. JVLichael Ernest Sadler . (v i T? * */ r 11 LLnwersinj Lolleq^ <*j ^j Oxford AN E N QJJ I RY INTO THE DUTIES OF MEN. VOL. II. Y ji i or d i~ ^ .1 1 T T J ci A N INTO THE DUTIES OF MEN IN THE HIGHER AND MIDDLE CLASSES OF SOCIETY IN GREAT BRITAIN, RESULTING FROM THEIR RESPECTIVE STATIONS, PROFESSIONS, AND EMPLOYMENTS. By THOMAS GISBORNE, M.A. THE FOURTH EDITION, CORRECTED. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II. / LONDON: PRINTED FOR B. AND J. WHITE, FLEET-STREET; AND CADELL AND DAVIES, STRAND. 1797' T - TX" U. OF THE SECOND VOLUME. CHAP. XL On the Duties of the Clerical Profeflion. JUSTIFIABLE and Unjuftifiable Motives for entering into Orders ftated - Page 2 5 Duties incumbent on the Candidate for Orders Study of the Scriptures Evidences of Chriftianity Ecclefiafti- cal Hiftory - - 5 12 The Lawfulnefs of Ecclefuflical Eftabliftiments difcufled 12 16 The Expediency of them examined - 1622 Church of England Advantages to be expected from Epifcopal Church Government - - 2224 Right of private Patronage confidered 24 26 Evils which would be to be apprehended, were a Minifter difmiflible by his Parilhioners - - 26, 27 VOL. H. a Articles TI CONTENTS OF THE Articles of Religion not unlawful - Page 27, 28 Thirty nine Articles Duties and Temptations refpeft- ing them ... 2833 Unjuftifiable Means of facilitating Entrance into Orders 33 Unwarrantable Means of obtaining a Benefice 33 3$ Celebration of Divine Worfhip - - 3537 Sermons - - 37""4 I Private Parochial InttruQ Jon - - 41 47 Catcchifing young Per fons Sunday Schools 47 50 St. Paul's Directions to Miniftcrs of the Gofpel 50 53 Clerical Example, and that of a Clergyman's Wife and Family - - 5364 Remedying of Parochial Abufes Repairs Dilapidations 6466 Tithes - - 66 69 Conduct of Diflcnters. , x ^/T 60 71 M "'rvl Ofi) '< > '.;'U-_ C. J J ' Rcfulence Treatment of Curates - 71 76 Pluralities - - 76 78 Conduct of Clerical Brethren J J> -M* 1 78, 79 Siudy - Sd 7983 Controvcrfy - * 3 " in^.r g^^ g^ Duties if engaged in educating Youth Ju^iv g^ Academical Clergy ^ 84 91 If fundamentally difTatisfied with the Church of England 91, 92 Power aiul Duties of a Bifhop a to Ordination 92 9^ As to Supcriptendtnce of Diocefe - 98 102 Biftiop as to his Patronage - 102104 As to Intcrcourfc with his Clergy '*".>! 104, 105 A to hi$ tyiruuaj Court ; ^ ., '. '.^ 105, 106 Ai to Jus Revenue 4> P^. ', . 106 As SECOND VOLUME. vii As to, his Mode of Life* - Page 107, 108 As to Attendance of Parliament - 108, 109 As to Translations - - no As to drawing up Forms of Prayer on Public Occafions no Principal Differences between the Englifh and the Irifli Clergy, as to Situation,- Duties, and Temptations 112 \V) Similar Obfervations refpedUng the Clergy of Scotland 128 131 CHAP. XII. On the Duties of Phyficians. State of the Medical Profeflion, and of Phyficians in Great Britain, compared with their State in Spain 132 13$, Duties incumbent on the Medical Student 136 146 Duties peculiarly incumbent on the Phyfician beginning topra&ife - - 146 152 Duties of the Phyfician in a&ual Practice towards his Patients, their Families, and Friends 152 168 With refpect to Hofpitals, and the Poor 1 68 172 Towards other Medical Men 172 180 Ufe to be made of his Iritercourfe with a large Circle in Society - 1 80 182 Collateral Purfuits well adapted to the Leifure Hours of a Phyfician - - 183191 Charge of Infidelity being common among Phyficians confidered - - 191 198 Mr. Hume's Argument again ft the Credibility of Miracles 193 * ^0.' ' as CHAP. T11J CHAP. XIII. On the Dudes of Perfons engaged in Trade and Bufinefs. The Perfons held in View ftatcd Propofed Method ex- plained f - Page 199 Leading Purpofcs which Trade is defigned to anfwer ,200 207 EfFe&s of European Commerce on the North American Indians ... 202 205 Two general Rules refpecling commercial Morality 2*7 General Duties refpecling Competition 208, 209 And Profits 209213 Monopolies and Combinations - 213 22Q Reduction of exifting Prices Arguments pro and con 220224 Probity - 224 Cuftoms of Trade a very common Source of Diftionefty and Fraud In (lance 225 231 Frugality - 231 233 Punctuality " 233, 234 Sincerity Prudent Opcnnefs -~' c 234 236 Duty of a Trader as to Applications to Parliament 237 General Obfcrvntions on the Subject of Credit 237 245 Duties of a Trader in embarraflcdCircumftances 245 248 Duties when Infolvent Bankruptcy Deed of Truft 248251 When and how far a Bankrupt is bound to pay his Cre- ditors their original Demands, if he afterwards becomes a kle - r.; ..?;. 251 260 Remarks on the general Difpofitions, Conduct, and Ha- bits of a Trader - r 260268 Bankers-* SECOND VOLUME. u. Bankers different Sorts of - Page 268 272 Further Remarks on Country Binks 272 276 Particular Obfervations on the Duties of a Banker with refpedl to Credit - 277284 Paper Credit - - 284291 Duties of the Country Banker reflecting it 291 293 Further Obfervations refpecling a Banker's Duties as to Credit -*V. V. - 293 295 Bills of Accommodation ^H?" 295297 Inftances of Modes of Conduct and other Circumflances improperly deemed discreditable to a Banker : Lowering Terms Remarks on that Practice 299, 300 Stopping Payment for a fhort Time Remarks 300 302 Borrowing Money on Intereft Remarks 3 2 > 303 Difpofing of difcounted Bills Remarks 303 306 Engaging in Public Loans Remarks 306, 307 CVieftion difcuffed, whether a Banker (hould alfo be a Merchant - - 307 312 A Banker's {peculating in the Stocks, Lotteries, &c. Remarks on a Banker's lending his Credit 313 315 Duties of one Banker towards another refpeling Credit And thofe due to aBanker from his Employers 3^6 318 Duties of a Banker refpecling Profit *.-.. 318 321 Surreptitious Profits Dead Accounts Forgotten Sums 321323 Illegal Profits Ufury 3 2 3~ 325 Various other Duties refpe&ing Profit 325 328 Duty of dealing equally towards Cuftomers explained 3-8-331 Particular Temptations to which the Bunker is expofed 33 1 333 3 Additional CONTENTS OF THE Additional Temptations if in Parliament Page 333, 334 Opportunities of doing good furnifhed to a Banker by his Profeflion - - 334 341 A Banker felling bis Houfe - 341 Merchants Which of the preceding Remarks applicable to them 342344 Unwarrantable Rifks - 345, 346 Unwarrantable Profits - - 346 348 Falfe Entries and Invoices - 348 350 Smuggling . j - 350, 351 Covering of Ships - - 351 355 Artificial Prices - - 355, 356 Dealing with Government Loans Public Contracts Opportunities of doing good - 359, 360 Agents, Faftors, Brokers Liac of Duty 360, 361 Indances of rcprchcnfiblc Practices Unavowed Profits 361368 Unjuft, or illegal Employment - 368 371 Stockbrokers - ' 371 373 l)ir.-tlors of Public Companies '*--i. 373 377 Manufacturers- Preceding Remarks applicable to them 377379 Competition, Method and Fffelts of - 379382 Objections againd Machines to fhorten Labour confidered 382-390 Duties of a Manufacturer as to the Health of his Work- men ^ . 39399 As to their Morals . 399404 Inftjnccs of Frauds in Manufactures 404407 Combinations on the Part of Manufacturers, or of their Workmen 4 o 7 , 4O 3 Obfervationa SECOND VOLUME; x { Obfervations refpe&ing fome exifting Laws concerning Manufactures - - Page 409 411 Temptations affecting a wealthy Manufacturer 411413 Duty of turning to the general Advancement of Science the Knowledge derived from Procefles ufed in Manu- factures - 413, 414 CHAP. XIV. On the Duties of Private Gentlemen. The Prefcnt Chapter addreffed^ to Readers of various Stations and Profeflions < ,. T1 -,^ 4*5 41$ Duties of Private Gentlemen as Land-owners Rents \ Tenants Encouragement of Agriculture 416 427 Tenures on Lives o - 427 432 Copyhold Tenures !dv) - 432, 433 Superintendance of Agents - - 434 436 Attention due from a Land-owner to the Interefts of his Succeflbr - - 436, 437 And of the Public; Canals; Roads; Inclofures 437440 Proper Ufe of Influence as to Parochial Concerns 440444 Duty of a Private Gentleman as an Elector of Members of Parliament 445452 As an Ecclefiaftical Patron 453455 As Sheriff - - ^' ' 455457 Deputy Lieutenant - 457, 458 As Grand or Special Juror - 458 460 Commiffioners of Roads, Taxes, &c. V^i 461 Truftees of Charities, &c. - 461 463 Duties refpecting Marriage - 463470 Parental , a CONTENTS, &c. 1'arcntal Duties Advantages and Difadvantages of dif- ferent Modes of Education Conduft to Children during Education Page 470 481 Introducing young Perfons into the World : Univerfitjr - 482, 483 Foreign Travel - 483, 484 Conduct of Children when grown up 485489 Wills - - - 489492 Duties to Servants Labourers- 493500 Duties as to Mode of Life Charity Behaviour to Neighbours -,, 500 514 CHAP. XV. Confiderations fubmitted to Perfons who doubt or deny the Truth of Chriflianity, or the Necefiity of a drift Obfervance of all its l*recepts. DisTerent Caufes of Unbelief - 516 520 Arguments admitted by Unbelievers - 521523 Prefumptive Evidence of the Truth of Chriflianity reding on Fads generally admitted by Unbelievers 524528 Inference from the foregoing Reafoning and Facls 528530 Plea alleged for relaxing from a drift Observance of the Precepts of Chriftianity - - 53 53* Whether confident with Reafon - 532, 533 Or wit!* the Scriptures ... 534538 Naamaa's Requcft to Elifha - 534, 535 ,AN . A N E N QU I R Y INTO THE DUTIES OF MEN, &c. CHAP. XL ON THE DUTIES OF THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. (0) obfervations on the fubject of the prefent chapter will be reduced under three general heads : the firft, relating to the duties incumbent on the Candidate for Holy Orders; the fecond, to the conduct of the Minifter (o) The Clergy may juftly boaft, that they enjoy in a greater degree than any other defcription of men, the ad- vantage of having the duties of their office laid before them by eminent writers belonging to their own line o life. They have long poflefled from the pen of Bifhop VOL. ii. B Burnet 2 ON THE DUTIES OF Miniftcr of a Parifli ; the third, to the duties of a Bifhop. I. The firft points concerning which a young man defigned for the clerical pro- fcfllon is bound to fatisfy himfelf (and whe- ther he locks forward to that profeflion from his own unbiafled determination, or is def- tined to it by the judgment of his parents nnd friends, the enquiry is equally indifpen- fable), are the purpofcs and intentions with Fi.rrvt a:i excellent trearife on the paftoral care; and practical directions for their conduit in almoft every br; ich of their parochial functions, in the admirable Ch.:rgcr, of Archbi/hop Seeker. The Charges too which have been publiflicd by fomc modern prelates are highly iullrucUve. Under thefe circumftances, though it would m,t have been in any refpeft compatible with the nature of the pvcfcnt work to omit the diftincl mention of the tluti-js of the clerical profeflion j and though I am willing to hope that fomc parts of this chapter may not be alto- gether dcflitutc of novelty, and that others may prefent to the render in a compreffcd form what is more difrufely iUu-d by tiiilcrent writers; it is flrongly my wifli that what I fliall oficr to the reader may lead him to the ftudy of tJ.c works already fpccificd ; particularly of the writings of Arclkbifhop Seeker and Bifliop Burnet, to which I have repeatedly found myfelf indebted in the courfc of the fol- lowing pag. which THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 3 which he becomes a candidate for the office of a Clergyman. I mean not to exact of him, in felecting his occupation, a degree of difre- gard to the profpect of fubfiftence and the or- dinary comforts of life, which is not compati- ble with the common feelings of human na- ture, nor required in the common courfe of hu- man events. Extravagant itatements unfound- ed in reafon and fcripture defeat their own object ; and, were they likely to promote it, ought not to be adopted. That Clergyman undoubtedly may be expected to labour in his vocation with the greateft earneftnefs and fuccefs, with the greateft comfort and advan-* tage to himfelf and to others, who embraces it from a fober and deliberate preference founded on the nature of the office itfelf ; and from a conviction that it will afford him opportunities more ample than he mould be likely to pof- feis in any other employment, of promoting the glory of God, and the good of mankind. Yet to him who fees no reafon to think that he fliall not promote the glory of God and the good of mankind as much in the church as in any other profeffion ; who is confcien- tioufly refolved to difcharge with zeal and fide- B 2 lity 4 ON THE DUTIES OF lity the functions of the clerical order, if ad- mitted to the exercife of them ; and to che- rifli the temper and difpofitions, and diligently to aim at acquiring the endowments, necefiary to that end ; and in whofe heart piety has al- ready fuch a predominant influence, as to give him a reafonable ground of confidence that thefe refolutions will be rendered by the di- vine blefling permanent and effectual ; the profpeft of obtaining, by the aid of his friends and relations, a competent provifion in the church may lawfully be the motive which de- termines him to that line of life in preference to another. But he who, from the probabi- lity of fucceeding to a family living, or the hopes of being pufhed forward to preferment by powerful connections, flifles an inward re- pugnance to the office of a Minifter of the Gofpel, falls under the fevere cenfure implied in the Scripture againft thofe who " take the " overfight of the flock of God for () filthy " lucre." And he who enters into the clerical profeflion, though not from motives of ava- rice, yet without duly eftimating its folemn (J) i Pet. v. 2. THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. nature and momentous functions, the obliga- tions which it impofes, and the refponfibility annexed to it ; without pofieffing the qualifi- cations eflential to the upright performance of its duties ; and without a ferious purpofe of habitually ftriving to improve in them, and to exhibit to thofe whom he fhall be appointed to guide in the way of falvation an edifying example of piety and virtue ; en- gages in a moft important concern with a degree of prefumptuous rafhnefs little adapted to enfure the future peace of his own mind ; to draw down the blefling of God upon his labours ; or to leave any fubftantial hopes that he will labour at all with zeal and afliduity. The courfe of ftudy to which the attention of the candidate for orders in the Church of England, whom we fuppofe already to have gained a competent knowledge of the learned languages, fhould principally be directed, in- cludes what is ufually comprehended under the name of divinity ; together with an ex- amination of the lawfulness and expediency of ecclefiaftical eftablifhments in general, and B 3 of 6 ON THE DUTIES OF of the nature and terms of our own eftablim- ment in particular. It is manifeftly from the ftudyof the Scrip- tures that the doctrines and duties of Chrifti- auity are to be learned. The perufal how- ever of thefe records of our faith fhould be accompanied with feveral collateral purfuits and afliftances. Let the fuggeftions of na- tural religion be inveftigated. Clearly inti- mating, on the one hand, the being, provi- dence, and moral government of God ; and on the other, throwing a feeble and uncer- tain light on the moft interefting of all en- quiries, the terms on which fin may be for- given, and the ftate of mankind after death ; they will be found at once to evince the ne- cemty, and to confirm the truth, of the Chrif- tian Revelation. Let the actual ftate of the world from early times to the birth of Chrift be fcrutinizcd. The blindnefs, obftinacy, and depravity of the Jews ; the grofs igno- rance and the abandoned corruption of the heathen world ; the follies of the wifeft and the failings of the befl of the human race, will THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 7 will Hill more plainly fhew the want of a divine inftru&or and redeemer. Let the ex- ternal and hiftorical evidences of Chriftianity be put to the teft. It will undeniably- appear that the Apoftles and Evangelifts could not themfelves have been deceived with refpect to the reality of the fads which they relate : that they could have no affignable motives for im- pofmg upon others ; and that, if they had made the attempt, they could not pofTibly have efcaped immediate and public detection. The truth of the Gofpel narrative, and the completion of many prophecies recorded in the Old and New Teftaments, will likewife be found corroborated by pagan hiftory. Let the internal marks which the Chriftian doc- trine bears of a divine origin be accurately weighed. It will approve itfelf as providing a fuitable and efficacious remedy for all the wants and weaknefles of human nature; hold- ing out pardon for fin, but upon terms ad- mirably deviled to prevent future offences; promifmg afliftance againft temptations, but on conditions adapted to call forth the utmoft exertions on the part of the tempted; deliver- ing laws and precepts enjoining the pureft B 4 virtue, 8 ON THE DUTIES OF virtue, and calculated to conduct every indi- vidual to the higheft degree of happinefs at- tainable in the prefent world ; and enforcing the univerfal obfervance of them by the cer- tain profpect of the reward of immeaf arable blifs, and the penalty of unfpeakable punifh-* mcnt, in another life never to have an end. The narrative of the Evangelifts contains within itfelf many ftrong confirmations of its own authenticity. The unaffected fimplicity of the recital, even when it records the moft ftupcndous miracles; the opennefs with which the writers relate the infirmities and tranf- greffions of themfelvcs and their companions ; the artleflhefs, and the perfect freedom from attempts to force compaflion, in their ac- counts of the indignities offered to their mafter ; thefe and many other character- i flics of truth have been pointed out and illuftrated by different writers. And to the clafs of arguments by which the Scriptures cftablifh their own veracity, we add the nu- merous indirect coincidences (c) difcoverable in (f) This extenfirc line of argument has recently been opened THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 9 in the Acts of the Apoftles and the Epiftles of St. Paul ; coincidences capable of being fubftantiated by incontrovertible reafoning ; yet often fo minute, remote, and circuitous, that it exceeds the wideft bounds of credi- bility to conceive that they could have been the refult of vague accident, or the deliberate contrivance of a forger. That the Scriptures have defcended uncorrupted to our hands is evinced by the numerous and fucceffive quo- tations from them in the writings of thofe who lived in the early ages of Chriftianity ; by the watchfulnefs of contending fects, who, from the days of the Apoftles to modern times appealing to the facred books as the ftandard of their faith, mutually reftrained each other from corrupting the text ; and by the uniform agreement of a multitude of exifting manufcripts, many of them of very antient date, except in obvious cafes of in- opened and purfued with fmgular acutenefs and felicity by Mr. Paley, in his " Horse Paulins;" a work deferring the ferious attention of every man who doubts, or who has to defend, the truth of the Chriftian religion. To the fame author alfo the public has very lately become in- debted for a complete view of the evidences of Chrifti- anity. accuracies 10 ON THE DUTIES OF accuracies on the part of the tranfcribers ; inaccuracies which the collation of the ma- nufcripts with each other feldora fails to de- tctl, and to afford latisfa&ory means of re- moving. By purfuing the inveftigations of which a brief outline has here been traced, let the candidate for the clerical office imprefs on his own mind, and qualify himfelf to defend againft every attack, the truth of that religion of which he defires to be a Minifter. In the mean time the Scriptures themfelves are to be iludied by him with diligent and ferious at- tention, for the purpofe of improvement in religious knowledge (//). The New Tefta- (J) The account given by Bifhop Burnt* of the afto- niQjing ignorance, as to fcriptural learning and religion, of the greater part of thofe who applied to him for ordi- nation, is fuch as would almofl have exceeded belief, had he not I ten a man of acknowledged piety and veracity. The folcmn aflcvcrations whh which he introduces that account arc extremely (Inking See the paflage alluded to, beginning with the words I am now in the feven- lieth rear of my age," page 22 of his Preface to the Paf- toral Carr, Glafgow, 1 762 ; and occupying the two fub- fequcnt r- ages. mcnt THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. II ment in particular muft be perufed in the original language, with the moft ufeful helps that *ah. be procured towards underftanding it, more efpecially with the commentaries of able expofitors. By balancing their interpret- ations, and comparing one part of holy writ with another, let the ftudent fatisfy himfelf to the beft of his abilities concerning the meaning of obfcure and difficult paflages ; and accuftom, himfelf concifely to fum up in his own mind the arguments in favour of the different ex- planations propofed, and briefly to note them down, that he may be able to recur to them on future occafions. Let him carry on his refearches with a pious, humble, teachable, and impartial fpirit ; guarding, againft pre- conceived opinions haftily adopted ; againft bigotry for particular fyftems ; blind pre- poffeflions in favour of a particular inter- preter ; and the prejudices of habit, of his place of education .or ftudy, of his relations and friends, and of his expected patrons. To earneft prayer for the fuperintending guidance of the Supreme Being let him join his own affiduous exertions, and follow the path of truth whitherfoever it may lead him. Some li ON THE DUTIES OF Some degree of acquaintance with eccle- Caflical hiftory, and with the fundamental tenets of the leading feds into which the Chriftian world has been divided, efpecially in modern times, may juftly be required in every one who applies for admiffion into orders. To him who has it in contemplation to be- come a Minifter of an eftabli/bed church, two cjueftions of great importance offer themfelves for deliberate difcuflion. The firft is, whether ecclefiaftical eftablimments in general can be defended as both lawful and expedient ; the fecond, whether the terms of admiffion into the eftablifhment, with which he is defirous of connecting himfelf, are fuch as he may con- fcicntioufly accept. Thefe queftions, which under any circumftances he ought to examine with fcrupulous care, loudly demand his at- tention at prefcnt ; when the lawfulnefs and the utility of all church eftablimments are not unfrcquently denied ; and the conditions re- quired by our own Church of its Minifters are denounced as repugnant to the doctrines of the Gofpel. The THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 13 The objections to the lawfulnefs of ecclefi- aftical eftablifhments in general are commonly directed againft the following parts of their conftitution : the impofition of a compulfory tax for the maintenance of the clergy ; and the exclufive allotment of the revenue raifed by it to the teachers of a particular feel. Now it is admitted without much difpute to be a fundamental ordinance of the Chriftian re- ligion, that they who devote their time and labours to the Gofpel miniftry fhould receive a maintenance from thofe whom they inftrucT:. St. Paul, after having ftated, that under the Jewifh difpenfation the priefts who miniftered about holy things lived of the things of the Temple, adds : " Even ( and apply the produce to the teachers of a particular creed ? Why is not every man's payment af- figned to his own inftructor ; inflead of being divided among other Minifters whom his con* fcicncc forbids him to attend ? The plan fug- gcftcd in this objection, we muft' at once con- 1 fcfs, THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. IJ fefs, mould it be found capable of being carried into execution in fuch a manner as to prevent collufive agreements between individuals ra- Ci dically injurious to its own efficacy, and to evince its fuperiority in promoting national piety and virtue, would claim an undeniable preference ; and the fuccefs or ill fuccefs of an inftitution of this nature, recently adopted in fome parts of North America, may enable pofterity to form a juft decifion on its merits. But if a State, and in. this cafe too every State muft determine for itfelf, is of opinion that national piety and virtue will be beft (g) pro- moted by configning the whole fum raifed by law for the fupport of religion to teachers of a particular defcription, while at the fame time (g) " The fmgle end we ought to propofe by Church " eftablifhments is the prefervation and communication '* of religious knowledge. Every other idea, and every " other end that have been mixed with this, as the making " of the Church an engine or even an ally of the State " converting it into the means of ftrengthening or of dif- ** fufing influence ; or regarding it as a fupport of regal in " oppofition to popular forms of government, have ferved " only to debafe the inftitution, and to introduce into it numerous corruptions and abufes." Paley's Moral and Political Philofophy, 6th edit. vol. ii. p. 305. it l6 ON THE DUTIES OF it leaves every man at liberty to attend and pay Minifters of his own ; it has the fame right to adopt this meafure as it would have to impofe a general tax for the fupport of a board of phyficians, mould it deem that ftep conducive to national health, payable even by thofe who fhould not choofe to employ them ; or to levy a general pound-rate on landed property for the equipment of a mili- tary force, without exempting from its opera- tion thofe proprietors who difapprove of the meditated enterprife. The lawful nefs of church eftablifhments being admitted, the next enquiry relates to the expediency of them. To come to a ra- tional conclufion on this point, the candidate for orders is to weigh the benefits refulting from them againft the attendant difad vantages; and impartially to judge which fcale prepon- derates. It cannot be ftated as one of the ad- vantages belonging to all ecclefiaftical eftablifh- ments, that they promote the diffufion of true religion. What might be affirmed, for ex- ample, concerning the eftablifhed church of England, could not be affirmed concerning the eftablifhed THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 17 eftabliflied church of Spain. But when the doctrines taught under an eftablifhment are thofe of genuine" Chriftianity, the inftitution may with truth be defcribed as promifmg the following good effects. It (b) enfures the re- gular performance of religious rites and wor- fhip throughout the whole country; which in many places, through the poverty of the inhabitants, their negligence and forgetfulnefs, their repugnance to co-operation, or their want of piety, would otherwife foon ceafe to be performed at all ; or to be performed by per- fons competent, on the fcore of principles, ta- lents, and attainments, to be faithful and able Minifters of the Gofpel. It enfures a perma- nent and reafonable provifion for the Clergy ; which in the prefent ftate of manners and fociety, whatever efforts may have been made by the liberality of new converts, or by the zeal of different fects driving to maintain their (&) In this place, as in fome other parts of the prefent chapter, my object is fimply to ftate to the theological Student the leading arguments which it is his duty to examine ; and to refer him to writers who difcufs them at length, for thofe elucidations and thofe anfwers to fub- ordinate objections, which could not be ftated here with- out entering upon too wide a field. VOL. ii. G grounds IS ON THE DUTIES OF grounds againft what they deem the oppreflion of a national church, would in vain be expected from voluntary contributions : and thus gives them weight and refpectability in the eftima- tion of their hearers ; and removes the tempt- ations to rival/hips and contentions with each other, to habits of fervility and conftraint, and to the practice of accommodating the doctrines of Chriftianity to local circumftances and hu- mours, for the fake of gaining or preferring a precarious fubfcription. And it enfuresto the Clergy leifure for the due difcharge of the private duties of their profeffion, and for the purfuits of theological and other ufeful learn- ing; and the means, in a greater or a lefs de- gree, of furnifhing themfelves with the books and aififtances requifite in the profeciition of their ftudies. The difadvnntages attached to church efta- bliihments are the following. They afford encouragement in fome refpects to idlenefs ; as individual Clergymen may be confiderably remifs in the difcharge of feveral of their func- tions, and confiderably reprehenfible in their mode of life, without incurring any diminution of THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 19 of their incomes. This evil will be in feme degree counteracted by the defire which even the moft carelefs of the Clergy will generally feel to preferve a refpectable character, partly as the means of pofleffing the efteem of their neighbours, and partly perhaps as a recommen- dation to preferment. Yet fuch confiderations, not being powerful enough to effect a real change of heart, will feldom produce more than an attention to thofe duties which are in- difpenfably required by law and cuftom,and to outward decorum in manners and conduct. More may be done by proper vigilance on the part of Bifhops, and others to whom ecclefiaftical authority is committed, in em- ploying all the means in their power to excite the Clergy under their fuperintendence to piety and virtue j and to imprefs them with a ftrong fenfe of the obligations and the re- fponfibility annexed to the fituation of a paro- chial Minifter. Church eftablimments have alfo the inherent defect of biaffing the judge- ment and enmaring the confciences of the Clergy, by the temptations .which they una- voidably hold out to them, to ftrive to comply with the terms and fubfcriptions required ; C 2 temptations 20 ON THE DUTIES OF temptations which rauft be expected to lead in many inftances to prevarication and infin- cerity. With regard to the effects of church eftablifhmcnts in biaffing the judgement, it may not be improper to add, that they in fome degree referable thofe produced by education, and by fixed political inftitutions. If the mind is naturally led to entertain a ftrong predilec- tion for the principles of action with which it has become familiar, or for a particular form of government which it has been habitually taught to admire; fhould the principles of action and the form of government be intrin- fically defcrving of preference, the prejudice (for we will not deny it to be a prejudice) operates on the fide of utility. The cafe is the fame with refpect to ecclefiaftical eftablifh- mcnts. But impartiality requires us unreferv- cdly to own that prejudice feldom difcrimi- nates, and leaft of all when united with felf- intereft ; and that under this circumftance in particular it will feldom fail to defend infti- tutions radically blamable, and thofe points in juft and beneficial inftitutions which may be liable to objection. In order to reduce within the narro weft bounds the influence of the tempt. ations THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 21 ations which have recently been ftated, the conditions of admiffion to the minifterial office ought ftudioufly to be made as few and as fim- ple as poffible ; and mould be revifed from time to time, that no one of them may be con- tinued longer than the neceflity for impofmg it exifts ; and that thofe errors, which the reflec- tion of fucceeding generations, aided by the additional light thrown on various parts of the Scriptures in the general progrefs of learn- ing, will probably difcover in fubordinate points even in the pureft eftablifhments, may be removed without delay. And finally, church eftablifhments tend to fofter in the breafts of their members, and perhaps of their minifters in particular, bigotry, narrownefs of mind, unreafonable prejudices, and a want of toleration and charity towards all who difTent from the national religion ; effects which no- thing will prevent but a conftant recollection of the unlimited right of private judgement in the interpretation of the Scriptures, and an affiduous cultivation of the mild and benevo- lent fpirit of Chriftianity. On concluding this fummary ftatement of the advantages and di- advantages likely to accompany the inftitution C 3 of 21 ON THE DUTIES OF of ecclefiaftical eftablifhmcnts (its lawfulnefs having been previoufly fettled), it will not, I think, be too much to affirm, that in the exift- ing ftate of moft parts of the world the infti- tution, when properly regulated, and accom- panied with complete toleration, promifes to be radically ferviceable to religion ; and abun- dantly to overpay with fubftantial benefits thofe undefirable confequences, with which, in common with every other human arrange- ment, it will unavoidably be attended. The theological Student, after having fatif- fied himfelf as to the lawfulnefs and expediency of the inftitution of church eftablimments in general, has in the fecond place to examine the difciplinc and do&rines of the Church of England. In the exterior form and adminiftration of our national church he will obferve two pro- minent features ; that a gradation of rank and office takes place among the Clergy ; and that parochial Minifters are neither appointed by the fuffrages of the perfons whom they are to inftruft, nor difmiflible at their option. And he THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 23 he will naturally enquire into the reafons which may be alleged in fupport of thefe arrangements. It is now admitted by the generality of Pro- teftants, that no command was delivered, either by Chrift or by his Apoftles, afligning to the Chriftian Church any fpecific unalterable form of government ; but that, while various offices, fuited to the fituation and exigencies of the new converts, were inftituted at the beginning (fome of which, as that of Deaconefles, have long fallen into difufe), Chriftians were left at liberty to adopt in future times fuch modes of ecclefiaftical adminiftration and difcipline, as they fhould deem mofl eligible in the circum- ftances under which they fhould find them- felves placed. The advantages to be expected from the mode of government adopted in the eftablifhrnent of our own country are princi- pally thefe. The diftinction of orders in the church, bearing a ftrong refemblance to the gradations of rank in civil life, provides friends and companions among the Clergy, and the benefits which may refult from their fociety and example, not merely for the inferior, but C 4 like wife 24 ON THE DUTIES OP likewife for the higheft, clafies in the commu- nity. The ftations of fuperior dignity and opulence caufe young men of talents to be educated for the church, who would ctherwife be dcftined to fome occupation deemed more honourable, and juftly expected to prove lu- crative ; and alfo tend to enfure to the clerical profeflion that general refpecl, which enlarges the influence and adds to the effed of the labours of each individual Minifter. And when the fuperintcndence of the church, and the deter- mination of all queftions refpedting the ma. nagement of ecclefiaftical affairs, and the con- dud of particular Clergymen, is vefted in a few pcrfons; more calmnefs and temper in examin- ing, and more impartiality in deciding, may probably take place, than when they are com- mitted to a numerous aflembly; where turbur lence, intrigue, and the fpirit of party may more cafily find admittance, and the fhame of an unjuft dccifion be loft amidft the multitude of judges. The right of nominating Minifters to vacant benefices entrufted by the State to private per- fons is calculated to remedy the many diforders 1 and THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 2J t and evils which would be likely to arife in this country, were the choice left to be deter* mined in each parifh by the fuffrages of the inhabitants. It is not merely that teachers of every different feel: of Chriftianity might fuc- ceflively be placed in the pulpit, according to the varying ftrength of their feveral parties; but the mod bitter animofities would perpe- tually be excited among the voters of the fame feel:, in confequence of their fentiments being divided in favour of different competitors all profefling the fame tenets. The fuccefsful can- didate would be received with fixed averfion by a large proportion of the parifhioners ; and his inftruclions heard with deeply rooted pre- judices by moft of the defeated electors who mould think proper to attend them. On the profpeel: of his death or removal, the parifh would be affailed with every art pradlifed in a venal borough ; and when either of thofe events mould happen, the flame of con- tention would break forth. The choice of a Minifter of the gofpel of peace would be the fource of angry conteft and permanent difcord ; and the benefice would too com- monly be the prize, not of piety and merit, l6 ON THE DUTIES OF i but of private tampering, fccret or open menaces, and fupcrior (kill in the manoeuvres of elections. Were the Minifter of a parifh difmiflible at thcpleafure of thepariihioners, it is obvious un- der what temptations he would lie to ftrive to maintain his poft, by relinquifhing his legal rights; bypra&ifmg fervile artifices; by court- ing the favour, humouring the caprice, and for- bearing to reprove the vices of the principal people of the place; and by overftraining or fupprefling particular doctrines of Chriftianity in compliance with local prejudices. The moft upright Minifter might find himfelf fuddenly expelled by the unexpected junction of fects and parties, difcordant on every other point, but uniting and co-operating for the purpofe of driving him from the pulpit. To thefe evils are to be added, all or moft of thofa which have recently been ftatcd as the natural confequences of an elective Clergy. For even if the choice of a fucceflbr to the perfon dif- mificd was vefted in a private patron ; the pa- rim might ultimately enfure the appointment of the Clergyman who had been moft adroit in THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. $7 in conciliating their good-will, by pertina- cioufly rejecting any other who (hould be nominated. The candidate for orders in the Church of England has in the laft place to examine into the nature of the fubfcriptions and engage- ments which are required of young men on their admiffion to the minifterial functions ; that is to fay, the fubfcriptions made before the Biihop antecedently to ordination, and the engagements contained in the office of ordination itfelf. The full and fair import of the obligations thus contracted muft be collected from a fober inveftigation of the fubject, and from writers of credit and refpectability who profefledly treat of them in detail. It is not probable that many difficulties will arife except with regard to the thirty-nine articles. Concerning thofe articles it may be proper to add a few words. Articles of religion feem to be a neceflary part of every ecclefiaftical eftablifhment ; as forming the only criterion by which thofe teachers 28 ON THE DUTIES OF- teachers who hold the doctrines of the efta- blifhment can be diflinguifhed from thofe who do not. The unlawfulnefs of requiring any fubfcription whatever, though not unfrequent- ly aflerted, can never be evinced. For if it be lawful to require of a perfon who applies for an office in the State, or an employment in private life, fome proof of his pofleffing the qualifications necefTary for difcharging the du- ties of the poft, and an engagement that he will difcharge them faithfully while he continues to hold it ; why is a fimilar proceeding in the cafe of ecclefiaftical offices neceffarily unlaw- ful ? And when an office is inftitutcd for the purpofc of inculcating certain doctrines ; is it not lawful and reafonable to require of thofe, who voluntarily apply for admiffion into the office, an explicit declaration whether they believe the doctrines ? For that belief is a qualification indifpenfably requifite to their fulfilling with integrity and effect the func- tions, with the difcharge of which they defire to be entrufled. In fubfcribing the thirty-nine articles, the intention of the authority which prefcribes fub- THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 29 fubfcription is to be fatisfied. This authority is not (/) the Legiflature of the 1 3th Eliz. which pafled the act impofmg fubfcription ; but the exifting Legiflature of this country, which having the power of repealing that act, and forbearing to exercife it, ratifies, and as it were re-enacts the law. The point there- fore which the candidate for orders has to decide, is the nature of the fubfcription which will fatisfy the intention of the Legiflature exifting at the time : in other words, he is to afcertain what engagements that Legiflature deems the fubfcriber of the articles to contract, and what, if any, is the latitude of interpret- ation, when the expreflions employed in the articles admit fome latitude, which it allows. In determining thefe queftions, he is not in the flighteft degree bound by the meaning and intention of the Legiflature of I3th Eliz. if he has fufficient reafon to judge the mean- ing and intention of the exifting Legiflature to be different. (') See the Principles of Moral Philofophy inveftigated, &c. 3d edit. p. 219222, by the author and alfo vol. i. P. 91 of the prefent work. The 30 ON THE DUTIES OF The form of fubfcription dates, that " all " and every (k) the articles are agreeable to " the word of God ;" a form which, if there is no evidence that the Legiflature has relaxed in its demands, muft appear entirely to over- throw the opinion of thofe writers who main- tain that the articles may be confcientioufly fubfcribed by perlbns who think them true in the main, yet believe feveral of them to be re- pugnant to the Scriptures. Some latitude (/) of interpretation, however feems clearly allow- ed ; fome is and has long been conftantly in ufe ; and the fact has been fo notorious to ma- ny fucceffive Legifiatures, that it may fairly be taken for granted, that difapprobation of the practice would have been teftified by public authority, had it been felt. For fimilar rea- fons it may be concluded, that if fome of the articles are fo worded as to be fairly capable of more than one fenfe compatible with the Scriptures, fubfcription in any one of thofc (i) Burn's Eccl. Law, 3d ed. vol. iii. p. 36. (/) Aichbifhop Seeker, fpeaking of the thirty-nine arti- cles, fays: " Egent hodie tantum explicatione commoda; non vafram et veteratoriam intelligo, fed artis grammaticz criticacquc regulis confonam." Orat. Synod, p. 363. fcnfes THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 31 fenfes will fatisfy the Legiflature. Yet as a latitude in itfelf of an indefinite nature, and extending to a variety of particulars, is al- ways liable to be enlarged by the fubfcriber in proportion to his difficulties, until at length it exceeds almoft all bounds ; it fhould feem that a revifal of the articles, under the aufpices of the Bench of Bifhops, for the purpofe of omitting fuch as may now be fuperfluous, and fimplifying thofe which are obicure, would contribute equally to the interefts of the eftablifhed Church, and to the credit and comfort of its Minifters (m). Againft this temptation to ufe unwarrant- able latitude in interpreting the articles, it is the duty of every one, who ftudies them with a view to fubfcription, honeftly and di- ligently to guard. A defire previoufly formed of entering into the Church ; the difficulties and inconveniencies of turning to another line of life ; the fuggeftions of intereft in all its fhapes, referring to paft expences and to future profpecls j thefe and other circumftances will () See fupra, p. 20 22. be 32 ON THE DUTIES OF be very apt to bias the judgment, and in- fluence the determination, of the enquirer. Let him never forget his danger ; let him ex- amine the meaning of the feveral articles with upright views and impartial inveftigation ; lej: him not content himfelf with perufing what has been written in their defence ; but qualify himfelf to form a fatisfactory decifion refpect- ing their conformity to the Scriptures, in the fame manner in which he would enable him- felf to determine any other controverted point, by informing himfelf of the principal argu- ments alleged againft them, and appretiating with equal deliberation and fairnefs what he finds urged on either fide of the qucftion. Let him remember, that if he fubfcribes while perplexed by diftra&ing doubts, and without peace and fatisfa&ion of mind, he not only in- curs prefent guilt ; and guilt too which will be likely to be continually aggravated, as long as he remains a Minifter of the eftablilhed Church with his fcruples unremoved ; but entails upon himfelf conftant uneafmefs and difquiet, and conftant temptations to endeavour to blind his judgment and ftifle his conviction; tempta- tions which will increafe in proportion to the length THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 33 length of time during which he fhall have been a Minifter of the national Church, and to the preferment and profits which he derives from it. If the refult of his enquiries and reflections fhould be fuch, that he feels himfelf incapable of making the rieceflary fubfcriptiori with a fafe and quiet confcience, let him defiff from his intention of enrolling himfelf among' the Clergy of the eftablifhment. It may not be fuperfluous to remark, that the ufe of unjuftifiable means in gaining tefti- monials, certificates, or titles ; and attempts to impofe on the Bifhop by procuring the- affiftance of others in the exercifes and com- pofitions enjoined previous to ordination as' trials of the candidate's abilities and attain-' ments, can be confidered in no other light than in that of frauds ; and of frauds com- mitted on an occafion when every feeling of confcience ought to be awake, and when ingenuoufnefs and integrity are particularly required* II. We are in the next place to fpealc of the conduct of a Minifter of a parifli. VOL. ii. D But 34 ON THE DUTIES OF But before the duties of the office are dated, let the young Clergyman be warned againft rcprehenfible methods of attaining the office itfclf. Under this defcription are included ill kinds of illegal and fimoniacal proceedings, xvhcther appearing in the fhape of direct pay- ments of money, of general bonds of refigna- tion, or of contracts to cede any actual or probable rights of the living, to lower tithes or dues, or not to augment them, or to transfer to any other perfon a portion of the produce of the benefice; and all infmcere and difhonour- able means of conciliating a patron's favour, as by pretending to concur in the peculiarities of his religious opinions, or in his fentiments refpecling political meafures, the characters of individuals, fubjects of local difcuffion, or other topics incidentally brought forward in converfation (); by fubmitting to be his agent in (n) To fome of the temptations here enumerated, a young Clergyman received into the families of Bifhops, or of Lay Pews, or of wealthy Commoners, as a chaplain, or as a private tutor to their children, is particularly expofed. His fituation indeed, whatever advantages it may poflefs, is a poft of danger ; and the utmoft vigilance is neceflary to prefcrve him from gaining, habits of affectation, vanity, and THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 35 in the venal traffic of elections; by ftudi- oufly becoming the conftant companion of his field fports ; or by partaking of the intempe- rance of his table, and acquiefcing in fcenes of vice, riot, and profanenefs. In the cafe of lecturefhips, and other elective employments in the church, let no impofition be practifed to captivate the voters and delude their igno- rance ; nor let any attempt be made, if they are tradefmen, or in more humble ftations, to over- awe their free choice by the authority and in- fluence of men on whofe favour they are de- pendent. If a living is to be held for a minor, let no referve or fubterfuges be practifed to conceal the tranfaction. And let not prefer- ment be fought in any cafe with a degree of anxiety inconfiftent with a full and lively con- viction of the fuperintending wifdom and goodnefs of Providence, and a cheerful refig- nation to the will of the Difpofer of all events. Among the peculiar functions of the Mini- fter of a parifh, the celebration of divine wor- and felf-conceit j imbibing lofty ideas and expectations, and contracting a time-ferving difpofition, and that abje& deference to the Great, which is often found united with arrogance towards equals and inferiors. D 2 Ihip 36 ON THE DUTIES OF (hip naturally offers itfelf in the firft place to 6ur attention. The ufual times of public worfhip ought never to be changed by the Minifter for the purpofe of fuiting his own convenience, when his hearers will be incommoded or difpleafed by the alteration, and of courie be apt to re- lax in their attendance. There are perfons in every parifli to whofe minds the flighted pre- tence is a fufficient apology for omitting to go to church ; and they who take offence at the conduct of the Clergyman often gratify them- ftlves by the abfurd revenge of keeping away from his inftruclions. Neither ought any portion of the duty to which the congregation has been accuftomcd, either on Sundavs or j on holidays, to be difcontinued. On the contrary, if any unreaibnable deficiency has hitherto prevailed (and in particular with re- ipccl: to the frequency of fermons, and the recurrence of the facrament), a confcientious Minifter will be felicitous to obviate it for the future. In reading the liturgy, a natural, diftindr, r.nd moderately flow pronunciation, audible throughout THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 37 throughout the church, but not overftrained ; appropriate to the fever'al parts of the fervice, but free from affected emphafis ; and that earneft and impreffive folemnity of manner which proves the heart of the Minifter to be engaged in his employment, are qualifications of the higheft importance. This remark muft be extended to the recital of the baptifmal office, and of other fimilar parts of the book of common prayer ; which are fometimes read with fo much hafte and irreverence as to lofe all appearance of being offices of religion. With refpecl: to the compofition (0) of fer- mons, the only obfervations proper to be fug- gefted (0} See Archbifhop Seeker's