SlllUllil lUIIUIil IIIUHUiliHlillninilllllU III lllHill IIIIII^ CQMPO = SITION AND RHETORIC FOR SCHOOLS HERRICKandDAMOI' UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES GIFT OF Dr. ERNEST C. MOCRE COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC FOR SCHOOLS BY ROBERT HERRICK, A.B. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OP ENGLISH IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO AND LINDSAY TODD DAMON, A.B. PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC, BROWN UNIVERSITY REVISED EDITION CHICAGO SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 1908 COPYRIGHT, 1899, 1902, BY SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY PREFACE Certain beliefs in reference to the teaching of English composition in schools have inlluenced the authors in preparing the present text-book. 1. In the earliest years, the critical aim in teaching should be subordinated to the constructive, stimulative aim; the pupil should be encouraged to write freely and even unconsciously at first, to form habits of thought and of invention before his expression is minutely criticised and pruned. For this reason Part I has been made a pre- liminary course of constructive work. To these chapters nothing of a merely negative or minutely critical nature has been admitted. The processes of work that a con- scientious writer follows are described, as closely as possi- ble in the natural order in which these processes occur in a writer's experience. 2. Much, if not all, of the usual freshman course of rhetoric in colleges can properly be included in the second- ary course in English without requiring more time than is already devoted to the subject. In view of the fact that only a small percentage of the students of secondary schools enter college, it seems desirable to present to tlie high-school pupil all the elementary facts of style, such as usage, important rhetorical principles, and paragraphing. Many of the best text-books designed for schools, however, are purposely incomplete in treatment; they take for granted that the student will pursue a further course of instruction. 3. In the usual secondary course, the text-book in rhetoric is too markedly separated from the work in com- 3 4 PREFACE position. Frequently it is assigned to be taught during one year of the course, or one term of a year, and is after- wards dismissed from the pupil's attention. Tliis is due in part to the fact that most text-books are designed for a short course, in which the subject is presented methodic- ally and theoretically. The authors of the present book believe that the text-book should accompany the pupil as far as possible through his course — at least for two years. Part I is intended to provide for a year's class-work \a composition; Parts II, III, and IV are intended for a second year of more systematic drill in the principles of rhetoric. Part V may either be included in the second year or expanded to give work for an additional year. This lengthening of the course does not imply, however, that daily lessons in the text-book should be required. Probably one recitation period each week will be sufficient for the formal work on the text-book. 4. From the design of Part I it results naturally that some topics are treated twice in the book. The authors feel that this repetition in the practical study of an art is not only desirable, but even essential, in order that the young writer may be taught to consider again and again, under new aspects, the few old and rather obvious rhetorical truths. The application of these truths in new circumstances is the important matter. The aim of the authors in this particular has been to prepare a book for teaching, not a systematic treatise. 5. With this aim in view, much attention has been given to the exercises. A school-book on writing should present rhetorical theory as a necessary comment upon the exercises, not the exercises as an appendix to the text. In spite of the extended exercises provided for each chapter, teachers will probably find it wise to supplement rather than curtail thio part of the book. Again for the sake of practical results in teaching, a large part of the illus- PREFACE 5 trative material in the exercises has been taken from the writing of yonng students. Beginners learn by observing the defects and the excellences of compositions within their own power of emulation, not by the exclusive study of masterpieces. For the same reason it has been deemed wise to leave these crude examples of writing in as natural a state as possible. Only the grosser blunders have been removed, for, while each extract has been chosen to illus- trate one specific error, the other obvious faults of compo- sition that appear will provide opportunities for exercising the pupil's critical skill. Further, it is assumed that the study of literature will accompany the course in composi- tion, and that illustrations of effective writing to supple- ment those given in the text will not be hard to find. 6. Finally, a word must be said about two debatable points. The use of examples of bad English to teach cor- rect English usage has been widely condemned of late years, yet this book follows tlie older method in providing, in Part II, copious exercises of this nature. Much can bo said in favor of this form of exact drill in usage. In many cases, it is the only effective method. Still, wherever a teacher deems that his class would be harmed by examples of bad English, he can easily omit the debatable sections of Chapters IX, X, XI, XII, XIII. Again, the authors have felt doubtful whether formal treatment of the kinds of composition should be included in a secondary school course. As the pupil meets the various literary forms in his study of English classics, however, some discussion of the general laws underlying them would seem to be useful at this period No text-book should pretend to completeness of treat- ment or to exclusive originality of presentation, least of all a text-book upon the subtle and baffling subject of literary expression. The authors of Composition and Rhetoric for b PREFACE Schools have borrowed so largely and so obviously from the common sources of rhetorical doctrine that acknowledg- ment is superfluous. Yet they desire to acknowledge their constant indebtedness to their teachers, Professors A. S. Hill and Barrett "Wendell, of Harvard University, and to Professor G. R. Carpenter, of Columbia University, whose text-book, Exercises in Rhetoric and English Composition, they have used in their classes. Thanks are also due Assistant Professor Eobert Morss Lovett and Mr. James Weber Linn, of the University of Chicago, for helpful comment on the proof. The credit for the exercises of this book is due very largely to Miss Edith Burnham Foster, of the University of Chicago, who selected and arranged the illustrative material, and who suggested not a few of the questions in them. For her intelligent and painstaking labor the authors are very grateful. Chicago, April 19, 1899. THE REVISED EDITION The experience of the three years during which Com- position and Rhetoric for Schools has been used has not led the authors to modify in any important detail, as to plan or treatment, the conclusions expressed in the preface of the first edition. In preparing a revised edition they have sought to simplify and condense the text so far as possible and to adapt the exercises, epecially in Part I, much more closely to the needs of young students. The authors are indebted to Professor C. L. Kittredge for permission to quote from Wot'ds and Their Ways in English Speech. Thanks are also due Assistant Professor G. W, Benedict and Mr. 0. "W. Latham, both of Brown University, for valuable criticisms on parts of the proof. June, 1903. I TABLE OF CONTENTS (SYNOPSIS) PART I PRELIMINARY WORK CHAPTER I COMPOSITION— ORAL AND WRITTEN SECTION PAGE 1. Expression the Object of Our Study 15 2. Composition Defined 15 3. Rlietoric Defined 16 4. Rhetoric Further Explained 16 6. The Value of Oral Composition 17 6. Differences between Spoken and Written Composition 18 7. The Pleasui'e in Composition 19 8. Themes 19 CHAPTER II WHAT TO WRITE ABOUT 9. How to Choose a Subject 24 1. The Writer's Interest in His Subject 24 2. The Writer's Previous Information about His Subject 25 3. The Question of Size 25 4. Definite Subjects the Best 26 10. Finding Material to Write About 27 1. The Reporter's Method 27 2. Themes about Books 28 3. Material from Other Studies 30 4. Material from Newspapers and Magazines 30 11. Summary of Chapter 31 CHAPTER III BUILDING THE THEME 12. Different Methods of Writing 35 13. Preliminary Work upon the Theme — Notes 35 7 8 COMPOSITIOX AND RHETORIC SECTION PAGE 14. Complete Drafts 38 15. A Second Subject 41 16. Titles 47 CHAPTER IV PARAGRAPHING 17. Natural Divisions of a Subject 53 18. Divisions Easily Perceived in Good Writinj^ 54 19. Paragraphs 50 20. Length of Paragraphs 57 21. Paragraph Topics 58 22. Toj)ic-Sentences Continued 59 CHAPTER V BUILDING SENTENCES 23. Definition of the Sentence 80 24. Groups of Words That Are Not Sentences 8U 25. Content of the Sentence 82 26. Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences 83 27. Advantages of Compound and Complex Sentences... 84 28. Variety in Sentence Forms Needed 85 CHAPTER VI HOW TO INCREASE A VOCABULARY 29. Advantages of Having a Large Vocabulary 96 - 30. Two Kinds of Vocabularies 100 31. Use of the Vocabulary Notebook 101 32. Study of Synonyms 102 33. The Use of Concordances. * 102 34. Translation 104 35. Special Vocabularies 105 36. Summary of Cliapter 106 CHAPTER VII A REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION 37. Uses of Punctuation 114 38. How to Learn Punctuation 115 39. The Comma 115 40. The Semicolon 118 41. Tlie Colon 119 42. The Period 119 TABLE OF CONTEXTS 9 SECTION PAGE 43. Marks of Interrogation and Exclamation 119 M. The Dash 120 45. The Apostrophe 121 46. Parentheses ( ) and ^Brackets [ ] 121 47. Capitals " 121 48. Italics 122 40. Quotation Marks 122 CHAPTER VIII LETTERS 50. Letter Writing 130 51. Usage in Letters 130 52. Business Letters 131 53. Formal Letters in the First Person 132 64. Formal Letters in the Third PersDo 132 55. Informal Notes 133 56. Cautions 133 PAET II USAGE CHAPTER IX GOOD USE 57. Tlie Basis of "Good Use" 143 58. Good Use a Relative Term 144 59. Good Use Defined 145 60. The Three Requirements of Good Use 14G 61. Present Use 14G 62. National Use 148 63. Reputable Use 154 64. How to Get a Reputable Vocabulary 156 CHAPTER X BARBARISMS 65. Barbarisms, or Words Not English 162 66. Obvious Vulgarisms 163 67. Slang 163 68. Newspaper Words 164 69. Vulgarisms Hard to Recognize 164 70. Abbreviations Not in Good Use 165 71. Foreign Words , 165 10 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC CHAPTER XI IMPROPRIETIES SECTION PAGE 72. Improprieties Defined 168 73. "Shall" and "Will," "Should" and "Would" 169 74. "Shall" and "Will" 170 75. "Should" and "Would" 172 76. Some Common Improprieties 175 77. Verbs 175 7,8. Nouns 179 79. Adverbs 183 80. Prepositions and Conjunctions 184 81. Adjectives 184 CHAPTER XII GRAMMAR — GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE 82. The Sense in Which Grammar Is Here Used 194 83. Nouns 195 84. Pronouns 196 85. Verbs 197 86. Adjectives and Adverbs 198 87. Lack of Agreement in Number 200 1. Subject and Predicate 200 2. Pronoun and Antecedent 201 88. False Correlations of the Double Conjunctions 201 89. Omission of "a" or "the" 201 90. Omission of Words Necessary to the Sense 202 91. "Which," Used with a Phiase or a Clause as Its Ante- cedent 202 92. Misuse of "and" 203 98. Double Subject and Object 203 CHAPTER XIII IDIOM AND TRANSLATION-ENGLISH 94. Idiom Defined 210 95. Unidiomatic Phrasing. . 211 96. Unidiomatic Constructions. 212 97. Unidiomatic Order of Words. 213 98. Translation-English 213 TABLE OF CONTENTS H PART III DICTION CHAPTER XIV NUMBER OF WORDS SECTION PAGE 99. The Value of Brevity 223 100. Superfluous Words 223 101. Superfluous Details 227 CHAPTER XV DISCRIMINATION IN THE CHOICE OF WORDS 102. Good Diction Partly a Matter of Taste 234 103. "Fine Writing" a Fault 234 104. Triteness Often a Form of "Fine Writing" 238 105. The Value of Simplicity 240 106. The Suggestive Power of Words ^ 243 107. Specific and General Words 244 108. Figures of Speech an Aid to Suggestion 246 109. The Faults of Figurative Diction 247 110. Accuracy and Individuality in Our Choice of Words. . 249 PART IV RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES CHAPTER XVI A SURVEY OF THE CHIEF RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES 111. The Nature of Rhetorical Principles 261 112. Selection 262 113. Unity 262 114. Coherence 263 116. Emphasis 364 116. Proportion 264 117. Climax 264 118. Necessity of Observing These Principles 264 CHAPTER XVII UNITY IN SENTENCES 119. Unity Defined 268 120. Unity of Thought 269 12 COMPOSITION" AXD RHETORIC SECTION PAGE 121. The Relation of tlie Sentence to the Paragraph 371 122. Unitj^ of Form • 273 123. The Compound Form Often Destructive to Unity 275 124. Summary of Chapter ' 275 CHAPTER XVIII COHERENX'E IN SENTENCES 125. Coherence Defined 282 126. Ambiguity Defined 282 127. Ambiguous Arrangement of Words 283 128. Ambiguous Pronouns 284 129. Ambiguous Participles and Verbal Nouns in "ing".. 286 130. Incoherence from Misuse of Connectives 287 131. Incoherence from Shifts of Construction 288 132. Some Ways of Securing Coherence 291 133. Summary of Chapter 393 CHAPTER XIX FORCE IN SENTENCES 13i. Force Partly Dependent on tiie Form of Sentences. . . 299 135. Long and Sliort Sentences 301 136. Loose and Periodic Sentences 304 137. Devices for Gaining Periodicity 307 138. Einpliasis in Sentences 308 139. Summary of Chapter 310 CHAPTER XX THE STRUCTURE OF THE^SINGLE PARAGRAPH 140. Definition of the Paragraph 318 141. The Tliree Principles Governing the Single Paragraph 319 142. Paragraph Unity Defined 321 143. Paragraj^hs Too Long for Unity 323 144. I'aragraphs Too Short for Unity 334 145. Paragraph Colierence Defined 326 146. Incolierence from Faulty Arrangement 326 147. Connectives an Aid to Coherence 327 148. S-iiuilarity of Sentence-Structure Sometimes an Aid to Coherence 329 1 49. Emphasis in Paragraphs 330 150. Summary of Chapter 338 TABLE or CONTEXTS 13 CHAPTER XXI THE STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION SECTION PAGE 151. The Relation of the Paragraph to the Whole Compo- sition 342 152. Unity in the Whole Composition 343 153. Proportion in the Whole Composition 343 154. The Order of the Paragraphs in the Whole Composi- tion 343 155. The Plan, or Outline 34.j 1 56. The Use of Connectives 347 157. How to Open the Whole Composition 349 158. How to End the Whole Composition 351 PART V KINDS OF COMPOSITION CHAPTER XXII SUMMARIES 159. IMany Forms of the Wliole Composition. 301 160. Defimtion of Smnmaries 361 161. Different Methods of Summai"izing 363 162. Proportion Must be Observed 364 163. Style 366 164. Summaries of Novels and Plays 366 CHAPTER XXIII ORIGINAL COMPOSITION— DESCRIPTIVE AND NARRATIVE WRITING 165. Original Composition 374 166. Two Kinds of Material: Objects and Ideas 375 167. The Nature of Description 376 168. Description for the Purpose of Indentification 376 169. Literary Description 377 170. The Princijiles of Unity and Coherence ^Applied to Description 378 171. The Interest of Descriptive Writing 379 172. The Nature of Narration 380 173. The Principle cf Selection in Narration 381 1-t . COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC SECTION PAGE 174. The Importance" of Coherence in Narration 382 1 75. Unity, Proportion, and Climax in Narration 382 170. Qualities of Excellent Narrative Writing 383 CHAPTER XXTV ORIGINAL COMPOSITION — EXPOSITORY AND ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING 177. Terms 390 178. Distinction between Description and Exposition.... 390 179. Hints for Use in Writing Exposition 391 180. Argument 393 181. Cautions 394 182. Proof 395 183. Parts of an Argument 395 184. The Outline or Brief 396 185. Rhetorical Princii^les in Argument 399 186. The Use of Exposition and Argument in Learning How to Write 399 APPENDIX A Figures of Speech 407 APPENDIX B A. Subjects Drawn from Literature 415 B. Character Sketches 416 C. Historical Subjects 417 D. Descriptive Subjects 417 E. Narrative Subjects 418 F. Unclassified Subjects 419 tl. Subjects for Short Themes 421 APPENDIX C A List of the Commoner Abbreviations in Good Use 424 APPENDIX D Abbreviations and Signs for Use in Correcting Themes 426 Index 427 PART I PKELIMINARY WORK CHAPTER I COMPOSITION— ORAL AND WRITTEN 1. Expression the Object of Our Study. —Every one seeks to make known his thoughts and feelings to others in some way. Even when we do not speak, we express ourselves in our faces or in our actions. As long as we do this naturally without thinking about what we are doing, we do not hesitate to express ourselves freely. But when we begin to write our thoughts, we think about what we are doing, and something seems to clog our minds, the words we want will not come, the sen- tences will not form themselves and join together prop- erly — in short, we fail to express ourselves. No one enjoys doing anything badly ; at first few enjoy writing, no matter how much they may have to say. Practice in composition and a knowledge of rhetorical principles help us to overcome the difficulties of Avriting, and enable us to express easily our thoughts and feelings, 2. Composition Defined. — In both speaking and writing, single words would answer our purpose, if we had only de- tached, single facts to express. But as thought is made up of related ideas, we must unite words into sentences, and sentences into larger bodies — paragraphs and whole compositions. The selection of words, therefore, or even the forming of sentences, is only a part of our task. We may have the right word for every idea, we may also form correct sentences, and yet fail to express our thought. 15 16 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC To complete our work, we must put our sentences to- gether in an orderly statement. This building a whole out of separate elements is called composition; the word "composition" (from the Latin words cum and pono) means literally the putting together of something. Our study is literary composition, that is, the putting together of ideas expressed in words. We should remember, however, that there are many other forms of composition. The artist who paints a picture, the sculp- tor who models a statne, the musician who writes a symphony, the architect who builds a house, just as much as the author of a book, are all composers. 3. Rhetoric Defined. — When we compose sentences, we should select proper Avords and unite them according to certain rules of language called grammar. The boy who says, "He don't care if he bust the window," fails in both points. He uses "bust," which is not English, and he unites the plural form of the verb "do" Avith the singular pronoun of the third person. But rhetoric goes further than this. It teaches us that if we wish to express ourselves well, it is not enough to clioose proper words and to unite them correctly; they must also be united effectively. Moreover, the sentences and the groups of sentences must be put together, or composed, effectively. The study that teaches us the principles of correct and effective composition is called rhetoric, 4. Rhetoric Further Explained. — Rhetoric does not, like grammar, answer only the question of right or wrong in composition; it also helps us to decide between two or more correct forms of composition when we are in doubt which is the best one: as, for example, when we are undecided whether we shall use a long or a short sentence; or whether a given paragraph belongs to one part of a chapter or another. Grammar deals with words and sen- tences only; rhetoric deals with words, sentences, para- COMPOSITIOX — ORAL AXD WRITTEIs 17 graphs, and the whole composition. Gmmmar teaches us rules, which are to a large degree fixed ; rhetoric teaches us principles, Avhich are only general directions for obtain- ing effective composition. The word rhetoric has an unfortunate use in popular speech. We hear frequently statements something like these: "In spite of all his rhetoric, he did not deceive me"; "Then he grew rhetorical" (meaning bombastic or pompous). When people use the word in this sense, they imply that the study of rhetoric enal)les a writer or speaker to play tricks on his audience and make them believe that black is white, or teaches him how to make trivial thoughts appear important. To this is due the common feeling about rhetoric, — that it is an art of deception, against which we should be on our guard. The true rhetorician, however, teaches tlie writer not to decorate poor thought or to parade borrowed ideas, but to express his meaning clearly, exactly. What is conmionly called rhetoric is frequently a violation of the real prin- ciples of rhetoric. 5. The Value of Oral Composition. — AVriting, as has been said before, seems to most of us a very hard task, which demands great skill and natural ability, if not genius. To write even a letter seems to the beginner to require special talent. Thoughts fly apart when it comes to putting them on paper. Yet each one of us engages in composition many times every day: every spoken sen- tence, every recitation, every conversation with friends, is an unconscious act of composition — an exercise in jiut- ting our thoughts together and expressing them in words. The constant practice which we get in spoken compo- sition will help or hinder us in the more difficult art of written composition according as we speak carefully or carelessly. Moreover, whatever we find really worth talking about is 18 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC worth writing about at greater or less extent. Choose topics for composition from subjects that are familiar in daily talk ; write on them freely much as you talk ; and, conversely, discuss with friends the suhjoot you intend to write about. 6. Differences between Spoken and Written Composition. — Nevertheless, oral composition, or talk, differs in certain respects from written composition. It is less formal. Contractions such as "don't," "it's," "can't," which give naturalness to talk, are used sparingly, or not at all, in writing. Words, phrases, even subjects and predicates are omitted in the hurry of conversation, and must be supplied in writing, for in tlie latter case we can not depend on the gestures and the facial expression of the speaker to complete the meaning. Writing should be, also, more orderly than conversation. We speak our thoughts rapidly in the order in which they come to us. This order, however, is often not the logical one, and when we write, we should take time to arrange our ideas and to make plain the connection between them. Moreover, although Avritten sentences are coming to be more like spoken sentences than in the past, they are usually longer, more complicated, and more closely knit together than the sentences we speak. For example, we should not be likely to unite in one spoken sentence so many thoughts as Haw- thorne does in the following written sentence: In the growth of the town, however, after some thirty or forty years, the site covered by this rude hovel had become ex- ceeding desirable in the eyes of a prominent and powerful personage, who asserted plausible claims to the proprietorship of this and a large adjacent tract of land, on the strength of a grant of land from the Legislature. And these sentences, natural and proper in conversation, would scarcely be suitable for written composition: Yes! There is the boat now. See— just creeping around that head of land. Five minutes more, and he'll be home. Come! Let's .surprise him. COMPOSITION — ORAL AND WRITTEN 19 We should keep in mind these distinctions and not allow ourselves, when writing, the liberties of speech. At bot- tom, however, the art of composition is the same whether we practice it unconsciously in talk, or more carefully with the aid of pen and paper. In either case the object is to express our thoughts and feelings exactly, and to interest others in what we have to say. 7. The Pleasure in Composition. — If good writing does not differ really from good talking, and we find pleas- ure in expressing ourselves in speech, then the task of composition on paper should not be distasteful. Just as soon as we learn to use the pen without thinking about it, we shall find delight in writing. Composition is a voy- age of discovery, a jierpetual experiment. Every word is a new element; every phrase or sentence, a new com- pound. Since we can vary these infinitely at our pleasure, we can have forms to express each new idea. And no one is without ideas to express. Our thoughts may be simple and commonplace, but they are worth expressing well. 8. Themes. — Practice in written composition is the only means by which wo can make writing as natural and as easy as oral composition. The course of study outlined in this book assumes that the student is writing weekly exer- cises, sometimes daily ones. For convenience we shall refer to these exercises in composition as themes. We shall find it useful to have some method in our work; the following suggestions,* especially No. 5, in reference to rewriting, have been found helpful: 1 Both instructor and student will find it of great advantage if these direc- tions are followed invariably. Without attention to system a large number of manuscripts can not be handled easily. All themes should be handed in promptly at the date and the hour set. This is a courtesy due the instruc- tor. If no excuses are accepted, the student will And it easy to be punctual and will experience great relief from the annoyance of delayed work. If all the themes when finally returned by the student are kept together in the classroom, they will be found useful for an occasional review. At times it will be well for a student to try again a subject which he has treated poorly in an earlier theme. W COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 1. Poper.— Ruled white paper of uniform size should be used; a convenient shape is the large letter form, about eight by ten inches. These sheets, when lianded to the instructor, may be folded once lengthwise. Each sheet should be numbered. The task of examining papers is made less difficult if only one side of the sheet is used. 2. Margins. — On the left of the page the student should leave a margin an inch wide for the instructor's comments. 3. Indorsement. — Every theme should be indorsed carefully, to show the name, class, and date, tlius: James L. Smith (not "Jim" Smith). English, Class 1. November 23, 1902. It should be remembered that a neat manuscript and a careful indorsement make d favorable impression upon the reader. 4. Titles. — Every theme should receive a title. This, we shall see later, is often not the same as the subject announced by the instructor. 5. Rewriting and Revising. — When the manuscript is returned, with the instructor's written comments, the student should read the theme carefully and study the suggestions made. If after referring to the .sections of the rhetoric to which they relate lie does not understand them, he should consult the instructor before attempting to rewrite his theme. Somewhere on the theme he will find a general criticism, usually accompanied b\' a direction to Rewrite or to Revise. "Rewrite" does not mean merely copy the manuscript ; that is an exercise in penmanship, not in composition. "Rewrite" is a direction to reconstruct tlie theme according to the suggestions made by the instructor. In rewriting, however, the student should not rely entirely on the instructor: usually by the time the theme has been returned, he will see for himself where he can improve his first effort. Tliis is his final opportunity to make a complete :ind finished piece of work. Rewriting often requires more skill and j)atience, and teaches one more about composition, than the easy i^roduction of the first copy. It does 'not nec- essarily follow that a theme is of poor grade because the student is requested to rewrite ; it implies freqiiently that the thought contained in the theme is worth working over. "Revi.se," on the otiier hand, directs the student to correct mistakes and improve we;ik passages on the original manust^ript. Sometimes, it will be necessary to rewrite parts of themes which, as a whole, need COMPOSITIOX — ORAL AJTD WRITTEN" 21 only revision. Both the old and the new theme should be handed to the instructor finally, so that he may judge intelli- gently what advance the student has made. The final mark^ and the only important one — is that which the rewritten or revised theme receives. Exercise I A. Define composition and rhetoric. What relation has grammar to the art of composition? B. Is rhetoric "the art of adornment"? Does the study of rhetoric supply the writer with ideas? With a stock of beautiful phrases? What is the aim of the study of rhetoric? What is meant by the word "effective" as used in section 3? C. What other methods of expressing thought besides speech and writing can you name? What advantages has written composition over these? Is composition concerned with words alone? D. What are the differences between oral and written composition? Illustrate these differences by commenting on a passage of dialogue from a story that you are read- ing. Select a narrative passage from the same story and give the ideas as they might be expressed in conversation. E. Write out, as nearly as you can remember it, the last conversation you had with a friend on one of the following topics: "Onr football team"; The last basket-ball game; A trip with my camera; Howl spent my vacation; My studies for this year; A sail; A bicycle ride; A good dinner. F. Tell the story of the following dialogue in as few words as possible- A RUSSIAN FABLE One blind from birth asked a man who could see, "What color is milk?" The man who could see replied, '"The color of milk is like white paper." 22 COMPOSITION' AN'D RHETORIC The blind man a.sked, "Tliis color rustles in the hands like paper?" The man who could see replied, "No, it is white like wliite flour." Tlie blind man asked, ''Then it is soft and tine like flour, is it?" The man who could see replied, "No, it is simplj' wliite, like a i-abbit." Tlie blind man asked, "Then it is downy and soft like a rabbit, is it?" The man who could see replied, "No; white is a color exactly like snow." The blind man asked, "Then it is cold like snow, is it?" And in spite of all the comparisons which the man who could see made, still the blind man was wholly unable to comj^rehend what the color of milk really was. — ToLexoi: The Long Exile and Other Stories. G. Put as much as possible of the following stories into dialogue : A CHRISTMAS GOOSE There never wa.s such a goose. Bob said he didn't believe there ever was such a goose cooked. Its tenderness and flavor, size and cheapness, were the themes of universal admiration. Eked out by the aj^ple sauce and mashed potatoes, it was a suffi- cient dinner for the whole family; indeed, as Mrs. Cratchit said with great delight (surveying one small atom of a bone on the dish), they hadn't ate it all at last! . . . But now, the plates being changed by Miss Belinda, Mrs. Cratchit left the room alone — too nervous to bear witness — to bring the pudding in. . . . In half a minute she entered: flushed, but smiling proudly: with the pudding like a speckled cannon-ball, so hard and firm. . . . Oh, a wonderful pudding! Bob Cratchit said, and calmly, too, that he regarded it as the greatest success achieved by ]\Irs. Cratchit since their marriage. Mrs. Cratchit said that now the weight was off Jier mind, she would confess that she had had her doubts about the quantity of flour. Everybody had something to say about it, but nobody said or thought it was at all a small pudding for so large a family. — Dickens: A Christmas Carol. HERCULES AND THE GIANT The giant looked down from the height of his great eyes, and fierceiving Hercules, asked who he was, in a voice that resembled COMPOSITION — ORAL AND WRITTEN 23 thunder. The hero replied in a voice pretty nearly as loud as the giant's own, that he was Hercules, and that he had come seeking for the garden of the Hesperides. At this the giant fell into a great fit of laughter, and Hercules, becoming a little angry at the giant's mirth, told him that he was not afraid of the dragon with the hundred heads. The giant roared forth anew and told Hercules that he was Atlas, the mightiest giant in the world, and that he held the sky upon his head. Then Hercules asked him the way to tlie garden of tlie Hesperides, where he wanted to get three of the golden apples for his cousin the king. Atlas told him that there was nobody but himself that could go to the garden of the Hesperides and gather the golden apples; and that if it were not for this little business of holding up the sky, he would make half a dozen steps across the sea, and get them for Hercules. The hero thanked him and suggested that he rest the sky on a moun- tain. Atlas shook his head and said that none of them were quite high enough ; but that if Hercules were to stand on tlio summit of that nearest him, his head would be almost high enough. Hercules asked if the sky were very heavy. The giant shrugged his shoulders and said that it was not particularly so at first, but that it became a little burdensome after a thousand years. Then the hero asked how long it would take to get the golden apples. Atlas .said that it would be done in a few moments; for he would take ten or fifteen miles at a stride, and be at the garden and back again before Hercules' shoulders would begin to ache. Then Hercules agreed to climb the moun- tain behind him and relieve him of his burden. — Hawthorne: Wonder Book. (Adapted.) CHAPTER II WHAT TO WRITE ABOUT 9. How to Choose a Subject. — Among the considerations that should influence us in choosing subjects to write about are the following : 1. Tlie Writer'' s Interest in His Subject. — The subject, whatever it may be, should be of present interest to the writer. A student may possibly be interested in "The growth of character," "Peace," "Greek character and art," and topics of a similar nature; but if he is not, ho will have nothing worth saying about them, and he will find A\Titing a stupid task. Moreover, to write on subjects that do not interest one is a kind of deceit: the ideas expressed do not really belong to the writer; they are merely invented for the moment or stolen. On the other hand, if electrical machines, or sports, or stories of adventure or hunting, occupy our minds, we shall find something genuinely interesting to say about them. This is not true merely of school exercises in com- position; it applies to all literature. Scott wrote histor- ical tales: Dickeus wrote about men and women in the London of his day. Longfellow wrote poetry and Irving prose. Each autlior chose the material and the form of composition that interested him most. No good work can bo done in any other way. We should not make up our minds hastily, however, that a topic is dull. If the subject set for a theme is "Julius ('aesar," it may at first offer nothing to us. But after reflection, we may find a good deal to say about Caesar's first campaign in 34 WHAT TO WRITE ABOUT 25 Gaul. If we happen to have read Shakspere's play of Julius Caesar, we shall have another reason to be inter- ested in the subject. Do not decide on mere whim that a subject is dull ; look it over and test it well to see if it has not some suggestion of interest for you. 2. The Writer'' s Previous Information about His Subject. — Must we depend entirely on ourselves for the material we use in writing? Or is it well to select an inter- esting topic and "read up" about it? Some acquaintance with the subject, surely, is necessary — the more the better — and in many cases this can be found only in books. But we must be on our guard lest this "reading up" about our subject results in a mere patchwork of ideas gathered from books. What Ave write should be our own. Suppose, for example, that the general topic were the life of a noted man : if the student selected some- one to whom his attention had not previously been called, he would be forced to get his information entirely from books, and give it out again before he had had time to make it his own. On the other hand, if he remembered his study of American history, and, better still, had read General Grant's Memoirs, he would have something to start Avitli in writing about General Grant. Whatever further reading he did would add to ideas already at home in his mind. The writer should choose a sub- ject that he knows something about, and reading on the subject should supplement his own ideas, not furnish him all his matter. 3. Tlic Question of Size. — The untrained writer usu- ally thinks that the larger the topic the more there will be to say about ib. As a rule, this is not the case. The smaller and simpler the topic, the easier it is for him to find related ideas. "Our war with Spain" would puzzle an experienced writer, if he had to treat it in a tlieme of two or three hundred words. He would find "The war 26 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC in the Philippines'" somewhat easier, but it is doubtful if he could write connectedly even on this part of the ques- tion. Even the battle of Manila Bay would be large enough for a short paper. For the same reasons we should reject such subjects as the following: "Geysers," "Abraham Lincoln," "Manual training," "Prohibition," "Longfel- low's poems.'' These large topics may suggest subjects suitable for short compositions, but in their present form they insure failure. 4. Definite Subjects tlie Best. — Li the same way, a specific or definite subject is preferable to an abstract or general one. It is always easier to find ideas about a par- ticular object than about a class of objects. The noun "barn" suggests little to the mind, but "My father's barn" may call up many memories. Engines are too numerous and too different one from another to discuss as a whole, but "The eight-wheeler on the Panhandle," or "The engine of a thresliing machine,'' instantly presents a pic- ture. Our minds deal first with single objects: Ave never see "in the mind's eye" more than one object of a kind; we never see a class of objects. This statement is true of all kinds of subjects. A good illustration is the topic "Books"; few of us could find anything not merely silly to say about books in general. Even if we chose "The drama," or "English fiction," we should wpnder where to begin ; "Shakspero," or "Irving," would also bewilder most of us; but "Shakspere's Shylock," or "Ichabod Crane's courtship," suggests definite ideas. Two bits of advice suggest themselves from this: first, avoid large and general subjects, or, after examination, choose only one of the many topics contained in the large subject. If your subject is limited, you can hope to treat it connectedly with reasonable thoroughness. Secondly, shape your subject with some regard to the space at your dis- posal, A writer can measure roughly his subject before bo "WHAT TO AVRITE ABOUT 27 begins, and adapt it to his own needs. For example, the topics cited above are clearly unsuited for treatment in two pages, but "A new battleship" might be described successfully in that space. The subject "An electric dray" might be treated satisfactorily in one page, or at much greater length, as the writer thought best. In the first case he would confine himself to a simple description of the machine; in the second, he might add an explanation of its mechanical possibilities and the diificulties that pre- vent its common use. Again, "Our navy," if attempted in a short theme, would result in a few scattering remarks, but a torpedo boat could be described in a page. We should estimate in advance the possibilities of any subject, and choose one that suits our purposes. 10. Finding Material to Write About. ^ — 1. The Report- er's Method. — The general advice that has been given about the selection of subjects presupposes that the stu- dent has a number of topics in mind, or that his instructor .■suggests the theme-subject. The student, when left to himself, is often puzzled where to find anything to Avrite about; all subjects have fled from his mind. If he is to enjoy composition and get benefit from it, he must cultivate the habit of finding material for himself. In this he can not do better than to follow the reporter's method. The editor of a large city paper sends a reporter to gather information about an occurrence, the details of which the reporter proceeds to write out as his "story. " If he is to be a successful reporter, he will also find subjects for "stories" on his own account. If he happens to hear of an accident or sees a fire or hears an interesting lecture, he will immediately take notes, and later write out his news. A good reporter is constantly alive to opportunities for gathering news, no matter where he is or on what business he is engaged. He finds in apparently dull matters sub- jects that will interest the readers of his paper. He talks 28 COMPOSITIOX AND EHETOKIC with men in difiPerent employments, finds out what is interesting them, and from the odds and ends thus picked up makes a readable paragraph. We would do well to cultivate the reporter's habit of observation, of looking for interesting facts in the everyday life about us. Never ^valk down a busy street with your eyes shut, or pay a visit to a new scene without noting all that strikes you as peculiar or important. Learn to carry a mental notebook for future reference, and if this is not enough, jot down notes in a blank book. Thus subjects that are worth writ- ing upon will spring up about you and occupy your mind. A visit to a neighboring factory, a few minutes spent in a busy store, the erection of a new office building, a day in the country — these and similar opportunities will sug- gest ideas for composition. 2. Themes about Books. — Naturally the first source of ideas is the life going on about us; a second, and scarcely less important source, is the field of literature. Books represent life at secondhand, it is true, but they often give us a better understanding of it than we should he able to get by ourselves. It is safe to say that a book which gives us nothing to think about, to talk about, and, hence, to write about, is not worth reading. This does not mean that only books of information or "deep" books should be read. Many books not written to convey facts or to teach truths may yet give us much that is worth thinking about if we read them intelligently. Kipling's Jungle Books will not teach us much about natural science, but they v.-ill give us sympatliy with animals and a keener enjoy- ment of wild life. Scott's Kenilwortli should not be read merely for the history it contains; that could be gained more quickly from a short history of England. But from Scott we may get a picture not easily forgotten of English life in the stirring times of Elizabeth. What is the best way to use books in gathering ideas for WHAT TO WEITE ABOUT 29 writing? When a student is asked to write about a book that has interested him, he is likely simply to "tell the story." That is one of the least profitable tasks he could find. It is very hard for a trained writer to jout the story of a book containing two hundred or more printed pages into four or five written sheets and give a satisfactory idea of the original. But the worst fault with this kind of exercise is that it requires little of the writer himself; he tries to reproduce as much of the book itself as he can, and generally in the author's own words, because it seems impossible to improve the words and sentences of the book. Let us, then, for the present, exclude from our subjects the summary of an entire book. We may, however, decide to summarize an interesting chapter or scene, and though this exercise is open in a degree to the objection stated above, it is far more likely to be successful. In a few paragraphs a good idea can be given of the casket scene in the Merchant of Venice^ or of Grand Pre as described in Evangeline, or of the last fight of Uncas in The Last of the Mohicans. A safer method, however, is for the reader to ask himself: AVhat interests me most in that book? Is it the plot? Or a certain character? Or a description of a scene in the country? Or the ideas the author advances? These ques- tions once answered, it is comparatively easy to proceed with the subject; the student can then state, as fully as possible, what elements were found interesting, and explain why the scene, or character, or plot arouses interest. Some interesting subjects suggested by books may call for further reading; for example: "Are Scott's historical characters true to history?" "Was Eobinson Crusoe's life on his island improbable?" "Are Longfellow's In- dians in Hiawatha true to nature?" These topics are most profitable because they demand most of the writer. 30 COMPOSITION AND RHETOKIC In writing about a novel a more imaginative form of subject is also possible. The student may take part in the composition by continuing the story after a certain point is reached, or by constructing a new scene in which the characters of the story appear. This will give a good opj)ortunity to write conversation. 3. Material from Other Studies. — The study of his- tory, or of physical geography, or of plants or animals, even the study of Latin or German, will furnish material for thought and reading, and hence, suggest ideas for writing. All the subjects that are studied in school should be made useful in English composition. 4. Material from JVc/vspapers and Magazines. — Most of our information about what is taking place in the world comes from newspapers and magazines. The facts and ideas here gained should not go into one ear and out of the other; they should be sifted, and important topics which have been glanced at in the newspajjers should be pursued in the more serious articles of the magazines. The Klondike gold fields, the Boer war, the Russian rail- road across the great Siberian plains, the Nicai-agua canal, the Philippines as a colony — those and many other similar topics have occupied public attention during the last few years. Each month brings new questions, that are discussed at length in newspapers and magazines. Every intelligent person wishes to inform himself on such mat- ters. For arranging and sifting the information thus ob- tained, no better method can be found than to write on topics of the day. In treating contemporary events, certain cautions should be heeded: 1. Do not attempt too large a subject (see sec- tion 8, 3). 2. Do not depend on one source of informa- tion, but read as many reports as possible. 3. Confine yourself to stating the facts as interestingly and as com- pletely as possible without giving hasty opinions, -i. Seek WHAT TO WRITE ABOUT 31 to show the real importance of the subject. 5. Always give your sources of information.* 11. Summary of Chapter. — 1. The important test of whether a subject is a proper one for a writer is his inter- est in it. He can not interest others when he himself is not interested, or when he has only a pretended interest. If, after genuine effort to arouse his mind, the subject remains distasteful, he snould avoid it. 2. A good subject may be spoiled by attempting to treat it in too limited a space. Judge beforehand whether you have sufficient information about it and sufficient space in which to treat it. 3. Avoid general and abstract topics, such as war, peace, science, poetry, and the like. The more specific and special your topic is, the more you will find to say about it. 4. Cultivate observation; find interesting topics in the events of the day. 5. In taking a subject from a book, beware of writing a mere summary; try to put some of your own thoughts into your theme. 6. In writing draw upon the knowledge you have gained in other branches of your school work. 7. Make your reading of magazines and newspapers of some permanent value by using the information obtained as material for themes. Exercise II A. Keep a notebook, in which are entered each day at least two subjects, with brief notes of what you would write about them. Eead the topics in class once a week, » Good sources for such articles are (among others): The Youth's Com- panion, Harijer'8 Weekly, McClure's Mayazine, The Outlook, The JReview of Reviews. More serious articles may be found in The Forimi, The New York Nation, The Century, The North American Beriew, Scrihner's Magazine, Har- per's Monthly and The Atlantic. Some of these magazines should be found in a high school library. 32 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC defend your choice of them, and state the probable length of the themes required to develop them properly. B. Write a paragraph of not less than a hundred words on some subject suggested by something you saw to-day on your way to school. C. From the following list of subjects, select five about Avhich you could write a theme not over one page in length: ^ 1. A summer camp. 3. The boy who sits next to me. ^6. An intelligent cat. 4. An old liouse. 5. A ten-mile walk. (5. What is a cheque? 7. Why birds migrate. 8. A windstorm. 1). Points of a good horse. 10. A model stock farm. IL A country railroad station on the arrival of a train. 12. How to make roses grow. 13. The village postoffice. 14. Driving to the creamer}'. 15. My favorite historical char- acter. 16. The value of a scheol gym- nasium. 17. Billy Bones, in Treasure Island. 18. Wliat "manual training" means. 11). The conditions necessary for the formation of a desert. 20. Where we spent la.st sum- mer. 21. A day's fishing. 22. Napoleon. 33. How our governor is elected. 24. The origin of ice-packs. 25. How seed is distributed. 26. A street-car incident. 27. Our literary society. 38. The circulation of t h » blood. 29. My sensations when themes are read. 30. Dinner on the farm. 31. How a volcano is formed. 32. My first da}' with a gun. 33. Tlie points of a good bicycle. 34. How the heart works. 35. What were the Crusades? 36 Coal mining. 37. The origin of underground caves. 38. The school store (descrip- tion). 39. Thermometers. 40. The metric system of weights and measures. 41. The liistory of ^lowgli, in the Jinujlc Dook. 42. Baloo, in the Jungle Book. >To the teacher: Jn this Ust and in similar lists throughout the book good and bad subjects are mingled. See also Appendix B. WHAT TO AVKITE ABOUT 33 48. What is a barometer? 44. Our breathing apparatus. 45. Maple sugar making. 46. Adventures of a naturalist. 47. How to stuff bird skins. 48. Keeping a diary. 49. The preparation of char- coal. 50. A favorite jiicture. 51. Is hunting cruel? 52. Bleaching with chlorine. 53. Why plants need water. 54. La Salle's explorations. D. What objections do yon jects? 1. The winds. Arctic expeditions. Foreign missions. Vacations. Imagination. Dreams. Education. War. 55. How animals prepare for winter. 56. My first birthday party. 57. My friends in the kitchen. 5b. In the garret. 59. Shall we have a school paper? 00. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Description of a friend. 61. Rag, the Terrier. 62. An exciting race. 63. How to sail a boat. 64. A clam bake. 65. Catching butterflies. find to the following sub- 9. Stories of adventure. 10. A visit to New York. 11. Athletics. 12. Poetry. 13. Presidents of the United States. 14. The inhabitants of Mars. 15. Cloud scenerj'. E. Modify some of the following subjects in any way that will enable you to treat them interestingly and adequately : 1. The Indiana gas belt. 2. Evangeline. 3. Transportation. 4. Kipling's animals in the Jungle Book. 5. Standing armies. 6. Flags. 7. American colonies. 8. Queen Elizabeth. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. A third term of office for the President of the United States. Horseless carriages. Bicycling. The influence of gun- powder. The steam engine. Photography. 9. Abraham Lincoln. F. From the books read in school during the previous term, make a list of not fewer than five subjects about each of which you could write three pages. 34 COMPOSITION" AND RHETORIC G. What topics now being discussed in the daily papers could you write about? How would you treat them? H. A list of subjects of present interest is given below. Select the one about which you know most, and write a short theme upon one division of the whole topic : The Chicago drainage canal. How our tovrn is governed. Tlie chief industry of my town. The political divisions of our country. The Nicaragua canal. The Philippines. How to prevent railroad ac- cidents. Wireless telegraphy. How the states in the mid- dle west market their products. The Hawaiian Islands. What is meant by Greater New York. CHAPTER III BUILDING THE THEME 12. Different Methods of Writing. — There are many- ways of setting about the labor of literary composition. Every writer has to find out for himself what method is the best one for him to use. Usually, when anyone has decided what he wishes to write about and has got together in his mind the necessary information after thinking the matter over for a time and sorting his ideas in his mind, he takes his pen and paper and proceeds to write a few sen- tences. When he comes to a difliculty, he stops and thinks, and then starts afresh. Sometimes he crosses out part of what he has done. After he has finished this rough draft, he takes a fresh piece of paper and copies the best parts of what he has written. If the writer has had a good deal of practice in composition, and has a clear, orderly mind, this method may succeed well enough, especially if he takes the trouble to rewrite a number of times. But, for most of us, especially in beginning our work in composition, this is a poor method, — wasteful of time and energy, and unlikely to bring out all we have to say. A better method, at least for beginners, will be described in the following sections. 13. Preliminary Work upon the Theme — Notes.— Instead of trying to write out at once a complete theme, the first step is to make notes. The writer jots down, quite at random, a few words to describe the different facts or ideas that have occurred to him. These notes need not be expressed in complete sentences ; sometimes a 35 36 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC single word or a brief phrase will be enough to describe a number of ideas. After he has made as many notes as occur to him, he arranges them on a second sheet of paper, this time rejecting those that are not to the point, filling out those that are incomplete, and expanding the broken phrases. Let us take an example: General Topic: " The Behavior of Birds." First Form — Notes. Spring morning ; my window open. I had been to the theatre and was sleeping late. Heard Robin in an oak in back yard; no other birds about. Our yard a good place for birds. Came every morning for two weeks. Listened for his song every morn- ing when I awoke. Song became more restless and plaintive. One day I heard him singing gaily. He was paying court to a female robin. There was a small garden of sweet-peas, pansies, nasturtiums ,and other flowers under my window. I was spad- ing the ground. Both birds came down to get worms. I watched them pull at the long angleworms. Two rival robins came. Angry notes from the first robin. The female did not know which to choose. The first robin fought his rivals ; drove them away. His prowess won him a mate. I was interested in the pair. The next morning I looked out. They were flying about tlie yard looking for a place to nest. The female chose an old apple tree. Several trees in yard, an oak, a willow, two or three apple trees. The oak was nearest; two rods from my window. Could see all of them with my opera glass. The bird was unable to decide between two suitable boughs. Tried another tree, the old pippin tree; began to build. Took my book and opera glass to the window; watched tliem from time to time. She abandoned this be- ginning. Finally came to the oak where she luul first met robin; began to build. Worked very hard; brought featliers; much mud; had a large lump on the limb; satin it, turning round and round to sliape it with her breast. Robin at first tried to lielp; she refused his help. Was esjiecially scornful about a long piece of string lie brought. He put it in nest in her absence; she came back, twitched it out angrily. He put it in again, trying to conceal it with feathers. Slie came back, soon found it ; pulled it out. Robin flew away crestfallen. She became thinner. Breast almost bare from. v.'orkiiig on the mud. BUILDING THE THEME 37 Nest at last finished ; well-lined with wool and feathers. Both well-pleased ; later, happiness increased ; Robin circled about his mate, who sat on four blue eggs. On examining these notes, the writer may find that, although he has thought about the subject before writing, he has not succeeded in making the notes thoroughly satisfactory. In the first place details which do not belong to the story are included. His aim is to tell how two birds mated and built their nest. The fact that the narrator of the story slept late after the theatre is not a part of the subject. In the second place, details are not arranged in their proper order. For instance, the notes on the yard, the trees, and the garden, clearly belong together. In trying to group the notes in logical order it should be noted that there are three main parts of the story: (1) the place of observation, — the window and the garden; (2) the wooing; (3) the building of the nest. With this sim- ple plan in mind the notes may be rearranged, omitting all that are not pertinent to the subject : Second Form — My window overlooked yard in whicli were several trees: an oak, about two rods away; a willow; two or three apple trees, one of them an old pippin, farther away ; yard a good place for birds. Could watch them in the trees with opera glass. Beneath my window some flower-beds where I worked ; birds came for worms; I could watch them as I worked. Every morning for two weeks I heard a robin singing in oak tree ; I came to listen for his song every morning when I woke. His song became more restless and plaintive. One day I heard him singing gaily. Looked up from my work in the garden ; I saw that he was paying court to a female robin; both in the oak. Both birds came down to get worms. I watched them pull at the long angleworms. Two rival robins came. Angry notes from the first robin. The female did not know which to choose. The first robin fought his rivals; drove them away. His prowess won him a mate. The next morning I saw the pair flying about the yard looking for a place to nest- The female chose an old apple tree; 2J.5J65 38 coMPOSiTioisr and khetoric was unable to decide between two suitable boughs. Tried another tree, the old pippin; began to build. She abandoned this; I could not understand why. Finally came to the oak where she liad first met Robin ; began to build ; worked very hard; brought feathers; much mud. Had a large lump of mud on the limb; then sat in it, turning round and round to shape it with her breast. Robin at lirst tried to help; she refu.sed his help; was especially scornful about a long piece of string he brought. He put it in nest in her absence; she came back, switched it out angrily; he put it in again, trying to conceal it witli a feather. She came back, soon found it, pulled it out with considerable damage to the nest. Robin flew away crest- fallen. She became thinner; breast almost bare from working in the mud. Nest at last finished; well-lined with wool and feathers. Both well-pleased; later, happiness increased; Robin circled about his mate, who sat on four blue eggs. 14. Complete Drafts. — The next step is to write out a connected draft. Most writers find it advisable to do this without pausing to liunt for the best words, or to make corrections. It is easier to keep the mind steadily on one thing at a time than to do two things at once — to give their whole attention, first, to telling the story; next, to improving it. The writing out will result in something like this: Third Form — 1. My window overlooked a yard in which were several trees: tiiere was an oak about two rods away; somewhat farther otf was a willow and some apple trees, among them a pippin. 2. The yard was a good place for birds. 3. I could watch them in the trees with my opera glass. 4. Beneath the window were soiue flower-beds where I often v.'orked; here birds came for worms; and I could watch the birds in tiie trees as I worked. 5. Every morning for two weeks I heard a robin singing in the oak ti-ee. 6. I came to listen for his song every morning when I woke. 7. His song became more restless and plaintive. 8. One day I heard him .singing gaily. 9. I looked up from my work in the garden. 10. I saw that he was paying court to a female robin. 11. Both birds were in the old oak tree. 12. When I left my work both hinls came down to get worms. 13. I watched them pull at the long angleworms. 14. Two rival rob- BUILDING THE THEME 39 ins came. 15. The robin who had been first in the field uttered angry notes. 16. The female did not know which to choose. 17. The first robin fought his rivals, and after a brave fight drove them away. 18. His prowess won him a mate. 19. The next morning I saw the pair flying about the yard looking for a place to nest. 20. The female chose an old apple tree, but was unable to decide between two suitable boughs. 21. Then "she went to the old pippin and began to build. 22. She soon abandoned this ; I could not understand why. 28. She finally came to the oak where she had first met Robin, and began to build. 24. She worked very hard, bringing feathers and large quantities of mud. 25. When she had a large lump of mud on the limb, she sat on it, turning round and round to shape it with her breast. 26. At first Robin tried to help, but his offers of help were rejected by his mate. 27. She was especially scorn- ful about a long piece of string he brought. 28. He put it in the nest in her absence ; she came back and twitched it out angrily. 29. He put it in again, trying to conceal it with a feather ; but she came back and found it, and pulled it out with considerable damage to the nest. 30. Robin fievv away crestfallen. 31. She became thinner and thinner; her breast wtis almost bare from working on the mud. 32. At last the nest was finished ; it was well-lined with wool and feathers. 33. Both birds were well- pleased. 34. Tlieir happiness was increased a few days later; and Robin circled singing round his mate, who sat on four blue eggs. Looking over this draft, it may be seen that, although it tells a connected story, there are many ways in which it can be improved. Sentence 9 can be reduced to a phrase, "looking up from my work in the garden" ; this phrase will then connect sentences 8 and 10. Sentence 11 also may become a phrase, "in the old oak tree." In sentence 31 the pronoun "she" has no antecedent. In sentence 22 the second part should be more closely connected with the first part; thus: "for some reason which I could not understand, she soon abandoned this." But the most frequent faults are repetition of words, and lack of con- nectives between the sentences. For instance, in sen- tences 3 and 4, "birds," "trees," and "worked," occur 40 COMPOSITIOX AND KHETORIC several times; and in sentences 5, 0, 7, and 8, "song'* and "singing." Tliero should be connectives between sentences G and 7; 13 and l-i; 14 and 15; 15 and IC; 10 and 17. To remedy sncli faults of repetition, and lack of connection, we make a last trial* The Final Copij— 1. My -window overlooked a yard in which were several trees; there was an oak abont two rods away; somewhat farther ott was a willow and some apple trees, among them a pippin. V?. The yard was a good place for birds. 3. I could watch them in the trees with my opera glass. 4. Moreover, beneath the win- dow were some flower-beds where I often worked ; here birds came for woi ins, and I could watch them as I tended my garden. •1. Every morning for three weeks I heard a robin singing in the oak tree. 0. I came to listen for him when I woke. 7. As time Avent on his soiag became more restless and plaintive. H. One day I heard him singing gaily, and looking up from my work in tlie garden I saw that he was paying court to a female robin in the old oak tree. 9. When I went away both birds came down to get worms. 10. Presently two rival robins came. 11. The bird who had been fir.st in the field uttered angry notes. 12. Evidently the female did not know which to choose. 18. Finally, the first robin fought his rivals, and after a brave contest drove them awaj'. 14. His prowess won him a mate. 15. The next morning I saw the pair flying about the yard looking for a place to nest. 10. The female chose an old apple ti'ee, but was miable to decide between two suitable boughs. IT. Tlien she went to the old pippin and began to build her nest. 18. However, for some reason which I could not xmderstand, she soon abandoned this. Ifl. Finally she came to the oak where she Iiad iirst met Robin, and again began to build. 20. SJ-.e workeil very hard, bringing feathers and large quantities of imiil. 21. When she had collected a large lump of mud on the limb slic sat on it. turning round and round to shape it with her breast. 22. At first Kobin tried to help, but his ofl'ers of aid were rejected by his mate. She was especially .scornful about a long piece of string he brought her. 23. He put it in the nest in her ab.sence, but when she returned, she twitched it ont angrilj'. 24. Still Robin persevered, and, putting it in again, tried to con- ceal it with a feather. 2.1. But his mate soon found it and again BUILDING THE THEME 41 pulled it out, this time doing considerable damage to the nest. 26. At this, Robin flew away, crestfallen. 27. As the work went on, the female became thinner and thinner; her breast was almost bare from working in the mud. 28. At last the nest was finished; it was well-lined with wool and feathers. 29. Both birds were much pleased. 30. Some weeks later their happiness was increased; and Robin, singing, circled round his mate, who sat on four blue eggs. 15. A Second Subject. — Let us now try a more difficult subject, one where we can not go out and set down imme- diately our impressions, but where we must rely solely on what Ave can remember: General Subject : "My First Night in a Moki Village." First Form — Desert country, mesas, ^ canons;' went up bridle'path to vil- lage. Children; dogs ; ate supper sitting on floor ; room white- washed. Village looked like tlie rocks it was on. One story rising above another. Entered by ladders through roof. First lioor had door. It was a Moki village. Had come a hundred miles across the plains to see the snake-dance.' [These notes had just been Avritten when the door opened, and Jack came in. The talk soon drifted to experiences in the West.] "What did you like best out there?" he asked. "Oh, theMokis." "Is it hot there?" "Yes, of course." "How far from the railroad?" "A hundred miles by pony, and through sand tliafs baked in the sun. There's nothing growing but sage-brush, soap-weed, and a few cedars." "No grass?" "Verj^ little. When we got near the Mokis we found some corn, but it looked puny and yellow." "It must be a dreadful country. No water?" "Not worth mentioning. But that's not so diiferent from other places on the plains. The Moki village itself was the really interesting thing, perched 'way up on a cliff, with a deep 1 If you are not familiar with tliese words, look llieiu up iu a dictionary. 42 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC valley under it. You go across the desert day after day, and at last you see something that looks like queer-shaped rocks. When you get up to it, you see that it is a Moki village. You know how they build, of course?"' "Yes, I learned that in school."' "It was near sun.set when we came in sight of the village. The bridle path that led into the village was steep, and hard on the ponies. Tliere were a lot of yelping dogs and naked brown children there." Let US compare this conversation with our notes. AVe see at once that what we had written down is very unlike the talk Avith Jack. In conversation we naturally try to describe definite objects, instead of making general remarks. AVe are sure that the talk was much less dull than the notes. Accordingly, we write out new notes, trying to remember the conversation, and adding such details as occur to us: Second Fovdi — Country a desert with flat-topped mesas, deep canons, little water. A- few cedars, sage-brush, soap-weed, thin grass. Had come a hundred miles through desert ; sand shining with heat, blue sky above, clear air. Late afternoon saw something to the southwest, standing out from the ^mesas, looked like rocks; it was the pueblo. Up steep footpath, came upon the village. Mokis a tribe of Indians; were here just the same when Columbus discovered America. Have never been Christianized Keep their old worship of the sun; famous for their snake-dance. Have preserved their old liabits of life. Houses '.built so that tlie flat roofs of the stories rise like steps: first one, a single story; next one, two .stories; third one, three stories. Near the puel)lo several corrals, where are kept animals, — burros, ponies, goats, each kind separate. Children have fun with the burros wlien put in corral at night. (luide took us to his hou.se, one room; looked out on a street wliere queer little brown babies played. Women grinding corn on grinding stone.s. Room whitewashed ; dolls representing the gods of rain and tluinder hung on walls. No chairs or table. Sat Hat on floor to eat supper, — tea, corn-cakes, bacon. "Went on street; many people; women seen through doors, grinding, stewing something in big kettles at the Are; children BUILDING THE THEME 43 naked. Yovmft- girls with hair done up in queer plaits at the sides of their heads. Went in to go to bed ; rolled up in blanket : woman was grinding corn ; body moved up and down ; sang. Outside, people rolled in blankets lay down on roof for the night. Tliought of the long years they Jiad lived here shut out from the world. Went to sleep. Wakened at three in the morning by the sound of the young men chanting announcement of the snake-dance. This time Ave have been able to recollect many interest- ing facts about the journey across the plains, the appear- ance of the village, and the Indian inhabitants of the place. Evidently, these notes are not yet orderly in arrangement. Perhaps in making the first connected draft it would be well to begin with the general information about the Mokis, and follow with the story of the visit to their vil- lage : Third Form — 1. Among the Indians of America, no tribe has kept its ancient customs more pure than the Moki Indians of Arizona. 3. They are now what they were when the Spaniards came to America. 3. They are untouched by the people living around them. 4. They still keep their ancient religion and their old way of building. 5. Their houses are of stone covered with adobe. 6. These have tiat roofs. 7. The first house is built one story high; the second, two stories; the third, three; so that the flat roofs rise like stej^s. 8. Formerly none of them had doors but were entered by ladders through holes in tlie roofs. 9. Now, however, the first stories have doors, but the second and third are still entered by means of ladders. 10. The country about is a desert, with lofty flat-topped mesas, deep cailons, and very little water. 11. In the sand grow occasional cedars, and there is sage-brush, soap-weed, and some thin grass. 12. Wo had come across a hundred miles of desert sands on our ponies, under a cloudless sky; everything shimmered with heat. 13. But we were willing to take this hard journey, in order to see the strangest of Indian dances, the snake-dance. 14. It was late afternoon. 15. The guide pointed out to the south- v,-est some rock-like i^rojections. IG. The air was very clear. 17. We could see them distinctly. 18. They looked sti^angely like the rocks behind them. 19. The path climbed up steeply, a 44 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC mere bridle imth, which presently brought us to the village. 20. Dogs came out and barked at us; a crowd of children came out and stared at us. 21. AVe dismounted in front of the guide's house. 23. We went in and found ourselves in a single room. 23. It was whitewashed ; on the walls hung dolls, representing the gods of thunder and of rain. 24. There were no beds, chairs, or tables. 25 At one side stood grinding-stones, and at the back was a fireplace. 26. We ate supper sitting fiat on the floor. 27. It consisted of thin cakes of meal, called "pai:)er bread," tea, and fried bacon. 28. Then we went out to see the town. 29. The street was swarming with peojDle. 30. Babies played, toddling up and down the ladders; dogs were everywhere. 31. The doors were open; we could look in and see the women grinding corn or making bread or tending kettles at the fire. 32. On the flat house-tops women moved about at their work. 33. Girls with their hair arranged in queer dish-shaped plaits at the sides of their heads gathered in groups to gossip. 34. Out- side in the corrals the boys were bringing in the ponies, goats, and burros, putting each kind of animal in its own pen. 35. Then, from the populous town came a crowd of brown chil- dren, and poured into the corral with the patient little burros. 3G. They climbed ujwn them, petted them, teased them, poked them and pulled them with shouts of delight. 37. In the west ' the sun had set behind the mountain ; the valley beneath us lay in shadow. 38. So it had been centuries ago, and so had sucli people lived here in just the same way; they had not been changed by the people around them. 39. At length I went in to go to bed. 40. I wrapped myself in my blanket and la^' down on the floor. 41. The door stood ojien. 42. Outside I heard movements. 43. People wrapped themselves in their blankets and lay down to .sleep on the roof under my wimlow. 44. Within the room a woman was grinding corn for breakfast; her body swayed back and forth as she crooned a song. 45. In spite of the strange surroundings I was soon fast asleep. 46. But it did not seem long before I was awakened by tlie sound of a chant. 47. It was three in the morning, and the young men were making their rounds, announcing tlie gn^at snake-dance. This form makes a connected account. It is not, ho»v- Gvcr, entirely satisfactory. In ilic first place, the story does not begin promptly; ia attempting to tell where and why the events happened, we have made too many general BUILDING THE THEME 45 remarks on the Indians and their history. This seems- dull, and probably the reader already knows these facts. Would it not be better to describe exactly what we saw? We shall then convey all this information in a more inter- esting form. For example: If we describe the houses, we shall not have to talk about Moki houses in general. This description of the houses could be inserted after sen- tence 21, where we stand in front of the guide's house. We can do without the statement about the simple cus- toms of the Mokis, because if Ave describe their manner of life the reader can see for himself that their customs are simple. This cuts out the entire introduction. We shall begin, then, with the first sight of the village, sen- tence 14. Further on looking at the separate sentences, beginning fi that point, we notice a number of places where improve- ments can be made. Sentence l(j can be reduced to a phrase, "through the clear air," and joined to the follow- ing sentence. There is repetition of words in sentence 20. Sentence 21 should be followed by a description of the exterior of the houses, as noted above. Sentences 24 and 25 can be combined, for they deal with the same topic, — the furnishings of the room. We passed too abruptly from the subject-matter of 25 to that of 26 : there should be some word of connection between them. The follow- ing sentence, '27, could easily be reduced to a relative clause and joined to 26. The first statement in sentence 31 could be reduced to a phrase, "through the open doors." In sentence 35, the thought is not fully expressed; for the troop of boys reminded one of a swarm of bees. This idea might well be inserted in the sentence, as follows: "from the town came a swarm of brown boys, like bees from a hive." There is an unpleasant repetition of words in sentence 36. In sentence 38 the last clause might be changed to a participial phrase, "unchanged by 46 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC the people arouucl them." Considering the fact that there were uo beds to go to, sentence 39 needs explanation or revision. In 41, 42, and 43, words are wasted; the idea could be expressed better in one or two sentences instead of three. If we carry the narrative into the second day, as is done by sentences 46 and 47, we shall find no place to stop. Evidently these two sentences should be omitted. Thus the theme would treat a defi- nite series of events — a first experience in a Moki village — beginning with the climb to the village, and ending with the moment of going to sleep. Eevising in this way, we secure the following form: Fourth Form — It was late afternoon wlien our ponies turned up the trail. Behind us lay a hundred miles of desert sand shimmering in the sun, varied with sage-brush, soap-weed, or an occasional pine; in front rose the clitfs where for centuries unknown had been perched the pueblos of the Moki Indians. Through the clear air we could see these pueblos, strangely like the rocks behind them. Up, up the trail we went until a sudden turn brought us upon the village. A crowd of puppies barked; queer brown children stared at us as we dismounted. We found ourselves before wliat looked like a small flat-topped house, one story in height, built of stone and covered with adobe. Behind rose a similar house, as if built upon it, and behind that another; so that their roofs rose like steps. After our long journej% not even the streets of a i\Ioki village could tempt us until we had eaten and rested. Accordingly we went into the house. It consisted of one room, neatly whitewashed, the walls ornamented with dolls represent- ing the gods of rain and of thunder. There was a stone for grind- ing corn, and a fireplace, but no beds, tables, or chairs. And so we .sat on the floor to eat supper, which consisted of thin corn- cakes, called paper-bread, tea, and bacon. (Unfinished.)' This seems to be an elaborate process to go through with to obtain such small results. In both cases, after two sets of notes and two complete drafts, we have only a •Complete the form, making the improvements indicated, and sucli others as occur to you. BUILDIN"G THE THEME 47 short theme. Must every good writer take all this tronble when he undertakes to write? As was said in section 12 of this chapter, skilled writers do not, as a rule, make four drafts. Even very careful writers, after sufficient experi- ence content themselves with but one set of notes, and sometimes but one complete draft, thus reducing the proc- ess to two parts. The complete draft, however, is often rewritten a number of times. Real excellence in writ- ing, as in any art, comes only through the willingness to take infinite pains. Probably the novel or poem you skim through so easily was written three, four, or even five times before it went to the printer. Most of us think in a disorderly, helter-skelter fashion, and until we exam- ine our ideas as they appear on paper, we can not tell where they really belong, or whether they belong to the theme at all. The preliminary drafts, then, are a help in straightening out our thoughts. The slow work of mak- ing notes gradually trains the mind to arrange ideas, and if the student learns in this way to think clearly and logically, he will gain something far more important than the power to write. After a few months of practice in theme work, a stu- dent should be able to do away with the first form. One preliminary plan should be sufficient. But he can hardly expect, if he wants to do better than commonplace work, to dispense with the third form. 16. Titles.^ — Every theme should receive a title, which should stand at the head of the first page. It makes little difference whether a writer gets his title first and then plans his work, or finds the title after the comple- tion of his composition. But we should understand clearly that the title and the subject are not necessarily > Titles should be written In italics or inclosed between quotation marks. The first word and all the important words of a title should begin with capital letters. 48 RHETORIC AXD COMPOSITION the same thing. The subject may be so phrased as to make a good title, but as a rule any complete statement of the subject is too broad to be used as a title. The title is the special name which an author gives to his treatment of the subject. Thus, from the general subject of a Euro- pean trip, we may derive a number of titles, as, "From Edinburg to London on Wheel," or, "How I Saw Paris," or, "Six AVeeks in Switzerland." The selection of a good title is important, because by means of the title the writer marks out the field of his composition, and also engages the attention of the reader. In the first place, a title should be brief. Before this century, authors frequently gave long titles even to short pamphlets, endeavoring to enumerate all matters treated in the work; such, for example, is Buuyan's full title for his allegory: "The Pilgrim's Progress from this world to that which is to come, delivered under the similitude of a Dream, wherein is dis- covered the manner of his setting out, his dangerous journey, and safe arrival at the desired country." A modern writer Avill name a long work by a short title, as, "Forty-One Years in India," or, "The Discovery of America." A title should be clear, not misleading. Wlien v/e read in a newspaper, "The Slaughter of the Innocents," as the heading to an account of the destruction of fish by a flood, we are uselessly deceived. Again, "Charity" is a vague title for a magazine article. The reader can not guess whether what follows, is to be an account of modern methods of distributing relief to the poor, or a sermon, A good title should, as far as possible, answer the ques- tion. What is the article about? To make the title brief and clear is not enough ; the author must also consider its interest. Will it draw attention to what is to follow and stimulate people to read BUILDING THE THEME 49 further? "The Light That Failed, " id an interesting title, much better, for instance, than, "The Story of a Man Who Became Blind." "Treasure Island" tempts our curiosity, while "My Adventures in Early Life" does not. What has been said in the previous chapter about the value of specific subjects is true also of titles. A stu- dent who gives "Fishing" as his title for the story of a day's sport is sure to discourage anyone from looking beyond the title. "How I Caught a Two-pound Bass," may tempt the reader to go on. Try to interest your reader by the title of your composition. In seeking for an entertaining title, do not select one that is merely sensational. A sensational title is decep- tive, and it is cheap; it classes the work with the writing of superficial and vulgar writers. Many sensational titles maybe seen in the headlines of the daily press; e. g. : "From Jail to War," "Uncle Sam Lets Loose the Dogs of War," "No Cross, No Crown." Exercise III A. Find titles that will show how yoa can use the fol- lowing subjects: 1. One reason why higli-scliool and college students like foot- ball is because it is a strictly amateur game. 2. A description of the view seen from the schoolroom wni- dow. 3. A description of a small boy looking at a haseball game through a crack in the fence. 