N ECD E A A lJjMm™^gigj«jM«^t" 'i'risimaiiui".ffMr.'VJS '/-!■, t:ii'. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES a;ta5ta.3a r\ . ^ ^ ft GREEK SERIES FOR COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS EDITED IINDFR THE SUPERVISION OF TIKRl!l.Rr WEIR SMYTH, Ph.D. F.LIOT FKUKESSUK UF GREEK LlTERATUkE IN HAKVAKl) UNIVERSITY L VOLUMES OF THE SERIES GRP:EK grammar. By the Editor. BEGINNER'S GREEK BOOK. Prof. Allen R. Banner, Phillips Academy, An- dover; and the Editor. $1.25. BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. Prof. Louis Bevier. Jr., Rutgers College. $0.90. GREEK PROSE READER. Prof. F. E. Woodruff, P.owdoin College, and Prof. J. W. Hewitt, Wesleyan University. GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION FOR SCHOOLS. Clarence W. Gleason, Volkmann School, Boston. $0.80. GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION FOR COLLEGES. Prof. Edward H. Spieker, Johns Hopkins University. $1.30. AESCHYLUS. Agamemnon. Prof. Paul Shorey, University of Chicago. AESCHYLUS. Prometheus. Prof J. E. Harry, University of Cincinnati. $1.50. DEMOSTHENES, On the Crown. Prof. Milton W. 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ARISTOPHANES pA 3 6 7 5- CLOUDS ,'^^,,- EDITED WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES BY LEWIS LEAMING FORMAN, Ph.D. FOkiMEKI.V OF (OKNELL UNIVERSITY -»o>*;oo- AMI'.RICAN HOOK COMPANY NEW VOkK CINCINNATI ( UK ACO Copyright, 1915, by AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY ALL IIIGHTS RESERVED FORMAN. CLOUDS. \V. P. I ^0 fHu iJatirnt Mik ISABEL L. L. F. 432101 PREFACE The purpose of the two sets of notes will be plain at a glance. The first set aims to aid the reader to an under- standing of the play in hand, and not distract him unneces- sarily with notes on grammar, antiquities, and comparative literature. It is the Clouds he is reading and not the MaJiabJiarata or Herrick or Dante. The second set is for the maturer student who is studying the Greek language, Greek comedy as a whole, Greek philosophy", and Greek history. Hence no apology is offered for referring therein to such German works as Kiihner's Grammar, to foreign philological journals, to Meyer's and Busolt's histories. Advanced study of Greek and Latin presupposes knowl- edge of German, French, and Italian. The present edi- tion of the Clouds will have served its best purpose, if it thus introduces the student to these indispensable works of large horizons. In defence of the modern musical notation herein em- ployed to present ancient Greek rhythms, I offer the follow- ing considerations : That we cannot teach Greek rhythms with certitude is no reason why we should not teach them at all. If we teach them at all, we should transcribe them by the best system of notation known to us. To choose the wholly inadequate notation by _'s and w's, when musical notation lies at hand and is universally 8 PREFACE 9 understood, is as if one should prefer to write Greek in Cretan pictographs or the Cypriote syllabary. If it be urged that we do not know to a certainty, for example, whether the Greek i/i dactyl was rhythmized at * •'3 # or J *"*, or whether certain cadences were * | * * | i | or •' I J I J, I ask in reply what difference this mere detail makes ? Whether this way or that, the Greek chorus cer- tainly all kept together. And so must any modern class in Greek drama who will beat off a fine rhythm in unison, and in so doing come at least one step nearer to realizing that the ancient poets were also musicians, even though we have lost their melodies. If then, in a given case, the Greeks sang • * * and we take it as • * *, the error is slight; for both ways are rhythmical, and that is the chief feeling to be established in Greek poetry. To refuse to rhythmize at all or only vaguely (with _'s and v^'s) because of this doubt in details is as over-cautious as if we refused to pronounce Greek aloud because of the uncer- tainty attaching to the delivery of Greek accents. This is well on the road to Pyrrhonism. As for the Weil-Hlass-Schroder treatment of Greek rhythm, I find that Goodcll's Chapters on Greek Metric express well (and often) what I had felt quite independ- ently. See, for example, Goodell, p. 222. To measure a verse, let us say, as _ ^ v^ _ I w _ w _ I is for me much the same as saying that a vessel contains three inches and two pints of water. Metric counts syllables, rhythmic counts "times" (yjpovoi), and not syllables, l^oth units of measure and both systems may be u.scfiil for different piirjjoses, but cannot be used together. While the above lo ARISTOPHANES measuring may be rhythmically delivered, it is true, by a trained musician, yet it seems to me not simple enough to be ascribed to ancient Greek comedy nor in agreement with the ancient accounts of the 7]6oilvovi. 