Third Charge to the Clergy of the Diocefe of Canterbury ; and Mr. Paley's Advice to the young Clergy of the Diocefe of Carlifle. The con* <:lufion of the following extract from the latter perform- ance deferves particular attention. " I am far from re- " fufing you the benefit of other men's labours ; I only re- ' quire that they be called in, not to flatter lazinefs, but .' to afiift induftry. You find yourfelf unable to furnifh ' a fermon every week; try to compofe one every month. " Depend upon it, you will con fult your own fatisfadlion " as well as the edification of your hearers ; and that, '* however inferior your compofitions may be to thofe of 03 " others 38 ON THE DUTIES OF gcftcd in this place arc, that they mould be plain, and that they fhould be Chriftian dif- courfes. A fermon which is above the capacity of the congregation to which it is addrefled is ufelefs or difgufting. In almoft every congre- gation the poor and unlearned form by much the larger part ; and, univerfally, the meaning of the preacher muft be caught at once, or it is totally loft. Hence the peculiar neceflity of plainnefs in propounding the fubjecl: to be difcufled, and in the manner of treating it. Our rule therefore, while it requires, in dif- courfes addrefled to ordinary congregations, a fimple and perfectly obvious arrangement, and, in moft cafes, tl^e profefled divifion of the fubjeds into a few general heads ; pro- fcribes the bewildering multiplicity of fub- others in feme refpefts, they will compenfate for many ' defeats by a clofer application to the ways and manners, " the actual thoughts, rcafoning, and language, the errors, " doubts, prejudices and vices, the habits, characters and < propenfitics of your congregation, than can be expefted " from borrowed difcourfcs." divifions, THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 39 divifions, frequently deftitute of actual dif- tin&ion, which was common among eminent divines early in the prefent century; together with all long and complicated fentences, ob- fcure metaphors, refined ornaments of lan- guage and compofition, learned references to Pagan philofophers and Chriftian fathers, and prolix digreflions from the main topics fug- gefted by the text. Let it not be faid, that the effect of a clofe obfervance of this rule would be to render fermons vulgar and unim- preffive. He, who conceives that fimplicity of ftyle and language has any natural connec- tion with feeblenefs and vulgarity, fhews him- felf totally unacquainted with the fundamental principles of tafte and excellence in writing. He, who folicitoufly feeks to diftinguifh him. ielf in the pulpit by a difplay of elegance of expreffion and profundity of learning, proves himfelf deficient in fome of the leading virtues which ought to chara&erife a Chriftian Mi- nifter. Again : Let not the fermons of a Minifter of the Gofpel be moral treatifes appealing chiefly to jnaxims of natural reafon and ab- ilrad 40 ON THE DUTIES OF ftract ethical fpec illations, and neglecting the infpired precepts and the charadteriftic doc- trines of Chriftianity. " We (p] have in fact " loft many of our people to fectaries, by not *' preaching in a manner fufficiently evangeli- " cal; and fhall neither recover them from " the extravagances into which they have " run, nor keep more from going over to " them, but by returning to the right way, " and declaring all the counfel of God." '' Reflections (q) have been made upon us, of " different natures and with different views, " on account of thefe things, by Deifts, by " Papifts, by brethren of our own, which it tC is eafy to (hew have been much too fevere. " But the only complete vindication of our- *-* felvcs will be to preach fully and frequently " the doctrines, which we arc unjuftly accufed " of calling offer undervaluing ; yet fo as to " referve always a due (hare of our difcourfes, ' which it is generally reported fome of our ' cenfurers do not, for the common duties of 1 common life, as did our Saviour and his (/>) Archbifhop Seeker's Charges, 3d edition, London, J7o, p. 299. (q] Ibid. p. 237. " Apoflles. " THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 41 Apoflles, But then we muft enforce them chiefly by motives peculiarly Chriftian ; I " will not fay only by fuch ; for the Scrip- " ture adds others." The remarks already made concerning the reading of the liturgy are applicable to the delivery of fermons. And to them it may be added, that as pr*aching is that part of the public fervice in which the Minifter is moft liable to be enfnared by vanity and the defire of applaufe ; it mould be his uniform endea- vour, that all perfonal confiderations be loft in a deep fenfe of the awful functions in which he is engaged. Another very important branch of the duty of a Clergyman, yet one which, it is to be feared, is frequently neglected, is the private inftrudion of his pariihioners. Every Clergy- man, at his ordination, folemnly projnifes to ufe towards thofe who mail be entnifted to his care, not only public but private monitions, as need JJoall require, and occafan Jhall be given. The ufes of private inftruction are manifold; and its place is not to be fupplied by the moft able 42 ON THE DUTIES OF able and carneft difcourfes from the pulpit. In his private addrefles, the Minifler of a parifh reaches thofc who abfent themfelvcs from his public labours ; and affects others whom thofe labours have failed to convince and reform. He feizes the fit moment, when the mind is difengaged from preffing avocations> or the heart foftened by calamity. He adapts his proceedings to the particular cafe of the individual ; he enters into his fituation, feel- ings, and habits ; he obviates prejudices, he rectifies mifconceptions, he refolves doubts, he quiets fcruples, he repels excufes and evafions, the exiftence of which he had not even fufpecled. He comes clofely to the point ; and prefles his arguments with a de- gree of ftrict and undeviating application to the thoughts and defects of the perfon with whom he is converfmg, which it wouhj have been improper to aim at, and impoflible to attain, in a difcourfe delivered to a public congregation. Jie probes the heart to the bottom, placing before the eyes of the vicious the precjfe image of their depravity; en- couraging the timid, confirming the irrefo- Jute, and eftablifhing the devout in their piety; THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 43 piety ; and experiencing at the fame time, for he can fcarcely fail in fome degree to expe- rience, a reciprocal impreffion from his own precepts on his own breaft. The infight which a Clergyman acquires into the ftate of his flock, in the courfe of his private exertions, is of eflential fervice in promoting the efficacy of his public preaching, by guiding his judge- ment as to the topics to be feledted for fer- mons, and as to the manner of treating them. Among the beneficial effects refulting from private inftrudtion, another inuft yet be men- tioned. In proportion as this duty is lefs oftenfibly impofed on the Minifter than the ftated performance of the weekly fervice of the church, his activity will bear, in the appre- henfion of his parimioners, the marks of more genuine and affectionate folicitude for their welfare ; and will therefore be likely, while it raifes him in their estimation and regard, to have a powerful influence on their hearts and conduct. And though it be a duty which a young Clergyman will find it difficult at firft to difcharge to his fatisfadion, perfeverance will render it eafier to him every day. Private 44 ON THE DUTIES OF Private difcourfe on the fubject of religion is particularly applicable to the Tick ; and is to a certain degree prefcribed in the offices pro- vided for their ufe in the book of common prayer. Sicknefs naturally difpofes the mind to ferioufnefs and reflection ; and, by with- drawing its attention and loofening its attach- ment from the objects of the prefent world, fits it for eftimating according to their real importance the concerns of that which is to ccme. A Clergyman who is deeply impreffed with the awful nefs of the charge which his miniftry lays upon him, and remembers that " there (r) is joy in the prefence of the angels " of God over one finner-that repenteth," will not fuffer his parifhioners to want his in- ductions at the moment when they are likely to be received with more than common glad- ncfs and effect. He will fpeak to them with plainnefs the great truths of the Gofpel ; he will adapt his exhortations, his counfel, his re- proofs, to the paft acVions and the prefent ftatc of the individual whom he addrefTcs And while he fliews to him every mark of (r) Luke xv. 10, that THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 45 that compaffionate tendernefs which his fitua- tion demands, he will beware of an error into which Clergymen are not unfrequently led by miftaken pity, that of affording groundlefs confolations and unwarrantable hopes to the fick ; and of thus teaching their liftening re- lations to believe, that a few days of forrow and contrition on a death-bed may be deemed fufficient to wipe away the guilt of a long and vicious life. But private inftnicYion is net to be confined to the chambers of infirmity and difeafe. The healthy and robuft are perhaps thofe who ftand in the greateft need of it. They may be forgetting the refolutions and breaking the promifes which they formerly made in iick- nefs ; or, having feldom been- reminded of their mortality by confinement and pain, may be immerfed in worldly bufmefs or in fmful courfes, and thoughtlefs of future judgment. Cafual meetings, and vifits purpofely made and repeated, will afford a Clergyman many opportunities of endeavouring to awaken and reclaim them. He makes the attempt per- haps, and fails. It was his duty however to 3 make 46 ON THE DUTIIS Of make it. And how does he know but that the feed which he has fown, though now it appears inert and lifelefs, may fpring up and bear fruit hereafter ? Let him not defpair too foon, nor content himfelf with a fingle trial. Circumflances may change for the better, and a fecond or a third effort be fucce&ful. It was undoubtedly the direction of our Saviour to the firft preachers of his religion, " not to caft " their pearls before fwine ;" and it is a direc- tion dill to be remembered. But thofe whom God permits to live, his Minifters fhould be very flow to pronounce irreclaimable. A. confcientious Clergyman will bear in mind, that the falvation of the illiterate and indigent man is not lefs valuable in the fight of God than that of the rich and the learned ; and will not be led by pride to neglect the poor, or to treat them with fupercilioufnefs in the courfe of his private inftructions. Neither \vill he be deterred from privately addreffing particular individuals among his parifhioners, on the fubject of vices with which they are notorioufly chargeable, by the mere circum- ftance of their being wealthy, or in elevated s, or voluntary contributors to his own annual THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 47 annual emoluments. Honeft and difmterefted boldnefs in the path of duty is one of the firft qualifications of a Minifter of the Gofpel. But let his whole conduct be the evident refult of piety and conviction, and plainly animated by the fpirit of brotherly love. Let his ad- monitions be conveyed in a fuitable manner, and at feafons prudently chofen ; and let them, in general, be kept permanently fecret from the world. Let him neither be difconcerted nor irritated by neglect ; nor even by open rude- nefs, contempt, and injurious recrimination. A calm and mild endurance of fuch treatment is his duty as a Chriftian j and in the end it may contribute to produce, what in many fimilar inftances it has been acknowledged greatly to have forwarded, a change of heart and life in the culpable party, unable to for- bear from fubfequent reflection on the dif- ference between the fpirit and conduct of his advifer and his own, and on the principles from which that difference arofe. The inftruction of young perfons previoufly to their being confirmed is an important branch of clerical duty. Let no one follow the 48 ON THE DUTIES OF the blamable and pernicious example of thofe Clergymen, who, after hearing each of the children utter a few fentences in hafte and by rote, give them tickets for confirmation as a matter of courfe. Care ought to be taken not merely that they (hall be able accurately to recite the church catechifm, but that they fhall be competent to give a clear account of the doctrines and of the leading precepts which it contains j and mail alfo underftand the full import of the rite in which they are about to bear a part. Numbers of them will be altogether deficient in thefe qualifications, if the Clergyman is too indolent or too care- lefs to take the pains of repeatedly directing the attention of parents to the fubjecl ; and of explaining to the children in familiar language the fevcral parts of the catechifm, and of the office of confirmation; and of again and again examining them individually before they are prefented to the Biihop. The imprcffions thus made on their young minds may frequently be ftrengthened and rendered durable by lub- fequent converfation and advice. The THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 49 The catechifing of children is a practice re- quired by the canons from the Minifter of a parifh. In many places the backwardnefs of parents to fend their children, joined to other caufes, has occafioned it to be difcontinued. The inftitution of Sunday Schools is admirably adapted to remedy this defect ; and on that account, as well as by accuftoming the rifmg generation to regular attendance on public worfhip, and to habits of early piety, deferves the warmeft fupport of the parochial Clergy. Every Minifter of a parifh, in which no Sun- day fchool is eftabliihed, fhould make it his object to procure the immediate eftablifhment of one or more, unlefs fome very peculiar circumftances render the plan unneceflary ; and when they are eftablimed, he fhould care- fully fuperintend them. He will there find a number of catechumens collected before him. By occafional, yet fufficiently frequent, exami- nations he will enfure their being taught not merely to repeat, but to underftand ; and by the judicious diftribution of little rewards will excite a laudable defire to excel in regularity, diligence, obedience, knowledge, and piety. Where charity-fchools of other defcriptions VOL. ii, E exift, JO f ON THE DUTIES OF cxift, the Clergyman of the place, by beftow- ing fimilar attention upon them, commonly performs an office no lefs acceptable to the truftees, than beneficial to the young perfona concerned. St. Paul's admonition to Archippus, " Take " heed to the miniftry (s) which thou haft " received in the Lord, that thou fulfil it," ihould be regarded by every Minifter of the Gofpel as addrefled to himfelf. A Clergyman, by frequently comparing his conduct (/) with the engagements into which he entered at his ordination, may difcern how far he ful- fils his miniftry. But there are few methods by which he can form a truer eftimate of the degree in which he difcharges his duty, than by confidering what would be the conduct of (/) ColofT. iv. 17. (/) A fettled habit of carefully reading the office of ordination, and inftituting this comparifon at certain pe- riodical fcafons, as in the Ember weeks, in every year, is carneftly and with great juftice recommended by Arch- bifhop Seeker in his InftrucTions to Candidates for Orders ; and by Bifhop Burnet in his Paftoral Care; Glafgow 1762, p. 10 1, 102. What is not done at dated times is too often Mot done at all. St. THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 51 St. Paul, if now alive, and placed in all re- fpects in his circumftances and fituation. The conduct which the Apoftle required of Chrif- tian Minifters in his own time is ftated in the directions (directions equally applicable at the prefent day) which he gave to his favourite pupil. " I charge (u) thee before God and the " Lord Jefus Chrift, who fhall judge the quick " and dead at his appearing in his kingdom ; " preach the word ; be inftant in feafon, out of " feafon ;" (not only at the ftated periods of worfhip,but at all other times when fit opportu- nities occur; not only when your exertions will be taken kindly, but even when they will raife difpleafure and give fome offence, if yet they appear likely on the whole to do good ;) " re- " prove, rebuke, exhort, with all longfufFering " and doctrine." " Be thou an (x) example " of the believers, in word, in converfation, in " charity, in fpirit, in faith, in purity. Give " attendance to reading, to exhortation, to " doctrine ; meditate upon thefe things ; give " thyfelf wholly to' them, that thy profiting " may appear unto all. Take heed unto () 2 Tim. iv. i, 2. (*) i Tim. iv. 12 i& E 2 " thyfelf 52 ON THE DUTIES OF " thyfelf and unto thy doctrine ; continue in " them ; for in doing this thou fhalt fave both " thyfelf and them that hear thee." How ftrictly conformable the conduct of St. Paul himfelf was to thefe injunctions appears inci- dentally in various parts of his own writings ; and ftill more clearly in the book of the Acts of the Apoftles. Hence he could confidently appeal to the elders of the Church of Ephefus, when he bade them farewell with a foreboding that he fhould never fee them more, for their teftimony of his zeal and perfeverance in the execution of his office ; taking them to re- cord ( j), that for the fpace of three years during which he had been among them, " he had not c ceafed to warn every one night and day 4 with tears ; that he had kept back nothing " that was profitable unto them, but had ' fhewn and taught them publicly, and from " houfe to houfe ; and that he was (z) pure " from the blood of all men, for that he had (y) Acts, xx. 17, &c. (z] So Ezekiel, c. iii. ver. 17, 18. " Son of man, I " have made thee a watchman to the houfe of Ifracl. If " thou fpeakeft not to warn the wicked from his wicked " way to fare his life, he (hall die in his iniquity, but his " blood will I require at thy hand." " not, THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 53 " not fhunned to declare unto them all the " counfel of God." Well therefore, after the example which he had given them, might he deliver to them, and through them to the Minifters of the Gofpel in all ages, that folemn charge : " Take heed unto yourfelves, and to " all the flock, over which the Holy Ghoft " hath made you overfeers, to feed the church " of God, which he hath purchafed with his " own blood." And well might he exclaim with holy joy, when, believing the time of his departure to be at hand, he looked back on his paft labours : " I have fought a good ** fight (aa) ; I have fmiflaed my courfe ; I have " kept the faith. Henceforth there is laid up " for me a crown of righteoufnefs, which the " Lord, the righteous Judge, fhall give me at " that day." Among St. Paul's inftrucliions to Timothy, which have recently been quoted, we find this direction, that he fhould be " an example of " the believers ;" that he fhould exhibit in his own life a (hining pattern of all thofe Chriftian virtues which he inculcated on his hearers. A direction of the fame kind is given by St. *' to 70 ON THE DUTIES OF 44 to their own matter they Hand or fall.** Mindful that he is himfelf continually liable to decide, amifs, and abhorring all tyranny over the confciences of men ; yet neglecting no fit opportunities of pointing out with modeft franknefs, to all whom he deems in error, whatever he thinks materially wrong in their faith and practice ; he will be " gentle " unto all men (wm) y in meeknefs inftructing " thofe that oppofe themfelves ;" and refort- ing to that moft effectual method of preventing thofe under his care from falling off to other fcdts, zealous induftry in the difcharge qf his profeflional duties of every kind, he will cherifh in his own bread, and ftrive to diffufe (mm] 2 Tim. ii. 24, 25. The truly Chriftian fpirit exhibited in the following paf- fage of Archbiihop Seeker's Oratio Synodalis, p. 365, can- not be fufticiently applauded and inculcated. " Palam faciamus nos in omnes utcanque diverfa fentientes be- 41 nevolc animates efle, ut quidem fumus. Quotufquifquc <{ enim eft noftrum, quin hanc rem.fic fecum reputet ? " Errat quifpiam ? Mirum ni et ego : fed aut vocabulo 11 tantum, aut fi re, innoxic. Errat vehementer ; fed non " continuo eft hsereticus. Hoereticus eft : fed Chrifti- " anus tamen. Ne Chriftianus quidem : fed homo fal- " urn. Homo malus forfitan : fed qui poterit in melius ;< mutari. Fac denique non pofle : Dcus vindicabit." among THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. Jl among Chriftians of all perfuafions, a fpirit of peace, harmony, and brotherly love. If he fhoiild chance to be treated by diflenters of any denomination with contempt, afperity, and the fournefs of prejudice, let him not be drawn into the fatal miftake of conceiving that evil paflions in others will vindicate animofity or a want of benevolent feelings on his part. By unfeigned, unoftentatious, and uniform mild- nefs of temper and complacency of behaviour, let him conftrain thofe who differ from him to confefs, whatever they may think of his doctrinal opinions, that he has imbibed from the Gofpel the fpirit of a Chriftian. The foregoing ftatement of the various du- ties of a parochial Minifter clearly implies the general obligation of refidence. Habitual re- fidence on the fpot is eflential to his being able effectually to perform them. He who grafps at the revenue of a benefice, and ftudies to evade the perfonal difcharge of the various functions which that revenue is intended to reward, and the performance of thofe momen- tous duties to God and man, which by ac*- cepting the living he has undertaken, evinces F 4 either J2 ON THE DUTIES OF cither a moft culpable neglect of proper confideration, or a callous depravity of heart. Preference to another part of the country ; fondnefs for particular fociety ; attachment to particular habits of life ; vicinity to hereditary or other private property ; overftrained appre- henfions on the fcore of health ; facility on the part of the Diocefan, whether pardonably refulting from infirmities, or arifmg, as it will fometimes be found to arife, from culpable remiffhefs ; thefe alfo are motives and tempta- tions to non-refidence which no confcientious man can ferioufly examine without perceiving that they ought to be ftedfaftly refifted. It is at the option of a Clergyman whether he will accept the prefentation offered to him, or de- cline it. Better and wifer is it to decline the charge than not to fulfil the duties annexed to the acceptance of it. Among the circum- ftanccs moft unfavourable to the ufefulnefs and even to the duration of the eftablifh- ment, the frequent recurrence of pariflies little acquainted with their proper Paftors claims a very confpicuous place. How far a temporary or permanent exemption from the general rule of rcfidence, in addition to thofc THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 73 thofe which the laws of the land (nn) exprefsly allow, may be reafonably granted in a particu- lar cafe, is a point to be decided by the Bifhop of the diocefe. But fuch exemptions will never be fought by a confcientious Clergyman, except under extraordinary circumftances. A Curate has neither the authority in inftru&ing and reproving which the actual poflerTor of the living has, nor the fame ability to be charitable. He is not improbably a much younger man, and commonly therefore has lefs knowledge and experience ; and is lefs (nn) " There are indeed cafes in which the law dif- " penfes with holding two livings, and by confequence " allows abfence from one. But perfons ought to con- c< fider well, fuppofing they can with innocence take the ' benefit of that law, whether they can do it on other terms than their difpenfation and their bond cxprefles, <( of preaching yearly thirteen fermons, and keeping " two months hofpitality in the parifh where they refide " leafl. For the leave given them on thefe conditions " is not intended to be given them, however legally valid, " if the conditions are neglected ; always excepting where " jujl impediments happen. There are cafes likewife in ) See " Confideratlons on Pluralities," fubjoined to a volume cf pofthumous Sermons, by Mr. Difney ; Lon- don, 1788 j and the Life of the Author prefixed. confe- THE CLERICAL PROFESSION* 77 confequence which naturally follows ; that he mull be abfent at leaft half the year from one of the pariflies. A confiderate Minifter of the Gofpel will be very flow to place hlm- felf in a fituation which adds to the charge for which he is refponfible, and diminifhes in an equal proportion his ability to fulfil it. And independently of this cifcumftance, a Clergyman, whofe heart is fixed on its proper objects, will not only reject with abhorrence the idea of practifmg fervile and unchriflian arts to advance himfelf in his profeflion ; but will never be eager and very anxious for the acquifition of preferment. Even if a place in the higheft rank of ecclefiaftical promotion be at his option, he will be guided, as to accepting or declining it, by the refult of a ferious and unprejudiced enquiry into his fit- nefs for the office, the temptations with which it will be accompanied, and their probable effects on himfelf and on his family (gq). A Cler- tc Nec indeeore appetentes erlmus (modo fapere, " & bene audire, atque adhiberi f and the awful refponfibilky annexed to it. By exhortation, by advice, by recommend- ing habits of life, fuggefting plans of ftudy, VOL. .11, H and 98 ON THE DUTIES OF and pointing out improving books, feverally adapted to the fituation and abilities of the individuals whom he addrefles ; let him con- tribute whatever is in his power towards ren- dering all of them zealous and ufeful Minifters of religion. His inftructions delivered warm from the heart, and at a feafon which forms a memorable sera in the lives of thofe to whom they are directed, will feldom be totally forgotten. The general fuperintendence of the conduct of the Clergy of the diocefe is a very import- ant branch of epifcopal duty. That a Bifliop may be enabled to perform it with fidelity and effect, it is indifpenfably requifite that he fhould refide very much in his diocefe j and gain all poflible infight into the character and general behaviour of each individual Clergy- man. This knowledge is befl obtained, and ought ever to be fought, by perfonal inter- courfe and infpection. When remotenefs of fituation in fome degree precludes the dio- cefan from fufficient occafions of judging from his own obfervations, let him call to his aid the information to be collected from con- fidential THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 99 fidential perfons refident near the party con- cerned ; appreciating it according to their means of learning his true character, and their freedom from prejudices, either in his favour oragainft him; and putting its accuracy to the proof by comparing together and contrafting the intelligence derived from different quarters. The periodical vifitations of a Bifhop, pru- dently conducted, will greatly increafe his knowledge of the ftate of his diocefe. And on this account among others they ought not to be poftponed beyond the cuftomary time of their recurrence ; nor hurried over, as if they were mere matters of troublefome form, with eager precipitation. And were a Bifhop to make an annual progrefs through a portion of his (yy) diocefe in the intervals between the general (yy) An admirable example of truly Chriftian zeal and diligence in the difcharge of epifcopal duties has been exhibited by Bifliop Burnet. '* Not content with the " ufual triennial vifitations, he every Cummer, during fix ' weeks, made a progrefs through fome diftri&s of his " diocefe, preaching and confirming from church to " church j fo that, before the return of the triennial vifi- " tation, he became well acquainted with the behaviour " of every incumbent. He preached every Sunday in H 2 " fome 100 ON THE DUTIES OF general vi Citations ; his active vigilance would be well repaid by the exertions to which it would roufe his Clergy, and the infight which it would afford him into their feveral difpo- fitions, attainments, and proceedings. And the confufion which not unfrequently takes place at prefent from the vaft crowds aflem- bling to be confirmed, infomuch that num- bers are even unable to hear any of the quef- tions propoled to them, though calling for promiflbry replies on their part, would be obviated. Its exiftence in any degree is dif- graceful. In reproving the negligent among the Clergy, and in the exercife of thofe feverer powers with which the laws authorife him to proceed againft the refractory and the im- moral ; let him not be fwayed by the defire of conciliating favour, nor by the dread of incurring odium and exciting refentment, from " fomc church of the city of Salisbury ; catechifed and in- " ftru&ed its youth for confirmation; was mod vigilant " and drift in his examination of candidates for holy " orders ; and was an invincible enemy to pluralities, and '' of courfe to non-refidence." Pennant's Tour in Scot- land, 410. London, 1776, vol.ii. p. 373, note. air- THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. IOI difcharging his duty with proper ftrictnefs ; and with an impartial regard to the merits of the cafe, whatever be the fituation and con- nections of the individuals in fault. What was the iblemn injunction with which St. Paul clofed his directions to Timothy re- fpecting his conduct in cenfuring elders of the church ? " I charge (zz) thee before " God and the Lord Jefus Chrifr, and the " elect angels, that thou obferve thefe things, " without preferring one before another ; " doing nothing by partiality." In cafes of flagrant enormity, it may well become the Bifhop to pafs open cenfure on the unworthy Minifter. Except in fuch inftances, private reproof is more advifable. It has more of the air of kindnefs ; and leaves no ftigma on the character of the individual, if it fhould ultimately appear that the diocefan had been mifmformed as to the nature or the degree of the .offence. By the fame fpirit of impartiality ought a Bifhop to be actuated in exercifmg that de- gree of authority which the laws give him, (22) i Tim. v. 21. H 3 as IO2 ON THE DUTIES OF as to enforcing or difpenfing with the refi- dence of parochial Minifters. This difpenfing power fhould never be exercifed except under very particular circumftances ; nor the per- mifllon of abfence be continued longer than thofe circumftances exift (aaa). A Bifhop fhould regard his ecclefiaftical patronage as a fund entrufted to his difpofal, not for the emolument of undeferving rela- tives, nor for the immoderate aggrandizement even of his meritorious connections ; not to reward cringing adherents ; not .to be dif- tributed to ferve interefted views, or to court the favour of the great ; but to be em- ployed for the general advancement of reli- gion and the encouragement of clerical defert, particularly within his own diocefe. Men of piety and learning, who have diftinguimed (ana] Some Bifhops are poflefled of confiderable au- thority as Vifitors of Colleges in the Univerfities ; an au- thority which they are peculiarly bound to exercife with juflice and impartiality, and with a marked attention to the benefit of the focieties in queflion : fince it is now recognized as a principle of law, " that the Vifitor's " determinations are final, and examinable in no other u court whatever." Sec Blackftone, vol. i. p. 483, 484. themfelves THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 103 themfelves under his infpection by zealous and exemplary conduct in the minifterial office ; and fuch of them efpecially as are ad- vanced in life, or have borne the prefiure of narrow incomes and large families, have the ftrongeft claims to his attention. Care muft at the fame time be taken that the individual felecled be fuitable to the ftation which he is to occupy, and to the place where he is to be fixed. And fcarcely any confiderations fhould prevail on a Bifhop to give to one Clergyman two livings, either of which will fupport a Minifter of its own ; or to confer one fuch living on a perfon already holding another of that defcription, except on the terms of his vacating that which he originally po- fefled. It is certainly true that a Clergyman diftinguifhed for active piety might frequently be of more fervice to religion individually r , by having two parifhes committed to his care, than he would have been with only one. But let a Biihop beware of deceiving himfelf by confidering the matter in that light. The queftion which he ought to afk himfelf is this : whether more fervice will be rendered to reli- gion on the whole by configning the fecond H 4 parifh 104 ON THE DUTIES OF parifh to the perfon already charged with the firft ; or by offering it to the beft of the un- beneficed Clergymen whom he knows, or is, able to difcover before the living lapfes. The fcarcity of good Minifters in the Church of England muft probably be much increafed, before it will often happen that a Bifhop is under the neceflity of giving an anfwer in favour of plurality. With thofe of his Clergy who are diftin- guiihed for piety and erudition a Bifhop ought to cultivate a friendly and familiar intercourfe ; exciting them to perfevering ac- tivity and diligence in their clerical functions, public and private, and to an ufeful appli- cation of their talents and literary acquifitions. And with all his Clergy he fhould maintain, as far as it is poflible, fuch a degree of inter- courfe as may enable him faithfully and effectually to difcharge his official duties ; admonifhing, counfeliing, exhorting, as cir- cumftances render expedient; and at the fame rime difcountenancing rooted prejudices and antipathies, which are always unchriftian, againft perfons belonging to other feels, even 2 though THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. IOJ though the behaviour of thofe perfons (hould be reprehenfible and acrimonious, and incul- cating brotherly love towards the whole fa- mily of Chrift. To I, is Clergy of every degree his behaviour mould be affable, kind, unaffum- ing, and in every refpect that of an affection- ate fellow-minifter of the Gofpel. Merit in the humbleft ftation ought not to efcape his notice, nor pafs without his praife and en- couragement. His brethren overtaken by calamities, their diftrefTed widows, their indi- gent orphans, mould mare largely of that liberal charity which, in proportion to his revenue, he is ftric~Uy bound to prefcribe to himfelf ; and receive at his hand every proper mark of his readinefs and folicitude to pro- mote their welfare. How great may be the fervices rendered to religion by a prelate at once refpecled and beloved ! According to eftablifhed cuftom, a Bimop commonly delegates to others the manage- ment of his fpiritual court and its concerns. Not that it is defirable that he mould retain in his own hands the exercife of this branch of his jurifdidion. His power of control however 106 ON THE DUTIES OF however ought to be exerted, whenever op- portunities arife, in correcting abufes exifting in the proceedings of the court, and putting an end to impofitions practifed by its offi- cers (bbb]. A revifion of the ecclefiaftical law appears to be extremely needful. The conduct of a Bifhop in the adjuftment of all affairs in which his revenue is concerned, ought to be characterifed not only by mode- ration, but by a reafonable degree of attention to the interefts of his fucceflbrs ; efpecially \vhcn the profpect of greatly augmenting his prefent emoluments may lay him under the temptation of attaining the object by meafures likely to prove injurious to future occupiers of the fee. The uncertainty of his continu- ance in the diocefe affords him no excufe for delaying to expend, or for expending with reluctance, whatever is neceffary for the fub- ftantial repair and decent ornament of the epifcopal manfion and its appendages. (bbb) A Bifhop may fometimes have occafion to pre- vent impofitions in another quarter. I have heard of an inftancc wherein a Bifliop's Secretary exacted an unau- thorifed gratuity, as a perquifite for himfelf, from every ycung man who came to be ordained. A Bifliop's THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. 107 A Bifhop's mode of life ought to be that of a Chriftian Clergyman. In him luxury and parade are peculiarly out of character. Hof- pitality, we admit, in the primitive ages of the church, was a qualification required in a Bifhop. But what was that hofpitality ? To give food and lodging to ftrangers, efpecially to thofe who travelled for the purpofe of preaching and promoting the Gofpel, in coun- tries where there exifted no inns to receive them. The place of this no longer needed hofpitality is now beft fupplied by ample charities beftowed in other ways, adapted to the exigencies of modern times. Something however muft be conceded to public expecta- ticn, with refpect to modes of living ; and more is expected in fome fees than in others, in confequence of their great revenues and diftinguimed eminence. And univerfally, a Bifhop ought to remember that it is one part of his official duty to endeavour to improve his own Clergy in particular, and the upper ranks of the community in general, by his fociety and example. But let him not forget that one of the Chriftian virtues of which he is to fet an example is moderation. Neither let J08 ON THE DUTIES OF let company, or unneceflary avocations of any kind, prevent him from habitually de- voting himfelf to the fludy of the Scriptures ; and to other theological purfuits, fuited to his talents, or demanded by the circumftances of the times. The general duties of Peers have already been ib fully difcufled in a chapter (ccc) fet apart for the inveftigation of them, that little remains to be added on the conduct of Bifhops in their capacity of Lords of Parliament. The rank and prerogatives attached to a feat in the Upper Houfe fhould be regarded by a Bifhop in the fame light as all other powers vefted in him by the Constitution ; namely, as deftined to be employed for the advancement of mora- lity and religion. Hence haws calculated to re- prefs and chaftife vice, to facilitate the diffufion of knowledge, to accelerate the progrefs and increafe the influence of religion, mould not only receive his warmeft fupport, but be intro- duced by him, as occafions offer, to the confi- deration of Parliament. The true interefts of (ccc} Chap. v. the THE CLERICAL PROFESSION. IOC) the church to which he belongs fhould expe- rience his watchful protection. He fhould defend them, however, without feeking to im* pofe or to continue needlefs or unwarrantable reftraints on thofe who diflent from it ; and without being led by timidity, or the fear of feeming to acknowledge an error, to re- fift the temperate (ddd) amendment of any thing which he fhall be convinced is defec- tive in the eftablifhment. A Bifhop fhould not fuffer his attendance in Parliament to en- croach more than is requifite on his refidencc in his diocefe. And above all things let him beware of being turned afide from the path which duty prefcribes to him as a legiflator, by his connection with the perfons to whom he owes his elevation, or by the hopes of arriving at further preferment. A tranflation is not an (dJd] " It is certainly the intereft of an enemy to fuffer M the body to which he oppofes himfelf to lie under as " many prejudices, and to be liable to as muchcenfure as *' is pofllble : whereas every "good and wife friend ftudies " to preferve that body to which he unites himfelf, by " freeing it from every thing that may render it lefs ac- " ceptable and lefs ufeful." Bifhop Burnet's Paftoral Care, p. 105. object 110 ON THE DUTIES OF object on which he ought to fet his heart. A parochial Clergyman will ufually render the greateft fervices to religion in a parifh which has long witnefled his virtues. And the influ- ence and power of doing good, which a Bifhop derives from a long and intimate acquaintance with his diocefe, are commonly fo much fupe- rior to thofe which a ftranger would poflfefs in it, and alfo to thofe which he would himfelf poflefs in a ftrange diocefe ; that he fhould be actuated by higher motives than thofe of in- terefl and convenience, if he is defirous of being removed to another fee [{ The duties incumbent on the Medical Stu- dent during the courfe of his preparatory pur- fuits, will be confidered in the firft place. In the fecond place will be ftated fome ob- fervations referring to the peculiar fituation of a Phyfician, when he commences the ex- ercife of his profeffion. The third head will be allotted to the gene- ral duties of the Phyfician in actual practice. Under this defcription is implied, the conduct which he ought to adopt towards his patients, their families and friends ; towards other Phy- ficians ; and towards perfons who occupy the inferior departments of the medical profeflion. I Under the fourth head will be noticed the collateral fludies and purfuits, to which his lei- fure may with peculiar propriety be devoted. I. The primary object ever to be held in view by the youth deftined for the practice of phyfic, is to render himfelf capable of ful- filling the duties of his profeffion by the at- tainment of the knowledge necefTary for that purpofe. ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 137 purpofe. The firft Hep to be taken is the choice of the place where his medical educa- tion is to be carried on. This is a point which frequently is fettled by the parents and relations of the young man ; without much attention being paid to his opinion in a matter of which he cannot be fuppofed a very com- petent judge. In many cafes, however, his wimes will have confiderable weight. And whatever weight they may poffefs he is bound to throw into that fcale, the preponderance of which he deems moft likely to contribute to his improvement. Let him not prefer Lon- don to Edinburgh, or Leyden to Goettingen, merely becaufe he thinks the one place more fafhionable than the other ; or merely that he may continue to enjoy the fociety of forne friend, with whom he has contracted an inti- macy at fchool or at college. Let him facri- fice inferior views and perfonal gratifications to the profpect of greater proficiency in me- dical fcience. It is obvious, that no effectual infight into a fcience fo complicated, and in many refpeds fo abftrufe, can be acquired without induftrious and 138 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. and regular application. Diligent attendance therefore on the different public lectures de- livered by the Profeffors ; as well as on the hofpitals where the principles ftated in thofe lectures are reduced to practice, and exemplified in the explanation of cafes, and in the feveral methods of treating patients labouring under different difeafcs, or under different modifi- cations of the fame difeafe, and varying from each other in fex, in age, and in conftitution, is indifpenfably requifite. To thefe fources of improvement the Student inuft not neglect to add private reading and reflection ; nor the ufcful cuftom of noting down interefting parti- culars to which it may be highly advantageous to refer on future occafions, more efpecially thofe important facts which are to be learnt at clinical lectures ; nor the habit of examin- ing himfelf daily in the acquifitions of the preceding day, that he may fix upon his me- mory what he has learnt ; may become con- fcious of what he has forgotten ; and may en- able himfelf to reconcile difficulties or fecming inconfiftcncies by further confideration, or by referring them to fome intelligent and expe- rienced friend. While he applies himfelf prin- cipally ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 139 cipally to the theory and practice of phyfic, to anatomy, and other branches of medical knowledge, which are confefledly foremoft in point of importance ; let him not omit to obtain fuch an acquaintance with the principles of furgery, and with the varied appearances of wounds and other furgical cafes, as may fully enable him to form a proper judgement, when hereafter he mall meet Surgeons in con-* fultation refpecting patients requiring both phyfical and furgical aid : nor refufe to beftow a due ihare of his time on other collateral pur- fuits and acquifitions, as chemiftry, botany, and natural philofophy; which, though in- ferior in confequence to thofe already men- tioned, have a dole connection with the heal- ing art, and very frequently prove the founda- tion of its fuccefs. Chemiftry however muft be deemed a fundamental part of medical knowledge; fmce the Phyfician, if devoid of a competent acquaintance with pharmaceutical chemiftry, would be liable to unite in the fame prescription medicines which would form com- binations altogether unexpected by him, and totally different in quality from the remedy defined. But the peculiar object of the Stu- dent 140 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. dent is not to diftinguifh himfelf as a chemift, as a botanift, or as a natural philofopher. Let him not then indulge an immoderate fond- nefs for thefe alluring but fubordinate fciences. Of their leading principles and diftinguifhing features let him render himfelf mafter ; but let him not prematurely expatiate in that bound- lefs field of inquiry which even fmgly they prefent, and conceive that he is making a rapid progrefs in medicine. Hereafter, when he {hall be grounded and eftablifhed in his pro- feflion, a portion of his leifure will be ufefully and laudably devoted to a deeper ftudy of the various works of God, of the laws to which they are fubjccT:, and of the properties which they poflefs. The knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages, with which the medical Student may be fuppofed to have been rendered fami- liar by a claflical education, ought to be pre- ferved at leaft, if not improved, during his purfuit of profefTional attainments. An ac- quaintance with both thofe tongues is requi- site for underftanding the antient writers on the art of medicine ; and valuable treatifes on that ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 141 that fcience are ftill compofed in Latin by foreigners. At Edinburgh too, and in fome other places, probationary or inaugural difler- tations in Latin are required from every can- didate for the degree of doctor of phyfic. An intimacy with the French language is very ufeful to the Phyfician, not merely for the reafons common to men of all profeflions who are placed in the upper ranks of fociety, but likewife that he may perufe with facility the valuable tracts on medical fubjects occafionally published ia that tongue. A certain degree of legal knowledge may be of material ufe to a Phyfician, and mould be obtained before he commences practice. In cafes of great emergency he may not only be confulted refpecting the expediency of im- mediately making a will, but even his aflift- ance in drawing it up may be required. It will be highly ferviceable on fuch occafions that he fhould be acquainted with the forms necefTary to give validity to a teftamentary be'queft ; and alfo that he mould be able at once to determine how the law would dif- pofc 142 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. pofe of the Tick man's property in cafe of in- teftacy ; " whether his daughters or younger " children would be legally entitled to any " fhare of his fortune ; whether the fortune " would be equally divided, when fuch "equality would be improper or unjuft; " whether diverfity of claims and expenfive " litigations w r ould enfue, without a will, from " the nature of the property in queftion ; " and whether the creditors of the defunct " would by his neglect be defrauded of their " equitable (fy claims." The teftimony like- wife which a Phyfician may be called upon to give in cafes of lunacy, of fudden deaths, of fuicide, and of duelling, may be rendered more pertinent and impreflive by an acquaint- ance w r ith the laws of the land relating to thofe fubje&s. Works of general information and of tafte may with great propriety engage the attention of the medical Student during fome of his hours of leifure. The perufal of well-chofen (/) Medical Jurifprudence, by Dr. Pcrcival, p. 44. books ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 143 books of this nature, if reftrained within pru- dent bounds, will at once unbend and im- prove his mind ; and, inftead of interfering with his peculiar occupations, will fend him back to purfue them with additional vigour and alacrity. It. may be neceilary to add, that no fludies, whether profeffional or of any other de- fcription, ought to be fuffered fo far to en- croach on higher duties, as to lead a young man into the habit of neglecting public worfhip, and the private perufal and invef- tigation of the Scriptures. In feminaries of medical inftruction it is the duty of the Pro- feflbrs fo to fix the time of vifiting the hof- pitals with the Students on Sundays, that it may not interfere with attendance on divine wormip. If the ProfefTors themfelves fet a pattern of inattention to the offices of religion ; the example may train the pupils to habits which may affect their conduct during life ; in that which is of infinitely greater import- ance than the fcience which they are ftudy- ing, and ultimately lead them from neglect and indifference to infidelity. 