig. 174. — An old-fiishioiied spiuuiny wheel. wheel (Fig. 174). Then it was woven into cloth, and this cloth was made into garments by the mother and daughters of the household, during the long winter evenings. This work was done by simple machines run by hand or. by foot power. It was then the custom for everybody to wear " homespun," or cloth made at home. Likewise, when the men were not too busy with farm work, they often made shoes for their families. Or some one traveled from house to house, making boots and shoes. Pieces of leather for the uppers were cut from hides of animals raised near by, and sewed to- gether by hand; then the thick soles were tacked on, again by hand. Most kinds of work, indeed, were done by hand. Now, most of the wool that is used is raised far away, perhaps on the (2) The sheep ranches of present way the Western States, and is brought to the factories in boats, or in freight trains. There it is put into machines and quickly spun into long threads of yarn that are wound upon spools by machinery. This yarn is then woven into cloth, also by machinery. To-day, also, most of the hides for use in making shoes are brought long distances, often from the cattle ranches of the West. The hides are first tanned at a tannery, and then the leather is cut into proper shapes by machines. After that the pieces are sewed, or nailed, together by machinery. Everywhere machinery has taken the place of hand work. As now done, the work is car- ried on, not in the home, but in factories ; and hundreds, or even thousands, of persons are often employed in a single factory. All these men and women, and boys and girls, are kept busy from morning till night running the machines. It is an interesting sight to watch the throngs of workers pour out of one of these buildings at the close of the day (Fig. 175). In former days it took a long time to make a piece of cloth, or a pair of shoes, that can now be made in a few minutes. One of the THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 135 most striking changes, though, is in the kind of work that each person does; for now one person usually works on only a (3) The variety ^^^^y^ ^^.^ ^f ^^^ ^^.^-^j^ oj work r- T TT manufactured. He may spend all of his time, day after day, tending a machine that merely cuts out soles for shoes, or that sews certain pieces of leather together. How different it was when a man plowed ground one day, acted as a carpenter in build- ing a shed on a second day, and made shoes a third ! Were former days really worse than the present, or better ? All this manufacturing calls for great quantities of food, and for Commerce , „„ an immense 1 . Why espe- cially important amouut of raw in these states j. • i u materials, such as coal, metal, cotton, wool, leather, and lumber. The wants of the twenty-six mil- ]ion inhabitantsof the North- east e r n States naturally cause extensive trade in such materials and the articles made from them. It is plain, then, that the transportation of goods, as well as buying and selling, must be very impor- tant occupations in these states. In addi- tion, there are many millions of persons living west of these states who have goods that they wish to send across the At- lantic Ocean to foreign lands ; and the foreign countries, in turn, have goods to send to us. , A large portion of this trade is carried on in the seaports of the Northeastern States. " This foreign commerce alone keeps thousands of men and women busy all the time, mainly in the large cities on the coast, such as New York, Philadel- phia, and Boston. Good harbors alonsr the coast are among the chief aids to such commerce. Not only must many things be received from foreign countries, and many articles be shipped abroad, but many articles can best be sent from city to city in these states by boat, along the coast. If you examine the map, you will see Fig. 175. — Men and women leaving the factory at the close of the clay. Notice how many people there are employed in this one factory. that this coast is very irregular, with many bays, both large and small . These form excellent harbors along the coast from Maine to Pennsylvania. Draw this coast line, showing the chief bays and capes. Write their names on your drawing. The rivers also are of great value in such commerce. Name and trace the chief rivers in New England. 3. Rivers and On the map find the Hudson, *^*°^^^ the principal river in New York ; the Susquehanna, the principal one in Penn- sylvania ; and the Delaware River. Most of these rivers are too shallow for large boats to go far upstream ; and in some cases travel by boat is prevented bv ranids and falls. The Hudson River 136 NORTH AMERICA 4. Railroads Fig. 176. — Delaware Water Gap. Here the Delaware River cuts through one of the Appala- chian Mountain ridges. The river is not navigable, but railroads follow it on both banks. railroads began tc be built. After that, there was less pressing need for more canals, since rail- roads could take their place. Railroads run from north tc south through these states ; but most of the great railroads run from the coast west- ward, toward the interior of the is the one notable exception ; for large steamboats can go up the Hudson as far as the mouth of the Mohawk River (Fig. 177). The wide mouths of these rivers make excellent harbors, as is proven by the large cities there. Name and locate some of these cities. The need of more waterways into the in- terior led very early to the digging of canals. Several have been dug, the longest and most important of which is the Erie Canal (Fig. 183), extending from the Hudson River, near Troy and Albany, to Buffalo on Lake Erie. Measure its length. This canal is especially important, be- cause it connects the Great Lakes with the ocean, by way of the Hudson River. On that account it has been a great highway of commerce. Name several cities along its course. About the time the Erie Canal was finished the loco- country. The Ap palachian Mountains have been a great hindrance in building them. Why^ Yet several fine roads now cross these mountains. One of the first was the New York Central, running from New York City to Buffalo. It follows the Hudson River to Albany, then takes the same course westward as the Erie Canal does. All the important cities of these states are now connected by rail. motive was invented, and Fig. 177. — The broad and deep Hudson Eiver as seen from West Point. THE NORTflEASTERN STATES 137 The greatest of all lie cities of the United tates is New York, which con- reat centers f population tains more New York than four it y and vicinity •-,,• ,/„ , ,. milhon iri- l) Population '•(ir New York habitants, irbor 1 • and is sec- iid only to London mong the great cities if the world. There re several other large •ities near by, the argest being Newark, Jersey City, ^ITERSON, Elizabeth, and Hoboken Mg. 187), all west of the Hudson River 11 New Jersey. Although in another -tate, these cities are so closely related o New York in business that they may ilmost be considered a part of New Y'ork City ; so also may Yonkers, )n the Hudson, just above that city. Before it became a part of New York, he city of Brooklyn, on Long Island, A as itself fourth among the cities of the ountry. More than six million persons, )!■ one fifteenth of all the inhabitants Fig. 179. — The Empire State Express, one of the trains of the present day on the New York Central Railroad. This picture was taken while the train was running Fig. 178. — The first railway train which ran out of Albany. of the United States, live within twenty miles of New York harbor. It is, first of all, the great conven- ience for shipping that has caused so great a number of people to ^^^ j,,^,,^_^,, collect at this point. Not ting vast 1 J •! u i. population only can goods easily be sent far inland by water and by rail, as already explained, but they can also be carried on the ocean to any port in the world. The harbor is deep enough for the largest vessels, and large enough to bold all that come. More than half of all the foreign trade of the United States is carried on tkrough this port, which is the leading shipping point in the New World. The second reason for the vast population here is the fact that this is the greatest manufacturing center in the New World. Nearly every manufac- tured article that men need is made in or near New York, but one of the 138 NORTH AMERICA Fig. 180. —A view of lower New York, showing the lofty manufacture of clothing. Cotton and woolen goods are sent here from the factories of New England, and other sections, to be made into such articles as women's gowns, men's suits, and undercloth- ing. Lftrge build- ings, in which hun- dreds of men and women are em- ployed, are given up to this work alone. Iron and coal are so near that the manufacture of iron goods is another great in- dustry. The refin- ing of petroleum is a third, the oil be- ing led, in pipes, from the oil fields ^'"' ^*^1-— '^''e riatiron building, b.iilt in tliis of western Ppnn occupies the comer where two streets come to^ oi. wtJbuern l-enn- oflices occupy every floor in this tall building. pynglit, l:*),-, [,y Di-troit Publishing' Co buildings, or "sky scrapers." sylvania to n fineries in Nei Jersey, near Ne> York. The refir ing of sugar i another immens business in Nev York, Jersey City and Brooklyn; an( silk manufactur( is carried on ex tensively a' Paterson. Merchants from all part.- of the United States come to New York to buy goods. The business of sell- ing goods to merchants, to be sold again, called the ivholc- sale trade, is a sliape beciiuse it ether. Stores and THE NORTHEASTERK STATES 139 tJiird reason why so many people have collected around New York harbor. A large section in the southern part of the city is given up almost entirely to the wholesale trade. Since the land is very expensive, as much use as . pos- sible is made of every bit of it. For that reason the buildings are high (Fig. 180). Many of the stores and office buildings are twenty or thirty, and some forty stories high. Goods manufactured in the city, together with others brought from all parts of the world, are collected in this part of New York. These are sold in quantities, or by whole- sale, to retail mer- chants both of New York and of other cities and towns, who then sell them to cus- tomers in their own stores. The difference between life in New York City and iipon a farm (p. 67) . is striking. On some of the streets in the city scarcely anything but stores can be seen for ten or twelve miles. Many of these stores are small, but some occupy enormous buildings, and employ many hundreds of clerks. Families whose homes are in the city do not usually occupy a whole house, but often hun- dreds of people live in one building. These structures, called apartment houses, are usually from six to eight stories high, and some even from fifteen to twenty. They are so arranged that one family occupies only a small part of one floor, called an apartment. Other families live above and below, as well as on each side, being separated by only a few inches of brick or boards. Since land is so valuable there is usually neither front yard nor back yard. In the poorer sections of the city the people are even more densely crowded. Some of the children have never seen the country, and they have seen scarcely any birds, trees, or grass, except possibly in one of the city parks. In these crowded sections there are many for- eigners from all nations of the earth. To escape such a crowded city life, hundreds of thousands of men live in suburban towns. (3) Life in the great city Fig. 182. — Map showing location of Bulfalo, Kochester, and Albany. or country homes, from ten to forty miles from their places of business. Every day they spend from one to three hours traveling back and forth. Some ride upon elevated railways built in the street, and supi^orted by iron col- umns. Others go by train in one of the sub- ways, which extend for miles underground, and even cross under the rivers to Brooklyn, Jersey City, and Hoboken. How different all this is from the country, where perhaps only two or three houses may be seen at a time ! Where sunlight and freshairmay enter oue's home from all sides of the building ! 140 IfOBTH AMERICA Map of the CANALS NEW YORK 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Toronti cities along the Erie Cans route (Fig. 183), and reca' what has been said abon them. Since the canal (Fig. 184) \ only seventy feet wide, an seven feet deep, all freight con ing in lake steamers from th West must be unloaded at c near Buffalo, and placed in cam boats before it can be carried o the canal. These clumsy lool ing boats are made with broac flat bottoms, in order that the may carry heavy loads withou sinking too deep into the watei They are drawn by horses c mules that walk along the tot* path at the side. The Eri Canal is now being enlarged to barge canal. Fig. 183. — The Erie Caual aud other water routes of New York and vicinity "Where there is plenty of room to play, and where there are green grass, large trees, and sing- ing birds in the yard ! No wonder the people living in great cities are anxious to visit the country, the mountains, the lakes, and the sea- shore during the summer season. Most of the other large cities in the State of New 2. Buffalo and ^ork are found cities along the along the Water Erie Canal -> -i , and rail routes from New York City to Lake Erie (Fig. 183). The most important of these is Buf- falo (Fig. 182), on Lake Erie, at the western end of the Erie Canal. Before the canal was built, Buffalo was only a village. But both New York and Buffalo have had a very rapid growth since 1825, when the canal was finished. Name other Buffalo is a great railwa; center, as well as an iin portant lake port. Here quantities o grain, flour, lumber, and iron, brough by lake vessels from the West, ar transferred to railway cars or to cana Fig. 184. — Locks in the Erie Canal. The canal boats are drawn into one o these spaces, which is then filled with water, raising the boat to a highe level. This is then repeated until the boat is raised to the level of thi canal above the lock.s. Or, if a boat is going the other way, It is low ere< in the locks by letting the water run out. FIG. 187. THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 141 boats ; and coal and manufactured i^'oods are shipped westward. There is also much manufacturing of many kinds (p. 129). Niagara Falls (Fig. 149), which are a'oout twenty miles from Buffalo, supply The. greatest of all the cities south- west of New York is Philadelphia (Fig. 187), which has over 3 ^^^^^^,^^^ 1,500,000 inhabitants, and and neighbor- ranks third among the "^^"'®^ cities of the United States. As in the Copyright, 1897, by William Rau. Fjg. 185. — The Battleship Iowa going at full speed. This was built in the shipyards below Philadelphia. electric power for use in lighting the city and in running street cars and factories. Much use is made of this electric power near the Falls, as at the city of Niagara Falls, which has become an important manufacturing center. Power from Niag- ara is used also for running electric cars between Buffalo and Niagara Falls and between Buffalo and Lockport. This electric power is carried by wire even as far east as Syracuse. How far is that? The State of New York ranks first among the states of the Union in popu- Rank of New lation, manufactures, com- York state merce, and wealth, and is often called the Empire State. The great size of New York City, with its manufacturing, commerce, and wealth, is the main reason for the high rank of the State. case of New York, other important cities are near by, the largest being Trenton and Camden, in New Jersey ; Chester Fig. 186. — Independence Hall, in Philadelphia. VER. ^ - NEW Bennington Y/ HAMPSHIRE FIG. 187. THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 141 Itoats; and coal and manufactured ^'oods are shipped westward. There is also much manufacturing of many kinds (p. 129). Niagara Falls (Fig. 149), which are about twenty miles from Buffalo, supply The. greatest of all the cities south- west of New York is Philadelphia (Fig. 187), which has over 3 ^^^^^^^^^^.^ 1,500,000 inhabitants, and and neighbor- ranks third among the *°^"^®^ cities of the United States. As in the Fig. 185. Copyright, 1897, by William Kau. ■The Battleship Iowa going at full speed. This was built in the shipyards below Philadelphia. electric power for use in lighting the city and in running street cars and factories. Much use is made of this electric power near the Falls, as at the city of Niagara Falls, which has become an important manufacturing center. Power from Niag- ara is used also for running electric cars between Buffalo and Niagara Falls and between Buffalo and Lockport. This electric power is carried by wire even as far east as Syracuse. How far is that? The State of New York ranks first among the states of the Union in popu- RankofNew lation, manufactures, com- York state merce, and wealth, and is often called the Umpire State. The great size of New York City, with its manufacturing, commerce, and wealth, is the main reason for the high rank of the State. case of New York, other important cities are near by, the largest being Trenton and Camden, in New Jersey ; Chester Fig. 186. — Independence Hall, in Plijladelphia. 142 NORTH AMERICA and NoRRisTOWN, in Pennsylvania; and Wilmington, in Delaware. the coal fields, Philadelphia has becon a great shipping point for coal. Tl coal and iron ha^ made possible the man facture of cars, hea\ machinery, and ste ships (Fig. 185) £ Philadelphia an Wilmington. Phil delphia is a center f( manufacturing textile especially woolen good there is much manufa turing of clothing ; an in the manufacture ( carpets this is the moi important city in tl country. Philadelphia is calk the Quaker City, b cause it was founded b William Penn and oth( Quakers, many of whof descendants still li\ there. It was the hon of Benjamin Franklii] and at one time, befoi Washington was buil it was the capital of tt United States. Indi pendence Hall, in whic the Declaration of Ii dependence was signe( and in which the Coi stitution of the Unite States was written, i Fig. 188. — Boston and vicinity. Also small maps of Providence, Portland, and Worcester. Notice the steamship and railway lines converging at Boston. Also the number of cities near Boston. Lines of steamships (Fig. 187) run from Philadelphia to the leading sea- ports of the United States and foreign countries. Because of its nearness to still standing (Fig. 186' Pennsylvania has th city of Erie, on Lak Erie, as New York has Buffalo; bu while Erie is an important 4 other dtic shipping and manufacturing »° PennsyWan center, it is much smaller than Buffalc THE NORTHEASTERN STATES 143 The city in Pennsylvania that ranks K'xt to Philadelphia is Pittsburg, the ^('venth city in size in the United States, ['ittsburg is located at the point where he Allegheny and Monongahela rivers mite to form the Ohio River, and there- ore has extensive water connections. It s a center for the manufacture of iron 11 id steel, and. of articles made from hem. Indeed, for such work it is the greatest center in the country. abroad. In return, ships from foreign countries bring such articles as coffee, tea, chocolate, rubber, wool, hides, and bananas, which are needed in New Eng- land. Boston and its vicinity have been important from the earUest days of our history. There, at the beginning of the Revolutionary War, oc- curred the Boston Tea Party, Paul Revere's Ride, and the Battle of Bunker Hill. The vi- cinity of Boston is also noted for its eminent Fig. 189. — A part of Boston, with its fine harbor beyond. 5. Boston The most important of the New Eng- and cities is BosTOisr, the fifth city in size in the United States. It is a great manufacturing center, being engaged in most of the industries already named, and especially in making clothing. Its size is chiefly due to its excellent harbor (Fig. 189) and its central location. The port of Boston is second only to that of New York in importance in the United States. Great quantities of raw materials are received here, to be sent to the factories of New England ; and the finished goods are shipped over all the world. Much grain and meat reach Boston from the West to be distributed among smaller cities, or to be shipped men. Harvard College, the oldest college in the United States, was founded in 1636 at Cam- bridge, three miles from Boston. Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, and Agassiz were professors at Harvard; and Hawthorne, Emerson, Thoreau, and Whittier lived not far from Boston. In the vicinity of Boston are many manufacturing cities and towns which also serve as places of resi- e. cities dence for the business men near Boston of Boston. Among these the largest are Cambridge and Somerville (Fig. 188), which have important industries of meat packing, machine manufacturing, and printing. Others are Chelsea and Mal- DEN, each engaged in manufacturing rub- ber goods and other articles. Still farther away are Lynn and Salem, both impor- tant cities. 144 NORTH AMERICA 'IHBbsj^^^N - M jgb^/3m ^^s^H * / 1 *?^^H ■ W' 1 ^-V^ ffl ■ ■ B pp^ "^ ^■dti *'''**wi»ii2?i*i§j m Summer resorts 1 . Why a nee of vacations Fig. 190. — The Washington elm at Cambridge. It was under this tree tliat Washington first took command of the American Army in July, 1775. Portland (Fig. 188), the largest city „ ^,. , in Maine, has an excellent 7. Other large ^ cities of New harbor. New Haven, the ^^^^ largest city in Connecticut, and Providence (Fig. 188), the largest in Rhode Island, are both on the seacoast. The seacoast of New Hampshire is very small, and the largest city, Man- chester, lies inland near some falls in the Merrimac River; but on the coast is the important city of Ports- mouth. Vermont has no seacoast. Its largest city, Burlington, is a lake port on Lake Champlain. There is so much manu- facturing and commerce in the Northeastern States that great numbers of people dwell in the cities ; an during most of the yea they are closely confined in noisy factories, or in offices and stores. To these, the woode mountains, the silvery lake; the rivers, with their fall and rapids, the green valleyi and the sandj^ or rocky sef coast offer great attractions and every summer tens c thousands run away fror town for a week or more, t enjoy their vacations at sue places. Many go to the gree slopes and woods of the Ad rondacks or the ^ ^herethe Catskills, in New people spend -tr 1 111 T-> 1 1 • their vacations York; or to the Berkshire Hills of Massachusetts ; or to the Whit Mountains of New Hampshire (Fig. 191 or to the mountains in Pennsylvania Fig. 191. — The railway up the slopes of Mount Washington, on whic thousands of summer visitors are taken to the top of the mountai every summer. THE NOBTREASTEUN STATES 145 Here they can enjoy the scenery and the mountain life to their hearts' content. ( )thers plunge into the woods of Maine or northern New Hampshire, to hunt and Jish, or to canoe upon the streams and lakes; and still others settle down at farm- liouses, to enjoy the quiet of the country. Many others visit the seashore to escape the heat and to bathe in the salt water, or to sail and row. So many go there, that a large part of the coast is dotted with summer cottages and hotels. Indeed, people come here from all parts of the United States. Thousands visit Atlantic City and Long Branch on the New Jersey coast. Nan- tucket Island and Martha's Vineyard are similar resorts farther north ; while just west of them, on Narragansett Bay, is Newport, noted for its many magnificent summer homes. Along the coast for many miles north and south of Boston there are noted summer resorts ; and the especially cool summers on the coast of Maine also attract great numbers of people. Review Questions 1. What can you say about the area of the Kortheastern States ? 2. Describe their sur- face. 3. Name and locate the principal mountainous regions. 4. Describe the coast line. 6. Explain what has made it so irregular. 6. Describe the climate in the north, with some of the reasons. 7. In the south. 8. What can you say about the population of these states ? 9. Why is the population so great ? 10. Why is the farming not especially important ? 11. Explain why the farms are usually small, and much used for truck faiming. 12. Why is there much dairying and raising of animals ? 13. Locate some of the more fertile sections and name their products. 14. Name other very important farm products. 15. What can you say about the supply of food ? 16. Locate the forests. 17. Tell how the lumbering industry is carried on. 18. What about the hardships of the lumberman's life ? 19. State the value of the forests. 20. What kinds of fish are caught in this region ? 21. Name and locate the centers of the fishing industry. 22. Tell about the mackerel fishing. 23. Fishing for halibut and cod. 24. Other ocean foods. 25. About the stone and clay. 26. About the salt industry. 27. About the production of petroleum and gas. 28. How has coal been formed ? 29. What is the origin of the different kinds of coal ? 30. Tell about the amounts and kinds of coal in Pennsylvania. 31. De- scribe the method of mining coal. 32. How is anthracite prepared for market ? 33. State the uses of coal. 34. Where is iron ore found ? Tell about its importance. 35. Its appearance ; also how formed, and mined. 36. Why is manufacturing especially important in these states ? 37. How is iron made ? 38. Name the kinds of iron. 39. Locate the principal centers for work in metal, and name the arti- cles made. 40. Tell about the manufacture of glass. 41. Pottery and brick. 42. Cement. 43. Give some idea of the extent and variety of the cotton and woolen manufacture. 44. De- scribe the method of cotton manufacturing. 45. Of woolen manufacture. 46. Name and locate the chief cities engaged in textile manu- facture. 47. What cities are engaged in leather manufacture, and what are some of the arti- cles made ? 48. How is leather prepared ? 49. Describe the method of making boots and shoes. 50. Tell about manufactures from the forest. 51. Name other prominent kinds of manufacturing in these states. 52. Tell about changes that have taken place in methods of manufacturing. 53. Why is commerce espe- cially important in these states ? 54. What about the harbors ? 55. The rivers and canals ? 56. The railroads ? 57. Name and locate sev- eral cities very near New York. What is the population in and near New York ? 58. Give reasons for so vast a population. 59. Describe life in the great city. 60. State some facts about Buffalo, and cities along the Erie Canal. 61. What can you say about the rank of New York State ? 62. Tell about Philadelphia and neighboring cities. 63. Other cities in Penn- sylvania. 64. Boston. 65. Cities near Boston. 66. Other large cities. 67. Explain the special need of vacations for people living in great cities. 68. Where and how do the people in these states spend them ? 146 NOUTB AMERICA Maine (Me.). 1. Draw the coast line of Maine. 2. Why is it so irregular ? 3. Find the principal rivers. 4. What cities Review Ques- ^^^ situated on each ? 5. Should tions by States , i n u • ^ j.i ^ you expect much nshmg along the coast ? Why ? 6. What reasons can you give why so many people resort to the Maine coast and woods in summer ? 7. Describe lumbering in Maine. 8. Which is the largest city ? How does it compare in size with Boston and Prov- idence ? (See Appendix at end of book.) 9. What other cities in Maine are mentioned in the text ? Find them on the map. 10. Draw an outline map of Maine, locating the principal rivers and lakes, the capital, and other leading cities. Do the same for each of the other states as you study about it. New Hampshire (N.H.). 11. What large lakes are found in this state ? What river ? 12. Name the cities on .it. 13. For what are they important ? 14. Why are there not more cities in northern New Hampshire ? 15. What industry should you expect there ? 16. Locate the White Mountains. 17. Where should you expect to find most farming ? 18. How does the largest city in the state compare in size with Portland ? Vermont (Vt.). 19. What large lake forms a part of the western boundary ? Into what waters does it empty ? 20. What river flows along the eastern boundary ? Through what states does it flow? 21. What is the name of the mountains ? 22. Lumbering is carried on, as in Maine ; into what waters must the lumber be floated ? 23. What other Vermont indus- tries are mentioned in the text ? 24. There is also farming in the fertile valleys, and manu- facturing, as at Brattleboro. Find Brattleboro. 25. Compare the size of the largest city with that of Manchester, N.H. Massachusetts (Mass.). 26. Compare Massa- chusetts with Vermont and Maine in area ; in population. (See Appendix.) 27. Name the large cities near Boston (Fig. 188), 28. Find the principal cities mentioned in the text, and tell where each is located. 29. For what is each important ? 30. What advantages do you see in the location of each ? 31. Name sev- eral seaports.; several manufacturing cities. 32. Where is the mountainous portion of the state ? 33. What effect should you expect the mountains to have upon agriculture? 34. State as clearly as you can the reasons why Boston has grown to be a large city. 35. Of what im portance is Boston to the cities near by 36. Of what importance are they to Boston ? Rhode Island (R.I.). 37. Compare this stab with Massachusetts and Maine in area. It i the smallest state in the Union. 38. What i the name of the bay in this state ? What citie are located on it ? 39. What large city i in Rhode Island ? How is it important ' 40. Compare its size with that of Boston anc Portland. 41. Should you expect much luni bering in Rhode Island? Why? 42. Wha kind of farming ? Why ? Connecticut (Conn, or Ct.). 43. Where ari the mountains in this state ? 44. Locate eacl of the cities mentioned in the text. 45. Tel how each is important. 46. The farms of Con necticut average better than those of Maine Why ? 47. There is little lumbering in th< state. Why? 48. Compare the size of Nev Haven with that of Boston and Portland. New York (N.Y.). 49. Where are the moun tains ? 50. What are their names ? 51. Wh\ are forests extensive here ? Why is there litth agriculture among the mountains ? 52. W^ha about the surface features of the rest of th( state ? 53. What about the extent of agricul ture ? 54. Tell about the dairying. 55. Wha fruits are important in New York, and when are they raised ? 56. What waters form parti of the boundary of the state ? 57. Into whai rivers do the lakes empty ? 58. What rivers drain New York ? 59. State clearly the impor tance of the Erie Canal. 60. Which cities men tioned in the text are on the canal ? Whict are on the Hudson ? 61. Compare New Yorl^ in size with all of New England. New Jersey (N. J.). 62. Why should peachej and grapes grow better in New Jersey than ir New England ? 63. Name and locate each o1 the cities mentioned in the text. 64. For whai is each important? Q>5. In what ways art some of the largest cities dependent upon the products of Pennsylvania ? QQ. What cities in New Jersey are situated on or very close to New York Bay ? Pennsylvania (Pa. or Penn.). 67. Where would you look for the best farm land ? 68. The principal forests ? 69. The leading coal mines ? 70. Where are the principal cities ? Why located where they are ? 71. Why is man- ufacturing so important in this state ? 72. What kind of manufacturing is especially important? Cities with over 600,000 St.LOUiS Citietwith loo.oowo 500,000- '_ iTew Orleans Citiet with 26,000 to IOO.OOOl HoUStOH Smaller Placet Sherman Cafitalt with less thanib,000 JACKSON Capitals ® Other Cities o WllUtmi Ea|r»iiig Co., M.7. 100° Longitude Wait from Ureeowlch 95 FIG. 192. SOUTHEBJif STATES (EASTER:N SECTION) gcale of Mi lea 200 250 300 Citiei iviih ever SDO,000. NeW YOtk Cities with with 100,000 to boo.vxL New OrUans Ci^,RGmiA ^.: ENNESSEE Fia. 201. — The cotton belt. Each dot represents 1,000,000 pounds of cotton. Some single plantations in these states have several thousand acres in sugar cane. The cane is planted in either the fall or spring, in rows about six feet r' °^ ^* , apart. The stalks grow in the summer to be two or more inches in diameter, and reach such a height that a man riding through a field on horseback may be entirely hidden from view. The cane is ready to be cut in the fall, after the middle of October. As soon as the stalks are cut, they are drawn to the sugarhouse in wagons, or, on the larger plantations, in railway cars (Fig. 203). Fig. 202. — Cutting the sugar cane on a plantation in Louisiana. most of the cane sugar comes from tropical lands. Our most noted sugar district is the delta of the Mississippi and to crystallize the sugar. This In the sugarhouse the cane is ground between rol- lers in order to (4),,,,,,, squeeze out the sugar is rr u obtained juice. 1 n e waste cane, left after the juice is pressed out, is used as a fuel to run the engines of the sugarhouse ; the juice, or sap, is placed in large vats and warmed, to drive out the water in it 154 NORTH AMERICA JiiiTMiiii !illll||| Fig. 203. — Carrying the sugar cane to the cars which will take it to the sugarhouse A scene on a Louisiana plantation. The molasses is used for various purposes, some of it being manufactured into sirup for the table, and some of it into rum. Molasses is a by-product, like sawdust in a lumber mill, and is not of great value to the sugar raiser. Rice, a third South- ern crop that is not grown in ^ ^.^^ the North, (i) uh impor- is onp of ^'^'^'^^ "* a food leaves two products, a thick black molasses, and brown sugar. Some large sugarhouses produce as much as 14,000,000 pounds of sugar in a year. The crude, brown sugar is sent from the sugarhouse to a refinery, either in New Orleans or in the North. At the refinery it is changed to w^hite sugar, from which the various grades of granu- lated, powdered, and lump sugar are made. In changing the brown sugar to white, burned bones, called bone black, are used to filter out the impure parts. The bones are obtained from Chicago, and elsewhere, where large numbers of animals are killed for meat. the most important foods in the world ; it is, in fact, the chief food of some nations, for example, the Chinese. It is not eaten so much in our country, but still we use far more than we raise. One reason why we have raised too lit- tle rice for our use is that it requires a warm climate and a damp, .g, ^.^ even a swampy soil. The may raise more T , • 'x ui • in the future climate is suitable m many parts of the South, but the wet soil is not so common. On the Coastal Plains and the river flood plains, from the Carolinas to Texas, there is some such land. There rice culture has long been carried on, the principal districts being in South Caro- lina and Louisiana. ^^^.liiJBHSyB^&iHLlIillii ^ i^EByy .m _ li^ ^ \ ^^ ^^^^y^^^ m ■ fT| J'lu. 204. — Threshing rice ou a large rice plantation in I^uisiaijcV. THE SOUTHERN STATES 155 5. Tobacco In recent years rice production has been greatly increased by irrigation. By leading the water from streams, or springs, it has been found possible to make the soil as wet as necessary even on some of the higher, well-drained plains. With irrigation, rice culture may be carried on over much of the warmer part of the South. Some day, therefore, our country may supply all the rice we need, and even have some to spare. Louisiana, Texas, and South Carolina produce most of the rice now raised in the country, though some comes from other Southern States. When white men first came to America, they found the Indians smoking a weed called tobacco. Thfe white men soon learned the habit from the Indians, and in- troduced it into Europe, so that a great demand for tobacco arose. From that time, one of the principal crops of Virginia has been tobacco. Kentucky now raises even more than Vir- ginia, and these two states together produce more than one half of the entire amount grown in our coun- try. Yet tobacco raising is an impor- tant industry in nearly every one of the Southern States, Tennessee and North Carolina growing an especially large amount. Some tobacco is raised also in the Northern States, even as far north as the Connecticut Valley (p. 117). The leading tobacco markets of the Southern States are Richmond, Peters- burg, Lynchburg, and Danville, Va.; Durham, N.C; Clarksville, Tenn., and Louisville, Ky. Besides the crops that have been named, almost all the farm products common to other parts of e. other im- the country are raised in portant crops the South. For instance, great amounts Fig. 205. — A field of tobacco in Tennessee. of corn, wheat, hay, and oats are grown, as well as fruits and vegetables. Truck farming and gardening are also profitable industries. In the warm South, fruits and vegetables ripen ear- lier than in the North, and these early products can be sent North for sale long before the season for them there. There is so great a demand for these early fruits and vegetables, that gardening has rapidly developed in recent years. 156 NORTH AMEBIC A Whole trainloads of tomatoes, straw- berries, peaches, green peas, potatoes, and other fruits and vegetables are sent ■ ' i ' |f- Ml n ^^m ^L um .^JS^RI Wm^^^^^^X /i jKl 9 ^^^^^^K^^^^^^RraJTjl B^l Hi HnLr ^SMftnW ■ 1 Fig. 206. — A field of corn in Arkansas. Notice how very tall the corn grows in the warm climate. to Northern cities during early spring and summer. In the most southerly part of this group, especially in Florida, fruits that demand an almost tropical climate are grown. Among these are the orange (Fig. 207), lemon, and grapefruit ; and in southern Florida, the pineapple, cocoanut, and banana. Various kinds of live Jaisinr*^^ stock, such as horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, are raised, each plantation usually having some of these animals. Large numbers of cattle are reared also in the open pine forests of the Coastal Plains, especially in Florida and Georgia. An important draft animal, . well suited to the warm climate, is the mule. On the fertile plains, especially in Ten- nessee and Kentucky, there are stock farms where particular attention is paid to raising mules and fine breeds of horses. Kentucky is famous for its fine stock, especially horses and mules, raised in the " Blue Grass Region " about Lex- ington. The grass here has a bluish color, and is very nourishing, suited for the raising of stock. The reason why this grass is so nourishing is that the soil in this section is made of bits Fig. 207. — An orange tree, loaded with fruit, in a Florida orange grove. of decayed limestone in which there is lime phosphate, an excellent plant food. This phos- phate comes from the shells of small animals THE SOUTHERN STATES 157 which lived in the sea that once covered this region. Dying, they helped to make a deposit of sediment on the sea bottom. This sediment has since changed to limestone rock, which is now raised above the sea. As the limestone a herd of cattle or sheep, and cowboys riding to and fro. There is no reason for large cities here, and the life of the cowboys and Fig. 208. — Cattle grazing on the broad plains of western Texas. CO'.OIMOO decays, the phosphate mixes with other rock bits, and thus fertilizes the soil. Because of the abundance of limestone in this part of Kentucky, numerous caves are found there. These caves are long tunnels that have been slowly eaten out by water that percolates through the rock, dissolving the limestone. The largest of all is the Mammoth Cave, which is said to have more than one hundred and fifty miles of tunnels, or galleries. These wind about in tin ir- regular manner, some being many feet below others, and all together forming a network, or labyrinth, into which a stranger dares not venture without a guide. In the western part of Texas, particularly in the north, where there is little rainfall, grazing is the chief industry. The climate is so dry that the grass cures, and becomes hay, while still upon the ground, making excellent feed for cattle (Fig. 208) and sheep. One may travel for miles over the plains of west- ern Texas, seeing little else than a ranch house here and there, with now and then sheep herders is a lonely one. It is their work that helps to supply our tables with meat, and to give us our woolen clothing and our shoes. Explain how hundreds of New England families depend for their daily meat upon the products of these distant, lonely ranches. KANSAS ImiSSOU'RI* ! S'"^^^'-'^'''-^'"^- Sovthem Pine Retfion Kv'v^ Hardwood ForcH Regum Appalachian Fori'St Fig. 209. — The forest regions of the Southern States. How much people depend upon one another ! Figure 209 shows how extensive the forests are in the Southern States. Not 168 NORTH AMERICA Fig. 210. ■ A view on the water front at Savannah, where much lumber is shipped. Lumbering 1 . Extent of forests ; kinds of trees all the land, however, marked as forest on this map is covered with woods. Farming is a very great industry in these re- gions. The map is intended to show merely that Tnuch timber grows in all these states. As a matter of fact, about twice as much land is covered with forest as is taken up by farms. There is a great amount of hard pine — often called Georgia pine — on the Coastal Plains. This timber is sent to all the cities of the North. It is shipped from the coastal cities of Charleston, S.C, Savannah and Brunswick, Ga., Jacksonville and Pen- SACOLA, Fla., and Mobile, Ala., as well as from other sea- ports. On the higher lands such hardwoods as oak and hickory thrive (Fig. 211). In which states are these higher lands found ? Quantities of hard- wood are shipped from Mem- phis and from other points. Name some of the uses to which these different kinds of wood are put. Nearly one half of all the timber now cut in the United States comes from the South. The method of lumbering in the South is very different from that of the North- eastern States (p. ^, , ^f"?^ 118). In the South °^l"-^-°« there are no heavy snows to level the uneven ground and to cause floods in the streams. Therefore, logs cannot be floated down to the tidewater by means of spring freshets. On this account the sawmills are located in the midst of the forests, if possible on the river banks. To them the logs are brought, either by vs^ater, by wagon, or by train (Fig. 212), and then are sawed into lumber. There is much fishing here, as in New Eng- land, but the kinds of fish are different. Cod and halibut are Fishing not found, because they live only • ^^'.'^'^^ in the colder waters. There are, however, other kinds of food fish, among the Fig. 211. Lumbermen at work cutting hardwood logs hi the mountains of western North Carolina. THE SOUTHERN STATES 159 most valuable being oysters, shad, and blueiish ; and in southern Florida there are spongfe and turtle fishing. The sponge grows in the warm, shallow waters of the coral reefs, and the im- mense sea turtles swim about on the surface of the ocean. The alligator, whose skin is made into a valuable leather, also is found in Florida, but is becoming Oysters are found in the bays all the way from Cape Cod to the Rio Grande ; 2. The oyster bllt One of the industry best pkces for them is Chesapeake Bay, where the waters are warm, ,<;[iallow, and quiet. . From this broad, branching bay they are col- lected in great quantities, some being shipped away fresh in the shell, while many are canned, like fruit. Baltimore and Norfolk are especially noted for this industry. When young, the oysters swim freely about; but after reaching a certain age, they sink to ; he bottom, fasten themselves to some solid sub- water is so deep that they must be dragged, or dredged, up with a long-handled rake. Steamers and sailing boats are used for this purpose. Oysters thrive so well in these warm Southern waters, and they are so highly Fig. 212. COLORADO Fig. 213. —The coalfields of the Southern States. stance, as a stone or an oyster shell, and never afterwards move from that spot. They depend for food upon what is brought to their mouths by the tidal currents. Sometimes they can be picked up by hand from a boat ; but usually the Lumbermen loadini; logs on a train in the forest of eastern North Carolina. prized for food, that the culture of oys- ters is given careful attention. There are many " oyster farms " ; that is, patches of shallow water in which young oysters are planted, as seeds are planted in a garden, to be gathered when they have grown to full size. These " farms " are fenced in by stakes, and are owned and cared for as care- fully as ordinary farms are. From what has been said, you can see that farming and lumber- ing are among the Growth leading industries of of the South the South. Yet neither of these requires a dense population, or causes the growth of large cities. From this it is clear why people are more scattered in the Southern than in the Northeastern States. Of late years, however, other industries have been rapidly de- veloping in the South; the popula- tion has been increasing very fast, and seems likely to increase much more in the near future. Mining is one of the occupations that "O;- > 160 NOHTH AMERICA have been rapidly developing, and many valuable minerals are found. Among these minerals the most im- ining portant is soft or bituminous coal, which is mined in large quantities. The states where this coal is found are shown on the map (Fig. 213). What are their names? Note also what states have lignite, or brown coal. This is not so good as the bitu- minous coal, but is of much value. One 3. Oil and gas Fig. 214. — A marble quarry near Knoxville, Tennessee. fourth of the coal of the country now comes from these states. Iron ore is mined in several of the Southern States, especially Tennessee and Alabama ; but Alabama supplies nearly as much as all the others together. Only two other states in the country, Minnesota and Michigan, produce more iron ore than Alabama. The most noted mining re- gion in the South is that around Bir- mingham, Ala., near the southern end of 2. Iron ore the Appalachian system. Here iron ore, coal, and limestone, the three materials necessary for the production of iron and steel (p. 128), are found very close to- gether. There is not much natural gas pro- duced in the Southern States, though it is found in several of them. The greatest quan- tity comes from Oklahoma. Petroleum, however, is of very great importance. Vast quantities have been found in Texas and in Louisiana, near the Gulf of Mexico, and this is now one of the most noted oil regions in the world. Millions of barrels of oil are produced there every year. Much is also found in West Virginia, in Oklahoma, and some in Tennessee. There are valuable deposits of granite in several of the states, especially North and South Carolina, Georgia, Arkansas, and Texas. Excellent sandstone for building, and lime- stone for various uses, are also widely distributed. Among the important uses of the limestone here, as in the North, is the manufacture of Portland cement (p. 131). There is much beautiful marble in Texas, Georgia, and Tennessee. The Georgia marble is widely known for its great beauty ; and near Knoxville, in eastern Tennessee, marble of different colors is quarried (Fig. 214). What city in Vermont is likewise noted for marble (p. 123) ? Clays of fine quality for bricks, tiles, etc., are found in many places. The soil of farms often becomes worn out and needs a fertilizer. There are va- 4. Building stones and clays THE SOUTHERN STATES 161 rious kinds of fertilizers, such as manure and bone dust, which furnish the plant food needed by crops; but 6. Phosphates (• xi x • x x one 01 the most important kinds is mineral phosphate. This is found in great quantities in Florida, Tennessee, and South Carolina; and from these states much phosphate is now obtained. Besides being used in the South, it is shipped from Charles- ton, Jacksonville, and Tampa for use on farms in the North. The phosphate is composed largely of the fossil remains of animals, such as the teejih of sharks, and the bones and teeth of larger land animals that lived in this country in former ages. The South produces a variety of other minerals. Salt, for instance, is obtained in Texas e;J'*o1ul°" and Louisiana Bauxite, the mineral from which aluminum is made, is found in Georgia, Alabama, and Arkansas. Gold is mined in North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama ; silver in Texas and Ten- nessee; and copper in Tennessee. Some precious stones, such as the sapphire and the diamond, are also found. The South is, therefore, a rich mineral region, and mining is rapidly growing in importance. in the form of furniture. Very little iron ore or coal was mined in those days. The situation is now greatly changed. Indeed, the advance made in manufac- turing since the Civil War has been wonderful. This is shown in Figure 215, for a single one of the products of the South. Explain this figure. There are so many valuable raw products in the South, that there are great opportunities for man- ^ conditions ufacturing. Among these favorable to 1 , XX manufacturing products are cotton, sugar cane, corn, wheat, cattle, sheep, lumber, 1 Wr^'y-^Y h-oportion exported ^^^^^Proportion sent to Northern Hates 3 ^^^^Prn2}ortion coniumed in South Fig. 215. —Diagram to show what was done with the Southern cotton in liKX), as compared with 1880. Before the Civil War there was little manufacturing in the South. The ne- groes, who did most of the hand labor, lacked the train- ing necessary to handle ma- chinery. The raw materials were shipped away, and the manufactured articles were brought back. Thus cotton went to England, New England, and elsewhere, some of it to be returned in the form of cloth ; and lumber was shipped to various Northern cities, often to be sent back Manufac- turing 1 . Great ad vances in this industry and iron ore. There is also an abun- dance of coal for power, and there are many rivers and mountain streams that can furnish water power. In some cities there are many cotton mills ; for example, in Charlotte, N.C, there are twenty-three, and g cotton in and near Spartanburg, manufacturing S.C, thirty-seven. In many (i)^^,,^,„^ other towns there are one or cotto7i manu- , -n -r\ Ml TT facturinq, and two. From Danville, Va., leading centers to Atlanta, Ga., cotton mills are very numerous, and there are others 162 NORTH AMMRICA throughout the cotton belt. Indeed, the Piedmont Plateau has become one of the greatest cotton manufacturing sections in the world. The map (Fig. 216) shows the distribution of these mills in a number of the Southern States. Fig. 21G. — A map to show the extent of cotton manufac- turing in the South. Each dot represents one mill. While hundreds of Southern cities and towns now manufacture cotton cloth and cottonseed oil, Charlotte, N.C, Colum- bia, Greenville, and Spartanburg, S.C., and Augusta, Columbus, and At- lanta, Ga., lead in these industries. What cities in New England are noted for cotton manufacture (p. 131) ? Where does their raw cotton come from ? The following facts from an Alabama cotton mill give some idea of the size and output of these mills. This particular mill (2)mamngof ^,^^^^^^ goO hands, including men, women, boys, and girls, and pays them about $2000 a week in wages. Every day this mill consumes 15 bales of cotton, each weighing about 600 pounds. Since the average yield per acre of land is about 250 pounds, you can easily figure out how many acres of cotton are required in one year to supply this single mill. In this mill, as in many others, white people are employed to do the work. While many of the mills are in cities, others are in the country ; and there villages have sprung up near the mills. Some of these new villages are already so large that they have their own schoolhouses and churches. In the early days the cotton seeds were slowly picked out of the cotton by hand and thrown away. (S) -ffaiue of Whitney's invention of the th^ cotton gin cotton gin, in 1793, made it possible for one laborer to separate as much as a thousand pounds from the seed in the same time that five or six pounds could be cleaned by hand. That, of course, made cotton raising far more profitable, and led the planters to raise more. • The seeds have also been found to be of value, and are no longer thrown away. Oil is pressed out of (4) yaiue o/ them, which is used in mak- ^''""'^ *^^^ ing soap, imitation lard and butter, and a substitute for olive oil. There are from two to three pounds of seed to one pound of cotton, and since, on the average, one acre produces two hundred and fifty pounds of cotton, the value of the cotton seed from a large planta- tion is not small. The part of the seed Fig. 217. — A cotton mill at Huntsville, Alabama. There are many others as large as this, and many, also, that are even larger. that is left, after the oil is pressed out, has been found to be an excellent food for cattle, and a good fertilizer. Thus the cotton plant now produces two valu- able substances besides the cotton fiber. THE SOUTHERN STATES 163 Birmingham has devel- oped such extensive iron , „ , manufacturing 4. Manufac- . . ^ ture of iron and that it IS Olten steeigoods called the •• Pittsburg of the South." What special advantages has it (p. 160) ? In and near this city, as at Pittsburg, the iron ore is reduced to iron in blast furnaces (p. 128) and then manufactured into steel and various other useful ar- ticles. Baltimore, in Maryland, and Wilmington, in Dela- ware, are likewise important in this industry. To each of these cities both coal and iron can be easily shipped. Baltimore makes many kinds of iron goods; Wilming- ton is noted especially for the manu- facture of cars, heavy machinery, and ships. Other centers- of iron manufacture are Richmond, in Virginia ; Wheeling, in West Virginia ; Atlanta and Rome, in Georgia; Louisville, in Kentucky; Fig. 218. — Interior of a cotton mill in the South. There are scores of machines, each one weaving the cotton fiber into cloth. and Knoxyille, Chattanooga, and other cities in Tennessee. Although much of the pine, oak, and other lumber is sent North, a great deal of it is made into doors, . _, , ' 5. Manufac- blinds, furniture, etc., at turesfrom factories in Macon, Mont- ^"^°''"^* GOMERY, Mobile, Chattanooga, Mem- phis, Little Rock, and Atlanta (Fig. 220). Locate each of these cities. II II iliilHiiitiuiii ,1111111111 luniiii II II iiniiiliiiiiiiii iiiiiiimnimiu^^- II 11 tLiiitiiiiiuiiii iiaiuiiMimiii II II iiiiniiimiiiii mimm Mil imuii II 11 Ih. — ""• Fig. 219. — A Southern cotton mill at nighttime. Power is obtained from the river. 164 NORTH AMERICA High Point, in North Carolina, "the Grand Rapids of the South," is now one of the most noted furniture manufac- turing centers of the Southern States, although a few years ago it was hardly known. There are now eighty manu- facturing plants there. The Southern forests are of value in several other ways. From them are obtained turpentine and tannic acid (p. 132). Turpentine is made from the sap of the long-leafed pine. The bark Fig. 220. — A pliuiing- inill in eastern North Carolina. Notice the great piles of boards in the yard behind the mill. is cut through near the base of the tree, when the liquid from which turpentine is made oozes forth. Other products from the pine are rosin, tar, and wood alcohol. Some of the other articles manufac- tured in the South have already been 6 oth r mentioned ; for example, manufactures tobacco (p. 155) and sugar in the south ^p^ ^^^y j^ ^^^^ ^^gg ^^^ work is confined mainly to the sections from which the raw material comes. Thus, New Orleans, near the sugar plantations, has large sugar refineries. Raleigh, Durham, and Winston-Salem, in North Carolina, Louisville, in Ken- tucky, and Lynchburg, Danville, and Richmond, in Virginia, manufacture tobacco. Key West, on a small coral key south of the Florida peninsula, is also noted for its tobacco factories. It is so near Cuba that the Havana tobacco, so much prized by cigar smokers, is easily obtained. There is also cigar manufac- turing at Tampa. Why there ? Besides the articles mentioned, the South makes a great variety of other goods from the products of the farm, ranch, forest, and mine. The irregular coast line of parts of the Southern States suggests that there are many harbors there. Good Transoor- harbors are especially nu- tation merous in the northern part. ^- Harbors Observe how far the waters of Chesa- peake and Delaware bays extend into the land. The cities of Baltimore and Wilmington, on these bays, have much the same advantages for shipping goods that Philadelphia has. Norfolk aud Richmond, in Virginia, are also good shipping points. Farther south, although the water in some of the bays is shallow, and sand bars are com- mon, there are many good harbors; and the United States government is spending much money in deepening and improving others, so that the largest ships may enter them. The commerce of the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico is greatly aided by the Mississippi River. This mighty stream, together with its tributaries, drains a vast area, inhabited by millions of people. Name the principal tributaries, and tra(>e them to their sources. On Figure 402 note how far up these rivers boats can go. " Since transportation of goods is cheapest by water, a large amount of freight is sent up and down these water- ways (Fig. 226). No wonder, therefore, that the United States government is 2. Rivers THE SOUTHERN STATES 165 spending large sums of money in im- proving them. In addition to the waterways, there are railways connecting all important points in 3. Railroads \ these states, and reaching out to all parts of our country. These carry great quan- tities of freight, as well as many passengers. Among the most im- portant railroads are the Southern, the Southern Pacific, the Louisville and Nash- ville, and the Baltimore and Ohio. The principal cities in the South, as in the Principal North, are cities those that have grown up at the best shipping points, or at points most favor- able to manufacturing. Baltimore, the larg- est of all, is the seventh c i t V in 1 . Baltimore . ". , Size m the United States, having over half a million in- habitants. It has an excellent harbor, far inland, in the fertile state of Maryland, near the head of Chesapeake Bay. Coal and iron can easily reach it from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and West Vir- ginia ; and, like New York and Phila- delphia, it has a large amount of manu- facturing and commerce. It is further noted as a center of oyster fishing and shipping. Baltimore, besides being one of our busiest, is also one of our most beautiful, cities. Map to show the location of Baltimore aud Washington. A few miles south of Baltimore, at An- napolis, is the United States Naval Acad- emy, which prepares officers for the navy, as West Point prepares them for the army. 166 NORTH AMERICA Fig. 2*22. ■ Peuiisylvania Avenue, in Washington, sliowini at the farther end. Southwest of Baltimore, on the Poto- mac River, is the District of Columbia, where Washington, our national capital (Fig. 221), is situated. This site was chosen for the capital long ago, when it was near the center of the settled part of the country. On Figure 367 you will find a star showing where that center is now. The District of Columbia does not form k a part of any state, but is controlled A direct- ly by the national govern S ment. the Capitol gress, Washington is unlike other cities in two respects. In the first place, since it was certain that it would one day be very large, it was carefully planned, with wide streets and many parks. For that reason it is more beautiful than most cities. In the second place, the people, un- like those of other large cities, are not chiefly interested in manufacturing and commerce. Here reside the President and his cabinet, members of Con- and the foreign ambassadors and other representatives of the great nations of the world. Besides these there are many thousands of men and women at work in the different depart- ments of the government. The chief buildings, therefore^ are not factories and private offices, but government buildings (Fig. 223). Wilmington, on the Delaware River, is the largest city in Delaware. Explain the advantage of its location. Like Fig 223.— The National Capitol Building at Wasliingtou. THE SOUTHERN STATES 167 Camden, New Jersey, it should be associated with Phila- 3. Wilmington i i , • delphia as an important manufac- turing center. (See p. 142.) The mouth of Chesa- peake Bay has already 4. Cities of been referred Virginia to as the sitc of important harbors. The principal city at this point is Norfolk, a manufacturing and ship- ping center for cotton, lumber, iron, and other products. It is one of the leading Southern ports, and has been ad- vancing rapidly. Near by are other important ports. Name two. The winter climate in this section is so mild that many people from the North go there for the winter season. Nor- folk, Newport News, and Old Point Comfort are popular winter resorts. The largest city of Virginia is Richmond, the capital of the state, at the head of tidewater on the James River. It is important as a tobacco market, and as a rapidly growing manu- facturing center. What other important cities of Virginia have already been named ? Among Southern cities, the one next to Baltimore in size is New Orleans, Fig. 224. — Map to show location of New Orleans, Memphis, Birmingham, and Atlanta. on the Mississippi River about one hundred miles above its mouth. At this point the Mississippi makes a great bend in the Orleans form of a half circle, which (D ^^« ^'^^ ^ and location explains the name Crescent City, comnionly given to New Orleans. Large ocean vessels caii reach this 168 NORTH AMERICA By courtesy of Mississippi River Coiimiission. Fig. 225. — The embankment, or levee, along the Mississippi, built to prevent the river from overflowing the flood plain. port, and (2) Its connec- tion by water and rail river boats (Fig. 226) can travel from it as far up as Pittsburg on the Ohio River, and a great distance, also, up the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. On Figure 138 measure the distance from New Orleans to Pittsburg. To St. Paul. To Kansas City. How do these dis- tances compare with those from New York to Chicago and to Duluth ? Also, how far apart are Pittsburg and Kansas City? Much of the country between these cities is within easy reach of the Mississippi or some of its branches. Like New York, New Orleans is connected with the interior of the country by rail as well as by water. The Illinois Central Rail- way extends all the way to Chi- cago, running parallel to the river for much of the distance ; the Louisville and Nashville reaches Louisville, St. Louis, and other cities; and the Southern Railway runs from Washington to Altanta, with connections to New Orleans ; and thence the Southern Pacific Railway extends westward, across Texas, to California. Much of the land on which New Orleans is built is frequently below the level of the river. In fact, from Memphis southward, a large part of the land on either side of the Mississippi is a low flood plain, spreading" out for many miles, and often threatened with floods. The mighty river, receiving tributaries from regions thousands of miles apart, is charged (3) Difficulties .,, n 1 caused by With yellow mud, the river which gradually sinks to the bottom as the current becomes slower toward the mouth. This has built up the bed of the river, so that at high water the floods would spread out over the low land if they were not shut in by strong walls of earth, called levees (Fig. 225). In spite of their strength, these embank- ments sometimes give way, especially in the springtime, when the snows are melting in the North ; then the destruction to life and prop- erty is appalling. At such times hundreds of men patrol the levees, night and day, to check the slightest leak. Even a hole made by craw- fish may be the beginning of a destructive flood. Because the land near the river is so low, the soil on which New Orleans stands is very damp. Indeed, in digging foundations for buildings, water is reached a short distance below the sur- face. On that account it has been difficult to Fig. 226. — Loading Mississippi River boats from the leve©. THE SOUTHERN STATES 169 provide proper drainage. A system of drainage and sewerage has, however, been established at great expense. New Orleans once belonged to France (4) People, (P- 1^^)' ''^.^ ^"^^ P^''^^'' ^"^ and climate six in the citj is of French 0/ the city ^^^^^ French is still spoken by some of these. Frost seldom reaches this city, and the midwinter weather is rarely colder than the early autumn of the North. What must be the effect of this climate upon the style of houses ? Also upon the presence of birds, flowers, and fruits in winter ? Far up on the Ohio River is Louisville, the fourth city in size in the Southern States, and the largest in Ken- tucky. There in the river at this point, but a canal leads around them. Louisville is of a splendid farming country, it is a dis- tributing point for supplies to the sur- rounding towns and farms. It is also one of the educational centers of the South. Chattanooga is situated on the rug- ged plateau west of the Appalachians. It is on the Tennessee River (Fig. 227), at a point which makes it an important gateway. There is much manufacturing here, especially of articles made of iron and wood. Another busy manufactur- ing city, near by, is Knoxville, which is a little smaller than Chattanooga. 6. Other cities on the Missis- sippi River and tributaries (1) Louisville and Memphis are rapids a leading center for tobacco manufacture and trade, as well as for the manufac- ture of iron goods and other articles. On the Mississippi River, midway be- tween New Orleans and Louisville, is Memphis, the largest city in Tennessee. It is in the midst of the cotton and hardwood sections, and is noted for its cotton and lumber trade. It is situated on a high bluff, with the Mississippi River at its base. Give reasons why that is a favorable location. Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, has sawmills, furniture fac- tories, and flour mills. There Chattanooga ^^^ ^^^.^ ^^^^^ ^-^ hundred factories in this city. Being in the midst (3) Other cities (2) Nashville, Knoxville, and Fig. 227. — Moccasin Bend in tJie Tennessee River, as seen from Lookout Mountain. Chattanooga is situated on the river banli just to the right of the middle of the picture. Find Baton Rouge, in Louisiana ; ViCKSBURG and Jackson, in Mississippi ; Little Rock, in Arkansas ; and Guthrie, in Oklahoma. These are all centers of trade in the states where they are situated. Which of them are state capitals ? Atlanta (Fig. 228), the " Gate City," is one of the few large cities not located upon a water route. North- Atlanta east of it, for over three hundred and fifty miles, there is no easy pass across the mountains, and un- til 1880, in all that distance, no railway crossed the Appalachian Mountains. 170 NOBTFI AMERICA Fig. 228. — A view of Atlanta. Near Atlanta, however, there is a good route ; and railways reaching westward from the Carolinas, or northern Georgia, come together here, making Atlanta a great railway center. Owing to its favorable situation as a railway shipping point, Atlanta is the leading interior wholesale market of the South ; and it surpasses all Southern cities in the number and variety of its Copyright, liUKI, by Detroit Pliotographio Co. Fig. 229. — Tbousancjs of bales of cotton on one of the wharves at Savannah, ready for shipment. manufactures. Among its factories are lumber, cotton, and iron mills. It is one of the most progressive cities in the country, and, like other Southern cities, is growing rapidly. The coast cities are engaged chiefly in shipping cotton and lumber, and most of them are located near the „ ^ _, . 8. Seaports mouths of rivers, so that east of the these goods may be brought Mississippi to them by water as well as by rail. In them, also, there is important manufac- turing, especially of cotton goods and lumber. Two of the best-known seaports are Charleston and Savan- nah, both long noted as - shipping points for cotton (Fig 229), lumber (Fig. 210), and other goods. Charleston is the leading lumber port in the South. Mobile, on Mobile Bay, is another im- portant Southern port. In Florida are Tampa and PensacolAj both with ex- TEE SOUTHERN STATES 171 cellent harbors, and both rapidly growing. Besides its cigar manufacturing (p. 164), Tampa has a growing trade with the West Indies. It is the terminus of important railways, and is the nearest port in the country to the Panama Canal. When this canal is finished, Tampa, Pensacola and other Southern seaports will no doubt have a still greater trade. Galveston ranks third in importance among the sea- o «.,. -^ portsof the Southern States; 9. other cities r r r\ west of the Mis- only Baltimore and New Or- sissippi River igg^j^g j^^^yg niorc shipping. It is the outlet for a great amount of Fig. 231. — A view of Oklahoma City as it appeared April 22, 1889 Fig. 230. — Even the small streams and canals are nsed for M,.j.,.,i,^ w, i-ut. Here, for example, are six thousand bales of cotton on a barge in the Houston Canal, in Texas, bound for the seacoa.st, to be placed on vessels for shipment to England. It is a state of splendid resources, and as soon as the government opened the land to settlement by white men, large numbers of settlers went there. Within a few years so many people have made their homes in Oklahoma that it has been changed from a terri- tory to a state. It al- ready has three thriv- ing cities, — Guthrie, Oklahoma, and Shaw- nee ; and there are other rapidly growing towns. Which is the capital ? 1. What states are included in this group ? 2. What can you say about their area and pop- cotton and other goods produced north and west of it. Houston, Dallas, Fort Worth, San Antonio, and Aus- tin are other leading cities of Texas. Locate El Paso, the leading city in western Texas. Oklahoma, one of our newest states, includes what was formerly called Indian Territory, a region re- served as the home of several Indian tribes. Fig. 232. — a view of a part of Oklahoma City in 1908. 172 NORTH AMERICA ulation ? 3. Name and locate the principal mountains. 4. State the principal facts about the Coastal Plains. 5. The Pied. OuIsTons mont Plateau. 6. The Fall Line. 7. The other plains found in these states. 8. The coast line. 9. Describe the cli- mate. 10. How does agriculture rank in com- parison with the other industries ? 11. Give facts showing the importance of the cotton crop. 12. What is the method of raising and market- ing it? 13. Tell about the sugar industry. 14. Rice. 15. Tobacco. 16. Other farm products. 17. Ranching. 18. Lumbering. 19. Kinds of fishing. 20. The oyster industr3^ 21. What about coal mining? 22. The production of iron ore? 23. Oil and natural gas? 24. Build- ing stones and clays ? 35. Phosphates ? 26. State the advances recently made in manu- facturing. 27. How are conditions very favorable to manufacturing? 28. Show the extent of cotton manufacture. 29. Explain the value of the cotton gin ; of the cotton seed. 30. Give some idea of the importance of iron and steel manufacture, and name some of the principal centers for such work. 31. State similar facts in regard to manufactures from the forest. 32. Name and locate other kinds of manufactur- ing in these states. 33. What advantages does the South enjoy for transportation of goods ? 34. Recall the leading facts about Baltimore. 35. Washington. 36. Wilmington. 37. Cities of Virginia. 38. New Orleans. 39. Louis- ville and Memphis. 40. Nashville, Knoxville, and Chattanooga. 41. Other cities on the Mis- sissippi and its tributaries. 42. Atlanta. 43. Seaports east of the Mississippi River. 44. Other cities west of the Mississippi River. Delaware (Del.) 1. Which is the principal city in this state ? 2. For what is it noted ? 3. Why is it especially well situ- ReviewQues- ated for that industry ? 4. Com- tions by States .^ .^, »m pare it with Albany in size. 5. The principal industries of the state are fruit raising and farming. What two reasons can you give for this fact ? Maryland (Md.). 6. In , which section is farming most important? Why? 7. What products can you expect from the mountains ? Why ? 8. Notice how branching Chesapeake Bay is. Why is it so irregular? 9. What influence must this have upon the number of oysters found there ? 10. Why is Baltimore favorably situated for receiving coal and iron from Pennsylvania? 11. For canning fruit, vegetables, and oysters ? 12. What might be the effect upon the growth of Baltimore if the land should rise, so that Chesapeake Bay disap- peared and the Susquehanna flowed through it ? 13. Compare the size of Baltimore with that of Boston. Virginia (Va.). 14. In what other state was the capital the most important city ? 15. Locate the fertile Great Valley that is found in Virginia (Fig. 221). 16. What kinds of agriculture are carried on here ? 17. What river separates Virginia from Maryland ? What river crosses the middle of Virginia? 18. Compare Richmond in size with Albany. 19. How does Virginia rank in iron produc- tion (Fig. 393)? 