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 Form L-9-5m-5.'24
 
 ^:> 
 
 A GUIDE TO METHODS AND 
 OBSERVATION IN HISTORY 
 
 STUDIES IN HIGH 
 SCHOOL OBSERVATION 
 
 By 
 
 CALVIN OLIN DAVIS 
 
 Assistant Professor of Education 
 
 in the University of Michigan 
 
 RAND McNALLY & COMPANY 
 NEW YORK CHICAGO 
 
 3^*2^2
 
 Copyright, J014, 
 By Rand, McNally & Company 
 
 Chicago
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The outlines herewith presented have grown out of 
 the necessities of a course conducted by the writer in 
 the training of teachers in the University of Michigan. 
 The course has been styled "Methods and High School 
 Observations in History." It has been open only to 
 seniors and graduate students who have specialized in 
 history and who expect to teach that subject in high 
 schools. The work has consisted of one class meeting 
 per week for eighteen weeks, and of twenty hour-obser- 
 vations of history teaching in the Ann Arbor High School. 
 The outlines, therefore, were designed to serve as a guide 
 to these observations and as a basis for subsequent dis- 
 cussions. 
 
 In order that the students might have a deeper appre- 
 ciation of the meaning of history and the various con- 
 ceptions that have been held regarding it, and in order 
 that they might possess at least a general knowledge 
 of the place history has occupied in the schools, the ele- 
 ments composing historical events, and the values attrib- 
 uted to historical study, it seemed appropriate to preface 
 the special queries respecting method by some intro- 
 ductory suggestions of a general character. This fact 
 explains the inclusion of such material as is foimd in the 
 first few pages of the present booklet. 
 
 In the hope, therefore, that students of Education 
 in other colleges, universities, and normal schools may 
 find suggestions in the material here brought together, 
 and that teachers in active school work may also receive 
 some practical help therefrom, the writer has been encour- 
 aged to place the outlines at the disposal of the public. 
 If they shall prove of service to his colleagues and their 
 students elsewhere, his aim and purpose will be fully met. 
 
 Calvin Olin Davis 
 
 University of Michigan 
 April, igi4
 
 THE CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction iii 
 
 I. Definitions i 
 
 II. Aspects of History i 
 
 III. Source Material for History 2 
 
 IV. Conceptions of the Purpose and Content of 
 
 History 6 
 
 V. Notable Influences and Persons that have 
 Modified the Conception of the Meaning 
 
 of History in the Last Century .... 7 
 
 VI. History in the Curriculum 9 
 
 VII. Value and Aims of History 11 
 
 VIII. Elements of History 18 
 
 IX. Methods of Approach to the Study of History . 22 
 X. The Process of Learning History .... 23 
 XI. The Organization of History in High Schools . 25 
 XII. The History Teacher's Preparation and Equip- 
 ment 26 
 
 XIII. The Pupil's Preparation and Equipment . . 27 
 
 XIV. The Classroom 28 
 
 XV. The Assignment of the Lesson 29 
 
 XVI. The Study Lesson 30 
 
 XVII. The Recitation Lesson 31 
 
 XVIII. The Review Lesson 35 
 
 XIX. The Lesson in Civics 35 
 
 XX. Some Principles of History Dogmatically 
 
 Stated 36 
 
 XXI. Some Positive Guides and Suggestions ... 37 
 
 Bibliography on Methods 40 
 
 A Selected List of American Historical Fiction 42
 
 A GUIDE TO METHODS AND 
 OBSERVATION IN HISTORY 
 
 STUDIES IN HIGH 
 SCHOOL OBSERVATION 
 
 I. Definitions. 
 
 1. History is the science of the development of men in 
 
 their activity as social beings. — Bernheim. 
 
 2. History is the biography of a political society or 
 
 commonwealth. — Arnold. 
 
 3. History is the story of man living in social relations 
 
 in the world. — Hinsdale. 
 
 4. History is a record of the actions of men. — Anon. 
 
 5. History is past politics. — Freeman. 
 
 Queries 
 
 1 . Which of the above definitions appeals to you most ? 
 Why? 
 
 2. Are there any criticisms to be made respecting any 
 of the above definitions? 
 
 3. What common idea runs through all the above 
 definitions? 
 
 4. Quote at least one other definition of history. 
 
 5. Formulate for yourself a thoroughly satisfying defini- 
 tion of history. 
 
 II. Aspects of History. 
 
 1. Military. 
 
 2. Political and Constitutional. 
 
 3. Ecclesiastical. 
 
 1
 
 2 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 4. Economic, Industrial, and Commercial. 
 
 5. Educational. 
 
 6. Literary. 
 
 7. Social. 
 
 Queries 
 
 1. Which of the above mentioned aspects should 
 receive the chief emphasis in the elementary school? 
 In the high school? 
 
 2. Would the constituency of the schools affect the 
 answer? 
 
 3 . Would the year in which the course is offered in the 
 high school affect the answer? 
 
 4. Can you name other factors that would affect the 
 answer? 
 
 5. Precisely what phases of history would be included 
 under each of the above aspects? 
 
 6. Do the aspects mentioned exhaust the categories? 
 
 7. So far as you have observed, are the practices in 
 the high school, respecting the aspects of history to be 
 taught, in accord with your ideals and theories? 
 
 III. Source Material for History. 
 
 I. Primary Source Material. 
 
 (a) Monuments, inscriptions, buildings, tablets, 
 
 colimms, coins, tools and utensils, tapestries, 
 
 pottery, implements, and all archaeological and 
 
 antiquarian material. 
 (6) Legal documents, e.g., statute books, charters, 
 
 petitions, declarations, decrees, orders, court 
 
 records, proclamations, treaties, 
 (c) Literary forms, e.g., manuscripts, notes, books, 
 
 diaries, letters, paper money, newspapers.
 
 Studies in High School Observation 3 
 
 (d) Narrative material, e.g., biographies, chroni- 
 cles, memoirs, and accounts of customs, super- 
 stitions, ceremonials, etc. 
 
 2, Quasi-Primary Source Material, or the Auxiliary- 
 
 Sources of History. 
 
 (a) Historical geography, involving a considera- 
 tion of the "origin, meaning, distribution, 
 and changes of geographical names." 
 
 (6) Ethnology and sociology. 
 
 (c) Geology, paleontology, and physical geography. 
 
 (d) Paleography, or the science of ancient writings. 
 
 (e) Diplomatics, or treatises on official dociiments. 
 (/) Epigraphy, or the science of inscriptions. 
 
 (g) Ntimismatics, or the study of coins. 
 (h) Languages. 
 
 3 . Secondary Authorities. 
 
 (a) Textbooks. 
 
 (6) Large historical works, e.g., Parkman's, Ban- 
 croft's, McMaster's, Fiske's. 
 
 (c) Biographies of historical personages, e.g., 
 
 The Life of Cavour; The True George Wash- 
 ington; Bismarck. 
 
 (d) Compendiums of History, e.g., Green's Short 
 History of the English People. 
 
 (e) Special treatises of historical epochs, e.g., 
 Thwaites' The Colonies; Wilson's Division and 
 Reunion. 
 
 (/) Encyclopaedic articles, e.g., "Waterloo" in 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica; Cyclopedias of 
 History; Paul Monroe's Cyclopcedia of Edu- 
 cation.
 
 4 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 (g) Dictionaries of historical names and refer- 
 ences, e.g., Low's Dictionary of English His- 
 tory or Larned's History for Ready Reference, 
 6 vols. 
 
 (h) Philosophical, legal, and constitutional treat- 
 ises bearing on history, e.g., Bryce's American 
 Commonwealth; Ostrogorski's Democracy and 
 The Party System; Montesquieu's The Spirit 
 of the Laws. 
 
 (i) Historical novels, e.g., Hugo's Les Miserables; 
 historical dramas, e.g., Shakespeare's Mer- 
 chant of Venice; historical poems, e.g., 
 Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish; 
 historical essays and monographs, e.g., articles 
 in the Historical Review and other contem- 
 porary magazines. 
 
 (/) Writings on local history, e.g., Cooley's 
 History of Michigan; Putnam's Primary and 
 Secondary Education in Michigan; Michigan 
 Pioneer Collection Articles. 
 
 Queries 
 
 I. How can primary source material be employed by 
 teachers of history in the elementary and high school? 
 2. To what extent ought it to be employed? 3. Would 
 the course of history offered, the year in which it is taught, 
 and the character of the school and its pupils, affect the 
 answer? If so, how? 4. What place in the high school 
 h.a,s snch a hook a.s HilVs Liberty Documents? 5. To what 
 extent do the observations made by you coincide with 
 your views respecting the use of primary source material ? 
 6. Make a list of ten or more "source materials" you
 
 Studies in High School Observation 5 
 
 personally could use in your teaching of history. Why 
 would you select the "material" you have? 
 
