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A PRIMER OF ESSENTIALS 
 
 IN 
 
 GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC 
 
 FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
 
 BY 
 
 MARIETTA KNIGHT 
 
 ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, SOUTH HIGH SCHOOL 
 WORCESTER, MASS. 
 
 NEW YORK-:- CINCINNATI- :.CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. 
 
 ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON. 
 
 PRIM. OF ESSEN. IN GRAM. AND RHET. 
 TT 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THIS primer is the outcome of the need felt 
 by a group of teachers of English for something 
 in the hands of their pupils that would simply 
 and concisely, in the form of definitions, rules, 
 and principles, summarize the class-room teach- 
 ing in the essentials of grammar and rhetoric 
 in secondary schools. It is designed as a guide 
 in review study of the ordinary text-books of 
 grammar and rhetoric, or as an aid to teachers 
 who dispense with ordinary text-books; in either 
 case it is assumed that abundant illustrative and 
 drill work has been provided by the teacher in 
 connection with each subject treated. 
 
 266963 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 RULES, DEFINITIONS, AND PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAM- 
 MAR 5 
 
 Nouns, 6. Interjections, 30. 
 
 Pronouns, 1 1. Sentences, 31. 
 
 Verbs, 14. Clauses, 32. 
 
 Adjectives, 25. Phrases, 33. 
 
 Adverbs, 28. Capitals, 33. 
 
 Prepositions, 28. Punctuation, 33 t 
 Conjunctions, 29. 
 
 RULES, DEFINITIONS, AND PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC . . 36 
 
 Forms of Composition, 36. Choice and Use of 
 Letter Writing, 38. Words, 45. 
 
 The Paragraph, 42. Figures of Speech, 47. 
 
 The Sentence, 43. Poetry, 49. 
 
 DON'TS RHETORICAL AND GRAMMATICAL . . . .57 
 
 HELPS IN WRITING A THEME 59 
 
 INDEX ,. 6f 
 
PRIMER OF ESSENTIALS 
 
 RULES, DEFINITIONS, AND PRINCIPLES 
 OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 Grammar is the science which treats of the forms 
 and the uses of words. The rules of grammar con- 
 form to the usage of the best writers and speakers. 
 
 Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of 
 the relations of words in sentences. 
 
 Inflection is a change in the form of a word to 
 indicate a change in meaning or use. English is 
 a language so slightly inflected that the relation of 
 words is indicated chiefly by position. All words, 
 phrases, and clauses should be placed as near as 
 possible to the words they modify. 
 
 An Idiom is an accepted peculiarity in the form 
 of a phrase or in the use of a word. 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 The Parts of Speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs, 
 adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and 
 interjections. 
 
 The part of speech is determined by its use in 
 the sentence. 
 
 5 
 
GRAMMAR 
 
 NOUNS 
 A Noun is the name of anything. 
 
 NOUNS 
 
 Kinds i 
 
 Proper 
 Common 
 Abstract 
 Collective 
 
 Gender 
 
 Properties 
 
 Masculine 
 Feminine 
 Neuter 
 
 First 
 
 Person ) Second 
 Third 
 
 Number 
 
 Case 
 
 Plural 
 
 Nominative 
 Possessive (Genitive) 
 Objective (Dative and Accu- 
 sative) 
 
 A Proper noun is a name given to an individual 
 of a class to distinguish it from others of the same 
 class. In contrast with this sort of noun, all others 
 are called Common nouns. 
 
 An Abstract noun is the name of a quality, con- 
 dition, or relation of an object. Examples: heigtft, 
 goodness, nearness. 
 
 A Collective noun is a name applied to a collec- 
 tion of objects. Examples : family, tribe. 
 
NOUNS 7 
 
 Gender is that property of nouns and pronouns 
 which distinguishes objects in regard to sex. 
 
 The Masculine gender denotes the male; the 
 Feminine denotes the female; and the Neuter 
 usually denotes that the object has no animal 
 life. 
 
 Person is that property of nouns and pronouns 
 which denotes whether the person speaking is 
 meant (First person), the person spoken to (Second 
 person), or the person or thing spoken of (Third 
 person). 
 
 Number is that property of nouns and pronouns 
 which denotes one (Singular) or more than one 
 (Plural). (See p. 10.) 
 
 Case is the use of nouns and pronouns in the 
 sentence. 
 
 A noun in the Nominative case may be : 
 
 1. Subject of a finite verb. 
 
 2. In apposition with another noun in the nomi- 
 native case. 
 
 3. A predicate noun modifying the subject. 
 
 4. Used independently by direct address. 
 
 5. Used independently with a participle 
 
 Examples of nominative use : 
 
 1. The book is here (subj.). 
 
 2. The present, a book, is here (appos.). 
 
 3. The present is a book (pred. noun). 
 
8 GRAMMAR 
 
 4. John, come here (indep. by direct address, Voca- 
 tive). 
 
 5. The book having been presented, I went home (indep. 
 with a participle). 
 
 A noun in the Objective case may be : 
 
 1. Direct object of a transitive verb. 
 
 2. Indirect object of a transitive verb. 
 
 3. Object of a preposition. 
 
 4. In apposition with another noun in the objec- 
 tive- case. 
 
 5. Predicate noun modifying the object. 
 
 6. Used adverbially to show measure. 
 
 7. Subject of an infinitive. 
 
 Examples of the objective use : 
 
 1. You may give the book (dir. obj. of verb). 
 
 2. You may give John the book (indir. obj.). 
 
 3. The work is in the book (obj. of prep.). 
 
 4. I saw the present, a book (appos.). 
 
 5. They called the game a draw (pred. noun modifying 
 the object) . 
 
 6. He jumped afoot (used adverbially to show measure). 
 
 7. He made the */<? jump (subj. of inf.). 
 
 The Possessive (or Genitive) case of the noun 
 and pronoun usually indicates ownership. 
 
 FORM OF THE POSSESSIVE 
 
 The possessive singular of a noun is nearly 
 always formed by adding 's to the noun. If the 
 
NOUNS 9 
 
 plural ends in s, the apostrophe only is added to 
 form the possessive. If the plural does not end in s, 
 the possessive is formed by adding 's. Examples : 
 boy's, boys' , metis. 
 
 The possessive case of compound nouns is formed 
 by adding the possessive sign to the last word. Ex- 
 amples : son-in-law' s y sons-in-law's, men-servants'. 
 
 A noun of more than one syllable ending in an 
 s or a z sound sometimes omits the s of the pos- 
 sessive sign and adds only the apostrophe. Ex- 
 amples : Dickens' stories, for justice' sake. 
 
 Proper nouns form their possessive case like 
 common nouns with similar endings. 
 
 USE OF THE POSSESSIVE 
 
 Nouns that do not denote living beings are 
 seldom used in the possessive case unless they 
 are personified. 
 
 A noun or pronoun used before a gerund should 
 be in the possessive case. Example : He did not 
 like the musician's playing. 
 
 AGREEMENT OF NOUNS 
 
 A Predicate Noun is one that modifies another 
 by the help of a verb. 
 
 An appositive or predicate noun or pronoun has 
 the same case as the noun that it explains. 
 
10 GRAMMAR 
 
 FORM OF THE PLURAL 
 
 Most nouns, common and proper, form theil 
 plural by adding s or es to the singular. 
 
 Sometimes the last letter of the singular form is 
 changed before the plural ending s or es. Ex- 
 amples : daisy, daisies ; leaf, leaves. 
 
 Some nouns have an irregular plural. Examples : 
 mouse, mice ; tooth, teeth; man, men. 
 
 Some nouns have two plurals. Examples : 
 
 f pennies } , . ( dies ] 
 
 penny \* \, die\ \. 
 
 [pence J [dice J 
 
 Some words use their singular form with a plural 
 meaning. Examples : sheep, deer, trout, salmon. 
 
 Letters, figures, signs, and words regarded 
 merely as things spoken or written form their 
 plural by adding 's. Examples: a's, fs, + 's, 
 me's, my's. 
 
 Some nouns are used in the plural only. Ex- 
 amples : scissors, tongs, trousers. 
 
 When a title is used with a name, either the 
 title or the name is made plural. Examples : 
 The Mrs. Browns, The Misses Brown, The Miss 
 Browns. 
 
 Compound nouns usually form their plural by 
 making plural the principal word. Some exceptions 
 make both words plural. Examples : knights- 
 templars, lords-justices, 
 
PRONOUNS 
 
 II 
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun, 
 and it has in general the same uses that nouns 
 
 have. 
 
 Personal 
 Relative 
 Kinds \ Interrogative 
 
 Demonstrative 
 [ Indefinite 
 
 Masculine 
 
 Gender -j Feminine 
 Neuter 
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 Properties - 
 
 f First 
 
 Person J Second 
 [ Third 
 
 Number j 
 
 / Plural 
 
 Case 
 
 {Nominative 
 Possessive 
 Objective 
 
 The Declension of a pronoun shows its changes 
 in form according to number and case. 
 
 The Personal pronouns in the nominative singu- 
 lar are /, thou, you, he, she, it. 
 