10. Eleven of his comedies still exist. These, together with the first two, are here named in the order of their [irodurtion : AuiTaA^s (Pjanquelers) . . . Bu/:^i'AfXta (Nubes, Clouds) if/>»]/<£? (Vespae, Wasj^s) . Vyipi'ivrf I I'ax, Peace) . 'OlJVidt<; (Aves, Birds; . . Aiiru'rT/j(tTi7 (I.ysistrata) . ("hiTiiiKfxiiHal^oi'iTia \iaTiju)^(>i (kiiii.u-, h'rogsj . EKKAi^iria^oiuri/t . . . . IlAovTos ( Plutils; . I )i<)nysia Lt-naea Lenaea Dionysia I )i()nysia Dionysia I )ionysia I ,cnaea I )i()nysia l.enaea . . 427 B.C. 426 • • 4-'5 ■ • 424 • • 42,5 . .422 . . 421 • • 414 . . 11 I . . Ill • • 4<'5 389 or 392 ■ 3«« i6 ARISTOPHANES ARISTOPHANES THE POET 11. To say that Aristophanes as poet of comedy measured up to his city and his time is as superlative praise as <:an be uttered. For he Hved in .Athens and at her prime, when more human gen- ius seems to have been " released " — as we say of the explosive power of dynamite — than at any other period in the world's history. 12. In this judgment of Aristophanes the poet all happily agree. From minute students of rhythm, diction, and poetic form we hear of his sensitiveness, variety, and mastery ; from dra- matic critics, of his invention and of the flexibility in his hands of the traditional moulds of comedy (parodos, agon, parabasis). Lovers of nature and poetic fancy can compare him only with Shelley and Shakespeare. His wit has been measured in all the semitones of its gamut from sheer buffoonery to lightest innuendo. His humour is found to be, not of one vein like that of Rabelais or of Mark Twain, but universal as Shakespeare's. Pathos he had rare occasion to display in comedy ; but whenever touched, it is genuine. 13. His plays and characters alike are as clear-cut in their out- lines, leave as distinct an impression on the mind, as Gibraltar or an eclipse. Once read, they cannot possibly all fall together or fade out into monochrome, as arguments and characters mostly do in Plautine comedy. Aristophanes retains too much of the flesh and blood of his Athenian originals for that. They are Cleon, Socrates, Euripides, that we see before us — a trifle lurid indeed in the curious coloured atmosphere of Old Comedy, and fantastic as the figures of a puppet-show, yet still quite real and breathing. 14. At the same time, despite their reality, we feel that Aris- tophanes is no realist. Behind those caricatures of the demagogue Cleon, the philosopher Socrates, the poet Euripides, we see peer- ing out the universal Demagogue, the standardized Charlatan- Philosoplier (our modern professional "Educator") and the INTRODUCTION 17 ever recurring Poet of they?;/ de siecle. Aristophanes is, there- fore, an idealist and his function high. We are led to prefer the good because of the disgust which his satire has inspired within us for the bad. Tragedy's office is high in presenting us Heroes ; but Comedy's Humbugs offer useful supplementary warning to those who would lead a sober and wary life. ' 15. We may, then, by common consent set down Aristophanes as one of the great poets of the world ; but what are we to think of him as a man? Before attempting an answer it will be necessary to recall briefly the world and the times in which he lived. CONTEMPORARY ATHENS 16. "The one century of Athenian greatness from the expul- sion of the Tyrants [the Pisistratids in 508 B.C.] to the defeat of Aegospotamos [405 b.c.J is worth millenniums of the life of Kgypt or Assyria."* In that century Athens essayed the experiment, brief but incomparably brilliant, of imperial self-government. Aristophanes was born at the climax of her democracy's success, reached young manhood at its ticklish turning-point on the death of Pericles (429 B.C.), and survived by twenty years its huge and mournful proved failure, when Lysander levelled the walls of Athens to the ground and set up the rule of " the Thirty " (403 B.C.). 