3 While 144 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. While the Student is felicitous -to acquire all the advantages attainable at the place where he is ftationed for improvement; let him be equally careful to fhun the errors and the vices with which it may be in- fected. Let him not imbibe unconquerable prejudices for the theories, the fyftems, the modes of practice or the authorities which reign there ; nor engage in party difputes and quarrels refpecting them. Let him render to all of them the deference which is their due ; but let him remember that every man is fallible, and every human inftitution defective. Let him neglect no opportunity of enquiring into the proceedings of other feminaries of medicine j and of deriving from competent judges information refpecting their merits. This knowledge however will be bed attained, and the comparifons to which it leads purfued in the moft inftructive manner, by removing for a fufficient time to fome other place of ftudy, when he (hall have made himfelf matter of the opinions and cuftoms prevalent at his own. And .as it commonly happens that different feats of the fame fcience, like dif- ferent individuals of the fame profeflion, have their ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 145 their peculiar excellencies j he will probably be enabled by that removal to gain a more inti- mate acquaintance with fome of the branches of his art, than he could acquire in the lec- ture-room and the hofpital which he fre- quented before, / * - *. * * But above all things, in every place of ftudy, let him ftrive to preferve his manners, dif- pofitions, and morals from being corrupted. Let him felect none but the mod defervingof his fellow-ftudents to be his aflbciates ; and fhun the acquaintance and the example of the idle, the extravagant, and the profligate. Let him not be perfuaded or ridiculed into drunk- ennefs, or any fafhionable vice ; let him not be afhamed of being fmgular, where fmgularity is virtue. Let him regulate his expences with a fcrupulous regard to ceconomy, and neither contract habits nor debts which may be a future burthen to his friends or to himfelf. Let him beware left his heart be rendered hard, and his deportment unfeeling, by attendance on diflections of the dead and painful opera- tions on the living ; and by being accuftomed in his daily vifits at an hofpital to fee and hear VOL. n, L multi- 146 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. multitudes labouring in every ftage and under every variety of difeafe. And finally, let him not become pragmatical and pedantic in his converfation, conceited of his knowledge, and ftudious of difplaying it ; nor, by acting the part of a noify and oftentatious declaimer at medical debating focieties, contribute to tranf- form an inftitution capable of being turned to the promotion of fcience, into a fcene of the- atrical rant, and of fenfelefs, bold^and tu- multuous difputation. II. The firft direction to be addrefled to the young Phyfician, when about to enter on the exercife of his profeflion, is not to begin to practife too foon. There are various induce- ments which may tempt him to offer himfelf to the world prematurely ; overweening confi- dence in his natural abilities; extravagant ideas of the knowledge which he has acquired; the "res angufta domi;" the impatient ardour of youth ; the felicitations of inconfiderate friends; and the fear of being anticipated by rivals. But human health and human life are objects with which no one can innocently tam- per. The latter, once loft, is loft for ever. The OK THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 147 The former, if not altogether deftroyed,is often banimed for years by the hand of ignorant prefumption. Twelve additional months, de- voted to preparatory ftudies, might have en- abled the hafty practitioner to diffufe perma- nent joy through families, which he has now plunged into anguifh and diftrefs. The re- flections and the conclufions to which thefe remarks will lead a confcientious mind, may be ftrengthened by the following confidera- tions. A Phyfician, at his firft outfet, muft expect that his principal employment, though it will vary according to his fituation, will in moft places lie among thofe perfons in the middle clafTes of fociety, who are the leaft opulent; as clergy men, tradefmen, fhopkeepers, and people of fimilar defcriptions. He will find that the great families in the neighbour- hood are pre-occupied by fome eftablifhed competitor ; and that even if they are not, in- ftead of having recourfe in cafes of ficknefs to a young ftranger, they will generally prefer fending even to a much greater diftance, and at an increafed expence, for a Phyfician of known experience and (kill. Now, perfons in the lines of life mentioned above, are feldom L 2 in 148 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. in hafte to confult any medical advifer but their apothecary ; and rarely apply for further aid until their diforder, be it what it may, has made an alarming progrefs. Thefe are cir- cumftances which render a very ample (hare of knowledge highly neceflary to the young prac- titioner. But they are not the only circmn- flances. For the fame motives and habits which made his patients tardy in fending for him at firft, will make them equally tardy in confenting to call in a coadjutor in difficult and critical fituations. Hence he will often be compelled fmgly to encounter a malady, which, had it feized upon a Peer or a wealthy Country-Gentleman, would have been aflailed by the efforts of feveral of the moft renowned veterans in phyfic united to diflodgc it. The moft obvious and the moft dangerous temptation to which a young Phyfician is ex- pofed, when he has actually fixed on a place of refidcnce, and prefented himfelf to the public as a candidate for employment, is that of taking improper methods of introducing himfelf into practice. From every method tinctured with deceit, or involving proceedings in ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 149 in any degree reprehenfible, let him turn afide without hefitation, whatever profpects of fuc- cefs it may afford. Let him not feek to ob- tain, from the miftaken good-humour of his medical friends, exaggerated panegyrics on his abilities ; nor urge perfons of weight and cre- dit, though not of the faculty, to addrefs importunate and unmerited felicitations in his favour to their acquaintance who live in his vicinity. Let him not lie in wait for oppor- tunities of making an artful parade of his at~ tainments, and of impofmg on the unwary by a folemn, pompous, and confequential deport- ment, or by the found of technical terms and learned trifling (g). Let him not endeavour directly or indirectly to caufe himfelf to be more highly efteemed than the teftimony o* his own confcience will juftify ; nor infidioufly abufe the character and fap the credit of a rival. While he cultivates, from better mo- tives than thofe of profeflional emolument, affability and gentlenefs of demeanour ; let (g] It is faicl to have happened in feveral inftances, that Pliyficians, in order to gain credit, have fuffered treatifes to be publifhect in their names, in the compofing of which they had little or no concern. L 3 him 150 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. him guard againft all affectation of courteouf- nefs, all aflumed and delufive foftnefs of man- ners. Let him not become a fupple, cringing, and fervile attendant on the Great ; ready at all times, like the chameleon, to take the colour of furrounding objects ; and catching, like an humble mimic on the ftage, the habits and fentiments of his fuperior. Let him not become an officious inftrument in the hands of fome wealthy or noble patron, furthering his fecret ichemes, miniftering to his perfonal or political antipathies, and flattering his religious or irreligious prejudices. Let him not pretend an attachment to a wealthy and numerous feel: or party with a view to gain fupport. Let him not ftrive to recommend himfelf, by bear- ing anecdotes of fcandal from one fide of the country to another ; nor by gratifying curi- ofity with improper difclofures as to the dif- orders and conftitutions of any of his patients; nor by addicting himfelf to field fports, or be- coming a frequenter of gambling clubs, an at- tendant on riotous and drunken (b) meetings, or () Univerfal temperance both in eating and drinking is particularly incumbent on a Phyfician in every period of his ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 1JI or a partaker of any extravagant or vicious practice which the fafhion of the times or the cuftom of the neighbourhood may have eflabliihed. There have been Phyficians, the difgrace of their profemoc, who feem to have confidered themfelves, in ftudying medicine, as ftudying not a liberal fcience, but a mere art for the acquifition of money ; and have thence been felicitous to acquire an infight rather into the humours than into the difeafes of mankind. The temptations which lead to fuch views and fuch conduct are not peculiar to the young Phyfician j but he is expofed more than his brethren to their influence. Inftead of attempting to force employment by difmgenuous and immoral means, let him act fo as to deferve it, and he muft be more than commonly unfortunate if it does his praHce, not merely as being eflentially requifite to pre- ferve his faculties in that alert and unclouded ftate, which may render him equally able at all times to pronounce on the cafes which he is called to infpect, but becaufe it is a virtue which he will very frequently find himfelf obliged to inculcate on his patients j and will inculcate on them with little effect, if it be not regularly exemplified in his own conduct. L 4 not 152 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. not ere long direct its courfe to him of its own accord * f * III. We come now to the general duties in- bumbent on the Phyfician in actual practice ; that is to fay, the conduct to be obferved by him towards his patients, their families and friends; towards other Phyficians ; and to- wards perfoi^s who occupy inferior depart- ments in the medical profeflion. Diligent and early attention, proportioned to the emergency of the cafe, and an honeft * Of the practices mentioned in the following quo- tation, I truft there have been but few examples. Yet the high profeflional authority whence it comes, does not allow us to fuppofe the imputation to be entirely ground- lefs. " A very fertile fource of falfe fa&s has been tending at appointed times, when practicable, jftiould not be in any degree neglected ; lefl; fufpicions mould be with juftice entertained of the 154 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. the Phyfician's thinking little of the engage- ments into which he enters ; or of the effects produced by fufpenfe and difappointment on the anxious feelings of the fick. Want of punctuality becomes ftill more reprehenfible, if other medical men have been purpofely de- fired to give him the meeting. Towards all patients, and towards female patients in par- ticular, the utmoft delicacy ought ftudioully to be obferved ; and every poflible degree of care taken to avoid needlefsly exciting a blufh on the cheek of the modeft, or a painful fenfation in the breaft of the virtuous. The general behaviour of the Phyfician towards his patient is then the moft bene- ficial, as well as the moft amiable, when he unites with the fteadinefs which is ne- ceflary to fecure a compliance with his in- junctions, thofe kind and gentle manners which befpeak his fympathy with the fuf- ferer. A prudent control over the fick perfon and all his attendants muft ever be preferved. This object will be beft attained, not by an overbearing demeanour and intemperate lan- guage, but by firmnefs difplayed uniformly and ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 155 and mildly ; not by the mere exercife of au- thority over the perfons concerned, but by an occafional admixture of well directed appeals to their reafon ; and fometimes perhaps by the mention of appofite inftances, in which the difregard of medical inftructions on points fimilar to thofe in agitation, has been produc- tive of very pernicious confequences. It js frequently of much importance, not to the comfort only, but to the recovery of the pa- tient, that he fhould be enabled to look on his Phyfician as his friend. And how can the latter be looked upon as a friend, unlefs his manners are characlerifed by kindnefs and compaffion ; not the delufive appearance of a concern which he does not feel, afliimed as a profeflional garb through decorum, or for the purpofe of enfnaring flattery; not that un- manly pity which clouds the judgment, and incapacitates it from forming a prompt, fteady, and rational opinion refpecting the meafures to be purfued ; but that genuine and fober tendernefs, fpringing from the cultivation of habitual benevolence, which, while it wins the affection and cheers the fpirits of the patient, ftimulates his advifer to exert every faculty of 2 the 156 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIAN the mind for his relief ? And what but this equable mildnefs of difpofition will teach the Phyfician to bear with patience the wayward humours, and to treat with gentlenefs the groundlefs prejudices which he muft conti- nually encounter in a fick chamber ? A Phyfician may, under particular circmn- flances, or from particular motives of connec- tion and attachment, beftow with propriety on one of his patients a greater portion of his time and attention than he gives to others who (land equally in need of his affiftance ; provided that he is ftill fufficiently attentive to the latter. But never let him adopt this plan for the pur- pofe of paying fervile and hypocritical court to the fick man or to his friends : nor ever let him be feduced to do lefs than his duty to per- fons who employ him, becaufe they are of a temper eafy to be fatisfied ; becaufe they hap- pen to be poor ; or becaufe they are of fuch a defcription, that cuftom or fome other incident renders it improper to receive fees from them. Though the common ufage of the town or of the country in which the Phyfician refides, will ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 157 \vill regulate the compenfation which he may juftly exped ; yet this general rule will admit of fo much latitude, and of (b many excep- tions, as to leave him ample fcope for the ex- ercife of liberality and benevolence. An in- dependent and generous man will fhew him- felf on every occafion free from the leaft tinc- ture of fordid avarice. He will exercife parti- cular forbearance in the article of fees towards thofe who are leaft able to afford them. And he will neither accept a fee when circumftances induce him to prefcribe unafked ; nor ever avail himielf of artful pretences for vifiting a perfon whom he knows to be out of health, in the hope that his vifit, though it had not been fo- licited, may lead, through the politenefs of the fick man or his family, to a pecuniary acknow- ledgement. A Phyfician ought to be extremely watchful againft covetoufnefs ; for it is a vice imputed, juftly or unjuftly, to his profeffion. That it is imputed with juftice I am far from meaning to affirm or to intimate. And when- ever it is imputed, the time and the advice fo often beftowed gratuitoufly by Phyficians ought to be called to mind. But the exiftence of the charge, whether true or falfe, may fug- geft 158 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. geft a ufeful admonition. If it be the fact that more avaricious men are found in the medical profeffion, in proportion to its numbers, than in others equally liberal, the conduct of its employers may be deemed one of the caufes to which the redundancy muft be afcribed. So capricioufly is a Phyfician treated on many occafions by his patients and their connections; fuch frequently is the diflatisfaction with which his beft exertions are received ; that eagernefs to be exempted from the neceflity of pradtifmg may fometimes render him too intent on ac- cumulating an independent fortune. Let every fick man beware that he does not contribute by his own conduct to place the temptation in his Phyfician's way. Let him not be fret- ful, impatient, and without reafon difcontented with his medical attendant ; as though the latter had an inherent power of curing the diftemper if he thought proper, or of curing it at once as by a charm. And when more than common trouble is given, let not fuch an addition to the ordinary compenfation as under all exifting circumftances is reafonable be withheld, or be given with reluctance. In ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 159 In attending upon a patient, the Phyfician, while he omits not the referve which prudence dictates, will fhun all affectation of myftery. He will not alarm the Tick man, by difcuffing his cafe openly and unguardedly before him ; nor will he put on a countenance of profound thought, and geftures of much feeming faga- city, either to augment his importance, or to conceal his ignorance. He will not aflume the air of defpifing the intelligence to be ob- tained from the apothecary, who may have known the conftitution of the patient for years, and in his prefent illnefs fees him once or twice a day ; nor even the information to be procured from nurfes, who have feen him every hour. He will not implicitly adopt the opinions of the one, noryield to the abfurd fan- cies and prepofleiTions of the other; but he will add w r hatever is valuable in their feveral recitals to the refult of his own perfonal obfervations, and conlider the whole as a mafs of premifes from which he is to deduce his conclufions. An eminent writer, fpeaking in a (/) work already quoted refpecting the performance of (i) Dr. Percival's Medical Jurifprudcnce, p. 15. furgical l6o ON THE DUTIES OF PHl^SICIANS. furgical operations in hofpitals, remarks, that it may be a falutary as well as an humane act in the attending Phyiician occafionally to af- fure the patient that every thing goes on well, if that declaration can be made ivitb truth. This reftriction, fo properly applied to the cafe in queftion, may with equal propriety be extend- ed univerfally to the conduct of a Phyfician, when fuperintending operations performed not by the hand of a Surgeon, but by nature and medicine. Humanity, we admit, and the welfare of the fick man, commonly require that his drooping fpirits fhould be revived by every encouragement and hope which can honeftly be fuggefted to him. But truth and" confcicnce forbid the Phyfician to cheer him by giving promifes, or raifmg expectations, which are known or intended to be delufive. The Phyfician may not be bound, unlefs ex- prefsly called upon, invariably to divulge at any fpccific time his opinion concerning the uncertainty or danger of the cafe ; but he is invariably bound never to rcprefent the un- certainty or danger as lefs than he actually believes it to be ; and whenever he conveys, directly or indirectly, to the patient or to his family, ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. l6f family, any impreffion to that effect, though he may be milled by miftaken tendernefs, he is guilty of pofitive falfehood. He is at liberty to fay little ; but let that little be true. St. Paul's direction, not to do evil that good may come, is clear, pofitive, and univerfal. And if the Scriptures had contained no injunction fuch as that which has been quoted, but had left the Phyfician at liberty to decide the point on grounds of expediency ; he would have had fufficient reafon to be convinced that falfehood could promife but little even of the temporary advantage expected from it. For when once his employers fliould know, and they foon muft know, his principle and his cuftom to be that of not adhering to truth in his decla- rations refpecting his patient ; his vain en- couragements and delufive aflurances would ceafe to cheer the fick man and his friends. It may be urged, perhaps, that his referve will generally be mifconftrued by the anxiety of thofe who are interefted for the fick; and being confidered as a proof of his opinion that the diforder is highly formidable, will conti- nually excite apprehenfions as groundlefs as they are diftrefling. A moderate fhare how- VOL. II. M ever 162 ON THE DUTIES OF PHTSICIAXS. ever of prudence, united with that facility which is naturally acquired by practice of avoiding needlefs difclofures, and avoiding them without fliding into deceit either ex- prefsly or impliedly, will enable him to guard againft producing unneceffary alarms. And they will be ftill lefs likely to be produced, if the uniformity of his conduct makes it evident to thofe who employ him, that while he cau- tioufly refrains from reprefenting the cafe be- fore him in a more favourable light than he views it, he is equally felicitous and watchful to give early communications of probable or actual danger. The ftate of the malady, when critical or hazardous, ought to be plainly de- clared without delay to fome at leaft of the patient's near relations; and, except under extraordinary circumftances, to the nearefi. On many occafions it may be the duty of the Phyfician fpontaneoufly to reveal it to the patient himfelf. It may fometimes alfo be Incumbent on him to fuggeft to the fick man, or to his friends, the propriety of adjufting all unfinished temporal concerns. And confcience will frequently prompt him difcreetly to tura the though!* of the former towards religion. Not ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 163 Not that the Phyfician is officioufly to intrude into the department of the Minifter of the Gofpel. But he may often fmooth the way for the Clergyman's approach ; and on thofe who have been unfortunate enough to imbibe doubts as to the truth of Chriftianity, he'may in fome inftances make-a firft impreffion which the Clergyman would in vain have attempted to produce. For the vifits of the latter being forefeen, and his profeffional prejudices fuf- pecled, the mind would have previoufly armed itfelf againft him ; and his arguments would have been heard with reluctance and diftruft. But the Phyfician labours under no fuch fu- picions. His belief in revelation, though it may be thought abfurd, is yet deemed difin- terefted and fmcere. He can felect his times and opportunities ; he can purfue the fubjedt under various forms, and to a greater or lefs extent, without his defign becoming too ob- vious ; and in the earlier ftages of difeafe, while the underftanding of his patient is un- clouded, and his ftrength equal to the exertion of temperate difcuJTion, may be able occafion- ally to lead him into a willing inveftigatioa of the evidences and doctrines of the Chriftian M 2 faith, 164 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. faith, which may terminate in rational and de- cided conviction. But while he is thus anxious to promote the moft important interefts of his patients, who have been unhappy enough to fall into vice or fcepticifm ; let him open his own heart to the very great improvement, which it may receive from the example of thofe of a dif- ferent defcription. Let him learn beforehand from the fmcere Chriftian to bear thofe evils which it is now his office to alleviate, but may fhortly be his lot to endure. Let him learn beforehand to recognize the goodnefs and mercy of his God during the pangs of racking pain, and the languor and wearifomenefs of lingering decay. Let him learn that the hum- ble recollection of a well-fpent life, and the cheering confolations and promifes of the Gof- pel, alone can enable him to fuffer with patient fortitude, and to die with hope, with grati- tude, with tranquillity, with joy. The conduct of a Phyfician whofe folicitudc for the recovery of his patient is founded on pure and laudable motives, will be free from * - * the ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 165 the influence of private and perfonal confider- ations in the application of his art. He will neither be too fond of novelties, nor too fear- ful of deviating on proper occafions and on folid grounds from the beaten track : he will not obtrude fome myfterious noftrum illibe- rally concealed from the knowledge of his bre- thren: he will not cherifh prepofTeffions againft remedies and modes of proceeding introduced by others, nor partiality for thofe difcovered by himfelf. He will not conceive himfelf as defcending from profeffional dignity, when in emergences he mixes a medicine for his pa- tient, or performs any other office or operation for his benefit, which in ftrictnefs appertained to the Surgeon, or would have devolved on the Apothecary had he been at hand ; nor hefitate even to fee aliment prepared, nor to direct how it may be diverfified fo as to be pleafmg to the palate of the fick ; nor to ten- der the food, which, though it had juft before been refufed, will often be accepted from the hana of the Phyfician. He will not be influ^ enced by blind and indifcriminate confidence in the fubordinate medical attendants, much Jefs by actual indolence or careleflnefs, or a M 3 fear 1 66 fear of giving offence, to neglecl: the frequent infpeclion of his patient's medicines. He will be the firft to fugged in critical or uncommon circumftances the propriety of calling in addi- tional aid. He will not indulge a lurking wifh to perfevere in a dubious or unfuccefsful fyftem of medical treatment, from the appre- henfion that a change will argue ignorance in himfelf, or redound to the credit of another perfon who may have fuggefted it. He will never recommend as a probable method of cure what he does not actually believe likely to prove fo. He will not advife a journey to a public watering-place apparently from anxiety for the fick man, but in reality from a defire to pleafe his wife and daugh- ters by fending them to a fcene of famion- able amufement ; or in dangerous or hope- lefs maladies merely to remove the fufferer to a diftance, inftead of having him continue at home to die under his immediate care. He will not prefcribe a medicine, the propriety of which he diftrufts, becaufe it is propofed by the patient or recommended by his friends, with- out explicitly declaring his own opinion of it. He will remember that, though his refponfi- I bility ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 167 bility may be removed, if he acquiefces in their defire after this declaration ; he is as truly refponfible for the confequences of a mode of treatment fuggefted by another, and adopted by him without any intimation of its probable effects, as he would have been had it originated with himfelf. He will not become boaftful and arrogant when his exertions are crowned with fuccefs ; but will recollect that he is an humble inftrument in the hands of that Being, who gives knowledge to the Phyfician and health to the fick. Neither will he defert his patient when there are no longer any re- maining hopes of recovery. Though life can- not be retained, pain may be mitigated. Even if the patient feems beyond the reach of medicine, the prefence of the Phyfician will compofe the minds and alleviate the forrow of friends and relations. But in thofe circum- ftances a man of liberality will be anxious to evince, by moderation in the receipt of fees, that compaffion and gratitude, and not fordid avarice and deceit, prompt his attendance. ' r :%: V- Continual intercourfe with difeafe, and the habit of breathing in morbid atmofpheres, M 4 feem, 168 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. feem, through the wife and merciful appoint^ merit of Providence, commonly to fecure the Phyfician from infe&ion. Hence cafes of contagion can a rarely arife, in which thefe confiderations, joined to a fenfe of the duties impofed on him by the profeflion into which he has entered, will not bind him calmly to obey the fummonsof the afflicted, and encoun- ter all perfonal hazard. Experience however has proved, that a Phyfician may convey to others a diftemper, which is unable to faften upon himfelf. In pafling therefore from one family to another, when the former is vifited with a malady eafily communicable, as a putrid fever, to people in general ; or as the fmall-pox, to thofe whom it has not hereto- fore attacked ; let him guard by all requifite precautions againfl introducing into the latter houfe an inmate more formidable than that which he comes to expel* Though fome of the obfervations, which haye been made under the prefent head, are applicable to the Phyfician only when attending on patients in the upper and middle ranks of fpciety ; the greater number have likewifc ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 169 likewife an obvious reference to his duty when vifiting the poor. Perfons of the latter de- fcription will principally come under his care in his capacity as Phyfician to an hofpital, or to fome other medical charity. On the fub- jecT: of hofpital practice it may not be impro- per to fubjoin a caution againft making unne- ceffary or ra(h experiments in the treatment of the patients. ' The fcience of medicine un- doubtedly derives continual acceffions of im- provement from the inventive genius of its followers. New fubftances are introduced into the materia medica ; new modes are difcovered of preparing and of combining drugs already in ufe ; and new applications of antient re- medies to the cure of dileafes, in which recourfe was never had to them before. In many refpeds an hofpital prefents a field pe- culiarly inviting for puming thefe difcoveries. Inftances may there be found at hand of almoft every complaint; many experiments may there be going on at once, and be infpedted in their feveral ftages with a fmgle glance of the eye. To thefe inducements we may add another, though it will operate only on unprincipled men, who however will occafionally find their way ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. way into the medical as into every other pro- feflion ; that in the populous wards of an infir- mary the ill fuccefs of an adventurous trial is loft in the crowd of fortunate and unfortunate events ; and even if it mould terminate in the death of an obfcure, indigent and quickly for- gotten individual, little if any difadvantage refults to the credit and intereft of the Phyfi- cian among his wealthy employers. It is not meant by thefe remarks to cenfure experi- ments defigned to leflen the danger, or the fufferings, of the individual, when founded on rational analogies ; commenced after mature deliberation ; conducted by upright and fkil- ful men ; watched during the whole progrefs with circumfpecl: attention ; and abandoned in time when unfavourable appearances take place. But it is meant ftrongly to reprobate every experiment (^) rafhly or haftily adopt- ed j (k) Experiments are not unfrequently made upon living animals by Phyficians, in the courfe of their private re- fearches, for the purpofe of ascertaining the properties of drugs, or other fa&s of importance in medical and anato- mical fcicnce. Neither the right nor the propriety of mak- ing thefe experiments on reafonable occafions can be dif- puted : but every degree of needlefs and inconfiderate cruelty ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. IJl ed ; or carried on by the fclfifh, the ignorant, the carelefs, or the obftinate. Proceedings of this nature are highly criminal, partly becaufe they involve the health and life of the fufferers in great and needlefs hazards ; and partly be- caufe they tend to confirm an opinion already too prevalent in fome places in the minds of the poor, that fuch is the general conduct of Hofpital Phyficians: an opinion which, where- X ever it exifts, ftrikes at the root of the chief advantages to be derived from one of the moft excellent of charitable inftitutions, by de- terring perfons for whofe benefit infirmaries are particularly defigned from entering with- in their walls except in the utmoft emer- gency ; and filling them with gloomy appre- cruelty in profecuting them will be avoided with fcrupulous care by men of feeling and reflection. And whenever they are painful and (hocking in the execution, they ought not to be made to develop procefles of nature, from the knowledge of which no benefit feems likely to refult ; to fupport and elucidate unimportant opinions in compara- tive anatomy ; or in any way to gratify idle curiofity : nor fhould they be repeated, though originally ufeful, after they have proved all that is expected from them ; and when the refults have been fo carefully afcertained, that may be received as data already eftabliflied. henfions 1J2 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. henfions and terrors until the happy moment of their efcape. Similar remarks may be ap- plied to the cafe of amputations, and other operations of magnitude, in hofpitals ; which fhould never be performed without the con- current approbation of the Phyficians and Surgeons, given by each not as a matter of form, but with a confcioufnefs of his perfonal refponfVoility for any needlefs injury or torture caufed to the patient. While there is a pofli- bility of reftoring the ufe of a limb, or of pre- ferving it without endangering life ; what- ever time may be requifite for attaining the object, it ought not to be amputated either to ihew the dexterity of the operator, or becaufe the flump will be fooner cured than the limb, and the patient will thus become lefs burden- fome to the chanty. The intention of the charity is to cure and to prefervc. And even if credit be regarded, more is gained by one difficult cure than by many iliccefsful am- putations, A benevolent Phyfician will not reftricl: his attendance on the poor to thofe whom the bounty of the public brings before him. He will ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 173 will not neglecl: the opportunities which will occur, in his vifits to families refident in dif- ferent parts of the country, of giving gratui- tous advice to the fick and infirm villagers who may be mentioned to him as worthy of his notice ; and will attend, as far as his necef- fary avocations permit, to the maladies of per- ibns in indigent circumftances who live in his own neighbourhood, and are defirous of con- fulting him (/). (/) The following quotation from " Medical Jurifpru " dence," p. 89, relates to public duties of another kind Incumbent on Phyficians. " It is a complaint made by " Coroners, Magiftrates, and Judges, that medical Gen- " tlemen are often reludtant in the performance of thofc " offices required from them as citizens qualified by pro- " feflional knowledge to aid the execution of public juf- " tice. Thefe offices, it muft be confefTed, are generally " painful, always inconvenient, and occafion an interrup- l( tion to bufmefs of a nature not to be eafily appreciated ft or compenfated. But as they admit of no fubflitution, " they are to be regarded as appropriate debts to the com- t; munity, which neither equity nor patriotifm will allow " to be cancelled." " When a Phyfician is called to give evidence, he mould " avoid as much as poffible all obfcure and technical " terms, and the unneceflary difplay of medical erudition. " He mould alfo deliver what he advances in the pureft " and mod delicate language conGftent with the nature " of the fubjeft in queftion." The 174 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. The proper behaviour of a Phyfician to his competitors, and to the inferior members of the medical profeflion, holds a prominent flation among the general duties which he has to difcharge in the common courfe of his prac- tice. He will conduct himfelf to all of them under allcircumftances on Chriftian principles ; with Chriftian temper ; and with a fcrupulous regard to the attentions which they may rea- fonably expect, and the privileges which they may juftly claim, in confequence of their re- fpective fituations. He will contend with his rivals for public favour openly and honourably* He will never attempt to fupplant them by ungenerous artifices ; by fecret obloquy ; by publifhing or by cunningly aggravating their miftakes ; or by depreciating their eftimation in the eyes of the world by ridicule of their perfons, characters, or habits. He will not drive to keep exclufive pofleflion of the dif- trict in which he is employed, by crufhing young practitioners, who, on their outfet in life, fix themfclves within its limits. He will not be led by pride and jealoufy to oppofe the admiflion of other Phyficians to a joint fhare with himfelf in the fuperintendence of hofpitals ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. Ijj hofpitals and difpenfaries : a line of conduct the more to be reprobated, as it not only pre- cludes deferving men from obvious and fair iburces of credit and improvement ; but at the lame time robs the charity of the benefit of their affiftance, and perhaps impairs its re- venues by giving rife to animofities and dif- fenfions among its fupporters. Yet as he will be a better judge of the medical abilities of candidates for admiffion than moft of the Governors of the charity; it is his duty, not- withftanding that he may incur the rifk of mifreprefentation, to let his opinion be known, if perfons offer themfelves of whofe unfitnefs for the fituation he is thoroughly convinced. He will not harbour fentiments of envy and hatred towards his fortunate antagonifts, not even if they are called in by his own former patients (m) ; nor will he infultingly triumph over thofe to whom he is himfelf preferred. He will be ready to meet in confutations, with- (m) It would be equally unjuftifiable to feel animofity or refentment towards thofe individuals on account of their having exercifed their indifputable right of employ- ing a new Phyfician, who in their eftimation, and per- haps in reality, is entitled to the preference. cut 176 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS; out being influenced by private diflike, by tecedent difputes, or by other perfonal motives whatever, any Phyfician for vvhofe advice the Tick man or his friends may be felicitous ; and, while he carefully examines the grounds of his new coadjutor's opinion, will beware of being obftinately fixed in his own. When fummoned to take the charge of a cafe which has previoufly been in other hands, he will give to the perfons already employed the cre- dit fairly due to them : he will judge their proceedings with candour and impartiality, and abftain not merely from deriding, but from needlefsly cenfuring or expofmg their defects. And if his exertions mould finally prove more fuccefsful than theirs have been, he will rc- rncmber that the method of treatment purfued by his predeceflbrs may yet have been highly judicious, or at all events worthy of trial, at the time when it was adopted ; and that the ineffectual attempts which they made, and perhaps the errors into which they may have fallen, may be the very circumftances which have thrown a degree of light on the malady fufficient to enable him to cure it. He will fludy to prefer ve that amicable intercourfe be- tween ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 177 tween his medical brethren and himfelf, which may lead to an habitual, free, and mutually beneficial communication of interefting fadts, which may occur to them in the circle of their practice. He will refrain from every approach towards obtrufive interference with refpecT: to a cafe already under the management of an- other. And if extraordinary or peculiar cir- cumftances mould in any inftance lead him to conclude on mature deliberation that fome in- terference on his part is an ac~l of indifpenfable duty ; he will difcharge that duty in fuch a manner as to refute, if it be poffible, the fufpi- cions which he muft expect: to incur of hav- ing been impelled by felnm confiderations, or by other motives equally unwarrantable. He will aflift his competitors, when abfent or out of health, with promptitude and with evident difmtereftednefs ; and will at all times be juft in his reprefentations of their merits. He will not attempt to bring forward ignorant or worth- lefs Phyficians, becaufe they happen to be his relations or his countrymen ; to have been edu- cated at the fame fchool with himfelf; to have been ftudents at the fame college ; or to be re- commended to him by his particularfriends. He VOL. jr. N will 178 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. will not entertain abfurd prejudices againft any of his rivals, on account of having an unfavour- able opinion of the univerfity from which they received their degrees. Nor will he fcornfully exclude from all the privileges of fellowfhip intelligent medical practitioners, who have not been fortunate enough to receive a degree from any univerfity ; when they give proofs of ac- tually pofiefling thofe attainments, of which an academical education is confidered as the bafis, and a degree regarded as prefumptive evidence. To poffefs the countenance and recommend* ation of an eminent Apothecary is frequently of no fmall fervice to a Phyfician, not merely at his outfet in life, but even when he is efta- blimed in practice. Hence mean and inter- efted men have been known to refort to moft unworthy methods of fecuring this affiftance. " It is a known () fact, that, in many parts " of Europe, Phyficians who have the befl *' parts and beft education muft yet depend for " their fuccefs in life upon Apothecaries who (") Gregory's Le&ures, p. 45. " have ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 179 " have no pretenfions either to the one or to " the other; and that this obligation is too " often repaid by what every one who is " concerned for the honour of medicine muft " reflect on with pain and indignation." In this country, it may be prefumed, examples of Phyficians, who would contract that obli- gation on the terms of repaying it in the manner here alluded to, or in any fimilar way, are fo rare (0), that it is unneceflary to dwell on the fubjec~t. It may be added, how- ever, that a Phyfician who pufhes into bufi- nefs ignorant and undeferving Surgeons and Apothecaries from motives of groundlefs par- tiality, or from the impulfe of private friendfhip without refped: to perfonal merit ; a&s a part lefs culpable indeed in itfelf, but not lefs detri- mental to the public, than if his conduct had originated in a fecret underftanding between himfelf and them, founded on views of bafe and fraudulent advantage. And on the other hand, to employ his influence with his pa- () It is one of the offices of a Phyfician to vifit, when required by the Magiftrates of the diftrict, private houfcs licenfed for the reception of infane patients, and to report the (late of them. In drawing up thofe reports impartiality and plain-dealing are indifpenfable duties. To ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 187 To the poor, as already has been intimated, his charitable aid fhould be cheerfully ex- tended, not only when they are brought before him by means of public inftitutions, or are recommended to his care in the courfe of his diftant circuits ; but whenever the vicinity of their refidence to his own gives them a pecu- liar claim on his compaflion, and enables him at a very fmall expenditure of time and trouble to confer many an important and durable benefit. The laft-mentioned object will in moft fituations be attained with the utmoft poffible enlargement of the numbers of thofe who confult him, as well as with the greateft convenience to himfelf, by fetting apart an appointed time in every week for giving gratuitous advice to the indigent. Per- haps too he may in fome cafes have it in his power, in conjunction with a few friends as liberal as himfelf, to carry the exercife of benevolence ftill farther, by fupplying medi- cines to thofe, who from their extraordinary poverty or fingular diforders are entitled to more .than ufual pity; and who have not the opportunity of obtaining relief from dif- penfaries or hofpitals. And in other cafes, I by ^ J&S ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. by recommending the diftrefied poor to the attention of the opulent in their neighbour- hood, he may procure them neceflaries and comforts which otherwife they never would have poflefled, and to which they may owe their recovery. There are various other ways in which a Phyfician may contribute to the prefervation and improvement of the public health. One of the moft obvious and efficacious methods is fludioufly to avail himfelf of thofe oppor- tunities, which his profeflional employment affords, of imparting ufeful information to Apothecaries. Throughout the whole king- dom Apothecaries are the Phyficians of the lower claiTes of fociety in almoft every com- plaint ; and, except in the metropolis and a few other towns peculiarly circumftanced, execute the fame office to the higher clafles in all diforders not very alarming. It is therefore of the higheft confequence that they fhould be thoroughly competent to perform ihc tafk which is afligned to them. And each Phyfician may continually add to the know- ledge of thofe with whom he is converfant, no* ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 189 not only by fully explaining to them his ideas refpecting every cafe in which they are em- ployed together ; but likewife by fuggefting and occafionallly lending to them inftructive books j and by apprifmg them of new modes of practice, and new difcoveries as to me- dicines, of which, had it not been for his communication, they might never have heard, and without the authority of his recommend- ation would never have ventured to make trial. A Phyfician may alfo fave many lives by devifmg and rendering public falutary precautions, by which the health and con- ftitutions of artifans, who work in unwhole- ibme manufactures, may be preferved ; and by turning his attainments in chemiftry and other branches of fcience to the invention of new proceiTes equal or fuperior in point of cheapnefs and utility to thole at prefent in ufe, and free from all noxious influence on thofe who conduct them. The cuftom of burying in churches, which among other bad confequences is frequently deemed an infu- perable obftacle to the introduction of fires into thofe edifices > and thus occafions the air to. ON THE DUTIES Qt PHYSICIANS. to be retained in fo cold and damp a ftate as to deter many infirm people from attending divine wormip in fevere feafons, and to en- danger the health of more ; might perhaps be reftricted by the united efforts of medical men to thofe cafes in which the ufe of leaden coffins, or of other means equally effectual, prevents the efcape of contaminated vapour. The opinion of a Phyfician of character frequently determines the place and mode of fludy for young men deflined for the medical profefTion. He who is confulted on thefe points ought to reflect how materially the advice which he gives may affect the advan- tage of the other party during life ; and di- verting himfelf of prejudices which he may have contracted in favour of the feminary where he was educated, a feminary now per- haps much degenerated, or for the courfe of ftudy which he purfued there, a courfe which experience may fmce have {hewn to be ill arranged and defective; let him give an honeft preference to that fituation and that method of ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 19! of proceeding, which he deems under exift- ing circumftances the beft calculated for the advantage of the ftudent. The charge of infidelity and contempt of re- ligion has often been alleged againft the medi- cal profeffion. This imputation is itrenuoufly repelled by Dr. Gregory. " Medicine," he obferves (y), " of all profeflions fhould be the " lead fufpeded of leading to impiety. An " intimate acquaintance with the works of na- " ture elevates the mind to the moft fublime " conceptions of the Supreme Being ; and at " the fame time dilates the heart with the moft ** pleafmg profpe&s of Providence. The dif- " ficulties that muft neceflarily attend all deep " enquiries into a fubject fo difproportionate " to the human faculties, fhould not be ex- " peeked to furprife a Phyfician ; who in his u daily practice is involved in perplexity and ** darknefs, even in fubjecl:s expofed to the 44 examination of his fenfes." This charge may have been made on partial and infufficient grounds j but- the exiftence of it Ihould excite & ($r) Le^ures, p. 62. the 192 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. the efforts of every confcientious Phyfician to refcue himfelf from the general ftigma. It fhould ftimulate him, not to affect a fenfe of religion which he does not entertain; but openly to avow that which he actually feels. And it gives additional force to thofe reafons which ought to impel the Phyfician, in com- mon with other men, to employ an adequate portion of his leifure in ftudying the Holy Scriptures, and making himfelf mafter of the external and internal evidences of Chriftianity (r). If the charge be in fome meafure true, it is of importance to the Phyfician to afcertain the caufes from which the fact has originated, that he may be the more on his guard againfl their influence. The following circumftances may not have been without their weight. (r) The charge in queftion is not peculiar to Great Britain. A French Gentleman of much information faid to me very lately : Je ne fais s'il en eft de meme des " Medecins en Angleterrc comme des Medecins de " France. La plupart des Medecins de France n'ont 1 point de religion. Us ne croyent ni en 1'immortalite " de 1'amc, ni en Dieu." They ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 193 They who are accuftomed to deep refearches into any branch of philofophical fcience ; and find themfelves able to explain to their own fatisfaction almoft every phenomenon, and to account, as they apprehend, for almoft every effect, by what are termed natural caufes ; are apt to acquire extravagant ideas of the fuf- ficiency of human reafon on all fubje&s : and thus learning to doubt the neceffity, become prejudiced againft the belief, of divine reve- lation. In the next place, they who juftly difclaim the empire of authority in medical theories, may carelefsly proceed to regard religious doctrines as theories refting on no other foundation, and deferving of no better fate. Thirdly, it is to be obferved, that men may be divided into two diftincl: clafles, with refpect to the fort of teftimony on which they receive truths of any kind. They who are chiefly addi-cted to investigations and reafon- ings founded on analogy, look primarily and with extreme partiality to that fpecics of evi- dence ; and if the thing aflerted appears con- trary to the common courfe of nature, more efpecially if it militates againft any theory of their own (and fuch perfons are much difpofed VOL. II. O tO 194 OM TH * DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. to thcorife), they are above meafure reluctant to admit the reality of it ; and withhold their aflent until fuch a number of particular proofs, incapable of being refolved into fraud or mif- conception, is produced, as would have been far more than iufficient to convince (s) an un- (/) Thus, before the qualities of the magnet were known in this country, if a traveller had reported that he had feen a mineral endued whh the property of attracting iron, and of giving it a permanent tendency to point towards the north pole ; a perfon ufed to argue very much from analogy would probably have at once declared the atfcrtion abfurd and incredible : and laying very unreafonable ftrefis on the total abfence of any fimilar property in other mi- nerals, would have remained unmoved by evidence, which would juftly have been fatisfaftory to a mind accuftomed to eftimate the credit due to particular fab chiefly by their own independent proofs. Of the effect of the fort of prejudice under confideration no example can be produced fo truly furprifing, as Mr. Hume's celebrated, I had almoft faid childifh, argument againft the credibility of miracles ; an argument according to which the firft. account of an eclipfe of the fun, of the appearance of a comet, of the eruption of a volcano, in (hort of any phenomenon which had not antecedently been known to occur in the courfe of nature, ought necefiarily to have been deemed unworthy of the flighted credit, how. ever ftrongly attefted} and the averred f a s to have been pronounced incapable of being proved by any teltimony whatever. biafled ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 195 biafled judgment. Whereas other men, little ufed to analogical enquiries, look not around for fuch teftimony either in fupport or in refutation of an extraordinary circumftance affirmed to them ; but readily give credit to the fact on its own diftinct proofs, or from confidence in the veracity and difcernment of the relator. It is evident that Phyficians are to be ranked in the clafs firft defcribed, and are confequently liable to its prejudices. And it is equally evident that thofe prejudices will render all on whom they faften particularly averfe to recognife the truth of miracles ; and will probably prevent them from examining with impartiality the evidence of a religion founded on miracles, and perhaps from ex- amining it at all. Fourthly ; to the preceding circumftances muft be added the neglect of divine worfhip too cuftomary among perfons of the medical profeffion. This neglect feems to have contributed not only to excite and ftrengthen the opinion of their fcepticifm and infidelity ; but fometimes to produce fcepti- cifm and infidelity itfelf. For it is a natural progrefs, that he who habitually disregards the public duties of religion, ihould foon O 2 omit 196 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. omit thofe which are private ; fhould fpeedily begin to wifh that religion may not be true ; fhould then proceed to doubt its truth ; and at length fhould difbelieve it. It muft be admitted that the Phyfician is precluded by the nature of his occupation from the regular performance of public religious duties. His time is not at his own difpofal ; he is liable every moment to calls, which will not admit of denial or delay ; and he knows from unqueftionable authority that " mercy " is better than facrifice." But there is great danger, even if his faith remain unmaken, that the impoflibility at one time of attending at church, and at another the uncertainty whether, if he goes thither, he mall be per- mitted to continue there unto the conclufion of the fervice, may lead him unawares into a habit of abfenting himfelf altogether from public worfhip. At any rate it is in his power, and it is manifeftly his duty, to em- brace all opportunities which find him difen- gaged ; and fo to contrive the arrangement of his vifits on Sundays, if the fituation of his patients will permit, as to leave him- felf ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. 