 The pronouns of the first and second persons 
 are declined thus : 
 
12 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 NOMINATIVE : 
 POSSESSIVE : 
 OBJECTIVE : 
 
 NOMINATIVE : 
 POSSESSIVE : 
 OBJECTIVE : 
 
 FIRST PERSON 
 Singular 
 I 
 
 my, mine 
 me 
 
 SECOND PERSON 
 Singular 
 
 you 
 
 your, yours 
 
 you 
 
 Plural 
 we 
 
 our, ours 
 us 
 
 Plural 
 you 
 
 your, yours 
 you 
 
 The old form of the second person is declined 
 thus : 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 NOMINATIVE : thou ye 
 
 POSSESSIVE : thy, thine you, yours 
 
 OBJECTIVE : thee you 
 
 The pronouns of the third person are declined 
 thus : 
 
 THIRD PERSON 
 
 Singular 
 
 Plural 
 
 Masculine 
 
 Feminine 
 
 Neuter 
 
 All Genders 
 
 NOMINATIVE: he 
 POSSESSIVE : his 
 OBJECTIVE : him 
 
 she 
 her, hers 
 her 
 
 it 
 its 
 it 
 
 they 
 their, theirs 
 them 
 
 The personal pronoun ending in self or selves is 
 to be used for emphasis or reflexively. Examples : 
 / myself did it. I blamed myself. 
 
PRONOUNS 13 
 
 The personal pronouns use no apostrophe in the 
 possessive case. 
 
 A Relative pronoun is one that connects. The 
 relative pronouns are who, which, what, that, as, 
 and the compounds whoever, whosoever, whatever, 
 whatsoever, whichever, whichsoever. 
 
 Singular and Plural 
 
 NOMINATIVE: who which what that 
 
 POSSESSIVE : whose whose whose 
 
 OBJECTIVE : whom which what that 
 
 The Interrogative pronouns, used in asking ques- 
 tions, are who, what, and which. Who is declined 
 like the relative pronoun who. 
 
 Demonstrative pronouns point out. They are 
 this, these, that, those. These pronouns do not 
 change their forms for case. 
 
 The Indefinite pronouns are each, either, neither, 
 some, any, few, all, both, one, none. 
 
 The demonstrative and indefinite pronouns are 
 often called Adjective Pronouns. 
 
 The indefinite singular pronouns, such as each, 
 either, one, should be used with a singular verb and 
 a singular pronoun, thus : " Each thinks that he 
 can do the work." 
 
 The Antecedent of a pronoun is the word for 
 which the pronoun stands. A pronoun must agree 
 with its antecedent in gender, person, and number. 
 
14 GRAMMAR 
 
 The case of a pronoun, like the case of a noun, 
 is determined by its use in the sentence. 
 
 VERBS 
 A Verb is a word that asserts. 
 
 (Regular 
 Irregular 
 Defective 
 
 Governing ( Transitive 
 
 Power { intransitive (Complete 
 
 ( Incomplete 
 f Principal 
 Rank \ Auxiliary 
 
 T . . f Active 
 Voice \ n . 
 
 Passive 
 
 VERBS 
 
 Properties 
 
 Mode 
 
 Tense 
 
 Indicative 
 Subjunctive 
 Potential 
 Imperative 
 
 Present 
 
 Past (Imperfect, Preterite) 
 
 Future 
 
 Present Perfect (Perfect) 
 
 Past Perfect (Pluperfect) 
 
 Future Perfect 
 
 Person 
 Number 
 
 A Regular verb is one that forms its past tense 
 and past participle by adding d or ed to the root 
 
VERBS 15 
 
 (simplest form) of the verb. These verbs are said 
 to belong to the new, weak, or regtilar conjuga- 
 tion. Example : row (rowed). An Irregular verb 
 forms its past tense and past participle usually 
 by a change in the vowel of the root. Such verbs 
 are said to belong to the old, strong, or irregular 
 conjugation. 
 
 A Defective verb is one that lacks some of its 
 principal parts. Examples : ought, quoth, may, 
 can, shall. 
 
 A Transitive verb is one that is usually followed 
 by an object; that is, by a noun or pronoun 
 signifying that which is Affected by the action of / 
 the verb. 
 
 An Intransitive verb is one that can not have an 
 object. An intransitive verb can have no passive 
 voice. 
 
 Intransitive verbs are divided into two classes 
 complete and incomplete. A Complete intransitive 
 verb is one that requires nothing to complete its 
 meaning. An Incomplete intransitive verb is one 
 of such verbs as be, appear, seem, look, become, 
 which require a noun, an adjective, or an adverb 
 to complete their meaning. 
 
 The Principal verb is the part of the verb phrase 
 which expresses the action or state. 
 
 The Auxiliary verb is one of the words have, 
 has, had, do, be, shall, will, may, can, must, might, 
 
16 GRAMMAR 
 
 and the like, which help the principal verb to ex- 
 press its action or state. 
 
 Can and .could express ability ; may and might. 
 possibility and permission ; must, necessity ; do 
 and did, emphasis ; be and its variations, the pas- 
 sive and the progressive forms; shall and will, 
 the future tense. 
 
 Voice is that property of transitive verbs which 
 signifies whether the subject is acting or is acted 
 upon. If the subject is acting, the verb is said to 
 be in the Active voice. If the subject is acted 
 upon, the verb is said to be in the Passive voice. 
 The passive voice of the verb is formed by prefixing 
 some form of the verb be to the past participle of 
 the principal verb. 
 
 Mode, or Mood, is the manner of expressing the 
 action of the verb. 
 
 The Indicative mode is the mode of simple 
 declaration. 
 
 The Subjunctive mode is the mode of doubt- 
 ; ful or conditional assertion, and it is also used 
 to indicate a wish in the first and the third 
 persons. 
 
 The Potential mode is the collection of verb 
 phrases that indicate ability, possibility or permis- 
 sion, obligation, or necessity. The auxiliaries used 
 in these phrases are may, can, must, might, could, 
 would, and should. 
 
VERBS I/ 
 
 The Imperative mode expresses command, en- 
 treaty, and sometimes a simple wish. The sub- 
 ject of a verb in the imperative mode is in the 
 second person. 
 
 Tense is the property of verbs which indicates 
 the time of the action of the verb. There are six 
 tenses : present, past, future, perfect, pluperfect, 
 future perfect. 
 
 The Future tense uses the auxiliaries shall and 
 will. 
 
 The Perfect tense uses the auxiliary have. 
 
 The Pluperfect tense uses the auxiliary had. 
 
 The Future Perfect tense uses the auxiliary com- 
 binations shall have and will have. 
 
 When these tenses are used in the passive voice 
 or the progressive form, some form of the verb be 
 is added to these auxiliaries. 
 
 The Progressive form of the verb consists of 
 the present participle used with some form of be. 
 
 The Emphatic form of the verb is used in the 
 present and past tenses, and is made by combin- 
 ing do in the present tense and did in the past 
 tense with the simplest form of the verb. 
 
 The Principal Parts of a verb are the present 
 tense, the past tense, the present participle, and . 
 the past participle. The past tense and the past / 
 participle of most irregular verbs are not inter- I 
 changeable. 
 
 K. PRIM. 2 
 
1 8 GRAMMAR 
 
 A Participle is a form of the verb used like an 
 adjective. 
 
 An Infinitive is a form of the verb having usu- 
 ally the use of a noun and sometimes that of an 
 adverb or an adjective. To is the sign of the 
 infinitive and is usually expressed with it. When 
 an infinitive has a subject, it is always in the objec- 
 tive case. 
 
 The Gerund is a form of the verb ending in ing 
 and used like a noun. (The gerund is sometimes 
 called a verbal noun and sometimes the infinitive 
 in ing.) 
 
 USE OF VERB FORMS 
 
 The tenses of verbs in dependent clauses are 
 usually dependent upon the tenses of the verbs 
 in the principal clauses. 
 
 / Present facts and unchangeable truths demand 
 the present tense. 
 
 The person and number of a verb are deter- 
 mined by the subject. 
 
 Two singular subjects connected by and demand 
 a plural verb. 
 
 A compound subject expressing but a single 
 idea, however, sometimes takes a verb in the singu- 
 lar. Example : The end and aim is this. 
 
 Two singular subjects connected by or or nor 
 demand a singular verb. 
 
VERBS 19 
 
 When a verb has two or more subjects differing in 
 person or number, it agrees with the nearest subject. 
 
 When a sentence begins with the word there used 
 as an expletive (or apparent subject), the verb agrees 
 with the real subject. Example : There are two boys. 
 
 Collective nouns sometimes take a singular and 
 sometimes a plural verb. If the individuals mak- 
 ing the collection are considered, the verb is plural. 
 If the collection is thought of as a unit, the verb 
 is singular. 
 
 USE OF SHALL AND WILL 
 
 Shall in the first person and will in the secondX 
 and third persons denote mere futurity. 
 
 Will in the first person and shall in the second r 
 and third denote volition. 
 
 Similar statements are true of should and would. 
 
 In asking questions shall must always be used 
 with a subject in the first person. In the second 
 and third persons we use shall and will accord- 
 ing to the answers that we expect. When we 
 expect the answer shall, we use shall in asking the 
 question. When we expect the answer will, we 
 use will in asking the question. 
 