20. Of what importance are the branching bays that enter Virginia? 21. If goods are to be shipped across the ocean from Kentucky (see map, Fig. 138), is it nearer to send them to Norfolk or to New York ? West Virginia (W. Va.). 22. What disad- vantage is it to this state that it has no sea- coast ? 23. How could we reach the ocean by water from West Virginia ? 24. Where is the largest city? Why there? 25. How does this city compare in size with Pittsburg? 26. Should you expect to find much forest in this state ? Why ? 27. Much farming ? 28. Coal, iron, petroleum, and natural gas are found here. Of what value are these ? North Carolina (N.C.). 29. Which part is mountainous ? Name and locate the highest peak east of the Mississippi River. 30. What are the surface features of this state ? 31. Which cities are mentioned in the text ? Where is each ? For what is each important ? 32. What capes do you find on the coast? 33. What are the leading industries? (See Figs. 371-397.) South Carolina (S.C). 34. Describe the sur- face features of the state. 35. What are the principal industries ? 36. What city is on the Fall Line? On the seacoast? For what is each important ? 37. Which city is largest ? Georgia (Ga.). 38. Where are the moun- tains ? 39. The plains ?' 40. What are the industries ? 41. Trace the Fall Line across the state (Fig. 196). What cities are on it? 42. Why is Atlanta situated where it is ? 43. How does it compare in size with the larg- est city in each of the three states just men- tioned ? 44. How does it compare in size with THE SOUTHERN STATES 173 Kew Orleans, Buffalo, and Providence? 45. Name the two seaports. What do they ship ? Florida (Fla.). 46. What about the relief of this state ? 47. Explain the irregular south- ern coast and the Florida Keys. 48. Describe the climate. How does this influence the crops ? 49. What Florida cities were men- tioned, and how is each important ? Locate each. 50. What mineral product comes from Florida ? Alabama (Ala.). 51. Trace the Fall Line across this state. What cities are situated on it? 52. Where is Mobile ? How is it impor- tant ? 53. Describe the location and industries of Birmingham. 54. What crops are raised in Alabama? 55. What cities are engaged in manufacturing cotton ? 56. In lumber manu- facturing ? 57. Compare Mobile in size with" Atlanta and Birmingham. Mississippi (Miss.). 58. Why is there no city on the coast ? 59. In what way can the products of the state be shipped by water ? 60. From what cities ? 61. W^hat are the prod- ucts? 62. Why"" no raining? 63. W^hat about the extent of cotton raising in this state (Figs. 375, 376) ? Louisiana (La.). 64. State the reasons for the great importance of Kew Orleans. 65. Why has it a better location than Mobile or Charleston ? 66. Compare it in size with those cities. 67. With Boston and Baltimore. 68. What large tributary enters the Missis- sippi in Louisiana ? 69. What crops are raised in Louisiana ? Why there ? Texas (Tex.). 70. Where are the moun- tains ? 71. Where are the forests ? Why there? 72. What are the industries on the western plains? 73. W^hat city lies in the western pg,rt? Why there? 74. What cities are in eastern Texas ? 75. For what is Galves- ton noted ? 76. Compare it in size with New Orleans and Charleston. 77. Texas is how many times as large as Pennsylvania? (For area, see table in Appendix.) 78. Add to- gether the areas of all the Northeastern States, and compare the total with the area of Texas. 79. Compare the population of Texas with that of Massachusetts. (See Appendix.) Oklahoma (Okla.). 80. What about the climate of the western part ? 81. What crops are raised here ? 82. Into what river does the state drain? 83. Name and locate the chief cities. Arkansas (Ark.). 84. What large river enters the Mississippi in this state ? 85. There is much forest in Arkansas ; in what part (Fig. 209)? 86. Is Arkansas in the cotton belt? (See Fig. 201.) 87. The capital is the largest city. Compare it in size with Memphis. Why is it less favorably situated than that city ? Tennessee (Tenn.). 88. Where are the mountains ? The plains ? 89. Name two cities among the mountains. For what is each impor- tant ? 90. State facts about two other cities in Tennessee. 91. Which city is the largest ? (See Appendix.) 92. What large rivers drain the state? 93. What are the leading in- dustries in this state ? Kentucky (Ky.). 94. Why should this state be better adapted to tobacco raising than Ohio ? 95. Of what importance is the limestone of Kentucky ? 96. Where are most of the cities ? Why there ? 97. What products from Ken- tucky are mentioned ? 98. Which is the lar- gest city ? For what important ? 99. What other cities are mentioned ? Suggestions 1. Draw an outline map of these states. Add the principal rivers and cities, and the state boundaries. 2. Kepresent this group of states in sand, show- ing the mountains and plains. 3. Make a collection of articles manufactured from cotton, and add them to the school collection. 4. Make a collection of different kinds of wood grown in the Southern States. 5. Raise some cotton and rice in the schoolroom. 6. Name other advantages that the mild climate of the South brings ; for instance, in regard to clothing ; coal for heating houses ; and kinds of houses. Do you see any disadvantages in such a climate ? 7. How are the people of New England and those of the South dependent upon each other in the work that they do? 8. What two letters stand for District of Columbia? 9. Name and locate the capital of each state in the Southern group. 10. Write the abbrevia- tions for each of these states. 174 NORTH AMERICA 4. The Central States 1. Name the states in this group. 2. Which of them border on the Great Lakes ? 3. Name the Great Lakes. 4. Which of ap s u y these lakes is highest above the level of the ocean ? How can you tell ? How does the name of this lake suggest that it lies highest ? 5. By what river do the waters of these lakes reach the ocean (Fig. 134) ? 6. Re- membering what was said about the Erie Canal (p. 136), show how goods can be shipped by water from Duluth and Chicago to New York City. 7. Measure the distance on the map from Duluth to New York City. 8. Name the three principal rivers in the Central States. Trace each. 9. How do these rivers compare in length with the largest in the Northeastern States ? 10. Trace the divide between the Mississippi Valley and the valley of the Great Lakes. 11. Which state drains entirely into the Great Lakes? 12. Which states drain mainly into the Ohio River?' Into the Missis- sippi River ? Into the Missouri River ? 13. Which state drains partly into the Arctic Ocean ? 14. Where are mountains found in these states ? The area of these twelve states is some- what smaller than that of the sixteen Area and Southern States just studied, population but it is more than four times that of the Northeastern States. A century ago there were scarcely any people living here, excepting Indians and a few scattered trappers. Now there are more than twenty-six million per- sons, or more than live in either the Northeastern or the Southern States. There are also many large cities, including Chicago, the second largest in the United States, and St. Louis, the fourth in size. Let us see what has attracted so many people here, what their chief occupations are, and how these compare with the oc- cupations in the sections already studied. Agriculture is the most important of these occupations. Indeed, this is one of the best farming sections in all the world. Millions of persons Agriculture in Europe and in our coast i- itsimpor- cities look to these states for their bread, meat, and other food, as they look to the South for cotton. There are several reasons for this. In the first place, throughout g conditions almost the entire section the favorable land is a level plain, or, at (°i)"^.°a< most, gently rolling. amount of In western South Dakota ^'''^ '""'^ and in southern Missouri, low mountains rise above the plains. There is a hilly region around the western end of Lake , Superior, in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota ; and in eastern Ohio there is also hilly land, for the Appalachian Plateau extends into this state. What are the names of the mountains of the Central States ? With the exception of these small areas of mountains and hilly lands, most of the region is a vast level tract. This is very different, as you remember, from most of the land of the Northeastern States. The level surface makes it pos- sible to cultivate large tracts of land easily (Fig. 236), as in the Southern States. The soil, also, is very deep and fertile. In most parts of the Northeastern and of the Southern States forests were once extensive ; indeed, there ^2) Absence is still much forest left, as we of forests and have seen. In many sec- ^^''"^^'•^ tions of New England weeks of hard labor were required to remove the trees from a single acre, and to drag away or bury the bowlders. Over a large part of the Central States, however, such work was unnec- essary, for there were no trees or rocks. CENTRAL STATES ^WESTERN SECTION) . I Syale »f Miles 25 60 100 150 200 ' 251 Ct(ie< with over 1.000,000 CHICAGO Cities with 500,000 (o 1,000,000 Cities with 100,000 to 600,000- St. Paul aties with 25,000 to 100,000 „ lopeka ^ ArdSfere Smaller Places .Canton CajiitaU ivithleaa s- ' ^ ~^J!^'fX.,„«TWJ2£^^" ^*o*^S"\ peSat^Ragj&v ClintonJi'^'":al- Uak I'arkVJcHIC -i-.^-^ » '. --- -^--i Eri5» - — -I A, ^ i^^ N"^ U.IK i'ar}i\" >timiell^)rIo\^a City yrLSfeliug Aurora *• ^ Davenport ^ Muscali Island ' ,1,10' ,-LaJ T. /r^iishnclj ^ Bloomington 'o!?irksvme£, [ L Pn N o(>U, S„ BttffaW DunkirK ^ttu/octon ^'conueaAjK^^I '" CorrJ V./ ___ Ni^ai«|^a«^^levp\aW \ ^iicity Warsaw lMj«S^stor>a Lff^f " Akrony^ ^pl ,^^^ N^-JO*> onrog Adrian^ Toledo .__ nsfield 'iVlarion ;Canton\ CAUipnce c 1^7" Vuoona iUsbtttg -Ma^iiii rQuincyX:' :iaumbaj\jacks6nville loberly Louisiana oluinbia" Mexico 3^(1) Fulton VV-^'l'"" vf^'^"d-->lia ■ St.CharleY/nbF-^''™''/*^""'^, ,i ,/ - " Jy f Gramtf/,ity i ilney ^/^''^-^ DerSoto I , IMtAernoh ^ . 5 ^O f o M^Du nuoinV -Ca™'°# JEvansvjlle O B^nne ferre »>, ,MWiliysl Hunthigton ""''"sST'-HM^^e-Ston o oMarion . sl^.^^^.-'-^.^l y^^ _^^ /MtA'i:rnoll „,^d'e BellaireZ \ > S: ■ra„kfort° Eiw^d "b'^'^ ^Piq('a N^ark2lJ)__-i^--TVVTf ''^''® H ^-AjuH&^acy i^eldB. i'ariso'*^diaiiapol;s^™"^«J,^^ia. /Dayton Mariettas .Ha 'sIt- / Seymour,, ^^ovmgfu\S«vport poWnouthA „»on <>^^o*i ■ ..JfW/li X:oving«u X^wport poKsmouth/ unes^iiisdiy'' ''>l^''^::i27 . S. Jni>>J— >-^li»n'^°3 W|ahmgtoa lUeT .xVviUe^ ILebari il'Carbondale "■ SiilemO ^~> Cape ^ \ _ W^^ 'Slv ''\PT,lu?^iW<*lHopkinsviUe °^v.-x/^^ *; "''"""Wa.lar\,>W%-9'^^^^ ■ ^" '\'eul\K«Jfimr>6 Hickman I'V -n ClarksviHe >^\;umberland 'Carutliersville c^ I V^iT' "^"'^^^ Nashville Mamw!ith^ehve ^ Somerset Russellville j-S' I Midcfeljoro Par/gould o^ sboro c Arijenta (Little R^k Helena oulsviyf' o ""olkst'erling ^ -r ^ / ot- ~T,exiiietoil>V3,Vinchester { T- \ \ "^'Vy ^!b Owe'isboroHarrodsburgo^ °R^WV;W'^ \ V ^SV~-^ ^-^ '- „ iJadisonvUle ^-^\_-v.ir^„,';;^(?fM soifterset ^*>C-' .-* 2r ^TD OkS C^* -^ X . iUe Charlottpo ,.^ I /cfev^lanfWi* ,4+tflnr»ft«a/ '£) ^'W^■;^^ _ "^ " Spartinburg-j ' I s "v Corinth " "i^V-l ^.~_^ HuntsviUe /»'\ • 'hp-M •'■ , ,, V „ Laurens V— tT 1 \ '"v HolhTSpring's ( Y^ >-~V /U^ V. h*/^ / '- . \% \S *-'V ^la ■ I New Decatur \»N>Vrif'""' '' p tV^V ^^~~^---^ W 1T l^'vj^ Atlanta \ VvAnfc"** T E iW-^N Jackson a \ Columbia Lonsitude West FIG. 233. Lt'-i'-4'^ 'c-A-^'-'' ' -^'h ^ r S= 176 NORTH AMERICA Fig. 236. — The very level, fertile plain in the Red River Valley of North Dakota, one of the finest wheat regions in the world. For hundreds of miles there is just such level land as this. It was prairie land, covered only with luxuriant grass, and all ready for plowing and planting. A good crop could be raised the first season. This fact had much influence in causing the rapid settlement of these states. While this section lies north of the states last studied, and has a more severe climate, the summers are long and hot enough to raise many kinds of crops. Also, while the rainfall is less than that farther south (Fig. 408), it is sufficient for farming throughout almost the (3) Sufficient heat and rain j^^K^^^HUi gjH jM ^^5f-^ Fig. 237. — A farmer feeding his chickens and turkeys. entire section. This fact is suggested by the great number of rivers. The rain is brought from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean by the winds which frequently blow from the south and east. Only on the very western border is there too little rain for agriculture without irrigation. The reason for this lack of rain in the extreme west is that the winds lose most of their mois- ture before they reach the western part of North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas. There is, however, enough rain for the growth of nourishing grass for cattle, sheep, and horses. The farms vary greatly in size, from a few acres to several thousand; but the greater part contain from 80 to 160 acres. In the main, they resemble the one in Ohio that is here described. On this Ohio farm of 160 acres is a house in which the family lives, with a barn near by for liorses, milch cows, and hay, and with sheds it for storing grain farming implements. A windmill in the rear 3. A farm in central Ohio (1) The house and its surro^indings near and THE CENTRAL STATES 177 of the house keeps the milk house well supplied with cold water, and also fills the water troughs in the barnyard. Near the house is an orchard (Fig. 238) of apple, peach, and pear trees, with a few rows of berry bushes in one part, and a chicken house in another (Fig. 237). Here chickens are raised, and supply all the eggs that are needed, with some to sell. On one side of the front yard are a few beehives, and back of them, between the orchard and the barn, is a garden of vegetables. Still back of that are several pigpens, in which hogs are fattened for home use, and also for the market. Farther away from the house are fields in which at least three or four different kinds of crops Every farmer in that region expects to raise corn, — perhaps sixty acres of it, — some grdiss for grazing and for hay, and wheat or some other kind of grain. After these crops are harvested, they are either sold or fed to stock — horses, cattle, hogs, or sheep — upon the farm. The latter plan is often followed, chiefly because it pays better to fatten stock and sell it, than to sell the crops themselves. There are generally several good milch cows on the farm, which supply the family not only with fresh milk and butter, but furnish some cream or butter to sell. Since there are only three houses in (3) Contact sight of this farmhousc, and with neighbors there is no store or post office within two miles, the farmer and his family may not meet other persons for several days at a time, although they often see friends driving by. In the busiest season, from spring till fall, they make few trips to town. How- ever, they have a telephone by which they can talk with neighbors, and with friends and merchants in town, while the postman brings the mail to their doors. Some persons would not care for such a life as this, because it is too lonesome, and there is too much hard work con- (2) The, fields, and what is done icith their crops are raised Fig. 238. — A farmer and his family in the orchard near tlie house. nected with it. But this farmer enjoys it greatly, becaus^^Jie likes (4) Attractions to take care of his stock, to "-^ *'"'^'^ « ^'^^ work in the soil, and to watch his crops grow. In addition, he is able to raise most of his own food, and his whole life is more independent than that of persons in a town or city. Corn (Fig. 239) is raised in most of the states of the Union, and 4. Indian com, you have already learned or maize 1 . 1 i -i • • ji (1) Extent to how important it is m the which it is South. It is in the Central ™^*«^ States, however, that we find the 178 NOBTH AMERICA Fig. 239. -View in a cornfield in Xebraslca. Notice how very tall the corn grows in this fertile soil. greatest amount. The corn belt of the country (Fig. 371) extends from Ohio to central Kansas and Nebraska, with smaller quantities raised north, south, east, and west of it. Fanners within this belt usually expect to devote from one third to one half of their land to corn ; therefore, in traveling across these states in summer, one sees cornfields in every direction. The seed is planted in rows in the springtime. Soon the little stalks appear above ground, and grow rapidly dur- ing the hot summer months, until they reach a height of from seven to ten feet (Fig. 239). In order to keep the soil loose, and kill the weeds, the ground between the rows is plowed when the corn is young ; but as it grows higher, the shade o^ its leaves protects the soil from both drought and weeds. A cornfield usually presents the most beau- tiful appearance in ^la "tassels out" (Fig. 239). The plants then entirely hide tlie ground from view, and the rich green stalks, with their long, slender leaves, bend to the breezes in the most graceful manner. If the stalk is to be used as fodder for cattle in winter, it is cut before frost, when the kernels on the cob are still somewhat soft and milky. If left until after frost, the grain hardens, and then the harvest season begins. Men drive into the fields in wagons and tear the husks from the ear, spend- ing day after day at that kind of work. Corn is put to many uses. Much that is raised is fed to cattle and hogs, as already stated. Some is made into hominy or breakfast foods, or into corn meal. Starch is another product of corn. It is also very ex- tensively ^ used in the manufacture of whisky A^L in distilleries. There are niany^^J^ distilleries in St. Louis, Louisville, Peoruv, and other cities with- in the corn belt. Wheat, like corn, is produced in all the Central , ^,, , 5 . Wheat States, {l)J£xtento/ „„ wpll its production as in other parts of the country (Fig. 373). It is an especially important product in Kansas, Ohio, and Indiana ; but the section which at present is most noted for wheat is the valley- - - J.1U. 240. — Two ears uf corn, the one on the left with the p 1 1 T) j T)' £ July, when the corn husk turned down to show the kernels of corn on the cob. 01 the Ked KlVCr 01 (2) How it is cultivated and harvested THE CENTRAL STATES 179 the North (Fig. 236). In this valley there is a broad plain, including western Minnesota, eastern North and South Dakota, and a portion of Manitoba, which is one of the finest wheat regions in the world. The land here is almost as level as the sur- face of the sea ; it is so level, in fact, that after a rain the water stands in sheets on the fields. It is necessary to build the roads a foot or more above the surrounding land and to make sow the seed on each division. One takes the lead, another follows close behind; then come a third, a fourth, and so on. The grain is har- vested on a similar plan. One hundred and twenty men, and three hundred horses, are em- ployed in the planting season, and three hun- dred men during the harvest. Since one acre usually produces from fifteen to twenty bushels of wheat, an immense amount of the grain is obtained from this single farm. The great quantity of wheat produced in the Red River Valley and the neigh- FiG. 241. — A farmer threshing wheat in the harvest season. On the left is an engine which furnishes power to run the threshing machine where the men are standing. ditches on either side ; otherwise they would be muddy much of the time. In every direction there is nothing to break the view except an occasional" farmhouse with a few trees aroiind it. Over this open plain the wind sweeps with terrific force, somewhat as upon the ocean ; and in winter fierce, blinding snow squalls, or bliz- zards, are not uncommon. One may ride on the train northward toward Winnipeg all day long, and (2) Hoio ^^® scarcely a crop besides. cultivated on a wheat. Most of the farms arge arm ^^^^ ^^ moderate sizc, but some are enormous. For example, one farm in North Dakota contains over thirty thousand acres. How many square miles is that ? This farm is divided into six parts, with farm buildings upon each. To prepare the ground, from fifteen to twenty men at a time plow and boring region has helped the growth of the cities of Minneapolis, St. Paul, and DuLUTH. It has also ,,, . ^ (3) Influence of caused the development of wheat on cities in the midst of the -^--'^ ''/ -'*«« Avheat fields, notably Fargo in North Dakota g-nd Sioux Falls in South Dakota./ Since most of the grain is shipped to the East or South, it has influenced the growth of scores of other cities along the Great Lakes, the Missis- sippi River, and even on the Atlantic coast. State how this can be. Each farm in the Central States usually has a small orchard, like that on the Ohio farm ; but fruit g ^^.^^ ^^^ raising is a special industry vegetables in those sections where the ^^^ '^''■"''* climate and soil are favorable, as in 180 NORTH AMERICA the neighborhood of the Great Lakes. The immense area of water in these lakes, which do not freeze over in winter, makes the summers cooler, and the winters warmer, than they would otherwise be. This is one reason why the grape belt of western New York (p. 117) extends westward along the shores of Lake Erie far into Ohio. The Michigan peninsula, which has Lake Michigan on the west, and Lakes Huron and Erie on the east, is also a and celery are also raised in all of the Central States. Some of these are grown for use at home, some for can- neries, and some for sale in the cities. The fact that there are so many cities makes truck farming profitable, as is the case in New England. Tobacco is another valuable farm prod- uct in the Central States (Fig. 378). While it is raised in many ,, , , •^7. Tobacco sections, the greatest quan- tity comes from Missouri, which ranks l^> 00^^'^' - M Fig. 242. — Sheep grazing in a pasture in a hilly part of the Central States, in Missouri. noted fruit-raising region. Here great quantities of peaches, apples, and other fruits are produced. With what part of the Atlantic coast can this fruit region be best compared (p. 117) ? While these regions are especially noted, the raising of fruits is common in all the Central States. Among the kinds raised are peaches', grapes, apples, pears, cherries, plums, and berries. Vegetables of many kinds, such as sweet corn, potatoes, turnips, beets, cabbages, tomatoes, peas, beans, lettuce, pumpkins, squashes. (2) Vegetables with Virginia, Kentucky, North Caro- lina, and Tennessee (p. 155) as a leading tobacco state. St. Louis is an important tobacco market. What other .cities have the same industry (pp. 155 and 164)? Some domestic animals are raised on almost every farm. Among these the most important are horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, hens, and turkeys. Some farms, however, are mainly devoted to one or a few kinds (Fig. 243). For example, in the more hilly sections, where it is not easy 8. Domestic animals THE CENTRAL STATES 181 to cultivate grain, cattle and sheep are numerous (Fig. 242), and dairying is im- portant. Ohio is one of the foremost sheep-raising states. More horses are raised in Illinois than in any other state in the Union, more hogs in Iowa, and more milch cows in Iowa than in any other state except New York. Great quantities of oats and barley are raised in the 9. other farm Central States. products The former is a common food for horses, and the latter is largely used in the manufacture of beer. The great breweries, found in every large city, consume immense quantities of barley in order to obtain the malt which is needed in making beer. In Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Milwaukee, beer making is one of the impor- tant industries. Another farm crop in some sections is flax. From the bark of the flax stem a fiber is obtained which is used in making linen, while linseed oil is made from the flax seed. It is chiefly for the latter pur- pose that flax is raised in the United States. Hops, used with barley in making beer, are also raised ; and rye and buckwheat are produced on many farms. Sugar beets are now cultivated in many states, and they supply a part of the sugar consumed in our country. Finally, a vast amount of hay is grown ; some of it is fed to farm ani- mals, but much is sold in the cities for the use of the horses there. The hay crop is one of the most valuable in the Central States. Passing westward from the fertile valley of the Red River of ^^ Farmin the North, one finds the by irrigation on farmhouses decreasing in *^« G''^** ^^^ins number, and the country becoming more .-V -^,-V| -^1 ■'TIH t3 ■ 5^^ i' 5t ^^™5Br^*"' ^ \ \ * ■_ — • y^ "^ -irr '^^ HHBfe&^yi^HI t 1 ^^1^ Fig. 243. — A scene on a chicken farm iu Southern Missouri. and more arid, until, finally, in western North Dakota, there is 1 , £ • -J.! i. (1) Meaning almost no larmmg without and extent irrigation. At the same <>-^ *^^ ^^e«* . 1 , . in Plains time, the plains gradually rise higher and higher, until, near the base of the Rocky Mountains, an elevation of fully a mile above the sea is reached. This arid plateau, extending from Canada to southwestern Texas (p. 150), is com- monly known as the Great Plains. 182 NORTH AMERICA Fig. 244. ■An artesian well supplying water for use in irrigation in western United States. The soil is excellent, and where irri- gation is possible, there are fine farms, (2) irri ated ^^ many places the streams sections, and fumish water for irrigation; their products • ii, j. • x j.u in others, water rises to the surface when wells are driven into the earth. Such wells, from which the water often gushes forth as in a fountain, are called artesian wells (Fig. 244), The water comes from the rock layers underground, and by its help much land is now cultivated which a few years ago was of little use. Every year the amount of land cultivated in this section is in- creasing ; and now that the gov- ernment is building reservoirs to store the waters that run off through the rivers in spring, there will be still more land under ir- rigation. These irrigated farms produce the same crops as other parts of the Central States. Crops that will grow in a dry climate are also being introduced (called " dry farming "), and this is another reason why. farming is increasing here. Most of the arid region of the Great Plains is un suited to farming. For n. Ranching that reason there (i) ^<« «^<^«< are few towns and no large cities, as you can see on the map (Fig. 233). The western third of North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kan- sas, as well as the Great Plains farther west, is given over mainly to cattle ranching (Fig. 245). This industry is carried on in much the same way throughout all parts of the arid West. In J^^ ^ZncZia'!^ western North Dakota, for ^o^seand ,1 . T , , 1 corrals instance, there is little water except in the widely separated streams, and there are almost no trees except along the stream banks. Since the ranchman must have both water and wood, he locates his house, sheds, and stockades, or corrals (Fig. 246), within Fig. 245. — Cowboys and cattle on a ranch in western United States. I THE CENTRAL STATES 183 (3) Why few fences easy reach, of these two things. If there is no neighbor within several miles, it is all the better, for his cattle are then more certain to find abundant grass. Few fences are built, partly because most of the region is owned by the govern- ment, not by ranchmen. Very often they own only the land near the water; but this gives them control of the surrounding land, for it is of no use to any one else if his cattle cannot reach the water. Another reason why fences are not common is that it is neces- sary for the cattle to roam far and wide in their search for food. The bunch grass, upon which they feed, is so scat- tered that they must go a long distance each day to find enough to eat. A single ranchman may own from ten to twenty thousand head of cattle, and ranch house ; but sometimes they may stray a hundred miles away. Twice a year there is a general collec- tion, or round-up (Fig. 247), of cattle, — ^ ^ =5 "'^ rr^ -" 1 ^^E^ i B^E ^m ^^llpfflSi Hjf\^ ip^^H BL.A—i-ri -.■.;■■.■? ^i i ^^i w ^ Fia. 246. — Cattle in a corral on a western cattle ranch. the first round-up coming in May or June, and the other early in the fall. One object of %?riund%p, the first is to brand the and how - 1.1 1 1 accomplished calves that have been born during the winter. Since there are few fences, cattle belonging to ranches that are even a hundred miles apart become mixed during the winter ; and those in Fig. 247. — A round-up od the Great Plains. AH the cattle in the front of the picture belong to one ranchman ; those in the distance to another. yet they may all be allowed to w^ander about upon public land, called " the range " (Fig. 245). Usually they keep within a distance of thirty miles of the a large herd may belong to a score of different ranchmen. Each cattle owner has a certain mark, or brand (Fig. 248), in the form of a lettei-, a cross, a horseshoe, or some other figure, which is stamped upon every calf with a hot irou. 184 NORTH AMERICA Very often the cattle have found so little water, and such poor pastur- age, that they have failed to fatten properly, and must be fed for a time before being slaugh- tered. This may be done upon ir- rigated fields near the rivers in the ranch country ; or the cattle may be sent for this pur- pose to farms fur- ther east, as in Kan- sas, Missouri, Iowa, and Nebraska. The lives of ranchmen and cowboys are interesting and often exciting, the greater part of each day being spent in the saddle (Fig. 249). They are so far separated from other people that they must depend upon them- selves much more than most people do. For instance, a ranchman must build his house, kill his beef and dress it, store his ice, raise his vegetables, do his blacksmithing, find his fuel, and even teach his children if they are to receive a school education. He Fig. 248. — This animal bears the brand of the owner. The cowboy is trying to catcli tlie calf that is following its mother; and when he does, he will place the same brand on it. A round-up, which lasts several weeks, is planned by a number of ranchmen together. A squad of perhaps twenty cowboys, with a wagon and provisions, a large number of riding horses, or " ponies," and a cook, go in one direction ; and other wagons, with similar "outfits," set out in other directions. Before separating in the morning, the members of a squad agree upon a certain camping place for the night, and they then scour the country to bring the cattle to- gether, riding perhaps sixty or eighty miles during the day. Each ranchman knows his own cattle by the brand they bear ; and since the calves follow their mothers (Fig. 248), there is no difficulty in telling what brand shall be placed on them. After branding the calves, each ranchman drives his cattle homeward, to feed during the summer within a range of a few dozen miles of their owner's home. The second great round-up is similar to the first, except that its object is to (6) Second ^^^^o together the steers, or round-up, and male Cattle, and ship them what follows , 1 , • 1 • 1.1 away to market ; it is there- fore called the beef round-up. A ranch- man who owns twenty thousand cattle may sell nearly half that number in a season. As the steers are collected, they are loaded upon trains and shipped to distant cities to be slaughtered (p. 193). (6) Life of the ranchman Fig. 249. — A cowboy and his pony. The rope in his hand is his lariat, witli which he lassoes the cattle. THE CENTRAL STATES 185 affords a good illustration of the pioneer life which was so common in early days. A large portion of the Central States produces little lumber : first, because much of the land never had Lumbering c , ^ i i any lorest ; and second, be- cause much land that was once wooded has now been cleared. The timber cut from it has been used for building, or other purposes, and the cleared sections have become productive farm land. The largest area that was covered with timber, when first discovered, was in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, near the Great Lakes. Here the land is more hilly than in most parts of the Central States, and it was clothed with dense forests. In these forests were many kinds of trees be- longing to the north, espe- cially the evergreens, such as hemlock, spruce, white pine, and cedar. There were also some hard woods, such as oak, birch, and maple. Although much of the timber has been removed (Fig. 250), lumbering is still carried on in this section, as well as in some other parts of the Central States. The excellent water power in the Mississippi Kiver, at Minneapolis (Fig. 268), early led to the building of saw- mills there, and made that city famous for lumber. There are also a consider- able number at Dulutii, in Minnesota, and at Superior, which is just across the state line in Wisconsin. Fishing Since the Central States have no seacoast, all the oysters, and other sea food eaten in this section, must be brought from the Atlantic, or the Pacific, or the Gulf coast. Thus, while the people of these states supply meat and grain for those living in other parts of the country, they, in turn, depend upon others for some of their food. The Central States, however, are not entirely dependent upon the sea for their fish. In the rivers there are some excellent fish, quite dif- ferent from those in the ocean ; and in the lakes there are still other kinds. There is, therefore, considerable fishing here, especially on the Great Lakes ; but the fishing industry Fig. 250. A sawmill in Wisconsin. The logs are floated from the forest by the river, and sawed into lumber in the mill. is by no means so important as in the groups of states already studied. Coal, the most important fuel, is mined in almost all the Central States. Illi- nois produces most, ranking y^^^^j^g next to Pennsylvania among i. coai our states. West Virginia (i) its wide ranks third and then comes *««<''*^«<*o?i Ohio. Large quantities are produced also in Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Michigan. There is so much coal in tliis section, and it is found throughout so large an area, that it is easy to obtain fuel for manufacturing in almost every part. (See Fig. 391.) 186 NORTH AMERICA Pennsylvania produces two kinds of coal, anthracite and bituminous, but the /ox IT- ^ ^ 1 Central States have only the {2,) Kind of coal, _ ^ 'J and method latter. It is bitumiuous coal of mining i however that is used in making coke ; and because coke is nec- essary in iron manufacture, the coal of these states is especially important. In Fig. 251. — A view in the oil tields of Kansas. There is an oil well under each derrick. some places the coal lies near the sur- face, like rock in quarries, and then the mining is very simple ; in others it is buried so deep that long shafts must be sunk to reach it. When oil and natural gas were first 2. Oil and gas discovered in New York and {\)Wherefound Pennsylvania, it was sup- posed that they did not exist elsewhere; but they have since been found in many places. Name some of them (pp. 123 and 160). Both oil and gas are obtained in several of the Central States, especially Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and Kansas. Many farmers, whose soil is no better than that of their neighbors, have sud- denly become rich by the discovery of oil or natural gas in the rocks far beneath the surface (Fig. 251). In fact, these sub- stances are so abundant in some places that towns, like Findlay in western Ohio, have sprung up there like mushrooms. The way in which gas and oil are formed, and the uses to which they are put, have already been described (pp. 123-124). In many places in the Central States natural gas is in common ^2) cheapness use, furnishing of gas as a fuel both light and heat in the houses, and fuel in the fac- tories. It is a very cheap fuel, for, after the hole is bored into the earth, it costs almost nothing to produce the gas. The main expense is the cost of the pipes through which it passes. Once Pennsylvania was the chief iron-producing state, having both coal and iron ore ; but some ^ years ago ex- ^d TheZle plorers discovered enor- superior mous beds of iron ore near the western end of Lake Superior. In some places the ore is so soft that, like gravel, it can be dug out with steam shovels, and very often it is so near the surface that the mines are open pits. In other places the mining is done underground. That is the case, THE CENTRAL STATES 187 for example, at Ishpeming, in northern Michigan (Fig. 252). This Lake Superior district is now the leading iron-producing center of the world. It includes parts of three states, — ^ Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, — the most important being Minnesota (Fig. 393), and the least important Wis- consin. These three states together produce fifty times as much iron ore as Pennsylvania, and three quarters of all the iron ore mined in the entire country. The enormous development (jf mining in this region has caused numerous towns and cities to grow up here. There is no coal in this iron district. Therefore, in order that the ore may be re- duced to the metal, either coal must be carried to the iron mines, or else the ore must be moved to the coal. The latter has proved the cheaper. Accordingly, hun- ilreds of boats sail every year from the lake ports of DuLUTH, Superior, Ashland, and Marquette, loaded with ore for the manufacturing centers along the lakes. Fortunately the iron mines are near waterways. If it were necessary to haul the heavy ore a long distance by rail, the expense might be so great as to check its production. As it is, however, the ore is mined, loaded upon cars, and sent over short lines of railway to the lake shore. Great ore docks (Fig. 253), or piers, reaching out into deep water, have been built to hold the ore. Eailway tracks are laid upon the docks, and the trains run out upon them to dump their contents quickly into bins. On a single pier there are scores of bins, which together hold enough ore to fill several large vessels. When a vessel is to be loaded, it comes up to the pier; then a door at the bottom of a bin is opened, allowing hundreds of tons of ore to slide out. After this, the next bin is emptied, and in this way the vessel is filled in a few hours. As the ore must reach a point where coal is easily obtained, it is taken to such lake ports as Chicago, Detroit, (2) Whij the ore must be trayis- fiorted, and from what iiorts (3) How it is loaded, and ii-here sent Fig. 252. — At work in an iron mine at Ishpemiiig, Michigan. Toledo, Cleveland, and Buffalo. No- tice how close to these cities the coal beds extend (Fig. 391). From the lake ports some of the ore is carried by rail to Pittsburg, and to many other places in the midst of the coal fields. Another metal found in the Central States is copper, which is valuable in many ways. It is one of . ^ J J 4. Copper ore the metals used to make (i) uses bronze, and also brass ; but ''•^ '^'^^^^^ of late years a new and even greater demand for this metal has arisen. Elec- tricity passes through copper more easily 188 NORTH AMERICA than through other common metals ; cop- per is, therefore, the best material for trolley wires, for the wire of long-distance telephones, and for wire used in electric lighting. Since the use of electricity is rapidly increasing, there is a growing de- mand for copper. The Indians and early explorers found pieces of copper on the surface of the (2) Where the grouud in northern Michi- ore is found g^n. Later it was discov- ered in the rocks beneath the soil. These bits of rock and leave the heavier par- ticles of copper. Even after this, some foreign substances are still mixed with the copper, and these must be removed before the metal is fit for use. In order to remove them, the copper is next placed in a large smelter and melted. The pure copper is allowed to run out of the fur- nace and cool in bars to be shipped away (Fig. 254). Among the foreign sub- stances is a little silver, which is care- fully saved. Fig. 253. -The great ore docks on the shores of Lake Superior. Trains loaded witli ore run out onto these docls and dump their ore into large bins, from which vessels are loaded. copper-bearing rocks are found on the small peninsula that extends into Lake Superior near Houghton. Copper mines were started there long ago, and for many years it has been one of the leading copper-mining regions of the world. Some of these mines are very deep, one of the shafts reaching to a depth of about a mile. When the ore is drawn to the surface, it is found mixed with so much rock that it must first be crushed to a powder under powerful hammers, or stamps. Then water is run over it, in order to carry away the (3) How copper is obtained from the ore, and where sent As in the case of iron ore, the copper is shipped to points along the lakes, and else- where, by water or by rail. Much of it goes to the metal manufactories in New England (p. 130). Name some goods that must be shipped into this copper section, instead of away from it. Why ? The largest of the copper mines are near to- gether, and so many men are employed in ob- taining the ore, and in getting out the pure metal, that large <*> Population . ^ , , dependent on towns have grown up near the these mines mines. Within a few miles of the most important mines are several towns, the largest being Calumet. Many of the people living in these towns are miners and families of miners ; but there must be, of course, merchants, physicians, teachers, min- isters, and people of other occupations; and THE CENTRAL STATES 189 5 . Other min- eral products (1) Building intones, sand, mid clay and cement. they all depend for a living upon the precious copper buried far beneath the surface. There is an abundance of building stones in the Central States. Among these are sandstone and lime- stone, which are shipped in all directions for building purposes. Limestone is also used in iron smelting and in making Port- In addition, there are slates and ■ranites in the hilly and mountainous sections, as there are in Kew England (p. 122). Several states produce much sand, which is melted and made into window glass, bottles, and other objects. Clay of various kinds, used in making bricks and tiles, is abundant in all the states. Lead and zinc are mined in many places, as at Joplin, Mo., and then sent to (2) Lead, zinc, furnaces, where a7id gold , , , , the pure metals are separated from the ore. A large part of our supply of lead and zinc is obtained from Missouri. What are some of the uses of these metals ? Of what use should you think this lead was to the early pioneers ? Gold is mined in the Black Hills in the extreme western part of South Dakota. Much salt is obtained in the Central States, especially in Michigan. This (3) Salt . . ^ ■, ^ state produces more salt than any other in the Union. New York is second, Ohio third, and Kansas fourth. The Central States produce an abun- dance of raw materials, and there is Manufac- also much coal oil and gas turing for fuel, while in some places there is water power. Naturally, there- fore, this section has become a great manufacturing region. Since this is our leading wheat-pro- ducing region, the greatest flour mills in the country are located here. Be- cause of the wheat and other grains, breakfast foods are made i. From in enormous quantities, and ^"™ products there are many distilleries and brew- eries. The small fruits and vegetables, such as berries, beans, peas, tomatoes, and sweet corn support a great canning in- dustry. Tobacco adds another kind of Fig. 254.- Bars of copper on the dock at Houghton, Michigan, to be carried away by the large lake steamer. These are manufacturing, and the sugar beet still another. A very important industry is the pro- duction of meat. Cattle, sheep, and hogs are slaughtered by the tens of thousands, and the meat and other animal products are shipped to all parts of the country, as well as to Europe. Butter, cheese, lard, soap, hides, wool, and other animal products, besides meat, are prepared in this section. 190 NORTH AMERICA While many of these farm products are shipped to other regions for manu- facture, many of them are consumed in this way in the Central States. For ex- ample, there are large woolen mills and shoe factories here, as well as in New England. Near the forests, both along the streams and on the shores of the Great Lakes, the manufacture of furniture and other articles from wood is extensive. Farming being the greatest 2. From forest products Fig. 255. — A crowd of workmen leaving a lactoiy at the close of the day, at Dayton, Ohio. industry, there is a demand on all sides for wagons, plows, mowing machines, threshing machines, and other farm im- plements. Naturally, therefore, they are manufactured here in great numbers. Chicago is especially noted for the manufacture of furniture ; and on many of the rivers of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan, where there is abundant water power, there are sawmills, furni- ture factories, and planing mills. Some of these are at Oshkosh in Wisconsin, and at Saginaw, Bay City, and Giiand Rapids in Michigan. Grand Rapids is especially noted for the manufacture of school desks, office desks, chairs, tables, and other kinds of furniture. Many of the cities are noted for the manufacture of farm implements. Metal manufacturing in the Central States is quite as important „ _. J- ^3. From min- as in the states along the erai products Atlantic coast, and the in- (^)Frommetuis dustry is rapidly growing. The manufacture of iron ore into iron and steel goods occupies an enormous number of men in hundreds of cities and towns. Some of the largest iron and steel plants in the country are in Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana. Among them are the great steel works at Gary, Indiana. The manu- facture of copper goods is another extensive industry, and many products are made from lead and zinc. Crude oil is made into many products, ^^^^^^^^^^^ as in the North- day, and , c i J. limestone eastern b t a t e s . Name some of these products (pp. 123-124). Much of the deep soil in the prairie states is a clay which is useful in the manufacture of bricks. As in other sec- tions of the country (p. 130), there are many brickyards, especially near the large cities. From this same kind of clay, flowerpots, drainpipes, and other articles are made. During recent years, when drainage of farm land has become com- fhon, the manufacture of tile for that pur- pose has developed into a great industry. Many a small town has a tile factory. THE CENTS AL STATES 191 A very high grade of pottery, known as Rookwood ware, is manufactured in Cincin- nati. The best of clay is needed for this, which in this case must be brought from a distance. The first step in making a vase is to wet a lump of clay so that it may easily be molded. Then it is placed upon a potter's wheel, where it is whirled rapidly around while a man molds it with his hands. In a very few minutes he changes the shapeless lump into a delicately formed vase. It must then be baked, and after the baking, flowers or other orna- ments may be painted upon it. The surface is finally covered with a substance which, when l)aked, produces a glaze. One of the beauties of the Rook- ^vood ware is the peculiar color of the glaze, which is a dark or yellowish brown. In Indiana, Kansas, Illi- nois, Michigan, and other states of this section, Port- land cement is made from limestone. Pennsylvania produces the most cement, but several of the Central States produce large amounts. The handling of so many fig. 25g.— The . , , J. the light ; raw materials and manuiac- very front that they are properly called inland seas. They form, in fact, the most remarkable inland waterway in the - -, » , "^ , 1. The natural world, lor large vessels can highways sail upon them, and they (i) '^'^^ t , lie Great Lakes reach into the very heart oi a fertile and productive country. From Duluth to Buffalo there is only one place where navigation is interfered with. " Soo " Canal. Boats going west pass throii,i;li the cauiil on those going east pass through the canal on the left. In the of the picture is the gate of a lock. Transporta- tion of goods tured products leads to extensive commerce. Transportation of bulky goods, such as ores, coal, and wheat, is especially ira- ])ortant in a region where the coal and iron ore are so widely separated, and where far more wheat is raised than can l)e consumed. The highways used for this purpose are of two kinds; (1) those that are natural to the country, and (2) those that have been made by man. The first may be called natural, the second arti- ficial. Of the natural highways, the Great Lakes are far the best, being so large That is at the outlet of Lake Superior into Lake Huron, where there are some rapids. Here a broad canal, large enough for the Great Lakes vessels, has been dug. It is called the Soo Canal (Fig. 256), after the city Sault Ste. Marie, located at this point. What canal connects Lake Erie with Lake Ontario (Fig. 183) ? Why is a canal there necessary ? (Fig. 149.) While the Great Lakes outflow toward the east, the Mississippi River and its two large tributa- „ „ r -I r\^ ' W The rivers ries, the Missouri and Ohio, flow toward the south. These great 192 NORTH AMERICA ' Fig. 257. — Shipping on the Chicago River. This was the first port at Chicago, but now breakwaters built out into the lake make a large harbor. waterways are highways of travel for boats. Every one of the Central States is reached either by a lake, highway, or by a river. Among the artificial highways are roads and canals ; but the railroads 2. Thearti- are especially to be noted, ficiai highways ^he surface of the land is generally so level that railway lines have been easily built ; and the country is so fertile, and has become so fully settled, that it is crossed by rail- roads in all directions. Most of the great railroad systems that cross the continent from east to west pass through either Chicago or St. Louis. Since the Central States have no ocean coast, we naturally find the Principal principal cities along the cities along the Great Lakes and the Great Lakes i\^Yee great rivers, where it is possible to ship goods by water. Let us first consider those along the Great Lakes. At the western end of Lake Superior there is a fine harbor, one 1. Duiuth side being in Minnesota, and Superior j^]^g other in Wisconsin. Upon this harbor are two cities, DuLUTH and Superior, which together have a population of over a hundred and twenty thousand. The chief products of this vicinity are iron, lumber, and wheat, which are shipped eastward in immense quantities from these two ports. Owing to the nearness of these cities to the Minnesota and Dakota wheat fields, there are enormous ele- vators for storing grain, and flour mills for grinding it into flour. Locate Chicago. At this point the small Chicago River empties into Lake Michigan (Fig. 257), forming a small harbor, on which a fort was located in early times. As the West developed, this site proved to be a most favorable one ; for whenever a railway was built from the (d Advantages East to the Northwest, it o/ this site was necessary for it to pass around the southern end of Lake Michigan. As the city grew in size, more railways were built to it because it was large j and now they 2. Chicago Fig. 268. — A busy Chicago street crowded with wagons. THE CENTRAL STATES 193 /: approach it from the east, west, north, and south (Fig. 259). Thus Chicago has become a great railway center. The city is an important shipping point for grain, because it lies near the most productive grain region in the world. It is also within easy reach of ex- tensive coal fields, while lumber and iron ore are readily brought to it by boat. These facts have caused Chicago to have a wonderful growth. In the yeir 1840 there were but 4470 inhabitants ; but to-day it has a popu- lation of 2, 185,000, mak- ing it the second city in size in the New World. It has long since out- grown its small natural harbor, and a much larger one has been made by building long breakwaters out into the lake. Chicago is not only a great grain market, but (2) Meat pack. ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ing and related mOSt iuipor- industries . , tant meat market in the world. All the grazing states of the West ship stock to this point, and in the city itself nearly a square mile is taken up by the Union Stockyards (Fig. 260). In these are large sheds for the various kinds of stock, pens with high fences, and troughs for food and water (Fig. 261). Train- loads of cattle, hogs, and sheep are un- loaded here every day. The work era- ploys about thirty thousand men. The packing houses send out a num- ^3^ '::ki JZJit^mOL^HH s- „. , ' ,^ ^ f I; 1 3 3 4 6 8 J.--*5^ Fig. 259. — Map showing the location of Chicago and Milwaukee. ber of products. By far the most im- portant is meat, for most of the cities of the East are furnished with fresh meat from Chicago and other 194 NORTH AMERICA Fig. 2(50. — A general view of the stockyards at Chicago. western cities. Both live cattle and fresh meat are sent in large quantities to Europe also. It may be several weeks after the meat is prepared for food be- fore it . reaches the table ; yet all this time it is kept fresh by the use of ice. Special refrigerator cars are built for the sole purpose of carrying it. Besides the meat that is sold fresh, much is canned. The fat of the hog is made into lard, and not a little beef fat is made into imitation butter, called oleo- margarine. Many of the bones are FiG. 261. -A view of a small part of the stoc kyan cattle in tlie pens. burned and used in the manufacture of sugar (p. 154); and the horns and hoofs are of use in making gelatin and glue. The hides are made into shoes, gloves, harnesses, and other leather goods. Nothing is wasted in the pack- ing business ; even the bristles of the hog are saved and made into brushes ; and the hair from the hides of cattle is valuable in making plaster. There are many companies engaged in the making of iron and steel goods ; one of them alone, the Illi- (3) other nois Steel Com- ma}^^facturimJ pany, employs ten thousand men. An enormous amount of furniture is made, and the manufacture of farming im- plements is also very exten- sive. Chicago is the home of the National Harvester Company, which controls the manufacture of farming im- plements in most parts of the country. A single one of its plants sends out about three hundred thousand farm machines every year. The (IMg. 2C0), showing THE CENTRAL STATES 195 Pullman Car Works have made as many as ten thousand freight cars in one year, besides several hundred passenger cars. As in New York (p. 138) and other great cities, the making of clothing is one of the leading industries. These are but a few of the many kinds of manufactur- ing in this great city. Like other very large cities, Chicago has much difficulty in providing trans- (4) Transporta. portatiou f Or the t ion and sewage people of the city. Street cars are one important means, and many steam railways carry pas- sengers to and from the heart of the city. There are elevated railways (Fig 262), also, as in New York, and underground roads, as well. But unlike those in New York, the underground roads are used mainly for liauling freight. in Wisconsin, deals extensively in grain, lumber, and leather, packs much pork, and manufactures great quantities of flour and machinery. It is a busy and rapidly growing city. Locate Racine, a smaller but important lake port. Detroit (Fig. 263), the largest city in Michigan, is also on the Great Lakes water route. The name is a French word for strait. Another great difficulty was the proper care of the sewage of tlie city. For a long time it was poured into Lake Michigan; but as the drinking water was taken from the lake, this became very dangerous to the health of the ])eople. In order to carry it away, an immense drainage canal has been dug (Fig. 259), connect- ing Lake Michigan with the Illinois River, and 1 hus setting the current toward the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico. This drainage canal, which is wide and deep enough for boats, niayv in time develop into a ship canal. In that case, large ships may reach Chicago from the ( rulf of Mexico, as they now do from the Gulf of St. Lawrence. What effect would this have upon the city ? Other large cities along the lakes are 3. Milwaukee engaged in many of the and Racine game industries as Chicago. Milwaukee (Fig. 259), the largest city Fig. 262 — a view of an elevated railway in Chicago at the point known as the Union Loop. Why is that name suitable? All vessels going east or west must pass this city ; and some of the railway trains from eastern Canada to the West cross the strait at this narrow point or pass be- neath it in a tunnel. Being at the crossing of important railway and steam- ship lines, Detroit has become a great shipping and manufacturing center. It deals in grain, wool, pork, and ores from the West, and makes iron and steel goods. On the lake shore in Ohio the chief cities are Toledo and Cleveland (Fig. 263). The former has ex- 5 Cleveland tensive flour mills and iron and Toledo manufactories ; and the latter, which is 196 NORTH AMERICA a much larger city, being even larger than Cincinnati, Detroit, or Buffalo, has an important trade in grain, lumber, and ore. The situation of Cleveland near the coal and petroleum fields has led to the extensive manufacturing of machinery, furniture, and other goods. Much pe- FiG. 263. — Map showing the location of Detroit, Cleveland, Ciiicnunati, and Pitts- burg, and their relation to the trade routes of the Central and Northeastern States. tr oleum is refined here, and the build- ing of ships for the lake commerce is an important industry. Locate the principal cities of the Central States that are situated on or near the Great Lakes. Named in order of size, they are Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, Toledo, Duluth, and Superior. In what state is each of them ? On whicli lake ? Through what lakes would one go in passing from Cleveland to Chicago ".' From Cleveland to Duluth ? The largest city on the rivers, corresponding to Chicago p^^^.p^i on the lakes, cities along is St. Louis, *^« "^«" the fourth in size among our cities l. St Louis (Fi^. 267). (X) Its location It has a very favorable position in the center of the Mississippi Valley, on the Mississippi River near the mouths of its two largest tributaries. The railway bridges across the Mississippi at this point have also had great influence on the growth of the city. It is an important shippi no- point both by water anil by rail. Like Chicago, St. Louis is one of our lead- ing markets (2) ns imius- f or grain '"®* and live stock ; but, being so far south, it handles Southern prod- ucts also, especially THE CENTRAL STATES 197 Fig. 264.— Shipping on tlie Great Lakes. Tlie peculiar ship in the foreground is called a whaleback. Fig. 265. — A railway bridge across tlu- Mi~>.'iii i River above St. Louis. Copyright by Sweet, V.^)5. Fig. 266. — a general view of St. Paul, with the Mississippi River in tlie toregrouiul. The state capitol of Minnesota is on the hill at the left. 198 NORTH AMERICA cotton and tobacco. Besides this, it is a noted mule and horse market, and manufactures immense quantities of Fig. 267. Map showing the location of St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Minneapolis, and St. Paul. grain and live stock in the West; but in later years several other cities have become prominent. Two of 2. stPauiand these are Minneapolis the " twin cities," Min- neapolis and St. Paul (Fig. 267), both on the Mississippi River. The latter (Fig. 266), the capital of Minnesota, is a trade center. From it the products of the West are sent east and south, while farm implements, furniture, clothing, and other articles are distributed throughout the region. Minneapolis, only ten miles distant, is situated at the Falls of St. Anthony, which furnish splendid water power (Fig. 268). Its location in the midst of the wheat region, together with its water power, has caused Minneapolis to become the leading flour-pro- ducing center of Amer- ica. In the city are many sawmills, grain eleva- tors, and flour mills. Smaller cities on the Mississippi River be- tween this tobacco, beer, flour, boots, shoes, cloth- ing, and iron and steel goods. At one time Chicago and St. Louis were almost the only noted markets for 3. other cities point and on the Missis- St. Louis are Winona, in "^^' Minnesota ; La Crosse, in Wisconsin ; Dubuque and Davenport, in Iowa; and QuiNCY, in Illinois. Find each. THE CENTRAL STATES 199 Each is important either for lumber, grain, or farming im- plements, or for all three combined. The leading cities on the Missouri River . _.,. are Kan- 4. Cities on and near the SAS CiTY Missouri (Fig. 267), in western Missouri, and Omaha, in Ne- braska. Each is sur- rounded by a fertile farming country, which produces much grain. Each is also a market for cattle, sheep, and horses, raised near by and in the arid region farther west. Being so near the ranch country, the meat-packing indus- tries in both of these cities are gaining rapidly each year. Note that there is also a Kansas City in Kansas. On the river above Kansas City is St. Fig. 268. Fig. 269. — River boats on the Ohio at Cincinnati The St. AiiLhony i'alls ;it Minneapolis — some of the factories are seen in the distance. Joseph, in Missouri; and below it is Jefferson City, the capital of that state. Farther west, in Kansas, are Topeka, the capital, and Wichita. Southwest of Omaha is Lincoln, the capital of Nebraska ; and across the river, in Iowa, is Council Bluffs, a center for the manufacture of farming implements. Several cities northwest of this point are chiefly important as trade centers. Find some of them on the map. Locate Des Moines, the capital of Iowa. Of what advantage is its central position in a level fanning country ? Pittsburg and Wheeling, on the upper 5. cities in the Ohio river, the Ohio VaUey one in Pennsylvania and the other in West Virginia, owe their importance largely to coal and iron, and to the fact that river boats can reach them. Farther down the river is Cincinnati (Fig. 263), the largest river port in the state of Ohio, and a busy shipping and manufacturing center (Fig. 200 NORTH AMERICA 269). Besides pottery (p. 191), this city manufactures large quantities of iron, machinery, and clothing. Across the river, in Kentucky, are Covington and Newport (Fig. 263), both almost a part of Cincinnati, as Jersey City is almost a part of New York. Farther north and east, in Ohio, are Dayton and Springfield, both noted for the manufacture of farm machinery. Dayton is engaged in manufacturing of many kinds, including the making of cars. Columbus, the capital of Ohio, is an important trade center, and manu- factures many carriages and wagons. EvANSviLLE, the largest river port in Indiana, is principally engaged in the manufacture of flour, machinery, and leather goods. Indianapolis, the capi- tal and metropolis of Indiana, is in the midst of a fine farming district. Like Columbus, it is a railway and trade center, and handles much grain, lumber, and furniture, and many farming imple- ments. Locate the principal cities on the large rivers, and tell for what each is important. In order of size, they are St. Louis, Cincinnati, Minneapolis, Kan- sas City, St. Paul, and Omaha. In \vhich state, and on what river, is each of these ? How could you go by boat from Cincinnati to St. Paul ? From Cincinnati to Omaha ? On what rivers would you travel in each case, and through, or on the border of, what states ? 1. What can you say about the area of these states? 2. The population? 3. The impor- tance of agriculture? 4. What eview three conditions have been very favorable to farming ? 5. State facts about the farm in Central Ohio ; (1) the house and its surroundings ; (2) the fields and their crops ; (3) the neighbors ; (4) the attrac- tions of such a life. 6. To what extent is Indian corn raised in these states ? 7. How is it cultivated and harvested? 8. Name several of its uses. 9. What Central States are noted for wheat production ? 10. Describe the method of cultivating it on a large farm. 11. Explain its influence on the growth of many large cities. 12. What fruits are grown in the Central States ? In what sections ? 13.. What vegetables are common? 14. Which states are noted for tobacco? 15. Tell about the domestic animals. 16. Other farm products of these states. 17. Farming by irrigation on the Great Plains. 18. Where is ranching the principal industry ? Why there ? 19. W^hat can you say about the location of the ranch- man's house and corrals ? 20. Why are few fences needed ? 21. Tell about the two round- ups. 22. Describe the life of the ranchman. 23. Give some facts about lumbering in these states. 24. Fishing. 25. The distribution of coal. 26. The kind of coal, and method of mining it. 27. Where are oil and gas found ? 28. State the importance of the Lake Superior district for iron ore. 29. Why is it necessary to transport the ore a long distance before manufacturing it into iron ? 30. Name and locate several points to which it is taken. 31. What are some of the uses of copper ? 32. Where in these states is copper ore found ? 33. How is the copper obtained from the ore? Where is it sent ? 34. Show that a large pop- ulation is dependent on these copper mines. 35. Tell about other mineral products in the Central States. 36. What manufactures from farm products are very important in these states? 37. What manufactures from forest products ? 38. From ores ? 39. From oil, clay, and limestone ? 40. Explain the value of the Great Lakes for the transportation of goods. 41. The value of the rivers. 42. Give a few facts about the importance of the railroads, also. 43. Explain the importance of Duluth and Su- perior. 44. The advantages of the location of Chicago. 45. Tell about meat packing and re- lated industries in Chicago. 46. Other manu- facturing in that city. 47. The difficulties of transportation and sewage there. 48. State the principal facts about Milwaukee and Ra- cine. 49. Detroit. 60. Cleveland and Toledo. 51. St. Louis. 62. St. Paul and Minneapolis. 53. Other cities on the Mississippi Kiver. THE CENTRAL STATES 201 54. Cities on and near the Missouri River, 55. Cities in the Ohio Valley. OJiio (0.). 1. Name the four largest cities (see Appendix). State the advantages of each location. 2. What other Review Ques- gj^jgg ^f ()\^[q are mentioned ? tions by States ^ i i. • u • 4-1.0 •' For what is each important ? 3. Why is there much manufacturing in this state ? 4. What other industries are men- tioned in the text ? 5. Examine the maps (Figs. 371-381) in order to see what crops are especially important in Ohio. 6. In what ways are the cities of Ohio dependent upon New Orleans and New York ? How are the latter cities dependent upon those in Ohio ? 7. Of what service to Cleveland and Toledo is the Erie Canal ? 8. Draw a sketch map of Ohio like that of Maine (p. J 46). As you study each state, do the same. Indiana (Ind.). 9. Examine the maps (Figs. 371-381) to see what crops are produced in Indiana. 10. What minerals are found here ? 11. Which is the largest city ? For what noted ? 12. What other cities are mentioned ? 13. What are the industries of Indiana? 14. Of what importance was the fact tha:t a large part of this section was treeless when discovered ? Illinois (111.). 15. Examine the maps (Figs. 371-381) to see what crops are especially im- portant. 16. W^hy is there much manufactur- ing in Illinois ? What kinds are carried on ? 17. Of what value is the lake to manufacturing ? 18. State the reasons why Chicago has de- veloped so greatly. 19. What other cities are mentioned in this state ? For what is each important ? 20. Which of the four states so far reviewed is the largest ? Which smallest (see Appendix) ? Michigan (Mich.). 21. What lakes does this state border? Of what advantage is this? 22. What disadvantage can you see in the fact that water separates the lower from the upper peninsula of Michigan? 23. Ice stops canal traffic in winter. What effect must this have ? 24. Into what waters does this state drain? Contrast this drainage with that of the other states. 25. Where are most of the large cities ? Why there ? 26. For what is each important ? 27. Give the reasons for the lo- cation of Detroit. 28. What are the im- portant products of Michigan ? Wisconsin (Wis.). 29. Which is the largest city in this state ? For what important ? 30. W^hat other cities are mentioned in the text ? What is done in each ? 31. Compare Wisconsin with Michigan in relief; in min- eral products ; in crops ; in the size of cities. 32. What effect must the lakes have upon the climate ? Would this influence be greater or less than in Michigan ? Why ? 33. If there were coal beds in northern Wisconsin, what effect might the coal have upon Chicago, Cleveland, and the coal mining of Pennsylvania ? Minnesota (Minn.). 34. Where does the Mississippi River rise ? 35. What oceans re- ceive the water that falls upon Minnesota? Give proof. 36. What manufacturing indus- tries are carried on in this state ? 37. What crops are raised ? 38. Name the three largest cities, and tell how each is important. 39. How does the largest compare in size with Boston ? "With Cincinnati ? Iowa (la.). 40. Examine the maps (Figs. 371-381) to see what crops are raised in this state. 41. What other important industries are carried on ? 42. Name the largest cities. For what are they noted ? 43. Much corn is raised here ; what is done with it ? Missouri (Mo.). 44. Examine Figures 371- 381 to see how the crops of Missouri differ from those of Minnesota. W^hy this diiference ? 45. Why are so few large towns found in the southwestern part ? 46. Name and locate the two largest cities. For what is each important ? 47. What other cities are mentioned ? 48. Find the population of St. Louis ; compare it with that of Philadelphia and Boston. 49. Give live reasons for its great size. Kansas (Kan.). 50. Why are the cities in the eastern part ? 51. What are the industries of the West ? Why ? 52. What are the lead- ing crops in Kansas (Figs. 371-381) ? What other industries are important ? 53. Name the principal cities. For what is each noted ? Nebraska (Neb.). 54. How do the industries of Nebraska compare with those of Kansas ? Why ? 55. How are these states alike in regard to location of cities ? 56. What cities in Ne- braska are mentioned ? 57. For what is Omaha noted ? North and South Dakota (N.D. and S.D.). 58. These two states once formed the territory of Dakota. Suggest reasons for making two states out of the one territory. 59. Compare the industries of the two states with those of 202 NORTH AMERICA General Review Questions Nebraska and Kansas. 60. Look at the corn and wheat maps (Figs. 371 and 373) to see where most wheat and corn are produced. Is North Dakota more or less important than Kansas as a corn-producing state ? Answer the same for wheat. Why is this so? 61. Of what advantage would it be to Fargo if a deep river extended from that city to Duluth ? 62. How do the Black Hills increase the wealth of South Dakota ? 63. Which state is the largest in this group (see Appendix of Statistics ) ? Which smallest ? Compare each of these two in area with Pennsylvania; with Texas. 64. Which of the Cen- tral States has most inhabitants (see Appendix) ? Which fewest ? Compare each of these two in population with New York ; with Texas. 65. Find the ten largest cities (see Appendix). 1. Write a brief description of the ^Western prairies. 2. Find how much earlier in the autumn frosts come in Minneapolis than in Memphis. 3. How do farms that you have seen differ from the Ohio farm described in the text ? 4. Find other uses of corn, besides those men- tioned. 5. How does the wind often help ranch cattle to obtain food in winter ? 6. What are some of the advantages that cowboys experience ? 7. W^hy are coal and brick especially valuable in a prairie country ? 8. Visit a brickyard, and write a description of brickmaking. 9. See how long a list you can make of articles manu- factured partly or wholly out of copper. 10. Do the same with regard to lead. 11. Do the same with regard to iron. 12. From what animals do wool, beef, veal, pork, mutton, lard, tallow, and leather come ? 13. Add some wheat, corn, and other grains to the school collection. 14. How are the advantages of the location of Chicago somewhat similar to those of Atlanta ? 15. Make a drawing of the great water route from Duluth to New York City, and put in the leading cities located upon it. What states border on this route ? 16. Make a drawing of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers, and include the leading cities. What states do these rivers border or cross ? 17. Make a sketch map of the Central States, including the principal lakes, rivers, and cities. 18. Name and locate the capital of each of the Central States. Suggestions 5. The Western States 1. Name the states in this group. Write the names. 