4. A visit to a coal mine. 5. The growth and cultivation of the tea plant. 6. Statistics show that during the past year many more acci- dents have resulted from bicycling than from football. 7. A description of the house you were born in. 8. A characteristic feature of London Life in the eighteenth century was the coffeehouse. 9. A visit to the Bureau of Engraving and Printing in Wash- ington, to see the process of making bank-notes. 50 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 10. The use of gunpowder had a powerful influence in making society democratic, for it rendered the knight, formerly superior in battle on account of his expensive armor and equipment, of no more value than men of inferior rank. 11. A description of the day before Christmas in the toy department of a big store. 13. Many students who would not think of doing anything dishonorable outside of school seem not to be ashamed of cheat- ing in examinations. 13. An account of the phases through which a raindrop may pass. 14. An account of the famous fight of Sir Richard Grenville, in Tennyson's ballad, The Revenge. 15. A description of the home of Katrina Van Tassel. 16. There are several ways in which lakes may become extinct. 17. Certain facts prove that spring water has its origin in rain. B. Discuss the appropriateness of the following titles: THE SUBJECT BRIEFLY DE- SCRIBED 1. Victory of a newspaper in securing news in advance. 2. A one-page theme to prove that lava is a rock solu- * tion. 3. Accounts of anurse's experi- ence during the Civil War. 4. Lectures on how and wliat to read. 5. A story of life on a fishing schooner off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. 6. The typical history of a river. 7. A description of an old-fash- ioned garden in New Hampshire. 8. A story of adventure in search of pirates" treasui e. C. Complete the following brief notes, and then write them out in connected form : THE TITLE 1. "Historic News Beat." 2. "Lava." 3. "Hospital Sketches." 4. "Sesame and Lilies." 5. "Captains Courageous.' 6. "Rivers." 7. "A Description." 8. "Treasure Island." BUILDING THE THEME 51 The Eskimos. — (This general subject should be narrowed in some way, such as, "Some Customs of the Eskimos," or, "The Eskimos of Alaska.'")' Where they live; near seashore; why? Houses made of what; how heated, how furnished; their dress. What they live on; how they travel; how the children spend their time. Games; dogs. A Baseball Game. — The teams; their record; their condi- tion; how matched. Tlie first inning; our expectations; remarks of the .spectators ; who made good plays; muffs; fouls. The turning-point in the game due to the work of whom? Who was at bat? What happened? Other exciting plays ; the final score. How we celebi'ated the victory. A Picnic. — Who 'went; where; how we amused ourselves; games, rowing, fishing; talk; dinner, served where; consisted of what; our appetites; wliat places of interest near; went to see them ; mishaps of the day ; our return. D. Make notes on one of the following subjects and bring them to the class for criticism: 1. The building of a bridge. 2. Improvements in the town. 3. How to make a shirtwaist. 4. The strange behavior of a dog. 5. My favorite game and how it is played. E. Material for the following subjects, to be treated as in C, can easily be found in books: 1. The story of Paul Revere. (See Longfellow's Tales of a Wayside Inn.) 2. How Ethan Allen took Stony Point. (See Laughlin's His- tory of the American Nation, or any other history. ) 3. A fight with the Indians. (See Parkman's works; FLske's Beginnings of New England.) 4. How Indians live. (Starr: The American Indian, or Strange People. ) 5. How Franklin came to Philadelphia. (See Strong's 5enya- min Franklin, or any good biography.) > See Starr, Strange People; and geographies. 62 COMPOSITION AKD RHETORIC F. (1) Prepare preliminary drafts (first form) for descriptive subjects similiar to "Th'e Behavior of Birds." Criticise them in chiss and make out the second form on the blackboard. (2) Prepare drafts one and two for a short narrative of some event discussed in the history class; then write out draft three and submit it to the class for criticism. CHAPTER IV PARAGRAPHING 17. Natural Divisions of a Subject. — In developing the subject of tl^e Moki village, we found that when we came to the second form our ideas began to arrange themselves into groups. First came the description of the country where the Moki village is situated ; next followed a general sketch of the Moki Indians, their customs, and their houses ; then a description of the guide's house; and, lastly, scenes in the village. Considerable changes in this grouping appear in the third form, which is more orderly. Although neither in the third nor in the fourth form are the divisions shown on the jiage, yet it can be easily seen that at different points there is a distinct change of sub- ject, or shift in the thought. In the final theme, the first group of ideas is introduced by the sentence, "It was late afternoon when our ponies turned up the traAl,^'' (briefly, the approach); the second, by the sentence, "Up, up the trail , . . a sudden turn hrongltt lis upon the village,'''' (briefly, the village); the third, by the sentence, "... even the streets of a Moki village could not tempt us until we had eaten and rested^'''' (briefly, our resting-place). These sentences show the divisions in the thought. As soon as we have a subject in mind, the ideas related to it will begin to arrange themselves in groups. For instance, if we are describing a visit to a large factory, certain natural divisions suggest themselves at once : first, the building, or "plant"; second, what was seen in the factory; and, third, the information about the factory gained from the visit. Of course, few subjects divide 53 54 COMPOSITIOX AXD RHETORIC themselves as easily and naturally as this; frequently the best divisions are discovered only after some experiment; and a topic often admits of several different schemes of division. Some division of a subject into its minor groups, however, should be mude before the last draft is attempted. A trial scheme should be kept in mind after the prelimi- nary work of making notes. Otherwise unless the writer has an exceptionally logical and orderly mind, it will be impossible for him to keep his thoughts well grouped while writing. 18. Divisions Easily Perceived in Good Writing. — If tlic writer has found the best scheme for division — if he has discovered the natural units in his subject, and has thus arranged his ideas in distinct groups — it will be easy to discover his plan, whether he shows the changes of thought on the page or not. The following description of Indian houses, for example, can be divided into four integral parts as we read: The houses of the Indians vary greatly. In some tribes they are large and intended for several families; in others they are small, and occupied by few persons. Some are admirably con- structed, like the great piieblo houses of the southwest, made of stone and adobe mud ; others are frail structures of brush and thatch. The material naturally varies with the district. An interesting house was the ''long house" of tlie Iroquois. From fifty to one hundred or more feet in length and perliaps not more than fifteen in width, it was of a long rectangular form. It con- sisted of a light framework of poles tied together, which was covered with long strips of bark tied or pegged on. There was no window, but there was a doorway at each end. Blankets or skins hung at these served as doors. Through the house from doorway to doorway ran a central passage ; the space on either side of tliis was divided by partitions of skins into a series of s<"'ills each of which was occupied by a family. In the central passage was a series of fireplaces or hearths, each one of which seiwed for four families. A large house of tliis kind might have five or even more liearths, and would he occupied by tw^ent}' or more families. The eastern Algonkins built houses like those of PARAGRAPHING 55 the Iroquois, but usually much smaller. They too were made of a light framework of poles over which were hung sheets or rush matting, which could be easily removed and rolled up, for future use in case of removal. There are pictures in old books of some Algonkin villages. These villages were often enclosed by a line of palisades to keep off enemies. Sometimes the gardens and cornfields were inside this palisading, sometimes outside. The houses in these pictures usually have straight, vertical sides and queer rounded roofs. Sometimes they were arranged along streets, but at others they were placed in a ring around a cen- tral open space, where games and celebrations took place. — Starr: American Indians. Here we have (1) the material and general aspect of Indian houses; (2) the Iroquois "long house"; (3) the Algonkin house; and (4) the groups of houses or Indian villages. In the same way, it is easy to see where Mr. Kipling has divided his topics in the following description of a boy's life on board a fishing schooner on the "Banks." The sailing-master has told the boy, Harvey, how he makes his observations from the sun: In this Harvey excelled Dan, for he had inherited a head for figures, and the notion of stealing information from one glimpse of the sullen Bank sun appealed to all his keen wits. For other sea-matters his age handicapped him. As Disko said, he should have begun when he was ten. Dan could ball up trawl or lay his liand on any rope in the dark ; and at a pinch, when Uncle Salter had a gurry sore on his palm, could dress down by sense of touch. He could steer in anything short of half a gale from the feel of the wind on his face, humoring the H'e're Here just when she needed it. These things he did as automatically as he skipped about the rigging, or made the dory a part of his own will and body. But he could not communicate his knowledge to Harvey. Still there was a good deal of general information flying about the schooner on stormy days, when they lay up in the foc'sle or sat on the cabin lockers, while spai'e eye-bolts, leads, and rings rolled and rattled in the pauses of the talk. Disko .spoke of whaling voyages in the fifties; of great she- whales slain beside their young; of death agonies on the black, tossing seas, and blood that spurted forty feet in the air; of boats smashed to splinters; of patent rockets that went off 66 coMPOSiTio^r and rhetoric wrong-end -first and bombarded the trembling crews; of cut- ting-in and boiling do\vn; and that terrible "nip" of '71, when twelve hundred men were made homeless on the ice in three days — wonderful tales, all true. But more wonderful still wer% his stories of the cod, and how they argued and reasoned on their private businesses deep down below the keel. Long Jack's tastes ran more to the supernatural. He held them silent with ghastlj' stories of the "Yo-hoes" on Monomy Beach, that mock and terrify lonely clam-diggers; of sand walkers and dune-hunt- ers who were never properly buried; of hidden treasure on Fire Island guarded by the spirits of Kidd's men; of ships tliat sailed in the fog straight over Truro township; of that harbor in Maine where no one but a stranger will lie at anchor twice in a certain place because of a dead crew who ran alongside at midnight with the anchor in the bow of their old-fashioned boat, whistling — not calling, but whistling — for the soul of the man who broke their rest. — Kipling: Captains Courageous. 19. Paragraphs. — These divisions of the topic are com- monly made plain to the eye by a mechanical device. The first line of every division is indented (begins in from the margin) about a quarter of an inch in a printed page, and an inch or more in manuscript. The group of sen- tences thus set off by indentation is called a paragraph. Paragraphs, it must be remembered, are not breaks in the page made arbitrarily by the printer to relieve the eye in reading. They represent to the reader the divisions that the author has made iu his subject, and thus they are extremely useful, both to the reader and to the writer. Paragraph divisions should be made plainly. At first the student would do Avell to set the paragraph mark (•') against the opening sentence of every division that he intends to make. Many careless writers indent a now sentence whenever it begins a line, aiul also leave a blank space after every sentence that does not reach the end of a line. This habit keeps the reader in doubt as to where tlio writer intends to make his divisions, and also breaks the .'symmetry of; the page. Keep the manuscript even PARAGEAPHING 57 with the margins (as in printing), except when a paragraph is to be made; then indicate it phiinly. 20. The Length of Paragraphs. — If a paragraph repre- vsents a division of thouglit in the subject, its length will vary with the nnmber of ideas that are expressed in each jiart. Sometimes it may consist of a sentence, and again it may cover several pages. If we look at the paragraphs of good writers, however, we shall learn a few general facts about the length of the j^aragraph that will help us in forming our own units. In writing conversation, usually whatever is said by one person, together with the comment of the writer on the speech, and the writer's statement of action ("he said," "replied," "moved," etc.), is placed in one paragraph.^ In simple subjects, such as short stories and descrip- tions, because the topic changes frequently, paragraphs are usually brief: they contain roughly from two to ten sentences, or from thirty to one hundred and fifty words. In more difficult subjects, such as long essays, where there is much to be said on each topic, paragraphs are longer: they contain, usually from five to twenty sen- tences, or seventy-five to three hundred words. If the writer finds himself making a great many para- graphs of one or two short sentences only, he may safely decide that his divisions of thought are too small and are not important. On the other hand, if he finds that he writes two or more manuscript pages before he comes to a division of his thought, he may infer, as a general rule, that he has not found all the chief divisions of his subject. If there are many paragraphs in the first part of a theme and a few at the end, or vice versa, the writer may infer. 1 There are certain exceptions to this rule: when a group of charac- ters speak at the same time; or when the speech of one character Is Ions and contains thought-divisions of its own. Examine for this point any story by Scott, or George Eliot, or Hawthorne, which is being read in class. 68 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC iisnally, that his tliou^ht-divisions are not in proper pro- portion to each other. In one part he has divided his thought into small units, and in the other, into large units. Although it is true that some story-tellors paragraph single sentences in order to call special attention to single ideas, such a practice is not to be imitated, for the paragraph device is not intended for emphasis. Do not paragraph every important statement, as is the custom in sensational journalism. In brief, the paragraph should show the tuain divisions in the body of thought, not the small ones. 21. Paragraph Topics. — In the example used in section 18 of this chapter the divisions of thought were made clear by sentences which set forth the subject of the paragraph. Such introductory statements, usually called "topic-sen- tences," are of great convenience, both to the reader and to the writer: tliey show the reader the topic to bo treated, and they help to keep the writer strictly to his subject. The use of the topic-sentence may be seen in the following paragraphs.^ The first paragraph is an explanation of the duties of the United States Senate : The functions of the Senate fall into three classes— legislative, executive, and judicial. (Tlie topic.) Its legislative function is to pass, along with the House of Representatives, bills which become Acts of Congress on the assent of the President, or even without his consent, if passed a second time by a two-thirds majority of each House, after he has returned them for recori- sideration. Its executive functions are:— (a) To approve or dis- approve the President's nominations of Federal officers, including judges, ministers of state, and ambassadors, (b) To approve, by a majority of two-thirds of those present, of treaties made by > At this point the class should examine such books as Irvlng's Tales of a Traveller, and Hawthorne's Wonder Book, as well as a text-book in history, the daily paix-r, and a well-VTltten matiiizine jif ticle, to discover the lopic» sentences of paragraphs. PAEAGEAPHIJs'G 59 the President— i. e. if less than two-thirds approve, the treaty falls to the ground. Its judicial function is to sit as a court for the trial of impeachments preferred by the House of Represent- atives. — Bryce: American Commonwealth. The second paragraph is a description of an autumn day ; the third, a description of birds feasting: It u'as, as I have said, a fine autumnal day. (The topic.) The sky was clear and serene, and nature wore that rich and golden livery which we always associate with the idea of abundance. The forests had put on their sober brown and yel- low, while 'some trees of the tenderer kind had been nipped by the frosts into brilliant dyes of orange, jiurple, and scarlet. Streaming files of wnld ducks began to make their appearance high in the air ; the bark of the squirrel might be heard from the groves of beech and hickory nuts, and the pensive whistle of the quail at intervals from the neighboring stubble-field. The small birds loere taking their farewell banquets. In the fulness of their revelry they fluttered, chirping and frolicking, from bush to bush and tree to tree, caijricious from the very profusion and variety around them. There was the honast cock- robin, the favorite game of stripling sportsmen, with its loud querulous note; and the twittering black-birds flying in sable clovids; and the golden-winged woodpecker, with his crimson crest, his broad black gorget, and splendid plumage; and the cedar bird, with its red-tipt wings and yellow-tipt tail, and its little monteiro cap of feathers; and the blue jay, that noisy coxcomb, in his gay light-blue coat and white underclothes, screaming and chattering, nodding and bobbing and bowing, and pretending to be on good terms with every songster of the grove. — Irving: Legend of Sleepy Hollow. 22. Topic-Sentences Continued. — Topics are not always announced in the first sentence of the paragraph ; some- times they appear after one or more less important state- ments, or even at the close of the paragraph. This description of a steam-engine has a definite topic-sentence, but it does not stand first: Take a hollow cylinder, the bottom closed while the top remains open, and pour in water to the height of a few inches. Next cover the water with a flat plate, or piston, which fits the GO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC interior of the cylinder perfectly ; then apply heat to the water and we shall witness the following phenomena. After the lapse of some minutes the water will begin to boil, and the steam accumulating at the upper surface will make room for itself by raising the piston slightly. As the boiling continues, more and more steam will be formed, and raise the piston higher and higher, till all the water is boiled away, and nothing but steam is left in the cylinder. Now this machine, consisting of cylin- der, piston, water, and fire, is the steam engine in its most elementary form. For a steam engine may be defined as an apparatus for doing work by means of heat applied to water ; and since raising such a weight as the piston is a form of doing work, this apparatus, clumsy and inconvenient though it may be, answers the definition precisely. — Holmes: The Steam Engine. Not every paragraph is supplied with a clear topic- sentence; especially in narrative writing the topic is often gathered from all the sentences and not stated as a whole in any one. The following paragraph taken from an account of a sea-fight between the British and the French has no tojiic-sentenccg : The Victory had not yet returned a single gun; fifty of her men had been b}' this time killed or wounded, and her main-top- mast, with all her studding-sails and their booms, shot away. Nelson declared that, in all his battles, he had seen nothing which surpassed the cool courage of his crew on this occasion. At four minutes after twelve, she opened her fire from both sides of her deck. It was not possible to break the enemy's line with- out running on board one of their ships: Hardy informed him of this, and asked him whicli he would prefer. Nelson replied: "Take your choice, Hardy, it does not signify much." Tiie master was ordered to put the helm to port, and tlie Victory ran on board the Redoubtable, just as her tiller-ropes were shot away. The French ship received her with a broadside; then instantlj' let down her lower-deck ports, for fear of being boardeil through tliem, and never afterwards fired a great gun during tlie action. — Soutuey: Life of Nelson. Wliethcr the topic is definitely expressed in the para- grapli or not, the writer should be sure that each para- PARAGRAPHING 61 graph has some one topic, which he can state at will. Unless he can supply such a topic-sentence, wherever it does not exist already, he may be sure that his paragraph is not a real division of the subject. Exercise IV A. State what natural divisions may be found in some of the following subjects. The themes, when completed, should each take about three pages : 1. The labors of Hercules. 2. A local character. 3. The history of a raindrop. 4. The history of a snowflake. 5. Description of a Roman book. 6. Description of a theatre in Shakspere's time. 7. Relay races. 8. A ride on a locomotive. 9. What Lincoln did for his country. 10. The government of Chicago (or any other city). 11. The process of electroplating. 13. The process of making a photograph. 13. Salt : its sources, and how it is rendered suitable for use. 14. Sir Humphrey Davy's safety lamp. 15. Expert accounting. 16. Mowgli and his friends, in The Jungle Book. 17. An account of a night in the woods. 18. How the President of the United States is elected. 19. A trip in an air-ship, with description of the objects below the traveler. 20. The dead letter office. B. Have the proper divisions of thought been made in the following themes? If . not, make the necessary cor- rections. PRINCE PERCIVAL 1. There was once upon a time a prince named Percival. He had everything he could wish for. The castle in which he lived was octagonal. All the rooms were exactly alike, with a win- dow in the center of the wall and panels on each side. Tliere was a table in the middle of the room with a flower on it. There 62 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC was also a bird in a cage. On one side there was a comfortable loiinge; on the other, a bookcase with many books in it. The prince never did anything except amuse himself; most of the time he sat and read. Sometimes lie asked the maid why she did not feed the bird, or water the plant, and the maid always replied that the bird and the plant were his, to do with as he liked. At last he noticed that the walls seemed to be getting smaller, and also the window. He did not pay attention to this at first, but after a while the window got so small that it did not let in enough air and sunshine to keep a person healthy, and the prince began to feel sick, and did not eat the food brought in to him. One day he thought he would like to hear the bird sing; so he got up from the lounge and gave the bird a few crumbs, and asked it to sing for him. The bird sang a few notes, and then the prince went back to the lounge. He looked at the win- dow, and thought it had got to be a little larger. Every day now he gave the bird some food, and it sang a little more, and he watered the plant, and it looked brighter. The room kept growing larger, and at last it was as big as ever. Tlie prince learned the lesson, and after that was a happier little boy. LOHENGRIN 2. Henry the First of Germany, who was known to his sub- jects as the "Fowler," went to Antwerp for the purpose of get- ting troops to aid him in crushing the rebellion which was threatening the kingdom. Upon his arrival at Brabant, a small town outside of Antwerp, he found it in a state of anarchy. ELsa, who was the daughter of the late duke, was charged by Telramund, the one who claimed the dukedom, with killing her brother, who had mysteriously disappeared. It was announced to her tliat she might choose a knight to fight in lier cause with Telramund, the accuser. She describes the knight, whom she has seen in a dream, and she decides to wait for him to appear. Upon tlie daj' appointed the court a.ssembled on the banks of a river near Antwerp. On the third blast of the bugle a knight was seen approach- ing, in a boat drawn by a swan. Before the battle, Lohengrin, the knight who comes to fight in Elsa's behalf, betroths liimself to Elsa, with the understand- ing that she will never question him as to his race or name. PARAGKAPHING 63 This Elsa faitlifully promises. Telramuud was defeated, but not killed, by Lohengrin. When Ortrud hears of the betrothal, she goes to Elsa and advises her not to marry Loliengrin, as it is possible that he is not her equal. Elsa does not heed Ortrud, saying that she knew him to be faithful and bi-ave. On the night of their wedding, after Elsa has been question- ing Lohengrin as to his race and name, Telramund, accompanied by four knights, rushes into the apartments of Lohengrin and Elsa, with the intention of taking the life of Lohengrin. But this gallant knight is too quick for Telramuud, and one blow of his sword kills the husband of Ortrud. Lohengrin then places Elsa in charge of her ladies, and orders her taken to the king, saying he will follow. He then announces to them that he is the son of King Parsifal of the Holy Grail. He is now compelled to go back to his father's court. The swan again appears, drawing the boat, into which Lohen- grin jumps. As it moves off slowly, Ortrud tells them that the swan is the long-lost brother of Elsa, whom she herself has bewitched into this form. Lohengrin disenchants the swan and moves off sorrowfully, leaving Elsa to die in her brother's arms. 3. These fish [the bonito] so named by the Spaniards from their handsome appearance, are a species of mackerel, and attain a length of about two feet, and a weight of about forty pounds, though their average dimensions are somewhat less than half that. They feed entirely upon flying-fish and the small leaping squid or cuttle-fish. They love to follow a ship, playing around her, if her pace be not too great, for days together. Their flesh resembles beef in appearance, and they are warm-blooded. From their habitat being mid-ocean, nothing is known with any certainty of their habits of breeding. The regular method of catching them on board ship begins with covering a suitable hook with a piece of white rag two or three inches long, and attaching it to a stout line. The fisher- man then takes his seat upon the jibboom end, having first, if he is prudent, secured a sack to the jibstay in such a manner that its mouth gapes wnde. Then he unrolls his line, and, as the ship forges ahead, the line, blowing out, describes a curve, at the 64 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC eud of which the bait, dipping to the water occasionally, roughly represents a flying-fish. As the bait leaps from crest to crest of the wavelets thrust aside by the advancing ship, a fish more adventurous or hungrier than the rest will leap at it, and in an instant there is a dead, dangling weight of from ten to forty pounds hanging at the end of your line thirty feet below. You haul frantically, for he may be poorly hooked, and you cannot play him. In a minute or two, if all goes well, he is plunged in the sack, and safe. But woe imto you if you have allov/ed the jeers of your shipmates to dissuade you from taking a sack out with you. The struggles of these fish are marvellous, and a man runs great risk of being sliaken off the boom, vuiless his legs are firmly locked in between the guys. Such is the tremendous vibration that a twenty -pound bonito makes in a man's grip, that it can be felt in the cabin at the other end of the sliip; and I have often come in triumphantly with one, having lost all feeling in my arms and a goodly portion of skin off my breast and side where I have em- braced the prize in a grim determination to hold him at all haz- ards. — Frank T. Bullen : TJie Cruise of the Cachalot. (Adapted. ) C. What is indentation? What is a paragraph? How does a paragraph differ from a sentence? What is the nse of the paragraph for the writer? For the reader? How is the length of a paragraph determined? Should the paragraph division be made before the final draft is com- l)leted, or after? What is your custom in this matter? What advantages has your custom of paragraphing? D. Where should paragraphs be made in the following extracts? What are the topic-sentences? 1. The place of our retreat was in a little neighbourhood con- sisting of farmers, who tilled their own grounds, and were eiiual strangers to oi^ulence and poverty. As they had almost all the conveniences of life within themselves, they seldom visited towns or cities in search of superfluity. Remote fi-om the polite, they still retained the primeval simplicity of manners; and, frugal by habit, they scarce knew that temperance was a virtue. They wrought with cheerfulness on days of labour, but observed festivals as intervals of idleness and pleasure. They kept up the Christmas carol, sent true-love-nots on Valentine morning, ate I'araoraphing 65 pancakes on Shrovetide, showed their wit on the first of April and religiously cracked nuts' on Michaelmas eve. Being apprised of our approach, the whole neighbourhood came out to meet their minister, dressed in their finest clothes and preceded by a pipe and tabour. A feast also was provided for our reception, at which we sat cheerfully down • and what tiie conversation wanted in wit was made up in laughter. Our little habitation was situated at the foot of a sloiiing hill, sheltered with a beau- tiful underwood behind, and a pz-attling river before ; on one side a meadow, on the other a green. My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, having given an hundred pound for my predecessor's good will. Nothing could exceed the neatness of my little enclosures, the elms and hedgerows appearing with inexpressible beauty. My house consisted of but one story, and was covered witii thatch, which gave it an air of great snvigness; the walls on the inside were nicely white- washed, and my daughters undertook to adorn them with pic- tures of their own designing. Though the same room served us for parlour and kitchen, that only made it the warmer. Besides, as it was kept with the utmost neatness — the dishes, plates, and coppers being well scoured, and all disposed in briglit rows on the shelves — the eye was agreeably relieved, and did not want richer furniture. There were three other apartments : one for my wife and me, another for our two daughters within our own, and the third, with two beds, for the rest of the children. Tlie little republic to which I gave laws was regulated in the follow- ing manner: — By sunrise we all assembled in our common apart- ment, the fire being previously kindled by the servant. After we had saluted each other with proper ceremony — for I always thought fit to keep up some mechanical forms of good breeding, without which freedom ever destroys friendshiji — we all bent in gratitude to that Being who gave us another day. This duty being performed, my son and I went to pursue our usual indus- try abroad, while my wife and daughters employed themselves in providing bi'eakfast, which was always ready at a certain time. I allowed half an hour for this meal, and an hour for din- ner, which time was taken up in innocent mirth between my wife and daughters, and in philosophical arguments between my son and me. As we rose with the sun, so we never pursued our labours after it was gone down, but returned home to the expect- ing family, where smiling looks, a neat hearth, and pleasant fire were prepared for our reception. Nor were we without guests: 66 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC sometimes Farmer Flamborough, our talkative neighbour, and often the blind piper, would pay us a visit, and taste our goose- berry wine, for the making of which we had lost neither the receipt nor the reputation. These harmless people had several ways of being good company ; while one played, the other would sing some soothing ballad— Johnny Armstrong's Last Good Night, or the cruelty of Barbara Allen. The night was con- cluded in the manner we began the morning, my youngest boys being appointed to read the lessons of the day; and he that read loudest, distinctest, and best was to have a halfpenny on Sunday to put in the poor's box.— Goldsmith: The Vicar of Wakefield. 2. It was none too soon for me to look to my own part ; for my head was scarce back at the window before five men carry- ing a square yard for a battering ram ran past me and took post to drive the door in. I liad never fired with a pistol in my life and not often with a gun, far less against a fellow creature. But it was now or never, and just as they sprang the yard I cried out: "Take that!" and shot into their midst. I mast have hit one of them, for he sang out and gave back a step and the rest stopped as if a little disconcerted. Before they had time to recover I sent another ball over their heads, and at my third shot (which went as wide as the second) the whole party threw down the yard and ran for it. Then I looked around again into the deck-house. The whole place was full of smoke of my own firing, just as my ears seemed to be burst with the noise of the shot. But there was Allan standing as before ; only now his sword was running blood to the hilt and himself so swelled with triumph and fallen into so fine an attitude that he looked to be invincible. Right before him on the floor was Mr. Shuan on his hands and knees ; the blood was pouring from his mouth and he was sinking slowly lower with a terrible wliite face, and just as I looked some of those from behind caught hold of him by the heels and dragged him bodily out of the round house. I believed he died as they were doing it.— Stevenson: Kidnapped. E. Of these three short themes on tlie same subject,why is the second better than the first? The third better than either the first or the second? THE STORY OF THE CASKETS 1. The story of the caskets in The Merchant of Venice was one t>f the three stories in the play. The story of the caskets depends PAEAGKAPHING 67 on the will of Poi'tia's father. Portia was a rich heiress. Her father wlien he died made a will saying that any one who wanted to marry Portia must decide his fate by three caskets. One was gold, one was silver, and one was lead. They all had different inscriptions. Different suitors chose different ones. But they were all mistaken but Bassanio. He chose the one with the picture in it. For Portia's father had caused a picture of her to be placed in the right casket, and Bassanio chose that. The other two contained a death's head and the portrait of a blinking idiot. There were also pieces of poetry in each casket about the man who chose them. But Bassanio was the lucky man. 2. The story of the caskets is one of the three stories in The Merchant of Venice. Portia was the daughter of a rich man of Venice. She was very beautiful. When he died he made a will which said that any man who wanted to marry his daughter must choose her according to three caskets. If he did not choose the right casket, he had to promise never to marry anybody. These caskets were made of different metals. One was gold, one was silver, and one was lead. They all had inscriptions on them. On the gold one it said: "Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire." On the silver one it said: "Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves. " On the lead one it said: "Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath." Inside the gold one was a death's head and some verses. Inside the silver one was the picture of a fool. Inside the lead one was Portia's picture. This showed that the last was the right one. The Prince of Morocco chose the gold one and the Prince of Arragon the silver one. So they both failed to obtain Portia, and besides could never marry. But Bassanio said that, as the world was still deceived by ornament, he would choose the lead casket. Thus Bassanio won the fair heiress to be his bride, because he knew that all that glistens is not gold. 3. The story of the caskets, one of the three stories that are woven together to make the play of The Merchant of Venice, tells how Portia, a beautiful heiress, was won in marriage. By the provisions of her father's will, all suitors to her hand were 68 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC to choose one of three caskets. The suitor before choosing had to swear that if he were unsuccessful he would never marry. Princes and noblemen, hearing of Portia's beauty and wealth, came from all over the world to try their fate. Indeed, the Prince of 3Iorocco, one of the suitors, said: "The Hyrcanian deserts and the vasty wilds Of wide Arabia are as thoroughfares now For princes come to view fair Portia." This same Prince of Morocco was the first person to make a choice. Having looked at all tlie caskets and carefully read their inscriptions, he chose the gold one, thinking that the inscription on that, "Who chooseth me shall get what many men desire," meant that it was the fortunate casket. But on opening it he found only a skull, in the eyesocket of which was a paper with verses saying: "All that glistens is aiot gold." So he departed sadlj'. The next to try was the Prince of Arragon. Like the Prince of Morocco, he read all the inscriptions carefully, and finally chose the silver casket, because on that were tlie words, "Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves," and he thought that he would stand on his merits. On opening the casket, how- ever, he found only the picture of a fool, with verses mocking him. So he too went away. Then came Bassanio, a man whom Portia liked. She was almost as anxious while he was making his choice as he was himself. He commented on the caskets to himself while soft music played, discarding the gold because it merely made a show, the silver because it was a common metal used for money. But the lead casket, which was unpretentious and which had rather a forbidding inscription, "Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath," attracted him, and he chose it. Portia, who knew that the leaden casket was the right one, was full of joy, and when Bassanio opened the casket and found Portia's picture— the token of success— he was full of joy, too. He read the inscription which told him that he, the man who did not choose the showy things, was the fortunate person, and "turned to where his lady was, and claimed her with a loving kiss." G. Paragraph tho following conversations : 1. "What would you do?" asked Charlotte presently— the book of the moment always dominating her thoughts until it was PAEAGRAPHIXG 69 sucked dry and cast aside — "what would you do if you saw two lions in the road, one on each side, and j-ou didn't know if they were loose or if they were chained up?" "Do?" shouted Edward, valiantly, "I should — I should — I should — " His boast- ful accents died away into a mumble: "Dunno what I should do." "Shouldn't do anything," I observed after consideration; and really it would be difficult to arrive at a wiser conclusion. "If it came to 'doing' " remarked Harold, reflectively, "the lions would do all the doing there was to do, wouldn't they?" "But if they were good lions," rejoined Charlotte, "they would do as they would be done by." "Ah, but how do you know a good lion from a bad one?" said Edward. "The books don't tell you at all, and the lions ain't marked any different." "AVhy, there ain't any good lions," said Harold hastily. "Oh, yes, there are, heaps and heaps," contradicted Edward. "Nearly all the lions in the story books are good lions. There was Androcles' lion, and St. Jerome's lion, and — and — and the Lion and the Unicorn — " "He beat the Unicorn," observed Harold, dubiously, "all around the town." "That proves he was a good hon," cried Edward triumphantly. "But the question is, how are j'ou to tell 'em when 3-ou see 'em?'' "I should ask Martha," said Harold of the simple creed. — Kenneth Gkahahe: The Golden Age. 2. "The great art of riding," the Knight suddenly I^egan in a loud voice, waving his right arm as he spoke, "is to keep " Here the sentence ended as suddenly as it had begun, as the Knight fell heavily on the top of his head exactly in the path where Alice was walking. She was quite frightened this time, and said in an anxious tone: "I hope no bones are broken." "None to speak of," the Knight said, as if he didn't mind break- ing two or three of them. "Tlie great art of riding, as I was saying, is — to keep your balance properly. Like this, you know " He let go the bridle and stretched out both his arms to show Alice what he meant, and this time he fell flat on his back, right under the horse's feet. "Plenty of practice," he went on repeating, all the time that Alice was getting him on his feet again. "Plenty of practice." "It's too ridiculous," cried Alice, losing all her patienqe this time. "You ought to have a wooden horse on wheels, that you ought." "Does that kind go smoothly?" the Knight said in a tone of great interest, clasping his arms around the horse's neck as be spoke, just in 70 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC time to save liim from tumbling off again. "Much more smoothly than a live horse," Alice said, with a little scream of laughter, in spite of all she could do to prevent it. "I'll get one," the Knight said thoughtfully to himself. "One or two — several." — Lewis Carroll: Alice in Wonderland. H. Compare the paragraphing of these short themes. What advantage have the second forms over the first? {Extract from theme on Macaulay) 1. Thomas Babington Ma- caulay was born on the 25th of October, 1800, at Roth ley Chapel, in Leicestershire. His father, Zachary, was a stern, austere man, a Scotch Presbyterian, and a leading agitator of the antislavery movement. His mother was a noble wo- man of Quaker descent, and Macaulay 's love of his mother and of his home is one of the most pleasing traits in his character. In his early childhood Ma- caulay showed indi.sputable evidence of his coining great- ness. At the age of four he had learned to read and at five he had read the entire Bible. Even at this age he began to use those long words which are so much in evidence in his writing. One day, when he was at dinner with his father and mother, at the house of a neighbor, the servant, while passing the (;offee, overturned 9k cupful on his legs. The lady {Reicritten form) Thomas Babington Macaulay was born on the twenty-fifth of October, eighteen hundred, at Rothley Chapel, in Leices- tershire. His father, Zachary, was a stern, austere man, a Scotch Presbyterian, and a leading agitator ,of the anti- slavery movement. His mother was a noble woman of Quaker descent. His mother, and the home she made, inspired Ma- caulay with a love which was one of the pleasing traits in his character Even in his early childhood Macaulay showed evidences of his coming greatness. At the age of ^four he had learned to read, and at five he had read the entire Bible. As early as this, too, he began to use those long words which are so much in evidence in his writings. Illustrative of this fact is the following anecdote. While he was dining one day with his father and mother at the house of a neighbor the servant up- set a cup of coffee on his legs. On his hostess's inquiry as to whether he was hurt, th^ PARAGKAPHING 71 of the house, as soon as she perceived the accident, in- quired whether he was in much pain. Young Thomas immediately replied : "Madam, the agony ia somewhat abated." JIM 2. "Jim I Jim! where can that boy be? It is fully an hour since I sent him down town. Well, there he is at last, and I'll wager he has for- gotten what I sent him after. How many times have I told you not to go out without your coat and hat on?" " 'Clare it's too hot." "Well, perhaps it is too hot to go errands, but how about the circus this after- noon? It will be cooler then, I suppose. Yes, you may go, but the next time you go to the postoffice, mind you hurry and don't stop to carry water for the animals ; for I know that's what you have been doing; your clothes are wet. Now you needn't ' 'clare fo' good- ness you hasn't,' for can't I see the edge of that pink ticket in your pocket? Yes, you may go this time, but you must finish your work first." Jim shuffles out of sight, and I can hear him whistling as he cuts the grass. In about two hours he comes back and tells me: "I'm through, Missus; cut every wisp o' grass and fed it to the cow." What a change young Thomas immediately re- plied: "Madam, the agony is somewhat abated." JIM (Rewritten) Jim ! Jim ! Where can that boy be? It is fully an hour since I sent him down town. Well, there he is at last, and I'll wager he has forgotten what I sent him after. "How many times have I told you not to go without your coat and hat on?" " 'Clare it's too hot." "Well, perhaps it is too hot to go errands, but how about the circus this after- noon? It will be cooler then, I suppose. Yes, you may go, but next time you go to the postoffice, mind you hurry and don't stop to carry water for the animals. I know that's what you have been doing; your clothes are wet. Now you needn't ' 'clare fo' good- ness you hasn't,' for can't I see the edge of that pink ticket in your pocket? Yes, you may go this time, but you must finish your work first." Jim shuffles out of sight, and I can hear him whistling as he cuts the grass. In about two hours he comes back and tells me: "I'm through, Missus; cut every wisp o' grass and fed it to the cow." 72 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC has taken place in himl His mother has polished his face until it shines like ebony, his hands are cleaner than usual, and his hat, for a Avonder, has a brim. His clothes, his "meetin' " clothes, the ones his mammy bought him last court-day, have been taken out of the press and hurried into. Jim likes new clothes, but thinks it an outrage to wear a coat ; it hides the pride of his heart — his new suspenders. It is very seldom that one of these little darkies gets a pair of new galluses; they are generally hand-me-downs, and by the time they reach the youngest they are usually only one strap. But to-day these give place to the circus with its animals and clowns, and the coat is buttoned tight under his chin to keep the precious ticket from falling out. Jim gone, I go out to lock the stable and give the cow an unusually good supper, as I know that on the morrow she will have to be the poor horse while Jim plays clown. What a change has taken place in him ! His mother has polished his face until it shines like ebony, his hands are cleaner than usual, and his hat, for a wonder, has a brim. His clothes, his "meetin" "' clothes, the ones his mammy bought last court-day, have been taken out of the press and hurried into. Jim likes new clothes but thinks it an out- rage to wear a coat, for it hides the pride of his heart — his new suspenders. It is very seldom that one of these little "dark- ies" gets a pair of new "gal- luses," for these articles are generally handed down in the family, and by the time they reach the youngest are usually only one strap. But to-day Jim's suspenders are secondary in im])ortance to the circus with its animals and clowns, and the coat is buttoned tight under his chin to keep the precious ticket from falling out. Jim gone, I go out to lock the stable and give the cow an unusually good supper, as I know that on the morrow she will have to be the poor horse while Jim plays clown. /. Ke write the following themes in suitable paragraphs. If topic-sentences are needed, supj^ly them : AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF THE Nancy Lee 1. I was once the largest and finest steamboat on the Missis- sippi River where I ran between New Orleans and Memphis. PARAGRAPHING 73 I was a side-wlieeler, and my great wheels hardly ever stopped. My owner, Captain Lee of Memphis, Tennessee, named nie after his daughter. It used to take a long time to load me ; I was always heavily loaded with bales of cotton, sugar, and oranges. Many a moonlight night have I carried a number of young people, who danced until early morning. One day, as I was bravely steaming up the river against the strong current, I ran into a snag; I was stopped so suddenly, that there was great excitement aboard. People ran wildly about; my captain was hurriedly giving orders. Soon the machinery was put in motion, and I backed down the river. It was a miracle that a hole was not made through me. I lay in Memphis three weeks for repairs. After that time I was once more ready for use, but I could not travel as fast as before. About a year after the accident, as I was going down the river, I struck a sandbar and there I stuck. My owner had a tug sent up from New Orleans, which pulled me off the bar. I was dragged to the nearest beach and there left. I was beyond repair. Months, and years rolled on, and I still lay on the beach. My planks began to get old and rotten, and my machinery began to fall apart. I know that in a few years, I shall be nothing but a wreck. AN INCIDENT DURING VACATION 2. One cold night a number of us boys went over on the hill to coast. There was a full moon, and it made the hill nearly as light as day. The hill was covered with ice, and the bob-sleds went finely; the largest bob went as far as the railroad tracks on Prospect Avenue. The bob that I rode on was next to the largest and went beyond the Presbyterian church. The bob that 1 was on was loaded with boys, and a man on top of the hill pushed us off. It seemed as if we were flying, we went so fast. Just as we reached the bottom of the hill, the boy who was watching for the cars signaled that one was coming. 74 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC It was impossible to stop, and the boy who was steering the bob was so frightened that he let the ropes go ; the instant he dropped the ropes the bob swung around and threw us all into the curbstone, where we lay a few minutes before we could col- lect our senses. If the boy had not dropped the ropes when he did, and so stopped the bob, some of us would probably have been hurt. MY RECOLLECTION OP THE BATTLE OF WOUNDED KNEE 3. In the spring of 1890 I happened to be residing in the Black Hills of Soxxth Dakota, a dangeroxxs locality at that time, for the Indians were on the war-path and wei'e threatening destruction to all the white settlers. Many families had been attacked and massacred ; war-dances were of nightly occurrence ; the little towns and villages were in imixiinent danger. The United States troops had been called oxxt to quell the xxprising, bxxt to our sur- prise and di.sappointment the Indians had evaded them and were continuing their outrages on the inhabitants. Such was the state of affairs when early one April morning we were startled by the appearance of a regiment of soldiers in the village, who at once became the center of aix anxious and excited crowd made up of all the citizexis in the town. In response to our ixiquiries, they told us that they were on their way to attack the "Red Men," who wex-e encamped in a ravine only two miles to the north. When we had heard this, the con- sciousness of the danger through which we had passed during the preceding night dawned xxpon us, and we were seized with a sort of panic. The px-e.sence of the soldiers alone gave us cour- age. And yet even on them we could not depend fully. What if they should not be victorious? We dreaded to think of the result to ourselves and the sxxrrounding coxmtxy. They, how- ever, did not seem at all alarmed bxit marched away, boastful and confident, assuring us that a battle woxxld surely take place before evening. We watched the troops until they had disap- peared over the hill, leaving a long train of dust behind them; then we joined the little group of people who wex-e gathered in the sti-eet to await the i-esult and to console each other. About five o'clock we noticed smoke asceixding in the dis- tance. This, with the far-off sound of the cannon and the occasional echo of what we believed to be a war-whoop, announced to us that the battle had begxxn. The little ci'owd huddled together almost afraid- to look in the direction of the PAEAGRAPHING 75 battlefield, for fear of seeing the Red Men dash over the hill and down upon them. Our suspense was terrible and can better be imagined than described. At length all became quiet, and it was evident that the struggle was over. Still we kept our eyes fixed on the hill hoping for the return of the soldiers or for some news of the fight. Darkness, however, soon settled upon us, and we separated and withdrew to our respective homes without the least idea of who had been the victor or of what fate held in store for us. I did not even try to rest that night, for, child though I was, my anxiety was too great to think of sleep ; so I sat at the window with the rest of the family staring into the darkness and starting uy) at every sound. At least a dozen times during the night we went down the street to see if any news had come. But morning dawned without our being one whit the wiser, and worn out with anxiety I fell asleep. The next day put an end to our suspense. A decisive battle had been fought at Wounded Knee, in which the Indians were almost annihilated. This battle ended the outbreak. So passed the most thrilling experience of my life, one which was to leave a lasting impression on my mind. J. In what kind of writing do we find short paragraphs? Illustrate from the books read in the classes in literature and history. For what reasons are these paragraphs short? K. In the following theme are the paragraph divisions well made? Why? What are the topic-sentences? "October the First, King of the Bow-wows," was a cocker spaniel who suffered the indignity of being called "Toby." His beautiful black hair was very soft and shiny, and was partic- ularly long on his legs and ears. These ears were so long that they would fold around his nose and overlap, and sometimes he would almost step on them with his forefeet when he ran around smelling on the ground. His eyes were an indescribable brown, but when he was in the dark, they would give out a strange greenish-yellow light. His tail was cut, leaving a stub, which, although it was short, was wonderfully expressive. In short, he was the kind of dog that would make you turn around to get another look at him, as you passed him on the street. But Toby's appearance was not his only attraction. lie was s^ 76 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC polished, gentlemanly fellow, with many accomplishments. I cannot begin to tell all of his acquirements, but I can speak of one or two that will show a little of his education. No dog is well educated unless he has his musical ability developed to a certain extent. Toby's musical development was remarkable, for he could not only play the piano, but sing. Whenever his mistress asked him to "play the piano and sing," his whole atti- tude would say, "Oh, no! Let someone else. I do it too often." But when she continued to ur^je him, he would trot to the piano, jump up on the stool, and press the keys with his paws, at the same time yelping and whining like a true canine musi- cian. Toby was also taught to think for himself. He showed this fact one evening when a company of his mistress's friends had come in for a little recreation. His mistress was showing them some of his accomplishments, and, as she sometimes did, slie told him to "do something else" — though she didn't specify what it should be. He started in with one or two of his tricks, and then went through almost all his repertoire. But his mis- tress still asked for "something else." Finally the little fellow sat down in a bewildered way and looked around the room. Then he sat still for a while, and someone shouted, "See him think, fellows! See him think!" And sure enough, in a moment, off he trotted, to do something that he had not tried. Another time when "his family" were gatliered in their library watching him do some of his tricks, he showed that he could think. Now his "papa," wlio always sat in a particular chair in that room, was not thei'e. Toby, however, was told to "go love" his papa. Whenever he was told to "love" anyone, the dog would jump up in the honored person's lap, and, putting his paws on either side of his "lover's" neck, would gently lay his head on one of them. There he would stay till lie was told that he was a "dear dog'' — tlie signal that the loving vv^as to be discontinued. So Toby, looking around the room to find liis papa, and being disappointed, did wliat he thought was the next best thing, by loving his papa's chair. Toby's self-control was by no means a small part of his edu- cation. Once when some j^oung people were giving a series of "Gibson Tableaux," Toby took a part in one of them. He represented the dog whose case was thought to be pitiable enough for the "Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Ani- mals" to relieve. Before the curtain was raised Toby was placed PARAGRAPHING 77 in position, and a piece of cracker put on the floor in front of him, which lie was told not to touch, though of course he was ever so anxious to get it. When the curtain was raised, there sat the little dog with his eyes glued to the floor, waiting to be told that he might have that cracker. Some small boys in the audience whistled to him, to see if he would look up and thus prove his reality. But no, the little fellow didn't move. It was only when the audience made a tremendous noise by clapping that he looked out toward them in a bewildered way, only to make them doubly vigorous in their applause, as the curtain went down. And so it is no wonder, whenever he met any of his "friends," while he was out walking, that they said, "Look! There is the 'summer girl's' dog — poor fellow!"' L. Count the numbers of words and the number of sentences in each paragraph of the story in K and compare with some of the paragraphs on pp. 58-60. Why are these latter paragraphs longer than those in "Toby"? M. Make paragraph divisions for the following narrative passages : 1. I felled a cedar tree: I question much whether Solomon ever had such a one for the building of the Temple at Jerusa- lem. It was five feet ten inches diameter at the lower part next the stump, and four feet eleven inches diameter at the end of twenty -two feet, after which it lessened for a while, and then parted into branches. It was not without infinite labor that I felled this tree. I was twenty days hacking and hewing it at the bottom; I was fourteen more getting the branches and limbs and the vast spreading head of it cut off, which I hacked and hewed through with axe and hatchet, and inexpressible labor. After this, it cost me a month to shape it and dub it to a propor- tion, and to something like the bottom of a boat, that it might swim upright as it ought to do. It cost me near three months more to clear the inside, and work it so as to make an exact boat of it. This I did, indeed, without fire, by mere mallet and chisel, and by the dint of hard labor, till I had brought it to be a very handsome "periagua," and big enough to have carried six and twenty men, and, consequently, big enough to have carried me and all my cargo. When I had gone through this work, I 78 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC I was extremely delighted with it. The boat was really mucli bigger than I ever saw a cauoe or periagua, tliat was made of one tree, in my life. Many a weary stroke it had cost, you may be sure; and there remained nothing but_to get it into the water; and had I gotten it into the water, I make no question but I should have begun the maddest voyage, and the most unlikely to he performed, that ever was undertaken. But all my devices to get it into the water failed me, though they cost me infinite labor, too. It lay about one hundred yards from the water, and not more; but the first inconvenience was, it was up-hill towards the creek. Well, to take away this discouragement, I resolved to dig into the surface of the earth, and so make a declivity. This I began, and it cost me a prodigious deal of pains ; but who grudges pains that have their deliverance in view? But when this was worked through, and this difficulty managed, it was still much at one, for I could no more stir the~canoe than I could the other boat. Then I measured the distance of ground, and resolved to cut a dock or canal to bring the water up to the canoe, seeing that I could not bring the canoe down to the water. Well, I began this work, and when I began to enter into it and calculate how deep it was to be dug, how^ broad, how the stuff was to be thrown out, I found that by the number of hands I had, being none but my own, it must have been ten or twelve years before I should have gone through with it ; for the shore lay high, so that at the upper end it must have been at least twenty feet deep ; so at length, though wMth great reluct- ancy, I gave this attempt over also. — Defoe: Robinson Crusoe. 2. The stillness consequent on the cessation of the rum- bling and labouring of the coach, added to tlie stillness of the night, made it very quiet indeed. The panting of the horses communicated a tremulous motion to the coach, as if it were in a state of agitation. The hearts of the pas- sengers beat loud enough perliaps to be heard ; but at any rate, the quiet pause was audibly expressive of people out of breath, and holding the breath, and having the pulses quickened by expectation. Tlie sound of a horse at a gallop came fast and furiously up the hill. "So-ho!" the guard sang out, as loud as he could roar. "You there! Stand! I shall fire!" The pace was suddenly checked, and, with much splash- ing and floundering, a man's voice called from the mist, "Is that the Dover mailT' "Never you mind what it is," the guard PARAGRAPHING 79 retorted. "What are you?" "7s that the Dover mail?" "Why do you want to know?" "I want a passenger, if it is." "What passenger?" "Mr. Jarvis Lorry." One passenger showed in a moment that it was his name. The guard, the coachman, and the two other passengers eyed him distrustfully. — Dickens: Tale of Two Cities. CHAPTER V BUILDING SENTENCES 23. Definition of the Sentence. — As a rule, we think not in sepurato words, or even in phrases, but in groups of words called sentences. AVliat is a sentence? Evidently it is not any group of words. Tlio Avords "General Grant" and "troops" stand for ideas, but not for com- plete thoughts. Kor does the phrase "to encamp under the trees in the park" make a complete statement, although it expresses a more complex thought than the single nouns. Not until we have a subject and a predi- cate can we express a complete thought; e. g. , "General Grant ordered the troops to encamp under the trees in the park." Moreover, two complete thoughts, such as, "The night was cool, we rode swiftly along the silent road," do not make a sentence unless united grammatically. The link may be made in this example by supplying the con- junctive word "and," or by inserting the semicolon to indicate that the two groups of words are independent grammatically. A sentence, then, is the expression of a complete thought by means of words that are united grammatically. 24, Groups of Words That Are Not Sentences. — It would seem to bo a very sim2)le matter to make complete sen- tences, but unless the writer is careful he Avill punctuate as sentences such groups of words as the following : "A long, dusty road between high fields that extended into the dim distance," (Contains no finite verb in the principal clause. ) "The highest part of the plateau." (A phrase.) 80 BUILDING SEXTEXC'ES ' 81 "Tliough I didn't mind wliat he said." (A depend- ent clause alone. ) "We all walked rapidly, the sun had gone down, tlu-i-e were no houses." (Complete statements that are not grammatically joined.) This last form of blunder (sometimes called tlie "comma blunder"') is exceedingly common in the work of careless or ignorant writers. It shows, first, an igno- rance of the primary laws of grammar, and is often found in the composition of persons who have not been trained in Latin, where the necessity for relating words is more evident than in modern languages. Secondly, it indicates a confused, illogical habit of thought. When- ever it is found, the student should try to parse the sen- tence where the blunder occurs. He will find that his group of words breaks into two or more distinct sen- tences. Not every group of words punctuated as a sentence, however, must contain a subject and a^iredicate. Im- perative sentences usually lack a subject; e. g. : Stand not on the order of your going, but go at once. Exclamatory and interrogative phrases may be set off as distinct sentences; as: My kingdom for a horse ! And the black kniglit? What of him? Further than this, Ave find good Avriters occasionally breaking the rule made above, and for the sake of some special effect to be gained, punctuating a phrase or a clause as an independent sentence. The bar of the watch-guard worked through the buttonhole, and the watch slid quietly on to the carpet. Where the bearer found it next morning and kept it. — Kipling. But this practice, which occurs rarely in ordinary prose, is not to be imitated. It is safe to repeat what has been said before : with the three exceptions noted, every sen- 82 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC tence should contain both subject and predicate; and every sentence should satisfy the grammatical test — that is, its words should be bound together according to the laws of grammar. 25. Content of the Sentence. — How much can we put into one sentence? We find in our reading sentences oi all lengths; we also know by experiment that we can enlarge a short sentence almost indefinitely, as in this illustration : 1. America is a commonwealth. 2. America is a commonwealth of commonwealths, a Repub- lic of republics, a State which is composed of other states. 3. America is a commonwealth of commonwealths, a Repub- lic of republics, a State, which, while one, is nevertheless com- posed of other states even more essential to its existence than it is to theirs. ^4. America— I call 'it America (leaving out of sight South America, Canada, and Mexico) in order to avoid using at this stage the term United States — America is a commonwealth, a Republic of republics, a State, which, while one, is nevertheless composed of other states even more essential to its existence than it is to theirs. — Bryce: American Comviomvealth. Form one contains four words; form two, eighteen; form three, thirty-two; form four, fifty- six. All four forms make complete' grammatical statements. The original idea is expanded, however, by adding to it other ideas until instead of a sentence of four words we have one of fifty- six. By examining a number of sentences taken from differ- ent writers we shall find that the length of the sentence may vary from two words to a hundred or more. The average length of a single sentence, however, among mod- ern writers is about thirty words. But as there are many shorter and many much longer sentences in every writer's work, this fact does not help us in determining how long to make any given sentence. For example, in the final form of the illustration given above, there are eleven dis- BUILDING SENTENCES 83 tinct statements and fifty-six words, yet it is as good a sentence as the first form, where there is but one statement, made in four words. However, if we should try to add to the last form many more words, we should soon find that the mind would not grasp quickly all the ideas — the sentence would not be clear. A single sen- tence, then, may contain as many words as can be related grammatically , and, further, as many ideas as can be expressed clearly in one unit of thought.^ 26. Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences. — "A simple sentence contains only a single statement, com- mand, or question. A complex sentence contains one simple or principal statement, command, or question, and one or more subordinate clauses. A compound sen- tence contains two or more principal statements, fre- quently united by conjunctions. Each principal statement of the compound sentence may, however, be accompanied by subordinate clauses. Such sentences may be called complex-compound." — Carpenter: Principles of Eng- lish Grammar. In forming sentences, it is not a matter of indifference whether wo make them simj)le, compound, or complex in form. Each form has its peculiar use in expressing the relation of the ideas in the sentence. When the simple sentence is employed, but one statement can be made ; e.g., "The room is quite bare." The compound sentence expresses two or more statements, which are equal in value; e.g., "The room is quite bare, and it is uncar- peted." In the complex sentence, one or more statements are subordinated to the main proposition; e. g., "The room, which is uncarpeted, is quite bare." The follow- ing passage shows the proper use of the last form — the complex-compound : • Ideas which are not related, or only vaguely related, naturally destroy clearness, no matter how short the sentence is. For this subject see sec- tions 119, 120, 132. 123. 84 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC The father of the Custom House— the patriarch, not only of this little squad of officials, but, I am bold to say, of the respectable body of tide-waiters all over the United States — was a certain permanent Inspector. He might truly be termed a legitimate son of the revenue system, dyed in the wool, or, rather, born in the purple; since his sire, a Revolutionary colonel, and formerly collector of the port, had created an office for him, and appointed him to fill it, at a period of the early ages which few living men can now remember. This Inspector, when I first knew him, was a man of fourscore years, or thereabouts, and certainly one of the most wonderful specimens of winter-green that you would be likely to discover in a lifetime's search. — Hawthorne: The Cus- tom House. 27. Advantages of Compound and Complex Sentences. — All ideas might be expressed in simple sentences. The long sentence from ]\rr. Bryce on page 82 might have been composed in this form : 1. I call the country America. 2. I mean that part of America not included in South America, Canada, and Mexico. 3. For I do not wish to use at this stage the term United States. 4. America, then, is a commonwealth. 5. Moreover, it is a com- monwealth of commonwealths. 6. It is a State of states. 7. It is a Republic of republics. 8. It is one. 9. Nevertheless, it is composed of other states. 10. These are essential to its exist- ence. 11. They are even more essential to its existence than it is to theirs. But this manner of expressing ideas in simple sentences is awkward and necessitates tiresome repetition. In the original form, by the use of grammatical devices, these eleven simple sentences are condensed into one complex sentence, and the length of the whole is reduced from eighty-six to fifty-six words. In both cases the thought is essentially the same. There is a better reason, however, why Mr. Bryce 's form is preferable to the other: in the complex sentence, the relationship between the ideas is shown; in the detached sentences, the reader has to make the rela- BUILDING SENTENCES 85 tionship clear for himself. In the complex sentence, the ideas that are of less importance are placed in unim- portant clauses, whereas in the simple sentences all the ideas have apparently the same value. By the use of com- pound and complex sentences, then, a writer shows the connection and the comparative value of his ideas. The more mature and ditlicult his thought is, the more carefully are his sentences constructed to reveal the relationship between his ideas, and the more he will use compound and complex sentences. The child says, ''chair, cushion, beautiful"; next, "chair is beautiful, cushion is beautiful"; then, "the chair is beautiful and the cushion is beautiful"; finally, "the chair and tlio cushion are both beautiful." This art of fitting thoughts together in such a way as to show whether they are inde- pendent, of equal value, or one principal and the others subordinate, is one of the most important steps in learn- ing hovf to write. 28. Variety in Sentence Forms Needed. — The use of many short simple sentences and of straggling compound sentences, where the statements are tied together loosely by "and's," "but's," "or's," "Avhich's," and similar conjunctive words, shows that the writer does not possess the necessary variety of forms or molds in Avhich to cast his thought. Out of a number of nouns and verbs, Avith the aid of a few conjunctions, usually coordinate, he builds sentences that are monotonous and awkward. To remedy this fault he must make himself familiar with the many different sentence -forms used by experienced writers. At first these will seem difficult to manage ; but after sufficient practice in using longer and more complex sentences they will come unconsciously when required ])y the thought to be expressed. A variety of useful forms may be learned by copying into a notebook any sentence the student finds that illustrates a new arrangement of 86 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC the simple elements, and then imitating the form in a neAV sentence. This exercise may seem artificial at first, bnt with the form once thoroughly known, it will no longer be necessary to think of the model. A few of the sentence-forms most commonly nsed are given below : 1. As we expected our landlord the next day, my wife went to make the venison pasty. — Goldsmith. This contains an introductory causal clause, followed by a simple declarative sentence. The same kind of thought may be expressed by a clause following the prin- cipal statement; as, "My Avife went to make the venison pasty, for we expected our landlord the next day." Sim- ilar sentences may be constructed Avitli the causal con- junctions "since," "because," "for the reason that," and "inasmuch as," and also with the participles; as, "Hav- ing found out the easiest way, we arrived at our destina- tion before dark." 2. If I go with him, if I do make the sacrifice he urges, I will make it absolutely. — Bronte. Here a conditional clause precedes the main statement. The second conditional clause is an explanation of the first, and is in apposition Avith it. The sentence may be expanded by adding phrases or clauses to either part ; as, "If I do go with him, as you have urged, — " etc. 3. This, and other measures of precaution, I took. For the sake of emphasis, the elements of this sentence are transposed, the object coming first. This form is useful when the writer wishes to make an emphatic state- ment. 4. By such exertions as we have described, Johnson supported himself till the year 1762. — Macaulay. A part only of the predicate is transferred to the first of the sentence for emphasis. BUILDING SENTENCES 87 5. He was chiefly marked as a gentleman — if such, indeed, he made any claim to be — by the rather remarkable whiteness and nicety of his linen. — Hawthorne. Hero the predicate is interrupted by a clause which is wholly parenthetical. This form serves to bind togetlier matters not closely related, or digressions. See also the sentence from Bryce, page 82, Avhere the parenthesis occurs in the subject of tlie sentence. 6. Men, like nails, lose their usefulness when they lose their direction and begin to bend ; such nails are then thrown into the dust or into the furnace. — Landor. This compound form — consisting of two short sen- tences — is useful where the two statements are closely connected in thought and may bo made parallel in form. 7. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. — Lincoln. This is similar to number six, except that the two parts are contrasted or opposed in thought instead of being parallel. 8. The street is Pyncheon street ; the hou.se is the old Pyncheon house ; and an elm tree, of wide circumference, rooted before the door, is familiar to every town-born child by the title of the Pyncheon elm.— Hawthorne. This is an extension of form six. Note how easily one member of the compound sentence may be expanded, as in the last member of this example. The conjunction "and" between the last two members may be omitted at the discretion of the writer. 9. He ransacked his father's shelves, dipped into a multitude of books, read what was interesting, and passed over what was dull— SOUTHEY. This form is a useful one for the rapid narration of a number of coordinate events. One subject answers for a number of verbs with their objects and modifiers. The tenses and the phrases should be kept uniform. 88 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 10. Imagine a cottage of two stories with a bench before the door, the stable and kitchen in a suite so that the donkey and I could hear each other dining; furniture of the plainest, earthen floors, a single bed-chamber for travellers, and that without any convenience but beds. — Stevenson. Tliis is an imperative sentence, where all the expansion occurs in the predicate. 11. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us— that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measvire of devotion ; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, and for the jjeople, shall not perish from the earth. — Lincoln. One simple statement is amplified by a number of explanatory clauses, which are coordinate in thought and form and are separated by semicolons. 12. Her aims were simple and obvious, — to preserve her throne, to keep England out of war, to restore civil and religious order.— Grekx. This form is similar to number eleven; but phrases, instead of clauses, are arranged in parallel form. Either eleven or twelve may be varied by transposition, the proposition being stated at the close, as in the following form : 18. Thus not to follow your leader whitliersonver he may tliink proper to lead; to back out of an expedition because the end of it frowns dubious, and the present fruit of it is discom- fort ; to quit a comrade on the road and return home without him: — these are tricks which no boy of spirit would be guilty of. — Meredith. 14. The great barns at tlie wayside had their doors thrown back, displaying the dark cool space within. — Pater. In this form, a participle is used to subordinate a state- ment of minor importance. The sentence can be varied BUILDING SENTENCES 89 by placing the participial phrase before or after the main statement. Exercise V A. Divide the following extracts into sentences and punctuate them in such a manner as to bring out the thought clearly : 1. [Ichabod Crane is the schoolmaster of Sleepy Hollow, a little Dutch settlement in a glen near the Hudson River. He wishes to court Katrina Van Tassel, the davighter of a wealthy farmer of the region, but to do so must become the rival of Brom Van Brunt, the athletic hero of the countryside.] To have taken the field openly against his rival would have been madness for he was not a man to be thwarted in his amours any more than that stormy lover Achilles Ichabod there- fore made his advances in a quiet and gently insinuating man- ner under cover of his character as singing master he made frequent visits at the farmhouse not that he had anything to apprehend from the meddlesome interference of parents which is so often a stumbling-block in the path of lovei's Bait Van Tas- sel was an easy indulgent soul he loved his daughter better even than his pipe and like a reasonable man and an excellent father let her have her way in everything his notable little wife too had enough to do to attend to her housekeeping and manage the poultry for as she sagely observed ducks and geese are foolish things and must be looked after but girls can take care of them- selves thus while the busy dame bustled about the house or plied her spinning wheel at one end of the piazza honest Bait would sit smoking his evening pijie at the other watching the achieve- ments of a little wooden warrior who armed Vvith a sword in his hand was most valiantly fighting the wind on the pinnacle of the barn in the meantime Ichabod would carry on his suit with the daughter by the side of the spring under the great elm or sauntering along in the twilight that hour so favorable to the lover's eloquence. — Irving: The Legend of Sleepy Holloio. 