 The proper use of shall, will, should, and would 
 in indirect discourse may be determined by turning 
 the sentence into the direct discourse and choosing 
 the proper word according to the rule. 
 
20 GRAMMAR 
 
 With all three persons, would is used to express a 
 wish. Also would is used without regard to future 
 time, to denote that an action is customary ; as, " He 
 would often fish for days in succession." 
 
 Should is used with all three persons in condi- 
 tional clauses. Also it is sometimes used in its orig- 
 inal sense of ought ; as, " You should not do that." 
 
 I know that, in point of fact, you will always enjoy writing, 
 and I shall always enjoy reading your stories ; indeed, you 
 shall go on writing them, and I will go on reading them, 
 even though you should not use " would " as you should, or 
 as you would if you should use " would " and " should " as 
 Shakespeare or Mr. Matthew Arnold would. 
 
 From " A Private Letter," EDWARD ROWLAND SILL. 
 
 The Conjugation of a verb shows its changes in 
 form to express mode, voice, tense, person, and 
 number. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ROW 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. I row We row 
 
 2. Thou rowest You (ye) row 
 
 3. He rows (roweth) They row 
 
 Passive Voice 
 
 1 . I am rowed We are rowed 
 
 2. Thou art rowed You are rowed 
 
 3. He is rowed They are rowed 
 
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ROW 21 
 
 < PAST TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 I. I rowed 
 
 We rowed 
 
 2. Thou rowedst 
 
 You rowed 
 
 3. He rowed 
 
 They rowed 
 
 Passive 
 
 Voice 
 
 i. I was rowed 
 
 We were rowed 
 
 2. Thou wast rowed 
 
 You were rowed 
 
 3. He was rowed 
 
 They were rowed \ 
 
 FUTURE TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 I. I shall row 
 
 We shall row 
 
 2. Thou wilt row 
 
 You will row 
 
 3. He will row 
 
 They will row 
 
 Passive 
 
 Voice 
 
 i. I shall be rowed 
 
 We shall be rowed 
 
 2. Thou wilt be rowed 
 
 You will be rowed 
 
 3. He will be rowed 
 
 They will be rowed 
 
 PERFECT TENSE, 
 
 Active Voice 
 
 i. I have rowed 
 
 We have rowed 
 
 2. Thou hast rowed 
 
 You have rowed 
 
 3. He has rowed 
 
 They have rowed 
 
 Passive 
 
 Voice . 
 
 I. I have been rowed 
 
 We have been rowed 
 
 2. Thou hast been rowed 
 
 You have been rowed 
 
 3. He has been rowed 
 
 They have been rowed 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 i. I had rowed 
 
 We had rowed 
 
 2. Thou hadst rowed 
 
 You had rowed 
 
 3. He had rowed 
 
 They had rowed 
 
 Passive 
 
 Voice 
 
 i. I had been rowed 
 
 We had been rowed 
 
 2. Thou hadst been rowed 
 
 You had been rowed 
 
 3. He had been rowed 
 
 They had been rowed 
 
22 GRAMMAR 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 1. I shall have rowed We shall have rowed 
 
 2. Thou wilt have rowed You will have rowed 
 
 3. He will have rowed They will have rowed 
 
 Passive Voice 
 
 1. I shall have been rowed We shall have been rowed 
 
 2. Thou wilt have been rowed You will have been rowed 
 
 3. He will have been rowed They will have been rowed 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. If I row If we row 
 
 2. If thou row If you row 
 
 3. If he row If they row 
 
 Passive Voice 
 
 1. If I be rowed If we be rowed 
 
 2. If thou be rowed If you be rowed 
 
 3. If he be rowed If they be rowed 
 
 PAST TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 1. If I rowed If we rowed 
 
 2. If thou rowed If you rowed 
 
 3. If he rowed If they rowed 
 
 Passive Voice 
 
 I. If I were rowed If we were rowed 
 
 2 If thou wert rowed If you were rowed 
 
 3. If he were rowed If they were rowed 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 1. If I have rowed If we have rowed 
 
 2. If thou have rowed If you have rowed 
 
 3. If he have rowed If they have rowed 
 
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ROW 23 
 
 Passive Voice 
 
 1. If I have been rowed If we have been rowed 
 
 2. If thou have been rowed If you have been rowed 
 
 3. If he have been rowed If they have been rowed 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 1 . If I had rowed If we had rowed 
 
 2. If thou had rowed If you had rowed 
 
 3. If he had rowed If they had rowed 
 
 Passive Voice 
 
 1. If I had been rowed If we had been rowed 
 
 2. If thou had been rowed If you had been rowed 
 
 3. If he had been rowed If they had been rowed 
 
 POTENTIAL FORMS WITH MAY AND MIGHT 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. Active Voice 
 Singular Plural 
 
 1. I may row We may row 
 
 2. Thou mayst row You may row 
 
 3. He may row They may row 
 
 Passive Voice 
 
 1. I may be rowed We may be rowed 
 
 2. Thou mayst be rowed You may be rowed 
 
 3. He may be rowed They may be rowed 
 
 PAST TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 1. I might row We might row 
 
 2. Thou mightst row You might row 
 
 3. He might row They might row 
 
 Passive Voice 
 
 1. I might be rowed We might be rowed 
 
 2. Thou mightst be rowed You might be rowed 
 
 3. He might be rowed They might be rowed 
 
24 GRAMMAR 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 1 . I may have rowed We may have rowed 
 
 2. Thou mayst have rowed You may have rowed 
 
 3. He may have rowed They may have rowed 
 
 Passive Voice 
 
 1 . I may have been rowed We may have been rowed 
 
 2. Thou mayst have been rowed You may have been rowed 
 
 3. He may have been rowed They may have been rowed 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. Active Voice 
 
 1. I might have rowed We might have rowed 
 
 2. Thou mightst have rowed You might have rowed 
 
 3. He might have rowed They might have rowed 
 
 Passive Voice 
 
 i . I might have been rowed We might have been rowed 
 2., Thou mightst have been rowed You might have been rowed 
 3. He might have been rowed They might have been rowed 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE 
 
 PRESENT TENSE 
 
 Active Voice Passive Voice 
 
 Singular Plural Singular Plural 
 
 Row thou Row ye Be thou rowed Be ye rowed 
 Do thou row Do ye row Do thou be rowed Do ye be rowed 
 
 INFINITIVES 
 
 Active Voice Passive Voice 
 
 PRESENT : To row To be rowed 
 
 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE : To be rowing 
 PERFECT : To have rowed To have been rowed 
 
 PERFECT PROGRESSIVE : To have been rowing 
 
ADJECTIVES 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 Active Voice 
 PRESENT: Rowing 
 PAST: Rowed 
 PERFECT : Having rowed 
 
 PERFECT PROGRESSIVE : Having been rowing 
 
 Passive Voice 
 Being rowed 
 Rowed 
 Having been rowed 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE 
 
 By omitting the past participle, rowed, from the 
 passive conjugation of row the various forms of 
 the verb be may be seen in different modes and 
 tenses ; the past participle of be is been. 
 
 ADJECTIVES 
 
 An Adjective is a word that modifies a noun or 
 pronoun. 
 
 f Descriptive 
 
 r Demonstrative 
 Pronominal j Interrogative 
 Classes \ I Indefinite 
 
 ADJEmvEsf {- 
 
 k Articles, #, an, the 
 
 ( Positive degree 
 
 Comparison \ Comparative degree 
 I Superlative degree 
 
 A Descriptive adjective is one that names some 
 quality of an object, 
 
26 GRAMMAR 
 
 A Pronominal adjective is a pronoun used adjec- 
 tively. There are three kinds of pronominal adjec- 
 tives : demonstrative, interrogative, and indefinite. 
 
 The Demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, 
 those, former, latter, same, such, yon, yonder. 
 
 The Interrogative adjectives are which and what. 
 These adjectives are also used relatively. Example : 
 I know what book you wish. 
 
 The principal Indefinite adjectives are each, every, 
 either, neither, some, any, many, few, all, none, no, 
 both, much, more, most. 
 
 The Cardinal Numerals are one, two, three, four, 
 five, etc. 
 
 The Ordinal Numerals are first, second, third, 
 fourth, fifth, etc. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 The three forms which adjectives may assume 
 are known as degrees of comparison, and they are 
 called, respectively, the positive, the comparative, 
 and the superlative. 
 
 The Positive Degree of the adjective indicates 
 the simple quality of the object without reference 
 to any other. 
 
 The Comparative Degree of the adjective indi- 
 cates that two objects are compared. 
 
 The Superlative Degree of the adjective indi- 
 cates that three or more objects are compared. 
 
ADJECTIVES 27 
 
 Adjectives compared regularly add er or r to the 
 positive to form the comparative and est or st to 
 the positive to form the superlative. Some adjec- 
 tives are compared by prefixing more to the positive 
 to form the comparative, and most to the positive 
 to form the superlative. 
 