2. In what direction do the mountain ranges cross them ? „ 3. Name the principal ranges. ^ ^ 4. Name and trace the chief rivers. 5. In what section do you find very few rivers ? What does that suggest about the rainfall ? 6. Find some rivers emptying into lakes with no outlet. Are those salt or fresh water lakes ? Why ? 7. How far is it across these states, measuring from the northern to the southern boundary of the United States ? 8. How far is it from New York City to San Francisco ? 9. Measure the length of California. Com- pare its length with that of Pennsylvania. 10. Compare the area of California, also of Colorado, with that of Pennsylvania. (See Appendix.) 11. What one of our states is larger than California ? How much larger ? 12. What states border on the Pacific Ocean ? 13. How does the Pacific coast compare in reg- ularity with that of the Northeastern States (Fig. 144) ? 14. On Figure 138 note whether San Francisco is farther north or south than New York City. 15. On the same map find out, as nearly as you can, the point that is mid- way between New York City and San Fran- cisco. 16. Name those states whose waters drain mainly or entirely into the Pacific ; into the Atlantic ; into the Great Basin. These eleven states are larger than the Northeastern and Southern States combined. Indeed, they make np much more than one third of the entire area of the United States. Little was known about them until 1848, when gold was dis- T . ,1 , 1 Population covered in the stream gravels ^ ^^^^^ ^^ of California. As the dis- discovery of covery became known, how- ^^ ever, tens of thousands of persons in the East left farms, factories, and homes in a mad rush for the gold fields. Some sailed all the way around South Amer- ica; others crossed the Isthmus of S'O L.vet F,-<9et sound lumber, grain, and hops are the prin- cipal exports. There is also extensive manufacture of lumber, furniture, and other goods along the shores of Puget Sound, especially at Seattle (Fig. 308) and Tacoma. There is a large smelter at Tacoma, to which ores are sent from even as distant a point as Alaska; and THE WESTERN STATES 229 shipbuilding is an important industry at Seattle. The cities of Puget Sound, especially Seattle, have the bulk of the trade with Alaska, as well as much commerce with the Orient. To Puget Sound ports most of the gold, salmon, and other Alaskan products come, and from these ports the regular Alaskan steamers sail, carrying many miners and other passengers, and large cargoes of goods for use in that Northern ter- ritory. Seattle is the place of outfitting for most of the people who go to Alaska ; and the rapid development of that territory has brought much business to this city. Consequently its recent growth has been remarkable. Both Tacoma and Seattle are beautifully situated on the shores of Puget Sound, and from both, the extinct volcano. Mount Rainier, is plainly visible. Other important cities on Puget Sound are Bellingham, which has the largest salmon cannery in the world, and Ever- FiG. 307. The city of Portland, with tlie lofty and heautiful snow-covered peak of the volcano, Mt. Hood, in the distance. ETT. Olympia, the capital of Washing- ton, is on a branch of Puget Sound. The greatest of the interior cities of the Western States is Den- ver, the capital of Colorado. Leading cities ' , .^ 1 *" *"® interior This city IS located on the i Denver site of a small mining camp. *"^. Colorado Its growth is due chiefly to two conditions: (1) the numerous Copyright, IS'.is, l,y Braas, Seattle Fig. 308. — A view of a part of Seattle from the water. Note the great amount of shipping in this husy port. 230 NORTH AMERICA mining towns among the mountains near by ; and (2) the near presence of water, which has made irrigation on a large scale possible (p. 211). The first condition calls for an important trade and manufacturing center somewhere in that region, and the second makes it possible to secure food in the vicinity. Denver has now become a very im- portant railway and manufacturing cen- ter, where ore is smelted, and machinery. Fig. 309. — Pike's Teak from the Garden of the Gods, near Colorado Sprinj^s flour, and cloth are manufactured. It is also of importance as a health resort, for the altitude of more than five thou- sand feet, and the dry climate, are es- pecially favorable to persons suffering from diseases of the lungs. Colorado Springs, south of Denver, at the base of Pike's Peak (Fig. 309), is one of the leading health resorts in the country. Pueblo, a trade and manufacturing center, is situated south of Denver, where the Santa F^ Railway meets the Denver and Rio Grande. Here much ore is smelted, and iron goods are manufactured (Fig. 301). It is the nearness to coal and iron ore that makes the latter industry profitable. Spokane, in eastern Washington, is situated on the Spokane River at a point where there is a large waterfall (Fig. 310). This supplies abun- dant water power, so that there is much manufacturing. Since the city lies in the midst of the fertile wheat region of eastern Washington, flour milling is extensive, as at Minneapolis. From the forests of Idaho the city receives lumber; and, as already mentioned, it has been greatly benefited by the rich mines of the nearby Coeur d'Alene dis- trict. Spokane is also an important railway center and distributing point for a wide area of country. It has grown very rapidly, and is now second in size among the interior cities of these states. Two other cities in the interior of Washington are Walla Walla, in the southeast, and North Yakima in the Yakima Valley. Much of the ore mined at Butte (p. 217) is crushed and reduced in smelters within the city ^ ^^^^ limits. But much also is Anaconda, and sent to the smelters of Ana- conda, and a large part of the Montana ores go to the smelters at Great Falls. Butte is a good example of a flourishing mining center. When a rich vein of metal is discovered many men are needed to work it ; some to dig out the ore, others to crush it in the stamp mills, THE WESTERN STATES 231 and still others to reduce it in the smelters. Thus a good-sized town may quickly spring up about a single rich vein. Very often, too, where there is one rich mineral vein, there are others close by, so that a group of mines may be opened near together. Then a mere mining camp may quickly become a large city. That is what happened in the case of Butte. It is a great copper-mining center, and, since the ore contains some silver, this precious metal is also produced. There are many mines at Butte, even within the city limits. Some of the shafts reach thou- sands of feet down into the earth, and the tun- nels that are left underground when the ore has been removed are, taken together, hundreds of Locate Boise, the capital of Idaho, a city in the midst of a fertile irrigation district. In many places among the Western mountains are scenes that compare favorably with those of the Alps in Switzerland, which the West attract so many American i. The most , 1 oj. ^ c j noted places travelers, strangely rormed cliffs, deep canyons, and great water- falls are present without number. There are also snow-capped mountains and wooded valleys. Many of the won- Fio. 310. — The falls in the Spokane River, around which the city of Spokane has grown. miles in length. Hundreds of men there spend most of their lives far underground, coming up to the surface only to eat and sleep. Many men are also employed in the smelters. There are scores of such mining centers in the West, al- though most of them are only small towns, or " camps." Several other interior cities, such as Salt Lake City and Ogden, have al- c ^... .^. ready been mentioned fp. 5. Other cities on- and towns in 212). Find othcrs on the the interior ^,^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ their importance chiefly to mining, farming by irrigation, and grazing. Name the capitals of the Western States. Which of these have been mentioned, and in what connection? derful gorges (Fig. 302), and canyons through which the Denver and Rio Grande Railway winds its way across Colorado, may be viewed from the rail- way. Among all the interesting places in the West, however, are three that easily surpass the others in grandeur. These are the Yellowstone National Park, the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, and the Yosemite Park. The Yellowstone Park, chiefly in Wyo- ming, is a tract of land larger 2. TheYeiiow- than Connecticut, which the ^^°^^ ^"^ government has set aside as springs and a national park. It is often (J«y^«^^ called the "Wonderland of America." 232 NORTH AMERICA Fig. 311. — " Old Faitblul " geyser in eruption. A stage road leads from the Northern Pacific Railway to the Mammoth Hot Springs on the northern side of the park. There is also a stage route from the Oregon Short Line on the western side. At the Hot Springs heated water flows from openings in the hillside, down over beautiful colored terraces, which have been built by a deposit of min- eral matter carried in solution in the hot water. Farther on are springs of boiling water; also springs of boiling mud of different colors ; and here and there is a spring, called a geyser, from which hot water and steam now and then burst forth with great violence, even to a height of one hundred to two hundred feet (Fig. 311). "Old Faithful," one of the most regular of these geysers, " plays " at intervals of sixty-five minutes. Then a column of steam and hot water shoots upward from one hundred to one hundred and thirty feet. Other geysers discharge at much longer periods, as two to three hours, or several days; and in some of the geysers the roar of escaping steam lasts for hours after the water has been expelled. The outbursts are really explosions of steam, the heat being supplied from the depths of the earth. Some of the springs are on a level with the ground, so that a visitor must be on the lookout lest he step into one ; others are surrounded by rims several feet high. Beyond the geyser basins lies the Yellowstone Lake, a beautiful sheet of Fig. ol'i. — Tlu" ixn'nt falls of tlie Yellowstone, three liuiulred and eight feet high. THE WESTERN STATES 233 Fig. 313. — A grizzly bear in the Yellowstone National Park water, nestled in the mountains, nearly eight thousand feet above the sea. Its waters flow northward, form- ing the Yellowstone River, a tributary of the Missouri. (2) Its lake, falls, and canyon To many persons, the falls and canyon of this river are the greatest wonders of the park- Soon after leaving the lake, the stream narrows and quickens, and then the water leaps one hun- dred and nine feet directly downward. A short distance farther on it tumbles three hundred and eight feet, or almost twice the height of Niag- ara Falls (Fig. 312). The river then runs between steep walls, which rise one thousand feet above it. This canyon is some- what winding, with numerous bold cliffs jutting far out into the abyss. From these cliffs grand views may be obtained. Far below, one sees the silvery stream, too distant to be heard as it dashes along. Across the chasm, a half mile away, dark green pines fringe the bank, and between the water and these woods are gorgeously colored rock walls, having all the tints of the rainbow. In this park hunting is forbidden, and for that reason wild animals are numerous and quite tame. When driving (3) ^<« ""i'""'* through, the park one can sometimes see elk by the roadside ; and bears (Fig. 313), both grizzly and black, come close to camps and hotels for food. There are many other animals here also, among them some bison, or buffalo (Fig 314). One portion of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, in Ari- zona, may be reached by the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway. The wonderful Yellowstone Canyon, just de- scribed, and the canyons on the Denver and Rio Grande in Colorado, are pygmies compared with this (Fig. 315). As one first looks out into the canyon, one sees nothing but rock towers, pin- nacles, many colored layers of rock, and apparently bottomless depths. When he finally reaches a point from which the threadlike stream may be spied at the bottom of the abyss, a mile below. 3. The Canyon of the Colorado River Fig. 314. — Bisou feeding in the Yellowstone National Park. 234 NORTH AMERICA it seems almost impossible that so little water could have wrought such mighty havoc. Yet this river has been slowly cutting its way into the rocks for thou- sands of centuries, and this great gash, or canyon, is the result. The difficult path which leads to the bottom of the canyon is seven miles long, and the trip Fig. 315. The Canyon of the Colorado, a gash of over a mile in depth cut by the. river in the solid rock. down and back is a full day's journey ; but without making it, one failp to appreciate fully the marvelous carving, sculpturing, and color- ing of the canyon walls. At the bottom the scene is entirely changed; and, as one looks upward, to see himself shut in by walls which seem to extend to the very heavens, his own littleness and the immensity of the works of Nature are wonderfully impressed upon him. For three hundred miles the Colorado River flows at the bottom of this deeply cut canyon, which forms a very complete barrier to travel- ers. A person living on one side, where he could see across to the other side, ten miles away, would need to travel hundreds of miles to reach that side ; for no railways, roads, or paths can cross it. The government has set aside this wonderland also as a national park for the enjoyment of the people. The remarkable Yoseinite Val- ley, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada Moun- 4. xhe tains, in California, YosemitePark presents very different views from those thus far described. This is the region of the High Sierras, with their deep canyons and granite peaks, one of which, Mt. Whitney, 14,898 feet high, is the highest point in the United States, not including Alaska. Some of the most magnificent views in the High Sierras are formed by waterfalls of the Yosemite Creek and Merced River, in Yosemite Park (Fig. 316). In one mighty leap the water descends fifteen hundred feet, forming the Yosemite Falls, which are famed the world over. Below this are some cascades, then another fall of four hun- dred feet. Only a few miles from the falls are the giant trees of the world, the largest of which is 35 feet in diam- eter and 300 feet high. The Yosemite region, like the Yellowstone, is a public park, and is visited every year by thousands of people, including many Europeans. It would require many pages to describe all the wonderful scenes in Wes- 5. Other won- derful scenery tern United States, or even to make a list of them. But mention must be made of the Shoshone Falls in Idaho, THE WESTERN STATES 235 Fig. 31G. — The Yosemite Valley, bordered by lofty granite luciiiiici-s, over one portion of which the water leaps to form the far-famed Yosemite Falls. Lake Chelan in Washington, Lake in the Sierra Nevada, and Crater Lake egon — the great crater of an extinct volcano in which a beau- tiful lake is now situated. Also the Rainier National Park, on the slopes of Mount Kainier, deserves mention with its beau- tiful valleys, large glaciers, and grand mountain scenery. Many people from the East are much interested in the In- dians, who live on Indian reserva- tions, or land reserved for them by the gov- ernment. Among the most in- teresting of these are the Pueblo Indians in Arizona, who still live after the manner of their ancestors. Their homes, called pueblos, are built of sun-drted clay, or adobe, and in some cases are entered from the roof by means of ladders. The pueblos were intended as Tahoe in Or- strongholds for the storing of grain, and for protection against wandering tribes, who might 6. The Red Men Fig. 317. — The cave dwellings of the southwest. The Indians dug these caves out of the solid rock and lived in them. 236 NORTH AMERICA Review Questions attack them at any time. Other Indian houses, the diff dwellings, were built on the sides of cliffs beneath overhanging ledges; and still others, cave dwellings, were in caves dug out of the rocks by the Indians (Fig. 317). These cliff and cave dwellings are no longer occu- pied. 1. What was the effect of the discovery of gold in California upon the population of these States? 2. What is their present population? 3. Explain how their far western position has been one reason for so small a population. 4. Explain how their many mountains and plateaus have been a second reason. 5. Show how the lack of rain has been a third reason, 6. Where are the heaviest rains in this group of states ? Why there ? 7. Tell about the agriculture in that section. 8. Why is there so little rain in southern California and further east ? 9. How is irrigation planned ? 10. What are the farm products in Southern California? 11. How is the fruit cared for, and what is done with it? 12. What can you tell about the Great Valley ? 13. How is irri- gation planned near Denver ? 14. Explain the expense of such irrigation, and its advantages. 15. Tell about agriculture in Utah. 16. In other irrigation sections. 17. How is our national government aiding irrigation in these states ? 18. What kinds of animals are raised in the arid parts of these states ? 19. How is sheep ranching carried on ? 20. What are the sources of profit ? 21. Name the most valuable minerals mined in these states. 22. Describe the methods of mining gold. 23. Tell about the mining in Nevada. 24. In Colorado. 25. In Montana. 26. In other western states. 27. What about coal, petroleum, and other min- erals in these states ? 28. Describe the work of the prospector. 29. Why is there a special need of lumber in these states ? 30. Locate the principal forests. 31. Name the kinds of trees, and tell about their size. 32. Describe the method of lumbering. 33. What is done with the logs and the lumber ? ,34. What do you know about the fishing? 35. What are the principal manufactures from the products of the farm, forest, and ranch ? 36. From the prod- ucts of the mines ? 37. What is the prospect for manufacturing in the West? 38. Tell about the principal harbors on our Pacific coast. 39. About our trade with distant coun- tries. 40. State the value of the rivers and rail- roads for transportation of goods. 41. Name and locate the principal cities near San Francisco. 42. What are the principal manu- factures in that section? 43. What can you say about the extent of the shipping ? 44. Tell about the coast cities south of San Francisco. 45. About Portland and vicinity. 46. The cities on Puget Sound. 47. Denver and Colorado Springs. 48. Pueblo. 49. Spokane. 50. Butte, Anaconda, and Great Falls. 51. Other cities and towns in the interior. 52. Name and locate the three places in the West most noted for grand scenery. 53. Tell about the hot springs and geysers of the Yellowstone Park. 54. About its lake, falls, and canyon. 55. Its animals. 56. Give your impression of the appearance of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado Eiver. 57. Of the Yosemite Park. 58. Name and locate other places in the West where there is wonderful scenery. 59. Tell about the Indians. Montana (Mont.). 1. What industries are carried on in the eastern part ? Why ? 2. In the western part ? 3. Name the chief cities in Montana, and tell Review Ques- how each is important. 4. What ^ y a es two large rivers drain this section ? 5. Through what states do they flow before reaching the Gulf? 6. Draw an outline map of the state and, as each of the other states is studied, do the same for that. Wyoming (Wy.). 7. What industries are carried on in this state ? 8. What cities are mentioned ? In what connection ? 9. Find the Yellowstone Park, and tell for what it is noted. 10. This state is represented as having little grain, on the maps showing the principal grain-producing regions (Figs. 371 and 373). Why ? Colorado (Col. or Colo.). 11. Examine Fig- ures 371 to 373 to see what are the industries of Colorado. 12. Why is there more water for irrigation in this state than in some of the others? 13. Trace the divide between the Pacific and Atlantic drainage as it crosses Colorado. Trace it northward to Canada and southward to Mexico. 14. Name the cities in Colorado mentioned in the text, and tell how each is important. 15. Find the population of Denver (see Appendix). Compare it with that of other large cities in the Western States ; also with that of New Orleans and of Buffalo. THE WESTERN STATES 237 New Mexico (N.M.). 16. Locate Santa Fe ; Albuquerque. 17. What rivers drain this state ? 18. Compare its area with that of Pennsylvania. 19. Its population. Arizona. (Ariz.). 20. What can you tell about the large river that crosses Arizona? 21. What cities and industries are men- tioned? 22. What minerals are obtained here ? 23. How does the largest city compare in size Avith the largest in New Mexico ? In Colorado ? 24. Find the population. Nevada (Nev.). 25. For what mines was Nevada famous ? 26. Find its present popu- lation (see Appendix). Why are there so few people ? 27. What about its present in- dustries ? 28. How may the government irri- gation work be of special value to this state ? Utah. 29. Why is the Great Salt Lake salt? 30. What are the industries of this state ? 31. What cities are mentioned? Tell about each. 32. Examine the maps, Figures 249 to 274, to see what products come from Utah. Idaho (Ida.). 33. What metals are ob- tained? (See Figs. 391 to 396.) 34. What great river drains Idaho ? 35. What moun- tain range forms the eastern boundary ? Washington (\Y2k^h..). 36. Compare the coast line with that of Oregon ; of Maine. 37. What about the rainfall of this state ? Compare it with that of Montana (Fig. 408). Why this difference ? 38. What effect has the rainfall upon the industries ? What are the principal industries ? 39. What cities are mentioned in the text ? What can you tell about each ? Oregon (Ore.). 40. What advantage do you see in the location of the largest city ? 41. Com- pare it in size with Denver ; New Orleans. 42. Examine the maps (Figs. 371 to 397) to see what is produced in Oregon. 43. What industries are mentioned in the text? 44. What cities are mentioned, and in what connection ? California (Cal.). 45. What about the rain- fall ? 46. What two rivers drain most of this state? 47. Describe the relief. 48. Name the cities mentioned ; for what is each impor- tant ? 49. What industries are found in this state ? 50. What advantage do you see in the location of San Francisco ? 51. Compare its population with that of Boston; Denver. 52. What caused the early growth of Cali- fornia? What effect has that had on other Western States ? 53. Which state has the largest population (see Appendix)? The smallest? 54. Com- pare each of these two with Massachusetts and New York in general population. 55. Name and lo- ^ .. cate the eight largest cities (see Appendix). 56. Which of the five groups of states has the densest population (Fig. 367) ? Which the least dense ? What reasons can you give ? 1. Head about the expedition of Lewis and Clark from St. Louis to the Pacific coast in 1803-1806. 2. Find out about the early settlement, and dispute ^ about the ownership, of Oregon. 3. What is the origin of the expression " to pan out " ? 4. Mention several of the advantages and disadvantages of having no rain for several months at a time, as in southern California. 5. Make a collection of minerals for the school. 6. Should the ditch that is to ir- rigate a certain field skirt its upper or lower edge ? Why ? 7. Which is the more easily irrigated, nearly level land, or land that is rough and hilly ? Why ? 8. Is southern Cali- fornia as liable to cold snaps as Florida? Why ? 9. Make a list of articles made of wool. 10. What have been the objections to admitting Arizona and New Mexico into our Union as states ? 11. Write a story describ- ing an imaginary visit to southern California. 12. Make a drawing of the Western States, putting in the principal mountain ranges, rivers, and cities. 1. Name the principal crops of the United States, and tell in which section each is raised. (Consult figures 249 to 259.) 2. Do the same for mineral General Re- view OxicS" products. 3. For other raw prod- tionsfor nets. 4. For manufactured arti- United States cles. 5. Name the ten largest cities in their order (see Appendix). For what is each important ? 6. State some ways in which the rainfall influences the occupations of the people. 7. The temperature. 8. State clearly the influence of the absence of forests on the prairies. 9. Of the rich mineral deposits in the West. 10. In what ways have the Great Lakes been of value ? 11. Name some of the cities that have been benefited by them. 12. In what ways have the Mississippi River and its two largest tributaries been of value ? 238 NORTH AMERICA 13. State some of the natural advantages that have aided the growth of Boston ; New York ; Buffalo ; Philadelphia; Baltimore ; New Orleans ; Cleveland ; Pittsburg ; Detroit ; Chicago ; St. Louis ; and San Francisco. 14. Can you name some other cities that have also been influenced by their surroundings ? 15. Which is the larg- est state (see Appendix) ? The second in size ? The smallest? The next to the smallest? 16. Which state has the largest population (see Appendix) ? The second largest ? The smallest? Next to the smallest? 17. What states border Mexico ? Canada ? 18. Draw a map of the United States. SECTION III. TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 1. On the map of world (Fig. 107) locate (a) Alaska ; (&) Porto Kico ; (c) The Philippine Islands ; (d) The Hawaiian ^ ^ Islands. 2. On the map of North America (Fig. 134) locate Alaska and Porto Rico. 3. Bound Alaska. 4. What large river crosses Alaska ? 5. Name the largest islands in the Philippines (Fig. 328). At the close of the Revolutionary War the United States consisted of thirteen Our increase small colonies, extending of territory along the x^tlantic coast from Maine to Georgia. Our new nation laid claim also to the land far into the wild- erness, even to the distant Mississippi. Beyond this was French and Spanish territory, while the whole Mississippi Valley was occupied by Indians. By purchase, by war, or by treaty, we have gained possession of all the land between the Atlantic and the Pacific, which has thus far been described. Re- call what was said about the growth of the United States on pages 106 and 107 (see also Fig. 142). Our growth has continued so that now our territory does not end with the boundaries of the United States proper. In 1867 we obtained Alaska, and in 1898 we came into possession of a number of islands, some of which are on the other side of the globe. Since these lands form a part of our territory, a study of them may come at this point. 1. Alaska (Fig. 318) Alaska (Fig. 318), which was pur- chased from Russia in 1867 (for $7,200,- 000), is almost one fifth as large as the United States. SS^a^'aVd Measure to see how far this why it at territory is from our near- ^^st seemed unwise est ports, on Puget Sound. Most people thought it very foolish to buy a territory so far away and so far north. A large part of Alaska is mountainous (Fig. 319), and much of it is in the frigid zone, as you can see. About how much of it ? In addition, at that time we already had more land than we knew what to do with. For these reasons, most persons thought that the purchase of Alaska was very unwise. They even called it " Seward's folly," because Secretary Seward, who was in President Lincoln's cabinet, was the one who chiefly urged the purchase. As it has turned out, however, it was a wise purchase, for Reasons why Alaska has become an im- it was a wise portant part of the United P^^rci^ase States, and is developing rapidly. Most of Alaska is too mountainous and too cold for agriculture. Yet the summers are warmer than one 1- Agnculture . , T and lumbenng might suppose, and some parts of the country are level enough for farming. i • ' • * ' *•' « I »• 3 » * i '.* TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 239 Fiti. Hiy. — The snow-covered mountains of the St. Elias chain, Alaska. 3. Fishing Already some crops are raised there, and, doubt- less, portions of Alaska will some day produce the more hardy grains and vegetables. Doubt- less, also, grazing will become important, for there are extensive natural pastures on w^hich sheep and cattle can feed. In addition, the forests will some day be of value, for there are large areas covered with timber. At present the fishing proves the wisdom of the purchase of Alaska much more than the industries just mentioned. The catching of seals was the first industry of consequence there. One kind of Alaskan seal, called the fur seal, has a very fine fur, which is highly prized for making muffs and cloaks. The skins are especially valued because of their warmth and beauty, and as there is no great number of them, they are very expen- sive. A sealskin cloak costs several hundred dollars. Already more than seven times as much money has come from sealing as was paid for the entire territory of Alaska. During the greater part of the year the fur seals swim about in search of food ; but in the spring, during the breeding season, they resort to the Pribilof Islands (Fig. 320). The United States government prohibits all persons from killing the fur seal, except one company, which pays a special tax for the privilege of securing a certain number each year. At the proper season the men select a number of seals and drive them off for slaughter, much as sheep would be driven. There are so few of these (1) Sealing Fia. 320. — A group of fur seals on the shore of the Pribilof Islands. 240 NORTH AMERICA seals, and they are so easily killed, that if the government did not protect them, all would soon be destroyed. More recently the salmon have come to be of great value. Here, as in the i,2) Catching of Columbia River (p. 222), salmon and teus of thousands of salmou other fish , i , go up the streams every summer, in order to lay their eggs in 3. Mining Fig. 321. — Miners fording tlie icy waters of an Alaskan river on tlie way to Klondike. Two of them are harnessed to a wagon containing their supplies. fresh water. Indeed, people in that coun- try, when wanting salmon for food, often kick them out of the small streams, in- stead of catching them in the usual way. These fish are caught and taken to the canneries, where they are cooked and placed in cans for shipment to all parts of the world. Already the salmon taken from the Alaskan streams have yielded more than ten times as much money as Alaska cost us. Among other fish, halibut and codfish are common on the shallow banks along the Alaskan coast, and vessels from our Western States now go there to catch them. It is, however, gold that has attracted most attention to this territory. The famous Klondike region, in northwestern Canada, first drew large numbers of men to the coun- try, since the easiest route to the Klondike was across Alaska. Thousands of prospectors rushed there in 1896andl897,justas they did to California in 1849. Valuable deposits of gold have since been found at Nome, near Juneau, in the Tanana Valley, and in other parts of Alaska. Alaska now produces two or three times as much gold each year as we paid to Russia for the entire territory. One great difficulty has been to reach the gold fields and to carry supplies to them. The early miners were exposed to great hardships on their journey to the Klondike region. Now, however, by the help of a short railway across the mountains, one can go into the interior of Alaska much more easily. Another railway is being built across the mountains along the Copper River Valley. In summer many miners go up the Yukon River in boats, but this is impossible in winter when the river is frozen. Trace the course of this river. How does the Yukon River compare in size with the Ohio (see Appendix)? Besides gold, there are also very ex- tensive deposits of copper and coal ; but as yet these minerals have not been TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 241 mined to any great extent. At present there are almost no roads, and even very few trails; and until better means of transportation are provided there can be little development of these valuable mineral resources. Alaska is justly famous for its grand scenery. The journey along the Alas- kan coast is one of the most The scenery i c i i i ^ wonderful steamboat voy- ages in the world. There are so many islands that, for a thousand miles,' the steamers sail between lofty, forest- covered mountain walls, with snow- capped peaks in the background, and upon waters whose surface is as quiet as a lake. Beyond Juneau the mountains be- come higher, and many of the peaks are more than three miles high. The loftiest of all is Mt. McKinley, the highest mountain on the continent ; but Mt. St. Elias, and Mt. Wrangell, an active volcano, are also very high. The snows are so heavy that most of the mountains are snow-covered through- out the year (Fig. 319) ; and hundreds of glaciers descend through the moun- tain valleys, some even entering the sea and breaking off to form icebergs. The largest glaciers on the continent are found in this region. One of the best known of these, the Muir Glacier, is not far north of Sitka. In such a new country there are, of course, no large cities." The oldest and Principal best known is the quaint towns town of Sitka, the former capital. Juneau, which was made the capital a few years ago, besides being near valuable gold mines, is on the route to the Klondike. It is, therefore, an im- portant center. Not far north is Skag- WAY, where miners leave the steamer to take the White Pass Railway to the headwaters of the Yukon. There are also many mining towns, such as Dawson, in the Klondike region of Canada, and Nome, on Bering Sea. In 1898, the beach sands at Nome were found to contain gold, and in a single season a good-sized city had grown on the beach. Large numbers of men lived in tents, and others in rough wooden shanties. In 1900 there were more than twelve thousand people here ; but three years afterward, there were only about one third as many. In such a mining district a town may grow up in a year and become deserted in a single season. Many of the people spend only the warmer season in Alaska, going up there in the spring, and re- turning to the states in the autumn. 2 Cuba and Porto Rico (Fig. 322) On his first voyage, Columbus dis- covered some islands southeast of the United States (Fig. 134). These were later called the West Indies, because, as you remember (p. 87), Columbus thought he had reached India. The Spaniards took possession of these islands, and long held the larger ones as colonies. The people were „ ^^ ^ ^ How these is- not content under Spanish lands happen rule, and there was much to be under trouble and bloodshed. Yet °^^ ^"* *°*^® Spain held Cuba and Porto Rico until 1898. At that time the Cubans were fighting a war for independence, and the United States went to their aid. This quickly brought on a war between our country and Spain, called the Spanish- American War. Spain gave up Cuba and Porto Rico at the end of the war. Our government then took control of Porto Rico, and holds it still ; but Cuba was allowed its independence, under our protection. It is not, therefore, a part of our territory, as Porto Rico is. 242 NORTH AMERICA Spanish is the language spoken on both these islands, and many of the people are Spaniards ; but there are also many negroes and many half-breeds. Fig. 323. — a native hut in Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the West Indies, being nearly as large as Pennsyl- Area and sur- vania, although much longer face features and narrower. Porto Rico is somewhat smaller than Connecticut. Each of these islands is quite mountain- ous, but there are broad valleys and small, fertile lowlands. Both islands lie entirely within the tropical zone, and on the low- lands neither snow nor frost are known. On account of the warm climate many people from the United States go to Porto Rico and Cuba to spend the winter. There is an abundance of I'ain in most parts of the islands ; but the rain- fall is especially heavy on the north- eastern, or 'windward, slopes, for it is from this direction that the damp ocean winds chiefly come. Large portions of Porto Rico and of Cuba have been cleared and cultivated. This is especially true of Porto Rico, which is really Ag"^^!*"'-^ an island of farms. Indeed, agriculture is the chief industry on both islands. As in all the West Indies, the princi- pal crop is sugar cane (Fig. 324), and this industry is carried on i The farm much as it is in Louisiana products (p. 153). A second important crop is toba,cco, for which Cuba is especially noted ; and great numbers of cigars are manufactured in these islands. Upon the hill slopes, much coffee is produced, and some tea and cocoa. Spices, including nutmeg, cinnamon, and ginger, are products of the West Indies ; also pepper, cardamom, vanilla, and pi- mento or allspice. Bananas, oranges, limes, pineapples* (Fig. 325), and cocoa- nuts are grown in great quantities, and also many vegetables. There is much pasture, too, and many cattle are raised. Climate Fig. 324. train on a sugar plantation in Porto Kico drawing the sugar cane to the sugar mill. Our soil and climate enable us to raise almost all the farm products g ^j^^.^. that we need. But some ciai value to the , 1 , , . , United States that we cannot raise exten- sively are' produced on these islands. TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 243 Some of these are tea, coffee, sugar, spices, and tropical fruits. The islands also send us fruits and vegetables in midwinter. Thus it is of ureat value to us that we have such close relations with Cuba and Porto Rico. In Cuba there is also uiuch valuable timber, in- other raw eluding mahog- products any, ebony, and fustic, which produces a yel- low dye. There are also some valuable minerals in Cuba, especially copper and iron. The largest city of the West Indies Is Havana, in Cuba, for a long time the Fia. 325. — Pineapples growing in Porto Rico. center of Spanish rule in America. Another Cuban city is San- Principal TiAGO, where the Spanish cities ships were sunk in the war of 1898 ; and a third is Matanzas. Fig. 326. •A view along the Canal route, in liX)9. When this great cut in the earth is deep enough, it will be flooded with water and large ocean ships will then sail through it. 244 NORTH AMERICA The two principal cities of Porto Rico are Ponce, on the southern coast, and San Juan, on tlie northern. The latter is the largest city and the capital of the island. 3. Panama Canal Zone (Fig. 354) One of the most interesting regions controlled by the United States is a Its location strip of land, ten miles wide, and cost across the Tsthinus of Pan- ama, which connects North America with South America (Fig. 134). The city of Panama is at the southern end, and Colon at the northern. It is here that our government is now digging the Panama Canal (Fig. 326), so that even the largest ocean, ships may pass from one ocean to the other. The distance across the isthmus, along the line of the canal, is less than fifty miles, and the elevation but three hundred feet at the highest point ; but it will cost our government several hundred million dollars to complete the work. This is one of the greatest public works our government has ever undertaken, and it will prove of great Advantage service to the entire world, of the canal A steamer bound from London to San Francisco will save five thousand miles by taking this new route, while eight thou- sand miles will be saved in going by boat from New York to San Francisco. The canal will be of benefit to all our seacoast towns, and will also aid in the distribu- tion of the products of the interior. 4. The Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 328) Far out in the Pacific, between the United States and the Philippines (Fig. 107), lies a group of How they small islands called the Ha- came into our waiian Islands. Formerly possession they were a little independent king- dom, bat in 1893 the people, who are Malayans, rebelled and formed a repub- lic. Later they asked to be made a part Fig. 327. — The ' Lake of Fire " iu the crater of one of the Hawaiian volcanoes, or melted rock, that rises from within the eartli. Tliis is red liot lava. y oj TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 245 Fia. 32i). — Natives cutting sugar cane on a plantation in the Hawaiian Islands. of the United States, and in 1898 this was done. These islands are small, and are scattered over a distance of more than ^iru *!. a thousand miles. They are Why they are . «^ . of special made of lava, which has risen value to us from within the earth, and on Hawaii (Fig. 328), the largest island, there are two volcanoes that are still ac- tive (Fig. 327). Every few years one of these bursts forth in eruption, and then vast quantities of melted rock, or lava, pour down the slopes toward the sea. Such islands, so far away, might J. ,1 possession nrst they were governed entirely by the United States, but now they * have their own legislature, and partly govern them- selves. Find these islands on Fig- nre 107 ; also on a globe. Name and locate the larger islands (Fig. 328). How would you reach them from San Fran- cisco ? From New York ? Through what waters would you pass ? Fig. 332. — A native Pliilippiue girl. TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES 24:1 There are more than three thousand islands in the group, or archipelago, Area and soine of them being very population small. The largest two are Luzon, which is nearly as large as Pennsylvania, and Mindanao, which is a little smaller than Luzon. How far apart are they ? The area of all the islands together is about three times that of Pennsylvania. Luzon has more than half as many people as Pennsylvania, and all the islands together have about eight million inhabit- ants. There is a great mixture of people in the Philippine Kinds of Islands. Some people are Spanish, some, Americans, and many are Japanese and Chinese ; but most of the inhabitants are natives (Fig. 332). There are several races among the natives, many of whom are partly or wholly civilized. Of these the Tagalogs are most ad- vanced, having learned the arts of civilization from the Spaniards. A number of small islands in the southwestern part of the main group are occupied by Mohammedans, called Moras. Among the mountainous parts of the other islands, real savages live in the dense forests of the interior. Some of these savages, called Negritos, or little negroes, are a race of very small, black people. The United States has the difficult task of governing and teaching these people until they become able to govern themselves. While dif- ferent languages are spoken by the natives, Spanish is the most common one, as in Cuba and Porto Rico. The use of the English lan- guage, however, is rapidly increasing. The Philippine Islands are the tops of ^ a mountain range rising out of the sea. Much of the surface is therefore moun- tainous, some of the peaks being vol- canoes. There are, however, surface and many fertile valleys and nar- climate row plains. The climate is everywhere tropical, and in most parts there is a heavy rainfall. In many parts it is so damp that cellars under the houses would be too damp to be healthful. Fig. 333. — A house in the Philippines, huilt of bamboo and covered with thatch. The liouse is raised above tlie ground because of the dampness. For this reason, the native house is usually raised above the ground, and the family lives in the second story (Fig. 333). The lower part is often used for storage, as a cellar is in our country. Forests cover a large part of the archi- pelago, in many places forming tropical jungles. Among the valua- vegetationand ble woods are ebony, the rub- animal life ber tree, and a palm from whose sap alcohol may be made. Cinnamon, cloves, and pepper grow in these islands, and cocoanut and banana trees are also very common. 248 NORTH AMERICA sea. From this nut an oil is made that is used in lamps, and sometimes in the manufacture of a substitute for lard. Much of the dried meat of the nut, called copra, is shipped to Europe for use in soap making. The natives have domesti- cated a native wild animal, the water buffalo (Fig. 335), which is of great value as a draft ani- mal. It is of special service in the rice fields, which are kept flooded during the growing season. The buffalo is quite at home in the mud, even pre- ferring wet walking to^ dry ; and, in fact, it must have a daily plunge in the mud and water. Fig. 334. — Native women of the Philippine Islauds making cigars in Manila. o & P *-'^ islands, there are many As in other tropical forests, there are im- mense numbers of animals, especially insects, serpents, and beautiful birds. Among the serpents are the huge python and the deadly cobra de capello. There are also deer, apes, wild hogs, wild buffaloes, huge bats, and man- eating crocodiles. Among the more important products are hemp, cocoa, coffee, sugar, and to- Principal bacco, the latter being man- products ufactured into cigars at Manila (Fig. 334). Hemp is the best- known export of these islands. It is made from the fiber of the wild plantain, which resem- bles the banana tree. Hemp is used for a number of purposes, one being for mak- ing rope. These islands supply the world with hemp for making the better grade, called Manila rope. cities having each a popula- tion of more than ten thou- sand ; but there is only one of special importance. This is Manila, on the island of Luzon. This city, which has more than two hundred thousand inhabit- ants, is situated upon an excellent har- bor, and is the capital of the Philippines. Alaska : Questions. 1. How was Alaska obtained, and how was the pur- chase at first regarded ? 2. What Review Ques- can you say about agriculture *io^s and and lumbering? 3. State some Suggestions Great rafts of cocoanuts are shipped down the rivers to the Fig. 335. — Native Filipino.s plowing with the huffalo. COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 249 tacts about sealing. 4. What other kinds of fish are caught ? 5. State the principal facts about mining. 6. Describe the scenery. 7. Name and locate the leading towns. Suggestions. 8. Learn more about the fur seal. 9. How does the area of Alaska compare with that of the United States proper ? 10. Measure the length of the Yukon, and com- pare it with the Mackenzie. 11. Draw an out- line map of Alaska. Porto Rico and Cuba : Questions. 12. How do these islands happen to be under our guidance ? 13. What are their areas and principal surface features ? 14. Describe the climate. 15. Name the farm products. 16. How are these products of special value to the United States ? 17. What other raw products are found ? 18. Name and locate the principal cities. Suggestions. 19. Estimate the length and average breadth of Cuba. 20. What products of Cuba and Porto Rico are also raised in the United States ? Where ? 21. Make a sketch map of Cuba and Porto Rico. Panama Canal Zone : Questions. 22. Lo- cate this zone. 23. What can you tell about it ? 24. What advantages will be secured by the canal ? Suggestions 25. What difficulties are caused by the climate in the work of digging the canal ? 26. Read magazine articles telling about the work. The Hawaiian Islands and Other Small Islands : Questions. 27. Where are the Hawaiian Islands located ? 28. How did they come into our possession ? 29. What can you tell about the volcanoes ? 30. Why are these islands of special value to us ? 31. What are the chief products ? 32. Name and locate the two chief cities. 33. Name and locate other island possessions. 34. How are they important? Suggestions. 35. Why should you expect much the same products in the Hawaiian Islands as in Cuba ? 36. Explain the presence of many Chinese and Japanese in these islands. The Philippine Islands : Questions. 37. How were these islands obtained ? 38. What about their area and population ? 39. State some facts about the people. 40. Describe the surface and climate. 41. What about vegetation and animal life ? 42. What are the principal products? 43. What about the cities ? Suggestions. 44. Compare the latitude of the islands with that of the West Indies and of the Hawaiian Islands. 45. Name several other places thus far studied that have vol- canoes. 46. Collect pictures of scenes in the Philippines. 47. Find out about Dewey's capture of Manila. 48. Make a sketch map of the islands. 1. Name the principal dependencies of the United States. 2. Locate each on the map of the world (Fig. 107). 3. Walk toward each. 4. Name the principal products of each. 5. In what zones does each lie ? 6. How did we obtain each? 7. Name and locate the principal cities in our dependencies. 8. Which of our dependencies seem to you most valuable ? Why ? General Review Questions IV. COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 1. Canada and Newfoundland Map study 1. What parts of the boundary line between the United States and Canada are natural (Fig. 134)? 2. In what zones does Canada lie ? What can you say about its climate ? 3. What can you tell from the map about its rivers and lakes ? About its mountains ? 4. Into what large river do the Great Lakes empty ? 5. What Falls are in the river between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario (Fig. 144) ? 6. How must these Falls hinder shipping? 7. Which one of the Great Lakes lies wholly within the United States ? 8. Which of our states border on Canada? 9. How near are Detroit and Buffalo to Canada ? 10. Locate the Gulf of St. Lawrence; Hudson Bay; Greenland; Labra- dor; Newfoundland; Nova Scotia. Canada is larger than the United States, even including Alaska ; yet its 250 NORTH AMERICA population is only about six millions, or . about the same as that of Area, popu- lation, and our single state of Penn- government sylvania. Canada includes nine provinces that correspond, in a way, to our states. These are Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia. Locate each of these. There are, besides, three territories. What are their names ? Together they Surface features of southern Canada Fig. 337. -Lake Louise, nestled among the snow-capped mountains of western Canada, along the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway. form a Union, called the Dominion of Canada, which is much like our own Union. The capital is Ottawa, corre- sponding to our capital, Washington. Although Canada is a colony of Great Britain, the people make their own laws, and are quite as independent as we are. Newfoundland has refused to join the Dominion, so that, while still a colony of Great Britain, it is not a part of Canada. Newfoundland includes not only the island by that name, but also the east coast of Labrador. A large part of Canada is really waste land. The northern portion, in- cluding many islands in ^hy settled the Arctic zone, has hardly chiefly in the any inhabitants except a southern part few Eskimos. Farther south there is a broad belt of forest (Fig. 343). This also has few inhabitants, and these are mainly hunters and Indians. The climate here is severe, and much of the soil is too rocky and sterile for agriculture. The surface of southern Canada very closely resembles that of our Northern States. Eastern Canada, for instance, is much like New England. The sec- tion that lies north of Ohio and New York is more nearly level, like those states; and it is the most impor- tant farming region in the Dominion. Farther west, north of Dakota and Montana, are broad plains (Fig. 338), increasing in elevation to the very base of the Rocky Mountains. Among the Western mountains are many canyons, glaciers, and snow-capped peaks (Fig. 337). The scenery of this region is wonder- ful, and the Canadian Pacific Railway passes through the best of it. A portion of this won- derland has been set aside as a national park by the Canadian government. The climate of southern Canada, like the surface features, corresponds to that of our Northern States, though it is slightly cooler. The climate of Nova COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 251 Scotia, New Brunswick, and southern Quebec, for example, resembles that of Climate of New England, while Ontario Southern has a climate similar to that Canada ^f ^^^ York, Ohio, and Michigan. Farther west, in Manitoba, we find nearly the same climate as in Min- nesota and North Dakota ; and west of this, in Saskatchewan and Alberta, come the arid lands. In British Columbia, on example, the warm, damp ocean winds favor the production o^ * • , wheat and the hardy fruits i wheat and in British Columbia as well ^"^y ^^^'^^ as in Washington (p. 206). Farther east, on the plains at the base of the Rocky Mountains, the cli- mate is too arid for farming. 2. Ranching in Here, therefore, ranching the and lands is the principal industry, as in Montana Fig. 338. — Fields of wheat, some cut, some uncut, on the level, fertile j)lains of southern Manitoha. the west coast, there is heavy rainfall and an even temperature, as in Wash- ington. The Labrador current, which so cools the temperature of New England (p. 115), sweeps from the Arctic Ocean past Labrador and greatly chills the coast of that region, as well as Newfoundland and Kova Scotia. There is no such ice-laden current in the Pacific, and for that reason the climate is far warmer there. Notice, for instance, how much farther north Vancouver and Juneau are than any city in eastern Canada. The facts that were given about farm- ing and grazing in our Northern States are almost equally true of the country that lies north of them in Canada. For and western Dakota (pp. 182 and 214). Immense herds of sheep and cattle are reared on these plains. There are sev- eral towns here, the largest of which is Calgary. In central Saskatchewan the climate begins to be more favorable for agricul- ture, and there, as well as in Manitoba, enormous quan- grain re Jon**^^* tities of wheat are raised, audits This wheat belt is a con- tinuation of that found in Minnesota and eastern Dakota. Although the win- ters are long and cold, the summers are warm, so that the hardy grains, especially wheat (Fig. 338), oats, and barley, thrive. 252 NORTH AMERICA In the midst of this wheat region is Winnipeg, situated on the banks of the Red River of the North, which empties into Lake Winnipeg. Find out, from the map (Fig. 336), what other large river is tributary to this lake ; also the name of the outlet of the lake. The country north of Lake Superior is hilly and for the most part forest- covered, being quite like noi'thern Minne- even tobacco are raised ; also quantities of oats, wheat, barley, and flax. Some of the finest horses in America are reared in Ontario, and the province is further noted as a dairy region. There is a strip of excellent farming country along the St. Law- , ^ . . •^ , ~ 5. Farming in rence River and the southern southeastern shores of the Gulf of St. ^^"^"^^ Lawrence. Show these sections (1 ig. Fig. 3139. — Farmers at work in tlie fertile wlieat fields of western Canada, near Winnipe S^tKffT~^^^wSfl^BSt^^^^^^l^^^B^^^^^^^^^^ '■,} **?K*»-^ Copyright, I'JOfi, by Wm. Notiniin & Son, Montreal. Fig. 348. — A steamer going down the Lachine Rapids just above Montreal. It must take the canal around these rapids in going upstream. from Europe may be carried by ocean vessel to Montreal, folly a thousand miles inland ; thence, by other ships, they may be taken on canals, rivers, and lakes as far as Duluth. By this means, and by railways also, raw products from the North, the East, the South, and the West are brought to Montreal, either to be manufactured, or to be shipped farther. Because of its extensive connections and woolen clothing. India-rubber goods, furniture and other articles of wood, various steel and iron products, and cigars. Farther down the river is QuEBiiic, which was once the center of the French government in Canada, and the principal city. It is situated on a high bluff ris- ing above the St. Lawrence, and is for- tified so as to command that river. The COXiNTEIES N6UTB. OF THE UNITED STATES 259 Fig. 349. — Map to show the location of Montreal, Ottawa, and Quebec. Fig. 350. — A view of Montreal from the hill, called Mount Royal, which rises directly behind the city. In the distance is the broad St. Lawrence. Notice the long bridge crossing it. 260 NORTH AMERICA better location of Montreal, farther in- land, has drawn the commerce away from Quebec. The advantage of Mon- treal's situation has been greatly in- creased by the building of ship canals around the rapids of the St. Lawrence ; also by the dredging of the river, deepen- ing the channel so as to allow ocean vessels to reach the city. Quebec is one of the quaintest and most interesting cities on the continent. It resembles a bit of the Old World, transplanted to America, and a visitor 2. Along the Atlantic coast What Canadian cities on the Atlantic coast have already been mentioned, and in what con- nections ? One of these, Hali- fax, in Nova Scotia, is one of the oldest cities in Canada. Although it has an excellent harbor, Halifax lias never become a great city. The reason is easily seen on examining the map (Fig. 336). The narrow peninsula of Nova Scotia is not large enough to supply raw materials and manufactured articles in sufficient quantity to make it a great shipping point, and the country farther west is too difficult to reach. It is much cheaper to send Western goods to Montreal for shipment eastward, than to carry them by rail as far as Halifax. Fig. 351. —The Parliament Buildings at Ottawa. from the United States feels that he is indeed in a foreign country. There is some manufacturing there, such as the making of boots and shoes. Ottawa (Fig. 349), the capital of the Dominion, is above Montreal, at a large fall in the Ottawa River. Because of the fine water power, the city has much manufacturing ; it is especially noted for lumber manufactories. It has beautiful government buildings, known as the Parliament Buildings (Fig. 351). Toronto, the second city in size in Canada, is located on an excellent har- bor on the shores of Lake 3. Along the Ontario. Being in the Great Lakes midst of a fertile farming country, and having water connection with coal on the east and south, and with lumber aud^ other raw products on the west, Toront^ has become a great manufacturinj center. At the same time it is one oj the most attractive cities on the conti nent. COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES 261 4. Other cities N"ot far from Toronto, on the extreme west- end of Lake Ontario, is Hamilton, a manu- 3turing and trade center; there are also other ties on the same peninsula, the largest being mnoN. At the eastern end of Lake Ontario, lear the Thousand Islands, is Kingston, which las cotton and woolen mills, car shops, and locomotive works, besides being a lake port a railway center. Windsor (Fig. 336), [opposite Detroit, shares some of the advau- Itages of that city, being a shipping point land a manufacturing center. Pokt Arthur, whose location corresponds to that of Duluth in the United States, is a shipping point [for grain, cattle, and other Western products. What have you already learned about Winnipeg ? Vancouver, on the Pacific coast, has already been mentioned. In what connection ? Across the strait on the Island of Vancouver is the city of Vic- toria. How do these two cities compare in size with the largest two on Puget Sound ? (See Ap- pendix.) 2. Greenland (Fig. 336) The Eskimos (Fig. 352) living on the west coast of Greenland are under the control of the Danes, who trade with them for skins, walrus ivory, blubber, and eider down. The most northern of the Danish trading stations is Upernivik, which is the most northern point in the world where white men live. Some uncivilized Eskimos, however, have homes still farther north. Most of Greenland is a barren waste of ice and snow — one of the most complete desert lands in the world. There is no living thing to be found in the ice-covered interior. 1. Give some facts about the area of Canada. The population. The government. 2. How many provinces are there in Canada, and what are their names ? products in the West ? 8. State the principal facts about ranching, 9. Where is the prin- cipal grain region, and what is the leading city there ? 10. Where is the most populous farm- ing section, and what are its products ? 11. What about farming in southeastern Canada? 12. What can you tell about raining in British Columbia and Yukon Territory? 13. What mineral products are found in Ontario and southeastern Canada? 14. Where are the forests ? 15. What is the method of lumbering, and what are the leading lumber centers ? 16. Where are food fish caught ? What kinds are caught ? 17. What about the sealing? 18. What are the conveniences for Fig. 352. -AG are icebergs Review Questions 3. What can you tell about Newfoundland ? 4. Why is Canada settled chiefly in the southern part ? 5. Show how fully the surface features of southern Canada correspond to those of our Northern States. 6. Describe the climate. 7. What are the farm reeiilaiid Eskimo in liis skiu-boat, or kayak. In the distance which have broken off from the great Greenland glacier. transportation ? 19. Locate and tell the prin- cipal facts about the leading cities along the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers. 20. Along the Atlantic coast. 21. Along the Great Lakes. 22. Locate and tell about other cities of im- portance. 23. What facts can you state about Greenland ? 1. Compare the area of Canada with that of the United States (see Appendix). 2. Com- pare the populations (see Ap- pendix). 3. Read the story of "Evangeline." 4. Lake Erie is how much higher than Lake Ontario? How are ships able to pass from one lake to the other ? 5. Why should Buffalo grow more rapidly than Toronto ? 6. Of what advantage is it to the United Kingdom to have such a large, produc- tive colony as Canada ? 7. What books on Arctic travel have you read ? Tell some of the Suggestions Fig. 353. — Some of the birds and four-footed animals of the Far North. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 263 things you have learned from them. 8. Read Nansen's '* First Crossing of Greenland " or Peary's "Northward over the Great Ice." 9. Recall facts that you have already learned about the Eskimo: how they live, what they eat, etc. (pp. 5-7). V. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES Map study Mexico. 1. Describe the relief of Mexico. 2. In what zones does it lie ? 3. Name the two large peninsulas. 4. What river forms a part of the northern boundary ? 5. What salt waters border Mex- ico? 6. Find the capital. 7. Find the largest seaport. 8. Compare the coast line with that of the northeastern part of the United States. Central America. 9. Name the countries. 10. What sea lies to the east ? 11. What large lake do you find ? 12. Examine the small map of the Panama Canal. Describe the rovite pro- posed. 13. Name the two cities at the two ends of the canal. West Indies (Fig. 322). 14. Find the Baha- mas ; the Lesser Antilles ; the Greater Antilles. 15. Name the four largest islands in the West Indies. 16. In what zone do the West Indies lie ? 17. What waters bathe the shores of the West Indies? 18. What nation owns the Bahamas ? 19. What other nations have pos- sessions in the West Indies ? 20. Locate the Bermuda Islands on the map, Figure 134. 1. Mexico (Fig. 354) Mexico is about one fourth as large A.. ««„ s-s the United States, and Area, popu- _ •' lation, and has nearly one sixth as government many inhabitants. After Columbus discovered the West Indies, the neighboring coast of the mainland was visited and settled. Thus the Spaniards came into possession of Mexico as well as some of the country to the north which now belongs to the United States. The explorers found so much gold and silver in Mexico that many Span- iards settled there. They opened mines, and started coffee plantations, farms, and cattle ranches. Besides the de- scendants of these Spaniards there are many Indians and half-breeds in this country. Mexico was for a long time a Spanish colony, but Spain governed the country so badly that the people finally rebelled, and in 1821, won their independence. Ever since that time Mexico has been a republic, with the capital at Mexico City, where the president lives. The Tropic of Cancer crosses Mexico north of its central part, showing that a large portion of the coun- „^^ ^ , P .^ . . Why much of try IS m the tropical zone, the country Yet Mexico has a much hasnotatrop- cooler climate than this fact suggests. The reason is that much of the country is very high land ; and, as you have learned (p. 25), the climate is cooler on such high land. The Cordillera of western United States extend into Mexico, and there are broad plateaus, in many places more than a mile in height, crossed by moun- tain ranges which rise another mile, or more. Several of the loftiest peaks are volcanoes, made of lava (Fig. 355); and some of the peaks are so high that they are always covered with snow, in spite of the fact that they lie in the torrid zone. From these facts it is plain that the climate of Mexico is tropical only on the lowlands near the coast. There is heavy rainfall along the eastern coast, and in the xhe wet and southern part. In the cen- ^^^ dry parts tral and western parts, on the other 264 NORTH AMERICA hand, the country is drier, and in places even a desert. This is an extension of the arid belt of western United States. Fig. 355. — Colima, one of the Mexican volcanoes, in eruption. Tlie column of steam and ashes is two or three miles high. The white patch on the side of the mountain is a lava flow. In the greater part of Mexico forests are rare, except upon the higher moun- ^ ^ ^ , tains. In fact, there is so Products from ,. , » forest trees httle torest On and other the arid plateau native plants , i , , i that the in- habitants find difficulty in obtaining wood for fuel. Some they dig from the ground ; for some of the arid-land bushes, such as the mesquite, have long, thick roots which make ex- cellent firewood. In southern Mexico and on the damp lowlands, on the other hand, there . are dense tropical forests. In these are found many valuable woods, such as mahogany, rosewood, and logwood. The rubber tree also grows here, and large quantities of rubber are produced. One of the most valuable of the native plants is the heniquen, a variety of hen)p, wliich thrives in Yucatan. This and other fibers rank next in value to mineral products, among the exports of Mexico. Most of the fiber goes to the United States. Another product is the vanilla bean, which grows upon a climbing plant. In the seed-pod are nestled the fragrant beans which are used for making flavoring extracts, for perfumeries, and for medicine. Pepper, made from the dried berry of a tropical plant, indigo, extracted from a berry, and sarsaparilla, from the roots of a tropical plant, are all Mexican products. Although the climate of a large part of Mexico is arid, still agriculture is the prin- cipal industry. On the arid plains and plateaus there is much farming by irrigation. Here products of the tem- perate zone are raised, such as wheat, corn, potatoes, and beans. Much fruit also is produced, especially apples, pears, peaches, and grapes. Agriculture 1. On the arid plains (1) Products by irrigation Fig. 356. — A view in the tropical lowlands of Mexico near the coast, called the " hot lands." The road is bordered by banana trees. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 265 A species of native arid-land j)lant, called agave, or century ])lant, is of great value. From tlie juice of the agave the Mex- icans obtain an alcoholic drink known as pulque, and another known as mescal. The tough leaves of some varieties of agave contain a fiber which is made into paper and a strong thread; and from the juices of one kind, called the maguey, soap may \w made. So valuable is the maguey that it is carefully culti- vated upon plantations. The Mexican farming methods are generally very crude, being a mixture of an- cient Aztec cus- toms and those introduced from (2) Farming iiii'thod.i; and Iioiiie life Spain several centuries ago. One may still see the wooden jilow which barely scrapes the ground; and also tlie wooden-wheeled cart drawn by oxen. iFiQ. 358. — A Mexican burro carrying heavy sacks. Fig. 357. — Interior of a Mexican adobe house. There are, however, many farmers who have adopted the same methods of farming that we have ; and every year their number is increas- ing, for Mexico is now advancing rapidly. The home life of the country people is inter- esting. Their houses have but one story, and are commonly built of sun-dried bricks, or adobes (Fig. 360), held together by layers of mud. Often there is but one room (Fig. 357), the ceiling being made of brush, and the floor of nothing but earth or stones. In this one room the whole family cook, eat, and sleep. Their food consists of very simple materials, such as unraised bread, baked in the fireplace, beans, and sometimes meat, commonly cooked with red pepper. So much of Mexico is arid that large sections are suited only to grazing. For this reason, one of the lead- ing industries is ranching. As in our Western States, there are exten- sive cattle and sheep ranches; and hides, meat, and wool are important exports. Many horses and mules are raised; but the little Mexican ass, or burro, is one of the most common draft animals (Fig. 358). It is about as large as a small pony, and is made to do all kinds of work. The burro is a very pa- tient beast, and is able to carry heavy loads and endure much hardship. (3) Ranching 266 NORTH AMERICA Hogs are fattened in large numbers, and there are many goats. The latter are much prized, not only for their meat and hides, but also for Fig. 359. — Coffee tree and berries growing in the shade higher trees. their milk, which is used as a food and for mak- ing cheese. On the damp lowlands, the farm prod- ucts are quite different from those on the 2 On the ^^^^ plateau. There, rice, lower, humid sugar caue, and cotton are raised ; also tropical fruits, such as oranges, bananas (Fig. 356), cocoa- nuts, and pineapples. ' Upon the slopes between the tropical lowlands and the temperate plateau much cotton, tobacco, and coffee are grown. Coffee, one of the most valuable products of Mexico, requires a rich soil, abundant moisture. a warm climate, and plenty of shade. In order to secure shade, the coffee bush, which reaches a height of from ten to fifteen feet, is planted in the shade of higher trees. A white blossom appears as early as March, and after the flower has fallen off, the coffee berry begins to grow (Fig. 359). It resembles a dark red cranberry. The coffee is inside of this berry in the form of two kernels, and the husk must be removed in order to prepare these kernels for market. Mexico is a great mining coun- try, producing more silver than any other coimtry in ^j^j^g the world. Much i. Extent gold, copper, lead, of minerals and zinc are also mined, and recently great quantities of pe- troleum have been found on the coastal plain, as is the case also in Texas and Louisiana. A large amount of iron is known to exist in several parts of the country. At one place, near Durango, there is an iron mountain which contains an enormous amount of very rich ore. Here blast fur- naces have been erected, and steel rails and other iron products are manufactured. Find this city on the map. One great drawback to mining in Mexico is the lack of good coal. Another is the lack of easy tranportation. A third is the fact that much of the 2. Difficulties ., , , T in the develop- region cannot easily be explored ^,5^^ ^f ^^^^ for ore. In fact, some parts of the country are still occupied by tribes of savage Indians, who prevent miners from coming in. Still another difficulty is the old- fashioned methods of mining used by many of the Mexicans. The methods, however, are be- 1 ing improved, since many of the leading mines | are now owned by Europeans, Americans, or , educated Mexicans. Mining is now rapidly developing in Mexico, and more than half of COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 267 the exports of the country are minerals. Fibers are the second export in importance, and coffee is the third. Because of the ignorance of the work- ing people, and the scarcity of coal, Manufac- there is not a great deal of turing manufacturing in Mexico ; and that which is done is largely carried on by hand. Some of this hand work (Fig. 360), built on the site of an ancient Aztec Indian city. It is situated on a high plateau and therefore, Leading cities although so far south, has i. in the a cool climate. In this city, ^^^^^°^ as elsewhere in Mexico, there are many fine churches and other notable buildings. Another city in the interior of Mexico is PuEBLA, founded in 1531. It also is Fig. 360.