197 felf fufficient fpace in the former or the lat- ter part of the day to unite with his fellow Chriftians in prayers and praifes to his Maker. And let him not be deterred by an appre- heniion, which, if it were not fometimes avowed, would not have feemed worthy of being noticed ; that he may probably be fuppofed to have come to church with the hope, or with the premeditated defign, of being fummoned away in the face of the con- gregation, and of thus augmenting the idea of his bufmefs and importance. His ge- neral character and conduct muft be already defpicable, if they will not exempt him, in proportion as they are known, from the fuf* picion of fuch diflimulation. / Finally, let not the Phyfician hefitate, through a fervile or avaricious fear of offend- ing fome of his patients, and lofmg their future employment, to take an active and fteady, but temperate part in any local or public bufmefs which may arife, when his confcience tells him that he ought to ftand forward. The members of every profefliou O 3 have Ip8 ON THE DUTIES OF PHYSICIANS. have their trials, and are called upon at times to make their peculiar facrifices. And he who fhrinks back when put to the proof, may ad- vance perhaps fome of his petty interefts of the moment ; but he advances them at the expence of Chriftian duty. t 199 J CHAP. XIII. ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. A HE perfons, to whom this chapter is in- tended principally to refer, are bankers, mer- chants, factors or agents, and manufacturers. The method which will be purfued is the following. Thofe general principles of moral obligation, which may obvioufly be applied to men engaged in any of the above-mentioned employments, will be ftated and enforced ia the firft place. And in a fubfequent confider- ation of each of thofe four employments in its turn, the bearing of fome of thefe principles on the conduct of men occupied in it will be illuftrated ; and fuch particular obfervations will be introduced as, in confequenqe of their referring to circumftances chiefly or exclu- fively pertaining to one of the profeflions, could not be diftinctly advanced ia the preli- minary remarks. 04 The 200 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS The leading purpofes which trade and com- merce, and confequently every bufmefs and profeflion which exifts by being fubfidiary to them, appear deftined by the will of Provi- dence to anfwer, are to promote the cultivation of the earth ; to call forth into ufe its hidden treafures ; to excite and fharpen the inventive induftry of man ; to unite the whole human race in bonds of fraternal conned: ion ; to augment their comforts and alleviate their wants by an interchange of commodities fu- perfluous to the original pofleflbrs ; to open a way for the progrefs of civilization, for the diffufion of learning, for the extenfion of fci- ence, for the reception of Chriflianity ; and thus to forward that ultimate end, to which all the defigns and difpenfations of God, like rays converging to a central point, feem evi- dently directed, the increafe of the fum of general happinefs. Nations and individuals, in planning or executing commercial undertakings, rarely en- large their views beyond the fphere of their own immediate advantage. The ufual object even of good governments in encouraging trade ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 2OI trade is merely to replenim the public coffers, to ftrengthen the national marine, and thus to render the ftate formidable to rival powers. The aim of the individual in pufhing his traffic is commonly limited to the acquifition of fubfiftence, wealth, and eminence, for him- felf and his family. Yet while the Govern- ment is attending folely to national intereft, and the individual to private emolument ; they will in moft cafes manifeilly promote, however unintentionally, the divine plan of univerfal good. But when a Legiflature fanctions, and a fubjedt practifes, a branch of trade which, though not unjuft and immoral in itfelf, has an obvious tendency to diminifli human hap- pinefs ; being bound not only to obferve the Uriel: principles of juftice, but likewife to evince their regard to the dictates of bene- volence by adverting to the probable effects of their conduct, they act in oppofition to the will of God, and are in confequence highly criminal. Such, it is poffible, may be the cafe, even where the traffic is chargeable with no violation of probity and fair dealing ; as the working of fome of the unwholefome mines in the Spanifh provinces in America, and perhaps the carrying on of fome domeftic manu- 2O2 ON THE DUTIM OF PERSONS manufactures pernicious to the health and morals of the perfons employed in them. But it commonly happens that a trade, adverfe in its nature to the good of mankind, involves likewife the pofitive guilt of fraud and rapine. And for the evils refulting from its known tendency, as well as for thofe pofitive crimes, all who encourage its continuance, while they are confcious of its guilt, become in a greater or lefs degree refponfible. The Government \vhich fhall allow its fubjects to continue the flave trade, now that its nature and effects are thoroughly underftood; the merchant who (hall fit out the mip ; the captain who (hall com- mand it ; the manufacturer who mall furnifji it with manacles and fetters ; will have to an- fwer each according to the juft fcale of divine retribution, not merely for the blood fpilt and the iniquities committed on the coaft of Africa ; but for the general mifery, the blindnefs, and the barbarifm created and upheld by a traffic repugnant to the fundamental principles of juftice, and bidding defiance both to the fpirit and the precepts of Chriftianity (a). Enlarged (a] The late difcuflions refpeUng the abolition of the flave trade have apprized the public of the baneful effe&s 3 which ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 203 Enlarged and liberal principles of commerce are thofe which promife to a Hate, in propor- tion as they are obferved in its intercourfe with which have been produced on the happinefs and character of the inhabitants of Africa by the iatercourfe which we have hitherto carried on with them. There is equal reafon to conclude from feveral publications, efpecially from a re- cent work by Mr. Long, entitled, " Voyages and Travels * of an Indian Interpreter and Trader," that our traffic with the natives of North America has both thinned their numbers and grievoufly depraved their morals, by inftrudT:- ing them in European vices, and particularly by infpiring them with an immoderate paflion for rum. With this pernicious liquor our traders, I believe, firft rendered them acquainted , and on every occafion they now take advantage of the pafiion of the Indians for it, furnifhing them with it in abundance, either as an article of barter for their peltry, or more frequently as a bribe to gain their cuftom ; regardlefs not only of the diftant confe- quences, but of the immediate phrenfy and bloodmed which it produces. Of the latter effefts I (hall briefly (late fome inftances from Mr. Long, taking them in the order in which they occur in his work. " The Indians ' generally do mifchief when they are Intoxicated On " this occafion, with the rum we gave them they conti- " nued in a ftateof inebriety three days and nights ; during " which/rcAV they killed four of their own party." p. 49. " A fkirmim happened among the Indians, in which &) " The bankrupt, upon his examination, is bound " upon pain of death to make a full difcovery of all his " eftate and effe&s, as well in expe&ancy as in pofleffion, " and how he has difpofed of the fame j together with " all books aad writings relating thereto ; and is to deliver " up all in his own power to the commiffioners, except " the necefiary apparel of himfelf, his wife and his chil- " dren ; or in cafe he conceals or embezzles any effects '* to the amount of aol. or withholds any books or writ- " ings with intent to defraud his creditors, he fhall be " guilty of felony without benefit of clergy." Blackflone, loth edit. vol. ii. p. 482. rupts. 252 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS rupts. The law leaves all fubfequent property acquired by the bankrupt open to feizure, on account of debts contracted before his failure, and remaining unpaid, unlefs a certain pro- portion of his creditors, of a fpecified de- fcription, have concurred in granting him a certificate of his having made an ingenuous difcovery of his effects, and of his having conformed in all points to the directions of the ftatutes. This certificate, on being allowed after due enquiry by the Lord Chancellor, fecures to the bankrupt, together with other privileges, a legal indemnity from all un- fatisfied claims. The law likewife points out feveral cafes (/) in which the certificate ought not to be regarded ; or, if granted, may be afterwards fuperfeded. It may therefore be flated as the firft general rule on this fub- ject, that if a perfon who has obtained his (/) See thefe cafes enumerated in Blackftone, vol. ii. p. 484. The bankrupt alfo, on presenting the certificate to the Chancellor, or to the Judges appointed by him to inveftigate the matter, rnuft make oath that it was obtain- ed without fraud, p. 483. If it mould afterwards be difcovered that he had then perjured himfelf, the certi- ficate, on a proper application, would certainly be an-, nulled. certificate ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 253 certificate fhall be confcious that he has con- cealed fome fad: from his creditors, intention- ally, or even unintentionally (for he is not to reap advantage from his own negligence), the difcovery of which would in his opinion have prevented it from being granted ; he is bound in Uriel: juftice not only to provide the beft means in his power for paying the full amount of their refpective debts, but likewife to difcharge them from time to time with reafonable difpatch, in proportion as he fhall find himfelf able. But further ; the bankrupt laws give advan- tages to the infolvent trader over other infol- vent perfons, only on the ground of his in- folvency proceeding from fome misfortune peculiarly incident to trade ; and are defigned for the benefit of fuch traders only as are both honeft (m) and induftrious. Nay, " unlefs " it fhall appear that the bankrupt's inability " to pay his debts arofe from fome cafual lofs ; " he may, upon conviction by indictment of " fuch grofs mifconduct and negligence, be (m] See Blackftone, vol. H. p. 474. I " fet 254 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS " fet up in the pillory for two hours, and have " one of his ears nailed to the fame, and cut " off (;/)." This fevere ftatute, though I know not that it has been carried into execution in a fingle inftance, is itfelf a fufficient proof of the law not having intended that men who have been guilty of flagrant imprudence, care- leflhefs, or extravagance, fhould be indulged by their creditors with certificates. Let us fuppofe then, that a bankrupt has been guilty of thefe faults, and is known to have been guilty of them by his creditors ; of whom, notwithstanding, a requifite number think fit to grant him a certificate. Thofe who fign it may be (0) culpable for acceding to that meafure ; but undoubtedly they relinquifti all () Blackftone, vol. ii. p. 482. (o) The difcretionary power of granting or refufing cer- tificates to bankrupts, with which creditors are inverted by the law, ought to be employed in conformity to the pur- pofe for which it was conferred, to promote the public good. It affords an opportunity of giving encouragement to the deferving, and of difcountenancing men of fufpicious characters. Too great facility in figning certificates, by confounding, as far as it operates, the diftincTtion between right and wrong, is not lefs injurious to the community than the oppofite extreme. 2 further ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 25*5 further claims on the bankrupt. He ftands from that moment difcharged from every obli- gation ofjnJKce to pay them a fingle additional, farthing, however ample may be the property which he afterwards acquires. But with re- fpecl: to thofe creditors who did not fign his certificate, he feems to remain in a different predicament. The unfatisfied demands of thefe men are not prejudiced in the eye of con- fcience, though annulled in law, by the re- prehenfible lenity of the former ; of which they manifefted their complete difapprobation in the manner indicated by the legislature, namely, by refufing to concur in a certificate, which, according to the fpirit and meaning of the ftatutes, ought to have been withheld on the part of the creditors, and ought not to have been accepted by the bankrupt for the purpofe of evading future payments, which he might be able and bound in confcience to make. If thefe obfervations are well founded, it may be laid down as a fecond general rule ; that under the circumftances which have been ftated, he is bound in juftice (juftice, I mean, as meafured by confcience, not by law) to pay thofe of his creditors who did not fign the 256 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS* the certificate, the remainder of their debts according to his fubfequent ability, in the fame manner as he would have been had he obtain- ed his certificate by fraud. Some other cafes, varying in fcveral points from thofe which we have been inveftigating, might yet be propofed. I do not however enter into them, as the enquiry would lead into minute and tedious details ; and as it would in fadt be fuperfluous, fmce they may be refolved by an application of thofe principles on which the preceding general rules are founded. If it be afked, whether a bankrupt is bound by thofe rules only to the payment of the fpe- cific fums which he owes, or to the further payment of intereft ; and, whether his obliga- tion to pay either the one or the other may not depend on the manner in which his fu- ture property is acquired ; the anfwers to both thefe queftions are obvious. The reafons which oblige him in confcience to pay the principal fums, oblige him equally to repay fuch of them with intereft, as he would have been bound thus to repay if he had not failed. And ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 2$* And they oblige him to difcharge both prin- cipal and intereft by the application t>f any property over which he finds himfelf poflefTed of a legal power of difpofal ; whatever be the means by which that property has come into his hands. When a number of partners have become bankrupts through the bad behaviour of one of them, the foregoing obfervations, though ap- plicable to all of them (for each had made himfelf in a great degree refponfible for the conduct of the other), prefs with efpecial force on the culpable perfon ; and fhould render him particularly defirous of contributing in proportion to his future ability to make up, both to his creditors and to his former aflbciates, the lofles which they fuftained through his bla- mable proceedings. In the next place it is to be obferved, that in moft of the inftances wherein the bankrupt may ftand exempt from the imperious de- mands of juftice, he will feel his confcience aflailed by the no lefs powerful impulfe of Chriftian benevolence. Though his failure VOL. ii. S has has been owing neither to mifconducl: nor to negligence ; though every one of his proceed- ings has been free from the flighted tincture of difhonefty or deceit ; yet when he is after- wards blefled with wealth, if he beholds thofe who have fuffered by his misfortunes ftruggling with calamities or pining in want, and ftretches not forth his hand to relieve them ; he may be as criminal in the fight of his Maker as if he were detaining what was ftridly and abfo- lutely their own. In this cafe the line of duty is evident. In others lefs ftrong he muft judge by a fair compariibn of the fituation of himfelf and his family, with that of his former credit- ors, what are the meafures which either grati- tude or charity requires him to adopt; whether they call upon him to make up his deficiencies to the whole number, or only to a part ; to difcharge them fooner, or later ; completely, or but to a certain degree ; with intereft, or without it. But let him judge, as he would wifh others under frmilar circumftances to judge towards himfelf, with candour and im- partiality ; let him even determine beforehand to incline to the humane and generous fide. The bias of felf-intereft will fufficiently bring him ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 259 him back to the fide of parfimony. As for men who, after paying fcanty dividends, employ fubfequent affluence in luxury and parade, regardlefs of the fituation of their un- happy creditors ; they deferve to be clafled with criminals of the mod infamous de- fcription. The obfervations which have been made refpecting bankrupts may eafily be applied to the fituation of an infolvent trader, who has fettled his affairs by a deed of truft, with fuch changes as the nature and terms of the deed obvioufly require. After having addrefTed the foregoing obfer- vations to the trader who has failed, and has retrieved his circumftances, it may not be im- proper to conclude the fubject with a fhort admonition to the creditor. If the former ought to be prompt as well as juft in offering, the latter mould be delicate and fcrupulous in accepting. Even in cafes where ftrit juftice gives him a right to the fum laid before him, and much more on occafions where he has no fuch claim, it may frequently happen that S 2 what 260 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS what the one is bound in confcience to tender, it would be ungenerous and morally wrong in the other to receive. A few remarks refpecling the general dif- pofitions of a trader, and his habits in private life, may be fubjoined in the next place. The man who is conflantly engaged in one particular employment, and accuftomed to di- rect his thoughts day after day and year after year into the fame channel, frequently acquires a narrow turn of mind. Like the furveyor who traverfes a country for the purpofe of laying out a turnpike road, regardlefs of its beauties and carelefs as to its fertility, and at- tending to its inequalities merely with an eye to the forming of a communication between them, to the quantity of materials which \vill be \vanting, and the facility with which they may be procujed ; he neglects to exercife his underftanding in'enlarged and comprehenfive views of the various objects around him ; and, if he contemplates them at all, meafures them only by that limited and inadequate fcale, to which he has been ufed to refer the concerns -t 6. of ENCAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 261 -of his private occupation. Of all the profef- fions which are in the hands of the higher and middle clafTes of fociety, none perhaps lead more directly to contracted ideas than thofe xvhich confift in buying and felling, in cafting up accounts, in calculating pecuniary rilks and advantages, and in the uniform tranfactions of the counting-houfe and the mop. To guard the youth deftined for fuch a fituation from falling into the trammels of prejudice, and ha- bituating himfelf to partial and confined views of things, it is peculiarly defirable that his mind mould be cultivated, his faculties ex- panded, and his ideas taught to expatiate in a wide and ample range, by a liberal and learned education. The neglect of his improvement in literature is the more blamable, as he will probably be fnatched away from fchools and tutors, and initiated in the myfteries and im- merfed in the details of his future employ- ment, at an earlier age than his companions, who are intended for the church, for phyfic, or for the bar. But let him not abandon his ftudies when he commences a man of bufmefs. Let him not throw afide his armour when he wants it the moft. Let him feduloufly devote 83 his 262 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS his leifure, let him feduloufly redeem from fcenes of trifling amufement leifure that it may he devoted, to the perufal of eminent authors, antient as well as modern, to works of general information, of fcience, and of tafte. Many a wary father would ftart at thefe words, as indicating the high road to ruin. Many a waryfather has inculcated on his fon that trade has nothing to do with learning. The faga- cious parent confiders all reading, except that of day-books, tables of intereft, invoices, and orders from correfpondents, as indifpofmg the mind to commerce, and as a wafte of valuable time ; as never contributing to the gaining of money, and too often to the fpending of it. But let not the fon be a trader, unlefs he may be fomething more. Let him alfo be a virtu- ous, wife, and enlightened man, at once a benefit and an' ornament to fociety. Fathers of families, who have fons in trade, ought to encourage them in rational and improving pur- fuits, and warn them againft trifling away, as is often done, all the remainder of the day, after bufmefs is over, in idle converfation. And if they are confcious of a deficiency of knowledge in themfelves, with the greater 3 earneft- ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 263 earneftnefs fhould they excite their fons to the attainment of more. Thefe obfervations-may be extended to perfons who have young men deftined for trade under their care, either as apprentices or on any other footing. : - - ; '' : " -2 c;'r ' Let the trader keep a conftant and vigilant eye over the habits of his mind and the work- ings of his heart, left he mould gradually be abforbed in mere worldly concerns j left he mould contract a covetous and niggardly fpirit, eftimating too highly the importance of riches, and unwilling to apply them to their proper ufe. Above all things let him not de- pend folely or principally on himfelf, norafcribe his fuccefs folely or principally to his own ex- ertions. " Beware (p] that thou forget not the " Lord thy God ; left when thou haft eaten " and art full, and haft built goodly houfes, " and dwelt therein ; and when thy herds and " thy flocks multiply, and thy filver and thy " gold is multiplied, and all that thou haft is " multiplied ; then thine heart be lifted up (/>) Deut. yiii. 11. 18, 84 " and 264 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS " and thbu fay in thine heart, My power " and the might ance. Neither does it prohibit him from taking higher intereft when there is greater rifk. But where the riiks are equal, though from gratitude or compaflion he may occa- fionally abate of his common terms ; yet he ought not to raife thofe terms upon a bor- rower who happens to be unacquainted with his ufual rate of dealing, or whofe modefty points him out as capable of being driven into a hard bargain. In like manner, if a redund- ance or a fcarcity of cafh in the kingdom ren- ders it right for the banker to make an advance or a reduction in the intereft on the fums already owing to him ; impartiality requires him, inftead of feledting from felfifh views a few objects of favour, to make the change on general principles. Indeed two rates of terms for tranfacting any branch of the banking bufmefs, even though the higher rate fliould not be too high, naturally fpread a fufpicion abroad of a griping difpofition in the banker ; and may by degrees excite in him the difpo- fition itfelf. It 330 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS It is not neceflarily unfair in a banker oc- cafionally to lend the furplus of his money to ftrangers on terms lower than thofe which he takes from his friends and conftant cuftomers. This practice may at times be neceflary, in order that he may make fame intereft of his fluctuating furplus. It is however a practice not altogether creditable, and one which fhould be avoided as much as can conveni- ently be done. How far, it may be afked, is a banker at liberty in point of moral duty to {hew efpecial and extraordinary favour, in the way of loans, to his relations and friends, from whom he has previoufly received obligations ? If the antecedent obligation was conferred on the banking-houfe, it feems better that the houfc fhould repay it when a proper opportunity occurs. If it was conferred on one of the partners as a private individual, he ought rather to repay it by means of his private property, and not out of the common fund. But in aflifting his near connections with loans and indulgences, let him beware of being fe- duced by affecYion and habits of intercourfc to ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 331 to proceed to unwarrantable lengths for their accommodation and advantage. A banker, in contemplating the great fums which pafs through his hands, and alfo in lending money, is apt to feel a pride of fupe- riority, and a fenfe of felf-importance. In- ftead of cherifhing a fpirit fo unchriftian, let him in the firft cafe remember that thofe fums are the property of other men ; and that he is only the agent employed in the management of them. In the fecond, let him recollect what will naturally be the feelings of the bor- rower, and ftudioufly endeavour, by fimpli- city and kindnefs of manner, and a total abftinence from all fymptoms of arrogance and orientation, to remove every unpleafant emotion from the breaft of the perfon who folicits his aid. Let him remember that the borrower, even if greatly embarrafled in his circumftances, may be a man of as much integrity, and as much genuine refpectability (for genuine refpeclability is not to be mea- fured by wealth), as himfelf: and that, if the point of mutual obligation be confidered, the lender 332 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS lender commonly derives intereft and other advantages in the line of his profeflion in confequence of granting the loan, advantages which in many cafes may be nearly or alto- gether of as much benefit to him, as thofc acquired by receiving the loan are to the borrower. Let the banker alfo beware of taking offence at the cuftomer who leaves him, while he praifes and carefles the man who removes to his banking-houfe from another. Let not the numerous inftances of fraud in the trading world, which are continually coming before him, induce him to harbour uncandid and indiiciiminate fufpicions, or to deal in hafty cenfures againft individuals. Neither let the dangers be forgotten which attend a banker in habits of convivial fqciety; habits which often lead him, efpecially if a young man, to form acquaintances and friendfhips with a view to cuflom, and with little regard to the characters of his aflbciatesj and to entruft them in unguarded moments with fecrets, and, if they are men of (lender property, to fupply them with ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 533 with money, fo as to injure, perhaps to {hake, the credit of the houfe. In every line of life, the danger of being betrayed into unjuftifiable conduct increafes with the number of temptations, and with the facility of tranfgrefling. On both thefe ac- counts, the banker who is defirous of repre- fenting in Parliament the town where he lives, or who has a feat for that place, or for any other, in the Houfe of Commons, ought to be on his guard, even more than his brethren, againft taking undue fteps either to conciliate his prefent cuftomers, or to attract additional employment. He will eafily difcern that his bank affords very convenient modes of admi- niftering a bribe to the voter. He will per- ceive many opportunities of ftrengthening his intereft, or of extending his bufmefs, by doing parliamentary ^.r for thofe who elect, or for thofe who deal with him. He will not fail to difcover, that if he fhould be happy enough always to think and to divide with the minifter of the day, gratitude may induce the latter to reward his faithful adherent by recommenda- tions to his private friends, and by making I fomc 334 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS forac of the ftreams of public revenue flow through his office. Let the banker however, while he avoids the temptations to which the pofleflion of a feat in Parliament cxpofes him, ftudy to collect from his cuftomers that com- mercial information which his employment will continually furnUh means of acquiring ; information which may greatly contribute to guide his judgement aright with refpect to fubjects coming before him in his legiflative capacity. In the laft place, the banker's attention may be directed to thofe incidental methods and opportunities of doing good, which his pro- feffion peculiarly affords. A banker fhould conftantly confider the good, which his occupation gives him the power of effecting, as one of the moft valuable ends to be attained by following it. This power, if he is a man of eminence, will be very extenfive. If he is fixed in a country town, he is the general patron and fupport of the trading world there. If in the metropolis, his influence, though lefs concentrated, may be ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 335 be ftill greater. Providence does not furniih obvious opportunities of doing good without attaching criminality to the neglect of them. Nor do thofe men, whatever be their line of life, manifeft a Chriftian fpirit, who are dili- gent and active in purfuing their own interefts, and fupine in fearching out occafions of con- ferring difmterefted benefits on others. A banker naturally becomes apprized, in the courfe of his tranfactions, of the fituation of many deferring people in diftrefled circum- ftances ; perfons whofe moral characters are exemplary (for that is a point which fhould be carefully examined), and who are embar- rafled or reduced by misfortunes. Such per- fons are among the beft objects of liberality. By being furnifhed with fmall fums, fome- times as gifts, more frequently as loans, they may be enabled to fet up little fhops for the fupport of their families, or to extricate them- felves from the neceflity of felling all their ftock, and abandoning every profpect of eafe and competence, for the payment of rent, or of debts unavoidably contracted in bufmefs. To cafes of this nature let the banker ftudi- 3 oully 336 ON THE DUTIES OF oufly advert. If he refides in the country, he will have opportunities of rendering fimilar afliftance to farmers deferving of kindnefs and encouragement. Private gentlemen, and others, who would willingly give fmall dona- tions, frequently cannot lend fomewhat larger fums with convenience ; and are commonly, difmclined to lend them, partly through want of opportunities of enquiring into the moral character of the borrower and the probability of repayment ; and partly through a-diflike to the trouble which attends the keeping of fuch accounts. Hence it peculiarly becomes the banker, to whom from his profeflional fitua- tion and habits thefe difficulties are trifles, to exert himfelf in doing good by benevolent loans. Let it not be faid that to engage in thefe tranfacYions is imprudent. If carried on with caution and within moderate limits, they will neither hurt the credit nor afTecT: the pro- fits of the houfe ; and will in many cafes enable the banker to do an act of charity in a manner more commodious to himfelf, and not lefs beneficial to the party aflifted, than by giving relief from his private purfe. The fame liberal fpirit may alfo be {hewn in re- turning ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 337 turning by an equivalent fubfcription the profit made from depofits for charitable inftitutions ; and by paying intereft to perfons of fmall for- tunes, perhaps with large families, the chief fhare of whofe capital happens to lie for a time in the banker's hands, until a favourable oc- cafion arifes of veiling it in the funds, or in fome other defirable way. Poffibly too it might in fome cafes be reafonable to allow intereft for the depofits arifing from the fale of the property of bankrupts. It is of thriv- ing banks that we are now fpeaking ; and the admonition meant to be intimated is, that the partners mould practife liberality not merely in their individual capacities, but collectively alfo in their profeffional tranfadtions. With refpect to arrefting of debtors, and preffing the payment of bills, there is great room for doing eflential good by the exercife of gene- rofity and forbearance ; and I believe that bankers err as frequently on the fide of libe- rality, as on that of parfimony and rigour : though the error on the former fide may per- haps fometimes proceed rather from the cur- fory manner in which thefe branches of bufi- nefs are conducted, than from a ftudied atten- VQL. n. Z tion 338 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS tion to the nature of the particular cafe, and the general welfare of fociety. It is a great advantage as well as comfort to perfons in the lower lines of life, to be able at any time to depofit in fafe hands, and in a way attended with profit, the little fums which their induftry has accumulated. The banker who is averfe to receive them, either from a difdain of undertaking fuch fmall concerns, or from conceiving that the emoluments to be derived from them will not quite repay the trouble which they create, offends againft the clear dictates of benevolence. A banker has it alfo in his power to be of material fervice to traders, efpecially to young beginners, by aflifting them with his advice as to forming partnerlhips ; as to the mode of conducting various parts of their bufmefs, and the beft means of preferving and making the moft advantageous ufe of their credit ; and by conveying to them information con- cerning the character of thofe with whom they deal, and of thofe whom they truft. Let him feek to obtain general knowledge on 3 thofe ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 339 thofe fubjedts for the purpofe of making this ufe of it. It is alfo very much in the power, and it ought conftantly to be the object, of a banker to contribute towards purifying trade in gene- ral from fraudulent and difcreditable practices. By {hewing encouragement and giving pre- ferences to honeft and induftrious traders ; by (landing forward as far as truth will authorife him in fupport of their character and credit ; by rejecting cuftomers whofe conduct in trade has been notorioufly flagitious; by refufing afliftance and countenance to adventurous fpe- culators, to the extravagant, the rapacious, the tricking, and the profligate ; by laying difad- vantages in the way of dealers in contraband goods ; by activity in bringing to juftice fwind- lers and forgers ; a fmgle individual may effect extenfive and moft fubftantial good. On the contrary, by remiflnefs in attending to thefe and fimilar opportunities of ufefulnefs, and much more by wilfully difregarding or per- verting them through eagernefs for his own profit ; he co-operates in fanctioning the abufes and the crimes with which he finds Z 2 trade 340 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS trade contaminated, and in tranfmitting them forward to diftant generations. The infight \vhich his bufmefs gives him into the nature of all kinds of trade (an infight which he will do well to cultivate for the fake of the laudable and beneficial purpofcs to which it may be applied) ; and 'the knowledge which he necef- farily acquires of the affairs of thofe who deal with him, will add great weight to his advice; and will enable him to exert an influence not only on the mercantile and commercial pro- ceedings, but even on the moral character, of numbers with whom he is connected. If merit ought to receive encouragement from a banker wherever it is found, it has furely a peculiar claim upon him when found in his own houfe. On this principle, as well as for other reaibns, clerks, whofe honefty and diligence have long been experienced, are fitly rewarded by being taken, if circumftances fuit, into partnership. It is a reward which will not only be highly grateful to themfelves, but one which will make young men of good cha- racters anxious to come into their place: and Ak I ' will add greatly to the effect of that vigi- lant ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. lant folicitude with which a banker ought at all times to fuperintend the moral character of his fubordinate afliftants. The nature too of their paft employment has been fuch as to render them perfectly qualified to regulate the bufmefs of the houfe. Their acquaintance with the views and habits of the older partners may make their affiftance in the management of it extremely defirable. And thus the latter may reap the advantage of being enabled to allow themfelves a certain degree of relaxation from pecuniary concerns ; and to dedicate a greater portion of their time to domeftic duties, to improving ftudy, to liberal fcience, or to the fervice of their country as magistrates members of parliament. To conclude : If a banker, either from an intention of relinquifhing his employment, or of purfuing it in a different channel, fells his houfe, as the term is, to another banker for a fum of money, the tranfadion is not necefTarily blamable ; as his cuftomers are not under any obligation to transfer their bufi- nefs to the purchafer. But he muft be aware that a large proportion of them will probably Z 3 follow 342 6N THE DUTIES OF PERSONS follow his recommendation ; and it is his duty not to conduct them to a houfe which is not fafe. II. Some obfervations are now to be ad- drefied particularly to merchants. Many of the remarks which have been made under the preceding head on the duties of bankers, may be fo eafily transferred to thofe of merchants, or fuggeft, by fo obvious an analogy, rules of conduct applicable to the latter, that it is unneceflary to dwell long on the topics to which they relate. Of the firft kind are feveral of the obfervations refpecting the genuine foundations and the juft means of fupporting credit ; thofe concerning the impropriety of employing money in gambling either in the funds, in lottery tickets, or in any other way ; of involving in trading adven- tures property which was received in truft for other purpofes ; and of lending additional fums to a perfon who has already borrowed too much, that the imprudence of the firft loan may not be difclofed to the world by his failure ; thofe on the duty of being liberal and kind ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 343 kind to all, efpecially to the virtuous and deierving, as to preiling payment of bills, and arrefting debtors ; and more efpecially thofe which inculcate the moral obligation of keep- ing accurate books, and frequently balancing accounts, fmce confidence is placed in mer- chants on the prefumption of their being punc- tually attentive to thefe points, and mafters at all times of the fituation of their affairs. Of the fecond kind an example may be found in the caution given to the banker who is in par- liament, againft regulating his public conduct with a view to ferve his houfe ; for it is a caution which may equally warn the merchant who has a feat in the Houfe of Commons againft endeavouring by the management of his vote to promote his private emolument. In like manner, if the banker who employs a merchant to procure bills to be difcounted for him at the bank of England, ought not to conceal the nature and extent of the tranfadion from the knowledge of the bank; neither ought the mer- chant to diflemble the true ftate of the cafe. If it be wrong in the banker to raife his terms of doing bufmefs, or his rate of intereft, upon modeft or ignorant cuftomers ; it is not lefs Z 4 wrong 344 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS wrong in the merchant to extort an higher price than ufual from purchafers of a fimilar defcrip- tion. If it be wrong in the banker to lend his credit too far in indorfing bills ; it is not lefs wrong in the merchant to importune him to indorfe them at too great a rifk. If it be highly reprehenfible in the former to force his notes into circulation without an adequate fund, or by fuch means as he is unwilling to avow ; it is not lefs culpable in the latter to be defignedly mftrumental in thus circulating them. If it be wrong in the country banker lo employ different correfpondents in London, and to obfcure from the one his dealings with the other; it is equally wrong in the merchant to borrow largely from different perfons, and indirectly to imprefs each with the idea that his aid only has been reforted to (cc). In (cc] It fometimcs happens that a merchant difdains to fliew his books, and (late his affairs with reafonable open- nefs, to the banker from whom he borrows j or to give the fecurities actually in his poflcflion for the money which he receives, daiming, through pride, a right of being truft- cd on his fingle fecurity. To aft from the motive in queftion is always unjuftifiable, though it may poflibly be proper on fome occaOons to borrow in this manner, left an inconvenient cuftom of being obliged always to lodge fe- curity ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 345 In fpeaking of the rifks and the rate of profit of the banker, I have already had occa- fion to mention the greater hazards to which the merchant is neceffarily fubject in the exer- cife of his occupation ; and the proportionally greater advantage which he may fairly derive, from each particular tranfation in the line of his bufmefs. But the merchant, when he fub- jects himfelf to riiks againft which he might eafily guard, acts an iinjuft part towards all who may be injured by his misfortunes. He acts unjuftly, for example, if he deliberately forbears to infure his warehoufe from fire, or any large adventure from the dangers of the fea ; thus expofmg his creditors to the hazard of ruin by his temerity, that he may himfelf fave the five or ten pounds, or perhaps that number of {hillings, per cent, by the payment of which he would have purchafed an indem- nification 4 againft the lofles to which his goods are daily liable. In thefe ram practices young traders re the moft apt to indulge themfelves ; and fometimes gain by them. But traders of curity mould be eftablifhed. To lodge it however is the beft method of keeping up credit, in the true import of the expreflion. every 346 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS every defcription fhould remember, that all bold adventuring in thofe who traffic chiefly on credit, or with the money of others, is not rendered lefs criminal by the fuccefs of the experiment (dd). Neither is the merchant to be vindicated if he raifes his general profits to a rate higher than is equitable, when compared with the ge- neral circumftances and hazards of his deal- ings. This rule does not prohibit him from taking a profit too great, if individually confi- dered, on ibme of the articles in which he deals, when he finds himfelf unable to obtain an adequate advantage on others ; fo long as his gains on the whole are not more than a fair compenfation for the capital which he em- ploys, the ikill and induftry which he exerts, and the rifks and fluctuations which he en- counters. But let not the difficulty of fixing the precife ftandard of individual profits, and the impoffibility of that ftandard being known, or, if known, fitly eftimated by his cuftomers, (Jd) The general principles ftnted under the head of Br.nkers, on the fubjeft of i apital and of rifks, arc equally applicable to the merchant. See p. 326. betray ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 347 betray him into extortion. Neither let profit he purfued by means tinctured with immorality. Who could alTert the integrity of a merchant who, in order to determine whether he (hould fend his goods to a particular market, fhould bribe or feduce a perfon in a public office to violate his duty, and betray to him the proba- bility of peace or war ? Could a man be pro- nounced honeft and ingenuous who fhould attempt by giving money, by conferring fa- vours, or even by flattering attention, to lead an agent, who comes to purchafe an article, to connive at impofitions on his unfufpecting principal ? Could he be vindicated if he mould fend to his foreign correfpondent goods from one manufactory ; and at the fame time take meafures, directly or indirectly, by himfelf or in concurrence with others, to induce him to believe that they were fabricated at another : or if, on finding the market unfavourable for the fale of goods which he had ordered from abroad, he fhould falfely pretend that they were damaged, or not exactly according to his order, and fell them on account of the factor > Such practices muft be condemned by every ppright man to whom they are ftated. There are ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS are others at leaft as common, and not lefs re- prehenfihle, which may require to be noticed. A few inftances will be fhortly commented upon ; and the mercantile reader will then be left to apply fimilar reafoning to any other cuftoms of his trade, to which he may deem it applicable. In fome foreign ports a duty ad valorem is paid on the importation of Britifh goods. The merchant is faid fometimes to value them in his entry at the cuftom-houfe at a rate far too low, though he is expected to appreciate them according to their real worth. Or per- haps he has them entered in a foreign name ; and thus by a fraud contrives to efcape a part of the duties. Sometimes too, to facilitate a low valuation, or for other caufes, after fend- ing to his foreign .correfpondent previoufly to the arrival of the goods an invoice containing their real value, according to which he is to be paid for them ; he forwards with the goods themfelves a falfe invoice, in which they are rated at one third or one half lefs than they were in the other; that it may be inftrumental in obtaining their admit fion ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 349 fion on eafy terras. He is not always with- out a plea on which he endeavours to vindi- cate the latter proceeding. He ftates that the laws of the foreign country entitle any perfon to purchafe the goods', to whomfoever they are configned, who {hall go down to the {hip, and offer for them a certain advance per cent, on his valuation. And he contends that this fact is a proof that the Government of that country does not require the valu- ation to be accurate; but regards it merely as a ftatement on his part of the terms at which, when augmented by the addition pre- fcribed, he is willing to let the goods be taken. The laws however which he quotes prove only that the enactors of them do not place unlimited dependence on the veracity of mer- chants. And his ingenious contrivances to counteract them, {hew that no great ftrefs is to be laid on the fmcerity of the foregoing plea. He frequently divides his goods into different packages, fo that each package mall be imperfect without the others ; and fends them at different periods, or in different mips : thus rendering it morally certain that no in- terloping purchafer will choofe to have any 2 concern 35 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS concern with them when they arrive in the harbour (ee). i That the merchant acts in a manner alto- gether unjuftifiable if he is concerned in fmuggling adventures, or knowingly fells {Jf) articles which have been fmuggled, is evident on this principle ; that men in every fituation are highly criminal, who themfelves break, or who tempt others to tranfgrefs, the laws of their refpeclive countries. But it is not always (ee) With this view, as I underfland, in the cafe of a piece of machinery, half of it has been fent at one time, and the remaining half referred for a fubfequent convey- ance. And I have heard of an inftance in which a Bri- tifli merchant, having purchafed a large quantity of gloves by the direction of his foreign correfpondent, had the aliirefs to difpatch the gloves for the right hand by one vcflll, and thofe for the left fome time afterwards by a fccond. ( ff) Shopkeepers, to whom in this inftance, as in many others, the moral rules addreflTed to merchants may be applied, ought never to trade in a fingle article which they know or believe to be fmuggled. When traders fufpeft that the goods offered to them are fmuggled, it is their duty to fcarch the matter to the bottom, inflead of follow- ing the common practice of wilfully leaving the matter in uncertainty. Their duty with refpeft to goods known or believed to be (lolen need not be fuggcftcd. con- ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 351 confidered that this principle bears in a certain degree on the conduct of a merchant, if he furnimes goods to a third perfon who plainly intends to introduce them clandestinely into a foreign country where they are prohibited. If, for example, Holland mould forbid the ad- miflion of European woollens into her Afiatic dominions; would not a Britim trader who mould furnim his cuftomer at Amfterdam, with a quantity of blankets, knowing that the latter propofed to fmiiggle them into Batavia, be an accomplice in the guilt of tempting the inhabitants of that colony to violate the laws which they would be bound to obey ? Another practice may be mentioned which muft alfo be condemned on the general prin- ciple, that it is criminal knowingly to lead an- other perfon to be guilty of deceit. The prac- tice in queftion is that of having mips covered, as the term is, in time of war ; in other words, of having them made over by a fictitious (gg) transfer ometimes however the merchant actually becomes a burgher of the neutral town, in order to fecure his pro- perty from danger. Thus alfo in times of peace Britifti factors 352 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS transfer to the fubjeft of fome neutral power, that by means of the papers procured through this pretended fale they may appear to be neutral (bb) property, and confequently be releafed faclors in Ruflia have become burghers in that country, to render themfelves entitled to fome exemptions from duties. It has been held by Englifli Lawyers, that this proceeding is no breach of allegiance to the King of Great Britain. (hh) In the late war it was very common for Britifh merchants to procure Auftrian papers for their veflels, efpecially for thofe deftined for the Mediterranean. And during the fame period many Britifli {hips were nominally rendered Ruffian property in a fimilar way. A fimilar mode of proceeding, though directly contrary to the laws of Great Britain as well as to thofe of morality, prevailed to a gre,at extent during the exiftence of the late charter of the Eaft India Company. That charter prohibited the fending of any commodities from England to the Britifli dominions in the Eafl except through the medium of the Company. The Englifh merchant often faw great advantages to be derived from tranfmitting them through another channel, againft the company's confent. He therefore loaded his (hip, and ordered it to Oftend to be covered. Being thus made in appearance Auftrian pro- perty, it was enabled to land its cargo in Hindoftan. The changes made in the charter on its renewal have taken away the temptation to fuch frauds. But the remembrance of them may be ufeful. And as the recital of a diftrefling event refulting from an immoral practice proves fometimes an ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 353 releafed if taken by the enemy. It may be urged perhaps in behalf of this proceeding, that it is confefledly allowable to impofe on an adverfary ; that the art of war confifts of ftratagems and feints ; that no moralift was ever rigid enough to condemn the admiral or the merchantman for hanging out falfe colours; and that it is abfurd to maintain that it is lawful to deceive an antagonift by fictitious flags, yet unlawful to delude him by fictitious an effe&ual method of deterring men from proceedings of the fame nature, I am induced to recite, though without naming the parties concerned, a circumftance which lately took place. The laws, defigning to throw obftruc- tions in the way of thofe who might endeavour thus fraudulently to fend goods to the Eaft Indies, had difqua- lified every tradefman who fold any articles to a merchant and knew that they were to be fmuggled thither, from re- covering the price by a legal procefs. A London dealer fur- nifhed a merchant with a large quantity of goods, being confcious that they were to be fent to the Eaft Indies by means of Oftend papers. Soon afterwards, diftrufling the refponfibility of the purchafer, he thought it prudent to fue out a commiflion of bankruptcy againft him ; and in the capacity of petitioning creditor took an oath of the reality of the debt. The other party retorted his attack by threatening to profecute him for perjury. The tradef- man, finding that the law would not recognize fuch a debt, and that he fhould certainly be corwi&ed, fhrunk from the impending difgrace, and fhot himfelf. VOL. ii. A a papers. 