1 7. But the character of the tiny Democratic Experiment organ- ized by Cleisthenes in Attica 508 b.c. had si'.ffered much change before the birth of Aristophanes. To the men of that small dis- trict, less than Rhode Island or Cornwall, had fallen the rliit-f glory of the victory over Persian perils. Under Athens' leader- ship the chief (Ireek cities of the eastern Mediterranean had leagued themselves to drive back and keep back that same Per- sian host. The superiority of her fleet was such that most cities of this Delian Federation preferred to i)ay to Atht-ns a stipulated sum for performing this duty rather than furnish their own (juota * E. A. hrceman, Uiit. of h'eiloal (ion-i iini( n/ in (ireeif'-, J). 40. AKISTUI'llANKS — 2 . i8 ARISTOPHANES to a federal fleet. These contributions (cfiopoi) poured into Athens' coffers more than sufficed for the needs of the League. The sur- plus went to the adornment of the city, which the ambition of Pericles had determined should be in splendour of soul and body the capital city of all Greek peoples ami the ideal of the world forevermore. Her own resources from the silver mines of Laurium and the gold mines of Mount Pangaeus were enormous. With her navy supreme she controlled commerce and forced the payment of laggard contributions from the allied cities, which in time fell to the status of Athenian subjects. 1 8. And now the sovereign people and their "Olympian" leader Pericles became drunk with power. They dreamed of world-wide empire. To the east lay the Euxine, Caria, Cyprus, Egypt ; to the west, Sicily, Etruria, Sardinia, Carthage, and in the farthest distance, the Pillars of Hercules. Why not subdue it all — the great Midland Sea — and gather tribute for Athens, goddess of wisdom and war? Thus content gave place to craving, and power begot insolence. Those who had been known as Liberators now became Tyrants. — In the midst of this change from the demo- cratic to the imperial spirit Aristophanes was born. 19. But this change of temper and behaviour in Athens wrought a change of feeling toward her in the League. Because of her oppression, arrogance, and terrible efficiency, most of her friends and allies became her jealous and sullen or her active enemies. In 431 B.C. came the crisis — the Peloponnesian war, which for twenty-seven years wasted the bodies and corrupted the souls of a whule generation of Greeks, fighting no longer for freedom and civilization against barbarians, but (under the lead of Athens and Sparta, the embodied principles of democracy and oligarchy) struggling for headship among themselves. A pitiful fall, indeed, from the highest plane of battle to the lowest, due to the unmeas- ured ambition of one man — tlie Napoleon of antiquity — to make for himself an everlasting name. 20. But the principles of democracy and oligarchy divided not merely all Greece into two hostile camps ; they divided each city INTRODUCTION 19 against itself. Especially within the walls of Athens were the Few " learning by suffering " the violence and weakness, the ignorance and arrogance of the Many. With " sycophants " ever hounding them, the state ever ready to confiscate their property and judi- cially exile or murder them, it is no wonder that the rich and oligarchic would have welcomed the overthrow of the Democracy and at various times secretly conspired with the enemy, nor on the other hand that the dread of this latent treason was never absent from the masses. Too often had city gates been opened from within to the foe without. — .And this was the salubrious air, poisoned with suspicion and sedition, that the poet Aristophanes, lover of frank open-heartedness, must breathe during all his life. 21. And after the war began, there was another split inside loyal Democracy itself, not on the constitution, but on the war- poHcy. Athens, while easily mistress of the sea, was weak on land, hence for many years saw or expected to see, each spring, an invasion of her territory by the enemy. The farmers .of Attica were thus forced to abandon fields and homes, and live like " squatters " within the city, occupying the commons, the sacred enclosures, stifling hovels, earthen wine-jars, crannies, or shelving suspended from the walls. Athens the city became a fortress. To add to the misery of this quarter-million of crowded humanity, the plague came, heaping the streets with corpses and setting loose all the demon passions of desperate men. Naturally, therefore, the people found themselves split into two fierce chief factions — the one for war, the other for peace, the war-party urging that the existence of democracy itself no less than of its empire was at stake, the peace-party spelling nothing but ruin in the continuance of the struggle, and willing to share with .Si)arta the headship of the (ireek world, as Cimon had advised so long ago. — From the midst of this grim huddle of plague-stricken vehement debaters the poet Aristophanes, lover of the country, must look abroad over desolate fields and felled olive- groves, and make merry comedies. 