- • A view of a part of Mexico City, with the snow-capped cone of the volcano, Popocatepetl, rising in the distance. is very beautiful, for even the unedu- cated Mexicans are quite artistic. There are large tobacco factories in the tobacco district, and smelters in the mining regions. Some earthenware also is manufactured, and some cotton cloth. The manufacture of cotton is growing rapidly in importance, and more money is now invested in cotton mills than in any other form'of manufacturing. There are a few large cities, the greatest being the capital, Mexico City situated near one of the ancient cities, or pueblos, of the Aztecs. San Luis PoTosi is a third important Mexican city. Locate each of these cities. Since the eastern coast of Mexico is low and sandy, it has no good harbors. The largest two cities there r-, ° 1 TT 2. On the coast are Iampico and Vera Cruz, whose harbors are protected by breakwaters. There are some good harbors on the western coast, one of the best being that of Acapulco. 268 NORTH AMERICA Names of the countries and their government 2. Central America (Fig. 354) Of the six Central American republics the smallest is Salvador; the next Costa Rica. Nicaragua, Hondu ras, and Guatemala are about equal in size. These are all in North America ; but the Re public of Panama is partly in North America and partly in South America. It has an especial interest for us. Why (p. 244) ? These six countries are in dependent of one another, and each has a form of government modeled after that of the United States. British Hon- duras (or Belize) is a colony of the United Kingdom. Spanish is the language spoken in all these countries; but the great majority of the people are Indians, negroes, and half-breeds. The governments are not very good, and the people are often I forests, engaged either in civil wars or in fighting with one another. Most of Central America is mountainous, and it has volcanic Fig. 361. — Bananas as they grow, hanging in great bunches from the broad-leafed banana tree. Fig. 362. Bunches of bananas piled by the side of the railroad, awaiting shipment. Character of the region eruptions and earthquakes of great vio- lence. The earthquake shocks have leveled towns and killed thousands of people. For instance, San Salvador, the capital of Salvador, was so frequently destroyed by earthquakes that the inhabit- ants decided to choose a new location for their city ; but this is little better than the old one. Since these countries lie in the tropical zone, the climate is hot. The rainfall is heavy, especially on the eastern coast, where there are dense jungles. A large part of these countries is occupied b}^ dense tropical from which are obtained mahogany, rosewood, and other valuable cabinet and dye woods. The rubber tree also grows here, and the produc- tion of rubber is an important industry. As in Mexico, coffee is raised on the hill slopes in the shade of the forest trees. Costa Rica is one of the most important coffee-producing districts (Fig, 364). Bananas (Figs. 361 and 362), sugar, tobacco, indigo, and cocoa are other products. The largest city in Central America is New Guatemala, the xhe leading capital of Guatemala, city The products ANACONDA ;- . The M.N.Ca,BuFFALO. ALLIGATOR Fio. 363. — Some of the animals that live in the tropical part of North America. 270 KORTB AMERICA .^^. ^^ ^ a lMii^.fll ;.. t , »?vF •^■•r ■ it'^mi^f - -, ,r^ - . j>/^«. ■■HigK; d H '■^ % ^^. ~"''^^^— Location and names of the groups of islands Fia. 364. — Drying coffee berries in Costa Rica. Tliere are tous of coffee berries here spread out in the sun to dry. After they are dried, the husk is removed and the bean is then shipped away. This city, which was formerly situated at the base of two very active volcanoes, was re- moved to a safer site; hence the name Neiv Guatemala. 3. The West Indies (see the Map, Fig. 322) A chain of islands reaches from the Yucatan and Florida peninsulas to the mouth of the Orinoco River on the South American coast. These islands inclose the Caribbean Sea; and, also, with the aid of the peninsulas of Florida and Yucatan, the Gulf of Mexico. All of this archipelago, excepting the Ba- hamas, lies entirely within the tropical zone. These islands, scores of which are very small, are called the West Indies, because Columbus thought he had reached India. With the exception of the Ba- hamas, they are also known as the An- tilles. Those on the north, including the larger ones, are called the Greater Antilles ; and those on the south, the Lesser Antilles. Two of the Greater Antilles have been already described (p. 241). What do you remember about them ? All the The Greater other large is- Antilles lands are mountainous, with fertile valleys and small plains. South of Cuba lies the island of Jamaica, the third in size in the W, -r 1 • 1- Jamaica est Indies, and a possession of Great Britain. Kingston is the capital and the largest city. The inhabitants are mainly negroes and mulattoes, there being fully forty blacks to one white person. The chief occupation is agriculture, and the women are employed in outdoor work as much as the men (Fig. 365). One of the main products is sugar cane. Early vegetables and fruits, such as oranges and bananas are also raised. Jamaica ginger is obtained from the root of a plant that grows in this island. Haiti was the first large island discov- ered by Columbus, and on it he made set- tlements and opened inines. Like the other Greater An- tilles, this became an important Spanish colony ; but Spain lost one island after another, the two last to go being Cuba and Porto Rico. Haiti has long been independent, and there are now two republics in the island — Haiti and Santo Domingo. The capital of the former is Port au Prince ; and of the latter, Santo Domingo. Most of the inhabitants are negroes and half- breeds, descendants of the slaves of the Spanish settlers; but there are more white people in Santo Domingo than in 2. Haiti COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 271 Haiti ; and Santo Domingo is the more progressive. Sugar, tobacco, coffee, and bananas are the chief products. There are vahiable woods covering much of the island, and tliere is some mineral wealth; but little is done with these resources. Most of the islands among the Lesser Antilles are possessions of Great Britain, nique and in St. Vincent there are active vol- canoes. One of the most terrible volcanic eruptions ever recorded occurred in Martinique in 1902. After being quiet for about fifty years, Mont Pelee (Fig. 366) suddenly burst forth and completely destroyed the beauti- ful city of St. Pierre, which was situated at its base. In a few seconds all of the inhabitants, more than twenty-five thousand people, were killed by the cloud of steam and hot ashes which descended upon them. Fig. 365. -Native women oi Jaiaaiea going to market, each with a burro, or small donkey, loaded with baskets of vegetables and fruits. though some belong to other nations. For instance, Martinique and Guade- The Lesser loupe belong to France ; St. Antilles Thomas and St. Croix to Denmark; and some islands to Holland. The products of the Lesser Antilles are similar to those of the other West Indies, the most important being sugar cane. These small islands are volcanic cones. Most of the volcanoes are now extinct, but in Marti- North of Haiti and Cuba are several hundred small islands called the Bahamas, which belong to Great Britain. A number of these are inhabited, The Bahamas and on one, I^evv Providence, is the city of Nassau. One of the products is the sponge, which grows in the clear, warm waters of the Bahama banks. To obtain sponges, the natives either cruise about in boats, raking them up, or they dive into the clear water, tearing them from the bottom. 272 NORTH AMERICA ] Fig. 366. — The ruined city of St. Pierre after the terrible volcanic eruption of 1!K)2. Early vegetables, pineapples, oranges, and cocoanuts are raised by the inhabitants, who are chiefly negroes. One of the industries, as on the neighboring coast of Florida, is caring for winter visitors. Why should people wish to go there in the winter ? 4. The Bermuda Islands Far out in the open ocean, east of Korth Carolina (Fig. 134), is a group of small coral islands, called the Bermuda Islands, which be- long to Great Britain. They produce early vegetables, and flowers, such as Easter lilies, most of which are shipped to New York. The climate is so mild that these islands are visited every winter by large numbers of people from the United States who wish to escape the cold of our northern winter. Most of these visitors stay at Hamiltojt, the capital. Mexico : Questions. 1. How does Mexico compare with the United States in area and Review Ques- population ? 2. What kind of tions and government has it ? 3. Give Suggestions some facts about the history of Mexico. 4. Why is it not a very hot country, in most parts? 5. What about its rainfall? 6. ''What are the products from the forest trees and other native plants ? 7. What agricultural products are obtained by irrigation ? 8. De- scribe the farming methods and the home life in the arid lands. 9. Where is ranching carried on ? What animals aro raised ? 10. What products are obtained from the lower humid lands ? 11. What about the extent of minerals in Mexico ? 12. Mention several difficulties in the development of mining there. 13. What is the condition of manufacturing ? 14. Name and locate the leading cities in the interior. 15. On the coast. Suggestions. 16. Find out why coffee rais- ing requires special care. 17. Find an article of furniture made of mahogany. 18. Walk toward Mexico City. 19. What reasons can you give for its location ? 20. Who is the president of Mexico ? 21. Why are there no large rivers in Mexico ? 22. Make a sketch map of Mexico. Central America : Questions. 23. Name the countries here, and tell their form of govern- ment. 24. What can you tell about the peopU' ? 25. Describe the region. 26. W^hat are the products ? 27. Name and locate the leading city. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES 273 Suggestions. 28. Why will harbors at each end of the Panama Canal be necessary ? 29. Make a sketch map of Central America. 30. Name the capitals of each of the countries. The West Indies and the Bermudas : Questions. 31. Locate the West Indies, and give the names of their principal groups. 32. Tell what you can about the government, people, and products of Jamaica. 33. What can you tell about Haiti ? 34. State important facts about the Lesser Antilles. 35. About the Bahamas. 36. How are the Bermudas important ? Locate them. Suggestions. 37. How does each of the larg- est four of the West Indies compare in area and population with New York State ? With your own state ? (See tables in Appendix.) 38. Find out more about the eruption of Mont Pelee. VI. REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 1. The United States There are now over ninety-two million persons living in the United States, while in Canada, Mexico, and Population n , i a • j.i Central America there are only about twenty-five million. Itis plain, therefore, that about four fifths of all the inhabitants of North America are found in our own country. The forty-eight states in our Union Distribution tiave been of population settled by people who came from the East. First, the Atlantic coast was settled by immigrants from England and other countries of Europe. Then there was a movement of pioneers westward across the Appala- chian Mountains and the Mississippi Valley. Finally, settlers pushed across the Western mountains, until the Pacific coast was reached. While all parts of the country have now been settled, by far the greater part of the population is still found in the East- ern half. In Figure 367, in southeastern Indiana, you will find a star, which shows the center of our population. There are just about as many persons in the United States living east of this star as west of it, and as many north of it as Fig. 3f)7. — Distribution of population in the United States, 1900. south. That is what is meant by the center of population. How far do you live from this point ? From the map (Fig. 367) you can tell what parts of the country are most densely settled. Where are they ? What parts are least densely settled ? 274 NORTH AMERICA FiQ. 368. — Map showing distribution of cities. Note how closely Figure 368, show- ing the distribution of cities, corresponds to Figure 367. Which states seem to have the most cities ? Name in the order of their size (Fig. 369) the six states having the largest population. About two thirds of our ninety-two million inhabitants live either in the country, or in towns with a population of less than eight thousand. In Mexico and Canada the proportion living in the country is still greater. In other Conditions in the United States are very favorable to agriculture. In i. ciimate no part, except a°dsoii on the highest mountains, is it too cold to raise valuable crops; and in most parts the soil is fertile. Name some states that have very fertile soil (pp. 151, 174). Name a section where the soil is not so good (p. 116). Why is hilly and mountainous coun- try not well suited to farm- ing (p. 116)? Although farming is by far our great- est industry, it is surpris- ^ ^^^ ^^^ ing what a small part of of land that is all our land is now really *^"^*^"^*'^ under cultivation. Figure 370 makes this clear by the use of a circle. The circle represents all the land in the United States, and the portion marked improved shows the part that is now used to produce crops. The part of the circle marked unim- proved shows the proportion that has New York Painsylvania 7,665,111 nCnois 6.638, S9« Ohio 4.767.12' Texa* Massachusetts 3,896,543 3.366,416 Fig. 369. — The six states with largest population (1910). words, the great majority of persons in North America are country people. Of the great occupations in the United States, that of agriculture is most im- portant. More than one Agriculture ^j^-^^ ^^ ^jj ^^^ workers are engaged in that industry. not yet been plowed, or otherwise im- proved, so as to raise crops. Some of it is swamp land, some is covered with forest or underbrush, some is used for grazing. From this figure it is plain that less than one fourth of all the land in our country is now culti- REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 275 vated ; and more than o?ie half is not even in farms. One reason why there is so little cul- tivated land is that, as yet, only the o ^r,. ,.^, best has been farmed. 3. Whysohttle . land is under When there IS more need oi cultivation ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^£ ^j^^ poorer land will be made to yield crops. There are two great difficulties, however. A large part of the portion of the circle marked .?io^ in farms represents the arid lands of the Western States. Locate these (Fig. 408). Which states receive an abundance of rain ? Which states suffer for want of it ? What- is the reason for this (p. 205) ? People will not be eager to receive farms there, even as a gift from the government, until they are able to irri- gate them. What is the government now doing to make some of this land more attractive to settlers (p. 213) ? A second reason why much land remains imcultivated is that there is a great deal of mountainous country. What are the names of our principal Fig. 371. — The corn regions of the United States Fig. 370. — Extent of farming iu the United States. mountain systems ? Through what states do the Appalachian Mountains extend ? The Cordillera ? What moun- tains, besides the Rockies, are included in the Cordillera ? Probably most of the mountainous and arid lands never can be cultivated. Why ? Figure 371 shows the regions that are most extensively engaged in raising corn. What 4. Grains states are included? . In 1908 about two billion bushels were produced. How many bushels is that for each of our inhabitants? How is corn cultivated, and what are its uses (p. 177) ? Which are the six leading states in corn production, and how do they rank as compared with one another (Fig. 372) ? Many of the states 276 IfORTH AMERICA Illinois $150,813,000 342,756,000 BusheU Iowa $116,195,000 270,220,000 Missouri $113,282,000 241,025,000 Texas $93,353,000 155,589,000 Indiana Nebraska $75,978,000 168,840,000 $73,524,000 179,328,000 Fig. 372. — The six leading corn-producing states (1906). that raise corn also raise much, wheat. Figure 373 shows the principal wheat regions. Where are they? What can you tell about wheat in the valley of Corn and wheat are our most valuable food crops. Why is so little of either raised in the western half of the United States (p. 205) ? Why so little in New 95° 01' 87° 33° 70" 75" 71° 67° E;;%;j JiM« than 64 tmthelt ^^^ 64 to 640 " ^^^640 (o 3200 " ^BB3200 biuheU and 107 103 Fig. 373. — Tlie wlieat regions of tlie United States. the Red River of the North (p. 178) ? What are the uses of wheat ? What states on the Pacific coast produce wheat? Name the six leading wheat states in the order of their importance (Fig. 374). England (p. 116) ? What other grains do we raise, and for what is each used ? The cotton belt is confined entirely to the southeastern portion of the country, Minnesota Ktmsas $53,799,P00 65,609,000 N. Dakota $47,963,000 55,130,000 Nebreiska $36,270,000 45,911,000 Illinois $34,890,000 40.104,000 Indiana $29,931,000 34,013,000 Fig. 374. — Tlie six leading wheat-producing states (1907). REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 277 5 . Cotton, sugar cane, and rice as shown in Figure 375. Why? Name the principal cotton-raising states and give their rank (Fig. 376). What do you know about the growth and uses of cotton (pp. 152 and 162)? Where in these states are sugar cane and rice grown ? How is each cultivated (pp. 153 and 154) ? How does Louisiana rank with our dependencies in the pro- duction of sugar cane (Fig. 377) ? Which Texas Fto. 375. — Map showing the cotton-producing states. 2,271,724 Bales of 500 lb. Georgia 1,891,900 Mississippi 1,464,207 S. Ceurolina Alabama 1,175,375 1,126,028 Oklahoma 864,106 6. Tobacco of our dependencies produce large amounts of cane sugar (Fig. 377)? What are the other sources of sugar? Where is beet sugar pro- duced(pp. 153,181)? Where is maple sugar made (p. 133) ? According to Figure 378, what states are largely engaged in to- i)acco growing? What is the appearance of the plant, and how is it prepared for use (pp. 155, 180)? Name and locate several cities that are noted for to- bacco manufacture and trade (pp. 155, 196). In what section of New England is much tobacco raised (p. 117)? Fig. 376. — The six leading cotton-producing states (1906). Cuba 1,250,000 Long Tons Hawaii 390,000 Porto Rico Louisiana P hilippines 255,000 230,000 150,500 Colorado 149,200 Fig. 377. — The six leading sugar-producing sec- tions in the United States and its dependencies. Colorado, beet sugar; others, cane sugar. Fig. 378. — Map showing the tobacco-producing states. 278 NOETH AMERICA Ajyples, pears, peaches, etc. Orange*. addition t (Fig. 380). What are their products (pp. 208-213)? Figures 381-386 show the principal states from which other important farm products come. Study each of them. How does the value of hay (Fig. 381) in New York „ ^,- , . 8. Other lead- compare ingfarm with that P'"^"'^*' of corn in Iowa, and of wheat in Minne- FiG. 379. — Map showing the leading fruit-growing regions of the United States. T. _ - . ^ , ■■ , sota ? Note that the states raisins most Name iruits and vegetables that are extensively raised in the United States. Figure 379 shows the sections vegetobies^^*^ that produce large quantities of fruit. What fruits are grown along the Eastern coast (p. 117) ; in the Southern States (p. 156) ; in Cal- ifornia (p. 209)? In Florida, Cuba, and Porto Rico ? Why is the region near the Great Lakes especially suited to fruit raising (p. 117) ? What fruits are ex- tensively grown there ? Why is truck farming especially impor- tant in New England (p. 116) ? Where are early vegetables extensively raised (p. 155) ? Name and locate the principal irri- gated sections in our western arid lands ■■SI ii*>*-s.r*'-'''" '. A DA N.DAK. j77;^-.^5^ i A -^■* rli ',',1 ' Vf — ^i-,-.'. / J Jss^ neS~^. "^H .COL.' i '^R«,*-«^'i l—^-isni:- HI » *"• / N.MEX. V ^^^^Arttu at present {negated \S'SM Area> that can he irrigated New York Fig. 380. — Map showing where irrigation is carried on in United States. $91,388,000 5,896,000 Tons Pennsylviutla $71,946,000 4^68,000 Ohio $47,588,000 4.050,000 Illinois $41,030,000 3,730,000 Michigan Iowa $40,575,000 3,246,000 $39,200,000 4,900,000 Fig. 381. — The six leading hay-producing states (1907). REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 279 Iowa $81,552,750 8,584,500 corn (Fig. 372) correspond rather closely with those raising most hogs (Fig. 382). Why is that? Name the six leading dairy states (Fig. 383). Point out, on the map (Fig. 138), the portions of the country largely given up to y-razins-. Why these ? Relate how cattle ranching is carried on (p. 182) ; also sheep ranching Illinois Nebraska $37,377,522 4,449,705 $35,496,000 4,080,000 Missouri Indiana Kansas $24,530,145 3,454,950 $23,399,032 2,924,879 $21,001,840 2,561,200 Fig. 382. — The six leading hog-producing states (1906). (p. 214). Which states are most impor- tant in these industries (Figs. 384, 385) ? What are the uses of ranch cattle (p. 194) ? Of sheep (p. 215) ? In which states are most horses raised (Fig. 386) ? New York Iowa Pennsylvania Wisconsin Illinois 772,779,352 Gallons Ohio ^ ^9^^ 535,872,240 487,033,818 472,274,264 457,106,995 425,870,394 rm ^fe Fifi SSS —'I /1nn^>^ Iowa $140,057,600 5,515,300 Montana Illino Texas $125,436,314 9,229,671 Kemsa* Nebraska $94,264,263 4,493,974 niinms $90,601,635 4,236,135 $89,890,670 3,392,500 Fig. 384. — The six leading cattle-producing states (1907). Wyoming $19,244,045 4,986,796 Ohio New Mexico $15,119,427 3,140,720 Idaho $13,468,363 4,558,365 $13,184,353 3,648,133 Fig. 385. — The six leading sheep-producing states (1906). Fig. 386. — The six leading horse-producing states (1907). New York $88,051,122 2,770,945 Utah $11,131,953 2,853,250 $171,990,000 1,575,000 lowa Ohio Kansas Missouri $139,178,490 1,390,950 Indiana $105,893,580 940,440 $96,848,928 1,085,750 $87,937,525 948,420 $87,735,367 798,102 280 NORTH AMERICA Figure 387 shows the distribution of the forests in the United States. Describe the industry as it is carried on in Maine (p. 118) ; in the Southern States (p. 158) ; in Wisconsin Lumbering caught on our Eastern coast (p. 120) ? On our Pacific coast (p. 222) ? Tell what you can about the fishing in- dustry in Alaska (p. 239). Describe how cod fishing is carried on Fishing 4,305,053,000 BOARD FEET $62,162,840 WASHINGTON PRINCIPAL SPECIES BOUQLAS FIR 2,796,395,000 BOARD FEET $46,460,499 LOUISIANA PRINCIPAL SPECIES YELLOW PINE CYPRESS 2,331,305,000 BOARD FEET $39,997,360 WISCONSIN PRINCIPAL SPECIES WHITE PINE HEMLOCK 2,094,279,000 BOARD FEET $33,357,883 MICHIGAN PRINCIPAL SPECIES HEMLOCK MAPLE WHITE PINE 1,840,250,000 BOARD FEET $30,950,278 MISSISSIPPI PRINCIPAL SPECIES YELLOW PINE Fig. 388. — The five leading lumber-producing states (1907) . (p. 185); in the Northwest (p. 220). Why these differences ? Which are the most common kinds of trees in each sec- tion (Fig. 388) ? What are the products of the fore.sts besides lumber (pp. 133 and 164) ? What states produce the (p. 122) ; salmon fishing (p. 222) ; the oyster industry (p. 159). About four hundred thousand men in our country are employed in mining. How many differ- ent metals can you name ? How many Mining gSl i«" <*<•» 'KW ^^ 1100 to 11000 ^H IIOOO and over \ Fig. 389. — Value of lumber and timber products of United States. greatest amount of lumber at present (Fig. 388)? Where are' the leading forest reserves (Fig. 387) ? Of what value are they? In what sections is fishing especially important (Fig. 390)? What fish are other mineral products can you mention ? Of all the minerals, the fuels are probably the most important. Why ? What kinds are there? Fig- , ^^ , , . ° 1 . The fuels ure 391 shows how extensive the coal beds are. Name the states in REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 281 which the greatest quantities of coal are mined (Fig. 392). Of Avhat importance is it that there are coal fields in so many parts of the country ? What kinds of coal are there? AVhat are the differ- ences between them (p. 125)? Describe a coal mine (pp. 125- 126). What are the uses of coal? Name the chief sec- tions in which petro- leum and natural gas are found (Fig. 394.) I'ell also how they have been produced and what their uses are (pp. 123-124). The ores of iron are among the most im- portant of min- Why 80 important ? Where are the principal iron- producing regions (Fig. 391)? How is pig iron made (p. 128) ? AVhy is not the Lake Superior district a favorable place for smelting iron ore ? Xame the six states that lead in produc- tion of iron ore (Fig. 393). Describe three 3. Precious mcthods metals of ^qI^ mining (p. 216). What 2. Iron ore , , the eral products. WmiHma EngmvtDg Col. NT 120° Longitude 110'' 'Weet from 100° Greenwich 00° Fig. 390. — Map showing distribution of tish. Fig. 391. — Map showing the distribution of deposits of coal and iron in the United States. 282 NORTH AMERICA 12(2.208,345 200375,617 Short Toot IffinoU W.Virgiiiim 0f^ $44,763,062 41,480,104 $41,051,939 43,290,350 $30,346,580 27,731,640 that industry in two of the leading sections (pp. 188, 217, 230). Where and how is stone quarry- 4. other min- ing carried on in New erai products England (p. 123) ? How is salt ob- Ai»b«o. $17,514,786 13,107,963 taiued iu New York (p. 123) ? What other valuable mineral products can you name (pp. 161, 189, 219) ? The four occupations that have been lodUna $13,116,261 12,092,560 Minnesota $51,799^56 25,364,077 Long Tons Michigtui $31,145,087 11,822,874 Fig. 392. — The six leading coal-producing states (1906). can you tell about gold and silver min- ing in the Western States (pp. 216- 218)? In what states is most gold and silver found (Figs. 395, 396) ? How does the value of the gold produced in the six leading states (Fig. 395) compare with that of the silver in the six lead- ing states (Fig. 396) ? TTTi J. J. i J. J 1 i- Fig. 393. — The six leading iron-producing states (1906). What states are most noted for copper mining (Fig. 394) ? Describe | named furnish the raw materials for our If* Whc V irtini. New York $2,635,639 1,041,992 Wucoiuin $2,033,217 848,133 Virfinia $1,579,817 828,081 125° 120° 115° 110° 105° 100° 95° 85° 80° 75° 70° 65° Colorado Fig. 391. — Mineral regions of the United Stales. Alaska ^ ,., 1 California Nevada $21,365,100 1,033.537 $18,832,900 911,041 $9,278,600 448,852 S. Dakota $6,604,900 319,512 Utah $5,130,900 248,208 Fig. 395. — The six leading gold-producing states (1906). Montana $8,488404 12,540^ Ounces REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA Colorado Ulah 283 $8,425^20 12,447,400 $7,789,650 11,508,000 Idaho $5,981,135 8,836,200 Nevada $3,524,972 5,207,600 Arizona $2,009,822 2,969,200 Fig. 396. — The six leading silver-producing states (190G). food, clothing, and shelter. In the main, these four occupations, as stated, Occupations ^^^^ people to live in small of country towns or in the country, and of city Persons engaged in the three other great occupa- tions live for the most part in cities. These are manufacturing ; the transportation of goods ; and buying and selling, or trading. Figure 397 shows the principal manu- Manufac- facturing taring sections in the United States. What states do they include ? How does it happen that New Eng- land very early developed cotton manu- facturing, although it raises no cotton (p. 131) ? What other kinds of manu- facturing are important there (pp. 128- 133) ? Name several of the leading manufacturing centers there, and tell the kinds of work in each. What states lead in textile manufactures (Fig. Fig. 397. — Map showing the leading manufacturing districts in the United States. 398) ? Where are the cotton and wool obtained ? AVhat manufactures besides textile goods (pp. 128-133) are very important MaMachusetts Pennsylvania New York $267,823,987 $186,227,337 Rhode bland New Jer«ev $122,966,223 $103,096,311 $84,220,479 Connecticut $60,535,780 Fig. 398. — The six leading textile manufacturing states. 284 NORTH AMERICA Peniuyl' Virginia Fig. 399. — The six leading pig-iron-producing states (1906). in the Northeastern States ? How does the lack of coal mines in New England in- fluence the manufacturing there (p. 129) ? What reasons can you give why Penn- sylvania leads in iron manufacturing ? How are iron and steel made (p. 128) ? Name three kinds of iron (pp. 128, 129). Name the six leading states in the production of pig iron (Fig. 399). In iron manufacturing (Fig. 400). Tell about the manufacture of pot- tery in the Northeastern (p. 130) and in the Central (p. 191) States; about the manufacture of glass (p. 130); of cement (p. 131) ; of bricks (p. 130). Tell about the advance in manufac- turing in the Southern States (p. 161). What great advantage does Birming- ham enjoy for the manufacture of iron goods (p. 160)? Name other important barley manufactured in the Central States (pp. 178, 189)? Name the great centers for the manufacture of flour (p. 179). What can you tell about the manufactures from forest products in the Central States (p. 190) ? For what kinds of manufacturing is Chicago im- portant (p. 193)? St. Louis (p. 196)? Cleveland (p. 195)? KansasCity(p.l99)? How has the abundance of fruits in the Western States led to much manufactur- Virginia 483,525 Pennsylvania $434,445,200 Ohio $138,935,256 niinoi. Ne* I'l' f60,303.144 New Jerwy $24,381,699 Indiana $19,338,481 Alabama $17,392,483 Fig. 400. — The six states leading in iron manufacturing (1906). ing (p. 222) ? Name some flour-manufac- turing center in the Far West (p. 230). Name important centers for smelting of ores (p. 223). For what manufactures is San Francisco important (p. 225) ? Portland (p. 228) ? Seattle (p. 228) ? New York Pennsylvania Illinois Ohio $14,769,042,207 $11,473,620,306 $8,816,556,191 Massachusetts California $5,946,969,466 $4,956,578,913 $4,115,491,106 ^.iei,pffy(.a,,.qi,„,,,,|,i^ffia|-y" Fig. 401. — Tlie six wealthiest states. kinds of manufacturing in the South- ern States (pp. 161-164). What are the leading manufacturing centers there, and for what goods is each important ? Into what goods are corn, wheat, and Manufacturing employs more work- men in the United States than any other industry, except agriculture. More than seven million men are engaged in it. The six wealthiest states are shown ttEVlEW OF NORTH AMERICA 285 in Figure 401. Note that all these states are extensively engaged in manu- facturing, as shown in Figure 397. The importance of being able to ship goods by water is clearly shown by Transporta- ^^''^ ^^^^ ^^^* ^^^^^^ ^^® ^^ tion of goods our twenty largest cities is 1. By water situated ou a water route of some kind. (See Appendix for this list.) Name the leading harbors along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Name Mention some of the principal kinds carried on each. Where is the Erie Canal ? Why has it been so important ? Why has it become of less importance than formerly ? Where else are canals found (pp. 191 and 257)? Figure 403 shows an enormous num- ber of railways in the United States. They now carry fully three times as much freight as all ' ^ '^^ the water routes together. In what Navigable Interior Water 15oute_ In wbich the water is three leet deep or over Soale of Miles 100 200~300 400~6bo Fig. 402. — Map to show the navigable interior water routes of the United States. those on the Pacific coast (pp. 225- 229). Our seven leading ocean ports, ill the order of their importance, are New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Bal- timore, New Orleans, San Francisco, (lalveston. Locate each. What can you say about the impor- tance of the Great Lakes for shipment of goods ? How are these lakes connected by water with the ocean (Fig. 183)? By examining Figure 402, name the principal navigable rivers in our country. The Great Lakes carry about twice as much freight as the Mississippi system. part of the country are most of them found ? Why there ? Which section is next best supplied with them ? W^hich portion has fewest lines ? How does the location of railway lines on this figure compare with the location of cities on Figure 368 ? What is the direction of a major- ity of the railway lines ? Count the number of railways that extend east and west across the western half of the con- tinent (Fig. 403). In what city on the Pacific coast does each of the transcon- tinental lines terminate ? Fta. 403. — Map showiug the railroads of the United States. Fig. 401. 288 NORTH AMERICA The number of miles of railroad, in proportion to area, is greatest in the Northeastern and Central States. The names of the principal railroads in the East are shown in Figure 404. Note how the roads come together at the great centers of manufacturing and com- merce. Trade is the third occupation that at- tracts great numbers of people to cities. Buying and J^^^^^ ^ne knows that it is selling, or important to have stores trade scattered about over the country,' in towns and villages, where one can purchase the articles that he needs from day to day. But there could not well be such stores unless there were great centers of trade where the storekeepers themselves could buy the goods that they wished to sell later. This is called ivholesale trade, and is one of the leading occupa- tions in the great cities. Our greatest center for the wholesale trade is New York City. Describe how it is carried on there (pp. 138-139). What goods are sold ? Name other great centers for wholesale trade, and some of the goods that are sold. What goods are extensively sold in New Orleans (p. 154) ? Memphis (p. 169) ? Indianapolis (p. 200)? Denver (p. 230)? Fully four million persons in the United States are engaged in the trans- portation of goods and in trade, or in commerce, as these two kinds of busi- ness together are called. The relation between country and ^ , ' city is now clear. About Dependence i ic of country oue half of our people are and city upon enffaored in obtaining raw each other . materials through agricul- ture, lumbering, fishing, and mining. The remainder are employed mainly ii manufacturing these raw materials int( useful articles, or in buying, selling, auc transporting them. Show by numerou! examples how neither class can well d( without the other. Although the two classes are so dependeni on each other, the life of one is very differeni from that of the other. Recall farm life as described on page 176. differences in What idea have you formed of "^^'^^^^ ° ® farm life on Southern plantations ? Of th( ranchman's life (p. 184) ? Of the miner's manner of living (p. 231) ? The lumberman's (p. 120) ? The fisherman's (p. 122) ? Recall on the other hand, what was said about life in New York City (p. 139). Give your idea of factory life ; of life in trade and transporta- tion. Which of these several occupations dc you consider most attractive ? Which least attractive ? It is difficult to say which occupation requires the hardest work, for success demands one's best effort, no matter what the occupation ma} be. Which are more sure of simple food, cloth ing, and shelter, those living in the city or thosf in the country ? Why ? Which are more in dependent in general? Why? Which hav( the better opportunities for amusement ? Why \ For education ? Why ? For homes with plentj of light and fresh air ? Why ? For many years the population of cities has been increasing more rapidly than that of th< country, which suggests that people prefer cit} to country life. Can you give any reasons foi this, in addition to those already mentioned ? No one place produces all that it needs Which of your foods are not raised neai i your home ? How about th( I Dependence i • p -i j • i of different kuives, torks, dishes, anc sections upon spoons ? How about th( one another clothes that you wear ? Because of the climate, water power soil, or for some other reason, each par of the country is especially fitted fo: producing certain things ; for instance eastern Kansas, grain; western Kansas BEVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 289 f^tock ; northern Maine, lumber, etc. In- deed, most of the articles used in any part of the country must be brought from other places. Name the materials that the Montana ranch- man needs to obtain from the Southern plan- ter ; from New England ; from Minneapolis ; ( 'hicago. Upon what parts of the United States are the inhabitants of Florida dependent? ^Vhat do they supply in return ? Make a list of materials used in the building of your house and, as far as possible, determine where each one may have come from. It is plain that the different parts of the country are of vital importance to one another, much as different parts of the body are. In spite of our broad territory, and tlie enormous number of our products, Our relation ^^^^5^ ^^® ^^"^^ necessary to our articles that are either en- dependencies tirely lacking or cannot be produced in sufficient quantities within oar own borders in America. Name a few. (See Table of Imports, p. 488.) Men- tion some that we are therefore glad to i-eceive from Alaska ; Cuba ; Porto Rico ; the Hawaiian Islands ; the Philippines. Mention others that they, likewise, are ulad to receive from us. vState, then, liow the United States and its dependen- cies are of advantage to each other. 2. Other Countries of North America The principal industries in southern (,'anada and Newfoundland are similar to those in our Northern States. Canada and \\ hat about agriculture in Newfoundland tliose countries (pp. 251-252) ? Where is coal mined in them (p. 253) ? Pre- cious metal (p. 252) ? What about graz- ing (p. 251)? Lumbering (p. 253)? Mexico Fishing and sealing (p. 256)? Compare the raw products of southern Canada with those of our Northern States. Name and locate the principal cities ; the lead- ing trade route. Mention the chief kinds of manufacturing (pp. 258-260). Describe the surface features and the climate of Mexico (p. 263). What are the agricultural products from its arid plateaus (p. 264)? From its lowlands (p. 266)? From the slopes between (p. 266) ? Tell about the forests of Mexico (p. 264) ; the mining (p. 266). Give some reasons why there is so little manufacturing in that country (p. 267). Locate the prin- cipal cities. Name the six republics of Central America. Describe the surface of the country and the climate (p. central 268). Name the principal in- America and dustries (p. 268) . Tell about ^^^^ ^"^^^^ the canal across the isthmus (p. 244). Mention the largest islands among the West Indies. What are their chief in- dustries (p. 270) ? 3. Relation" of United States to Other Countries What industries found in the United States are not found, or are little de- veloped, in Canada ? In Sn^J^wL Mexico? In Central Amer- sending away some goods ica ? What industries of and receivmg ^^y q^q q£ ^j^^g latter COUn- others / i- -i • ^ tries are not round m the United States ? The United States as a whole, as well as most of its sections, produces far more of some materials than its people can consume. Other important articles must come wholly, or in part, 290 NORTH AMERICA and their value from other countries. Give examples of each. If we could not secure a market for our products in foreign lands, we should suffer greatly; and if foreign countries did not provide us with what we need, we should suffer again. Other countries are in the same condition. Show how it is true of Canada ; of Mexico. There are excellent reasons, therefore, for a constant exchange of goods among the nations of the world. How does the size of our country give us a great ad- vantage in this respect ? The goods that we send forth are called exports, and those brought in, ^, imports. Examine the The names , i i /• of such goods, tables 01 exports and imports on pp. 488 and 489 and note some of the products that we send away and some that we receive, as well as the countries with which we trade. More than half of all our exports and imports are sent by way of New York. Why? Other ports next in impor- tance have already been named (p. 285). What are their names ? The total value of our exports in 1909 was 11,250,000,000 ; of our imports, $757,000,000. Some imports are allowed to enter the coun- try free; but upon most of them there is a duty; that is, a tax for enter- Meamng and -j^g q^^. cQ^^i^try. This duty is a '* duties " source of income, or revenue, for the government. It is also in- tended to protect our industries by preventing foreign products from being sold in our country at a lower rate than that at which we can pro- duce them. However, this sometimes causes hardship. For example, a citizen of the United States, living near the border of Canada, has not been allowed to buy lumber and wood pulp from that country without paying a duty upon them. This causes us to pay a higher price for many articles than we would have to pay if no duty were placed upon them. Under such conditions the boundary line between two neighboring coun- tries becomes a hindrance to trade. 4. Value of Steam and Electricity IN Development of North America The use of steam upon the water ways and railways has been of the greatest in- fluence in the development Advances of our country. A century made in a ago it required two days to ^^^'^^'^^y travel from New York to Philadelphia, and six days from New York to Boston, the latter journey being possible only twice a week by stage. At that time there were but thirteen daily newspapers in the United States, and neither papers nor books could be sent by mail. To send a letter cost from six to twenty-five cents, ctccording to the distance ; and because the expense of carrying letters was great, they were not sent from the smaller towns until a sufficient number were collected to make it worth while. We can now travel as far in an hour as our forefathers could travel in a day, and with much greater comfort. There are over two thousand daily newspapers, and these, as well as letters, may be sent quickly and cheaply to every section of the country. We can send a telegram to a distant point in an instant, and can talk by telephone with a person hundreds of miles away, even recognizing the tones of his voice. How wonderful these facts would have been to persons living a hundred years ago ! The effect of such mighty changes is seen in every direction. Each year REVIEW OF NORTH AMERICA 291 thousands of carloads of fruit are shipped ,,. . , to Eastern cities from Cali- Tne impor- tance of these fornia. If there were no advances railways, how could such fruits reach these cities ? What, then, would be the effect on southern Califor- nia ? Also, how could the corn of the Central States be marketed? And how could furniture, sugar, and coffee be brought to the Western farmer's door ? • If our railway trains and steamboats should all suddenly stop running, there would be a famine in every large city within a few days. Even now, when heavy falls of snow block the trains for a day or two, the supply of milk, meat, and other foods quickly runs low, and the prices rise to several times their usual value. When our Union was formed, more than a century ago, many wise persons believed that it was bound to be a failure. Our population was so scattered (Fig. 141) that people living in one part Their in- were likely to know and fluence on care little about those in government ^^^leY and distant parts. It seemed probable that quarrels and wars would arise, due to differences of opinion, and therefore that our Republic might be split into several rival countries. Just the opposite ha^ happened. Our people are closely united in interests, and are working well together. At the same time our boundaries have been so enlarged as to include far more territory than was at first thought possible (Fig. 142). Aside from that, since 1821, millions of foreigners have settled in this country, representing all the principal races of mankind (See Appendix), and many of the leading languages, religions, and po- litical beliefs of the world. In spite of all this, we have kept in such close touch with one another that our Union has grown stronger and stronger. Each day, by rail and water, articles are sent to all parts of the country. In all the states the people read the same news every morning ; and whatever books are found especially valuable in . one section quickly become known in others. Thus we enjoy far better op- portunities for education than formerly, and we learn to know one another ; we have the same thoughts, and we feel a common sympathy. So far as meeting and understanding one another are concerned, our country is really far smaller than it was a hundred years ago ; we are living together like one very large family. PART lY. GEIfERAL GEOGRAPHY SECTION I. WINDS AND RAIN 1. Winds ^ In our study of North America, we have learned that the winds of different Principal sections come from different winds of directions. For example, in North America ^|^g ^y^g^ Indies, in Central America, and in southern Mexico, the winds usually blow from the northeast ; but on the western side of the continent, westerly direction. In the eastern par of the United States, on the other hand the winds are irregular in direction although they blow more often from th( west than from any other quarter. Many other parts of the earth hav< regular winds, just as North principal America has. In fact, there winds of are regions extending all the *^® ®^ way around the earth — like wide belt! Fig. 405. — A diagram to show the principal wind belts of the earth. all the way from San Francisco to Alaska, — where the winds come generally from the wind blows quite regularly from a the same quarter. These wind belts are ^ Review Part I (pp. 54-59) before studying this section. For latitude, longitude, standard time, anc revolution of the earth, see Appendices I and II, pp. 492^99. 292 WINDS AND RAIN 293 hown somewhat clearly by the arrows Figure 405. Make a list of the names that you nd on this map. Near the equator you nd the Belt of Calms which is several undred miles wide. The winds are lowing toward this hot region from oth sides. Those on the north are ailed the northeast trade winds; those n the south, the southeast trade winds. hese trade winds start hundreds of miles away, in the temperate zones, and blow steadily toward the equator, day after day and month after month. All the air that moves toward the equator in these trade winds must escape somewhere. It really rises in the torrid zone ; and since the air is moving up- ward, no wind can be felt in this belt. It is therefore a belt of calms. What winds do blow are usually light and changeable. The air that rises in the belt of calms flows away, high above the surface, toward the north and the south. It forms the return trade, or antitrade winds, which blow above the trade winds, and in the opposite direction. Some of this air continues on, far to the north in the northern hemisphere, and far to the south in the southern hemisphere. But some of it settles to the earth in the belts called the horse latitudes. Since the air here is coming down, little wind is felt. The horse latitudes, therefore, are also belts of light winds and calms. Beyond the horse latitudes, in each hemi- sphere, the winds usually blow from a westerly direction. These two wind belts are called, therefore, the, prevailing westerlies. It is in the northern belt that most of the United States is situated. In what belt do Mexico and Central America lie ? What part of North America is in the horse latitudes ? Where does the belt of calms cross the New World ? Although eastern United States lies in the belt of prevailing westerlies, its winds are quite irregular. ^ , 111 Irregular The greatest number blow winds of east- f rom the west ; but there are 6™ United . States also many winds from the north, south, and east. The reason for this is that the direction of the wind is changed by storms, called cyclonic storms, which move across the country from west to east. The wind blows from all sides toward the center of such storms, as is shown in Figure 410. Thus, at a certain place the wind on one day may be from the east; then, as the storm slowly moves eastward, the wind at that place changes to south, then to the west, etc. 2. Rain Knowing the wind belts of the earth, we have a key to the principal rain belts ; for the winds are Relation of the water carriers of the winds to rain earth. Water that rises as vapor is borne along in the air and descends to the earth as rain or snow. It falls in great abundance in some places, and scarcely at all in others. Where the wind brings much vapor, there can be an abundance of rain; but where it has little vapor. Principal the rainfall must be light, cause of rain Winds that blow from the ocean bring the most vapor, for more vapor rises into the air from the ocean than from the land. It is very important, therefore, whether the prevailing winds are from the land or from the ocean. 294 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY The regular rain belt ; 1. In North America These facts are well illustrated in the rains of North America. The north- east trade winds, which gather a large amount of vapor from the ocean, de- posit it on the northeastern slopes of the West Indies, southern Mexico, and Central America. But the southwestern slopes of the West Indies receive a much smaller quantity of rain; and the western coast of Mexico is quite arid. Farther north the prevailing westerlies, having traveled a long distance over the Pacific Ocean, likewise cause heavy rains along the western coast of North America (Fig. 406). These winds lose much of their moisture in passing over the western highlands, and the land farther east, therefore, receives very little rain. Northern Mexico and the southwest- ern part of the United States, which lie within the horse latitudes, receive very little rain and are arid. This is true even at the very seashore in south- ern California. The reason for this is that the air in the horse latitudes is con- stantly descendingandbecomingwarmer ; and air that is growing warmer will take up more vapor, instead of giving up what it has. As you study about other parts of Fig. 40(5. — The heavy rainfall where the prevailing westerlies blow over the rising coast. What is the condition farther east ? What is the case where the trade winds blow ? Why ? the world you will find that the same thing is true there as in North America.|i This is illustrated in the „ , ^ . 2. In other map showing the rainfall of regions of the world (Fig. 407). There ^^«*^y '^^^^^^ you see that the heaviest rainfall in Europe is on the western side, because the prevailing westerlies blow upon that coast. In the southern belt of prevailing westerlies, in South America also, the heaviest rainfall is on the western coast, and there is little rain- fall farther east. Find places in Asia, South Amer- ica, and Africa where there is heavy rainfall on the eastern coasts in the trade-wind belts. The belt of heaviest rain- fall is in the belt of calms. The reason for this is that the air there rises ; and air that is rising is growing cooler and is therefore forced to give up some of its vapor, forming clouds and rain. In the belt of calms it rains day after day, for the air there is steadily rising and growing cooler. The map of rainfall of the world (Fig. 407) shows places where there are less than ten inches of 3. i^ desert rain a year. Such places regions are usually deserts, since there is too little rain for most kinds of plants to grow. Some of these deserts lie . in the dry belts of the horse latitudes ; 296 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY I and some lie where mountain ranges have cut off the supply of vapor from the ocean. But some of the largest deserts, like those of Af- rica, Asia, and Australia, lie in the trade-wind belts. It may seem strange that the trade winds cause heavy rainfall on the coasts against which they blow, and deserts in other places. The reason is simple. On reaching any coast after blowing over the ocean, they are laden with vapor ; and, as they rise over the land, the air is cooled and thus forced to drop some of this mois- ture. On the other hand, winds that have blown for a Jong distance over the land contain less vapor ; and they keep most of this, unless they happen to Thus far only the regular wind and rain belts have been considered. From what has been said, one might expect Fig. 409. — A weather map of the United States on a winter's day. The center of tlie storm — where the air is lightest — is the place marked low pressure area. The arrows show the wind blowing toward this point from all sides. The fig- ures show the pressure of the air, as measured by an instrument called the barometer. that the west winds, so dry after passing over the highlands of western United States, would continue eastward and cause our Central and Eastern States to be arid. As a matter of fact, we know that plenty of rain falls in this section, as shown by Figure 408. The irregular rains of east- ern United States and Canada (1) Kind of weather here Fig. 410. — Weather map for the day following that of Figure 409. Study this map carefully, and tell how it differs from Figure 409. pass over land that is high enough to cool the air greatly. We know, too, that there are no very regular winds over this entire area; on the contrary, both winds and temperature are quite changeable. It may be warm and pleasant, with a south wind, on one day ; the next day a cool, dry wind may blow from the WINDS AND RAIN 297 northwest ; after two or three days this may give place to a cloudy sky and rain, brought on by south or east winds ; and then fair, cool weather, with north- west winds, may again set in. The reason for such changeable weather here is that this region is crossed by the great cyclonic storms already mentioned (p . 2 9 3 ) . In them the winds are blowing from all sides toward the (2) The reason for such weather same storm. As the storm moves east- ward, it carries rain farther east, and the weather begins to clear on the westr ern side (Figs. 409 and 410). The vapor that causes the rain ia these storms is brought from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean, being carried by the winds for hundreds of miles, and even into Canada. Since the storms usually start in the west, and move eastward, it is possible Fig. 411. — A diagram section through a cyclonic storm area. The arrows show the direction of the winds ; the shaded area represents clouds and rain. The storm extends from near the Appalachian Mountains (.4) nearly to the Mississippi River (Jf). (3) The move- ment of the cy- clonic storms, and their extent center — where the air is lightest — and then rising. As the air rises, the vapor condenses, forming clouds and rain (Fig. 411), as in the belt of calms. Instead of remaining in one place, the cyclonic storms travel steadily onward, usually beginning in the northwest, and always pass- ing eastward (Fig. 410). The paths follow^ed by the storm centers generally pass over the Great Lakes, and down the St. Law- rence Valley to the ocean. They move eastward because the prevailing wester- lies carry them along. These storms bring most of the rain that falls in the United States and Can- ada, east of the Rocky Mountains. The area of country upon which the rain may be falling from the clouds of one of the cyclonic storms is sometimes very great. (See Fig. 411.) Indeed, places fully a thousand miles apart sometimes receive rain at the same time, from the to predict their coming, and therefore to tell in advance what changes are likely to occur in the weather. ,., „ .^.,., . . (4) Possioihty Such predictions are so im- of predicting portant that the United '''''' '''''^' States government employs a large force of men, stationed in different parts of the country, to study the weather. They telegraph their results to the cen- tral office at Washington, where a spe- cial branch of the government, called the Weather Bureau, has been established to have charge of this work. The storm predictions are telegraphed from Washington to all parts of the country, so that one knows what kind of weather to expect a full day before it comes. These predictions are usually printed in the newspapers, as you no doubt know. Maps, called weather maps, also are sent out in great numbers. Figures 409 and 410 are made from such maps. From these maps you can see how the direction of the wind at any one point changes as the storm passes over the country. 298 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY By the predictions of the Weather Bureau, farmers and gardeners are warned against dam- aging frosts, and sailors against ib) Value of severe Storms. Hundreds of thou- such warnings t p j n ^^ ■, sands of dollars are thus saved every year. Especially valuable service has been rendered by the Weather Bureau in pre- dicting the fierce hurricanes that start in the West Indies and some- times do great damage there, as well as on our own coast (Fig. 412). These resemble the cyclo- nic storms, but are much more destructive. They often pass along our east- ern coastj and then east- ward out into the Atlantic. Since cyclonic storms have so great an influence on our weather, you will find it of interest to study the weather yourself. Watch the changes in wind, temperature, clouds, and rain. You might also examine the weather map and observe the weather that follows, to see how accurately the map predicts the weather. 1. What can you tell about the regular winds ofthe United States? 2. Oftheearth? 3. Name the wind belts of the earthy 4. State some facts about the belt of calms. 5. Of horse latitudes. 6. In what wind belt is northern United States? 7. What is the cause of the winds of eastern United States ? is the relation of winds to rain ? 9. Locate the regular rain belts in North Amer- ica. 10. Where is there especially heavy rainfall in other parts of the earth ? 11. Why is the belt of calms a rain belt ? 12. State the reason for the desert regions of the earth. 13. De- scribe the weather in eastern United States. 14o State the reason for this kind of weather. 15. In what direction do the cyclonic storms move, and what is their extent ? 16. What about the possibility of predicting these storms? 17. How is that work managed ? 18. How are the warnings of value ? Review Questions irregular 8. What Fig. 412. — A scene in Galveston. Texas, showing the vast destruction done by a hur- ricane in 1900, when many of the houses were torn to pieces during the storm. 1. Estimate the number of barrels of water that falls on an acre of ground, or upon a city block, in one year, where the rain- fall is forty inches. 2. Make a Suggestions drawing to show the direction of the regular winds of the earth. 3. Watch the higher clouds to see in what direction they are moving. 4. Write an account of the changes in weather for five days in succession : the wind direction and force ; the clouds ; the rain ; the tempera- ture. 5. Read the chapter on winds and storms in Tarr's New Physical Geography, pp. 255-274. 6. Study Figure 408 and tell what sections have heavy rainfall. OCEAN MOVEMENTS, AND DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 299 SECTION II. OCEAN MOVEMENTS, AND DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 1. Tides People living upon the seacoast know that the ocean water rises for about six hours, and then slowly falls for the same What the period. This rising and tides are falling of the water, twice each day, is known as the tides. The tidal wave is only two or three feet high upon islands in the open ocean ; Height of the ^iit it rises much higher in tidal wave , many bays, because the space that it occupies becomes narrower near the head of a bay. In some places the tide reaches a height of forty or fifty feet. The height of tide also varies from day to day ; for the moon and the sun, which combine to cause it, do not always work together. At new moon, and at full moon, — when the earth, moon, and sun are nearly in a straight line, — the moon and sun pull together. They then njake the tidal wave higher than at the quarter, when the sun is pulling in one direction and the moon in another. The high range of tides at full and new moon are called spring tides ; those at the quarters, neap tides. ' In the open ocean the tides are of little or no consequence. But along the coast. Effects of where the water rises and titles falls against the beaches and cliffs, they are of much importance. Where the coast is irregular, the tide is often changed to a current, which some- times moves so rapidly' that a sailing vessel cannot make headway against it, but must wait until the tide changes. Such a rapid current is found in one of the entrances to New York harbor, at what is known as Hell Gate, where the channel is narrow and rocky. These tidal currents move in one direction during the incoming, or flood, tide, and in the opposite direction during the outgoing, or ehh, tide. They sometimes drift vessels out of their course and place them in dangerous positions. Many a ship has been wrecked upon a coast where it was drifted by the tidal currents. The tidal currents often carry mud and sand hither and thither, building sand bars opposite the mouths of harbors. For example, they bring large quantities of sand into the mouth of New York harbor and along the coast farther south. This is one of the reasons why the gov- ernment is obliged to spend large sums of money every year in improving our harbors. 2. Ocean Currents If you blow across the surface of a pail of water, you start a small current, or drift, of the water which Main cause of moves in the direction you ocean currents blow. Winds that blow over the ocean also drift the w^ater before them. Where the winds blow steadily, as in the trade-wind belts, there is a constant drift of water, pushed along by the pre- vailing winds. In this way a great sys- tem of ocean currents is formed (Fig. 413), which have a great influence on the temperature of the earth. In our study of North America it was necessary several times to refer to two of these currents, the Gulf Stream and the Labrador current. We will now study the ocean currents, on each side of our continent, more fully. In the Atlantic, where the trade winds blow, the surface water drifts slowly in the direction of these xhe North winds ; that is, toward the Atlantic eddy belt of calms from both the northeast and the southeast. The water then moves 800 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY westward, as a great Equatorial Drift, until it reaches the coast of South America, which prevents it from going farther west (Fig. 413). There the drift of water is divided, a part being turned southward, while the greater portion continues toward the northwest. Atlantic is called the North Atlantic Eddy (Figs. 413 and 414). Coming from the torrid zone, the water in this huge eddy is warm, and in it Uve countless mil- lions of animals and of floating plants. Among the latter, one of the most common is a seaweed, called Sargassum, some of which is thrown into /„ ^^. » 'tropic OF CANCER :: *>/,-, ^ -. s , .=.-.-, ,^ ^ ..EQUATOR ,«— "^-^ *~ '3~, ^^^"rr* '^- "-^f-^-^*,/ ^^^ J_/ ^•^r^^^^^♦^^-_<• /y <-.-^ j-.^_-i^^»- t K\ south; ^K — t' "'1-w *" ^^^ "Kjpfflfl' mix,*' I — Fia. 413. — A chart showing the principal ocean currents and ocean drifts of the world. The part that flows northwest is turned toward the right by the effect of the rota- tion of the earth ; and the part that flows into the South Atlantic is turned to the left, also by the effect of rotation. The northern drift keeps turning to the right, and therefore swings out' into the Atlan- tic toward Europe. Continuing to turn, it then passes southward, and finally returns to the trade-wind belt, where it started, having made .a complete circle. This circular drift of water in the North the middle of the great eddy. There it has collected until it now forms a grassy, or Sargasso, sea, hundreds of miles in extent. Since the Sargasso Sea lies directly between Spain and the West Indies, Columbus had to cross it on his first voyage of discovery ; and his sailors, upon entering it, were jnuch alarmed lest they might run aground, or become so entangled in the weed that they could not escape. A portion of the water in the North Atlantic Eddy enters the The Gulf Caribbean Sea and then stream passes into the Gulf of Mexico. Thus a OCEAN MOVEMENTS, AND DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 301 broad, deep, gently flowing current enters these inclosed seas, which are nearly sur- rounded by warm, tropical lands. There the water grows even warmer than it was before. After circling slowly round the Gulf of Mexico, the water escapes between Cuba and Florida. The current then HnLLiAUS ttii CO Fig. 414. — A diagram to show the currents of the North Atlantic. In order to illustrate the currents clearly, it has seemed necessary to make them as if they were sharply bounded, like a river in its channel. However, the bound- aries of these great currents and drifts are so indefinite that one would not be able to detect the boundaries. becomes known as the GuJf Stream (Fig. 414), because it comes from the QuJf of Mexico. Being forced to pass out through so narrow an opening, it is caused to move faster, as water in a hose is made to increase its speed by passing through the nozzle. Measure the distance from Key West to Havana (Fig. 192). In this region the Gulf Stream flows as fast as four or five miles an hour. This stream also turns to the right, soon leaving the American coast and flowing northeast toward northern Europe. On its way it grows broader and unites with the western part of the great North Atlantic Eddy, In crossing the Atlantic, this great current, or drift, is pushed along by the prevailing west- erlies, so that it reaches the shores of northern Europe, and even enters the Arctic Ocean. In this part of its course the current is called the West Wind Drift. Some idea of its volume may be gained from the fact that it carries many times as much water as all the rivers of the world together. Some of the water that flows northward in this great drift returns in a cold SUr- The Labrador face cur- current rent, called the Labrador Current. Starting from among the islands of northern North America, the Labrador Current flows past the coast of Labrador, Newfound- land, Nova Scotia, and New England as far as Cape Cod. It follows our coast very closely, keeping nearer our shore than the Gulf Stream does. Since there are two ctirrents near together, a cold one from the north and a warm one from the south, a vessel sailing from Boston to Europe must cross both. In winter, during a storm, a ship often becomes covered with snow and ice while in the cold Labrador Current; but soon after entering the warm Gulf Stream this all melts away. Where the cold and warm currents approach each other, dense fogs are common. The reason for this is that warm, damp winds from r ^,////,///.A 302 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY the Gulf Stream are chilled in crossing the Labrador Current. This causes some of the vapor to condense and form fog. The region near the coasts of Nova Scotia and Newfound- land is one of the most foggy regions in the world, and is therefore a dangerous place for vessels. In the Pacific Ocean, as in the Atlan- tic (Fig. 413), the water is driven before Currents in the the trade winds. Thus a North Pacific broad drift is formed, mov- ing westward in the belt of calms. Then a warm current swings to the right past Japan, crossing the ocean toward Alaska. This is called the Japanese Current. Continuing to turn to the right, this ocean drift passes southward, forming a great eddy. There is also a cold current from the north, between the Japanese Current and the coast of Asia. It re- sembles the Labrador Current, but is smaller and not so cold. From what has been said, we see that the northeastern coasts of both North America and Asia are bathed by ocean currents from the cold north. The northwestern coasts of Europe and North America, on the other hand, are approached by warm drifts of water from the south. In the South Atlantic, South Pacific, and Indian oceans, there are eddies similar to those of the North Atlantic and the Eddies of ^^^^^ Pacific. There is one very the southern ■ . to- , oceans important difference, however. In the southern hemisphere the currents are turned to the left, instead of the right, by the effect of rotation. Some of the water of these eddies joins the broad West Wind Drijt of the distant southern ocean ; but much of it turns northward until it once more reaches the trade-wind belt (Fig. 413). The cold Labrador Current greatly in- fluences the temperature of the neigh- boring land ; for winds that blow over the Labrador Cur- Effects of rent are cooled, and carry the °*^®^" currents chill far inland. This is one America of the reasons why the east ^ Effects winds of New England are so current* °^ cool, and why the. New Eng- land coast is such an agreeable summer resort. The Labrador Current bears with it much ice from the Arctic region. Some of this is sea ice, or "floe ice," which has been frozen Fig. 415. A polar bear hunting seal on the floe ice that is floating southward in the Labrador Current. during the winter ; and some of it is in the form of huge icebergs, which have broken off from the Greenland Glaciers. Seals are often seen on the floe ice, and now and then a polar bear, which preys upon the seal (Fig. 415). Most of the sea ice melts before reaching New- foundland; but the icebergs may be carried even farther southward before they melt. In- deed, some of them float even as far south as the paths followed by vessels which cross the Atlantic. Since many of these icebergs are larger than a large building, collision with one means shipwreck ; therefore sailors need to use great caution, especially when a ship is in the fog. OCEAN MOVEMENTS, AND DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 303 While the winds from over the Labra- dor Current are chilly, those that blow 2. Effects of from over the Gulf Stream the Gulf stream q^^q warm. They are also damp. During cyclonic storms, as we have seen, winds from the warm waters off our southern coast often carry both warmth and moisture far into the inte- rior of the country. Therefore the Gulf Stream, as well as the Labrador Current, has an important effect on the climate of our Eastern and Central States. The winds that blow over the warm waters of the North Pacific tarcu:?el causc the climate 'of the in the Alaskan coast to be far North Pacific , , , i , (« ■ i warmer than that oi soutn- ern Labrador in the same latitude. These west winds also bring an abun- dance of vapor to the Pacific coast, all the way from California to Alaska. Where these warm ocean winds blow, the winters are mild and the rain heavy ; but the summers are cool, because the ocean water, though warmed, does not become greatly heated. On a globe no- tice that the State of Washington, with its pleasant climate, is in about the same latitude as the bleak island of Newfound- land, whose shores are bathed by the Labrador Current. The warm West Wind Crift of the North Atlantic is of special benefit to Effects of ^^^ ^^^ World. Notice on a currents in map how many large cities other regions q£ northern Europe are in the same latitude as desolate Labrador. How different these two regions are ! One is highly civilized and densely set- tled ; the other is occupied only by scat- tered, half-civilized tribes. This difference is due mainly to the fact that the prevail- ing west winds blow over the warm waters of the West Wind Drift. In other parts of the world, also, the ocean cur- rents, and the winds that blow over them, have a great effect on the climate. You will learn about some of these cases when you study about for- eign lands. 3. Distribution of Temperature As a rule, the farther one travels from the equator, the colder it grows ; but this is by no means always the case. In some parts of the temperate zone, for instance, it is as hot as in the torrid zone; and in some parts of the torrid zone the climate is as cool as in the temperate zone. There are several reasons why the climate does not always grow steadily colder as one goes toward the poles. One of these rea- ^)l^^^'Z t^_ . in the same sons is the presence of high- latitude may lands. It is a well-known ^*^« different . , 1 . 1 . . temperatures lact that the high mountams have a cold climate, even though in the torrid zone. For the same reason high plateaus may be colder than lowlands even far to the north of them. A second reason is that land becomes warm or cool much more rapidly than water. Land becomes hotter than the ocean in summer, and colder in winter. Thus, in northern Minnesota, far from the ocean, the average temperature in January is below zero ; but in July it is about 65° (Figs. 416 and 417). In New York City, on the seacoast, the average in January is about 25° and in July not quite 75°. Thus the difference between the summer and winter months in north- ern Minnesota is more than 65° ; but in New York City it is not over 50°. 