 I. How can the quasi-primary source material be used 
 in elementary schools and high schools? 2, What 
 phases of such material do you plan to use? 3. What 
 is the basis for your selection? 4. Could every high 
 school teacher of history make effective use of the material 
 you mention? 5. What deduction follows from your 
 answer? 6. What have been your observations respect- 
 ing the emplo5nTient of material of this kind? Would 
 such material lend itself to use in every recitation period? 
 
 I. Should more than one textbook be used in a given 
 course in history? Why? 2. Does the grade in which 
 the subject is taught affect the answer? 3. How can the 
 larger historical works, biographies, and compendiums 
 of history be used in the high school ? 4. Is it practicable 
 to have "special reports" from such sources made daily? 
 5. Should the teacher expect all pupils to make frequent 
 " special reports " ? 6. In how far is it feasible to supple- 
 ment the textbook by means of definite class-readings? 
 7. Should class-readings be assigned on a page basis, or 
 on a topical basis, or be left to individual selection and 
 spontaneous effort? 8. Should exact references be given 
 or should pupils be encouraged to master the art of 
 finding for themselves, within given limits, the supple- 
 mentary data sought? 9. Precisely how can a high school 
 teacher make use of such a treatise as Montesquieu's The 
 Spirit of the Laws P 10. Make a list of at least twenty selec- 
 tions from historical novels, historical dramas, poems, 
 essays, and monographs that you, as a teacher of history, 
 could employ in the high school. What fact or event 
 wotdd you attempt to illustrate by each of these selec- 
 tions? II. What use should high school teachers and
 
 6 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 pupils make of material dealing with local history? 12. 
 What constitutes a good textbook in history for high 
 school use? 13. Make a list of some of the modem text- 
 books on each of the following phases of history: (a) 
 Ancient; (6) Mediaeval and Modem; (c) English; (d) 
 French; (e) American; (J) Civil Government. What 
 would be your first and your second choices of texts in 
 each of these six divisions, and why, specifically, would 
 you make those choices? 14. What texts are used in 
 the high schools you have observed? 15. What school 
 authorities ought to select the texts to be used in the 
 high school? 16. How far have your observations in 
 the high school been in accord with your ideals and 
 theories with respect to the kinds and uses of historical 
 "material" of all kinds? 
 
 IV. Conceptions of the Purpose mid Content oj History.^ 
 
 1. As polite literature: the Greek and Roman idea, 
 
 e.g., Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Livy, 
 Sallust, Caesar, Tacitus. 
 
 2. As annals and chronicles only: the Mediaeval idea, 
 
 e.g., Gregory of Tours, Froissart, Einhard. 
 
 3 . As a basis for governmental policies and as a means 
 
 of interpreting Hterature: the Renaissance idea, 
 e.g., Machiavelli, Petrarch, Boccaccio. 
 
 4. As a basis for theological dogma and religious prac- 
 
 tices: the Reformation idea, e.g., Luther, Me- 
 lanchthon, and the Jesuits. 
 
 5. As a basis for interpreting legal institutions and 
 
 practices: the idea of the 17th century, e.g., the 
 Jurists. 
 
 I The fundamental purpose of historical writing has ever been the recording 
 of events. In addition, however, different ages have stressed other aims.
 
 Studies in High School Observation 7 
 
 6. As a foundation for philosophical speculation and a 
 
 means of discovering the deeper influences that 
 affect humanity and hence influence action and 
 produce events: the idea of the i8th century, 
 e.g., Voltaire and Montesquieu. [Voltaire held 
 that hiiman nature is the same under all circum- 
 stances and at all times, and hence sought to judge 
 historical events by abstract imiversal standards. 
 The "natural man" was his ideal man. Montes- 
 quieu, in The Spirit of the Laws, sought to show- 
 that events in history are but the manifestation 
 of spiritual law, as revealed in conditions of climate, 
 geography, soil, natural resotirces, racial temper- 
 ament, etc.] 
 
 7. As a foimdation for personal reactions, e.g., criti- 
 
 cisms, interpretation, moralizing, personal phil- 
 osophizing, or as mere facts entertainingly told: 
 the idea of the early 19th century. 
 
 8. History as science, i.e., as explanatory of existing 
 
 social institutions, customs, beliefs: the idea of 
 the 20th century. 
 
 V. Some Notable Influences and Persons titat have modified 
 ilie Conception of the Meaning of History in the Last 
 Century. 
 
 1. Romantic School (late iSth centtiry and early 19th 
 
 century), with its deep reverence for the Middle 
 Ages. Hence sympathetic treatment of history. 
 
 2. Herder (1744-1803), with his philosophy of "becom- 
 
 ing" or development. Herder sought to show that 
 all events are but the manifestation of a deity 
 striving to work out an ideal imiverse. Hence 
 all events must be judged by the standards of the
 
 f Studies in High School Observation 
 
 time and country in which they appear, i.e., be 
 judged by the characteristics of the age and people 
 affected. 
 
 3. Hegel (i 770-1831) carried the theory of Herder to 
 
 more complete conclusions. 
 
 4. Niebuhr (177 6-1 831), "one of the most acute his- 
 
 torical critics and philologists of modem times." 
 Niebuhr was among the first to emphasize the 
 need of a critical examination of source material, 
 and of the building up the past out of these data. 
 
 5. Ranke, Leopold von (1795-1886). His aim was to 
 
 set before the reader the entire pictiu-e of events 
 "with their causes, relations, and consequences." 
 
 6. Guizot, Frangois P. G. (1787-1874). His great 
 
 influence was in extending the scope of history 
 so as to include universal history, not merely 
 national history, or the history of isolated and 
 local events. 
 
 7. Carlyle (1795-1881), through his keen insight into 
 
 character and his love of hero-worship, introduced 
 the vividly reahstic and picturesque element. 
 
 8. Buckle (1821-1862) included economic forces in his 
 
 studies and sought the spirit of history apart from 
 particular men and events. 
 
 9. Macaulay (1800-1859) presented historical philos- 
 
 ophy and the laws and theories of government in 
 eloquent and fascinating style, thus bringing to 
 the popular mind an interest that had heretofore 
 been slight. 
 10. Froude (1818-1894), in charming literary style but 
 with carelessness of detail, emphasized the personal 
 element in history and set himself the ideal of
 
 Studies in High School Observation 9 
 
 "simply recording human actions without the- 
 orizing theron." 
 
 11. Stubbs (182 5- 1 901) "introduced the critical study 
 
 of mediaeval sources into England," employed exact 
 methods of work, and gave impetus to constitu- 
 tional history. 
 
 12. Green (1837-1883) depicted the progress of the life 
 
 of the people and dealt only incidentally with the 
 poHtical history of the state. 
 
 13. Schmoller (1838- ) emphasized the economic aspects 
 
 of history. 
 
 VI. History in the Curriculum. 
 
 1. Pre-Renaissance Period : Incidental historical study 
 
 made in connection with the study of biography 
 and Hterature. 
 
 2. Renaissance Period: Historical studies pursued as 
 
 auxiliary to the interpretation of the classics. 
 
 3. Post-Renaissance Period in Europe. 
 
 (a) Heraldry and local, contemporary historical 
 incidents and events taught in Ritterake- 
 demien after 1648. 
 
 (6) In Germany, the systematic study of history 
 in schools really dates from about 1806, though 
 an independent status was given history in 
 the universities (particularly in Gottingen) 
 in the i8th century. 
 
 (c) In France, historical study was introduced by 
 Guizot (about 1833) but received no great 
 attention until after i860, though there was 
 nominally a chair of history in the College 
 de France after 1769.
 
 10 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 (d) In England, none but incidental attention 
 was given historical study until after the 
 middle of the 19th centiiry, though there was 
 a professorship of ancient history at Oxford 
 in 1622, and professorships of modern history 
 were found at both Oxford and Cambridge 
 in 1724. 
 
 4. Historical Study in America. 
 
 (a) History was taught incidentally by professors 
 of philosophy in most of the universities from 
 their founding. 
 
 (6) Yale had a professorship of ecclesiastical his- 
 tory in 1778-1795. 
 
 (c) Harvard established the first professorship in 
 history (in the general sense of the term) in 
 1839, Jared Sparks being the first incumbent. 
 