354 ON THE DUTIES OP PERSON'S papers. This is not the place for examining how far and on what grounds it may be jufti- fiable for open enemies to impofe on each other. Nor is the proceeding under confi- deration to be tried or vindicated by thofe rules. For here is a third party introduced, the inhabitant of the neutral ftate in a pro- found peace with both the contending nations; who deliberately fuffers himfelf to be bribed by a fubject of the one to pradife an artifice on thofe of the other, which no plea, but that of being himfelf engaged in avowed hoftilities with the latter, could poflibly have juftified. And if it be thus criminal in the Auftrian to become an accomplice in the plot, it is at leaft as criminal in the Britifh merchant to tempt him to accede -to it, or to avail himfelf of his concurrence. Probably too, in cafe of capture, an oath would be neceflary to au- thenticate what the papers falfely averred ;. and there is much danger that it would not be fcrupled to procure the releafe of the fhip. The merchant's criminality is increafed by his being aware that he is the caufe of fuch a temptation. In all cafes whatever,, when a merchant fecks to obtain profit by means ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 355 . means leading to perjury, let him remember, that he who knowingly betrays his agents or affiftants into that crime is hiinfelf perjured in the fight of God ; and that the guilt of a falfe oath' is aggravated rather than avoided by equivocations and fubterfuges (//'). Another mode of gaining profit, which ought imiverfally to be reprobated, is that of creating artificial prices. There have been inftances of merchants, when they meant im- mediately to difpofe of a large quantity of a particular article, buying in the open market a little of the fame article on Jery high terms ; thus pretending to be purchafers, when in fact () Of fuch futile attempts to reconcile unlawful gain with principles of confcience our fea-ports afford numerous examples. The following recent inftance may ferve as a fpecimen of them. A merchant, having imported a quantity of Spanifh wine, profefled to export it; and applied in confequence to have the duty, which had been paid upon it, returned. All the requifite formalities were obferved. The calks, on being (hipped, were gauged; and an oath was taken that the wine contained in them was the fame which they had brought from Spain. Dur- ing the voyage the cafks became intolerably offenfive. On j opening them, a fmall tin cylinder inclofing a little of the original wine wa tents was water. original wine was found in each. The reft of the con- A a 2 they 356 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS they were fellers, and endeavouring to create, by their conduct in the former capacity, an unnatural and extravagant price, by which they might far overpay themfelves in the lat- ter. Similar frauds may be ufed in managing the rate of exchange with foreign countries. A merchant for inftance, by purpofely remitting a fum on lofing terms, may caufe a variation in the rate, of which he ftands ready to avail himfelf by inftantly drawing back much larger fums. And there is reafon to believe that there may be various other means of reaping very unwarrantable advantages by managing the price of exchange, and affecting by artful con- trivances the daily printed ftatement of rates, according to which accounts with foreign cor- refpondents are to be fettled. As merchants are the perfons into whofe hands (M) loans and public contracts naturally fall, it is peculiarly incumbent on them to re- collect the obligation under which they lie in (lit) " In England, the feat of Government being in " the grcateft mercantile city in the world, the mer- " chants are generally the people who advance money " to Government." Smith on the Wealth of Nations, vol. iii. p. 415. point ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 357 point of confcience to trade with Government on the fame principles as they trade with an individual ; to obferve the fame rules of pro- bity, ingenuoufnefs, and fair-dealing ; to be equally contented with moderate profits, and equally to abhor taking unfair advantages, or entering into monopolizing leagues and combinations, in the one cafe as in the other. Let them never fuffer a public officer to hold a fccret mare in their contracts, that they may avail themfelves of his influence in obtaining them on advantageous terms. Let them not forget that every penny which they receive from Government muft be raifed in taxes from their fellow-citizens ; and confequently that every penny which they gain in thefe tranf- aclions by unfairnefs or extortion, is in other words gained by public robbery. There are few cafes perhaps in which the rules of equity are fo frequently violated as in public con- trats ; and few, if any, in which underhand combinations are carried to fo fcandalous a length (//), There is reafon to conclude that it (//) The fyftem of competition for public loans, which has of late been very properly introduced, is liable to A a 3 various 358 ON THI DUTIES OF PERSONS it is not uncommon for a few merchants, who deal in the particular article for which Govern- ments offers a contract by auction to fuch an extent as to be able to deprefs their competi- tors, privately to agree to (hare the bargain among them ; and to fettle certain terms dif- advantageous to the public, beyond which they are not to bid. This fraud is repeated as often as a new contract is propoied. Govern- ment in the mean time is lulled into uniuf- pecting confidence, and conceives itfelf to be reaping the benefit of a fale by auction ; as the confederates are artful enough to fix fome- times on one of their number, and fometimes on another, to appear to be the fuccefsful bidder. If fome interloping competitor bids largely againft them (mm), they will not he- fitate various frauds of this kind, which all the parties con- cerned in the Joan ought actively to difcountenance. Thus it is not only the duty of the principal bidders to abllain from all private confederations j but it is likewife the duty of all individuals who wi(h to partake of the loan to ufe no fecret means to prevent or check competition. (mm) This proceeding is often managed in the follow- ing manner. On the morning when the fealed propofals are to be delivered in at the public office, one of the con- federates delivers in hia and retires. If an intruder after- ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 359 fitate to take that particular contract on very low or even on lofing terms, in order to dif- courage him from further attempts. And if, by pertinacioufly oppofing them time after time, he fhould interfere materially with their profits, and endanger the difcovery of their fecret ; they will buy off his troublefome refiftance by admitting him as a partner into their aflbciation. We may conclude thefe obfervations with remarking, that as the promoting of any laud- able defign is in an efpecial manner required of thofe who have extraordinary opportunities of forwarding it ; the correction of the pro- fanenefs and profligacy of our failors ought to lie near the hearts of merchants. By attention, as far as it is practicable, to the religious and wards prefents an offer, another of the fraternity, who is on the watch for the purpofc, delivers in a fecond fet of propofals (for he is prepared with Icveral lets in his pocket on various terms), more advantageous to the public than thofe firft given in by his comrade. This ftep is repeated as often as it appears neceflary, until it is morally certain that they have under-bid their rivals. In other collateral contrivances which might be named, peculiar adroitnefs is exhibited, A a 4 moral 360 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS moral character of the captains and officers employed in their veflels, by a regular diftri- bution of proper books among the crews, and by the appointment of liberal premiums for virtuous behaviour, it feems probable that much good might gradually be effected. The introduction likewife of civilifation and the diffufion of true religion among the inha- bitants of remote and barbarous countries, are objects which ought to be peculiarly regarded by a clafs of men, who above every other de- fcription of traders poflfefs the means of ac- compliming them. III. The clafs of traders of whom we are to treat in the next place, confifts of thofe who arc employed in executing orders on behalf of others. From the nature of their occupation the term agent is characteriftic of them all ; but in fome branches of bufmefs it is cuftomr- ary to denominate them factors, and in fome they are ftyled broker's, The predominant duty of an agent is to difcharge with integrity, diligence, and punc- tuality, ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 361 \ tuality, and with a marked attention to the interefts of his employer, the commiffion with which he is intrufted. The rule by which he ought to try his conduct towards his prin- cipals, is by confidering in each particular inftance, whether he has acted in fuch a man- ner as he might reafonably have expected an 0i agent of his own to have acted for him in a fimilar bufmefs. The duty and the rule are fo obvious, that it is needlefs to dwell upon either of them. But it may be right to mention by way of example a few cafes in which the agent is too frequently led to violate both the one and the other. Of all the breaches of duty of which an agent can be guilty, there is perhaps not one fo fcandalous and flagrant as that to which I have had occafion to allude when fpeaking of merchants. I mean the being bribed by the expectation of fome private or diftant advan- tage to himfelf (for an actual bribe is rarely the mode adopted) to connive at impofitions on. his employer. It is fcarcely neceflary to fay, that the agent ought not only to with- iland palpable temptations, but alib to be on. his 362 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS his guard againft being blinded and milled by fpecious and indirect attempts to corrupt him. Confcience {hould not only be fcrupulous, but quick-fighted. Many of the reprehenfible practices in which fome agents indulge themfelves, though appear- ing in different fhapes under different circum- ftances, may be traced to one iource; namely, the cuftom of taking unavowed and unau- thorifed profits, in addition to the regular and fettled price allowed for tranfacting the bufi- nefs, and generally called the commiffion. Men more ingenious than honeft devife various methods of gaining thefe unlawful advantages* An agent, for inftance, of that deicription is directed by a diftant correfpond- er.t to receive and to convey to him a fum of money owing to him from a third perfon. He gets the money into his hands with all imaginable ipced, and fo far punctually dif charges -Bis duty ; but he is flow in communi- cating to his employer the receipt of the debt, and perhaps even intimates to him indirectly that the demand is yet unfatisfied, while he is putting the money out to intereft, or ufmg it ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 363 in fome other way, for his own benefit. An- other is employed to fell a cargo of goods in London for a foreign merchant, who being defirous to fecure himfelf againft the rilk of bad debts, agrees to allow him a per centage on condition of being infured againft all fuch lofies. This mode of proceeding has the tech- nical appellation of del credere. The agent however, there is reafon to fear, occafionally charges the del credere at a higher rate than is juftifiable in point of confcience, when it is considered how extremely fecure thofe perfons are to whom only, knowing the rifk.txyie his own, he will fell the goods of his principal. And this rate, even though cuftomary, is per- haps upheld by a degree of combination. There is another practice reflecting del credere which is faid by competent judges to be ftill more common. An agent, or a merchant felling on commiffion, difpofes of his correfpondent's goods to a purchafer at a price which is cal~ culated on the fuppofuion of fix or nine months credit being given. The latter how- ever pays ready money, receiving in return a. difcount after the rate of 5!. per cent, per annum intereft for the time. Here the agent runs 364 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS runs no rifk. But in order to enable himfelf to charge del credere for a hazard which he never incurred, in making up his accounts he ftates the purchaie money as not paid until the expiration of the time of credit. The follow- ing artifice is alfo known to have taken place. An agent, who is ordered by a foreign trader to purchaie and tranfmit to him a quantity of Engliih goods, propofes, on the plea of fimpli- iying accounts, and faving trouble, that inftead of putting down in his bill every petty charge made at the cuftom-houfe for each individual article, he. mould lay fuch a per centage on the whole ium expended as would amount to an equivalent. The merchant, unfufpicious of deceit, confents; and is accordingly charged ten pounds for difburfements which do not cod his agent above that number of {hillings. Another fraud, much more confiderable in itfelf, and much more generally prevalent, is practifed on the foreign merchant. The agent, in confequence of paying ready money to the linglim tradefmen for the manufactures which he buys of them on behalf of the foreigner, receives back from them a deduction of si. or ?1. I cs. per cent, on the amount of their re- fpective ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 365 t fpective bills ; but he makes out his accounts to his employer without giving him any hint of the money returned. Perhaps he alleges in excufe, that the regular commiffion is too low, and that the additional profit may fairly be taken in order that he may receive on the whole an adequate compenfation for his trou- ble. But in the firft place, the aflertion that the commifllon is too low is not yet proved ; and in the next place, if it were proved, not a ftep would be gained towards a vindication of the practice in queftion. For however reafon- ably the agent might in that cafe apply to his principal for an increafe in the rate of com- miflion, in no cafe can he juftify himfelf for wilfully concealing the fum which was re- turned to him, and charging the whole ap- parent amount of the bills as actually paid. What would the agent think of his houfe- keeper, if me were to fet down the articles in her weekly accounts as having coft more than me had really paid for them ; and, on being detected, were boldly to vindicate herfelf on the plea that her wages were too fmall ? Loudly as he would exclaim againft her knavery ; if lie were not in the trammels of habit and pre- 3 judice, 366 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS judice, lie would difcern his own condifct to be at lead equally fraudulent. That his bre- thren in trade very frequently pradtife a fimi- lar deceit on their employers is no apology. The frequency of deceit does not take away the guilt of it. It is unnecefiary to repeat the obiervations which have already been made in the introductory part of this chapter on the duty of breaking and withftanding reprehenfi- ble cuftoms of trade, however widely they may prevail, and with whatever profit they may be attended. There is great reafon to believe that the foreign merchant is very fel- dorn aware of the additional charge which is thus made upon him. The cuftom of taking profits in the com- miflion bufinefs, which are not ftated in ac- count to the principal, and would appear un- juftifiable if the conduct of the agent were fully laid open to him, is not only contrary to the ftrict rules of commercial integrity and fair dealing ; but even in cafes where it is free from actual deceit, it opens a door and fur- nifhes precedents for a variety of little frauds, which are but too apt to infmuate themfelves into ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 367 into trading tranfactions, and involve them in general difcredit and fufpicion. The import- ance of clearing the mercantile character from this fpecies of difrepute, makes it very defir- able that the reader fhould be imprefled with the criminality of the practices from which fuch imputations have arifen. The agent therefore mould introduce all poffible opennefs into his tranfactions. The bad effects which a fyftem of concealment tends to produce on the morals of his clerks, through the influence of his example at leaft, if not of his pofitive directions, are neither to be forgotten nor to be difregarded. To abandon fecret and unautho- rifed advantages is alfo no improbable method of ultimately promoting his emolument, by proving him to be a man in whom confidence may fafely be repofed. The duty of brokers, particularly -of thofer employed in felling goods, would afford a large field for remarks. The abufes and errors in conduct prevailing among them are faid to be extremely great ; infomuch that to no clafs of men in the mercantile world may ferious admonitions and remonftrances b'e more fitly I addreffed. 368 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS addrefied. Inftead of fcrupulous impartiality between buyer and feller according to their bounden duty and, ufually, their oath ; the moft artful partiality and collufion are often found to take place, and the moft ftudied falfehood and mifreprefentations inftead of opennefs and truth. Hitherto we have been confidering the im- proper conduct of agents in tranfacting dif- ferent kinds of bufmefs which in themfelves are in every refpect lawful. It remains to fay a few words on the guilt of taking a part in tranfacYions which are intrinfically criminal, cither becaufe they violate the principles of na- tural juftice and morality, or becaufe they are contrary to human laws. This cenfure at- taches on every agent who fufiers himfelf to be employed in the purchafe or difpofal of flaves whom he knows, or might know, to be unjuftly reduced into bondage ; who acts as broker or factor in buying or felling goods which he knows or believes to be ftolen, fmug- gled, or contraband ; in freighting a (hip with goods to a port into which he is well aflured that they are meant to be illegally introduced ; ia ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 369 in knowingly procuring veflels or conducting infurances for fmugglers, to whatever country they belong, or into whatever country they purpofe to convey their commodities ; or in buying or felling large fums in the public funds for a perfon actually engaged in a political negotiation. It ought here to be dif- tinctly ftated, that there are in the metropolis many factors highly diftinguifhed for their integrity in declining improper commiffions. Thefe are the men whom their brethren ought to imitate. And their example fhould be fol- lowed not in fome particular cafes only, but uniformly and on a confiftent principle ; not from a reference to reputation and honour ', but from confcience. In fome of the inflances re- cently mentioned, and in others which might be fubjoined, the agent may find himfelf fo uncertain with refpect to the conduct and views of the party who wifhes to employ him, as to be confiderably perplexed whether he ought or ought not to undertake the bufinefs propofed to him. No general rule can be given for the removal of his difficulties. In every other line of life a confcientious man will oc- cafionally find himfelf embarrafled by doubts VOL. n. B b of 370 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS of a fimilar nature ; and in each inftance he muft decide upon them by a careful review and an impartial eftimation of the various cir- cumftances attending the particular cafe. In the fame manner the agent muft form his judgment. But while he avoids on the one hand thofe unnecefiary doubts, which would at the fame time obftrucl: the courfe of lawful trade, and injure himfelf and his family by intercepting his fair emoluments ; let him not, on the other hand, be feduced by felf-intereft to caft off his fcruples under the vain pretence that his refufal will not prevent the bufmefs from being tranfacted, as numbers ftand ready to undertake.it. On that principle he might rob a traveller on the highway, whom he thought tolerably certain of being plundered before he would reach the end of his journey. The man who knowingly lends or hires him- felf to be a fubordinate inftrument in executing a piece of villany, is not only grofsly culpa- ble, but frequently as culpable as the original contriver. In doubtful cafes let the agent ap- ply to himfelf the fpirit of that rule which St. Paul gave to the Chriftian converts who he- fitated as to the lawfulnefs of eating meats which ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 371 which had been offered to idols. " He that " doubteth, is condemned, if he eat ; becaufe " he eateth not of faith." Or rather let him attend to the apoftle's fubfequent declaration, on which the foregoing decifion is profefledly grounded ; and which literally applies to every doubtful cafe in the whole circle of human actions. " Whatfoever is not of faith," (what- foever any man does without being confident at the time that it is lawful,) " is fin (nn)" '9 Stock-brokers who from having recently begun to act, or from other caufes, have not acquired much bufmefs, fometimes endeavour to avoid the difgrace of being unemployed, and to bring themfelves into notice, by arti- ficial manoeuvres calculated to give them the appearance of having extenfive dealings. They will feem very bufy, for example, in purchafing large quantities of (lock, which in fact they purchafe on their own account, though not avowedly fo ; and fell them again on the fame day and at the fame price. From all fuch practices an honeft man will keep (nn) Romans, xiv. 23. B b 2 himfclf ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS himfelf free. The intention of thofe who re- fort to them is to reprefent themfelves as much more trufted than they really are ; and thus to gain by premeditated deceit a degree of credit and reputation to which they are not entitled. Every ftock-broker too, it may be added, ought fcrupuloufly to refrain from managing illegal tranfaclions on account of his employ- ers, and from unlawful or ram fpeculations on his own (oo). In (00} The alual bufmefs of flock-brokers conGfts of two parts: they are employed to make bargains for ready mo- ney ; and bargains for a diftant time. The latter are ille- gal j they furnifh however, efpecially in time of war, per- haps one half of the bufinefs tranfa&ed. They are made on unmixed fpeculation ; that is to fay, not only a hazard is incurred, but it is incurred without any capital being engaged. A perfon buys, for inflance, through his broker, io,oool. three per cent, flock on the firft of November at 73!. per cent, for the quarterly fettling day; on November j oth he fells the fame fum for the fame future day at 74!. ; and thus continues buying or felling every day, as his ideas of war and peace and of other circumflances vary, till the fettling day comes, taking care by that day to have bought juft as much as he has fold. He has then to receive or pay only what are termed his differences. The flock-broker's cuflom is never to tell the name of his employer in thefe bargains. If the fpeculator cannot pay his differences, it is cuftoraary for the broker to pay them for him. If both fpeculator ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 373 In the line of agency, as in all other branches of trade, there is ample fcope for fair com- petition. And it is laudable conduct in an agent to reduce his rates of commiffion on different tranfactions to the moft moderate terms which he can permanently afford, whatever may be the clamour excited by his brethren. Directors of public companies, whether in- corporated by charter, as the Eaft India Com- pany and Bank of England ; by act of parlia- ment, as the recently eftablHhed Sierra Leone Company (ff) ; or upheld by mere voluntary union, fpecuhtor and broker fail, then the name of the former fometimes becomes known. Mod ftock-brokers are alfo jobbers ; that is to fay, they have a capital in the funds, which they retail to purchafers as opportunities offer, and conftantly watch the turn of the market that they may re-inveft the money to advan- tage. This branch of bufinefs is manifeftly attended with many temptations. They alfo fometimes fpeculatc in bar- gains for time on their own account. (/>/>)! cannot omit the opportunity which the incidental mention of this company affords me, of noticing that pe- culiarity in its avowed object, which renders good men, whether concerned in the undertaking or not, anxious for jts fuccefs. It is eftabliftied not with a mere view to mer- B b 3 cantilq 374 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS union, as fome of the focieties for infurance againft fire; are in facl agents for others in the way of trade : and are therefore bound in confcience to the performance of thofe duties, which have been already mentioned as in- cumbent on agents in every line of bufmefs. Thus they are bound to manage the affairs of the company, not only with integrity, pru- dence, and afliduity ; but likewife on the prin- ciple of tranfacting bufmefs on (qq] the loweft terms which will permanently fecure to the company an adequate profit. In feveral in- ftances the peculiarity of their fituation adds peculiar force to fome of thefe general duties, and gives them a particular direction. Thus a readinefs to lay afide abfurd and antiquated forms ; to change inconvenient hours of at- camile profit j but for the purpofe of eradicating the de- teflable traffic in the human fpecies, by leading the inha- bitants of Africa to an innocent, a bloodlcfs, and a truly beneficial commerce ; and of introducing and diffufing among them the bleffings of civilization, of knowledge, and of chriftianity. (qy) The new fire-offices in London, even without the advantage of charters, have obliged the old offices to re- duce their terms. tendance, ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 375 tendance, and to confult in every refped the (rr) accommodation of all parties con- cerned ; opennefs of proceedings, publicity and readinefs in ftating every kind of expen- diture ; and a difpofition to give to the pro- prietors at large every proper degree of infight into the ftate of the company's affairs, ought to characterife the conduct of directors. The whole fum which has been accumulated in the way of profit and added to the capital fhould be made known to the body of proprietors ; and it feems right that the accumulation fhould be annually known alfo. Thefe circumftances ihould be ftated in order that the proprietors may be able to judge what is the fair valuation of their ftock ; and that undue advantages de- rived from partial fuperiority of information may be prevented. Directors mould not be puffed up with arrogant ideas of the dignity of the company ; nor be led, by the magnitude of the capital fubmitted to their management, to neglect ceconomy in fmall matters. Still lefs mould they confider themfelves at liberty (rr) The chartered banks of Scotland have great merit in thefe refpefts, being conduced exaftly like private banks. Bb 4 to 376 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS to lay out vaft fums in buildings of needlefs magnificence, without having previoufly afked and received the fanction of the proprietors. Above all things, a director ought never to facrifice the interefts of the company or of the public for the fake of promoting his own emo- lument, or of facilitating his own re-elec- tion (jj-).- Nor fhould he ever turn to his private ends the knowledge which he derives from his fituation of the fecret affairs of the company. It would be a breach of moral duty, for example, in a bank director to purchafe, or fecretly to advife his friends to purchafe, bank flock, in confequence of hav- ing learnt from circumflances which came officially before him, that the bank dividend is likely to rife. Indeed purity of character fecms to require that he fhould altogether abflain from fpeculating in the flocks which he directs, It is defirablc that the director fhould have a flake of fome confequence in the undertaking (ss] The public has lately heard ftrong charges of this nature urged, with what juftice I do not undertake to fay, againft Directors of the Eaft India Company. which ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 377 which he is appointed to fuperintend. If the proprietors difpenfe with that pledge for his good conduct, fuch a proof of their confidence aggravates his fault, if he neglects the duties of his poft. And at all times let him guard againft thofe temptations to negligence and mifconduct which particularly attach on men in his fituation, in confequence of the indivi- dual director's being hidden in' the public body, and therefore feeling little perfonal re- fponfibility. As a feat in the direction is a perfonal truft, each director fhould regard himfelf as bound to give,except under extraordinary circumftances, his proportional fhare of perfonal trouble and attendance. And let him not through pride feek to retain his ftation, if he finds himfelf permanently incapable of difcharging the du- ties of it with punctuality. IV. Manufacturers form the laft clafs of traders of which it was propofed to treat. The following remarks will be comprifed within a narrower compafs than that which they 378 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS they might otherwife have occupied, not only in confequence of the general obfervations con- tained in the introductory part of this chap- ter ; but likewife from the facility with which many of the particular reflections already made under the three preceding heads may be tranf- ferrcd to the duties of manufacturers. Many of the remarks on the eftablimment and main- tenance of credit ; on the duty of avoiding needlefs rifks, of keeping accurate books, and of mewing liberality to unfortunate, but de- ferving, debtors; on the impropriety of increaf- ing loans already too large, of employing truft- money in trade, and of helping unfafe bills into circulation ; on the rate of profit to be purfued, and on the objections fometimes urged againft reducing it ; on the criminality of being concerned directly or indirectly in fmuggling tranfactions ; and on feveral other topics, are not lefs applicable to the proceed- ings of the manufacturer than to banking and mercantile concerns. Some obfervations un- der the head of agents, refpecting the line of conduct proper to be purfued by thofe who have the offer of being employed in purchaf- ing articles which they think are meant to be turned ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 379 turned to fmuggling adventures at home or abroad, may contribute to point out the courfe which the manufacturer ought to take, if he fhould conceive that the goods which he is defired to furnifh are deftined for a fimilar purpofe. Fair and liberal competition is the principle on which trade of every kind ought to be con- ducted. In no branch of trade are the bene- ficial effects of that principle more capable of being rendered confpicuous than in manufac- tures, and by no defcription of men have they been more clearly exemplified than by the manufacturers of Great Britain. The afto- nifhing improvements which our various ma- nufactures have received, and the undifputed pre-eminence to which they have attained (circumftances to which this country is mate- rially indebted under Providence for much of its domeflic profperity, and for the high rank which it holds in the fcale of nations) are to be afcribed to the exertions (//) of individuals ftimulated (//) While we beftow on the private manufacturers the praife which they have fo well deferved, we muft not forget how 380 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS flimulated by the fpirit of competition. The object of each manufacturer has been to un- derfell his neighbour, or to make the article better for the fame price. Where fome exift- ing law, or, as is the cafe with the porter brewery in London, the cuftom of trade, fixes the price, the latter method alone of competing is practicable. But the former mode is the more common j and it not unfrequently hap- how much they owe to the freedom of the Conftitution, to the equitable adminiftration of juflice in this country, and to the wifdom which, when all circumflances are im- partially confidered,muft be allowed to pervade the general fyftem of taxation. (See Smith on the Wealth of Nations, 5th ed. vol. iii. p. 382, &c. and p. 432, &c.) From the pad hiftory, and from the exifting fituation of other coun- tries, \ve may learn to how low an ebb a defpotic govern- ment, burthenfome laws, partial judges, and impolitic taxes, may deprefs manufactures, even where nature feems to have defigned that they fhould flourifh to the greatefl extent. The prefent ftate of Spain is an obvious and finking example. From Mr. Townfend's Travels through that kingdom,! have already had occafion to point out the baneful effects of royal manufactures and mono- polies ; and in various parts of the fame work proofs occur of the mifchiefs refulting from the other particulars now enumerated. See among other places, vol. ii. p. 226, &c. 240; 419, &c. vol. iii. p. 21. See alfo Smith on the Wealth of Nations, vol. iii. p. 381, 382. pens, ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 381 pens, thftt the very circumftance which ena- bles the manufacturer to reduce his terms, eflentially contributes to the melioration of the fabric. For though an active and intelligent trader may in fome inftances be enabled to lower the price of his goods by procuring his raw materials at a cheaper rate than his com- petitors obtain them, or perhaps by getting materials unknown to others ; yet the advan- tages derived from thofe fources cannot be lading. The opportunities of making fuch beneficial or fecret purchafes are not likely to occur often; and, if they occur often, will not be long undifcerned or neglected by his rivals. If it be fuperior fkill in working up the fame materials which puts it in the power of one manufacturer to underfell another, that cir- cumftance will commonly give fuperior excel- lence to his goods. But the moft extenfive and moft confiderable improvements in manu- factures arife from the introduction of ma- chinery to fhorten labour. And the new ma- chines, whether applied to the fpinning and twifting of thread, to the weaving of cloth, to the bruifmg and compounding of fubftances for dyeing, or to the other multifarious opera- tions 382 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS tions and procefles to which inventive inge- nuity has adapted them, are often found not only to perform the work cheaper, but much better than it was done before. Similar con- fequences attend the improvement, or the more judicious ufe, of machinery already known. Objections of a moral nature are fometimes urged againft the introduction of machines by which human labour is confiderably fhortened. Great numbers of men and women, it is faid, are thus thrown out of employment : they are difmifled almoft without any warning, or at leaft without a warning fufficient to afford fuch of them, as are qualified to undertake another occupation, an opportunity of providing one. But moft of them, it is added, even if they had much longer notice, would be unable to avail themfelvesof thatrefource; from their fex, their age, or their habits of life, they are inca- pable of commencing a new line of bufmefs ; and even if they are capable, other trades are full, and will not receive them. Thus multi- tudes of honed and induftrious poor are de- prived of the poflibility of procuring a liveli- hood ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 383 hood for themfelves and their families; they pine in mifeiy, in ficknefs,^and in want; and, driven at length to repel famine and nakednefs by violence and plunder, from being the fup- ports become the pefts of fociety. That thefe objections, which compaffion has fuggefted on the fight of incidental diftrefs, are to be dif- regarded,is by no means to be affirmed. But they are pufhed to an unreafonable length, when they are urged as generally conclufive againft the admiffion of new machines by which labour is greatly diminifhed. How has mankind been enabled to emerge from a ftate of barbarifm to civilization, to exchange dens and caves for comfortable houfes, coverings of raw fkins for clean and convenient clothes, acorns and wild fruits for falubrious food, un- lettered ignorance for books and knowledge, but by the progreffive introduction and the rapid improvements of machinery ? And are we prepared to fay that human life has at- tained to its higheft degree of refinement? Or that the means which have brought it to its prefent ftate ought not to be permitted to carry it further ? Or that, while every nation around us is advancing in improvement, Great I Britain 384 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS Britain alone is to ftand ftill ? Thofe fimplc machines and implements, without which we now fhould be at a lofs how to fubfift, were new in their day : and in many inftances the invention of them undoubtedly diminifhed, per- haps annihilated, the demand for that fpecies of labour which was before in great requeft. The boat-maker of early times, who firft under- mined the tree, and then formed it into fhapc by fcraping it with oyfler-fhells and hollowing it with fire, had probably to lament the lofs of employment when a competitor arrived from a diftance armed with the recently difcovered hatchet, and able to complete more canoes in a month than the other could in a year. The makers of hand-barrows and fcuttles would perceive the demand for their craft materially leflened, when a more commodious method of carriage took place on the introduction of carts. The fabricators of hand-mills found their work fpeedily fall into difufe on the erection of machines for grinding corn by means of wind and water. In what fituation would the world now be, had thefe inventions been fucceflively profcribed out of favour to the old workmen? But ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 385 But let us not deny to the objections under confederation the weight which they pofTefs ; nor be betrayed, by a partiality for meafures productive of general good, into a neglect of any attendant misfortunes of the poor. If on the one hand the manufacturer acts laudably when he exerts himfelf in the difcovery or the introduction of new machines, or in the im- provement of machines already exifting, by which his manufacture mayberenderedcheaper or better; on the other, he is highly criminal if he does not with equal earneftnefs exert him- felf to guard againft that diftrefs, which the hafty adoption of inventions calculated for dif- patch frequently occafions at firft among the workmen whofe labour they fuperfede. Let him not be hurried by unfeeling avarice or blind emulation fuddenly to bring them into ufe to a great extent. Let him ftudy to pro- vide employment for his ancient fervants in fome other line, efpecially for the women and the old men : and at all events let him not turn them adrift, until they have means of im- mediately procuring bread for themfelves and their children in another fettled occupation. This attention to the welfare of his fellow- VOL. ii. C c creatures, 386 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS creatures, by whofe induftry and (toil he has been enriching himfelf, is required of him by his and their common matter. Did it force him to refrain from increafmg his profits, he would be bound in confcience to refrain ; did it impofe a heavy drawback on the increafe, he ought to pay it with cheerfulnefs. But the diftrefles in queftion will rarely be great and alfo permanent. Remedies are everywhere at hand ; and they are commonly multiplied in a little time by the very circumftance which renders them neceflary. The general effect of mortening labour is not to leflen the num- ber of labourers wanted, but to enlarge the mafs of produce, and to augment the com- forts of life. Every fuccefsful invention ulti- mately incrcafes the number of working hands; partly by employing many in fabricating and conducting the new machinery, and in per- forming various fubfequent operations on the articles produced by it ; but principally by rendering manufactures better and cheaper, and-thus creating fo vaft an additional demand for them at home and abroad, as to caufe a much larger quantity of workmen to be occu- pied in preparing them, than was employed when ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 387 when they were made in the old manner and fold at the ancient price. Such, for example, has evidently been the effect of the introduc- tion of cotton-mills. And further ; the new invention itfelf frequently furnifhes fome col- lateral and auxiliary branches of employment, to which the labour rendered needlefs by it may eafily be transferred. Moft of thofe for whom provifion cannot thus be made, will be able to find a place in a country like this, if time be allowed them by the manufacturer for fearch and enquiry, in one or other of the numerous trades eftablifhed around them (uu): Inftances (uu) The appofitehefs of the following quotation from Dr. Smith on the Wealth of Nations, vol. ii. p. 203, will be a fufficient apology for the length of it. " Though a great number of people fhould be thrown " all at once out of their ordinary employment and com- " mon method of fubfidence, it would by no means follow < that they would be thereby deprived either of employ- " ment or fubfiftence. By the redu&ion of the army and " navy at the end of the late war, more than a hundred " thoufand foldiers and feamen, a number equal to what " is employed in the greateft manufa&ures, were all at " once thrown out of their ordinary employment 5 but " though they, no doubt, fuffered fome inconveniency, " they were not thereby deprived of all employment or " fubfiftence. The greater part of the feamen, it is pro- C c 2 " bable, 388 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS Inftances however will occur, in fpite of the wifeft and kindeft precautions on the part of the matter, of individual workmen deprived of t( bable, gradually betook themfelves to the merchant fer- '* vice, as they coulcl find occafion ; and in the mean time " both they and the foldiers were abforbed in the great " mafs of the people, and employed in a great variety of '** occupations. Not only no great convulfion, but no fen- fible diforder arofe from fo great a change in the fitu- " tion of more than an hundred thoufand men, all ac- t( cuftomed to the ufe of arms, and many of them to rapine " and plunder. The number of vagrants was fcarce any- " where fenfibly increafed by it ; even the wages of labour " were not reduced by it in any occupation, fo far as I " hnve been able to learn, except in that of feamen in the " merchant fervice. But if we compare together the habits " of a foldier and of any fort of manufacturer, we mall '* find that thofe of the latter do not tend fo much to dif- " qualify him from being employed in a new trade, as * thofe of the former from being employed in any. The " manufacturer has always been accuftomed to look for his " fubfiftence from his labour only ; the foldier to expect " it from his pay. Application and induftry have been " familiar to the one; idlencfs and diflipation to the other, " But it is furely much eafier to change the direction of *' induftry from one fort of labour to another, than to turn " idlenefs and diflipation to any. To the greater part < of manufacturers befides, it has already been obferved, ' there are other collateral manufactures of fo fimilar a " nature, that a workman can eafily transfer his induftry " from one of them to another." It ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 389 of fubfiftence, or materially injured in their (ituation, by the erection of his machinery. Thefe the hand of him who has been, how- ever innocently, the caufe of their diftrefs flaould be ftretched out amply to relieve. And every man ought willingly to contribute in a reafonable proportion towards alleviating the evils incidentally produced by any one of thofe improvements in conducting manufactures, to which, collectively taken, a large fhare of It muft however be admitted that the cafe of dif- charged foldiers and feamen is not exactly fimilar to that of manufacturers difcharged in confiderable numbers in confequence of the introduction of machinery. Dif- banded foldiers, coming chiefly from newly raifed corps, have in general learned fome bufinefs to which they can return, and have not left it fo long as greatly to have for- gotten it. They are of fuch various employments, as to burthen no particular line by their numbers ; and being diftributed throughout the kingdom, do not materially opprefs any particular diftridt by their return. And the fudden call for manufactures on a peace makes this ad* dition to the mafs of workmen very acceptable. Some of the preceding remarks are applicable to failors. And at any rate, the difcharged feaman commonly finds a wel- come admiflion, at the end of a war, into the merchants fervice. Equal refources are not poflefled by manufac*- turers thrown out of employ in large numbers by new- machines. Hence appears more flrongly the guilt of re during them to fuch a flare of diftrefs. C c 3 the 390 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS the national ftrength and profperify is to be afcribed. There are other calamities affecting work- men in a very ferious manner, and with con- fequences deeply to be lamented, againft which the proprietor of a manufactory ought moft anxioufly to guard ; the dangers, namely, to which their health and their morals are fre- quently expofed by the nature and circum- ftances of their employment. Such dangers will fitly be noticed in this place ; fmce, although they