304 GENEBAL GEOGBAPHY The winds are a third cause of differ- ences in temperature. When the prevail- ing winds are from the ocean, they cause an even, or equable, chmate, as in Cahfornia, Oregon, and Washington. Where they blow from the land, on the other hand, they are cool or cold in winter, and warm or hot in summer. A fourth cause for dif- ference in temperature is the ocean currents, as you have just seen. Give sev- eral examples of their in- fluence. If, therefore, we wish to draw a line across North America, to connect several points that have the same average temperature for a month, it would need to be a very irregular one. Some about temperature, in so little space, that it is customary to make maps to show Meaning of isothermal lines, and their value Fig. 417. — Isothermal chart of the United States for July, the west coast than on the east coast? parts would reach much farther north than others. Such lines tell so much Fig. 416. — Isothermal chart of the United States for January. Why is it colder in the interior than on the east coast? Why so warm on the west coast ? Can you notice any influence of mountains ? them, as in Figures 416 and 417. Since these lines connect the places that have the same temperature, they are called isothermal lines, or isotherms {iso means equal; therm, h.ea,t). A map or chart, showing the isotherms, is called an isothermal chart (Figs. 416 and 417). Trace several of the iso- therms across the United States and 1 • 1 Differences explam why between Jan- they bend as uary and July they do. You isotherms on ;/ . land, with Will notice reasons that the iso- therms on the western coast extend north and south, almost parallel to the coast. This is be- cause the winds reach the coast after passing over the warm Pacific Ocean. Why is it cooler on OCEAN MOVEMENTS, AND DISTBIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 305 There is only about 20° difference be- tween the winter and summer tempera- t ures on the western coast ; but on the eastern coast of the United States the difference between summer and winter is much greater. Here, in the East, 4. Explaia the main cause of ocean currents. • 5. Describe the North Atlantic Eddy. 6. The Gulf Stream. 7. The Labrador Review Current. 8. How does the Questions Labrador Current cause fogs ? 9. Describe the currents of the North Pacific. 10. The eddies of the southern oceans. 11. Explain Fig. 418. — An isothermal chart of the world for January. M)m.e of the winds are from the ocean ; but still more are from the land, which is cold in winter and warm in summer. Figures 418 and 419 show similar isotherms for the whole world. Observe how these bend w here they cross high mountain chains. You \\ ill notice that the winter isotherms of the north temperate zone bend toward the equator (iver the continents. This is because the land is colder than the ocean. During the summer, t m the contrary, the isotherms curve away from the equator in 'crossing the continents. On what continent are these bends best seen ? Why ? What effect of the West Wind Drift '1o you find in Figure 418 ? 1. What are the tides ? 2. Give some facts about their height. 3. About their effect. the effects of the Labrador Current on the climate of North America. 12. What are the effects of the Gulf Stream ? 13. The warm currents in the North Pacific ? 14. State the effects of ocean currents on western Europe. 15. Give four reasons why places in the same latitude may have different temperatures. 16. What are isothermal lines and what is their value ? 17. What are isothermal charts ? 18. Trace some of the isothermal lines across the United States for January and for July, and explain their differences. 1. If your home is upon the seacoast, find out something about tides there. 2. What course might a vessel take in order to be carried from Europe to America, and back again, by ocean currents ? 3. How do vessels try to avoid running into one another in dense fogs ? 306 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY Fig. 419. — An isothermal chart of the world for July. SECTION III. THE RACES OF MANKIND In some countries the people are white; in others, they are yellow, or black, or _,, . . , brown, or red. There are The pnncipal ' divisions of many different races of men, mankind \)^i they may all be included in four great groups. These are (1) the white, or Caucasian people ; (2) the black, or Ethiopian races ; (3) the yellow, or Mongolian people ; (4) the red men, or American Indians. These groups comprise about one and one half billion people. About one hundred and seventy-five millions of the inhabitants of the earth are negroes (Figs. 420 and t lopians 421)^ or l^thiopians. This is often called the hlack race. There are many divisions of this group, but they all have a deep brown or black skin; short black, woolly hair; broad, flat noses ; and prominent cheek bones. The original home of the Ethiopians is Africa, south of the Sahara Desert (Fig. 420) ; but many have been carried to other lands as slaves, and have there mingled more or less with other races. The negroes in Africa are still either savages or barbarians of low type ; but in many other lands they have advanced to a civilized state. A second great division of the human race is that of the American Luliam^, often called the red race. It 2. American is the smallest of the four Indians groups, and includes only about twenty- two millions. These people resemble the Mongolians in some respects. They were in possession of both North and South America when Columbus discovT ered the New World, and many of them still live on these continents (Fig. 420). The Indians have a copper-colored skin, prominent cheek bones, black eyes, and long, coarse, black hair (Figs. 423, 424). THE RACES OF MANKIND 301 180° ISO" 140° 120° 100° 80° 00° ^J0° 20° 0° 20° 40° W 80° 100° 120'- 140° 160' 160 ' 180° 160° 140° 120° 100' 100° 120° 140° 160° ISO' Fig. 420. 3. Mongolians The third division, the Mongolian, or yelloiv race, numbers about five hundred and forty million. They live mainly in Asia, though some, as the Finns, Lapps, and Turks, have migrated to Europe (Fig. 420). The Chinese and Japanese (Fig. 422) are the best examples of Mongolians. They have a yellowish, or in some cases even a white, skin, prominent cheek bones, small slanting eyes, a small nose, and long, coarse, black hair. The Malays, who live in southern Asia, and in the islands of the Pacific and Indian oceans, are a division of the yellow race. Most of the Mongolians are highly civilized, although their kind of civilization is different from that of the white race. The largest and most highly civilized of the four divisions of mankind is the ivhite. 4. Caucasians or Caucasian race, which numbers about seven hundred and seventy millions. They are also the most widely scattered over the earth. Their original home is not known, but now they are found in great numbers in all the continents (Fig. 420). There are two main branches of the Caucasian race: (1) the fair type, with light skin, light brown, flaxen, or red hair, and blue or gray eyes ; (2) the dark type, with fair skin, dark brown or black hair, often wavy or curly, and black eyes. The leaders among these four great divisions are the whites. Extent to They have learned the use which the of ships in exploring dis- are leaders, tant lands, and have spread with reasons with great rapidity. They have con- 308 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY quered the weaker peoples and have taken their lands from them, so that they now rule nearly the whole world (Fig. 420). The only race that has held out against them is the Mon- golian. Fig. 421. — A Zulu, one of the tribes of African negroes. 1. Name the four divisions of mankind. 2. Tell what you can about the Ethiopians. 3. Do the same for the Ameri- can Indians. 4. Mongolians. 5. Caucasians. 6. To what ex- tent are the Caucasians leaders among these races ? Give reasons. Review Questions 1. How many of the four divisions of man- kind are represented in your own neighbor- _ .. hood? 2. Collect pictures for the school, showing the kinds of dress worn by the different races of mankind. 3. Collect pictures of the houses in which such people live. Fig 422. — Japanese women, belonging to the Mongolian, (ir yellow race. Fig. 424. Photograph Iroin bureau of Kthnolo^y -A North American Indian, one of the red race. Fig. 423. — An Indian Chief. » ^ ' . I , I ■ ' LESSER ^mIrtinioUE ■/central ■ P,Gan,.as^f'^^T''"'? ""V? FIG. 425. GENERAL FACTS 309 Fig. 426. — Relief map of South America. PART V. SOUTH AMERICA 1, Compare South America with North America in shape. 2. What great mountain range extends along the western side ? 3. Name the countries of South America. 4. Which one is largest ? 5. Which is second in size ? 6. What is the coldest part of South America ? 7. Which part Map study of the continent lies in the tropical zone? 8. Which part has a climate very much like our own ? 9. When does Argentina have winter (p. 92) ? 10. Name the three principal rivers. Locate each. 11. Locate Cape Horn, Cape San Roque, and Strait of Magellan. SECTION I. GENERAL FACTS South. America is North America, and Area and quite as population 1 11 ff * for it was discov- ered by Columbus on his third voyage. On the map, find the country named after him. Yet South America has only about one third as many inhab- itants as North America. There was no way of knowing, at first. Why more whichof rapid settle- ^he two ment might have been expected the New would be settled the more rapidly. Yet there are several reasons why South America might have c n t i- nents in World nearly as has been large as known rN Fio. 428. — Find extensive regions where there are very few inhabitants. In wliat parts is settlement fairly dense ? 810 been expected to develop as rapidly as North America. One reason is that the two continents aresim- , „ 1. Resem- ilar in blance to North 1 America several important respects. (1) They have the same general shape. (2) Each has its highest mountains on the western side. Find the three great mountainous re- gions, or highlands, of South America. Locate them on Fig- ure 425. What highlands in North America correspond to these? (3) Each has broad, fertile plains. The pam- pas and llmws are treeless plains suited to grazing ; but the .'-%^deJ ^.Montevideo SOUTH AMERICA Density of roptilation Under 2 inhabitantf per »q^ 2 to 64 " " 84 to 256 " " 256 to 612 •• " Ovar 5K " •'' Citiet with over )00,000 FIG. 427. GENERAL FACTS 311 I'iG. 429. — A viuw in the lofty Audes Mountains of Chile. Here the .surface is very rough and rocky, and snow remains all the year round. over North America selvas of the Amazon Valley are a region of dense forests. Find their names on Figure 427. (4) In each there are large, navigable rivers reaching into the very lieart of the continent. Name the three principal rivers of South America and trace their courses. In some respects South America has 2. Advantages i^Portant advantages over North America. No part extends into the frigid zone ; but a large part of Canada, the largest country in North America, is so cold that no crops can be raised there. Second, the damp winds, which blow mainly from the At- lantic, bring plenty of rain to most of South America (Fig. 430) . A narrow strip on the western side of the Andes Moun- tains, and a part of Argentina, where west winds blow, are the only arid and desert sections. Locate these deserts on Figure 430. This is very different from North America, where, as you remember, a large portion of the West is arid. In addition, large quantities of gold and silver were discovered in South America much earlier than in North America. Adventurers in search of the precious metals thronged into South America hundreds of years before the rush for California gold took place. That gave an early start to immigration. In spite of these facts, the settlement of South . . Why settle- America menthasnot has been been rapid very 1 . Because of the climate Fio. 430. — A figure showing rainfall in South America. In what parts is there heavy rainfall ? In what parts are there deserts ? Is the rainfall heavy or light on the coasts against which the winds blow ? What about the rainfall in the belt of calms? slow, compared with that of North America. One of the most important reasons is the climate. While no part of the con- 312 SOUTH AMERICA tinent lies in the very cold belt, much more than half of it is in the torrid zone (Fig. 116). Note where the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn cross the continent. What does the latter line tell you (p. 91)? Where must the Tropic of Cancer be ? Although vegetation thrives in the torrid zone, it is not a good region for men to live* in. The dampness and heat make it difficult to work, and even cause serious sickness. There is, however, little need for work, for it is easy to get food, clothing, and shel- ter where vegetation is so abundant. This tends to make men lazy. Such a climate is certainly not attractive, espe- cially to people from countries, such as those of Europe, which have a temper- ate climate ; yet European countries are the ones from which immigrants would have come. The most prosperous countries in the world are in the temperate zone, but only the smaller part of South America lies in that zone, as you can see (Fig. 116). What countries are included in it ? Most of the people of South Amer- ica live either in these countries or else on the plateaus and mountain slopes, which, as you know, have a cool climate, even though in the tropical zone. A second reason for the slow settle- ment of South America is the lack of coal. 2. Because of Some coal is found there, it is the lack of coal true, but Very little is mined. The importance of coal for manufacturing has already been seen in bur study of the United States. Without that mineral our country could not have developed so many industries, nor have attracted such great numbers of settlers. Most of the coast of South America is very straight, so that there are few bays and harbors. Compare North and South America in this respect. » „ ^ 3. Because of The western coast is espe- the lack of cially straight, and for long "*'°" distances there are no harbors at all. Moreover, the lofty Andes rise, like a great wall, almost out of the ocean, so that it is very difficult to carry goods from the western seacoast to the interior (Fig. 429). The scarcity of good harbors, as well as the lack of coal, is unfavorable to manufacturing and commerce. Yet these are two occupations that attract and support large numbers of people. A fourth reason for the small popula- tion of South America is the character of the people living there. The ^ whole continent was once the wnd of owned by Spain and Portu- ^^^^^^^"^ gal, and the languages of these countries are still spoken there, Portuguese being used only in Brazil. Like Mexico and Central America, the South American countries rebelled, and now all but the Guianas are independent republics. Some of the people are Spanish or Portuguese, but far more are negroes, Indians, and half-breeds. More than half of all the South American people can neither read nor write. In some of the countries, too, the people have been very quarrelsome, and have spent much of their time in fighting, instead of de- veloping industries. Because ignorance has been so general, and revolutions so numerous, Europeans have not been at- tracted to South America as they have to North America. Of late, however, there has been great improvement, and some of the countries have developed rapidly. Fig. 431. — Some of the South American animals. 314 SOUTH AMERICA In the warm, rainy belt the climate is so hot and Plant and damp that animal Ufe there is lux- 1. Plant life ^.^iant plant life (Fig. 439). The vast jungles of the Amazon are so dense that travel through them is very difficult. In fact, immense areas have never yet been explored. In the desert of the west coast, on the other hand, plant life is very scanty (Fig. 446). There are some parts — for instance, the Desert of Atacama in northern Chile — where there is almost no life of any kind. Fig. 433.- ■ Savage Indians who live in the tropical forest of eastern Peru, east of the Andes. Fig. 432. — The South American llama. In the south temperate zone, and on the cooler mountain slopes of the torrid zone, the land is forest-covered ; but these forests are much more open than the tropical jungle. The extreme southern part of the continent has a climate so cold that the plants become dwarfed, as in northern Canada. In the tropical forest are many insects and beautiful birds. Among the larger animals are the fruit-eating monkey, the fierce 2. Animal life jaguar (Fig. 431), which preys (1) in the upon other animals; and the J«"i/^« sloth (Fig. 431), a creature that sleeps hanging, back downward, from the branches of the trees. There are also many reptiles, including serpents and the iguana, a tree lizard that grows to a length of several feet. Some of the serpents are small and poisonous ; others, like the boa con- strictor (Fig. 431), are large, and powerful enough to crush a deer in their coils. The many beautiful butterflies and the ants are especially interesting. The ants live in colonies, and build houses of earth. There are animals that live on the white ants, one of the most pe- culiar being the ant-eater (Fig. 431). With its long claws it digs the ants from their earthy or woody dwelling places, using its sharp-pointed snout and long tongue in finding its food. The tapir (Fig. 431), an animal five or six feet long, wanders about at night, feeding along GENERAL FACTS 315 ^he water courses. The armadillo (Fig. 431), a burrowing animal covered with an armor, rolls itself into a ball when attacked by an enemy, thus protecting its soft under parts. In the river waters and swamps are fishes, turtles, and alligators (Fig. 431). The fish and the turtle eggs are among the chief foods of the forest In- dians. The man- atee (Fig. 431), or sea cow, lives in both fresh and salt water, and goes up the Ama- zon even as far as Ecuador. On the grassy plains herds of deer roam about, and also the rhea (Fig. 431), -often American ostrich, — one of the running birds. It lives on the open pampas, as in Patagonia, where herds of guanaco, a kind of wild llama, also are found. Among thecrags Fig. 434. called the few large (2) On the plains and among the mountains ■ An Inca Indian of Peru. When South America was discovered by Columbus, it was inhabited only by red men. Many of these The native were savages ; and even to- inhabitants day some of the forest Indians are sav- ages (Fig. 433) living almost solely upon fish, game, and the abundant fruits. It is unsafe for white men to go among some of them, and indeed there are forest tribes that are still cannibals. Among the Andes, especially in Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador, the Spanish ex- plorers found tribes of Indians, called Incas (Fig. 434), who were far more advanced than their neighbors. The Incas tilled the soil by the aid of irriga- tion, cultivating the potato, corn, and Peruvian cotton, all of which they had improved from wild plants. They had the llama and alpaca as domestic animals, obtaining wool from them and using them as work animals. They organ- ized armies, built roads (Fig. 435), and had a rude postal and express system by swift run- ners. Although they had not invented writing, they kept records by means of knotted strings. Their empire extended for more than two thou- sand miles along the Andes, and from the Pa- cific coast to the trackless forests of the Amazon ; and they were governed by a powerful chief whose capital was Cuzco in Peru. and peaks of the Andes dwells the condor (Fig. 431), the largest of flying birds, — so large that it kills and car- ries off small deer. In the mountain valleys live the llama (Figs. 431, 432, 443) and the alpaca. Like other mountain animals, the llama is so sure- footed on the rocks that it is of great use as a beast of bur- den ; and the cold climate causes it to have a thick coat of wool which is of value to man. Be- cause of its usefulness the llama is sometimes called the Ameri- can camel, but it is much smaller than a true camel. Fig. 435. — A stone bridge in Bolivia, built by the Incas before South America was discovered by white men. 316 SOUTH AMERICA SECTION II. ARGENTINA, URUGUAY, AND PARAGUAY From what has been said you can, perhaps, pick out the most progressive countries of South America. They lie in the temperate zone. Argentina is the leading country, and the one that most resembles our Comparison of o^n. It is only about one Argentina with third as large as the United United States gtates, but it has the same variety of climate from east to west. There is plenty of rain in the northeast, while in the interior there are broad stretches of arid plains. From north to south there is a great differ- ence in temperature, even greater than in our country. As in the United States, much of Argentina consists of plains, with lofty mountains in the west. Like our own country, also, Argen- tina has a good government, abundant resources, and progressive people. Argentina is one of the greatest wheat-producing countries of the world ; other grains are common. Much fruit also is grown, especially grapes, from which wine and raisins are made. In the north the climate is so warm that tobacco, sugar cane, cotton, and tropical fruits are raised. The extreme south is too cold for farming ; but sheep raising is car- ried on even in Patagonia and on the stormy islands beyond the Straits of Magellan. On the treeless plains of the interior, ^ called pampas (Fig. 436), there is ex- f cellent grass, and one of the chief in- dustries there is the raising of cattle and sheep. This reminds us of the arid parts of western United States. Argen- tina is also one of the leading cattle and sheep countries of the world, having many millions of sheep. There are extensive forests in the north, and in the mountains. There is Fig. 436. Agriculture l>ainpas of Argentina. therefore some lumbering. Argentina is not an important mining Lumbering region, though some gold, and mining silver, iron, coal, and petroleum are found. In the large cities there is much manufacturing, chiefly of the raw products raised in the coun- Manufactur- try. The leading kinds are ing and dairying and the manufac- co^^^rce j ture of wool, flour, sugar, wine, leather, and cotton. A large part of the raw products, however, is sent abroad, es- pecially wool, hides, wheat, corn, and meat. Machinery and many other manufactured articles are imported. I, .......... ^ the re must be means of ready transpor- tation. The broad Parana River, which empties into the Plata Estuary, forms an important water way to the interior ; ARGENTINA, URUGUAY, AND PARAGUAY 317 Fig. 4o7.— A rauch house on a cattle ranch in Uruguay and railways cross the well-settled por- tions of the country, connecting all the important cities. In fact, there are more railways in Argentina than in any other South American country. There is now a railway from Buenos Aires, westward across the Andes to Valparaiso. Paraguay and Uruguay have nearly the same products as Argentina. Name Paraguay these products. Both coun- and Uruguay tries are especially noted for their cattle and sheep. Among the principal exports are products obtained from the cattle and sheep, such as dried beef, corned beef, hides, tallow, and wool. Paraguay is one of the two countries of South America without a seacoast. Name the other. It has a much warmer climate than Uruguay, and therefore has a number of tropical products including rubber, dyewoods, and valuable timber from the forests. Another product is yerba-mate, or Para- guay tea, which is quite different from our tea. It is much used in South Amer- ica, where its value was learned from the red men. BuET^os Aires, the capital of Argentina at the mouth of the Plata River, is the largest city in South America, having more Principal than a million inhabitants, cities Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay, is larger than Montreal. Both of these cities are important sea- ports, exporting the products of the region to Europe and North America. Buenos Aires is a busy, modern city, with many fine buildings, quite like some of our best cities. It has much manufacturing as well as commerce. Locate Asuncion", the capital of Paraguay. Also La Plata, Cordoba, and RosARio, which are among the leading cities of Argentina. SECTION III. BRAZIL Brazil is the one country in South America that formerly belonged to Por- tugal, and the Portuguese language is still spoken there. It is a much larger country than Ar- gentina, or any other country of South America, and is even larger than the United States. Yet it has Area and less than one fourth as many population inhabitants as our country, and of these, less than one half are white men. Eastern Brazil is a highland region ; 318 SOUTH AMERICA but the northern third of the country is mainly a vast level plain, drained by The Amazon the Amazon River. The Valley rainfall in the Amazon Valley is so heavy, and the slope of the land so gentle, that the river and its larger tributaries are swollen to great breadth. At times of flood these rivers overflow the surrounding country and change it to an immense swamp crossed by many channels. In some places the Amazon is several miles wide, and re- sembles a lake rather than a river. The Amazon is navigable for steam- boats nearly to the base of the Andes, a distance of twenty-two hundred miles from the seacoast. Some of the tribu- taries also are navigable. Along this water way there are a few small settle- ments, such as Manaos, which are reached by ocean steamers ; but away Fig. 439. — Cutting a road in the dense tropical forest of the Amazon Valley. Notice the wavy vines hanging from the trees. Ratzers History of Mankind, Fig. 438. — Savage Indians that live in the interior of Brazil, far away from the region where white men live. from the river there is nothing but an almost unknown wilderness. There is not a single large city in this entire val- ley. How different it is from the valley of the Mississippi ! A large part of Brazil, inchiding much of the valley of the Amazon and its tributaries, is covered with dense tropical forests. The forest trees and undergrowth are i. its so dense that one cannot ^pp^*^*^"" pass through them without first cutting a path (Fig. 439). In these woods an occasional giant tree reaches to a height of from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet. The lower limbs may be as much as a hundred feet from the ground. Between these giant trees are smaller ones struggling to rise out of the somber shade into the sunlight. There are also many shrubs, bushes, ferns, and vines, the latter twining about the tree trunks or hanging from their lower limbs (Fig. 439). The woods present much the same appear- ance throughout the year. There is no time BRAZIL 319 •hen all the trees send forth their leaves and lossoms; nor is there a time when all the Daves change color and fall to the ground. ;ioine of the trees blossom throughout the ear; others have their blossoms at regular easons; thus flowers and fruits may be seen t all times of the year. Some of the trees of the forest pro- luce fruits and nuts, others valuable timber or dyewoods. In i)FM,Zs, fact, the word Brazil comes yewoods, and from the name of a dyewood anilla » i • , i a p i lound m the Amazon torests. Another valuable plant is the vanilla, kvhose beans are used in making per- :umes and flavoring extracts. Many of bhe Indians near the rivers make long ourneys into the forest to collect the roducts, both for their own use and to hip down the Amazon. The Indians still cultivate the mandi- ca, which was one of their principal (2) Mandioca foods wlicu white men ap- peared. The root of this plant is somewhat like a long sweet po- tato, and it is made into a meal, called farina. Mandioca is used by the people much as wheat is by those who live in temperate climates. It is from this plant that tapioca is made. Paraguay tea is also obtained in the Brazilian forest, and Brazil produces far more of this than Paraguay. The natives are also engaged in ob- taining rubber, a product of great value because of its many uses. When gathering rubber, the natives camp in the forests in lightly built huts, from which paths lead through the dense undergrowth to the rubber trees. Holes are made in the trees, so that the sap oozes forth, when it is collected in bamboo dishes. It is then smoked and dried before being (3) Rubber shipped down the river to Para. Find this city on the map (Fig. 425). Besides the rubber trees in the forest, there are many rubber plantations in which the rubber tree is carefully planted and cultivated. Rubber ranks second among the exports from Brazil, and one of the principal markets for it is the United States. What are some of its important uses? Why should the in- vention of bicycles and automobiles have an important influence on the production and value of rubber ? Most of the inhabitants of Brazil live in the eastern and southern parts. Much of this section is a plateau, The more set- crossed by low mountains, tied part and Because of the elevation "^ products the temperature is much more agreeable than in the Amazon Valley ; and, as you will see from the map, the very south- ern portion lies in the temperate zone. The chief industry is farming and the raising of cattle. Besides grain, the crops of the warm temperate , , . , ,. , . 1. Agnculture and tropical climates thrive. Among these are tropical fruits, cotton, corn, sugar cane, tobacco, cocoa, and coffee. The last is the most important and much is sent to the United States. The coffee tree is a native of Abyssinia in Africa. It was introduced into Brazil long ago, and has proved so valuable that Brazil now produces more than one half of all the coffee used in the world. It is cultivated all the way from southern Brazil to the Amazon, and there are fully five hundred million coffee trees in the country. They grow best at elevations of from fifteen hundred to forty-five hundred feet above sea level, and are very common on the high- lands of eastern Brazil. Each tree produces from thirty to forty pounds of coffee a year. Between April and September the berries are picked, dried in the sun, and hulled. After being sorted, the coffee is shipped in bags. 320 SOUTH AMERICA Valuable minerals, including gold; diamonds, and some coal 2. Mining and and iron, are found manufacturing j^ the plateau region of Brazil. Indeed, this is one of the principal diamond-producing countries in the world. Manufacturing 'has begun to be important. Cotton manufac- turing is rapidly increasing, and there are, also, woolen mills, flour mills, and other manufacturing plants, chiefly in southern Brazil. Fig. 440. — A view' of the city and liarbor of Rio de Janeiro. Why should this be the most progressive part of the country ? The chief cities are on the coast, by far the largest being Rio de Janeiro, Centers of the capital (Fig. 440). It commerce ig the second city in size in South America. Which is the first ? It has a splendid harbor, and is a very busy seaport. A rich farming country surrounds it, dotted with coffee planta- tions. Bahia and Perxambuco, farther north on the coast, are second and third in size. The fourth is Sao Paulo, which lies to the southwest, back from the coast. Santos is its seaport, noted for its export of coffee. SECTION IV. THE GUIANAS AND VENEZUELA North of Brazil are three small countries, the only portions of the South American continent now The Guianas , i i r m under control oi iLuropean nations. One belongs to Great Britain, one to Holland, and one to France. They are known as British Guiana, Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, and French Guiana. Find the capital of each. In these countries a large part of the surface is still a forest wilderness, inhabited chiefly by Indians. This tropical forest, like that of the Amazon, supplies rubber and valuable timber; but its resources are only slightly developed. Near the coast there is a strip of cultivated land on which sugar cane, bananas, cotton, and a few other products are raised. Of late, especially in Dutch Guiana, attention has been turned to the production of cocoa and coffee. Some gold is found in each of the Guianas. The Guianas have but one short railway, and in most sections there are almost no roads. The name Venezuela, which means " little Venice," was given in 1499 because the explorers found XT •^^ ^ 'M_ • Venezuela an Indian village built m ^ character the water along the shore of of country, XI Tv/r -1 and products Lake Maracaibo. The Andes cross the western part of Venezuela, while the Guiana Highland extends into the eastern part. Between these two highlands are the broad plains of the Orinoco Valley. Some of these plains, the treeless, grass covered llanos, are occupied by great herds of cattle, as are the pampas of Argentina. There is some farming. THE TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 321 Hardy crops, like potatoes, beans, and barley, are raised on the higher slopes, but below five thousand feet above sea level such products as sugar cane, bananas, cocoa, and coffee are raised. (]offee is the chief export; in fact, Venezuela ranks as the second greatest coffee-producing section. In parts of Venezuela there are vast forests wbich produce valuable dye woods and rubber ; and among the mountains are rich mineral deposits, especially gold. The capital, Caracas, five or six miles from the sea, is situated upon a plateau, more than three thousand feet above sea level. It is connected with its seaports by a short railway. In 1812 Caracas was visited by a terrible earthquake, when a great part of the population was at church. The first shock caused the bells to toll ; but after all danger was thought to be past, there came a fearful noise from undergi'ound, resembling the rolling of thunder, though louder and longer. Then followed a shaking of the earth, so severe that churches and houses were overthrown, and the inhabit- ants were buried beneath their ruins. On that day fully twelve thousand persons perished. SECTION V. THE TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 1 J The countries in the western part of South America, named from north to Fig. 441. — Dense tropical I'oliage on the lowlauds of Ecuador uear the coast. south, are Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bo- livia, and Chile. Locate each on the map (Fig. 425), and tell what countries are on its border. All but the last named lie entirely in the tropical zone. Each of these countries is very mountainous, for the Andes rise p^.^s about from the sea- the Andes coast and ex- Mountains tend all the way from Panama to Cape Horn. Which countr}' stretches fully half of this distance ? Which is next longest ? Although the Andes are not so broad as the Cordillera of North America, they form one of the longest and highest mountain chains in the world. The loftiest peak is Aconcagua in Argentina, which rises 22,860 feet above sea level. The loft- iest in North America is Mt. 322 SOUTH AMERICA McKinley in Alaska, which is almost half a mile lower (20,460 ft.), or about the height of Mt. Chimborazo in Ecuador, These lofty mountains are even now grow- ing higher. Now and then, as they are slowly pushed upward, the rocks break apart and se- vere earthquakes are caused. This region has been visited by some of the most terrible earth- quakes in the world's history, destroying many lives and many buildings. Besides, some of the highest peaks are volcanoes from which lava and ashes are at times sent forth. In such a mountainous country, there is, of course, great variety of Variety of climate. Tropical heat pre- climate and of vails throughout the low- farm products i^^^(3g (Pig 442). b^^t oj^ the mountain slopes there are temperate and even frigid climates. There is, therefore, much variety in the farm products. Up to an elevation of three thousand to four thousand feet, bananas, sugar cane, cocoa, and other plants of hot climates flourish. Above this, to an elevation of six or seven thousand feet, tobacco, corn, and coffee are cultivated. From this height up to about ten thousand feet, wheat and our Northern vegetables and fruits do well; but above ten thousand feet the bleak mountain peaks are too cold for farming (Fig. 429). There are great differences in rain- fall, as well as in temperature. Near the equator the rainfall is heavy ; but in southern Peru, the climate is arid. On this account the tropical for- est gradually disappears toward the south, and is replaced first by arid plains, and then by deserts. Rich deposits of precious metals were found in the Andes soon after the dis- Vaiuabie covery of South America. minerals In fact, this was the prin- cipal reason why the Spaniards took possession of so much of the continent. Hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of gold and silver were taken out of the rocks of the Andes Mountains, and every year large quantities are still mined. Colombia, named after Columbus,^ has seacoast on both oceans. The western part is very mountainous, for several of the Andean ^''^°'^^'"' ranges end there. Much mineral is found, gold and silver being most im- portant. Valuable emeralds also are obtained. In the eastern portion, on the other hand, are treeless llanos on which large numbers of cattle are raised. Coffee is the principal product and the chief ex- port ; but sugar cane, tobacco, and cocoa also are produced. On the mountain slopes the grains, fruits, and vegetables of temperate climates are grown. Bogota, the capital and largest city, is situated far in the interior, at an ele- vation of about a mile and a half above sea level. It has an agreeable climate, even though within the tropical zone. The small republic of Panama was formerly a part of Colombia, but it revolted and became an independent country a few years ago. What have you learned *"*™* about it (p. 94) ? What can you tell about the Panama Canal zone (p. 244) ? Why should the name Ecuador, the Spanish word for equator, be given to this country? The princi- pal industries are farming and cattle raising. The chief farm products are wheat and barley on the highlands, and coffee, sugar cane, and cocoa, on the lowlands. Cocoa is the most important product of Ecuador, and fully one fifth of all that is produced in the world comes from here. Ecuador THE TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 323 Fio. 442. — A house in Ecuador raised above the ground because of the dampness. The cocoa tree, which grows in the shade of the larger forest trees, has small pink and yel- low blossoms which spring directly from the main trunk and branches. After blossoming, golden-colored pods grow, in each of which are a number of seeds, or beans, about the size of a large almond. After being washed, dried, and roasted, the beans are ready to be made into cocoa and chocolate. What are some of their uses ? By what routes might they be shipped from Guayaquil to New York ? Another product of Ecuador, and of some other South American countries, is sarsaparilla. The rubber industry is also well developed. There is some gold mining in Ecua- dor, but not much mining of other min- erals. The country is so mountainous, and the roads are so poor, that it is dif- ficult to carry machinery to the mines. Therefore only the richest deposits are worked. There is almost no manufac- turing in the country. Quito, the capital and largest city, is situated among the mountains of the interior at an elevation of about nine thousand feet. Next in size is the sea- port Guayaquil, the westernmost of the large cities of South America. It is in W. Long. 80°. Does it lie east or west of Washington, D.C.? There is abundant rainfall in north- ern Peru and in the upper Amazon Val- ley on the eastern side of Peru the Andes. But in south- i- ciimate ern Peru the climate is arid and even desert (Fig. 430). So little rain falls in southwestern Peru that in some parts, even close by the sea, there is an average of but one shower in seven years. Peru was one of the most valuable sources of gold and silver for the Spanish conquerors. The Incas, who dwelt there, had collected gold for ornaments, and this the Span- iards seized. Then, opening mines, they 324 SOUTH AMERICA 3. Agriculttire forced the Indians to work in them as slaves. Since that time vast quantities of gold and silver have been obtained in Peru. Valuable deposits of coal, petroleum, and copper also have been found. There is much agriculture in Peru, the chief crops being corn, wheat, and potatoes among the moun- tains, and sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, cocoa, and coffee in the lower and warmer sections. Large numbers of sheep and cattle are raised, and also of the llama and the alpaca (Fig. 443). A peculiar product of Peru is coca, from which cocaine, is made ; and an- other is cinchona, or Peruvian hark, from which quinine is manufactured. These plants were cultivated by the Incas before the coming of the Spaniards. There is some manufacturing in Peru, espe- cially of sugar and cotton goods, furin^an?"' ^^^ S^^^* difficulty, however, has transportation been that of transportation. The lofty Andes extend the entire length of the country, separating the 5. Chief cities Fig. 444. — A view of Lima, the capital of Peru. Fig. 443. — A group of llamas, the bea.sts of burdeu of the lofty Andes. Pacific coast from the broad, forest-covered plains of eastern Peru. To overcome this diffi- culty, the Peruvians have built several rail- ways, one of which deserves special mention. Beginning at Callao this line passes through Lima; then it climbs the mountains, crossing deep gorges, by means of high trestles, winding about on the very edges of precipices, tunnel- ing through the mountain rock, and finally crossing the western range of the Andes at an elevation of more than fifteen thousand feet. Lima, the capital (Fig. 444), founded by the Spanish conquerors in 1535, is situated at the base of the Andes. Callao, the sea- port of Lima, is about seven miles from the capital. Arequipa, at an elevation of seven thousand feet, is separated from the sea by sixty miles of desert. Cuzco is on an interior table-land, at an elevation of more than eleven thousand feet. The ruins of the Inca citadels and " palaces" are still to be seen, and many pure-blooded and half-breed Incas (Fig. 434) still dwell in and near this ancient capital. Bolivia, named after Gen- eral Bolivar, the great South American leader in the re- THE TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES 825 Fig. 445. — Indians in their grass boats on Lake Titicaca volt against Spain, was robbed of its seacoast by Chile. It is a mountainous Bolivia country, with broad and very high plateaus between the mountain ranges. In one of these valleys lies Lake Titicaca (Fig. 445), partly in Peru and partly in Bolivia. This lake, the greatest in South America, is about a third the size of Lake Erie. It is the most elevated great lake in the world, lying over twelve thousand feet above the sea. The Incas occupied this region also, and mined much gold. Besides gold, the Spanish discovered veins of copper, tin, and silver, so that mining has been one of the leading industries of the country. Fig. 446. — La Paz, the largest city of Bolivia, situated iu au arid valley among the lofty Andes. 326 SOUTH AMERICA Both the mining and the work of extract- ing the metals from the ore are very crude. For example, instead of using machines for crushing the ore, as in the United States, sometimes they roll bowlders around on the ore. Since there are almost no railways, goods are carried for the most part by trains of pack mules, donkeys, alpacas, or llamas (Fig. 443). The llama here, as in Peru, is of great value to the inhabitants as a beast of burden, and as a source of wool for clothing. Like the Amazon Valley of Brazil, much of eastern Bolivia is an almost unknown forest wilderness. On the plateau and in the moun- tain valleys, however, there are settlements* where agriculture is carried on, with the same products as those of Peru. Name them. Most of these are consumed at home, though some coffee is exported. A railway line connects western Bolivia with the sea; but there is great need of others. Another need is the improvement of the water ways, to provide river transportation to the Atlantic. Through what rivers coiild boats pass to the sea ? Find the capital of Bolivia. La Paz (Fig. 446), the largest city, has twice as many inhab- itants as the capital. SECTION VI. CHILE Surface features The eastern boundary of Chile is the divide between the Atlantic and Pacific drainage slopes; and since this divide runs along the Andes, the country is very moun- tainous, and narrow from east to west. Measure its length ; also its width. Ex- cept in the south, the coast line is regular, like that of the rest of South America. The climate varies more than that of any other „,. ^ South American Climate country. Ihe northern part is within the torrid zone, while the south- ern end reaches far into the bleak south temperate zone ; and on the mountain slopes there is every climate, from torrid to frigid (Fig. 447). The very name, Chile, comes from an Indian word for snow. There is also great variation in rain- fall. Northern Chile is arid, and in some portions a desert ; while central and southern Chile reach into the rainy belt of prevailing westerlies (Fig. 405). The best developed section of the country lies in the middle part, between the hot, arid north and the bleak, rainy south. There is much mineral wealth, includ- FiQ. 447. — A view in the lofty snow-eovered Andes of Chile. Cop- ing gold, silver, coal, and copper, per is one of the most valu- able of these minerals, and Chile, like the United States, is one of CHILE Fig. 448. — Indians living in the cold southern region in the Straits of Magellan. the great copper-producing countries of the world. Even more important than the copper are the beds of nitrate of soda, which yield many million dollars' worth of nitrate every year. This sub- stance is the principal export of the country. The nitrate beds lie in the midst of the Des- ert of Atacama (Fig. 427), in which rain seldom falls. The substance occurs in layers from a few 327 inches to one or two feet thick, over an area thirty or forty miles in breadth. Its chief use is as a fer- tilizer, for which purpose large quantities are shipped from the port of Iquique. Agriculture is extensively carried on in Chile, especially in the rainy mid- dle portion. The ^*^" principal crops are the vari- ous grains, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables. More wheat and barley are produced than are needed at home, so that Chile helps to supply other nations with these grains. Large herds of cattle are reared ; and in south- ern Chile sheep raising is one of the chief industries. Hides, leather, and wool are exported. There is more manufacturing than in most South American countries, the principal kinds being flour milling, Fig. 449. — The shippinji; in the harbor of Valparaiso. 328 SOUTH AMERICA cheese making, tanning, and shoeraak- ing. Manufacturing is rapidly increas- Manufac- i^g 5 but, as in other South turing American countries, it is still necessary to import machinery and other manufactured articles from Europe and from the United States. Chile is one of the most progressive nations in South America. Its govern- Progress of ment is good, and its indus- the country tries are well developed. It is interesting to note that the two most advanced nations of South America lie side by side in the temperate zone, while the next most progressive country, Brazil, is partly in that zone. Since Chile is the leading Andean country, it is natural that it should have the largest city on the The principal Pacific coast. This is San- cities TiAGO, the capital, which has a popula- tion of one third of a million. It is situated fifty miles- inland, and half a mile above the level of the sea. Val- paraiso (Fig. 449), the largest and bus- iest port on the Pacific coast, is also in Chile. It is about half the size of San- tiasro. SECTION VII. ISLANDS NEAR THE CONTINENT On the north side Just off the coast of Venezuela, oppo- site the mouth of the Orinoco, is the low island of Trinidad, a British possession. This island is especially noted for its pitch lake, from which asphaltum is obtained for use in making asphalt pave- ments. . The asphaltum oozes slowly from the ground ; and, as it is dug out, more takes its place, showing that there is a very large supply beneath the surface. Just east of the southern tip of South Amer- ica are the Falkland Islands, which belong to Great Britain. Still farther east , are the islands of South Georgia, also British. They are ice-bound lands, with no permanent inhabitants. West of Chile, and belonging to that country, is the island of Mean Fernandez. This is the island where Selkirk was wrecked, and by some is thought to be the island on which Defoe located the story of Robinson Crusoe. It seems quite certain, how- ever, that the novelist described Tobago, just north of Trinidad, and not Juan Fernandez. The Galapagos Islands, about six hundred miles west of Ecuador, on the equator (Fig. 107), On the west are a group of small volcanic islands owned by Ecuador. They are too far from the continent to appear on our map. 1. Compare North and South America in area and population. 2. Why might it have been supposed that South Amer- ica would be settled as rapidly Review Questions as North America? 3. Give several reasons why it has not been settled so rapidly. 4. Describe the plant life. 5. The animal life. 6. What can you tell about the native inhabitants ? 7. Compare Argentina with the United States as to area, climate, and surface features. 8. What are its principal products ? 9. AVhat is the condition of manu- facturing ? 10. What are the conveniences for transportation? 11. Name the principal products of Paraguay and Uruguay. 12. Name and locate the capitals of Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina. 13. What can you tell about Buenos Aires? 14. Locate other cities men- tioned. 15. Compare Brazil with the United States in area and population. 16. Describe the conditions in the Amazon valley. 17. What is the appearance of the tropical forest? 18. What valuable products are obtained there ? 19. How is rubber obtained ? 20. What are the agricultural products of Brazil ? 21. State some facts about the coffee industry in Brazil. 22. What is the condition of mining ? Of manufacturing ? 23. Name and locate the ISLANDS NEAR THE CONTINENT 329 )iiiicipal cities. 24. Name the Guianas. iVhat are their chief products ? 25. Describe lie surface features of Venezuela. 26. What ue its products ? 27. Locate the chief city. .'0. What minerals are found there ? 31. What ibout the surface features and the products of Olombia ? 32. What is the leading city? !.'!. What are the agricultural products of I'.ouador? 34. What about mining and manu- facturing ? 35. Name and locate the principal •ities of Ecuador. 36. What climate has I'eru? 37. What about mining there? iS. Agriculture ? 39. Manufacturing and transportation ? 40. Name and locate its chief titles. 41. Describe the surface features of ISolivia. 42. Tell about mining in that coun- try. 43. Agriculture. 44. Commerce and chief cities. 45. Describe the surface of Chile. U>. The climate. 47. What can you tell about mining there? 48. Agriculture? 49. Manu- facturing ? 50. What about the progress of Chile? 51. Locate the chief cities. 52. Name, h>oate, and tell the principal facts about the islands near South America. 1. Which of the two Americas has the ad- vantage in regard to latitude ? Show how. 2. Locate the arid sections in Comparisons g^ch continent (Figs. 406, 430). with North o t> • *■ 4- ^i, • • i. *.- . . o. I'oint out the rainiest section in each. 4. Which of the two continents has the better position for world commerce? Why? 5. Into what ocean do the principal rivers of South America flow? ( )t' North America ? 6. What can you say al)out the regularity of the coast of the two continents ? Which has the advantage in this respect ? How ? 7. Locate the live principal coast cities of South America ; of North Amer- ica. How do they compare in size ? 8. What about the number of lakes in each continent, and their value for commerce ? 9. What about the number of large cities in the interior of each continent ? 10. Compare both Brazil and Argentina with the United States in area ; in population. (See the Appendix.) 11. Com- pare Chile with Texas in these two respects. 12. Make a list of the important farm prod- ucts common to South America and the United States. 13. Name some products that are ex- tensively raised in one and not in the other. 14. Which parts of each continent are es- pecially noted for cotton ? Coffee ? Wheat ? Cattle and sheep ? Copper ? Precious metals ? 15. What is the prevailing kind of government in North and in South America ? What sec- tions have a different kind of government? 1. Make a sand model of South America, showing the highlands and lowlands. 2. Eead about Pizarro's conquest of Peru. 3. Find out more about the Inca Indians. 4. What are the five leading cities of South America ? 5. Compare South Amer- ica with North America in regard to distance from Europe. Which has the advantage in this respect for immigration? 6. Will the Panama Canal be of importance to us in our trade with any part of South America ? Ex- amine a globe to see. 7. If the southern end of Chile were placed at San Diego in California, where in North America would the northern end reach ? 8. Draw an outline map of South America, putting in the mountain ranges, chief rivers, and cities. Add the boundaries and names of the several countries. 9. Name and locate the capital of each South American country. Suggestions PART VI. EUROPE 1. Trace the boundary line between Europe and Asia, naming the mountains and waters „ that in part form it. 2. How ^ does the coast line of Europe com- pare in regularity with that of South America ? Of North America ? 3. Name the largest pen- insulas, and draw an outline map to show them. 4. Where are the highest mountains? 5. Name and locate the principal rivers. 6. Where are the plains ? Which very large country is made up mainly of plains ? 7. How does Eussia compare in size with the other countries of Europe? With the United States? (See Appendix.) 8. In what zones does Europe lie ? 9. The 40th parallel of latitude crosses what countries of Europe ? Through or near what cities in the United States does it pass ? 10. Point out those countries of Europe in which some of the people that you know used to live. 11. What route did they probably take in order to reach America? 12. Walk toward Europe. SECTION I. GENERAL FACTS ABOUT EUROPE You have already learned (p. 95) that Eurasia is the largest land mass on the earth. It extends north- ward far within the Arctic Circle, and southward almost to the equator. From east to west it reaches nearly halfway around the earth. Show this on a globe. It is much larger than North and South America together. Eurasia is the most irregular of all the lands, having many large peninsulas. The peninsula Name four or five of these c&iied Europe (Fig, 506). The largest of them all is the one we call Eur(ype. Notice on the map (Fig. 450) that water borders Europe on the southern, western, and northern sides, me^^king it a penin- sula. What are the names of the bodies of water that so nearly surround Europe ? It is not easy to tell just where to draw the boundary between Europe and Asia. Indeed, some maps show one boundary line, some another. Trace the boundary, and tell what parts are natural (p. 102), and what parts arti- ficial. Although joined to Asia on the east, it is common to class the peninsula of Europe as one of the continents. There is much mountainous land in Europe, as you can see on the relief map (Fig. 451). In the ^^ _^ The surT8.ce northwest, there are low features mountains in the British i- The T 1 11 1 1 • mountains Isles, and a long, low cham in the Scandinavian peninsula. Another long range, the Urals, extends from north to south along the eastern bound- ary of Europe. The most mountain- ous section, however, is in the south, and here the mountains are highest. Name the different ranges. Which lie farthest east ? Which farthest west ? What is the name of the range in the Italian peninsula ? Are all the pen- insulas mountainous ? Besides these main mountain ranges, there are other 330 ^1 ^ fj?-:-/:',;^ ■bV'i-i*^"! -. »' ^^^ ^ ' c 1 pi Bfc,«^y!^^^^^? MmmM i #9 5 • Fig. 500. — A view along the finest street of Paris. Paris, the capital of France, is the Principal cities largest city on the conti- 1. Paris nent of Europe, and the third largest in the world. It has more than 2,700,000 inhabitants. Paris is situated on the Seine at a point where there is a small island in the ii) Importance ^iver. In early days this "■'' *'* location island was easily defended, and it was easy to cross the river here. So the people built a town here which later grew to be a large city. and is also navigable far inland, and canals give water connection with the Loire, Seine, and Rhine. Napoleon and other rulers collected art treasures from various nations, and founded museums and schools ,„, ^^ . (2) Its impor- that have made Paris famous, tance as an For this reason large num- "'"* '^^"'^^'^ bers of Americans go to Paris every year to study art. One of the old palaces, known as the Louvre, is the most noted art gallery in the world. 366 EUROPE It contains thousands of wonderful works of art. Among the many interesting suburbs of Paris is Versailles, where there is another palace that was built in the days of kings. It is how used mainly as a museum, and scores of the large rooms are decorated with the finest of paintings. It is among such treasures that students of art spend much of their time. and both this and the Limoges ware, manufactured at Limoges, are celebrated | for their beauty, ■'( Although so far inland, Paris ships f more goods by water than any other French city. The extensive (4) ks com- system of canals, by which "*^''^« the country is crossed in all directions Fig. 501. — A view in Paris sliowing the broad streets and parks. It is not strange, therefore, that Paris should be noted, the world over, for its beauty as a city (Fig. 500). The wide streets, the beauti- ful parks with their fountains and statues, and the fine public buildings and old royal palaces are wonderfully attractive. Even the dwelling houses are in good taste, for it is required by law that new buildings be so planned as to be in keeping with those near by. Therefore one seldom sees an unattractive building in Paris. Like other great cities, Paris has many manufacturing industries. The people (Z) Its manu- have paid special attention factures ^q ^]^g manufacture of articles which combine usefulness with beauty, such as jewelry, furniture, gloves, and fashionable shoes. The Sevres por- celain is made in the suburbs of Paris ; have already been mentioned. Vast suras have been spent in dredging the lower Seine, so that small vessels can proceed directly to Paris. Larger ships transfer their goods to trains, or smaller boats, at Havre and Rouen. Havre, one of the two busiest French ports, has an extensive trade in coffee from Brazil, and in wheat and other materials from the United States. Farther to the northeast is Bou- logne, where some of the steamships from America stop ; and not far distant is Calais, the nearest port to England, where boats cross the Strait of Dover to England. 2. Other cities (1) Havre, Boulogne, and Calais THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE 367 Bordeaux, on the Garonne River (Fig. 602), in the midst of a fertile (2) Bordeaux grape-raising district, is the 'uui Lyon chi^f port f or the export of I'rench wines. Locate the manufactur- ing cities previously named (p. 363), and tell for what each is important. Note colonies of Algeria northern Africa. and Tunis, in government ? 1. What is the form of 2. What about the boundaries? 3. Locate and state some facts about Monaco, Andorra, and Lux- emburg. 4. Describe the surface of France. Review Questions Fig. 502. — A part of Bordeaux and the Garonne River. especially Lyon, the center of the silk industry, which is the third city in size in France. The leading seaport of France, and the second city in size, is Marseille. It is on the Mediterranean near the mouth of the Rhone. The delta of the Rhone is too marshy for a city, and Marseille occupies the nearest point where there is a good harbor and high ground. It has especially impor- tant trade with the countries bordering the Mediterranean, including the French 5. What can you say about the climate ? 6. What crops are raised ? 7. What about live stock ? 8. Lumbering and fishing ? 9. What minerals are found ? 10. Why is manufactur- ing extensive in spite of limited supply of fuel ? 11. Tell about the woolen and cotton manufac- turing. 12. Silk manufacturing. 13. Other manufacturing. 14. Name and locate the chief manufacturing cities. 15. What advantages for commerce has France ? 16. Name and lo- cate the principal colonies. 17. Explain the importance of the location of Paris. 18. Show how Paris is important as an art center. 19. As a manufacturing center. 20. What about its commerce ? 21. Locate and state the impor- tant facts about other cities in France. 368 EUROPE 1. Make a collection of photographs of scenes in Paris. 2. Raise a silkworm from the egg. 3. When a hole is broken into a ugges ion cocoon, its value for silk is de- stroyed. Why ? 4. Examine a cocoon, and see if you can unravel some of its thread. 5. Also unravel a piece of silk goods and examine the threads. 6. See if you can find any Sevres or Limoges ware. 7. Draw an outline map of France, with the principal mountains, rivers, and cities. 8. Bound France. 4. - Italy (Fig. 517) 1. How does the latitude of Italy compare with that of New England? 2. What neighboring islands belong to „ ^ _, it? 3. Point Map study , . , out the princi- pal river. 4. What moun- tains extend from north to south? 5. What mountains lie on the northern boundary ? 6. What countries border Italy ? 7. What seas border it ? 8. How does its position seem to be favorable for com- merce ? This country is mainly a long peninsula, shaped somewhat like a boot, The parts of which extends down into the the country Mediterranean Sea. What sea -lies to the east of it? The island of Sicily, on the south, and also Sardinia on the west, both belong to Italy. The area of Italy is only a little greater than that of Colorado ; but its Its area and population • is over thirty- population three millions. It is the smallest of the six Great Powers, but is the most densely settled of all except the United Kingdom. Like Germany, Italy was for a long Fig. 503. — Victor Kiiuuiiiel HI, King of Italy. time divided into several independent countries. Now, however, itsgovern- these are all united under ™ent a single government. As in Germany and the United Kingdom, the form of government is a limited monarchy, the king at the present time being Victor Emanuel III (Fig. 503). Most of the Italian peninsula is mountainous. In the north are the Alps, some of whose surface highest peaks features are on the boundary be- tween Italy and Switzer- land. In northwestern Italy the Alps curve around and join the Apennines, which extend the entire length of the peninsula like a backbone. The principal lowlands are the narrow coastal plains and the broad Po Valley. There are also many small, fertile valleys among the mountains. We think of Italy as a sunny land of flowers, al- though Milan and Venice are in nearly the same latitude as Mon- treal. One reason for the pleasant Italian climate is that the lofty Alps form a wall that cuts off the cold north winds. Another reason is that the air is kept warm by the Mediter- ranean Sea whose water remains warm even in winter. On these accounts the Italian winters are mild ; and in the extreme south the temperature seldom falls to the freezing point. There is plenty of rain in many Climate THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE 369 parts of Italy during the winter ; but in summer, when crops need it, there is far too little. A large part of the agriculture of Italy is carried on by the aid of irriga- tion. Indeed, they irrigate 1. Importance the land even where there of irrigation jg plenty of rain for crops. This is done because then plants can be given water when they need it, and Fig. 504. — Lago di Garcia, one of the Italian lakes on the southern side of the Alps. Groves of lemon trees are found along the shores of the lake. there need be no fear of drought. Irri- gation makes better crops, for the flood- ing of the land keeps the soil damp and also fertilizes it. The most extensive farming district is the fertile plain of the Po Valley. The tributaries of the Po, fed by the rains, snows, and glaciers of the moun- tains, furnish a large supply of water for irrigating the plain. Many of these streams flow through lakes — some of them among the most beautiful in the 2b world (Fig. 504) — which act as great reservoirs for water supply. By the aid of irrigation from four to ten crops may be raised in a year. With such extensive use of irrigation, and with such a warm chmate, agricul- ture flourishes in Italy. It is the lead- ing occupation of the country, and agricultural products are the chief exports. Among the products are many that thrive in semi- tropical climates, as well as others that are 2. Agricultural common in products northern Europe. Where irrigation is so easy, the extensive cultivation of rice is possible. This is an im- portant crop in northern Italy ; but corn and wheat are raised in still greater quantities. Grapes are grown to such an extent that Italy ranks second among the wine-producing countries of the world ; and so many silk worms are raised that raw silk is the most valuable export. Among the other products are eggs, which are exported in large quantities ; also olives, oranges, lemons, tobacco, hemp, and vegetables. Many horses and cat- tle are reared on the farms. On some of the mountain slopes forests are grown, but most of the natural forest was cut off long ago. Among the useful trees are the chestnut. These are planted in groves for the nuts, which serve as an important food. The Italian chestnut is much larger than ours, and is ground up into a kind of meal, as wheat is ground into flour. Among the mountains there is much natural 370 EUROPE Fig. pasture, to which herds of sheep and goats are driven in summer. Many goats are raised in Italy for their milk, and they are even driven into the cities, and milked at the doors of the customers (Fig. 505). One great drawback to the development of agri- culture in Italy is the pres- ence of broad, marshy tracts in- 3. Important fegted with drawback to ., agriculture mosquitoes, whose bite causes malaria. This is especially true in the southern half of the country, and there, even with fertile soil and a warm climate, large tracts of land have had to be abandoned. One sixth of the population suffers from malaria, and there are thousands of deaths from that disease every year. It is not to be wondered at that the Italian government is try- ing to stamp out this dread disease. The fishing industry is important. Among the peculiar products of the sea are fine coral and sponges. You will remem- ber that we found sponge fishing impor- tant also among the Bahama Islands east of Florida. Italy is not very rich in valuable min- eral deposits. Except in the island of Elba there is almost no iron ; and no coal of value is found in the kingdom. Indeed coal, next to cotton, is the leading import. There is a little zinc and copper ore ; but one of the most valuable mineral products is the sulphur of Sicily. Another mineral product is the pure white Carrara mar- ble, of such rare quality that it is prized the world over. Water power supplies the place of coal to some extent, and is often used to produce electricity. There is, therefore, more manufacturing than, from the lack Fishing 505. — A herd of goats in the streets of Naples. They are driven from door to door, and milked whenever the customers wish to buy the milk. of fuel, one might suppose. There is much silk manufacturing, but a large part of the raw silk is sent Manufac- to France, Switzerland, and tunng elsewhere, to be made into cloth. There are also woolen and cotton factories. The northern part, at Turin, and near the Alps, is especially noted for its manufacturing, and many different things are made here. Among the manufacturing industries are glass work, lace making, earthenware manufacture, the making of statuary, wood carving, coral carving, and straw plaiting. The Italians are very artistic, and they make many beautiful things that are highly prized in other countries. Italy has much less commerce than any one of the Great Powers so far studied. One reason for this is tliat Italy is not such a great manufacturing country. An- other is that it is situated at one side of the densely settled part of Europe, Commerce THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE 371 md its ports are farther from the New I World than those of France, England, and Germany. It has some commerce, however, for it has products to export, and must import others. For commerce in the Mediterranean, Italy is more favorably situated than any other nation, as it lies in the very heart of this great in- land sea. It therefore has important lages, partly concealed among groves of orange, lemon, and olive trees. All around the bay is a succession of towns and villages. This is one of the most densely settled regions in Europe. One reason for this is the fact that the land ,„, „ here is very fertile, made so the dense popu- by the volcanic ashes of "'*''" '^^''^ Vesuvius. Another reason is the warm climate, and a third is the fine harbor. There is more shipping here than in any other Italian port, with the single exception of Genoa. One reason for so large a city, and for so many towns and villages in this farming region, is the character of the Italians. They do not like to be alone. Instead, therefore, of living in scat- tered houses on farms, as is common in the farming districts of the United States, they crowd into the villages and cities. They do this, too, even though they must travel long distances to their fields of work, or suffer now and then fi'om extreme want. Fig. 506. — A team in Naples consisting of a horse, a cow, and a donkey. trade with Africa and with Asia. Its only colonies are in eastern Africa. The largest city of Italy is Naples, in the southern part of the peninsula. The Bay of Naples on which it Principal cities jg situated, is wonderfully 1. Naples and bcautiful. On the north vicinity giJe, near the head of the StoSr"^ bay, is the city itself, rising, street above street, upon an amphitheater of hills ; toward the east is Mount Vesuvius (Fig. 507), with the crests of the Apennines in the distance ; and on the south side of the bay is a steep, rocky coast,, with numerous vil- Within plain sight of Naples stands Mount Vesuvius, a cone of lava and ashes nearly a mile in height, from whose crater volumes of steam pour forth almost constantly, g ^^ At the time of Christ the vius; us history slopes of this mountain were ""^ ««'-«^'^°'« dotted with farms, while thriving towns spread over the country at its base. But in the year 79 a terrible eruption took place that completely buried Pom- peii, Herculaneum, and many villages, beneath showers of ashes and streams of volcanic mud. Since then Vesuvius has been in eruption many times, the last violent outbreak being in 1906, when much damage was done. 372 EUROPE During the last century the buried city of Pompeii has been uncovered at great labor and cost. By these excavations much has been learned about the buildings and customs of the people who lived here at the time of Christ. One can walk along these deserted streets (Fig. 509), and wander among the ruined homes from which the people were driven forth on that terrible day, nearly two thousand years ago. The principal city south of Naples is Palermo, the capital of Sicily. .It is situated in the midst of . . . , 1 2. Palermo extensive vineyards and fruit groves. What fruits would you expect to find there ? The site of Rome, the capital of Italy, Fig. 507. — Vesuvius in eruption (1892). Huge volumes of steam and ash rise from the crater, while flows of liquid rock, or lava, stream down its slopes. At present, one is able to go to the summit of Vesuvius on almost any day. There can be seen one of the most awful sights in the world, when one cautiously approaches the very edge of the crater — an opening several hundred yards across — and peers down into the abyss. Re- ports like the thunderings of cannon come from far below, and lumps of white hot lava, several feet in diameter, are often hurled upward. At times lava lumps are thrown above the mouth of the opening and fall here and there outside, making one's visit full of excitement. and the ancient capital of the mighty Roman Empire, was well chosen. It lies near the center of the Rome Italian peninsula, and near i- its location the center of the Mediterranean as well. It is not a seaport, but lies at some dis- tance from the sea, on the Tiber, the larg- est river of the country except the Po. Fine residences, public buildings, art galleries, and notable ruins are numer- THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE 373 Fig. 509. — A street in Pompeii. Even the tops of the houses were buried beneath volcanic ash which was erupted from Vesuvius (seen in the background) in the year 79. 