 (d) Columbia University and the University of 
 Michigan estabUshed chairs of history in 1857. 
 
 (e) Yale established a chair of history in 1865. 
 (/) The first seminary in history was estabUshed 
 
 at the University of Michigan in 1869 by 
 Prof. C. K. Adams. 
 
 (g) General history and ancient history were 
 found in normal schools after about 1850. 
 
 (h) In secondary schools (first in academies, then 
 later in high schools) history was taught as 
 a separate study from about 1830. General 
 history or ancient history received almost 
 the sole emphasis, though EngHsh history was 
 sometimes taught. In 1847 Harvard first 
 began the practice of requiring history for 
 admission.
 
 Studies in High School Observation 11 
 
 {{) History work in elementary schools grew out 
 of the study of geography, and became a 
 separate study about 1845. 
 
 (;') Until about 1893 the only course given really 
 serious attention in the high school was that 
 of Ancient History in the classical course. 
 The coiirses in General History, EngHsh 
 History and American History were, for the 
 most part, bookish, superficial, and devitalized. 
 
 ik) The Madison Conference (instituted by the 
 N. E. A. in 1892) gave the first concerted 
 impetus to the serious study of history in 
 American pubHc schools. 
 
 (/) The Report of the Committee of Ten of the 
 N. E. A. in 1893 contains extensive and almost 
 revolutionizing suggestions for improving the 
 organization, study, and presentation of his- 
 tory in the schools. 
 
 (m) The Report of the Committee of Seven of the 
 American Historical Association in 1896 sup- 
 plemented the contemporary efforts at reform. 
 
 («) The Report of the Committee of Five of the 
 American Historical Association in 1907 em- 
 bodied the best ideas which the decade had 
 developed looking to further improvement of 
 historical study and teaching. 
 
 io) The Committee of Eight has still more 
 recently sought to perfect the art of studying 
 and teaching the subject. 
 VH. Values and Aims of History. 
 I. Psychological. 
 
 (a) It develops the power of constructive imagi- 
 nation through the visualizing of scenes,
 
 12 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 events, and characters, and the effort to put 
 oneself back into the past. 
 
 (b) It trains the reasoning faculty through the 
 necessity of analyzing data, seeking causes 
 and effects, and following historical develop- 
 ment wherever it may lead. 
 
 (c) It develops the power of associative memory 
 through the necessity of bringing facts into 
 their essential and definite relations. 
 
 (d) It trains the judgment, through requiring the 
 mind to make estimates respecting 
 
 (i) The probabiHty of the fact recorded. 
 
 (2) The possibiHty and probabiHty of accurate 
 statement on the part of the one recording 
 the event. 
 
 (3) The efficiency of the adjustment of means 
 
 to ends. 
 
 (4) The righteousness of the act. 
 
 (5) The motives and ideals that dominated 
 
 the act. 
 
 (e) It develops the power of comparison through 
 
 demanding attention to similarities and differ- 
 ences in motives, agents, means, processes, 
 events, places, dates, and results. 
 
 (/) It develops the power of classification — of 
 coordinating and subordinating data. 
 
 (g) It develops the habit of forming generalizations 
 from detailed facts. 
 
 (h) It gives a real conception of the meaning of 
 time, through the considerations of man's 
 slow evolution in social relations.
 
 Studies in High School Observation 13 
 
 {i) It gives ability to take a large view of life's 
 affairs and interests, — to see things in their 
 essential relations. 
 Social, Political, and Civic. 
 
 (a) It gives habits of analyzing the aims and 
 motives of men, and the means they employ 
 to attain their ends, i.e., it gives insight into 
 character and hence makes social adjustment 
 easier. 
 
 (6) It develops tolerance for the opinions, con- 
 victions, and ideals of others, and tends to 
 prevent hard, dogmatic, and uncompromising 
 judgments and attitudes. 
 
 {c) It gives appreciation of the civic and political 
 institutions of to-day — their origin, develop- 
 ment, and purposes — and hence teaches the 
 rights and obHgations that are inherent in 
 citizenship. 
 
 (d) It inspires patriotism "through arousing noble 
 emotions that revolve about inherited respon- 
 sibilities." ["A study of the times that 
 tried men's souls tends to form souls that are 
 capable of enduring trial." — Hinsdale.] 
 
 {e) It reveals the slow evolutionary processes that 
 operate in social life, and hence tends to 
 encourage one to put himself in harmony 
 with the laws of social evolution and to strive 
 for social betterment while he at the same time 
 is patient with existing conditions. 
 
 (J) It breaks down provincialism through reveaUng 
 the relations, common traits, and interde- 
 pendence of one community with another, 
 and one nation with all other nations.
 
 14 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 3. Moral and Religious. 
 
 (a) It habituates to weighing motives and actions 
 as regards their righteousness. 
 
 {b) It implants ideals of personal character by 
 disclosing the personal qualities and moral 
 accomphshments of men and women who 
 have, in large ways, affected history, and who 
 have in consequence received lasting honor 
 and renown. 
 
 (c) It teaches us to see something of the intangible 
 forces that override personal preferences and 
 hinder the direct application of principles 
 sincerely held. 
 
 (d) It inspires a love of truth. 
 
 (e) It develops charity for the past ; forbearance for 
 the present ; and faith and hope for the future. 
 
 4. .Esthetic (appealing to the sense of order, beauty, 
 
 and proportion), 
 (a) It stirs to an appreciation of the beauties of 
 man's handwork in sculpture, architecture, 
 painting, musical and literary form, industry 
 and commerce. 
 6) It reveals the beauties of human genius in 
 adapting institutions and governmental forms 
 and processes to desired ends. 
 
 (c) It refines and enriches the emotions by bringing 
 them into contact with the emotional expres- 
 sions of the race. 
 
 (d) It develops literary expression, and a taste 
 for good reading. 
 
 (e) It thrills and inspires, and incites to more 
 thorough-going efforts to attain ideals of 
 proportion and order.
 
 Studies in High School Observation 15 
 
 5. Practical. 
 
 (a) It aids in interpreting many allusions in litera- 
 ture and current expressions. 
 
 (6) It vitalizes geography. 
 
 (c) It gives a perspective for viewing all other 
 branches of study, and hence for a fairer 
 comprehension of them. 
 
 {d) It makes the experiences of travel intelligible. 
 
 («?) It gives a fund of information for use in con- 
 versation and public utterances. 
 
 (/) It breaks down provincialism; develops toler- 
 ation, sympathy, and human interest; and 
 hence makes intercourse with fellowmen more 
 frictionless and cordial. (See Social Value.) 
 
 (g) It creates an interest in the resources, raw 
 materials, tools, and processes of one's voca- 
 tion, and fosters pride and contentment with 
 labor. 
 
 {h) It explains racial, economic, religious, and social 
 cleavages and prejudices, and makes for a 
 truer democracy of feeUng. 
 
 {i) It gives insight into legal, governmental, and 
 business institutions and forms, and hence 
 makes easier the adjustment to governmental 
 and business requirements. (See Social Value.) 
 
 6. Cultural or Personal. 
 
 (a) It gives an elevated viewpoint from which 
 better to observe all aspects of civilization 
 to-day and thereby to comprehend them 
 more fully. 
 
 (6) It furnishes an inexhaustible source of pleasure 
 and satisfaction for leisure hours and for the 
 consolation of old age.
 
 16 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 Queries 
 I. Can you name any other "values" that should be 
 included in the study of history? 2. Does the study of 
 history yield equal value in each of the groups mentioned ? 
 3. Which one of the groups of "values" seems to you 
 most important and hence should receive greatest empha- 
 sis? 4. Can you suggest other items under each group 
 of values? 5. Illustrate how a teacher might proceed 
 to exercise the power of (a) imagination; (b) reasoning; 
 (c) memory; (d) judgment; (<?) comparison; (/) classifica- 
 tion; (g) generalization. 6. From your observations do 
 the teachers consciously strive to realize these values in 
 the class? 7. Do the teachers seek to get back of the 
 records of events and to discover the motives, ideas, and 
 ideals that produced those events? What is the method 
 used to do so? 8. Do the teachers asstime "hard, dog- 
 matic, and uncompromising" attitudes toward the inter- 
 pretation of the facts, or do they give students opportunity 
 to use their own judgment? 9. Does it seem to you that 
 students really do put themselves back in imagination 
 and Hve through the period they are studying? What 
 is the secret of attaining this ideal? 10. Are students 
 constantly seeking for "causes" of the historical events? 
 How does the teacher secure this effort? 11. Are the 
 textbook facts remembered largely as words, or do the 
 students really enter into the spirit and significance of 
 them? What evidences have you for your conclusions? 
 12. Does rote memory or associative memory receive the 
 emphasis? 13. Does the teacher correlate the history 
 lesson with other subjects of study? If so, how is this 
 done? 14. Does the teacher correlate the history lesson 
 with the life interests of the pupils? If so, how is this 
 done? 15. Does the teacher explain the institutions.
 