exift in nearly all manufac- tures, they are commonly moft formidable in thofe in which large and complicated machines collect a great number of workmen under the fame roof. But it muft previoufly be ftated, *hat as long as any manufacture portends fuch dangers to the health or to the morals of the perfons engaged in it as to be likely to prove on the whole injurious to human happinefs, on taking futurity as well as the prefent life into the account ; whatever profits it may promife, it cannot be continued with a fafe confcicnce. Some ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 39! Some manufactures impair the health of the workmen by the deleterious quality of the ma- terials ufed ; others, by the crowded rooms and vitiated air in which they are carried on. Of the firft clafs are feveral procefles on metallic fubftances. The pernicious effects of lead are proverbial, and the palfies and other complaints frequent among thofe who are employed upon it. I have feen a young man at work in a manufactory of white lead, whofe complexion was rendered by his occupation as livid as the fubftance which he was preparing for fale, " The men (xx} who are employed in filver- " ing looking-glafles often become paralytic ; " as is the cafe alfo with thofe who work in " quickfilver mines. . This is not to be won- " dered at, if we may credit Mr. Boyle ; who " aflures us that mercury has been feveral " times found in the heads of artificers ex- " pofed to its fumes. In the Philofophical *' TranfacYions there is an account of a man " who, having ceafed working in quickfilver " for fix months, had his body ilill fo impreg- " nated with it, that by putting a piece of " copper into his mouth, or rubbing it with (.v.v) Bifhop Watfon's Chemical Eflays, vol. iv. p. 253. Gc "his 392 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS " his hands, it inftantly acquired a filver co- " lour. I remember having feen at Birming- " ham a very ftout man rendered paralytic in " the fpace of fix months by being employed " in fixing an amalgam of gold and filver on " copper. He flood before the mouth of a " fmall oven ftrongly heated ; the mercury was " converted into vapour; and that vapour was " inhaled by him. The perfon I faw was " very fenfible of the caufe of his diforder; when in that particular inftance, (iit) In this concealment, and in upholding the price, the whole criminality of this practice confifts. A reduc- tion in the goodnefs of an article, if openly acknowledged, and accompanied with a correfponding reduction in the price, may be a greater public benefit than the improve- ment of it; as it may render fome comfort or convenience of life generally attainable, which before could not be af- forded but on terms fuitable only to the purfes of the riclv New inventions are frequently thus dear. (kkk) A few years fince, when the bill for putting to- bacco under the excife was before the Houfe of Commons, a deputation of tobacconifts objected to fome of the ciaufes, on the ground that they would lay open the fe- crets of the trade, and ftop the fale of a particular fort of fnuff, which was fold as compofed of fine leaves of to- bacco, by divulging to the public that it was made entirely Dd 3 of 406 Ol3 THE DUTIES OF PERSONS inftance, as in many others, the fecret is no other than a fraud of trade. Or if his manu- facture is excifeable, he may impofe on the revenue officer in different ways ; or even endeavour to bribe him into connivance at his impofitions. Thefe are but a few out of the multitude of examples which the almoft of the ftalks. A ftriking example not only of a fecret of trade being a fraud of trade, but likewife of the power of habit over the human mind, which could render men, perhaps very refpectable men, fo blind to the criminal! -y of a very deceitful practice, as openly to allege the danger cf that practice being interrupted, as a fit motive for ap- plying for alteration in the bill. It mufl not however be underftood, from the expreflions which have been ufed, that all fecrets of trade are fraudu- lent or reprehenfible. If a manufacturer has discovered, by his induflry and acutenefs, a ufe for fome ingredient, or a mode of conducing a procefs, unknown to his bre- thren, he is juftified in retaining it to himfelf until he has gained an adequate reward for the merit of the difcovry j and in applying for a patent to fecurft that reward to him- felf, if he is not otherwife likely to enjoy it. But as he would be very culpable were he to require the public good to be facrificed to his private intereft by an unrea- fonable extension of the patent, fo would he be equally culpable on the fame principles if he fhould be too long or too obftinately tenacious of his fecret, when the dif- clofure of it would be genejally beneficial ; and he is alfo very culpable, if he permits it to be loft to 'the world by his death. infinite ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 407 infinite variety of manufactures would fupply. They are fufficient however to afford a fpeci- men of the practices to which I allude. It may be laid down as a general rule ; that every attempt, whether direct or indirect, to make an article be thought better in any re- fpect than it really is, or different from what it profeffes to be; and every fubterfuge reforted to for evading the fair payment of public taxes, is abfolute difhonefty (///). Combinations on the part of the proprietors of manufactories to raife the price of their goods are no lefs forbidden by the (mmm) laws of this country than combinations on the part of their workmen to keep up or to raife their wages. The latter probably are far more fre- quent than the former. And they commonly happen, not, as might have been expected, when trade is at a low ebb, and employs few hands ; but when it is in a flourishing ftate, (///) Frauds on the excife are faid to be frequently com- mitted by men who in other refpets fupport a good character. In many inftances, I believe, they originate from want of reflection on the fubjeft, and would be abandoned on a littte confideration of their immorality. (mmm) See Blackftone, vol. iv. p. 159. D d 4 and 408 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS and requires additional numbers. Their object is generally to prevent the introduction (nnn) of new labourers, and their admiflion to a {hare of the profit of the bufmefs. The maf- ters however in refifting the attempt fhould at all times confider how eafily the lower and illiterate clafles of the community may be mifguided. Let them break the combination; but let them break it by compliances, if the demands of their workmen are reafonable ; in other cafes, by perfuafion and argument, ra- ther than by legal means ; or, if legal pro- ceedings become neceflary, by the feweft and the mildeft. And when the men have re- turned to their duty, let all refentment be difmified. (nnn} The objet of a late very extenfive and long con- tinued combination among the workmen of Manchefler was to compel their matters to agree not to take above a limited number of journeymen. They refuted to work for any matter who would not accede to their propofal j and eftablifhed a fund by fubfcription for the fupport of fuch of their number as were turned out of employ for entering into the combination. They were known by the appellation of Nob Sticks; and kept their fund at the diftance of fomc miles from Manchefter. The diflblution of the confederacy, I believe, was haftened by fome of the party betraying the public caufe, and running away with the bank. Experience ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS 409 Experience feems to fhew the neceffity of particularly imprefling on manufacturers thofe remarks, which in the introductory part of this chapter were adclreiTed to traders in gene- ral, on the duty of acting on principles of univerfal benevolence, and with an upright regard to the public good, in all applications to Parliament. Many of the laws and regulations which, to ufe the ftrong expreflions of Dr. Smith, " the avidity of our great manufactu- " rers has extorted from the Legiflature," to- gether with a very confiderable part of the ex- ifting fyftem of bounties, drawbacks, duties, and prohibitions, inftituted for the purpofe of favouring the productions of Great Britain, caufe the moft lamentable effecls in a moral light by the fmuggling, the frauds, and the multiplicity of falfe oaths to which they need- lefsly give occafion ; involve numerous and extravagant facrifices of particular clafles of citizens to other clafles ; and are extremely de- trimental to the general interefts of this coun- try, and to the improvement of commerce throughout the world (ooo). And the ftatutes (ooo) Among other parts of the " Wealth of Nations" relating to this fubjet, the whole of the eighth chapter of the fourth book deferves the utmoft attention. 2 enacted 410 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS enacted at the inftigation of the proprietors of manufactories to reftrain the working arti- fan, whofe knowledge and induftry are his own, from quitting the kingdom, and fettling in other countries where he may forefee a fairer profpect of emolument for himfelf and his family, are in a high degree partial, rigorous, and oppreffive. Let an upright, wife and liberal policy annul every law defigned to preclude any Britifh fubjet from fixing in that part of the globe, wherever it may be, which holds out to him the faireft profpect of happinefs. Let the Legiflature bind the artifan to his native foil by rendering his flay defirable to him; not by making his departure % difficult. Let it ftrive to convince him, by its foftering protection of every branch of honeft and ufeful commerce, and by the ge- neral equity and wifdom of its ftatutes, that Great Britain is the land in which the rewards of induftry are to be acquired with the greateft cafe, and enjoyed with the moft durable fe- curity. The manufacturer who mail hereafter apply to Parliament for any law liable to fimilar ob- jections, ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 41 1 jections, will be chargeable with the guilt of augmenting this enormous mafs of moral and political evil. But every manufacturer {hares in the criminality of the evil already exifting, who does not heartily and actively concur in every reafonable attempt for its diminution. The wealthy manufacturer may alfo be cautioned againft that extravagant and luxu- rious mode of living, which too frequently attends fuperior opulence. Neither ,a moderate and unoftentatious conformity to thofe cuf- toms and habits, as far as they are innocent, nor a reafonable indulgence in thofe comforts, which are become almoft necefTary in the eyes of the world to the wealthy, is here reproved. That alone is meant to be cenfured which partakes of pride, of prodigality, or of intem- perance. To thefe excefles the great mer- chant may be thought under ftronger tempt- ations than the manufacturer. He who commands the commodities wrought and un- wrought of every quarter of the globe; who obtains, by means of his veflels and his com- mercial connections, foreign luxuries of every kind with almofl as little trouble as a private 3 individual I 412 ON THE DUTIES OF PERSONS individual procures neceflaries from the fhop, may feem of all men the moft likely to exhi- bit vanity and profufion in the fplendour of his houfe, in the parade of his attendants, and in the delicacies of his table. In the prefent ftate however of this country, every man who can pay for luxuries can eafily pro- cure them. In fome refpects indeed the mer- chant and the manufacturer, fuppofmg them to be equally wealthy, may be equally tempted to fall into the errors in queftion. Both are much accuftomed to refide in great towns, where oftentatious and voluptuous modes of living are contracted by habit and inflamed by example. Both are accuftomed to have a very large portion of their capital pafs through their hands every year ; and thence are led into the habit of difregarding expences, the amount of which would alarm men of equal property who annually receive only the rent of their eftates. And both look forward, not like great land-owners merely to the per- manence of their prefent pofleffions, but to a continual and rapid accumulation of riches. In other refpeds the manufacturer feems more expofed to temptation than the merchant. He has ENGAGED IN TRADE AND BUSINESS. 413 has rifen more frequently than the other from fmall beginnings to fudden opulence ; and is in confequence likely to feel a peculiar grati- fication HI difplaying his newly acquired fplendour. He has not fo commonly enjoyed the advantage of having his mind improved, and his views of things corrected, by a liberal education. He encounters more frequently than the merchant the ariftocratic prejudices and the envious contempt of neighbouring peers and country gentlemen, proud of their rank and ancient family, who even in thefe days occafionally difgrace themfelves by look- ing down on the man raifed by merit and in- duftry from obfcurity to eminence; and thus is excited to outvie them in magnificence and luxury. Let his circumfpection then be pro- portioned to the many temptations which fur- round him. Some manufactures, from the nature of the procefles ufed in them, and the various inventions and contrivances requifite for fub- duing refractory materials, lead to difcoveries of importance in natural philofophy. To this tendency of his occupation the enlightened manufac- 414 ON THE DUTIES, &C. manufacturer will ever be awake. And let him not content himfelf with pufhing his refearches folely as far as they have an imme- diate reference to his particular manufacture: let him cultivate a fpirit of general enquiry: let him attend to the interefts of univerfal fcience. Let him employ a portion of his leifure in purfuing to beneficial conclufions thofe hints which the courfe of his bufmefs has incidentally fuggefted (///) ; and in carry- ing on thofe investigations into the principles and properties of bodies which may difclofc new comforts of life, expand the human mind, increafe the ftock of rational knowledge, and evince the power, the wifdom, and the goodnefs of God. (ppp) Several manufacturers have actually diftinguiftied themfelves by zeal and ability in philofophic purfuits; and none more than the late Mr. Wedgwood. His thermo- meter for meafuring high degrees of heat is one of the moil ufefui difcoveries of modern fcience. CHAP. XIV. ON THE DUTIES OF PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. ^ I HE perfons held immediately in view in the fubfequent pages are private individuals who follow no profefTion, and live upon the annual incomes of their eftates. But the duties which are about to be ftated as incumbent on men of this defcription, are fo far from being peculiar to them ; that they are, in a greater or lefs degree, common to almoft every indi- vidual, belonging to any one of the clafles and profeffions which have formed the fubjecls of the preceding chapters. For the purpofe of avoiding the endlefs repetitions, which muft have arifen, had thefe general duties been noticed and enforced in each particular cafe ; filence has hitherto been obferved refpecting them. The reader therefore, whatever may be his rank or occupation, is requefted to look upon 4*6 ON THE DUTIES OP upon the prefent chapter as directly addreffed to himfelf. Private gentlemen may be confidered under the following characters : iirft, as land-owners; fecondly, as inverted with various offices and trufts of a public nature ; and thirdly, as bound to the performance of numerous private and domeflic duties. i I, The duties incumbent on private gentle- men, principally or altogether in confequence of their being poflefled of landed property, will be mentioned in the firft place. Thefe duties refult partly from the actual power which the landlord enjoys over his eftates, and the tenants \vho occupy them ; and partly from the in- fluence which the pofleffion of thofe eftates gives to him in their neighbourhood, even over perfons who are not his immediate de- pendents. In fome cafes the operation of thefc two caufes will be fo blended, that their fepa- rate effects cannot eafily be diftinguifhed. The confequent duties however will not on that account be lefs apparent. To PfclVAtE GENTLEMEN. 417 To encourage a race of upright, fkilful, and ihduftrious tenants, is one of the firft duties of a private gentleman ; whether he cbnfults his own intereft, or the general welfare of the community. The due cultivation of the- ground, by which eKpreflion I mean the ex-' trading from the earth the greateft. poffible" quantity of the moft valuable produce which it can be made permanently to afford, obvi- oufly renders the largeft profits to the owner. And at the fame time it promotes no lefs con- fpicuoufly the good of the ftate j firft, by aug- menting the quantity artd reducing the price of provifionsj or of commodities which may be exchanged for provifions^ and thus contri- buting to the fettlement of families and the ihcreafe of population : and fecondly, by fur- riifhing all its inhabitants with conftant and growing employment, and thus preventing the vices and diforders which derive their ori- gin from idlenefs. The firft ftep requifite for the attainment of this great object, is for the proprietor to render himfelf well acquainted with the nature and value of his eftates ; tak- ing into the account all circumftances of fitua- tion ; of diftance from markets, from navi- VOL. n, E e gable 418 ON THE DUTIES OF gable rivers and canals, and from materials neceflary for improvement ; and of liability to droughts or inundations, by which their in- trinfic worth is affected. Proceeding, thus qualified, to adjuft the rent of each farm, he will not haftily grafp at the higheft payment named by fome rapacious furveyor, who feeks to recommend himfelf to the landlord by ex- actions on the tenant ; but will affix fuch a fum as may fairly be deemed, when all things are confidered, an equitable return from the occupier for the ufe of the foil. A moderate rent is the moft beneficial to both parties. Where the rent is too low> the owner lofes a portion of what he might reafonably demand ; the farmer becomes indolent; no improvements are pufhed forward ; for want of exertion to make things better, every thing grows worfe ; the buildings fall into decay ; and the ground continually relapfes towards a ftate of nature. If the rent is exorbitant, fhould intelligent te- nants be induced to venture on the bargain by unwillingnefs to quit a farm which has long been occupied by their family, by predilection for the neighbourhood, by the difficulty of meeting with another place of fettlement, by an * PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 419 an over- weening confidence that times will be good, or by a rational dread of the expences and inconveniences of removing, they proba- bly quit it in the end with lofs to the landlord as well as to themfelves. The farm comes into the hands of needy or ignorant adventurers, who enter upon it for a few years as a fort of lottery, exhauft it by forcing from it a few ex- travagant crops, and then fuddenly quit it, perhaps greatly in arrears. Or if that is not the cafe, the landlord pays dearly for his fhort- lived gains, by having a ruined eftate lying un- tenanted upon his hands, and finally fetting it afrefh at little more than half the former price. Reafonable payments, whatever be their na- ture, are always found in the end to be the beft paid, and with the greateft cheerfulnefs. With regard to the receipt of rents, let not the landlord harafs deferving and fubftantial farmers, and expofe himfelf to the unjuft fufpi- cion of penury or avarice, by rigidly exacting them the moment they are due. Neither, on the contrary, though he fhould have no occ^r fion for the money, let him permit large arrears to accumulate in the hands of hh tenants ; a practice, which would lead them to carelefT- E e 2 nefs 420 -ON THE DUTIES OF nefs in providing for payment at the proper times, and to lavifh expenditure of fums not their own ; and would fubject them, or their families after their deceafe, to diftrefs and diffi- culties, whenever the debt fhould be f uddenly called in. On the principles which have been laid down, the land-owner is bound to take proper care that his eftates, while in the occupation of others, do not fuffer by their neglect. He will act therefore in a very laudable as well as pru- dent manner, in fecuring, by a few general provifions and covenants, due management and attention on the part of the tenant ; and in em- ploying faithful and upright agents to fee that the agreements are punctually fulfilled, and the buildings, fences, and roads belonging to the lands maintained in iubftantial repair. But leL him beware of limiting the operations and precluding the exertions of the cultivator of the foil, by ftipulations- founded on antient prejudices, noxious to agriculture, and adverfe ID the fpirit of rational enterprife and improve- ment. Let it be his leading wim to excite and cherifh that fpirit. To attain this end, let him PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 42! him in the firft inftance do every thing which can fairly be expected from him towards put- ting his farm-houfes into a decent condition, and rendering the fituation of their inhabitants comfortable. Where expenfive undertakings; are necefiary for the purpofe of draining or im- proving the ground, let him encourage the hefitating tenant to accomplim it, by bearing fome part of the original charge. Let him in- troduce, as opportunities permit, from diftant parts of the country, and diftribute to the more active of his tenants, feeds of grafles and other valuable plants unknown inhis neighbourhood; and communicate new methods (a) of cultivat- ing (a] The general mode of employing the land in any particular diftrict, whether it be pafturage or tillage, will be that which from local circumftances is deemed the moft profitable ; and therefore can feldom be altered, even in cafes where a change is defirable, by the influence of the landlord, unlefs he calls in the aid of pofitive ftipulations. As far as local circumftances permit, the influence of the landlord will be mod ufefuliy exerted in promoting til- lage. For tillage is that method of ufing the fojl, which makes the largeft addition to the flock of human fubfift- ence, and gives regular employment to the greateft number of labouring poor j and thus contributes to promote, in a more direct and efficacious manner than any other brancji Ee 3 Of 422 ON THE DUTIES OF ing thofe already known, when the fuperior uti- lity of the change has been eftablifhed by ex- perience. In fome cafes, a landlord may ef- fect an eflential reform in the management of farms, by inviting from other, quarters of the kingdom perfons fkilled in improved modes of culture, and placing them as examples to the reft of his tenants. Their novel practices will be decried for a time : but when the ad- vantage of them is permanently difcerned, the moft inveterate prepofleflions will give way to the powerful incitements of intereft. Where this method of proceeding is ineligible, it fre^ quently happens that fimilar benefits may be enfured by judicious improvements practifed by the proprietor himfelf on the land which he retains in his own occupation. A common farmer can rarely be expected to deviate much of his own accord from the beaten track. At every ftep which he takeSj he has his own rooted habits and prejudices to overcome : he has to encounter the derifion of all his neigh- bours and companions : if he fucceeds, he is of rural (Economy, the two fundamental obje&s already recommended the increafe of population, and the in- tt-refts of morality. a Oured PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 423 affured that it was owing to chance, and will never happen again : if he fails, he is told that he receives the merited punifhment of his folly. Add to thefe things, that he will ge- nerally be too wary to hazard the lofs of money and labour, which muft attend an un- fortunate experiment. But the procefs, which he perceives to anfwer in his landlord's field, he will foon learn to hope may fucceed at lead as well in his own (^). It muft however be remembered, that the ftrongeft inducement, which a perfon can have to employ his time and his capital in making beneficial improve- ments of any kind, is reafonable fecurity that he (hall enjoy the fruits of his labour. Such fecurity is required with peculiar juftice, when the improvements are to be made on the pro- perty of another. The moft obvious mode of (b) Local focieties for the encouragement of agriculture deferve the countenance and patronage of private gentle- men. By the premiums which they beitow, and the in- formation which they circulate, they excite exertion, and tUffufe ufeful knowledge, among practical farmers and hufbandmen. And their utility is increafed by their frequent practice of giving rewards to thofe who have lived long in the fame fervice, or have brought up a nu- merous family without parochial aid. E e 4 affording 4^4 ON THE DUTIES OF affording it to the farmer is by leafes ; which, under proper regulations, are on this ground very conducive to the progrefs of agriculture, and fhould be granted by the landlord in all cafes, when it can be done with prudence. When family fettlements, entails, or other cir- cumftances render it impracticable or unadvifa- ble for the proprietor to confign his eftate to the occupier for a definite number of years ; his general conduct and character, if he regu- lates his life by principles of duty, will be a pledge to his tenants that no unfair advantage will be made of their exertions, either by dif- miffing them, or raifmg their rents, the mo- ment they have increafed the value of their farms : a pledge, it is true, fo far unfatisfa&ory as it guarantees them only during his own life; yet one, that will commonly prove fufficient for them to act upon to a certain degree. The*y will difcover in the proceedings of fuch a landlord a fteady and univerfal regard tothe rules of equity and benevolence. They will find themfelves rer ceiving from him every mark of attention and good will which their behaviour merits. They will fee him continuing the Ions and nephews of jdeferving tenants, whenever it is feafible with- PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 425 lit material hazard, in the place of their rela- tions ; fhewing lenity in exading arrears from thofe who have been deprefled by unavoidable misfortunes, and liberality in relieving fuch as fuftain heavy lofles by fires, tempefts, or con- tagion. They will have learned by experience that, when he has called for an augmentation of rent, it has not been in confequence of one or two harvefts of fmgular but accidental abundance, nor on fuch terms as would de- fraud the farmer of an ample return for the fums which he had expended ; but that it has been demanded wholly from a well-grounded conviclion of a general rife in the value of the productions of the earth ; or in confequence of local circumftances fully juftifying the increafe of payment required ; and that it has been ad- jufted, not by an uniform pound-rate fweeping over a whole diftrict, and thus falling moft lightly on the beft lands and heavieft on the worft, but in due proportion to the exifting worth of each particular farm, and with a fit re- gard to the (hare which the occupier has had in bringing it to its prefent ftate. They will have obferved, that in raifing his rents he has ftudL- pufly borne in mind, that a fmall advance, I however ON THE DUTIES OP however juft, would often prove a heavy bur- then to old and infirm cottagers ; and that he has in thofe cafes ab flamed from requiring it, until on the death of the antient occupiers their place has been filled by a new tenant. They will not have feen fuch a landlord depopulat- ing the country, and turning multitudes of in- duftrious poor adrift, by converting half a parifh into an immenfe fheepwalk, which no longer affords occupation to a twentieth part of the former inhabitants ; nor by combining many fmall farms into a few of great fize, that he may efcape the expence of repairs, or fave himfelf and his agent the trouble of at- tending to petty accounts. They will not have feen him unmindful of the welfare of the infirm and difabled, nor of the children of the loweft clafTes, not even in thofe villages and hamlets where his moft diftant property lies ; but will have witnefled his zeal in promoting, both by advice and by contributions, the eftablimment of friendly focieties for the relief of the former, and of weekly and Sunday fchools for the inftruclion of the latter. They will not have feen him re- gardlefs of virtue and vice in the character of PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 427 of his tenants ; nor indifcriminately beftow- ing the fame favours and countenance on the profligate and on the good. In a land- lord of this defcription, what confidence may they not place ? In fome diftrids, lands are very generally let on lives at fmall annual rents, perhaps not exceeding one tenth or even one twentieth of the real value, in confideration of the pay- ment of an arbitrary fine upon each renewal. The confequences of this fyftem are in feve- ral refpects prejudicial to all the parties en- gaged in it. To fpeak in the firft place of the owner. His eftate is thus rendered a fort of lottery to him. What his income in the prefent or in any other year will be, he knows not. His fixed income is trifling ; and he looks to the refource of large but precarious fines. Hence it frequently happens that, unlefs he both calculates well, and ads deliberately and fteadily on principles of duty, he runs out. When fines come in brifkly, he fpends proportionally. When they are fcanty, he borrows, and trufls to the contingences of another year. If he is ftijl a young man, and has ON THE DUTIES OF has recently obtained pofTeflion of the eftatc, he is in the greater danger of overftepping the' limits of prudence. Further, the owner is under a conftaRt temptation to accept for the renewal of the leafe a fmaller fine than he ought to receive. He is in want of money. The tenant makes a difadvantageous offer, with an intimation that, if it fhould be re- jected, he means to hold the land during the life or lives yet remaining, and then to relin- quifh it. The other is tempted by the prof- pect of an immediate fupply for his necefli- tles. He forefees that, if he mould refufe the fum propofed, he may never have the option of another. He recollects that the chances of lives are fo uncertain, that to accept it, inadequate as it appears, may poffibly be proved by the event to have been a lucrative {peculation. Thus he is liable to be at the mercy of a cool and artful tenant in poflek fion. Let us in the next place confider the iuuation of the actual tenant already men- tioned ; who, in thofe parts of the country to which thefc obfervations principally refer, very frequently lets the land to an under- tenant, inftead of occupying it himfelf. He has PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 42*) has it in his choice either to adopt the courfe of endeavouring to make cheap renewals ; or of fuflfering the lives to drop, while in the mean time he extracts every poffible advan- tage out of the eftate. The latter plan is not feldoin followed ; and is affirmed by fome computers to be the moft profitable. For* the confequent dilapidations and breaches of agreement, the owner generally finds it dim*-* cult to obtain an adequate remedy : as thirty or forty years may elapfe before all the lives in the leafe are concluded, and the original condition of the eftate at the commencement of the term cannot eafily be afcertained with precifion. This tenant, however, whether he is or is not the occupier of the land, lives as it were on the profits of a lottery. The time during which the eftate may continue with him is uncertain. If he meditates re- newals, he ought regularly to make due pro- vifion for fines indefinite in their amount, and recurring at no ftated periods. This de- gree of forefight, if he is not of a very fteady mind, he will not exhibit in practice ; if he exhibits it not, he will probably be reduced ultimately to diftrefs. If he permits all the lives 430 ON THE DUTIES OF lives to drop, he lofes at once a very lucrative tenure. Let us, in the laft place, fuppofe an 'under-tenant to be the occupier. The mid- dle man, having no ftable intereft in the land, is neither competent nor felicitous to continue the pofleflion of the premifes to his under- tenant during the life of the latter, much lefs to his fon or nephew after him ; but lets them for a fhort term of years by public auction. The under-tenant, having no aflurance, real or probable, of holding the eftate beyond this period, fqueezes and wrings it to the utmoft; particularly when his term draws towards its clofe. Yet he is often mined by taking it at too high a rate. Being driven from his for- mer farm, and imprefled with the importance of being fpeedily fettled upon another, he bids incautioufly. Inflamed perhaps by the fumes of liquor, and affuredly^ftimulated by the competition of eager fpeculators on the one hand ; and on the other, (as under the fyftem in queftion the tenantry of the country is in a (late of perpetual change,) of num- bers difpofTefled like himfelf ; he embarks in a lottery depending on feafons, and prices, and fimilar uncertainties: and, like otner adven- turers. PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 431 turers, trufts to his good luck, and " draws " too largely on fortune." His mifcondud alfo affects the owner, by injuring the eftate. The evil falls particularly on the buildings. The middle man, having no durable concern in them, will do little for their fupport. The occupier is content to pafs his ihort term in a poor hut. Hence the farm-houfes very com- monly are feen to become fuch.as fanners in other quarters cf the kingdom would not in- habit. The character of the people is alfo deteriorated by the ftate of things around them. In different places circumftances may-, exift, which mitigate in a greater or a lefs degree the natural confequences of the mode of tenure which has here been examined in detail. But it is manifeftly a mode which ought to be difcouraged. I know of but two arguments which are alleged in its behalf. They are intended to prove it beneficial to the owner. It is faid, firft ; that the tenant, na- turally defirous of a peculium, and regarding an eftate held on lives nearly in that light, will give the landlord a higher rent than could be obtained on any other mode of tenure. And, fecondly ; that a. wealthy tenant is fome- times 43* ON THE DUTIES OF times kriown to expend confiderable fum's ifi buildings and other improvements, to the ulti- mate emolument of the owner. On the former of thofe arguments it muft be ob- ferved, that in this age it is never difficult to fet land on the common modes of tenure at its full value* By the method, therefore, in queftion, more than the full value is procured. The morality of fuch a ftep will not be main- tained. The fecond argument in like manner proceeds on the principle of fyftematically drawing advantage from the eagernefs and improvidence of the tenant. In many parts of the kingdom, modes of tenure and eftabliflied cufloms not yet noticed exift, which on various occafions prove great difcouragements to induftry, building, and other improvements. Of this nature are im- propriated tithes, fines on the transfer of copyholds, heriots on the death of the pof- feffbr, perfonal fervices entailed on the tenant from the times of feudal vaflalage (particu- larly fome ftill fubfifting in Scotland, and even in fome of the northern parts of Eng- land), and other manerial rights of a fimilaf nature. PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 433 nature. The land-owner will commonly pro- mote his own intereft, no lefs than the com- fort of others, by freeing the parties concerned, on fair terms, from thefe obnoxious payments and burthenfome ufages. In the cafe of he- riots in particular, his feelings will ftrongly prompt him to commute an arbitrary right, by the exercife of which additional and fre- quently very grievous diftrefs is heaped upon the furviving inhabitants of the cottage, while the late occupier is lying dead in the midft of them. Heriots are alfo objectionable in a moral point of view, as they create tempta- tions to the practice of making collufive tran fers of property ; in order that the choice pic- tures and other rich moveables of the real owner of the heriotable eftate may be fecure, on the event of his death, from the claims of the lord of the manor (^/). When (d) A remarkable inftance of this kind fell within my own knowledge. Though the opinion which I have given refpe&ing the prejudicial effects of copyhold tenures is one, I believe, which prevails widely, and is certainly confirmed by vari- ous fadts which have occurred within my own obferva- tion ; yet there may be cafes where eftablifhed moderatioa VOL. II. F f on 434 ON THE DUTIES OF \Vhen rights of this nature muft be unavoid- ably retained, the land-owner is in an efpecial manner bound to obferve that they are not rendered neecllefsly vexatious and oppreflive by a hard-hearted fteward or an unprincipled on the part of the lord of the manor, together with other circumftances attending the tenure, may prevent the evil from being felt. Such a cafe appears defcribed in the fol- lowing extract from a letter, with which I have been fa- voured, fincc the firft edition of this work was publifhed r by a Gentleman of the higheft refpe&ability, and much acquainted with copyhold eftates under collegiate manage- ment. " So far as my experience goes, fines, heriots, and " fervices do not difcourage induftry. A proof is, the " price which fuch tenures fetch, when fold. Twenty. " eight years for copyhofd of inheritance, and eighteen* ' for copyhold on lives, was lafl year the common pur- " chafe among tenants themfelves, in our manors. "We *' afk no more than fourteen years for copies on lives; but ** tenants know their ralue,and give eighteen among them- " felves. It is fair to conclude from this high price that * neither the fine, nor heriot, nor perfonal attendance on " a jury once, or perhaps twice, in a year, are eonfidercd " as real grievances, or as prejudicial to the farmer. On * the other hand, there are advantages, which more than " compenfate the inconveniences. The firft purchafe is " eafy when compared with freehold. The comparatively different fum between the two purchafes leaves a furplu* ." to the copyholder, which he may turn to account either c in the funds, or by ftock on the farm. The mode of conveyance is fimple. The aids for repair are profit- 3 attorney. PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 435 attorney. It is requifite indeed to admonifh the proprietor of extenfive eftates, to exercife in all cafes a regular and vigilant fuperin- tendence over the conduct of his agents. So much of his bufmefs muft of courfe be tranf- acted by the latter, that they will have conti- nual opportunities of impofmg on their princi- pal, if he places a blind confidence in them, and of overawing and harafling his tenants. And where their honefty is unqueftionable, they will yet contract various prejudices for or againft this man and that proceeding ; and will infufe them, defignedly or undefignedly, into the mind of their unfufpecting employer. The only effectual method of avoiding thefe evils is for the proprietor occafionally to vifit his eftates himfelf, and infpect with his own eyes the fituation of them and their occupiers. So much good may be derived from this prac- tice, fuch an infight into the exifting ftate of things, and fuch a degree of perfonal connec- tion with a numerous tenantry, and of influ- ence over them capable of being turned to the beft of purpofes, that neither averfion to trou- ble, nor the fear of being importuned with teafmg requefts, nor any artificial objections F f 2 raifed 436 ON THE DUTIES OP raifed by thofe whom pride or intereft may make defirous that fuch a ftep fhould be pre- vented, ought to deter the land-owner from adopting it. In the management of his eftates, the pn>- prietor ought not to limit his views in a fordid and ungenerous manner folely to his own pri- vate advantage ; but mould iikewife take into confidcration, in a reaibnable degree, the bene- fit of thofe who are to fucceed him, whether he has the power of appointing them himfelf^ or finds them unalterably fixed by the aft of his predeceflbrs. This rule forbids him to be niggardly and improvident in the article of re- pairs, for the purpofe of throwing the expence on the next generation ; to ftrip the farms of necefiary or thriving timber, without making any provifion for fupplying its place ; or to commit any kind of havock and devaftation, that he may fill his own coffers with the plun- der : to grant leafes for an immoderate length of time, or at rents far below the real value, for the fake of procuring extravagant premi- ums and fines ; or to alienate lands contiguous to the manfion, or on any other accounts likely to PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 437 to be particularly deferable to the owner of it, from motives of perfonal diflike to his heir. Let him not grudge laying out large fums, when he can prudently afford them, in plant- ing and protecting extenfive woods, in erect- ing machinery for mines, or in other under- takings of manifeft utility; though it fhould appear probable, or even certain, that emolu- ment will not refult from them in his time. In (hort, let him do for his fucceflbrs all that he could properly have wifhed his anceftors, under fimilar circumflances, to have done for him. In the fame manner, the accommodation and benefit of the public fhould be ftudied by the land-owner. Let him not contend for new canals and turnpike-roads merely becaufethey would promote his own intereft, though likely to be on the whole ufelefs or detrimental ; neither let him oppofe their paffing through his eftates, when they promife general advantages, though in confequence of taking that courfe they may be attended with fome inconveni- ence and facrifice to himfelf. And in confent- ing to them, while he fhews a reafonable re- F f 3 gard 438 ON THE DUTIES OF gard to his own concerns in points of fufficient magnitude ; let him not heap expence on the proprietors, or injure the neighbourhood, by infilling on exorbitant demands, and harm and unneceflary ftipulations. On the fame prin- ciples let him proceed in giving up portions of his land for the conftru&ion of dockyards, fortifications, and other public works. If his property abounds in coal, lime, marie, ftone, or other valuable foffil and mineral produc- tions ; let him not combine, with other pro- prietors of the fame commodities, unfairly to keep up their price ; nor, if he is the fole pof- feilbr, convert his monopoly into an inftru- ment of extortion. Neither let him refufe to his neighbours the liberty of getting articles of inferior worth, as gravel or fand, on his pre- mifes, when they canrjot be commodioufly obtained elfewhere ; even though it mould happen that the compenfation which he re~ ceives fcarcely proves an equivalent, in confe- quence of little attendant inconveniences not eafily to be eftimated in the price. By the fame difmterefted motives let him be actuated in forwarding or in refitting the inclofure PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 439 inclofure of open fields and commons. And in fettling the terms and mode of effecting them, let him not ufe the influence which he poflefles, to overawe the inferior land-owners and claimants into a compliance with unjufti- fiable meafures of his own. Let him not force upon them a folicitor, or furveyor, likely to ad partially on his behalf; nor ag- gravate the expence by infifting on the ap- pointment of a fpecial commiffioner for him- felf, either when his property does not fully entitle him to that accommodation, or when his interetts would be perfectly fecure without it. Let him not feek to have land allotted to himfelf, to his relations, or to his friends and favourites, in portions unreafonably advan- tageous. Let him ftand forward in fupport of the juft rights of the poor, of widows and infants, and of all who appear to be in need of afliftance. Let him ftrive to curb and allay the fpirit of conteft, ufually prevalent on fuch occafions between individuals, and frequently between contiguous townfhips. Let him ex- ert himfelf to have all fair claims quietly and candidly admitted ; all groundlefs demands relinquifhed ; all that are doubtful fettled by F f 4 friendly 44 ON THE DUTIES OF friendly compromife or arbitration ; from whatever quarter they originate, and to what- ever object they relate. The weight which a wealthy land -owner, refident in the country, pofiefles in the place where his property is fituated,is ufually fo great as to give him a preponderating influence in the management of all parochial concerns, This influence ought never to be employed by him directly or indirectly for the attainment of felfim or improper ends. What epithets, for example, would his conduct deferve, if he mould procure the levies and the ftatute- labour of the parifh to be expended in mak- ing or repairing roads contiguous to his own houfe, or beneficial chiefly to himfelf and his tenants ; while others of far more importance to the inhabitants in general are left year after year almoft impaflable ? What if, in order more effectually to accomplim fuch plans, he fhould caufe himfelf to be appointed furveyor of the highways? What if, inftead of fixing a watchful eye on the proceedings of public- houfes, and endeavouring to abolifh fuch as are diforderly or needlefs, he fhould connive. at PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 441 at their irregularities, or even promote an augmentation of their number, for the purpofe of ferving fome partifan or dependent of his own? Far from expofing himfelf by fuch prac- tices to the cenfure of the neighbourhood, and the reproaches of his confcience, let him confider the influence which he enjoys over others as a truft for the exercife of which he is refponfible ; and exert it, without grudging the trouble, in maintaining their rights, com- pofing their differences, increafmg their com- forts, and improving their morals. Let him devote, where it is neceflary, fome portion of his time and attention to the infpe&ion of parochial accounts. Let him not tolerate the abufe of charitable bequefts, either in land or money, left for the benefit of the poor, by fuf- fering them to be configned into unfafe hands, or to be let out on too low terms ; or by al- lowing their produce to be mifapplied to fave the purfes of the rich. By his readinefs to liften to well-founded complaints, let him keep the different parifh officers to their duty. The inhabitants of the workhoufe will then be treated with humanity, fed and clothed fuf- ficiently, and furnifhed with neceflary books of 442 ON THE DUTIES OF of religion ; and will neither be opprefled with immoderate labour, nor yet permitted, when able to work, to loiter and become vicious through idlenefs. Due affiftance will not then be refufed in fit cafes to the fick and indigent in their own houfes. Doles and donations will be diftributed, not according to feel: and party, but according to defert and neceffity. The fituation of the certificated poor, too fre- quently excluded from any fhare in fuch relief, by thofe who are enjoying the benefit of their labour, will not be difregarded ; nor will they be unnecefTarily hurried away to their places of fettlement by vexatious or malicious removals. A private gentleman, by giving countenance in a proper degree to the clergyman of the village where he refides, may effentially pro- mote the ufefulnefs of the latter, and afford him very cheering encouragement in the dif- charge of his minifterial duties. " We be*- " feech you, brethren," faid St. Paul to the Theflalonians (c), " to know them which la- (c) Theft v. 12, 13. " bour PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 443 " hour among you and are over you ; and to " efteem them very highly in love for their " work's fake." The people will refpedt him whom they fee refpec~led by their fupe- rior ; and will thence be led to pay increafed attention to his public teaching and his pri- vate admonitions. It happens not unfre- quently that the finances of the clergyman, efpecially if he is only curate of the place, do not enable him to beftow that charitable aid on his diftreffed parimioners, which would gratify his own wimes, and greatly contribute to conciliate the general efteem and affection of his flock. In fuch cafes (I fuppofe him to be a man worthy of confidence) his wealthy neighbour may be of material fervice to the caufe of religion, by committing from time to time little fums to his difpofal. He may alfo forward the fame caufe by cheerfully perform- ing his own mare, and exciting others to per- form their part, towards maintaining the parifh church neat and in good repair; and by ftep- ping forward with an ample contribution, when large expences are requifite to render it capable of accommodating all who would fre- quent ON THE DUTIES OF quent it: by imprefling on his tenants, de* pendants, and labourers, who will feldom be regardlefs of his advice, that conftant attend- ance on the public worfhip and facraments, of which from principles of duty he will fet the example himfelf; by the diftribution of bibles, prayer-books, and little religious tracts : by reproving the idle, and reftraining the vicious: by checking difcontent, and difcouraging tur- bulence and fedition, and pointing out the be- nefits refulting from fubordination in fociety, and the bleflings fecured even to the pooreft fubject under the Britifh conftitution : by making his alms and charities fubfervient, as far as the urgency of diftrefs will permit, to the interefts of virtue and induftry ; in cqm- mon cafes by diftinguifhing with particular liberality thofe who lead exemplary lives, and are remarked for a careful difcharge of relative and domeftic duties, and occafionally by exer- cifmg his bounty in fuch a manner as tends to call forth diligence in thofe who are to profit by it ; as by fupplying them with corn or coals at reduced prices, inftead of aiding them by direct benefactions. II. We PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 445 II. We are in the next place to confider the duties incumbent on private gentlemen in confequence of their being inverted with trufts and offices of a public nature. It is not here intended to fpeak of public fituations, fuch as thofe of members of par- liament, juftices of the peace, and militia offi- cers, into which private gentlemen may laud- ably ftep forward with the higheft advantage to their own neighbourhood and to their coun- try. The motives which ought to influence a perfon to feek a feat in the Houfe of Com- mons, or to act as a juftice, and the obliga- tions incumbent on the fenator and the magi- trate, have already been exprefsly ftated in two (TO? ^vrj,bl fljiv/ b /,. o.O T3cf)iI{A.'