2. When I was a boy there was but one permanent ambition among my comrades on the west bank of the Mississippi River that was to be a steamboatman we had transient ambitions of other sorts but they were only transient when a circus came 90 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC and went it left us all burning to become clowns the first negro minstrel show that ever came to our section left us all suffering to try that kind of life now and then we had a hope that if we lived and were good God would permit us to be pirates these ambitions faded out each in its turn but the ambition to be a steamboatman always remained. — Twain : Life on the MissiHsippi. 3. It was gray harsh easterly weather the swell rose pretty high and out in the open there were "skippers' daughters" when I found myself at last on the divers' platform twenty pounds of lead upon each foot and my whole person swollen with ply on ply of woolen underclothing one moment the salt wind was whistling round my nightcapped head the next I was crushed almost double under the weight of the helmet as that intolerable burthen was laid upon me I could have found it in ni}' heart (only for shame's sake) to cry off from the whole enter- prise but it was too late the attendants began to turn the hurdy- gurdy and the air to whistle through the tube some one screwed in the barred window of the vizor and I was cut off in a moment from my fellow men but time was scarce given me to realize my isolation the weights were hung upon my back and breast the signal rope was thrust into my unresisting hand and setting a twenty-pound foot upon the ladder I began ponderously to descend. — Stevenson. B. Why are the following groups of words not sen- tences? Kewrite them as grammatical units: 1. If we look at Sir Roger we can see a fair example of Addi- son's skill as a describer in a few strokes he has portraj^ed us a character at once peculiar, pleasing, and congenial to our tastes. 2. The moral of each of his stories can easily be found, just take for instance the way he treats the superstitions of the people. 3. He was very lenient about people's not being on time. Principally because he was always late himself. 4. The stranger blameil himself severely. Which was not doing himself justice. 5. Milton wrote many poems in his youth. The best known being II Penmroso, L' Allegro, Lycidas. and Comus. 6. Sir Roger de Coverley was a good churchman, he attended church every Sunday. BUILDING SENTENCES 91 7. The driver cracked his whip loudly, he seemed to be anx- ious to start. 8. Agnes did a great deal for David Copperfield, David recog- nizing her sympathetic nature, and early learned to look upon her as a sister. 9. One day while Ichabod Crane was teaching, a little"darky eame to him and gave him an invitation to go to a party, so the V)ooks were slung aside and school dismissed. 10. Two glances convinced him that there was no one here, the kitchen was as he had seen it last. — Barrie. 11. Which proves that when a man does good work out of all proportion to his pay, in seven cases out of nine there is a woman at the back of the virtue. — Kipling. 12. The doctor went to the inside of the window and looked in, he could see nothing but his own reflection in the mirror and was completely puzzled. — Barrie. C. Kewrite these groups of words in larger sentence- units. "What change in the thought takes place? 1. At first the feeling between the citizens and the soldiers was friendly, but this friendliness did not last long. The Bostonians did not conceal their indignation at the presence of the military; the soldiers in their turn began to treat the townspeople with contumely. The very children took part in the quarrel. The soldiers destroyed the snowslides they had made for their sleds. A deputation of boys waited upon the British general to com- plain of this conduct. The general asked them if their fathers had sent them to disjilay their rebellious spirit. The boys' leader answered that no one had sent them, that they had come of their own accord, as they would no longer bear the destruction of their snowslides. The general gave orders that the damage should be made good, declaring that it w-as impossible to beat the idea of liberty out of a people who had it so firmly rooted in them in childhood. — McCarthy. 2. Some of the men were nervous. One lieutenant was surly, and another sang softly to himself. I was told aftei-ward that Howard, on the "Concord," was foimd reading his Bible. But Dewey led right ahead. If he feared mines he did not show it. Evidently he had faith in the insurgent chief, who was acting as his pilot. So on he went. There was nothing more to be done. The ships had been cleared for action long before. Only the 92 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC most perfunctory orders were given. The dawn came out of the black suddenly. Then we saw that the "old man" knew just what he was about all the time. Right ahead of us lay the Spanish fleet and the Cavite forts. Far up the bay was Manila. We were in for it. D. Study the following sentences. Why are the forms in the second column to be preferred to those in the first? 1. After I had graduated from the high school I found that I was woefully deficient in rhetoric and English com- position. I immediately set to work to remedy the evil. I got a copy of Hill's Founda- tions of rhetoric and started to study it. I also read "Words and their meanings." I read a number of books paying es- pecial attention to style. Among the books were Wood stock, Silas IMarner, Romola, Mill on the Floss, Waverley, The Spectator, Last of the Barons. I also wrote sketches of the different characters I came across in the books. My brother, a college graduate, corrected them^ for me. In this way I was enabled to pass the universit}' examinations after a good deal of trouble. 3. I got off the train at San Jose and went to the Vendome Hotel. Tlie remainder of the journey was to be made by means of a stage, which was to start from this hotel. I seated myself on the piazza until it was time to start. The beautiful grounds pleased Finding, after I had gradu- ated from the high school, that I was woefully deficient in rhetoric and English com- position, I immediately set to work to remedy the evil. As a first step I studied HilFs Foundations of Rhetoric and Words and Their Meanings. Then, with especial attention to style, I read a number of books — among them Wood- stock, Silas MarneVy Romola, Mill on the Floss, Warcrlci/, Tlie Spectator, and The Last of the Barons. I also wrote sketches of the different char- acters I came acro.ss in the books, and these my brother, a college graduate, corrected for me. In this way I was en- abled, after a good deal of trouble, to pass the university examinations. Getting off the train at San Jose, I went to the Vendome Hotel, from which the stage that was to take us the rest of the journej' was to start. The intervening time passed pleas- antly, for as I sat on the pldzy^a I got a view of the beautiful grounds, and was interested BUILDING SENTENCES 93 me. I was interested and amused by the people on the piazza. It seemed as if every one about the place was going on some pleasure trip. It was riding, driving, or Mount Hamilton. 3. At eight o'clock the pro- fessor received the party. Everything about the place was shown to us and explained. Through the smaller telescope I looked at the moon. From the small telescope I went to the room where the large tele- scope is kept. I waited an hour before my time came to look through the glass. Through the large telescope I saw Sat- urn and his many satellites. The rings could be seen very plainly. 4. Villon could see only one way to get a lodging and that was to steal it. He noticed a house not far away and it looked dark and easy to get in. He went to tlie door and knocked boldly. In a few minutes a tall man appeared and asked: "Who is it?" Then Villon told him he had no place to go for the night, and that he was very cold and hungry. The man asked him to come in and gave him a good supper. and amused by the people around me. It seemed as if every one about the place was going on some pleasure trip — to ride or drive, or to visit Mount Hamilton. At eight o'clock the party was received by the professor, who showed and explained to us everything about the place. Through the smaller telescope I looked at the moon, and after waiting an hour for my turn, I saw through the large telescope Saturn and his many satel- lites. The rings could be seen very plainly. Villon could see only one way to get a lodging — to steal it. Noticing not far away a house which looked dark and easy to enter, he went to the door and knocked boldly. In a few minutes a tall man ap- peared and asked: "Who is it?" When Villon told him that he had no place to go for the night and that he was very cold and hungry, the man asked him to come in and gave him a good supper. E. Find in the books you are reading, ten examples of sentence-forms that show some variation from the form* given in section 04 COMPOSITIOK AND RHETORIC F. Complete the following sentences: 1. Whatever help the commander may have rendered; what- ever aid the elements may have given, the soldier (Predicate with clause). 2. (Conditional clause) the sun would be at our right and the river at our left. 3. (Causal clause) therefore we determined to pass the night at the inn. 4. Though this was my first experience with rod and line (Predicate with explanatory clause). 5. The beggar's appearance was so pitiful (Result clause). 6. As there was only one thing to be done, to bear our own loss with fortitude (Result clause). 7. They had no sooner succeeded in attracting our attention (Complementary "than"' clause). 8. (Conditional clause) we are able to judge intelligently. 9. It is one of the first duties of a man (Explanatory rela- tive clause, followed by an infinitive construction). 10. Plajang football does not so much require strength (A balancing "as" clause). 11. With the hope of retrieving past blunders, and of doing something really worth while (Subject and predicate). 12. (Participial clause of explanation) the general ordered his army to retreat. 13. Tliiskind of bravery — (Relative clause characterizing the quality) — is possessed by almost every healtliy bo}'. 14. If it be necessary to begin to practice rowing as a boy in order to become a "crack oarsman" (Conclusion). 15. We may think that a school paper takes a large amount of time (Antithetical clause). G. l^ewrito this passage in sever;il long sentences: BOMBAY The first sight of India is amazing, entrancing. Of other countries you become aware gradually. Italy leads up to the Levant; Egypt passes you on insensibly to the desert. Landed in Bombay, you liave strayed into a most elaborate dream. It is a gallery of strange faces, a buzz of strange voices, a garden of strange growths. Different beasts and birds in the street, different clothes to wear, different meal times, and differ- ent food — the very commonest things are altered. You begin a new life in a new world. BUILDING SENTENCES 95 It takes time to come to yourself. At first everything is so noticeable that you notice nothing. You pin your eyes to the little fawn-colored, satin-skinned, humped oxen in the carts, to the blue crows that dance and spar in the gutters. They are the very commonest things in India. Just because they are common bullocks — yet with humps! — common crows — yet blue! — their fascination is enthralling. The white ducks you wear all day are like a girl's first court dress. — Stevens: India. (Con- densed.) H. Make several shorter sentences from this one com- plex sentence : He gave an hundred pounds at one time to an old friend, whom he had known live plentifully, and by a too liberal heart and carelessness became decayed in his estate ; and when the receiv- ing of it was denied, by the gentleman's saying, "He wanted not;" — for the reader may note, that as there be some spirits so generous as to labour to conceal and endure a sad poverty, rather than expose themselves to those blushes that attend the confession of it ; so there be others, to whom nature and grace have afforded such sweet and compassionate souls, as to pity and prevent the distress of mankind; — which I have mentioned because of Dr. Donne's reply, whose answer was; "I know you want not what will sustain nature; for a little will do that; but my desire is, that you, who in the days of your plenty have cheered and raised the hearts of so many of your dejected friends, would now receive this from me, and use it as a cordial for the cheering of your own;" and upon these terms it was received. — WALTON: Life of Dr. John Donne. CHAPTER VI HOW TO INCREASE A VOCABULARY 29. Advantages of Having a Large Vocabulary. — When commou wordri are repeated frequently within a few lines, the reader quickly feels the monotony and narrowness of the writer's vocabulary. The following sentences, for instance, show how unpleasant such a repetition of words may make even very simple writing: MY ROOM I have for my room a big room at the top of the house, which is really the guest room ; but it happens that my room down- stairs is occupied, and therefore I have the guest room, which I like much better. It extends the width of the house from front to back, and has six windows which let in much sun. It has a fireplace with blue tiles, the same color as the figures on the white wall paper. Unfortunately this fireplace smokes very much when there is much wind, and therefore in such a place as Chicago it is not possible to use it much. Next to the fire- place is a little bookcase in which I keep my books, and next to that is a high window seat on which I keep the books I use very much and where I like to study. I am afraid, however, that I do not study as muoli there as I might somewliere else, for I can see all that goes on out of doors, and that keeps me from study- ing. In the front end of the room is a large round table that was once a dining table. This table is usually covered with books. The repetition of the words "room," "much," "is," and "books" betrays either carelessness or a meager store of words. The difficulty with a small vocabulary, how- ever, is a more serious matter than this example indicates : a small vocabulary prevents the writer from expressing fully all that lie has to say. Compare these two descrip- tive passages: 96 HOW TO INCREASE A VOCABULARY 97 1. Mackinac Island is a small island north of the soutliern peninsula of Michigan. In summer time it is a favorite place for tourists who go there to see the beautiful scenery and other points of general interest, and to have a good time generally. There are a number of soldiers stationed there, who guard and take care of the place. The first thing one sees when one gets to the place and gets off the boat is the large white hotel called the Astor House. This hotel was built by old John Jacob Astor when he was gathering fur to sell to the furriers. It is an old-fashioned hotel with large rooms and a large veranda which extends along the front. The next thing people go to see is a rock called Lovers' Leap. Off this rock an Indian maiden, when she heard that her lover was dead, leaped into the lake. The rock is about sixteen feet high and on the edge of the lake, extend- ing down perpendicularly. A ladder has been placed on one side of the rock, so that people can climb to the top of the rock. The guide then leads one to another rock called Sugar Loaf Rock, which is about seventy- five feet high and shaped nearly like a lump of sugar, except that the top is rounded. There are many little knobs and projections by which many boys try to climb to the top. 2. About six miles from the renowned city of the Manhattoes, in that sound or arm of the sea which passes between the main- land and Nassau, or Long Island, there is a narrow strait, where the curi'ent is violently compressed between shouldering promon- tories and horribly perplexed rocks and shoals. Being, at the be.st of times, a very violent, impetuous current, it takes these impediments in mighty dudgeon, boiling in whirlpools; brawling and fretting in rijiples ; raging and roaring in rapids and break- ers; and, in short, indulging in all sorts of wrong-headed paroxysms. At such times, woe to any vmlucky vessel that ventures within its clutches. This termagant humor, however, prevails only at certain times of tide. At low water, for instance, it is as pacific a stream as you would wish to see ; but as the tide rises it begins to fret ; at half tide it roars with might and main like a bull bellowing for more drink ; but when the tide is full it relapses into quiet, and, for a time, sleeps as soundly as an alderman after dinner.— Irving. 98 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC The first passage, like the description of the room, seems thin and bare compared with Irving's account of "Hell Gate." It is not merely that common words are repeated; the objects mentioned are not vividly described, because the writer evidently does not possess the words to apply to them. His few words are only those of the kind necessary for daily intercourse. The second pas- sage, on the other hand, contains no repeated words. Irving has fresh adjectives, verbs, and nouns for each sentence. Although the vocabulary is a simple one, its variety gives the charm of novelty. Moreover, Irving gets more out of his subject than does the author of "Mackinac Island," not necessarily because it is more suggestive or impressive, but because he has words to represent its every feature. Probably the author of the first passage could not number more than five hundred words in his entire vocabulary. Irving uses over one hundred different words in two short para- graphs. For purposes of mere existence, a few hundred over- worked words will answer well enough. It is safe to say, liowever, that such a small vocabulary implies a narrow range of thought. Words represent objects and ideas; generally speaking, a man of few ideas has few words. As a rule, a man who has at the most a thousand terms for expressing his wants, his feelings, his observations, has fewer Avants, feelings, and observations than the man who has two thousand words at his command. Most of us, indeed, feel vaguely this need of words to represent half formed ideas, or to distinguisli d liferent ideas that resemble each other superficially. Some com- mon exclamations betray this: "You know what I mean," "I can't think of the right word," or, "Tlu' word 1 aiu after will come to inc in a moment." The right word will not come, however, unless the speaker has at some HOW TO IXCREASE A YOCABULART 99 time seen or heard it, — unless he has lodged it in his brain, and also used it. Again, even if we have some sort of word to ansAver for our idea, it may not be the exact term that will separate our thought from many others nearly like it. For exam- ple, let us try to find a word that will describe a poor man; he is not merely poor, this man; he is so habitually and absolutely without means that the general term is not strong enough. Is he, then, a beggar? No, because the term "beggar" indicates something besides poverty; it indicates a particular way of supplying the man's needs. This man, who is habitually and absolutely poor, who belongs to a class of the poor that Avill always be poor, supplies his needs in another way; ho is a pauper. That shade of moaning is now firmly established. Moreover, the writer is not the only one who needs a large vocabulary. If the writer must have many words to define his thought, the reader must have a correspond- ing number of words in order to get all the distinctions that the writer intends to convey. To sum up, we should try to get a wide vocabulary: first, because words represent wealth of thought — the more symbols the more ideas; second, because if we have several words which represent very nearly the same thought, we can express exactly what we do mean more clearly than if we have only one (e. g., woman, lady, mother; house, residence, home; contrive, make, experiment) ; third, because variety rests the read- er's mind and gives enjoyment; fourth, because the pos- session of many words aids us to understand exactly writers who use many words to express their ideas. When the reader has only a vague idea of the words used, much valuable thought is misunderstood, or but lialf understood. In short, add to your store of words in order that you may have a richer mental life and that 100 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC you may never be at a loss for the right word when you want it. 30. Two Kinds of Vocabularies. — It is a commonplace that we understand many words which we never use. If it were otherwise, much that we read would be incom- prehensible to us. The following j^aragraph contains at least a dozen words that we use rarely or never, and yet we understand easily the sense of every statement : It seems as if a great deal were attainable in a world where there are so many marriages and decisive battles, and where we all, at certain hours of the day, and with great gusto and despatch, stow a portion of victuals finally and irretrievably into the bag which contains us. And it would seem also, on a hasty view, that the attainment of as much as possible was the one goal of man's contentious life. And yet, as regards the spirit, this is but a semblance. We live in an ascending scale when we live happily, one thing leading to another in an endless series. There is always a new horizon for onward- looking men, and although we dwell on a small planet, immersed in petty business and not enduring beyond a brief period of years, we are so constituted that our hopes are inaccessible, like stars, and the term of hoping is prolonged until the term of life.— Stevenson. There is no reason why we should not use in speech and writing such words as "attainable," "decisive," "gusto," "despatch," "irretrievably," "contentious," "semblance," "ascending," "immersed," "constituted," "inaccessible," — not one of which is really bookish. Yet, although not unfamiliar wln?n we see them, they do not come readily to hand when wo are using words. Another passage, this time from Mr. liryce, wbo is discussing a characteristic of the American people, will further illus- trate this point : The long-sutfering tolerance of public opinion towards incom- petence and misconduct in officials and public men generally is a feature wliich has struck recent European observers. It is the more remarkable because nowhere is executive ability more valued in the management of private concerns, in which the HOW TO INCREASE A VOCABULARY 101 stress of competition forces ever}' manager to secure at what- ever price the most able subordinates. We may attribute it partly to the good nature of the people, which makes them over- lenient to nearly all criminals, partly to the preoccupation with their private affairs of the most energetic and useful men, who therefore can not spare time to unearth abuses and get rid of offenders, partly to an indifference induced by the fatalistic sentiment which I have already sought to describe. Mr, Bryce has not used a word that all can not under- stand readily, yet how rarely do we hear these exact terms in daily speech or find them in the sentences of ordinary Avriters! The first step in our effort toward acquiring a large vocabulary should be to make our passive word-store into a useful working word-store. 31. Use of the Vocabulary Notebook. — Some people easily remember words once heard or seen, and seem to take pleas- ure in using them. For such persons, no special effort is needed ; reading will add gradually to their stock of words. Most of us, however, read more or less heedlessly, con- tenting ourselves with a passing acquaintance with unfa- miliar words. The first step, then, is to be sure that we really understand the Avords we see. For this purpose it is a good plan to keep a special notebook for words and to enter in it a few new wcrds each week. It will not be enough merely to copy t ^e words in the notebook, although even that practice will help one in acquiring a vocabulary. Each word should be followed by as many of its meanings as the student knows without the aid of the dictionary. Later, he should look up each word in an unabridged dictionary, copy into his notebook any new information he may gain about its definition, and add several synonyms. Lastly, it Avould be well to add in a third column a number of useful derivatives. By this time the word will have become familiar as a reading word. Everything now depends upon the will of the student to iise the word and its derivatives in his 102 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC speech and writing. He should make a point of enjoy- ing his new possessions. Only a few words each week can be treated in this thorough manner, and therefore it is a good plan to sup- plement this process by marking any unfamiliar Avords that occur either in text-books or in English classics. A second careful reading of the passage may explain some- Avhat the meaning of the marked words ; they will not be fixed in the memory, however, until the reader has taken the pains to look them up.^ 32. Study of Synonyms. — Words should be repeated freely for emphasis and for clearness, but Avhere the stu- dent repeats consciously for these purposes once, he will repeat a dozen times inadvertently. Before making the final draft of a theme, the writer would do well to underscore in pencil every repeated Avord of any impor- tance, especially verbs and adjectives. If such words are used twice or oftener within a few lines through care- lessness, or ignorance of any better word, the writer must resort to dictionaries or books of synonyms. In every school library there should be found one or more vol- umes of synonyms, books which treat that large class of words that are nearly, though • ut (piite, identical in mean- ing. But the best book of ynonyms is that which \hr. student makes for himself by gathering from his memory and from the dictionary all allied terms; c. g., party, company, gathering, clan, assembly, congregation, meet- ing; reply, retort, rejoin, respond, answer; beautiful, lovely, handsome, pretfy, exquisite; money, wealth, riches, means, plenty, etc. 33. The Use of Concordances. — "I rarely consult my dictionaries," an English scholar once said. "When I want to find out how to use a word, I go to the masters of English who have used it again and again." This >A similar method is usually followed In learning a foreign language. HOW TO INCEEASE A VOCABULAKY 103 does not mean that he read one of Macauhiy's essays to find out the hitter's use of the word "benign," for exam- ple, bvit that he turned to concordances (or special dic- tionaries for different authors) to examine the quotations given there under the word. Only occasionally can we treat a word in such an exhaustive fashion, but when we do take the pains to explore the past experiences of a word at the hands of our great masters of speech, we have made a good friend for life. The advantage of such thorough and exhaustive study is that it not only shows us how the great masters of English have used words, but also gives us a view of the changes which have taken place in their meanings. Take, for example, the word "thought." In a version of the Bible which was printed about 1611, but which to a large extent uses the forms of earlier transla- tions, we find the following: "Take no thought for your life, what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink, ' ' ^ — a passage which we can understand when we find Brutus saying in Shakspere's Julius Caesar that if Antony love Caesar, all that he can do after the death of Caesar is, — "take thought and die for Caesar."^ Clearly, in both these passages, the word means the most intense anxiety and grief. In the works of Milton, who wrote abovit 1660, we read: "Adam took no thought, eating his fill." * In the later poets, we find no trace of the early meaning. Pope says, "Expression is the dress of thought," and such is the meaning of the word in Burns, Shelley, Browning, and Tennyson. "Mob" is another word with an interesting history. Before the eighteenth century, for the idea now expressed by "mob" were used the words, "rabble," as in Shaks- • Matthew, vi. 25. "^Julius Caesar, II, i, 185. 3 1'amdise Lost, IX. 1004. I'lJ: COMPOSITION AXU RHETORIC pere, or "multitude/' as in the Bible. "Mob" itself was origimilly a bit of slang, abbreviated from mobile vulgus. Swift, writing early in the eighteenth century, says: "I have done my utmost for some years past to stop the prog- ress of 'mob' and 'banter,' but have been plainly borne down by numbers."^ Addison says: "I dare not answer that 'mob,' 'rap,' 'pos.,' 'incog.,' and the like will not be looked upon in time as part of our tongue." Notwith- standing the protests of the defenders of pure English, we find such a'master as Pope using the word frequently, as in the famous line in which he calls the poets of the Ecstoration period, The mob of gentlemen who wrote with ease.^ Tennyson speaks of "brainless mobs' '^; and Browning says : Themol); now that's just how the error comes! Bethink you that you deal with jilehs. The word is now completely established. Very often words change from a literal to a figurative meaning; like families, they sometimes lose caste, some- times gain higher repute ; often their meaning is narrowed and specialized ; sometimes they retain their original sig- nification with remarkable persistence. But whatever the history of a word may be, an accurate acquaintance with that history gives the ability to use the word with exactness and force. 34. Translation. — Another great help in acquiring a large and varied vocabulary is translation from a foreign language. Of course, if the student contents himself with one English word to be used on /all occasions as the equivalent of a given foreign word, he will make little • Tathr, ccxxx. ^Satire, V, 108. *(Me to (fie Duke of Wdlington, HOW TO IXCREASi: A VOCAIJULAKY 105 progress in either language. This bad habit is encouraged by the use of vocabularies which contain only one or two meanings for words. In the case of important or fre- quently nsed words, an ambitious student will never content himself Avith the information given by these special vocabu- laries. An everyday example of what is meant is the word vir. Most beginners in Latin think that the English word "man" Avill translate vir in all cases; sometimes they remember that vir means "hero" as well. But vir means also "husband," and sometimes in the plnral, "foot-sol- diers. ' ' Its real meaning is found in the English derivatives such as "virile" and "virility"; i. e., vir is the kind of human being who possesses the distinctly masculine qualities. To enlarge his English vocabulary, the student should master the various important primary meanings of any given word, its figurative meanings, and some of its English derivatives, if there are any.^ 35. Special Vocabularies. — Each trade or art has its own vocabulary, much of which, to be sure, is not useful for general purposes. Yet even very special terms, such as "swivel," "warp," "double-entry," and "harrow," enrich our vocabularies by definite ideas and are fre- quently used figuratively. Improve every opportunity for acquiring special terms with their exact meanings. The vocabularies of the arts and the crafts will add greatly to our store of definite images and picturesque, illustrative words. Something may be said here for an intelligent interest in colloquialisms and provincialisms ; racy idioms of the people are fast disappearing as our country becomes unified. The habitual use of dialect forms is hardly to be encouraged, yet an apt use of an expression from the soil adds to the strength of our diction. How much 'The work of translation is not completed when the words are thoroughly- understood. Groups of words, or idioms, must be rendered by corre- sponding idioms; eg. laisser-aller by "to go as you please." This part ol translation will be discussed in chapter XUI, 106 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC shonUl we miss without the Xew England word "chore,'* or the southern word "tote"! AVhen used in writing, however, such colloquialisms should be inclosed in quota- tion marks in order to indicate that they are not estab- lished in good use.^ 36. Summary of Chapter. — To conclude, a wide vocab- ulary means freedom. We must become free of our language (as men were anciently of a town or state), if we are to express ourselves effectively and completely. Words are curiously human things ; they carry with them romantic stories. Each one, no matter how unobtrusive it may seem, differs from its fellow, and is useful in its own way. The truth of the matter is summed up in these pithy sentences: It is important, therefore, for anybody who would cultivate himself in Englisli to make strenuous and systematic efforts to enlarge his vocabulary. Our dictionaries contain more than a hundred thousand words. The average speaker employs about three thousand. Is this because ordinary people have only three or four thousand things to say? Not at all. It is simply due to dullness. Listen to the average schoolboy. He has a dozen or two nouns, half a dozen verbs, three or four adjectives, and enough conjunctions and prepositions to stick the conglom- erate together. This ordinary speech deserves the description which Hobbes gave to his State of Nature that "it is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." The fact is, we fall into the way of thinking that the wealthy words are for others and that they do not belong to us. We are like those who have received a vast inheritance, but who persist in the inconveniences of hard beds, scanty food, rude clothing, who never travel, and who limit their purchases to the bleak necessities of life. Ask such peoi)le why they endure niggardly living while wealth in plenty is lying in the bank, and they can only answer that they have never learned how to spend. But this is worth learning. Mil- ton used eiglit thousand words, Sliakespeare fifteen thousand. We have all the subjects to talk about that these early speakers had ; and in addition we have bicycles and sciences and strikes * See section 62. HOW TO INCREASE A VOCABULARY 107 and political combinations and all the complicated living of the modern world. Why, then, do we hesitate to swell our words to meet our needs? It is a nonsense question. There is no reason. We are simply lazy; too lazy to make ourselves comfortable. We let our vocabularies be limited, and get along rawly without the refinements of human intercourse, without refinements in our own thoughts ; for thouglits are almost as dependent on words as words on thoughts. For example, all exasj^erations we lump together as "aggravating," not considering whether they may not rather be disjjleasing, annoying, offensive, disgusting, irri- tating, or even maddening ; and without observing, too, that in our reckless usage we have burned up a word which might be convenient when we should need to make some shading of the word "increase." Like the bad cook, we seize the frying-pan whenever we need to fry, broil, roast, or stew, and then we wonder why all our dishes taste alike while in the next house the food is appetizing. It is all unneces.sary. Enlarge the vocabulary. Let anyone who wants to see himself grow, resolve to adopt two new words each week. It will not be long before the end- less and enchanting variety of the world will begin to reflect itself in his speech, and in his mind as well. I know tliat when we use a word for the first time we are startled, as if a fire- cracker went off in our neighborhood. We look about hastily to see if anyone has noticed. But finding that no one has, we may be emboldened. A word used three tinies slips off the tongue with entire naturalness. Then it is ours forever, and with it some phase of life which had been lacking hitherto. For each word presents its own point of view, discloses a special aspect of things, reports some little importance not otherwise con- veyed, and so contributes its small emancipation to our tied-up minds and tongues. — G. H. Palmer; Self-Cidtivation in English. Exercise VII A. Rewrite the following themes, using new words for the repeated terms : 1. THE DRAINAGE OF NORTH AMERICA North America is divided into three parts: the eastern, the central, and the western part. Many small rivers drain the eastern part of the Appalachian Mountains and the Atlantic 108 COMPOSITION^ AXD RHETORIC coast. The Hudson River, which drains the south part, flows into the Atlantic Ocean ; the St. Lawrence, which drains the north part, flows into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Between the Appalachian and the Rocky Mountains, lies the central part, and the Mississippi River and its two great tributaries, the Missouri and Ohio Rivers, drain it. Of the part west of the Rocky Moun- tains the two principal rivers are the Colorado and the Colum- bia. The Colorado River drains the southern part and flows into the Gulf of California; the Columbia River drains the northern part and flows into the Pacific Ocean. 2. FEUDALISM In England at the time of William the Conqueror it was customaiy for the king to give any land belonging to him to his nobles or lords for any service they had done. At first this land was given without any conditions, but afterward the owner of the land must collect men for the king in time of war. The thanes, who were the nobles, and the bishops, in their turn, would give land to their inferiors, and these inferiors would till the ground for the barons. When any land was given, the per- son who gave the land and the person to whom the land was to be given, would take an oath and swear, the first to protect the second, and the second to serve the first. The huts of the serfs were generally built about the fortified house of the baron ; in this way he could protect them. The people living on the land of the baron were judged by him ; and if the baron had to fight a battle his peoi^le must give their services and fight for him. The king always called together a council at Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide, and this all the thanes had to attend. The king also had the right of collecting annual dues wlien he went to war, at the time when his eldest son was knighted, and at the marriage of his eldest daughter. The feudal system was very good both for the rich and poor as they were in constant warfare, because the poor people gave their services, and the king gave his protection. B. Supply adjectives, nouns, and verbs in the spaces left blank •} ' 1. On a nearer approach Rip was still more surprised at the of the stranger's appearance. He was a short, square- built old fellow with thick — hair and a beard. His "Similar exercises may bo prepared by the teacher from passages read in ti'hs class in literature. HOW TO INCREASE A VOCABULARY 109 dress was of the Dutch fashion : a cloth jerkin' round the waist — several pairs of breeches, the outer one of volume, with rows of buttons down the sides and bunches at the knees. He on his shoulder a stout keg, tliat seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip to and him with the load. Though rather shy and of this new acquaintance, Rip with his usual ; and mutually relieving olle another, they up a narrow gully, apparently the dry bed of a mountain . — Irving: Rip Van Winkle. C. In the following selections, explain carefully all the italicized words and suggest one or two synonyms for each one: 1. To be sure, there was an exception in the curate, who would receive unhlenching the information, that the meadoiv beyond the orchai-d was a prairie studded with herds of buffalo, which it was our delight, uioccasined and tomahawked, to ride down with those u'lioo2)s that announce the scenting of blood. He neither laughed nor sneered, as the [other "grown-ups"] would have done; but possessed of a serious idiosyncrasy he would contribute such lots of valuable suggestion as to the pursztiY of this particular sort of big game that, as it seemed to us, his mature age and eminent position could scarce have been attained without a practical knowledge of the creature in its native ZaiV. — Kenneth Grahame: The Golden Age. 2. "With all his faults — and they were neither few nor small — only one cemetery was worthy to contain his remains. In that temple of silence and reconciliation where the enmities of twenty generations lie buried, in the Great Abbey wliich has for ages afforded a quiet resting-place to those whose minds and bodies have been shattered bj' the contentions of the Great Hall, the dust of the illustrioiis accused should have been mingled with the dust of the illustrious accusers. — Macaul.w: Warren Hastings. 3. You might read all the books in the British Museum (if you could live long enough) and remain an utterly '"illiterate," uned- ucated person ; but if you read ten pages of a good book, letter by letter, — that is to say, with real accuracy, — you ai-e for ever- more in some measure an educated person. Tlie entire differ- ence between education and non-education ( as regards the merely intellectual part of it), consists in this accuracy. A well- 110 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC educated gentleman may not know manj- languages, — may not be able to speak any but his own, — may have read very few books. But whatever language he knows, he knows precisely; whatever word he pronounces, he pronounces rightly; above all he is learned in the peerage of words ; he knows the words of true descent and ancient blood, at a glance, from words of mod- ern canaille; remembers all their ancestry — their intermarriages, distantest relationships, and the extent to which they were ad- mitted, and offices they held, among the national »ol»/e.s'.s'(' of words at any time, and in any country." — Ruskin: Sesame and Lilies. 4. Major-General Sir Horatio Herbert Kitchener is forty-eight years old by the book; but that is irrelevant. He stands several , inches over six feet, straight as a lance, and looks out impe- riously above mo^t men's heads; his motions are deliberate and strong ; slender but firmly knit, he seems built for tireless, steel- wire endurance rather than for power or agility: that also is irrelevant. Steady passiouZt'S.s' eyes, shaded by decisive brows, brick-red rather full cheeks, a long moustache beneath which you divine an immovable mouth; liis face is harsh, and neither appeals for affection nor stirs dislike. All this is irrelevant, too, neither age, nor figure, nor face, nor any accident of person, has any bearing on the essential Sirdar. You could imagine the character just the same if all the externals were different. He has no age but the prime of life, no body but one to carrj^ his mind, no face but one to keep his brain behind. — G.W. Stevens: With Kitchener to Khartum. D. What words in the following passage from Lowell are you sure that you never use? Over it rose the noisy belfry of the College, the square, brown tower of the church, and the slim, yellow spire of the parish meeting-house, by no means ungraceful, and then an invariable characteristic of New England religious architecture. On your right, the Charles slipped smoothly through green and purple salt meadows darkened hei'e and there, with the blossoming black grass as with a stranded cloud-shadow. Over these marshes, level as water, but without its glare, and with softer and more soothing gradations of perspective, the eye was car- ried to a horizon of .softly-rounded hills. To your left hand, upon tlie Old Road, you saw some half-dozen dignified old houses of the colonial time, all comfortably fronting southward. If it were early June, the rows of horse-chestnuts along the fronts HOW TO INCREASE A VOCABULART 111 of these lioiises showed through every crevice of their dark heap of foliage, and on the end of every drooping limb, a cone of pearly flowers, while the hill behind was white or rosy with the crowding blooms of various fruit trees. There is no sound, unless a horseman clatters over the loose planks of the bridge, while his antipodal shadow glides silently over the mirrored bridge below. — Lowell: Cambridge Thirty Years Ago. E. What are the literal meanings of the italicized words in this passage? 1. This was all excellent, no doubt; so were the diaries I some- times tried to keep, but always and very speedily discarded, finding them a school of posturing and melancholy self-decep- tion. . . . Regarded as training, it had one grave defect ; for it set me no standard of achievement. So that there was per- haps more profit, as there was certainly more effort, in my secret labors at home. Whenever I read a book or a passage that par- ticularly pleased me, in which a thing was said or an effect rendered with propriety, in which there was either some con- sjncuons force or some happy distinction in the style, I must sit down at once and set myself to a^JC that quality.— Stevenson: A College Magazine. F. Give several commonly used derivatives from each one of the following stems. Define each derivative: aud, (hear) audible, etc. leg, lig, lect,(gather, choose, cap, cip, capt, (take) cap- read) ture, etc. mit, miss, (send) ced, cess, (move, yield) ces- mot, (move) sion, etc. nat, (born) cred, (believe) nav, (ship) dat, dit, (give) not, (known) diet, (speak) pat, pass, (suffer) dom, (home) port, (carry) dorm, (sleep) reg, rect, (rule) due, duct, (lead) sci, (know) fac, fie, fact, feet, (make, sec, sect, (cut) do) sol, (alone) fer, (bear) spic, spect, speci, (see) grad, gred, gress, (step) teg, tect, (cover) ject, (cast) ven, vent, (come) vid, vis, (see) 112 COMPOSITION AND RHETOEIC G. Supply one or more synonyms for each a\ list. Explain how each synonym differs in us others: to go away porch to give associate to have building to transmit word to traverse name to elevate to reject transversely to spend properly to supply concisely to advise big size sharp depression '■ prickly statement crooked unwillingness religious importance delicate management internal integrity monotonous necessity inadequate rich writer serious letter charitable H. Here are twenty familiar Latin words ; give for each one (1) several literal meanings; (2) at least one figurative meaning; (3) some common English derivatives: accedo, accedere, accessi, ac- cessum aer anima asper barbarus caput capio, capei'e, cepi, captum cerno, cernere, crevi, cretum colo, colere, colui, cultum coiulo, condere, condidi, con- ditum confero, conferre, contuli, col- latum convivium copia cura dexter hospes res rumpo, rumpere, rupi, ruptum tero, terre, trivi, tritum umbra now TO INCEEASE A VOCABULARY 113 /. Discuss these groups of synonyms, constructing short sentences to illustrate the appropriate use of each word: To abandon, desert, forsake, relin(|uisli. To abate, lessen, diminish, decrease. To abide, sojourn, dwell, live, reside, inhabit. Acquaintance, familiarity, intimacy. To admit, allow, permit, suffer, tolerate. Apparent, visible, clear, plain, obvious, evident, manifest. Band, comjiany, crew, gang. Behavior, conduct, carriage, deportment, demeanor. Blemish, defect, fault. Calamity, disaster, misfortune, mischance, mishap. Compensation, amend, satisfaction, recompense, remunera' tion, requital, reward. Conversation, dialogue, conference, colloquj'. Deed, exploit, achievement, feat. Distress, anxiety, anguish, agony. Situation, condition, state, predicament, plight, case. /. Look up in a dictionary some of the words in the following list, and then use them in appropriate sentences : antici pate alternative aggravate tortuous felicitous judiciovis cursory sonorous habitual denote diversified analogous alienate resources obliterate delineation _ arbitrary grope incumbent formidable access abdicate arduous expediency essential facilitate subtle discrimination adecpiate truism specious requisite inauspicious copious approximate scholar specific vapid jargon facility conversant deride methodical disparity distinction pertain ambiguous r. Treat the following words as suggested in section 33. success prevent naughty banter event " trim corn denounce fond CHAPTER YII A REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION 37. Uses of Punctuation. — If every sentence consisted of }3ut one simple statement, not more than a dozen words in length, we should need only one mark of punctuation, the period, to indicate its close. But as soon as wo write compound or complex sentences, or even long simple sentences, we realize the necessity for some me- chanical device that will show the divisions and the rela- tionship of the dilferent parts. Such a want is met by the marks of punctuation. In the first place, punctuation, like spelling, capitaliza- tion, and grammar, is a matter of custom or good use. The method of punctuating that by common consent has gradually come to be used among writers should be observed, if for no better reason, to avoid eccentricity. The single quotation mark might be used, rather than the double, to indicate a quotation, if only it were the general custom to do so. Again, the modern writer might place the sign of the paragraph (*[) at the beginning of every new paragraph, as was once the custom. But he would gain nothing by such deviations from customary usage. In punctuation, as in many matters, the best rule is to follow a general custom when nothing is gained by breaking it. The most important reason,^ however, for using a con- sistent scheme of punctuation is lliat it enables the writer 1 Another use of punctuation may be mentioned : the -m-iter may employ the various marks (especially the comma and the dash) to bring out empha- sis in the sentence. Just as the musician uses symbols to indicate time, the skillful writer may mark slight pauses or changes in thought by punctua- tion. In this way punctuation takes the place of the inflections of the voice in spoken language. 114 A REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION 115 to make his meaning clear. The omission or misuse of a punctuation mark may render a sentence obscure or ambiguous. For example, what sense does this group of unpunctuated words give? Wherever the envoys went they were received with delight as they had the means to purchase drink for the natives they easily obtained the desired information. This sentence is capable of two slightly different inter- pretations, depending on the punctuation used after "delight." In the following sentence, the absence of a comma after "nothing" would materially alter the sense : The committee has either done something of which it is ashamed, or it has done nothing, of which it is ashamed. 38. How to Learn Punctuation. — Since, as has been noted, punctuation is a growth, it changes more or less rapidly. We do not punctuate to-day as Addison did ; nor do we punctuate precisely as was the custom twenty- five years ago. We use fewer marks, especially commas, for the tendency is to simplify punctuation as much as possible. The best way to learn present usage in this matter is to examine carefully modern books published by firms of a good reputation for accuracy. If the student will copy in his notebook good examples of the use of the different marks, he will quickly learn the general laws. Some students, however, will find it easier to learn rules, and for them the following summary of the more com- mon usages has been prepared :^ 39. The Comma. — The comma is used: 1. To separate the clauses of a compound sentence when a connective is given and the break in the thought is slight. The war was brief, but it was decisive. 1 Bigelow's Handbook of Punctuation is a convenient reference book, con- taining ample illustration of all possible uses. 116 COMPOSITION AXD RHETOKIC 2. To rest the eye between the parts of a long com- pound predicate. The hound caught the scent after a long delay, and led us over the hill to the next piece of woods. When the compound predicate is short, no punctuation is required. He drew up a bucket of water and carried it into the house. 3. To separate a dependent clause from a main clause in a complex sentence. Whenever he \vrote to me about his journey, I replied at great length. When the dependent clause foUoAvs the main clause, the comma is frequently omitted. The campaign could be begun only when the rains had ceased. 4. To separate a participial plirase from the rest of the sentence. The farmsteads seemed almost empty, the villagers being still at work on the immense harvest -fields. 5. To separate from the rest of the sentence a relative clause that does not restrict the meaning of its ante- cedent. Our Constitution, which has endured for over a centurj% was formed in a relatively brief time. If the clause actually restricts the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is usually omitted. They were the framers of a constitution which endured for over a century. In this second case the relative clause has the force of a modifying adjective. 0. To separate from the rest of the sentence all words, phrases, or clauses used in apposition. There was the old hound Maida, a noble animal and a great favorite of Scott's. A REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION 117 7. To separate from the predicate a phrase or clause subject which might be confused with the predicate. To hold fast to the truth as he sees it, is a man's first duty. 8. To separate, in general, words or groups of words that are grammatically independent or parenthetical. There is, moreover, another reason that should influence you. No one believes more tlian I do in the usefulness, I might well say the necessity, of practical studies. In the last example dashes, or dashes with commas, or brackets might be used to render the parenthesis more emphatic. 9. To separate words in direct address from the rest of the sentence. Hail, Caesar! I cannot answer you, sir. 10. To separate similar words or phrases in the same construction used in a series and not Joined by conjunc- tions. It was a large, round, white ball. The cordial smile, the warm hand-clasp, the cheery word, — these he gave to all. If conjunctions are used betAveen the members of a series, commas are not necessary. The house was large and roomy and comfortable. When, however, a conjunction is used betAveen the last two members only, commas should separate all the mem- bers, including the last two. Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. 11. To indicate the omission of necessary words. We respect deeds; they, words. 12. Before a direct quotation Avliich is not longer than one sentence. He shouted, "Keep up your courage, men." 118 COMPOSITION" AND RHETORIC 13. In dates, addresses, and figures. Wednesday, July 24, 1903. Professor James Miller, Columbia University, New York. On the envelope, however, these commas are usually omitted, the only mark of punctuation used being periods after abbreviations. In general, the comma is used to separate those parts of a sentence that are grammatically nonessential from the chief elements —the subject and the predicate — or to indicate pauses between words and phrases used in a series, or to indicate omissions. 40. The Semicolon. — The semicolon has three important uses: 1. To separate the clauses of a compound sentence when no conjunction is used. There was no bread on board; meat there was in plenty; a few cases of canned vegetables had been added, also. The semicolon is also used with the conjunction, if the break between the clauses warrants it. Otherwise the comma is used. (See section 39, 1.) His answer was brief ; but his manner, courteous. The ship wallowed in the trough of the sea ; but it kept afloat. 2. To separate tlio members of a series of clauses or phrases wherever commas would not make tlie meaning clear. He was courteous, not cringing to superiors; affable, not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors. The ground strewed with the dead and dying; the impetuous charge; the stead}- and successful rei)ulse; tlie loud call to repeated assault — all these you have witnessed. 3. To precede "as," "viz.," "e. g.," "i. e.," etc. The best example may be found near at hand ; as, — Young writers neglect to use the semicolon, especially A EEVIEW OF PUNCTUATION 119 in the first case cited above, preferring to write a number of simple sentences. A frequent misuse of the semicolon may be seen in the following sentence: His ability was unusual in many fields; wherever, in fact, he cared to apply himself. 'J'he dependent clause beginning with "wherever" should not be separated by a semicolon from the main clause. 41. The Colon. — In modern prose there is but one important office for the colon : to indicate anticipation or summary, as seen in this sentence or in the familiar punctuation of the opening phrase in a letter, "Dear Mr. Smith:" For this purpose the colon may precede a long quotation, or a list of items, or merely the conclusion to a statement. Some things we can, and others we cannot do: we can walk, but we cannot fly. All books are divisible into two classes: the books of the hour and the books of all time. Among the contents of the room we noted the following items: one cathedral clock; a colonial side- board; three old chairs; and six oil portraits. After the usual preamble there followed a statement in the petitioner's own words: "I have," etc. Unlike the comma and the semicolon, the colon does not merely separate elements of the sentence: it points out the relation between elements. The proper use of the colon adds greatly to a writer's power over his sen- tence. 42. The Period. — Every declarative sentence which is a complete grammatical unit should end with a period. That this simple rule is frequently violated is shov/n in section 27. A period should also be used after every abbreviation; as, "Dr.," "Mr.," "B. D.," "viz." 43. Marks of Interrogation and Exclamation. — These 120 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC symbols explain themselves. It should be noted, how- ever, that both the exclamation point and the interroga- tion point may be inserted within the sentence; e. g., "A dog fight !'' shouted Bob, and was off. And so was I, both of us all but praying that it might not be over before we arrived 1 And is not this boy nature? and human nature, too? And don't we all wish that a fire will not be put outbefore we see it? The question mark is not used in indirect questions. He asked whether I had seen his friend. When an interjection begins a sentence, the exclama- tion point is often reserved for the end. Oh, it hurts! O Caesar:' The use of these marks, when inserted in the sentence Avithin parentheses for the sake of irony, is characteristic of vulgar style; e. g., "The great (?) man," or, "How bi'illiant(! ) this remark was." 44. The Dash. — The dash is used more frequently now than formerly. There are four instances vdiere the dash may be used with effect : 1. To prolong the effect of a comma, a colon, or a period (as in the heading of this section). Dear Sir, — Dear Mary : — 2. To point out an element in the sentence on which tlie writer wishes to place special stress. Here it is fre- (juently used with the comma. Yet we in Oxford, brought up amidst the beauty and sweet- ness of that beautiful place, have not failed to seize one truth, — the truth that beautj' and sweetness are essential characters of a complete human perfection. ;]. To set off parenthetical matter with or withoiit commas. I '-O" .should bP usert only with an accompauj-ing noun; "oh" is the inde- pendent interjection. A REVIEW OF PUXCTUATION 121 He was himself a Tory, not from rational conviction— for his serious opinion was that one form of government was just as good or as bad as another — but from mere passion. 4. I'o indicate an incomplete sentence, or an abrupt change in construction or tliought. I might tell you, but — . Go into the library — I mean go if you please. He was polished, luxurious, and happy— at the cost of others. The dash should not be used carelessly in place of the other marks of punctuation. The abuse of the dash is characteristic of careless Avriters. • 45. The Apostrophe. — The apostrophe is used to form the possessive case, to indicate omitted letters, and, some- times, to form plurals. Smiths' ; isn't ; p's and q's. 46. Parentheses ( ) and Brackets [ ]. — Parentheses (sometimes called "curves") arc used to inclose explanatory matter which might be omitted without destroying the grammatical completeness of the sentence. Frequently commas, or commas with dashes, are used for this purpose instead of parentheses. Brackets are used only to inclose corrections, explanations, or words inserted in a direct quotation but not a part of the original. On the morning of the next day (September 22) the army entered the city. Whatever the others thought (and they were all much puz- zled) I determined not to receive the dangerous i^arcel. He said: "What shall I do? I cannot cross the river and reach that place [Brown's Landing] in time to meet the train." 47. Capitals. — Capital letters should be used: 1. For the first letter of the first word of a sentence, of a line of poetry, and of a direct quotation. 2. For the first letter of proper names and proper adjectives. Among others these are: names of days, months (but not seasons), streets, political parties, n'ltions, and parts of the country. 123 coMPOSiTioisr and rhetoric Methodist; Fifth Avenue; Democrat; autumn; Good Friday; Bible; Scotch; the AVest. 3. Personal titles, and the names and titles of the Deity, including all pronouns referring to Him.^ 48. Italics. — In manuscript, Avords to be italicized are underlined once ; to be printed in small capitals, twice ; in heavy capitals, three times. Foreign Avords that have not been received into the language should invariably be italicized Avhen used in an English sentence. Titles may be placed between quotation marks or italicized, as the Avriter prefers. The careful Avriter is siDaring in his use of italics to show emphasis; not every Avord that receives stress from the voice should be italicized. 49. Quotation Marks. — Certain cautions should be observed in quoting. The double marks (") should be used for simple quotation; the single mark ('), for a quotation Avithin a quotation. Whenever the quotation is broken by descriptive statements of the author (e. g., "he said," "they moved aAvay," "rising from the table"), the change should be noted by closing the quotation and opening it again after the interpolated Avords. Careless Avriters frequently fail to shoAV Avhere quoted passages end. In quoting long jjassages covering more than one para- graph, the marks of quotation should be used at the opening of every paragraph, but at the end of the last paragraph only. Exercise VIII .1. Give five common uses for the comma; three for the semicolon; tAvo for the period. B. Punctuate the following sentences: 1. Were these to be worthily recounted they would form a narrative of no small interest and instruction and possessing ' It is not intended to explain all the uses of capitals. Special uses may toe explained in class as they occur in the theme-work. A REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION 123 moreover a certain remarkable unity which might ahnost seem the result of artistic arrangement — Hawthorne. 2. The human species according to the best theory I can form of it is composed of two distinct races tlie men who bor- row and the men who lend. 3. I have always thought of Christmas time v/hen it has come round apart from the veneration due to its sacred name and origin if anything belonging to it can be apart from that as a good time a kind forgiving charitable pleasant time the only time I know of in the long calendar of the year when men and women seem by one consent to open their sliut-up hearts freely and to think of people below them as if they really were fellow- passengers to the grave and not another ra.ce of creatures bound on other joui-neys — Dickens: ^-1 CJiristiiias Carol. 4. It has a flooring of laths with ridges of mortar squeezed up between them which if you tread on you will go to the Lord have mercy on your soul where will you go to the same being crossed by narrow ridges of boards on which you may put your feet but with fear and trembling — Holmes. 5. As for wintering where they were that dreatlful experi- ment had been already tried too often — Southey. 6. Rotherwood was not however without defences no habita- tion in that disturbed period could have been so without the risk of being plundered and burnt before the next morning — Scott : Ivanhoe. 7. Matthew Maule on the other hand though an obscure man was stubborn in what he considered the defense of his right and for several years he succeeded in protecting the acre or two of earth which with his own toil he had hewn out of the primeval forest to be his garden ground and homestead — Hawthorne. 8. What your politicians think the marks of a bold hardy genius are only pi-oofs of a deplorable want of ability — Burke. 9. But of all the numerous congratulations which he received none could have affected him with deeper delight than that which came from his venerable fathei' — Southey. 10. My friend Sir Roger has often told me with a great deal of mirth that at his first coming to his estate he found thi-ee parts of his house altogether useless that the best room in it had the reputation of being haunted and by that means was locked up that noises had been heard in his long gallery so tlmt he could not get a servant to enter after eight o'clock at night that the door of one of his cliambers was nailed up because there went a 124 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC stoiy in the family that a butler had formerly hanged himself in it and that his mother who lived to a great age had shut up half the rooms in tlie house in which either her husband a son or a daughter had died — Addisox. 11. What seems a kind of temporal death to people choked between walls and curtains is only a light and living slumber to the man who sleeps afield— Stevenson. 12. Upon his first rising the court was hushed and a general whisper ran among the country people that Sir Roger was up — Addison. 13. Rise very early in the morning before the stars have gone out and drive through the sleeping city till the pavement gives place to cactus and sand and educational and enlightened insti- tutions to mile vipon mile of semi-decayed Hindu temples run- ning down to the shore of the great Lake wherein are more ruined temples palaces and fragments of causeways — Kipling. 14. To impoverish the colonies in general and in particular to arrest the noble course of their marine enterprises would be a more easy task — Burke. 15. We were in some little time fixed in our seats and sat with that dislike which people not too good natured usually conceive of each other at first sight — Addison. 16. Clergymen judges statesmen the wisest calmest holiest persons of their day stood in the inner circle round about the gallows loudest to applaud the work of blood latest to confess themselves miserably deceived — Hawthorne. 17. If we adopt this mode if we mean to conciliate and con- cede let us see of what nature the concession ought to be — Burke. 18. Oh mother mother if thou hadst seen the black herd- bulls pour down the ravine or hurry through the gates when the Man-pack flung stones at me— Kipling. 19. Thus the great house was built familiar as it stands in the writer's recollections for it has been an object of curiosity with him from boyhood both as a specimen of the best and stateliest architecture of a long past epoch and as the scene of events more full of human interests perhaps than those of a gray feudal castle familiar as it stands in its rusty old age it is there- fore only the more dj^fficult to imagine the bright noveltj' with which it first caught the sunshine — Hawthorne. 20. After all they did not run away but waited for us with their spears held out I missed the man I had marked or hit him A EEVIEW OF PUNCTUATION" 125 rather just on the top of the hehii he bent back and the spear slippeil over his head but rny horse still kept on and I felt pres- ently such a crash that I reeled in my saddle— Morris. 21. The enemy behind us that grim wall in front what wonder that each man looked in his fellows face for help and found it not — Morris. 23. As we drew a little nearer and saw the whole adjacent prospect lying a straight low line under the sky I hinted to Peg- gotty that a mound or so nJght have improved it and also that if the land had been a little more separated from the sea and the town and the tide had not been quite so much mixed up like toast and water it would have been nicer — Dickexs. 23. When I was a boy I used to look wistfully at the green hillocks that were said to be haunted by fairies and felt some- times as if I should like to lie down by them and sleep and be carried off to Fairy Land only that I did not like some of the cantrips which used now and then to be played off upon visitors. 24. In my native town of Salem at the head of wliat half a century ago in the days of old King Derby was a bustling wharf but which is now burdened with decayed wooden warehovises and exhibits few or no symptoms of commercial life except perhaps a bark or brig half way down its melanclioly length discharging hides or nearer at hand a Nova Scotia schooner pitching out her cargo of firewood at the head I say of this dilapidated wharf which the tide often overflows and along which at the base and in the rear of the row of buildings the track of many languid years is seen in a border of unthrifty grass here with a view from its front windows adown this not very enlivening prospect and thence across the harbor stands a spacious edifice of brick — Hawthorne. C. In what different ways may these sentences be punctnated? Exphiin the change in meaning produced by the change in punctuation. 1. In any case he was not pretending a thing which he despised. 2. His appointment to office according to well recognized precedent required that he support the administration. 3. Deserted by all but a few personal adherents chiefly of foreign extraction and utterly incapable of further resistance John accepted the articles of the Barons which were embodied 1S6 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC in the Great Cliarter at Runnymede on the fifteenth of June 1215— Taswell-Langmead. 4. Tlie surrender of tlie temporal and spiritual independence of tlie Kingdom completed the alienation of the people from the King whose misgovernment had brought on this national hu- miliation — Ibid. 5. Tlie Cliinese who is in every respect fit for citizenship is excluded wliile the Portuguese or Italian who is absolutely vmfit is admitted — Hoar. I). "What are the three correct uses of the dash? Is the dash used properly in this paragraph from a novel? "No, no,'' said her stepmother, eagerly; "he's never hard on them — only on liimself. Tlie Church doesn't expect any thing- more than 'abstinence, ' you understand — no real fa.sting — from people like them — people who work hard with their hands. But — I really believe — they do very much as he does. Mrs. Denton seems to keep the house on nothing. Oh ! and Laura— I really can't be always having extra things!" — Mrs. Humphry Ward: Helbeck of Bannisdale. E. What is the general purpose for which the colon is used? Find in your reading some instances of the correct use of the colon and explain them. F. What mark of punctuation is used hefore a long quotation? Before a short one? Before "e. g.," "i. e.," "viz.," "as," and "thus"? When may a mark of inter- rogation or exclamation be placed within the sentence? G. ^Vrite three sentences to illustrate the correct uses of the colon; four to illustrate the correct uses of the dash; six, those of the comma; five, those of the semi- colon. H. Whore may we use italics? Are italics properly used in the following passage? My dear Madam, — Although it is so many years since T profited by your delightfid and invaluable instructions, yet I have ever retained the foiidest and most reverential regard for Miss Pinkerton and dear Chiswick. I hope your health is good. The world and the cause of education cannot afford to lose Miss A KRVIEW OF PUNCTtTATIOK 127 Pinkerton for many years. "When my friend, Lady Fuddleston, mentioned tliat her dear girls required an instructress (I am too poor to engage a governess for mine, but was I not educated at Chiswick?), "Wlio," I exclaimed, "can we consult but the excel- lent, the incomparable Miss Pinkerton'?" In a word, have you, dear madam, any ladies on your list, whose services might be made available to my kind friend and neighbor? I assure you that she will take no governess hut of your choosing. My dear husband is pleased to say that he likes everything which conies from Miss Pinkerton s school. How I wish I could present him and my beloved girls to the friend of my youth, and the admired of the great lexicographer of our country ! If you ever travel into Ham^jshire, Mr. Crawley begs me to say he hopes you will adorn our rural rectory with your i^resence. 'Tis the humble but happy home of your affectionate Martha Crawley. — Thackeray: Vanity Fair. I. Pvinctnate the following paragraphs : 1. [The following pai-agraph describes the interior of a room in a sailor's house, on the beach at Yarmouth, England.] It was beautifully clean inside and as tidy as possible there was a table and a Dutch clock and a chest of drawers and on the chest of drawer's there was a tea-tray with a painting on it of a lady witli a parasol taking a walk with a military-looking child who was trundling a hoop the tray was kept from tmnbling down by a bible and the tray if it had tumbled down would have smashed a quantity of cups and saucers and a teapot that were groui^ed around the book on the walls there were some common colored pictures framed and glazed of Scripture subjects such as I have never seen since in the hands of pedlars without seeing the whole interior of Peggotty's brother's house again at one view Abraham in red going to sacrifice Isaac in blue and Daniel in yellow cast into a den of green lions were the mo.st prominent of these over the little mantel-shelf was a picture of the Sarah Jane lugger built at Sunderland witli a real little wooden stern stuck on to it a work of art combining composition and carpentiy which I considered to be one of the most enviable possessions that the world could afford there were some hooks in the beams of the ceiling the use of which I did not then divine and some lockers and boxes and conveniences of that sort which served for seats and eked out the chairs — Dickens : Daind Copperficld. 2. [In this paragraph, describing what a child saw in a field 128 COMPOSITIOX AXD RHETORIC of grain, the word "corn" means "wheat," as it does in all books in England.] St. Guido stopped in the cornfield and looked all round there were the fir-trees behind him a thick wall of green hedges on the right and the wheat sloped down toward an ash-copse in the hol- low no one 'was in the field only the fir-trees the green hedges the yellow wheat and the sun overhead Guido kept still because he expected that in a minute the magic would begin his cheek which had been flushed with running grew less hot his blue eyes whicli had been wide ojDen as they always were when full of mischief became softer and his long eyelashes drooped over them but as the magic did not begin Guido walked on slowly into the wheat which rose nearly to his head though it was not so tall as it would be before the reapers came he did not break any of the stalks or bend them down and step on them and they yielded on either side . . . suddenly he thovight something went over per- haps it was the shadow and he looked up and saw a large bird not very far up not farther than he could fling or shoot his arrows and the bird was fluttering his wings but did not move farther away as if he had been tied in the air Guido knew it was a hawk and the hawk was staying there to see if there was a mouse or a little bird in the wheat after a minute the hawk stopped fluttering and lifted his wings together as a butterfly does when he shuts his and down the hawk came straight into the corn go away shouted Guido jumping up and flinging his cap and the hawk dreadfully frightened and terribly cross checked himself and rose again with an angry rush — Richard Jeffries. J. When are the double quotation marks used? AVhen are the single quotation marks used? Does every exclama- tion require the exclamation point? K. When may we omit the comma between words in a series? What is the rule for the use of the comma before relative clauses? riuictuale the following sentences: 1. Or again if it rained and Paris through tlie studio window loomed lead-colored with its shiny slate roofs iindt-r skies that were ashen and sober and the wild west wind made woeful music among the chimney pots and little gray waves ran uj) the river the wrong way and the ]\Iorgue looked cliill and dark aii The use of Esq. (esquire) after the name instead of Mr. is gradually disappearing. Originally the title implied a distinction. Mr. and Esq. should never be used together. LETTERS 133 acceptances, and regrets. They should be written in the third person throughout, and the phrasing should follow conventional models. The address and date {written out) should be placed at the lower left-hand of the page; the date of entertainment, the hour, and the place, should be written in full.^ 55. Informal Notes. — For informal notes and letters there are a great variety of forms suitable for different purposes. Introductions and conclusions should be modi- fied to show the relationship between the correspondents. Addresses and dates should be given invariably ; they may be placed at the uj^per right-hand of the sheet, or the lower left-hand opposite the signature, as the writer pre- fers. It is customary to omit the name and address of the person to whom the letter is sent. Introductions Viii'y in formality, as may be seen in the following table : Dear Mr. Smith : — Dear Smith : — My dear Mr. Smith : — Dear Henry : — My dear Smith : — Dear Hal : — etc. Conclusions also vary widely, but the forms given below are most often used : Very truly yours. Faithfully yours, Sincerely yours, Cordially yours. Very sincerely yours, Affectionately yours. Ever sincerely yours, 56. Cautions. — Certain "don'ts" will be found useful: 1. Don't forget to leave margins, to punctuate, or to make paragraphs. 2. Never begin a note with "Dear friend, " or "Friend" (as "Friend Smith," or "Friend Tom"). 3. Never conclude with "Fraternally yours" ; never say merely "Yours," nor omit the "yours" in other forms. • As formal letters in the third person are largely social in use and vary from time to time according to fashion, it has beea thought best not to give any examples. The teacher will be able to supply models of formal invi- tations, acceptances, and regrets. 134 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 4, Never end a note : "I am well, and hoping yon are the same"; "I am, etc.," and similar forms. Be snre that yonr final sentence when it is nnited with the snbscription is grammatical; snch expressions as "Trusting that you will be able to make this arrangement, Very truly yours," are wrong, supply "I am" before the term of respect. 5. Never sign a note with your initials or your first name only, unless you are writing to an intimate friend. G. Never sign a letter with a title. Give the surname or initials and the proper name, and in case it is neces- sary to indicate the title, write it out at one side or under- neath, as: J. W. Jones, or Mary M. Jones (Mrs. John W. Jones) Secretary. 7. Single ladies are addressed as follows: Miss Smith (eldest daughter). Miss Jane Smith (younger daughter) . The Misses Smith; or the Miss Smiths (collectively). Madam (referring to single or married lady, to correspond in use to "Sir"' or "Dear Sir"). / Exercise VIII A. Write out on the blackboard the usual forms of headings and introductions to letters between friends; punctuate and capitalize the forms correctly. B. As in A, write out the forms of subscriptions and signatures. 0. What arc the correct forms in writing to a real- estate firm? To your lawyers? 'J'o the school board? In petitioning the city council? In introducing a friend to a business acquaintance in another city? In writing a letter to the editor of a daily paper? D. Criticise the following letters both for form and style. Rewrite them. LETTERS 135 Watertown, Indiana, March 19th, 1898. Morton Brick Co., Chicago, III. — Gentlemen: Your prices on brick under date of Feb. 3 are much too high. What we want prices on is the dark red 'kxx brick, also on dark mottled 411. Separate price on each also price on circle brick same sort. But few of 411 will be used in fact only what are required for trim- ming or pattern work. Your prices to include delivery at Watertown also mention cash discount for 10 day settlement. Your prompt reply to the above will be required if you wish to do business with me. Yours truly, B. L. Haynes. Battle Creek, Mich., Jan. 9, 1898. Morton B. Co. , Chicago, 111. — Sirs : If you want a good reliable traveling man, I am open for engagement. I understand hand- ling contractors and architects and will work cheap. 