22. Such were the greater fissures showing themselves most 20 ARISTOPHANES visibly in the solidarity of Hellas at large and Athens in particular regarding constitutions and policies. But there were others that threatened the integrity of the Athenian state and its ideals even more seriously. For these others split up and broke down the very character of the citizens themselves. 23. The ancient city-state (ttoAis) of Greece resembles a glacier. Originating in some high and isolated glen, compact and homogeneous, its progress for long years imperceptibly slow, the greatest dimension and strength of a glacier are seen just as it emerges in some suddenly broadening valley. But here opportu- nity without and strain within shatter it with rift and crevice later- ally and perpendicularly, till it lies in ruins on the plain, though alas ! in these latter stages only are its grandeur and iridescent beauty at their acme. — And so in Athens the rifts of change opening in the seventh and sixth centuries had grown wider after the Persian wars, and now, in the time of Aristophanes, were loud- cracking chasms. The time for the rainbow colours of its dissolu- tion was at hand. What these disintegrating changes were must be considered at least in part, if we are to understand the Athens of Aristophanes. 24. First, the solidarity of the old Attic stock was gone. Liter- ally, the blood of the folk itself was gradually changing. While thousands of citizens were slain in foreign wars, thousands of foreigners, on the other hand, were coming to reside in Athens and the Piraeus, attracted thither by opportunities of business and pleasure alike, as well as by the exceptional ease of obtaining, if not citizenship, at least all other privileges. There had been, further, a large mixture of foreign blood by concubinage with foreign women and slaves. Add to this a large slave population of exceptional intelligence and treated with ex- ceptional leniency and privilege. This high proportion of foreign pop\ilation to native would have inevitably altered the tone and temper of society, even had the blood remained pure and citizen- ship been strictly guarded, which was not the case. 25. Also the spirit of the people was transformed by their INTRODUCTION 2i acquisition of empire, a? has been already noted. Restlessness marked all their activities, and during the Peloponnesian war cruelty replaced their habitual mildness. 26. Changed also for the worse was the very ideal and goal of their democracy. Pericles, its tyrant, had found it composed of self-respecting, self-ruling freemen ; he left it a body of self-seek- ing pensioners. For in his ambition to be the chief man of the state, he forgot his noble birth and its obligations ; he forgot the higher possibilities of his natural eloquence and the lofty philoso- phy he learned from Anaxagoras — or rather he made use of these advantages to obtain his end. Falling in with the natural trend of every democracy, " he gave loose rein to the people and shaped his policy to their pleasure " (Plutarch). With Ephialtes he forced the ancient court of the Areopagus to yield its chief functions to jury-courts. With the pleasing doctrine that a patriot's services to his country should l)e remunerated, he instituted the payment of jurymen. With eloquence equally effective he held that the people's money must be returned to them — hence free theatre- tickets, festivals, and feasts, hence public baths, public physicians, public buildings — though it happened that "the people's money" was in good part tlie tribute paid in by the subject cities for a definite and quite different purpose. 27. It is true that on winning undisputed headship after the ostracism of Thucydides the son of Milesias, Pericles himself suf- fered a change, and would have restrained the populace from ex- cesses had he been able, liut it was too late. 'I'iie old idea of democracy and of the very function of government in general was lost. After I'ericles' death it was a question whether tlie leaders led the mob or the mob its leaders. 