 Studies in High School Observation 17 
 
 forms, and procedures of the past by reference to their 
 counterparts of to-day? Are such interpretative means 
 employed with sufficient frequency, completeness, variety, 
 and clearness? i6. Does the teacher inspire patriotism? 
 If so, how is this accomplished? 17. Is the work of such 
 a character that students are infused with a spirit of 
 toleration, sympathy, and respect for others outside their 
 immediate circle of interest? 18. Does the teacher 
 encourage the weighing of motives and actions with 
 reference to their righteousness? Do you approve of 
 this practice? 19. Does the teacher seek to have the 
 students "be like" noble characters in history? What 
 can you say for and against this practice? 20. Ought the 
 teacher to strive consciously to use history to develop 
 ethical ideas in pupils? 21. How does history exert a 
 religious influence on its students? 22. Does history 
 "inspire a love of truth" to any different degree than 
 does any other subject of study? 23. Does the teacher 
 seek to bring out the aesthetic values of history? How 
 does she do so? 24. Should appeal be made frequently 
 to the emotional side of pupils' natures? 25. Is adequate 
 opportunity given pupils to develop literary expression? 
 How is this done? 26. Are you satisfied that a taste 
 for historical reading is being developed in the pupils? 
 What observations make you think as you do? 27. 
 Does the teacher so conduct the class work that the "prac- 
 tical values" of history are realized? 28. Does the class 
 really appear to enjoy the work? What evidences have 
 you of this? 29. Does the class feel that the recitation 
 period is a delight or a bore? What evidences have you 
 that this is so? 30. Which phases of the work receive 
 the greatest emphasis: (a) acquisition of facts, (6) 
 mental training, (c) moral training, (d) arousing interest
 
 18 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 in independent historical study, (e) development of patri- 
 otism and public spirit, or (/) power of judging men? Do 
 you approve of this distribution of emphasis? 31. Which 
 of the following aims should the teaching of history in 
 the high school emphasize, viz., (a) giving to youths the 
 knowledge and power for the right interpretation of the 
 civilizations of the past, (&) assisting youths to an under- 
 standing of the development and significance of present- 
 day civilizations and aiding them to adjust themselves 
 to these civilizations ; (c) giving a perspective from which 
 to pre- view, in part, the trend of the future and to plan 
 one's career accordingly? 32. From your observations 
 do the teachers stress the events, or the motives, the 
 ideals, and the ideas that gave rise to the events ? What 
 would be your aim here? 33. Of what does thinking 
 consist? 34. Are pupils in the classes observed expected 
 to think for themselves? Are they encouraged to express 
 their personal reactions to the facts presented? 35. What 
 guiding principle should a high school teacher or textbook 
 writer set for himself in selecting from the infinite mass 
 of data recorded the material to be used in the high school, 
 (a) that which reveals the development of personal 
 liberty — political, reHgious, economic; (b) that which 
 reveals the development of democratic institutions; 
 (c) that which reveals the growth of altruism or the 
 humanitarian spirit; (d) that which reveals the develop- 
 ment of commerce, industry, and finance; (e) that which 
 reveals the development of thought and the institutions 
 that aim to develop and train it; or (/) that which reveals 
 the development of social relations and activities? 
 
 VIII. Elements of History. 
 
 I. Time Element: The when, or chronology.
 
 Studies in High School Observation 19 
 
 (a) Units of measurement: day, month, year, 
 decade, century, administration, sovereignty, 
 ministry, epoch, era, and the unit determined 
 by the movement of the events themselves as 
 they naturally cohere. 
 
 (6) Dates as agencies for assigning definite position 
 in time. 
 Place Element : The where, or geography. 
 
 (a) Units of location: continent, nation, empire, 
 kingdom, state, section, region, district, town, 
 city, county, and the geographical groups or 
 centers formed by the events themselves as 
 they cohere. 
 Physical Element : 
 
 (a) Climate and meteorology affecting 
 
 (i) Character of the people. 
 (2) Occupations. 
 
 (b) Topography, affecting 
 
 (i) Movement of races, armies,productions,etc. 
 
 (2) Size and boimdaries of states. 
 
 (3) Location and character of cities. 
 
 (4) Industries. 
 
 (5) Trade and transportation. 
 
 (c) Natural resources, soil, and products, affecting 
 
 (i) Livelihood. 
 
 (2) Character of people. 
 
 (d) Violent and infrequent phenomena of nature, 
 earthquakes, storms, eclipses, comets, vol- 
 canic eruptions, etc., affecting 
 
 (i) Behefs and actions of people. 
 Human Element. 
 (a) The national or race spirit. 
 (6) The religious emotions and aspirations.
 
 20 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 (c) The sentimental interests. 
 
 (d) The Zeitgeist or spirit of the age. 
 
 (e) The genius of individuals. 
 5. Superhuman Element. 
 
 (a) The moral order in the universe, or the seeming 
 law that rules thoughts, feelings, and actions 
 of men — the law of cause and effect. 
 
 Queries 
 
 I. Which time-imits are most commonly used in the 
 classes you have observed? Do you approve of the cus- 
 tom? 2. What advantage is gained from the use of such 
 units over what is gained in using other units? 3. Are 
 there any of the units mentioned that ought to be used 
 sparingly, if at all? 4. Does the teacher observed stress 
 dates sufficiently? Does she over-stress them? 5. Un- 
 der what circumstances should a date be learned? 
 6. What is the best method of getting pupils to remember 
 dates? 7. How many dates ought to be reqmred in any 
 coiurse in history in the high school? 8. What principle 
 of selection ought to guide in the choice? 9. Is it wise 
 to require the learning of some dates for the recitation 
 period only with the expectation that they shall then 
 fade from the mind? 10. Is it wise to drill on dates 
 frequently? 11. What is the value of memorized dates? 
 12. What would be your views respecting the following 
 list of dates (learned in their full significance) as the only 
 fixed required dates for the entire high school course: 
 B.C. 1000; 776; 594; 500; 459; 323; 264; 146; 59; 31; A.D. 
 313; 395; 476; 527; 622; 732; 800; 843; 962; 1066; 1095; 
 1215; 1400; 1453; 1492; 1517; 1588; 1598; 1603; 1609; 
 1620; 1648; 1688; 1776; 1789; 1815; 1830; 1848; 1861; 
 1867; 1871; 1898. 13. Does the teacher always seek to
 
 Studies in High School Observation 21 
 
 connect historical events with geography? 14. Is such 
 connection real or merely verbal? 15. What methods 
 are used to bring about this permanent association of 
 event and place in the minds of the pupils? 16. What 
 "imit of location" is chiefly used? Is this wise? 
 17. What is the real importance of stressing geography 
 while studying history? 18. Are students expected to 
 make use of outline maps? 19. How many such maps 
 does each student make during the semester? 20. Are 
 the maps made during given recitation periods under 
 the supervision of the teacher, or at the convenience of 
 the students? Which is the better plan? 21. Do the 
 students devote much time to map-making? 22. Do 
 they merely "color" the map, or do they fill in all impor- 
 tant geographical and historical items? 23. Are maps 
 ever drawn, roughly, on the blackboards by either teacher 
 or pupils? If so, is there decided merit in so doing? 
 24. Are wall maps used frequently? If so, who indicates 
 locations — teacher or pupils? 25. Is it advisable to 
 conduct the class in person to near-by historic places? 
 26. Would it be wise to employ analogously formed 
 geographical territory that is familiar to the students to 
 vivify and interpret far-distant historical places? 27. 
 Does the teacher seek to impress the importance of 
 "physical elements" in shaping history? 28. Does the 
 teacher emphasize this element of history sufficiently? 
 29. How, in detail, can such influences be revealed to 
 high school students so that their real significance can 
 be recognized? 30. Is the significance of national or 
 race spirit in producing history sufficiently emphasized 
 by the teacher? 31. Can you give an illustration of 
 its notable operation? 32. Has the influence of rehgious 
 emotions and aspirations been shown by the teacher in
 
 22 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 its full significance? 33. Can you give an illustration 
 of the complete modification of history because of * ' senti- 
 mental interests " ? 34. Are such modifications somewhat 
 common and important? 35. Does the teacher impress 
 this fact upon his pupils? 36. Does the teacher make 
 clear the significance of the Zeitgeist, or spirit of the age, 
 in shaping history? 37. How much attention is given 
 to the study of notable characters in history? 38. Ought 
 biography to occupy a more important place in the high 
 school course in history? 39. How is such study secu.red 
 in the school you have observed, — through collateral 
 readings by the class, individual reports, or incidental 
 classroom discussions? 40. Does the teacher sufficiently 
 stress the fact that all history is but the operation of 
 cause and effect? 41. Are students required to seek 
 for causes back of the events? 42. Are students encour- 
 aged and expected to trace causes through the various 
 sequences of effects? 
 IX. Methods of Approach to the Study of History. 
 