1 under- stand brick and can give good references. Any territory anywhere in the U. S. so long as I can get to work and earn something. Resp. Jim F. Dean. Mrs. William Stone regrets that she cannot accept Mrs. Sat- ter's invitation for Wednesday evening, the fifth. Sincerely yours, Ellen Stone. I regret that I cannot accept your kind invitation for Wednes- day next. Truly yours, Mrs. John R. Smith. I accept with pleasure the very kind invitation of Mrs. Satters for Wednesday evening, February fifth. Sincerely, Grace Hilton. Dean of Oxford University : Your letter of the 21st to hand and contents noted. I want to put in 1 yr. at some school. Have had 3 yrs. work in Cal. State Normal Univ. My principal was Prof. G. A. Wilson. Believe I am up in everything except Latin, having had nothing above "Caesar" (4 books). Would be much obliged to j'ou for full information. Philosophical course especially. Respt'y James B. Good, Allenville, Col. Sec'y Oxford University — Sir: Please send catalogue of your university and oblige. I have a son whom I am thinking of 130 COMPOSITION AXD EIIETORIC sending to lln- U. and wish the catalogue to help determine what studies he may take, &c. Yours, &c. F. R. Johnson Prof. Bartlett: Having been detained at home on acc't of sick- ness in the family it will be impossible for me to attend your class to-day, so I send my written work by a friend, and hope to be back soon. R. B. Atkinson. E. Should you ever use the following form? Prof. A. C. Smith :■- I was unavoidably detained, etc. F. Examine carefully the following letters. What good (jualities do they exemplify'? Jeypore, January 3, 1883. My dear (iertie: I wish you had been here with me yesterday. We would have liad a beautiful time. You would have had to get vip at five o'clock, for at six tlie carriage was at the door and we had already had our breakfast. But in this countrj' you do everything you can very early, so as to escape the hot sun. It is very hot in the middle of the day, but quite cold now at night and in the mornings and the evenings. Well, as we drove along into the town (for the bungalow where we were staying is just outside), the sun rose and all the streets were full of liglit. The town is all painted pink, which makes it the (jueerest looking place j^ou ever saw; and on the outside of the pink liouses tliere are i)ictures drawn, some of tliem very solemn, and .some of them very funny, which makes it Aery l)leasant to drive up the street. We drove through the street, which was crowded with camels and elephants and donkeys, and women wrapped up like bundles, and men chattering like monkeys, and monkej's themselves, and naked little children rolling in tlie du.st and playing queer Jeypore games. All the little girl.s, wiien they get to be about j'our age, liang jewels in their no.ses, and the women all have their noses looking beaiiti- lul in tills way. I have got a nose-jewel for you, which I shall put in wlien I get home, and also a little button for the side of Susie's nose, sucli as tiie smaller ciiildren wear. Think how the girls at sdiool will admire you! Well, we drove out the other side of the queer pink town, and went on toward the old town wliicli tliey dcscittMl a hundred years ago, when they ])uilt this. LETTERS 137 ... As we drove along toward it, the fields were full of pea- cocks and all sorts of bright-winged birds, and ovit of the ponds and streams the crocodiles stuck up their lazy heads and looked at us. The hills around are full of tigers and liyenas, but they do not come down to the town, though I saw a cage of them there which had been captured only about a month and they were very fierce. Poor things ! When we came to the entrance of the old town there was a splendid great elephant waiting for us, which the rajah had sent. He sent the carriage too. The elephant had his head and trunk beautifully painted, and looked almost as big as Jumbo. He knelt down and we climbed up by a ladder and sat upon his back, and then he toiled up the hill. Behind us as we went up the hill, came a man leading a little black goat, and when I asked what it was for they said it was for sacrifice It seems a horrid old goddess has a temple on the hill, and years ago they used to sacrifice men to her, to make her happy and kind. But a merciful rajah stopped that and made them sacri- fice goats instead, and now they give the horrid old goddess a goat every morning, and she likes it just as well. "When we got into the old town it was a perfect wilderness of beautiful things — lakes, temples, palaces, porticos, all sorts of things in marble and fine stones, with sacred, long-tailed mon- keys running over all. But I must tell you all about the goddess and the way they cut off the poor little goafs poor little black head, and all the rest that I saw, when I get home. Don't you wish you had gone with me? . Give my love to your father and mother and Agnes and Susie. I am dying to know about your Christmas and the presents. Do not forget your affectionate uncle, Phillips. [Phillips Brooks to his niece Emily A. .] Nahant, August 18, 1859. Your letter followed me down here by the seaside, where I am passing the summer with my three little girls. The oldest is about your age; but as little girls' ages keep changing every year, I can never remember how old she is, and have to ask her mamrna, who has a better memory than I have. Her name is Alice ; I never forget that. She is a nice girl, and loves poetry almost as much as you do. The second is Edith, with blue eyes and beautiful golden locks 138 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC which I sometimes call her "nankeen hair," to make her laugh. She is a very busy little woman, and wears gray boots. The youngest is Allegra ; which you know means merry ; and she is the merriest little thing you ever saw — always singing and laughing all over the house. These are my three little girls, and Mr. Read has painted them all in one picture, which I hope you will see some day. They bathe in the sea, and dig in the sand, 'and patter about the piazza all day long, and sometimes go to see the Indians encamped on the shore, and buy baskets and bows and arrows. I do not say anything about the two boys. They are] such noisy fellows that it is no use to talk about them. And now, dear Miss Emily, give my love to your papa, and goodnight, with a kiss, from his friend and yours. [Longfellow.] Abbotsford, 3d May (very like 8d March in temperature) [1813]. My dear Sophia: I received your letter in which you say nothing of Walter's schooling. I hope that goes on well. I am sorry to say that poor Andy is no more. He lost the use of his hind legs, so we were obliged to have him shot out of humanity. This will vex little Anne, but as the animal could never have been of the least use to her, she has the less reason to regret his untimely death ; and I will studj^ to give her some- thing that she will like as well, to make amends, namely, a most beautiful peacock and peahen, so tame that they come to the porch and feed out of the children's hands. They were a present from Mertoun, and I will give them to little Anue, to make amends for this family loss of the donkey. I have got a valuable addition to the museum, some of the hair of Charles I. cut from the head when his coffin was discovered about a month ago in St. George's chapel at Windsor. . . . The hair is a light brown. This is my best news. The worst is that everything is suffering from cold and drought. Give my kind love to Walter, Anne, and little Charles. . . . Mamma joins in kind compliments to Miss Miller, and I am always your affectionate papa, Walter Scott. [Sir Walter Scott to his daughter. ] G. What defects do you find in tlieso expressions, fre- quently found in letters; LETTERS 139 1. Your favor of 18th inst. to hand and contents noted. 2. I shall be glad to get your reply. And oblige . . . 3. Yours, &c., &c. 4. Yours received and veill say. 5. Your letter to hand. In reply to same, etc. 6. Yours resp'y. 7. Should have replied earlier but have been too busy. 8. I am in good health and hope this finds you enjoying the same blessing. 9. I take my pen in hand to inform you. 10. Having a few moments to spare, I write. 11. I will drop you a line. 12. With the compliments of the season. 13. No more at present. From yours truly. 14. I must close now. H. Where are dates placed in the different forms of letters? When may we omit the name of the city or town in the address? When and where do we write the name and the address of the correspondent for whom the letter is intended? When will you use "Respectfully" in a con- clusion? "Faithfully"? " /. Write the following letters : 1. An order for books. 2. An acknowledgment of the receipt of money. 3. A note inviting a friend to spend a week with you in the country. 4. A petition to the school board. 5. A letter to an editor on a public matter. 6. A letter of introduction. 7. A letter to the secretary of a club or society. 8. A letter to your teacher. 9. A letter of inquiry to the mayor of a town. 10. A letter of complaint to a railroad coi-poration. 11. A news letter for a journal. 12. A letter in answer to an inquiry about a piece of real estate. 13. A note to your washerwoman. 14. A note to the milkman. 15. A letter asking your congressman to appoint you as a naval cadet. 140 COMPOSITION AXD KHETORIC /. What form (address and subscription) should you use in writing to a single lady whom you have not met? To a gentleman much older than yourself? K. What good qualities do these letters exemplify? An Informal Regret Dear Mrs. Dudley: I find at the last minute that I cannot enjoy the company of my kind this evening, and send most hearty regrets. I have a little bit of work which should have been done last November. Until January I kept the task at bay by excuses; until May I held it off by promises; and now in the last ditch I am reduced to performing it. 1 am thus circumstantial that you may see that, in spite of appearances, or, rather, non- ap])earance, I am at the bottom worthy of the occasion and of your kind invitation. Very sincerely yours, May fifteenth. Ellis Winston. An Informal Acceptance My dear Mrs. Westcott : It was a very pleasant surprise to get your note inviting Mr. Vane and me to dine with j'ou on Friday eve- ning. We have been looking forward to your return ever since our own. Your note, in fact, was what was necessary to assure us that we were indeed at home. Need I say that it gives us great ])leasure to accept your invitation. Remember us most cordially to Mr. Westcott. Sincerely yours, Anne Horton Vane. A Note of Acknoivledgment , To John B. Dibdin, Esq., My dear Sir : I must appear negligent in not having thanked you for the very plea.sant books you .sent me. ArtlL}ir and the novel, we have both of us read with unmixed satisfaction. They are full of quaint conceits, and running over with good humor and good nature. I naturally take little interest in stories, but in these the manner and not the end is the interest; it is such pleasant travelling one scarce cares whither it leads us. Pray express my pleasure to yonr father with my best thanks. I am involved in a routine of visiting among the family of LETTERS 141 Barron Field, just returned from Botany Bay. I shall hardly liave an open evening before Tuesday next. Will you come to us then? Yours truly, C. Lamb. A Formal Letter in the First Person 120 Park Row, Washington, D. C, April 28, 1900. My dear Sir: I have been requested by the executive committee of the National Reform League to ask the co-operation of such per- sons as may be interested in the work of the League. The enclosed circular will acquaint you with the objects and methods of the society, if you are not already familiar with them. Subscriptions may be sent to J. D. Frost, Esq., Treasurer. Faithfully yours, Thomas Wood, Esq. John Wright, Secretary. Business Letters Bi'oadwood, Indiana, April 1, 1899. Messrs. Brooks and Train, Chicago, 111. Gentlemen : Mr. John Adcock of our firm will call upon you in Chicago and confer with you in regard to our suit against the Lawson company. Mr. Adcock has authority to act for us in this matter and to make whatever settlement he may deem best. Trusting that you will be able to assist him in bringing about a satisfactory agreement with the Lawson company, we are. Very truly yours, The Broad wood Manufacturing Co., A. S. Stanton, President. Buffalo, N. Y. , June 6, 1900. John Wilkins, Esq., Troy, New York. Dear Sir: In reply to your letter of the 4th instant, we take pleas- ure in enclosing the memorandum of a loan for 61,000.00, which we can recommend. Tlie property upon which the loan is 142 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC made is owned by Frank W. Highwood, who is a contractor of good standing in this city. If you should want this, we hope that you will reply by return mail, as loans of this kind are very scarce. Very truly j^ours, Field, Potter, and Field, By J. H. Potter. 100 Dearborn Street, Chicago, 111., February 7, 1898. Holland and Davis, Monadnock Building, Chicago, 111. Dear Sirs : George I. Hall and Company, General Contractors, 79 Randolph Street, Chicago, have made .application to this com- pany to become surety upon a bond for the faithful performance of a contract, and liave given us your name as one of their references. Will you kindly inform us wliat you know of this firm, and give us your opinion as to its financial standing"? Your reply will not involve any responsibility upon your part and will be considered confidential. Very truly yours. Smith Surety Company, By James Fields, Assistant Secretary. PART II USAGE CHAPTER IX GOOD USE 57. The Basis of "Good Use." — Words, like pieces oi money, are but symbols ; they stand for the ideas which we wish to transfer from oar mind to the mind of some- one else. Moreover, they are arbitrary symbols. There is no reason, except custom, why "man" should mean "man," and "bear" mean "bear," and if we were to coin these words to-day, we could perfectly well make "bear" mean "human animal," and "man" mean "a member of the genus nrsns.''^ Of course, as a matter of fact, we can not invert the ideas, because the two words have stood so long in the language in just their present meaning, that any attempt to change that meaning would cause con- fusion: all who use English unite in giving these words their present significance. About every word or construction used by English-speaking people there is a more or less general agreement. When, as in the cases cited above, the agreement is universal, and no educated American or Englishman uses the terms in any other sense, the words are said to be in good use. When only a few people or only the uneducated use a word or a construction, that word or construction is said to be in bad use. For instance, good use rejects "ain't" for "isn't" or "hasn't," 143 144 COMPOSITIOX AND RHETORIC "foxy old cove" for "sly old man," and "He don't" for "He doesn't." There are at least two obvious reasons for observing good use. First, we wish to be intelligible, not to one or two men, but to all whom we address. If the inhabitant of Maine is free to make "masterful" mean "very," w^iile the westerner makes "powerful" do duty for the same idea; if the manager of a theatre is free to call an illus- trated lecture a "travelogue," and Mr. Kipling to speak of the "coolth of the evening," there is no reason why everybody may not change meanings and invent words at Avill. Then our language would mean, not what a whole people understood it to mean, but what you or I or our neighbors wished it to mean. Under those circumstances clearness in the communication of thought would be impossible. The second reason is that, rightly or wrongly, the world measures a man's culture very largely by the degree of correctness he displays in the use of his mother- tongue. If he habitually employs forms of speech not in good use, he is called illiterate. 58. Good Use a Relative Term. — We do more than agree that some ways of expression shall be acceptable and others shall not. We even agree that some words and constructions shall be acceptable only under certain cir- cumstances. Conversation, formal speech, and writing have, one and all, somewliat different habits of diction. To speak of a man as "a mean old curmudgeon" would pass in conversation, but would shock us if wo heard it from the j^ulpit or the lecturer's desk, or found it in an essay, 'i'he homely western metaphor, "to pan out," may lend force to conversation or informal writing, but would be out of place in a history of the United States. Hence, if we wish to use English properly, we must consider, not only wliether a word is good English, but also whether it is good English in the circumstances under GOOD USE 145 which we employ it. As we go from free and easy con- versation to the more formal kinds of writing, we find the vocabulary in good use becoming, not, to bo sure, stiffer or smaller, but more "learned," more formal. This question of appropriateness will be dealt with more fully later: just now we are more concerned with learning what is always right or always wrong. 59. Good Use Defined. — In settling what is English the whole English race has a voice, but, not unwisely, they delegate a portion of their power. Just as in mak- ing our political laws we place the duty of framing the statutes in the hands of men elected presumably because of special fitness, so in making our laws of speech, we in a manner elect a special body of men to literary preemi- nence, and agree, when their customs of expression do not diverge too widely from common consent, to accept those customs as, for the moment, the law of speech. The fact that the street boy uses "ain't," for instance, is not of the least importance; the fact that Ruskin and Tennyson and Lowell and Lincoln, and, indeed, all good writers, avoid the word, is important. To fiiul out the standing of a word or a construction, then, we must turn to the usage of those speakers and writers who use the language with the best results. In brief, a word or a construction is not in good use unless it is used by a large number of the best writers and speakers of our own age and country. Dic- tionaries and rhetorics do no more than record the custom of these men. The ultimate power, however, the nation at large always keeps in its own hands. In doubtful cases, writers must decide, not on grounds of whim, but of fitness and neces- sity. Time and again great writers have set themselves the task of stemming the tide setting in favor of a certain word, only to be swept away. Many words which William Cullen Bryant, thirty years ago editor of the 146 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC New York Evening Post, refused to admit in that paper have finally been accepted despite his protest. Such, for example, are "taboo" and "leniency." And Cole- ridge, writing in 1832, said: I regret to see that vile and barbarous vocable "talented," stealing out of the newspapers into the leading reviews and most respectable publications of the day. Why not "shillinged,*" "fartliinged," "teni^enced," etc.? The formation of a participle passive from a noun is a license which nothing but a very i>ecul- iar felicity can excuse. If mere convenience is to justify such attempts upon the idiom, you cannot stop till the language becomes, in the proper sense of the word, corrupt. — Cole- ridge: Table Talk. Yet "talented" is to-day a perfectly good word. Good use is, then, the national taste in matters of lan- guage, controlled or supervised by the more careful taste of scholars and men of letters. 60. The Three Requirements of Good Use. — -To be in good use, a word or a construction must be in "present," "national," and "reputable" use. The good use of constructions, called grammar and idiotn, will be discussed in later chapters. The rest of this chapter will be devoted to an explanation of the terms "present," "national," and "reputable'" so far as they apply to single Avords, and, in the main, to single words as they appear in writing rather than in ordinary conversation. For, as has been stated, the standards of speech and of writing are not always the same. 61. Present Use. — First, a word must be intelligible to the present generation. AVords, like human beings, live and die, and expressions perfectly familiar to the men of two hundred years, or even of seventy years ago, may to-day be quite incomprehensible. "With the death of a social custom or a branch of industry, for instance, a whole set of words must become obsolete — that is, go out of present use. In Twelfth Night, Sir Toby says, "Why GOOD USE 147 dost thou not go to church in a galliard and come liome in a coranto?" The two dances named are dead, and so the words also have died, except for those who know Elizabethan literature. The letter that Malvolio sup- poses to come from his mistress, the Lady Olivia, reads, "Kemember who . . . wished to see thee ever cross- gartered." With the passing of doublet and hose, the fashion of cross-gartering went out, and for most people the word itself lost all meaning. Nor need the examples be taken from so distant a time. Every political campaign brings forth words, understood temporarily, but often com- pletely forgotten before the next election. In 1899 all Americans understood "gold bug," "silverite," and recon- centrado, but in ten years these words will i')robably be unintelligible to most men, excej^t after an effort of memory. Words that have changed their meaning may be reck- oned as obsolete in their original sense. When Falstaff says, "Call me villain and baffle mo," he means, "Call me no gentleman, and show that I am a recreant knight by hanging my picture upside down." "Villain" and "baffle" are still English words, but they do not mean to us wiiat they did to Falstaff. When Hamlet says. By Heaven, I'll make a ghost of him that lets me, he uses "let" in the sense of "hinder," a sense now van- ished except in the game of tennis. "Invite" as a noun was once accepted, but is so no longer. "Leasing" in the sense of "lying" is a fourth example. To lay down precise limits for present use is impossible. Perhaps it will be enough to say that the style of writers whose works appeared more than three-quarters of a cen- tury ago is not a safe guide in doubtful cases, and further, that in poetry and certain kinds of highly imaginative prose words may be living which in ordinary prose arc dead. For example, the use of "peradventure" for "per- 148 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC haps," "babe" for "baby," "sjiake" for "spoke," and " 'tis" for "it is," admissible in verse, is in ordinary prose a mere affectation. 62. National Use. — When a writer means to be intel- ligible to people at large, he will do well to avoid terms which are used exclusively by one class or locality: he must, usually, shun localisms, technical words, foreign words, and words which are exclusively British or Ameri- can. Each of these classes is treated separately below. 1. Localisms. — Every section of the country has local expressions — called localisms — so widely used within that section that to the unwary they seem national. In Xew Orleans, for example, "banquette" means "sidewalk," and "galerie" is used for "veranda." "Rock," in some parts of the country, means "stone," small or large, and "clever" means "amiable" or "kind." "Forehanded" is a curious New England word for "well-to-do." "Blind pig" is Chicago slang for an illicit saloon. Nor are such special usages confined to the illiterate; slang and local- isms are peculiarly rife in schools and colleges. "Flunk," "cut," and "footless" ("incompetent") are some of the commoner college words. In America, dialects are not so nearly distinct languages as in England; but it is still certain that the man who knows only the dialect of Ver- mont will not completely understand the man who us^s the dialect of North Carolina, and vice versa. It would, perhaps, be pedantic to insist on the complete exclusion of localisms from the care-free conversation of a country town or a college room, but all serious writing, with the possible exception of narratives which aim at "local color," must avoid localisms. In writing, localisms must make way for Avords which are national — that is, used throughout the country. "Flunk" must give place to ''fail," "cut" to "stay away from," awd "blind pig" to "unlicensed saloon." GOOD USE 149 2. Technical Words. — Words may come short of being national, even if used throughout the United States or Enghind. It has often been noted by students of lan- guage^ that an educated man has three "layers" in his vocabulary — the familiar words used in everyday conversa- tion, the words drawn from his trade or profession, and the words he uses in writing or very formal speech. Except where a man's profession is centuries old and in part known to all men — for example, fishing and farming — almost none of tlie words drawn from this second source are understood outside the professional ranks. Let us take an example from a text-book on geology : The formation of monoclinal folds is sometimes well-illus- trated by the crenulations of a lava bed in which there was differential flow down a slope, the upper layers moving faster than the lower. Monoclinal folds thus formed are not large. Tiie directing force was gravity, and the axial planes dip toward tlie for(re. The crenulations are therefore over-thrust folds. To none but a geologist does such a passage convey its precise meaning. A doctor or a lawyer, for instance, would probably get little out of it. But, as the following extract shows, the lawyer's technical words will mean little to the doctor or the geologist : A remainder is contingent when it is so limited as to take effect to a person not in esse, or not ascertained, or upon an event which may never happen or may not happen until after the determination of the particular estate. Three cases are cited. In each of these cases it will be observed that whether or not the remainder will ever take effect in possession depends upon the concurrence of a collateral contingency irrespective of its own duration. Contrast with the foregoing extracts the following one from Huxley: Let us consider the olfactoi-y sense organ more nearly. Each of the nostrils leads into a passage completely separated from the other by a partition, and these two passages place the nostrils in 1 See, for instance, Emerson's History of the English Language, p. 113. 150 COMPOSITION" AND EIIETOEIC free communication with the back of the throat, so that they freely transmit the air passing to the lungs when the mouth is shut, as in ordinary breathing. The floor of each passage is flat, but its roof is a high arch, the crown of which is seated between the orbital cavities of the skull, which serve for the lodgment and protection of the eyes ; and it therefore lies behind the apjiarent limits of that feature which, in ordinary language, is called the nose. From the side walls of the upper and back jiart of these arched chambers certain delicate i^lates of bone ])roject, and these, as well as a considerable part of tlie partition between the two chambers, are covered by a fine, soft, moist membrane. — Huxley: Sensation and the Sensiferous Organs. If Huxley had been addressing an audience of pliysiolo- gists, the passage would probably have bristled with tech- nical terms, because the technical term is usually the shortest and most exact way of expressing a technical l)oint. But Huxley was not speaking to physiologists, and he properly avoided all technical terms the meaning of which could not be easily gathered from the context. His practice here should always be followed in writing meant for the general public. It would, however, be a mistake to imagine that tech- nical terms are in all cases permanently under the ban of good use. The matter is summed up extremely well in the following paragraph: . The position of technical dialects or jargons with resjiect to our language is this: so long as the terms in question are used in technical discussions only, they scarcely belong to the English vocabulary at all. If tliey wander out of their narrow circle and are occasionally heard in current speech, they become a ])art of our vocabulary, though they are still a very special or technical part of it. But the process may go much farther: the objects or conceptions for which the terms stand may become very common, or the words may lose their strictly scientific sense and be applied vaguely or metaphorically. When this happens, the word has become fully naturalized, and its tech- nical origin is iirettj' sure to be forgotten in the long run. — Greenoi'Oh \yu Kittredge: Words and Their Ways in English Speech. GOOD USE 151 3. Foreign Words. — English has grown largely by the adoption of foreign words — so largely that our diction- aries contain more words of foreign than of native origin. Whenever a foreign word supplies a real need, it may be trusted to establish itself in the language. Very often such a word takes on an English form, and we forget its foreign origin: "preface," for instance, is at present a more natural word than its native equivalent, "foreword." Often foreign words retain their native form, but work themselves into our speech so completely that we never think of them as foreign words and no longer italicize them: the naturalization of "naive" and "bureau," for example, is complete. Sometimes we keep two parallel forms, one English, the other foreign; e. g., "and so forth," et cetera; "in the year of our Lord," anno Domini. Finally, some foreign words though obviously un-English are so necessary that we use them, even though the italics still call attention to their French or Latin source. Such are a priori, a 2JOsteriori, sine die, sine qua non, obiter dictum., per se, ad captand^im, coup cVetat. But the practice of using foreign words often goes beyond the bounds of good taste. French in particular is largely drawn on. The second-rate novelist and the society reporter, not content with "between ourselves" and "sea- sickness," write entre nous and mal demer; their women are chic, have coiffures a ravir, and doux yeux. This is a silly affectation of the vulgar and lialf-educated. The great mass of English readers do not understand such words, and would probably agree with Mark Twain that if Mr. Harris, his traveling companion, Avas free to lard his writing with French and German and Italian, Twain him- self might with propriety use Choctaw.^ The safe rule is to use no newly imported foreign term for which a good English equivalent can be found. And the cases where ^arl^ Twain. Innocents Abroad. 152 COMPOSITION AN"D RHETORIC such an equivalent can not be found are rare. Macaulay told the editor of the Edinburgh Revieiu that they would liave no quarrel on the score of diction, since the English language was large enough to hold all he had to say,^ 4. Americanisms and Anglicisms. — Certain forms of expression are to their detriment branded as Anglicisms or Americanisms, and on either side of the Atlantic there is an absurd sort of •'patriotism" which consists in sneer- ing at the usage of the other nation. The Englishman laughs at Americans for using "bright" for "intelligent," and for making "sick" a synonym of "ill"; the Ameri- can is likely to stare at hearing that "The lady's body will be sent home in a l)ox," until he learns that in England "body" often means "dress-waist." Clearly, we must ask ourselves the questions: "Is American usage national usage? Must we avoid every Americanism, or may we accept any or all of them?" ^ Differences between British and American English there nmst be. Distance and different conditions could not leave the language of the two nations always the same. Not unnaturally, some words used in England are unknown to us, because the things they name do not exist here; for the same reason some words common in America do not appear at all in England. Englishmen do not speak of "prairies," "statehouses," ;ind "lobbyists"; Americans do not speak of "hustings," "beadleSj" and "mummers. " For the comparatively small A rigid observance of the printer's rule that foreign words should bo italicized will serve to call a writer's attention to such foreign words as he uses and will probably decrease their number. 2 For somewhat over-patriotic accounts of the independence of American Kuglish, see H. C. Lodge, "Shakspere's Americanisms," Harper's Montlihj, Vol. XC, No. 536; and Professor Brander Matthews's Parts of Speech, ('hapters III-V. Mr. Matthews rightly points out that the Englishman is too prone to regard the slip of a single American— for instance, Mr. Edison's coinage of the woi-d " indorsation"— as an Americanism, but that he objects to having the same rule applied to the mistakes of Englishmen. For the Englishman's side of the ca.se, sec Aluirhead'-^ Ijitnd of Contrasts. GOOD USE 153 number of words belonging to this class, it* would seem that either England or America may regard its own use as national. The same rule holds for an even more limited class of words in which there are equivalent forms, one in good use in England, one in America. Such words are "perambulator" for "baby carriage," "shunt" for "switch," "lift" for "elevator," "terminus" fur "station," "leader" for "editorial." We can not con- demn the English use ; nor can the Englishman condemn our use. It is of just such differences that Freeman wrote: A good British writer and a good American writer will write in tlie same language and the same dialect ; but it is well that each should keep to those little peculiarities of established and reasonable local usage which will show on which side of the ocean he writes.' Some additional words of the class in which each nation properly sticks to its own usage are given in the following list : British America n haberdasher men's furnisher chemist druggist engine-driver engineer stoker fireman antimacassar tidy reel of cotton spool of thread tart pie carriage (railway) car railway railroad guard conductor booking-clerk ticket agent luggage- van baggage car form bench jug pitcher farrier blacksmith chest of drawers bureau ill sick goods-train freight-train > Quoted by Professor A. S. HiU in The Principles of Rhetoric. 154 COMPOSITION AND RHETOKIC But the discussion so far has hardly touched the vital point. The differences which have been noted are small, and in some cases are disappearing. England borrows from Amei'ica, and America from England, "Chest of drawers," for instance, is driving out "bureau" in America. Moreover, since we speak, not the American but the English language, the great mass of our words, phrases, and constructions must inevitably be the same as those used in England. In the vast majority of cases a Avord is not in national use unless it is used widely by the best writers and speakers in both England and America. The real danger, for both Americans and Englishmen, is not in using those words approved by "established and reasonable local usage, " but in employing those Anglicisms or Americanisms which have really never received the support of good British or American writers. The reason that a careful American writer, speaking in his own per- son, will not say "pants" for "trousers"; "vest" for "waistcoat"; "reckon," "calculate," and "guess" for "think"; "right hard"; "smart," and "brainy" for "clever"; "folks" for "family" ; and "fix" for "repair," is not that they are not used in England, but that they are not used by the best American writers. If an Ameri- can is in doubt about a word, he need not forego its use because it is not found in the pages of Thackeray or Rus- kin, but he should abandon it if it is not in the writings of the reputable American authors of his own day. American bad use differs Avidely from English bad use; American and English good use are almost, though not (|uito, idontir-al. 63. Eeputable Use. — Tlio reason for rejecting the vast majority of so-called Americanisms is that they do not satisfy the third requirement of good use — they are not reputable. A word may bo lioth present and national, but if it is not reputable— that is, used by many of the GOOD USE 155 best writers and speakers — it is not in good use. This law applies to "ain't," which has been used for years; to the recently coined verbs to "boulevard" and to "con- certize"; to "underhanded" for "underhand"; and to all the numerous misuses of good English words, such as "lay" for "lie," "can" for "may," and "love" for "like." It applies also to words used only by a few good authors here and there. Carlyle, for instance, invented the compound "careful -hopeful," and might well have said "right-angle-ism." A word, however, is not in good use unless it is used,not only by Carlyle, but also by many more good writers of to-day. Reputable words, then, are those national and present words which are used by the best speakers and writers. With words which have had a long history, a decision is easily made: they have already been either accepted or rejected. AVe can learn the standing of "ain't" by a refer- ence to any good dictionary. With new words the task is more difficult. New coinages are necessary when new facts or ideas appear. Here, the dictionary is of no avail, because it can register only the Avords which exist Avhen it is printed.^ Wlien the need is unmistakable and the word is properly formed, the mere fact that it is not in the dictionary should not make us hesitate. He would be a narrow pedant who had objected to "cable-car," "telephone," "telegram." But often words appear only to give way to later and better forms. For instance, Fitzedward Hall's "literarian" is dead, "motorneer" has given way to "motorman," and "electricute" (not in itself a perfect form) may some day displace the igno- 1 The dictionary, it must be borne in mind, aims to give a complete account of the vocabulary of a language. It therefore includes many words vs^hich are not used to-day, and many words which are not used by careful speakers or writers. The student should learn that even good modern dictionaries such as the New English Dictionary, the Century, and the Standard, can OOt always be relied on to settle a point of diction. See section 33, 156 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC rantly-formed "electrocute." "Reportorial," formed on the analogy of "editorial," as if the noun were '■^reportor,^^ has a fighting chance, but is still a good word to avoid. Again, words often appear which time proves unnecessary. When a nation is stirred by some great event, numberless new words, some coined, some borrowed, spring up. The Spanish-American war, the conflict in the Philippines, and the South iVf rican war, brought many new words into prominence — reconcentrados, holo-men, kopje, commandeer, trek, inspan, oufspan, veldt, laager. If English possesses no exact equivalent for a new term, and the thing named continues to be important, the word is accepted; other- wise it dies. AVhilo words are on tl'ial, the untrained writer will do well to follow the usage of the approved writers.^ If they accept the words, anyone may use them without fear. If they do not, then the words should be shunned for the time being. Ultimately, however, the veto-power of the nation at large may reject the decision of the men of letters. Whether the grounds of rejection are good or l)ad matters not. Good use is, after all, illogical and arbitrary; as Montaigne said, "He who would fight custom with gram- mar is a fool.'" 64. How to Get a Reputable Vocabulary. — The vocabu- lary that lliu untrained person uses when he Ijegins to write is the colloquial one. In almost every case that vocabulary has the virtue of being lively and the defect of not being in good use. The problem before the student of composition is how to make this incorrect but effective vocabulary over into one that is not only effective but > The interesting qnestion of who the WTiters to whom we must defer are, can not be treated hei-e. because the list of modern writers changes continu- aUy. The chiss will find it helpful to ma\{c up a list of men whose customs in matters of diction they must accept. Roughly speaking, we may follow any writer whose work is likely to endure, but not a boy's story paper, a news« paper, or the ordinary magazine. GOOD USE 157 also dignified and correct. K he always stops to think about his choice of words as lie writes, his style will become dry and hard; he will acquire correctness by becoming dull. The remedy for incorrectness must be sought in other ways. A little care in speaking will do much, but to make that care profitable the student must know what is wrong. In the next few chapters some of the more striking cases of bad English are pointed out. A careful study of these chapters will serve to show the student some of his own bad companions, and to put him on the alert generally for bad English. But unless the student gets into good literary company by reading good literature, this study of errors will have little effect. Indeed, no course in rhetoric can make much impression on one who never reads, while for one who reads widely and intently, such a course is as often as not needless. Exercise IX A. What is the purpose of language? How do words acquire meaning? Why must the individual be governed by rules in his speech and writing? B. Define good use. Does it govern single words only? What is the good nse of sentences called? Does good use settle our fashions of spelling, iiunctuation, and pro- nunciation? C. Is the good use of conversation identical with the good use of writing? Cite examples. Why are the col- loquialisms Thackeray uses in the English Humorists appropriate there, when they would not be appropriate in such an essay as Macaulay's Milton? D. Is good use made by the habit of the nation at large or by some select body? In doubtful cases to whom, if to any, should the American people defer? Can you think 158 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC of any words which, though widely used, are not in good use? Cite cases in which the pubhc habit has overcome the possibly better taste of the best speakers and writers. E. What is the relation of a text-book of rhetoric to good use? Of a dictionary? May any one dictionary be accepted as final? What dictionaries are fairly safe guides? Why is Johnson's dictionary not an authority for us? Is a newspaper a safe guide in disputed cases? A boy's story paper? The Century Magazine? F. What are the three requirements of good use? G. Why must language change? What causes tend to make a language stable? Has writing a tendency to fix language? What great invention has helped to fix lan- guage? Why do you suppose dialects differ so markedly in England and so little in America? H. Define present use. I. Below are some of the words and phrases which Wil- liam Cullen Bryant refused to allow in the pages of the Neio York Evening Post. IIow many of these words and phrases are now in good use? Do you discover, from your investigation of this list, any proof of the statement that the boundaries of present use are hard to estab- lish? artiste (for "artist"') aspirant authoress bagging (for "capturing") banquet (for "dinner" or "sup- per") bogus casket (for "coffin") cotemporary (for "contempo- rary") day before yesterday (for "the day before yesterday") debut decease (as a verb) democracy (applied to a pobt- ical party) develop (for "expose") devoui'ing element (for "fire'') donate employe endorse (for "approve") enroute graduate (for "is graduated") gents (for "gentlemen") humbug in our midst item (for "article," "extract,"' or "paragraph"") GOOD USE 159 jeopardize jubilant (for "rejoicing") juvenile (for "boy") lady (for "wife") length}^ (for "long") leniency (for "lenity") loafer Mrs. President, Mrs. Governor, Mrs. General (and all sim- ilar titles) official (for "officer") on yesterday ovation over his signature pants (for "pantaloons") partially (for "partly") past two weeks (for "last two weeks," and all similar ex- pressions relating to a defi- nite time) poetess progress (for "advance") raid (for "attack") realized (for "obtained") reliable (for "trustworthy") repudiate (for "reject" or "dis- own") retire (as an active verb) Rev. (for "the Rev.") role (for "part") roughs rowdies sensation (for "noteworthy event") standpoint (for "point of view") state (for "say") the deceased via (for "by the way of") vicinity (for "neighborhood") wharves (for "wharfs") vv'ould seem (for "seems") J. What obsolete words are sometimes used affectedly in prose? K. Eead a chapter in the King James version of the Bible, and select the obsolete words. L. Point out the localisms in the following sen- tences : 1. The colored woman said that her daughter was feeling puny to-day. 2. As it was raining hard, he took both his gums and his umbrella. 3. The little girl knocked at the door, saying that she wanted in. 4. They fried the eggs in a spider. 5. The man raised garden truck. 6. Where have you been to? 7. She said that she allowed they were sick. 8. Her mother had raised her careful Ij'. 9. She slapped the lines over the horse's back, in the deplor- able fashion of her sex. IGO COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 10. Slie reproached her brother with his tardiness, saying that she had waited on him nearly an hour. 11. Tlie children blamed it on each other. 12. He did not like boughten pies, and said so. 13. He said lie reckoned tliat the man was not looking for trouble. M. Which of these extracts seems to you to employ a vocabulary in good use? Why are the words in the other extracts not in good use? 1. The Melbourne foursome contest was started immediately after lunch. The favorites drove splendidly and putted Remark- ably, but their net score of 93 was not sufficient to win. 2. Wheat was a heavy liquidating market during the greater part of the session yesterday. The local sentiment was decid- edly bearish, and considerations which might have been given a bullish construction were ignored. 3. The illustration represents a dress of mauve China crepe by Mirecour. It is cut in the Princesse style and trimmed with guipure. The corsage is made with a fichu of crepe, draped over violet-frilled taffeta. 4. In heterogeneous rock strata in this middle zone of flowage and fracture, irregular fracturing, brecciation, jointing, faulting, folding, and the development of secondary structui-e may occur in a most complex manner. A deeply buried brittle formation may be under such stress that as a whole it folds without major fracturing, but in a minor way it may be faulted, fractured, or brecciated. T). At first it may seem almost incredible that the whole sur- face of the land, even the loftiest and stateliest mountains, siiould thus be crumV)ling down. But the more we search for proofs of the assertion, the more clear and abundant do they become. We learn that, wnatever may have been the aspect of the land when first pushed out of the sea, it lias been, and is now being chiselled from its highest peaks down to below the tide-marks. Its cliffs and pinnacles are split up and grow moio shattered and sharp every year. Its ravines are widened and deepened. Its hilly surfaces become more roughened and more deeply seamed by the lines which running water traces over them. Its valleys and plains are levelled and strewn witli debris washed down from higher grounds. — Geikie: Physical QeograpJiij. GOOD USK 161 iV. Can you mention some technical plirases which either have come or are likely to come into good use? 0. Why is the use of a large number of foreign words ohjectionable? When nuiy wo legitimately use foreign words? P. Write a paragraph giving your own opinion on the subject of British and American usage. Is "to clerk" a good American usage or not? Is "vest" for "waistcoat" a good American usage? Point out the Anglicisms in the following advertisement : The company lias been formed to acquire as a going concern the old, established business of R. H. and S. Rogei-s, the well- known shirt and collar warehousemen and manufacturers, of 9, 10, and 11 Addle-street, London, with factories at Rother- hithe, and at Coleraine, Ireland. The accounts of the firm have been supervised for many years past by Mr. Thomas Frid Maunder, and amongst the satisfactory features of the business it will be seen from his certificate that, while the turnover has increased year by year, the percentage of profits has been maintained and the bad debts have averaged less than a half per cent on the amount of the turnover. Q. Of the list of authors you made in answer to the second question under i), how many arc American? R. What should be your attitude toward new words? May a great author allow himself to make a new word or to compound words? Why? May you invent or employ such words? CHAPTER X BARBARISMS 65. Barbarisms, or Words Not English. — Every combi- nation of letters used by those who speak English is, per- haps, in the strictest sense, a word; thus "chump" is as much an English word as "fool." But, just as Cbarles Lamb said that there are "books which are nob books," the rhetorician may say that there are words which are not words, and that "chump," which is not permissible in careful speech or writing, is not, so far as correct speak- ing and writing are concerned, a word at all. Expresstions which the best taste in words — that is, good iise — rejects altogether, are called barbarisms. A rejected word may violate all three requirements of good use, but a violation of any one requirement is suffi- cient to make it a barbarism. "Carven," a word once used, but now obsolete; "travelogue," a new word not yet .accepted; "pants," a vulgarism; "coelenterata," a word so technical as not to be clear to the general public ; and "forehanded," a localism, are one and all barbarisms. I?arl)arisms are most commonly found in the speech of the uneducated, and with the exception of technical words do not often appear in the writing of any but the most careless. Still, tliey form a not inconsiderable part of everyday speecli, and some caution against them is needed. No complete list of barbarisms is possible, but if words of tlio classes mentioned below are studiously shunned, many of the grosser errors of speech and writing may be avoided. 'J'he pupil should supplement the lists by careful observation, and by referring, in any doubtful 163 BARBARISMS 163 case, to a good dictionary. However, to learn these lists, or any list of barbarisms, by heart would be a waste of time; barbarisms are to be recognized and avoided rather than remembered. 66. Obvious Vulgarisms. — A certain number of words, easily recognizable us barbarisms, are characteristic of the speech of uneducated people. Among such expressions are: ain't disreniember in course (for "of course") complected unbeknown leaves for "lief" in "just as sbarves (for "shafts") lief." 67. Slang. — One of the most easily detected of errors in diction is slang — temporary and vulgar words and phrases that spring from some local condition or quickly forgotten episode. It plays a very large part in the conversation of Americans, but does not usually appear in the writing of any mature person except the newspaper reporter. The slang word or phrase may be altogether new, or it may be merely a misuse of some good English word.^ Slang often has a suggestiveness lacking in reputable language. Good use, indeed, not infrequently draws recruits from slang: "mob" and "banter," for example, were slang in Swift's day. But slang is usually vulgar and transient — so transient that the cant phrases of a year ago are often unintelligible to-day. How long shall we remember that "a steer" means a misleading report? Will the slang sense of "Cut it out" prevent the legiti- mate use of the phrase for more than a year or two? Will "Take a tumble to yourself" for "Be more careful," "jag" for a state of intoxication, "masher" for a kind of J In other words, a bit of slang may be either a barbarism or an Impro- priety. (See Chapter XI. ) For the sake of brevity, however, both Icinds of slang are treated here. For an interesting essay on slang, see Professor Brander Matthews's The Parts of Speech, Chapter VIII. 164 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC vulgar male flirt, and "sockdologer" for a heavy blow, ever be used by a single writer of repute? Moreover, the free use of slang is a menace to clear and accurate diction. It is an observed fact that those who rely mainly on slang can seldom express themselves accurately when circum- stances compel them to use more formal English. 68. Newspaper Words. — Closely allied to slang, and quite as contagious, are the reporter's inventions and adaptations. Everyone who makes the newspaper the staple of his reading is in danger of using many expres- sions as imi^roper as the following: to suicide^ a scoop | (a victory in securing to concertize a beat | news in advance) to entliuse a fake to suspicion a defy to excursionate an invite to gesture a disappoint to culture a combine to erayonize a preventative (also the same to lotion word as an adjective) to probate a steal to railroad storiette I to defalcate playlet to burglarize booklet to materialize (in the sense managerial of "to come to pass'") reportorial Many of these words appear in the dictionaries. But, as has been said before (section 60), the dictionaries iiicliide nuinv words of d()iil)tful standing. 69. Vulgarisms Hard to Recognize. — The most danger- ous barbarisms are those words or phrases so frequently used as to throw us off our guard, or so nearly like accepted words as to be confused with them. Among such words are: 1 Some rhetoricians call such wortls improprieties. ISut when a noun or an adjective i.s made into a verb, the result is really a new word. This applies to several words in this list. BARBARISMS 165 poetess authoress folks proven underhanded secondhanded offhanded confliction indecided casuality for "casualty" manageress sightlier (for "more sightly") to restitute firstly illy doubtlessly humans 70. Abbreviations Not in Good Use. — Newspapers and their readers frequently use abbreviations condemned by good use, such as: gents (for "gentlemen") pants (for "pantaloons" — "trousers" is far better) photo (for "photograph") co-ed (for "woman student") 'phone (for "telephone") ad (for "advertisement") 71. Foreign Words. — The curios (for "curiosities") doc (for "doctor") cap (for "captain") spec (for "speculation") exam (for "examination") cute (for "acute") pard (for "partner") foreign terms given below may or may not be perfectly good words in their own tongue, but in English they are barbarisms because they violate national usage : affreux chic distingue affaire d'amour ravissante on dit a merveille a bon marche bien d'accord melange recherche nom de plume (for "pseudo- nym") beau monde nuance invalide (for "invalid") Exercise X A. Define the term barbarism. Must a word violate all three requirements of good use in order to be a barbar- ism? Where are barbarisms most often found? B. Read a daily paper and make a list of the barbarisms you find. 166 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC C. Glance again at Exercise IX, and decide how many of the words you condemned are barbarisms. D. For the following barbarisms substitute words in good use : enthuse snide casuality disremember finicky flustrated cute tote highfalutin E. How do barbarisms get into use? How do they get into good use (i. e., how do they cease to be barbarisms)? F. Is a slang word always a barbarism? Point out the barbarisms and the slang in the following passages. When possible, substitute good English words for the barbarisms. Are there any cases in which it is neither possible nor desirable to remove the barbarisms? 1. Fine English pantings for sale. 2. In the eighth inning Lange singled, Dalilen drove a fierce bounder to the fence in left, but tried to take second and per- ished on Duffy's perfect throw. Stalil started the eighth for Boston with a hit. Lowe fouled and Yeager pump-handled a hit to right. Klobedanz flew out. Hamilton hit a liner to left. Ryan was in waiting, but the ball fell safe in front of him and the winning score came in. 3. During all these years I was doctoring with one doctor and another, but was getting worse instead of better. 4. The democratic party has taken a step further in the financial question than it took in 1896, and has, to a considerable extent, espoused greenbackism. 5. What is so gifty as a piece of silverware for wedding or birthday? 6. Several hundred plants in full bloom make a very fine show when tastily arranged. 7. As a rule, they accept without question the pronouncement of the part}' to which they belong. 8. Gladstone once said of Disraeli: "He's too much of a sar- cast." Of the same master of persiflage an Irish member said; "I've no confidence in him. He persiflies too much." 9. "His big head was down betune his big forefeet, an" they was twisted in sideways like a kitten's. He looked the picture a,v innocince an' forlornsomeness, an' by this an' that his big BARBARISMS 167 hairy undherlip was thremblin' an" he winked his eyes together to kape from cryin'.""— Kipling: My Lord the Elejiitant. 10. "Afther that I was so well pleased wid my liandicraftful- ness that I niver raised fist on the gyard that came to take me to Clink. "—IZ>M. 11. He wouldn't stand for it. 12. The Journal plans a series of short write-ups on society functions. 18. Me and the rest of the kids wuz play in' hookey that day. 14. These four persons were, Mi-. Foster, the perfectibilian ; Mr. Escot, the deteriorationist ; Mr. Jenkinson, the .statu-quo- ite ; and the Reverend Doctor Gaster.— Peacock : Headlong Hall. 15. This is a very yellow journal. 16. The amount totalled §25,000. 17. In our conduction of the investigation we learned much. 18. The text of the play is then given to a typist, who writes out on her typewriter a copy for each actor. 19. The nervy pickpocket held the officer at bay for fully ten minutes. 20. He put the books into his grip and went forward to the diner. 21. The maid, to the great discomposure of her mistress, said that the butter was all out. 22. Our awareness grows, taking in new signs of the power within us and without.— "Editor's Study," iZarper's Monthly, March, 1902. 23. The detectives bagged their man. 24. When asked how old she was, she said she disremembered. 25. This well-known authoress was a poetess as well as a prosist. 26. After a short walk, they found a gent's furnishing store. 27. His broad cloak balloons as he walks, splendidly purple. — V.\NCE Thompson. 28. He says he won't peach on his pals. 29. Vituperous abuse is a very poor argument. 30. Humans resemble red-deer in some respects. — KiPLING. The Solid Muldoon. CHAPTER XI IMPROPRIETIES 72. Improprieties Defined. — A writer may use none but English Avords, and yet not write English. Mrs. Mala- prop with her "allegory on the banks of the Nile," and the woman who said that a sculptor was making "a bust of her daughter's hand," and that a certain actor "appeared ill the garbage of a monk," Avere speaking, not English, but a language of their own. The technical name for such errors is "improprieties." A)i improjjrietj/ is the use (if an English word in a sense not English. Improprieties may resiilt from carelessness, as in the use of "alone" for "only," and "mad" for "angry," or from a desire to use big words which the writer does not fully understand, as in the use of "aggravate" for "provoke." Imj^roprieties are the most common and the most harmful errors in the use of words; they rob the language of definiteness, thereby producing obscurity. T\'hen "quite," for instance, was used only in its proper meaning of "entirely," it Avas ahvays clear. But since it has come to be used nearly as often for "very" and "almost," it has 1)ecome ambiguous; now, "I am quite well" leaves it doubtful whether the meaning is "I'm pretty Avell" or "I am entirely recovered. " The same degree of ambiguity occurs with "fix," which means properly "to establish"; with "transpire," wliidi means "to become known"; and with "mad," wliicli means "crazy." To free our OAvn style from this obscurity we must practise a vigilance that will at first make us very stiff and uncomfortable in s\)cofli ;iii(l ill wi-itiug. Yet, if Ave persevere in look- IMPROPRIETIES 169 ing up ill a good dictionary every word about which we are doubtful, we shall finally arrive at the happiness of being able to talk and write at least correctly. 73. "Shall" and "will," "should" and "would." - One class of improprieties needs special mention— the misuses of "shall" and "will," "should" and "avouUI." It is commonly said that to use "will" for "shall," or "would" for "should" is a mistake in grammar. It is further said that the future indicative is : I shall we shall you will you will he will they will and that the future conditional is : I should we should you would you would he would they would But correct uses of "shall" in the future indicative second and third persons are easily to be found ; e.g.: I prophesy that in ten years you shall find no vestige of the error remaining. Let a man go there in the dead of winter and he shall still find feathered folk in plenty. Moreover, "It shall stop" is as grammatical as "It will •stop"; the difference is one of meaning only, and the use of the one verb for the other is an impropriety. To clear the matter up, some examination of the history of the two Avords is necessary. In Anglo-Saxon, "shall" and "will" had no connection whatever. "Shall" meant "owe," "be obliged to." "Will" meant "want to," "wish to." Though these earlier meanings have changed in some degree, "shall" and "will" are still two distinct verbs. "Will," indeed, still keeps its primitive meaning of "desire," and "I will" means "I wish to." "He will do it, Avhether or no" shows clearly the amount of volition contained in "will." So does "will" when it is a prin- 170 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC cipiil verlj, as in, "He wills this, not that." "Shall" has weakened nntil it is no longer a iirincipal or independent verb, but merely a tense-sign, meaning "This is going to happen." The same distinction holds for "should," originally the past tense of "shall," and "would," orig- inally the past tense of "will." AVe must now consider the several cases which present difficulties in the use of these words. 74. "Shall" and "will."— 1. ''Shair and ''iciW in Simple Indicative Sentences. — Since "shall" is the sign of a future fact, its use implies foreknowledge or command. "I shall stop," "You shall go," "It shall not be," are all correct provided the speaker wishes to speak in all three cases as one in authority. But to speak as one in authority in second or third person sentences is not always polite or sensible. "You shall stop" is rude; "It shall rain" is nonsense. Convention and common-sense, then, combine to force upon us, in most instances, the use, in the second and third persons, of the weaker auxil- iary, "will." But "will," which is the weaker auxiliary in the second and third persons, is the stronger in the tirst, for there it shows volition on the part of the speaker; e. g., "I will not stop, do what you may." "We derive from this fact the use of "will" in the first person to indicate an intention or a jjromise. EuLE I. — Wlicn the speaker desires simphi to state a fnturefact, he must say, ^'' I shall,'''' ^\t/ou ?r///," ''he wilP^- ''we shall,'''' "i/ou will,'''' "they luilf Wticn the speaker desires to express a wish, to give a command, to make a promise or a threat, he must say "I will,'''' "you shall,'''' "he shall,'''' etc. lie may violate this rule if he wishes to express a command very politely; e.g., "You ivill report to the dea)i at 10 ohiock.'''' 2. "ShalV and "wilV in Qticstions. — Here, too, we must keep iu mind both the difference in meaning between IMPR0PKIETIE8 171 the two verbs and the fact that politeness ordinarily for- bids a direct assumption of control over someone else. In first person questions which really ask for information, "will" is never used, because to ask someone else what our own wish is, is nonsensical ; we know it already. But when the speaker is using the interrogative form to give a doubtful answer to a request, "will" is colloquially justifiable; e. g., "Will you do this for me?" "Will I? I hardly know yet." Again, the use of "will" in the ironical "echo" of a command (e. g., "I will, will 1?") is permissible, though extremely colloquial. It should further be noted that the "shall" used in questions of the first person becomes in the answer, according to Rule I, "will." "Shall I find the book there?" gets the answer, "You will." In questions of the second person we use "shall" or "will" according as we question the fact or the desire of the person spoken to. "Shall you go?" gets the answer, "I shall"; "Will you go?" gets tlie answer, "I will." In questions of the third person the rule of courtesy intervenes, and we usually ask, not, "Shall he?" but, "Will he?" "Shall he?" will get the positive answer, "lie shall," i. e., "He must; we will force him to"; "Will he?" will get the answer, "He will" — a simple future according to Rule I. However, with certain almost impersonal questions of the third person — when "shall" is equivalent to "can" — we use "shall"; for example: How shall he cut without any knife? How shall he marry without any wife? Rule II. — la all questions of the first per»on which really ash for information, use ^'shair\- in questions of the second or third person, use in the question the form you expect in the answer. When in the third persoti the verl? is equivalent to ''"can,'" use ''''shalW'' 172 COMPOSITIOX AND RHETORIC 3. '^ShaW^ and '"^wilV in Subordinate Clauses [indirect discourse). — ^When, in direct discourse, "shall" is used, "shall" must also be used in the indirect form. If the speaker says, "I shall go at once," he must be reported as follows: "He says he [or "you say you"] shall go at once." If the speaker says "will," e. g., "I will do it," he is expressing, not a future fact, but a wish or a prom- ise, and is to be reported as follows, "He says [or agrees, or promises, etc.] that he will do it." Such sentences as, "He fears he will be late," involve an absurdity. But when we are reporting what the third person says of the second person, we must use "will"; e. g. , "He fears you will be late." EuLE III. — Wlien there is a question as to which form — ^^shalV or ^UoiW'' — to use in indirect discourse, use the form that you find when you turn the sentence into direct discourse. 75. "Should" and "would."— 1. SjJecial Uses of ''should'' and "tt;o/^W."— "Should" and "would" have some special uses Avhich Ave shall do Avell to consider before Ave take up their use as conditional or subjunctive auxiliaries. Of "should" there is one special use: it is employed, Avith an infinitive, to denote duty or obligation; e. g., "In case of an unrighteous deed, you should be too honest to defend your action." In this case "should" is equivalent to "ought to." "Would" has tAvo special uses: (1) it is used to denote habitual action, as in, "He would often go to sleep during the sermon," where it is equivalent to "Avas accustomed to"; (2) it is used to express a Avish, as in, "Would God I had died before this day," and, "Would that he Avere here." In this case, as is natural 'from the fact that "would" is the past tense of "will," it means "It is my Avish that." This second use is slightly archaic. 2. ''ShoukV and ''would"" in Main Clauses. — In the IMPROPRIETIES 173 use of "should" and "would" in the main clauses of con- ditional sentences, the rule for the use of "shall" and "will" in main clauses applies: "should" is the nor- mal form for the first person, "would" for the second and third persons. But "should" normally goes with "I" and "we," simply because of the meaning. "I should go if I could," states a fact. "I would go if I could," means, "I should want to go if I could." "You [or he] should go if you [or he] could," means, "You ought to go if you could," and implies more control by the speaker than it is ordinarily proper to assure. Either form is correct ; the question is entirely one of meaning. Rule IV. — In main clauses use ''''shoul(V\for the first person, except tvhere you desire to imph/ determination or desire. For the second and third persons, use ^^ would,'' ^ unless you wish to give the speaker a sort of authority over the person spoTcen to or of. 3. '^Should''' and ^^would'''' in Questions. — In questions of the first person, "would," like "will," is usually imj)roper. One ought not to say, "Where would I be if that happened?" but, "Where should I be?" In ques- tions of the second person, either "should" or "would" may be correct, because, though usually the speaker asks a question of fact merely, he may mean, "What will your desire be?" "Should you go to town if you could?" and, "Would you go to town if you could?" mean different things and properly get different answers. With the third person, "would" is usually the correct form; wo say, "Would he go?" because neither the speaker nor the one spoken to can usually assume control of the one spoken of. "Should he go?" would mean, "Ought he to go?" Rule V. — In questions use "shoukr^ or ^'woiihr^ according to the answer you expect. Almost always ^^shouUV is correct for the first jjerson. Usually 174 COMPOSITIOK A^T> RHETORIC ^^shoiihV is correct for the secoyid person, ''wonhP'' for tlie til ird. 4. '•'■Should'''' and ''''ivould''' in Indirect Discourse {i. e., in S2ibordinnte clauses). — We say usually, "The man said that he should be ready at one, and that his friend also would be ready," because usually the speaker does not mean that he will force his friend to be ready. What the speaker said was, "I shall be ready, and my friend will be ready too," Had he said, "My friend shall be ready," we should have reported him as follows: "He said his friend should be ready too." Had he said, "I will bo ready," it would have been a promise, to be reported as follows: "He said he would be ready." EuLE V^I. — In indirect discourse, use '■'■sliouhl'' if the speaker you are reporting said '■'shalV; '■'■would'''' if he said ''will.'' 5. ''Should'' and ''would'' in "if" Clauses.— "U 1, it you, if he should [go]" are the proper forms for the future subjunctive, "If I, if you, if he would [go]" are the forms for the future optative. The first set questions the fact; the second, the will or intention. Where there is not clearly a question of volition, "should" must be i;sed; such sentences as, "H I [or you or he] would happen to read the book, it would be well," are wrong. But, "If you or he would only read the book, it would bo well," is correct. It mav be noted that "if" clauses are the only case in which the convention of politeness has not caused a union of the two verbs "shall" and "will." RuLi-: VII. — In "if" clauses, use "should" in all three persons when the question is one of fact ; "would" when it is one of volition. All these rules should be carefully studied. One gen- eral suggestion will be found helpful. In point of fact, Americans and Scotchmen use "will" or "would" in many cases Avherc they sliould use "shall" or "should." IMPROPRIETIES 175 Mr. Barrie, in When a Man^s Single, puts the matter pointedly. "By the way, you are Scotch, I think." "Yes," said Rob. "I only asked," the editor explained, "because of the shall and will difficulty. Have you got over that yet?" "No," Rob said sadly, "and never will." 76. Some Common Improprieties. — Improprieties are so common that the safest way of avoiding error is to know what words are most commonly misnsed. A long list of snch words is given helow. In several cases, the distinc- tions made are not accepted hy all dictionaries. How- ever, a sense of the finer shades of meaning in words is worth cultivating, even if, \\\ a particular case, general carelessness will sooner or later obliterate the distinction. In some few instances a distinction is drawn mainly to show that what are called synonyms are seldom exact equivalents. AVhenever an illustration will make the point clear, comment is omitted and an illustrative sen- tence is given. The student should do more than merely learn tlie words and their meanings. Having first found out both the correct and tlie incorrect uses of the words, he should then frame sentences employing the words in their cor- rect senses. As often as' possible he should also look up the etymology of the words. When one knows that "transpire" contains the two Latin words trans (through) and spirarc (to breathe), he is not likely to use it in the sense of "to happen." To the man who knows that "demean" comes from se cUmener (to bear one's self) the use of "demean" for "debase" or "degrade" is an obvious absurdity. 77. Verbs. 1. Affect, effect: The sharp air affected Smith's throat, because, when he effected his escape from prison, he had not been in the open air for months. 17G COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 2. Aggravate, provoke: (look up the derivation of "aggra- vate"). For tlie soldier to provoke the general as he did was to aggravate [i. e. , to increase) his offense.' 3. Allude, elude, mention : The orator alluded to the tyranny he dared not mention. But the point eluded most of the audi- ence. (In "allude," "elude," note the force of the prefixes.) 4. Accept, except: (note the force of the prefixes) The gen- eral accepted paroles fi-om every officer but one. He excepted the treacherous spy Walters. 5. Allow, guess, think: I will not alloxv you to go. I think I can guess pretty nearly the cause of your request. (The use of "allow" for "think" is a vulgarism. "Guess" for "think" is widely used, and was once good English. Careful writers shun it, however.) 6. Admire, like: I should like to read a good life of Napoleon, whom I much admire. (The use of "admire" in the sense of "like to, "desire to," "be pleased to," is a vulgarism.) 7. Approach, appeal to : We wished to appjeal to the governor in private about the new game law. But our courage failed us wlaen we found that we must approach him through a large group of officials who stood negligently about his table. (The use of "approach" for "appeal to"— e. g., "The governor was approached about the ten-o'clock closing law" — is newspaper English. ) 8. Accede, cede : At the end of the Franco-Prussian war, the French government, forced to accede to the demands of the Ger- man emperor, ceded to the latter the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. (Rare cases of "accede"="yield" may be found.) 9. Assist, be present: (the use of "assist" in the sense of "be present" is not English). 10. Claim, maintain: He still maintained that he could prop- erly dai/u the estate. ('•Claim" means properly "to lay claim to." Its use as equivalent to "maintain" or "assert" is com- mon but improper. ) 11. Condone, atone for: Since he atoned for the insult offered me, by a full and public apology, I was ready to condone his offense. ("Condone" has no other meaning than "forgive.") 12. Decimate, destroj- : The cowardly regiment which fled was 1 The Century Dictionary says that ar/grarate=i>roroke is coUoqtiial. When The Century, whose standards have been criticized as too la.x, lists a word as colloquial or American only (U. S. Is the abbreviation used), it is well to avoid that word. IMPROPRIETIES 177 almost entirely destroyed by the enemy. Tlieir own commander had the survivors decimated the next morning as a warning to the rest of the army. ("Decimate," from the Latin decern [tenj, means to take out every tenth person or part. It is loosely or figuratively used to indicate the destruction of a great but indefi" nite part of anything, but it can not properly imply total destruc- tion.) 13. Demean, degi-ade, debase: The officer who debased himself by cowardice was degraded the next morning. During the try- ing ordeal he demeaned himself far better than he had done on the field of battle. ("Demean," coming from the French se demener, means nothing but "to conduct one's self." To those ignorant of its origin it seems to have some connection with the adjective "mean" ; hence its improper vise as "to behave ill.") 14. Discover, invent: Had the steamship been invented in 1400, America would have been discovered long before it was. (We invent something new; we discover things already existing. Note also the strictly literal use of "discover" in such sentences as the following : "Go, draw aside the curtains, and discover The several caskets to tliis noble prince." — Merchant of Venice. II, vii.) 15. Eliminate, elicit: Having elicited this damaging admis- sion, the lawyer eliminated, one by one. the possibilities of the prisoner's innocence. (" "To eliminate" means "to thrust out," as from an equation. It does not mean "to draw out from." When you pick a truth out of a mass of details, you have not eliminated it, but found it. "To eliminate" it would be to throw it aside. 16. Extend, give: We gave the new mayor a dinner last week. Down the big hall, on every side, extended long tables. The outgoing mayor extended his hand to liis successor very cordially. ("To extend a dinner" to a man is a common but faulty expression.) 17. Expect, suppo.se: I had not expected this opposition. I suppose you were as much surprised as I was. ("Expect" refers to the futm-e only. It is not a synonym of "suppose," "suspect," "think," "conclude," "imagine," etc.) 18. Fly, flee, flow: The murderers of Lawton were forced to flee. In their flight they passed by that same swiftly flowing river on wliose banks they had committed the crime. They fled 178 COMPOSITION AKD IIHETORIC almost as swiftly as birds fly. (The correct forms of these verbs are: "fly," "flew," "flown"; "flee," "fled," "fled"; "flo^v," "flowed," "flowed." Good use allows, as a figure of speech, "He flew before the coming punishment," etc.) 19. Fix, mend : The watchmaker first mended the clock. Then lie fixed it steadily on the wall. ("Fix" in the sense of "mend" or "repair" is a common but slovenly usage. Note the correct use of the word in such expressions as " y?a'i?igf a nega- tive" and ''fixing [i. e., settling, establishing] the meaning of a word.") 20. Hanged, hung: The murderer was betrayed by the long and peculiarly black locks which h}ing down over his shoulders. After a speedy trial, he was as speedily hanged. (The past tense and the past participle of the verb "to hang," meaning "to put to death by hanging," are "hanged," not "hung.") 21. Inaugurate, commence, begin: {The Century Dictionary says that "inaugurate" means: 1, to "invest formally with an office"; 2, to "make a formal beginning of something of impor- tance." Thus, we inaugurate a president or a movement for tariff reform. "Commence" and "begin" are synonymous, but the Century — and most critics — prefer "begin" to "commence," especially "before another verb in the infinitive." The reasons for the preference are that "begin" is both a native word and a simpler word. ) 22. Leave, let: Leo re it, then. Let it stand exactly as it is. (The use of "leave" for "let" [e.g., "Leave it be"] is a vulgarism. ) 23. Lie, lay: Having laid the book on the table, he lay down at once. (These two verbs are among the most commonly mis- used words. Usually the verb "lay," "laid," "laid," is transi- tive and should take an object. The verb "lie," "lay," "lain" is intransitive or reflexive and should have no object.) 24. Learn, teach: He taught me so well that I learned to speak French in six months. (The use of "learn" for "teach." as in, "He learned me to write," though very old, is a vulgarism.) 25. Love, like: We like candy and excursions. We love our parents. (The use of "love" for "like" shows immaturity or sentimentality.) 26. May, can: Mayl have that French book? Yes, but can you read it? ("Can" implies only ability to do something. "May" asks for permission. ''Can I open the door?" and, "Can I go?" are usually incorrect. Wherever you mean, "Will you grant me permission?" use "may."') nrPKOt>RIETTES 179 27. Negotiate, sell: (a glance at the dictionary will show the •various meanings of "negotiate." Its use in commercial lan- guage in the sense of "sell"' seems permissible only when the transaction is one of some importance. We say properly that Brazil negotiated the sale of a warship to the United States. We can not say that Mr. Jones negotiated the purchase of a lawn- mower. The use of "negotiate"'="manage" is slang; e. g.,"In his first leap the horse negotiated a ten-foot fence") 28. Purpose, propose : Since I purpose to leave town at once, I &\i?i\\ propose a new plan immediately. (Careful writers usually observe this distinction. In colloquial English the words are often confused.) 29. Proscribe, prescribe : The emperor prescribed for his coui'- tiers a course of action wliich speedily brought about a revolt. Then he proscribed the leaders of the rebellion. 30. Promise, assure: I assure you I shall x)roniise no such thing. (Colloquially the two words are often confused.) 31. Resume, sum up : I resumed my speech after the interrup- tion, but could not go on well, and was forced to sum up hastily. ("Resume" in the sense of "sum up" is a usage caught from the French word resumer. ) 32. Stop, stay: The boat stopped at Porter's Landing, where I went ashore and stayed for the rest of the day. ("To stop" means "to cause a cessation of action," or "to cease acting." "To stay" means "to remain." Hence, "I stopped with my friend for a month," is incorrect.) 33. Sit, set: Will you sit down? Yes, after I have set this basket on the table. (Adequate comment on these verbs is impossible here. Look the words up in a good dictionary. ) 34. State, say: He stated the case with great formality. I said I could not graiat his request. (In the second sentence above, "state" in the place of "say" would be a pretentious impropriety. Shun the sentence, "I want to state riglit here.") 35. Transpire, happen: It soon transpired that an event of great moment had happened at the council board. (Note the derivation of "transpire." The word means "to become known." But such sentences as "A most incompetent gover- nor-general has transpired in the Philippines," are com«i@n in newspapers. ) 78. Nouns. 1. Act, action, deed: (of these words Tlie Century Dictionary 180 COMPOSITION" AXD RHETORIC says in part: "In many cases these words are synonymous, but action [in the singular] denotes more particularly the operation, act and deed the accomplished result. Only action may be used to signify the doing or the method of doing. . . . An action may include many acts, while act is generally individual"). 2. Alternative, choice: Going or staying is your alternative. Among the three courses of action already abandoned by yovi there was no choice. (■"Alternative" implies a choice between <«70 things, 'or courses of action. Wlien only one course is pos- sible, there is no alternative. The word can not properlj- be applied to a choice among more than two things or courses of action.) 3. Avocation, vocation : For eight years Mr. Smith's vocation was making shoes. His ai'oca^ioJi was hunting. (''Avocation," because of the prefix "a," means '"a calling away from." It should never be used for "trade" or "profession.") 4. Acceptance, acceptation: ("acceptance" should be used "for the act of accepting," "acceptation for "the state of being accepted." See the New English Dictionary, the Century, or any other good diet ionar j' ). 