 A few adjectives are irregularly compared : 
 
 Positive Comparative Superlative 
 
 good, well better best 
 
 bad, ill worse worst 
 
 little less, lesser least 
 
 many, much more most 
 
 old older, elder oldest, eldest 
 
 late later, latter latest, last 
 
 fore former foremost, first 
 
 far farther farthest 
 
 (forth) further furthest 
 
 , ^ \ outmost, outermost 
 
 (out) outer, utter 
 
 [ utmost, uttermost 
 
 Some adjectives express such qualities that they 
 do not admit of comparison. Examples : dead, 
 universal, three-cornered. 
 
 USE OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 It is easy to distinguish between adjectives and 
 adverbs by determining what they modify. If a 
 word modifies a noun or a pronoun, it is an adjective. 
 
 A Predicate Adjective is one that modifies a noun 
 or pronoun by the help of a verb. 
 
28 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 ADVERBS Classes 
 
 ADVERBS 
 
 An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an 
 adjective, or another adverb. 
 
 Adverbs of place and motion : 
 here, there, up, down 
 
 Adverbs of manner : 
 
 thus, well, truly, squarely 
 
 Adverbs of time and succession : 
 then, always, next, first 
 
 Adverbs of measure and degree : 
 much, little, scarcely, very 
 
 Modal adverbs : 
 
 surely, indeed, not, therefore 
 
 Conjunctive adverbs : 
 where, when, while 
 
 When adverbs are compared, they are compared 
 like similar adjectives. 
 
 Some adverbs do not admit of comparison. 
 
 Two negative expressions, such as not hardly, 
 not scarcely, not but, should not be used together 
 to denote negation. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS 
 
 A Preposition is a word connecting a following 
 noun or pronoun to some other word in such a 
 way as to make a modifying phrase. The noun 
 
ADVERBS CONJUNCTIONS 29 
 
 or pronoun so connected is called the object of the 
 preposition, and is in the objective case. 
 
 Following are a few common prepositions : 
 
 at 
 
 on 
 
 above 
 
 except 
 
 after 
 
 since 
 
 about 
 
 during 
 
 against 
 
 through 
 
 within 
 
 throughout 
 
 but 
 
 till 
 
 without 
 
 among 
 
 by 
 
 to 
 
 across 
 
 beside 
 
 down 
 
 under 
 
 around 
 
 below 
 
 for 
 
 with 
 
 between 
 
 near 
 
 from 
 
 into 
 
 like 
 
 until 
 
 in 
 
 of 
 
 off 
 
 over 
 
 upon 
 
 before 
 
 behind 
 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 A Conjunction is a word, or group of words, used 
 to connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 Classes 
 
 Coordinate 
 
 Subordinate 
 
 Conjunctions of place and 
 time : before, until, when, 
 where, as soon as. 
 
 Conjunctions of cause and 
 condition : because, if, 
 though. 
 
 Conjunctions of end or pur- 
 pose : that, so that, lest. 
 
 Conjunctions of comparison : 
 as, than. 
 
30 GRAMMAR 
 
 A Coordinate conjunction is one that connects 
 elements of equal rank. The principal coordinate 
 conjunctions are and, or, nor, but, therefore, also, 
 moreover. Paired conjunctions, like either or, 
 neither nor, not only but also, both and, are 
 called Correlative conjunctions. 
 
 A Subordinate conjunction is one that connects 
 elements unequal in rank. 
 
 The subordinate conjunctions when, where, 
 wherein, whence, whither, while, until, etc., which 
 indicate a time or place relation, are sometimes 
 called Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs. 
 
 USE OF CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 Coordinate conjunctions should connect elements 
 of equal rank and of similar construction. 
 
 The conjunctions as and than are followed by 
 the same construction that precedes. 
 
 In a negative declarative sentence the proper 
 correlative for as is so. Example : " He is not so 
 wise as his brother." 
 
 Like should never be used as a conjunction. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS 
 
 An Interjection is an exclamation expressive of 
 feeling ; it is independent of the other parts of a 
 sentence. 
 
SENTENCES 31 
 
 SENTENCES, CLAUSES, AND PHRASES 
 SENTENCES 
 
 According to their meaning, sentences are clas- 
 sified grammatically as declarative, interrogative, 
 imperative, and exclamatory. 
 
 I A Declarative sentence makes an assertion. 
 An Interrogative sentence asks a question. 
 An Imperative sentence expresses a command, 
 entreaty, or wish. 
 
 An Exclamatory sentence makes an exclamation. 
 
 According to their construction, sentences are 
 classified as simple, complex, and compound. 
 
 A Simple sentence has but one clause. 
 
 A Complex sentence has one principal clause 
 and one or more subordinate clauses. 
 
 A Compound sentence has two or more prin- 
 cipal clauses ; it may have also one or more sub- 
 ordinate clauses, in which case the sentence is 
 both compound and complex. 
 
 The Subject of a sentence names that about 
 which something is asserted. 
 
 The Predicate of a sentence asserts something 
 about the subject. 
 
 The simple subject (noun or pronoun) with all 
 its modifiers makes the complete subject. The 
 simple predicate (verb) with all its modifiers and 
 complements makes the complete predicate. 
 
32 GRAMMAR 
 
 CLAUSES 
 
 i t 
 
 A Clause is a group of words containing a sub- 
 ject and a predicate and forming a part of a 
 sentence. 
 
 Clauses are classified according to their rank as 
 principal and subordinate. 
 
 A Principal, or Independent, clause is one that 
 forms an assertion by itself. 
 
 A Subordinate, or Dependent, clause is one that 
 is used like a single part of speech ; namely, a 
 noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 
 
 Noun clauses may be used as the subject of a 
 verb, the object of a verb or a preposition, in appo- 
 sition, or as a predicate noun. Examples : 
 
 Subject : That he made the error is true. 
 
 Object of verb : I knew that he made the error. 
 
 Object of preposition : He traded with what money he had, 
 
 In apposition : The fact, that he made the error, is known. 
 
 As predicate noun : He is what he seems. 
 
 Adjective and adverbial clauses are used like 
 simple adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 Subordinate clauses are usually connected with 
 principal clauses by relative (conjunctive) pronouns, 
 conjunctive adverbs, and subordinate conjunctions. 
 
 Direct quotations forming a part of a sentence 
 are subordinate clauses, though they have usually 
 no introductory connectiveo 
 
CLAUSES, PHRASES, PUNCTUATION 33 
 
 PHRASES 
 
 A Phrase is a group of words used like a single 
 part of speech, but not containing a subject and a 
 predicate. 
 
 According to their use in the sentence, phrases 
 may serve as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. 
 
 According to their construction, phrases are clas- 
 sified as prepositional, participial, and infinitive. 
 
 An Infinitive Phrase consists of an infinitive with 
 its subject, object, and modifiers. 
 
 A Participial Phrase consists of a participle with 
 its object and modifiers. 
 
 A Prepositional Phrase consists of a preposition 
 and its object. 
 
 CAPITALS 
 
 Every sentence and every line of poetry should 
 begin with a capital letter. 
 
 Names of the Deity, proper nouns and adjec- 
 tives derived from proper nouns, and titles, should 
 begin with a capital letter. 
 
 The pronoun / and the interjection O should be 
 written with capitals. 
 
 PUNCTUATION 
 
 I. Independent elements are set off by marks of 
 punctuation, usually commas or exclamation points. 
 K. PRIM. 3 
 
34 GRAMMAR 
 
 2. Explanatory elements that do not restrict 
 the meaning are set off by marks of punctuation, 
 usually commas. 
 
 3. Explanatory elements that are restrictive are 
 not set off by marks of punctuation. 
 
 4. A semicolon or a comma may be used to 
 separate the clauses of a compound sentence con- 
 nected by a conjunction. If that conjunction is 
 but, one of these marks must be used. 
 
 5. If the compound sentence has no conjunc- 
 tion to connect its independent clauses, the semi- 
 colon should be used in its place. 
 
 6. If any one of the clauses of a compound 
 sentence contains commas, the members them- 
 selves should be separated by semicolons. 
 
 7. A series of elements in the same grammat- 
 ical construction is to be separated by semicolons 
 if any one of the series contains commas. Other- 
 wise the series may be separated by commas. 
 
 8. Such a series if introduced formally is usu- 
 ally preceded by a colon or by a comma and dash. 
 
 9. A colon is used to precede an additional 
 statement used for explanation or illustration. 
 
 10. A colon is used to precede a direct quota- 
 tfcn introduced formally. A quotation introduced 
 informally is preceded by a comma. 
 
 n. Short phrases or single words may be itali- 
 cized instead of quoted. 
 
PUNCTUATION 35 
 
 12. Single words or broken phrases when quoted 
 do not always need the initial capital letter or the 
 introductory punctuation mark. 
 
 13. Quotations within quotations demand single 
 quotation marks. 
 
 14. Marks of parenthesis are used to include 
 matter having the slightest possible connection 
 with the rest of the sentence. Any mark of punc- 
 tuation to follow the word preceding the paren- 
 thesis is usually placed only after the last mark of 
 parenthesis. 
 
 15. A dash, or a comma and dash, may be used 
 to set off matter having a slight connection with 
 the rest of the sentence. 
 
 1 6. The dash is also used to show omission of 
 letters or figures. 
 