.xJ vf.tff Nearly akin in its original defign to the right of electing reprefentatives, and fubject to fimi- lar rules in the exercife, is the right of joining in petitions to each branch of the Legiflature, in addrefles and remonftrances to the Throne, and in public refolutions on political mea- fures, and the ftate of national affairs. No 'man ought to co-operate in any of thefe fteps for the purpofe of gratifying a bufy (f) med- dling difpofuion, of oftentatioufly difplaying eloquence and abilities, of promoting felfifh ends, of indulging a bigoted or party fpirit, or of making a parade of local influence and au- (/) See the obfervations already made on thefe fubjeb, at the conclufion of chapter iv. G g 2 thority. 452 . ON THE DUTIES OF thority. Nor mould the fear of giving offence deter any one from concurring, where the path of duty is plain -j nor from Handing forward, where the object is of importance. No animo- fity fhould be felt towards opponents ; neither ought unfair pr compulfory fteps to be taken by any individual, to obtain the, attendance or fignatures of his inferiors and dependents. Thefe remarks may alfo be applied to the cafe of public meetings held on local concerns. It may be further obferved with refpect to pub- lic meetings in general, that the parties aflem- bled are not always fufficiently attentive to the duty of acting! in their collective capacity with a fcrupulous regard to the : principles, which they would have judged it eight to follow in- dividually ; and that when the matter in quef- tion is of local o.r perfonal concerns, refolutions are fometimes pafled, .. fanctioning modes of procedure, which would, have appeared harfH or felfifh to almoft any one of the gentlemen prefcnt, if he alone had been refponfible for them. Let not inadvertence, nor timidity, nor ill-timed deference to the authority of others, nor any interefted motive, be fuffcred to pro- duce concurrence in fuch meafurcs. Another PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 453 Another public truft, and a truft of great confequence, very frequently in the hands of private gentlemen, is the right of prefenting to vacant ecclefiaftical benefices. Advowfons, it is true, are regarded by the law as private property ; a confequence which naturally fol- lows from the fale of them being legal. For as the power of nomination comprehends the power of difpofmg of a certain annual revenue, and is a power for the pofleffion of which ano- ther perfon would frequently give a large price ; it reafonably falls under the general rules efta- blifhed for the fecurity of other transferable property. But though, in this point of view, the fale of an advowfon may be a matter of mere bufmefs, the felecYion of a minifter for a parifh is a truft of the moft important and fe- rious nature. The ftate of morals and reli- gion in a whole townfhip ; the influence of a good or a bad example on the clergy and on the inhabitants of furrounding parifhes ; in a word, the eternal interefts of numbers actually in exiftence, and perhaps of equal numbers yet unborn, are involved in the choice. The pa- tron, who feels the force of thefe confidera- tions, will not transfer the right of appointing G g 3 the 454 ON THE DUTIES OF the future minifter to a purchafer who is likely to ufe it amifs ; and will make no promifes, or no other than conditional promifes, refpedl- ing the fucceffion to a living, long before it is likely to be vacant. He will not inveft a perfon with the care of fouls in return for hav- ing been his conftant companion in the fports of the field, or having largely contributed to the mirth and conviviality of his table ; for artful compliance with his humours, and fawn- ing fubmiffion to his opinions ; or for fervices performed, or expected, in politics and elec- tions. He will not prefent a worthlefs cler- gyman, not even his own brother or his own fon ; and what he would deny to the ties of rclaticnmip, he will not hefitate to refufe in a fimilar cafe to the felicitations of an intimate friend, or the recommendations of a potent neighbour. He will fix upon the man, who is not only qualified for the ftation, but likely to refide in the midft of his flock, and to do his duty to them from a ftrong and active fenfe of his duty to God ; and, where circumftances permit, will give the preference to him who has already evinced his piety and affiduity in the humbler .ftation of a curate ; and whole attention PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 455 attention is not divided by the poflfeffion of another living. He will prefent him without ever feeling the moft diftant wifh to contrive any fimoniacal bargain ; to impofe unwarrant- able bonds of resignation ; to extort any fecret agreement refpecling the renting of the glebe, the continuance or reduction of the prefent rate of tithes, the fubftitution of a different mode of collecting them, or the commutation of them for fome inadequate and improper payment. Among the different public offices which private gentlemen are called to undertake in their refpective counties, may be noticed thofe of fheriff, deputy lieutenant, grand or fpecial jurors, and commifTioners of taxes, roads, and canals. Ofthefe, that of meriff is the moft eminent. The meriff is the firft civil officer, as the lord lieutenant is the firft in a military capacity. But let him not be vain of his tem- porary rank ; or felicitous to outvie his pre- deceflbrs, and dazzle the eyes of the gazing multitude by the fplendour of his equipage, and the number of his attendants. Let him be impartial in his conduct at elections of G g 4 members 456 ON THE DUTIES OF members of parliament, coroners and verderors. Let him be ready to convoke, on proper ap- plications, county meetings, for the purpofe of addrefTi ng any of the branches of the legiflature, or the confideration of public or of local bufi- nefs : but let him not promote fuch aflemblies for the purpofe of difplaying his own import- ance, of facilitating party views, of gratifying a minifter, or of being advanced to knighthood. In fummoning grand juries, let him not pafs by or poftpone particular individuals in cpn- fequence of private difputes, or of political dif- ferences. As fo large a mare of the original duties of a fheriff (^-) is now performed by his deputy, (g} For a detailed account of the duties of flieriffs, fee Blackftone, jth edit. vol. i. p. 343, 344. 346; and of under- IherifTs, p. 345. Underflieriffs are prohibited by the ftatute of 23 Henry VI. under a very heavy penalty, from acting as attornies during the time they are in office, left they fhould be guilty of partiality and oppreflion in difcharging the functions of it. In the prefent ftate of things, attornies of credit would not undertake the office on thefe terms ; knowing that, if their private bufinefs went for a year into the hands of their competitors, much of it would never return to themfelves. And the law has long been avowedly and univerfally evaded. Sir William Blackftone however (bows, that he confiders the law as not obfolete, by ftyling the PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 457 deputy, the qualifications, and above all things the integrity, of that officer ought to be clofely fcrutinifed by his principal. And he who re- collects that the firft incident which turned the thoughts of Mr. Howard to the fubject of pri- fons, was the infight he obtained into the ftate of them in his official capacity as fheriff, will fcarcely want additional arguments to convince him of the benefits which would refult, were fheriffs in general to beftow a little more atten- tion than is ufually given to the condition of gaols, and to the conduct of thofe whom they appoint to govern them. In the prefent times, the duty of deputy lieutenants of counties is nearly or altogether reduced to the care of levying the militia. In approving or rejecting the men, they com- the evafion of it " fhameful." Vol. i. p. 345. As the ha- bitual evafion of laws gradually impairs the fenfe of right and wrong, it is much to be wifhed that the ftatute in queftion, if in truth it be '< falutary," as Sir William Blackftone pronounces it to be in the place already cited, were enforced j or, if otherwife, that it were openly re- pealed. Underfheriffs are likewife forbidden, and to as little purpofe, to continue in office more than one year together. monly 458 ON THE DUTIES OP monly place great and very proper confidence in the opinion of the adjutant, or fome perfon of military experience. It is however their duty to eftimate, with perfect impartiality, the reafons pleaded by individuals for being ex- empted from fervice ; and to counteract all prejudices of every kind which they perceive rifing in the breaft of their advifer, or in their own. The office of a grand jury is to receive in- dictments, to hear evidence on the part of the profecution, and to decide whether there is fufficient caufe to put the accufed party on his trial. In executing this truft, which ftrongly marks the liberal and mild fpirit of our laws, each juror is bound to be temperate, patient, and afliduous in examining into the circum- flances of the cafe, and totally unbiafled by private motives in deciding upon them. If facts are known to him in addition to thofe delivered in evidence, capable of throwing Ji^ht on the matter in queftion, he is ftridly bound to communicate them fpontancoufly and fully to his colleagues. He ought to be thorpughly perfuaded when he finds .a bill, of PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 455 of the truth (b) of the charge as far as the evidence reaches. And though the only witneffes, which he is at liberty to hear, are thofe on behalf of the profecution ; it is his duty to queftion and crofs examine them, for the purpofe of drawing from them every circumftance, which may fairly tend to ex- culpate the perfon accufed. Where he deems the charge eftablimed, he acts unjuftly if he rejects the bill through motives of companion towards the offender. He is not to reject a bill, becaufe he thinks that the evidence to be adduced, will not be deemed in court a legal proof of the charge, and that to find the bill would be to enfure the acquittal of a criminal ; whereas, if the bill be not found, another may be prefented at a future time, and backed by evidence fufficient for conviction. To act thus, would be to follow policy againft his oath. In no cafe may he impart to the perfon indicted the teftimony delivered againft him (/'). () Blackftone, vol. iv. p. 300. (i) Anciently it was held, that if one of the grand jury difclofed to any perfon imlidted the evidence that appeared againft him, he was thereby made acceflbry to the offence, if ON THE DUTIES OF The fpecial juror is not lefs obliged in con- fcience than the grand juror to diligence in inveftigating all thecircumftances of the matter at iflue ; to promptnefs and accuracy in difclo- fmg additional facts known to himfelf ; and to incorruptible integrity in pronouncing upon the whole evidence. And let him not forget his duty in thofe functions which are peculiarly his own. When a view is directed, let him not omit, through indolence, a perfonal infpection of the contefted premifes. Let him appretiate with relpectful attention, but not receive with fervile or inconfulerate fubmiflion, the opinion of the judge. Let him not be improperly influenced by the fcntiments of any leading man among his colleagues ; nor decline through timidity, to ftate his own conceptions of the merits of the cafe. In deciding on mercantile proceedings, let him be guided by law, and not by what may have been the practice, perhaps the reprehenfible practice, of himfelf or his friends in a fnnilar inftance. if felony ; and in treafon, a principal. And at this day it is agreed, that he is guilty of a high mifprifion, atid liable to be fined and imprisoned. Blackftone, vol. iv. p. 1 26. . : . i . , ; . . The PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 461 The duties of commiffi oners of taxes, of roads, and of canals, are too obvious to require much difcuflion. To the firft may be recom- mended fairnefs in arTefling taxes, and in judging of appeals. To the fecond, upright- nefs in fixing the pofition of turnpikes, and expending the tolls for the public good, with- out., any oblique attention to the accommoda- tion of themfelves or their friends. To the third, equity in adjufting the rates of tonnage, and moderation; in determining the dividend. And to all, diligence in attending to take their due proportion of trouble. Some fituations to a certain degree of a public nature, and ufually occupied by private gentlemen, yet remain to be mentioned. Such are thofe of truftees and governors of local cha- rities, of hofpitals, and of endowed fchools. On all perfons inverted with any of thefe functions, one duty is equally incumbent, that of active perfonal attention to the trufl in all cafes where it will be ufeful, and can reafonably be expected ; and of paying a ftrict regard to the defign of the donors, as well as to the welfare of 462 -ON THE DUTIES OF of the inftitution, In the fuperintendence of fchools, when the choice and control of the mafter is left to the difcretion of the governors, no private views or connections ought to warp them from preferring the moft eligible candi- date ; or reftrain them from difmiffing him from his poft, if he fhould afterwards prove unworthy of it. When a vacancy takes place, let them not haftily engage their votes. Let them not omit proper enquiries in private, reflecting the attainments and characters of the fcveral competitors. Let them remember that the knowledge of Latin and Greek' is not the knowledge moft important to an immortal being ; and beware of electing a mafter who in practice will feem fo to regard it. The falary, when they have the power of deter- mining its amount, fhould be ample enough to be fome object to a man of merit, yet not fo large as to tempt him to fupineueis, and make him indifferent as to the number of his fcholars. If exhibitions are at their difpofal, they ought to be invariably conferred, not according to the ties of relationfhip and the influence of recommendation, but according to PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 463 to genuine merit ; under which term I include not merely the boy's proficiency in learning, but likewife his moral character. III. It remains to treat in the laft place of private and domeftic duties. Under this head, fbme remarks may be offered on the conduct of a private gentleman as a hufb'and, as a parent, and as the mafter of a family. ',: r" C"J sr< c?; : ! irjrrnifa I . , The foundations of the various uneafi- Defies, by which the whole period of the mar- riage union is fometimes rendered a fcene of mifery, may not unfrequently be traced in the improper views, or in the haftinefs, with which matrimonial engagements are formed. Let not thofe be furprifed at finding their comforts corroded by indifference and difcontent, by contrariety of views and domeftic broils, who have chofen a companion for life merely or principally for the fake of perfonal beauty and accomplishments, of a weighty purfe, of emi- nent rank, of fplendid and potent connections : nor they who, without being altogether blinded by paflion, or impelled by interefted motives, have yet neglected previoufly to afcertain 3 whether 464 ON THE DUTIES OF whether their intended partner poffefles that fhare of congruity to their own difpofitions and habits, and, above all things, thofe in- trinfic virtues ftedfaftly grounded on religion, without which, in fo clofe an union, no per- manent happinefs can be expedted. But let them remember that the very terms of the marriage vow, independently of every ad- ditional obligation, render all the duties of the marriage ftate as binding upon them, as upon others who are- experiencing in that ftate the greateft earthly felicity. The mutual anxieties, the fufpicions, and the confequent diminution of affection, too often felt by thofe who have entered into promifes of marriage, which from the ftate of their affairs, or other circumftances, were likely to remain long unfulfilled, feem to prove it highly dcfirable that, except in very ftrong peculiar cafes, fuch engagements mould not be con- tracted. It may not be ufelefs to obferve, that to trifle with the feelings, and ftudioufly to make an impreffion on the heart of another, without any ferious purpofe of marriage, (hews either a moft culpable want of confider- ation, PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 465 ation, or, if done with defign, the moft un- generous and deliberate cruelty. The conftitution of nature and of the hu- man frame, which manifeflly allots different offices of life to the different fexes, feems no lefs clearly to indicate a certain degree of fubordination to be the duty of the weaker fex. The holy fcriptures, confirming thefe fuggeftions of natural reafon, and guarding againft the perpetual conflicts by which the peace and harmony of families would be de- ftroyed, were a complete equality of rights to fubfift between the hufband and the wife, have exprefsly pronounced fubmiffion to be the general duty of the latter. " Wives, fubmit " yourfelves unto your own hufbands, as unto " the Lord ; for the hufband is the head of " the wife, even as Chrifl is the head of the " church : therefore, as the church is fub- " ject unto Chrift, fo let the wives be to their " own hufbands in every thing (/)." " Let " the- wife fee that fhe reverence her (/) huf- " band.'* Similar directions are given in other (k) Ephef. v. 2224. (0 Ephef. v . 33. VOL. ii. H h parts 466 ON THE DUTIES OF parts (m) of the New Teftament. Not that thefe precepts are to be underftood as binding the wife to unlimited obedience in every cafe. Where the command of the hufband is plainly repugnant to the laws of God, or to the rights of a third perfon, compliance with it would be finful. Wh^re it proceeds from a difordered underflanding, it lofes a proportional mare of its authority. And under other poffible cir- cumftances it may be fo highly unreafonable and injurious, that the Gofpel rule, though couched in unqualified terms, may well be confidercd as admitting of limitations fimilar to thofe univerfally deemed allowable in the interpretation of other fcriptural injunctions, which in terms equally unqualified command children to obey their parents, and fervants their matters , (;/). But whoever ferioufly reflects on the very ftrong expreflions, and the dill ftronger illuftrations, by which obe- dience is inculcated on the wife in the firft of the paflages quoted above, will be convinced (;) ColofT. iii. 18. i Peter, Hi. l, c. i Cor. xiv. 34, 35. () " Children, obey your parents in all things." Col. iii. 20. " Servants, obey in all things your mafters.'* Col. iii-, 22. : :that PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 467 that the caufe muft be of more than common magnitude, which can juftify her in withhold- ing it. The Gofpel however has not left her without reafonable fecurity againft caprU cious tyranny on the part of the hufband. It reftrains him from abufmg the power with which he is entrufted, by checks fuited to the greatnefs of it : partly by the final refponfibi- lity which the fupreme governor of the human race has univerfally annexed and proportioned to the pofleffion of authority of every kind ; and partly by fpecial precepts calculated to temper that of the hufband, and to imprefs him with a full fenfe of the unvaried ten- dernefs and love due to the partner of his joys and forrows. " Hufbands, love your " wives, even as Chrift alfo loved the church, " and gave himfelf for it (o)." " Hufbands, " love your wives, and be not bitter againft " them (/>)." " Ye hufbands, dwell with " your wives according to knowledge ; giv- " ing honour unto the wife, as unto the " weaker (?) veflfel." The firft of thefe pre- (o) Ephef. v. 25. (p] ColofT. iii. 19. (y) i Peter, iii. 7. H h 2 cepts ON THE DUTIES OF cepts indicates the perfonal facrifices which the hufband ought at all times cheerfully to make, when they are likely to promote the effential welfare of the wife. The two latter fhew a complete knowledge of the human character ; and in a very pointed manner inculcate on the hufband that uniform mild- nefs of behaviour and conciliating attention towards his wife, which will ever prove the mod effectual method, not only of enfuring her affection, but likewife of influencing her difpofitions and correcting her weakneffes and failings. They teach him to ftudy every reafonable and prudent indulgence of her wifhes ; to accuftom his thoughts to dwell rather on her merits than on her imperfec- tions ; and when he thinks on the latter, to remember his own - } to win her by his counfel, by his encouragement, and above all by his attractive example, to continual advances in every virtuous habit and purfuit ; and if ob- liged to point out to her fomething repre- henfible in her conduct, to avoid provoking expreffions, taunts, and fneers, with at leaft as much care as reproaches and invective. Great as the miferies are which refult from a breach PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 469 breach of perfonal fidelity in either party ; and in either party the guilt of fuch a breach is moft horrid ; yet of the wretchednefs ex- perienced by unhappy married people, by far the greater fhare refults from the difregard (hewn, by the hufband or the wife, to the lefs prominent parts of the nuptial obligation. The caution of parents and guardians gene- rally fecures to the intended wife antecedently to the marriage, a competent provifion in the cafe of future widowhood. But if this ftep fhould have been left unfmilhed before the lolemnization of the nuptials ; a circumftance which, though highly undefirable, is fome- times known to take place; the hufband ought not to lofe a moment afterwards in completing it. If a large acceffion of fortune {hould devolve on the hufband at a fubfequent period, and be left to his difpofal, it will com- monly be reafonable that a proportional ad- dition mould be made to the jointure originally fettled on his wife. And in all cafes, the income deftined for the widow mould be arranged in fuch a manner as to give her the lead trouble in collecting it, and the faireft H h 3 profped 47^ ON THE DUTIES OF profpect of fecurity againft family heart-burn- ings and quarrels. 2. That the parent is bound to provide for his helplefs progeny, and not merely to fupply their prefent wants, but, by means of proper difcipline and inftruction, to lay a foundation for their future ufefulnefs and welfare, is a truth obvioufly fuggefted by reafon, and un- equivocally confirmed by revelation. In oi'der that he may be enabled to difcharge the latter branch of his duty, it is neceflary that he fhould 'be inverted with the right of exercifmg a juft and falutary control over the child. And we accordingly find the fcriptures (r) arming the former with extenfive authority, and in- culcating on the latter obedience to his lawful commands. One of the firft and moft important cares which calls for the attention of a parent, is the choice of the moft advifable mode of educa- tion. In the cafe of fons in particular, the de- termination of this point is frequently a matter (r) Ephef, vi, i 3. ColofT. iii. 20. of PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 471 of confiderable difficulty. Such have been the doubts and the different conclufions of wife and good men refpecting private and public education, and fuch are the excellences and defects inherent in each mode, that, where no peculiar circumftances exift to turn the fcale, a father may more eafily be alarmed at the hazards of both, than confident of the fuperior advantage of either. The advantages of do- meftic tuition, compared with a public fchbol, are principally the following. The parent, re- taining his child conftantly and immediately under his own eye, has more favourable op- portunities of becoming acquainted with his difpofitions and talents ; of fuperintending his conduct ; of conciliating his affection, and gaining his familiar confidence. Many tempt- ations to vice from the contagion of corrupt examples are avoided (for when we fpeak of a boy being educated at home, we take for granted that he finds there no pattern of im- morality or irreligion) ; and evil habits will fpeedily be difcerned, and may be corrected before they have acquired ftrength. The mode and kind of ftudy may be in fome meafure ac- commodated to the bent of the pupil's genius, H h 4 and 4/2 ON THE DUTIES OF and his future deftination in life. A much larger {hare of folid learning may be imparted in a given time to a boy who occupies exclu- fively, or at leaft jointly with one or two of his brothers, the tutor's attention ; than where the time devoted to each leflbn is adapted to the benefit of a whole clafs (j). To thefe grounds of preference may be added, a better chance of freedom from envy, jealoufy, and pride, the common fruits of emulation. On the other hand, among the difadvantages of domeflic education, may be reckoned the dan-* ger of the hours and habits of ftudy being in- terrupted by the arrival of friends and the intrufion of company ; by the continual re- currence of vifiting expeditions and fchemes of pleafure ; and by the unwife indulgence of parents in various ways : the encouragement of pride in the boy, by the flattery and ob- fequioufnefs of his father's fervants and de- (j) It is true that a boy at a public fchool reaps fome benefit from hearing the fime leflbn gone through two or three times by his clafs-mates : but the inattention of that period of life, and the irkfomenefs of Hftening again and again to the fame thing, prevent it from being equal to what it might be. pendents ; PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 473 pendents ; and alfo by the abfence of the ftruggles, conflicts, and difficulties which daily refult in a public fchool from the fociety of equals, and are no lefs ierviceable in correcting ill humour, impetuofity of temper, arrogance, and felf-fufficiency, than in producing firm- nefs and activity of character : the dulnefs, languor, and difcontent, which attend the want of fuitable companions, exercifes, and amufements : the lofs of whatever there may be valuable in the effect of emulation (if in- deed emulation can fubfift without unchriftian ingredients), efpecially with regard to compo- fitions, and the more elegant attainments in learning : and, finally, the want of a gra- dual introduction to the temptations of the world ; and the confequent rifk that will take place when the youth is firft left to his own difcretion at an univerfity, or on the wide flage of bufy life. Between the foregoing plans of education, there are others of an intermediate nature ; as academies and feminaries, where only a fmall or limited number of pupils is received. Thele ufually partake, according to their na- ture, 474 ON THE DUTIES OF ture, both of the benefits and difad vantages of the two former. In giving the preference to one of thefe modes of bringing up a fon rather than to an- other, the determination of the parent ought to be carefully formed on fubftantial grounds, iuch as local fituation, his knowledge of the preceptor, the health and difpofitions of the child ; and not to reft on weak and capricious motives, as the mere famion of the day, or a blind predilection for the place or manner in -which he was educated himfelf. Neither let him allow too much weight, though prudence may require fome weight to be allowed, to comparative cheapnefs ; but rather endeavour, if the matter be practicable, to retrench from iome other part of his expenditure what may make up the difference, than permit his fon to lofe cffcntial advantages. In many cafes it may be right to adopt for the fame boy dif- ferent modes at different periods; and that mode which in one inftance ought evidently to be the firft, may with equal propriety be the laft in another. But whatever be the plan of education which the parent fejecls, let him be PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 475 be confrantly felicitous to obviate, to the utmoft of his power, the di fad vantages and dangers with which it is commonly attended (/). The arguments which may be urged in fa- vour of domeftic tuition for daughters, have lefs to be fet againft them, than may be alleged with refpedt to fons. The diffidence and pu- rity of the female character, and the fcriptural mark of female excellence, " the ornament of " a meek and quiet fpirit, which in the fight " of God is of great price (#)," will generally be beft preferved under the fuperintending eye of a mother. In the cafe of her death, and when no female relation furvives proper to fupply her place, a boarding fchool, felecled with fcrupulous anxiety, may happen to be the beft refource. And in fome few inftances, the fame refource may be neceflary, in confe^- (t) The evils attendant on public fchools have of late years been greatly augmented by the increafe which has taken place in the quantity of money brought by the boys on their return to fchool. This pernicious and alarming cuftom, the fourceof idlenefs and vice, calls the more for the interference of parents, as it is very difficult, If not impofiible, to be fupprefled by the mafters. () i Pet. iii. 4. quence 476 ON THE DUTIES OF quence of the impoflibility or the difficulty of procuring fit mafters to attend at home. In eftimating this difficulty, far too great regard is ufually paid to fhewy and fuperficial accom- plifhments. A certain degree of proficiency in thofe elegant attainments, which contribute to the innocent amufement of domeftic life ; and in thofe more trivial qualifications which the refinement of modern manners prefcribes to young perfons in a liberal rank of fociety, is undoubtedly requifite. But in general, a medium fimilar to that which Agar is applaud- ed in Scripture for defiring with refpect to poverty and riches, would prove the happieft both in the cafe of accomplifhments and of peribnal beauty. This however is a truth, which the vanity or the mifguided fondnefs of parents feldom leaves them difpofed to difcern or to admit. It more frequently happens that, by laying a continual ftrefs upon mere accom- plimments, and by neglecting to imprefs on the young mind of the learner their compara- tively low importance among the great and genuine objects of education, they fix the thoughts of their children principally upon them j and thus excite and ftrengthen thofe paffions, PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 477 pafllons, which it ought to have been their daily care to fubdue, and, if poflible, to eradicate. A parent ought conftantly to aim at gaining the affectionate confidence of his children, and lead them to regard him not as a father merely, but likewife as a friend. He muft avail him- felf, that he may govern them properly, of the joint principles of love and fear ; both of which, though the influence of the former is ever more defirable than that of the latter, appear from reafon and revelation to be necefTary for the due controul of imperfect beings. But if his conduct be fteady, temperate, and judi- cious, their fondnefs for him (x) will never be impaired even by a ftrict exercife of needful authority. Pafiionate or morofe behaviour on his part, or groundlefs rigour and reftraint, will undoubtedly impair it ; and among many other bad effects will have that of rendering (*) The aflertion of the poet, Non bene conveniunt, nee in una fede morantur Majeftas et amor HOR. though generally true with regard to private friendfhips, is not applicable to thofe cafes, in which the fentimentsof refpect and of affection are equally implanted by nature. 3 ON THE DUTIES OF his children lefs felicitous for his favour, and lefs anxious to fecure it by perfevering good conduct. And therefore St. Paul (j), when he directs fathers " not to provoke their chil- " dren to anger" by aufterity and harmnefs, adds the reafon, " left they be difcouraged." A parent fhould never omit proper opportu- nities of explaining to his children, as far as their age renders them capable of underftand- ing him, the grounds of his commands and pro- hibitions : a practice, which will at once tend to preferve their love and refpect, by preventing him from being deemed arbitrary and capri- cious ; and at the fame time, by fixing their attention and impreffing their memory, will contribute to their acting right in fimilar cafes. So likewife let him on fuitable occafions point out to them the reafons why they are inftruct- ed in particular branches of ftudy, whether folid or ornamental ; and why they arc not employed on others, in which fome of their companions may be engaged : yet without for- getting to call to their recollection, that age and experience are neceflary for the purpofe of eflimating the whole force and difcovering (y) Coloff. iii. 21. the PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 479 the various bearings of thefe reafons ; and con- cur with other circumftances to make it right that he fhould himfelf decide. When obliged to ufe reproof, let him do it, not only without paffion, but fo that the caufe and motive may be evident to the party reproved. And let him not give his children grounds for con- cluding from fymptoms of partiality in his proceedings, that he regards one with a lefs tender eye than another. Let him ftrenuoufly endeavour to exterminate from their minds every degree of art ; a quality of all perhaps the moft pernicious, and frequently the laft to be difcovered by the parent, however obvious to others. Inftead of fuffering the praife of clevernefs to be beftowed on fhrewd excufe^, for petty inftances of mifconducl:, or on re- citals feafoned with a little witty exaggeration,' and thus cherifhing that propenfity to falfe- hood which will too often be found to predo- minate in their breads ; let him bring them to an uniform practice, built on principle, of owning their faults frankly, and without delay, and of fcrupuloufly adhering, whether they fpeak in jeft, or ferioufly, to truth. Let him watch over their progrefs in learning, and direct 480 ON THE DUTIES OF direct their attention at fit feafons to modern hiftory, geography, and other ufeful ftudies, not at all, or but imperfe&ly, comprifed with- in the circle commonly trodden at fchools and colleges. Let him not negleft to affimilate their habits and views to the places which it is probable that they will feverally fill in the fcale of fociety ; and teach the younger to look for- ward without repining to the cuflomary fupe- riority of the eldeft, and the eldefl to regard it without arrogance and exultation, by incul- cating on them all, that diftindions of rank and employment vifibly tend to the common good j that each has its peculiar advantages and dangers ; and that in each the favour of God may be fecured, and fervice rendered to man- kind. Let him train them up to a reafoning and inveiligating fpirit ; and to a habit of ex- amining the various works of the creation, and of thence raifmg their thoughts to the great Creator. Above all things, let him " bring them up,'* as the Apoftle enjoins (2), " in the nurture and admonition of the -Lord:'* let him imprefs on their hearts, and cherifh from their childhood, a warm and active fenfe (z) Ephef. vi. 4. of PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 481 of religion, and an invariable reference to God and their duty in every part of their conduct And in proportion as their underftandings open, let him eftablifh them in a thorough knowledge of the internal, and alfo of the ex- ternal and hiftorical evidences of the truth of Chriftianity. There is caufe deeply to lament that fo little care is beftowed on this point, in many feminaries of education, public as well as private. We cannot wonder that they fliould be daggered by the fpecious cavils of fceptics and unbelievers, who know their reli- gion only as it were by rote ; and have nothing to allege in its behalf, but that their parents and teachers profefled it, and bade them do the fame. He alone can have juft grounds for trufting that he mall be preferved from the delufions of doubt and infidelity, who is qua- lified, by a diligent and fober inveftigation of the fubject, " to give to every one a reafon of " the hope that is in him (aa)." It is a matter of difficulty to obferve a proper medium with refpect to the time and manner of introducing young perfons of both fexes into general fociety. The error predominant (aa) i Peter, iii. 15. , ii. I i in ON THE DUTIES OF in the prefent age is that of corrupting boys and girls, by initiating them in the habits of men and women. Another error, far lefs common, but equally ruinous when it take& place, is that of keeping them confined almoft within the limits of a nurfery, until they are fuddenly turned looie upon the world, dazzled with its novelties, and unacquainted with its dangers. Liberty is too hazardous a gift to be imparted at once. And the full force of tempt- ations will ufually be beft withftood by thofe, who have been inured to them by degrees, and ftrengthened by overcoming their (lighter attacks. Confiderationsof the fame nature with thofe, which determined the parent with refpeft to the earlier and middle parts of his fon's edu- cation, ought to be decifive with regard to the concluding part of it. If the young man is deftined to an univerfity, let him not be placed there at too early an age. And let that uni- verfity and that college be felefted, where he will find the greateft inducements to diligence, the ableft inftrudtors in ufeful learning, and she moft careful fupcrintendants of his morals: not that which is recommended merely by having PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 483 having been formerly preferred by his family, by the groundlefs fafhion of the day, or by af- fording opportunities of making fplentiid and lucrative Connections. Let his rank and annual expenditure be fixed about the middle point of the fcale eftablifhed by cuftom for perfons whofe future profpects are fimilar to his own. To fix them higher is to tempt him to pride and extravagance ; to fix them lower is to teach him to think himfelf treated with unkindnefs, and authorifed to endeavour to maintain what he conceives to be his proper ftation, without being very fcrupulous as to the methods of accompliming his purpofe. The elcleft fon of a private gentleman fel- dom purfues any profeffion. And as it rarely happens that he fettles in matrimonial life (and it is fcarcely ever for his happinefs that he fhould) immediately upon the termination of his academical ftudies, a few of the follow- ing years are not unfrequently dedicated to foreign travel. The advantage which may be derived from travel, and its peculiar utility to thofe who are intended for political life, cannot be denied. But that the period in I i 2 queftion 44 queftion is generally likely to realize the ex- pected benefits, is a pofition not eafy to be eftablifhed. Were we on the contrary to con- clude, that to expofe a raw youth to the difli- pation and vices of foreign capitals, under no other guidance and controul than that of a pri- vate tutor, would probably contribute more to the deftru&ion of his moral and religious prin- ciples, than to the improvement of his under- ftanding and the enlargement of hisknowledge, the conclufion would not be repugnant to fober reafoning (/>), and would be abundantly con- firmed by daily experience. Neither is it com- monly defirable that a young man, little more than of age, mould embrace an opportunity of going into parliament ; efpecially if another is likely to prefent itfelf in the courfe of a few years. The artful flatteries and carefles of party, employed (as in fuch cafes they con- ilantiy are) both in public and in private to dazzle and entrap the unfufpecting mind, will be too likely to prove fuccefsful ; and to fix him for life an interefted and ambitious fup- porter or oppofer of a minifter. (bb] See this fubjet difcufled in a very able manner by IHfhopHurd, in a dialogue between Mr. Locke and Lord Shaftcfbury. The PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 485 The ftrictnefs of parental power terminates, when, according to the regular order of nature, its exiftence is no longer neceflary for the welfare of the child. Yet a mild and miti- gated authority will ftill remain to the one party; and will be acknowledged by the other, according to the dictates both of reafon and religion, from affection and a ftrong fenfe of obligations received. The child arrived at mature age, is bound to fhew through life the greateft love and tendernefs to his parent, the utmoft attention tohis wants and infirmities (a*) j and every degree of reafonable compliance with his deliberate wifhes. And in return, it is the duty of the parent to give his child fubftantial proofs of reciprocal affection, by continuing to him the aid of his experience and counfel, by uniform liberality of conduct towards him, and by a cheerful acquiefcence in all his blame- lefs defires. By applying thefe general prin- (cc] " My fon, help thy father in his age, and grieve '* him not as long as he liveth. And if his underftanding <* fail, have patience with him ; and defpife him not, when '< thou art in thy full ftfength." Ecclus. iii. 12, 13. " Hearken unto thy father ; and jiefpife not thy mother tl when {he is old." Prov. xxiii. 22. " Let them (children) " learn to requite their parents." i Tim. v. 4. I i 3 ciples 486 ON THE DUTIES OF ciples to the cafe of an elder fon, the father is taught particularly to guard him from thole idle and vicious habits into which he may eafily be betrayed by having no immediate employment ; and to encourage him to per- fevere in habits of ftudy, to cultivate branches of fcience, and to render himfelf ufeful to others by fome active occupation, that the ex- emption from profeflional engagements may not ultimately prove to have been a heavy misfortune to him. He is taught to behave to him univerfally with open and friendly confidence ; to fhun even the moft diftant ap- pearance of jealoufy and a wifh to keep him dependant and in the back-ground ; to be un- referved in acquainting him with the fituation of his own private affairs ; and liberal, accord- ing to his eftate and the number and circum- ftances of his family, in the fum afligned for his fon's expences while fmgle, and in the income transferred to him on his marriage. Above all things, let him not put filial afFec-r tion to the ievereft of all trials, by oppofmg, from felfifh motives, his fon's matrimonial choice. And finally, let him ftudioufly cherifh in the elder brother an affectionate and as it were PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 487. were parental regard for his other fons and daughters ; that, in the event of his own death, they may not be at a lofs for a protestor. Younger fons commonly proceed from the univerfity to the ftudy of the profeffion which they are to follow : though in fome inftances they are under the neceflity of entering upon it at an earlier period of life, and without hav- ing had the benefit of academical inftruction. In the latter cafe, the choice of the profeffion will reft almoft exclufively with the parent. In the former, greater attention is juftly due to the opinion and wimes of the young man; and the father's office is rather to rectify both, by obviating prejudices and removing mifap- prehenfions, and by perfpicuoully explaining the feveral advantages and difadvantages of different lines of life, than peremptorily to prefcribe a particular occupation. In both cafes, let him be influenced by a proper regard to the temper, habits, and genius of the youth; and look to the probable fecurity of virtuous principles far more than to the profpecl: of eminence and wealth. And let him not be averfe to having his fon fixed in a liberal line I i 4 of 6N THE DUTIES OF 6f trade or manufactures, if circumftanccs render the flep advifable, and no other objec- tions exift than thofe fuggefted by pride. The remarks which have been already made on the affectionate tendernefs, confidence, and liberality, due from a parent to his eldeft fon, may eafily be applied to the cafe of his other adult children, whether fons or daughters, both while they remain fmgle, and when they fettle in life. It is only neceffaTy to add, that the inability of the daughters to provide for their own fupport, which places them in al- moft entire dependence on their father, affords him no plea for conftraining their choice in marriage; though from their being more open to impofition than fons, partly from their want of opportunities to fcrutinife the private cha- racters of men, and partly from the quick fen- fibility of the female mind, he may certainly be juftified in requiring a longer paufe and delay from them, when he deems the propofed con- nection unfavourable on the whole to their welfare, than he could reafonably expect from his children of the other fex. If a daughter, when fully arrived at years of difcretion,hould 2 ultimately PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 489 ultimately give her hand to a perfon difap- proved by her father ; may he not lefTen, it will be faid, the fortune which he had intended to bequeath to her? In one cafe undoubtedly he is not only at liberty, but bound to do fo ; namely, when he believes in his confcience that through the vicious character of her huf- band, or other caufes, the diminution will be for her happinefs. But he will not be jufti- fiable in leflening it by way of inflicting a pu- nimment for what he terms her difobedience. It would be equally right in parallel circum- ftances to make a fimilar reduction in the cafe of a fon. But in each cafe the ground of the alteration ought to be the general principle of affigning to the child, as nearly as may be practicable, the precife portion moft likely to advance its real welfare. And this principle would equally authorife and require the amount of the deftined fortune to be altered, were the change of opinion produced by any other new circumftance inftead of a marriage. The many cogent reafons which bind evfery perfon who has property at his difpofal n6t td defer fettling his affairs by will, until ficknefs of age overtakes him, prefs with more than common 490 ON THE DUTIES OP common force upon a parent. The nearnefs of the relations who are to fucceed him, and the peculiar obligation which that circumftance lays upon him of providing, by every meafure in his power, for their future happinefs and concord, render him inexcufable if he fubjects himfelf to the rifk of dying inteftate ; or of bequeathing his effects in a hafty, injudicious, and perhaps invalid manner on his death-bed. The objects which he fhould aim at as a tefta- tor, are, to make a right diftribution of his property, and to fecure the peaceable, fpeedy, and effectual accomplifhment of his intentions. He fhould therefore be explicit with refpect to the nature and fituation of his property, ac- curate in obferving neceffary forms, and per- Ipicuous in ftating his meaning. A failure in any of theie points may prove the foundation of longand ruinous law-fuits, and of confequences which are more to be lamented, heart-burnings, diflenfions, and animofities among the fbrviv- ing branches of his family. He mould in the firft place provide for the payment of all his juft debts, to whatever perfon,and on whatever fpecies of contract, they may be owing ; and then proceed to apportion the remainder of his fubftance among his children, and others whom PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 491 whom it may be his duty not to ovcrkx according to the joint claims of relationship, merit, and need, and the reafonable expecla-. tions excited by cuftom, education, and coun- tenance received. While he (hews a prudent regard to what may be almoft termed, where- a large landed property is under confideration, the eftablifhed right of primogeniture; let not pride lead him to confine his younger children to a fcanty pittance, for the purpofe of heaping an enormous fhare on the eldeft. And where their portions are necefiarily fmall, let him affign lefs to the fons than to the daugh- ters ; who being incapable of improving their fortunes by profeffional employments, will be more expofed to the preiTure of narrow cir- cumftances, and the temptation of marrying from interefted views. If he is unfortunate enough to have a worthlefs child unfit to be trufted with any other bequeft than an annuity, let fome provifion be made for his future wife and family. A father ought not to impofe on his children unufual reftrictions as to the time or manner of receiving their inheritance, ex- cept on very fubftantial grounds; as the parties reftrained will probably be impelled by their own feelings, and Hill more by the fuggeflions of 492 ON THE DUTIES OF of others, to deem themfelves aggrieved. Let him confider well the advantages and dif- advantages of entails, both in a public and in a private view, before he adopts a practice fometimes indeed founded on fufficient mo- tives, but often refulting from principles of avarice and pride ; and at any rate let him not tie up his eftate under fweeping limitations, without leaving to the tenant for life power to grant proper leafes, and to make ample pro- vifion for a wife and younger children. Let him choofe able, active, and confcientious perfons for the offices of executors, guardians, and truftees ; and in the difcretionary power which he gives them in various particulars (as with refpetl to the education of his children, the rate of intereft to be allowed on their for- tunes, the advancement of a part or of the whole of the principal for fettling fons in pro- feffions, and daughters in marriage during their minority) let him be guided, among other circumftances, by their probable chance of life, and the character of thofe who would be likely to fucceed them (dd]. Mofl (dd) Many of the preceding obfervations refpecting the duties of fathers are in a certain degree applicable, and are meant PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 493 Moft of the obfervations which have been made in the preceding pages on the various duties of parents are alfo applicable, and are meant to be applied, to the cafe of thofe perfons who, not having children, confider, or ought to confider, their nephews and nieces, or other young relations, with a parental eye. 3. The laft clafs of domeftic duties of which it was propofetljo fpeak, comprehends thofe at- tached to the fituation of the mafter of a family. The general kindnefs and attention due from the mafter of a family to his near relations, who are members of it, has already been implied in the obfervations refpe&ing the proper behaviour of the hufband to his wife, and of the parent to his children. Propor- tional regard ought to be {hewn, to more diftant relations, and to intimate friends who live under his roof. Among the amiable qualities which contribute to the happinefs of domeftic life, cheerful good-humour and mild- meant to be applied, to mothers. And many of thofe about to be fubjoined are intended as addrefled to the miftrefs, as well as to the mafter, of a family. nefs 494- N THE DUTIES 01 nefs of manners ftand pre-eminent. Their influence is felt daily and hourly. When they refult merely from conftitutional temper, they obviate many circumftances which would have proved interruptions of comfort. But to be truly pleafmg and fteadily beneficial, they muft be founded on that benevolence of heart which is enjoined and infpired by chriftianity. Their value is beft difcerned by marking the gloom and conftraint that pervade every part of a family, the head of which is morofe, peevifh, or overbearing. But relations and intimate friends are not the only branches of the family, to whom duties are owing from the mafler of it. His fervants have many claims upon him. Placed as they are in temporary fubordination to him, they yet ftand on a level with himfelf in the great family of the univerfe, and before the eye of its impartial fovereign. It is this con- fideration which the Chriftian Scriptures, after ftrongly inculcating (ee) on fervants the du- ties of confcientious fidelity, refpecl:, and obe- (ee) Ephef. vi, 5 8. Coloff". iii. 22. 