2. Its attractions between men and wild beasts. The Forum is another ex- tensive ruin of ancient Rome (Fig. 513). It was the great pubhc square, on a lowland among some low hills ; but during the centuries that fol- lowed the fall of the Roman Empire, its monuments, arches, and other ornaments became entirely buried un- derneath rubbish. Whole buildings, as well as smaller objects, were so buried. With the exception of Rome and Naples the large cities of the Italian peninsula are in the northern part. The first one north of Rome is Florence, in a beautiful valley at the western base of the Apennines. Straw Principal cities plaiting, mosaic work, and in the north silk manufacturing are iui- ^- Florence portant Florentine industries. Florence is famous for its art galleries, which are among the finest in the world. Milan, in the Po Valley, is the leading ous in Rome. The dome of St. Peter's — the largest and most famous church in the world — towers above everything else ; and the Vatican, where the Pope resides, is the most noted palace in Christendom (Fig. 510). In the Vatican are some of the finest and most beautiful of Michael Angelo's paintings. The ruins of ancient Rome, which have been partly ex- cavated, cover so many acres that the city is almost as much a tomb as a living city. One of the most notable relics of the past is the Col- osseum (Fig. 512), a huge, oval-shaped amphitheater, open to the sky, with seats for forty or fifty thousand persons. In the days of the Roman Empire it was used to witness life-aud-death ,11, 1 Fig. 510. — St. Peter's Catliedral (on the left) and the Vatican struggles between men, and (on the right) in Rome. 374 EUROPE city of northern Italy. Turin is another large city 2. MUanand in the same Turin valley. From very early times these cities have been important trade centers because of their posi- tionaatthe crossings of trade routes in a fertile, densely populated valley. The rail- ways recently built across the Alps, through long tun- nels, have greatly increased their importance. They are busy manu- facturing centers, making silk goods, cutlery, and other articles. Genoa, although separated from the Po Valley by the Apennines, is the natural seaport for Milan 3. Genoa ;i ny - c- -i. • and iurm. bmce it is a port of outlet for so fertile a region, and is now connected with central Europe by railway, this city is the lead- ing seaport of Italy. The principal port on the Adriatic Sea is Venice, one of the most interest- ing of European cities. It was once one 4. Venice Fig. 512. — The Colosseum, one of the ruius of ancient Rome. of the most powerful cities of Europe, and had extensive commerce with Cen- tral Europe, the countries of the Mediterranean, and Asia. Its citizens gained great wealth and made Venice one of the most beautiful cities of the world. Many fine houses, churches, palaces, and museums still re- main to remind us of the ancient splendor of Venice. Fig. 513. The city is built upon more than a hundred small marshy islands, about two and a half miles from the mainland, with which it is now con- nected by railway. Canals take the place of streets. There are one hundred and fifty canals, the main one, or Grand Canal, being bordered by white marble palaces, whose doorsteps lead down into the water. Nearly four hundred bridges join the differ- ent islands, and there are many narrow foot- paths; but since the chief highways are canals, gondolas (Fig. 515) take the place of wagons, carriages, and street cars. No doubt, thousands of chiUlren „ . , f^, /- ,,,•,,• f • * 1. 1- I f ill that city have never Ruins of some of the fine old buiUiiiiiis of aneient Rome, which for •' centuries were buried beneath rubbish. seeu a horse. Fig. 511. — A street scene iaFloreuce, Italy, the Duomo, or cathedral, iu the background. THE GEE AT POWERS OF EUROPE 376 Fig. 514. — The Milan Cathedral, one of the most magnificent cathedrals in the world. It is built of white marble, and is adorned with a hundred spires, and fully four thousand statues. San Marino, although surrounded by lands that belong to the Kingdom of Italy, is a tiny independent republic. It is the oldest, as well as the smallest, republic in the world, and owes its in- San Marino dependence partly to the fact that the city is on a high, steep hill (Fig, 616) and was therefore difficult to capture. South of Sicily is the small island of Malta (Fig. 450), which, like Gibraltar, belongs to Great Britain, and is strongly forti- fied. 1. What islands belong to Italy? 2. What are the area and population of Italy? kind of government 4. Describe the sur- face features. 5. The climate. 6. Why is irrigation especially common there ? 7. Name the agricultural products. 8. How does malaria interfere with agri- culture ? 9. State the principal facts about fishing and mining. 10. Manufacturing. 11. What Fig about the commerce of Italy? 12. Describe the beauty of the location of Naples. 13. State the reasons for the dense pop- ulation near Naples. 14. Tell about Mount. Vesuvius; its history and attractions. 15. Lo- cate Palermo. 16. Describe the location of Rome. 17. What are its present attractions ? 18. Locate and state the prin- cipal facts about Florence. 19. Milan and Turin. 20. Genoa. 21. Venice. 22. San Marino and Malta. 1. What copies of great paint- ings from Italy have you seen ? 2. Find pictures of „ £ \.i Suggestions some of the rums ^^ in Eome, or elsewhere. 3. Find out about the Catacombs of Eome ; the Appian Road ; the Aqueducts. 4. Ask some lawyer to tell you what influ- ence Roman law has had upon our own law, 5. Find some facts about Caesar, Cicero, Dante, Leonardo da Vinci, and Michael Angelo. 6. Where was Columbus born? 7. Bound Italy. Review Questions 3. What has it? A gondola on one of the canals in Venice. 376 EUROPE •i 8. Make a drawing of the country and show the location of the chief cities and rivers. 5. Austria-Hungary (Fig. 517) 1. Compare AustriarHungary with Germany in area. (See Appendix.) 2. In population. 3. In number of large cities. 4. How much of the boundary is formed by water (Fig. 517) ? 5. What countries border this empire ? 6. What por- tions are mountainous ? 7. Make a sketch of the mountains, with names (Fig. 451). 8. Trace the course of the largest river. 9. What parts of Austria-Hungary do not be- long to the Danube basin ? This empire is larger than any other country in Europe except Russia ; yet it Area a "d parts is not SO large as our state of the country of Texas. It is made up of two main parts : (1) Austria, on the west, where many of the people are of the same race as the Germans, and where the German language is spoken ; and (2) Hungary, where entirely differ- ent languages are spoken, and where Fig. 518. — Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria-Hungary. Fig. 51(5. — The citadel of the Republic of San Marine the people are of very different races, some having come from Asia. Austria and Hungary are united to form a monarchy under a single ruler ; yet each is independent of ,1 ,1 • , Government the other m some respects, and each has its own capital. The present emperor is Francis Joseph I (Fig. 518). Austria-Hungary is one of the most mountainous countries in Europe. It includes the eastern half of surface the Alps (Fig. 519), besides features several other ranges. These mountains form a circle inclosing a broad level area (Fig. 451), called the Hungarian plain, through which the Danube River flows. The inclosing mountains are broken at only two points, — one near Vienna, where the Danube enters the Hungarian plain (Fig. 523), and the other on the southeastern boundary, where that river leaves it. Everywhere except on the higher mountains, the temperature is favorable for the growth of grains and other crops of temper- '™* ^ ate latitudes. That is, the summers are warm and the winters are cold ; Jonkopingf ■0 ^^arii'us _.BORNHOLM (T„ Uen.) (jf^UGEN vAltoa^o -nambure ^^( ^^ n Stettiin) ' , IgdeburgW' Cfiarlotte^upg ° Stassfurtr^iS^ \ I^^V VDanzig^ „Kbnlgsberg ) / CENTRAL EUROPE Scale of Miles 60 lUO CUiu with over 1,000,000 Citia with 200,000 to 1,000,000- Citiea with 100,000 to 200,000 800 Berlin -Naples .-Venice Erfurt Smaller placet x-iiu.v Capitals with lets than 100,000 BeKNE Capitals of Countriuf^ Ot/ier Cities o ,.Carliil,a,l i Spain Madrid, with its wide streets, magnificent royal palace, and one of the finest art galleries in the world, is a very attractive city. The surrounding country, however, is far from attractive; for from the streets of Madrid one looks across the country for miles and miles, seeing not a tree, or fence, or house ; only the weeds and scattered vegetation of an arid waste. One of the most frequented places in Madrid is an enormous building, with seats for many thou- sands, in which bullfighting takes place (Fig. 550). This brutal sport is enjoyed by most of the Spaniards as is a baseball or football game by people in our country. Another place of note among the high- lands of Spain is Giianada, 2. cities in the last stronghold of the southern Spain Moors, -wh.o invaded Spain from Africa, THE LESSER POWERS OF EUROPE 401 centuries ago. Granada is now a small and unimportant city, and its principal attraction is the Moorish palace, or Alhambra (Fig. 551), one of the finest examples of Moorish architecture. manufacturing center as well. The re- gion about Valencia is a beautiful garden, much like that around Los Angeles in southern California. The two regions are much alike both in climate and products. Fig. 550. — A bull fight watched by thousands of spectators. On the lowlands west of Granada are Seville and Cadiz, both flourishing cities in former (lays, when vast stores of plunder were brought from Spanish colonies in the New World. ('adiz is now a fortified naval harbor; and Seville is recovering some of her former com- mercial importance. It has some manufactur- ing, especially of tobacco. Malaga, which has one of the warmest cli- mates in Europe, is engaged in the shipment of wine, raisins, and grapes. , Of what grape does the name remind you ? Barcelona and Valencia are the lead- ing seaports. Barcelona, the second Spanish city in size, is the most important port and is a textile 20 Principal seaports The only remnants of her vast foreign pos- sessions now left to Spain are mainly in Africa. These include a few small settle- ments on the coast of Morocco ; g° ?^®^ a portion of the western coast of Sahara, having little value ; and a coastal strip on the Gulf of Guinea, with a few small islands near by. The Canary Islands, west of the northern coast of Africa, and the Balearic Isles, in the Mediterranean, also belong to Spain. Gibraltar, a steep hill, with cliffs rising boldly on nearly all sides, and with a town at its base, has ^.^ , -, „ Gibraltar belonged to lingland tor over two centuries. This hill of solid 402 EUROPE rock (Fig. 552) is, perhaps, the strong- est fortification in the world, and guards the entrance to the Mediterranean. Lisbon and Oporto are the chief cities of Portugal. The former, the Principal cities capital and metropolis, is a of Portugal very beautiful city. It lies on a broad bay where the Tagus- River enters the sea, and has one of the finest of harbors. The lower part of the Douro Valley is one of the richest wine dis- tricts in Europe ; and Oporto is an im- portant point for its export. Portugal, like Spain, has lost much of her foreign territory. The Azores Islands, far to the west in the Atlantic, and the Madeira Islands to the southwest, belong to this country. The Cape Verde Islands, off the west coast of Africa, are also dependencies. In:addition, Portugal has large possessions in Africa, and some small ones in Asia. 1. What are the surface features of the peninsula ? 2, What is its climate ? 3. How has the backwardness of the people been a disadvantage ? 4. What is the form of govern- ment of each country ? 5. State the main facts about the grazing. 6. Name the farm Coldnies of Portugal Review Questions Fig. 551. — The Court of Lions in the Alhambra. products. 7. What minerals are found ? 8. Why is manufacturing of so little impor- tance ? 9. What can you tell about commerce ? 10. Locate and state the principal facts about Madrid. 11. About cities in southern Spain. 12. About the principal seaports of Spain. 13. Name and locate the colonies of Spain. Fig. 552. — Tlio I'ock of (iibraltar, seen from the Si>aiiisli nuiiiilaiui. THE LESSER POWERS OF .EUROPE 403 14. For what is Gibraltar important ? 15. Lo- cate the principal cities of Portugal, and tell liow each is important. 16. What colonies has Portugal ? 1. About what portion of the boundary line between Spain and Portugal is formed by rivers ? 2. Find out what hap- "^^^ pened when Portugal became a 1 iepublic. 3. Look in the report of the Twelfth ( 'ensus to see what per cent of our population cannot read. 4. Examine some quicksilver. What are some of its uses ? 5. Find out some- thing about the Moors, and the Alhambra, in southern Spain. 6. Find pictures of Moorish architecture. 7. Read Washington. Irving's The Alhambra. 8. Make a sketch of the Span- ish peninsula, including the principal moun- tains, rivers, and cities. 9. Make a sand map of the peninsula. 6. Switzerland (Fig. 517) 1. What countries surround Switzerland ? 2. What mountains extend along the bound- aries of Switzerland? 3. Which ^ ^ of the boundaries is least moun- tainous ? 4. What large rivers rise among the Alps ? In what direction does each flow, and into what body of water does it empty ? ."). How does the area of Switzerland compare with that of your own State? Switzerland is the only country of Europe, thus far studied, that has no Languages seacoast. Neither has it a and language of its own. No- government ^-^^ what coiuitries surround it. Although it is very small, most of the inhabitants of the southern part speak Italian; those in the western, French; and those in the northern and eastern |)arts, German. The most common lan- guage is German. This is one of the four European coun- tries that is not a monarchy. Name the other three. The Swiss people, living among the mountains where they could easily defend themselves, or hide from their enemies, declared themselves independent of kings hundreds of years ago, and the country has long been a republic- The republic consists of twenty-two small states, or cantons, united somewhat as are our states. The many lofty mountains seriously interfere with agriculture (Fig. 454). The Alps extend completely surface across the country, and the features Jura Mountains skirt the northwestern boundary. These mountains are so rugged that few people live among them, except in the valleys. Between the two mountain districts, however, is a narrow plateau where the surface is much less rugged. It is here that most of the people dwell. We have already learned that the climate of a mountainous country is cool, and that the temperature q^^^^^^^ is lower in higVi altitudes, i. Tempera- At the base of the Alps, *"* chestnut and walnut trees flourish ; higher up, these give place to the beech, maple, and other trees of the cool tem- perate zones ; and still higher is a belt of evergreens. Above these come dw^arfed trees, shrubs, and grass; and higher still, at an average elevation of about nine thousand feet, the snow line is reached (Fig. 553). The lofty Alps condense so much vapor that Switzerland is one of the wettest countries on the continent. On the higher mountains 2. Rainfall much snow falls ; and, slid- "*^ glaciers ing down the mountain sides in the form of avalanches, it gathers in the valleys to produce streams of ice, or glaciers (Fig. 553). These move slowly down the valleys until they reach a point, below the snow line, where the 404 EUROPE ice melts. The Rhone and other rivers are supplied with water by the melting of the Alpine glaciers, Switzerland is so mountainous that only one acre in nine is fit for the plow. Yet agriculture is the lead- ing industry of the country. Among the chief farm products are grain and potatoes, raised mainly on the pla- teau. On the lower lands, especially Agriculture snows melt from the mountain sides, the goats and cattle are driven to higher and higher pastures (Fig. 553). Such a pasture is called an alp, and this is the origin of the narue of the range, the Alps. Where the mountain slopes are too rugged for farming, there ^umb rin is much forest. Therefore, and lumber is an important prod- ™aJi"fact"nng uct of the country. Fici. 553. — Cattle grazing in tlic mountain paslui'es high up in the Alps near the snow line. near the German border, there are ex- tensive vineyards. There is excellent pasturage for cattle and goats among the mountains, and these animals are raised there in great numbers (Fig. 554). In spring and summer, as the Although there is no good coal in Switzerland, the Swiss do a large amount of manufacturing. Among their princi- pal products are wine, butter, and cheese. Wood carving is also an industry in which many of the Swiss find employ- THE LESSER POWERS OF EUROPE 405 Fig. 554. — Cattle on the slopes of the Alps. ment. During the long winters, the wood from the mountains is shaped into toys, clocks, and other articles. Have you ever seen a Swiss clock ? The Swiss have become widely known for their manufacture of textile goods, such as lace, linen, silk, and cotton goods. They also make much jewelry, especially watches. In some of this work, water power is used, for an abundance of power is supplied by the mountain streams The Swiss are taking a leading place in the production of electricity by water power, carrying it by wire to distant factories. Much of the manufacturing, however, is done by hand in the homes of the workmen, rather than in large fac- tories. From these statements it may be seen that the Swiss people are very skillful, progressive, and well educated. There is so much, manufacturing; that the Swiss need to import many raw ma- terials; and they must dis- Commerce . m x j.t • r ^ i tribute their manuiactured products. This calls for extensive com- merce ; but naturally this is not ocean commerce. Why ? Their central posi- tion among European countries is favorable to inland commerce, and this has become highly developed. It cannot be carried on over interior water- ways, for the moun- tain streams are too swift and shallow for navigation. There is, however, some naviga- tion on the larger lakes. For their commerce the Swiss have been obliged to depend mainly upon roads and railways. It has been no easy matter to build such high- ways in so mountainous a country, but Fig. 555. — A Swiss peasant girl in native costume. 406 EUROPE it has been done. No country in the world has better wagon roads than Switzerland ; and no country has over- come greater difficulties in the building of railways. Railroads pierce the moun- tains in several directions, connecting Switzerland with foreign countries. One of the most important is the St. Gothard Railway, which con- nects Switzerland with Italy by the St. Gothard Tunnel. This is one of the longest tun- nels in the world, and is a marvel of engineering skill. Before reaching the main tun- nel, in traveling north, several smaller ones are entered, through which the train winds in a spiral course. A passen- ger twice comes out of the mountain almost directly over the point where he entered it. There, far below him, he can see the two places at which the train entered (Fig. 556). Such winding tunnels are necessary, because the grade is so steep that a train could not be drawn directly up a straight track. The main tunnel, which is nine and one fourth miles long, is quite straight. The Simjylon Tunnel, even longer than the St. Gothard, now pierces the Alps a short distance farther west ; and a third one, nearly five miles long, connecting with the Simplon Road, has been completed. Fig. 556. — The St. Gothard Railway ou the south side of the Alps. Here are three tracks one above the other, for the railway enters the mountain and swings around in two great circles, coming out each time at a higher level. While the mountains have interfered with the building of roads and rail- ways, and with agriculture, they Scenery and are of great value to Switzerland in another way. They present such wonder- ful scenery that Switz- FiG. 557.- ■ The snow-capped Alps as seen from Mt. Pilatus, with I^ake Lucerne in the foreground. erland is the most noted summer resort of Europe ; and the entertainment of vis- itors is one of the leading occupations. There are so many hotels and so many fine roads, that one can easily go in almost any direction. It is possible to reach even the tops of several of the mountains by rail. Every summer many Americans cross the ocean to enjoy the Swiss scenery. THE LESSER POWERS OF EUROPE 407 Leading cities Many of the Swiss cities and towns are beautifully situated upon lakes, and within sight of mountain peaks always covered with snow. Lucerne, for example, is surrounded by grand and varied scenery. The city is on Lake Lucerne, and lofty mountains rise close at hand (Fig. 557). Mounts Rigi and Pilatus are near, and from their summits one obtains won- derful views of the lake, more than four thousand feet below, bordered by green meadows and nu- merous villages. In several directions, as far as the eye can reach, are the snow-covered crests of stupendous, jagged mountains. ' Zurich, the largest city in Switzer- land, is situated on Lake Zurich. It is an important railway center, being connected with Italy by the St. Gothard Railway, while other railways bring it into touch with France, Germany, and Austria. These railways are especially valuable, bringing foods, as well as silk and other raw materials, for manufacture. Therefore Zurich is the center of one of the principal manu- facturing districts. It is noted for the manufacture of silks, cotton, choc- olate, and machinery. Basel, the second largest city in Switzerland, is the busiest railway cen- ter in the country. It is on the main line of the St. Gothard Railway, and on the Rhine at the point where it en- ters Germany from Switzerland. Why is its position, near both France and Germany, favorable to manufacturing ? Geneva, situated on the lower end of Lake Geneva, near where the Rhone enters France, is the third city of the republic, and a noted educational center. There is much manufacturing, among the important articles made being jew- elry and scientific instruments. Berne, the capital, is centrally lo- cated ; but it is a small city because it is not favorably situated for commerce. 1. What languages are spoken? 2. What can you tell about the government? 3. De- scribe the surface of Switzer- land. 4. The climate. 5. State Q^^gt^^^g the principal facts about agricul- ture. 6. About lumbering and manufacturing. 7. What is the condition of commerce? 8. Tell about the roads and railways. 9. Why is Switzerland so attractive to tourists ? 10. Locate and state the main facts about Zurich. 11. Basel. 12. Geneva and Berne. 1. What reasons are there for giving partic- ular attention to the study of English and other foreign languages in the Swiss schools ? 2. Why has Switzer- Suggestions land, unlike many European countries, not come into possession of colonies ? 3. Find the mean- ing of " referendum " and " popular initiative " in Swiss legislation. 4. Switzerland has long been selected as a place of refuge for persecuted people and political refugees from other na- tions. Why ? 5. Read that portion of the story of William Tell which is supposed to have occurred about Lake Lucerne. 6. Write a story describing a visit to Switzerland. 7. Greece (Fig. 517) 1. What country borders Greece on the north ? 2. What seas lie on the eastern and western sides ? 3. Locate Corfu and the Ionian Islands, which ^ ^ are a part of Greece. 4. Make an outline map of Greece. Greece occupies the southern end of a large peninsula, called the Balkan Peninsula. Owing to many Surface and short mountain ranges, ex- climate tending in different directions, the sur- face of the country is quite rugged, and large sections are unfit for farming. Yet there are many small, fertile val- leys. The coast line is very irregular, with numerous peninsulas, islands, deep bays, and fine harbors, formed by the sinking of the mountainous land. The Mediterranean causes a warm, pleasant climate, as in southern Italy. In Greece, however, as in Italy, the 408 EUROPE Fig. 558. — A oars rainfall, which is moderate in winter, is so light in summer that irrigation is necessary for agriculture. Italy, Spain, and Portugal were once far more important. Its former in comparison greatness with other coun- tries, than at present. The sa,me is true of Greece. The country in Europe that has perhaps had the greatest influence upon the rest of the world is this small one. The Romans received many of their beliefs and customs from Greece, and since many of our customs came from the Romans, we also are greatly indebted to the Greeks. They were a highly cultivated people, and the beauty and artistic perfection of their sculpture, and of some of their buildings, have never been equaled. Rome finally conquered Greece, and became the leading country Its later of the world. After history the decline of the Roman Empire, other people from the north invaded Greece ; - and finally the Turks entered the country and carried ruin to this, as to other parts of the / Balkan Peninsula. Greece is ^ now independent, and is a limited monarchy. In this little country there are few natural resources. There is no Principal coal, and therefore little industries manufacturing. There is some mining of iron ore, lead, and zinc; but the principal occupations are herding and farming. Large numbers of sheep and goats are raised ; and the Fig. Greek ship, used 700 years before Christ. Besides sails, long were used for driving the boat through the water. chief farm products are grain, tobacco, olives, and fruits. Among the latter is the small variety of grape known as the currant. Currants, together with raisin grapes, are cultivated in large quantities on the steep hillsides; after being gathered, they are pread out to dry, and are sold as dried fruit. The neighborhood of the sea led the ancient Greeks to adopt a seafaring life, and they still carry on an extensive for- eign trade. Many are also engaged in fishing, and in se- curing bath sponges from the shallow sea bottom among the Greek islands. The capital and the most important city is the most the world- 559. — A Greek peasant in native costume. Athens, once famous city of Leading city It was a well-known city at the time of THE LESSER POWERS OF EUROPE 409 (Jhrist, and both Athens and Corinth are mentioned in the Bible. Athens is still an important city, with more than a hundred thousand inhabitants. It is situated inland six miles from its port, PiR^us. The principal streets of Athens are quite modern; but ruins of then we hear of an earthquake shock in this island region, or archipelago, showing that the mountains are still growing. ---, .. I'll /^ xsifl-Uus Hc&r The largest island near dreece Qj-gg^e is Crete (Fig. 450), which, like the smaller islands, is inhabited mainly by Greeks. It is still controlled by the Turks. 1. Describe the surface and climate of Greece. Fig. 5G0. — The Acrojwlis at Athens. the ancient city are still numerous. The most noted buildings, and some of the finest temples of ancient Greece, stood upon the Acropolis (Fig. 560), a level-topped, rocky hill with steep sides. This stronghold was the natural center for settlements on the surrounding plain. The many islands in the neighborhood of Greece are either tops of inountains rising out of the sea, or else volcanic cones. Now and 3. State 2. Tell about its former greatness. facts about its later history. . ,TTi . ii • • 1 • Review 4. What are the principal m- ^^^^^.^^^ dustries? 5. Tell about the lead- ing city. 6. What can you say about the islands near Greece? 1. Kead some stories of the ancient Greeks. One of the most interesting is the Odyssey. 2. Learn some facts about Homer, Plato, and other noted Greeks. 3. Read about the defense of the Pass of Thermopylae. 4. Collect pictures of the ruins in Athens. Suggestions 410 EUROPE 8. Turkey and Balkan Countries (Fig. 517) 1. Bound each of these countries. 2. Trace the course of the Danube. 3. What countries lie south of the Danube. 4. How does the number of large cities here compare with the number in Germany ? 5. Compare the area of Turkey in Europe with that of your own State. 6. Find the straits of Bosporus. The straits called the Dardanelles. 7. What is the name of the sea between these two straits ? These countries are situated on one of the largest peninsulas of Europe, Boundaries ^^^^^^ ^^^^ Balkan Penin- and surface sula. It is bounded on the features ^^g^ ^^ ^^le Adriatic and Ionian Seas, and on the east by the Black and ^gean Seas. Since the peninsula broadens toward the north, it has a very long land boundary, extend- ing from the mouth of the Danube River to the head of the Adriatic Sea. On the whole, this is a very moun- tainous peninsula, though there are many valleys and small plains among the mountains. One portion, in north- ern Bulgaria and Roumania, is a broad plain crossed by the Danube. In so mountainous a country there are different kinds of climate. On the lowlands, along the southern and western coasts, the cli- mate is warm, as elsewhere near the Mediterranean. But in the northeast, near Russia, while the summers are warm, the winters are very cold. In that season, icy winds sweep down from the Russian plains, and the Danube freezes over. The mountain slopes also have a cold climate. There is also much difference in rainfall. On the slopes of the mountains, and in the north- Climate ern part of the peninsula, there is rainfall enough for agriculture. But in some of the interior val- leys, and in parts of the southern part of the peninsula, there is so little rainfall in summer that irrigation is necessary. : ^^^^^fK;; ri^ ^/^^IPIH w^m RHP^^ J^iJiSv-J^^^H ■'"^B '^^3 » ; \2 *« Citieu with over 100.000 inhahitanU are thown ..•.«'^ f lijntu'sburz *? 20 10° Fiu. 614. AFRICA 449 There are several reasons why so little is known about Africa. In the first Why Africa is place, the northern part of so little known the continent is a vast desert, fully a thousand miles wide from north to south. This vast region, most of which is called the Sahara Desert, is very difficult to cross. It has no roads or railways, and 1 . The great ^j^g Qj^^y -yyg^y ^Q travel over it is nSrapart ^^ camels (Fig. 624). There are so few oases that the watering places are usually many miles apart, so that both camels and men may perish from thirst. Frightful sand storms sometimes arise, continu- ing for hours and even days ; and during these the sand is drifted about by the winds, filling the air and sometimes even burying the caravans. If these perils are escaped, there is still the dan- ger of attack from the fierce nomads who live in the desert, and who may rob the caravans, often showing no mercy to travelers. It is not strange, therefore, that Europeans have failed to become well acquainted with Africa by entering it from the north. One would suppose that the large rivers would afford means for reaching; the interior. Trace the Nile, „ ^^ ' 2. The rapids Niger, Congo, and Zambezi, and fails in 1 , • 1 £ ,1 the rivers and notice, how tar they extend into the continent. If these could be navigated far up toward their sources, as our Hudson and Mississippi rivers can be, they would make excellent highways to the interior; but this can- not be done, for all of them have rapids and falls in their lower courses. The reason for these falls is that the interior of Africa, like that of both Mexico (p. 263) and Spain (p. 398), is mainly a plateau, whose elevation is from a quarter to a half mile above the level of the sea. In descending from this Fig. 615. — Natives of Algeria drawing water from a well on the edge of an oasis in the Sahara desert. 2g 450 ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS "~^3^5^T^ plateau, the rivers tumble in cataracts and falls. One of the largest cataracts is Victoria Falls (Fig. 629), in the lower Zambezi Eiver. The Nile also has several rapids ; and there is a great cataract in the Congo. Hence the rivers have been of little assistance in the exploration of the continent. A third reason why we know so little about Africa is its unhealthful climate. 3 Notice where the Tropics of unhealthful Canccr and Capricorn cross c mae the Continent. From this you see that most of Africa is in the tropi- cal zone. Indeed, the equator crosses it not far from the center, and only the northern and the southern parts are in the temperate zones. In this tropical re- gion, the low coast lands have too hot and damp a climate for white men ; and malaria, as well as other diseases that thrive in a hot, damp climate are common. Generally, therefore, Europeans can live with comfort only upon the high land of the interior. This fact has helped to keep foreigners out of Africa ; for it is dangerous even to cross the narrow strip of low coast land. A part of Central Africa, where the rainfall is very heavy, is covered by a dense forest like that in the jungle, tiie^Sid Amazou Valley (p. 318). animals, and ^his forcst cxtcuds north the savages and south for a full thou- sand miles, and is very difficult to travel through. Besides this, there are many wild animals in the forest and on the open plains to the north and south of it. Among these are the lion, the ele- phant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and the giraffe as well as many serpents (Fig. 617). Some of these animals, as the lion, are fierce and dangerous. Another difficulty comes from the great num- bers of savage black men, many of whom are dangerous to meet. For centuries the negroes have been seized and carried away as slaves to various parts of the world. Even to-day, the Arabs seize many of thera for that purpose. Such treatment has not helped to make them friendly to white men. Strange as it If EQUATOR, [Wl Desert CH Light Rainfall ^^ Moderate W8 Heavy " ■I reri/ Heavy " V Fig. 616. — To illustrate the desert regions in the trade wind and horse latitude belts of Africa. Also to show the heavy rainfall in the belt of calms. Find the similar belts on Figures 407 and 430. may seem, the best- known part of Africa is the very south- e'-n tip, ^j^ytj^^ the part southern part farthest is best known from Europe. You will notice that this region lies in the temperate zone, which is one reason why Europeans have gone there. Another reason is that, in former days, ships going from Europe to India had to sail around the Cape of Good Hope. In this way men learned about that section ; and long before other parts of the continent were occu- pied by Europeans, the Dutch had colo- nies in South Africa. This is now the best developed part of the continent. Only during the last half century has there been much exploration and settle- ment in other parts of Africa. p^j.^g ^^ Africa In that time, however, some recently seized of the countries of Europe by Europeans have been very active, and have laid •v ^m'f ' //. -^ r^' 1 % \ ^ 1^^ f-. '^■^^•^ - ELEPHANT LION The M.N Co^Buffalo. Fig. 617. — Some of the wild animals of Africa. 451 452 ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS claim to a large part of the continent just as they laid claim to North America several centuries ago. You can see by the map that Africa is divided into many more countries than our continent has been. What parts are owned by Great Britain (Fig. 476) ? By Germany (Fig. 487)? By France? What other countries have colonies there (Fig. 610) ? Make a sketch of Africa, show- ing the sections owned by the three Great Powers of Europe just mentioned. Now that so much of Africa is under the control of Europeans, people are go- improvements ^^g thereto explore and set- made by tie, just as people have come Europeans ^^ ^^^ ^^^ Country. Thus the continent is rapidly becoming known. In the past, in most parts of Africa, there have been very few wagon roads. Goods had to be carried either on the rivers or along paths or trails. The natives themselves usually carried these goods on their backs. Now, however, roads, rail- ways, and telegraph lines are being built. You will see three large lakes on the eastern side, south of the equator. What are their names ? Each of these is important for navigation, for upon them steamboats can go long distances. The rivers also are much used for navi- gation. Above and below the waterfalls of the Congo, the Nile, and other rivers, boats can run long distances. With the aid of railroads built around the falls and rapids, these rivers are now becoming of great value for transportation. The boldest plan of all is to build a railway from the Cape of Good Hope to Cairo in Egypt to be called the Cape-to- Cairo route. Doubtless, in time, one will be able to travel by rail all the way from Cape Town to the Mediterranean Sea. 2. Northern Africa The northern part of Africa has long been occupied by the white race. In- deed, in early days, when character of the Greeks and Romans the people were flourishing, there were large and important cities along the coast of north- ern Africa. Later, Arabs from Asia spread west- ward over that section, and their de- scendants still occupy the region. Like the Turks (p. 410), they are Moham- medans, and they still make pilgrimages to the holy city, Mecca, in Arabia. Their manners and customs are very different from those of Europeans. In- deed, they still live much as the people of western Asia did in the first century. They know little about the rest of the world, and carry on hardly any trade with other people. Their manufactur- ing is done by hand, and the chief prod- ucts of the country are those needed for the simplest food, clothing, and shelter. The best-known country in this section is Egyi^t, which is crossed by the Nile River. This is the country over which the Pharaohs, the oldest country kings of Egypt, used to rule, i- its ancient Ruins of their buildings, and '^ °^^ their immense pyramids (Figs. 618, 619), built thousands of years ago, may still be seen. Here, the Bible tells us, Moses once lived ; and Joseph, also. What stories do you remember about them ? Egypt is a desert country, like Arabia to the east and the Sahara to the west. Yet Joseph's brothers, you ^ jjowtheNUe may remember, went down River supports . , . 1 , , r r» 1 the inhabitants mto that country Irom Pal- estine, to get food. It is still a great agricultural region. AFRICA 453 The fact that Egypt is so productive is due to the Nile River. This great river rises far to the south in the tropical part of Central Africa; and each year, in the rainy season, the floods are so great that the Nile overflows its banks. The water, carrying a large quan- tity of sediment, has built a fertile flood plain on either side of the river, and a broad delta at its mouth (Fig. 622). The annual floods spread over these broad plains. Each overflow leaves a thin layer of rich mud, and at the same time provides the water necessary for crops. Thus each year the river both waters and fertilizes a vast tract of land. In this way, for thousands of years, millions of people have been supported in the midst of the desert. Egypt lies just north of the Tropic of Cancer, and therefore it has a warm 3. The agricui- temperate climate. It is so turai products warm there that crops like those of our Southern States can be pro- duced. Among the principal products are grain, cotton, and sugar cane. The Nile valley is the seat of a great grain industry, producing wheat, corn. Fig. 619. — One of the pyramids. Fig. 618. — The Sphinx in the Egyptian desert. millet, and barley. Much rice and sugar cane also are raised, and much cotton, which is of especial value be- cause of its long fiber. There are many vineyards, and orange, lemon, and fig groves ; and both along the Nile and on the oases of the desert there are groves of date palms. Grazing is important in the Nile Valley and on the neighboring plateau. The animals raised include the buffalo and the camel, in addition to sheep, goats, cattle, horses, and donkeys. The eastern part of Egypt includes the Isth- mus of Suez, which con- nects Africa with Asia. Because of this narrow neck of land, ships sailing from Europe to Asia were long com- pelled to go all the way around Africa. In 1869 a canal eighty-seven miles long, and wide and deep enough for large ocean ships, was opened across the Isthmus. On a globe, estimate how many miles are saved by the Suez Canal (Fig. 620) in making 4. The Suez Canal 454 ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS a journey from London to Cal- cutta. Name the cities at the two ends of the canal. The gov- ernment of 5. Gov- Egypt eminent t « t) p - culiar. There is a Tuler called the Khedive, the country be- ing a monarchy. But Turkey claims control of Egypt, and the Khedive is obliged to pay an annual tribute, in money, to Turkey. In addition, the English have a share in the government, for they have control of the finances of the nation. Furthermore, the British have taken possession' of a large area of country south of Egypt. What are the names of these English posses- sions ? The Nile flows through much of this territory, and the best en- trance to it is up the Nile Valley. This is an added reason why the British should wish to keep con trol of Egypt, at the mouth of the Nile. As a result of British direc- tion, there has recently been much progress in Egypt and the Sudan. Extensive irrigation works have been undertaken, by which the area for raising cotton and sugar cane has been greatly increased. By means of resei-- voirs and canals it is further planned to reclaim thousands of square miles of the desert. Several railway lines also have been built (Fig. 622), includ- ing a part of the proposed line Fig. 620. — Ships passing through the Suez Canal Fig. 621. — An Arab woman in the streets of Cairo- from Cairo to Cape Town. Outside of the Nile Valley, ho wever, travel still depends largely upon the use of cam- els (Fig. 619). At the head of the delta, 6. Lead- j u s t ^« "t^«s above the point where the Nile branches (Fig. 622), is Cairo, the capital and the largest city of Egypt and, in fact, of all Africa. This inter- esting place is visited each year by a stream of tourists, some attracted by its pleasant winter climate, others by the strange life of the country, or by the remarkable ruins of its ancient civiliza- tion (Figs. 618, 619). Cairo itself contains the palace of the Khedive, several interesting mosques, and a museum in which there are many Egyptian relics and works of art. The natives also attract atten- tion, for in the streets may be seen many people, with different languages and peculiar cus- toms (Fig. 621). The dif- ferences among the people are indicated by the fol- lowing fact: There are three Sabbaths each week: Friday, the Sabbath of the Mohamme- dans; Saturday, observed by the Jews; and Sun- day, by the Christians. Alexandria, connected with Cairo by rail, is the seaport of Egypt and the AFRICA 455 second city in size. More than half the trade is with Great Britain. Far up the Nile, in Sudan, is Khartum, now reached by the railway. West of Egypt are four countries, often called the Barhary States. What The Barbary are their names ? Morocco, states i)^Q westernmost, is an inde- pendent country, ruled by an absolute monarch called the Sultan. Tripoli, the easternmost, belongs to Turkey; but the two countries between, Algeria and Tunis, are French colonies. In Tunis, however, there is still a native monarch, called the Bey. The Atlas Mountains skirt the Medi- terranean coast from the Atlantic Ocean to Tunis, where they project into the Mediterranean, form- ing the most northerly point These mountains cause vapor to be condensed when winds blow from the ocean or from the Mediterranean. For this reason many of the valleys among the mountains are well watered. 1. Their surface and climate in Africa. Fig. 622. — The lower Nile. The shaded area between the two deserts is farming land, which is reached by water from the river. The numerous crossed lines are rail- ways. Find the Pyramids. Why is the location at the head of a fertile delta, and at the outlet of a nar- row river valley bounded by desert, a favorable one for a large city? Each of the Barbary States extends far southward into the Sahara Desert, G23. — Algerian natives plowing with a camel on an oasis in the desert. 456 ASIA, AFBICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 2 ucts and throughout most of this great area few people are able to live. Only on the oases, of which there are about four hundred, is there water for irrigation and for drinking (Fig. 615). Forests cover some of the mountain slopes, and one of the valuable trees is Their prod- the cork oak. Large num- bers of camels, sheep, goats, and cattle are raised among the moun- tains and upon the plateaus. Agriculture is carried on here and there, often by means of irrigation, with water supplied by the mountain snows and rains, as in southern California. Among the crops are dates, grains, figs, grapes, and olives. Wine from the grapes of Algeria is shipped in large quantities to France ; and much olive oil, and the best dates in the world, come from Tunis. The mountains contain many valuable min- eral products, including precious metals in Morocco and Algeria, and marble and alabaster in the latter country. Little use is made of these minerals, however. A part of the trade of the Barbary States is in products from tropical cen- tral Africa, including ostrich 3. caravan feathers, skins, and ivory. ^^^^ These are brought by caravans across the Sahara Desert (Fig. 624). One of the important routes is from Tafilet in Morocco, southward to Timbuktu, and the trip requires fully three months. Estimate the distance. There may be from a thousand to fifteen hundred camels in a single caravan, and a full year may be needed to get it ready. Each camel is carefully selected by the chief of the caravan, and extra camels are taken to re- place those that give out on the journey. Usu- ally about a third of the animals perish in the round trip ; and before the return journey is begun, it is necessary to give those that live a rest of several weeks. Fig. 624. — A caravan of camels crossing the Sahara Desert, bearing a load of the products of the tropical region of Central Africa. AFRICA 457 There is one driver for every dozen camels. Upon starting, the loads are carefully packed on the camels' backs, each animal bearing about three hundred pounds. A day's march lasts sixteen hours, the damels traveling some thirty abreast, at the rate of about two miles an hour. Ordinary camels cannot travel more than three days without drinking; but the better grades are able to go six or seven days without water, and with al- most no food. The people of the Barbary States are not very progres- 4. Character of sive, and many the inhabitants ^f i]^Q^ are fierce and warlike ; and, being Mo- hammedans, they have a deep hatred for Christians. There has, however, been some progress in Algiers and Tunis, under the influence of the French, especially in the cities and along the Mediterranean. These people are seen at their worst in Morocco. Here many of the inhabit- ants are still barbarians, and some of the tribes among the mountains even refuse to recognize the rule of the Sultan. On the whole the peo- ple are cruel and treacherous, and if a vessel is wrecked upon their coast, it is sure to be plun- dered by them. Even within the last few years, Europeans have been seized and held for ransom. Conditions of life in Morocco are illustrated by the following : The writer once visited a school in Tangier in which there were a dozen boys from nine to ten years of age. The room where they studied received its only light from the open door, and there were no seats, desks, or furniture of any kind. The children sat on the floor, around a long-bearded old man, Avho also sat on the floor ; and the only object that each had before him was a page from the Koran, or Mohammedan Bible. What does such a condition of education suggest in regard to progress? Fig. 625. — An Arab school in northern Africa. The capitals are the principal cities among the Barbary States. Fez, one of the capitals of Morocco, is 5. principal in the interior ; but the Sul- "^^^^ tan does not live there all the year. Name the other capital. Tangier, on the coast, is better known. In Algeria, the seaport, Algiers, is the capital and the largest city. Under the French it has become an important trading center. The same is true of Tunis, the capital of the country by that name. Locate the capital of Tripoli. 3. Southern Africa The Dutch were the first to colonize the southern part of Africa. They took possession of the country occupied by the 458 ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS negroes, and introduced the industries of farming and ranching. Now the British Control of control all this region, and the region the Dutch settlers, called Boers, are subjects of the British Empire. Formerly there were several separate colonies, the most important being Cape of Good Hope, Orange Free State, Natal, and Transvaal ; but these are now united west of the British Territory ? Angola is a, Portuguese colony. What nation controls the other ? What country owns the section east of Rhodesia ? Although there are many British and Dutch settlers in South Africa, there are still more negroes, particularly in the tropical regions. Some of them, like the Zulus (Fig. 626), have fiercely opposed the advance of the whites, and still maintain partial inde- pendence. They have made some progress tovifard civilization. it ^ Fig. 626. — A Zulu woman making a carpet under a single colonial government, or confederation, as the different parts of Canada are. The British have also laid claim to a large tract of tropical country north of the Dutch colonies, called Rhodesia. At present, therefore, the British con- trol a broad strip of territory from the southern tip of Africa northward to the southern end of Lake Tanganyika. What are the names of the colonies Along the eastern coast, and in some of the inte- 1 Agriculture nor val- leys, agriculture is an important industry. Sugar cane, bananas, pineapples, tea, coffee, and rice are raised near the coast, where the climate is warm and damp. But wheat, to- bacco, vegetables, and grapes are grown in the cooler south. Much of South Af- rica is an arid plateau, where agriculture is possible only by means of irrigation. Upon this plateau, therefore, grazing is the chief industry. Immense numbers of cattle, sheep, and goats are raised, and also many ostriches (Fig. 627). From this it follows that the production of wool, hides, meat, and ostrich feathers is of importance. Why are the first three of special value to Great Britain ? The discovery of very rich deposits of gold in South Africa has brought great changes, as it did in the arid sec- AFRICA 459 Mining tion of the western United States. The gold is found scattered through a large bed of rock in the Transvaal, near the city of Johannesburg. This is now the leading gold-produc- ing region in the world ; in- deed, more gold is mined here than in the whole of North America. There are other valuable minerals, such as copper, iron, and coal; but as yet they have been little developed. At KiMBERLEY, in Cape of Good Hope, there are wonderr ful diamond mines, that now supply most of the diamonds- used in the world. The diamonds occur as rounded crystals in a partly decayed vol- canic rock, and are obtained by digging out the soft rock and mrefuUy remov- ing the crystals (Fig. 628). After this, the crystals must be cut into the proper shape and poUshed. There are various grades, some clear Fig. 628. — Workmen picking out diamonds at Kimberley. Fig. 627. — Ostriclies on an ostrich farm in South Africa. and beautiful, others impure and dull. So pro- ductive is this deposit of precious stones that it has already yielded three hundred milHon dollars' worth of diamonds. The two chief rivers of South Africa are of little use as trade routes. The Orange River is not navigable be- cause of lack of water. The other large river, the Zam- bezi, is navigable in its lower portion, by small boats ; but the climate near the coast is warm, damp, and un- healthful. Rapids check further navigation, and at one point there is a cataract, the Victoria Falls, which The lack of conveniences for transpor- tation 460 ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS rivals even Niagara in grandeur. This cataract has a width of more than a mile, and a height of four hundred and fifty feet (Fig. 629). It is therefore both Principal cities Fig. 629. — The Victoria Falls in the Zambezi River of South Africa. wider and higher than Niagara ; but the volume of water is smaller. As you can see on the map (Fig. 610) there are now a number of railways in the southern part of Africa ; and one extends even into Rhodesia. The largest city of Cape of Good Hope, and the chief seaport, is Cape Town. It is connected with the in- terior by a railway, which forms the southern end of the proposed railway from Cape Town to Cairo. A second important harbor is that of Delagoa Bay, upon which is situated LouRENCO Marquez, the capital of Portu- guese East Africa. Being connected by rail with the interior, this. port has been much used for the shipment of Trans- vaal products. Durban, the seaport of Natal, is a small city, also connected with the Transvaal by rail. The two prin- cipal interior cities are Kimberley and Johannesburg. For what are they noted (p.. 459) ? There is no important town in German South Africa, which for the most part is an arid plateau. To what nation does Walfisch Bay belong ? 4. Central Africa This vast area is in large part unknown. Much of it is tropical forest; but on the northern and southern sides are open savannas (p. 448). Because of the heavy rainfall of the forest belt, the rivers are y^i^eofthe large. The rivers for Nile and t'-ansportation Zambezi, already de- scribed, and the Niger and Congo, all receive water from the equa- torial rains. The Niger is navigable in sections ; butf there are rapids in some parts, and because of the dry climate the river grows shallow toward the north. Its large tributary, the Benue, is navigable. It is the immense Congo that offers the best natural highway to central Africa. There is a series of falls in the river a short distance from the coast ; but above these there are thousands of miles of navigable waters in the main river (Fig. 633) and its tributaries. A railway, two hundred and fifty miles in length, connects the lower Congo with Leopoldville, above the falls. Thence, at all seasons of the year, steamers may go a thousand miles up the river, and also into many of the tributaries. Very few Europeans have settled in central Africa, and as yet there are no AFRICA 461 large towns. The native blacks, who are still in a state The native of savagery, live inhabitants for the most part in villages, in huts made of brush, or some similar mate- rial (Figs. 63a, 631). Some of the tribes are cannibals. European nations have been active in claiming the Divisions of greater part^ of this region central Africa ; but they have little real con- trol over the natives. The following are some of the more important parts of cen- tral Africa. Locate each one on the map. The Sudan includes the vast area that lies between the Sahara and the tropical forest. A large part of it is savanna country. More than half of the Sudan is claimed by the French, and most of the remainder, including Nigeria and the Egyptian Sudan, is held by the British. What other British possessions do you find on the map? There is some gold in the 1. The Sudan Fig. 630. — Negroes and a native hut in Central Africa. west; but the principal products are ivory (Fig. 632), ostrich feathers, ebony, rubber, and gums. East of the Sudan is Abyssinia, which is, for the most part, a rocky plateau, crossed by mountains. The ^ ^^^^^^^^ inhabitants, who are mainly and surrounding of the white race, adopted *®"'**"^ Christianity more than fifteen hundred years ago ; but they are not now a very progressive people. The exports of Fig. 631. — A negro village in Africa. 462 ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS Fig. 632. — Negroes of Africa carrying the huge ivory tusks of the elephant. Abyssinia include coffee, hides, skins, ivory, and gold. Abyssinia is surrounded by colonies of other nations. Italy holds Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. What two other nations hold a part of the coast on the border of Abyssinia ? The map shows several small countries ou the west coast of Africa. The divisions colored 3. Small pink belong to the countries on British; those the west coast marked green to the Germans. What are some of their names ? Find a section be- longing to Spain. What parts are controlled by France ? One of these small countries is Liberia, which is of especial in- terest to Americans. It is a negro republic, established in 1822 by Americans as a home for freed slaves ; and its capital, Monkovia, is named after President Monroe. The republic was modeled after Sierra Leone, next to it on the west, which the British founded still earlier as a home for liberated slaves. Belgian Congo, crossed by the Congo and its tributaries, is now under the control of Belgium. It is ^ „ , . 5' 4. Belgium in large part a forest-covei;ed Congo and neigh- plateau, but there are exten- Coring territory sive areas of grass land. Hordes of sav- ages inhabit the forests and the savannas ; the buffalo, elephant, and leopard live on the plains; and the roar of the lion is frequently heard. Large quantities of rubber, ivory, palm oil, gum, and cocoa, as well as tropical woods, are obtained from this region. Some gold also is exported. How many different nations have possessions along the borders of the Belgian Congo ? Kame the possessions that belong to each country. Observe to what extent the British claim Africa. What break is there in the British territory be- tween the Cape of Good Hope and the Medi- terranean ? What varieties of climate do these British colonies include ? Several railways have already been built from the coast of Africa toward the interior. Find some of j^^ ^^^^ ^^ those on the map (Fig. 610). more railways We have seen, also, that some ^^^^ of the great rivers are useful for the trans- portation of goods (Fig. 633). So also i i*j. (i;J3. — A steamboat ou the Cougo. AFRICA 463 are the three large lakes — Nyassa, Tan- ganyika, and Victoria Nyanza. Already there are steamers upon these lakes. A railway connects Victoria Nyanza with the sea, and others are planned. But many more railways are needed ; for otherwise caravans of native porters must bear the products on their backs, travel- ing along narrow paths through the forest. 5. Islands near Africa The island of Madagascar, controlled by the French, is larger than any of our states except Texas. It lies a little Islands on more than two hundred the east side miles from the mainland, and produces cattle, hides, valuable trop- ical woods, rubber, and coffee. The principal small islands on the eastern side of Africa are Zanzibar (British) near the coast, and Reunion (French) , and Mauritius (British) east of Madagascar. Find each of these (Fig. 610) . There are many others, as you can see. These islands are of value as naval stations. Of the many small islands near the western, coast the northernmost are the Madeira Islands. These, together with the Cajye th^^ ^t^'d Verde Islands farther southwest, belong to Portugal. The Canary Islands, which belong to Spain, lie between these two groups. Ascension Island and St. Helena, south of the equator, belong to Great Britain. St. Helena is noted especially as having been the prison home of Napoleon Bonaparte. 1. Describe the surface features of Africa. 2. What kinds of climate are there ? 3. What can you tell about the people ? 4. Why is Africa called the dark continent ? 5. How has the Sahara Desert prevented the exploration and settlement of Africa ? 6. How have the rapids and falls in the rivers interfered with its ex- ploration ? 7. State how the climate has had similar effect. 8. How have the forests, ani- malSj and people likewise kept Europeans away ? Review Questions 9. How does it happen that South Africa is the best-known part ? 10. What parts of Africa have been recently seized by Europeans ? By what nations ? 11. What improvements have been made by Europeans ? 12. Tell something of the character of the people in northern Africa ? 13. What do you know about the ancient history of Egypt ? 14. Explain how the Nile River helps to support the inhabitants. 15. Name the agricultural products of Egypt. 16. Locateand describe the Suez Canal. 17. Tell about the peculiar government of Egypt. 18. What have the British done to improve the country ? 19. Locate and state the chief facts about the leading cities. 20. Name, locate, and tell about the government of the Barbary States. 21. What about their surface and climate ? 22. Their products ? 23. What can you tell about the caravan trade? 24. What is the character of the people ? 25. Name and locate the principal cities. • 26. What nations control the southern part of Africa ? 27. Name the parts controlled by the British. 28. What do you know about the agriculture there ? 29. The mining ? 30. The lack of conveniences for trans- portation ? 31. Locate and state the chief facts about the leading cities. 32. How valuable are the rivers of central Africa for transportation ? 33. Tell about the native inhabitants. 34. Locate the Sudan and name its divisions. What products are there ? 35. State the principal facts about Abyssinia and surrounding territory. 36. Name and locate the small countries on the west coast. 37. State the principal facts about the Belgian Congo and neighboring territory. 38. Explain the need of railways there. 39. What can you tell about Madagascar ? 40. Locate several island groups near Africa. To what nation does each group belong ? 1. What rivers of North America resemble those of Africa in having rapids and falls that interfere with commerce ? How have these obstacles been over- General . • o o n Review, with come m America ? 2. Compare, ^^^„„,-' ^„„ . ,^ , comparisons as to length, the Congo with the Missouri (see Appendix) ; with the Amazon. 3, Make a drawing of the Nile and one of the Mississippi, showing the principal tributaries and cities. How do the two compare ? 4. Compare the area of Lake Victoria Nyanza with that of Lake Superior. 5. Make a sketch 464 ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS map of the Atlantic Ocean, and compare the posi- tion of Africa with that of South America. What part of the New World is in the same lati- tude as the Sahara Desert ? 6. Cape Horn is how much farther south than Cape of Good Hope ? 7. Compare southern Africa with southern South America in products and importance. Why the difference? 8. What products of Africa are cultivated also in the United States ? 9. What products of Africa are not raised in our coun- try ? 10. Give reasons why the United States is a better country for white men to live in than northern Africa. Than central Africa. 1. Read the story of Joseph in the Bible be- ginning in Genesis, chapter 37. 2. Read the story of Moses. 3. Find out Suggestions ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ Pyramids. 4. Why are the British especially benefited by the Suez Canal ? 5. What obstacles are there in the way of building railways across the Sa- hara ? 6. Find out some facts about our short war with Tripoli in 1804. 7. Learn something about the missionary work in Africa. 8. Why has the Nile no large tributaries in its lower course, and the Niger none in its upper course ? 9. Find some object made of ivory, and show it to the class. 10. Find out about the peculiar animal life upon the island of Madagascar. 11. Why was the southern point of Africa called the Cape of Good Hope ? 12. Who were Bartholomew Diaz and Vasco da Gama, and what part did they take in the discovery of the water route to India? 13. Find some facts about the great African explorers of the last century, — such as Livingstone, Mungo Park, and Stanley. 14. Read one of the books of these explorers ; you will find Du Chaillu's books on Africa very interesting reading. 15. Find out about the war between the British and the Boers, by which Great Britain gained control of the Dutch territory. 16. Draw an outline map of Africa and put in the principal countries, colonies, rivers, and cities. SECTION III. AUSTRALIA, THE EAST INDIES, AND OTHER ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC 1. Find Australia on a globe, and show how you would reach it by ship from New York. Through what waters would you Map study pass (Fig. 107) ? 2. How would you reach it from San Francisco ? 3. In what part are most of the mountains ? 4. The riv- ers ? 5. The cities ? 6. In what zones is Australia ? What does this tell you about its temperature ? 7. What parts of South America and of Africa are in the same latitude as southern Australia? 8. What are the principal islands of the East Indies ? 9.^- In what direction are the Philippine Islands from Australia ? Esti- mate the distance. 10. Find the Hawaiian Islands ; New Zealand. 11. How does Tas- mania compare in area with Pennsylvania? (See Appendix.) With your own state ? 12. Make the same comparison for New Zea- land. 13. For Borneo and New Guinea. 14. What nations claim parts of Borneo ? New Guinea ? 1. Australia Australia lies apart from the rest of the world. Tt is the smallest of the continents, the only continent wholly surrounded by water, and the only con- tinent wholly in the south- Location ern hemisphere. With its »" iu Ausintlia. the ancestors of the Merino were such, as those tended by Jacob. From Asia the breed spread along the Mediter- ranean and found in Spain a favorable, dry climate. From this point flocks were taken to the early Dutch colony of South Africa, and thence to Australia. Here the dry climate and the native plants have still further improved the quality of the wool. In the early days of Australia the flocks were reared upon the unfenced government land, as in the western part of the United States (p. 214). The sheep were driven to pasture and watered and cared for at night by lonely shepherds, much as in the days of David. Now, however, the land is largely fenced with wire, each sheep station having its own run, or ranch. To-day, grazing is the leading occupation in Australia, the best section for sheep raising being Victoria and New South Wales (Fig. 642). There are more than eighty-three million sheep. and wool is the principal export of the commonwealth. Horses, cattle, and swine also are raised in large numbers ; and frozen and canned beef, mutton, hides, and tal- low, are exported. Many cattle are raised for dairy products, and butter is sent to England. At the season when the cows of Belgium and Den- mark are kept in barns on account of the cold, the dairy herds of New South Wales feed on fresh pastures. How can you account for this fact? Wheat, corn, and oats flourish also (Fig. 643) ; and many fruits and vege- tables, such as we raise in our country, are grown in southeastern Australia and in Tasmania. Farther north, in the torrid zone, tropical fruits are raised, and there are also valuable products from the tropical forests. Other farm products are sugar, cotton, and rice. Much fruit is raised ; oranges in the north, and the orchard products A USTRALIA 471 Minerals and small fruits of cool temperate lands, in the south. In Victoria and South Australia, there are many vine- yards. Australia is a noted mineral region, producing much gold. Almost at the same time that gold was discovered in California, it was also found in Australia, and tens of thousands of people rushed there to wash the sands for the precious metal. For many years this continent has ranked as one of the leading gold- producing regions of the world. Silver, copper, iron, coal, and other mineral products also are mined here. Manufacturing is not yet greatly developed in Australia. Some wool Manufac- is woven into cloth ; some tures leather is tanned and made into shoes ; and much flour is made from the wheat. There are sawmills and planing mills ; and other forms of simple manufacturing are carried on. But most of the wool, hides, and metals are exported ; and since this is a British colony, they go mainly Fig. 645. One of the grand tiords on the coast of New Zealand, where there is some of the finest scenery in the world. Fig. 644. — A street in Sydney, New South Wales. to England. Some of the imports, many of which are received from England, you can probably name. Gradually, however, the Australians are develop- ing manufacturing, and are thus com- ing to depend upon themselves. Since the people and the industries are found mainly in the humid south- Principal eastern part "ti^^ of Australia, we see why several large cities have grown up in that section. The largest is Mel- bourne, the capital of Victoria, and the principal seaport, beautifully situ- ated at the head of a broad harbor. The next in size is Sydney (Fig. 644), the capital of New South Wales, which is almost as large as Melbourne. It is 472 ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS the oldest city of Australia. Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, is the third city in size. What is the capital and the chief city of Tasmania ? Of Queensland ? One third of the Australian people live in the capitals of the six divisions of the common- wealth. These capitals are seaports connected with the interior by railway, and have therefore become important cities. They have fine government buildings and large public parks and gardens. A few mining cen- ters, like Ballakat and Bendigo, in Victoria, have become large towns. 2. New Zealand More than a thousand miles southeast of Aus- 1. Surface traliaarethe and climate ^^q large mountainous islands of New Zealand, the North Island and the South Island. The surface of these islands is very rugged, and there is much wonderful scenery (Fig. 645). The moun- tains are very grand, and some of the highest peaks are volcanic cones. Heavy snow falls upon the high mountains of South Island, and from these snow fields large glaciers descend through the mountain valleys. In North Island there are active vol- canoes, and also hot springs and geysers (Fig. 646), like those of, the Yellow- stone National Park. Since these islands lie in the belt of stormy west winds, there is heavy rainfall on the western slopes. The mountains are consequently clothed Fig. 646. — A geyser in eruption in 'New Zealand. with forests of pine and other trees. On the lee, or eastern, slopes the rain- fall is less, and the land is covered with wiry grasses. What effect must the presence of the ocean on all sides have upon the temperature ? The native people, or Maoris, who must have cometo the islands in boats, were a hardy, warlike race, living in protected vil- f„jj^^ lages, m the midst of cultivated fields. At first they opposed the white men, and the country was not settled until a half century after the founding of Sydney. After a time the Maoris were conquered, and those that survive live mostly in the interior of the North Island. Many of them are civilized, and they are now allowed representatives in the legislature. As in Australia, graz- ing is the leading indus- try. There 3. industries are twenty *°^ government million sheep, and wool and frozen mutton are exported to England. Cattle likewise are raised, and butter is ex- ported. Agriculture is important, but much land that is suited to farming has never been cleared of forest. In the south the crops are those of the cool temperate belt; but in the north the climate is mild enough for the growth of oranges. There are gold, silver, and coal mines among the moun- tains, and valuable timber is obtained from their slopes. Manufacturing is not greatly developed, and is chiefly for home use. The situation of these islands, in the THE EAST INDIES 473 temperate zone, is favorable to rapid progress, and the British people who have settled here have done much to develop the resources. They have also established one of the best governments in the world. Being so far away from Australia, and therefore with such dif- ferent interests. New Zealand has not joined the Australian commonwealth, but is known as the Dominion of -Neio Zealand. Several short lines of railway connect the settled interior with the seaports ; 4. Commerce Toads and stage lines extend and chief cities ^q ^\^q j^ore distant dis- tricts; and steamers ply around the coasts and to distant countries. There are four cities of nearly the same size, the smallest of which is Wellington, the capital, and the largest, Auckland. Find the other two on the map (Fig. 634). 