 17. The hyphen is used to separate the parts of 
 compounds and to connect divided syllables. 
 
 1 8. The apostrophe is used to indicate the pos- 
 sessive case and omitted letters in contractions ; 
 followed by s the apostrophe indicates the plural 
 of letters, figures, signs, and words regarded as 
 things spoken or written. 
 
 19. Italics indicated in writing by underlining 
 are used for emphasis, foreign words, and titles 
 of books. 
 
RULES, DEFINITIONS, AND PRIN- 
 CIPLES OF RHETORIC 
 
 The Forms of Composition are narration, descrip- 
 tion, exposition, and argument. 
 
 NARRATION 
 
 The Plot of a story or drama is the series of 
 incidents which form the skeleton of the story. 
 
 The principal requirements of a good narrative 
 are the following : 
 
 1. The story should develop one or more of the 
 
 following : plot, situation, character. 
 
 2. The story should have interest. 
 
 (a) It should begin attractively and as directly 
 
 as possible. 
 () It must move, and not simply "mark time." 
 
 (c) It may be made effective by dramatic situa- 
 
 tions and turning points. 
 
 (d) It may use description, but the description 
 
 must be closely connected with the story 
 and must not hinder the movement. 
 
 (e) It should discriminate in the number and 
 
 the importance of details. 
 36 , 
 
FORMS OF COMPOSITION 37 
 
 (/) It may make effective use of the elements 
 
 of suspense and suggestion. 
 (<) It should have no inconsistency in the 
 
 speech or the actions of the characters. 
 (^) It should not be hindered by episodes. 
 (*) It should have an effective ending. 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 In every good description a point of view should 
 be established. 
 
 The description should be governed by the point 
 of view. 
 
 The general outline of the picture should, as a 
 rule, be given first. 
 
 The number of details should be so few and so 
 significant as to make a vivid picture. 
 
 The order of the details should be determined 
 by the character of the object to be described. 
 
 EXPOSITION 
 
 Exposition is a form of composition designed to 
 explain. 
 
 The important characteristic of exposition is 
 clearness. 
 
 The main points may be stated in various ways 
 in order to make them clear. 
 
 Exposition makes large use of illustration. 
 
38 RHETORIC 
 
 ARGUMENT 
 
 Argument is a form of composition designed to 
 prove the truth or the falsity of a proposition. 
 
 A Brief is a summary of an argument showing 
 the development of the argument by a series of 
 headings and sub-headings. 
 
 The first step in the argument should be to 
 define the terms of the proposition or to determine 
 the facts in the case. 
 
 State reasons to establish facts. 
 
 The conclusion should be warranted by the 
 premises. 
 
 Illustrations may be used effectively, but not 
 conclusively. 
 
 Analogy should be used for illustration, not as 
 a basis for conclusions. 
 
 Arguments should usually be arranged in the 
 order of their strength, the strongest last. 
 
 LETTER WRITING 
 
 Every business or social letter should show these 
 divisions : the heading, the salutation, the body of 
 the letter, the complimentary close, and the signa- 
 ture. Business letters should have an introductory 
 address before the salutation. 
 
 The Heading consists of the place and the date. 
 
LETTER WRITING 39 
 
 The Salutation and the Complimentary Close 
 should be appropriate to the person addressed. 
 
 Postal cards need no salutation or complimen- 
 tary close, but the date should never be omitted. 
 
 All business notes and letters should be as con- 
 cise and direct as possible. 
 
 Formal Invitations are written in the third per- 
 son and have no heading, salutation, or conclusion. 
 Informal Invitations are written in the first person. 
 All answers to invitations should be written in the 
 same person that is used in the invitation. 
 
 BUSINESS LETTERS 
 
 24 Oberlin St., 
 
 Worcester, Mass., 
 
 Aug. 15, 1904. 
 The Denholm-McKay Co., 
 Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Gentlemen : Please send to the above ad- 
 dress ten yards of muslin like the inclosed sample, 
 for which I inclose check for two dollars and fifty 
 cents ($2.50). 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 MARY I. BROWN, 
 Address : 
 
 Mrs. John L. Brown. 
 
40 RHETORIC 
 
 24 Oberlin St., 
 
 Worcester, Mass., 
 
 Aug. 15, 1904, 
 American Book Co., 
 
 New York City. 
 Dear Sirs : 
 
 Inclosed you will find a postal order for one 
 dollar ($1.00), for which please send me one copy 
 of each of the following books: The Ancient 
 Mariner, Burke's Conciliation, The Milton Lyrics, 
 Julius Ccesar, Macaulay's Second Essay on the 
 Earl of Chatham. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 CHARLES E. STORY. 
 \ 
 
 POSTAL CARD 
 
 I will send you the pictures which 
 you require. 
 
 H. P. THORNTON. 
 
 July 4, 1904. 
 
LETTER WRITING 41 
 
 INFORMAL INVITATION AND ANSWER 
 
 2 June Street, 
 
 Roxbury, Mass., 
 
 Aug. 5, 1904. 
 Dear Luke : 
 
 Charles and I are to have a boating party 
 next Thursday evening and we are eager to have 
 you with us. We shall start from our house at 
 half-past seven, and we hope that nothing will 
 prevent your joining us at that time. 
 Very sincerely, 
 
 CARRIE MAYNARD. 
 
 25 Endicott Street, 
 
 Boston, Mass., 
 
 Aug. 6, 1904. 
 Dear Carrie : 
 
 It was very kind in you to think of me 
 for the fun on Thursday, and you may be sure 
 that I shall not miss such an opportunity. I'll be 
 with you promptly at 7.30. With many thanks, 
 I am 
 
 Most sincerely, 
 
 LUKE P. BRIGHAM. 
 
42 RHETORIC 
 
 FORMAL INVITATION AND ANSWERS 
 
 Mr. and Mrs. Charles E. Browne request the 
 pleasure of Miss Thompson's company at dinner, 
 at 21 Woodland St., on February the twenty- 
 third, at half-past seven. 
 
 Miss Thompson accepts with pleasure the invi- 
 tation of Mr. and Mrs. Charles E. Browne for 
 dinner on February the twenty-third. 
 
 Miss Thompson regrets that a previous engage- 
 ment prevents her acceptance of the kind invitation 
 of Mr. and Mrs. Charles !. Browne for February the 
 twenty-third. 
 
 EXCUSE FOR ABSENCE 
 
 3 Decatur Street, 
 Worcester, June 5, 1904. 
 Dear Miss Carter : 
 
 Will you kindly excuse Harry's absence 
 on Thursday, June 2. 
 
 Very sincerely, 
 
 MARY E. SHATTUCK. 
 
 THE PARAGRAPH 
 
 A Paragraph is a division in composition treating 
 only one part of the subject. A paragraph must 
 conform to the same rules that should govern the 
 
PARAGRAPH SENTENCE 43 
 
 whole composition ; that is, it must show unity, 
 massing, and coherence. 
 
 Unity demands that all the thoughts in a sen- 
 tence, in a paragraph, or in the whole theme shall 
 cluster about one main idea. 
 
 Massing demands that the important thoughts 
 shall be placed in prominent places. 
 
 Coherence demands that thoughts shall be closely 
 connected. 
 
 The length of paragraphs is not to be regulated 
 absolutely: the subject-matter to be treated, the 
 appearance of the page, and the comfort of the 
 reader must all be considered. In a dialogue 
 a new paragraph is begun with each change of 
 speaker. 
 
 THE SENTENCE 
 
 Rhetorically, sentences may be classified as 
 periodic, loose, and balanced. 
 
 A Periodic sentence is one that holds the thought 
 in suspense until the end. Example : In all his 
 long life, from the time when, as a twelve-year-old 
 boy, he was roaming in the fields and fishing the 
 streams, to the days of his manhood, when he was 
 upholding the honor of his state in the Senate, he 
 showed the same simple, democratic nature. 
 
 A Loose sentence is one in which there is no 
 attempt to show suspense; the different parts 
 
44 RHETORIC 
 
 may come in where natural ease of expression 
 suggests. 
 
 A Balanced sentence is one in which contrasting 
 thoughts are stated in similar forms. Example : 
 God made the country and man made the town. 
 
 The periodic and the balanced sentence are likely 
 to result in artificiality of expression unless used 
 with care. The loose sentence gives ease and 
 naturalness, but these desirable qualities may easily 
 change to slovenliness of expression in the hands 
 of a careless writer. 
 
 Sentences, like paragraphs, should show unity, 
 massing, and coherence. 
 
 Unity demands that the sentence shall have one 
 main idea. The unity of a sentence is destroyed by 
 putting together ideas that should be separated, by 
 making the wrong idea subordinate, or by making 
 ideas coordinate that are not of equal importance. 
 
 Examples of lack of unity : 
 
 1 . The words are very simple and I think it very strange 
 that a tinker could write such a good book. 
 
 2. We went up the main road about half a mile, when we 
 came to a pasture. 
 
 3. In the hen yard were two beehives and it was there that 
 we spent much time. 
 
 Massing in the sentence demands that the main 
 thought shall be placed where it will " readily catch 
 the eye." 
 
CHOICE AND USE OF WORDS 45 
 
 Coherence demands that the parts shall be so con- 
 nected that the thought will be clear and compact. 
 