25. dience, PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 495 dience, prefent to the view of the mafter, in order to enfure juft and humane behaviour on his part (//} " Mafters, give unto your " fervants that which is juft and equal, know- " ing that ye alfo have a mafter in heaven." ** And (gg] ye mafters, do the fame things unto " them [your fervants], forbearing threaten- " ing, knowing that your mafter alfo is in " heaven ; neither is there refpecl; of perfons " before him." The number of fervants kept in a family ought to be fcrupuloufly adapted to its wants ; and mould neither be curtailed by penurioufnefs fo as to burthen the domeftics with immoderate work, nor enlarged through unreafonable indulgence, or to gratify a love of parade, and at the riik of rendering them idle and diflblute. The wages which a mafter gives, mould not either greatly exceed or fall fhort of the rates which cuftom has efta- bliihed. If he errs much on one fide, he loads himfelf with a needlefs expence, and con- tributes to make his own fervants extravagant and vicious, and thofe of all his neighbours -diflatisfied. If he miftakes on the other, he . v. i. (gg) Ephef. vi. 9. and Titus, ii. 9, 10. doe? 496 ON THE DUTIES OF does not pay an equitable compenfation for the fervice which he receives ; he excites a continually rankling difcontent in the minds of his domeftics ; he is harafled with changes in his family ; and renders perfons of merit and character afraid of engaging in it. What wages are agreed upon, fhould never be with- held through careleflhefs long after they have become due. Every degree of drunkennefs, profane language, and diforderly conduct, fhould be fteadily reprefled in the firft inftance; and no examples of profligacy be permitted to remain and fpread their contagion in the houfe. Strict ceconomy and accountablenefs fhould be required from every fervant, accord- ing to the nature of his place ; and fhould be enforced by an uniform adherence to fettled rules and fyftematic plans ; not by the mailer's acting the part of a fufpicious fpy over his kitchen, cellar, and ftables, and thus incurring the hatred and contempt of his domeftics, and whetting their ingenuity to impofe upon him the more. Let there be no undue familiarity, no partiality or favouritifm, in the proceedings of the mafter. Let him be ready to hear the complaints of any of his fervants, without giving PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 497 giving encouragement to petty quarrels and tale-bearings. Let him not fuffer one indivi- dual to tyrannife over another ; nor, while he maintains the proper authority of the higher fervantSj permit the exiftence of a domineer- ing ariftocracy below Hairs. Let his conftant behaviour be kind and mild ; and temperate, though firm, when he is obliged to reprove. Abufive and infulting expreflions fhould never be drawn forth by any faults, leaft of all by faults inadvertently committed, or fponta- neoufly confefled. Let him be indulgent in allowing his fervants innocent recreations, and occafional vifits at fit times to their kin- dred and friends. Let him be careful to afford them ample opportunities for attending public worfhip ; and neither neglect to furnifh them at home with bibles, and fuitable treatifes of religious inftruclion, nor grudge the incidental expence of having the ignorant among them, taught to read. Little prefents of books or of money for particular defert, and premiums for long fervice, are not only rewards de- fervedly beftowed on the parties, but rewards which have a very beneficial effect on the other fervants, by ftinaulating them to ftrive to ob- VOL. ii. K k tain 498 ON THE DUTIES OF tain fiinilar favours. This obfervation may be extended to fmall loans lent to old and faith- ful fervants, in order to aflift them when they marry, or fettle in bufmefs. To con- clude this fubject, every mafter of a family ought to pay the ftricteft regard to opennefs and truth, in giving the characters of p'erfons who have left his fervice ; neither fpeaking too favourably of them through miftaken lenity, nor harlhly from pique and refent- ment. And in no cafe mould he deliver to a fervant, when he quits his place, a written character; fmce it may be ufed very impro- perly by him, or be transferred to fome other perfon, and thus be perverted to various pur- pofes of deceit (fob). The (bh) The combinations which very frequently fubfift in the metropolis between fervants and the tradefmen and Others who fupply families with necefiary articles, fhould be reprefied with fcrupulous care by every mafter of a fa- mily, not only on account of the extravagant charges and impofitions to which they fubjedl him, but alfo on account of the habits of difhonefty which they produce or encou- rage in the Confederated parties. In many cafes fome of the upper fervants receive from each tradefman a certain pcr-centage on the amount of his bill i while the groom or PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 499 The labourers who are employed in the gardens and grounds of a private gentleman, may juftly be confidered in fome refpects as his fervants. As fuch they ought to receive at his hand fufficient wages, with prompt pay- ment ; and to find a reasonable fhare of his attention beftowed on the relief of their dif- trefles, and the improvement of their morals. Let him not difmifs them from his fervice, nor reduce their hire with unfeeling accuracy, when ficknefs or old age renders their day's work lefs valuable ; nor turn adrift his fuper- fluous hands on the approach of winter, when they are not likely to find another mafter. To or coachman has a dated fee from the vender for every load of hay brought to the flables, another for every load of ftraw, and a third for every quarter of oats. Under this fyftem it becomes the intereft of the fervant to pufh the confumption of the family to the utmoft extreme by every kind of wafte; and as far as pofllble to throw cuftominto the hands of unprincipled dealers, who will give him the higheft premium, and abundantly repay themfelves by im- moderate prices, and by charging for a greater quantity of articles than was actually furni(hed. Sometimes the fyftem proceeds under a different fliape , but the objet purfued is the fame. Example and the defire of gain will often fpread the contagion among thofe who for a time had withftood its influence. K k 2 employ 500 ON THE DUTIES OF employ from motives of benevolence, thofe who cannot obtain work elfewhere, is one of the beft kinds of charity. In fixing the general fcale of his domeftic proceedings and expences, the firft thing which the matter of a family has to confider, is the amount and nature of his property, with the claims already exifting upon it, and fuch as are likely to arife. That a mode of living, which may be right for a private gentle- man with an eftate of eight or ten thoufand pounds a yean, would be unjuftifiable in an- other who has but half the income, is a truth evident in itfelf, and generally recognifed in practice. But the pride of rivalfhip, and that culpable fpirit of imitation which pre- vails in the world, feem not fo generally to permit the poflefTor of an annual income of one thoufand pounds to remember, that he has only half the income of his neighbour who receives two thoufand ; and but a third of the revenue of him who receives three. Of two perfons pofTefled of equal landed fortunes, if the one has inherited an unincumbered eftate, and the other has to pay the intereft of an 3 over- PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 501 overwhelming debt ; or if the one is at prefent ehildlefs, or unmarried, or has the unlimited difpofal of his property, and the other is merely tenant for life, and has portions to provide for a numerous family ; expences, which would be blamelefs in the former, would be deeply criminal in the latter. Experience has proved that charges of all kinds, efpecially if they are of fome magnitude, leidom fail to exceed the original computation ; and that new demands, not forefeen at firft, continually occur. Hence it is the part of prudence in every mafter of a family rigidly to adjuft his expenditure to fuch a ftandard, as may not only provide for defi- ciencies in his eftimate, and alfo make an an- nual reduction of incumbrances, to which his eftate maybe fubject, and an annual addition, if it be neceflary, to the fund deftined for his younger children ; but rnay leave him an an- nual furplus for unexpected contingences on the fcore of neceffity or of benevolence, as long journeys on account of health, heavy lofles, burdenfome repairs, the wants of diftrefled relations, and the claims of public charities and public works. I mention unexpected contin- gences on the fcore of benevolence ; for, if he K k 3 has 502 ON THE DUTIES OF has fully imbibed the fpirit of chriftianity, he will regard the common demands of charity as ever forming an ample and a moft pleafmg part of his common expences. But to guard againft that love of hoarding which, partly from the encroaching influence of avarice, and partly from pride and a fenfe of the import- ance which riches give to the pofleflbr, is too apt to infmuate itfelf into the breafts of thofe who are in the habit of accumulating money ; it feems very deferable that every man who feels it his duty to make annual favings, mould fix a moderate fum for that purpofe, propor- tioned to the fpecific caufes of his frugality, with a determination not to lay up more : and if at the end of the year he finds that he has pafled his limit, privately to difpofe of the overplus in proper ways in addition to his ordinary charities. To preferve the courfe of family expencea within the bounds prefcribed, and for many collateral reafons, it is incumbent on every private gentleman to keep regular and exact accounts of his receipts and payments, whether they pafs through the hands of himfelf or of his PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 503 his agents ; and by comparing and balancing thofe of one year with thofe of another, to be at all times mafter of the ftate of his affairs, and led to difcover neceflary changes and re- ductions, and to make them before it be too late. Juftice too requires him to be punctual and expeditious in fatisfying the fair demands of his tradefmen, inftead of contributing by his dilatorinefs to augment the general price of articles ; which is fixed by fhopkeepers much higher than would be the cafe, were it not to make up lories occafioned by cuftomers who pay flowly or not at all. And juftice and every moral principle concur in reprobating that pride and falfe fhame, which fometimes impel men to perfift in a mode of life far more expenfive than they can afford, in defiance of all the duties owing to their family and to their creditors, rather than fubmit to leflen the parade and retrench the extravagance of their houfehold. Nor ever let fuch a mode of life be inftituted or continued through the profpect of the fpeedy falling in of jointures, or through eager hopes of legacies from wealthy relatives. For thefe are expectations fubject to the rifk of long delay, if not of final difappointmcnt; and K k 4 they 504 ON THE DUTIES OF they expofe him who cherifhes them to the horrid temptation of learning even to wifh for the death of the perfons whofe life retards their accomplimment. When confiderable retrench- ments are to be made, it is not uncommon for the family to remove to fome diftant quarter. This practice is prudent and right, either when the new place of refidence is in a much cheaper fit nation ; or when the heads of the family have reafon to doubt whether they mail have the honeft refolution to perfevere in their new plan of life, if they remain fubject to the temptations of the old neighbourhood. Yet the rectitude of principle is more manifeft, and the example more profitable, when the change is made in the fight of thofe who had witnefTed the conduct which rendered it neceflary ; and with that genuine ftrength of mind, which is neither amamed of confefling an error, nor of openly amending it. Such is the natural and increafing progrefs of luxury, and fuch are its baneful effects on, the public morals, that every individual in the upper clafles of fociety mould exert himfelf to check and rcprefs it. Inftead of endeavour- ing PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 505 ing to furpafs his neighbours in fplendour and pageantry, in iumptuous entertainments, late hours, and other extravagances of vanity and fafhion ; the mafter of a family, bearing in mind, and univerfally applying, the Chriftian principles of temperance and moderation,, fhould keep down all matters of this nature to the loweft point which the manners of the times, and his own ftation in life, will reafon- ably allow. With eftablifhed cuftoms, as far as they are neither morally wrong in them- felves, nor flagrantly prejudicial in their effects, it becomes him in fome reafonable meafure to comply, that he may not needlefsly acquire the character of cynical morofenefs, of affectation, of abfurdity, or of covetoufnefs ; and thus, by loiing the efteem and good opinion of others, diminifh his power of doing good, But let him not comply with any. rifmg cuftom, the prevalence of which, though the cuftom be in itfelf innocent, he deems undefirable, until it be thoroughly eftabliflied ; for otherwife he be- comes himfelf one of thofe who are charge- able with introducing it : nor to a greater extent than the urgency of the cafe requires ; for otherwife he gives it pofitive encourage- ment. This remark may be extended to every 506 ON THE DUTIES OF every advance in the fcale of luxury and diffipation. As far as expence is to be taken into the account, it fhould not be forgotten that every new ftep in luxury naturally leads to more. Thus, if one fuperb room be built, the others immediately appear out of character with it, and will probably receive ere long correfponding alterations. If a houfe be greatly enlarged, an additional number of fervants is required to keep it in order ; and fo in many other inftances. It does not follow hence, that things of this nature are never to be done ; but it follows that they are not to be done imprudently, and without confidering the future charge which they may be likely to occafion, in addition to the original coft. Let not the private Gentleman, when laying out the grounds or water near his houfe, or carrying on other ornamental improvements, extend his undertakings, or harbour a wifli to extend them, beyond the limit which ought to be prefcribed to expences of that nature. Within due bounds all thefe improvements have their ufe ; both as furnifhing occupation to the labouring poor ; and as contributing to another PRIVATE GEXTLEMEX. 507 another cbjecfc of no fmall importance in the prefent day, namely, to render the owner at- tached to his home. But let him not be often- tatious and vain of them, even though they fliculd be planned with tafte, and though the tafte that planned them were his own. Nor let him take to himfelf the merit of charity for having employed many working hands in executing his deiign ; when in fa& he em- ployed them for his own gratification. Let him not lavifh his ready money on fomc favourite indulgence of his own ; as on a hunting-box, which at his death muft per- haps be fold, to the detriment of his family, for one fourth of the original coft. Let him not forget, that men who felfilhly lay out too much on pleafure-grounds and other ob- jecls congenial to their own inclinations, are not unfrequently feen to become covetous in points of domeftic management ; and fome- times appear even to grudge the neceflary expences of their wives and children. There are circumftances not unfrequently occurring in domeftic management, which, though poffibly they may be deemed too mi- nute 508 . ON .THE DUTIES OF nute to be fpecified, afford fcope for moral reprehenfion. Such, for example, is the prac- tice of allowing large quantities of wholefomc food to be deftroyed by being ftewed down into ftimulating fauces* In fome houfes as much provifion is fcandaloufly confumed in this manner, as would have fufficed for the fupport of feveral poor families. Sometimes too, piles of broken meats are thrown to be devoured by a number of ufelefs dogs, inftead of being diftributed to relieve the wants of the necefTitous. Or large portions of vegetable crops are fuffered to decay on the beds of the kitchen-garden; while neighbouring cottagers, or labourers attached to the houfe, would have rejoiced to be permitted to receive them. Or dainties are made an object of folicitude; and are purchafed at a premature feafon for an ex- travagant price : while the matter indulges a faiVidious and epicurean tafte ; and perhaps harafles his family, and betrays the contempt- ible turn of his own mind, by perpetual in- vectives againft the cook. Formerly it was fuppofed, that he, who did not conftrain his guefts to intemperance, neglected the firft du- ties of his poft. In England this brutifli cuf- tom PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 509 torn has happily declined ; and its declenfion affords one of the few examples in which fafhion is the ally of virtue (it). In filling up the general outline of domeftic proceedings, there are fome points not yet no- ticed, which deferve the ferious regard of the mafter of a family. In this number may be included the banifhment of fcandal from the difcourfe of the parlour fire-fide ; the reftric- tion of idle habits and trifling amufements within the narroweft bounds ; the fubftitu- tion of inftructive books in the place of cards and novels ; and the regular practice of family prayers. Neither vifits nor journies fhould be permitted to encroach, except in peculiar cafes, on the reft and proper employments of the fabbath. Nor let the mafter of the houfe, while he is folicitous to give a rational direc- tion and limit to the recreations of its inhabit- ants, exhibit a different example in his own. () If it be true that cleanlinefs partakes of the nature of virtue, the cuftom of ftudioufly bringing game and other delicacies to table in a tainted ftate, a cuftom fuited only to the filthinefs of a tribe of favages, may well be de- ferving of moral cenfure. Let 510 ON THE DUTIES OF Let him not attend the favage fpeftacles of cockpits and boxing matches ; nor engage in the ruinous occupations and infamous fociety of race-courfes and gaming-tables. Nor let him raife the diverfions of the field from the rank of amufements, and fuffer them to be- come one of the bufinefies of life. Let him join the family circle in the winter evening's perufal of the fele&ed portion of hiftory, poe- try, or other improving and elegant branch of literature ; and, according to the bent of his mind, place fome of the recreations of his pri- vate hours in claflical, fcientific, and philofo- phical purfuits. Let him ftudy, during fome part of every day, the Chriftian Scriptures with the reverence and unremitting attention due to the rule of his life and the foundation of his hopes. And while he ftrives to render knowledge, moderation, virtue, and religion amiable and attractive, firft in the eyes of his own family (&), and in the next place of thofe (kk) In fome families encouragement is given to diflio- nefty bythepurchafeofgame, iifhjvenifon, &c. when there is a probability of their having been unlawfully procured ; and in others, diihonefty is encouraged, and the public alfo defrauded, by the practice of buying goods known or fuf- pected PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 51! thofe to whom the filent influence of his ex- ample may extend j let him avoid with equal care all appearance of evil, and all fymptoms of fournefs, of gloom, and aufterity. Let not the private Gentleman feek through pride to caufe himfelf to be efteemed richer than he is ; nor practife the oppofite deceit to avoid applications for loans, or to provide an excufe for parfimony, efpecially in fubfcrip- tions. Let him not be led by the habits and fociety of his neighbourhood into gambling, intemperance, or profligacy. In his inter- courfe with other families, let him pay every poflible regard to character, and have no inti- macy with the vicious. Let him not pay fer- vile court to great men, nor become their tool ; nor be elated by their notice, and rendered ar- rogant and fickle towards others. Let him be free from every emotion of difcontent or envy pefted to be fmuggled. Similar blame refts upon every one who does not enter the due number of his windows, carriages, fervants, and horfes, to be taxed ; or evades the payment of (lamp duties, for articles which he purchafes. Deflgnedly to pafs light or counterfeit money, which has been received through careleflhefs, is likewife an impo- fition on the perfon to whom it is transferred. when 512 ON THE DUTIES OF -when any of his equals receive fome acceffioh of rank ; and not be led by jealoufy, or the filly importunities of his friends and relations, to hunt after fimilar advancement. Let him not harbour fentiments of family pride ; nor be weak enough to look down on thofe who have recently eftablifhed themfelves in the county where he lives ; nor on thofe who have rifen in his vicinity to fudden wealth and importance. Let him not be puffed up with pride, or become contemptuous or diftant in his behaviour towards his old acquaintance, if a confiderable addition of fortune fhould devolve to him ; nor be feduced by his new riches into oftentation and prodigality. Let not differences of opinion about local concerns or public affairs, nor fquabbles about ga??ie, im- plant in his bread a fingle feeling of animofity. Let him avoid difputes and quarrels of every kind; and, if unfortunate enough to be entan- gled in them, fteadily abftain from embarking, cither as a principal or as a fecond, in the un- chriftian practice of duelling. And let him not only be felicitous for reconciliation, but ever ready to take the firft ftep to bring it about. It happens not unfrequently that two neighbours will PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. 513 will remain long at variance, becaufe each of them, though in his heart defirous of a renewal of friendfhip, is too proud to make the firft advance. In all tranfactions of buying and felling, even in the purchafe and fale of borfes, let him fcrupuloufly adhere to the principles of opennefs and fair dealing : and conduct himfelf not according to the treatment which in fimilar circumftances he might be likely to receive, but according to that which he ought to experience. Let him be kind, though pru- dent, in lending money and exacting payment. As a guardian or truftee, let him act for the family of another with the fidelity and zeal which he would wifh to be exerted for his own. Let him be ready to conciliate mifun- derftandings and to do good offices among his acquaintance, on proper occafions, without being folicited ; and at other times, when he is defired to interfere, and fees a profpect of being of ufe by interpofmg. But let Jjim not pry into the affairs and tranfactions of others for the purpofe of gratifying a vain curiofity ; nor make their conduct, and much lefs idle rumours propagated concerning them, the fub- ject of unguarded or cenforious converfation. VOL. ii. L 1 The 514 DUTIES OF PRIVATE GENTLEMEN. The general directions given in the Scrip- tures (//) to all men " to ftudy to be quiet, " and mind their own bufmefs," (a precept which intimates the broils and diffenfions pro- duced by a meddling Ipirit,) are extremely applicable to perfons who, being exempted by their fituation in life from profeflional employ- ments, have the more leifure, and the greater temptations, to bufy themfelves with the con- cerns and conduct of their neighbours. (//) i TheiT. iv. ii. C H A P. XV. "'.: Hi'//' ;I f lj " CONSIDERATIONS SUBMITTED TO PER- SONS WHO DOUBT OR DENY THE TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY, OR THE NECESSITY OF A STRICT OBSERVANCE OF ALL ITS PRECEPTS. - ^ r ^f>*\ Qfiiftix$ ad3 W HEN I explained in the" introductory chapter the plan of the prefent work, I ftated that it was my purpofe " to combine on every " occafion, as far as the nature of the fubject " might admit, the conclufions of reafon with " the dictates of .religion." I have accord- ingly endeavoured throughout the foregoing chapters to eftablifh moral duties on Chriftiaa principles, and to enforce the - performance of them by Chriftian motives. This conduct jhas evidently proceeded on the fuppofitipn th.at fuch principles would be deemed [obligatory, and fuch motives recognifed as powerful, ^y the greater .part* of my readers; I cannot L.I 2 119 \vever 516 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE however be ignorant, and I think it would be wrong to diflemble my conviction, that if this book fhould be fortunate enough to obtain the attention of thofe claffes of fociety to. which it is addreffed, it will not unfrequently fall into the hands of perfons who deny or doubt the truth of the Chriftian Revelation; or who allege that a ftricl: obfervance of its precepts is incompatible with their political and profef- fional duties, and is not required from them in the cxifting ftate of the world. I. To perfons of the firft of thefe defcrip- *kms I would- wifh.to fubmit the following remarks. '-- . ' - J'> J'ililL.i "lij tffi 'iJl Jjfi . c > 4I * Difbelief or diftruft of the truth of Chrif- -tianity ariies ih different .men from different Some who have been much accuftomed 'foreign travdi and have beheld oppofite eftabHfhed in different coun- , on tKeic^Atrary fides of the fame moun- banks of the fame have' learned from the va^ons fyftemsof faith in the fame coun- trv . TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. 517 try ; that they have been changed again and again within very fhort periods ; and that each in its day has been implicitly received, and has produced, or, if an occafion had offered, could have produced its martyrs ; fuch perfons are fometimes prone to form what they term the liberal concluiion, that all religions are alike. They aflert that the Supreme Being has ena- bled mankind to difcover, by the reafoning faculty with which he has endowed them, thofe plain precepts of morality, the obfervance of which is the only fervice required by him ; and that the object of all religions, however they may be encumbered with fanatical rites and doctrines, which, in every country, the wife will inwardly regard with contempt, is to inculcate the obligation of thofe precepts. Or they boldly pronounce that religion of every kind is fuperftition : in other words, that though certain modes of conduct ought to be followed, and others to be exploded, from principles of honour, and for the good of fo- ciety; to deem men bound to act in any cafe with a reference to a fuppofed will of the Deity, if a Deity exifts, is one of the grofleft and moft pernicious of abfurdities, Others again, L 1 3 who 518 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE who have addicted themfelves to philofophical inveftigations, have become decided unbeliev- ers. Not that philofophy is the enemy of re- ligion. The former is the natural ally of the latter. An enquiry into the laws which God has prefcribed to the human mind, to organ- ifed bodies, and to inanimate matter, leads at every ftep to a new difplay of his power, wif- dom, and goodnefs. But men who purfue it without any aim, or defire to apply it to its moft important ufe, that of heightening their reverence for the great Creator by a nearer ac- quaintance with his glorious attributes, eafily become abforbed in the contemplation of fe- cond caufes; and, though they may admit the exiftence, learn to deny the fuperintending care of the Firft, and his interference with the courfe of the material or the moral world. Others feek for refuge in unbelief on the fame principle on which many of the Jews did in the days of Chrift ; who " loved darknefs ra- " ther than light, becaufe their deeds were evil; " and would not come to the light left their " deeds fliould be (a) reproved," Refolved to perfift (a) It was the faying of an unbeliever of high rank, who dial within a very few years, that " if he could believe Chrif- " tianity, TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. 519 perfift in the vicious practices which Chrif- tianity profcribes, and felicitous that no ftate of being, fraught with punifhment for thofe pra&ices, mould remain to come, they take pains to convince themfelves that the Gofpel is the production of fraud and delufion; they catch eagerly at every objection againft it of every kind, and turn from whatever feems to make in its favour; in the language of fcrip- ture, they wink purpofely with their eyes left they mould fee, and mut their ears left they (hould hear, and harden their hearts left they mould believe. Others by degrees becoming altogether immerfed in political, commercial, or profeflional bufmefs, or in a continued fuc- *' tianity, be Jhoitld lead fuck a life as would put all the " Clergy to (hame." Of the author of this fpeech, and of the farcafm implied in it againft the Clergy, I mean to fay nothing. But I would leave it to the determination of any candid perfon, however adverfe to the Chriftian faith, whether, if he were to hear a fimilar fpeech applied to any other religion, the inference which he fliould draw would not naturally be this: that the fpeaker's attachment to his favourite habits of life had fo prepoflefied him againft the religion in queftion, as to prevent him from liftening to its evidence with impartiality ; and would probably be fuf- ficient, were the truth of the religion ever fo ftrongly Supported, to hinder him from admitting it. L 1 4 ceflion 520 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE ceflion of difiipated amufements, proceed from the omiflion of the practice of religious duties to thedifufe and difregard of religious confi- derations, and ultimately to the difbelief of revealed religion, if not of all religion. And laftly, the love of paradox and fingularity,dif- dain of thinking with the vulgar, difguft at cafual inftances of fuperftition, and difficulties as to particular doctrines, occafionally contri- bute to lead men to unbelief (). Befides the confirmed unbelievers of each of thefe defcriptions, there are many perfons who, from various caufes, advance only part of the way on the road to infidelity, and flop fhort at different ftages of doubt and diftruft. Concerning unbelievers and doubters of every clafs, one obfervation may almoft uni- vcrfally be made with truth; that they are lit- tle acquainted with the nature of the Chriftian religion, and ftill lefs with the evidence by which the truth of that religion is fupported. () Sec alfo page 191 196. Now TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. 52! Now thofe who queftion or deny the truth of Chriftianity will yet readily admit,that Jfthe Supreme Being has actually made a revealed communication of his will, and has unequivo- cally addrefled it to all mankind; and //'there are facts connected with that revelation which are acknowledged even by its enemies, and which juftly afford, independently of other evidence, a ftrong prefumption of its reality ; thofe perfons muft be highly guilty, who, hav- ing fufficient abilities and opportunities for enquiry, refufe or neglect to examine into the validity of its pretenfions j and to examine with fairnefs, and with the attention which the importance of the fubject demands. Is it then a thing highly improbable in itfelf that the Creator of the world fhould have given a revelation to mankind, and at the period when Chriftianity firft appeared ? If the pre- fent ftage of exiftence is but a very fmall part of the whole duration of a human being ; if this ftage is defigned for the purpofe of trial and probation, and is thus to fix the fate of each individual for ever ; if men were in fadt ignorant of the certainty of thefe momentous truths, 522 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE truths, and unable to afcertain it by unaflifted reafon ; if, for want of a knowledge of that certainty, they were become a prey to crimes and delufions, indulging themfelves in every fpecies of wickednefs, and worfhipping ftocks and ftones, and perfonified vices, with abfurd and abominable rites : can it be improbable that he who had manifefted his goodnefs in creating them, fhould add another proof of the fame difpofition by imparting to them the further light neceflary to correct their wander- ings, and to guide them fteadily in the way to happinefs ? They who are led by thefe or other confi- clcrations to regard a revelation as a thing not improbable in itfelf, ought from that circum- flance to feel, and naturally will feel, a greater readinefs to enquire into the evidence of any profefled revelation which bears outward marks of reality. They who in confequence of en- tertaining high notions of the fufficiency of human reafon, or of doubting (and it is im- pofTible that they can do more than doubt] the reality of a future ftate, or its connection with human conduct on earth, deem the exiftence of TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. 523 of a revelation highly improbable, cannot af- firm that it is impoffible ; and ought confe- quently in a fnnilar cafe to inflitute a firnilar enquiry. For an antecedent perfuafion of the improbability of the Deity's acting in any particular manner is no more a reafon for re- fufmg to examine whether he has not acled thus, if exifting fadls afford ftrong prefumptive evidence that he has ; than it would be for refufmg to believe that he has, if conclufive evidence were produced. The queftion then which remains to be an- fwered is this : Are there any leading circum- flances attending Chriftianity, circumftances generally admitted and refting on independent proofs, which feem fcarcely capable of being accounted for on any fuppofition but on that of its truth ; and confequently furnifh fo ftrong a prefumption of its being a divine revelation, as to render thofe who doubt or deny it not merely imprudent but criminal, if they do not ferioufly enquire into its evidence ? The following ftatement, I apprehend, will juftify.the anfwering of that queftion decidedly in the affirmative. The 524 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE The Chriftian religion,whether true or falfe, had its origin in a country and nation held in proverbial contempt in almoft every part of the known world. The author of the religion was not only a Jew, but of the loweft rank among the Jews. He is univerfally allowed to have been uninftructed in literature and philofophy. He employed, in propagating his doctrine, affiftants who were alfo Jews, and of a ftation as obfcure, and of minds as little cultivated by learning^ as his own. The religion which they preached was of fuch a nature as to be generally and unavoidably mofl obnoxious. It was avowedly intended to fu- perfede and annihilate every other religion. It attacked not only the doctrines and ordinances of the Jews, which they regarded as having been appointed by God himfelf ; but thofe in- veterate prepofleflions which were rooted no lefs firmly in their hearts : pronouncing the abolition of the peculiar privileges of the Jewifh race, and the free admiffion of the abhorred Samaritans and Gentiles to all the benefits of the new difpenfation. It not only exafperated the Romans by branding as impious and de- teftable thofe rites and inftitutions which they Ir.id received with implicit reverence from their remote TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. 52$ remote anceftors; and deriding as vain fictions every object of their adoration, even all the tutelary deities of their empire : but it alfo touched their jealoufy in the tendereft point, by fuggefting a profpect of the revolt of Judea, and holding forth to their imaginations a com- petitor of Csefar, and the portentous appear- ance of the long expected fovereign (), whom fate () Percrebuerat oriente toto vetus et conftans opinio, efie in fatis ut co tempore Judea profecli rerum potirentur. Sueton. lib. viii. c. 4. Pluribus perfuafio inerat, antiquis facerdotum literis contineri, eo ipfo tempore fore ut valef- ceret oriens, Judaraque profeH rerum potirentur. Tacit. Hift. lib. v. 13. vol.iii. p. 816. Delph. ed.Par. 1686. In the conduct of Pilate, as recorded in the New Tefta- ment, the operation of the jealoufy in queflion is manifeft. " And Jefus flood before the governor ; and the governor " afked him, Artthou the Kingof the Jews?" Matth.xxvii. II. See alfo Mark xv. 2. Luke xxiii. 2, 3. John xviii. 33, 37. And from thenceforth Pilate fought toreleafe < him. But the Jews cried out, faying, If thou let this " man go, thou art not Caefar's friend; whcfoever maketh " himfelf a king fpeaketh againft Ciefar. When Pilate ** therefore heard that faying, he brought Jefus forth, and * c Kt down in the judgement-feat, &c." Johnxix. 12.16. The fuperfcription affixed on the crofs by Pilate's direction fpoke the fame language. After the death of Chrift, his apoftles felt the effedts of this jealoufy even in the diftant provinces 526 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE fate had deftined to arife in the eaft. The founder of Chriftianity had neither the favour- able circumftances to turn to his advantage, of which other teachers of new religions have availed themfelves ; nor did he reiort to thofe methods of proceeding to which they have owed their fuccefs. He did not, like Maho- met, make his attempt in a place where there was no eftablifhed religion. He did not, like Mahomet, pay court to a particular fet of men, or a particular feet ; nor, like him, artfully conciliate perfons of all the different religious perfuafions in the country, by adopting and incorporating into his own fyftem fome of the principal of their refpedive tenets ; nor, like him, direct the propagation of his doctrine by the fword; nor, like him, permit licentious provinces of the Roman empire. When St. Paul preached the Gofpel at Theflalonica, his enemies ftirred up the populace againft him ; and, not finding him, " they drew " Jafon and certain brethren unto the rulers of the city, " crying, Thefe that have turned the world upfide down ** are come hither alfo ; whom Jafon hath received, and ' thefe all do contrary to the decrees of Csefar, faying * that there is another King, one Jefus. And they trou- ' bled the people, and the rulers of the city, when they heard thefe things." Ab xvii. 68. indul- TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. 527 indulgences, and promife licentious rewards to his followers. He did not confine his in- ftructions to folitudes and obfcure hamlets ; but delivered them in the moft public man- ner, in populous cities, in the moft fre- quented parts of Jerufalem itfelf. He did not reft his pretenfions on any fpecies of evidence of a fecret nature, or in any refpect not ge- nerally cognifable by his cotemporaries ; but appealed to profefled miracles performed in the fight of multitudes, and of fuch a kind that every man could judge as to their reality. He was not permitted by the contempt or the fupinenefs of his enemies to proceed unmo- lefted in making profelytes ; but was actively oppofed from the beginning by the priefts and chief men of the national religion ; was re- peatedly in danger of lofing his life; and, after a mort miniftry of about three years duration at the utmoft, was delivered to the civil power, and crucified as a malefactor. Yet notwithftanding this event the progrefs of the religion continued. The difciples of Chrift, though they could have no reafon to expect better treatment than their mafter had received; though they expected, as they had been 528 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE been taught by him and profefled to expect, nothing in the prefent life but troubles and perfecutions, perievered in. preaching the fame religion as he had taught, with this additional and extraordinary circumftance, that their matter, on the third day after his crucifixion, had arifen from the dead : and encountered the fevered punifhments,and death itfelf,rather than ceafe from publifhing and attefting doc- trines and fads which, if falfe, they could not but know to be fo; and from the preaching of which, if true, they could look for no pre- fent advantage. And from thefc humble be- ginnings, and by thefe unpromifing methods, did Chriftianity make its way fo fuccefsfully, that, within three centuries from the firft preaching of Chrift, it penetrated to the re* moteft extremities of the Roman empire, and eftablifhed itfelf on the ruins of every other religion which it found exifting. When all thefe circumftances are confidered, and they are fuch as unbelievers in general arc ready to admit, it feems nearly impoflible not to cDme to the following conclufion: that a religion of fuch an origin, and avowedly aim- ing OF CHRISTIANITY. 529 Ing at fuch objects ; a religion thus deftitute of all worldly means of credit and fupport, thus provoking and experiencing every kind of worldly oppofition, could fcarcely ever have obtained belief and acceptation, if its preten- fions had not been founded on irrefiftible truth ; and confequently, that its eftablifhment tinder all thefe circumftances affords fo very ftrong a prefumption that it is ttue, as necefla- rily to render every competent judge to whom they are known, and who doubts or difbelieves Chriftianity, criminal in the fight of God, if lie does not carefully examine into the fpecific evidence by which that religion is fupported* t -'*--' -'- ' - ' "* O i 4 " ' This is the conclufion to which it has been my object to lead by fair reafoning the candid reader, who diftrufts or denies the truth of the Chriftian revelation. If this conclufion ap- pears to him well eftablifhed, he will naturally feek for a detailed account of the evidence of the Chriftian religion in treatifes (c] written profeffedly (c) Mr. Paley's View of the Evidences of Chriftianity, and Dr. Beatie's Treatife on the fame fubjeft, and Mr. VOL. u. M m Paley's 530 ,ee*rau>EiiATioxs ON THE profeffeoUy .on the fubject ; and will make himfelf, acquainted with the many ftriking in- -ternaLproofs which it bears of its own authen- ticity, by a diligent and attentive ftudy "of the Scriptures. ; And let him conduct the whole of his inveftigations- with that impartial fpirit which is -ahvays eflential to the difcovery of truth, whatever be the fubject under, difcuk ilon ; guarding againft the influence of former prepoiTeffions^ and -former practices, with a degree of caution and folicitude proportioned to the fupreme importance of the enquiry hi which he is engaged. Let him be prepared " to do the will of God :" and he will not i -' - fail " to know (d) concerning the doctrine, " whether it be of God." II. I would in the next place offer a few ob- fervations to the confideration of thofe believ- ers in Chriftianit-y, who contend that an exact Palcry's Hone Paulinx, are particularly deferving of a d^- liberate perufal. There are alfo various other publications orj the Truth of the Chriflian Religion well worthy of notice. (d) John vii. 16, 17. obfervance TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. 53! obfervance of all its precepts is more than is now required of them. This plea for deliberate deviations from the ftri&nefs of obedience, a plea which we more frequently hear obfcurely intimated than ex- plicitly ftated, appears, when unfolded, to re- folve itfelf into the following aflertions : that if the generality of men would .act in fcrupu- lous conformity to the precepts of Chriftianity, no individual could be vindicated were he to conduct liimfelf otherwife ; but that every man muft take the world as it is, and confider what is practicable ( been explained in no very judicious manner by commentators on the Bible. " AndNaamanfaid"(toElifh.i), " Thy fervant will henceforth after neither burnt-offering ** nor facrifice unto other gods, but unto the Lord. In " this thing the Lord pardon thy fervant, that when my ' matter goethinto the houfe of Rimmon to worfhip there, " and he leaneth on my h;ind, and I bovr myfelf in the " houfe of Rimmon > when I bow down royfclf in the " houfe of Rimmon, the Lord pardon thy fervant this ** thir.. And he faid unto him, Go in peace." Permif- fion, it is faid, was here given by the Prophet Elifha to join in acis of idolatry, when they were expedient ; and fame writers have employed thcmfelves to little purpofe in en- deavouring to account for it from lendernefs to the new- convert, and other caufes. Whereas fuch a permiffion, if it TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. whatever. What is the language of the Old and New Teftaments on the fubjed ? " Thou " ihalt (g) not follow a multitude to do evil." " Be not conformed (h] to this world," (that is, to the evil principles and evil practices which prevail in it,) " but be transformed by it had been atked, mofl afluredly would never have been granted ; and it feems never to have come into the mind of cither party. Naaman, after having exprefled his firm re- folution to forfake idolatry, and to worfhip from that time forward the true God only, appears to have recollected that it was his office to attend his mafter the king of Syria to the temple of Rimmon ; and that the king was accuf- tomed at fuch times to lean upon him. This latter circum- ftance feems purpofely mentioned to explain the whole matter in queftion. When the king bowed himfelf down in the temple, Naaman, on whom he leaned, muft necef- farily incline himfelf forward alfo ; not as an act of reve- rence to the idol, but of accommodation to his mafter : and he feared left his bowing down in the idol's temple, even for that purpofe, (hould be offonfive to the true God. It may be added, that his bowing down could fcarceiy be mifconftrued into an act of worfhip by any one of the fpedlators. For his total cefiation from thofe acts of worfliip to his former idols, which the declaration, " thy fcrvant will henceforth offer neither burnt-offering *' nor iacrifice to other gods," (hews that he had been accultomed publicly to pratife, and in all probability to Rimmon in particular, would unequivocally point out the real caufe. [g] Exod. xxiii. 2. {/;) Rom. xii. 2. " the 536 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE " the renewing of your mind, that ye may '.'. prove what is that good, and acceptable, u and perfiivi\\\ of God."" Love not the " ^orld (/'), neither the things that are in the "world. If any man love the world, the love " of the Father is not in him. For all that is " in the world, the luft of the flefh, and the " luft of the eyes, and the pride of life, is not " of the Father, but is of the world. And the " world pafleth away, and the luft thereof: " but he that doeth the will of God abideth for " ever." " Be ye therefore (/>) perfcft, even " as your Father which is in heaven is per- u fed."" The love of Chrift (/) conftraineth " us, becaufe we thus judge, that if one died " for all, then were all dead : and that he died " for all, that they which liveyft ould henceforth " net live unto tbemfclvcs^ but unto him which " died for them and rofe again." " What " mall it (m) profit a man, if he (hall gain the " whole (i) i John, ii. 15. 17. (k) Matt. v. 48. (/) 2 Cor. v. 14, 15. (m) Mark, viii. 36. 38. See alfo the fevere rebuke pro- nounccd by Chrift, Matt. xv. 3 9, againfl the Pharifees, who " made the commandment of God of none effeft by " thtir traditions j" that is to fay, as appears from the context, TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. 537 " whole world, and lofe his own foul ? Or " what (hall a man give in exchange for his " foul ? Whofoever therefore (hall be amamed " of me, and of my words, in this adulterous " and fmful generation, of him alfo mail the " Son of man be amamed, when he cometh in " the glory of his Father with the holy angels.'* To thefe paffages are to be added the direc- tions incidentally given by St. Paul to perfons in many different ftations, exhorting them to fulfil the refpective offices peculiar to thofe ftations " for confcience fake, as unto the " Lord, and not unto men (n) ;" directions which, by parity of reafoning, we may reft aflured that the apoftle would have applied to all other fituations and circumftances of life, if he had been led by his fubject to notice them diftinctly. And he did in fact make the application univerfal, when he delivered thefe general and comprehenfive precepts. " What- " foever ()ColofT. iii. 17. " Jefus." CONSIDERATIONS ON THE " Jefus." Let us obferve too 'how he^com- pletely precludes, by the following declaration, the plea of departing from the prefcribed rule pf right for the purpofe of thus doing good orY the whole. "We be flanderoufly reported, " and fome affirm that we fay, Let us do evil " that good may come ; ivbo/e condemnat'&n is "jujt (q}" A ferious defire to pleafe God in all