28. P>om intercourse with foreign lands innovation was creep- ing also into the language of the Athenians, as into their mode of life and dress. Tiieir fishion in these things became, we are told, a composite, gathered impartially from C.rccks and barbarians alike. Dialect was mixed with dialect, and mm h "broken" Athenian must have been heard from tin- lii)s, not alone of foreign metirs 22 ARISTOPHANES and slaves, but of citizens returned from wars and residence abroad. 29. In dress, the long linen chiton of Ionia, worn not long since by dignified Athenian gentlemen, had given place at last to the shorter, business-like chiton of the Dorians ; and democracy demanded that all should dress alike — metic, master, and slave. So, too, the hair was cut short, and proud topknots fastened with golden " grasshoppers " must come down. 30. At the same time, however, the importation of foreign nov- elties and luxuries had set in — cloaks and slippers from Persia, salves, fruits, peacocks, ivory, and rascally slaves. And boys went to school " bundled up in cloaks," no longer facing the weather yvfivoL, as in the days of Marathon. Simplicity was yielding to dis- play, liardy endurance to effeminacy. Life's ideal in Athens was perpetual holiday — until the war came. 31. Perhaps it was also from evil communications that the manners of Athens became corrupted ; at least, the older standards were passing away. Orators like Cleon could forget dignity of bearing and tuck up himation to gesticulate and bawl, yet with no loss of prestige in the eyes of Democracy. Outlanders might not know how to don the cloak, yet Democracy " did not care." Children could snatch at table, "talk back" to their parents, call their father " Methuselah," and forget to yield their seats to their elders ; yet this was all part of the imperial programme. 32. In Music too a notable change is going on. It can now boast its own hall, the Odeum ('iliBe'iov), built by Pericles. It breaks away from its bondage to the words of the ode, and develops a florid type both instrumental and vocal, which is beyond the un- practised i\f:v6epo<; and iSiojtt;?, and requires the professional musi- cian or even the virtuoso. Phrynis has " introduced a certain spe- cial twist" (i'Siov crrpofSiXov ifjL/3aXwv Tiva), and within a quarter- century his pupil Timotheus — after the invention of sinuous vocal runs that recall the minute activities of busy ants — will boast of leaving Phrynis behind, playing a lyre of eleven strings as against the ten of his predecessors. INTRODUCTION 23 33. Thus the whole concern of the art is to tickle the ear and nothing more. It has lost its hold upon social life. To sing merry songs at a banquet is thought antiquated. If young men sing at all, it is not the old songs of Stesichorus, Alcman, or Si- monides, but some scandalous thing from Euripides, or a loose ser- enade or love song by the popular Gnesippus. Music and morals are divorced, to the infinite loss of each. 34. As for Poetry — the Epic has long since ceased to be a hving form of expression ; the various types of Lyric (hymn, threnody, paean, dithyramb) being all fallen together have lost character and gone up in floating windy bombast ; the Drama, in the hantls of Euripides, " bard of legal lingo," has sunk to the prose level of daily life in thought and action as well as diction. 35. The light spongy vacuity of the lyrics of Aristophanes' time, it was formerly thought, had been much exaggerated in his parodies of them. Hut in the year 1902 there was discovered in Egypt a fragment of a nome, the Persae, composed by Timotheus, the famous contemporary of Aristophanes, which makes it probable that the comedian's "parodies" are actual quotations, and his "exaggeration" rather an understatement of the incredible insi- pidity to which lyric poetry had come. 36. Tragedy, having the heroic taken out of it, and being " humanized " with modern men who argue in Athenian and dress in rags, must be also made sprightly in movement. Mence the dialogue of Euripides' plays is no longer timed to the slow iambic trimeter of Aeschylus, with normally twelve syllables to the verse, but is hastened to fifteen or eighteen syllables. 