 The length of sentences is governed by the effect 
 to be produced. Short sentences give vigor, em- 
 phasis, and rapidity. Long sentences give weight 
 and rhythm. 
 
 A well-constructed sentence keeps the same sub- 
 ject as long as possible. 
 
 All modifying elements should be placed as near 
 as possible to the words they modify. 
 
 A Dangling Element one that modifies nothing 
 must be avoided. Example: Looking into the 
 water, a fish was seen. 
 
 A " Squinting Construction " is one that is so 
 poorly placed in the sentence as to modify equally 
 well the part preceding and the part following. 
 Example : Will you say to Mr. Brown, when he 
 comes, I will be ready. 
 
 Redundancy a weak repetition of an idea 
 must be avoided. 
 
 Verbosity or Prolixity is the fault in sentence- 
 making caused by using needless words, 
 
 CHOICE AND USE OF WORDS 
 
 Good usage the usage of the best writers and 
 speakers sanctions only words that are in repu- 
 table, national, and present usage. 
 
46 RHETORIC 
 
 The term Barbarism is applied to unauthorized 
 language. Some offenses against good usage are 
 the following : - 
 
 1. Obsolete words, words gone out of use. 
 
 2. Provincialisms, words peculiar to some locality. 
 
 3. Colloquialisms, words peculiar to familiar con- 
 versation. 
 
 4. Solecisms, ungrammatical expressions. 
 
 5. Archaisms, expressions which would be obso- 
 lete except for their occasional use in poetry. 
 
 The term Impropriety is used to designate repu- 
 table words misapplied. 
 
 Slang is a general name for current, vulgar, un- 
 authorized language. It may take the form of 
 barbarism or impropriety. 
 
 Use the fewest and simplest words that the 
 subject will bear. 
 
 Specific words are usually more forcible than 
 general terms. 
 
 Foreign and technical terms should be used with 
 care. 
 
 Use idioms wherever it is possible. 
 
 Whatever may be the thing one wishes to say, there is but 
 one word for expressing it ; only one verb to animate it ; only 
 one adjective to qualify it. It is essential to search for this 
 word, for this verb, for this adjective, until they are discovered, 
 and to be satisfied with nothing else. 
 
 FLAUBERT (Advice to Maupassant). 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH 47 
 
 FIGURES OF SPEECH 
 
 Figures of speech are used to make language 
 more effective. The common figures are meta- 
 phor, simile, allegory, personification, apostrophe, 
 metonymy, euphemism, hyperbole, antithesis, irony, 
 climax, onomatopoeia, and alliteration. 
 
 Metaphor and Simile are figures based on resem- 
 blance ; metaphor implies the comparison, while 
 simile expresses it, usually by either like or as. 
 
 Metaphor : 
 
 "Hearty and hale was he, an oak that is covered with 
 snowflakes." 
 
 Simile : 
 
 " Lightsome as a locust leaf, 
 Sir Laimfal flashed forth in his unscarred mail." 
 
 " The gentlemen choristers have evidently been chosen, 
 like old Cremona fiddles, more for tone than looks." 
 
 Allegory is a prolonged metaphor used to teach 
 some abstract truth by the use of symbols. Ex- 
 amples : Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress ; Spenser's 
 Faerie Qucene ; Psalm Ixxx., in which the "vine" 
 stands for the people of Israel. 
 
 Personification attributes life to inanimate objects. 
 When the object is directly addressed, the figure is 
 called Apostrophe. 
 
48 RHETORIC 
 
 Personification : 
 
 " The little brook heard it and built a roof 
 'Neath which he could house him, winter proof." 
 
 Apostrophe : 
 
 " But, O Grief, where hast thou led me ! " 
 
 Metonymy is the substitution of one name for 
 another which it suggests. Examples : 
 
 " She keeps a good table." 
 
 "The pen is mightier than the sword." 
 
 Euphemism is a softened way of expressing an 
 unpleasant thought. 
 
 Direct : He is a liar. 
 
 Euphemistic : He is purposely inaccurate in his statements. 
 
 Hyperbole is effective exaggeration. 
 
 " her eye in heaven 
 
 Would through the airy region stream so bright, 
 That birds would sing and think it were not night." 
 
 Antithesis is a contrast of words or thoughts. 
 Examples : 
 
 " Better be first, he said, in a little Iberian village 
 
 Than be second in Rome." 
 " Fools rush in where angels fear to tread." fu ... 
 
 Irony is hidden satire. 
 
 " 'Tis pretty, sure, and very probable, 
 That eyes, that are the frail'st and softest things, 
 Should be called tyrants, butchers, murderers." 
 
POETRY 49 
 
 Climax states a series of thoughts in the order 
 of their importance, the most important last. 
 A reversal of this order is sometimes used for 
 humorous effect and is called Anti-climax. 
 
 Example of Climax : 
 
 " It is an outrage to bind a Roman citizen ; to scourge him 
 is an atrocious crime ; to put him to death is almost parricide ; 
 but to crucify him what shall I call it ? " 
 
 Onomatopoeia emphasizes the meaning by adapt- 
 ing the sound to the sense. Example from Cata- 
 ract of Lodore : 
 
 "And sounding and bounding and rounding, 
 And bubbling and troubling and doubling, 
 And grumbling and rumbling and tumbling, 
 And clattering and battering and shattering." 
 
 Alliteration repeats the same sound in successive 
 words. Examples : 
 
 " .Silently out of the room there glided the ^listening .ravage, 
 Bearing the xerpentV skin and Deeming himself like a serpent, 
 ^Finding his jinuour way in the t/ark to the depths of the 
 forat." 
 
 POETRY 
 
 The chief object of poetry is to give pleasure. 
 Poetry is usually expressed in verse, though not 
 all verse is poetry, and much of poetic beauty is 
 often found in prose. The diction of poetry is 
 
 K. PRIM. 4 
 
SO RHETORIC 
 
 usually more condensed, picturesque, and archaic 
 than that of prose. 
 
 The materials of poetry are taken from external 
 nature, from imagination, and from human life. 
 
 Blank Verse is that which has no rhyme. 
 
 KINDS OF POETRY 
 
 Poetry is usually classified as epic, lyric, and 
 dramatic poetry ; sometimes a fourth class is added, 
 didactic poetry. Epic and dramatic poetry are 
 alike in that the essential element of each is a 
 story; but in epic poetry the author tells of the 
 acts and words of others, while in dramatic poetry 
 the characters speak and act for themselves. 
 
 EPIC POETRY 
 
 Epic poetry includes five varieties, as follows : 
 
 1. The Great Epic must have a noble subject, 
 serious treatment, a hero, events largely under 
 superhuman control, and a consistent plot. The 
 interest lies in the action. Examples : The Iliad 
 and the Odyssey; Paradise Lost. 
 
 2. The Metrical Romance differs from the great 
 epic in its theme, which is less serious ; its meter, 
 which is lighter; and its control of events, which 
 is mainly human ; the love element is more promi- 
 nent in this form of the epic. Examples : Scott's 
 Marmion and The Lady of the Lake. 
 
POETRY 51 
 
 3. The Tale is a simple form of narrative poetry 
 telling a complete story. Examples : Chaucer's 
 Canterbury Tales ; Tennyson's Enoch Arden. 
 
 4. The Ballad is a direct, rapid, and condensed 
 story, having peculiarities of phrase and poetic 
 accent. The common ballad meter is iambic tetram- 
 eter (pp. 55, 56) alternating with iambic trimeter, 
 in stanzas of four lines each. Examples : Chevy 
 Chase ; Coleridge's Ancient Mariner. 
 
 5. Pastorals and Idylls have a great deal of de- 
 scription, often of simple country scenes, mingled 
 with the narrative. Examples : Goldsmith's De- 
 serted Village ; Tennyson's Idylls of the King. 
 
 DRAMATIC POETRY 
 
 Dramatic poetry tells a story by means of char- 
 acters speaking and acting in such a way as to 
 develop a plot. The drama is divided into acts, 
 often five, the fifth act showing the results of the 
 plot which has been developing. 
 
 The classes of dramatic poetry are tragedy and 
 comedy. 
 
 Tragedy deals with the grave situations and 
 problems of life and engenders in the spectator 
 noble emotions. 
 
 Comedy deals with the pleasanter and more 
 trivial side of life and chooses its subjects from 
 everyday follies, accidents, or humors, 
 
52 RHETORIC 
 
 An Opera is a tragedy or a comedy in which the 
 characters sing their parts. 
 
 The following are special forms of comedy : 
 
 1. The Farce presents ridiculous and exagger- 
 ated situations and characters. It is usually short. 
 
 2. The Melodrama is a form of comedy employ- 
 ing music to some extent, and using situations that 
 are very romantic and sensational. 
 
 3. The Mask is an old form of comedy intro- 
 ducing much of the spectacular, some music, rural 
 scenes, and supernatural characters. 
 
 LYRIC POETRY 
 
 Lyric poetry expresses the deepest emotions or 
 sentiment of the poet. The lyric, as the word 
 suggests, was originally designed to be sung to 
 the music of the lyre. 
 