5. Access, accession: Henry V. of England changed greatly on his acce.'ision to the throne. To all his disreputable com- panions of the old days he denied access. (These two words have so many different meanings that it would be useless to try to give them here. But if, in the sentences above, the two be trans- posed, the student will have a good example of the common error in using them. Consult a good dictionary about these words.) 6. Balance, remainder: We gave the remainder of the da.y to an attempt to find the transposed figures that made the balance of our cash book wrong. ("Balance" in the sense of "rest" or "remainder" is an overworked figure of speech taken from com- mercial life. The Century says it is colloquial and of American origin.) 7. Council, counsel: The council o{ Governor Smith gave the strikers good counsel. (Tlie words are pretty well confused. In general, it may be said that the "council" is an advising body; "counsel" is the advice they give. Note, however, the use of "counsel" to indicate a lawj'er.) 8. Character, reputation: His character is so good that we could not smirch his reputation if we tried. (In general, "repu- tation" is the estimate the i^ublic has of one's "character.") 9. Depot, railway station: The hasty massing of the troops IMPROPKIETIES 181 made it necessary to turn the raihvay station into a dejwt of army supplies. (The use of depot for station is particularly unfortunate, for it robs us of the best word we have to express a place for collecting or storing goods. ) 10. Educator, teacher : ("educator" is 4 rather pompous word for "a specialist in education." Its use as a synonym of "teacher" is to be condemned. "I am thankful," said a famous classical scholar, "that I'm not an educator; I'm only a teacher.''') 11. Emigration, immigration: (note the force of the prefixes). When men leave a foreign country to settle in America, they are emigrants. When they enter New York, they are immi- grants. 12. Enormity, enormousness : The cnoi^mousness of this prince's wealth was equaled only by the enormity of the crimes he had committed in amassing it. ("Enormity" is "enormous- ness" in a bad sense.) 13. Female, woman: The /e7naZe of the human kind is called woman. (To say, "A female has been found dead at the road- side," when the body is that of a woman, is wrong. The writ- ers of the early nineteenth century used tlie word freely in thi.s sense, but good use now condemns it as a vulgarism. Among the ranks of the pretentious and the half-educated there is an aversion to the simple and excellent word "woman.") 14. Gentleman, man; lady, woman: Not all men are gentle- men, and not all ivomen are ladies. (No adequate comment on these words can be given here. Look them up in a good dic- tionary. U.se "gentleman" and "lady" very sparingly. Shun the phrases "gentleman friend" and "lady friend" as vulgarisms.) 15. House, home : A home, is the place in which one has a fixed residence. (The two words are not synonymous: the house, so to speak, contains the home. One builds, not a home, but a house. ) 16. Invention, discovery: (see "discover," section 77). 17. Individual, man, woman: Though we condemn the society as a whole, we may freely admire some individuals belonging to it, since they are men and women of firm and stalwart character. ("Individual" comes from the Latin individuus [indivisible], and may stand for "man" or "woman" "only when members of a class are viewed as atoms or units of a whole." * Its use as an exact synonym of "person," "man," or "woman" is common but objectionable.) 1 Quoted from Hodgson's Errors in English. 182 COMPOSITION" AXD RHETORIO 18. Limit, limitation: The limits placed upon Frederick the Great's youtliful activity were likely to produce a corresponding limitation of intellect. (Generally, "limits" means the physical bounds. ) 19. Loan, lend: We lent the money to him. For the loan he was grateful. (The regular verb from the noun '"loan"' is "lend." "Loan" is not properly a verb, but a noun. The Cen- tiinj says of the use of "loan" as a transitive verb, that it is "an objectionable use, rare in Great Britain.") 20. Observation, observance : The observation of the stars led in the past, to many religious observances. 21. Party, person : The 2y<^rt7j of tramps contained ten persons, men, women, and children. ("Tarty," in the sense of "man" or "person," is inexcusable. Note, however, the peculiar and legal use of the word in, "Smith was a party to the crime," "a party to the contract," and "the parf?/ of the first part. ' ' ) 23. Plenty, plentiful: Money is p/erif?/jtZ among farmers now, because last fall they hadplenty of grain. ("Plenty" is a noun, and, colloquially, an adjective, but not an adverb. ''Plenty goocV ' is a vulgai-ism. ) 23. Portion, part: ("portion" contains the idea of a distinct setting aside. ''Portion," says the Century, "is often used in a stilted way when jjarMvould be simpler and better." But the distinction is hard to observe and seems to be dying). 24. Professor, instructor, teacher: The university ranks its teachers as professors and instructors. ("Professor" means only an instructor of jirofessorial rank in an institution that grants degrees. ) 25. Quantity, number: I have for sale a vast quantity oi grain, but only a small rnimber oi squashes. ("Quantity" measures l)ulk; "number" counts the units. W-e can not speak of a quan- tity oi men or hooks. ) 26. Rendition, rendering, reading, playing: The rendition of the town to the conqueror was speedily accomplished. The actor's rendering of liis part was good. The elocutionist's readi)ir/ was excellent. The actress played the chambermaid's part rather poorly. (Dickens says: "By the way, that word, Read- ing, in its critical use, always charms me. An actress's Reading of a chambermaid, a dancer's Reading of a hornpipe, a singer's Reading of a song, a marine painter's Reading of the sea, the kettle-'lnimmer's Reading of an instrumental passage, are 121 PROPRIETIES 183 phrases ever youthful and delightful."' "Rendition" has two legitimate meanings: 1, translation, 2, surrender. Its use as equivalent to "reproducing artistically" is objectionable.) 27. Recipe, receipt : Here is a receipt for your money and a recipe for apple pies. (The use of "recipe" for "directions for compounding" is preferable to "receipt" simply because the latter word has a second meaning. ) 28. Relative, relation : To my relatives I stand in an unusual relation of enmitj'. (Precisians say that "relation" in the sense of "family connection" is to be avoided because it has also the more general meaning indicated in the sentence above. But many careful writers fail to observe the distinction.) 29. Right, duty: It is not right to say, "You had a right to tell me," when you mean, "It was your duty to tell me." 30. Statue, statute, stature: The small stature of Napoleon is reproduced accurately in this statue. A special statute provides that every defacement of the statue shall be a crim- inal offense. 31. Storm, shower: ("storm" is often used bombastically in place of "shower." "Storm" means properly a more or less violent disturbance of the elements). 33. Scholar, student, pupil: Of the many high-school pi^pi'Z.s (or students) only a small number become university students, and of the students in the university and in the world at lai'ge only a few become real sciiolars. 33. School, college, university: The sc7^ooZ year and the college year do not often coincide. (Eveiy institution of learning is, of course, a "school," but the best usage condemns such sentences as, "I went to Harvard; it is a good school.'') 34. Team, can-iage, etc.: ("team" is incorrectly used in America to denote a vehicle. It properly refers to two or more animals harnessed together. Its use in such phrases as the "foot- ball team''' has been called colloquial, but seems really unobjec- tionable). 79. Adverbs. 1. Awfully, very: She is very prfetty. (Save "av^ful" and "awfully" for cases in which awe is inspired. ''Awfully good," "awfully pretty," and all similar phrases are .slang.) 2. Continuously, continually: (see "continuous," "con- tinvial," section 78) 'Quoted from Hodgson's Errors in English. 184 COMPOSITION AND RHETOEIC -3. Directlj', as soon as : As soon as he got to New York he walked directly to his brother's office. (Do not say, "I'll go, directly I get there.") 4. Most, almost: Many of us were almost unable to continue our journey. We were, in fact, most plucky to have got even that far. ("Most," as an advei'b, means: 1, "in the greatest possible degree"; 2, "chiefly." "Almost" means "nearly.") 5. Quite, very, rather: When you are quite done with joking, I hope you will abandon your rather unmanly behavior. It is very childish. ("Quite" means "entirely" ; it never has properly the meaning of "very" or "rather." Note the correct use of the word with negatives [e. g. , "It is not quite done,"] and in such phrases as "quite so.'' "Quite warm," "quite a little," "quite clever," etc., are colloquial, to say the least.) 80. Prepositions and Conjunctions. 1. Among, between: Beticeen these two courses of action I can choose easily. If the choice lay among three or four courses, I should be puzzled. ("Between" implies two things or courses of action; "among," more than two.) 2. As, that: (the use of "as" instead of "that'' to introduce an object clause after "say," "think," "know," etc., is dialectic; e. g. , "I don't know as I do." See the Century Dictionary). 3. Except, unless: Do not agree to his proposition unless I write you to do so. Except for the final clause, I am likely to agree to his request. ("Exce2:)t" as a conjunction is archaic; e. g., "Except a man be born again ..." Do not say, "I will not go except you go too.") 4. In, into: In the room into wliich he had pushed the boj', was a large table. (Compare the distinction in Latin and Ger- man between "motion in" and "motion to.") 5. Like, as: ("like" is not properly a conjunction. Such sen- tences as, "It seems like I ought to go," are entirely improper). (5. Without, unless: I sliall not go zuiZess you come. We never move without due preparation. 8L Adjectives. 1. Alone, only: {Worcc.'iter's Dictiotiary s^ays: "That is o7o)/e wliich is unaccompanied; that is only of which there is no other''). 2. Apt, hknly. liable: The apt scholar is likely (or apt) to IMPROPRIETIES 185 succeed, but often his over-exertion makes him liable to ill- health. 3. Condign, great: His great crime received cond?(7/i punish- ment. ("Condign" — from the Latin con-digniis — meant origi- nally "worthy." Idiom inclines to a restriction of the word to phra.ses implying blame or punishment. "He received condign reward," is of doubtful correctness. "Condign" is never a verb. ) 4. Continual, continuous: The calls for aid are continual (i. e., recurrent). The sheet of ice is continuous. ("Con- tinuous" denotes an unbroken continuity. "Continual" denotes a close and more or less regular succession of things, rather than absolute continuity.) 5. Clever, kind: Only a clever man would have done that kind action so vmobtrusively. ("Clever," in the sense of "pleasant," "affable," or "kind," is a localism.) 6. Contemptible, contemptuous: It is well to be contemptuous of contemptible people. 7. Corporal, corporeal: Corporal punishment can be given only to those having corporeal existence. 8. Deadly, deathly : The deadly pohnn produced n, deaf hly look at once. ("Deathly" means "like death"; "deadly" means "fatal.") 9. Dangerous, in danger: He was sick ten days but was not thought to be in danger. The disease was, however, far more dangerous than was supposed. (A newspaper once said, "Mr. White, who died yesterday, was sick ten days, but was not thought to be dangerous.") 10. Definite, definitive: The judge's opinion was so definite and comprehensive that I said, "That is a. definitive decision" (i. e., it settled the matter). 11. Distinct, distinctive: Most men are undecided enough to have three or four distinct ways of solving the same problem. Only the man who has one definite solution can be said to have a distinctive method. 13. Eminent, prominent: Many a political leader is a, p)^omi- nent but not an eminent man. 13. Elegant, excellent, pleasing: Really elegant furnitui'e must be both excellent and pleasing . (Unless you are perfectly sure of its meaning, "elegant" is a good word to avoid.) 14. Exceptional, exceptionable: John's conduct is, to be sure, exceptional; but it is too self forgetful to be exceptionable. 186 COMPOSITION" AND RHETORIC (•'Exceptional" means "out of the ordinary"; "exceptionable" means "open to adverse comment.") 15. Horrid, unpleasant: At first his clammy touch was merely unpleasant. At last it grew even horrid. IG. Healthy, healthful, wliolesome: Man can not be healthy without wliolesome food and a healthful climate. 17. Less, fewer: The fewer the workmen, the less will be the money paid out. ("With reference to size and number the proper words are smaller and fewer/'— The Century Dictionary.) 18. Impracticable, impassable : Since the broken bridge made the road impassable, any advance was impracticable. 19. Mad, angry: A ?«ad-man may not be angry at all. 20. Mutual, common: A mutual (reciprocal) repulsion drove Jones and me apart. Yet we had one feeling in common: we both disliked bombast. 21. Nice, pleasant, attractive: ("Nice" has a most interesting history. Its origin is the Latin nescius [foolish], and its mean- ing in the English of 1400 is "foolish." Then it gets to mean "foolishly particular," then "particular," then "discriminat- ing," e. g., "a nice distinction in words." The transition to "excellent," and then to "pleasing" is easy. In this sense, e. g., '•a nice boy," "a w/ce book," it seems to have established itself as a respectable colloquialism. But in writing, the meaning of "discriniiuating" is still to be preferred. 22. Notorious, noted: Carlyle was a liofed man; Jesse James was a notorious one. ("Notorious" means "widely but unfavor- ably known.") 23. Oral, verbal: All messages, unless they are like that skin- ful of powder sent by the Puritans to tlie Indians, are verbal, (i.e. stated in words). But a message is oral only when it is spoken. 24. Odd, funny : It was the oddest and at the same time the most lamentable tiling tliat ever happened to me. Yet it was only one step from being fun ny. 25. Posted, informed: He is so well informed in matters of bookkeei)ing that he rarely posts his books wrongly. (Well- "posted" for well-"informed" is a commercial phrase to be avoided.) 26. Practicable, practical : Rarely does a practical man evolve an intpracticable plan. ("A practical plan'' differs in mean- ing from ''a, practicable plan.'' Look the words up in the dic- tionary. ) IMPliOPKIETIES 187 27. Real, very: (see "very," section 86.) 38. Splendid, pleasant: Our journey through the splendid palaces of antiquity was more than pleasant. (Never use "splen- did"' unless actual splendor is implied. ) 29. Supreme, last: In his last moments he had the supreme gratification of seeing the work he had begun completed. (Look up the derivation of "supreme. "") 30. Womanl}', womanish; manly, mannish; child-like, child- ish: Slaria, the servant in Twelfth Night, lacked many womanly qualities. But one gives to her more respect than he does to the womanish Sir Andrew. (Many of the adjectives ending in "ish" suggest condemnation. To call a man "a child-like per- son" is to call attention, not unpleasantly, to his simplicity; to call him "childish"' is to stigmatize him as immature or silly.) Exercise XI A. Define the term impropriety. Wliich are more fre- quently found in writing, barbarisms or improprieties? Why? Wliicli are the more harmful? Why? How do improprieties arise? How may you rid your diction of imjiroprieties? B Make sentences in which you use the following words correctly : affect eliminate liable allude fix depot claim inaugurate individual can . balance party may transpire quite demean alternative professor discover avocation C. Explain the correct uses of the following words: likely clever mad between deadly nice continuous funny verbal mannish splendid condign D. Correct the improprieties in the following extracts: 1. In their places we should instill more honest men. 2. Helen? Who was Helen? Jack wondered. His father had never intimidated that there was a girl in the family 188 COMPOSITION" AND KHETOKIC 3. There are five females doing excellent work as nurses in the hospital. 4. The teachings of Socrates which I have mentioned, and the fact that he was looked upon alone as a philosopher and a sophist did not bring on the catastrophe. 5. Appropriate services will be held on that day and during the balance of the week. 6. He lived in extenuated circumstances. 7. There is hardly a day in the year that some large concern does not call on our city buyer, offering to close out their stock at a great discount. We always pick out the cream and leave the balance of the stuff for the other fellows. Come this week and see the cream of bargains throughout our large establishment. And, by the way, no matter how little the price, you can always depend on getting depend- able clothing at the Golden Eagle; we leave the other stuff alone. 8. During the singing, the mourners seemed to be deeply effected. 9. There was quite a large attendance at the county cattle fair last night. 10. His house is being riddled of its old furniture. 11. His delineation of the negro dialect is perfect. 12. To what baseness will he not demean himself? — Thack- ER.^Y : Henry Esmond. I'd. The truculent sycophancy of our nation toward foreign potentates is a blot on our character. 14. The East is very reticent to take up new ideas. 15. Harry Warrington was not faithless ... to that other individual with whom, as we have seen, the youth had lately been smitten. — Thackeray: TJie Virginians. 16. ... I did not even care to go and see my Lord Ferrers tried and hung. — Thackeray: The Virginians. 17. Tlie process is evidently equivalent to drowning a man in a slow and most tortuous manner. 18. I expect this is a good day to go down river. 19. They are always, as I said, inore or less stupid, and can- not conceive of anything else so nice as money. — Ruskin: The Crown of Wild Olive. 20. Though I was extremely mad at this visit, yet I so heartily rejoiced at their going, that I would not suffer myself to think gravely about it. — Miss Burney: Evdina. niPROPRIETIES 189 21. They cleared the whole tract, in contemplation of making it a park. 22. That this has been so in one instance I have the creditable testimony of a well-known individual. 23. I am sorry to hear my honorable friend stand mute. 24. Addison claims to take leading rank as a moralist. —Mat- thew Arnold: Essays in Crificism, First Series. 25. The automobile found no trouble in negotiating the very steep hill it met. 26. I have been right busy; so I couldn't get the theme done. 27. Boston offers exceptionable advantages in the way of libraries and museums. 28. Directly Ole Bull began to play, he shook his long hair over his face. 29. "The conversation of educated females is like syllabub, all froth and all sweetness." 30. "The journey may be practical ; anyway,I"ll risk it," said he. 31. According to the common acceptance of the word, tliis man was a traitor. 32. I got into the team and drove off. 33. Lack of space forbids me treating even one or two points in a thoroughly concise manner. 34. I thought the tone of the Jungle Book would be of the same caliber as Hawthorne's Wonder Book. 35. The disappearance of articles led to the apprehension of three juveniles. 36. I thanked Miss Smith very much for being so kind as to learn us how to cook. 37. It is a well-known fact that the parents of European chil- dren 'exact a stronger authority over them than American parents do over their children. 38. President Roo.sevelt now assumes the duty of Chief Execu- tor of the United States. 39. He never stopped long in one place, but moved from one town to another frequently. 40. Can I have a piece of pie? 41. Can I open the door? 42. If a single word could resume him, it would be "aca- demic."— Dr. Garnett, on Matthew Arnold in the National Dic- tionary of Biograj)hy. 43. Indeed, his pet aversion, the Spanish Academicians who failed to make him one of their number, and whose sins are 190 COMPOSltIO^^ AXD RHETORIC many, never issue;! a volume containing more aggravating slips of the i3en and of the attention than occur in Mr. Harisse's "Terre-Neuve."— T/ie Nation, Vol. 74, No. 1922. E. Insert the correct Avord ("can" or "may") in the Ijlanks left in the following sentences: 1 I i^unish him ft)r that offense, Mr. Robinson? 2 the teacher punish him so effectively as to hinder h. second offense? 3 we ask him to come now, under the circumstances? 4 we ask him to come, please? 5. I go soon. I shall if I 6 you oblige me with a light? 7 Yale beat Harvard this year? 8 we not hold this position against all? F. Why are errors in the use of "shall" and "will" classed among improprieties rather than among mistakes in grammar? G. What special meanings have "shonld" and "would"? H. What was the original meaning of "shall"? Of "will"? /. Is it correct to use "will" with the first person in questions? Wliy? Give all the rules for the use of "shall" and "will" as stated in the text. J. Correct the errors in the use of "shall" and "will," "should" and "would," in the following sentences, and justify your corrections: 1. As long as they continue to shun such a life, so long will we continue to have corruption and misery. 2. I tliink we will not be able to finisli by six o'clock. • 3. I know I will get a better grade of goods than this at the next store. 4. The question that agitated us was, if the lake were rougli would we get seasick? 5. We will never be able to purify politics so long as the best men will not go to the polls. ^ 6. Will I go and get the flowers for yoii? IMPROPRIETIES 191 7. Will you be at home to-morrow afternoon? 8. Jane said she would be ill if she did not get out of doors oftener. 9. If we could only get even with them, we would have the inside track. 10. We will readily see that the rule is unjust. 11. I had a suspicion that I would not get there on time. 12. Unless there is a clear line of demarcation between these classes — the church and the world — we willsimply be swamped. K. Insert the correct forms — "shall" or "will," "should" or "would" — in the blanks left in the follow- ing sentences: 1. I not be able to recite to-morrow, if I am as hoarse as I was after the la.st ball game. 2. Grant's last directions to his aide were: '"You man- age this with secrecy and dispatch." 3. We finisli this piece of work, come what may. 4. The expressman come for tlie trunks at two o'clock. 5. If you sit in that draught you take cold. G. With determination in his voice the old man said : "They suffer for this. ' ' 7. If we don't hurry, we be late. 8. How often I have to tell you that you are to come in before it is dark? You not go out again after dinner this week. 9. If I were to revisit my old liome, I , I know, find it lamentably changed. 10. He says he not know the result of the examination for a week. 11. I wrote her that if she come to us now, we be able to make her visit pleasanter than it be later in the year. 12. He said he wished that I be frank, but if I tell him just what I thought, he never forgive me. 13. The doctor said he be here in an hour. 14. I not forget j'our kindness. 15. The faculty have decreed that Friday be a holiday. 16. The faculty had decreed that Friday be a holiday. 17. The time is coming when we find travel a very prosaic thinj; 192 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC 18. He is afraid that he not pass the examination. 19. If letters come during your absence, I forward tlieni to you? 20 you be in your office between two and three to-mor- row? 21. I be sorry to think that I had lost my temper. 22. If my brother sj^eak to me as John speaks to his sister, I resent it. 23. If I were to go away, you be soi-ry? 24. He says he be in New York at the time we are there. 25 you feel the air if I open this window? 26. The salesman promised that the parcel be here by six o'clock. 27. If the custom of using check-reins be abolished, we not be any the worse for the change and the horses 1)6 much more comfortable. 28. If it rain we have to give up the picnic. 29. Our cook is a treasure, and I don't know what we do without her. 80. He said that, as he was a short-distance runner, he be foolish to enter for the mile race. L. Explain the uses of "shall" and "will," "should," and "would" in the following extracts: 1. How long I shall love him I can no more tell Than, had I a fever, when I should be well. My passion shall kill me before I will show it. And yet I would give all the world did he know it. Sir George Ethereoe, quoted by R. G. White. 2. He (Montezuma) begs only that wlien he shall relate his sufferings you will consider him as an Indian prince, and not expect any other eloquence from his simplicity than what Ins griefs have furnished him withal. — Dryden: Dedication of The Indian Emperor. 3. No, but there is a delightful little boat which goes from Antwerp to Rotterdam, taking the wliole day to wind in and out among the islands of Zeeland, by means of which you shall see for two guilders as much of Holland as most people don't see for two hundred.— Grace Ei.lf.hv Cii.xnxinc, in Tlie Boston Evening Tranncript . IMPROPRIETIES 103 M. Improprieties are often the result of an ignorance of the meaning of prefixes. Below is a list of common Latin prefixes, with their English meanings. Xame words in which each prefix occurs, and define the words. a, ab — away, off ad — to, toward ambi, amb — around, about ante — before circuni — around, about contra — agai nst com (con, col, cor) — together, with, completely, thor- oughly de — down from, down, of dis, di-r-asunder e, ex — out, foi'th, without (im- plying freedom from) extra — beyond in (ig, il, im, ir) — not inter — between, together per — through , thoroughly; (sometimes in a bad sense, breaking through, disre- garding) post — after, behind prae — before praeter — before, beyond pro — forth, forward, before, for re, red — back, again, in return sed, se — apart, aside supei' — over, upon, above trans — across, through, com- pletely ultra — beyond, across CHAPTER XII GRAMMAR— GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE 82. The Sense in "Which Grammar Is Here Used. — ^'Grammar," says the author of a recent text-book on that subject, "is a systematic description of the essential principles of a language or a group of languages."* He divides grammar into orthoepy (pronunciation), orthog- raphy (spelling), classification of words, inflection, and syntax. Of these five divisions, rhetoric, which is con- cerned mainly with the relation of words in sentences, deals wnth but two — inflection, or the changes in the forms of words to indicate their various grammatical rela- tions; and syntax, or the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. For the purposes of this chapter, grammar may be used as the equivalent of inflection and syntax, and defined as good use in sentence construction. Grammatical errors, or solecisms, are then, like bar- barisms and improprieties, violations of good use. Before proceeding to a statement of the principal solecisms, three general statements may be made: 1. A sentence, as we have learned, is the expression of a complete thought by means of words that are united grammatically. Hence, the use of phrases or dependent clauses as sentences is ungrammatical.^ For a more extended treatment of this point, see section 24. 2. The part of speech to which a word belongs is settled by its construction, and the same word may at one time ' Professor G. R. Carpenter, Principles of English Grammar. * A related fault, not strictly speaking a solecism, is the use in writing ol sentences declarative in meaning and punctuation, but exclamatory in form ; e.g., "He's such a rich man," and "Milton loved only the sublime and his id£als are so high." 194 GRAMMAR — GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE 195 be a verb, at another an adjective or a noun. For instance, in "Early rising is a good thing," "rising" is a noun used as a simple subject; in "He was rising slowly when be fired," it is a verbal adjective used with the copula "was" to form the simple predicate. 3. A group of words may be grammatically the equiva- lent of a single part of speech. Failure to remember this produces solecisms. For instance, "Excuse me being here," is wrong, because "being here" is structurally a noun, and takes an adjective modifier. The sentence should read, "Excuse my being here." A list of the commoner solecisms follows. The rules given are important, and should be learned. But it is useless to memorize a grammatical rule unless its applica- tion is understood. The student should analyze carefully all the illustrative sentences. 83. Nouns. — 1. Verhal Nouns Confused with Parti- ciples. — The verbal noun in "ing" should not be used as if it were a participle. In "Julia's mother does not approve of Julia going to college," "going" is a verbal noun, and "Julia" should be the possessive noun (i. e., the adjective) "Julia's." A similar rule holds for pro- nouns; "There is danger of him missing the train," should be, "There is danger of his missing the train. "^ Scan such constructions carefully to see whether the ques- tionable word is a verb, an adjective, or a noun. 2. The Possessive in " 's" and the Possessive Phrase with "o/. " — The possessive form in " 's" should not be used of inanimate objects. To speak of the "house's roof," "the hat's top," "New York's mayor," amounts to a weak and objectionable personification of inanimate nouns. Say "the roof of the house," "the top of the hat," "the mayor of New York." Exceptions are : (1) 1 The construction here condemned is in much wider and better use In England than in America. 190 COMPOSITIO^r AND RHETORIC established personifications, sncli as "the ship's side"; (2) idiomatic phrases, such as "for mercy's sake," "for conscience' sake"; (3) genitives of measure, such as "the day's work," "a year's pay," "a span's breadth." 3. False Plurals.— In using foreign nouns, the careless writer is likely to use the singular for the plural, and vice versa. The plurals of the words given below should be looked up in the dictionary and memorized : cherub animalcule seraph phenomenon dictum stratum bacterium curriculum alumna erratum ' tableau datum fungus addendum terminus alumnus • Some words — e. g., "necropolis" and "metropolis" — occur only in the singular. Some words which occur in but one form are used, now in the singular, now in the plural; e. g., "ethics," "politics," "athletics," "mathe- matics," But modern usage inclines "to treat words in ' 'ics' (except perhaps 'athletics') as singular."^ 84. Pronouns. — 1. Errors in Case. — Unlike the English noun, the English pronoun has still enough inflection to produce frequent errors in case. The uneducated man says, "Me and' him is here." The half -educated fre- quently says correctly, "Between you and me," and then, fearful of having made a mistake, sliifts hurriedly to the incorrect "Between you and I." Even the educated man frequently puts a pronoun in the wrong case, forgetting for the moment its relation to the other words in the sen- tence. So, "If I were he" becomes the incorrect "If I were him." Again, "I could not punish the boy, who T saw to be a cripple," is wrong, because the relative, being the subject of the infinitive "to be," should be in the objective case. When in doubt about the case of a pro- » Professor A. S. Hill, The Foundations of Rhetoric. GRAMMAR — GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE 107 noun, consider its relation to the verb or the preposition with which it belongs. 2. '■'■ Some'''' for ^''somewhat.'''' — The proiionn "some" is often incorrectly used for the adverb "somewhat." "He is some better" should be, "He is someiohat better." 85. Verbs. — 1. Mistakes in the Principal Parts of Verl)S. — The use of a past tense for a present, of a past participle for an indicative verb, and of a wrongly formed part of the verb, are errors too gross to need much com- ment. "He done it well," "He come into the room," and "He dove down rapidly," are cases in point. The student sbould memorize the principal parts of "prove," "do," "come," "overflow," "begin," "bid," "dive," "get. "^ "Hadn't ought" for "ought not to" is an espe- cially objectionable vulgarism. "Ought" is a defective verb Avith but two forms — "ought" and the archaic "ought- est" — both of which are always either present or past tenses. Hi "hadn't ought, " "ought" is improperly used as a past participle. "•2. Tlio Split Infinitive. — The insertion of a word between "to," the sign of the infinitive, and the verb itself,.as in "to swiftly run," is properly a bit of clumsi- ness rather than a solecism. Indeed, many writers whose grammar is above reproach commit this fault. It is placed in this chapter because it has been so long accounted a solecism, and because no chapter in this book deals with clumsiness. Note the awkwardness in saying, "The pilgrims decide to each tell two tales." .3. The Use of tJie Indicative for the Suhjunctive. — Eng- lish has lost so many of its inflectional endings that the distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive is nearly gone. Indeed, only the present subjunctive of the verb "to bo" has preserved the subjunctive forms in all three persons. In the past subjunctive of "to bo" and in * See also "Ue," "lay," "sit," "set," sectiou 74, 198 COMPOSITIOX AND RHETORIC both subjunctive tenses of all other verbs the only differ- ences in form from the indicative are in the archaic second person singular and in the third person singu- lar, where, for instance, "He goes" is the indicative, "If he go" the subjunctive. Yet there remains a distinc- tion in meaning which good writers strive to preserve. When the condition is one contrary to fact, the subjunc- tive form is the better. In "If I had your ability, 1 should not stay here," "had" is subjunctive, even though the form is not different from the indicative form. Write, "If I were you," not, "If I was you." On the other hand, Avhen "if" introduces a supposition con- ceived of as an actual fact, use the indicative. Write, "If it is bad to spend money loosely, it is equally bad to spend time loosely," because you mean that it is cer- tainly bad to spend money loosely. Again, we write cor- rectly, "If he was there, I mnst have seen him," our mean- ing being, "I suppose he really was there." It must be noticed further that there is a difference in meaning between the present and the past subjunctive. "If it be right" implies that it is possibly or even probably right. "If it were right" implies that it is probably not right. The question is entirely one of meaning. The subjunctive is seldom improperly used for the indicative, but the indicative is often used when the sab- jnnctive wonld be the more strictly correct form. 86. Adjectives and Adverbs.— 1. ''These'' and ''those'' for ''this" and "/Ar/i."— "These" and "those" are plural; "this" and "that," singular. AVith "kind," "class," "species" (as a singular), "genus," "sort," and all other collective nouns singular in form, the use of "these" or "those" isungrammatical. Say "this kind," "that kind," "this class," "that class," "this sort," "that sort." 2. The Use of the Superlative for the Coinimrativc- • The comparative form of adjectives and adverbs sliouUl be GKAMMAR — GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE 1(?9 used when there are only two objects, and hence only one possible difference in degree. "Of her two tall sons, the youngest is the tallest," should be, "Of her two tall sons, the younger is the taller." "Between Harvard and Yale there is not much to choose, but Harvard grows the most rapidly," should be, "Between Harvard and Yale there is not much to choose, but Harvard grows the more rapidly." Similarly, one should not speak of "the last of two," since "last" is superlative. 3. '"'' Hardhf and '•'■ scarcalif ivitli a Negative. — "He couldn't do it scarcely" and "He oughtn't to go hardly," are samples of an illiterate but not uncommon blunder. Do not use "hardly" or "scarcely" with a negative. 4. Adjectives Used for Adverbs, and Vice Versa. — In English, adjectives modify nouns, and adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Yet "real" for "very" — e. g., "He's real good to me" — though incor- rect, is common. Again, when an adjective ends in "y" (or "ly") the careless often use it as an adverb, as in "He dresses well but not gaudy." Sometimes an adverb is used for an adjective, as in "his then wife" and "the almost murderer of my mother."' The commonest improper use of the "adverb is its substitution for a predi- cate adjective. We should write, "The rose smells sweet," not "sweetly," because in this sentence "sweet" does not modify the verb, but the noun; it does not describe the action of smelling, but a quality of the rose, and hence must be an adjective. Similarly, we say, "He feels gentle," because, "He feels gently," means that he performs the action of feeling in a gentle manner.''^ 1 Crockett, The Isle of the Winds. *In "I'm not feeling well" and "His coat looks well on Mm," "well" is an adjective. In America, the regular English idiom, "He feels bad," has apparently given place to "He feels badly," perhaps because of a notion that "He feels bad" is ambiguously suggestive of a feeling of wickedness. "Feels badly" is Often objected to as a colloquialism for "feels ill," 200 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC Among the verbs which always take a predicate adjec- tive are "be" and "become." Among those which, according to the meaning, take either a predicate adjec- tive or an adverb, are "grow," "get," "turn," "remain," "stay," "continue," "seem," "appear," "look," "sound," "smell," "feel," "taste," "stand," "sit," etc.^ 87. Lack of Agreement in Number. — 1. Siihject and Predicate. — a. It ought to be needless to remind the stu- dent that "lie don't," "AVe was," and all similar uses of plural subjects with singular verbs are wrong. '^ "When, however, the subject is separated from the verb by a plural word, it is easy to slip into making the verb plural; so in the sentence, "The state of affairs are such that wo ought to protest," "affairs" has forced "state" out of the writer's mind and driven the verb into the plural. In revising written work, always look carefully at loug sentences to see that the verb and the subject, be it noun or pronoun, agree in numl)cr. I. A parenthetical phrase coming after a singular sub- ject frequently leads one into using a plural verb incor- rectly. In the sentence, "The president, with all his cab- inet, arc here," "witli all his cabinet" is an adjective phrase; it has no influence on the number of the subject, and "are" should be "is." c. A collective noun takes a plural verb when the group indicated by the noun is considered as a collection of indi- vidual objects; it takes a singular verb when the collec- 1 Whituey, in his Essentials of EmjUsh Grammar (page 160) calls attention to the fact that with verbs of motion and condition "the qualifying force of the predicate adjective is very often really distributed between the subject and the verb,"— e.g., "He stands lirm.'V'The sun shines bright," "He comes running." "An adjective thus used," he says, " may be distinguished as an ad\-erbial predicate. " ■•^ Wlicn the subject consists of two nouns which are really parts of the same idea, English usage allows the use of a singular verb. Kipling's " The shouting and the tumult dies" is a case in poiut. But thcstudeut may well disregard such subtleties for the present. GEAMMAK — GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE 201 tion of objects is considered as forming one nnit. Both of the following seuteuces are right. "Tlie audience was lield by the tragedian's art as if it were one man. When he ceased, his audience were free to go their ways." d. "Either," "neither," used as distributive conjunc- tions require a singular verl); e. g., "Neither Mr. White nor Mr. Brown is in the oflice." e. When the words "each," "either," and "neither" are used as pronouns, they take singular verbs: "Each of the men is ready; neither is carefully placed." "None" (originally "no-one") and "all" maybe eitlier singular or plural; e. g., "All is done, aud now all of us are ready." 2. Pronoun and Antecedent. — a. Every singular antece- dent prescribes a singular pronoun. So we say, "Every- one gave his mite freely," and, "It sounded as if somebody was breathing hard through his nose." Con- versely, every plural antecedent prescribes a plural pro- noun and a plural verb; e. g., "His lecture was one of the weakest that have been heard in this hall." Here "lec- tures" is understood after "weakest," and hence "that" and "have" must be plural. h. "Either" can not properly be used for "any," or "neither" fur "none." "Either" and "neither" aro singular. When only two objects are mentioned, "either" or "neither" is used; when more than two, "any" or "none." The following sentences are right: "Either of the two men could have taken any of the three courses; they took none of them, but remained in inac- tivity. Neither of the two men is excusable." Had it been "any of the two men could" or "took neither of them," the sentences would have been incorrect. 88. False Correlations of the Double Conjunctions. — The correct pairs of conjunctive particles are "either . . . or," "neither . . . nor," It is wrong to write, as Dry- 203 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC den does, "For they who have never heard of you can neither love or hate you." 89. Omission of "a" or "the." — There seems to be a conspiracy among careless writers against the article ; we often see, "The old and young Avoman went away," when two persons departed, and, "The fire destroyed a house and office of Mr. Smith's," when the house was in one block and the office in another. When there are two nouns referring to two distinct objects, or when two adjectives make it evident that there is a second noun understood, as in "an old woman and a young (woman)," repeat the article. On the other hand, when, as may be the case with "the cashier and teller," you mean that one person holds both offices, omit the second article. 90. Omission of Words Necessary to the Sense. — Words necessary to the sense are sometimes omitted. Often, as in the sentence, "lie used to go nutting every fall, and at times got a good many," the word omitted is found in the sentence as a part of some other word. The last half of the sentence should read, "and at times got a good many nuts." Often, as in, "I never have gone there and never shall," the part of the verb used is made to do duty for another and wholly different part : here, the only form of the verb we have a right to understand is "have gone"; but "shall have gone there" would be nonsense. The sentence should be, "I never have gone there, and never shall go there." A third variety of this error consists in the omission of a phrase (usually a prej)ositional phrase), "lie greets everyone with the same pleasant smile he greets us," should be, "He greets everyone with the same pleasant smile Avitli which he greets us." Errors of this sort are manifold. 91. "Which," Used with a Phrase or a Clause as Its Antecedent. — Some good authors make "which" refer to a phrase or a clause as its antecedent, but the strictest GRAMMAR — GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE 203 usage is against this practice. "He wasn't long there — which makes me think he got an unfavorable reception," becomes, according to this rule, "He wasn't long there, a fact which," etc. The student will easily recall the mauy words, — "a fact," "a thing," "a process" — which serve to fill out the gap in such sentences. But it is doubtful whether the rule will long remain eifective. 92. Misuse of "and." — "And" frequently intrudes in such a manner as to spoil tlie construction of a sentence. The commonest form of this error is the "and wliich" con- struction; e. g., "There were several cart-loads of bricks dumped on the lawn and which had to be sorted." Here "and" is superfluous. "And" rightly employed connects two statements of equal grammatical rank. 93. Double Subject and Object. — The sentence, "John, who was here just now, he went to town to buy a hat," is a gross example of an error only too common in the work of careless writers — the use of a double subject. In the second of the following sentences occurs the similar fault of the use of a double object: In tlie same manner did these young adders attempt to bite before their fangs were in being. The dam, however, was fur- nished with very formidable ones, which we lifted up (for they fold down when not used), and cut them off with the point of our scissors. — Gilbert White: Natural History of Selborne. Exercise XII A. Define the sentence. Define grammar: (a) in its widest sense, (b) as the word is used in this chapter. B. Show by illustration how a given word may some- times be one part of speech, sometimes another. Show how a group of words may be the grammatical equivalent of a part of speech. C. Give the rules laid down in the text for the use of the possessive. 204 COMPOSITION AXD IinETORIG D. Give the rules for the use of the subjunctive. E. How do you know when to use a predicate adjective? F. Give the rules for deciding the number of collective nouns. G. Distinguish in meaning between: (a) "He looks well," "He looks good" ; (b) "He feels warm," "He feels warmly." H. Point out and correct the solecisms in the following sentences : 1. There has been as great or more of a tendency recently than there was formerly to group as many tenements as possible under one roof. 2. Throughout the entire city but few cases have been found where the greatest care consistent with its use is not given to elevators in constant operation. 3. The cavalry, horseless as yet, is 1,030 strong, but from the present outlook exjiect to recruit up to 1,200. 4. If anj^body will pay for their own telescope, and resolve another nebula, we cackle over the discernment as if it were our own. — RusKiN: Sesame and Liliea. 5. Neither he or I saw the accident. G. I asked him how he was, and he said he felt bad. 7. He did not seem to grasp the fact's significance. 8. Burke implies that he don't see why Englishmen should blame descendants of Englishmen for acting according to English princi[)les. 9. Tiie polislied floor was so slippery that he couldn't keep his balance on it hardly. 10. He was one of tliose Icind of men who are angry if they have to repeat a remark. 11. A rumor reached me too of Judge Pyncheon being missed. — IIawthgrne: House of the Seven Gables. 12. Far from the ragged crowd of the usual gallery "rusli," the gallery patrons of grand opera are almost exclusively of the cultured class. 13. A slight illness has, and I fear will, confine me to my room for a few days. 14. We mustn't crack Oaddy's head any more than it is. — Kipling; The Storif of the (fadsbi/s. 15. She was a fat old woman, this Mrs. Gamp, with a husky GRAMMAR — GOOD USE IN" THE SEXTENCE 205 voice anil a moist ej'e, which she had the remarkable power of turning up and only showing the white of it. — DiCKENS: Martin Chuzzlewit . 16. When the cross-examination came, the witness begun to cry. 17. This dicta seemed to him very severe. 18. Tlie pupil will soon take pride in the room's appearance. 19. Thoughts which go together must be orderly grouped to build vip the paragraph's structure. 20. He even went so far in his generosit}' as to pay the bill of a fellow traveler who he had never seen before. 21. Excuse me helping myself first, but I was afraid there wouldn't be enough to go around. 22. Number the answers as the questions are. 23. Burke stated that Lord North's plan would produce an endless quarrel among the colonies and bring things to a worse stand than they were then. 24. Caedmoii paraplirased the Old and New Testament. 25. I chose the thickest of the two because I thought it would wear the best. 26. "Do not all Americans whittle?" he asked mischievously. "I never have," I replied smiling. "I thought they were never happy unless they were." — E. S. de G. Tompkins : Through David's Realm. 27. The sources of the oil are almost always found at the foot or parallel to the mountain chains. 28. Wahb put in his foot and found it (the spring) was quite warm, and that it felt pleasantly on his skin. — Ernest Seton- Thompson: The Biography of a Grizzly. 29. A Prince Rupert drop is a small piece of glass, shaped like an incandescent lamp, which, if the smallest piece of the tail be snipped off, the drop flies into a line dust with explosive violence. 30. [My experience with the Smith Agency in securing this position warrants me in recommending it highly.] Mr. Smith's wide acquaintance with superintendents and principals and v.'ith the rank of schools, and his experience the last twelve years as manager of an agenc}^ enables him to be of great assist- ance to those seeking positions. 31. As I have previously pointed out, the storage of inflam- mable or waste material in places or under conditions which make them a menace to the suiTounding property, should be 206 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC taken and considered whenever proven, as a case of criminal negligence or carelessness, and should by law be made to suffer accordingly. 32. The looking-glass, the polished globes of the andirons, and all other reflecting surfaces, continually present us with portraits, or rather gliosts, of ourselves, which we glance at and straightway forget them. — Hawthorne: Tfie Prophetic Pictures. 33. His desire to please will be amj^ly demonstrated if favored with a share of your patronage which he earnestly solicits. 34. Mrs. Walker's condition is as good or better than it has been since the accident. 35. I felt that I was giving her another still more acceptable, and which she as promptlj- adopted. — Henry James. 36. Though having written previously a number of short and pleasant stories, this book attracted unusual attention as an earnest of what the author could do. — J. H. Patton, in the Appendix to Brooke's Primer of English Literature. 37. The sisters Susan and Anna Warner have also laboured successfully. Commencing with The Wide, Wide World, they have continued to write many others. — Ihid. 38. It is at best but the school exercise of a young poet learn- ing to write, and who reproduces in his copy book, the copy that has been set him at the page's head. — Lowell: Cambridge Edi- tion, Vol. 11, p. 123. 39. She is but changing her headgear, replied a female attendant, with as much confidence as the favorite lady's maid usually answers the master of a modern family. — Scott: Ivanhoe. 40. So carefully had he planned his work that only one addenda was necessary. 41. Tlie path, winding and shady, and which ran through the middle of the garden, was often traveled by the old grand- father. 42. The man, whom I found was an honest-looking person, said he liad been out of work for three months. 43. The night was concluded in the manner we began the morning. — GOLDSMITH: Tlie Vicar of Wakefield. 44. It was not my sister but me that finally solved the difficulty. 45. This dog always sliowed the edge of his tongue at the side GRAMMAE — GOOD USE IN THE SENTENCE 207 of his mouth, like a pink rose leaf, which made him look very coquettishly. 46. A friend and myself spent part of one day last summer at Niagara. 47. A pei'son seeking the medium of an exchange like our.3, when he compares the expense of an individual hunt for a place, he can see the economy of using our agency. 48. If he was a little broader in the shoulders, he would have a fine figure. 49. Anthropological data in the hands of pseudo-scientists has resulted in flooding the market with generalizations. — Nation, April 10, 1903. 50. The present laws require that a person nrnst live in the state only one year before they may petition for a divorce. 51. Another reason is because when I grow up and if I get married, I could cook his meals .so it would not cost them so much as to buy them cooked. 53. These are the two main reasons for a man being thought of as a professional athlete. 53. Take the College Refectory, which in its corps of waiters three-fourths of them are athletes. 54. Pardon me reaching in front of you. 55. These kind of patent egg-beaters are not so good after all as the old-fashioned fork your mother used to use. 56. The strength of Stephen's features were in hers. — Winston Churchill: The Crisis. 57. If I was him, I'd refuse to stand such treatment. 58. Try stamp-collecting yourself. Spend as much time, money, and thought upon it as I have, and you will soon find your.self a victim of its mysterious charm. 59. His then wife was an invalid, and spent her winters in Florida. 60. Beside the swineherd, for such was Gurth's occupation, was seated, upon one of the fallen Druidical monuments, a i)er- son about ten years younger in appearance, and whose dress, though resembling liis companion's in form, was of better materials, and of a more fantastic description. — Scott: Ivanhoe. 61. His office-hours never varied, and he kept himself under as rigid discipline as he expected his men. He is such a very fair- minded man. 63. The Liberal government is furnished an excellent oppor- tunity to form a strong cabinet with Lord Rosebery at its head, 208 COMPOSITION- AKD RHETORIC whom the European powers consider can be trusted to make peace as soon as possible. 63. The sister is not at all strong. She looks bad, I think. G4. The dip of these stratums is very great. 65. Johnson is so artificial a writer. We seldom read him for amusement. 66. There is nothing in the realm of botany more puzzling than this phenomena. 67. Elinor says that her new gown fits just lovely. 68. She thinks it is smart to dress very English. 69. She had only one brief memoranda of the subject. 70. Celia loved Rosalind far too well to ever leave her. 71. The maid told the visitor that her mistress hadn't hardly been gone five minutes. 72. Is it not possible to honorably say : Let us have peace? 73. The more important rules, definitions, and observations, and which are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, ai'e printed with a large type. — Mnrray's Grammar. 74. I will now try to show that the i^resent system of the divorce laws in Rhode Island is lax, and that from this evils result. Also that the recommendation of the committee will if adopted improve the pi'esent conditions. 75. Goldsmith shook his head doubtfully, and said he would try and hope for the best. — F. F. Moore : The Jessami/ Bride. 76. From this position the hai'bor presented an entirely differ- ent appearance than it did outside. 77. To him the politician dictated whom should be appointed to oflUce. 78. As I have said, the state paid no attention to the.se kind of facts. 79. Of course they are not supposed, nor do I think they will use, this pouer in a tyrannical manner, as some have alleged. 80. A careful consideration of these duties of this committee do not give them the least authority for making- an}- such investigation. 81. No one seems to have been willing to assume the responsi- l)ility nor to make any strenuous effort to suppress the evils. H2. He doesn't need to swear to anything in the petition. Merely signs it and the court is satisfied. 83. Now if the state see that the city, her agent, to whom she has given these powers do not govern her police properly, she GRAMMAR — GOOD USE IN" THE SEXTEN^CE -209 had the right to assume control and manage them as she desires. 84. One of the most impressive sights along the Hudson River are the Palisades. 85. In the basement should be the engine-room which is to heat and ventilate the building. 86. These recommendations provide for stricter proceedings of the court by compelling the serving of the writ wlien the per- son can be found, and if eitlier party should be out of the state they shall be personally served with process. 87. The purpose was tliis : that Mr. Brown might give to liis native town not only a park of rare beauty, but also by its means to bring to Wayland once a year some of the most distinguislied men of the state. 88. No longer a shy, helpless little ]\Iolly Cottontail, ready to fly from a shadow: the mother's love was strong in lier. — • Ernest Seton -Thompson : Wild Aniinals I Have Knoini. 89. They staggered just like a drunken man would. 90. We started our foghorix a- blowing and was relieved to see the steamer change her course. 91. Two boys who I am acquainted with were canoeing on tlie Pawtuxet. 93. The canoe soon sank, and I iiad to swim, wliicli I was afraid to do before. 93. Neither muskrat nor dog were seen again tliat afternoon. 94. The breeze held up so good tliat the captain decided to keep on to Newport. 95. A fisherman had caught an extraordijiary large fisli. 96. The prospects for a good baseball team is very bright. 97. This loss would not be so serious if there was only another "back-stdp" of equal ability. 98. But everything was much different than it is now. CHAPTEE XIII IDIOM AND TRANSLATION-ENGLISH 1 94. Idiom Defined. — To express the same idea, the Ger- man says, '■'■Maclie die Thilre zu^'' ("Make the door to") ; the Englishmau, "Shut the door." The Frenchman asks, ^^ Comment voiis 'portez-vousV ("How do you carry yourself?"); the Englishman, "How do you do?" The German says, "^s gelit mir ganz giiV ("It goes to me entirely good"); the Englishman, "I'm pretty well." These differences between English and German and French are differences in what we call "idiom." An idiom is de- fined by the Centnry Dictionary as "a mode of expression peculiar to a language; a peculiarity of phraseology; a phrase or form of words approved by the usage of a language, whether spoken or written, and often having a significance other tlian its grammatical or logical one." Xaturally, unidiomatic English is found most often in the speech of foreigners. Even those Englishmen and Americans whose grammar is faulty violate idiom com- paratively rarely. For the idiom of our language is, in a sense, born with us. But when we begin to study foreign tongues, the very difference between, say, Latin and Eng- lish, is likely temporarily to disturb our command of English and to give us two ways of saying things, one Eng- lish and the other not. For that reason, we now turn to an examination of some common violations of English idiom. Of course, since idiom is illogical habit, no complete classification of errors in idiom is possible. Still, many > Study of this chapter is best deferred until the student has begun the study of a foreign language. 210 IDIOM AND TRAKSLATION-ENGLISH 211 of these errors may be classed roughly as un-English phrasing, un-English grammar, or un-Euglish order of words. 95. Unidiomatic Phrasing. — Even without the influence of a study of foreign tongues. Englishmen and Americans now and again use words in a connection not justified by English idiom. Such errors are a form of impropriety. The few examples cited below may serve to put the stu- dent on his guard : 1. I wish to say a few remarks. 2. Do you anticipate to take a trip abroad? 3. Johnson never accompHshed originaUty. 4. I journeyed by the train. 5. I made mention on it. 6. He died with an attack of fever. 7. He had an aversion from this action. 8. The story treated fi-om the arrival of Brut, the great grandson of ^neas, to a Welsli king, Cadwallo, on the isle. 9. For twenty years Milton gave up writing poetry and devoted his time in writing pamphlets for defending his side. 10. You have reason (for "You are right"). It will be noted that a great many of the faults in these sentences come from the use of the wrong preposition. It seems worth while, therefore, to give some of the most usual combinations of prepositions with other words: ^ abhorrence of bestow upon absolve from change for (a thing) accord with change with (a person) acquit of comply with adapted to 07' for confer on (= give to) affinity between, to, or with confer with (= talk with) agree with (a person) confide in (= trust in) agree to (a proposal) confide to (= intrust to) averse from or to conform to 1 This list is quoted from Professor A. S. Hill's Foundations of Bhetoi-u^ which in turn quotes a large part of it from Meiklejohn's The English Lan- guage. 212 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC in conformity ^vith 07- to disappointed in (what we have) convenient for or to dissent from conversant with glad at or of correspond to or with (a thing) involve in correspond with (a person) martyr for or to dependent on [but independ- need of ent of) part from or with derogatory to profit by differ from (a person or thing) reconcile to or with diflfer from or with (in opinion) taste of (food) disappointed of (what we can taste for (art) not get) thirst for or after. 96. Unidiomatic Constructions.— Constructions not Eng- lish are usually the result of a literal translation of mark- edly idiomatic foreign constructions. The chief danger for the student is that he will copy the sentence-structure of French, German, or Latin. Many a student of French employs in English the highly exclamatory French sen- tence, and says "What to do!" thinking that he has translated ''Que faireP' Frequently the accusative of specification is turned directly into English, and the trans- lator writes, "He was easy as to his mind," when he means, "He was easy in his mind." Again, almost every young student of Latin uses the nominative absolute construc- tion too freely in translating. English usage allows some absolutes; e. g., "Generally speaking, the case is this," and, "The king being occupied in a distant part of the kingdom, the commander-in-chief settled the matter." But such sentences as, "He, Marcus Messala being consul, headed a revolt," and, "The general, the bridge having been made, ordered his men to cross the river"— sentences typical of student translations— are obviously clumsy and un-English. The question is in part one of the number of times the absolute is used in a given passage. The aljsolute construction is properly used perhaps ten times in inflected Latin to once in uninflected English. It is IDIOM AKD TEAXSLATION-ENGLISH 213 safe to say that in translatiug from an inflected language into English, we should use as few absolutes as possible, substituting for the absolutes of the original, causal clauses or participial phrases. 97. TJnidiomatic Order of Words. — A sentence may con- tain none but English words and English constructions and jet be quite uuidiomatic, if the order of the words is not that of English. Daring the first years of acquaint- ance with a foreign tongue, the danger of falling into such errors is great. The order of words in the French sentence is not very different from that of the English sentence. But in Latin and German, the inflections make possible an order of words impossible in English. In the following sentence, translated from Caesar's Gallic War^ only the order of words is absolutely wrong. Yet the sen- tence is not English : Bj^ these things led, and by the influence of Orgetorix moved, they determined those things which to starting pertained, to get ready. It should read: Moved by these considerations, and by the influence of Orget- orix, they decided to get ready whatever was necessary for making a start. Translations from German show the same errors; e. g.: I have compelled my fancy in old Hellas to wander, and the pictures of that pair of friends to raise, to whom the old world was so rich. If "to wander" be placed after "fancy," and "to raise" after "and," the sentence- becomes English. In both Latin and German a longer and more frequent suspension of the sense is posssible than in English. 98. Translation-English. — Other faults in translation are not rare. To keep rigidly to the punctuation and the sentence division of the original, to translate Latin pro- nouns without regard for the fact that English lacks the 214 COMPOSITION- AXD RHETOKIO fulness of inflection which makes the pronouns clear in Latin, and to copy the very sliort paragraph of French narrative style, are faults each of which is sufficient to make a passage as a whole unicliomatic, even though every separate clause in it is perfectly idiomatic. To the style of such passages we may apply the name "Translation- English." Examples follow: Divitiacus spoke in their behalf, the Bellovaci have at all times been under the protection and in alliance with the Haeduan state : driven by their leaders, who said that the Haedui reduced into slavery by Caesar were enduring all sorts of insults and shame, they had revolted from the Haedui and had made war on the Roman people. — Caesar: Gallic War. Here the translator has followed the punctuation and the sentence-division of the original too closely. The greatness of my client's wealth was shown. Within four days from the time when these things happened, the news was brought to Chrysogonus in the camp of Lucius Sulla at Volterrae. The greatness of his^ wealth was shown; the fertility of his estate (for he left thirteen farms, and almost all bordered on the Tiber) and the lack of resources and isolation of my client" were pointed out. He who had been very needy on his own estate was very extravagant on another's. Here the translator has turned the Latin pronouns into English pronouns without regard for clearness. In translating, make your sentences clear, even if all of the pronouns of the original have to give place to nouns or circumlocutions. In the early part of March, in the year 1841, I was traveling in Corsica. There are few journeys so picturesque and so agreeable. Starting from Toulon you reach Ajaccio in twenty hours, or Bastia in twenty-four. Once there, a horse is readily hired for five francs a day, or purchased for fifty, and this horse, in spite of the sraallness of J Whose? ' English possessive needed. IDIOM AXD TRANSLATION-EifGLISH 215 the price, will, like the famous mare of the Gascon, which jumped from the Pont Neuf into the Seine, be more serviceable than a Fi-ench racer. Over bridges, on which Auriol would have needed a balance- pole, and through by-ways to which Balmah would have clung with hooks, it passes in safety. — Dumas: The Corsican Brothers. Here the translator has followed the paragraphing of the French original. But English usage does not sanc- tion so free a use of the short paragraph. From the point of view of good English, the importance of avoiding slavish adherence to the original in translation can hardly be overestimated. No one can consistently translate good Latin or French or German into bad Eng- lish without losing almost all of his imperfect command of his native tongue. Class translations, like all others, should be, first and foremost, English. Then, and only then, is there a legitimate chance to bring the translation into exact conformity with the sense of the original. Some noted teachers of Latin go so far as to make their pupils translate Latin slang into modern English slang. But perhaps this is going too far. The teacher of Eng- lish is anxious only that the student shall not acquire a foreign language at the expense of his English. The student should be constantly on the watch lest there creep into translations ostensibly Engli.sh, foreign fashions of punctuation, diction, and grammar. For when an Eng- lishman or an American has lost the ability to talk and write in the English fashion, he may as well buy no more paper and ink. His work will be unidiomatic and there- fore harsh and obscure. Exercise XIII A, Define idiom. Why is an accurate classification of faults in idiom impossible? Under what three heads may many violations of idiom be classed? Give examples. 216 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC B. Does idiom govern only words and phrases? Is the duty of a transhxtor done when he has found synonyms for the foreign words? When lie has translated the words approximately, and made sentences of English form? AVhy is scru2)ulons translation important? ('. "Whicli of these translations is the better? Give specific reasons for your decision. You ask us, Gratius, why Ave are pleased by the great talent of this nian. Because it furnishes us with that which refreshes tlie mind after the quarreling of the forum and rests our ears after wearisome dissension. Or do you think because we dail}^ speak about such a variety of affairs, it is sufficient for us unless Ave train our minds by study, or do you think our minds can bear such a strain unless we relax them by the pleasures received from these studies".' for my part I confess to have given myself over to these studies: let others be ashamed who so bury them- selves in books that they bring out of them nothing for common advantage or do not bring their knowledge to the light and view of others; moreoA'er, Avhy should I be ashamed, jurors, I who for so many years haAe lived in such a Avay tliat never either per- sonal advantage or loA-e of ease has drawn me from duty, or pleasures called me or iiually slee^) kept me back'?— Cicero : Arch i as. 2. You ask me, Gratia-^, avIiv I am s(^ pleased with this man. It is because he supplies us Avith something Avhich will refresh our minds after the noise of the forum, and rest our ears Avhen they are tired by altercations. How do j'ou think we can supplj' our- selves with material for s])eaking daily on such a A'ariety of sub- jects unless we train om- minds by study? How can we make our minds able to bear such a strain unless AA^e relax them by the ])leasure of reading? I admit that I haA^e giA-en mj^self to these pursuits. Let those be ashamed who haA-e so buried themsehes in their books that they gain no benefit from them, or bring none into A-iew or light. But Avliy, jurors, should I be ashamed, I, wlio haA-e lived so many years without eA-er letting selfish con- venience or desire for peace draAv me aAvay, or pleasure call me, or even sleep keep me back?— Cicero : Archias. />. Point out certain diflferences between English an, I French sentences; between English and Latin sentences; IDIOM AND TRANSLATION-ENGLISH 217 between English and German sentences; between French and Enghsh paragraphing. E. Frame sentences embodying the Enghsh idioms given below. Add other idioms to the list : 1. The so-called "double possessive"; e. g., "this picture of John's." 2. "Either" at the end of a negative sentence; e. g., "I did not go, either." 3. Many a. 4. To get wind of. 5. On hand. 6. To call to account. 7. To take advantage of. 8. To turn the tables. 9. To take amiss. 10. To pay attention. 11. To aA-ail oneself of. 12. To be badly off, or well off. 13. To have a hand in (anything). 14. To have a mind to (i. e., to intend). 15. To be bent upon (i. e., to be determined). 16. To catch cold. 17. To pay court. 18. To be head over ears in debt, in love, etc. 19. To be above doing (anything). 20. To turn a deaf ear. 21. To take a fancy to (anything). 22. To be on tenter-hooks. 23. To stick in one's crop. 24. Cheek by jowl. F. Comment on the idiomatic quality of the following sentences •} 1. After leaving East Greenwich the first town on the route is Wickford. 2. After brushing off my clothes there were not more than ten minutes left. 1 When the student is asked, as here, to comment on a number of sen- tences, he should not assume that every example is MTong. Discuss the sentences; then decide which are right and which are wrong. 218 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 3. AVhile Avriting mj" daily theme there came a knock at the door. 4. He kept up this mad flight for half an hour; then, he becoming tired, we landed him. 5. Taking up our propositions, then, in logical order, the first one that presents itself [for our consideration is that existing conditions demand reform. 6. Entering the Union army at an early age, his excellent qualities won for him rapid promotion. 7. Tlie better hotels throughout the city were, as a rule, fairly well patronized, persons passing through the doors in a steady stream. 8. By not specifying exactly what non-support consists in, the term is used to cover other and less creditable causes. 9. The gas having been turned down, lie stumbled about in the darkness. 10. He, Mai-cus Messala and Marcus Piso being consuls, induced by desire of the kingdom, made a conspiracy among the nobles. 11. The weather having been warm several days, the streets were deep in slush. G. Give examples of tlie improper use of the accusa- tive of specificatiou. Is the following sentence a case in point? Chalmers's treatise is, as to eloquence, surpassingly beau- tiful. — Mrs. Browning: Letters. H. Correct the following nnidiomatic sentences: 1. We shall now contemplate chiefly on them. 2. A great improvement will be made in the terminals of tlie new bridge in comparison to the old one. 3. The stranger let know liis dislike for such medicines. 4. These bones to tlie fish are for the same pm-pose. 5. Then his next step is of finding some way to avoid the rules. 6. The question resolves itself to several points. 7. It is more than probable that the illegal liquor traffic would be isolated to certain localities. 8. We can very readily see how that the retailer was forced to sell on Sunday. 9 Our father is a senator: he hag for himself more than a thousand serfs, — Toi^stoi: Cossacks, IDIOM AXD TRANSLATION-ENGLISH 219 10. The balloon was connected to the ground by a rope. 11. Scarce are flying fish. 13. Sailors hurry from place to place in the endeavor of help- ing some sick and suffering passenger. 13. I don't know if I can mend it. 14. This refers to the interference of our chapel service. I. Eewrite the following iinidiomatic passages : 1. CONCERNING A YOUTH WHO WAS UNABLE TO LIE A certain father of a family to whom there was a sufficiently large farm, moreover a son in whom he especially rejoiced, gave this one for a gift on his birthday a little axe. He exhorted him greatly to use the weaj^on with the highest care, lest it might be for a detriment to himself. The youth promised himself to be about to obey. When it was necessary for that one, on account of business, to seek a certain walled town situated not far, this one, the axe having been hastily seized, departs into the garden, about to cut down each most flourishing cherry tree. That one, his home having been resought, inflamed with wrath, the servants being called together, asked who might have been the author of this so great slaugliter. All were denying, wlien this one, running up to that one, "Truly, by Hercules,"' said he, "O my father, I am unable to lie; I, myself, cut down the tree with that little axe wliich thou gavest to me for a pres- ent.'" — (A burle.sque translation.) 2. Therefore, for these reasons he was given oA'er from the state by Cneius Pompey. The accuser does not deny this; but blames it. Thus tliey wish the fortunes of a perfectly innocent man, and the deed of a most excellent general to be condemned. Therefore the life of Cornelius, the deed of Pompey is called to trial. You grant that this man was born of a very honorable family in that state in which he was born, and from his youtli up laying aside everything else, he spent his time in our wars, and with our commanders, and was absent from no task, no siege, and no battle. All these things are not only full of praise but also the lieculiar traits of Cornelius, nor is there any blame in these things. Whence therefore is the charge? Because Pompey gave hina over from the state. A charge against this man? Surely, least of all, unless honor is to be considei'ed a dis- grace. Against whom therefore? In actual fact against no one, ^ut in the argument of the accuser against him alone who did 220 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC the giving. If he, led on by influence, had gained over his reward a less worthy man, nay, even if a good man, but not so deserving ; if, finally he said that something had been done not contrary to what was allowed, but contrary to what was fitting, nevertheless all blame of this kind, ought to be rejected by you, O judges. Now indeed, wliat is being said? What does the accuser say? That Pompey has done what was not allowed him? This is more weighty than if he said that that had been done by liim wliich was not fitting. For there are some things wliicli are not fitting, even if tliey are allowed. But whatever is not allowed, certainly is not fitting. — Cicero : Balhus. 3. Four years passed. Deruchette approached her twenty -first year and was never married. Someone has written somewhere : A fixed idea, it is a gimlet. Each year it causes itself to penetrate by one turn. If someone wishes to draw it out for us the first year, he must tear our liair; the second year he must tear our skin; the third year he must break our bones; the fourth year he must rip out the brain. Gilliatt was in that fourth year. He had not yet said a word to Deruchette. He dreamed of that charming girl. That was all. It had happened once, finding himself by chance at Saint Sampson, he had seen Deruchette talking with Letliierry before the door which opened upon the embankment of the quay. Gilliatt had dared to apjjroach very near. He believed it to be sure that at the moment he had passed she had snailed. There was nothing of the impossible in that. Deruchette heard always from time to time the bag-pijie. That bag pipe, Mr. Lethierry he also lieard it. He had ended by remarking that mvisic under the windows of Deruchette. The music tender, the circumstances aggravating. A gallant noc- tiu-ne was not to his taste. — Victor Hugo : The Toilers of the Sea. 4. He granted to the Haedui asking that tliey miglit place the Boii in their borders; to whom he gave lands, and wlioni they received afterwards into equal condition of right and of liberty as they themselves v/ere J. Rewrite the following translation, removing the ambiguous pronouns : But wlien he lieard what had happened and what they had deofeed at Kome and Carthage and when lie found that he IDIOM AND TRANSLATIOK-ENOLISH 221 was leader and cause of the war, he divided and sold what tliere was left of the plunder, thinking he ought to delay no langer, and called together his Spanish soldiers and addressed them. — LiVY: xxi, 21. K. Point out the faults of idiom in the following pas- sage. Why did Kipling make it unidiomatic? [She knew when it was coming; for Kami would gather his black alpaca coat into a bunch behind him, and, with faded blue eyes that saw neitlier pupils nor canvas, look back into the past to recall the history of one Binat.] "Yovi have all done not so badly," he would .say. "But you shall remember that it is not enough to have the method, and the art, and the power, nor even that wliicli is tovicli, but you shall have also the convic- tion tliat nails tlie work to the wall. Of the so many I have taught"' — here the students would begin to unfix drawing-pins or get their tubes together — '"the very so many that I have taught, the best was Binat. All that conies of the study and the work and tlie knowledge was to him even when he came. After he left me he should have done all that could be done with the colour, the form, and the knowledge. Only, he liad not the conviction. So to-day I hear no more of Binat — the best of my pupils — and that is long ago. So to-day, too, you will be glad to hear no more of me. Continnez, mesdemoiselles, and above all, with conviction." — KiPLiNG; The Light That Failed, PART III DICTION" CHAPTER XIV NUMBER OF WORDS 99. The Value of Brevity. — From the somewhat dead- ening discussion of absolute right and wrong in style, we now pass to questions of better or worse — that is, from the subject of correctness to that of effectiveness. Per- haps the first and simplest rule that a writer who would be effective must learn is, that to be forcible, he must be as brief as is consistent with saying all he has to say. To use two pages where one page would convey the idea, is to be ineffective. The essay or story that interests us is the one that goes straight to the point. Obvious as this rule is, wordiness is so common that De Quincey calculated that cutting one superfluous word out of each sentence would increase the time of the reading public by one- twelfth. If, in addition to dropping useless words, useless details also were omitted, one can only guess how great the saving would be. 100. Superfluous Words. — The use of superfluous words, as distinct from superfluous details or ideas, may take any one of three forms — redundancy, or the use of a needless word here and there ; tautology, or a direct repetition of the thought ; and verbosity, or a superfluity of words so pervading that condensation means complete rewriting. Examples of all three classes are given below : 223 C0.MP0S1T10X AND RHETORIC Redundancy 1. It is a scientifie fact that when there is a covering of snow on the ground, it keeps the ground from freezing to as great a dei)th as it otherwise would. 2. The sultan resembled, in the expression on his face, a criminal when he is led to the electric chair. 3. However, notwithstand- ing this fact, it seems to me tliat the political phase of this (piestion should be entirely eliminated. 4. I watched the procession till it disappeared from my view. 5. There are several of these pi'oblems to which we must IJay our attention at once. 6. The police department was totally inefficient effec- tively to suppress the crime that existed on all sides. 1. A covering of snow keeps the ground from freezing as deep as it otherwise would freeze. 2. The sultan's expression resembled that of a criminal being led to the electric cliair. 3. Notwithstandingthis fact, it seems to me that the polit- ical phaseof theque.stion should be eliminated. 4. I watched the proces.sion till it disappeared. o. Several of these problems demand immediate attention. (3. The police were totally unable to suppress the crime that existed on all sides. Note especially the redundancy that comes from the use of a needless "it is," "there is,' the beginning of a sentence. Tautology or "tliere are" at 1. This paragraph is poorly and ineffectively arranged, and by this arrangement loses force. 