 1. Chronologically, since there is a continuity in the 
 
 subject, and cause precedes effect. "The child- 
 hood of history is best for the child, the boyhood 
 of history for the boy, the youthhood of his- 
 tory for the youth, and the manhood of history 
 for the man." — S. 5. Laurie, Sch. Rev. 4:650. 
 
 2. Counter-chronologically, i.e., from the present time 
 
 and immediate surroundings to remote ages and 
 distant peoples. 
 
 3. Spirally, i.e., covering the entire field of study in 
 
 an elementary manner; then repeating the course 
 on a more advanced plane; then taking up the 
 work a third and foiirth time, supplementing and 
 expanding with each new attack.
 
 Studies in High School Observation 23 
 
 4. Biographically, i.e., by means of biographies only. 
 
 5. Topically, i.e., tracing the development of partic- 
 
 ular elements in history, continuously and uninter- 
 ruptedly, from the early stages to complete forms. 
 
 Queries 
 I . Which, to you, seems the best approach to the study 
 of history? 2, May several of the above-mentioned 
 modes be employed simultaneously? 3. Is it largely 
 true that the personal or biographic appeals most to the 
 child; the speculative, to the boy; the vitally and con- 
 cretely constructive, to the youth; and the critical 
 and philosophical to the adult? If so, what should be 
 the character of the work in history in the high school? 
 
 X. The Process of Learning History. 
 
 1. Acquiring and relating detailed facts. 
 
 2. Formiilating a mental picture of the events. 
 
 3. Analyzing the conditions and determining the vital, 
 
 distinguishing characteristics. 
 
 4. Getting back of the outer forms, visible expression, 
 
 or the vital facts to the real life of the people — 
 their ideals, ideas, emotions, and beliefs. 
 
 5. Discovering the motives that produced the events 
 
 considered. 
 
 6. Deducing the principles that operate in himian 
 
 relations. 
 
 7. Applying those principles to contemporary civili- 
 
 zation to-day, and foreshadowing the probable 
 trend of society in the future. 
 
 8. Holding consciously to the fact that history is 
 
 dynamic, not static, i.e., that all historical material 
 constitutes a imity that is revealed under the two 
 laws of continuity and differentiation.
 
 24 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 "There are no breaks or leaps in the Hfe of a 
 people. Development may hasten or may 
 slacken, and may seem to cease for a time, 
 but it is always continuous; it always pro- 
 ceeds out of antecedent conditions, and if 
 it be arrested for a time it begins again at the 
 point where it ended. 
 
 "Since the essence of history is the real life of a 
 people — their ideas and feelings — history 
 develops as ideas and feelings develop. But 
 thoughts and feelings never exhibit them- 
 selves repeatedly in the same forms, but take 
 on new modes of expression in the very process 
 of growth." — Mace. 
 
 Queries 
 I. Does the teacher observed lay emphasis on details 
 as ends in themselves or as means to other ends? 2. Is 
 there a "richness" of details or is there a dearth of them? 
 3. Are details presented in a vivid manner, with many 
 gripping tentacles, or are they set forth in bold, iminter- 
 esting forms only? 4. Are the details intimately fused or 
 correlated? 5. Is effort made to get each pupil to develop 
 a mental picture of the scene represented by the details? 
 6. When the image is fashioned, is an effort made to 
 discriminate and to abstract the dominant character- 
 istics? 7. Is effort made to get at the spirit of the his- 
 torical fact, and to discover the motives that operated 
 to produce it? 8. Are generalizations and principles of 
 human thought, feeling, and conduct deduced from the 
 study? 9. Is effort made to test the validity of such 
 principles among social relationships of to-day? 10. 
 Does the teacher make history appear what it is, i.e., a
 
 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 25 
 
 ceaseless development, a unity, or does she leave the 
 impression among the pupils that history is a mass of 
 disconnected dead facts? 
 
 XI. The Organization of History in High Schools. 
 
 Plan i 
 
 iSh Grade iG^^^^'^^H^^^^^y 
 nth Grade) »„ • tt ^ 
 l2thGradei^"'^""^^"^''^°'"y 
 
 Plan 4 
 
 9th Grade Loc. Hist., Civics 
 and Industries 
 
 loth Grade Ancient History 
 
 nth Grade Med. & Mod. Hist. 
 I2th Grade U.S. Hist. &Civics 
 
 Plan 2 
 
 Ancient History 
 Med.&Mod.Hist. 
 English History 
 U.S.Hist.& Civics 
 
 Plan 5 
 Ancient History 
 
 Med.&Mod.Hist. 
 
 j Eng. History J 
 ( U. S. History § 
 j U. S. History ^ 
 I Civics § 
 
 Plan 3 
 
 Anc.& Med. Hist. 
 Modern History 
 U.S.Hist.& Civics 
 
 Plan 6 
 
 Recent History 
 Local Civics 
 Local Indust. 
 
 I Indust. Hist. | 
 
 ( Commer.Hist. 3 
 Ancient History 
 
 Mod. & Med. or 
 Eng. History 
 
 U. S. History 
 Civics 
 
 Queries 
 I. Which of the above plans appeals to you most? 
 Why so? 2. What is the plan of organization in the 
 school observed? 3. What courses are prescribed, and 
 what are elective? Do you approve? 4. How many 
 recitation periods per week are allotted to the work in 
 each course? Is this wise? 5. Is there one period per 
 week devoted to "unassigned" or "unprepared" class 
 work? 6. If so, how is the period employed? 7. Do 
 you approve of such a period as a regular feature of the 
 cotirse? 8. What justification is there in maldng the 
 first year's work consist of "Local History, Civics, and 
 Industries"? 9. What argument is there for placing 
 Ancient History in the 12th grade, and making it an 
 elective study? 10. Is the work in Advanced Civics
 
 26 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 presented in a separate course, or is it correlated and 
 interwoven with the work in U. S. History? ii. What 
 arguments can you give for and against the practice? 
 12. What is the scope and aim of each of the courses of 
 history you have observed? 
 
 XII. The History Teacher's Preparation and Equipment. 
 
 1. Has the teacher the kind of personahty you could 
 
 wish for yourself? 
 
 2. Is her voice melodious and pleasing? 
 
 3. Has she winsome manners? 
 
 4. Is she sympathetic with her students? 
 
 5. Does she show distinctive qualities of leadership? 
 
 6. Has she evidently had a good general training in 
 
 literatxire, sociology, philosophy, biology, and 
 psychology? 
 
 7. Has she evidently had extensive and special train- 
 
 ing in history and political science? 
 
 8. Has she had professional training in educational 
 
 psychology, history of education, methods, and 
 general administration of school work? 
 
 9. Is she tied to the textbook? 
 
 10. Does she have a fund of explanatory and illustra- 
 
 tive material at her command? 
 
 11. Is she accurate, positive, and confident? 
 
 12. Has she a sense of htimor and of the fitness of 
 
 things? Has she self-control, or does she, for 
 example, use sarcasm and ridicule? 
 
 13. Has she clearly prepared herself anew for the lesson 
 
 in hand? What evidences have you of this? 
 
 14. Does she inspire her pupils? How? 
 
 15. Is there good discipline? If so, how is it secured?
 
 Studies in High School Observation 27 
 
 i6. Does the teacher seem to be familiar with local 
 history, local geography, and both local and 
 general industrial, political, and social conditions? 
 
 17. Does she seem to be familiar with the local library 
 
 and its equipment? 
 
 18. Does she know her pupils — their interests, home 
 
 life, and ambitions? 
 
 19. Does she possess enthusiasm, energy, optimism, 
 
 sympathy, imagination, force, incisiveness, tact, 
 judgment, geniality, social graces, courtesy, and 
 kindliness? 
 