 Lyric poetry includes five classes, as follows : 
 
 1. Song may be either sacred or secular. 
 
 2. The Ode is the loftiest form of lyric, and ex- 
 presses great range and depth of feeling. This 
 range of emotion often varies the meter. Ex- 
 amples : Tennyson's Ode on the Death of the Duke 
 of Wellington ; Lowell's Commemoration Ode. 
 
 3. The Elegy laments the fleeting condition of 
 human affairs. Examples : Gray's Elegy Written 
 in a Country Churchyard ; Milton's Lycidas ; Ten- 
 nyson's In Memoriam. 
 
POETRY 53 
 
 4. The Sonnet is a short poem of fourteen 
 iambic pentameter lines, and had originally a pre- 
 scribed arrangement of rhyming lines. The great 
 English sonnet writers are Shakespeare, Milton, 
 Wordsworth, and Mrs. Browning. 
 
 What is a sonnet ? T is the pearly shell a 
 
 That murmurs of the far-off murmuring sea ; b 
 
 A precious jewel carved most curiously ; b 
 
 It is a little picture painted well. a 
 
 What is a sonnet ? 'T is the tear that fell a 
 
 From a great poet's hidden ecstasy ; b 
 
 A two-edged sword, a star, a song ah me ! b 
 
 Sometimes a heavy-tolling funeral bell. a 
 
 This was the flame that shook with Dante's breath ; a 
 
 The solemn organ whereon Milton played, b 
 
 And the clear glass where Shakespeare's shadow falls : c 
 
 A sea this is beware who ventureth ! a 
 
 For like a fiord the narrow floor is laid b 
 
 Mid-ocean deep to the sheer mountain walls. c 
 
 R. W. GILDER. 
 
 5. Many lyrics have none of the special aims 
 already mentioned. These may be called Simple 
 lyrics. Example : Burns's To a Daisy. 
 
 DIDACTIC POETRY 
 
 Didactic verse is not the highest type of poetry. 
 Its aim is primarily to instruct. Example: Pope's 
 Essay on Man. 
 
54 RHETORIC 
 
 Poetry that teaches a moral truth is not neces- 
 sarily to be classed as didactic verse. 
 
 One form of didactic poetry is satirical in its 
 tone, thereby adding sharpness to the truth of 
 the intended teaching. Example : Lowell's Biglow 
 Papers. 
 
 METER 
 
 Verse is composition arranged in regularly recur- 
 ring accents and pauses. 
 
 The unit of measure in verse is the Foot. Every 
 foot in poetry (except the spondee, the pyrrhic foot, 
 and the tribrach) has one accented syllable and 
 one or more unaccented syllables. 
 
 Every line of verse has usually at least two 
 pauses. One comes in the body of the line and 
 is called a Caesura, or a caesural pause. The other 
 comes at the end of the line and is called the final 
 pause. Both these pauses must be observed in 
 reading verse. 
 
 Reading verse to show its meter is called Scan- 
 sion. 
 
 Accented syllables may be marked by a macron 
 (_) or by the acute accent ( > ). Unaccented sylla- 
 bles may be marked by a breve (^). 
 
 POETIC LINES 
 
 Monometer = line of one foot. 
 Dimeter = line of two feet. 
 
POETRY 5 5 
 
 Trimeter = line of three feet. 
 Tetrameter = line of four feet. 
 Pentameter = line of five feet. 
 Hexameter = line of six feet. 
 Heptameter = line of seven feet. 
 Octameter = line of eight feet. 
 
 POETIC FEET 
 
 A foot of two syllables with the accent on the 
 first is a Trochee, or a Trochaic Foot (_ w). 
 
 A foot of two syllables with the accent on the 
 second is an Iambus, or an Iambic Foot (w _). 
 
 A foot of two syllables, both accented, is a 
 Spondee, or a Spondaic Foot ( ). 
 
 A foot of two syllables, neither accented, is a 
 Pyrrhic Foot (w w). 
 
 A foot of three syllables with the accent on the 
 first syllable is a Dactyl, or a Dactylic Foot (_ w w). 
 
 A foot of three syllables with the accent on the 
 last syllable is an Anapest, or an Anapestic Foot 
 (w - _). 
 
 A foot of three syllables, no one accented, is a 
 Tribrach. 
 
 A pyrrhic foot and a tribrach are made up of 
 unimportant words and unaccented syllables. 
 
 Some lines show two or more kinds of feet. 
 Such lines are said to be mixed. 
 
 A line is named from the prevailing foot* 
 
56 RHETORIC 
 
 w _ = iambus. 
 _ w = trochee. 
 
 = spondee. 
 
 w w = pyrrhic foot 
 _ w w = dactyl. 
 w w = anapestic foot, 
 w w w = tribrach. 
 
 ^y __ vy vy -^ v^ _ 
 
 I wanjdered lone|ly as | a cloud 
 
 (Iambic tetrameter.) 
 
 Heard the | lapping | of the | water 
 (Trochaic tetrameter.) 
 
 This is the | forest pri|meval ; the | murmuring | 
 
 pines and the | hemlocks 
 
 (Dactylic hexameter.) 
 
 Oh, young | Lochinvar | is come out | of the West 
 (Anapestic tetrameter.) 
 
 One more unfortunate 
 
 (Dactylic dimeter.) 
 
 This was | the no|blest Ro|man of | them all 
 (Iambic pentameter.) 
 
DONETS RHETORICAL AND GRAMMATICAL 57 
 
 "Don'ts," Rhetorical and Grammatical 
 
 Dorit use : 
 
 bound 
 
 most 
 
 real 
 
 funny 
 
 verbal 
 
 aggravating 
 
 mutual 
 
 quite 
 
 some 
 
 good 
 
 except 
 
 bring 
 
 can 
 
 transpire 
 
 leave 
 
 effect 
 
 love 
 
 propose 
 
 mad 
 
 like 
 
 something 
 
 illusion 
 
 statue 
 
 laid 
 
 set 
 
 for determined 
 
 for nearly 
 
 for very 
 
 for odd 
 
 for oral 
 
 for provoking 
 
 for common 
 
 as an adjective 
 
 for somewhat 
 
 for well 
 
 for accept 
 
 for carry or take 
 
 for may 
 
 for happen 
 
 for let 
 
 for affect 
 
 for like 
 
 for purpose or intend 
 
 for vexed or angry 
 
 as a conjunction 
 
 as an adverb 
 
 for allusion 
 
 for statute 
 
 for the past tense of 
 
 for the past tense of 
 
58 GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC 
 
 Don't use: 
 
 health} for healthful 
 
 team for carriage or wagon 
 
 calculate for intend 
 
 learn for teach 
 
 allude for mention 
 
 not with scarcely, hardly, or but to indi- 
 
 cate negation 
 
 different than, scarcely than, or hardly than 
 a noun or pronoun as object of the verb be 
 the nominative case for the object of a preposition 
 ain't for is not or am not or are not 
 
 will with / or we in asking questions 
 
 quantity for number 
 
 awfully for z/^;j 
 
 myself except as an ap positive or a reflex- 
 
 ive pronoun 
 
 that as an adverb instead of so 
 
 a little ways for a short distance 
 worse for more 
 
 witness for see 
 
 fix for arrange or repair 
 
 party for person 
 
 t he se?cc\di those with /rf and ,r0/T 
 a plural pronoun or a plural verb with such words 
 
 as each, every, either, neither, some one, somebody. 
 
 any one, nobody, 
 between for among 
 
HELPS IN WRITING A THEME 59 
 
 between to refer to one object 
 
 had with ought 
 
 woman with widow 
 
 got with have to indicate possession 
 
 HELPS IN WRITING A THEME 
 
 The choice of a subject should be determined 
 by your knowledge and your interest. You must 
 choose a definite subject and the title must be ap- 
 propriate. After the subject is chosen, make as 
 many notes of available thoughts as possible. Ar- 
 range these notes in an outline. Then, with no 
 particular care as to details, write freely all that 
 you have to say. This fluent writing will help to 
 keep the essay free from stiffness. When this 
 first rough draft has been made, the refining proc- 
 ess should begin. Then much thought and care 
 should be taken to insure that the theme has an 
 attractive beginning and a forcible ending; that 
 there is proportion between the parts of the essay ; 
 that matters of importance are elaborated; that 
 unimportant details are omitted; that there is a 
 good division and arrangement of paragraphs; 
 that there is a nice construction of sentences ; 
 and that the details of spelling, capitalization, 
 and punctuation are correct 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abstract nouns, 6. 
 
 Active voice, 16. 
 
 Adjective pronouns, 13. 
 
 Adjectives, 25-27. 
 
 Adverbs, 28. 
 
 Agreement, of nouns, 9; of pro- 
 nouns, 13; of verbs, 18, 19. 
 
 Allegory, 47. 
 
 Alliteration, 49. 
 
 Analogy, use of, in argument, 38. 
 
 Anapest, Anapestic, 55, 56. 
 
 Antecedent, 13. 
 
 Anti-climax, 49. 
 
 Antithesis, 48. 
 
 Apostrophe, figure of speech, 47, 
 48; punctuation mark, 35, 9, 
 10, 13. 
 