2. Getting out of the car, for this is the end of the line and the final stopping place, and looking around, j'ou find yourself in quite a settlement of large and small houses both near at hand and far away. 1. The poor arrangement of this paragraph weakens it. 2. Getting out of the car — for this is the end of the line — you find yourself in a fair- sized grou]) of houses, large and small. NUMBER OF WORDS 225 :i. "Forsooth, sir, " quoth he, "I am an old man, and I re- member when there were no Goodwin's Sands. But when we built Tenterton steeple, the Sands soon came. So I trace the decay of Sandwich haven to the building of that steeple. ' ' 3. "Forsooth, sir," quoth he, "I am an old man; I think that Tenterton steeple is the cause of Goodwin's .sands. For I am an old man, .sir,"' quoth he, "I may remember the building of Tenterton steeple, and I may remember when there was no steeple at all there. And before that Tenterton steeple was in build- ing, there was no manner of talking of any flats or sands that stopped up the haven; and therefore I think that Tenterton steeple is the cause of the decay and destroying of Sandwich haven. " — B i s ii o p Latimer, quoted in Ray's Handbook of Proverbs. Tautology so gross as that in the last extract is usually accompanied by immaturity or illiteracy. A tautologous passage is of necessity also either redundant or verbose. Verbosifij 1. Entirely lacking in paint, the schoolhouse does not of- fend our eyes with the gaudi- ness so often noticeable in city schools, while the ragged shin- gles which adorn the sides of the box-like structure seem to indicate that a little more caro would not Vje misplaced. The interior of the schoolhouse does not indicate a very high standard of local affluence, or at least it does not show that the care and energy of the school trustees have been very lavishly devoted to the inter- ests of the teaching equipment. 1. Outside, the school is a Vjare box of a building, uu- painted and raggedly shingled — uncared-for, you say at once. Inside, too, it is bare and neg- lected. 226 COMPOSITION" AND EHETORIC 2. Thus far the attempts of the authorities to locate the Borgia who officiates as the party of the first part at this destruction of the village canines have been fruitless. — Boston Herald. 3. On my uncle's farm iu Maine is a very high pinnacle, from the top of which one can get a fine view of the neigh- boring country. One day last summer I visited this pinnacle and took a general survey of the country. In front of me was a large, beautiful sheet of water known as Thompson Pond. It is surrounded by a forest of large pine trees. Along the shores of the pond are several cottages and club- houses. A gentle ripple soon began to come over the pond, and in the brilliant glare of the sun the waters reflected nu- merous beautiful colors which contrasted favorably with the verdant, green foliage of the woods. 2. Thus far the police have failed to catch the man who is poisoning the dogs. 3. From the top of the hill I looked over the wliole country- side. The shores of Thomp- son's Pond were dotted with cottages and club-houses — a margin of civilization on the big pine-forest behind. For a moment, the trees were re- flected in the water, straight and long: then a ripple came and the clear-cut picture was broken up into shaking, iri- descent fragments. Perhaps the excuses oftenest advanced for wordiness are that the writer was trying to be perfectly clear, or, strange to say, very forcible. If "dumbfounded" and "excellent" seem to the nnpracticed writer too weak to express his feeling, he prefixes an adverb and writes ' ' utterly dumbfounded , " or " superlatively excellent. ' ' If "greatness" does not seem to him to give the precise shade of meaning desired, ho shirks the task of hunting for the right word and expands it into "greatness and splendor and magnificence." If "essential" seems, NUMBER OF WORDS 227 from overuse, not strong enough, he overlooks the mean- ing of the word and says, "The step is very essential." Similarly we get "perfectly horrid," "popular with the people," etc. But whatever the cause of wordiness, the effect is always the same — dullness. 101. Superfluous Details. — The use of superfluous ideas or details is called prolixity. Prolixity may. result from dwelling unduly on the minor parts of a really important subject, or from treating at length an unimportant sub- ject. It usually indicates thinness of material (i. e., pov- erty of thonght or information) or lack of concentration, or both. A prolix passage is necessarily verbose. Exam- ples follow : 1. The people at home laugh at me occasionally for the lunches that I bring out to school, and, although I must admit that they are sometimes a little peculiar, I think that on the whole they are very sensible — at any rate they are what I like. The best lunch that I have brought with me yet is a piece of brown bread, a cup of fried jjotato, and a little glass box of butter. Then, of course, I have a knife and fork out here, so as to manage such a lunch properly. Another lunch that I think is very good, a lunch that I bring more than I do any other, is sand- wiches made out of cinnamon- bread and potato. The potato is sometimes fried, sometimes stewed, and sometimes baked ; but the fried, I think, makes the best sandwiches. Once in a while, of course, I have to 1. [The prolixity in this ex- tract is so obvious that no con- densation is attempted.] 238 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC use in place of cinnamon- bread, biscuits or muffins or corn-bread. I have tried put- ting a little cinnamon and sugar on the biscuits before putting the potato on, but I don't get in this way quite the same effect that I do from the cinnamon - bread, and I have about come to the conclusion that butter and potato are all that biscuits need. Another combination that I have tried is a little maple syrup on the potato-muffin sandwiches. I have decided, however, about the muffins as I did about the biscuits, that all they need is butter and potato. Another thing that I have tried is bringing baked potatoes whole, instead of putting them inside of sandwiches. Then I have some salt out here, and — well, cold baked potato sometimes tastes pretty good. 2. One of the most delight- ful social experiences in my high-school life was that of a straw-ride. There had been a fall of snow a few days pre- vious, and the sleighing was of the best. Consequently the idea of a ride was no sooner proposed than eagerly ac- cepted. The party met at one of the young ladies' homes early in the evening to wait for the team. While waiting for the team the time was spent in playing games and an enjoyable time 2. The snow was deep and firm, the weather cold but clear, and the waiting crowd of young people eager to be off. At last it came, the big four- horse sled, lined with straw and robes, and in we piled. A crack of the whip and we were off, the jingle of tlie bells min- gling with the chatter of talk and the peals of laughter. You never saw a merrier party. NUMBER OF WORDS 229 3. The drinking water used in Cincinnati comes from the muddy Ohio River, and is much inferior to the pure, clear water which the people in Buffalo are able to get from Lake Erie. was had.' The team soon came, a low four-horse sled, the floor of which was covered with straw and buffalo robes. At first it seemed impossible for all of us to get into it. Yet we did and a merrier party you never saw. Thus we started, the merry laughter mingling with the jingle of the bells. 3. At Cincinnati, Ohio, last summer, I was very thirsty, but had to drink very bad water. The city's water sup- ply is pumped from the muddy Ohio River. The water is supposed to be purified at the pumping station, but most of the time while I was in the city, the filter plant was out of order, so that I had to drink either ice-water or the un- healthy, muddy water from the Ohio River. When I reached Buffalo, N. Y., I found very different drinking water. The water is pumped from Lake Erie, of which the water is very clear and transparent, com- pared with the muddy water of Cincinnati. The Buffalo water goes through purifiers, so that that used for drinking purposes is very clear and pure. Exercise XIV A. Define the different kinds of wordiness. Find examples of wordiness in the daily papers. Condense the wordy passages you select. • See section 131, example 4, footuote. 230 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC B. Reduce the wordiness of the following extracts: 1. These and many other questions have been proposed and argued upon, but no satisfactory answer has occurred to satisfy the minds of all. 2. Although there is a surplus in the treasuiy, yet how could it be used to better advantage than in the i)osition where it now lies? 3. It seemed to Olenin, especially this evening, that here in this village would be all his happiness, his house, his family, and that never would he live so happily as here. — Tolstoi : Cossacks. 4. But if the petitioner shall liave had his actual domicile in residence in this state, he may petition. 5. Never were so many boats assembled as at the recent fete last July. 6. Our last view of Niagara was seen from a point on one of the islands. 7. The wandering mountebanks easily gather a crowd about by exhibiting a few tricks or by showing some monstrosity of nature. 8. He was completely surrounded on all sides by a howling mob. 9. They were walnuts and butternuts, as hickory nuts do not grow in the lowland or along the water ; but these nuts do. 10. Now is my opportunity to write to you of Gertrude's his tory, which is one of so much interest and importance to me, and, I may safely add, of interest to all at W Seminary, where, among teachers as well as among pupils, she has won so many hearts, now devoted to her. 11. The ship had struck upon a rock, and, water having rushed in, she was sinking. Now the hearts were not free and glad, but they were full of fear and horror. 12. All persons with whom he came in contact he knew as well on the first day of their acquaintance as he ever would know them. So it seemed, at least, for he certainly became acquainted with people very rapidly. His acquaintances, therefore, were very numerous. He knew nearly everyone in the school in a short time, and knew them well, which is not always the case with such a person. 13. They have perfect confidence in their ability to succeed in getting enough votes so that the Morse bill will go through. NUMBER OF WORDS 231 14. Such is tlie character of the woman who succeeded in fol- lowing out exactly the programme of life which she mapped out for herself in her girlhood, and one which she carried out to the letter. 15. "Every boy," says the President, "should lead a normal life while in college." This is comparatively easy for those who do not have to earn their vray through college or who are not ambitious for honors in college. But it is not easy for those col- lege students who have to earn a large part of their way through college or who are ambitious to win distinction while in college. When it is necessary for a student to earn a large part of his way through college, he should restrict the range of his ambi- tions, and be satisfied with accomplishing his prescribed work satisfactorily. If a student "goes in" for football, he ought to let someone else win the honors in debating. A fellow^ should try to do the thing which he can do best, and thereby bring honor to himself and his college. A fellow should develop morally, mentally, and physically while in college, so that he can be of the greatest possible service to the world when he is graduated from college. And to do this it is necessary that he should lead a normal life while in college. 16. The deep, bass croak of a, frog broke the silence of the night. All was silexit, except that now and then there came tliis deep note of this frog, and then, afterwards, the finer note of a smaller frog higher up the river. 17. To-day we were surprised to find some of our own fellow- citizens in town again, who had been in that gold-producing countiy, the Klondike. We recall the parting scenes when they were leaving us for those cold and destitute climes. How they were missed at home! How their familiar faces were missed on our streets! How we have looked forward to and longed for their return ! For us it has been a time of much worry and anxiety, but for them a time of excitement and profit. 18. One Sunday, I was finding my way home from church, on the Illinois Central train, with two other young ladies. The train stopped at Forty-seventh street, which was our place of destination, and we started to get off. As it happened, the train was very, very crowded. Many other people were attempting also to get off at Forty-seventh street, and therefore we had to 1 Is this word projierly used ? See section 58. 2:32 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC ■wait our time, until we could step off the train. We were in the car next the engine, and went to the front end of the car to get off. We three girls were the end of the stream of people getting off. One of the girls stepjjed off, and then, just as I was going to step off, the train started up. Seeing that it was just starting, I attempted to walk off on the station platform. But, as I stepped ujion it, I found myself confronted with an iron railing, which is a railing up one side of the steps and a few feet along the platform, just where the engine stops. As the engine moved along a little, and as I was leaving the platform of tlie car next to the engine, I therefore encountered this i-aiUng. It was a most critical moment ; I might have been thrown back against the car, then dashed down under the train and not much left of me to tell this incident. But a man who was coming along the platform from one of the other cars, saw my danger, and jumping forward, caught me and pulled me out from between the car and the railing, upon the station platform. He frightened me very much by speaking very hai'shly and sharply at what, I suppose, was my very injudicious act. After he did this, he hurried away and was lost among the crowd. In my fright, I had hardlj^ time to see him — much less to thank him for his kindness. After the first moment of fright was over and the crowd had disappeared from the platform, my first friend (the young lady wlio had gotten off) and I looked at each other, and feeling our safety, a sort of reaction from our first fright [set in, and we looked at the ridiculous side of the matter. Here we were on the platform, looking after the train, which was carrying our other friend on to the next station. I don't suppose it was such a very ridiculous situation ; but then it is said that very high, deep emotions in one line are sometimes apt to turn to some deep emotions of a directly opposite sort. This is one reason I shall give for our laughing after it was all over. Then, I suppose I sliall have to give another — that we were foolish young girls and susceiitible to such frivolity. Tlie next day, on picking up the newspaper, we found this little incident related in a very dramatic style, but with no names given. There was a decidedly fabulous description of the young girls and of the young, handsome hero who rescued them, who, the three girls thought, was not a day less than fifty, althougli they couldn't be certain, hardly having seen him. Then, there was a sharp comment on the young girls for not NUMBER OF WORDS 233 thanking their hero, and for the way they laughed afterwards. I try to feel that there was some excuse for mo, on account of not having time, my fright, and the ma,nner in which the man spoke to me ; yet I have always felt this reproof keenly, which some unknown newspaper reporter wrote. And they say that when we are criticised, we feel it most when there is some truth in it. CHAPTEK XV DISCRIMINATION IN THE CHOICE OF WORDS 102. Good Diction Partly a Matter of Taste. — No one can read mucli without becoming aware that some writers put things in a way that offends, while others say the same things in a way that charms. This difference in tlie man- ner of statement Ave call loosely a man's style. Style in its widest sense covers many things — the wording, the sentence structure, the method of arrangement, even the quality of thought. But no inconsiderable part of the difference that makes one man's style attractive and another's unattractive, lies in the choice of words. It is worth while, then, to see if we can not discover wherein skill in the choice of words lies. Definite rules, such aa we found in Part II, we can not find here, for we are now face to face with problems, not of fact, but of taste. Por the moment we are concerned, not with proving a word right or wrong, but with proving it appropriate or inappropriate. And since we know that the style which AvoUid bo proper in the treatment of an adventure in a mining camp Avould not be proper in a criticism of Lincoln's Gcttyshiirg Address, and that Ave alloAv in bur- lesque or serio-comic Ava-iting Avhat Ave object to in serious Avork, Ave must be prepared to acknowledge our "rules" to be at best but flexible principles for the application of Avhich Ave must depend on onr own common sense and literary taste. 103. "Fine Writing" a Fault.— The first rule for the choice of words is that, other things being equal, Ave should choose the shorter, simpler Avord. One reason for 234 DISCRIMINATION^ IX THE CHOICE OF WORDS 235 this is that, since ordinary prose aims most of all to tell facts, anything in ordinary prose that calls attention from the thought to the style is a flaw. Coleridge says: The words in prose ought to express the intended meaning, and no more ; if they attract attention to themselves, it is, in general, a fault. In the very best styles, as Southey's, you read page after page, understanding the author perfectly, without once taking notice of the medium of communication: — it is as if lie had been speaking to you all the while.— Coleridgk: Table Talk. A second reason is that conscious and obvious verbal finery — "tall-talking" Thackeray called it, and the rhetorics call it "fine writing" — makes the writer ridicu- lous. People of good literary taste dislike posing and display, and admire genuineness and simplicity: indeed, there is no surer way for a novelist to make a character ridiculous than to make him talk pompously. Mr. Micaw- ber is a caricature largely because he always translates simple statements, like "This reminds me of the time when I was unmarried," into such large-sounding diction as, "This is a way of life which reminds me of the period when I was myself in a state of celibacy, and Mrs. Micaw- ber had not yet been solicited to pledge her faith at the Hymeneal altar." "Fine writing" takes a number of forms, a few of which are treated below. But at bottom the cause of nearly all "fine writing" is the same — a desire to make the mere w^ording of more importance than the thought. (a) Euphemism. — One very common form of "fine ■writing" is euphemism — the employment of circum- locutory or vaguo expressions to hide a disagreeable or a vulgar fact. Useful as this device is, it often produces a phrase more offensive than the baldest statement would be. Death, for instance, is cloaked in a number of ways, some unobjectionable, but some very objectionable. Hamlet's "that bourn from which no traveller returns" 236 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC was, before it became hackneyed, a fine, poetic phrase; to say that a man has "expired" or "passed away," is no worse than weak. But to speak of a dead man as one who has "fallen asleep," or "crossed the river," or "gone before us," is to show weakness and sentimentality in the use of words. "Casket" for "coffin" seems to soniES peculiarly objectionable. Sentimentality, however, is not so bad as false or affected modesty. Facts which are really vulgar may properly be cloaked under a euphemism. But what shall we think of the man who says he can not go to the opera "because of financial considerations," who "performs ablutions" instead of washing, who "retires" instead of going to bed, and who shuns the words "legs" and "sweat" as he would a pestilence? His horror of naming the ordinary facts of life is itself more vulgar than the facts could possibly be.^ (b) Newspaper Diction. — In the use of an elaborateness of phrase which serves no end but that of gaudiness, the newspapers are particularly rich. Mr. Barrio puts the matter concisely: "I am not sure that I know what the journalistic instinct precisely is," Rob said, "and still less whether I possess it." "Ah, just let me put you through your paces," replied Simms. "Suppose yourself up for an exam, in journalism, and that I am your examiner. Question One: 'The house was soon on fire; much sympathy is expressed witli the sufferers.' Can you translate that into newspaper English?" "Let me see," answered Rob, entering into the spirit of the examination. "How would this do: 'In a moment the edifice was enveloped in shooting tongiies of flame: the appalling catastrophe has plunged the whole street into the glooni of night"? "Good. Question Two: A man hangs himself; what is the technical heailing for this'?" "Either 'Shocking Occurrence' or 'Rash Act.' " > For an interesting cllscussion of euphemism, see Words and Their Ways in English Speech, Chapter XXI. DISCRIMINATIO^T IN THE CHOICE OF WORDS 237 "Question Three: 'Pabulum,^ 'Cela va sans dire,' 'Par excel- lence,' 'Neplus ultra.' What are these? Are there any more of them?" "They are scholarship," replied Rob, "and there are two more, namely, Hour de force' and 'terra firma.' " — When a Man's Single. In American newspapers "fine writing" is often used with a conscious and effective humor. But only too often newspaper style descends to the level of the reporter who, wishing to compare a certain dance to a "cake-walk," said that it "suggested a jj recessional contest for an esteemed confection. " (c) Oratorical Diction. — "Orators," yonng and old, are too often devoted to what they call "a flow of language." Being concerned primarily with the "efPect" they make on an audience, they often value the sound more than the sense. As Byron says: I don't pretend that I quite understand My own naeaning when I would be very fine. "Mr. Dooley" caustically remarks that a congressman's education is not complete until "he says 'sky' whin he means 'sky,' an' not 'the jooled canopy iv hiven,' an' . . . 'Philippeens,' an' not 'th' gloryous isles iv th' Passyfic' " ^ But "jeweled canopy of heaven" is moder- ate compared to the work of some school and college "orators" ; e. g. : 1. What mean these mutterings and thunderings of war? Are the civilized nations of the earth to extract the metalliferous deposits of the globe for the sake of manufacturing instruments for the destruction of mankind? 2. The modern student of history grants mental fealty to the grand principle of evolution. Geology makes evident that in the processes leading to this present unparalleled state of life, one organic creation after another has held sway. The Trilo- bite, the giant Orthoceratite, the monster Amphibians of the ' Mr. Dooley' s Philosophy. 338 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC Mesozoic age, ruled in their successive eras, and after eons of dominion ceded their position to their undoubted lord and mas- ter — man. (d) Sentimental Phrasing. — Often "fine writing" con- sists, not in the use of very big words, but in primness and sentimentality of expression; e. g. : The sun was throwing his declining beams from the western sky, and the evening breeze was sweetly breathing around with balmy breath, when my eyes fell on a beautiful patch of blooming flowers, whose grandeur and fragrance drew me to tliem. My heart seemed jnore alive than usual to the beauty of God's crea- tion. I examined the variegated flowers with admiring wonder. I saw the lovely rose, the gaudy tulip, the stately hollyhock, the magnificent dahlia, and the gorgeous anemone. Then I began to reflect. Were the flowers of the world to be taken away, they would leave a blank in creation. Imagination cannot sug- gest a substitute for them. The stateliest room in the statehest mansion must have the flowers in the little wicker basket on the stand. The blushing maiden, elegantly dressed, steals ever and anon a glance at the moss-rosebud blooming at her breast. The poor, aged widow looks with satisfaction upon the bunch of gilliflowers in the window of her cottage. The aged laborer, too, who held the plow in his boyhood, and who now has seen his eightieth yeai', must have a sprig of "Sweet William" " in his buttonhole. The newly made grave is carpeted over with flowers that manifest tlie respect and affection of the living for the dead. How grateful should we be for the gift of flowers! 104. Triteness Often a Form of "Fine Writing."—- Inflated diction frequently takes the form of worn-out, conventional phrases, phrases used simply because they have been long employed in literary work. This fault is called triteness. In trite diction, we find numbers of words which, like worn-out coins, have lost sharpness of outline. "With the trite writer, "elements" are always being "eliminated"; all influences are "factors"; all houses are "residences"; all courses of action or thought go on this or that "line"; all waltzes are "slow and dreamy"; all moonlight scenes are "f airy -like" ; all DISCRIMINATION" IN THE CHOICE OF WORDS 239 mountains are "grand"; all sunsets are "gorgeous"; all teachers are "broad thinkers and noted educators"; all boys and girls are "gay youths and happy maidens' ' ; every hero has "striking features"; and all rivers "go dancing along with many a ripple." Trite writers do not happen to see — they "have the good fortune toAvitness"; they do not share — they "partake"; they see, not waves, but "billows"; they do not look on a bit of country, but they "drink in a landscape." Such writing is obvioiisly silly, yet many passages quite as bad can be found. More- over, even though we do not often find in one place so many conventional phrases, ordinary writing is full of such passages as the following, in which the worn-out diction takes away all force : The night was a perfect one. All nature seemed to have united in making that party a success. The stars twinkled so fast that they appeared to be trying to outdo each other in shin- ing their brightest. The weather was warm and balmy. Tlie lake was so calm and clear and bright that it looked like an immense mirror. On either side, and at the farther end of the lake, all was dark, save where here and there a light from some cottage window penetrated through the thickness of the wood, or the lantern on the prow of some boat shone merrily out as the boat glided along over the rippling waves. There was music to the ear in the graceful lapping of the waves on the distant shore. Contrast with the conventionality and insincerity of the preceding extract, the freshness and naturalness of the following one : There is one day when all things are tired, and the very smells, as they drift on the heavy air, are old and used. One cannot explain this, but it feels so. Then there is another day — to the eye nothing whatever has changed — when all the smells are new and delightful, and the whiskers of the Jungle People quiver to their roots, and tlie winter hair comes away from their sides in long, draggled locks. Then, perhaps, a little rain falls, and the trees and the bushes and the bamboos and the mosses and the juicy -leaved plants wake with a noise of growing that 240 COMPOSITIOJS" AND RHETORIC you can almost hear, and under this noise runs, day and night, a deep hum. That is the noise of the spring— a vibrating boom which is neither bees, nor falling water, nor the wind in tree tops, but the purring of the warm, happy world. — Kipling: The Second Jungle Boole. 105. The Value of Simplicity. — The inflation charac- teristic of "fine WTiting" often comes from a helief that big ideas demand big words. In point of fact, the more important or touching the subject matter, the simpler should be the diction. Of Pilgrim^s Progress, Coleridge, an excellent critic of diction, writes as follows : The Pilgrim''s Progress is composed in the lowest style of English, without slang or false grammar. If you were to polish it, you would at once destroy the reality of the vision. For works of the imagination should be written in very plain lan- guage; the more purely imaginative they are the more neces- sary it is to be plain. — Coleridge: Table Talk. The following three extracts all deal with subjects of importance, which gave every chance for the use of "fine writing." All are extremely effective; yet all are written in tlie simplest diction : 1. He was still handsome, this great-hearted friend of ours, although disease had whitened his face and made necessary a supporting cane. When I came away, he took my hand in his and said, half jestingly, half earnestly, "Good-bye. God bless you!" I tried to smile, but couldn't. At Christmas I stood beside his grave. The funeral flowers had withered, but I saw, shining through them, the green leaves and the red berries of a holly wreath. 2. When I put my pen to the paper I did not know the first word that I should make use of in writing the terms. I only knew what was in my mind, and I wished to express it clearly, so that there could be no mistaking it. As I wrote on, the thought occurred to me that the officers had their own private horses and effects, which were important to them, but of no value to us ; also that it would be an unnecessary humiliation to call upon them to deliver their side arms. No conversation, not one word, passed between General Lee DISCRIMIXATIOX IX THE CHOICE OF WORDS 241 and myself, either about private property, side arms, or kindred subjects. He appeared to have no objections to the terms first proposed; or if he had a point to make against theiu, lie wished to wait until they were in writing to make it. When lie read over that part of the terms about side arms, horses, and private property of the officers, he remarked, ^itli some feeling, I thought, that this would have a happy effect upon his ami}'. Then, after a little further conversation, General Lee remarked to me again that their army was organized a little differently from the army of the United States (still maintaining by implica- tion that we were two countries) ; that in their army the cavalry men and artillerists owned their horses; and he asked if he was to understand tliat the men who so owned their horses were to be ijermitted to retain them. I told liim that as the terms were written they would not; that only the officers were permitted to take their private property. He then, after reading over the terms a second time, remarked that that was clear. I then said to him that I thought tliis would be about the last battle of the war — I sincerely hoped so; and I said further I took it tliat most of the men in the ranks were small farmers. The whole country had been so raided by tlie two armies that it was doubtful whether they would l)e al)le to put in a crop to carry themselves and their families tlu-ough tlie next winter without the aid of the horses they were then riding. The United States did not want them and I would, therefore, instruct tlie officers I left behind to receive the paroles of his troops, to let every man of the Confederate army who claimed to own a horse or mule take the animal to his home. Lee remarked again that this would have a hajipy effect.— U. S. Gr.\xt: Personal Memoirs. 3. I have placed you at the head of the Army of the Potomac. Of course I have done this upon what a[)pears to me to be suffi- cient reasons, and yet I think it best for you to know that there are some things in regard to which I am not quite satisfied with you. I believe you to be a brave and skillful soldier, which, of course, I like. I also believe you do not mix politics with your profession, in which you are right. You have confidence in yourself, which is a valuable, if not an indispensable, quality. You are ambitious, which, within rea,sonable bounds, does good rather than harm ; but I think that, during General Burnsides command of the army, you have taken counsel of your ambition, and thwarted him as much as you could, in which j'ou did a 242 COMPOSITION A^"D RHETORIC great wrong to the country and to a most meritorious and honor- able brother officer. I have heard, in such a way as to believe it, of your recently saying that both the army and the govern- ment needed a dictator. Of course, it was not for this, but in spite of it, that I have given you the command. Only those generals who gain successes can set up dictators. What I now ask of you is military success, and I will risk the dictatorship. The government will support you to the iitmost of its ability, vrhich is neither more nor less than it has done and will do for all commanders. I much fear that the spirit, which you have aided to infuse into the army, of criticising their commander and withholding confidence from him, will now turn upon you. I shall assist you so far as I can to put it down. Neither you nor Napoleon, if he were alive again, could get any good out of an army while sucli a spirit prevails in it. And now beware of rashness. Bevi^are of rashness, but with energy and sleepless vigilance go forward and give us victories. — Abraham Lincoln: Letter to General Hooker. 106. The Suggestive Power of Words. — Most of ns think we have a full understanding of a n'ord if we know its dictionary meaning. But the dictionary meaning is by no means the only significance a word has. Hardly a word in the language, apart from mere verbal links, but has a kind of secondary meaning, a fringe of suggestion which rhetoricians call its connotation. "Fist" is a case in point: Thus the word fist means simply 'the hand with the fingers doubled up against the palm. ' In the idiomatic comparison 'as big as your fist,' it is purely descriptive, and has no particular character, good or bad. The use of tlie fist in figliting, however, has given a peculiar connotation to the term. We may say, 'He hit his opponent with his clenched fist,' for here again fist is purely descriptive and occurs in an appropriate environment. Similarly, we may say 'The boy cried dismally, wiping his eyes with his dingy fist,' for here there is a certain grotesqueness in the scene which justifies the use of undignified language. But we can no longer say, as was formerly possible, 'The lady held a lily in her delicate fist.' In other words, the associations of fist are either pugnacious, vulgar, or jocose. — Greenough and Kittredoe: Words and Their Ways in English Speech. DISCRIMINATION IN THE CHOICE OF WORDS 243 "Pate" is another case in point. There is no reason why the word should not be used in serious writing except that it arouses suggestions of the ludicrous. "Lush," on the other hand, has such distinctly poetical associations that its use in the more matter-of-fact kinds of prose would startle us — the writer would seem affected. Indeed, the connotation of words is so real a thing that a group of words may have a significance not to be made out from any piecing together of the literal meanings of the words. If we analyze Hawthorne's reference to "the swarthy whiteness" of Judge Pyncheon's face, it involves an absurdity. Yet we know, as soon as we read the phrase, that it is a touch from a master-hand. The matter shows most plainly in poetry, which is, in the nature of things, more dependent on suggestion thai, is prose. Take two lines from Keats : The sedge has withered from the lake, And no birds sing. — La Belle Dame sans Merci. No one has understood the lines who has not read into them the idea that the scene is one of brown desolation. Or take one of Browning's shorter poems: MEMORABILIA 1 Ah, did you once see Shelley plain, And did he stop and speak to you, And did you speak to liim again? How strange it seems, and new ! But you were living before that, And also you are living after; And the memory I started at — My starting moves your laughter! 244 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC I crossed a moor, with a name of its own And a certain nse in the world, no doubt, Yet a hand's-breadth of it shines alone 'Mid the blank miles round about: For there I picked up on the heather And there I put inside my breast A moulted feather, an eagle-feather! Well, I forget the rest. —Browning. In plain prose, "If yon saw Shelley and did not remem- ber it as one of the great events of yonr life, yon are a blockhead.'" Clearly, if we would choose our words skillfully, we must be careful Avhat train of associations they arouse iu the reader's mind. Has the word been overused? Thou it will suggest staleness of thought. Is it pompous? Then the reader will suspect that the writer is pompons too. Does it convey a meaning inconsistent with that which the writer wishes to convey? Then the sentence is either ambiguous or ludicrous. Good style employs a diction accurate in meaning and both rich and accurate in suggestion. 107. Specific and General Words. — One way of giving our style suggestiveness is the use, wlienever possible, of a specific rather than a general word. The words w^hich name a class of objects or ideas are general ; the words which name the individuals of those classes are specific. The term "unpleasant," for example, is a general word, which may bo translated into any one of a number of more specific words — "ill-tempered," "ill-mannered," or "grotesquely ugly." The process might be carried even further, until we got just the kind of unpleasantness meant. Obviously, general words are a necessity when we wish to name classes of objects. If, instead of using the DISCRIMINATION IN THE CHOICE OF WORDS 245 word "mammal," we had to name the various animals of this order every time we wished to refer to the class, writing would be impossible. But, making all due allow- ance for the usefulness of general words, it is true that a writer whose habit of mind is such that he phrases all things as generalities will not be so clear or forcible as the one who uses a liberal i^roportion of specific terms. The matter will be clearer for examples : 1. It was not much of a creed. It only proved that men had no souls, and there was no God and no hereafter, and that you must worry along somehow for the good of hu- manity. — Kipling: The Con- version o^Aurelian McGoggin. 2. The man who likes what you like, belongs to the same class with you, I think. Inevi- tably so. You may put him to other work if j'ou choose ; but, by the condition you have brought him into, he will dis- like the other work as much as you would yourself. You get hold of a scavenger, or a coster- monger, who enjoyed the New- gate Calendar for literature, and "Pop goes the weasel" for music. You think you can make him like Dante and Bee- thoven? I wish you joy of your lessons ; but if you do, you have made a gentleman of him: — he won't like to go back to his costermongering. — Rus- KIN: The Croum of Wild Olive. 3. Taste is not only a part 3. Taste is not only a part and an index of morality— it is and an index of morality — the only morality. The first, it is the only morality. The 1. We do not find much com- fort in those systems of the- olog}^ which lack provision for the future existence of man. They leave us no principle of conduct except that of regard for our fellow-beings. 2. A similarity of tastes implies social equality. If you change the economic con- dition of a man, you inspire in him a disinclination for his former status. If you take a man whose tastes are low and cultivate in him a taste for higher things, you make him a gentleman, and he will not re- sume his former occuiDation. 24G COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC and last, and closest trial ques- tion to any living creature is, "What do you like?" Tell me what you like, and I will tell you what you are. Go ovit into the street and ask the first man or woman you meet, wliat their "taste" is, and if tliey answer candidly, you know them, body and soul. If they indicate a preference for low things, then their tastes and morality are low ; if they indi- cate a preference for noble and natural things, then t h e i r tastes and morality are high. first, and last, and closest trial question to any living creature is, "What do you hke?" Tell me what you like, and I'll tell you what you are. Go out into the street, and ask the first man or v/oman you meet, what their "taste"' is, and if they answer can- didly, you know them, body and soul. "You, my friend in the rags, with the unsteady gait, what do you like?" "A pipe and a quartern of gin."' I know you. "You, good wo- man with the quick ste\) and tidy bonnet, what do you * like?" "A swept hearth and a clean tea-table, and my hus- band opposite me, and a baby at my breast."' Good, I know you also. ' ' You, little girl with the golden hair and the soft eyes, what do you like?" "My canary, and a run among the wood hyacinths."' "You, little boy with the dirty hands and the low forehead, what do you like?" "A shy at the sparrows and a game at pitch farthing."' Good; we know them all now. What more need we ask? — Rnd. 108. Figures of Speech an Aid to Suggestion.— A wise use of figures of speech tends to make u style suggestive. A figure of speech, or trope, is the use of a word in some sense not exactly literal. When, for instance, a student wrote that "Schoolboys take in information very unwill- ingly, like kittens whose eyes must be opened prematurely with a pin," he used a figure of speech. So did the DISCRIMIXATIOIS' IX THE CHOICE OF WORDS 247 western stage-driver, who, explaining liow his horses fell over one another going downhill, said, "Tlie wheelers just jackknifed on the leaders." How important a part figures play in style will be clear from an examination of the following passage, in which the various figures of speech are italicized. It will be noted that many words not at first recognizable as tropes are in reality figures of speech. A good figure, like those in the following example, springs so naturally out of the thought and is so simple and consistent, that we hardly recognize it as a literary device: To visit tlie woods while they are languidly burning is a strange piece of experience. The fire passes througli the under- brush at a run. Every here and there a tree flares up instanta- neously from root to summit, scattering tufts of flame, and is quenched, it seems, as quickly. But this last is only in sem- blance. For after this first squib-like conflagration of the dry moss and twigs, there remains behind a deep-rooted and consum- ing fire in the very entrails of the tree. The resin of the pitch- pine is principally condensed at the base of the bole and in the spreading roots. Thus, after the light, showy, skirmishing flames, which are only as the match to the explosion, have already scampered down the wind into the distance, the true harm is but beginning for this giaut of the woods. You may approach the tree from one side, and see it, scorched indeed from top to bottom, but apparently a survivor of the peril. Make the circuit, and there, on the other side of the column, is a clear mass of living coal, spreading like an idcer; while underground, to their most extended fibre, the roots are being eaten out by fire, and the smoke is rising through the fissures to the surface. — Stevenson: Across the Plains. 109. The Faults of Figurative Diction. — Any conscious striving for figures of speech, however, is almost certain to be disastrous. Good figures will suggest themselves naturally — will be simple, appropriate, and self-con- sistent. If the writer sets himself the task of Avriting figuratively, he is in great danger of employing figures which are inappropriate, exaggerated, or "mixed" (i. e., 248 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC a fusion of two conflicting figures). In sucli cases he overshoots his mark and is in a worse pUglit than if he liad used no figure at all. The figures cited below illus- trate these faults: 1. Coy spring was about to make its debut. 2. The people of this country, without regard to party, are to be congratulated that the time is at hand for the dying embers of democracy to tuck their shrouds about them and hie them to tlieir tomb. 3. Tlie inaudible foot of time has left its imprint on the old man's forehead. 4. The pale hand of death stalked into our midst last week and fastened its cruel eyes on little Mary. .J. Thus English, like symbolic truth, though crushed to earth by the powerful influences of the intruding tongues, Danish and Norman, rose again in simple majesty, with the rags and tags cast upon it by foreign tongues clinging about its puny limbs, weak from disuse. And this language, with its story of oppression, endurance, and hnal victory, is our heritage to-day. 6. In tliis picturesque garb, in tliis coat of many colors, in these garments ^\•itll which not even Solomon in all his glory was arrayed, in the shreds and rags from every tongue flung upon her in the process, comes tliis, our language, and claims us l\ers. And as we have been under her motherly instruction ever since she was the nurse of our childhood, we joyfully claim her ours, and assert that she is the noblest language on earth. Per- liaps she is. Wlio knows? 7. Think of a poor, innocent, young woman's liaving poured forth her whole life, and, as it were, propped it against that of another, only to have the support suddenly torn away! 8. The General stuml^led over a bullet into eternity. 9. If Erasmus was the intellect for the Reformation, Luther was the throbbing lieart tliat beat off the fetters of fear and superstition in that dark age, the lion-hearted who dared in the face of death to reacli far down througli the black night, and, ligliting tlie torch of everlasting truth, to lift it in the valley below, wliich we may call the heart. Tlien these two mighty forces become the meadow-stream of glorious life, rippling over th.e peb1)les, sparkling in the sunshine, nairroring the heaven and painting the llowcr.-r, refreshing travelers, turning mill DISCKIMINATION IX THE CHOICE OF WORDS 249 wheels, and finally losing itself in the infinite ocean. Such is a useful life. 10. I have gathered welcomes from a thousand hearts in Ten nessee, and I have pressed them into a perfumed bombshell of smiles and kisses. I light the fuse and to.ss it from my lips; it explodes above this beautiful audience and scatters in the air a million sweet forget-me-nots, and they come floating down and fall into the hearts of all who love their homes and their country. 11. In criticising this book, I shall attempt to expose one fault, merely for the sake of variety ; then, as a rose covers up its inner mass of imperfect petals by tier after tier of mature ones, producing the glorious result, I shall hide this fault by an enumeration of the merits of the book. 13. Washington and Hamilton were at this time driving the ship of state Washington had hold of the reins — the constitu- tion ;"Hamilton used the wiiip — the doctrine of unified powers. 110. Accuracy and Individuality in Our Choice of Words.- — The sum and substance of any chapter on the choice of words must be this: to write well, one must choose his words with an eye to correctness, appropriate- ness, and, so far as may be, individuality. Of a dozen words all nearly identical in meaning, and all possible in a given passage, probably only one word will be exactly appropriate. In most cases we never find just the word desired. AYhen Ave do, our style goes at a bound from the commonplace to the individual, from the merely clear to the forcible. The perplexity of the hero of Sentimental Tommy as to the expression he should use to indicate the size of a given crowd, hindered him, to be sure, from finishing an essay in the set time and lost him a prize, but it marked him as a boy with definite capabilities for writing. [Tommy and McLaughlin, two Scotch peasant boys, are com- peting for the prize of a scholarship at the University of Edin- burgh. At the end of the two hours allowed for writing the essay on which the prize is to be given, McLaughlin hands in a complete production, but Tommy has stuck in the middle of his second page.] 250 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC He had brought himself to public scorn for lack of a word. What word? they asked testily, but even now he could not tell. He had wanted a Scotch word that would signify how many people were in churcli, and it was on the tip of his tongue but would come no farther. Puckie was nearly the word, but it did not mean so many people as he meant. The hour had gone by just like winking; he had forgotten all about time while search- ing his mind for the word. "You little tattle doolie," Cathro roai^ed, "were there not a dozen words to wile from if you had an ill-will to puckie? What ailed you at manzy, or " "I thought of manzy," replied Tommy, woefully, for he was ashamed of himself, "but— but a manzy's a swarm. It would mean that the folk in the kirk were buzzing thegither like bees, instead of sitting still." "Even if it does mean that," said Mr. Duthie, with impa- tience, "what was the need of being so particular? Surely the art of essay-writing consists in using the Hrst word that comes and hurrying on." "That's how I did," said the proud McLaughlin, who is now leader of a party in the church, and a figure in Edinburgh dur- ing the month of May. "I see," interposed Mr. Gloag, "that McLaughlin speaks of there being a mask of people in the church. Mask is a fine Scotch word." "Admirable," assented Mr. Dishart. "I thought of mask," whimpered Tommy, "but that would mean the kirk was crammed, and I just meant it to be middling full." "Flow would have done," suggested Mr. Lorimer. "Flow's but a handful," said Tommy. "Curran, then, you jackanapes!" "Curran's no enough." Mr. Lorimer flung up his hands in despair. "I wanted sometliing between curran and mask," said Tommy, dogged, yet almost at t!ie crying. Mr. Ogilvy, who had been hiding his admiration with diffi- culty, spread a net for him. "You said you wanted a word that meant middling full. Well, why did you not say middling full— or fell mask?" "Yes, wliy not?" demanded the ministers, unconsciously caught in the net. DISCRIMINATION IN THE CHOICE OF WORDS 251 "I wanted one word," replied Tommy, unconsciously avoid- ing it. "You jewel!" muttered Mr. Ogilvy under his breath, but Mr. Cathro would have banged the boy's head had not the ministers interfered. "It is so easy, too, to find the right word," said Mr. Gloag. "It's no; it's as difficult as to hit a squirrel," cried Tommy, and again Mr. Ogilvy nodded approval. But the ministers were only pained. '*The lad is merely a numskull," said Mr. Dishart, kindly. "And no teacher could have turned him into anything else," said Mr. Duthie. "And so, Cathro, you need not feel sore over your defeat," added Mr. Gloag; but nevertheless Cathro took Tommy by the neck and ran him out of tlie i^arish school of Thrums. And then an odd thing happened As they were preparing to leave the school, the door opened a little and there appeared in the aperture the face of Tommy, tear-stained, but excited. "I ken the woi'd now," he cried, "it came to me a' at once ; it is hantle!" — Barrie: Sentimental Tommy (condensed). We can not often hesitate so long as this over a single v/ord, but we can all strive to make our phrases fit accu- rately the thing we are talking about. If we do that, our diction is likely to be appropriate, individual, and, hence, effective. Exercise XV A. In what do the directions given in this chapter differ from those given in Part II? B. What is "line writing"? Give some common exam- ples of "fine'" phrases. Why is the simpler style usually the better? In what kinds of writing is a lack of simplicity absolutely destructive of force? C. What are the equivalents, in plain English, of the following extracts? 1. He came out making circles with his body, not unlike a cat in pui'suit of her appendage. 2. The attorneys on both sides and the public at large watched 252 COMPOSITIOX AND RHETORIC for tlie decision of the jury witli all the eagerness of the orchid hunter waiting for tlie opening of a new bud of strange form. Would it evolve delicious blossom of freedom and peace, or would it produce the deadly nightshade, distilling doom into the prisoner's ci;p? Might it not rather open as a nondescript mass of doubt and disagreement, the apple of discord putting forth a blossom as the old-fashioned golden apple of mythological times? Rumor hinted that it was the same. 3. The water pipes refused to yield their accustomed donation to the household activities. 4. He had either been murdered, or had suddenly and unac- countably lost his mental equilibrium and wandered away. 5. Having partaken too freely of the cup that cheers, the individual in question exjierienced some difficulty in preserving the periJendicular. 6. Oh ! let us strive to be men that have decision of character and not let the gentle breezes of delusions, the cyclonic winds of gossip, the great hurricanes of skepticism, carry us asunder, deflect us from the paths of our true motives, and hurl us to the great oblivion of non-jirogressiveness and ignominious defeat. 7. Dr. Moore, it will be remembered, has encountered a singu. larly persistent and malevolent train of misfortunes in politics. It was not long ago that one William B. Grover's~Corsican poniard became interpolated in his clavicle, and some time pi-eviously Mr. James Warren thrust a painful, horizontal whisker of contumely into his self-respect by requesting him to get oflf the earth as a proper preliminarj' to an important mayoral camjiaign in which Dr. IMoore had thought of taking more than (Hirsory interest. 8. AViien the Hollenbeck member got into action in earnest, the game was still young — a lusty infant of twenty-six minutes. Tlien Hollenbeck's leg came to its zenith. Its color of dun and red had flashed all througli tlie conflict. It was knotty. Imag- ine a piece of cordword with a limber joint in it. Tliat was the Hollenbeck dexter leg at 2: 01 o'clock. The ball was snapped back to this man of basic development. For a moment he shifted Jiis entire weight, dropped the ball, and a.s it touched the ground, swung the toe of his destiny into it witli a dull but mighty whack. The ball started for a definite place in the solar system at an angle of forty degrees. It described a line of beautj- more attractive than all the parabolas of geometry which the young DISCRIMINATION IX THE CHOICE OF WORDS 253 men of the college love so well. The crowds hushed their yells and caught their breaths. The ball rose straight between the goal posts and high above them. In days to come, the men of the college -will delight to tell the tale of a blue and stocky leg, a tough, padded, mudd}' leg that kicked its way to fame through the terrible opposing line and bruised their hopes and persons. Until yesterday, that leg was the undisputed property of a young man of the college uamed HoUenbeck, cliiefly known as 'varsity full-back. In fact it was his dexter member. He used it to stand on, and for otiier menial purposes. But having won the great game of "96 between the two great iinivei'sities, it is claimed by hundreds of jubilant students as a relic of history. There is little doubt that, could the modest and inoffensive Hol- lenbeck be induced to part with the stocky leg, it would be framed, set on a pedestal, or preserved in alcohol by its frenzied worshipers. 9. He walked three miles through the slushy snow, to the great detriment of his netlier garments. 10. She was a kitchen mechanic of the Hibernian persuasion, not beautiful to look at, but a wonder in the culinary depart- ment. 11. Miss Jane Armstrong was last night united in tlie bonds of matrimony with John Wilbur, of this place. The rites were solemnized by the Reverend John Watson. We wish tliem liappiness on the voyage on which they have embarked. 12. James C. Gavin, tonsorial artist. 13. The number of my ideas is considerably diminished during my next attempt to conceal from the large and enthusiastic audience of my classmates how thin is my mental fui'nishing, and the vadium thus caused is filled by a slight mal de tefe, which, together with an aching void in the stomach, is the occa- sion for a somewhat sudden departure for the region of civilized cooks. 14. "My employer, ma'am, — Mr. Heep — once did me the favour to observe to me that if I were not in the receipt of the stipendiary emoluments appertaining to my engagement with hini, I should probably be a mountebank about the ("ountry, swallowing a sword-blade and eating the devouring element- F'or anything that I can perceive to the contrary, it is still prob- able that my children may be reduced to seek a livelihood by per- sonal contortion, while Mrs. Micawber abets their vinnatural 254 COMPOSITION^ AND EHETOEIC feats by playing the barrel-organ." Dickens: David Copper- field. D. Define triteness. AVliy does triteness destroy force? Point out the hackneyed phrases in the following sen- tences: 1. The night was a perfect one. All nature seemed in tune. The stars twinkled like diamonds, the air was warm and balmy, and the lake was so calm and clear and bright that it looked like an immense mirror. Behind the trees, that stood like grim sentinels on the .shore, the moon rose slowly, grandly, majestic- ally, like a great ball of lire. 3. All nature was in repose as we set sail on our gallant ship. 3. Only with great persuasion did she prevent him from demanding the hand of his lady fair from her stern father. 4. The little boat danced merrily over the sparkling waves on its way to the deep, blue sea. 5. A few heartrending cries made night hideous, and then thirty souls had gone down into the briny deep. 6. Old Sol's broad, smiling face rose over the distant hilltops and began to diffuse the genial warmth of his smile. 7. The blushing bride, leaning on the arm of her fond parent, passed up the aisle, the admired of all admirers. 8. If he can only work from morn till dewy eve, he thinks he is in his native element. 9. He never supposed, wlien a boy on the few paternal acres, that he should attain such dizzy heights of fame. E. Define connotation. Find examiDles of words which, because of their connotation, may be used only in certain connections. F. Write a paragraph stating your views as to the use of general and of specific words. G. Contrast the vocabularies of the two following extracts. Which is the more specific? The more gen- eral? The more effective? 1. One day during the spring I had the good fortune to wit- ness a dozen operations in one of the finest operating rooms in the country. I Jiad never seen an operating room before, so the numerous surgeons" implements, and all tlie paraphernalia tliat are necessary in a modern operation, were of great interest to DISCKIMINATION" IN" THE CHOICE OF WORDS 255 me. And they are very many. Moreover, many nurses and, it seemed to me, many doctors, are necessary for every operation. 2. A great flood of light came through broad windows into a white, high-walled room and slione upon white-robed figures standing over a table. On the table lay a man whom one might think dead if the grey blankets across his chest had not risen and fallen with his heavy breathing. A sickening odor of ether filled the room. Knives, needles and all sorts of gruesome im- plements lay upon a stand near by, and just beyond, on another stand, were bottles, bandages, and a big roll of cotton. Nurses in plain gingham dresses, white aprons, and jauntily-puckered cotton caps stood around the room. But your eyes soon left these details, and came back, almost unwillingly, to the two doctors leaning over the reclining man. H. Why is a figurative style forcible? AVhat are the marks of a good figure? Of a had one? Whicli of the following figures are good and which are had? Why? 1. His tears fell like rain on the girl's tresses, fine as spun gold. 2. Historical France has three gi'eat searchlights that have swept the ocean of time and sent their little beams through all tlie centuries — Louis XIV., Napoleon, and Henry of Navarre. 3. The doughty half-back plunges down the field, fierce as a lion, tossing liis foes aside. 4. When Mr. Cottle, the publisher, shortly after sold his copy- rights to Mr. Longman, that of the Lyrical Ballads was reckoned at zero, and it was at last given up to the authors. A few per- sons were not wanting, however, who discovered the dawn- streaks of a new day in that light which the critical fire-brigade thought to extinguish with a few contemptuous spurts of cold water. — Lowell : Wordsivorth. 5. Wordsworth went quietly over to Germany to write more Lyrical Ballads, and to begin a poem on the growth of his own mind, at a time when there were only two men in the world (himself and Coleridge) who were aware that he had one, or at least one anywise differing from those mechanically uniform ones which are stuck drearily, side by side, in the great pin paper of society. — Ibid. 6. His advance was punctuated by ai^plause. 35G COMPOSITION AND KHETOKIC 7. Artistic Description dips her pen in Beauty's inJi-well and laj^s on the strokes with a free, clear hand. 8. Climax is the bell that strikes at the end of your story. 9 . The hand of the United States, thrown into the balance, might turn the tide. 10. We can see Amyas burning to overflowing with the pur- pose and the unrelenting aim. 11. Another barrier to the assimilation of the Chinese hinges on the marriage question. 12. One of our boys, experienced in heart-breaking, agreed to tr}' his skill on a certain sentimental female in the other society, and as soon as he had her u.nder liis thumb, to probe her for the secrets of her paper. She swallowed bait, hook, and all. 13. But tlie walls were made of screens of marble tracery — beautiful, milk-white fi-etwork, set with agates and carnelians and jasper and lapis lazuli, and as the moon came up behind the hill it shone through the openwork, casting shadows on the ground like black- velvet embroidery. — Kiplinu: The Jungle Book. 14. The seeds of tlie Gospel have been watered with the blood of the mart3'rs. 15. Till the dawn, hour after hour, as the moonlight paled on the high jjeaks, and that which had been belted blackness on the sides of the far hills showed as tender green forest, the lama stared fixedly at the wall. — Kipling: Kim. 16. In the midst of it all gleams the Welsh Harp Lake, like a piece of sky that has become unstuck and tumbled into the landscai^e with its shiny side up. — Du Maurier: Peter Ibbetson. 17. [The brown bear] hugged as manj^ [monkeys] as he could hold, and then began to hit with a regular baf -bat-bat, like the flipping strokes of a paddle wheel. — Kipling : The Jungle Book. 18. The moon was sinking behind the hills, and the lines of trembling monkeys huddled together on the walls and battle- ments looked like ragged, shaky fringes of things. — Ibid. 19. It is not a gi'eat Xerxes-army of words, but a compact Greek ten thousand, that march safely down to posterity. — Lowell: Wordsworth. 20. That [tlie ability to write] was a proficiency that tempted me : and I practiced to acquire it as men learn to whittle, in a wager with myself. — Stevenson: A College Magazine. 21. Almost from the first moment of my march, a faint, large noise, like a distant surf, had filled my ears. . . . As I contiinied DISCRIMINATIOX I^T THE CHOICE OF WORDS 257 to advance, tlie noise increased and became like the hissing of an enormous tea-urn. — Stevenson: Travels with a Donkey. 22. One thing only De Launay could have done — what he said he would do. Fancy him sitting, from the first, with lighted taper, within arm's-length of the powder magazine ; motionless, like an old Roman Senator, or bronze lamp-holder. — Carlyle: The Storming of the Bastile. 23. Pathetic little tumble-down old houses, all out of drawing and perspective, nestled like old spider's webs between the but- tresses of the great cathedral. — Du Maurier: Trilby. 24. The Duke of Burgundy drank too much and ate too much. He resenibled a sponge: wlieu empty, too rough a customer; when full, too juicy. — Hewlett: Richard Yea and Nay. 25. The fog was driven apart for a moment, and the sun shone, a blood-red wafer, on the water. — Kipling: Plain Tales from the Hills. 26. The feeling of unhappiuess lie had never known before covered him as water covers a log. — Kipling: The Second Jangle Book. , /. Comment fully on the appropriateness or tlio inap- propriateness of the diction in these quotations : 1. Never was queen given a prouder ovation than Emma Nevada, the peerless, last night. Words are )iiere idle tilings when the attempt is made to describe the scene, the singer, and the songs. No elaborate stage settings had been attempted, though the boards where oft the sock and buskin have held sway were taste- fully decorated with the national colors. But, ah! what a difference a moment later. The center por- tieres part, a vision of sweet, beauteous womanhood appears, lingering a brief moment as slie holds the ricli folds apart, a dark, warm frame to tlie picture — the lark with a voice of melody divine. Such a roar of applause sweeps upward from the multitude tliat the building fairly trembles. Will it never cease'.' Ah, that comes straight from the heart of the free spoken people of the mountains. It rolls and sweeps, surges and beats, and amid it all, the famous little woman, greater to-night to tho.se enrap- tured hundreds than the proudest queen who ever sat on a throne, comes down the center of the stage, a vision of dainty, sweet good-nature. 258 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC "Isn't she sweet!'' "Oh, the dear thing," and kindred excla- mations burst forth si^ontaneously. 2. The violet fad, which has found expression in so many cap- tivating shapes, now appeals to the fastidious v>'oman in the form of a wood violet tooth wash. After each meal thirty drops or more of this lotion are added to a small glass of water, when it is ready for a revivifying mouth rinse. How every crevice and cranny about the pinky gums revel in this bit of sestheticism ! Gay little ripples of laugliter are freighted with a violet-laden sweetness tliat is truly the very acme of feminine refinement. A gossipy confidence breathes in every word uttered, a tribute to this pleasant mode of adding one more charm to woman's make-up. 3. It is due to Neighbor Diaz [President Diaz of Mexico] to say that he is not taking advantage of this unjileasantness [the Spanish-American War] to throw any garbage over the line fence. 4. It looks as if Mr. Williamson had succeeded in moving the senator's keep-oll-the-grass sign several yards further back. 5. If England and Uncle Sam ever do join hands and circle to the left, they will lead the rest of the world a lively dance. 6. There seems to be a notion abroad that the United States cannot hold the Monroe doctrine and a vigorous foreign policy at the same time. The American eagle, let it be understood, has two claws, not to mention a serviceable beak. 7. A very good touch in the line of pathos is the boy's grief over the dead bird. 8. Baldassare was old, red-eyed, stiff in the back. Possibly he was rheumatic, certainly he was grumpy. He had a long slit mouth which played him a cruel trick ; for by nature it smiled when by nature he was most melancholy. Smile it would and did, however cut-throat he felt : if you wanted to see him grin from ear to ear you would wait till he had had an ill day's market. Tlien, while sighs, curses, invocations of the saints, or open hints to the devil, came roaring from him, that hilarious moutli of his invited you to share delights. You had needs laugh with him, and he, cursing high and low, beamed all over his face. "To make Baldassare laugh" became a stock periphrasis for the supreme degree of tragedy among his neighbours. About this traitor mouth of his he had a dew of scrubby beard, silvered black ; he had bushy ej'ebrows, liands and arms covered with a black pelt: he was a very hairy man. — Hewlett: Little Novels of Italy. DISCRIMINATION IN" THE CHOICE OF WORDS 259 9. It made all the difference, in asserting any principle of war, whether one assumed that a discharge of artillery would merely knead down a certain quantity of once living clay into a level line, as in a brickfield; or whether, out of every separately Christian-named portion of the ruinous heap, there went out, into the smoke and dead-fallen air of battle, some astonished condition of soul, unwillingly released. — Ruskin: The Croivn of Wild Olive. 10. All the roads of our neighbourhood were cheerful and friendly, having each of them pleasant qualities of their own; but this one seemed different from the others in its masterful suggestion of a serious purpose, speeding you along with a strange uplifting of the heart. The others tempted chiefly with their treasures of hedge and ditch ; the rapt surprise of the first lords-and-ladies, the rustle of a field mouse, splash of a frog; while cool noses of bi-other-beasts were pushed at you through gate or gap. A loiterer you Iiad need to be, did you choose one of them, — so many were the tiny hands thrust out to detain you, from tliis side and tliat. But this other was of a sterner sort, and even in its shedding off of bank and hedgerow as it marched straight and full for the open downs, it seemed to declare its contempt for adventitious trappings to catcli the shallow-pated. When the sense of injustice or disappointment was heavy on me, and things Avei'e very black witliin, as on this particular day, the road of character was my choice for that solitary ramble, wlien I turned my back for an afternoon on a world that had unaccountably declared itself against me. — Kenneth Grahame: Tlie Golden Age. 11. The dream commenced with a music which now I often heard in dreams — a music of preparation and of awakening sus- pense : a mvisic like the opening of the Coronation Anthem, and which, like that, gave the feeling of a vast march — of infinite cavalcades .filing off — and the tread of innumerable armies. The morning was come of a mighty day — a day of .crisis and of final hope for human nature, then sviffering some mysterious eclipse, and labouring in some di-ead extremity. Somewhere, I knew not wliere — somehow, I kne'.v not how — by some beings, I knew not whom — a battle, a strife, an agony, was conducting — was evolving like a great drama, or piece of music; with which my sympathy was the more insupportable from my confusion as to its place, its cause, its nature, and its possible issue. I, as is usual in dreams (where, of necessity, we make ourselves central 260 COMPOSITION^ AND RHETORIC to every movement), had the power, and yet had not the power, to decide it. I had the power, if I could raise myself, to will it, and yet again had not the power, for tlie weight of twenty Atlantics was upon me, or tlie oppression of inexpiable guilt. "Deeper than ever plummet sounded," I lay inactive. Then, like a chorus, the passion deepened. Some greater interest was at stake; some mightier cause than ever yet the sword had pleaded, or trumpet had proclaimed. Then came sudden alarms: hurryings to and fro: trepidations of innumerable fugitives, I knew not wliether from the good cause or the bad : darkness and lights: tempest and human faces: and at last, with the sense that all was lost, female forms, and the features that were worth all the woi'ld to me, and but a moment allowed, — and clasped hands, and heart-breaking partings, and then — everlasting fare- wells! and with a sigh, such as the caves of hell sighed when the incestuous mother uttered the abhorred name of death, the sound was reverberated — everlasting farewells! and again and yet again reverberated — everlasting farewells! And I awoke in struggles, and cried aloud — "I will sleep no more!" — De Quincky : The Pains of Opium. PART TV RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES CHAPTER XVI A SURVF.Y OF THE CHIEF RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES 111. The Nature of Rhetorical Principles. — At the out- set of our work in composition, we leiirnecl that in writing there are two matters to be considered — correctness and effectiveness. Correctness, we learned, prescribes that we use authorized English words, and that we use them according to the accepted laws of the language, called grammar. Effectiveness prescribes that we select words which Avill represent our ideas accurately and attractively. Part II of this book dealt wholly with the first matter — correctness. Part III dealt with effectiveness in the choice of words. In" Part IV we shall consider what general laws of structure will help to make sentences, paragraphs, and whole compositions clear and effective. A good writer, Ave shall find, follows, consciously or unconsciously, a few principles in the selection and arrangement of his ideas, — and hence in the selection ai^.d arrangement of his words, sentences, and paragraphs. These rhetorical principles are but common-sense rules, which apply to the other arts as well as to writing, and which, indeed, govern our conduct in practical life. They are universal principles of action. A sensible man, for example, does not fritter away his time and his strength in a largo number of enterprises all going on at 261 262 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC once; he concentrates his efforts upon one object at a time. In writing, this principle of concentration is called unity. Similar parallels between the other funda- mental principles of composition and the principles that govern our conduct in life may easily be found. Of the many principles of composition which might be treated, we shall discuss here only the six most important ones. 112. Selection. — The first step in composition (see chapter II) is the gathering of material ; the second step is the selection from the mass of thoughts, facts, and impressions thus brought together of those parts which will best serve our purpose. We can see more in one glance than we can describe completely in a dozen pages ; we must make notes and accumulate details before we are ready to write even a simple theme. Meanwhile, a proc- ess of selection goes on in our minds unobserved, causing us to remember some things and to forget others. But this unconscious winnowing is not enough. Before we attempt any serious writing, we must examine consciously the material we have at our command to see what is needed for our purpose. In this choice of material we are influenced by three considerations: the details selected must be important, they must be harmonious, and they must be suggestive. In other words, the writer sliould take from his material what it is necessary for the reader to know, what fits together properly, and what will inter- est his reader. This process is called the principle of selection. 113. Unity. — Selection and unity, the second of the l)rinciples wo shall discuss, are very closely related. Any piece of writing should give the reader an impres-, sion 01 being a whole. If we put too many thoughts into a sentence, a paragraph, or a whole composition, that part of our writing will be confused or vague. On the other hand, if we do not include all the RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES 263 thought that belongs to that unit of composition, we fail equally in making it effective. Digressions and omis- sions are both to be avoided. The difficult thing is to know just how much or how little is needed to satisfy this sense of unity in any given sentence, paragraph, or whole composition. The principle of unity further directs that every com- position shall be treated from one "point of view." The phrase "point of view" may best be explained by an illustration. If, in telling the story of a foot race, the writer describes the race as he saw it from the grand- stand, he will have one "point of view" ; if he describes it as one of the athletes saw it from the track, he will have another; if he describes it in part from the grand-stand and in part from the field, he will have two opposed points of view. Unity requires that at any given moment the writer shall have one point of view clearly in mind; and that whenever it is necessary to change the point of view he shall make the transition quite plain. The fewer changes in the point of view the better it is for the unity of the composition. 114. Coherence. — Coherence means literally "sticking together." Sequence, another name for this principle, conveys a little more clearly than coherence the idea of order. All the parts of a composition should follow one after another in a logical method. "Order," Ave are told, "is Heaven's first law." But it is not enough merely to arrange ideas logically : they must often be cemented, as it were, by little words of relationship. Clearness in composition depends very largely upon the observance of the principle of coherence. The ideas must be presented in such an order and with such verbal connectives that the reader is prepared to understand each sentence and each paragraph and each section of the whole composition, when he comes to it. 2'J4: COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC 115. Emphasis.— The principle of emphasis (or mass) conccnis the arrangement of ideas: whatever is important should be given an important place ; whatever is subordinate should be given a subordinate place. Usually, the impor- tant places in a sentence, a paragraph, or a whole com- position, are the beginning and tlie end. The principle of emphasis is often called by rhetoricians proportion and climax. Both these terms express certain distinct kinds of emphasis, and will be discussed separately. 116. Proportion. — Every part of a whole composition should be written with reference to its relative impor- tance. An unimjiortant part should not be developed at the expense of another more necessary part. Moreover, there should be a definite scale of treatment, and this scale of treatment, once decided upon, should be main- tained throughout the whole composition. This prin- cijile of measure and balance, while less important than unity and coherence, will always be found in writing dis- tinguished for finish and perfection. 117. Climax.— The word climax (from the Greek word meaning a scale or ladder) originally had but one mean- ing in English— and in that sense we use it here— a rise or ascent. In arranging a series of coordinate words, phrases, clauses, sentences, or paragraphs the less important ones should be followed by the more important. The interest of the reader should grow as the composition progresses, and the highest point of interest should b- the close. The good sense of tiiis law is self-evident. Xo one wishes to read a story that opens with much excite- ment, but "runs down" at the close. In telling an anec- dote, he who puts liis point first fails to win attention. Expectation on the part of the reader is tlie attitude desired by the writer. 118. Necessity of Observing These Principles.— .Modifi- cations of thc.^0 pi'iiiciples, ;ind even new princiiiles, may EHETOKICAL PRINCIPLES 265 be discovered, but the principles of selection, unity, cohe- rence, and emphasis are essential to every piece of wi'it- ing, no matter what is its nature. The writer who wishes to make the most of his ideas should see that he has used the best of his material, that he has arranged his thoughts logically and emphatically, that he has left with his reader a single definite impression, that he has paid due attention to every part of his subject, and that he has proceeded from less to more interesting matter. In this chapter, rhetorical principles have been described in general, in their application not only to words, sentences, and paragraphs, but also to thought or material. In the succeeding chapters, they will be treated specific- ally in their action upon the form of sentences, para- graphs, and whole compositions. Exercise XVI A. Define and illustrate the phrase "a rhetorical prin- ciple." What parallels to these rhetorical principles can you find in other fields, such as sculpture, painting, and architecture? What is the use of a principle in the prac- tice of composition? B. What specific principles are defined in this chapter? Describe the application of each. Do they apply to any one kind of writing only? C. Illustrate unity by an examination of one of Haw- thorne's short stories, one of Macaulay's essays, or an act of The Merchant of Venice. What is the "point of view"' in each case? Is there any noticeable point of view iu the following themes? What is it in each one? 1. I sit high up in the old tower. The houses below me look like little girls' play-houses, and the men and women hurrj'iug here and there seem like the little men and women that inhabit these mansions of the juvenile mind. I grow dizzy looking down so far below me, and my eyes 266 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC wander far oflf over the level country dotted with farm-houses and peaceful homes with their surrounding barns and orchards. A little way from town, toward the west, is the home of an Eng- lish family. The large, square house, with its hospitable look, the winding road, lined with flower beds full of mignonette, forget-me-nots, marigolds, and other old-fashioned flowers, the tiny pond with its little boat-house on the bank, and the two swans sailing majestically on the water, the fantastically shaped evergreen trees and big rose bushes covered with pink, white, crimson, and yellow blossoms, all lend an air of beauty and well-being to the lAace as they lie in the morning sunshine. 2. Here she comes, trotting up the walk toward the porch of the house next door, her scarlet cloak flying and her golden curls bobbing up and down on either side of her glowing cheeks, as her fat little legs almost trip one another up in their hurry to reach shelter from observation. Ujd the porch she runs, hood askew and tiny mitten grasping firmly a big, white envelope. After ringing the bell she stands there, jumping up and down with excitement, and as she catches sight of me she shakes her head vigorously and throws what I intei"pret as an appeal for silence into her laughing eyes. Someone opens the inner door, and in a flash she is down the steps and around the corner at a gait which seems to me an inimitable mixture of hop and slide. Everything is well, I think to myself; but just as I turn away I catch sight of a small brown head, with close cropped hair, in a window opposite me, a head which has apparently been watch- ing proceedings as eagerly as I. St. Valentine's secrets will never be inviolate while he entrusts them to the light of day. D. Explain in detail the application of the principle of selection. Outline a story about some commonplace inci- dent, and indicate the parts that you would omit in writing. E. AVhat is coherence? Tn describing a room, how would you observe the principle of coherence? In telling the story of the caskets in The MercJtant of Venice? In explaining the making of chlorine-gas or some other chemical compound? F. Show how Macaulay preserves proportion in that one of his essays with which you are most familiar. Is RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES 267 there any cliai^ter in the first fifteen cliapters of Woodstock tliat lacks proportion? G. Write on the following topics themes of one to two pages : 1. A "sky-scraper" (make plain the point of view). 