37. Nor does the interest centre longer in the ancient oft-told myths now disbelieved, but in the complications of the plot, in the psychology of Love, in overcharged scenes of pathos. In fart, tragedy, while retaining its outward form, has within been utterly transformed, if not de-formed. Whereas it had once excluded what of life was not fit for its ideal aim, " the bettering of men," it now a Imits the ugly, base, and little along with the rest, as all alike belonging to the world of things as they are. It has thus 24 ARISTOPHANES ceased to be religious and has become secular. For the rising generation Aeschylus, the "noisy incoherent mouther of big phrases," has been dethroned, and Euripides is king. ^S. In brief, poetry had had its day. Song had descended from her chariot to walk as prose (ttc^i?). ( Poetry is an expression of feeling poured out at such temperature as to take rhythmic form and exercise the selective power of a crystal or other organ- ism upon the material presented to it for self-creation. But reason, science, intellectualism, knows no such spontaneous process. It is analytic, not creative. It lowers temperature below poetic heat. If art exists at all after reason ascends the throne, it is " Art for art's sake," not for the Heart's sake.) 39. Also the old Education cracks asunder. Not long ago its whole content had been so simple : for the head — reading, writ- ing, and counting; for the heart — music and poetry; for the body — gymnastic and athletic games; and all these for all alike. But now the contestants in athletic games are professional and brutalized gymnasts trained by specialized exercises and on special diet. The gymnasia are left empty or have become lounging places for gossip. The sport of rich young fashionables, such as Alcibiades, is horse-racing. As for head and heart, the older train- ing is now merely preparatory to the higher " college education " imparted by the Sophists, professors of learning, who for high fees teach rhetoric, grammar, history, civics, a modicum of science, and general excellence (dptTrj). 40. This training will fit young men for public life, forensic leadership, imperial statesmanship. They are taught to question, reason, debate, subtilize (AeTrroAoyav ), and make much of nuance ; they are taught invention of argument (eupecris) ; they must have wit to ferret out motives, to argue from probabilities, to strike off maxims in alliteration, antithesis, parechesis, to compose moving appeals for pity, perorations, proems, and the rest. They hear how it is all done in the law courts, the assembly, the market-place, even in the tragedies of Euripides, who is master of the art and idol of the youthful generation. In a word, there is a brilliant INTRODUCTION 25 first nascence of the intellect, which, repeated in later times in Italy, we call the Re-naissance. 41. Imperial Intellectualism divorced from republican morality and simplicity — that is the mark of the age. The exercise of the reason becomes the highest function of man. The watchwords are koyia-fios, o-Kt'i/'is, o-iVeo-ts (calculation, speculation, comprehen- sion). The new ambition is to be esteemed clever (Setvos, (ro(j)6'i, Sextos), and witty or elegant (ko/ii/'os). The new activity is to challenge all statements with a pert tl Ae'yei? (what's that?). Pericles will spend a whole day debating with Protagoras the cause of the death of Epitimus in an athletic contest — was it the javelin accidentally hurled, or the thrower of the javelin, or the stewards of the game whose carelessness had made the accident possible ? The young Alcibiades will argue with his guardian Pericles on the definition of Law, and will prove to him that law is but the com- pulsion of the stronger put upon the weaker, whether named democracy or tyranny. 42. But all this was for the fewer rich, not for the many poor and stupid. Hence came now the great cleft between educated and ignorant, which, whenever appearing, isolates near neighbours and somewhat de-humanizes society — suspicion (mingled with envy and a slight fear) on the one hand, contempt on the other. 43. Morals, also, must pass through this fiery furnace of inquis- itorial dialectic to come out dc-natured, i.e. de-moralizelain how belief in the gods had arisen : they had been invented by some clever man to frighten bad jjeople with, scarecrow-fashion. And so now in full chorus against the further sway of these bugbear-deities was heard the voice of Diagoras the atheist, the voice of Kuripides from the masks of his jjlayers, the voice of the sophists from their " university " l((turc rooms, the voire of the philosophers shielded by the patronage of Pericles. 58. Thus we see that already the conflict between Religion, Superstition, and pseudo-Science was begun. Orpliism would sublimate old rites and go