 Apposition, 7, 8, 9. 
 
 Archaisms, 46. 
 
 Argument, 38. 
 
 Articles, 25. 
 
 As and so, use of, 30. 
 
 Auxiliary verbs, 1517. 
 
 Balanced sentence, 44. 
 
 Ballad, 51. 
 
 Barbarism, 46. 
 
 >e, conjugation of, 25, 
 
 Blank verse, 50. 
 
 Brief, 38. 
 
 Business letters, 39, 40. 
 
 Caesura, 54. 
 
 Can, use of, 16. 
 
 Capitals, use of, 33. 
 
 Cardinal numerals, 26. 
 
 Case, 7-9. 
 
 Clauses, 32. 
 
 Climax, 49. 
 
 Coherence, 43, 45. 
 
 Collective noun, 6, 19. 
 
 Colloquialisms, 46. 
 
 Colon, use of, 34. 
 
 Comedy, 51, 52. 
 
 Comma, use of, 33, 34. 
 
 Common noun, 6. 
 
 Comparative degree, 26. 
 
 Comparison, of adjectives, 26, 27; 
 
 of adverbs, 28. 
 Complete predicate, 31. 
 Complete subject, 31. 
 Complete verb, 15. 
 Complex sentence, 31. 
 Complimentary close, of a letter 
 
 39- 
 
 Composition, forms of, 36. 
 Compound nouns, plural of, IQ C 
 Compound sentence, 31. 
 Conjugation, 20-25. 
 Conjunctions, 29, 30. 
 Conjunctive adverbs, 28, 30. 
 Coordinate conjunctions, 30. 
 Correlative conjunctions, 30. 
 
62 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Dactyl, Dactylic, 55, 56. 
 Dangling element, 45. 
 Dash, use of, 35. 
 Declarative sentence, 31. 
 Declension, 11-13. 
 Defective verb, 15. 
 Demonstrative adjectives, 26. 
 Demonstrative pronouns, 13. 
 Dependent clause, 32. 
 Description, 37. 
 Descriptive adjective, 25. 
 Dialogue, paragraphing of, 43. 
 Didactic poetry, 53, 54. 
 Dimeter, 54, 56. 
 Don'ts, 57-59. 
 Dramatic poetry, 51, 52. 
 
 Elegy, 52. 
 
 Emphatic form of verb, 17. 
 Epic poetry, 50, 51. 
 Euphemism, 48. 
 Exclamatory sentence, 31. 
 Excuse for absence, 42. 
 Expletive, 19. 
 Exposition, 37. 
 
 Farce, 52. 
 
 Feminine gender, 7. 
 Figures of speech, 47-49. 
 Foot (poetic), 54-56. 
 Future perfect tense, 17. 
 Future tense, 17. 
 
 Gender, 7. 
 
 Genitive case, 8. 
 
 Gerund, 18; possessive case with, 
 
 9- 
 Grammar, 5. 
 
 Heading, of a letter, 38. 
 Helps in writing a theme, 59. 
 Heptameter, 55. 
 Hexameter, 55, 56. 
 Hyperbole, 48. 
 Hyphen, use of, 35. 
 
 Iambus, Iambic, 55, 56. 
 Idiom, 5. 
 
 Imperative mode, 17. 
 Imperative sentence, 31. 
 Impropriety, 46. 
 Incomplete verb, 15. 
 Indefinite adjectives, 26. 
 Indefinite pronouns, 13. 
 Independent clause, 32. 
 Indicative mode, 16. 
 Infinitive, 1 8. 
 Infinitive in ing, 18. 
 Infinitive phrase, 33. 
 Inflection, 5. 
 Interjections, 30. 
 Interrogative adjectives, 26. 
 Interrogative pronouns, 13. 
 Interrogative sentence, 31. 
 Intransitive verb, 15. 
 Invitations, 39, 41, 42. 
 Irregular verb, 15. 
 Irony, 48. 
 Italics, use of, 35, 34. 
 
 Letter writing, 38-42. 
 Loose sentence, 43, 44. 
 Lyric poetry, 52, 53. 
 
 Masculine gender, 7. 
 Mask, 52. 
 Massing, 43, 44. 
 
May, use of, 16. 
 Measure, nouns showing, 6. 
 Melodrama, 52. 
 Metaphor, 47. 
 Meter, 54-56. 
 Metonymy, 48. 
 Metrical romance, 50. 
 Mixed lines (of poetry), 55. 
 Modal adverbs, 28. 
 Mode, 1 6, 17. 
 Monometer, 54. 
 Mood, 1 6. 
 
 Narration, 36, 37. 
 Negative expressions, use of, 28. 
 Neuter gender, 7. 
 New conjugation, 15. 
 Nominative case, 7. 
 Noun clauses, use of, 32. 
 Nouns, 6-io; agreement of, 9. 
 Number, 7; of verb, 18, 19. 
 
 Object, case of, 8. 
 Object, indirect, 8. 
 Object of a preposition, 29. 
 Objective case, 8. 
 Obsolete words, 46. 
 Octameter, 55. 
 Ode, 52. 
 
 Old conjugation, 15. 
 Onomatopoeia, 49. 
 Opera, 52. 
 Order of words, 5. 
 Ordinal numerals, 26. 
 
 Paragraph, 42, 43. 
 Parenthesis, 35. 
 Participial phrase, 33. 
 Participle, 18. 
 
 Parts of speech, 5. 
 
 Passive voice, 16. 
 
 Past tense, 17. 
 
 Pentameter, 55, 56. 
 
 Perfect tense, 17. 
 
 Periodic sentence, 43, 44. 
 
 Person, 7. 
 
 Personal pronouns, 11-13. 
 
 Personification, 47, 48. 
 
 Phrases, 33. 
 
 Plot, 36. 
 
 Pluperfect, 17. 
 
 Plural form of nouns, 10. 
 
 Plural number, 7. 
 
 Poetic feet, 54-56. 
 
 Poetic lines, 54, 55. 
 
 Poetry, 49-56; kinds of, 50-54; 
 
 meter, etc., 54-56. 
 Positive degree, 26. 
 Possessive case, 8, 9. 
 Possessive forms of nouns, 8, 9. 
 Possessive forms of pronouns, 1 2, 
 
 13- 
 
 Postal card, 39, 40. 
 Potential mode, 16. 
 Predicate, 31. 
 Predicate adjective, 27. 
 Predicate noun, 9, 7, 8. 
 Prepositional phrase, 33. 
 Prepositions, 28, 29. 
 Present tense, 17, 18. 
 Principal clause, 32. 
 Principal parts of a verb, 17. 
 Principal verb, 15. 
 Progressive form, 17. 
 Prolixity, 45. 
 
 Pronominal adjectives, 26. 
 Pronouns, 1 1-14 ; agreement, 13. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Proper nouns, 6. 
 Provincialisms, 46. 
 Punctuation, 33-35. 
 Pyrrhic foot, 55. 
 
 Quotation marks, use of, 35. 
 
 Redundancy, 45. 
 
 Reflexive use of pronouns, 12. 
 
 Regular verb, 15. 
 
 Relative adverbs, 30. 
 
 Relative pronouns, 13. 
 
 Rhetoric, 36. 
 
 Row, conjugation of, 20-25. 
 
 Salutation, of a letter, 39. 
 
 Scansion, 54. 
 
 Semicolon, use of, 34. 
 
 Sentences, classified grammati- 
 cally, 31; classified by struc- 
 ture, 31; in rhetoric, 43-45. 
 
 Shall and will, use of, 19, 20. 
 
 Should, use of, 19, 20. 
 
 Sign of the infinitive, 1 8. 
 
 Simile, 47. 
 
 Simple predicate, 31. 
 
 Simple sentence, 31. 
 
 Simple subject, 31. 
 
 Singular number, 7. 
 
 Slang, 46. 
 
 So and as, use of, 30. 
 
 Solecisms, 46. 
 
 Song, 52. 
 
 Sonnet, 53. 
 
 Spondee, Spondaic, 55. 
 
 Squinting construction, 45. 
 Strong conjugation, 15. 
 Subject, 31 ; case of, 7, 8. 
 Subjunctive mode, 16. 
 Subordinate clause, 32. 
 Subordinate conjunction, 30, 29. 
 Superlative degree, 26. 
 Syntax, 5. 
 
 Tale (poetry), 51. 
 
 Tenses, 17, 18; in dependent 
 
 clauses, 18. 
 Tetrameter, 55, 56. 
 Theme writing, 59. 
 Tragedy, 51, 52. 
 Transitive verb, 15. 
 Tribrach, 55. 
 Trimeter, 55. 
 Trochee, Trochaic, 55, 56. 
 
 Unity, 43, 44. 
 
 Verbal noun, 18. 
 
 Verbosity, 45. 
 
 Verbs, 14-25; use of, 18, 19; 
 
 number of, 18, 19. 
 Verse, 54. 
 Vocative, 8. 
 Voice, 1 6. 
 
 Weak conjugation, 15. 
 
 Will, use of, 19, 20. 
 
 Would, use of, 19, 20. 
 Words, choice and use of, 45, 46; 
 faulty uses of, 57-59. 
 
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