2. A familiar battle (observe coherence). 3. My best friend (selection). 4. An abandoned farm (coherence). 5. The principle of gravity (coherence). 6. Bird life near your home (selection)^ 7. An anecdote (climax). CHAPTER XVII UNITY IN SENTENCES 119. Unity Defined. — All of the rhetorical principles mentioned in the preceding cliapter apply to the para- grapli and the whole composition, but only three — nnity, coherence, and emphasis — are of much importance in dealing with sentences. These three we shall take up in the order given above. To discover the meaning and the importance of unity in sentences, let ns look at some careless sentences: 1. Horace "Walker and his sister Jane were called to Watertown last Friday, Mrs. "Walker having had a sudden attack of heart-failure, but she is better now. 2. When thy wlieezy old en- gine had laboriously puffed its way up the grade and then, with grating and creaking, liad been in turn pus'ued down the grade on the other side of the hill, through a dense fog, into the vale wliere the little l)ox-like station stood, we got together, by the two ill- j);unted, unclean cars it had' pulled to the crest, our dress- suit cases, fishing-rods, and baskets, preparatory to taking 1. Horace "Walker and his sister Jane were called to 'W'atertown last Friday, by the serious illness of their motlier. ^Irs. Walker, who was suffer- ing from an attack of heart- failure, has improved some- wliat. 2. The wheez}^ old engine laboriously puffed its way up tlie grade through a thick, dani]) fog, and then ■vyas pushed, grating and creaking, down the other side of the hill to the little box-like station in tlie valley below. By the side of the two ill-painted, un- clean cars, we got our whole outfit together — dress - suit cases, fishing-rods, and baskets. Over tlie hills, nine miles away, lay the lake, where we 268 UNITY IN SENTENCES 2(39 a nine-mile ride ovei- the worst wei-e to fish for a few days, road imaginable, and in the The rest of the journey we most I'ickety of stagecoaches must make in tlie most ri<^kety in existence, to the lake, where of stage-coaches and over the we went to fish for a day or worst of roads. two. These hasty, formless sentences were obscure because they either had no main idea or allowed the main idea to be hidden among a mas.^ of minor ones. They lacked unity. A unified sentence is one which stands obviously for a single complete idea. 120. Unity of Thought. — A sentence which has no cen- tral idea is said to lack unity of thought. Of course, if Ave join in one sentence two ideas which lack all connec- tion, the sentence loses unity of thought; e. g. : 1. Booth had a great aversion to reliearsals, but he was a most gentle man to those liolding minor positions. 2. "But my husband's tongue 'ud have been a fortune to any- body, and tliere was many a one said it was as good as a dose of physic to hear him talk ; not but wliat that got him into trouble in Lancashire, but he always said, if the worst came to the worst, he could go and preach to the blacks." — George Eliot : Felix Holt. Fortunately, such collections of odds and ends of thought are not common in serious writing. The more usual type of disunified sentence is the type in which the writer joins in one sentence two or more statements which, though consecutive, are not so closely consecutive as to be parts of the same idea; e. g. : Chaucer began to write at an early age, and as he was elieve she hated men. 9. She hates Arthur, despises his father, and the only spark of feeling shown is toward little Dorrit. 10. If tlie meeting had been treated seriously instead of treat- ing it as a farce, I think that some good speeches would have been heard. • 11. An attempt will be made on Sunday to enforce the state "blue laws," tlie newsdealers having been forbidden to sell papers Sunday and the livery-men from running public carriages. 298 COMPOSITION' AXD RHETORIC 12. The bill calls for a board of three men salaried^ at §3,000 per annum, who should have absolute control of the police department and in addition to control the distribution of all licenses. 13. Tiffany & Co. claim for their stock, in comparison with any other in this country, superiority for its extent, quality, and beauty, and further, that their prices are as low as those of any other house. 14. The citizens have home rule now just as much as before, only that we believe they have a better home rule. 15. He makes us eagerly watch the march of Marmion and his band to the north, and breathlessly is tiie outcome of Constance De Beverley's trial awaited. 16. Finding that his ends could not be accomplished by fair means, those of a baser sort were resorted to by him. /. What are the rules for the tenses of subordinate verbs in complex sentences, and of the complementary infinitive? Which of the following sentences are correct? Rewrite the incorrect ones: 1. Peggy, for her part, would liave liked to have shown her turban and bird of paradise at the ball. —Thackeray : Vanity Fair. 2. He would not have needed to have taken so much trouble if he had informed himself beforehand. 3. It would have been a cruel thing to have done to have turned a deserving man away from the door. 4. A week later, though I would have given much to have avoided it, I met on the road to tlie IMussulman burying-ground. Imam Din. — Kipling: Muhammad Din. 5. It would be worthless, if we do so. 6. We shall not succeed if we do not grant his wish. 7. We should lose the fruits of our past endeavors, if we run counter to the will of the people. 8. They would like to have asked him questions about him- self.— P. L. Ford: The Honorable Peter Stirling. 9. She would not have even wanted to have done such a thing if she had known the effect. 1 Is the use of the word " salary " as a verb justifiable? CHAPTER XIX FORCE IN SENTENCES 134. Force Partly Dependent on the Form of Sentences. — From the quality of clearness in sentences we now turn to that of force — the quality that holds the attention of the reader. Force, of course, depends on many things — on the strength of the idea, on the individuality and com- pactness of the phrasing, on the general vigor of the writer's mind. But the mere form of the sentences is of more influence than one at first thinks. The most inter- esting of facts and the most vigorous of phraseology will not give a style force if the sentences are dragging or monotonous. Stevenson, a writer whose style is noted for excellence of form, remarks in this connection: . . . the one rule is to be intinitely various ; to interest, to dis- appoint, to surprise, and yet still to gratify ; to be ever chang- ing, as it were, the stitch, and yet still to give the effect of an ingenious neatness. — Stevenson: On Some Technical Elements of Style in Literature. How true this is the student can easily see from con- trasting the two extracts given below. The details in the first extract are well-chosen, yet the passage is dull. Its dullness is in large part a direct result of its monotonous sentence-structure : 1. I went into the parlor. It was an old-fashioned room fur- nished accordingly. In the centre was a table of some black wood, with slender legs and glass casters. On the polished top of this was an old lamp, whose stand was of bronze. In one corner was a rosewood grand piano, wliose keys were yellow with age. Next it stood a dark-colored music stand, prettily 299 300 COMPOSITIOX AND KIIETOKIC ornamented with inlaid work. The chairs were of the old-fash- ioned, straight-back variety. On the wall hung the family por- traits in heavy, gilt frames, then two or three landscapes in oil. A tall, oval mirror was also standing like a sentinel over the room. The windows were low, with inside shutters, and cur- tained with fine lace. — {A student's theme.) 2. It was a low-studded room, with a beam across the ceiling, panelled with dark wood, and having a large chimney-piece, set round with pictured tiles, but now closed by an iron fire-board, through which ran the funnel of a modern stove. There was a carpet on the floor, originally of rich texture, but so worn and faded in these latter years that its once brilliant figure had quite vanished into one indistinguishable hue. In the way of furni- ture, there were two tables: one, constructed with perplexing intricacy and exhibiting as inany feet as a centipede ; the other, most delicately wrought, with four long and slender legs, so apparently frail tliat it was almost incredible what a length of time the ancient tea-table had stood upon them. Half a dozen chairs stood about the room, straight and stiff, and so ingen- iously contrived for the discomfort of the human person that they were irksome even to sight, and conveyed tlie ugliest pos- sible idea of the state of society to which they could have been adapted. One exception there Avas, however, in a very antique elbow-chair, with a high back, carved elaborately in oak, and a roomy deptli within its arms, that made up, by its spacious com- prehensiveness, for the lack of any of those artistic curves which abound in a modern chair. — Haavthorxe: The House of the Seven Gables. The greater charm of the second passage is evident. But the charm of variety is not the only reason for the variability of the sentence-structure in good style. In good style, there is a rough correspondence between the nature of the idea and the form of statement. One can hardly imagine even live successive statements which ooiiM |tmperly be put into sentences of exactly the same form and length. Hence the habit most students have of sticking invariably to one length and one type of sentence produces a style not only dull l)ut positively illogical.^ 1 See also sectiou 131. C5 FORCE IN SEXTEXCES 301 135. Loug and Short Sentences. — The simplest kind of variation in sentences is from chort to long. A series of short sentences unrelieved by a loug one usually produces an effect of crudity, distracting jerkiness, or even sensa- tionalism ; e.g.: 1. Some people say that there is no romance in India. Those people are wrong. Our lives hold quite as much romance as is good for us. Sometimes more. — Kipling: Plain Tales from the Hills. 2. The barbarians posted at Hippo-Zarytus perceived his army as it descended from the mountain. Where could tlie Carthaginians be going? Hunger, no doubt, was urging them on ; and, distracted by their sufferings, they were coming in spite of tlieir weakness to give battle. But they turned to the right ; they were fleeing. They might be overtaken and be all crushed. The barbarians dashed in pursuit of them. The Carthaginians were checked by the river. It was wide this time, and the west wind had not been blowing. Some cro.ssed by swimming and the rest on their shields. Tliey resumed their march. Night fell. They were out of sight. — (From a translation of Flaubert's Salammbo.) An uninterrupted succession of long sentences produces exactly the opposite effect from choppiness and sensation- alism. It makes the style dull, heavy, and at times even obscure ; e. g. • Of the passions with which the mind of man is agitated, it may be observed, that they naturally hasten towards their own extinction, by inciting and quickening the attainment of their objects. Thus fear urges our flight, and desire animates our progress ; and if there are some which perhaps may be indulged till they outgrow the good appropriated to their satisfaction, as it is frec^uently observed of avarice and ambition, yet their im- mediate tendency is to some means of happiness really existing, and generally within the prospect. The miser always imagines that there is a certain sum that will fill his lieart to the Ijrim; and every ambitious man, like King Pyrrhus, has an acquisition in his thouglits that is to terminate his labors, after which he shall pass tlie rest of his life in ease or gaiety, in repose or devotion. — JoHXSOX: Tlie Rambler. 303 COMPOSITION AND KHETOUIC Any given bit of writing, liowever, may properly have one prevailing typo of ^ciiteiice. Short sentences are most usofnl when the nature of our thought demands simplicity and easy rapidity; long sentences when it demands dignity and a careful weighing of the relative importance of our statements. Short sentence's are most natural in letters, descriptions, and stories, l>rcansci tlu'ir llic (iiought con- sists, in large part, of simi)le, unmoililicd si atciui'iits ; long sentences are most natural in the graver sort of historical narratives and essays of all kinds, because there the more abstract thouijht often demands that the main idea bo modified iiumediatoly, before we pass cm to another sen- tence. In the following four extracts, all but one from the same author, there is a steady increase in the length of sentences — an increase ccn'responding to a change iu the nature of the sul)jcct matter: Tlie King of France has sumnimn^d the Duke of Guise to an early consultation in his bedcliainber. In resi)onso to tlie Mat- tering call, the Duke dons the splendid costume of the courtier and hastens to the palace. The doors fly open before him, and bowing pages lead the way to the royal cbamber. They lift the heavy cm-tains at the door and tbe astonislnMl Duke soos a double row of noblemen standing bel'ore him. lie pauses for a moment. The next, the first of the line has snatched him into the room, meanwhile stabbing him in the back. Struggling against their swords, he reaches the bed ; hv clutches the embroidered tapestry lianging from the canopy. But the struggle is over. Only for an instiint could the drapery shield him, and he falls, wrapped in its folds. The nun-derers stare at their A-ictim and wipe their bliK.dy blailes, wliile from his hi aesthetic side of Japan, no book, according to Mr. Diosy, has done justice to the real greatness of the country. The illustra- tions in this book ai'e by a native artist, and are, therefore, of special interest. Here two distinct subjects are treated, both of which should receive more extended treatment in separate para- graphs. » See sections 21-33, THE STRUCTURE OF THE SINGLE PARAGRAPH 323 2. Royal persons have a fair possibility of living to a green old age, despite the activity of Anarchists and the uneasiness which the wearing of a crown is supposed to imply. King Christian of Denmark has just celebrated his eighty-fourth birthday. He has had no serious troubles in recent years, to be sure; but his reign has not been altogether prosperous. The Danes have their social and economic problems, like the people of other countries; and Denmark was badly beaten by Prussia and Austria some forty years ago, and forced to surrender Schleswig-Holstein to the avaricious German. Here the v/riter presents his subject — the longevity of kings and queens — in the first sentence, gives one example ill the second sentence, and then swings off into other and only slightly related subjects. It must not be supposed, however, that cutting the paragraph in two is a sufficient remedy. Each section must be developed into a good paragraph. 3. It is recorded of Fra Bartolommeo, the famous Italian painter, that when his brother monks, in admiration of his work and with the desire that his name should be held in renown, sug- gested that he place his name beneath each picture, he replied : "No, what has my name to do with it? I have not been paint- ing for my own honor ; I have been working for the glory of God." And so, instead of following the custom of the artists of his day, he simply wrote at the foot of each picture, "Pray for the painter, pray for the picture." For himself he desired only that he might do his work more worthily. For his pictures, he desired that they might convey holy truth and luove men to a better life. It was a matter of little concern to him whether the name of him who did the work was remembered or forgotten. [Too often the beauty of Christian work is marred by the spirit which puts self in the foreground. We are not content to let the work make its own impression. Our name must meet the eye. The ideal of Christian service is that in which the servant loses sight and thought of self in the absorbing desire to make his Master all in all.] In this case the bracketed sentence does not bear directly on the main idea. The paragraph is an example 324 COMPOSITIOX AXD RHETORIC of what might be called "the postscript fault," i. e., the error of adding to the completed statement of the case a new train of thought, suggested by some sentence in the paragraph, usually a sentence near the end. Paragraph unity, then, depends upon two things — getting a definite subject for a paragraj^h, and sticking to that subject. 144. Paragraphs Too Short for Unity. — Theoretically, a paragraph, like a sentence, can not be too short for unity. But, practically, a paragraph which is so short that it does not adequately develop the idea started, lacks unity in that it does not present the unit of thought that was in the writer's mind. Wo get paragraphs "too short for unity" if we cut up into separate paragraphs a number of statements all bearing upon one paragraph-topic, or if we fail to give the point which binds the details of the paragraph into one body. In the first extract below, the thoughts all belong to one topic. In the second extract, there are properly only the four paragraphs indicated by the brackets. In the third, the bracketed section, v/hicli is essential to the thought, was given by the writer in another place. 1. Ill the middle of the bay is a white sailboat, rocking gently, as if to tell us that we should loose her from her anchor and go for a sail. As we are still looking at the quiet scene, we hear shouts, and tumbling down the bank comes a trooj) of children. They plunge into the boats and row out to where the yacht is anchored. Some get in and pretend to be sailing, while ofcliers, more ven- tm-esome, hang over the edges of their boats, pretending to fish. The best thing we can do is to row back to them, climb into our sailboat, and, forgetting our delight in the quiet, motionless .scenery, enjoy oitr.selves with tlie living, romping children. {. THE STRUCTURE OF THE SINGLE PARAGRAPH 325 f 2. Again I made bold to enter the house. I Juana was lying on the same blanket and was in the same spot where she had died. I At her head a couple of candles stuck into bottles were J I burning fitfully in the dust-laden, fetid atmosphere. A dozen squaws in the room kept up a constant wailing. At times the wailing was a sort of soothing chant, and at other times some of the squaws would set up a shrill shriek, clinch their fists venomously, and fill the air . with curses. Suddenly the door opened, and a squaw entered with an Indian basket filled witli earth. Louder and louder became the wailing, both inside and out. The squaws formed in a procession and walked around the corpse, each taking a handful of earth from the basket and scattering it over the body. The earth . was dry and soon filled the air with dust. 'Why don't you bury Juana?" I asked the woman who six days before had told me that Juana was going to die. "No place for bury," was the sullen answer. And all the women in the room began wailing and howling and ^ cursing. I "No place for bury," some of them screamed in English, I while others kept up the incoherent wailing which L deafened my tired ears. 3. Tlie Japanese newspapers record the invention by a native of a machine for rolling tea. The great cost of the production of tea lies in the labor. Each individual leaf must be plucked from the plant and handled with the fingers sevei'al times beforo it can be sent to market. Up to this time the industry of tea- raising has been unprofitable without tlie cheap labor and the deft fingers of women, and up to this time the women in Japan have been paid fi'om four to eight cents a day for twelve hours' labor. But the rapid rise of wages in Japan has made this rate of payment no longer possible. Without some unexpected change, it seemed that the tea-industry of Japan must die. [No\v the new machine can manufacture nearly a ton of tea in twent\'- four hours, with the labor of one attendant — the equivalent of the work of one hundred women. Hence this invention prom- ises to be as important to Japan as the invention of the cotton gin was to tlie South. It will save an industiy apparently doomed. ] 326 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC Aim to get into every joaragraph enough to make the subject, or the view of the subject which you are then presenting, complete in itself, 145. Paragraph-Coherence Defined.— A paragraph will be obscure, even though all the statements given arc parts of one subject, unless these statements follow one another in an unmistakably logical order. That is, the paragraph, like the sentence, must be coherent. In the paragraph, as in the sentence, coherence depends upon two things: the juxtaposition of the parts related in thought, and the use of connectives. A separate section will be devoted to each of these subjects. 146. Incoherence from Faulty Arrangement. — Incoher- ence from faulty arrangement is in almost every case a violation of the principle that things related in thought should be kept together; things distinct in thought, apart. This iirinciple is seldom adequately observed in the orig- inal draft of a paragraph. Before one sets pen to paper, he should, in a measure, have thought out the exact order in which he means to put down his ideas; but when the first draft is done, he has the further task of rearranging his details here and there, until every sentence in every l)aragraph grows out of what precedes and leads up to what follows. Xote the gain that comes from the chano-es of arrangement in the examples below: 1. I was born away out in tlie heart of the Rockies. My fjitJier hail come np into this \\'ild Montana cH)untry, bring- ing my mother, to prospect for gold. Reports had been spread tliat the gt)ld lay in the creek bottoms, and all one had to do was to pick it up; but such was not the case, as we soon learned. I well remember our 1 . I was born out in the very heart of tlie Rockies. I can well remember our two- roomed log cabin, the big fireplac-e, with the smoked hams dangling from the sooty rafters, and the stories that were told by the fireside of the cruelties of the wild Indians, who were often said to be approaching. Wo had been brought to this wild THE STRUCTURE OF THE SIISTGLE PARAGRAPH 327 two roomed log cabin, the big fireplace, and the smoked hams hanging from the sooty rafters. Stories were circu- lated of the cruelty of the wild Indians and of their approach. 2. A dramatic incident was the fall of a fireman, Morris Wilson, who went up the roof on a ladder to rescue children. Just as he reached the top a stream of water was turned on him. He reached for a child, and the latter jumped for his arms. Suddenly the fireman lost his hold on the ladder and fell with the child to the ground. The child was unhurt, but Wilson was so seriously injured that lie may die. The roof was crowded with children, who liad escaped through the scut- tle from the upper rooms, and who were being taken down by the firemen. Montana country because my father had heard that gold lay in the creek bottoms, and that all one had to do was to pick it up. But it was a false report. 2. During the fire an unfor- tunate accident occurred to one of the firemen — Morris Wilson. The roof was crowded with children who had escaped through the scuttle from the upper rooms. Several of the firemen, among them Wilson, were taking them down. Wil- son had just reached the top of the ladder and had caught a child who had jumped for his arms, when a stream of water was turned on him. He lost his hold and fell with the child to the ground. The child was unhurt, but Wilson was so seriously injured that he may die. 147. Connectives an Aid to Coherence. — Connectives, wliicli link the sentences tosrether atid show the reader whence he has come and whither he is going, are of even greater importance in the paragraph than in the sentence. Few readers realize the number of mere link -words pres- ent in any well-written paragraph. Among these words, which Coleridge called "the hooks and eyes" of style, are: "for," "indeed," "but," "and," "now," "then," "yet," "moreover," "hence," "while," "though," "accordingly," "therefore," "on the one side," "on the other side," "on the contrary." Yet these conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs form only a small piirt of the body of connectives. Many other words and phrases not 32R COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC formally classed as connectives have no other office than that of linkiiig together the thoughts of the paragraph. In the following extracts all the words which serve in any way as connectives are italicized: 1. There cannot be a stronger instance than the fate of Dry- den's last production, the "Fables." Tliat volume was published Avhen he was universally admitted to be the chief of living English iioots.— Macaulay: History of England. 2. In the effort to bring within reasonable compass a descrip- tion of the facts of to-day, I have had to resist another tempta- tion, that of straj'ing off into history. Tlie temptation has been strong, for . . . — Bryce: The American Commonwealth. 3. Sir, I can perceive by their manner, that some gentlemen object to the latitude of this description; because in the south- ern colonies the Church of England forms a large body, and has a regular establisliment. It is certainhj true. There is, however, a circumstance attending these colonies, which, in my opinion, fully couuterbalanc'es this difference, and makes the spirit of liberty still more high and haughty than in those to the north- ward. Jt is, that in Virginia and the Carolinas they have a vast multitude of slaves. Where this is the case in any part of the world, those who are free, are by far the most proud and jealous of tlieir freedom. Freedom is to them not only an enjoyment, but a kind of rfink and privilege. — Burke: Speccli on Concilia- tion with America. Faihire to use connectives frequently results in obscu- rity. Compare the incoherent paragraphs on the left below with the coherent ones on the right. 1. At the higli school gradu- 1. At the liigh school gradu- ating exercises lield in this city ating exercises held in this last j'ear a peculiar fact was city last year, a peculiar fact noticeable. For every boy in was noticeable. For every boy the class there were three in the class there were three girls. It is hard to ac(;ount for girls. A situation of this this. Are immature men kind is hard to .account for, forced into bu.siness? Are girls and leads one to query: "Is more blest with educational it true that immature men advantages".' One ignorant of are often forced into business, the true cause miglit say, and are girls more blest witb THE STRUCTURE OF THE SINGLE PARAGRAPH 329 "Yes." The rise of the man- ual ti'aining scliool seems to have caused the anomaly. educational advantages than boys?" At first thought, one ignorant of the true causes might answer, "Yes." Ou second thought, however, a more probable explanation pre- sents itself in the rise of the manual training schools. 2. Was Socrates justly con- demned? The question is an old one — perhaps as old as the trial itself. For Socrates was condemned by only a small majority, and, if common re- port is to be believed, his ac- cusers were killed soon after tlie trial. Evidently, even among the Athenians of 399 B. c. , there was considerable doubt as to his guilt. And, as time went on, and Plato's Apology and the writings of Xenophon further aided his cavise, the question became more and more a moot-point. 148. Similarity of Sentence-Structure Sometimes an Aid to Coherence. — Often, when the writer desires to keep one idea or one person before the reader's eyes for some time, the skillful repetition of a pronoun or a proper name, and a rough similarity in the form and cadence of the sen- tences, will increase the coherence ; e. g. : It was difficult for Englishmen to believe that any real danger to liberty could come from an idler and a voluptuary such as Charles the Second. But in the very difficult}^ of believ- ing this lay half the King's strength. He had in fact no taste whatever for the despotism of the Stuarts who had gone before him. His shrewdness laughed his grandfather's theory of Divine Right down the wind, while his indolence made such a personal administration as that which his father delighted in burthensome to him. He was too humorous a man to care for 2. Was Socrates justly con- demned? Socrates was con- victed by a small majority. Even among the Athenians of that daj^ there was consider- able doubt of his guilt. It is said that after the trial his ac- cusers were kiUed. Plato's Apology and Xenophon's writings further aided his cause, until the question be- came more and more a moot- point. 330 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC the pomp and show of power, and too good-natured a man to play the tyrant. But he believed as firmly as his father or his grandfather had believed in the older prerogatives of the Crown ; and, like them, he looked on Parliaments with suspicion and jealousy. "He told Lord Essex," Burnet says, "that he did not wish to be like a Grand Signior, with some mutes about him, and bags of bow-strings to strangle men; but he did not think that he was a king so long as a company of fellows were looking into his actions, and examining his ministers as well as his accounts/' "A king," he thought, "who might be checked, and have his ministers called to an account, was but a king in name." — Green: Short History of the English People. 149. Emphasis in Paragraphs. — Emphasis is the tliird noticeable attribute of a good paragraph. In a forcible par- agraph, the arrangement brings the most i)rominent ideas into the most prominent places; that is, the beginning or the end. Very often a paragraph can be given emphasis by stating the subject at the beginning and making the rest of the paragraph a series of examples or illustrations ending with a summing-up. Now and then emphasis is secured by varying the process; i. e. , by starting with the details and announcing the leading thought in the last sentences. To begin or end witli unimportant details, or to go from the more to the less important idea, destroys emphasis. In the first example below, emphasis is secured by the first of the two methods referred to above; in the second, by the second method. The two remaining paragraphs show a lack of emphasis. In the first, the writer allows the paragraph to end with comparatively unimportant details; in the second, the writer puts his ideas forward in the wrong order. 1. It is pleasant to notice that the general nervousness and vague fear of last winter in reference to the unemployed have now so largely given way to a season of reflection and analysis. It is no longer enough for a set of men to exhibit themselves as a,n army of the unemployed to inspire sympathy or terror in the THE STKUCTURE OF THE SINGLE PARAGRAPH 331 staid citizen and to make him feel tliat Congress or the State or citj^ government should "do something." The time lias come to cross-examine the unemployed, to ask them how they came into their present evil estate, what work they ever did and how they came to lose their jobs, and what work they could or would do now if it were offered them. Such (][uestioning is the surest way to rid ourselves of the notion that there is anything new or particularly threatening about the matter as it presents itself to-day, for it is simply tlie old question over again of what society is to do with the incapable and unwilling who cannot, or will not, earn an honest living. — The Nation. 2. Ariosto tells a pretty story of a fairy, who, by some mys- terious law of her nature, was condemned to appear at certain seasons in the form of a foul and poisonous snake. Those who injured her during the period of her disguise were forever excluded from participation in the blessings which she bestowed. But to those who, in spite of her loathsome aspect, pitied and protected her, she afterwards revealed herself in the beautiful and celestial form which was natural to her, accompanied their steps, granted all their wishes, filled their houses with wealth, made them haj^py in love and victorious in war. Such a spirit is Liberty. At times she takes the form of a hateful reptile. She grovels, she hisses, she stings. But woe to those who in disgust shall venture to crush lier! And happy are those who, having dared to receive her in her degraded and frightful shape, shall at length be rewarded by her in the time of her beauty and her glory !— Macaulay : Essay on Milton. 3. Little do we I'ealize, as we perform oiir routine work, what a multitude of people are bending under loads of freight. More than a million inen and women are employed on the rail- ways alone, while the great engines wend their way, screaming and roaring, over the vast lands of the world. Then there are the ocean steamers, each with its little army of men, which transport the products of one country to another. Finally, there ai'e the dray horses, the mules, the camels, and the ele- phants, all of which keep the freight moving. 4. There were three points in the story which deserved favor- able comment. The way in which the hero and heroine of the story meet and are finally reconciled to each otiier forms the unique characteristic of the plot. So well has Stevenson pic- tured the important qualities of their characters that we feel well acquainted with both. There are also many good descrip- 332 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC tive passages connected with the characters themselves, and also with the house and its furnishings. 150. Summary of Chapter.— A paragraph should be a collection of sentences treating one subject, or one view of a subject. A ^yell-constructed paragraph has unity, co- herence, and emphasis. It has unity when it contains no matter foreign to the main subject, and contains all the matter necessary to an understanding of the subject, or the special side of the subject, it presents. Unified paragraphs can generally be summed up in a unified sentence. A para- graph has coherence when the relation of every sentence in it to every other sentence, and to the paragraph as a whole, is clear. To gai>n coherence, the different sentences must be arranged in logically consecutive order, and con- nectives must be freely used. A paragraph has emphasis when the important thoughts are put in the important places, that is, either at the beginning or the end. Exercise XX A. Write a paragraph defining the term "paragraph"; another, telling what laws govern paragraph-structure. J>. Define paragraph-unity. What is the test of unity in the paragraph? How niiiy unity be destroyed? C. Find in the newspapers two or three paragraphs which lack unity; criticise and rewrite them. D. The following paragraphs lack unity. Point oUj the faults in each. Kewrite those which j^ou can unify. 1. Charlotte Cusliman loved fame, worshiped money, and was devoted to her art. That she was a great artist has never been questioned. In private life, she was a charming woman. The moment she entered the theatre, either at rehearsal or at a performance, her whole soul was wrapped up in her art. If she was somewhat miserly with money in general, she was extrava- gant in her assistance and encouragement to those in whom she saw genius and talent. Of Charlotte Cushman's greatness ia THE STRUCTURE OF THE SINGLE PARAGRAPH 333 some parts there is no question. " Meg Merrilies, Lady Macbeth, and Queen Catherine were her best parts. At rehearsals she was ever kind and tender, never tiring in teaching those who were lacking in experience or were suffering from stage fright. 2. One can not help being shocked to see how the New England Sabbath, with all its carefully guarded restrictions, its devout observances, its reverence and piety, is passing away. It was a holy day, and upon it men did holy deeds and thought on holy things. To-day we see young men who have no other day for out-of-door recreation starting Sunday morning on their bicj'cles for the " golf-links or the woods. How fortunate tliey are to have one day in the week, if not for religion, at least for rest and recreation ! 3. In a moment a gong sounded and the tramp of footsteps came to my ears. The inmates slowly approached. The men entered first. Some were large and erect, their ruddy faces showing the effect of working on the poorhouse farm. Others were old and bent, the sorrowful, forlorn look on their faces showing the wretched, hopeless life they led there. They all sat down in their places and quietly waited for the service to begin. The women were neatly dressed, some wear- ing a little bit of fineiy carefully saved, while others evidently did not care much for their appearance. When the children came in, all turned around to smile a look of recognition or love. 4. There is need of more stringent quarantine regulations in the harbor of Wharton. At this season of tlie year many ves- sels come into this port from foreign countries, and there is always danger that they will bring with them infectious or con- tagious -diseases. At present the health authorities keep a sentinel at Watson's Point. His duty, and he performs it faithfully, is to board incoming vessels and inquire as to the physical condition of those on board and as to the sanitary condition of the vessel itself. As we understand it, this sentinel is simply a lay inspector, who has had no special preparation for the work he is expected to do. He is not a physician and has only the knowl- edge of the average layman regarding dangerous diseases. This is not as it should be. If arriving vessels are to be exam- ined, it should be by a thoroughly competent medical official. It is unwise to take any chance of the introduction of malignant fevers, smallpox, or otlier maladies of that class. 334 COMPOSITION" AND RHETORIC It is not tlie purpose of the Courier to find fault with wJmt has been or what is being done. Tlie doctors directing the oper- ation of the existing quarantine regulations are doing all that is possible with the means at their disposal. What is needed is something additional— a physician to go aboard ships coming in at "Watson's Point, rather than when they are docked, and to make a careful inspection of them. Too much care can not be exercised to prevent the presence of diseases that may become epidemic. 5. But Peter's diligence and thoroughness, his fearlessness in going to the root of a matter, and his willingness to take upon himself great labor, bore their legitimate fruit. His govern- ment was, all things considered, successful. And his ability to carry on a government so vast as that of Russia won for him love and honor from all. His last days were spent in beautifying the capital and furthering the cause of education. 6. Addison's humor is quaint, but always true humor — pleas- ant and kindly, never cutting or stinging. I believe it is Johnson whosay.s, "He who would write pure English must spend his days and nights with Addison." Addison wrote a great many articles for the Spectator and the Tatler. In fact nearly all his writings appeared in those magazines. Nowhere in the English language (poetry excepted) is to be found a story more charming than Addison's pictures of the entire innocence, simplicity, anil kind-heartedness of Sir Roger de Coverloy Nor is Sir Roger an ideal personage created by the author's genius, for there are sucli psojile even now, though, of course, not many. 7. I left my home in Canada on the 29th of May, 1897, for the purpose of seeking my fortune in the West. All through my journey I had but one object; namely, to reach Chicago. As I walked from the train to my hotel I compared what I could see of the city with the city I had left. There is a vast difference in the two cities, a difference whic-h was plainly to be seen in a very short time. Passing along State street, I was struck by the number of people, some going one way, some another. In a few minutes more I was in the Palmer House, where my friends awaited me. There I had a very fine dinner. The.se were the oniy events worthy of mention, for being very tired, I went to bed early. 8. Probably one of the most interesting discoveries of mod- ern times is that of an island in the Pacific ocean. This island THE STRUCTURE OF THE SINGLE PARAGRAPH 335 is sometimes known under the name of "Dawson's Island." It is on no map, but is located about twenty -tliree hundred miles from the coast of South America, and it is ahnost directly south of Lower California. The discovery is considered by many to be next in interest to that of the revealing of the walls of ancient Troy. The massive ruins of Troy in all stages of decay hide untold mysteries of an aboriginal race, who are supposed to have been highly civilized. Tliis fact is shown from their statuary and architectural remains. A German geographer has visited this island, and tells of its wonderful features of inter- est. The island is of volcanic origin, and about ten miles long- by five miles wide. On one side, the shore is banked with vol- canoes, and in the. center of a vast plain which lies beyond is a volcano so jjerfectly shaped that it might hfive been modeled by the hand of man. These immense volcanoes have been extinct for many years. In fact the natives have never seen an eruption. 9. Tliere would be considerable surprise expressed among orthodox church-goers if the Conception of Nirvana was alluded to as a distinctly Christian docti-ine. Yet in a deep sense, such is actually the case. Buddha taught the attainment of Nirvana, or the realization of oneness with the Universal Life, as the aim and summit of human life. Jesus emphatically told his disciples that "I and the Father are one,'" — "He in me, and I in you," — "The kingdom of heaven is within you." Both are expressions of the same fundamental idea, the central principle of all religions — that God is immanent, the all-pervading Spirit of Life ; that all the strength, wisdom, and love of humanity are derived from the Infinite Father, the ultimate source of the universe. The supreme duty of man is to recognize and act upon this sublime principle. 10. The pretext for Macaulay's essay on Addison is Miss Aikin's essay on Addison, and in part he criticises her interpre- tation of Addison's life as she takes it from his writings. Addi- son's father was a minister, and not a very successful man, but he gave his son Joseph a good education. Joseph was very pre- cocious and entered Queen's College at the age of fifteen witli a good amount of classical learning. He was a good Latin scholar and a good Latin poet. He was very well versed in the Latin poets, especially the early ones. On graduating from col- lege with a fellowship he was offered a position as a diplomat. 11. In this age of great reforms, is it not time some change 336 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC was made in our newspapers? After reading a Sunday issue especially, it is appalling to think that to thousands — comprising not only the poorer classes, who can atford nothing better, but also the great class of men and women who, in the stress of American business life, have little time for anything else — the jiress is the chief source of education. For sensational and romantic stories of a low order are not conducive to the best literary taste; neither are murder and suicide items of a refining nature. It is not unusual to find two pages devoted to society news, swelled by minute descriptions of the gowns and jewels worn at the latest so-called "functions." Then there are, on an average, from three columns to two pages of "sharp sayings" and "pointed paragraphs," which, if not actually^vulgar, are at least a poor kind of humor. Even when all this extraneous matter has been cut out, there is still room for improvement. For example, the glaring, sensational headlines, and the faults of grammar and diction in the editorials, not to mention slang, should be expurgated. Our journals should be written in cor- rect English. In the fact that there is a constantly increasing demand for college men in journalism lies the hope that through their influence the character of the press will be greatly improved. E. Define paragrapli-coherence. On what two factors does it depend? AVh}^ is it necessary to use connectives more freely in the paragraph than in the sentence? F. Find in the newspapers three paragraplis Avhich hick coherence, criticise them specifically, and rewrite them. G. Find in your reading paragraphs which are notahly coherent, and show how coherence has been attained. Point out, in the following paragraphs, the devices by which the sequence of thought is made obvion^. In a poet of such magnitvide, how shall we explain his scanti- ness of production? Shall we explain it by saying that to make of Gray a poet of this magnitude is absurd; that his genius and resources were small, and tliat his production, therefore, was small also, but that the popularity of a single piece, tlie Elegy, — a popularity due in great measure to t!ie subject, — created for Gray a reputation to whicli he has really- no right? He himself THE STRUCTURE OF THE SINGLE PARAGRAPH Xy^ was not deceived by the favor shown to the Elegij. "Gray told me with a good deal of acrimony," writes Dr. Gregory, '"that the Elegy owed its poijularity entirely to the subject, and that the public would have received it as well if it had been written in prose." This is too much to say; the Elegy is a beautiful poem, and in admiring it the public sliowed a true feeling for l^oetry. But it is true that the Elegy owed much of its success to its subject, and that it has received a too unmeasured and unbounded jiraise. Gray himself, however, maintained that the Elegy was not his best work in poetry, and he was right. High as is the i)raise due to the Elegy, it is yet trvie that in other productions of Graj^ he exhibits poetical qualities even higher than those exhibited in the Elegy. He deserves, therefore, his extremely high reputa- tion as a poet, although his critics and the public may not always have praised him with perfect judgment. We are brought back, then, to the question : How, in a poet so really considerable, are we to exj^lain his scantiness of production? Scanty, Gray's production, indeed, is; so scanty that to supple- ment our knowledge of it by a knowledge of tlie man is, in this case, of pecviliar interest and service. Gray's letters and the records of him by his friends have happily made it possible for us thus to know him, and to appreciate his high qualities of mind and soul. Let us see these in the man first, and then observe how they appear in his poetry ; and why tliey can not enter into it more freelj^ and inspire it witli more strength, render it more abundant. — Matthew Arnold: Essays on Criticism, Second Series. H. Eewrite the following incoherent paragraphs : 1. There are many reasons advanced against coeducation, many of them unreasonable and absurd. Most of the objec- tions come from abroad. There the sexes are held strictly apart during youth. Some say that the association of men and women in school life is not to their advantage. Since men and women are intended for nuxtual service, the best way to train them is by tx'aining them together. 2. The meadow-lark is veiy shy in nesting season and hides her eggs so that it is verj' difficult to discover them. When I was suffering from the collecting fever, I himted the meadows for days, in a vain hope of finding an egg, but I always returned empty-handed. To have a meadow-lark's egg in one's collection 338 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC was to be the envy of the admiring multitude of schoolboys. One day I found a nest. It was one of the events of tlie first twelve years of my life, to be classed along with going to New York or breaking an arm. I was trudging around a meadow behind a mowing machine, now and then picking the wild strawberries cut dov.n by the clattering knives, when, directlj^ in front, between my feet, I spied a meadow-lark's nest and four of the coveted speckled eggs. The nest was skillfully hidden under a tuft of buffalo gi-ass, but the mower had torn the grass away and left it exposed. As I remember, I was guilty of taking all four eggs. I did it in the interest of science ; I knew where I could make a number of exchanges with the prospect of great advantage. 3. The recent bequest of Cecil Rliodes to education has been a revelation of his character. Many people have looked upon him as a selfish, grasping man, failing to see the real motive in his far-reaching sc^liemes. A few years ago he is said to have passed his hand over the map of Africa and exclaimed: "All English! that is my dream." Toward the realization of that dream Cecil Rhodes strove during the greater part of his life, bending every energy to the acquirement of wealth, because, as he said, "Wealth is power." People stigmatized his purpose as unwor- thy, yet it was essentially philanthropic. Realizing the futility of attempting to acquire all Africa by railroads and military power, he. turned his attention to educational forces, and con- ceived the comprehensive plan of spreading English civilization, not alone over Africa, but throughout the world. To this end liis bequest was directed, and though his purpose may have been no better than that in his South African operations, the people regard it, and justly, as a boon to the human race. 4. Three years ago this fall I commenced my study of rlietoric and Englisli literature. I have alwaj\s been fond of reading, and the work was, therefore, agreeable to me, altliough it was not until the last year of my preparatory course tliat English work became what it is now — my favorite study. During this last year we used Jones's Pn'nci}>]es of English, a book which was rather advanced for us, as I think, though I liked it because it had many interesting examples of faults in well-known authors, and that cheered me up about my own short- comings. During the first year not so much attention was paid to rlietoric as to literature. We studied The House of ilw Sfven Gables, Tennyson's Pnncess, and Burke's Speech on Conciliation. THE STRUCTURE OF THE SINGLE PARAGRAPH 339 In the second year, our ti-.ne was pretty evenly divided between literature and rhetoric. We used Jones again, and read some plays of Shakspere's. In the third year, we read the books prescribed for the college enti'ance examinations. I omitted to say that it w^as in the second year that we wrote themes, a sort of work which was very interesting, especially when other people's themes were read in class. We wrote on subjects connected with the required reading, or on any little thing that happened to us. 5. Burke says that the temper and character of the Ameri- can Colonies have given them "a fierce spirit of liberty." The reasons are: 1, their descent from the English — a liberty- loving nation; 2, their government, which consists of local assemblies, giving them local liberty; 3, their religion is one which protests against the lack of liberty in the English Church. The fact that slavery exists among them has the effect of mak- ing them consider liberty a privilege of rank, and therefore they hold it dear. 5, their education is mostly directed toward law, which fact gives them a good idea of their rightful privileges ; 6, the fact that the colonies are remote from the head of the government always tends to weaken its authority. /, Defiue paragraph-emphasis. How may it be se- cured? J. Criticise specifically the following unemphatic para- graphs : 1. In the last few years, as the result of the Spanish- American war, the people of this country have become imbued with a spirit of expansion. It seems to be their idea to become a great world-pow-er, to stretch out immense arms over the earth, and perform wonders. It seems to be their sincere desire to pacify civilized countries, to bring civilization to those living in semi-barbarous darkness, and altogether to perform undertak- ings of herculean proportions. Nor will other lands alone benefit by this. Probably the trade of the United States will increase seventy-five per cent. 2. Edward Watson, the celebrated actor of the "Pudd'nhead Wilson" company, who was in full health and vigor yesterday, is to-day lying a corpse in a private room at the Chateau Fron- tenac. He arrived in our city late last evening, and passed away to his long home most unexpectedly, shortly after two o'clock this 340 COMPOSITION" AND RHETORIC moruiug, in the presence of three other gentlemen. The news of his untimely end was a shock to the members of the corn- pan j% to whom he had endeared himself by his kindly and jolly disposition. Mr. Watson arrived in this city, accompanied by his wife and daughter and the members of the company, last evening and was met at the station by several Quebecers who accompanied him to the Chateau Frontenac. 3. It is receding rapidly now — this historic old place [Mount Vernon]. And as our steamer puffs along, a feeling of awe and revei'ence steals over us, and our thoughts take on an historical nature. Here in this very spot, not so long ago, lived the man to whom the United States of America owes a debt not to be computed. Honest man, courteous gentleman, wise statesman, valiant soldier — he is a lofty example to all succeeding genera- tions — justly called the Father of his Country. And now, as we turn a bend in the river, a distant chanticleer crows farewell. 4. The next year I went to Paris. Here I had a French maid, who took charge of me. Eveiy Wednesday she took me to the Bois de Boulogne, where we had lunch. I used to spend all my allowance on the queer trinkets which I found in the fasci- nating shops about Paris. My life passed there was much more delightful than it is here, where my time is taken up with studies, music, and a few parties, pleasant but uninteresting. 5. About two weeks ago, I was invited to join a party that was going to Plymouth. We started from Boston at 10 o'clock and arrived there at twelve. Carriages awaited us at the station, and we drove at once to a hotel, where dinner was served. After dinner we visited almost all the places of interest, among them the Museum, Plymouth Rock, and the old historic ceme- tery. This cemetery was the burial place of some of the Pilgrims who died during the first winter's stay in Plymouth. There is very little business going on in Plymouth, but the town is visited by many travelers and historical societies. 6. The natural beauty of the lake possesses great charms. Along its border tiiere are few marshes, but there are great tracts of woodland running down to the shore, with many pretty groves. Its waters are very calm, owing partly to the narrow- ness of the lake, and partly to the fact tliat it is sheltered by the surrounding hills. This makes it an ideal place for college boat races. 7. To any one wlio wishes to get an idea of life in a jungle, THE STRUCTURE OF THE SINGLE PARAGRAPH 341 or even of the customs of the people in the Arctic regions, Kip- ling's Second Jungle Boole will give many definite impi'essions. This knowledge of the jungle is given by taking an imaginary man, or rather a boy who is called Mowgli. His life is associ- ated with the many different animals of the jungle. In this way the instincts and characteristics of the animals are described in a very realistic manner, which manifests the great power of imagination that the writer possesses. It is very interesting to read how Mowgli kept the good favor of the great masters of the jungle. The chapter which tells of his escape from the pack of wolves can not bvit interest the reader. X. Eead again the paragraph from Bryce on page 319, and discuss the method by which he gives the paragraph emphasis. CHAPTER XXI THE STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 151. The Relation of the Paragraph to the Whole Com- position. — A paragraph may be a complete composition in itself. A small siihject may be fully treated in one unit. Usually, however, we uuderstaud by the term "whole composition' ' a composition containing a number of well- marked organic divisions called paragraphs.^ Xo matter what may be the nature of the subject, these divisions should represent steps in the thought, and as they stand in the finished work form a whole composition, which like the single paragraphs of which it is composed observes tlie rhetorical principles. 152. Unity in the Whole Composition. — Though the unit in the case of the whole composition embraces more topics than can bo treated properly in the single para- graph, the principle of unity in the whole comjiosition is precisely what it is in the paragraph. Unity may be violated by the introduction of too many topics, or by the incomplete development of necessary topics. Matter that, althougli related to the subject, is a digression from the main purpose of the theme, must bo excluded. A good plan, or outline, of the whole composition will aid the writer in preserving unity. 153. Proportion in the Whole Composition. — Closely related to the principle of unity is that of proportion. The different parts of the whole composition must be planned Avith reference to each other, no one division 1 See Cliauicr III. 342 THE STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 343 being given an imdne prominence. The outline will often reveal the fact that too many paragraphs have been devoted to one portion of the theme, perhaps the intro- duction or the conclusion or some subordinate point in the body. These inequalities, when they occur in the final draft of the theme, necessitate recasting the whoifc. In the outline, or first draft, however, it is easy to strike out or subordinate unimportant topics. Every piece of Avriting should leave with the reader an impression of balance or proportion. 154. The Order of the Paragraphs in the Whole Compo- sition. — In this larger unit the most important matter is the order of its parts. The whole composition may be likened to a chain of which the paragraphs form the links. To gain clearness, the writer must include in his chain of j)aragraphs every essential link, and he must place the links where they properly belong in the develop- ment of his ideas. If ho omits links or misplaces them, the reader will miss the order of thought and become confused. The proper order for paragraphs in the whole composition is a question of logic. Sometimes there is a choice among several methods of arranging the parts, and the best arrangement can be found only after experiment. In the following newspaper article there is no apparent reason why the second paragraph should follow the first, or the third the second, or the fourth the third : The first church services were held in the new town of Law- ton last Sunday. They were held in the open air, near the railroad tracks, and the people from all sections came. Plans are now being made to erect a church building for all denominations at this new border metropolis. For a month or more the religious element has been without the opportunity of attending church, except at a few of the impromptu meetings held in tents. It was unique, this first church service held on the border. Men and women came carrying guns, while deputy marshals 344 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC rode around the teut where the i>i-eacher was camped to keep the rough element from running him away. The minister, the Rev. Edward Smith, is no tenderfoot, and he preached a power- ful sermon, with a six-sliooter attached to his belt. There is not so much danger from outlaws at Lawton as from the hundreds of gamblers who seek to keep everything in a wild state. Deputy marshals, under the direction of United States Marshal Harry Thompson, are numerous in the new country, there being fifty or more of them. They are all mounted on good horses and are keeping the country in fairly good order. Of course there are a few gangs of bad men wlio can not be suppressed on the moment. It will require six months at least to tame the new country thoroughly and make it as civilized as the surrounding districts. The Indians are taking a vital interest in having the outlaws and gamblers squelched, and several of tlie warriors have enlisted on the mcii-.shars staff and are now helpiag to rid their former domain of all bad characters. Several churches in tents have been established at Anadarko, while one is running at Hobart. The missionaries have churches for the Indians at .several of the Government posts, but these are far from the white settlements. Compare with these disjoiuted paragraphs the following: THE NEW ENGLAND TOWNSHIP In a New England township the people directly govern them- selves; the government is the people, or, to speak with entire precision, it is all the male inhabitants of one-and-twenty years of age and upwards. The people tax them,selves. Once each year, usually ir. IMarcli but sometimes as early as February or as late as April, a "town-meeting" is held, at which all the grown men of the township are expected to be present and to vote, while any one may introduce motions or take part in the discus- sion. In early times there was a fine for non-attendance, but that is no longer the case; it is supposed that a due regard to liis own interests will induce every man to come. The town-meeting is held in the town-house, but at first it used to be held in tlie church, which was thus a "meeting- liouse" for civil as well as ecclesiastical purposes. At tlie town-meeting measures relating to the administration of town affairs are discussed and adopted or rejected; appropriations are maile for the public expenises of the town, or in other words the amount of the town taxes for the year is determined; and town THE STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 345 officers are elected for the year. Let us first enumerate these officers. The principal executive magistrates of the town are the select- men. They are three, five, seven, or nine in number, according to the size of the town and the amount of public business to be transacted. The odd number insures a majority decision in case of any difference of opinion among them. They have the general arrangement of the public business. Tliey issue warrants for t!ie holding of town-meetings, and they can call such a meeting at any time during the 3'ear when there seems to be a need for it, but the warrant must always specify the.subjects which are to be dis- cussed and acted on at the meeting. The selectmen also lay out highways, grant licenses, and impanel jurors; they may act as health officers and issue orders regarding sewerage, the abate- ment of nuisances, or the isolation of contagious diseases; in many cases they act as assessors of taxes, and as overseers of the poor. They are the proper persons to listen to complaints if anything goes wrong in the town. In county matters and state matters they speak for the town, and if it is a party to a law- suit, they rejiresent it in court; for the New England town is a legal corporation, and as such can hold property, and sue and be sued. In a certain sense the selectmen may be said to be "the government" of the town during the intervals between the town-meetings. An officer no less important than the selectmen is the town- clerk. . . . — JoHX FiSKE: Civil Oovernment in the United States, 155. The Plan, or Outline. — If a writer has a keen sense of order and logic, he can arrange the parts of his whole composition as he writes. Few writers, however, can trnst themselves to work without any preliminary plan. In the end, no matter how simjile the subject may be, it is easier to make an outline of the subject first. These first notes, or jottings, have been described in sec- tions 13 and 15 chiefly as an aid in gathering material. We shall now consider the outline as a help in ordering the parts of the whole composition. For such a purpose a few words or phrases may answer, if the theme is a short one on some simple matter. However, especially in long themes the more pains one takes with this outline, the 346 COMPOSITION" AND RHETORIC easier the iictual labor of composition will become. It is best, therefore, to frame a full heading for each para- graph of the theme. To this may be joined, in brackets, brief notes of the contents of the paragraph. In cases where the whole composition will reach to more than a thousand words (roughly, about five theme-pages), a more extended outline is advisable, — one that will indicate larger parts of the whole than the paragraph, such as the beginning, the body, and the conclusion. Tlie first outline that follows is a mere list of topics. The second is an adequate outline of a four-page theme. A. Sewing in the Grammar Schools. I. Not profitable. 1. Not in all schools. a. Not time enough. II. Enough to do without it. 1. Other work neglected. III. Bad for health. 1. Work at home. IV. Teachers poor. V. Shovild be discontinued. 3. Sewing in the Grammar Schools. I. Sewing has been introduced as a study in the gram- mar schools. 1. Reasons for its introduction. II. It is not a profitable course. 1. Too little time (from fifteen to thirty minutes) is given dail^^ to the work. 2. The instructors are not competent, for a. They have received no special training in thi.s subject. 3. That many in authority grant this proposition is shown by the fact that sewing has not been put into all the scliools. III. The pupils do not have time for both sewing and their other more important work. 1. Already each lesson receives but thirty min- utes. THE STEUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION" 3-1:7 IV. The work lias a bad effect on the pupils" health 1. As they are required to do a good deal of it at home, their time for exercise in the fresh air is shortened. The preparation of the outline, thongh a somewhat tedious task, is the only means of insuring orderly writ- ing. The writer y.'ill detect in his outline what parts of his subject can not be related to the whole, and what parts, misplaced in his plan, l)elong naturally together. 156. The Use of Connectives. — It is not enough to arrange the parts of the ^\hole composition logically. The relation betAveen the parts must be made plain by the use of connectives. In the whole composition, this is much more necessary than in the paragraph Avhere the sentences are often so close in thought that they do not need verbal links. The reader should not be left to find out that the writer's order of, thought between the para- graphs is the proper one. He should feel at once as ho reads that the ideas are coherent. The following para- graphs are connected in thought, but the connection is not made clear : From the point of view of health thei*e can be no comparison between a good game — in which every muscle is suitably exer- cised, and brain and lungs join in the complete happiness of the honest laugh and the careless shout — and the "dead-alive" mili- tary drill, or formal gymnastics, which wliile developing many muscles abnormally, leave the bi-ain torpid and the spirit depressed. The game must be regulated. Unselfishness must be practiced at every turn ; the strong must help the weak ; and the weak must be aroused that they maj' not be a drag upon the strong. The team that represents a school must be chosen purely on the merit of its members, those selected being as jealous of their lionorable distinction as the rejected are glad to stand aside for the honor of their common cause. As the credit of the school demands the best effort of every individual, there must be patient practice and steady perseverance. — (Adapted from Forum, No. 27, p. 330.) 348 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC A connecting phrase can easily be supplied in the first sentence of the second paragraph, which will bind the two paragraphs together ; e.g. , ' '//" the full benefits of a game are to he reaped^ however^ the game must be regulated." Careful writers employ three obvious devices to bring out the connection between the parts of the whole com- position. The first is the use of conjunctions and - conjunctive adverbs (espscially "hence," "therefore," "moreover," "then," "however," and "now"). "And" or "but" may be used to link two paragraphs, but only when the thought of the second paragraph an a whole is parallel with, or in opposition to, that of the first. They should not be used to unite the last sentence of the first paragraph with the first sentence of the second. The second device is the use of reference words, such as. "this," "that," "these," "those," "such," and "like." These terms need not be the very first in the opening sen- tence of the paragraph ; they may be woven into the first sentence at some succeeding point, as, "Pride, under such training, is turned to account," and, "I might consider in the same manner ..." The third device is the rejieti- tion in opening a paragraph, of words or phrases used in the closing sentences of the preceding paragraph, as in this passage: I was very sure that, if ray proposition \yere futile or danger- ous, if it were weakly conceived or improperly timed, there was * nothing exterior to it, of power to awe, dazzle, or delude you. You will see it just as it is, and you will treat it just as it deserves. The proposition is peace, etc. — Burke : Conciliation iriih America. It is useless, however, to attempt to disguise disorderly thinking by tying together with connectives loosely related thoughts. Logical thinking must underlie clear writing. The orderly arrangement of thought should precede all attempts to use rhetorical links. THE STRUCTUKE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 349 157. How to Open the Whole Composition. — To make a good beginning is a difficult feat in composition. A dan- gerous piece of advice sometimes given to young writers, is to devote an entire paragraph to the introduction. In long essays or books, such an opening, containing a general statement of the author's purpose and his plan, may make a suitable introduction. Carlyle's Essay on, Burns^ for example, has an introduction five paragraphs in length, which treats of biography in general and of the various biographies of Burns. Macaulay, on the other hand, gives in the very first paragraph of his essay on Tlte Life of Samuel Johnson Johnson's birth and early life. He begins: Samuel Johnson, one of the most eminent English writers of the eighteentli century, was tlie son of Michael Johnson, v/ho was at the beginning of that centuiy a magistrate of Lichfield and a bookseller of great note in the midland comities. This more direct form of introduction is, generally speaking, preferable. Preliminaries are usually dull ; the introduction is the writer's scatfolding for his thoughts, and it should be removed when his final draft is made. Especially in telling a story or in describing an object, it is desirable to avoid an elaborate opening, for in such cases the reader's attention must be gained at once. This, for example, is a good beginning for a story: PERE CHEVREFILS A month had passed since old Pere La Force was buried beneath the stone floor of the chapel wiiere he had so long attended the spiritual wants of his little flock. Four whole Sun- days without a mass, and then M. Chevrefils arrived from 3Ion- treal to take charge of the parish. He came on the night train ; and although old Joe Pileaux and two or three other town advisers loitered around the station to see what he was like, some- how he slipped past the watcliers and was walking swiftly up the road before they noticed him. Sunday morning everyone in St. Anne's was at mass. 850 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC Wagons and c^rts that were seen only at Easter-time were hitched under the trees, wliose branches spread over the little chapel. The Demots from La Prairie, Old Buck, the chief of the Cocoguowagos, even old Therese Lozon, who had not gone to mass for years on account of her rheumatism, were there. The sabots, that were never discarded by the old folk, clattered up the narrow aisles until the very last stroke of the bell. Sterne begins his Sentimental Journey in this informal manner : "They order,'" said I, "this matter better in France." Lowell opens an essay on "The Study of Modern Lan- guages" with this slight introduction: Three years ago I was one of those who gathered in the San- ders Theatre to commemorate the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of a college founded to perpetuate living learning chiefly by the help of three dead languages — the Hebrew, the Greek, and the Latin. I have given them that order of prece- dence which they had in the minds of those our pious founders. The Hebrew came first because they believed that it had been spoken by God Himself, and that it would have been the com- mon speech of mankind but for the judicial invention of the modern languages at Shinar. Greek came next because the New Te.stament was written in that tongue, and Latin last as the interpreter between scholars. Of the men who stood about that fateful ci-adle swung from bough of the primeval forest, there were, probably few who believed that a book written in any living language could itself live. For nearly two hundred years no modern language was con- tinuously and systematically taught here. In the latter half of the last century a stray Frenchman was caught now and then. A good opening, however, must be more Ihan brief; it must be engaging, "Where shall we attack our subject to get the most interesting view of it? Lowell introduces his essay by stating strikingly the past condition of edu- cation in regard to modern languages. After showing how completely ignored this subject has been, he proceeds to discuss its value. One form of introduction often used by speakers is a short story or apt illustration of the topic. THE STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 351 Another common form is some general assertion that is debatable, or, on the other hand, an assertion which is indisputably true. In every case, the writer should seek to gain the reader's attention. 158. How to End the V/hole Composition, — To end well is almost as difficult as to begin well. The conclusion should be interesting and important, perhaps even more so than the beginning. The descriptive theme that fol- lows runs down at the end, as if the writer were tired of his subject: We trudged into Amherst about dusk, as the chapel bell was striking seven o'clock, — a very tired lot of boys, judging by myself. Besides getting an idea of the beauty of the surround- ing country, of which I have not said much on account of lack of time, we became well acquainted with one another; this fact alone was enovigh to pay us for our day's outing in the mountains. I suppose you have reached this point in my story only after the second or third reading, but you know you said j-ou w^anted me to tell everything I did, so this is wiiat I have done. 1 can not think of anything more to say now, and I must close and get to work. You are always calling for my letters, but I do not hear from you half as often as you do from me. If he had said simply, "Wo trudged into Amherst about dusk, as the chapel bell was striking seven o'clock — a very tired lot of boys," he Avould have left us with a clearer, happier impression of his excursion. The best rule, especially in description or informal narrative, is to be brief in the conclusion, as in the opening. Find out where the interest in the subject really ends, and have the courage to leave off at that point. Avoid postscripts, for if the information contained in the postscript is important, it probably belongs earlier in the theme, and should be inserted in its proper place. One form of the postscript that is especially annoying occurs when the writer, thiiiking that the reader Avill not see his point, tries to explain it or to moralize about it. The real end 353 COMPOSI-TION AND RHETORIC of tliis dcscriptiou, for examjDle, is "a sense of ceaseless activity which accomplishes nothing": AN AFTERNOON RECITATION M}' afternoon recitation in Beoiculf brought little with it. The large, dark room was crowded with students who settled themselves in their chairs in the pleasing anticipation of being bored for an hour. Before us sat the teacher— short, heavy, and uninteresting, gazing impassively at us over her spectacles. The hour began with a recitation on the assigned lesson, now and then interrupted by the squeaking of the door, as some tardy member entered. Then the teacher spent the remaining time reading aloud in a monotonous voice extracts from Beoivulf, especially descriptions of a lonely sea and gloomy conflicts. From the chapel overhead came the melancholy wailing of the organ practice. The impression received from the window was just as cheerless; there, a somber gray sky met our gaze. Amid the howling of the wind there were heard occasional dull thuds, as a strong gust shook down the late pears from a now almost leafless pear tree near the window. No less so was the mental picture of the eternal dashing of waves on a bleak shore under a leaden sky, and a solitary hero on the strand, engaged in mortal combat with a grim monster. There was something oppressive about the whole atmosphere— a sense of ceaseless activity which accomplishes nothing. The result caused by the mingled efl"ect of dropping pears, wailing wind, moaning organ, droning reader, and splashing waves, was depressing. An aljrupt conclusion, on the other hand, especially after treating a difficult or large subject, leaves the reader wondering what the article has been written for. In this final paragraph of an essay on Shelley's life, t-he author has cut off his remarks with a knife: Minor works, the most important of which are Ode to the West Wind, The Cloud, To the Skylark, and To Night, follou-ed in rapid succession. These little poems are sometimes thoughtful, sometimes merely suggestive, and sometimes mystic; but they are always charming. Of his longer poems, Adonais is the most popujar. It is an elegy on the death of Keats, and, next to Lycidas, is the finest elegy in the language. THE STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 353 The length of the conclusion will nuLurally depend upon the scale and the nature of the whole composition. If the subject is a complex or difficult one, it will be neces- sary to make the conclusion a summary of the chief points touched upon, as in the following illustration: In conclusion it may be stated that: 1. The American people are determined to have an Isthmian Canal owned and operated exclusively by the United States Gov- ernment. Having refused partnership with an American com- pany in the enterprise, they will not consent to any such partnership with a foreign company. 2. If both cana,ls were constructed and operated on the same tariff schedule, the Panama would secure only the traffic to and from South American ports between Valparaiso and Panama, and Nicaragua would secure all the rest, nearly three-fourths. Therefore : 3. It would be financially disastrous to construct and operate a canal at Panama in comijetition with the United States. This is so obvious that funds to construct a competing canal could never be raised. Therefore, it behooves the Panama Canal Company to place a price on its works, such that the American Government can afford, economically, to pay, and then complete the Panama Canal. Otherwise, the Nicaragua Canal will be built, and the work now accomplished at Panama will be a dead loss. — Arthur P. Davis: The Forum, 30, 544. In every composition, it is important to see that your work is finished, that your reader has nothing more to expect from you ; and to see also that you do not weaken your effect by wearying- your reader Avith trivial remarks — that you observe the principle of climax. Exercise XXI A. To study coherence of arrangement in the whole composition, outline the first ten pages of Burke's Speech on Conciliation; the second chapter of Southey's Life of Nelson; the first chapter of Scott's Woodstock. 