 20. Does she grasp the subject in its unity and entirety? 
 
 21. Can she tell a tale simply and pleasingly? 
 
 22. Is she interested in current events? 
 
 23. Does she possess a clear insight into character 
 
 and life? 
 
 24. Has she traveled? 
 
 XIII. The PupiVs Preparation and Equipment. 
 
 1. Have the pupils evidently had a good elementary 
 
 school training? 
 
 2. Do the pupils give evidence of having had previous 
 
 historical training in the high school? What is 
 the basis of yotir conclusion ? 
 
 3. Have the pupils thoroughly prepared for the day's 
 
 recitation? 
 
 4. Have they apparently confined themselves to the 
 
 text, or have they gone outside this for material? 
 
 5. Have they "studied the lesson together"? Do 
 
 you approve of such study? 
 
 6. If pupils show they have not sought to prepare 
 
 the lesson well, what procedure does the teacher 
 follow? Do you approve?
 
 28 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 7. Have the pupils "outlined the lesson"? Is it well 
 
 that they should do so? 
 
 8. Apparently, have the pupils been shown how to 
 
 study, i.e., how to prepare the work most advan- 
 tageously? What was the mode of doing this? 
 
 9. Have the pupils attacked the lesson because it was 
 
 made to appear vital to the solution of some 
 really interesting problem? 
 
 10. Have the pupils really gotten behind the facts to 
 
 the spirit of the movement? 
 
 1 1 . Have the pupils apparently attempted to correlate 
 
 geography with the history? What evidences 
 have you of this? 
 
 12. Have the pupils acquainted themselves with all 
 
 unusual words and phrases used in the text? 
 
 XIV. The Classroom. 
 
 1. Is there anything distinctive about the classrooms 
 
 you have observed that suggests their special 
 uses? 
 
 2. Are sittings arranged in fixed and regular forms, 
 
 or is it possible for the class to gather about the 
 teacher's chair in a "social" group? 
 
 3. Are there good wall maps in the room? 
 
 4. Are there atlases, globes, and geographical dic- 
 
 tionaries at hand? 
 
 5. Are there reference books of common use? 
 
 6. Does the teacher's desk contain copies of text- 
 
 books other than the text in chief? 
 
 7. Are there sufficient good blackboards? 
 
 8. Is there a stereopticon? 
 
 g. Does the school provide an adequate number of 
 stereopticon slides?
 
 Studies in High School Observation 29 
 
 10. Are the walls adorned with historical pictures or 
 
 other historical materials? Is there a "museum 
 of history" in the room? 
 
 11. Are pupils encouraged to beautify the room with 
 
 significant objects of historical interest? 
 
 XV. The Assignment of the Lesson. 
 
 1. Is the assignment given sufficient attention by the 
 
 teacher? 
 
 2 . Is it made at the beginning of the recitation period 
 
 or near the close? What advantages and disad- 
 vantages does each practice offer? 
 
 3. Does the assignment take into consideration the 
 
 character of the work to be studied? In what 
 ways is this true? 
 
 4. Does the assignment vary with the stage of advance- 
 
 ment of the students? How? 
 
 5. Does it "blaze a way," so to speak, through the 
 
 mass of facts so that the pupils really glimpse the 
 significance of the material before them, and are 
 stimulated to attack it? 
 
 6. Does it raise real problems for the students to 
 
 solve? 
 
 7. Does it suggest too much or too little? 
 
 8. Does it take individual differences sufficiently into 
 
 account? 
 
 9. Does it include material outside the textbook? 
 
 10. If so, is the material well chosen and clearly indi- 
 
 cated? 
 
 11. Does the assignment correlate the textbook material 
 
 with contemporary life and with the experiences 
 of the pupils?
 
 30 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 12. Is the assignment made so clearly and definitely 
 
 that all pupils thoroughly imderstand what it is? 
 What evidences have you that such is the case? 
 
 13. Is the assignment too long for adequate preparation? 
 
 14. Does it contemplate that the pupils will devote 
 
 "home study" to it? 
 
 15. How much time ought the assignment to require 
 
 of a moderately good student? Is this adequate? 
 
 16. Does the assignment suggest what portions of 
 
 the text are to be touched upon lightly, what to 
 be studied for appreciation only, what to be 
 critically studied and mastered? 
 
 17. Does ;the assignment include a "review" of pre- 
 
 vious work? How much? 
 
 18. Does the assignment stress dates too much? 
 
 19. Is the assignment made with enthusiasm and in- 
 
 terest, and does it thus at once strike a responsive 
 chord in the pupils? 
 
 XVI. The Study Lesson. 
 
 1. Are pupils encouraged to follow a definite daily 
 
 schedule in studying their lessons? Do you 
 advise this? 
 
 2. Is there supervised study in the school? 
 
 3. What is the nature of the supervision given in such 
 
 a period? 
 
 4. Judging from results, have the pupils made good 
 
 use of their study periods? 
 
 5. Is there in the school a weekly period for consul- 
 
 tation and advice? 
 
 6. If pupils are absent from school, is opporttmity 
 
 given for "making up work " ? How is this admin- 
 istered so far as the study of history is concerned?
 
 Studies in High School Observation 31 
 
 7. Is there ever provided a period for "unassigned 
 
 work"? 
 
 8. If so, how is the period employed? 
 
 9. Just what is the secret of getting pupils to study 
 
 their lessons? 
 
 10. Are pupils encouraged to outline the lesson? 
 
 11. Are they encouraged to make personal notes on 
 
 the margin of the textbook pages? Are they 
 shown how to annotate? 
 
 12. Are they advised to use notebooks? If so, what 
 
 is the character of these? 
 
 13. Do pupils seem merely to try to "learn the text" 
 
 or really to comprehend the spirit? 
 
 14. Can you suggest ways and means of making the 
 
 study-lesson more beneficial? 
 
 15. Does the teacher sometimes require abstracts to be 
 
 made in order to teach selection of important 
 points? 
 
 XVII. The Recitation Lesson. 
 
 1. Does the class enter the room in a happy, expectant 
 
 state of mind, or does it appear as though it were 
 about to imdergo a disagreeable operation? 
 
 2. Does the class come to "attention" as soon as the 
 
 signal is given? 
 
 3. Is the aim of the day clearly set forth? Who does 
 
 it, the teacher or the pupils? 
 
 4. Does the work of the day seem to grow out of some 
 
 previous discussions or conclusions? 
 
 5. Are the "five formal steps" followed? 
 
 6. Is emphasis placed on information, drill, review, 
 
 testing, or historical mindedness? 
 
 7. Does the work have balance and proportion?
 
 32 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 8. Is there interest and attention? What is the 
 
 secret of it? 
 
 9. Are questions clear, concrete, and definite? 
 
 10. Is appeal made to more than one sense, i.e., audile, 
 
 visual, tactile, muscular? 
 
 11. Does the teacher really gmde and lead, or does she 
 
 carry most of the burden ? 
 
 1 2 . Do the pupils cooperate as a team — each seeking to 
 
 contribute his portion freely and all aiming to 
 attain a definite goal? 
 
 13. Does the recitation take on the spirit of comrade- 
 
 ship, i.e., of courteous and familiar discussion? 
 
 14. Is the lesson enlivened by means of anecdotes, illus- 
 
 trations, stories, dramatic postures, readings, etc. ? 
 
 15. Is the history lesson correlated with geography, 
 
 English, foreign language study, science, manual 
 training, and other school studies? 
 
 16. Is it correlated with the common life experiences 
 
 of the pupils, and with the important contem- 
 porary institutions and interests of to-day? 
 
 17. Are criticisms by the teacher made sufficiently 
 
 frequent and direct to make pupils careful, but 
 not so frequently and pointedly as to discourage 
 pupils ? 
 
 18. Are pupils expected to present a connected accovint 
 
 of the topics studied and to do this in a clear, 
 forceful, logical manner? 
 
 19. Are dates and other mere facts properly subor- 
 
 dinated to the real ideas for which they stand? 
 
 20. Are the salient points of the lesson collected and 
 
 tabulated as the lesson proceeds? 
 
 21. Is this done by the teacher, or by the pupils, or 
 
 by both?
 
 Studies in High School Observation 33 
 
 22. Do pupils show by their attitude, facial expression, 
 
 and responsiveness that they are satisfied with 
 the recitation as it progresses? 
 
 23. Are formal debates and informal discussions ever 
 
 permitted in the class? 
 
 24. Is use made of the dramatic powers of pupils to 
 
 interpret and assimilate history? 
 
 25. Are visits with the class made to places and insti- 
 
 tutions of historic interest? 
 