3. The East Indies Between Asia and Australia are hun- dreds of islands, some very large, others 1. Divisions so Small that they find no among them place ou our map. This group of islands, or archipelago, known as the East Indies, has animals, plants, and people similar to those of Asia. New Guinea, however, which is nearest to Australia, resembles that continent rather than Asia. While the islands farther west are overrun with Malays from Asia, the natives of I^ew Guinea are like the native Australians. The animal life also resembles that of Australia. It is believed, therefore, that New Guinea and Australia were once connected. For these reasons New Guinea is usually considered a part of Australia, while the islands west and north- west are classed with Asia. The Philippine Islands, which belong to the United States, are really a northern extension of the East Indies. What can you say about them (p 246) ? It was the East Indies, as well as India and the Malay Peninsula, that Co- lumbus was trying to reach. 2. Their Their products are so valu- ownership able that the European nations have eagerly taken possession of them. Eng- land, as usual, has a part. Point it out. This time, however, she has not ob- tained the lion's share. That belongs to the little country of Holland. Name the large islands that are controlled wholly, or in part, by the Dutch. What nations control the island of Timor ? What three have possession of New Guinea ? The immense size of these islands is shown by the fact that Java has a greater area than New York State, while Sumatra is T .. /-I Tr • T> 3. Their area larger than California. Borneo, one of the largest islands in the world, is larger than all the New England and Middle Atlantic States together. New Guinea, another one of the large islands of the world, has an area equal to Texas and Pennsylvania combined. The Dutch East Indies alone are fifty times as large as The Netherlands, and have seven times as many inhabitants, or nearly half as many as the United States. All of the larger islands are mountain- ous; in fact they are parts of mountain ranges rising out of the sea. 4. Their sur- Among them are many face and climate active volcanoes, some of which have had terribly destructive eruptions. Many of the smaller islands are merely coral reefs slightly raised above the ocean. Lying so near the equator, the islands all have a tropical temperature and heavy rainfall. The dampness and heat to- gether make them in some parts very 474 ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, AND ISLAND GROUPS 5. The products uiihealthful. Be- cause of the cli- mate, and of the mountains and the dense jungles, there are large areas which have never been explored. The forests sup- ply valuable woods and gums, includ- ing rub- ber and camphor. Large areas, especially in Java, are highly cultivated and pro- duce quantities of rice, sugar cane, and coffee. In the production of the last two articles, Java is one of the leading countries of the world. Other products are tea, indigo, tobacco, cotton, and grains. Among the noted products of the East Indies are spices, such as pep- per, cloves, and nutmegs ; in fact, one Fig. G47. — New Guinea houses built iu trees. of the island groups is known as the Spice Islands. What is its other name? There are also val- uable minerals, in- cluding tin, gold, and precious stones ; and in the tropical sea beautiful pearl shells are found. The largest city among all the is- lands in this region is Manila, in the Philippines; and next in size is Ba- TAviA, which is the center of the co- lonial government of the Dutch. 4. Islands of the Pacific The map (Fig. 634) shows the western Pacific dotted with island groups ; but these islands are all very small. What names among them have you heard before? Name and locate ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC 475 Review Questions those that belong to the United States. All together, these thousands of islands have a popu- lation of less than a million persons. The "high," or volcanic islands, like Fiji and New Caledonia, have peaks which rise several thousand feet. On these islands there are sugar and coffee plantations, as in Hawaii, while tropical fruits, such as bananas and pine- apples, are raised in large quantities. On the " low," or coral islands, on the other hand, the cocoanut palm is the main- stay of human life, supplying food, clothing, shelter, boats, and many utensils. Copra, the main export from Samoa, and from many other Pacific islands, is the dried meat of the cocoanut. It is of value for food, and for oil. 1. Locate and state the area of Australia. 2. Who owns Australia, and how is it governed? 3. What can you tell about the native plants? 4. About the native animals? 5, State some facts about the Bushmen. 6. What use was first made of Australia ? 7. What is the population? 8. In what part of Australia do the inhabit- ' ants live? 9. State the main reasons why they live in that section. 10. Describe the coast. 11. State im- portant facts about the sheep industry. 12. What other animals and ani- mal products are there? 13. What are the agricul- tural products? 14. How do they change from north to south ? 15. What can you tell about the minerals? 16. What is the condition of manufacturing? 17. Name and locate the prin- cipal cities. 18. Which of these are capitals, and of which division of the Commonwealth? 19. What are the surface features and climate of New Zealand ? 20. What about the native inhabitants? 21. The industries and govern- ment? 22. Name and locate the chief cities. 23. Tell about the East Indies ; divisions among them ; government ; area ; surface and climate ; products and chief city. 24. How does New Fig. 049. — A native of Fiji Islands Guinea differ from the East Indies ? 26. What can you tell about other islands of the ^j^acific ? 1. Australia resembles South Africa in its surface, climate, occupation, and products. Show how this is true. 2. Aus- tralia also resembles the western General part of the United States in Review Ques- ^, . , . , , tions and climate, in occupations and prod- comparisons ucts, and in the order of develop- ment of her resources. Show how this is true, also. 3. What other countries, be- sides Australia, are especially noted for cattle and sheep? 4. For gold mining? 5. In what respects does southern South America (Chile and Argentina) resemble Australia? 6. What part of Australia has the same latitude, in the south- ern hemisphere, that southern Florida has in the northern ? 7. Name and locate the prin- cipal desert regions on the earth. 8. Which of our states most nearly equals New Zealand in area? 9. What peninsula of Europe resembles New Zea- land in shape? How do the two coun- tries compare in area ? In population ? 1. If it were within your power, how would you arrange the high- lands of Australia so _ ,, . Suggestions as to secure the most even distribution of rain ? 2. Estimate the greatest length of New Zealand. Compare it with a line ex- tending from New Orleans northward. 3. Estimate the distance from Batavia to Manila. 4. Write your impression of the climate of Melbourne in Janu- ary ; in July. 5. Read Whittier's poem on the Palm Tree. 6. Learn something about the work of missionaries in the small Pacific islands. 7. Find out about the trouble caused by rabbits that were imported into Australia. 8. By what routes can you go from New York City to Aus- tralia ? Through what waters ? Which would be the shortest ? About how many miles shorter ? 9. Make a sketch map of Australia, putting in the principal mountains, rivers, and cities. 10. Read in Tarr's " Elementary Geology " (pp. 251-256) about the origin of atolls. PART YIII REVIEW OF UNITED STATES AND COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES The Great Powers of the world, and their forms of government British Empire We have seen that there are six na- tions of Europe that are called Great Powers, or World Powers. Name each of them (p. 337). The United States makes a seventh World Power, and Japan an eighth. Give the principal boundaries of each. Which two have a republi- can form of govern- ment ? Which one is an absolute mon- archy (p. 882) ? What form of gov- ernment have the other five ? Each of the other nations on the earth is called a " Minor " or Lesser Power, be- ing much weaker than any one of the eight World Powers. On what continent is each eight World Powers located? What continents, therefore, contain no Great Powers ? In what zone does the United States lie ? In what zone is the main portion of the other World Powers ? Can you give any reasons why the chief nations of the earth are found in the temperate zone ? The greatest of these eight Powers, RuMian Empire United Stale; and Pt>«»e»»ion« Germany Aiutria-Hungary 241,333 Japan and PoueMiont 161,113 Italy and PoMeuiont 160,839 Fig 650. — The areas controlled by the eight World Powers. Continents and zone to which the World Powers belong of the in area, is the British Empire, as seen in Figure 650. What is the rank in area of each of the others ? In Figure 651 the British Empire is seen to have also Powers United States compared in area and popu- lation with other Great \J^'y^J -r'X-r-' -■ United States France RutsUn Empire Fig. 651. — Population of the eight World Powers (1906). 476 i COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 477 the largest population of the eight. What is the rank of each of the others in population ? What is the rank of our country in area and in population compared with the other World Powers? The Power that has the most important foreign possessions is the British Empire. Dependencies I^ Figure 476 point out the of the principal foreign possessions Great Powers ^f ^j^^ British. Can you ac- count in any way for the fact that the F.ngl«n«< ^E~ Belgium 588 J«p«n TsS Argentim IhJT" ~36i se^ tion than most of the eight. Yet it is a backward nation, for reasons that we have already studied. What are they (p. 427) ? China, however, is a very promising nation for the future. Why (p. 428) ? What do you know about its occupations (pp. 429-431) ? Argentina is the most promising coun- try in South America. What can you tell about it (p. 316) ? What other two nations of that continent might be com- pared with Argentina in importance (pp. 317, 326) ? Tell the principal facts about each. How does Brazil compare with the Great Powers in area ? (See Appendix.) About one person in eight now living in the United States United Stete* 25 rfjB GemiMir~ Philippine Ii. S** Australia Fig. 653. — Density of population of some of the countries of the world British have control over so much of the earth ? Point out the foreign possessions of the United States, (Fig. 487). Of Russia, ; Germany ; France (Fig. 652). It should* be remembered that the eight World Powers mentioned are not the eight largest nations and promising oi the earth. They are countries of simply the eisrht stronaest the world J -^ ^, . ^ , . ^ *^ nations. China, tor instance, is much larger both in area and popula- Immigrants came here from to the some other United states land. Figure 458 shows which countries have been sending us the greatest number. Which ranks second in this respect ? Can you name other coun- tries not named in this diagram that have sent us immigrants ? Which of the Great Powers has been sending us the most immigrants ? Which have sent very few ? Figure 653 shows the density of popu- lation, or the number of people to the square mile, in -some of the , . . , , , , Density of countries m the world, population in From this it will be seen several that the United States is ^''""t"^^ very thinly settled, compared with many countries. Compare the United States 478 REVIEW OF UNITED STATES in this regard with Belgium, England, Cuba, Mexico, and Canada. Name and locate the principal moun- tain systems in the United States. Surface Describe the drainage of features the United States. Name and locate our principal rivers. Which continent has its lofty mountains arranged most nearly like those of North America ? Show this. HoAv does the arrangement of mountains in North America compare with that in Europe? Compare the countries in Europe having most nearly the same latitude. Why the difference (pp. 334, 368)? Tell about the prevailing winds and the rainfall in western United States (p. 294) ; the cyclonic storms and their effects (p. 297); the prevailing winds of Europe (p. 334) ; the rainfall there, with reasons (p. 334). In what respects are North America and Europe alike in regard to winds and rain ? In spite of the fact that some nations GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION ' OF INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE Fig. (J54. — Coru sections of the world. Climate surface of the United States with that of European Russia (p. 382) ; of Brazil (p. 317) ; of China (p. 429). What is the latitude of the north- ern boundary of the United States ? Of the southern? Compare the latitude of our country with that of the British Isles (Fig. 459) ; with that of Germany, Italy, Egypt, India, China, Argentina, Australia. How do ocean currents affect the temperature of the eastern part of our country? Of the western part (p. 303)? Compare our temperature with that of are larger and more densely settled, the United States leads the world in many very important respects, and j^^^^ ^^^^ approaches leadership in products several others. Figure 654 ^- ^""^ shows that no nation is a close rival to us in the production of Indian corn. What countries, however, * raise large quantities of it ? Why is no Indian corn raised in the British Isles (p. 340) ? Wheat is more widely cultivated than corn (Fig. 655). Yet we ^ ^^^^^ are far in the lead in the production of that grain. Point out w COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 479 (Fig. 655) the leading wheat fields of the world. Which sections are important for both wheat and corn ? On which side of the Atlantic is wheat raised farthest north ? Why (p. 334) ? Name in order the eight countries that lead in the production of this grain (Fig. 656). Note what sections of the world raise United States Fig. 655. — Wheat sections of the world 659.000,000 BtuheU 451,000,000 302,000,000 Austria-Hungaor 224,000,000 Italy 162,000,000 Germany Argentina 135,000,000 122,000,000' Fig. 65t). — The eight leading wheat producing countries of the world. 3. UniudStaut 4. Uawaii 5. Jtraiil 6. Pliilippine lehcnjl 4. Ruaaia 5. Betffium 6. United Statet Fig. 657. — Sugar cane and sugar beet sections of the world. 480 REVIEW OF UNITED STATES Cuba JL 1,1 75,000 Ton* sugar cane and sugar heets (Fig. 657). Name countries and islands engaged in 8. Sugar cane t h 6 S 6 and sugar beets indus- tries. Is it mainly the sugar beet or sugar cane that is raised in Europe ? Why (p. 153)? What is our rank in the raising of sugar cane and sugar beets (Fig. 658)? Name the six regions that lead in this kind of agri- culture. Figure 659 shows the prin- cipal 4. Rice t rice sections of the world. What continent grows by far the largest amount? \\ hat countries in that conti- nent? What other parts of the world pro- duce much of it? What parts of the United States? What kind of climate does it require, and how is it raised (p. 154)? Figure 660 shows that coffee is not grown within our states, although in almost every house- Java 1.009,000 United States Hawaii 330.000 312,000 Brazil Philippine Is. 190,000 180,000 Fig. 658. — Ihe six countries producing llie most sugar caue and sugar beets. Fig. 660. — Coffee-producing sectious of the world. COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 481 Brazil Brazil 1,431,328,038 Pounds Venezuela 94,370,090 Guatemala 81,081,600 Dutch East Indies 72,864,649 Colombia 70.000.000 Salvador 61,822^3 Fig. 661. — Leading coffee-prod uciug couiiUies. Fig. GG2. — Tea-producing sections of the world. Fig. 663. — Cattle and sheep sections of the world. hoid it is in daily use. Notice, however, that it is produced in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands (Fig. 660). To what climate and coun- tries is it confined ? State the rank of the prin- cipal coffee- producing sec- tions, and compare their output (Fig. 661). Our tea (Fig. 662), also, comes almost . , 6. Tea entirely from other countries. Mainly from what parts of the world? Name the prin- cipal countries and islands. Note the dis- tribution of cattle 7. Cattle and ^^^ ^^®®P sheep (Fig. 663). What countries are included? Recall some facts concerning sheep raising in Australia, Ar- gentina, and the 2i 482 REVIEW OF UNITED STATES Australasia Russia United States 480,000,000 Pound* 421,000,000 370,000,000 292,000,000 Kingdom 133,000,000 103,000,000 Fig. 0(54. — The six leading wool-producing countries. United States. Why are cattle and sheep raised in the same regions ? Figure 664 shows the six leading ivool- producing countries. Name products them. What is the rank of 1. Wool the United States ? the principal sections (Fig. 665). Within what parallels of latitude are they found ? Name the eight countries that lead in its production (Fig. 666). How much greater is the output of the United Fig. 665. — Tlie cotton sections of the world. Cotton grows only in warm climates, so that fewer countries raise it. Name States than that of the seven other coun- tries together ? United Sutes 10,631,000 Bales of 500 lb. Chin* EfTpl K\' 1 222.350,526 -. (.1 c. fi r. n 1 ■' '"1 ? 4M09,»33 37323,931 J^IWB Belgium Riuna 26,026,119 18,996396 Fig. 670. — The eight leading coal-producing countries of the world GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF RUBBER AND PETROLEUM WIlirAUS tN&flAV■^ Flu. 671. — The leading petroleum-producing sections of the world. Fig. G72. — Leading sections of the world that produce iron ore. COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 485 portant district is in Russia, near the Caspian Sea. Other districts produce little petroleum. What are its uses ? of countries as manufacturing nations (Fig 679) ? Tell about the distribution of gold United States Germany 23,444,073 Great Britain 14,590,703 SP«» France 9,077,245 7.395,400 Russia Austria- Sweden Hunga ry 4,365:967 3.697,671 Fig. 673. — Tlie eight leading pig-iron-producing countries. Is iron ore more or less widely dis- 3. Iron ore tributed than coal (Figs. 672 ; and pig iron 669)? How does the United States rank in the output of this mineral (Fig. 674), and give our rank in the production of that metal 4. xhe (Fis". 675). precious metals Where are the principal silver-mimng Fig. 674. — Leading gold-producing sections of the world. South Africa $119,618,500 United States . Auitralia $94,373,800 $71,340,050 Ruuia McTiico BritUh India $19,494,700 $18,534,700 I12,087,70( Fig. 675. — The six leading gold-producing countries. (Fig. 673) ? How does the output of coal and iron correspond to the importance sections (Fig. 676)? How does the United States compare with other coun- 486 REVIEW OF UNITED STATES Fig. 676. — Leading silver-producing sections of the world. United States Mexico $38;!56,400 07381,400 $8,938;200 $5,800,000 $5,01 1,900 Germany tries in this product (Fig. 677)? Notice to what extent the world is indebted to the New World for silver. How does the value of the total silver production c o rn p a r e with that of gold in the six leading regions for each? The United States produces great quan- 5. other min- tities of era! products ^ther min- erals. Name some of them(pp.l22, 160, 161, 188,189). In the pro- duction of some, such as copper, and | natural gas, our country also leads. According to Figure 678, what two con- Manufac- tinents t"n°g lead in manufac- turing f What other, smaller sections are active in this in- dustry ? Taking into account the size of our coun- try, the abun- dance of our raw materials, and the energy and Fig. 677. — The six leading silver-producing countries. Fig. 678. — Manufacturing sections of the world. COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 487 intelligence of our people, it is not surprising that we surpass all other countries in such work (Fig. 679). United States United Kingdom iences for transportation Fig. (i7y. — The four leading manufacturing countries. State the rank of other leading nations in this occupation. Into what articles is corn manufactured in the United States (p. 178)? An- swer the same question about wheat (p. 189). What are the lead- ing centers for the preparation of meats in the United States (pp. 193, 199)? What countries in South America are extensively en- gaged in this industry -(pp. 316 and 317)? In what parts of the United States is most cotton manufactur- ing carried on (pp. 131, 161) ? Why there ? What other countries have much cotton manufacturing ? What countries In provisions for transportation by rail, also, the United States takes the leadinar place. It has a far ^ / , J, ., Commerce greater number or miles ^ conven- of railway than any other nation (Fig. 680) ; but several small European nations have a greater number of miles in proportion to their area. -> The United States ranks second in provisions for transportation by ivater (Fig. 681). State the rank of the six chief countries in total length of railivays, and in merchant marine. Give reasons why the United Kingdom should lead in merchant marine (p. 348). Why should Norway be of importance in this respect (p. 390) ? United States ^"^ 218^91 Miles Russia Germany France British India Austria- Hungary ^ ^^^ ^^^ 39,591 34,526 29,018 28,221 24,338 •'^ p^^gl^:;; / ■" ■••■7-^^'^-.*-N of the world are noted for the manufacture United Kingdom Fig. ()81. — The six countries having the largest merchant marine. of pig iron and other iron and steel goods ? Name Name great centers for this industry in our own country; in foreign countries. Fig. 680. — The six countries having greatest length of railways. We produce many more raw products and manufacture many more goods, than we can use. These we send abroad, or export to other with foreign countries, and countries „ , 1 , (1) ^«^ exports tor that reason they are called our exports. Oiir ten leading exports, named in order of value, together with the principal countries to which the goods are sent, are shown on p. 488. from memory our principal exports in the order of their value. 'While we sell an enormous quantity 488 REVIEW OF UNITED STATES Table of Chief Exports of the United States 10. Articles Value in 1909 Cotton (mainly manufactured) $449,269,231 Meat and dairy products 150,496,717 Breadstuffs (wheat, corn, flour, etc.) 145,244,038 Iron and steel, and manufactures of 144, 951, -357 Mineral oils (crude and refined) 105,999,637 Copper (manufactures of) 85,290,186 Wood, and manufactures of 67,867,4.32 Leather, and manufactures of 42,974,795 Tobacco 35,604,517 Animals (mainly cattle) 22,645,438 Total value of exports $ 1,250,339,-348 Principal countries to which they are sent Gt. Britain, Germany, France, Japan. Gt. Britain, Germany, France, Belgium. Gt. Britain, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium. Gt. Britain, Canada, Germany, Mexico. Gt. Britain, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium. Gt. Britain, Netherlands, France, Germany. Gt. Britain, Canada, Germany, W. Indies. Gt. Britain, Australasia, Canada. Gt. Britain, Germany, Italy, France. Gt. Britain. (2) Our imports of goods to other countries, we must also buy many other things. One of these is coffee, as shown in Figure 660 ; we produce far less sugar each year than we consume; we depend wholly on foreign nations for raw silk; our tea comes almost entirely from abroad (Fig. 662) ; and while much rice is produced in our Southern States, a large amount must be purchased. These goods, and many others, have to be brought to our shores, or imported, from other countries, and for that reason they are called our imports. Our ten leading imports, named in order of value, together with the princi- pal countries from which they come, are as follows : — Table of Chief Imports of the United States Articles Value in 1909 1. Silk, and manufactures of $110,022,168 2. Sugar 96,554,998 3. Fiber, and manufactures of 79,182,266 4. Coffee 79,112,129 5. Hides and skins 78,489,838 6. Chemicals, drugs, etc. 78,379,(i34 7. Cotton (mainly manufactures of) 75,673,088 8. Rubber and rubber goods 64,707,856 9. Wool, and manufactures of 62,274,454 10. Fruits and nuts- 31,110,683 Total value of imports $757,108,114 Compare the value and nature of our exports and imports. How is the result Principal countries from which they come Japan, France, China, Italy. E. Ind., Hawaiian Ids., Cuba, Germany (beet sugar). Mexico, Philippines, E. Indies. Brazil, Cent. America, E. Indies, Mexico. E. Indies, S. America, Gt. Britain, France. Germany, E. Indies, Gt. Britain. Gt. Britain, Germany, Switzerland, France. Brazil, Gt. Britain. Gt. Britain, Germany, France, S. America. Italy, Cent. America, W. Indits. encouraging in comparison with statistics of other countries ? the The Ten Leading Countries with which we Trade 1. British Isles 2. Germany 3. France fExp. ^•Imp. L Total fExp. ■I Imp. l Total rExp. \ Imp. L Total Value in 1909 $ 514,627,365 208,612,758 '723,240,123 235,324,140 148,526,828 378,849,968 108.764,262 108,387,3.37 217,151,699 Kinds of Goods Provisions, breadstuffs, raw cotton. Cotton goods, raw wool, tin, jewelry, rubber goods. Raw cotton, breadstuffs, provisions. Beet sugar, chemicals and drugs, cotton goods, silk goods. Raw cotton, copper, mineral oil. Silk goods, hides, jewelry, cotton goods. COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 489 The Ten Leading Countries with which we Trade — Continued Countries Value in 1909 Kinds of Goods 4. Canada (with New- fExp. 167,388,299 Coal, breadstuffs, cotton, and manufactures of. foundland and ^ Imp. L Total 80,479,266 Lumber, coal, hides. Labrador) 247,867,565 fExp. 95,012,366 Breadstuffs, provisions, copper, mineral oil. 5. Netherlands -( Imp. I Total 26,086,836 Jewelry, tin. 121,099,202 fExp. 64,886,401 Provisions, breadstuffs, animals. 6. West Indies ■I Imp. L Total 21,833,318 Sugar, fruits, cocoa. 86,719,719 f Exp. 13,493,106 Mineral oil, cotton goods. 7. East Indies 4 Imp. L Total 86,875,495 100,368,601 Sugar, hides, tin. fExp. 17,527,692 Breadstuffs, mineral oil, provisions. 8. Brazil ■I Imp. L Total 98,053,229 115,580,921 Coffee, rubber, sugar. r Exp. 49,793,323 Coal, cotton goods, iron and steel manufactures. 9. Mexico -I Imp. L Total 47,712,214 97,505,537 Sisal grass, coffee, lead, hides. 'Exp. 26,691,613 Manufactured cotton, mineral oil, iron and steel manu- 10. Japan i Imp. L Total 70,392,722 97,084,322 factures. Silk, tea. routes on the oceans More than one third of all our foreign trade is, as you can see, with the British Isles. Figure 682 shows the main ocean routes followed by vessels engaged in the commerce between nations. fransportattn Notc which are the most important. What countries do they connect? Trace other routes across the Atlantic, and tell what countries they connect. Name, if you can, some goods that are carried by each route. Do the same for the Pacific. Our many exports and imports show how de- pendent we are upon other countries. We are wonderfully favored in the abun- dance of our resources. Yet it would be of no use to produce so many things, if foreign countries did not buy some of them. Again, although we have so many products, there are still many things that we need from other lands. It is true that we probably could depend upon ourselves for all that we want bet- ter than any other nation. The English, for instance, would starve within a few weeks, if (4) The depend- ence of nations tipon one another they imported no food there. Yet note the amount of our imports. How do they compare, in value, with our exports ? Thus, in spite of our great resources, we are very dependent upon other countries. Owing to our trade relations with the United Kingdom, what hardships would probably be brought upon the British, if they entered upon a war with us ? How might the Germans suffer, if they were at war with us? How might the French suffer ? On the other hand, what hard- ships would come to us in each case ? All the preceding facts prepare us for Figure 683, which shows that the United States is the wealthiest nation wealth of on the face of the earth, nations Compare our wealth with that of other leading countries. The figures and diagrams that you have studied show that several European countries compete with the United States in the world's trade. Give examples. So far as the future is con- cerned, however, several im- portant facts are in our favor. In the Reasons why we promise great progress in the future 1 and 2. Our youthfulness and abundance of room 490 BEVIEW OF UNITED STATES first place, we are still in our youth as a people, while some of the leading nations of Europe have perhaps reached the height of their power. In the second place, the territory of most of those coun- tries is densely settled, as shown in Fig- ure 653. Note the number of inhabitants to a square mile in Belgium, in Germany, and in France. When we contrast with these figures our average of only twenty- five persons per square mile, our possible future growth seems almost without limit. Immense tracts of land, that in Europe would be carefully tilled, in our thing that must be considered in reckon- ing our future promise. The condition of China shows that resources alone will not make an ener- *■, J^L^'^f *?: ter of our people getic people and a great nation; for, in spite of the fact that the Chinese have been greatly favored in their resources, they have made very little use of them. Indeed, their cus- toms have prevented progress (p. 427). Our population has been made up, in large part, of those who had energy and ambition enough to migrate to a new land in the hope of bettering their con- United States 116,000 Million Dollars Britith Isles 62.200 FrsBoe 42300 Germany 42,000 Russia Austria. Htingary 35,000 20,000 Fig. 683. — The six wealthiest nations in the world. country are not even cleared for pasture. In no large section of the United States do we approach the careful tillage of the soil that is common in Belgium and some other European countries. The varied climate and surface features of our vast country are also favorable to 3. Our variety ^^^ ' ^^r they make a variety of climate and of products pOSsiblc. AlmOSt surface features n r i j. -i all farm products can easily be raised in the United States, and our wonderful mineral resources are, so far as we know, not equaled on any con- tinent. It will therefore- be seen that our natural resources, which have been so important in giving us our present position, promise equally well for the future. The character of our people is another dition. In their new home the oppor- tunities have been so great, that they have been encouraged to work and to improve themselves. Conditions in the desert have produced the nomad, and the ease of life in the tropical forest, the shiftless savage. But the conditions in the United States have produced a people noted for its energy and enterprise. This result has been possible, however, largely because our nation is a mixture of peoples already gifted. The statement of reasons for expect- ing great future progress in the United States would not be com- plete, if left here. There care for edu- are two other factors of cation, and our - government great importance ; namely, education and government. Where COMPARISONS WITH OTHER COUNTRIES 491 people are ignorant, and where rulers subject them to bad laws and heavy taxes, there is little chance of prog- ress. It is those European countries in which there are the best opportuni- ties for education and the greatest freedom, that have made the greatest advance. No nation in the world pays more at- tention to education or guarantees its people a more active part in their gov- ernment than the United States. These facts, even as much as the resources and the character of the people, help to ex- plain our astonishing progress in the past, and to give reason for hope in the future. Of one thing, however, there is need of greater care. Hitherto we have had such an abundance of re- Need of con- sources that we have used serving our them freely, and often care- ^^^^ources lessly. Thus, we have destroyed many of our forests ; there has been much waste of coal and other minerals ; and in many places the soil has been allowed to become unproductive. There is need of laws to prevent this, for a nation should not waste its resources any more than an individual. We have plenty for the future, but we should conserve it far more carefully in the future than in the past, else we shall exhaust even the vast resources of our country. APPENDIX I LATITUDE, LONGITUDE, AND STANDARD TIME 1. Latitude and Longitude Ix a study of geography, it is often neces- sary to locate places exactly. This is not so Need of some ^^sy as it might seem. For in- way of locat- stance, suppose we wish to state ing places where London is situated ; how exactly would it be done ? By taking a long time, it would be possible to describe the general location of this city; but some more accurate way must be found. The difficulty is much the same as that which arises in locating a place in a large city, How houses where there are thousands of are located houses. No one person knows in cities who lives in most of them, and if a stranger were looking for a friend, he might have much trouble in finding his house. A very simple means has been found for lo- cating city houses. For example, a street run- ning east and NORTH _ii II II I 1 II il ii_ DnnnDnQL _|| |80UTH| 1 |4TH, I ifST^p SOUTH Fig. 684. — Map of a part of a city, as being on the streets.*'^'' *^^°''*^°^"''™"'^^^"^'* «'^«- ^he streets north of this central street are numbered as North 1st, North 2d, North 3d, etc. ; those to the south west may be se- lected to divide the city into two parts, as Wash- ington Avenue does in Figure 684. Any place north of this street is spoken of as being on the north side ; any place south of it of it as South 1st, South 2d, South 3d, and so on. Then if a man says that he lives on North 4th Street, we know at once that he lives on the north side, and that his house is on the fourth street from this central one. But we need also to know on what part of North 4th Street this house is to be found. To answer that question, another street running north and south, and crossing the east and west ones, may be selected to divide the city into east and west parts. In Figure 684, Jefferson Avenue is such a street. The streets on the two sides of it are numbered as East 1st, East 2d, West 1st, West 2d, etc. Then if a man lives on the corner of North 4th and East 3d streets, we know not only that his home is north of a certain line, but east of a certain other line. If the blocks, as the spaces between two streets are called, are always of the same length, it will be easy to tell the distance from each of the central streets to the house. Thus the house can be located exactly. Such a plan is not necessary in small towns and villages, because the people there know one another, and are able to direct strangers easily. Few, if any, cities follow exactly the scheme here given ; but many have plans some- what similar to this. If you live in a city, you can tell just how houses are located there. Places upon the earth are located in much the same manner as in the city just de- scribed. The equator, which extends around the earth mid- ^°^ places , , .1 1 can be exactly way between the poles, cor- j^^^^ed on responds to the dividing street ^^le earth (Washington Avenue) that runs east and west. The distance between the equator and the poles, on either side, is divided 1 The topics in Appendix I and II do not form a necessary part of tlie subject as presented in this book ; and they are topics of some difficulty. Yet some teachers will doubtless w ish to introduce one or all of them in their classes at some stage in the study of Geography, and they are therefore included in Apj>en- dixes for the use of such classes. 492 LATITUDE, LONGITUDE, AND STANDARD TIME 493 into ninety parts (Fig. 685), corresponding, we might say, to the blocks in a city. The earth 1 How thev ^^ ^° large, however, that these can be located " blocks," or parts, are very much in a north and larger, each being about sixty -nine south direction j^-jgg ^^^j^ rj^^^^^ distance is called a degree, and the sign for degrees is a little circle (°) placed at the right of a figure. (For example, 60° means 60 degrees.) 5lfy.° /V. Lat.^ 60 N- Lot. 20° S. Lot. 13/1° SLat Fig. 685. — The globe, showing the two hemispheres aud some of the circles of latitude. Lines are drawn upon maps and globes to represent these degrees. The lines on a globe extend completely around it from east to west, and are therefore circles. The first circle north of the equator, marked 1°, is about sixty-nine miles from that dividing line ; the one marked 2° is twice the distance, and so on. The north pole is 90° from the equator. The same plan is followed south of the equator ; and the south pole is also 90° from the equator. Thus the distance from pole to pole is 180°. All points on any one of these circles are equal distances from the equator, and from each of the other circles. That is, the circles are parallel with one another ; and on that account they are called 2)ci^'att€ls. If one finds that a certain place is on the 8th or the oOth, or some other circle north of the equator, he knows how many miles it is north of that dividing line ; for every degree is about 69 miles. San Francisco, for example, is close to the 38th parallel ; Chicago is close to the 42d ; and St. Paul is on the 45th (Figs. 233 and 270). Knowing this, it is easy to see that Chicago is 4°, or about 276 miles, farther north than San Francisco. It is also easy to see that St. Paul is 3°, or over 200 miles farther north than Chicago. Thus, by the help of the parallel lines one can find how far any place is north or south of the equator. Instead, however, of saying that places are so many degrees north or south of the equator, we usually say that they are in so many degrees 7iorth or south latitude, San Francisco, for instance, is near 38° 7i07'th latitude (abbreviated JV. Lat.). Both forms of state- ment are correct, but the latter is the shorter. Latitude is nothing more than distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees; and the parallel lines are called parallels of latitude. Of course there are no marks upon the earth to show where these circles run. They are drawn on maps, where they are of great use because they help to locate places. Small maps and globes cannot well show the entire ninety parallels on each side of the equator. That would make too many lines. For this reason, only every fifth or tenth parallel is usually put on such maps. Examine some maps (such as Figs. 107, 134, 138, 144, 459, and 576), to see which ones are given. Near what parallel do you live ? As in the city, some means must also be found for locating places east and west ; for two points might be in 10° „ „ , ... , . „ "• How places north latitude and still be can be located several thousand miles apart, in an east and Show that this is so. ^'«^* direction Imaginary lines are used for this purpose, as before ; but this time they extend around the earth from pole to pole (Fig. 686). These lines, extending through both poles, are called meridians. In a city it makes little difference what north and south street is chosen from which to number the others. It is necessary only that a certain one be agreed upon. The same is true of these meridians. No one is especially im- portant, as is the equator among the parallels, and any one of them might be chosen to start from. Indeed, different nations have selected different circles from which to begin numbering. In France the meridian extending through Paris is chosen ; in England that through Greenwich, near London; and in America the one passing through Washington is sometimes used. 494 APPENDIX I It is, however, important that all people agree on some one meridian to start from, so that all maps may be made alike. On that ac- count, many countries begin their numbering with the meridian which passes through Green- wich. The maps in this book follow that plan. Fig. 686. — The earth, cut in halves along the Greenwich meridian, showing some of the meridians. The me- ridian 20° is usually considered the dividing line be- tween the eastern and western hemisplieres because it lies out in the Atlantic Ocean. It is necessary in locating places on the earth to sti;dy the movements of the sun and the stars ; and this is done in a building called an observatory, in which there are telescopes and other instruments. Since there is such au ob- servatory at Greenwich, this seemed to the English people to be a fitting place from which to begin numbering the meridians. Commencing with the meridian of Green- wich, we measure off degrees both east and west of it. On maps and globes these distances are represented by circles extending completely around the earth, through both poles. Thus there is a meridian 1° west, another 2°, a third 3°, etc. Going eastward, the meridians are numbered 1°, 2°, 3°, etc., in the same way. Any place on the 3d meridian toest of Greenwich is 3° west of the principal meridian ; if on the 60th meridian, it is 60° west. Again, however, instead of saying that a place is so many degrees east or west of the jirin- cipal meridian, we say it is in so many degrees east or west longitude. This is merely the shorter way of saying it. The place on the third meridian, just mentioned, is, therefore, in 3° west longitude, and the other place is in 60° west longitude. Longitude is nothing more than distance east or ivest of the principal meridian, measured in degrees} The circles that form the meridians are also known as circles of longitude. Any place on the 20th meridian east of Greenwhich is 20° east longitude {E. Long.). Kew York is in 74° W. Long., while San Fran- cisco is in about 123° W. Long. What meri- dian passes near Chicago ? Denver ? The distance around the earth from north to south, through both poles, is four times 90°, or 360° in all. The equator is likewise divided into 360 parts, or degrees. There are there- fore 360 meridians, if they are drawn one de- gree apart. They are numbered up to 180° in both directions (Fig. 687). Thus, 180° E. Long. is the same as 180° W. Long. GV^^^ ^EST. Fig. 687. — A view looking down on the north pole, to show how the meridians come to a point at the north pole. Notice that if the 0° meridian were continued, it would unite with the meridian 180°. The meridians are not parallel, like the cir- cles of latitude. They are farthest apart at the equator, where the width of a degree of longitude is about 69 miles. But all the me- ridians come together at the poles, as you can see on a globe or on Figure 687. Therefore the width of a degree of longitude becomes smaller toward the poles. Knowing the latitude and longitude of any place, it may, by the aid of a map, be as easily located as a house in a great city. For in- 1 The ancients thought that the world extended farther in an east and west direction than in a nortli and south direction. Therefore they called the east and west, or lone/ direction, longitude; the north and south direction, latitude (Intus = broad). LATITUDE, LONGITUDE AND STANDARD TIME 495 stance, Denver is about 40° N. Lat. and 105° W. Long. It is therefore far to the north and west of New Orleans, which is about 30° N. Lat., and 90° W. Long. Find the latitude and the longitude of some of the large cities, on the map (Fig. 138). Notice also that only every fifth meridian is marked on this map. Compare this with the map of ihe Northeastern States (Fig. 144). Since the latter map represents a smaller section, more meridians can be drawn upon it. 2. Standard Time If you were to travel from New York to San Francisco, you would find on arriving there that your watch was three hours too The differ- fast. The reason is that the ro- ences in time ^^tion of the earth is from west , to east. This causes the sun's places „ „ 1.1- rays to lali upon the Atlantic coast more than three hours sooner than upon the Pacific coast. Hence, when it. is noon in New York, it is only about nine o'clock in the morn- ing at San Francisco. The time steadily changes in going either east or west, so that no two places on an east-west line have ex- actly the same time by the sun. every city used its own suntime, or local time. This was a source of great trouble to travelers ; for their watches were al- ways wrong when they arrived at new places. When railroads were built, and people began to travel more, and to go longer distances, the many dif- erent kinds of local time became even a greater inconvenience. In order to avoid this trouble, our continent has been divided into belts, in each of which the railways, and most of the towns, have agreed to use the same time. Since this time is the standard for all, these belts are called the Standard Time Belts. The one in the extreme East, including eastern Canada, is called the Colonial Belt; the belt next west of this, which. includes New England, New York, and some of the other Eastern States, is called the Eastern Time Belt. What are the others called (Fig. 688) ? In traveling across the country from New York City to San Francisco, one starts with his watch set at the standard time for the Eastern Time Belt. After a while he comes to a place where the time is changed one full hour; then he sets his watch back an hour so as to have the Central Time. Going still farther west to the Mountain Belt, the watch is again set back one full hour. What is done when the Pacific Belt is reached ? By this arrangement, the same time is used over a very broad belt, and only a few changes of the watch have to be made. State how a watch would have to be changed when one goes eastward from San Francisco to New York. Our study of longitude helps us to under- Formerly The trouble caused by such differ- ences How this trouble is now largely avoided STANDARD TIME. IN THE UNITED STATES Fig. 688. — To show the Standard Time Belts of the United States. stand what determines the places for changing this time. The earth makes one complete rotation every 24 hours, ^°^ *^® **"^® .i , , , o^A for each time so that the sun passes over 3b0 ^ .^ .^ ^^^^ degrees in the course of the day of 24 hours. Dividing 360 by 24 gives 15; that is, the number of meridians, one degree apart, that the sun passes over in a single hour. Therefore, when it is noon in a place on the 75th meridian, as at Philadelphia (Fig. 688), it is 496 APPENDIX I Why the boundaries for these time belts are not regular eleven o'clock just 15° west of this, or on the 90th meridian. When it is noon at one point on a meridian, it is noon at other points on that meridian. This explains what has determined the boundary lines of the time belts. The time selected for the Eastern Belt is that of the 75th meridian ; for the Central Belt, that of the 90th meridian, which is just one hour later. What meridian is selected for the Mountain Belt (Fig. 688) ? For the Pacific Belt ? Each of these meridians runs through the middle of the belt whose time it fixes. Thus, the eastern boundary of the Central Time Belt is halfway between the 75th and 90th meridians, that is, 821° W. Long. ; and the western boun- dary is halfway between the 90th and 105th meridians, or 97|^° W. Long. As a matter of fact, the railways do not change their time exactly on these meridians. It often happens that the me- ridians chosen for boundaries pass through very unimportant points, or even cross the railways far out in the open country. Instead of following the exact boundaries, therefore, the railways often select well-known cities as the places where the changes shall be made. For instance, Buffalo, Pittsburg, and Atlanta are the principal cities along the bound- ary between the Eastern and the Central time belts. Railway time-tables show a change of one hour at these points ; and passengers going east or west change their watches one hour here (Fig. 688). Name cities that are located on other boundaries. Thus it happens that the boundaries where the railways actually change their time are somewhat irregular. But that makes little difference, so long as there is a gen- eral agreement as to the location of the bound- aries. It is true that the Standard Time is incorrect for most places. It is the sun that really fixes our time, and at most points Standard Time cannot agree with the sun, or local time. Yet Standard Time relieved us of much trouble, and that is the chief reason for its use. In order that our system may agree with that of other parts of the world, the time of the Greenwich meridian is taken as a basis. Thus the whole world may be divided into Standard Time belts, with a change of an hour at every fifteenth meridian. 1. Explain the need of some way of locating places exactly. 2. How may houses be located in large cities ? ^^^^^^ 3. How can all places be located in a north and south direction on the earth ? 4. How in an east .and west direction? 5. Locate several places accurately by using a map. 6. Define latitude ; longitude. 7. What is meant by a degree ? 8. How many degrees of longitude are there on the equator ? 9. How many miles is each of these degrees ? 10. Why are meridians not parallel ? 11. How many degrees of latitude are there- from pole to pole? 12. Explain about the differences in time by the sun, in different places. 13. How have these differences caused much trouble ? 14. How is the difficulty now largely avoided ? 15. Explain how the time for each time belt is determined. 16. Name the time belts in North America, and locate each. 17. Why are the boundaries not regular ? 1. Find how the streets of Washington have been numbered and lettered. 2. What is the latitude and longitude of Boston ? Of Washington ? Of Chicago? Suggestions Of your home ? 3. Find some cities that are on or near the 42d parallel of latitude. 4. What place is in 25° N. Lat. and 81° W. Long. ? What place is near 40° N. Lat. and 75° W. Long. ? 5. Find places that have nearly the same latitude as your home. 6. Show on a globe or map, where a ship would be in the Atlantic, when in zero lati- tude and zero longitude. 7. Examine a globe to see what meridian is a continuation of zero longitude on the other side of the earth. 8. Find the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer ; of the Tropic of Capricorn ; of the Arctic Circle ; of the Antarctic Circle. 9. W^here and how much would you change your watch in traveling from San Francisco to Chicago ? 10. Examine some railway time-tables to see how they indicate the changes in time. 11. What is the difference, where you live, between Standard time and solar, or sun, time. 12. Find out whether the true Standard Tii!it> is telegraphed to your city each day, and if so from what place ? APPENDIX II REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH, AND ITS EFFECTS The yearly motion of the earth You have already learned (p. 88) that the earth is rapidly rotating on its axis. It has another motion that is also very important. This is its motion, or revolution, around the sun, which is illus- trated in Figure 689. The object shown in the center of the circle is the sun, and the circle itself shows the course that the earth takes in its revolution. At the same time that the earth is whirling on its axis, it is also swinging around the sun, although the sun is ninety-three million miles from it. It takes a year to complete one revo- lution. Indeed, the time necessary for this great journey is what fixes the length of our year. The path that the earth takes in this journey is called its orbit. In its revolution, the earth is moving at the rate of more than one and a half million miles a day. What fearful speed ! And this, too, while it is whirling, or rotating, on its axis ! One might ask, "With such rapid motion, why are we not swept from the earth by the wind ? " The answer is that the air, as well as everything else upon the earth, is drawn toward the earth and held in place by the force called gravity. It is on account of this force that everything on the earth turns with it in the daily rotation, and swings around with it in its annual revolution. Again, if the earth is revolving at such speed, why does it not fly away into space ? As a stone swinging round at the end of a string flies off when the string breaks, so it might seem that the earth would fly off into space ; for there appears to be nothing holding it to the sun. As a matter of fact there is something hold- ing it. It is not a string, nor a rope, to be sure, but something far stronger. The sun is very 2k Importance of the force called gravity and gravitation much larger than the earth ; in fact, it is over a million times as large. It attracts the earth, and holds it in place, in much the same way as the force of gravity attracts men and houses to the earth. This attraction of gravitation, which the sun exerts upon the earth, is what prevents our sphere from flying off into space ; it holds the earth as firmly as the string holds the stone. The revolution of the earth is what causes our seasons and the changing length of our day and night. In Figure 689 the lowest Effects of sphere, bearing the date Septem- ® ^^\. ^ revolution ber 23, represents the earth as receiving the light of the sun from pole to pole. On that date day and night are equal everywhere upon the earth. It marks the end of summer and the beginning of our autumn. Following the earth in its revolution (to the right), you will see that, as the months pass, the north pole falls farther and farther into the shadow, until the farthest point is reached on December 21. That is the date for our shortest day and longest night. Farther north the nights are longer still, and the Eskimos, who live within the Arctic Circle, are having night that lasts week after week. It is upon this date that our winter begins. After December 21, the Arctic region grad- ually comes into the light once more, until, on March 21, the sun's light again reaches from pole to pole. Day and night are once more equal all over the earth, and warmer weather returns. That date marks the beginning of our spring. Going farther, on June 21, the north pole is shown to be just as far within the light as it was within the shadow on December 21. This is thedatefor our longest day and shortest night. Farther north, the days are longer still, and within the Arctic Circle the day lasts week 497 498 APPENDIX II after week. It is upon this day, also, that our summer begins.' After this date, until September 23, the rev- olution of the earth gradually brings the north pole again toward the shadow. Then, on Sep- tember 23, the light of the sun once more reaches from pole to pole, so that day and night are again equal, and a year is completed. Changes of the same kind are also in progress in the southern hemisphere ; but the seasons are exactly changed around. That is, it is winter there when it is summer with, us ; and when the north pole is in dark- ness, the south pole is bathed in the sunlight. Figure 690 shows the zones on the earth. How many Cause of the zones, and their boundaries are there ? Name and locate each. The cause of the zones is found in the slant at which the rays of the sun strike the earth. You know that it is warmer in the middle of the day, when the sun is nearly overhead, than late in the afternoon, when it is near the horizon. In the torrid zone the sun's rays at noon come from directly overhead, or nearly that, and it is very warm there. In the temper- 1 Some teachers may wish to introduce here an explanation of the effects of inclination of the earth's axis, and a more complete study of the seasons. This has not been included in this book because it is felt that, unless the teacher has the necessary apparatus, a mere study from the text is too difficult. The authors believe that it is a subject that is better fitted for the hi"h school aee. ate zone they strike the earth at a greater slant; and in the frigid zones at a much greater slant still. For this reason, the heat grows less and less, the nearer one approaches either of the poles. — ^ The boundaries of the torrid zone are easily fixed. They mark the parts of the earth farthest north and south where the sun's rays are found directly over- head, or verti- cal, at some period of the year. On December 21, hen the north pole is farthest within the shadow (Fig. 689), the sun's rays are vertical as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn. On June 21, the other hand, when north pole is far- in the light, ays are verti- north as the dancer. Fig. 689. — To illustrate the revolution of the earth The north frigid ZOne around the sun. The shaded portion represents night, jg ^J^e region around the The end of the axis around which the earth rotates ,i ^i 4-v,„4- i:„c ^„ . ., • .^ V 4.U •]• .. n, north pole that lies en- )S the point where the meridians come together. -^ tirely in darkness on December 21. On June 21, this same region lies entirely in the light. The south frigid zone is the corresponding region about the south pole. The two temperate zones are merely the wide belts that lie between the torrid zone, on one side, and the frigid zones on the other. One, called the north temperate zone, is in the north- ern hemisphere; the other, called the south temperate zone, is in the southern hemisphere. Name the boundaries of each of the zones. Although it is common to use such boundaries, it must be remembered that a person would find no sharp difference in passing from one zone to the next. REVOLUTTON OF THE EARTH, AND ITS EFFECTS 499 The seasons are due to the slant at which the sun's rays strike the earth at diiferent times of the year. The rays reach us with the greatest slant in winter, and for that reason this is our coldest season. In summer, on the other hand, the rays are more nearly vertical, and then we have our warmest weather. As the earth revolves around the sun the slant of the sun's rays is steadily changing, and that How the earth's revo- lution causes our seasons influences the sports that we enjoy. Name some of its other influences. 1. Describe the yearly motion of the earth. 2. How are gravity and gravitation important forces? 3. State the effects of the earth's revolution on the length of our seasons, and of our days and nights. 4. With the aid of the dia- gram (Fig. 689) point out the parts of the earth that are lighted by the sun at the four different Review Questions Fig. 690. — A map of the Zones. causes the change from spring to summer, then to autumn and winter. The revolution of the earth around the sun is, therefore, a matter of great importance. It causes our seasons by continually changing the slant at which the That affects us in a thousand ways. It determines, for instance, the time when our lamps shall be lighted; when crops shall be planted and harvested ; and when the naviga- tion of many of our rivers and lakes shall be opened and closed. It even leads to changes in the kind of clothes that we wear, and greatly How the revo lution affects , „ ,, our daily lives «"^^ ^^^^ .^^^^ "P°^ ^^ seasons. 5. At what seasons are the days equal in length ? 6. When are the days longest ? When are they shortest ? 7. What is the case in the southern hemisphere ? 8. State the cause of the zones. 9. Of their boundaries. 10. How does the earth's revolution cause our seasons? 11. How does this revolution in- fluence our daily lives ? 1. Show by a globe, or a ball, how the two movements of the earth, rotation and revolu- tion, can be going on at the same time. 2. Are the days now growing longer or shorter ? 3. During which months do they grow longer ? APPENDIX III REFERENCES TO DESCRIPTIONS, IN PROSE AND POETRY, OF TOPICS TREATED IN THIS GEOGRAPHY, FOR TEACHER AND PUPIL Key to Abbreviations, Publishing houses. — American Book Co., Xe^^; York (A.B.C.) ; D. Appleton & Co., New York (App.); The Cen- tury Co., New York (Cent.) ; Doubleday, Page & Co., New York (Doub.) ; E. P. Button & Co., New York (Dutt.) ; Educational Publishing Co., Boston (E.P.C.) ; The Ginn Co., Boston (Ginn); Harper & Bros., New York {H.B.); D.C. Heath & Co., Boston (Heath) ; Houghton, Mifflin Co., Boston (H.M.C.); J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia (Lipp.) ; Longmans, Green, & Co., New York (L.0.)\ Lothrop, Lee, Shep- ard, Boston, (L.S.) ; The Macmillan Co., New York (McM.) ; G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York (Put.); Band, McNally & Co., Chicago (R McN.) ; Charles Scribner's Sons, New York (Scrib.) ; Silver, Burdett & Co., New York (S.B.C.) Magazines. — Publications of the Bureau of American Republics, Washington, D.C. (B, Amer. E..) ; Journal of School Geography, until 1902 (J.S.G.) ; beginning 1902, Joxmial of Geog- raphy (J.G., $0.15 a number, $1.00 a year; Madison, Wis.) ; National Geographic Magazine ($0.25 a number, $2.50 a year ; including mem- bership to Society), Washington, D.C. (N.G.M.) Reference is made to many articles in these journals. Others of equal value and interest will be found in more recent volumes, which the teacher can easily look up. It is not, of course, expected that schools will find it possible to obtain all or even a large proportion of the books listed below. This list, which could easily be multiplied to many times the present size, is offered merely as a suggestion to aid those teachers who wish to have a good working library. Many good books are omitted, either because of their cost or for other reasons. Among the many valuable but expensive books of reference mention may be made of Rec- lus, "The Earth and its Inhabitants" (App., 19 vols., $5.00 each) ; Stanford, " Compendiums of Geography " (Scrib., 10 vols., $5.50 each) ; and Baedeker, " Guide Books " (Scrib. prices variable). The latter may be found in the libraries of friends who have traveled abroad. Methods and Aids. — McMurry, " How to Study " (H.M.C. $1.25) ; Geikie, " The teaching of Geography " (McM., $0.60) ; King, " Methods and Aids in Geography " (L.S., $1.20) ; Parker, "How to study Geography" (App., $1.50); Trotter, " Lessons in the New Geography " (Heath, $1.00); McMurry, " Special Method in Geography" (McM., $0.70); Frye "The Child and Nature" (Ginn, $0.80); Frye, " Teacher's Manual of Methods in Geography " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Redway, "Manual of Geogra- phy " (Heath, $0.65). Standard reference works. — " The States- man's Year Book," published each year, gives latest statistics, etc. (McM., $3.00) ; Mill, " Hints to Teachers and Students on the Choice of Geographical Books " (L. G. & Co., New York, $1.25); Mill, " International Geog- raphy " (App. $3.50) ; Chamberlain, Home, and World Series (McM., 4 vols. $0.40 each). Geography Readers, etc. — Strong, " All the Year Round" (Ginn, three volumes, $0.30 each) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies " (A.B.C., $0.25) ; Fairbanks, " Home Geography for Primary Grades" (E.P.C, New York, $0.60) ; Youth's Companion Series (Ginn, $0.25 to $0.40); Starr's "Strange Peoples" 600 REFERENCES FOR TEACHER AND PUPIL 601 (Heath, $0.40) ; Lyde, " Man and his Markets " (McM., 10.50); Herbertson, "Man and his Work " (McM., $0.60) ; Pratt, " American His- tory Stories" (F.P.C., four volumes, $0.36 each) ; Pratt, " Stories of Colonial Children " (E.P.C., $0.40). Butterworth, " Zigzag Journey Series " (Dana Estes & Co., Boston, 18 vols., $1.50 each) ; Car- penter, "Geographical Readers" (A. B.C., 6 vols., $0.60 each) ; Carroll, " Around the World Series " (S.B.C., 6 vols., $0.60 each) ; Cham- berlain, " Home and World Series " (McM., 4 vols., $0.40 each) ; Champney, " Three Vassar Girls Series " (Dana Estes & Co., Boston, 11 vols., $0.75 each); Hale, "Family Flight Series" (Lothrop Pub. Co., Boston, 5 vols., $1.50 each) ; " Highways and Byways Series" (McM., 30 vols., $2.00 each); Knox, "Boy Traveler Series" (H.B., 15 vols., $2.00 each) ; " Peeps at Many Lands Series" (McM., 30 vols., $0.75 each); Pratt, "People and Places, Here and There" (E.P.C., 5 vols., $0.40 each) ; " List of Books of Travel in European Countries " (J.G., Dec, '07: 173). Commercial and Physical Geography. — Chis- holm, " Commercial Geography " (L. G. & Co., New York, $0.90) ; Adams, " Commercial Geog- raphy" (App. $1.30); Gannett "Commercial Geography" (A.B.C., $1.00). Shaler, "First Book in Geology" (Heath, $0.60); Tarr, "Elementary Geology" (McM., $1.40); Tarr, "New Physical Geography" (McM., $1.00). Government Publications. — Almost no refer- ence is made to the many government publica- tions of geographic interest. There are far too many for so brief a list. For instance, the Smithsonian Institution Annual Reports usu- ally contain articles on geographic subjects, and the Fish Commission has published many excellent accounts of the diiferent fishing in- dustries. From the Weathei- Bureau are issued not merely weather maps, but Annual Reports and Monthly Weather Reviews. Among the publications of the Geological Survey are re- ports upon Irrigation, Annual Reports contain- ing many excellent accounts of the geology of interesting regions, especially mining re- gions, and also Annual Reports of the Mineral Resources of the country, with statistics. Be- sides these, the Geological Survey issues topo- graphic maps (five cents each). A list of these maps can be obtained upon application, and the teacher may find a map of the region where the school is situated. A great range of topics is covered by the various Annual Reports (called Year Books) and Bulletins of the Department of Agriculture upon such subjects as farming, various crops, forestry, botany, mammals, irrigation, etc. Special reports of importance are issued by the Treasury Department, which also issues Statis- tical Abstracts on commerce, finance, popula- tion, etc. From the State Department, besides valuable special papers (like the Report of the Philippine Commission), are issued the Consular Reports, which have articles and notes upon foreign industries, etc. A wealth of geograph- ical information is contained in the various Census volumes. Besides these, there are other reports, as that on the Precious Metals, issued annually by the Director of the Mint, the Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, and the Report of the Commissioner on Indian Affairs. The maps of the United States Coast Survey will be found of value, especially in those schools located on the coast, which should certainly have maps of their immediate locality. Many states also issue valuable reports on agriculture, mining, manufacturing, etc. In order to find out about the government publications one can often obtain a list of those issued by a given bureau by writing to the Superintendent of Public Documents, Washing- ton, D.C. A monthly list of all government publications is also prepared by the Super- intendent of Public Documents, thus permitting one to keep track of new publications. Some of the publications must be purchased, but many may be obtained by writing to one's con- gressman or senator, to whom copies are given for free distribution among constituents. The great majority of governmeat documents are issued for free distribution. Applications for these, in moderation, are granted when needed for schools, provided the quota is not already exhausted. General. — Bartholomew, " The Handy Ref- erence Atlas of the World" (Dutt., $2.50); Brigham, " Geographic Influence in American History" (Ginn, $1.25); Brooks, " Century Book for Young Americans " (Cent., $1.50) ; Chase and Clow, " Stories of Industry " (E.P.C., 2 vols., $0.40 each) ; Herbertson, " Descriptive Geographies from Original Sources " (for each continent, McM., $0.70 to $0.90 each); King, 502 APPENDIX III " Picturesque Geographical Readers " (Lee & Shepard, Boston, Vol. 2, $0.72, Vols. 3, 4, and 5, each $0.56) ; Lummis, " Some Strange Corners of our Continent " (Cent., $1.50); Lyde, "A School Textbook of Geog- raphy" (McM. $1.00); Lyde, "Geographies of the Various Continents" (McM., $0.50 to $1.40) ; McMurry, " Teacher's Manual of Geography " (McM., $0.40) ; Eocheleau, " The Geography of Commerce and Industry " (E.P.C., $1.00); Eocheleau, "Great American Indus- tries " (C. A. Flanagan, Chicago, 2 vols., $0.50 each) ; Shaler, " Man and the Earth " (Ginn, $1.50). Food, Clothing, and Shelter. — Chamberlain, Home and World Series ; " How we are Fed " ; " How we are Clothed " ; " How we are Shel- tered " ; " How we Travel " (McM., 4 vols. $0.40 each); Fairbanks, "Home Geography," the following topics : "Our Homes," "Homes of the Animals," " The Country Store," " Something about a City," etc. (E.P.C., $0.60); Payne's "Geographical Nature Studies:" "Shelter," "Our Shelter," etc. (A.B.C., $0.25); Starr, " Strange People," " Eskimo," " Negroes," etc. (Heath, $0.40) ; Youth's Companion Series : " Strange Lauds Near Home," " The Play of Eskimo Boys," "The Home of the Ice- bergs " (Ginn, $0.25) ; " Under Sunny Skies," " Across the Desert," " From Tangier to Tetuan," etc. (Ginn, $0.25). Tlie Soil. —King, " The Soil " (McM., $1.25) ; Tarr, " Elementary Geology," Chapters VI, XI, and pp. 475-487 (McM., $1.40) ; Shaler, " First Book in Geology," pp. 24-29 (Heath, $0.60) ; Nature Study Qiiarterhj, No. 2, October, 1899 (Cornell University, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. Free on application) ; Kingsley, "Madam How and Lady Why," Chapter IV, " The Transformation of a Grain of Soil " (McM., $0.50); Frye, "Brooks and Brook Basins," section on "How Soil is Made and Carried" (Ginn, $0.50). Hills and Valleys. — Whittier, " Among the Hills" (poem); Whittier, "The Hilltop" (poem) ; Hutchinson, " The Story of Hills " (McM., $1.50) ; see also under " Rivers and River Valleys." Mountains. — Avebury, " The Beauties of Nature," Chapters V and VI (the former on forests) (McM., $1.50); Jordan, "Science Sketches," section on "The Ascent of the Matterhorn" (A.C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, $1.00); Tarr, "New Physical Geography," Chapter VI (McM., $1.00); Shaler, " First Book in Geology," Chapter V (Heath, $0.60); Kings- ley, " Madam How and Lady Why," Chapter V, " The Ice Plough " (McM., $0.50) ; Fairbanks, " Home Geography for Primary Grades," sec- tions on "The Story of a Mountain," and " What we Learned by Climbing a Mountain," (E.P.C., $0.60) ; Youth's Companion Series, " Strange Lands Near Home," section on " A Grow- ing Mountain" (Ginn, $0.25); Under Sunny Skies,", section on " Mount Vesuvius " (Ginn, $0.25). Rivers and River Valleys. — Tarr, " Elemen- tary Geology," Chapters VI-X (McM., $1.40) ; Shaler, " First Book in Geology," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.60); Payne, "Geographical Nature Studies," sections on " Valleys," " Plants of the Valleys," and "Animals of the Valleys," etc. (A.B.C., $0.25) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady Why," Chapter I, "The Glen" (McM., $0.50); Frye, "Brooks and Brook Basins " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Avebury, " The Beau- ties of Nature," Chapters VII and VIII (McM., $1.50); Parker and Helm, "Uncle Robert's Geography," Vol. Ill, Chapters XII and XIV ($0.50) ; Poems : " The Brook," Tennyson ; " The Mad River," Longfellow ; " The Falls of Lodore," Southey ; " The Brook and the Wave," Longfellow ; " A Water Song," E. G. W. Rowe ; " The Endless Story," A. K. Eggleston; "The Impatient River," E. G.VV. Rowe ; the last three in Payne's " Geographi- cal Nature Studies " (A.B.C., $0.25). Ponds and Lakes. — Shaler, ''First Book in Geology," pp. 125-129 (Heath, $0.60); Tarr, "New Physical Geography," Chapter IX, (McM., $1.00); Avebury, "The Beauties of Nature," Chapter VIII (McM., $1.50) ; Payne, "Geographical Nature Studies," section on "Pools, Ponds, and Lakes" (A.B.C., $0.25); " The Lakeside," poem, by Whittier. Tlie Ocean. — Shaler, " Sea and Land" (Scrib., $2.50); Tarr, "New Physical Geography," Chapters X, XT (McM., $1.00); Avebury, " The Beauties of Nature," Chapter IX (McM., $1.50) ; Andrews, " Stories Mother Nature told her Children," section on " Sea Life " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Holland, " The Sea Voyage," in " Arthur Bonni- castle " ; Dickens, " David Copperfield," Chap- ter V ; "Robinson Crusoe," Chapter III; Taylor, "The Waves," "Wind and Sea," in Marble's " Nature Pictures by American Poets" REFERENCES FOR TEACHER AND PUPIL 503 (McM., $1.25); Coleridge, "The Ancient Mariner." The Air. — Tarr, " New Physical Geography," Chapters XII-XIV (McM., $1.00); "A Sum- mer Shower," " Cornell Nature Study Bulletin," No. 1, June, 1899 (free on application to College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.) ; Murche, " Science Keader," Book III, sections on " Air," " Vapor in the Air," " Vapor ; What Becomes of It ? " " What the Atmosphere Is," "Ice, Hail, and Snow" (McM., $0.40); Frye, " Brooks and Brook Basins," sections on " Forms of Water " and " The Atmosphere in Motion " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Strong, " All the Year Round," Part II, sections 33-39 (Ginn, $0.30) ; Andrews, "Stories Mother Nature told her Children," section on " The Frost Giants " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," many excellent stories and poems (A.B.C., $0.25) ; Marble, "Nature Pictures by American Poets " ; " Summer Shower," Dickin- son ; " Rain," De Land ; " Song of the Snow- flakes," Cheney ; "Cloudland" (McM., $1.25); Wilson, " Nature Study in Elementary Schools," Second