354 COMPOSITION" AND RHETORIC B. Illustrate the principle of rhetorical coherence from a chapter of the book you are reading in the class in English literature. What means of linking paragraphs do you find besides those mentioned in the text? C. Criticise the coherence of the following themes, liewrite them in coherent form: 1. PUBLIC SPEAKING SHOULD BE MADE COMPULSORY So many have doubted the advisability of making public speaking compulsory that I will give here a few arguments in its favor and against it. As to the stand I myself take, I shall leave the reader to determine for himself. That public speaking in itself is a good course, I think no one will doubt, for surely the college man should have the chance to become a speaker if he wishes. And this leads up to the fact I am going to discuss. Should this study, or may we not even call it a pleasure, be made compulsory? A man says to you: "Why should I have to take public speak- ing? I am interested in the sciences and never intend to make a speech." Perhaps he does not intend ever to make a speech, but if he ever wants to tell an audience the result of some scien- tific experiment, without this training he will be utterly at a loss to know how to begin, to end, or even to stand before an audi- ence. Unless he is a very self-possessed man, he will be fright- ened to death even to look an audience in the face. I believe that when a man is in this condition, he is said to be stage- struck. The man who said that many a fine thought was lost to the world because the man who had it couldn't make it known, hit the nail on the head. Now, if the man who dislikes it is not forced to take that work, he never will. But to the man who would choose it in any case, it matters nothing whether it is compulsory or not. Then, again, a student may say: "Public speaking is a bore, and though I don't actually dislike it, it takes up three or four valuable hours a week. Besides I can't learn a piece and then speak it like a child." He says it is a bore. I thought so, too, at the first lesson. Then I took a mild interest in it, and now I look forward eagerly to each recitation. And I venture to say the whiner will come to my way of thinking before he has had four lessons. Then he says he can't commit a short selection to memory. Well, then, this course is just the one he THE STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION" 355 should take. He should without delay learn to commit pieces of literature to memory. And will he do this work unless he is forced to? No, he will not. He says he will, but something will always hinder him. Then again he says it takes up too much valuable time. To be sure it takes up three or four liours a week. But in what better way could three or four hours be spent? Besides these things, it gives one a better command of the English language. After a while, words come to one's mind without the least thought, and the speaker becomes very fluent. Public speaking also gives a man the greatest confidence in him- self. For instance, if a man is called upon to make an after din- ner imjiromptu speech, and has not been trained in this direction, he will flounder around and say nothing. How embarrassing that would be! Therefore, from these things here stated, I consider that I have proved without doubt that it is the best thing possible to make public .speaking a compulsory study. 2. A COLLEGE ROOM I had the pleasure the other afternoon of visiting a college room. It was a large front room, well lighted and facing west, and opened on the north side into an alcove which was used for a bedroom. The first thing I noticed as I entered the room was the predominance of maroon-colored furnishings, and its crowded condition. Every nook and corner had something in it. The windows were all draped in maroon curtains worked with a large C. Fastened to these curtains were souvenir badges of last year's football games. Besides these curtains, maroon pen- nants and banners hung from every conceivable place, and maroon cushions filled every chair. In the center of the room was a study-table, upon which was a student-lamp, school-books, and a jar of tobacco and a meer- schaum pipe. Beside the table was a large, comfortable armchair and foot-rest combined. Tacked upon the walls were pictures of the various football and glee and mandolin clubs. There were also numerous news- paper likenesses of individual players. The mantelpiece over the fireplace on the south side of the room was filled with souvenirs the student had picked up. Two silver cups, trophies of athletic victories, stood on the mantel. 35G COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC Bet%veen the two front windows was a lounge, a "bronco" as the owner calls it; This piece of furniture is so built that if a person sits on either end of it, that end will sink and spill him on the floor. This causes much amusement. A neat and ingenious method of displaying photographs was used in this room. Suspended from the ceiling and running around the four walls, was a large net, something like a tennis net. Fastened to this in a haphazard way were pictures of fair young ladies. The mirror of the dresser was fringed with small-sized likenesses of his friends. One side of the room is papered with posters, that is, with fancy covers of different publications. Boxing-gloves, dumb- bells, a tennis-racket, and skates are hung on the other walls. The only drawback to the otherwise pleasant room is the tobacco-laden atmosi^here. D. Point out the parts of the theme on pp. 368, 369 which injure the proportion. How Avould you recast the theme? E. Examine Chapter XI of Scott's Woodstoclc for pro- portion. What digressions do you find in Chapters I and VIII of George Ehot's Silas Mariier? F. Criticise these opening paragraphs of themes: 1. [A theme of three pages, entitled "A Trip to Milwaukee."] Four of us who had just finished the June examinations were going to stay in the city for a few days and have a good time before separating for our summer vacation. We were ready for anything in the way of jileasure. Books had no claim on us, and we could play tennis or go bicycling at any time or for any length of time. Among other amusements suggested was a day's trip to Milwaukee. All jumped at the suggestion, and the subject was carefully discussed from four sides. As we girls had never before been on the water longer than a few hours at a time, to spend a whole dsiy on Lake Michigan was something new, and we looked forward to the outing with great expecta- tion. The state of the weather was a question which needed some discussion ; if the lake were rough, should we get seasick or not? The men took delight in assuring us that in ease the lake were rough, as it probably would be on account of recent high winds, we should undoubtedly have the experience of sea- sickness. THE STRUCTURE OF THE "WHOLE COMPOSITION" 357 2. [A theme of three pages, entitled "The Household of Sir Roger de Coverley.'"] When we read the history of past ages and past generations, we are surprised and shocked at the manner in which the ancients treated their servants. The ancient Greeks and Romans held the idea that slaves were inferior to their masters and that masters could do as they jaleased witli their servants, even to the extent of killing them. We all know how the servile uprisings of Rome were suppressed, and how barbarously the leaders were punished. Likewise, in all ages we can find many instances of ill-treatment of servants by masters; even our own country is not exempt. •But as we look back we plainly see that servants are being treated better and better as the years roll by; now no one would think of abusing a servant. In the time of Sir Roger de Coverley, however, things were different; masters treated servants shamefully, and servants could get no redress. For this reason we must look on a man who loved his servants at that time as a man advanced in civili- zation beyond his age. 8. [A theme of four pages, entitled "An Experience."] The worst experience that has ever befallen me, I think, is the fact that I am obliged to write upon such a broad subject as I am now going to undertake. I have already realized the difficulty in writing this theme, for I rack my brains and set them in a wliirl trying to think up something that has happened to me within my memory. I have almost made myself believe that I have been through fires, floods, cyclones, and every other conceivable disaster that could look well in black and white. But such would never do, I fear. Perhaps I will tell you all about a little experience, not thrill- ing, which my sister and I had one summer wlien we were in Michigan, wliere we were visiting our aunt and uncle. "Well, girls," said auntie, when we had all pushed back our chairs from the breakfast table, "you may have the single buggy and Prince this morning ; go where you please, and stay as long as you wish." 4. [A theme of five pages, entitled "Thomas Jefferson, Demo crat."] Tlie majestic march of Democratic principles marks the bat- tle-line between liberty and despotism, between the rule of caste 358 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC and the rule of man, and their advocates ar6 the sentinels upon the battlements of reform. This new order of things was fore- shadowed in the constitution of Clisthenes ; Savonarola burst the chains of tyranny for the people of the long-oppressed Italy, and Cromwell led the English commoners to conflict and victory. "Democratic freedom," wailed the serf from the gloomy walls of feudal tyranny. "Democratic fi-eedom," sang the night wind through the Mayflower's creaking masts. "Democratic free- dom,'' belched forth the cannon from Bunker Hill and York- town. When tyranny had fettered the American colonies, when England's avarice had retarded our progress and blighted our commerce, when insult and added injury alone responded to the appeals of justice, then arose in defense of democratic freedom, simplicity, and integrity, the genius of his time, the sage of Monticello, the apostle of democracy, Tliomas Jefi'erson. 5. [An introduction to a Life of Coleridge. ] Toward the end of the eighteenth century, a remarkable change began to take place in English poetry. For more than a century, first under the leadership of Dryden, and then under that of Pope, poets had striven to give their verse formal cor- rectness and elegance at the expense of naturalness and spon- taneity. They had given up the free forms of verse used by the Elizabethan poets, and confined themselves almost entirely to a single form, the rhymed couplet. Subjects of romance and pas- sion, such as the Elizabethans had loved, were discarded for more mundane themes, wliich could be handled with wit and preci- sion, or with stately dignity of manner. But in the verse of Collins, Gray, Crabbe, and Burns, there appeared a strong pro- test against all this. Poets began to reassert tlieir right to represent the world of nature and men as they saw them, full of color, mystery, and emotion. G. Write introductory paragraphs on the following subjects : 1. The first football match of the season. 2. The necessity of a standing army. 3. A good method of dealing with tlie liquor problem. 4 Wliy English sparrows should not be destroyed. 5. The purposes of a bank. THE STRUCTURE OF THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 359 H. Criticise the following conclusions for themes : 1. [From a theme of four pages on Quo Vadis.} One of the valuable features, but, of course, secondary to the main ideas, is the information to be gained from the accurate description of the social conditions in Rome. The topography is minutely set forth ; the Porta Cappena, the Subura, the Esqui- line, all become familiar. We have a comprehensive picture of the streets and buildings of Nero's capital, peojiled with its various races, and an outline of the daily life of tlie citizens. On the whole, such an account would be highly pleasing to a person with an economical or sociological turn of mind. 2. [Prom a theme of four pages, entitled "Six Months in Berlin."] But in spite of these several obstacles I passed an exceedingly interesting time. There were many parks within Berlin itself, and several suburbs where the members of the royal family spent their summers. There were also plenty of art galleries and museums, and we visited places of historical interest. After six months in Berlin we traveled on to Paris, where we spent only two weeks. During this short time we also had several very funny experiences. 3. [From an argument of eight pages, entitled "What is the Most Adequate Theory of the Cause of Folded MountainsV"] For several reasons, then, the contraction theory is the most adequate theoiy yet offered. In the first place, all the objec- tions thus far brought against it can, as has been shown, be satisfactorily answered. In the next place, it is based on the most widely accepted theory in regard to the condition of the interior of the earth. Besides this, the leading geologists, althougli they do not necessarily consider it the right theory, yet think it has the strongest proof in its favor. Lastly, it ful- fills the essential condition of accounting for all the present known facts about folded mountains. /, Discuss the effect of the opening pages of Silas Marncr. What do you think of Scott's opening chapter in Ivanhoe? What is the excellence of Macaulay's first paragraph in his Essay on Sannicl Johnson? Select from a current magazine an article which you think opens strongly, and explain to the class the author's method. 3G0 COMPOSITION' A XI) RHETORIC ./. What effect ha?; ilic last paragraph in The House of ihe iScvcii Gables? Can you think of good reasons why stories should begin and end more directly than other forms of Avriting? K. What do you tliink of the opening of The Pilgrim^s Progress? As I walkVl through the wildei-ness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a Denn, and I laid nie down in that place to sleep ; and as I slept, I dreamed a Dream. I dreamed, and behold, I saw a Man clothed with Raggs, standing in a cer- tain place, with his face from his own house, a Book in his hand, and a great Burden upon his back. I looked, and saw him open the Book, and read therein; and as he read, he wept and trembled; and not being able longer to contain, he brake out with a lamentable cry, saying. What shall I do?— Bunyan : Tlie Pilgrim's Progrcas. PART V KINDS OF COMPOSITION CHAPTER XXII SUMMARIES 159. Many Forms of the Whole Composition. — The whole composition may take any one of a large number of forms such as a letter (see Chapter VIII, Part I), a trans- ktion (see Chapter XIII, Part II), a speech, an essay, a short story, a play, a novel, etc. In each case the object the writer has in mind will determine the form that his whole composition will take. Hitherto in our study no special attention has been paid to any one form of compo- sition with the exception of letter-writing and translation. The rhetorical principles discussed in Part IV apply to all whole compositions, no matter what form they may take. In Part V, however, we shall study whole compositions with reference to their forms, and shall find that there are four general classes of compositions depending on the nature of the material used by the writer. One method of studying the structure of different kinds of composition is to analyze and summarize the works of other writers. Therefore, we shall begin with summaries. 160. Definition of Summaries. — A summary (sometimes called an abstract or an epitome) is a condensed state- ment in one's own words of another's thought. The material, that is the thought, belongs to the author 301 302 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC Avhose work is summarized; but the expression of the thought, except where quotations are made, must be the writer's, not the author's. The summary lias many uses besides the practice which it affords in studying the structure of different forms of composition; thus, a summary is often an important part of a book-review, of a speech, or of an editorial. "Wherever it is necessary to use the thought of another in a brief form, the sum- mary is employed. 161. Different Methods of Summarizing. — The careless writer usually makes a summary by purloining words, phrases, or even whole sentences from his author, which he strings together without the use of quotation marks. Such a patchwork of detached extracts, when presented as the writer's own work, is dishonest. Moreover, the thought of the author, garbled in this fashion and sepa- rated from its context, is likely to be distorted and unfairly presented. It is impossible to make in this way a .connected, coherent statement of the original material, for some steps in the author's thought are necessarily dropped out altogether in order to shorten the article. The "patchwork" or "mosaic" method of summarizing should be avoided. Another poor way to make a sum- mary is to condense each paragraph. If the article is short and composed on a simple plan, this mechanical method may succeed, but if the material to be summarized is complex, the summary will consist merely of scraps of information that bear no apparent relation to one another. To summarize an article properly, it should be read carefully more than once, until the student has mastered its contents and is familiar with its structure. The next step should be the drawing up of a careful outline that will represent exactly the structure of the original. Then the scale to be used in reducing the length of the article must' be determined, and the topics of the outline simpli- SUMMARIES 363 fied to accord with this scale. After this preliminary work it will be a simple matter to make the summary a coherent article, well-proportioued and independent of the original in expression. The following summary of Chapter V, Vol. I, of Mr. Bryce's The American CommonweaWi, has been prepared in this way. The chapter is fourteen octavo pages in length, or about six thousand words, and has been reduced in the summary to about one-tenth of its original length. The outline comes first: THE PRESIDENT 1. Introductory: Of the three departments in the American Constitution, the Executive is the simplest. 2. Reasons for establishing the office of President : a. English examijle. b. Example drawn from State executives. 3. Limitations of tlie President's powers a. To serve only four years. b. To be checked by the Senate. 4. Election of the President: a. Original idea was to have double election in order to avoid, (x) congressional influence, and (y) popular influence. b. The plan of the electoral college, — x. Its failure to work as designed. y. Its actual history. c. Present working of the system, — x. Direct popular vote for electors. d. Consequences of the system not foreseen, — X. Tlie President may be elected by minority of voters. y. A party man is invariably elected. 5. The eligibility of a President for reelection not provided for by law: a. But precedent in Grant's case settled the custom of not more than two terms. 6. Provisions in the Constitution in case of no choice in elec- toral college a. Only once has such a case occurred. 364 COMPOSITION AND EHETORIC b. The presiding officer of the Senate was to provide for this emergency. c. Congress has assumed this right. 7. A serious weakness in the electoral system : a. Illustrated by Tilden-Hayes election. 8. Impeachment the only means of removing a President from office: a. Andrew Johnson is the only case. 9. Succession to the office in case of death or removal of Vice- President : a. Former plan. b. Since 1886 a new plan. c. Practically little pains taken in choice of Vice- President. Evidently the summary must contain something about every one of these nine divisions. In reducing the scale of the article, however, a number of the divisions may be united, and the order may be changed. After examining the outline, this simpler plan is drawn up for a brief sum- mary : 1. The origin of the executive office in the American Consti- tution. 2. The system of electing the President: a. As originally designed. b. As it has resulted in practice. 3. Provisions for: a. Reeligibility, b. Impeachment, and c. Succession in case of death. This outline i.s prepared for a summary of three para- graphs, which will represent the three important ilivi- sions of the material in the chapiter. 162. Proportion Must Be Observed. — The outline will be helpful in keeping a due proportion in the treatment of the different parts of the matter to be summarized. There is always a danger that the first part of the sum- mary will be made minutely and at great length, to the neglect of the remainder. To preserve due proportion, SUMMARIES 365 it is well to note exactly what space the author gives to different sections of his material. Mr. Bryce, for exam- ple, in the chapter on the Executive, gave about two pages to the topic tliat forms the first section of the second outline; five pages to the subject of the second section ; and over six pages to that of the last part. ' This scale of two, five, and six must be observed as closely as possible in condensing the chapter. The summary in full follows : The office of President was created by the Constitution of 1789. The idea of having a single head to the United States was suggested to the framers of the Constitution by the example of the monarcla in the English nation, but much more by the sys- tem of State executives in the commonwealths. The aim was to have as chief executive a man of prominence, whose powers were restricted, and whose office should be independent of the legislative branches. For this reason, the Constitution provided for a method of election of the President bj' an indirect choice by the people. The States were to choose electors, who should exercise freedom in selecting a President. Thus the President, it was thought, would not be "the creature of congress," or a party man. As a matter of fact, however, after the first two elections, every election has been conducted on party lines. The electors have been pledged to vote for a certain candidate, and this pledge has never been broken. Moreover, the States, which select the elec- tors, have now instituted popular elections instead of choice by the legislatures, thus rendering the Electoral College a mere figurehead. Another result unforeseen by the framei's of the Constitution, has been that the election of the President has become an election by States ; for the present system of choosing electors by "general ticket*' causes the whole number of electors of one party to be elected. In this way a President may be, and in one notable case has been, elected by an actual minority of the voters. Although the Constitution contains nothing about the reeligibility of a President, yet, after the failure of tlie popular hero Grant to get a third nomination, custom may be said to be firmly opposed to more than two terms. In cases of disputed election, in which a majority of tlie electors has not been 3G6 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC obtained for one candidate, the choice goes to the House of Rep- resentatives, vvliere the vote is taken by States. The decision is made on party lines. Tlie most celebrated case of this kind was in the election of Hayes, which was ultimately settled by a par- tisan vote of an electoral commission ci'eated for the purpose. Since that time a device has been found for remedying this diffi- culty. A President once elected is removable only by means of impeachment by the House — a measure attempted unsuccess- fully once. Succession in case of the death of the President falls upon the Vice-President — in selecting whom little care is taken — and in the event of his death, succession is now regulated by a statute passed in 1886 to fall to the Secretary of State, and after him to other officers of the administration. 163. Style. — It has been shown in a former section why the writer of a summary should not use the author's style. Naturally, some phrases, sentences, or even whole pas- sages, may best be transcribed from the original. But they should be quoted^ not borrowed without acknowledg- ment. In every case where more than three successive words are taken from another's writing, quotation marks should be used. Not to give the author credit for his ' work is dishonest, or at least culpably careless. When we scrupulously indicate all that we borrow, we shall be less ready to take every other phrase. The best Avay to avoid borrowing is not to refer to the original while fill- ing out the outline. Afterwards, it Avill be well to com- pare the two to see that nothing important has been slighted. AVe must take pains, also, to be thoroughly fair to the author in representing his thoughts. It should make no difference what our opinion of the author's views may be; Ave must do justice to his thought as a whole, not to our own feeling about it. In style, therefore, the ideal summary is to a large extent an imper- sonal transcript, uncolored by the writer's opinions. 164. Summaries of Novels and Plays. — So far, it has been assumed that the order of the summary is practically the same as that of the material to be c mdeused. Where SUMMARIES 367 an entire book is to be summarizecP, bowever, and especially in the case of long narratives, the method of the author can not always be followed with success. In a novel, for example, the story is told by separate incidents, by conversations, and by descriptions, not all of which we need in the summary. Hence it is well to adopt some simpler, more direct plan for giving the necessary facts. A good method is first to describe the characters briefly, then to give the events (or plot) as nearly as possible in the order of their happening. Another plan is to give a synopsis of the principal scenes, beginning with some important one and grouping the necessary facts about this center. Whatever plan is adopted, the summary should not be interrupted by criticism or comment. Exercise XXII A. What criticisms can you make upon the following summaries'? 1. THE MERCHANT OF VENICE Portia, one of the loveliest characters in The Merchant of Venice, has suitors from all quarters of tlie globe who are asking for her hand. There is Bassanio, the Duke of Saxony, the Prince of Morocco, the English lord, and the Frenchman. It is with- great fun and jest that she speaks of these suitors to Nerissa, lier waiting maid. Siie is bound by the will of her father, so that it is only by clioosing the right casket that the fortunate one may obtain her hand. It is with- great joy that she I'eceives Bassanio, whom slie would most wish to marry among the many that admire her. Bassanio must try the caskets of gold, silver, and lead, and by clioosing the one containing her picture he will receive her con- sent to wed her. Bassanio reads the inscriptions written on the various caskets, and when he comes to the leaden one he is in doubt whether to open it or not, for he considers the metal too base for such a > A task ordinarily to be avoided by the student. See section 10, Part L * What is the objection to this phrase? 368 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC treasure. He opens it to find with a happy heart the portrait of Portia therein. No sooner does he feel the joy of his success than he must leave her. It is with many vows of love and kisses that they part Portia tells him she will spend the time during his absence in prayer and holy meditation. We see her later in the play attired in "cap and gown as a learned doctor of Padua. She is attended by Nerissa, who is dressed as a young page. It is in the trial that Portia tries to convince the avaricious and revengeful Shylock that mercy is higher than justice ; she even goes so far as to tell him that it is an attribute of God liimself. She reads portions of the law to him, but it is of no avail; justice is his jjlea. Then follows the entertaining and pretty epi-sode of the ring. Bassanio parts with his ring. After some chiding on the part of Portia, he explains it all to her and they become good friends, again promising never to part with their rings. 3. THE MERCHANT OF^VENICE "In Belmont is a lady richly left," said Bassanio to his friend "and she is fair, and fairer than that word." No wonder that the four winds blow in, from every corner of the earth, princeh- suitors who surround this fair lady and fill her ears with vows of love and constancy. There is the Frenchman, with his horse, better than that of anyone el.se; the Englishman, who borrowed one piece of clothing from every country he passed through on his journey to Belmont, and his mannei'S everywhere; there is the German prince, the nephew of the Duke of Saxony, wlio is ".very vile in the morning, when he is sober, and most vile in tlie afternoon, when he is drunk" ; there is Aragon, and Morocco, who tells of his deeds and of his native country and his wealth, to offset any repugnance that may be called forth by his com- plexion. But of all these none has won the heart of the fair Portia, who, alas, can do no more than lead each in his turn to the caskets (if he have the courage), and tell him: 'If my form lie there, I am yours withal," and pray that he may choose the "contrary casket." But Ar ' ^...o supplies Bassanio's needs, and he arrives at Bel- mont to press his suit. Of all the men Portia lias yet laid eyes upon, he is most worthy of the hand of a fair lady. He is received and treated with distinction; so agreeable does it seem to Portia to have near her one she does not shrink from that she SUMMARIES 369 would fain detain him some weeks before permitting him to go to his choice, for she hopes that by a stay of some length iie may perchance learn how to choose aright. But Bassanio will lose no time. He must know iunuediately wliether he is to be happy; moreover, lie is quite confident: "I have a mind," he said to Antonio, "presages me such thrift, that I sliould questionless be fortunate." AVliile Portia observes Bas- sanio making liis choice, she is moved by fears of an entirely different nature from those which disturbed her when Aragon and Morocco stood before the caskets. The noble Venetian is willing to "give and hazard all he hath," and Portia's fears are allayed when he reads his scroll, "Since this fortune falls to you, be content and seek no new,"' and turns, in obedience to its instructions, to "claim her with a loving kiss." But, alas! although he has won his fair lady, he must hasten back to Venice, for the munificent friend to who.se assistance he owes his all, is in sore distress. And now, for the first time in the play, the strength of Portia's character is shown. Duty calls her husband, and she hastens him on his way, though the part- ing is no less a sorrow to her tlian to him. There is no whining, no weakening or breaking down over the .se[)aration ; a friend is to be rescued ; she forgets herself and thinks onl}' of the danger of Antonio. The trial is the climax of the whole play. Shylock shows himself in all his meanness, and does not even attempt to con- ceal a bit of it ; his soul is filled with but one desii'e, his mind is fixed on one object, every nerve and everj' muscle ready for one task — to have revenge. Portia rises superior to all obstacles, master of every situation. She is firm, but it is not the firmness of which the Murdstones speak so much ; it is the all-powerful con- viction that Right, Truth, and Goodness must conquer, and the stern resolution that they shall conquer. 3. THE STORY OF SILAS ^lARXEU Silas Marner, the weaver of Raveloe, was a man who had seen much trouble. When he had his gold he was happy, for he counted it over every night, and it was like a friend to him. Indeed, he had very few other friends, for the people of the vil- lage were never very friendly, probably because he seemed always rather cold and distant to them. So when he lost his gold, he was quite alone, and lost also his faith in God and man. For this was not the first time ti'ouble had come to him. I for- 370 COMPOSITION AND RHETOKIC got to say k-hat before he came to Raveloe he lived in a place called Lantern Yard, and there he had another sorrow. A friend betrayed nim and stole some money that Silas had in charge, and then made everybody believe that Silas had stolen it. So Silas had to leave the place. Besides, the woman he was engaged to broke her engagement to him, and his nature became embit- tered. In Raveloe he spent all his time weaving, mitil Dunstan Cass stole his money. (Nobody knew at the time that it was Dunstan ; they found it out many years later when Dunstan's body was found in the old stone pit.) Then he became harder and colder than ever, but soon Eppie came to gladden his life with her merry, childish prattle. When he first saw lier yellow curls, he thouglit it was his gold come back to him. She brought new love and hope into his life, and it was a proud moment for him when, although she discovered that Godfrey, the 'Squire's son, was her own father, she chose to stay with Silas. The punishment of sin is well shown in the case of Godfrey. The sketches of the village characters aje very amusing. 4. THE FLIGHT OF A TARTAR TRIBE Oubacha was the prince of the Tartar Tribe about which De Quincey tells us. But Zebek Dorchi, a relation of his, was jeal- ous of liim, and indeed he had as good a right to the headship of the tribe as Ovibacha. So Zebek Dorchi made plots and got him- self elected head of the council and worked very skillfully and secretly. When the tribe started to flee to China, their enemies heard of it and pursued them. The flight was a terrible experience. There were many hundreds of people, including women and children, and they had to go through deserts where there was little or no water, and ride very fast, because their enemies were close behind them. Finally they came to the borders of Lake Tengis, which was in the dominions of the Emperor of Cliina. They had been for a long while without water and were almo.st exhausted, so they all rushed into the water, horses and all, to drink. Meanwhile, their pursuers came up to them and rushing into the water killed them riglit and left, until the lake was red with blood and they could not drink the water any more. By this time some troops of the Chinese Emperor came up and drove off the Khirgishes, and the Emperor let the Kalmucks stay SUMMARIES 371 in his dominions. Zebek Dorcbi lived only about a year after tUis. B. Draw up a plan for summarizing: 1. The first five chapters of Silas^ Marner. 2 The third act of The Merchant of Venice. 3. As You Like It. 4. The capture of the manor in WoodatocTc. 5. Chapter IX, Vol . I, of Bryce's The American Common- iveaWi. 6. The first book of Paradise Lost. 7. The first, second, or seventh book of the yEneid. 8. The French story you are reading in class. 9. A chapter in the text-book of history. 10. The Constitution of the United States. C. Summarize the first chapter of The House of the Seven Gables in three or four paragraphs. Draw up a plan for a summary of the whole story. D. Tell the story of Treasure Island (or some other story of adventure) in about eight hundred words, according to the first plan suggested in section 1G2. E. Relate the best short story that you know, begin- ning with an account of the most interesting character. F. What are the good qualities of the following sum- mary, which Stevenson prefixed to the sequel of Kid- tiappcd? Alexander and Ebenezev Balfour, brothers, of the house of Shaws near Cramond in the Forest of Ettrick, being in love with the same lady, and she preferring the elder brother, Alexander, it was agreed between them that Alexander should take the lady, and Ebenezer, as amends for his disappointment, the estate of Shaws. Alexander and his wife removed to Essendean, where they lived obscurely, Alexander in the character of village schoolmaster, and where an only son was born to them, namely, David Balfour, the hero of this history. David, brought up in ignorance of the family affairs and of his own claim on the estates, and losing both parents before he was eigliteen, was left with no other fortune than a sealed letter from his father addressed to his uncle Ebenezer, which was handed him by the 372 COMPOSITION" AND RHETORIC minister of Essendean, Mr. Campbell. Proceeding to deliver it, David found his uncle living childless and a miser at Shaws; who received him ill, and after vainly endeavoring to compass his death, had him trepanned on board the brig Covenant, Cap- tain Ho.season, bound to Carolina, to the end that he might be sold to labor in the plantations. But early in tlie voj-age, the Covenant, running through the Miuch, struck and sent to the bottom an open boat, from which there saved himself and came on board one Alan Breck Stewart, a Highland gentleman banished after the '45, and now engaged in smuggling rents from his clansmen, the Appin Stewarts, to their chief Ardshiel, living in exile in France. Hoseason and his crew, learning that Alan had gold about him, conspired to rob and murder him; but David, being made privy to the plot, put Alan on his guard and promised to stand by him. Favored by the shelter of the roundhouse, and by Alan's cour- age and skill of fence, the two got the better of tlieir assailants in the attack which followed, killing or maiming more than half of them ; whereby Captain Hoseason was disabled from prose- cuting his voyage, and came to terms with Alan, agreeing to land him on a part of the coast whence he might best make his way to his own countiy of Appin. But in attempting this the Covenant took ground and sank off the coast of Mull. Those on board saved themselves as they best could, David separately; being first cast on the Isle of Earraid, and thence making his way across Mull. Alan had passed before by the same road, and left word that David should follow and rejoin him in his own country at the house of his kinsman, James Stewart of the Glens. On his waj' to keep his tryst, David found himself in Appin on the .same day when the King's Factor, Colin Roy Campbell of Glenure, came witli a force of red-coats to drive out the tenants from the forfeited estates of Ardshiel, and was present when Glenure was slain ujion the roadside by a shot out of a neighboring wood. Susj)ected of complicity at the moment when he was in the act of giving chase to the . unknown mur- derer, David betook himself to flight, and was quickly joined by Alan Breck, who, though he had not fired the sliot, was Inrking not far off. The two now lived the life of lumted men upon the moors, the outcry on account of tlie murder being very great, and its guilt being declared to rest on James Stewart of the Glens, the already outlawed Alan Breck, and a lad unknown, being no other than David Balfour; for whose apprehension SUMMAKIES 373 blood-money was offered and the country scoured by soldiery. In the course of their wanderings, David and Alan visited James Stewart at Aucharn, were concealed in Cluny Macpherson's cage, and suffered to rest during sickness in the house of Duncan Dhu Maclaren in Bahvhidder, where Alan played a match upon the pipes against Robin Oig, the son of Rob Roy. At last, after much peril and suffering, they made their way down to the Highland line and the Forth ; ^\'hich, however, they dared not cross for fear of arrest until the innkeeper's daughter of Lime- kilns, Alison Hastie, was prevailed on to row them over to the Lothian shore under cover of night. Here Alan again went into hiding, while David made himself known to Mr. Hope of Rankeillor, lawyer and lately agent to the Shaws' estate, who promptly took up his cause and contrived a plan whereby, with the help of Alan, Ebenezer Balfour was compelled to recognize his nephew's title as heir to the estate, and in the meantime to make him a suitable allowance from its income. David Balfour, having thus come to his own, proposes to go and complete his education at the University of Ley den ; but must first satisfy the claims of friendship, by helping Alan out of Scotland, and of conscience, by testifying to the innocence of James Stewart of the Glens, now a prisoner awaiting his trial for the Appin murder. G. Write out a connected summary of Chapter IX of this book. ' CHAPTER XXIII ORIGINAL COMPOSITION— DESCRIPTIVE AND NARRA TIVE WRITING 165. Original Composition. — "I haven't anything new to say," is the student's most common complaint when asked to write a theme. The okl proverb runs, "There is nothing new under the sun"; how, then, can the average mortal be expected to find some new thought to express? It is, indeed, true that fresh material, either in thought or in ' experience, is hard to find, and the task of hunting for novel subjects is neither profitable nor successful. The material for any writer must be largely the old, much -used matter that has gone to make up life for centuries. An explorer, an inventor, or a poet may discover new facts or truths to tell us, but most of us must content ourselves with ideas that are already common property. By original composition, however, we do not mean orig- inal subject-matter, but rather the writer's own expression or representation of the old material. Whatever is taken into the mind is transformed, reshaped, and made new, unconsciously for the most part, in such a way that the result, when it is given forth, will dilTor more or less from the result of any other mind working on the same material. Evidences of this are common enough. No two people will tell the same story in precisely the same manner. One Avill omit an incident that a second will mention, and a third will dwell at length on what a fourth may pass over briefly. For instance, a number of witnesses of an accident will tell the same simple story, each in his own way, with slight variations from the 374 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION 375 other narrators. In the familiar game of trying to enu- merate from memory all the articles on a table, few persons will make the same tally. This peculiar record which each mind forms of its own thought and experi- ence is to a greater or less degree original. By original composition, then, we mean the personal expression of the writer's own knowledge and experiences. If he is honest with himself and tries to record faithfully Just what he has in his mind, he need give no further thought to originality. In this sense all writing (except, perhaps, the composition of summaries) is original. The story of a picnic, or of a battle; the description of an experiment, or of a person's face; the explanation of evolution, or of a system of athletic training; the proof that cities should own and operate street car lines, — each one may be treated by any writer as fresh opportunities for exi)ressing himself. 166. Two Kinds of Material: Objects and Ideas. — The material which all writers treat consists always of one of two kinds, either objects or ideas; that is, some- thing that is seen, or something that is thought. A simple illustration will serve to distinguish the two kinds. In looking out of the window a cloud may be seen; it is a large, puljiy mass, dark -gray in color, shading to white on its borders, with a golden edge where the sun- strikes it. That cloud is an object. No other cloud is exactly like it. When the writer undertakes to describe it, he should see "in his mind's eye" just that one cloud. But the class in ^physiography, in discussing clouds, do not deal with this special cloud, nor with any one cloud that the eye has seen. They deal with the idea "cloud" — a sub- stance formed of vapor, with a variety of characteristics. In the first instance cloud was an object; in the second^ an idea. Another illustration will make the distinction clearer. The word patriotism suggests to us many ideas — 376 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC devotion to country, self-sacrifice, and love for others. Not one of these qualities is an object which we can see. l*atriotisni, however, may suggest an illustrious instance of patriotism, a great patriot, such as Lincoln; in this case we have an object. All the material for expression belongs to one of these two classes. 167. The Nature of Description. — "\Mien we treat the first kind of material — objects— we write description. It is often said that we describe ideas, also, such as anger, love, or cold. But actually we describe only the effect of such ideas upon objects. AVe descrilje a man in anger, the love that a mother shows for her child, or the action of cold upon the lake. If, then, description deals solely Avith objects, the purpose of description is a simple one: it is to make otliors see what the writer sees. His imag- ination may alter the foriji of the object he has seen; fndeed, he may never have seen just what he attempts to describe. It is of no importance where he finds the objects that he wishes to represent, but as he writes he must have in liis mind some picture that he wishes us to see. Tlie success of descriptive writing depends upon tlie vividuess with wliich the reader can see this picture that the Avriter has in mind. That is the general object of descriptive writing. 168. Description for the Purpose of Identification. — In tlio simplest form of description the object is to identify the tiling described. The "Lost and found notices," for example, are not intended to suggest a picture, but to serve as a means of comparison Avith the articles in ques- tion. In the same way the description of a piece of real estate in a deed, or of an escaped criminal, or of a build- ing to be let, is designed to gWe exact information and should he as complete as possible. For this reason, a ])hotogi-;i]th usually serves better to identify an object thaii any description of it in Avords. OEIGINAL COMPOSITION 377 When we attempt to use words instead of a picture, we are forced to limit the number of details, to state only those details that are representative and specially important. Thus in the following description of a horse, from a newspaper advertisement, only those particulars of the horse that will interest a possible purchaser are given : For Sale or Exchange for a Larger Horse.— Exception- ally handsome gray mare, with dark points, sound, kind, high- headed, sjiirited, and a very fast, square trotter, height 15% hands, weight 1,010 lbs. 169. Literary Description. — The principle of selection, which was observed in making the simple inventory of a horse, must be followed out much more fully in literary description; that is, in description that aims to present a picture of the object to the reader's mind. Thus Steven- son, in the following passage from The Merry Men, takes not more than half a dozen details from the great sweep of landscape that he has in mind : Aros is a veiy rougli islet, its surface strewn with great rocks and shaggy with fern and heather. . . . Upon the summit [of the highest knoll] I pau.sed. Although not very high — not three hundred feet, as I think — it yet outtops all the neighboring low- lands of the Ross, and commands a great view of sea and islands. The sun, which had been up some time, was already hot upon my neck; the air was listless and thundery, although purely clear ; away over the northwest, where the isles lie thickliest congregated, some half-a-dozen small and ragged clouds hung together in a covey; and the head of Ben Kyaw wore, not merely a few streamers, but a solid hood of vapor. If we examine this description, we may see on what plan the selection of details should be made. In the first place, peculiar or individual facts that belong to the object should be brought out, for such facts serve to dis- tinguish the object in mind from similar objects. Thus 378 COMPOSITIOX AXD RHETORIC in the first sentence Stevenson dwells npon the roughness of the island. Secondly, harmonious details — that is, those details that fit together — should be chosen, in order to produce a uniform impression. Stevenson brings out in the last sentence several indications of the thunderous quality of the atmosphere. It should be noted also that some 6f the details, such as the heat of the sun and the oppressive quality of the atniosi^here, ap^jeal to other senses than that of sight. Much must be necessarily omitted in any description, but if the selection of details is made skillfully, tho reader's imagination will fill in the picture with appro- priate facts. That the details should be suggestive is the third requisite for good description. The "solid hood of vapor" about the headland suggests more than it tells. The princijile of selection, we can easily infer, is the most essential principle of literary art in descriptive writing. 170. The Principles of Unity and Coherence Applied to Description. — Any object seen by the eye is viewed as a whole, and literary description must attempt to give this impression of unity to the object described, by a careful selection and a methodical arrangement of details. If the "point of view" (see section 113) is shown dis- tinctly, the reader will be assisted in gaining a unified picture of the whole. Stevenson establishes the point, of view in his description of Aros upon the "summit of a knoU." In looking at an object, its parts fall naturally into ])lace; the plan of the whole is evident. In describing this object, we must supply some plan for the reader by means of which he can arrange the 'details presented and thus create an image in his mind. For this reason the principle of coherence should bo observed. If details are put together at random, as they occur to the writer, the result will probably be confusing to the reader. What- ORIGINAL COMPOSITION 379 ever plan is decided upon, it must be followed consist- ently. 171. The Interest of Descriptive Writing. — "When the writer has done his best, it remains true that even the tiniest photograijh gives a more exact idea of an object than pages of well-chosen and well-arranged details. For this reason, modern methods of reproducing photographs have multiplied, and in a magazine article we are rarely left to the text alone to gain an idea of a scene or an object. Illustration has become an art by itself. It must not be forgotten, however, that no process of reproduc- tion will present some details that words can give, such as those of sound and odor and touch. Moreover, words do more than represent — they suggest. The writer does not depend upon his statement only; he dej^ends upon his reader's imagination. Long descriptions of unfamiliar scenes and objects are doubtless tiresome; but short, sug- gestive descriptive passages add to the enjoyment of the reader by giving a sense of reality that he would other- wise miss. No picture, no series of pictures, for instance, even in colors, could render the sense of heat that Kipling gives in this paragraph: That spring the mohica tree, that Baloo was so fond of, never flowered. The greeny, cream-colored, waxy blossoms were heat- killed before they were born, and only a few bad-smelling petals came down when he stood on his hind legs and shook the tree. Then, inch bj- inch, the iintempered heat crept into the heart of the Jungle, tm"ning it yellow, brown, and at last black. The green growths in the sides of the ravines burned up to broken wires and curled films of dead stuff; the hidden pools sank down and caked over, keeping the lea.st footmark on their edges as if it had been cast in iron; the juicy-stemmed creepers fell away from tlie trees they clung to and died at their feet; the bamboos withered, clanking when the hot winds blew, and the moss peeled off the rocks deep in the Jungle, till they were as bare and as hot as the quivering blue boulders in the bed of the stream. —Kipling : The Second Jungle Book. 380 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 172. The Nature of Narration. — jSTarration deals with objects in actiou, just as description deals Avith them in repose. We may describe a company of soldiers as they stand ready for the word of command. As soon as the company changes its j^osition or breaks into a march, action begins, and we can relate the changes that are brought about. A new element, it will be seen, enters into narration — the element of time. In .describing the comi^any of soldiers, we are not concerned with time ; the picture is once and for all the same. As soon as the object moves, however, Ave have to take account of the lapse of time. Each moment finds the comjiosition of the picture slightly altered. If Ave compare descriptive Avith narrative Avriting, Ave can see hoAV this fact of time makes narration a much easier, more natural task than description. While the soldiers Avere stationary, Ave could describe them; but it takes time to describe even briefly. The eye could take in the company at a glance; the Avrit- ten description, on the other hand, Avould take the reader at least a minute to comprehend. Thus descriptive Avrit- ing is ahvays running a losing race against time. Narra- tion, dealing Avith the object as it moA'es, — that is, as it takes time, — can more nearly keep up in the race. Nar- ration can not ahvays succeed, hoAvever, in keeping even with the march of events, for it Avill frequently take many sentences to relate the action of a feAV seconds. Dunstan Cass, for example, in stealing Silas Marner's guineas, took far less time than the author does in narrating the event : There were only three liiding-places where lie had ever heard of cottagers' hoards being found: the thatch, the bed, and a liole in the floor. Marner's cottage had no thatch; and Dunstan's first act, after a train of thought made rapid by the stimulus of cupidity, was to go up to the bed ; but while he did so, his eyes traveled eagerly over the lioor, where the bricks, distinct in the fire-light, were discernible under the sprinkling of sand. But ORIGIKAL COMPOSITION 381 not everywhere ; for there was one spot, and one onlj', which was quite covered with sand, and sand showing the marks of fingers, which had apparently been careful to spread it over a given space. It was near the treddles of the loom. In an instant Dunstan darted to that spot, swept away the sand with his whip, and, inserting the thin end of the hook between the bricks, found tliat they were loose. In haste he lifted up two bricks, and saw what he had no doubt was the object of his search ; for wliat could tliere be but money in those two leathern bags'? And, from their weiglit, they must be filled with guineas. Dun- stan felt round the liole, to be certain tiiat it held no more; then hastily replaced the bricks, and spread the sand over them. Hardly more than five minutes had passed since he entered the cottage, bvit it seemed to Dunstan like a long while; and though he was without ;any distinct recognition of the possibility that Marner 'might be alive, and might re-enter the cottage at any moment, he felt an undefinable dread laying hold on him, as he rose to his feet with the bags in his hand. He would hasten out into the darkness, and then consider what he should do with the bags. He closed the door behind liim immediately, that he might .shut in tlie stream of light: a few steps would l)e enough to carry him beyond betrayal by the gleams from the shutter- cliinks and the latch-hole. The rain and darkness had got thicker, and he was glad of it ; though it was awkward walking with both hands filled, so that it was as much as he could do to grasp his whip along with one of the bags. But when he had gone a yard or two, he might take his time. So he stepped for- ward into the darkness. — George Eliot: Silas Marner. Sometimes, ou the contrary, it will be possible to nar- rate an occurrence much more rapidly than the time actually taken by the event. 173. The Principle of Selection in Narration. — When- ever narration can not keep up with events, there is much the same necessity for selecting actions to relate as there is for selecting details to describe. Narration should follow action as rapidly as possible, and to accom- plish this end, unimportant or repeated acts may be omitted. The more nearly the narrative keeps time with the train of events, the more interesting it is. The only 382 COMPOSITION" AND EHETORIC means by which it can gain time is by the use of selection. Tiiis is especially important in long narratives, such as histories and novels, where the chief events of a number of years are recorded, and the infinitely larger number of minor actions are necessarily disregarded. 174. The Importance of Coherence in Narration. — We are guided in the selection of events by the principle of coherence. Enough must be recorded to preserve the thread of the narrative. In real life, events are con- nected, one action depending upon another in an endless chain. The important links in this chain can not be omitted, if the reader is to follow^ the narrative. More- over, it is the writer's business to see that the relation between the actions he narrates is made quite clear. Coherence, then, is of the first importance in narration, as selection is in description, 175. Unity, Proportion, and Climax in Narration. — The other literary principles apply in narration as in every form of writing, but they are less essential than the two principles of selection and coherence. Every narrative should have as a center some one definite topic. For example, a history of the discovery of America, containing many hundreds of pages, and relating numerous events, will have but one principal subject, — the early explora- tions upon this hemisphere, — to which all the characters, actions, and events will be made subordinate. A narrator must not spend undue time or space upon any episode in his tale to the disadvantage of other parts. Whatever his scale is, he should follow it. Otherwise he will give emphasis to unimportant events, or slight important ones. The law of climax applies especially to narration, because the interest of the reader in the opening of a story is necessarily slight, AVhon he becomes involved in the plot of the talc, lils interest will eiilier groAV or disappear. As a narrative becomes complex, as one event leads to a ORIGINAL COMPOSITION 383 number of results, the reader's attention should be engaged more firmly. A weak ending is never so disap- pointing as in narration. 176. dualities of Excellent Narrative Writing. — A good narrative, then, will move rapidly; action will follow action in close succession. Only significant events will be dwelt upon ; much will be passed over vnth brief men- tion. Yet the connection of events will be made plain ; the reader will never "lose the thread." No matter how complex the narration becomes, it will have a simple subject as the center, and will march on with increasing interest to the end. The following narrative passage illustrates especially the qualities of clearness and rapidity : The starting rope slackens in Miller's left hand, and the stroke, unshipi^ing his oar, pvishes the stern gently out again. There goes the second gun ! One short minute more, and we are off. Short minute, indeed ! You wouldn't say so if you were in the boat, with your heart in your mouth, and trembling all over like a man with the palsy. Those sixty seconds before the starting gun in your first race — why, they are a little lifetime. '"By Jove, we are drifting in again!" said Miller, in horror. The captain looked grim, but said nothing; it was too late now for him to be unshij^ping again. "Here, catch hold of the long boat-hook and fend her off." Hardy, to whom this was addressed, seized the boat-hook, and, standing with one foot in the water, pressed the end of the boat-hook against the gunwale, at the full stretch of his arm, and so, by main force, kept the stern out. There was just room for stroke oars to dip, and that was all. The starting rope was as taut as a harp string. AVill ililler's left hand hold out? It is an awful moment. But the coxswain, though almost dragged backwards off his seat, is equal to the occasion. He holds his watch in his right hand with the tiller rope. "Eight seconds more only. Look out for the flash. Remem- ber, all eyes in the boat." There it comes at last — the flash of the starting gun. Long before the sound of the report can roll up the river, the whole pent-up life and energy which has been held in leash, as it were, 884 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC for the last six minutes, is let loose and breaks away with a bound and a dash. . . . The starting ropes drop 'from the cox- swain's hands, the oars flash into the water and gleam on the feather, the spray flies from them, and the boats leap forward. — Hughes: Tom Brown at Oxford. Exercise XXIII A. In what sense is our writing "original"? How does "original composition" differ from summarizing? B. What are the two classes of material with which the writer deals? Give examples of both, and illustrate liow one may be transformed into the other. "With what class of material are description and narration concerned? C. "Wliat literary law applies especially to description? Why? Distinguish literary description from identifica- tion. Find two examples of each from your reading. Why does this description fail? LOOKING FROM THE TOP OF THE WASHINGTON MONUMENT The view from the Washington monument in Wasliington, D. C, is most beautiful and most interesting. On one side tlie Potomac River is seen.' You can follow its course as it goes winding through the country, until it appears as a mere silver thread, and then disappears. Here and there a ship may bo seen' floating on its surface. On each side of the river the green fields slope down to the water. It looks very pleasant on the water with the sun shining warmly. From the next window the river again catches your eye, but you can also see part of the city. It is a residence jjortion. You see the houses peeping above the numerous trees surround- ing it. You see an occasional building taller than the rest; that is a hotel. On the third side j'ou see the principal part of the city. Here the "White House" is seen,' beautiful in its simplicity, and characteristic of the nation. Tlie extensive grounds form an excellent background of green for its pure whiteness. On the right of this is the building of the Treasury Department, which » Why is the use of passive verbs weak? ORIGIXAL COMPOSITION- 385 reminds one of a Greek temple with its numerous beautiful col- umns. On the left is the handsome but more business-like build- ing of the Departments of State, War, and the Navy. A little distance from the latter structure is the magnificent building of the Corcoran Art Gallery. It is built of white marble. Turn- ing now to the right of the scene, you see the splendid new post- office building, and beyond that tlie Patent Office is easily perceived because of its bright red bricks, which show clearly against the green background of the numerous trees all through the city. Tall church spires raise their stately heads here and there among the crowd of hotels and lesser buildings, and dimin- utive parks dot the city with green. Now let us turn to the last picture, which is the most beauti- ful. The central figure of the scene, and, in fact, of the city, is the Capitol Building. It stands on a small hill and is thus easily seen from all parts of the city. This building, like the White House, has the characteristics of the nation by which it was constructed. It raises its splendid dome in majestic beauty and dignity. It spreads out to make room for this great nation, and yet it is in perfect proiwrtion. Tlie beautiful grounds by which it is surrounded enhance and add to its great beauty. The Mall and the Botanical Gardens form a great green pathway from the base of the monument, in which we are, to the entrance of the Capitol. Just back of the Capitol, and unfortunately almost hidden from view, is the magnificent building of the Congres- sional Library. All that can be seen of it is the splendid golden dome. This shines with great splendor in contrast with the pure white of the Capitol. Behind and on each side the city extends, forming a background for this central figure. D. Comment on the following description, pointing out the reasons for its success: The sun has just set, and the cold bright light still lingers in the west, against whose radiance everything stands out distinct. There is one solitary little frame hut on tlie corner of the street unprotected from the glare of the bleak, cold sunset, and from the steely western wind. The empty lots around are strewn with rubbish and paper. It is country, for there are no houses. It is not country, for there is no grass. Neither are there any trees. The wind seems too strong for any living thing. Yet there is that one small house, someone's home. From its cliim- ney comes the faintest suggestion of a grayish wreath of smoke. 386 COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC Somewhere a dog is baying long, mournful howls. Inside the hut a child is crying, not angrily, but hungrily. And the wind whistles and cuts the air like ice. It catches up the dust and dirty papers and whirls them against the little house, wrapping it in a blanket of icy air and filth. E. What are the two methods of description used in this theme? In the Gazetteer it reads, "Fort Gates, a post-hamlet of Put- nam Co., Fla., on the W. bank of the St. John's River, 140 miles from its mouth." So much for maps and statistics! I would add — A great white hou.se standing with generous doors and win- dows open ; the hot sunshine pouring down marks the broad piazzas with gleaming bands of light and shatters its rays against the windows. There beside the steps is a heavy jessa- mine vine, here a red blurr of roses. On the hill slope from the house to the river are first a bed of oleanders, then orange trees; further^ down are oaks and cypresses, and reeds swaying and clicking together at the water's edge. And there, lying face downward, hanging over the coquina rocks that rise but a foot above the water, two children hold long reeds and push out into the slow current innumerable paper-sailed boats freighted with pomegranate flowers. F. Examine the following descriptions and point out the plan followed in arranging the details : 1. The raftered rooms of the unpainted frame building are large and airy, with little staircases here and there, which lead from floor to floor. Tlie sunshine .streams in at the windows ; all the woodwork is wliitened as if from flour dust. The walls shake with 'the dull clank and rattle of machinery. Here are great vats, which churn up a seething, steaming mass of brine ; there, in one corner, is a hot, whirling iron mechanism, the "drier." The salt comes flying down through pipes into a little room full of "sifters," and then pours into the troughs, where the packers are at work. Men and girls sit here together, seiz- ing and filling box after box, bag after bag, from the piles that lie at their side. Out in a shed one sees heaps of staves ready for barrel building, and hears the workmen hammering at the hoops. A few rosy-cheeked girls, boxmakers, packers, and ORIGINAL COMPOSITION 387 label-pasters, sit on the factory steps, eating their lunch and looking out across the sandy yard to the blue river a few rods away. 2. It had rained and snowed alternately all day. Toward evening it had ceased. The stars came out and shone brightly in the clear, dark-blue sky. The moon looked down on a fairy landscape, for the houses, the roads, and the trees were covered witli diamond dust. Pike's Peak was black in the distance. Not a sound could be heard, except now and then the fall of a branch encrusted with ice. A side door in "The Antlers" opened, and a little girl .stepped out on the white carpet. She was about nine years of age, tall, dark, and pale, and dressed in a very short black frock. She looked ai'ound in silence for a few minutes, with lier lips parted and her nostrils dilated. Then a shadow passed over her face, and the light went out of her eyes. Lifting her face towai'd the heavens, with lier hands clasped in front of lier, she whispered, "Oh! Mamma, dear." She turned and was soon swallowed up by the little door in the gray stone pile. 0. What is the point of view in this description? Come on, sir; here's the place. Stand still. How fearful And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low! The crows and choughs that wing the midway air Show scarce so gross as beetles. Halfway down Hangs one that gathers sampliire, dreadful trade! Methinks he seems no bigger than his head. The fishermen that walk upon the beach Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark Diminish'd to her cock ; her cock, a buoy Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge. That on the unnumbered idle pebbles chafes. Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more, Lest my brain turn and the deficient sight Topple down headlong. — Shakspere: King Lear. H. Compare description and narration, showing in what respects they are alike, in what respects they differ. Can yon tell a story by means of pictures? "\Yliat is the difficulty with this method? Is description ever used in narration? Narration in description? Separate tlie 388 COMPOSITION AXD RHETORIC descriptive from the narrative elements in the passage from Tom Brown at Oxford (section 17G). /. What princij)le is most important in narration? Why? Bring to class an example of what you consider effective narrative and point out its good qualities. /. AYhat is the chief defect of this short narrative? IN THE DARK Is anything more startling than to wake suddenly in the night with your heart in your mouth and a sense that some- thing has happened? Your breath comes quick and fast and j'our heart beats like a trip-hammer — yet all is still. A nameless fear is so much worse than a known one. Last night I woke suddenly "in the dead vast and middle of the night." All was quiet at first — a deadly quiet. Then, oh, horror! the bed rocked! "An earthquake," my leaping heart told me. "No, it can't be," reason answered. Our teacher told us just yesterdaj^ that thij part of the world was never visited by earthquakes. This thought ran like lightning through my mind. But just then the windows began again to rattle and the bed to rock so liard that I held mj- breath, expecting every minute to be swal- lowed up by the earth or to feel the bricks come falling down on top of me. I imagined that I was slowly moving downward. By this time my nerves were so highly strung that when my sister, who slept with me, stirred, I thought the bed was rocked by the trembling of the earth ; but as the windows did not rattle, I decided all my trouble was caused by her restlessness. K. How is climax observed in this narrative? SEEING THE SIGHTS One afternoon last summer, just between "hay in' an' har- vestin'," a farmer and his family, who had wearied of the World's Fair, bustled aboard a Cottage Grove avenue car at Fifty -fifth street, bound to see the sights of the city. They were a typical group. "Pa" was stoop-shouldered, careworn and silent; "Ma." on the contrarj-, buxom and talkative; while Bill and Abe were very tall, very red, and very fidgety. The old people took the front seat, but the boys raced down the sides of the car to the rear. "Ma" was the spokesman. She paid the conductor and questioned him, particularly in regard to Libby ORIGINAL COMPOSITION . 389 Prison. He was a good-natured fellow and assured her that not only would she pass by the prison, but that he would be sure and not forget to stop the car. "Ma" thanked him, and a cloud of anxiety passed from her face. In due time the conductor rang the bell and called out "Libby Prison." The car stopped. "Ma" became excited and shouted to the boys. They were on the alert. The whole family leaned forward and gazed a long moment at the war relic. Then "Pa" slowly turned and waving his arm said, with a satisfied drawl, "All right, conductor, go ahead." L. Lists of subjects for description and narration are given below. Point out any subjects in the first list that could be treated by narration ; any subjects in the second list that could be treated by description. (1) Subjects for description : An old-fashioned garden ; Puritans going to church ; a sal< coal, or other mine; my uncle's farm; a disastrous fire; the Van Tassel homestead ; a New England kitchen ; a moonlight sail; coasting at ; my birthplace; the last football or baseball game ; an old garret ; climbing mountain ; description of a favorite picture ; a view from my window; "down town" at six o'clock on a winter evening; a waterfall; the local library; a prairie fire; the day before Christmas; a cornfield in August and in November ; the village street. (2) Subjects for narration: A child's escapade; how I got lost; my own ghost story; an exciting sail ; the day we moved ; the exploit of Pheidippides ; Horatius at the bridge; how the sacred geese saved Rome ; the death of Nelson; the battle of Manila; Mad Anthony's exploit; the sinking of the Merrimac ; the fall of the Bastile ; the battle of Lookout Mountain ; how Wasliington crossed the Delaware; the early years of De Quincey ; Walter Scott and Marjorie Flem- iig; Grant at West Point; the assassination of Lincoln; crossing the ocean ; the story of the rings in The Merchant of Venice; a track meet ; a visit to Mammoth Cave (or some other point of interest); snowed in; a visit to a mining camp; on the plains ia a blizzard ; a railway accident. CHAPTER XXIV ORIGINAL COMPOSITION— EXPOSITORY AND ARGU- MENTATIVE WRITING 177. Terms. — We turn now to the second kind of material for writing. Every idea which can not be referred to some specific object, but which stands for a class of objects or for a quality, belongs to this division. "Cloud," we saw, could be taken as belonging to either division, our treatment of it depending upon whether it was considered as an object (one of a class), or the class itself. In the same way, the subject "island" may be considered, as in Stevenson's description, as one special island, or it may be treated as an idea representing a certain kind of geographical division. Qualities, such as truth, patriotism, or cold, can not be treated as objects; we can not describe them. Qualities remain always ideas. It will be convenient to distinguish the names of qualities and general ideas from the names of objects by calling the former "terms." In expository and argumentative writing, we treat terms, not objects. 178. Distinction between Description and Exposition. — We found in the preceding chapter that in treating objects, we could either describe them, or narrate wliat happened to them. Terms can not be treated in the same manner. "Island," as a term, has no body, nothing out of which we can make a picture in RHETORIC number of, 201 Newspaper words, 164, 236 Nice, pleasant, attractive, 186 Xominative absolute, 186 None, as a pronoun, number of, 201 Not, position of, 284 Notorious, noted, 186 Nouns, solecisms, in, 195 Number, faults in adjectives, 20D -, in nouns, 196 ; in verbs, 200 ; confusing foreign nouns, 229 Number of words, 223-233 : value of brevity, 223 ; superfluous words, 223 ; redundancy, 223 : tautology. 223 ; verbosity, 223 : superfluous details, 227 ; pro- lixity, 227 O. Observation, observance, 182 Odd. funny. 186 Off-handed, 16."> Omission of words necessary to sense, 202 Only, position of, 284 Oral, verbal. 186 Oral composition, value of, 17 ; differences between oral and written composition. 18 : the two the same at bottom. 19 Oratorical diction. 237 Original composition defined, 374 Palmer, G. H., 107 Pants. l.")4, 162, 165 Paragraphs, natural divisions of a subject, 53 ; divisions ensily perceived, 54 ; length. 57 ; par- agraphs in conversation, 55 ; topic sentences, 58 : develop- ment of descriptive topic, 59 : development of narrative topic. 60 ; definition of the single paragraph. 318 : laws in sin- gle paragraph. 319 : unity de- fined, 321 : paragraphs too long for unity. 322 ; paragraphs too short for unity. 324 ; coherence defined^ 326 : incoherence from faulty arrangement, 326 : use of connectives, 327 ; emphasis defined, 330 ; faults in empha- sis, 330 Pard. partner, 165 Participles, ambiguous, 286 Party, person, 182 Pate, 243 Pattox, J. H., 206 Peradventure, perhaps, 147 I'erambulator, baby carriage, 153 Period, the, 119 Periodicity, 307 'Phone, 165 Photo, photograph, 165 Phrases and clauses used as sen- tences, 80, 194 Plan or outline, 345, 396 I'laylct, 164 Pleasure in composition, 19 Plenty, plentiful, 182 I'lurals, errors in, 196, 200 Poetess, 165 "Point of View" of composition, 263 Portion, part, 182 Possessive for genitive, 195 Posted, informed, 186 Practicable, practical, 186 Prairies, 152 Prepositions, proper combinations of, with other words, 211 Present use, 146 Preventative, 164 Principal parts of verbs, mistakes in, 197 Probate, to, 164 I'lofessor, instructor, teacher, 182 Prolixity, 227 I'romise. assure. 179 Pionours. solecisms in, 196: and antecedents, 201 ; ambiguous, 284 l^roportion. 264 : in whole compo- sition, 342 ; in summaries, 364 ; in narration, 382 I'/oscribe, prescribe, 179 Proven. 165 I'unctnation, uses of, 114 ; how to learn, 115; comma, 118; IXDEX 43.: semicolon, 118 ; colon, 110 : period, 119 ; marks of 'iilerro- gation and exclamation, 119; the dash, 120 ; the apostroijlie. 12] ; parentheses and brackets, 121 ; capital letters, 121 ; ital- ics, 122; quotation marks, 122 rurpose, propose, 179 Q. Quantity, number, 182 Quite, very, rather, 184 Quotation marks, 122 R Railroad, to, 164 Railway, railroad, 153 Real, very, 187 Recipe, receipt, 183 Reckon, 154 Redundancy, 223 Redundant, "and," 203 Reel of cotton, spool of thread, 153 Relative, relation, 183 Rendition, rendering, reading, playing, 182 Reportorial, 164 Reputable use, 154 Reputable vocabulary, how to get, 156 Restitute, to. 165 Resume, sum up, 179 Revision, meaning of, 20 Rewriting, meaning and value of. 20 Rhetoric, defined. 16 : further ex- plained, 16,; false use of the word, 17 Rhetorical Principles, 261-267 ; nature of, 261 ; six most impor- tant, 262 ; selection, 262 ; unity, 262 ; "point of view," 263 ; co- herence, 263 ; clearness depends upon coherence. 263 ; emphasis, 264 ; proportion, 264 ; climax, 264 ; necessity of observing, 264 Right, duty. 183 Right hard, 154 Rock, stone, 148 RusKi.v, John, 110, 188, 204, 2-45, 259, 308 Scarcely, with a negative, 199 Scholar, student, pupil, 183 School, college, university, 183 Scoop, 164 Scott, Walter, 123, 138, 206, 207, 283 Secondhanded, 165 Selection, 262 ; in narration, 381 Semicolon, the, 118 Sentence, the, defined, 80 ; incom- plete, 80 ; the comma blunder, 81 ; content of sentences, 82 ; simple, complex, and compound sentences defined, S3 ; advan- tages of compound and complex forms, 84 ; variety needed, 85 ; various forms illustrated, 86- 89 : unity in. 268-281 ; unity defined, 268 ; unity of thought, 269 ; relation of the sentence to the paragraph, 271 ; sen- tences too short for unity of thought, 272 ; unity of form, 273 ; compound sentences often destructive of unity, 275 ; clear- ness dependent on coherence, 282 ; coherence defined, 282 ; incoherence produces ambiguity, 282 ; ambiguous arrangements, 283 : ambiguous pronouns, 284 ; ambiguous participles, 286 ; misuse of connectives, 287 ; shifts of construction, 288 ; de- vices for getting coherence, 291 ; monotony destructive of force, 299 ; variation from long to short sentences, 301 : advan- tages of each type, 302 ; de- vices for gaining periodicity, 307 ; force dependent on em- phasis. 808 Sentimental diction, 238 Seton-Thompson, Ernest, . 205, 209, 277 SiiAKSPERE, William, 387 Shall and will, should and would. 434 COMPOSITIOX AXD RHETORIC history of, 169 : sball and will In direct futures, 169 ; in sim- ple indicative sentences, 170 : in questions, 170 ; in subordinate clauses, 172 : should and would, special uses of, 172 ; in main clauses, 172 ; in questions, 173 ; in indirect discourse, 174 ; in "if" clauses, 174 Sharves, shafts, 103 Shifts of construction, 288 Should, 169 Shunt, switch, 153 Sick, ill, 152 Sightlier, 165 Silverite, 147 Simplicity, value of, 240 Single I'aragraph, structure of. 318-341 ; deflnition of, 318 ; three principles governing, 819 ; paragraph unity defined, 321 ; paragraphs too long for unity, 322 ; too short for unity, 324 : paragraph coherence defined, 326 ; incoherence from faulty arrangement. 326 ; connectives an aid to coherence, 327 ; para- graph emphasis, 330 Singular antecedents with plural pronouns, 201 Sit. set, 179 Slang, 163 So and such, colloquial use of, 194 Solecisms, list of, 195-203 Sources of material, reporter's method of getting subjects, 27 ; subjects from books. 28 : sub- jects from newspapers and mag- azines, 30 SorxnEY, RoBKRT, 60, 87, 123 Spake, spoke. 148 Spec, speculation, 165 Specific and general words, 244 Splendid, pleasant, 187 Split infinitive, 197 State, say, 179 Statehouses, 152 Statue, statute, stature, 183 Steal, a, 164 Stephen, Leslie, 312, 313 Sterxe, Lawrence, 350 Stevens, 95, 110 Stevenson, Robert L., 66. 88. 90, 100, 111. 124, 129, 247. 256, 257, 202, 299, 303, 371, 377 Stoker, fireman, 153 Stop, stay, 179 Storiette. 164 Storm, shower, 183 Style, in choice of words. 234 ; in summaries, 366 Subject, choice of, 24 ; dependent (1) on interest, 24: (2) on previous information, 25; (3) on size of topic and space, 25 ; definite subjects the best, 26 ; sources for getting, 27-30 Subjunctive Mood, 197 Subordinate verbs, tense of, 291 Such, colloquial use of, 194 Suicide, to, 164 Summaries, 361-373 ; defined, 361 ; different methods of summariz- ing, 362 ; proportion, 364 : style, 366 ; summaries of novels, plays, etc., 366 Superfluous words, 223; details, 227 Superlative for comparative. 198 Supreme, last. 187 Suspicion, to, 164 Synonyms, study of, 102 T. Talented. 146 Tart, pie, 153 Taswell-Langmead, 125 Tautology, 223 Team, carriage, 183 Technical words, 149 Terms defined. 390 Thackeray, W. M., 126, 188, 293, 294, 298 The, omitted. 202 Themes, defined, 19 ; suggestions regarding, 19 ; preliminary work, 35 ; first draft. 36 ; sec- ond form. 37 ; complete draft, 38 : final copy, 40 ; titles of, should be brief and clear, 48 These, those, this, that, 198 INDEX 435 'Tis, it is, 148 Titles, 20, 47 Tolstoi, 218 Translatiou-Englisli, 213 Translation, value of, 104 Transpire, happen, 179 Travelogue, 144, 162 Triteness, 238 TwAix, Mark, 89 U. Unbeknown. 163 Underhanded, lo.j Unidiomatic phrasing, 211 : con- structions, 212 ; order of words. 213 Unit.v. 262 ; in descriptive writ- ing, 378 ; in nai'ration, 382 ; in argument, 399 Unity in sentences, 268-281 ; de- fined, 268 : of thought, 269 : relation of sentence to para- graph, 271 ; of form, 273 ; com- pound form often destructive of. 275 Unit.v in pai'amaphs. 321-32t> Unity in Whole Composition, 342 V. Verbosity, 223 Verbs, solecisms in, 197 Vest, waistcoat, 154 Vir, in translation, 105 Vocabulary, advantages of a largo, 96; two kinds of. 100: dif- ferences between words we merely understand and words we use, 100 ; use of note-book to increase vocabulary, 101 : study of synonyms, 102 : value of concordances, 102 ; value of translation, 104 : special vo- cabularies, 105 Vulgarisms, 163, 164 W. Walton, Izaak, 95 Waud, Mrs. MuMPiiKV, 126 Which, wrong use of, 202 WiiiTi;, GiLBEUT, 203, 271 Whole composition, structure of, 342-300 : relation of paragraph to. 342 : unity In, 342 : pro- portion iu, 342 ; order of para- graphs in, 343 ; usefulness of plan or outline, 345 ; useful- ness of connectives, 347 ; be- ginnings, 349 ; endings, 351 : many forms of the whole com- position, 361 Will, 1G9 Without, unless, 184 Womanly, womanish, 187 Words, are arbitrary symbols. 143 ; number of, 223-233 : sug- gestive power of, 242 ; specific and general, 244 Would, 169 University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 305 De Neve Drive - Parking Lot 17 • Box 951388 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90095-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. MAY012« MAY 1 2007 Form L-9-15m-3,'34 •WV^ Illllillllllillllliliili 3 1158 00646 9208 c,^ UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY AA 000 352 202 6 \L1F0RNIA Ur k