 26. Are mock elections and other civic procedures 
 
 allowed? 
 
 27. Is map drawing required? If so, is the work done 
 
 in class under the supervision of the teacher, or 
 at the pleasure and convenience of the pupils? 
 
 28. Is the stress laid on artistic effects in map drawing, 
 
 or on a graphic presentation of the facts in their 
 relations? 
 
 29. Is any use made of genealogical tables or historical 
 
 charts? What value is there in so doing? 
 
 30. Does the teacher demand thoroughness, complete- 
 
 ness, and clearness in the recitation of the pupils, 
 or does she accept vague, incomplete, and general 
 statements? 
 
 3 1 . Does she interrupt the pupils while they are reciting, 
 
 or wait until they are through before commenting 
 or criticizing? Does she ask other pupils to 
 criticize? 
 
 32. Is the teacher alert, vivacious, enthusiastic? 
 
 33. Is she herself thoroughly interested in the work of 
 
 the day? 
 
 34. Is there unexpected variety in the class procedure? 
 
 35. Does the teacher seem to enjoy clean, harmless 
 
 jokes and amusing incidents with her pupils?
 
 34 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 36. Is everybody "into the game" all the time? 
 
 37. Is the aim of the recitation kept constantly before 
 
 the class? 
 
 38. Is there steady progress toward it? 
 
 39. Does the teacher praise discriminatingly the good 
 
 efforts of the pupils? 
 
 40. Is the teacher at all times a friend of the pupils? 
 
 41. Is a definite, clear summary of the significant 
 
 points of the lesson made by the teacher at the 
 close of the period? 
 
 42. Are important generalizations formed, and valid 
 
 principles deduced ? 
 
 43. Is the fifth formal step (that of appHcation) taken? 
 
 If so, how is it done? < 
 
 44. Has the recitation period seemed short or has it 
 
 been a long, tedious hour? 
 
 45. Do pupils leave the room with faces aglow and 
 
 minds keyed to earnest thought, or do they seem 
 to go as if freed from a prison? 
 
 46. Do pupils comment on the day's work as they pass 
 
 out? Are such comments favorable or unfa- 
 vorable? 
 
 47. Is the pupil's judgment here of any great weight? 
 
 48. How does the teacher busy herself between the 
 
 change of classes? 
 
 49. Has the work been such as to make pupils inter- 
 
 ested in pursuing the study of history for them- 
 selves? 
 
 50. Has the work been such as to help pupils to think 
 
 for themselves, to be accurate, to be resourceful, 
 to develop the historical habit of mind? 
 
 51. What was the chief weakness of the recitatioa 
 
 period?
 
 Studies in High School Observation 35 
 
 52. Did pupils rise and recite by topic? 
 
 53. Did pupils outline the lesson and then talk from 
 
 their outlines? What value has this? 
 
 54. Were mnemonic devices used? If so, was advan- 
 
 tage gained thereby? 
 
 XVIII. The Review Lesson. 
 
 1. Is there a stated time for "reviews"? If so, how 
 
 long is the time devoted to reviews? Is this wise? 
 
 2. Is the review lesson really a new view of the sub- 
 
 ject matter, or merely a going over the material 
 a second time? 
 
 3. Are definite unifying questions given out for guid- 
 
 ance of pupils in preparing for the review lesson? 
 
 4. Is the review lesson conducted orclly or in written 
 
 form? 
 
 5. Is there interest and enthusiasm in the review 
 
 lesson? 
 
 6. What seems to be the purpose of the review lesson — 
 
 to drill, to test, or to organize the material in new 
 connections ? 
 
 7. Is the final review worth while, or can the same 
 
 results be obtained by constant daily reviewing? 
 
 8. Do pupils make comparisons, judgments, reactions? 
 
 9. Does the teacher employ any but the large organ- 
 
 izing questions while carrying on the review? 
 10. Are review questions of the kind that will confront 
 the pupils in real Ufe? 
 
 XIX. The Lesson in Civics. 
 
 1. Does instruction in civics occupy a separate period 
 
 or separate term in the history work?. 
 
 2. Is a special textbook used? 
 
 3. How much time is devoted to civics?
 
 36 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 4. On what phase of civics is emphasis laid — national, 
 
 state, or local? 
 
 5. Is the civics instruction closely correlated with 
 
 history? 
 
 6. Is it vitalized by visits to contemporary govern- 
 
 mental institutions? 
 
 7. Are current political events employed to illustrate 
 
 the course? 
 
 8. Is the class encouraged to organize as a civic or 
 
 political body? 
 
 9. Are governmental forms and practices brought 
 
 into the school work? 
 
 10. Is emphasis placed too much on details or is effort 
 
 made to get back of practices to discover the 
 origin, development, and purpose of such prac- 
 tices? 
 
 11. Are there mock elections, court trials, debates? 
 
 XX. Some Principles of History Dogmatically Stated. 
 
 1. "A people's life of thought and feeling obeys the 
 
 law of continuity and of differentiation. The 
 law of continuity means there are no breaks or 
 leaps in the life of a people. Development may 
 hasten or slacken and may cease for a time, but it 
 is always continuous; the law of differentiation 
 means that thoughts and feelings of a people take 
 on new forms in the process of growth." — Mace. 
 
 2. History is an evolution — a continuous movement, 
 
 and causes always precede effects. 
 
 3. The historical attitude is this: Ascertainment of 
 
 facts, interpretation of actions, investigation of 
 motives, but regarding all events as "portions 
 of human life."
 
 Studies in High School Observation 37 
 
 4. The notable characteristics of the 19th century are: 
 
 (a) Rise of nationaHty. 
 
 (6) Struggle for constitutional government. 
 
 (c) Enthusiasm for natural science. 
 
 {d) Development of the doctrine of evolution. 
 
 {e) Industrial changes. 
 
 (/) Economic theory and reform. 
 
 Hence, the study of history demands that such 
 items shall be discovered as explain and sup- 
 port these elements. 
 
 5. It is desirable to develop the historic sense by 
 
 working outward from the industrial activities of 
 the commtmity. 
 
 6. It is necessary to reduce diversity to unity. 
 
 7. "What is logically first in a subject, i.e., the law 
 
 or principle, comes last into the possession of the 
 unfolding mind." 
 
 8. "The worst possible form of education is an abor- 
 
 tive education — one that falls back on some 
 mysterious disciplinary claim for its justification 
 — as if there were any true discipline in failing to 
 master a subject." 
 
 9. "History shows that men's actions are governed 
 
 by some kind of calculable law." The problem 
 is to discover these laws. 
 
 XXI. Some Positive Guides and Suggestions. 
 
 1. Clearly set forth the problem to be investigated. 
 
 2. Discover the facts that bear upon this problem — 
 
 but only the significant facts. 
 
 3 . Relate the facts to each other. 
 
 4. Formulate a mental picture of the events or scenes.
 
 38 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 5. Seek to discover the causes that He back of the 
 
 facts — the geographical, meteorological, geological, 
 biological, physiographic, and human. 
 
 6. Seek to discover the motives, interests, and inten- 
 
 tions of men and societies in producing the events. 
 
 7. Seek to discover the means employed to realize 
 
 or attain the ideal, motive, or purpose. 
 
 8. Seek to trace the results — both immediate and 
 
 remote, and both subjective and objective — of the 
 actions thus made. 
 
 9. Seek for principles of imity and diversity in inter- 
 
 preting the events. 
 
 10. Make use of time- wholes, space- wholes, and organic- 
 
 wholes, but avoid making artificial divisions. 
 
 11. Guide the pupils, but do not dictate their reactions. 
 
 12. Make the study stimiilate the intellect, the emo- 
 
 tions, the will. 
 
 ^ 13. Force the pupils to think for themselves — to 
 analyze, compare, reason, judge, and apply. 
 
 X 14. Show that all history, — battles, institutions, con- 
 stitutions, etc., — are the result of conflicts of ideas, 
 emotions, ideals, and wills. 
 
 15. Correlate constantly. 
 
 16. Show that institutions of to-day strike their roots 
 
 deep in the past, and are but the complex develop- 
 ment of simpler forms. 
 
 17. Put life into the dead facts; be interested and 
 
 enthusiastic. 
 
 18. Be honest with the facts and with the pupils; 
 
 confess ignorance rather than endeavor to "bluff." 
 
 19. Be free from the textbook. 
 
 20. Adapt the work to the pupils' capacities.
 
 Studies in High School Observation 39 
 
 2 1. Arouse, stir, stimulate the pupils and fill with a 
 burning zeal to study history. 
 