Reader, the following poems : " The Rain Shower," " The Wind Song," " The Bag of Winds," "The Sunbeams," " Snowflakes," "Signs of Rain," "The Rainbow" (McM., $0.35); Lovejoy, "Nature in Verse," the fol- lowing poems : " Merry Rain," " The Clouds," "The Dew," " The Fog," "The Rain," "The Snow," "The Frost," "Jack Frost," "Little Snowflakes" (S.B.C., $0.60); Shelley, "The Cloud"; Whittier, "The Frost Spirit"; Bryant, " The Hurricane " ; Whittier, " Snow- bound " ; Irving, " The Thunderstorm " (prose). Industi'y, Comynerce, and Government. — Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," sections on "Occupations," "Trade or Commerce," " Transportation by Land," "Transportation by Water, ' School and Country. A. B.C., $0.25) ; Andrews, "The Stories Mother Nature told her Children," section on " The Carrying Trade " (Ginn, $0.50); Whittier, "Songs of Labor"; Brooks, "Century Book for Young Americans" (Cent., $1.50); Brooks, " The Story of the United States " (The Lothrop Publishing Co., Boston, $1.50) ; Wilson, "Nature Study in Elementary Schools," Second Reader, section on " Boyhood of Lincoln " (McM., $0.35) ; Payne, "Geograph- ical Nature Studies," section on "Government" (A.B.C., $0.25). Maps. — Excellent outline maps of states and continents, costing \\ to 2 cents each, can be purchased from D. C. Heath & Co., Boston ; Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago ; and other publishers. Maltby, " Map Modeling " (A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, $1.25); Kellogg, " Geography by Map Drawing " (same publish- ers, $0.30) ; Red way, " The Reproduction of Geographical Forms " ($0.30) and " Teacher's Manual of Geography " ($0.65) (both by Heath) ; Frye, "The Child and Nature" (Ginn, $0.80); Frye, " Sand and Clay Modeling " (A.B.C., New York, ($0.10); Frye, "Teacher's Manual of Methods in Geography " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Kellogg, "How to Teach Clay Modeling" (A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, $0.25) ; King, " The Pictur- esque Geographical Readers," First Book, Lesson XIII (L. S., $0.50). Form and Size of the Earth. — Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters," section on " The Ball Itself" (Ginn, $0.50); Irving, " Life and Voy- ages of Christopher Columbus" (Put., New York, $1.75) ; for Columbus, Magellan, etc., see various school histories. Also, poem on " Columbus " by Tennyson, D'Anvers, " Science Ladders," Vol. I (E.P.C., $0.40) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowledge," section on " The Great Globe Itself" (McM., $0.10). Daily Motion of the Earth and its Restdts. — Red way, " Manual of Geography," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.65); "Daybreak" (poem), Long- fellow. The Zones. — Eggleston, "Stories of American Life and Adventure," section on " Adventures in Alaska " (A.B.C., $0.50) ; Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters," sections on " The Little Brown Baby," " Agoonack, the Esquimau Sister," and "How Agoonack Lives" (Ginn, $0.50); Schwatka, " The Children of the Cold " (E.P.C., $1.25); Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," Chapters XXIX and XXX (Ginn, $0.60); King, " The Picturesque Geographical Read- ers," First Book, Part 2 (L.S., $0.50). The Continents and Oceans. — Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Ballou', "Footprints of Travel" (Ginn, $0.60); Kelly, " Leaves from Nature's Story Book," Vol. Ill, " A Visit to the Bottom of the Ocean " (E.P.C., $0.40) ; Shaler, "The Story of Our Continent," section on " Coral Reefs " (Ginn, $0.75) ; Tarr, " Elementary Geology," p. 251 (McM., $1.40) ; D'Anvers, " Science Ladders," Vol. Ill, Lesson VIII (E.P.C., $0.40) ; Youth's Companion Series, " Strange Lands Near Home " and 504 APPENDIX III « The Wide World " (Ginn, each $0.25) ; An- drews, " Each and All" (L.S., $1.00); Miller, "Little People of Asia" (E.P.D., $2.50); Schwatka, "Children of the Cold" (E.P.C., $1.25) ; Shaw, " Big People and Little People of Other Lands" (A.B.C., $0.30); Poems: Shelley, " A Vision of the Sea " ; Longfellow, " The Secret of the Sea " ; Longfellow, " The Wreck of the Hesperus " ; Holmes, " The Chambered Nautilus " ; Byron, "The Ocean." North America. — Carpenter, "Geographical Eeader of North America" (A.B.C., $0.60); Herbertson, " Descriptive Geography : North America" (McM., $0.75); Shaler, "The Story of our Continent" (Ginn, $0.75); Lyde, "North America" (McM., $0.50); Chase and Clow," " Stories of Industry," Vols. I and II (E.P.C., $0.40) ; Hurlburt, "Historic Highways of North America" (A. H. Clark Co., Cleveland, $2.50); McMurry, " Excursions and Lessons in Home Geography" (McM., $0.50) ; McMurry, "Larger Types of American Geography " (McM., $0.75); Pratt, "American History Stories" (E.P.C., 4 vols., $0.36 each); Keynolds, "The Americas" (McM., $0.75); Russell, "North America" (App., $2.50); Russell, "Glaciers of North America" (Ginn, $1.75); Russell, "Lakes of North America " (Ginn, $1.50) ; Russell, "Rivers of North America" (Put., $2.00); Semple, "American History and its Geo- graphic Conditions" (H.M.C., $1.25). The United States. General. — Adams, "America's Economic Supremacy" (McM., $1.25); Adams, "The New Empire" (McM., $1.50); Austin, "Steps in the Expansion of our Territory " (App., $1.25 ) ; Baedeker, "The United States" (Scrib., $3.60) ; Brigham, "Geo- graphic Influences in American History " (Ginn, $1.25); Brooks, "Century Book of American Colonies " (Cent. $1.50) ; Brooks, "First across the Continent" (Scrib., $1.50); Bryce, "American Commonwealth" (McM., $4.00; abridged edition, $1.75); Channing, " Students' History of the United States " (McM., $1.40); Fiske, "How the United States became a Great Nation " (Ginn, $1.25) ; Gannett, " The Building of a Nation " (H. T. Thomas Co., New York, $2.50) ; Hale, " Tarry at Home Travels" (McM., $2.50); McMurry, " Type Studies from Geography of the United States" (McM., $0.50); Newell, "Irrigation in the United States " (Crowell & Co., New York, $2.00) ; Patton, " The Natural Resources of the United States" (App., $3.00); Ries, "Eco- nomic Geology of the United States" (McM., $2.00); Shaw, "Uncle Sam and His Chil- dren" (A. S. Barnes Co., New York, $1.20); Smith, "Our Own Country" (S.B.C., $0.50); Smith, " The Story of Iron and Steel " (App., $0.75) ; Stevenson, "Across the Plains" (Scrib., $1.25) ; Stoddard, " Beautiful Scenes of Amer- ica" (Saalfield Pub. Co., Akron, 0., $0.75); "The Story of Paper Making" (Butler Paper Co., Chicago, $1.25); Whitney, "The United States " (Little, Brown & Co, Boston, $2.00) ; Young, "The Cotton Industry " (Scrib., $0.75); Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Adventure," "Stories of Whaling," and "A Whaling Song," " A Story of Niagara," " How Fremont Crossed the Mountains," " The Find- ing of Gold in California," "Descending the Grand Canon," and several Indian stories, (A.B.C., $0.50); Chase and Clow, "Stories of Industry," Vol. I, " Lumbering," « Ship Build- ing," "Marble and Granite," "Slate and Brick," etc., Vol. II, " Manufacturing," " Fish- eries," "Whaling," etc. (E.P.C., each volume $0.40); Adams, "The United States: Land and Water" (N.G.M., May, '03: 171); Austin, "The United States: Her Industries " {N.G.M., Aug., '03: 301); Kirchhoff, "The United States: Her Mineral Resources" {N.G.M., Sept., '03: 331); Price, "The Influence of Forestry iipon the Lumber Industry of the United States " {N.G.M., Oct., '03 ; 381) ; " The Growth of the United States" (N.G.M., Sept., '98: 377); Wiley, "The United States: Its Soils and Their Products" {N.G.M., July, '03: 261) ; Brown, " Seaports in the United States " {J.G.y Oct., '05: 337); Emerson, "A Glimpse of Steel Manufacture" {J.G., April, '03: 169). Poems : Whittier, " Mogg Megone," " Pen- tucket," "The Bridal of Pennacook," "The Merrimack," " The Norsemen " ; Longfellow, "The Woods in Winter," "The Building of the Ship," "The River Charles"; Emerson, " Boston " ; Riley, " When the Frost is on the Pimkin," "Knee Deep in June"; Bryant, "The Prairies," "The Hunter of the Prai- ries"; Whittier, "The Pass of the Sierra"; Joaquin Miller, " In the Yosemite Valley " : Holmes, " Our Country." Northeastern States. — Bacon, " Historic Pil- grimages in New England " (S.B.C., $1.50) ; Davis, " Physical Geography of Southern New England" (A.B.C., $0.20) ; Drake, "Nooks and REFERENCES FOR TEACHER AND PUPIL 505 Corners of tlie New England Coast" (H.B., $2.50); Emerson, "New England States" (McM., $0.30); Johnson, "New England and its Neighbors " (McM., $2.00) ; Kimball, " Ver- mont for Young Vermonters " (App., $1.00) ; Kipling, "Captains Courageous" (Cent., $1.50); Thoreau, "Maine Woods" (H.M.C., $1.50); Barton, " General Geographic Features in and around Boston" (J.G., June, '03 : 277) ; Dodge, " Approaching Boston " {J.G., June, '03 : 261) ; Emerson, " Boston, A Center of Industry " {J.G., June '03: 315); Gulliver, "Geographi- cal Development of Boston " (J. G., June, '03 : 323); "Geographical Notes on Boston" {J.G., June, '03 : 330) ; Bibliography of Boston and Vicinity {J.G., June, '03: 333); King, "Ex- cursions in and and around Boston" (J.G., June, '03: 286); Shurtleff, "Boston Parks" (J.G., June, '03: 302); Brigham, "From Trail to Railway through the Appalachians " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Gilbert, "Niagara Falls and their His- tory " (A.B.C., $0.20); Rupert, "Pennsylva- nia " (McM., $0.30) ; Southworth, " Story of the Empire State" (App., $0.75); Whitbeck, "New Jersey" (McM., $0.30): Whitbeck, "New York " (McM., $0.30) ; Brigham, " The Eastern Gateway of the United States " {J.S.G., April, '00: 127). Southern States. — Barrett, " Tennessee " (McM., $0.30) ; Brook, " Cotton : Its Uses, Cul- ture, etc." (Spon & Chamberlain, New York, $3.00); Burkett, "Cotton" (Doub., $2.00); Earle, " Southern Agriculture" (McM., $1.25); Chandler & Foushee, "Virginia" (McM .,$0.30) ; Twitchell, "Maryland" (McM., $0.30); Faust and Allen, "North Carolina" (McM., $0.30); Hitchcock, " Louisiana Purchase " (Ginn, $1.25); Littlejohn, "Texas" (McM., $0.35); Mitchell, "Georgia; Land and People" (F. L. Mitchell, Atlanta, Ga., $1.25); Ralph, "Dixie, or Southern Scenesand Sketches" (H.B., $2.60) ; Taylor and Stephen, "Louisiana" (McM., $0.25) ; Tompson, " From Cotton Field to the Cotton Mill" (McM., $1.50); Willoughby, "Across the Everglades" (Lipp., $1.50); Dietz, " The Fall Line " {J.G., June '05 : 244) ; Harrison, " Cultivation of Rice in the United States" (J.G., Sept., '03: 369); Lloyd, "The Delta of the Mississippi" (J.G., May, '04: 204) ; Series of papers on the Geography of the Louisiana Purchase (J.G., June, '04: 243 -278); "The Mississippi River" {J.G., Oct., '02:374). Central States. — Bender, "Iowa" (McM., $0.20); Barnard, "Missouri" (McM., $0.30); Condra, "Geography of Nebraska" (University Pub. Co., Lincoln, Neb., $.90) ; Cooley, "Michi- gan " (H.M.C., $1.10); Darling, "Illinois" (McM., $0.30); Dryer, "Studies in Indiana Geography" (Inland Pub. Co., Indianapolis, Ind., $0.50) ; Fox, " Out Doors in Old Ken- tucky" (Scrib., $1.75); Grinnel, "Jack, the Young Explorer " (F. A. Stokes, New York, $1.25) ; Hall, " Geography of Minnesota" (H. W. Nelson Co., Minneapolis, Minn., $1.20); Hovey, " Celebrated American Caverns " (B. Clarke Co., Cincinnati, O., $2.00) : Stanchfield, " Lumbering in Minnesota " (D. Stanchfield, Minneapolis, Minn., $1.00) ; Thwaites, " Down Historic Waterways," " On the Storied Ohio " (McClurg, Chicago, $1.20 each); Willard, "Story of the Prairies" (R. McN., $1.75); Wilson, "Ohio" (McM., $0.30); Winans, " Kansas " (McM., $0.30) ; Hall, " Minnesota, a Sketch" (J.G., June, '02 : 241) ; Hall, "Min- neapolis and its Environs" (J.G., June, '02 : 249). Western States. — Austin, " The Land of Lit- tle Rain" (H.M.C., $2.00); Brooks, "First across the Continent" (Scrib., $1.50) ; Brown, " The Glory Seekers " (McClurg, Chicago, $1.50) ; Clark, " Indians of the Yosemite Valley and Vicinity " (G. Clark, Yosemite Valley, Cal., $1.00); Cody, "True Tales of the Plains" (Cupples & Leon, New York, $1.00) ; Fairbanks, "California" (McM., $0.30); Fultz, "Out of Door Studies in Geography " (Public Schools Pub. Co., Bloomington., 111., $0.60) ; Groham, " Camps in the Rockies " (Scrib., $1.25) ; Hew- itt, " Across the Plain and over the Divide " (Broadway Pub. Co., New York, $1.50) ; Irish, " Arizona " (McM., $0.20) ; Jones, " Utah " (McM., $0.40) ; Jordon, " California and the Californians " (A. H. Robertson, San Francisco, Cal., $0.75); Muir, "Our National Parks" (H.M.C., $1.75); Munk, "Arizona Sketches" (Grafton Press, New York, $2.00); Paine, " Greater America" (Outing, New York, $1.50); Parkman, " The Oregon Trail " (Little, Brown & Co., Boston, $2.00) ; Prudden, " On the Great American Plateau " (Put., $1.50) ; Ralph, " Our Great West " (H.B., $2.50) ; " The Pacific Coast Guide Book" (R. McN., $1.00); Tonge, " Handbook of Colorado Resources " (T. Tonge, Denver, Col., $0.50) ; Van Dyke, " The Desert " (Scrib., $1.25) ; " Washington " (McM., $0.20) ; 506 APPENDIX III Barrows, " The Colorado Desert " {N.O.M., '00 : 337) ; Blanchard, " Home Making by the Gov- ernment" {N.G.M., April, '08 : 250) ; Blanchard, " Millions for Moisture " {N.G.M., April, '07 : 217) ; Chapman, *' Deserts of Nevada and the Death Valley" {N.G.M., Sept., '06: 483); Chapman, '' Our Northern Rockies" (N.G.M., Oct., '02 : 361.) ; McGee, " The Yuma Trail " {N.G.M., April'Ol: 103); Newell, "The Rec- lamation of the West " {N. G.M., Jan., '04 : 15) ; Ransome, " The San Francisco Earth- quake" {N.G.M., May, '06 : 280) ; Rody, '' Ari- zona and New Mexico" (N.G.M., '06: 101); "The Redwood Forest of the Pacific Coast" {N.G.M., May, '99 : 145) ; Dodge, " Life on the Colorado Plateaus" {J.S.G., Feb., '00: 45); Dodge, "The Big Trees of California" (J.S.G., Jan., '01 : 16) ; Russell, " Climate, Vegetation, and Drainage of Cascade Mountains" (J.S.G., Oct., '01 : 280) ; Lee, " Canyons of Southeastern Colorado" (J.G., Oct., '02: 357). Alaska. — Burroughs, " Far and Near " (H.M.C., 11.10); De Windt, "Through the Gold Fields of Alaska to Bering Strait" (H.B., $2.50) ; Edwards, " Into the Yukon " (R. Clarke Co., Cincinnati, 0., $1.50) ; Greeley, " Alaska," (Scrib., $2.00) ; Higginson, " Alaska, the Great Country" (McM., $2.50); MacDonald, "The White Trail " (H. M. Caldwell, Boston, $1.25) ; Scidmore, " Guidebook to Alaska"(App.,$1.25) ; Stoddard, " Over Rocky Mountains to Alaska " (B. Herder, St. Louis, $0.75) ; Thompson, " Gold Seeking in the Dalton Trail " (Little, Brown Co., Boston, $1.50) ; " Alaska "{N.G.M., April, '98 : 105, twelve articles) ; " An Expo- sition through the Yukon District" {N.G.M., Vol. 2, '92: 117); Brooks, "Geography of Alaska" {N.G.M.,M.'e,j, '04: 213); Gannett, "The General Geography of Alaska" {N.G.M., May, '01 : 180) ; Georgeson, " The Possibilities of Alaska " (A^.G«.3f., March '02 : 81) ; Grosvenor, "Reindeer in Alaska" {N.G.M., April,' 03: 127) ; "Life on a Yukon Trail" (N.G.M., Oct., '99 : 337 and 457) ; " The Alaskan Boundary " {N.G.M., Nov., '99: 425); Bay ley, "The Yu- kon and its Basin" {J.G., Oct., '08: 25); Brooks, " An Exploration to Mt. McKinley " {J.G., Nov., '03 : 441) ; Brooks, " Geography of Alaska" (United States Geological Survey, Washington). The Polar Regions. — Baker, " Out of the Northland" (McM., $0.25); Hayes, "The Land of Desolation" (H.B., $1.75); Horton, "The Frozen North " (D. C. Heath, Boston, $0.40) ; Long, "Northern Trails" (Ginn, $1.50); Nansen, "First Crossing of Greenland" (L.G. $1.25) ; Mrs. Peary, " The Snow Baby " (F. A. Stokes, New York, $1.30) ; Mrs. Peary, " Chil- dren of the Arctic" (F. A. Stokes, $1.20); Mrs. Peary, " My Arctic Journal " (Contempo- rary Pub. Co., New York, $2.00) ; Schwatka, " Children of the Cold " (E.P.C. $1.25) ; Scott, "From Franklin to Nansen" (Lipp., $1.25); Scott, " Romance of Polar Exploration " (Lipp., $1.50); Smith, "Eskimo Stories" (R.McN., $1.00) ; " An Ice-wrapped Continent, Antarc- tica" {N.G.M., Feb., '07: 95); Peary, "The Value of Arctic Exploration " (N.G.M., Dec. '03: 429) ; " Climatic (Control in Greenland " (J.S. G. , Oct., '00: 281); Poem: "An Arctic Vision," Bret Harte. West Indies and Bermuda. — Arthur, " Ten Thousand Miles in a Yacht " (Dutt., $2.00) ; " Handbooks on Haiti and Santo Domingo" (B. Amer. B., $0.35 each) ; Hill, " Cuba and Porto Rico" (Cent., $3.00); Kennan, "Tragedy of Pelee " (McM., $1.00) ; Kingsley, " At Last : A Christmas in the West Indies " (McM., $1.25) ; Nicholas, " Around the Caribbean and across Panama" (H. M. Caldwell, Boston, $2.00); Ober, " Our West Indian Neighbors " (James Pott & Co., $2.00); Rod way, " The West Indies and the Spanish Main " (Put., $1.75); Stoddard, " Cruising among the Caribbees " (Scrib., $1.50); " The United States and Porto Rico" (L.G., $1.30) ; Chester, " Haiti, a Degenerating Island" {N.G.M., March, '08: 200); "Cuba" (NG.M., Sept., '98 : 193) ; " Cuba, the Pearl of the Antilles" {N.G.M., Oct., '06: 535); Hill, "Cuba and Porto Rico" (Cent., $3.00); Hill and Russell, "Volcanic Disturbances in the West Indies" {N.G.M., July, '02: 223); "Porto Rico" {n.G.M., March, '99: 93); Russell, " Volcanic Eruptions on Martinique and St. Vincent" {N.G.M., Dec, '02: 415); Wilcox, " Among the Mahogany Forests of Cuba" {N.G.M., July, '08: 485); Cline, "The Island of Porto Rico " (J.S.G., Dec, '01 : 362) ; Heilprin, " The Bermuda Islands " (A. Heil- prin, Philadelphia, $3.50). Hawaiian and Small Islands. — Alexander, "A Brief History of the Hawaiian People" (A.B.C., $1.50) ; Baldwin, " Geography of the Hawaiian Islands" (A.B.C., $0.60)"; Dole, "Hiwa: Tale of Ancient Hawaii" (H.B., $1.00) ; " Greatest America ; the Latest Acquired REFERENCES FOR TEACHER AND PUPIL 507 Possessions" (Perry Mason Co., Boston $0.50) ; Young, " The Eeal Hawaii " (Doubleday, New York, $1.50); Wallace, "Island Life" (McM., $1.75); Whitney, "Hawaiian America" (H.B., $2.50) ; articles on "Samoa" (N.G.M., June, '99 207). Philippine Islands. — Coulter, " Nature Study Header for the Philippine Islands " (App., $0.60); Coursey, " History and Geography of the Philippine Islands " (Educator School Supply Co., Mitchell, S.D., $0.50) ; Jernegan, "Philippine Geography" Heath, $0.60); Knapp, "Story of the Philippines" (S.B.C., $0.60) ; Sonnichsen, " Ten Months a Captive among Filipinos " (Jennings & Graham, Cin- cinnati, $1.75); Worcester, "The Philip- pine Islands and their People " (McM., $2.50) ; Younghusband, " The Philippines and Round About" (McM., $2.50); "Report of the Philippine Commission" (State Depart- ment, Washington) ; Articles on the Philip- pines (JV:(?.iltf., June '98: 257-304; Oct., '99: 33-72; Nov. '00: 1); Barrett, "The Philip- pine Islands and their Environment" (N.G.M., Jan., '00: 1) ; Gannett, "The Philippine Islands and their People" {N.G.M., March, '04: 71); Papers on Philippines {N.G.M., May, '03); Sanger and others, " A Revelation of the Fil- ipinos" {N.G.M., April, '05: 139); "The Climate of the Philippine Islands" (J.S.G., Dec, '99: 361). Canada. — Aner, " The North Country " (R. Clarke Co., Cincinnati, $2.00); Butler, " Wild Northland, a Winter with a Dog" (A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, $1.00); "Canadian Guide Book" (App., $1.00) ; Coe, "Our Ameri- can Neighbors " (S.B.C., $0.60); Howe, "Four- teen Thousand Miles, a Carriage, and Two Women " (F. S. Howe, Leominster, Mass., $1.50); Morely, "Down North and Up Along," (Dodd, Mead&Co.,New York, $1.50); Parkin, "The Great Dominion" (McM., $1.75); Pauli, "Record of a Trip through Canada's Wilderness " (J. A. Pauli & Co., New York, $1.50) ; Plummer, " Roy and Ray in Canada" (Henry Holt & Co., New York, $1.75) ; Ralph, " On Canada's Frontier " (H. B., $2.50) ; Statistical Year Book (each year by Depart- ment of Agriculture, Ottawa) ; Wallace, " Long Labrador Trail" (Outing, New York, $1.50) ; Willcox, "Exploration in the Canadian Rock- ies " {N.G.M., May, '02: 151; June, '02: 185). Poem : " Evangeline," Longfellow. Mexico. — Bancroft, " Recources and Devel- opment of Mexico " (The Bancroft Co., San Francisco, $4.50) ; Edwards, " On the Mexican Highlands" (Jennings & Graham, Cincinnati, $1.50); Fitzgerrell, "Guide to Tropical Mexico" (J. J. Fitzgerrell, Mexico City, $0.50); "Guide to Mexico" (App., $1.50); Griffin, "Mexico of To-day" (H.B., $1.50); Hornaday, " Camp Fires on Desert and Lava " (Scrib., $3.00) ; Lummis, " The Awakening of a Nation" (H.B., $2.50); McGary, "An Amer- ican Girl in Mexico " (Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, $1.00) ; Noll, " Short History of Mexico " (McClurg & Co., Chicago, $0.75) ; Plummer, " Roy and Ray in Mexico " (Henry Holt Co. New York, $1.75); Prescott, "Conquest of Mexico" (A. L. Burt & Co., New York, $1.25); Romero, " Coffee and India Rubber Culture in Mexico " (Put., $3.00) ; Romero, '^ Geographical and Statistical Notes on Mexico" (Put., $2.00) ; Schwatka, " In the Land of Cave and Cliff Dwellers " (E.P.C., $1.25); Smith, "White Umbrella in Mexico " (H.M.C., $1.50); Darton, " Mexico, the Treasure House of the World " (N.G.M., Aug., '07: 493); Foster, "The New Mexico" {N.G.M., Jan. '02; 1); Nelson, "A Winter Expedition in Southwestern Mexico " {N.G.M., Sept., '04: 341). Central America and Panama Canal Zone. — Belt, " Naturalist in Nicaragua " (Scrib. and Welford, New York, $3.00); Calvo, "The Republic of Costa Rica" (R.McN., $2.00); Charles, " Honduras" (R.McN., $1.50) ; Davis, " Three Gringos in Venezuela and Central America" 3o British Honduras, 1908 T,562 43,270 Canada, 1901 3,745,574 5,371,315 Central America, 1909 208,427 4,912,850 Costa Rica, 1907 18,400 351,176 Cuba, 1907. 44,000 2,048,980 Greenland, 1901 826,500 11,893 Guatemala, 1906 48,290 1,882,992 Haiti (Island). 1908 28,249 2,029,700 Honduras, 1905 46,250 500,136 Jamaica, 1909 4,200 -848.656 Mexico, 190(J , 767,005 13,605,919 Newfoundland, 1908 42,734 233,012 Nicaragua, 1906 ; 49,200 600,000 Panama, 1909 31,500 419,029 St. Croix, 1901 84 18,401 St. Thomas. 1901 32 11,269 Salvador, 1906 7,225 1,110,253 United States, see p. 426 , South America, 1906 7.598,000 43,770,000 Argentina, 1908 1,135,840 6,489,023 Bolivia, 1908 605,400 2,049,083 Brazil, 1908 3,218,991 21,401,100 Chile, 1908 292,580 3,302,204 Colombia, 1908 435,100 4,303,000 Ecuador, 1889 116,000 1,400,000 Falkland Islands, 1908 6,500 2,289 Galapagos Islands, 1889 2.400 400 Guiana, British, 1908 90,277 304,089 Guiana, Dutch, 1908 46,060 81,038 Guiana. French, 1906 30,500 89,349 •Juan Fernandez 36 Paraguay, 1905 98,000 631.347 Peru, 1896 695,7*3 4,609,999 South Georgia Islands 1,000 uninhabited Tobago, 1901 114 18,750 Trinidad Island, 1901 1,754 255,148 Uruguay, 1908 72,210 1,042,008 Venezuela, 1908 393,870 2,664,241 Europe, 1900 8,796^000 392,246,000 Andorra, 1897 175 5,231 Austria, 1900 115,903 26,150,708 Austria-llungarv. lOoO 201,100 40,982,8:^6 Balearic Isles, 1900 1,935 311,649 Belgium, 1908 11,373 7,386,444 Area In Square Miles Population British Empire, 1906 11,433,283 British Isles, 1909 121,390 Bulgaria, 1908 38,080 Corsica, 1906 8,367 Crete, 1900 3,365 Denmark, 1906 15,592 England, 1901 50,874 England and Wales, 1909 58,324 Faroe Lslands, 1901 540 France, 1906 207,054 German Empire, 1905 208,780 Great Britain, 1909 88,729 Greece, 1907 25,014 Hebrides Islands, 1897 3,000 Hungary, 1900 125,430 Iceland, 1901 39,756 Ireland, 1909 32,300 Italy, 1909 110,059 Liechtenstein, 1900 65 Luxemburg, 1900 1,706 Malta, 1909 95 Monaco, 1909 8 Montenegro, 1909 3,630 Netherlands, 1908 12,648 Norway, 1908 124,130 Orkney Islands, 1901 376 Portugal, 1900 85,490 Prussia, 1905 184,616 Roumania, 1908 50,720 .Russia, 1908 1,862,524 Russian Empire, 1908 8,647,657 San Marino, 1909 38 Sardinia, 1909 9,306 Scotland, 1909 30.405 Servia, 1905 18,650 Shetland Islands, 1901 551 Sicily, 1909 9,935 Spain, 1908 194,783 Sweden, 1908 172,876 Switzerland, 1908 15,976 Turkey, 1909 65,350 Turkish Empire, 1909 1,565,000 Wales, 1901 T,450 Asia, with East Indies, 1900 16,770,951 Aden, 1901 T5 Afghanistan, 1909 250,000 Arabia, 1909 880,000 Baluchistan, 1901 ISLa'iS Bhutan, 1909. . ., 20,000 Bokhara, 1909 83.000 Burma, 1901 230,733 892,846,835 45,520,527 4,158,409 291.100 810,185 2,605,268 81,071.703 35,756,615 16,349 89,252,245 60,641,278 40,634,268 2,631,952 100,000 19,254,559 78.470 4,374,158 84,269,746 9,650 219,210 212,888 19,121 250,000 5,815,198 2,352,786 5,423,132 37,293,324 6,771,722 113,841,000 155,433,300 10,810 861,249 4,877,648 2,688,025 28,106 3..'i74,424 19,712..585 5.429.600 8,559,849 6,130.200 85,400.000 1,455,940 877,000,000 41.222 4,r..'i0.000 950.000 9l.'>.oi;0 250,000 1,250,000 10,490,624 611 512 APPENDIX Area in Square Miles Population Ceylon, 1907 25,382 3,988,064 China (proper), 1906 1,532,420 407,253,030 Chinese Empire, 1906 4,277,170 438,214,000 Chinese Turkestan, 1906 550,340 1,200,000 Cyprus, 1908 3,584 258,997 Formosa, 1905 13,458 3,039,751 French India, li)07 196 287,402 French Indo-China, 1901 256,000 18,230,000 India, 1901 1,766,642 294,361,056 Japan, 1908 147,655 49,581,928 Khiva, 1909 24,000 800,000 Korea, 1909 86,000 10,000,000 Manchuria, 1906 ^ .363,610 16,000,000 Mongolia, 1906 1,367,600 2,600,000 Nepal, 1909 54,000 5,000,000 Oman, 1909 82,000 500,000 Palestine, 1905 10,000 700,000 Persia, 1909 628,000 9,500,000 Portuguese Indies, 1901 7,330 300,000 Russia in Asia, 1908 6,207.662 22,661,600 Russian Turkestan, 1908 400,770 5,961,600 Siam, 1909 195,000 6,686,486 Siberia, 1908 4,786,730 7,049,200 Straits Settlements, 1901 1,472 .572,249 Sungaria, 1901 147,950 600,000 Tibet, 1909 463.200 6,500,000 Turkey in Asia, 1909 693,610 17,683,500 Africa, 1900 11,403,000 170,000,000 Abyssinia, 1909 200,000 (ii'ooo'ool]" Algeria (Fr.). 1907 343,500 5.231.850 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1909 950,000 2,363,000 Angola, 1909 484,800 4,119,000 Belgian Congo, 1909 909,650 20,000,000 British East Africa, 1909 200,000 4.000.000 British Somaliland, 1909 68,000 300.000 Canary Islands (Sp.), 1900 2,807 3.58,564 Cape of Good Hope, 1910 276,995 507,500 Cape Verde Islands (Port,), 1900 1,480 147,424 Egypt. 1907 400,000 11,139,978 Eritrea (Italy), 1906 45,800 450,000 French Sudan, 1901 354,000 2,860,000 French Kongo, 1907 669,281) 5,000,000 French Somaliland, 1907 5,790 180,000 French Territory, 1906 3,932,900 32,092.340 Gambia (Br.), 1909 4,500 152,000 German East Africa, 1909. 384,180 10,000,000 German Southwest Africa, 1909 322,450 120,000 German Territory, 1909 1,027,820 14,546,000 Gold Coast (Br.), 1901 82,000 1,486,433 Italian Somaliland, 1909 129,700 400,000 Area in Square Miles Population Kamerun (Ger.), 1909 191,130 3,000,000 Liberia, 1909 40,000 l^g;^ Madagascar (Fr.), 1908 228,000 2,706,661 Madeira Islands, 1900 814 150,574 Mauritius (Br.), 1901 713 373,336 Morocco, 1909 219,000 | 4 Igo'ooo" Natal (Br.), 1908 35,871 1,206,386 Niger Territories (Br.), 1901 4-5,000,000 25-40,000,000 Orange Kiver Colony, 1910 50,392 466,880 Portuguese East Africa, 1901 293,400 8,120,000 Portuguese Guinea, 1901 13,940 820,000 Portuguese West Africa, 1901 484,800 4,119,000 Keunion Island (Fr.), 1907 970 201,000 St. Helena (Br.), 1908 47 8,558 Sierra Leone (Br.). 1901 4,000 76,656 South African Union, 1910 472,897 5,450,237 Spanish Africa, 1900 80,580 291,946 Togo, 1909 .38,700 1,000,330 Transvaal, 1910 110,139 1,269.961 Tripoli (Turk.), 1906 398,900 1,000,000 Tunis (Fr.), 1907 45,779 1,.500,000 Uganda, 1909 117,681 3,920,000 Zanzibar (Br.), 1908 640 176,000 (?) Australia. Commonwealth of, 1908 2,9;4,5$t 4,275,306 New South Wales, 1909 310,367 1,445,306 Northern Territory, 1907 903,690 392,431 Queensland, 1908 670,500 658,237 South Australia, 1907 903.690 892,431 Tasmania, 1906 26,216 180,166 Victoria, 1908 87,884 1,273,818 Western Australia, 1909 975,920 278,027 East Indies and larger islands of Pacific Borneo, 1905 212,737 1,233,656 Celebes, 1905 71,470 351,905 Fiji Islands, 1908 7,435 130,891 Hawaiian Islands, 1900 6,449 154,001 Java, 1905 50,554 30,098,008 Molucca Islands, 1905 48,864 407,906 New Caledonia. 1907 7,200 55,800 New Guinea, 1901 275,829 8,050,000 New Zealand, 1909 104,7.51 1,029,417 Philippine Islands, 1908 127,853 7,635,426 • Samoa Islands, 1906 1,000 88,478 Solomon Islands, 1909 12,000 150,247 Sumatra. 1905. ...'. 161,612 4,029,508 Total Area of Continents 51,000,000 Total Population 1,610,000,000 STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES Area in Square .Miles Alabama 51,998 Alaska 590,884 Arizona 113,956 Arkansas 53,336 California 158,297 Colorado 108,948 Connecticut 4,966 Delaware 2,870 District of Columbia 70 Florida 68,666 Georgia 59,266 Guam 210 Hawaiian Islands 6,449 Idaho 84,313 lUinois 56,666 Population 1900 Population 1910 1,828,697 63,.592 122,981 1,311,564 1,485,0.53 2,138,093 64,.356 204,354 1,574,449 2,377,.549 5.39,700 908,420 , 184,785 278,718 628,5i2 799,024 1,114,7.56 202,822 831,009 752,619 2,216.831 8,561 154,001 161,772 4,821,650 2,609,121 11,973 191.909 325,.594 5,688,691 Area in Square Miles Indiana 86,354 Iowa 56,147 Kansas 82,158 Kentucky 40,598 Louisiana 48,506 Maine 83,040 Maryland 12,827 Massachusetts 8,266 Michigan 57,980 Minnesota 84,682 Mississippi 46,866 Missouri 69,420 Montana 146,572 Nebraska 77,620 Nevada 110,690 Population 1900 Population 1910 2,516,462 2,231,863 1,470,495 2,147,174 1,381,625 2,700,876 2,224,771 1,690,949 2,289,905 1,656,388 694.466 1.188.044 2,805.346 2,420,982 1,751,394 742,371 1,295,346 8,366,416 2,810,173 2,075,708 1,5.51,270 y, 106,665 248,329 1,006,800 42,336 1,797,114 8,293,885 876,058 1,192,214 81,876 AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 613 Area In Square Miles Now Hampshire 9,341 New Jersey 8,224 New Mexico 122,034 New York 49,204 North Carolina 52,426 North Dakota 70,837 Ohio 41,040 Oklahoma 38,843 Oregon 96,699 Pennsylvania 45,126 Philippine Islands 127,853 Porto Rico, 1899 3,606 Khode Island 1 ,248 South C'arolina 30,989 South Dakota 77,615 Population 1900 Population 1910 411,588 1,883,669 195.310 7,268,894 1,893,810 430,572 2,537,167 327,301 9,113,614 2,206,287 819,146 4,157,545 398,331 413,536 6,302,115 557,056 4,767,121 1,657,155 672,765 7,665,111 8,000,000 953,243 428,556 1,340,316 401,570 7,912.593 1,118,012 542,610 1,515,400 583,888 Area in Square Miles Tennessee 42,022 Texas 265,896 Tutuila 77 Utah 84,990 Vermont 9,564 Virginia 42,627 Washington 69,127 West Virginia 24,170 Wisconsin 56,066 Wyoming 97,914 United States, total 3,624,122 United States (.witlioat Alaska, Pliilippine Islands, etc.) 3,026,789 Population 1900 Population 1910 2,020,616 3,048,710 3,800 276,749 843,641 2,184,789 3,896,542 6,780 {'09) 373,351 355,956 1,854,184 518,103 ii58,800 2,069,042 92,531 2,061,612 1,141,990 1,221,119 2,333,860 145,965 84,815,937 101,037.557 75,994,578 91,972,266 TWENTY-FIVE OF THE LARGEST CITIES IN THE WORLD Population 1. London, England, 1909 4,833,938 Greater London, 1909 7,429,740 2. New York, U. 3., 1910 4,766,883 3. Paris, France, 1906 2,763,393 4. Tokyo, Japan, 1908 2,186,079 5. Chicago, U. 8., 1910 2,185,283 6. Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1909 2,085,888 7. Berlin, Germany, 1905 2,040,148 8. Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1903 1,189,252 9. St. Petersburg, Russia, 1905 1,678,000 10. Philadelphia, U. 8., 1910 1,549,008 11. Moscow, Russia, 1907 1,3159,254 12. Osaka, Japan, 1908 1,226,590 Population 13. Constantinople, Turkey, 1910 1,106,000 14. Calcutta, India, 1901 1,026,987 15. Siangtan, China, 1908 .' 1,000,000 16. Singanfu, China, 1908 1,000,000 17. Canton, China, 1908 900,000 18. Glasgow, Scotland, 1909 872,021 19. Hankau, China, 1908 820,000 20. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1906 811,265 21. Hamburg, Germany, 1905 802,793 22. Tientsin, China, 1908 800,000 23. Bombay, India, 1901 776,006 24. Liverpool, England, 1909 760,357 25. Warsaw, Russia, 1901 766,426 TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES Population Population 1900 1910 New York, N.Y 3,437,202 4,766,883 Chicago, 111 1,698.575 2,185,283 Philadelphia, Pa ; 1,293,697 1,549,008 St. Louis, Mo 575,2:38 687,029 Boston, Mass 560,892 670,585 Cleveland, Ohio 381,768 560,663 Baltimore, Md 508,957 558,485 Pittsburg, Pa 321,616 53:3,905 Detroit, Mich 285,704 465,766 BuflFalo, N.Y 352,387 423,715 San Francisco, Cal 342,782 416,912 Milwaukee, Wis 285,315 873,857 Cincinnati, Ohio 325,902 864,468 Population Population 1900 1910 14. Newark, N.J 246,070 847,469 15. New Orleans, La 287,104 839,075 16. Washington, D.C 278,718 331,069 17. Los Angeles, Cal 102,479 319,198 18. Minneapolis, Minn 202,718 301,408 19. Jersey City, N.J 206,433 267.779 20. Kansas City, Mo 163,752 248,331 21. Seattle, Wash 80,671 237,194 22. Indianapolis, Ind 169,164 233,650 23. Providence, R.I 175,597 224,326 24. Louisville, Ky 204,731 228,928 25. Rochester, N.Y. 162,608 218,149 GROWTH OF THE FIFTEEN LARGEST CITIES OF THE COUNTRY City 1800 1. New York, N.Y 60,489 (1) 2. Chicago, 111 3. Philadelphia, Pa 41,220 (2) 4. St. Louis, Mo 10,049 (1820) 5. Boston, Mass 24,937 (4) 6. Cleveland, Ohio 606(1820) 7. Baltimore, Md 26,514 (3) 8. Pittsburg, Pa 1,565 9. Detroit, Mich 1,422 (1820) 10. Buffalo, N.Y ; 2,095 (1820) 11. San Francisco.! al 12. Milwaukee, Wis 13. Cincinnati, Ohio 2,540 (1810) 14. Newark, N.J 8,008 (1810) 15. New Orleans, La 17,242 (1810) 1830 1890 1900 197,112 (1) 2,507,414 (1) 8,437,202 (1) 4,470 (1840) 1,099,850 (2) 1,698,575 (2) 80,462 (3) 1,046,964 (3) 1,293,697 (3) 14,125 451,770 (4) 575,238 (4) 61,392 (4) 448,477 (5) 560,892 (5) 1,076 261,353 (9) 381,768 (7) 80,620 (2) 434,4.39 (6) 608,9,57 (6) 12,568 238,617 (12) 321,616 (11) 2,222 205,876 (14) 285,704 (13) 8,668 255,664 (10) 852,387 (8) 298,997 (7) 842,782 (9) 1,172 (1840) 204,468 (15) 285,315 (14) 24,831 (7) 296,908 (8) 825,902 (10) 10,953 181,830 246,070 29,737 (6) 242,039 (11) 287,104 (12) 1910 4,766,883 2,185,283 1,649,008 687,029 670,685 560,663 558,485 533,905 46.5,766 423,715 416,912 873,857 364,463 347.469 339,075 2l 514 APPENDIX CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES "WITH 25,000 OR MORE INHABITANTS IN 1910; AND A FEW OTHERS, MOSTLY MENTIONED IN THE BOOK Population, 1900 Akron, Ohio 42.728 Albany, N.Y 94,151 Albuquerque, N.M 6,288 AUentown, Pa 86,416 Altoona, Pa 88,978 Amsterdam, N.Y 20,929 Anaconda, Mont 9,458 Annapolis, Md 8,575 Ann Arbor, Mich 14,509 Asheville, N.C 14,694 Ashland, Wis 13,074 Astoria, Ore 8,881 Atchison, Kan 15,722 Atlanta, Ga 89,872 Atlantic City, N.J 27,888 Auburn, Me 12,951 Auburn. N.Y 80,345 Augusta, Ga 39,441 Augusta, Me 11,683 Aurora, 111 24,147 Austin, Tex 22,258 Baltimore, Md 508,957 Bangor, Me 21,850 Barre, Vt 8,448 Bath, Me 10,477 Baton Rouge, La 11,269 Battle Creek, Mich 18,563 Bay City, Mich 40,747 Bayonne, N.J 82,722 Bellingham, Wash 11,062 Berkeley, Cal 18,214 Biddeford, Me 16,145 Billings, Mont • 8,221 Binghamton, N.Y 39,647 Birmingham, Ala 38,415 Bisbee, Ariz 7,000 Bismarck, N.D 3,319 Bloomington, 111 23,286 Boise, Idaho 5,957 Boston, Mass 560,892 Bradford, Pa 15,029 Bridgeport, Conn 70,996 Brockton, Mass 40,063 Brookline, Mass 19,935 Brunswick, Ga 9,081 Buflfalo, N.Y 352,387 Burlington, Vt 18,640 Butte, Mont 30,470 Cambridge, Mass r 91,886 Camden, N.J. 75,935 Canton, Ohio 80,667 Carson City. Nev 2,100 Cedar Rapids, Iowa 25,656 Champaign, 111 9,098 Charleston, 8.C 55,807 Charleston, W. Va 11,099 Charlotte, N.C. 18,091 Chattanooga, Tenn 30,154 Chelsea, Mass 34,072 Chester, Pa 33,988 Cheyenne, Wyo 14,087 Chicago, 111 1,098.575 Chicopee, Mass 19,167 Cincinnati, Ohio 825,902 Clarksville, Tenn 9,481 Cleveland, Ohio 881,768 Clinton, Iowa 22,698 ' Colorado Springs, Colo 21,085 Columbia, S.C 21,108 Columbus, Ga 17,614 Columbus, Ohio 125,660 Concord, N.H 19,632 Council Bluffs, Iowa 25,802 Covington, Ky 42,938 Cripple Creek, Colo 10,147 Population, 1910 69,007 100,258 11,020 61,918 52,127 81,267 10,134 8,609 14,817 18,762 11,594 9,599 16,429 154,839 46,150 15,064 84,668 41,040 18,211 29,807 29,860 658,485 24,808 10,734 9,896 14,897 25,267 45,166 65,545 24,296 40,434 17,079 10,031 48,443 182,686 9,019 182,685 25,768 17,358 670,586 14,544 102,054 66,878 27,792 10,182 428,715 20,463 89,165 104,839 94,538 60,217 2,466 82,811 12,421 68,833 22,996 84,014 44,601 82,452 88,537 11,320 2,185,288 25,401 864,463 8,548 660,663 25,577 29,078 26,319 20,554 181,548 21,497 29,292 63,270 6,206 Population, 1900 Dallas. Tex 42.638 Danville, 111 16,354 Danville, Va 16,520 Davenport. Iowa 85,254 Dayton, Ohio 85,333 Decatur, 111 20,754 Denver, Colo 133,859 Des Moines, Iowa .62,139 Detroit, Mich 285,704 Douglas, Ariz Dover, Del 3,829 Dover, N.H 13,207 Dubuque, Iowa 36,297 Duluth, Minn 52,969 Durham, N.C 6,679 Easton, Pa 25,238 East Orange, N.J 21,506 Eastport, Me 5,811 East St. Louis, 111 29,655 Elgin, 111 22,438 Elizabeth, N.J 52,130 Elmira, N.Y 35,672 El Paso, Tex 15,906 Erie, Pa 52,788 Evanston, 111 19,259 Evansville, Ind 69,007 Everett, Mass 24,336 Fall River, Mass 104,863 Fargo, N.D 9,589 Findlay, Ohio 17,618 Fitchburg, Mass 81,581 Flint, Mich 13,108 Fort Wayne, Ind ^ 45,115 Fort Worth, Tex 26,688 Frankfort, Ky 9,487 Fresno, Cal 12,470 Galveston, Tex 87,789 Gloucester, Mass 26,121 Goldfield, Nev Grand Rapids, Mich 87,566 Greeley, Colo 8,023 Green Bay, Wis 18,684 Greenville, S.C .11,860 Guthrie, Ok 10,006 Hamilton, Ohio 23,914 Harrisburg, Pa 60,167 Hartford, Conn 79,850 Haverhill, Mass 87,176 Ilazelton, Pa 14,230 Helena, Mont 10,770 High Point, N.C 4,163 Hilo, Hawaiian Islands 19,785 Hoboken, N.J 59,364 Holyoke, Mass 45,712 Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands 39,306 Hot Springs, Ark 9,973 Houghton, Mich 3,595 Houston, Tex 44,683 Huntington, W. Va 11,923 Huntsville, Ala 8,068 Indianapolis, Ind 169,164 Ishpeming, Mich 13,256 Ithaca, N.Y 13,186 Jackson, Mich 25,180 Jackson, Miss 7,816 Jacksonville, Fla 28,429 Jamestown, N.Y 22,892 Jefferson City. Mo 9,664 Jersey City, N.J 206,433 Johnstown, Pa 36,986 Joliet, 111 29,358 Joplin, Mo 26,028 Juneau, Alaska 1,864 Kalamazoo, Mich 24,404 Kansas City, Kan 51,418 Population, 1910 92,104 27,871 19,020 43,028 116,577 31,140 213.881 86,368 465,766 6,437 8,720 13,247 88,494 78,466 18,241 28,523 84,871 4,961 58,547 26,976 73,409 37.176 39,279 66.525 24,978 69,647 33,484 119,295 14,881 14,868 87,826 88,550 63,983 73,812 10,465 24,892 36,981 24,898 4,838 112,571 8,179 25,236 15,741 11,654 35,279 64,186 98,915 44,115 25,452 12,616 9,525 6,745 70,324 67,780 62,183 8,772 6,118 78,800 81,161 7,611 283,650 12,448 14,802 81,488 21,262 67,699 81,297 11,850 267,779 65,482 84,670 82,078 1,644 89,487 82,881 AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 615 Population, 1900 Kansas City, Mo 163,752 Key West, Fla '. 17,114 Kingston, N. Y 24,535 Knoxville, Tenn 32,637 La Crosse, Wis 28,895 Lancaster, Pa 41,459 Lansing, Mich 16,485 Laramie, Wyo 8,207 Lawrence, Mass 62,559 Leadville, Colo 12,455 Lewiston, Idaho 2,425 Lewiston, Me 23,761 Lexington, Ky 26,369 Lima, Ohio 21,723 Lincoln, Neb 40,169 Little Rock, Ark 38,307 Lockport, N.Y 16,581 Lorain, Ohio 16,028 Los Angeles, Cal 127,927 Louisville, Ky 204,731 Lowell, Mass 94,969 Lynchburg, Va 18,891 Lynn, Mass 68,513 Macon, Gfa 23,272 Madison, Wis 19,164 Maiden, Mass 33,664 Manchester, N.H 56,987 Manila, Philippines, 1903 219,928 Marquette, Mich 10,058 McKeesport, Pa 34,227 Memphis, Tenn 102,820 Meriden, Conn 24,296 Miami, Fla 1,681 Milwaukee, Wis 285.315 Minneapolis, Minn 202,718 Mobile, Ala 38,469 Montgomery, Ala 30,346 Montpelier, Vt 6,266 Mount Vernon, N.Y 21,223 Muskogee, Okla 4,254 Nashua, N.H 23,898 Nashville, Tenn 80,865 Natchez, Miss 12,210 New.irk, N.J 246,070 Newark, Ohio 18,157 New Bedford, Mass 63,442 New Britain, Conn 25,998 Newburgh, N.Y 24,943 Newcastle, Pa 28,339 New Haven, Conn 108,027 New Orleans, La 287,104 Newport, Ky 28,301 Newport, R.I 22,441 Newport News, Va 19,635 New Rochelle, N.Y 14,720 Newton, Mass 33,587 New York, N.Y 3,437,202 Niagara Falls, N.Y 19,45C Nome City, Alaska 12,486 Norfolk, Va .46,624 Norristown, Pa 22,265 North Yakima, Wash 3,154 Oakland, Cal 66,960 Ogden, Utah 16,313 Oil City, Pa 13,264 Oklahoma City, Okla 10,037 Clean, N.Y 9,462 Olympia, Wash 4,082 Omaha, Neb 102,555 Orange, N.J 24,141 Oshkosh, Wis 28,284 Oswego, N.Y 22,199 Pasadena, Cal 9,117 Passaic, N.J 27,777 Paterson, N.J 105,171 Pawtucket, R.I 39,231 Pensacola, Fla 17,747 Population, 1910 248,381 19,945 25,908 86,346 30,417 47,227 31,229 8,237 85,892 7,003 6,043 26,247 85,099 80,508 43,973 45,941 17,970 28,833 319,198 228,928 106,294 29,494 89,336 40,065 25,531 44,404 70,003 11,503 42,694 131,105 27,265 5,471 873,857 801,408 51,521 38,136 7,856 80,919 25,278 26,005 110,364 11,791 847,409 25,404 96,652 43,916 27,805 36,280 133,605 339,075 30,309 27,149 20,205 28,867 89,806 4,766,883 30,445 2,600 67,452 27,875 14,082 150,174 25,580 15,657 64,205 14,743 6,996 124,006 29,630 33,062 23,368 30,291 54,778 125,600 51,622 22,982 Population, 1900 Peoria, 111 56,100 Perth Amboy, N.J 17,690 Petersburg, Va 21,810 Philadelphia, Pa 1,293,697 Phoenix, Ariz 5,544 Pierre, S.D 2,306 Pittsburg, Pa 321,616 Pittsfield, Mass 21,766 Plymouth, Mass 9,562 Po'mona, Cal 5,526 Ponce, Porto Rico, 1899 27,952 Portland, Me 50,145 Portland, Ore 90,426 Portsmouth, N.H 10,637 Portsmouth, Va 17,427 Poughkeepsie, N.Y 24,029 Prescott, Ariz 3,559 Providence, R.I 175,597 Provincetown, Mass., 1895 4,555 Pueblo, Colo 28,157 Quincy, 111 36,252 Quincy, Mass 23,899 Racine, Wis 29,102 Raleigh, N.C 13,648 Reading, Pa 78,961 Redlands, Cal 4,797 Richmond, Va 85,050 Riverside, Cal 7,973 Roanoke, Va 21,495 Rochester, N.Y 162,608 Rockford, 111 31,051 Rome, 6a 7,291 Rutland, Vt 11,499 Sacramento, Cal 29,282 Saginaw, Mich 42,345 St. Augustine, Fla 4,272 St. Joseph, Mo 102,979 St. Louis, Mo 575,238 St. Paul, Minn 163,065 Salem, Mass 35,956 Salem, Ore 4,258 Salt Lake City, Utah 53,531 San Antonio, Tex 53,821 San Bernardino, Cal 6,150 San Diego, Cal 17,700 San Francisco, Cal 342,782 San Jos6, Cal 21,500 San Juan, Porto Rico, 1899 32,048 Santa Fe, N.M 5,603 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich 10,538 Savannah, Ga 54,244 Schenectady, N.Y 31,682 Scranton, Pa 102,026 Seattle, Wash 80,671 Shawnee, Okla 3,464 Sheboygan, Wis 22,962 Shenandoah, Pa 20,321 Shreveport, La 16,013 Sioux City, Iowa 33,111 Sioux Falls, S.D 10,266 Sitka, Alaska 1,396 Skagway, Alaska 8,117 Somerville, Mass 61,648 South Bend, Ind 35,999 South Omaha, Neb 20,001 . Spartanburg, S.C 11,395 Spokane, Wash 30,848 Springfield, 111 34,159 Springfield, Mass 62,059 Springfield, Mo 23,267 Springfield, Ohio 38,253 Stamford, Conn 15,997 Stockton, Cal 17,506 Superior, Wis 31,091 Syracuse, N.Y 108,874 Tacoma, Wash 37,714 Tallahassee, Fla 2,981 Population, 1910 66,950 82,121 24,147 1,549.003 11,134 3,056 533,905 32,121 12,141 10,207 35,027 58,571 207,214 11,269 33,190 27,936 5,092 224,326 4,369 44,395 86,587 82,642 88,002 19,218 96,071 10,449 127,628 15,212 34,874 218,149 45,401 12,099 18,546 44,696 60,510 6,494 77,403 687,029 214,744 43,697 14,094 92,777 96,614 12,779 39,578 416,912 28,946 48,716 6,072 12,615 65,064 72,826 129,867 237,194 12,474 26,898 25,774 28,015 47,828 14,094 1,039 77,236 53,684 26,259 17,519 104,402 61,678 88,926 85,201 46,921 85,183 28,253 40,384 137,249 88,748 6,018 616 APPENDIX Population, 1900 Tampa, Fla 15,839 Taunton, Mass 31,036 Terre Haute, Ind 36,678 Toledo, Ohio 131,822 Tonopah, Nev Topeka, Kan 38,603 Trenton, N.J 73,807 Troy, N.Y 60,651 Tucson, Ariz 7,531 Utica, K. Y 56,883 Vicksburg, Miss 14,884 - "Virginia City, Nev 2,095 Waco, Tex 20,686 Walla Walla, Wash 10,049 Waltham, Mass 23,481 Warwick, K.I 21,816 Washington, D.C 278,718 Waterbury , Conn 45,859 Population, 1910 37,782 34,259 58,157 168,407 8,900 48,684 90,815 76,813 13,193 74,419 20,814 2,244 26,425 19,368 27,884 26,629 831,069 73,141 Population, 1900 Waterloo, Iowa 12,580 Watertown, N.Y 21,696 Waterville, Me 9,477 West Hoboken, N.J 23,094 Wheeling, W. Va 88,878 Wichita, Kan 24,671 Wilkes Barre, Pa 51,721 Williarasport, Pa 28,757 Wilmington. Del 76,508 Wilmington, N.C 20,976 Winona, Minn 19,714 Woonsocket, R.I 28,204 Worcester, Mass 118,421 Yonkers, N.Y 47,931 York, Pa 33,708 Youngstown, Ohio 44,885 Zanesville, Ohio 23,538 Population, 1910 26,693 26,730 11,458 85,403 41,641 52,450 67,105 81,860 87,411 25,748 18,583 88,126 145,986 79,808 44,750 79,066 28,026 FOREIGN CITIES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT Population Aachen, Germany, 1905 144,095 Abbeokuta, Niger Territory, 1897 150,000 Aberdeen, Scotland, 1909 181,918 Acapulco, Mexico, 1897 5,000 Adelaide, Australia, 1907 178,300 Aden, Aden, 1901 44,079 Adis Abeba, Abyssinia 80,000-35,000 Alexandria, Egypt, 1905 860,000 Algiers, Algeria, 1906 138,240 Amsterdam, Netherlands, 19C8 565,589 Antwerp, Belgium, 1908 314,1.35 Archangel, Russia, 1897 20,882 Arequipa, Peru, 1908 35,000-40,000 Asuncion, Paraguay, 1905 60,259 Athens, Greece, 1907 167,479 Auckland, New Zealand, 1906 82,101 Bagdad, Turkey in Asia, 1910 145,000 Bahia, Brazil, 1900 2.30,000 Baku, Russia, 19U0 179,133 Ballarat, Australia, 190;) 48,063 Bangkok, Siam 400,000-600,000 Barcelona, Spain, 1900 533,000 Barmen, Germany, 1905 156,080 Ba.sel, Switzerland, 1909 129,600 Batavia, Java, 1905 138,551 Belfast, Ireland, 1909 ; 336,576 Belgrade, Servia, 1905 77,816 Benares, India, 1901 209,331 Bendigo, Australia, 1908 44,510 Berbers, Br. Somallland, 1910 30,000 Bergen, Norway, 1900 72,251 Berlin, Germany, 1905 2,040,148 Berne, Switzerland, 1909 73,500 Bethany, Holy Land, 1890 1,105 Bethlehem, Holy Land, 1905 8,000 Bilbao, Spain, 1900 83,306 Birmingham, England, 1909 563,629 Bloemfontein, South Africa, 1904 33,883 Bogota, Colombia, 1908 123,300 Bologna, Italy, 1908 165,000 Bombay, India, 1901 776,006 Bordeaux, France, 1900. . . .- 251,917 Bradford, England, 1909 293,983 Bremen, Germany, 1905 214,861 Breslau, Germany, 1905 470,904 Brindisi, Italy, 1907 22,021 Brisbane, Australia, 1908 • 137,670 Bristol, England, 1909 377,642 Brussels, Belgium, 1908 637,807 Bucharest, Roumania, 1908 800,000 Budapest, A ustria-Hungary, 1900 782,42^ Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1908 1,189,252 Cadiz, Spain, 1900 69,382 Cairo, Egypt, 1907 654,476 Calcutta, India, 1901 1,026,987 Population Calgary, Canada, 1906 11 ,967 Calao, Peru, 1908 31,000 Cambridge, England, 1905 38,760 Canton, China, 1908 900,000 Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope, 1904 169,641 Caracas, Venezuela, 1894 72,429 Cardiff, Wales, 1909 195,303 Cartagena, Colombia, 1905 14,000 Cartagena, Spain, 1900 99,871 . Catania, Italy, 1908 163,000 Cayenne, French Guiana, 1910 12,426 Cettinge, Montenegro, 1906 4,500 Charlottetown, Canada, 1901 12,080 Chemnitz, Germany, 1905 244,927 Chengtu, China, 1896 250,000 Christchurch, New Zealand, 1900 67,878 Christiania, Norway, 1901 .227,626 Cludad Bolivar, Venezuela, 1894 11,686 Cologne, Germany, 1905 428,722 Colon, Panama, 1907 8,000 Constantinople, Turkey, 1910 1,106,000 Copenhagen, Denmark, 1906 426,540 Cordoba, Argentina, 1908. 5:j,000 Cordoba, Spain, 1900 58,276 Cork, Ireland, 1901 76,122 Cuzco, Peru, 1908 10,000-15,000 Damascus, Turkey in Asia, 1910 260,000 Danzig, Germany, 1905 159,648 Dawson, Canada, 1901 9,142 Delhi, India, 1901 208,576 Dover, England, 1905 43,734 Dresden, Germany, 1905 516,996 Dublin, Ireland, 1901 290,6.33 Dundee, Scotland, 1909 ; 169,409 Dunedin, New Zealand, 1900 56,020 Durban, Natal, 1904 69,903 Edinburgh. Scotland, 1909 355,866 Elberfeld, Germany, 1905 102,853 Essen, Germany, 1905 231.860 Fachan, China, 1904 500,000 Fez, Morocco, 1910 140,000 Fiume, Austria-Hungary, 1900 38,955 Florence, Italy, 1908 227,000 Frankfort, Germany, 1905 334.978 Fredericton, Canada, 1901 7,117 Freetown, Sierra Leone, 1910 87,682 Fuchau, China, 1903 624.0OO Geneva, Switzerland, 1909 121,200 Genoa, Italy, 1908 275,000 Georgetown, British Guiana, 1908 53,176 Ghent, Belgium, 1908 168.768 Gibraltar, Spanish Pen., 1908 23,443 Glasgow, Scotland, 1909 872,021 Gothenburg, Sweden, 1908 162,480 Grenada, Spain, 1907 6tf,000 AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 517 Population Grimsby, England, 1909 T8,036 Guatemala, Guatemala, 1906 125,000 Guayaquil, Ecuador, 1910 80,000 Hapue, The, Netherlands, 1908 259,012 Halifax, Canada, 1901 40,832 Halle, Germany, 1905 169,916 Hamburg, Germany, 1905 802,793 Hamilton, Bermuda, 1907 2,246 Hamilton, Canada, 1901 52,034 Hammerfest, Norway, 1891 2,239 Hangchau, China, 1908 350,000 Hankau, China, 1908 820,000 Hanover, Germany, 1905 250,024 Havana, Cuba, 1907 297,159 Havre, France, 1906 132,430 Hebron, Holy Land, 1905 18,000-19,000 Helsingfors, Russia, 1905 117,317 Hobart, Tasmania, 1901 24,055 Hongkong, China, 1908 329,650 Hue, French Ind. China, 1910 50,000 Hull, England, 1909 275,552 Hyderabad, India, 1901 448,466 Iquique, Chile, 1907 40, 171 Irkutsk, Siberia, 1902 70,000 Jerusalem, Holy Land, 1910 70,000 Johannesburg, Transvaal, 1904 158,580 Joppa, Holy Land, 1905 45,000 Kabul, Afghanistan 60,000 Khartum, Egyptian Sudan, 1909 20,956 Khelat, Baluchistan, 1897 14,000 Kiev, Russia. 1902 819,000 Kimberley, Cape Colony, 1904 34,331 Kingston, Canada, 1901 ; 17,961 Kingston, Jamaica, 1891 46,542 Kioto, Japan, 1908 442,462 Konigsberg, Germany, 1905 223,770 Krefeld, Germany, 1905 110,344 Kumasasi, Ashanti, 1910 7,000 La Guaira, Venezuela, 1897 8,000 La Paz, Bolivia, 1909 78,856 La Plata, Argentina, 1908 80,000 Lassa, Tibet 25,000 Leeds, England, 1909 484,012 Leghorn, Italy, 1908 108,000 Leicester, England, 1909 244,255 Leipzig, Germany, 1905 503,672 Leith, Scotland, 1909 85,721 Libreville. French Congo, 1897 3,000 Liege, Belgium. 1908 175,870 Lille, France, 1906 205,602 Lima, Peru, 1908 140,884 Limoges, France, 1906 88,597 Lisbon, Portugal, 1900 •. . .356,009 Liverpool, England. 1909 760,357 Loanda, Port. W. Africa, 1897 14,000 Lodz, Russia, 1900 361,570 London, Canada, 1901 37,981 London. England, 1909 4,833,938 London, Greater, 1909 7,429,740 Lourenf o Marquez, Port. E. Africa, 1SK)8 9,849 Lucerne, Switzerland, 1909 36,200 Lucknow, India, 1901 264*049 Lyon, France, 1906 ' ' 1472^114 Madras, India, 1901 ]!!!509i346 Madrid, Spain, 1900 ] !639,'835 Magdeburg, Germany, 1905 240,633 Malaga, Spain, 1900 ' " [ [l3o|l09 Manaos, Brazil, 1906 50^000 Manchester, England, 1909 , ,, .655|435 Mandalay, Burma, 1901 ..!!!!l83|816 Marseille, France, 1906 517,498 Maskat, Oman, 1907 '.'...'... .25^000 Mecca, Turkey, 1900 ] . ioo^OOO Melbourne, Australia, 1908 [ ]549J200 Messina, Italy, 1908 149|778 Population Metz, Germany, 1906 60,419 Mexico City, Mexico, 1900 344,721 Miliin, Italy, 1908 684,000 Mocha, Turkey in Asia, 1897 6,000 Mombasa, Br. E. Africa, 1910 30,000 Monrovia, Liberia, 1905 8,000 Montevideo, Uruguay, 1908 306,000 Montreal, Canada, 1901 267,730 Morocco, Morocco, 1897 50,000 Moscow, Russia, 1907 1,359,254 Munich, Germany, 1905 ^38,983 Nagoya, Japan, 1908 378,231 Naples, Italy, 1908 596,000 Nassau, Bahama, 1910 12,534 Nazareth, Holy Land, 1905 11,000 Newcastle, England, 1909 281,584 Nice, France, 1906 134,232 Nizhni Novgorod, Russia, 1897 90,053 Nottingham, England, 1909 268,443 Nuremberg, Germany, 1905 294,426 Odessa, Russia. 1900 449,673 Oporto, Portugal, 1900 167,955 Osaka, Japan, 1908 1,226,590 Ottawa, Canada, 1901 59,928 Oxford, England, 1909 52,774 Palermo, Italy, 1908 819,000 Panama, Panama, 1910 20,000 Para, Brazil, 1892 65,000 Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana, 1908 34,962 Paris, France, 1906 2,763,393 Peking, China, 1908 700,000 Pernambuco, Brazil, 1906 150,000 Perth, West Australia, 1907 50,627 Peterborough, Canada, 1901 11,289 Pietermaritzburg, Natal, 1908 31,230 Pirffius, Greece, 1907 73,579 Pisa, Italy, 1901 61,321 Port Arthur, Canada, 1901 3,214 Port Arthur, China Port au Prince, Haiti, 1908 100,000 Port Said, Egypt, 1907 49,884 Portsmouth, England, 1909 214,726 Posen, Germany, 1905 136,808 Potsdam, Germany, 1905 61,414 Prague, Austria-Hungary, 1909 283,649 Pretoria. Transvaal, 1904 21,161 Puebla, Mexico, 1900 93,620 Quebec, Canada, 1901 08,840 Queenstown, Ireland, 1891 9,082 Quito, Ecuador, 1909 70,000 Rangoon, Burma, 1901 284,881 Rheims, France, 1906 109,859 Riga, Russia, 1897 282,280 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1906 811,265 Rome, Italy, 1909 575,000 Rosario. Argentina. 1908 160,000 Rotterdam, Netherlands, 1908 411,685 Roubaix, France, 1906 121,017 Rouen, France, 1906 118,459 St. Etienne, France, 1906 146,788 St. John, Canada, 1901 40,711 St. John's, Newfoundland, 1901 31,501 St. Petersburg, Russia, 1905 1,678,000 Samarkand, Russian Turkestan, 1900 68,194 San Luis Potosi, Mexico, 1900 61,019 San Salvador, Salvador, 1906 59,540 Santiago, Chile, 1907 832,724 Santo Domingo, Santo Domingo, 1909 18,626 Santos, Brazil, 1900 . . .' 85.000 sao Paulo, Brazil, 1906 348,000 Seoul, Korea, 1908 150,000 Seville, Spain, 1900 148,815 Sevres, France, 1891 6,902 Shanghai, China, 1908 651,000 Sheffield, England, 1909 470,968 618 APPENDIX Population Sianetan, China, 1908 1,000,00J Singanfu, China, 1908 1,000,000 Singapore, Straits Settlements, 1901 228,555 Smyrna, Turkey, 1909 201,000 Sofia, Bulgaria, 1908 100,000 Southampton, England, 1909 124,667 Stettin, Germany, 1905 224,119 Stockholm, Sweden, 1908 339,582 Strassburg, Germany, 1905 167,078 Stuttgart, Germany, 1905 249,286 Suchau, China, 1908 500,000 Sucre, Bolivia, 1909 23,416 Suez, Egypt, 1907 18,347 Swansea, Wales, 1909 98,308 Sydney, Australia, 1908 592,100 Tampico, Mexico, 1894 9,885 Tananarivo. Madagascar, 1901 72,000 Tangier, Morocco, 1901 35,000 Tashkend, Russian Turkestan, 1S97 155,073 Teheran, Persia, 1905 280,000 Tiberias, Holy Land, 1905 5,000 Tientsin, China, 1908 800,000 Tiflis, Russia, 1897 159,590 Timbuktu, Sudan, 1897 20,000 Tokio, Japan, 1908 2,186,079 Toronto, Canada, 1901 208,040 Trebizond, Turkey in Asia, 1909 35,000 Population Trieste, Austria-Hungary, 1909 221,993 Tripoli, Tripoli, 1909 30,000 Trondhjem, Norway, 1900 38,180 Tunis, Tunis, 1906 227,519 Turin, Italy, 1908 371,000 Upernlvlk, Greenland 700 Valencia, Spain, 1900 213,530 Valparaiso, Chile, 1907 102,447 Vancouver, Canada, 1901 26,133 Venice, Italy, 1908 160,000 Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1900 29,164 Versailles, France, 1906 54,820 Victoria, Canada, 1901 20,816 Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1909 2,085,888 Vladivostok, Siberia, 1900 38,000 Warsaw, Russia, 1901 756,426 Wellington, New Zealand, 1900 63,807 West Ham, England, 1909 321,767 Windsor, Canada, 1901 12,153 Winnipeg, Canada, 1906 90,153 Wuchang, China, 1898 300,000 Yakoba, Niger Terr., 1897 .50,000 Yarmouth, Canada, 1901 6,430 Yokohama, Japan, 1908 394,303 Zanzibar (British), 1907 55,750 Zurich, Switzeriand, 1909 183,500 ELEVATION OP SOME PLATEAUS AND MOUNTAIN PEAKS Feet Abyssinian Plateau 5-7,000 Aconcagua, Andes, Argentina (highest in South America) 22,860 Apo, Mindanao, Philippines 10,312 Ararat, Turkey in Asia 17,325 Mt. Blanc, Alps, France (highest in Alps) 15,781 Bolivian Plateau 10-13,000 Brazilian Plateau 2-2,500 Chimborazo, Andes, Ecuador 20,498 Cotopaxi, Andes, Ecuador 19,613 Elbruz, Caucasus, Russia 18,200 Etna, Sicily 10,835 Everest, Himalayas, Nepal (highest known in world) 29,002 Fremont Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wy 13,790 Fujiyama, Japan 12,365 Hecla, Iceland 5,110 Kunchinjunga 28,156 Kenia, Africa 18,620 Kilimanjaro, Africa (highest known in Africa) 19,780 Kosciusko, Australia (highest in Australia) 7,336 Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada (highest known in Canada) 19,539 McKinley, Alaska (highest known in North America) 20,464 Mauua Kea, Hawaiian Islands 13,805 Feet Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands 13,675 Mayon, Luzon Island, Philippines 8,900 Mexican Plateau 5-6,000 Mitchell, Appalachian Mts., N.C. (highest in Eastern U. S.) 6,711 Mt. Marcy, New York 5,344 Mt. Tina, Haiti 10,300 Orizaba, Mexico (highest in Mexico) 18,314 Pico del Turquino, Cuba 8,600 Pike's Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado 14,111 Popocatepetl, Mexico 17,793 Rainier, Cascade Mountains, Washington 14,363 St. Ellas, Alaska 18,025 San Francisco Mountain, Arizona 12,794 Shasta, Cascade Mountains, California 14,380 Tibet Plateau 10-15,000 United States, Western Plateau 5-6,000 Vesuvius, Italy 4,200 Washington, White Mountains, N.H. (highest in North- eastern U.S.) 6,279 Whitney, Sierra Nevada, California (highest in Western U.S.) 14,502 Yunque, Porto Rico 3,609 SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD Length in Basin Area Miles 8q. Miles Ocean lorth America Arkansas 2,170 185,671 Atlantic Colorado 2,000. 225,049 Pacific Columbia 1,400 216,537 Pacific Mackenzie 2,000 590,000 Arctic Missouri 3,000 527,155 Atlantic Missouri-Mississippi 4,300 1,257,000 Atlantic Nelson 1,732 432,000 Atlantic Ohio 975 201,720 Atlantic Rio Grande 1,800 240,000 Atlantic St. Lawrence 2,200 530,000 Atlantic Yukon 2,000 440,000 Pacific Sonth America Amazon 3,300 2,500,000 Atlantic Orinoco 1,850 366,000 Atlantic Plata 2,580 1,200,000 Atlantic Sao Francisco 1,800 • 200,000 Atlantic Europe Danube 1,770 300,000 Atlantic Dneiper 1,200 242,000 Atlantic Dwina 1,000 140,000 Arctic Elbe 725 55,000 Atlantic Po 400 27,000 Atlantic Rhine 800 75,000 Atlantic Rhone 500 88,000 Atlantic Length in Basin Area Miles Sq. Miles Ocean Enrope Seine 482 80,300 Atlantic Thames 228 6,100 Atlantic Volga ■ 2,400 668,300 Caspian Asia Amur 2.800 620,000 Pacific Brahmaputra 1^800 425,000 Indian Ganges 1,500 440,000 Indian Hoang-ho 2,700 570,000 Pacific Indus 1,800 872,700 Indian Irawadi 1,500 158,000 Indian Lena 2,800 950,000 Arctic Mekong 2,800 280,000 Pacific Ob 3,200 1,000,000 Arctic Yangtse-kiang 8,200 548,000 Pacific Yenisei '. 3,000 1,500,000 Arctic Africa Congo ....2,900 1,200,000 Atlantic Nin-er " '" ...2,600 563,300 Atlantic NiFe "'" ....3,400 1,273,000 Atlantic Zambezi" ■.■.'.'.■.'. '.".".'.'. 1,600 600,000 Indian Aostralia Darling 1,100 Indian Murray 1,000 270,000 Indian AREA, POPULATION, ETC. 619 SOME OF THE LARGE LAKES OF THE WOELD Area in Sq. Miles Aral Sea 26,900 Bailial 12,500 Balltash 7,800 Caspian 169,000 Chad, variable witli season 10,000 and often more Dead Sea 370 Erie 9,990 Great Bear I^alce 11,200 Great Salt Lake 2,360 Great Slave Lake 10,100 1 Below sea level. Elevation in Feet Greatest Depth In Feet 160 1,312 780 -85» 800-900 225 4,550 70 2,400 12 - 1,310 » 573 200 4,218 1,330 210 30-50 over 650 Area In Sq. Miles Huron 22,322 Ladoga 7,000 Manitoba 1,850 Michigan 21,729 Nicaragua 3,600 Nyassa 14.000 Ontario 7,104 Superior 30,829 Tanganyika 12,650 Titicaca 3,300 Victoria Nyanza 30,000 Winnipeg 9,400 Greatest Elevation Depth in Feet in Feet 582 750 60 730 810 582 870 110 88 1,500 600 + 247 738 602 1,008 2,800 2,100 12,875 700 4,000 590 + 710 70 DISTRIBUTION OF MANKIND longolians 540,000,000 China 380,000,000 Japan and Korea 55,000,000 Indo-China 35,000,000 Malaysia 30,000,000 Other Mongolians 40,000,000 Canrasiaiis 770,000,000 Europe 355,000,000 Asia 280,000,000 America 11.5,000,000 Africa 15,000,000 Australasia 5,000,000 Ethiopians 173,000,0«« Africa and Madagascar 153,000,000 North and South America 20,000,000 American Indiani 22,170,000 Mexico 8,765,000 Brazil 4,200,000 Colombia 8,150,000 Peru 2,700,000 Bolivia, Guatemala, and Venezuela 4,225,000 United States 250,000 Canada 100,000 RELIGIONS OF MANKIND Buddhists and Brahmins 650,000,000 I Mohammedans Christians 440,000,000 Pagans and others. Jews 8,000,000 | .180,000,000 .250,000,000 PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES FROM WHICH THE FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES HAS COME Country of Birth Number in 1900 Germany 2,666,990 Ireland 1,618,567 Canada and Newfoundland 1,181,265 England 842,078 Sweden 573,040 Italy 484,207 Country of Birth Number in 1900 Russia 424,096 Poland 383,510 Norwav 336,985 Scotland ...233,977 Total of foreign-born population 10,356,644 DISTRIBUTION OF NEGROES IN THE FIFTEEN STATES WHERE THEY ARE MOST NUMEROUS States Number of Negroes Percentage of Negroes in 1900 to Total Population, 1900 1. Georgia 1,034,813 46.69 2. Mississippi 907,630 68.50 8. Alabama 827,307 45.24 4. South CaroUna 782,321 68.86 5. Virginia 660,722 -86.68 6. Louisiana 650,804 47.10 7. North Carolina 024,469 82.97 8. Texas 620,722 20.36 States Number of Negroes Percentage of Negroes in 1900 to Total Population, 1900 9. Tennessee 480,243 28.77 10. Arkansas 366,856 27.97 11. Kentucky 284,706 13.25 12. Maryland 235,064 19.75 13. Florida 230,730 43.65 14. Missouri 161,234 6.18 15. Pennsylvania 156,845 2.48 Total number of Negroes in 1900, 8,840,789. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY KEY TO PRONUNCIATION a, as in ale ; a, as in sen'Ste ; S., as in care ; 5, as in am ; a, as in arm ; a, as ask ; a, as in fi'nal ; a, as in all ; e, as in 6ve ; e, as in ^-vent' ; e, as in end ; g, as in fern ; e, as in re'cent ; T, as in Ice ; t, as in t-de'a ; T, as in ill ; o, as in old ; 6, as in 6-bey' ; 0, as in orb ; 6, as in odd ; u, as in use ; ft, as in ft-nite' ; y, as in rude ; u, as in full ; it. as in tip ; u, as in urn ; y, as in pit'y ; 6o, as in food ; o6, as in foot ; ou, as in out ; oi, as in oil ; N, representing simply the nasal tone of the preceding vowel as in ensemble (aN'saN'b'l), ' (for voice glide) as in pardon (par'd'n); g (hard), as in go ; s (sharp), as in so ; z (like s sonant), as in zone ; ch (= tsh) as in chair ; sh, for ch, as in machine ; zh (= sh made sonant), for z, as in azure ; j (= dzh), for g, as in gem ; k, for ch, as in chorus ; kw, for qu, as in queen ; ks (surd), for x, as in vex ; gz (sonant), for x, as in exist ; f, for ph, as in philosophy ; hw, for wh, as in virhat ; t, for ed, as in baked ; ng, as in long ; n (like ng) for n before the sound of k or hard g, as in bank ; n (ordinary sound), as in no ; th (sonant), for th, as in then ; th (surd), as in thin. The primary accent is indicated by a short, heavy mark ('), the secondary by a lighter mark ('). The numbers refer to pages. Where several references are given, the pages on v^hich the principal description is to be found are indicated by heavier type. Aachen (a'Ken), 354, 358. Aberdeen X^b' er-den), 347. Abyssinia (ilb'Ts-sin'i-a), 461-462. Acacia (a-ka'sha or a-ka'shT-a), 7. Acapulco (a'ka-pool'ko), 267. Aconcagua (a'kon-ka'gwa), 321. Acropolis (a-krop'o-lis), 409." Adelaide (Sd'^-lad), 472. Aden (a'den or a'den), 424. Adirondack Mountains (ad'i-ron'- dak-), 114, 118. Adobe (a-do'b4), houses, Mexico, 265. Adriatic Sea (M'r^atlk or a'dri-), 378, 410. .ffigean Sea (e-je'an-), 410. Afghanistan (af-gSnTs-tan'), 423- 425, Africa (af'ri-ka), 93, 94, 446-464; agriculture, 453, 456, 458 ; animals, 8, 450, 451, 453, 462 ; cities, 454, 457, 460 ; climate, 3-4, 9, 447, 450, 458, 459 ; deserts, 7-9, 96, 446, 449; drainage, 447, 4 19, 450, 452, 453, 454, 459, 460 ; exploration and development, 450, 452, 457-458, 460, 461 ; irrigation, 456, 458 ; minerals, 458, 458, 459, 461; people, 3-4, 7, 9, 96, 448, 452, 457, 458, 461; position, 453; products, 461, 463; railroads, 452; rainfall, 3, 7, 447, 448, 450, 460 ; shape, 96, 446 ; stock-raising, 8, 458 ; surface, 446, 449, 455 ; trade, 452, 456, 462 ; Union of South Africa, 458. Africa, Southern, see South Africa. Agave (a-ga'v^), 265. Agriculture, 65 ; see also subdivision under names of countries, etc. Air, the, 54 ; importance of, to life, 54-55 ; movement of, 55-56. Aix la Chapelle (aks-la-sha'pgl' or as-), 358. Alabama (ai'a-bii'ma), 160, 161, 162. Alameda (Cal.) (a'la-ma'da), 225. Alaska (a-lSs'ka), 238-241 ; agricul- ture, 238, 239 ; cities, 241 ; climate, 238 ; fishing, 239, 240 ; lumbering, 239 ; mining, 240, 241 ; purchase, 238 ; railroad, 240 ; scenery, 241 ; sealing, 239 ; stock-raising, 239 ; surface, 238. Albany (N.Y.) (al'ba-ni), 129. Alberta (al-ber'ta), 250, 251. Albuquerque (N. Mex.) (al'boo-kar'- ka). Fig. 272. Alderney (al'der-nl), 340. Aleutian Islands (a-lu'shan-). Fig. 318. Alexandria (al'egz-an'dri-a), 454- 455. Alfalfa (ai-fai'fa), 212, 214. Algeria (ai-je'rl-a). 364, 367, 455, 456. Algiers (ai-jerz'), 457. Alhambra (al-ham'bra), 401, 402. Allegheny Plateau (ai'^-ga'n!-), 150. Allegheny River, 143. Alligators, in Florida, 159 ; in South America, 313, 315. Alpaca (ai-pak'a), 315. Alps Mountains (aips), 26, 332, 360, 368, 370, 374, 376, 403, 404, 406. Altoona (Pa.)(ai-too'na), 129. Amazon (am'a-zon), 318. Amsterdam (am'ster-dam'), 395. Anaconda (Mont.) (an'a-kon'da), 230. Ancestor worship, among Chinese, 428. Andes (an'd^z), 311, 315, 320, 321- 322, 326. Andorra (an-dor'ra), 361, 375. Androscoggin (an'dros-kog'gin). Fig. 144. Angola (an-go'la), 458. Animals, in Arctic regions, 5 ; of African jungle, 450 ; of Asia, 420 ; 521 of Australia, 466, 467 ; in British Isles, 340 ; of Canadian forests, 253-255; of Central States, 180- 181 ; of Europe, 380 ; of Far North, 262 ; in France, 362 ; in Germany, 354 ; of Indian jungle, 441 ; of the Nile Valley, 453 ; in Northeastern States, 116-117 ; of Philippine Islands, 248 ; of South America, 313, 314-315 ; of tropical North America, 269 ; in Western States, 206, 207 ; in Yellowstone Park, 233, Annapolis (an-nap'6-lTs) (Md.), 165, Antarctic Circle (ant-ark'tik-), 92, Antarctic Ocean, 98. Antilles (an-til'lez or aN'tel'), 270, Anti-trade winds (an'ti-trad'), 293. Antwerp (ant'werp), 397. Apia (a-pe'a or a'p^-a), 246. Appalachian Mountains (ap'pa-la'- chl-an or lach'I-an-), 107, 111,118, 147, 149. Appennines (ap'en-ninz), 368, 371, 374. Apples, in Central States, 180 ; in Mexico, 264 ; in New York State, 117; in Nova Scotia, 252; on Pacific coast, 206 ; in Southern California, 209. Apricots (a'pri-kots), on the Pacific coast, 206 ; in Southern California, 209. Arabia (a-ra'bl-a), 423-424; agricul- ture, 424 ; cities, 424 ; climate, 424 ; irrigation, 424 ; people, 424 products, 424 ; railroads, 424 stock-raising, 424 ; surface, 423. Arabs (ar'abs), 448. Aral Sea (ar'al-), 384, 415. Ararat (ar'a-rat), 419. Archipelago (ar'kT-pel'a-g6), East Indian, 473 ; Greek, 409. Arctic Circle (ark'tik-), 91. Arctic Ocean, 5, 97-98, 385. Arequipa (a'rS-ke'pa), 324. 522 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Argentina (ar'ggn-te'na), 316-317, 363 ; agriculture, 316 ; drainage, 317 ; industries, 316 ; lumbering, 316 ; railroads, 317 ; size, 316 ; stock-raising, 316 ; surface, 316. Arid (arTd) regions, in Mexico, 265 ; in western United States, 182, 205. Arizona (ar'i-zo'na), 213, 218. Arkansas (ar'k«n-sa'), 160, 161. Artesian (ar-te'zhan) wells, 182. Art museums, Brussels, 397 ; Dres- den, 357 ; Florence, 373 ; Madrid, 400 ; Paris, 365-366 ; Rome, 372- 373. Asbury Park (N.J.) (az'b6r-i-), 47. Ascension Island (3.s-sen'shun-), 463. Ashland (Wis.) (ash'laud), 187. Asia (a'shi-a), 415-419 ; climate, 415, 417 ; desert, 415 ; people, 418 ; pop- ulation, 415 ; rainfall, 418 ; size, 415 ; surface, 417, 418 ; see also under countries of Asia. Asia Minor (-mi'ner) , 419-423. Asphaltum (Ss-fSl'tiim), production of, 328. Astoria (Ore.) (as-t5'rl-a), 222, 228. Asuncion (a-soon's^-6n'), 317. Atacama Desert (a'ta-ka'ma), 314, 327 Athens (ath'6nz), 408-409. Atlanta (Ga.) (St-ian'ta), 47, 115, 145. Atlantic City (N.J,)(at-15n'tTk-), 96- 97. Atlantic Ocean, 96-97. Atlas Mountains (at'ias-), 446, 455. Atmosphere, extent of the, 54. Attar of roses, 411, 424. Auburn (Me.) (a'burn). 131. Auckland (ak'land), 473. Augusta (Ga.)(a-gus'ta), 162. Augusta (Me.), 131, 133. Austin (Tex.) (as'tin), 171. Australia (as-tra'li-a), 93, 96, 348, 303, 464^72; agriculture, 469, 470, 471 ; animals, 466, 467 ; area, 464; cities, 471; climate, 469; coast line, 469; irrigation, 469; location, 464 ; manufactures, 471 ; people, 466 ; population, 468 ; rain- fall, 468, 469 ; stock-raising, 469, 470 ; surface, 468 ; vegetation, 466. Austria (as'tri-a), 376-381. Austria-Hungary (-hQn'ga-rl), 337, 376-381, 411 ; agriculture, 378 ; cities, 379-381 ; climate, 376 ; gov- ernment, 376 ; language, 377 ; lumbering, 378 ; manufacturing, 378 ; mining, 378 ; races, 376, 377 ; size, 376 ; stock-raising, 378 ; sur- face, 376 ; trade, 378 ; transporta- tion, 378, 379. Avalanches, 27, 30, 42, 403. Axis, rotation of earth on its, 89-90. Azores Islands (a-zorz'-), 402. Aztecs (az'teks), 265, 276. B Babylon (bab'i-lun), 423. Bagdad (bag-dad' or bXg'dad), 423. Bahamas (ba-ha'mas), 270, 271, 370. Bahia (ba-e'a), 320. Baker Island (ba'ker-), 246. Baku (ba-koo'), 385. Balearic Isles (bal'e-ar'Ik), 401. Balkan Mountains (bal-kan'- or bal'- kan-), 411. Balkan Peninsula, 407-411. Ballarat (bal 'la-rat'), 472. Baltic Sea (bal'tik-), 333, 385, 392. Baltimore (Md.) (bal'tl-mor), 159, 163, 164, 165, 285. Baltimore and Ohio Railway, 165, 168. Baluchistan (ba-loo'chls-tau'), 439. Bamboo, uses of, in China, 431 ; in India, 441. Bananas, in tropical Andean coun- tries, 322, 324 ; in Central Africa, 4 ; in Central America, 268 ; in Cuba and Porto Rico, 242 ; in Florida, 156 ; in the Guianas, 320 ; in islands of the Pacific, 475 ; in Mexico, 266 ; in Philippine Islands, 247 ; in South Africa, 458 ; in Venezuela, 321; in West Indies, 270, 271. Bangkok (bSn'kok'), 438. Bangor (Me.) (ban'gor), 132, 133. Bank of England, 346. Barbary States (biir'ba-ri-), 456- 457 ; agriculture, 456 ; cities, 457 ; countries, 455 ; government, 455 ; people, 457 ; stock-raising, 456 ; surface, 455 ; trade, 456. Barcelona (bar's^-lo'na), 401. Barge Canal, New York State, 257. Barley, in Austria-Hungary, 378 ; in British Isles, 340 ; in Central States, 181 ; in Chile, 327 ; in Ecuador, 322 ; in Egypt, 453 ; in Germany, 353 ; in Ireland, 344 ; in the Netherlands, 393 ; in Ontario, 252 ; in Persia, 424 ; in Russia, 384 ; in Saskatchewan and Mani- toba, 251 ; in Venezuela, 321 ; in Western States, 206. Barmen (bar'men), 358. Barre (Vt.) (bar're), 122. Basel (bJi'zel), 407. Batavia (ba-tji'vl-a), 475. Bath (Me.), 133. _ Baton Rouge (La.) (bat'an roozh'), 169. Bauxite (boks'it), in Georgia, Ala- bama, and Arkansas, 161. Bavaria (ba-va'ri-a), 357. Bay City (Mich.), 190. Bays, 50, 54. Beer, in Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Milwaukee, 181 ; in Germany, ' Beet sugar, 153, 181, 277, 479,-480. in Austria-Hungary, 378 ; in Bel- gium, 396 ; in Germany, 353, 355 ; in the Netherlands, 394 ; in Russia, 384. Belfast (b61-fast' or bgl'fast), 342, 344, 348. Belgium (bgl'ji-um), 395-398; agri- culture, 396 ; area, 395 ; cities. 397, 398 ; colonies, 397, 462 ; com- merce, 397 ; drainage, 397 ; gov- ernment, 395 ; industries, 396 ; mining, 396 ; people, 395 ; popula- tion, 395 ; railroads, 397 ; stock- raising, 396 ; surface, 395 ; trans- portation, 397. Belgrade (bel'grad'), 411. Belize (be-lez'), 268. Bellingham (Wash.) (bellng-ara), 222, 229. Belt of Calms, 293, 294. Benares (ben-a'r6z), 443. Bendigo (ben'di-go), 472. Ben Nevis (-ne'visi, 339. Benue River (ben'w^-), 460. Bergen (bar'gen), 390. Bering Sea (be'ring-), 241. Bering Strait, 98. Berkeley (Cal.) (berk'li), 225. Berkshire Hills (berk'shir-), 144. Berlin (ber-l^n'), 356-357. Bermudas (ber-mu'das), 47, 272. Berne (bern), 407. Berries, in Central States, 180. Bethlehem (beth'l^-hem or -l^-em), ■ 422. Bey (ba) of Tunis, 455. Bhutan (boo-tan'), 439. Biddeford (Me.) (bid'de-f5rd), 131. " Big Trees " of California, 220. Billings (Mont.) (bll'llngz), 214. Binghamton (N.Y.) (bing'am-tiin), 129, 132. Birmingham (Ala.) (b5r'mTng-am or -hftm), 160, 163, 341. Birmingham (Eng.) (bgr'mlng-am), 341, 342, 345. Bisbee (Ariz.) (blz'bee), 218. Bison in Yellowstone Park, 233. Black Forest, 353, 355. Black Hills, 189. Black lead in Russia, 385, 426. Black Sea, 385, 386, 410, 413, 421. Blast furnace, 127, 128. Blizzards, 179. Blubber, seal, 256, 261. Blue Grass Region of Kentucky, 156. Bluefishing in Southern States, 169. Boa constrictor, in South America, 313, 314. Boers (boors), 458. Bogota (bo'go-ta'), 322. Bogs, in Ireland, 344 ; in Denmark, 391. Boise (Idaho) (boi'zi), 231. Bokhara (bo-KJi'ra), 425, 426. Bolivar, Simon (bol'i-ver), 324. BoUiwa (bu-liv'i-a), 321, 324-326. mbay (bom-ba'), 443. oomerang, 466, 468. Boone, Daniel, 107. Boot and shoe making, 132. Bordeaux (bor'do'), 367. Borneo (b6r'ne-6), 474. Bosporus (b6s'p6-rfls), 386, 410, 413. Boston (Mass.) (bds'tiiu), 63, 120, 143, 285. Boulogne (boo-l5n'), 366. Boundaries of countries, 102. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 523 Bradford (Pa.) (brM'fSrd), 123. Bradford (Eng.), 343, 345. Brahmanism (bra'maii-iz'm), 440. Brahmaputra (bra'ma-poo'tra), 439. Brands, cattle, 183. Brazil(bra-zil'), 317-320; agriculture, 319 ; area, 317 ; cities, 320 ; drain- age, 318; industries, 319, 320; manufacturing, 320 ; population, 317 ; products, 319 ; stock-raising, 319 ; surface, 317, 318. Brazilian Highland (bra-zil'yan-), 317. Breakwaters, 50. Bremen (brfim'en), 350, 351, 358. Breslau (bres'lou), 355, 357. Breweries, 181, 189. Brick-making, 130-131. Bridgeport (Conn.) (brij'port), 130. Bridges, railway, at St. Louis, 196, 197. Bristol (bris'tiil), 347. British Africa (brltlsh Sfri-ka), 457-460. British Columbia (-k6-lum'bi-a) , 222, 250, 251. British Empire (-6m'plr), 346, 348, 349. British Guiana (-gi-a'na), 320. British Honduras (-hon-du'ras), 268. British Isles, 337-350 ; agriculture, 339, 340, 344 ; animal products, 340; coast line, 346, 347, 348; cities, 345, 346, 347 ; climate, 339, 340 ; colonies, 348, 458, 462, 473 ; fishing, 340, 341 ; government, 349; manufacturing, 342, 343, 344, 346, 347, .348; merchant ships, 348; minerals, 341 ; population, 338, 345 ; size, 338 ; stock-raising, 340, 344 ; trade, 343, 347, 348 ; trans- portation, 348. British Straits Settlements, 438. Brockton (Mass.) (brok'tun), 132. Brooklyn (N.Y.) (brook'lin), 137. Bronze manufacturing, Munich, 357. Brunswick (Ga.) (brunz'wik), 158. Brussels (brus'selz), 397. Buckwheat, in the Netherlands, 393. Budapest (boo'da-pest), 379. Buddhism (bood'diz'm), 440. Buenos Aires (b5'nus a'riz), 317. Buffalo (N.Y.) (buf'fa-lo), 123, 129, 140, 187. Building stones, 108 ; in Belgium, 396; in Central States, 189; in France, 363 ; in Germany, 354 ; in Ireland, 344 ; in Pennsylvania, 123 ; in Southern States, 160 ; in Western States, 219. Bulbs, Dutch, 394. Bulgaria (b