 2 2. Have variety. 
 
 23. Feed the interest once it is aroused. 
 
 24. Drill— but by means of use, not by precept. 
 
 25. Do not do for pupils what they should do for 
 
 themselves. 
 
 26. Multiply associations. 
 
 27. Anticipate for the pupils what is to come, i.e., 
 
 stimulate interest by giving a bird's-eye view of 
 the movement before it is analyzed. 
 
 28. Em^phasize the operation of cause and effect — 
 
 what a nation or a people sows, so it also reaps. 
 
 29. Avoid rote memorizing. 
 
 30. Employ recapitulation, summary, and review fre- 
 
 quently. 
 
 31. Always have a lesson plan. 
 
 32. Have "everybody into the game." 
 
 33. Shape the work so that it presents the appearance 
 
 of a real, vital, personal problem. 
 
 34. Appear to be a learner with the pupils. 
 
 3 5 . Make much use of blackboards and concrete material. 
 
 36. Emphasize the value of written work, outlines, 
 
 map study, and personal reactions. 
 
 37. Illustrate, expound, vivify. 
 
 38. Keep pupils looking for resemblances. 
 
 39. Teach with reference to applications. 
 
 40. Show pupils how to study history. 
 
 41. Keep in touch with ctirrent events and devote 
 
 some time each week to such events. 
 
 42. Have frequent written work, as, 
 
 (a) Condensation of a few pages of notable his- 
 torical works.
 
 40 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 (6) Abstracts of accounts of definite events. 
 {c) Tests, examinations, written lessons. 
 {d) Notebooks. 
 {e) Outline maps. 
 43. Occasionally read selections of historical material 
 before the class. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY ON METHODS 
 
 Allen, J. W. Place of History in Education. 
 Barnes, M. S. Studies in Historical Methods. 
 Bourne, H. E. Teaching of History and Civics in the 
 
 Elementary and Secondary School. 
 BuRSTALL, Sara A. Impressions of American Education. 
 
 (Chap, on Method. Edition of 1908.) 
 Bernheim, E. Lehrbuch der Historischen Methode. 
 Committee of Ten. Report, pp. 162-203. 
 Committee of Seven. Study of History in Schools. 
 Committee of Five. Study of History in Secondary 
 
 Schools. 
 Freeman, E. A. Methods of Historical Study. 
 Hall, G. S. Methods of Teaching History. 
 Hinsdale, B. A. How to Study and Teach History. 
 Kartwell, E. C. The Teaching of History. 
 Jager, O. Teaching of History. (Tr. by H. J. Cla3^ton.) 
 Keatinge, M. W. Studies in the Teaching of History. 
 Langlois, C. V. and Seignobos, C. Introduction to the 
 
 Study of History. 
 Mace, W. H. Methods in History. 
 McMurry, C. a. Special Method in History. 
 Maitland, et al. Essays on the Teaching of History. 
 Robinson, J. H. The New History; also. Introduction to 
 
 the History of Western Europe. 
 Seignobos, Charles. La Methode Historique Applique.
 
 Bibliography 41 
 
 Periodical Articles on Methods 
 Barrows, A, C, Teaching History. Ed. 29:140. 
 Below, G. Die neue historische Methode. In Historische 
 
 Zeitschrift, N. T. V. 45, pp. 193-273. 
 Cheyney, E. p. What is History f History Teachers' 
 
 Magazine, Dec, 1910, p. Tsff. 
 Clark, L. A. A Good Way to Teach History. Sch. Rev. 
 
 17:255- 
 Davison, Ellen S. History in German Secondary 
 
 Schools. Ed. Rev. 40:356. 
 Ellwood, C. a. How History can he Taught from a 
 
 Sociological Point of View. Ed. 30:300. 
 Hall, G. S. The Pedagogy oj History. Ped. Sem. 12 :339. 
 Hart, A. B. How to Teach History in Secondary Schools. 
 
 Syracuse Academy, 11, Sept., Oct., 1887, pp. 256-265, 
 
 306-315. 
 Howard, G. E. Study of History in Schools. Ed. Rev. 
 
 19:257. 
 
 McMahon, E. History in our Public Schools. Ed. 
 23:109. 
 
 Robinson, J. H. Relation of History to the Newer Sci- 
 ences of Man. Jr. Phil. Psych. Sc. Methods. 8:141. 
 
 Salmon, L. The Historical Museum. Ed. Rev., Feb. 
 1911. 
 
 Smith, G. Is History a Science? Amer. Hist. Rev., 
 Apr., 1905. 
 
 Thorndike, L. Scientific Presentation of History. Pop. 
 Sc. Mo. 74:170. 
 
 Thompson, A. How to Study History. Ed. Rev. 17:167. 
 
 Tucker, M. A. Modern Methods of Teaching History. 
 Ed. 20:220. 
 
 Welch, C. Outlook in Teaching History. Ed. 31:370. 
 
 Note: See History Teachers^ Magazine, Philadelphia, a monthly- 
 journal devoted entirely to history study.
 
 42 Studies in High School Observation 
 
 Some Guides for Teachers 
 Allen, J. G. Topical Studies in American History. 
 Bacheler, a. American History — Library Method. 
 Baker, E. A. A Guide to Historical Fiction. 
 Brigham, p. Geographical Influences in American History. 
 BoTSFORD, G. W. Source-hook of Ancient History. 
 BuRDiCK, W. L. Topical Outlines oj Roman History. 
 Channing-Hart-Turner. Guide to the Study oj Ameri- 
 can History. (Every teacher should own this.) 
 Dixon, Z. A. Guide to Fiction. 
 Freeman, E. A. Historical Geography of Europe. 
 Hart, A. B. Source-hook of American History. 
 Hart, A. B. American History Told by Contemporaries. 
 
 4 vols. 
 Hill, Mabel. Liberty Documents. 
 Kendall, E. K. Source-hook of English History. 
 Lee, Guy C. Source-book of English History. 
 Major, J. R. Guide to the Choice of Classical Books. 
 Sonnenschein, W. S. Best Books. 
 Stephens, H. M. Syllabus of Modern European History. 
 Note: For lists of bibliography on history see Channing-Hart- 
 Turner, op. cit.; Bourne, op. cit.; and Johnston and others in 
 High School Education, p. 500 J/". 
 
 A SELECTED LIST OF AMERICAN 
 HISTORICAL FICTION 
 
 (Copied from Journal of Education for March 27, 1913) 
 This list attempts to cover American history from 
 colonial times to the close of the Civil War. Not all 
 the books are of literary merit; they have been chosen 
 primarily with regard to their historical interest, although 
 many of them are of the first rank as literature. As 
 the list is not exhaustive, many good historical novels 
 have probably been omitted :
 
 Bibliography 43 
 
 I. Colonial Period 
 Austin. Standish of Standish; Betty Alden. 
 •Cooper. The Water Witch; Leather stocking Tales. 
 Devereux. From Kingdom to Colony. 
 Hawthorne. The Scarlet Letter. 
 Johnston. To Have and to Hold; Prisoners of Hope; 
 
 Audrey. 
 Rayner. Free to Serve. 
 
 II. Revolutionary Period 
 Altsheler. In Hostile Red; The Sun of Saratoga. 
 Brady. The Grip of Honor; For Love of Country. 
 Chambers. Cardigan; The Reckoning. 
 Churchill. Richard Carvel. 
 Cooper. The Spy; The Pilot. 
 Ford. Janice Meredith. 
 Mitchell. Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker. 
 SiMMS. The Partisan. 
 Stephens. The Continental Dragoon. 
 
 III. From the Revolution to the Civil War 
 Bacheller. D'ri and I. 
 Brady. For the Freedom of tlie Sea. 
 Catherwood. Lazarre. 
 Churchill. The Crossing. ' 
 Dillon. The Rose of Old St. Louts. 
 Hough. The Mississippi Bubble, '.x 
 Johnston. Levuis Rand. 
 Pidgin. Blennerhassett. 
 
 Thompson. Alice of Old Vincennes; The King of Honey 
 Island. 
 
 IV. Civil War and Reconstruction 
 Brady. A Little Traitor to the South; The Southerners.
 
 44 Studies in Hight School Observation 
 
 Cable. The Cavalier; Kincaid's Battery. 
 
 Churchill. The Crisis. ' 
 
 Dixon. Leopard's Spots; The Clansman. 
 
 Eggleston. Dorothy South; The Warrens of Virginia. 
 
 Fox. The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come. . 
 
 Johnston. The Long Roll; Cease Firing. 
 
 Page. Red Rock, , .
 
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